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ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME XXII i 
 
 COLORED PLATES 
 
 Facing Page 
 
 Three Color Process. 242 
 
 Song Birds, American .246 
 
 Frogs and Toads, American ..312 
 
 Totem Poles, Southern Alaska . . . ..368 
 
 Game Fishes, American.498 
 
 United States Flags.728 
 
 University Gowns—British Usage.784 
 
 \ ^ 
 
 University Gowns—American Usage.788 
 
 MAPS 
 
 Tasmania. 4 
 
 Tennessee.*. 98 
 
 Texas.138 
 
 Transportation—Commercial Map of the World.424 
 
 Transvaal.428 
 
 Turkey in Europe.570 
 
 Turkey in Asia.572 
 
 United States, Eastern—Physical and Political.694 
 
 United States, Western—Physical and Political.696 
 
 Early Colonial Grants .742 
 
 United States in 1789 and 1808 746 
 
 United States in 1816.. . . . 750 
 
 United States in 1852 756 
 
 United States, Showing Accessions of Territory.776 
 
 Uruguay. N . . . .818 
 
 Utah.« . . . . -IP?.826 
 
 ■mmr"" 
 
 ENGRAVINGS 
 
 Tea. 32 
 
 .escope—Reflecting Telescope. 74 
 
 i escope—Tower Telescope. 75 
 
 vescopes—Yerkes Telescope of University of Chicago. 76 
 
 i David (“ The Rustic Wedding ”) . 96 
 
 NY SON .,.104 
 
 r al Magnetism—Isogonic Chart for United States.120 
 
 vl Magnetism—Isogonic Chart: for the Earth .. 
 
 .,v W ..... .'. 
 
 
 . . 121 
 . . 152 
 
IV 
 
 Facing Page 
 
 Textile Printing—European Hand-Blocked Patterns.. . 153 
 
 Thorvaldsen (“Christ”) .238 
 
 Titian (“The Tribut/ Money”) .304 
 
 Torpedo Boat, ' Submarine .358 
 
 Torpedo Boat, Submarine. 359 
 
 Tree Fern and Traveler’s Tree.436 
 
 Trilobites, Representative.472 
 
 Trogon, Hoopoe, etc.488 
 
 Trout and Grayling.498 
 
 Troyon (“Oxen Going to Work”).502 
 
 Tulip Tree.538 
 
 Turner, J. M. W. (“The Grand Canal, Venice”). 584 
 
 Typesetting and Type-Casting Machines.606 
 
 Typesetting and Type-Casting Machines.607 
 
 Uniforms—Military Dress Uniforms.648 
 
 Uniforms—Service Uniforms of the European War.649 
 
 Uniforms—United States Army.652 
 
 KEY TO PRONUNCIATION 
 
 For a full explanation of the various sounds indicated, see the Key to Pronunciation in Vol. I. 
 
 a as 
 
 k “ 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 a 
 a 
 a 
 e 
 
 e 
 
 6 
 
 e 
 
 e 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 oo 
 
 ou 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 & 
 
 u 
 
 d 
 
 y 
 
 B 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 (( 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 H 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 C( 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 m 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 (( 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 ale, fate. 
 
 senate, chaotic. 
 
 glare, care, and as e in there. 
 
 am, at. 
 
 arm, father. 
 
 ant, and final a in America, armada, etc. 
 final, regal, pleasant, 
 all, fall, 
 eve. 
 
 elate, evade, 
 end, pet. 
 
 fern, her, and as i in sir, etc. 
 agency, judgment, 
 ice, quiet, 
 quiescent, 
 ill, fit. 
 old, sober, 
 obey, sobriety, 
 orb, nor. 
 odd, forest, not. 
 atom, carol, 
 oil, boil. 
 
 food, fool, and as u in rude, rule. 
 
 house, mouse. 
 
 use, mule. 
 
 unite. 
 
 cut, but. 
 
 full, put, or a oo foot, book, 
 urn, burn, 
 yet, yield. 
 
 Spanish Habam Y>r oba, where it is like 
 English v but l vith the lips alone./ 
 
 ch as in chair, cheese. 
 
 d “ “ Spanish Almodovar, pulgada, where it is 
 nearly like th in English then, 
 g “ “ go, get. 
 
 g “ “ German Landtag = ch in Ger. ach, etc. 
 h “ j in Spanish Jijona, g in Spanish gila; like 
 English h in hue, but stronger. 
 
 Jiw “ wh in which. 
 
 k “ ch in German ich, Albrecht = g in German 
 Arensberg, Mecklenburg, etc. 
 
 “ in sinker, longer. 
 
 “ “ sing, long. 
 
 11 French bon, Bourbon, and m in the French 
 fitampes; here it indicates nasalizing of 
 
 _' e preceding vowel. 
 
 “ “ shine, shut. 
 
 “ st, thin. 
 
 “ “ then, this. 
 
 “ z in azure, and s in pleasure. 
 
 An apostrophe [’] is sometimes used as in ta/b’l 
 (table), k&z'’m (chasm), to indicate the elision of 
 a vowel or its reduction to a mere murmur. 
 
 For foreign sounds, the nearest English equiva¬ 
 lent is generally used. In any case where a special 
 symbol, as g, h, k, n, is used, those unfamiliar with 
 the foreign sound indicated may substitute the Eng¬ 
 lish sound ordinarily indicated by the letter. For 
 a full description of all such sounds, see the article 
 on Pronunciation. 
 
 ■ T \ " J fm 
 
 f \ 
 
THE NEW 
 INTERNATIONAL 
 ENCYCLOPAEDIA 
 
 ART A GLIA, tar-ta/ly&, Nicol6 
 (1500-1557). An Italian physicist 
 and arithmetician whose real name 
 was Nicolo Fontana. He w r as born 
 at Brescia, lectured at Verona, and 
 became professor of mathematics at 
 Venice. Tartaglia first became generally known 
 through his solution of cubic equations, and from 
 his suggestions Cardan (q.v.) probably derived 
 the solution known as Cardan’s method. His 
 work in physics is preserved in his Nuova scienza 
 (1537; French trans., 1845-46), showing that he 
 studied the theory of falling bodies and investi¬ 
 gated the range of projectiles at various angles. 
 His treatise on arithmetic, General trattato de 
 numeri et misure (1556-60), is the chief au¬ 
 thority on the Italian methods of his time. 
 Quesiti et inventioni dierse de Nicolo Tartaglia 
 (1546) is also well known. 
 
 TAR/TAK. According to 2 Kings xvii. 31, 
 the name given to a deity worshiped by the 
 Avites, who were transferred to Samaria by the 
 Assyrian King after the destruction of the 
 northern Hebrew Kingdom. Jewish tradition 
 represents T'artak as worshiped under the form 
 of an ass ( Tal . Bal)., Sanhedrin 63). No such 
 deity as Tartak has been found in the Baby¬ 
 lonian or Assyrian literature, but it is possible 
 that Tartahu is meant, which is a name of 
 Ninib. 
 
 TAE'TAN (possibly Fr. tiretaine, tirtaine, 
 linsey-woolsey, from Sp. tiritaha, thin silk or 
 woolen cloth). A well-known cloth of checkered 
 pattern, also called plaid. The Scottish Gaelic 
 tartan is a. loan word from the English; the 
 native name is rather breacan. These colored 
 plaids have long been in great favor in the 
 Highlands of Scotland, where each clan has its 
 distinctive pattern. Consult James Grant, Tar¬ 
 tans of the Clans of Scotland (Edinburgh, 
 1886), and C. N. North, Leabhar communnam 
 fior Chael, Book of the Club of True Highlanders 
 (2 vols., London, 1892). 
 
 TAR'TAR (ML. tartorum, MGk. raprapov, 
 tartar, probably from Lat. Tartarus, from Gk. 
 T aprapos, Tartarus, Hades). A mixture of bi¬ 
 tartrate of potash and tartrate of lime, de¬ 
 posited from wine and known in its crude form 
 as argol or lees. (See Argol. ) In dentistry, a 
 deposit upon the teeth, consisting mostly of cal¬ 
 cium phosphate. 
 
 TARTAR EMETTC. A nameq?uV’°d to the 
 double tartrate of potassium simony, 
 
 K (SbO) C 4 H 4 0 6 + y 2 H 2 0. It is prepared by 
 making a paste of antimonious oxide, acid potas¬ 
 sium tartrate and a little water, allowing to 
 stand for several hours, then boiling the paste 
 with water, and allowing the resulting solution 
 to crystallize. Tartar emetic has a sweet taste, 
 but leaves a disagreeable aftertaste in the 
 mouth. It is moderately soluble in water, but 
 is insoluble in alcohol. It has an irritating 
 effect on the alimentary canal, and causes vomit¬ 
 ing; but vomiting is also due to its action 
 upon the medulla, after absorption into the 
 blood. Owing chiefly to its depressing effect 
 on the heart and the nervous system, it is now 
 little used. 
 
 TARTARIC (tar-tar'Ik) ACID, C 4 H 6 0 6 . An 
 acid compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, 
 of which four different modifications are known. 
 Ordinary tartaric acid is usually seen in the form 
 of colorless, transparent crystals, which are not 
 affected by the action of the air, have an agree¬ 
 able acid taste, and are soluble in water and al¬ 
 cohol. The crystals when gently warmed become 
 strongly electric, the opposite sides of the crys¬ 
 tals becoming charged with the opposite forms of 
 electricity. On heating tartaric acid to about 
 169° C. (336° F.), it fuses; and at slightly higher 
 temperatures it becomes changed into metatar- 
 taric, tartralic, and tartrelic acids, substances 
 of still unknown constitution. 
 
 Tartaric acid occurs abundantly in the vege¬ 
 table kingdom both free and combined. It is 
 from argol (q.v.), a product of grape-juice fer¬ 
 mentation, that the tartaric acid of commerce is 
 obtained. Argol, or crude tartar, is boiled with 
 water and hydrochloric acid, and the solution 
 precipitated with lime. The insoluble tartrate 
 of calcium thus obtained is purified by washing 
 with water, then decomposed by treating with 
 sulphuric acid. This transforms the tartrate 
 into the sparingly soluble calcium sulphate, 
 while tartaric acid goes into solution in the free 
 state. The filtered liquid, when cooled and evap¬ 
 orated, yields crystalline tartaric acid. Tartaric 
 acid is used in the manufacture of baking pow¬ 
 ders an 4 of certain dyestuffs, in dyeing and calico 
 printing, in photography, and in pharmacy. 
 
 Being a dibasic acid, tartaric acid can form 
 both acid and neutral salts. The most important 
 tartrates are the following: Neutral potassium 
 tartrate, K 2 C 4 H 4 0 6 , a soluble salt which crystal¬ 
 lizes with half a molecule of water. Acid 
 potassium tartrate, or bitartrate of potash. 
 
TARTARIC ACID 
 
 2 
 
 TARTINI 
 
 r 
 
 KHC 4 H 4 0 6 , is prepared from argol by extraction 
 with boiling water and filtering the solution thus 
 obtained through charcoal. The salt crystallizes 
 readily as the hot solution cools. The snowy 
 white rhdmbic prisms thus deposited constitute 
 cream of tartar, which is moderately soluble in 
 cold water and less soluble in alcohol. It is an 
 excellent saline purgative and diuretic and is 
 largely used in medicine. Calcium tartrate, 
 CaC 4 H 4 0 6 + 4H 2 0, is practically insoluble in cold 
 water and slightly soluble in hot water. The 
 insolubility of the acid tartrate of potassium 
 and of the tartrate of calcium often helps to 
 identify tartaric acid. Tartar emetic is described 
 above. 
 
 Tartaric acid was early known in the form of 
 tartar; Scheele was the first to obtain the acid in 
 the free state and to determine its principal 
 properties (1769). Like other acids, tartaric 
 acid promotes secretion of saliva, and may be 
 used to allay thirst. When taken internally it 
 is decomposed in the blood with formation of 
 alkaline carbonates, which cause an increase of 
 the alkalinity of urine. 
 
 A remarkable modification of tartaric acid is 
 known as racemic acid (C 4 H 0 O 6 ) 2 .2H 2 0. It is a 
 frequent associate of tartaric acid, but is es¬ 
 pecially abundant in the grapes of the Vosges 
 district. While it exhibits a close resemblance to 
 tartaric acid, it crystallizes more readily from 
 solution; contains two equivalents of water of 
 crystallization; is less soluble in alcohol; and 
 the racemate of lime is soluble in hydrochloric 
 acid, and is precipitated unchanged on adding 
 ammonia. Its most important difference, how¬ 
 ever, is that its solution does not rotate the 
 plane of polarized light, while a solution of or¬ 
 dinary tartaric acid exerts a well-marked right- 
 handed rotation. Pasteur proved that racemic 
 acid is a combination of ordinary tartaric acid 
 (to which, from its optical property, he applies 
 the term “dextroracemic acid”) and of an acid 
 which produces left-handed rotation, to which he 
 gives the name “lsevoracemic acid.” (These acids 
 are at present generally referred to as dextro- 
 tartaric and lsevotartaric acids.) He found 
 that, by saturating racemic acid with soda and 
 ammonia, and allowing this solution to crystal¬ 
 lize at the temperature of the laboratory, two 
 varieties of crystals are obtained, which differ 
 from one another in the same way as a right- 
 hand glove and a left-hand glove, or as any un- 
 symmetrical object differs from its own mirror 
 image. If the two kinds of crystals are sepa¬ 
 rated, and then dissolved, each solution is found 
 to act powerfully on polarized light, but in op¬ 
 posite directions. On separating the free acid 
 from each of the two solutions, and mixing equal 
 parts of concentrated solutions of these acids, 
 racemic acid is again formed, which exerts no 
 action on a polarized ray. 
 
 Besides the three modifications mentioned 
 above, viz., ordinary or dextrotartaric acid, 
 lsevotartaric acid, and racemic acid, a fourth 
 modification of the same chemical composition 
 and constitution, known as mesc> oT 't° T 'ic, anti- 
 tartaric, or inactive tartaric acid, been ob¬ 
 tained. It may best be prepared ; ! mg tar¬ 
 taric acid with a strong solut caustic 
 
 potash. In the anhydrous stat. >tartaric 
 
 acid melts at about 140° C. (284 usually, 
 
 however, it is obtained in the fo crystals 
 
 having the composition C 4 H 6 O 0 .H. . is very 
 
 soluble in water. Its acid potas , alt, too, 
 
 is very soluble in water, anc i calcium 
 
 salt crystallizes with 3 molecules of water: 
 CaC 4 H 4 d 6 .3H 2 0. The different modifications of 
 tartaric acid have also been prepared syntheti¬ 
 cally. Their relation to one another has been 
 explained stereochemically. See Stereochem¬ 
 istry. 
 
 TARTARIN, tar'ta'raN'. The hero of three 
 tales by Alphonse Daudet, Tartarin of Tarascon 
 (1872), Tartarin on the Alps (1885), and Port- 
 Tar ascon (1890). 
 
 TARTARS, tiir'tarz. See Tatars. 
 
 TAR'TARTJS (Lat., from Gk. T aprapos). 
 According to Homer, a deep and sunless abyss, 
 as far below Hades as earth is below heaven, 
 and closed in by iron gates. Into Tartarus Zeus 
 hurled those who rebelled against his authority, 
 e.g., Cronos and the Titans. It is to be noted 
 that such sinners as Tityos, who offered violence 
 to Leto, and after his death by the arrows of 
 Apollo and Artemis was condemned to have his 
 liver perpetually eaten by vultures, or Sisyphus 
 (q.v.), Tantalus (q.v.), and Ixion (q.v.) are 
 represented in the earlier poems as suffering in 
 sight of the other shades. Later, when the idea 
 of a judgment in the other world and a separa¬ 
 tion between the good and the bad had become 
 well developed, Tartarus became the place of 
 punishment for all sinners. 
 
 TAR'TARY (properly Tatary ) . The name 
 which, in the Middle Ages, was applied to the 
 central part of Eurasia. In later times a dis¬ 
 tinction was made between European and Asiatic 
 Tartary, the former comprising that part of 
 Russia which was once the Khanate of the 
 Crimea. The term Asiatic Tartary, first applied 
 to the whole of Central Asia, has gradually been 
 confined to Turkestan. 
 
 TARTE, tart, Joseph Israel (1848-1909). 
 A Canadian statesman. He was born in the 
 Province of Quebec, was educated at L’Assomp- 
 tion College, and was admitted to the bar in 
 1871. Afterward he became editor of Le Cana- 
 dien and then of L’Evenement, in Quebec. Po¬ 
 litically he was a Conservative until 1891, but 
 after that he supported the Liberals. He was 
 a member of the Legislative Assembly of Quebec 
 in 1877-81, and became an active political or¬ 
 ganizer of his party in that province. As the 
 avowed foe of corruption, he had given dissatis¬ 
 faction by criticism of certain politicians and 
 measures; but after his election to the Dominion 
 House of Commons in 1891, as an Independent 
 Conservative, he attacked the administration 
 of Sir John A. Macdonald, his political chief, 
 alleging corrupt practices by ministers. This 
 compelled him to leave the Conservative party, 
 and when the Laurier administration came into 
 power in 1896 he was appointed Minister of Pub¬ 
 lic Works. He held that position until 1902. He 
 was afterward political editor of La Patrie of 
 Montreal. 
 
 TARTINI, tiir-te'ng, Giuseppe (1692-1770). 
 An Italian violinist, composer, and theoretician, 
 born at Pirano, Istria. He discovered the com¬ 
 bination tones, about 1714, and used them in 
 making perfect purity of intonation. His fame 
 rapidly increased and in 1721 he was made solo 
 violinist and conductor of the orchestra at Sant’ 
 Antonio in Padua. From 1723 to 1725 he was 
 chamber musician to Count Kinskv at Prague. 
 Afterward he again took up his duties at Padua 
 and founded a violin school there in 1728, which 
 acquired a world-wide reputation. His composi¬ 
 tions inpl- le numerous classical concertos, so¬ 
 natas, 4v' ither compositions for the violin, and 
 
 
TARTUFE 
 
 3 
 
 TASHKENT 
 
 the best known of his theoretical works are: 
 Trattato cLi musica secondo la vera scienza dell’ 
 armonia (1754); De’ principj dell’ armonia 
 musicale contenuta nel diatonico genere (17(37) ; 
 and L ’arte dell’ arco, reprinted in Choron, Prin- 
 cipes de composition, vol. vi (Paris, 1816). Con¬ 
 sult Fayolle, Notices sur Corelli, Tartini, etc. 
 (Paris, 1810). 
 
 TARTUFE, tar'tyf', or TARTUFFE. The 
 
 name of Moliere’s most celebrated comedy and 
 of the chief character in it, who has become the 
 type in all languages for a hypocritical scoundrel 
 carrying out his evil designs under the cloak of 
 religion. In the play Tartufe ingratiates him¬ 
 self with a simple-minded gentleman named 
 Orgon, and nearly ruins both him and his family 
 before being discovered. The name is said to 
 have suggested itself to Moliere on the occasion 
 of a visit to the Papal Nuncio, where he saw the 
 pious and solemn countenances of the Nuncio’s 
 courtiers suddenly lighted up with ecstatic ani¬ 
 mation by the appearance of a seller of truffles— 
 in Italian, tartuffoli. The play was written in 
 1664, presented once in 1667, then prohibited, and 
 it was not until 1669 that Moliere succeeded 
 finally in getting the King’s consent, after which 
 the comedy ran for three months. 
 
 TARUDANT, ta'roo-dant'. The capital of 
 the Province of Sus, Morocco, situated between 
 the base of the Atlas Mountains and the Sus 
 River, 125 miles southwest of Morocco (Map: 
 Africa, D 1). The surrounding country is highly 
 cultivated and the city, walled and defended by 
 a citadel, contains many fine mosques, groves, 
 and gardens. The streets are narrow and crooked 
 and most of the houses have but one story. Cop¬ 
 per, gold, silver, and iron ores are mined in the 
 vicinity and the chief industries are the manufac¬ 
 ture of copper articles for Central Africa, tan¬ 
 ning, leather dressing, and dyeing. Pop. (town), 
 about 8500; (district) 30,000. 
 
 TARUMA, ta'roo-ma'. A tribe of Arawakan 
 stock (q.v.) on the headwaters of the Essequibo 
 River, British Guiana. They came originally 
 from the Rio Negro, Brazil. They are of medium 
 stature, but well formed. Their language differs 
 so much from the cognate dialects that it was 
 formerly thought to constitute a distinct stock. 
 
 TARUMARI, ta/roo-ma/r6, or Tarahumari. 
 A numerous tribe of Piman stock (q.v.) occupy¬ 
 ing the Sierra Madre region of central and 
 southern Chihuahua, and extending into the ad¬ 
 jacent sections of Sonora and Sinaloa, Mexico. 
 No reliable statement of their number can be 
 given. On account of the broken character of 
 their country there is no central organization, 
 each valley settlement managing its own affairs 
 under a local chief. The language is in several 
 dialects and the people generally are classed 
 by the Mexicans as Christians in the north and 
 heathen in the south. Although peaceful in char¬ 
 acter, the Tarumari have several times revolted 
 against the Spaniards and the Mexicans. In 
 1648 they rose, destroyed all the missions, drove 
 out every Spaniard, and for four years main¬ 
 tained a successful resistance under their chief 
 Teporaca. In 1690 they again rebelled, de¬ 
 stroyed the missions, mines, and haciendas, and 
 massacred all the Spaniards, but were finally 
 subjugated in 1692. A local insurrection in the 
 neighborhood of Temosachic, northwest of Chi¬ 
 huahua City, in 1895, led by a native prophetess, 
 was suppressed only after a massacre by 
 Mexicans. ! 
 
 Physically, the Tarumari are dark Lnd rather 
 
 undersized, but of remarkable strength. They 
 resemble the Pueblo Indians. They make pot¬ 
 tery and weave elaborate girdles of native cotton, 
 though the men ordinarily wear only a loin cloth. 
 They are sedentary and semiagricultural, but 
 depend also upon hunting, fishing, and wild prod¬ 
 ucts. Much attention is given to the corn crop, 
 nearly all their ceremonial dances being invo¬ 
 cations or thanksgiving for rain. They have a 
 feast of the dead a year after the funeral, and 
 are devoted to the peyote rite, going hundreds 
 of miles on foot to procure supplies of the cactus. 
 Their houses are small thatched huts of logs or 
 stones laid in clay mortar, and they frequently 
 utilize the mountain caves for dwelling purposes. 
 Consult K. S. Lumholtz, Unknown Mexico (New 
 York, 1902). 
 
 TASCHEREAU, tash'ro', Elzear Alex¬ 
 andre (1820-98). A Canadian prelate and car¬ 
 dinal, born at Ste. Marie de la Beauce, Quebec. 
 He was educated at the Quebec Seminary, with 
 which, after his ordination to the priesthood in 
 1842, he remained connected for nearly thirty 
 years, first as professor of moral philosophy and 
 from 1860 as superior, the appointment includ¬ 
 ing the rectorship of Laval University. In 1862 
 he was made vicar-general of the diocese, and 
 Archbishop in 1871. In 1872 he founded the 
 Hotel Dieu du Sacre-Coeur at Quebec and re¬ 
 stored the church at Ste. Anne de Beaupre. In 
 1886 he became Cardinal, the first Canadian 
 member of the Sacred College. In 1894 he re¬ 
 tired from the administration of his diocese. 
 Consult J. C. Dent, Canadian Portrait Gallery 
 (Toronto, 1880), and Henri Tetu, Le Cardinal 
 Taschereau (Quebec, 1891). 
 
 TASCHEREAU, Sir Henri Elzear (1836- 
 1909). A Canadian jurist. He was born at 
 Ste. Marie de la Beauce, Province of Quebec, and 
 was educated at Quebec Seminary. Called to 
 the bar in 1857 he practiced his profession in 
 Quebec City. He was a Conservative member 
 of the Canada Legislative Assembly in 1861-67, 
 and in 1871 was appointed a judge of the Su¬ 
 perior Court of the province. He was a judge 
 of the Supreme Court of Canada in 1878-1902, 
 and Chief Justice thereof in 1902-06, retiring in 
 the latter year. He was a member of the Judicial 
 Committee of the Imperial Privy Council. In 
 1902 he was knighted. He published: Notes and 
 Commentaries on the Criminal Laio of Canada 
 (1874) ; The Code of Civil Procedure in Lower 
 Canada (1876); The Criminal Code of the Do¬ 
 minion of Canada, as Amended in 1893 (1896). 
 
 TASCHEREAU, Jules Antoine (1801-74). 
 A French author and statesman, born at Tours. 
 He studied law at Orleans and then entered 
 journalism in Paris. He was for a time the edi¬ 
 tor of the National ; served in the magistracy; 
 and in 1833 founded the Revue Retrospective, de¬ 
 voted to the collection of documents upon his¬ 
 tory and literature (20 vols., 1833-37). In 1837 
 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies. He 
 sat in the Constituent Assembly, and then in the 
 Legislative Assembly; supported the Empire, 
 and was rewarded with a place in the National 
 Library, of which he in time became director. 
 Among his published works are Histoire de la 
 vie et des ouvrages de Moliere (1825) and His¬ 
 toire de la vie et des ouvrages de P. Corneille 
 (1829). 
 
 TASHKENT, tash-kent', or TASHKEND. 
 
 The capital of the Governor-Generalship of Rus¬ 
 sian Turkestan and of the Territory of Syr- 
 Darya, as well as one of the most important 
 
TASIKO 
 
 4 
 
 TASMANIA 
 
 cities of Central Asia, situated near the Tchir- 
 tchik, a feeder of the Syr-Darya, about 150 miles 
 northeast of Samarkand (Map: Asia, H 4). It 
 consists of the new Russian city, built up since 
 the Russian occupation, and the old native city. 
 The former is well laid out, abounds in private 
 gardens, and compares favorably in regard to 
 public buildings and educational institutions 
 with most cities of European Russia. It has a 
 library rich in works on Central Asia. The native 
 city is still partly surrounded by walls and is 
 Oriental in appearance, with its narrow crooked 
 streets and low houses turning towards the street 
 their blind walls. Tashkent manufactures 
 leather goods, textiles, metal articles, and foot¬ 
 wear. Agriculture and gardening are carried on. 
 Commercial relations are also maintained with 
 China by way of very ancient caravan roads. 
 The trade has greatly increased in importance 
 since the connection of the city with the Caspian 
 Sea by rail. A large portion of the trade of the 
 upper valleys of the Syr and Amon is centralized 
 at Tashkent. Pop., 1904, 164,749, consisting 
 chiefly of Sarts, Tatars, Kirgliizes. The Rus¬ 
 sians number about 25,000. The first trust¬ 
 worthy mention of Tashkent dates from the sev¬ 
 enth century, although local traditions attribute 
 to the city very great antiquity. The town has 
 been in possession of Russia since 1865. 
 
 TASIKO. See New Hebrides. 
 
 TASK, The. A descriptive and didactic poem 
 in blank verse by William Cowper, written in 
 the summer of 1783 at the suggestion of Lady 
 Austin, who had jestingly proposed a sofa as a 
 possible subject for the poet. 
 
 TASK AND BONUS. A policy and system 
 of management developed and introduced into 
 a number of large manufacturing establishments 
 by IT. L. Gantt and usually associated with 
 his name. Its principal elements are: (1) De¬ 
 termining the task which a workman suited to 
 the job can be taught to perform readily. 
 Task in this sense means a determined volume 
 of output of standard quality, produced in the 
 way determined to be the best. (2) Providing 
 means of teaching or training the workman to 
 perform this task regularly by the standard 
 movements prescribed. (3) .Fixing such pay¬ 
 ment for the accomplishment of the task as will 
 secure the workman’s cooperation and make him 
 satisfied that he is being fairly treated. (4) 
 Maintaining the usual day rate of payment to 
 the workman during the process of training, or 
 during any time when he fails to reach the 
 determined rate of output—or, in other words, 
 to perform the task set for him. 
 
 In substance, then, this method maintains the 
 ruling rate of day wages for all employees, but 
 awards in addition a bonus to those who achieve 
 the task. In practice it is found most satisfac¬ 
 tory to express this bonus in terms of time to 
 be paid for, rather than directly as wages. Put¬ 
 ting it in the form of a percentage of time al¬ 
 lowed eliminates from consideration any ques¬ 
 tion of the actual rate per day, which may be 
 fixed by collective bargaining or by any method 
 prevalent in the community. The rate of bonus, 
 or the additional percentage of time allowed for 
 achieving the task, varies with the conditions, 
 but is generally between 25 and 40 per cent. 
 For example, if the time allowed for completing 
 a certain piece or certain volume of work under 
 the task and bonus system is 10 hours, the wage 
 rate is 20 cents an hour and the bonus offered 
 is 25 per cent, the workman completing that 
 
 piece or turning out that volume of work in 10 
 hours or less is paid for 12^ hours. He re¬ 
 ceives $2.50 for the job, regardless of time, if 
 the time taken is within the task limit of 10 
 hours. The workman attempting the “task,” but 
 failing by taking more than 10 hours, is paid 
 only the regular day rate for the actual time he 
 has worked. If this is 11 hours, e.g., he would 
 receive but $2.20. 
 
 The objects sought are to secure the maximum 
 output consistent with continued health and 
 well-being of the operative, and at the same 
 time to forestall or overcome the objections gen¬ 
 erally raised by workmen to new methods or new 
 machinery. These spring usually from the fear 
 (too often realized) that hardships will be im¬ 
 posed upon them by the change. The attractive¬ 
 ness of a new job or a new method is offset by 
 the risk that the worker and his family may lose 
 the means of support in the attempt to make the 
 change or to gain higher efficiency. This is true 
 even of the acceptance of piece rates; for with 
 the possibility of larger gain there is also the 
 chance of being able to turn out only a small 
 output and consequently receive only small pay. 
 
 As the task and bonus system does not disturb 
 the day rate as a primary basis of payment, the 
 workman runs no risk in attempting to accom¬ 
 plish the task. Therefore if the work has been 
 properly studied, and a properly attainable task 
 has been set, and a proper rate of bonus is of¬ 
 fered, the task and bonus method may afford a 
 satisfactory solution for many labor problems. 
 Consult H. L. Gantt, “Task and Bonus,” in 
 American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 
 Transactions (New York, 1901), and ib., Work, 
 Wages, and Profits (2d ed., ib., 1913). 
 
 TAS'KER, John Greenwood (1853- ). 
 
 An English Wesleyan Methodist clergyman, born 
 at Skipton and educated at Richmond College. 
 He entered the ministry in 1875, and was 
 elected to the Legal Hundred in 1902. From 
 1880 to 1884 he spent his time at Stuttgart, 
 Germany. For many years he served as theo¬ 
 logical tutor in Richmond College and in Hands- 
 worth College, Birmingham, and of the latter 
 became principal. Tasker published Spiritual 
 Religion, the Fernley Lecture of 1901, and con¬ 
 tributed to several important works. 
 
 TASMAN, tas'man, Abel Janszoon (c.1602- 
 59). A Dutch explorer. He was born at Lutge- 
 gast, near Groningen, and early went to sea. 
 He made two important voyages of discovery in 
 the Pacific. In 1642 he left Batavia in command 
 of an expedition sent out by Van Diemen, Gov¬ 
 ernor-General of the Dutch East India Company, 
 to circumnavigate the Australian continent. 
 During his voyage of ten months he discovered 
 (Nov. 24, 1642) Tasmania—which he called Van 
 Diemen’s Land—New Zealand, and the Friendly 
 and Fiji Islands. After publishing an account 
 of his voyage, which was reprinted in 1722 (2d 
 ed. by Jacob Swart, 1860), he made a second 
 voyage in 1644 to New Guinea and New Holland 
 and discovered the Gulf of Carpentaria. His 
 life has been written by Dozy, in his Bijdragen 
 tot de taal-, land-, en volkenkunde van Neder- 
 lansch Indie (1887), and by Walker (Hobart, 
 1896). 
 
 TASMA'NIA. A state of Australia occupy¬ 
 ing the island of Tasmania with its neighboring 
 islands. The island of Tasmania, formerly called 
 Van Diemen’s Land, lies between lat. 40° 33' and 
 43° 39'Ti>. and long. 144° 39' and 148° 23' E. 
 (Map: Vustralasia, G 7). It is separated from 
 
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 5 
 
 TASMANIA 
 
 the southeastern portion of the Australian conti¬ 
 nent, the coast- of Victoria, by Bass Strait, 140 
 miles wide; the Indian Ocean bounds the island 
 on the west and the Pacific on the east, the two 
 meeting at its southern extremity. Tasmania is 
 irregularly heart-shaped, measuring 200 miles 
 from north to south and 245 miles from east to 
 west. The area of the main island is 24,331 square 
 miles, and of the state, including the smaller 
 islands, 26,215 square miles. 
 
 Tasmania is an ancient plateau, which has 
 been extensively and irregularly dissected by the 
 action of running water. A bleak table-land, 2000 
 to 3000 feet high, occupies the middle and a 
 large part of the western half of the island and 
 is crowned by mountains and cleft by chasms 
 through which issue the torrential streams of 
 the west coast. In the northwest this plateau 
 reaches an altitude of 5069 feet in Cradle Moun¬ 
 tain, the highest point of the island. In the 
 northeastern corner of the island there is a simi¬ 
 lar plateau remnant, but between the two there 
 is a series of great valleys extending from the 
 mouth of the Tamar in the north to that of the 
 Derwent in the south and affording the route for 
 the main railroad line. The remaining parts of 
 the island are cut up into a maze of deep val¬ 
 leys and high ridges and peaks, often of a pre¬ 
 cipitous character. There are about 20 peaks 
 over 4000 feet high scattered through nearly 
 every part of the island. The coasts are gener¬ 
 ally bold, and in the southeast are irregularly 
 indented with fiords and harbors suggesting, to¬ 
 gether with the generally lower level of the sur¬ 
 rounding mountains and the outlying islets, a 
 subsidence of the land in this direction. 
 
 The central area is studded with a number 
 of mountain lakes of considerable size, most of 
 which feed the Derwent River. The rivers of 
 Tasmania are large and numerous considering 
 the size of the island. The most important are 
 the Derwent and Huon in the south, the Gordon 
 in the west, and the Tamar in the north, all 
 of which enter the sea through large, navigable 
 estuaries. 
 
 The climate, on account of the westerly winds, 
 is more temperate and equable than that of the 
 continent. At Hobart the mean temperature in 
 summer is 62° F., and in winter 47° F., the ex¬ 
 tremes ranging to 100° F. and 29° F. The rain¬ 
 fall varies greatly in the different localities, and 
 depends largely on the degree of exposure to the 
 west winds, which bring most of the moisture. 
 In the east the general average is 22 inches, in 
 the north 30 inches, and in the west 40 inches, 
 though some western localities have had 100 
 inches of rain in a year. In the west and south¬ 
 west, where the rocks are granitic and schistose, 
 the soil is rather poor. In the central valley 
 and in the northern and southeastern districts 
 the Tertiary deposits have combined with vol¬ 
 canic detritus to form a very rich soil of a choc¬ 
 olate color. 
 
 The flora is essentially Australian, and closely 
 related to that of Victoria. The gigantic euca¬ 
 lyptus is widely distributed, and the Huon pine 
 (Dacrydium franklini) is common in the south. 
 The Tolasa Blue Gum attains a height of 350 
 feet. The conifers are well represented, there 
 being 9 species peculiar to the island, and of 
 the 1100 species of angiosperms, or higher 
 plants, over 250 are restricted to Tasmania. The 
 fauna, though also distinctively Australian, in¬ 
 cludes several mammals unknown on the main¬ 
 land. The most remarkable of these are two 
 
 carnivorous marsupials, the Tasmanian wolf 
 and the Tasmanian devil. See Dasyure. 
 
 The central table-land and the western and 
 southern portions are built up mainly of Paleo¬ 
 zoic strata through which harder igneous rocks 
 have been intruded. Towards the coast Mesozoic 
 and Tertiary formations appear, chiefly as sand¬ 
 stones, while throughout, but especially in the 
 east, there are extensive volcanic outpourings, 
 dikes of porphyry and greenstone, and large fields 
 of basalt of Tertiary age. The latter, capping 
 and protecting the softer sandstones, are largely 
 responsible for the rugged and irregular nature 
 of the surface. Considerable beds of coal and 
 lignite appear in the Paleozoic and Mesozoic 
 formations. Copper near Macquarie Harbor, 
 tin in the northwest, and gold are important 
 minerals, and coal mines and oil shale are 
 worked. 
 
 The principal minerals produced are tin, cop¬ 
 per, silver, and gold. Formerly copper led in 
 the value of annual output, but it has been sur¬ 
 passed by tin, in the production of which Tas¬ 
 mania exceeds any other Australian state. Both 
 lode and stream tin are w 7 orked. The principal 
 tin workings are at Mount Bischoff, in the north¬ 
 west; the workings at Brauxholm and Mount 
 Cameron, in the northeast, should be mentioned. 
 Copper is found chiefly on the west coast, par¬ 
 ticularly at Mount Lyell. Silver occurs on both 
 east and west coasts. The principal gold fields 
 are at Beaconsfield, Lefroy, and Mathinna. Up 
 to the end of 1912 the recorded value of Tas¬ 
 mania’s mineral output was £36,669,779, of which 
 tin £11,972,602, copper £10,256,981, gold £7,407,- 
 282, and silver and lead £6,258,748. In 1912 
 the output of tin ore amounted to 3713 tons, 
 valued at £543,103; in 1913, 4010 tons, £531,983. 
 The value of the copper output in 1901 was 
 £1,026,748, in 1912, £440,444, and in 1913, £375,- 
 664; the output amounted to 9730 tons in 1901 
 (besides 10,029 tons of ore), 6528 tons in 1912, 
 and 6536 in 1913. The output of silver and lead 
 in 1912 was valued at £309,098 and in 1913 at 
 £319,997. The maximum gold output, £327,545, 
 was reached in 1899; the output in 1912 was 
 valued at £161,300, and in 1913 at £141,876. 
 Other minerals, especially coal, are worked to 
 some extent. 
 
 The agricultural development has been less 
 noteworthy than that of the other Australian 
 states. The area under crop in 1880-81 (140,788 
 acres) was smaller than in 1860-61; in 1912-13 
 it was 286,065 acres, and, in 1913-14, 264,140 
 acres. In addition, there were in the latter year 
 605,559 acres under permanent artificially sown 
 grasses, as compared with 314,422 acres in 
 1901-02. Wheat cultivation has declined; in 
 1860-61 the acreage was 66,450; in 1865-66, 
 73,270; in 1912-13, 25,226. In 1913-14 there 
 were under wheat 18,432 acres, yielding 349,736 
 bushels; oats, 58,886 acres, 1,598,664 bushels; 
 potatoes, 30,811 acres, 80,389 tons; hay, 84,138 
 acres, 112,958 tons. Of great importance is the 
 cultivation of fruit, especially apples; to apples 
 24,370 acres were devoted in 1912-13. Tasmania 
 is well adapted to stock raising, but the industry 
 has not shown much progress in recent years. 
 On March 1, 1914, there were 43,941 horses, 
 205,743 cattle, 1,745,356 sheep, and 37,990 swine. 
 The estimated wool clip for 1913 was about 
 8,872,000 pounds. 
 
 In the direct oversea trade (exclusive of the 
 trade with other Australian states), imports and 
 exports were valued at £816,886 and £625,031 re- 
 
TASMANIA 
 
 6 
 
 TASSAERT 
 
 spectively in 1911, and £1,025,081 and £522,865 
 in 1913. The exports include tin, wool, silver, 
 gold, timber, fruit, and jam. The principal ports 
 are Hobart and Launceston. In 1914 there were 
 684 miles of railway, of which 519 miles belonged 
 to the government. The gauge is mainly 3 feet, 
 6 inches. 
 
 The executive authority is vested in a Gover¬ 
 nor, who is appointed by the British crown and 
 is assisted by a cabinet of five ministers respon¬ 
 sible to the legislative body. This body is the 
 Parliament, consisting of the Legislative Council 
 (18 members, elected for six years) and the 
 House of Assembly (30 members, elected for 
 three years). Tasmania is represented by six 
 Senators and five Representatives in the Aus¬ 
 tralian Parliament. There is universal adult 
 suffrage. 
 
 The revenue and expenditure in 1912 
 amounted to £1,111,292 and £1,077,857 respec¬ 
 tively; in 1913, £1,238,085 and £1,235,014. Pub¬ 
 lic debt June 30, 1914, £12,265,012; the debt 
 was incurred for the construction of public 
 works. 
 
 The estimated population of Tasmania in 1825 
 was 14,192; in 1850, 68,870; in 1875, 103,739; in 
 1900, 172,900. The census of March 31, 1901, 
 returned a population of 172,475 (89,624 males, 
 82,851 females) ; that of April 3, 1911, 191,211 
 (97,591 males, 93,620 females). The people are 
 almost wholly of British race; of the total in 
 1911, 172,497 were born in the Commonwealth 
 of Australia. In 1911 there were 183,840 per¬ 
 sons returned as Christian. Members of the 
 Church of England numbered 88,158; Roman 
 Catholics, 28,581; Methodists, 24,975; Presby¬ 
 terians, 15,735. The population of the local gov¬ 
 ernment area of Hobart, the capital, was 27,526 
 in 1911 (with suburbs, 38,391); Launceston, 
 24,254. There are no other large towns. Mar¬ 
 riages in 1913, 1620; births, 5886; deaths, 2131; 
 arrivals, 45,883; departures, 45,168. 
 
 Elementary instruction is compulsory. In 1913 
 there were 431 public elementary schools, with 
 33,953 pupils enrolled; 16 superior schools, with 
 an average attendance of about 1485; and 72 
 other schools (nongovernment), with 4450 
 pupils. There are two technical, besides three 
 mining, schools. At Hobart is the University of 
 Tasmania; the enrollment in 1913 was only 162. 
 
 Ethnology. The aboriginal inhabitants of 
 Tasmania, who are now extinct, were of doubtful 
 racial affinities, having been regarded by differ¬ 
 ent authorities as being variously connected with 
 the Papuan, Melanesian, and Australian races. 
 They were of medium stature (1.66 m.), with 
 broad, prognathous faces, subdolichocephalic 
 skulls (index 76-77), very prominent brow 
 ridges, very flat broad noses, dark skins, and 
 frizzly hair, the last-named feature being the 
 chief difference from the Australians. In cul¬ 
 ture the Tasmanians were probably even lower 
 than the Australian aborigines. Their stone im¬ 
 plements were of paleolithic type; they were 
 as ignorant as the Australians of pottery and 
 the bow and also lacked the Australian boom¬ 
 erang and spear thrower. Crude rafts of bark 
 bound together with grass fibre formed their 
 only means of navigation. The tale of the ex¬ 
 termination of the Tasmanians, who never num¬ 
 bered more, perhaps, than five or six thousand, 
 is one of the blackest pages in the history of 
 European colonization. The European settle¬ 
 ment began in 1804, and by 1824, when the first 
 census was taken, there were only 340 natives 
 
 alive. These had dwindled down to four by 1865. 
 The last Tasmanian, a woman named Tinganina, 
 is said to have died in May, 1876. 
 
 History. In 1642 the Dutch navigator Abel 
 Janszoon Tasman (q.v.) discovered the island 
 now known by his namp, supposing it to be the 
 mainland of the southern continent, and called 
 it Van Diemen’s Land, in honor of his friend and 
 patron, Anthony Van Diemen, Governor of the 
 Dutch East Indies. It was visited by Captain 
 Cook in 1777. The next recorded exploration is 
 that of George Bass, a young English surgeon, 
 who explored the strait which bears his name in 
 1798, and thus discovered that Tasmania was not 
 a peninsula, but an island. Later in the year he 
 returned and surveyed the entire coast. No 
 colonizing was attempted until 1803. In that 
 year Captain Collins brought out 400 convicts 
 from England, and in 1804 laid out Hobart 
 Town, the present capital of Tasmania. In the 
 same year a settlement was founded in the 
 northern part of the island by colonists from 
 Sydney. In 1806 this colony was transferred to 
 Launceston. From these two centres the coloni¬ 
 zation of the island proceeded steadily. Till 1823 
 the island was under the authority of the New 
 South Wales government. In that year it re¬ 
 ceived a separate Lieutenant Governor and in 
 1825 a separate Governor. The opposition to con¬ 
 vict labor, always deep-seated, notwithstanding 
 the scarcity of laborers, led, in 1835, to the first 
 petition to the home government for its abolition. 
 This, however, did not take place until 1853. In 
 that year, too, the colony received its present 
 name of Tasmania. In 1854 a constitution pro¬ 
 viding for responsible government by a Colonial 
 Parliament was framed by the Legislative Coun¬ 
 cil of the Colony, in accordance with the terms 
 of the Australian Government Act of 1850, and 
 this bill received the royal assent in 1855. On 
 Jan. 1, 1901, Tasmania became a member of the 
 Commonwealth of Australia. See Australia. 
 
 Bibliography. Just, The Official Handbook 
 of Tasmania (Melbourne, 1892) ; Johnston, Sys¬ 
 tematic Account of the Geology of Tasmania 
 (Hobart, 1888) ; Murray, Tasmanian Rivers, 
 Lakes, and Floorers (London, 1900) ; . Roth 
 and Butler, The Aborigines of Tasmania (2d ed., 
 Halifax, 1900) ; for the flora and fauna, Mere¬ 
 dith, My Bush Friends in Tasmania (London, 
 1859) ; id., Tasmanian Friends and Foes (ib., 
 1880) ; id., My Bush Friends in Tasmania. Last 
 Series (ib., 1891) ; Fenton, A History of Tasma¬ 
 nia (Hobart, 1884) ; G. W. Smith, A Naturalist 
 in Tasmania (Oxford, 1909). 
 
 TASMA'NIAN WOLF, Tiger Wolf, Zebra 
 Wolf, or Thylacine. A wolflike, carnivorous, 
 and savage marsupial of Tasmania. See Das- 
 yure; Colored Plate of Marsupials; Plate of 
 PlIAL ANGERS. 
 
 TAS'MAN SEA. That portion of the South 
 Pacific Ocean which is included between Aus¬ 
 tralia and Tasmania on the west and New 
 Zealand on the east (Map: Australasia, H, J 6). 
 It is more than 15,000 feet deep and contains 
 but few islands. 
 
 TASSAERT, ta'sart, Antoine (1729-88). A 
 Flemish sculptor, born and trained in Antwerp. 
 After working in London and Paris, where he 
 studied under Slodtz, he was called to Berlin in 
 1775 by Frederick the Great, who made him 
 court sculptor and rector of the Academy. He 
 modeled many statues and groups in the aca¬ 
 demic French style; busts including that of 
 Moses Mendelssohn (National Gallery, Berlin), 
 
TASSAEBT 
 
 7 
 
 TASSO 
 
 and the statues of generals Seydlitz and Keith, 
 now in the Cadet School at Gross-Lichterfelde, 
 where for the first time great generals are por¬ 
 trayed in their uniform instead of in Roman 
 costume. 
 
 TASSAEBT, Nicolas Franqois Octave 
 (1800-74). A Flemish historical and genre 
 painter. He was born in Paris, and studied at 
 the Ecole des Beaux-Arts and under Girard and 
 Guillon Lethiere. He was one of the first real¬ 
 ists and portrayed, with able technique, the 
 sufferings of the poor and the unfortunate. His 
 exaggerated pathos does not appeal to present 
 taste, but he was highly regarded by Delacroix 
 and the Barbizon masters. Among his most 
 characteristic works are “The Suicide” and the 
 “Unhappy Family.” He also painted historical 
 and religious compositions. Tassaert asphyxiated 
 himself with the fumes of charcoal. 
 
 TAS'SIE, James (1735-99). A Scottish 
 modeler and gem engraver. He was born near 
 Glasgow, and studied modeling at the Academy 
 in Glasgow. In 1763 he went to Dublin, where he 
 entered the laboratory of Henry Quin. Together 
 they invented a kind of vitreous paste, or 
 enamel of much hardness and beauty of texture, 
 in which they reproduced gems and. medallions. 
 In 1766 Tassie settled in London, where he 
 continued his work with gems and casts, and 
 also made many large white enamel profile 
 medallion portraits of notable contemporaries, 
 among them Adam Smith, Sir Henry Raeburn, 
 and Dr. James Beattie. He made reproductions 
 of some of the most valuable collections of gems 
 in Europe, and executed copies of about 15,000 
 examples for the Empress Catharine of Russia. 
 He also furnished numerous casts for Wedgwood’s 
 (q.v.) work. From 1769 to 1791 he exhibited 
 at the Royal Academy, and a large catalogue 
 of his works, with descriptions by Rudolphe 
 Eric Raspe, was published in the latter year. 
 His nephew, William Tassie (1777-1860), also 
 a gem modeler and caster, succeeded to his 
 uncle’s business and added greatly to the col¬ 
 lection. A large part of it, bequeathed to the 
 Board of Manufacturers, Edinburgh, is now in 
 the Scottish National Portrait Gallery. 
 
 TASSO, tas'sO, Bernardo (1493-1569). An 
 Italian poet, born in Alenno (Bergamo) and edu¬ 
 cated at Padua. The early part of his life was 
 spent in the service of the Sanseverino and Ran- 
 gone families, for whom he visited Tunis, Spain, 
 France, and Flanders. From 1563 he was en¬ 
 gaged with Guglielmo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, 
 who made him Governor of Ostiglia in 1567. His 
 romanzesque epos L’Amadigi di Gaula (1542-60), 
 based on the Spanish prose version of Amadis of 
 Gaul by Orddnez de Montalvo, attempts to recon¬ 
 cile the fantastic freedom of Ariosto with the 
 theory of classic imitation. An episode of this 
 poem he treated afterward separately in II Flori- 
 dante, completed by his son Torquato in 1587. 
 The lyrics, Amori (1555) and Rime, odi e salmi 
 (1560), as also his selve and favole have an his¬ 
 torical interest as specimens of imitations (es¬ 
 pecially of Horace) and from their relations 
 with the Petrarchistic movement. His Lettere 
 (Padua, 1733-51) are a valuable contribution 
 to the political and literary history of his time. 
 Consult: Pasolini, I genitori di T. Tasso (Rome, 
 
 1895) ; Foffano, L’Amadigi di B. T. (Turin, 
 
 1896) ; F. Pintor, Delle liriche di B. Tasso (Pisa, 
 1899). 
 
 TASSO, Torquato (1544-95). The great 
 Italian epic poet of the Catholic reaction, son of 
 
 the preceding, born at Sorrento, March 11, 1544. 
 His earliest training was in the Jesuit schools of 
 Naples. On his father’s exile in 1552 Torquato 
 went to live in Rome (1552-56), then to Ber¬ 
 gamo (1556-57) and Urbino, where Bernardo 
 had taken service (1557-58). In the spring of 
 1559 he settled in Venice, entering the law school 
 at Padua the following year. From this time 
 date his earliest sonnets and madrigals. En¬ 
 couraged by their success and under his father’s 
 critical guidance he now also began his Rinaldo, 
 a poem of Carolingian chivalric substance treated 
 in the manner of Ariosto (a fabric of episodes), 
 but with reference to Aristotelian principles of 
 unity of action (all episodes involving Rinaldo). 
 In 1561 Tasso changed his course at Padua to 
 the school of philosophy and letters. The Ri¬ 
 naldo was published in 1562. During these years 
 was being formed the European alliance against 
 Turkey that was to lead to the battle of Lepanto. 
 In the midst of this crusading propaganda 
 (1561-62) Tasso wrote Del Gerusalemme, 116 
 octave stanzas, many of which were later trans¬ 
 ferred bodily to his immortal masterpiece. For 
 his third semester in philosophy Tasso went to 
 Bologna (1563). Accused of writing a libellous 
 pasquinade against notables of the university, he 
 was compelled (1564) to flee for his life. At 
 his refuge in Modena he received a warm offer of 
 hospitality from the future Cardinal and Pa¬ 
 triarch of Jerusalem, Scipione Gonzaga, residing 
 at Padua. Tasso there resumed his studies, com¬ 
 posing meanwhile occasional and amorous lyrics 
 for Gonzaga’s Accademia degli Eritrei. He 
 graduated in 1565, and received an appointment 
 with Cardinal Luigi d’Este, assuming residence 
 for his sinecure at Ferrara in October of that 
 year. He was destined to remain there for a 
 long period. He made occasional excursions to 
 Mantua to visit his father and his sweetheart 
 Laura Perperara; to Pesaro, Urbino, and Castel- 
 durante as guest of his patroness Lucrezia Gon¬ 
 zaga della Rovere. In 1570 a journey to Paris 
 with the Cardinal brought him in contact with 
 the poets of the French Pleiade, notably Ron- 
 sard. Meanwhile Tasso had participated with 
 growing prestige in the Academy life of Ferrara, 
 writing verses and exercises of eloquence and 
 erudition. 
 
 In 1572 he was transferred to the suite of 
 Alfonzo II Gonzaga, and the years 1572-74 mark 
 the height of his social popularity. For a fes¬ 
 tival at Belvedere in 1573 he composed his ele¬ 
 gant pastoral drama Aminta, a poem in free 
 blank verse. This poem is suffused with a bril¬ 
 liant coloring of extraordinary mellowness. It 
 has a sustained motivation of intense but lan¬ 
 guid sensuousness, through which runs a vein 
 of the subtle humor inherent in sophisticated 
 courtliness when applied to a pastoral subject. 
 In 1574 Tasso became lecturer in astronomy and 
 mathematics at the university of Ferrara and 
 began a classic tragedy, Galealto di Norvegia. 
 As early as 1570 he had resumed work on the 
 subject treated in Del Gerusalemme; pro¬ 
 foundly affected by current debates on aesthetics, 
 he had been studying carefully the principles 
 underlying epic compositions. His conclusions 
 he embodied in three Discoi~si dell arte poetica, 
 which remain the best comment on the structure 
 and intent of the Gerusalemme liberate, and 
 a typical expression of Aristotelian aesthetics of 
 the Renaissance. The great poem was complete 
 in 1575, a date which also marks the first signs 
 of Tasso’s loss of mental balance. He came to 
 
TASSO 
 
 8 
 
 TASSONI 
 
 betray a certain unexplainable terror for possible 
 criticism of his work. These fears first con¬ 
 cerned mere questions of form. He intrusted a 
 private revision of the poem to his friend Scipi- 
 one Gonzaga, who in turn consulted the cele¬ 
 brated critics Pier Angelio da Barga, Sperone 
 Speroni, Flaminio dei Nobili, and Silvio Antoni- 
 ano, and they set about the task with all the con¬ 
 scientiousness of pedants. Tasso’s Lettere record 
 the painful travails of his spirit during these 
 discussions, which aroused in him also a fear lest 
 his poem be in part heretical. The assurances 
 of the Inquisition could not allay this dread. 
 By 1576 he had decided completely to rewrite 
 and allegorize his work, a revision prevented 
 only by his complete nervous breakdown. He 
 began to fancy the existence of plots against him 
 at Ferrara and felt the ground at Florence and 
 Rome as possible harbors of refuge. He quar¬ 
 reled with a certain Ercole Fucci, who finally as¬ 
 saulted him with a cane. In 1577, during an 
 audience with his patroness Lucretia, he drew a 
 knife on a servant who he feared was spying on 
 him. This access led to careful surveillance and 
 medical attention. From this time begin periods 
 of mad flights and wanderings. In July of 1577 
 he tramped, begging his way as far as Sorrento, 
 but returned apparently normal to Ferrara in 
 April, 1578. In July again he went wandering 
 to Mantua, thence to Padua and Venice, finally 
 ending at Turin. Again in Ferrara, 1579, he 
 became violent at the fancied coldness of his 
 reception, and was confined in the insane asylum 
 of Sant’ Anna. 
 
 His confinement lasted till 1586, but in fre¬ 
 quent lucid intervals he displayed a considerable 
 literary activity. Then, at the instance of An¬ 
 gelo Grillo and Antonio Costantini, Tasso was 
 permitted to accompany Vincenzo Gonzaga to 
 Mantua. A renewed attack of melancholia was 
 not relieved by a vacation in Bergamo (1587), 
 and again Tasso fled, this time to Bologna, the 
 Loreto shrine, whence finally to Rome. The per¬ 
 sistent efforts of the Gonzaga to extradite Tasso 
 have caused much discussion as to the presence 
 of other motives than insanity in the poet’s 
 long imprisonment. At Rome Tasso was the 
 guest of his old friend Scipione Gonzaga and 
 later of the Aldobrandini. During the six fol¬ 
 lowing years he wrote or completed the tragedy 
 II Torrismondo (imitation of Oedipus Rex), the 
 Galealto, the religious epic II mondo creato, and 
 the revised Jerusalem Delivered (which he now 
 entitled La Gerusalemme conquistata ). 
 
 In 1592 came a brief residence with Matteo 
 di Capua and G. B. Manso in Naples. In 1594 
 Clement VIII assigned him a pension and looked 
 favorably upon the idea of a poetic coronation. 
 Before this scheme was carried out, however, 
 the poet died, April 25, 1595. 
 
 The poem of Tasso deals with the taking 
 of Jerusalem during the Third Crusade, largely 
 as described by Gillaume de Tyre. This is the 
 unifying theme, around which is an accretion 
 of episode—the love stories of Rinaldo and 
 Armida, of Tancred and Clorinda, of Erminia 
 and Tancred, of Olindo and Sofronia. This ro- 
 manzesque element comes to constitute the most 
 important part of the poem; for while the 
 treatment of the main theme falls cold in a mat¬ 
 ter-of-fact narrative adorned in vain by some 
 extrinsic devices of style, Tasso gives in his 
 episodes free play to his elegiac and idyllic 
 sentiment. The best that can be said for the 
 work as a whole is that the conception of God’s 
 
 power sustaining the faithful man in his weak¬ 
 ness to a great accomplishment, is objectified 
 with a greater dignity and a greater freedom 
 from banality than is apparent in any of the 
 epic poems written on the theory that art is a 
 branch of logical science. There is much that is 
 dead in the Jerusalem Delivered. It is the epi¬ 
 sodic figures that live: Sofronia, wholly sane 
 and conscious, but divinely possessed by the 
 rapture of faith; Clorinda, her soul miraculously 
 warmed with Christian charity, bidding an 
 eternal farewell to her lover; the suffocating 
 emotion of Erminia as she sees Tancred’s distant 
 camp in 'the moonlight; Armida’s sensuous 
 charm. The Jerusalem Delivered shows relig¬ 
 ious moods more deeply experienced than in any 
 other religious poetry since the time of Dante; 
 and it strikes here and there richer chords of 
 melancholy and pathos than in any other Ital¬ 
 ian lyrics since Petrarch. 
 
 In the Aminta and Jerusalem Delivered we 
 find nearly all the motives of the Italian verse 
 of the next two centuries. Tasso may be con¬ 
 sidered thus, as also in matters of form, a 
 great renovator of Petrarchism. His work gave 
 great impetus to the development of Seicentismo 
 (see Italian Literature), and he overshadowed 
 both Petrarch and Dante in the minds of the 
 baroque poets of the next five generations: this 
 because, in theory and practice, he considered 
 style as ornamentation, and ingeniosity of 
 metaphor the chief instrument of literary art. 
 
 Bibliography. Editions of Gerusalemme 
 Uberata: 1st ed., pirated (Venice, 1580), 
 by Celio Malespini, entitled II Goff redo; 2d 
 and 3d ed. by Angelo Ingegnieri (Parma and 
 Casalmaggiore, 1581); 1st authorized ed. (Fer¬ 
 rara, 1581) by Febo Bonm\. Modern critical 
 ed. by A. Solerti (3 vols., Florence, 1895-96). 
 Annotated ed. by S. Ferrari (Florence). Trans¬ 
 lations: Edward Fairfax (London, 1687, 1749, 
 1817, 1895) ; John Hoole (London, 1797, 1810, 
 etc). Others: P. Doyne (Dublin, 1761); Wif- 
 fen (London, 1826, 1856) ; Carew (Manchester, 
 1881); James (London, 1884); Aminta: best 
 ed. by Solerti (Turin, 1901) ; translations by 
 Oldmixon (London, 1698) ; Dancer (ib., 1660) ; 
 Whitmore (Springfield, Mass., 1900).' Complete 
 works: 33 vols., Pisa, 1821-32. Critical ed. 
 minor works: Lettere and Dialoghi by Guasti 
 (Florence, 1852-59) and Prose diverse (1875); 
 A. Solerti, Appendice alle opere in prosa (Flor¬ 
 ence-, 1892) ; Opere minori in versi; Poemi 
 minori; Teatro (3 vols., Bologna, 1892-95) ; 
 Bibliografia; Rime d’amore; Rime d’occasione o 
 d’encomio (3 vols., Bologna, 1898-1902). Bi¬ 
 ography: in Italian, A. Serassi, Vita di Torquato 
 Tasso (Bergamo, 1790) ; Angelo Solerti, Vita di 
 Torquato Tasso (3 vols., Turin, 1895) ; A. Alber- 
 tazzi, Torquato Tasso (Modena, 1911); in Eng¬ 
 lish: Robert Milman, Life of Tasso (2 vols., Lon¬ 
 don, 1850) ; William Boulting, Tasso and his 
 Times (New York, 1907), containing a bibliog¬ 
 raphy. General criticism: Antonio Belloni, Gli 
 epigoni della Gerusalemme liberata (Padua, 
 1893); Hedwig Wagner, Tasso daheim und in 
 Deutschland (Berlin, 1905) ; Scopia, Le fonti del 
 mondo creato di Torquato Tasso (Naples, 1907) ; 
 G. E. Woodberry, in Inspiration of Poetry (New 
 York, 1910) ; A. Sainati, La lirica di Torquato 
 Tasso (Pisa, 1912) ; F. de Sanctis, Storia della 
 letteratura italiana (2 vols., Bari, 1912). 
 
 TASSONI, ta-so'ne, Alessandro (1565- 
 1635). An Italian diplomat, critic, and poet. 
 He was born in Modena of an old patrician 
 
TASSY 
 
 9 
 
 TATARS 
 
 family. About 1595 he published at Rome a 
 dialogue in defense of Alessandro Magno and 
 Obizzo d’ Este, an effort which was dedicated 
 to Cardinal Alessandro d’ Este, and which at¬ 
 tracted such favorable notice from that prelate 
 that young Tassoni was taken into the service 
 of Cardinal Ascanio Colonna (1597). His Con- 
 sidcrazioni sopra le rime del Petrarca (1609) 
 became the occasion of bitter controversy. In 
 1613 Tassoni entered the service of Charles Em¬ 
 manuel of Savoy. But his Filippiche contra gli 
 Kpagnuoli (1615; reprinted 1855) incurred the 
 displeasure of Cardinal Prince Filiberto of 
 Savoy, and Tassoni withdrew into private life 
 (1622). Afterward he became secretary to Car¬ 
 dinal Ludovisi, and then councilor and cham¬ 
 berlain at the court of Duke Francis I of Modena 
 (1632). The Pensieri diver si of Tassoni form a 
 curious monument of Seicento culture, but the 
 poet achieved his greatest fame with La secchia 
 rapita (The Rape of the Bucket, written 1614; 
 published in Paris, 1622; ed. by Carducci, 1861, 
 etc.). This is a mock heroic poem in 12 cantos, 
 founded upon an incident of the Modenese wars. 
 It is a precursor of Boileau’s Lutrin (1673) and 
 Pope’s Rape of the Lock (1712). Its humor, 
 the Tuscan purity of its language,. and the per¬ 
 fection of its metrics have made it an Italian 
 classic. Consult: Nunziante, Alessandro Tas¬ 
 soni, e il Seicento (Milan, 1885)-; Bacci, Le con- 
 siderazioni sul Petrarca di Alessandro Tassoni 
 (Florence, 1887) ; ed. of Secchda, Oceano, and 
 Rime by Casini (ib., 1887) ; Ambrosi, Sopra i 
 Pensieri diver si di Alessandro Tassoni (Rome, 
 1896) ; Le lettere di Alessandro Tassoni, ed. by 
 G. Rossi (Bologna, 1901) ; the important Miscel¬ 
 lanea tassoniana, ed. by Casini-Santi (Modena, 
 1908) ; G. Rossi, Saggio di una bibliografia delle 
 opere di Alessandro Tassoni (Bologna, 1908). 
 
 TASSY, Joseph Helidore Sagesse Vertu 
 Garcin de. See Garcin de Tassy, J. H. S. V. 
 
 TASTE (OF. taster, Fr. tdter, to taste, from 
 Lat. *taxitare, frequentative of taxare, to touch, 
 intensive of tangere, to touch; connected with 
 Goth, tekan, Icel. taka, AS. tacan, Eng. take ). 
 The sensations of taste are four in number: salt, 
 sweet, sour, and bitter. The varied experiences 
 commonly regarded as tastes are, therefore, 
 blends or fusions of one or more taste qualities 
 with other sensations. Lemonade, e.g., is blended 
 of sour and sweet, cold, pressure, and the odor 
 of lemons. If the nostrils are plugged with 
 cotton wool, claret cannot be distinguished from 
 vinegar or a morsel of raw potato from apple. 
 
 Taste is a chemical sense, and like vision and 
 smell, though in a less marked degree, shows 
 the phenomena of mixture, adaptation, and con¬ 
 trast. In mixture, there is at least a partial 
 compensation for all pairs except sweet-salt, if 
 the components are mixed in the proper pro¬ 
 portions and at low intensities. Sweet and salt 
 themselves mix to a flat or vapid quality, some¬ 
 what as blue and yellow mix to give a gray. 
 Complete adaptation can be attained only by 
 stimulation for several hours with strong solu¬ 
 tions; but experiment bears out the common ex¬ 
 perience that any one of the four qualities is 
 weakened after a stimulation of a few moments. 
 Contrast is both simultaneous and successive. 
 The contrasting pairs are sweet-salt, sweet-sour, 
 and salt-sour; bitter does not contrast with any 
 other taste. The stimulation of the tongue 
 by the one member of these pairs increases its 
 sensitivity to the other member, or causes dis¬ 
 tilled water to give the contrasting taste. 
 
 The tongue, like the skin, is supplied with 
 nerve endings which mediate sensations of 
 pressure, temperature, and pain. The nerve 
 endings concerned in gustatory sensation are the 
 taste bulbs or beakers, many of which are clus¬ 
 tered together in the sides of the circumvallate 
 and fungiform papillae. The central area of the 
 tongue is insensitive to taste; the tip is most 
 sensitive to sweet, the base to bitter, and the 
 edges to sour. This does not mean, however, 
 that all the papillae in a given region will re¬ 
 spond in the same way to gustatory stimuli. As 
 a matter of fact, some respond to four solutions 
 (usually sugar, quinine, tartaric or hydrochloric 
 acid, and salt), others to but three, still others 
 to two, and a few to one alone. We are led 
 to suppose, therefore, that there are four kinds 
 of taste cells, each one responsive to a single 
 mode of stimulus, and that a given papilla may 
 contain all four, or three, or two, or only one. 
 Consult: W. Nagel, Handbuch der Physiologie 
 des Menschen, vol. iii (Brunswick, 1905) ; Os¬ 
 wald Kiilpe, Outlines of Psychology; Eng. trans. 
 by E. B. Titchener (new ed., London, 1909) ; 
 E. B. Titchener, Text-Book of Psychology (New 
 York, 1910) ; W. M. Wundt, Physiologische 
 Psychologic, vol. ii (6th ed., Leipzig, 1910) ; 
 Ladd and Woodworth, Elements of Physiological 
 Psychology (New York, 1911). See Psychologi¬ 
 cal -Apparatus. For taste in animals, see 
 Chemical Sense in Animals. 
 
 TATAR BAZARJIK, ta-tar' ba/zar-jek', or 
 Pazarjik. A district town in east Rumelia, 
 Bulgaria, situated on the Maritza, 74 miles 
 southeast of Sofia (Map: Balkan Peninsula, E 
 3). It lies in a low region and suffers from in¬ 
 undations. Pop., 1905, 17,597, mainly Bulgari¬ 
 ans. The place was founded by Tatars in the 
 fifteenth century. 
 
 TATARS, ta'tarz (less correctly Tartars, Fr. 
 Tartare, from ML. Tartarus, from Pers. Tatar, 
 Chin. Tahtar, Tah-dzu, Tatar, possibly from a 
 Tungusic or Manchu word meaning archer, 
 nomad; probably confused by popular etymology 
 with Lat. Tartarus, hell, on account of their 
 atrocities). A term loosely applied to certain 
 Tungusic tribes originally inhabiting Man¬ 
 churia and Mongolia, and now represented by 
 the Fishshin Tatars of northern Manchuria, the 
 Solons and Daurians of northeastern Mongolia, 
 and the Manchus of China. In the course of the 
 westward movement of the Mongols the term 
 Tatar obtained vogue among the civilized peo¬ 
 ples of western Asia and eastern Europe, and 
 came to be applied with little discrimination to 
 the hordes of Mongols who descended from time 
 to time upon the frontiers of Occidental civiliza¬ 
 tion and to the kindred peoples subdued by 
 them. Ultimately it came to be used almost, 
 if not quite, as a synonym for Turkish (Turki), 
 in which sense it is still employed by some 
 modern ethnologists. 
 
 The “Tatars of Siberia” (Baraba, Irtish, Tobol, 
 etc.) are probably of very mixed origin. In 
 western Siberia some fragments of the Osti- 
 aks, etc., have been styled Tatars, probably 
 from their adoption of Tatar customs, etc. The 
 Tatars of European Russia are of diverse ori¬ 
 gins. The so-called Kazan and Astrakhan Ta¬ 
 tars are fragments of the Golden Horde. The 
 Tatars of the Crimea are probably composed of 
 the Nogai-Tatars of the steppes and the Ta¬ 
 tars of the mountains and coast regions. There 
 are besides the Tatars of the Caucasus. It will 
 easily be seen that most of these peoples styled 
 
TATE 
 
 TATLER 
 
 Tatars are, linguistically at least, of Turkic 
 stock, but very mixed physically. Consult: 
 Otto Wolff, Geschichte der Mongolen Oder Tar- 
 taren (Breslau, 1872) ; H. H. Howortk, History 
 of the Mongols (London, 1876-80) ; Hermann 
 Vambery, Etymologisches Worterbuch der turko- 
 tatarisclien Spraohen (Leipzig, 1878) ; id., Die 
 primitive Cultur des turko-tatcirisehen Volkes 
 (ib., 1879) ; Emile Chantre, Recherches anthro- 
 pologiques dans le Caucase (5 vols., Paris, 1885- 
 S7) ; Charles de Harlez, La religion nationale 
 des Tartares orientaux (Brussels, 1887). 
 
 TATE, Sir Henry (1819-99). An English 
 manufacturer and art patron. He was born at 
 Chorley, Lancashire; entered early on a com¬ 
 mercial career in Liverpool, and in 1874 went 
 to London, where he acquired a large fortune in 
 sugar refining. He was the principal founder 
 of Liverpool University College. His chief claim 
 to distinction, however, is as founder of the 
 National Gallery of British Art, popularly 
 known as the Tate Gallery, on the Thames Em¬ 
 bankment, near Vauxliall Bridge. This origi¬ 
 nated in his private collection of modern British 
 pictures. His desire to have this collection pre¬ 
 served prompted his offer of £84,000 for a 
 building purely devoted to British art, if the 
 government would provide the site. The building 
 was completed and opened in 1897. 
 
 TATE, Nahum (1652-1715). An English 
 poetaster, born in Dublin. He graduated at 
 Trinity College, Dublin, in 1672, and five years 
 later he was settled in London. In 1692 he 
 succeeded Shadwell as poet laureate. With the 
 exception of Pye (q.v.), he was the tamest of the 
 laureates. He passed his last days in the Mint 
 in Southwark, then a privileged sanctuary for 
 debtors. Tate composed several plays and much 
 poor verse, including elegies and birthday odes. 
 His best poem, composed independently, is Pan¬ 
 acea, a Poem on Tea (1700). With some suc¬ 
 cess he wrote a second part to Dry den’s Absalom 
 and Achitophel (1682). The best passages, 
 however, were by Dryden. In literary history 
 Tate has gained unenvied fame as an adapter 
 of several plays by Shakespeare and other Eliza¬ 
 bethans. Among them are Richard II (1681), 
 King Lear (1681), and Coriolanus (16S2). His 
 version of Lear, in which Cordelia survives and 
 marries Edgar, held the stage till 1840. Tate 
 is also known as the joint author, with Nicholas 
 Brady, of the New Version of the Psalms (1696; 
 supplement 1698). To Tate is ascribed the 
 beautiful Christmas hymn “While Shepherds 
 Watched.” Consult L. F. Benson, The English 
 Hymn: Its Development and Use in Worship 
 (New York, 1915). 
 
 TATE, Ralph (1840-92). An English geolo¬ 
 gist and paleontologist, born at Alnwick. He 
 studied at the Royal School of Mines, and in 
 1861 entered the Philosophical Institution of Bel¬ 
 fast as a teacher of natural sciences. In 1867 
 he joined an expedition for the exploration of 
 Nicaragua and Venezuela; and upon his return 
 to England published a series of papers on the 
 geology and paleontology of those countries. 
 Appointed professor of natural sciences in the 
 University of Adelaide, South Australia, in 1875, 
 he passed the remainder of his life in that 
 country, where he was active in scientific re¬ 
 search and helped to establish the Royal So¬ 
 ciety of South Australia. The list of his pub¬ 
 lications includes several hundred papers and 
 monographs, among them Flora Belfasiinensis 
 (1863); New Yorkshire Lias (1876); Hand¬ 
 
 book of the Flora of Extra-tropical South Aus¬ 
 tralia (1890). 
 
 TATIAN, ta'shan. A Christian apologist of 
 the second century. He was a native of Assyria, 
 received a Greek education, and came to Rome 
 in the time of Justin Martyr, with whom he 
 was intimately associated, probably about the 
 year 152. Under the instruction of this first 
 Christian philosopher, Tatian early became a 
 Christian, and wrote thereupon his first impor¬ 
 tant work, The Address to the Greeks. After 
 Justin’s death he turned towards views which 
 caused him to be identified with the Gnostics, al¬ 
 though comparison of the different accounts leads 
 to the suspicion that party spirit may have ex¬ 
 aggerated his departure from the commonly re¬ 
 ceived Christian doctrines and practices. Tatian 
 returned to Mesopotamia, where he was wel¬ 
 comed heartily and performed valuable services 
 for the Church. He prepared here a harmony 
 of the Gospels in Syriac, under the name of 
 Diatessaron, or The Fourfold Gospel, which early 
 attained a wide circulation among the Syriac¬ 
 speaking churches, and was made the subject of 
 a commentary by Ephraem Syrus. The Syriac 
 original cannot have been prepared long after 
 Justin’s death (about 166), and therefore gives 
 important testimony to the general acceptance 
 of the Fourth Gospel at that time, and hence to 
 its considerably, earlier origin. The Diatessaron 
 has accordingly been an object of great interest, 
 but the text has been until recently regarded as 
 hopelessly lost. In 1883 a description of an 
 Arabic translation of the Diatessaron existing in 
 the Vatican Library, previously but imperfectly 
 described bv others, was put forth by Ciasca, a 
 “scriptor” in that library, and in 1888 he pub¬ 
 lished an edition of the text with a Latin trans¬ 
 lation. A second manuscript of the same trans¬ 
 lation had meantime been presented to the li¬ 
 brary (1886). This Latin version has been 
 translated into English by Hill (Edinburgh, 
 1894; 2d ed., 1910), and an English translation 
 from the Arabic has been made by Flogg in the 
 Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. ix (New York, 1896). 
 Consult: Zahn, Forschungen zur Geschichte des 
 neutestamentliche Kanons, vol. iv (Erlangen, 
 1891) ; Harris, The Diatessaron of Tatian (Lon¬ 
 don, 1890) ; id., Fragments of the Commentary 
 of Ephrem Syrus on the Diatessaron (ib., 1895) ; 
 A. Hobson, The Diatessaron of Tatian and the 
 Synoptic Problem (Chicago, 1904). Both the 
 extant works of Tatian may be found in trans¬ 
 lation in the Ante-Nicene Fathers, vols. ii and iv 
 (New York, 1885 et seq.). 
 
 TATISHTCHEV, ta'tish-chef, Vassili Niki- 
 titcii (1686-1750). A Russian historian of the 
 school of Peter the Great (q.v.). He studied 
 at Moscow and in Germany. Tatishtchev par¬ 
 ticipated in the war with Sweden, after which 
 he went on embassies to Poland, Holland, Ger¬ 
 many, and Switzerland. Subsequently he was 
 made Governor of Astrakhan and superintendent 
 of mines in the Ural region. Tatishtchev 
 pleaded for the advancement of learning, es¬ 
 pecially in his Dialogue on the Benefit of the 
 Sciences, written in 1733 and first published only 
 in 1887, and wrote a good History of Russia, 
 and a didactic treatise, Testamentary Injunc¬ 
 tions (1773; new ed., 1885), addressed to his son. 
 
 TATIUS, ta'shl-us, Achilles. A Greek 
 writer. See Achilles Tatius. 
 
 TATLER, The. A penny paper published in 
 London by Sir Richard Steele, issued three times 
 a week and running through 271 numbers, be- 
 
TATLOCK 
 
 ii 
 
 TATTNALL 
 
 tween April 12, 1709, and Jan. 2, 1711. Its 
 original purpose was merely to describe events 
 of the dav; but with the contributions of Addi- 
 son, which began in number 18, it gradually as¬ 
 sumed a more didactic tone and eventually be¬ 
 came a set of gssays on various social and quasi¬ 
 political topics. Its sudden withdrawal was 
 probably occasioned by the exception taken by 
 Steele’s superiors in government offices to cer¬ 
 tain statements printed in it and the editor’s 
 consequent dismissal from the gazetteership. 
 His pseudonym of Bickerstaff had also by this 
 time been penetrated. Steele wrote 188 of the 
 papers and Addison 41. The remainder were 
 mostly written in collaboration. The successor 
 of the Tatler was the Spectator (q.v.). 
 
 TAT'LOCK, John Strong Perry (1876- 
 ). An American English scholar, born at 
 Stamford, Conn., and educated at Harvard (A.B., 
 1896; Pli.D., 1903). He taught at the Uni¬ 
 versity of Michigan from 1897, becoming pro¬ 
 fessor of English in 1913. He edited Shake¬ 
 speare’s Troilus and Cressida (1912), and with 
 Percy MacKaye, made a version of Chaucer 
 called The Modern Reader’s Chaucer (1912); 
 and published also Development and Chronology 
 of Chaucer’s Works (1907) ; Harleian MS. 7 S3J h 
 and Revision of Canterbury Tales (1909); The 
 Scene of the Franklin’s Tale Visited (1914). 
 
