UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY ^75 /1l53 e Return this book on or before the Latest Date stamped below. University of lUmoisLib^ JUL DUE: W IS 31 iSoo JUN 0 fi or?no 1967 OCT 2 3 1S73 NOV 5 jt973 i 9 W87 Li61_H41 LATIN GRAMMAR ALLEN Hontion HENRY FROWDE MACMILLAN AND CO. AN ,ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR JOHN BARROW AlLEN, M.A. LATE SCHOLAR OF NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD AUTHOR OF ' RUDIMENTA LATINA,' 'A FIRST LATIN EXERCISE BOOK' AND 'a second latin EXERCISE BOOK* Ninety-seventh Thousand AT THE CLARENDON PRESS M DCCC XCI [A// rigJiis reserved^ 4"? 5 HORACE HART, PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY OJ PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. This Grammar is intended to give such information as is ^ necessary for starting a learner in Latin. The troublesome nomenclature common to many School Grammars is as far as possible avoided ; and a Short Catechism of Syntax takes the place of the usual Latin Rules. In the treatment of Latin Accidence the beaten tracks pointed out by immemorial usage have been generally ad- hered to. The principal change is the subdivision of the Perfect into two separate Tenses, conformably to its twofold usage, (a) as a Present Past, (5) as a Simple Past. This alteration will compel every boy who meets with a Perfect to stop, if only as part of his parsing lesson, and reflect which Tense is meant. It also enables us to group the Tenses in the paradigm under the heads of Primary and Historic, a distinction important for boys to remember. The principle of teaching by frequent repetition is adhered {^Mo throughout. A special aim of the work has been to im- ^ part a practical acquaintance with Latin Syntax by means of .. classified examples rather than a multitude of rules. All or <. nearly all the possible meanings of each Tense are given once at least with the paradigm of every Verb. To each - Conjugation notes are appended explanatory of certain ^difficulties; among them are included short rules for the ^ translation of the Accusative and Infinitive, and Ablative Absolute. The Author's best thanks are due to his friends, Henry St. John Reade, Head Master of the Godolphin School, Hammersmith, and Michael Seymour Forster, Head Master 203267 vi PREFACE, of Oswestry Grammar School, who have revised the proof sheets and offered many valuable suggestions. He has also to express his obligations to many of the School Manuals now in use, to which he is indebted for hints on several points of detail. A few rules have been quoted veriatim^ and acknowledged in their proper place. Corrections and suggestions of improvements in the work will be thankfully received. Birmingham, Jwwd", 1874. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. The demand for a Second Edition has furnished an oppor- tunity of making some alterations and additions which were much needed in the Syntax and Appendix. The book is now fitted for use in all Forms below the highest in Classical Schools, and the constant references made to higher autho- rities will, if attended to, prepare for the transition to Madvig, Roby, the Public Schools Latin Grammar, &c. ; whilst for Middle Class Schools, where the standard of reading does not go beyond that of the University Local Examinations, no higher work will be needed. The Author is indebted for many useful hints to J. Pryce- Joncs, Esq., Grove Park School, Wrexham, and the Rev. C. G. Gcpp, late Junior Student of Christ Church, Oxford; also, for a masterly and critical examination of the proof sheets, to the Rev. W. F. Moulton, D.D., Head Master of the Wesleyan School, Cambridge. Cambridge, December^ 1877. CONTENTS. PAGE Alphabet and Parts of Speech. . i The Noun 2 Substantives . 3 The First Declension 3 The Second Declension ........ 4 The Third Declension .6 The Fourth Declension 8 The Fifth Declension 9 Adjectives 9 Comparison of Adjectives 13 Pronouns 16 The Verb 18 The Verb 'Sum' 20 First Conjugation, Active Voice 26 Second Conjugation, Active Voice ...... 30 Third Conjugation, Active Voice 34 Fourth Conjugation, Active Voice 38 First Conjugation, Passive Voice 42 Second Conjugation, Passive Voice 46 Third Conjugation, Passive Voice 50 Fourth Conjugation, Passive Voice 54 Comparative Table of the Four Conjugations . . . .58 Conjugation of a Deponent Verb . . . . . .62 Comparative Table of Tenses in Greek, Latin, French, &c. . .67 Conjugation of the Anomalous Verbs 68 Interrogative Forms of the Verb 74 Notes on the Conjugations 75 Defective and other Verbs 78 Particles 81 Catechism of Syntax 84 Appendix — Table of Verbs 105 Rules of Gender 118 viii CONTENTS. PAGE Notes on the Declensions 122 Numeral Adjectives and Adverbs . . . . . -133 Table of Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronouns . •137 Terminations of Derived Nouns . . . . . . .138 The Roman Calendar . . , . . . . . .141 Roman weights and money . . . . . . .143 Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . .144 Explanation of Grammatical Terms . . . . . •145 Laws of Quantity ......... 149 Parsing Forms . . . . . . . . . • 151 Supplementary Rules and Examples 153 Conditional or Hypothetical Sentences 191 Pronunciation of Latin 192 By the same Author. RUDIMENTA LATINA, containing Accidence and Ele- mentary Exercises, in one volume. Second Edition. Extra fcap. 8vo. cloth^ 2s. A FIRST LATIN EXERCISE BOOK. Seventh Edition. Extra fcap. 8vo. cloth, 25. (yd. A SECOND LATIN EXERCISE BOOK. Second Edition, Extra fcap. 8vo. clothy ^s. dd. Oxford : Clarendon Press. LATIN GRAMMAR. ALPHABET AND PARTS OP SPEECH. § I. Alphabet. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English, without W. For the pronunciation, see § 394. § 2. Divisions of Letters. The letters are divided into (1) Vowels : a, e, i, o, u, y. (2) Consonants : the remaining letters. § 3. Diphthongs. These are, ae (se), oe (oe), and au^ § 4. Quantity of Syllables. Syllables in Latin always have a certain quantity^ — that is, they are either long, short, or doubtful. The sign - indicates a long, a short, and ^ a doubtful syllable. § 5. Parts of Speech. There are eight Parts of Speech, namely, the Noun-Substantive, Noun-Adjective, Pro-noun, Verb, Ad-verb, Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjection. Note. — These eight Parts of Speech are sometimes put under three heads, namely — (i) The Noun, including Noun -Substantive, Noun- Adjective, and Pronoun ; (2) The Verb ; (3) The Particle, including Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjection. The Noun-Substantive is the name of any person or things as, m agister, a master, mensa, a table. The Noun-Adjective expresses the quality of a person or thing, as, bonus, good^ albus, white. ^ ei, eu, and ui are found as diphthongs in Interjections, as hei, heu ; and in a few other words as neuter, huic, cui, etc. B 2 LATIN GRAMMAR. The Pro-noun is used instead of a Substantive or Ad- jective, as, ille, he; meus, my. The Verb expresses an action^ as, amo, / love; or a condition^ as, amor, / am loved. The Ad-verb is added to a Verb or Adjective, and shews hoiv^ when^ or where ^ as valde bonus, very good ; scripsit heri, he wrote yesterday ; hue veni, come hither. The Preposition is put before Nouns, to shew that they are to be joined to Verbs, or sometimes to Nouns, as, venit ad urbem, he comes to the city; lupus inter oves, a wolf among sheep. The Conjunction joins together words or sentences, as, Romulus et Remus, Romulus and Remus. The Interjection is an exclamation, as, heu, alas! § 6. The Article. Tfiere is no Article, a^ an^ or the^ in Latin. Thus bellum may mean war^ a war^ or the war. THE NOUN. § 7. Number. There are two Numbers, the Singular, which speaks of one, as, magister, a master ; the Plural, which speaks of more than one, as, magistri, masters. § 8. Gender. There are three Genders, (i) the Masculine, as, vir, a man ; (2) the Feminine, as, mulier, a woman ; and (3) the Neuter, as, cubile, a bed. Nouns which are both Masculine and Feminine are called Common, as, canis, a dog. But in Latin names of tlmigs are not all Neuter (as in English) many being Masculine, as,, murus, a wall, and many Feminine, as, mensa, a table. (For the General and Special Rules of Gender, see pp. 11 8-1 21.) § 9. Cases. There are six Cases, the Nominative, Voca- tive, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, and Ablative. In English these Cases arc distinguished by means of prepositions, as, -15.] SUBSTANTIVES. 3 Genitive, of a man, Dative, to a man. Ablative, by, with, or from a man. But in Latin they are distinguished by altering the last syllable, as will be explained directly under Stem and Flexion. § 10. Oblique Cases. The Accusative, Genitive, Dative, and Ablative are called Oblique Cases. § II. Stem. The Stem is that part of a Noun which re- mains unaltered in all the Cases and in both Numbers; as, mur in mur-us, a wall ; mur-o, to a wall ; mur-i, walls ; vail in vall-is, a valley ; vall-i, to a valley ; vall-es, valleys, § 12. Flexion. Flexions (also called Inflexions or Ter- minations) are the Syllables added to the Stem for the purpose of distinguishing the different Cases and Numbers. Note. — This will be best understood by looking at mens-a or any other Noun in the declensions that immediately follow. § 13. Declension. Declensions are the different ways in which Nouns are declined, that is, the different ways in which their Cases and Numbers are formed by means of adding different Flexions to the Stem. SUBSTANTIVES. § 14. The five Declensions. Of Substantives there are five Declensions, which are known by the endings of their Genitive Case Singular. The ist Declension has Gen. Sing, in -ae ; the 2nd in -i ; the 3rd in -is ; the 4th in -us ; the 5th in -ei. § 15. THE FIRST DECIiElSrSION'. Nominative, The Nominative Case ends in -a. Gender. Feminine ; except a few names of men, as, Pub- licola, Publicola, or designations of men, as, poeta, a poet^ which are masculine. B 2 4 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§§ SINGULAR. Nom. Mensa, a table, Voc. Mens-a, 0 table, Acc. Mens-am, a table. Gen. Mens-ae, of a table. Dat. Mens-ae, to or for a table. Abl. Mens-a, by^ ivith, or from a table. PLURAL. ]Mens-ae, tables, Mens-ae, 0 tables. Mens-as, tables, ]\Iens-arum, of tables. Mens -is, to ox for tables, Mens-is, by, with, or from tables. § 16. THE SECOND DECLENSION. Nominative. The Nominative ends in -us, -fer, and -um. Gender, -us and -er generally Masculine, -um Neuter. SINGULAR. Nom. Murus, a ivall. Voc. Mur-e, 0 wall. Acc. Mur-um, a zvall. Gen. Mur-i, of a wall. Dat. ]\Iur-o, to or for a zvall. Abl. Mur-o, by, with, or fro?n a wall. SINGULAR. Nom. Magister, a master. Voc. Magister, O master, Acc. Magistr-um, a master. Gen. Magistr-i, a master's, ox of a master. Dat. Magistr-o, to or for a master, Abl. Magistr-o, by, with, or froju a master. Note. The Ablative of Nouns denoting a living thing, as, magister, puer, judex, etc., usually requires a Preposition, as, a (ab), by,frof?i, cum, zm'th, etc. PLURAL. Mur-i, walls, Mur-i, 0 walls, Mur-os, zvalls, Mur-orum, of zvalls. Mur-is, to ox for zvalls, Mur-is, by, zvith, or from zvalls. PLURAL. Magistr-i, masters. Magistr-i, O masters Magistr-os, 7?iasters. Magistr-orum, of mas- ters, [ters, Magistr-is,/^ or for mas- Magistr-is, by, with, or from masters. -i6.] SUBSTANTIVES. Some Nouns in -er preserve the e before -r through all the cases, instead of dropping it, as, puer, a boy. SINGULAR. Nom. Puer, a boy, Voc. Puer, O boy, Acc. Puer-um, a boy. Gen. Puer-i, a boys, ox of a boy. Dat. Puer-o, to or /or a boy, Abl. Puer-o^, by, with, or from a boy. PLURAL. Puer-i, boys, Puer-i, O boys, Puer-os, boys. Puer-orum, of boys. Puer-is, to or for boys. Puer-is\ by, with, or from boys. Like ' puer ' are declined, — gener, socer, vesper. Liber, and compounds of gero, I carry, and fero, I bear, as, armiger^. SINGULAR. N.V.A. Bellum, war, or O war. Gen. Bell-i, of war, Dat. Bell-o, to or for war, Abl. Bell-o, by, with, or from war. PLURAL. ^€^-2^, wars, OX Owars. Bell-orum, of wars. Bell-is, to or for wars. Bell-is, by, with, or from wars. Note on Neuter Nouns. The Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Cases of all Neuter Nouns are the same in each number, and in the Plural they always end in -a. Note on the Genitive of the Second Declension. Nouns in -ius, -ium often contract -ii into -i in the Genitive, as, filius, a son. Gen. filii or fiU; ingenium, ability, Gen. ingenii, or ingeni. Note on the Vocative of the Second Declension. Filius, a son, and names of men ending in -ius, make -i in the Vocative ; as, filius, Voc. fili, O son ; Virgilius, Virgil, Voc. Virgili, O Virgil. Deus, God, has Voc. Deus (not Dee), O God. * A Preposition must be used with the Latin word. See § i6, Note. ^ Son-iii'law, father-in-law^ evening, Bacchus, armour-bearer. 6 LATIN GRAMMAR. §17. THE THIRD DECLENSION. Nominative and Gender, The Nominative ends variously. The Gender is also various. (For terminations of the Nomi- native, and rules of Gender, see pp. 119-121.) Divisions, Nouns of this Declension have two divisions, namely, (i) Nouns which have -um in the Genitive Plural ; (2) Nouns which have -ium in the Genitive Plural. Nouns increasing (i. e. having more Syllables in the Gen- itive than in the Nominative) make -um in the Gen. PI. ; Nouns not increasing make -ium. For the exceptions see p. 126. Nouns in -um. I. Masculine or Feminine. SINGULAR. PLURAL. N.V. Judex, a judge, or 0 judge. ]vi^\Q,-Q^ Judges, or 0 judges. Acc. Jud!c-em, a judge. ]\i^\c-qs, judges. Gen. Judic-is, 0/ a judge. Judic-um, 0/ judges. Dat. Judic-i, to or for a judge. Judic-ibus, to of forjudges. Abl. Judic-e^ Z£^////, or_/;w// Judic-ibus \ by, ivith, or a judge. from judges. SINGULAR. Law. Lion. Flower, Soldier. N.V. Lex. Leo. Flos. Miles. Acc. Leg-em. Leon-em. Flor-em. Milit-em. Gen. „ -is. „ -is. „ -is. „ -is. Dat. „ -i. „ -i. „ -i. „ -i. Abl. „ -e. „ -e. „ -e. „ -e. PLURAL. N.V. A. Lcg-es. Lcdn-es. Flor-es. INIilit-es. Gen. „ -um. „ -um. -um. ,, -um. Dat. Abl. „ -ibus. „ -ibus. „ ibiis. „ -ibus. ^ A Preposition must be used with the Latin word. Sec § 16, Note. §17-] SUBSTANTIVES. 7 2. Neuter, SINGULAR. PLURAL. N.A.V. Opus, a work, or 0 work. Oper-a, works, or O works. Gen. Oper-is, of a work. Oper-um, of works. Dat. Oper-i, lo ox for a work. Oper-ibus, io or for works. Abl. Oper-e, by, with, or from Oper-ibus, by, with, or from a work. works. SINGULAR. Shore. N.V.A. Litus Gen. Litor-is. Dat. „ -i. Abl. „ -e. Song, Carmen. Carmin-is. Head. Caput. Caplt-is. -1. -e. fourney. iter. Itiner-is. -1. -e. N.V.A. Litor-a. Gen. „ -um. Dat. Abl. „ -ibiis. PLURAL. Carmin-a. Capit-a. Itiner-a. „ -um. „ -um. „ -um. -ibus. „ -ibus. -ibus. Nouns in -ium. I. Masculine or Feminine, SINGULAR. PLURAL. N.V. Vallis, a valley, or 0 valley. Vall-es, valleys, or 0 valleys. Acc. Vall-em, a valley. Vall-es, or -is, valleys. ^ Gen. Vall-is, of a valley. Vall-ium, of valleys. Dat. Vall-i, to ox for a valley. Vall-ibus, to ox for valleys. Abl. Vall-e, by, with, or from a Vall-ibus, by, with, or from valley. valleys. 8 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§§ SINGULAR. PLURAL. N.V. Nubes, a cloud, or 0 cloud. Nub-es, clouds, or 0 clouds, x\cc. Nub-em, a cloud. Nub-es, or -is, clouds. Gen. Nub-is, of a cloud. Nub-ium, of clouds. Dat. Nub-i, to or for a cloud. Nub-ibus, to or for cloudr. Abl. Nub-e, by, with, or from Nub-ibus, by, with, ox from a cloud. clouds. 2. Neuter, SINGULAR. PLURAL. N.A.V. Mare, the sea, or 0 sea. Mar-ia, seas, or 0 seas. Gen. Isl^iX-ls, of the sea. Mar-ium, ^ j-^m. Dat. Mar-i, to or for the sea. IMar-ibiis, to or for seas. Abl. Mar-i, by, with, ox from Mar-ibus, by, with, or frof?i the sea. seas. SINGULAR. N.A.V. Cubile, a bed, or O bed Gen. Cubil-is, of a bed. Dat. Cubil-i, to or for a bed. Abl. Cubil-i, by, ivith, or from a bed. PLURAL. Cubil-ia, beds, or 0 beds. Cubil-ium, of beds. Cubil-ibiis, to or for beds. Cubil-ibus,<^', with, or from beds. § 18. THE FOURTH DECLENSION. Nominative. The Nominative ends in -us and -u. Gender, -us generally Masculine, -u Neuter. SINGULAR. PLURAL. N.V. Gradiis, a step, or 0 step, Grad-Hs, steps, or 0 steps. Ago. Grad-um, a step. Grad-us, steps. Gen. Grad-us, of a step. (irad-uum, of steps. Dat. G rad-ui or -u, to ox for a step. G rad-ibiis, to ox for steps. Abl. Grad-u, by , with, ox from a G rad-ibiis, ^>',z£;////,ory/-(W/ step, steps. -31.] ADJECTIVES. SINGULAR. N.A. Genu, a knee, Voc. Genu, O knee. Gen. Gen-US, of a knee. PLURAL. Gen-ua, knees, Gen-ua, O knees, Gen-uum, of knees. D.A. Gen-u, fo^/or, by, with, or Gen-ibus, to, for, by, with, from a knee, or from knees. Note, The Dat. and Abl. PI. of the Fourth Declension are sometimes written -iibus instead of -ibus, as, genubus. § 19. THE FIFTH DECLElSrSTOW. Nominative, The Nominative ends in -es. Gender, Feminine, except dies, a day, which is Common in the Singular, Masculine in the Plural. SINGULAR. N.V. Dies, a day, or 0 day, Acc. Di-em, a day. Gen. Di-ei, of a day, Dat. Di-ei, to or for a day. PLURAL. Di-es, days, or 0 days, Di-es, days, Di-erum, of days, Di-ebus, to or for days. Abl. Di-e, by, with, ox from a day, Di-ebus, by, ^r., days. § 20. ADJECTIVES. Adjectives are divided into two classes, the First Class having flexions like those of the First and Second Declen- sions, and the Second Class like those of the Third Declension, of Nouns Substantive. § 21. Adjectives of the First Class. Adjectives of the First Class have three terminations to each Case, de- noting the Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter Gender, as, bonus, bona, bonum, good ; niger, nigra, nigrum, black. The Masculine and Neuter flexions are like those of the Second Declension of Substantives, the Feminine like those of the First. lO LATIN GRAMMAR, SINGULAR. PLURAL. M. F. N. M. F. N. Nom. Bonus, -g,, -iim. 1 XT ^ 13 - w r Bon-i, -ae, -a. Voc. Bon-e, -a, -um. J ' ' Acc. Bon-um, -am, -um. Bon-os, -as, -S.. Gen. Bon-i, -ae, -i. Bon-orum, -arum, -orum. Dat. Bon-o, -ae, -o. i - / f n o ^ \ . y Bon-is (of all Genders). Abl. Bon-o, -a, -o. / ^ Noie. Adjectives cannot stand alone but must always belong to some Substantive, as, bonus rex, a good king. When the Substantive is omitted, the word 7?ia7i must be understood with Masculine Adjectives, woman with Feminine^, and thing with Neuters ; as, boni, good vmi ; bona, good things^ goods. SINGULAR. PLURAL. M. F. N. M. F. N. N.V. Niger, nigr-a, nigr-iim. Nigr-i, -ae, -S*. Acc. Nigr-um, -am, -um. Nigr-os, -as, -a. Gen. Nigr-i, -ae, -i. Nigr-orum, -arvim, -orum. Dat. Nigr-o, -ae, -o. 1 ... - / r iw. i \ - \ Nigr-is (of all Genders). Abl. Nigr-o, -a, -o. J ^ ^ Note, Some Adjectives in -er preserve the e throughout, like puer, as tener, tenera, tenerum, tender. SINGULAR. PLURAL. M. F. N. M. F. N. N.V. Tener, -a, -um. Tcncr-i, -ae, -a. Acc. 1 cncr-um, -am, -um. Tcncr-os, -as, Gen. Tcncr-i, -ae, -i. Tcncr-orum, -arum, -orum. ^I cncr-is (of all (jondcrs). Dat. Tcner-o, -ae, -o. Abl. Tcncr-o, -a, -o. T.ike 'tencr' arc declined — lacrr, liber, asi)cr, miser; com- l)Ounds of gcro and fcro, as corniger, friigifcr ; and sometimes dexter ^ ^ Torn, free, rough, miserable; horn-bearing, fruH-bcaritig ; on the right hand. -22.] ADJECTIVES. II § 2 2. Adjectives of the Second Class. Adjectives of the Second Class are called Adjectives of Two Terminations, and have flexions like those of the 3rd Decl. of Substantives : as, tristis, gloomy; melior, better; felix, happy; ingens, vast. SINGULAR. N, triste. T triste. J PLURAL. trist-ia. M. F. N.V. Tristis, Acc. Trist-em, Gen. Trist-is. Dat. Trist-i. Abl. Trist-i. N.V. Melior, ACc. Melior-em, Gen. Melior-is, Dat. Melior-i. Abl. Melior-e. N.V. Felix. Acc. Felic-em, Gen. Felic-is. Dat. Felic-i. Abl. Fe\ic-i (rarely N.V. Ingens. Acc. Ingent-em,, ingens Gen. Ingent-is. Dat. Ingent-i. 1 Abl. Ingent-e (or -\). J Some Adjectives in -er belong to this class, but have Feminine form in the Nominative Singular, as, acer, l:een. M. F. N. M. F. N. N.V. Acer, acr-is, acr-e. Acr-es, acr-ia. Acc. Acr-em, acr-e. Acr-es, acr-ia. Gen. Acr-is. Acr-ium. D.A. Acr-i. Acr-ibus. melii-s.! mehus.