Bui I - ’.'■ *‘.'-d“ LIBRARY ' OF THE U N I VERS ITY Of 1 LLI N O 1 S Received by bequest from Albert H. Lybyer Professor of History University of Illinois 1916-1949 Digitized by The Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates https://archive.org/details/greatmengreatwomOOunse AND (;rbat OF HISTORY THEIR PORTRAITS FROM THE RARE AND AUTHENTIC COLLECTION IN THE MUNICH PINAKOTHEK WITH BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES AUTHORIZED EDITION GKO. KIRCIINER & Co. N E W - Y O R K Copyright i88y Geo. Kirchner <2f Co.., New-York 4 SK / Ao^5 'I'able of Contents Anne, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland 1664 — 1714 Augustus, surnamed »the Strongs, Elector of Saxony after 1694 and King of Poland 1670 — 1733 .... Buckingham, George Villiers Duke of. Minister of James I and Charles I of England, 1592 — 1628 .... Charles I, King of England 1600 — 1649 -.^Charles V, German Emperor 1500 — 1556 Cicogna Pasquale, Doge of Venice 1585 — 1595 Cromwell, Oliver, 1599 — 1658 Elizabeth of Bourbon, Wife of King Philip IV of Spain, 1602 — 1644 Elizabeth, Queen of England 1533 — 1603 Elizabeth, Empress of Russia 1709 — 1762 Frederick II, King of Prussia 1712 — 1786 George I, Elector of Hanover 1660 — 1727 - Gustavus II Adolphus, King of Sweden 1594 — 1632 Henrietta Maria, Queen of England 1609 — 1O66 . .Henry II, King of Prance 1519 — 1559 ^ Henry IV, King of Prance 1553 — 1610 Henry VIII, King of England 1491 — 1547 James I, King of England 156O — 1625 James 11 , King of England 1633 — 1701 Jerome Bonaparte, King of Westphalia 1784 — 1860 Don Juan d' Austria, Siianish General of the l6‘'' Century 1547— 157S • Julius II, Pope 1441 — 1513 Lafayette , Gilbert Marquis de, French General and Statesman 1757 — 1^34 'Louis Xlll, King of I'rance 1601 — 1643 Louis XI\', King of France 1638 -1715 I Louis XV, King of I'rance 1710 — >774 I Louis XVI, King of France 1754 — *793 , Louis XVIII, King of France 1755 — >824 29 34 15 21 5 10 20 12 35 38 33 16 26 0 •3 3 •4 28 50 8 1 46 19 30 3(J 39 45 I . Maria Antoinette, Wife of Louis XVI, Queen of I'rance j ' 755—1793 I Mary II, Queen of England 1662 — 1695 > Maria of Medici, Queen of P'rance 1573 — 1642 I Mary Stuart, Queen of Scotland 1542 — 1587 . . . . .Maria Theresia I, Roman Empress, Queen of Hungary and Bohemia 1717 — 1780 Marlborough, John Churchill Duke of, British Commander and Statesman 1650 — 1722 Maximilian I, Duke of Bavaria 1573 — 1651 , Maximilian I, German Emperor 1459 — 1519 . . . . , Mazarin, Cardinal, P'rench Minister of the 1 7"' Century 1602 — 1661 ^ Metternich, Clemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar Prince of, Austrian Statesman 1773 — 1859 ^'FJapoleon I, Emperor of the P'rench 1769 — 1821 Nelson, Horatio Viscount, English Admiral 1758—1805 ^ Peter 1 , the Great, Czar, and afterwards Emjieror of Russia 1672 — 1725 Philii) II, King of Spain 1527 — 1598 Philij) 1 \', King of Spain 1605 — 1665 Pitt, William, the \'ounger, English Statesman 1759 — 1806 Riclielieu , Cardinal Armand Jean Dujilessis Duke of, French Statesman 1585 — 1642 Ulrich, Duke of Wilrtemberg 1487 — 1550 ’ Washington, George, First Presiilent of the United States 1732—1799 Wellington, Arthur Wellesley Duke of, British General and Statesman 1769 — 1852 X ' 11 '"'" I of Nassau-t irange, Stadtholder of the Netherlands '533 1584 William 1 \', King of Great Britain, Irelaiul and Hanover 1765—1837 40 27 17 7 37 3 ' 22 24 49 44 42 32 1 1 25 43 18 4 4 ' 48 9 47 v 5 " t -C ir r Julius II, Pope 1503- 1513 Born 144.1, died 21 February 1513 Po])e Julius II — properly Julianus della Rovere — was born at Albizuola, in 1441. His eminent talents were recognized by his uncle, the pope Sextus IV, to whom he was indebted for promotion to ecclesiastical dignities. In every iiosition, he had shown the traits of a man born to rule, and the same character was maintained after the of November, 1502. when he was elected Pojie. His bold and resolute policy might have made him rather a great general in warfare than a ruler of the Church. During his pontificate, he was strenuous in his measures for the defence and extension of the papal dominion in Italy, for the liberation of Italy from foreign, and especially from French, control. To obtain these ends, Julius would act in alliance with various jiaitics, to whom he did not consider himself bound, save by the requirements of his own able jjolicy. He expelled from Italy the notorious Caesar Borgia, concpicrcd Bologna and other towns, and in 1509, joined the league of Louis XII of France and the Emperor Maximilian, against the republic of Venice. When Venice had restored to the Holy See the coast-lamls that had been seized, Julius II, in 1511, joined the so-called »holy league* of \'cnice, Spain, England and Switzerland, against France, and in the war soon following, he personally led (ju his (iwn troops. In 1511, a Council was convoked by. the Emperor Maximilian and Louis XIl, to meet at Pisa, and consult on measures of Church Reformation; and the Poiie, in prompt o])])Osition to their design, projected a general Council to assemble in the Lateran, 1512. He was still active in the ])rosccntion of far-reaching designs, even in the latest year of his life. He died on the 21*' of Februai}', 1513. Julius 11 had an extraordinary i)rescnce. His portrait shows us a tall but lank man, with fiery and i)enetrating eyes, energetic (almost hard) features, and wearing in his latest years a long dependent beard, which in his time was exceptional. So we are told by the poitr.iit painted b)' Rafael, who in 1508 was invited b) the Pcjpe to aid in the decoration of the X'atican. Julius, amid all his warfare, knew well how to care for the arts and sciences. 1 U‘ invited also to Rome the gre;it artists, liramante ;ind Michel-.Xngelo. I'he foundation stone of St. Peter's Church was laid by Julius II. /', •//// A.t/’/t.if'/ lULES 1[]1 IVlaximilian I, German Emperor, 1493 1519 Born 22 March 1459, died 12 January 1519 Maximilian I, when thirty-four years old, succeeded his father, Frederick 111 , who died in 1493 — the last of the Oerman Emperors who where crowned at Rome. 'I'he accession of Maximilian was for f lermany the beginning of a transition from mediaeval to modern culture, and led to an extension of the empire’s claims. Eurgundy and the Netherlands were gained by the Emperor’s marriage with Maria of Eurgundy, daughter of Charles the Eold, and by the marriage of his son, Philip, with Johanna of Castile, a claim of succession to the throne of Spain was secured. Again, by the marriage of his grandson, Ferdinand, with Anna of Hungary, a prospect of ruling over Eohemia and Hungary was opened. At the Diet of Worms (1495) the Emperor instituted the Imperial Court of .Appeal, for the conservation of a peri)etual Peace of the Empire ; and to make easier the exercise of its authority, he divided Germany into ten large circles. Meanwhile, he was studious to aid the progress of art and science. 'I'he poetic and ])rosaic literature of liis time is tilled with praise of his courage and his success in warfare; but he failed in his war against Eouis XII of P’rance, and conscfiucntly lost .Milan. At once mediaeval in his chivalrous love of warfare, and romantic adventures, but modern in his j>atronage of art and science — Maximilian 1 united in his jierscm the middle ages and modern times. He was es|)ecially the child of his times«. 2 ‘ H J ' , - - y V 5^: p V f M '• t . J k 41 ■ -I--' / y. ^ ; / J, V| ■ J i Henry VIIT, King of England 1509 — 1547 Horn 28 June 1491, (lied 28 January 151.7 Henry the Eight's accession to the throne was hailed with national jubilation. He had shining endowments of mind and of body. His extensive learning had chiefly a theo- logical bias ; his i)resence was made imposing by native dignity and manly beauty. Meanwhile, he had attained, even in his youth, a masterly power of concealing his own real character At the outset of his career, no man suspected or foreboded that he was at heart an egotistic despot. Led by political motives, he married Catherine of Arragon, the widow of his brother, and the aunt of the Emperor, Charles V. She bore to him the daughter to whom history afterwards gave the title of the »bloody Mary«. Henry VllI, early in his reign, acted in alliance with the Emperor Charles V, against France; but later he was the friend of Francis I, whom he aided in warfare against his enemy. His opposition to the Emperor was made useful for Henry’s own purpose of divorcing his first wife — who was the aunt of Charles V. Her strictly virtuous life had already made her presence felt, as an unwelcome restraint of the King’s will. He now found a pretext for divorce in the fact that she was his brother’s widow, and consequently her near relationship had made her second marriage invalid, and unlawful as defined by canon law. The king’s real motive in seeking for a divorce was the fact, that already he had resolved to marry another. Catholic historians (who of course detest Henry, as the destroyer of their Church in England), have assured us, that his passion for the charming Anna Boleyn had made the divorce of Catherine inevitable. On the other hand, Protestant scholars have shown, that Anna Boleyn first returned from France, where she had been educated, in 1527; but the king's attempts to gain a divorce of his first wife had begun as soon as 1521. However this might be, he was resolved to move heaven and earth, to carry his own will into effect. To help him. Bishop Cranmer addressed appeals for aid to all foreign Universities, and even to the rulers of Jewish Synagogues. Excejiting Luther and Melanchthon, the most celebrated divines of the time declared the first marriage unlawful. Pope Leo X, however, resolutely refused to grant his consent to a second marriage ; and Henry, therefore, resolved to separate himself and his kingdom from the Holy See. Moreover, prosjrects of gaining for his own use the riches of the Church in England, and a vast extension of the royal power, acted also as motives, jrerhaps almost as powerfully as the king’s passionate love of Anna, fie now compelled the English Clergy to admit and declare on oath that, according to a most ancient statute, the king had supremacy over the Church in England ; and on the 1 4th of November 1532 he married Anna Bolejn. The I’arliament was now compelled by royal power, to declare that succession to the throne must belong to the offs])ring of this second marriage. In accordance with this law, England’s greatest ruling power Elizabeth — succeeded to the throne. Sir 'Fhomas More and Bishop Fisher (of Rochester^ had to the last refused to give tlieir sanction to the king’s divorce; and consequently both were now i)ut to death. Henry’s cruel and bloodthirsty nature revealed itself more and more. Scarcely four years liad ])assed since their marriage when the king showed himself weary of Anna, his second wife, against whom false charges of infidelity were urged. She was of course condemned and executetl, and next day Henry married jane Seymour. His earnest wish was fulfilled when by this third wife, lie was made father of a son and heir; but very soon afterwards the (pieen died. In order to gain the alliance and friendship of Protestant I’rinces on the continent, Henry next married, without delay, the Princess Ann of Cleves, but, with almost ccpial exjie- dition, they were sejiarated by tlie king’s own authority. Soon afterwards, he married Catherine Howard. Ap[)arently some real grounds were found for the charges of unfaithfulness urgctl against this (lueen, and certain courtiers were found guilty as her admirers. They were alike condemned and executed, 12 February, 1542. Henry was, in fact, a thorough wife-mur deier; a Royal bluebeartl! And yet — as in tlie case of Bluebeard — there was found, at last, a wife wlio could manage or rule even such a husband. This last queen, Catherine Parr (the fair widow of Lord Latimerj led the King in her own way, and often to a good end. He allowed tlie hereditary rights of his two daugthers, Mary and Elizabeth, whose claims he once had set aside. He was now reconciled with the Emperor, and the costly warfaret against France was ended. But even Catherine’s inlluence failed to cpiell the fierceness of Henry’s temper. He died 28 January 1547; and the latest utterance from the royal lips was a sentence of death pronounced on the Duke of Suffolk. 3 Ulrich, Duke of W urtemberg*, Born 1487, died 1550 1498 1550 I'lrich, son of Count Henry of Wiiitemberg, brother of the reigning duke, Eberhard II, \yas born in 14S7. AEhen the latter was deposed, Ulrich’s father was the nearest heir, but his feebleness of mind made him incapable of assuming the government. Consequently, Ulrich, then only eleven years old, was appointed as successor of his uncle. The education of the youth was confided to the care of Count Etirstenberg, aided by twelve councillors. A want of union in their advice was, probably, the cause of their failure. 'I'he youth’s abilities, naturally good, were never rightly developed. His majority was asserted by the Emperor, in 1503, when Ulrich was only sixteen years old : and he began his reign by imposing on his subject.s intolerably heavy taxes, mostly raised to pay debts incurred by his own licentious conduct. This e.xcited, among the peasantry the insurrection called »the Bund (or E^nionl of Poor Conrad«, by which both the duke and the nobility were threatened. 'I'he nobility also had suffered under L'lrich’s tyrannous rule; but he now came forward to aid them — chiefly in the Tubingen 'Ercaty of 1514, which was sanctioned by the Emperor — and the peasants were soon defeated. bUrich, soon afterwards, was denounced Iry the leading men of the Suabian League. His murder of Hans von HiUten, and his cruel treatment of his wife (the sister of William IV of Bavaria) were especially condemned by Ulrich von Hutten, brother of the murdered man, and by V'illiam of Bavaria, both members of the League. By their intervention, the Emperor fin 1516) was led to issue his imperial ban against Ulrich. It was soon recalled, and again the League was defied by Ulrich, who seized as his own the imperial town a of Rcutlingen. In consequence of this act, he was attacked by the League’s army and driven out of his dukedom. 'The validity of this cx])ulsion was declared at Augsburg in 1519, when the forfeited land was given to the House of Hapsburg. In a restless search for friends, to aid him in winning back his land, Idrich now wandered from court to court, until 1534, when his kinsman, Philip of Hessen, by force of arms, regained for him the dukedom; but (m the condition, that Ulrich would henceforth aid the Reformation in Wiirtemberg. Later he took part in the Schmalkald \Var, and conse(iuently had to pay fines and cede some districts. He died in 1550. •cG4^- Charles V, German Emperor, 1519 - 1556 Born 24. February 1500, died 21 September 1556 Charles V, born on the 24'’’ of February 1500, was the son of Fhilip, Archduke of Austria , by his wife Johanna (heiress to the throne of Spain) and, as the grandson of the emperor Maximilian I, inherited a vast, complex dominion over lands never before united under a European monarch. Aided by the Elector of Saxony, Charles was elected emperor in 1519, when Francis I of France was the rival candidate. I'he emperor, only nineteen years old, had been educated in Spain , and knew nothing of the great controversy then disturbing Cermany. He was therefore incapable of sympathy with the people in their contest for religious freedom; and in 1521, at Worms, he condemned the Reformation — thus placing himself in opposition to demands that became more and more urgent during his reign, and made his rule difficult in the extreme. In Italy and Burgundy, the Emperor’s claims were opjjosed by his rival Francis I, and the result was a long warfare, consisting of four wars. In the first, Charles, in alliance with the Pope Leo X, was victorious, especially in the battle of Pavia, where his rival was made a prisoner. In 1526 the Peace of Madrid ended this first war. The second war was on the whole successful. Charles defeated the Holy League of Cognac. Charles of Bourbon (who had come over to the side of the Emjjeror) captured Rome; and Clenoa severed itself from France; but Burgundy was forfeited. Charles, then made a speedy journey in to Italy, and at Bologna was crowned as Phnjjeror, and as King of Lombardy. This second war was closed by the Peace of Cambray (1529) in which Charles lost the greater part of all that the first war had gained. After 1530, the Emperor postponed a further consideration of Protestant claims. He now required a union of all Herman Princes, to oppose the 'I’urks, whose forces he defeated, esjjecially by the capture of Tunis (1535) where twenty thousand CInistian slaves were liberated. .Meanwhile Francis I had comjucred Savoy. His long series of contests against the Emperor was interrupted (in 1538) by the »ten years truce« of Nice (soon broken) and at last wartare was ended by the Peace of ('rjs])y (1544'!. Charles now turned his attention to the affairs of (lermany, where the Schmalkald Alliance of Protestant Princes had been formed in 1531. I'he want of closer union in their councils led to their defeat by the Emperor, at Mtihlberg in 1547; but it was especially caused by Maurice (jf Saxony, who aided the imperial army. \\’hen he had gained his object, he returned to aid the Protestants, whose position was then greatly strengthened. In the .\ugsburg Interim (1548) Charles conceded their demands for administration of the Sacrament under two forms and for the marriage of tire clergy; but their full demand of religious freedom was first granted at the Treaty of I’assau, in 1552. Meanwhile, Maurice had iormed against Charles a secret alliance with Henry II of France. In 1556, the Empercjr resigned the government, leaving (lermany to his brother Ferdinand, and Spain, with Italy and the Netherlands, to his son I’hilij). Worn out in mind and body, Charles then retired to the monastery San \'uste, in Sj)ain, where he died on the 2i'’‘ of I'ebruary, 1558. • , ■ •' cc* '•V ... »"*■ i y . ' S'V .'1 k ' * » ^4, ' • ^ ■Ci < .ll" ^ \ fr- 'w*ii>tt|itiftmmin"f'iiirutimit'ihitwnittim**r»r?riNit vafRTMpMflin PR0GENIES«DIVV:H< OyiNTVS ‘5IC< caroivs ille Imp ERIE CAESAR* LVMINA' ET • ORA ‘TVLIT AET • SVAE * X X XI Ann * m * d ‘ XXXI Henry II, King of France, 15-17 -1550 IJorn 31 March 1519, died 10 Jidy 1559 Henry II, King of France, second son of King Francis 1 and his wife , Claudia (daughter of Louis XIL was born at St. Germain en Laye, 31 March, 1519. He lived in Spain as a hostage, from 1526 to 1529, and was married to Catherine de’ Medici, with whom Italian manners were introduced into France. After his accession to the throne, 1547, the l•'rench Court was utterly changed in character and appearance. Old officers were dismissed; others who had been expelled by Francis I returned; Diana of Poitiers (once mistress of Francis I, but now, in alliance with the Constable de Montmorency) exercised a strong influence over the \oung King, and at a later time, the Guise party made themselves absolute in the government, which was, in fact, controlled by the ambitious brothers, Duke Francis and the Cardinal, Charles of Loraine. At home the Reformed were persecuted, and their goods were confiscated; and abroad warfare was stirred up, to make the services of the Guises seem indispensable. 'I'hus Henry was made to begin a war with England, by which he won back lloulogne, in 1550. The religious dissensions prevalent in Germany were next made serviceable to France. 'I'he Protestants led by Maurice of Saxony, were induced to support his alliance with Henry against the Emperor; and the treaty, signed at Chambord in 1552, was very soon followed by successes won for Henry. He cairtured easily Toul and Verdun, also Nancy, and a part of Alsace. The fortress of Metz fell by treachery, on the lo'*' of April, 1552, and could not be re-conquered by the Duke of Alba. The war in Italy had results less favourable on the side of Henry and — wearied by its continuation — he signed in 1556, at Vaucelles, a treaty for a five years’ truce. This treaty was broken in the next year, when the Duke ot Guise — acting with the sanction of the Pope, Paul IV — attacked, without success, the army led by Alba. Meanwhile, in the Netherlands, the fortune of war was against the French army led by Montmorency, who esi)ecially suffered defeat at St. (Quentin, in 1557. Henry II, now almost desi)airing, made the Duke of Guise governor of the whole kingdom, and success at first attended him. He re-captured Galais, in 1 558, and then took the fortress of Thionville. The triumph of the Guise party seemed comi)lete, when Mary Stuart, in 1558, married the Dauphin; but in the same year, the French were defeated by the Spanish forces, at Gravclincs, and Elizabeth acceded to the throne of England. To oi)|)ose the spread of Protestantism, it was demanded now that France must act in concert with Spain. In 1559, therefore, Henry 11 signed the treaty of Ghateau-Gambresis, concluded with Spain and England, and confirmed, as the King had intended, by the marriage of Elizabeth, his oldest daughter, with Philip 11 ot Spain. To celebrate their union, festivities t(jok jilace, among them a grand tournament, in which the Earl of .Montmorency, by accident, inflicted on the King a wound in the right eye which, after ten days, proved fatal, 10 July, 1559. Henry II left France, exhausted by party strife and war, and burdened with debts amounting to forty millions of lix'res. He had ambition to win renown, and was not (|uite destitute of energy and jarlitical abilit}' ; but his good (pialities were l ast into the shade by a want of linn and independent resolution. Through this defect, he yielded himsclt, as an unresisting sacrifice, to the influence of others; and his Gourt was made a revolting exhibitiim f)f \'i< e. 6 ‘9 Alary Stuart, Queen of Scotland, 1542- 1568 Born 7 December 1542, died 8 February 1587 Mary Stuart, born, 7 December, 1542, daughter of James V of Scotland, and Maria of Loraine, received her education in France, and in 1558 was married to the Dauphin (after- wards Francis II of France). He died in 1560, and Mary returned to Scotland in the year 1561, when the Reformation had already been urged on by the fervid zeal of John Knox, and his Ih'otestant supporters. No circumstances could be less favourable than those of the (Jueen at such a time. Her education had made her a decided Catholic, and her manners had been acquired at the Court of France. Her creed and her so called » French gaiety* — were detested by many leading men among her subjects, and she found herself almost solitary in her native land. Placed in these circumstances, she, in 1565, married her cousin, Lord I )arnley, an ambitious and dissolute man, who treated her cruelly. James VI of Scotland — afterwards James I of England — was the offspring of this unhappy marriage. The year of his birth, 1566, was also the year when Darnley sent assassins to murder in the Queen’s presence, a harmless, Italian lute-player, named Rizzio, who sometimes played for her recreation. This crime was soon followed by another one that still remains partly hidden in mystery, and casts a cloud over Mary’s reputation. She had already shown a i)artiality for Earl Bothwell, when the violent death of Darnley took place. He was destroyed by an explosion of gun- ])owder, and Bothwell was generally regarded as the murderer. Vet he still enjoyed the confidence of the Queen ; it was believed, therefore, that she had been his accomplice , and when she married him, a storm of indignation arose in Scotland. In 1567, Lord .Murray, her natural brother, compelled her to abdicate , in favour of her only son, and she was imj)risoned in the Castle of Lochleven, whence she was liberated by Lord Douglas. Her adherents now collected their forces; but suffered a decisive defeat at Langside, 13 May 1568. •Mary was compelled to escape into I'higland, and to ask for royal |)rotcction ; but ()ueen Elizabeth demanded, that her cousin should first make herself clear of blame, as regarded the murder of Darnley. Meanwhile, she must remain a prisoner in England. Then followed removals to several ])laces of imprisonment, and i)lots for the (Jueen’s escape were contrived by the Duke of Norfolk, Babington, and others, aided by some foreign courts; and lastly by a papal bull against Elizabeth, who now wished to be liberated from her dangerous prisoner. Mary, for aiding in Babington’s plot, was accused of high treason, and (■.ondemned to death. 