 T ATRAEURED, ta/tra-fu'red (Ger. 
 Schmeks). A noted Hungarian watering place 
 and health resort in the county of Zips, situated 
 in the midst of pine forests on the south slope 
 of the Hobe T&tra, at the foot of the Sclilagen- 
 dorf peak at an elevation of 3340 feet above the 
 sea. It has mineral springs, pine-cone baths, 
 and a cold-water cure. Near by are the health 
 resorts of Uj T&trafiired (Neuschmeks) and Also 
 Tatrafiired (Lower Schmeks). 
 
 TATRA (ta'tro) MOUNTAINS. See Car¬ 
 pathian Mountains. 
 
 TATS, tats, or TATES. An agricultural 
 people of extreme western Persia and the Caspian 
 region of the Caucasus. . Although they may pos¬ 
 sess some Mongolian blood, they are not Tatars 
 either somatically or linguistically. Some au¬ 
 thorities class them with the Persian Tajiks 
 (q.v.). Their number approximates 100,000. 
 Their language is a dialect of Persian. 
 
 TA TS’ING, ta'tsing' (or Ch’ing). The dy¬ 
 nasty on the throne of China at the opening of 
 the twentieth century. It was of Manchu ori¬ 
 gin and began with the year 1644. The name— 
 Ts’ing —means “pure” or “purity,” and is said 
 to be synonymous with the word Manchu. Ta 
 
 THE REIGN PERIODS OF THE TA TS’ING CH’AO 
 OR “GREAT PURE” DYNASTY OF CHINA 
 
 \ 
 
 NAME OF REIGN 
 
 Began 
 
 Ended 
 
 1. Shun-chih. 
 
 1644 
 
 1661 
 
 2. K’ang-hi or Iv’ang-hsi. 
 
 1662 
 
 1722 
 
 3. Yung-ching or Yung-ch6ng. . . . 
 
 1723 
 
 1735 
 
 4. K’ien-lung or Ch’ien-lung. 
 
 1736 
 
 1795 
 
 5. K’ia-k’ing or Chia-ch’ing. 
 
 1796 
 
 1820 
 
 6. Tao-kwang. 
 
 1821 
 
 1850 
 
 7. Hien-fung or Hsien-f^ng. 
 
 1851 
 
 1861 
 
 8. T’ung-chih. 
 
 1862 
 
 1874 
 
 9. Kwang-sii or Kwang-hsii. 
 
 1875 
 
 1908 
 
 10. Hsiian-tung. 
 
 1909 
 
 1912 
 
 means “great” and was prefixed to almost all 
 dynastic names. It is to be remembered that 
 the personal name of a Chinese emperor was 
 You. XXII.—2 
 
 never used during his lifetime. When he came 
 to the throne a name for the period of years 
 during which he reigned was chosen; but it is 
 convenient at times to transfer this name to the 
 man himself; hence we sometimes speak of the 
 Emperor K’ang-lii, or the Emperor K’ien-lung, 
 though strictly speaking these names denote only 
 certain periods of years. The dynasty came to 
 an end Feb. 12, 1912, when the child Hsiian-tung 
 abdicated in favor of the Republic. 
 
 TAT'TAM, Henry (1789-1868). A distin¬ 
 guished Coptic scholar. He was born in Ire¬ 
 land and was educated at Trinity College, Dub¬ 
 lin, and at Gottingen and Leyden; he was or¬ 
 dained in the Church of England; and was rector 
 of St. Cuthbert’s, Bedford, 1818-45; archdeacon 
 of Bedford, 1844—66; and rector of Stamford 
 Rivers, Essex, 1849 till his death. He traveled in 
 the East and became distinguished as an Orien¬ 
 talist, in which department he published various 
 works. Among the ancient Syriac manuscripts 
 which he found at a convent in Egypt were the 
 Ecclesiastical History of John, Bishop of Ephe¬ 
 sus, and the Epistles of Ignatius. He published 
 a Coptic grammar (1830; 2d ed., 1863), and a 
 dictionary (1835), besides Versions of the 
 prophets (1836-52) and of the Apostolical Con¬ 
 stitutions (1849) in that language. 
 
 TAT'TERSALL’S. A famous English mar¬ 
 ket for riding and carriage horses, at Knights- 
 bridge, London; established in 1766 at Hyde 
 Park Corner by Richard Tattersall, a groom to 
 the Duke of Kingston. It consists of a large and 
 handsome building in the centre of which is a 
 large court under a glass roof. At one time 
 it was the centre of all business relating to 
 horse-racing and betting throughout the country. 
 
 TATTI, Giacopo. See Sansovino, Jacopo. 
 TATT'NALL, Josiah (1795-1871). An 
 American naval officer, born at Bonaventure, 
 near Savannah, Ga. He was educated in Eng¬ 
 land, and entered the United States navy in 1812. 
 He served with Decatur in the Algerine War and 
 became a lieutenant in 1818. In the Mexican 
 War, he fought at the capture of Vera Cruz, 
 and led the attack upon the forts at Tuxpan, 
 where he was wounded. In 1850 he became a 
 captain, and in 1857 flag officer on the Asiatic 
 station. In 1859, while on this station, he 
 chartered the small river steamer Toeywan to 
 take the American Minister to Peking in order 
 to ratify a treaty negotiated in the preceding 
 year. When the American squadron arrived 
 off the Peiho, Tattnall found there the French 
 and British naval forces with their diplomatic 
 representatives on board. The Chinese having 
 refused permission for any foreign vessels to 
 proceed, the British and French forces attacked 
 the forts. Seeing that they were being worsted, 
 and that the boats containing reenforcements 
 could not stem the strong current of the stream, 
 Tattnall, in the Toeywan, declaring that “blood 
 is thicker than water,” towed the flotilla up 
 to the support of the badly pressed vessels. 
 The phrase has become historic. 
 
 On the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, 
 Tattnall resigned and became captain in the 
 Confederate navy, charged with the defense of 
 Georgia and South Carolina. In March, 1862, 
 he was given command of the Merrimac ( Vir¬ 
 ginia) and the defenses of Virginia; destroyed 
 this vessel in order to escape capture; was later 
 court-martialed, but acquitted; was unsuccessful 
 in his defense of Savannah, and in January, 
 1865, was obliged to destroy his fleet. He was 
 
TATTOOING 
 
 12 
 
 TAUCHNITZ 
 
 included in Johnston’s surrender to Sherman, 
 was paroled, and in 1866 removed with his fam¬ 
 ily to Halifax, but returned in 1870 and was 
 inspector of the port of Savannah until his 
 death. Consult C. C. Jones, Life and Services 
 of Commodore Josiah Tattnall (Savannah, 
 1878). 
 
 TATTOO'ING (from tattoo, Tahitian tatn, 
 tattooing, tattooed). The practice of decorating 
 the surface of the body by introducing pigments 
 under the skin. The process consists in prick¬ 
 ing the skin with a sharp instrument and in¬ 
 serting the pigments, usually powdered char¬ 
 coal, in the punctures. The design appears in 
 a deep blue color and is indelible. Other pig¬ 
 ments have come into use in recent times. As 
 a primitive mode of ornamentation, tattooing is 
 widespread, its distribution as compared with 
 the related custom of scarification being de¬ 
 termined by the color of the skin. In general, 
 light-skinned races tattoo, while dark-skinned 
 peoples practice scarring. In Oceania the prac¬ 
 tice is especially developed among the Poly¬ 
 nesians. 
 
 The original significance of tattooing is dis¬ 
 puted. It has been held by some that it had 
 a religious or social meaning, but the best evi¬ 
 dence goes to show that it was at first purely 
 ornamental in character. It must indeed be ad¬ 
 mitted that in many instances the tattooed de¬ 
 signs have a tribal or clan or even a religious 
 meaning, but this usage is probably derived 
 from the decorative. The patterns range from 
 simple lines and dots to complex designs. Prob¬ 
 ably the fullest development of the custom among 
 primitive peoples is in New Zealand, and the 
 Marquesas Islands, though it is also much prac¬ 
 ticed in various parts of the East Indian archi¬ 
 pelago. The tattooing of the natives in North 
 and South America and in parts of the world 
 other than those mentioned above is, as a rule, 
 simple. In modern times and among higher 
 races the Japanese have brought the art to its 
 highest state of perfection. The prevalence of 
 the practice among sailors of all nationalities is 
 well known, but in both these cases the patterns 
 in use have entirely lost their primitive char¬ 
 acteristics and are of civilized origin. Consult: 
 J. A. E. Lacassagne, Les tatouages (Paris, 
 1881); Wilhelm Joest, Tdtotoiren, XarbenZeich- 
 nen und Korperbemalen (Berlin, 1887); H. G. 
 Robley, Moko; or Maori Tattooing (London, 
 1896) ; Augustin Kraemer, Die Samoainseln 
 (Stuttgart, 1902). 
 
 TAU, tou. See Chinese Language; Taoism. 
 
 TAUBERT, touTiert, Wilhelm (1811-91). 
 A German pianist and composer, born in Berlin. 
 He studied philosophy at the university there, 
 at the same time studying composition under 
 Berger and Klein, and afterward taught music 
 until 1831, when he became conductor of the 
 court concerts. In 1842 he was appointed con¬ 
 ductor of the royal opera. He was a member of 
 the Academy of Arts from 1834 and president 
 of the musical section of the same from 1875. 
 His works include the operas Die Kirmes 
 (1832), Macbeth (1857), Cesario (1874), music 
 for the Medea of Euripides, and Shakespeare’s 
 Tempest. His songs were popularized by Jenny 
 Lind and other noted singers. 
 
 TAU BE'TA PI ASSOCIATION. A college 
 honorary technical fraternity that was organized 
 in Lehigh University, South Bethlehem, Pa., in 
 1855. It derives its name from the initials of 
 three Greek words that form the secret motto of 
 
 the association. The Tau Beta Pi bears the same 
 relation to engineering and similar studies as 
 the Phi Beta Kappa (q.v.) does to literary 
 scholarship, and the Sigma Xi (q.v.) does to 
 original research in science. 
 
 The object of the fraternity is to mark in a 
 fitting manner those who have conferred honor 
 upon their Alma Mater by a high grade of 
 scholarship as undergraduates, or by their at¬ 
 tainments as alumni, and to foster a spirit of 
 liberal culture in the technical and scientific 
 schools of America. 
 
 There were in 1914, 27 chapters in as many 
 different colleges and technical schools and 5699 
 members, of whom 5029 were active, 412 gradu¬ 
 ate, and 258 honorary members. 
 
 The badge is a watch charm or scarf pin 
 of gold, shaped like the bent of a trestle. On 
 its obverse there are engraved the secret name 
 and symbols of the association, while on the re¬ 
 verse the name of the chapter appears on the 
 cap of the bent, and on the sill are the name and 
 class of the owner. The colors of Tau Beta Pi 
 are seal brown and white. 
 
 Tau Beta Pi has published since March, 1906, 
 an octavo quarterly magazine called The Bent 
 of Tau Beta Pi, and also in 1911 issued a Cata¬ 
 logue of the Tau Beta Pi Association to which 
 have since been added periodic supplements. 
 
 TAUBMANN, toup'man, Otto (1859- ). 
 
 A German composer, born at Hamburg. At first 
 he followed a commercial career, but later entered 
 the Dresden Conservatory, where his teachers 
 were Wiillner and Nicode. In 1886-89 he was 
 director of the Conservatory at Wiesbaden, in 
 1891-92 theatre conductor at St. Petersburg. 
 In 1895 he settled in Berlin as critic of the 
 Berliner Borsen Courier. At one bound he at¬ 
 tained fame when his great choral work, Eine 
 Deutsche Messe (for soli, chorus, orchestra, 
 and organ), was produced at Dortmund in 1898. 
 His other works, all cast in large form, are: 
 Psalm XIII (for soli, chorus, and orchestra) ; 
 Tauwetter (for male chorus and orchestra) ; 
 Krieg und Frieden (chorus and orchestra) ; the 
 choral drama Sdngerweilne (1904). 
 
 TAUCHNITZ, touK'nits, Christian Bern- 
 hard, Baron (1816-95). A German publisher, 
 born near Naumburg, a nephew of the follow¬ 
 ing. His firm, founded in Leipzig (1837), 
 was noted for its accurate classical and biblical 
 texts, its dictionaries and other works of ref¬ 
 erence. In 1841 Tauchnitz began a Collection of 
 British (and American) Authors, now extending 
 to over 4000 volumes and widely read on the 
 Continent. English authors were paid a royalty 
 by Tauchnitz, who thus helped to establish the 
 present international copyright law. A similar 
 collection of translated German Authors was be¬ 
 gun in 1866 and Students’ Tauchnitz Editions 
 of English and American works began to appear 
 in 1886 with German notes and introductions. 
 Tauchnitz was made Baron in 1860, British 
 Consul General for Saxony in 1872, and member 
 of the Saxon House of Peers in 1877. 
 
 TAUCHNITZ, Karl Christoph Traugott 
 (1761-1836). A German publisher, born in 
 Grossbardau. He began to print books in 1797 
 at Leipzig. He was the first to use stereotype 
 plates (1816) in Germany. His stereotyped edi¬ 
 tions of the classics were once widely famed 
 alike for their cheapness, their convenience, and 
 their accuracy. He thus printed a Bible in 
 Hebrew and the Koran in Arabic. By his will 
 Leipzig received 4,500,000 marks for charitable 
 
TAU CROSS 
 
 13 
 
 TAURIDA 
 
 ends. The business was continued by bis son 
 Karl Christian (1798-1884). 
 
 TAU (tou) CROSS. See Anthony, Saint, 
 Cross of. 
 
 TAUERN, tou'ern. A division of the eastern 
 Alps, including the principal section of what 
 was known to the ancients as the Noric Alps 
 (Map: Austria, C 3). It lies between the rivers 
 Drave and Mur on the south and the Enns on 
 the north, and extends from Brenner Pass in 
 eastern Tirol through the Austrian crownlands 
 of Salzburg and Carinthia into north Styria. 
 The system consists of two main divisions, the 
 Hohe (high) Tauern in the west, and the Niedere 
 (low) Tauern in the east. The whole system 
 has a length of about 150 miles and a width of 
 28 miles. It is wholly of Archean formation, 
 consisting chiefly of gneiss in the west and mica- 
 slate in the east, with some granite. The west¬ 
 ern or Hohe Tauern, as their name implies, are 
 considerably higher and more rugged than the 
 eastern. Their main range forms a sharp ridge 
 with steep sides rising above the snow line and 
 carrying over 250 glaciers, from which numerous 
 mountain torrents fall in cataracts down the 
 steep valleys. The highest peak in the system is 
 the Grossglockner, with an altitude of 12,461 
 feet. 
 
 TAULER, tou'ler, Johann (1300-61). A 
 German mystic. He was born at Strassburg and 
 when 15 years old entered the Order of the 
 Dominicans. When the “black death” visited 
 Strassburg in 1346, he stuck to his post and 
 comforted the people. Excepting for preaching 
 tours into the Rhineland, where he came into 
 contact with the Friends of God (q.v.), he re¬ 
 mained in Strassburg until his death. Tauler 
 was an emotional yet practical mystic and left 
 a large number of sermons full of evangelistic 
 life. The Book of Spiritual Poverty, formerly 
 ascribed to him, has been more recently regarded 
 as a compilation. See a translation of extracts, 
 Golden Thoughts from the Book of Spiritual 
 Poverty (Edinburgh, 1897). Of the various edi¬ 
 tions of Tauler’s works, the Frankfort edition 
 of 1826 is the most complete. 
 
 Bibliography. C. Schmidt, Johannes Tauler 
 (Hamburg, 1841) ; Susanna Winkworth, Tauler’s 
 Life and Times (London, 1857; new ed., New 
 York, 1907) ; Nicolas von Basel, Bericht von der 
 Bekehrung Taulers, edited by C. Schmidt 
 (Strassburg, 1875); W. Preger, Geschichte der 
 deutschen Mystik, vol. iii (Leipzig, 1893) ; A. 
 W. Hulton, The Inner Way; 36 Sermons from 
 John Tauler (ib., 1905) ; Conferences and Ser¬ 
 mons of John Tauler, translated by Rev. W. 
 Elliott (Washington, 1911). See also Mys¬ 
 ticism. 
 
 TAUNTON, tan'ton. The capital of Somer¬ 
 setshire, England, in the valley of the Tone, 38 
 miles southwest of Bristol (Map: England, D 
 6). The streets are wide and are well paved. 
 The Church of St. Mary is of Perpendicular 
 architecture, and is famous for its ornamented 
 tower; that of St. James was the conventual 
 church of an Augustinian priory. Taunton has 
 an extensive museum in the remains of the Nor¬ 
 man castle. It has manufactures of silk, gloves, 
 and hosiery. Ina, King of the West Saxons, 
 built a castle in Taunton about 700 a.d. This 
 was soon after destroyed, but another fortress 
 was built on the site soon after the Conquest, at 
 which period the town had a mint. Pop., 1901, 
 21,078; 1911, 22,563. Consult Toulmin, History 
 of Taunton (Taunton, 1822). 
 
 TAUNTON. A city and one of the county 
 seats of Bristol Co., Mass., 36 miles south of 
 Boston; on Taunton River, and on the New 
 York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad (Map: 
 Massachusetts, E 5). It is regularly laid out 
 with finely shaded streets, and lias many hand¬ 
 some residences. Among its institutions are a 
 State Insane Hospital, Morton Hospital, the Old 
 Ladies’ Home, and Bristol Academy. The Pub¬ 
 lic Library contains 55,000 volumes. Other im¬ 
 portant collections are the Bristol County Law 
 Library and that of the Old Colony Historical 
 Society. The city hall, county courthouse, the 
 post office, registry of deeds, and the jail are 
 buildings of merit. There are several pleasure 
 grounds, of which Taunton Green and Wood¬ 
 ward Springs Park are the more noteworthy. 
 
 Taunton carries on a large trade, being the 
 business centre of a number of towns in the vi¬ 
 cinity. It has also important industrial inter¬ 
 ests, the various establishments according to the 
 census of 1909 having $16,504,000 capital, and 
 an output valued at $15,380,000. The principal 
 manufactures are cotton goods, stoves, and sil¬ 
 verware. There are machine shops, wood-work¬ 
 ing establishments, and manufactories of copper 
 ware, tacks, wire nails, stove lining, carriages, 
 buttons, boxes, oilcloth, brick, printing presses, 
 twist drills, cotton machinery, aluminium goods, 
 pearl • jewelry, eyelets, etc. The iron industry 
 was established here in 1652. 
 
 The government is vested in a mayor and nine 
 councilmen, elected at large. The water works, 
 and the electric-light plant, are owned by the 
 municipality. Pop., 1900, 31,036; 1910, 34,259; 
 1915 (State census), 36,161; 1920, 37,137. 
 
 Settled in 1638 as Coliannat, Taunton was in¬ 
 corporated under its present name in 1639. It 
 was made a shire town in 1746 and was char¬ 
 tered as a city in 1865. The first permanent 
 settlement in Vermont was made by a company 
 from Taunton in 1736. Consult Quarter-1Mil¬ 
 lennial Celebration of the City of Taunton 
 (Taunton, 1889) ; Emery, History of Taunton 
 (Syracuse, 1893). 
 
 TAUNTON, Baron. See Labouchere, Henry. 
 
 TAUNUS, tou'nus. A mountain range of 
 west Germany, in the Prussian Province of 
 Hesse-Nassau, extending about 55 miles in a 
 northeast direction from the right bank of the 
 Rhine near its confluence with the Main (Map: 
 Germany, C 3). It consists mainly of schists 
 and quartzites, and reaches its highest elevation, 
 2713 feet, in the northeast. It is steepest, how¬ 
 ever, in the southwest, where many crags are 
 crowned with ruined castles. The higher por¬ 
 tions of the range are forest-clad, and the lower 
 slopes are covered with vineyards yielding some 
 of the best of Rhenish wines. The range is fa¬ 
 mous for numerous mineral springs, including 
 those of Wiesbaden, Homburg, and Nauheim. 
 
 TAURIC CHERSONESE, ta'rik ker'so-nez. 
 See Chersonesus, 2; Iphigenia. 
 
 TAURIDA, tou'rl-da. A government of 
 European Russia, consisting of the peninsula 
 of the Crimea (q.v.) and a portion on the main¬ 
 land connected with the peninsula by the Isthmus 
 of Perekop (Map: Russia, D 5). Area, about 
 24,497 square miles. No other government in 
 European Russia presents such striking natural 
 contrasts . as this. The region north of the 
 isthmus is mostly flat and its climate is consid¬ 
 erably colder than that of the peninsula. The 
 principal river of the mainland portion is the 
 Dnieper, which forms its northwest boundary. 
 
TAURIDA 
 
 14 
 
 TAVERNIER 
 
 This part of the government is well adapted by 
 its steppelike surfaces for stock raising. Large 
 numbers of merino sheep are reared. Wheat, 
 rye, barley, and oats are produced extensively. 
 The cultivation of industrial plants and fruits 
 is confined principally to the peninsula. The 
 chief manufactures are flour, tobacco, and some 
 iron products. The population is very cosmo¬ 
 politan. In 1912 it numbered 1,965,900, of whom 
 the Russians constituted about 71 per cent and 
 the Tatars about 13 per cent. The capital is 
 Simferopol (q.v.). See Crimea. 
 
 TAURIDA, Prince of. See Potemkin, G. A. 
 
 TAU'RIN (from Lat. taurus, bull, so called 
 because first discovered in the bile of the ox), or 
 Amido-Ettiyl-Suephonic Acid, C 2 H 4 (NH 2 )S0 3 H. 
 A substance occurring, as a constituent of tauro- 
 cholic acid, in the bile and in other animal 
 products and tissues. When pure it forms six- 
 sided glistening prisms, perfectly transparent, 
 neutral, devoid of odor, soluble in water, but 
 insoluble in alcohol and ether. 
 
 TAUUtUS. A series of mountain ranges in 
 the southern part of Asia Minor forming the 
 southern boundary of the Anatolian Plateau, 
 which covers the central part of the peninsula 
 (Map: Turkey in Asia, C 3). It follows the 
 Mediterranean coast from the Euphrates towards 
 the iEgean Sea. On the north it slopes gradually 
 towards the plateau, but on the south it falls 
 in steep terraces towards the sea. The Taurus 
 has many peaks above 10,000 feet, being highest 
 near the eastern end. Between the ranges rivers 
 flow to the sea from the inner plateau. A north¬ 
 eastern extension from the Sihun River in align¬ 
 ment with the eastern Taurus is known as the 
 Anti-Taurus. 
 
 TAURUS (Lat., bull). The second sign of 
 the zodiac (q.v.), its conventional symbol being 
 8. The constellation Taurus contains the two 
 famous star groups known as the Pleiades and 
 the Hyades (qq.v.), in the latter of which is 
 situated the brilliant red star Aldebaran (q.v.). 
 Other interesting objects in this constellation 
 are X Tauri, an Algol variable with a period 
 of 3.9 days, and the Crab nebula, so called from 
 its shape. 
 
 TAUSEN, tou'sen, Hans (1494-1561). A 
 Danish leader in the Reformation, born at 
 Birkende, in Fyn. From 1523 to 1525 he studied 
 at Wittenberg under Luther, after his return 
 fearlessly preaching the doctrines of the Refor¬ 
 mation. He met great antagonism from the 
 clergy, but was popularly successful. In 1537 he 
 became professor of Hebrew in Copenhagen Uni¬ 
 versity, and in 1542 Bishop of Ribe. In worship 
 he employed the people’s mother tongue instead 
 of Latin, wrote hymns, a postil, and pamphlets 
 in Danish, and translated part of the Bible. 
 Tausen was the first and one of the foremost of 
 Danish followers of Luther, an able and power¬ 
 ful preacher, and gifted as a poet and linguist. 
 II. F. Rordam edited part of his writings in 
 1870. 
 
 TAUSIG, tou'siK, Ivarl (1841-71). A Ger¬ 
 man pianoforte virtuoso, born in Warsaw. He 
 received his first instruction from his father, 
 and completed his education with Liszt in 1855- 
 59. He became famous for technique and inter¬ 
 pretative ability, and won a world-wide reputa¬ 
 tion bv the concert tours that occupied his short 
 life. He was connected with the musical life 
 of Dresden (1859-60), Vienna (1862), and Ber¬ 
 lin (1865), in which latter city he founded a 
 ■‘Schule des hoheren Clavierspiels,” which he 
 
 gave up in 1870. Of his composition and ar¬ 
 rangements the great proportion are classical 
 pianoforte works which he edited. He also pre¬ 
 pared and edited a new edition of dementi’s 
 Gradus ad Parnassian, and arranged the piano 
 score of Wagner’s Meistersinger. He composed 
 and published two Etudes de concert (F# and 
 Ab), also Ungarische Zigeunerweisen, Youvelles 
 soirees de Vienne, and Yalscs-Caprices on themes 
 from Strauss. 
 
 TAUSSIG, tous'sig, Frank William (1859- 
 ). An American economist, born in St. 
 Louis. He graduated at Harvard in 1879, and 
 after teaching there for 10 years, became professor 
 of economics in 1892. In 1904-05 Taussig was 
 president of the American Economic Association. 
 His publications include: The Tariff History of 
 the United States (1888; 6th ed., rev., 1914), a 
 standard work; Protection to Young Industries 
 as Applied to the United States (1883; 2d ed., 
 1886) ; History of the Present Tariff, 1860-83 
 (1885); The Silver Situation in the United 
 States (1892; 3d ed., rev., 1896); Wages and 
 Capital (1896) ; Principles of Economics (1911; 
 2d ed., 1915) ; Some Aspects of the Tariff Ques¬ 
 tion (1915); Inventors and Money Makers 
 (1915), Brown University lectures. He also 
 edited State Papers and Speeches on the Tariff 
 (1892) ; and for some years was editor in chief 
 of the Quarterly Journal of Economics. 
 
 TAU-TAI. See Taotai. 
 
 TAU'TOG (Massachusetts Indian tautauog, 
 pi. of taut, sheep’s head, the Indian name of the 
 fish). An American food fish ( Tautoga onitis) 
 of the family (Labridac) to which the wrasses 
 of Europe belong. It is found from Maine to 
 South Carolina, especially along the coast of 
 southern New England, on rocky and weedy bot¬ 
 toms, where it lives on mollusks, crustaceans, 
 worms, sand dollars, etc. It is abundant, is of 
 considerable importance as a food fish, and is 
 locally known as blackfish and oysterfish. 
 It may attain an extreme weight of 22 pounds, 
 with a length of 3 feet, but the average 
 weight is about three pounds. The annual catch 
 amounts to about 1,500,000 pounds, valued at 
 $60,000. The tautogs spawn in May and June, 
 and are very prolific, a large fish yielding more 
 than a million eggs, which are small and buoy¬ 
 ant, and hatch in four or five days. Consult G. 
 B. Goode, Fishery Industries, sec., i (Washing¬ 
 ton, 1884) ; Jordan and Evermann, Americam 
 Food and Game Fishes (New York, 1905). 
 
 TAV'ERNER, Richard (c.1505-75). An 
 English religious writer. He was born at Bris- 
 ley, Norfolk; graduated at Oxford in 1529; was 
 clerk of the signet under Thomas Cromwell, and 
 managed to retain court favor after Cromwell’s 
 fall (1540). In 1545 he w T as returned to Parlia¬ 
 ment, and by the King’s gift came into posses¬ 
 sion of much property. Under Edward VI he 
 maintained his position. Early won for the 
 Reformation and the author of a translation of 
 the Augsburg Confession (1536) and other origi¬ 
 nal and translated works in the interest of 
 Protestantism, and a licensed lay preacher under 
 Edward VI, he still was unmolested by Mary, al¬ 
 though he lost his office. Under Elizabeth he 
 came again into royal favor and was high sheriff 
 at Oxford (1569). Taverner’s principal literary 
 work was a revision of Thomas Matthew’s Bible 
 of 1537, upon the suggestion of Thomas Crom¬ 
 well. It was the first complete Bible ever printed 
 in England (London, 1539). 
 
 TAVERNIER, ta'var'nya/, Jean Baptiste, 
 
TAVIRA 
 
 15 
 
 TAX AND TAXATION 
 
 Baron d’Atjbonne (1605-80). A French trav¬ 
 eler, born in Paris. He became a dealer in 
 precious stones, and between 1638 and 1603 made 
 a number of journeys to Turkey, Persia, India, 
 and the East Indies. His Six Voyages en Tur- 
 quie, en Perse, et aux Indies (1676), edited by 
 Chappuzeau and La Chapelle, went through many 
 editions. Consult V. Ball’s translation, Travels 
 in India (1889), with a biographical sketch of 
 Tavernier. 
 
 T AVER A, ta-ve'ra. A seaport town of the 
 Province of Algarve, Portugal, 136 miles south¬ 
 east of Lisbon, on both sides of the river Gilao, 
 at its mouth (Map: Portugal, B 4). The harbor 
 is navigable for small vessels and affords an im¬ 
 portant commerce in mineral waters and white 
 wines. The town has also sardine and tunny 
 fisheries. Pop., 1900, 12,178. 
 
 TAV'ISTOCK. A market town in Devon¬ 
 shire, England, picturesquely situated on the 
 west border of Dartmoor, about 35 miles south¬ 
 west of Exeter, and 12 miles north of Plymouth, 
 in the fertile valley of the Tavy, which is crossed 
 by two bridges within the town (Map: England, 
 B 6). There are iron foundries and mining 
 works, copper, lead, tin, and iron being found 
 in decreasing quantity in the neighborhood. The 
 parish church, dating from 1318, is a handsome 
 edifice. Tavistock was formerly of great im¬ 
 portance, owing to its abbey, the largest and 
 most magnificent in Devonshire, which was 
 founded in the year 961, for the Benedictine 
 Order. The refectory and abbey gateway still 
 exist. Pop., 1901, 5043; 1911, 4392. 
 
 TAVOY, ta-voi'. The capital of a district of 
 the same name in Tenasserim, Lower Burma, 
 160 miles west by north of Bangkok, on the 
 Tavoy River, 30 miles from its mouth (Map: 
 Burma, C 4). It is the shipping point for the 
 rice and fruit of the surrounding region, and 
 manufactures earthenware, silk, and salt. Tavoy 
 has been a British possession since 1824. Pop., 
 1901, 22,371; 1911, 25,063. 
 
 TAVRIS, ta-vres'. A town of Persia. See 
 Tabriz. 
 
 TAWAKONI, ta-wa/ko-ne. An important 
 Caddoan tribe of the Wichita group (q.v.). See 
 Waco. 
 
 TAWING. See Leather. 
 
 TAWNY, or TENNE. The term for orange 
 color in heraldry (q.v.), represented in engrav¬ 
 ing by diagonal lines running from the sinister 
 chief point and crossed by horizontal lines. 
 
 TAX, Single. See Single Tax. 
 
 TAXACE75E, taks-a r s6-e. A family of Coni¬ 
 fers including forms commonly called yew, 
 ground hemlock, etc. It comprises 5 genera and 
 about 20 species, occurring chiefly in the North¬ 
 ern Hemisphere. Formerly it included the Podo- 
 carpaceae (see Podocarpus) of the Southern 
 Hemisphere. The most familiar North Ameri¬ 
 can representative is Taxus canadensis (Ameri¬ 
 can yew, ground hemlock, etc.). 
 
 TAX AND TAXATION (OF., Fr. taxe, from 
 ML. taxa, tasca, taxation, tax, from Lat. taxare, 
 to touch, rate, appraise, estimate). A tax is a 
 compulsory contribution from private income or 
 wealth to meet the general expenses of govern¬ 
 ment. The purpose of taxation is primarily the 
 securing of revenue, although it may incidentally 
 subserve political, social, or moral ends. The 
 common element in all forms of taxation is the 
 destination of the revenue derived from them—■ 
 to cover general expenses of government. This 
 characteristic serves to distinguish from taxes 
 
 such compulsory payments as fees and special 
 assessments (see Assessor), which are primarily 
 payments to meet costs incurred in affording 
 special public services to the individuals who 
 pay them. 
 
 Taxation, while it is to-day by far the most 
 important source of public revenue, is of com¬ 
 paratively recent origin. The mediaeval state 
 depended for its revenues largely upon the prod¬ 
 uct of the public domain. (See Finance.) It 
 was in the cities that taxation first developed. 
 Payment of taxes was generally regarded as pre¬ 
 requisite to citizenship. With the increase in 
 public needs which accompanied the development 
 of the national state various forms of indirect 
 taxes—tolls, import duties—were levied and 
 with the extension of citizenship characteristic 
 of the modern state the duty of paying taxes 
 has become practically universal. The broaden¬ 
 ing of the functions of the state, noted under 
 Finance, has had the effect of making taxation 
 an increasingly important element in economic 
 life. In general the higher the social and eco¬ 
 nomic development of a nation, the heavier is 
 the burden of taxation upon its citizens. 
 
 Principles of Taxation. Writers on finance 
 are accustomed to lay down certain general prin¬ 
 ciples of justice and of administration to which 
 practical systems should conform. Taxes should 
 be capable of yielding a large revenue; they 
 should be economical, i.e., the cost of collection 
 should not materially increase the burden im¬ 
 posed upon the taxpayer; they should be elastic, 
 capable of responding to a sudden demand for 
 revenue; they should not impair their source 
 through discouraging industry. So far as pos¬ 
 sible they should be collected in such a way as 
 to cause the taxpayer the least inconvenience; 
 they should be certain, so that each man might 
 know what he might be expected to pay and 
 make provision accordingly. Most important of 
 all, they should be equitably distributed. 
 
 On what principle the distribution of taxes 
 should be made is a question on which financial 
 theorists are far from an agreement. In the first 
 half of the nineteenth century most writers re¬ 
 garded a tax as a payment to the state for pro¬ 
 tection or for the privilege of securing an in¬ 
 come under the laws of the state. It followed 
 from this view that taxes should be distributed 
 according to the benefit received or according to 
 the cost incurred by the state in affording the 
 benefit. Such a principle proved unsatisfactory, 
 since both benefit and cost are indeterminable. 
 In recent years the doctrine which has the widest 
 following teaches that, since civilized existence 
 is conditioned by the state, each individual is 
 born with the duty of contributing to the needs 
 of the state in proportion to his ability or fac¬ 
 ulty. This theory more nearly than any other 
 corresponds with public sentiment and with the 
 actual practice of taxation. 
 
 Proportional, Progressive, and Degressive 
 Taxation. A system of proportional taxation 
 is one in which the contribution from income or 
 wealth remains a constant percentage, whatever 
 the size of the latter may be. It is defended on 
 the ground that it approximates the ideal of 
 taxation according to ability. Progressive taxa¬ 
 tion, in which the contribution increases rela¬ 
 tively to income or wealth, may be defended on 
 the same ground, since one who possesses a large 
 income is obviously more able to surrender a cer¬ 
 tain percentage of it than one who has a small 
 income is to surrender an equal percentage. 
 
TAX AND TAXATION 
 
 16 
 
 TAX AND TAXATION 
 
 More often it is advocated as a measure of social 
 equalization. Degressive taxation, in which the 
 contribution diminishes relatively to income or 
 wealth, has no valid defense; it exists only be¬ 
 cause of the imperfection of the taxing machin¬ 
 ery, which finds less difficulty in levying upon 
 small aggregates of wealth than upon large. 
 
 An ideal system of taxation would be a single 
 tax on incomes. Such a tax would have to take 
 account of the necessary expenditures of indi¬ 
 viduals, since these affect faculty; it would also 
 take account of the character of income, whether 
 funded or unfunded, since the former, being more 
 certain, places its recipient in a better economic 
 position than the latter. Income taxes, however, 
 have proved practicable to only a limited extent. 
 (See below.) 
 
 A tax on all property would approximate the 
 same end, since the value of property is closely 
 dependent upon the income it yields. This tax 
 was practicable enough when almost all property 
 was tangible and incapable of concealment. It 
 is the most unsatisfactory of systems when, as 
 at present, a vast amount of property consists in 
 intangible personalty. For these reasons a mul¬ 
 tiple system of taxation, direct and indirect, is 
 necessary to provide satisfactory revenues and 
 to approximate fairness in distribution. 
 
 Shifting and Incidence of Taxation. The 
 problems of taxation are immensely complicated 
 by the fact that a tax may not rest upon the 
 persons who pay it in the first instance, but may 
 be shifted in whole or in part through price 
 changes. A tax upon the output of a factory 
 would naturally result in an equal rise in price. 
 The manufacturer might pay the tax, but its 
 ultimate incidence is upon the consumer. A 
 tax on houses might temporarily be borne by 
 the owner, but in the nature of the case it would 
 ultimately result in higher rents, since it would 
 put a check upon building. A tax on land value, 
 on the other hand, could not be shifted, since it 
 would not affect the amount of land available 
 for use, and hence could not raise rents. 
 
 Capitalization of Taxation. Closely allied 
 to the phenomenon of shifting is that of capital¬ 
 ization. A special tax falling upon an income- 
 yielding property from which it cannot be shifted, 
 e.g., a landed holding, tends to depress the value 
 of the property by the capital value of the tax. 
 Subsequent purchasers of the property are not 
 burdened by the tax, since full allowance for it 
 is made in the purchase price. 
 
 Direct and Indirect Taxes. A classification 
 of taxes of much practical importance is that 
 which distinguishes between direct and indirect. 
 The distinction cannot be sharply drawn, but it 
 may in general be said that direct taxes are 
 those which are levied upon the persons or 
 property of those upon whom they are expected 
 to rest, while indirect taxes are levied upon com¬ 
 modities or industrial processes with the expec¬ 
 tation of their further diffusion. Examples of 
 the former kind are the poll tax, the general 
 property tax, and the income tax. Examples of 
 indirect taxes are customs duties and excise 
 taxes. The practical advantage of indirect tax¬ 
 ation lies in its ease of collection and in the fact 
 that it creates a minimum of opposition on the 
 part of the taxpayer, who does not recognize 
 that he is paying a tax through the enhancement 
 of price of articles which he may purchase or not 
 as he chooses. This very fact gives rise to one 
 of the chief disadvantages of such taxation, viz., 
 that it encourages wasteful administration, since 
 
 the financier is not held to such strict account 
 for funds raised in this way. A further objection 
 to indirect taxation is that it weighs most heav¬ 
 ily upon the poor, since it is only commodities 
 in general use which can yield a considerable 
 revenue through indirect taxation. 
 
 Forms of Taxation. The simplest form of 
 taxation is the poll tax, a head tax levied equally 
 upon all citizens or inhabitants. This tax was 
 not uncommon in England towards the close of 
 the Middle Ages; it was an important form of 
 taxation in the New England colonies. Where it 
 still exists it is of minor importance. A tax on 
 general property was developed in the northern 
 Colonies of America. Taxes on houses are dis¬ 
 cussed under the title House Tax (q.v.). 
 
 A notable development in taxation has been 
 the imposition in many countries of special taxes 
 upon the land. In almost all the cities of New 
 Zealand local revenues are raised chiefly from 
 proportional taxes upon the unimproved value 
 of the land, and the same system is widely em¬ 
 ployed in Australia and western Canada. A 
 trace of the same system appears in the Penn¬ 
 sylvania law permitting the cities of Pittsburgh 
 and Scranton to introduce gradually heavier 
 rates on land than on buildings. New Zealand 
 also has state taxes graduated according to the 
 size of holding and special taxes on absentee 
 holdings. Western Canadian communities levy 
 special taxes on unimproved land, and the same 
 principle appears in the British system adopted 
 in 1910-11. Germany and England also levy 
 taxes upon the increase in value of land, as in¬ 
 dicated by prices at successive transfer, or by 
 appraisal. 
 
 For inheritance tax see that title. 
 
 The chief forms of indirect taxes are customs 
 duties (see Tariff) and excise taxes, or taxes 
 upon the production or sale of commodities. The 
 latter are common wherever business is highly 
 developed. They are employed in England to 
 offset duties on imports, which would otherwise 
 serve to protect the native producer. 
 
 Taxation in the United States. There are 
 no constitutional restrictions upon the power of 
 the Federal government over taxation save that 
 “no capitation or other direct tax shall be laid 
 unless in proportion to the census or enumera¬ 
 tion,” “no tax or duty shall be laid on articles 
 exported from any State,” “no preference shall 
 be given ... to the ports of one State over 
 those of another,” and “that all duties, imposts, 
 and excises shall be uniform throughout the 
 United States.” The power of the States to tax 
 is also practically unlimited, except that they 
 may not tax interstate commerce, levy import or 
 export duties, or exercise the right of taxation 
 in a manner to impair the obligation of a con¬ 
 tract or to confiscate property without due proc¬ 
 ess of law. The State constitutions in many 
 
 «/ 
 
 cases place further limitations upon the power 
 of taxation exercised by the State governments. 
 The two fields of national and State taxation 
 have been on the whole well defined and separate 
 since the adoption of the Federal Constitution. 
 While there is no legal objection to the right of 
 the State to levy excise taxation, the prohibition 
 of taxation of like commodities entering the 
 State by interstate commerce renders this right 
 nugatory; the States are therefore practically 
 confined to direct taxation, and the Federal gov¬ 
 ernment has refrained from entering this field 
 of taxation except in periods of great national 
 emergency. Areas of conflict do, however, ap- 
 
TAX AND TAXATION 
 
 17 
 
 TAX AND TAXATION 
 
 pear in the income, corporation, and inheritance 
 taxes. Both income and inheritance taxes are 
 employed by the Federal government and some 
 of the States. While the inheritance tax has 
 not been employed by the Federal government 
 except in emergencies, the trend of financial 
 opinion favors the adoption of a Federal tax. 
 
 State Taxation. In the majority of the 
 United States the basis of the fiscal system is 
 found in the general property tax, levied both for 
 State and local purposes, on realty and person¬ 
 alty of the inhabitants of the State. This tax, 
 although general, has long been severely criti¬ 
 cized by taxation experts. Recent tendencies 
 have been in the direction of breaking up the 
 general property tax through the separate treat¬ 
 ment of special forms of property, especially cor¬ 
 porate property, and the relegation of the tax on 
 general property to local purposes. Confined to 
 tangible property and levied for local purposes, 
 the tax on property may, in the opinion of ex¬ 
 perts, be stripped of most of its abuses. Through 
 the inefficiency and occasional dishonesty of 
 assessors, and through their frequent dependence 
 upon popular favor, property of all sorts, and 
 more especially personal property, escapes its 
 just burdens, while in many cases the system of 
 basing the taxation of the State upon the local 
 assessment leads to a competition among the 
 various districts of the State to keep their local 
 assessment unreasonably low and thus evade, 
 as far as possible, the burden of the State gen¬ 
 eral property tax. The resulting inequalities are 
 only partially remedied by the various State 
 boards of equalization which now exist in about 
 one-half of the States and which exercise the 
 right to raise or lower the assessment of counties 
 and in cases even to alter the assessment of indi¬ 
 viduals. It has, moreover, been found imprac¬ 
 ticable to secure good results by imposing severe 
 penalties for evasion or by paying portions of 
 the tax to persons discovering such evasions. 
 
 Mortgages are taxed in most States together 
 with the other forms of personalty, and as no 
 deduction is usually made in the assessment of 
 mortgaged property, the imposition of the tax 
 on mortgages usually amounts to double taxa¬ 
 tion. Attempts have been made in Massachu¬ 
 setts, California, Oregon, and elsewhere to pre¬ 
 vent this double taxation of mortgaged property. 
 
 In connection with the general property tax 
 many of the Southern States also depend upon 
 a number of license or privilege taxes upon vari¬ 
 ous forms of business or exhibitions. In the 
 South the tax is not graduated, but is usually 
 a fixed charge, and according to Seligman ( Es¬ 
 says in Taxation ) is the natural result of the 
 economic constitution of the South in the past. 
 The aristocratic landed interests did not desire 
 to tax themselves by land or poll (slave) tax, 
 but attempted to shift the burden in Colonial 
 days by taxing imports and exports and. after 
 the adoption of the Constitution of the United 
 States, bv levying business taxes or licenses. 
 
 A few States levy an income tax, in some 
 cases instead of the general property tax, in 
 others in connection with it. The income tax 
 law of Massachusetts has survived from Colonial 
 days. It exempts incomes under $2000, taxing 
 only the excess, and exempts also the income 
 from property already taxed. It is laxly admin¬ 
 istered. Vhhe Wisconsin income tax law, as a re¬ 
 sult of excellent administration, has proved to be 
 a satisfactory source of revenue and has led to 
 a change of view among taxation authorities 
 
 as to the practicability of State income taxes as 
 a minor source of revenue. 
 
 The assessment of the property of corpora¬ 
 tions by local bodies under the general property 
 tax has everywhere been found to be inadequate, 
 and the expedient has commonly been resorted 
 to of assessing the propert}' of such corpora¬ 
 tions by a State board instead of by local as¬ 
 sessors. ^Corporations are taxed, however, on 
 another basis than that of the value of their 
 property. According to Professor Seligman the 
 basis of taxing corporations in the United States 
 has been: (1 Y the value of the property; \ 2) 
 the cost of the property; <"3) the capital stock 
 at par value; (4) Hhe capital stock at market 
 value; (5)^the capital stock plus the bonded 
 debt at market value; (G^he capital stock plus 
 total debt, both funded and floating; (7) the 
 
 business transacted; (8)^gross earnings; (9) 
 dividends; (10)*capital stock according to divi¬ 
 dends; (II) net earnings; (12) value of fran¬ 
 chise. Several States have accepted gross rev¬ 
 enue or net earnings as a basis for taxation, and 
 in several States, Wisconsin, Michigan, etc., this 
 tax is progressive. A feature of recent taxation 
 is the so-called special franchise tax. A tax of 
 this sort which falls upon “franchises for the 
 use of streets granted by municipalities to pub¬ 
 lic-service corporations,” was passed by the New 
 York Legislature in 1899, and a somewhat simi¬ 
 lar tax was levied in New Jersey in 1900. One 
 of the most serious drawbacks to the just and 
 equitable taxation of corporations lies in the in¬ 
 terstate location of their property and the in¬ 
 terstate character of their business and the con¬ 
 sequent frequent conflicts of jurisdiction. To 
 prevent this Prof. Henry C. Adams advocates the 
 Federal taxation of interstate commerce, while 
 another authority on finance (Professor Selig¬ 
 man) urges uniformity of State action or, in de¬ 
 fault thereof, taxation by the Federal govern¬ 
 ment and subsequent redistribution of such rev¬ 
 enue among the States. 
 
 Federal Taxation. The revenue of the Fed¬ 
 eral government has been obtained principally 
 from customs and internal revenue duties. Down 
 to 1848 the internal revenue receipts were rela¬ 
 tively insignificant except for the years 1814-18, 
 when they averaged over $3,000,000 as compared 
 with customs receipts of about $20,000,000. From 
 1849 to 1862 no internal revenues were collected. 
 Under the stress of the Civil War a vast number 
 of internal duties were imposed, and from 1864 
 to 1868 the internal revenues exceeded the cus¬ 
 toms in yield. After the restoration of normal 
 conditions the internal revenue receipts fell to 
 a level somewhat below the customs and except 
 sporadically did not surpass the customs until 
 the years of the Spanish War finance (1898- 
 1902). Since 1911 the internal revenue receipts 
 have uniformly exceeded the customs receipts, 
 partly in consequence of the two new elements— 
 the corporation tax, first affecting yield in 1910, 
 and the income tax, affecting yield in 1914. For 
 American and foreign policy of taxation during 
 and after the war see articles Finance, United 
 States and Volume XXIV. 
 
 Bibliography. H. C. Adams, Science of 
 Finance (New York, 1899) ; C. F. Bastable, 
 Public Finance (3d ed., ib., 1903); E. R. A. 
 Seligman, Progressive Taxation in Theory and 
 Practice (2d ed., Princeton, 1908) ; Adams, 
 Public Finance (New York, 1909) ; E. R. A. 
 Seligman, Shifting and Incidence of Taxation 
 (3d ed., ib., 1910) ; id., Essays in Taxation (8th 
 
TAXATION OF COSTS 
 
 18 
 
 TAXILA 
 
 ed., ib., 1913) ; id., Income Tax (2d ed., ib., 
 1914) ; R. M. Haig, The Exemption of Improve¬ 
 ments from Taxation in Canada and the United 
 States (ib., 1915) ; also references under Fi¬ 
 nance and Political Economy. 
 
 TAXATION OF COSTS. The official con¬ 
 firmation of the amount of costs due a success¬ 
 ful litigant. It is a ministerial act usually per¬ 
 formed by the clerk of the court, but subject to 
 review by the court. In England costs are taxed 
 before a taxing master or registrar, and in Scot¬ 
 land before an auditor. See Costs. 
 
 TAX DEED. An authenticated instrument 
 by which a public officer transfers land sold for 
 taxes. The validity of the deed depends upon 
 the regularity of the tax sale and compliance 
 with the statutes. Delivery of the deed may be 
 compelled by mandamus or restrained by in¬ 
 junction. The deed is not made until after the 
 time for redemption has expired. See Tax 
 Sale. 
 
 TAXICAB. See Motor Vehicle. 
 
 TAX'IDEE'MY (from Gk. ra|ts, taxis, ar¬ 
 rangement -j- depya, derma, skin). The art of 
 skinning, preserving, and stuffing the skins of 
 animals, and of properly mounting them. All 
 animals should first be carefully measured, ac¬ 
 cording to measurements prescribed by taxider¬ 
 mists. Drawings and if possible casts should be 
 made of parts whose form and expression are 
 characteristic and can be expressed in no other 
 way. These precautions have reference to the 
 mounting of the animals in a lifelike attitude and 
 form. Mounting requires experience and, for 
 the greatest success, an artist’s eye for form 
 and a sculptor’s skill in modeling. The skin 
 should be carefully removed from the body to 
 the tips of the toes and to the bill in the case 
 of the bird. Directions as to where and how 
 far to cut the skins of the various sorts of ani¬ 
 mals may be found in taxidermists’ guides. The 
 skin should not be cut at the claws and beak, 
 and in the case of birds, the skull should be left 
 within the skin. Clean the leg and skull bones 
 of all flesh, clear out the brain, and preserve 
 the skin and all it contains by anointing it 
 thoroughly on the inside with arsenical soap. 
 Many taxidermists prefer to have the entire 
 pelvic and pectoral girdles preserved at least. 
 
 Subsequent treatment depends somewhat on 
 whether the specimen is to be mounted, and 
 upon the facilities at hand, and the ease and 
 cost of transportation. Except in the case of 
 young, and of certain species, the skins of 
 mammals, whether preserved in the field or in 
 the laboratory, should if possible be preserved 
 wet, in a salt and alum bath. The proportions 
 recommended by Hornaday are: to one gallon of 
 water add % of a pound alum (one pint) and 
 1% pounds salt (one quart) ; heat to near the 
 boiling point until the crystals are all dissolved. 
 When possible test with a salometer, where 
 liquid should stand at 15°. Do not allow the 
 liquid to remain in a zinc or galvanized vessel. 
 Immerse the skins in the cooled solution. For 
 the first two or three days do not allow the 
 skins to crumple or fold, and to facilitate the 
 penetration of the fluid to all parts of the skins 
 stir them about in the fluid. Keep greasy skins 
 by themselves and replace a dirty and bloody 
 preservative by a clean one. 
 
 Skins for mounting should be preserved dry 
 only when the lack of facilities and the cost of 
 transportation render the wet method prohibi¬ 
 tive. By the dry method the skins may be pre¬ 
 
 served with arsenical soap. When the soap is 
 all absorbed the skins should be dusted with 
 finely powdered salt and alum in equal propor¬ 
 tions. Very good skins may be prepared with 
 salt alone in an emergency; but such skins 
 should be guarded against the attacks of insects, 
 rats, mice, cats, dogs, etc. 
 
 Bird skins may be preserved either with pow¬ 
 dered arsenic and alum or with arsenical soap. 
 Before removing the skin of a bird plug the vent 
 and nostrils with cotton. Dirt and blood spots 
 should then be washed out with water and the 
 feathers dried with generous and repeated sprink¬ 
 ling of meal, plaster of Paris, or sawdust. The 
 skin having been removed and anointed with 
 the preservative, replace the skull (using great 
 care here as elsewhere not to stretch or tear the 
 delicate skin) ; gently fill the eye sockets and 
 throat with cotton to their natural fullness; 
 wind the wing bones and legs with cotton to an 
 amount equal to the muscles removed, and gently 
 draw them down into the skin of the arms and 
 legs, which should be placed in a natural posi¬ 
 tion. Then make as close an imitation of the 
 body as possible (of cotton for little birds and 
 of tow for large ones), insert it into the skin, 
 packing it in just sufficiently to fill out all the 
 natural roundness and no more, and draw the 
 skin over it. Next smooth all the feathers care¬ 
 fully, lay the wings naturally beside the body, 
 and tie them there by many windings of thread 
 round and round the whole length of the body. 
 This done lay the bird on its back on a board, 
 stretch out the beak and tail, and fasten them 
 in position if necessary and leave the specimen 
 in an airy place until thoroughly dried. A light 
 label should be attached to the leg. Skins so 
 preserved are better for study purposes than 
 when mounted, as they are easily handled, take 
 less room in a cabinet, and are more easilv cared 
 for. When properly preserved they may be pre¬ 
 pared for mounting at any time by softening by 
 means of wrapping in damp cloths. 
 
 The mounting of skins is a very elaborate 
 process, and good results depend not only upon 
 acquired skill, but upon a knowledge of anatomy, 
 bionomics, and good artistic taste. In the case 
 of the smaller birds and animals it consists of 
 arranging wires lengthwise of the body and the 
 limbs, so connected as to support the body in a 
 lifelike attitude; but large animals must have 
 the substance of the body replaced by some firm 
 material, such as clay or some plastic composi¬ 
 tion, which must be modeled with great intelli¬ 
 gence if the figure is to be satisfactory. 
 
 Bibliography. Montague Browne, Practical 
 Taxidermy (2d ed., New York, 1884) ; R. W. 
 Shufeldt, “Scientific Taxidermy for Museums,” 
 in United States National Museum, Annual 
 Report, 1892 (Washington, 1894) ; Montague 
 Browne, Artistic and Scientific Taxidermy and 
 Modelling (London, 1896) ; Rowley, The Art of 
 Taxidermy (New York, 1898) ; John Oliver 
 Davie, Methods in the Art of Taxidermy (Phil¬ 
 adelphia, 1900) ; W. T. Hornaday, Taxidermy and 
 Zoological Collecting (8th ed., New York, 1902) ; 
 C. K. Reed, Guide to Taxidermy (Worcester, 
 1908). 
 
 TAXILA, taksT-la (Lat., from Gk. Ta|tXa, 
 from Skt. Taksalca&la, rock of Takshaka, a Naga 
 king, or from Pali Takkasila, rock of the Takkas, 
 a tribe living between the Indus and the Chenab). 
 A famous city of ancient India. It was situated 
 near the modern village of Dheri Shahan, on the 
 little stream Tabranala, in the District of 
 
TAXIS 
 
 TAXONOMY 
 
 Rawalpindi, in the Punjab. It was one of the 
 most populous and wealthy of all the cities of 
 India, and seat of an important university fa¬ 
 mous for instruction in the medical sciences. 
 It was the residence of A6oka (q.v.) while he 
 was Viceroy of the Punjab. The Sus or Abars 
 became its masters in 126 b.c., only to lose it at 
 the beginning of the next century to Kanishka, 
 King of the Kushans. Consult: J. W. McCrin- 
 dle, Invasion of India by Alexander the Great 
 (London, 1896) ; id., Ancient India as De¬ 
 scribed in Classical Literature (ib., 1901) ; V. A. 
 Smith, Early History of India (3d ed., Oxford, 
 1914). 
 
 TAX'IS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. ra£is, arrange¬ 
 ment). A term applied by botanists to move¬ 
 ments by free-swimming organisms, spores or 
 sperms, in which the direction of the movement 
 is determined by the direction of the applied 
 stimulus. Similarly directed movements in 
 fixed plant organs are termed tropisms. Zoolo¬ 
 gists often use tropism to cover taxis as well. 
 Tactic responses may be positive, in the direc¬ 
 tion of the stimulus source; negative, away 
 from the stimulus source; or diatactic, at right 
 angles to the lines of stimulus. They may be 
 called forth by a variety of stimuli, as light 
 (phototaxis), chemical nature of the substance 
 (chemotaxis), or varying osmotic pressure of 
 the medium (osmotaxy). 
 
 TAXON'OMY (from Gk. ra^is, taxis, ar¬ 
 rangement + voyos, nomos, law, from veyeiv, 
 nemein, to distribute) in Plants. The classi¬ 
 fication of plants. Probably the first scientific 
 study of plants was the attempt at classification. 
 Artificial classifications, beginning with the most 
 ancient one into herbs, shrubs, and trees, and 
 culminating in the Linnsean system (see 
 Botany) in the middle of the eighteenth century, 
 were 'at first necessary on account of lack of 
 knowledge of the structure of plants. Such 
 classifications simply catalogued and pigeon¬ 
 holed the rapidly accumulating material, in prep¬ 
 aration for a classification based upon natural 
 relationships. Natural systems have been evolv¬ 
 ing since the eighteenth century; being modified 
 by every advance in morphological knowledge, 
 none are abreast of current opinion, and no 
 final classification seems to be in sight. Each 
 newly proposed system, however, approaches to 
 it. The present system is a composite one, not 
 being referable to any single systematist, but 
 having had a somewhat natural and very slow 
 development. In its larger outlines it is pre¬ 
 sented below. All of the groups mentioned are 
 described under their several titles. 
 
 At present four primary divisions of the plant 
 kingdom are recognized, as follows: 
 
 IV. Spermatophytes or Seed plants. 
 
 III. Pteridophytes or Fern plants. 
 
 II. Bryophytes or Moss plants. 
 
 I. Thallophytes or Thallus plants. 
 
 These categories are distinct enough, and there 
 is no difficulty in assigning all plants to them; 
 but the question arises: Are they equivalent 
 groups? Some think there should be more pri- 
 marv groups, and others fewer. Beginning with 
 the lowest great division there is an increasing 
 complexity. An easy differential way of separat¬ 
 ing the groups is as follows: Thallophytes have 
 thallus bodies but no archegonia (q.v.) ; Bryo¬ 
 phytes have archegonia but no vascular bundles; 
 Ptei'idophytes have vascular bundles but no 
 seeds; Spermatophytes have seeds. 
 
 I. Thallophytes, the least natural group of 
 
 19 
 
 the four, comprise what seems to be a heteroge¬ 
 neous mass of forms. They are divided into two 
 great parallel series, algae and fungi, the former 
 containing chlorophyll (green pigment) and be¬ 
 ing independent plants, the latter containing no 
 chlorophyll and being parasites or saprophytes. 
 The algae are usually subdivided as follows: 
 
 Algae 
 
 Rhodophyce® or red algae. 
 Phaeophyceae or brown algae. 
 Chlorophyceae or green algae. 
 Cyanophyce® or blue-green algae. 
 
 It is a serious question whether the Cyano¬ 
 phyceae should be included in this way with the 
 other algae, for they appear to be far more nearly 
 related to the bacteria, a group of fungi. The 
 classification of the fungi is in a very unsatis¬ 
 factory state, but the plants are for the most 
 part being treated under the following heads: 
 
 Fungi 
 
 Basidiomycetes or basidium fungi (toadstools 
 and their allies, including rusts and smuts). 
 
 Ascomycetes or sac fungi (mildews, lichen 
 fungi, etc.). 
 
 Phycomycetes or algalike fungi (molds, downy 
 mildews, etc.). 
 
 Schizomycetes or fission fungi (bacteria). 
 
 Myxomycetes or slime molds. 
 
 The first three groups are regarded as true 
 fungi; the last two are problematical as to 
 their relationships, often being regarded as dis¬ 
 tinct from the fungi. 
 
 II. Bryophytes form a very natural group, 
 the two great series being liverworts (Hepatic*) 
 and mosses (Musci). Their principal subdivis¬ 
 ions are as follows: 
 
 Musci 
 
 Bryophyta 
 
 Hepatic® 
 
 ( Bryales. 
 
 \ Sphagnales. 
 
 Anthocerotales. 
 
 • Jungermanniales. 
 Marchantiales. 
 
 III. Pteridophytes also form a natural group, 
 though the main divisions are very dissimilar in 
 appearance. The prominent existing groups are 
 as follows: 
 
 f Lycopodiales or club mosses, 
 teridophyta j Equisetales or horsetails. 
 
 (Filicales or ferns. 
 
 IV. Spermatophytes should probably be di¬ 
 vided into two primary groups, although at pres¬ 
 ent they are treated as one. The two great di¬ 
 visions, gynmosperms and angiosperms, differ 
 more in essential features from one another than 
 does the former group from pteridophytes, but 
 they are held together at present by the common 
 character of seed production. The existing gym- 
 nosperms are grouped as follows: 
 
 Gymnosperm® 
 
 Gnetales. 
 
 Coniferales (pines and their allies). 
 Ginkgoales (maiden-hair tree). 
 Cycadales (cycads). 
 
 The angiosperms comprise a vast assemblage 
 of forms that are easily separated into two great 
 series, monocotyledons and dicotyledons, but 
 whose further division is at present in a some¬ 
 what chaotic state. Most of the subdivisions 
 heretofore suggested are confessedly artificial, 
 and probably as far as one may go safely with 
 natural groups is as follows: 
 
 a • OT .™~ / Dicotyledones-{ Xr^u^hkmvde® 
 
 Angiosperm® | Monocotyledones. 1 Arctncmamyae®. 
 
 The unit of classification used by taxonomists 
 is the species, a group very difficult to define, 
 but understood in'a general way. The species 
 always bears two names, as Quercus alba, the 
 systematises name for white oak, alba indica- 
 
TAXONOMY 
 
 20 
 
 TAYABAS 
 
 ting the species, and Quercus the genus to which 
 the species belongs. In some cases forms of a 
 species may be distinct enough to be character¬ 
 ized, and are called varieties, being designated 
 by adding a third name to the species binomial. 
 The next higher taxonomic group is the genus, 
 which comprises one or more species. For ex¬ 
 ample, Quercus is the oak genus, containing 
 many species. The next higher taxonomic cate- 
 tory is the family, which comprises one or more 
 genera, and is indicated except in a few ex¬ 
 ceptional cases by the common termination 
 “aceae,” as “Rosaceae,” the rose family. The next 
 higher category is the order, the form of whose 
 designation is not so fixed as that of the family, 
 but which is increasingly indicated by the ter¬ 
 mination “ales,” as “Coniferales.” Still higher 
 categories are often employed, but the usage is 
 so variable that nothing definite can be stated in 
 reference to them. All of these categories have 
 their intermediate subdivisions, which general 
 usage has in the main established. For example, 
 a genus may have its species grouped into sub¬ 
 genera; a family may be broken up into tribes, 
 each containing its own genera; and an order 
 often' has its suborders. 
 
 The literature of taxonomic botany is vast in 
 extent, and a complete list of even the most im¬ 
 portant works cannot be cited. No work as yet 
 contains a systematic presentation of all the 
 known species of plants. The most extensive 
 current works are as follows: Engler and Prantl, 
 Die natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien (Leipzig), 
 completed in four sections, each containing nu¬ 
 merous parts, and including all known genera; 
 Bentham and Hooker, Genera Plantarum (Lon¬ 
 don, 1863-83), including all known genera of 
 flowering plants; Engler, Das Pflanzenreich 
 (Leipzig), many parts of which have appeared, 
 and which is planned to be completed in 20 
 years, including descriptions of all known spe¬ 
 cies of plants. 
 
 Each country has its own manuals containing 
 descriptions of its flora. The current manuals 
 dealing with the flowering plants and in some 
 cases the fern plants of the United States are as 
 follows: Gray, Manual of Botany (7th ed., rev. 
 by Robinson and Fernald, New York, 1908), 
 including northeastern United States; Britton 
 and Brown, Illustrated Flora of the Northern 
 United States and Canada (ib., 1896-98) ; N. L. 
 Britton, Manual of the Flora of the United 
 States and Canada (ib., 1901), including the 
 same range; A. W. Chapman, Flora of the South¬ 
 ern United States (3d ed., Cambridge, Mass., 
 1897) ; J. K. Small, Flora of the Southeastern 
 States (New York, 1903), including region south 
 of Maryland and Kentucky west to 100th merid¬ 
 ian; Coulter and Nelson, New Manual of Rocky 
 Mountain Botany (ib., 1909) ; E. L. Greene, 
 Manual of the Botany of the Region of San 
 Francisco Bay (San Francisco, 1894) ; Thomas 
 Howell, A Flora of Nortlucest America (Port¬ 
 land, Oreg., 1903) ; P. A. Rydberg, Flora of Mon¬ 
 tana (New York, 1900) ; id., Flora of Colorado 
 (Fort Collins, Colo., 1906) ; Piper, Flora of the 
 State of Washington (Washington, D. C., 1906). 
 Manuals for various other regions are appearing 
 as the demand for them develops. An attempt 
 to include in a single work the whole vascular 
 flora of North America is Asa Gray, Synoptical 
 Flora of North America , incomplete (1874- 
 97). The most inclusive work is North Amer¬ 
 ican Flora (New York Botanical Garden), pre¬ 
 senting the whole plant kingdom within its 
 
 range. Each group is presented by specialists 
 and many parts have appeared. For the im¬ 
 portant taxonomic literature of algae and fungi, 
 see articles on the principal groups. See Botany. 
 
 TAX SALE. A public sale of land, by proper 
 officials, for delinquent taxes assessed thereon. 
 The requisites and details to be followed vary in 
 the different States, but the general principles 
 are common. The taxes must be constitutional 
 and legally assessed; they must be due and 
 unpaid; a proper return of the delinquency 
 must have been made. The sale must be public 
 and to the highest bidder, and it must be adver¬ 
 tised to be held at a proper time and place. The 
 whole proceeding must be strictly in conformity 
 with the statute. As each particular parcel of 
 land is liable for the taxes assessed upon that 
 and no more, each parcel must be sold separately. 
 In certain States, where a division is practicable, 
 it is mandatory upon the tax collector to sell 
 only such portion of the land as will satisfy 
 the unpaid taxes. The purchaser is given a cer¬ 
 tificate, and the owner usually has a certain 
 period to redeem upon payment of the taxes, 
 interests, and costs. At the end of the period 
 the purchaser is entitled to receive a tax deed 
 (q.v.). See Tax and Taxation; Tax Deed; 
 Tax Title. 
 
 TAX TITLE. The interest or title acquired 
 by a purchaser of land at a tax sale. If the sale 
 be valid, the validity of the title depends upon 
 the failure of the owner to redeem within the 
 proper time. Until the expiration of the time 
 allowed for redemption the purchaser has prac¬ 
 tically only a right in the nature of a lien on 
 the property. See Tax ’Sale. 
 
 In most States the deed is prima facie evi¬ 
 dence of title in the purchaser. In many States, 
 after the expiration of the time for redemption, 
 a tax title is made superior to all other claims. 
 In a few States, however, the purchaser gets only 
 the right of the delinquent, taxpayer, and there¬ 
 fore the title may be precarious. Tax titles 
 are often considered uncertain because questions 
 of a strict compliance with the statute as to 
 the assessment, delinquency, and sale are in¬ 
 volved. When the tax title of a purchaser in 
 good faith proves to be invalid for any reason, 
 he is generally allowed to recover the purchase 
 price and may recover from the owner the actual 
 value of any reasonable improvements he may 
 have made. See Tax and Taxation; Tax 
 Sale; Title. 
 
 TAY, ta. A river of Scotland with interest¬ 
 ing changes in direction due to longitudinal and 
 transverse valleys (Map: Scotland, E 3). It 
 rises on the border of Argyllshire, and flows first 
 eastward, traversing the beautiful Loch Tav, 
 then southeast, and finally northeast as the 
 Firth of Tay, a broad tidal estuary tributary to 
 the North Sea, 10 miles below Dundee. It is 
 118 miles long and navigable for small vessels 
 to Perth, though the mouth of the estuary is 
 obstructed by sand banks. The estuary is 
 spanned by an iron railroad bridge 3593 yards 
 long. 
 
 TAY, Loch. A lake in West Perthshire, Scot¬ 
 land, situated in a rock basin, 355 feet above 
 the sea level. It is about 15 miles long, with 
 an average breadth of one mile, and varies from 
 100 to 600 feet in depth (Map: Scotland, D 3). 
 Its picturesque features and salmon fishing make 
 it a favorite tourist and angling resort. Ben 
 Lawers, on its western side, rises 3984 feet. 
 
 TAYABAS, ta-ya/Bas. A province of Luzon, 
 
TAYABAS 
 
 21 
 
 TAYLOR 
 
 Philippine Islands, occupying the isthmian por¬ 
 tion between the central and southern part of 
 the island, and the region along the east coast of 
 central Luzon, formerly included under the dis¬ 
 tricts of Infanta and Principe (Map: Philip¬ 
 pine Islands, C 3). These two districts and 
 the large island of Polillo (q.v.) lying to the 
 east of them were annexed to the province in 
 1902. Total area, 5993 square miles, of which 
 the dependent islands take up 491, and of these 
 the island of Polillo, 333 square miles. The 
 entire mainland portion is occupied by a high 
 coast range covered with forests and generally 
 inaccessible and unexplored. The northern dis¬ 
 tricts are undeveloped, but in Tayabas proper 
 there are some agriculture and cattle raising, 
 and considerable mechanical industries, includ¬ 
 ing weaving, the manufacture of hats, cigar 
 boxes, and coconut oil, and boat building. Pop., 
 1903 (exclusive of the subprovince of Marin- 
 duque), 153,065, almost entirely Tagalog. There 
 are also some Negritos. Capital, Lucena. 
 
 TAYABAS. A town of Tayabas Province, 
 Luzon, Philippines, situated on the east bank 
 of the river of the same name, 65 miles south¬ 
 east of Manila (Map: Philippine Islands, C 3). 
 It is the centre of a large inland and coast trade, 
 and has a dockyard. Pop., 1903, 14,740. 
 
 TAYGETUSi ta-ij'e-tus (Lat., from Gk. 
 Tavyeros), now called Pentedaktylon. The 
 principal mountain range of the Peloponnesus, 
 Greece (Map: Greece, D 7). It extends south- 
 westward from the west coast of the peninsula 
 and forms the central one of the three promon¬ 
 tories in which south Greece terminates. It 
 reaches in Mount Hagios Elias an altitude of 
 7903 feet. It formed the ancient boundary be¬ 
 tween Laconia and Messenia. 
 
 TAY'LER, John James (1797-1869). An 
 English Unitarian clergyman. He was born at 
 Newington Butts, London; graduated at the 
 University of Glasgow in 1818; and was min¬ 
 ister of a Unitarian congregation at Manchester 
 (1820-53). In 1840 he was appointed professor 
 of ecclesiastical history in Manchester New Col¬ 
 lege, and in 1852 also professor of theology. 
 When the college was removed to London (1853), 
 he became its principal. With the Rev. James 
 Martineau he was pastor of the Unitarian con¬ 
 gregation in Little Portland Street (1859-60). 
 He published Christian Aspects of Faith and 
 Duty (2 series, 1851, 1877) ; Attempts to As¬ 
 certain the Character of the Fourth Gospel 
 (1867; 2d ed., 1870). J. H. Thom published 
 Tavler’s Life and Letters (London, 1872). 
 
 TAY'LOR. A borough in Lackawanna Co., 
 Pa., 4 miles southwest of Scranton, on the 
 Lackawanna River, and on the Central of New 
 Jersey, the Delaware and Hudson, and the Dela¬ 
 ware, Lackawanna, and Western railroads (Map: 
 Pennsylvania, K 3). Its interests are coal min¬ 
 ing and silk manufacturing. The place was 
 settled in 1790 and incorporated in 1893. Pop., 
 1900, 4215; 1910, 9060; 1915 (U. S. est.), 
 
 11,591. 
 
 TAYLOR. A city in Williamson Co., Tex., 
 35 miles northeast of Austin, on the Missouri, 
 Kansas, and Texas, and the International and 
 Great Northern railroads (Map: Texas, D 4). 
 The buildings and grounds of the Fair Associa¬ 
 tion, the city hall, and the artesian wells are 
 noteworthy. Taylor is the centre of extensive 
 cotton interests, and has considerable trade in 
 farm produce, live stock, wool, etc., and manu¬ 
 factures of machine-shop products, flour and 
 
 cottonseed oil. The International and Great 
 Northern Railroad maintains repair shops here. 
 Pop., 1900, 4211; 1910, 5314. 
 
 TAYLOR, Alfred Edward (1869- ). A 
 
 British philosopher. He studied at New College, 
 Oxford, and was a fellow of Merton. He taught 
 at Owens College, Manchester (1896-1903), was 
 next Frothingham professor of philosophy at 
 McGill University, Montreal, and after 1908 
 held the chair of moral philosophy at St. An¬ 
 drews. His writings include: The Problem of 
 Conduct (1901); Elements of Metaphysics 
 (1903); Aristotle on his Predecessors (1906); 
 Plato (1908); Thomas Hobbes (1908); Epi¬ 
 curus (1911): Yaria Socratica (1911); Aris¬ 
 totle (1912). 
 
 TAYLOR, Alfred Swaine (1806-80). An 
 English toxicologist and medical jurist, born at 
 Northfleet, Kent. He studied in the united 
 hospitals of Guy and St. Thomas in 1823. In 
 1831 he began to deliver at Guy’s Hospital the 
 first Englisti course of lectures on medical juris¬ 
 prudence. In 1832 he became joint lecturer with 
 Aikin on chemistry at Guy’s, and he held this 
 chair alone from 1850 to 1870. His t Manual of 
 Medical Jurisprudence (1844) and The Princi¬ 
 ples and Practice of Jurisprudence (1865) passed 
 through many editions. He first drew attention 
 to the great incentive for secret murder offered 
 by life insurance, and to the possibility of 
 arsenical poisoning from wall papers and other 
 fabrics. Among his numerous writings was a 
 Handbook on Poisons (1848). 
 
 TAYLOR, Ann (Mrs. Josiah Gilbert) 
 (1782-1866) and Jane (1783-1824). English 
 writers for children, whose prose and verse were 
 popular throughout the English-speaking world. 
 They were born in London, but the family early 
 removed to Lavenham, Suffolk, and later to 
 Colchester. The sisters published jointly Orig¬ 
 inal Poems for Infant Minds (1804), which was 
 translated into German, Dutch, and Russian; 
 Rhymes for the Nursery (1806, containing Jane’s 
 familiar “Twinkle, twinkle, little star”) ; and 
 Hymns for Infant Mmds (1808). After Ann 
 Taylor’s marriage they worked separately, with¬ 
 out as much success. Their earlier work, mark¬ 
 ing an epoch in young people’s literature, has 
 held its own. E. V. Lucas edited The Original 
 Poems, and Others in 1903, and in 1915 Mary 
 Macleod edited Ann and Jane Taylor in the 
 “Children’s Poets Series.” Their brother, Isaac 
 Taylor (q.v.), edited Memoirs and Correspond¬ 
 ence of Jane Taylor (2 vols., London, 1825), 
 and Ann’s son, Josiah Gilbert, edited The Auto¬ 
 biography of Mrs. Gilbert (ib., 1874). 
 
 TAYLOR, (James) Bayard (1825-78). An 
 American poet, man of letters, journalist, 
 and traveler, born at Kennett Square, Chester 
 Co., Pa. His education was obtained in the 
 common schools of the neighborhood. He be¬ 
 came, in 1842, the apprentice of a printer, and 
 here he published his first volume, Ximena: or 
 the Battle of the Sierra Morena, and Other 
 Poems (1844). In 1844-45 he made a pedes¬ 
 trian tour through Europe, describing his ex¬ 
 periences in Views Afoot: or Europe Seen with 
 Knapsack and Staff (1846). The following year, 
 1847, he joined the New York Tribune, and re¬ 
 mained on the staff of that paper as long as 
 he lived, publishing in its pages the sketches 
 of many of his subsequent books. As its special 
 correspondent, he visited California in 1849, 
 where he spent five months among the gold dig¬ 
 gers; two years later he was in Egypt, Asia 
 
TAYLOR 
 
 22 
 
 TAYLOR 
 
 Minor, and Syria; in 1852-53 in India, crossing 
 from Bombay to Calcutta, and then going to 
 China to join the expedition of Commodore 
 Perry to Japan. From 1862 to 1863 he was 
 secretary of the United States legation at St. 
 Petersburg, and later charge d’affaires there, 
 and was influential in securing for the northern 
 States the sympathy of Russia. In 1874 he 
 was again in Egypt, and the same year at the 
 Millennial Celebration in Iceland. For several 
 years previously he had lived in Germany, and 
 there, and in America and England, in 1870 
 he brought out the work for which he is best 
 known, his excellent translation of Goethe’s 
 Faust. In 1876 he wrote the Ode in honor of 
 the opening of the Centennial Exhibition in 
 Philadelphia. In February, 1878, he was ap¬ 
 pointed Minister to Germany, and went again 
 to that country, but died there towards the end 
 of the same year, leaving unfinished biographies 
 of Goethe and Schiller. He was married in 
 1850 to Miss May Agmew, who died the same 
 year, and in 1857 to Miss Marie Hansen of 
 Gotha, Germany, who survived him, reedited his 
 works, and, with H. E. Scudder, wrote his Life 
 and Letters (Boston, 1884). 
 