-l } felix. } } M. F. Trist-es, Trist-ium. Trist-ibus. Melior-es, melior-^. Melior-um. Melior-ibus. Felic-es, felic-ia. Felic-ium. Felic-ibus. Ingent-es, ingent-i^. Ingent-ium. Ingent-ibus. 11 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§§ 22- Like 'acer' are declined, — alacer, celeber, equester, pede- ster, volucer, saluber, celer, and a few others ^. Celer keeps the e throughout, as, Sing. N.V. Celer, celeris, celere. § 23. Numeral and Quasi- Numeral Adjectives. These for the most part make Gen. Sing, in -ius, and the Dat. in -i; as, unus, one; alius, another ; uter, which of two. PLURAL. SINGULAR. M. F. N. Nom. Unus, -a, -um. Acc. Un-um -am, -um. Gen. Un-ius (of all Genders). Dat. Un-i (of all Genders). Abl. Un-o, -a, -o. Nom. Alius, -a, -ud. Acc. Ali-um, -am, -ud. Gen. All-US (of all Genders). Dat. AIM (of all Genders). Abl. Ali-o, -a, -o. M. Un-i, Un-os, Un-orum, F. -ae, -as, -arum. N. -a. -a. -orum. I Un-is (of all Genders). Ali-i, Ali-os, Ali-orum, -ae, -as, -arum, j-Ali-is (of all Genders). Nom. Uter, utr-a, utr-uni. Utr-i, -ao, Acc. Utr-um, -am, -um. Utr-os, -as, Gen. Utr-ius (of all Genders). Utr-orum, -arum, Dat. Utr-i (of all Genders). Abl. Utr-o, -a, -o. -orum. -a. -orum. j.Utr-is (of all Genders). The Adjectives which make -ius in Gen. Sing, and -i in Dat. are : Unus, solus, totus, ullus, Uter, alter, neuter, nullus with alius, another^ and compounds of uter, as utcrque, each of tivo, the sufiix -que being added to each of the cases, as. Sing. Nom. ulcniuc, utrruiuc, utrumquc. Those in -us are ' llrisk, celebrated, equestrian, pedestrian, winged, healthful, swift. One, alone or the only, the whole, any at all ; which of two, the other or one of two, neither, none. -25-] ADJECTIVES, I3 declined like unus, those in -er like uter. But alter keeps the e throughout, as Sing. N. alter, altera, alterum. Unus is only used in the Plural when it agrees with a Noun which has no Singular, or which has a different mean- ing in the Plural from the Singular, as, una castra, one camp, unae litterae, one epistle. The Numerals duo, two, and tres, three, are thus declined : PLURAL. PLURAL. M. F. N. M.F. N. Nom. Duo, duae, duo. Tres, tria. Acc. Du-os or duo, du-as, duo. Tres, tria. Gen. Du-orum, du-arum, du-orum. Tr-ium. D.Ab. Du-obus, du-abus, du-obus. Tri-bus. Ambo, both, is decHned like duo. The other Cardinal Numbers, (see p. 133) from quattuor, four, to centum, a hundred, are indeclinable. § 24. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. Adjectives have three degrees of Comparison, the Positive, Comparative, and Superlative. § 25. Rule for Comparison of Adjectives. The Com- parative is formed from the Positive by changing -i or -is of the Genitive into -ior. The Superlative is formed from the Positive by changing -i or -is of the Genitive into -issimus \ as, Positive. Comparative. Superlative. Durus, hard, G. duri, durior, harder, durissimus, hardest, or ^ery hard, Brevis, short, G. brevis, brevior, shorter, brevissimus, shortest, or 'very short, Audax, hold, G. audacis, audacior, holder, audacissimus, boldest, or 'very bold. 1 Often written -issumus. 14 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§§ 26- § 26. Exceptions. {a) Adjectives in -er. Adjectives in -er form their Com- paratives according to the rule, but form their Super- latives from the Nonwialive Masculine Singular of the Positive by adding -rimus, as, pulcher, hcauHftil, Gen. pulchri, Comparative pulchrior, more beautiful, Super- lative pulcherrimus, yjiosi heautiful or very beautiful, {b) Adjectives in -ilis. Six Adjectives in -ilis, namely — facilis, easy, similis, like, gracilis, slender, difiicilis, difficult, dissimilis, imlike, humilis, loivly, foim their Superlative by changing -is of the Genitive into -limus, as, facilis, easy, facillimus. Other Ad- jectives in -ilis have commonly no Superlative. (c) -us preceded by a Vozvel. If a vowel comes before -us in the Nominative, the comparison is generally made by the Adverbs magis, ?nore, and maxime, most, as, idoneus, useful, magis idoneus, more useful, maxime idoncus, most useful or very useful. Except when qu precedes, as antiquus, ancient, antiquior, anti- quissimus. (^/) -dicus, -ficus, -volus. Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, and -volus, make -entior, -entissimus in the Com- parative and Superlative, as, malevol-us, spiiful, malcvol-entior, male vol -entissimus. § 27. Irregular Comparison. INIany Adjectives are com- pared irregularly, as : Positive. Comparative. Superlative. Bonus, good. melior, optimus. Malus, bad, pejor, pessimus. Magnus, f^reat, major, maximus. Parvus, small. minor. mininuis. Multus, 7?iuc/i, plus. j)lurinHis. Nc(|uam, worthless. ncquior, nequissimus. -28.] ADJECTIVES. T5 Other irregular comparisons worthy of notice are : Positive. Comparative. Superlative, senior, junior, dexterior, sinisterior. Senex, old^ ]viwtms, young, Dexter, on the right, Sinister, 07t the left, Sacer, sacred, S Urdus, deaf. [natu maximus]. [natu minimus], dextimus. sinistimus. sacerrimus. surdior Four Adjectives derived from Prepositions have a double Superlative : Preposition. Positive Adjective. Comparative. Superlative. Extra, outside, exterus, outward, exterior, extremus mid extimus. Infra, beneath, inferus, loqju, inferior, infimus and Tmus. Supra, aho've, superus, high, superior, supremus and summus. Post, after, posterus, next after, posterior, postremus and postumus. Six Adjectives derived from Prepositions have no Positive : Preposition. Comparative Adj. Superlative. Citra, on this side, citerior, citimus. De, down from, di^imoxiless good), deterrimus. Intra, withifi, interior, intimus. Prae, before, prior {former), primus {first), Prope, near, propior, proximus. Ultra, beyond, ulterior, ultimus {last), § 28. Comparison of Adverbs. Adverbs derived from Adjectives usually make -ius in the Comparative, and -issime in the Superlative, as : Digne, worthily, dignius, dignissime. Gravlter, heavily, gravius, gravissime. Andacter, boldly, audacius, audacissime. i6 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 29. PRONOUNS. Pronouns are (i) Personal, (2) Reflexive, (3) Possessive, (4) Demonstrative, (5) Definitive, (6) Relative, (7) Interrog- ative, and (8) Indefinite. Of these the Personal and Re- flexive are Substantival Pronouns, the others Adjectival. § 30. Personal Pronouns. The Personal Pronouns are eg6, /, and tu, //lou ox you, which are thus declined : SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. Ego, /. Nos, w'e, Acc. Me, me, Nos, us. Gen. JNIei, 0/ me. Nostrum or Nostri, 0/ us. Dat. Mlhl, io or for 7?ie. Nobis, to or for us. Abl. ]\Ie^ by, ivith, or from me. Nobis \ by, with, oxfrorn us. N. V. Tu, thou or you. Yos>,ye ox you. Acc. Te, thee ox you. Yos, you. Gen. Tui, of thee ox you. Vestrum or Vestri, of you. Dat. Tibi, to or for thee ox you. Vobis, to or for you. Abl. Te\ by, with, or froin thee Y ohW, by, with, ox fro?nyou. ox you. Note. Ille, ilia, illud, and is, ea, id, are often used as Personal Pronouns, and translated he, she, it. § 31. Reflexive Pronoun. The Reflexive Pronoun is 88, himself herself, itself, or themselves. Nom. (wanting). Acc. Se or sese, himself herself, itself or themselves. Gen. Sui, of himself herself, itself themselves, Dat. Sibi, to or for himself, herself, itself, themselves, Abl. Se^ or sese, by, with, or from hi??iself etc. § 32. Possessive Pronouns. The Possessive Pronouns are meus, my, tuus, ///;', suus, his own, her 07v?t, its oivn, or their ow?i, and eujus, ivhose, which are declined like * A Preposition must be used. Sec § 16, Note\ and § 222. -34.] PRONOUNS. 17 bonus; noster, our, and vester, your , which are declined like pulcher. JVofe. Meus has mi in the Vocative Singular Masculine. Tuus and suus have no Vocative. § 33. Demonstrative Pronouns. The Demonstrative Pronouns are hie, /h's, is, //la/j ille, //la/, iste, //laf. SINGULAR. M. F. N. M. Nom. Hie, haec, hoc. Hi, Acc. Hunc, hanc, hoc. Hos,* Gen. Hujus (of all Genders). Horum, Dat. Huic (of all Genders). Abl. Hoc, hac, hoc. Nom. Is, ea, id. Acc. Eum, earn, id. Gen. Ejus (of all Genders). Dat. Ei (of all Genders). Abl. Eo, ea, eo. PLURAL. F. N. hae, haec. has, haec. harum, horum. I His (of all Genders). li (ei), Eos, Eorum, eae, eas, earum. ea. ea. eorum. is or eis (of all Genders). illae, ilia, illas, ilia, illarum, illorum. I Illis (of all Genders). Nom. Ille, ilia, illud. Illi, Acc. Ilium, illam, illud. Illos, Gen. Illius (of all Genders). Illorum, Dat. Illi (of all Genders). Abl. Illo, ilia, illo. Iste is declined like ille. IVo/e, Hie means /h's near me^ or this of nmie, iste, that near you, or that of your and ille, that yonder or that other, § 34. Definitive Pronouns. The Definitive Pronouns are idem, the same, and ipse, self SINGULAR. PLURAL. M. F. N. iTdem, eaedem, eadem. Eosdem, easdem, eadem. M. F. N. N. Idem, eadem, idem. A. Eiindem, eandem, idem. G. Ejusdem (of all Genders). D. Eldem (of all Genders). A. Eodem, eadem, eodem Eorundem, earundem, eorundem. fiisdem or Ilsdcm (of all Genders), c i8 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§§ 34- Ipse is declined like ille, except that it makes ipsum in the Neuter Nom. and Acc. § 35. Relative Pronoun. The Relative Pronoun is qui, who or which. SINGULAR. PLURAL. M. F. N. M. F. N. Nom. Qui, quae, quod. Qui, quae, quae. Acc. Quern, quam, quod. Quos, quas, quae. Gen. Cujus (of all Genders). Quorum, quarum, quorum. Dat. Cui (of all Genders). ) -u • '-tew r m - { QjLubus or queis or quis (of all Abl.(Q^"^' q"^^- \ Genders)^ ^ ^ iQui, qui, qui. ) ^ § 36. Interrogative Pronoun. The Interrogative Pro- noun is Nom. quis, (quis), quid, zv/wP or ivhai ? declined in the other cases like qui, except that it makes quid instead of quod in the Neuter. If it agrees with a Substantive the form is qui, quae, quod, declined exactly like qui. § 37. Indefinite Pronoun. The Indefinite Pronoun is Nom. quis, (qua), quid, any, declined in the other cases like qui, except that it makes quid instead of quod in the Neuter Singular, and qua or quae in the Neuter Plural. If it agrees with a Substantive the form is qui, quae (or qua), quod, declined exactly like the Relative qui, except Neuter Plural qua or quae. See also § 166. THE VERB. § 38. Voice. Verbs have two Voices, the Active, as, amo, / love ; the Passive, as, amor, / mn loved. § 39. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. Transitive Verbs are those in which the action passes on directly to some person or thing, which is called the Object, as, amo te, / love thee. Intransitive or Neuter Verbs are those in which the action does not pass on directly to an Object, as, sto, / sfaniL Intransitive Verbs have no Passive Voice, except in what is -45-] THE VERB, 19 called the Impersonal Passive Construction, as, statur, // is stood, or a stand is made. § 40. Deponents. Deponent Verbs are Passive in form but lay aside (depono) the Passive meaning, as, hortor, / exhort, § 41. Moods. There are four Moods, the Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive. The first three con- stitute the Verb Finite, the last one the Verb Infinite. § 42. Tenses. There are Seven Tenses, four Primary, namely, the Present, Future Simple, Perfect, Future Perfect ; and three Historic, namely, the Imperfect, Aorist, and Plu- perfect. (For a Synopsis of Tense meanings, and com- parison of the forms in Greek, French, &c., see p. 67.) § 43. Number and Person. There are in each Tense two Numbers, Singular and Plural, and in each Number three Persons, First, Second^ and Third. § 44. Conjugation. Verbs have four different kinds of Flexion, which are called the Four Conjugations. The First takes -are in the Infin. Mood, as, amare, to love. The Second takes -ere in the Infin. Mood, as, monere, to advise. The Third takes -ere in the Infin. Mood, as, regere, to rule. The Fourth takes -ire in the Infin. Mood, as, audire, to hear. § 45. Principal Parts of the Verb. The parts of the Verb from which all the other Tenses may be formed are the Present, Perfect, and Supine in -um. These, together with the Infinitive Mood, are to be named when the principal parts of a Verb are required, e.g. : Pres. Indie. Infinitive. amare, monere, I St Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj. Amo, Moneo, Rego, Audio, regere, audire, c 2 Perfect Indie, amavi, monui, rexi, audivi. Supine, amatum. monitum. rectum, auditum. 20 LATIN GRAMMAR, m 46- ^ VerD OUIII, J!jSo6, J? Vll, /C' 6/c. DclOic OLflcr Verbs are conjugated it is necessary to learn the Auxiliary Verb sum, esse, fui, to be. §47. INDICATIVE MOOD. Primary Tenses. Present Tense. S, sum, T ttiu. es, Thou ai't. est, He is. [See also § 6i.] P. sum us, We are. estis. Ye are. sunt. They are. Future- Simple Tense. S. ero, Z shall be. eris, Thoti ivilt be. erit. He will be, P. erimus, We shall be. eritis, Ye will be. erunt, They will be. Pp:rfect Tense. S. fui I have been. fuisti, Thou hast been, fuit, He has been. P. fuimus, We have been, fuistis. Ye have been. fuerunt or fuere, They have been. Future- Perfkct Tense. S. fuero, / shall have been. fucris. Thou ivilt have been. fucrit, He will have been, P. fuerimus, We shall have been. fucritis. Ye will have been. fucrint. They will have been. -47'] AUXILIARY VERB 'SUM,' 21 INDICATIVE MOOD (continued). Historic Tenses. kS*. eram I was. eras, Thou wast. Imperfect erat, He was. Tense. P , eramus We were. eratis, Ve were. erant, They were. S. fui, I was. fuisti, Thou wast. AORIST fuit, He iJuas. Tense. P. fiiimus PF^ were. fuisti s, Ve were. fuerunt or fuere, They were. S. fueram, I had been. fueras, Thou hadst been. Pluperfect fuerat, He had been. Tense. P. fueramus, We had been. fueratis, Ye had been. fuerant, They had been. Note. The Pronoun jv^?^ may be used to translate both the Second Person Singular, and the Second Person Plural. I %2 LATIN GRAMMAR. SUBJUNCTIVE or CONJUNCTIVE MOOD. Primary Tenses. Present Tense. S. sim, / may be, or may I be. sis, Thou may si be, or viayst thoube. sit, He may be, or may he be. P. sTmus, We may be, or may we be. sitis, Ve may be, or may ye be, sint, Thty may be, or may they be. But often translated as a Present Indicative. Future- Simple Tense. The Future Simple in this mood is formed by combining the Future Participle with sim or esse?n, as fiiiunis sim or essem \ (The form fuiurus essern belongs to the Historic Tenses.) The Tense is thus declined — -S'. futurus sim or essem.^ futurus sis or esses, futurus sit or esset. P. futuri simus or essemus. futuri sitis or essetis. futuri sint or essent. Perfect Tense. -.9. fuerim, / may have been. fueris, Thou mayst have been. fuerit, He may have been. P. fuerimus, We may have been.. fucr!tis, Ve may have been. fuerint, They may have been. But often translated as a Perfect or Aorist Indicative. * Or, more jiropcrly, futiir-iis, -a, -iini sim or esscm. See § 6t. ^ No lOn^^lisli Iraiislalion which will be of any use to tlie learner can be ^\\Q.x\. f(jr this Tense. Where it occurs in Latin it is translated cither by a Simple I''uture Iiulicative, as, incertum est an in urbe futurus sit, // is uncertain whether he will he in the city, or by would, as, incertum crat an in urbe futuius esset, // was uncertain whether he would he in the city. §47-] THE AUXILIARY VERB 'SUM.' 23 SUBJUWCTIVE MOOD (continued). Historic Tenses. Imperfect Tense. S. essem/ / should or might he, esses, Thou ivouldst or mightst be, esset, He would or might be, P, essemus, We should or might be, essetis, Ye would or might be, essent, They would or might be. But often translated as an Imperfect or Aorist Indicative. AORIST Tense. Rendered variously by fuerim^ essem, and fuissem. See §§ 205, 206. Pluperfect Tense. iS*. fuissem, I should ox might > fuisses. Thou wouldst or mightst ^ fuisset, He would or might ^ P, fuissemus. We should or might 1 ^ fuissetis, Ye would or might \ ^ fuissent, They would or might J But often translated as a Pluperfect Indicative. * Another form of the Imperfect is forem, fores, foret, foremus, foretis, forent. 24 LATIN GRAMMAR, IMPERATIVE MOOD. Sing. 2 Pers. es, he ihou, esto, ihoti must he. Present 3 Pers. esto, he must he. Tense. Plur. 2 Pers. este, he ye^ estote, j'^ must he. 3 Pers. sunto, they must he. Note I. The forms esto, esto, estote, sunto, are some- times reckoned as Future Imperatives. Note 2. The Present Subjunctive is often used in a Present Imperative sense, as, sim, let me he^ sis, he thou^ sit, let him he, &c. VERB INFINITE. Infinitive Mood. Present and \ . j T > esse, to he. Imperfect, J ' Perfect and ^ r^- . i i \ fuisse, to have heeih Pluperfect, J Future, Participle. Future, fore or futiirus 1 to he ahout esse, J to he. futurus, ahout to he. THE AUXTLIARY VERB ^ SUM.^ 25 Compounds of Sum. Like sum are declined its com- Dounds, absum, / am absent. adsum, I am present, desum, / am wanting. insum, / am in. inter sum, I am present. obsum, I am in the way. praesum, / am set over. prosum, I am of use. subsum, / am under. supersum, / am surviving. 5ubsum wants the Perfect, and tenses derived from it. Prosum inserts d before e, as Ind. Pres. prosum, pro^/es, pro^fest, prosumus, pro^estis, prosunt. Possum [for potis sum], to he abte, will be fully conjugated hereafter (see p. 68). Absum and praesum alone have Present Participles, absens and praesens. EXAMPLES. Present. ab-sum. ab-es. ab-est. ° ab-sumus. ab-estis. ab-sunt. ?. ob-sim. ob-sis. ob-sit. ob-simus. ob-sitis. ob-sint. Indicative Mood. Perfect. de-fui. de-fuisti. de-fuit. de-fuimus. de-fuistis. de-fuer-unt, or -ere. Subjunctive Mood. prae-fuerim. prae-fueris. prae-fuerit. prae-fuerimus. prae-fueritis. prae-fuerint. Imperfect. in-eram. in-eras. in-erat. in-eramus. in-eratis. in-erant. proc^-essem. pro^Z-esses. pro^Z-esset. pro^Z-essemus. pro^Z-essetis. prOiZ-essent. 