'Fhe sentence, confirmed by Parliament, was signed by Elizabeth, after long hesitation. On the 8'*' of February, 1587, the unhappy (Juecn was beheaded, in the Castle of Fothcringhay. Her courage and her religious resignation were jireserved in her latest moments. 7 * ^3 . .A * ' '■ i >'., ' A f .\ ■ :■>■ iirfii^' i ^ ,. .'■ - jI^ ‘^IKyr . 1’ ■ ■■ .’:-<■ _.. 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His mother, Barbara Blomberg, was the daughter of a Regensburg freeman. In retirement at a country place in Spain, he was educated under the care of Luis de Quijada, one of the emperor’s confidential friends, and was first recognized after the decease of his father who, in his last will, had named him as a natural son. King Philipp II then invited him to the Court, (in 15591 and sent him, with the Infant Don Carlos, to the High School of Alcala, where he remained until 1564. It was soon evident, that the youth, who excelled his comrades mostly in physical exercises, was better qualified for a military career than for the clerical life that the King had once chosen for him. Philip in vain tried to subdue his brother’s natural impetuosity, but meanwhile was assured of his loyalty, and then appointed him Admiral. In this capacity, he overcame in several battles the African corsairs, and so far won the King’s confidence that, in 1569, he was made Commander in Chief of the troops sent to (luell an insurrection of the Moors in Cranada. Here, after fighting several hard battles, he was victorious, in 1570, and in the following year his reputation was confirmed by a greater victory. The republic of Venice had then formed an alliance with Si)ain and with the Pope, against the 'I'urks under the Sultan Selim 11 ; and to Don Juan d’Austria was given the head command of the allied fleets, while the Turkisli fleet, superior in force, was commanded by Ali-Pascha. Dn the 7'’’ of October, 1571, a naval fight took ])lace in the bay Lepanto, and a decisive victory was won by the allies. It would have been made even more advantageous on their side, if the Admiral’s plan of further action had not been opposed by a Council of War. In 1573 he coiKiucrcd Tunis and here, as in the Morea, he wished to establish a kingdom; but Philip II o])posed the ])lan, and did not even make him Infant of Spain. In 1575 the comiueror by land and sea was made Covernor of all the Spanish possessions in Italy, and in 1576 he was sent as Covernor to the Netherlands, where (it was hoped) his mild and generous rule might win back the loyalty of the disturbed provinces. In disguise, he travelled trough France and arrived at I.u.xemburg, on the 4*'' of November, 1576. To gain the confidence of the jjcople, he si)ared no pains; he even disbanded his S])anish army there stationed; but nothing coming from S[)ain could be viewed without susi)icion ; no policy could recom ilc the Representative States, who, at the end of the year 1577, formally (lejrrrscd their Covernor. lie mrw led his Si)anish troo])s int(r the field, and gained a victory at Cemblours, on the 31’^ of January 157H; but he failed in an engagement near Mechlin, on the i’‘C)f August, in tlie same year. .Meanwhile, France had interfered in aid of the revolt in the Netherlands, and the position of the Covernor was most discouraging. 'I'hcre was also a ])rivate cause for the depression to which he yielded. 'I’he King had refused to aid him in a romantic plan, for liberating .Mary (Jueen of the Scots, then a jjrisoner in England, and for winning her as his wife. I'tterly disa|)i)ointed, he pk'.ced himself at the head of an insufficient body of troops, and retired to a fortified jiosition near Namur. Soon afterwards, he was there seized with a disease like the plague, and died on the of October, 1578, when he was only thirty-one years old. His remains were interred in the Escurial. The Victor of Lepanto was one of the most distinguished generals of his time. His noble and amiable character gained for him the attachment of his soldiers, and in society his youthful handsomeness and chivalrous address were generally admired. 8 J JP ^y. William I of Nassau-Orange, Stadtholdcr of the Netherlanfls, 1572—1584 Horn 25 April 1533, I J '■ , J i- ./ ^ , ■' •' I l', ‘ " 1 ‘#4 ' J “? A4rfS>K i V Philip TT, King of Spain 1556 — 1598 ] 5 orn 21 May 1527, died 13 September 1598 Philip 11 , King of Spain, son of the Emperor Charles V, by his wife, Isabella of Portugal, was born at Valladolid, on the 2 (jf May 1527. His education, under clerical direction, was excellent but one-sided, and served to develope a character intolerant of 0])position. W'hcn only sixteen years old, he married his first wife, Maria of Portugal, who died in 1554. He next married Queen Mary I, of England, who was eleven years older than himself; but he could never win the favour of her English subjects. In 1555 he left England under the Queen’s government. Later in the same year, he gained, by the gift of his father, the Netherlands and the Italian po.ssessions, to which were added in 1556, Spain and her colonies. He was now regarded as the mightiest ruler of his time, and Spain — still making progress in wealth and power — had able commanders, an incomparable fleet, and great commercial prosperity — all doomed to decay in the course of a few years. Philip’s policy was a result of his absolute devotion to the Catholic Church. He would extend over his whole possessions the unity of government that had been asserted by his father in Spain, and would make the Church dominant over all the heresies of Protestants, in his own kingdom, and in foreign lands. He nevertheless asserted the rights of his own throne against Papal jurisdiction, as in 1557, when, by his cajjture of Rome, he induced the Pope to rest content in neutrality. Afterwards, in alliance with England, he prosecuted the war with France which Charles V had left as an inheritance, and brought it to an end soon after the victory of St. Quentin, 10 August 1557 (of which, however, he failed to make a sufficient use) and another at Gravelines, in 1558; at last, by the Peace of Cateau-Cambrtfsis, by which he gained, m 1559, possession of several frontier-places in Italy and the Netherlands. Spain had now gained a jjredominant position, from which she was soon to fall ; but some victories served for a time to delay the decline of her power. Philijr by expulsion of many subjects, known as Moriscos, or baptized Moors, had impelled them to unite with the 'I'urks, in i)lundcring the coasts of Italy and Spain ; but their naval ])owcr was destroyed by the great victory won by his half-brother, Don Juan d’ Austria, in the battle off Lepanto, 1571. After the extinction of the Hurgundian dynasty in Portugal, the throne was claimed by Philip, as the son of the oldest sister of Emanuel the Great, and once more Portugal was made a S])anish ])rovincc. Put failure attended the King’s chief plan — to make Catholicism again dominant in Western Europe ; es])ecially in the Netherlands, where the northern provinces revolted; and in France he failed when — in alliance with the Guise party — he endeavoured to raise to the throne his daughter Clara Eugenia, in opposition t(j the Huguenot, Henry 1 \’. Queen Elizabetli of England aided the revolt in tlie Netherlands, and attacked the Spanish colonies in America. In Ireland — where the Papal See had given him ])ower — Philij) excited an insurrection, and against England he fitted out, at vast cost, in 1588, the great fleet called »thc invincible Armada« ; but it was ])artly destroyed and partly dis|)ersed by the violent storm that aided the English in their defence. In revenge, the English, in 1596, sunk a Spanish fleet off Cadiz, and destroyed the town. While Spain’s naval power was thus greatly lessened, the unhap]))' wuir with France (1585 — 1598) had been most ilisastrous in its results for Spain. The King did not long survive the conclusion of this war. After enduring severe suffering, he died at Madrid, on the 13'’' of Sej)tember, 1598, leaving the throne to his incapable son and successor — I’hilip III. 'I'he older son, Don Carlos, lunl died in |nison 1568. Spain was left burdened with a debt of more than a million ducats. .So raj)id was the »dccline and fall* of Spain in Phili|)’s reign. In no small measure, the blame for this rapid decline must be ascribed to Philip’s ])ersonal character. 'I'rue; he was energetic, or rather restless, in endeavours to gain his ends; but his powers were not eipial to his vast undertakings. Reserved, taciturn, proml, and suspicious — he trusted inhis own judgment, and chose to carry out his own resolutions, without asking others for advice. In the extir|)ation of heresies he saw the only way of ])reserving order, and no measures were for him to(j severe. 'I'he Imiuisition, therefore, was maintained in his reign. On the other side, he was generous in aiding scholars and artists. In memory of his great victory at St. (Juentin, he built the sjilendid Laurentius-monastery of the Escurial. I 1 U. Ol- ILL UB. % s. J (i, 4 I ' ^ li ' >i ' 'i. !■ ' ■ V . ■ ■ V I 1 i • 4 -r / I n .'i' i'? J^htlt^us u. Caroh Y ftlius, UiJpmiaruinJrulmmtrhNmpolis, Sinlur, ^Hitrofolyrritz, larn, hrabaiiticr, Geldrix, etc. dux. Fictpdt icr. tiolhindui. Haunenier, etc. comes .4etatis Jtia 59- MBs^aMiiauw ■V./l\WI\to4Vfe/i\T>YI\W MMEP® Elizabeth, Ouecn ef l{iie>'lan(l 1558 160^^ Udiii 17 Si.'i)tcml)cr 1533, ilicil 3 Apiil 1A03 Elizabctli, Queen of England, daughter of Henry VIII and his wife Anna Itoleyn was born, 17 September 1533, at (Ireenwicli. During tlie time of her early youtli, lier claim of succession to tire tlirone was denied by Irer father. Educated as a I’rotestant, she had many persecutions to suffer during tlie reign of her half-sister, Mary; esjrecially when accused of being imirlicated in a jrlot against the life of the (lueen, and therefore condcTimed and imirrisoned in the Tower. Her own prudence on the side of her defence was then her only means of escape from death. Afterwards, she lived remote from the Court, and found a safe shelter at Hatfield-House (Herts.) until the death of Queen Mary, 17 November 1558, when the will of the Parliament called Elizabeth to the throne. Her first care was to strengthen her government by surrounding the throne with the leading men of the Protestant party, and at their head was placed as her chief adviser William Cecil, a man eminent for his talents and his energetic character. So aided by her own chosen advisers, the Queen carried out successfully her own plans: chiefly to complete the reformation, and so to establish by Parliament, as national and made subject to her supremacy, the Church called the Anglican, or Episcopal Church. Next by a firm foreign policy, ever conscious of an ultimate purpose, she laid the foundation of England’s greatness and importance. At first, the war with France, in which England had been involved by Spain, was ended by the Peace of Cateau-Cambresis, in 1559. But when P'rancis II, husband of Mary, queen of the Scots, in opposition to the terms of that Peace, assumed for himself the title of king of England, conflicts with Scotland began, and these were not ended by the death of Francis, which soon followed. His widow Mary now would unite the whole of Great Britain, as under her own royal authority, and so would restore Catholicism. The defeat of her party in Scotland compelled Mary, as a fugitive, to ask for protection by Elizabeth, and she was indeed protected, but as the prisoner of the English Queen. Then followed the conspiracies concerted by her adherents for Mary’s liberation ; but the end of all these attempts was that the Queen of the Scots was executed, 8 February 1587. Elizabeth cannot be absolved from the guilt of participation in the perpetration of that murder, though the principal share in the crime must be ascribed to the Parliament, who regarded the execution of Mary as an act demanded for the sake of national peace. 'I'hus, by the death of Mary, a heavy blow and discouragement was inflicted on the Catholic interest. The Pope no longer delayed to issue a ban of excommunication against Pdizabeth; and Philip II of Spain determined to collect and send forth a large naval expedition for the conquest of Great Britain. He had previously been provoked by the Queen. She had aided the men of the Netherlands, in their revolt against Spain, and had allowed her bold admiral, Francis Drake, to devastate the coasts of Peru; and, in 1586, to sink a targe fleet of Spanish transports in the harbour of Cadiz. Later, when the mighty Spanish Armada entered the Channel (^1588), Elizabeth, who had already expended much money for the defence of her coasts, could send against Spain but a small fleet. This however was so well commanded, that it was strong enough to destroy almost utterly what remained of the Armada, when first it had been devastated and scattered by exi)osure to a most violent storm. 'Phis was one of the heaviest blows that could be inflicted on the power of Spain, whose naval predo- minance was henceforth transferred to England. Elizabeth ( ontinued her warfare against Spain to the death of Philip 11 in 1598. She suj)ported Henry IV' of Navarre, when he had asceiuled the throne of France (in 1589) and was engaged in his contlict with the Catholic League. Near the dose of her reign, Ireland — but loosely hitherto united to England — was made dependent as an English Province. The material and commercial wealth of England was greatly augmented; especially maritime foreign trade was carefully jirotectcd , the foundations of our Indian colonies were laid; and agriculture, industry and finance were made iirosiicrous by improved regulations. Elizabeth had never been able to decide on ttiking a husband , and remained un- married to the end. Philipp 11 , who had been one of her suitors, was hated as being a ,, fanatic Catholic." It was lua' jiride to die with the title of ,,the V'irgin (^ueen“, though her life could not be fairly represented as without a Haw. The carls Leicester and Essex were her acknowledged favourites. The latter, charged as an accomplice in the insurrection of 1601, was at last executed, after some royal delay; and the ipieen’s subsecpient depression was extreme. She lingered on, rather than lived, in deep melancholy and utterly joyless, until 3 April 1603, when she died. lilizabeth jjossessed de|)th of understanding; and took care to surround herself with able councillors, though she did not always respect the will of her Parliament. As an able (picen, ruling in an age marked by an extraordinary development of intellect, she was suitably accomplished, spoke P'rench and Italian, and was passionately fond of dancing. On the whole, Elizabeth must be esteemed as one of the greatest and most [)opular of England’s rulers. The foundations of England’s greatness were laid in her reign. ELISABET D GANGLIAEjFRANCIAE,fIIBER:iVIAE,ET VERGINIAE UEGIKA, FlDEl CHRISTIANAS PRDPVGNATRIX A.CERR1MA.NVNCIN DNOREqyiESCENS . ^ '^jtgmu 03 ^ens, £uMt tkri^ , , r~0»^ T^SewmmaiGii'^i^/pa st^ieriet^ra toilaC, ( s$ipxt jemBt ^ces y — £} ffenw et ^iuGiut siuat ^u^omm. tediis , \ tieta CamdSm propf^ j ^ Cm/Sot£va ma^rvm ^^yie.mmtia9 mptns j Ciaorr - a&r a&.^mirs . tww .,9l0& /^ir _ ! (^C tdSn^t «/mm ■Ut .. Henry IV, King of France, 1589- 1610 Born 4 December 1553, died 14 May 1610 His amiable and chilvali'ous nature, his romantic adventures, and his tragical end, have made Henry IV, one of the favourite characters described in history. He was the third son of Antony of Bourbon, by his wife Johanna of Albret, and was born on the 4*’’ of December, 1553. His mother, heiress of Navarre and Bearn, was a woman of heroic courage, and remarkable cheerfulness — qualities that Henry surely inherited. As his father died in 1562, the early training given to the youth was left to his mother’s care, and was well suited to form a character of the heroic type. Before he was twenty years old, his position as a leading man on the Protestant side, had attracted the attention of the French Court, where a plot was laid, to withdraw him from Huguenot influence, by means of a maiTiage with Margaret of Valois (distinct from the older Princess having the same name). His mother refused her consent, but accepted an invitation to the Court, where she died suddenly, 9 June, 1572 — as was then suspected, by wearing poisoned gloves, given to her by the Queen-Mother, Catherine de’ Medici. .Soon aftenvards, on the iS'*' of August, the marriage took place, and was followed on the 24'^, by the Massacre of St. Bartholomew; hence the terrible name of »the bloody marriage*, d'he leaders of the Guise party — called the »Holy League* — who would gain control over the throne, threatened Henry’s life, and induced the Pope, Se.xtus V, to pronounce against him a ban of excommunication. On the other side, Henry, acting with more vigour, as the leader of the Huguenots, gained a victory over the Court Party — especially in the battle of Courtras — and soon afterwards, in alliance with his uncle, Henry III, he marched on to besiege Paris, then held by the Guise party. On the 2"'* of August, 1589, King Henry III was assassinated by Jacques Clement, a Dominican monk ; but had time before his death, to declare, that his true successor to the throne was Henry of Navarre, ’ who thereupon claimed the throne ot France. But continuous warfare with the Catholic League followed, and Henry failed to win the confidence of the clergy and the nobility, until he accepted, on the 25*’’ of July, i 593 > 1 ''“’ advice of the Minister de Rosny (later Duke of Sully) and made himself a Catholic. Imme- diately, and without the drawing of a sword, the gates of Paris were opened to receive him. On this occasion it was reported that he said; — d’aris vaut bien une messe.« 'I’hc indignation now awakened among the Huguenots was, in 1598, appeased by his celebrated »Fdict of Nantes", (afterwards so cruelly revoked by Louis XI\", in 1685). In his domestic life, Ilenry had not an unbroken peace. He divorced his first wite, Margaret of X’alois, whose conduct had been not only fri\oloiis but unfaithful. In fairness it must be owned, that Henry himself was not guiltless of inconstancy. The most celebrated of his mistresses was the Countess d'Kstrees — known as the /belle Gabrielle*, of his songs — and he would have married her, and raised her to the throne, had he not been prevented by her tragic fate. She was i)oisoncd, by means of an orange given to her. 