 Taylor’s work is voluminous, and varied both 
 in kind and in quality. He wrote books of 
 travel, of which the chief are: El Dorado: or 
 Adventures in the Path of Empire (1850) ; A 
 Journey to Central Africa (1854); A Visit to 
 India , China, and Japan (1855) ; The Land of 
 the Saracen (1854); Northern Travel (1858); 
 Travels in Greece (1859) ; At Home and Abroad 
 (1859-62); Colorado (1867); By-Ways of Eu¬ 
 rope (1869); Egypt and Iceland in the Year 
 187Jf (1874); and others. His novels include: 
 Hannah Thurston (1863); John Godfrey’s For¬ 
 tunes (1864); The Story of Kennett (1866); 
 Joseph and his Friend (1870). His poems were 
 also numerous; besides Ximena, the notable 
 volumes are: Rhymes of Travel, Ballads, and 
 Other Poems (1848); A Book of Romances, 
 Lyrics, and Songs (1851) ; Poems of the Orient 
 (1854); Poems of Home and Travel (1855); 
 The Poet’s Journal (1862) ; The Picture of St. 
 John (1869); The Ballad of Abraham Lincoln 
 (1869) ; The Masque of the Gods (1872) ; Lars, 
 A Pastoral of Norway (1873)'; The Prophet, A 
 Tragedy (1874); Home Pastorals, Ballads, and 
 Lyrics (1875); and The National Ode (1876). 
 Two posthumous collections of Taylor’s miscel¬ 
 lanies appeared —Studies in German Literature 
 (1879) and Essays and Notes (1880). He had 
 a distinct lyrical faculty, but he never seemed 
 able to bring his varied powers under full ar¬ 
 tistic control. The public persisted in regarding 
 him as a traveler and journalist rather than as 
 a poet, and, despite the remonstrances of some 
 friendly critics, it is probable that the public 
 was right. At most lie is a minor poet, a good 
 translator, and a versatile writer of prose. Con¬ 
 sult: Marie Hansen-Taylor (his wife) and H. E. 
 Scudder, Life and Letters of Bayard Taylor (2 
 vols., Boston, 1884), and Mrs. Taylor, On Two 
 Continents: Memories of Half a Century (New 
 York, 1905) ; A. H. Smyth, Bayard Taylor (Bos¬ 
 ton, 1886), in “American Men of Letters”; 
 W. D. Howells, Literary Friends and Acquaint¬ 
 ance (New York, 1900) ; William Winter, Old 
 Friends (ib., 1909). 
 
 TAYLOR, Beet Leston (1866-1921 ). An 
 American writer. He was born at Goshen, Mass., 
 and was educated at the College of the City of 
 New York. He joined the staff of the Chicago 
 
 Tribune, and in that connection became widely 
 known for his humorous column called “A Line- 
 o’-Type or Two.” His writings include: Line-o’- 
 Type Lyrics (1902); The Well in the Wood 
 (1904) ; The Log of the Water Wagon (1905) ; 
 The Charlatans (1906); Extra Dry (1906); 
 A Line-o’-Verse or Two (1911) ; The Pipesmoke 
 Carry (1912); Motley Measures (1913). 
 
 TAYLOR, Brook (1685-1731). An English 
 mathematician, born at Edmonton, Middlesex. 
 He was educated at Cambridge. In 1712 he was 
 made a fellow of the Royal Society, and two 
 years later became its secretary. Taylor is 
 chiefly known for a theorem which bears his 
 name, and which appeared in his Methodus In- 
 crementorum Directa et Inversa (1715), the first 
 important treatise to deal with the calculus of 
 finite differences. Taylor also contributed in a 
 valuable way to the problem of the centre of 
 oscillation (Philosophical Transactions, xxviii), 
 to the theory of vibrations of a string, and other 
 questions of mathematical physics. His Linear 
 Perspective (1715) and New Principles of Linear 
 Perspective (1719) were a notable advance in 
 the theory. Thev also contained an enunciation 
 of the principle of vanishing points, the first in 
 English and the most complete to that time. 
 For biography consult the preface to his post¬ 
 humous work, Contemplatio Philosophica (1793). 
 
 TAYLOR, Charles Fayette (1827-99). An 
 American orthopedic surgeon, born in Willis- 
 ton, Vt., and educated at the University of Ver¬ 
 mont. The year 1857 he spent in London, study¬ 
 ing the Swedish movement cure under Roth. 
 Subsequently he settled in New York City, and 
 was one of the first to introduce the movement 
 cure (see Mechanotherapy) into America. Dr. 
 Taylor became a specialist in orthopedic surgery, 
 and was very successful. He was especially 
 skillful in devising original appliances to meet 
 deformities. Among his inventions are the Tay¬ 
 lor splint for treatment of curvature of the spine 
 and the long extension hip splint. He was the 
 founder of the New York Orthopaedic Dispensary 
 and Hospital, of which he was the executive 
 surgeon for many years. Taylor established in 
 New York City an institute for the treatment of 
 deformities, which was successfully operated 
 for many years, previously to the organization 
 of the hospital. He wrote much on the subjects 
 in which he specialized. 
 
 TAYLOR, Dan (1738-1816). Founder of 
 the New Connection of General Baptists. He 
 was born in Yorkshire, England, where he worked 
 in the mines till 1762. After having been for 
 a year one of Wesley’s preachers he seceded, but 
 continued preaching. In 1763 he united with 
 the General Baptists and rose to prominence 
 as a preacher among them. In 1769 he headed 
 a secession from that body. (See Baptists.) 
 His better known works embrace: A Compendi¬ 
 ous View of Christian Baptism (1772) ; Funda¬ 
 mentals of Religion (1775); and The Eternity 
 of Future Punishment ( 1789, written against 
 the Unjversalist Elhanan Winchester). Con¬ 
 sult Adam Taylor, Memoirs of Rev. Dan Taylor 
 (London, 1820), and W. Underwood, Life of 
 Rev. Dan Taylor (ib., 1870). 
 
 TAYLOR, David Watson (1864- ). An 
 
 American naval constructor, born in Louisa Co., 
 Va. He graduated with the highest honors from 
 the United States Naval Academy in 1885, and 
 received also the highest honors from the Royal 
 College at Greenwich, England, where he studied 
 in 1885-88. In the United States navy he was 
 
TAYLOR 
 
 23 
 
 TAYLOR 
 
 promoted through the various grades to captain 
 in 1901, and in 1914 became chief of the Bureau 
 of Construction. He was awarded a gold medal 
 by the British Institution of Naval Architects 
 for the best original paper on “Ship-Shaped 
 Stream Forms.” Taylor published Resistance of 
 Ships and Screw Propulsion (1893; 2d ed., 
 1907) and The Speed and Power of Ships 
 (1910). 
 
 TAYLOR, Edward Thompson (1793-1871). 
 An American preacher, widely known as Father 
 Taylor. He was born in Richmond, Va.; was 
 taken in charge by a lady near that city; ran 
 away to sea at the age of seven, and for 10 years 
 was a sailor. In the War of 1812 he served 
 on a privateer, the Black Hawk, was captured, 
 and was confined first at Melville Island and 
 then in Dartmoor Prison, where he became the 
 chaplain to his fellow prisoners, having joined 
 the Methodist Episcopal church in 1811. After 
 his release from prison he was successively a 
 peddler of tin and ironware and a buyer of rags, 
 and a farmer; was regularly licensed to preach 
 in 1814; and in 1819 became an itinerant Meth¬ 
 odist minister. In 1829 he was chosen minister 
 of the newly established Seamen’s Bethel in Bos¬ 
 ton, which position he held until 1868, when he 
 resigned. He visited Europe in 1832 and Pales¬ 
 tine in 1842, and was chaplain to the United 
 States frigate sent with relief to Ireland during 
 the famine of 1846. By his warmth of heart, 
 his native wit, and his natural eloquence he 
 gained a remarkable influence over his sailor 
 auditors. Numerous anecdotes have been told 
 to illustrate his wit and his power as a public 
 speaker, and accounts of his eloquence may be 
 found in Miss Martineau’s Retrospect of West¬ 
 ern Travel, in Buckingham’s America, Histori¬ 
 cal, Statistic, and Descriptive, in Dickens’s 
 American Notes, in Miss Bremer’s The Homes of 
 the New World, and in Mrs. Jameson’s Common¬ 
 place Book of Thoughts, Memories, and Fancies. 
 Consult Haven and Russell, Father Taylor, the 
 Sailor Preacher (Boston, 1872), and Robert 
 Collyer, Father Taylor (ib., 1906). 
 
 TAYLOR, Emily Heyward Drayton (Mrs. 
 J. Madison Taylor) (1860- ). An Ameri¬ 
 
 can miniature painter. She was born in Phila¬ 
 delphia, and studied there at the Pennsylvania 
 Academy and in Paris under C6cile Ferrier. 
 Good examples of her miniatures, which are 
 carefully drawn and somewhat detailed and 
 realistic in treatment, are those of President 
 and Mrs. McKinley, Dr. S. Weir Mitchell, Mrs. 
 Clement Newbold, Miss Edith Moore Taylor, 
 Mrs. Eugene Hale, Mrs. Cyrus McCormick, Em¬ 
 mons Blaine. Mrs. Taylor made her residence 
 in Philadelphia, became a member of the Penn¬ 
 sylvania Academy of Fine Arts and president of 
 the Society of Miniature Painters, and received 
 gold medals at London (1900) and at Charles¬ 
 ton (1902). She collaborated with Anne Hol¬ 
 lingsworth Wharton in Heirlooms in Miniature 
 (1898). 
 
 TAYLOR, Sir Frederick Williams (1863- 
 ). A Canadian financier, born at Moncton, 
 New Brunswick. He entered the service of the 
 Bank of Montreal in 1878, by 1906 had become 
 manager of the London branch, and in 1913 was 
 appointed general manager at Montreal. During 
 his eight years in London he became the head 
 of British colonial banking interests there, and 
 the Bank of Montreal was the medium through 
 which $500,000,000 of Canadian loans were 
 placed on the London market, besides about 
 
 $125,000,000, the proceeds of Canadian Pacific 
 Railway stock issues. 
 
 TAYXOR, Frederick Winslow (1856-1915). 
 An American efficiency engineer, born at Ger¬ 
 mantown, Pa. In 1883 he graduated M.E. from 
 Stevens Institute of Technologv. Between 1878 
 and 1889 he was employed by the Midvale Steel 
 Company at Philadelphia as foreman, master 
 mechanic, chief draftsman, and chief engineer. 
 Thereafter he devoted himself to organizing the 
 management of manufacturing concerns, includ¬ 
 ing the Bethlehem Steel, Cramp’s Shipbuilding, 
 and the Midvale Steel companies. Taylor was 
 the originator of scientific management in busi¬ 
 ness, which quickly g rew to an important move¬ 
 ment. He patented about 100 inventions, and 
 devised the Taylor-White process for treating 
 high-speed tools, for which he received a gold 
 medal at Paris in 1900. In 1906 he served as 
 president of the American Society of Mechanical 
 Engineers. Taylor was author of Concrete, 
 Plain and Reenforced (1905; 2d ed., 1911), with 
 S. E. Thompson; Art of Cutting Metals (1906) ; 
 Concrete Costs (1912), with Thompson; The 
 Principles of Scientific Management (1911; 
 Fr. trans., 1916); Shop Management (1911). 
 Consult C. B. Thompson, Scientific Management 
 (Cambridge, Mass., 1914). 
 
 TAYLOR, George (1716-81). A signer of 
 the Declaration of Independence, from Pennsyl¬ 
 vania. He was born in Ireland, emigrated to 
 America as a redemptioner in 1736, and, after 
 serving a wealthy manufacturer as a clerk, 
 married his employer’s widow. He became very 
 wealthy, was a member of the Provincial As¬ 
 sembly from 1764 to 1770, and on July 20, 1776, 
 was chosen a member of the Continental Con¬ 
 gress. He served only a short time, retiring in 
 March, 1777. Consult John Sanderson, Biog¬ 
 raphy of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde¬ 
 pendence, revised and edited by R. T. Conrad 
 (Philadelphia, 1847). 
 
 TAYLOR, Graham (1851- ). An Amer¬ 
 
 ican social worker, born at Schenectady, N. Y. 
 He graduated from Rutgers College in 1870, and 
 from the Reformed Theological Seminary at 
 New Brunswick, N. J., in 1873. From 1880 to 
 1892 he was pastor of the Fourth Congregational 
 Church at Hartford, Conn., for the last four 
 years of this period serving also as professor 
 of practical theology at Hartford Seminary. In 
 1892 he was appointed professor of social eco¬ 
 nomics at the Chicago Theological Seminary, 
 and from 1894 he was resident warden of the 
 Chicago Commons Social Settlement, which he 
 had founded. In addition he held the presi¬ 
 dency of the Chicago School of Civics and Phi¬ 
 lanthropy, and served as an associate editor of 
 The Survey. He wrote Religion in Social Action 
 (1913), which is, in a sense, autobiographical. 
 
 TAYLOR, Hannis (1851- ). An Amer¬ 
 
 ican lawyer and diplomat, born at Newbern, 
 N. C. He was educated at the University of 
 North Carolina. From 1893 to 1897 he was 
 United States Minister to Spain. Later he prac¬ 
 ticed law in Washington, D. C. He published 
 The Origin and Growth of the English Constitu¬ 
 tion (2 vols., 1898-99), a work in which he 
 attempted not only to trace the history of the 
 English system of government, but also the 
 growth therefrom “of the Federal Republic of 
 the United States.” Taylor published also In¬ 
 ternational Public Law (1902) ; The Science of 
 Jurisprudence (1908); The Origin and Growth 
 of the American Constitution (1911). Taylor 
 
TAYLOR 
 
 TAYLOR 
 
 championed the claims supporting Pelatiah 
 Webster (q.v.). 
 
 TAYLOR, Sir Henry (1800-86). An Eng¬ 
 lish poet, born at Bishop-Middleham in Dur¬ 
 ham. He began writing verses in the Byronic 
 manner and was soon contributing clever arti¬ 
 cles to the Quarterly Review. Encouraged by 
 Southey, whom he visited at the Lakes, he 
 settled in London as a man of letters (1823). In 
 1824 he was given a clerkship in the Colonial 
 Office, a post which he filled with great ability 
 till lus resignation in 1872. He made warm 
 friendships with Mill, Lockhart, Rogers, Carlyle, 
 Spedding, Aubrey de Vere, and many other 
 literary men. In recognition of his services to 
 the government and to literature, he was made 
 K.C.M.G. (1869). His last years were passed at 
 Bournemouth. Taylor’s literary fame rests se¬ 
 cure on Philip Van Artevelde (1834; performed 
 by Macready, 1847), one of the most poetic 
 tragedies since the Elizabethan age. Other trag¬ 
 edies in the same style but of less merit are 
 Isaac Comnenas (1827), Edwin the Fair 
 (1842), and St. Clement’s Eve (1862). The 
 Virgin Widow, a dramatic poem (1850), is an 
 experiment in romantic comedy. In 1847 Tay¬ 
 lor published The Eve of Conquest and Other 
 Poems. His strongest prose is represented by 
 The Statesman (1836), a collection of ironical 
 discourses on success, which were taken seri¬ 
 ously; and by a charming Autobiography (1885; 
 but privately printed, 1877), containing care¬ 
 fully drawn portraits of his early contempo¬ 
 raries. Consult his Works (author’s ed., 5 vols., 
 London, 1877-78) ; selection from poems in 
 Miles, Poets and Poetry of the' Century (ib.. 
 1891) ; and Correspondence, edited by Edward 
 Dowden (ib., 1888). 
 
 TAYLOR, Henry Clay (1842-1904). An 
 American naval officer, born in Washington, 
 D. C. He graduated at the Naval Academy in 
 1863, was assigned to the West Gulf Blockading 
 Squadron, and took part in the battle of Mobile 
 Bay (Aug. 5, 1864). After the Civil War he 
 spent two years in the South Pacific station, 
 and on his return home was detailed for duty 
 at the Naval Academy. In 1868 he was pro¬ 
 moted to the rank of lieutenant commander, and 
 after taking part in a surveying expedition 
 (1870-71) he again spent two years at the 
 Naval Academy. In 1879 he was advanced to 
 the rank of commander, and from 1881 to 1884 
 he commanded the Swatara on the Asiatic sta¬ 
 tion. Two years after his return he was ap¬ 
 pointed commandant of the Norfolk Navy Yard, 
 a post which he held two years. From 1893 to 
 1896 he was president of the Naval War College 
 at Newport, R. I. In 1897 he was again ordered 
 to sea service, and was appointed commander 
 of the battleship Indiana. In the spring of 1898 
 he joined Admiral Sampson’s fleet at Key West, 
 and in May he took part in the bombardment 
 of San Juan. The next month, with the Indiana 
 and other war vessels, he conveyed General 
 Shatter’s army from Tampa to Santiago, and 
 on July 3, when Cervera came out of the harbor, 
 his vessel took an important part in the destruc¬ 
 tion of the Spanish fleet. After the war he was 
 placed in command of the receiving ship Ver¬ 
 mont, and in 1902 he was appointed chief of the 
 Bureau of Navigation. 
 
 TAYLOR, Henry Ling (1857- ). An 
 
 American surgeon, born and educated in New 
 York City (M.D., 1881, College of Physicians 
 and Surgeons). He followed his father,'Charles 
 
 24 
 
 Fayette Taylor (q.v.), in the practice of the 
 latter’s specialty. In 1902 he became professor 
 of orthopedic surgery at the Postgraduate Medi¬ 
 cal School and Hospital, New York. He pub¬ 
 lished Orthopedic Surgery for Practitioners 
 (1909). 
 
 TAYLOR, Henry Osborn (1856- ). An 
 
 American scholar, born in New York City. He 
 graduated at Harvard in 1878 and at Columbia 
 Law School in 1881. From the former insti¬ 
 tution he received the degree of Litt.D. in 1912 
 and in 1915 he was made a member of the Na¬ 
 tional Institute of Arts and Letters. In addi¬ 
 tion to a law book— Treatise on Law of Private 
 Corporation3 (1884; 5th ed., 1902)—he pub¬ 
 lished: Ancient Ideals: A Study of Intellectual 
 and Spiritual Growth from Early Times to the 
 Establishment of Christianity (2 vols., 1900; 
 2d ed., 1913) ; The Medieval Mind (2 vols., 
 1911; 2d ed., 1914) ; The Classical Heritage of 
 the Middle Ages (1901; 3d ed., 1912) ; Deliver¬ 
 ance: The Freeing of the Spirit in the Ancient 
 World (1915). 
 
 TAYLOR, Hobart Chatfield Chatfield-. 
 See Chatfield-Taylor, H. C. 
 
 TAYLOR, Isaac (1787-1865). An English 
 miscellaneous writer, inventor, and artist, born 
 at Lavenham, in Suffolk. He studied engraving 
 under the direction of his father, with whom 
 he executed the plates for Boydell’s Illustrations 
 of Holy Writ (1820), commended for their orig¬ 
 inality by Rossetti. Turning to literature, he 
 joined the staff of the Eclectic Review (1818), 
 for which he continued to write for many years. 
 Some time before this he had begun the study 
 of patristic literature and of Lord Bacon. He 
 was known as the great lay preacher of his time. 
 Of his publications we may mention: The Ele¬ 
 ments of Thought (1823; 11th ed., 1867), which 
 grew out of his early studies of Bacon and the 
 Church Fathers; a translation of the Characters 
 of Theophrastus (1824), with etchings by him¬ 
 self; The Natural History of Enthusiasm (1829; 
 10th ed., 1845); Saturday Evening (1832), a 
 devotional volume which had an immense sale 
 in England and the United States; Home Educa¬ 
 tion (1838; 7th ed., 1867); a translation of the 
 Jewish Wars of Josephus (1847 and 1851) ; An¬ 
 cient Christianity and the Doctrines of the Ox¬ 
 ford Tracts (8 parts, 1839-40: 4th ed., 1844); 
 and The Spirit of Hebrew Poetry (1861). Con¬ 
 sult Taylor’s Memorials of the Taylor Family 
 of Ongar (London, 1867). See also Taylor, 
 Ann and Jane. 
 
 TAYLOR, Isaac (1829-1901). An English 
 ecclesiastic, born at Stanford Rivers, Essex. He 
 was educated at King’s College, London (1847- 
 49), and Trinity College, Cambridge (1850-53), 
 and in 1857 became curate of Trotterscliffe, 
 Kent. In 1885 he became canon of York Min¬ 
 ster. He was the author of The Liturgy and 
 the Dissenters (1860), and one or two other 
 theological pamphlets; but was best known by 
 his works on philology. His Words and Places 
 (1864; 2d ed., 1865) was a work of great re¬ 
 search as well as erudition. In Etruscan Re¬ 
 searches (1874) Taylor tried to prove that 
 Etruscan was not Indo-European, but was prob¬ 
 ably akin to the Ural-Altaic (q.v.) or agglu¬ 
 tinative group of languages. In 1879 he pub¬ 
 lished his Greeks and Goths, in which he devel¬ 
 oped his theory that the runes were of Greek 
 origin. This was followed by his best-known 
 work The Alphabet (2 vols., 1883; 2d ed., 1899), 
 on which his scientific reputation mainly rests. 
 
TAYLOR 
 
 25 
 
 TAYLOR 
 
 In 1889 came his Origin of the Aryans (2d ed., 
 1902; Fr. trans., 1895) which was important in 
 overthrowing Max Muller’s theory that central 
 Asia was the primitive home of the Indo-Euro¬ 
 pean races. His last important publication was 
 Names and their Histories (1896; 2d ed., 1897). 
 
 TAYLOR, Isidore Justin S^verin, Baron 
 (1789-1879). A French antiquarian and artist. 
 The son of an English-born French citizen, he 
 was educated in Paris; he devoted his life chiefly 
 to travel, though in 1838 he was appointed In¬ 
 spector General of Fine Arts. His life work is 
 mainly embodied in a marvelous series of 24 
 folio volumes entitled Voyages pittoresques et 
 romantiques de Vancienne France, the publica¬ 
 tion of which covered the entire period from 
 1820 to 1863, and engaged the services of such 
 artists as G6ricault, Ingres, H. Vernet, and 
 Viollet-le-Duc (qq.v.) besides Baron Taylor’s 
 own drawings and the editorial assistance of 
 Charles Nodier and A. de Cailleux. The art of 
 lithographic illustration with the aid of the 
 camera lucida was carried to the highest perfec¬ 
 tion, especially in the later volumes, and al¬ 
 though the original plan of the work was never 
 completed, its influence in stimulating interest 
 in the national monuments of France, especially 
 those of the Middle Ages, can hardly be over¬ 
 estimated. Baron Taylor also published illus¬ 
 trated volumes of travel in Spain and Portugal 
 (3 vols., 1826-32) ; Syria, Egypt, and Palestine 
 (3 vols., 1835); Jerusalem (1841); Switzer¬ 
 land and the Pyrenees (1843). 
 
 TAYLOR, James Knox (1857- ). An 
 
 American architect, born in Knoxville, Tenn. 
 He studied architecture in the Massachusetts 
 Institute of Technology (1877-79), and in archi¬ 
 tects’ offices as draftsman for three years there¬ 
 after ; and practiced his profession independently 
 in St. Paul, Minn., from 1882 until 1892 and 
 then for three years in Philadelphia. Entering 
 the service of the supervising architect of the 
 United States Treasury in Washington in 1895, 
 he became senior draftsman in 1896 and from 
 1'897 to 1912 was supervising architect. Under 
 his incumbency the office of the supervising 
 architect at Washington was raised to a high 
 plane of artistic and practical efficiency, and 
 the Federal buildings designed by that office or 
 erected under its supervision from plans of other 
 architects were uniformly creditable to the gov¬ 
 ernment. In 1912 Taylor became director of 
 the department of architecture of the Massa¬ 
 chusetts Institute of Technology. 
 
 TAYLOR, James Monroe (1848-1916). An 
 American educator. He was born in Brooklyn, 
 N. Y., and graduated from the University of 
 Rochester in 1868 and from the Rochester Theo¬ 
 logical Seminary in 1871. Between 1873 and 
 1886 he was pastor of Baptist churches at South 
 Norwalk, Conn., and Providence, R. I. There¬ 
 after until 1914 he served as professor of ethics 
 in and president of Vassar College. In 1910- 
 14 he was a trustee of the Carnegie Foundation 
 for the Advancement of Teaching. The art 
 building given to Vassar by C. M. Pratt in 1914 
 was named in honor of Dr. Taylor. He wrote: 
 Elements of Psychology (1892); A New World 
 and an Old Gospel (1901) ; Before Vassar was 
 Opened (1914); Vassar (1915), with E. H. 
 Haight. 
 
 TAYLOR, Jeremy (1613-67). An English 
 prelate and author. He was born at Cambridge, 
 the son of a barber, and educated at Caius Col¬ 
 lege. He was ordained before he had reached 
 
 his twenty-first year, and attracted the atten¬ 
 tion of Laud, who procured him a fellowship at 
 All Souls, Oxford. About the same time he was 
 made chaplain to the King, and in 1638 rector 
 of Uppingham. His first notable publication 
 was Episcopacy Asserted (1642). His stand on 
 the Church-and-King side cost him his living. 
 For a while he accompanied the royal army, and 
 then retired into Wales, where he opened a 
 school at Newton in Carmarthenshire and be¬ 
 came chaplain to the Earl of Carbery. Here he 
 produced his most memorable works—the Lib¬ 
 erty of Prophesying, on behalf of the expelled 
 Anglican clergy, in 1647; the Life of Christ and 
 the Holy Living in 1649; the Holy Dying in 
 1652; and a number of other devotional and 
 controversial books. In 1660, with a dedication 
 to Charles II, appeared his Ductor Dubitantium, 
 or the Rule of Conscience in All her General 
 Measures, the most learned, subtle, and curious 
 of all his works. Promotion was a matter of 
 course to one who was at once a stanch royal¬ 
 ist, a profound theologian, and a consummate 
 writer; and before the year was out he was 
 made Bishop of Down and Connor. He was 
 not happy in his Irish see, from which he prayed 
 to be delivered as from “a place of torment.” 
 The Scotch Presbyterian ministers who had oc¬ 
 cupied the livings under the Commonwealth dis¬ 
 puted his belief in the invalidity of their ordina¬ 
 tion, and were only ejected with difficulty. He 
 remained at his post, however, until his death. 
 Taylor, sometimes styled the English Chrysostom 
 on account of his golden eloquence, has few 
 equals for richness of fancy. His inexhaustible 
 imagery, full of tender beauty, touched with the 
 characteristic melancholy of the age, reminds us 
 of Shakespeare and Spenser and Fletcher rather 
 than of a sober theologian. His style is per¬ 
 haps seen at its best in his sermons, though his 
 Holy Living and Holy Dying, for their deep and 
 practical piety, have been popular devotional 
 manuals for each generation since his time. The 
 best complete edition of his works is that by 
 Eden in ten vols. (London, 1847-52), with a 
 memoir by Bishop Heber. Consult also E. H. 
 May, Dissertation on the Life, Theology and 
 Times of Jeremy Taylor (London, 1892) ; Ed¬ 
 ward Dowden, in Puritan and Anglican (ib., 
 1900) ; E. W. Gosse, Jeremy Taylor (ib., 1904) ; 
 George Worley, Jeremy Taylor (new ed., ib., 
 1907); E. A. George, in Seventeenth Century 
 Men of Latitude (New York, 1908). 
 
 TAYLOR, John (1580-1653). An English 
 writer, styled by himself the “King’s water 
 poet.” He was born at Gloucester. After 
 studying there at the grammar school, he was 
 apprenticed to a London waterman. Pressed 
 into the navy, he served under Essex at Cadiz 
 (1596), and, by his own statements, made many 
 voyages in the Queen’s ships. Retiring from the 
 navy from lameness, he became a waterman on 
 the Thames, and superintended river pageants. 
 As trade waned, owing largely to the fashion for 
 coaches, he began writing doggerel, which at¬ 
 tracted attention and secured him the patron¬ 
 age of men of letters. On the outbreak of the 
 Civil War (1642) he went to Oxford, where he 
 opened a public house. Returning to London 
 (1645), he took the Crown Tavern in Long 
 Acre. There he died. Though hardly a poet, 
 his work is interesting as a picture of contem¬ 
 porary manners. Of his separate publications, 
 numbering about 150, may be mentioned the 
 Penniless Pilgrimage (1618), an account of a 
 
TAYLOR 
 
 26 
 
 TAYLOR 
 
 trip to Scotland; Laugh and Be Fat (1613); 
 Praise of Hempseed (1620), an account of a 
 voyage from London to Queensborough, in Kent, 
 in a brown-paper boat; and Three Weeks . . . 
 Travel from London to Hamburgh (1617). In 
 1630 Taylor brought out an edition of his writ¬ 
 ings under the title All the Works of John Tay¬ 
 lor, the Water Poet, being 63 in number. This 
 folio was reprinted by the Spenser Society (three 
 parts, London, 1868-69). Other pamphlets not 
 contained in the edition of 1630 were also re¬ 
 printed by the same society (five parts, 1870- 
 78). For a selection consult his Early Prose 
 and Poetical Works (London, 1888). 
 
 TAYLOR, John (1750-1824). An American 
 legislator and writer, born in Virginia. He 
 graduated at William and Mary College in 1770, 
 and was a member of the United States Senate 
 from 1792 until 1794, for two months in 1803, 
 and from 1822 until his death. In 1798 lie 
 moved in the House of Delegates the “Virginia 
 Resolutions.” (See Virginia and Kentucky 
 Resolutions.) He published: An Inquiry into 
 the Principles and Policy of the Government of 
 the United States (1814); Aratos: being a Se¬ 
 ries of Agricultural Essays, Practical and Politi¬ 
 cal (6th ed., 1818) ; Construction Construed and 
 the Constitution Vindicated (1820) ; Neiv Views 
 of the Constitution of the United States (1822). 
 Disunion Sentiment in Congress in 1794 was 
 published in 1905. In his works he was an 
 advocate of strict construction of the Consti¬ 
 tution. 
 
 TAYLOR, John (1808-87). The successor 
 of Brigham Young (q.v.) as president of the 
 Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. 
 (See Mormons.) He was born at Winthrop, 
 England, became a Methodist local preacher, and 
 emigrated to Canada in 1829. In 1836 he joined 
 the Mormon church and was elected one of the 
 Twelve Apostles. At the assassination at 
 Carthage of Joseph Smith, Jr. (q.v.), he was 
 himself wounded, but was one of those who 
 counseled the Mormons to keep the peace. Op¬ 
 posing the claims of Sidney Rigdon (q.v.) to 
 the headship of the church, he started with the 
 first emigrants for the Salt Lake valley. Ap¬ 
 pointed to the European mission, he was active 
 in Britain and France for several years and 
 published a Mormon monthly in Paris and trans¬ 
 lated the Book of Mormon into French and Ger¬ 
 man. Returning to America in 1852 he was 
 stationed in New York in 1854 as superintendent 
 over the eastern churches and there published 
 the Mormon. Having served as associate justice 
 of the inchoate State of Deseret, as a probate 
 judge of Utah County, and a member of the 
 Utah Legislature, in 1858 he was indicted for 
 treason against the United States government. 
 On Oct. 6, 1880, he was elected president of the 
 Mormon church. He was a firm believer in 
 polygamy, for which he was indicted in 1885, 
 afterward fleeing to avoid criminal prosecution 
 and living in seclusion until his death. 
 
 TAYLOR, John Louis (1769-1829). An 
 American jurist, born in London, England. He 
 removed to Fayetteville, N. C., and was ad¬ 
 mitted to the bar. From 1792 to 1794 he was a 
 member of the State Legislature, in 1798 was 
 elected a judge of the Superior Court, and was 
 Chief Justice of the Supreme Court from 1808 
 until his death. In 1817 he was appointed a 
 commissioner for the revision of State statutes, 
 the work being published in 1821. His publi¬ 
 cations include: The Forth Carolina Law Reposi¬ 
 
 tory (2 vols., 1814-16); Term Reports (1818); 
 and On the Duties of Executors and Administra¬ 
 tors (1825). 
 
 TAYLOR, Joseph (?1586-?1653). An Eng¬ 
 lish actor, mentioned in the Shakespeare folio of 
 1623 as one of those who appeared in Shake¬ 
 speare’s plays. His Hamlet, which he acted af¬ 
 ter Burbage, is interesting on account of the 
 tradition that Shakespeare himself trained him 
 in the part. At different times he was a mem¬ 
 ber of the company at the Globe Theatre and 
 elsewhere, and later in life he was appointed to 
 the government office of Yeoman of the Revels. 
 Consult Collier, Memoirs of the Principal Actors 
 in the Plays of Shakespeare (London, 1846). 
 
 TAYLOR, Laurette ( n£e Cooney) (1887- 
 ). An American actress, born in New York 
 City. She was married to Charles A. Taylor, 
 and later to J. Hartley Manners (q.v.). Hav¬ 
 ing made her first appearance on the stage 
 while a child, she toured and for a time played 
 in stock at Seattle, Wash., and in 1909 appeared 
 in New York in The Devil. In 1912 she 
 achieved a great success as Luana in The Bird 
 of Paradise. Miss Taylor became best known 
 in the Irish comedy role of Peg in her hus¬ 
 band’s play, Peg o’ My Heart, which ran more 
 than 600 performances in New York in 1912-14 
 and later more than 500 in London. During 
 the same period she starred in a sketch by 
 her husband called Happiness. 
 
 TAYLOR, Nathaniel William (1786-1858). 
 An American Congregational theologian. He 
 was born at New Milford, Conn.; graduated at 
 Yale College in 1807. He studied theology five 
 years with Dr. Dwight and was ordained pastor 
 of the First Church (Congregational), New Ha¬ 
 ven, in 1812, as successor of Moses Stuart. In 
 1822 he was elected Dwight professor of didactic 
 theology in Yale College, and held the position 
 till his death. In 1828 he preached in New 
 Haven the condo ad clerum, presenting views on 
 native depravity which were denounced as hereti¬ 
 cal, and led to the founding of what later be¬ 
 came Hartford Theological Seminary, in oppo¬ 
 sition to his views. Dr. Taylor modified the 
 New England theology (q.v.) in the direction 
 of a recognition of free will. After his death, 
 four volumes of his works were edited by Presi¬ 
 dent Noah Porter: Practical Sermons (1858); 
 Lectures on the Moral Government of God 
 (1858); Essays, Lectures, etc., upon Select 
 Topics in Revealed Theology (1859). .His Life 
 was published at New Haven in 1858. Consult 
 F. H. Foster, Genetic History of Few England 
 Theology (Chicago, 1907). 
 
 TAYLOR, Philip Meadows (1808-76). An 
 Anglo-Indian officer and novelist. He was born 
 in Liverpool, England, and when 15 years old 
 went to India to enter commercial life in Bom¬ 
 bay, but instead received a commission in the 
 Nizam of Hyderabad’s army. In 1841 he was 
 commissioned to pacify the State of Shorapore 
 and was appointed administrator during the 
 minority of the ruler, satisfying in this both the 
 natives and the British government. After the 
 Raja’s accession he was appointed administrator 
 of the ceded districts in the Western Deccan, his 
 rule during the perilous time of the Mutiny be¬ 
 ing eminently successful. He returned to Eng¬ 
 land in 1860 and in 1869 was made a Companion 
 of the Star of India. Besides his brilliant ad¬ 
 ministrative services Taylor was widely known 
 by his popular novels illustrative of stirring 
 periods in the history of India; the chief of 
 
TAYLOR 
 
 27 
 
 TAYLOR 
 
 them are: The Confessions of a Thug (1839); 
 Tippoo Suttaun, a Tale of the Mysore War 
 (1840); Tara, a Mahratta Tale (1863); Seeta 
 (1872); and A Noble Queen (1878), the last 
 two descriptive of the Indian Mutiny. Consult 
 his autobiographical Stoi'y of My Life (Lon¬ 
 don, 1877). 
 
 TAYLOR, Richard (1826-79). A Confeder¬ 
 ate soldier, familiarly known as ‘‘Dick” Taylor. 
 He was the son of President Zachary Taylor, 
 and was born at New Orleans. He graduated at 
 Yale in 1845, and was for a time with his father 
 in the Mexican War. He was a member of the 
 Louisiana seceding convention, and later became 
 colonel of the Ninth Louisiana Regiment. He 
 was soon promoted to the rank of brigadier gen¬ 
 eral; fought under Stonewall Jackson in the 
 Shenandoah valley campaign, and then in the 
 Seven Days’ Battles before Richmond; was pro¬ 
 moted to the rank of major general, and was 
 put in command of Louisiana, the western part 
 of which he recovered for the Confederacy. On 
 April 8, 1864, he defeated General Banks at 
 Sabine Cross Roads, and captured 22 guns and 
 about 2500 prisoners, thereby making it neces¬ 
 sary for the Federal general to give up the Red 
 River expedition and to retreat. On the follow¬ 
 ing day, however, Taylor himself sustained a 
 severe repulse at Pleasant Hill. On May 4, 
 1865, he surrendered to General Canby. He 
 published Destruction and Reconstruction (1879). 
 
 TAYLOR, Robert William (1842-1908). 
 An American physician. He was born at Cov¬ 
 entry, England, but as a child came with his 
 parents to New York. He' was early a druggist, 
 studying medicine during leisure and graduating 
 from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 
 1868. He then commenced practice in New York 
 City and turned his attention to dermatology 
 and venereal diseases, a field in which he soon 
 became a leading surgeon. From 1891 to 1905 
 he held the chair of genitourinary and venereal 
 diseases in the College of Physicians and Sur¬ 
 geons. He published various important papers 
 and books on his specialty. 
 
 TAYLOR, Rowland (?-1555). An English 
 martyr. He was born at Rothbury, Northumber¬ 
 land, and was educated at Cambridge, where he 
 became principal of Borden Hastel about 1531. 
 He was associated with Cranmer as domestic 
 chaplain, and received in succession numerous 
 ecclesiastical appointments. At Cambridge he 
 had become acquainted with the Protestant man¬ 
 ual Unio Dissidentium and was a firm believer 
 in, and adherent to, its doctrines. As rector of 
 the living of Hadleigh, Suffolk, to which he had 
 been presented by Cranmer in 1544, he opposed 
 the performance of mass by a priest in 1554, 
 was imprisoned by order of Queen Mary, con¬ 
 demned to death, and on Feb. 9, 1555, was burnt 
 on Aldham Common, near Hadleigh. 
 
 TAYLOR, Samuel Coleridge. See Coleridge- 
 Taylor, Samuel. 
 
 TAYLOR, Thomas (1758-1835). An Eng¬ 
 lish classical scholar known as “the Platonist.” 
 He was born of humble parents in London. He 
 studied at St. Paul’s School, taught school, and 
 at length obtained a clerkship in a London bank. 
 His spare time he gave to the study of chemis¬ 
 try, mathematics, and especially Greek phi¬ 
 losophy; and soon after 1780 he began his lec¬ 
 tures on Plato, Plotinus, and the Neo-Platonists. 
 On receiving an annuity of £100 from a friend, 
 he resigned his place in the bank and began 
 translating and expounding the ancient classical 
 Vol. XXII.—3 
 
 authors, a work for which he was ill equipped. 
 Among his translations are: Plato (1804); 
 Aristotle (1806-12); The Mystical . . . Hymns 
 of Orpheus (1787); Apuleius; Celsus; Iambli- 
 cus; Julian; Maximus Typius; Pausanias; 
 Plotinus; Porphyry; and Proolus. Among his 
 miscellanies are: Vindication of the Rights of 
 Brutes (1792); The Eleusinian and Bacchic 
 Mysteries (1790); and Theoretic Arithmetic 
 (1816). Taylor enjoyed the friendship of Pea¬ 
 cock, Romney, and Langton. He died at Wal¬ 
 worth, London. He figures as a character in 
 Isaac D’lsraeli’s novel Vaurien. Consult W. E. 
 A. Axon, Thomas Taylor, the Platonist (Lon¬ 
 don, 1890). 
 
 TAYLOR, Sir Thomas Wardlaw (1833- 
 ). A Canadian lawyer and judge, born in 
 Auchtermuchty, Scotland. He studied at Edin¬ 
 burgh University, and was admitted to the Up¬ 
 per Canadian bar in 1858. From 1872 to 1883 
 he was Master of Chancery, and from 1883 to 
 1887 puisne judge of the Manitoba Court of 
 Queen’s Bench. In 1887-99 he was Chief Justice 
 of Manitoba, and in 1890 and 1893 was adminis¬ 
 trator of the provincial government. He made 
 an extensive study of equity jurisprudence, on 
 which subject he published a volume of Com¬ 
 mentaries (1875). His further works include 
 Chancery Statutes and Orders and The Public 
 Statutes Relating to the Presbyterian Church. 
 
 TAYLOR, Tom (Thomas Proclus) (1817— 
 80). An English playwright and journalist, and 
 editor of Punch, born at Bishop-Wearmouth, 
 near Sunderland. After attending the Univer¬ 
 sity of Glasgow he entered Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, where he was elected fellow of his 
 college (1842). He tutored at Cambridge for 
 two years and was then (1845) appointed pro¬ 
 fessor of English literature in London Univer¬ 
 sity. He also studied law at the Inner Temple, 
 where he was called to the bar in 1846. On 
 the creation of the Board of Health in 1850, 
 he became its assistant secretary and afterward 
 its secretary. He began early to write for vari¬ 
 ous London periodicals, but chiefly for Punch, 
 of which he became editor in 1874. Much in¬ 
 terested in art, he wrote biographies of Benja¬ 
 min Robert Haydon (1853) and of Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds (1865), and edited Charles Robert 
 Leslie’s Autobiographical Recollections (1860) 
 and Pen Sketches by a Vanished Hand (1879), a 
 collection of essays by Mortimer Collins. He 
 also wrote or adapted more than a hundred 
 dramatic pieces. In them he showed himself 
 a great master of stagecraft. Among the most 
 popular were: Still Waters Run Deep (1855) ; 
 The Overland Route (1860); ’Twixt Axe and 
 Crown (1870); The Ticket-of-Leave Man 
 (1863) ; and Lady Clancarty (1874). In Masks 
 and Faces (performed in 1852) he collaborated 
 with Charles Reade. 
 
 TAYLOR, William (1765-1836). An Eng¬ 
 lish pliilologian, known sometimes as William 
 Taylor of Norwich. He was born in Norwich, 
 England. He became an enthusiast for the lit¬ 
 erature of Germany, and devoted most of his 
 life to making it known to his countrymen. 
 His finest production was a translation of Bur¬ 
 ger’s Lenora in ballad metre (completed 1790; 
 published 1796), which led to Scott’s version. 
 He also translated Lessing’s Nathan the Wise 
 (1790; printed, 1805), Goethe’s Iphigenia 
 (1793), and some of Wieland’s Dialogues of the 
 Gods (1795). By this time he was writing on 
 German literature extensively for the reviews. 
 
TAYLOR 
 
 28 
 
 TAYLOR 
 
 These articles were collected under the title 
 Historic Survey of German Poetry (3 vols., 
 1828-30). Though interesting for his many 
 eccentricities, Taylor has a place in literary 
 history as the first interpreter of German litera¬ 
 ture for England. He died at Norwich. Con¬ 
 sult the Memoir by Robberds (London, 1843) 
 and Herzfeld’s valuable monograph, William 
 Taylor von Norwich (Halle, 1897). 
 
 TAYLOR, William (1821-1902). An Amer¬ 
 ican Methodist Episcopal missionary bishop. 
 He was born in Rockbridge, Va., and entered the 
 Baltimore conference in 1843. A missionary to 
 California in 1849, he organized the first Meth¬ 
 odist church in San Francisco. Between 1856 
 and 1883 he traveled in many parts of the world 
 as an evangelist. He was elected Missionary 
 Bishop of Africa in 1884, and retired in 1896. 
 He wrote: Seven Years’ Street Preaching in San 
 Francisco (1857); Christian Adventures in 
 South Africa (1867) : Four Years’ Campaign in 
 India (1875); Our South American Cousins 
 (1878); Self-Supporting Missions in India 
 (1882) ; The Story of My Life (1895) ; Flaming 
 Torch in Darkest Africa (1898). 
 
 TAYLOR, William Ladd (1854- ). An 
 
 American illustrator, born at Grafton, Mass. 
 He studied art in Boston and New York, and in 
 Paris under Boulanger and Lefebvre in 1884- 
 85. His drawings, many of which first appeared 
 in magazines, are essentially narrative in type 
 and show keen understanding of human nature, 
 with careful, historical accuracy. Taylor pub¬ 
 lished several volumes of his work, series il¬ 
 lustrating the nineteenth century in New Eng¬ 
 land, the pioneer West, Longfellow, the Psalms, 
 old songs, American life, American literature, 
 the Old Testament. 
 
 TAYLOR, William Mackergo (1829-95). 
 An American Congregational minister. He was 
 born at Kilmarnock, Ayrshire, Scotland, and 
 graduated at the University of Glasgow (1849), 
 and at the divinity hall of the United Presby¬ 
 terian Church, Edinburgh (1852). He was pas¬ 
 tor of churches in Britain till 1872 (for 17 years 
 of one in Liverpool) and thereafter of the Broad¬ 
 way Tabernacle (Congregational), New York, till 
 1893, when he retired in consequence of a para¬ 
 lytic stroke. Besides biographies of Rev. Mat¬ 
 thew Dickie (1872) and of John Knox (1885), 
 he published numerous volumes of sermons and 
 discourses, of which those of a biographical char¬ 
 acter. on Joseph, Moses, David, Elijah, Daniel, 
 Paul were very popular. He was editor of The 
 Christian at Work (1876-80). He delivered the 
 Lyman Beecher lectures at Yale in 1876, The 
 Ministry of the Word; the L. P. Stone lectures 
 at Princeton, The Gospel Miracles in their Re¬ 
 lation to Christ and Christianity (1880); also 
 published The Scottish Pulpit from the Reforma¬ 
 tion to the Present Day (1887). A brief me¬ 
 moir appeared in New York in 1895. 
 
 TAYLOR, Zachary (1784-1850). The 
 twelfth President of the United States. He was 
 born in Orange Co., Va., on Nov. 24, 1784, and 
 was the son of Col. Richard Taylor, an officer of 
 the Revolutionary War and one of the first set¬ 
 tlers of Louisville, Ky., whither Zachary was 
 taken in early childhood, and where he lived 
 until his twenty-fourth year, working on a plan¬ 
 tation and receiving only an elementary educa¬ 
 tion. His elder brother, who had received a 
 lieutenancy in the army, died in 1808, when Tay¬ 
 lor was appointed to the vacant commission. In 
 1810 he was promoted to a captaincy; and in 
 
 1812, with . len, two-thirds of whom were ill 
 of fever, h dended Fort Harrison, on the 
 Wabash, ag£ , a large force of Indians led by 
 Tecumseh. promoted to the rank of major for 
 his gallantry, he was employed during the war 
 in fighting the Indian allies of Great Britain. 
 
 In 1822 he built Fort Jesup. With headquarters 
 at Fort Crawford, Prairie du Chien, Wis., from 
 1832 to 1836, Taylor served as colonel in the 
 Black Hawk War and later as Indian agent 
 at Prairie du Chien. In 1836 he was ordered 
 to Florida, where he gained an important victory 
 over the Seminole Indians at Okeechobee, for 
 which he was appointed brigadier general, and 
 was made commander of the United States forces 
 in Florida. In 1840, having been appointed to 
 the command of the Southwestern Department, 
 he purchased a plantation near Baton Rouge, La. . 
 On Feb. 28, 1845, Congress passed the resolu¬ 
 tion for the annexation of Texas, formerly a 
 province of Mexico, and for some time an in¬ 
 dependent republic. Texas claimed the Rio 
 Grande for her southwestern boundary; Mexico 
 insisted that there could be no claim beyond the 
 Nueces, and prepared to defend the disputed 
 territory, even if she could not reconquer the 
 whole of Texas. General Taylor was ordered 
 to Corpus Christi. This point he occupied in 
 November with a small force which was in¬ 
 creased by reenforcements to 4000 men. On 
 March 28, 1846, he had moved to the Rio Grande, 
 across the disputed territory, and had begun 
 to build Fort Brown, opposite and commanding 
 the Mexican port of Matamoros. General Ampu- 
 dia, the Mexican commander, on April 12, de¬ 
 manded that he should retire beyond the Nueces, 
 pending negotiations; and on the refusal of 
 General Taylor, his successor, General Arista, 
 crossed the Rio Grande with a force of 6000 
 men and 10 pieces of artillery. On May 8 he 
 was defeated at Palo Alto by General Taylor, 
 with a force of 2300; and on the next dav was 
 driven from a new position at Resaca de la 
 Palma across the Rio Grande. War was de¬ 
 clared first by the President, and later by Con¬ 
 gress, to exist by the act of Mexico; and 50,000 
 volunteers were called for. Taylor was made 
 major general, was reenforced, and ordered to 
 invade Mexico. On September 9, with 6600 
 men, he attacked Monterey, which was defended 
 by about 10,000 regular troops. After ten days’ 
 siege and three days’ hard fighting it capitu¬ 
 lated. General Scott, having been ordered to ad¬ 
 vance on the city of Mexico by Vera Cruz, with¬ 
 drew a portion of the troops of General Taylor, 
 leaving him only 5000 volunteers and 500 regu¬ 
 lars, chiefly flying artillery, to meet an army 
 of 20,000, commanded by Santa Anna. He took 
 a strong position at Buena Vista, fought a des¬ 
 perate battle on Feb. 22 and 23, 1847, and won 
 a decisive victory. (See Mexican War.) 
 This victory, against enormous odds, created the 
 utmost enthusiasm. General Taylor, popularly 
 called “Old Rough and Ready,” was nominated 
 by the Wfilgs in 1848 for ^President of the United 
 States, and was elected, receiving 163 electoral 
 votes, while General Cass, the Democratic-can¬ 
 didate, received 127 electoral votes, and Martin 
 Van Buren, the Free Soil candidate, received 
 none. Entering upon the presidency in 1849, he 
 found a Democratic plurality in Congress, with 
 a small but vigorous Free Soil party holding the 
 balance of power, while the most exciting ques¬ 
 tions connected with the extension of slavery, 
 as the admission of California, the settlement 
 
TAYLORVILLE 
 
 2 9 
 
 TCHAIKOVSKY 
 
 of the boundaries of Texas, the organization of 
 the other newly acquired Mexican territories, 
 etc., were agitating the country and threatening 
 a disruption. On July 4, 1850, 16 months after 
 his inauguration, he was attacked with bilious 
 colic and died on the 9th. Consult: H. 0. Ladd, 
 The War wdth Mexico (New T York, 1883) ; 0. T. 
 Howard, General Taylor (ib., 1892) ; J. F. 
 
 Rhodes, History of the United States (ib., 1910) ; 
 J. G. Wilson, editor, Presidents of the United 
 States, 1189-19lb vol. ii (ib., 1914). 
 
 TAY'LORVILLE. A city and county seat 
 of Christian Co., Ill., 26 miles southeast of 
 Springfield, on the Wabash, the Chicago and 
 Illinois Midland, and the Baltimore and Ohio 
 Southwestern railroads (Map: Illinois, F 6). 
 It has a Carnegie library, St. Vincent Hospi¬ 
 tal (Roman Catholic), and a fine courthouse. 
 Taylorville is surrounded by a productive region 
 engaged in farming, stock raising, and horse 
 breeding, and has two large coal mines and 
 an iron foundry. Paper, chemicals, brick, tile, 
 wagons, bags, and agricultural implements con¬ 
 stitute the principal manufactures. Pop., 1900, 
 4248; 1910, 5446. 
 
 TAYRA, or TAIRA, tl'ra (South American 
 name). A plantigrade, weasel-like carnivore of 
 Central and South America ( Galictis barbara), 
 closely allied to the grisons (q.v.). It is about 
 three feet long, nearly half of this belonging to 
 the bushy tail; dark brown above, yellowish be¬ 
 low; preys upon small animals, and often gathers 
 into small bands which hunt in company, usually 
 in the early morning. 
 
 TAYTAY, ti-tF. A pueblo and the chief 
 town of the Province of Paragua, Palawan 
 Island, in the Philippines; situated in the south¬ 
 west angle of the bay of the same name in the 
 northeast part of the island. The Bay of Tay- 
 tay is about 11 miles long and 6 miles wide, and 
 affords good shelter in the southwest monsoon. 
 There is a fort with walls 30 feet high and ac¬ 
 commodations for 700 men. In the neighbor¬ 
 hood of the town are large tracts of cultivated 
 ground. Pop., 1903, 4992. 
 
 TA Yfj. See Yu. 
 
 TAYUG, ta-yoogC A town of Luzon, Philip¬ 
 pines, in the eastern part of the Province of 
 Pangasinan, situated 28 miles east of Lingayen. 
 Pop., 1903, 10,400. 
 
 TAZE'WELL, Littleton Waller (1774— 
 1860). An American political leader, born at 
 Williamsburg, Va. He graduated at William 
 and Mary College in 1792; was admitted to the 
 bar in 1796; was a member of Congress in 1801- 
 03; and then devoted himself to the practice of 
 law. From 1824 until 1833 he was a member 
 of the United States Senate. As a member of 
 the Committee on Foreign Relations he wrote 
 the famous report on the Panama mission. He 
 opposed most of the acts of Adams and of 
 Jackson; was an enemy to the policy of protec¬ 
 tion; denounced nullification, but was not in 
 sympathy with Jackson’s method of suppressing 
 it; and attacked the administration for remov¬ 
 ing the United States Bank deposits. In 1834 
 he was elected Governor of Virginia, and after 
 one term withdrew from public life. His prin¬ 
 cipal published work is Review of the Nego¬ 
 tiations between the United States and Great 
 Britain■ Respecting the Commerce of the Two 
 Countries (1829). 
 
 TCHAADAEV, cha-da'yof, Petr (Piotr) 
 Yakovlevitch (1794-1856). A Russian writer, 
 born at Moscow. On graduation from Moscow 
 
 University (1812) he entered the army and 
 served in the Napoleonic wars. The main thesis 
 of his famous Philosophical Letters, the first of 
 which appeared in 1836 in the Moscow Telescope, 
 was that Russia had lagged behind Western 
 countries and had contributed nothing to the 
 world’s progress. He therefore concluded that 
 Russia must start de novo. These* strikingly 
 uncomplimentary views caused their author to be 
 adjudged insane, and his next work was entitled, 
 fittingly, The Vindication of a Madman (1837). 
 In this brilliant but uncompleted work he 
 maintained that Russia must follow her inner 
 lines of development if she was to be true to her 
 historical mission. The Slavophils at first mis¬ 
 took Tchaadaev for one of them, but later, on 
 realizing their mistake, bitterly denounced and 
 disclaimed him. Tchaadaev really fought Slav¬ 
 ophilism all his life. Most of his works have 
 been edited by his biographer, M. Gershenzon 
 (2 vols., Moscow, 1913-14), whose excellent little 
 study of the philosopher was published at St. 
 Petersburg in 1908. 
 
 TCHAD. A lake of Central Africa. See 
 Chad. 
 
 TCHAIKOVSKY, chi-kofsld, Nikolai Vasi- 
 levitch (1850- ). A famous Russian revo¬ 
 
 lutionist. He was born in the Province of 
 Saratov and studied natural science, especially 
 chemistry, at St. Petersburg University. Sub¬ 
 sequently he interested himself in the labor 
 movement and became a prominent revolutionary 
 leader. To study the labor question in its in¬ 
 ternational aspects he traveled much abroad. 
 While in the United States he founded a com¬ 
 mune, which, however, was short lived. After 
 the revolutionary events of 1905-06, Tchaikovsky 
 returned to Russia and subsequently resided in 
 London. 
 
 TCHAIKOVSKY, Peter Ilyitch (1840-93). 
 The greatest composer Russia has thus far pro¬ 
 duced, born at a small place called Votkinsk, 
 in the Ural mining region, on May 7, 1840. He 
 studied jurisprudence in St. Petersburg, and in 
 1859 obtained a position in the Ministry of. 
 Justice. In company with a young poet named 
 Apukhtin, who greatly influenced his future, he. 
 listened to Italian opera whenever an oppor-, 
 tunity presented itself. This love of Italian . 
 music left its traces in Tchaikovsky’s scores. t 
 He entered the conservatory, where Anton Rubin¬ 
 stein, its director, was attracted by the young 
 man’s ability. Tchaikovsky resigned his gov¬ 
 ernment position, studied music with all the 
 vigor of his nature, and, on his leaving the con¬ 
 servatory three years later, he continued to study 
 orchestration with Rubinstein and took up the 
 flute, piano, and organ. In 1866 he accepted the 
 position of teacher of harmony at the Mosco\t 
 Conservatory. It was at this time that he met 
 the poet Ostrovsky, who gave him the libretto 
 for his first opera, Voyevoda (The Chieftain). 
 
 Tchaikovsky’s first musical idols were Glinka, 
 the father of modern Russian music, and Mozart. 
 He venerated Beethoven and admired Schumann, 
 but, singularly enough, he never cared much for 
 Chopin. Schumann, with his short-breathed 
 phrases, was the Russian’s model in writing for 
 the pianoforte. Tchaikovsky went on composing, 
 undeterred by the lack of appreciation on the 
 part of both the Rubinsteins. Even the brilliant 
 and effective first piano concerto was picked to 
 pieces by Nicholas, and so hurt was the young 
 composer that he erased the dedication to Nicho¬ 
 las and substituted the name of Hans von Bulow, 
 
 t 
 
TCHAIKOVSKY 
 
 TCHERKASSY 
 
 who rewarded the courtesy by producing 
 concerto in Boston on the occasion of hi 
 visit to America (1875-76). Tchaikovsk - 
 
 the acquaintance of Balakireff, who urge' a 
 
 compose the Romeo et Juliette fanta ; r- 
 
 ture. Now flowed forth a stream of s' m- 
 
 plionic poems, concertos, symphoni ras, 
 
 chamber music, overtures, dances, n .peri- 
 
 mental in form, much that was med ; d also 
 
 some genuine masterpieces. An Hn. y mar¬ 
 riage, briefly endured, sent him into a retire¬ 
 ment at Klin, which was occasionally interrupted 
 by trips to Germany, France, Italy, Switzerland, 
 and England. He met Brahms and liked the 
 man, but never concealed an antipathy for his 
 music. He admired Wagner, with many reserva¬ 
 tions, though he willingly visited Bayreuth. But 
 he took no great interest in the music drama, 
 preferring old-fashioned operatic forms. All his 
 opinions, musical and otherwise, may be found 
 in his Diary , and in his musical criticisms, which 
 were edited by G. A. Laroche. His fame grew 
 apace, and in the spring of 1891 he visited 
 America, in response to the invitation of Walter 
 Damrosch, and was present at the dedication of 
 Carnegie Hall, New York. On Nov. 6, 1893, 
 Tchaikovsky died in St. Petersburg, after a 
 short illness, of cholera. His death evoked uni¬ 
 versal sympathy, and Russia learned from the 
 western world that she had lost her greatest 
 composer. 
 
 For many years the opposition to Tchaikovsky 
 was based upon the allegation that he was not 
 really one of the Neo-Russian nationalists, who 
 with Tolstoy “went to the people” for their 
 themes. Tchaikovsky, like Turgenev, was a 
 traveled man of culture, and a cosmopolitan on 
 certain sides of his art; but there was no truer 
 patriot than this fiery-souled poet, who demon¬ 
 strated his slavophilism in a hundred of his 
 compositions. His happiest work is in the pure 
 fantasy, or what he was pleased to term “over¬ 
 ture fantaisie.” Thus his Manfred, Romeo et 
 Juliette, The Tempest, and Francesca da Rimini 
 give us Tchaikovsky at the very height of his 
 powers. The unfailing invention which marks 
 •his poetic works seemed to desert him when he 
 .attempted absolute music. A poet first, musi- 
 . cian afterward, Tchaikovsky was inspired by a 
 definite programme. He was a born master of 
 orchestration. The timbres of his instruments 
 meant for him so many voices, and so his works 
 are often tone dramas, operas without words. 
 Tchaikovsky’s music reveals the mighty pes¬ 
 simism of his nation. His symphonies are often 
 built upon typical phrases, taken from the folk 
 song; he is Russian in his operas, with their 
 national texts and treatment. Some of his songs 
 —he wrote over a hundred—are masterpieces. 
 His Florentine string sextet is warm in color, 
 and in his three string quartets he often strays 
 across the borders into the pleasing country of 
 the operatic. The world has come to recognize 
 the last movement of the Pathetic symphony as 
 an unparalleled embodiment of woe. The fifth 
 symphony is more homogeneous; the fourth, in 
 F minor, more Russian. There are three piano 
 concertos, a violin concerto, and many exquisite 
 piano pieces. The three great symphonies (4, 
 5, 6), the symphonic overtures, with their wealth 
 of musical imagery, their dramatic power and 
 thrilling effects, constitute Tchaikovsky’s claim 
 to immortality. He had a predilection for ballet 
 music and left charming specimens of dance mu¬ 
 sic in Le cassenoisette suite and other composi¬ 
 
 tions in a light vein. His operas are seldom 
 heard outside of Russia. Pique Dame (1890), 
 immensely popular in Russia, is the only one 
 of Tchaikovsky’s ten operas ever produced in 
 the United States (Metropolitan Opera House, 
 1910), and failed to impress. Eugene Onegin 
 (1879), no less popular in Russia than the just- 
 mentioned opera, had two complete performances 
 in America in concert form (New York, 
 1908, 1911), but its reception was not such as to 
 warrant the expense of scenic production. Be¬ 
 sides these, the Voyevoda (1869), The Maid of 
 Orleans (1881), Mazeppa (1882), and Iolanthe 
 (1893) met with success in Russia. Other note¬ 
 worthy works include the incidental music to the 
 lyric drama Snowdrop; three ballets, Le lac dcs 
 cygnes; La belle an bois dormant (1890); and 
 Le cassenoisette; symphonies, and a great mass 
 of miscellaneous compositions. He published a 
 Treatise on Harmony (1872); a translation of 
 Gevaert’s Traits d’instrumentation (1866); and 
 also wrote Musilcalische Erinnerungen und 
 Feuilletons (1899). A complete thematic cata¬ 
 logue of the composer’s works was published by 
 P. Jurgenson at Moscow (1897). 
 
 Consult: Iwan Knorr, Tschaikovsky (Berlin, 
 1900) ; E. M. Lee, Tchaikovsky (London, 1904) ; 
 Modest Tchaikovsky, Das Leben Peter llyitch 
 Tchaikovsky’s, translated from the Russian by 
 Paul Juon (2 vols., Leipzig, 1900-04) ; the same 
 translated and abridged by Rosa Newmarch as 
 The Life and, Letters of Peter llyitch Tchaikovsky 
 (London, 1905) ; E. Evans, Tchaikovsky (ib., 
 1906) ; Rosa Newmarch, Tchaikovsky, his Life 
 and Works (ib., 1908). 
 
 TCHAKA. See Ztjluland. 
 
 TCHEKHOV, Anton Pavlovitch. See 
 Chekhov. 
 
 TCHELXABINSK, chel-ya-binsk'. An im¬ 
 portant district town in the Government of 
 Orenburg, east Russia, 363 miles northeast of 
 Orenburg (Map : Russia, K 3). As the western 
 terminus of the Trans-Siberian Railway the town 
 has considerable commercial importance. On its 
 outskirts are special barracks for Siberian emi¬ 
 grants, of whom 267,000 passed in 1913. Pop., 
 1910, 70.472. 
 
 TCHELYUSKIN, chel-yoos'kin, Cape. See 
 
 Severo Cape. 
 
 TCHENSTOCHOW. See Chenstochow. 
 
 TCHER'EMIS'SES. A Finnish tribe of 
 eastern Russia, living in the region on the left 
 bank of the middle Volga—Vyatka, Kazan, and 
 the adjoining governments. They number about 
 375,000. Their average height is 1.61 meters, 
 the cephalic index 79. In general, they have 
 red hair and a full beard of the same color; 
 their eyes are sunken and of blue, greenish, or 
 chestnut shade; the complexion is fair and 
 freckled, the cheek bones prominent, the face 
 and lips thin, the chin round, and the nose 
 straight. Some authorities believe that they 
 received through the Bulgarians the Tatar in¬ 
 fluences displayed in their social life, their 
 houses, costumes, social organization, and re¬ 
 ligious ideas. They believe in evil and good 
 gods, and in spirits of the dead which they wor¬ 
 ship with peculiar rites. They have also" many 
 magical rites to ward off the evil influences of 
 the spirits of the wood, river, and snow and to 
 keep the ghosts of the dead in their graves. Con¬ 
 sult Smirnov, Mordves et Tcheremisses (Paris, 
 1895). 
 
 TCHERKASK, Novo-. See Novo-Tcherkask. 
 
 TCHERKASSY, cher-kas'se. A district town 
 
TCHERKESSES 
 
 3i 
 
 TCHISTOPOL 
 
 in the Government of Kiev, South Russia, situ¬ 
 ated on the Dnieper, 126 miles southeast of Kiev 
 (Map: Russia, D 5). It trades in grain, to¬ 
 bacco, and sugar. Pop., 1910, 39,649. 
 
 TCHERKESSES. See Circassians. 
 
 TCHERNAYA, chgr-na/ya. A small river in 
 the Crimea, Government of Taurida, South Rus¬ 
 sia, flowing into the Black Sea near Sebastopol. 
 On Aug. 16, 1855, a Russian army advancing to 
 the relief of Sebastopol was defeated by the 
 allies with heavy loss on the banks of the 
 Teller nay a. 
 
 TCHERNAYEV, cher-na'yef, Mikhail 
 Grigorievitcii (1828-98). A Russian general. 
 He entered the army in 1847, fought in the 
 Crimean War and in the Caucasus and went to 
 Turkestan in 1864 as major general and captured 
 Tashkent. He had made an unsuccessful at¬ 
 tempt on this town the year before. He left the 
 army in 1867, commenced the practice of law at 
 Moscow, and became an ardent advocate of Pan¬ 
 slavism (q.v.). In 1876 he received the com¬ 
 mand of the Servian army on the Morava, and 
 was defeated by the Turks at Alexinatz, October 
 29. In 1879 he tried to organize a revolution 
 in Bulgaria and was sent as prisoner to Adri- 
 anople and thence brought to Russia. From 1882 
 to 1884 he was Governor-General of the Military 
 Department of Tashkent in Turkestan. 
 
 TCHERNIGOV, cher-ne'g6f. A government 
 in southwest Russia. Area, 20,233 square miles 
 (Map: Russia, D 4). The surface is level, and 
 in the north marshy. It. is watered by the 
 Dnieper and the Desna. The chief occupation, 
 is agriculture and the principal products are 
 rye, buckwheat, potatoes, wheat, and tobacco. 
 Stock raising is also important. There is an 
 abundance of porcelain clay, which is used ex¬ 
 tensively for the production of porcelain ware; 
 woodenware is also largely manufactured. There 
 are a number of sugar refineries and distil¬ 
 leries. Pop., 1912, 3,083,500, consisting largely 
 of Little Russians. Capital, Tchernigov (q.v.). 
 
 TCHERNIGOV. The capital of the govern¬ 
 ment of the same name, in Russia, situated on 
 the Desna, 476 miles southwest of Moscow (Map: 
 Russia, D 4). Almost all the trade and com¬ 
 merce of the government is concentrated in this 
 city. It has two cathedrals, dating from the 
 eleventh and the twelfth centuries, and remains 
 of an old castle. Pop., 1910, 32,848. Tchernigov 
 rose to political and commercial importance as 
 early as the eleventh century, but, falling into 
 the path of the Tatar invasion, it lost much of 
 its prominence. 
 
 TCHERNYSHEV, cher'm-shef, Alexander 
 Ivanovitch, Prince. See Chernyshev. 
 
 TCHERNYSHEV, Theodosei Nikolaievitch 
 (1856-1914). A Russian geologist. After his 
 studies at a naval academy and a school of 
 mines, he made a geological map of the western 
 slope of the Ural Mountains. By 1903 lie had 
 become director of the Russian Geological Com¬ 
 mittee, many of whose annual expeditions to the 
 Urals he superintended. Later he was placed in 
 command of an expedition to northern Russia, 
 made geological studies of the Donetz basin, ex¬ 
 plored Nova Zembla, and headed an expedition to 
 determine the meridian line of Spitzbergen. Most 
 of Tchernyshev’s published work, including sev¬ 
 eral monographs which brought him the highest 
 prizes from scientific societies, is embodied in 
 the proceedings of those societies. 
 
 TCHERNYSHEVSKY, Nikolai Gavrilo¬ 
 vitch. See Chernystievsky. 
 
 TCHERTKOV, chSrt'kof, Vladimir (1854- 
 ). A Russian writer, born in Moscow. He 
 was an officer in the Russian Imperial Life 
 Guards in 1874-81; was a magistrate in South 
 Russia; and organized schools and self-help 
 among the peasants. Tchertkov founded a pub¬ 
 lishing enterprise called Posrednik for dis¬ 
 tributing the best literature among the people; 
 circulated private editions of Tolstoy’s works; 
 and disseminated information about the govern¬ 
 ment’s persecution of the Sectarians. For pub¬ 
 lishing an appeal in behalf of the Doukhobor 
 sect, which was then being exterminated by the 
 government, he was exiled in 1897, and there¬ 
 after lived in England, where he became editor 
 of the Free Age Press publications. He pub¬ 
 lished Christian Martyrdom in Russia (1897; 
 2d ed., 1900) and A Short Biography of William 
 Lloyd Garrison (1904), with Florence Holah. 
 
 TCHETCH'EN, or CHECHEN. One of the 
 eastern groups of the peoples of the Caucasus, 
 dwelling between the Kabards and Lesghians 
 (cephalic index, 84.5). They number some 
 300,000 and comprise the Tchetchens proper, 
 Ingushes, Itchkerians, and Kists (q.v.). They 
 call themselves Nakhtche, or “people.” They 
 are one of the most primitive peoples of the 
 Caucasus, and in their mountain fastnesses even 
 now resist Russian conquest. Their religion 
 seems to be Islamism imposed upon an earlier 
 crude form of Christianity with a heathen back¬ 
 ground. By language they rank as an independ¬ 
 ent stock. 
 
 TCHIAM. See Indo-Chinese. 
 
 TCHICHAGOV, Pavel Vassilievitch. See 
 Chiciiagov. 
 
 TCHIGORIN, chig'o-rin, Michael (1850- 
 1908). A Russian chess master, horn in St. 
 Petersburg. He was engaged for a time in 
 the Russian civil service, but early became in¬ 
 terested in chess, and at the Berlin tournament 
 of 1881 increased his local fame as an expert 
 by following Blackburn and Zukertort in the 
 list of victors. He was defeated by Steinitz at 
 Havana in 1889, although two years afterward 
 he won two cable matches. In 1892 he made 
 an unsuccessful attempt to win the world’s 
 championship. At the Moscow tournament of 
 1899 he won first prize, divided the first honors 
 in 1900 at the National Russian Tournament, 
 and was third in the International Masters’ 
 Tournament held at Monte Carlo in 1901, and 
 first in the Masters’ Tournament at St. Peters¬ 
 burg in 1904. 
 
 TCHIKHACHEV, Peter Alexandrovitch. 
 See Chikhachev. 
 
 TCHING-PAO. See Newspaper. 
 
 TCHIRIKOV, che're-kof, Yevgeny (1864— 
 ). A popular Russian writer, born in 
 the Province of Simbirsk. His reputation dates 
 from 1893, when he began to write for prominent 
 monthlies. Thereafter he was a prolific writer 
 of stories, sketches, plays, and novels. His note¬ 
 worthy fiction includes The Foreigners, The In¬ 
 valids, Faust, The Rebels, In the Folds of Pas¬ 
 sion, and The Life of Tarkhanov (3 vols., 1914). 
 His plays, popular in Russia, include For Fame, 
 Ivan Mironytch, Congenial Friends, The Peas¬ 
 ants, Maria Ivanovna, and The Jews. Tchirikov’s 
 special field is the sombre life of the provinces. 
 As a realist he belongs to the school of Kuprin 
 and Korolenko. 
 
 TCIIIRPAN. See Cirpan. 
 
 TCHIRSK, Nizhni. See Nizhni-Tchirsk. 
 
 TCHISTOPOL, ches-to'p61. A district town 
 
TCHISTOPOL 
 
 32 
 
 TEA 
 
 in the Government of Kazan, Russia, situated 
 on the Kama, 90 miles southeast of Kazan 
 (Map: Russia, II 3). It has flour mills, distil¬ 
 leries, and cotton mills, and is the chief grain 
 port on the river Kama. Pop., 1910, 24,921. 
 
 TCHISTOPOL. A district in the Govern¬ 
 ment of Kazan, east Russia (Map: Russia, H 
 3). Its area is 3592 square miles. The princi¬ 
 pal industries are the raising of cereals, flax, 
 and hemp, and the curing and manufacture of 
 leather. Pop., 1912, 387,500. 
 
 TCHITA, che'ta. The capital of the Territory 
 of Transbaikalia and an important centre of 
 east Siberia, on the Tcliita River and the Trans- 
 Siberian Railway, 532 miles by rail east of 
 Irkutsk (Map: Asia, N 3). Pop., 1897, 11,480, 
 largely Buriats. 
 
 TCHORLU, chGrfloo. A town of the Vilayet 
 of Rodosto, in European Turkey, on the Tchorlu 
 River, a tributary of the Ergene, 20 miles north¬ 
 east of Rodosto (Map: Balkan Peninsula, F 4). 
 There are Christian churches and mosques. 
 Wine and fruit are produced; native carpets 
 and woolen cloth are manufactured. Pop., 
 about 11,500. Tchorlu was the scene in Novem¬ 
 ber, 1912, of a Bulgarian victory over the Turks 
 in the Balkan War (q.v.). 
 
 TCHUKTCHI, chook'che, or CHUKCHI 
 (from chdwtcy, rich in reindeer). A people liv¬ 
 ing in the extreme northeast of Asia, numbering 
 some 15,000. The reindeer Tchuktclii dwell in 
 the interior about the Kolyma River; the sea 
 (or fishing) Tchuktclii, who form the great ma¬ 
 jority, inhabit the coast of the Arctic from 
 Bear Island to East Cape, while on the Pacific 
 side they have mingled with the Eskimo. They 
 are tall, well built, rather light-skinned, decid¬ 
 edly brachycephalic in part (there seem to be 
 two physical varieties among them), and differ 
 somewhat in form and features from the typical 
 Mongolians, with whom they are allied by 
 speech. Besides an interesting Shamanism, the 
 Tchuktclii have a wealth of folklore and my¬ 
 thology not without traces of Eskimo influence. 
 The old men commit suicide with great cere¬ 
 mony. See Borgoras, The Chukchee (Leyden, 
 1904). See Giliaks. 
 
 TCHUST, choost. A town in the Territory of 
 Ferghana, Russian Turkestan, 110 miles north¬ 
 east of Khokand (Map: Persia, O 2). The 
 natives manufacture knives and saddles. Pop., 
 1897, 13,686. 
 
 TCHUVASHES, chbo-vash'ez. A people of 
 eastern Russia, probably of Finnic (Tcheremis- 
 sian) origin, and now with a strong Tatar ad¬ 
 mixture. Their seat is near the Volga and they 
 number some 850,000. Their language, which is 
 distinct, is assigned to the Ural-Altaic (q.v.) 
 stock. They are industrious and orderly, their 
 chief occupations being agriculture and cattle 
 breeding. The Tchuvashes are nominally Chris¬ 
 tians, but more primitive Shamanistic beliefs 
 and practices are still prevalent among them. 
 Consult Schott, De Lingua Tschuicaschorum 
 (Berlin, 1841). 
 
 TEA (from Fulikien Chin, te, Chin, ts’a, ch’a, 
 tea). Tliea sinensis (Camellia Thea) is a small 
 tree, reaching a height of about 30 feet in 
 the tropical parts of Assam, where it is prob¬ 
 ably native. The young leaves when properly 
 handled become the tea of commerce. In order 
 to increase the leaf production under cultiva¬ 
 tion, the plant is pruned to the form of a much 
 branching shrub, from 2 to 5 feet high. Prop¬ 
 agation is usually from seed sown in the fall 
 
 in especially prepared shaded seed beds. In 
 from one to two years the • seedlings are large 
 enough to transfer to the field. About three 
 years after planting, the tea bush is large 
 enough to give a small yield, which increases 
 until the full crop is obtained after a period 
 of from five to ten years from the seed. The 
 
 garden when established yields tea for 50 years 
 or more. When the yield falls, more or less 
 severe pruning is resorted to. This also keeps 
 .the leaves within easy reach of the pickers. 
 Tea has been cultivated in China and Japan 
 since the dawn of history and in India and 
 Ceylon since 1865. It requires a heavy rain¬ 
 fall, thriving best in a rainfall of 90-200 inches. 
 In dry climates the “.flushes” do not occur often 
 enough. 
 
 Although the tea plant is an evergreen, its 
 leaves are used for tea only during “flushes” in 
 which active growth takes place. Leaves are 
 picked from 10 to 25 times a year in Formosa 
 or every 10 or 12 days in Ceylon. Only the 
 tip of the shoot or one or two of the youngest 
 leaves are taken. A few older and coarser 
 leaves go into the cheaper grades of tea. The 
 tender upper leaves and terminal buds are picked 
 by hand, according to one of several systems of 
 plucking, and subjected to a complicated series 
 of processes before the tea of commerce is pro¬ 
 duced. Formerly nearly all the work of manu¬ 
 facturing tea was done by hand, but in more 
 recent times the use of machinery has greatly 
 increased, saving personal contact and reduc¬ 
 ing expense. 
 
 The difference between green and black tea is 
 largely due to the method of manufacture, al¬ 
 though the leaves of some varieties of tea lend 
 themselves more readily to the manufacture of 
 black or fermented tea than others. It has been 
 shown recently that certain oxidizing ferments, 
 oxidases, present in the tea leaf, acting on other 
 substances present in the fresh leaf, produce in 
 the presence of air a series of reddish substances 
 which alter both the taste and the appearance 
 of the tea so as to produce the black tea of 
 commerce. In making green tea the freshly 
 plucked leaves are treated to a degree of heat 
 high enough to destroy the oxidizing ferments 
 (about 250° F.), and to give to the leaf a 
 thoroughly limp and wilted appearance. This 
 leaf is then rolled by hand, or in large machine 
 rollers, holding from 50 to 150 pounds of tea 
 
TEA 
 
 1. THE LAST PICKING 
 
 2. DRYING THE LEAVES IN A TEA-HEATER 
 

 
 
 
 THE LI CHARY 
 OF THE 
 
 UWIVERbm m iwms 
 
 c 
 
 
 
TEA 
 
 33 
 
 TEACHERS’ PENSIONS 
 
 at a time. The rolling gives the twisted ap¬ 
 pearance to the leaf and brings the juices to 
 the surface. The rolled tea then goes to the 
 firing machine where it is heated for a proper 
 time at a heat sufficiently high to drive off the 
 water from the leaf and develop the substances 
 giving fragrance to the tea. This fragrance 
 was formerly supposed to be due to volatile 
 oils present in the tea plant, a theory which 
 has been proved erroneous. The tea, after firing, 
 is stored in air-tight bins or containers until it 
 is graded and packed for shipment or storage. 
 In making black tea the use of heat prior to 
 the final firing process is dispensed with. The 
 fresh leaves are spread out in drying lofts until 
 they have been rendered flaccid by the evapora¬ 
 tion of moisture. They are then rolled as just 
 described and spread out on tables in cool, well 
 ventilated rooms to oxidize. The proper reddish 
 appearance is obtained after an exposure of 
 two to 10 hours in the air, when the leaf is 
 again rolled and then fired. 
 