2,6 LATIN GRAMMAR, [§48. § 48. First Conjugation. Active Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD. Primary Tenses. Present Tense. -S. am-o, / /ove, am loving, or do love. am-as, T/iou lovest, art loving, or dost love. am-at, He loves, is lovifig, or does love. P. am-amus, We love, are loving, or do love. am-atis, Ye love, are lovi?ig, or do love, am-ant, They love, are loving, or do love. Future- Simple Tf:nse. S. am-abo, / shall love. am-abis, Thou wilt love. am-abit, lie will love. P. am-abtous, We shall love. am-abltis, Ve will love. am-abunt, They will love. Perfect Tense. S. amav-i, / have loved. amav-isti, Thou hast loved. cllllu,V-lL, IJC KWtU, p. amav-imus, We have loved. amav-istis, Ve have loved. amav-erunt or -ere, They have loved. Future- Perfect Tense. S. amav-ero, / shall have loved. aniav-cris, Thou luilt have loved. aniav-crit, He ivill have loved. P. ainav-erimus. We shall have loved. amav-eritis, Ve will have loved. amav-crint, 7hey ivill have loved. § 4^.] FIRST CONJUGATION, ACTIVE VOICE. 27 INDICATIVE MOOD {continued). Historic Tenses. Imperfect Tense. S, am-abam, I was loving, or / loved} am-abas, Thou wast loving, or thou lovedst. am-abat, He was loving, or he loved, P, am-abamus, We were loving, etc. am-abatis, Ye were loving, am-abant, They were loving. AORIST Tense. S, amav-i, / loved, or did love. amav-isti, Thou lovedst, or didst love, amav-it, He loved, or did love, P, amav-imus, We loved, etc. amav-istis, Ye loved. dllldV-Cl UliL Uf CIC, ± lLc_y LVUcu, Pluperfect Tense. S, amav-eram, / had loved, amav-eras, Thou hadst loved, amav-erat, He had loved, P, amav-eramus, We had loved. amav-eratis, Ye had loved, amav-erant, They had loved. ^ See also § 64. 28 LATIN GRAMMAR. SUBJUNCTIVE or COWJUWCTIVE MOOD. Primary Tenses. Present Tense. -S. am-em, I may love, or may Hove. am-es, Thou maysi love, etc. am-et, He may love. P. am-emus, We may love, am-etis, Ye may love. am-ent, They may love. But often translated as a Present Indicative. Perfect Tense. S. amav-erim, I may amav-eris, Thou mayst amav-erit, He may P. amav-enmus, We may amav-eritis, Ye may amav-erint, They may ^ have ' loved. But often translated as a Perfect or Aorist Indicative. Historic Tenses. Imperfect Tense. S. am-arem, / should or mi'ghl love. am-ares, Thou wouldst love, etc. am-aret, He would love. P, am-aremus, We should love, am-aretis, Ye would love. am-arent, They would love. But often translated as an Imperfect or Aorist Indicative. Pluperfect Tense. * S, amav-issem, / amav-isses, Thou amav-isset, He P. amav-issemus, We amav-issetis, Ye amav-issent, They - should or might have loved. But often translated as a Pluperfect Indicative. Future Simple Tense. The Future Simple in this Mood is formed by combining the Future Participle with sim or essem, as amaiurus sim or essem. The form with sim belongs to the Primary Tenses, the form with esseyn to the Historic. Aorist Tense. The Aorist Subjunctive is rendered variously by amaverim, amarem, and amavisse?n. See §§ 205, 206. §48.] FIRST CONJUGATION, ACTIVE VOICE, 29 IMPERATIVE MOOD. S, 2 Pers. am-a, love thou, am-ato, thou must love, 3 Pers. am-ato, he must love. P, 2 Pers. am-ate, love ye, am-atote, must love 3 Pers. am-anto, they must love. Note I. The forms amato, amato, amatote, amanto are sometimes reckoned as Future Imperatives. Note 2. The Present Subjunctive is often used in a Present imperative sense, as, amem, let me love, ames, love thou, amet, let him love, &c. Present Tense. VERB USTFINITE. Infinitive Mood. Present and | ^^"^[^^ Imperfect, i Perfect and ) _ . ^ , , , Pluperfect ) ^^^^"^^^^j ^^^^ loved. the sense of *the act of loving.') Future, r Accusative, Gerunds. \ Genitive, L Dat. Abl., Supines. in -um in -u Present, Participles. '^ viust advise. 3 Pers. mon-ento, ihey viust advise. Note I. The forms moneto, moneto, monetote, monento are sometimes reckoned as Futm*e Imperatives. Note 2. The Present Subjunctive is often used in a Present Imperative sense, as, moneam, let me advise^ moneas, advise thou, moneat, let him advise, etc. Infinitive Mood. Gerunds. VERB INFINITE. Present and 1 ^^^"^^^^ ^'^^ *f T \ m the sense of * the Imperfect, j- act of advising'). Perfect and ^ ^^ve advised. Pluperfect, J Future, mon-iturus esse, to be about to advise. r Accusative, mon-endum, advising. Genitive, mon-endi, of advising. Dat. Abl., mon-endo, for or by advising. Supines. | Participles. in -um mon-itum, in order to advise. in -u mon-itu, in advising. r Present, mon-ens, advising (declined I Hke ingens). I Perfect, (wanting, see § 302). L Future, mon-itiirus, about to advise. D 34 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 50. Third Conjugation. Active Voice, indicative mood. Primary Tenses. Present Tense. S. reg-o, / rule, am ruling, or do rule, reg-is, Thou rulest, art ruling, or dost rule. reg-it, He rules, is ruling, or does rule. P. reg-imus, We rule, are ruling, or do rule. reg-itis, Ye rule, are ruling, or do rule. reg-unt, They rule, are ruling, or do rule. Future- Simple Tense. S. reg-am, I shall rule. reg-es, Thou wilt rule, ^ reg-et, He will rule, P. reg-emus, We shall rule, reg-etis, Ye will rule. reg-ent, They will rule. Perfect Tense. S. rex-i, / have ruled, rex-isti, Thou hast ruled, rex-it, He has ruled, P. rex-imus, We have ruled. rex-istis, Ye have ruled, rex-erunt or -ere, They have ruled. Future- Perfect Tense. S, rex-ero, / shall have ruled, rex-eris. Thou wilt have ruled, rex-erit, He will have ruled. P, rex-erimus, We shall have ruled. rex-eritis, Ye will have ruled. rex-erint. They will have ruled. § 50.] THIRD CONJUGATION, ACTIVE VOICE. 35 INDICATIVE MOOD {continued). Historic Tenses. Imperfect Tense. S, reg-ebam, / was ruling, or / ruled. reg-ebas. Thou wast ruling, etc. reg-ebat. He was ruling. P. reg-ebamus, We were ruling. reg-ebatis, Ye were ruling. reg-ebant. They were ruling. AORIST Tense. S. rex-i, / ruled or did rule, rex-isti, Thou ruledst, etc. rex-it, He ruled. P. rex-imus, We ruled. rex-istis, Ye ruled. rex-erunt or -ere, They ruled. Pluperfect Tense. S. rex-eram, / had ruled. rex-eras, Thou hadst ruled. rex-erat. He had ruled. P. rex-eramus, We had ruled. rex-eratis, Ye had ruled. rex-erant. They had ruled. Note on verbs in -io. Certain Verbs of the Third Con- jugation end in -io in the First Person Present Indicative, as capio, / take, facio,, / make, fugio, / fly, etc. These retain the i except before i, final e, and short er, as Pres. Indie, fugz'-o, fug-is, fug-it, fug-imus, fug-!tis, fugz-unt ; Future Indie, fug^-am ; Pres. Imperative, fug-e ; Imperf. Subj. fugerem ; Present Infinitive, fug-ere. D 2 LATIN GRAMMAR. SUBJUNCTIVE or CONJUNCTIVE MOOD. Primary Tenses. Present Tense. S. reg-am, I may rule, or may I rule. reg-as, Thou mayst rule, or mayst thou rule, reg-at, He may rule, or may he rule. P. reg-amus, We may rule, or may we rule reg-atis, Ye may rule, or may ye rule. reg-ant, They may rule, or may they rule. Perfect Tense. S. rex-erim, / may have ruled. rex-eris, Thou mayst have ruled. rex-erit, He may have ruled. P. rex-erimus, We may have ruled. rex-eritis, Ye may have ruled. rex-erint, They may have ruled. Historic Tenses. Imperfect Tense. S. reg-erem, / should or uiighi rule. reg-eres, Thou wouldst rule, etc. reg-eret, He would rule. P. reg-eremus, We should rule. reg-eretis, Ye would rule. reg-erent, They would rule. Pluperfect Tense. S. rex-issem, I should or viight have ruled. rex-isses, Thou wouldst have ruled, etc. rex-isset, He would have ruled. P. rex-issemus, We should have ruled. rex-issetis, Ye would have ruled. rex-issent, They would have ruled. Future Simple Tense. The Future Simple in this Mood is formed by combining the Future Participle with sim or esse?n, z.'^ redurus sim or essevi. The form with sim belongs to the Primary Tenses, the form with esseni to the Historic. Aorist Te?ise. The Aorist Subjunctive is rendered variously by rexerim, regerem, and rexissem. See §§ 205, 206. 50.] THIRD CONJUGATION, ACTIVE VOICE. 37 IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. S, 2 Pers. reg-e, rule thou, reg-ito, thou must rule, 3 Pers. reg-ito, he must rule. P, 2 Pers. reg-ite, rule ye, xQg-iioiQ, ye must rule, 3 Pers. reg-unto, they must rule. Note I. The forms regito, regito, regitote, regunto are sometimes reckoned as Future Imperatives. Note 2. The Present Subjunctive is often used in a Present Imperative sense, as regam, let me rule, regas, rule thou, regat, let him rule, etc. Infinitive Mood. VERB IWFIlSriTE. -n 1 reor-ere, to rule (or ruling, in Present and i ^ ' ^i ^ r . ' T \ the sense of ' the act Imperfect, J of ruling'). Perfect and i . .7 77 -r, \ rex-isse, to have ruled. Pluperfect, J Future, r Accusative, Gerunds. \ Genitive, lDat. Abl. Supines. I!"-"'" i m -u Present, Participles. \ ^ ^ Perfect, L Future, \ rect-urus esse, to be about to rule. reg-endum, ruling, reg-endi, of ruling, reg-endo,y^r or by ruling, rect-um, in order to rule, rect-u, in ruling, reg-ens, ruling (declined like ingens). (wanting, see § 302.) rect-urus, about to rule. 38 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§ 5l- ^51. Fourth Conjugation. Active Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD. Primary Tenses. Present Tense. S, aud-10, I hear ^ am hearing, or do hear. aud-is, Thou hearest^ art hearings or dost aud-it, He hears, etc. \hear, P, aud-Imus, We hear, aud-itis, Ve hear, aud-iunt, They hear. Future- Simple Tense. S. aud-iam, / shall hear, aud-ies, Thou ivilt hear, aud-iet, He will hear. P. aud-iemus, We shall hear, aud-ietis, Ye will hear. aud-ient, They will hear. Perfect Tense. S. audiv-i, / have heard. audiv-isti, Thou hast heard, audiv-it, He has heard. P , audiv-imus, W^e have heard, audiv-istis, Ye have heard. audiv-erunt or -ere, They have heard. Future- Perfect Tense. S. audiv-ero, / shall have heard, audiv-eris, Thou wilt have heard, audiv-erit, He will have heard. P. audiv-erimus, We shall have heard. audiv-eritis, Ye will have heard. audiv-erint, They will have heard. § 51.] FOURTH CONJUGATION, ACTIVE VOICE. INDICATIVi] MOOD {continued). Historic Tenses. Imperfect Tense. S, aud-iebam, / was hearings or / heard. aud-iebas, Thou wast hearings etc. aud-iebat, He was hearing, P, aud-iebamus, We were hearing. ' aud-iebatis, Ye were hearing, aud-iebant, They were hearing. AORIST Tense. S. audiv-i, / heard or did hear. audiv-isti, T'hou heardest, etc. audiv-it, He heard, P, audiv-imus, We heard, audiv-istis, Ye heard. audiv-erunt or -ere, They heard. Pluperfect Tense. S, audiv-eram, / had heard, audiv-eras, Thou hadst heard, audiv-erat, He had heard, P, audiv-eramus, We had heard, audiv-eratis, Ye had heard. audiv-erant, They had heard. 4° LATIN GRAMMAR. SUBJUNCTIVE or CONJUNCTIVE MOOD. Primary Tenses. Present Tense. S, aud-iam, / 7nay hear, or may I hear, aud-ias, Thou mayst hear, or mayst thou hear, aud-iat, He may hear, or may he hear. P, aud-iamus^ We may hear, or may we hear, aud-iatis, Ye may hear, or may ye hear. aud-iant, They may hear, or may they hear. Perfect Tense. S. audiv-erim, / may have heard. audiv-eris, Thou mayst have heard, audiv-erit, He may have heard, P. audiv-erimus, We may have heard. audiv-eritis, Fe may have heard, audiv-erint, They may have heard. Historic Tenses. Imperfect Tense. S. aud-irem, / should or might hear, aud-ires, Thou shouldst hear, etc. aud-iret, He would hear, P. aud-iremus, We should hear, aud-iretis, Ye would hear, aud-irent, They would hear. Pluperfect Tense. S. audiv-issem, / should or might have heard. audiv-isses, Thou wouldst have heard, etc. audiv-isset, He would have heard, P. audiv-issemus, We should have heard. audiv-issetis, Ye would have heard. audiv-issent, They would have heard. Future Simple Tense. The Future Simple in this Mood is formed by combining the Future Participle with sim or essem, as auditurus sim or essem. The form with sim belongs to the Primary Tenses, the form with essem to the Historic. Aorist Tense. The Aorist Subjunctive is rendered variously by audiverim, audirem, and audivisse?n. See §§ 205, 206. \ 51.] FOURTH CONJUGATION, ACTIVE VOICE. 4I IMPERATIVE MOOD. S. 2 Pers. aud-i, hear fhou, aud-ito, Zhou must hear, 3 Pers. aud-ito, he must hear, P. 2 Pers. aud-ite, hear ye, aud-itote,jF^ must hear. 3 Pers. aud-iunto, they must hear. Note I. The forms audito, audito, auditote, audiunto are sometimes reckoned as Future Imperatives. Note 2. The Present Subjunctive is often used in a Present Imperative sense, as, audiam, let vie hear, audias, hear thou, audiat, let him hear, etc. VERB INFINITE. Gerunds. Present and Imperfect, aud-ire, to hear (or hearing in the sense of *the act of hearing'). Perfect and i ^^dj^-isse, to have heard. Pluperfect, j . Future, Accusative, Genitive, Dat. Abl., e, . ( m -um, Supines. \ . ' ^ in -u, r Present, Participles. . p^^^^^^^ L Future, auditurus esse, to he about to hear. aud-iendum, hearing. aud-iendi, of hearing. aud-iendo,yd?r or by hearing. aud-itum, in order to hear. aud-itu, in hearing. aud-iens, ^^<2rz>/^ (declined hke ingens). (wanting, see § 302.) aud-iturus, about to hear. 42 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§ 52- § 52. First Conjugation. Passive Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD. Primary Tenses. Present Tense. S. am-or, / am loved or am being loved. am-aris or -are, Thou art loved, etc. am-atur, He is loved. P. am-amur, We are loved, am-amini, Ye are loved, am-antur, They are loved. Future- Simple Tense. S. am-abor, / shall he loved. am-aberis or -abere, Thou will be loved. am-abitur, He will be loved. P. am-abimur, We shall be loved. am-abimini, Ve will be loved, am-abuntur, They will be loved. Perfect Tense S. am-atus sum^, I have been loved, am-atus es, Thou hast been loved, am-atus est, He has been loved, P, am-ati siimus, We have been loved, am-ati estis. Ye have been loved, am-ati sunt, They have been loved. Future- Perfect Tense. S. am-atus ero ^, / shall have beeji loved. am-atus eris, Thou wilt have been loved. am-atus erit, He ivill have been loved, P. am-ati erimus, We shall have been loved. am-ati eritis, Ye will have bce7i loved. am-ati erunt, 2hey will have beefi loved. ^ or fui, etc. 2 {yx^xo^ etc. § 53.] FIRST CONJUGATION, PASSIVE VOICE. 43 INDICATIVE MOOD {continued). Historic Tenses. Imperfect Tense. S. am-abar, I was being loved^ or / was loved. am-abaris or -abare, Thou wast being loved, am-abatur, He was being loved. [etc. P. am-abamur, We were being loved. am-abamini, Ye were being loved. am-abantur, They were being loved. AoRIST Tense. S. am-atus sum ^, / was loved. am-atus es, Thou wast loved, am-atus est, He was loved. P. am-ati siimus, We were loved, am-ati estis, Ye were loved, am-ati sunt, They were loved. Pluperfect Tense. S. am-atus eram ^, / had been loved. am-atus eras, Thou hadst been loved. am-atus erat. He had been loved. P. am-ati eram us, We had been loved. am-ati eratis. Ye had been loved, am-ati erant. They had been loved. or fui, etc. ^ or fueram, etc. 44 LATIN GRAMMAR. SUBJUNCTIVE or CONJUNCTIVE MOOD. Primary Tenses. Present Tense. S. am-er, / may be loved, or may I be loved. am-eris or -ere, Thou mayst be loved, etc. am-etur, He may be loved. P. am-emur, We may be loved. am-emini, Ve may be loved. am-entur, They may be loved. Perfect Tense. S. amatus sim ^, / may have been loved, amatus sis, Thou mayst have been loved. amatus sit, He may have been loved. P. amati simus. We may have been loved. amati sitis, Ye may have been loved. amati sint. They may have been loved. Historic Tenses. Imperfect Tense. S. am-arer, / should or Jiiight be loved. am-areris or -arere, Thou wouldsi be loved, am-aretur, He would be loved. [etc. P. am-aremur, We should be loved. am-aremini. Ye would be loved. am-arentur. They would be loved. Pluperfect Tense. S. amatus essem ^, / should or might have been loved. amatus esses, Thou wouldst have been loved. amatus esset. He would have been loved. P. amati essemus. We should have been loved. amati essetis. Ye would have been loved. amati essent, They would have been loved. Future- Simple Tense. Wanting : see § 296. Aorist Tense. Rendered variously by amatus sim, amarer, and amatus essem. See §§ 205, 206. ' or fuerim, etc. ^ or fuissem, etc. §5^.] FIRST CONJUGATION, PASSIVE VOICE. 45 IMPERATIVE MOOD. S. 2 Pers. am-are, be thoii loved, am-ator, thoii must he loved. 3 Pers. am-ator, he must be loved. P. 2 Pers. am-amini, be ye loved. 3 Pers. am-antor, they must be loved. Note I. The forms amator, amator, amantor are some- times reckoned as Future Imperatives. Note 2. The Present Subjunctive is often used in a Present Imperative sense, as amer, let me be loved, ameris, be thou loved, ametur, let him be loved, etc. Infinitive Mood. VERB IWFIITITE. Present and ) - • ^ z 7 ^ T \ am-ari, to be loved. Imperfect, S Perfect and) amatus esse oVX^to have been Pluperfect, 3 fuisse, J loved. Future, amatum iri, to be about to be loved. Participles. Present, Perfect, Future, Gerundive, (wanting).. The meaning ^whilst being loved' may be rendered by dum with Pre- sent Indicative, as, dum amatur. amatus, loved, being loved, or having been loved. (wanting.) am-andus, that must be loved. 46 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§53- ^53. Second Conjugation. Passive Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD. Primary Tenses. Present Tense. S. mon-eor, / a77i advised, or am being ad- mon-eris or -ere, Thou art advised, [vised. mon-etur, He is advised. P. mon-emur, We are advised. mon-emini, Ve are advised. mon-entur, They are advised. tUTURE- Simple Tense. S. mon-ebor, / shall be advised. [vised. mon-eberis or -ebere, Thou will be ad- mon-ebitur, He will be advised. P. mon-ebimur, We shall be advised. mon-ebimini, Ye will be advised. mon-ebuntur, They will be advised. Perfect Tense. S. monitus sum ^, I have been advised. monitus es, Thou hast been advised. monitus est, He has been advised. P. moniti sumus, We have been advised. moniti estis. Ye have been advised. moniti sunt. They have been advised. Future- Perfect Tense. S. monitus ero ^, / shall have been advised. monitus eris, Thou wilt have been advised. monitus erit. He will have been advised. P. moniti erimus, We shall have been advised. moniti eritis, Ye will have been advised. moniti erunt, They will have been advised. 1 or fiii, etc. 2 f^^gj.