'I'hc King’s amours were not so ended. He was especially attracted by the beauty of llenriette d’Fntragues; but -- yielding to advice given by the Pope, Clemens VI II ■ — he married in 1600 Marie de’ Medici, by whom he had several children. Her ambition and irritable temper often annoyed him, though he was kind toward his family, as was shown when a Spanish ambassador suprised the King |)laying with the little princes and, like a patient horse, letting them ride on his back. A ])aternal feeling for the peojile perhaps the King’s best trait — was expressed in his wish, that every one /tnight have a fowl for his Sunday’s dinner . Under the wise and generous rule of Ilenry IN’, France pros])cred at home and abrcKid ; yet he fell by the dagger of an assassin. On the 14'*' of May, 1610, he was stabbed to the heart by a fanatic named Ravaillac. James I, King of England 1603 1625 Born 19 June 1566, died 8 A|)ril 1625 James I was born in Edinburgh, 19 June 1566, as the son of Henry Darnley and Mary Stuart. After his mother’s abdication, he was, in 1567, crowned King of Scotland as James VI, and in 1576 he nominally assumed the government, which in fact was entrusted to the care of the earls Lennox and Murray. His education was controlled by fanatic divines, who upheld the stern morals of Calvinism in their rules of Church discipline, and were parti- zans of an extreme democracy in the domain of politics. These tutors made of the young king a pedantic theologian; buf they could not extinguish his belief in the »divine right of kings*. It so happened, therefore, that as, soon as he attained his majority and was inde- pendent in his management of state affairs , he was continually involved in disputes with the general synod of a realm that was in fact controlled by the authority of the Church. After the decease of queen Elizabeth, in 1603, James became King ot England by hereditary right His accession to the English throne was hailed with rejoicing by the peoi)le, who under his government generally expected a removal of all abuses and burdens, especially those which in religious matters had been made intolerable, during the later years of the preceding reign. Despite, however, the promises made in his royal proclamations, the king utterly failed to fultil the expectations of the people. Soon after his accession, he had to quell a conspiracy led by Sir Walter Raleigh (a favourite in the court of Queen Elizabeth). 'I'his plot was one that might be suppressed in its first stage, but one more formidable was next detected. James himself had some prejudice in favour of Roman dogmas and some ritualistic forms of the Catholic Church; yet he i)ersecuted the Catholics, and with such cruelties that a conspiracy was formed by several of their party, whose object was to destroy all the assembled members of Parliament, by means of an ex- plosion of gunpowder, 1605. 'I'he jdot was detected, and the chief leaders were arrested and executed: among them Digby, Cuy Eawkes and eight others. Next followed a series of coer- cive laws or prohibitions, so severe, that the very existence of Catholicism was made (piestio- nable. A new oath of allegiance was now issued , by which every subscriber was made to l)romise, that he would recognize no pai)al claim whatever to any supremacy in secular aft'airs. The king was, moreover, almost continually engaged in strife witli his own Par- liament ; for he asserted that even its existence was dci)endcnt on his own divine right, while for su])plies of money he confessed his dei)emlence on the grants made by his subjects in Parliament. In his foreign policy also, the king betrayed a want of firm principles and well- directed plans. In the marriage of his daughter Elizabeth with the Palatinate Prince Frederick (later known as the W’inter-king*) James acted in concert with ])opular wishes, and so found himself comj)elled, by the 'I'hirty \'ears’ War* to act in support of the Protestant Princes; but he had at the same time placed himself on the opposite side ; first by the intended, though unfulfilled, marriage of his son Charles with the Infantin of Si)ain ; then by a promise that the Prince should marry the catholic jirincess, Henrietta of Bourbon. For a i)sychologist, it is difficult to trace all the mazy ways of a ( haracter as singular as that of James I. The popular good sense of his own subjects has justly pronounced, as a verdict in his case : ^Elizabeth was a King; our James is a (,)uecni>. f ' ^ L i J, '4 J N f ; .* ■ >.- r^. . f •f :\ ''.-.r ^IK.' j ' I 1 ,.t J: *•' J • . * • ■ .; ;■-* ‘r *» . ; Jt. A h \ f % .»• 1 <4 r 'i,)in ^'•hsqiu h'ijilitts orruis f), fils ifoLOonfnfs , VJiLji ptii :armiiia^<’£-^ra entr r ffuirfanL-^ 'ui re^is nnpeno da^os orhe Ji j{c-x tot vir.runi J^^ot tiiinL. ^ut terrors tuiycCiu.^ nuruiHL': fo. iPr erms, pJtrhs appcteri^, iili '»5555i!;5;i George Villiers, Duke of Buekingliam, Minister of James 1 and Charles 1 of England Eorn 20 August 1592, died 23 August 1628 Ocorge Villiers, younger son of Sir Oeorge Villiers was born 20 August 1592, at the family mansion, Itrookesby in Leicestershire. After his father’s early decease, and guided by the wishes of his ambitious mother. Alary (nee Heaumont) he spent three years in Paris, in order to make himself an accom])lishcd Cavalier, and then entered the University ot Cam- bridge. Uy his handsome personal traits and his clever address, he soon attracted the notice of King James 1 , who in 1515 invited him to the Court and appointed him as royal butler. After a short time of service, Villiers was knighted; then took the ]dace of the King’s favourite, Robert Carr, and rose rapidly from step to step, until the King made him, in 1623, 1 )uke of Buckingham. He was now on all sides the object of gross adulation, and even the celebrated Lord Bacon crept spaniel-like into his presence, to solicit his patronage. Of course, the favourite made so powerful bestowed places and offices of State on his friends and relatives, or exchanged them for money. The King himself was go\'erned by Buckingham, and Charles I the royal heir, was made to feel that he was dependent on the favour of his father’s chief minister. In his foreign policy Buckingham at first supported the King’s son-in-law, the Prince Elector, Frederick V of the Palatinate, then engaged in conflict with the Catholic powers; but after 1620, the minister severed his policy from that of the war party, and sought the friendship of Si)ain, in aid of Frederick’s rehabilitation. By the marriage of Charles, Prince of Wales with a Catholic princess it was hoped that the end would be soonest attained, and therefore Buckingham, in 1623, went with the Prince to Madrid; but here he met with unexpected o])position, and returned to T>ondon, greatly annoyed by the failure of his tedious negociations. Henceforth, he was the bitter enemy of Spain. The British Parliament was delighted by his failure, and soon granted liberal supplies for a war against Spain. Put before the i)rojected war began. King James died, 1625. 'I'he accession of Charles I made however no change in Buckingham’s jiosition. On the 9*’’ of May, 1625, he was made a member of the Committee ai)pointed by the Privy Council for the regulation of foreign affairs, and here he soon made himself premier and leader. After his return from Madrid, he sought an alliance with Prance, and this was obtainetl and confirmed by the marriage of Charles I with the Prench Princess Maria Henrietta. The next aim of the favourite was to make the Huguenots in Prance serviceable for his purposes; but in this he was defeated by the able policy of Richelieu, and in Plngland the Parliament earnestly jirotested against the designs of Buckingham. To win back the favour of the people, he now projected an expeditiem against Cadiz, but in this he failed once more; next his alliance with Prance was more and more loosened, and at last was dissolved. Meanwhile, at home his uipiopularity was increasing, and the I’arliament declared that his arbitrary measures had deserved impeachment. Again he had recourse to propos.il of warfare, in order to avert the storm rising against him, and now the Huguenots were to be aided by his interference. He assumed the command of a considerable lleet, but failed in attempting a conipiest of the island Re, and again in trying to raise the siege of l-a Rochelle. In later attempts to gain supplies for warfare, he was aided by the King, who had granted the Parliament's »Petition of Rights«. On the 23'’‘^ of August, i(j28, Buckingham was assassinated by Lieutenant Penton, an officer who had been degraded in rank. The grief of the King, for the loss of his minister, was hardly greater than the relief from ojiprcssion then felt by his subjects. With all these shades in his character, Buckingham hatl some meritorious traits. As Lord lligh Admiral he collected a strong navy, and as Chancellor of the University at Cam- bridge (1626J he exercised a diligent care for its welfare. He gave some aid to scholars and artists, collected a large gallery of paintings, and was a patron of the drama. 5 Gustaviis II Adolphus, King of Sweden, 1611-1632 Born 9 December 1594, died 16 November 1632 Gustavus II, Adolphus, son of Charles IX, and grandson of Gustavus I (Vasa) was born at Stockholm, 9 December, 1594. A careful education served to develope his superior, natural endowments, and he received from his father an especial training in political affairs. Sweden was involved in difficulties when he came to the throne, in 1 6 1 1 . He was only seventeen years old; but his genial temper and firm will won popular favour. His first aim was to end the threefold warfare in which his land was engaged when his father died. 'I'lirough England’s mediation, he brought to an end the war against Denmark (1613') then turned his arms against Russia, and gained advantages by the Peace of Stolbowa 1617) and in 1621 his campaign against the Poles, began a war that, with some interruptions, lasted for nine years. In the course of this time, he made important conquests in Livonia, Kurland, and in Polish-Prussia, and in 1629 he compelled King Sigismund of Poland to leave his victor possessor of the conquered territory in Polish-Prussia. \Vhile engaged in this long warfare, Gustavus Adolphus had paid attention to the events of the 'I'hirty Years’ War, and had received from German Princes solicitations for military aid. Put he had decided, that first his warfare with Poland must be ended, before he could move efficiently for the aid of I’rotestantism now in great peril. Accordingly, he landed on the island Usedom, on the 26*'' of June, 1630, with an army of 13,000 men, and despite difficulties occasioned by the mistrust and indecision of German Princes, he gained on all sides victories over the Imjrerial forces, compelled the Electors of Prandenburg and Saxony to their alliance with his own army, defeated 'I'illy at Preitenteld, and marched as a Con([ueror through the .Main and Rhine districts. To rescue his allies, threatened by Wallenstein, he returned to Saxony. In the sanguinary battle of Etitzen, while he was engaged in a hand-to-hand fight with the enemy’s cuirassirs, he fell, fatally wounded, on the 16'’’ of November, 1632. Gustavus Adolphus was a man of stately build, with blond hair, and large, sparkling eyes. lie had a clear, penetrating understanding, and a commanding presence, but was friendly and affable. Strict in his own life, and a foe to all self-indulgence, he afforded by his own conduct proof of true piety, united with gentle and Christian virtues. His worth as a General was fairly estimated by Na|)olcon I, who classed him with »thc eight military heroes of the w. vt . .1 ^ • **- .y.'i?' -; .' . ^ '1 i »‘ ' \if ' i I Kl'A'ANI), MAGN\\S I'RIN’CKIG FINI .ANDll-', DVX R'l'C Paul . Pontius J^ul^ • M^art.uanJen h^nJen exculit Cuf tittle ijio -j II jf - 4 d . ■? 1 B ‘1 t I * fi ■■* Maria of Medici, Queen of France, 1600 — 1642 Born 26 April 1573, died 3 July 1642 Maria of Medici, daughter of Duke Francis II of Tuscany, and Johanna of Austria, was born on the 26'^ of April 1573. When nearly twenty-seven years old, she married Henry IV of France. Her personal beauty was remarkable , but could not make endurable the despotic traits of her natural character. After the assassination of her husband , she immediately, and with a strong hand, seized the reins of government, and held them during the minority of her son, Louis XIII. Acting in concert with her chief favourite, Concini, she made her Court notorious for its extravagant expenditure and, to win popularity, displayed a false generosity, while the financial condition of the land was growing worse and worse. When her son had attained his majority, the tyrannous mother still ruled, until 16 ig, when she was, for a short time, banished from the Court by Albert de Luyncs, who was now the King’s favourite. He died in 1621; and the cpieen-mother returned, to rule over her royal but feeble son. In 1624, she invited to her Court Cardinal Richelieu, and gave him a place in her Council of State — an appointment fatal to her own interest ! The great statesman, whom she had called to aid her, de])rived her of all her inthience over the government, and banished her from the Court. Subsctiuently she escai)ed into Relgium; and then to Cologne, where — poor and deserted — she died, on the third of July, 1642. J ' f* £ I J' •' . .si I ^ • »■ 4 ' ■* ^ • ■ - 1 I , # - »*. .vV*" » '» . 'jh ' ’-Z^ h •Ip m- \ I 3 :y. I Pcu^l- Po nfiu\ fcuLf. MARIA Dt: MRDK'RS RKGINA KRANCI.R MA'l'RK I'RIVM RKG\A\ Ant 1- posed Austria in the Thirty Years’ War; and aided the Netherlands in their revolt against Spain. To gain for France the left hank of the Rhine, Richelieu made an alliance with Bernhard of Sa.xe-Weimar , after whose death, the lands he had conquered were claimed by France. In 1641 the whole County of Roussillon was ceded to Louis Xlll. In the midst of these victories, the Ring died at St. CermaiTr - en - Layc, on the 14''' of May, 1643 — a few months after the decease of Richelieu. Louis Xlll was weak, suspicious and irresolute; but could show courage in the field of battle. In his private life, he was dull and melancholy, sometimes morose. 'I'ho chase was his chief recreation, but he had some liking for music. His lonely hours were spent, sometimes in doing mechanical work, and sometimes in reading tlevotional books. ‘ - ‘V * * . - '■ ■^' . ■ ■ ;::_N ''-.'.-V 'fT. *■ “r* ■ •■-' '‘--y '■' S •.’v'; . ■ • . ■ • : ■ .■ •' ■ Va I'i’.v.i; . , vvi; i .. ■ n -' >'r/V '' ' ,, ' ..'• I -: o \ '■ '■■ ( ■M ‘ ■ - ' • ■- ■ ' • ' ,1 , . >< ' ' f ' . > ‘ , ■ >: I : ■' • • I i '■ )' i ; / ■i ; * •■ / • . - ■ ‘ t - *( i \ « u * Hvs j^mrs 0>tN fFXJWVM VK>ItANTlHV.«. VDOVICQ I I'RANCI A. I T NAAWHRy^ REG, mSPANVM 1 ia,retk;o.s ui .rmanvm vic’1t;et angxi QVOD T QR6IS,VJN( ’UiiJc/jlo Rrol.r Clmflinnijf , et' Ormtii-tm ciUif^Jm^on/Pi'li' Elizabeth of Bourbon, Wife of King Philip IV of Spain, 1615—1644 Born 22 November 1602, died 6 October 1644 Elizabeth of Bourbon, Queen of Spain, was born at Fontainebleau, on the 22'"’ of November, 1602. In early childhood she was betrothed by her father, Henry IV of France, to the Prince of Piedmont. After her father’s assassination, her mother Maria de’ Medici, annulled that betrothal, and made arrangements for a twofold alliance of France and Spain ; first by her daughter’s marriage to Philip IV of Spain, and next by that of the Infantin Anna Maria of Austria with Louis XIII of France. The former alliance was delayed for two years, on account of the youth of the proposed husband, who was two years younger than his bride. On the 1 8*'’ of October, 1615, their marriage was celebrated with much splendour, in the cathedral of Bordeaux. A brilliant military escort -r— several thousands of infantry and cavalry — had conducted the departure of the French Princess as far as the boundary river, Bidassoa, where she was formally given in exchange for the Spanish Infantin, Anna Maria of Austria, bethrothed to King Louis XIII of France. Elizabeth’s husband had already confided to his favourite, Olivarez, all the cares of the government, and lived only to amuse himself — a life that was deplored by the young and noble-hearted Queen, who for him and for Spain, had forfeited all her friendships in France, and had made herself at heart a true Spaniard. Bitter was her sorrow for the unworthy position chosen by her husband, and for the bad government now indicted on Spain. The people, by their homage paid to her, recognized the fact, that she was on their side ; cs])ecially in 1640, when bad government had led to revolt in Catalonia and in Portugal. In ])romi)t reply to her appeal to the fidelity of the Castilians, they raised then, in the course of a few weeks, an army of 50,000 men; and the {,)ueen was thus encouraged to dismiss from office the absolute minister, Olivarez. In this crisis, Phili])p IV was roused to take a jiersonal interest in the war, and during his absence from the Court, the ()ucen herself took charge of the regency. But his military energy was of short duration, and another favourite, Don Luis de Haro, was soon ai)j)ointed to take charge of the government. Soon after this relapse on the jjart of Phili]), the (,)ueen died, on the 6‘'' of October, 1644, deplored by the i)eople, and even by the King, who now could appreciate her worth, when it was too late. She left two children ; a son, 1 )on Carlos, who did not long survive her, and a daughter, Maria Theresia, afterwards the wife of Louis XIV'^, of France. Elizabeth inherited some of her father’s good (pialities; but neither her |)ersonal beauty, nor her superior mind and soul, could avail to attach truly and permanently the frivolous heart of her husband. She was a diligent patroness of literary and artistic culture, and especially had delight in Spanish Comedy, which in her time attained its highest point of e.xccllence. J 4 *:4 » , r . . A J V:. i Charles T, Kinpr of Enp^land, 1625 — 1649 1)0111 19 November 1600, died 30 January 1649 Charles I, the second son of James I, became successor to the throne by the decease of his elder brotlier. At the time of liis accession, 1625, the position of royalty in England had already been made perilous; for James I had liy his government excited great discontents among the people, which from year to year had been increased by unwise jiolicy and bur- densome taxation. Charles I retained in office his father’s chief minister, the notorious and hated Duke of Buckingham; hence the first cause of the young King’s want of popularity. Again, his marriage with the Catholic princess, Henrietta Maria of France , was viewed with displeasure by his Protestant subjects. Unsuccessful and useless warfare, in which the King was urged on by his minister, Buckingham, consumed large sums of money, which Parliament refused to grant, demanding on their side an extension of the people’s rights, and some relief from taxation, while they urged that a grave accusation should be preferred against the haughty minister, Buckingham. The King’s anger was now aroused, and for the sake of this minister, he was ready to dissolve Parliament. But soon afterwards Buckingham was assassinated by Lieutenant Felton, whose motive for the act was private revenge, and thus the first confiict between the King and the Parliament was ended. But new dissensions soon arose between them , and were continued until Parliament was, by royal authority, dissolved and its members were dismissed. Then , for eleven years, the King ruled without their aid. To take their place, he established »the Star Chamber« as a High Court of Justice, so that some appearance of judicial authority might be given to his measures; but no change was made for relief of the grievances complained of under this form of arbitrary government. Oppressions of Puritans and Presbyterians impelled many to revolt, and openly to declare themselves republicans. In Scotland, where the King was born and had spent his early years, his subjects first rose in arms against him. Their army of malcontents soon marched into England, and here gained a victory over the royal troops sent to meet them. The King , now in great perplexity , recalled the Parliament , and asked for supplies, to raise forces for the suppression of insurrection ; but in doing this, he in fact de- livered himself into the hands of his enemies. In the session of 3 November 1640, the Par- liament compelled the King to sign a sentence of death on his own true and devoted minister, Strafford, and to abolish, at the same time, the most important prerogative of the Crown — that of summoning and dissolving Parliament. All judgments pronounced by the »Star Chamber* were made null and void; all the special officers of royalty were dismissed, and the King was left destitute of supjdies. In Ireland a mutiny of Catholics against Protestants took place about this time, and served to complete the misfortunes of royalty, as it was generally believed — though the accusation was groundless — that the King himself had excited the Irish to attack and slay the Protestants. On the loth of January, 1642, the King with his family, left London, and went to York, where he collected troops, mostly raised by the loyalty of the nobility. d'hough poorly supplied with means of warfare, an effective royal army was soon gathered and ])re- pared to contend resolutely for the defence of the throne. For more than a yeaT, Charles, supported by this brave army, held in check the troops on the side of Parliament. The latter, fanatical in their zeal against royalty — especially excited by their commanders Fairfax and Cromwell — gained at Naseby a decisive victory over the royalists, and made the King him- self their prisoner. At first, it seemed likely that their chief Commander would interfere, and save at least the life of the King; but it was soon made clear that Cromwell cherished for himself an ambition of rising to the highest place in the realm. Accordingly, he so used his comman- ding influence that, on the 2'“* of January 164Q, the King was accused of treason against the State; a solemn trial soon took place in Westminster Hall; Charles was placed at the bar, accused as a tyrant, a murderer, and a foe to the nation, and was condemned to death. For a moment, Cromwell seemed irresolute as to carrying the sentence into execution; but his son-in-law, Ireton, urged him to consider, that the will of the fanatic army on their side must be fulfilled. Accordingly, on the lo'’* of January, 1649, the King, Charles I was publicly be- headed, on a scaffold raised in front of tlie Palace of W'hitehall. He maintained, in his last moments, his calm and self ])ossesscd demeanour. His private life had been S|)otlcss, Endowed with high general culture, with goodness of heart, and with purity of morals, he fell, indeed, an innocent sacrifice to the revolutionary storm already raging when he came to the throne. Within the space of some fifty )ears, there fell on the scaffold, in England, two crowned heads — first Mary Stuart, and next her grandson, Charles 1 . 2 I I ■ • ‘i. $ I \ V 7 ■ ^ ■>x^- :-jf r . 'T . J •n I ( , A ' • 1 ? .''KUK.N l>M ,MV> K I' 1 ’( ) T K N I'l W Vci I’kINCK.IN C'A1U)I.V5 I. I)hl Cr All A MA(.'.N.4: hKiiANNi,+. Kran<.'i.+: ki IIirkrni Krx. Il ,I,V SI' H l^.'