978,101 K875ar 3 ARCHAEOLOGICAL TEST EXCAVATIONS OF FOUR SITES AT FORT RILEY, RILEY AND GEARY COUNTIES, KANSAS by Paul P. Kreisa and Gregory R. Walz Public Service Archaeology Program Research Report No. 29 2 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN BOOKSTACKS REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE Form Approved OMB No. 0704-0188 Puouc reporting puroen lor thu collection of information '\ ejnmaied to jverage I hour per 'eipon^e. including the time tor reviewing instruction*, searching timing aata source*, gathering ina maintaining the a j i j needed, and completing ano 'eviewinq the collection of information Send comment! regarding thu burden estimate or any other aioect of thu collection ot information, including suggestion* lor leducmg thu ouroen. to Wasnmqton Meaoauarter* Service*. Directorate tor information Operation* and Report*. 'JlS Jetlenon Divn Highway. Suite WO*. Arlington. VA 22207-J30}. and to the OHice ol Management and Budget. Paperwork Reduction Proiect (0704-0 188). Washington. DC 20503. 1. AGENCY USE ONLY (Leave blank) 2. REPORT DATE January 1997 3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED Final 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas 6. AUTHOR(S) Paul P. Kreisa and Gregory R. Walz j. FUNDING NUMBCaS DACA88-94-D-000! Delivery No. 14 7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) Public Service Archaeology Program Dept . of Anthropology University of Illinois, Urbana, II. 61801 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NUMBER Research Report 29 9. SPONSORING /MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) United States Army Construction Engineering Laboratories Champaign, II. 61826-9005 10. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY REPORT NUMBER 11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES 12a. DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY STATEMENT 12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE 13. A8STRACT (Maximum 200 words) In 1996 the NRHP evaluation of four sites was conducted at Fort Riley. Sites included 14RY3193, a World War Ientertainment complex, 14RY5155, a prehistoric lithic scatter, 14RY3183, a mjlticomponent prehistoric site, and 14GE3108, a 19th to 20th cer.tury railroad station agent's house. Site 14RY3183, is recommended as eligible for the NRHP, while 14RY5155 lacks integrity and therefore is not condisidered eligible for the NRHP. Historical documentary research is recommended for 14RY3193 and 14GE3108 prior to NRHP determination. 14. SU8JECT TERMS Archeology, Geophysical Survey, Historic, Prehistoric, SMoky Hills, Kansas, Flint Hills 15. NUMBER OF PAGES 16. PRICE CODE 17. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF REPORT 18. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE 19. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF ABSTRACT 20. LIMITATION OF ABSTRACT ^^^^^^^^^^^- Standard Form 298 (Rev 2-89) Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2013 http://archive.org/details/archaeologicalte29krei ARCHAEOLOGICAL TEST EXCAVATIONS OF FOUR SITES AT FORT RILEY, RILEY AND GEARY COUNTIES, KANSAS For Submission To: U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories Champaign, Illinois 61826-9005 Contract No. DACA88-94-D-0008 Delivery Order No. 0014 By: Paul P. Kreisa Gregory R. Walz Research Report No. 29 Dr. Paul P. Kreisa, Principal Investigator Public Service Archaeology Program Department of Anthropology University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 109 Davenport Hall 607 South Mathews Avenue Urbana, Illinois 61801 January 1997 ABSTRACT In April and June 1996 crews from the Public Service Archaeology Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, conducted a Phase II (Kansas Phase III) National Register of Historic Places evaluation of four archaeological sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary counties, Kansas, for the United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories (USACERL). The investigations were designed to yield information necessary to evaluate the sites for listing in National Register of Historic Places. Site 14RY3183, a late prehistoric site located adjacent to a tributary drainage of the Kansas River; 14RY3193, an historic site dating to World War I and known as Army City; 14RY5155, a prehistoric site located on a tributary of the Kansas River; and 14GE3108, an historic site known as the Station Agent House site; were investigated. Investigations at 14RY3183 identified an intact midden deposit. The upper portion dates to the Early Ceramic and Middle Ceramic periods while the lower portion may date to the Archaic period. Based on the integrity of deposits along with the potential of artifacts recovered during the excavations to yield information important to understanding the prehistory of northeastern Kansas, 14RY3183 is recommended as eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places. Investigations at 14RY5155 revealed that most of the archaeological deposits have been impacted by ground disturbance. Based on the poor integrity of deposits and paucity of artifacts at this site, 14RY5155 is not recommended as eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places. The other two sites investigated, 14RY3193 and 14GE3108, both early twentieth-century historic sites, have not been evaluated for inclusion in the NRHP. Detailed documentary research, not included under the USACERL Scope of Work, is needed before either of these two sites can be adequately evaluated. Detailed documentary research is recommended for both of these sites prior to formal evaluation. in TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES vii LIST OF TABLES ix ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xi CHAPTER 1 . INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 2. ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING 7 Geology 7 Soils 9 Climate and Climate Change 10 Biotic Resources 11 Summary , 12 CHAPTER 3. CULTURAL CONTEXT 15 Previous Archaeological Research 15 Prehistoric Context 17 Historic Period 24 The Civilian History of Fort Riley 26 The Military History of Fort Riley 44 CHAPTER 4. RESEARCH GOALS 53 Prehistoric Period Research Domains 53 Historic Period Research Domains 54 Summary 55 CHAPTER 5. FIELD AND LABORATORY METHODS 57 Field Methods 57 Laboratory Methods 58 Site Forms 63 Curation 63 Metadata Collection 64 CHAPTER 6. RESULTS OF INVESTIGATIONS 65 14RY3183 65 14RY3193 86 14RY5155 100 14GE3108 Ill TABLE OF CONTENTS CONCLUDED Page CHAPTER 7. SUMMARY OF EVALUATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 131 Summary of Investigations 131 Summary of Metadata 1 36 REFERENCES CITED 139 APPENDIX A. ARTIFACT INVENTORY 159 APPENDIX B. LOCATION AL FIGURES (bound separately) APPENDIX C. SITE FORMS (bound separately) APPENDIX D. PROJECT DOCUMENTATION (bound separately) APPENDIX E. PHOTOGRAPHS (bound separately) VI LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1 . Location of Fort Riley, Kansas 2 2. General Location of Sites Tested 3 3. Prehistoric and Protohistoric Native American Chronology of the Fort Riley Area 18 4. Historic Period Chronology of the Fort Riley Area 25 5. Site Plan and Topographic Map of 14RY3183 68 6. Wall Profiles from Test Units 2, 3, and 4 at 14RY3183 69 7. Wall Profiles of Test Units 5 and 6 at 14RY3183 71 8. Diagnostic Projectile Points from 14RY3183: a, Scallorn; b, Washita; c, Scallorn; d-f, Unidentified Bases 78 9. Bifaces from 14RY3183: a. Wedge; b, Hoe or Adze; c-d, Thin Bifaces; e-f, Thick Bifaces 78 10. Unifaces from 14RY3183: a, c, Side Scraper; b, End Scraper 79 11. Potential Cuesta Phase Sherds from 14RY3183 81 12. Site Plan and Topographic Map of 14RY3193 88 13. Soil Profiles from Test Units 1, 2, 3, and 4 at 14RY3193 90 14. Location of Selected Potential Anomalies at 14RY3193 92 15. Site Plan and Topographic Map of 14RY5155 102 16. Density Distribution of Surface Collected Artifacts at 14RY5155 104 17. Soil Profiles from Test Units 1, 2, 3, and 4 at 14RY5155 105 18. Selected Lithic Artifacts from 14RY5155: a-c, Thin Biface Fragments; d-e, Drill Fragments 109 19. Site Plan and Topographic Map of 14GE3108 113 20. Soil Profiles of Test Units 1, 3, and 4 at 14GE3108 115 21. Soil Profile of Test Unit 2 and Plan View of Feature 2 at 14GE3108 116 vn LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Attributes of Selected Anomaly Tests at 14RY3183 73 2. Distribution of Major Artifact Classes by Provenience at 14RY3183 74 3. Distribution of Lithic Artifacts within Test Units at 14RY3183 75 4. Distribution of Lithic Artifacts from Shovel Tests at 14RY3183 76 5. Distribution of Ceramics at 14RY3183 80 6. Distribution of Historic Artifacts at 14RY3183 83 7. Comparison of Frequency Between Prehistoric Lithics and Ceramics and Historic Artifacts by Excavation Level 84 8. Selected Attributes of Anomaly Tests at 14RY3183 93 9. Artifacts Recovered from Test Units and Shovel Tests at 14RY3193 95 10. Artifacts Recovered from Anomaly Tests at 14RY3193 96 1 1 . Distribution of Artifact Groups by Excavation Technique 99 12. Distribution of Lithic Artifacts from Controlled Surface Collections at 14RY5155 .... 108 13. Lithic Artifacts from Test Units, 14RY5155 109 14. Selected Attributes of Anomaly Tests 119 15. Distribution of Artifact Groups by Provenience at 14GE3108 120 16. Artifact Assemblage from Shovel Tests at 14GE3108 121 17. Kitchen Group Artifact Assemblage from Test Units at 14GE3108 122 18. Artifact Assemblage from Anomaly Tests at 14GE3108 123 19. Faunal Remains from 14GE3108 125 20. Architecture and Furniture Group Artifact Assemblages from Test Units at 14GE3108 . 126 21. Arms, Personal, Activities, and Miscellaneous Group Artifact Assemblages from Test Units at 14GE3108 127 22. Summary Metadata Comparison for Excavated Sites at Fort Riley 137 IX ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people are involved in assuring that a project such as the Phase II (Kansas Phase III) NRHP testing conducted at Fort Riley is successful completed, and I would like to thank many individuals for their assistance. Foremost among these are our contacts at Fort Riley, with special thanks going to Mr. John Dendy and Dr. Richard Shields. Technical information and assistance were provided by them along with personal observations of the site locations, genuine interest in the project, and moral support. Special thanks go to Mr. John Dendy, archaeologist for Fort Riley, who coordinated our fieldwork efforts and took time from his busy schedule to take the senior author of this report on a tour of sites at Fort Riley and to arrange dig permits for three of the sites investigated. Projects begin long before the fieldwork starts, and good administration is as important as good archaeology. Thanks go to Drs. Janet Dixon Keller, Head of the Department of Anthropology, UIUC, for her administrative support. Ms. Janice Pankey of the Department of Anthropology, UIUC, did her usual excellent job of payroll and accounting for the project. Fieldwork began in April with site gridding prior to the geophysical survey of the site areas. Todd Brenningmeyer and Greg Walz gridded six sites at Fort Riley, three of which then were tested. A USACERL crew gridded the fourth site that was tested. After Dr. Lewis Sommers of Geoscan Research conducted the geophysical survey of the four sites discussed in this report, the field crew returned to complete the excavation portion of the project. Crew members included Brian Adams, Cindy Balek, Colin Betts, Charlie Broz, Darrell Gundrum, David Hixson, Chris Mausolf, Mario Lippy, Mike Yurtis, and the senior author. USACERL personnel, led by Ms. Lynne Richardson, aided our investigations at 14RY3183 when it was discovered that our anomaly excavation coordinates were a bit off. Upon completion of the initial artifact processing, Gregory Walz undertook the analysis of lithic artifacts from 14RY3183 and 14RY5155. Alisa DeMarco and Jacqueline McDowell analyzed historic artifacts from 14RY3193 and 14GE3108. I undertook the analysis of prehistoric ceramics from 14RY3183 and all faunal remains. Susan Brannock-Gaul, Paula Luesse, and David Hixson provided their expertise in drafting figures and photographing artifacts for the report. Mike Yurtis created the artifact inventory tables and database. Jacqueline McDowell performed the yeoman's task of editing and coordinating the completion of the report. Finally, thanks also go to our USACERL contact, Dr. Michael Hargrave, for his assistance in the field during the anomaly testing portion of the project, and who has answered innumerable questions that enabled this project to be completed in a timely manner. PPK January 1997 XI CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION In February 1996 the U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories contracted with the Public Service Archaeology Program of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign to undertake the National Register evaluation of four sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary counties, Kansas (Figure 1). The four sites tested— 14RY3 183, 14RY3193, 14RY5155, and 14GE3 108— required additional data collection in order to evaluate their potential for meeting criteria established for the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). In addition, the fieldwork was designed to provide support for the geophysical testing of the sites, including the ground-truth testing of anomalies identified during the geophysical investigation of the sites. The project was conducted by personnel from the Public Service Archaeology Program, with fieldwork taking place during April and June, 19%. This report details the results of the investigations, evaluates each site in terms of its potential eligibility for inclusion in the NRHP, and, based on the data obtained from these sites, evaluates certain aspects of prehistoric and historic settlement in the region. As part of the effort to comply with federal regulations regarding historic preservation, specifically the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended, and Army regulations, Phase II (Kansas Phase III) NRHP evaluations have been recommended for many prehistoric and historic sites at Fort Riley. Phase I (Kansas Phase I and II) cultural resource survey projects beginning in the 1970s and conducted to present have identified a number of prehistoric and historic archaeological sites at Fort Riley (Barr and Rowlinson 1977; Cooprider 1979; Halpin 1996; Largent and Waite 1996; McDowell and McGowan 1993; Shields 1994). Additional evaluation of sites to establish their eligibility for inclusion in the NRHP (Phase II/Kansas Phase III evaluation) has been recommended for a number of these sites. Test excavations have been conducted at relatively few sites to determine their eligibility for listing in the NRHP. These include the site of the original base hospital built in 1855 (Robinson and Associates, Inc. and O'Brien 1989) and four prehistoric sites (Rohn and Biasing 1986). The investigations reported here represent a continuation of the Phase II (Kansas Phase III) evaluation program at Fort Riley and constitute an important continuation of cultural resource management efforts at the base. The four sites investigated by this project are located in river or stream floodplains or on associated terraces. Sites 14RY3193 and 14GE3108 are situated within the floodplain of the Kansas River while sites 14RY3183 and 14RY5155 are located on terraces of Three Mile Creek and Deep Canyon Creek, respectively (Figure 2). The investigations at the four sites were designed to provide archaeological NRHP eligibility assessment and management recommendations in addition to the ground-truthing of geophysical investigation techniques and the collection of metadata. Site 14RY3183 (ForThree Site) is located on a terrace above the floodplain of Threemile Creek (Richardson 1996). The site encompasses an area 300 m north-south by 150 m east- west. It originally was identified by USACERL in 1994 at which time systematic postholing was conducted across the site area. The survey indicated a potential for the presence of two or more components at this site. In 1995 USACERL conducted test excavations at 14RY3183 totaling 11 m 2 . Excavations identified three components at 14RY3183: Smoky Hill Variant of the Central Plains Tradition (Plains Village/Middle Figure 1 . Location of Ft. Riley, Kansas. Figure 2. General Location of Sites Tested. Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas Ceramic period), Plains Woodland (Early Ceramic period), and Late Archaic. Four assayed radiocarbon samples place the Smoky Hill Variant component at between 630 and 760 B.P. Site 14RY3193 (Army City) is the location of a World War I entertainment complex. The site is located east of Camp Funston on a nearly level section of the Kansas River floodplain, and has been the subject of a Master's thesis (Rion 1960). A brief historical overview on this site is presented in Andros et al. (1993) while Babson (1996) conducted a field visit and has completed a state site form for Army City. Facilities present at Army City included theaters, pool halls, barber shops, banks, drug stores, clothing stores, restaurants, an arcade, and other amenities. At present, the site area is a maintained grass field. Site 14RY5155 was located in 1996 during a pedestrian survey of training areas by LTA, Inc. (Anonymous 1996). It is located on a terrace northwest of the confluence of Deep Canyon Creek and Threemile Creek. At the time of discovery, the site area had been stripped of vegetation and topsoil. Artifacts found on site consist of flakes, core fragments, and tools. Two separate artifact concentrations were noted at that time. A 1-x-l-m test unit was excavated within the westmost flake concentration. Intact deposits, including a dense concentration of flakes, were identified in the test unit to ca. 20 cm below surface. The final site, 14GE3108, is located in the south-central portion of Fort Riley just north of the Kansas River. It is situated in a park-like area covered by mowed grass and is south of a set of railroad tracks. Described in a site form filed in 1977 by Thomas Barr and Don Rowlinson, it was noted that sunken areas and concrete building footings were visible in the grassy field. A review of 1914 and 1917 historic maps indicated that the area was the location of the railroad station agent's quarters. The current project was designed to contribute to the NRHP evaluation of the four sites and to contribute to the investigation of several basic research themes identified in the Kansas Prehistoric Archaeological Preservation Plan (Brown and Simmons 1987) and the Kansas Preservation Plan: Section on Historical Archaeology (Lees 1989) along with additional themes discussed in Robinson and Associates with O'Brien (1989) and Babson (1996). Phase II (Kansas Phase III) archaeological testing of sites often yields data that can be used to address important research topics that cannot be investigated through Phase I (Kansas Phase I/II) survey results. Several research topics can be identified for sites at Fort Riley, although by no means is this intended as an exhaustive listing of research potential. Three topics are perhaps central to prehistoric research in the area: chronology building, reconstruction of subsistence practices, and reconstruction of settlement patterns. Similarly, the historic sites located at Fort Riley can contribute to local and regional historical research. Given the association of the two historic sites investigated during this project with both civilian and military personnel, pertinent research topics include the nature of occupation or function of the sites and the integration of civilian with military missions. Each of these topics is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 4. The archaeological investigations used standard excavation, data recording, and analysis techniques employed throughout the Midwest. The field and laboratory methods are detailed in Chapter 5 and include controlled surface collections or shovel tests to define site boundaries and identify artifact concentrations, the compilation of a topographic and site plan map, and the hand excavation of multiple Chapter 1. Introduction test units. All cultural material and records associated with this project have been submitted to USACERL. A listing of all cultural materials by provenience can be found in Appendix A. Figures indicating precise site locations are distributed separately as requested in the USACERL Scope of Work because of the sensitive nature of site location data. The remainder of this report provides environmental and cultural overviews of the Fort Riley area, details the research goals and field and laboratory methods used during this project, and describes and interprets the results of the investigations at the four sites. Chapter 2 is a brief description of the regional environmental setting. Chapter 3 provides a summary of the regional prehistoric and historic chronology and an overview of previous work performed on and near Fort Riley. Chapter 4 provides the underlying research orientation and details specific research questions that are addressed in Chapter 6. Chapter 5 outlines the field and laboratory methods and procedures. Chapter 6 presents the results of the investigations including site descriptions, descriptions of the investigations conducted and their results, description and analyses of the artifact assemblages, interpretation of the results, and recommendations for further work. Chapter 7 provides a summary of NRHP recommendations for each site. References Cited are followed by appendices, which include an artifact inventory (Appendix A); Kansas State Site Forms (Appendix B); site location maps (Appendix C); copies of all field notes, maps, laboratory analyses, and metadata collection forms, grouped by site (Appendix D); and photographs (Appendix E). Appendices B through E are bound separately as requested in the USACERL Scope of Work since information contained in them is considered confidential. CHAPTER 2. ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING Fort Riley is located in Riley and Geary counties in northeastern Kansas between the towns of Manhattan and Junction City (Figure 1). The installation is at the confluence of the Smoky Hill and Republican rivers, which combine to form the Kansas River, and just west of the Big Blue River, which joins the Kansas River at Manhattan. This locality falls within the northern portion of the Flint Hills subdivision of the Central Lowlands Province. The Flint Hills are a narrow band of rugged, step-like Permian limestone and shale escarpments, approximately 50 to 60 miles in width, that run from the Kansas-Nebraska border southward into Oklahoma. Relief within the installation is generally less than 90 m between the grass-covered upland prairies and the floor of the Kansas River valley but is as much as 170 m in southeastern Riley County. The limestone ridges and river drainages are mantled in part by Pleistocene and Holocene loess deposits, and the drainages contain a series of terrace formations (Jantz et al. 1975; Johnson 1992; Largent and Waite 1996; Self 1978). Geology Fort Riley is situated in the Flint Hills Uplands, a unit of the Flint Hills, which is in turn a physiographic subdivision of the Central Lowlands Province (Barr and Rowlinson 1977; Jewett 1941; Schoewe 1949; Self 1978). The Flint Hills are a belt of westward dipping Permian limestones and shales that outcrop in eastern Kansas. The result is a series of eastward-facing cuesta-like landforms which traverse the state from north to south. Formed during the Permian Period of the Paleozoic Era approximately 290 to 240 million years ago, the alternating layers of cherty limestone and softer shales have weathered at different rates, resulting in stepped or terrace-like upland ridges. The Barneston Formation limestone is most prominent within Fort Riley and includes two members: the Fort Riley and Florence limestones. The former outcrops widely within the base and, owing to an absence of chert inclusions and its blocky structure, has been quarried widely for construction use. Florence limestone, which lies several feet below the Fort Riley member and outcrops in areas where the Fort Riley member has been eroded away, contains numerous chert nodules which are commonly found at the surface of upland ridges and hills in the wake of the weathering of the limestone and shales (Self 1978:44-45; Johnson 1992:10). While the Permian sedimentary limestones and shales form the majority of the bedrock in the Fort Riley area, a small number of igneous intrusions are reported in the form of kimberlite pipes in northern Riley County (Largent and Waite 1996:5). Kimberlite pipes are circular to oval deposits of igneous, porphyritic rock composed of a number of crystalline minerals, including diamonds, that are intrusive into sedimentary rock layers (Hamilton et al. 1974:162). Glacial drift is also present to the east of the installation in the area of Manhattan and the Big Blue River. The glacial deposits include erratic quartzite cobbles and boulders originating from southwestern Minnesota, reworked silts and clays, sands, and rough rock deposits dating to the Kansan glacial period of approximately 700,000 B.P. The western limit of the Pleistocene glacial deposits is in part coterminous with the northeastern limits of the Flint Hills. The bedrock topography within the Glaciated Region is mantled with thick till, outwash, and loess deposits (Johnson 1992:12; Johnson and Logan 1990:268; Self 1978:43-44). Archaeological Te st Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas Tributary streams of the Kansas River have cut deep, narrow valleys through the bedrock that are often lined with rock outcrops and ledges. Rough fragments of limestone and chert are common in these tributary stream beds. Broad, bench-like terraces are present along the major waterways of the Republican, Smoky Hill, and Kansas rivers. The valley of the Kansas River, the only through-flowing river in the Flint Hills, ranges between 3.2 and 4.8 km wide and is up to 60 m deep in the vicinity of the installation (Barr and Rowlinson 1977:1; Self 1978:45). Alluvial deposits are found in all of the major rivers and their tributaries of the region. The alluvium of the major waterways reflects the input of significant amounts of exotic source materials while the smaller streams contain alluvial deposits that reflect the composition of the local Permian bedrock and later Quaternary deposits (Johnson 1992:13). Extensive accumulations of Pleistocene and Holocene-age loess mantle the bedrock features of the Flint Hills within Fort Riley (Welch and Hale 1987). The earliest of these loess deposits is the Loveland, which was deposited between 190,000 and 75,000 B.P. This deposit reaches depths of up to 15 m and is largely restricted to the high bluffs bordering the Kansas and Republican rivers. A Sangamon-like soil formed within this loess between 77,000 and 35,000 B.P. Following a long interval of relative landscape stability and soil formation, the Peoria Loess was deposited between 25,000 and 12,500 B.P. during the late Pleistocene. Deposits range between 70 cm and 30 m in thickness. The Peoria Loess is present throughout the base but is thickest in the relatively level northern uplands of the installation and on the bluffs above the Kansas and Republican rivers. A soil has formed within the Peoria Loess deposits that is buried in some locations and forms the modern soil in others (Johnson 1992:13). The Brady soil formed in the upper portion of the Peoria Loess during a period of stability that is generally dated between 8000 and 1 1,500 B.P. (Largent and Waite 1996:6). The Bignell Loess, deposited no earlier than 8000 B.P., represents an early Holocene loess deposit that may be derived in part from the underlying Brady soil, which formed in the upper portion of the Peoria Loess (Largent and Waite 1996:6). The Bignell Loess has yet to be identified unequivocally within the installation but is believed to be present. A final, and as yet unnamed, mid to late-Holocene loess deposit also may be present within Fort Riley (Johnson 1992:13). Four major terrace surfaces are recognized in the Kansas River and its larger tributaries in the vicinity of Fort Riley. The most recent of the terrace complexes, the Holliday Terrace Complex, is approximately 1-2 m above the modern river level and often separated from the active floodplain by a natural levee. The Holliday Terrace fills are composed of sands, silts, and clays and are deposited within a complex series of meander belts and abandoned channels with up to 3 m of relief. Radiocarbon dates obtained from organics within the Holliday Terrace fills date its formation between 4300-1200 B.P. This surface is still subject to occasional filling and scouring during flooding episodes. The Newman Terrace, approximately 3 m above the modern river level, is a poorly drained, featureless terrace composed of cobbles, boulders, and gravel, which gradually become a dark silty clay at the terrace surface. Buried soils within the Newman Terrace fill range in age between 10,430 and 4950 B.P. (Johnson 1992:16-22). The Buck Creek Terrace, approximately 12 m above river level, formed during a period of aggradation following the cessation of the Kansan glaciation around 600,000 B.P. The terrace fill is made up of sands and gravels that gradually become silts and clays near the surface. The Buck Creek Terrace surface is capped by Loveland and Peoria loess. This terrace is only present in the upper Kansas River valley in the vicinity of Fort Riley. The Moken Terrace, composed of coarse glacial, glacio-fluvial, and glacio-laucustrine materials, formed as the Kansan ice sheets retreated from the area. This terrace, as 8 Chapter 2. Environmental Setting much as 30 m above the modern river level, is present only downstream from the Fort Riley area (Johnson 1992:24-25). Equivalent terraces to the Newman and Buck Creek terraces likely are present within the smaller tributary streams that run through Fort Riley. Three of these, ThreeMile Creek, SevenMile Creek, and Wildcat Creek, drain into the Kansas River, while FourMile Creek, Rush Creek, Farnum Creek, Madison Creek, and Timber Creek all join the Republican River. Regional studies of major alluvial deposits indicate a general synchronicity between periods of floodplain stability and soils formation within the east- central plains (Johnson and Martin 1987). Additional geological and geoarchaeological investigations are necessary, however, to delineate the extent and temporal ranges of the terrace deposits and their potential buried occupational surfaces within the smaller drainages (Johnson 1992:26). Soils The surface soils present within Fort Riley are the result of soil formation occurring within a mix of differing combinations of physiographic setting, drainage characteristics and parent material. The soils within the base are classified as either Mollisols, organic-rich grassland soils present on the uplands and stream terraces, or Entisols, which formed in the stream bottoms and river floodplains (Johnson 1992:32; Self 1987:74-77). The Mollisols are further classified as Udic Ustolls which are widely distributed throughout east-central and central Kansas in the Flint Hills. These soils range from relatively shallow to deep and are grayish-brown to dark brown in color. Texturally, the Mollisols are silt loams, silty clay loams, and silty clays that formed in loess of varying depth. The Mollisols exhibit a profile that is generally moderately to slightly leached, with pH ranging from slightly acid to alkaline. Soils tend to be thickest on the ridge tops and interfluvial uplands while bedrock may lie only a few centimeters below surface on slopes (Self 1987:77). The Entisols are formed within alluvial deposits of sands, silts, and clays and developed under both forest and grassland vegetation. Six soil associations are present within Fort Riley and are closely correlated with major physiographic zones. These physiographic zones include the relatively flat to rolling interfluvial uplands, steeper upland ridges and slopes, river and tributary stream terrace deposits, and the active floodplains of rivers and streams. Soil associations found on the floodplains and river terraces are the Eudora-Haynie-Sarpy association and the Reading-Kennebec-Ivan association. The Eudora-Haynie-Sarpy association is comprised of deep, nearly level silt loams, very fine sandy loams, and loamy fine sands that are present on river terraces and floodplains. Soils in the Reading-Kennebec-Ivan association are generally deep, nearly level to gently sloping silt loams that also formed on terraces and floodplains. Soil associations typical of the higher terraces and uplands include the Smolen-Geary association, the Wymore-Irwin association, and the Clime-Sogn association. Smolen-Geary association soils are deep, gently sloping to sloping silt loams and silty clay loams that are present on high terraces and uplands. Wymore-Irwin association soils are deep, silty clay loams that formed in the nearly level to sloping uplands of the interfluves. The soils of the Clime-Sogn association range from moderately deep to shallow silty clay loams on sloping to moderately steep uplands while the Benfield-Florence association soils, composed of moderately deep silty clay loams, and cherty silt loams are found on sloping to moderately steep uplands (Jantz et al. 1975). The soil associations described above are further divided into soil series, which are Archaeological Te st Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas distinct, discrete mappable units found in specific physiographic settings that exhibit consistent texture, structure, and drainage characteristics. The geomorphic relationships between these soils is important in any attempt to evaluate the potential for surface or buried archaeological sites. Upland soils that formed in loess commonly have buried paleosols within the lower portion of their profiles which may contain in situ archaeological materials. Similarly, buried soils are known from alluvial settings which potentially also contain archaeological materials dating from the late Pleistocene and Holocene (Johnson 1992; Johnson and Logan 1990; Johnson and Martin 1987). Continued geomorphological and geoarchaeological research is needed to further refine the understanding of the relationships between buried soil horizons in different portions of the landscape and their potential to contain archaeological components. Climate and Climatic Change Fort Riley is within the region of temperate continental (warm summer subtype) climate where the average temperature is at least 50° F for four to seven months of the year, and the coldest monthly temperatures average below 32° F. Extremes range from below-zero conditions during portions of the winter months to more than 100° F during portions of the summer months (Self 1987:63). August is typically the warmest month, with daily highs above 90° F and lows averaging about 66° F. The coldest conditions generally are experienced during January, with the daily average temperature between 18° and 40° F. Record extremes are 116° F and -32° F for the summer and winter (Jantz et al. 1975). Precipitation in Riley County averages 3 1 .64 inches per year, with the extreme minimum recorded at 15.13 inches and the maximum at 60.38 inches. Most of the precipitation falls during the late spring and summer months (April to September). Thunderstorms occur an average of 55 days per year and are capable of producing heavy rains, hail, and tornadoes. Winter snows are light, averaging 19 inches per year, and snows of 1 inch or more occur only nine days per winter on average (Jantz et al. 1975). The climatic conditions described above are not likely to have remained stable throughout the Holocene. Evidence from a number of locations in the Midwest and Central Great Plains suggests that climatic change, not stability, is characteristic of the post-Pleistocene across a broad area of the midcontinent. Pollen core data suggest that, in general, the early Holocene was characterized by a cooler and moister climate than is experienced at present while the middle Holocene appears to have been much warmer and dryer (Baker and Wain 1985; King 1980). A major climatic shift with worldwide expression known as the Hypsithermal Interval took place during the middle Holocene (Bryson et al.1968; Wendland 1978). A dramatic shift to warmer and potentially drier conditions over much of the midcontinent between 8500 and 5000 B.P. is indicated in pollen spectra and distributional studies for a number of species. While the effects of the Hypsithermal are variable and localized, several generalized effects are noted as resulting from increased mean temperatures and decreased precipitation: groundwater levels dropped in elevation, leading to the drying of upland springs and seeps; vegetation cover decreased in density, with more xeric species present on slopes and uplands; upland and side-slope erosion increased as a result of the lessened vegetative cover, 10 Chapter 2. Environmental Setting leading to increased rates of sedimentation and aggradation in river and stream valleys; and meandering streams with high flow rates and flooding regimes characterized by overbank deposition of sediments and the creation of backwater environments developed. Evidence available for eastern Kansas indicates that by as early as 9000 B.P., tree pollens decreased in frequency while ragweed pollen increased. This shift is indicative of a contraction of forest environments and a concomitant expansion of prairie, savannah and grassland habitats. A prolonged drought phase was in place by 8700 B.P. and lasted until approximately 5 100 B.P. During this period of the Hypsithermal, prairie habitats extended to the east into the prairie-forest transition zone, and forests were confined to river and stream valley settings (Fredlund and Juamann 1987). The Newman Terrace Complex, dated between 10,430 and 4950 B.P., is largely composed of fine silts and clays indicative of significant inputs of loess into the drainage system during the mid-Holocene (Johnson and Logan 1990:276-277). After 5100 B.P., forests again expanded to the west as the effects of the Hypsithermal lessened, and a forest/prairie mosaic similar to that documented by Euroamerican settlers was established in the Fort Riley area (Fredlund and Jaumann 1987; King 1980). Biotic Resources Flora. Fort Riley is within the Tall Grass Prairie vegetation zone as defined by Kuchler (1964). Four species of grass dominate this zone, but as many as 700 plant species are recognized as native to the area. The dominant grasses — big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), little bluestem {Schizachyrium scoparius), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), and Indian grass (Sorghastum nutans) — reach heights of up to 2 m. Other grasses that are found within the tall grass prairie include sideoats grama (Boutesous curtipenduld), buffalo grass (Buchloe dactyloides), and June grass (Koeleria pyramidata). In addition to the grasses, a number of flowering plants such as sunflowers {Helianthus spp.), asters (Aster spp.), goldenrod (Solidago spp.), and mallow (Callirhoe spp.) are present. Prickly pear cacti (Opuntia sp.) also are found in xeric habitats. In general, the tall grass prairie covers the interfluvial uplands and slopes, with wooded areas restricted to the main watercourses and their tributaries. Forest cover in eastern Kansas largely is confined to narrow belts flanking river courses, tributary stream valleys, and their adjacent slopes (Self 1987:69-70). Dominant tree species of the woodland canopy are the oaks (Quercus spp.), hickories (Carya spp.), and junipers (Juniperus spp.). Minor canopy species include cottonwood (Populus sp.), sycamore (Platanus occidentalism, black walnut (Juglans nigra), elms (Ulmus spp.), black locust (Robinia sp.), and hackberry (Celtis sp.). Understory trees include sumac (Rhus spp.) and immature maple (Acer spp.) and locust trees (Robinia sp). Ground cover includes both grasses and a variety of herbaceous taxa. At present, woody vegetation is expanding in areal extent to include portions of hill slopes and crests that should support prairie vegetation. Largent and Waite (1996:8) describe the current vegetation within Fort Riley as more characteristic of the Tall Grass Prairie- Forest Mosaic vegetation zone (Kuchler 1964) than the Tall Grass Prairie vegetation zone. This is likely due to the historic suppression of prairie fires (both wild and intentional), Euroamerican modes of settlement, and the local extirpation of bison, all of which contributed to changes in vegetation patterns in the Fort Riley area. 11 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas Wetland habitats, including marshes, swamps, ponds, backwaters, and other periodically wet areas also contain a diverse range of plant taxa. Moisture-tolerant trees such as willow (Salix spp.) and elm (Ulmaceae) along with a number of smaller tree and shrub varieties, would be expected along backwater lakes and sloughs while other wetland habitats would harbor reeds, cattails, aquatic grasses, sedges, lilies, lotus, and other herbaceous taxa that thrive in wet or inundated environments. Fauna. Fort Riley lies within the Grassland Biome, a broad expanse of plains and prairie defined on the basis of co-occurring plant and animal species (Shelford 1963). Due in part to the mosaic of tall grass prairie and woodland habitats that is found in the vicinity of Fort Riley, a large number of animal species are year-round residents or migrate through the northern Flint Hills. Major herbivorous mammal species include the American bison (Bison bison), elk (Cervus elaphas), and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Large carnivorous species known from the area are the puma or cougar (Felis concolor), gray wolf (Canis lupus), black bear (Ursus americanus), and coyote (Canis latrans). Smaller mammals include red and gray fox (Vulpes vulpes, Urocyon cinereoargenteus), raccoon (Procyon lotor), bobcat (Felis rufus), beaver (Castor canadensis), opossum (Didelphus virginiana), cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus), badger (Taxidea taxus), and a number of small rodent species such as mice, voles, and squirrels. Important bird