 Some leaves are longer and larger than others 
 and, to obtain uniformity of appearance, the tea 
 is put through a cutting machine, after which 
 it is sifted and graded for the market. Some¬ 
 times it is desirable to scent the tea artificially. 
 This is done by exposing the dried tea to the 
 fresh blossoms of Olea fra grans, the sweet- 
 scented olive, or Aglaia odorata, used especially 
 in scenting of Formosa oolong teas. Still other 
 flowers are used for this purpose. In some cases 
 it is thought necessary for commercial reasons 
 to improve the appearance of green teas arti¬ 
 ficially. This is done by facing the teas with 
 finely powdered talc, Prussian blue, or other col¬ 
 oring agents. After a period of experimentation 
 by private parties, notably by Dr. Charles U. 
 Shepard, and by the United States Department 
 of Agriculture, the culture and manufacture of 
 tea has been established on a small scale in 
 South Carolina. An excellent grade of tea of 
 black, green, oolong, and other sorts, has been 
 manufactured, and finds a ready market in the 
 United States. New and improved machinery 
 has been invented, and the ability of negro 
 children to pick tea efficiently has been demon¬ 
 strated. There is so much hand labor involved 
 in picking the leaves, however, that it remains 
 quite doubtful whether the Southern States can 
 compete with Ceylon, Japan, and China in 
 growing tea. 
 
 The largest importation of tea into the 
 United States comes from Japan, including For¬ 
 mosa, China taking second place, India and 
 Ceylon third. Japan and Formosa teas find 
 their largest market in the United States. Eng¬ 
 land and Russia are large consumers of black 
 teas, the former country getting its supply 
 chiefly from India and Ceylon, the latter from 
 China. Some tea is grown by Russia in the 
 Caucasus region. The total annual tea exports 
 from the tea-producing countries are about 810,- 
 000,000 pounds. Ceylon alone has 400,000 acres 
 of tea and exports 190,000,000 pounds annually. 
 The tendency among tea consumers is decidedly 
 towards the use of black tea. British India 
 and Ceylon produce black teas almost exclu¬ 
 sively. Some of the sorts of tea used in the 
 United States are here enumerated: Chinese— 
 Greens: Gunpowder sorts, Hyson sorts, Young 
 Hyson sorts. Blacks: Congous, red leaf from 
 south China and black leaf from north China, 
 as well as Canton, Pekoe, and other sorts. 
 Oolongs: including Amoy, Foochow, and other 
 
 sorts. Scented teas of various sorts in limited 
 amount. Indian (including Ceylon and Java) 
 —Greens: colored sorts: Gunpowder, Imperial, 
 Young Hyson, Hyson, etc. Uncolored sorts: 
 Young Hyson, Hyson. Blacks: Pekoes, of vari¬ 
 ous sorts and grades, Souchongs, and Congous. 
 Japan and Formosa —Greens: By various meth¬ 
 ods of firing, as pan fired, basket fired, sun 
 dried, etc. Oolongs: From Formosa, according 
 to districts and treatment, also scented pu- 
 cliongs in small amount. See Tea Insects. 
 
 Consult: A. J. Wallis-Taylor, Tea Machinery 
 and Tea Factories (New York, 1900) ; J. M. 
 Walsh, Tea Blending as a Fine Art (Phila¬ 
 delphia, 1902) ; id., Tea: Its History and Mys¬ 
 tery (ib., 1902) ; United States Supervising Tea 
 Examiner, Annual Report (Washington, 1914 
 et seq.). 
 
 TEACH, or THATCH, Edward ( ?—1718). 
 An Anglo-American pirate, popularly known as 
 Blackbeard. He became widely known and 
 feared for his robberies and atrocities through¬ 
 out the West Indies and along the coast of 
 Carolina and Virginia. At Pasquotank, N. C., 
 in 1718, he was attacked by two small sloops 
 under the command of Lieutenant Maynard of 
 the British navy, and by a successful ruse led 
 to board the vessels, when he with several of his 
 men was killed. Consult C. Johnson, Lives of 
 the Pirates (1724), and S. A. Ashe, “Our Own 
 Pirates,” in The North Carolina Booklet, vol. ii, 
 no. 2 (Raleigh, 1902). 
 
 TEACHERS COLLEGE. An institution in 
 New York City for the training of teachers and 
 school administrators, and for study and re¬ 
 search in the field of education, founded in 1888, 
 and made a part of the educational system 
 of Columbia University (q.v.) in 1898. The 
 college is an integral part of Columbia Uni¬ 
 versity and is represented by its dean and 
 faculty delegates, but maintains its separate 
 corporate organization, with a board of trustees 
 who assume the entire financial responsibility 
 for its maintenance. The departments of in¬ 
 struction are history and philosophy of edu¬ 
 cation; educational administration, psychology, 
 and sociology; secondary, elementary, kinder¬ 
 garten, vocational, religious, and rural educa¬ 
 tion; English, French, German, Greek, and 
 Latin; history, biology, geography, and mathe¬ 
 matics; household and industrial arts; music 
 and speech; nursing and health; and physical 
 education and science. No department under¬ 
 takes work for which adequate provision is 
 made in other faculties of the university. The 
 college maintains a school of observation; the 
 Horace Mann School, with kindergarten, ele¬ 
 mentary, and high-school departments. The 
 college inaugurated the system of extension 
 teaching now conducted bv the universitv, and 
 issues a number of educational publications. In 
 1912 the faculty was reorganized into two 
 schools, the school of education, which was placed 
 on a graduate basis, and the school of practical 
 arts. The buildings, five in number, are valued 
 at $2,551,000. The total registration in 1914- 
 15 was 5110, including 870 in summer session, 
 1833 special students, 929 in the school of edu¬ 
 cation, and 1070 in the school of practical arts. 
 The Brvson Librarv contains 58,881 volumes. 
 
 TEACHERS’ PENSIONS. In all European 
 governments which supervise school systems and 
 regulate the appointment of teachers, it is held 
 that teachers, being officers of the state, are 
 as such entitled to pensions. The systems vary 
 
TEACHERS’ PENSIONS 
 
 34 
 
 TEACHERS’ SALARIES 
 
 in the different countries between contributory 
 and noncontributory principles. Germany has 
 fairly generally adopted the latter principle— 
 the state bearing the whole expense of the pen¬ 
 sions. France and England require contribu¬ 
 tions from their teachers. It is felt usually 
 that under a noncontributory system salaries 
 are either depressed or remain stationary longer 
 than under the other system. Germany and 
 France provide also for the widows and orphans 
 of teachers. 
 
 Pension systems for teachers in the United 
 States originated late in the nineteenth century 
 in the form of teachers’ mutual benefit associa¬ 
 tions, voluntary clubs paying little more than 
 burial fees, and supported by assessments, enter¬ 
 tainments, etc. By 1895 the States of Illinois, 
 New York, and California, and the cities of 
 Detroit, New York, and St. Louis, had provided 
 for the aid of teachers’ retirement funds by the 
 use of public money. The city of Brooklyn 
 adopted the contributory system by deducting 
 1 per cent a year from the teacher’s salary. In 
 1905 the State Legislature, by amending the 
 charter of the city of New York, created a teach¬ 
 ers’ pension system which was then generally re¬ 
 garded as the most advanced in America. Its 
 later development, however, belied this promise, 
 for in 1915 the fund was reduced so low that 
 it was declared bankrupt, and in 1916 a new 
 system was under consideration, formulated by 
 a Commission on Pensions which was appointed 
 in 1913 to consider all the pension systems of 
 the city. 
 
 Interest in pensions for teachers as for other 
 employees has but recently developed. This is 
 evident by the fact that of the 21 State-wide 
 systems in existence in 1916, 15 were established 
 after 1910. The State-wide systems are Ari¬ 
 zona, California, Illinois, Indiana, Maine, Mary¬ 
 land, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mon¬ 
 tana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New 
 Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Rhode Island, 
 Utah, Vermont, Virginia, and Wisconsin. Of 
 these only Arizona, Maine, Maryland, New 
 Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Virginia have 
 adopted the noncontributory principle. All the 
 others require contributions from teachers 
 which vary in amount as do the time of serv¬ 
 ice required and the amount of the pension. 
 In addition to the above systems a number of 
 States have permissive pension laws, e.g., Kan¬ 
 sas, Kentucky, and Ohio, while in others city 
 systems have been established under special 
 laws, e.g., New York and Pennsylvania. 
 
 Pension systems in the United States labor 
 under a number of disadvantages, the chief 
 of these being ignorance of the social basis 
 and the actuarial principles that should underlie 
 them. The result is that a large number of 
 systems must either prorate the promised benefit 
 or else become bankrupt. The great need at 
 present is for sound actuarial information on 
 the whole subject, since the social basis is gen¬ 
 erally admitted. This latter rests on the recog¬ 
 nition that teachers are not paid adequate sala¬ 
 ries, that the ordinary avenues of commercial 
 gain are closed to them, and that some system 
 of superannuation is necessary in the interests 
 of an efficient service. But what must yet be 
 established is the relation of the pension to final 
 salary, the responsibility for the contributions, 
 length of service required, and age of retirement, 
 together with some form of disability grant or 
 insurance. 
 
 In 1916 the only system that gave promise 
 of permanence was that of Massachusetts. Here 
 the teachers were compelled to make annual con¬ 
 tributions of from 3 to 7 per cent of their 
 salaries with which a sum was accumulated out 
 of which annuities are paid. The State collects 
 and administers this fund, and when a teacher 
 is retired after 30 years of service at the mini¬ 
 mum age of 60, the amount of the annuity due 
 is doubled by a grant of an equal amount from 
 the State. The total sum may not be as large 
 as those promised in other schemes, but at least 
 has the elements of certainty. 
 
 For pensions to university teachers see under 
 Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement 
 of Teaching which discusses the subject in its 
 annual reports. Consult: C. W. Prosser, The 
 Teacher and Old Age (Boston, 1913) ; United 
 States Bureau of Education, List of References 
 on Teachers’ Pensions (Washington, 1914) ; New 
 York City, Commission on Pensions, Report 
 (New York, 1915); Massachusetts Teachers’ 
 Retirement Board, Annual Report (Boston, 
 1915). 
 
 TEACHERS’ SALARIES. Competition of 
 women, the temporary employment of men, the 
 classification of teaching with menial services, 
 the low requirements in many parts of the 
 country, and the assumption that this work 
 should be done for the love of it, have kept 
 the wages of teachers in America at or below 
 the point of bare subsistence. The larger cities 
 and towns have adopted schedules of salaries 
 dependent upon the teacher’s merit, length of 
 service, and grade of class taught. 
 
 In 1898 the New York State Teachers’ Asso¬ 
 ciation appointed a committee to investigate the 
 cost of living in the various cities in the State, 
 and to compare the figures with the salaries 
 paid to teachers. The committee tabulated what 
 they regarded as legitimate living expenses. 
 This tabulation, with slight variations, has since 
 been used by the teachers’ associations of many 
 States in collecting estimates for the minimum 
 salary that should be paid teachers in a given 
 locality. 
 
 In New York it was decided that $600 per 
 year was the proper living wage. Twenty-five 
 dollars a year increase for meritorious service 
 was provided. Promotion to higher grades 
 brought higher wages. This schedule was 
 adopted by the Board of Education in 1898. It 
 is the first American schedule based upon a 
 carefully computed estimate of the cost of living 
 in the community. In 1899 a law amending the 
 charter of the city of New York and forbidding 
 the Board of Education to pay any teacher less 
 than $600 per annum, the living wage, was 
 passed. This law was in 1900 strengthened by 
 the provision that a specific appropriation of 
 four mills on every dollar of assessed valuation 
 of the taxable property of New York City must 
 be set aside each year as a fund from which the 
 salaries of the teachers may be drawn. The 
 New York City public schools thus illustrate 
 these principles of a salary system: Legal com¬ 
 pulsion that the Board of Education shall pay 
 at least what were living wages in 1898; encour¬ 
 agement of permanent teachers by means of 
 annual increase of payments; encouragement 
 of merit by withholding from unprogressive 
 teachers any increase after the fourth year; 
 encouragement of teachers’ study and pro¬ 
 fessional growth by higher salaries for higher 
 grades obtainable by examination; retention of 
 
TEACHING OF THE APOSTLES 
 
 35 
 
 TEA INSECTS 
 
 men by salaries permitting the support of a 
 family; protection of the salary fund by re¬ 
 quiring a per centum appropriation each year. 
 
 Improvements of the detailed working out of 
 these principles have been suggested. Living 
 expenses have increased 30 per cent since these 
 schedules were made. The Board of Education 
 has the power to increase the schedules without 
 limit other than those set by the money avail¬ 
 able. 
 
 Since the adoption of the living-wage sched¬ 
 ule, California, Colorado, Indiana, Iowa, Ken¬ 
 tucky, Maryland, Mississippi, Missouri, New 
 Jersey, North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, 
 Rhode Island, Utah, West Virginia, and Wis¬ 
 consin have passed minimum salary laws for¬ 
 bidding school boards to pay teachers less than 
 specified sums, while a few have regulated the 
 maximum salaries for certain grades of cer¬ 
 tificates, e.g., New Mexico, North Carolina, and 
 Texas. Some States, such as California, Nevada, 
 and Utah, together with New York City, are 
 required to pay equal salaries for equal services 
 to men and women teachers. 
 
 As the cost of living varies to such an extent 
 in different localities, no table of averages of 
 
 POPULATION 
 
 Elemen¬ 
 
 tary 
 
 teachers 
 
 Average 
 
 salary 
 
 High- 
 
 school 
 
 teachers 
 
 Average 
 
 salary 
 
 250,000 and over 
 
 34,618 
 
 $1,018 
 
 5,067 
 
 $1,746 
 
 100,000 to 250,000 
 
 9,817 
 
 791 
 
 1,896 
 
 1,216 
 
 50,000 to 100,000 
 
 9,393 
 
 688 
 
 1,655 
 
 1,069 
 
 25,000 to 50,000 
 
 9,335 
 
 641 
 
 1,941 
 
 1,009 
 
 10,000 to 25,000 
 
 12,272 
 
 602 
 
 2,581 
 
 897 
 
 5,000 to 10,000 
 
 9,948 
 
 533 
 
 2,342 
 
 795 
 
 teachers’ salaries for the entire country is of 
 value. The preceding table shows the average 
 salary of teachers according to population of the 
 cities. 
 
 Bibliography. Report of the 'National Edu¬ 
 cational Association, on Salaries of Public School 
 Teachers (Winona, Minn., 1905) ; also C. W. 
 Bardeen, Teaching as a Business (Syracuse, 
 1897) ; C. B. Dyke, Economic Aspect of T'eachers’ 
 Salaries (New York, 1899); C. W. Eliot, More 
 Money for the Schools (ib., 1903) ; William 
 McAndrew, “Some Suggestions as to Teachers’ 
 Salaries,” in Education Review, vol. xxvii (ib., 
 1904) ; G. C. Strachan, Equal Pay for Equal 
 Work (ib., 1910) ; Boykin and King, compilers, 
 Tangible Rewards of Teaching (Washington, 
 1914) ; Baldwin and Mohr, compilers, Bibliog¬ 
 raphy of Teachers’ Salaries (ib., 1914). 
 
 TEACHING OF THE TWELVE APOS¬ 
 TLES (Gk. didaxp tuv dudeKa diroaToXuv, di- 
 dache ton dodeka apostolon), also called the 
 Dida.che. An ancient Christian document, writ¬ 
 ten in Greek, probably between 120 and 150, of 
 great value for the study of organization, be¬ 
 lief, and worship in the early Church. It was 
 found in 1873 by Bryennios (q.v.), Metropolitan 
 of Nicomedia, in an eleventh-century manuscript 
 in the Monastery of the Holy Sepulchre in Con¬ 
 stantinople, and was published by him 10 years 
 later. Modern editors include it, by general 
 consent, among the Apostolic Fathers (q.v.). 
 The Teaching was apparently compiled from 
 earlier material, for use as a church manual. 
 It contains a description of the Two Ways, one 
 of life, the other of death, in the form of rules 
 for Christian conduct. Whether or not this 
 part of the Teaching was originally separate 
 from the rest, it is evident that it was used in 
 
 catechetical instruction to prepare converts for 
 baptism. It appears in slightly different form 
 in the Epistle of Barnabas. The second portion 
 of the Teaching sets forth the proper observance 
 of the rites of baptism and the Lord’s Supper, 
 with directions for their administration, and de¬ 
 fines the office and duties of the Christian lead¬ 
 ers, especially apostles, prophets, teachers, 
 bishops, and deacons. Ceremonial and organ¬ 
 ization are alike extremely simple. The whole 
 concludes with a paragraph announcing the 
 speedy second coming of Christ and the final 
 judgment. 
 
 The Teaching was held in high honor in the 
 early Church, and is quoted by Clement of Alex¬ 
 andria as Scripture. It forms the basis of the 
 seventh book of the Apostolic Constitutions 
 (q.v.), and bears some literary relationship to 
 the Shepherd of Hennas and perhaps to the 
 Apology of Aristides. Most critics are inclined 
 to attribute it to Syria or Egypt, but no decisive 
 argument exists for either. By the fourth 
 century the Teaching had taken its place defi¬ 
 nitely among the ecclesiastical as distinguished 
 from the canonical books. 
 
 Bibliography. J. R. Harris, The Teaching of 
 the Apostles (Baltimore, 1887, contains facsim¬ 
 iles of the manuscript) ; Philip Schaff, The 
 Teaching of the Twelve Apostles (3d ed., New 
 York, 1889) ; Kruger, History of Early Chris¬ 
 tian Literature (ib., 1897); T. C. Cruttwell, 
 Literary History of Early Christianity (2 vols,, 
 ib., 1889, contains an English translation) ; Kir- 
 sopp Lake, Apostolic Fathers, in “Loeb Classical 
 Library” (ib., 1912). The text will be found 
 critically edited, in Funk, Patres Apostolici 
 (2d ed., Tubingen, 1901). 
 
 TEAGUE, teg. A city in Freestone Co., Tex., 
 126 miles north of Houston, on the Trinity and 
 Brazos Valley Railroad. It is in a productive 
 cotton-growing region, and has a cotton-oil mill 
 and compress. Railroad repair shops are situ¬ 
 ated here. Pop., 1910, 3288. 
 
 TEA INSECTS. The tea plant is attacked 
 by several injurious insects, as the fagot worm 
 (Eumeta carmerii), one of 
 the bagworms, whose larva 
 carries a case made up of 
 fragments of twigs and feeds 
 upon leaves of the plant. 
 
 The tea borer ( Zenzera cof- 
 fece) is the larva of a cossid 
 moth; it bores into the 
 stems of both coffee and tea 
 plants. Three species of 
 bark lice ( Aspidiotus thece, 
 flavescens and transparens) 
 also occur commonly upon 
 tea, and the first named is 
 one of the most serious 
 enemies of the growing 
 plant, very noticeable at 
 the time of pruning. Three 
 mites feed upon the leaves, 
 one of them a red spider 
 ( Tetranychus bimaculatus), 
 another the five-legged tea 
 mite ( Typhlodromus cari- 
 natus), closely related to 
 the rust mite of the orange, 
 lower leaves. The yellow 
 translucens) feeds upon the buds and produces 
 the condition called “sulky.” Consult Watt, 
 The Pests and Blights of the Tea Plant (Cal¬ 
 cutta, 1898). 
 
 STICK-COVERED COCOON 
 OF A FAGOT WORM. 
 
 It feeds upon the 
 tea mite ( Acarus 
 
TEAK 
 
 36 
 
 TEASEL 
 
 TEAK, tek (Malayan tekka, Tamil tekku, teak 
 tree). iSvo kinds of timber, valuable for ship 
 building and other purposes. Indian teak ( Tec- 
 tona grandis) belongs to the family Verbe- 
 nacese; African teak or African oak (Oldfieldia 
 africana ) to the Euphorbiacese. The former 
 is found in the mountainous parts of Malabar 
 and other parts of southeastern Asia. The teak 
 forests of India are mostly under governmental 
 control and yield a considerable revenue. The 
 usual practice is to girdle the trees and allow 
 them to stand for two years to season thoroughly 
 before felling. Teak has been introduced in 
 some parts of India in which it is not in¬ 
 digenous. It is a beautiful tree, rising above 
 all the other trees of the East Indian forests, 
 sometimes attaining a height of 200 feet. Silk 
 and cotton stuffs are dyed purple by the leaves. 
 The timber, which will sink in water unless 
 dry, is one of the most valuable produced in 
 the East; it resembles coarse mahogany, is 
 easily worked, strong, durable, and not liable 
 to the attacks of insects. It is largely used 
 for furniture, some of which is handsomely 
 carved, and for shipbuilding, for which purpose 
 it is exported. The teak generally grows rather 
 in clumps in forests than in forests of itself. 
 African teak is adapted to the same uses as 
 the Indian teak, though it is not quite as 
 durable. On account of the growing scarcity of 
 teak timber other species are sought to supply 
 the demand for similar material. Among sub¬ 
 stitutes are the timbers of Sloetia sideroxylon, 
 Parinarium oblongifolium, and a tree locally 
 known as iron wood. All are found in the Malay 
 Peninsula and Dutch East Indies. Efforts have 
 been made to grow Indian teak in Nigeria, and 
 tests of timber from young planted trees have 
 been highly satisfactory. 
 
 TEAL, tel (connected with Dutch teling, teal, 
 brood, telen, to breed, and perhaps with AS. 
 tiliun, Eng. till, OHG. zil, Ger. Ziel, object). 
 One of a group of small beautiful fresh-water 
 ducks, mostly in the genera Nettion and Quer- 
 quedula. They are migratory, going to the 
 tropics for the winter, and when in the United 
 States are shy and silent, feeding chiefly at 
 night on water plants, seeds, worms, and in¬ 
 sects. They make their nests usually at some 
 distance from water, and lay greenish, or in 
 some species cream-colored, eggs. Species of 
 these two genera are known in all parts of the 
 world. The commonest North American species 
 is the green-winged teal ( Nettion carolinense ). 
 This fine bird is nearly the same as the common 
 teal ( Nettion crecca) of the northern parts of 
 the Old World. About a dozen other species 
 are met with in Asia, Africa, and South 
 America, all favorites among gunners and epi¬ 
 cures. The blue-winged teal ( Querquedula dis- 
 cors) , represented in Europe by the garganey 
 (q.v.), is very abundant in many parts of 
 North America. It is rather larger than the 
 common teal. The head and neck are blackish 
 with a large white crescent in front of the eye. 
 The wing coverts are sky-blue, and the under 
 parts are purplish gray with black spots. The 
 cinnamon teal ( Querquedula cyanoptera) is also 
 blue-winged, but the general color is rich 
 purplish chestnut and there is no white on the 
 head.. This is a South American duck, which 
 is also common west of the Rocky Mountains as 
 far north as Oregon. Two other species belong 
 to South America. Consult authorities and 
 Plate under Duck. 
 
 TEALL, te'al, Jethro Justinian Harris 
 (1849- ). An English geologist, born at 
 
 Northleach, Gloucestershire. He studied at St. 
 John's College, Cambridge, of which he was a fel¬ 
 low in 1875-79. Teall served as director of the 
 Royal Geological Survey and Museum of Prac¬ 
 tical Geology in 1901-13 and was a member 
 of the Royal Commission on Coal Supplies in 
 1901-05. He was highly honored by scientific 
 bodies, being president (1900-02) of the Geo¬ 
 logical Society of London, from which he re¬ 
 ceived the Bigsby and Wollaston medals in 
 1905; president of Section C of the British As¬ 
 sociation (1893), vice president of the Royal 
 Society of London (1900-01), and Delesse prize¬ 
 man of the Academy of Sciences, Paris (1907). 
 Besides papers on geology and petrology Teall 
 wrote British Petrography: with Special Refer¬ 
 ence to the Igneous Rocks (1888). 
 
 TEANO, ta-a'no. A city in the Province of 
 Caserta, Italy, 42 miles north-northwest of 
 Naples, at the foot of the extinct volcano Rocca 
 Monfina (Map: Italy, D 4). It was one of 
 the leading cities of Campania. The present 
 town is interesting for its old ruins, among 
 them a castle. Pop. (town), 1911, 6067. 
 
 TEARS OF THE MUSES. A poem by Ed¬ 
 mund Spenser, published in 1591. 
 
 TEASEL, te'z’l (AS. tcesel, tcesl, OHG. zeisala, 
 teasel, from AS. tcesan, Bavarian Ger. zaiscn, to 
 tease wool), Dipsacus. A genus of plants of 
 the family Dipsacacese. The only valuable spe¬ 
 cies is the fuller’s or clothier’s teasel ( Dip¬ 
 sacus fullonum), a native of southern Europe, 
 
 teasel (Dipsacus sylvestris). 
 
 naturalized in the United States. It is a bien¬ 
 nial, several feet high, with s'essile serrated 
 leaves, prickly stems and leaves, and with 
 cylindrical heads of pale or white flowers, be¬ 
 tween which are oblong, hook-pointed, acum¬ 
 inated, rigid bracts. The plant is cultivated for 
 the heads, which are cut off when in flower, and 
 are used for raising the nap of cloth, a purpose 
 for which no mechanical contrivance has been 
 found to equal them. The split heads are fixed 
 on the circumference of a cylinder, which is 
 made to revolve against the surface of the cloth. 
 The wild teasel ( Dipsacus sylvestris), from 
 which fuller’s teasel is supposed to have origi- 
 
TEA TREE 
 
 37 
 
 TECHNICAL EDUCATION 
 
 nated, has straight instead of hooked prickles 
 on the heads. It is a common and troublesome 
 weed in some parts of the United States. 
 
 TEA TREE. See Cajeput. 
 
 TEA-WATER PUMP. A spring famous in 
 New York during the eighteenth and part of the 
 nineteenth century. It was situated north of the 
 present City Hall Park, on Chatham Street, and 
 was for a long time the chief source of supply 
 for drinking purposes, owing to the purity of its 
 water. 
 
 TEAZLE, te'z’l, Lady. A sprightly country- 
 bred girl who is married to an exacting but 
 kind-hearted old gentleman, Sir Peter Teazle, in 
 Sheridan’s School for Scandal. 
 
 TEBRIS. See Tabriz. 
 
 TECKE (tesh) BAYOU. A bayou in Louisi¬ 
 ana (Map: Louisiana, F 6). It leaves the 
 Bayou Courtablau, in St. Landry County, and 
 flows southeast in a course of about 100 miles, 
 during which it sends off numerous branches to 
 the Atchafalaya Bayou, and finally empties into 
 that bayou below Grand Lake, sending also sev¬ 
 eral widely separated arms directly to the Gulf 
 of Mexico. It is interesting as having been an¬ 
 ciently a main outlet of the Red River, and is 
 lined with high and extensive alluvial banks 
 which form excellent agricultural lands safe 
 from inundations. The bayou is navigable for 
 steamers to St. Martinsville, about 90 miles. 
 
 TECHNICAL EDUCATION (from technic, 
 from Gk. tcx^lkos, technikos, relating to art or 
 handicraft, from rex^r], techne, art, handicraft, 
 from rUreiv, tiktein, to bring forth, produce). 
 The term technical education, strictly speaking, 
 embraces all instruction that has for its object 
 the direct preparation for a career or vocation. 
 In common use, the designation is applied to 
 such instruction as bears directly upon the 
 industrial arts. The field of such education 
 ranges from instruction in the arts and sciences 
 that underlie industrial practice in its broadest 
 and most complex relations to the simple train¬ 
 ing in manipulation needed for the prosecution 
 of some productive trade. This wide province 
 naturally calls for numerous and widely diver¬ 
 gent types of schools. 
 
 Technical schools may conveniently be di¬ 
 vided into three classes: (1) Institutions of a 
 collegiate or university grade,, to which the 
 titles engineering schools, institutes of tech¬ 
 nology, polytechnic institutes, and schools of ap¬ 
 plied science are variously given, and which are 
 devoted to instruction in advanced mathematics 
 and science, and the theory and practice of in¬ 
 dustrial operations. (2) Schools in which the 
 purpose is to prepare for practical work in some 
 particular field of industry and which afford in¬ 
 struction in those branches of science and art 
 that imderlie its special problems. This class is 
 represented by schools of weaving, dyeing, build¬ 
 ing, and machine construction and drafting. 
 The term technical school has been used in a 
 specialized sense in this article to denote institu¬ 
 tions of this character. In this class may be 
 grouped schools of industrial art in which the 
 study of design is supplemented by training 
 in manipulation. Evening continuation schools 
 which afford instruction in science, art, and tech¬ 
 nical methods may also be considered in this 
 group. (3) Trade schools which supply a train¬ 
 ing in the practice of some productive trade. 
 The function of the first type of school is to edu¬ 
 cate its students for managers and superin¬ 
 tendents of industrial establishments, consulting 
 
 and designing engineers and architects, etc.—in 
 other words, to supply leaders and organizers for 
 the industrial world; that of the second, to pro¬ 
 vide foremen, designers, and experts in special 
 lines of industrial practice; and that of the 
 third, to train craftsmen for practical work at a 
 trade. 
 
 Engineering Schools; Schools of Applied 
 Science; Institutes of Technology. The ear¬ 
 liest establishment of this type of school oc¬ 
 curred in France and Germany. In France the 
 Ecole des Ponts et Chaussees, originally started 
 in 1747 as a drawing school, was organized in 
 1760 for the training of engineers for the gov¬ 
 ernment service. In 1794 the celebrated Ecole 
 Polytechnique was founded, primarily to fit men 
 for the engineer and artillery corps of the 
 French army. Not only has this school done 
 much to set the standard of scientific training for 
 the state service, but, from the fact that many 
 of its graduates have engaged in private work, 
 it has exerted a strong influence upon general 
 industrial practice. Other special engineering 
 schools have been established at different times 
 by the French government, and in 1829 the Ecole 
 Centrale des Arts et Metiers was founded as a 
 private institution. The standards of this school 
 have always been of the highest character. In 
 Germany the first institution that approached 
 a' modern engineering school was the School of 
 Mines founded at Freiberg in 1824, in order to 
 develop engineers for working the mines in the 
 neighborhood. Later in the century came the 
 great development of pure science in the German 
 universities, and following this came an era of 
 equal activity in the field of applied science, 
 which quickly resulted in the widespread estab¬ 
 lishment of polytechnics or Technische Hoch- 
 schulen. Rivalry between the various states 
 played a part in the spread of these schools, 
 each striving to outdo the others in magnificence 
 of buildings and completeness of equipment. 
 These institutions, which often had their begin¬ 
 nings in secondary technical or trade schools, 
 have now become foundations coordinate with the 
 universities, requiring equal academic prepara¬ 
 tion for admission, and representing specialized 
 courses in engineering, architecture, industrial 
 chemistry, and agriculture. Schools of this kind 
 are uniformly supported by the governments of 
 the various states, and present a very highly de¬ 
 veloped organization. The splendid Technische 
 Hochschule at Charlottenburg, and similar insti¬ 
 tutions at Munich, Dresden, Darmstadt, Han¬ 
 over, Cassel, Aachen, and Breslau are foremost 
 examples of this class. Engineering schools of 
 a high grade are maintained also by the govern¬ 
 ments of Austria, Italy, Switzerland, Sweden, 
 and Russia. Great Britain awakened more 
 slowly to the need of technical education than 
 other European countries, the chief stimulus be¬ 
 ing interest aroused by the Exhibition of 1851. 
 In 1881 a Royal Commission on Technical In¬ 
 struction was appointed to investigate the entire 
 subject. Among other results of this awakening 
 was the foundation of the City and Guilds of 
 London Institute, formed by a union of many of 
 the wealthy corporations of the old London 
 guilds. The scope of the Institute activities in¬ 
 cludes the support and management of three 
 institutions and the support of several others 
 in the city of London, and the direction of a 
 system of examinations dealing with the work 
 of technical classes throughout England and 
 Wales, and represents a system that touches all 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 
 
 38 
 
 TECHNICAL EDUCATION 
 
 the important phases of technical instruction 
 with the single exception of the trade school. 
 The most important of the three schools estab¬ 
 lished in London, the Central Institution of the 
 City and Guilds of London Institute, a well- 
 organized school of technology, now forms a part 
 of the Imperial College of Science and Technol¬ 
 ogy, and is recognized as a school of the Univer¬ 
 sity of London in the faculty of engineering. The 
 Institute gave £100,000 for buildings and equip¬ 
 ment, and annually contributes £10,000 to its 
 support. Courses are provided for training 
 engineers, architects, industrial chemists, and 
 technical teachers. Other schools of an ad¬ 
 vanced character and several university depart¬ 
 ments of applied science have come to the 
 front in Great Britain, prominent among which 
 are the University of Manchester, the Manches¬ 
 ter School of Technology, the University of 
 Birmingham, the University of Leeds, the Uni¬ 
 versity of Sheffield, Armstrong College, and a 
 number of others. In 1913-14 the Board of 
 Education paid grants to 24 different institu¬ 
 tions for technological and professional work, 
 all of university grade. Schools of engineering 
 are maintained at the University of Glasgow, the 
 University of Edinburgh, University College of 
 Dundee, and the Glasgow and West of Scotland 
 Technical College. 
 
 In the United States the development of the 
 school of technology has been exceedingly rapid, 
 and has resulted in a type of institution that 
 in some respects is the superior of anything to 
 be found abroad. The Rensselaer Polytechnic 
 Institute (q.v.), founded in 1824 by Stephen 
 Van Rensselaer as a school of theoretical and 
 applied science, was the first establishment in 
 this field. The work of this school has been 
 almost exclusively devoted to the training of 
 civil engineers. In response to the growing de¬ 
 mand for scientific instruction, the Sheffield 
 Scientific School (1847) at Yale and the Law¬ 
 rence Scientific School (1848) at Harvard were 
 founded. Most of the technical schools, how¬ 
 ever, date from the later years of the Civil 
 War. In 1861, through the efforts of Prof. Wil¬ 
 liam B. Rogers, the charter of the Massachusetts 
 Institute of Technology (q.v.) was granted, and 
 in 1865 the first classes were organized. The 
 Worcester Polytechnic Institute (q.v.) was 
 opened to students in 1867. This was the first 
 school of technology in the United States to 
 provide systematic instruction in workshop prac¬ 
 tice as an element of the course in mechanical 
 engineering. In 1864 the first courses in the 
 School of Mines, Columbia University, were or¬ 
 ganized, and from this have developed the sev¬ 
 eral schools of applied science of that institution. 
 In 1871 the Stevens Institute of Technology 
 (q.v.) at Hoboken was opened. The beginnings 
 of the Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering 
 and the Mechanic Arts were made at Cornell 
 University in 1872, and other courses in applied 
 science were soon established there. In the next 
 20 years a large number of schools of the first 
 rank were founded either as separate institu¬ 
 tions or as departments of universities. Notable 
 among those of the first kind are Purdue Uni¬ 
 versity (q.v.), Lafayette, Ind.; Rose Polytechnic 
 Institute (q.v.), Terre Haute, Ind.; the Michi¬ 
 gan School of Mines, Houghton, Mich.; the Case 
 School of Applied Science (q.v.), Cleveland, 
 Ohio; and the Armour Institute of Technology 
 (q.v.), at Chicago, Ill. Prominent among the 
 second group are the engineering departments of 
 
 Lehigh University, the Ohio State University, 
 Washington L T niversity (St. Louis), and the 
 universities of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, 
 Pennsylvania, and California. The State land- 
 grant colleges established under the Morrill Act 
 of 1862 also gave a great impetus to the study 
 of engineering and mechanic arts. See Morrill, 
 Justin S. 
 
 The history of these schools has been marked 
 by the development of a number of very signifi¬ 
 cant features of instruction. To begin with, 
 emphasis has from the first been placed upon 
 the laboratory method of instruction, as opposed 
 to sole reliance upon textbooks. Following the 
 organization of instruction in pure science came 
 that in applied science. Another feature that 
 has characterized the instruction in many of 
 these institutions is the degree of specialization 
 in the instructing staff made possible by the 
 large numbers of students. The courses of study 
 of American schools of technologv almost uni- 
 versallv extend through four years. 
 
 Technical and Applied Art Schools; Con¬ 
 tinuation Schools. All the types of this group 
 of institutions have reached a high point of or¬ 
 ganization on the continent of Europe. Tech¬ 
 nical schools, in which to practical training in 
 the methods of a special craft is added instruc¬ 
 tion in the scientific principles upon which they 
 are based, appear in greatest numbers in Austria, 
 Germany, and France. Some have been estab¬ 
 lished by guilds or masters’ societies, some by a 
 union of manufacturers of a town or city wishing 
 to improve the efficiency of their establishments, 
 and others by action of the local authorities or 
 by the government. A steady tendency towards 
 government control and support is apparent in 
 all the continental countries. Prominent among 
 schools of this type are the special schools for 
 weaving and dyeing, of which frequent examples 
 are found in various parts of Germany. The 
 most famous institution of the kind is located 
 at Krefeld, in Prussia. In this model institu¬ 
 tion very thorough study is made of the chemis¬ 
 try and technology of dyeing, and of the mecha¬ 
 nism and pattern designing involved in weaving. 
 The Advanced School of Weaving at Lyons, 
 France, the School of Silk Weaving near Zurich, 
 Switzerland, the School of Weaving and Dyeing 
 at the University of Leeds, and the textile de¬ 
 partments of the Manchester School of Tech¬ 
 nology and of the Bradford Technical College, 
 are other examples of this type of school. In 
 the United States similar schools are the textile 
 and dyeing schools of the School of Industrial 
 Art of the Pennsylvania Museum at Philadel¬ 
 phia and the textile schools at Lowell and New 
 Bedford, Mass. 
 
 Another type of technical school found in Ger¬ 
 many and Austria is the Baugewerbeschule or 
 building trades school. These schools are gen¬ 
 erally open during the winter months alone. 
 Only students are admitted who have had prac¬ 
 tical experience in some branch of the trade, 
 and the courses deal with the principles and 
 practice of building construction, the nature of 
 materials, mechanical and freehand drawing, 
 modeling, science, mathematics, and bookkeep¬ 
 ing. The courses generally run through four 
 terms and are strictly professional in character. 
 Many of the Fachschulen of Austria, although 
 aiming at trade instruction, might well be classed 
 as technical schools on account of the character 
 and extent of the technical instruction that is 
 offered in addition to the practical work. 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 
 
 39 
 
 TECHNICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Another form of technical school is represented 
 by a class of institutions of the secondary grade, 
 which aim to prepare rather for entrance into 
 industrial work than for direct mastery of any 
 one special branch. In these schools the courses 
 commonly include instruction in the elements of 
 a general education, as well as the study of ap¬ 
 plied science and practical training in a number 
 of representative industrial processes. The In- 
 dustrieschulen and Gewerbeschulen of Germany 
 and Austria are examples of this type. Courses 
 in these schools are generally from three to five 
 years in length, and embrace, besides practical 
 industrial work, instruction in mechanical and 
 freehand drawing, geography, business forms, 
 mathematics, bookkeeping, . science, and tech¬ 
 nology. Schools of this kind are found at Diis- 
 lin, Chemnitz, Cologne, Diisseldorf, Leipzig, Mu¬ 
 nich, and Nuremberg. In Austria the School of 
 the Technological Industrial Museum, at Vienna, 
 is the foremost example, and serves as a model 
 for all other schools of this class throughout the 
 Empire. 
 
 France has a very important and highly or¬ 
 ganized system of state schools for the training 
 of foremen and superintendents in mechanical in¬ 
 dustries at Chalons, Aix, Angers, Cluny, and 
 Lille. The courses are three years in length. 
 The instruction, both practical and theoretical, 
 given in these schools, has been of so thorough 
 a character that the result in large part has 
 been to train managers and mechanical engineers 
 rather than foremen. Other technical schools of 
 an advanced character in France are the Indus¬ 
 trial Institute of the North of France, at Lille, 
 and the Institution Livet, at Nantes, which is 
 a private foundation. A school of a special 
 type exists at Lyons, the Ecole Martiniere. Dis¬ 
 tinct courses are provided for boys and girls. 
 In the former the sciences and arts are studied 
 in their relation to commerce and industry. The 
 object is not to prepare for any special trade, 
 but to develop general capacity for an industrial 
 or commercial career. The course, which lasts 
 for three years, is very similar to those of the 
 American manual-training schools. The courses 
 for girls aim to furnish a trade training in 
 commercial accounting, embroidery, industrial 
 drawing, and women’s tailoring, together with a 
 general education. The Finsbury Technical Col¬ 
 lege, in London, is the most important institu¬ 
 tion of this class in England. Several well- 
 equipped schools of this general type exist in 
 other parts of England, among which are the 
 Manchester School of Technology, the Birming¬ 
 ham Technical School, and the Sheffield Technical 
 School. In the United States the manual-train¬ 
 ing high schools (see Manual Training) ap¬ 
 proach quite close to this last category of 
 schools, but devote a larger proportion of time 
 to general branches; more nearly similar are 
 the recently developed technical and vocational 
 high schools that have been established, for 
 example, in Chicago, Cincinnati, and Fitchburg. 
 
 Schools of industrial or applied art have also 
 reached their highest point of development on 
 the continent of Europe. In Austria and Ger¬ 
 many the Kunstgewerbesohule, often connected 
 with an extensive and admirably filled museum, 
 is found in all the large cities. Courses in draw¬ 
 ing, painting, modeling, and design are provided, 
 leading to some special branch of applied art. 
 In some schools, notably those at Munich and 
 Vienna, the handicraft side is prominent and 
 much attention is given to practical work at 
 
 carving, metal chasing, stained glass, leather 
 embossing, fresco painting, embroidery, porce¬ 
 lain painting, lithography, smithing, and other 
 lines. In France are to be found not only the 
 first schools of painting, sculpture, and archi¬ 
 tecture in the world, but also the most thorough 
 organized provision for instruction in decora¬ 
 tive and industrial art. The government lends 
 liberal support to the art schools, and assists in 
 establishing new ones when the need of such is 
 manifest. Some are supported entirely by the 
 state, and others are assisted through grants. 
 All are under the direction of the Minister of 
 Public Instruction and Fine Art. Excellent 
 schools of applied art are to be found in all 
 parts of France, often with a distinct trend of in¬ 
 struction towards the industries prominent in the 
 locality, as in the case of ceramics at Limoges 
 and textiles at Roubaix. In Paris there are 
 three schools which afford instruction in indus¬ 
 trial art—the Ecole Nationale des Arts Decora- 
 tifs, the Ecole Germain-Pilon, and the Ecole 
 Bernard-Palissy; the first to teach the princi¬ 
 ples of design in relation to industrial art as a 
 whole, the last with direct reference to certain 
 trades, with a liberal amount of workshop and 
 laboratory practice. The great schools of the 
 Government Science and Art Department (now 
 under the Board of Education for England 
 and Wales) at South Kensington represent 
 the most important provision for instruction in 
 industrial art in Great Britain. The work of 
 these schools consists largely of drawing, paint¬ 
 ing, and modeling, and although the application 
 of art to industry is counted as the main purpose 
 of the institution, no practical work is at¬ 
 tempted. A large number of smaller schools 
 patterned upon the same model exist in other 
 parts of Great Britain under the guidance and 
 financial assistance of the Board of Education. 
 
 In the United States schools of applied art 
 are not numerous, and in few cases is a training 
 in the practical application of design attempted. 
 Prominent among the institutions affording in¬ 
 struction in this field are the Cooper Union 
 (q.v.), of New York City; the School of Indus¬ 
 trial Art of the Pennsylvania Museum; Pratt 
 Institute (q.v.), Brooklyn, N. Y.; Drexel Insti¬ 
 tute (q.v.), Philadelphia; the Maryland Insti¬ 
 tute, Baltimore; the Art Academy, Cincinnati: 
 the Chicago Art Institute; the Rhode Island 
 School of Design, Providence; and the Lowell 
 School of Design, Boston. 
 
 Evening classes in science, drawing, design, and 
 technical studies may well be considered in this 
 second general group of schools. The Fortbil- 
 dungsschulen of Germany and Austria are both 
 day schools and evening schools. By the Reichs- 
 gewerbeordung (Imperial Industrial Law) of 
 1891 and 1900 local communities may make at¬ 
 tendance upon such schools compulsory for both 
 boys and girls between 14 and 17 years old, and 
 such attendance is often a condition of employ¬ 
 ment. This law merely incorporated in the 
 statutes conditions that had sprung up after the 
 Franco-Prussian War. Freehand and mechani¬ 
 cal drawing, and special instruction relating 
 to the trades of the locality, are the principal 
 subjects taught in such schools. In Vienna 
 every prominent trade is represented by a special 
 Fortbildungsschule, and Berlin supports a great 
 number and variety of similar schools. The 
 most notable development in this field has taken 
 place in Munich under Dr. G. Kerschensteiner. 
 Attendance at a continuation school is here 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 
 
 40 
 
 TECHNICAL EDUCATION 
 
 compulsory for boys up to 18, and for girls for 
 three years. Twelve general courses for un¬ 
 skilled laborers and errand boys and more than 
 50 trade schools for apprentices have been estab¬ 
 lished. Close relations have been established be¬ 
 tween the schools, local trades, and industries, 
 and special attention has been given to develop¬ 
 ing suitable methods of instruction, courses of 
 study, and to securing the right type of teachers. 
 The best state-wide system of continuation 
 schools is that of Wiirttemberg. Evening indus¬ 
 trial schools played an important part in the 
 thickly populated manufacturing centres of Bel¬ 
 gium, where, in such towns as Liege, Brussels, 
 and Seraing, thousands of workmen nightly re¬ 
 ceived scientific and technical instruction bearing 
 on their trades. There are many technical 
 schools in Paris and other cities and towns of 
 France that provide evening instruction. In 
 most cases such evening classes are supported by 
 commercial or industrial societies and bear upon 
 the local industries. 
 
 Nowhere else is the organization of evening 
 industrial classes carried to so high a point as in 
 Great Britain. Through the system of examina¬ 
 tions and grants directed formerly by the 
 Science and Art Department, now part of the 
 Board of Education, classes in drawing, model¬ 
 ing, design, mathematics, and many branches of 
 science and technical subjects are maintained 
 throughout the United Kingdom. From 1879 
 to 1890 the City and Guilds of London Institute 
 performed a similar function for technical and 
 industrial classes. By their liberal financial 
 assistance through examination grants, not only 
 were all manner of technical courses organized 
 throughout the country, but practical trade 
 classes were opened to broaden and further the 
 experience of those engaged in the trades. The 
 Act of 1889 which authorized local authorities 
 to build and maintain technical schools, and to 
 contribute to evening technical classes out of the 
 local rates, followed by the Law of 1890 which 
 set aside a portion of the excise duties for the 
 support of such schools, rendered the financial 
 assistance of the Institute no longer essential, 
 and since 1890 that association has confined its 
 grants to classes in the city of London. The 
 Institute continues its functions as an examin¬ 
 ing body, and is recognized as setting the 
 standard for all work in this field. Since the 
 beginning of the century the tendency has been 
 in the direction of organizing evening work in 
 courses of a progressive, nature spread over 
 four or five years, in order to secure some cor¬ 
 relation and unity and to prevent a scattering 
 of interest and energy. 
 
 In the United States such evening schools 
 rapidly assumed an important place. The free 
 evening classes of the Cooper Union have pro¬ 
 vided an opportunity for thousands of young men 
 to advance themselves. The evening classes of 
 the Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y., represent 
 an important and highly developed example of 
 such instruction. Worthy of mention are also 
 the Drexel Institute, Philadelphia : the General 
 Society of Mechanics and Tradesmen, New York 
 City; the drawing school of the Franklin Insti¬ 
 tute, Philadelphia; the Lewis Institute, Chi¬ 
 cago; and the evening classes conducted by 
 Young Men’s Christian Associations all over 
 the country. 
 
 Trade Schools. These institutions have come 
 into existence almost entirely since the middle 
 of the nineteenth century. The industrial con- 
 
 V 
 
 ditions produced by an era of quantity of pro¬ 
 duction and division of labor have developed 
 the real problem of the trade school. In the 
 days of the old guilds, when both production 
 and exchange were in the hands of the mas¬ 
 ter workman, the natural provision for trade 
 training was found in the apprenticeship system. 
 As soon, however, as the master workman ceased 
 to be both merchant and craftsman, the appren¬ 
 tice began to lose his natural position in the 
 industrial order. In most trades the master 
 workman has developed on one side into the 
 director of an industrial establishment, or has 
 become the foreman of a large number of work¬ 
 men. From this situation, and from the fact 
 that the specialization of labor in most trades 
 dependent upon machinery renders any compre¬ 
 hensive training in such trades under ordinary 
 conditions impracticable, and also because of 
 the restrictive regulations of trades-union as 
 to apprentices, arises the modern demand for 
 the trade school. Manual dexterity and knowl¬ 
 edge of processes are naturally the primary 
 object in such schools. Examples of this kind 
 of school, in spite of a general notion to the 
 contrary, are not numerous even on the con¬ 
 tinent of Europe. 
 
 In Germany and Austria it is considered un¬ 
 wise to introduce purely technical instruction 
 into the period of the common school, so that all 
 schools for technical training admit only pupils 
 more than 14 years of age. Besides the Gevoer- 
 beschulen, of a secondary grade, are the Fach- 
 schulen, or schools which deal with the train¬ 
 ing for some one special trade. These schools 
 are distributed in industrial centres throughout 
 the two empires according to local needs. In 
 some of these schools the courses range from 
 two to four years, and include instruction in 
 drawing, elementary mathematics, science, and 
 the technology of the particular trade. From 
 the nature and range of instruction, many of 
 these would be more properly classified as tech¬ 
 nical schools, and even in the cases where the 
 object is simply to combine the elements of a 
 general education with the training of a crafts¬ 
 man, the length of time required prevents any 
 large attendance of the artisan class. The 
 actual effect is consequently to train a few 
 foremen and superior workmen, rather than to 
 feed the ranks of the large army of workers. 
 In some of the large cities, notably in Berlin 
 and Munich, numerous evening trade classes 
 are maintained, which afford the learner al¬ 
 ready apprenticed at a trade most practical op¬ 
 portunities to increase his skill, as well as to 
 broaden his knowledge. In Belgium several 
 distinctive trade schools exist, among which 
 those at Tournay and Ghent are prominent. To 
 these schools are admitted boys from 13 to 16 
 years old, who spend three years in the practice 
 of a particular trade, together with study of 
 general branches and drawing. Trade schools 
 for girls have also received much attention in 
 Belgium. In certain special trade schools in 
 Belgium the experiment of paying the pupils 
 for coming to the schools, in order to compen¬ 
 sate for the loss of wages, has been made. 
 
 But it is in France that the question of train¬ 
 ing for the trades has received the greatest offi¬ 
 cial attention and that the organization of 
 schools for such training has reached'the highest 
 point. By the Law of 1880 provision was made 
 for the establishment of tcoles manuelles d’ap- 
 prentissage as a distinct class of the ecoles pri- 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 
 
 4i 
 
 TECHNICAL EDUCATION 
 
 maires supdrieures. These schools were intended 
 either to prepare for or to shorten the period of 
 apprenticeship, and were placed under the joint 
 control of the Ministry of Public Instruction 
 and the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. In 
 them workshop training plays a prominent part, 
 but a liberal amount of general instruction is 
 also given during the three years’ course. Pupils 
 are admitted when 12 or 13 years old. By an 
 administrative blunder, the feature of the Law 
 of 1880 creating such schools remained inoper¬ 
 ative until 1888, except in Paris, where the mu¬ 
 nicipality early equipped and developed three 
 successful trade schools, one for wood and metal 
 working, one for furniture making, and one for 
 the book industries. After 1888 apprenticeship 
 schools began to appear in the provinces, but in¬ 
 asmuch as no common programme has been de¬ 
 fined, the amount of practical instruction varied 
 considerably, and in many cases was far too 
 small to serve as a substitute for apprenticeship. 
 In 1892 the failure of these provincial schools to 
 fulfill their intended function led to a new law, 
 which provided that all the ecoles primaires pro- 
 fessionelles, in which practical work formed an 
 important part, should be made into a new class 
 of schools called ecoles pratiques de commerce ou 
 d’industrie, to be placed under the sole control 
 of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. The 
 organization of such schools, in which the 
 amount of practical instruction is increased to 
 30 or 33 hours a week, represents a deliberate 
 attempt to establish a comprehensive system of 
 primary trade schools under state control. In 
 Switzerland the state and municipalities sup¬ 
 port numerous trade schools, mainly for watch¬ 
 making, in which the training, both practical 
 and theoretical, is of a very thorough character. 
 Another feature connected with trade training 
 in Switzerland, and one that has to some ex¬ 
 tent been copied in Germany, is a system of 
 apprentice examinations supervised and sup¬ 
 ported by the state. These examinations in 
 many cantons are made obligatory upon every 
 apprentice, and consist of an examination held 
 at the end of the term of apprenticeship upon 
 the practice and theory of his trade. The trade 
 school can hardly be said to have gained a foot¬ 
 hold in Great Britain, where the sentiment al¬ 
 most universally prevails that the shop is the 
 only proper place for learning a trade. 
 
 In the United States a distinctive type of 
 trade school was developed in the foundation of 
 the New York trade schools in 1881. Both day 
 and evening classes are conducted in this insti¬ 
 tution. The evening classes, although admitting 
 beginners, are largely made up of young men 
 already started at their trades. In the day 
 classes young men are admitted only at an age 
 —from 17 to 25—when they will be able to 
 learn rapidly, and so acquire sufficient skill in 
 short courses of four months to enter at once 
 upon practical work. The purpose is to give 
 a thorough grounding in the practice and theory 
 of a trade which may be perfected by later 
 experience in regular work. The school instruc¬ 
 tion is confined entirely to practical work. Even¬ 
 ing schools similar to those of the New York 
 trade schools have been established by the Pratt 
 Institute, Brooklyn, the Philadelphia Master 
 Builders’ Exchange, and the Massachusetts 
 Charitable Mechanics’ Association of Boston. 
 To these should be added the first instance of 
 public support of such an institution in the 
 Evening School of Trades at Springfield, Mass. 
 
 Another type of trade school has made its ap¬ 
 pearance in the United States in the Williamson 
 Free Schools of Mechanical Trades (q.v.) near 
 Philadelphia, in the Baron de Hirsch Trade School 
 of New York. A number of public trade schools 
 have also been established since 1907, e.g., Mil¬ 
 waukee School of Trades, and others at Phila¬ 
 delphia, Portland, Oreg., Worcester, Mass., and 
 Indianapolis. Institutions similar in plan to 
 some of the European trade schools, in which 
 the aim is to combine the teaching of a trade 
 with a general education, are represented by the 
 California School of Mechanical Arts and the 
 Wilmerding School of Industrial Arts of San 
 Francisco. Of a lower grade are the preparatory 
 schools that have developed since 1908, when 
 the first school of type was founded at Roches¬ 
 ter, N. Y., to give some knowledge of industries 
 and shop methods to boys between the ages of 
 14 and 10. A number of similar schools have 
 been established in Massachusetts. 
 
 In addition to the regular institutions, noted 
 above, several instances exist in Europe and the 
 United States of factory or employees’ schools. 
 These schools are almost uniformly conducted in 
 the evening, although the practice is not un¬ 
 common of allowing time off to younger em¬ 
 ployees to attend school during working hours, 
 and in the main provide instruction of a nature 
 related to the practical work of the employees, 
 such as drawing and mathematics. Examples of 
 such schools in the United States are those con¬ 
 ducted by R. Hoe & Co., printing-press manu¬ 
 facturers, of New York City, and the Cleveland 
 Twist Drill Co. The Ludlow Manufacturing 
 Co., of Ludlow, Mass., which employs large 
 numbers of women and girls, supports an even¬ 
 ing school giving instruction in cooking, sew¬ 
 ing, and physical culture. Somewhat similar 
 classes are carried on by the National Cash 
 Register Co., of Dayton, Ohio. Employees’ 
 schools in which specialized technical instruction 
 is given are conducted by several associations of 
 employees and also by individual manufacturing 
 concerns in various parts of France. Quite dif¬ 
 ferent from such schools are the schools for the 
 children of employees, which are maintained by 
 a number of large industrial corporations in 
 Great Britain, France, and Germany. Notable 
 among these are the schools of Lever Brothers, 
 Port Sunlight, England; of the Krupp Works, 
 Essen, Germany; and the Trade School of the 
 Northern Railway Co., Paris. 
 
 Bibliography. Massachusetts Commission on 
 Industrial and Technical Education, Reports 
 (Boston, 1906, 1908) ; M. E. Sadler, Continua¬ 
 tion Schools in England and Elsewhere (Man¬ 
 chester, 1908) ; A. H. Chamberlain, The Condi¬ 
 tion and Tendencies of Technical Education in 
 Germany (Syracuse, 1908) ; P. Damm, Die 
 technischen Hochschulen Preussens (Berlin, 
 1909) ; G. Kerschensteiner, Organisation und 
 Lehrplane der obligatorischen Fach- und Fort- 
 bildungsschulen fur Knaben in Munchen (Mu¬ 
 nich, 1910) ; E. G. Cooley, Vocational Education 
 in Europe (Chicago, 1912) ; J. Seath, Education 
 for Industrial Purposes (Toronto, 1911) ; F. W. 
 Roman, The Industrial and Commercial Schools 
 of the United States and Germany (New York, 
 1915) ; also National Society for the Promotion 
 of Industrial Education, Bulletins and Reports 
 (New York) ; Reports of the United States Com¬ 
 missioner of Education (Washington, annually) ; 
 United States Commissioner of Labor, Seven¬ 
 teenth and Twenty-fifth Reports (ib.) ; Reports 
 
TECK 
 
 42 
 
 TEETH 
 
 of the Royal Commission on Technical Education 
 for Great Britain (London, annually) ; Proceed¬ 
 ings of the International Congresses for Techni¬ 
 cal, Commercial, and Industrial Education; An- 
 nuaire de la jeunesse (Paris). 
 
 TECK, Alexander, Prince of (1874- ). 
 
 A British soldier. He was born at Kensington 
 Palace, London, the third son of the Duke of 
 Teck and Princess Mary Adelaide, and a brother 
 of Queen Mary, consort of George V. Educated 
 at Eton and at the Royal Military College, Sand¬ 
 hurst, he became successively a captain in the 
 Seventh Hussars and in the Roval Horse Guards, 
 and later was brevetted lieutenant colonel in 
 the Second Life Guards. He served in Matabele- 
 land in 1896, in the South African War in 1899- 
 1900, and in the European War in 1914-15, 
 being mentioned in the dispatches in each. For 
 services in the South African War he also gained 
 the Queen's medal with five clasps and was made 
 a member of the Distinguished Service Order. 
 In 1914, before the outbreak of the war, he was 
 appointed Governor-General of Canada; but it 
 was later decided to retain the Duke of Con¬ 
 naught in this office until the end of the war. 
 Prince Alexander married in 1904 Princess Alice, 
 daughter of the Duke of Albany and grand¬ 
 daughter of Queen Victoria. 
 
 TECUCIU, ta-kob'che. A town of Rumania, 
 in Moldavia, 40 miles northwest of Galatz, on 
 the right bank of the Berlad River (Map: Bal¬ 
 kan Peninsula, F 2). It has an active trade. 
 Pop., 1900, 13,405. 
 
 TECUM A (ta/kbo-ma') PALM. See As- 
 
 TROCARYUM. 
 
 TECUM'SEH. A city and the county seat of 
 Johnson Co., Neb., 48 miles by rail southeast by 
 south of Lincoln, on the Nemaha River, and on 
 the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy Railroad 
 (Map: Nebraska, H 4). It is the trade centre 
 of a stock and farming region. Tecumseh has 
 a Carnegie library. Pop., 1900, 2005; 1910, 
 1748. 
 
 TECUMSEH (Flying Panther, Meteor), Te- 
 cumthe, or Tecumtha (c.1775-1813). A fa¬ 
 mous Indian chief, born near the site of the 
 present town of Springfield, Ohio. When about 
 35 years of age he formed a plan for a great con¬ 
 federacy of the Indians against the whites, which 
 should have jurisdiction, among other things, 
 over the alienation of Indian lands. In this 
 work he was assisted by his brother Elkswatawa 
 or Tenskwatawa (q.v.), commonly known as The 
 Prophet, and by British agents. In the summer 
 of 1808 Tecumseh and his brother established a 
 village near the mouth of Tippecanoe Creek in 
 Indiana, and here Tecumseh put into practice 
 some of his ideas for returning to the virtuous 
 primitive condition of the Indians by prohibiting 
 the use of whisky and other demoralizing prac¬ 
 tices introduced by the whites. Three years later 
 he went on a visit to the southern Indians, espe¬ 
 cially the Choctaws, Creeks, Cherokees, and 
 Seminoles, and by his wonderful eloquence is 
 considered to have kindled among them the flame 
 that in 1813 burst into the Creek War. In his 
 absence, however, his followers were defeated on 
 Nov. 7, 1811, by a force under Gen. William 
 Henry Harrison. (See Tippecanoe, Battle of. ) 
 In the following year he joined the British at 
 Malden, and early in August routed a force of 
 Ohio militia, but was defeated and wounded in 
 the skirmish of Maguaga. Despite his defeat, 
 however, he was commissioned a brigadier gen¬ 
 eral in the British army, and with several hun¬ 
 
 dred Indians assisted in the capture of Detroit. 
 In January, 1813, he played an important part 
 in the siege of Fort Meigs (q.v.), and prevented 
 the massacre of prisoners taken in the sortie 
 from the fort. He was killed at the battle 
 of the Thames (q.v.), while bravely resist¬ 
 ing the attack of the mounted Americans under 
 Col. Richard M. Johnson. Tecumseh was a man 
 of many high qualities, with impressive manners 
 and wonderful natural eloquence. Consult: 
 Drake, Life of Tecumseh and his Brother, the 
 Prophet, with an Historical Sketch of the Shaw¬ 
 nee Indians (Cincinnati, 1841); W. J. Arm¬ 
 strong, in Heroes of Defeat (ib., 1905) ; Eggles¬ 
 ton and Seelye, Tecumseh and the Shawnee 
 Prophet (New York). 
 
 TEDAS, ta'daz. The northern division of the 
 Tibbus (q.v.), living in Tibesti and the adjoin¬ 
 ing oases of the eastern Sahara, and connected 
 with the outside world by the main camel route 
 between the city of Tripoli and Lake Chad. In 
 this portion of the great desert are inexhaus¬ 
 tible supplies of rock salt, and the Tedas em¬ 
 ploy thousands of camels in conveying this mate¬ 
 rial throughout Central Africa. 
 
 TED'DINGTON. A residential town in 
 Middlesex, England, on the Thames, 13 miles 
 west of London (Map: London and Vicinity, 
 F 4). The municipality maintains reading 
 rooms and recreation grounds, and provides gar¬ 
 den allotments. The National Physical Labora¬ 
 tory was inaugurated here in 1902. Pop., 1901, 
 14,029; 1911, 17,847. 
 
 TE DE'UM. A well-known hymn, so called 
 from its opening words ( Te Deum laudamus, Te 
 Dominum confitemur, We praise Thee, O God, we 
 acknowledge Thee to be the Lord), commonly 
 sung on all occasions of triumph and thanks¬ 
 giving, and a theme upon which the most 
 celebrated composers have exercised their 
 musical genius. The hymn is one of the most 
 simple, and at the same time the most solemn 
 and majestic and most admired in the whole 
 range of hymnology. Its authorship is uncer¬ 
 tain. Picturesquely and uncritically it has 
 been described as the joint production of Saints 
 Ambrose and Augustine, into which they both 
 burst forth by a common inspiration on occasion 
 of the baptism of Augustine. From this sup¬ 
 posed origin the Te Deum is commonly called 
 the Ambrosian hymn. It has been ascribed to 
 Hilary of Poitiers, and, in recent years, to 
 Nicetas of Remesiana (c.400J. Besides its gen¬ 
 eral use on occasions of joyous celebrations, the 
 Te Deum forms part of the daily matins of the 
 Roman breviary, and is recited at the end of 
 matins on all festivals, and on all Sundays ex¬ 
 cept those of Advent and Lent. With a similar 
 exception, it forms part of the morning prayer 
 of the Anglican Prayer Book, being sung after 
 the first lesson. Its use dates from the sixth 
 century. Consult John Wordsworth, The Te 
 Deum: Its Structure (2d ed., London, 1903), 
 and Julian, Dictionary of Hymnology, new edi¬ 
 tion (ib., 1907). 
 
 TEES, tez. A river of north England. It 
 rises on Cross Fell, Cumberland, and flows east 
 between the counties of Durham and York. It 
 enters the North Sea 10 miles below Stockton, 
 to which town it is navigable for small vessels. 
 Length, 80 miles (Map: England, E 2). 
 
 TEE TEE. See Titi Monkey. 
 
 TEETH (AS. tab, Ger. Zahn, tooth; con¬ 
 nected with Bret., Welsh dant, Lat. dens, Skt. 
 danta, tooth). Calcareous organs embedded in 
 
TEETH 
 
 43 
 
 TEETH 
 
 the skin within or near the mouth in most ver¬ 
 tebrates, acting primarily for the prehension 
 and trituration of food. Some teeth, such as 
 the tusks of the wild boar or of the elephant, 
 have secondarily acquired another function, 
 viz., that of offensive and defensive organs, es¬ 
 pecially with reference to combats between rival 
 males. 
 
 Teeth are dermal structures, homologous with 
 the placoid scales or denticles which cover the 
 entire body of fishes (q.v.). At the anterior end, 
 say of the body of a dogfish, the skin turns in 
 to form the lining or mucous membrane of the 
 mouth and with it the scales are carried. In 
 fishes these dermal denticles appear in the skin 
 very early both in their ontogenetic and phylo¬ 
 genetic history, but do not occur in Amphioxus 
 or in cyclostomes. They first appear in sela¬ 
 chians in the form of small denticles or spines 
 arranged in longitudinal and transverse rows, 
 each attached to a basal plate, and directed 
 caudad. Both ectoderm and mesoderm take part 
 in the formation of these dermal denticles, as in 
 the case of the teeth of the higher vertebrates. 
 The name “tooth germ” is given to the tissue 
 that is destined to develop into the teeth. The 
 mesoderm forms a papilla which secretes dentine 
 in its outermost layer. Within the dentine 
 there is a cavity filled with mesodermal tissue 
 and blood vessels. From this cavity fine tubules 
 pass into the dentine. Outside the dentine is a 
 layer of enamel secreted by ectodermal cells. 
 The first impulse towards tooth formation seems 
 to reside in the derma. As the dermal papilla 
 grows it comes to be covered by a layer of large 
 columnar cells from the epidermis. The enamel 
 is secreted from the lower surface of these epi¬ 
 dermal cells. As the dermal cells multiply 
 they give rise to an elongated papilla which 
 projects backward. The deep-lying connective- 
 tissue layers of the derma at the same time 
 secrete salts of lime and thus a sort of connec¬ 
 tive-tissue bone (the so-called tooth cement) is 
 produced, and by means of it the spine gains a 
 firm support. The basal plates of tooth cement 
 form a shield of considerable protective value, 
 and in some fishes, such as the bony ganoids, a 
 hard protective skeleton is thus produced. In 
 the higher vertebrates this bony covering is lost 
 over most of the body, but persists in the head 
 region, and becomes some of the most important 
 bones of the skull. 
 
 In fishes the teeth are usually abundant, and 
 are either spiny or blunt, and may be set close 
 together like a cobblestone pavement (see Ces- 
 traciont) to fit them for grinding up shells. 
 In the swordfish they form the teeth of the 
 sword. Amphibians possess few teeth. They 
 are conical, end in a single or double apex, and 
 are usually present on the premaxilla, maxilla, 
 mandible, vomer, and palatine bones, and occa¬ 
 sionally on the parasphenoid. They occur in 
 additional locations in the larvae of some forms. 
 Teeth are present in all groups of reptiles ex¬ 
 cept the Chelonia, and even there exist for a 
 time in the embryonic stage of Trionyx, showing 
 that the toothless state has been secondarily ac¬ 
 quired by the turtles. The reptilian teeth are 
 usually larger and stronger, and are limited to 
 more special regions, than among lower verte¬ 
 brates. The teeth of reptiles, as well as those 
 of fishes, are in general homodont, or alike 
 throughout the series. In reptiles the teeth are 
 connected with their support in two ways: 
 either the teeth are firmly fused to the bone or 
 Vol. XXII.—4 
 
 else they lie in cup-sliaped sockets of the bone, 
 the alveoli. This condition exists in the so- 
 called thecodont reptiles. The teeth, which are 
 fused to the bone, mav either lie in a furrow at 
 the inner side of the jawbone (pleurodont 
 type) or else they arise from its free upper edge 
 (in the case of the lower jaw), and are acro- 
 dont. In many kinds of snakes certain of the 
 maxillary teetli of the upper jaw are differen¬ 
 tiated into organs of offense and defense. These 
 are the fangs or poison-carrying teeth. (See 
 Snake. ) Birds have no teeth. Fossil birds 
 (see Bird, Fossil), however, possessed teeth, 
 which were either embedded in grooves ( Hes- 
 perornis) or in definite alveoli (Ichthyomis). 
 
 The dentition of mammals is highly variable, 
 and the differentiation of the teeth in the va¬ 
 rious forms is to be explained by adaptation to 
 the character of the food. All the teeth are em¬ 
 bedded in alveoli of the jawbones, to which the 
 growth of teeth is confined. The teeth are so 
 arranged that those of the upper and lower jaws 
 alternate. The teeth of one jaw oppose the in¬ 
 terspaces between the teeth of the other jaw. 
 Thus each tooth presses against a portion of two 
 teeth of the opposite set. When all opposing 
 pressure fails the tooth thus rendered function¬ 
 less tends to be extruded. This alternating ar¬ 
 rangement prevents the loss of one tooth from 
 greatly affecting the teeth of the opposite set. 
 Most mammals are diphyodont—i.e., possess two 
 sets of dentition—viz., the deciduous or milk 
 dentition and the permanent teeth. In most of 
 the fishes as well as in many of the Amphibia 
 and reptiles the teeth can be renewed indefinitely. 
 A few mammals, viz., the Cetacea and Edentata, 
 are monophyodont, i.e., possess only one set of 
 teeth. The milk teeth are supplanted by a proc¬ 
 ess of absorption which goes on in certain cases 
 to such an extent that the root is practically 
 removed. This removal is effected by giant cells 
 analogous to, if not identical with, the osteo¬ 
 clasts that tear down bone. The teeth usually 
 cease to grow after being fully formed, but in 
 edentates and rodents growth continues through¬ 
 out life, and is necessary in order to supply the 
 wear on the teeth brought about by the gnawing 
 habits of these animals. 
 
 Mammalian teeth are classified according to 
 their shape and function into incisors, canines, 
 premolars, and molars. The four front teeth in 
 the case of man are blunt, flattened, and chisel¬ 
 shaped, and are fitted for cutting or dividing the 
 food. They are the incisors. In recently cut 
 incisors the cutting edge is raised in three scal¬ 
 lops, which soon wear away. The edge of the 
 incisor is formed by a beveling off of the dentine 
 on the inner or lingual surface. The two central 
 upper incisors in man are slightly larger than 
 the two laterals. This difference is more marked 
 in anthropoid apes. The lower central incisors 
 are narrower than those of the upper jaw. The 
 lower lateral incisors are larger than the lower 
 central pair. The two canines or eyeteeth on 
 each jaw are stronger both in root and crown 
 than the incisors. The crown is blunt and 
 pointed. The canines are succeeded by two pre¬ 
 molars or bicuspids on each side of the jaw, 
 which correspond to the three and four premo¬ 
 lars of the typical mammalian dentition. Their 
 crowns possess two cusps. The root is normally 
 single, but is often grooved or cleft by a longi¬ 
 tudinal furrow into two or even three roots. 
 The preraolars of the lower jaw are smaller than 
 those of the upper. The molars are three in 
 
TEETH 
 
 44 
 
 TEFFT 
 
 number on each side of the jaw. The form of 
 the first molar is the most constant. The roots 
 are three in number. The third molar, or wis¬ 
 dom tooth, is the most variable as to its time of 
 appearance; it may be cut almost as soon as the 
 other molars, or many years later, or not at all. 
 
 In existing mammals there is a certain degree 
 of gradation between the forms of the teeth. 
 The typical number of mammalian teeth is 44. 
 The human number is 32 in the permanent set 
 and 20 in the milk set. In the human set the 
 third incisor and the first two premolars of the 
 typical mammalian set are absent, hence at the 
 canines in man there is an abrupt change both 
 in front and behind. For convenience and brev¬ 
 ity the number and kinds of teeth of mammals 
 are usually designated by means of a formula 
 as follows: 
 
 For marsupials: 
 
 if c\ pm | m £ = 44- 
 
 For eutlierian mammals: 
 
 if c\ pm % m j = 44- 
 
 Tor man: 
 
 i i c \ pm f m f = 32. 
 
 See cut in Child, Development of. 
 
 It is often verv difficult to determine which 
 teeth are to be accounted incisors, canines, etc., 
 and the following rule is sometimes employed: 
 
 Incisors, upper jaw, on premaxilla. 
 
 Incisors, lower jaw, correspond to upper. 
 
 Canines of upper jaw, next tooth immediately 
 behind suture of maxilla and premaxilla. 
 
 Canines of lower jaw, close in front of upper 
 canine. 
 
 Premolars replace milk molars. 
 
 Molars, behind milk molars (when present). 
 
 A tooth is usually described as consisting of 
 three parts—the crown, neck, and root—and is 
 composed of three hard secretions—the dentine, 
 enamel, and cement—and a central pulp cavity. 
 The human tooth fits into the jawbone much 
 like a peg into its socket. This manner of union 
 is termed gomphosis. The tooth does not, how¬ 
 ever, occupy the entire socket, for there is be¬ 
 sides a lining of periosteum, which at the root 
 turns upward around the tooth as far as fihe 
 neck, where it becomes continuous with the 
 gums. This packing around the tooth is some¬ 
 what elastic and allows of slight motion. The 
 elasticity of the packing doubtless diminishes 
 the shock which would be caused in mastication 
 were the teeth rigidly attached in their bony 
 sockets. When the periosteum is inflamed the 
 swelling pushes the tooth outward in the socket 
 and loosens it. The dentine forms the great 
 mass of the tooth, surrounds the pulp cavity, 
 and is covered, in the human tooth, by a layer of 
 enamel, the hardest of animal tissues; in other 
 mammals this layer of enamel may cover all or 
 only a part of the exposed portion of the tooth 
 or may be absent. The condition that more 
 commonly prevails is that the enamel envelops 
 the entire crown of the tooth and stops rather 
 abruptly at about the level of the gum. 
 
 In its finer structure dentine is in some cases 
 difficult to distinguish from true bone. Typical 
 dentine, such as exists in human teeth, differs 
 from bone both in structure and in chemical 
 composition, and is known as hard or unvascular 
 dentine. It is hard, elastic substance with a 
 yellowish-white hue, which is made up of a 
 number of minute, wavy, branching tubules, 
 parallel to one another and opening internally 
 
 into the pulp cavity. These tubuli contain finely 
 cylindrical prolongations (dentinal fibres) from 
 cells in the pulp cavity, intimately connected 
 with the nerves of the pulp. The different kinds 
 of dentine have been classified as (1) hard or 
 unvascular dentine; (2) plicidentine; (3) vaso- 
 dentine; (4) osteodentine. The unvascular 
 dentine has been described above. In the sec¬ 
 ond class the pulp cavity is irregular in out¬ 
 line, with many tubes and canals traversing the 
 dentine in various directions, some carrying 
 blood vessels. Such a condition obtains in many 
 of the lower vertebrates and in some mammals. 
 The osteodentine closely approaches bone in 
 structure. In it pulp and calcified tissue are 
 mixed up, for there is no distinct pulp cavity. 
 Such dentine is found in the teeth of many 
 sharks. 
 
 The cement forms a coating over the roots of 
 the teeth and when unusually thick may even 
 unite the roots of contiguous teeth. In the hu¬ 
 man teeth it extends upward to cover the edge 
 of the enamel. It covers, at first, the entire 
 teeth of certain vertebrates, such as the ele¬ 
 phant, and covers the crowns of the teeth of 
 ruminants. It is derived from the tooth follicle 
 and is closely allied to bone. 
 
 The cavity of the tooth is filled with the tooth 
 pulp, which is composed of a gelatinous matrix 
 and contains cells, nerves, and blood vessels. 
 The outermost cells, known as odontoblasts, 
 form a layer next the bone. These cells are con¬ 
 nected by processes with one another and with 
 deeper-lying cells, and on the periphery the proc¬ 
 esses extend into the dental tubuli. 
 
 The gums are continuous with the mucous 
 membrane of the mouth, but are much thickened. 
 Within the gums are tendinous fasciculi, and 
 others extend up into them from the periosteum. 
 These give the gums hardness. They are richly 
 supplied with blood vessels, but have few nerves. 
 The gums are continuous with the periosteum of 
 the alveoli, a connective tissue richly supplied 
 with blood vessels and nerves. 
 
 Bibliography. Richard Owen, Odontography, 
 or Teeth of Animals (2 vols., London, 1845) ; 
 H. F. Osborn, Evolution of Mammalian Molar 
 Teeth (New York, 1908) ; Symington and Ran¬ 
 kin, Atlas of Skiagrams Illustrating Develop¬ 
 ment of the Teeth (ib., 1908) ; B. E. Lischer, 
 Principles and Methods of Orthodontics (Phila¬ 
 delphia, 1912) ; A. Hopewell-Smith, Introduction 
 to Dental Anatomy and Physiology, Descriptive 
 and Applied (ib., 1913) ; G. V. Black, Work on 
 Special Dental Pathology (Chicago, 1915) ; 
 F. B. Noyes, Text-Book of Dental Histology and 
 Embryology (2d ed., Philadelphia, 1915). See 
 Caries; Dentistry; Integument; Skeleton. 
 
 TEETHING. See Child, Development and 
 Growth of; Teeth. 
 
 TEFFIN, Charles. See Armand. 
 