‘ K I H K V f.H K M)!.'/"' IIOMINO DA AR()Lt) VANDRN l')()SC'll k.x Ruvc.'h'.nm (.'fANuavk. N.SIVM Coftut! Stiu'li /i./rj'///.* ii^jutr. lhr. L \ithol . iirnriturn iUffhirurn . Irfiurn rf ' Fjiuuiniifirutn finiiiton i>t iForifm hatti . Lul D^tliriih^it . //<;// .intoniu.^ ^ . hiti’t-rji U.. I . / It, .A J- r.! i. I..L • - V \ * <- , \ f » I Maximilian I, Duke of Bavaria, after 1597, and Elector 1623 1651 Horn 17 April 1573, died 27 September 1651 Alnximilian I, Elector of Havana, born at I,anflshut, on the 17‘i’ of A])ri], 1573, was riclily endowed by nature witli such energies as were demanded to make a great ruler in his time. His education, confided to the care of Jesuits, and conducted in strict accordance with Catholicism, served to inspire him with a deej) enmity towards Protestantism. In 1587 he went to the University of Ingolstadt, and here enjoyed the friendshij) of his cousin Ferdinand of Steiermark — a friendship that lasted for life. Already, in 1593, his father, Duke William V had made Maximilian a partner in the government, and in 1597 it was entirely confided to the son. In this position, his first and chief care was to improve the financial circumstances of the land; and his able reformation of the national economy, was speedily crowned with success. His own temperance, industry and love of order, afforded a good examjde, well deserving the admiration *of his subjects. He felt that his duties as a ruler were sacred obligations, and like a father cared for the whole land, and for the lowest of his subjects. In 1617 he made improvements in the courts of justice, and aided the people employed in the salt-mines. At the same time, he patronized liberally the arts and sciences; and he was ever ready to grant, with a generous hand, the aids reepiired by the Church, and for the supi)ort of benevolent institutions. Meanwhile, his religious belief was, that the restoration of Catholicism must be made the chief aim of his life. Accordingly, in 1607, he was the agent ai)i)ointed by the Emperor, to put in force the ban pronounced ujion the free, imjierial town of Donauwdrth ; and in obedience to command, he acted with great strictness, taking j)ossession of the town. As a consequence, he had to confront, in 1608, the forces collected by the Union of Protestants. Against them he led, in 1609, an efficient army, ready to sup])ort the policy of the Catholic I.eague. On the other side, Frederick V of the Palatinate, acting for the Ihiion, in 1618 ])roi)osed that the imperial crown should be offered to Maximilian. Hut he firmly rejected it, foreseeing that his acce])tance would be offensive to Austria aTid injurious to the C'atholic interest. He therefore, with his utmost energy, assisted in the election of his friend Ferdinand, and when the Hohemian war broke out, sent to his aid a force of 30,000 men. 'These tro()])s, led by 'Tilly against Frederick V, gained the brilliant victory of the White Hill, near Prague, on the 8‘'' of November, 1620. Maximilian now received the Electorate taken away from the Palatinate, of which the UjJi)er |)art was given to him, to ])ay the costs of war. 'Tilly, soon afterward, by a victory won near butter, reduced Christian IV of Denmark to a ])osition of neutrality. 'Thus was gained for .Maximilian a jjosition so eminent on the Catholic side, that in 1630, acting in concert with other ])rinces — he induced the Emi)eror to dismiss Wallen- stein. Reverses of fortune soon folk)wcd. 'The brave Custavus Adoli)hus of Sweden appeared in the field, defeated 'Tilly near Hreitenfeld, 1631, and on the Tech, 1632; and Maximilian lived to sec the Swedes enter .Munich, on the 17''’ of .May, 1632. 'The Imperial and Havarian armies gained a victor)' at Ntirdlingen , and other successes were afterwards won by the Havarians; but the land was again left exposed to Swedish and French aggressions, and suffered under the utmost critelties of warfare. Peace, long desired, appeared in 1648. Maximilian’s dignity as Electcjr was then confirmed, and he retained possession of the Upi)er Palatinate. For the remainder of his life, the veteran rtiler devoted his time to i)ious exercises, and to the work of healing the wounds inflicted on the land by war. His few leisure liours were partly engaged by his care to leave recorded siufii i)aternal and Christian admonitions as might serve to guide his son and successor, T'erdinand .Maria. In old age, Maximilian was still cheerful; and, without severe suffering, his long and er.ergetic life was closed at Ingolstadt, (jii the 27''* of September, 1651. 22 (^BX hoi tiiuiiiffLiDV K A\AXI M V.S A.M r I.lAN‘l Ihi’inus ioteslHAiOlS, et niAiitu liOlC /C' fusjjtiuiuliii tili/t . Vtt'u:\- iVtenuit Filiti Muoniffifncs . Se-KEN 15.S AC Pol EN ri.S.S.PRINC’KPS AC DN.’DN: MAXIMILIAN'’ ( OM l*AI. IUIK,N1 V'TR1V.'?(^ bOIAKI A. ^X. jvt ndbur^Aj, .[.f, Oliver Cromwell, Lord-ProU^clor of the Unitcfl Republic of Jbio'lund, Scotland and Ireland. Jiyrn April 58 Oliver Cromwell, deseended from an old Saxon family, was born at Hungtingdon, on the 35*'' of Ajiril, 1599. After a short e.oiirse of studies at ('ambridge, he undertook the management of his i)aternal estate in his native phu^e, wliere he lived as a strict puritan, and was made a Justice of the Peace, lie lived afterwards at St. Ives (I'ily) and in 1640 was returned to the bong Parliament, as member for Cambridge. Having joinecl himself with the leaders of the opposition, he now devoted his care to the organization of the Parliamentary army; and in September (1640) he was made Ca])tain of the scpiadron of Cambridge dragoons which had been raised by his own endeavours. By means of strict discipline, and religious enthusiasm, he strengthened the army of the Independents, whom he soon led on to victory, first at Marston Moor, near York, in 1644; then in the decisive battle of Naseby, in 1645. 'Phe King was now compelled to place himself under the protection of the Scots, who soon delivered him back to the English Parliament. He was treated as the prisoner of the Independents, and it was demanded, that he should abandon certain rights, wich he held as belonging to royalty. AVhen he refused, his deirosition was determined by Cromwell. 'I'o gain his object, the victor first expelled from the Lower House those who were oj)posed to his own resolution — the King’s deposition. 'Phe remaining members, who were known as the »Rump Parliament «, thereujron instituted, as representative of the Independents, a supreme Court of Justice, by which the King — accused of high treason, in levying war against the people — - was tried, found guilty, and condemned to death. He was publicly executed, at Whitehall, on the 30'^* of January, 1649. England was now declared a republic, and tlie Upper House was abolished. The administration of government was confided to a Council of forty-one members, elected annually ; and Cromwell was one of their number. As head commander of the army, he possessed, in fact, supreme power in England, where his government met with no great difficulties. Meanwhile, in Scotland and in Ireland, the people refused to acknowledge his authority, and he hastened thither, to quell their insurrection. To punish the Irish Catholics for their massacre of Protestants, in 1641, he now carried out against them the extreme measures of unsparing warfare ; but when it was ended, his utmost efforts were made for the restoration of law and order. In the summer of 1640, he led his army against the Scots, who had recognized Charles II as their King. They were defeated at Dunbar, on the 3’''' of September, 1650; and hereupon, Cromwell pressed onward against the Highlanders, who were loyal to the King. Charles II now invaded England ; but his followers were utterly defeated at Worcester (3 Sep- tember 1651] and he himself, with difficulty made his escape into France. Cromwell , thus everywhere victorious, next asserted more openly his disdain of I)arliamentary government. On the 20'*’ of April 1653, he dismissed the »Rump Parliameut«, as no longer accordant with the national will, and in |dace of it, appointed the so-called »Harebones Parliament* consisting of men chosen from his own i)arty; but these were soon afterwards dismissed by his sole authority. Xext followed a new constitution, devised by Cromwell’s chief adherents — mostly military officers — who recognized their head-commander as I.ord Protector of the Republic, 'i’his new title was formally given to him in Westminster Abbey, on the i6‘'’ of December, 1653. Aided by a Council, consisting of military men, he would, henceforth, undertake the executive duties of the government, while the legislative would be confided to a Parliament, convoked in every third year. The Protector’s foreign jrolicy was able and successful, and made his government respected at home and feared abroad. 'Phis was seen especially in his naval war against the Dutch (1652 — 1654) when they had declined the offer of a closer union with England. Their ])ridc was then subdued by the Navigation Act, intlicting a fatal blow on their shipping and mercantile interests, and making England (jiieen of the sea. Soon afterwards Cromwell demanded for England free trade with the Spanish Colonies; and their refusal was made an occasion tor tlie warfare of 1655 -1658, by which England gained possession of Jamaica and Dunkirk. On the other hand, Cromwell was always ready to protect the interests of foreign Protestants; he made a friendly alliance with Sweden ; and enteitained the idea ot torming a great Evangelical Union, of which England was to be the head. .Meanwhile, his new constitution for England had still to encounter opposition. In September, 1564, the Parliament was convoked, and some (piestions of government were raised, but not determined. In less than five months, the members were dismissed ; and now England was divided into twelve military circles, or districts. In 1657 a new Parliament voted that the title of King should be given to Cromwell; but he declined it, tearing lest it might excite Jealousy among his generals. On the (Jther hand, he accepted the i)r()posal, that lie sliould have the right of appointing his own successor; and he now instituted a new Uiiper House. In Januar\' 1658, the Parliament was reassembled, and oppositiim was raised against the new Lords. P'ourteen days afterwards, the members of the Lower House were once more dismisscrl. This increased the sus])icions and fears already excited by the Protectors later measures, and meanwhile he was disturbed by a dread of assassination, while his own domestic relations were unhappy. Anxiety and dcjiression vexed his later years, and led to a rapid decay ot his health. He died on the 3''^’ of Se])tcmber, 1658 — the anniversary of his victories at Dunbar and Worcester — and was buried, in the royal vault, in W'estminser Abbey. In 1661, his remains and those of some near relatives were removed from the Abbey, and taken to a place of public execution. In the age immediately following his own, Cromwell was mostly regarded as a monster of iniiiuity; but in our own times his character has been more justly described as that of a genial man, possessed by an arbitrary and self-willed temper. It is now believed that his religious ])rofessions were not hy|)ocritical, but rather enthusiastic. 1 le esteemed and patronized art and science, and .Milton was his friend. 'Phe Universities were indebted to him for his careful attention to their interests. He founded the new University ot Durham, and lor some time held the office of Rector of Cambridge. 23 ►v -v. , < ■•*oy t. > ^ *•. V M.‘ J. « Cardinal Mazarin, French Minister of the Century Born 14 July 1602, died 9 March 1661 Jules Mazarin, the older son of Pietro Mazarini and his wife, Ortensia Biiffalini, was born, at Pescina in the Abruzzi, on the 14^*' of July 1602. His earlier education, at the Jesuits’ College in Rome, was ended in his 17'*’ year; but he continued his studies at Alcala and at Salamanca, where he gained an acquaintance with the Spanish language, and with the traits of the people. After his return to Rome, he entered a papal regiment of infantry, and was engaged in the Veltlin war. In 1632, he was appointed papal Internuntius at the treaty of Turin. For his later promotions he was chiefly indebted to the great statesman. Cardinal Richelieu. Through his influence, Mazarin was appointed Vice-legate at Avignon, in 1634; rather later, as papal Nuntius in Paris; and in 1639, his services were permanently engaged by the French government. After his diplomatic success in a mission to Savoy, he was made a Cardinal (1642) and lastly, Richelieu, (some short time before his decease) advised the King to make Mazarin his first minister. The result was, that, when Richelieu died, his favourite was appointed as his successor. Mazarin was made first minister. The position thus gained was retained after the decease of Louis XIII (1643). As far as possible, the new minister exluded from the Court all who were not devoted to his service ; but in doing this he raised against himself some powerful enemies ; especially the leaders of the Fronde party — such men as the Prince Conde. Cardinal Retz and the Duke of Orleans, who made profession of a care for the rigths of the Parliament, which Mazarin had disregarded. Hereupon, he was compelled to leave Paris, taking with him the court and the government. Still under parliamentary censure — he returned to Paris, after no long absence, and here sent some of his enemies to prison. The result was that, in 1650, — again compelled to escape from Paris — he went by way of Liege to Cologne and here conducted the affairs of government. In 1652 he ventured to make his appearance again in Paris; but soon afterwards he retreated for the third time. His motive now was to facilitate the reconciliation of the contending parties. Lastly, in 1653, he returned to his post, and resumed his policy of making the monarchy absolute in I'Vance. Meanwhile commerce and industry were in a depressed condition,- and heavy taxation supi)lied the means of foreign warfare. In his foreign policy, Mazarin followed the example left by his great patron and teacher — Richelieu — ■ above all, in the course taken, to make France a gainer by interference in the Thirty Years’ War. To humiliate the House of Hairsburg, in Germany and Spain ; and to extend the boundary of France as far as the Rhine — these were the aims of Mazarin’s foreign policy ; and to a considerable extent, they were attained in the Peace of Westphalia, whereby Alsace was gained for France, and not Alsace alone, but also a dominant influence over the West of Germany. Hardly less important was the so-called Peace of the Pyrenees (1659) when France gained Roussillon and a part of Flanders, in exchange for Franche Comte; while for Louis XIV there was opened a prospect of rule over Spain. Mazarin’s foreign policy was thus crowned with a success soon followed by his decease. He died of dropsy, at Vincennes, on the 9'*' of March 1661; leaving his large estates to the husband of his niece, Ortensia Mancini. As regards his personal character — Mazarin (in contrast with his first jjatron and guide) was mild in his temper, and merciful in the choice of means tor gaining his ends. He was eminent as a ])atron of art and science; founded the Academy of the Fine Arts; and introduced Italian Opera. His celebrated library was always open to men of learning; and among those who were indebted to his generous patronage were found such men as Descartes, Voiture, Balsac and Peter Corneille. 24 4 mN"'- • '■S-riV ' .. .4 ,■ • ’ ' ’ ■ ' '’f ■■■,■?.**• '"iS I'.-r ■■ ^2 1 ' I Mi . • ' ■ T V > « . ■ '•"■- '.;>■ ■ ^ * ' »# .» 1 «• *►! j f Philip IV, King of Spain, 1621 — 1665 IJorn 8 April 1C05, died 17 September 1665 Philip IV, son of King Philip III of Spain, by his wife Margaret of Austria, was born at Madrid, on the 8'*’ of April, 1605, and acceded to the throne of Spain, on the 21“ of March, 1621, when he was only sixteen years old. Incapable of any serious sense of his responsibility, he had once resigned all cares of government to his favourite Count Olivarez, who , for the twenty-three years following , led his royal master, as a child is led in leadings-strings. Meanwhile financial difficulties were urgent in Spain, and the Minister made domestic affairs worse, by his violent and hazardous measures. In foreign policy, Spain had more and more lost her influence, and he vainly proposed to recover it by means of an alliance with Austria. At home and abroad, his policy failed, especially in Spain. Here he would abolish the special rights and privileges belonging severally to certain districts, and would suddenly make the whole land subject to the same laws and regulations. In consecjuence of these rash innovations, poverty was increased, and the insurrections that took place in several districts were with difficulty suppressed; while abroad, the fortune of warfare was adverse to Spain. Already, under Philip III, Spain had taken a ])art in the Thirty Years’ War, and after 1635 — had been led into an unhappy war with France. 'I'he general aim of Spain’s alliance with Austria, was to gain nothing less than universal supremacy for the House of Hapsburg — a plan that had been opposed by Richelieu ; at first secretly, then openly, by giving support to the enemies of that alliance. Among them, the Dutch, contending for their own freedom, held the foremost place, and against them, in 1621, warfiire (after a twelve years' truce) had been resumed. It was at last decided, more by naval victories than by any engagements between landforces. Spanish commerce was greatly obstructed, the I )utch, by their victory of 1639, continued the superior jtower of their fleet, and by the Peace of Westphalia, Philip was com])clled to acknowledge the indeitcndcnce of the Rci)ub!ic. In 1640 extreme ]jressure of taxation led to a dangerous insurrection in Catalonia, and about the same time occurred the revolt that raised the Duke of Pranganza to the throne of Portugal. These misfortunes caused the fall of the absolute Minister, Olivarez; but the change so made was rather jjcrsonal than systematic; for his successor was his nephew, Don Luis de Haro, who was, however, milder and less disliked than his |)redec.essor. Some good fortune for Spain followed. Mas.sanicllo’s insurrection in Naples, 1647, was happily suppressed, and after the decease of Richelieu, France was less energetic in prosecuting the war. Accordingly, by the Peace of West])halia — confirmed by the marriage of Phili])’s oldest daughter, 'I'hercsia, with Louis \ 1 V of I' ranee — .Spain, by sacrificing Roussillon, .Artois, and a few other districts, made France contented. Hut disasters for S|)ain were not ended. I'he war undertaken against the revolted Portuguese was a failure, and the Spanish army suffered an utter defeat at A'illaviciosa. King I'hilip did not long survive this last calamity. He died, sixty years old, at .Madrid, on the 17'*’ of Sei)teinber 1665. It seemed like a stroke of irony wlien Olivarez gave to the incapable King his surname »the Oreat« ; and ])opular wit described his greatness as like that of »a hollow place made larger and larger by e.xcavations«. In private life Philip IV, though given to luxury, was mU utterly without good (pialitics. He was affable, and generous to his friends, and showed some traits of a su|)erior mind. He patronized art and science, and wrote (it is said) a tragedy. The Escurial, in its decorations, shows his love of splendour. The flourishing drama, enriched by Lope de \Tga and Calderon, and the [)aintings of Velas(iuez and .Murillo, shed some light over the dismal gloom of his reign. 25 ant: PHILIPPO fV/AV^TKKi H15PAMIARVM INDlAKVMO KtGl CATHOLK.T) RETRO fRINClPt? POTtNTliSIMO *?/«.' fuf Mnff%Ui 1 f ./ fel % 4 a " ' f . j - i >» - w , - * • v'-''’ '•/■.lA-C i.v ri^ ■V. 4 !►• •‘(d; i 5 ’> Hi' 1 ; I*! ..^ 5 r. ^ - \-^A% M\ '-rK,' ’ ^.f ^ , Vi * !; V,,.: •V. * ^ ^ Henrietta Maria, Queen of England, 1625 1649 Born 25 November 1609, died lo September 1666 Henrietta Maria was the youngest daughter of Henry IV of France. She was in her sixteenth year when — obeying the wish expressed by her father and by James I of England — she married Charles, heir to the English throne. He first saw her at a ball given in the Louvre, when he was passing incognito trough France into Spain, there to show himself as a candidate for betrothal to the Princess Infantin. The marriage awakened the displeasure of the English nation, especially as the papal dispensation was granted on the condition, that the Queen and her offspring must be surrounded only by Catholic attendants and servants. Soon therefore a party was formed in England to oppose the political power ascribed to the Queen, and every royal measure that might seem unfavourable to the Anglican Church was viewed as evidence that the King had been guided by her influence. Her foreign freedom of manners also served to increase English and puritan prejudice against »the French Princess*; and the difficulties of Charles I , in his conflict with Parliament, made her life in England sad and anxious, however true and amiable might be the conduct of her husband. I'heir fiimily included two sons — Charles II and James II, and a daughter, Henrietta (1644) who after- wards was married to the Duke of Orleans. Impelled by dread of Cromwells approaching army, the Queen escaped into France. Here the not insignificant sum of 10,000 francs a month was formally given for her sup])ort, but she was soon found in distress for want of money. In fact, on account of the large demands made for carrying on warfare against the Fronde, it was found impossible to pay regularly the sums granted for her income. At the dcatli of her husband (1649) she was overwhelmed by sorrow. Louis XIV was iirduced by Cromwell to expel her two sons from h'rance, and the most tragical moment in her life occurred, when — compelled by want to ajjply for suj)plies to her husband’s murderer ■ — her prayer was rejected. After this stroke of affliction, she retired into utter solitude and remained in France until the restoration of her son Charles II to the English throne, 1660, when she came with him to Jriigland, and here si)ent a short time. After her return to France, she founded, by the aid of Louis XI V^, the convent of Chaillot, and bought for her own residence a mansion in Colombes, where she died, 10 September 1666. It may be interesting to compare with her ])ortrait this cotemporary description of her person, written by .Madame de .Motteville : »Shc has beautiful eyes, an admirable complexion, and a well-shaped nose; and her expression is so amiable that one must like her. Hut she is very thin, and of low stature, while her mouth — not well shaped in itself — seems too large for her face*. 