species include wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus), and a number of migratory ducks and geese (Anatidae) (Bellrose 1976). Other common birds include American crow (Corvus brachyrhyncos), turkey vulture (Cathartes aura), various hawks (Buteonidae and Falconidae), and other small passerine species, both resident and migratory. In addition, the grasslands and woodlands of the region also support a vast range of reptilian and amphibian species as well as numerous insects (Largent and Waite 1996:8-9). Several fish species are known from the Kansas River and its tributaries, including catfish (Ictalurus spp.), largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), black crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus), and other small sunfishes, minnows, and the like (Lee et al. 1980). Mussels and shellfish such as the crayfish are also common inhabitants of the rivers and streams in the Flint Hills (Wedel 1959:3-18). Summary The location of Fort Riley within the diverse physiographic and environmental region of the northern Flint Hills is characterized by a mosaic of highly productive prairie, savannah, and woodland habitats, each with distinctive floral and faunal communities. This mosaic of habitats provided its human inhabitants, both aboriginal and Euroamerican, with a broad array of resources necessary for their survival. But it would be a mistake to retrodict the present-day environmental conditions of Fort Riley into the prehistoric past. Discussed above are identified climatic and vegetational changes that have occurred during the Pleistocene and Holocene periods. Since the area was settled by Euroamericans in the 1850s, however, environmental conditions have changed dramatically as well. Largent and Waite (1996) note a decrease in true prairie, the discontinuation of natural prairie fires, and a concomitant westward expansion of forests among other changes. This alteration of plant communities has produced a change in the local fauna as well. USACERL is conducting an ongoing project that models the consequences of such environmental 12 Chapter 2. Environmental Setting changes through time on the landscape of Fort Riley. The result of such a model will be a more robust understanding of the interrelationship of prehistoric human populations and their surrounding environment in the Fort Rilev area. 13 CHAPTER 3. CULTURAL CONTEXT This discussion briefly summarizes current knowledge on the prehistory and history of the study area, providing a cultural context within which the results of the Phase II (Kansas Phase III) NRHP evaluation of the four sites can be interpreted and evaluated. This chapter is divided into sections on previous archaeological research in the vicinity of Fort Riley and prehistoric and historic contexts. The historic context section is further divided into sections on the civilian and military history of occupation of the Fort Riley area. The sections on previous archaeological research and the prehistoric context are based on Waite and Largent (1996) and Brown and Simmons (1987) with revisions. The historic context is based on Babson (1996) with revisions. The reader is referred to those documents for more detailed discussions of the cultural context of northeastern Kansas in general and Fort Riley in particular. Previous Archaeological Research Archaeological investigations in the Fort Riley area began as early as the 1880s, with most recent research taking place at nearby reservoirs and Fort Riley. This research has tended to focus on archaeological site identification, although a number of test excavation projects also have been conducted. The initial archaeological research in the Fort Riley area, like that in many other areas of North America, concentrated on the identification, documentation, and excavation of Native American mound sites. The work was undertaken by amateur archaeologists associated with the Kansas State Agricultural College in Manhattan. Among those conducting such investigations were G. H. Failyer (1881), J. V. Brower (1898, 1899), W. J. Griffmg (1880, 1904), and L. R. Elliot (Waite and Largent 1996), although much of the documentation and many artifacts from these investigations have been lost. Griffing participated in the excavation of more than 100 mounds, including the Griffing site (14RY21) located west of Manhattan. Others, including Jacob Brower, were interested in locating sites associated with Coronado's entrada of 1541. Brower (1898, 1899) surveyed along many of the creek and river valleys in the Fort Riley area and provided the first cultural chronology for the region. He (Brower 1898, 1899) divided sites into aceramic Quivira sites and ceramic-bearing sites termed Harahey. Additional investigations at four Geary County and one Riley County mound sites were undertaken in an attempt to document the entrada route (Griffing 1904). Fort Riley personnel also participated in this early stage of archaeological research. Post chaplain John Parker documented mound sites near Fort Riley, including four burial mounds along the Republican River northwest of Junction City and the John Davis Mounds (14GE141) in Geary County (Parker 1887). Archaeological research in the project area was sporadic after the mm of the century until the 1950s when a number of salvage archaeology projects associated with river impoundments were conducted. During this roughly 50-year period a number of projects were conducted by both amateur and professional archaeologists. Amateur archaeologists Floyd Schultz and Cletus Weygandt conducted archaeological investigations that resulted in the location of a number of sites (Waite and Largent 1996). Schultz assisted Albert Spaulding in the excavation of a Hopewell burial mound (14GE6) that is now under the waters of Milford Lake (Waite and Largent 1996). Finally, Waldo Wedel conducted 15 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas investigations in both Riley County and nearby Pottawatomie County. Wedel conducted additional investigations at 14RY21, a site previously investigated by Griffing (Wedel 1959). His work in Pottawattomie County included excavations at a Kansa village site (14P024) and two Hopewell ian sites (14P025 and 14P026) (Wedel 1959). As mentioned above, with the advent of river impoundment projects in the area came an increase in archaeological research. The Big Blue and Republican rivers were impounded to form the Tuttle Creek and Milford reservoirs. Prior to the impoundment, surveys were conducted within areas of potential impact by the River Basin Survey of the Smithsonian Institution. The Tuttle Creek Reservoir survey resulted in the location of 1 19 sites spanning the entire prehistoric period of the region (Solecki 1953). A number of these sites were subsequently excavated (Cummings 1958; Johnson 1973; Kelley 1966). Muller and Schock (1964) conducted the survey of Milford Lake for the Smithsonian Institution, which resulted in the subsequent excavation of three sites with Archaic, Plains Woodland, and Smoky Hill components (Witty 1963). Other investigations during this period include those of Eyman (1966), who tested two Plains Woodland sites (14GE2 and 14GE5) located at Milford Lake and Marshall and Witty (1966), who reported on excavations at the Bogan site (14GE1), a fortified historic Pawnee village. With the advent of national cultural resource management legislation in the 1960s and 1970s, an increase in the number of archaeological investigations in the Fort Riley area took place. Test excavations were conducted at a Middle Woodland Hopewell-affiliated site (14RY404) (O'Brien 1972) and a Schultz phase site (14GE303) near Manhattan (O'Brien et al. 1973). O'Brien (1976) also conducted a survey along Milford Lake that resulted in the identification of 20 previously unrecorded sites. It was also during this period that the first formal archaeological research was conducted at Fort Riley. In 1976 the Kansas State Historical Society conducted historical building and archaeological surveys within the Fort Riley cantonment areas (Barr and Rowlinson 1977). Five sites were defined by Barr and Rowlinson (1977), two of which, 14GE328 and 14RY308, encompass the cantonment areas within Geary and Riley counties, respectively. Cooprider (1979) conducted a survey both within and outside the cantonments and documented standing structures and historic and prehistoric archaeological sites. In addition to the archaeological fieldwork at Fort Riley, additional investigations were undertaken at the nearby Tuttle Creek Lake and Milford Lake reservoirs. The work included shoreline surveys (Miller and Schmits 1982; O'Brien and Schwiekhard 1981; Schmits 1988; Schmits and Donohue 1984) and Phase II (Kansas Phase III) testing of four Geary County sites in Milford Lake Park (Witty 1981). Based on the investigation of the four sites, it was determined that each had been severely impacted since its original documentation. Since the 1980s, a number of site survey and testing projects have been conducted at Fort Riley. An initial testing project conducted in 1985 was of a privy located at the first permanent hospital at Fort Riley, which was built in 1855 (Robinson and Associates and O'Brien 1989). Next, four prehistoric sites, 14RY51, 14RY52, 14RY314, and 14RY411, were tested (Rohn and Biasing 1986). Due to a lack of subsurface integrity, sites 14RY51 and 14RY52 were determined not eligible for listing in the NRHP. Sites 14RY314 and 14RY41 1 were recommended as eligible for listing in the NRHP since the remains of Smoky Hill variant structures were encountered at both (Rohn and Biasing 1986). Archaeological site 16 Chapter 3. Cultural Context surveys also were conducted during this time. The University of Illinois conducted a survey of more than 1,377 acres in wildlife food plots, resulting in the identification of 44 sites (McDowell and McGowan 1993). Largent and Waite (1996) report the results of a 678-acre survey within Training Area 79. This survey implemented a test of a predictive model of site location and resulted in the identification of eight sites (Largent and Waite 1996). Finally, a number of site survey and testing projects are currently ongoing at Fort Riley. Prehistoric Context The prehistoric context for Fort Riley is based on previous archaeological fieldwork both on base and in adjacent areas such as at Tuttle Creek Lake and Milford Lake reservoirs, and results of investigations across eastern Kansas. Much of this information has been compiled previously by Brown and Simmons (1987) and Largent and Waite (1996). The reader is referred to those documents for a more detailed discussion of the prehistoric chronology for the project area. The prehistoric remains found to date indicate that the area was inhabited during all major time periods (Figure 3). This occupation has been divided into three prehistoric periods by archaeologists: Paleoindian, Archaic and Ceramic. These periods are further subdivided, both chronologically and spatially or geographically (Brown and Simmons 1987). Largent and Waite (1996) note that the approach taken to date has yielded a rather complex chronology for the region. In part, this is due to continued use of the Midwestern Taxonomic Method (McKern 1939) along with the implementation of the phase-based approach as advocated by Willey and Phillips (1958). Paleoindian Period (ca. 10,000-6000 B.C.) It was during the Paleoindian period that the earliest occupation of the New World took place, when people migrated from northern Asia across an exposed land mass that is now covered by the Bering Sea. This period is well-documented in portions of the United States where a series of distinct lanceolate hafted bifaces is associated with regional traditions. These bifaces have long, narrow flakes removed from the base, forming a characteristic channel or flute to facilitate halting onto bone or wood handles. Many of the more refined specimens, made from high-quality nonlocal chert, indicate a high degree of mobility and participation in exchange networks. Paleoindian groups were small, highly mobile, and integrated into egalitarian bands. Settlement systems apparently were based on residential mobility. Subsistence was generalized, exploiting locally available megafauna and a variety of smaller terrestrial mammal species as well. Patterns of plant use for Paleoindian groups are poorly documented. Fossil mammoth, camel, and bison recovered from the Kansas River area indicate that a spruce-montane conifer parkland habitat was present in the region during the Paleoindian period (Brown and Simmons 1987; Logan 1987; Martin etal. 1979). The Paleoindian period in Kansas has been divided into three complexes, Llano, Folsom, and Piano, along with a number of subcomplexes (Waite and Largent 1996:17). These complexes are typically identified on the basis of unique projectile point forms. As in many other areas, evidence for the Paleoindian occupation of the Fort Riley area consists of isolated projectile points found on the surface along rivers or creeks (Brown and Logan 1987; Logan 1987; Rogers and Martin 1982, 1983; Schmits 17 YEARS B.P. Present - PERIOD SUB PERIOD, COMPLEX VARIANT - PHASE Late Ceramic Lower Loup/Historic Pawnee Great Bend/Historic Wichita 500 - 1000 - PROW IHISTORIC 2000 CERAMIC 4000 - 6000 - 8000 - 10,000 - 12,000 ARCHAIC Middle Ceramic Oneota/Historic Kansas Steed-Kisker Bemis Creek Smoky Hill Pomona Early Ceramic I Kansas City Hopewell ' I Butler Greenwood Schultz Plains Woodland Walnut Chelsea Munkers Creek El Dorado Logan Creek Black Vermillion Piano Folsom PALEO INDIAN Llano Figure 3. Prehistoric and Protohistoric Native American Chronology of the Fort Riley Area. 18 Chapter 3. Cultural Context 1980; Witty 1964). Based on their association with fluvial environments, Waite and Largent (1996:17) suggest that the Paleoindian projectile points originate in deeply buried deposits, with seasonal flooding causing erosion of the deposits and deposition of the points on the surface. Schmits' (1980) excavations at the Coffey site along the Big Blue River appear to confirm this interpretation. Archaic Period (6000 B.C.-A.D. 1) The Archaic period in Kansas spans approximately 6,000 years and represents continued cultural adaptation to changing physical environments and conditions. There are several features that unite and define the diverse populations and cultural systems as Archaic. Foremost among these is the predominance of a hunting and gathering mode of subsistence which, through time, became increasingly specialized and focused on regionally or locally abundant resources. Archaic peoples also lived in a cultural landscape characterized initially by low population densities, but with local population expansion, the exploitative pattern became adapted to particular high productivity environments and subsistence strategies. Finally, the Archaic period is notable in that many of the cultural patterns and elements characteristic of the later Ceramic period (or Woodland) cultures, such as long-distance exchange, increasingly complex mortuary ceremonialism, and the manipulation of and reliance on wild plant taxa within the subsistence base, had their beginnings during this period (Griffin 1978; Wedel 1978). One additional characteristic, based on comparison with later cultural manifestations, is that the Archaic period cultures lacked ceramic vessels. Unlike other areas in the eastern United States where the Archaic period has been divided into three subperiods, no subdivisions have been defined for the Archaic period in Kansas. Compared with Ceramic period sites, those of the Archaic period are relatively uncommon in northeastern Kansas (Waite and Largent 1996:18). Based on somewhat limited data, six phases have been proposed for the Flint Hills region that span the period from ca. 4200 B.C. through A.D. 1. The phases— Logan Creek, Black Vermillion, Munkers Creek, Chelsea, El Dorado, and Walnut— are characterized by distinctive lithic assemblages and often are found in association with bison kills. Little data are present in the area for the time period between the end of the Paleoindian period and the initial portion of the Archaic period, or ca. 6000-4200 B.C. Elsewhere, such as in Jackson County, archaeological deposits buried 9 m below surface have been dated to this time period (Katz 1971, 1973). The material assemblage includes lanceolate and square-stemmed projectile points that Katz (1971) compares with the Frederick and McKean complexes of the High Plains. Potentially early Archaic period deposits also have been found 7 m below surface along the Big Blue River near Kansas City (Kopsick 1982; Schmits and Bailey 1986). One of the earliest dated, and most long-lived, of the Archaic period phases defined in the vicinity of Fort Riley is the Logan Creek phase, dating between 4200 B.C. and A.D. 1. This phase is characterized by side-notched projectile points, plano-convex side-notched scrapers, end scrapers, ground-stone tools, and the use of red pigments (O'Brien 1984). Bison remains have been recovered from Logan Creek components as well. Partially contemporaneous with Logan Creek is the Black Vermillion phase, although it is more restricted geographically than the former. The Black Vermillion phase dates to 4200-3250 B.C. Restricted to the Flint Hills and Glaciated regions of northeastern Kansas, the Black Vermillion phase is associated with basal- or corner-notched projectile points, 19 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas occasionally lanceolate projectile points, and ground-stone axes and gouges (O'Brien 1984). Subsistence remains from Black Vermillion phase sites encompass a wide range of mammal, bird, amphibian, reptile, fish, and plant species, indicative of a more broad-based subsistence strategy than evidenced at Logan Creek phase sites. The Munkers Creek phase, dating between 3550 and 3250 B.C., may represent an adaptation to a period of warmer and drier weather patterns (Brown and Simmons 1987; Schmits 1978). Sites assigned to this phase are present in the Flint Hills and are associated with Munkers Creek projectile points, knives, gouges, and axes (O'Brien 1984). Also found at the William Young site in Morris County were clay effigy heads. Faunal remains found appear to indicate a broad-based subsistence strategy (Brown and Simmons 1987). Following Munkers Creek is a poorly defined phase, Chelsea, that at present has been identified in the southern portion of the Flint Hills. The Chelsea phase dates to 2850-2050 B.C. Associated with Chelsea phase sites are large bifaces, grinding stones, and short and broad projectile points with shallow, circular side-notches (O'Brien 1984). Similar to the preceding phases, Chelsea phase subsistence strategies appear to be rather broadly based. More common throughout the Flint Hills is the following El Dorado phase, dating between 2050 and 1350 B.C. It too evidences a broad-based subsistence strategy much like the more tentative Chelsea phase. Artifact types identified with this phase include long, narrow-stemmed projectile points (including the Dustin type), an occasional lanceolate form, and grinding stones. The final Archaic period phase in the region is the Walnut phase, dating to 1250 B.C. through A.D. 1 . This phase is viewed as transitional between the Archaic and Ceramic periods in the region given the presence of small, corner-notched projectile points interpreted as bow-and-arrow points (Brown and Simmons 1987; Grosser 1977). No pottery has been associated with this phase. In addition to the arrow points, scrapers, knives, bifaces, choppers, and large projectile points are found in Walnut phase assemblages (Brown and Simmons 1987). Ceramic Period The archaeological taxonomy in use in Kansas defines three Ceramic period subperiods— Early, Middle, and Late. These three subperiods span from ca. A.D. 1 to the 1870s, and are united by several cultural trends. Foremost is the use of ceramic technology for making pottery vessels, which both gives its name to the period and also separates this period from the earlier Archaic period. Other trends include the introduction of burial mounds, plant cultivation, long distance trade, and more complex social systems. In part, these phenomena may be related to population increases. Early Ceramic Subperiod (A.D. 1-900). This subperiod is generally coincident with Plains Woodland to the west and the Middle Woodland and Late Woodland subperiods to the east. O'Brien (1984:45) recognizes two lifeways in Kansas during this subperiod, the Kansas City Hopewell variant in the eastern part of the state and the Plains Woodland in central and western Kansas. 20 Chapter 3. Cultural Context The Kansas City Hopewell dates to A.D. 1-500 and is centered around the confluence of the Kansas and Missouri rivers. Settlements consist of large, permanent villages located at the confluence of streams with larger rivers and smaller hunting, gathering and processing camps along secondary drainages. No Hopewellian dwellings have been excavated in Kansas, nor have internal settlement patterns been investigated. Subsistence was rather broadly based with some evidence for plant cultivation present (Waite and Largent 1996: 19). Associated mortuary or ceremonial mounds are present on bluff tops and contain large square or rectangular stone vaults (Brown and Simmons 1987; Wedel 1943). A number of Hopewellian sites have been identified in Riley County, including one component at 14RY3183 located at Fort Riley (Richardson 1996). Hopewellian components are associated with sand-, grit-, or grog-tempered globular jars with subconoidal bases (Katz 1974). Surface decoration on rims and shoulders consists of cross-hatching, punctation, and rocker-stamping (Robinson and Associates and O'Brien 1989). Diagnostic projectile points include the Steuben, Snyders, Gibson, and Ensor types. Other common lithic artifacts include blocky end scrapers, drills, gouges, chipped-stone and ground- stone celts and axes, and blades. Other artifacts made of nonlocal raw materials also are occasionally found and include platform pipes, copper celts, shell, and obsidian. The presence of these materials at Kansas City Hopewell sites indicates their inhabitants' participation in long-distance trading relationships that have been characterized as the Hopewell Interaction Sphere (O'Brien 1994:203). The Plains Woodland lifeway dates to A.D. 1-900 and has been conceptualized as several discrete phases throughout Kansas (Adair 1988; Brown and Simmons 1987). Three Plains Woodland phases have been defined for the Flint Hills: Schultz, Greenwood, and Butler. These populations are generally considered to represent indigenous groups. The Schultz phase, dating between A.D. 1 and A.D. 700, is found along the lower Kansas, lower Republic, and lower Big Blue rivers. Both habitation sites and burial mounds have been associated with the Schultz phase, although no houses have been excavated at present. A semisedentary lifestyle of hunting and gathering has been postulated for this phase, with no evidence for agriculture having been identified to date (Waite and Largent 1996:20). While settlement patterns are not as well understood, it is likely that they consist of large villages on major stream confluences and smaller resource extraction camps upstream. Schultz phase ceramics are grog-, limestone-, or grit-tempered jars with plain or cordmarked exteriors (O'Brien 1984). Diagnostic projectile points include side-notched and Scallorn types. Also found in Schultz phase assemblages are knives, scrapers, and drills. Based on mound excavations, Schultz phase burial patterning includes extended, flexed, and bundle burials as well as cremations. O'Brien (1984) suggests this burial pattern indicates influence from neighboring Hopewell groups. The Greenwood (A.D. 400-900) and Butler (A.D. 500-900) phases have not been identified at Fort Riley, although components have been recognized in its vicinity. Both phases have large villages and smaller, single-family residences. Greenwood phase houses are oval (19-x-10-m) pole-frame structures covered with grass and daub with hearths in and near the house. In contrast, the Butler phase houses are smaller ovals of 5-6 m in diameter without hearths. Basin-shaped storage pits are associated with the Butler phase houses (Brown and Simmons 1987). Subsistence during these phases appears to be based predominantly on hunting and gathering, although the occasional maize kernel found indicates that cultivated plants also were utilized. Ceramics are angular grit- or grog-tempered jars with cord- roughened, smoothed-over cord-roughened, smoothed, or brushed surfaces. Diagnostic lithics include Marshal, Snyders, and Castroville type projectile points along with Scallorn and Fresno arrow points. 21 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas Other lithic tools found at sites assigned to these two phases include drills, gouges, thin bifaces, a variety of scrapers, and ground-stone tools. Shell tools and beads also have been found at Greenwood and Butler phase sites (Brown and Simmons 1987). Middle Ceramic Subperiod (A.D. 900-1250). Waite and Largent (1996) equate this subperiod with the Plains Village phase of the High Plains. General trends associated with this subperiod include an increase in the use of cultigens and settlement permanence. Among known cultigens are corn, beans, squash, and sunflowers. Middle Ceramic subperiod complexes defined for the Flint Hills region are the Pomona variant, the Smoky Hill variant, and the Bemis Creek phase. The Oneota aspect is recognized in Kansas as beginning during the Middle Ceramic subperiod and continuing into historic times. The Pomona variant, dating between A.D. 900 and 1430, is widespread across eastern Kansas (Brown 1984; Brown and Simmons 1987). Witty (1978) suggests this variant represents a late survival of Plains Woodland manifestations with shared traits from contemporaneous Central Plains complexes. Typical Pomona settlements consist of one to three houses on low-lying stream terraces or floodplains of streams and rivers, although bluff-top sites also have been identified. The houses are oval in shape with pole frame and wattle-and-daub construction. Interior pits are also present. Brown and Simmons (1987) identify a number of traits that define the Pomona variant, including triangular projectile points, bifacial ly modified knives, three varieties of scrapers, three varieties of abraders, smoothing stones, grooved stones, incised stones, shallow basin and bell-shaped pits, oval houses, and Pomona ceramics, among others. Three Pomona variant phases, Clinton (A.D. 960-1430) (Adair 1988:36), Apple Valley (A.D. 1300-1350) (Adair 1988:37), and May Brook (A.D. 1 100-1290) (Brown 1984) have been defined for the northeast Kansas area. These phases overlap to some extent both chronologically and spatially (Waite and Largent 1996:21). More typical of the Middle Ceramic subperiod in the Fort Riley area is the Smoky Hill phase, a concept originally defined by Wedel (1959) as the Smoky Hill aspect. Blakeslee (1994) places this phase between A.D. 1000 and 1350. Settlements range from isolated households to hamlets with three or four houses to small, semipermanent villages. Settlements are typically found on bluffs or terraces overlooking floodplains (Brown and Simmons 1987). Houses are square to rectangular with four support posts, a central hearth, and an extended entry (Adair 1988; Wedel 1959). Variations on this theme include partially underground structures and earth lodges (Johnson 1973). Smoky Hill houses have been found at 14RY314 and 14RY411 and possibly 14RY3183 at Fort Riley (Richardson 1996; Rohn and Biasing 1986). Subsistence was concentrated on hunting and gathering with little evidence for dependence on cultivated plants being found to date. Small amounts of maize, marsh elder, squash, goosefoot, and sunflower have been found at Smoky Hill sites. Smoky Hill ceramics have been defined as the Riley Cord-Roughened type that consists of sand-temper jars with rounded or collared rims. Notches, scallops, incised lines, and cord-wrapped paddle impressions are found on the collared rims. Small triangular points also are diagnostic of this phase. In addition, shell -tempered pottery, Washita projectile points, and clay pipes and effigies also are found at Smoky Hill variant sites. These artifacts, more typical of the Middle Mississippian cultures located to the southeast of Kansas, are suggested to indicate contact with the Caddoan Spiro culture of Oklahoma (Adiar 1988; Wedel 1959). Burials have been found as single individuals and large cemeteries (Brown and Simmons 1987). 22 Chapter 3. Cultural Context Further south in the Flint Hills the Bemis Creek phase has been tentatively defined. This phase, dating around A.D. 1000, is based on excavations at a single site in Butler County (Adair 1983). Adair (1983) considers the assemblage from the Two Deer site (14BU55) as culturally transitional between Early Ceramic Plains Woodland and Middle Ceramic Plains Village cultures. The phase is viewed as indicative of a Woodland culture that adopted plant cultivation. Two structures, 10 m in diameter, were identified at the site, including one with a central hearth and two grinding slabs. The ceramics and chipped-stone artifacts are associated with both the Plains Woodland and Plains Village cultures (Adair 1988). The ceramics are bone-, limestone-, or grit-tempered with S-twist cordmarking. Vessel forms include bowls, long conical pots, and globular jars. Projectile points include small triangular, side- notched, and corner-notched forms, although larger points or hafted knives are also present (Brown and Simmons 1987). Subsistence was based on hunting small game, gathering wild plant foods, and cultivating maize, squash, sunflower, and marsh elder (Adair 1988). The Oneota aspect in Kansas began during the Middle Ceramic subperiod at approximately A.D. 1200. This widespread Upper Mississippian culture is found throughout the Prairie Peninsula and its margins from Wisconsin and Illinois in the east to the eastern edge of the Great Plains in the west (Brown and Simmons 1987). Numerous phases have been correlated with ethnohistorically and historically identified Native American groups, including the Winnebago, Iowa, Missouri, Oto, and Kansa, among others, although these interpretations are not without some degree of controversy. In Kansas, the prehistoric Oneota aspect may represent ancestral populations of the historic Kansa (see Johnson 1991 for an alternate theory). Oneota components have been identified in Potawatomie County to the east of Fort Riley. Waite and Largent (1996) imply that Oneota subsistence is much like that of the other Middle Ceramic subperiod groups discussed above. What differentiates Oneota from Plains Village is settlement patterns and structure types as well as some aspects of material culture. Oneota settlements consist of small to large villages located in the uplands above major streams. Large villages contained as many as 150 circular earth lodges, up to 10 m in diameter. The earth lodges have a central hearth, four support posts and an extended entry way. Another structural type was large (9-x-20-m), rectangular bark-covered lodges. These structures have two to three hearths and interior storage pits. Ceramics, consisting of shell-tempered jars that are often decorated, have been classified as Fanning Plain and Fanning Trailed. Other artifacts include diagnostic diamond-shaped knives, triangular arrow points, catlinite pipes, and ground-stone tools. Euroamerican trade goods also have been found in Oneota/Kansa burials (Brown and Simmons 1987). Late Ceramic Subperiod (A.D. 1450-ca. 1870s?). This final prehistoric subperiod straddles the final stage of Kansas prehistory, all of protohistory, and the Native American occupation of Kansas during the Historic period. A number of cultures, associated with historic Native American groups, have been identified in the Flint Hills. These include the Great Bend culture associated with the historic Wichita, the Lower Loup culture identified as the historic Pawnee, and the continuation of the Oneota aspect, discussed above, which is believed to represent the historic Kansa (Brown and Simmons 1987). Great Bend components have been identified in the southern portion of the Flint Hills and northwest of Fort Riley on the Kansas/Nebraska border (Waite and Largent 1996:24). Associated with Great Bend sites are refuse mounds, circular pole-frame, grass-covered houses or pithouses, bell-shaped pits, and basin-shaped hearths. Settlement consists of smaller hamlets clustered into large villages on floodplains 23 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas and adjacent uplands, although based on the historic Witchita, these villages may have been seasonally occupied. Subsistence was based on hunting and gathering as well as cultivation of maize, beans, squash, and tobacco. Witchita groups also participated in bison hunts from late fall to spring. Great Bend ceramics are sand- or shell-tempered jars, deep bowls, and amphora-like vessels. Decoration is uncommon. Puebloan pottery also has been found at Great Bend sites. Stone tools include triangular arrow points, narrow side-notched knives, and ground-stone tools, including pipestone pipes. Occasional Euroamerican artifacts, such as iron awls, axes and copper and glass beads, have been found at Great Bend sites. Wedel (1975) suggests that chain mail found at Great Bend/Witchita sites is from the Spanish entradas that passed through the Kansas area during the last half of the sixteenth century. Mainly centered on the Loup and Platte rivers in Nebraska, Lower Loup/Pawnee culture sites also have been identified in Riley and Geary counties (Waite and Largent 1996:25). Four house styles have been associated with this culture, including circular semisubterranean earth lodges, three-poled tipis (used during hunts), dome-shaped brush houses, and open- fronted tents, the latter two being used during summer. Settlements consisted of up to 30 earth lodges on uplands overlooking streams and hunting camps. Subsistence centered on bison hunting and maize agriculture. Ceramics consist of grit-tempered decorated jars. Decorations include punctation, parallel incised lines, and herringbone patterns. Lithics consist of triangular arrow points, diamond-shaped knives, and ground-stone tools. The dead were buried in cemeteries near the village (Brown and Simmons 1987). Perhaps the most important aspect of the Late Ceramic subperiod was the change in Native American lifeways in part caused by the effects of European contact, both direct and indirect. During this subperiod villages decreased in number but increased in size, infectious diseases may have impacted populations, and the horse was introduced to Native American groups. In fact, the changes in settlement noted above may be interrelated with population decrease due to diseases (Dobyns 1983; Ramenofsky 1982) and the introduction of the horse (Beck and Haase 1989; Wissler 1955). Historic Period The periods defined in this historic context represent approximate subdivisions of those presented in the Kansas Preservation Plan-Section on Historical Archaeology (Lees et al. 1989:69-75). They present an economic and military history of the project area, describing the cultural and social events (such as the founding of towns or changes in ethnic composition) that are linked to a century of development of the family farm and the establishment of Fort Riley (Figure 4). Given the disparate nature of the cultural record between farmsteads and the military occupation of Fort Riley, this historic context is divided into two sections. The first comprises an overview of the civilian settlement of the Fort Riley area, while the second section details the establishment of Fort Riley as a military post and its evolution through time. 24 ['EARS A .D. CIVILIAN PERIOD MILITARY PERIOD Present 1980 - Farm Crisis Partial Recovery First Infantry Division 1940 - Collapse of Farm Economy Cavalry and Light Artillery Peak of Family Farms 1890 - Growth of Family Farms Territorial Fort and Cavalry Post Establishment of Farms 1840 - 1790 - 1740 - Exploration and Settlement 1690 - 1640 - 1590 - 1 tZAPi Figure 4. Historic Period Chronology of the Fort Riley Area. 25 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas The Civilian History of Fort Riley 1500s-1853: Initial Euroamerican Exploration and Settlement The first known European to explore Kansas was the Spaniard Francesco Vasquez de Coronado, who entered the region in 1541 (Barry 1972). It is believed that his group, including 30 mounted soldiers, six foot soldiers, a Franciscan friar, and an unknown number of attendants and pack animals, entered west-central Kansas from the southwest in search of gold and the legendary kingdom of Quivira. This and other Spanish entradas, conducted sporadically until 1601, ultimately failed in this quest. The area then was largely ignored by European explorers until the late seventeenth century when the French began to explore, and claim, all of central North America. These activities eventually led to the founding of Fort Cavagnial, erected in 1744 near what is today Fort Leavenworth. The fort was designed to service and conduct trade, but was abandoned in 1763 following the Treaty of Paris that ended the French and Indian Wars. Eventually the area became part of the United States through the Louisiana Purchase of 1 803 . The first use of Kansas by the United States was as a resettlement area for Native American tribes that were being removed from eastern states and territories. In 1834, along with Oklahoma and Nebraska, Kansas was declared an Indian Territory. While officially recognized as Indian Territory, trading posts, military posts, and trails were established, including Fort Leavenworth. Fort Leavenworth was constructed to protect the Santa Fe Trail. Later, the Oregon Trail was established across Kansas and passed quite near Fort Riley. The westward immigration associated with these trails brought Native American groups into greater contact with Euroamericans and allowed Euroamerican settlement of the region. Treaties were eventually signed with Native American groups that opened areas for the Euroamerican settlement of the region. The Euroamerican settlers who came to the Fort Riley area following establishment of the fort (Camp Center) in 1853 were faced with the task of establishing a rural economy and society in a new environment (Malin 1942). This environment, the Flint Hills region of eastern Kansas, consists of upland prairies overlooking wooded draws (Reichman 1987). The upland soil is thin and tends to collect in draws through alluvial, colluvial, and eolian deposition (see Largent et al. 1996:6-7). The primary grass in the uplands was big bluestem (Reichman 1987:59-72). The draws were dominated by linear forests of chinquapin oak, burr oak, and hackberry, with occasional stands or isolated examples of green ash, American elm, box elder, and black walnut (Reichman 1987:116). While the upland prairies dominate the Flint Hills region, the woods in the draws contribute significantly to the overall biomass of this region (Reichman 1987: 115). This mixed ecology was sustained and made productive by periodic prairie fires, which were the result of lightning strikes or were set by Native American groups (Reichman 1987: 104-1 14). In general, the early Euroamerican settlers used the timber in the draws for lumber and firewood, but the lack of large amounts of usable wood required most early construction to use the locally abundant limestone. In the project area this circumstance was alleviated somewhat by abundant timber in the bottoms of the Kansas, Republican, and Smoky Hill rivers (Andros et al. 1993:10-12; Slagg 1968:124). 26 Chapter 3. Cultural Context The mixed prairie/woodland ecology supported populations of prairie chickens (one of the few larger birds adapted to the upland prairies), many small animals, elk, pronghorn antelope, deer, and buffalo (Reichman 1987:95-104). The larger animals, deer and buffalo in particular, were very important to the economy, society, and culture of the Native Americans who inhabited eastern Kansas for at least 12,000 years before their contact with, and eventual removal by, Euroamericans after 1800 (Richmond 1989:1-10). Before 1800, northeastern Kansas along the Kansas (or Kaw) River was inhabited by the Kansa, who gave their name to the state (Richmond 1989:6-7). After intermittent early contacts with Spanish and French explorers (Richmond 1989:12-18), interaction with Euroamericans increased following purchase of the Kansas area by the United States as part of the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. One major effect of this purchase was designation of Kansas as the northern part of "Indian Territory," the zone in which eastern Native American groups were to be resettled following forced removal from their homes east of the Mississippi River. Following treaties with the Osage and Kansa in 1825 (Richmond 1989:28), Otoe, Missouri, Iowa, Sac and Fox, Kickapoo, Delaware, Chippewa, Ottawa, Peoria, Shawnee, Kaskaskia, Wea, Piankeshaw, Potawatomi, Miami, and smaller Native American groups from New York and Massachusetts were moved to eastern Kansas, at great cost in life, property and human suffering (Richmond 1989:28-32). The project area, at the junction of the Republican and Smoky Hill rivers, was included in the Kansa Reservation as established by the 1825 Treaty (Barry 1962:177; Richmond 1989:30). Following resettlement, missions were established on some Native American reservations by religious groups (Lees 1986; Richmond 1989:32-41). By the late 1840s, Euroamerican settlement was beginning in eastern Kansas. The settlers, speculators and would-be railroad promoters who desired Native American lands in eastern Kansas held very little regard for the solution to the "Indian Problem" formulated by an earlier generation (Miner and Unrau 1990:139-140). They were, however, faced with the necessity of abrogating the earlier treaties which had granted eastern Kansas to Native American groups in exchange for their land east of the Mississippi River (Miner and Unrau 1990:55-80). This was accomplished through a succession of deals between Euroamerican speculators and "government chiefs," who were members or factions within tribes who could be persuaded or coerced into signing away lands belonging to the entire group (Miner and Unrau 1990:81-106). By the early 1870s, the eastern Indians had been removed from Kansas to the southern part of "Indian Territory," what is now Oklahoma (Miner and Unrau 1990:133-141). The Kansa abandoned the Fort Riley area for a reserve in the Neosho Valley following a treaty concluded in 1846 (Barry 1973:478). They remained on this reserve until removal to Indian Territory (Oklahoma) in 1873 (Barry 1973:478). As elsewhere in eastern Kansas removal of the Kansa, and abrogation of their legal title to their land, opened the Fort Riley area for Euroamerican settlement. The Fort Riley area, along with the rest of the Kansas Territory, was formally opened to Euroamerican settlement by the Kansas-Nebraska Act, passed by Congress in 1854 (Richmond 1989:68). The initial spur to settlement in this area was the establishment of Fort Riley as an outpost to guard the Santa Fe Trail in 1853 (Andros et al. 1993:8-9; Pride 1987:57-58). The fort provided protection from remnant Native Americans and from civil disorder during the border troubles of the "Bleeding Kansas" period (Jeffries 1963:147; Richmond 1989:66-85). It also provided a focus for the local economy and a market for surplus farm products before the development of an extra-regional transportation network. 