 TEFFT, Benjamin Franklin (1813-85). An 
 American Methodist Episcopal clergyman. He 
 was born near Utica, N. Y., and graduated at 
 Wesleyan University in 1835. He served as 
 professor of Greek and Hebrew languages and 
 literature in Indiana Asbury (now De Pauw) 
 University from 1843 to 1846; as editor of the 
 Ladies’ Repository, Cincinnati, Ohio (1846-50) ; 
 and as president of Genesee College, Lima, N. Y. 
 (1851-54). In 1862 he became United States 
 Consul at Stockholm and acting Minister to 
 Sweden and later was commissioner of immigra¬ 
 tion from the north of Europe for the State of 
 Maine. From 1873 to 1878 he edited, at Bangor, 
 
TEGEA 
 
 45 
 
 TEGXLER 
 
 Me., the Northern Border. He wrote: The Shoul¬ 
 der Knot (1850) ; Hungary and Kossuth (1851) ; 
 Webster and his Masterpieces (1854); Metho¬ 
 dism Successful (1860); The Present Crisis 
 (1861); Evolution and Christianity (1885). 
 
 TE'GEA (Lat., from Gk. Te 7 ect). An ancient 
 city of southeastern Arcadia (q.v.). Its ter¬ 
 ritory included the southern part of the great 
 eastern plain of Arcadia, of which the northern 
 part was occupied by Mantineia (q.v.). It ap¬ 
 pears to have included the modern villages of 
 Hagios Sostis, Palaio-Episkopi, Piali, and Ib¬ 
 rahim Efl’endi, south of Tripolitza, though but 
 few remains are visible, partly because of a deep 
 deposit of alluvium, and partly from the de¬ 
 struction due to the later inhabitants. The most 
 important ruins are those of the great temple 
 of Athena Alea, built by Scopas (q.v.), excavated 
 first in 1879, and later, in 1902 et seq., by the 
 French School at Athens. The dimensions of the 
 temple (about 163 X 70 feet) and important 
 fragments of its sculptures were determined by 
 Milchhofer in 1879. The city was celebrated 
 in the heroic legends, and for a long time seems 
 to have opposed Sparta on equal terms, but 
 during the sixth century b.c. was forced to join 
 the Spartan League. At Thermopylae there were 
 500 Tegeans, and at Platsea 3000, of whom one- 
 half were hoplites. Later they were again in¬ 
 volved in war with Sparta, and after two defeats 
 remained true allies until the invasion of Epami- 
 nondas (370 b.c.), when a democratic government 
 replaced the aristocracy, and the city joined in 
 the foundation of Megalopolis (q.v.). Later we 
 find Tegea in the iEtolian League, in alliance 
 with Sparta, forced into the Achaean League, at 
 war with Sparta, and sharing in the confused poli¬ 
 tics which mark the history of the lesser Pelopon¬ 
 nesian cities during the third and second cen¬ 
 turies. A good account of the place was given 
 by Pausanias (q.v.) in the second century of 
 our era. It seems to have been one of the most 
 flourishing towns of Arcadia till it was sacked 
 by Alaric (q.v.). Consult, besides the larger 
 works on the Peloponnesus (q.v.) by Dodwell, 
 Leake, Curtius, and others, Schwedler, De Rebus 
 Tegeaticis (Leipzig, 1889) ; 'laropla rrjs Teyeas, 
 a publication of the Tegeatic Syndesmos 
 (Athens, 1896) ; and the article “Tegea” in 
 Friedrich Liibker, Reallexikon des klassischen 
 Altertums (8th ed., Leipzig, 1914). For the 
 fragments of sculpture found at Tegea, see E. A. 
 Gardner, A Handbook of Greek Sculpture (2d 
 ed., London, 1915). See Telephus. 
 
 TEGERNSEE, ta'gern-za'. A village in 
 Upper Bavaria, charmingly situated on the lake 
 of the same name, with an imposing castle, for¬ 
 merly a Benedictine abbey, founded in 719 and 
 suppressed in 1804. The beautiful walks in the 
 environs attract numerous visitors in the sum¬ 
 mer. A favorite point is the Grosse Parapluie, 
 2680 feet high and affording an admirable view 
 of the lake and the encircling mountains. The 
 ophthalmic clinic established by the late Duke 
 Karl Theodor of Bavaria is still much frequented. 
 
 TEGETMEIER, teg'et-mi'er, William B. 
 (1816-1912’). An English naturalist and author, 
 born at Colnbrook, Buckinghamshire. He was 
 educated at University College, London, and for 
 a time studied medicine, but turned his atten¬ 
 tion to natural history, and became a coworker 
 with Darwin in experiments and observations on 
 the question of variation (q.v.) and other scien¬ 
 tific problems. To these he contributed mainly 
 by study of domestic animals and especially of 
 
 pigeons, and was instrumental in advancing the 
 breeding and improvement of carrier pigeons and 
 of fine poultry. He also cooperated with Eleanor 
 A. Ormerod (q.v.) in lessening the destructive 
 influence of the English sparrow. In 1857 he be¬ 
 came a leading editor and essayist of The Field 
 (of London), with which he was connected for 
 50 years. He wrote: The Poultry Book ( 1870) ; 
 The Homing Pigeon (1872) ; Natural History of 
 the Cranes (1881); Pallas’s Sand Grouse 
 (1888); Table and Market Poultry (1895); 
 Horses, Zebras, and Mule Breeding (1895), with 
 C. L. Sutherland; The House Sparrow (1899); 
 Pheasants (5th ed., 1910). 
 
 TEGETTHOFF, ta'get-hof, Wilhelm, Baron 
 (1827-71). An Austrian admiral, born at Mar¬ 
 burg, in Styria. He entered the Austrian navy, 
 distinguished himself in the naval encounter 
 with the Danes off Helgoland in 1864, became 
 rear admiral, and in the war of 1866 commanded 
 the Austrian fleet in the Adriatic. On the 20th 
 of July he attacked and defeated the Italian fleet 
 under Admiral Persano oft' the island of Lissa, 
 although the Italian fleet was superior in num¬ 
 ber of ironclads to the Austrian. For this vic¬ 
 tory Tegetthoff was promoted vice admiral. In 
 1867 he was sent to Mexico to obtain from the 
 government the body of the Emperor Maximilian, 
 and in 1868 he was made commander in chief of 
 the navy. 
 
 TEGKER, teng-nar', Esaias (1782-1846). A 
 Swedish poet and bishop, born at Kyrkerud, in 
 Vermland. Tegner graduated from the Univer¬ 
 sity of Lund (1802) and in 1805 became sub¬ 
 librarian of the university and lecturer on aes¬ 
 thetics. In 1811 his poem on Sweden ( Svea) 
 won him universal admiration and an academic 
 prize. Already his war songs and national odes 
 had attracted the attention of the King and gov¬ 
 ernment. In 1812 he was made professor of 
 Greek at Lund, and for the next decade gave him¬ 
 self almost wholly to clerical duties and theolog¬ 
 ical studies. During these years he wrote the 
 remarkable religious idyls, The Pastor’s Conse¬ 
 cration and The Children of the Lord’s Supper 
 (Nattvardsbarnen, 1820), as well as the fine 
 romantic poem Axel (1822). His fame rests on 
 the Frithjof’s Saga, finished in 1825, the most 
 popular poem in Swedish, though it lacks orig¬ 
 inality and unity, adhering closely to the legend 
 on which it is founded and being less an epic 
 than a series of ballads and odes. Even while 
 unfinished it had sufficed to secure for Tegner 
 the nomination of the clergy to the bishopric 
 of Vexio (1824). In 1840 the insanity that 
 afflicted his family unmistakably asserted itself. 
 After a period in an asylum he returned for a 
 while to active work, but soon became paralytic 
 and so lingered till death. Thus it appears that 
 Tegn6r’s significant production is confined to the 
 years 1811-25. Frithjof has been rendered into 
 almost all European languages and 19 times into 
 English, best by Longfellow, who also translated 
 Nattvardsbarnen. It was effective in banishing 
 classical French taste from Sweden and in in¬ 
 troducing the literary ideals of the Romantic 
 school, though Tegner always kept the clearness 
 and artistic finish that go with calm objectivity. 
 His verse is melodious, graceful, dignified, yet 
 fresh, vigorous, and not without national or re¬ 
 ligious enthusiasm. See Swedish Language 
 and Literature. 
 
 Tegn6r’s Works were collected in seven vol¬ 
 umes (Stockholm, 1847-51). Three volumes of 
 supplementary writings were printed (ib., 1873- 
 
TEGUAN 
 
 46 
 
 TEHUELCHE 
 
 74 ), and a jubilee edition was issued in seven 
 volumes (ib., 1882-85). The more impor¬ 
 
 tant poems are in English, French, and German 
 translations. A Life by Bottiger is prefixed to 
 the first collected edition of the Works. Consult 
 also: H. L. A. Kippenberg, Esias Tegn6r (Leip¬ 
 zig, 1884) ; H. H. Boyesen, Essays on Scandina¬ 
 vian Literature (New York, 1895); Georg 
 Brandes, Eminent Authors of the Nineteenth 
 Century, English translation by R. B. Anderson 
 (ib., 1896) ; Erdmann, Esaias Tegn£r (Stock¬ 
 holm, 1896). 
 
 TEGUAN, te-gwan', or TAGUAN. One of 
 the local names of a flying phalanger of New 
 South Wales (Petanrista volans), which is black 
 and about the size of the large Indian flying 
 squirrels. It resembles the other flying pha- 
 langers (q.v.) in the possession of an effective 
 parachute, and in its habits. 
 
 TEGUCIGALPA, ta'gbo-sS-gal'pa. The capi¬ 
 tal of Honduras, Central America, on the left 
 bank of the upper course of the Choluteca, 78 
 miles from its seaport, Amapala, on the Gulf 
 of Fonseca (Map: Central America, D 3). It 
 has a .healthful location on a table-land 3250 
 feet above sea level, in a thickly populated por¬ 
 tion of the republic. The region is agricultural, 
 and has mines of gold and silver and marble, 
 though the latter have lost their former impor¬ 
 tance. Its cathedral is the most important struc¬ 
 ture of the republic. There are a national uni¬ 
 versity and a ladies’ seminary. Tegucigalpa was 
 an Aztec city and a place of some importance 
 during the eighteenth century. It became the 
 capital of Honduras in 1880. Pop. (est.), 22,923. 
 
 TEHAPHNEHES. See Tahpanhes. 
 
 TEHERAN, or TEHRAN, te-h’-ran'. The 
 capital of Persia and of the Province of Teheran, 
 70 miles south of the Caspian Sea, on a sandy 
 and stony plateau 90 by 40 miles in extent 
 (Map: Persia, D 5). Its elevation is 3800 feet. 
 In 1869 the Shah caused the mud walls of the 
 city to be torn down and five years later it was 
 surrounded by a ditch and 58 unequal bastions, 
 after the first system of Vauban. It is now in 
 the form of an irregular octagon; the perimeter 
 measures a little over 12 miles, incloses an area 
 of 7 % square miles, and has 12 gates. Several 
 broad, handsome boulevards have been laid out, 
 and are lighted by gas, and a beginning has been 
 made in the Western style of architecture, espe¬ 
 cially in the northern part of the city. The sani¬ 
 tary conditions have likewise become improved. 
 There are 7 miles of tramways, and a railway 
 (opened in 1888) to Shah-Abdul-Azim, 6 miles 
 south of the capital. The Ark, or fortified palace 
 of the Shah, in the middle of the city, contains 
 prisons, a military school, beautiful gardens, 
 baths, kiosks, and several other handsome build¬ 
 ings, including the harem. The wealthy citizens 
 dwell in elaborate establishments with gardens 
 and tiny ponds. South of the Ark are the 
 bazars, the centre of the city’s life. The town 
 has a library, founded in 1850, a normal school, 
 a military college, and Kings’ College, a poly¬ 
 technic school (1849), with European professors, 
 where Arabic, English, French, and Russian, 
 mathematics, telegraphy, engineering, military 
 tactics, music, and painting are taught. To 
 some of the many mosques are attached mad- 
 rassehs (colleges). The mosques called Masjid- 
 i-Shad (mosque of the King), with a beautiful 
 enameled facade, the Masjid-i-Madar-i-Shah 
 (mosque of the King’s mother), and the Masjid- 
 i-Sipahsalar deserve mention; all of them are 
 
 modern. There are many baths, Mohammedan 
 and Armenian, the Europeans using the latter. 
 During the summer, on account of unhealthful- 
 ness and intolerable heat, the embassies and 
 the wealthier inhabitants move to the mountain 
 slopes. 
 
 Water is furnished by underground canals 
 from the mountains. The supply, though abun¬ 
 dant, is not regulated, because of private owner¬ 
 ship of many canals, and the city accordingly 
 suffers from a lack of water in summer and a 
 superfluity in winter. Irrigation is thus pro¬ 
 vided, however, and the surrounding country has 
 become highly productive. Teheran manufac¬ 
 tures cotton, linen, carpets, shoes, hats, and iron¬ 
 work, but is not a leading centre of manufactur¬ 
 ing. It has, however, an important general cara¬ 
 van trade. An excellent highway 217 miles long, 
 constructed by Russian capital, and completed in , 
 1899, extends from Resht on the Caspian to 
 Teheran. The latter is also connected by car¬ 
 riage road with Kom, 91 miles. To the south of 
 the city lie the ruins of Rei, the birthplace of 
 Harim al Rashid, known in the time of Alex¬ 
 ander the Great as Rag®, the Rhages of Scrip¬ 
 ture, the capital of Parthia. The population is 
 greatest in winter, when it probably reaches 
 about 280,000, including about 4000 Jews, 4000 
 Armenians, 600 Europeans, and a garrison of 
 3000 to 4000. 
 
 TEHRI, ta're, or, more properly, Garhwal. 
 A native state of British India included terri¬ 
 torially in the United Provinces of Agra and 
 Oudh (Map: India, D 2). It borders upon 
 Tibet, and lies wholly within the Himalaya, 
 around the sources of the Ganges, being a highly 
 elevated and rugged mountain region. Area, 
 4180 square miles. Pop., 1901, 268,885; 1911, 
 300,819. Capital, Tehri. 
 
 TEHUANTEPEC, ta-wan'ta-pek', Isthmus 
 of. The narrowest portion of Mexico as well as 
 of the American continent north of Costa Rica 
 (Map: Mexico, M 10). It stretches in an east 
 and west direction between the Gulf of Cam- 
 peachy, an arm of the Gulf of Mexico west 
 of Yucatan, on the north, and the Gulf of 
 Tehuantepec, an arm of the Pacific Ocean, on 
 the south. Its least width, from Coatzacoalcos 
 to the head of the Lago Superior, is 120 miles. 
 The plateaus of Mexico and Guatemala are here 
 separated by a depression falling to an altitude 
 of 680 feet. This fact as well as the geographical 
 position of the isthmus has led to numerous 
 plans and projects for some means of interoce- 
 anio communication at this point, including a 
 possible scheme for a ship canal. A railroad 
 of standard gauge and 150 miles long was built 
 across the isthmus by an English firm and was 
 opened in 1907. It is operated under a partner¬ 
 ship between the Mexican government and the 
 constructing company. Its terminal ports are 
 Puerto Mexico (Coatzacoalcos) on the Gulf and 
 Salina Cruz on the Pacific. 
 
 TEHUELCHE, ta-wel'cha. A general term 
 for several different Patagonian tribes. There is 
 evidence that the Tehuelches are immigrants 
 from more northern portions of South America, 
 but their origin is doubtful. They occupy a rela¬ 
 tively small territory between the Strait of Ma¬ 
 gellan and the Santa Cruz River. They are con¬ 
 sidered the tallest of human races. Accurate ob¬ 
 servations on this point are few, but the average 
 stature of male Tehuelches is about 1.75 m. They 
 are also very brachycephalic in head form. In cul¬ 
 ture they are low. Consult Masters, At Home 
 
TEIAS 
 
 47 
 
 TEKNONYMY 
 
 with the Patagonians (London, 1871), and Lista, 
 Viage al pais de Tehuelches (Buenos Aires, 
 1878). 
 
 TEIAS. See Teja. 
 
 TEICHNER, Heinrich der. See Heinrich 
 der Teichner. 
 
 TEIGNMOUTH, tm'miith. A seaport and 
 watering place on the south coast of Devonshire, 
 England, situated on the English Channel, at 
 the mouth of the Teign, 15 miles south of Exeter 
 (Map: England, C 6). There is a considerable 
 sea and river fishery. An average of 1200 small 
 vessels clear the port annually. The town re¬ 
 ceived a market grant from Henry III. It was 
 burnt by the Danes in 970 and by the French in 
 1340 and 1690. Pop., 1901, 8636; 1911, 9215. 
 
 TEIGNMOUTH, John Shore, first Baron 
 (1751-1834). An Anglo-Indian statesman. He 
 was born in London, was educated at Harrow, 
 and in 1769 entered the civil service of the East 
 India Company. From 1775 to 1780 he was a 
 member of the revenue council at Calcutta, and 
 was appointed by Warren Hastings one of the 
 committee of revenue which superseded the coun¬ 
 cil. After a visit to England in 1785-86 he re¬ 
 turned to India in 1787 as a member of the 
 supreme council of Bengal. The organization of 
 the revenue and judicial systems of Bengal and 
 the measure on Zamindari proprietorship of the 
 soil which was ratified by Lord Cornwallis were 
 largely due to Shore’s initiative, and on Corn¬ 
 wallis’ retirement in 1793 Shore was made 
 Governor-General of India. He was created a 
 baronet in 1792. On his retirement in 1798 he 
 was raised to the peerage as Baron Teignmouth. 
 He wrote Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and 
 Correspondence of Sir William Jones (1804). 
 Consult C. J. S. Teignmouth, Life and Corre¬ 
 spondence of John Shore, first Baron Teignmouth 
 (2 vols., London, 1843). 
 
 TEISSEIDRE, Francois Louis. See Fleury, 
 Marquis de. 
 
 TEISSERENC DE BORT, ta's’ -raN r de bor', 
 Leon (1855-1913). A French meteorologist, 
 born at Paris. He was in the government serv¬ 
 ice from 1882 to 1890, when he resigned to do 
 experimental work. He fitted out the Otarie, 
 which made fruitful cruises in the Mediterranean 
 and the tropical Atlantic. At the meteorological 
 observatory which he established at Trappes 
 (Seine et Oise), many important discoveries in 
 aerology were made. His work was several 
 times crowned by the Academy of Sciences, to 
 which he was elected in 1910. Most of his writ¬ 
 ings appeared in the Annales du bureau central 
 meteorologiqwe, but he published, besides, Distri¬ 
 bution de nebulosite d la surface du globe (1884) ; 
 Etude de la synthese sur la repartition des 
 pressions a la surface du globe (1887) ; Mesure 
 des hauteurs des nuages par la photographic 
 (1895) ; Etude de Vatmosphere marine par son- 
 daqes aeriens (1909). 
 
 TEIXEIRA DE MATTOS, ta-sha'ra da 
 mat'tbs, Alexander Louis (1865- ). An 
 
 English journalist, born at Amsterdam. In 
 1874 he settled in England, and later was Lon¬ 
 don correspondent for Dutch newspapers. He 
 served as editor of Dramatic Opinions in 1891, 
 and as assistant editor and editor of the Candid 
 Friend in 1901-02. He became widely known 
 for his translations from the Danish, Dutch, 
 Flemish, French, and German, and especially for 
 those of Maurice Maeterlinck, Carl Ewald, Mau¬ 
 rice Leblanc, and J. H. C. Fabre (qq.v.). 
 
 TE'JA, or TEIAS. The last King of the 
 
 Ostrogoths. He was chosen King after the death 
 of Totila (q.v.), who fell in battle against the 
 Byzantines under Narses, at Tadino, 552 a.d. 
 The Gothic Kingdom received its deathblow in 
 that battle and it was left to Teja only to prolong 
 the hopeless struggle. He sought to gain the 
 aid of the Frankish King Theudebald, but failed. 
 While marching to the relief of Cumse he was 
 met by the Imperial army under Narses and 
 thereupon took up an impregnable position near 
 the foot of Mount Vesuvius, where the Goths 
 were invested by the enemy. After two months 
 want of food compelled the Goths to abandon 
 their position and they retired to the Lactavan 
 Hill, whence they made a desperate onslaught on 
 the Romans. In the two days’ battle Teja per¬ 
 ished after performing wonderful deeds of valor 
 (553). The remnant of the Goths were per¬ 
 mitted to leave Italy. Consult Cambridge Medi¬ 
 eval History, vol. ii (New York, 1913). See 
 Goths. 
 
 TEJADA, ta-Ha'Da, Lerdo de. See Lerdo de 
 Tejada. 
 
 TEJEND (tej'end) RIVER. See Heri-Rud. 
 
 TEJON, ta-non'. The Mexican name of the 
 local species of badger (q.v.). 
 
 TEJU, te-yoo / (abbreviation of Tejuguacu, the 
 native name). A large and powerful South 
 American lizard of the family Tejidae, and espe¬ 
 cially of its principal genus, Tupinambis. This 
 family comprises nearly 40 genera with more 
 than 100 species, and exhibits great diversity, 
 from its wide range, covering all South and Cen¬ 
 tral America, the West Indies, Mexico, and the 
 southwestern United States. The largest of the 
 family ( Tupinambis teguexin ) is 3 feet long 
 to the end of its long, terete, tapering tail; is 
 bluish black with irregular yellow crossbands, 
 and reddish yellow underneath. They frequent 
 woodlands and plantations, living in burrows. 
 They are carnivorous and are able by swiftness 
 and agility to capture small animals. 
 
 TEKELI, tek'e-li. An Hungarian patriot. 
 See Tokoly. 
 
 TEKIYE, ta-ke'ye. A Mohammedan mon¬ 
 astery inhabited by dervishes (q.v.) or other 
 ascetics. The larger tekiye are built about an 
 arcaded court, beyond which are the chambers, 
 sometimes covered with domes; the smaller ex¬ 
 amples are often mere ordinary houses. Well- 
 known examples are the tekiye of the whirling 
 dervishes at Pera, that of the howling dervishes 
 at Scutari (Constantinople), and the one built 
 near Damascus by Sultan Selim I in 1516. 
 
 TEKNON'YMY (from Gk. rervov, teknon, 
 child J- owya, onyma, ovoya, onoma, name). A 
 custom found among certain savage groups 
 whereby a father (in some cases both parents) 
 after the birth of a child is known as the par¬ 
 ent of so-and-so. The custom is seen most com¬ 
 pletely developed in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, 
 Celebes, and the neighboring islands. It is also 
 found among Arabs and Persians, in Alaska, 
 among the Cree, Hopi, and Zuni of North Amer¬ 
 ica, in Oceania, Australia, and South Africa. 
 The more commonly accepted explanation of the 
 custom is that the assumption by the father of 
 his child’s name is an assertion on his part of 
 his fatherhood and is indicative of the growth of 
 the patriarchal idea. Another view is that it is 
 the result of migration, the children of immi¬ 
 grants who have intermarried with older resi¬ 
 dent populations, forming a natural bond between 
 the two distinct races, wherefore the strange 
 names of their fathers would be supplemented 
 
TEKUTCHIU 
 
 48 
 
 TELEGRAPH 
 
 by expressions simply designating them as the 
 parents of their offspring. The probabilities are 
 that a number of customs of diverse origin are 
 included under the term. Consult E. B. Tylor, 
 in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. 
 xviii (London, 1889), and W. H. R. Rivers, The 
 History of Melanesian Society, vol. i (Cam¬ 
 bridge, 1915). 
 
 TEKUTCHIU, ta-kbo'clie. A town of Ruma¬ 
 nia. See Tecuciu. 
 
 TEL'AMON (Lat., from Gk. TeXa/jubv). In 
 Greek mythology, the son of iEacus. Having 
 been driven out of iEgina (q.v.) for helping 
 Peleus (q.v.) to kill their half brother Phocus, 
 he married Glauce, daughter of the King of 
 Salamis, and became King of the island. He 
 was the father of Ajax the Greater (see Ajax), 
 took part in the hunt of the Calydonian Boar 
 (q.v.) and the Argonautic expedition (see Ar¬ 
 gonauts ), and went with Hercules (q.v.) against 
 Troy and the Amazons. 
 
 In architecture the term is, for some obscure 
 reason, often applied to male human sculptured 
 figures supporting entablatures, balconies, or 
 the like, more often and more properly called 
 atlantes. See Atlas. 
 
 TELANG, te-liing', or TELANGA, te-lan'ga, 
 Ivashinath Trimbak (1850-93). A Hindu 
 judge. He was born and educated at Bombay. 
 In 1872 he was enrolled as a barrister. In 1881 
 he became a syndic of the University of Bombay, 
 and in 1889 was appointed to a seat on the high- 
 court bench. In 1892 he became vice chancellor 
 of the university and president of the Bombay 
 branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Among his 
 works may be mentioned the translation into 
 English prose and verse of the Bhagavad-Cita 
 (q.v.) in the “Sacred Books of the East,'*’ vol. viii 
 (1898), and a criticism of Weber’s theory that 
 the Ramayana (q.v.) showed Homeric influence. 
 He edited the Niti- and Vdirdgya-gatanas (1874) 
 of Bhartrihari (q.v.), and the Mudrdrdksasa 
 (1884) of Vi&akhadatta (q.v.). He also trans¬ 
 lated into Marathi (q.v.), his native dialect, 
 Lessing’s Nathan the Wise and an essay on 
 Social Compromise. 
 
 TELAU'TOGRAPH (from Gk. rrjXe, tele , 
 afar + avros, autos, self -f- 7 pacfeLv, graphein, 
 to write). An autographic writing telegraph 
 invented by Elisha Gray. This system com¬ 
 prises a transmitter, receiver, and circuit con¬ 
 
 nections. A typical station equipment is shown 
 in the illustration. Two wires are employed 
 to connect transmitting and receiving stations. 
 The operating mechanisms and simple circuit 
 connections, not inclusive of the announcing 
 buzzer and inking details, are shown in the 
 diagram. At the transmitter, the pencil P is 
 attached by lever, ll^, to two circuit contact 
 rollers, rr, which bear against the surface of 
 two inversely placed horn-shaped rheostats. 
 
 The transmitted current from each rheostat 
 varies with the position of its respective roller, 
 such position shifting with motion of the send¬ 
 ing pencil. These varying currents are led by 
 circuits to coils, CC, at the receiving instru¬ 
 ment; these are wound on copper bobbins and 
 suspended in strong uniform magnetic fields. 
 As the transmitted current varies in size owing 
 to shifting of the pencil at the transmitting 
 station, the coils shift their positions. The 
 pen, P', of the receiver is attached to the 
 arms of crank levers, which are in frictional 
 contact with the supports of coils, CC. Thus, 
 as the coils shift position owing to the change 
 of current in them, the resulting motion of the 
 pen corresponds to that of the sending pencil 
 and the handwriting of the operator is repro¬ 
 duced. This device is quite extensively employed 
 in banking houses, department stores, clubs, and 
 government offices for the transmission of orders 
 or instructions from one department to another. 
 
 TELAV, tye-laf'. An old district town in the 
 Government of Tiflis, Russian Transcaucasia, 63 
 miles east-northeast of Tiflis (Map: Russia, G 
 6 ). It was formerly the capital of Kachetia 
 and has ruins of old palaces. Pop., 1910, 15,231, 
 chiefly Armenians and Georgians. 
 
 TELEDU, tePe-dbo. See Badger. 
 
 TELEG'ONUS (Lat., from Gk. TtjX^ows). 
 The son of Ulysses (q.v.) by Circe (q.v.). Hav¬ 
 ing been sent to Ithaca to find his father, he 
 failed to recognize him in combat and slew him, 
 afterward taking the body home, together with 
 Telemachus (q.v.) and Penelope (q.v.), whom he 
 married. He was looked upon as the founder of 
 the Italian cities Tusculum (q.v.) and Prseneste 
 (q.v.), and, through his daughter Mamilia, as 
 the ancestor of the Roman Mamilii. His story is 
 the theme of the Telegonia or Telegony. See 
 Cyclic Poets; Trojan War. 
 
 TELEG'ONY (from Gk. rrjXe, tele, afar -f- 
 -7 ovia, -gonia, generation, from yovos, gonos, 
 seed, from yiyvecrQcu, gignesthai, to become, to be 
 born). The influence of the first or of a pre¬ 
 vious sire on the subsequent progeny obtained 
 by other sires. That the first impregnation has 
 a lasting influence has been generally accepted 
 by breeders. Weissmann, however, states that 
 the most competent judges in Germany, such as 
 Stettegast, Nathusius, and Ktihn, in spite of 
 their extensive experience in breeding and cross¬ 
 ing, have never known 
 a case of telegony, and 
 doubt its reality. See 
 Breeding. 
 
 TELEGRAPH 
 (from Gk. rijXe, tele, 
 afar -f- 7 paepeu', gra¬ 
 phein, to write). 
 Strictly defined the 
 word “telegraph” 
 means to write at a 
 distance, though to¬ 
 day the word is em¬ 
 ployed to designate 
 any means whereby a message is transmitted by 
 signs or sounds other than the spoken word. 
 Thus, generally speaking, the smoke and flame 
 signaling used since biblical times (Ex. xiii. 
 21 ), heliographs, semaphores, etc., would be 
 considered telegraphing. However, these devices, 
 discussed under Signaling and Telegraphing, 
 Military, will not be treated in the present 
 article, which deals with the electric telegraph. 
 
 History. The earliest reference to the use of 
 
TELEGRAPH 
 
 49 
 
 TELEGRAPH 
 
 electricity for the sending of signals is found in 
 an article in the Scots Magazine of February, 
 1753, which suggested the use of frictional elec¬ 
 tricity. In 1774 Le Sage of Switzerland con¬ 
 structed a telegraph system about 1 mile long, 
 which comprised 24 line wires, one for each let¬ 
 ter, with pith balls suspended at each terminal, 
 utilizing the well-known phenomenon that light 
 substances are repelled upon electrification. 
 Through the use of frictional electricity applied 
 at the sending end of the wires, Le Sage suc¬ 
 ceeded in transmitting intelligible signals to the 
 receiving end. Francis Ronalds later (1815) de¬ 
 vised an alphabetical telegraph system which 
 also employed frictional electricity as the actu¬ 
 ating agent. Synchronously rotating dials were 
 placed at the sending and receiving terminals, 
 and back of these dials the letters of the alpha¬ 
 bet were arranged in a circle. A slot was cut in 
 the face of each dial through which, as the dials 
 rotated, the letters of the alphabet could be seen. 
 Upon a certain signal the rotating mechanisms 
 of the dials were set in motion, and as the 
 windows exposed a desired letter the current 
 was applied, and pith balls suspended at the 
 terminals of a wire connecting the stations were 
 caused to swing; in this manner the message was 
 spelled out. In 1839 DeHerr of Holland pro¬ 
 posed a system employing the physiological ef¬ 
 fect of the electric current. In this scheme 10 > 
 wires were employed between two stations. At 
 the receiving end the operator placed his fingers 
 and thumbs on the 10 terminals respectively, and 
 with the passage of the current in a predeter¬ 
 mined manner the shock would indicate the mes¬ 
 sage sent. Telegraph systems depending upon 
 the use of frictional electricity are, however, 
 very uncertain on account of the great leakage 
 of current and their extreme sensitiveness to 
 atmospheric conditions. 
 
 Allesandro Volta (q.v.), professor of physics 
 at Como, discovered (1774) that electricity could 
 be generated by chemical means. Following this, 
 several more or less successful attempts were 
 made between 1806 and 1830 to employ the 
 electrochemical action of the voltaic current to 
 record messages. Dyar’s recorder of 1826 em¬ 
 ployed the action of electric currents on iodine 
 solutions as a means of recording messages. 
 
 Oersted (q.v.) of Copenhagen (1820) made 
 the great discovery that a magnet needle would 
 be deflected from its normal position when placed 
 parallel to a wire conveying an electric current, 
 and, further, that the deflection was to the right 
 or left, depending upon the direction of current 
 flow. Employing a coil of wire within which 
 the magnetic needle was suspended, the effect 
 is multiplied and a sensitive current-indicating 
 device or galvanometer (q.v.) is produced. Fol¬ 
 lowing this epoch-making disclosure, many 
 needle-telegraph systems came into existence 
 and were at one time extensively employed in 
 Europe, those of Gauss and Weber in Germany 
 and of Wheatstone and Cooke in England being 
 the most important. Sturgeon in England 
 (1824) discovered that when a current of elec¬ 
 tricity was caused to flow in a coil of insulated 
 wire, surrounding a bar of soft iron, the latter 
 became a strong magnet, and that upon inter¬ 
 ruption of the current the bar immediately lost 
 its magnetism. Joseph Henry (q.v.) of Albany, 
 N. Y. (1831), set up the first experimental 
 electromagnetic telegraph system, employing 
 as elements a voltaic battery and an electro¬ 
 magnet. It, however, remained for Dr. Samuel 
 
 F. B. Morse (q.v.) of New York (1837) to in¬ 
 vent the telegraph system which in one form or 
 another is the basis of most modern land systems. 
 The apparatus first used by Morse lias but slight 
 resemblance to the instrument used to-day. The 
 original Morse relay weighed about 300 pounds, 
 that employed to-day weighs about 3 pounds. 
 
 Up to about 1870 the Morse single-message 
 systems were the only practical ones. The 
 duplex method, the sending of two messages 
 simultaneously in opposite directions, was not 
 perfected until 1872 by J. B. Stearns. The di- 
 plex, used to send two messages simultaneously 
 in one direction, was invented by Thomas A. 
 Edison in 1873, and the quadruplex system, 
 sending four messages in pairs of two in oppo¬ 
 site directions simultaneously, was invented by 
 him in 1874. To-day the duplex, quadruplex, and 
 multiplex systems are extensively used in prac¬ 
 tice, and the field of electric telegraphy has been 
 extended until it includes municipal fire and 
 police alarm systems, stock-quotation tickers, 
 typewriting and autograph telegraphs, while the 
 submarine telegraph, as first exemplified by 
 Cyrus W. Field’s commercial cable, has been in 
 extensive use since 1865. 
 
 Practice. The essential elements of an elec¬ 
 tric telegraph system are: (1) means for pro¬ 
 ducing the electric current—the battery or the 
 generator; (2) means for conducting the elec¬ 
 tric current—the line wires; (3) means for con¬ 
 trolling the duration and sometimes the direction 
 of the current—the key or transmitter; (4) 
 means actuated by the current to indicate or re¬ 
 cord the messages—sounders, recorders, etc. Thus 
 the art of electric telegraphy consists in the pro¬ 
 duction, control, and organization of electrically 
 actuated signals, these being either visible or 
 audible. Visible signals may be momentary and 
 vanishing, as in the earlier forms of mirror gal¬ 
 vanometers, or they may be permanent, as in 
 the case of the Morse register or siphon re¬ 
 corder; whereas audible signals are produced by 
 the sounder or other similar device. 
 
 A simple electric circuit is represented in 
 Fig. 1, wherein W is the conductor circuit, B 
 the electric battery, K the transmitting key, and 
 R the receiver. 
 
 Fig. 1 represents a complete metallic circuit, 
 but since Steinheil (1838) showed that the earth 
 is a good conductor, the dictates of economy 
 lead to the use of an electric circuit for tele¬ 
 graphic purposes, one side of which comprises a 
 copper conductor and the other, the earth, as a 
 
 R 
 
 return; i.e., a grounded circuit is used, and such 
 a circuit is illustrated in Fig. 2, wherein 
 B, K, R, and W have the same significance as in 
 Fig. 1, while G and G' represent the ground 
 plates. These are copper sheets buried well be¬ 
 low the surface in a normally moist soil. 
 
 Types of Circuits. There are two general 
 ways in which a telegraph circuit may be ar¬ 
 ranged. The source of electricity may only be 
 
TELEGRAPH 
 
 50 
 
 TELEGRAPH 
 
 connected to the line when a message is to be 
 sent or the generator may be in the line con¬ 
 stantly with a continuous flow of the current 
 
 along the line, the message being sent by open¬ 
 ing the circuit and interrupting the current 
 flow. These methods are known as the open- 
 circuit and the closed-circuit 
 respectively. 
 
 An open-circuit telegraph line comprising three 
 stations is represented in Fig. 3. Each station 
 is provided with a controlling key, K, a battery, 
 
 arrangements 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 /r 
 
 X 
 
 7 r 
 
 ± 
 
 
 B — 
 
 L 
 
 m 
 
 1 b ~t~ 
 
 um 
 
 i 
 
 B. - _ 
 
 mm i 
 
 Fig. 3. open-circuit telegraph. 
 
 B, and a receiver, R. The receiver and the bat¬ 
 tery are in different branch lines. When the key, 
 
 K, at any station is up, the normal condition, 
 the receiving device at the corresponding station 
 is in the circuit. When the key is pressed down, 
 the receiving device, sounder, or 
 relay is cut out, and the corre¬ 
 sponding battery is placed to the 
 circuit; current then flows over 
 the line wire, actuating the other 
 receiving devices, causing their 
 movable members, the armatures, 
 to be drawn forward. In this 
 arrangement, therefore, each sta¬ 
 tion will transmit signals by in- 
 serting its own battery into cir¬ 
 cuit at the proper intervals, and 
 the current flow thus established actuates the 
 receiving devices at the other stations. This 
 arrangement is not employed in America, but 
 is encountered in European practice. 
 
 A closed-circuit telegraph line 
 three stations is represented in Fig 
 
 tained if a battery be grouped at each terminal 
 station. The cells of the battery are always in 
 the line, the current passing normally through 
 the rear contacts of the keys and through the 
 receiving instruments at all the stations. The 
 circuit is interrupted by the depression of any 
 of the keys, the current ceases to flow, and a 
 signal is simultaneously given by all the receiv¬ 
 ing instruments, their levers or armatures being 
 drawn away from the magnets by spring action. 
 
 The primary advantages of the open-circuit 
 system are that in the case of audible messages, 
 received with a sounder, as described below, the 
 sound is made on the forward stop, which is 
 clearer than that given out by the armature 
 striking the rear stop; also less battery material 
 is consumed because the current only flows when 
 the message is being sent. The closed-circuit 
 system, however, has the great advantages that 
 the line is under constant test, the operator 
 hears his own message, and the battery attend¬ 
 ance is simplified, as the power plants are only 
 at terminal stations. 
 
 The American modification of the Morse sys¬ 
 tem is shown in Fig. 5. 
 This is the standard 
 arrangement employed 
 in the United States, 
 Canada, and Mexico. 
 It differs from the 
 closed-circuit system 
 in that the current 
 does not pass through 
 the back stop or con¬ 
 tact of the operator’s 
 key, but through lever 
 contact or plug, as shown at X. This is in prac¬ 
 tice part of the operator’s key (Fig. 6). To 
 send a message by the American modification, 
 the circuit is first opened by removing the plug 
 at X, and the signals thereafter are made by 
 
 k t i 
 
 5J_. 
 
 
 
 
 ▲ 
 
 [ 
 
 m 
 
 M 
 
 □ R c 
 
 i V 
 
 ▲ 
 
 qr arm* 
 
 -B 
 
 -=—B 
 
 H 
 
 comprising 
 4. In this 
 
 K 
 
 , X 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 4. closed-circuit telegraph. 
 
 depressing the key to close the circuit at the 
 front stop. This system has the main advan¬ 
 tages of both the preceding arrangements. It 
 has, however, a serious weakness of its own, 
 viz., an operator may fail to close the circuit 
 at X after completing his message. This leaves 
 
 the system inoperative, just as 
 much as though the line itself 
 had been broken. Many auto¬ 
 matic schemes have been sug¬ 
 gested to remedy this, but the 
 most effective protection has 
 been dismissal of the individual 
 who failed to close up the line. 
 
 A typical Morse key of the 
 Bunnell type is shown in Fig. 6. 
 A is the lever between the trun¬ 
 nions TT; the lever has a small 
 up and down motion, limited re¬ 
 arrangement a battery need not be used at every spectively by the set screw 8 at the rear and by 
 station; it may be concentrated all at one end the contact points C and C' at the front. The 
 
 of the line, though a better distribution is ob- circuit leads go to the binding posts PP’. The 
 
 m 
 
 nm 
 
 Fig. 5. American standard telegraph circuit. 
 
TELEGRAPH 
 
 5i 
 
 TELEGRAPH 
 
 circuit is normally closed by the side lever X , 
 making contact with the tongue attached to C. 
 When the operator wishes to send a message, X 
 
 Fig. 6. American telegraph key. 
 
 is pushed away from C and the circuit made by 
 pressing down on A to make C and C" come into 
 contact. 
 
 Code. The message is transmitted by the 
 duration of time of contact between C and C". 
 The Morse code was devised by Alfred Vail 
 (1837) and is made up of a combination of ele¬ 
 ments : the dot, the dash, the ordinary space, 
 the letter space, the word space, and the sentence 
 space. The dash is equal to two dots in dura¬ 
 tion ; the ordinary space is equal to the dot in 
 duration; the letter space is equal to two dots 
 in duration; the word space is equal to three 
 dots, and the sentence space is equal to five 
 dots. The typical codes are shown herewith 
 
 circuit and American modification the signal 
 dot or dash is given by the point of the stop 
 L' striking the frame Ii on its downward stroke. 
 On short-line circuits 40 to 50 miles in length 
 the sounder may be directly in the main circuit; 
 in such cases the magnet coils of about 1800 
 turns have a resistance of about 20 ohms, and 
 a current of about 0.125 ampere is needed to 
 actuate it. 
 
 Relay and Local Circuit. When the line is 
 of considerable length and resistance, and its 
 
 Fig. 9. relay. 
 
 insulation only fair, it is most difficult to main¬ 
 tain a current sufficiently strong to actuate a 
 main-line sounder. This is overcome by intro¬ 
 ducing an auxiliary receiving instrument, the 
 relay, into the main line (Fig. 9). The arma¬ 
 ture is very light, and so delicately balanced that 
 
 AMERICAN MORSE CHARACTERS CONTINENTAL MORSE ALPHABET 
 
 • E 
 
 — T 
 
 • E 
 
 — T 
 
 I 
 
 -M 
 
 •• I 
 
 -M 
 
 ... g 
 
 - 5 
 
 ... g 
 
 -O 
 
 .... H 
 .... p 
 
 .... 6 
 
 L 
 
 -cipher 
 
 .... h 
 
 •— A 
 - W 
 
 -Ch 
 
 -N 
 
 -D 
 
 *— A 
 
 -8 
 
 -J 
 
 —... p 
 
 •— U 
 
 — • N 
 
 -U 
 
 -G 
 
 •— V 
 
 -D 
 
 -v 
 
 -Z 
 
 . _ 4 
 
 -B 
 
 - R 
 
 -K 
 
 O 
 
 -G 
 
 -L 
 
 -C 
 
 R 
 
 -- f 
 
 -P 
 
 -Y 
 
 • • • & 
 
 -- 7 
 
 -p 
 
 -X 
 
 C 
 
 - W 
 
 
 -Q 
 
 • • • z 
 
 • - - • 1 
 
 1,- 
 
 6,- 
 
 . .. Y 
 
 •-“Period” 
 
 
 7,- 
 
 — • F 
 
 -— K 
 
 3, • -- 
 
 8, - 
 
 - Q 
 
 -j 
 
 4, - 
 
 9, - 
 
 - 3 
 
 - “Comma” 
 
 5, . 
 
 0,- 
 
 - X 
 
 - 9 
 
 Period, . 
 
 
 -2 
 
 . ? 
 
 Comma, • — • — • — 
 
 
 Fig. 7. morse alphabets. 
 
 (Fig. 7). The Morse code is used in America; 
 the Continental on cable work, wireless, and in 
 Europe and in all countries except those of 
 North America. 
 
 Sounder. A typical sounder is shown in 
 Fig. 8. In this the lever or armature A is 
 attracted by the magnet E when the current flows 
 
 through the winding. The motion of the arma¬ 
 ture is adjusted between the stop limits L and // 
 and the strength by the spring S. In the open- 
 
 only a small current is required to actuate it. 
 However, owing to the lightness it does not give 
 out a clear sound, hence it is employed to open 
 and close a local circuit in which the sounder is 
 located. The line current needed to actuate such 
 a relay is about 0.02 ampere; the local circuit 
 contains one or two cells, the local sounder and 
 connections; while the current in the local cir¬ 
 cuit to actuate the sounder is about 0.25 ampere. 
 
 Way Station. The simplest combination of 
 apparatus is that employed at an intermediate 
 or way station of a single-line circuit. It com¬ 
 prises a key, relay, local battery, sounder, light¬ 
 ning arresters, protector fuses, and the various 
 connecting wires. The arrangement of the ap¬ 
 paratus is represented in Fig. 10. 
 
 Telegraph Line. Telegraph lines while origi¬ 
 nally of iron wire, are now generally of copper, 
 varying from 0.1" diameter (No. 10 B. and S. 
 gauge) to 0.14" in diameter (No. 7 B. and S. 
 gauge). The line wires are carried on wooden 
 poles, spaced about 20 to 40 per mile, depending 
 upon the nature of the country. At each point 
 of support the line wires are attached by a loop 
 to an insulator on a cross arm. The function of 
 
TELEGRAPH 
 
 52 
 
 TELEGRAPH 
 
 the insulator, usually of glass in the United 
 States and earthenware or porcelain in other 
 lands, is to prevent, in so far as possible, the 
 
 Fig. 10. SINGLE-LINE WAY STATION SHOWING RELAY. 
 
 leakage of current to the ground. A typical 
 telegraph line insulator is shown in Fig. 11. 
 
 The length of a continuous telegraph circuit 
 
 Fig. 11. TYPICAL ^AMERICAN GLASS INSULATOR. 
 
 which may be operated satisfactorily depends 
 upon the resistance of the line, the effectiveness 
 of the line insulation, the weather conditions, the 
 
 fective insulation necessitate shortening the line. 
 The greater the continuous length of the line, 
 the slower the speed with which the message 
 can be sent. Thus it has become the practice 
 to divide long telegraph lines into sections of 
 300 to 500 miles, repeating the message from 
 one section to the next. This was formerly 
 done by an operator but is now performed by a 
 device or instrument called the repeater. 
 
 Repeater. Repeaters are simply combinations 
 of electromagnetic devices in which the relay 
 receiving signals through one section opens and 
 closes the circuit of the next section in the man¬ 
 ner that a relay opens and closes a local circuit. 
 The combination must, however, so function that 
 the repeating of messages from one section of 
 line to another may be performed in either direc¬ 
 tion. There are many forms of automatic re¬ 
 peaters. A very simple and effective one is the 
 Toye repeater (Fig. 12). This comprises two 
 relays, R e and R w , two transmitters, T e and T W} 
 two terminal batteries, B e and B w , two rheostats, 
 8 e and S w , various wire connections, local bat¬ 
 teries, etc. By reference to Fig. 12 it will be 
 seen that when the distant eastern operator 
 opens his key to prepare to send a message to 
 the west, the relay R e will become demagnetized, 
 its lever arm falls away and opens the local cir¬ 
 cuit, controlling the western transmitter T w . 
 As this transmitter becomes demagnetized, its 
 armature is drawn up at the inner end by a 
 spring and the western line is opened between 
 the post P and the tongue t. When this occurs, 
 if it were not for a preventive feature, the 
 western relay at the repeater station would also 
 become demagnetized, its lever armature would 
 fall away, opening its local circuit containing 
 the transmitter winding T e , which action would 
 in turn open the eastern line at the correspond¬ 
 ing tongue and post, with the result that the 
 whole line would be as inoperative as though 
 the wires were down. In the Toye arrangement 
 relay R w is prevented from opening by the fact 
 that the western battery when not connected to 
 the main line is given a path to earth, through 
 8 W by way of the tongue and lip of T w , thus hold¬ 
 ing closed the local circuit of R w , controlling T e . 
 When the distant eastern operator closes his 
 sending key to transmit a dot or dash, the relay 
 R e becomes magnetized, its armature is drawn 
 forward, and the local circuit controlling T w is 
 closed, the western battery being placed to the 
 western line by post P, making contact with 
 tongue t and the current impulse of duration 
 desired sent out along the western line. When 
 
 Fig. 12. diagram of circuit of toye repeater. 
 
 number of way stations through which the line a distant western operator transmits east, the 
 loops, the mode of sending, and the speed of oper- action of the relays and transmitters is the con¬ 
 ation desired. The difficulties arising from de- verse of the action described above. 
 
TELEGRAPH 
 
 53 
 
 TELEGRAPH 
 
 Multiplex Telegraphy. Within a generation 
 from the commercial introduction of the tele¬ 
 graph the multiplication of wires on the prin- 
 
 The principle of the bridge duplex is illus¬ 
 trated in Fig. 15. The four resistances a, b, c, 
 and d constitute the four arms of a Wheatstone 
 bridge, and no current of the home battery flows 
 through the home relay when the local "key is 
 closed, the points x and y, across which the relay 
 
 cipal lines became so marked as to be seriously 
 objectionable. To correct this difficulty and to 
 increase the earning capacity of through lines, 
 the multiplex systems of telegraphy were de¬ 
 vised. The most generally useful are the duplex 
 or contraplex, the diplex and the quadruplex. 
 
 Duplex Telegraphy. There are two systems 
 of duplex telegraphy, viz., the differential and 
 the bridge. The former is used in America and 
 the latter in Europe, particularly in England; 
 it is also to some extent employed in connection 
 with submarine-cable working. (See Teleg¬ 
 
 raphy, Submarine. ) The differential duplex 
 makes use of the differential relay, and the 
 principle is shown in Fig. 13. The battery cur¬ 
 rent divides equally between the similar branches 
 C and D, the two equal parts passing in opposite 
 directions through the two windings a and 6 re¬ 
 spectively; thus the core of the relay is not 
 magnetized when the key is closed. The resist¬ 
 ance G represents the line and apparatus at 
 the distant station, and that at D, the artificial 
 line, is equal in resistance and electrostatic ca¬ 
 pacity to C. The connections of 
 a Stearns duplex system are 
 shown in Fig. 14. The key at 
 the home station actuates the 
 relay at the distant station, 
 while the home relay is caused 
 to operate by the opening and 
 closing of the sending key at the 
 distant station. The keys em¬ 
 ployed are of the continuity type, 
 so as to insure a constant line 
 resistance, the battery not be¬ 
 ing removed until the resistance 
 replaces it. A second form of differential du¬ 
 plex is known as the polarized duplex. This 
 employs polarized differential relays, and in¬ 
 stead of responding to changes in current 
 strength these are actuated by reversal of cur¬ 
 rent direction. 
 
 is placed, being of the same potential. The 
 resistance c represents the line and distant-sta¬ 
 tion apparatus, while d represents an artificial 
 line balancing the line c, in all respects. An ac¬ 
 tual arrangement of the bridge duplex is illus¬ 
 trated in Fig. 16. 
 
 Diplex Telegraphy. This system of teleg¬ 
 raphy depends upon the use of two forms of 
 
 relays, viz., the ordinary 
 or neutral relay, provided 
 with a stiff spring, and a 
 polarized relay, the arma¬ 
 ture of which responds 
 only to reversals of cur¬ 
 rent* The adjustment of 
 the two relays is such that 
 the neutral one requires 
 for its actuation three to 
 four times as much cur¬ 
 rent as the polarized one. 
 The general arrangement 
 of a polarized relay is 
 shown in Fig. 17. It 
 comprises an ordinary 
 electromagnet, with its soft iron cores mounted 
 on one pole of a U-shaped permanent magnet 
 and a light iron lever, L, pivoted at P. This 
 light lever is given a definite polarity induc¬ 
 tively by the permanent magnet. When cur¬ 
 rent flows through the coils of the electromag¬ 
 net, one of its poles, say N lf is greatly strength¬ 
 ened and attracts L; if, however, the current 
 is reversed, the other pole, N 2 , is strengthened 
 and will attract L. Accordingly, lever L is at¬ 
 tracted towards N t or A T 2 , depending upon cur¬ 
 
 rent direction, and consequently it may be used 
 to open and close a local circuit in response 
 to reversals of the line current. A general 
 arrangement of the diplex circuits is shown 
 in Fig. 18. This comprises the battery, the 
 intensity key, K lf the pole-changing key, K 2 , 
 
TELEGRAPH 
 
 54 
 
 TELEGRAPH 
 
 at the home station, as well as the neutral 
 and polarized relays, N and P, at the distant 
 station, the local sounders are not shown. The 
 
 Fig. 17. polarized relay. 
 
 action is as follows: The neutral relay re¬ 
 sponds to increase of current strength by the 
 intensity key, K u cutting out the added re¬ 
 sistance, R u while the polarized relay responds 
 to reversals of current upon manipulation of the 
 polarity key, K 2 . To prevent the operator from 
 dragging his message or from holding the keys in 
 a midway position, which would be fatal to the 
 diplex operation, the transmitting keys are actu¬ 
 ated by electromagnetic means. Diplex teleg¬ 
 raphy is seldom, if ever, used per se; its usual 
 appearance is as one of the constituent elements 
 of the quadruplex system. 
 
 Quadruplex Telegraphy. The transmission 
 of four messages, two each way, over one line 
 simultaneously is the function of the quadruplex. 
 This is accomplished by making both the neutral 
 and polarized relays of the diplex system of the 
 differential type and combining them in series as 
 in the duplex system. Quadruplex circuits may 
 be of the differential type or they may be of 
 the bridge type. The arrangement of apparatus 
 
 LINE | 
 
 Fig. 18. diplex circuit. 
 
 for the differential form is illustrated in Fig. 19. 
 In this illustration manipulation of the intensity 
 key, K u at the home station actuates the neu¬ 
 tral relav at the distant station, whereas move- 
 ment of the home polarity key is duplicated 
 by the action of the polarized relay at the far 
 station. 
 
 The repeating of messages over quadruplex 
 lines does not call for special repeating appa¬ 
 ratus as in the case of single-message circuits. 
 The adjacent terminal apparatus is cross con¬ 
 nected and the intensity relay of one line actu¬ 
 ates the polarity key of the next section, while 
 the polarity relay of the first section is employed 
 to operate the intensity key of the second sec¬ 
 tion, and conversely. This transfer from polar¬ 
 ity to intensity sides and converse is made to 
 balance up the speed of both sides. 
 
 A system of multiplex telegraphy invented by 
 Delany and employed in Europe provides for the 
 simultaneous transmission of a number of mes¬ 
 sages either in the same direction or part in one 
 direction and the remainder in the opposite di¬ 
 rection. The apparatus consists of a number of 
 contact pieces arranged on a circular disk or 
 
 table, some of which are connected with the sep¬ 
 arate sending or transmitting instruments, 
 while others are connected with local relays and 
 batteries and the ground. A trailer or rapidly 
 revolving arm connected with the line wire 
 passes over these contact points so that the 
 circuit is successively completed through the 
 different instruments at one station, while a 
 
 similar device at the 
 other station, revolv¬ 
 ing synchronously 
 with the first, makes 
 connections with an 
 equal number of in¬ 
 struments. The speed 
 of revolution of the 
 trailers is regulated 
 by two tuning forks 
 or vibrating reeds of 
 the same pitch, and 
 an ingenious synchro¬ 
 nizing device keeps 
 them always in uni¬ 
 son. In this way it 
 is possible to operate 12 different sets of Morse 
 transmissions over one wire, and it is accom¬ 
 plished in the following manner. The first op¬ 
 erator closes his key, and, as the trailer passes 
 around, it will make contact with the line wire 
 and his instrument will be connected about 36 
 times in one second, thus transmitting that num¬ 
 ber of impulses. Now, if he desires to send a 
 signal corresponding to a dot, he would close his 
 key for a brief interval, which may be one- 
 twelfth of a second, thus allowing three impulses 
 of current to be transmitted over the line wire 
 to the corresponding instrument at the other 
 station, which is only in a position to receive 
 the signals from the one transmitter. The same 
 is true for the other operators and their instru¬ 
 ments, each one employing the wire for a cer¬ 
 tain fraction of the time. 
 
TELEGRAPH 
 
 55 
 
 TELEGRAPH 
 
 Automatic Sending and Receiving. The 
 
 speed of transmission of an average telegraph 
 operator is from 30 to 40 words per minute, 
 
 o o o o o o o 
 
 oooooooooooooooo 
 o o o o o o o 
 
 and 
 
 Fig. 20. punched tape for wheatstone transmitter. 
 
 while the characteristics of both line and receiv¬ 
 ing apparatus allow of a much greater rapidity. 
 To utilize these possibilities to the utmost, auto¬ 
 matic sending and receiving equipments have 
 been devised. One of the most effective of these 
 is known as the Wheatstone automatic, and by 
 
 its use a message speed of 300 to 400 words 
 per minute may be attained. The message to be 
 transmitted is prepared on a special tape, and 
 this is passed through a transmitter which is a 
 pole-changing switch. The messages are received 
 by means of an inking polarized relay which 
 records the same in Morse code upon a receiving 
 tape. A dot appears on the transmitter ribbon 
 as three vertically 
 spaced holes; a space 
 as one or more small 
 holes along the cen¬ 
 tral line, depending 
 upon the space dura¬ 
 tion ; and a dash is 
 formed by four holes, 
 two space or guide 
 holes and two other 
 holes, one above the 
 first space hole and 
 the other below the 
 second one. A por¬ 
 tion of perforated 
 tape is shown in Fig. 
 
 20, with correspond¬ 
 ing Morse code char¬ 
 acters and letters. A tape punch or perforator is 
 shown in Fig. 21, the punch operated by the 
 button at the left forms the dot character, the 
 middle one the space hole, and the right-hand 
 one forms the four holes representing the dash. 
 When the perforator is properly adjusted, 120 
 guide or centre-line holes are formed per inch of 
 tape. These engage with the points of a star 
 
 wheel which feeds the tape forward as the char¬ 
 acters are punched. The general arrangement of 
 a simple Wheatstone system, though it is also 
 operative in duplex with modifications of con¬ 
 nections, is shown in Fig. 22. The sending 
 mechanism is shown at the left and the receiving 
 apparatus at the right. The perforated sending 
 tape is moved to the left over a slotted table, 
 by means of the spur wheel, TV 7 , and a guide 
 wheel, not shown, serves to press the tape 
 against the table. Rods P and N pass through 
 holes in guide plate so that they are aligned 
 with the front and back holes on the tape; their 
 longitudinal spacing is the distance between ad¬ 
 jacent guide holes. The walking beam, R, carry¬ 
 ing these upright rods is provided with two pro¬ 
 jecting pins, XX, which limit the upward thrust 
 of rods PN as caused by the tension of spring 8. 
 The crank, K, driven by clockwork or motor, 
 which also drives the spur wheel, W, rocks the 
 beam through a small arc. The tape is moved 
 forward one space with each down stroke of rod 
 P, and the motion of the rods is transmitted to 
 the pole-changing switch, 8, by the bell crank. 
 A quick snap is given to the switch blade as it 
 passes over the centre position by the flat spring- 
 supported roller; this is done to prevent drag¬ 
 ging and sparking at switch contact point Q. 
 When the rod P is at the top of its stroke, as 
 shown in the illustration, the plus terminal of 
 the battery is connected to line and the negative 
 to ground, while with rod N at the top of its 
 stroke the battery connections are reversed. 
 When the sending tape is passing, rods P and N 
 can travel full strokes only if the holes in the 
 paper are such as will allow them to pass 
 through it. These current reversals, transmitted 
 over the line to the polarized relay, P.R, cause 
 the armature of the same to vibrate, and this 
 motion is transmitted to the shaft of the ro¬ 
 tating print wheel, t. Thus, when the negative 
 terminal of the battery is placed to the line, the 
 action of the relay, P.R, is to draw the print 
 wheel against the inking wheel, i, and when 
 the plus terminal of battery is placed to the 
 line the relay causes the print wheel to move 
 towards the tape and record a code character 
 thereon; the particular symbol depending upon 
 the lapse of time between current reversals, 
 
 as controlled by the perforations in the sending 
 tape. 
 
 In the Pollak-Virag high-speed telegraph the 
 messages transmitted are reproduced in a kind 
 of italic script. It uses two live wires and an 
 earth return, but, unlike writing telegraphs in 
 general, it does not involve the maintenance ot 
 synchronism between the receiver and the trans- 
 
TELEGRAPH 
 
 56 
 
 TELEGRAPH 
 
 mitter. At the sending end the messages are 
 sent by means of a perforated paper tape which 
 has been previously punched with two sets of 
 holes. The tape is a nonconductor of electricity, 
 and is passed over a roller made up of six elec¬ 
 trically insulated sections; and metal brushes, 
 pressing on the roller, form electrical connection 
 with one or another of these sections whenever a 
 perforation comes opposite them. The currents 
 thus allowed to pass vary in intensity, and those 
 from one group of three sections go to one tele¬ 
 phone receiver at the receiving end, while those 
 from the other group of three go to the second 
 telephone receiver. To the diaphragms of these 
 two telephone receivers, which are placed close 
 together, a mirror is connected, and is so sus¬ 
 pended that it is free to move both horizontally 
 and vertically, in unison with the movements of 
 the diaphragms. Now the perforations which 
 energize one telephone are arranged to represent 
 the vertical motion necessary in writing a char¬ 
 acter or figure, while the other set of perfora¬ 
 tions similarly represents the horizontal com¬ 
 ponent. Hence the tw r o telephones together re¬ 
 produce these components, and the result is that 
 under their combined influence the mirror moves 
 in such a way that its motions mark out the com¬ 
 plete characters. These motions are impercep¬ 
 tible directly to the eye, but when a pencil of 
 light is permitted to fall on the mirrors the 
 movement of the reflected ray of course increases 
 in amplitude as the surface upon which it is re¬ 
 ceived is further and further removed from the 
 mirrors, so that the characters described may be 
 enlarged to practically any size. At the point 
 where the size is as large as desired, the reflected 
 ray is made to impinge upon a photographically 
 sensitized tape of paper, and so gives a perma¬ 
 nent record of its movements. 
 
 Ticker or Stock Quotation Telegraphs. 
 These systems usually comprise one master 
 transmitter and a number of receiving instru¬ 
 ments, tickers, connected in series; these latter 
 print the message in ordinary type on a paper 
 tape. The various forms encountered in prac¬ 
 tice differ in details, but the fundamental oper¬ 
 ating principles are quite similar. In the case 
 of a simple ticker transmitter 26 pins are uni¬ 
 formly spaced in helical arrangement around a 
 metal cylinder; and this is rotated by a small 
 electric motor or clock work acting through fric¬ 
 tion drive. A bank of 26 letter keys is placed 
 above this cylinder, so arranged that when a key 
 is pressed it intercepts its corresponding pin and 
 stops the rotation of the cylinder. At one end 
 of this cylinder is a commutator arrangement 
 for reversing the battery current 52 times per 
 revolution. This alternating current passes over 
 the transmission line and through the coils of 
 two electromagnets. One of these is of the polar¬ 
 ized type, and therefore responds to the current 
 alternations; the other is of the neutral type, 
 with a heavy armature which, on account of its 
 inertia, is not influenced by the alternating cur¬ 
 rent. The armature of the polarized relay act¬ 
 ing through a light escapement turns the type 
 wheel in synchronism with the distant transmit¬ 
 ting cylinder. When the transmitter cylinder is 
 stopped by the operator pressing down the key, 
 the current-reversing mechanism stops and a 
 steady current passes over the line. The polar¬ 
 ized relay also ceases to actuate its escapement, 
 and the type wheel stops at the letter correspond¬ 
 ing to that struck by the operator. The steady 
 current flowing actuates the neutral relay, which 
 
 pushes the paper against the type wheel, record¬ 
 ing the letter selected. When the key at the 
 sending station is released, the cylinder again 
 rotates, the alternating current again flows, and 
 the printing wheel rotates in synchronism, as 
 before; at the same moment the neutral relay is 
 released and then actuates the tape-feeding mech¬ 
 anism so that it is moved forward for the next 
 letter. 
 
 Autograph or Writing Systems of Teleg¬ 
 raphy. There are various forms of writing 
 telegraphs, but probably the most complete is 
 that devised by Elisha Gray, and known in the 
 art as the telautograph (q.v.). There are also 
 various devices for the transmission of drawings 
 and pictures, but few of these have been devel¬ 
 oped beyond the experimental stage. In most 
 cases they depend upon the varying sensitiveness 
 to light manifested by selenium. 
 
 Municipal Telegraphs. Signaling systems 
 are installed in cities and towns to enable rapid 
 communication to fire department and police 
 headquarters. See Fire Alarm. 
 
 American Telegraph Companies. In the 
 United States the telegraph service, excepting 
 municipal alarm systems, is entirely in the hands 
 of private companies. The first company was 
 organized in 1845 under the name of the Mag¬ 
 netic Telegraph Company by Morse supporters 
 and associates. In that year a telegraph line 
 was constructed between Philadelphia and Mor¬ 
 ristown, N. J., and in the following year it was 
 extended to New York City. In 1856 the West¬ 
 ern Union Company was formed by a combina¬ 
 tion of the Erie and Michigan Telegraph Com¬ 
 pany with the New York and Mississippi River 
 Valley Printing Telegraph Company. From this 
 time combination and consolidation were carried 
 on, the efficiency of the service increasing. In 
 1862 a telegraph line across the North American 
 continent was completed and put in operation. 
 In 1885 the Postal Telegraph Commercial Cable 
 system was established by John W. Mackay, 
 beginning with a few wires between the largest 
 commercial centres in the Eastern and Western 
 States and one transatlantic cable. In 1916 
 this company reached every important city in 
 North America, and it operated seven trans¬ 
 atlantic cables, a Pacific cable, and cables to 
 the West Indies. In 1916 there were 26 com¬ 
 panies doing business in the United States, but 
 about 98 per cent of commercial telegraph serv¬ 
 ice was handled by the affiliated Western Union 
 and Postal Telegraph Cable companies. The 
 average toll rate per message in 1870 was 75*4 
 cents, the cost of transmission was 51.2 cents. 
 In 1912 these figures were 49 cents and 39 cents 
 respectively. The land-line rates for a 10-word 
 preferred telegram in 1916 varied, from 25 cents 
 between points 250 miles apart to $1 for a trans¬ 
 continental message. 
 
 Statistics. The following telegraph statis¬ 
 tics were compiled from the United States Sen¬ 
 ate Document No. 399 and Census Report of 
 1912. 
 
 The lowest charge per message in the large 
 countries as indicated by the table (page 57) is 
 made in France; the maximum charge occurs in 
 the United States. This is due in part, un¬ 
 doubtedly, to the fact that the distances covered 
 in the United States are very much greater, the 
 mileage of wire being more than 5 times as great 
 for the United States. Of the 2,214,000 miles of 
 telegraph circuit in the United States 1,300,000 
 are operated by railway companies, and about 
 
TELEGRAPHER’S CRAMP 
 
 57 
 
 TELEGRAPHY 
 
 260,000,000 company messages are handled per 
 annum over these circuits. 
 
 TELEGRAPH STATISTICS OF DIFFERENT 
 NATIONS 
 
 COUNTRY 
 
 Messages 
 
 Average 
 charge per 
 message 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 offices 
 
 Miles of 
 line 
 
 Austria. 
 
 20,840 
 
 Cents 
 
 22.5 
 
 4,480 
 
 143,850 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 1,768,725 
 
 14.2 
 
 1,630 
 
 25,400 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 3,447,547 
 
 14.0 
 
 560 
 
 8,700 
 
 France. 
 
 64,287,600 
 
 12.0 
 
 20,300 
 
 421,000 
 
 Germany. 
 
 58,556,000 
 
 18.0 
 
 45,850 
 
 1,120,000 
 
 Great Britain. . 
 
 93,360,000 
 
 17.2 
 
 13,550 
 
 556,000 
 
 Hungary. 
 
 12,532,900 
 
 25.0 
 
 4,620 
 
 88,000 
 
 Italy. 
 
 17,875,000 
 
 19.3 
 
 7,660 
 
 124,000 
 
 Japan. 
 
 29,839,770 
 
 12.3 
 
 4,290 
 
 99,470 
 
 Holland. 
 
 6,700,000 
 
 15.0 
 
 1,390 
 
 22,400 
 
 New Zealand. . 
 
 8,513,120 
 
 15.7 
 
 1,970 
 
 39,100 
 
 Norway. 
 
 3,360,050 
 
 13.4 
 
 1,585 
 
 32,000 
 
 Russia. 
 
 38,000,000 
 
 42.0 
 
 8,350 
 
 425,000 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 4,236,000 
 
 15.3 
 
 2,855 
 
 19,600 
 
 Switzerland.... 
 
 5,820,000 
 
 17.2 
 
 2,880 
 
 15,900 
 
 United States.. 
 
 106,532,500 
 
 49.0 
 
 30,860 
 
 2,214,000 
 
 Government Ownership. In striking con¬ 
 trast to the system of corporate ownership in the 
 United States is the governmental control of the 
 telegraphs as practiced in Great Britain and 
 other European countries. This is reflected in 
 the low average cost of messages to be noted in 
 the above table. In the various European nations 
 the telegraph is usually combined with the post 
 office, and this has been the rule from the 
 earliest times. In Great Britain, previous to 
 1870, the telegraph business was controlled 
 by private corporations, but in 1868 a bill 
 was introduced into Parliament, and passed 
 in the following year, whereby the lines and 
 property were acquired by the government at an 
 expense of £6,750,000. In 1869 there were about 
 7,000,000 messages sent, which increased to 
 22,459,775 in 1879 and 93,873,000 in 1913. In 
 this last year the receipts from telegraphs were 
 £3,100,000, and a net deficit oi £957,566 for tele¬ 
 graph service. With governmental ownership 
 have come improved service and reduced rates. 
 Where in 1870 it cost from 3 to 6 shillings to 
 send a message from London to Dublin, now a 
 message of 12 words can be sent anywhere in the 
 United Kingdom for sixpence. In 1913 the Post 
 Office Department controlled 14,129 telegraph 
 offices, including 2509 railway offices and 11,620 
 post-office stations. 
 
 Bibliography. A. E. Loring, Handbook of 
 the Electro-Magnetic Telegraph (4th ed., New 
 York, 1900) ; A. C. Crehore, Synchronous and 
 Other Multiple Telegraphs (ib., 1905) ; Houston 
 and Kennelly, Electric Telegraphy (2d ed., ib., 
 1906) ; William Maver, American Telegraphy: 
 Systems, Apparatus, Operations (4th ed., ib., 
 1909) ; id., American Telegraphy and Encyclo¬ 
 pedia of the Telegraph (ib., 1911) ; Donald Mc- 
 Nicol, American Telegraph Practice (ib., 1913) ; 
 Harold Pender, editor, American Handbook for 
 Electrical Engineers (ib., 1914) ; Preece and 
 Sivewright, Telegraphy (ib., 1914) ; A. V. von 
 Haskaier, Testing Telegraph Cables (3d ed., ib., 
 1915) ; Erich Hausemann, Telegraph Engineer¬ 
 ing (ib., 1915) ; United States Bureau of the 
 Census, Telephones, Telegraphs, and Municipal 
 Signalling Systems (Washington, 1915). See- 
 Telautograph; Telegraphy, Submarine; Wire¬ 
 less Telegraphy. < 
 
 TELEGRAPHER’S CRAMP. See Neurosis. 
 
 TELEG'RAPHONE (from Gk. rijXe, tele, 
 
 afar + ypacpeiv, graphein, to write + <tnowr), 
 plume, sound). A device for recording and re¬ 
 producing sound by means of the transverse 
 magnetization of a steel wire or disk, based 
 on the principle of local magnetization devised 
 by Valdemar Poulsen (q.v.). The essential parts 
 of the apparatus are an ordinary telephone trans¬ 
 mitter, to which is connected an electromagnet, 
 between the poles of which a steel wire or disk 
 passes or revolves. Words spoken into the trans¬ 
 mitter set up currents of varying intensity, 
 which, passing through the electromagnet, im¬ 
 press upon each point of the wire or disk a trans¬ 
 verse magnetization of corresponding strength. 
 The wire or disk can then be made to pass by the 
 poles of the same or a similar electromagnet 
 connected to a telephone receiver, when the vary¬ 
 ing magnetization of the wire or disk will set 
 up currents of like intensity as produced the 
 magnetization, when the receiver will produce 
 the original speech. Records formed on disks, it 
 was claimed, could be sent through the mails in 
 ordinary envelopes. 
 
 TELEGRAPHY, Submarine. In submarine 
 telegraphy there are many variations from the 
 practice on land lines. (See Telegraph.) The 
 problem involves the transmission of current 
 along a conductor of great length and necessarily 
 small cross section with of course considerable 
 resistance. In a long cable we have to consider 
 the effect of the electrostatic inductive capacity 
 as well as its conductivity. As it takes a per¬ 
 ceptible time for a cable of considerable length 
 to be charged and discharged when a current is 
 sent through it, there is a certain limit to the 
 speed of transmission of signals without their 
 becoming confused and unintelligible. This slow 
 speed of operation makes cabling very expensive, 
 and, despite several important inventions, the 
 difficulty has not been overcome. In fact, no 
 submarine cable in a day of 24 hours can trans¬ 
 mit more matter than could be read in an hour 
 from ordinary print. 
 
 When the first Atlantic cable was used the 
 ordinary Morse code was employed; but it was 
 soon found that the strength of current needed 
 to actuate the Morse receiving apparatus re¬ 
 duced the speed of signaling to one or two words 
 per minute. This retardation of the speed is 
 occasioned by the fact that a cable of several 
 thousand miles, with its core, insulation, and 
 sheathing, constitutes a condenser of consider¬ 
 able capacity. The action upon the current flow 
 through the presence of this condenser is as fol¬ 
 lows: The instant the battery is connected to a 
 cable a very large current flows, the major part 
 of which goes to satisfy the capacity of the cable, 
 and as the cable becomes charged this current 
 
 settles to a steady value determined by the 
 ohmic resistance of the line. At the distant 
 end of the circuit a very small current begins 
 to flow almost simultaneously with the connec¬ 
 tion of the battery, and as the cable becomes 
 charged, this outflowing current rises in mag¬ 
 nitude until it attains a steady value approxi- 
 
TELEGRAPHY 
 
 58 
 
 TELEGRAPHY 
 
 mating the incoming current. When the battery 
 is disconnected the entering current ceases at 
 once, but the outflowing current slowly drops to 
 zero as the charge flows out of the cable. In case 
 the ordinary Morse arrangement of dot and 
 dash were employed to transmit a message per 
 submarine cable, the result obtained would be 
 substantially as shown in Fig. 1. The blocks 
 a, a, a represent three short current impulses 
 impressed upon the cable at the sending end, 
 whereas the cable not having time to discharge 
 between impulses will have an outflowing cur¬ 
 rent as in curve b. This outflowing current, not 
 falling to zero between impulses, could not ob¬ 
 viously be received by means of an ordinary 
 relay or sounder. Neither could it be accu¬ 
 rately read through deflections of a galvan¬ 
 ometer. To differentiate clearly between the cur¬ 
 rent pulses on a submarine line, the sending key 
 is arranged to send dots by current impulses 
 in one direction and dashes by current impulses 
 
 in the opposite direction, the cable being cleared 
 out or discharged between consecutive signals 
 by grounding. 
 
 So faint are the current impulses at the end 
 of a cable of considerable length, even under 
 good conditions, that the reflecting galvanometer 
 (q.v.) or some modified or special form used 
 for receiving signals must be of considerable 
 sensitiveness. The amount and direction of 
 the deflection of the suspended mirror to 
 which the needles are attached depend on the 
 intensity and direction of the current. A gal¬ 
 vanometer with a suspended coil, provided it is 
 sensitive enough, may also be used, or, what is 
 more usual, some form of siphon-recording re¬ 
 ceiver. The siphon recorder was invented by 
 Lord Kelvin in 1867 and has since been greatly 
 modified and improved by various cable en¬ 
 gineers. 
 
 A typical siphon-recorder arrangement is il¬ 
 lustrated in Fig. 2. The galvanometer coil G, 
 pivoted on fine agate bearings, is restored to 
 zero by the use of delicate springs SS. The 
 siphon consists of a very fine capillary glass 
 tube, several thousandths of an inch in diameter. 
 A small piece of iron is attached to the lower 
 end of the tube, very close to the paper tape 
 P, but not in contact therewith. This record 
 tape passes over a magnetic table T, which is 
 magnetized by being in contact with the electro¬ 
 magnet EM. Magnetic fluctuations or vibra¬ 
 tions are set up in the table by means of the 
 vibrator reed R, which applies different values 
 of current to the coils of EM. When the period 
 
 of these vibrations has been adjusted by varying 
 the weight of the reed to be the same as the 
 natural period of the siphon, the latter is also 
 caused to vibrate, as would be indicated by a 
 series of fine dots appearing upon the moving 
 tape, and signals are recorded by marks to the 
 right or left of zero. The siphon is connected to 
 the movable coil of the galvanometer through 
 the agency of the delicately mounted cradle I, 
 which is caused to rock by the motion of the 
 
 Fig. 3. specimen record from siphon recorder. 
 
 galvanometer coil transmitted through the fine 
 wire F. 
 
 In Fig. 3 is shown a specimen of signals as re¬ 
 ceived over a thousand-mile section of an Atlan¬ 
 tic cable. The characteristics as indicated by 
 the underlined dots and dashes represent a part 
 of the International code. (See Telegraph.) 
 To indicate which signals are dots or dashes, it 
 is sufficient that one deflection should climb be¬ 
 yond the other in one direction with only a 
 slight fall between each crest. A change in 
 character of the signal is indicated by a pro¬ 
 nounced fall or rise beyond a preceding peak or 
 valley. To produce a signal equivalent to a 
 dot or the letter e a positive current is sent 
 through the line and an upward curve is pro¬ 
 duced on the record. Reversing the current or 
 sending a negative impulse gives the equivalent 
 of a dash or the letter t. 
 
 The simple key used in sending the signals con¬ 
 sists of a pole-changing device by which a cur¬ 
 rent in either direction can be sent over the cir¬ 
 cuit by simply pressing one of two keys. In 
 automatic transmission, used on the transatlan¬ 
 tic cables and other busy lines, the operator 
 first punches in a paper strip holes correspond¬ 
 ing to the proper signals. This tape is then 
 fed into an apparatus where, guided by a central 
 line of holes, it is passed through mechanically, 
 and contact is made through the agency of 
 blunt needles or brushes through the holes. These 
 devices, however, can only be used on cables hav¬ 
 ing heavy cores, but by their use a rate of 50 
 words or more a minute may be obtained. 
 