'I'his sketch was made, when the Queen was 35 years old, and her beauty had waned under the influence of persecution and sorrow. I • • 1 . u* ■ I. ■ Sf.keniss! lt Po I km 1 iss! D } IF. N R IC A MARIA ROR RON I A Dei Guatia bRl I ANNlvt:, h'RA'NCl/P: El _ KF.GINA, > rc Hemricl IV. Galliakvm kt Navarr/i: Re(;is Fil. Akili,v£iri zt Ri.vxRtNDJa?’ D omino, D. (JAROl.O N'ANDl' N ROSCH, RKVctNiivM Kpiacopo, r.r H -t jt f un ai' rn l''i,\Nrmi/t, Cancfi.i.ario 'Vt omn^ena KnulLwrue lunA/ JiorintUiirn<}, tla Jttyulart tivrururri .'irliu/n Fuutort et Pattmw. Uumt'm hanc tiiuir h‘i\,’ratyfan luuv aiL’rtbus txpr^um mt/r tius cimrluj Jjiei'latur. Lil/ ^Hfr DrJuuha: .>Lith .inioniuj. Outs ^ntrerp Dj i F /W* ^. 7^/1 hiF u r.J* f^. Mary TI, Queen of England, 1689 — 1695 Born 10 May 1662, died 7 January 1695 Mary 11 , Queen of England, the elder daughter of the Duke of York (afterwards James ID by his first wife Anne Hyde, daughter of the Chancellor, Earl Clarendon, was born in London, 10 May 1662. Though her father was a Catholic, she was educated in accor- dance with the tenets of the Anglican Church. She was hardly fifteen years old, when Prince William of Orange sued for her hand ; and her father (then Duke of Yorkl unwillingly gave consent to the marriage, which however was desired by King Charles II, tough the Prince of Orange was strictly a Protestant. In November 1677 the marriage was celebrated, and soon afterwards, Mary followed her husband, who had returned tq the Netherlands. William, by nature reserved, cold and disposed to be silent, seemed to have no liking for any ]xirsuits beyond the affairs of the state — relieved now and then by field-sports — and paid but little attention to his young wife, while she looked up to him with an admiration almost unbounded. Her constant amiability and submission gradually won his confidence. In view of her own future claim to the English throne, she declared her willingness to yield both the royal title and the actual government of England into the hands of her husband, and it was soon made possible that her promised should be fulfilled. In 1688 her father’s reactionary measures in Church and State had led to a popular o])position so strong, that Prince \Villiam of Orange was invited to take for himself the Phiglish Crown. His wife declined to rule alone ; and consequently she was invited to rule in concert with her husband, to whom the general execution of royal duties might belong. On the 23'''’ of February, 1689, she was hailed with much enthusiasm when treading once more on English ground ; but her demeanour excited also no little censure when, with evident gaiety of heart, she entered the royal palace — so lately the home of her father, now driven into exile and made homeless. It seemed as if loyalty to her husband had utterly destroyed the natural feelings of a daughter’s heart. English by birth and in her manners, she knew how, by an amiable address, to conciliate those who were rei)ellcd by the gloomy and reserved manners of her husband ; and she could also — when required — give proof that she had firmness and energy of character. During William’s absence — while he was engaged in Ireland, there supi)ressing a Jacobite revolt against his dynasty — the (Jucen, entrusted with the regency, gave orders for the arrest and imjjrisonment of her uncle. Lord Clarendon, and of other leading Jacobites. 'I'o guard herself, she employed ])rccautionary measures that were indeed strict, but not crucll)’ coercive, as her enemies have said. She expelled from all friendly intercourse even her own younger sister, Anne, because she would retain such relations with .Marlborough as might be injurious to the State’s welfare. Her husband’s less attractive (jualities would have been more repulsive had they not been moderated by her presence. For nearly six years she had shared with him tlie cares of government, when she was suddenly attacked by the small ])ox — then so prevalent. Immediately, she gave orders that her ladies in attendance and others, who had not had tlie disease, sliould leave the Palace; and next she sent a letter to conciliate her sister .Anne. .After suffering tor three days, shee died, 7 January 1695, and was buried in Westminster .Abbey. Her death was for William an overwhelming sorrow. Never before, (it was believed) did he lose self-control, but now his life was in danger, trough exce.ssive grief To honour her memory, he founded now at Crcenwich a hospital for invalid setiinen, a charity that the (Jueen hat recommended. ' 27 James II, King of England, 1685 -1688 Born 24 Oct. 1633, died 16 Sept. 1701 James II, second son of Charles I, was born, 24 October 1633 and was educated in France. His first military honours were won in the Thirty Years’ War, when he served under 'I'urenne and Conde. i\fter the restoration of his brother, Charles II, he was made Lord High Admiral; but his naval victory over the Dutch in 1665, and his courage shown in the battle on the Southwolt Roads, alike failed to remove the prejudice against him excited by his return to the Catholic Church. The English people feared lest he should also return to the policy of his father, Charles I. The Test Act declaring that none save members of the Anglican Church, should be appointed to hold office, compelled him to resign his post, and the majority of the Whigs in Parliament passed a bill by which he was excluded from succession to the throne ; but this act was not confirmed by the I’pper House. Accordingly, on the decease of his brother, 1685, he ascended the throne. Popular prejudice against him was still more excited by his inconsiderate zeal for the restoration of Catholicism, and by his reassertion of rights belonging, he said, to the Crown. His declarations of his own authority served, in fact, to aid the popularity of his rival, the Duke of Monmouth — ■ a natural son of Charles II — who now appeared as a claimant for the throne. He was sui)ported by many followers in the West of England, but was defeated at Sedgemoor, 1685, and was soon put to death. While James II had no child, the people, hoping that his decease would make an end of all Catholic- claims, tolerated his arbitrary rule; but when his second wife, Maria Beatrice of Este, gave birth to a son, a dread of papal supremacy was again excited, and this was followed by the groat movement, known in English history as »the glorious revolution*. W'illiam of Orange, Stadtholderof the Netherlands and son-in-law of James II, was invited by many leaders in English politics, to come over and take the throne. He landed, 5 November 1688, in Torbay, and was so well received that James II, with his family made their esca])e to France. 1 1 ere several attempts were made in favour of his restoration to the throne; but the end of all was, that he died, an exile, at St. Cermain, 16 September, 1701. * i, ♦ u K. /. Anne, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, 1702 1714 Born 6 Febr. 1664, died 12 Aug. 1714 Anne, Queen of England, was the second daughter of the Duke of York (afterwards James II) by his first wife, Anne Hyde, daughter of the celebrated Lord Clarendon, and was born at 'rwickenham , near I>ondon, 6 February, 1664. like her elder sister, she was educated in submission to the Anglican Church, and in 1683 married Prince George, brother of King Christian V, of Denmark. Though the favourite daughter of James II, she did not follow his example of allegiance to the Catholic Church. When he lost popular favour by taking that course, and William, Prince of Orange was called to the throne, the Princess Anne favoured William’s party; but during his reign she lived quietly as before, under her fathers authority, and did not interfere in political affairs. When William died, 19 March 1702, Anne succeeded to the throne; but her personal influence in the government was small. She confided all measures to the care of her Y hig advisers, especially to the Duke of Marlborough and his wife, and their party retained power nearly to the close of the reign. Under their govemment, Scotland and England were (in 1707) more closely united, by representation in one parliament, by equal political rights and with regard to taxation. It was to be ascribed also to the influence of Marlborough, that Anne supported the alliance of Holland and Germany against France, in order to ])revcnt the union of France with Spain, under one ruler. The war, so commenced, was carried on under the able command of Marlborough, whose victories of Oudenarde, Ramillies and Blenheim made England both glorious and formidable in her military ])ower. W'ith regard to succession to the throne — in case of the (Jueen’s decease, leaving no heir — it was determined (by Parliament) that the Crown should belong to the » Protestant descendants« of the Stuart family. Accordingly, when Anne died, her lawful successor was recognized in So])hia, grand-daughter of James I of England, and widow of the Elector of Hanover. By this law of succession, the claims of James III, half-brother of (Jueen .Anne, were utterly denied, and he was called »thc Pretender*. Some attempts were made to maintain his right to the throne; but they were failures. At heart the Queen herself was on his side; but she had in fact no power. England was governed by the contending parties, \\ hig and Tory. After the fall of Marlborough, in 171 o, the war against France was carried on with less energy, and was closed by the Peace of Utrecht, 11 .Ai)ril, 1713. 'Tins War of tlie Spanisli Succession had gained great advantages for England. Her colonics, commerce and political influence were extended; the Revolution of 1688, and the law of a I’rotestant Succession were generally recognized by the jjowers of Europe. Near the close of her reign, the (Jueen, aided by men of the Tory i)arty, made some efforts in favour of her brother’s succession; but in vain. A few weeks before her decease, she was com])elled to sign a ])roclamation against him, and to set a i)rice on his head. She died, 12 August 1714, with her latest breath dei)loring the unhai)py fate of her brother. Her reign was an important ei)Och in ])olitical history, as in literary culture, though her i)crsonal influence could hardly be less. Slightly educated, apathetic, o|)en to llattery, and incapable of indc|)endent action — throughout her life she was made subject to more energetic advisers. Hence the strange contrast between her will and her action in her treatment ot her brother’s claim to the throne. Her |)iivate life was blameless, and she was just and kind toward attendants and servants. Her feebleness, or want of character, was not disadvantageous to the developcmcnl of England’s political imwer. ■cG*+»£A 29 Louis XIV, King- of France, 1643 — 1715 Born 5 September 1638, died i September 1715 Louis XIY, born 5 September, 1638, succeeded his father, Louis XIII, in 1643. a minor, he remained under the guardianship of his mother, Anna of Austria, who confided to the minister, Mazarin, the charge of, all political affairs. On the decease of Mazarin in 1661, Louis assumed the ofhee of a King, and soon gave proof of the energy and firmness by which he made himself absolute, and gained for France a sui)reme influence over foreign affairs. The King’s clear insight was especially shown in his choice of ministers and generals : among them Colbert, as an excellent minister of finance and commerce, Louvois, as minister for war, Turenne and Conde, as commanders of armies. In 1660 Louis married the Spanish Princess, Maria Theresia, whose renunciation of her own hereditary right he had previously declared to be null and void. Accordingly, in 1667, after the death of his father-in-law, Philip IV of Spain, Louis preferred his own claim to the Spanish Netherlands, and without much difficulty gained possession, in the summer of 1667. In 1668, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, he gained for France twelve fortresses on the Belgian frontier; but — not satisfied with that acquisition — he began, in 1672, a second jmedatory war against the Netherlands — - then utterly unprepared for the attack — and in the course of a few weeks, he had gained possession of the provinces. Soon however, when strengthened under the rule of William III of Orange, and aided by Brandenburg, Oermany and Spain, they compelled Louis to renounce his conquest of the Republic, and the Peace of Nimmegen left for him only some parts of Alsace and Franche-Comte. Again, however, he renewed his aggression, and by means of his new Courts of Appeal (or »Re.union«) held at Metz and other jflaces, the decisions of earlier treaties were revised ; so that more territory in the Netherlands and in Alsace was assigned to him ; and in the midst of peace, on the last day of September, 1681, he besieged Strasburg. As in political, so in religious affairs, he was des])otic; he persecuted the Jansenists (enemies of the Jesuits) and revoked the »Fdict of Nantes« — thus com])elling some hundred thousand of industrious people to emigrate from France. Against Louis XIV, a treaty of alliance was concluded, in 1686, between Holland, Brandenburg, the Cerman Emperor, Spain, and Sweden. 'I’o their alliance he ojjposcd, in 1688, a declaration of war which was soon followed by his third ])redatory campaign, otherwise called the Palatinate W'ar. After the devastation of the Palatinate districts on the Rhine, the French were again victorious on land in the Netherlands, as on the Rhine; but their attempt to win back for James II the English throne, was utterly frustrated by their naval defeat off Cape Lahogue, on the 29'*' of May, 1692. Under these circumstances, the conditions of peace, settled by the treaties of Turin and Ryswick, were favourable to Louis, who thereby retained possession of Alsace, with Strasburg. In the .Spanish W’ar of Succession his arms were but |)artly successful. Charles II of Spain, who died in 1700, left a will by which succession to the throne of S|)ain belonged to Phili]) of Anjou, the second grandson of Louis Xl\'; and by the treaty of Utrecht (1713) Louis retainctl for his grandson the greater i)art of his inheritance, while he kept undiminished for himself the lands he had con<[uercd. lie lived long enough to see the power of his monarchy declining, and his death, which took jflace on the first of September in 1715, might almost be said to be hailed with joy by the French peojjle; for hunger, war and |)crsecutions had thinned the population, and the land was heavily burdened by a monstrous debt of two milliards, incurred in a great measure by the extravagance of his Court. Here the rule of his mistresses — LavalliNe, Montes|)an, Fontanges and Maintenon - had long prevailed, and had exposed to the view of the jjeople an evil example, destructive of public morality, anil leading to the ruin of the land. 30 John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, British Commander and .Statesman Born 34 June 1650, died 17 June 1723 John Churchill, son of Glanvillc Churchill, by his wife, Elizabeth Drake — a relative of the {Treat Admiral Drake — was born at Ashe in Devonshire, 24 June, 1650. When fifteen )ears old he was employed as a page in the household of the Duke of York, who gained for him the position of an ensign in the Guards. He fought in Africa against the Moors, in 1666; afterward under Turenne in the Netherlands (1672 and later) and in 1678 he married Sarah Jennings, an intimate friend of the Princess Anne, the Duke of York's younger daugther. In 1685, ""'hen the Duke, (as James ID acceded to the throne, Churchill was raised to the peerage, with the title of Baron Churchill of Sandridge ; but he remained still opposed to the King’s reactionary policy. He indeed acted with energy for the suppression of Monmouth’s insurrection, but afterwards, with fife thousand men, he went over to the side ot Prince M’illiam of Orange. To reward him, the Prince made him Earl of Marlborough, and gave him a scat in the Privy Council ; but did not fully trust his loyalty. As tests of fidelity, his services in Ireland and in the Netherlands appeared satisfactory; but he was not contented with his mili- tary promotion and still was suspected of being at heart a Jacobite. In 1692 he was sent to the Tower and was liberated only on account of some legal defects of evidence. In 1697 the King first showed confidence in Marlborough, by ai)pointing him Crovernor of the young Duke of Gloucester. When Anne came to the throne (1702) the triumphs of Marlborough soon followed. His wife ruled the Queen, and the Premier (whose son had married Marlborough’s daughter) was in fact controlled by the Karl. Greater honours followed the victories won in the ^\’ar of the Spanish Succession. As Commander in Chief, Marlborough displayed, in diplomacy and strategy, talents of the highest order. 'Po him must be ascribed the fact, that the alliance formed against Louis XIV was maintained until 17 ii. He captured, in 1702, the fortresses on the middle Maas, and for this service was created Manpiis of Hlanford and Duke of •Marlborough. 'Phen followed his victory over the Bavarians at Donauworth, and that over the h'rench at Blenheim, and the Queen built for him the Castle of Blenheim, near Woodstock. 'I’he Kin]Jcror gave to the British hero the rank of a German Prince, and created for him the princijjality of Mindelhcim in Hp])er Suabia, which Marlborough resigned at the Peace of Phrecht. Again his victory won near Ramilies, 1706, made all Brabant subject to the power of the allied forces. Yendome, the Drench general, could not maintain his ground against the English Commander. In vain Louis XIV now offered terms of peace. 'Phe further victories of Gudenardc and Malplarjuet made it inevitable that Prance must be utterly defeated. Meanwhile, in Plngland the Duke’s enemies had pre\ailed, and his ])osition was greatly injured when his wife lost the (Jueen’s favour. 'Phe absolute command of the war was taken away ' from him. His enemies, the 'Pories — now Ln office — were planning a treaty of i)eace with Louis XIV, and Marlborough — recalled, and accused of corruption and misuse of money — was deposed from all his offices, i January 1712. Only by the aid of his ally. Prince Eugene was it effected, that the prosecution was stayed by the (Jueen. 'Phe great Commander, suffering under extreme vexation, retired to the continent, and did not come back until 1714, when the (Jueen died. His offices and dignities were then restored by King George I. 'Pwo years later, a fit of apoplexy compelled him to retire finally. After a career of extraordinary energy and success, he died at Windsor Lodge, on the 17“'' of June, 1722. Marlborough was an able dijilomatist, whose success was, in a great measure, owing to the foresight and address shown in his early life. He was a genial Commander, whenever was defeated in a serious engagement, and his strategy — as shown in his co-operation with Prince Eugene — again and again led to victory. Hut as a man — in politics, private friendship and loyal submission — he was far inferior to his ally. - — - 3 ' • -• I . V ■* » >/• I ; Z:! *• • • i • ^ . V J () 1 1 A N N ICS KARO i)K C 11 1 R C' 1 1 1 Jv L, j)rx K r comk.s de M A R L 11 () R OU G II , ma(;n,i; JiRi iAN Vi i: rkgina; a con.simis .sicre i ioriiius.okdini.s pkri.sck lidis kc^ues, Ri;i lOKMIN I \KI i; K r( Ol’lARl.M HKII ANNKARI'M I’k.KhKCTrS KKNEKALIS, .SACKI KOMANl IMl'KKII I’klNCKl'.S, =c. ;A r-. i ft'frtn €? ^ /// y c;-, . y • ' A? ’ .‘i it- /! rt^ ^ / • /' r,' /f /' X ^ < _ AC.,., J // / (' > f// r,t _ J . // 1// ^ ' /n /i /i < Y„ ft // ft /// /fttf/ff /t/flAf KfCfi - r ^ ^ r ■ A'-'-'V"" 4' ff/f/ft r.t / . ^i,44 / ff r t Y ff,4 ft ‘ / 4 t/f/f/ft /tf/tt. Iff/ , 4 /.'■■ 1 ijmi «.