27 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas Most importantly, Fort Riley brought people to the area and provided employment, especially for the approximately 500 contractors, masons, carpenters, and laborers who came to build the Fort's first stone buildings in 1855 (Andros et al. 1993:10-13; Pride 1987:65-66). Some of these people stayed in the Fort Riley area at the conclusion of the first phase of construction. Eighty-six inhabitants, including 36 voters (adult men) are noted in a census conducted in 1855 (Hickman 1970:435) as living near Fort Riley in the 9th District of the Kansas Territory. By establishing subsistence farms, these people became the first Euroamerican settlers in the area. 1853-1880: Establishment of Farms Establishment of farmsteads in the Fort Riley area was organized and encouraged by the United States government. This was part of the government's effort to settle the western territories with farm families and to establish an agricultural economy on the Jeffersonian model in the region (Kulikoff 1992:22). An early element in this process of organization and encouragement was the Northwest Ordinance of 1785. This law provided for Government Land Office (GLO) surveys of territories so that settlers could acquire title from the government (Onuf 1987:21-25). It also provided for territories to enter the Union as states when they had reached a certain level of population (Onuf 1987:44-49). Kansas achieved this status in 1861, following a period of sectional violence known nationally as "Bleeding Kansas," a prelude to the Civil War (Richmond 1989:66-85). In the Fort Riley area, GLO surveys were undertaken in 1857 and 1868 and were organized from a Land Office established in Ogden in 1857 (Slagg 1968:130) but moved to Junction City in 1859 (Cooprider 1979:15). The later (1868) series of surveys appears to have been an effort to "finish" the area as settlement resumed following the Civil War. These surveys divided territorial lands into 36-square mile townships, composed of one-square mile (640-acre) sections. This grid pattern forms the basic political and economic geography of the area as it does throughout the Midwest and West (Sack 1986:148-153). Settlers acquired land titles through a variety of methods and organized through the township-section system established by the GLO surveys. The majority of Fort Riley farmsteads were acquired through sales of railroad lands, land acquired by fulfilling provisions of the Homestead Act of 1862, or through cession of Military Bounty Lands. Military Bounty Lands were tracts of land set aside by Congress in 1855 to benefit soldiers and militia from several wars and conflicts of the early nineteenth century. These lands were usually not occupied by the men to whom they were first issued but were sold to others through speculators (Cooprider 1979:12). Homestead Act lands were conveyed to settlers who occupied the land for five years, cultivated and made improvements on the property, and filed for title at a land office (Cooprider 1979:13; Richmond 1989:138-139). Between 1866 and 1876, Confederate as well as Union veterans of the Civil War could file Homestead Act claims, but after 1876 Confederate veterans were prohibited from doing so (Shortridge 1995:75). Other inducements for Union veterans (Shortridge 1995:75-76) ensured that they would predominate in areas settled under the terms of the Homestead Act and made the Act function as one of the many veterans' benefit programs demanded by, and awarded to, a rising generation of Union Civil War veterans (McConnell 1992:13-17). Railroad lands (in the project area) were tracts deeded to the Kansas Pacific Railroad/Union Pacific Eastern Branch in support of its construction across Kansas from 1863 to 1870 (Richmond 1989:107-110). Support of railroad 28 Chapter 3. Cultural Context construction in this manner was similar to support of public schools and colleges through sale of one section of land per township as provided for in the Northwest Ordinance (Onuf 1987:24). Farms acquired by settlers under the terms of the Homestead Act or from railroad and school land sales averaged 160 acres in size (Cooprider 1979:13; Richmond 1989:138), the maximum size for a Homestead Act claim (Shortridge 1995:74). This created a general settlement pattern of four to five farmsteads in each 640-acre (one-square mile) section. Based on the Cooprider (1979) survey, it appears that most farmstead titles were filed in the 1870s and 1880s. This is especially true in Riley County, where the vast majority of the 83 titles filed in the 1875-79 period were filed by the Kansas Pacific Railway on either May 24, 1874, or December 5, 1878. These title dates, in most cases, lag behind dates of initial settlement by five to ten years (Cooprider 1979). Such a lag can be expected since it was required by the terms of the Homestead Act of 1862 (Shortridge 1995:74). For purchasers of Military Bounty, railroad, or school/college lands, this time lag was imposed by the usual practice of buying land on credit and paying for it from the proceeds of cash crop sales after a period in which an operating, productive farm was established. First title dates extending into the twentieth century appear to represent clear titles acquired during estate settlement following the deaths of the original occupants of these farms. One historian (Gates 1965) studied title acquisitions in Kansas during the 1870s. He concluded that problems in acquiring clear title, especially under the terms of the Homestead Act, were retarding development of the state at this time. This may have affected the project area, helping to explain why title acquisition lagged behind initial settlement. One incident of note in establishing title on early farms involved the James Dixon family, which settled along Threemile Creek in 1854 (Cooprider 1979:7). The Dixons settled on land later found to be part of the original 20,000-acre Fort Riley military reservation. Dixon and his family were evicted twice by the Army during the late 1850s as the boundaries of the post were surveyed and early encroachments (such as the Town of Pawnee) were removed from the reservation. James Dixon fought eviction stubbornly, finally living in a dugout on his claim after the Army twice demolished the houses he had built. Annexation by order of Jefferson Davis, Secretary of War, eventually resolved this issue (Cooprider 1979:7). Political organization of the project area remained fluid until late in the nineteenth century. During the nineteenth century (and at present), Fort Riley occupied land in Madison, Ogden, and Wildcat townships of Riley County and in Milford Township of Geary (originally, Davis) County. None of these townships is a single, regular 36-square mile GLO township, but each covers parts of several large GLO squares. At the inception of Fort Riley in 1853, the entire fort reservation and the area including Junction City were in Riley County. Part of the military reservation and the area containing Junction City were transferred to Davis County in 1860 by the Kansas Territorial Legislature (Jeffries 1963:93-94, 98). As seen in the Kansas Census, however, only Ogden was a designated township in 1865, with Madison and Wildcat townships combined within Jackson Township. Milford Township (known as "Bacheller Post Office") was also part of Jackson Township and within Riley County. It was renamed Milford in 1868 and transferred to Davis County in 1873 (History— Milford, Kansas n.d.:l). Jackson Township was either renamed Madison, or Madison Township was subdivided from it during this period. Wildcat Township also may have been created between 1865 and 1875, or it may have 29 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas remained part of Madison Township until some time between 1875 and 1885; the 1875 records for Wildcat Township are missing from the Kansas Census. The earliest farm economy in the area was subsistence farming, supplemented by sales to the Army at Fort Riley. Diversity in this economy is seen in production of wool and tobacco, products absent from later censuses. These products were produced to meet local needs but were supplanted in later years by products from outside the region where tobacco and wool could be produced more cheaply or successfully. Oxen are also noted in the 1865 census but not listed in later censuses (probably included in the "cattle" category after 1865). This may also reflect the general decline in use of oxen as draft animals in the later nineteenth century. This subsistence-based economy was transitory, applying only to the earliest days of settlement. Similar economies, with eventual transition to an economy linked to national and international markets as transportation networks improved, are found on other American frontiers from the eighteenth century onward (Groover 1994:45). The initial subsistence economy was supplanted by a cash-crop economy centered on wheat production in bottomlands and cattle in upland pastures, the first effective Euroamerican agricultural adaptation to the Flint Hills area (Malin 1942). Production of wheat and cattle is strongly evident in the area townships on the 1865 Kansas Census. This economy developed in the Flint Hills region after the Civil War (Malin 1942:4). Settlement began in the bottoms, which were best suited to grain or mixed agriculture, with cattle and cattle finishing industries developing somewhat later in the uplands, especially after the cattle drives from Texas to Abilene, Dodge City, and Wichita began in the 1870s (Malin 1942:5-6). With many area farms being established after the Civil War (Cooprider 1979:13-15), most participated in this cash economy from the beginning of settlement. Only the earliest farms, most likely those located closest to the original 20,000-acre Fort Riley reservation, were subsistence farms for a brief period early in the Euroamerican occupation of the area. Social order on the pioneer farms was not entirely established during the earliest period of settlement. This may have been exacerbated, to some extent, by the sectional trouble in the Kansas Territory during the period before the Civil War (Richmond 1989:66) and by the general disruption of American society during the war. Following the war, settlement in the area probably resembled pioneering further west as described by Ruede (1966) and Stratton (1981). As society began to stabilize, pioneers participated in an extensive local economy of reciprocal labor exchange. Earlier settlers helped later arrivals, being repaid by labor during planting and harvest seasons (see Ruede 1966:88-156). Communities, organized around circuit churches (Stratton 1981:171-183), were invigorated by constant visiting, especially among women (Stratton 1981:129-132), and by dances, parties, and picnics that were organized by church groups (Stratton 1981:132-143). Births, marriages, deaths, and funerals were important community events and were major spheres for community participation by women (Stratton 1981:73-88). Many of the male settlers and their families came from the Midwest (Shortridge 1995:34-37), especially from the states of Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, and Ohio. There, they had been used to a life progressing up an "agricultural ladder," where a man would begin working as a hired hand for his father, another relative or outside his extended family, gradually saving enough money to purchase a farm, marry, and start a family (Schob 1975). In the project area, farms were acquired through purchase 30 Chapter 3. Cultural Context or fulfillment of Homestead Act provisions. This process supplanted the earlier agricultural ladder, leading to a society in which most farms would be inherited or purchased from earlier occupants, an inevitable process as the frontier closed and usable agricultural land was filled during the late nineteenth century. Although no definite town sites are known for the rural part of the project area (the one exception being the Town of Pawnee), towns founded on the periphery of the project area were very important to the establishment of a rural economy and society. The largest town on the outskirts of the project area was Manhattan, begun by a colony sponsored by the New England Emigrant Aid Company in 1855 (Slagg 1968:14). The New England Emigrant Aid Company was in the forefront of promoting antislavery settlement in eastern Kansas during the 1850s (Richmond 1989:69). Settlers in Manhattan made an early commitment to education by founding Bluemont College in 1857 (Slagg 1968:77). Bluemont College became Kansas State University, a land grant college, in 1863 after donation of the Bluemont College facilities to the state in 1861 (Richmond 1989:103; Slagg 1968:77-79). Junction City was founded at the junction of the Republican and Smoky Hill rivers in 1857 (Jeffries 1963:13). Junction City was, from its inception, linked to Fort Riley. A major industry in the town always has been the provision of services to military personnel at the fort (Jeffries 1963:27-28). The link to the fort, and the number of Southerners stationed there before the Civil War, made Junction City much more pro-slavery than Manhattan, to the point that these two cities may be seen as emblematic of the divisions during "Bleeding Kansas" (Shortridge 1995:42). Both Junction City and Manhattan were located at what was perceived as the head of steamboat navigation on the Kansas River, although all attempts to establish regular service by boats on this river proved unsuccessful, due to sandbars and shifting channels (Jeffries 1963:12-14). With construction of the Kansas Pacific/Union Pacific Eastern Branch Railroad through both Manhattan and Junction City in 1866 (Jeffries 1963:53; Slagg 1968:60-70), both became local centers for the region's agricultural economy. Junction City became the seat of Davis (later Geary) County in 1860, winning a county seat election immediately after being transferred to Davis from Riley County in an adjustment of county boundaries mandated by the Kansas Territorial Legislature (Jeffries 1963:93-94, 98). Junction City may have been a focus for German immigration in the late 1860s. Frederick Brunswick ran an immigration society for Germans in the town during this time, but it was largely unsuccessful (Jeffries 1963:151). Smaller towns were also important to this economy. Ogden was one such town, founded on the eastern edge of the original 20,000-acre Fort Riley reservation after settlers were forced to move from the Town of Pawnee in 1855 when it was found to be within the bounds of the military reservation (Slagg 1968:127-129). A land office was located in Ogden from 1857 to 1859, and the town held the seat for Riley County briefly before it was moved to Manhattan (Slagg 1968:129-130). Ogden, like Junction City, found an early and continuing purpose in providing services to soldiers at Fort Riley (Slagg 1968:130), replacing Whiskey Point, Riley City, and other ephemeral places on the Kansas River (Jeffries 1963:32-34). The services included a brewery, operated in Ogden from ca. 1870 until it was closed by the Kansas Prohibition Law of 1880 (Slagg 1968:133-134). A tier of three small towns— Keats, Riley, and Bala— along the northern boundary of the 1965 purchase fulfilled the function of local centers for the area as did Milford on the western side of the 1965 31 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas purchase. Keats began as Wildcat, centered around a general store begun in 1860 which was to become a post office in 1869 (Slagg 1968:137-139). The town's name was changed to Keats in 1887, following arrival of the Clay Center line of the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific Railroad (Lee 1991; Slagg 1968:139). Riley began as Union, a farm market center north of the present townsite, developing gradually before 1880 (Slagg 1968:145-147). In 1881, the Kansas Central Railroad built a line six miles north of Union, and the town lost business (with some establishments relocating completely, including buildings) to the village of Alembic (now Leonardville) until the Rock Island Railroad came through in 1887 (Slagg 1968:147-149). The town moved south about one mile to the new railroad, renamed itself "Riley Center" in a half-hearted effort to attract the seat of Riley County, and then was renamed Riley in 1888 (Slagg 1968:149-150). Bala began in 1870 as "Y Bala yn Powys" (Davies 1977:462), named after a village in Wales (Slagg 1968: 159). Bala was founded as a colony for immigrants from Wales organized by the Welsh Land and Emigration Society. James Jenkins, leader of the colony, bought a large block of Kansas Pacific Railroad land on time and distributed the land to the immigrants (Slagg 1968:159-160). This was common practice for emigrant companies and sponsors and was the way that many immigrant groups became established in Kansas (Shortridge 1995:79-81). This arrangement failed in Bala before 1880 when Jenkins was unable to pay the railroad, and deeds held by settlers from the Welsh Land and Emigration Society were made void (Slagg 1968:164-165). The settlers replaced their railroad lands with Homestead Act claims as immigrants professing a determination to settle permanently and become U.S. citizens were permitted to do by the Homestead Act (Shortridge 1995:81; Slagg 1968:165). The Welsh settlers continued to create an ethnic community in Bala (Slagg 1968:165-170). As with Keats and Riley, economic development of Bala as a small farming center was greatly aided by construction of the Rock Island Railroad through the village in 1887, although the village had to move one mile south to meet the tracks (Slagg 1968:166-168). This pattern of development, with towns moving to meet railroad lines, was common in Kansas during settlement (Sherow 1980:99). Towns succeeded or failed as local economic centers based on access to a railroad line (Sherow 1980), and so extraordinary measures were undertaken to either attract a railroad line or move to meet one. In Davis (Geary) County, Milford began in the late 1850s as Bacheller Post Office, named after an early settler in Manhattan (Milford Congregational Church 1961:146). Located on the bottoms of the Republican River, an early focus of the Milford economy was milling since several good water-power sites were located in the area (Milford Congregational Church 1961:148). A small commercial center with several stores, houses, a church, and a school developed in Milford, aided by construction of the Republican River branch of the Union Pacific Railroad in 1873 (Milford Congregational Church 1961:151-156). Ethnic communities were a factor in the areas of Euroamerican settlement from the beginning. As noted, the village of Bala was begun by Welsh immigrants, the direct result of an organized, ethnically based colonization effort. This effort was given extensive contemporary notice, both here and in Wales (Davies 1977), accounting for the prominence it retains in the local historical record. Another group that settled in the area was of German heritage, both immigrants directly from Germany or the German 32 Chapter 3. Cultural Context States and second- or third-generation German- Americans from the Midwestern states of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois (Shortridge 1995:33-34). The Irish were represented in the area of Fort Riley itself. The Irish do not, however, appear to be as strongly represented in the rural parts of the area as do the Germans or Welsh (Shortridge 1995:32). Immigrants from Sweden and Switzerland were also present in some numbers in the area townships. The overwhelming majority of people inhabiting the Fort Riley area were Anglo-Americans. Southerners were concentrated in and near Junction City. Natives of New England, the Mid- Atlantic states, and especially the upper Midwestern states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa were predominant on the farms in Riley County north of the original Fort Riley reservation (Shortridge 1995:35). These groups formed ethnic communities usually organized around churches (for Bala, see Slagg 1968: 168-172; for an example of an east Kansas German community outside the project area, see Coburn 1992). 1870-1900: Development and Growth of Family Farms During this period farms and farmers made a transition from the mixed subsistence and cash crop economy of the early settlement period to a fully developed, cash crop capitalist farm economy. This transition was enabled by complete development of the area's railroad network by the late 1880s. The railroads and the grain elevators that accompanied them (Cronon 1991:97-147) allowed area farmers to access a national market for wheat and livestock (cattle and hogs). Notable in development of this economy is adoption of the hard red winter wheat brought to Kansas by Russian Mennonites during the 1870s (Richmond 1989: 161-162). Although no Mennonite immigrants settled in the project area, winter wheat replaced the spring wheat that the area's settlers had brought from the east. Participation in this national economy allowed farmers to import materials such as lumber (Cronon 1991:180-183) and coal (Haywood 1980:29) that were not available in the Flint Hills. The first lumber yard in Junction City was established in 1865 in anticipation of the railroad's arrival the next year (Jeffries 1963:128-129). As area farmers began to participate in this national economy, they continued to produce crops for their own use, both from tradition and to ensure their survival in a new, uncertain economic system. Such local crops included oats for feeding the horses and mules that supplied power for farm operations. A small crop of potatoes also was grown, either for family use or the local market. Another local crop was corn, which, most probably, fed hogs and supplemented grazing on the upland prairies in the local cattle-finishing industry. Millet was produced in some quantity and may have been used as animal feed. Small amounts of honey and sorghum were produced for use as sweeteners by farm families. Large amounts of butter and a fair amount of poultry, probably for eggs, also were produced. These products usually were produced by women and are noted throughout the Plains as major contributions to family prosperity (McNall and McNall 1983:23). One important aspect of this capitalist economy that also developed during this period was the practice of custom harvesting, in which crews of men would travel through the Plains states, harvesting and threshing wheat and other crops as they became ripe (Isern 1990). Development of threshing machines, both steam and horse powered, occurred before and after the Civil War, with the machines reaching a level of practical applicability that allowed their use in commercial operations by the 1860s 33 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas (Isern 1990:16-21). Most farmers, however, could not afford these expensive machines that were used only once a year, and they could not supply the large amount of temporary labor needed only during the harvest (Isern 1990:21-67). They therefore employed the threshing crews, which would arrive on a farm, harvest and thresh the crop over several days or a week, then move on to another farm (Isern 1990:68-129). While working on a farm, the women of the farm family often were required to cook large meals for the threshing crew of between ten and twenty men, a monumental, and much disliked, task (Isern 1990:99-100). The national capitalist farm economy made farmers dependent upon railroad transportation and markets in cities and regions far from local scrutiny, much less local control. In the project area, the nearest major market was Kansas City, which became an important regional center through its dominance of the local rail system between 1865 and 1885 (Glaab 1993:161-172). In the project area, as elsewhere throughout the Midwest and Plains states, Chicago was the ultimate regional center. Its dominance of the railroad system through the entire middle part of the United States, possession of the nation's preeminent grain futures market at the Chicago Board of Trade, and creation of major farm supply firms gave Chicago a regional and national importance that continues to this day (Cronon 1991). This economy, and the society that it fostered, was distrusted by farmers and residents of rural towns during this period. Before the Civil War, the Jeffersonian ideal of rural, republican society was one composed of independent yeoman farmers. These farmers could create the foundation of an independent nation through basic self-sufficiency that allowed independent operation of their farms (Kulikoff 1992:22, 34-59). While this ideal was never completely realized, it remained an organizing concept of American rural and national society into the period following the Civil War (Kulikoff 1992:50-59). This ideal could not be realized in a large-scale, integrated national economy where the market dictated production conditions and prices. Farmers became caught in a vicious cycle whereby diligent work and application of improved technology would result in over-production of cash crops, driving prices down (McMath 1993: 19-49). If the profits realized from cash crops could not cover loans on equipment and land, a farmer might well lose his farm during a period of abundant production. This situation was only made worse by periods of impaired production or economic depression such as those caused by drought or grasshoppers in Kansas during the 1870s and 1880s (Miner 1986:52-66, 119-131) or the national business panics of 1873 and 1893 (Richmond 1989: 143-144). The contradiction of this situation baffled farmers, going against their fundamental beliefs and values. Reaction to this situation took the form of two political movements, the Farmer's Alliance of the 1870s and early 1880s (McMath 1993:83-107) and the Populist Party of the late 1880s and early 1890s (McMath 1993:143-179). Major issues included creation of paper money to help farmers and other debtors pay back their loans and regulation of railroad rates, especially the long haul/short haul controversy (McMath 1993:64-66; McNall 1988:100-101). In Kansas, the Populist Movement can best be viewed as a class response to economic difficulty that developed out of earlier class, ethnic, and regional social structures (McNall 1988). Populist organization was quite successful in Kansas. Kansas elected a Populist Congressman ("Sockless" Jerry Simpson), Senator (William Peffer), and Governor (Lorenzo D. Lewelling) in the early 1890s (Richmond 1989:191-194). In 1892, by means of what were very probably illegal elections, the Republican Party maintained control of the Kansas legislature while the Populists met elsewhere in the capitol. This situation almost led to violence but was ultimately 34 Chapter 3. Cultural Context resolved in favor of the Republicans by the Kansas Supreme Court (Richmond 1989: 194-196). Populists may not have been overly strong in the Fort Riley area, but they were present. A Greenback Party rally that was held in Junction City in 1881 was attended by "a large number" of people from Milford Township in Davis County (Banks-Milford 1881). The Populist Party dissolved during the election of 1894. Many Populist policies and quite a few of its leaders allied with the Democratic Party in support of William Jennings Bryan's several presidential campaigns during the 1890s and the first decade of the twentieth century (McMath 1993:200-207). In Kansas some populists became Democrats but many more were attracted to the progressive wing of the Republican Party. They supported Theodore Roosevelt as a Republican in 1904 and as a Progressive (Bull Moose) in 1912 (Richmond 1989:205-212). With the exception of the social upheavals of the 1930s, when Democrats were able to make some minor inroads, Kansas would remain essentially Republican through the remainder of the twentieth century. Political issues of importance immediately within the project area include changing the name of Davis County to Geary County in 1889 (Blackmar 1912:715). The original name honored Jefferson Davis, Secretary of War during the period when Junction City was founded in the late 1850s. This reflected the pro-southern sentiments of many area residents (Shortridge 1995:42) as well as the early importance of Fort Riley to the county's and Junction City's economy and society. Following the Civil War the name "Davis" became unacceptable to the growing majority of Union Army veterans who settled in the county, especially those who settled on Homestead Act claims after former Confederates were prohibited from filing these claims in 1876 (Shortridge 1995:75). This sentiment was not unanimously held, however, as shown by the controversy surrounding renaming the county (Blackmar 1912:715). The new name "Geary" honors John White Geary, the third governor of the Kansas Territory who had labored to reduce tensions between abolitionist and pro-slavery factions in 1857 during the "Bleeding Kansas" troubles (Davis 1984:62-63). Geary's attempts at compromise during his governorship, although unsuccessful (Davis 1984:63), may have recommended his name as a compromise between staunchly Republican Union veterans and lingering "Southern" Democrats in the postwar county. At the end of the settlement period, a form of rural society stabilized in the project area as it did elsewhere in eastern Kansas. The basic social unit was the nuclear family, consisting of a married couple and their children, sometimes increased by family members of older generations or by collateral relatives (McNall and McNall 1983: 19-20). In the project area the vast majority of these families lived on farms. The nuclear family was, however, also the basic social unit of area towns, creating an essential cultural homogeneity within a very well-integrated society (McNall and McNall 1983: 20, 33-39). These communities and the families composing them placed a high value on education, supporting elementary education for all girls and boys (McNall and McNall 1983:39). Religion, especially Protestant denominations that emphasized progress and the spiritual benefit of diligent work and moral virtue, became the center of communities or of congregational groups within communities (see discussion of Bala Churches in Slagg 1968:168-171). Ethnic communities often were integrated through churches, especially those that preserved the native language of immigrants as a medium for preaching and services (Coburn 1992:31-37). This was 35 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas particularly true of German Lutheran churches in the Missouri Synod, which developed a doctrine based on maintenance of German language and ethnicity as a way to preserve and express cultural and social cohesiveness and morality (Coburn 1992:58-59). This social order was, in some communities, reinforced through creation of religious schools. These schools, occasionally taught in German, were intended to preserve social morality by transmitting German ethnicity to a new generation (Coburn 1992:60-81). The ethnic composition in the project area during this period remained largely as it had been during settlement. The Welsh community centered on Bala remains notable as do more scattered groups of Germans and Swiss, with small groups (no more than one or two families) of Swedes and Irish. Outside the project area, but within Riley County, a larger, loosely organized Swedish/Scandinavian settlement grew up in the 1880s and 1890s around Mariadahl, Cleburne, and Swede Creek along the Big Blue River (Slagg 1968:216-235). In Bala, the Welsh community organized the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Church soon after settlement (Slagg 1968:169). Services were held in Welsh until 1887 when the local Church reorganized as the English Presbyterian Church and lost title to its building after a fight with the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist denomination (Slagg 1968: 169). This church merged with the Leonardville Presbyterian Church in 1890 (Slagg 1968:170). The Welsh citizens of Bala also organized a choral society and competed at the Emporia Eisteddfod, a traditional Welsh song and poetry festival, during the 1880s and 1890s (Slagg 1968:168). A German language church, the Fairview Presbyterian Church, was organized at Riley Center in 1874 by German families from Iowa and Illinois. This church held services in German until 1920 (Slagg 1968:153-154). As farm families were established and local communities stabilized, a new generation began to arise on area farms. These were the sons and daughters of the original settlers, the product of the above described efforts to create a rural society and transmit its values to its children. In this process boys learned how to farm as their fathers had before them, and girls learned to raise children and manage households, the occupations of their mothers (McNall and McNall 1983:38-40). Sons began to inherit their fathers' farms during this period, although the first generation of settlers did not entirely pass from the scene until the early twentieth century. Children that could not inherit the family farm either sought their own farms outside the community (see Svobida 1986:41-45) or pursued nonagricultural opportunities. Most remained in the rural society during this period, and the farm society and economy was replicated successfully during the first generational change. As the local society and economy matured and stabilized, the farmsteads established in the first period of settlement underwent a process of maturation and intensification. Early stone farm houses were replaced by larger structures or additions were added. Development of the railroad system brought in larger quantities of lumber (Cronon 1991:180-183), allowing new construction during this and subsequent periods to be made of wood. As noted, however, a strong local tradition of building in stone remained in the area. Therefore, while frame buildings appeared in the project area in appreciable numbers for the first time during this period, many buildings continued to be made of local limestone. An important part of improvements to farmsteads was reconstruction of, and additions to, production buildings, especially the barns used to store crops and protect animals. Increases in production as farmers participated more fully in the national capitalist farm economy required bigger 36 Chapter 3. Cultural Context buildings. Such buildings were not required so much by the crops produced (which were stored in elevators by the railroads, shipped as soon as possible after harvest, and processed off the farm; Cronon 1991 : 109-1 19), but by the animals needed to haul the implements used to produce larger crops. The implements, often expensive, required sheds for shelter. Finally, development of a cattle-finishing industry required at least minimal shelter for the animals, especially following disasters such as the exceptionally cold winter of 1886-1 887, which killed thousands of cattle on exposed ranges (Richmond 1989:136). Silos— round towers used to store and ferment wheat straw, corn stubble, or hay into feed for cattle and hogs (silage)— made their first appearance during this period. Earthen dams for small impoundments also began to appear during this period (Miner 1986:172-188). Dams for stock ponds probably became more common as the stock finishing and raising industries developed in the Flint Hills. Access to the national market also allowed farm families increased access to a greater variety of material culture during this period (Adams 1976). Farm families and individuals had greater opportunity to express personal or family ideals, values, and preferences through their purchases and use of goods from the national market. 1900-1920: Peak Development of Family Farms as a Social and Economic Form During this period, development of the family farm within the national economy reached a peak in geographic, if not demographic, extent. The period coincides with an economic boom that was advantageous to farmers in the Midwest and Plains states, especially during the First World War. It is, therefore, as close as any period in American history to the realization of the Jeffersonian ideal of a nation of farmers, albeit with the farmers involved in and dependent on a national and international economy. In northeastern Kansas this period was one when farmers came closest to realizing this ideal of rural society. One factor that contributed to this period was the effect of Populist reforms as Populist ideas were taken up and implemented by the two major national political parties. In Kansas such reforms were undertaken by the Progressive branch of the Republican Party and included women's suffrage, prohibition, and public health (Richmond 1989:207-212). William Allen White, one of Kansas's most noted journalists, was a spokesman for many of these movements (Richmond 1989:198-200, 211-212). In agricultural areas one of the most important changes was the creation of farmers' cooperative associations to market crops and purchase seed and other supplies in bulk (Grant 1977; McMath 1976:64). These cooperatives gave the farmers more control over their production and mitigated some of the negative aspects of being small-scale producers in a national economy. Diversification of crops was important throughout Kansas during this period (Richmond 1989:213). In the project area, such diversification is not readily apparent from the county-level statistics gathered by the federal censuses of 1910 (Bureau of the Census 1913:591, 595), 1920 (Bureau of the Census 1922:755, 759), and 1930 (Bureau of the Census 1932:1327, 1331). The complex of corn and winter wheat grown as major crops during the previous period continued in similar proportions. Milo Maize and Kaffir Corn (two names for the same crop) continued to be grown in moderate quantities in 1910 (Bureau of the Census 1913:591, 595) and 1920 (Bureau of the Census 1922:755, 759). This crop was not recorded on the 1930 federal census (Bureau of the Census 1932:1327, 1331). Decreases in oats and corn production in Riley and Geary counties after 1900 (Cooprider 1979:Table 3) illustrate increased 37 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas mechanization of farms as farmers decreased production of forage crops for draft animals in favor of more land for cash crops (Williams 1987:149-150). A major factor in the later stages of this period was the unprecedented boom in farm prices caused by the First World War. This boom began in 1915 as agriculture was disrupted in Europe, not so much from the fighting taking place in agricultural areas but from the massive amounts of materials, animals and men that were diverted from agriculture to the armies. European governments, especially the British, French, and Russian, began to buy large quantities of food from America. This resulted in vast increases in acres under production, especially for wheat (Richmond 1989:223). Another aspect of this change was sudden inflation in the value of horses and mules that were needed in large and continuing quantities by the allied armies. American farmers found themselves being priced out of the international market for horse power but found that, with their increased profits, they could afford the gasoline- powered tractors that were beginning to be mass-produced (Williams 1987:43-56). This change increased the average productive capacity of the American farm and, concurrently, increased the farmer's dependence on the international market and debt financing. This process intensified when the United States entered World War I in 1917 (Richmond 1989:224-225). These trends are apparent with the increase in the value of farm machinery from $290,680 in 1900 to $1,445,966 in 1930 in Riley County (Bureau of the Census 1913:575, 1932:1313) and from $185,620 in 1900 to $753,186 in 1930 in Geary County (Bureau of the Census 1913:571, 1932:1309). The number of horses in both counties declined after 1915 (Cooprider 1979: Table 4). In the project area this process of agricultural intensification was heightened by increased use of Fort Riley as a training base and the expanded local market that this represented. Training at Fort Riley reached a peak between 1917 and 1919 when Camp Funston provided basic training for up to 50,000 soldiers and was the Army's major midwestern training base (Andros et al. 1993:23; Pride 1987:277-285; Richmond 1989:226-228). Within Riley and Geary counties the agricultural boom is represented by a decrease in the number of farmsteads attributable to farm consolidations (Cooprider 1979:18, Table 5). This process may represent a "shake out" of the local economy during the boom years as less successful producers sold in a time of inflated land prices to their more successful neighbors. The correlation between decreases in number of farms and increases in average farm size has been noted for this period across eastern Kansas (Waite and Largent 1996:39). The basis for community remained much as it had been in the later nineteenth century. People lived on farms, traded in small towns, and congregated with their neighbors at churches and ethnic associations. However, the basis of these communities changed. Farms families were no longer as isolated as in the nineteenth century due to technological improvements such as the automobile and telephone. Participation in the national economy and purchasing of goods through mail-order stores became important (McNall and McNall 1983:140-141), leading to changes in local social relations similar to those seen elsewhere in American rural areas at this time (Purser 1992:110-111). By participating in this economy and using new technologies, rural people began to feel free of earlier social restrictions and isolation. Some of this change was expressed across generational lines with younger people associating themselves with the styles and mores of urban America while their parents and grandparents preserved more traditional ways of life (McNall and McNall 1983:128-150). 