 In working submarine cables it was found 
 as early as 1862 by Cromwell Varley that the 
 sharpness and clearness of the signals was in¬ 
 creased and the effect of earth currents elimi¬ 
 nated by inserting a condenser (q.v.) of proper 
 capacity between the transmitting instrument 
 and the line. This idea was embodied in a 
 patent in 1862 and put in practice in 1866. 
 When first used at the receiving end it was 
 found that the speed was considerably increased, 
 and when placed at both ends the efficiency of the 
 cable was practically doubled. Greater distinct¬ 
 ness in the transmission of the signals was ob¬ 
 tained as well as increased rapidity. The opera¬ 
 tion of a simple cable circuit will be seen from 
 the diagram on page 59. 
 
 The cable connected with a condenser at either 
 end is shown above. From the opposite plates of 
 the condenser connection is made with a switch 
 through which the current may pass either to 
 the earth through a galvanometer or recorder 
 or to a transmitting key, K, and then to the 
 battery and earth, depending on whether signals 
 are being sent or received at the particular sta¬ 
 tion. At E and K' either pole of the battery 
 
TELEGRAPHY 
 
 TELEGRAPHY 
 
 59 
 
 can be connected at will to the line, or rather ment and sends along the signal as received from 
 to the condenser, and the cable charged indue- the first cable over a second cable or land line, 
 tively. The corresponding signals are produced The Heurtley relay, which is used on the 
 
 Pacific cable to magnify the signals 
 
 Switch Cable Switch 
 
 |-o N 
 
 Condenser Condenser Q 
 
 K ^-.. Pole-changing Switch 
 
 Battery 
 Earth 
 
 Earth 
 
 Earth 
 
 Hil'M 
 
 Battery 
 
 Earth 
 
 DIAGRAM OF SIMPLE CABLE CIRCUIT. 
 
 at the distant station, the galvanometer being 
 connected to the line by the switch. 
 
 Duplex Working. Cables can also be worked 
 duplex with facility and messages sent over a 
 single cable in opposite directions. This af¬ 
 fords an increased capacity of at least 90 per 
 cent in handling the traffic and is the approved 
 method of working all busy lines. The duplex 
 system was devised in 1873 by J. B. Stearns, 
 and in 1875 and 1876 was improved by Muirhead 
 and Taylor. It was first used on the Atlantic 
 cable in 1878. The connections of one end of a 
 submarine cable for duplex working, which is 
 the normal condition, are shown in Fig. 4, 
 wherein K is the sending key, putting the cable 
 to the ground when neither button is pressed, 
 BR is auxiliary balancing resistance for fine ad¬ 
 justments, the artificial line substantially equal 
 to the cable in resistance and capacity is indi¬ 
 cated as is the siphon recorder, while C, C, and 
 C represent condensers inserted to prevent the 
 earth currents from in¬ 
 terfering, which may 
 otherwise produce a 
 wandering zero or dis¬ 
 turb the incoming 
 signals. 
 
 With duplex work es¬ 
 tablished the next con¬ 
 sideration is some form 
 of automatic repeater 
 or relay to transmit 
 signals at intermediate 
 points, e.g., at New¬ 
 foundland and Ireland 
 in the line from Amer¬ 
 ica to England, or at 
 Honolulu, Midway, and 
 Guam on the route 
 
 from San Francisco to 
 Manila. These instruments not only must 
 
 be as sensitive as receivers, but must pro¬ 
 
 vide for sending along the signals over a 
 further stretch of cable or telegraph line. The 
 usual types of relays employed over long cables 
 are those of Brown, Heurtley, and Orting. In 
 the Brown drum relay there is a rotating 
 cylinder across which a pointer similar to 
 
 the ink tube of the siphon recorder may move 
 under the influence of the current in the coil. 
 This pointer normally rests on a central insu¬ 
 lated or neutral portion, but as it moves from 
 side to side it establishes contact with a con¬ 
 ducting surface through which a circuit is com¬ 
 pleted with a local battery in a direction cor¬ 
 responding to the swing of the pointer. This 
 of course operates a local transmitting instru- 
 Vol. XXII.— 5 
 
 on Fanning Island, especially those 
 from Vancouver Island, resembles a 
 siphon recorder without the paper 
 band driving mechanism and the 
 pen. The movement of the recorder 
 affects a light lever of glass over 
 which a bronze wire is stretched. 
 Normally this fine wire is cooled by 
 an air current, but with any move¬ 
 ment of the pointer the wires are 
 moved away from the slit through 
 which the air comes, and the resist¬ 
 ance is changed so that the local 
 recorder is affected. In the Muir¬ 
 head relay, which served to reduce the time 
 of transmission from New York to Buenos 
 Aires from 20 to 3 minutes, and the num¬ 
 ber of manual retransmissions from 6 to 1, the 
 moving element is a vane which causes a gold 
 wire to oscillate between two contact pegs of 
 gold and silver. In addition to the relays men¬ 
 tioned there are also the vibrating relav of 
 Gulstad used for nearly a quarter century by the 
 Great Northern Telegraph Company, and other 
 types designed by S. G. Brown, which have been 
 used with more or less success, as well as a 
 number for which patents have been secured. 
 
 The methods outlined for submarine signaling 
 have involved the use of direct current, with 
 the limitations already discussed. Very early 
 efforts were made to transmit signals by the 
 use of inverse currents to either annihilate the 
 discharge current or at least to diminish it con¬ 
 siderably. In other words, this meant the chang¬ 
 ing of the polarity of successive impulses; and 
 
 attempts were m$de to use this fundamental 
 idea as early as 1856. Soon after 1880 a method 
 was adopted of using an inverse current regu¬ 
 lated as to its strength and time of duration, 
 so that on short cables an inverse current of 
 only two-thirds the strength of the outgoing 
 current was employed, a polarized relay being 
 an essential feature of the system. The most 
 important system, however, was devised by 
 Picard in 1898, a method that has been used 
 between Algiers and Marseilles, and even be¬ 
 tween Algiers and Paris, 1120 land miles, of 
 which about one-half was submarine cable. By 
 this method a Baudot type printer was worked 
 over cables 900 kilometers (559.2 miles). By 
 various improvements type-printing apparatus 
 can be worked over nearly 1000 miles of subma- 
 
TELEGRAPHY 
 
 60 
 
 TELEGRAPHY 
 
 rine cables. In this system the outgoing im¬ 
 pulses are equal in time and are of short dura¬ 
 tion, and two impulses sent one after another 
 have a contrary polarity. After each impulse 
 the sending end of the cable is insulated. In 
 the Picard method the messages were sent in 
 Morse code, and were received by a very sensi¬ 
 tive dynamometer relay, which was connected 
 by a stronger type-printer relay. Various other 
 schemes for using inverse currents were pro¬ 
 posed, but with the exception of Picard’s work 
 nothing of any considerable importance was done 
 until the invention of the Gott method, whereby 
 ordinary Morse signals could be relayed from 
 a land line to a submarine cable, and vice versa, 
 and a number of sections of lines of various 
 kinds united for direct transmission. In fact 
 signals were sent over this line from Bamfield 
 on the western coast of British America to Lon¬ 
 don, without any manual retransmission. In the 
 Gott method, brought out in 1913 by the Com¬ 
 mercial Cable Company, the direction of the cur¬ 
 rent is changed after each signal by the use of a 
 polarized relay of suitable sensitiveness and 
 similar to that employed on land lines. While 
 this method was used with success the taxing of 
 all available facilities of the cables due to the 
 Great War rendered it impossible to perfect the 
 system for continuous commercial use. At¬ 
 tempts have been made to employ alternating 
 currents but without sufficient success to war¬ 
 rant their continued use. 
 
 History and Statistics. The feasibility of 
 laying a line for the transmission of signals 
 along the bottom of the ocean seems to have 
 been first suggested in 1795 by a Spaniard 
 named Salvia. Eight years later a nephew of 
 the famous electrician Galvani performed ex¬ 
 periments of a similar nature in the deep sea 
 off Calais. The first really important experi¬ 
 ments, however, bearing directly upon this sub¬ 
 ject are believed to have been those of Som- 
 mering and Schilling, who in 1811 applied a solu¬ 
 ble insulating material to a conductor which 
 was laid across the river Isar near Munich. 
 These investigators also used a submarine con¬ 
 ductor to explode gunpowder by an electric cur¬ 
 rent. In 1813 an Englishman named John 
 Sharpe transmitted signals through 7 miles 
 of insulated copper wire laid on the bottom of 
 a pond, but the first practical attempt to use 
 such a conductor to transmit telegraphic signals 
 was by Colonel Paisley of the Royal Engineers 
 at Chatham, England, in 1838. He surrounded 
 his conductor with strands of tarred rope and 
 wrapped the whole with pitched yarn. In 1839 
 Dr. W. O’Shaughnessy at Calcutta laid across 
 the Hugli River copper wire covered with bam¬ 
 boo and then coated with cotton and tar. In 
 1840 Wheatstone proposed a Scheme similar to 
 those of the last two inventors, and later sug¬ 
 gested the use of gutta-percha as a covering for 
 the wire, but was unable to put his idea into 
 practice. Prof. S. F. B. Morse, of New York, 
 laid an insulated cable between Castle Garden 
 and Governor’s Island, and as a result of his 
 experiments came to the conclusion “that a tele¬ 
 graphic communication on his plan might with 
 certainty be established across the Atlantic.” 
 The idea that submarine conductors for tele¬ 
 graphic purposes could be constructed was rap¬ 
 idly taking root, and in 1845 the Messrs. Brett, 
 who were active in the construction of the first 
 telegraphic lines across the English Channel and 
 the first Atlantic cable, registered a “General 
 
 Oceanic Telegraphic Company” for the purpose 
 of establishing telegraphic communication be¬ 
 tween England and America. In 1850 an ex¬ 
 perimental line was laid across the English 
 Channel by the Messrs. Brett, and this was fol¬ 
 lowed in 1851 by a permanent cable of such ex¬ 
 cellent construction that it survived for a num¬ 
 ber of years. Several longer lengths of subma¬ 
 rine cable were laid within the next few years. 
 Italy was connected with Corsica and Sardinia, 
 and Sardinia with Africa. A Black Sea cable was 
 laid in 1855, but operated only a short time. 
 
 Thus far attempts to lay submarine tele¬ 
 graph lines had been confined to comparatively 
 short distances. In 1858, after repeated un¬ 
 successful experiments, telegraphic communica¬ 
 tion was established across the Atlantic. After 
 something over a hundred messages had been 
 sent back and forth, the cable ceased to work. 
 Although this cable was a comparative failure, 
 yet its brief success proved two things: (1) 
 
 that a cable could be laid through 3000 miles of 
 deep sea; (2) that the electric current could be 
 transmitted through a wire of that length. It 
 was not until 1866 that a permanent cable was 
 laid across the Atlantic. (The detailed history 
 of this undertaking is described under Atlantic 
 
 THE SUBMARINE CABLES OF THE WORLD TO 
 
 JAN. 31, 1914 
 
 (From Electrical Trades Directory, London, 1914) 
 
 SUMMARY OF CABLES OWNED 
 BY GOVERNMENT ADMIN¬ 
 ISTRATIONS 
 
 Cables 
 
 with 
 
 LENGTH IN NAUTICAL 
 MILES 
 
 more 
 
 cores 
 
 Of cables 
 
 Of con¬ 
 ductors 
 
 Argentine Republic. 
 
 22 
 
 84.000 
 
 240.000 
 
 Austria. 
 
 87 
 
 713.535 
 
 814.000 
 
 Bahamas. 
 
 1 
 
 211.000 
 
 211.000 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 4 
 
 100.900 
 
 462.216 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 30 
 
 44.441 
 
 80.798 
 
 British Guiana. 
 
 8 
 
 23.000 
 
 50.000 
 
 British India. 
 
 7 
 
 1,987.409 
 
 1,987.409 
 
 Bulgaria. 
 
 1 
 
 0.538 
 
 0.538 
 
 Canada. 
 
 51 
 
 277.000 
 
 277.000 
 
 Ceylon and India (J oint).... 
 
 2 
 
 66.000 
 
 66.000 
 
 China.. 
 
 Denmark (Telegraphs and 
 
 3 
 
 955.400 
 
 955.400 
 
 Telephones). 
 
 147 
 
 436.442 
 
 1,548.765 
 
 France and Algeria. 
 
 France (Principal Interna¬ 
 tional and French Colonial 
 
 49 
 
 3,161.639 
 
 3,161.639 
 
 Cables). 
 
 (French) Dahomey and De- 
 
 16 
 
 8,479.839 
 
 8,479.839 
 
 pendencies. 
 
 ’ 97 
 
 1.078 
 
 1.078 
 
 Germany. 
 
 2,954.178 
 
 6,242.049 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland. . . 
 
 222 
 
 3,037.522 
 
 9,555.169 
 
 Greece. 
 
 13 
 
 59.702 
 
 58.818 
 
 Holland. 
 
 32 
 
 241.543 
 
 780.449 
 
 Inter-Colonial System. 
 
 6 
 
 9,279.000 
 
 9,279.000 
 
 Italy. 
 
 58 
 
 1,738.599 
 
 1,892.859 
 
 Japan . 
 
 Mexico. 
 
 149 
 
 4,248.004 
 
 5,076.775 
 
 6 
 
 357.698 
 
 434.681 
 
 Netherlands (Indies). 
 
 17 
 
 2,741.900 
 
 2,741.900 
 
 New South Wales. 
 
 239 
 
 73.996 
 
 505.272 
 
 New Zealand. 
 
 36 
 
 369.852 
 
 375.590 
 
 Norway. 
 
 927 
 
 1,555.111 
 
 2,576.942 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 4 
 
 115.050 
 
 115.050 
 
 Queensland. 
 
 22 
 
 53.510 
 
 56.930 
 
 Rumania. 
 
 Russia in Europe and the 
 
 . . . 
 
 177.000 
 
 189.000 
 
 Caucasus. 
 
 21 
 
 928.541 
 
 1,058.676 
 
 Russia in Asia. 
 
 1 
 
 19.585 
 
 58.243 
 
 South Australia. 
 
 3 
 
 54.000 
 
 54.000 
 
 Spain. 
 
 25 
 
 3,129.813 
 
 3,129.813 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 26 
 
 198.491 
 
 363.749 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 2 
 
 10 685 
 
 15.057 
 
 Tasmania. 
 
 6 
 
 8.500 
 
 23.000 
 
 Tunis. 
 
 
 4.312 
 
 4.312 
 
 Turkey in Europe and Asia. . 
 
 24 
 
 365.174 
 
 386.759 
 
 Uruguay. 
 
 5 
 
 8.954 
 
 8.954 
 
 Victoria. 
 
 3 
 
 380.995 
 
 380.995 
 
 Western Australia. 
 
 3 
 
 13.550 
 
 23.350 
 
 Total. 
 
 2,375 
 
 48,667.486 
 
 63,723.074 
 
TELEGRAPHY 
 
 61 
 
 TELEGRAPHY 
 
 SUMMARY OF CABLES OWNED BY 
 PRIVATE COMPANIES 
 
 Cables 
 with one 
 or more 
 cpres 
 
 Length of 
 cables in 
 nautical 
 miles 
 
 African Direct Telegraph Company . . . 
 
 9 
 
 3,044 
 
 Amazon Telegraph Company. 
 
 20 
 
 1,388 
 
 Anglo-American Telegraph Company. . 
 
 18 
 
 9,509 
 
 Canadian Pacific Railroad Company.. . 
 Central and South American Telegraph 
 
 10 
 
 102 43 
 
 Company. 
 
 22 
 
 12,546 
 
 Commercial Cable Company. 
 
 15 
 
 17,274 
 
 Commercial Cable Company of Cuba . 
 
 1 
 
 1,285 
 
 Commercial Pacific Cable Company. . 
 Compagnie Francaise des Cables T616- 
 
 6 
 
 10,010 
 
 graphiques. 
 
 24 
 
 11,430 
 
 Cuba Submarine Telegraph Company . 
 Deutsch-Atlantische Telegraphen-Ge- 
 
 12 
 
 1,540 
 
 sellschaft. 
 
 Deutsch-Niederlandische Telegraphen- 
 
 5 
 
 9,661 
 
 Gesellschaft. 
 
 Deutsch Sudamerikanische Telegra- 
 
 3 
 
 3,416 
 
 phen-Gesellschaft. 
 
 5 
 
 7,386 
 
 Direct Spanish Telegraph Company. . . 
 
 2 
 
 707 
 
 Direct United States Cable Company.. 
 
 3 
 
 3,19443 
 
 Direct West India Cable Company... . 
 Eastern and South African Telegraph 
 
 2 
 
 1,276 
 
 Company. 
 
 Eastern Extension Australasia and 
 
 18 
 
 10,538 
 
 China Telegraph Comnany. 
 
 33 
 
 26,219 
 
 Eastern Telegraph Company. 
 
 140 
 
 46,613 
 
 Europe and Azores Telegraph Company 
 
 2 
 
 1,060 
 
 Great Northern Telegraph Company. . 
 
 30 
 
 8,405 
 
 Halifax and Bermudas Cable Company 
 
 1 
 
 851 
 
 Indo-European Telegraph Company... 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 Mexican Telegraph Company. 
 
 Osteuropaische Telegraphen - Gesell- 
 
 3 
 
 2,069 
 
 schaft. 
 
 1 
 
 185 
 
 River Plate Telegraph Company. 
 
 4 
 
 220 
 
 South American Cable Company. 
 
 United States and Hayti Telegraph and 
 
 7 
 
 3,779 
 
 Cable Company. 
 
 1 
 
 1,41543 
 
 West African Telegraph Company. . . . 
 West Coast of America Telegraph 
 
 8 
 
 1,471 
 
 Company. 
 
 West India and Panama Telegraph 
 
 7 
 
 1,973 
 
 Company. 
 
 22 
 
 4,355 
 
 Western Telegraph Comnany. 
 
 40 
 
 23,835 43 
 
 Western Union Telegraph Company... 
 
 9 
 
 10,796 
 
 
 486 
 
 237,575 
 
 General Summary 
 
 Government Administrations. 2,375 48,66743 
 
 Private Companies. 486 237,575 
 
 Total. 2,861 286,242 43 
 
 Telegraph.) A second Atlantic cable was in¬ 
 augurated immediately after, the one which had 
 broken in the laying in 1865 having been re¬ 
 paired. In 1859, after the first Atlantic cable 
 had ceased to work, the Red Sea and East In¬ 
 dian Telegraph was laid, over a route 3043 miles 
 long, but this also proved a dismal failure and 
 was finally abandoned. The Malta-Alexandria 
 cable was laid in 1861, and was in use till 1872, 
 when, from repeated breakages in shallow water, 
 its use was discontinued. The core consisted of 
 a strand of seven copper wires, covered by three 
 layers of gutta-percha; outside of this was a 
 serving of tarred yarn; and, finally, 18 iron 
 wires constituted the sheathing. This was the 
 first long cable successfully laid (its total length, 
 in three sections, being 1331 miles) ; and it was 
 also the first properly tested under water before 
 being laid, and carefully constructed with con¬ 
 stant watchfulness as to its electrical and me¬ 
 chanical conditions. In 1869 a cable 2328 miles 
 long was laid from Brest, France, to the island 
 of Saint-Pierre, south of Newfoundland; in 1873, 
 one from Lisbon to Pernambuco, Brazil. In 1874 
 another transatlantic cable was laid, and from 
 that time there have been numerous subma¬ 
 rine lines established whose history is discussed 
 under Atlantic Telegraph. The Western Union 
 Telegraph Company in 1900 laid a new cable 
 
 of the heaviest and most improved type be¬ 
 tween Newfoundland and Penzance, England. 
 In 1914 before the war there were 17 cables 
 operated between the United States and Europe. 
 One of the earliest hostile acts in the war was 
 the cutting of the German cables to America. 
 This left the Teutonic allies without direct serv¬ 
 ice to America and acted greatly to their disad¬ 
 vantage. 
 
 In 1902 the British Pacific cable between 
 Australia and British Columbia, 7800 nautical 
 miles in length, was completed, and in 1903 
 the first American cable was laid across the 
 Pacific, with a length of 7846 nautical miles, 
 by the Commercial Cable Company, between San 
 Francisco and the Philippines. This cable 
 touches at Hawaii, Midway Island, and Guam. 
 Later it was extended from Manila to Shanghai 
 and to Japan by way of the Bonin Islands. In 
 1914 the total length of submarine cable was 
 stated at 286,242.5 miles, representing an out¬ 
 lay of over $350,000,000. 
 
 Construction of Cable. A submarine cable 
 consists of four parts: (1) The central conduc¬ 
 tor, or core, to carry the current. This is made 
 of copper wire, either solid or in strands. (2) 
 A covering of insulating material to prevent the 
 current from being dissipated. This is usually 
 made of gutta-percha, although for some subma¬ 
 rine cables rubber has been used instead. (3) 
 An outer covering to protect the insulating 
 material from injury. This is usually of yarn, 
 tape, or canvas. (4) The sheathing or spiral 
 armoring of steel wires, laid on closely. The 
 cable is generally divided into three sections: 
 the deep-sea, section, the intermediate portion, 
 and the shore end. The last portion has to be 
 constructed with greatest care and strength, as 
 in shallow water there is more danger of in¬ 
 jury from rocks and other causes. It is esti¬ 
 mated that a deep-sea cable weighs about one 
 ton per nautical mile. Cables cost from $350 in 
 deep sea to $1500 at the shore end per mile. 
 The cost of maintenance is often heavy and re¬ 
 quires the services of specially equipped vessels. 
 
 Bibliography. Charles Bright, Submarine 
 Telegraphy (London, 1898) ; H. M. Field, Story 
 of the Atlantio Telegraph (New York, 1898). 
 For statistics: Bela Gati, “Submarine Cable 
 Rapid Telegraphy; Ocean and Intercontinental 
 Telephony,” in Transactions of the American 
 Institute of Electrical Engineers, vol. xxxiv 
 (New York, 1915) ; “Submarine and Land Tele¬ 
 graph Systems of the World,” in Monthly Sum¬ 
 mary of Commerce and Finance of the United 
 States, July, 1903 (Washington, Treasury De¬ 
 partment) ; Pierre Jouhannaud, Les cables sous- 
 marins, leur protection en temps de paix et en 
 temps de guerre (Paris, 1904), containing a bib¬ 
 liography; Fisher and Darby, Students’ Guide 
 to Submarine Cable Testing (4th enl. ed., New 
 York, 1908) ; H. D. Wilkinson, Submarine Cable 
 Laying, Repairing, and Testing (ib., 1909) ; 
 Charles Bright, Imperial Telegraphic Communi¬ 
 cation (London, 1911) ; S. G. Brown, “Cable Re¬ 
 lays,” in Proceedings of the Royal Institution of 
 Great Britain, vol. xix (ib., 1911); and “Cable 
 Systems of the World,” in Elelctro-technische 
 Zeitsclirift, Nov. 27, 1913; London Electrician 
 (London, annual) ; Electrical Trades Directory 
 (ib., annual) ; and various papers in Trans¬ 
 actions of American Institute of Electrical En¬ 
 gineers (New York, current) ; United States 
 Bureau of the Census, Telephones and Telegraphs, 
 1912 (Washington, 1915). 
 
TELEPATHY 
 
 TELEGRAPHY 
 
 TELEGRAPHY, Wireless. See Wireless 
 Telegraphy. 
 
 TEL EL AMARNA. See Tell el Amarna. 
 
 TEL EL KEBIR. See Tell el Kebir. 
 
 TELEMACHUS, te-lem'a-kus (Lat., from Gk. 
 Tr]\efiaxos ). In Greek legend, the son of Ulysses 
 (q.v.) and Penelope (q.v.). At the opening of 
 the Odyssey he is represented as led by Athena, 
 who had appeared to him in the guise of Mentor, 
 a trusted Ithacan friend of Ulysses, in search of 
 tidings of his long-absent father, since he was 
 unable alone to expel the insolent suitors of his 
 mother. Having visited Pylos and Sparta, 
 Telemachus returned to Ithaca, where he found 
 his father in the guise of a beggar, at the hut of 
 the faithful swineherd Eumseus. After Ulysses 
 had revealed his identity to his son, they carried 
 out a plan for the slaying of the suitors. In 
 post-Homeric legend, after the death of Odysseus 
 Telemachus and his mother accompanied Tele- 
 gonus (q.v.) to the island of Circe (q.v.), where 
 Telegonus wedded Penelope, and Telemachus 
 Circe. 
 
 TELEMACHUS. A Syrian monk who in 
 404 a.d. leaped into the arena of the Coliseum 
 during a gladiatorial combat, attempting to sepa¬ 
 rate the contestants. He was stoned to death, 
 but his heroic protest led Honorius to suppress 
 gladiatorial fights; at least there is no evidence 
 of their taking place after this time. 
 
 TELEMAQUE, ta/lfi/mak', Aventures m3 
 (Fr., Adventures of Telemachus). A romance, 
 with some political significance, by Fenelon 
 (1699), founded on the adventures of the son of 
 Odysseus and largely influenced by Barclay’s 
 Argenis (q.v.). 
 
 TELEM'ETER (from Gk. rrjXe, tele, afar + 
 yerpov, metron, measure). An instrument for 
 measuring the distance to a remote object, used 
 in surveying and in military operations by engi¬ 
 neers and artillerists. There are many forms 
 of telemeter; which consist for the most part 
 of telescopes and mirrors by means of which 
 angles can be read and the distance computed. 
 The telemeter of the United States Coast and 
 Geodetic Survey is more generally known among 
 American engineers as the stadia (q.v.), and 
 in Great Britain as a tachometer. It consists 
 of a mounted telescope with two extra hori¬ 
 zontal cross wires or stadia hairs that intercept 
 a certain number of divisions on the image of 
 the graduated rod held upright at the distant 
 point. The distance of the rod from the in¬ 
 strument is obtained by multiplying the reading 
 by a constant factor which depends upon the 
 construction of the telescope. Stadia measure¬ 
 ments are particularly useful in making a rapid 
 survey or reconnaissance and are accurate to 
 about one part in 700. Consult I. O. Baker, 
 Engineer’s Surveying Instruments (2d ed., New 
 York, 1892). See Range Finder; Surveying. 
 
 TEL'EQL'OGY (from Gk. reXos, telos, end, 
 completion + -Xoyia, -logia, account, from 
 Xeyeip, legein, to say). A term used in philos¬ 
 ophy to denote any theory which explains the 
 world as in some way controlled by intelligent 
 purpose. The question teleology answers in 
 the affirmative is whether in the universe as a 
 whole, or even in the phenomena of terrestrial 
 organic life, there is some actually purposed 
 end controlling the course of events. It is 
 certain that the tendency to interpret actions 
 teleologically appears in very early childhood. 
 Primitive animism (q.v.) seems to rest on a 
 deep-seated instinct, and a mechanistic (see 
 
 62 
 
 Mechanism) conception even in limited ap¬ 
 plication was achieved with great difficulty. 
 The prevailing trend of Greek thought was 
 teleological and it culminated in the systems 
 of Plato and Aristotle. The more mechanistic 
 views which resulted in the materialism of 
 Leucippus and Democritus did not meet with 
 general acceptance. It was reserved for modern 
 science to develop a thoroughgoing, systemati¬ 
 cally and experimentally grounded mechanism. 
 Probably the greatest blow to teleology was the 
 appearance of Darwin’s Origin of Species. 
 
 At present teleology is maintained mainly in 
 idealistic circles in philosophy. For instance, 
 James Ward, Josiah Royce, Bernard Bosanquet, 
 and Hugo Munsterberg are all teleologists. 
 They do not deny the partial value of the mech¬ 
 anistic hypothesis, but they subordinate mech¬ 
 anism to teleology. For them mechanism is 
 a descriptive device, but as reality is at heart 
 spiritual in nature, teleology is the more ade¬ 
 quate point of view. 
 
 Bergson has attempted to develop a view ac¬ 
 cording to which neither mechanism nor teleol¬ 
 ogy has ultimate validity. For him teleology is 
 only an inverted mechanism, belying the spon¬ 
 taneity and unforeseeableness of vital develop¬ 
 ment, and yet nearer the truth than the mechan¬ 
 ism of efficient causation. “The future appears 
 as expanding the present: it was not therefore 
 contained in the present in the form of a repre¬ 
 sented end. And yet, once realized, it will 
 explain the present as much as the present ex¬ 
 plains it, and even more; it must be viewed 
 as an end as much as, and more than, a 
 result.” Consult: Paul Janet, Final Causes f 
 Eng. trans. from 2d Fr. ed. by William Affleck 
 (New York, 1883); Franz Erhardt, Meehan- 
 ismus und Teleologie (Leipzig, 1890) ; Max 
 Adler, “Kausalitiit und Teleologie im Streite 
 und die Wissenschaft,” in Marx Studien, vol. i 
 (Vienna, 1904) ; Bernard Bosanquet, “Meaning 
 of Teleology,” in Proceedings of the British 
 Academy (London, 1905-06). See also Ma¬ 
 terialism ; Mechanism, and references there 
 given. 
 
 TEL'EOSAU'RUS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. reXeos, 
 teleos, reXeios, teleios, complete + aaiipos, sauros, 
 lizard). An extinct crocodile, fossil skeletons 
 of which are found in the Jurassic rocks of 
 Europe. The animal was small and had a much 
 elongated tubelike snout armed with numerous 
 small outward-curving teeth. The body was 
 covered by tuberculated scutes. See Crocodile. 
 
 TELEP'ATHY (from Gk. rgXe, tele , afar + 
 - 7 radeia, -patheia, from it ados, pathos, feeling). 
 A term coined by members of the Society for 
 Psychical Research: “We venture to introduce 
 the words Telaesthesia and Telepathy to cover 
 all cases of impression received at a distance 
 without the normal operation of the recognized 
 sense organs.” (See Psychical Research, So¬ 
 cieties for.) E. Gurney, F. Myers, and F. Pod- 
 more in Phantasms of the Living (1886) say 
 that “under particular conditions of excitement 
 —the rationale of which we probably do not 
 understand, though insensibility and the near 
 approach of death are apparently some of the 
 most effectual of these conditions—certain per¬ 
 sons seem to have the faculty of communicating 
 to other persons at a distance what is happening 
 to them, often without any intention or con¬ 
 sciousness of doing so on their own parts,” and 
 further, that “certain small experimental re¬ 
 sults can be produced,” and that “certain im- 
 
TELEPHONE 
 
 63 
 
 TELEPHONE 
 
 pressive spontaneous phenomena are shown to 
 belong to the same class.” Hyslop uses the term 
 to cover “coincidences between two living per¬ 
 sons’ thoughts which are not due to chance coin¬ 
 cidence or to normal sense perception.” He 
 thus defines it negatively as a “name for the 
 facts that baffle normal explanations, and indi¬ 
 cate our ignorance, not our knowledge.” Most 
 of the investigators in the field, while admitting 
 a bias, profess their willingness to rest their 
 case upon the experimental findings. Every at¬ 
 tempt is made to control the conditions; and 
 cases which are not properly attested, or which 
 can be explained by muscle reading, hypersensi¬ 
 tivity, etc., are eliminated. 
 
 The actual evidence upon which the belief in 
 telepathy now rests may be classified as (1) 
 experimental, the communication from agent to 
 percipient of simple visual impressions—dia¬ 
 grams, and color, suit, and number of playing 
 cards, etc.; (2) certain striking cases of the 
 induction of sleep at a distance, notably that 
 of Madame B., or Leonie, reported by J. Ochoro- 
 wicz; (3) statistics of what are known as 
 veridical hallucinations, i.e., apparitions of a 
 person to some distant friend at the time of 
 the person’s death; (4) the performances of 
 certain test mediums, especially of one, Mrs. 
 Piper, whose case has been investigated at 
 length by the Society for Psychical Research; 
 and (5) results of cross correspondences, i.e., 
 cases in which two mediums at a distance from 
 each other simultaneously produce automatic 
 script which is meaningless until the two speci¬ 
 mens are put together.. All this evidence itself 
 rests upon the assertion that the number of coin¬ 
 cidences exceeds the number attributable to 
 chance according to the law of probability; e.g., 
 veridical hallucinations are said to be 440 
 times more numerous than they should be ac¬ 
 cording to chance alone. The verdict of science 
 is still, however, “not proven.” 
 
 Bibliography. G. M. Beard, The Study of 
 Trance, Muscle-Reading, and Allied Nervous 
 Phenomena (New York, 1882) ; J. Oehorowicz, 
 De la suggestion mentale (Paris, 1887) ; Frank 
 Podmore, Apparitions and Thought Transfer¬ 
 ence (New York, 1896) ; E. Parish, Zur Kritik 
 des telepathischen Beiveismaterials (Leipzig, 
 1897) ; Joseph Jastrow, Fact and Fable in 
 Psychology (Boston, 1900) ; Camille Flamma- 
 rion, The Unknown (New York, 1900) ; N. \V. 
 Thomas, Thought Transference: A Critical and 
 Historical Review of the Evidence for Telep¬ 
 athy, with a Record of New Experiments (Lon¬ 
 don, 1905) ; J. H. Hyslop, Psychical Research 
 and Survival (ib., 1913). See Clairvoyance. 
 
 TEL'EPHONE (from Gk. rrj\e, tele, afar -f- 
 (pcovy, phone, sound). An instrument for the 
 transmission and reproduction of articulate 
 speech between two or more distant points. The 
 idea of transmitting sound to a distance found 
 its first practical expression in the speaking tube 
 and later in the string telephone. The latter 
 comprises two hollow cylinders, one end of each 
 being covered by a taut membrane and con¬ 
 nected with the other by a stretched string. 
 The vibrations of the diaphragm of one cylinder 
 caused by the sound waves striking it are 
 transmitted through the string to the other 
 membrane. Hooke referred to such a combina¬ 
 tion when in 1667 he stated that by the help 
 of a tightly drawn wire, sound could be propa¬ 
 gated to a considerable distance, even through 
 stone walls and surrounding buildings. Sir 
 
 Charles Wheatstone described in the Repository 
 of Arts, September, 1821, an instrument for 
 transmitting sounds, which he called the tele¬ 
 phone. This device consisted of a number of 
 solid rods connecting musical instruments with 
 sounding boards, which were placed at a dis¬ 
 tance from the instruments, and it is stated 
 that the sound was successfully reproduced. 
 
 The present article, however, deals with the 
 electrical reproduction of articulate speech. 
 The discovery of Oersted in 1819, showing the 
 relation between electricity and magnetism, that 
 of Sturgeon of 1824 showing how a magnet 
 was produced when current circulated around 
 a coil of wire surrounding an iron core, and that 
 of Sir Michael Faraday showing that electricity 
 was induced in a conductor when moved in a 
 magnetic field, are all of extreme importance 
 to the development of the electrical telephone. 
 The germ of the telephone may be dated back 
 as far as 1837, when Page of Boston found that 
 a bar or needle of iron would give out sound 
 when subjected to rapid cycles of magnetization 
 and demagnetization. 
 
 Charles Bourseul in L’ Illustration, Paris, 
 1854, prophesied the transmission of speech: 
 “I have asked myself, for example, if the spoken 
 word itself could not be transmitted by elec¬ 
 tricity; in a word, if what was spoken in 
 Vienna may not be heard in Paris? It is prac¬ 
 tically this way: suppose that a man speaks 
 near a movable disk, sufficiently pliable to lose 
 none of the vibrations of the voice, that this 
 disk alternately makes and breaks the connec¬ 
 tion from a battery; you may have at a dis¬ 
 tance another disk which will simultaneously 
 execute the same vibrations.” 
 
 The first electrical apparatus described as 
 a telephone by its inventor was devised by 
 Philipp Reis (q.v.) of Germany in 1861. This 
 embodied the suggestions of Bourseul and the 
 Page effect. The elements of the Reis telephone 
 are shown in Fig. 1. The flexible disk of mem- 
 
 Fig. 1. ELEMENTS OF REIS TELEPHONE. 
 
 brane D mounted over the opening of a box 
 carried a small piece of platinum P at its 
 centre; near this is the spring S with which the 
 platinum alternately made and broke contact 
 when the membrane was caused to vibrate by 
 the sound waves. These contacts form the 
 terminals of a circuit containing a battery 
 B and the receiver R. The making and break¬ 
 ing of the circuit between P and S caused 
 intermittent currents to flow through the coil 
 of the receiver, these producing molecular 
 vibrations in the needle giving out sound as 
 noted by Page. This sound was con¬ 
 siderably amplified by the sounding box on 
 which the needle was mounted. By such means 
 the pitch of any sound may be reproduced at a 
 distance, but this is only one characteristic, 
 for, besides it, sound has quality or timbre, 
 which makes it distinctive, and degrees of loud¬ 
 ness or intensity. To transmit articulate speech 
 these three elements must be reproduced, and 
 this cannot be done by any apparatus which 
 functions through current interruptions. Hence 
 the Reis telephone failed to reproduce any but 
 
TELEPHONE 
 
 TELEPHONE 
 
 64 
 
 pure musical notes and then only as regards 
 pitch. 
 
 Invention of Bell. No apparent advance was 
 made in working out the problem of the articu¬ 
 lating telephone for about 16 years after Reis’s 
 work, but on Feb. 14, 1876, Prof. Alexander 
 Graham Bell of Boston applied for United 
 States patent rights on new and useful im¬ 
 provements in telegraphy in which a method 
 for transmitting vocal sounds was described and 
 claimed. United States patent number 174465 
 covering this method was granted March 7, 1876. 
 Prof. Elisha Gray applied for a patent on the 
 same day for a similar instrumentality. Ex¬ 
 tensive and long-drawn litigation over the ques¬ 
 tion of priority resulted, but Bell’s claims were 
 ultimately sustained by the Supreme Court. 
 The principle of the Bell instrument is shown 
 in Fig. 2, and when using this the speaker talks 
 
 D 
 
 Fig. 2. elements oe bell telephone. 
 
 at a thin sheet-iron diaphragm which vibrates 
 in synchronism with the sound waves impinging 
 upon it. This vibration is transmitted elec¬ 
 trically to a similar device at the distant sta¬ 
 tion. The diaphragm I) is placed behind a 
 conical mouthpiece which the speaker holds 
 close to his mouth and the listener close to 
 his ear. A magnet M is placed back of the dia¬ 
 phragm and upon its forward pole piece, which 
 is very close to, but not in contact with, the 
 disk, is located a coil C of many turns of very 
 fine insulated wire. The ends of the coils 
 are connected to the transmitting wires as 
 shown in Fig. 2. One instrument serves as the 
 transmitter and the second as a receiver, though 
 their functions are reversible. No battery is 
 needed, for the transmitting instrument gener¬ 
 ates the actuating currents as follows: the 
 magnet M causes a certain number of magnetic 
 lines to pass through coil C; many find 
 their way into the iron diaphragm and when 
 this vibrates it produces a change in the num¬ 
 ber of magnetic lines passing through the coil 
 G, increasing as D approaches the pole tip and 
 diminishing as it recedes. This variation of 
 magnetic lines induces a voltage and current 
 in coil C in accordance with Faraday’s discov¬ 
 ery of electromagnetic induction in 1832. As 
 the current flows through the coil at the receiv¬ 
 ing instrument, it either momentarily strength¬ 
 ens or weakens the magnet. This change causes 
 the diaphragm of the receiver to vibrate in 
 synchronism with the actuating disk and thus 
 the sound is reproduced. The receiver of to-day 
 is in principle the same as the original Beil 
 receiver with detail mechanical improvements. 
 For instance, a compound magnet may replace 
 the single bar, or a bipolar magnet with coils 
 on each of its pole tips as in Fig. 3 may be 
 used. This latter form is more sensitive and 
 responds to currents of less than one millionth 
 of an ampere. 
 
 Transmitters. The Bell transmitter, while 
 perfectly satisfactory for short lines, was not 
 powerful enough to satisfy the requirements of 
 longer lines and it was consequently replaced 
 by another form, now known as the carlxm 
 
 transmitter. In this device a change in contact 
 resistance between carbon elements is produced 
 by the sound waves, altering the pressure be¬ 
 tween the contact surfaces; and this sets up 
 current pulsations in synchronism with the 
 sound waves. Previous to this, however, both 
 Bell and Gray invented electrolytic transmitters 
 
 D 
 
 Fig. 3. bell receiver. 
 
 of almost the same character. These comprised 
 needles mounted at the centre of vibrating dia¬ 
 phragms dipping into a liquid of rather low 
 conductivity. The current passed through the 
 needle and the liquid, and the resistance of 
 the circuit varied with the depth of immersion 
 of the needle into the liquid as influenced by 
 the vibrations of the diaphragm. The next trans¬ 
 mitter was that of Berliner, 1877, based on the 
 variation of resistance with pressure. A dia¬ 
 phragm vibrated in contact with a metal knob, 
 and Edison at about the same time devised a 
 transmitter wherein a button of compressed 
 
 Insulating Block 
 Front ElectrodeTerminal/< 
 
 Sound-receiving 
 
 Diaphregrn^ 
 
 HartFruLbei 
 
 ^Mouthpiea 
 
 Beet roae Casing 
 
 amping Nuts‘S 
 rent Electrode 
 
 Back 
 
 Jectrode 
 
 Mica Washer 
 Carbon Granules 
 
 Soft-rubber ring 
 
 - 
 
 Bracket 
 Back Casing- 
 
 Front Casing 
 
 Fig. 4. white solid-back transmitter. 
 
 carbon was in contact with a small disk of 
 platinum on the diaphragm. The microphone of 
 Hughes, 1878, wherein two bodies are in loose 
 contact, has furnished the type of modern trans¬ 
 mitters and in these the carbon is in the form 
 
TELEPHONE 65 
 
 of finely divided granules held between two con¬ 
 ducting plates, one of which is the diaphragm 
 on which the sound waves strike. The trans¬ 
 mitter in most general use at present is the 
 White or solid-back transmitter, Fig. 4. In 
 this the carbon granules are placed between two 
 
 TELEPHONE 
 
 Q 
 
 Fig. 5. induction coil in transmitter circuit. 
 
 carbon disks, one being in contact with the solid 
 back of the instrument, while the other is car¬ 
 ried by the diaphragm with which it vibrates. 
 The rear disk forms one electrode while the 
 front one, insulated from the rest of the ap¬ 
 paratus excepting through the carbon granules, 
 is connected to the opposite pole of the circuit. 
 
 The variation in the resistance of a trans¬ 
 mitter should produce a marked degree of 
 variation in the current, and to accomplish 
 this it is necessary that the resistance of the 
 circuit containing the transmitter shall be 
 small; to this end Edison introduced an induc¬ 
 tion coil into the transmitter circuit. As em¬ 
 ployed the induction coil comprises a primary 
 winding of a few layers of moderately heavy 
 copper wire, a concentrically wound coil or sec¬ 
 ondary of a larger number of turns of finer 
 wire, and a core of soft iron wire. The primary 
 coil P is placed in series with the transmitter 
 T and the battery B; the secondary coil is 
 connected to the transmitting line as shown in 
 Fig. 5. Any difference of intensity in current 
 caused by a change of resistance 
 in the transmitter circuit will 
 induce currents in the secondary 
 which will alter the magnetism of 
 the distant receiver and the orig¬ 
 inal vibrations of the sound 
 waves will be reproduced. The 
 addition of the induction coil 
 makes the apparatus more effec¬ 
 tive and the increase in voltage 
 caused by the many turns of the 
 secondary enables the message to 
 be transmitted a much greater 
 
 vigorous turns of a crank and a current of 75- 
 100 volts transmitted over the lines to the ex¬ 
 change, at which point a drop or buzzer is 
 actuated. The apparatus of a subscriber’s 
 equipment on a local battery system is some¬ 
 times arranged as shown in Fig. 6. When the 
 receiver is on the hook, the line connections are 
 such that the bell and magneto are in circuit. 
 The magneto on account of its high resistance is 
 automatically short circuited when not in use. 
 The subscriber when signaling central leaves 
 the receiver on the hook and turns the crank 
 of the magneto. When he is ready to talk the re¬ 
 ceiver is taken off the hook, the signaling cir¬ 
 cuit is cut out, and the talking circuit, includ¬ 
 ing the transmitter and receiver, is introduced. 
 In the figure the dotted lines show the portions 
 cut out by the hook in its various positions. 
 
 In the ordinary or multiple switchboard when 
 a party calls his signal is shown at a drop near 
 what is termed the answering jack in the ex¬ 
 change and when a party is called the connec¬ 
 tion is made to what is termed the ringing 
 or multiple jack. Only one answering jack 
 exists per subscriber, but each subscriber has a 
 large series of multiple jacks, the number de¬ 
 pending upon the size of the exchange. In the 
 case of the multiple type of board, the sub¬ 
 scribers’ answering jacks are arranged over 
 various panels, but only one for each subscriber, 
 and at these are placed the corresponding indi¬ 
 cator drops or lamp signals actuated when the 
 subscriber calls. The multiple jacks, however, 
 are usually so arranged that every operator 
 has one for every subscriber within arm’s length. 
 For instance, if say 3000 subscribers are con¬ 
 nected to an exchange, about 300 answer jacks 
 are arranged per panel, or 10 operators’ panels 
 would be needed with two extra end panels. 
 Above the answer jacks are the multiple or call¬ 
 ing jacks, 1000 for each panel. Three panels 
 
 distance. 
 
 The telephone was at first in¬ 
 tended for private use, but very 
 early in the history of its devel¬ 
 opment, 1877, G. G. Hubbard 
 (q.v.) recognized that its scope 
 could be greatly extended by the 
 establishment of telephone ex¬ 
 changes, to which the instru¬ 
 ments of subscribers could be 
 connected and at which any 
 one subscriber could be con¬ 
 nected to another by appropriate switching 
 arrangements. Thus a complete telephone 
 equipment must be provided with signaling de¬ 
 vices so that the operator at a central station 
 can call the subscriber or the converse. In the 
 case of a local battery equipment, the sub¬ 
 scriber's outfit is provided with a magneto and 
 bell. The magneto is a small electric generator 
 in which the armature is revolved by a few 
 
 Fig. 6. subscriber’s equipment, local battery system. 
 
 comprising a section would have the entire 
 number of subscribers placed upon them. At 
 the extreme right of the board there would 
 be a panel without answer jacks and similarly 
 at the extreme left. The multiple jacks on 
 the left hand panel would number 2001 to 3000, 
 on the second panel they would number 1 to 
 1000, and on the third panel they would number 
 1001 to 2000. Hence the operator sitting at 
 
TELEPHONE 
 
 66 
 
 TELEPHONE 
 
 MULTIPLE OR 
 CALLING JACK 
 
 the second panel would have within her reach 
 multiple jacks of every subscriber. Each sec¬ 
 tion is comprised of three panels. The con¬ 
 nection between subscribers during a conversa¬ 
 tion is made by means of a cord circuit as 
 illustrated in Fig. 7. When a call is received 
 the current coming in on the line wire causes 
 the drop to fall, thus announcing the number 
 of the calling sub¬ 
 scriber; central op¬ 
 erator then inserts 
 the answering plug 
 into the corre¬ 
 sponding jack and 
 
 presses the listen- _ 
 
 ing key, thus plac- _ 
 
 ing her instrument 
 into circuit. She 
 then inserts the 
 ringing or calling 
 plug of the cord 
 circuit into the 
 nearest calling jack 
 belonging to the 
 
 energy or common batten^ system employed by 
 the Bell companies. To signal the central station 
 the subscriber simply removes his receiver from 
 the hook, thus closing a circuit which acts upon 
 a relay and causes an incandescent lamp to glow. 
 The circuit, starting from a, continues along 
 wire c, through lamp relay, to line Z/L, to 
 This gives the signal to the central 
 
 ground. 
 
 MULTIPLE OR 
 CALLING JACK 
 
 LISTENING 
 
 KEY 
 
 RING OFF 
 DROP 
 
 RING KEY 
 
 ANSWER JACK 
 
 
 
 ANSWERING 
 PLUG 
 
 
 DROP 
 
 r 
 
 4_fl^ 
 
 OPERATOR’S 
 
 SET 
 
 RINGING 
 
 MAGNETO 
 
 DROP 
 
 Fig. 7. circuit on operator’s board, local battery system. 
 
 6 o 
 
 line of the desired or called subscriber and 
 by pressing the ringing key sends a signal to 
 the latter’s instrument. When the conversa¬ 
 tion between the connected parties on the mag¬ 
 neto or local battery system is completed, the 
 subscribers ring off by placing their receivers 
 back on the hooks and turning the magneto 
 cranks; this sends a current through the clear¬ 
 ing-out drop connected across the cord circuit, 
 which buzzes and indicates to central that the 
 conversation is completed. 
 
 Common Battery Systems. The use of a 
 common battery at a central station has been 
 an important development in the telephone 
 exchange, as it does away with the magneto 
 call at the subscriber’s instrument, which is 
 the most expensive part of the equipment, and 
 assures reliability of signals, as that is ac¬ 
 complished automatically when the receiver is 
 removed from the hook. Further there is a 
 saving in using one large battery centrally lo¬ 
 cated in place of separate sets at the various 
 subscribers’ instruments. Placing the talking 
 
 RING KEY LISTENING 
 
 RING PLUG 
 
 Fig. 8. circuit on operator’s board, central energy system. 
 
 (Hayes’s arrangement.) 
 
 battery at a distance from the transmitter 
 tends to introduce difficulties in the clearness 
 of speech transmission. Various systems have 
 
 operator, who immediately makes the talking 
 connection by inserting the answer plug into 
 the answer jack and pressing her listening key; 
 then having obtained the number of the de¬ 
 sired subscriber, the operator tests the sleeve 
 of the nearest multiple jack of the called party 
 with the tip of the calling plug, and if no 
 click is heard (showing the battery is not 
 connected to the socket of the jack, i.e., line 
 not busy) she pushes the plug all the way into 
 the jack and presses the ringing key, exactly 
 as in the case of the multiple board in the 
 local battery system. The diagram, Fig. 8, 
 shows the circuit when the line is not arranged 
 for talking. The sides of the line are repre¬ 
 sented by L and I/, the central office battery, 
 usually a storage battery of 24 volts, by B t . 
 
 P and S are the pri¬ 
 mary and secondary 
 windings of the sub¬ 
 scribers’ induction 
 coil. Between the 
 points x and g at 
 each subscriber, a bell 
 B and a condenser 
 C are permanently 
 bridged. At the point 
 e a tap runs to one 
 side of the receiver 
 R through the induc¬ 
 tion coil winding P 
 to the L' side of the 
 line through 8. The 
 hook switch makes 
 contact at l. The 
 transmitter T is in¬ 
 serted between the 
 hook switch H and 
 the point g. The con¬ 
 nections at both ends 
 of the line are iden¬ 
 tical. Assume the 
 transmitter T to be 
 at rest, the 
 
 LAMP 
 CUT OFF 
 RELAY 
 
 answer 
 
 plug to be in and the hook up; it has a certain 
 resistance, and owing to the battery voltage, a 
 current will flow from the positive side in the di 
 
 been devised by Stone, Hayes, Kellogg, Dean, rection of the arrow, along the L side of the line, 
 Carty, and others which largely eliminate the through the transmitter T to the book switch, 
 trouble. Hayes’s arrangement (Fig. 8) illus- thence to the negative side of the battery. Be- 
 trates the fundamental principles of the central tween the points e and g there will be a certain 
 
TELEPHONE 
 
 TELEPHONE 
 
 67 
 
 difference of potential and the condenser C will 
 be charged to the same’ pressure. Suppose the 
 transmitter be spoken to and its resistance sud¬ 
 denly decreased, not only will a greater current 
 liow through the path just described, but in addi¬ 
 tion a portion of the charge in the condenser will 
 pass from the positive side in the direction of the 
 arrow, through the winding P of the induction 
 coil, and thence to the negative side of the con¬ 
 denser, the same direction as before. This cur¬ 
 rent, traversing the winding P in the direction of 
 the arrow, will induce a current in the wind¬ 
 ing 8. The condenser thus increases the line 
 current, which in turn increases the effect 
 in the receiver at the other end of the line. 
 The coils I, at the exchange, which may be 
 either impedance coils or special induction coils 
 (called repeating coils), prevent the talking 
 current from being shunted through the battery. 
 
 In the case of a 10,000 subscriber switch¬ 
 board the storage battery must be capable of 
 giving an average current of 500 amperes, and 
 to insure proper working condition it must give 
 a discharge of not less than 2000 amperes. For 
 charging such a battery as this, suitable genera¬ 
 tors must be employed, and these must deliver 
 a charging current to the battery of at least 
 1000 amperes. The introduction of such cur¬ 
 rents as these has resulted in power plants at 
 central offices, upon which the operation of the 
 telephone switchboard and apparatus is wholly 
 dependent. All of the various systems for cen¬ 
 tral energy in actual practice are necessarily 
 exceedingly complex and are subject to im¬ 
 portant modifications and improvements. 
 
 In most large cities the greater number of 
 telephone calls originating in one exchange are 
 for subscribers connected to some other exchange. 
 For instance, in cities like New York and Lon¬ 
 don, probably 80 per cent of the telephone calls 
 are trunked from one exchange to another. The 
 procedure in such a case is substantially as fol¬ 
 lows: Various trunk lines run from one ex¬ 
 change to another and these are in charge of 
 trunk-line operators. When a local operator 
 receives a message for an exchange other than 
 her own, the trunk operator is called up, con¬ 
 nections made between the answer plug and the 
 trunk operator’s line, who in turn connects 
 to the central designated. The trunk operator 
 at the second central connects the selected 
 trunk line and notifies the local operator at that 
 exchange to connect in with the party called. 
 In the case of an ordinary multiple board the 
 multiplication of the ringing jacks or multiple 
 jacks varies substantially as the square of the 
 subscribers connected. For instance, in an ex¬ 
 change of 3000 subscribers, with 300 per panel, 
 there would be 30,000 multiple jacks; with an 
 exchange of 9000 subscribers arranged in the 
 same manner, there would be 270.000 multiple 
 jacks or nine times as many as in the first case. 
 Thus the multiple board soon reaches its limit 
 and it is estimated that 10,000 is the maximum 
 number of subscribers that can be satisfactorily 
 connected to such type of board. 
 
 In view of the fact that such a large per¬ 
 centage of calls originate in one exchange 
 and terminate in some other exchange, the 
 later types of board have been modified to re¬ 
 semble in their action the trunking arrange¬ 
 ment. This form of board is known as the 
 transfer, express, or A and B type; and in this 
 there are no multiple jacks, simply the answer 
 jacks, the signaling device, and transfer lines. 
 
 In most of them the annunciators, or more 
 usually lamps, and the answering jacks are 
 combined at a special board designated the call 
 or B board, while the answering and the giving 
 of instructions for connections are done at the 
 order or A board. Transfer lines are run be¬ 
 tween the two boards fitted with signaling ap¬ 
 paratus to insure prompt attention. In operat¬ 
 ing, the call is received at B board and at once 
 transferred by the B operator without answer¬ 
 ing through a transfer line to the order (A) 
 board, a lamp lighting to show the call. The 
 A operator ascertains the number required and 
 instructs by order wire a B operator at the 
 proper B board to connect the required number. 
 This second B operator selects the proper trans¬ 
 fer line to be used and notifies the A operator 
 who in turn again advises the first B operator 
 what connecting lines or transfer lines have 
 been selected for the call originating at her 
 board. In this arrangement, therefore, three 
 operators instead of one handle the call. This 
 requires somewhat longer time, but since in 
 practice records show that the time of answer¬ 
 ing a call on the part of an exchange is from 
 three to' five seconds, the delay incurred is not 
 excessive. 
 
 Lines. The connections between subscribers 
 and exchanges in most telephone circuits, and 
 particularly in all telephone circuits outside 
 of rural communities, are entirely metallic and 
 of copper. The disturbances introduced by 
 grounded circuits are such that clear conversa¬ 
 tion is most difficult. When a single telephone 
 wire swings in the earth’s field, voltage is in¬ 
 duced therein which will cause a flow of current, 
 varying in direction as the wire swings back and 
 forth, introducing false tones. Also when any 
 difference of potential exists between terminals 
 of the grounded line, earth currents flow 
 through the telephone wire, again interfering 
 with the signal or conversation by producing 
 buzzing and humming in the line. When double 
 circuits, i.e., entirely metallic ones, are used, 
 there is also trouble, common as well to 
 grounded circuits, which is technically defined 
 as induction disturbance. When telephone wires 
 run close to power transmission lines, the vary¬ 
 ing magnetic field around the power wires in¬ 
 terlinks with the former and induces in them 
 a voltage of the same frequency as the power 
 current. Passing storm clouds charged with 
 electricity will also produce current flow in the 
 telephone conductors by static influence. These 
 phenomena also cause buzzing and humming in 
 the instruments. Similarly there is electro¬ 
 magnetic induction between neighboring tele¬ 
 phone wires which results in the production of 
 what is known as cross talk. To prevent such 
 noises and cross talk, the wires of a telephone 
 line are usually transposed every quarter of 
 
 -1— 
 
 1 
 
 -dr- 
 
 —1— 
 
 1 
 
 — r ~ 
 
 —1— 
 
 1 
 
 —1— 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 —1- 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 _ 1 
 
 -V- 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ! 
 
 -1- 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 —r- 
 
 • 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 —I- 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 —v— 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 —1- 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 -V- 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 —1— 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 —v- 
 
 Fig. 9. transposition of line. 
 
 a mile. Fig. 9 shows a common transposi¬ 
 tion scheme. The vertical lines represent the 
 cross arms of the poles where the transposi¬ 
 tions are made. In all cases two adjacent tele¬ 
 phone circuits must not be transposed at the 
 same points, the transposition points being 
 
TELEPHONE 
 
 68 
 
 TELEPHONE 
 
 staggered or alternated with respect to each 
 other; on very busy lines the transportation is 
 carried on so frequently that the circuits become 
 twisted wires with about 10 twists per mile. 
 
 Long-Distance Telephony. This was first 
 made possible in 1885 when the American Bell 
 Telephone Company organized the American 
 Telephone and Telegraph Company. For several 
 years previously experimental lines with metal¬ 
 lic circuits of hard-drawn copper were operated 
 between New York and Boston. In 1885 a 
 regular line between New York and Philadel¬ 
 phia w r as constructed and so great was its suc¬ 
 cess that within two years lines were estab¬ 
 lished between New York and Boston, Albany 
 and Rochester, Chicago and Milwaukee, Boston 
 and Providence, and New York and New Haven. 
 The New York and Chicago circuit, 950 miles 
 distant and having 1900 miles of wire, was 
 opened in 1902, and the circuit connecting New 
 York and San Francisco, with about 6800 miles 
 of wire, was opened Jan. 25, 1915. 
 
 In long-distance circuits various added dif¬ 
 ficulties were encountered, known as attenua¬ 
 tion and distortion. Attenuation is a simple 
 falling away of the amplitude of the vibration 
 due to the ohmic resistance loss in the con¬ 
 ductor. This in itself is not harmful if not 
 carried too far and it may be avoided to some 
 extent by the use of large conductors. Distor¬ 
 tion is due to the fact that waves of different 
 periods or rates of vibration are unequally af¬ 
 fected. As already pointed out, speech waves 
 are made up of the combination of waves of 
 various frequencies (pitch) and of various 
 shapes (timbre). If the relative proportions or 
 positions of the waves are altered in telephonic 
 transmission, distortion results and the special 
 quality of the sound is lost. In fact the words 
 may become indistinguishable even though the 
 volume of the sound is large. In about 1885 
 Oliver Heavyside showed mathematically that by 
 adding inductance to a line having an excessive 
 capacity, as most long telephone lines have, and 
 particularly so if they are underground, the 
 distortion of the telephonic waves might be 
 prevented and the speaking improved. 
 
 Pupin Loading Coils. Various attempts to 
 introduce this inductance properly have been 
 made, but the practical application of inductance 
 appears to have been neglected until 1900, when 
 Dr. M. I. Pupin of New York took out patents 
 for improving the speaking on long telephone 
 lines. The essential part of his discovery was 
 the determination of the amount of correcting in¬ 
 ductance to be added and the points at which 
 this inductance should be joined in series to the 
 line. The mitigation of the distortion trouble 
 in accordance with the Pupin method is to-day 
 termed loading the line. It has been a com¬ 
 mon mistake to suppose that this method de¬ 
 pends upon the so-called neutralizing or balanc¬ 
 ing of capacity by inductance reaction. As 
 a matter of fact the condition of resonance ob¬ 
 tained when the inductance multiplied by the 
 
 capacity is equal to 
 
 (27T f) 
 
 is not at all desirable 
 
 in telephony as it would tend to exaggerate one 
 particular frequency and damp out the others, 
 this being fatal to telephonic transmission of 
 speech. The Pupin invention depends upon 
 entirely different physical principles; in fact 
 the higher the inductances within reasonable 
 limits the better the results, which proves that 
 the method does not depend upon obtaining a 
 
 certain value or balance of the inductance re¬ 
 actance and the capacity reactance. 
 
 This inductance could be theoretically uni¬ 
 formly distributed, as was attempted by Heavy- 
 side, but it becomes practically impossible to do 
 so, or it may be applied at points, provided 
 these points are not too far apart. In other 
 words, there should be several coils per wave 
 length. This is the essential feature of the 
 Pupin invention. Considering the Pupin in¬ 
 vention from the purely electrical standpoint, 
 we have only three possible reactions in any 
 electrical circuit: First, resistance reaction; 
 second, inductance reaction; and third, capacity 
 reaction. The resistance reaction is absolutely 
 destructive of energy and causes the attenuation. 
 The inductance and capacity reactions on the 
 other hand do not represent a dissipation of 
 energy excepting so far as resistance is un¬ 
 avoidably present. These reactions, themselves, 
 if free from resistance would represent only the 
 storage of energy without loss. It is evident, 
 therefore, that the loss of energy and the at¬ 
 tenuation of the wave are increased by increase 
 of resistance. Inductance, on the other hand, 
 represents no essential loss of energy and the 
 total amount applied to one end of the line 
 would be given out at the other, so far as this 
 reaction is concerned. It is also a fact that 
 it is essential to have stored energy present in 
 order that a wave may be transmitted at all. 
 The energy of the wave is self-contained and 
 each wave or portion of a wave must be carried 
 along by the energy originally applied to form 
 it, since it receives no fresh impulse after once 
 leaving the source of the electromotive force. 
 The energy represented by inductance is equal 
 to Y 2 Li 2 ; with a large value of L, it is not 
 necessary to have a considerable value of cur¬ 
 rent. This is a great gain, since the loss of 
 energy is entirely due to the resistance and is 
 proportional to i 2 . This is the very secret of 
 the Pupin invention, which enables us to have 
 a considerable amount of energy present by in¬ 
 creasing the inductance to a higher value, but 
 keeps the current upon which the loss of 
 energy depends at a small value. The question 
 naturally arises, why not increase the capacity 
 reactance, which also represents a storage of 
 energy and not a loss of it? The answer is 
 that a large capacity gives a small capacity 
 reactance and therefore a large current, and 
 hence increasing the capacity increases also 
 the current and the loss of energy, which is 
 proportionate to the square of that current. 
 
 The loading coils, as the added inductances are 
 called, are merely turns of insulated wire wound 
 on very finely laminated iron cores incased 
 in water-tight boxes, which may be mounted on 
 poles if used with aerial lines or if used in 
 cable lines may be placed in manholes. In long 
 overhead lines a coil is generally inserted in 
 series at intervals of 2% miles; on underground 
 lines at intervals of every 1000 feet. These 
 coils have a resistance of 2.4 ohms and an 
 inductance of about 0.25 henry. The same ef¬ 
 ficiency of speech transmission can be obtained 
 by loaded lines of the same length as nonloaded 
 ones and with one quarter the weight of copper. 
 
 Another factor which has made possible tele¬ 
 phonic transmission of speech over very great 
 distances and which compensates for attenua¬ 
 tion is the repeater. The function of a re¬ 
 peater as in telegraphy is to break up con¬ 
 tinuous circuit lengths, thus reduce the capacity 
 
TELEPHONE 
 
 TELEPHONE 
 
 of the line, and at the same time actuate the 
 second section by the impulses impressed upon 
 the first section. These relays must be capable 
 of operating in both directions. Electromag¬ 
 netic and mechanical repeaters have been at¬ 
 tempted in telephony, but they have not proved 
 at all satisfactory. The vacuum repeater simi¬ 
 lar to that used in wireless telegraphy and 
 
 Fig. 10. vacuum repeater, audion type. 
 
 telephony has been employed with success on 
 the New York-San Francisco line. The form 
 of vacuum repeater which is most widely known 
 is that of the so-called audion type, developed 
 originally by Lee De Forest in 1902. It con¬ 
 sists of an evacuated bulb containing a hot 
 cathode, usually a lamp filament heated by the 
 passage of current, an anode in the form of a 
 plate, and a third electrode in the form of a 
 grid or mesh interposed between the cathode F 
 and the anode A. Fig. 10 illustrates the method 
 of using such a tube for amplifying weak elec¬ 
 trical impulses. The operation of the device 
 is as follows: Current from battery B heats 
 the filament F, which thereupon emits negative 
 ions or electrons. The battery B maintains 
 the anode at a potential of 25 volts or more 
 with respect to the filament, so that electrons 
 emitted by the filament pass across the tube 
 to the anode, creating a steady flow of current 
 through the telephone T. The value of this 
 current is dependent, among other things, upon 
 the potential of the grid with respect to the 
 filament and it may be varied within wide 
 limits by changing the grid potential. Fig. 11 
 
 TERMINAL OF FILAMENT 
 
 Fig. 11. CURRENT CURVE IN AUDION REPEATER. 
 
 illustrates this characteristic of the tube. It 
 is evident that a negative charge imparted to 
 the grid reduces the plate current while a posi¬ 
 tive charge increases it. The action of the 
 
 system indicated by Fig. 10 when an alternat¬ 
 ing voltage curve A is impressed upon the grid 
 is shown diagrammatically by the curves of 
 Fig. 12; curve B shows the pulsating current 
 through the telephone T. As the energy re¬ 
 quired on the input side to operate the repeater 
 is only that which is needed to charge the 
 
 FlG. 12. VARIATION IN CURRENT DUE TO CHANGE IN GRID 
 POTENTIAL. AUDION REPEATER. 
 
 grid, the ratio of energy output to energy input 
 is extremely large. An amplification of energy 
 of the order of 1000 to 1 is readily obtained. 
 When greater amplification is needed, two or 
 more tubes may be connected in cascade. The 
 use of repeaters of this type on telephone lines 
 is attended with considerable complication and 
 if the amplification is carried too high the line 
 will howl, i.e., the application of too large an 
 amount of energy to the line which is being re¬ 
 peated into will react upon the actuating 
 line and create noises therein, the condition 
 being one of an unstable balance. The principle 
 of the repeater connection for telephonic lines 
 is illustrated in Fig. 13, in which a single 
 tube is shown in a two-way system. 
 
 Party Lines. One of the best advance agents 
 of the telephone companies is the party line, 
 
 Fig. 13. repeater connections in two-way system. 
 
 whereby two or four subscribers are connected 
 to the same circuit, receiving their service at 
 a reduced rate on account of the economy in 
 line conductors. In order to advise which one of 
 the subscribers is wanted when a signal is to be 
 sent from the exchange, different methods of 
 calling have been devised and these have been 
 termed selective and nonselective. On nonselec- 
 tive lines a signal for any party operates the 
 
TELEPHONE 
 
 70 
 
 TELEPHONE 
 
 ringers at all stations, each subscriber having a 
 particular signal or group of periods of bell 
 ringing, which signal he only is meant to an¬ 
 swer. This is quite objectionable; for even 
 though one party is called, others on the line 
 hearing the signal may listen in. To avoid this 
 difficulty, selective signals have been devised 
 and in these each station is equipped with a 
 ringer which will respond to its own call, the 
 others remaining silent. Three different prin¬ 
 ciples for party-line selective calls have been 
 devised. These are known as the harmonic, 
 the biased-bell, and the step-by-step arrange¬ 
 ments. In the case of the harmonic selective 
 system, each ringer has a spring-supported 
 armature which will respond to but one fre¬ 
 quency of current and no other. In the biased- 
 ringer system polarized bells are used with 
 springs connected to their armatures so that 
 they will respond only to currents flowing in 
 certain directions and these are arranged for 
 four-party calls as shown in Fig. 14. The bells 
 
 are normally disconnected from the lines, and 
 are only connected when they are to be rung, 
 and then by means of relays inserted in the 
 branches in series with condensers. These re¬ 
 lays are operated by alternating currents sent 
 through the circuit by closing the desired ring¬ 
 ing key. This connects the bells to the line and 
 when this occurs the desired pulsating current 
 is superimposed upon the proper line side to 
 ring the bell of the selected subscriber through 
 relay contact and ground. Step-by-step party¬ 
 line systems select the desired subscriber bv the 
 */ «/ 
 
 operation, one after another, of a set of switches 
 at the subscriber’s station by current impulses 
 sent out from the central office. 
 
 Automatic Telephone Systems. In auto¬ 
 matic telephony the subscribers are enabled to 
 secure intercommunication without the assist¬ 
 ance of an exchange operator. Strowger, an 
 electrical engineer and mechanician of Chicago, 
 in 1891, introduced the first automatic telephone 
 system, and shortly afterward several small ex¬ 
 changes w T ere installed. The earliest of his 
 devices were necessarily crude in design, com¬ 
 plex in operation, and imperfect in service, but 
 they served to demonstrate the fact that the 
 fundamental principles involved were correct, 
 and that it was possible to evolve a commercially 
 perfect system. After several years of per¬ 
 sistent effort and constant experimenting, a 
 system was provided in which the design was 
 so greatly improved and simplified that the re¬ 
 sulting exchange was but little more compli¬ 
 cated than the ordinary manual switchboard. 
 Another and more recent advance was to ex¬ 
 tend the limits of the capacity of the device so 
 that the largest city can be handled as conven¬ 
 iently as that of the smallest village. As in 
 the case of the manually operated switchboard, 
 it is difficult to describe in a lucid and brief 
 
 manner the mechanism of the operation. The 
 entire system comprises the usual transmitter, 
 receiver, bells, soifrce of energy, and induction 
 coils, but there is also involved a calling 
 dial, at each subscriber’s instrument, formed of 
 a metal disk, on the circumference of which are 
 10 finger holes numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0. 
 When a subscriber wishes to make a call he 
 removes the receiver from the hook, when he 
 is connected with the trunk line of the exchange 
 in which are located the connector switches. 
 Assuming, e.g., that the number he wishes is 
 532, he places his finger in the hole marked 5 
 and turns the dial around to the stop and then 
 releases it, when it will restore itself, through 
 the action of a spring, to its normal position; 
 similarly, for the following number, he turns 
 the dial to 3 and to 2. This done, he presses a 
 button, when the bell of the subscriber desired 
 is rung and the line closed for conversation. If 
 the telephone of the subscriber called is busy 
 a buzzing sound in the receiver held by the per¬ 
 son making the call 
 notifies him of the 
 fact. The automatic 
 switch at the central 
 exchange is a mech¬ 
 anism comprising a 
 pair of relays and 
 three pairs of mag¬ 
 nets with their at¬ 
 tendant accessories, 
 mounted on a cen¬ 
 tral vertical rod. 
 These are so ar¬ 
 ranged that when the electrical impulses are 
 sent from the subscriber’s telephone who is 
 calling, wiping or contact fingers, correspond¬ 
 ing to the number indicated, are brought 
 into connection with complementary brass 
 contacts which are arranged in semicircu¬ 
 lar banks, thus selecting the number desired. 
 Among the numerous advantages claimed for 
 the automatic system are, (1) that the sub¬ 
 scriber himself connects his telephone with that 
 of the person with whom he wishes to converse, 
 and the apparatus is so constructed that it is 
 impossible for another subscriber to cut in or 
 in any way interfere with the line he is using; 
 (2) that the service which the automatic system 
 gives is, unlike that of the manual system, ab¬ 
 solutely secret, each subscriber having a private 
 wire on which to transmit his communication— 
 an advantage that cannot be overestimated by 
 the general business man, as well as by the 
 broker, lawyer, and physician. 
 
 Phantom Lines. This method of connecting 
 telephone instruments is frequently employed, 
 
 so that two complete metallic circuits may be 
 made to serve three subscribers in place of 
 two. It is accomplished by bridging the lines 
 with repeating coils and connecting the third 
 equipment between the centre points of the coils. 
 
TELEPHONE 
 
 71 
 
 TELEPHONE 
 
 as shown in Fig. 15. The impedance of the certain extent and there has been agitation in 
 coils is so high that it does not short circuit this direction in the United States. For the 
 the line across which it is connected, but the most part, such public ownership of telephones 
 current to actuate the middle telephone passes is national, rather than municipal, and is chiefly 
 towards the centre of the relay coil and this confined to countries where private owner- 
 neutralizes the impedance thereof. ship of franchises is far less common than pub- 
 
 Combined Telephone and Telegraph. Mixed lie ownership. Actual statistics are not readily 
 circuits, as these are called, are particularly available, and are constantly changing, but an 
 useful for railway working, as noise¬ 
 less telephone lines may be obtained 
 from combinations of ordinary tele¬ 
 graph lines. This is accomplished 
 by connecting two lines as shown in 
 Fig. 16. The condensers in the tele¬ 
 phone legs shut off the low-frequency 
 telegraphy currents, and the high 
 reactance coils in the telegraphy legs 
 shut out the high-frequency tele¬ 
 phone currents. A and B are ter¬ 
 minal telegraph stations and G is 
 a way station. The upper line may 
 also serve as a telegraph line, but 
 the instruments are not shown. 
 
 They would, however, be connected 
 in the same manner as those of the 
 lower line. 
 
 Statistics. In 1916 the American Bell Tele¬ 
 phone Company did the major portion of the 
 telephone business in the United States, though 
 a number of strong independent companies had 
 been organized. The remarkable growth of the 
 telephone industry since its establishment in 
 the United States is shown in table below, ab¬ 
 stracted from the United States Census reports 
 of 1912. 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 U 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 16. combined telephone and telegkaph. 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 CEN¬ 
 
 SUS 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 systems 
 
 and 
 
 lines 
 
 Miles of 
 wire 
 
 Number of 
 telephones 
 
 Estimated num¬ 
 ber of messages 
 or talks per 
 annum 
 
 1912 
 
 32,233 
 
 20,248,326 
 
 
 13,735,658,245 
 
 1907 
 
 22,971 
 
 12,999,369 
 
 6,118,578 
 
 11,372,605,063 
 
 1902 
 
 9,136 
 
 4,900,451 
 
 2,371,044 
 
 5,070,554,553 
 
 1890 
 
 53 
 
 240,412 
 
 233,678 
 
 453,200,000 
 
 1880 
 
 148 
 
 34,305 
 
 54,319 
 
 
 BELL TELEPHONE SYSTEM 
 
 1912 
 
 176 
 
 15,133,186 
 
 5,087,027 
 
 9,133,226,836 
 
 1907 
 
 175 
 
 8,947,266 
 
 3,132,063 
 
 6,401,044,799 
 
 1902 
 
 44 
 
 3,387,924 
 
 1,317,178 
 
 3,074,530,060 
 
 ALL OTHER SYSTEMS 
 
 1912 
 
 32,157 
 
 5,115,140 
 
 3,642,565 
 
 4,602,431,409 
 
 1907 
 
 22,796 
 
 4,052,09S 
 
 2,986,515 
 
 3,999,389,159 
 
 1902 
 
 9,092 
 
 1,512,527 
 
 1,053,966 
 
 1,996,024,493 
 
 The marked increase in the business of the 
 independent companies has largely been due to 
 the expiration of the original patents granted 
 to Bell on his receiver and others relating to 
 transmitters. The independent telephone move¬ 
 ment began in 1893, but owing to the monopoly 
 of the art held by the Bell companies, the 
 movement progressed very slowly. Prior to the 
 independent movement the Bell Company had 
 paid very little attention to providing rural 
 localities with telephone service, but in recent 
 years the homes of farmers throughout the 
 country have been connected by well-constructed 
 lines and modern instruments. 
 
 Public Ownership of Telephones. In Eu¬ 
 rope public ownership of telephones exists to a 
 
 admirable summary of the ownership of tele¬ 
 phones in various countries, made by U. N. 
 Bethell, general manager of the New York and 
 New Jersey Telephone Company (see Bibliog¬ 
 raphy below), is as follows: 
 
 “All over Europe, with a few exceptions, the 
 industry is controlled and owned by states or 
 municipalities (see table at end of article). In 
 Belgium, France, Switzerland, Germany, Aus¬ 
 tria, and Hungary the central government oper¬ 
 ates the industry. In Holland the state operates 
 the trunk lines; in the two principal cities, Am¬ 
 sterdam and Rotterdam, the municipalities 
 operate the local systems; and at The Hague a 
 private company operates. In Denmark and 
 Norway private enterprise under government 
 control operates the industry, while in Sweden 
 the state operates it, except that in Stockholm 
 and vicinity a private company since 1890 has 
 been in active competition with the state. In 
 Great Britain, in most places, private enterprise 
 operates the local systems under license from 
 the state; in a few places municipalities operate 
 or are preparing to operate local systems; the 
 state operates the trunk lines.” 
 
 Municipal telephone systems were in use or 
 under construction in Great Britain early in 
 1893 at Glasgow, Portsmouth, Swansea, Brigh¬ 
 ton, and Hull. The general movement for munic¬ 
 ipal telephones in Great Britain followed a 
 parliamentary Act of 1899, authorizing munici¬ 
 pal construction. Tunbridge Wells and Glas¬ 
 gow, in 1901, were the first to install and oper¬ 
 ate systems under the Act, but after an active 
 campaign against public ownership in Tun¬ 
 bridge Wells the municipal plant was sold to 
 the National Telephone Company, its private 
 competitor, in the latter part of 1902. It should 
 be added that in 1911 all telephone licenses 
 granted to private companies in Great Britain 
 expired, and in the following year all the lines 
 of the National Telephone Company were taken 
 over by the Post-Office Department, which had 
 had a monopoly of the telegraph business since 
 1869. See Municipal Ownership. 
 
 The general question of municipal ownership 
 has been discussed at length under that head. 
 The public interests demand that the business 
 shall be conducted as a monopoly, under public 
 control. Public control does not exist in the 
 
TELEPHONE 
 
 72 
 
 TELESCOPE 
 
 United' States to the extent that might be sup¬ 
 posed, but that is largely the fault of the legisla¬ 
 tive and executive departments of the several 
 States, and to some extent of the municipalities 
 also. In many States public-service commissions 
 are empowered to supervise. Finally, the long¬ 
 distance lines would be a troublesome factor in 
 municipal ownership in America, unless they, as 
 in some countries abroad, were owned by the 
 general government. This has been proposed in 
 some quarters, notably by Postmaster-General 
 Burleson of President Wilson's cabinet. 
 