> r.» AA/. Peter I, the Great, Czar, and afterwards Kmperor of Russia 1682 1725 Uorn 9 June 1672, died 8 February 1725 Peter I, Alexejewitsch, Czar, son ot the Czar Alexei, by his second marriage with Natalia Kirilowna, daughter of the Pojar Narischkin — was born on the 9^’’ of June (— 30 May, old style) 1672, at Kolomanskoje-Sfelo, a village near Moscow. In 1682 he was proclaimed Czar; but, his ambitious half-sister Sophia com])elled him to yield a share in his dignity to his older but weak-minded brother, Ivan, who died in 1696. Sophia herself ruled, and her selfish designs made her envious of Peter, to whom she gave only a scanty and careless education ; but she could not suppress his ardent love of knowledge, and his desire to lead an active life. By his marriage with Eudoxia Feodorowna, Lapuchin, he gained the support of many friends who belonged to the higher class, and now he could bid defiance to Sophia, who had raised against him an insurrection of the body-guards. This was soon suppressed, and she was imprisoned in a convent. Meanwhile Peter had studied military strategy, and now devoted himself to the task of training, with the aid of foreign officers, a Russian army that could meet the requirements of modem, European warfare. At the same time, he collected a fleet, powerful enough to defeat the Turkish navy, and to win access to the sea by the capture of Asof (1696). This fortress was definitively ceded to him by the Porte, in 1700. In April 1697, Peter set out on his travels with the desire of making himself acquainted with the resources of modern culture. At first he made himself a member in an Embassy passing through Germany on the way to Holland. At Saardam he worked as a common carpenter, in the yard of a ship-builder; then he paid a visit to William III of England, and here received at Oxford a doctor’s diploma. He was recalled into Russia by the news of another insurrection of the body-guards. This was suppressed and ultimately the refractory soldiery were dismissed. His wife Eudoxia, who had aided in the plans of the » Old Russian* party, was sent to a Convent. So began a resolute series of reforms, intended to raise Russia to eminence among the i’owcrs of Europe. A wish to assert his rights in the Baltic led Peter into a war against Charles XII of Sweden, who at N’arva(i7oo) inflicted a defeat on the Russians, but afterwards failed to prevent their capture of Ingcrmanland, where Peter laid the foundation of his future metropolis (27 May 1703). His success was continued in subse([uent warfare against Sweden, especially in his great victory at Poltava (8 July 1709) where the enemy was finally defeated; but on the other hand, the war against the Turks led to disaster. His army — shut up in its position on the Pruth — was saved only by the Huscher 'I'reaty of 1711, which was arranged by the intervention of Catherine, his second wife, while Peter had to surrender .Asof, as the |)rice demanded for the Peace. In 1723 he took from Persia the fortified town Derbent, on the Caspian Sea. The Nystader Peace of 1721 secured for him all tlie Swedish Baltic provinces extending from Livonia as far as Karelien. After this conclusion of peace, the Czar assumed the title of Emperor of all the Russias. Already (iii 1720) he had declared himself Head of the Holy Synod. His health had long been failing, when his death was hastened by an accident. While making exertions to rescue the crew of a stranded ship, he caught a cold tliat soon proved fatal. He died on the 8‘'' of hebruary (= 28 January, old style) 1725. Peter the Great was an al)le and genial ruler. His military successes, and his lar- reacliing reforms, laid the foundation of Russia’s greatness. No tlepartment of tlie government was neglected under his rule. He founded schools, and instituted (in 1724) the Academy of .Sciences; he raised the character of the national religion; createcl laws; built towns; made canals; and aided tlie jjrogress of industry and commerce; he was generous in paying others for tlieir services, and was impartial in the infliction of ])unishment. But the shades in his character are dark. He allowed himself to be controlled by intemperance, licentious passion, and cruelty. He was ruled so tar by his cruel temper, that he condemned to death his own son, Alexei Petrowitsch. George I, Eleetor of Hanover (after 1698) and King of England, 1714—1727 Born 28 May 1660, died 23 June 1727 George I Ludwig, King of Great Britain and Ireland, Elector of Hanover, and Duke of Brunswick-Liineburg, was the oldest son of Ernst August of Hanover, by his wife, Sophia of the Palatinate, the granddaughter of James 1 . She had been declared heiress to the British throne, by the Protestant Succession Act of 1701. Hence the claim of her son, George I, born in Hanover, 28 May 1660. As early as 1675, he had gained distinction in the army, and in 1683 he aided in winning a victory over the Turks. In 1705, he obtained by his marriage with Sophia Dorothea, the duchies of Ltineburg- Celle and Lauenburg. The marriage was unhappy, and George made his wife in fact a prisoner. I'or the remainder of her life after 1694, though she was the mother of his son, George, (afterwards George II of England,) she was confined to the residence assigned to her at Ahlden. As Elector of Hanover, after 1698, when his father died, George I showed some ruling ability, though his temperament was mostly phlegmatic. On the death of his mother, 1714, her hereditary claim to the English throne descended to him; but he did not leave Hanover until he was called into England by the decease of Queen Anne, which took place later in the same year. As King of England, he showed favour to those most devoted to his cause, and they soon formed a new Ministry of ^^'higs under the active leadership of Walpole. On the other side, among the Tories dismissed from their offices, a combination was made, to support the Pretender, whom they recognized as James III, but the insurrection of 1715 was easily suppressed, and its adherents suffered severely. To guard against another rising on their side, the King extended the term allowed for the session of Parliament, and strengthened the royal power by means of standing army. 'Phe chief aim of his foreign i)olicy was, to maintain i)cace in Europe, and so prevent Erance from interference in support of the Stuarts. Eor this end, England in 1717 was joined with Erance and Holland in the 'I'riple Alliance, which in the following year was made (Juadru])lc, when Austria was involved in war with Spain, and the Emperor united his forces with those of the Allies. In the war that followed, England soon found an opportunity of showing the power of her fleet, which, in August 1718, gained a decisive victory over the Spanish fleet. In 1725, Spain entered into an alliance with Austria, for the re-compiest of Gibraltar and Minorca. 'Phis design was defeated by the able ])olicy of George, who now formeal an alliance with Prussia and Erance. Always mindful of his native land's prosperit}', he interfered in the war against Sweden, called the Northern war, and when it was ended by the IVace of Stockholm, 1719, he gained i)ossession of the duchies Bremen and Verden. lie was on a journey to Hanover, when he was prostrated by an apo])lectic seizure, and died suddenly, at Osnabriick, 22 June, 1727. George I could never win the cordial loyalty of the English, lie did not even take the pains of learning their language, or (jf making himself at home with them, as to their manners and morals. On the contrary, his heavy and awkward person and address, his freMpient visits to Hanover, the foreign liaisons that disgraced his Gourt, and his unpleasant relations with the Crown I’rincc — all tended to excite dislike, and he was sternly censured by many who in ]Jolilics were not his foes. His constitutional government, and his prudence in foreign jjolicy were fairly estimated. 'Phe union of Englantl and Hanover, caused by his accession, lasted until the accession of Victoria, in 1837, and had an important inlluence in the political aftairs of Germany, and indeed in those of Europe. i GKORCrIi ^ I . u \ s rr s SI m t a \ i/; nui i . \ \ si \ k. fkasc k v ////#. rkoi . j>EFKsSi'Ri i /dki . n\ ci nii\ ns \ ic . kt /A \.\KH. s.R I \ JH' 11 1 !' H KS.WR R I c Ki' Kl.KC'iv R I . t'l ^ j'l i r^u,\ . r fri fu\t /. /\ i • .t i RUi <• n >.1 j t ( u nt .% '’tmttii.' * . /'/v/7;i7'A,',i/ o Rn ! s, ny o . (u.i^tu i .v » i r'ia y y _/);/,,■ <, ,//vy I •V .,y. .. -J i. 9 ' * J * ^ - . > e. 1 I • f - 7 ' *• 4-v t ) V ■> I i ' * " V*-/ • ; i Y * / -A . tIV *' V . V -Ir** ■» »?• .* ;A.l a - :’*■'. ^ ■„, 4 • . »Ji- * .^ ’ ' ■ '" V . : • fi Augustus, suriiamed „the Strong", Elector of Saxony, after 1694, and King of Poland, 1697 — 1733 Born 12 May 1670, died i February 1733 Augustus, »the Strong*, as King of Poland, entitled Augustus II, and as Elector of Saxony, Frederick Augustus I, second son of the Elector John George III of Saxony, and his wife the Danish Princess, Anna Sophia, was born at Dresden, on the 12* of May, 1670. After a careful education, he visited, in 1687 — 1689, most of the Courts of Ifurope, where he was generally admired, partly on account of his handsome person and remarkable strength (hence his surname) but also for his intellectual powers and his agreeable, chivalrous address. As Elector of Saxony, he was the successor of his older brother John George IV, after whose decease, 27 April 1694, he made an alliance wth Austria, and was appointed Chief Commander of the imperial army in the war aigainst the Turks; but the unfortunate battle at Olasch caused his resignation of the command in 1696. His love of an active career, could not rest contented within the narrow bounds of Saxony, but led him to contend for the throne of Poland, left vacant by the decease of John Sobieski, in 1696. To gain this throne, Augustus entered the Catholic Church, at Baden near Vienna, on the 2"*^ of June 1697. Among his opponents the most formidable was the FVench Prince Conti who, in rivalry with Augustus expended enormous sums of money in his bribery of Polish noblemen. By an expenditure of ten millions of Polish florins, Augustus at last gained his end. He was elected by the Polish diet, 27 June 1697, marched with eight thousand Saxons, into Poland, and was crowned, with great pomp, at Cracow, on the 15'*' of September, d'wo years later, he made an alliance with Russia and Denmark, to recover the Polish j^rovinces held by Sweden, and led his Saxon troops into Livonia; though the Polish aristocracy refused to aid him in this expedition, in which he was found no match for the genial warrior, Charles XII. Again and again the invader was defeated, and in 1704 the Polish State Council declared that he was no longer King. Stanislaus Leszczynski, ^Vojwode of Posen, was now raised to the throne. The Swedes drove the invader back to Saxony, and compelled him, in 1706, to conclude with them the humiliating peace of .Mtranstiidt ; to pay largely for their expenditure in the war ; and to recognize Stanislaus, as King of Poland ; moreover to congratulate him on his accession to the throne. After his de])Osition, .Augustus served as a volunteer under Prince Eugene, in the Netherlands; but new ho])es were excited by the defeat of Charles XI 1 at Pultava. The bad fortune of Augustus was suddenly changed. He declared the .Altranstadt treaty null and void, marched with a strong army into Poland, deposed Stanislaus, and was again called to take the throne. In the next year, he continued the war against Sweden, which was brouglit to a close by the death of (.'liarles Xll, in 1718. The truce of Deceml)er 1719 was, ten years afterwards, so extended that a definitive jieace was concluded. After his failure, in trying to make the Poles submit to coercive rule, .Augustus was driven to employ other means. 'I'hc general dislike excited by the presem'e of liis Saxon troojjs was so great, that they were in fact expelled from Poland in 1717, and tlie Ring was left to win |)opularity by the luxury of his Court. It was renowned as tlie most splendid Court in Euiojie, and the King was admired for liis extreme love of display. His extravagant expenditure made the ca|)ital famous for its treasures of art, but at tlie same time left the jieople burdened with a load of jioverty and misery. lie died at Warsaw, on the of Pebruary 1733, and was interred at Cracow. lie had married without liking, Christine Lberhardine, of Brandenburg-Kulmbach , mother of the Crown Prince; but had lived mostly separated from his wife. Among his very numerous natural children, the most distinguished was the General, Maurice of Saxony. 34 llC^lhSlLt^ ^roloii I a nun ^Jaxcnicc : ^ Elizabeth, Empress of Russia, 1741 1762 I)orll 29 December 1709, died 5 January 1762 Elizabeth Petrowna, Empress of Russia, born at St. Petersburg on the 29'’’ of December 1709, had been appointed successor to the throne by her mother, Catherine I ; but yielding to her natural indolence, she neglected to assert her rightful claim. Consequently, the Dutchess of Courland, Anna Iwanowna, a niece of Peter the Great, ascended the throne in 1730. At her death (1740) she named as her successor Ivan, the son of her niece, the Dutchess of Prunswick-W'olfenbtittel, who now assumed the regency. Soon afterwards, an attempt was made to compel Elizabeth to marry the Duke of Brunswick, Anna’s brother-in-law; but the plot was frustrated, chiefly by the interference of L’Estocq, Elizabeth’s physician and favourite, who was aided by the French ambassador, the Marquis de la Chetardie. In obedience to their advice, she declined the proposed alliance, and — trusting in the popularity still commanded by the name of her father, Peter the Great — she now raised an insurrection against Ivan and his mother. Both were made prisoners, on the 6'^ of December, 1741; when the troops hailed Elizabeth as their new Empress. In 1742 she was crowned at Moscow, and then — to confirm her own rule, — she appointed as her successor, her nephew. Prince Karl Peter Pdrich of Holstein-Gottorp. Her reign was not without military success. The war with Sweden fortunately cairicd on by Field-Marshal Lacy, and ended in the Peace of Abo (1743) was not dis.advantageous to Russia. 'I'he opposition of France did not deter Elizabeth from sending an army to aid Maria 'Fhercsia in the Austrian war of Succession against Frederick 11 . The conclusion of peace at Aix la Ghapcllc (1748) was at least hastened by the aid of Russia. Again the Fhnpress aided Austria in the Seven ^'cars’. War against Frederick 11 . His sarcastic remarks on her Court had been reported to J'.lizabeth, who consetiucntly had a personal motive for her opposition to his arms. The Russian forces conquered at Grossjagersdorf and at Kunersdorf; they plundered Berlin, and captured Kolberg; but their successes had no decisive effect on the general result of the war. The Empress did not live to sec its conclusion. She died at St. Petersburg, on the 5‘’' of January 1762. Elizabeth was neither destitute of mental gifts; nor incapable of showing, sometimes, that she had a strong will ; but habitual indolence was her chief trait. Her gross sensuality led her to choose such favourites as Schuvaloff, Woronzow, and Bestushew. The last, tough notoriously corruiU, was made High Chancellor. 'I'he I'lmpress, meanwhile, — generally commended for her »mild« rule — gained i)opularity by some of her measures; especially by the removal of interior customs in great Russia, and of the general toll levied in l.esser Russia. Elizabeth had some taste for literature and the fine arts, as was shown by her founding the I'niversity of Moscow, and the .Academy of the I'inc .Arts at St. Petersburg. / Louis XV, King of France, 1715 — 1774 Born 15 February 1710, died lo May 177+ Louis XV, great grandson of Louis XIV, succeeded to the throne when only five years old. He had attained his majority, when he confided the government of France first to the Duke of Bourbon, and then to Cardinal Fleury. In 1725 Louis XV married the daughter of Stanislaus Leszscynski, of Poland, and was by this alliance involved in the Polish war of succession, by which he gained expectancy of Loraine. His interference in the Austrian war of succession was a failure, and extremely costly to France. By the strategetic error of Marshal Soubise, in the Seven Years’ War, the military character of France was exposed to the ridicule of Furope, and her ])olitical influence was utterly forfeited. While the policy of Louis XV thus destroyed the importance of France among the great jmwers of Europe, his gross extravagance ruined the financial position of the country, and as by design, led on surely to the Revolution. His own expenditure, and his useless wars were to be paid for by his arbitrary taxation, chiefly of the lower classes, and, with a senseless and brutal tyranny, he su])pressed in 1771, the resistance of Parliament which he reduced to the rank of Law Court, destitute of political influence. At his death, 10 .May 1774, he leit France burdened by a debt of four thousand millions of livres. V / - W-, ■ i..'} . - ' ■j . A j'lV ;■ “.A ■ 1 ,v r •V*’ ■ - 1 *■ « i 1 'W^ . T,' '* ' . I . I ' » Maria Theresia, Roman Empress, Queen of Hungary and Bohemia, 1740 — 1780 Born 13 May 1717, died 29 November 1780 Maria Theresia, oldest daughter of Charles VI, was born on the 13'*’ of May 1717. In 1736 she was married to Francis Stephen of Loraine, Arch-duke of Tuscany, who had been educated at the imperial court. On the death of her father, 1740, she acceded to the throne, b\- virtue of the Pragmatic Sanction, by which her right of succession had been determined. Her husband was appointed by her to be Co-Regent, though she gave to him no considerable share in the government. As Francis I, he was crowned Roman-German Emperor, in 1745. In the beginning of her reign, the young Empress found herself opposed by a mighty coalition. A ^Car of Succession was begun by Elector Charles Albert of Bavaria, who claimed as his own right succession to the throne of Austria. Soon followed the first and the second Silesian War. 'I'he resources of Austria were nearly e.xhausted and financial affairs were perplexing, while the army was reduced to less than a hundred thousand men. In this dangerous position of affairs, the Empress did not lose her courage. Her own brave heart was her chief sujrport against the ruin threatening her realm, and enabled her to confront boldly even her most formidable enemy — Frederick II, the young King of Prussia; but so great was the success of his arms, that she was compelled to cede to Prussia the greatest ])art of Silesia, when the war was ended by the Peace of Dresden, concluded on the 25'^ of December, 1745. On the other side, her hereditary succession to the monarchy of Austria was established by the Peace of Aix-la-Chai)elle, on the 1 8'’' of October 1748. 'Fhen followed eight years of peace, well employed by Maria Theresia in the improvement of Austria’s domestic circumstances. Abuses in the government were removed ; a strong army was organized, and reforms took place in finance, as in the administration of justice. Still, amid all her cares for domestic reforms, the Empress could not forget her loss of Austria. Her most earnest wish, long secretly cherished, was to see an alliance of Austria with France, Russia, Sweden, and Saxony — all united to opi)o.se the growing power of Prussia; and in this great j)lan she was aided by the able i)olicy of her Chancellor, Kaunitz, who acted as her Minister of Foreign Affiiirs. But Frederick II, by his invasion of Saxony, in 1756, forestalled the action of the -Mlies (who had intended to begin their attack in 1757) and so began the Seven \’car’s M ar, that after severe contests was ended by the Peace of Hubertusburg (15 February 1763) when the several i)arties in the contest were confirmed in possession of the territories they had gained before the war was begun. After the decease of her husband (1765) the Flm])rcss made her son Co-Regent; but confided to his independent control (jiily military affairs. Unwillingly she took ])art in the first ])artition of Poland; and in the Bavarian war of succession she was guitled more by her son's advice than by her own will. In the Peace of 'I'cschen ( r 3 .May, 1779'' she was content to take only the Immiuartcr. Soon after this conclusion of peace she died, on the 2(/'' of November 1780, leaving to her son the Austrian monarchy raised to an eminent position, and defended by an army of 280,000 men. .Maria 'i'hcrcsia possessed a noble mind and a manly fortitude of soul. Left by her father in ignorance of all affairs (;f state, she was able to meet ably the difficulties of her early reign. T(j improve domestic government ; and t(j raise the jjower of the State in its foreign relations — these were her chief aims. She founded schools and orphan-houses; abolished trial by means of torture, and also serfdom in the German |)roviirces of the monarchy; and encouraged agriculture, industry and commerce, while she was always careful to increase the strength of her army. Endowed with the virtues of a truly feminine character, uniting pure morality with jjersonal beauty, she was at (jiice a beneficent ruler, anti a kind mother to her own family. 37 i’- NOS k' Kc; I N,V ,) r ho 1 1 1: i\i I ,v< o N OKI 0 A I, O A O I I > () I) (IMNIVA! IIVMII.MMA Dh.VDTlSblMA A A IJ, SOCMK'l'AS VM/t>77(V /)/•; AUll'l'h'.NS riNXI’t' /’////. \Nnu laiJAN svAU^’nin's mu nyi'Ai ts scv/.rsir l^'rcdcrick 11 , of Prussia, 17.10 1786 I!oni 24 January 1712, died 17 August 1786 r'l'ctlcrick »thc (Jrcat* has Itcen also surnamcd »the()nly Onc«, and vvitli right; for the century in whicli he lived bears the impress of his character, and is ctilled »the age of Frederick, the Oreat*. The motto prefixed (by the ])oet Maltitz) to a biography of the King, is hardly too bold : Said Fate, » great King, no son will bear Thy name, or in thy glory share. But thou, as all thine own, shalt claim • The century that bears thy name«. As the Crown Prince, and under the stern and even cruel discipline of his father — Frederick William I of Prussia, a man of iron will — FT'ederick had much to endure. Flis mother was the daughter of Sophia Dorothea, of Celle, (after separation from her husband known as the Duchess of Ahlden) who on the maternal side belonged to a French family. 'Po this admixture of blood might be ascribed some traits in the Prince’s character — especially his love of music and poetry — and these were developed by the French governess, Madame de Roucoulles, to whose care his training in boyhood was confided. To her, no -doubt, the boy was partly indebted for the culture and refinement shown in later years. Meanwhile the Prince had awakened the displeasure of his father, who feared lest his son should be nothing better than a weak amateur; should never be a soldier. An erroneous foreboding — the greatest General of his century no soldier! At last, the father’s harsh conduct drove the son to resolve, that he would make his escape to England; and now his father arrested him as guilty of desertion and high treason. .