38 Chapter 3. Cultural Context One example of this process, occurring during the boom of the first two decades of the twentieth century, concerns the one-room schools that had been a focus of rural community since the early days of settlement (Fuller 1994:1-6). The boom provided rural people with more local tax dollars to spend on schools, both in raising teachers' salaries and in improving school facilities and equipment (Fuller 1994:80-82). This prosperity, however, also allowed some consolidation of rural school districts into somewhat larger one-room schools in rural areas or into more organized and bureaucratic multiple- room, multiple-teacher schools in towns (Fuller 1994:86-98). Children rode to these schools in horse- drawn wagons fitted with seats, later to be replaced by automobiles or early buses, along the improved rural roads being built at this time (Fuller 1994:98-100). The change revolutionized rural education, professionalized teaching (Fuller 1994:63-69), and provided much greater educational opportunities to farm children. It also began to move education away from direct local control, lessening one of the traditional bases for rural community and social interaction (McNall and McNall 1983:139-145). In the project area rural schools do not appear to have been consolidated during this period, although facilities at most were improved (Bala Pioneer Heritage Society 1984). Ethnic communities also underwent changes at this time. German individuals, communities, and churches came under intense pressure to conform to "Americanism" and especially to use English in their schools and church services (Coburn 1992:136-137; Pankratz 1976). This was caused by America's support for the British, French, and Russian Allies before 1917 and its direct conflict with Germany and Austria in 1917 and 1918. War propaganda directed against Germany inflamed anti-German prejudices (McNall and McNall 1983:134) to the point that elderly German immigrants, including veterans of the Union Army from the Civil War, were forced to register as enemy aliens (Coburn 1992:142-144). In the project area the Fairview Presbyterian Church of Riley changed from German to English for its services in 1920 (Slagg 1968:153-154), possibly influenced by the difficulty people of German ancestry had recently experienced. The boom in the early twentieth century coincided with the later part of the first generational change on area farms with the succession from the settlers of the area to their heirs. This gave increased impetus to changes within farmsteads that were enabled by the prosperity of the agricultural boom. Remodeling of farm houses and production buildings continued. Features of this construction that may be visible archaeologically include drilled wells, which replaced earlier stone-capped wells. Reinforced concrete also began to be used extensively during this period following its development during the 1890s (McNeil 1990:890-891). The "shake out" in the rural economy may have resulted in abandonment of some farmstead sites. The homesteads of small, less successful farmers may have been abandoned or put to other uses (for instance, continued use of the production buildings following abandonment or reuse of the house and domestic area) as farms were consolidated. Some of these farmsteads may have been reused as housing for tenants or farm workers, although this change was selected against by the increased mechanization of farm production that was also a factor in farm consolidation. 1920-1941: Collapse of the Farm Economy Around 1920 the rural boom that characterized the World War I years came to an end. This was due to a collapse in crop prices after the inflation caused by wartime disruption of European agriculture. A general national business depression followed (Richmond 1989:234). Kansas farmers and farmers 39 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas elsewhere in the nation were affected foremost and worst by these changes in the international market. Especially hard hit were farmers who had undertaken debt to expand farms or purchase equipment with the expectation that they could pay these debts through a continuation of high crop prices (Williams 1987:45-47, 153). When prices collapsed these farmers could not pay their debts, and some lost their farms. This situation was intensified by the Great Depression, which began after the stock market crash of 1929. In Kansas this national economic disaster was accompanied, after 1930, by drought and the development of the Dust Bowl in the western part of the state (Richmond 1989:258-260). In the Dust Bowl very arid prairie land unwisely brought into production during World War I began to erode as strong prairie winds blew away topsoil no longer protected by prairie grasses (Richmond 1989:256-258). Accounts from the Dust Bowl area (Svobida 1986) present an apocalyptic picture of complete economic and social collapse. Further east in Kansas the droughts were certainly felt and presented farmers with severe challenges but do not appear to have overwhelmed local agriculture as in western Kansas (Fruehauf 1979:253-255). The Fort Riley area was within the eastern zone of less catastrophic drought. Cooprider (1979: Tables 5 and 6) notes a decrease in rural population and number of farmsteads between 1900 and 1955 as small farms were consolidated. This trend does not appear to have accelerated during the 1920s or 1930s. Indeed, it was greater during the 1900-1920 period. Even as the World War I boom was intensified by the Fort Riley market, the effects of the bust may have been alleviated by the continued presence of this market. In the 1930s, Fort Riley had Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and Works Progress Administration (WPA) camps (Andros et al. 1993:30-31), representing both a focus for local (as well as state and region-wide) relief and providing a market for local farmers. The economic dislocation of the 1920s and 1930s fostered social dislocation and political radicalism. Developing out of the "Americanism" movement of the First World War, the Ku Klux Klan organized extensively in Kansas as it did elsewhere in the Midwest (Richmond 1989:247-249). In Kansas the Klan was opposed by established political and social leaders such as William Allen White, who made opposition to the Klan a cornerstone of his 1924 run for governor. Though unsuccessful White's campaign brought the Klan into the open, and it was denied a charter to operate as a business in Kansas in 1925, which prevented it from raising funds (Richmond 1989:249-250). In the late 1930s political radicalism was most prominent in the Senate candidacy of fundamentalist preacher Gerald R. Winrod. Winrod lost his bid for a Senate seat and was tried in 1944 on federal charges of sedition for his pro- Fascist statements during World War II (Davis 1984:185; Hope 1979). Charges against Winrod were dismissed following a mistrial, declared upon the death of the presiding judge (Hope 1979:58). Winrod received significant support in his Senate campaign from northeast Kansas (Hope 1979:58). This was attributed to his close alliance with a somewhat earlier radical, Dr. John R. Brinkley. Brinkley began his public career in 1918 (Davis 1984:183) when he settled in Milford. He established a clinic and later a hospital devoted to unconventional medicine such as a widely publicized treatment to restore "male virility" through transplants of glands from male goats (Richmond 1989:260). More successful at self-promotion than medicine, Brinkley began a powerful radio station (call letters KFKB, meaning "Kansas First, Kansas Best") from Milford in 1922 (Richmond 1989:261), promoting both his hospital 40 Chapter 3. Cultural Context and political career. In 1930 Brinkley ran for governor as a write-in candidate (Richmond 1989:261), losing to the Democrat Harry Woodring in a very close race (Richmond 1989:262-263). The election may have been stolen from Brinkley, a circumstance regarded as not unfortunate by some students of the era (Davis 1984:184). Brinkley ran again in 1932, losing by a much larger margin (Richmond 1989:263). His removal of votes from the incumbent Democratic governor may have led to the election of Republican Alf Landon in the teeth of Franklin D. Roosevelt's landslide, which propelled Landon to prominence in national Republican politics (Davis 1984:184-185). Brinkley lost his Kansas medical license in the late 1920s and his radio license ultimately was revoked by the Federal Radio Commission, a forerunner of the Federal Communications Commission (Richmond 1989:261-262). He closed his Kansas operations in the mid- 1930s, having moved his radio station to Mexico before his 1932 campaign (Richmond 1989:263). In Milford, Brinkley' s clinic and radio station created a local boom pumping more than a million dollars a year into the local economy during the late 1920s and early 1930s (History— Milford Kansas n.d.:2). Effects on the local agricultural economy remain unknown; local Kansas census schedules for 1935 will not be published until 2005 so it is impossible to determine if goat production increased in Milford Township during this period. The prominence of Brinkley and others from the political fringes reflects the great social dislocation that occurred in Kansas, as elsewhere in rural America, during the collapse of the farm economy. By the early 1930s, two million people were "on the road," living as hobos in search of work (McNall and McNall 1983:187). Most of these people were men displaced from both factory jobs and the rural economy, some of whom abandoned families either to find work or because they could not face the shame of being unable to provide for their wives and children (McNall and McNall 1983:186-188). People began to question the social value of work in an economy where work was not available or where it brought little reward (McNall and McNall 1983:187). Reactions to this situation included reinforcement of traditional values carried to extremes as discussed above, or a greater willingness, even a necessity, to explore new social arrangements in the face of the failure of what had been regarded as a stable way of life (McNall and McNall 1983:182-192). 1935-1980: Partial Recovery of the Farm After reaching a low point in the early 1930s, the American farm economy gradually stabilized. New Deal programs instituted by the first administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt began to address farm and market problems (Richmond 1989:264-265). In Kansas three programs had great and lasting effects: price supports, soil conservation efforts, and the Rural Electrification Authority. Conservative Kansans remained distrustful of many of the new federal programs and resented the abrogation of local control to the national government implied in federal assistance (Richmond 1989:272-273). Like the rest of the nation, however, they also appreciated help when in desperate straits (Richmond 1989:273; Svobida 1986:234-240) and found programs that combined immediate benefits with some local control to be acceptable and beneficial (the RE A is an example; see Fruehauf 1979:258-260). As in the rest of rural America the Depression ended gradually in Kansas as the United States prepared for World War II from 1939 to 1941 and abruptly after the nation entered the war on December 7, 1941 (Richmond 1989:277). War on a truly worldwide scale, and the immediate need faced by the United States to field a larger and more sophisticated military effort than in World War I caused an 41 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas agricultural and industrial boom. Many defense plants were located in Kansas, especially aircraft factories around Wichita (Richmond 1989:227-278). These factories offered unprecedented industrial employment to rural people and industrial jobs to women for the first time in Kansas history (McNall and McNall 1983:191; Richmond 1989:278). As during World War I, the needs of an expanded Fort Riley provided a ready market for local produce and crops and a source of full- or part-time employment. The largest effect in the project area was the 1942 land purchase that incorporated all of Township 10S, Range 6E and sections in adjacent townships into Fort Riley for expanded training. This expansion took more than 40 square miles out of agricultural production and caused the precipitous drop of 310 farms in Riley County between 1940 and 1950 (Cooprider 1979:Table 5). Following the war the farm economy continued to expand for the increasingly fewer farmers who participated in it. Crops continued to be diversified; milo production increased in the area throughout this period as corn and oats declined (Cooprider 1979:Table 3). Milo (a variety of sorghum often used as silage and cattle feed) production increased to support the cattle and feedlot industry in the area (Fruehauf 1979:267). Production of food animals (hogs and beef cattle) remained an important aspect of local farm production. Hog production declined slightly in Geary County between 1945 and 1965 but remained essentially stable in Riley County (Cooprider 1979: Table 4). Cattle production increased in both counties (Cooprider 1979:Table 4). Soybeans were introduced in Kansas in the late 1930s and became important during World War II for their oil (Richmond 1989:282). Center pivot irrigation systems appear to have been introduced in the area in the 1970s and 1980s, especially in the bottoms of the Kansas and Republican rivers where dependable supplies of underground water are assured. This long process of agricultural expansion was available, by and large, only to those farmers who had, or could borrow, the capital to exploit it. While some custom combining replaced custom threshing after the 1920s (Isern 1990:208), economic, social, and familial benefits accrued to farmers who could afford combines that were very expensive, specialized machines (Isern 1990: 174-209). Tractors became a necessity for successful farming and became increasingly powerful, versatile, and expensive throughout this period (Williams 1986:101-124). In the project area this process is visible from the number of horses in both Riley and Geary counties, with a decline beginning after 1915 and accelerating precipitously after 1935 (Cooprider 1979:Table 4). Increasingly sophisticated fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides raised both crop yields and the costs of raising a crop. These factors combined to cause "gigantism" (Williams 1986:149-150), a process whereby an ever larger farm is needed to make farming profitable. The only recourse for smaller producers (and for many larger producers as well) is borrowing against the success of a crop, a practice as risky in the 1970s as it was in the 1910s. Many smaller farmers gradually were forced off their land during this period. This usually happened when a farmer retired or died without an heir, often when children had left farming for more secure occupations in the industrial or service economies (see Fruehauf 1979:264-265). Part-time farming increased, farm consolidations continued, and renting of land by farmers from owners no longer interested in operating farms became more common (Fruehauf 1979:269-270). Renting or ownership of scattered pieces of land was facilitated by the increased mobility of rubber tired tractors, combines, sprayers, and other equipment. This process led to great changes in the rural landscape with wholesale abandonment of farmsteads as the family farm ceased to be the basis of American agriculture. A farmstead might be abandoned entirely, have its domestic area 42 Chapter 3. Cultural Context abandoned but production buildings remain in use, or lose its production buildings and barnyard to become a country house for someone not working in agriculture. With improved roads and more reliable automobiles it became possible for people desiring the advantages of rural life to live in country houses or former farms and commute to jobs in towns, cities, or with local employers. In the project area the largest local employer was (and is) Fort Riley, whose civilian work force expanded greatly following its selection as headquarters for the First Infantry Division in 1955 (Andros et al. 1993:35). Kansas State University in Manhattan is another large, local nonagricultural employer. By the late 1970s long time rural residents of Kansas could look upon an almost abandoned landscape (Fruehauf 1979:270-271). In the project area these processes were accelerated by major federal property takings, the 1942 and 1965 land purchases for Fort Riley and the condemnation of even larger acreages for the Tuttle Creek (1950s) and Milford (1960s) reservoirs. Changes in transportation are symbolized by the many improved paved roads found in the area, construction of Interstate 70 through Junction City in the early 1970s, and abandonment of the Rock Island Railroad through Keats, Riley, and Bala in the late 1970s after the railroad company went bankrupt (Lee 1991). The Rock Island tracks were torn up in 1984 (Bala Pioneer and Heritage Society 1984:75). This change may have led to the decline of Bala and Keats as local communities since neither town has a school, post office, church, or operating business. Riley, by contrast, still retains many businesses, a truck-served cooperative elevator, churches, a post office, and an elementary school. Sherow (1980) notes that many Kansas towns were founded by railroads as adjuncts to their original business of transporting farm products, equipment, materials, and people. Towns that did not become regional or local community centers were vulnerable to decline when the railroads left. Riley seems to have become such a center and to have continued to succeed in the changed economy. Bala and Keats remain as collections of houses with social, if no longer commercial, identities as towns. Milford remains a local center, although its function changed completely when the town was relocated out of the Republican River bottoms to the east side of Milford Lake during construction of the reservoir in the 1960s. Today, Milford functions as a recreation center, supplying services to the boaters, campers, hunters, and fishermen who vacation in Milford Lake Park. These economic changes were accompanied by great social changes. As discussed above (Fruehauf 1979:264-265) a major generational shift began to occur in the 1950s as young people left farming and rural areas for industrial, service or technical/professional jobs in towns and cities. This began to break up traditional rural communities and change traditional rural values (McNall and McNall 1983:287). An example within Riley County was the removal of the Swedish community on Big Blue Creek for the Tuttle Creek Reservoir in the 1950s (Slagg 1968:216-235). This left Bala as the one surviving community with a distinct ethnic heritage in the county. At present such changes have not been total, and an important body of beliefs and values remains in rural Kansas (Bader 1988:185-196). 1980-Present: The Farm Crisis The Farm Crisis, beginning in the 1980s and extending to the present, is a cumulation of trends in the state-supported national economy that has prevailed since the late 1930s. As discussed above, the farm economy that developed after World War II made larger farms increasingly successful through economic and technological innovations that gradually increased the scale of operations. Ever larger 43 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas farms were necessary to provide a large enough crop to pay the debt borrowed to purchase expensive machinery and chemicals. Expanded production, even overproduction, was managed by price supports which insulated large farmers from the operation of supply and demand by providing a floor price for crops (Davidson 1990:28-32). In the 1970s the U. S. Department of Agriculture encouraged farmers to borrow money to expand operations in the expectation that expansion in international markets (principally, grain sales to the Soviet Union) would allow them to pay back their loans (Davidson 1990:31-32). Worldwide overproduction and business recessions at the beginning and end of the decade caused this system to collapse in the 1980s (Davidson 1990:32-35). With land as the ultimate guarantor of loans, many farmers lost their farms. This depressed the rural economy on both farms and in small towns. It also increased absentee land ownership and the concentration of land in ever larger holdings or in single owner scatter-site operations (Davidson 1990:35-36). The social effect of these changes in many rural areas was a deepening of poverty and an increasing marginalization of what previously had been a population of independent farmers (Davidson 1990:69-87). As in the 1920s, hate groups, conspiracy theories, and radical politics came to have increased appeal (Davidson 1990:101-123). In some cases, manufacturers have moved into rural areas and small towns, although their motivation may be more for cheap labor than to improve rural economies (Davidson 1990:125-151). On a smaller level these changes have accelerated abandonment of farmsteads or their conversion to other uses. The cumulative effect of these processes may be abandonment of the family farm that has prevailed since the Euroamerican settlement of rural America as a geographic and economic entity. The Military History of Fort Riley 1853-1886: The Territorial Fort and Cavalry Post Fort Riley was first authorized by the U.S. Department of War in January 1853 following reports and recommendations prepared in 1852. It was established to protect the Santa Fe and Oregon Trails supplementing Fort Leavenworth and extending U.S. military presence further west in the Central Plains area toward territories recently conquered from Mexico (Andros et al. 1993:8-9). Occupation of the fort, then named Camp Center because it was thought to be near the geographic center of the United States, began in May 1853 as Congress appropriated money for its construction that year. Temporary wooden buildings and tents housed the garrison during its first two years (Andros et al. 1993:9). The camp was renamed Fort Riley in June 1853 honoring General Bennett Riley who died suddenly that same month (Omer 1957:339). Construction of the first stone structures at the fort, located at the Cavalry Parade ground, commenced in 1855 following a further appropriation by Congress (Barr and Rowlison 1977:21-22). A severe cholera epidemic disrupted construction during the summer of 1855, killing approximately 100 soldiers, construction workers, and dependents, including Major E. A. Ogden who was in charge of construction (Andros et al. 1993:10; Pride 1987:66-70). Command of the post devolved briefly upon Sergeant Percival Lowe when officers junior to Major Ogden fled, the only time in U.S. history that an Army post was commanded by an enlisted man (Pride 1987:65). After this setback, construction resumed with 12 major stone buildings and several auxiliary structures completed by the end of 1855 (Andros et al. 1993:10). 44 Chapter 3. Cultural Context The year 1855 also saw construction, occupation, and abandonment of the Town of Pawnee (14GE0348) on the Kansas River floodplain approximately two miles east of the fort. Pawnee was established by the Pawnee Town Association, composed of Major Montgomery, Commanding Officer at Fort Riley, 13 other Army officers, five territorial officers, and five civilians (Barr and Rowlison 1977: 19). The purpose of this speculative association was to attract the capital of the Kansas territory in the hope that the town might become the state capital after Kansas 's admission to the Union (Pride 1987:103). This ambition had some early success when the First Territorial Legislature met there in 1855 under direction of First Territorial Governor Andrew H. Reeder (Barr and Rowlison 1977:19). The legislature met in a hastily finished stone building originally intended as a warehouse for the town company (Richmond 1955:321). Governor Reeder was unable to manage the session effectively since he objected to the many legislators and voters, legal residents of Missouri, who had crossed into Kansas to ensure that Kansas territory adopted a pro-slavery constitution (Davis 1984:48; Richmond 1989:72-73). The legislature adjourned to Shawnee Mission, and later that year the site of Pawnee was found to be within the boundaries of Fort Riley's first 23,899-acre reservation (Barr and Rowlison 1977:19; Pride 1987:103-104). Major Montgomery was court-martialed and dismissed from the Army due to his involvement in the Pawnee Town Association (Omer 1957:340-341). The fairly substantial Town of Pawnee was forcibly evacuated by the Army in late 1855 in a manner similar to evacuation of "squatter" farmsteads also conducted at this time (Barr and Rowlison 1977:19; Slagg 1968:126-127). Archaeological remnants of this briefly occupied but historically important town site may still be present on the floodplain extending west of the restored First Territorial Capitol building, which is the only above ground indicator of this site. Town remnants in the central part of the site may have been impacted by construction of the Union Pacific Railroad in 1866 and expansions and improvements since made to this active line. The western part of the site may have been impacted by its later use as a field for cavalry and artillery exercises and by construction of the 1902 Maneuvers Camp and Camp Whitside (14GE1110) in the same area (Omer 1957:362-363). Following the abandonment of Pawnee, Ogden, founded in 1855 by people displaced from Pawnee (Slagg 1968:128), and Junction City, founded in 1857 (Jeffries 1963:10-11), became the towns most closely linked to Fort Riley in both economy and society. Jeffries (1963) discusses how the economy of Junction City developed in tandem with that of Fort Riley, growing or declining as the fortunes of the fort rose or fell. Pride (1987:117-142) emphasizes the many social links that grew up between the people of Junction City and the garrison at Fort Riley. Junction City is also the seat of Geary County and a center for the local farm economy, but Fort Riley has been a vital element in the town's economy from its beginning. Ogden also was involved in provision of services to the fort; a brewery operated in the town by Theodore Weichselbaum from ca. 1870 until closed by the Kansas Prohibition Law of 1880 (Slagg 1968:133-134) undoubtedly found a ready market for its product in the Fort Riley garrison. Survey of the Fort Riley boundaries in 1855 established a military reservation of 23,899 acres (Barr and Rowlison 1977:21). This included a tract of land between Junction City and Fort Riley, west of the Republican and Smoky Hill rivers, that was removed from government control in 1867 to fund the Republican River Bridge Company. This company built the first unsuccessful (it collapsed immediately) road bridge between Fort Riley and Junction City (Jeffries 1963:41-45), probably at the Republican Crossing site (14GE1 1 19). Sale of this 4,000-acre parcel reduced the reservation to 19,899 acres. It established the permanent southern boundary of the Fort Riley Reservation at the Republican River and 45 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas the crest of the bluff line across the floodplain south of the Kansas River. Fort Riley would remain this size and retain its 1867 boundaries until the 1942 land purchase. After its establishment Fort Riley functioned as a support base for Army operations (principally cavalry) in Kansas and the Central Plains during the remainder of this period. It did not fulfill this function during the Civil War when the fort was lightly garrisoned by Kansas volunteer units and was far from military action. The 1855 fort buildings fell into disrepair during this time (Andros et al. 1993: 14). The fort's fortunes revived briefly during the late 1860s following arrival of the Union Pacific Railroad, Eastern Division and organization of the famous Seventh Cavalry by Colonel Andrew Smith and Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer at Fort Riley in 1866 (Andros et al. 1993:14). Fort Riley remained the operational home of the Seventh Cavalry until the Battle of Little Big Horn in 1876 when part of the unit was destroyed and its commander (Colonel Custer) was killed. Some of the attention given Custer and the Seventh Cavalry following this notable event also fell upon Fort Riley. The fort was the home of Comanche, a horse billed as the only American survivor of Little Big Horn, until its death in 1891 (Fort Riley History n.d.:6-7). Later operations employing troops from Fort Riley included the battle of Wounded Knee in 1890 (Pride 1987:208), extensive deployment of officers from the Cavalry School to Cuba and the Philippines during the Spanish- American War of 1898 (Pride 1987:225-226), and deployment to the Mexican border in 1914 and 1915 in response to raids by Pancho Villa (Andros et al. 1993:22). Fort Riley received little attention and was thinly manned during this period. When troops of cavalry were absent for campaigns during the summer, the garrison declined, reaching a low point of four officers and 65 enlisted men during the summer of 1871 (Andros et al. 1993:15). W. F. Pride, Fort Riley's first chronicler, referred to this period as The Dark Age of Fort Riley (Pride 1987: 163). Fort Riley was far removed from the active zone of war against resistant Native Americans and was in danger of being abandoned during the 1880s as were other Army posts in Kansas including Forts Dodge, Hays, Scott, and Zarah (Andros et al. 1993:14-15). Establishment of the Army School for Application of Light Artillery at Fort Riley in 1869 began to change this, although not permanently, as the school was disbanded in 1871 (Andros et al. 1993:15). This school, however, points toward the next phase of Fort Riley's development as a school and training base for the Cavalry and Army. 1886-1955: The Cavalry and Light Artillery Schools and Troop Training The next major phase of Fort Riley's development was initiated in 1884 when General Philip Sheridan recommended that headquarters for the U.S. Cavalry be established at Fort Riley (Andros et al. 1993:15). Talk of abandonment was replaced with plans to possibly locate a school for cavalry training there (Andros et al. 1993:15-16). In 1886, with expansion and repairs underway at Fort Riley, the Kansas Legislature resolved that the fort be maintained and expanded, and it endorsed establishment of the Cavalry School at the fort. Congress authorized establishment of schools for cavalry and light artillery (which functioned in support of cavalry) at Fort Riley in 1887 and appropriated $200,000 for reconstruction of the post (Andros et al. 1993:16). Planning for post reconstruction began in April 1887, and construction started later that year (Andros et al. 1993:16-17). The 1855 configuration of Fort Riley was abandoned in favor of a biaxial 46 Chapter 3. Cultural Context plan centered on the Cavalry Parade. This was in approximately the same location as the 1855 central parade ground and the Artillery Parade, a horseshoe-shaped parade ground approximately 500 m northeast of the Cavalry Parade (Andros et al. 1993:Figure 3). With construction of these two parades between 1887 and 1909, the Main Post of Fort Riley assumed the basic configuration that it maintains to the present (Andros et al. 1993:17). Demolition of most of the 1855 fort was undertaken to clear ground for the new fort plan. Only four standing buildings from the 1855 fort have survived to the present: St. Mary's Chapel (Building 3), the parsonage (Building 123), the Custer House and museum (Building 24), and the heavily modified old hospital (Building 205, now the U.S. Cavalry Museum) (Andros et al. 1993:13). Standardized building plans developed at Fort Riley during this period by Captain George E. Pond were adopted by the Quartermaster Department and used on many other Army posts (Andros et al. 1993: 19-20). By 1910 most of the Cavalry and Artillery School buildings had been built and construction tapered off, ending by 1916 (Andros et al. 1993:21). Two Cavalry School-era structure complexes were built away from the Main Post area. The first of these, begun before the Cavalry School in 1876, is the National Rifle Range (14GE1121). Arms training from 1876 to ca. 1900 may have taken place in this area with few formal improvements since the limestone backdrop recorded as a major feature of this site was constructed around 1900, probably as part of the Cavalry School improvements. The National Range was used until 1991-1992 when it was used to train First Infantry Division troops for deployment in the Gulf War. The second Cavalry School site found away from Main Post is Packer's Camp (14RY3173), a complex of three stone buildings (two of which remain) built after 1901 to accommodate four large pack trains brought from Cuba in that year (Andros et al. 1993:22). The pack trains were used to simulate cavalry support under combat conditions as part of maneuvers and school exercises until 1914 when they were deployed to support General Pershing's operations along the Mexican border (Andros et al. 1993:22). After opening officially in 1893 (Andros et al. 1993:21), the Cavalry and Light Artillery Schools provided an important training service to the U.S. Army. They standardized training, practice, and tactics for what was then one of the most active operational branches of the Army. Officers and men followed a rigorous training schedule as units were rotated through the schools, gaining the school great renown as one of the finest cavalry schools in the world (Andros et al. 1993:22). Units training at the school and life at Fort Riley are described in exhaustive detail by Pride (1987:185-318). The social side of Fort Riley life, including numerous well-remembered polo games, also is described by Pride (1987:320-338). In 1907 the Cavalry and Light Artillery Schools were combined into the Mounted Service School, which remained active until disbanded in 1946 (Andros et al. 1993:22, 35). A Farrier's and Horseshoer's School was added to the Mounted Service School in 1903, and the School for Bakers and Cooks was established at Fort Riley in 1905 (Andros et al. 1993:22), expanding the post's training mission further still. Army and National Guard maneuvers were held periodically during this time with the first large-scale cavalry maneuvers ever held by the U.S. Army taking place at the fort in 1902 (Andros et al. 1993:22; Omer 1957:362). The main camp for these maneuvers (a temporary tent camp with no permanent buildings) was placed within or near what would later become Camp Whitside (14GE1110) (Omer 1957:362-363). The First World War caused Fort Riley's largest expansion as a training base and its first major expansion towards a mission not connected to the Mounted Service School. This was occasioned through 47 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas selection by Congress of Fort Riley as the site for the 14th National Army Cantonment in early 1917 (Andros et al. 1993:23). This camp was designed as a division-level training camp, developed as the United States Army moved towards this larger and more integrated form of military organization to fight a modern foreign war (Andros et al. 1993:23-24). The camp was named Camp Funston in honor of General Frederick Funston, a Kansas native who led troops from Fort Riley in the Philippines and along the Mexican border (Andros et al. 1993:22-23). Camp Funston (14RY2169) was located on the Kansas River floodplain immediately southwest of Ogden on the east side of Fort Riley's 20,000-acre reservation. It straddled the Union Pacific Railroad, the Golden Belt Highway (Huebner Avenue), and the Junction City-Manhattan interurban (Slagg 1968:70-73) so that soldiers could make use of all three modes of transport. Camp Funston accommodated 50,000 men at one time in frame buildings on concrete foundations with complete electrical, water, sanitary, and fire-protection systems (Andros et al. 1993:23). As part of the national demobilization following World War I, the camp was sold for scrap lumber and most of the foundations were removed between 1920 and ca. 1930 (Pride 1987:285). Survey in 1994 revealed complete removal of these foundations south of Huebner Avenue but survival of some partly buried foundations north of the road. One feature complex definitely associated with the World War I camp is the stone foundation, chimney, and revetments that once supported the camp commandant's house halfway up the bluff overlooking the center of Camp Funston. These features were reconstructed in the 1930s as part of a WPA project to honor General Leonard Wood, who commanded Camp Funston during most of its active phase. A site associated with Camp Funston and World War I training at Fort Riley was Army City (14RY3193), established in 1917 on what was then private land between Camp Funston and Ogden. Army City provided services (saloons, stores, dance halls, theaters, barbershops, banks, pool halls, other businesses, and a railroad depot) to soldiers training at Camp Funston and appears to have resulted from local efforts to both contain and exploit the large number of men in the camp (Andros et al. 1993:24). Local tradition holds that Army City served both Euroamerican and African- American soldiers through having two of everything (segregated versions of each business, saloon, theater, etc.). As at Camp Funston, structures in Army City appear to have been built of wood on poured concrete foundations. Army City went out of business following closure of Camp Funston at the end of the war and much of the town was destroyed by fire in the early 1920s. The Army City site became part of the Fort Riley Reservation with the 1942 land purchase. Between World Wars I and II, Fort Riley's training mission continued, albeit on a much reduced scale. In 1919 the Artillery School was demobilized and the remnant Mounted Service School was reorganized as the Cavalry School (Andros et al. 1993:24). This school continued to offer first class cavalry training and fielded the noted U.S. Equestrian Teams of the 1920s and 1930s (Andros et al. 1993:24). After 1930 the U.S. Cavalry gradually adopted motorized vehicles in support and combat roles, eventually developing tactics and operational policies for the armored divisions that would become vitally important in World War II. Much of this development and the associated training took place at Fort Riley in the Cavalry School (Andros et al. 1993:32). One site related to this period is 14GE2172, a livestock-dipping facility located immediately north of the railroad in the southeastern corner of the Main Post. It treated horses brought in as cavalry remounts for ticks, lice, fleas, and other parasites before they were released into the horse population at the fort. 48 Chapter 3. Cultural Context Air operations began at Fort Riley in 1912 when Lieutenant Henry Hap Arnold flew a Wright Flyer from a polo field in an early test of aircraft radio operations (Kansas Historical Quarterly 1959:341). An improved airfield with hangars, underground fuel tanks, and lights was constructed between 1921 and 1923 on the Kansas River floodplain south of the river and Main Post (Andros et al. 1993:24). The field was named Marshall Field in 1923 in honor of Colonel Francis G. Marshall, Assistant Chief of Cavalry, who was killed in a plane crash in 1921 (Andros et al. 1993:24). Airplanes from the field simulated support roles (reconnaissance) for cavalry during Cavalry School training exercises in the 1920s and 1930s, an example of the gradual transformation of the cavalry service discussed above (Andros et al. 1993:24; Kansas Historical Quarterly 1959:342-343). During the 1930s facilities at Marshall Field were reconstructed (Andros et al. 1993:26). Archaeological components of buildings from this phase are contained in site 14GE1112; no facilities from the earliest phase of construction appear to have survived (Andros et al. 1993:24), although archaeological remains from this period (such as buried fuel tanks) cannot be ruled out. During World War II, Marshall Field continued training operations and also functioned as a refueling stop for the heavy cross-country military air traffic of that time (Kansas Historical Quarterly 1959:343-344). After the war, Marshall Field was briefly operated by the U.S. Air Force from 1949 to 1950 (Kansas Historical Quarterly 1959:345). Today, Marshall Field supports helicopter operations for the First Infantry Division. Camp Whitside (14GE1110) was developed on the Pawnee Flats immediately northwest of the Old Territorial Capitol in 1924 (Andros et al. 1993:25). It was developed as a National Guard camp and was reconfigured as a cantonment hospital between 1940 and 1942 as the Army prepared for World War II (Andros et al. 1993:25, 34). The Cavalry Replacement Training Center (14GE1 120) was begun on the Republican Flats south of the National Rifle Range and west of Main Post in the 1930s. The camp was expanded with a large number of World War II frame temporary buildings (many of which still stand) and renamed Camp Forsyth between 1940 and 1941. Over 150,000 horse and mechanized cavalry troops were trained at Camp Forsyth during World War II (Andros et al. 1993:25). During the 1930s many new buildings also were constructed in the Main Post Area, principally brick quarters for officers and their families (Andros et al. 1993:25-32). Sixty-five of these buildings were constructed as part of the Works Progress Administration (WPA) program between 1935 and 1939 (Andros et al. 1993:30-32). Civilian Conservation Corps and WPA camps were located southeast of the Artillery Parade. Buildings from both camps are no longer extant but archaeological features may remain. WPA and other public works development at Fort Riley gradually shaded into development for World War II as U.S. involvement in the war became progressively more certain between 1939 and 1941. As noted, Camp Whitside was rebuilt and Camp Forsyth was reconstructed and expanded. Camp Funston (14RY2169) also was rebuilt at this time, albeit to somewhat smaller limits, south of the Union Pacific Railroad (Andros et al. 1993:34). Buildings erected here were World War II frame temporaries like those at Camp Forsyth. Almost all of these buildings had been removed by 1994 when 14RY2169 was assessed during the USACERL Inventory Survey. World War II Camp Funston was organized towards training mechanized cavalry and was directed to train armored divisions after 1942 (Andros et al. 1993:34). Installation of rail sidings for loading vehicles during deployments paved the way for Camp Funston' s present use as a Mobilization and Training Equipment Site facility, supporting deployment of equipment to or from Fort Riley by rail. 49 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sires at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas A major effect of World War II on Fort Riley and the area was the 1942 land purchase of approximately 31,720 acres, mostly in Township 10 South, Range 6 East. The land is north of the original 20,000-acre reservation established between 1854 and 1867 (Andros et al. 1993:34). Land in the 1942 purchase was used to support the greatly increased mechanized and armor training that began at Fort Riley during mobilization for World War II and continued through the war. Many World War II structures were constructed in support of training at that time. During the war, the center of the 1942 purchase began to be used as Fort Riley's artillery impact area (Andros et al. 1993:34). This use continues to this day and expanded through approximately 25 square miles of the 1942 purchase tract. A major change at Fort Riley immediately following World War II was deactivation of the Cavalry School in 1946 as part of elimination of horse cavalry in the U.S. Army (Andros et al. 1993:35). As the heavily mechanized combat of World War II made clear, horse cavalry was increasingly irrelevant to modern armies (Andros et al. 1993:34). Fort Riley was not immediately threatened by this change, however, and continued to train troops. During the Korean War in the early 1950s, the fort trained personnel replacements for casualties and for soldiers returning from combat tours (Andros et al. 1993:35). Following the Korean War, Fort Riley trained infantry divisions on a rotating basis until 1955 (Andros et al. 1993:35). 