^^ § 53-] SECOND CONJUGATION^ PASSIVE VOICE, INDICATIVE MOOD (continuei). Historic Tenses. Imperfect Tense. S, mon-ebar, / was being advised^ or / was advised, \_advised. mon-ebaris or -ebare, Thou wast being mon-ebatur, He was being advised, P. mon-ebamur, We were being advised, mon-ebamini, Ye were being advised. mon-ebantur, They were being advised. AORIST Tense. S. monitus sum ^, / was advised, monitus es, Thou wast advised, monitus est, He was advised. P. moniti sumus, We were advised, moniti estis, Ve were advised, moniti sunt, They were advised. Pluperfect Tense. S, monitus eram ^, / had been advised, monitus eras. Thou hadst been advised, monitus erat. He had been advised, P, moniti eramus, We had been advised, moniti eratis, Ye had been advised. moniti erant, They had been advised. ^ or fui, etc. ^ or fueram, etc. I I LATIN GRAMMAR. [§ 53- SUBJUNCTIVE or CONJUNCTIVE MOOD. Primary Tenses. Present Tense. S. mon-ear, / may be advised, or may I be advised. mon-earis or -eare, Thou mayst be advised, mon-eatur, He may be advised. [etc. P. mon-eamur, We may be advised. mon-eamini, Ye may be advised. mon-eantur, They viay be advised. Perfect Tense. S. monitus sim ^, / may have been advised. monitus sis, Thou mayst have been advised. monitus sit, He may have been advised. P. moniti sTmus, We may have been advised. moniti sitis, Ve may have been advised, moniti sint, They may have been advised. Historic Tenses. Imperfect Tense. S. mon-erer, / should or might be advised. mon-ereris or -erere, Thou wouldst be advised, etc. mon-eretur, He would be advised. P. mon-eremur, We should be advised. mon-eremini, Ye would be advised. mon-erentur, They would be advised. Pluperfect Tense. S. monitus essem^, I should have been advised. monitus esses, Thou wouldst have been advised. monitus esset. He would have been advised. P. moniti essemus, We should have been advised, moniti essetis, Ye would have been advised. moniti essent, They would have been advised. Future-Simple Tense. Wanting: see § 296. A oris t Tense. Rendered variously by monitus sim, monerer, and monitus essem. See §§ 205, 206. * or fuerim, etc. ^ or fuissem, etc. § 53-J SECOND CONJUGATION, PASSIVE VOICE, 49 IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Sing, 2 Pers. mon-ere, be thou advised, mon-etor, thou must be advised. 3 Pers. mon-etor, he must be advised, Plur. 2 Pers. mon-emini, be ye advised. 3 Pers. mon-entor, they must be advised. Nofe I . The forms monetor, monetor, monentor are some- times reckoned as Future Imperatives. iVo/e 2. The Present Subjunctive is often used in a Present Imperative sense, as monear, k/ me be advised, monearis, he thou advised, moneatur, let him be advised, etc. VERB INFINITE. Infinitive Mood. 'Present AND to be advised Imperfect, 3 Perfect AND ) monitus esse or\to have been Pluperfect, ) fuisse, ) advised. Future, momtum iri, to be about to be advised. Participles. Present, (wanting).^ The meaning * whilst being ad- vised^ may be ren- dered by dum with Present Indicative, as, dum monetur. Perfect, monitus, advised, being advised, or having been ad- vised. Future, (wanting). - Gerundive, mon-endus, that must be advised. LATIN GRAMMAR. [§ 54 ^ 54. Third Conjugation. Passive Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD. Primary Tenses. Present Tense. S. reg-or, / am ruled, or am being ruled, reg-eris or -ere, Thou art ruled, etc. reg-itur, He is ruled. P. reg-imur, We are ruled. reg-imini, Ye are ruled. reg-untur, They are ruled. r UTURE- SlMPLE Tense S. reg-ar, / shall he ruled. reg-eris or -ere, Thou wilt be ruled. reg-etur, He will be ruled. P. reg-emur, We shall be ruled. reg-emini, Ye will be ruled. reg-entur, They will be ruled. Perfect Tense. S. rectus sum \ I have beeft ruled. rectus es, 77iou hast beeu ruled. rectus est, He has been ruled. P. recti sumus, We have been ruled. recti estis, Ye have been ruled. recti sunt, 'They have been ruled. Future- Perfect Tense. S. rectus ero ^, / shall have been ruled. rectus eris, Thou wilt have been ruled. rectus erit, He will have been ruled. P. recti erimus, We shall have been ruled. recti eritis, Ye will have been ruled. recti erunt, They will have been ruled. ^ or fui, etc. ^ or fuero, etc. § 54-] THIRD CONJUGATION, PASSIVE VOICE, 51 1 1 INDICATIVE MOOD (continued). Historic Tenses. Imperfect Tense. 5*. reg-ebar, I was being ruled ^ or I was ruled. reg-ebaris or -ebare, Thou wast being ruled, reg-ebatur, He was being ruled. [etc. P. reg-ebamur, We were being ruled, reg-ebammi, Ye were being ruled. reg-ebantur, They were being ruled. AORIST Tense. S. rectus sum ^, / was ruled, rectus es, Thou wast ruled, rectus est, He was ruled, P, recti sumus, We were ruled, recti estis, Ye were ruled, recti sunt, They were ruled. Pluperfect Tense. S. rectus eram ^, / had been ruled. rectus eras, Thou hadst been ruled. rectus erat, He had been ruled. P. recti eramus, We had been ruled. recti eratis, Ye had been ruled. recti erant. They had been ruled. 1 or fui, etc. ^ or fueram, etc. E 2 52 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§ 54. 1 SUBJUNCTIVE or CONJUNCTIVE MOOD. Primary Tenses. Present Tense. iS. reg-ar, / ?jiay be ruled, or may I be 7'uled. reg-aris or -are, Thou maysi be ruled, etc. reg-atur, He may be ruled, P. reg-amur, We may be ruled, rpo*-ii mini Vp fjinv hp vulpn reg-antur, They may be ruled. Perfect Tense. S. rectus sim ^, / ?nay have been ruled, rectus sis, Thou maysi have beeii ruled, rectus sit, He may have been ruled. P. recti simus, We may have been ruled, recti sitis, Ye may have been ruled, recti sint, They may have been ruled. Historic Tenses. Imperfect Tense. S, reg-erer, / should or might be ruled, reg-ereris or -erere, Thou wouldsi be ruled, reg-eretur, He would be ruled, [etc. P, reg-eremur, We should be ruled, reg-eremini, Ye would be ruled, reg-erentur, They would be ruled. Pluperfect Tense. S, rectus essem '\ I should have been ruled. rectus esses, Thou ivouldst have been ruled. rectus esset, He would have been ruled. P. recti essemus, We should have been ruled. recti essetis, Ye would have been ruled. recti essent. They would have been ruled. Future-Simple Tense, Wanting : see § 296. Aorist Tense, Rendered variously by rectus sim, regerer^ -and rectus essem. See §§ 205, 206. ' or fuerim, etc. ^ or fuissem, etc. § 54-] THIRD CONJUGATION, PASSIVE VOICE. 53 IMPERATIVE MOOD. S. 2 Pers. reg-ere, be thou ruled, reg-itor, thou must be ruled. 3 -P^i'S- reg-itor, he must be ruled. P. 2 Pers. reg-imini, be ye ruled. 3 Pers. reg-miiov, they must be ruled. Note I. The forms regitor, regitor, reguntor are some- times reckoned as Future Imperatives. Note 2. The Present Subjunctive is often used in a Present Imperative sense, as, regar, let me be ruled, regaris, be thou ruled, regatur, let him be ruled, etc. VERB II^"FINITE. Infinitive Mood. Present and ) . Imperfect, y^-'^^ to be ruled. Perfect and ") rectus esse or 1 to have been Pluperfect, / fuisse, J ruled. Participles. Future, r Present, Perfect, Future, Gerundive, rectum iri, to be about to be ruled. (wanting). The meaning ' whilst being ruled' may be rendered by dum with Pre- sent Indicative, as, dum regitur. rectus, ruled, being ruled, or having been ruled. (wanting). regendus, that must be ruled. 54 LATIN GRAMMAR, [§ 55. ^55. Fourth Conjugation. Passive Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD. Primary Tenses. Present Tense. S. aud-ior, / am heard or am being heard. aud-Iris or -Ire, Thou art heard, etc. aud-Itur, He is heard, P. aud-Imur, We are heard. aud-imini, Ve are heard. aud-mntur, They are heard. Future- Simple Tense. S. aud-iar, / shall be heard. aud-ieris or -iere^ Thou wilt be heard. aud-ietur, He will be heard. P. aud-iemur, We shall be heard. aud-iemini, Ve will be heard. aud-ientur, They will be heard. Perfect Tense. S. audltus sum ^, / have been heard. auditus es, Thou hast been heard. auditus est, He has been heard. P. auditi sumus, We have been heard. auditi estis, Ve have been heard. auditi sunt, They have beeji heard. Future- Perfect Tense. S. auditus ero ^, / shall have been heard. auditus eris, Thou wilt have been heard. auditus erit, He will have been heard. P. auditi erimus, We shall have been heard. auditi eritis, Ve will have been heard. auditi erunt. They will have been heard. ^ or fui, etc. ^ or fuSro, etc. § 55'] FOURTH CONJUGATION, PASSIVE VOICE, INDICATIVE MOOD (continued). Historic Tenses. Imperfect Tense. S. aud-iebar, I was being Jieavdy or I was heard aud-iebaris or -iebare, Thou wast being heard. aud-iebatur, He was being heard. P. aud-iebamur, We were being heard. aud-iebamini, Ye were being heard. aud-iebantur, They were being heard. AORTST Tense. S. auditiis sum I was heard. auditus es, Thou wast heard, auditus est, He was heard, P. auditi sumus, We were heard, auditi estis, Ye were heard. auditi sunt, They were heard. Pluperfect Tense. 0» dLXLllLLlo CI ctlll , J. iLLLU/ UCCfl' iLCLLi CI. auditus eras. Thou hadst been heard. auditus erat, He had been heard. P. auditi eramus JVe had been heard, auditi eratis, Ye had been heard. auditi erant, They had been heard. 1 or fui, etc. ^ or fueram, etc. LATIN GRAMMAR. [§ 55- SUBJUNCTIVE or CONJUNCTIVE MOOD. Primary Tenses. Present Tense. S. aud-iar, / may be hea7'd, or 7?iay I be heard, aud-iaris or -iare, Thou mayst be heard, aud-iatur, He may be heard, P. aud-iamur, We may be heard, aud-iamini, Ve may be heard. aud-iantur, They may be heard. Perfect Tense. S. auditus sim \ / may have been heard. auditus sis, Thou mayst have been heard. auditus sit, He may have been heard. P, auditi simus, We may have been heard. auditi sitis. Ye may have been heard. auditi sint, They may have been heard. Historic Tenses. Imperfect Tense. S. aud-irer, I should or inight be heard. aud-ireris or -irere. Thou moulds/ be heard, aud-iretur, He would be heard. [etc. P. aud-iremur, We should be heard. aud-iremini, Fe ivould be heard. aud-irentur, They would be heard. Pluperfect Tense. S. auditus essem^, I should have been heard. auditus esses, Thou wouldst have been heard. auditus esset, He would have been heard. P, auditi essemus, We should have been heard. auditi essetis, Ye would have been heard. auditi essent, They ivould have been heard. Future-Simple Tense, Wanting: see § 296. Aorist Tense. Rendered variously by auditus sim^ audirerr and auditus essem. See §§ 205, 206. * or fugrim, etc. ^ or fuissem, etc. § 550 FOURTH CONJUGATION, PASSIVE VOICE. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. S, 2 Pers. aud-ire, be thou heard, aud-Itor, ihou must be heard, 3 Pers. aud-itor, he viust be heard. P. 2 Pers. aud-immi, be ye heard. 3 Pers. aud-iuntor, they must be heard. Nok I. The forms auditor, auditor, audiuntor, are some- times reckoned as Future Imperatives. Nole 2. The Present Subjunctive is often used in a Present Imperative sense, as, audiar, lei me be heard, audiaris, be ihou heard, audiatur, let him be heard, etc. VERB IWFIK-ITE. Infinitive Mood. Present and t j - • ^ z z. j T- I aud-iri, to be heard. Imperfect, j Perfect and i aud-Itus esse or l to have been Pluperfect, J fuisse, J heard. Future, auditum iri, to be about to be heard. Participles. r Present, (wanting). The meaning ^ whilst being heard'' may be rendered by dum with Pre- sent Indicative, as, dum auditur. Perfect, aud-itus, heard, being heard, ox having been heard. Future, (wanting). . Gerundive, aud-iendus, thatmust be heard. 58 LATIN GRAMMAR, in O H < O O U 56.J TABLE OF CON JUG A TION ENDINGS. cj c3 /- -Q rQ lOj > i M O W 02 5 ^ C Id PI S O 5 ^ G ^ e G cj w Q EH K o o > M EH o PQ & P 3 C3 C C! (U CJ W cj l-. )-H jT inj iiu {P, oj -i l-i i_i r2 2^ ^ ^ q3 103 ii) ii:3 loj ICU idj i"fl3 >-l >- J-H lL icj \-i »-i >_ ji; ici i(U 5(U a a*^ a a (u oj (u a; |C3 lOJ >cu \ri TABLE OF CONJUGATION ENDINGS. o o o ^ § G s § cj (L> ;^ .1^ 1C3 1(1; )r-l If-H tor, :or, or, :or, IPS lOJ )r-l InH Jif fcT" o o o O ICS ia> it^ ^'^ 2^ t t ICS l(U >(U i^H ito. to. ito. nto. C G C ;i at5te, etote, itote, itote, ate, ete, Ite, Ite, o o o" Active o o o 6 irt ICS iqj > ut-i, to use (or usin^, in the Present AND. sense of ' the act Imperfect, I of using'). Perfect and . usus esse, or. ^^^^ Pluperfect, f luisse, ) Future, usurus esse, to be about to use. r Accusative, ut-endum, using. ;^^-P Genitive, ut-endi, of using. Dat. Abl., ut-endo, for or by using. Supines. | Participles. in -um, usum, in order to use, f^! in -u, usu, in using. f Present, ut-ens, using (declined like ingens). Perfect, usus, having used. Future, usurus, being about to use. Gerundive, ut-endus, that must he used. 66 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§§ 57- No/e on Deponent Verbs, There are Four Conjugations of Deponent Verbs, as, venor, Inf. venari, / hunt^ vereor, Inf. vereri / fear, utor, Inf. uti, / use, and partior, Inf. partiri, / divide, which are conjugated Hke amor, moneor, regor, and audior respectively. Deponent Participles used Passively. Many Deponent Perfect Participles are used Passively as well as Actively, as comi- tatus, having accompanied and accompanied, from comitor; oblitus, having forgotten and forgotten, from obliviscor. Deponents in -ior of the Third Conjugation. The Verbs gradior, I walk, morior, / die, and patior, I suffer, belong to the Third Conjugation, and drop the / before / and short er, as pati-or. pat-eris for pati-eris. pat-itur for pati-itur. pat-lmury2?r pati-imur. pat-imini for pati-imini. L pati-untur. pat-ere for pati-ere. pat-erer for pati-erer. pat-i for pati-i. Indic. Pres. Imper. Pres. SuBj. Imperf. Inf. Pres. Note on the Verbs orior and potior. The Verbs orior and potior belong to the Fourth Conjugation of Deponents, but in some tenses they have forms borrowed from the Third, as, r 2 p. S. oreris. Indic. Pres. \ 3 p. S. oritur. I I p. PI. orlmur. Part. Fut. orlturus. Indic Pres. | SuBj. Imperf. S. potltur or potitur. PI. potimur or potimur. S. poterer or potirer. S. potereris or potlreris. S. poteretur or potiretur. PI. poteremur or potiremur. PI. poteremini or potlremini. 3 p. PI. poterentur or potircntur. COMPARATIVE TABLE OF TENSES, 67 Q < u O H O W o ^5 o n-l ^ S U ero, -eris, -erit, -enmus, -entis, -erint. ' malu- ) c vol- ^ [mperfect.< nol- ^ ebam,-ebas,-ebat,-ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant. ' mal- * f\.ORiST. Same in form as Perfect, volu- c volu- ^ Pluperf. < nolu- eram, -eras, -erat, -eramus, -eratis, -erant. ' malu- * Subjunctive Mood. f vel- J Present. < nol- \ im, -is, -it, -Tmus, -itis, -int. ( mal- 3 mal f volu- J Perfect. \ nolu- f erim, -eris, -erit, -erimus, -eritis, -erint. ' malu- 3 { veil- J lMPERFECT.) noil- \ em, -es, -et, -emus, -etis, -ent. ^ mall- 3 r volu- ^ Pluperf. < nolu- [ issem, -isses, -isset, -issemus, -issetis, -issent. Present. malu- Imperative Mood. ( S. 2 Pers. noli, nolTto. 3 Pers. nolTto. P. 2 Pers. nolTte, nolTtote. 3 Pers. nolunto. Note, * Volo ' and ' malo ' have no Imperative Mood. Injanitive Mood. r velle. Pres. and Imperf. < nolle. ' malle. r voluisse. Perf. and Pluperf. \ noluisse. ^ maluisse. \ \ 70 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§ Gerunds. f volen-dum, -di, -do. < nolen-dum, -di, -do. ' malen-dum, -di, -do. Pres. Participles. Supines. (wanting). volens. nolens. 3. Fero, to bear. Indicative Mood. Present, f^ro, fers, fert, ferimus, fertis, ferunt. FuT. Simp, fer-am, -es, -et, -emus, -etis, -ent. Perfect, tul-i, -isti, -it, -imus, -istis, -erunt or -ere. FuT. Perf. tul-ero, -eris, -erit, -enmus, -entis, -erint. Imperfect, fere-bam, -bas, -bat, -bamus, -batis, -bant. AoRiST. Same in form as Perfect. Pluperf. tul-eram, -eras, -erat, -eramus, -eratis, -erant. Present, fer-am, -as, -at, -amus, -atis, -ant. Perfect, tul-erim, -eris, -erit, -erimus, -eritis, -erint. Imperfect, fer-rem, -res, -ret, -remus, -retis, -rent. Pluperf. tul-issem, -isses, -isset, -issemus, -issetis, -issent. Subjunctive Mood. Imperative Mood. Present. S. 2 Pers. fer, ferto. 3 Pers. ferto. P. 2 Pers. ferte, fertote. 3 Pers. ferunto. Infinitive Mood. Pres. and Imperf. ferre. Perf. and Pluperf. tul-isse. Future. laturus esse. Gerunds. feren-dum, -di, -do. Supines. latum, latu. Pres. Participle. ferens. FuT. Participle. laturus. §59-] CONJUGATION OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. 71 Present. FuT. Simp. Perfect. FuT. Perf. Imperfect. AORIST. Pluperf. Present. [Perfect. Imperfect, Pluperf. 4. Feror, to be borne. Indicative Mood, feror, ferrisorferre,fertur, ferimur,ferimini,feruntur. fer-ar, -eris or -ere, -etur, -emur, -emini, -entur. lat-us sum, es, est, -i sumus, estis, sunt, lat-us ero, eris, erit, -i erimus, eritis, erunt. fer-ebar, -ebaris or -ebare, -ebatur, -ebamur, -ebamini, -ebantur. Same in form as Perfect, lat-us eram, eras, erat, -i eramus, eratis. erant. Subjunctive Mood, fer-ar, -aris or -are, -atur, -amur, -amini, -antur. lat-us sim, sis, sit, -i sTmus, sitis, sint. fer-rer,-reris or-rere, -retur,-remur,-remini,-rentur. lat-us essem, esses, esset, -i essemus, essetis, esscnt. Present. Imperative Mood. ( S. 2 Pers. ferre, fertor. 3 Pers. fertor. P. 2 Pers. ferimini. 3 Pers. fe run tor. Infinitive Mood. Pres. and Imperf. ferri. Perf. and Pluperf. latus esse. Future. latum iri. Perf. Participle, latus. Gerundive. ferendus. 5. Eo, to go. Indicative Mood. Present. 00, is, it, Tmus, itis, eunt. FuT. Simp. T-bo, -bis, -bit, -bimus, -bitis, -bunt. Perfect. Tv-i, -isti, -it, -Tmus, -istis, -erunt or -ere. FuT. Perf. iv-ero, -eris, -erit, -erimus, -eritis, -crint. Imperfect. T-bam, -bas, -bat, -bamus, -batis, -bant. 72 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§ 59 AoRiST. Same in form as Perfect. Pluperf. iv-eram, -eras, -erat, -eramus, -eratis, -erant. Subjunctive Mood. Present, e-am, -as, -at, -amus, -atis, -ant. Perfect, iv-erim, -eris, -erit, -erimus, -eritis -erint. Imperfect. I-rem, -res, -ret, -remus, -retis, -rent. Pluperf. iv-issem, -isses, -isset, -issemus, -issetis, -issent. Imperative Mood. ( S. 2 Pers. T, ito. 3 Pers. Ito. P. 2 Pers. ite, Ttote. 3 Pers. eunto. Present. Infinitive Mood. Pres. and Imperf. Perf. and Pluperf, Future. Gerunds. Supines. Pres. Participle. FuT. Participle. ire. ivisse. iturus esse, eun-dum, -di, -do. itum, itu. iens. [Gen. eiint-is.] iturus. 6. Fio, to be made, to become. Indicative Mood. Present, fio, fis, fit, (fimus), (fitis), fiunt. FuT. Simp, fi-am, -es, -et, -emus, -etis, -ent. Perfect, fact-us sum, es, est, -i sumus, estis, sunt. FuT. Perf. fact-us ero, eris, erit, -i erimus, eritis, erunt. Imperfect, fi-ebam, -ebas, -ebat, -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant. AoRiST. Same in form as Perfect. Pluperf. fact-us eram, eras, erat, -i eramus, eratis, erant. Subjunctive Mood. Present, fi-am, -as, -at, -amus, -atis, -ant. Perfect, fact-us sim, sis, sit, -i sTmus, sitis, sint. Imperfect, fi-erem, -eres, -eret, -cremus, -eretis, -erent. Pluperf. fact-us essem, esses, esset, -i essemus, cssetis, essent. § 59-] CONJUGATION OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. 73 Note, Present. Imperative Mood. S. 2 Pers. fi. P. 2 Pers. fite. Infinitive Mood. Pres. and Imperf. Perf. and Pluperf. Future. Perf. Participle. Gerundive. fieri. factus esse, factum iri. factus. faciendus. * Fio ' is the Passive of the Verb facio, to make. The Verb edo, / eat, has irregular forms in certain tenses. Indic. Pres. edo, edis or es, edit of est, edimus, editis or estis, edunt. edam. edas, edat, etc. ; or edim, edis, edit, etc. ederem, ederes, ederet, etc. ; or essem, esses, esset, etc. Sing, ede, edito or esto. Plur, edite or este, editote or estote, edunto. edere or esse. SuBj. Pres. Imperf. Imperative. Infin. Pres. In the Passive, estur is found for editur, and essetur for ederetur. 8. Queo, / am able, and, nequeo, / am unable, are conjugated like *eo,' but have no Imperative or Gerunds. Table of the chief tenses of the Irregular Verbs. Ind, Pres. Inf, Perf. Supine, I. Possum, posse, potui, to be able. ( Volo, velle. volui. to be qjuilling. 2. ] Nolo, nolle. nolui. to be unwilling. ( Malo, malle, ferre. malui, to iijish rather. 3. Fero, tuli. latum. to bear. 4. Feror, ferri, latus sum, to be borne. 5- Eo, Ire, Tvi or Ti, itum. to go. \ become. 