 TABLE OF STATISTICS 
 (Abstracted from J. E. Kingsbury. See Bibliography) 
 
 COUNTRY 
 
 Owner¬ 
 
 ship 
 
 Instruments 
 
 connected 
 
 Capital 
 
 invested 
 
 Argentina. 
 
 
 P 
 
 
 75,000 
 
 $16,000,000 
 
 Austria. 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 173,000 
 
 39,400,000 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 65,000 
 
 14,500,000 
 
 Canada. 
 
 P 
 
 & 
 
 G 
 
 500,000 
 
 74,500,000 
 
 France. 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 330,000 
 
 82,000,000 
 
 Germany. 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 1,420,000 
 
 2S0,000,000 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 780,500 
 
 144,000,000 
 
 Holland. 
 
 P 
 
 & 
 
 G 
 
 86,500 
 
 13,000,000 
 
 Hungary. 
 
 
 
 
 84,000 
 
 16,400,000 
 
 Italy. 
 
 P 
 
 & 
 
 G 
 
 62,000 
 
 12,100,000 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 220,000 
 
 24,000,000 
 
 Russia. 
 
 P 
 
 & 
 
 G 
 
 375,000 
 
 51,000,000 
 
 United States..... 
 
 
 P 
 
 
 *9,542,000 
 
 *1,150,000,000 
 
 P, corporate ownership. G, government control. 
 
 * 1914. 
 
 Bibliography. H. L. Webb, Telephone Hand- 
 hook (new ed., Chicago, 1901); W. J. Hopkins, 
 Telephone Lines and Their Properties (new rev. 
 ed., New York, 1901); A. V. Abbott, Tele¬ 
 phony: A Manual of the Design, Construction, 
 and Operation of Telephone Exchanges (6 vols., 
 ib., 1903-05) ; K. B. Miller, American Telephone 
 Practice (4th ed., ib., 1905) ; Houston and Ken- 
 nellv, Electric Telephone (2d ed., ib., 1906) ; 
 Poole, The Practical Telephone Handbook (ib., 
 1912) ; McMeen and Miller, Telephony (Chicago, 
 1912) ; J. C. Slippy, Telephone Cables (Pitts¬ 
 burgh, 1913) ; F. C. Allsop, Telephones: Their 
 Construction and Fitting (8th ed., New York, 
 
 1914) ; Radcliffe and Cushing, Telephone Con¬ 
 struction Installation, Wiring, Operation, and 
 Maintenance (2d ed., ib., 1914) ; J. E. Kingsbury, 
 The Telephone and Telephone Exchange (ib., 
 
 1915) ; J. C. Slippy, Telephone Appraisal Practice 
 (Pittsburgh, 1915). For discussion of the pub¬ 
 lic ownership of telephones consult some of the 
 references under Municipal Ownership; also 
 papers by Bethell (against), Parsons (for), and 
 Bennett (as to Great Britain) in “Proceedings 
 of National Convention upon Municipal Opera¬ 
 tion and Public Franchises,” in Municipal Af¬ 
 fairs, vol. vi, No. 4 (New York, 1902-03) ; 
 Hemenway on “Municipal Telephones,” in Pro¬ 
 ceedings Seventh Annual Convention League of 
 American 'Municipalities (Des Moines, Iowa, 
 November, 1903) ; K. B. Judson, comp., Selected 
 Articles on Government Oumership of Telegraph 
 and Telephone (White Plains, N. Y., 1914). 
 For statistics: United States Census, Telephones 
 and Telegraphs, 1912 (Washington, 1915), and 
 statistical reports of the American Telegraph 
 and Telephone Company (New York). See 
 Public Utilities, Regulation of. 
 
 TELEPHONE, Wireless. See Wireless 
 Telegraphy and Telephony. 
 
 TEL'EPHUS (Lat., from Gk. T^Xe^os). In 
 Greek legend, a king of Teuthrania, in southern 
 
 Mysia (q.v.). Auge, the daughter of King 
 Aleos of Tegea (q.v.), was loved by Hercules 
 and bore him a son, Telephus. In anger her 
 father inclosed mother and child in a chest and 
 cast them into the sea. The chest floated across 
 the ^Egean to the mouth of the Caeus, where 
 Teuthras married Auge and brought up Tel¬ 
 ephus, who succeeded him on the throaie. This 
 early version was modified by the tragedians. 
 Auge became priestess of Athena, and the child 
 was born, or at any rate exposed, on Mount 
 Parthenion, where it was suckled by a doe, and 
 (in one version) found by Hercules. Auge 
 meanwhile was cast into the sea and brought to 
 Mysia, where she was adopted by Teuthras. 
 Latef, Telephus came to Mysia on account of an 
 oracle, helped Teuthras against powerful ene¬ 
 mies, and was rewarded by the hand of Auge. 
 On the marriage night mother and son recog¬ 
 nized each other. When the Greeks were on 
 their way to Troy they landed by mistake in 
 the territory of Telephus and harried the coun¬ 
 try. Telephus defeated the invaders, but was 
 himself wounded by Achilles. As an oracle in¬ 
 formed him that only the man who had wounded 
 him could cure him, he went to Greece, and, 
 as the Greeks needed his guidance to reach Troy, 
 they yielded and Achilles healed the wound with 
 rust from his spear. Telephus then guided the 
 Greeks to Troy but refused to take part in 
 the war, since his wife, Astyoche, was a daughter 
 (or sister) of Priam. The whole story of Tel¬ 
 ephus was represented on the smaller frieze 
 of the Great Altar of Pergamon (see Pergamon, 
 Great Altar of ), and his battle with Achilles 
 in the west pediment of the Temple of Athena 
 Alea at Tegea (q.v.). Consult: Jahn, Telephus 
 und Trottos (Kiel, 1841); id., Telephus und 
 Troilos und sein Ende (ib., 1859) ; Pilling, 
 Quomodo Teleplii fahulam et scriptores et arti¬ 
 fices veteres tractaverint (Halle, 1886). 
 
 TELESCOPE (from Gk. ryXeaKoiros, tele- 
 skopos, far-seeing, from rrjXe, tele, afar -f- 
 cKoireiv, skopein, to look). Essentially a lens or 
 mirror to form an image of a distant object, to¬ 
 gether with a microscope to enable the observer 
 to examine this image in detail, or a photo¬ 
 graphic camera or some form of spectroscopic 
 apparatus. The invention of the telescope was 
 doubtless accomplished in Holland, but there is 
 some confusion and controversy to be en¬ 
 countered in attempting to determine the origi¬ 
 nal inventor. Tradition has it that early in 
 the seventeenth century one Jansen, a spectacle 
 maker of Middelburg, Holland, constructed a 
 telescope about 16 inches long which he exhibited 
 to Prince Maurice and the Archduke Albert, 
 who, appreciating the importance of the discov¬ 
 ery, paid him a sum of money to keep it con¬ 
 cealed. Another spectacle maker, Lippershey, 
 made application (1608) to the States General 
 for a patent for a telescope, as also did Metius, 
 a professor of mathematics, but in the former 
 instance, at least, it was refused, as the appara¬ 
 tus was already known. It seems certain that 
 the instrument was known more or less about 
 Europe, but the honor of its invention is usually 
 given to Galileo, who was the first to describe 
 it and exhibit it in a complete form (May, 
 1609). Galileo having heard that a device to 
 magnify distant objects had been constructed in 
 France or Holland, immediately set to work to 
 produce such an instrument. His telescope, 
 similar in form to the modern opera glass (q.v.) 
 and composed of a convex object glass and a 
 
TELESCOPE 
 
 73 
 
 TELESCOPE 
 
 concave eyepiece, as first constructed had a 
 magnifying power of 3 times, but this was sub¬ 
 sequently increased to 30 times, and Galileo 
 was able to discover the satellites of Jupiter, 
 the mountains of the moon, and other celestial 
 objects. To Kepler we owe the discovery of the 
 principle of the astronomical telescope with two 
 
 verted and is merely magnified by the eyepiece. 
 In what is known as the terrestrial telescope 
 there is an additional lens or lenses added to 
 erect or invert the image so that it will appear 
 to the eye in its natural position, the erecting 
 lens and the eyepiece being in reality a compound 
 microscope to view the image furnished by the 
 
 convex lenses, and the description of such an 
 instrument is contained in his Catoptrics 
 (1611). This idea was actually employed in a 
 telescope constructed by Father Schemer (Rosa 
 Ursma, 1630), and such telescopes were used in 
 increasing numbers until the middle of the sev¬ 
 enteenth century, when they were practically 
 universal, and improved construction made pos¬ 
 sible Huygens’s discovery of Titan, the brightest 
 satellite of Saturn. 
 
 In the accompanying diagram C represents a 
 convex lens, the object glass of a telescope; A 
 is a distant object and B is a real and inverted 
 image formed by the lens. From the discussion 
 of lenses in the article on Light (q.v.) it will 
 appear that in order to obtain a large image a 
 lens of long focal length is essential, so that for 
 a telescope an object glass with large radii 
 of curvature is needed. This, however, is not 
 feasible in actual practice beyond a certain 
 point, as was found by the early astronomers 
 after experiences with telescopes having focal 
 
 objective. In the diagram C is the object glass, 
 B is the inverted image formed by the rays com¬ 
 ing from a distant object in the direction A , E 
 and G serve merely to invert the image B and 
 form it anew and erect at H, where it is observed 
 by the eyepiece D. 
 
 Other arrangements of the terrestrial eyepiece 
 could be mentioned, but the one described is 
 one of the earliest and simplest. 
 
 While the greatest care must be expended on 
 calculating and constructing the object glass, 
 the eyepiece is by no means unimportant. As 
 the magnifying power of the telescope (the 
 ratio of the angles formed by lines drawn to the 
 extremities of the image and the object) is 
 equal to the quotient obtained by dividing the 
 focal length of the objective by that of the ocu¬ 
 lar, it would be of advantage to use a lens of 
 comparatively large curvature; but here again 
 chromatic and spherical aberration must be con¬ 
 sidered, for sharpness and distinctness are as 
 essential as high magnification. In practice 
 
 lengths as great as 600 feet; and lenses of shorter 
 focal length but of improved construction were 
 adopted. The next question involved is the size 
 of the object glass, technically called its aper¬ 
 ture. The larger the lens the greater will be the 
 amount of light transmitted. The pupil of the 
 eye through which the light producing an image 
 passes normally is about % of an inch in diam¬ 
 eter, consequently as much more light will pass 
 through the telescope as the square of the 
 diameter of the object glass is times greater 
 than the square of the diameter of the pupil. 
 But if the image formed is too large, then the 
 light will be distributed and the image will lack 
 brilliancy and not be plainly visible. Taking 
 these facts into consideration, it would appear 
 that the greater the focal length of the lens and 
 the greater its surface, the more satisfactory 
 would be the image produced. This would be the 
 case were it not for the fact that both spherical 
 and chromatic aberration (q.v.) increase with 
 the aperture of a lens, and that the larger the 
 piece of glass, the greater the difficulty of secur¬ 
 ing homogeneity and freedom from imperfec¬ 
 tions. Increasing the focal length increases the 
 difficulties involved in mounting the telescope as 
 well as in the manufacture of the objective itself. 
 
 The image furnished by the object glass is in¬ 
 
 eyepieces vary considerably, depending on the 
 use to which they are to be put. Generally they 
 consist of two achromatic lenses, one convex, 
 known as the field lens, which brings together 
 the outer rays of the beam, while the lens near¬ 
 est to the eye may be either positive (convex) or 
 negative (concave). In case a micrometer is 
 used to measure the image a positive lens is 
 employed and the combination, which is known 
 as a Ramsden eyepiece, though not quite achro¬ 
 matic, has a flat field. For mere observation the 
 Huygenian eyepiece, with a negative lens of 
 one-third of the focal length of the field, lens, 
 is preferable. The addition of lenses to the eye¬ 
 piece diminishes the supply of light and destroys 
 the brightness of the image. Accordingly in 
 the terrestrial telescope, while the erecting lens 
 inverts the image to its proper position, yet the 
 image is not as bright as in the case of the 
 opera glass, which has far less magnifying 
 power. 
 
 The difficulties due to spherical aberration 
 were early experienced by opticians and astron¬ 
 omers, and in an attempt to obviate them astro¬ 
 nomical telescopes were constructed of consider¬ 
 able focal length and power. From observations 
 made with such instruments by Huygens, who 
 was the pioneer in this line, he was able to 
 
TELESCOPE 
 
 74 
 
 TELESCOPE 
 
 present the first explanation of Saturn’s rings 
 (1659). He constructed a telescope 300 feet in 
 length, which magnified 600 times, while the tel¬ 
 escope used by Cassini to discover the fifth satel¬ 
 lite of Saturn (Rhea) was built by Campani 
 of Rome and magnified about 150 times. The 
 diameter of Venus was determined in 1722 by 
 Bradley with a telescope of 212 feet focal length. 
 These telescopes of extreme length were known 
 as aerial telescopes, and naturally their mount¬ 
 ing and manipulation presented many difficulties. 
 In spite of these awkward conditions, valuable 
 observations were made and ingenious appliances 
 introduced to facilitate the operations. It was 
 proposed by Prof. David P. Todd as late as 1911 
 to construct a long-focus open-air telescope of 
 steel box-girder construction so reenforced as 
 to be unyielding and rigid. With this it was 
 hoped to cut down spherical aberration just 
 as was done by the earlier astronomers and 
 secure the advantages of long-focus lenses under 
 modern conditions. 
 
 The invention of the achromatic object glass 
 by Dollond in 1757-58 and the improvement of 
 optical flint glass, which commenced in 1754, 
 soon made possible the construction of improved 
 telescopes; but these were all of modest dimen¬ 
 sions, and until well into the nineteenth century 
 few if any object glasses were constructed greater 
 than 12 inches in diameter. The discovery of 
 methods of making large disks of flint glass was 
 made by Guinand, a Swiss mechanic, who then 
 became associated with Fraunhofer (q.v.), and 
 telescopes as large as 10 inches aperture were 
 readily made. His successors made instruments 
 with object glasses 15 inches across. The next 
 successful manufacturer of telescope lenses was 
 Alvan Clark (q.v.), of Cambridgeport, Mass., 
 who, from the time when an object glass manu¬ 
 factured in his shop was purchased by the Rev. 
 W. R. Dawes of England, gradually achieved the 
 highest rank as a maker of telescope lenses. 
 With him was associated his son Alvan G. 
 Clark (q.v.). At the Cambridgeport works were 
 constructed the lenses not only for the leading 
 American observatories, but also for the Impe¬ 
 rial Russian Observatory at Pulkova and other 
 European institutions. To-day there are other 
 makers of refracting telescopes in the United 
 States, notable among whom are Brashear, War¬ 
 ner, and Swazey, while in Europe, Grubb of 
 Dublin, Henry Brothers of Paris, and Steinheil 
 in Germany are notable for their work. 
 
 The formation of an image by a concave mir¬ 
 ror has been made use of in the reflecting tele¬ 
 scope, of which numerous varieties have been 
 devised and with which many of the most im¬ 
 portant astronomical discoveries have been made. 
 The principle of this instrument will be apparent 
 from the following diagram and explanation: 
 
 DIAGRAM SHOWING FORMATION OF AN IMAGE BY A CONCAVE 
 
 MIRROR. 
 
 C is a concave mirror on which rays from a 
 point of a distant object, A, fall. Following the 
 law of reflection, these rays will be reflected and 
 will be united at B, the focus for rays from the 
 given point. The object A is made up of a num¬ 
 
 ber of such points; consequently at B there will 
 be a number of points where the rays from A 
 are collected and an image of the original object 
 will be formed. If the rays come from an object 
 infinitely distant, or in other words are paral¬ 
 lel, they will converge at the principal focus, 
 which is one-half of the radius of curvature. 
 This will be the case in a mirror of large radius 
 and for rays that are incident, not far from the 
 axis; but if the mirror is large, then the rays 
 near its circumference will not be brought to a 
 focus at the point B, but nearer to the mirror, 
 and consequently a blurred image will be pro¬ 
 duced. This is known as spherical aberration 
 and is discussed under that head. Theoretically 
 this could be remedied by the construction of a 
 mirror of parabolic section, as the configuration 
 of such a mirror is such that all parallel rays 
 are brought to a focus in the same point. This 
 is extremely difficult of attainment, as the most 
 minute amounts of material must be removed 
 from a spherical surface in order to make it 
 parabolic; nevertheless, modern opticians, by re¬ 
 finements in working and testing, are able prac¬ 
 tically to realize this condition. When an image 
 is formed in this way it can be viewed either by 
 being received on a screen or it can be observed 
 with an eyepiece or a simple microscope. 
 
 Father Zucchi, an Italian Jesuit, was the first 
 to use an eye lens to view the image produced 
 by a concave mirror (1616-1652), but to Gregory 
 is due the first description of a telescope with 
 a reflecting mirror, and the instrument has since 
 been known by his name. Gregory (1638-75), 
 with others, realized the shortcomings of a tele¬ 
 scope with lenses and believed that the manufac¬ 
 ture of concave mirrors would be attended with 
 far less difficulty. An actual working instru¬ 
 ment based on this principle was devised and 
 constructed by Isaac Newton. With a telescope 
 formed by a mirror of 6^ inches focal length, 
 which magnified 38 times, he was enabled to 
 make important observations. In these tele¬ 
 scopes the great difficulty was viewing the image, 
 as the eyepiece and the head of the observer 
 would cut off a large portion of the incident 
 rays. In the Gregorian telescope this was obvi¬ 
 ated by the interposition of a second concave 
 mirror, which reflected the rays to the eyepiece, 
 as is shown in the following diagram: 
 
 Newton used a plane mirror placed at an angle 
 of 45° to the axis, which reflected the rays into 
 an eyepiece arranged as in diagram below. 
 
 Draper used a total reflection prism instead 
 of the plane mirror with considerable success, 
 being one of the few astronomers in the United 
 
REFLECTING TELESCOPE 
 
 MOUNT WILSON SOLAR OBSERVATORY 
 
 60 -INCH REFLECTING TELESCOPE. CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON 
 
TOWER TELESCOPE 
 
 MOUNT WILSON SOLAR OBSERVATORY 
 
 150-FOOT TOWER TELESCOPE, CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON 
 
TELESCOPE 
 
 75 
 
 TELESCOPE 
 
 States to construct a reflecting mirror. Casse¬ 
 grain employed a convex mirror instead of a 
 concave one. 
 
 Herschel obtained satisfactory results by tilt¬ 
 ing his mirror and placing the eyepiece below 
 the axis of the instrument, so that it was not in 
 
 the way of the incident rays. Herschel’s mirrors 
 were as large as 4 feet in diameter, with a tube 
 40 feet in length. 
 
 The reflecting telescope was extensively used 
 because there was no chromatic aberration caused 
 by refraction. Spherical aberration was, how¬ 
 ever, present and was a serious drawback. Ac¬ 
 cording to geometrical calculations, as has been 
 said, there would be no spherical aberration if a 
 parabolic mirror was used, as all the rays from 
 a distant object would come to a focus at one 
 point. The grinding of a parabolic mirror, how¬ 
 ever, was attended by many difficulties and was 
 practically impossible except to a few opticians. 
 
 The mirrors for reflecting telescopes were usu¬ 
 ally made of speculum metal, which is composed 
 of a mixture of copper and tin, until Liebig dis¬ 
 covered the method of depositing a film of silver 
 on a glass surface. 
 
 The use of silvered glass for mirrors was sug¬ 
 gested by Steinheil, and later by Foucault, and 
 has met with general adoption, as it not only 
 facilitates the construction of the mirror, but 
 makes possible its resilvering at any time with¬ 
 out the destruction of its configuration. The 
 reflecting telescope is available for photographic 
 or spectroscopic work, as well as for visual ob¬ 
 servation, but the chief defects, as mentioned, 
 are the difficulty of grinding the metal or glass 
 to true parabolic shape and the deformation of 
 the mirror in its mounting, owing to its great 
 mass. 
 
 For many years the most celebrated reflecting 
 telescope was that of Lord Rosse, whose mirror 
 was 6 feet across. This was completed in 1845 
 and erected at Birr Castle, Parsonstown, in 
 Ireland. While famous for its size, except for 
 studies of the spiral form of nebulae this tele¬ 
 scope has never been used in making discoveries 
 of prime importance. In 1914 it was presented 
 to the South Kensington Museum of Science as 
 an historic relic. Of much greater scientific im¬ 
 portance as well as of large size are the reflec¬ 
 tors of Harvard College, Mount Wilson Solar Ob¬ 
 servatory, and the Canadian Observatory near 
 Victoria, British Columbia. The Harvard Col¬ 
 lege reflector belonged originally to the late 
 Dr. A. A. Common of Ealing, England. Using 
 the largest glass disk that could be obtained, 
 5 feet in diameter, Dr. Common produced a per¬ 
 fect mirror, which is mounted equatorially. This 
 telescope is of the Newtonian type and has been 
 particularly useful in celestial photography. 
 
 In recent years an important use was made of 
 a reflecting telescope to photograph the nebulae 
 with the 3-foot Crossley reflector of the Lick 
 Observatory (q.v.). This instrument was made 
 by Dr. A. A. Common and was presented to 
 Lick Observatory by Edward Crossley. Prof. 
 James T. Keeler, the director, remounted this 
 Vol. XXII.—6 
 
 instrument and in 1899 made a remarkable series 
 of photographs which indicated the formation 
 and general character of the nebulae. 
 
 This work was followed by some notable re¬ 
 searches at the Mount Wilson Solar Observatorv, 
 where there were installed the largest reflecting 
 telescopes yet to be constructed. These were 
 employed both photographically and spectro¬ 
 scopically for the study of the sun, stars, and 
 nebulae. The first of these telescopes was the 
 GO-inch reflector, made from a plate of glass 8 
 inches in thickness and weighing 1 ton. The 
 glass was cast at the French Plate Glass Works 
 of St. Gobain, but the disk was ground and 
 polished at the shop of the Mount Wilson Obser¬ 
 vatory. This instrument was completed in 1908, 
 and it and its mounting proved most satisfac¬ 
 tory, especially for photographic and spectro¬ 
 scopic work. With an 80-foot Cassegrain com¬ 
 bination this telescope was effectively used in 
 the determination of stellar parallax. The 
 success of the 60-inch telescope led to the de¬ 
 sire for a still larger reflector and the construc¬ 
 tion of one of 100 inches in diameter was 
 attempted, a suitable disk of glass 20 centi¬ 
 meters in thickness being secured after great 
 trouble at the French works at St. Gobain. 
 This was properly ground and figured and the 
 60-inch plane mirror required for its testing 
 made at the instrument shop of the Mount Wil¬ 
 son Observatory at Pasadena. The mounting 
 for this telescope required the most refined me¬ 
 chanical engineering in order to support and 
 move the heavy disk of glass, and it was found 
 that by proper control of the temperature of 
 the mounting that much of the distortion could 
 be eliminated. * 
 
 The new reflector of the Dominion Observa¬ 
 tory, near Victoria, British Columbia, has a mir¬ 
 ror 6 feet, 1 inch in diameter, weighing almost 2 
 tons. It was made by John A. Brashear Com¬ 
 pany of Pittsburgh and is supplied with an equa¬ 
 torial mounting. This telescope and observatory 
 were reaching completion in 1916. 
 
 The mounting of telescopes has also kept pace 
 with the improvement of lenses and mirrors. 
 Newton used a ball and socket joint to mount 
 his small reflector, and then various arrange¬ 
 ments of framework were employed for the aerial 
 telescopes and later for the large reflectors. The 
 first equatorial (q.v.) mounting is ascribed to 
 Lassel. In England telescopes were mounted by 
 having the polar axis supported at each end, 
 but the German system, where the mounting is 
 in the centre and the weight of the telescope is 
 balanced by counterpoises, is now generally used 
 for large refractors, and a modified form is em¬ 
 ployed for reflectors, as shown in the accom¬ 
 panying plate. 
 
 The modern telescope is not merely an instru¬ 
 ment for visual observation, but in connection 
 with photography and the use of the spectro¬ 
 scope (q.v.), especially in its adaptation to the 
 spectroheliograph and other kindred instru¬ 
 ments, its field has been widely increased. 
 Fraunhofer, who first used the spectroscope in¬ 
 stead of the visual eyepiece, was able to record 
 the spectra of Venus and Sirius, and since that 
 time the combination of telescope and spectro¬ 
 scope has made possible some of the most im¬ 
 portant advances in astronomy. One of the 
 earliest applications of photography was to the 
 heavens, and the object glass of the telescope 
 was used with the eyepiece removed, the image 
 being formed directly on the plate. In the early 
 
TELESCOPE 
 
 76 
 
 TELESCOPE 
 
 stages of this work botli reflecting and refracting 
 telescopes were used, but with the latter it was 
 found that special lenses were necessary in which 
 the correction for chromatic aberration was ar¬ 
 ranged with regard for the actinic rather than 
 the visual rays. The green, yellow, and red rays, 
 which affect the human eye the most, do not pro¬ 
 duce the chemical effects on the photographic 
 plate, which must be placed at the focus of the 
 violet rays, and consequently a photographic 
 objective is constructed so as to bring the blue 
 and violet rays to a single focus. One of the 
 first telescopes constructed for this purpose was 
 by Lewis M. Rutherfurd (q.v.), with which many 
 fine pictures of the moon were made. At the 
 Lick Observatory photographic work with the 
 large telescope has been accomplished most suc¬ 
 cessfully by using an extra lens at the objective, 
 which brings the photographic rays to a focus 
 instead of the visual rays. At the Yerkes Ob¬ 
 servatory of the University of Chicago this diffi¬ 
 culty has been overcome by the use of color 
 screens. The color screen is mounted in the 
 plate holder and is of a greenish-yellow tint, 
 which cuts off the blue rays. Orthochromatic 
 plates are used and are affected by the rays in 
 the middle part of the spectrum. So important 
 is the photographic use of the telescope that in 
 1900 there were 18 photographic telescopes in 
 various parts of the world engaged in making 
 photographs for an International Star Chart to 
 cover the entire heavens. By 1909 some of the 
 observatories had completed their assigned work, 
 and with normal conditions in Europe it was 
 believed that the entire chart would be com¬ 
 pleted by 1920. See Astrophotography. 
 
 Of tile modern telescopes of interest the in¬ 
 strument known as the equatorial coude of the 
 Paris Observatory is worthy of mention. The 
 observer and instrument are in an ordinary build¬ 
 ing, while mirrors are so arranged as to reflect 
 the light into the telescope and then to the 
 eyepiece. The tube of the telescope is in the 
 form of an elbow, whence its name, with one 
 arm forming the polar axis. This instrument 
 has both visual and photographic object glasses 
 23^4 inches in diameter. 
 
 The great telescope of the Yerkes Observatory 
 of the University of Chicago at Williams Bay, 
 Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, is the largest refract¬ 
 ing telescope with an equatorial mounting. This 
 instrument was mounted in a special observa¬ 
 tory. (For illustration, see Observatory.) 
 The objective, which is 40 inches in diameter 
 and has a focal length of nearly 62 feet, weighs, 
 when mounted in its cell, about 1000 pounds. 
 The crown-glass lens, which is 2% inches thick 
 at the centre and % inches at the circumference, 
 weighs 200 pounds, and is separated from the 
 flint-glass concave lens by 8% inches. The latter 
 weighs over 300 pounds and is about l 1 /^ inches 
 thick at the centre and 2 inches thick at the 
 edges. The telescope itself is mounted on a 
 cast-iron column of four sections bolted together 
 and resting on a cast-iron foot, which in turn 
 rests on a concrete foundation. The clock room 
 is located in the upper part of the cast-iron col¬ 
 umn and contains the mechanism for driving the 
 telescope. The observatory is provided with a 
 rising floor for the convenience of the observer, 
 who is thus able to use the telescope in comfort, 
 irrespective of its elevation. 
 
 In an attempt to secure a still larger refractor 
 an instrument of quite different form was built 
 for the Paris Exposition of 1900 by M. Gauthier. 
 
 The object glasses were 49 inches in diameter 
 and the tube 197 feet in length, fixed in a 
 horizontal position, its axis being due north 
 and south. Light was reflected into the tube 
 by a siderostat, an instrument invented by 
 Foucault, on which the direct rays from the 
 heavens fall. Instead of the telescope being 
 moved about its polar axis, as would happen 
 with an equatorial, the mirror of the siderostat 
 is given such a motion that it neutralizes the 
 movement of the earth. Each lens of the Paris 
 Exposition telescope weighed half a ton and 
 they were constructed by M. Gauthier, who also 
 made those for the University of Chicago tele¬ 
 scope. Although in the horizontal telescope there 
 is no elaborate mounting with mechanical 
 devices, yet as much care must be expended on 
 the siderostat as on the object glasses. The 
 mirror forming the essential part of this in¬ 
 strument was 7814 inches in diameter, was 11 
 
 LIST OF LARGE TELESCOPES IN EXISTENCE OR 
 UNDER CONSTRUCTION IN 1916 
 
 REFRACTORS 20 INCHES AND UPWARD 
 
 Inches 
 
 Paris (Exhibition). 49.2 
 
 Yerkes. 40.0 
 
 Lick. 36.0 
 
 Meudon... 32.5 
 
 Nikolaev, Russia. 32.0 
 
 Potsdam, Germany. 31.5 
 
 Nice. 30.3 
 
 Pulkova, Russia. 30.0 
 
 Allegheny Observatory. 30.0 
 
 Paris. 28.9 
 
 Greenwich. 28.0 
 
 Berlin. 27.5 
 
 Vienna. 27.0 
 
 Greenwich. 26.0 
 
 McCormick Observatory, Virginia. 26.0 
 
 Washington, United States. 26.0 
 
 Johannesburg, South Africa. 26.0 
 
 Newall’s, Cambridge, England. 25.0 
 
 Meudon. 24.4 
 
 Cape of Good Hope. 24.0 
 
 Harvard. 24.0 
 
 Lowell Observatory, Arizona. 24.0 
 
 Cordoba, Argentina. 24.0 
 
 Santiago, Chile. 24.0 
 
 Detroit, Mich. 24.0 
 
 Oxford, England. 24.0 
 
 Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania. 24.0 
 
 Hamburg. 23.6 
 
 Paris. 23.6 
 
 Princeton, N. J. 23.0 
 
 Edinburgh (City Observatory). 21.2 
 
 Mount Etna. 21.8 
 
 Mount Porro, Turin (Italy). 20.5 
 
 Chamberlin Observatory, Denver, Col. .. 20.0 
 
 Manila, Philippine Islands. 20.0 
 
 Oakland, Cal. 20.0 
 
 REFLECTORS 2 FEET 6 INCHES AND UPWARD 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Mount Wilson. 8 4 
 
 Victoria, British Columbia. 6 1 
 
 Lord Rosse. 6 
 
 Dr. Common (Harvard Observatory). 5 
 
 Mount Wilson. 5 
 
 Melbourne. 4 
 
 Paris. 4 
 
 Toulouse. 2 8.5 
 
 Simeis, Crimea. 3 4 
 
 Lowell Observatory, Mexico. 3 4 
 
 Carre, near Geneva. 3 3.4 
 
 Mendun. 3 3.0 
 
 Hamburg. 3 3.0 
 
 Ann Arbor. 3 1.5 
 
 Santiago, Chile. 3 0.6 
 
 Cambridge University. 3 
 
 Birr Castle, Ireland. 3 
 
 South Kensington. 3 
 
 Crossley (Lick Observatory). 3 
 
 Marseilles. 2 7.5 
 
 La Plata, Argentina. 2 7.5 
 
 Greenwich. 2 6.0 
 
 South Kensington. 2 6.0 
 
 Allegheny. 2 6.0 
 
 Helwan, Egypt. 2 6.0 
 
 D’Esterres Observatory, Surrey, England. 2 6.0 
 
 Sidmouth, England. 2 6.0 
 
TELESCOPE 
 
 THE FORTY-INCH YERKES TELESCOPE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TK-T f 
 OF THE 
 
 y ut n i inois' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
TELESCRIBE 
 
 77 
 
 TELFORD 
 
 inches in thickness, and weighed 3600 kilograms 
 (nearly 8000 pounds). So far as is known this 
 telescope never was entirely completed for sci¬ 
 entific observations, though used by visitors at 
 the Exposition. 
 
 The telescope with fixed tube, as used in the 
 more or less extemporized arrangements of the 
 transit of Venus expedition of 1882, and in 
 the uncompleted instrument of the Paris Expo¬ 
 sition, however, developed into a series of inter¬ 
 esting and valuable instruments at the Mount 
 Wilson Observatory, especially in connection 
 with the photographic study of the sun and with 
 the spectrograph and spectroheliograph as well 
 as with other work. Instead of the siderostat 
 a ccelostat, a similar device, but with a second 
 mirror, was employed, where the movable plane 
 mirror made a complete revolution but once in 
 48 hours and reflected its beam into a second 
 plane mirror, whence it was reflected to the tele¬ 
 scope proper, which may be either a reflector 
 or a refractor. The Snow reflector of the Mount 
 Wilson Observatory is a horizontal reflector pro¬ 
 vided with mirrors that will give an image of 
 the sun either 6.7 inches in diameter or 16 inches 
 in diameter. The first of these mirrors is of 
 60 feet focal length and the second of 143 feet. 
 The ccelostat is mounted on a masonry pier, and 
 the instrument is protected by a ventilated cov¬ 
 ering which keeps off the direct rays of the sun. 
 This horizontal telescope can be used either 
 directly, or with the spectroheliograpli, for 
 photographing the sun. In addition to the 
 horizontal telescope, there are at Mount Wilson 
 two vertical or tower telescopes, one carried on a 
 60-foot tower and used with a 30-foot spectro¬ 
 graph and spectroheliograph, and the other on 
 a 150-foot tower with a 75-foot spectrograph 
 and spectroheliograph. In these two telescoped 
 the ccelostat is mounted at the summit platform 
 and the beam is reflected down vertically 
 through a lens. These telescopes have various 
 lenses for special purposes, varying in focal 
 length, as needed. The vertical tubes of the 
 two telescopes have a double sheathing of metal, 
 and chambers, or wells, excavated in the solid 
 rock on which the towers are founded afford 
 constant temperature for the mirrors, prisms, 
 and gratings of the spectroscopes. 
 
 Bibliography. Drude, Theory of Optics 
 (London, 1902) ; Chauvenet, Spherical and Prac¬ 
 tical Astronomy, vol. ii (Philadelphia, 1863) ; 
 for history and theory, consult Lockyer, Star¬ 
 gazing, Past and Present (London, 1878) ; Agnes 
 M. Clerke, History of Astronomy (London, 
 1908) ; G. W. Ritchey, “On the Modern Reflect¬ 
 ing Telescope and the Making and Testing of 
 Optical Mirrors,” Smithsonian Contributions to 
 Knowledge, vol. xxxiv, No. 1459 (Washington, 
 1904). For more recent developments consult 
 various articles in the Astrophysical Journal, 
 especially by the following: Wadsworth, Reese, 
 Ritchey, and Hale; also Observatory . (London), 
 especially June and July, 1898, and June, 1914. 
 See Astronomy; Observatory; Light; Mount 
 Wilson Solar Observatory; Spectrograph; 
 etc. 
 
 TEL'ESCRIBE (from Gk. rrjXe, tele, afar -f- 
 Lat. scribere, to write). An invention of Thomas 
 A. Edison brought out in 1914 to record perma¬ 
 nently on a phonograph a conversation carried 
 on over a telephone line. The apparatus oper¬ 
 ates by placing the ordinary telephone receiver 
 on the box of the telescribe in proximity to 
 the receiving diaphragm of a loud-speaking tele¬ 
 
 phone transmitter whose vibrations are trans¬ 
 mitted to the receiving diaphragm of a dictating 
 machine or phonograph. There is also a watch- 
 case receiver connected with the telescribe and 
 the telephone line which is used by the hearer. 
 The vibrations of the diaphragm in the tele¬ 
 phone receiver when placed on the telescribe 
 transmitter are duly transmitted to the re¬ 
 corder of the talking machine or phonograph. 
 When the telephone receiver is placed on the 
 telescribe box an automatic switch is operated 
 and the talking machine is put in operation re¬ 
 cording the conversation. It is possible to re¬ 
 cord only as much of the conversation as the 
 hearer desires, and at the same time every 
 word that is spoken in the ordinary use of the 
 telephone can be heard. The record made on 
 the telescribe can be repeated as often as de¬ 
 sired and the instrument was thought to be an 
 important adjunct to the practical use of the 
 telephone. 
 
 TEL'ESXL'LA OF AR'GOS (Lat., from Gk. 
 Te\e<rt\\a) (c.510 B.c.). A Greek poet. She 
 was born at Argos and is said to have served in 
 the Argive army against Sparta. Her lyrics are 
 lost except for two lines found in Bergk’s Poctce 
 Lyrici Creed, vol. iii (5th ed., Leipzig, 1914). 
 
 TELESIO, te-la/zyo, Bernardino (1509-88). 
 An Italian philosopher, born at Cosenza near 
 Naples. He studied at Rome and Padua, lec¬ 
 tured for a time at Naples, and later founded the 
 Academy of Cosenza. Telesio headed the great 
 southern Italian revolt against the mediaeval 
 Aristotelianism, thus paving the way for more 
 scientific methods of thought. His greatest 
 work, De Rerum Natura (new ed., 2 vols., 1910- 
 13), appeared at Rome in 1565. His psychology 
 was of rationalistic tendency. After his death 
 his works were placed on the Index by the 
 church. Consult Bartholmess, Dissertatio de 
 B. Telesio (Paris, 1849). 
 
 TELETS (te-lets') LAKE. See Altin. 
 
 TELETFTOSPORE. The winter spore of 
 rusts. See Uredinales. 
 
 TEL'FORD, John (1851- ). An English 
 
 Wesleyan Methodist clergyman and editor, born 
 at Wigton, Cumberland. He graduated from 
 Didsbury College in 1873, entered the ministry, 
 and was elected to the Legal Hundred in 1906. 
 From 1905 he was editor of the Wesleyan Meth¬ 
 odist Magazine and connectional editor, and he 
 published: Life of John Wesley (1886; new ed., 
 1910) ; A History of Lay Preaching in the 
 Christian Church (1897; 2d ed., 1912) ; A Popu¬ 
 lar History of Methodism (3d ed., 1899) ; A 
 Sect that Moved the World (1907) ; Man’s Part¬ 
 nership with Divine Providence, the Fernley lec¬ 
 ture of 1908; The Life of James Harrison Rigg 
 (1909). Telford edited Wesley’s Veterans (5 
 vols., to 1913). 
 
 TELFORD, Thomas (1757-1834). An emi¬ 
 nent Scottish engineer, born in Eskdale, Dum¬ 
 friesshire. At the age of 14 he became a stone¬ 
 mason. In 1780 he removed to Edinburgh, and 
 in 1783 he repaired to London, where he was 
 appointed in 1784 to superintend the erection 
 of the resident commissioner’s house at Ports¬ 
 mouth dockyard. In 1787 he was appointed 
 surveyor of public works for Shropshire; and 
 his two bridges over the Severn at Montford 
 and Buildwas and other works gained for him 
 the planning and superintendence of the pro¬ 
 jected Ellesmere Canal, to connect the navigation 
 of the Severn, Dee, and Mersey (1795-1805). 
 In 1801 he was retained by the government to 
 
TELFORD ROAD 
 
 78 
 
 TELLER 
 
 report on desirable public works for Scotland. 
 As a consequence, the plan of a canal from 
 Inverness to Fort William was revived, and its 
 planning and construction intrusted to Telford. 
 (See Caledonian Canal.) He constructed 
 more than 1000 miles of road in the Highlands, 
 Lanarkshire, and Dumfriesshire and about 1200 
 bridges, besides churches, manses, harbors, etc. 
 He superintended the construction of the road 
 from London to Holyhead, including the erec¬ 
 tion of numerous bridges—among others, the 
 Menai Straits suspension bridge. His life, en¬ 
 titled The Life of Thomas Telford, Civil Engi¬ 
 neer, written by himself, was published in 1838. 
 In America Telford is chiefly known for the 
 system of road construction that bears his name. 
 Consult Samuel Smiles, Lives of the Engineers, 
 vol. iii (new ed., New York, 1905). From its 
 foundation in 1818 he served as president of 
 the Institution of Civil Engineers, which body 
 awards a Telford gold medal. See Road. 
 
 TELFORD ROAD. See Road. 
 
 TEL'HAEMO'NIUM (Neo-Lat., from Gk. 
 TrjXe, tele, afar + ap/xovia, harmonia, joint, 
 concord, harmony). The name applied by 
 the inventor, Dr. Thaddeus Cahill, to a device 
 for the production of music at any distance 
 from the performer, by means of electric cur¬ 
 rents. The fundamental idea involved in Cahill’s 
 system is the combination at will of alternating 
 currents of any frequency and amplitude, 
 thereby producing a current having a wave 
 shape of the form corresponding to any musical 
 note of any timbre. This composite current, 
 if allowed to pass through a telephone receiver, 
 will then cause the diaphragm to vibrate, pro¬ 
 ducing a sound wave corresponding exactly to 
 the current wave. The sources of current are a 
 number of small alternators, each alternator 
 producing a sine-wave current of a definite fre¬ 
 quency. The keyboard is similar to that of 
 an organ; the keys operate switches so as to 
 bring the several alternators into action on the 
 lines or mains as required. The notes produced 
 are of remarkable purity, being surpassed only 
 by that of a good string. The performer has 
 absolute control over the notes, both as to ex¬ 
 pression and timbre; he can produce at will the 
 note of practically any instrument, and even 
 notes of an entirely new quality. Since any 
 number of receivers can be connected to a single 
 keyboard, it is possible for a single performer 
 to be heard in practically any number of places at 
 one time, and a distribution system was planned 
 whereby music could be transmitted to a large 
 number of subscribers. Daily concerts with an 
 approved programme in this way would be 
 available. 
 
 TELINGS, te-llngz', or TELINGAS, te-lln'- 
 
 gaz. See Klings; Telugus. 
 
 TELL, William. The hero of a Swiss legend, 
 in its main features common to all Aryan 
 peoples. It is found in the Icelandic Thidrek- 
 saga, in Saxo Grammaticus, in old English bal¬ 
 lads, in Persian poetry, and elsewhere. All 
 tell of a master marksman and of a tyrant 
 who compels him to pit faith in his skill against 
 his natural instinct as a father. The Swiss 
 legend, narrated with much circumstance, is 
 that a mythical Austrian bailiff, Gessler, de¬ 
 manded homage to the cap of Austria (1307) in 
 the market place at Altdorf. Tell refused this, 
 was condemned to death, but permitted to ran¬ 
 som himself by shooting an apple from his son’s 
 head. On signifying his intent to have killed 
 
 Gessler if he had shot his son, Tell was fettered 
 and carried to the bailiff's boat. A storm arose 
 and Tell was released that he might save the 
 boat. This he did, then leaped ashore, and 
 killed Gessler. The story then speaks of a re¬ 
 volt in which Tell takes part and by which 
 the Forest Cantons gain independence. The old¬ 
 est chroniclers know nothing of the tale. It 
 appears timidly, late in the fifteenth century, in 
 Das weisse Buch, and more boldly in Tschudi's 
 Chronicon (c.1550). The most famous version 
 of the story is Schiller’s drama Wilhelm Tell 
 (1804). Consult: Rotlie, Die dramatischen 
 Quellen des Schillerschen Tell, in “Forschung en 
 zur deutschen Philologie” (Leipzig, 1894) ; Ferdi¬ 
 nand Schmidt, William Tell, Eng. trans. G. P. 
 Upton (Chicago, 1904) ; and for historical criti¬ 
 cism of the saga, E. L. Rochholz, Tell und Gess¬ 
 ler (Heilbronn, 1877). 
 
 TELL CITY. A city in Perry Co., Ind., 53 
 miles by rail east of Evansville, on the Ohio 
 River, and on the Southern Railway (Map: 
 Indiana, D 9). There, are chair, desk, and fur¬ 
 niture factories, a woolen mill, and a foundrv. 
 Tell City was founded by the Swiss Colonization 
 Society in 1857. Pop., 1900, 2680; 1910, 3369. 
 
 TELL EL AMARNA, tel el a-miir'na. A 
 place in Middle Egypt, on the right bank of the 
 Nile, about midway between Thebes and Mem¬ 
 phis. It includes the Arab villages Hagg-Kandil 
 and Et Tell and is the site of the ancient city 
 of Akhetaten, founded by the heretic King 
 Amenophis IV (q.v.), also known as Akhenaten, 
 who abandoned Thebes and removed his residence 
 thither. A splendid temple and palace were 
 built, and the city increased so fast that it ex¬ 
 tended to the opposite bank of the Nile; but its 
 existence was brief. After the death of Ameno- 
 pliis and the triumph of the orthodox religion, 
 the royal residence was transferred to Thebes 
 and the new city rapidly fell into decay. The 
 ruins of the temple and palace are to be seen, 
 and in the vicinity are interesting rock-hewn 
 tombs, constructed for the courtiers of the royal 
 founder of the city. In the winter of 1887-88 
 the archive chamber of Amenophis was discovered 
 by some natives, and in it were found a number 
 of cuneiform tablets containing the correspond¬ 
 ence of the King and of his father, Amenophis 
 III, with the governors and kings of western 
 Asia. (See Amarna Letters.) The site was 
 explored by Petrie in 1891-92. Consult: W. M. 
 Flinders Petrie, Tel el-Amarna (London, 1895) ; 
 N. de G. Davies, “Rock Tombs of El Amarna,” 
 in Archceological Survey of Egypt, Memoir, 
 13-18 (6 vols., ib., 1903-08) ; Baedeker, Egypt 
 (7th ed., Leipzig, 1914). 
 
 TELL EL KEBIR, tel el ka-ber'. A village 
 of northeastern Egypt, on the SweetWater Canal, 
 18 miles east by south of Zagazig, noted as the 
 scene of a battle between the English under 
 Lord Wolseley and the Egyptian insurgents un¬ 
 der Arabi Pasha (q.v.), Sept. 13, 1882. See 
 Egypt. 
 
 TELHjER, Henry Moore (1830-1914). An 
 American politician and cabinet officer, born 
 at Granger, N. Y. He was educated at Alfred 
 University, was admitted to the bar in 1856, 
 in 1858 removed to Illinois, and in 1861 to Colo¬ 
 rado. He was a Republican member of the 
 United States Senate from 1876 until April, 
 1882, when he entered the cabinet of President 
 Arthur as Secretary of the Interior. At the 
 close of Arthur’s administration he again en¬ 
 tered the Senate and was reelected in 1890 as a 
 
TELLER 
 
 79 
 
 TELPHERAGE 
 
 Republican. A strong advocate of free silver, 
 with 33 others he left the Republican national 
 convention in 1896, having broken with the 
 party on this question as early as 1893. In 
 1897 he was returned to the Senate as an inde¬ 
 pendent Silver Republican, and in 1902 was re¬ 
 elected as the regular Democratic nominee. He 
 retired from the Senate in 1909. 
 
 TEL'LER, Wilhelm Abraham (1734-1804). 
 A German Lutheran theologian, born at Leip¬ 
 zig. In 1761 he became pastor, general super¬ 
 intendent, and professor of theology at Helrn- 
 stedt. His Lehrbuch des christlichen Glaubens 
 (1764) aroused a storm of disapproval by its 
 strong rationalistic doctrines. In 1767 Teller 
 became supreme consistorial councilor and pro¬ 
 vost of Kolln at Berlin, where he was elected 
 to the Academy of Sciences. Among his notable 
 writings was Die Religion der Vollkommeneren 
 (1792). 
 
 TELLEZ, tel'yath, Gabriel (c.1571-1648) . 
 A Spanish cleric, prose writer, and dramatist, 
 known under the pseudonym of Tirso de Molina. 
 He was well known as a comic playwright before 
 1610. At his death he was prior of the mon¬ 
 astery at Soria. His best tales, and some of 
 his best plays, are contained in the miscellane¬ 
 ous collection entitled Cigarrales de Toledo, 
 licensed in 1621, but apparently not published 
 until 1624. A second collection is the Deleitar 
 aprovechando (1635). Eighty-six plays are ex¬ 
 tant, although he is known to have written 
 more than 400. The Burlador de Sevilla, the 
 first work of great merit to bring Don Juan 
 on the boards, has long been attributed to 
 Tellez. To him we owe also a splendid treat¬ 
 ment of a profound philosophical enigma in El 
 condenado por desconfiado. He was also a mas¬ 
 ter in the handling of historical subjects {La 
 prudencia de la mujer) and of witty dialogue 
 and intricate intrigue ( Don Gil de las calzas 
 rerdes and El vergonzoso en palacio) . Consult 
 his Teatro escogido, edited by Hartzenbusch (12 
 vols., Madrid, 1839-42) ; his Comedias escogidas, 
 also edited by Hartzenbusch, in the Biblioteca de 
 autores espanoles, vol. v (4th ed., ib., 1903) ; 
 and the Comedias de Tirso de Molina, edited by 
 Emilio Cotarelo y Mori in the Nueva biblioteca 
 de autores espanoles, vols. iv and ix (ib., 1900- 
 07), with a good biography and an analytical 
 catalogue of Tirso’s plays. See also Ramon 
 Menendez Pidal, El condenado por desconfiado 
 (Madrid, 1902, and in the Bulletin hispanique, 
 Paris, 1904) ; Alfred Morel-Fatio, “La prudence 
 chez la femme: drame historique de T. de M.,” 
 in Etudes sur VEspagne (3d series, Paris, 
 1904) ; Victor Said Armesto, La leyenda de Don 
 Juan (Madrid, 1908) ; Blanca de los Rios de 
 Lamperez, Del Siglo de oro (ib., 1910); and 
 Theodor Schroder, Die dramatischen Bearbei- 
 tungen der Don Juan-Sage (Halle, 1912). 
 
 TELLEZ-GIROH, Pedro. See Osuna, P. 
 Tellez-Gtron, third Duke of. 
 
 TEL'LICHER'RI, or TEL'LICHER'RY. A 
 seaport in the District of Malabar, Madras, In¬ 
 dia, 90 miles south by east of Mangalore, on the 
 Arabian Sea (Map: India, C 7). Pop., 1901, 
 27,883; 1911, 29,372. 
 
 TELLIER, tel'ya', Charles (1828-1913). A 
 French engineer, born in Paris. He early made 
 a study of motors and compressed air. in 1868 
 he began experiments in refrigeration, which 
 resulted ultimately in the refrigerating plant as 
 used on ocean vessels, to preserve meat and other 
 perishable food. In 1911 Tellier was awarded 
 
 the Joest prize by the French Institute and in 
 1912 he was made Chevalier of the Legion of 
 Honor. He wrote Histoire d’une invention 
 m odcrne, le frigoHfique (1910). 
 
 TELLIER, Francois Michel le. See Lou- 
 vois, Marquis de. 
 
 TEL'LURIDE. A city and the county seat 
 of San Miguel Co., Colo., 45 miles south of Ridg- 
 way, on the San Miguel River and on the Rio 
 Grande Southern Railroad (Map: Colorado, B 
 4). The city is situated in the Rocky Moun¬ 
 tains at an altitude of 8756 feet. Mining is the 
 principal industry. The average annual produc¬ 
 tion in gold, silver, lead, and copper is $6,- 
 500,000, chiefly in gold. Pop., 1900, 2446; 
 1910, 1756. 
 
 TEL'TiURXTE. A mineral tellurium dioxide 
 crystallized in the orthorhombic system. It has 
 a subadamantine lustre, and is of a yellowish- 
 white or yellow color. It occurs as an incrus¬ 
 tation with native tellurium in Transylvania 
 and at various localities in Boulder Co., Colo. 
 
 TELLU'RIUM (Neo-Lat., from Lat. tellus, 
 earth). A nonmetallic element discovered by 
 Reichenstein in 1782, but first isolated by Klap¬ 
 roth in 1798. The element is found native in 
 small quantities at various localities in Hun¬ 
 gary, Transylvania, Virginia, and California. 
 It is also found as tellurium dioxide or tellurite, 
 as silver and gold telluride or sylvanite, as bis¬ 
 muth telluride or tetradymite, and in the form 
 of other minerals, of more complex composition. 
 It may be prepared by cautiously heating tetra¬ 
 dymite with potassium carbonate and charcoal in 
 a covered crucible, extracting the resulting po¬ 
 tassium telluride (K 2 Te) with water free from 
 air, and then passing a current of air through 
 the solution, the metal being thus deposited in 
 the form of a powder. 
 
 Tellurium (symbol, Te; atomic weight 127.5) 
 is a white shining, crystalline, brittle solid that 
 has a specific gravity of 6.27, and melts at 452° 
 C. (846° F.). Like selenium, which it greatly 
 resembles, it exists in amorphous and crystalline 
 modifications, the conversion of the former into 
 the latter being accompanied by an evolution of 
 heat. There is also an increase of electric con¬ 
 ductivity under the influence of light, though not 
 so marked as in the case of selenium. Tellurium 
 combines with oxygen to form a monoxide 
 (TeO), a dioxide (Te0 2 ), and a trioxide (Te0 3 ), 
 the last two of which combine with water to 
 form tellurous and telluric acids (H 2 Te0 3 and 
 H 2 Te0 4 respectively), which in turn yield series 
 of salts called respectively tellurites and tel- 
 lurates. Hydrogen telluride (H 2 Te) is an evil¬ 
 smelling, inflammable gas similar to hydrogen 
 sulphide in its chemical behavior. For a re¬ 
 markable anomaly exhibited by tellurium see 
 Periodic Law. 
 
 TEL'LUS (Lat., earth), more commonly 
 Tellus Mater, and, later, Terra Mater. The 
 Roman goddess of the fields, who, as coworker 
 with Ceres (q.v.), brought to maturity the seed. 
 At her festival in January, cakes were offered to 
 her, a pregnant sow was sacrificed, and prayers 
 were offered to her for the protection of the 
 seed from bird and beast and disease. Consult 
 W. W. Fowler, Roman Festivals (London, 1899) ; 
 Georg Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Rbmer 
 (2d ed., Munich, 1912). See G.ea. 
 
 TEL'MANN, Konrad. See Zitellmann, 
 Konrad. 
 
 TEL'PHERAGE (from telpher, from Gk. 
 rijXe, tele, afar -f- cfepeiv, pherein, to bear). A 
 
TELUGUS 
 
 80 
 
 TEMPERA 
 
 form of cableway transportation (see Cable- 
 way) in which the supporting grooved-wheel 
 trolleys or trucks are equipped with electric 
 motors, so that each unit is self-propelling. The 
 trolley, or telpher, as it is usually called, is 
 supplied with current by an independent wire 
 apart from the supporting aerial cable, and the 
 current may be controlled by switches at points 
 along the line either by an operator, or the 
 switches may be made automatic and be operated 
 by the passing of the car with its load. Telpher¬ 
 age is used in quarries or mineral storage plants, 
 for loading and unloading, and in warehouses. 
 It has the advantage over haulage systems that 
 the mass of actuating haulage wire does not 
 have to be supported and guided as well as kept 
 in motion. 
 
 TELUGUS, tel'db-godz, or Telingas. The 
 northeastern division of the Dravidian family, 
 numbering over 23,000,000. They present the typi¬ 
 cal aspect of the race—medium-statured, mesoce- 
 phalic to dolichocephalic in head form. The 
 Yanadis of Nellore, considered by some authori¬ 
 ties to be the primitive Telugus, both with re¬ 
 spect to physical characteristics and general cul¬ 
 ture status, are markedly dolichocephalic, broad¬ 
 nosed, short-statured, and dark-skinned. The 
 castes of the Telugus, adopted through Hindu 
 influence, run down from the Brahmans to the 
 despised Madigas, who are leather workers. 
 Other divisions are the Palayyakkarans and 
 Tottlyans (cultivators); the Komatis (traders), 
 who have their sacred book, the Kanyakapuran; 
 the Boyas (hunters) ; the Bestas (hunters and 
 fishers). Hinduism has largely, even among 
 such primitive tribes as the Yanadis, superseded 
 the old animistic religion of the Telugus. 
 About the middle of the sixth century some of 
 the Telugus made their way into Ceylon. 
 
 In its linguistic structure Telugu coincides in 
 the main with Tamil, although it differs widely 
 from its older cognate in phonology and vocabu¬ 
 lary, which is strongly influenced by Sanskrit. 
 The literature, which is outlined under the title 
 Dravidian s, is abundant and of much stylistic 
 merit. 
 
 Bibliography. Brown, Telugu-English and 
 English-Telugu Dictionary (London, 1852-54) ; 
 Henry Morris, Simplified Grammar of Telugu 
 (ib., 1890) ; Sankaranarayana, English-Telugu 
 and Telugu-English Dictionary (ib., 1900) ; A. 
 H. Arden, Progressive Grammar of the Telugu 
 Language (2d ed., Madras, 1906) ; Edgar Thurs¬ 
 ton, Castes and Tribes of Southern India (ib., 
 1909) ; L. D. Barnett, comp., Catalogue of the 
 Telugu Books in the British Museum (Lon¬ 
 don, 1912) ; R. Caldwell, Comparative Grammar 
 of the Dravidian or South Indian Family of 
 Languages (3d ed., ib., 1913) ; J. Clough, Social 
 Christianity in the Orient (New York, 1914). 
 
 TEM'BULAND. One of the Transkeian ter¬ 
 ritories of the Cape of Good Hope Province. 
 It is situated south of East Griqualand and has 
 an area of 4129 square miles. Population ac¬ 
 cording to the census of 1911: total, 236,086; 
 white, 8138; colored, 227,948; females, 127,211. 
 Tembuland was annexed to the Cape Colony 
 Aug. 26, 1885. 
 
 TEMERAIRE, t&'m&'r&r', The. A French 
 battleship captured by the English in the battle 
 of the Nile in 1798. In 1805 she took part in 
 the battle of Trafalgar and was destroyed in 
 1838. The “Fighting TemtraAre” (1839), a 
 painting by J. M. W. Turner (q.v.), hangs in 
 the National Gallery, London. 
 
 TEMESVAR, tem'esh-var. A royal free city 
 and capital of the county of Temes, Hungary, 
 on the Bega Canal, 62 miles southeast of Szegedin 
 (Map: Hungary, G 4). It consists of an outer 
 and an interesting inner town or fortress. There 
 are a Roman Catholic cathedral built by Marie 
 Theresa, a Greek cathedral, immense barracks, 
 and an arsenal (the castle built by Hunyady 
 in 1442). The commander’s palace, the Greek 
 Orthodox Bishop’s palace, and a Gothic column 
 (40 feet high), by Max, erected to the memory 
 of the town’s defenders of 1849, are among the 
 noteworthy structures. There is a museum of 
 art, natural history, and antiquities. The town 
 has a royal tobacco factory and manufactures 
 cloth, matches, fertilizers, paper, and leather. 
 Temesvar became a town in the thirteenth cen¬ 
 tury. It was destroyed by the Tatars in 1242. 
 From 1552 to 1716 it was held by the Turks, 
 from whom it was taken by Prince Eugene. In 
 1849 it successfully resisted the attack of the 
 Hungarian insurgents under Vecsey. On Aug. 
 9, 1849, the Hungarians under Bern and Dem- 
 binski were defeated near Temesvar by the Aus¬ 
 trians under Haynau. Pop., 1900, 59,229; 1910, 
 72,555, mostly German Catholics. 
 
 TEMME, tem'me, Jodocus Donatus Huber- 
 tus (1798-1881). A German criminologist, pol¬ 
 itician, and novelist, born at Lette, Westphalia. 
 He studied law at Munster and Gottingen, and 
 became vice president of the Provincial Court of 
 Appeals at Munster in 1848. His attitude as a 
 leader of the Extreme Left in the Prussian as 
 well as in the German National Assembly in¬ 
 volved him in a trial for high treason, and, al¬ 
 though acquitted, he was dismissed from gov¬ 
 ernment service in 1851. In the following year 
 he accepted the professorship of criminal law at 
 Zurich. He was best known as the author of 
 more than 150 novels and stories, artisticallv 
 of little importance, dealing with criminal 
 schemes, among them: Deutsche Kriminalnovel- 
 len (1858-59), Kriminalnovellen (10 vols., 1860- 
 64), Dunkle Wege (1862), Schioarzort (1863), 
 Die Heimat (1868), and Die Generalin (1877). 
 Consult S. Born, Erinnerungen von J. D. H. 
 Temme (Leipzig, 1882), and A. Lichtenstein, Der 
 Kriminalroman (Munich, 1908). 
 
 TEM'PE (Lat., from Gk. Te/nry) . A narrow 
 mountain defile, about four and a half miles 
 long, in the northeastern part of Thessaly, be¬ 
 tween the precipitous sides of Mount Olympus 
 (q.v.) and Ossa (q.v.), through which the river 
 Peneus rushes to the Gulf of Saloniki. At 
 places the rocky walls retire, leaving room for 
 little glades and openings. Tempe was cele¬ 
 brated as one of the favorite haunts of Apollo. 
 It was from the earliest times noted for its 
 beauty and picturesqueness and was constantly 
 praised in song. The name finally came to be 
 applied to any beautiful and sequestered vale. 
 
 TEMPELTEY, tem'pel-ti, Eduard von (1832- 
 ). A German dramatist, born in Berlin. 
 He studied at the University of Berlin, and sub¬ 
 sequently took up journalism. In 1862 he en¬ 
 tered the service of the Duke of Coburg. Among 
 his other duties was the superintendence of the 
 court theatre. He was the author of several 
 dramas, popular in their day, among them 
 Clytemnestra (1857) and Cromwell (1883). 
 
 TEMTERA (It., from Lat. temperare, to 
 proportion, modify), or Distemper. In its origi¬ 
 nal sense tempera signifies any fluid medium 
 with which pigments may be mixed; but the 
 term is usually restricted to a glutinous medium, 
 
TEMPERAMENT 
 
 81 
 
 TEMPERANCE 
 
 such as egg, size, or gums, as distinguished from 
 oil; and especially to that in which the yolk 
 of eggs is the chief ingredient. Various mediums 
 have been used, such as the juice of young sprouts 
 of the fig tree, vinegar, and honey. Tempera 
 differs from fresco in that the pigments are not 
 applied to the fresh plaster, but to the dry sur¬ 
 face; they may be applied to any kind of sur¬ 
 face. When tempera paintings have been coated 
 with an oil varnish for purposes of preserva¬ 
 tion, it is difficult to distinguish them from oils. 
 They are usually clear and brilliant in color, 
 precise in form and outline; the rapid drying of 
 the color preventing any blending of color or 
 outline. 
 
 Tempera is probably the most venerable kind 
 of painting, having been used in ancient Egypt, 
 Babylon, and Nineveh, and by the Greeks * for 
 interior decoration. It was the favorite medium 
 throughout the Middle Ages, even for wall deco¬ 
 ration. During the fourteenth and fifteenth cen¬ 
 turies the increased technical skill led to the 
 more frequent use of fresco, which had to be 
 executed with great rapidity (see Fresco) ; 
 but tempera was used for the finishing touches. 
 It continued to prevail for panel paintings until 
 the perfection of the new oil medium by the Van 
 Eycks (q.v.) displaced it in the north. In 
 Italy its use lingered until about 1500, nearly 
 all of the greatest paintings of the early Renais¬ 
 sance which are not frescoes being executed in 
 this medium. In recent years tempera has been 
 revived with some success, particularly since the 
 publication and translation of Cennino Cennini’s 
 treatise, which embodied the methods used by 
 the early Italians; in Germany by Baron von 
 Pereira at Stuttgart, and in France by Vibert 
 and others. In England the Tempera Society 
 has held exhibitions since 1005. Consult: 
 Pereira, Leitfaden fur de Temperainalerei 
 (Stuttgart, 1893) ; The Book of the Art of 
 Cennino Cennini (Eng. trans., London, 1899) ; 
 P. G. Hamerton, Graphic Arts (new ed., Boston, 
 1902) ; Friedlein, Tempera und Temperatechnik 
 (Munich, 1906). 
 
 TEM'PER AMENT (Lat. temperamentum , 
 due proportion, from temperare, to proportion, 
 modify, from tempus, time, season). Emotional 
 constitution, i.e., disposition towards a given 
 type of emotional reaction. An individual’s 
 temperament is said, e.g., to be impulsive if he 
 responds, as a rule, quickly and with feeling to 
 situations; the temperament of the opposite type 
 is said to be cold and sluggish. The usual classi¬ 
 fication of temperaments is that formulated by 
 Galen: choleric (energetic, objective), sanguine 
 (warm, impressionable, changeable), melancholic 
 (sentimental and subjective), and phlegmatic 
 (quiet, slow, and persistent). The manner in 
 which these differ both in strength and in the 
 rapidity of alteration in the affective reaction 
 may be expressed as follows: 
 
 Strong Weak 
 
 Quick .Choleric .Sanguine 
 
 Slow .Melancholic .Phlegmatic 
 
 The word is used more 'widely to cover any 
 
 general mental characteristic or aptitude; e.g., 
 
 nervous or musical or artistic temperament. 
 
 Bibliography. Francis Galton, Natural In¬ 
 heritance (New York, 1889) ; James Sully, The 
 Human Mind (2 vols., ib., 1892) ; A. Fouill6e, 
 Temperament et caractere (Paris, 1895) ; Her¬ 
 mann Lotze, Microcosmus: An Essay Concern¬ 
 ing Man and his Relation to the World; Eng. 
 
 trans. by Hamilton and Jones (4th ed., 2 vols., 
 ib., 1897; 5th Ger. ed., 3 vols., Leipzig, 1888- 
 1905) ; W. M. Wundt, Physiologische Psycholo¬ 
 gic (6th Ger. ed., Leipzig, 1908-11); 0. Kiilpe, 
 Outlines of Psychology; Eng. trans. by E. B. 
 Titchener (new ed., London, 1909); N. Ach, 
 Ueber den Willensakt u. das Temperament (Leip¬ 
 zig, 1910) ; E. Meumann, Vorlesungen zur Ein- 
 fiihrung in der experimentelle Piidagogik, vol. ii 
 (ib., 1913) ; Joseph Jastrow, Character and Tem¬ 
 perament (New York, 1915). See Disposition; 
 Mental Constitution; Tendency. 
 
 TEMPERAMENT. In music, a system of 
 compromise in keyed instruments for the avoid¬ 
 ance of the necessity presupposed by the strict 
 relation of musical intervals of having a sepa¬ 
 rate row of keys corresponding to each tonic. 
 Taking C as keynote, the ratios of the notes of 
 the diatonic scale, as derived from the number 
 of vibrations in a given time of a string sound¬ 
 ing that note, are: 
 
 CDEFGABC 
 
 24 27 30 32 36 40 45 48 
 
 The intervals between these notes are by no 
 means equal, and may be thus expressed in 
 numbers by logarithms: 
 
 CDEFGABC 
 
 51 46 28 51 46 51 28 
 
 We have here three species of intervals, of which 
 those represented by 51 are called major tones; 
 those by 46, minor tones; and the smaller in¬ 
 tervals represented by 28, semitones. These in¬ 
 tervals will evidently only serve with C as key¬ 
 note. If, e.g., we start from D instead of C, 
 we find E a tolerable, though not quite correct, 
 second to D; but the third and seventh of the 
 scale are entirely wrong. Were the major and 
 minor tones equal, and each semitone exactly 
 half a tone, the insertion of a note in the middle 
 of each tone dividing the seven intervals would 
 make it immaterial where the scale began, any 
 one of the 12 notes becoming alike available as 
 a keynote; and though such equality is contrary 
 to the immutable principles of harmony, an 
 arrangement based on it is found practically to 
 give but little offense to the ear. In what is 
 called the equal temperament, the 12 intervals 
 are all of the same length, and no advantage is 
 given to one key over the rest. This is, in 
 
 theory at least, the temperament adopted in the 
 
 pianoforte. By means of this equal tempera¬ 
 ment it is possible to start from any tone of the 
 scale and, going always by the interval of a 
 fifth, arrive at the same tone six octaves above 
 or below the starting tone. Acoustically, c 6 is 
 74-73 higher than the sixth octave of C. In¬ 
 stead, therefore, of using the acoustic fifth the 
 
 tempered fifth is used, which makes b 4 identical 
 with c 5 . Hence the possibility of free modula¬ 
 tion through all keys, which in recent times has 
 led to the recognition of tonality (q.v.). As 
 soon as the principle of equal temperament was 
 understood the modern system of major and 
 minor modes displaced the old church modes. 
 Two of the most active champions of equal tem¬ 
 perament were Rameau and J. S. Bach. The 
 former was chiefly the theorist, the latter the 
 practical composer. Bach’s immortal Wohltem- 
 periertes Elavier was written with the special 
 purpose of introducing the new system of equal 
 temperament. See Comma. 
 
 TEMPERANCE (Lat. temperantia, modera¬ 
 tion, sobriety, self-control, from temperare, to 
 
TEMPERANCE 
 
 82 
 
 TEMPERANCE 
 
 proportion, modify). Primarily, a moderate use 
 and enjoyment of all good things. In modern 
 days the word is often used to designate great 
 moderation in the use of alcoholic beverages, or 
 even total abstinence from them. 
 
 Among uncivilized races, ancient and modern, 
 intoxication has been associated with religious 
 ideas and has been encouraged as an incident of 
 religious festivity. As a common vice of appe¬ 
 tite it has always been condemned, and in almost 
 all communities in one way or another punished. 
 The earliest attempt at temperance reform is 
 claimed bv the Chinese, who affirm that in the 
 eleventh century b.c. one of their emperors or¬ 
 dered all the vines in the Kingdom to be up¬ 
 rooted. Early reforms are attributed also to the 
 priests of India and of Persia. The Carthagin¬ 
 ians forbade wine in their camps, and to magis¬ 
 trates holding public office. Among the He¬ 
 brews there were sects and orders which ab¬ 
 stained from intoxicants. The Buddhists taught 
 total abstinence. The Christian Church made 
 attempts to bring about a more moderate use 
 of the wine cup. St. Gildas dealt out severe 
 punishment to any churchman guilty of drunken¬ 
 ness. Dunstan is said to have labored in the 
 cause of temperance in England to the end that 
 King Edgar at his instance restricted the num- 
 ber of taverns and the quantity of intoxicants 
 that might be sold. By a law of 1285 taverns 
 in London were required to close at curfew. 
 Erom 1603 legislation against alehouses and 
 drunkenness increased. In 1736 Parliament at¬ 
 tempted to restrict the use of gin by means of 
 a prohibitory tax, which, however, only brought 
 about an illicit trade. 
 
 United States. In April, 1808, a society was 
 formed at Moreau, Saratoga Co., New York, 
 with 43 members, which provided in its consti¬ 
 tution that “no member should drink rum, gin, 
 whisky, wine, or distilled spirits, . . . except 
 by advice of a physician or in case of actual 
 disease (also excepting at public dinners), un¬ 
 der penalty of 25 cents; . . . provided that 
 this article shall not infringe on any religious 
 rites.” This society existed for 14 years, but 
 accomplished little. The American Temperance 
 Society was founded in Boston, February, 1826, 
 and the New York State Temperance Society in 
 1829. By 1830 the latter society numbered i00,- 
 000 members. In 1833 prominent members of 
 Congress organized the Congressional Temper¬ 
 ance Society. Before the Civil War many secret 
 societies were established for the promotion of 
 temperance. They required a pledge of total 
 abstinence, advocated prohibition, and tried to 
 educate public sentiment in favor of reform. 
 They also provided the usual beneficiary features 
 and opportunities for self-culture. The Sons 
 of Temperance, founded in 1842, grew rapidly 
 in membership and influence. (See Temper¬ 
 ance, Sons of.) The Independent Order of 
 Good Templars was started in New York in 
 1851. It spread over the world. (See Good 
 Templars, International Order of.) The Tem¬ 
 plars of Honor and Temperance (1845) were 
 strong in the South. Later benefit but non¬ 
 secret societies are the Royal Templars of Tem¬ 
 perance (Buffalo, 1869), and the Templars of 
 Temperance, an order strong in England and 
 Scandinavian countries. After the Civil War 
 consolidation of societies began. In 1865 the 
 National Temperance Society and Publication 
 House was organized at Saratoga, as a non¬ 
 partisan and nonsectarian society, advocating 
 
 total abstinence. This society published and 
 distributed pamphlets, textbooks, and papers, 
 held public meetings, and called national and 
 international conferences. The Women's Cru¬ 
 sade led to the organization in 1874 of the 
 Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (q.v.). 
 In 1868 a prohibition party was organized in 
 Illinois and a temperance political party in 
 Michigan. The call for a convention came from 
 the Grand Lodge of Good Templars. The Na¬ 
 tional Prohibition Party was organized in Chi¬ 
 cago in September, 1869. (See Prohibition.) 
 Law and Order Leagues were established to see 
 that existing legislation is properly enforced 
 (Chicago, 1872; New York, 1877; Philadelphia, 
 1880; Massachusetts, 1882). In 1883 the gen¬ 
 eral society—the Citizens’ Law and Order League 
 of the United States—was formed. 
 
 Temperance sentiment developed rapidly. A 
 number of temperance organizations were 
 formed, important ones being the Lincoln Legion 
 (1903), a total abstinence league, and the 
 Loyal Temperance Legion, a temperance organ¬ 
 ization for juveniles. The Intercollegiate Pro¬ 
 hibition Association (1901) has an enrolled 
 membership of 8800. In 1914 the Secretary of 
 the Navy issued an order which prohibited the 
 introduction for drinking purposes of alcoholic 
 liquors on board any naval vessel or within any 
 navy yard or station. Most of the railroads 
 have stopped serving liquor on their trains. 
 Railroads and industrial concerns are refusing 
 to hire men who drink. Such railroads as the 
 Pennsylvania have rigid rules against the use 
 of intoxicants at any time. Industries such as 
 the American Car and Foundry Company, Ameri¬ 
 can Sheet and Tin Plate Company, and the 
 Lukens Iron and Steel Company have prohibited 
 the use of liquor among employees. The Anti- 
 saloon League of America celebrated its twen¬ 
 tieth anniversary in 1913. Law and Order 
 Leagues have been formed in many States to as¬ 
 sist in enforcing prohibition legislation. The 
 Catholic Total Abstinence Union of America has 
 about 100,000 members. 
 
 Great Britain. In August, 1829, a temper¬ 
 ance society was started at New Ross, County of 
 Wexford, Ireland, whose members pledged them¬ 
 selves to abstain from liquors, except as medicine. 
 At the same time a similar movement began in 
 the north of Ireland. Within 12 months there 
 were 60 societies, with 3500 members. The 
 Glasgow and West of Scotland Temperance So¬ 
 ciety was founded in November. Up to this 
 time moderate use of liquor was permitted, but 
 John Daire and others of the Society of Dun¬ 
 fermline pledged themselves to total abstinence 
 and began to form total abstinence societies. 
 The first societies in England were at Bradford, 
 Warrington, and Manchester in 1830. The Brit¬ 
 ish and Foreign Temperance Society, founded in 
 London (June, 1831), through the influence of 
 William Collins of Glasgow, was for some years 
 the leading temperance society in England. It 
 was the first to start a crusade against beer. 
 The movement for total abstinence had its be¬ 
 ginning at Prestom in Lancashire. After the 
 formation of the Youth’s Temperance Society 
 at Preston in 1834, and its extension to other 
 forms, a conference was held at Manchester, re¬ 
 sulting in the organization of the British Asso¬ 
 ciation for the Promotion of Temperance, on the 
 Principle of Total Abstinence from all Intoxicat¬ 
 ing Liquors. Thereupon the total abstinence 
 element struggled for recognition in the British 
 
TEMPERANCE 
 
 83 
 
 TEMPERANCE 
 
 and Foreign Temperance Society. In August, 
 1836, the teetotal society was merged into the 
 New British and Foreign Society for the Sup¬ 
 pression of Intemperance. The later periods of 
 temperance work in Great Britain may be 
 designated by: (1) the Father Mathew crusade 
 in 1838, during which in tw T o years 1,800,000 
 people took pledges in Ireland; (2) the beginning 
 of work among children through the formation 
 of Bands of Hope, in 1847; (3) the John B. 
 Gough (q.v.) mission in 1858; (4) the intro¬ 
 duction of Good Templarism, in 1868; and (5) 
 the organization of the Blue Ribbon Army on 
 Feb. 10, 1878, now the Blue Ribbon Gospel Tem¬ 
 perance Movement with branch organizations, the 
 Help Myself Societies for men and the Help One 
 Another Societies for women. The United King¬ 
 dom Alliance (1853) urges prohibition upon 
 Parliament. 
 
 Great Britain has a large number of impor¬ 
 tant temperance societies. A few of the more 
 important are: British Temperance Legion, 
 United Kingdom Alliance, Army Temperance 
 Association, Navy Temperance Association, Tem¬ 
 perance Legislation League, Sons of Temperance, 
 British Medical Temperance Association, British 
 National Woman’s Temperance Union, and 
 World’s Woman’s Christian Temperance Union. 
 A complete list of the important temperance 
 associations is given in Hazell’s Annual, 1915. 
 
 The temperance movement in America and 
 Great Britain has been characterized by the 
 emotionalism of religious revivals. Prayer and 
 conversion were offered as aids to reform. Many 
 religious organizations as such have interested 
 themselves in temperance work. The Methodist 
 church from the days of the Wesleys has ad¬ 
 vocated total abstinence. The Friends were op¬ 
 posed to drinking, and among the Dunkards 
 abstinence was a test of fellowship. Since the be¬ 
 ginning of the nineteenth century, Baptists, Con- 
 gregationalists, and Presbyterians have been op¬ 
 posed to drinking. Among the general church 
 organizations are: The Congregational Total 
 Abstinence Association (1874); The Baptist 
 Total Abstinence Association (1874) ; the Total 
 Abstinence Society of the Presbyterian Church 
 of England (1892); a number among various 
 Methodist sects; Church of England Temperance 
 Society (1862, reorganized 1873), formed to pro¬ 
 mote temperance, to study the causes of the 
 abuse of alcohol, and to do rescue work. The 
 Roman Catholic church advises moderation, but 
 where this is impossible, total abstinence. The 
 International Antialcohol Congress has been held 
 biennially for 20 years. In 1913 at Paris was 
 held the first meeting of the International Com¬ 
 mittee for the Study of the Liquor Question. 
 