1955-Present: The First Infantry Division In 1955 the First Infantry Division adopted Fort Riley as its headquarters. The First Division, known as The Big Red One from its insignia, moved to Fort Riley from West Germany. It exchanged places with the 10th Infantry Division which had been formed at Fort Riley in 1948 (Andros et al. 1993:35). The First Infantry Division, as its number implies, was created in 1917 as the first division in the U.S. Army during division-level organization for World War I. The First Division served with distinction in World War I (first American unit to engage the enemy), World War II (first American unit to reach England, Sicily, Normandy Beach, and the Siegfried Line), Vietnam, and the Gulf War (Andros et al. 1993:35). The First Infantry Division also participated in extensive U.S. deployments in West Germany during the Cold War, including several NATO training exercises (Andros et al. 1993:35). Headquarters of the First Division remained at Fort Riley until 29 March 1996 when it was moved back to Germany as part of the Base Realignment and Closure process. Present plans call for Fort Riley to remain active, conduct training, be a major base for the First Division, and to fulfill missions as required by the Army in the post-Cold War period. One such mission entailed the joint exercises held at Fort Riley in the autumn of 1995 by elements of the First Division and the Army of the Republic of Russia, the first joint exercises held by these former opponents on United States soil (Brooke 1995). As headquarters for a mechanized infantry division, Fort Riley underwent expansion in size and facilities from the 1950s to the 1990s. Most construction has been around Custer Hill (a major barracks and equipment support facility begun in the 1960s), north of Main Post, and on uplands between Custer Hill and the Main Post. Much construction since the end of the national draft and formation of the Volunteer Army in 1972 has been to create and expand family housing, schools for dependents, and recreational facilities. The uplands were selected as a site for these new facilities due to proximity to the training ranges north of Main Post, the inability of the historic Main Post to absorb substantial new facilities without damaging reconstruction, and flooding along the Kansas River (Andros et al. 1993:35). 50 Chapter 3. Cultural Context Severe floods threatening facilities at Camps Funston, Forsyth, and Whitside occurred in 1951 and 1993. These floods may have been a factor in the 1970s abandonment and removal of Camp Whitside, removal of World War II training facilities at Camp Funston, and their replacement by MATES, DRMO, and National Guard facilities, and the present partial use of Camp Forsyth. Some temporary facilities, however, were built on the floodplain during this period if their function called for such a location. An example is the Vietnamese Village, located west of Camp Forsyth, used in infantry training during the Vietnam War. The abundant summer vegetation of the Republican River floodplain was found to be effective in simulating ground conditions in the Vietnamese jungles. Training needs of the First Infantry Division led to the second major expansion of Fort Riley in 1965 (Andros et al. 1993:35). The World War II-era post (comprising the original ca. 20,000-acre reservation and the 1942 purchase) was too small for effective armor training (Andros et al. 1993:35) and much of it was occupied by the Artillery Impact Area, making it unusable for vehicle or infantry training. The Army then purchased approximately 46,065 acres of land north and west of the 1942 purchase and leased approximately 3,435 acres along the eastern edge of Milford Lake (Andros et al. 1993:35). These lands have been used for vehicle and infantry training since the late 1960s. A major facility in the 1965 purchase area is the Staff Sergeant David Q. Douthit Range Headquarters Multiple Purpose Range Complex, which supports tank and mobile howitzer fire training in the northwestern corner of the Fort Riley Reservation. This facility, originally built in the 1960s, was recently renamed for Staff Sergeant David Q. Douthit, a Fort Riley soldier killed in Iraq during the Gulf War. 51 CHAPTER 4. RESEARCH GOALS As envisioned in the USACERL Scope of Work, the primary goal of this project is to provide an NRHP eligibility evaluation of each of the four sites tested. A suite of local and regional culture historical research issues are discussed below that provide a basis for site evaluation. In conjunction with, and as an essential part of, determining National Register of Historic Places eligibility, this chapter defines research goals that are designed to evaluate the scientific potential of the sites investigated. Under Criterion D, a crucial part of determining NRHP site eligibility is an ability to contribute to the scientific understanding of aspects of prehistory or history. Upon delineation of appropriate research goals and acquisition of data during fieldwork, evaluation can proceed based on the ability to use the data collected to address the defined research goals. The research goals discussed below are not intended as a comprehensive listing of the research potential of cultural resources at Fort Riley. It also should be noted that the research goals discussed below are broad topics that cannot be addressed through a single project. However, it was hoped that data pertinent to these research goals would be collected during the project and could begin to contribute toward their understanding. Secondary project goals are to provide USACERL with metadata for a comparison between traditional NRHP testing techniques and those employed with geophysical testing and subsequent subsurface ground- truthing of identified anomalies. To that end, metadata, as defined in Chapter 5, consisting of total crew hours necessary to complete a task (such as the excavation of a test unit or shovel probe), has been collected. These data will be presented in Chapter 7 as part of the discussion of the research results of this project. Prehistoric Period Research Domains Phase II (Kansas Phase III) archaeological testing of sites often yields data that can be used to address important research topics that cannot be investigated through Phase I survey (Kansas Phase I/II) results. Brown and Simmons (1987) suggest a number of long-term research goals that need to be addressed, including a number that are applicable to northeast Kansas and the Fort Riley area. Based on their discussion, several research topics can be identified for sites at Fort Riley, although by no means is this intended as an exhaustive listing of research potential. Three topics are perhaps central to research in the area: chronology building, reconstruction of subsistence practices, and reconstruction of settlement patterns. Chronology building is essential to any subsequent research endeavors. While a fairly detailed chronology is available for the region, much of it is based either on the relative dating of projectile points and ceramic types or the chronology of adjacent areas. Key to the enhancement of the local chronology is the absolute dating of temporally sensitive artifacts that are in secure association with carbon samples. Radiocarbon assays then can be used to support or refine a local chronology. While it is tempting to identify the Woodland period as being in critical need of such an absolute underpinning, given the myriad of ceramic types and cultures identified in eastern Kansas, the paucity of local data on the relationship of the several identified Archaic period complexes also points to the importance of radiocarbon determinations for that time period as well. Once an absolute basis for the local chronology has been 53 Archaeological Test Ex cavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas constructed, several secondary areas can be investigated. These areas focus on the identification of technological change as a relative dating technique. For instance, changes in ceramic paste characteristics, cordage twist, or size of triangular projectile points — if temporally sensitive — can be used to date sites with greater accuracy. As well, once an absolute basis for the local chronology has been constructed, comparative topics can be addressed. One such comparative topic centers on the reconstruction of prehistoric subsistence patterns. Phase II (Kansas Phase III) testing can yield both faunal remains and, through flotation analysis of soil samples, paleobotanical remains. Few data on prehistoric subsistence patterns are available for the Fort Riley area. Once a baseline of subsistence exploitation for the various chronological constructs is established, comparative analyses can be conducted. Changes in seasonality of procurement, habitats exploited, and intensity or methods of exploitation can be identified. Identification of subsistence changes leads to the necessity of explaining the cause of the changes noted. For example, the timing and nature of the introduction of agriculture can lead to secondary impacts on other aspects of society. While causal relationships are difficult to determine, investigations should consider the correlation of subsistence pattern change with shifts in technology, settlement patterns, and environment, among others. A final area on which Phase II-level (Kansas Phase III) research can focus is refining the settlement pattern models proposed for the Fort Riley area (e.g., Schmits 1988; Schmits and Donohue 1984). The model discussed by Schmits (1988) and Schmits and Donohue (1984) draws its validity and limitations from site locations. In short, site density is predicted to be highest in the uplands and along tributaries of larger rivers. Lippincott (1978) notes that Upper Republican settlements, including households, hamlets, and seasonal camps, are often found on tributary streams. This is a similar pattern noted by Reynolds (1979, 1981) and Johnson (1976) for Woodland period sites in eastern Kansas. This model should be tested and refined using excavated data. Expectations developed for site types, such as habitation and extractive locale, can be investigated by comparing the nature and density of features and midden, as well as artifact types and subsistence remains, between the site types. The presence of intrasite patterns also can be investigated. Investigations should compare sites across temporal periods, physiographic zones and site types. Such Phase II (Kansas Phase III) investigations will ultimately yield a better understanding of local settlement systems and their evolution through time. Historic Period Research Domains As with the discussion presented above concerning the research potential of prehistoric sites, a number of research topics can be pursued at historic sites at Fort Riley. Lees et al. (1989) have presented a discussion of the research potential of Kansas historic sites, and while informative, it is based for the most part on civilian sites. More useful is an historic context recently written by Babson (1996) specifically for Fort Riley. Babson (1996) presents an overview of the historic use of Fort Riley, both civilian and military, discusses different site types present at Fort Riley, and identifies a number of potential research questions for both civilian and historic sites. That document provides a context against which to understand the two historic sites investigated and research questions against which to evaluate a site's eligibility for listing in the NRHP. 54 Chapter 4. Research Goals As mentioned above, Babson (1996) divides the historic archaeological sites present at Fort Riley into a number of somewhat discrete categories, with an initial division between civilian and historic sites. Babson (1996) states that a few civilian sites do not fit into his civilian site types, which include farmsteads, country houses, schools, churches and cemeteries, and roads. Some sites are noted to bridge the civilian-military distinction by virtue of their use by both military and civilian personnel. Military site types include the Main Post, outlying posts and camps, major training camps, training ranges, and Marshall Airfield. The two historic sites investigated during the current project fall into that murky middle discussed by Babson due to use by both civilian and military personnel. Site 14RY3193, Army City, is a World War I entertainment complex associated with Camp Funston, run by civilian personnel, at that time on private property, but patronized by military personnel. Site 14GE3108 is a private railroad station on the installation. Perhaps most cogent to these two sites are three research topics discussed by Babson (1996) for military sites. The first deals with the archaeological identification of military status differences in the archaeological record and whether potential signatures change through time. In a slightly different vein, the identification of status, albeit defined racially, can be tested at Army City. Army City was racially segregated, with supposedly separate but equal facilities. Can racial segregation be identified archaeologically, and if so, is the separate but equal characterization a facade in much the same way that it was in regard to other Jim Crow institutions? A second research topic centers on the reflection of major historical events in the archaeological record at Fort Riley. Most appropriate for the two sites investigated during this project is the impact of World War I on Fort Riley and whether these sites provide significant data on this topic. Finally, and perhaps most appropriate to the two historical sites investigated, Babson (1996) identifies as a major theme the investigation of the installation's relation to its immediate region. Both sites are loci of civilian-military interaction. Babson (1996) identifies as appropriate areas of research whether civilian-military interaction can be identified at on-post sites and whether the interaction can be observed archaeologically. He suggests that intrasite patterning or comparison of sites are appropriate levels of analysis. Summary The general research goals outlined above cover a wide range of topics and can be refined to greater levels of specificity. Linking all together are comparisons based on physiographic, temporal, social, or spatial variability. Site testing, when incorporating sites with physiographic, temporal, or spatial variability, then can be used to construct robust bases of data with which to address these research goals. However, it is expected that these research goals cannot be addressed fully through the investigation of this single suite of sites, but can continue to be addressed in future excavations while adding data from sites located at Fort Riley to a growing regional body of information. Successive projects can aid in the refinement of these research questions. 55 CHAPTER 5. FIELD AND LABORATORY METHODS The Phase II archaeological testing project undertaken at Fort Riley by the Public Service Archaeology Program of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign consisted of excavation and analysis of two prehistoric and two historic archaeological sites to determine their eligibility for inclusion in the NRHP and to recover material pertinent to other areas of significant local or regional research issues. This section describes the excavation, laboratory processing and analysis methods used in this project. A series of Phase I (Kansas Phase I/II) cultural resource investigations performed on the installation prior to this work (see Chapter 3) have documented many sites, many of which have been recommended for Phase II (Kansas Phase III) NRHP evaluation. The four sites described in this report were selected for investigation based on their indeterminate status for NRHP eligibility and, hence, their potential to yield data on prehistoric cultures and the historic occupation of the Fort Riley area. Field Methods The field methods used on both the prehistoric and historic sites are similar. However, because of the differences in site size, condition, and potential for the identification of structural features and recovery of organic remains from intact, stratified deposits, field methods for these two types of sites differed in some respects. The general field methods employed are discussed below, with methods differentiated by site when appropriate. In general, four tasks were undertaken at each site. Once the site was relocated, either a shovel-test grid was excavated or a controlled surface collection was made. This initial task was designed to identify site boundaries and artifact concentrations. Second, topographic and site-plan mapping was conducted. Third, several test units were excavated. Finally, upon completion of the test units, shovel probes were excavated at areas identified by geophysical techniques as potential locations of anomalies, either natural or cultural features. A detailed discussion of each of the four tasks is presented below. The initial task was to relocate and record a preliminary description of the site. Relocation of the site was based on previous documentary evidence including maps, photographs, or written descriptions in site reports or Kansas State site forms. Mr. John Dendy, Archaeologist, Dynamac Corporation-Fort Riley, also greatly assisted in the relocation of the four sites. Once relocated, photographic documentation along with a written description of the site prior to excavation was made. Information recorded included a general site description, its condition, and its surrounding environment, including the present vegetation, topographic position, elevation, and evidence of disturbances. Upon completion of these preliminary tasks, either a controlled surface collection was made or a grid of shovel tests was excavated. These tasks provide information on artifact distributions, artifact density, and the cultural and natural stratigraphy of the site area, and are important for determining accurate site boundaries. Shovel tests were excavated at all four sites investigated here. Three of the sites, 14RY3183, 14RY3193, and 14GE3108, had less than 30 percent ground surface visibility. In contrast, ground surface visibility ranged from 30 to 100 percent at 14RY5155. There, a controlled surface collection was made in addition to the excavation of a number of supplementary shovel tests. The controlled surface collection was conducted within a grid of 10 m 2 units. 57 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas Upon completion of the shovel tests or controlled surface collection, a detailed topographic and plan map of the site was begun using a total station. Each site map details the surrounding topography, surface features, site boundaries, grid orientation, and locations where test units were excavated. In addition, the site plans include the location of shovel tests and collection grid where appropriate. Finally, the location of the anomaly subsurface tests, where conducted, are located on the site plan maps. Next, test units were hand excavated at each site. Test units were placed within artifact concentrations, within or adjacent to surface features, or were distributed across the area to examine representative portions of the site. The number and size of the test units varied, depending on site size and goals of the excavations. All sediment was screened through 6.4-mm (%-inch) mesh hardware cloth. All excavations were continued to culturally sterile sediments. Test unit documentation included unit summary and level forms, and plan maps drawn to 1:10 or 1:20 scale were prepared for each level. Scale drawings of two vertical wall profiles also were recorded for each unit. Black-and-white photographs and color slides document each wall profile. Photographs were taken to document individual excavation levels. Cultural and natural strata were identified, drawn, and described. Colors were described using the Munsell soil color chart. Soils were described based on USDA standards and the local soil survey (Jantz et al. 1975). In addition, several features were located at 14GE3108. All of these features were poured concrete structural remains. In addition to written descriptions, plan maps and photographs document these features. The final field activity conducted at three of the sites consisted of the ground-truthing of potential anomalies. Prior to the Phase II (Kansas Phase III) testing, areas at all four sites had been gridded in 20-m blocks. Subsequent to the gridding, Dr. Lewis Sommers of Geoscan Research conducted geophysical surveys at each site in an attempt to locate subsurface features. A map of potential anomalies within the grid was compiled based on these tests, and upon completion of the traditional Phase II (Kansas Phase III) test excavations, shovel probes were excavated at locations identified by the geophysical tests. The shovel tests measured approximately 45-x-40-cm and were excavated to sterile subsoil. The sediment from these subsurface tests was screened through 6.4 mm mesh hardware cloth. Finally, each shovel test was documented. Laboratory Methods All recovered materials were transported to the laboratory facilities at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign where they were washed, labeled, inventoried, analyzed, and packaged for curation. Inventory forms document artifact types, counts, and weights for each provenience. The weight of historic artifacts was not calculated. Prehistoric Artifacts All prehistoric material was counted and weighed, with the data entered on a preliminary inventory form (Appendix D) where artifacts are divided into major material classes (lithic, ceramic, bone, plant, etc.). Fire-cracked rock (Taggert 1981; Zurel 1979, 1982) also was segregated as a major material class. The most common material class of prehistoric artifacts is lithic remains. Ceramic, faunal (bone and 58 Chapter 5. Field and Laboratory Methods shell), and botanical remains also were recovered, although in fewer numbers than the lithic artifacts. Lithic, ceramic, bone, shell, and botanical remains were subjected to detailed analyses. Lithic artifacts were divided into three broad categories: tools, manufacturing debris, and miscellaneous lithic material. Tools include those made from both chipping techniques (e.g., projectile points and scrapers) and grinding and pecking techniques (e.g., celts and axes). Tools can be of formal manufacture, such as the examples listed above, or of incidental manufacture (e.g., hammerstones and pitted stones). Manufacturing debris usually is composed of the waste materials (e.g., cores, flakes, and block shatter) generated from the production of chipped-stone tools. Miscellaneous lithic material includes fire-cracked rock, limestone, unmodified and tested chert chunks and nodules, and ocher. Fire-cracked rock is unintentionally produced debris that results from alternating processes of heating and cooling (Taggert 1981; Zurel 1981). Unmodified or minimally flaked chunks and nodules of chert represent raw material collected and reserved for tool production. Definitions of the tool and debris categories represented in the artifact assemblage are provided below. Debitage (flaking debris) categories comprise a majority of all the chipped-stone remains. These categories include block shatter, broken flakes, and whole flakes. The whole flake classification was used for items characterized by the presence of a bulb of percussion on the ventral surface and a striking platform. The whole flakes were further divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary flake types based on the amount of visible cortex present: ^ 50 percent, < 50 percent and > percent, and percent, respectively. Secondary characteristics also were assessed. Primary flakes tend to have a pronounced bulb of percussion, secondary flakes have a less pronounced bulb, and tertiary flakes are generally smaller than the other two flake types and often have a reduced or no bulb of percussion. Broken flakes are debris items that lack a platform or bulb of percussion, or are too small to place accurately within the whole flake category. Block shatter has irregular shapes that lack flake and core characteristics. Bifacial thinning flakes have a distinct lip on their bulb of percussion, an angled striking platform, and distinctive negative flake scars on their dorsal surface. Related to debitage are cores, the parent stones from which flakes are removed. Formally flaked stone tools initially were divided into unifacial and bifacial categories. Unifaces show evidence for retouch only on one surface. Bifaces demonstrate retouch on both their dorsal and ventral surfaces. When possible, each tool is assigned to a more detailed morphological-functional use category. Unifaces are most commonly classified as scrapers, with the particular type determined by the placement of the edge modification. Bifaces can be placed into a number of distinct categories. Among these are such items as projectile points, drills, knives, scrapers, and thick and thin bifaces. The most recognizable of the chipped-stone tools are projectile points. Projectile points are symmetrically thinned bifaces that show evidence of hafting. These items have been examined in detail for comparison with projectile point types known from the Midwest and are particularly important for the placement of sites within a cultural and temporal context (see Brown and Simmons 1987; O'Brien 1984). The other tool types are largely descriptive in nature. Perforators are typically small, narrow, often bifacial tools. Knives are larger, thin bifaces with a low edge angle to facilitate cutting while scrapers have a higher edge angle to facilitate scraping. Thick and thin bifaces are not finished tools but stages in tool manufacture. A thick biface is one that has been modified, is not a finished implement, and is in need of 59 Arc haeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas further modification. Typically, the thick biface can be modified into a number of different tool types (Bradley 1975). Thin bifaces are the result of further modification of thick bifaces. They also are not finished implements, but their morphology indicates that they can be further modified into only a single tool category (Bradley 1975). Thin and thick bifaces were differentiated based on flake morphology. In analyzing the chipped-stone tools and lithic debris, a core-reduction model was followed (Collins 1975; see also Bradley 1975; Hayden 1980). Collins (1975) defines five stages of chipped-stone manufacture and use for the core-reduction model. These stages consist of acquisition of raw materials, core preparation-initial reduction, primary trimming, secondary trimming, and use-maintenance- modification. Each of these categories, called activity sets (except for raw material acquisition), is associated with waste by-products and objects that are further used or modified. Core preparation-initial reduction is a stage in which the core is shaped and flakes are detached. Suitable flakes may be retained and further used with the core being discarded, or both can be retained for additional modification. End products of this stage are primary flakes, block shatter, discarded cores, and thick bifaces. The next stage, primary trimming, is used to shape the object. Flakes can be retouched into usable tools, or thick bifaces can be flaked into a thin biface. These activities result in the production of secondary flakes, retouched flakes, thin bifaces, and items broken during manufacture. Following primary trimming is the secondary trimming of thin bifaces. This stage produces tertiary flakes, finished tools, and items broken during processing. Finally, the tools are used, maintained, and perhaps modified. Bifacial thinning flakes are the most important waste by-product of tool maintenance activities, although they also can be produced while thinning thick bifaces. Following this model, the following considerations have been made in the analysis of lithics. Cores, primary flakes, and block shatter are classified as evidence of initial-stage reduction activities. Secondary flakes, tertiary flakes, and thick and thin bifaces represent later-stage reduction activities. Bifacial thinning flakes are indicative of tool maintenance activities. Since broken flakes can be produced by a number of prehistoric and modern processes, they were not considered when characterizing the lithic tool production activities at the site. The other class of lithic artifacts, ground-stone tools, consists of pecked and ground items generally made from metamorphic or igneous rock. Included in this category are items that are intentionally formed, such as celts and axes, and unintentionally formed, such as hammerstones, grinding stones, and pitted stones. Intentionally formed artifacts consist of items that were modified for a specific use. Unintentionally formed items have areas of pitting, battering, or smoothing that were caused through use. Data also were gathered from prehistoric ceramics. The analysis of each sherd includes identification of surface treatment and paste characteristsics. Surface treatment is determined by visual inspection of both the interior and exterior sherd surface. Ceramic paste is the combination of clay, or plastics, with nonplastics such as temper (Shepard 1965). Paste analysis was conducted for each sherd by visual inspection using low power magnification. Paste characteristics analyzed include temper type, density, and size, and paste hardness. Specific data collected for each rim or body sherd include temper type, temper density and size, hardness, surface treatment, decoration (where appropriate), thickness, and vessel portion. For rim sherds, additional collected data includes vessel form, rim shape, lip shape, and treatment following standard definitions for these attributes (Rice 1987; Shepard 1965). Vessel profile definitions 60 Chapter 5. Field and Laboratory Methods and terms of Ozuk (1990) were used in an attempt to standardize terminology. When possible, each sherd was assigned to a ceramic type for chronological purposes that follow previously described types defined in Kansas (see O'Brien 1984 and Chapter 3 of this report for a detailed description of specific ceramic types). Species and elements represented in the faunal assemblage were identified using the comparative collections of the Zooarchaeology Laboratory at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. All material was identified to the most exclusive taxonomic level. Number of Identified Specimens (NISP) and Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) are presented for each taxon below the level of family. The derivation of MNI is based on the single most frequently paired element occurring in the sample (Grayson 1984). The minimum number of individuals for each taxon was calculated separately for each unit of analysis. Historic Artifacts The descriptive categories for historic materials noted above include a wide variety of artifacts, many of which are useful temporal and functional indicators. The most important of these is the household ceramic category. The following discussion is drawn from South (1974, 1977), with some additions and modifications based on Mansberger (1988), Dervin (1980), Price (1981), and Rice (1987). The initial division of household ceramics is into refined, unrefined, and porcelain categories. Refined ceramics are finely made vessels, mainly tablewares such as plates, cups, bowls, and saucers. Refined ceramics have soft pastes and are nonvitrified. Whiteware is the only refined ceramic ware recovered at the historic Fort Riley sites. While not technically a refined ceramic, ironstone and its subcategory hotelware is also included in this category. The criteria used in identifying these wares have been described in Mansberger (1988:222-224). Whiteware tends to be thick and has a colorless glaze with a soft paste. This is different from ironstone and hotelware, which have a clear glaze but a hard paste and are, in fact, a refined stoneware. Unrefined ceramics include coarse earthenwares with porous bodies and stonewares with vitrified bodies. These represent mainly food storage and processing vessels such as crocks, mixing bowls, and jugs. Stonewares were recovered from this category at Fort Riley. Stoneware artifacts usually have a coarse paste and are vitrified. Porcelain items are vitrified, have a fine paste, are translucent, and are white in color. When possible, ceramics are further subdivided into Type categories on the basis of surface decoration or, in the case of stoneware, the slip applied to the interior and exterior surfaces. These Ware and Type categories have proven to be important temporal indicators. Chronological ranges associated with each ware or surface treatment are based on Mansberger (1988:228-230). Glass artifacts such as bottles, table glass, and window glass also provide temporal and functional information for historic archaeological sites. Bottles are especially important since the techniques employed in their manufacture, specifically the method of manufacturing the bottle body and the bottle neck/lip, are useful chronological markers (Newman 1970; Spillman 1983; Toulouse 1971). Chronological ranges associated with bottle body and lip manufacturing attributes are based on Mansberger (1988:231-234). 61 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas Metal artifacts represent a wide variety of activities. Nails, screws, and machinery parts are most commonly recovered, followed by pieces of construction hardware and tools. Also present are spent ordnance and clothing parts such as belt buckles. Nails can be useful temporal indicators, and other types of artifacts can provide functional data. Bone items can represent either the remains of subsistence activities or utilitarian objects such as combs and buttons. The methods of analysis vary, depending in which of these categories the items fall. Structural elements include such items as bricks, cinder blocks, foundation stones, slate roofing tiles, and mortar. This is the only specific category that is not based primarily on the parent material of artifacts. Rather, these items form a residual category that is based on functional terms, namely, the building of domestic and nondomestic structures. It is apparent from this brief description of specific categories that each contains a wide variety of artifact types. This is not surprising given that the classification is based almost entirely on parent material. In this form, however, it is difficult to make meaningful interpretations regarding the function of a site from the artifact assemblage. To do so, we have assigned these categories to the classificatory system developed by South (1977). We have made some modifications to reflect the artifact assemblages typical of the nineteenth century Midwest. In this classification system, historic artifacts are organized at the most general level into Artifact groups. South (1977) has defined nine such groups: Kitchen, Architecture, Activities, Arms, Personal, Clothing, Furniture, Tobacco Pipe, and Bone. Materials are then divided into Artifact classes within these groups and then further subdivided into Material, Ware, and Type categories. The current investigations recovered identifiable artifacts from the Activities, Architectural, Clothing, Furniture, Kitchen, and Bone groups. The system was designed to be flexible for widespread use, and so a number of additional classes were created during analysis to reflect the historic artifact assemblage recovered at the two Fort Riley sites. The Kitchen group includes artifacts typically associated with food preparation and consumption. Within this group South (1977) has defined eight Artifact classes: Ceramics, Wine Bottle, Case Bottle, Tumbler, Pharmaceutical Type Bottle, Glassware, Tableware, and Kitchenware. Collected in the current investigations were artifacts from the ceramics, tumbler, pharmaceutical bottle, glassware, tableware, and kitchenware classes. Also, we have added liquor bottle and canning jar classes. In addition, we have subsumed the Bone group within the Kitchen group. This subgroup consists of a single Artifact class — Bone Fragments. These fragments reflect a number of activities including food preparation and consumption, tool use and manufacture, and ornament use and manufacture. The Architecture group includes those remains associated with construction and demolition of buildings rather than the activities performed in or near such structures. South (1977) defines five Artifact classes for this group — Window Glass, Nails, Spikes, Construction Hardware, and Door Lock Parts — to which we have added Construction Materials. Construction Materials include such items as bricks, foundation stones, and concrete blocks used in the building of structures. Artifacts from all of these classes were recovered during the investigation. 62 Chapter 5. Field and Laboratory Methods The Activities group contains a wide range of Artifact classes relating to the variety of activities performed by craft specialists as well as the general population and not included in other Artifact groups. South (1977) defines 12 such classes: Construction Tools, Farm Tools, Toys, Fishing Gear, Stub-stemmed Pipes, Colono-Indian Pottery, Storage Items, Ethnobotanical, Stable and Barn, Miscellaneous Hardware, Other, and Military Objects. To this we have added a category for cinders and coal. The Arms group consists of artifacts that are either integral parts of firearms or are used in their manufacture. South (1977) defines three Artifact classes for this group: Musket Ball, Shot, and Sprue; Gunflints and Gunspalls; and Gun Parts and Bullet Molds. We include all spent ordnance within this group. The Personal group includes those artifacts most probably belonging to an individual that were, as the term suggests, for personal use. South (1977) identifies three Artifact classes for this group: Coins, Keys, and Personal Items. We have subsumed his Tobacco Group within the Personal group as well. The Clothing group consists of those artifacts related to the manufacture and use of clothing. South (1977) defines eight Artifact classes for this group: Buckles, Thimbles, Buttons, Scissors, Straight Pins, Hook and Eye Fasteners, Bale Seals, and Glass Beads. To this we have added categories for usually perishable items such as cloth and leather. The Furniture group includes artifacts used in the manufacture of furniture. South (1977) defines only one Artifact class, Furniture Hardware, for this group. Lamp glass and lightbulb glass or parts are included in this group. Site Forms After analysis of all materials was completed, updated Kansas State site forms were compiled for all sites. The completed site forms are included in Appendix C. Because site location data are confidential, this appendix is bound and distributed separately. Curation All cultural material recovered during this project and all documents relating to the fieldwork and laboratory analysis of these materials are the property of the federal government. University of Illinois personnel have compiled lists of the artifacts recovered from each site (Appendix A). In addition, copies of all photographs, analysis forms and field forms pertaining to these sites are included in Appendices D and E. Qualified researchers interested in access to these collections should contact USACERL or Fort Riley. 