■\11 the Ambassadors, with the Kings of Poland and .Sweden — then present at the Court of Prussia — pleaded in behalf of the Prince, and partly succeeded in quelling the King’s fury. He did not put the J’rince to death, as had been intended , but made him a prisoner at Kiistrin, and here compelled him to witness the execution of his friend. Lieutenant Katte, who had aided him in planning the escape to Fingland. This cruelty had a terrible eftcct on the Prince; his heart seemed petrified. The father, however, was not fully reconciled, until Frederick had consented to marry the Princess F 21 izabeth Christine of Brunswick-ltevern , for whom he had no affection. He subsequently evinced the highest esteem and respect in his conduct toward his wife ; and with her he sjjcnt his ha])i)iest youthful days, when they lived together at Rheinsberg. Here he had leisure for music and poetry, as his recreations; but his earnest studies were history and military strategy, the latter esi)ecially, as shown in the cami)aigns of the great Conde. On the 3i®‘ of .May, 1740, Frederick acceded to the throne, with his father's blessing on his head. The late King had felt sure, that his successor’s career would be glorious, and his ])rediction was soon fulfilled. In the first year of his reign, Frederick, by his compicst of Silesia, made himself the hero of his century. .A few years later, he was victorious in the Second Silesian ^\'ar; and on the 24''' of .August 17 56, the celebrated Se\ en \’cars' War began. In the sixteen chief battles that followed, he was victorious at Lowositz, Prague, Kossbach , Leiithen, Krefeld, Zorndorf, .Minden, l.icgnitz and Torgau. During his years of peace, Frederick expended his utmost efforts for the good government and prosjjerity of the realm; while he aided in the spread of a higher culture of the arts and sciences. He built in Berlin an Opera House, and invited from Paris scholars and men distinguished in literature. He was himself the author of several woiks having an historical im|)ortance, but they were written it> French; for he neglected German literature, and despised his own native language of Under the inlluence of his friend, X’oltaire, he was taught to regard religion with indifference or contempt; though he rcsi)ected morality, and was careful in his own moral conduct. He contracted no liaisons. 'I'he anecdotes told of his relations with the d.'inseuse, Barbarina ('ampanini, are mostly false. He indeed admired her person and her skill in dancing; but he was subject to only one passion — ambition. 'I'rue; he was capable of friendshi]), and could entertain toward certain ladies the affection which Gicero has finely described as amor amicitiae. This, we arc assured, was the only bond by which he was, for a long time, attached to the xirtuous, fair and acconqilished lady. Von W'recch. After, suftering long from drojisy and feebleness of body, the King died at .Sanssouci, on the 17“'' of August, 1786, leaving to his successor an extended realm, and full treastiry, a well-discijilined army, and a people on the whole to be described as educated, industrious and prosiierous. I'he light shed by the hero's career is still shining to guide us. 3 « •; I’';-, r ,ii ' . > -.'J-' ' . ' '■> I i Louis XVT, Kinp^ of France, 774 — 1793 liorn 23 Aiijjubt 1751.; died 21 January 1793 I-ouis XVI, King of France, the third son of the Dauphin T,oiiis, l)y his marriage with Maria Jose])ha of Saxony, was 1 )orn at Versailles, on the 23'’'' of August 1754. In liis earlier years he was known as the Duke of I'crri ; but after the death of his (dder brother, and that of his fatlicr (in 1765) he succeeded to the title of Dauphin. On the io‘'' of May, 1770 he married the Princess Marie Antoinette of Austria who, though distinguished by her jiersonal beauty, never gained popular favour in France. 'I'he King was amiable and benevolent; but his narrow education had not developed the powers of his mind, which was naturally deficient in energy. His want of self-confidence made him dread his accession to the throne, which took ])lacc at the death of his grandfather, Louis XV, on the lo'*’ of May 1774. Meanwhile, the people gladly hailed their new King. Immorality, extravagant expenditure, and an inglorious policy, had disgraced the reign of Louis XV, and had caused an ever-increasing deficit in the financial resources of France. 'I'he people were complaining under a load of taxes, mostly extorted from the lower classes, the higher classes, possessing two thirds of the land, were comparatively exempt from taxation. To restore contentment, the first measure urgently demanded, was a fairly proportionate distribution of the public burdens, and the King was sincerely desirous of making this reform; but conten- ding parties surrounded him, and their several arguments served to perplex his irresolute mind, whenever practical measures were submitted for his decision on their merits. He made, however, soon after his accession, an important step toward reform, when he appointed 'Purgot as Minister of Finance. The measures proposed by this honest minister were chiefly decentra- lization of the government, abolition of certain heavy ta.xes, and a reduction of the deficit; but before they could be carried into effect, Turgot was expelled from office, in 1776. His second successor, the banker Necker, had recourse to raising new loans, in order to reimburse France for her expenditure in aid of the North American war ot liberation. At a later time, Necker proposed a reduction in expenditure, and especially exposed the extravagance of the Court. 'I'he consequence was his dismissal from office, in 1781. 'I'hen followed the financial experiments of Calonnes and De Briennes, after which Louis was compelled to recall Necker, as Minister of Finance (i 780) and moreover to convoke the Tiers Iritats, who had not been assembled since the year 1614. 'I'hey now came together, and held a parliament at Versailles, on the 5'*' of May 1789. In the next month, they declared them.selves as representatives of the 'Piers fitats, a National Assembly convened to consult on the plan of a new constitution. 'I’he King was now compelled to promise that a whole series of liberal reforms should soon follow. But a concentration of troops in Paris, and the dismissal of Necker from office led to an insurrection (on the 13*'' of July) and the Bastile was destroyed. Again the King was driven to make concessions to the demands of the people; but insurrection broke out again on the 5*'' of October, when the Royal P'amily and the National .Assembly were removed from Versailles to Paris. Here the measures luoposed in the .Assembly became more and more radical and threatening, until the King was alarmetl. In the night of 20 —21 June, 1791 he made an attempt to esca])e from Paris and gain shelter in a fortified place on the western frontier; but in the course of his journey he was recognized by a postmaster named Drouet, and after detention at Varennes, was brought back to Paris. Here, on the 14''' of .Sejitember, he with tears confirmed by an oath his promise of a now constitution. 'Phis concession failetl, however, to save him from further conflict. In the Legislative Assemby convened on the 1“ of October, it was projiosed to punish jiriests who refused to take the common oath of citizens. On this otcasion, the King’s veto caused great offence, and after his dismissal of the Girondist Ministry, his deposition was planned by the Jacobins. On the I 0*'“ of August, 1792, the 'Ptiilerics were stormed, and Louis fled for protection into the National ■Assembly. Here it was resolved, that the royal power should be susiiended, and the King was led, as a prisoner, into the 'Pemple. He was next formally accused as a traitor and, despite his dignified defence, was condemned to death by a majority of the National Convent, on the 17*'' of January 1793. On his way to the scaffold, he maintained his calm and resolute demeanour, and his last words were these: - /Frenchmen, 1 die innocent; 1 pray that my blood may not be upon France. « 'Phe unhaiipy King fell as a victim to the sins of his forefathers. His own fault was, that he was not born to be an energetic ruler. Slow in his mental powers, and deficient in power of will, he was not ciiual to the gigantic work of raising France out of its deiith of ruin. His benevolent disposition, good intentions, and purity of morals, amid the corruiition of his Cotirt, deserved a better fate. .-Ctfxv 39 • ' i ■« Maria Antoinette, Wife of Louis XVI, Queen of France, 1774-^ 1792 Born 2 November 1755, died 16 October 1793 Maria Antoinette, daughter of the Emperor Francis I and his wife Maria Theresia, was born on the 2"*^ of November, 1755. When hardly fifteen years old, she was married to the Dauphin of France, who acceded to the throne as Louis X\T. Her beauty and intelligence soon won his esteem and affection, but failed to make her popular in France, where scandals were spread by those who sought her ruin. The fact that, by birth, she was an Austrian, excited suspicions against her; and her artless freedom of manners was viewed as a breach of Court-etiquette. For that, indeed, she had little respect; since she knew that too often it served as a veil to hide vice. However excited, these- early attacks on the Queen’s character, served to hasten the fall of the throne. Meanwhile, with a courage that never failed, she acted as the support of her husband, while the revolutionary movement was increasing in violence ; and her firmness commanded even the respect of her enemies. After the storming of the 'I'liileries, the royal family sought refuge in the National Assembly, and were led as j)risoners into the Temple, where most barbarous means of increasing their sufferings were put in force. 'I’hc Queen was separated from her husband. Her food and even the water allowed for lier use were closely stinted, and everything like comfort was denied. At last she was led out to her trial, where she had to meet accusations of most incredible offences, and all defence was useless. She was coiidemned to death, but still maintained her courage and dignity, when taken to the scaffold. Her execution took [dace on the i6th of October 1793. 40 Georo-e Washino-ton, First PrcsidcMit of llic United States lioni 22 I''cl)riiary 1732, died 14 December 1799 George Washingt 07 i was born in Westmoreland county, Virginia, in 1732. At flic age of twelve he lost his father, and his youth was largely spent at his elder brothers estate of Mount Vernon, on the I’otoinac. At one time he had comjiletcd arrangements for entering the British naval service, and had his clothes packed and sent on board a man-of-war, when at the last moment he gave up the project because of his mother’s objections. The only time he was ever at sea was when he made a voyage to Barbadoes, at the age of nineteen, with his brother T.awrence. At the age of sixteen he entered the service of Lord Fairfax as a surveyor. His Lordship owned large estates in the great Virginia valley , the boundaries of which were but vaguel)’ defined, and the task of surveying them involved cam]nng out for weeks in the wilderness and using the axe and the rifle as well as the compass and chain. In 1752, with a single companion, Washington was sent by the governor of Virginia to carry an important letter to the French commander on the Ohio. 'I'he journey occupied nearly three months, in winter, and was full of perils from cold, from half-frozen rivers, and from treacherous savages. Two or three years of such experience made an excellent beginning for that education in courage, endurance, cool judgment, and hardy self-reliance, which fitted him for the task of carrying through a sevenyears’ war and establishing the young republic. In 1754 he commanded a regiment of the troops sent against the French at Fort Duquesne fnow Pittsburgh P^) and won distinction by his defence of Fort Necessity, though he was finally compelled to capitulate. The next year, as a volunteer aid to General Braddock, he joined the new expedition that marched over the same ground. On the 9'*’ of July Braddock’s force fell into an ambuscade and was disastrously defeated. Washington was the only officer that escaped unhurt, and he had four bullet-holes in his coat. It is clear that if Braddock, who knew nothing of frontier fighting, had listened to his advice, he might easily have been victorious. After the cessation of hostilities, Washington retired to Mount Vernon, wliich he had inherited on the death of his brother, and in 1759 he married Mrs. Martha Custis, a wealthy widow. He was several times a member of the Virginia Assembly, and was elected to a seat in the first Continental Congress. He warmly espoused the cause of the colonies against the mother country, and on the outbreak of war in 1775 he was chosen (June 14) commander-in-chief of the Continental armies. He hastened to Cambridge, Mass, and there, under the now historic elm, assumed the command. His history for the next seven years is substantially the history of the war of Independence. He besieged Boston, held by a force of 10,000 men, bringing heavy guns from old Fort Ticonderoga, 200 miles, on sleds, and compelled the evacuation of the city in March 1776. He then marched his army to New York; but in August he was defeated by Sir Henry Clinton in the battle of Long Island, and the subseciuent action at White Plains seemed to render the Colonial cause desjierate. On Christmas night, in a storm, he crossed the Delaware with his little army, attacked the enemy at Trenton, defeated them, and took a thousand jirisoners, losing but nine of his men. A week later he defeated Corn- wallis at Princetown. But in September 1777, a fresh force from New York, under Howe, defeated Washington at the Brandywine, and he was defeated again in October at Germantown. 'I'he ensuing winter was spent by the Colonial troops at Valley horge, amid great suffering from cold and jirivation, and it recpiircd his utmost exertions to keep the army together. In the summer of 1778 the British evacuated Pliiladelphia, and Washington, following them toward New Vork, fought an indecisive battle at Monmouth. 'I'he next important movement by the Commander-in-chief culminated in the siege of \'orktown by tiie combined American and Prench forces, where Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781. This jiractically ended the war, though the enemy did not leave the country till after the treaty of jicacc was signed in 1783. \\’ashington then resigned his commission, refusing all jiay for his services, and retired to his home. He jilanncd the James River and Potomac, canals, and witli the shares voted to him by the State, he endowed a college at Lexington. In 1787 he was a member of the convention that framed the constitution of the United States; and under that constitution he was elected J’resident and was inaugurated in New \'ork April 30''“ 1789. He was reelected in 1792, but declined a third term, and on March 4*'' 1797 retired once more to Mount Vernon, where he died from the effects of ex])osure in a snow-storm, Dec. 14^'' 1799. Washington had a robust form, over six feet Iiigh, with a large head, brown hair, and blue eyes. He seldom spoke in deliberative assemblies, but always commanded attention and exercised a jiowerful influence. He was a skillful manager of his own estates, exact and methodical in all his ways. He had no children of his own, but adoiited several nephews and nieces, and was very hapjiy in his domestic relations. His numerous slaves were liberated by his will. 41 Horatio, Viscount Nelson, English Admiral Born 29 September 1758, died 2i October 1805 opportunity to win Commander of the services were not a Indies, he married, in quiet retirement Horatio, Viscount Nelson was born, 29 September 1758, at Hurnham-Thorpe , in the County of Norfolk, of which his father, Edmund Nelson, was the rector. When only twelve years old, he was led by his own choice into enter the naval service, in a shij) of the line commanded by his maternal uncle. Captain Suckling. 'I'he boy, in spite of early hardships, soon gave proof of courage and endurance that gained for him the well-deserved approbation of his superiors. In 1777 he was made Lieutenant and, two years later. Post Captain. 'I’he English expedition against the Spanish possessions in 1780 gave him an distinction, especially in Honduras Hay, and in 1784 he was appointed Erigate Boreas, on a cruise off the Windward Islands, where his energetic little favourable to England's commercial interests. While in the West (in 1787,) and afterwards returned to England, where he lived with his wife for some years. In 1793 the outbreak of war against France called him back to service, and as Commander of the Agamemnon, he was sent to the Mediterranean. Here he took a leading part in the capture of Bastia, and in the victory won at Calvi, in Corsica, where his right eye was lost in the action. To Nelson in great part belonged the victory won off Ca])e St. Vincent, in February, 1797. He then captured three Spanish shi])s of the line, and made the enemy’s Admiral a prisoner. As a reward, he was made Vice Admiral. In an attcmj)t made to capture, near Santa Cruz, a Spanish fleet — supposed to convey much treasure in silver — he lost his right arm. 'Phis was not made a plea for refusal to accept the command of the fleet sent to watch the harbour of 'Poulon, where Napoleon was making ready his fleet for the expedition against Egypt. Aided by a storm, this fleet escaped from the harbour, unnoticed by Nelson. But he followed and found it at anchor near Abukir, where his victory, soon following, utterly destroyed the naval power of the enemy. Nelson was now created Baron of the Nile and of Burnham-Thorpe, and received a pension of 2000. 'I'he King of Naples, who now declared war against Lrance, made Nelson Duke of Brenta. h'rencli troops soon appeared in Naples, whence Nelson was compelled to escai)e with the court to Sicily; but in July 1799, he brought the King back to Naples. Meanwhile, Lady Hamilton, wife of the English ambassador there, had enslaved the hero, so far that he stooped to obey her private enmity, and condemned to death a primx' over whom he had no just authority. This, the one great blot on his character, led to his recall to England in 1800. As the hero of Abukir, he was received with the highest enthusiasm. In 1801, as \'ice Admiral, he was engaged in the great expedition against the alliance of the Northern Bowers, and gained a victory over the Danes at Copenhtigen. On his return, he was promoted in rank as X'iscount Nelson; and in the same year (1801) he made an unsuccessful attack on the f rench fleet lying off Boulogne. 'I'he Peace of .Vmiens ga\e him rest for a time, but when the war was renewed, he was again sent to the .Mediterranean. Here, on the 2 of October, 1805, he encountered a united Lrench and .Si)anish s(iuadron in numbers superior to his own fleet. In the terrible light that followed. Nelson broke through the enemy's centre, and victory was already his own when he fell, hit by a musket ball, coming from the mizzen-top of a I'rcnch ship. His remains where brought to London, and interred in St. Baul’s. Nelson was one of the greatest English .Admirals admirable firmness of will and most heroic courage, he his jiious submission to (iod's will. The enthusiasm that filled his soul his fellow-countrymen, who have always shown a warm sympathy in their memory. jiatriotism, and in spread itself among preservation of his m in modern times. I'indowed with was also exemplary in his noble I William Pitt, the Young-cr, Itnolish Statesman L’orn 28 May 1759, died 23 January 1806 William I’itt, the Younger, second son of William Pitt, the f)lder, (Earl of Chatham,) and his wife Hester (nee Crenville) was born at Hayes in Kent, 28 May, 1759. His father educated him for the diplomatic career in which he gained such high distinction. In 1773 he entered the University of Cambridge, where he earnestly studied the ancient classics, and |)aid also much attention to mathematics. In 1778 the decease of his father, who left behind him but a small ])roperty, compelled him to provide for himself, and in 1780 he went to London, where he intended to practice as an attorney. In January 1781 he gained — through the aid of the Duke of Rutland — a seat for Appleby, at a time when English politics were involved in difficulties, at home and abroad. True to the example set by his father, he joined at first the ranks of the Y hig opposition to North’s ministry, and by his first speech, on the 26*’’ of February, attracted general notice in the House of Commons. After the fall of the Tory ministry, 1782, he prudently declined to accept the offer of a subordinate place, and soon by his proposals of liberal measures ' — such as Parliamentary reform — he increased so much his popularity, that in July, 1782, he was made Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Ministry of Shelburne. Some negotiations with Fox, respecting his taking a place in the new Cabinet, followed, but were failures, and henceforth the two great orators of their time were bitter foes in politics. The coalition Fox-North prevailed over Pitt’s policy in 1783, but only for a short time. M’hen Fox introduced his »India Pill«, for transfer to the State of rights belonging hitherto to the East India Company, the measure was op])Osed by Pitt, Avith his utmost energy. It was his strong opposition that led King (ieorge III to interfere jiersonally in the Upper House, and cause the overthrow of the bill, which was followed by his dismissal of the Coalition-Ministry. Pitt, then made Premier, gained a majority in the Lower House, and brought in a new India Rill, which was soon passed. This measure made the Company subject to the control of a Commission appointed by the King, and intended to secure a reform in finance, and a restoration of the jiublic credit. As at home, so in his foreign jiolicy, Pitt was an able leader. To reimburse England, in some measure, for her losses in the North .American war, he endeavoured to make advantageous treaties of commerce, and to extend as far as he could her naval jiower. But the movement excited by the French Revolution, led him to join the aristocracy, in opposition to the siiread of democratic ideas in Creat Britain. Here he would, in such a dangerous crisis, rest content with the rights and liberties already enjoyed. He therefore joined in the Avar against France, and made himself the very soul of all undertakings against the Republic.. From this poli<')' he refused to SAverve, however great his difficulties at home, as Avhen the Bank, in 1797, sto|)ped ])ayment in gold. In 1800, to meet the discontent of IrelaiAd, he brought about its complete uniem Avith England, ])artly by means that Avere denounced as corru])t or coerciAe. MeainAhile the heavj' sacrifices made by England, and her loss of allies in' the Avar against France, had excited a general cry for j)eace, and Pitt resigned office iiA 1801. In the next year, the Addington ministr)' concluded Avith Na|)oleon the Peace of Amiens. But iiA 1803 Buonai)art's policy gave rise to a neAV Avar, and Pitt nOAV su|)i)orted by Fox — found it easy to oAer- throw Addington and to make himself again leader of the government. In 1804, he collected troops, and made other great i)reparations for Avarfare; then formed in 1805 another coalition against I ranee. His extraordinar)’ lalxjiir and Aveight of care .had now utterly consumed his Jjhysi(xil strength; he died, 23 January, 1 8ofi, and his last breath expired in a |)rayer for the Avelfare (d' England. His remains Avere interred in Westminster .