6. Flo, fieri, factus sum, to be made or 7. Edo, edere or esse. edi. esum, to eat. 8. ( Queo, I Nequeo, quire. quTvi, quitum, to be able. nequTre, nequTvi, nequitum, to he unable. 74 LATIN GRAMMAR, § 60. Interrogative Forms of the Verb. Use of-ne. The Indicative and Subjunctive Moods may be made Interrogative (i.e. made to express a question) by adding the Particle -ne to the various Numbers and Persons, as, Indic. Present, amo-ne, do I love ? 2iTc\2i'i'n^, dost ihou love ? etc. Future, amabo-ne, shall I love? amabis-ne, wilt thou love P etc. and so on throughout the Tenses. Note. For videsne, audisne, etc., we sometimes find the forms vid^n, audin, etc., in Poetry. Position of -ne. The Particle -ne is not necessarily at- tached to the Verb in an Interrogative sentence. It is usually added to the first word in the sentence, as, puerne am at, does the hoy love ? Use of num. When the answer ^ no' is expected num is used in a question instead of -ne, as, num amat, he does not love, does he ? Use of nonne. When the answer *yes' is expected nonne is used in a question, as, nonne amo, do I not love? or, / love, do I not ? Double Questions. If the word or occurs in a question to which the answer * yes ' or ' no ' is expected, it is translated by an, and one of the Particles utrum, num, -ne must be used for the first part of the question, as, utrum servus es an liber \ num servus es an liber? \ Are you a slave or a free man?'^ servusne cs an lii)cr.'* j ' Literally 'Whether are you a slave or a free man?' ])ut the lui<;lish Interrogative whether is now seldom used in direct (juestions. It appears more frequently in older English, as, Mark ii. 9, * Whether is it easier to say to the sick of the palsy, Thy sins be forgiven thee ; or to say, Arise, and take up thy bed and walk ? ' -63.] NOTES ON THE CONJUGATIONS. 75 Interrogative Pronouns^ etc. The chief Interrogative Pro- nouns and Particles in Latin are : — qualis, of what sort? cur, why? . quantus, how great? quo ties, how often? ft uter, which of two ? quare, wherefore ? ft quis, who ? quam, how ? ' c^oi, how many ? q}iomodiO, how ? quotus, which in numerical num, whether ? order? -ne, whether? unde, whence ? ut, how ? ubi, where ? an, or whether ? quando, when ? utrum, whether of the twoJ^ I NOTES ON THE CONJUGATIONS. § 61. Third Person Singular. The Pronouns she and it are used, as well as he, to translate the 3rd Person Singular of the Verb. Thus amat may mean ' he, she, or it loves/ In Tenses compounded of a Participle and the Verb sum the termination of the Participle will vary according to the Gender of the person or thing spoken of, as, amatus est, He has been loved, amata est, She has been loved, amatum est, // has been loved, § 62. Impersonal Verbs. Certain Verbs are found only in the 3rd Person Singular, and have the word it for their apparent Nominative in English, as, licet, it is permitted These are called Impersonal Verbs\ § 63. Present Indicative. A Present Indicative, as amo, may be translated / love, I am loving, or / do love, 1 A list of the chief Impersonals is given in § 78. 76 LATIN GRAMMAR. The sign do is seldom used affirmatively except when em- phasis is required, but it constantly occurs in the Negative and Interrogative forms, as, non amo, / do not love ; amone, do I love ? § 64. Imperfect Indicative. An Imperfect Indicative, as amabam, may be translated / ivas loving, I loved, I used to love, or / began to love. The translation / loved can only be used when the meaning is I was loving at the time, a sense which is often loosely expressed by the English Past Tense. § 65. Aorist Indicative. The sign did is seldom used affirmatively, except for the sake of emphasis, but it con- stantly occurs in the Negative and Interrogative forms, as non amavi, / did not love, etc. § 66. Present Subjunctive. This Tense admits of many translations. Thus amem means / may, would, or should love, may I love, and let me love : and, further, it has often to be translated as a Present Indicative, / love, I am loving, or / do love, when it occurs in dependent or sub- ordinate sentences. Thus, quum amem is expressed in English by since I love. § 67. Other Subjunctive Tenses. What has been re- marked of the Present holds good with respect to all the other Subjunctive Tenses, viz. that they frequently have to be translated by the corresponding Tense of the Indicative, 1 and not by the signs would, would have, etc. Thus, quum audivissem does not mean when I should have heard, but when I had heard. § 68. Contraction in the Perfect and Pluperfect Tenses. Perfects ending in -vi, and the Tenses formed from them, may suffer contraction in all Conjugations, the letter v being omitted, e. g. — -7l ] NOTES ON THE CONJUGATIONS. 77 Conj. I. Amasti/^?r amavisti ; amassent/?r amavissent. Conj. 2. Summosses /or summovisses. Conj. 3. N6runt_/^?r noverunt ; n6sti/^?r novisti. Conj. 4. Audisti /or audivisti. In this Conjugation there is also a form produced by throwing out the v, without any contraction of vowels, as Perf. audii/d?r audivi. This form is also found in certain Verbs of the Third Conjugation, as, peto, cupio, etc., which have Perfect in -vi, as, petii /or petivi. Nofe, This contraction is not allowed before -re in the 3rd Person Plural of the Perfect Indicative. We cannot say amare /or amavere. § 69. Old Latin Forms sometimes used in Poetry. (a) In the Pres. Infin. Pass, -ier was used for -i, as, amarier /or amari. (d) In the Imperf Indie, of 4th Conjugation e was dropped, as, audibam /or audiebam. (c) In the Fut. Simp, of 4th Conjugation the regular forms -ibo and -ibor were used, as, audibo, audibor. Afterwards these forms were replaced by forms proper to the 3rd Conjugation, as, audiam, audiar. (d) The Subj. Pres. in the ist and 3rd Conjugations sometimes ended in -im, as, duim, k/ me give, for dem ; edim, lei me eat, for edam. § 70. Note on certain Imperatives. Facio, fero, dico, and duco^ make in the Imperative Present fac, fer die, due. Scio, I know, has only scito, never sci, for Imperative. § 71. Note on the termination '-re' for '-ris.' The use of -re for -ris as the termination of the 2nd Pers. Sing, in the Passive Voice is common in all the tenses except the Present Indicative, where it might be mistaken for the In- finitive Active or Imperative Passive, as, amare. ^ Make^ hear, say, lead. 78 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§§ § 72. Gerundive in '-undus/ The gerundives of the 3rd and 4th Conjugations are sometimes formed in -undus instead of -endus, especially when i precedes, as potiundus, capiundus. § 73. The Periphrastic Conjugation. The Future Active Participle may be coupled with all the Tenses of the Verb sum, and thus a new Active Conjugation, called the Periphrastic, is formed, indicating that a person has a mind to do a thing or is upon the point of doing it, e. g. amaturus sum, / a?n about to love, amaturus eram, / was about to love. ^ And so on throughout all the tenses. In the same way the Gerundive may be coupled with the Tenses of ' sum ' to form a Passive Periphrastic Conjuga- tion, as, amandus sum, / ought to be loved or / must be loved, amandus eram, I ought to have been loved, etc. DEFECTIVE AND OTHER VERBS. § 74. Defective Verbs are those of which only certain Moods, Tenses, or Persons are found ; e. g. — {a) Aio, / say or affirm. Indie. Pres. Aio, ^% S-it, aiunt. „ Imperf. Ai-ebam, -ebas, -ebat, -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant. Subj. Pres. alas, aiat, aiant. {b) Inquam, I say. Indie. Pres. Inquam, inquYs, inquYt, inquKmus, inquYtis, inqiiYiml „ Imperf. Inquiebat. Perf. Inquisti, inquit. „ Fut. inquYes, inquYet. Imperat. Pres. inquS, inquYto, inquYte. 75.] DEFECTIVE AND OTHER VERBS, 79 (c) Coepi, / /lave begun, or / begin, memini, / remember, and odi, / hate, have, for the most part, only those parts of the Verb which are formed from the Perfect Tense, e. g. Inf. Perf. and Pluperf. coepisse. Note, Coepi and odi have also a Perf. Part, coeptus, osus, and a Fut. Part, coepturus, osurus. Memini, has an Imperative memento, Plur. mementote. (d) Fari^ to speak, has fatur, he speaks, fabor, / shall speak, and fare, speak thou, with Participles fantem (no Nominative), fatus, fandus, Gerunds fandi, fando, and Supine fatu. [e) The following Imperatives : Ave (or have), avete, haiL Infin. avere. Salve, salvete, hail, Infin. salvere. Cedo, cedite (or cette), give me, Apage, apagite, begone. § 75. Derived Verbs. Many Verbs are derived either from other Verbs or from Nouns. Those chiefly derived from Verbs are of four kinds, Inceptive, Desiderative, Frequentative, and Diminutive. (a) Inceptive Verbs signify ^ to begin to do a thing,' and end in -see, as, ealesco, / begin to be warm, grow warfn (from caleo), tenerasco, I grow tender (from tener). (b) Desiderative Verbs signify ' to desire to do a thing/ and end in -uric, as, esurio, / wish to eat, or / ain hungry (from edo). Indie. Perf. „ Pluperf. „ Fut. Perf. Subj. Perf. coepi, coepisti, coepit, etc. coeperam. coepero. coeperim. coepissem. Pluperf. 8o LATIN GRAMMAR. [§§ 76- (c) Frequentative Verbs signify * to do a thing fre- quently/ and end in -so, -to, and -ito, as, pulso (from pello / drive), canto (from cano, / sing), and clamito (froir clamo, I shout). id) Diminutive Verbs signify ' to do a little thing,' anc end in -illo, as, cantillo, I sing a little song (from cano). Verbs derived from Nouns belong usually to the First Conjugation if Transitive, and to the Second if Intransitive, as, fraudare, to deceive [from fraus, deceit'], albere, to be white [from albus, w'iite\ § 76. Semi-Deponent (or Neuter Passive) Verbs. These are audeo, fide, gaudeo, and soleo^ They have an Active Present with a Perfect of Passive form, as, audeo, ausus sum; fido, fisus sum; gaudeo, gavisus sum; soleo, solitus sum. § 77. Quasi-Passive (or Neutral Passive) Verbs. These are vapulo, veneo, liceo, exiilo, and fio They are Active in form but Passive in meaning. § 78. Impersonal Verbs. The chief Impersonal Verbs are the following. They are of the Second Conjugation, and being only found in the 3rd Person Singular of the Finite Verb, and in the Infinitive Mood, may be called Unipersonals. Pres. Per/. Itifin. hbet, (lubet), llbuit or libitum est, Kbere, it pleases. Hcet, licuit or Hcltum est, Hcere, it is lawful. liquet, Kcuit, llquere, it is clear. mlseret, mlseruit or mtseritum est, miserere, it moves to pity. oportet, oportuit, oportere, it behoves or is necessary. plget, p'^guit or pigltum est, pigere, // troubles. ^ Dare, trust, rejoice^ am accustomed. ^ Am heate?i, ajji for sale, am put up to auction, am banished, am made. -82.] PARTICLES. 8l Pres. Per/. jnfin, paemtet, paenltuit, paenitere, it repents. ipudet, pudiiit or puditum est, pudere, it shames. taedet, taeduit or pertaesum est, taedere, it wearies. § 79. The above Verbs are, for the most part, only found in the Impersonal form. But many completely conjugated Verbs are used impersonally, as, juvo, / assist, which has juvat, meaning it delights, with many others, e. g. Pres. Per/. Infin, accedit. accessit. accedere. it is added. accldit. accidit, accidere, it happens. constat, constitit, constare. it is well known. convenit. convenit. convenire. it suits. decet, decuit. decere, it becomes or beseems. dedecet, dedecuit. dedecere. it misbecomes. fit, factum est. fieri. it comes to pass. Together with certain Verbs denoting change of weather, as, pluit, it rains, fulminat, lightens, tonat, // thunders, etc. § 80. Intransitive Verbs are used impersonally in the Pas- jive Voice, as, sto, / stand, statur, // is stood or a stand is nade. Hence statur a me = 2'/ is stood by me=il startd. PARTICLES. § 81. Adverbs. These may express Place, Time, Man- ler, or Number, as, eo, thither, tunc, then, sapienter, wisely, )is, twice. §82. Derivation of Adverbs. Most Adverbs are formed rorn Adjectives. Thus, From Adjectives in -us are formed Adverbs in -e, and less commonly) -o] as digne, worthily, from dignus, worthy] lUbito, suddenly, from subitus, sudden. From Adjectives of two terminations in -is, -ns, -x. Sec, G 82 LATIN GRAMMAR. are formed Adverbs in -iter or -ter, as feliciter, happily, from felix, happy; libenter, willingly, from libens, willing. Adjectives in -us and -is often use their Neuter^ Ad- verbially, as horrendum stridens, sounding horribly; dulce ridens, smiling sweetly. This is chiefly a Poetic usage. There is also a termination in -im, chiefly from Participles, as separatim, separately; and in -itus, as divimtus, divifiely. Adverbs are also formed from Pronouns ; thus from hie, this, are derived the Adverbs hic, here, hue, hither, and hinc, from hence ; from qui, who or which, are derived qua, where, and quo, whither, etc. For comparison of Adverbs, see §§ 28 and 162 (d). § 83. Prepositions. For a list of the Latin Prepositions see §§ III and 122, and for a full account of their usual meanings, with Examples, see §§ 318-363. § 84. Conjunctions. These are of two kinds, viz. — (i.) Coordinative, which simply link together words, phrases, or clauses, and do not influence the Mood of the Verb. They are, {a) Copulative, et, -que, ac, atque, ajid; nec or neque, and not. (h) Disjunctive, aut, vel, -ve, either; sive, whether, (c) Adversative, scd, autem, verum, vero, ceterum, at, hut. Note. Sentences linked together by the above Conjunctions are called Coordinate Sentences. (ii.) Subordinative, which introduce Subordinate Clauses (§ 94). The chief kinds are as follow. Those marked * are almost always found with a Subjunctive. ^ Masculine and Feminine Adjectives are also used Adverbially, as, in- vitus {or invita) Romam migravit, he (or she) has unwillingly removed to Rome, -85-] PARTICLES, 83 Final. Ut*, in order that, quo*, in order thai, iie*, lest, in order that . . . not, quominus*, quin*, in order that . . . not. Consecutive. Ut*, so that, quin*, that not. Temporal. Quum, ubi, ut, when; donee, dum, quoad, whilst, until; antequam, priusquam, before that; postquam, after that; simul, simul ac, as soon as; quoties, as often as. Causal. Quum*, quoniam, quandoquidem, si7ice; quod, quia, because. Conditional. Si, if nisi, if not, unless : dum*, dum- modo *, provided that. Concessive. Etsi, licet*, quamquam, quamvis*, quum*, ut, although. Comparative. Quasi*, tanquam*, tanquam si*, as if as though. § 85. Interjections. Interjections express joy, as, io, hail; grief, as, heu or eheu, alas I astonishment, as, en or ecce, lo I and calling or summoning, as heus, ho J [§§ 86- A SHORT CATECHISM OF LATIN SYNTAX. Elementary Rules for Construing. § 86. Q. How do we begin the translation of a Latin sentence ? A. First look for the Finite Verb, and then for its Subject. § 87. Q, Will any Finite Verb do that happens to be in the sentence.'^ A, No. The Finite Verb of the Sentence is never to be looked for in a clause introduced by the Relative qui, quae, quod, or by a Subordinative Conjunc- tion, as, quum, when^ ut, that, ne, lest, si, if^ etsi, although, etc. § 88. Q, What do you mean by ' the Subject' A. The Subject is the person or thing of which something is said. Thus in the sentence Caesar scribit, Caesar writes, it is said of Caesar that he writes ; hence Caesar is called the Subject of the sentence. Note. That which is said of the Subject is called the Predicate, § 89. Q. How do we find the Subject } A. It is, as a rule, a Noun ^ in the Nominative Case.'-^ If ^ Under the head of * Nouns' are also included words or phrases equivalent to Nouns, e. g. an Infinitive Mood, an Accusative and Infini- tive, an Adjective used Substantively, or a whole clause introduced by a Conjunction. 2 The Subject of an Infinitive Mood is put in the Accusative. See § 112. -9^2.] A SHORT CATECHISM OF SYNTAX. there is no Nominative expressed, the Subject is one of the Pronouns /, thou, he, she, it, we, you, or they, contained in the Verb-ending. Varieties of the Sentence. § 90. Q, How many kinds of sentences are there ? A. Three, namely : (a) The Statement, as, Caesar scribit, Caesar is writing, (h) The Question, as, Scribitne Caesar? Is Caesar writing ? (c) The Command or Request, as, Scribe, Caesar, Write, O Caesar ; Scribat Caesar, Let Caesar write. § 91. Q. What is an Oblique or Indirect Sentence {Oratio Ohliqud) 1 A. A Statement, Question, or Command, which forms the Subject or Object (see § 39) of another Verb,^ as, Ait Caesarem scrib^re. He says that Caesar is writing. Scribatne Caesar nostra nihil interest, Whether Caesar is writing is of no importance to us, or it is of no importance to us whether Caesar is writing. In the first example the words Caesarem scribere are the Object of ait; in the second the words scribatne Caesar are the Subject of interest. § 92. Q. What is a Complex Sentence? A. A sentence consisting of a number of clauses joined together in such a manner that one clause is Prin- cipal and the others Subordinate. * A sentence which does not form the Subject or 0])jcct of a vcrl) is said to be in Oratio Recta or Directa. 86 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§§ 93- § 93. Q. Distinguish between Principal and Subordinate clauses. A. The Principal clause contains the main Statement, Question, or Command : Subordinate clauses are added in order to explain some word, usually either a Noun or Verb, in the Principal sentence. § 94. Q. How are Subordinate clauses introduced ? A. Subordinate clauses are introduced either by the Relative, qui, quae, quod, as, vir quern video, bonus est. The inan who??i I see is good, or by a Subordinative Conjunction, as, haec fecit, ut lauda- retur, He did this that he might be praised. On the Three Concords or Rules of Agreement. § 95- Q' Name the Three Concords or Rules of Agreement. A. (a) The Finite Verb agrees with its Nominative in Number and Person, as. Rex audit, The king hears, or is hearing ; Reges audiunt, The kings hear, or are hearing. Note. We could not in Latin say rex aiidi««^ or reges aud/V, any more than we could say in English, the ki?ig are hearing, or the kings is hearing, (b) The Adjective agrees with its Substantive in Gen- der, Number, and Case, as, Bonae matres bones pueros amant. Good mothers love good boys. Opus perfectum est. The work is accomplished. lUud opus perfectum est. That work is accomplished. Note. Participles and Adjectival Pronouns are here considered as Adjectives. 99-] ^ SHORT CATECHISM OF SYNTAX, 87 (c) The Relative qui, quae, quod, agrees with its Antecedent in Gender, Number, and Person ; but in Case belongs to its own clause, as^ Arbor, quae in horto crescit, alta est, T/ie tree which grows in the garden is high. Arbor, quam video, alta est. The tree which I see is high. On Copulative Verbs. § 96. Q, What are Copulative Verbs? A, The Verb sum, and Passive Verbs of thinkings calling, or making, as, vocor, I am called, fio, I am made, etc. § 97. Q' What is the Case-Construction after Copulative Verbs? A. They take the same Case after them as they have before them, as, dies fit nox, day becomes night; sensimus diem fieri noctem, we perceived that day was becoming night. On Apposition. § 98. Q, What is meant by Apposition? A, One Substantive added to another to explain some part of its meaning is said to be in Apposition to it, as, Cassandra vates, Cassandra the prophetess. § 99. Q. Name the three kinds of Apposition. A. (a) The first kind is where the second Substantive comes close after the first and explains some part of its meaning, as, Marius consul triumphavit, Marius the consul triumphed; (b) The second is where the second Substantive is separated from the first by a Copulative Verb, as, Marius erat consul, Marius was consul. Marius consul creatus est, Marius ivas made consul. 