63 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas Metadata Collection One task requested by USACERL was the collection of metadata concerning both field and laboratory tasks. The data collected included identification of the task (e.g., site mapping, test unit excavation, artifact washing, artifact analysis), total crew hours spent on that task (defined as the number of individuals involved multiplied by amount of time engaged in the task), and subtasks required for completion of the task (e.g., note taking, backfilling, etc.). These data were compiled separately in the field and laboratory on a master form for each of the four sites. The metadata forms are included in Appendix D with the project field and laboratory documentation. 64 CHAPTER 6. RESULTS OF INVESTIGATIONS This chapter presents the results of the Phase II (Kansas Phase III) test excavations conducted at four sites located within Fort Riley. The sites are presented in numerical order, with the three located in Riley County documented first, followed by the single Geary County site. For each site a short description, including physiographic location and current condition, is presented. Following this are sections on previous research, field investigation results, the analysis of the artifact assemblage, and an interpretation of these data. Finally, based on the field and laboratory results, an interpretation of the site's research potential and an NRHP recommendation is presented. Included in this last section are potential avenues of future research that could be undertaken at those sites recommended as eligible for listing in the NRHP. Material from specific provenience units is detailed in the material inventory in Appendix A. 14RY3183 Site 14RY3 1 83, also known as the ForThree site, is located on a terrace to the west Threemile Creek and south of Forsyth Creek in the original cantonment area of Fort Riley (Figure 2). The site lies between 350 and 355 m asl and occupies a narrow terrace ridge near the confluence of the two creeks. The site was originally identified in 1994 by personnel from USACERL. Subsequent test excavations conducted at the site in 1995 by USACERL identified the presence of two, and possibly three, components. The interior of the site, or crest of the terrace ridge, is grass covered while the surrounding area is covered by a bottomland hardwood forest. Site Description The ForThree site was first registered with the Kansas State Historical Society in 1994 by USACERL as a prehistoric habitation site. It is located on a Newman (second) terrace above the floodplain associated with the confluence of Forsyth and Threemile creeks. The site is bisected by a two-track road, utility poles, sewers, and a natural gas pipeline. This area of the site, generally corresponding with the highest point of the terrace, is free of vegetation other than grasses. Surrounding this central area is a dense hardwood bottomland forest. Site size is estimated at 4.5 ha. Soils on site have been mapped as Reading silt loam, 1-3 percent slopes (Jantz et al. 1975). The Reading soil series is part of the Smolan-Geary soil association. This association consists of deep, gently sloping and sloping silt loams and silty clay loams and is found on high terraces and uplands. In the study area, this soil association is found north of the Kansas River. The Reading series soils are typically found on small bottomland terraces. These too are deep, nearly level to sloping soils found on foot slopes in creek valleys. Reading series soils are formed in alluvial sediment, although Reading silt loam, 0-1 percent soils are rarely flooded. A typical Reading silt loam profile has a dark grayish brown (10YR4/2) silt loam A horizon to 28 cm below surface. This is followed by a dark grayish brown (10YR4/2) light silty clay loam B horizon between 28-51 cm, and a dark grayish brown (10YR4/2) heavy silty clay loam Bt2 horizon. The latter is found at 5 1-102 cm below surface. The color descriptions for all three horizons are darker when soil is moist. In general, the typical profile described here is similar to that encountered at 14RY3183. 65 Ar chaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas Previous Investigations Site 14RY3183 was initially located during a survey conducted by USACERL at Fort Riley in August 1994 (Richardson 1996). Prior to the current investigations, USACERL personnel conducted three investigations at 14RY3183, including the initial survey described above (Richardson 1996). At the time of the initial survey in August 1994, three subsurface tests were excavated and a large lithic scatter was noted both in the two-track roadbed and in grassy areas adjacent to the road. Subsequently, systematic subsurface testing was conducted across the site area in September 1994. At that time, the site was investigated systematically using both posthole and auger tests. All subsurface tests were excavated to a minimum of 120 cm below surface. A total of 18 subsurface tests was excavated, nine of which were located in a wooded area along Forsyth Creek, eight on the upper terrace and one on a small lower terrace. Artifacts were recovered from all but one of the subsurface tests excavated. Material recovered from the tests included prehistoric ceramics, lithics, and faunal remains. Based on the results, two components were defined at the site. The initial component was restricted to the upper 90 cm below surface. The lower component was defined from 100 cm to 160 cm below surface and appears to be restricted spatially along Forsyth Creek. No features were identified in the subsurface tests, although given the presence of intact deposits, features were thought likely to be present. The upper component appears minimally to represent a Smoky Hill variant component based on the presence of diagnostic ceramics. No temporally diagnostic artifacts were recovered from the lower component. Based on the results of the systematic subsurface testing described above, NRHP eligibility investigations were conducted at 14RY3183 during the summer of 1995 by USACERL personnel (Richardson 1996). During that time a total of 1 1 m 2 was excavated. The test excavations resulted in the identification of three components at the site. The upper component is identified as the Smoky Hill variant of the Plains Village Middle Ceramic period. Both shell-tempered and Riley Cord-Roughened ceramics were recovered as were Washita projectile points. Four radiocarbon dates, ranging from ca. A.D. 1 1 90 to A.D. 1320 (ISGS-3133, ISGS-3134, ISGS3138, and ISGS-3141), also date this component. A single feature, a linear concentration of burned daub found in Test Units 4 and 5, appears to be associated with this component. Based on the density of artifacts, the Smoky Hill variant component appears to represent a rather intensive occupational episode at 14RY3183. The second component, stratigraphically beneath the Smoky Hill component, contains Scallorn-like projectile points and two cross-hatched Kansas City Hopewell ceramic sherds. The final component, the deposit of artifacts found between 100 and 160 cm below surface along Forsyth Creek during the systematic subsurface testing conducted in 1 994, was not relocated during these investigations. A l-x-2-m test unit was placed adjacent to a 1994 subsurface test that had yielded the most deeply buried artifacts. Unfortunately, the test excavations failed to relocate this component. Richardson (1996) suggests that this deeply buried component may date to the Late Archaic subperiod based on the characteristics and stratigraphic position of the soils in which artifacts were found. Based on the results of these investigations, Richardson (1996) concluded that 14RY3183 was eligible for listing in the NRHP. Results of Investigations Initial fieldwork at 14RY3183, conducted in April 1996, consisted of constructing a grid over the northern portion of the site area for subsequent geophysical testing. The Phase II (Kansas Phase III) 66 Chapter 6 Results of Investigations investigations at 14RY3183 were conducted during June 1996. Included in the activities were the excavation of a grid of shovel tests across a portion of the site, excavation of six test units, and compilation of a site plan and topographic map (Figure 5). Upon completion of these initial Phase II (Kansas Phase III) testing activities, shovel tests were excavated at the locations of seven potential subsurface anomalies. Preliminary Shovel Tests. The initial task undertaken was the excavation of shovel tests across a portion of the site area. Shovel tests were excavated at the center of each of the grid units established for geophysical testing as was an additional row extending to the south of the grid to Williston Point Road (Figure 5). As such, 14 shovel tests were excavated, nine within the previously established geophysical grid and five to its south. The shovel tests were excavated in 10-cm levels with all fill screened through 6.4-mm mesh hardware cloth. The shovel tests were excavated to between 50 and 60 cm below surface. With minor variations, 12 of the 14 shovel tests exhibited similar soil profiles. These profiles contain three soil horizons. The first is a dark gray-brown silt loam that is generally 30-40 cm thick. Following this is a pale brown silty clay loam that is approximately 10 to 20 cm thick. The final horizon identified is a pale brown clayey silt that forms a base of the excavations. The difference between the second and third horizon is an increase in clay content in the soil matrix. This final horizon appears to represent culturally sterile subsoil. The two shovel tests that did not exhibit this general profile are located south of the geophysical grid and east of the road that bisects the site area. Both exhibit disturbed profiles, most probably due to utility or other infrastructure construction. Artifacts were recovered from 5 of the 14 shovel tests excavated, with material only being found to 30 cm below surface. Test Unit 1. This l-x-2-m unit was placed in the southern portion of the site to the west of the two-track road at N508-510 and E505.5-506.5 (Figure 5). Upon excavation of the first level, the area in which this unit was placed was recognized to be disturbed, probably by heavy machinery blading. Large amounts of road gravel were recovered in this first level. Because of the disturbance noted within this first level, a field decision was made to suspend further excavation within this unit. The upper 6 cm of the level consisted of a remnant A horizon. It is a very dark brown (10YR2/2) slit loam. The remaining 4 cm of the level is an AB horizon. This stratum consists of a dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) silty clay loam. Both historic and prehistoric artifacts were found in this level. Given the disturbed nature of this unit, no wall profile was drawn. Test Unit 2. This l-x-2-m unit was placed on a rise in the south part of the site in an area that appeared to be undisturbed at N472. 5^74.5 and E489. 5^490.5 (Figure 5). The unit is west of the two-track lane and south of Test Unit 1 . Excavated to approximately 75 cm below surface, four soil strata were identified in this test unit (Figure 6). The initial 15-20 cm is interpreted as an A horizon. It is composed of very dark gray to black (10YR2.5/1) silt loam. A historic disturbance consisting of a large amount of gravel was noted in the southwest quarter of the test unit within this initial stratum. The gravel disturbance begins at the ground surface and is approximately 10 cm thick. The second stratum consists of very dark gray (10YR3/1) silt loam. Approximately 20 cm thick, this stratum is interpreted as an A2 horizon and may represent a relatively intact prehistoric midden. A 10-cm lens of dark brown (10YR3/3) silt loam is at the base of the A2 horizon in one part of the test unit. Following this is a B horizon that is 10-1 5 cm thick. It consists of brown to dark brown (10YR4/3) silty clay loam. The final horizon is a dark brown (10YR3/3) silty clay loam, of which 18 cm was excavated. This stratum appears to represent a Bt2 67 Figure 5. Site Plan and Topographic Map of 14RY3 183. 68 14RY3183 Test Unit 2 - West Profile Bt2 Test Unit 3 - East Profile A2. Bt2 Test Unit 4 - East Profile A2 Bt2 cm 50 Figure 6. Wall Profiles of Test Units 2, 3, and 4 at 14RY3183. 69 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas horizon. Artifacts were found to a depth of 70 cm below surface in this test unit, although the four items recovered between 60 and 70 cm appear to be the result of bioturbation. Historic artifacts were found to 30 cm below surface in this test unit. The majority of prehistoric artifacts were found between 20 and 40 cm below surface, a range that includes both the A horizon and the upper 5 cm of the B horizon and encompasses the entire midden zone. Artifact frequency decreases throughout the B horizon below 40 cm below surface. Prehistoric ceramics were found between 20 and 30 cm below surface, or within a historically disturbed level between the A horizon and the intact prehistoric midden layer. Test Unit 3. This l-x-2-m test unit is located in the northern part of the site, west of the two-track road at N639-640 and E540-542 (Figure 5). The unit was placed in the woods between two test units excavated by USACERL in 1995. It was excavated to 70 cm below surface, and four soil strata were defined (Figure 6). The initial stratum is interpreted to be the A horizon. It is 15-20 cm thick and consists of a black (10YR2/1) sandy silt loam. Following this is a 20 to 25 cm thick layer of very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2) sandy silt loam. Based on artifact density, this layer appears to represent an intact prehistoric midden. Following this is a 10-cm thick B horizon. It consists of a dark grayish brown (10YR4/2) light silty clay loam. The final stratum is the Bt2 horizon characterized as a brown (10YR4/3) heavy silty clay loam. Artifacts were recovered to 50 cm below surface in this unit, with most of the material found between 30 and 50 cm below ground surface. Prehistoric ceramics were found between 20 and 30 cm below surface. No material was recovered in the final 20 cm of excavations. A soil corer probed to 1 15 cm below surface revealed the continuation of the Bt2 horizon. In addition, no historic artifacts were recovered from this test unit. Test Unit 4. This l-x-2-m test unit was located just east of the two-track road in the central part of the site at N60 1.5-603. 5 and E553-554 (Figure 5). It was excavated to 65 cm below surface and four soil strata were identified (Figure 6). The initial stratum is 15-20 cm thick and consists of very dark gray (10YR3/1) silt loam. This is interpreted as an historically disturbed A horizon. Following this is a 20-cm thick A2 horizon that appears to represent an intact prehistoric midden. It is characterized by very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2) silt loam. The third stratum is approximately 15 cm thick and consists of dark grayish brown to brown (10YR4/2 to 4/3) light silty clay loam. This stratum is interpreted to represent the B horizon. The final stratum, of which 10 cm was excavated, is a dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) heavy silty clay that appears to be the Bt2 horizon. Artifacts were recovered to 60 cm below surface in this unit, with the upper 10 cm disturbed by historic use of the site. Most of the material is present between 20 and 50 cm below surface, correlating with the A2 horizon and the upper half of the B horizon. Material decreased in the lower half of the B horizon and was absent in the Bt2 horizon. Prehistoric ceramics were found between 30 and 40 cm below surface in this unit, or within the A2 horizon. Test Unit 5. This l-x-2-m test unit was placed at the north end of the site to the east of the two-track road at N63 1 .5-633.5 and E563-564 (Figure 5). It was excavated to 80 cm below surface and four soil strata were identified (Figure 7). The initial A horizon stratum is 30 cm thick and consists of black (2.5Y2.5/1) silt loam. Historic artifacts were found throughout this stratum. Following this is an 18-cm thick A2 horizon. It is a very dark gray (2.5Y3/1) heavy silt loam. A single historic artifact was found within the upper portion of this stratum. The third stratum, 10-12 cm thick, represents the B horizon. It consists of a very dark grayish brown (2.5Y3/2) silty clay loam. The final stratum, the Bt2 horizon, is a dark reddish brown (5YR3/2) heavy silty clay. Up to 20 cm of this horizon was excavated. Artifacts were recovered 70 14RY3183 Test Unit 5 - South Profile Test Unit 6 - West Profile cm 50 Figure 7. Wall Profiles of Test Units 5 and 6 at 14RY3183. 71 Arc haeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas to 80 cm below surface in this unit, although only a single artifact was found between 70 cm and 80 cm below surface. Most of the artifacts were recovered between 20 and 60 cm below surface. This range represents the base of the A horizon, the A2 or prehistoric midden, and the B horizon. Material also was found in the upper portion of the Bt2 horizon, although in lesser numbers. Prehistoric ceramics and daub were recovered to 40 cm below surface. Test Unit 6. This 1-x-l-m test unit was placed on the terrace slope at the far north end of the site to determine whether intact deposits were present. It is located east of the two-track road at N65 3-654 and E568.5-569.5, and was excavated to 30 cm below surface (Figure 5). Three soil strata were identified (Figure 7). The initial stratum, ca. 5 cm thick, appears to be a remnant A horizon. It is a very dark gray (10YR3/1) sandy loam. This is followed by a 10-15-cm thick dark grayish brown (10YR4/2) silty clay loam that may represent the B horizon. The final stratum, of which 5-8 cm was excavated, is a brown (10YR4/3) to yellowish brown (10YR4/4) heavy silty clay to clay. This represents a Bt2 horizon. Artifacts were found to 25 cm below surface in this test unit, with most in the initial 20 cm. Historic artifacts and prehistoric ceramics were restricted to the initial 10 cm of deposits. Test Unit 6 possess an eroded soil profile. Anomaly Testing Dr. Lewis Somers of Geoscan Research conducted geophysical surveys within the grid units placed across the 14RY3183 site area (Figure 5). The surveys identified numerous possible features, of which seven were investigated. Using a map indicating anomaly target locations provided by USACERL, the targets were located within the grid units using a set of tapes and target coordinates. The targets then were numbered arbitrarily (Figure 5). Fieldworkers were instructed to excavate 45-x-45-cm shovel tests at the target locations. The shovel tests were minimally excavated to 60 cm below ground surface, and all soils were screened through 6.4-mm mesh hardware cloth. All anomaly tests were excavated to the B horizon. Table 1 summarizes the general characteristics of each anomaly test, including number and weight of artifacts recovered, possible target identification based on the results of the geophysical survey, and general comments based on the excavation results. Specific discussion of the artifacts is presented in the following section. All seven of the anomaly tests have a similar soil profile, consisting of three strata. An initial A horizon, generally 30 to 35 cm thick, is present, followed by an intact E horizon. The E horizon is 20-30 cm thick. At the base of the excavations is a B horizon, of which minimally 10 cm was excavated. No features were identified in any of the seven anomaly test profiles. Artifact density varied between the seven anomaly tests. Three tests have either one or two artifacts, two tests have just over 20 artifacts, and two tests have over 30 artifacts. The tests yielded approximately 105 artifacts per cubic meter of soil excavated (based on 101 artifacts recovered and 0.96 m 3 excavated). In comparison, the test unit excavations yielded 493 artifacts per cubic meter of soil excavated (based on 3,105 artifacts recovered and 6.3 m 3 excavated). This suggests that not only did the excavations fail to identify features, but that the geophysical survey was not identifying artifact concentrations. Discussion. Aside from Test Units 1 and 6, similar soil profiles were obtained from the test excavations. The profile consists of an A horizon that in some units has been disturbed by historic activities on site. 72 Table 1. Attributes of Selected Anomaly Tests at 14RY3183. Test Target No. of Weight of Artifacts Artifacts (g) Comments 1 Pit 31 48.1 2 Pit 2 1.9 3 Pit 22 18.1 4 Pit 21 53.1 5 Pit 33 122.6 6 Hearth 1 9.0 7 Hearth 1 1.3 No feature identified — typical soil profile No feature identified — typical soil profile No feature identified — typical soil profile No feature identified — typical soil profile No feature identified — typical soil profile No feature identified — typical soil profile No feature identified — typical soil profile This is followed by what appears to be a relatively intact prehistoric midden. Below this midden is a B horizon. Prehistoric artifacts occur in this B horizon, but most often in decreased numbers from the prehistoric midden horizon above. Finally, a Bt2 horizon was identified in all test units. Generally, no artifacts were found in that horizon, with the exception of Test Unit 5. In sum, the test excavations indicate the presence of an intact prehistoric midden on site at ca. 30 cm below surface and continuing to various depths, but most often to approximately 50 cm below surface. As noted above, artifacts occur below this level, but in decreasing amounts as compared with the intact prehistoric midden levels. Finally, the extent of disturbance within the initial 30 cm below surface appears to be light. This may indicate that these initial deposits retain integrity to a substantial degree. The anomaly tests mirror stratigraphy, although the tests contained a lower density of artifacts than did the test units. Artifact Assemblage The test excavations, shovel tests, and anomaly tests at 14RY3 183 yielded a total of 3,249 prehistoric and historic artifacts (Table 2). The prehistoric artifacts (n=3,189) comprise 98 percent of the assemblage and consist of lithics, ceramics, daub, and faunal remains. Prehistoric lithics dominate the assemblage (n=3,147), accounting for 97 percent of the total. Prehistoric ceramics represent about 1 percent of the assemblage (n=34), with faunal remains and daub each contributing less than 1 percent of the total. Historic artifacts (n=60) include bottle glass, nails, coal or slag, and buckle parts, among others, and represent about 2 percent of the assemblage. The test units yielded a total of 3,105 artifacts or 96 percent of the assemblage. Included in this total are all of the prehistoric ceramics, daub and faunal remains. Artifacts from shovel tests and anomaly tests total 144, or 4 percent of the assemblage. The artifact assemblage is discussed below by material class. Lithics. Phase II (Kansas Phase III) excavations at 14RY3183 produced a lithic assemblage of 3,147 pieces. These artifacts were recovered from three contexts. The excavation of six test units produced the bulk of the assemblage (n=3,007; 95.6 percent) (Table 3) while the shovel tests and anomaly tests discussed above account for 140 lithic artifacts (4.4 percent) (Table 4). The entire lithic assemblage is 73 Table 2. Distribution of Major Artifact Classes by Provenience at 14RY3 1 83. Provenience Lithics Ceramics Other Historic Total % of Total Shovel Tests 140 4 144 4 Test Unit 1 65 1 66 2 Test Unit 2 592 22 18 632 20 Test Unit 3 841 3 1 845 26 Test Unit 4 236 1 3 240 7 Test Unit 5 857 6 6 32 901 28 Test Unit 6 416 2 1 2 421 13 Total 3,147 34 8 60 3,249 100 dominated by lithic reduction waste flakes and debris (n=3,123; 99.2 percent). In addition to the lithic debris, several diagnostic projectile points, other bifaces, and unifacial tools also were recovered during the excavations. These artifacts (n=18) account for less than one percent of the lithic assemblage. The vast majority of the 14RY3 1 83 lithic assemblage is composed of lithic waste flakes and reduction debris which account for over 99 percent (n=3,123) of the total lithic assemblage. Broken flakes (n=2,001) account for 63.9 percent of this lithic debris. Excluding the broken flakes, the remainder of the lithic debitage (n=792) is composed primarily of secondary, tertiary, and bifacial thinning flakes which together account for 92.8 percent (n=735) of the analyzable debris. Primary flakes (n=43) and blades (n=14) comprise the remaining analyzable lithic debitage. The relatively high percentage of secondary, tertiary, and bifacial thinning flakes suggests that the reduction of blanks or preforms, late-stage lithic reduction, and tool maintenance were common activities at the site. Early-stage reduction materials including cores (n=6) and block shatter (n=330) are also present, indicating that a full spectrum of lithic reduction, tool manufacture, and maintenance were undertaken at the site. The lithic debris categories do not significantly vary with depth, suggesting a consistency through time in the lithic manufacturing activities conducted at 14RY3183. Based on the presence of cores, a core-reduction lithic production strategy appears to have been employed at the site. The end result of this trajectory could have been the production of expedient tools from flakes, such as blades or other utilized flakes, or the production of more formal tools, including tool preforms and blanks such as the thick and thin bifaces found at 14RY3183. In addition, given the preponderance of late-stage lithic debris at the site, it is likely that preforms and blanks were transported to 14RY3 1 83 where they were further reduced and made into finished formal tools. The bifacial thinning flakes found during the test excavations may have been produced either by reduction of blanks and preforms or by retooling dulled and exhausted tools such as knives and projectile points. 74 2 o CQ C CO C/) CD -o to CQ c u O m CQ CO '-E C O u c/3 CO E Qh o U so m cn o r- cn cn — so oo r^ — -t ^ 5 -• ? OO — — Tt SO CN - >c — o\ o\ n « o - m so — cn — oooooooooo — ooooo oooo — ooooooooo oooooooooooocnooo — o OO — — — — O CN O — Tj-O-3- ooosoo — cnsocN O CN O Os *0 O — O Os in — TT tt so o -o- o r^ t-> ro CN ■>* — in o o — oo — ooooooo — ooo — ooomo -^cn — — oo — oot — o Tf oo o m nsoin — oscncncNoo — cn CT\ so — tj- so iri CN — m n cn CN oo o — SO o r- cn o o o o ^0- — os 0000 — ^— — — O — CNf-OO^OO — CNOO«ncNcN00-^>ncNOOt--O — ^ o E o o CJ o o o cN cN cn I o o — — o o cn cn o r» I o o in so ^- vi \o r^ o o o cn cn o — cn cn E E E E E E E E o CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ o o o O o O O u in 1 o CN 1 cn 1 T in 1 2 o O 1 O o o o o 1 t o — CN cn rr in o E E E E (J CJ CJ CJ O O cn cn o o T o o cn cn o o so r^ o o in so O CN CN o CN — cNcNcNcNcNcNcNcncncncncn-rj- - rf' , ^T , ^-'0-'^ - ninin>nin'nin^ososo Hr-f-f-(-Hc-c-Hc-r-r-f-HH(-c-Hc-HHHc-c-r-h'Hf-i-r-c- 75 u. H m rn oo m CO >■ t* & D ■* H ^^ ■*^ en -o C/> -4—* c o O u H 00 "53 > o b C/J- « E E o CL C/5 CJ o> Ci. o tE U < o J 3 CO inooootNio — >o — O 1 ^" — , rr--ooinr-v-) — — lO'l-rnrjsorjo oooooo — ooooooooooooooooooo — ooooooooooooo — oooooooooooo — O — OOO — OO — — OOOO — O — OOOfNOOOOOOO t a t - ^t Osro — rrr-r<-in I I o o — -3- o I o o 7 E E u u o o (N r>i I I o o — cn E E E o o o 2 5 2 o o o m vo <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< CJ o o E o o CJ O ci tN cj (N (N O i — 1 o ~— 1 O o o O © (N ^^ 7 1— < •— < o o O o o o o o -r "* *3- > -*— i o o vo >r, >/-> >n E >n >o >o W L_ W D W W W o O o o o o — ri o _* o 00 '* rz v£> ^O ^D e >/■> -3- VD O z Z Z D Z Z Z 1- 76 Chapter 6. Results of Investigations Temporally diagnostic projectile points were recovered from Test Units 3 and 5. Test Unit 3 contained a single Scallorn Cluster point (Justice 1987) from 40-50 cm below surface (Figure 8, a). In addition, a small basal fragment from an unidentified projectile point also was recovered from this level. Scallorn points, small corner-notched arrow points, are common at Late Woodland through Mississippian sites in the midcontinent after A.D. 700 (Bell 1980; Bray 1956; Justice 1987). Test Unit 5 contained two diagnostic projectile points. The first, recovered between 10 and 20 cm below surface, is a Washita point, a small triangular arrow point characterized by narrow side notches placed one-quarter to one-third of the way up the side of the point from its base (Figure 8, b). Washita points are considered to be variants of the Cahokia point, a type found throughout the Mississippi Valley at Mississippian and Caddoan sites (Bell 1958; Justice 1987). Cahokia points are dated between A.D. 900 and 1 100 at sites in western Illinois (Justice 1987:233). Bell (1958:98) suggests that the Washita variant may occur as late as A.D. 1500-1600 when recovered at sedentary Plains culture sites. A single Scallorn Cluster point (Justice 1987) also was recovered from Test Unit 5 at 30-40 cm below surface (Figure 8, c). Test Unit 6 yielded two unidentified basal projectile point fragments, one of which may possibly represent a shallow, side-notched form, and the other a possible stemmed form (Figure 8, d-e). A basal fragment of a stemmed point also was recovered from Anomaly 5 between 10 and 20 cm below surface (Figure 8, f). In addition to the projectile points and fragments, three thin biface fragments and three thick biface fragments were recovered (Figure 9). Two bifacially worked artifacts recovered from 10-20 cm below surface in Test Unit 6 deserve additional comment. One is a wedge-like tool characterized by crushing and step fractures along the lateral margins and fine retouch on the proximal and distal ends (Figure 9, a). This artifact is morphologically similar to pieces esquillees, wedge-like tools intended for the splitting of green bone (Hayden 1980:2-7). These tools are generally made from flakes, exhibit crushing, and are generally fairly thin. The second is a large biface retaining a large amount of cortex, which appears to have been shaped to facilitate hafting (Figure 9, b). The working end of this artifact is missing, making determination of its morphology and function difficult. The general shape and size of the extant fragment, however, suggest that the piece may be a portion of a chert hoe or adze-like tool. In addition to the bifacial tools and tool fragments, three unifaces also were recovered at 14RY3183 (Figure 10). Test Unit 3 contained a single uniface, a side scraper, from 20-30 cm below surface. Made on a large flake, this tool exhibits fine retouch along lateral margins that are beveled at an approximately 45 degree angle (Figure 10, a). Test Unit 5 produced an end scraper at 10-20 cm below surface. This tool is finely retouched on its distal end and portions of one lateral margin (Figure 10, b). The final uniface recovered from 14RY3183 is a fragment of a flake that has been utilized as an expedient side scraper (Figure 10, c). This artifact exhibits fine retouch along a portion of the lateral margins. Florence chert dominates the lithic assemblage recovered at 14RY3183. Only 1 1 of the over 3,000 lithics were not made of the local Florence chert. The Florence chert artifacts at 14RY3 1 83 range in color from light gray to a bluish-gray, with some pieces having a pinkish hue due to heat treatment. The 1 1 non- Florence chert pieces are all of a tan to light brown chert with an orange cortex when present. Two of the 1 1 pieces are projectile point bases. Ceramics. A total of 34 prehistoric ceramics was recovered from Test Units 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 (Table 5). The ceramics were restricted to the initial 40 cm below surface, with 25 (74 percent) ceramics found at 77 Figure 8. Diagnostic Projectile Points from 14RY3 183: a, Scallorn; b, Washita; c, Scallorn; d-f, Unidentified Bases. Figure 9. Bifaces from 14RY3 183: a, Wedge; b, Hoe or Adze; c-d, Thin Bifaces; e-f, Thick B if aces. 78 Chapter 6: Results of Investigations Figure 10. Unifaces from 14RY3183: a, c, side scraper; b, end scraper. 20-30 cm below surface. Unfortunately, the ceramic assemblage is comprised of small or weathered specimens, with most sherds being under 5 mm in diameter. In addition, many of the sherds are eroded. The small size and impact of weathering obscures their outer surface, precluding determination of surface treatment in many specimens. Because of this, the attribution of particular ceramic types to specific sherds in the collection proved difficult to impossible. The assignment of sherds to a particular type, phase, or focus, as discussed below, is therefore very tentative. Identification of ceramic types and their associated phase or focus is based on definitions in O'Brien (1984). The ceramics from 14RY3183 are potentially from four distinct phases, foci, or aspects: Smoky Hill variant, Schultz phase, Valley focus, and Cuesta phase. Each of these constructs has been identified in eastern Kansas. The Smoky Hill variant dates to the Middle Ceramic period and has been defined for the Fort Riley area and westward (O'Brien 1984:61). Ceramics associated with this variant are typically, sand, grog, or shell tempered. The sand- and grog-tempered sherds have been defined as Riley Cord-Roughened. The shell-tempered sherds are unnamed, and often have incised surface decorations. A total of 20 sherds was assigned to the Smoky Hill variant category from the 14RY3183 assemblage. The Smoky Hill ceramics were found in Test Units 2, 5, and 6 and were recovered to 30 cm below surface. Most of the sherds are small and highly weathered. They are characterized by a soft, chalky paste with either shell or a combination of shell and a gritty sand temper. The shell has been leached out of these sherds, leaving platelet voids. One sherd is cordmarked while the rest are either too weathered to determine surface treatment or have plain surfaces. All are body sherds. 79 Table 5. Distribution of Ceramics at 14RY3183. Provenience Too Small Smoky Hill Schultz Valley Cuesta Total Test Unit 2, 20-30 cm 4 12 2 2 2 22 Test Unit 3, 20-30 cm 1(?) 2 3 Test Unit 4, 30-40 cm 1(7) 1 Test Unit 5, 0-10 cm 1 1 Test Unit 5, 10-20 cm 3 3 Test Unit 5, 20-30 cm 2 2 Test Unit 6, 0-10 cm 2 2 Total 4 20 3 5 2 34 The Valley focus dates to the Early Ceramic period and has been defined in northeastern Kansas, including the Fort Riley area (O'Brien 1984:50). The ceramics, defined as Valley Cord-Roughened, have sand or grit temper with a compact to crumbly paste. These ceramics are finely cordmarked, and the vessels have straight rims and flat lips. Five sherds were assigned to the Valley focus based on paste and temper characteristics. These sherds were found in Test Units 2, 3, and 4 in levels from between 20 cm and 40 cm below surface. The sherds have a gritty sand temper and unconsolidated, crumbly paste. Four of the sherds are cordmarked while the other has an exfoliated outer surface. All are body sherds. Three sherds were assigned to the Schultz phase. The Schultz phase dates to the Early Ceramic period and has been defined in the Fort Riley area (O'Brien 1984:54). The Schultz phase has grit- or more rarely limestone-tempered ceramics. Surfaces are plain, some of which are polished. Possible Schultz phase ceramics were recovered in Test Units 2 and 3 between 20 and 30 cm below surface. All have moderate- sized particles of grit temper in a rather compact paste. All three have plain exterior surfaces, two of which are polished or burnished. All are body sherds. The final defined category of sherds may relate to the Cuesta phase. The Cuesta, or Cooper, phase dates to the Early Ceramic period and has been defined to the south of Fort Riley (O'Brien 1984:49). Cuesta phase ceramics are grit, grog, or clay tempered with a compact paste. Cuesta phase ceramics have plain bodies with zoned dentition, embossing, and punctates near the rim. Vessel forms are S-shaped or slightly flaring-rim jars. Two possible Cuesta phase sherds were recovered from Test Unit 2 between 20 and 30 cm below surface (Figure 11). One is a body sherd with dentate stamping and curvilinear incising (Figure 1 1, a). It has a compact paste with grit and grog temper. The other is a body sherd with a portion of the vessel neck, the shape of which suggests that it represents an S-shaped jar fragment. It is grog- tempered with a compact paste. The surface treatment is either a <-shaped stamp or smoothed-over cordmarking (Figure 1 1, b). 