\bbe)', and Parliament granted a large sum for the payment of his debts. It is an honour to his memorj', that he did not make a fortune by his official career. (,’(jld and proud as he seemed in |)ublic life, he was cheerful and amiable in the society of his friends. He was ruled only by one passion — ambition. His public speeches, marked by clearness in i)lan and power of argument, exercised often an irresistible power over those who listened to them. -vl.v- ♦ c V ■ ^ii Napoleon I, Emperor of the Freneli, 1804 — 1814 ]!orn 15 August I76(), died 5 May 1821 Napoleon I, second son of the Patrician, Oarlo Bona])artc and his wife, Maria I.etitia Raniolino, was born at Ajaccio in Corsica, on the 15*'’ of August 1769, and was educated in tlie military schools of Bricnnc and Paris. In the outbreak of the French Revolution , he offered his services to the Republic, at a time when political disturbances served to aid the develoitement of his ambition. His early career was, therefore, singularly ra|)id, and success made him more and more daring in the measures he employed to gain his ends. 'Phe capture of Toulon (ig December 1793) was the first of a long scries of triumphs, in which the military genius of Napoleon was displayed. In 1796 he married Josephine, the widow of \'iscount Beauharnais, who had fallen a victim to the Revolution. In the same year, Napoleon received from General Barras, an appointment as Commander in Chief of the Italian Army; and in the course of 1796 — 1797, the whole of Upper Italy was made subject to his arms. Further successes were won by the young commander, in 1798, when he led an expedition to Egypt and Syria. His return to F'rance was soon folloxved by his coup d’etat of the 18'’’ Brumaire fi. e. 9'’’ of November) 1799, by which the rule of the Directory was ended; and in 1800 he was made Fdrst Consul for the next ten years. In the same year, he led his army over the great St. Bernhard, and defeated the Austrians at Marengo; in 1801, at the Peace of Luneville, both d’uscany and the left bank of the Rhine were ceded to France ; in 1802 Napoleon was made First Consul for life; and on the i8‘'‘ of May, 1804, he was proclaimed as hereditary Emperor of the French. Then followed (1805) his great victory over the Russians and Austrians united against him in the »battle of the three Emperors«, at Austerlitz. Napoleon, who had made himself almost absolute in Europe, now founded the kingdoms of Holland, Najdes, and M'estphalia, over which his brothers were made Kings; and as Protector of the Rhein bund, instituded in 1806, he secured for himself a ruling influence in most of the German States. Still he was not contented, but pressed on and on until, by his victory at Jena (1806) and that at Friedland (1807) he com])clled Prussia to cede all the lands lying between the Rhine and the Elbe. In 1808 his absolute authority was asserteil in expelling the House of Bourbon from Sjrain, where he gave the crown to his brother Joseph. In 1809, when Austria was again defeated, the battle of Wagram closed a series of victories too numerous to be enumerated ; and Nai)oleon was now thinking of founding a dynasty. I'or this ])Urposc he first obtained a divorce from his faithful and noble wife Josephine, and then married (in Aj^ril 1810) Marie Luise, daughter of Francis I of Austria. 'I'heir desired son and heir, born in 1811, was entitled King of Rome. 'I'he height of ambition, so ra])idly attained, was succeeded by a »de('linc and iall« almost as ra])id. In 1812, Napoleon led to .Moscow an army of more than 400,000 men, tor the suljugation of Russia; but his design was frustrated by the burning of .Mos(a)w in the same year (Se])tember 14 — 21). I'ailure of juovisions, then compelled him to retreat. Hunger, cold, and exposure to the continuous attacks made by the enem\', destroyed his army. Meanwliile Prussia, now reorganized, had made an alliance with Ru.ssia and Austria, and in the great fight at l.ei|)zig (16 - 19 ( )ctf)ber 1813) a \ ict(jry was won over the forces commanded i)y the hitherto indomitable Corsican. In the next year, when the victorious allies entered Paris, he renounced his claim to the throne, and retained only Elba as a sovereign princii)ality ; but his career was n »"* . • ' ^ . ■; > .1 : r.. ^ ■>%'-.., .i..r >. .-xy*;.' ‘.p;/ ..^ ■ JSi ^ *’ .» .,..• ■V' ^ % •fiw X .\ IM) I ' < () X Louis XVIII, King of France, 1814 — 1824 Uorn 17 November 1755, died 16 September 1824 Louis XVIII, Stanislaus Xaver, fouith son of the Dauphin Louis, by his wife Maria Josepha of Saxony, was born at Versailles, on the 17'*' of November, 1755, and in his earlier life was entitled Count of Provence. Under the government of his brother, Louis XVI, he took a part in politics , and gained some popularity ; but the outbreak of the Revolution induced him to retire from public life, and he left France in June 1791. He openly protested against certain revolutions of the National Assembly; and a Court was collected on his side at Coblentz, where he and his brother, the Count of Artois, resided. W'hen the Legislative Assembly had annulled his claim to the throne (in January 1792) he took part with' the Prussians, then operating in the Champagne; and after the execution of Louis XVI, he without delay issued a manifesto, in which he proclaimed his nephew, the Dauphin, as Louis XV 11 , while he took for himself the place of Regent. At his residence in Verona, he was known as the Count of Lille; but after the decease of the Dauphin 1^1795) he assumed the King’s title. To escape from the agents of Napoleon, he subscciuently often changed his place of residence, and in 1807 made his escape into England. The fall of Napoleon led to the issue of another proclamation, in which Louis asserted his claim to the throne; and on the 3‘’‘* of May, 1814, he entered Paris as King. His first measure was to grant to the nation (in June of that year) a Character of constitutional government, by which he endeavoured to make more amicable the relations of the King and his subjects. Success might have attended the well-disposed ruler, and gradually the confidence of the people might have been won; but difficulties were raised by the interference of supporters of the old nobility and the clerical i)arty, and the royal charter was made less liberal. .Vgain, after the »hundred days«, Lcniis, who now resided at Ghent, honestly endeavoured to suppress the reactionary tendencies of his opponents, and in i8t6 a moderate and liberal ministry was formed, to mediate between contending parties; but the murder of the Duke of Perry (the King’s nephew), served to strenghten the jrarty of reaction , and the King was now induced to send an army into Spain, there to restore absolute monarchy. On the i6‘’‘ of September, 1824, Louis XVIII died, leaving to children. With his last breath he earnestly entreated his successor, the Count of Artois, to rule in accordance with the principles of the Charter. Louis X\’III was not destitute of talents and culture. He read the ancient classics, studied philosophy, and made some attempts in poetry. Moderate and loyal in his views and his own |)olitical measures — he deserved to be classed with the best of the Pourbons, and was certainly a belter man than could be found among the advisers who led him, against his own will, into a reactionary policy. J / ! '1 : . ■ : . . . , ', C’ir-'ii' - ;• : • . >.' ■ £. - .1 , , » • , » v -t • , - • ■ - • ■■t'.i, • ■% ■ J ^ / » -f ( r' ’A s.- ■ •% ..k /• f , * m ^iL _ Gilbert, Mar(|uis do Lafayette, b'renoli Ciencral and Staatsman l!i)in () Sc[ilcinl)fi- 1757, died 20 M.iy iSjj. Marie Jean I’aiil Roeli \'vcs, (;ill)crt Moticr, Marquis dc l/afaycitc was Ijorii at, the ('liatcau C'liavagnac in the Auvergne, 6 Sc])tcml)cr 1757. Ilis i)arcnts, wlio died while he was young, Averc descended from an ancient family, and left him heir to their large estate. M'hen only sixteen years old, he married a daughter of the Duke of Ayen — also grand- daughter of the Duke of Novillcs — and by this union made himself connected with some of the most intluential families in l'’rancc. Lafayette Avas stationed as a lieutenant of Dragoons, at Metz, Avhen he heard that the North American Colonics had revolted against the Lnglisch government. Seized Avith their enthusiasm, he fitted out a shi|i at his own cost, and sailed for North America — disregarding the opposition of the French Court, and the objections urged by his OAvn family. His chivalrous character Avon for him the friendship of Washington, and Congress ajipointed him Ccneral- Major. He soon gained military honours, first in the battle of BrandyAvine, 1 1 September 1777, and subsequently, in several engagements, shoAA'ed himself a brave and able Ceneral. Early in 1779, he returned to France, there to gain support for the revolution in America, and, in 1780, he again crossed the Atlantic, to cheer the colonists by a promise that French auxiliaries Avould soon lie sent to them. The defence of Virginia was noAv confided to him, and he succeeded in his endeavour to obstruct the Avay of Lord ConiAA'allis, so that Washington had time to bring up his forces against the English General, shut up at York To Avn. In repeated attacks on the place, Lafayette gained the highest honours, and ConiAvallis Avas forced to capitulate, in October 1781, Avhen the fortune of the Avar Avas decided. Lafayette then returned to France. In 1784 he again visited the United States, and the colonists made great ovations in honour of their hero. In France his republican principles had made him unAvelcome to the Court, and he did not interfere in political movements until the outbreak of the Revolution, when he Avas elected to represent Auvergne, in the Assembly of the General States. Here, on the 1 1 of July, 1789, he made his celebrated declaration of »the rights of man«, and presided over the stormy sessions of the 13^’’ and 14*'' of July, folloAved by his ajApointment as General Commandant of the neAvly instituted National Guard, then collected in Paris. His services in its organization deserved the highest praise. He Avas still out of fa\-our at Court, and especially disliked by the Queen, on account of his advocacy of a thorough reform, although he saved the royal family at Versailles, 6 October 1789. On the other side, he offended the extreme democracy by his programme in favour of a constitutional monarchy, representation of the people, trial by jury, religious toleration, emancipation of slaves, freedom of the press, and abolition of hereditary nobility. 'Phe Constitution of the 14''' July r 790, for Avhich he had so earnestly contended, had been accepted Avhen he resigned his office, and retired to his rural estate Lagrange. From this retreat he 'vas called by the outbreak of Avar against the allies, 1792, Avhen he accepted the command of the Ardennes army, and on several occasions led it to victory. In June the rising of the populace against the Ring recalled Lafayette to Paris; but his eftorts here Avere not successful. He could neither iiersuade the National Assembly to punish the riotors, nor induce the suspicious King to accede to the scheme for making his escajie to Comjii^gne. By his interference, in this instance, and in another soon folloAving, Lafayette offended the extreme re])ublicans, Avho treated him as an outlaAv and, finding himself unable to resist the groAving ])OAver of anarchy, he tried to esca[)e into Mamlcrs. He but Avas arrested by the Austrians in Rochefort and kcjit in close imprisonment until 1797. Alter his liberation, he refused to sacrcficc his jirinciples, in order to Avin Napoleon's favour, and therefore retireil to his estate Lagrange; but in the epoch of the » Hundred Days«, he again, for a short time, took a jiart in jiolitics, and es])ecially, after the battle of Waterloo, demanded the deposition of Najioleon. 'Phe negotiations for a truce Avith the allies Averc aided by Lafayette, and alter 1818 he joined as a Dejnity the ranks of the Extreme Lett, in opposition to the reactionary jiolicy of the government. In 1824, accejiting the invitation of Gongress, he again visited the United States. On his return to Paris, he resumed his seat as a De|)Uty, and suiiiiorted the Extreme I. eft jiarty, until the |uly ReAolution of 1830. He now acceqited the (annmand of the NatioiAal Guard, and led Louis Phili|)|)e to ascend a throne stounded on the iicojile s sovereignty, and surrounded Avith republican institutions. « But soon afteiAvards, the course of events induced Lafayette again to rank himself on the side of the Plxtremc Left. He tlied in Paris, 20 May, t834. Lafayette Avas a patriotic man, a lover (jf freedom, inspired Avith a disinterested enthusiasm, and firm in his convictioiAs. .No foreigner had ever Avon so many friends as hailed again and again his services in America; he loved fame, indeed, but tried to deserve it. He Avas bold to a fault; and no fear of re.s|)onsibility or of danger could deter him from his course, Avhen he felt it his duty to save a life, to defend the helpless, or to sui)|)oit hiAV and order. 46 -4 X ‘ •* ' ^ 'V-i '■' ;'■"; '■ ’■•' •* :• ' ■ / ■;? \ ■ yy.-- y:- -- r v;? ;::biur.V '■'.if: - Tf y i II -.v*' ’ ' r ■! :i .1 . . » '. l J o • ■ 1 'r ■■ ' y • ^ ^ . /■ / - ; • *. .% «‘i . ■ * , •, . t**. . '■I*' -" ■ /.; ■' . ■ I ^ ' '' ‘'^‘L y • . -.-r ■ :^ . ■ : ■ < ■ .«' .'•, , '.-/i . ^ • jr-’. r*" L+, • ■ i ' . ■ . . - s ■ . • t . ■ > ’ i r. '.h-- . ■ tf-j’.' '■ ■ ' ' ‘ i>. ■r A V f .'> tx if r ii..'.: ■'if X' . , ' 1 . : ; . cs William IV, King of Great Britain, Ireland and Hanover, 1830 1837 Born 21 August 1765, died 20 June 1837 William IV, Henry, third son of George III, by his marriage with Sophia Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, was born at Windsor, 21 August, 1765. In 1778 he was placed as a Naval Cadet, under Nelson, and, willingly submitting to the hardships of the service, he fairly took his share in some perilous undertakings. In 1786 he was advanced to the post of Captain of a frigate; in 1788 received his titles of Duke of Clarence and St. Andrews, and Earl of Munster; and rose, in 1789, to the rank of a Vice-i\dmiral. In political affairs he did not disguise his sympathy with the Whigs, but since he was no longer allowed to take a part in naval warfare, he retired more and more from public life. By a morganatic alliance with an actress (Dora Jordans, of Covent Garden) he gave offence to Parliament and the Court, and in 18 it was induced to treat that union as null and void. He married, ii June, 1818, the Princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen. On account of his small apanage, he lived for some years, remote from public life, at his country seat near London; but his position was changed by the death of his brother, the Duke of York, in 1827. William’s succession to the throne being now made nearer, he was appointed High Admiral of the Kingdom. Acting in this capacity, and in opposition to the Wellington Ministry, he sent to Admiral Codrington the secret instruction that caused the naval fight at Navarino, 1827, which was soon followed by the Duke’s dismissal from his high office. Not long before the outbreak of the July revolution in France, the death of George D', of England, raised his brother William to the throne, 26 June, 1830. His straight forward address, and his knowledge of naval affairs, gained ])opular favour. For a time the late King's ministers remained in office; but when Parliament met, in November 1830, William was convinced, that the Wellington Ministry was not sujjported by the nation, and he therefore called upon the Whigs to form a new government under Lord Grey. 'I'he chief cpiestion of the day was that of Parliamentary Reform. Ivong and earnest was the contest following, between the Commons and the Upper House, ami threatening disturbances arose among the people, as in Bristol, where an insurrection broke out in 1831. 'The Reform Bill of 1832 ended the agitation for a time; but other (piestions soon arose to make the remainder of William’s reign a stormy ])eriode, especially vexed by contentions respecting the Irish Church, and the law of tithes. For a time, (in 1834) the Tories again held office, but the Whigs were soon recalled. Their domestic measures left but s])are time for any great measures of foreign policy, some attention was, however, bestowed on their relations with .Spain. William, who had long suffered from asthmatic seizures, and at last was afilieted with dro])sy of the chest, died in the night of 19 and 20 June, 1837. In England, he was succeeded by his niece, Victoria; but in Hanover by his brother Ernst .August. A new fun- damental law of the .State for Hanover had been sanctioned by William in 1833. With him ex])ired the |)ersonal union between Hanoi’er and England, that had existed since 1714. Like his father. Ring William had simple manners, and liked more tlnin all display, the (|nietude of domestic life. Outward shows and ceremonies he esjjecially disliked; and he avoided occasions for making a diNi)lay of his own rank. He was frank in the expression of his o])inions. In politics, he was mostly inclined to agree with the views of the moderate Whigs. •17 i s -4 < -• -• ■^■' >> 'rt ’ t \ ^ \ \ \> J -’jl.-.’ if' ‘ ^'-Sj ;V* ■' \ • > « 4C. ! f ♦* t r • 1 ■.f'V Arthur Wellesley, Duke of WelHno-ton, British General and Statesman Born I Mai 1769, died 14 ScptcinBcr 1852 Sir Arthur A\'clleslcy, third son of Oarret Colley, Viscount Wellesley, anrl Earl of Mornington, was born i May, 1769, at Dungan Castle, in Ireland, He was educated first at Eton, and then at the military school of Angers in France. In 1787 he entered the army as an Ensign, and soon afterwards i)urchased a commission as Lieutenant Major in a regiment of infantry. After service in Holland, 1794, he was sent to India in 1797, and here won high distinction in the war against Tippo Sail), Sultan of Mysore, 1799, and later, in the Mahralta war of 1803. He returned to England in 1805, and was elected Member of Parliament for Newport. 'I'hough his services in the House of Commons were not remarkable, he was appointed, in 1806, Secretary of State for Ireland. In the following year, when the British Ministry sent an expedition against the Danes, to prevent their alliance with Nai)oleon, Wellesley conducted the negotiations for the capitulation of Copenhagen. Creater distinction followed his military success in Portugal where, in 1808, he arrived with a corps of 8000 men, and in August defeated the French under Junot, at Rolega and at Mineira. In 1809, when the French Marshal Soult appeared in Portugal, the success of ^\'ellesley was continued. The French forces were driven back by his attack made on them near Oporto; he then pressed forward into Spain, and here, in union with the Spanish army, gained, in July, at Talavera, a victory over the united F’rench armies under King Joseph’s command. Wellesley was now made Baron Douro of Wellesley and Viscount Wellington of 'Palavera. But reinforcements of the French army soon arrived, and compelled him to lead oack his own army into Portugal, where, in the summer of 1810, a French army of 80,000 men, led by Marshal Massena, appeared. 'Fhe English hero now availed himself of a position long ago contrived and i)repared, for the defence of Lisbon, and by a cautious retreat, placed his troops behind the strongly fortified lines of Torres Vedras, which Massena dare not attack. Early in 1812, Napoleon, when making his pre])arations against Russia, recalled from Spain a part of the French forces there. Wellington now led his troops again into Spain, and captured both Ciudad-Rodrigo and Badajoz, then defeated at Salamanca, 22 July, the French, now commanded by Marshal Marmont, and by this victory drove King Joseph from Madrid. Soon afterwards, however, Soult’s division of the French army a])pcared again, and Wellington once more retreated. Early in 1813, he was made (lommander in Chief of the S])anish army, and in June his glorious victory of Victoria made sure the liberation of Spain. By that great success, the French army led by Marshal Jourdain was driven from the field. In England the rank of h'ield Marshal was now bestowed on the victor, and the Spanish Cortes made him Duke of \’ictoria. But more remained to be done before tlie Irench could be utterly driven out Spain ; for Soult had reorganized his defeated army, and now led it again over the I’yrenees. Meanwhile, ^\’ellington cai)turcd San Sebastian, in .Sei)tember 18.13, and Pampelona, in October; he gained in November a victory on the Nivelle, and in 1814 drove back Soult to tlie walls of 'I'oulouse which was surrendered in .Ajiril. I'or these services, M'ellington was promoted to the rank of Duke of Wellington and .Marijuis of Douro, 3 .May, 1814. .After the first of lebruary, 1815, he was for some time engaged as i)leni|)otentiary at the ('ongress of N'ienna; but was again called to the field by Na])oleon's landing in hraiice. The allied forces of Creat Britain, llanover, Brunswick, and Holland, were now commanded by Wellington, and at Waterloo, 18 June, encountered the French army led by Napoleon. Repeated and resolute attacks were most bravely resisted by the allies, and their victory was made sure by the arrival of the Prussian forces led by Blticher. Wellington, ma