88 LATIN GRAMMAR. (c) The third is where both Substantives are in the Accusative after an Active Verb of //iiri/wig, calling\ or makings as, Marium consulem creaverunt, They made Marim consul. Note. Apposition of the second and third kind is also explained by Grammarians as forming what is called the Complemejit of the Verb. § 100. Q. What is the rule for the Case of a Noun in Apposition ? A. It must be in the same Case as the Noun to which it refers. Rules of Time, Place, and Measure. §101. Q. Give the rules for expressing Duration of Time [or time hoiv-lo7tg\ and a Point of Time [or time when\, A, Duration of Time is put in the Accusative, as, multos annos vixit, he lived many years ; a Point of Time in the Ablative, as, prima luce surgit, he rises at first dawn, § 102. Q. How is to a place expressed? ^. By ad or in with Accusative, unless the place be a town or small island,^ when the Preposition is omitted, as. Ad portam eo, / go to the gate. But, Romam eo, I go to Rome. § 103. Q. How is from a place expressed? A. By ab or ex with Ablative, unless the place be a town or small island,^ when the Preposition is omitted, as, ^ Except also domum, home, rus, the coimtry, and foras, out of doors; as domum ibo, / will go home ; rus ibo, I luill go into the country ; foras ibo, / will go out of doors. ^ Or domo, from home ; rwre, from the country; humo, from the ground. -107.] A SHORT CATECHISM OF SYNTAX. 89 »Ex castris profectus est, He set out from the camp. But, Roma profectus est, He set out froin Rome. § 104. Q. How is at a place expressed? A. By ad, in, apud, etc., with their cases, unless the place be a town or small island, when the Locative Case must be used, as, Ad fluvium constitit, He halted at the river. But, Cortonae mansit. He remained at Cortona. § 105. Q. What is the Locative Case? A. An old Case specially used to denote ^ at a place.' It ends like the Ablative, except in the Singular Number of the First and Second Declensions, where it ends like the Genitive, as, Romae, Sami, Athenis, Carthagine, Gadibus vixit, He has lived at Rome, Samos, Athens, Carthage, and Cadiz. § 106. Q. What Nouns have a Locative Case in use? A. Names of towns and small islands; the Case also survives in the words domi, at ho??ie, foris, out of doors, humi, on the ground, ruri, in the country, vesperi, in the evening, belli, at the war, and militiae, on military service. § 107. Q, How is Measure of Space expressed? A. Usually by the Accusative, as, Fossa ducentos pedes longa, A trench 200 feet long. Duo millia passuum progreditur. He advances two miles. But sometimes by the Ablative, as, Hiberna duobus millibus passuum aberant. The winter- quarters were two miles distant. Note. Measures in the Genitive, as, fossa diicentorum pedum, a trench 200 feet long, may be classed as Genitives of Quality. For Ablatives of Measure, as multo major, etc., see § 121 (g). ] go LATIN GRAMMAR. [§§ loS~i On the Accusative Case. § io8. Q. Define the Accusative Case. A. The Accusative is properly the Case of the Direct Object. § 109. Q. What is the Accusative of the Direct Object? A. The Accusative which follows Transitive Verbs, as, Video taurum, I see a bull. §110. Q. What other uses of the Accusative are there? A. (a) The Cognate Accusative or Accusative of Kindred Meaning, which follows Intransitive Verbs, as, Duram servit servitutem, He serves a hard servitude, {b) The Accusative of Limitation, which is generally an Adjective or Pronoun in the Neuter Gender, and is added chiefly to Intransitive Verbs, as, Quid refert. What does it matter ? Sera comans narcissus, The late-blooming narcissus. (c) The Accusative of Respect, which follows certain Verbs, Participles, and Adjectives, and is translated by the sign ivith respect to or as to, as, Latus humeros. Broad as to his shoulders. (d) (e) (/) The Accusatives of Duration of Time, < Motion to, and Measure, which have already been ^ noticed (§§ loi, 102, 107). (g) The Accusative of Exclamation, used with or 1 without an Interjection, as. Me miserum ! Unhappy me I Proh deorum atque hominum fidem ! Alas for the faith \ of Gods and men I (h) The Accusative after a Preposition. I .113.] ^ SHORT CATECHISM OF SYNTAX. 9 1 § III. Q. What Prepositions govern the Accusative? A . Ante, apud, ad, adversus, Circum, circa, citra, cis. Contra, erga, extra, infra. Inter, intra, juxta, ob. Penes, pone, post, and praeter, Prope, propter, per, secundum. Supra, versus, ultra, trans. And unto these, if motion be intended, Let in, sub, super, subter, be appended. Note. For the meaning of these Prepositions see §§ 318-347. § 112. Q, Explain the Accusative and Infinitive con- struction. A, The Accusative and Infinitive is used as Subject of Impersonal Verbs, and as Object of Verbs of declaring^ perceivings knowing, thinkings or believing. The rule for translation is; — begin with the word that, and then construe the Accusative as a Nominative, and the Infinitive as a Finite Verb of the same Tense, as, Caesarem amare constat, // is well known that Caesar loves. (Caesarem amare, Subject; constat, Verb^) Caesarem amavisse scimus, know that Caesar has loved, (Scimus, Verb; Caesarem amavisse. Object) § 113. Q, Give a rule for translating the Conjunction that into Latin. When that means the fact that it is usually translated by Accusative and Infinitive, as, Nuntiat Caesarem rediisse. He announces (the fact) that Caesar has returned. 9^ LATIN GRAMMAR. 113. But when ihat means in order that or so that it is trans lated by ut with Subjunctive, as, Hoc fecit ut Caesar redire cogeretur, He did this tha Caesar might be forced to return, Tantum bellum exortum est ut Caesar redire cogeretui So great a war broke out that Caesar was forced I return, § 114. Q, What Verbs take two Accusatives? A. Verbs oi asking and teaching, and celo, to conceal, as, Me sententiam rogavit, He asked me my opinion. Me hanc rem celavit, He concealed this matter from me. Note The Accusative of the thing asked or taught remains even whei the \ erb IS in the Passive Voice, as, Rogatur sententiam, He is asked ht opinion ; Docta est litteras, She has been taught her letters. On the Dative Case. § 115. Q. Define the Dative Case. A. The Dative is the Case of the Indirect Object. Note. The Indirect Object is the person (or thing) affected but no directly acted on by an action or quality. § 116. Q. What words can take a Dative of the Indirect Object ? A, (a) Transitive Verbs, which already have a Direct Object, as, Fabio consilium dedi, /gave counsel to Fabius, (b) Intransitive Verbs, as, Plaudunt histrioni. They applaud the actor} {c) Adjectives, as, Mihi amicus est. He is friendly to me. * i-^'l ^'^^ ^-'^"y ^e^bs which seem from their J^.nghsh translation to be Transitive are really Intransitive in L-at^in and so require a Dative, e. g. noceo is • I am hurtful' rather than ' I hurt,' &c. 117.] A SHORT CATECHISM OF SYNTAX, § 1 17. Q. What other uses of the Dative are there ? A. (a) The Dative of Advantage or Disadvantage (Dati- vus Commodi vel Incommodi), used generally of persons after Verbs and Adjectives, as, Praedia aliis coluit, non sibi, He cultivated farms for others^ not for himself te. It is very difficult to separate this Dative from the Dative of the ect Object. Roughly speaking we may class the Datives that are slated by to as Datives of the Indirect Object, and those that are anslated by /or, v^^hen referring to a person, as Datives of Advantage or •isadvantage. (p) The Ethic Dative ; a Dative of the Personal Pro- nouns, used in order to call particular attention to the person indicated. It admits of many ' renderings in English according to the sense of the passage, as. Quid mihi Celsus agit, Pray tell me, what is Celsus doing ? Pulset mihi lictorem, Let me see him strike a lictor. Quid tibi vis, What do you want? (c) The Dative after the Verb sum, with the significa- tion of habeo, / have, as, est mihi pater, / have a father; est tibi frater, you have a brother, {d) The Dative of the Agent, which is used with the Gerundive, with Passive Verbs and Participles (in poetry), and with Verbal Adjectives in -bilis, as. Hoc tibi non faciendum est, This must not he done by you. Non intellegor ulli, / am understood by no one. Bella matribus detestata. Wars abhorred by mothers. Nulli flebilior quam tibi, By none more lamented than by thee. (e) The Dative of Purpose, as, Decemviri legibus scribendis creati, Decemvirs created for the purpose of writing the laws. 94 LATIN GRAMMAR, [§§ 117. (/) The Dative of the Predicate, which in English wc express by a Nominative, as, Ea res impedimento erat, That matter was a hindrance, § 118. Q. What Verbs govern the Dative? A, (a) All the compounds of sum except possum. (^h) Many Verbs compounded with Bene^ male, satis, re^ Ad, ante, con, in, inter, de, Ob, sub, super, post, and prae. {c) I. A dative put with shew, and give, 2. Tell, envy, spare, permit, believe, 3. Persuade, command, obey ; to these 4- threaten, pardon, succour, please, 5. With vacare, displicere, 6. Servlre, nubere, studere, 7. Heal, favour, hurt, resist, and indulgere^. Note I. All the above take a Dative of the perso?i (also occasionally ot the thing); some of them, e. g. dico, do, invideo, permitto, persiiadeo ignosco, with some others not mentioned, as, excuso, / plead in excuse, detendo, / ward off, gratulor, / congratulate, etc., take a Dative of the person and an Accusative of the thing, as, do tibi librum, / give you a book mmor tibi mortem, / threaten death to you, threaten you with death. Note 2. Jubeo, smo, laedo, delecto, sano^ take an Accusative : temper© and moderor take an Accusative when they mean to govern, but a Dative when they mean to restrain or refrain from. § 119. Q. What is the Passive use of Verbs which in the Active Voice govern a Dative only ? A, They are only used irnper socially in the Passive. Thus, I persuade is ' persuadeo,' but / am persuaded is not ' persuadeor,' but ' persuadetur mihi ' ; literally, it is persuaded to me. ] Lme I. Ostendo, monstro, etc. do. 2. Bico, etc.; invideo; parco ; per- mttto, concedo licet, etc. ; credo. 3. Persuadeo ; impero, mando, etc. ; pareo or obecito. 4. Minor; tgnosco or co?idono ; succurro, auxilior, suhvenio, etc ; plnceo or libet. 5. Have leisure for ; displease. 6. Be a slave to ; he married to ; pay attention to. 7. Medeor ; faveo ; noceo ; resisto or repugtio ; indulge, tonmiafid, permit, hurt, please, heal. -1:^1.] A SHORT CATECHISM OF SYNTAX. 95 On the Ablative Case. § 120. Q. Define the Ablative Case. A, The Ablative is the Case which modifies the meaning of Verbs or Nouns, like an Adverb, especially as regards Place whence, Place where, and Instrument with which. Examples are, a. Place whence, as, Athenis redit. He returns from Athens (§ 103). h. Place where, as, terra marique. By land and sea. Note I. This Ablative is often hardly distinguishable from the !^ocative, on account of the similarity of the endings. Note 2. Here, perhaps, should be noticed the forms magni, at a great irice. parvi, tanti, quanti, etc., which have lately been classed by etymo- ogists as Locatives, though the old grammarians classed them as jrenitives of Value. c. Instrument with which, as, gladio pugnare, to fight with a sword, § 121. Q. What other uses of the Ablative are there .^^ A, (a) Separation, as, oppugnatione desistunt. They desist from the attack, (d) Origin, as, clarissimo patre natus, Born of a most noble father, {c) Comparison (used after Comparative Adjectives, and translated by than), as, Caesar major erat Crasso, Caesar was greater than Crassus. (d) Price (or amount at which), as, hortum tribus talentis emit. He bought a garden for three talents. (e) Time ivhen^ as, tertio anno, in the third year. This Ablative has been already noticed in § loi. (/) Respect, as, aetate provectus. Advanced in age. (g) Measure, as, tribus millibus passuum abcst, He is three miles distant. Especially frequent after Com- parative Adjectives, as, multo major, much greater. 96 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§§ 121- (k) Matter 7m'//i which, as, parvo contentus, cojitejited with a little. (y) Quality (translated by of, and never found except with Adjective in agreement), as, vir summa sapientia, a man of the utmost wisdom. {k) Manner how (usually with Adjective in agreement), as, aut vi aut fraude fit injuria, Injury is caused either by violence or fraud : sua sponte hoc fecit, He did this of his own accord. (I) Cause, as, senectute mortuus est, He died of old age. Note. Of the above uses, a, b, c may be referred more or less closely to Place whence, d, e,/, g to Place where, and A, 7, k, I to Instrument. (ni) Agent by whom, after Passive Verbs, (always used of a living thing, and always requiring the Pre- position a or ab,) as, Caesar a Bruto interfectus est, Caesar was slain by Brutus, (n) Ablative after a Preposition. § 122. Q. What Prepositions govern the Ablative? A. A (ab), absque, coram, de, palam, clam, cum, ex or e, sine, tenus, pro, and prae. And unto these, if rest at be intended. Let in, sub, super, subter be appended. Note. For the meaning of these Prepositions see §§ 348 -363. § 123. Q. What is the Ablative Absolute? A. A construction formed of a Noun and Participle in agreement in the Ablative Case, as, Bello orto, Caesar profectus est, War having arisen^ Caesar set out. Note. Absolute means independent, and the name is given to the construction l^ecause it is independent of the rest of the Sentence, being in fact equivalent to a Subordinate Clause. Thus orto bello is the I same as quum helium ortum essct, and might be rendered 'when war had arisen,' or ' ^ince war had arisen,' or 'though war had ari[:cn,' etc. -128.] A SHORT CATECHISM OF SFNTAX. 97 § 124. Q, What Verbs govern the Ablative? A. Fungor, fruor, utor, vescor, potior, dignor, super- sedeo^ and Verbs of wanting, being full, enrich- ing, or depriving. Note. Impleo, compleo, egeo, indigeo^ are also found with Genitive § 125. Q. What Adjectives govern the Ablative? ^. Dignus, indignus, fretus, extorris, liber ^, and Ad- jectives which signify wanting, being full, ejirich- ing, or depriving. § 126. Q. What Substantives govern the Ablative? A . Opus and usus On the Genitive Case. § 127. Q. Define the Genitive Case. A, The Genitive is the Case which qualifies Nouns, like an Adjective. It is also used as the Direct Object of Nouns and Adjectives, and as the Indirect Object of certain Verbs. § 128. Q. Distinguish between the Subjective and Objective Genitive. A, The Subjective Genitive is a Genitive dependent on a Substantive, and regarded as the Subject from whence that Substantive proceeds, as, Amor Dei, the love of God, i.e. the love which God has for us (where God is the Subject who loves). The Objective Genitive is a Genidve dependent on ' Perform, enjoy, use, eat, get possession of, deem worthy, desist from. Potior also takes a Genitive]. * Fill, fill, be in want, be in want. ^ Worthy, unworthy, relyi?ig on, banished, free. [Dignus and indignus ometimes take a genitive, as, magnorum indignus avorum, unworthy of ly great ancestors']. * Need, use. H 98 LATIN GRAMMAR. m 128. a Substantive, and regarded as the Object toward which that Substantive, is directed, as, Amor Dei love of God, i.e. the love which we have for Got (where God is the Object of our love). § 129. Q. Classify the uses of the Genitive. A, {a) Genitive of the Possessor or Author, as, hort Caesaris, ihe gardens of Caesar; pater Bruti, tk father xf Brutus. (h) Partition (when the Genitive of a Noun signifying a whole is dependent on a Noun signifying a par of that whole), as, magna pars militum, a great par, of the soldiers ; fortissimus Graecorum, the braves^ of the Greeks, (c) Definition (showing of what a thing consists), as. honos consulatus, the honour of the consulship; cadus vini, a cask of wine. (d) Quality (always found with Adjective in agreement), as, vir summae sapientiae, a man of the utmost wisdom. Note I. Quality is also expressed by the Ablative. See § 121 (7). * Note 2. The above are all to be classed as Subjective Genitives. {e) Object of Substantives, as, timor hostium, fear of the enemy. (/) Object of Adjectives, as, avidus laudis, eager for praise. (g) Indirect Object of Verbs, as, me majestatis accusat, he accuses me of treason ; datae fidei reminiscitur, he reynemhers [lit. renwids himself of] his promise' given, (h) Respect or Cause (usually in imitation of Greek constructions), as, integer aevi, unimpaired in age ; rI32.] A SHORT CATECHISM OF SYNTAX, 99 notus in fratres animi paterni, well known for his paternal affection towards his brothers. Note 3. For the Genitive of Value see § 120, 6, Note 2. § 130. Sometimes the Substantive on which a Genitive is dependent s omitted; of this there are two cases, (a) of place, as, ventum erat ad /estae, we had come to Vesta's, i.e. Vesta's temple; just as we savin .English *to go to St. Paul's,' i.e. St. Paul's Cathedral; (6) when the l^overnmg Substantive signifies nature, duty^ or business, as, pastoris est j ondere oves, it is the duty of a shepherd to shear his sheep. In both these |:ases the Genitive is known as Elliptic. § 131. Q. What Verbs govern a Genitive? A. (i) Reminiscor, obliviscor, memini, recordor, misereor, miseresco, potior, interest, and refert; together I with certain Verbs signifying want, as, egeo, m indigeo.^ SVb/f. Reminiscor, obliviscor, memini, and recorder also take an Ac- (pative ; and potior an Ablative. (2) Verbs of accusing, convicting, condemning, acquitting, admonishing, and reminding, take an Accusative of the Person and a Genitive of the Thing, as, Furti me accusat, He accuses me of theft. The Impersonal Verbs. § 132. Q. What is the construction after the Impersonal Verbs ? A. The Unipersonals take an Accusative of the Person, except licet, libet, and liquet, which take a Dative ; and they may all take an Infinitive Mood, as, . Abire me oportet, / ought to go away. Abire mihi licet, / am permitted to go away. Note I. Licet and others sometimes take a Subjunctive with or without t, as, licet mihi abeam, or ut abeam, I am permitted to go away. Note 2. Miseret, piget, paenitet, pudet, and taedet may also lake a enitive of the thing, as, taedet me vitae, / am weary of life. * Remember, forget, remember, remember, pity, pity, get possession of, it akes a difference, it concerns, be in want, be in want. H 2 TOO LATIN GRAMMAR. [§§ Other Verbs used Impersonally take a Dative of the Person, often with an Infinitive, or ut Clause, as, Expedit mihi abire, or, ut abeam, // is expedmit for nu to go aivay. But decet, dedecet, juvat, delectat, fallit, fugit,^ take ar Accusative, as, T e pugnare juvat. You delight in fighting. § 133- Q' What is the construction after interest anc refert ? ^ A, They take a Genitive of the Person, often with ar Infinitive or ut Clause. But instead of mei, tui. sui, nostri, vestri, the forms mea, tua, sua. nostra, vestra, are used, as, Nec Caesaris nec nostra interest ut venias, // is neither of importance to Caesar nor to us that you should come. On the Infinitive Mood. § 134. Q. What is the Infinitive Mood? A. It is, properly speaking, a Verb-Noun, and may be Nominative, as, Dormire est jucundum, to sleep is pleasant^ or sleeping is pleasant, or Accusative, as, Cupio dormire, / wish to sleep. § 135- Q' What are the Gerunds? A. They are Cases of the Infinitive, the Gerund in -dum being Accusative (after a Preposition), the Gerund in -di Genitive, and the Gerund in -do Dative 01 Ablative. * Jt becomes or beseems, 77iisbecomes, delights, delights, escapes oiie's notice^ escapes one's notice. 