80 Cfiapter 6: Results of Investigations Figure 11. Possible Cuesta Phase Sherds from 14RY3183. Finally, four sherds from Test Unit 2, 20-30 cm below surface, were too small to determine temper or surface treatment. These four sherds are not assigned to a particular type. The vertical distribution of sherds, as presented in Table 5, indicates a potential mixing of material in the upper 30 cm of deposits from a number of different time periods. Such mixing can be accounted for by a number of processes. Bioturbation commonly disturbs archaeological deposits, causing the mixture of artifacts from different time periods. The disturbances to the site by various modern construction activities noted in the introduction could also have caused such a mixture. Alternatively, the very tentative identifications made here could be incorrect, making the supposed mixture of Ceramic period deposits more apparent than real. In all probability, both explanations are to some extent correct. Daub. Daub consists of mud that was applied to walls of prehistoric house structures as part of the wattle- and-daub construction technique. Daub usually only survives when it has been fired, and such is the case with the daub found at 14RY3183. Four pieces of daub were recovered during excavations, all from Test Unit 5. Two pieces were each found between 10 and 20 cm and 30-40 cm below surface. Test Unit 5 is located in the north-central portion of the site, near a test unit excavated by USACERL personnel in 1995. It has been reported that large quantities of daub were recovered from that test unit (Richardson 1996). Faunal Remains. Overall, bone preservation is rather poor at 14RY3 1 83. Only four pieces of bone were recovered during investigations, all from test unit proveniences. Bone was found in Test Units 3, 5, and 81 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas 6. A single left mandible from an opossum (Didelphis virginianus) was recovered from Test Unit 3, 20-30 cm below surface. From Test Unit 5, an antler fragment was found at 20-30 cm below surface, and an unidentified bone fragment was found at 30^10 cm below surface. Both are from unidentified large mammals, and their size suggests a species larger than white-tailed or mule deer. It is likely that these remains represent either elk (Cervus elephas) or bison {Bison bison), both native to the Fort Riley area. The final element is an unidentified long bone fragment from Test Unit 6, 0-10 cm. This long bone fragment is in the size range of white-tailed deer {Odecoileus virginianus) or mule deer {Odecoileus hemionus). Historic Artifacts. Historic artifacts were recovered from Test Units 1, 2, 4, 5, and 7, one shovel test, and two anomaly tests (Table 6). A total of 60 items was found. Most numerous are fragments of coal or slag (n=27). Nails are also common and include both wire and machine-cut varieties. Other items include bottle glass (clear, brown, and manganese or amethyst, the latter dating to the late nineteenth through early twentieth century), two buckle parts (not related to clothing), a piece of wire, a metal wood screw, and a non-metal unidentified artifact. These artifacts do not suggest a domestic occupation. Instead, the artifacts may be related to the nearby Packer's Camp (Andros et al. 1993). Most of the historic artifacts, 95 percent of the total, were located within the initial 30 cm of excavations. Only two artifacts were found below 30 cm below surface, although one was recovered from 70-80 cm below surface. Discussion As discussed in Chapter 4, three issues were discussed as the focus of research at the two prehistoric sites investigated as part of this project: enhancement of the local chronology, understanding of prehistoric subsistence, and determination of the function of the site within local settlement systems. To some extent the Phase II (Kansas Phase III) testing of 14RY3183 has contributed to an evaluation of the potential of this site to contribute to those three research issues. But to this discussion can be added the determination of integrity of deposits, an issue that will be addressed first. The interpretation of soil strata to identify whether intact cultural deposits are present at 14RY3183 is an important aspect of the evaluation process since intact cultural deposits are generally necessary for NRHP eligibility. The site is located on a part of Fort Riley that lies within the original reservation and, thus, probably has never been subjected to agricultural disturbance. This has been verified by the current investigations in that no plow zone was identified in the test unit soil profiles. But other types of disturbance have impacted the site. The earliest identifiable impact is associated with the Packer's Camp, located quite near the site. Local history indicates that mule trains may have crossed the site area, and indeed, historic artifacts such as nails, coal, buckles, and bottle glass have been found in the test excavations. Whether this material is associated with the nearby Packer's Camp is unknown. This material appears to be restricted to the upper 30 cm of deposits for the most part, although two historic artifacts were found at deeper levels (Table 7). Bioturbation may account for the depth of these two pieces. Clearly, the upper 30 cm of deposits have been impacted to some extent by historic activities, although it is uncertain whether these activities have greatly displaced artifact provenience and original associations. A second historic source of disturbance is the construction of various utilities across the site area. Included are telephone wires, sewer lines, and a gas pipeline. It is more likely that areas associated with these modern disturbances have been completely impacted. What is clear from the test excavations 82 Table 6. Distribution of Historic Artifacts at 14RY3183. Provenience Bottle Glass Nails/ Tacks Test Unit 1,0-10 cm Test Unit 2, 10-20 cm Test Unit 2, 20-30 cm Test Unit 4, 0-10 cm Test Unit 5, 0-10 cm Test Unit 5, 20-30 cm Test Unit 5, 30^10 cm Test Unit 6, 0-10 cm N620 E540, 20-30 cm A4, depth unknown A4, 70-80 cm A6, 0-10 cm Total 1 1 2 4 3 1 1 10 5 1 1 1 1 24 Coal 14 13 27 Buckles Other Total 1 3 15 3 12 19 1 2 1 1 1 1 60 is that an undisturbed midden is present on site between ca. 30 and 60 cm below surface. In addition, deep testing along the creek areas conducted by USACERL suggested the presence of intact deposits to 1 m below surface in some areas of the site. Based on the current and past investigations of this site, 14RY3183 does have intact cultural deposits. Material obtained from test excavations at the site also has been shown to contribute to enhancement of the local Early Ceramic and Middle Ceramic subperiod chronology. The current investigations have recovered temporally sensitive artifacts from the site in what appears to be chronologically accurate position. Finally, radiocarbon dates have been obtained from deposits at 14RY3183. Unfortunately, no carbon was recovered during the current project that could be radiometrically dated, although four samples were collected and dated by USACERL from test excavations conducted at the site in 1995 (Richardson 1996). These samples assay to the thirteenth century A.D., or the Middle Ceramic subperiod. The current investigations recovered a number of different temporally diagnostic projectile point types, including Scallorn and Washita points. Scallorn-like projectile points typically are associated with a number of Early Ceramic subperiod phases in northeastern Kansas, including Valley, Greenwood, and 83 Table 7. Comparison of Frequency Between Prehistoric Lithics and Ceramics and Historic Artifacts by Excavation Level. Excavation Level Lith n cs % Ceram n ICS % Historic Artifacts n % Total n % 0-10 cm 499 15 3 8 19 32 521 16 10-20 cm 247 8 5 13 3 5 255 8 20-30 cm 515 16 27 71 35 58 577 17 30^0 cm 1,291 40 3 8 1 2 1,295 39 40-50 cm 467 15 467 14 50-60 cm 149 5 149 5 60-70 cm 38 1 38 1 70-80 cm 6 <1 1 2 7 <1 Total 3,212 100 38 99 59 99 3,309 100 Schultz. The two Scallorn-like points from 14RY3183 were found between 30 and 50 cm below surface. In contrast, the single Washita projectile point was found above the Scallorn points at 10 cm to 20 cm below surface. Washita points are associated with Middle Ceramic subperiod cultures, including Smoky Hill. This positioning suggests some degree of integrity within the initial 30 cm of deposits as well. Unfortunately, the small size of the ceramics recovered during the project makes their identification tentative and any interpretation based on their stratigraphic positioning hazardous. The artifacts do suggest the presence of both Early Ceramic and Middle Ceramic components at the site, an interpretation previously advanced by Richardson (1996). This would indicate a continuous, although perhaps sporadic, occupation of 14RY3 1 83 throughout the Early Ceramic and Middle Ceramic periods. Unfortunately, the ceramic assemblage from the current investigation is both small in number and physical size. Because of this, interpretations based on the ceramic assemblage are viewed as tentative. But it does appear that the assemblage indicates the presence of Early Ceramic and Middle Ceramic assemblages at 14RY3183. Richardson also argues that an earlier Archaic period component is present at the site. While the presence of the component is likely given the Archaic period projectile points recovered by Richardson (1996), no artifacts diagnostic of that time period were recovered during the current investigations. The ability of the deposits at 14RY3183 to yield data on prehistoric subsistence is less certain. Few faunal remains were found during the current investigations. Similarly, few faunal remains were found during the 1995 test excavations (Richardson 1996). It appears that preservation conditions at the site is such that little faunal material is likely to be present. No flotation samples were taken as part of this project in accordance with the USACERL Scope of Work, which required that samples be taken from features, and none was identified. Therefore, an evaluation of the ability of the deposits to contain 84 Chapter 6. Results of Investigations paleobotanical remains that could yield information concerning prehistoric plant use cannot be made. Hand-collected samples of carbon were recovered by Richardson (1996), indicating some potential for the presence of paleobotanical remains. Finally, it appears that deposits can yield information on both internal settlement patterning and the position of this settlement within local settlement systems. While the current investigations did not yield substantive evidence of internal site organization, previous test excavations have identified a potential structural feature and lithic flake concentrations. It is probable that the structure encountered by Richardson (1996) represents a Smoky Hill variant isolated household, although small hamlets are also known for this aspect. Other debris collected from the upper portion of the midden includes ceramics, projectile points, bifaces, unifaces, a hoe or adze fragment, and lithics. The relatively wide range of material suggests a longer-term domestic occupation during the Smoky Hill variant that may have included the growing and harvesting of plants. Other activities included stone tool manufacture and hunting, perhaps of big game animals such as bison. Site 14RY3183 and its associated Smoky Hill assemblage has much in common with sites 14RY314 and 14RY41 1 (Rohn and Biasing 1986), both of which appear to be single households oriented toward agricultural production. While single Smoky Hill households appear to be common in the Fort Riley area, less is known about other site types. Recommendations Previously, Richardson (1996) has suggested that 14RY3183 be determined eligible for listing in the NRHP based on the presence of intact deposits and the potential of the site to address research issues relevant to Central Plains prehistory. The current investigations support this contention. Intact, potentially stratified cultural deposits are present, and features have been identified within those deposits during previous investigations at the site. Materials from the deposits include temporally diagnostic artifacts and carbon that can, and has, been used for radiocarbon dating purposes. Not only does this demonstrate an ability to contribute towards enhancement of the local chronology but an ability to differentiate and date the components identified at 14RY3183. The differentiation and dating of archaeological components allow researchers to address issues concerning temporal change, for instance, in terms of chert use, settlement function, or subsistence practices. Secondly, the investigations indicate that the internal organization of the site contains spatially discrete areas such as lithic flake concentrations and a house. Excavations could be designed to investigate internal site organization, a topic that has been addressed at relatively few sites in the Flint Hills region (Brown and Simmons 1987). Materials from the site also could be used to determine site function and potentially trade patterns. Determination of site function, and subsequent comparison with both temporally distinct and coeval sites in the Fort Riley area, could lead to a better understanding of prehistoric settlement systems and their changes through time. Richardson (1996) notes the presence of a small amount of non-local lithic materials, including Niobrara jasper and Wreford chert. Comparison with other sites in the area could identify trade and distributional patterns of exotics in the local prehistoric settlement system. No doubt additional research topics could be developed for 14RY3183. But, based on the above discussion, it is recommended that 14RY3183 is eligible for listing in the NRHP. Two recommendations can be made for the management of 1 4RY3 1 83. It appears that the site is most vulnerable to utility construction impacts. The site should be monitored, perhaps on a weekly basis, to 85 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas ensure that no unauthorized construction take place. Both civilian and military authorities should be notified of the presence of the site and the conditions under which activities may be permitted on site. Prior to any permitted activities, areas to be affected should be mitigated. Finally, a comprehensive management plan for the site should be created. Such a plan would investigate protective measures, define potential research goals, and create a plan to operational ize any additional fieldwork deemed necessary at the site. Included should be minimal field and laboratory requirements. One potential database not collected during the present project, flotation samples and subsequent analysis for the presence of paleobotanical remains, should be incorporated into future excavations conducted at 14RY3183. 14RY3193 Site 14RY3193, also known as Army City, is the location of a World War I entertainment complex. The site is located east of Camp Funston on a nearly level terrace of the Kansas River floodplain, just west of the Ogden gate (Figure 2). The site lies at an elevation of 320 to 325 m asl. The site was identified on the basis of historic documentary research and subsequent field verification (Babson 1996). At present, the site area is located within a maintained grass field. Site Description Army City was recorded by Babson (1996) as a World War I privately operated entertainment complex located between Camp Funston and Ogden along the eastern Fort Riley boundary (Figure 2). Facilities included theaters, pool halls, barber shops, banks, drug stores, clothing stores, restaurants, an arcade, and other amenities. The site area, almost 90 ha in extent, is currently covered by grass and two small cottonwood groves. The area is occasionally mowed by Fort Riley personnel. The site area is bounded on the north by Huebner Road, on the east by an unnamed creek, on the south by a former channel of the Kansas River, and on the west by a levee. Union Pacific railroad tracts, present in the southern half, bisect the site. Soils on site have been mapped as Muir silt loam, 0-1 percent slopes (Jantz et al. 1975). The Muir soil series is part of the Eudora-Haynie-Sarpy soil association. This association consists of deep, nearly level silt loams, very fine sandy loams, and loamy fine sands and is found on terraces and floodplains. In the study area, this soil association is found on bottomlands of the Kansas, Republican, and Big Blue rivers. Sandier soils are found closer to the rivers while more clayey soils are present on terraces away from the river channels. Muir silt loam consists of deep, nearly level soils formed in deep alluvium on river or creek terraces. These terraces are rarely flooded. A typical Muir silt loam profile has a grayish- brown (10YR5/2) silt loam A horizon from 0^46 cm below surface. The upper 18 cm of the A horizon may consist of a plow zone. Following is the B2 horizon from 46-107 cm below surface. It is a grayish- brown (10YR5/2) heavy silt loam. Most of the excavations at Army City took place within the A horizon. Historic disturbance to the area has created differences between this typical profile and that noted on site. In addition, it does not appear that the Army City site area has been subjected to plowing. 86 Chapter 6. Results of Investigations Previous Investigations Well known to local residents and historians, Army City has, until recently, been poorly documented in the literature on cultural resources at Fort Riley. The most comprehensive documentation on the site is an M.A. thesis by Rion (1960). The first cultural resource management-oriented treatment of this site occurs in Andros et al. (1993) and is discussed in conjunction with the construction of Camp Funston. Camp Funston was built in 1917 as a temporary training center for 50,000 soldiers in response to the United States entry into World War I. Army City, a privately built complex, was located between Camp Funston and Ogden. In addition, Babson (1995) has conducted both archival and field research on Army City. He describes the site as south of Huebner Road and immediately southwest of the Ogden gate. He states that the site was in use from 1917 through ca. 1920 and contained movie theaters, exchanges, stores, a railroad depot, and married housing. Army City was segregated by race in accordance with Kansas State Law, although the U.S. Army was a segregated institution until after World War II as well. Babson also notes that the Army City area was purchased by the Army in 1942. Military maps of the area indicate its presence from 1917 through November 1, 1919. These maps suggest the presence of at least 12 structures. The Army City structures were built of wood on poured concrete foundations. It is said to have gone out of business after the closure of Camp Funston as a training camp and to have been destroyed, at least partially, by fire in the 1920s. The Army City property, previously in private ownership, was purchased by the federal government in 1942 and incorporated into Fort Riley (Babson 1996). Babson (1996) also conducted field investigations at Army City. He noted the presence of a concrete foundation in the northwest quadrant of the site, although several other foundations present in a photograph on display in the Territorial Capitol Museum located at Fort Riley could not be relocated. Based on the archival and field research, Babson defines a site area of 1,000 m east-west by up to 900 m north-south. Impacts to the site, as described by Mr. John Dendy, archaeologist, Dynamac Corporation-Fort Riley, include the construction of roads over the site area and the deposition of perhaps up to 1 m of silt during a 1951 flood. The current project failed to identify any impacts caused by the flood. Babson (1996) suggests that the archaeological significance of this site may be explored through a testing and research program designed to determine if the private enterprises conducting business at Army City made a serious effort to create and manage a racially separate but equal (italics in original) facility. He indicates that Army City may have local and possibly national significance as a late military version of a temporary pay day town, similar to nineteenth century towns in mining areas or near railroad construction camps. Results of Investigations Initial fieldwork at 14RY3193, conducted in April 1996, consisted of constructing a grid over the northern portion of the site for subsequent geophysical testing. The Phase II (Kansas Phase III) investigations at 14RY3193 were conducted during June 1996. Included in the activities were excavation of a grid of shovel-tests across a portion of the site, the excavation of six test units, and the compilation of a site plan and topographic map (Figure 12). An area of approximately 0.64 ha of this 90 ha site was investigated. Upon completion of these initial testing activities, shovel tests were excavated at the locations of 43 potential subsurface anomalies. 87 Figure 12. Site Plan and Topographic Map of 14RY3193. 88 Chapter 6. Results of Investigations Preliminary Shovel Tests. The initial task undertaken was the excavation of shovel tests across a portion of the site. Shovel tests were excavated at the center of each of the grid units established for geophysical testing. A total of 12 shovel tests was excavated, three of which yielded artifacts (Figure 12). The shovel tests were excavated in 10-cm levels, with all fill screened through 6.4-mm mesh hardware cloth. The shovel tests were excavated to between 40 and 60 cm below surface. All 12 evidenced a profile that consists of two soil horizons. The initial horizon is a very dark brown silt loam that is 25 to 35 cm thick. The second horizon is a yellowish brown silty clay loam that is 10 to 25 cm thick. Artifacts were found only in the upper soil horizon. Test Unit 1. This l-x-2-m test unit is located in the northern portion of geophysical grid at the northwest corner of Grid Unit N640 E500 (N639-640, E500-502) (Figure 12). It was placed to the southwest of a positive shovel test. The unit was excavated to approximately 30 cm below surface, and two soil horizons were identified (Figure 13). The initial stratum is a 20-cm thick A horizon that consists of very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2) silt loam. This is followed by a 1 0-cm thick brown (10YR4/3) silty clay loam. Artifacts were found to 30 cm below surface in this unit, although only one artifact was recovered between 20 cm and 30 cm below surface. Test Unit 2. This l-x-2-m test unit is located in the central portion of geophysical grid at the northwest corner of Grid Unit N600 E500 (N599-600, E500-502) (Figure 12). It was placed to the northwest of a positive shovel test. The unit was excavated to approximately 35 cm below surface, and two soil horizons were defined (Figure 13). The first stratum is 20-22 cm thick and consists of a dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) silt loam. Following this is a yellowish brown (10YR5/6) silt loam that is 10-15 cm thick. All but one artifact was recovered in the initial 20 cm of this unit. The single exception was found between 20 and 30 cm below surface. Test Unit 3. This l-x-2-m test unit is located in the northern portion of geophysical grid at the northeast corner of Grid Unit N620 E500 (N61 8-620, E500-501) (Figure 12). It was placed within a circular area that had an anomalous vegetation pattern. The unit was excavated to approximately 40 cm below surface, and two soil horizons were defined (Figure 13). The initial horizon is 20-25 cm thick and consists of very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2) silt loam. It is interpreted as an A horizon. Within this horizon, oriented southeast to northwest and cutting diagonally across the middle of the test unit, is a zone of compact soil. This zone, approximately 20 cm thick at its greatest, is a silt loam similar in color to the remainder of the stratum. No unusual artifacts or increases in artifact density were noted within this zone. The second stratum, of which 10-15 cm was excavated, is a BA horizon. This horizon consists of yellowish brown (10YR4/3) heavy silt loam. Dendy (personal communication 1996) has indicated that the northeast portion of Army City was used as a truck driver training area during the early 1980s. It is possible that the circular disturbance is associated with that use of the site area. Artifacts were recovered to 30 cm below surface in this unit, although most were confined to the upper 20 cm. Test Unit 4. This l-x-2-m test unit is located in the southern portion of geophysical grid at the southwest corner of Grid Unit N520 E520 (N520-521, E520-522) (Figure 12). It was placed in this location in order to test within the southern portion of the grid. It was excavated to 40 cm below surface, and two soil strata were identified (Figure 13). The initial stratum is a 25-cm thick A horizon. This horizon consists of a dark yellowish brown (10YR3/4) silt loam. Following this is a 15-cm thick stratum of yellowish brown 89 14RY3193 Test Unit 1 - North Profile '.A BA Test Unit 2 - North Profile '■ •'. '.A. BA Test Unit 3 - North Profile Test Unit 4 - East) 3 rofile ■ •'.' ■'. A BA cm 50 Figure 13. Soil Profiles of Test Units 1,2, 3, and 4 at 14RY3193. 90 Chapter 6 Results of Investigations (10YR5/6) silt loam. Rodent burrows were identified at the base of the excavations. Artifacts were found to 20 cm below surface in this unit. Anomaly Testing Dr. Lewis Somers of Geoscan Research conducted geophysical surveys within the grid units placed to the south of Huebner Road and west of an unnamed road (Figure 12). These surveys identified numerous possible targets, of which 43 were investigated. Using a map indicating anomaly target locations provided by USACERL, the targets were located within each of the grid units using a set of tapes and target coordinates. The targets then were numbered in order of excavation (Figure 14). Fieldworkers were instructed to excavate 45-x-45-cm shovel tests at the target locations. The shovel tests were excavated to approximately 50 cm below ground surface, and all soils were screened through 6.4-mm mesh hardware cloth. By excavating 50 cm below ground surface, the B horizon would be encountered in all anomaly test units. Table 8 summarizes the general characteristics of each anomaly test, including number of artifacts recovered, general comments, and tentative interpretation of the potential anomaly. Specific discussion of the artifacts recovered and their provenience is presented in the following section. Three different profiles were noted within the anomaly shovel tests. Most common, in 25 tests, is a normal A-AB or A- AB-B soil profile. These anomaly tests have an average artifact count of 6.6 per shovel test, although three anomaly tests (8, 13, and 21), greatly exceed the average. If these three tests are not included, the average artifact count for this group of tests is 2.0. The second group, comprised of 17 tests, exhibits a disturbed soil profile. The disturbed profile usually consists of an A horizon followed by a zone of various thickness (up to 40-50 cm in some instances) that is mottled throughout with a light tan silt. The average artifact count for this group is 15.2, much higher than that for those tests with a normal profile. The final group, consisting of Anomaly Test Number 7, contains a feature. A concrete floor or pad was located within Anomaly Test Number 7, which also contained 128 artifacts. For the most part, the results of the anomaly testing were negative. In 25 instances, no features were observed in profile. Only one definite feature was identified. In contrast, 17 tests contained anomalous soil profiles that suggest the occurrence of historic period disturbance. That these 17 test locations may represent some type of feature is reinforced by their higher than average number of artifacts, especially in contrast to those tests where a typical soil profile was identified. The one test in which a feature was identified also contained a large number of artifacts. Another comparison is to standardize number of artifacts per m 3 . Approximately 2.5 m 3 of fill were excavated from both the four test units and the 25 anomaly tests with typical soil profiles. Each recovery method averaged slightly less than 66 artifacts per m 3 of soil. In contrast, almost 1 .9 m 3 of fill was excavated from the 1 7 tests that have disturbed profiles, yielding an average of 136 artifacts per m 3 of soil excavated, or slightly more than twice as many as that of the test units and typical profile anomaly tests. These data suggest that the anomaly tests in which disturbed profiles are present probably represent some type of historic disturbance or feature, although the type of feature these may represent is unknown at present. Larger excavation units are needed to adequately investigate these potential features. 91 Figure 14. Location of Selected Potential Anomalies at 14RY3193. 92 Table 8. Selected Attributes of Anomaly Tests at 14RY3193. Test # Artifacts Artifact Wt. (g) Comments Interpretation 1 1 13.3 Disturbed Profile at 25-30 cm below surface Possible Feature 2 2 3.6 Disturbed Profile at 25-35 cm below surface Possible Feature 3 40 26.8 Disturbed Profile at 25-60 cm below surface Possible Feature 4 23 275.9 Numerous Concrete Fragments in Profile Possible Feature 5 2 2.9 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 6 4 17.3 Disturbed Profile at 50-70 cm below surface Possible Feature 7 128 1,498.8 Concrete pad at 65 cm below surface Feature 8 19 114.3 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 9 71 279.3 Cinder lens at 20 cm below surface Possible Feature 10 12 22.2 Disturbed Profile at 20-70 cm below surface Possible Feature 11 15 42.4 Disturbed Profile at 20-55 cm below surface Possible Feature 12 13 15.5 Disturbed Profile at 30-55 cm below surface Possible Feature 13 64 169.1 A-AB-B Profile Non-Cultural 14 20 127.0 Disturbed Profile at 25-55 cm below surface Possible Feature 15 3 15.6 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 16 62 288.9 Disturbed Profile at 30-60 cm below surface Possible Feature 17 2 8.1 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 18 0.0 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 19 2 17.3 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 20 0.0 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 21 40 242.2 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 22 0.0 Disturbed Profile at 20-50 cm below surface Possible Feature 23 4 53.8 Disturbed Profile at 35-55 cm below surface Possible Feature 24 1 0.6 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 25 0.0 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 26 0.0 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 27 0.0 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 28 3 63.7 Disturbed Profile at 30-55 cm below surface Possible Feature 29 2 110.4 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 30 0.0 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 31 1 3.2 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 32 0.0 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 33 7 19.4 Disturbed Profile at 30-65 cm below surface Possible Feature 34 3 8.7 Disturbed Profile at 30-65 cm below surface Possible Feature 35 0.0 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 36 0.0 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 37 0.0 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 38 3 34.7 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 39 0.0 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 40 0.0 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 41 2 4.8 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 42 0.0 A-AB Profile Non-Cultural 43 2 20.9 Disturbed Profile at 30-65 cm below surface Possible Feature 93 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas Discussion. The soil profiles from the test unit and shovel test excavations are in general agreement with atypical Eudora silt loam profile described by Jantz et al. (1975), although it does not appear that a plow zone is present at Army City. Test excavations appear to have been conducted in areas that contain a sparse amount of refuse, as no architectural features were uncovered. The soil profiles, which appear to indicate a lack of widespread post-occupational disturbance, may suggest that intact features are present on site. In contrast to the results of the test unit excavations, the anomaly tests did locate historically disturbed soils and a potential feature. In addition, these tests also yielded a greater density of artifacts than did either the test units or the preliminary shovel tests. Artifacts dating to the proposed period of site occupation were recovered from the surface to 30 cm below surface in both the shovel tests and the test units. The stratigraphic position of these artifacts, along with an absence of alluvially deposited strata, suggest that the 1951 flood did not impact this part of 14RY3193. Artifact Analysis A total of 718 artifacts was collected during the Phase II (Kansas Phase III) investigations of 14RU3193, 717 of which date to the Historic period. A single broken flake, dating to the prehistoric period, also was recovered. Most of this material was recovered during the anomaly testing excavations (n=551; 77 percent), with less material found during the test excavations (n=164; 23 percent) and shovel tests (n=3; >1 percent) (Tables 9 and 10). The material has been categorized into four groups: Kitchen, Architecture, Activities, and Personal. A residual category of artifacts, including unidentified material, is also present in the assemblage. Kitchen Group. Artifacts classified within this group include refined ceramics, bottle glass, and canning jar lids. Seven pieces of refined ceramics were recovered from the test units and anomaly tests. These include three pieces of undecorated whiteware, and single examples of undecorated hotelware, undecorated ironstone, molded hotelware, and hand-painted annular semiporcelain. One piece of whiteware, from Test Unit 3, 10-20 cm below surface, has a maker's mark, "...son Bros./.. .and". Along with its partial stamped crown, this identified the piece as manufactured by Johnson Brothers of England beginning in 1913 (Godden 1964:356). No vessel forms could be identified. Forty pieces of bottle glass were recovered from the test units and anomaly tests. Unfortunately, all fragments were too small to identify bottle type or contents. Glass color included green, clear, brown/amber, and amethyst or manganese. The latter dates from ca. 1880 through World War I when manganese was no longer added to glass due to wartime shortages. The final Kitchen Group artifact is a single canning jar lid liner fragment found in Test Unit 1. Architecture Group. Material included in this group consists of concrete, flat glass (window glass), gravel, nails, brick, ceramic insulators, limestone, gravel, wood, hooks, and unidentified architectural elements. Material such as concrete, limestone, wood, brick, and gravel represent building supports, superstructure, and possibly paths. All but one of the nails recovered are wire-drawn; only one machine-cut nail found. Activities Group. Only two artifacts, from Test Units 1 and 3, respectively, were classified within this group. One represents an unidentified piece of hardware while the other is a notebook clip. 94 s H A o g UJ P2 Pi pi H p 3 I Pi i CN O P I h- o Pi 3? H © Pi Pi o o o o o — — On r*"> — — — — OOOOOOOO fN Tf t-~ O O O O — OOOOO — OOOOOOOO oo o o o o — OOOOO — OOOOOOOO oo o o o o — O O O — O OOOOO — OOO OO OOOOCN OOO — O OOOOOOOOO OO OI^OOOO O O O r«l O mOOOOOOOO OO OOOOVO O (N O Os O o © © ts © VOOOO^J-OO — o 00000(N(N — OO OOO00O Tj-OOOr^OOOO OO OOOOw-i O O O VO o OOOOO — OO — OOOOO — OOOOOOOO O ■>* O O <-> «-• ^ m — ■O > 1> t3 T3 -3 -O ■5 H o II u p ts c o u "a — Z £ U D o Z CO .— .— ed £ u o c c ~ S J U => => £ en II H 95 On > c/i o c < S o ■a — > o < 3 a < 'y. f- < T < m < cN t- < - < o ON < cc < r-» < no < o to c o to to eg a D. 3 O o. 3 T3 a> •a CO ■a o o 1> O cu to u '3 — 3 U 4> IS u u- < C o to -a c CO 00 (L> 00 •a o o o c o U a CO 3 u co o CO ~ a o « 2 ■= « -c o £ 2 m E (0 Urn u CL O O — (N O O NO — \0 r- OOOOO OOOVDO00OOO— o oo-^-on O O On eo O CN O O O "3" OOOOO OOO — O — OOOO O OOOCN ooooo oooono — oooo o oocim OOOO *o- O O O Cn) OOOOO OOO— 'OOOOOO O OOO — 4) co u- o e u o CL CQ T3 0) a. T3 c b is CO o u H j>> CO E o c < II < o 96 o < < in — r- — — t*» 00 (N ooo — ooooo — — — o — m in o o O (N ooooo ooocnoooooo o o o o cn OOOOO OOOflOOOOOO O OOOm OO — (NO oooooooooo o ooom OOOOO OOOOOOOOOO O O O m r~ ooooo oooooo — ooo o ooo — OOOOO OOO — OOOOOO O O O — 1— C3 c o 1m in en Q. 3 jt O O l— EC T3 to O 3 u e o K CD -a o - I 1/3 > C o U cs 3 O E a £ S S c o ca o "C CO s CO U n. 3 O l- O "<3 c o o o m o o o — (N OOOOO OOOOOOCNOOO O OOOCN OOOroO OOO — OtNCNOOO O — ' O m OS c H -S g 13 D ^ o S o ■fi ,5 & c/3 O w in in >• oi 03 C nJ s— 00 o D. C o3 C 03 00 P 00 102 Chapter 6. Results of Investigations area of the site, surface visibility in the grid was near 100 percent. Each of the units was then subdivided into four 10-x-10-m units for the purpose of the controlled surface collection. All cultural material within each grid unit was collected. The controlled surface collection resulted in the recovery of 233 artifacts from the 32 grid units, or an average of slightly more than 7 artifacts per 100 nr unit. Artifacts were not distributed evenly across the site area, with 23 of 32 units having fewer artifacts than average (Figure 16). Of those with higher than average numbers of artifacts, most centered at or adjacent to the four units with N520 E540. Higher than average numbers of artifacts extended to the south and west of that grid unit, forming a roughly 30-x-30-m oval of high artifact density. One test unit was placed within this area of high artifact density, and another was placed just to the west of this area. Preliminary Shovel Tests. A second task undertaken was the excavation of shovel tests across a portion of the site area. The shovel tests were excavated in a cross pattern across the site area and extending beyond the geophysical grid. In all, 14 shovel tests were excavated, eight within the previously established geophysical grid and six to its north, east and west (Figure 15). The shovel tests were excavated in 10-cm levels with all fill screened though 6.4 mm mesh hardware cloth. The shovel tests were excavated to between 25 and 50 cm below surface. All shovel tests evidenced an A-BA-B soil horizon profile, although the thickness of these horizons varied. Within the center of the bladed area, somewhat correlating with the area of high artifact density, the soil profiles consisted of a thin A horizon, often only 5 to 10 cm thick. Away from this area, the A horizon is 10 to 20 cm thick. Across the site area the A horizon consisted of a dark brown silt loam. Across the site area the BA horizon is typically 10 to 20 cm thick, and consists of a brown silty clay loam. The B horizon, encountered at various depths due to the surface grading, is a light brown or brownish yellow clay. Based on the shovel tests, it appears that the blading has removed a substantial portion of the A horizon at this site. No artifacts were recovered from the shovel tests, indicative either of the destruction of the site by blading or that the site has a low artifact density, or both. Test Unit 1. This l-x-2-m unit is located in the southwest corner of Grid Unit N520 E530 (N520-522, E530-531) at the westernmost extent of the geophysical grid (Figure 15). It is also located just to the west of the dense area of artifacts identified during the controlled surface collection in an area towards the western limit of bulldozer scraping at the site. The unit was excavated to 40 cm below surface and three soil strata were identified (Figure 17). The first stratum consists of the initial 20 cm and is identified as the A horizon. It consists of a very dark brown (10YR2/2) silt loam. Following this is the BA horizon which is approximately 10-15-cm thick. This horizon is a dark yellow brown (10YR4/4) silty clay loam with dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) silt loam. The final stratum is a dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) silty clay loam B horizon. Artifacts were recovered in the initial 10 cm, the upper half of the A horizon, in this test unit. Test Unit 2. This l-x-2-m unit is located in the south-central portion of the site area at the northwest corner of Grid Unit N520 E550 (N 518-520, E570-571) (Figure 15). This test unit was placed in the approximate center of the area from which a dense concentration of artifacts were collected during the controlled surface collection. This area had been bladed prior to the Phase II (Kansas Phase III) 103 in in in > -a — o "o U a ,P3 C/5 3 X) Q >> c Pipe 14GE3108 Test Unit 2 - Plan Test Unit 2 - North Profile Slate Linoleum Root cm 50 Figure 21. Soil Profile of Test Unit 2 and Plan View of Feature 2 at 14GE3108. 116 Chapter 6. Results of Investigations of the unit appears disturbed and may represent a builder's trench. The function of this feature is unknown. Test Unit 3. This l-x-2-m unit was placed in the north-central portion of the geophysical testing grid within Grid Unit N520, E440 (N530.5-531.5, E453.5-455.5) (Figure 19). The test unit was placed in a slight surface depression. Testing was conducted at that location to determine whether the depression represents the subsurface remains of a structure. This unit was excavated to approximately 40 cm below ground surface. Five strata were defined (Figure 20). The initial stratum is 8-10 cm thick and consists of a very dark gray (10YR3/1) sandy loam that probably represents a redeveloped A horizon. This is followed by a gravel layer. This layer is 8 cm thick in the western one-third of the unit but up to 20 cm thick in the eastern two-thirds of the unit. The gravel is in a very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2) loamy sand matrix. Following this, the third stratum consists of a black (10YR2/1) silt loam that is essentially free of gravel. This stratum is approximately 10 cm thick in the western two-thirds of the unit and only 8 cm thick, when present, in the eastern one-third of the unit. Stratum 4 is a mixture of very dark gray (10YR3/1) silt loam with dark grayish brown (10YR4/2) mottles. This stratum is maximally 8 cm thick in the western part of the unit but only 3 cm thick in the eastern part of the unit. The final stratum did not contain cultural materials and represents a sandy alluvial parent soil. At most, 8 cm of this stratum was excavated. It consists of a pale brown to brown (10YR5.5/3) fine silty sand. Artifacts were recovered to 30 cm below surface in this unit, although over 50 percent of the material was found between 10 and 20 cm below surface. The gravel layer is interpreted as a path or pad adjacent to a structure. The initial stratum below the gravel layer may represent an original A horizon. Test Unit 4. This l-x-2-m unit was placed in the southeast corner of Grid Unit N520, E480 (N520-522, E499-500) in order to examine the northeastmost portion of the site in an area. This area was devoid of surfacial indications of structures (Figure 19). As well, the shovel test excavated in this geophysical testing grid unit contained the greatest number of artifacts of all the preliminary shovel tests. This unit was excavated to approximately 60 cm below surface with four soil strata identified (Figure 20). The initial stratum, approximately 20 cm deep, is a dark olive brown (2.5Y3/3) silt. This is followed by a 20 cm thick layer of black (5Y2.5/1) silt that is interpreted as an historic midden. The third stratum consists of a 16- to 20-cm thick dark grayish brown (2.5Y4/2) sand that also is interpreted as an historic midden. Finally, 4 to 10 cm of soil devoid of artifacts was excavated. This stratum is a pale olive (2.5Y6/3) sand. This unit appears to contain a redeveloped A horizon overlying two midden zones. Artifacts were recovered to 50 cm below surface, although most were found between 20 and 40 cm below surface. This corresponds with the second stratum discussed above and interpreted as an historic midden. Discussion. The subsurface excavations at the Station Agent House site reveal the presence of both intact midden deposits and features on site. Three points should be noted regarding the results. First, all soil profiles discussed above differ greatly from one another and differ in general from that described as typical of Eudora silt loam. The only strata that corresponds with one described for Eudora silt loam is that of the C horizon. In instances such as Test Unit 2, the C horizon on site is encountered at much deeper levels than is typical for the soil type. It is likely that historic construction and refuse disposal on site has thoroughly disturbed the typical Eudora silt loam profile. The systematically excavated 117 Archaeological Test Excavations of Four Sites at Fort Riley, Riley and Geary Counties, Kansas shovel tests indicate this to be the case across the site area as well. Second, intact deposits are present on site. These intact deposits include features, mainly the remains of walls, floors and walkways, but an intact midden deposit is present at the east end of the site as well. Many of the structural remains are visible on surface or appear to be closely associated with slight depressions that are noticeable on surface. In that sense, this site type provides an easy opportunity for placement of test excavation units in areas where features are likely to be expected. Mr. John Dendy and Dr. Richard Shields (personal communication, 1996) indicate that the structures present on site were destroyed in the 1940s, with the remains of the superstructures bulldozed and pushed into a wooded area south of the site. Third, surface inspection of the site area reveals widespread impacts by modern utilities construction, including utility poles, underground water mains and drainage systems. Anomaly Testing Dr. Lewis Somers of Geoscan Research conducted geophysical surveys within the ten grid units placed on site (Figure 19). The geophysical survey techniques identified numerous possible targets, of which 10 were investigated. Using a map provided by USACERL indicating anomaly target locations, the targets were located within each of the grid units using a set of tapes and target coordinates. The targets then were arbitrarily numbered (Figure 19). Fieldworkers were instructed to excavated 45-X-45- cm shovel tests at the target locations. The shovel tests were excavate to approximately 50-60 cm below ground surface, with all soils screened through 6.4-mm mesh hardware cloth. The ten anomaly tests were divided between different potential anomaly types. Three anomalies were predicted to represent subsurface structural remains. Three tests were excavated in what appeared to be the interior of the structures, and three tests were excavated in what was thought to be the structure exterior. The other four were placed at locations of two potential pipes or drains, a cluster of iron objects, and a path. In these latter four tests, no features were identified. Artifacts were found in three of these four tests, although coal cinders were the most common artifact recovered. As discussed above, several anomaly tests were paired to include excavation in the interior and exterior of the potential structure. The results are summarized in Table 14. The first paired set of anomaly tests was placed within and outside of a narrow, linear anomaly in the southwest part of the grid. This anomaly appears to trend east-west. Anomaly Test 1, placed on the interior of the structure, revealed a dense gravel layer at 20 cm below surface. While a coal cinder zone was found in Anomaly Test 2 located outside this anomaly, no structural feature was present. This anomaly appears to represent a walkway. The second paired set was placed within and adjacent to a wide linear anomaly in the southeast part of the grid. Anomaly Test 3, placed outside the anomaly, did not indicate a structure or other feature. Anomaly Test 4, placed in the interior of the anomaly, revealed a concrete pad at 15 cm below surface. This pad could represent the floor of a structure. The third paired set was placed over and adjacent to an L-shaped anomaly in the center of the grid. Structural features were not found in anomaly tests 5 and 6. In sum, two of the three sets of paired structural anomaly tests were positive. Structural features were located, and those tests predicted to be on the interior of the structure were correct. In contrast, 118 Table 14. Selected Attributes of Anomaly Tests. Test Target No. of Weight of Result Artifacts Artifacts S-l Interior Structure 6 S-2 Exterior Structure 32 S-3 Exterior Structure 27 S-4 Interior Structure 4 S-5 Exterior Structure S-6 Interior Structure 3 A-l Pipe/Drain A-2 Iron Cluster 16 A-3 Pipe/Drain 7 A-4 Road/Path 25 113.1 Dense gravel layer/walkway located at 20 cm 77.4 Cinder layer at 30 cm, no feature present 238.5 No structural feature identified 1 18.4 Concrete pad encountered at 15 cm No structural feature identified 422.0 No structural feature identified No feature identified 30.2 Artifacts consist of cinders 12.9 No feature identified 121.3 No feature identified the four nonstructural anomaly tests failed to located any features. This suggests that the geophysical testing and the use of shovel tests as a ground-truthing technique, as applied at this site, are fairly accurate in locating large structural remains but may not be as accurate in the location of smaller features such as drains or clusters of artifacts. Artifact Analysis A total of 3,310 artifacts was collected during the Phase II (Kansas Phase III) investigations of 14GE3108, all but one of which date to the Historic period (Table 15). The single prehistoric artifact found is a bifacial thinning flake recovered in a shovel test placed within Grid Unit N500, E500. Most of the historic material was recovered from the test excavation units (n = 3,113; 94 percent), with less material being found during the anomaly testing (n=120; 4 percent) and shovel tests (n = 70; 2 percent). The material has been categorized into six groups: Kitchen, Architecture, Furniture, Arms, Personal- Clothing, and Activities. A residual category of artifacts, including unidentified material, also is present in the assemblage. Kitchen Group. This group is associated with the preparation and consumption of food and beverages. The Kitchen Group is the single most common artifact group found at the Station Agent House site (Table 15). Kitchen group artifacts were found in all four test units, five of ten anomaly tests, and six often shovel tests (Tables 16, 17, and 18). In all, 1,427 artifacts are assigned to this group representing 43 percent of the total assemblage. This group contains glass, ceramic and metal artifacts, and food remains. Most common are glass artifacts, which account for 87 percent of all artifacts in this group. 