2 // is of imporlaiice to or viahes a difference to, it coficerns or is OJ importance to. I39-] A SHORT CATECHISM OF SYNTAX, lOI § 136. Q, What are the Supines? A, These are also Cases of the Infinitive, the Supine in -um being Accusative (only used after Verbs of motion, as, eo lusum, I go to play), and the Supine in -u Ablative (of Respect), after Adjectives, as, horrendum dictu, horrible to be told, i. e. horrible in the telling. § 137. Q. How is the Future Infinitive Passive formed? A, By the Supine in -um and iri the Present Infinitive Passive of eo, / go, used hnper sonally , as, credo occisum iri Caesarem, 1 believe that Caesar will be killed ; literally, credo / believe, iri that there is a going, occisum to kill, Caesarem Caesar. On the Gerund and Gerundive. § 138. Q. Can the Gerunds take an Object in the Accusative Case ? A. Sometimes \ as, Efferor studio patres vestros videndi, / am elated with the desire of seeing your fathers. But usually the Noun is put into the Case of the Gerund, and instead of the Gerund the Gerundive is used, agreeing in Gender, Number, and Case with the Noun. § 1 39- Q' Give an example. A. Instead of saying, amor exercendi virtutem, the love of practising virtue, we usually say, amor exercend^?^^ virtut/>. ^ Especially when a Pronoun or Adjective is the Object, as, studio llud videndi, z^/Z/A a desire of seeing that thing; studio multa videndi, 'Ath desire of seeing ma?iy things. This is to prevent amljiguity, because tudio illius videndi might mean with a desire of seeing that man or that king : studio multorum videndorum, might mean with a desire (f seeing lany men, or many things. i02 LATIN GRAMMAR, [§§ 140-j § 140. Q. How is the word ;//^/^/ translated into Latin? A, In the Passive Voice by the Gerundive; in the Active by the forms amandum est, we must love, monen- : dum est, we must advise, etc., which are probably, the neuters of the Gerundive. § 141. Q. Can amandum est take an Accusative of the Object after it, as, Amandum est Deum, We must love God ? A, No; we must say, Amandus est Deus, God must he loved. But after Verbs which only govern the Dative, a Dative of the Object is used, as. Par-, cendum est hostibus. We must spare our emmies. Note. Fungor, fruor, utor, vescor, and potior, which govern an Ab- lative, have both Gerund and Gerundive ; hence we may say, utendum est aetate, we must make use of our age, or, utenda est aetas, (the latter form very rare). § 142. Q. In what case is the Agent, or livt7tg person by whom a thing is done, put after the Gerundive A. In the Dative, as, Canendum est poetae, The poet must sing [literally, * it is to be sung by the poet';] unless the Verb be one of those w^hich only govern a Dative, when a or ab with Ablative must be used, as, Credendum est a poeta. The poet must believe. Note. This is to prevent ambiguity ; nobis credendum est poetae might mean either the poet must believe us or we must believe the poet. Rules for Qui, Quum, and Ut. § 143. Q. What is the rule for the Mood of the Verb after qui ? A. Qui, in its simple sense of who or which, takes the Indicative, as, qui peccat miser est, He ivho sins is miserable. But if there is implied in it since, in order that, or such that, it takes the Subjunc- tive, as, I -146.] A SHORT CATECHISM OF SYNTAX. IC3 Stultus es qui huic credas, Fou are foolish for believing this man. Mittit equites qui agros vastent, He sends cavalry to lay I waste the fields. Non est is qui timeat, He is riot the man to be afraid. § 144. Q. What is the Rule for quum? A. Quum, meaning since or although^ always takes the Subjunctive, as, quae quum ita sint. Since these things are so ; quum, meaning when, takes a Sub- junctive if the sense requires an Imperfect or Plu- perfect Tense ; otherwise it takes the Indicative, as, Quum Athenis essem, When I was at Athens. Quum Athenas pervenisset, When he had arrived at I Athens, Vix haec locutus erat quum clamor exortus est, Scarcely had he said these things when a shout arose, § 145. 0- What is the rule for ut? A. Ut, meaning as, when, or how, takes an Indicative, as, ut vales. How are you ? ut, meaning in order that, or so that, tak-^s a Subjunctive, as, Edimus ut vivamus, We eat that we may live, Tam potens est Deus ut omnia regat, God is so powerful that he rules all things. Note. The Rules given in the three foregoing sections must be understood to apply only to Oratio Recta, so far as the use of the [ndicative is concerned. When the learner has mastered the Note on .he Subjunctive given in §§197-203, he will understand that whenever I Sentence is Oblique the use of an Indicative is inadmissible. § 146. Q. How are in order that . . . not and .v^ that . . . 7iot translated ? A, In order that , , . not by ne ; so that . . . 7iot by ut non. 104 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§§ I47-9. On the Sequence of Tenses. § 147. Q. What is meant by the Sequence of Tenses ? A. The correspondence regularly observed between the tenses of the Principal Verbs in a sentence and those of the Subordinate or Dependent Verbs. § 148. Q. What is the rule for the Sequence of Tenses.? A, Primary Tenses are followed by Primary, Historic by Historic. Examples are : — {a) Oblique Statement, Affirmat, affirmavit, affirmabit, se scribere, scripsisse, scripturum esse, scripturum fuisse. He declares or is declaring ^ has declared , will declare, that he writes or is writing, wrote or has written, will write, would have writteji. Affirmabat, affirmavit, affirmaverat, se scribere, scripsisse, scripturam esse, scripturam fuisse. She was declaring, declared, had declared, that she wrote or ivas writing, had written, imuld write, would have ivritten. Note. After Primary Tenses, scribere and esse are Presents, scripsisse and fuisse Aorists or Perfects ; after Historic Tenses they are Imperfects or Aorists, and Pluperfects, respectively. {b) Oblique Question. Quaero, quaesivi, quaeram, quid scribat, quid scripserit, quid scripturus sit, quid scripturus fuerit. / ask or am asking, I have asked, I shall ask, what he writes or is writing, what he wrote or has written, what he will write, what he would have written. Quaerebam, quaesivi, quaesiveram, quid scriberet, quid scripsisset, quid scriptura esset, quid scriptura fuisset. / was asking, I asked, I had asked, what she wrote or was writing, what she had written, what she would write, what she would have written. APPENDIX. A TABLE OF VERBS, SHEWING THE PRESENT, INFINITIVE, PERFECT, AND SUPINE. Note. — Some Verbs, as lavo, have forms belonging to more than one Conju- gation. These are bracketed and placed in the earliest in order of the Conjugations to which either of the forms can be referred. *5^* Forms enclosed in round brackets, as, (jutum) are rarely used. § 149. First Conjugation. Present. Infinitive. Perfect. amo, -are, amare, -avi, amavic Supine, -atum. amatum. Regular Form, as. Exceptions : — {a) Those having -ui in Perfect, -itum or -turn in Supine. Pres. 1. crepo, 2. cubo, 3. domo, 4. eneco, 5. explico, 6. fnco, 7. mico, 8. seco, 9. sono, o. tono, :i. veto. Inf. Perf. crepare, crepui, cubare, cubiii, domare, domui, enecare, enecui, _ ( explicui, explicare,|g^j;,i^-^i^ fricare, fricui, micare, micui, secare, secui, sonare, sonui, tonare, tonui, vetare, vetui, Supine, crepitum, cubitum, domitum, enectum, Meaning. creak, lie do^n. tatne. k'lll^. explicitum, 1 explicatum, frictum, sectum, sonitum, tonitum, vetitum. rub. glitter^ cut, sound. thunder. forbid. ^ The simple form neco, to hill, is regular. 2 So nearly all compounds of plico, to fold, which has no Perfect or Supine. But duplico, double, multiplico, multiply, supplico, supplici.'e, are regular, nut being compounds of plico. 3 Compounds have -atum in Supine. Dimico, contend, has Perf. -avi or -ui. io6 LATIN GRAMMAR, (b) Those having -vi in Perfect, -turn in Supine. Pres. 1. juvo, 2. lavo, 3. poto, Inf. juvare, J lavare, 1 lavere, Perf. juvi, lavi, (lavavi), potare, potavi, Supine, (jutum), r lautum, < lotum, L lavatum, r potatum, 1 \ potum, J Meaning. drink. (<:) Those having reduplicated ^ Perfect, -turn in Supine. 1. do, dare, dedi, datum, 2. sto, stare, steti, statum, gi've, stand ^ § 150. Second Conjugation. Pres. Inf. Perf. -eo, -ere, -ui, moneo, monere, monui. Supine, -itum. monitum. Regular Form, as. Exceptions : — {a) Those having regular Perf. in -ui, but -turn or -sum in Supine. Pres. Inf. Perf. I. censeo. censere. censui. 2. doceo. docere. docui. 3. misceo. miscere. miscui, 4- retineo. retinere, retinui 5. torreo. torrere. torrui. { Supine, censum, doctum, mixtum, [ mistum, J retentum, tostum. Meaning. reckon y think, teach, mix, retain ^. parch. (6) Those having -vi (-ui) in Perf., -turn or -itum in Supine. aboleo, abolere, abolu^' } abolitum, abolish. f adoleo, 'ladolesco, adoles- tadolui adolere, ;adoIevi,-j_ cere, {enlarge, gro^ *. * That is, having the first consonant of the Present, together with a vowel, prefixed to the Perfect Tense, as do, de-d\. In the Perfects of compound Verbs the initial consonants of the Verb, not of the Preposition, appear as the redupHcation of the Perfect, e.g. consto, con-s//ti. ^ The compounds make -sttti in Perf, as, praesto, praestiti, and seldom have a Supine. ^ So all compounds of teneo,' to hold, which has no Supine. * Adoleo (iisiially in Perf. adolui), io erdarge, hence as sacrificial term (i) /o honour by sacrifice, (2) to burn sacrifice. Adolesco (tisually in Perf. adolevi), £0 grow (inlrans.). -I50.] APPENDIX, 107 Pres. 3. conTveo, 4. deleo, J ferveo, ^*\fervo, 6. fleo, 7. impleo, 8. neo, 9. paveo, Inf. delere, fervere, fervere, flere, implere, nere, pavere, Perf. fconivi, \ tconixi, J delevi, ferbui, 1 fervi, J flevi, implevi, nevi, pavi, Supine. deletum, fletum, impletum, netum, Meaning. avink. destroy, boil. fill'- spin, be afraid. {/) Those having -si in Perf., -sum or -turn in Supine. I. absorbeo, absorbere, (absorptum), s^uuallonju up'^, be cold, be on fire, make bigger. glitter. 2. algeo, 3. ardeo, 4. augeo, rfulgeo, ^•Ifulgo, 6. frigeo, 7. haereo, tabsorbui, J alsi, arsi, auxi, algere, ardere, augere, fulgere, 1 fulgere, J frigere, haerere, 8. indulgeo, indulgere, indulsi, 9. jubeo, jubere, jussi 10. maneo, manere, 11. lugeo, lugere, 12. mulceo, mulcere, arsum, auctum, fulsi, (frixi), haesi, 13. mulgeo, 14. rideo, 15. suadeo, 16. torqueo, rtergeo, ''Itergo, 18. turgeo, 19. urgeo, mulgere, ridere, suadere, torquere, tergere, \ tergere, J turgere, urgere, mansi, luxi, mulsi, mulsi, risi, suasi, torsi, tersi, tursi, ursi, haesum, (indultum), jussum, mansum, (luctum), mulsum, / (mulsum), \ tmulctum, J risum, suasum, tortum, tersum, be cold. stick. indulge. command. remainja^ait, mourn. soothe. milk. laugh, aduise. t^ist. ivijpe. s^ell, urge. (d) Those having -i in Perf., -turn or -sum in Supine. 1. caveo, cavere, cavi, cautum, beware. 2. faveo, favere, favi, fautum, 3. foveo, fovere, fovi, fotum, 4. moveo, movere, movi, motum, 5. voveo, vovere, vovi, votum, fanjour. cherish. 'VOW. ^ So all compounds of * pleo/ to fill, which is never found in an unconi- pounded form. 2 So all compounds of sorbeo, sorbGre, sorbui, no Sup., to swallow. io8 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§§ 150- Pres. Inf. Perf. Supine. Meaning. 6. prandeo, prandere, prandi, pransum, dine. 7. respondeo, respondere,respondi, responsum, answer ^, 8. sedeo, sedere, sedi, sessum, sit'^, 9. video, videre, vidi, visum, see, (e) Those having redupKcated Perf., -sum in Supine. mordeo, pendeo, spondeo, tondeo. mordere, pendere, spondere, tondere. momordi, pependi, spopondi, totondi, morsum, pensum, sponsum, tonsum, (/) Semi- deponent Verbs. ausus sum, audeo, gaudeo, soleo, audere, gaudere, solere. gavisus sum, solitus sum, bite, be suspended. promise. shear. dare, rejoice, be accustomed. (g) The following have regular Perfect but seldom or never a Supine : — arceo, ^ward off; caleo, be ^arm (calitum) ; egeo, be in qjoant ; ^or^o^ flourish ; horreOj shudder ; \2ite0, lie hid ; madeo, be q.uet ; niteo, shine ; oleo, sme/I ; pateo, lie open ; rigeo, be stiff; rubeo, be red; sileo, be silent; studeo, pay attention to; stupeo, be amazed: tepeo, be rjjarm ; timeo, fear ; tumeo, swell; vigeo, flourish; vireo, be green. § 151. Third Conjugation. No regular form. Infinitive ends in -ere. The principal va- rieties of Conjugation are the following : — {a) Those having -si in Perf., -turn in Supine. \lSlote, Perfects in -xi are considered as ending in -si, since x is only a double letter standing for cs, gs, ks, or qs.] Pres. allTcio, aspicio, carpo, cingo, como, Inf. allicere, aspicere, carpere, cingere, comere. Perf. allexi, aspexi, carpsi, cinxi, compsi, Supine, allectum, aspectum, carptum, cinctum, comptum. Meaning. entice ^. behold^, pluck, surround, adorn. ^ So all compounds of spondeo, to promise. ^ The compounds, except circumsedeo and supersedeo, make -sideo, -sessum, as obsideo, to besiege. ^ So all compounds [except ' elicio '] of the unused Verb lacio, to entice. * So all compounds of the unused Verb specio, to see. li, J APPENDIX. lOQ Pres. Inf. Perf. Supine. IVTcfining 6. contemno, contemnere,contempsi, contemptiim, despise ^. 7* coquo, coquere. coxi, dempsi, coctum, cook. 8. demo, demere, demptum. take a^vay. 9- dlco, dicere, dixi. dictum. say. tell. JO. duco, ducere. duxi. ductum. emungo, emungere. emunxi. emunctum. bl o) homin-is. hirundo, Carthago, s^walloau, Carthage, ?) hirundin-is. >) Carthagin-is. caro, flesh, ?; carn-is. -AR. calcar, spur, » calcar-is. Caesar, Caesar^ >> Caesar-is. far. corn. farr-is. -ER. career,^ prison, carcer-is. pater, father. » patr-is. iter. journey, itTner-is. ver. spring. vOr-is. ^ From faber," smith, talentum, talent, deni, ten apiece. ^ God, man, children. 124 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§ iS^.' -OR. labor, labour, Gen. labor-is. arbor, tree. „ arbor-is. cor, heart. „ cord-is. -UR. fnlp-iir licrhtnino'. strength. fulgur-is. robur. „ robor-is. fur. thief. ., fOr-is. cTvitas, state. ,, civitat-is. anat-is. as. as \di L.U1I1/, mas. ynale. mar-is. vas. surety. vad-is. vas, > uase. ,, vas-is. -JIjO. nubes. cloud. nub-is. merces, pay, JOOt, merced-is. pes. ped-is. hos t age , CGres, Ceres, ,, Gerer-is, aes. copper. ,, aer-is. seges. cornfield, ,, seget-is. quies, rest, ,, quiet-is. miles, soldier, milit-is. avis, tigris. hit- /I uiru. av-is. tiger. ,, tigr-is, tigrid-is. Is^pis, stone. ,, lapid-is. sanguis, bl ood, sanguin-is. cinis. ash. ciner-is. 2"lis UUl f/lUliJC, semis. half-an-as. semiss-is. lis, lanjusuit. , lit-is. -OR guardian. sacerdos, priest. „ sacerdot-is. OS, mouth. „ 6r-is. OS, bone. OSS-is. -T7R opus. ^ork, body. ,, oper-is. corpus. ,, corpor-is. palus. marsh, r\ilnri_ic ,, pdlULl-lD. T\c»r>nc pcL. US, beast ^ ,, pecud~is,pecor~is. tellus. earth. „ telliar-is. virtus. 'virtue. „ virtiit-is. sus. sowo. „ su-is. -BS. urbs. city. „ urb-is. -MS. hiems. winter. „ hiem-is. -NS. frons. leaf, „ frond-is. frons, forehead, „ front-is. APPENDIX. -PS. stirps, stem J Gen. stirp-is. princeps, chief. jj princTp-is. auceps, birdcatcher. aucup-is. -B.S. pars, part, part-is. -T. caput. head, capTt-is. -AX. pax, peace. pac-is. fax. torch. J) fac-is. r>r»llpv thuTTib , >) poUic-is. nex. death, nec-is. lex, la> sen-is. -IX. salix. radic-is. strix, screech-o^l. strig-is. nix. sno ^ 5- .S^ ^ '5 ^ 5^ 5- -a 1^ > J- JO) CD CO 2 S ^ S g ^ c 5 CT* Cr t/) c/3 O m if) -rJ ili H £ -a ^ ^ cq O i cu p p ^ rr-K ' '♦"^ _J ^—d T"! in^ m C o V 'k^ rv^^ 1^ i5 ^ S S3 )0 ! 5P 2 p t :3.p S £ S o S 2 ^ • o )o joi c )p ^ i g > I- P c o o S ^ § i64.] APPENDIX. I cAi QJ c2 §^3? S! g § E2 ? 'i' n ^3 ^3 'So as '^n .boicd .a 'g -^'2 c c y ^ ^ u u OOOOOOOOmOOO ro-^iOvot^OO a\ O O O O O M M ', from gaudeo; amor, lo've^ from amo ; usus, use^ from utor. -i69.] APPENDIX. (4) -mentum and -men express means of attaining that which the Verb denotes, as, documentum, means of teach- ing, from doceo ; tutamen, means of defence, from tutor. (5) -ulum, -bulum, -culum, denote instrument, as, jac-ulum, instrument for throwing, from jacio. (b) Substantives derived from other Substantives. (1) -lus, -la, -lum [the termination varies according to the gender of the Primitive Substantive], express diminutives. These terminations assume various forms, e. g. -ulus, -cuius, -ellus, -illus; as, cornic-ula, a little croqv, from cornix ; corni-culum, a little horn, from cornu ; libellus, a little book, from liber ; lapillus, a little stone, from lapis. Note, -leus is sometimes a diminutive ending, as, equuleus, a colt, from equus. (2) -ium denotes either an office, as, sacerdotium, />r/>j/^oo^/, the office of the sacerdos ; or an assemblage of indi'viduals, as, collegium, a college, or assembly of collegae. (3) -etum denotes 2. place qju here plants gro^, as quercetum, a gro've of oaks, from quercus ; salictum {for salicetum), a J? ^> ^* Labials, pThe hp sounds, viz./, b, m/f^nj, ^ § 179. Syllables, etc. Ultima, The last syllable of a word. Penultima. The last syllable but one. Antepenultima, The last syllable but two. Enclitic. A name given to words which are attached to the end of some other word in the sentence, as -que, and. § 180. Nouns. Parisyllabic. Having the same number of syllables in the Oblique Cases as in the Nominative, i. e. not increasing. Imparisyllabic. Increasing in the Oblique Cases. Root, The Root of a word is that part which it has in common with other kindred words. Thus the root of bellator, a (war- rior^ is bell^ which it has in common with bellum and bellare. ^ouns of Common Gender, Nouns which can be used either as Masculine or Feminine, to suit the sex referred to, as, parens, a parent ; see § 154 b. Nouns of Epicene Gender. Certain names of animals having only one Gender, whichever be the sex referred to, as, passer, Masc. a sparrow ; vulpes, Fem. a fox, aquTla, Fem. an eagle. To indicate sex, when necessary, the words mas or femina are used, as mas passer, cock-sparrow. Nouns of Doubtful Gender. Nouns which are used either Mascu- line or Feminine, without regard to the sex signified, as, talpa, Masc. or Fem., a mole, L 146 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§§ 181- § 181. Verbs. Aorist ( = Indefinite). Properly the Tense denoting Indefinite Time, whether Past, Present, or Future (see p. 67), but in Latin restricted to Past Time. Protasis and Apodosis. In a Conditional Sentence, as, Si voluisset, fecisset, the si clause is called the Protasis, the other the Apodosis. § 182. Etymological Figures. Assimilation. When a consonant changes itself to one which follows it, or to one like that which follows ; thus, sub-pono becomes suppono ; in-berbis becomes imberbis. Aphaeresis, Gutting off letters from beginning, as, nosco for gnosco. Syncope, Taking away from middle, as, periclum for periciilum. Apocope. Gutting off from end, as, die for dice. Antithesis, Changing one letter for another, as, bubus for bobus. Metathesis. Transposition of a letter or syllable, as, columns for corulnus, accerso for arcesso. Tmesis. Separation of parts of a compound word by the inser- tion of one or more words between the parts, as, septem subjecta trioni for subjecta septemtrioni. § 183. Syntactical Figures. Ellipse. Omission of something, e. g. of a Substantive, as, ferina, njenison [supply caro] ; of a Verb, as. Nam Polydorus ego. For I am Polydorus [supply sum]. Pleonasm. Using more words than are necessary to express the meaning, as, sic ore locutus est, where * ore ' is redundant. Zeugma. When two words or two clauses have the same Verb, which does not apply equally to both ; so that for one of them another Verb (to be gathered from the sense of the passage) must be mentally supplied, as, Inccptoque et scdibus haeret in isdem. He abides by his resol've, and remains seated in the same place. Asyndeton. Omission of Conjunctions, as, veni, vidi, vici. Hendiadys. Use of two Substantives instead of Substantive and Adjective to express one object, as, pateris libamus et auro for libamus aureis pateris. Enallage. Use of one word for another, e. g. one Part of Speech for another, one Case for another, use of Singular for Phiral, etc. Hypallage. Interchange of Cases, as, dare classibus Austros,/or dare classes Austris, or using an Adjective in agreement with a Noun other than that to which it belongs in sense, as, sagitta celeres transilit umbras. -1 84.] APPENDIX. Prolepsis, The poets sometimes put an Adjective or Participle in agreement with a Substantive, though the quality implied cannot belong to it until the action of the Verb to which the Substantive belongs is completed ; as, Scuta latentia condunt, which means, They sto^ a^vay the shields so that they become hidden, i.e. hide the shields out of sight ; where latentia is said to belong to scuta proleptically, that is, by anticipation. Com- pare the English phrases ^ to strike a man dead,^ ' to beat him black and blue,' etc., and Macbeth, Act iii. Sc. 4, ^ Ere humane statute purged the gentle weal.' Synesis or Constructio ad Sensum. When the Verb agrees not in grammar but in sense with its Subject, the Adjective with its Substantive, or the Relative with its Antecedent, as, fatale moxistrum, quae, etc., Hor. Od. I, xxxvii. 21. See also §§ 216, 220. Anacoluthon. When the latter part of a sentence does not agree in syntax with the former; which sometimes happens when a parenthetical clause has intervened, so that the author has lost sight of the construction with which he set out. § 184. Prosody. Foot, A name given to a set of two or more syllables by which lines of Latin poetry are divided. Scansion. \ The distribution of a verse of poetry into its proper Scanning, } feet. Dactyl. A foot consisting of one long and two short syllables, as, carmma. Spondee. A foot consisting of two long syllables, as, mensas. Other kiiids of feet. Pyrrhic, ^ ; Iambus, ^ - ; Trochee, - ; Anapaest, -; Tribrach, . Hexameter six; fxerpov, measure). Averse of six feet, of which the first four may be either Dactyls or Spondees, the fifth must be a Dactyl, and the sixth a Spondee, as, TTtyre | tu patu|lae reculbans sub | tegmme | fag"i||. Pentameter {jrivTe^fi've). Averse of five feet. It has two divisions, each consisting of two feet and a long syllable, the two long syllables virtually constituting the fifth foot. The first half may have either Dactyls or Spondees, the second half Dactyls only, as. Res est | sollici | ti || plena ti | moris a | mor || . Note I. The last syllable of a verse may be either long or short, but a short vowel- Q\\6\v\g should be avoided, especially in the Pentameter. Note 2. A Hexameter should end with a trisyllable or dissyllable word* A Pentameter should end with a dissyllable, which should be either a Sub* stantive. Verb, or Personal or Possessive Pronoun. L 2 148 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§§ 184- Caesura. The point in a verse where a word ends, so as to cut [caedo] the foot in two, and the voice pauses a little. In a Hexameter line a Caesura should usually occur in the third foot, as, Tityre | tu patu | lae recu | bans, etc. Penthemimeral Caesura (nevre, fi've, rj/jLLy half^ iJL€poSj a part). A Caesura after the fifth haljf-foot, as in the line just given. Hepthemimeral Caesura {enrdj seuen). A Caesura occurring after the seventh half-foot, as, Form5 | sam reso | nare do | ces Ama | ryllida | sTlvas||. Strong and Weak Caesura, In the Hexameter last given the 3rd foot contains what is called a qjueak^ the 4th a strong Caesura. Catalectic, A name given to a verse which is incomplete by one syllable. Thus, each of the two divisions of the Pentameter is said to be Catalectic. Metre or Measure (fierpov) is used in two senses ; — (a) A definite system or combination of particular Ferses ; e. g. the Elegiac Metre, the Iambic Metre, etc. {b) A definite portion of a particular Verse. In Verses made up of Dactyls and Spondees, like the Hexameter and Pentameter, one Foot makes a Metre, (hence the name //^.vameter, the six-measure verse, and Petitd- meter, the Jiue-measure 'verse). But in Verses made up of Anapaests, Tribrachs, Iambics, or Trochees, a Metre consists of t^o feet. Hence the Iambic senarius, or Verse of six Feet, is called an Iambic Tr/meter. Arsis and Thesis (apais, deais). The syllable on which the Ictus or stress of the voice falls is said to be in Arsis. In Dactylic Verses the first syllable of each foot is in Arsis, the other syllable or syllables being in Thesis. A short syllable in Arsis is sometimes lengthened by the force of the Ictus, as, LTmina | que laur | usque de | i, etc. Synaloepha. Elision (or cutting off) of a final vowel before another vowel or h at the beginning of the following word, as, siirg' ag' et,ybr surge age et, and polluer' hospitmm for poUuere hospitmm. Heu and O are never elided. Ecthlipsis, Elision of m and its vowel in the same way, as, monstr* horrend' informe, etc., for monstrum, horrtMidum Tnforme. Synaeresis. Contraction of two vowels inta one, as, demdc for delnde. Diaeresis, Resolution of one vowel into two, or of a diphthong into two vowels, as, evoliiisse for evolvTsse, aquaiVor aquae. -1 85.] APPENDIX. 149 LAWS OF QUANTITY. ^ § 185. General Rules. {a) Most monosyllables are long, as, me, par, hic (the Adverb). Exceptions. Words in b, d, 1, and t, Words enclitic, -que, -ne, -ve, Es (from sum)^, the Pronoun is, Nominatives mc and quis, An and cor, nec, fac, and fer, In, vir, CIS, per, bis, and ter. (^) A vowel before another vowel, or before h, in the same word, is short, as mens, prohibeo. Exceptions, (a) Many Greek words, as Aeneas ; (6) diei, aulai, and the like ; dius, eheu, ohe, Diana ; (c) the i in fio, except before er, as, omnia jam fiunt, fieri quae possje negabam ; (d) the i of Genitives in -ius, which is sometimes doubtful, as unius, illius, but short in alterius, utrius, long in alius, solius, totius. (c) All diphthongs and contracted syllables are long, as aut, praeter, ml (for nihil). Exception. Prae is shortened before a vowel, as praeustus. (d) A vowel before two consonants, or before j, x, z, in the same word, is long by position^ as ventus, Ajax, rexi, Amazon. Exceptions. Bijugus, quadrijugus. Note I. This rule applies also to final syllables ending in a Consonant, when the next word in the verse begins with a Consonant. Thus the sylla- bles -or, -at, nec, sit in the following line are long by position : — Talis am | or tene | at nec | sit mihi | cura med | eri ||. Note 2. A short final vowel cannot remain short before any word be- ginning with sc, sm, sp, sq, st, x, or z, except smaragdus, Scamander, Xanthus, Zacynthus. Virgil has lengthened such a vowel once, perhaps, in the doubtful reading date | tel^ | scandite | muros||, lEn. ix. 37, but this is a licence which must never be imitated. Avoid the position altogether. {e) A vowel short by nature becomes doubtful before a mute (§ 178) when followed by / or r, rarely when followed by m or n. Thus pater has Gen. patris. (But a long vowel always remains long : thus, the Gen. of mater is always matris, never matris.) Exceptions. In compound words this rule is not often observed : thus, ah and ob in ab-luo ob-ruo, are never shortened ; the re in re-pleo, re-primo, etc., is never lengthened. (/) Derived words usually follow the quantity of their primi- tives, as perlego from lego, legere, but ablego from lego, legare. There are however many exceptions to this rule. {g) Dissyllabic Perfects are long, as vidi. Exceptions, Bibi, dedi, fidi, Steti, tiili, scidi. LATIN GRAMMAR. {h) Dissyllabic Supines are long, as visum. Exceptions. Datum, itum, litiim, quitum, Ratum, rutum, satum, situm. Also citum from cieo, citum from cio; statum from sisto, statum from sto. (y) Pro in composition is generally long, as procedo. Exceptions. Procella, pronepos, propero, protervus ; and generally where /follows, as proficiscor, profundus. But profero, proficio, profui. {k) Re in composition is short, as refert (from refero). Exceptions, Refert (the Impersonal), religio, reliquiae, reperit, repulit, retulit. (The last three are often written repperit, reppulit, rettulit.) § 186. Final Syllables. (a) Rule for long final syllables ; — Final A, I, O, U, C, AS, ES, OS, must lengthened be. (1) Exceptions to a long are ita, quia, eja, and Nominative, Vocative, and Accusative Cases (except Vocatives of Greek Nouns in -as). (2) Exceptions to i long are nisi, quasi ; Greek Vocatives and Datives, as Alexi. Palladt; and the doubtful vowels mihi, tibi, sibi, ubi, ibi. Compounds of ubi, except ubique, are short, as ubivis. (3) Exceptions to o long are cito, ego, modo, quomodo, duo, homo. The o of the First Person Singular of Verbs is said to be common, but except in scio, nescio, volo, putd, it is almost always found long. (4) Exceptions to c long are fac, nec, donee, hic. (5) Exceptions to as long are anas, vas (vadis), and most Greek Cases of the 3rd Declension in -as. (6) Exceptions to es long are penes, es (from sum) and its compounds, and -es of the 3rd Declension increasing short as seges. But aries, abies, paries, Ceres, pes. (7) Exceptions to os long are compos, impos, os (ossis), and Greek words in -OS, as epos. (Z*) Rule for short final syllables : — Finals reckoned short are E, B, D, L, R, N, and T, IS and US ; nor place deny To words from Greek in YS and Y. (1) Exceptions to e short are the final e of 5th Decl., as die, and Adverbs derived therefrom, as hodie, quare ; 2nd Sing. Imperative of 2nd Conj., as mone ; Adverbs (except bene, male) derived from Adjectives in -us and -er; Greek Nouns in -77. (2) Exceptions to / short are sal and sol. (3) Exceptions to r short are far, fur, ver, cur, par, with its compounds; Greek nouns in -rjp. -191.] APPENDIX, (4) Exceptions to ti short are en, n5n, quin, and Greek words in -rjv or -oov, (5) Exceptions to is short are Dat. and Abl. Plural ; Nouns of 3rd Decl. in -is increasing long, as SamnTs (itis) ; 2nd Pers. Sing, of Tenses which have 2nd Pers. PI. in -itis,^as audis. The 2nd Sing. Put. Perf. and Perf. Subj. is doubtful, as amaveris, (6) Exceptions to us short are all the cases of 4th Decl. except Norn, and Voc. Sing. ; Nouns of 3rd Decl. in -us i?icreasing long, as servitus ; Greek Nouns in -ovs, Lat. -us, as Panthus. PARSING FORMS. § 187. Substantive. is a Substantive, from {state here ^hat it makes in the Geniti'ue), ■ Gender, Number, Case. Account for the Case, by reference to the explanations given in the Syntax ; for example, if the word be in the Genitive Case, state what kind of Genitive it is, and on what word it is dependent. § 188. Adjective. is an Adjective of Terminations, from , Gender, Number, Case, agreeing with . Note, If it be a Comparative or Superlative Adjective, state the fact, and give the Positive; thus, Migniori is an Adjective of two Terminations, from dignior, the Comparative of dignus, etc' If it be a Numeral or Quasi-numeral, state the fact. § 189. Personal or Keflexive Pronoun. is a Pronoun, from , Gender, Num- ber, Case. Account for the Case, as with Substantives. § 190. Adjectival Pronoun. is a Pronoun, from Gender, Number, Case, agreeing with . If it be a Relative Pronoun, or a Demonstrative used as a Personal Pronoun, account for the Case, as with Substantives. § 191. Verb. is a Verb, from {here gi've the chief parts of the Verb), Voice, Mood,^ Tense, Number, Person,^ agreeing with its Nominative . If an Infinitive, omit Number, Person, and Agreement. For an Impersonal Verb, omit Person and Agreement, and after the word 'Number' add the words 'used Impersonally.' ^ Account for the Mood, if a Subjunctive. 2 Or Person, Number, Tense, Mood, Voice. 152 LATIN GRAMMAR, [§§ 192-9.] § 192. Participle. is from , the {here state the 7ense and Foice) Par- ticiple of the Verb {here gi've the chief parts of the Ferb)^ Gender, Number, Case, agreeing with • . Note. If a Gerundive, omit Tense and Voice. In parsing the forms amandum est, monendum est, etc., there is no agreement with any Substantive; therefore, after the word 'Case' add the words ' Neuter Gerundive Construction, implying necessity.' § 193. Gerund or Supine. is a Gerund {or Supine) in , from the Verb {gi've chief parts of the Verb), Case. Account for the Case. § 194. Particles. {a) is an Adverb. (If Comparative or Superlative Degree, name the Positive). State what word it modifies. {b) is a Preposition governing the Case. (f) is a Conjunction, connecting and . {d) is an Interjection. § 195. Example. Tum senex recitavit judicibus eam fabulam quam proxime scripserat, then the old 7nan read out to the judges the play ( Num meum ) an tuum est hoc ? I wish to know whether this is yours or mine. Scire volo , an tuum hoc sit. utrum meum meumne num meum Notes. Num followed by an is rare. Utrum, -ne, num, are sometimes omitted in these double questions, as, eloquar an sileam, shall I speak or be silent? -No is sometimes used for an, as, albus aterno fueris ignorans, not blowing whether yon were luhite or black. §293. Can he do this or not Utrum hoc facere potest annon? I wished to know whether he Scire volui utrum hoc facere could do this or not. necne posset. Rule. For or not use an non in Oratio Recta, necne in Oratio Obliqua. § 294. It is uncertain whether Incertum est an sine vi hoc he will do this without com- facturus sit. pulsion. Rule. After Verbs of (U)u})t or uncertainty, the first clause of a double question is often omitted, and an is translated whether. In the above example supply utrum vi coactus after incertum est to complete the sense. See article on an in Andrews' Dictionary. -297-] APPENDIX, 1/3 * Would,' the sign of the Future Tense in Oblique Sentences. § 295. Active Voice. {a) He would love. Amaret. He said that he would love. Dixit se amaturiim esse. With Verbs that have no Supine and consequently no Future Infini- tive [which is formed from the Supine] the phrase, ' fore ut ' or ' futurnm esse ut,' with Imperf. Subjunctive is used, as, ' I hoped the boys would learn,' ' Speravi fore [or futurum esse] ut pueri discerent.' It was uncertain whether he Amaturusne esset incertum would love. erat. {b) He would have loved. Amavisset. He said that he would have Dixit se amaturum fuisse. loved. With Verbs having no Supine, ' futurum fuisse ut,' with Imperfect Sub- junctive would be used. It is doubtful whether he would An amaturus fuerit in dubio have loved. est. § 296. Passive Voice. {a) He would be loved. Amaretur. He said that he would be loved. Dixit se amatum iri. With Verbs having no Supine, ' fore ut ' or ' futurum esse ut,* with Sub- junctive, would be used. It was uncertain whether he Incertum erat an amaretur. would be loved. The Passive has no Special form for the Future Subjunctive. 'Incertum erat an amaretur * therefore may mean, ' It was uncertain whether he would be loved,' or, 'It was uncertain whether he was loved.' Such a form as * futurum esset ut amaretur' is not found. But a Latin writer would prob- ably resort to some contrivance for avoiding this ambiguity, such as changing the construction from a Passive to an Active form, &c. (b) He would have been loved. Amatus esset. He said that he would have Dixit futurum fuisse ut ama- been loved. retur. Quod. §297. They accused Socrates, Socratem accusarunt, quod on the ground of his corrupt- juventuteni corrumperet, re ing the youth, but in reality tamen ipsa quia in suspici- because he had become sus- onem magistratibus venerat. pected by those in power. They condemned Marcus to Marcum capitis _ damnarunt death on the charge of killing quod patrem occidissct. his father. 174 LATIN GRAMMAR, [§§ 297- The general refused to fight, Dux pugnam detrectavit, non not because he feared, but be- quod timeret, sed quia cunc- cause he wished to delay. tari voluit. Rule. Quod, because, takes an Indicative, except when it expresses (i) an alleged reason, as in the first two of the above examples, (2) after the Negative Adverb, a supposed or possible reason, a reason which might be the true one, but is not necessarily so, as in the last example. The true reason in such cases is usually expressed by quia or quod with Indicative. Future Time. §298. I will do it if I am able. He said he would do it if he were able. When I return I will speak of these things. He said that when he returned he would speak of those things. Faciam, si potero. Dixit se, si posset, facturum. Quum rediero, de his rebus dicam. Dixit se, quum rediisset, de iis rebus dicturum. Rule. When the Principal Verb of an Oratio Recta is in the Future, Subordinate Verbs, especially when introduced by Temporal or Conditional Conjunctions, must, as a rule, be in the Future also ; in the Future Simple Tense, if the action be contemporaneous with that of the Principal Verb, in the Future Perfect if it be anterior. But in Oratio Obliqua such Subor- dinate Verbs are put in the Present, Perfect, Imperfect, or Pluperfect Sub- junctive. See Madvig, §§ 339, Obs. I., 340, and 378 (4). In the English idiom the futurity of the Subordinate Clause is lost sight of. Construction of summus, medius, &c. § 299. He was standing on the top of a tower. He said he was standing on the top of a tower. They said he