119 Table 15. Distribution of Artifact Groups by Provenience at 14GE3108. Shovel Anomaly Artifact Group TU 1 TU2 TU3 TU4 Tests Tests Total Kitchen 296 740 26 311 27 27 1,427 Architecture 212 293 33 91 32 32 693 Furniture 1 6 19 26 Arms 5 1 6 Personal 5 8 1 14 Activities 6 1 1 8 Other 404 413 27 222 10 60 1,136 Total 913 1,474 95 631 70 121 3,310 Glass artifacts within the Kitchen group can be divided into two separate subgroups, bottle glass and table glass. Bottle glass remains are very common in the artifact assemblage, with over 37 percent of the entire assemblage identified as such. Bottle glass is common in all test units as well. Brown, clear, olive green, aqua, blue, and green bottle glass was found. Brown, olive green, and clear bottle glass may represent liquor bottles, although other products are sold in bottles of this color as well. Aqua glass appears to represent canning jars. Other colors, such as clear and green, may represent carbonated soda products containers. The use of soda or beer on site is further demonstrated by the presence of crimped bottle caps, a typical cap for bottles of those beverages. Interestingly, no amethyst or manganese glass was identified in this assemblage. The addition of manganese to glass was discontinued during World War I due to wartime shortages (Munsey 1970). Few bottles could be definitively identified as to contents. Two bottles from Test Unit 4 appear to be pharmaceutical bottles based on shape. A milk bottle fragment was found in Test Unit 2, along with a Silbey® brand gin or vodka bottle fragment with attached aluminum screw top cap. Coca-Cola® bottle fragments also were found in Test Unit 2 and one of the shovel tests. Finally, one clear body fragment is embossed with the word "Blacking," a probable reference to a shoe-black product. Data on several bottle manufacturing techniques also were available from the bottle glass assemblage. All identifiable bottle types appear to be machine-made, a manufacturing processes that postdates ca. 1903 (Mansberger 1988). Two lip manufacturing techniques are present in the bottle glass assemblage as well. Most common is the standardized screw thread lip, found on nine bottle neck/lips. Use of this technique began around 1919 and continues to the present day (Lief 1965). Less common in the assemblage, with four examples, are improved tooled lips. This technique began in the late nineteenth century and continues to be used to the present on some bottle types (Lief 1965), although for the most part this manufacturing process was abandoned by ca. 1920 (Davis 1949; Lief 1965; Paul 120 00 o CO - O H 13 > o E o x> E vO X) H CO o H m m Z W o o Z uj o o CM Tj- z w O Q o o m in Z W 2 S O 00 Z W £ 2 O Tfr m ■<* Z W S ° O (N z w O — < -h ro CM — i oo — i vo r- — ' ci O O O — i — O O O O o r - o o -- o o o O O CM O O O O O O m O (N O O O O — i o m -h O O O — O 00 O oo o O r*> O O O — i o o o in o — oo o o o o o o o o o o o o — o o — > O t]- o o o o — i — o o O —i O O O 00 O m O -* O O o o o o O O O O O ^- _c a 3 '|h © 7" - a i— O 3 c: © C/3 1/3 c/> « u a B e c3 U H C/3 5 a, C3 U <*> 5 'o u 3 ■— * u 01 0) M — u- U JS c_> 03 £2 ti 3 p- C 2 u o o as o u u PQ CO CO r- H PQ - < z u 2 B 2 o .2 J2 ^ 5 u- vd > 2 a 3 o o c o - o 1 ? .S 0. 3 CQ _ o J3 s ■a IS c H c_> .2 a oo ,nf — Oh CO 121 00 o m W O RJ G P H £ o J2 3 E C/3 a. 3 O i-i a c x: a 2 CO H co O H a^^^m^-^^ Tfr vo co ^ (U — g u i— o ex - CO CO 1) a o oo T3 a 73 — ^2 * o o co H i CQ fi a> 2 CO M B u i— 0) g 09 < ^j o <£2 .^ a> < a, >> H 00 o ^H ca — a> x> u. aj < H •2 o H it H < m < H < H < H < en H < C4 H < < o in o o fT!-^-^*— i r- * Q\ OO -rt ■^ OOOOO— . ^ — > O ^ m r- o in «-h >n ooooo^oooo — < o o r- OO OOOOO^OOO O inO^O OO OOOOOOCNOO — • O m O — i OOOOOOr<->00 O OOT O oo — cooooo^cs^ O -H * ° £ 00 VO o — ~ no 5 o 03 a s o u o 3 o 2 u u O 3 « V z 3 -a 1) h 3 f € &JS •^ J5 !" o 3 £ «- o o O c c 3 00 .£ r 5 'C o «s ir C E x; j: •- c CO > CL > - X K tS * TO ^ T — *4— __ t: — < ^ co 03 TO E ■0 2 a. o-' T3 Cl E TJ TO O T3 o5 — 1 (/) x: J£ 1 0) >. . o *- * t~ "CO 13 "O "D "O c CD D3 •X— c c O O 2 Q cn CO a> CD 03 O CO COi C CO ^ CM

CN h- CM o CM *- CO O CN 3 T— -*- Ico CD f"- ■*— o 0) r^ T— cb d z CO CO CO - o - "" lO -*" CN CO T— CO O CD co M" IO o LO v- o CM -*- CM CM CN T— T— - ^~ c o *-> a >< >» >% o (A 0) a o J? a> 0) a: 03 CD c 'c QJ O o X2 XL CD CD CD XL CO CD XL CO !£= O) c CD 1_ CD CD CD CD XL CO XL CO CD c -a o XI x: alley, body uesta, bod uesta, bod 5 < co «♦= co c CD 03 C a> a 03 x: co xl co CO 03 CO JD CO ;ondary iary flak ken flak CO x: CO CO T3 c c x: r CD XL CO c CD -#— » 03 x: CO XL E CD 5 CO T3 C XL CO 5= C^ CO c: ^ IS ro x: co XL S rr o" o" E E CV) > O O t -i -. -' - XI o co is XI XJ CO JQ x> X) C CO x> XI IX> X) o o O O O j C J CO xi xi (0 XI E o r-i co XI E o o CO XI E o o CO XI E o o CO -D E o o CO XI E o CO X> E o (—1 to XI E o o CO XI E o o CO X) E LO X) E CO XI E CO XI E CO XJ E CO XI E CO X) E co XI E co x» E CO X> E CO X} E CO X3 E CO x> E CO CO X> XI E E CO XJ E CO XI E CO 1 CO XI X) EIE CO X) E Q. o O o> o o o o o o o o o o o o o o O 1 o o o 000 o o o o o o o o o o o o o 000 CN CN CN CN CM CO CO CO co CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO ''T « o o 1 o 1 o 1 o 1 o o 1 o 1 1 o o o CD o o o o o o o o o o !o 000 T— T— *~ T ~ ' r ~ CN CN CN CN CN CM CM CN CM CN CN CN CM CN CO • o c 'c a> > o T- CM CM CN CN CN CN CN CN CN CN CN CN CN CM CN CN CN CN CN CN CN CM CN CM CN <£ 3 3 3 °- t- H h- 33333333 3 3 3 =>p 13 p did:d z> 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — h-ij-ll- 1- l-ll- 1— ll— i- i — i — i — h-'h- t— t— i— i— i— i— t— CD CD en ro Q. o oo ■£ oo !r rr CD tr < CO 8| tsLs ~ .E -* TO O ro O) O "^ 05 oi cm IT) CM -Q .O -O iJQ o ^ CD CM V) -O £ E at ° Q T o o o E ro a> a) o o CD CD CO ro co ro co co CD JO J>» fc O ■{= i d) a> W l CO -Q -2 CO CO E o O I o o ioio ^ "?!"? o.oo ro ^ rr CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO ! CO pbpbppbbbbb I — i — I — i — i — ii — i — ii — i — hIh CD CM a ro ro ?*= en en CO CM O) CO CO CO 33 co p - '5 Ls •^- ^t •>!r 3|3 3 ^ Q) 5= o S ro ! 3 c C _Q Z5 _Q □1 O) O) Q) O) OOlOv-OO 0)0)1^ O) CO °9 °? aicb-- rv : CN !r^ c 9cb N O) r- t- i- O CD t- 1- CM co 3 3 I- CD ro CD s^ 3 3 £1 •D C I O I o cu (/) CD cu ro 5= CU CU ii! .* -6 -c; o ro o o CM CM cm co in g CO ico ro n O O lO CM CM CO o :o io CO CO CO 3 3 33 3 3 cT o CO c: (l) ro > > DC ^r ro ■c < to ro Q. c o to ro i_ D_ E ro x: ■0" ■0 1— 0" to ro L. Q. E to o — -4—< t x: T3 o o (0 x: Z Q. O XJ to to ■a V) XJ ■4— * cT to ^C o CL uT 0" - CU O "O Q_ CO ro c E cu t t o 3 to 3 to ro E T3 ro 3 c i_ c ro > ro E 'ro CL Q. ro i— o w ro Q. O O LU to i_" lS i-T D. X DC cu c CL E CL E CL E _ Z •o -4— » c ■*— • -1—' tn ro I s - CD ro to r» CD CD CD CD CD CM i CD CD O) en co CO co CD CD CD CD O CD CD CD CD "1— C ,-: CD 1 lO °> m t-: ™ CN O) h- o> T_ T_ ^ ■sr o O m in CD CD Q. CM ^r CD CO IO o ■»- CO CM in T— CO 00 ^ T— r-^ T— CD CO o ■*— O U— M— 6 z O) - - CM T— r— in in ^r - - in "fr 00 CO CM 00 CD v CO r^ - - CM CM CM - - CM - CM CM c o *■> a >* o o CU ro cu ro >» >> >> (A XI T3 O T3 ■O O T3 O °l c^~ M— *4— XJ ro XJ X) >. CD CD en ^ E ro •4— „ _ w a) ! CD C _c >% "CJ ^ >» cu E i cu flj cu cu (U 5= cu 'c CU cu cu ro O •S XJ ■D ro < ro x: to o o thick biface ceramic, V; rimary flat srtiary flak ifacial thin roken flak lock shaft irtiary flak roken flak lock shatt ro o ro «+— ro 0) c !c -*— < ro o ro *+— c o -a ro ■4—* ro sz. (0 o o o" 'E ro x: o ro E ro E ro o 3 5 ro c: o o ro »*— ro ro it- er o i— o 'E E 0" 'E ro i_ E 0" 'E ro i_ XJ ro ro E xj Q. -2S XJ 1X3 X2 *_j X) -Q to xj xj XJ XJ o c c XJ to XJ 3 x: T3 to cole/) co to to to tO ! (0 to to to x> E o o to XJ E o o to XJ E o o to XI E o o 10 XJ E o o to XJ E o o to XJ E o o to XJ E o o to XJ E o o XJ E o o to XJ E o o to to to to to to to to to Depth •40cmb ■40cmb -40cmb ■50cmb X) E o o m XJ E o o in -Q E o o tn -50cmb -60cmb ■60cmb -60cmb XJ E o o CM XJ E o o CM XJ E o o CM XJ E o o CM XJ E CM XJ E CM XJ E CM XJ E XJ E CM o co O CO o CO o o o o o o ■<3- m o in O in 1 o 1 o 1 o 1 o ■ o 1 o 1 o 1 o 1 o 1 o o o O o O O O ic5 O a> u c 1> 'E "d- ^r "3- T ^r ■st < Ma < CM CM w JD JD JD F E F o O O C_5 o O CM 0) in CM CO CT> CM CO 0) oc o CD "O jd JD JD CD ZJ *3 CD C TD ' CO CO CO CO CO I I I I I I O O CM CM CM CM CM JD JD El E O I o o o CO CO III o o CM CM CO I JD El o o CO CO CO CO £ 2 in in in in mm mm io m in o o CM CM o o CM CM co CM co in in in 3PPPPPPPP 33 3 D O) rj) rj> O) o) ^ CD 00 !T ■^ CO in ■*■ Ho t O C CD Q. co co JD E o o T o o CO CO -". co O) 0) CO (1) CD ■a c CD JZ i— CD E> CD CO F F ro F CD O) _ CD CD CO CO CM O 00 CD Jvi CO 5= CD ro ro >% f § C CD a. co cT ro ro o ■f ro 1— i H— 10 I 10 CO CO CO JD JD JD JD I JD ^riiniininiinnnin o o co ^j- in in in in m in in iniin 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 i — ' i — ' i — i- ii- \y- h- \- \- o o CD T— Q) O) CO a. & o ro CO ro c cd > > Cd o ^r m tr < OJ LO 0> a> 4-1 o CD z o I CO c CO CL o •g Zl CO ■o CD T3 o DJ c CD CD ^ o CL E c^" T ~ 03 CD a , ■ ZZ •*-* i: CO co zzz CO >* > CD x: LU sz CO tn CD CL ^ CO E X C 1 CD CO ^~* E CO cc ro | c£ T- ■z. To Q-j CO cz o V— — E TJ E OJ CD CO co CD CO CO CO CO CO D) co D) CO co CO CD CD CO L. i5 CO C3> CO CO o CO CO T — -3- CO c CO T — CM O) r--. D) D) co CO O) CO D) ■^r OJ CD T3 LO LO CM ^r CO ^ co o OJ CO CO CM CM LO r^ o LO h- CO ,-: CO CO oS CO ■^ LO o XJ .c •*— LO CM CO CO ■«— ■«— LO "r- CO "fr ■*— r^ ^ o x— T— •»- oS CO O CO o i»= CD ^~ 1- CL d z T r- *- ■^J- LO a> CO LO *- r*- CM CM CO o CM CO ■«- '- ^ '- o CM CO LO CD T " LO ^ '" "- ^ CM T - c -t— ' c o CD '■C E >. a. CO T3 u (0 Q CD o .2 XJ CD 0) CO M— CO CD cd CO CO o x> CD CD CO *♦— CO CO I— CD CO CO >» ■o o X) o XI of o ■4— » c: CD E "ro c o o <-> "O ^ cz .*: c CD .*: c XJ >^ >» DJ CD o a »*- t < CD T3 CO xj *— » CO -C co ±1 o o XJ CD *; CO 1 o 'sz CO E Q. (0 CO ■o c o o cd (O CD CO CO CD 'c c JC •4—* "co o CO M-- ro c Q) O k_ xj CD ■o CO L. CD ti CO sz co o o -O CO rr CO cz o o CD co CD -*: CO CO ■c jD 'c c x: 76 o a CD CO c Q) .*: o l_ -Q L— CD To sz (0 -*: o o CD o a XI ■o CD it; (0 it: CO SI c o c o a) -*— ■ CO x: CO o o XI CD CO VI— CD E k— Q. CO CO T3 c o o CD CO .*: CO H— cT CO t: c £Z "co o XI CD CO c CD o XJ u c a> 'c a > LO LO LO LO LO LO LO LO LO LO LO LO LO LO LO LO LO LO CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD £ 3 3 Z) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 °- 1 — i — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — t — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — i — h- 1- \->\- 1- h- II- r- 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — LO CD CD CO CO Q_ ^ o co 00 > c CD > q: f 1 ^ m ■c < (0 o> *■• o z c o O- CD 3 CO CD O > c^" LU CD -o 0_ X N "O ro CD DH '•^ 2 3 — O) I' - I CD CO ro O) O) O) CD r^ O) O) O) O) ID O) CM 1^- O) CD 00 O) O) O) C 00 1 O);co 0)0)0)0)0)0)0)010)0)0)0)01 CD o i^ ^- CO ,_: CM CO CO lO) CM O CM T~ o CO CM 00 ■^r CM O) CD CO iCM o ▼^ CD t- LO ID x: CO r^ CM ID CD r- ▼- OO 1 CO CO CM CM CM CO o T- o ■^ T— o d t- 1 o CO •»— CJ) CO O CO Q_ | 6 z ■sr r»- ID CM CO O O o - - ^ - CO CM CD ^ "t ID co Q) - - CO ■*■ - ^ - M- - O) 't - c o "■5 CD Q. CO ro o W Q CD x> CD CD CD CD -* -l-J .* ^ -* .* CO c ro ro ro ro CD O) C o D_ CD O ro c *4— O) C CD O) c O) c «4— O) c o re CD y CO 5= ' CD 'c CD CD CD" O J3 o CD 'c CD ro >*— CD 0) 'c CD CD CD ^: ro CD CD 'c CD CD 'c CD CD CD >^ CO 5= CO x. c ^L -*: .*: c .*: ro -* -* c .*: ro ^L .*: c -* -* .*: c ^ •«— » ^ < CO 5= x: ro ro T3 I 91 3 CO |c ro 5Z *-» **— ro ro x: ro ro ro x: *-• ro ; ro i ro '<- i*— 1 1*— m— *-* ro ro ro «4— CO E L- "O c o o CD CO '■c o c CD o 1— CO o o T3 CD *± CO onhafl iface, wedge tertiary ro o c CD O ■o o o CD roken ;rtiary ifacial c CD O — CO ^: o o C^ ro E tertiary broken ro o c CD O ;rtiary roken cT ro roken lock s roken n iface D_ (/) \JU XI XI Xl sz C i-O -Q XI CO X) -4-* X) 1X2 X) I Q. X) XI X) 5i x> X» XI 3 CO CO CO CO CO CO CO (O CO CO CO (O (0 CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO co co CO CO CO x» IJiXl 13 XI Xl X) JQ -Q Xl X) Xl -Q. XI XI X) X! X) X) X) X) X) X) X) XI XI XI X) X) .c rial E E E E E E E E £ E E E Ei E E E E E E E E EjE E 10cmk 10cmt E E ElElE O o o o o o o o OO O O OlO o o o o o o o o O 1 o o O i o o O O 37 o o o o o o o O 1 O 1 O I ID | ID lO o o o o o o o o o lo o o o o o o -S CM CM CM CM CM ^J 1 1 1 1 1 1 CM CM CM CM CM CM ICM CM CO CO ID LD ID un CD CO CD CO CO CM CM CM ID ILO o o o o o o o |c o ID ID O O O o o o o o o o O O O O O O • o CM CM CM *~ ■* — CO CO co CO ID ID ID CM CM -,_ T— T ~ Tj- >^ CM CM CO CO co CO CO CO CO flj >> >, >. >^ >, >< >> >> >^ >> >> >< >- _>, >> >^ >> 'c CO ro ro ro ro i ro ro ro ro ro ro ro ro ro ro ro ro ro 0) E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E!E E E O CO CD CO CO CO C] CD CO CD CD Ci CD o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o -i-333Z)Z)3Z)3 Z) =) 3 3 Zl, c c c cz c 1 c c c c c c c c c c:c'c c •^ 1 — ! — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — ^ > Q- > - x € = < cu 03 if) S3 B E Q. ° Q T o CO in s in c\i a> CD d) ro ro ••- .c c: «) d) ^ co cu o *•- (/> c 8 o CM CN CU CO 5= cu tT CD CD sis o ro o CL cu o ro ^ 03 T3 C o o CD CO CM CD ro **— c co o .Q J3 inu3(Ooooor!cNfM cm cm co co ii i ■ i l l l l l i o o CO CO o o o o ° ^ o o o o o o CN CN h- CO CN cu i cu o o CN [CO CD CD CD i!ii o :o o in 'in in 0) CN ro c o = o ro cu tn W (0 E E E " CO ICO o o o CN M - ^r "3- -^f ^t ^r ^r tt in m m m m mm m inin m mimlm m co co coico _>%_>,_>>^^_>»_^_^_^_><_><_><_>»^_>% _>, _>» _>»| .>»!.>»!.>>!.>» !.>»!_>» !.>»..>»;.>■ 03030303 0303030303030303030303030103030303030303030303 EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE E E E : E | E E : E E ooooooooooooooooooooooooooo <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< en co co CN CO CO CO JQ -Q EE o o o o o mm roiLU !UJ E o o CN CN CD ICO CD CU O) 03 0- 03 O CO ro > Q- >- - I i — ■*— •c — < CD co ro o re cd It -* ♦* co CM en en CD r^ CM CM in .a B E l CO 5= ! CD =*, -* rT ca CD CM ro CD CM CM ^ -O en o>: en ' CO CO CM m en en CO it- CD icb CM J2 iic 15 J3 rTro -t ro SB "S c CD o -QI.E .oj.a ^ o ICO ICO CO III o o o CM CM CM CO c ■C O E E o ' o O IO o a, m E LU S o o o i- CD o o ri co co i co ^^ III o o o io o [CM | CM CM O O O O O O O CO ICD CO m uo mm miinm m LU LU LU LU LULU LU LU O O m in m o o o o CO T]- o tJ- CD CD CD CD 2 Z Z Z o CO CD CD en co CL I— 03 sl> o o XJ O -*— * o T3 c (A 03 E Q. o CD >. z E o 03 E 1 o o o (D <: 'E — w c ro 0) E i_ it- ■4— 1 o w "u_ 03 CD ro CD C CD O CD I— ■o c — "go CD . XJ 03 E i_ CD | C JZ. St c o ro 3 ro > w o o E 03 o XJ i_ 03 O 2 X] CM 03 O o 6 z T— - CM - - "ST - - en T— - - - CO CO T~ - CO CO M- O - - - - CM CM CO - CM CO c cd o LU Q. >- — I CC 03 cr "* F z «- jy ro 2 CO ro c -C o Q_ Descripti ainted rim rved T3 w >> O CD T3 CD w 03 CD o XI ■D <-> Q_ 3 TJ ro L— 3 xj o IS i C O W~ w 03 CD T3 03 CD L- CM w 03 L— o < 03 .C C Lc CD W ■o 3 c ;o CD T3 -C -4—* O CD -*— • !c E L— c w 03 CD o T3 C 5 Q. o St o 'ro CD O Q. "E ro o 03 E CD I— o c 03 CD k— 03 1 03 o c c 3 ro^ CD 03 E 2 CD '._ O If) E o o CM i w X) E o o CM w XI E o o CM w XJ E o o CM i w E o o CM I w X) E o o CO 1 w XI E o o CO 1 w JD E o o CO 1 W XJ E o o W XI E o o w X) E o o w XJ E o o w XJ E o o i i o o 1 o O i O o 1 o o o T— o o o o CM 1 o 1 o 1 o o 1 o o O O o o o CM o CM o CM o o 1 o 1 o 1 o a> o c o c > CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CO CO CO CO CO c C;CiC!C;C!C!C c , c c a c c ; c c c c c c c 1 c c c c c c c c c c o 3 33 3 33333J3333 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 = = 3 3 3 3 3 3 j 3 | 3 3 a. (AlAlfllAIOVIIAIOIOIOIOIOIl) WW w W W W W i W W ! W wiwwjwwwwiw 000CDCDCD0CDCDCDCD00 CD CD 1 00 CD CD 0100100000 1- 1- 1- 1-1- 1- 1- (- \- \- 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — i — h-'t- CO o> co a; TO T3 C a> (A n a. 4-1 o ■o z CL E TO "55 ■o c (0 L— TO CD O CO (O 1— TO TO CD LO 111 O O LO LU LO LU O) TO CD O c c LU CO CO LO CO -"3- CO CD o j_ CO c CD 2: z z CO E -*— * o •4—' CD CO c uT CO LO LU LO LO LU LU o co TO L_ i— CD E x: L— k- O O c TO TO CD TO TO ■^J- CN .c O CD CD TO 1ZZ CD CD CD c o TO 3 TO o -5 T~ O O T- CN O z z z o 6 z - - - - CN - ■* CN "3" CD CN CN a> CN "* CO co - r^ - T— - T— - - - - - CT> CO CO CO - CO c > 0> — I a: to tr CO o "* '£ z a. *~ j"" CN ro a; co TO .£= CL c o Q. T5 co E _ to CO E T3 CD o CO O 0) to jx. c Q -o CO O CD o 5 TO o co a) c E "O 'c 3 CD >, t o "co i_ >i CO T3 TO CD T3 TO < < •4-» c CD c 3 o o co T3 1— O xi CO* XJ to" CO CO CO ■4—* TO E CD TO i_ u— T3 o o 5 = co" co" CO co CO CO CD TO CO cu •0 c CO E I CO .9- Q) i— TO CD -^ x: 5 ="1 2 1 o « co CO TO CD o CO TO CD -«— j o to CO TO CD TO CO CD ■o CD 3 JS CD "D CD 3 TO ■O TO CO TO CO ~d CD T3 C O O C c TO CO -O 3 CD CO TO CD T3 CD 3 CO CD -O CD 3 c to _E 1— TO TO I— TO O c to CO TO CD -4— » TO CO CO TO CD TO > TO 1— l_ c CD TO > TO l_ S l_ X) -Q i^ O o| C I.X O 3 O c O c C c M— Q. 5= CD tO CD co CO CO (0 CO CO CO CO to CO to CO to CO to CO XJ E CO CO CO CO CO CO XJ CO CO CO CO , >. ^ _>, _>, ^>:^> ! ^ > C C C C'CIC P 3 3 3 3 3 ; 3 c c c c c c c c c c c C c £Z *■* I m , m m m en cu 1 en i en 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 ^i^ 3 3 > S>|S>|E|E|E|E" El El El E ■J-eoeoeocoeoieoc/) CO to CO CO totocotoeocoieo to CO O 1 j 00000 0) 0) 0) O CD CD CD d) CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD £ Lcr 5 clc c c 1 c c c 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — » — 1 — ( — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 1 — H 1 — ■ 1 — i H to to<<<<<<<< o CD CO a. cT o co c - CD T — > co _C CC ro ^r i_ co JD (0 E ■*-> o CD z «4— » ro -*— » x: "i_ O Q) «4— ro $ C O CD *-« "CD O CO ro JZ E $ ^-*" CD c -*— » \— •4—* C O 3 O o JZ JD c '■♦3 ro ro o z h~ CM CM CD CO "- *- <- CD CM CO ^ CM CM *- *- CD CO CO *~ *- ^ CO T— t — O > LU 0. X oc z CO ro jz Q. c _o '■5 Q. 'C o w 0) Q o < c CD E £ CD ro i_ o o T3 E L. cf o '-4— » ro o o CD ■o ■D CD TD T3 ro E 1 c JZ ro E_ 'ro c "t -4— • ro •4-f O c 4_i ^_l c •*— • *— » O 3 CD CD Zl Zi O CD CD ZJ o CD E CD CD co CD c JZ CD E CD (A CD en CD JSj0 m i5 CD at ro CO ro CD CD ro 0" ro ro ro CO CD CO CO •*^ CO >- ro CO i_ ^S CO C k- *s co CO CO i CO c CO ■*-* CO ro CO i_ .CO l_ o c o 5 ro i- CO ro ro If— J* o t o .E J o := 1 c ro o t o .£ o 'ro CD i— o c o CD TD C ro CD J3 T3 — - £ ro o c o CD -o c "co c L. ■0 c i_ O c > ro 'E ro T3 C 5 ro c H— T3 O O 5 ■4—* ro TD C o OlIClC jd o o c ! o o ■_ c o o o c o o L_ CD O O O c "0 CO O CO JD E o o in 1 tr\ C/0 to JD E CO E o o (0 JQ E o o (0 (0 CO CO CO (0 CO to CO CO co CO CO CO co CO co CO JD E CO JD E T— CO CO CO JZ £ J8 -g EiElc3 xi E E E!E JD E JD E JD E JD E JD E JD E JD E JD E CO JD CO JD JD E JD E JD E JD E JD E JD E JD E JD E Q. CO Q o o o o o o o o o o o o E E O ! O o CM o CM I o CM I o CO 1 o CO o CO o CO o o 1 o IT) 1 o IT) o IT) 1 CO 1 CO 1 CO 1 CM I io CM ICM 1 1 1 o A A 6 A 1 o 1 o o o o o o o o o o o O o CD CD O 1 1 O O O cj v— / T ~ * — ' T ~ T_ T ~ CM CM CM CM CO CO ■<1- "3- ■^r CM CM CM CO CO T— T— T ~ 0) O in if) co CD r-- h- r^ r» r-- h- r^ r-~ I s - r^ r^ h- N- f~- r-- h- h~- CO CO CO CO CO a> O) 05 O) c V) 10 1/1 1/) 10 1/1 (/) to co to to (0 1 (O co co co co co CO co CO CO CO CO co co CO CO CO CO co CD CD CD i CD Q) CD CD 1 CD CD CD _>%_>. _>*_>*.>*_>*_>*_><_>■<.>'_>*.><_><_>>.>< ,>> ! .>»!_>» >, >, >, >. ^ _>* >», >s ^ >s ^ _>» ^» rororororororororororororororororo ro ro ro ro ro ro ro I ro co 1 ro ro ro 1 ro | ro S'E E E E E|E ! E E EEEEEEEE E E E;E E E E E EjEiE E E E E Q- o o o o oooooooooloioo o o o : o 0000 0100 C C C C CC CC C C C 1 C 1 C 1 C 1 C i c c tz c c L'CiC clcic:cic:c!cic <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< <<<<<<<<<<< CD CO a. (0 0) <-> o z c CD CD i— CD i_ c ■4-» sz CO to o ^= o -J3 , o co CD o z CM CO T— - CO r^ ^r T ~ CO "~ CM !-» CO t^ T ~ '" If) CM CM oo T ~ CD T ~ CM - CD CD ID CO O CM CO C > (J) CD LJJ 1- > 00 c Q. > — X fT co l L_ t t «' CD o ' ID ' ? CD CD CD CD CD Jv CD 0) CD CD 0) Q) CD CD CD 3 .E O .E CD T3 C TJ"D I> £ ^ .«= . c . c O O T3 CO c 2 o CD E T3 c > — - 1 g ! "O 2 co o;.E -Q o O | o c o (JJ o O !J3 O o 0)|'0 D) ja o o o>; c | o ! o o OIOIOOOO O CO CO CO CO jq n E E CO -O E o o co E o o T— CO CO CO CO to CO CO CO 1 CO CO CO CO CO CO to to to to ,- to ! to to to 2 .n J2 u u ■g EiE E E -Q .0 JD CO jd n n _Q .Q -Q .Q ^D -Q JD -Q -Q SI Si jQ to .Q JZl E E E X3 E E I E E E E E E E E E E E E E JO E E Q. o o o E ° o o o o o o o o o o o o o o E o o ^ o o o o o o o ; o o o O IO o o o o o o o o o o o o o o c OOO o Q CM | CO 1 T - ,— CjJ o CM CO CO CO CO ■ ID CM CM CO CO CO ■^r CM ^ ^~ CM CM CO CO o o O o 1 o 1 o o CD O o o o CD o CD o o o o O o o o , ' — O o o 6 O o O r— CM ■*" T_ CM CM CM CM CO CO , ^- ^r ■^r -r " T ~ CM CM CM T ~ T ~ ' r ~ T_ CM CM U a> a> O o ■*— T~ - - CM CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO > ^- ■<* ■^r ^r -^r ■*- ID m CD CD ICD CD CD 5; co co co co ; co i to °> CD CD CD CD CD ' CD CO co co co CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO co co CO to CO to CO CO CO CO } to CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD 1 CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD C h- H t~ 1- '1— jh- h- h- h- h- h 1- h- H 1- h- 1- MH I — ! H H H 1- t- H l-ll- 5| _><_>>_>< _>> _>* _>. _>» _>% ^>. ^ _>, _>, !_>, _>> _>, >< >> >» _>.;_>>; _>m _>»;_>»; _>, >% 5^i >. >. 5^ >. >^ O CD CD CD CO CO CO ■ CO : CO CD CD CD CO 1 (D i (0 1 (IJ i (0 Seeeeeeeeeee e'eIe e e Q- o o o ooo o o o o o oo oo o CO CO CO CO CD CO 1 CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CD E E EEEEEE E E'E'E E E E o OOlO oolooooooo oo c= cr c c c c c c c c c . c c c ' c ! c c c!cic l c!c i clc:c c c c c c c <<<<<<<<< < < < < < < < < O) d) LU co" c Q- > z ^ fT ro Ct ro CO CM CD CD I O) CO "S !:= i_ i O <- OIJD C E,o o o o o ; 00 ® c o o .a o CD 'il-2 "E h- Q. o c < CM CM CM CM CM co -sr CM CM CO CO CM |CM CO CO CO -tf "3- CO CO CO CO (ACOCOCOU). (/>(/)(/) CD CD CD CD (1) CD CD 0) l- ; h- h- II- il — i»— :h- 1- ro ro ro ro ro E E E'E E ,>. >» _>» ro i ro ro E'E E a) a) a) (/) CO (/)(/) w a> cd o o o oo oo o c cz c c: ccjc c <<<<<<<< ro ro ro EE o o c c >»l >.' >»l >»l >» _^ ro ro <|< < ro ro ! ro EjE E o o o c c c < < !< E E o o c c CO i CO » L>»| ro ro EIE o o c c O I o C ! C ro E o i o c c CO CO CO CO CD 0) 0) a> cd LU ?o c Q- >■ Z x - 1" 03 CO (A a> <-• o z W CD o cd 0_ O d z CO CM - - c o s Q. 'C o (A a> Q *-> o < 0) 0) i— o c o o a> i— o c o o 1- o to 3 W C CD CD t_ O c o o *-> a. o> Q to -O E o o 1 o -Q E o o CO i o C\J to -O E o o CN i o to -O E o o CN i o T— u c a> c a> > 2 Q. 00 CO to cd (- 03 E o c < 5 to CD 1- >. 03 E o c < CO to cd 1- >> 03 E o c < CO to CD I- >^ 03 E o c < CD o CD CL CD to ra Q_ ~ (A 0) o z CD O) c o *^ o jy o o CD ■D CO *^ 3 o O) cn cn cn O) D) CM cn Dl Ol D) Dl OV ^" O) O) Cn O) CD CN D) M- cn cn cn cn cn cn c cn cn cn CD OO CD CM ^ 00 O) -si" CD ^ ^ CO CM [ ^ 1 CO CD O) co!"~ ^ m CO ICO -fl- c\i r- T to r^ t- d t- 1 o cvi O T- T- O) O o CD CD r^ i- IO o T— CO m CN ■ £r ro 3 o m c CD > m cd LU T- > Q. c > — X o DC ro rr '-£2 ■«d- c z Q. T_ Si *C CD = o S CD to ro (A 0) Q JZ Q. 4-1 o .2 *^ ^ ^. t CO ro < cn cn c CO CD l_ CD — i CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD cu i ; cd CD 'c 1— a) ro ■4— 'c 0' 05 4— » CO CO rotj-^fi-^-^ts-* ts -* o j^ c: co co coco co co i5 ro J2 I JP. 13 35 -*■ co J5 CO i5 co j5 j= ,i5 ■4— » ro ro ro ^ ro ii H— XI X ! »«- X "*- >♦- X w- _c c S it- x: «4— x: «4— x: M — . -*— * ' H— x: 1 (O -*-» i <*— X H— i -*- 1 lew (OiWIClBIXC'W'C <0 er CO C (0 c (0 Affile: (0 ro roi"2 "ro c (O c rT CD _* -* o e-s-S-sI I.S -Q -O XI XI |X» i— XI X) XI X] X) XJ XI XJ X) z z CO x> X) X) X) to XI 0) XI en .a CD co CO CO -Q 1 u (0 (O X! XJ CO JQ CD CD 5 i o_h ho rot E o o h h ho o o O ooo oooo o o o o , o o o i o ; o ro ro CO CO CO CO CO ! CO CO CO ro ro ro ro 1 ro J? JP ro i ro 14 O O <— > u£ : r \ in icm icn :2 2£ icn tit t t t t t !t t t t t t t t t t t t qZX'N =3 in 3 ! 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 U O t O o CO i o ■ < O IO 1 O o i O o 1 o CO CO CO (0 (O CO CO CO to CO CO CO CO (O CO CO CO IO to 5 3; 51 5 5; 3; ■^r ^r T ■q- 3 ■sr 3 ^ 3 3 ■^r ■^ — . T~ ^— y— ^— "*** ■*-- ^-- ^— ' T— ^— T— T~* ""-* "*^ <: £ UJ UJ ^ £ UJ ill UJ UJ ^ LU ^ co|z £ £ ^ UJ UJ o c o CO CO coico z Z z Z|Z Z CO Z Z Z z z o o ooo o lo o o o o OOO o o lo o CO CO CO CO CO CO ICO CO CO CO m m m !in m m m in in in in in in in Im m in in m in in im m in in in "E 0) > HI 111 HI 111 HI UJ LU LU LU UJ UJ UJ LU LU LU LU UJ UJ o o O IO IO o o o O IO O IO IO O IO o o lo o ▼— __ rxi rsi rsi rsi r\i ro t* T* Vl" T ~ CN CN CM CM CM CN ICN CN CN ICN O IO O IO IO o o o in in m in in in in in m in m im iniininminm °- c -c c "c -c c 'c c c c c c izZZZZlZIZ Z z z z z Z Z ZIZ z z ICN CN |CN ICN ICN CN T3 ra |T3 ro T3 -O |T3 T3 IT? T3 I- i- i- i- i- i- i- I- I- I- H'h- o-O o ooo ooo !6l6loio o OOO oio c o CT 3 2 ro in C > in 0) LU 5 C D- >- z I a: to a: 03 a> *-> o z O OJ o en CD CO CM CO cn r-- co O in CM CO CO OJ CM en ■*- o cn CD o CO iri CD CM d cn CM CM cn CM O cn o CO cn cn CO cn o cn , ^- co CM cn 9 cn cn r- \t-~ i^ ICM co im cn CM -o .N 3 cn CO CO in CT) CO cn CO cn co cn in o cn cn o cn o o CM d z CO CM CM CO r— - r>- CO CM T— r -t - - - CO T— CO cn CM - in CO r^ CM CM CO CD c o Q. 'C o co o Q *j o .2 < TO t^ C J£ O i_ a .*: TO M— O) c c c la TO O .2 la TO u— C o TO x: CO o o -O -»— C E OJ TO L— M— Q. "■4—* O la TJ a) «e TO .a o o TO 5= TO TJ C o o co 0) TO S o a TO TO ■c a> TO >*— cn 'c c 1c TO .2 a a> XL TO *♦— C CD X. O k_ ID CD TO -C CO o o a CD E cn TO J= *c TJ CD O *5 la T3 CD ;t: TO a> o o 0) TO 5= TO E i— a CD TO cT TO T3 C o o CD CO 0) «g TO tr 4-* TO >+- cn c: 'c c la TO O la x. TO C o t_ J3 c «s o c 0' o la TO 4— cT TO •a c o o CO ^c TO 4— cT TO •c -*: TO 5= cn c: 'c c 1c TO O la s. TO !^ C o X3 i— •*— ■ *-» TO CO O O a T3 O a TJ *: TO C o c o o TO TO TJ - O o CO x. TO 5= Cf TO XL x. TO »»— cn c 'c c £ TO o la TO 4— c J^ o I— a a 0» a o CO O CO 0) o 3 o •g to o ■g 3 (0 o •g CO o •g co 0) o •g CO O TO t CO 8 •g CO 0) o •g 3 co CD O •g CO o •g co CD o •g CO 0) o ■g CO o •g CO o CO o 41 CO O •g CO o •g CO o 41 CO o •g 3 CO o 41 3 CO O ■g 3 co o 41 3 CO o 41 3 co o •g 3 CO o 1 CO 8 41 3 CO o ■g 3 CO o TO TZ 3 CO a> u c .2 "E > 2 Q- 5; o i^ LO LU O O in Z CO TJ (3 5; LU CO O r^ IT) LU o o m z CO -D CD 5 LU CO O r^- m LU o o in Z CO TJ CD 5; LU CO o r~- m LU o o in Z CO tj CD 5 LU CO o r^ m LU o o in Z co T> CD 5 § z o in LU o o m z co TJ CD z o h- in LU o o in Z CO TJ CD 5 Z o r^- m LU o o in Z CO TJ CD 5; LU z o in LU o o m Z CO CD 5 LU z o m LU O 1° Z CO CD 5; LU z o h- m LU o o m z CO tj CD 5 LU z o i^ in LU O O im Z CO CD 5; LU z o m LU o o m Z CO CD 5; s CO o in in LU o CM m Z ■*■ :cd 5; CO o in in LU o CM in Z "ST 73 CD 5 CO o in in LU o CM in Z |Tf I'D CD 1 CO o in m LU o CM in Z T3 CD 5; CO o in m LU o CM in Z CD 5 CO o in in LU o CM in Z -d- T3 ICD 5 CO o m m LU o CM m z ■ ID C > — DH ro ■«- u ro (A d> O z en co T3 (1) N Cn d Cn CD en 00 CO CO CO en O CD en CN en en d en to en CO en CN d en en CO en CO en CO CO en ID CO en CD CN en ID CD en cd en CD en CO CO en CD en CD en CO d z - - CM O) - ID - CO - CN T— - CN CM T - T— - - T— T— - - - - - c o Q. *EZ o W co Q o .2 < c c g ro o i»— TJ O E ro E c 'E c o c c 3 o xj 0) ro 5= ro t CD ■4— » CD ro en c 'c c x: ro o ro **— la CD ro **— c CD .*: o l_ X> ro *i_ aj ro E o z cd t— o o di ro C CD O l_ X> CD i. o o c CD .*: O t_ XI CD ro c CD O XI CD ro H— C CD J£ O i~ X) CD ro *♦— cT ro ■a c o o CD CO CD ro c CD J* O i— CD ro tr a) ■*-■ ro C CD ^: O i— X) I— CD -*— 1 -*— ' ro .c (/> a: o o -O o a c 3 ^— • ■4— « ro o o £1 ro 'i— CD ro E o z CD ro >*— cr ro ■o c o o 0) (/} CD -XL ro c CD o I— XJ 1— o -*— « ro tn o o "ro CD 1 O z CD ro en c 'c c Z To o CD ro **— c CD O i— X) £ •*— » ro x: CO ^. o o X) <-> Q o CD O cd o I 3 CD O ■E 3 CD O ■S 3 CD O •g 3 (/} CD O 1 0) o •g 3 CD o •g 3 CD O "g 3 (0 u c CU 'c > o Q. 5; s Z o IT) ID LU O CN ID z T3 CD 5 LU Z o ID ID LU O CN ID z ■ LU o CN ID z CD CD LU Z o a> ID LU O CN ID z CD ■D CD 5 LU Z o a> ID LU O CN ID z CO CD 5 LU z o ID LU O CN ID z CD CD 5 CO o r~- ID LU o ID z ■o CD 5 UJ CO o r- ID LU O ■* ID z CO ■o CD 5; z o en ID LU O ■ O § LU co > Q. LU — X O ts <* <* TO Z T— *^ t — < CD TO U — »— *— 1— >— 1— k_ l_ 3 3 3 ' 3 ! 3 ! 3 ! 3 3 ! 3 I 3 3 c CD > p o 000 bbooooolo •- 3 3 3 3 33 3 1 3 3 ' 3 ! 3 I 3 co CO CO CO CO CO CO CO (7) CO CO CO CO CO CO ID c 5 i_ .a c CO 3 -Q c T _ CD 0) L. l_ m O) CD T— O COICO CO uo CO CM CO iCO CO CO CO c ro Q. c JP. Q. CD ro E o E CL o $ CD I— o w uT TO O CD" jy D. o * o o co CO TO CD CD 5 £: O 3 -Q O CO CN CO to ro j O)j0iO) "O "(D ! "35 (II I— I— o o C I C o o o o CO CO CD CD 3 I 3 OO OO 3 13 3 3 CO CO CO CO CO to en .Q .D E E o o o lo CN CN O O 3 I 3 O O 3 I 3 CO CO CO 00 CD O) ro a. c o ro o ro co •" > o § LU co > D- LJJ — X CD t3 K ■* ro t — *^ ■c — < CD ^ CO ro un CD if) -Q O o o o E E o o o ° °;° CO ° CO ° ° ro CD iS to w co , ^: ro p CD T3 C o CO CO > >, >» >, >v >s >< >J >,!_>» ro I ro ro E o c < o c < o CN TO LU LU E |o |o o o o o CM < < in ifl io en co ■ oo > Q. hi — X tf — < CU ^ CO CD .C CL co CM CD CM CD CO CD CM ro _cu o c o x ex n o o T3 CU $ $ $ 2 2 2 2 °f J3 £1 U .E CO CO CM CO CO ro V) to w "^k cu ro 3 Q= O CJ ro E o -*— ' ^^ en TO ro C Q. d_ cu s i _CU CD CO CO ro ro p m CD ro 3 ro 5= o c 3 O CU to cu ■g 'c to CO ro rj) o> _cu _cu o o x» x ro O) o CD X O ■o 0) c cu ro 2 o c O 3 o cu >> c o X E E c a c cu cu cu T3 "O "O c I c : c 3 3 3 O O X X CO CO co co I? J5 OV U) Q) Q) ■*— » ■ -*— * o o XI X CO I CO X LQ Q. o O 0)OO Q V T o o CO CO £3 £2 E E o o o o CM ICM i ' i o o CO CO I I o o CM CM O O | CO !x E o o I T CD CM CO X E o o lo lo iio CM CM CM CO X E o o m lo CM CM CO CO X X EE o o o o CO CO X X E E o o o o CO CO X X E,E o o CO CO X X E E o o o o CM CM i i o o o o o o o CD CD O O O ^t t ID ID CO LO LOILO WI1JLLILLJLLILLJLLJL1JL1JL1J LU LUtLU LU CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM I CM oooooooooo oio:o OIO CMCMCMCNCMCMCMCMCMCM CM CM ! CM CM I CM LOLOLOLOLOLOLnLOLOLO LO LO LO I LO LO 3 3!3 Z -z.~z.-z. Z Z Z 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 I — I — I — I — I — I — c g To £• = O 05 00 -£ > O § UJ co > Q- LU — X o t3 * t — < d) o w CD 2- Si tS < "2 'c 3 CO L* So o c o o en .o £ E Q. <-> OJ O n|(NICM o o E i o o 0) ■= CM CM CM CM CM en en *3 '',32 1*3 , ' o o o c D H £i .Q CM uLoLQija.^luLQ EEEEEEE O I o o o o OIO OIOIO CM o o o o CM CM CM CM CM CO CO CO ICO O SO |o !o CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM 0) -i- t- > z z O - . h- h- H h- z z z CD 2 § en o CM CM CM CM CM CM en CM z z z z -z.-z.rz.-z. z z z 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 H-'h-ih- i — I — I — t-l-lHh- h-iH-'H-il- CM co CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCM CM CM 0O Z Z (/)(/) W CO I CO i CO C/D 1 C/D CO CO CM ui a a> o o J5 O CO a> 33 3 3 3 3 313 3!3 3 3 3 I — 1 1 — |l — 1 1 — 1 1 — 1 1 — : I — ■ I — ■ I — ■ I — ! I — 1 1 — ( I — CD en CO a. o '■4— » ro o CO oo ~ > O § LU oo > Ql LU — X O t> * ? J _ '•e — < CD ^* co CD co ro CD 0) CD CM CO 00 CO CN CN UO CM O O ■a CD > o Q. E n CD -Q o Q. CD S> CJ ro ro CO C 't_ QJ i£ is l_ 0) 1 o < _l m » I QJ O O -Q C CD E CO CD C o ■+- I CO CD E CD m CD ■D C I o c c 3 3 ro cn CD "O ■a o c o CD O ^ 1— i} Ed >» O -Cl >, - "D ro o o -Q '3 -p" CD CD o iE ro - E ^ CD ."9 .c c CL 3 co" co" co co jo ro co co CD E E CD E CD E° is ro co CO o .E CO -O O o o 1 1 o o o o CN ICN CM CM 1 1 1 1 1 OOIO CM CM CO CO o o CM CM CO iE o o ■<3" 000 CM CO CO cm CM CM CM CM CM CN ICM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM ICM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM to co co co co co co co co co coco co coico co CO CO COiCOCOlCO 333333333 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 CO CO iCO ICO ICO COCO CO CO 3 3:313 3 3 33 3 3 3 3 3 c g "co o ro CO ~ > O § LU co > Q- UJ — X "^ CD < to < CD CM CM OO O) CD 3 X CO a _ — si CD o c -O O B CO CD o h <> n> U) "O c c c 3 CD „ a. CD o !_ O n 4=- l/J c >* o fl) -* CD CD 03 E ) I CD II CM o !c 5 CO La £ 1 a ° o CO (ft if) _q Lq o o CO CO o o CO CO CD o c 0) 'g CN CN CM CN > WW CO CO CO O -I -I -I J - CNI CN CN CM CN CO j CO CO I CO o o o lo CM 2 E CM CM 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 CM JO ZD Z3 c c c c co : co CM CM 3I3!3 I- I- 1-1-4- CN CM CM 3 3 3 r*- E £ CN CN CN 3 3 3 I- II- il- cn to E E o I o o o CN CM 3 3 nj i en T3 CN CN CN CN 3 3 3 3 oo c £ 2 un in CN CN 3 3 CO CO CD en co Q- c o '■4—* ro ^^ O 03 00 "£ > O § LU CO > 0_ LU — X J ,2 z t — ^ CO CD CD II D) - CD CD i— i— *- XI I TO C 2 XI TJ CD T3 CI) t— O O o E CD CD I— o si ro CD i c o XI 3 Xl CD $ CD O T3 CD CD J CD ■4— » O 3 C C CO CM CD CN CD LD CD in ro ro CM CM CN o a U 3 O Q ? «oi«g o o. i *i Q. 81, o Q) xi l»|o -O CD E a) 1 2 o — CD 5:5 _CD cn c 1c CO I O) co CD I r- S° o a. x> T3 CD CD E o c CD co ro a. T3 CD N CO ^ O £ 5 CO 1^- ro 5 c o CO >, CD t3 CO o to .a x> "° c CD -c CD 9- O (D CD CO CD CD c ; c o : o to I"c0 c sz o o CD CO ro X) E CD '•- ro - i— c ° .E o m c E ro ro CD o o a. ■ E CD cn cn co _ X),X» f E Q. o a> o Q co CO X> XI O I O O IO o o o CO CO CO CO XJ XI XI IX) E EIE E oioiolo OIOIOIO CO CO XI X) E,E o o o o o o o o o o CO I CO XI x» E E o o o o o O OIOIOIO O I o o o co co XI XI E E co i co XI iX> CM ICM CM III O'OIO a CJ CN CM 3 3 3 3 CM CJ 3 3 CM CM 3 3 CM CM CM 33 3 I- W 0) ♦J o z c E cn CD E c" T3 Q. CD E T5 L— CD CD o XI 1_ cn o C CD O O CO CO c 1— T3 3 XI CO cf c: CO -i— > c g 'c c o XI c" $ o i_ x> 5 o L. XI CD Cl XI CO 15 o E o 3 o m O E i_~ o 3 >— E E cn ro i_ H— E E3108 Inventory ro 3 > LU Q_ c o 1— c CD o CD CD c o CD CD O CD c" CD CD cn c" Q) CD i_ O) -1—' CD 1— CO CO o Q. E o ro XI to to o c" $ o l_ XI n O" i— o CD O ro E E CD c o XI cn c o cn ro c o ro to 5— ro CO c 3 cn T _Q O XI T- CN T- < O ! 10 Q_ m to ^~ XI *i_ 14GI rtifact -z. 6 z - CO T- CN T— o CN O) CO CN "*- CN CO CN T— - CN CN - - T— T~ CD HO CN - in CO CO - - - - < CO ro Q- c o *•> Q. CD CO CD XI ■o o XI o CD c 1 (O E "fc MS (1 -o" i-d" hoi 5 O W 01 I - " 4 ~ 10 03 Q> _Q 2 t" O .Q i_T ro^ to CO CD o it £E CD c o c" o T3 ro E ro E o re <♦- r < g- co CO CD en -CD -t— < o ro^ CO CO CD Cn o ■o 'c to to CO Cn -*— » o 'c CO CO CD Cn *— » o 2 c 3 to CO CD Cn CD o c 3 to" to CD CT1 x> c: c 3 to" to CD Cn XI CO to CO cn ro XJ 3 X) ■*— • x: cn to to ro cn ■o 3 CO E c 1c o ro E ro CO E $ 1 o ro o o o o T3 CO .C -*— ' 03 M— o o ro c Q. CO o +-> ■*— » o o x: to to L. o to c g 'c 3 E E ro "ro -•— ' tr ro Q. jx: o 3 g -♦— * to ro > CO I— E ro E cn ro 0" c o E ro E cn i_ ro 0" to M CO 0" c to _3 ro CD 0" c XI 1X2 XI 1X1 1X1 IX1I.S fiii ~ o c ' c "o ix: to -XL XI x: ro E xi XI Cl cn XI XI XI XI ! to I co CO CO CO CO CO ! CO to CO CO i CO to to 1 to CO to to to to CO to to to to to to CO to to to XI XI XI X> XI xj !xj xj XI XI XI XJ X. X. x> X! X. 1X1 XI XI XI XI XI 1X1 XI XI XI XI XI XI XI £iE!E E E IE E| El E: E eIe E E E E E E:E E E E E EiE E E E E E E E q. o o o o o at O O O O JO q CN CN CN CN | CN o o o o o o o o o o O O I o o o o o o O o o o o OIOIOIO o o o o o o o o O o o o o o O o o o o CNCNCNCNiCNCNICN CN CN CN CN CN CN CN CN CN CNI CNI CN CN CN CN CN CN CN CN | O O O O O o o lo o o o o o O O o O o O O o O O O o O O O O O 0) o c ffl E CD > o A- ™ CN CM CN CN CN CN CN CN iCN CN CN CN CN CN CM CN CN CN CN CN CN CN CN CN CN CN CN CN CN CN °- 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 33 3 3 3 3 h- H H 1- H H|H|H|H !H h hih H 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- HIH \->- H ! H!H|H H H H in co T — cn ro 0. c o "co ^^ o ro co •£ > co > Q- LU — X o -g a: ? J? z '•E = < CD ^ to CD c i cd jd c CD E CD o 2 a) » J=> .Q Q. CO CM CM un CM CD CD LD CM CM CM 00 O -Q ■d S < CO ' T3 CO c? -2 CD $ CD c o ID c $1.2 .a .a .2 CO CO C 5= 0) CD ■g "i_ ■c CO o o o -^ 2 !§ J2IE coiE C CO b= j CD CO E E ro E cd i cd <" ' w t-iOiO JS GO DO CD (D cd" c c c o o o cd .a J3 jd £ E Q..M a> CM CM CN O O JD JD E E o o o o CM CM i i o o CM CO i i o CM C/> E o o CO ICO ICO III O IO IO CM CM CM O C cd "E > ° /i - CM °- 3 CM ICM 3 3 CM CM 33 rj CM CM CM 3 3 3 3 I- t- CM CM 3:3 CM CM 3 3 CM CM CM 3 3 3 CNCMCNCMCNCMCMCMCN 3 3 3 3 33333 h-'h- h- 1 1- h-ih- f- II c o *■*— » 03 ^^ O CD CO ~ > O g LU CO > D- UJ — X T — ^ ■c — ^ CO co CO CD I « >»i o . T5 cr ^ = o to" to 10 CO ro ro CD CO IT) CO CO CO iflj'O) •=. O O CO I CO -Q XJ 5= C CO CD i 1 CO "' O i c II E E ■3 E CO CO c E en CO i_ *4— c o '*- ^ CO O CO 'i- o Lq CO -Q £|E & Q a o CO E U o CO CO CO CO E.E o < o o o I I o o CO CO -Q -O E E 1 o o IO o ■^ >■*- CM CM CO CO CO CO COICO o io o o CO ICO o o CO CO E E o o o o CD CD CD CDICO CD CD CD CD LO cr> O O O IO CO CO CO I CO o o o CO CO CO E E o o o IO CD CD CD CD CD CD LU LU LU LU LU I LU i LU ' UJ I LU | LLI LU LU LUlLU LU CM CN CM CM Mmi-Ii- CNCMCNCNCMCNCMCN 3 3 3 3 3 3 Dp h- i 1 — ' I — ! I — I — 1 1 — ' I — 1 1 — C — J CN 3!3 CO -»— * E o CO to CD O CD Q. CO c CD CD i_ CO "O h E E o o o o CD CD LU LU CO .a E o o o to CO CO o o CO CO CD CD LU LU CM CM CN CM 31313 3 Q. T5 ■o c CO co o CO E m m o o (D ■4— » I ■*— ' CD CD E E o o o o o o o o CD CD ICD CO LU LU LU LU CM CM 3 3 E o o CD ICD iCO LU LU LU co CD cn co Q. CM CM CM 3 3 3 H H h- c g ro o ro co -=• > o § LU CO > CL LU — X o ts £ ? r£ — ■c — < CD ^ to CO CM CD CD O CD 3 CO | D- C CO o E CD o x> m co to CO CO o co X) 5= CM CO ro CO ■o CD 3 CO O 5= CM l— o CO CD CO ■D .. CO CO CD £Z CD CD" co £ 512 co -Q CO C CM C CD CD "S E £ co i co co X> X> X) E E E oloio O O IO lf> ICO ICO o o o ■^ uo m CD E o c o a> co E E o o o o CO CD I > I o o m m LU CO CO CD I CO LU LU LU LU CM 3 •^ X) IX) See CO E E CO E CD CD i_ ro : a; o o c ^ c o .E XJ XI O C o C o (J l_ o o a. -o" o o o CO CO -Q X) E E o o o o O O IO CMCMCMCMCMCMCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 313 3 3 3 3 3 CM 3 3 -Q -Q CM T3 ^ O XI o CJ -d .E ro CD o I— O I Q-i I , 'Ei CD I CO I c CD ■g 'c co" to ^ ro -L CD c :s= CD O co xi CM co co XI XI CM | CNJ O O CO CO CO CO 33 3 3 c CD CD co en CM CO CO ro -oi E CO F E CD CD 13 3 ' CO : CO O O 1 c c LO JD o. E o o ■o" _CD O t- CM o o CD q3 si is 3 ;j2 a5 a5 E.E o U— » CO ro Q- 1 c I o .* ti o 3 c XI XI CO CO XI XJ E E o o o CM ICM CM 1 11 OOO CO XJ E o o CO I CO XI XI E E 00 o o CM ICM OOIO CM I CM 1 ' 1 O CO ICO CO CO CO CO I CO 3 3 3 3133:3 CO CO CD CO ro a. c o o ro co ~ > LU CD ro LU CD t3 K ^ ro Z T — *t tr — < CD ro Ul -i (1) o Q. fl) in c =3 (I -C £ o E =: *_r o (_ c CD CD E E i m Ol CJ) i «)" ro ro CM ^ CD CD *- I c I c d) 3 i ro o. o ! c co CD CD ro C o CD .o S en o o CD CO CO -Q Lq E E o ! o o So CO co co co co ico O O IO CM CM CM O O O CM |CM CM CD CD CD CD CD C C|C:C c o o i o ; o o N N N N N 0) CD > i > 01 I CO CM O O O O Old O CO CO CO CO CO 3 3 3 3 3 co i co i co . co ■ co co co 3333 333 CD CD i J3 I JD co 0)| 3 i— *-< CD O — I CD xi i ro en w l ,„ E E|c CO CO CO 313 3 ro ro CM C/) *-> co O [O "3- -q- 3!3 en CM CO O IO u £ "3- -3- 3 3 "3- ^r 3 3 I— II— 3 3 3 CD CO CD cn ro Q. c o ro O TO CO •£ > o § uj CO > CL LU — X CD t3 * •e — ^ to TO CM CM CO CO TO O) .Q SIE g-lo D o c .9 C > o °- 3 TJ CO 0) C 3 p CM CM i i o o CM CM < ■ o o UD CM OJ E ro CD o ro 2i -S ;3;co CO ro ro CM to o to ro o) J2 3 00 (\j _UJ _UJ _UJ _UJ ■" 1 -J _CU t- . O OOOIO-Q o oo o CD -Q re ■O T3 TJ 0) CD CD c I c CD | ■g -g 'c i'c 3 : 3 CO CO d) CD O I o ro in c (D !2 c =s to co JBi CO! CO 0) I 0) -O i-Q ro ro ■st ^- - ®ia E ro 3 3 03 T3 CO ^ co *i II I§ TO TO CD CD .Q Ji i!i CO CO .a .o E E o o o lo ^ -«3- -fl" 3 3 3 h- "3- "* 3 3 o CD en ro 0. c o ro o co o g LU co > Q- W — X 2 " - "* CD < o S ra d) | E g C CD c J3 o CO E ^J •*-? c c 0» -O X2 E E o o o o CO CO O O I o an _q _q oo oo I I I O O IO CM CM CM -«■ ht ■<* ITT 3 3 3 3 ■ ■ o IO CM CM ro .a jd xi El E E O I o o o o O IO CM CM CO CO CO ill O IO o CM CM CM 3 3 o o oo oo ■<* ^ ■*- 3!3 3 en CM O'OiO o OO CO OO CO || O w CO ~ > O § LU co > Q- LU — X (3 tS * '■e — < a) ^ to CD CD E o E ™ CD S E CM CO -O £ E a ° o CO .a E o o ^r o CO CO CM a> cd c c o i o .a .a a> o c CD e CD > o m 1*1'* o-bb CNJ CO iCO I- I- I- I- h- CM O CD .a o CD ^ CD C o CO C $ 2 iP. cd CD *2 CNJ O) CO to 7?. 0) > .= I en : uji s m co 1= I*- C ™ I O O CO 3 CO CO CO ■si" -st tJ- Tf CD i— CD E E E CD -»— « CD E T3 CD CO ^ o CD ■g 'c 3 Z> c o *i co _c co to" T3 C CD O JD •*— i 3 O CD C x: o ro E co" 3 T3 CO in CNJ a> T— CD O) CO Q. ro CO ro o o 3 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA 3 0112 032881127