 Medical men have formed societies, such as 
 the British Medical Temperance Association, 
 (1872) advocating total abstinence and making 
 investigations, and the American Medical Tem¬ 
 perance Association (1891). Some labor unions, 
 especially the Knights of Labor, have discour¬ 
 aged the use of intoxicants. Farmers’ associa¬ 
 tions, such as the National Farmers’ Alliance 
 and the National Grange, have put themselves on 
 record as opposed to the liquor traffic. Among 
 the many children’s societies that have been or¬ 
 ganized are: the Cold-Water Army (1828); 
 juvenilq branches or cadets of secret societies; 
 Bands of Hope; and the Loyal Temperance Le¬ 
 gions of the W. C. T. U. In opposition to tem¬ 
 perance reformers, liquor manufacturers and 
 dealers have organized to prevent hostile legis¬ 
 
 lation. In 1862 the United States Brewers’ 
 Association was formed to oppose the internal 
 revenue taxes and prohibition. In Illinois the 
 brewers organized, purchased saloon sites in 
 Chicago, and established cheap saloons conducted 
 by agents. The Liquor Dealers’ and Manufac¬ 
 turers’ State Protection Association of Illinois 
 is another association of liquor men. 
 
 In August, 1846, a World’s Temperance Con¬ 
 gress was held in London, at which 302 delegates 
 were present. Since then there have been other 
 international conventions, notably the World’s 
 Temperance Congress of 1893 at Chicago. At 
 this meeting the economic aspects of the problem, 
 especially the cost to the workingman, were em¬ 
 phasized. There was a general feeling in favor 
 of total abstinence among English and Ameri¬ 
 cans, while the Europeans advocated moderation 
 and the drinking of wine. In Australia the 
 movement has progressed along the same line 
 as in England and America. 
 
 Canada. Various societies, including the In¬ 
 dependent Order of Good Templars, Sons of Tem¬ 
 perance, Dominion Prohibition Alliance and its 
 provincial branches, Women’s Christian Temper¬ 
 ance Union, Royal Templars of Temperance, and 
 other similar organizations did much to mold 
 Canadian public opinion in favor of temperance 
 and prohibition. In 1864, three years before 
 confederation, the Dunkin Act provided for lo¬ 
 cal option in the townships and smaller munici¬ 
 palities of Ontario and Quebec. In 1878 the 
 Canada Temperance Act, commonly known as 
 the Scott Act, enlarged the scope of local option 
 by providing for prohibition in entire counties, 
 many of which adopted it. Ten years later a 
 reaction against this law caused its repeal in 
 numerous cases, and this was followed by at¬ 
 tempts at Dominion and provincial prohibitory 
 legislation. Public opinion was sounded by 
 plebiscites, but the majorities were not large 
 enough to warrant legislation. A majority of 
 the provinces then enacted local option laws, but 
 about 1912 a renewed demand for provincial 
 prohibitory laws made itself felt. In 1914-15 
 abolition of the bar was made a part of the 
 Ontario Provincial Liberal platform, and 77.3 
 per cent of the voters favored it in 1916. In 
 the same year nine-tenths ,of Nova Scotia was 
 under prohibition by local option. In Quebec 
 Province the same held true of 480 municipali¬ 
 ties, but compensation is provided for liquor 
 license holders in Quebec and Montreal whose 
 licenses were annulled by statute. The Province 
 of Saskatchewan in 1915 abolished the bar, 
 placed all liquor stores under local option laws, 
 and forbade them to be kept in connection with 
 hotels. Manitoba passed a prohibitory law in 
 1916. Prohibition was in force in 1916 in Prince 
 Edward Island. Prohibitory restrictions on ac¬ 
 count of the Great War were applied in the 
 various provinces for the protection of the 
 troops and to aid recruiting. 
 
 Scandinavian Countries. Drunkenness has 
 been a serious vice in Sweden and Norway. 
 Various temperance societies have been organized, 
 and the efforts to solve the question by means 
 of the Bergen system of monopoly in Norway 
 and the Gothenburg system (q.v.) in Sweden 
 have received much comment. Under a system 
 of local option half the towns of Norway have 
 prohibited the sale of alcoholic liquors. Iceland 
 adopted prohibition in 1908. 
 
 Germany. The German Temperance Society 
 was organized in 1837, but the national custom 
 
TEMPERANCE 
 
 84 
 
 TEMPERANCE 
 
 of beer drinking lessens the importance of the 
 liquor problem in that country. As a war meas¬ 
 ure, in order to preserve barley for bread, the 
 quantity of beer which could be brewed through¬ 
 out the Empire was limited to 40 per cent of 
 the average output; local authorities were given 
 the power to limit or prohibit the sale of spirits; 
 in certain areas spirits could not be sold to 
 soldiers in uniform. 
 
 Austria. Only recently has a temperance 
 movement been organized. The Society for 
 Checking Inebriety was started in 1884. As a 
 war measure the malting of corn was prohibited, 
 the week-day hours for the sale of drink limited 
 to from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m., and Sunday closing 
 imposed where nothing but liquor was sold. 
 
 Belgium has several temperance societies, 
 among them the Association against the Abuse 
 of Alcohol (1878). 
 
 Switzerland has a total abstinence movement, 
 superseding societies advocating moderation. 
 The Blue Cross Federation was founded in 1877. 
 In 1908 the importation of absinthe was pro¬ 
 hibited. 
 
 Latin Countries. Spain, up to 1860, was a 
 sober country. Since then a slight increase in 
 drunkenness has been due to the adulteration of 
 wines, which has caused the people to use spirits. 
 There is no active temperance movement, how¬ 
 ever. Since the destruction of the vines has led 
 the poor of France to drink adulterated spirits, 
 drunkenness has increased, and there is a decided 
 temperance movement in favor of moderation 
 rather than total abstinence. The sale of ab¬ 
 sinthe was prohibited in 1914 as a war measure. 
 
 Russia. Drunkenness has been a great vice in 
 Russia. The peasant drink vodka is particularly 
 intoxicating. Various temperance societies ex¬ 
 ist. In 1914 the Russian government stopped 
 the manufacture and sale of vodka, with re¬ 
 markable results in increase of savings and im¬ 
 provement in public order. 
 
 General Considerations. 1. Economic As¬ 
 pects.—A large amount of capital is invested 
 in the liquor business—vast manufacturing 
 plants (breweries and distilleries), and the prop¬ 
 erty, fittings, and money paid for bonds, and 
 licenses necessary for the retail trade. In the 
 United States from the 1909 census figures the 
 number of distilleries was 613; total number of 
 persons engaged in the distilling industry, 8328; 
 average number of wage earners, 6430; capital 
 invested, $72,450,336. The number of breweries 
 was 1414; the total number of persons in the 
 industry was 66,725; the average number of 
 wage earners was 54,579; capital invested, 
 $671,158,110. The number of vinous liquor es¬ 
 tablishments was 290; total number of persons 
 in the industry was 2726; average number of 
 wage earners, 1911; capital invested, $27,908,- 
 487. The statistical abstract for 1913 shows the 
 consumption of wines and liquors in the United 
 States for the preceding year to be 2,233,420,461 
 gallons. The per capita consumption was 22.68 
 gallons. The internal revenue collections for 
 the year ending June 30, 1913, were: from 
 spirits, $163,879,324.54; from fermented liquors, 
 $66,266,989.60. New York City’s receipts from 
 liquor revenue for the year ending Sept. 30, 
 1915, were $11,743,240.87*. The annual cost of 
 liquor consumed by the people of New York City 
 is more than $150,000,000. An important eco¬ 
 nomic consideration for the community is the 
 cost of maintaining criminals and paupers made 
 so by the abuse of intoxicants. 
 
 2. Relation to Poverty .—Drunkenness makes 
 greater ravages among artisans than among 
 paupers. Warner’s tables show that it was 
 the direct cause of distress only in 15.28 x per 
 cent of the cases investigated. Drinking to 
 excess is rather a symptom than a source of de¬ 
 generation, and develops in a people of natural 
 strength exhausted by vice, overwork, and con¬ 
 ditions of life that undermine health. 
 
 3. Legislative Aspects .—Various attempts 
 have been made to control the liquor traffic by 
 legislation, while certain regulations have al¬ 
 ways been considered necessary. The national 
 government, since 1789, has placed internal rev¬ 
 enue taxes and some customs duties upon liquors. 
 Congress also has passed laws regulating the 
 sale of liquor to Indians and soldiers and the 
 sale in the District of Columbia, and requiring 
 the scientific study of temperance in the schools 
 of the District of Columbia, military, Indian, 
 and territorial schools. In the States the meth¬ 
 ods used to control the liquor traffic are: (1) 
 licenses; (2) local option; (3) prohibition; (4) 
 dispensary system. It has been customary from 
 the earliest times to license the sale of liquor. 
 The modern issue has been that of high license 
 ($500 or more), which its advocates claim less¬ 
 ens the number of saloons and improves tbeir 
 character. High licenses prevail in large cities. 
 Local option has the advantage of the support 
 of public opinion. The earliest laws were those 
 of Connecticut (1839) and New York (1845). 
 In 1912 the ruling went into effect prohibiting 
 the importation of absinthe into the United 
 States. In 1913 the Isthmian Canal Commission 
 refused to issue licenses to the 35 saloons that 
 had existed in the Canal Zone. The Webb-Ken- 
 yon Law prohibits the shipment of liquor into 
 territory in which its sale is forbidden by State 
 or local laws. A prohibition amendment was 
 submitted to Congress in 1913 but failed to re¬ 
 ceive the necessary two-thirds vote to have it 
 submitted to the States for ratification. There 
 are now 19 prohibition States and 19 having 
 local option. Among the prohibition States is 
 South Carolina which had been distinguished 
 as the only State having the State Dispensary 
 System. The States having prohibition are 
 Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Georgia, 
 Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Mississippi, North 
 Carolina, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, 
 South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, Washing¬ 
 ton, and West Virginia. In the States having 
 county or municipal local option much of the 
 territory is without the saloon. 
 
 Remedies. The arguments advanced against 
 the use of alcoholic drinks have been: (1) 
 Scriptural, based on a supposed distinction in 
 the Bible between fermented and unfermented 
 wine, as shown by the use of the Hebrew words 
 yayin and tirosh; (2) physiological, which 
 claims alcohol to be a poison and which shows 
 that temperance conduces to health; (3) so¬ 
 
 cial, viewing alcohol as a cause of crime, vice, 
 and poverty; and (4) economic, in that the 
 manufacture and consumption of alcohol are 
 nonproductive and a great waste of material. 
 The remedies offered by the early temperance 
 movement were reformatory and preventive. 
 Moral suasion was used, and drinkers were 
 urged to sign the pledge and to strengthen them¬ 
 selves by the aid of prayer and religion. Total 
 abstinence was demanded of the strong to help 
 the weak. Prohibition was urged in order to 
 remove temptation. Homes and asylums were 
 
TEMPERANCE 
 
 established, as the Washingtonian House in Chi¬ 
 cago and the Franklin Home, Philadelphia. The 
 prevention work was largely educational through 
 the distribution of literature, lectures, the form¬ 
 ation of societies, and the preparation of text¬ 
 books for use in the public schools. Business 
 considerations now exert an important influ¬ 
 ence. In positions of responsibility or where 
 accidents are likely (such as engineers, fore¬ 
 men, watchmen) drinking is prohibited. The 
 habits of applicants for employment are care¬ 
 fully scrutinized, especially in the business of 
 transportation. Even where moderation is 
 overlooked, excess is never tolerated. Saloon 
 property pays a higher insurance rate. Some 
 life-insurance companies refuse to insure men 
 engaged in the liquor business. 
 
 Important contributions to the study of the 
 liquor problem have been made by the Committee 
 of Fifty formed in 1893 and comprising repre¬ 
 sentative men in the fields of education, religion, 
 and sociology. The committee had its origin in 
 a group of men who, beginning in 1889, had 
 associated themselves for the purpose of pursu¬ 
 ing the study of practical problems in sociology. 
 Meetings are held twice a year in New York. 
 Four subcommittees deal with the different as¬ 
 pects of the liquor problem, physiological, legis¬ 
 lative, economic, and ethical. 
 
 Bibliography. J. Samuelson, History of 
 Drink (2d ed., London, 1878-80) ; Cyclopedia 
 of Tempet'ance and Prohibition (New York, 
 1891) ; Sterns (ed.), Temperance of All Nations 
 (ib., 1893) ; E. L. Fanshawe, Liquor Legislation 
 in the United States and Canada (London, 
 1893) ; Wines and Koren, The Liquor Problem 
 in its Legislative Aspects (Boston, 1897) ; 
 United States Commissioner of Labor, Twelfth 
 Annual Report (Washington, 1897) ; John 
 Koren, Economic Aspects of the Liquor Problem 
 (Boston, 1899) ; Raymond Calkins, Substitutes 
 for the Saloon (ib., 1901); Arthur Shadwell, 
 Drink, Temperance, and Legislation (New York, 
 1902) ; J. S. Billings, Physiological Aspects of 
 the Liquor Problem (2 vols., Boston, 1903) ; 
 E. A. Pratt, Licensing and Temperance in Swe¬ 
 den, Norway, and Denmark (New York, 1907) ; 
 “Regulation of the Liquor Traffic,” in American 
 Academy of Political and Social Science, Annals, 
 vol. xxxii (Philadelphia, 1908) ; Anti-Saloon 
 League, Yearbook (Columbus, Ohio, 1908 et 
 seq.) ; W. F. Crafts, World Book of Temper¬ 
 ance: Temperance Lessons, Biblical, Historical, 
 Critical (3d rev. ed., Washington, 1911); E. B. 
 Gordon, Anti-Alcohol Movement in Europe (New 
 York, 1913) ; also: American Prohibition Year 
 Book, United States Brewers’ Association Year 
 Book, New Encyclopedia of Social Reform; C. B. 
 Towns, Habits that Handicap (ib., 1915) ; Vance 
 Thompson, Drink and be Sober (ib., 1915) ; 
 Dodge and Benedict, Psychological Effects of 
 Alcohol, published by the Carnegie Institution 
 (Washington, 1915). See Gothenburg System; 
 Liquor Traffic; Prohibition. 
 
 TEMPERANCE, Sons of. An order founded 
 in New York in 1842 with the object of making 
 the great temperance movement of that period 
 permanent. It has life insurance, sick and 
 funeral benefit features. There are male and 
 female members and there is a cadet branch for 
 boys of 16 years, who are known as the Cadets 
 of Temperance, and who subscribe to a pledge 
 which binds them to avoid all connection with 
 the use, sale, or manufacture of spirituous 
 liquors. There are five grand divisions of the 
 
 85 TEMPERATURE OF THE BODY 
 
 order, one in England, where it was introduced 
 in 1846, two in Australia, one in New Zealand, 
 and one in North America. About one-half of 
 the members are in the United States and it is 
 estimated that 3,000,000 members have been on 
 the rolls since the organization of the order. 
 The membership in North America in 1916 was 
 about 25,000, of which 12,000 were in the United 
 States. The ritual is very impressive. The 
 order is now established in Great Britain, Ire¬ 
 land, the Bahamas, Liberia, New Zealand, Aus¬ 
 tralia, Scotland, and Wales. 
 
 TEMPERANCE LEAGUE, Loyal. See 
 
 Loyal Temperance League. 
 
 TEMPERATURE. See Heat. 
 
 TEMPERATURE, Critical. See Critical 
 Point. 
 
 TEMPERATURE, Terrestrial. The distri¬ 
 bution of beat in the atmosphere depends to 
 some extent on its direct absorption of solar 
 radiations, and especially the absorption at the 
 upper surface of the clouds, but is principally 
 governed by the angular altitude of the sun 
 and the contact of the air with the ground 
 and the ocean. The marked irregularities of 
 temperature give rise to the great currents of 
 air as well as to the local winds, and the latter 
 carry the heat rapidly from one part of the 
 globe to the other, so that ultimately the at¬ 
 mospheric temperature is almost equally con¬ 
 trolled by the winds on the one hand and the 
 oceans, continents, rain, snow, and cloud on the 
 other. The typical continental climates experi¬ 
 ence great diurnal and annual ranges of tem¬ 
 perature, and the typical oceanic climates show 
 a small range. 
 
 The distribution of temperature on any level 
 surface at any depth below or height above sea 
 level is shown by means of isotherms, which are 
 drawn through all places that have the same 
 temperature at any moment, or the same 
 monthly or annual mean temperature. Charts 
 showing these isotherms have been published by 
 various meteorological services for the air and 
 the land, and by various hydrographic offices for 
 the oceans. The highest mean annual tempera¬ 
 tures occur within the tropics and especially 
 over the land areas of northern Africa and 
 southern Asia, with corresponding small regions 
 in Central America and the northern portion of 
 South America. Abnormally high maximum 
 temperatures occur in limited regions outside 
 the tropics but are the result of peculiar topo¬ 
 graphic conditions. Thus Death Valley, Cal., 
 experienced maximum temperatures of 120° to 
 134° in the years 1911 to 1915, the reading of 
 134° F. in July, 1914, being the highest known 
 natural air temperature in the United States and 
 probably in the world. (Monthly Weather Re¬ 
 view, June, 1915, p. 278-280.) The lowest mean 
 annual temperatures are found in northern Si¬ 
 beria and the northern portions of British Amer¬ 
 ica, which represent the southern extension of a 
 largeArctic area of low temperature. SeeCLiMATE. 
 
 TEMPERATURE OF THE BODY. The 
 temperature in the healthy human adult aver¬ 
 ages from 98.4° to 98.6° F., but 97.5° and 99° 
 F. are within normal limits. In the newborn 
 child the temperature is slightly above the aver¬ 
 age, as it is in old age. Race has but a slight 
 influence, a difference of 0.29° F. being observed 
 between the nations of southern Europe and 
 those of the northern part. The temperature 
 rises slightly after a meal and during exercise. 
 During the day the bodv heat varies about half 
 
 O «/ «/ 
 
TEMPERATURE VARIETIES 
 
 86 
 
 TEMPEST 
 
 a degree, being highest between 5 and 8 p.m., 
 and lowest between 2 and 6 a.m. In childhood 
 the temperature is easily and rapidly influenced, 
 slight ailments causing marked febrile reaction. 
 The temperature is registered by means of the 
 clinical thermometer, which is self-registering, 
 placed in the mouth, axilla, fold of the groin, 
 the rectum, or the vagina. The surface of the 
 body is slightly cooler than the interior. A 
 temperature below 93° or above 108° F. is al¬ 
 most always fatal. The usual range in fevers 
 is between 99.5° and 105° or 106° F. As a 
 rule there is a constant relation between the 
 amount of fever and the rapidity of the pulse 
 (q.v.) in many people. A pulse of 80 indicates 
 a temperature of 100° F.; a pulse of 90, a tem¬ 
 perature of 101° F., etc. A rise of temperature 
 between 99° and 102° F. is termed slight or 
 moderate pyrexia; from 101° to 105° F. severe 
 pyrexia; and above this point hyperpyrexia. 
 Many chronic and a few acute diseases are char¬ 
 acterized by a subnormal temperature. This is 
 observed in hemorrhage, starvation, and wasting 
 from chronic diseases. In the melancholia of 
 certain mental troubles there may be great de¬ 
 pression botli of the general and surface heat. 
 An elevation of temperature attends most acute 
 and some chronic diseases. In the great class 
 of the acute general infections (see Nosology) 
 an elevation of the body heat is the most im¬ 
 portant symptom and is proportional to the 
 severity of the disease. Very marked elevation 
 of temperature (hyperpyrexia) is seen in tet¬ 
 anus, acute rheumatism, pernicious malarial 
 fever, and after injuries to the spinal cord. In 
 tetanus the thermometer may register as high 
 as 112.5° F. In sunstroke or heat stroke, an 
 equally high point has been reached. Lastly, 
 the temperature may rise just before death, and 
 after it, in rigor mortis. See Animal Heat; 
 Fever.; etc. 
 
 TEMPERATURE VARIETIES. Varieties, 
 races, or subspecies are largely differentiated by 
 variation resulting from being subjected to dif¬ 
 ferent influences, principally in the nature of 
 temperature and comparative moisture. It is a 
 matter of universal observation that widespread 
 species present a great range of variability in 
 size, proportion of parts, color, and other char¬ 
 acteristics, so that it is often a matter of doubt 
 whether a variant ought to be classed as a geo¬ 
 graphical subspecies, or as a distinct species. 
 When it appears that the same kind of varia¬ 
 tion affects all or nearly all of the animals of a 
 certain class in a region, coincidently with the 
 character of the local climate, it is probable 
 that the change from the normal noted is due 
 to local climatic influence. Temperature seems 
 to act most directly in producing the common 
 form of seasonal dimorphism, which affects most 
 of the higher animals that dwell in the tem¬ 
 perate zones, and are called upon to endure 
 winter cold as w r ell as summer heat. This 
 causes a semiannual change in mammals and 
 birds from a comparatively thin and short coat 
 of hair or feathers in warm weather to a thicker 
 and longer covering more suitable to the cold. 
 In addition, there is a greater or less change 
 of color, the bright dress of summer, assumed 
 after the spring molt, falling out in the autumn 
 and being gradually succeeded by a plainer color¬ 
 ing for the winter months. The difference is 
 often very great; and in the Arctic regions 
 amounts to a change from decided colors in sum¬ 
 mer to pure white in winter. 
 
 The comparative degree of average moisture 
 in the air of two regions will be reflected in the 
 colors and other features of the same species 
 of animals inhabiting them; those of the moist 
 region will have darker colors, and a tendency 
 to larger size and proportionally longer exter¬ 
 nal parts, as bills, legs, and tails, than the 
 dry land species, which will be more pale in 
 color and compact in form. Dr. J. A. Allen has 
 shown this very conclusively in his investigations 
 upon North American birds, and C. W. Beebe 
 has demonstrated it in his experiments on doves 
 and other birds in the New York Zoological 
 Park. Let one of tw r o districts differing in 
 average moisture be severed for a considerable 
 period from the other and the results accredited 
 to isolation (q.v.) would follow; but the species 
 so formed might well be called temperature 
 species in reference to their origin. Geographi¬ 
 cal races may therefore be regarded as incipient 
 species. 
 
 That changes from heat to cold, wetness to 
 dryness, or the reverse, in the climates of re¬ 
 gions of the world in the course of its history 
 since animal life appeared upon it, have been 
 efficient factors in species making, may well be 
 believed. See Evolution; Melanism; Isola¬ 
 tion ; and consult authorities there mentioned. 
 
 TEMPERING STEEL. Steel is hardened by 
 heating to a cherry red which is slightly above 
 its critical point (750° C.), and suddenly cool¬ 
 ing. The hardness varies directly with the per¬ 
 centage of carbon and the rate of cooling. Steel 
 quenched in water is very hard but is also 
 brittle. It is therefore tempered by reheating 
 to 200°-300° C., whereby the metal is toughened 
 with some loss in hardness. If tempering be 
 done in air and if the surface is free from 
 oxide, the process can be followed by the temper 
 colors which form on the surface, viz.: straw,. 
 200° C.; golden yellow, 245° C.; brown, 265° C.; 
 purple, 280° C.; blue, 290° C.; dark blue, 300° C. 
 Thus a razor would be drawn to a straw color, 
 while an axe requires a blue. 
 
 Tempering can be done in liquids such as oil, 
 salt baths, molten lead, etc., the temperature 
 being controlled by a thermometer or pyrometer, 
 immersed in the bath. 
 
 Instead of hardening in water, the metal may 
 be quenched in liquids which abstract the heat 
 more slowly, as, e.g., oil or molten lead, the 
 resulting metal being less hard but not so 
 brittle. Steels of high carbon or intricate shape 
 are liable to crack when water quenched and are 
 usually hardened in oil, or molten lead (oil 
 hardening, lead hardening), commonly spoken 
 of as oil tempering and lead tempering. The 
 word “temper” originally meant hardness 
 ( trempe , quenched) and we still use it to mean 
 carbon content, e.g., die temper, 0.75 per cent; 
 chisel temper, 1.0 per cent; razor temper, 1.4 
 per cent. See Annealing ; Iron and Steel, 
 Metallurgy of; Metallography. 
 
 TEMPEST, Marie Susan (1866- ). An 
 
 English actress, born in London of parents 
 named Etherington. She received her early edu¬ 
 cation at a convent in Belgium, and later stud¬ 
 ied music in Paris and London. Her first ap¬ 
 pearance on the stage was at the Confedy Thea¬ 
 tre, London, in 1885, as Fiametta in Boccaccio. 
 For some years she acted chiefly in musical plays, 
 notably in Dorothy (931 times), but with her 
 creation of the part of Nell Gwvn in English 
 Nell (1900) and Becky Sharp (1901), she was 
 recognized as one of the leading comediennes 
 
TEMPEST 
 
 TEMPLE 
 
 of the English stage, a position which she con¬ 
 tinued to hold. Some of her best-known parts 
 were Polly Eccles in Caste, Peggy O’Mara in 
 All-of-a-Sudden Peggy, Becky Warder in The 
 Truth, and Kitty in The Marriage of Kitty. 
 She visited America for the first time in 1800, 
 playing Kitty Carroll in The Red Hussar, at 
 Palmer’s Theatre, New York, and thereafter was 
 almost as well known in the United States as 
 in England. In 1014 she appeared in New York 
 in the title role of Henry Arthur Jones’s com¬ 
 edy, Mary Goes First, a part in which she had 
 already been successful in London; and in 1015 
 she revived The Duke of Killiecrankie, one of 
 her former successes. Miss Tempest was some¬ 
 times her own manager. She was married in 
 1808 to Cosmo Gordon-Lennox. 
 
 TEMPEST, The. A play by Shakespeare, 
 first acted in 1610, and first printed in the Folio 
 of 1623. The sources are principally books of 
 travel: Eden’s History of the Travaile (1577), 
 Raleigh’s Discovery of Guiana (1506), and S. 
 Jourdan’s Discovery of the Bermudas (1600), 
 telling of Sir George Somers’s fleet at Bermuda 
 in 1600. 
 
 TEMPES'TA. See Mulier, Pieter. 
 
 TEM'PLARS, Knigiits. A religious and 
 military order of the Middle Ages, the great 
 rival of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. 
 In 1110 Hugues de Payens and Geoffrey de Saint- 
 Ademar (Saint-Omer), with six companions, 
 formed a military band to protect pilgrims in 
 Palestine. They adopted a monastic rule, and 
 took the name Knights of Christ. But as quar¬ 
 ters were assigned to them in the palace at 
 Jerusalem, known as Solomon’s Temple, they 
 soon were called Knights of the Temple, or 
 Knights Templars ( milites templi) . In 1128 at 
 the Council of Troyes a rule, inspired by St. 
 Bernard, and closely following the Cistercian, 
 was given them. 
 
 The order grew rapidly. At the end of the 
 thirteenth century it had about 15,000 members, 
 and in the middle of that century it is said to 
 have owned 9000 castles and manors. It was 
 free from all taxes and was under the jurisdic¬ 
 tion of the Pope alone. As the order had to 
 make regular transfers of supplies and money 
 from Europe to Palestine, they developed an 
 effective banking system. Their strong and well- 
 manned temples were the safest places for de¬ 
 positing treasure and documents and for a time 
 the Templars were the bankers of Europe. There 
 were three ranks in the order, knights, chap¬ 
 lains, and servants. The knights, few in num¬ 
 ber, were the real Templars. They directed the 
 affairs of the order; they alone could wear the 
 white mantle with its red cross. At the head 
 of the order was the grand master. The capital 
 o'f the order was at Jerusalem till 1187, and 
 then successively at Antioch, Acre, and Caesarea, 
 and after the extinction of the Christian power 
 in Syria (1291), in Cyprus. Their standard, 
 called Beauseant, was half black, half white, 
 with the motto Non nobis Domine. The Tem¬ 
 plars’ wealth, pride, and power brought them 
 into conflict with Church and State. With the 
 decay of the crusading spirit their activity was 
 feared, and in the latter half of the thirteenth 
 century opposition grew. They had made ene¬ 
 mies in other military orders and among the 
 monastic orders. Their adoption of Oriental 
 customs and the secrecy of their rites impressed 
 popular imagination. They were charged with 
 evil and sacrilegious practices. The direct at- 
 
 87 
 
 tack on them came in France. Philip IV, under 
 the influence of Guillaume de Nogaret. saw his 
 chance to be rid of an insubordinate order, and 
 to increase his wealth. He got Pope Clement V 
 to aid him. On Oct. 13, 1307, the grand master, 
 Jacques de Molay (q.v.), and many other Tem¬ 
 plars, were arrested without warning. Their 
 trial was in charge of the Inquisitor for France. 
 Most of them under torture confessed to some 
 or all of the charges against the order. Many 
 afterward retracted, including Molay. A large 
 number were burned at the stake, Molay being 
 spared for a number of years. In 1311 Clement 
 called the General Council of Vienne, chiefly 
 for the purpose of suppressing the order. When 
 the council persisted in demanding that the 
 question should be tried strictly as a judicial 
 question without any regard for policy, Clement 
 held a secret consistory, March 22, 1312, at 
 which the suppression was decreed. On April 3 
 the bull Vox in excelso was published declaring 
 the reasons for the papal condemnation. On 
 May 2 the bull Ad providam was issued decree¬ 
 ing the final abolition of the order. Its property 
 went to the Hospitalers; but the seizures of 
 Philip were confirmed to him. Jacques de Molay 
 was burned in 1314. 
 
 Consult: Henri de Curzon, La regie du temple 
 (Paris, 1886) ; Julius Gmelin, Schuld oder Un- 
 sohuld des Tempelordens (Stuttgart, 1893) : 
 H. C. Lea, History of the Inquisition, vol. iii 
 (new ed., New York, 1906) ; Heinrich Finke, 
 Papsttum und Untergang des Tempelordens, 
 vol. i (Munster, 1907) ; Marquis d’Albon, Car- 
 tulaire generate de I’ordre de Temple, vol. i 
 (Paris, 1913). 
 
 TEMPLE. A building consecrated to reli¬ 
 gious worship, especially among pagan peoples. 
 The term is also applied to the chief sanctuary 
 of the Jews (see Temple at Jerusalem), to 
 Christian churches belonging to the Knights 
 Templars, and in France to Protestant places 
 of worship. It is also applied to the meeting- 
 places of certain Masonic bodies, and to build¬ 
 ings having the form or character of an antique 
 temple. A temple was usually dedicated to some 
 deity, whose image it contained; the interior 
 was accessible to priests, but not to the general 
 body of worshipers. Among most ancient peoples 
 the temple was the principal architectural fea¬ 
 ture, as in Greece, where the history of temple 
 construction is practically the history of archi¬ 
 tecture. The subject is therefore best treated 
 under the general title Architecture, and in 
 the subdivision Architecture in such articles as 
 Assyrian, Babylonian, Chinese, Egyptian, 
 Greek, Indian, Japanese, and Roman Art; 
 also under Architecture, Ancient American; 
 and Baalbek. In general, it may be observed 
 that the ancient temples (excepting those of 
 Chaldaea-Assyria) had these elements in com¬ 
 mon: a sanctuary containing the effigy or some 
 other sacred symbol of the deity or deities wor¬ 
 shiped; colonnades to shelter worshipers outside 
 the sanctuary; one or more courts or inclosures 
 with important gateways; and sometimes such 
 adjuncts as a lake, grove, fountain, or well sacred 
 to the deity. The Pantheon (q.v.) at Rome 
 was dedicated “to all the gods.” Temples of 
 fame are a modern product; such are the Wal- 
 halla (q.v.) near Ratisbon, the Ruhmeshalle at 
 Munich, and the Temple of Fame of the Uni¬ 
 versity of New York, which is really an open 
 colonnade. See Hall of Fame for Great 
 Americans. 
 
TEMPLE 
 
 88 
 
 TEMPLE 
 
 TEMPLE. A city in Bell Co., Tex., 35 miles 
 south by west of Waco; on the Gulf, Colorado, 
 and Santa Fe and the Missouri, Kansas, and 
 Texas railroads (Map: Texas, D 4). It has a 
 Carnegie library, Temple Sanitarium, King’s 
 Daughters’ Hospital, and the Gulf, Colorado, 
 and Santa Fe Railroad Hospital. Cottonseed- 
 oil mills, cotton gins and compresses, foundries 
 and machine shops, bottling works, a large cold- 
 storage plant, flouring mill, and a candy and 
 chewing-gum factory are among the leading 
 industrial establishments. The Gulf, Colorado, 
 and Santa Fe Railroad maintains shops here. 
 Pop., 1900, 7065; 1910, 10,993; 1915 (U. S. 
 est.), 13,104; 1920, 11,033. 
 
 TEMPLE, Bakon Mount-. See Mount- 
 Temple, Baron. 
 
 TEMPLE, Frederick (1821-1902). Arch¬ 
 bishop of Canterbury, born at Leukas, in the 
 Ionian Islands, and educated at Balliol College, 
 Oxford. He was principal of Kneller Hall, and 
 then inspector of church training colleges, until 
 he was elected head master of Rugby, where 
 his administration was very successful. In 1860 
 his name was prominent as one of the authors 
 of Essays and Reviews, a book supposed to have 
 a rationalizing tendency, though Temple’s own 
 essay on ‘‘Education of the World” contained 
 little that would be considered dangerous nowa¬ 
 days. The suspicion of heterodoxy clung about 
 him and found expression, when Gladstone in 
 1869 nominated him as Bishop of Exeter, in a 
 formal protest against his confirmation. This 
 distrust died away, and he acquired a reputation 
 for absolute justice and impartiality, while in 
 many respects his later career associated him 
 rather with the High Church party than with 
 the Broad. In 1885 he was transferred to the 
 see of London, and in 1896 became Archbishop 
 of Canterbury, and a year afterward stood out 
 as a champion of the Church of England in a 
 learned and dignified reply to the papal decision 
 declaring the invalidity of Anglican ordination. 
 He officiated at the coronation of Edward VII. 
 His most important published work is The Rela¬ 
 tion between Science and Religion (1884). 
 Consult: C. H. Dant, Archbishop Temple (Lon¬ 
 don, 1903) ; F. J. Snell, Early Associations of 
 Archbishop Temple (New York, 1905) ; Memoirs 
 of Archbishop Temple by Seven Friends, edited 
 by E. G. Sandford (2 vols., ib., 1906) ; H. C. 
 Potter, Reminiscences of Bishops and Arch¬ 
 bishops (ib., 1906). 
 
 TEMPLE, Henry John, third Viscount Pal¬ 
 merston. See Palmerston. 
 
 TEMPLE, Sir Richard (1826-1902). An 
 English politician and author, born at Kemp- 
 sey, near Worcester, and educated at Rugby. 
 Having entered the Indian service in 1847, he 
 rose quickly, becoming Finance Minister of 
 India (1868), Lieutenant Governor of Bengal 
 (1874), and Governor of Bombay (1877-80). 
 On his return to England in 1880 he became 
 financial member of the London School Board 
 (1886-94) and president of the Social Science 
 Congress. From 1885 to 1895 he sat in Parlia¬ 
 ment as a Conservative. For his services he 
 was made Baronet in 1876. His publications 
 include: hvdia in 1880 (1881) ; Men and Events 
 of my Time in India (1882); Oriental Experi¬ 
 ence (1883) ; Cosmopolitan Essays (1886) ; Pal¬ 
 estine Illustrated (1888) ; Memoir of John Law¬ 
 rence (1889); Story of my Life (1896); A 
 Bird’s-Eye View of Picturesque India (1898) ; 
 and Letters and Character Sketches from the 
 
 House of Commons, 1886-87 (published post¬ 
 humously in 1912). 
 
 TEMPLE, Richard Temple Grenville, Earl 
 (1711-79). An English statesman. He was the 
 eldest son of Richard Grenville of Wotton Hall, 
 Buckinghamshire, and was educated at Eton and 
 privately. In 1734 he was returned to Parlia¬ 
 ment for Buckingham. On the death of Vis¬ 
 count Cobham in 1749 his mother was created 
 Countess Temple and upon her death in 1752 
 Grenville succeeded to the Temple earldom. He 
 was a political associate of William Pitt, who 
 married Grenville’s sister Hester, and he held 
 the position of First Lord of the Admiralty, 
 1756-57, and Lord Privy Seal, 1757-61. He 
 was afterward in frequent opposition to the 
 King and was a violent promoter of factions. 
 Consult the Grenville Papers (1852-53), which 
 consist of the correspondence between Pitt and 
 George and Richard Temple and throw muck 
 light on the political and court life of the period. 
 
 TEMPLE, The. 1. A former stronghold of 
 the Templars in Paris, built in 1212. When the 
 order was suppressed in 1312 it was used as a 
 royal treasury and subsequently as a prison. 
 During 1792 and 1793 Louis XVI and his fam¬ 
 ily were confined in it. The last remains of the 
 building were removed in 1871 and its site is 
 now occupied by the Marche du Temple. 2. A 
 former lodge of the Templars in London, dating 
 from the end of the twelfth century, and now 
 represented by Temple Church (q.v.) and the Inns 
 of Court, known as the Inner and Middle Temple, 
 which stand on the site of the ancient building, 
 the former within the precincts of the city. 
 The Temple became crown property when the 
 order was dissolved, was presented to the Earl 
 of Pembroke, and then passed to the Knights of 
 St. John, who leased it to law students. 
 
 TEMPLE, Sir William (1628-99). An Eng¬ 
 lish statesman and essayist, born in London. 
 He was reared by an uncle, Dr. Henry Ham¬ 
 mond, rector of Penshurst, in Kent. He entered 
 Emmanuel College, Cambridge, in 1644; but he 
 left four years later without a degree, and set 
 out for France. On this journey he met Doro¬ 
 thy Osborne (q.v.). In 1665 Temple was sent 
 to Westphalia on a secret mission to the Prince 
 Bishop of Munster. On his return (1666) he 
 was created Baronet, and appointed Resident 
 at the court of Brussels. His most important 
 diplomatic success was the famous treaty of 
 1668, known as the Triple Alliance, by which 
 England, Holland, and Sweden bound themselves 
 to unite in curbing the ambition of France. 
 Temple was long Ambassador at The Hague and 
 helped to bring about the marriage of the Prince 
 of Orange with the Princess Mary (1677). In 
 1679 Charles II urged him to become his Sec¬ 
 retary of State. Though Temple refused this 
 post, he attempted to reform the government by 
 establishing a privy council of 30 members, by 
 whom the King promised to be guided in all 
 public affairs, but this council proved an utter 
 failure. Temple soon abandoned politics and 
 retired, first to Sheen, and then to Moor Park 
 in Surrey, where for the last 10 years of his life 
 he devoted himself to landscape gardening and 
 to literature. During this period he received 
 into his household as amanuensis, and afterward 
 as secretary, Jonathan Swift (q.v.), who ulti¬ 
 mately became his literary executor. 
 
 As a writer Temple is now known chiefly by 
 his historical Memoirs (unauthorized ed., 1691; 
 1709) and his Miscellanea (1680; 1692). In 
 
TEMPLE AT JERUSALEM 
 
 89 
 
 TEMPLE AT JERUSALEM 
 
 the series of 1692 first appeared the famous 
 essay on “Ancient and Modern Learning,” which 
 deals with the comparative merits of ancient 
 and modern literature. The outcome of the 
 spirited controversy in England was Swift’s 
 Battle of the Books (1704). (See Battle of 
 the Books.) Temple has been considered one 
 of the reformers of English style. According to 
 Dr. Johnson he was the first writer to give 
 cadence to English prose. During the eight¬ 
 eenth century Temple’s essays were regarded as 
 models; his English was particularly pleasing 
 to Charles Lamb, who comments upon it in his 
 “Essay on the Genteel Style.” Consult: his 
 Life and Works (4 vols., London, 1814), includ¬ 
 ing the Letters; T. P. Courtenay, Memoirs . . . 
 of Sir William Temple (2 vols., ib., 1836) ; Macau¬ 
 lay’s article on this biography in the Edinburgh 
 Review for October, 1838 (reprinted in Essays) ; 
 M. L. R. Beaven, Sir William Temple, Gladstone 
 essay, 1908 (Oxford, 1908) ; E. S. Lyttel, Sir 
 William Temple, Stanhope essay, 1908 (ib., 
 
 1908) ; Letters from Dorothy Osborne to Sir 
 William Temple, edited by E. A. Parry, in “The 
 Wayfarer’s Library” (New York, 1915). 
 
 TEMPLE AT JERUSALEM. The sanc¬ 
 tuary erected by Solomon (c. 993-953 b.c.) on 
 the eastern hill, between the Tyropaeon and Kid- 
 ron valleys, north of the original city of David 
 on the Ophel hill, and opposite the Mount of 
 Olives. According to 2 Cliron. iii. 1 it was 
 built on the threshing floor which David had 
 purchased from Oman (elsewhere Araunah and 
 Ornajah, perhaps originally Adonijah), the 
 Jebusite. Here the angel ceased smiting Israel, 
 indicating that it was a sacred place. Probably 
 this sanctity already adhered to it in the 
 Amarna period (c.1400 b.c.). The construction 
 of Solomon’s temple was begun c.990 b.c. and 
 seven years later it was dedicated. It was made 
 possible by the friendly relations between Solo¬ 
 mon and Hiram of Tyre, who furnished skilled 
 workmen as well as cedars and firs from the 
 Lebanon. In the account (1 Kings vi, somewhat 
 expanded in 2 Chron. iii-iv) of the building 
 certain features of the design are clearly set 
 forth, others are wholly passed over, so that ef¬ 
 forts to restore it from these descriptions have 
 produced an extraordinary variety of results. 
 The references to earlier sanctuaries at Shechem, 
 Ophrah, Dan, and Shiloh are too meagre to be 
 of any assistance, and the description of the 
 tabernacle in Ex. xxv. ff. is regarded by most 
 modern scholars as a projection into the past of 
 the Solomonic temple itself, and an idealization 
 of the humbler tent which actually had sheltered 
 the palladium of Israel. The temple proper of 
 Solomon measured 60 cubits in length, the outer 
 sanctuary or holy place being 20 by 40 cubits 
 in size and the holy of holies 20 by 20 cubits; 
 both were 20 cubits high. Within the latter 
 was the Ark of the Covenant under two cheru¬ 
 bim (see Cherub) with outspread wings; in 
 the holy place were the altar of incense, the 
 shewbread table, the seven-branched candle¬ 
 stick, and 10 smaller tables and candlesticks. 
 Both chambers were wainscoted with cedar and 
 wholly covered with gilding; they were separated 
 by a veil or fixed curtain fitted with an olive- 
 wood doorway and doors. It was this veil that 
 is said to have been “rent in twain” at the cruci¬ 
 fixion (Matt, xxviii. 51; Mark xv. 38; Luke 
 xxiii. 44). The golden candlestick carried by 
 Titus to Rome in 70 a.d. is figured in a relief on 
 the Arch of Titus. 
 
 In front of the temple porch were two columns 
 of bronze, Jachin and Boaz, 23 cubits high; 
 and against its side and end walls were three 
 stories of small chambers for the priests. The 
 court immediately surrounding the temple was 
 reserved for the priests, and contained the 
 brazen altar of burnt offering and the great 
 bronze sea, or tank, borne on 12 bronze oxen; 
 these, with the cherubim in the holy of holies, 
 being the only examples of free sculpture in 
 Jewish art. A second court was the place of 
 general assembly for all Jewish worshipers; it 
 preceded or surrounded the first; but whether 
 built by Solomon or encircled at a later date 
 is not certain. Solomon’s palace and the House 
 of the Cedars of Lebanon adjoined the temple 
 court. Dependencies and outbuildings were 
 added at various times to the main group. Of 
 the architectural style of the temple little is 
 known; but its builders were chiefly Phoenicians, 
 and the combination of an Egyptian type of plan 
 with such Assyrian decorative details as palms, 
 cherubim, and knops and flowers is quite in 
 harmony with the mixed style of Phoenician 
 work in general. Hittite motives have also been 
 suggested. 
 
 Solomon’s temple was destroyed by Nebuchad¬ 
 nezzar in 586 b.c. Encouraged by the prophets 
 Haggai and Zechariah, Zerubbabel, the Persian 
 governor, himself a descendant of the old Davidic 
 family, rebuilt the temple, which was finished 
 in 516 b.c., with the permission of Darius Hys- 
 taspis. The temple proper was a reproduction 
 of the original edifice, but far inferior to it in 
 splendor of ornament and gilding. This second 
 temple was desecrated by Antiochus IV Epiph- 
 anes and dedicated to Zeus Qlympius in 168 
 b.c., but rededicated again to Yahwe in 165 b.c. 
 Both the first and second edifices, were, however, 
 surpassed in architectural splendor by the third 
 temple which Herod began to erect in 20 b.c. 
 and which was completed in 64 a.d. The area 
 of the temple terrace was greatly enlarged by 
 new substructures built with masonry of colossal 
 magnitude, a section of which forms the present 
 place of wailing of the Jews. Marble was pro¬ 
 fusely used for colonnades, gates, and walls, and 
 the magnificence of Roman carved decoration 
 and architectural detail was blended with the 
 Oriental arrangement of the plan, which repro¬ 
 duced essentially the disposition of the two 
 preceding structures, but with an additional 
 exterior court of the Gentiles. A three-aisled 
 portico of vast dimensions occupied the south 
 side of the inclosure; Solomon’s porch was re¬ 
 erected in the form of a colonnade along the 
 east front, in which was perhaps the Gate Beau¬ 
 tiful (Acts iii. 2). This temple, from which 
 Jesus expelled the money changers and mer¬ 
 chants, was destroyed during the pillage of the 
 city by Titus, 70 a.d., but contrary to his orders. 
 After the insurrection of Simon Bar-Kokba (q.v.) 
 had been quelled, an altar or shrine seems to 
 have been erected in its place to Jupiter Capi- 
 tolinus by Hadrian, in front of which there 
 were two statues of the Emperor, one at least 
 equestrian. Neither Constantine nor his mother 
 Helena appears to have paid any attention to 
 these structures. Julian gave a permission to 
 the Jews to rebuild their temple, but his brief 
 reign did not allow this project to be carried 
 out. On the temple area, called by the Arabs 
 Haram el sherif, Abd el Melek, who reigned 
 from 685 to 705, erected a splendid mosque, the 
 Kabbet el Sakhrah, or Dome of the Rock, com- 
 
TEMPLE AT JERUSALEM 
 
 go 
 
 TEMPLETON 
 
 monly known as the Mosque of Omar. Except 
 for two intervals in the period of the Crusades 
 the place has since remained in the hands of 
 the Moslems. 
 
 All three temples must have presented an 
 aspect of mixed architectural styles, due to the 
 general lack of skill in the plastic arts among 
 the Jews, and their consequent dependence on 
 the arts of neighboring nations. Solomon’s 
 temple was, under these circumstances, a re¬ 
 spectable achievement; though of course not to 
 be compared with the great temples of Egypt or 
 Babylonia; but it was far surpassed in scale 
 and in magnificence of external architecture by 
 Herod’s temple. 
 
 The Temple Service. The Solomonic temple 
 was primarily intended to be a Yahwe sanc¬ 
 tuary, as is evident from 1 Kings viii. 13. But 
 during the period of the Davidic dynasty many 
 other divinities were worshiped in it. (See, e.g., 
 Ezek. viii., 2 Kings xviii., xx.) The temple of 
 Zerubbabel appears to have been devoted solely 
 to Yahwe. In 168 b.c. the sanctuary was dedi¬ 
 cated to Zeus Olympius and remained a Zeus 
 temple for three years (1 Macc. i. 54; iv. 52). 
 The magnificent temple of Herod was until the 
 fall of Jerusalem the great centre of the Jewish 
 sacrificial cult, having no rival except Onias’s 
 temple (q.v.) at Leontopolis, and was devoted 
 exclusively to the imageless worship of Yahwe. 
 
 In the regal period the King was the chief 
 priest officiating in the temple. Whether there 
 was a ceremony corresponding to the seizing of 
 the hands of Bel by the Babylonian kings, can¬ 
 not be determined. But the annual entrance 
 into the holy of holies by the high priest of the 
 Persian period may have developed out of such 
 a custom. David set the example of appointing 
 liis own sons as priests (2 Sam. xviii. 8). There 
 was no distinction yet between priests and Le- 
 vites. Even in the Deuteronomic code, intro¬ 
 duced about 620 b.c., the Levites are priests 
 whose function it is to offer sacrifices. In the 
 Persian period a high priest was at the head of 
 the hierarchy; and only families claiming de¬ 
 scent from Aaron were permitted to offer sacri¬ 
 fices. The Levites were a class by themselves 
 and were not allowed to present the sacrifices, 
 while musicians and doorkeepers formed a still 
 lower class. The Levites as well as the priests 
 were divided into 24 courses. Next to the high 
 priest ranked the Segan, or captain of the 
 temple police, then came the heads 'of the 24 
 courses, and a large number of other officials. 
 While in earlier times even the common people 
 seem to have had access to the inner court, in 
 later times the Levites and lower ministers were 
 forbidden to enter it. Non-Israelites were not 
 permitted to enter any part of the temple, but 
 representatives of the people of Israel were re¬ 
 quired to attend in turn the daily offerings in 
 the outer court. 
 
 The Tamid, or the daily offering, presented 
 every morning and evening, was the most im¬ 
 portant of the many sacrifices of a public char¬ 
 acter. The number of sacrifices was increased 
 on Sabbaths and festivals. The ceremony was 
 preceded by lustrations and solemn choice of 
 officiating priests. It consisted of the slaughter 
 of the victim, the sprinkling of the blood on the 
 altar, the removing of the blood from the altar 
 of incense in the holy place, the trimming of the 
 lamps on the candlesticks, the carrying of the 
 different parts of the victim to the foot of the 
 altar, the presentation of the flour offering, the 
 
 baked meal, and the libations of wine. During 
 the celebration of this sacrificial service, the 
 Shema Israel (Deut. vi. 4-9; xi. 13-21; and 
 Num. xv. 37-41), the Ten Commandments, and 
 three blessings were pronounced by the priests. 
 The offering of incense was accompanied with 
 prayer. Then the Levitic choir, to the accom¬ 
 paniment of stringed instruments, sang the 
 psalm of the day, divided into three sections. 
 At the end of each, priests blew three blasts on 
 the silver trumpets, and the people prostrated 
 themselves. This ritual goes back at least to 
 Hasmonsean times, and the music and singing 
 no doubt formed a part of the daily service 
 long before sections of the present Psalter were 
 in use. After the public sacrifice, private 
 sacrifices began. 
 
 Bibliography. E. Meyer, Der Tempel Salo- 
 mos (Berlin, 1830); Canina, Ricerche sull’ 
 architettura degli anticlii Giudei (Rome, 1845) ; 
 Edward Robinson, Biblical Researches (2d ed., 
 London, 1856 ) ; M. de Vogue, Le temple de Jeru¬ 
 salem (Paris, 1866) ; A. Fergusson, Temples of 
 the Jews and Other Buildings on the Haram 
 Area (London, 1874) ; the elaborate and su¬ 
 perbly illustrated discussion of the first and 
 second temples in Perrot and Chipiez, Histoire 
 de I’art en Judee, etc. (Paris, 1889). The resto¬ 
 ration of Zerubbabel’s temple, by Chipiez, in 
 this work, is a remarkable example of construc¬ 
 tive archaeology. Also T. Friedrich, Tempel und 
 Palast Salomos (Innsbruck, 1887) ; Emanuel 
 Schmidt, Solomon’s Temple in the Light of 
 Other Oriental Temples (Chicago, 1902) ; Carl 
 Mommert, Topographie des Alten Jerusalem 
 (Leipzig, 1902, 1907) ; G. A. Smith, Jerusalem 
 (London, 1907); I. Benzinger, Hebraische 
 Archaologie (2d ed., Tubingen, 1907) ; W. S. 
 Caldecott, Solomon’s Temple: Its History and 
 Structure (2d ed., London, 1908) ; Selah Merrill, 
 Ancient Jerusalem (New York, 1908) ; L. B. 
 Paton, Jerusalem in Bible Times (Chicago, 
 1908) ; Gustaf Dalman, in PaUistinajahrbuch 
 (Jerusalem, 1909) ; Hugo Gressmann, “Heilig- 
 tiimer Israels,” in Die Religion in Geschichte 
 und Gegenwart (Tubingen, 1910). 
 
 TEMiPLE BAR. A noted gateway between 
 Fleet Street and the Strand, London, built in 
 1670 by Wren, and marking the boundary of the 
 city. Here the sovereign, on entering the city, 
 was obliged to ask from the Lord Mayor per¬ 
 mission to pass. The structure was removed in 
 1878 to make a way for the enormous traffic 
 and its place was supplied by the memorial bear¬ 
 ing statues of Queen Victoria and of Edward 
 VII, then Prince of Wales. 
 
 TEMPLE CHURCH. The church connected 
 with the former house of the Knights Templars 
 in London, and the only portion of the original 
 group of buildings remaining. It consists of a 
 Norman round church, 58 feet in diameter, dat¬ 
 ing from 1185, with a choir added in 1240. It 
 has a richly painted ceiling and interesting 
 tiled flooring, and contains nine monuments of 
 Templars. See Temple, The. 
 
 TEMPLER UND JUDIN, tem'pler unt 
 yu'dln (Ger., Templar and Jewess). An opera 
 by Marschner (q.v.), first produced at Leipzig, 
 Dec. 22, 1829. 
 
 TEMPLE SOCIETY. See Friends of the 
 Temple. 
 
 TEM'PLETON. A town in Worcester Co., 
 Mass., 15 miles west by south of Fitchburg, on 
 the Boston and Albany Railroad (Map: Massa¬ 
 chusetts, C 2). Noteworthy features are the 
 
TEMPLE UNIVERSITY 
 
 91 
 
 TEMPORAL POWER 
 
 Templeton Inn, State School for the Feeble 
 Minded, Hospital Cottages for Crippled Chil¬ 
 dren, and the Boynton Public Library. There 
 are manufactories of chairs, baby carriages, 
 playground apparatus, and post-office furniture. 
 Pop., 1900, 3489; 1910, 3756. Templeton con¬ 
 stituted part of the grant given the survivors 
 of King Philip’s War (see Philip, King), and 
 was once known as Narragansett Number Six. 
 
 TEMPLE UNIVERSITY. An institution 
 founded in Philadelphia in 1888. It had its 
 beginning in the desire to provide opportunities 
 for study to ambitious young men who were 
 obliged to study at night. Two years after its 
 founding the increase in the number of students 
 necessitated the removal to a separate building. 
 In 1891 the power to confer degrees was con¬ 
 ferred upon the institution, and in the autumn 
 of the same year a day department was opened. 
 On Dec. 12, 1907, the charter was amended, 
 changing the name of the college from Temple 
 College to Temple University. The Theological 
 School was formed in 1893, the Law School in 
 1895, the Medical School in 1901, and in 1907 
 the Philadelphia Medical College was federated 
 with the university. In 1916 there were 18 de¬ 
 partments with 66 different courses offered to 
 the students. The university conducts classes 
 morning, afternoon, and evening during the aca¬ 
 demic year. The courses include those from 
 kindergarten grades up to the highest university 
 grades. These are given to the young people 
 of the city for a normal fee, and with hours con¬ 
 venient to those who are employed either day or 
 night. The university is nonsectarian, but is 
 kept under a strong moral and religious influ¬ 
 ence. The total attendance in all departments 
 of the university in 1915 was 3579. Of these 
 987 were in the Department of Commercial Edu¬ 
 cation, 606 in the College of Liberal Arts and 
 Sciences, 182 in the Department of Theology, 
 243 in the Department of Elementary Educa¬ 
 tion, and 511 in the Preparatory Department. 
 The remainder were divided among the other 
 courses. The faculty numbered 290. The library 
 contains about 9200 volumes. The university 
 has no endowment. The college grounds and 
 buildings are valued at about $565,000. The 
 annual income is about $150,000. The president 
 in 1916 was Russell H. Con well, D.D., LL.D. 
 
 TEM'PO (It., time). The degree of rapidity 
 with which a piece of music is to be executed. 
 The rhythmical proportions of notes, as indicated 
 by their form, give them only a relative value, 
 and have no reference to the absolute speed at 
 which the entire composition is to be played. 
 The varying rates of speed at which different 
 compositions or their divisions are to be played 
 are usually indicated by certain terms called 
 tempo marks. These terms are not always used 
 with exact precision, and sometimes apply more 
 to the character than to the absolute speed of 
 performance. The following are the most com¬ 
 mon terms, in the order of increasing speed: 
 Grave, Lento, Largo, Adagio (slow) ; Andante, 
 Moderodo, Allegretto (moderate) ; Allegro, Vivo 
 {vivace), Presto (fast). Gradual increase in 
 speed is indicated by accelerando, stringendo; 
 gradual decrease by rallentando, ritardando. 
 
 The tempo is indicated with far greater ex¬ 
 actness by references to the beats of the metro¬ 
 nome (q.v.). It is not, however, uncommon for 
 composers to express the tempo by reference to 
 some well-known musical form which has a char¬ 
 acteristic movement, as tempo di marcia, tempo 
 Vol. XXII.—7 
 
 di valse, tempo di minuetto, etc. Schumann and 
 Wagner discarded the Italian nomenclature and 
 indicated the tempo by means of German terms. 
 In this they have been followed by a few other 
 composers, but the German terms are not well 
 enough known to be free from a certain vague¬ 
 ness. The Italian terms came into use at the be¬ 
 ginning of the seventeenth century. Before that, 
 the means of expressing the general speed at 
 which a composition was to be played were very 
 limited. In mensurable music (q.v.) each note 
 had a certain average time value (integer 
 valor) ; but in the course of years the unit of 
 measure changed so frequently that great con¬ 
 fusion ensued. In transcribing works of the six¬ 
 teenth century in modern notation all notes 
 must usually be reduced to about half their 
 face values; in still older works the reduction 
 should be to a quarter or an eighth of the orig¬ 
 inal value. Tempo rubato (stolen time) char¬ 
 acterizes a performance to which a restless 
 movement is imparted by protracting one note 
 beyond its proper duration, and curtailing an¬ 
 other so that the aggregate duration of each 
 measure remains unchanged. Modification of 
 tempo is a term first used by Richard Wagner, 
 in his article “Ueber das Dirigieren,” to indicate 
 that a composition cannot be played throughout 
 in strict metronome time. This is especially 
 true in dramatic music, and throws the re¬ 
 sponsibility for interpretation upon the conduc¬ 
 tor (q.v.). For detailed information regarding 
 the above Italian terms, see the separate ar¬ 
 ticles. See Rubato, Tempo. 
 
 TEM'PQRALISM. In philosophy a term 
 coined to designate a philosophic system which 
 lays emphasis on the fundamental character of 
 time in the constitution of the universe, as op¬ 
 posed to the philosophies which slur over or deny 
 the validity of time, such as the philosophies of 
 Spinoza and the Hegelians. William James, TI. 
 Bergson, and A. O. Lovejoy in recent philos¬ 
 ophy are uncomprising temporalists. Consult 
 Lovejoy, “The Problem of Time in Recent French 
 Philosophy,” in Philosophical Review (Boston, 
 1912). See Time. 
 
 TEMPORAL POWER (Lat. temporalis, re¬ 
 lating to time) of the Pope. The sovereign 
 power which the Pope possessed as ruler of the 
 Papal States (q.v.), which, although modified 
 in its exercise by his spiritual character, was in 
 substance the same as that of any arbitrary 
 sovereign. Many of the mediaeval sectaries held 
 the incompatibility of the spiritual with the 
 temporal power in the same person, not only in 
 relation to the Pope, but also as to the other 
 ecclesiastics who, were feudal lords. Such were 
 the doctrines of the Vaudois, of Pierre de Bruys, 
 and above all of Arnold of Brescia (qq.v.). 
 Through the centuries which followed, the anti- 
 papal controversies turned so entirely upon doc¬ 
 trine that there was little room for the discus¬ 
 sion of this question, and it is a mistake to sup¬ 
 pose that it entered into the conflict of Gallican 
 and Ultramontane principles. Even the great 
 Gallican champion Bossuet (q.v.) not only ad¬ 
 mitted the lawfulness of temporal sovereignty, 
 but contended that it was in some sense neces¬ 
 sary to the free exercise of his spiritual power, 
 and to the independence of his ecclesiastical gov¬ 
 ernment. It was not until the aggression of the 
 French Republic upon Rome, and the annexation 
 of the papal provinces called the legations to 
 the Cisalpine Republic, and afterward to the 
 Kingdom of Italy, by Bonaparte, that the con- 
 
TEMRYUK 
 
 92 
 
 TENCIN 
 
 troversy assumed practical interest. For a few 
 years all of the papal territories were in the 
 liands of Napoleon. More recently, upon the 
 incorporation of the whole of the Papal States 
 in the Kingdom of Italy, the question once more 
 agitated the Catholic world, and is still a prac¬ 
 tical one. Most Roman Catholics, while admit¬ 
 ting that the possession of temporal sovereignty 
 is no essential part of the privileges of the suc¬ 
 cessor of St. Peter, regard the possession of 
 a sovereignty independent of any particular 
 sovereign as the means providentially estab¬ 
 lished for the protection of the spiritual inde¬ 
 pendence of the Pope, and of the free exercise 
 of his functions as spiritual ruler of the 
 Church. 
 
 TEMRYUK, tyem-ryook/. A seaport in the 
 Province of Kuban, Ciscaucasia, Russia, on an 
 inlet of the Sea of Azov, 90 miles west of Ye- 
 katerinodar (Map: Russia, E 5). It has an 
 extensive export trade in grain and flour. Pop., 
 1910, 17,731. 
 
 TEMUCO, ta-moo'ko. The capital town of 
 the Province of Cautfn, Chile, 140 miles south¬ 
 east of the port of Concepcion, with which it 
 has railway communication, on the north bank 
 of the river Imperial or Cautfn (Map: Chile, E 
 5). The town has tanneries and breweries and 
 carries on an important trade with the Arau- 
 canians of the vicinity. Pop., 1910, 16,037. 
 
 TEN, Council of. See Council of Ten. 
 
 TENAFLY, ten'a-fli. A borough in Bergen 
 Co., N. J., 16 miles north of New York City, 
 on the Erie Railroad (Map: New Jersey, E 2). 
 It contains the Mary Fisher Home for the Aged, 
 the Retlnnore Home for Children, and the Happy 
 Land Home for Children. Tenafly is essentially 
 a residential place, but has manufactures of 
 shades and decorative cloths. Pop., 1900, 1746; 
 1910, 2756; 1915 (State census), 3050. 
 
 TENAILLE, tg-naF. In fortification, a low 
 work situated in the reentering angle formed in 
 the enceinte ditch by the curtain and flanks of 
 the bastioned system. It is isolated, from these 
 parts of the enceinte by a ditch, and is de¬ 
 signed to serve as a mask, protecting the scarp 
 walls of this reentering angle from fire, as well 
 as the outlets to the enceinte ditch. A tenailled 
 line, the reentering angles of which are between 
 90 and 100 degrees, and the salient angles not 
 less than 60 degrees, forms a tenailled system. 
 Consult Mahan, revised by James Mercur, Per¬ 
 manent Fortifications (New York, 1888). See 
 Fortification. 
 
 TENANCY, Joint. See Joint Tenancy. 
 
 TENANCY AT SUFFERANCE (OF. ten- 
 ance, from Lat. tenere, to hold, retain). A legal 
 term defining the occupation o*f land. When a 
 tenant enters upon land lawfully, but continues 
 in possession through the neglect of the land¬ 
 lord, he is a tenant at sufferance. Such is a 
 holding over after a lease has expired, or the 
 possession of land under a parol agreement of 
 sale. 
 
 The distinction between such a tenancy and a 
 tenancy at will has been lost sight of in modern 
 law. The statutes of various states have de¬ 
 fined the relationship of landlord and tenant, 
 and in what manner a tenancy may be termi¬ 
 nated and possession recovered. See Landlord 
 and Tenant; Tenancy at Will. 
 
 TENANCY AT WILL. A tenancy \Vhich is 
 terminable at any time by either the landlord or 
 the tenant. The term is used indiscriminately 
 with tenancy at sulferance (q.v.), but the latter 
 
 means a holding without the expressed consent 
 of the landlord, and the former a tenancv whose 
 duration is uncertain. The death of either party 
 or the alienation of the land, by deed or written 
 lease, effects a termination of the tenancy. At 
 common law a tenant at will was not entitled to 
 notice to quit. It is now usually required. Any 
 knowledge brought home to the tenant that may 
 be construed as a notice to quit is sufficient, 
 such as a demand of possession. Modern statutes 
 provide the exact steps to be taken to dis¬ 
 possess a tenant at will. There being no definite 
 term, assignments of leases at will are not 
 valid, and operate as a notice of the tenant’s 
 election to terminate the tenancy. See Land¬ 
 lord and Tenant. 
 
 TENANCY BY ENTIRETY. See Entirety, 
 
 Tenancy by. 
 
 TENANCY IN COMMON. An interest or 
 estate in real or personal property resting in 
 joint possession and held by several persons at 
 the same time by several and distinct titles. 
 See Common, Tenancy in; Joint Ownership; 
 and consult authorities referred to under Real 
 Property 
 
 TENANT FOR LIFE. See Life Estate. 
 
 TENANT RIGHT. In English law a cus¬ 
 tom which is recognized in some districts in Ire¬ 
 land, under which a tenant is conceded the right 
 to continue to occupy land upon which he has 
 made improvements, practically indefinitely 
 without the payment of an increased rent. By 
 the Land Act of 1870 the custom was recog¬ 
 nized. See Landlord and Tenant. 
 
 TENAS'SERIM. Tie southernmost division 
 of Lower Burma (see Burma ), bordering on 
 Siam, and comprising the districts of Sal win, 
 Amherst, Tavoy, Thaton, Toungu, and Mergui 
 (Map: Burma, C 4). Tenasserim is a narrow 
 strip of coast about 500 miles long, with a vary¬ 
 ing breadth of from 40 to 80 miles, extending 
 from the Pakchan River northward to the Sal- 
 win. Area, 36,086 square miles. Pop., 1901, 
 1,137,776; 1911, 1,406,264. 
 
 TEN BRINK, Jan. See Brink, Jan Ten. 
 
 TENCH (OF. tenche, Fr. tanche, from ML. 
 tenca, Lat. tinea, tench). A small European 
 cyprinoid carplike fish ( Tinea vulgaris), an in¬ 
 habitant of ponds and stagnant waters. It is 
 deep yellowish brown and usually about a foot 
 long. Its flesh is poor. See Plate of Carps and 
 Allies. 
 
 TENCIN, taN'sfiN', Claudine Alexandrine 
 G-uerin de (1681-1749). A French novelist, 
 prominent in the literary society of the Regency. 
 She was born at Grenoble, and was placed in 
 the Convent of Montfleury as a novice, whence a 
 sympathetic Lothario rescued her. She next ap¬ 
 peared at Paris as an unscrupulous friend of 
 Cardinal Dubois (1714), gathering about her a 
 crowd of admirers, among them Fontenelle, Law, 
 and the Regent. With the death of the Regent 
 Orleans (1723) her influence waned. In 1726 
 she suffered a brief imprisonment in the Bastille 
 because a desperate lover had killed himself in 
 her house. Later her reputation revived; she 
 became decorous and popular with her former 
 friends, including Duclos, Lamotte, Marivaux, 
 Marmontel, Montesquieu. She wrote three nov¬ 
 els, mingling history with fiction: Les m6- 
 moires du comte de Comminges (1735), Le siege 
 de Calais (1739), and Les malheurs de Vamour 
 (1747), the last a bit of psychic autobiography. 
 The strength of these tales lies in their scenes 
 of dread and gloom. Her nearest literary an- 
 
TEN COMMANDMENTS 
 
 93 
 
 TENDRAC 
 
 alogue is Madame de La Fayette (q.v.). Madame 
 de Tencin was the mother, through one of her 
 many illicit connections, of D’Alembert (q.v.). 
 Her correspondence with her brother, Cardinal 
 de Tencin (1680-1758), appeared in Paris in 
 1780, that with the Duke de Richelieu in 1806. 
 Alleged M6moires secrets were published by 
 BarthSlemy (Grenoble, 1790). Tencin’s CEuvres, 
 with those of Madame de Fontaines, were pub¬ 
 lished by ’Gamier (Paris, 1864). 
 
 TEN COMMANDMENTS. See Decalogue. 
 
 TENDA, ten'da, Col ui. A pass over the 
 Maritime Alps in Italy near the boundary of 
 France and 25 miles from the Mediterranean 
 coast (Map: Italy, A 2). Its altitude is 6145 
 feet, and it carries the railroad from Cuneo to 
 Ventimiglia. The carriage road from Cuneo to 
 Nice passes here through a tunnel nearly two 
 miles long and lighted by electricity. 
 
 TENDAI-SHU, ten-di'shoo' (Chin. T’len-tai 
 Tsung, name of a mountain in China where the 
 founder of the sect studied). A sect of Japanese 
 Buddhists, established towards the end of the 
 eighth century by a Japanese priest named Den- 
 gyo Daishi. Like all Japanese sects, it is of the 
 Northern School, and is based upon the Sad- 
 dharma Pundarika, or Lotus of the Good Law. 
 Salvation lies in the perception of the original 
 and absolute Buddha, of whom the historic 
 Buddha is one manifestation. The means of sal¬ 
 vation are meditation and wisdom. It has an 
 exoteric teaching for the vulgar, while its eso¬ 
 teric doctrines are reserved for the monks, al¬ 
 though the highest truths are recognized as 
 transcending human comprehension. The sect is 
 eclectic, and various Buddhas are worshiped in 
 its temples. It completed the triumph of Bud¬ 
 dhism in Japan by declaring that the Shinto 
 deities are manifestations of Buddha. As it 
 attempted in its teachings to reconcile contradic¬ 
 tory doctrines, it gave rise to schism and became 
 the mother of many sects. Its centre was on the 
 mountain near Kyoto called Hiyei-zan. Its 
 priests, though devoted by profession to medita¬ 
 tion, became very warlike in the Middle Ages. 
 Nobunaga (q.v.) in 1571 a.d. destroyed the mon¬ 
 astery, and killed the inhabitants. The sect 
 never regained its commanding position. Con¬ 
 sult Nanjo, Short History of the Twelve Japa¬ 
 nese Buddhist Sects (London, 1887) ; W. E. Grif¬ 
 fis, The Religions of Japan (New York, 1895) ; 
 G. W. Knox, The Development of Religion in 
 Japan (ib., 1907). 
 
 TENDENCY (from Lat. tendens, pres. p. 
 of tendere, to stretch, tend; connected with Gk. 
 relveiv, teinein, to stretch). A term in psycho¬ 
 physics denoting the nervous disposition which 
 underlies some phase of mental constitution. 
 Thus, perseverative tendency is the tendency of 
 a nervous impression to persist, and of the cor¬ 
 related mental formation to reemerge. Associ¬ 
 ative tendency is a connection between two im¬ 
 pressions such that, if the one is reexcited the 
 other tends to be excited. Determining tendency 
 (q.v.) represents a set of the nervous elements 
 such that a course of successive associative 
 tendencies is directed to some single end. 
 
 Tendencies are either natural, i.e., based on 
 inheritance and transmitted through the nervous 
 system, or they are acquired during the lifetime 
 of the organism. The conditions for setting up 
 impressional and associative tendencies are the 
 secondary laws of association (see Association 
 of Ideas), and determining tendencies are ac¬ 
 quired either through habit or as the result 
 
 of some salient experience. See Disposition; 
 Habit; Memory; Mental Constitution; Tem¬ 
 perament. 
 
 TENDER (from ME. tender, OF., Fr. tendre, 
 from Lat. tendere, to stretch, extend). As a 
 legal term the formal offer to perform an ob¬ 
 ligation under such circumstances as to make no 
 further act necessary on the part of the person 
 making the tender. 
 
 The term is frequently used with reference to 
 the payment of money, but it includes any act, 
 such as an offer to perform or to deliver goods. 
 If the obligation is to pay money it must be made 
 in legal tender (q.v.). The rule has been relaxed 
 in some states and a tender of a check or bill of 
 exchange is good unless the debtor rejects the 
 tender on the ground that it is not lawful money. 
 If the creditor prevents or specifically waives 
 the tender the necessity is dispensed with. If 
 the tender is a fulfillment of the obligation it is 
 a complete defense to an action. 
 
 The debtor must keep the tender good and be 
 ready at all times to perform. By statutes in 
 many states, even after action is brought, he 
 may pay into court the sum he admits to be due 
 with interest and costs up to date. The sum so 
 paid becomes the property of the creditor. If he 
 does not accept it he proceeds at the risk of 
 having costs awarded against him should the 
 court determine such tender was sufficient. Con¬ 
 sult A. P. Hunt, Treatise on the Law of Tender 
 (St. Paul, 1903). See Legal Tender; Mort¬ 
 gage; Pledge. 
 
 TENDILLA, Count of. See Mendoza, An¬ 
 toine de. 
 
 TENDON (from ML. tendo, tendon, from 
 Lat. tendere, to stretch, extend). A term em¬ 
 ployed in anatomy to designate the structure 
 of white fibrous tissue reaching from the end 
 of a muscle to bone or some other structure 
 which is to serve as a fixed attachment for it, or 
 which it is intended to move. In accordance 
 with their form, tendons have been divided into 
 the three following varieties: (1) Funicular, 
 
 or ropelike, as the long tendon of the biceps 
 muscle of the arm; (2) fascicular, as the 
 short tendon of that muscle, and as most tendons 
 generally; and (3) aponeurotic, or tendinous 
 expansions, sometimes of considerable extent, 
 and serviceable in strengthening the walls of 
 cavities, as, for example, the tendons of the ab¬ 
 dominal muscles. 
 
 The tendons begin by separate fasciculi from 
 the end of each muscular fibre, and they similarly 
 terminate by separate fasciculi in distinct de¬ 
 pressions in the bones, besides being closely in¬ 
 corporated with the periosteum. Tendons, to¬ 
 gether with their sheaths, are subject to acute 
 and chronic inflammations and to tumor forma¬ 
 tion. The ordinary acute form of inflammation 
 known as acute tenosynovitis is usually brought 
 about by injury, such as a blow or by overuse. 
 The chronic form of inflammation is usually 
 tuberculous, though a rheumatic diathesis some¬ 
 times occurs. The tumors commonly observed in 
 tendons are small fibrous and cartilaginous en¬ 
 largements. Such growths occasionally assume 
 a malignant character. When separation of a 
 tendon occurs either by rupture or incision, if 
 the divided ends are not too widely separated, 
 repair takes place by the deposition of new 
 fibrous tissue, closely resembling true tendon 
 tissue. This repair is usually complete at the 
 end of three weeks. 
 
 TENDRAC. See Tenrec. 
 
TENDRIL 
 
 94 
 
 TENEMENT-HOUSE PROBLEM 
 
 TEN'DRIL (Fr. tendrille, from tendre, tender, 
 from Lat. tener, delicate; connected with tenuis, 
 Gk. Ta.va.6s, tanaos ); A slender, usually cylin¬ 
 drical organ of higher plants used for climbing. 
 As to their origin, tendrils may occupy the po¬ 
 sition of leaflets, or of leaves, normally sub¬ 
 tended by branches, or of branches usually sub¬ 
 tended by leaves. The last two sorts, however, 
 are not always easily distinguished. Some ten¬ 
 drils are coiled when young, unrolling as they 
 mature; others are merely bent, or straight, or 
 variously folded. At maturity they are usually 
 slightly hooked near the apex. 
 
 Structurally, tendrils contain vascular bundles, 
 surrounded by a cortex of thin walled and some¬ 
 what elongated parenchyma cells, covered by a 
 delicate epidermis. (See Histology.) Physio¬ 
 logically, they are sensitive to friction, often 
 remarkably. Sensitiveness is ordinarily greatest 
 on the concave side of the curved tip, though 
 some tendrils are sensitive on the flanks and 
 others sensitive on all sides. In tendrils sensi¬ 
 tive on the concave flank a single stroke on this 
 flank is followed by a rapid growth on the con¬ 
 vex flank exactly opposite, also a great increase 
 in the rate of growth in the middle line. This 
 reaction is followed a little later by an auto¬ 
 tropic straightening. Therefore, the total result 
 of a single stroke leaves the tendril unaltered in 
 shape. It is only by repeated strokes along 
 much of the concave flank that the tendril finally 
 closely grasps the support. The petioles of 
 some leaves, e.g., Clematis, show a similar but 
 less acute sensitiveness to friction, making one 
 
 a, a tendril that has attached itself and is coiling, with re¬ 
 versal of coils in centre; b, a recently attached tendril, the 
 unequal growth just beginning; c, one just attached; d, one 
 just straightened out; e, one still coiled from the bud. 
 
 turn about a support. Uncaria has short conical 
 hooks, which are stimulated by contact and 
 friction to grow in such a way that they en¬ 
 large greatly and curve about a support. Ten¬ 
 drils of wall-climbing ivies often form glandular 
 disks that attach them. After a tendril has 
 laid hold of an appropriate support the portion 
 between the support and the axis of the plant is 
 brought under strain, to which it responds by 
 unequal growth on opposite flanks (on one side). 
 By this means it is thrown into a spiral with 
 one or more points of reversal (a mechanical 
 necessity when a once straight cylindrical body 
 
 elongates on one side and so coils up). The 
 coils develop mechanical tissues, and the most 
 perfect tendril thus becomes a strong, uniformly 
 coiled, elastic spiral spring which supports the 
 plant. See Lianas. 
 
 TEN'EBR-ZE (Lat., darkness). A service in 
 the Roman Catholic church; the matins of 
 Thursday, Friday, and Saturday in Holy Week, 
 generally sung on the preceding evening. The 
 name is taken from the opening of the Respon- 
 sorium following the fifth lesson on Good Fri¬ 
 day, Tenebrce factce sunt. The service consists 
 of sixteen psalms and a canticle from the Old 
 Testament, sung with their proper antiphons in 
 fourteen divisions, nine lessons, nine respon- 
 sories, the canticle Benedictus, and the Miserere. 
 Most of the service is in unisonous plain chant. 
 At the conclusion of each psalm and antiphon 
 one of the fifteen candles in the triangular 
 candlestick used for this special service is ex¬ 
 tinguished with ceremony. During the sing¬ 
 ing of the Benedictus the six altar candles are 
 put out one by one. The only light remaining is 
 the candle at the apex of the candlestick. This 
 is removed and carried behind the altar. After 
 the singing of the antiphon, Christus factus est 
 pro nobis obediens usque ad mortem, a silence 
 follows during which the Paternoster is whis¬ 
 pered in secret; after the Miserere a prayer is 
 made and the candle is brought from behind the 
 altar. Then, according to the rubric, ‘‘all rise 
 and depart in silence.” 
 
 TEN'EDOS. An island in the Aegean Sea, 
 five miles from the northwest coast of Asia 
 Minor. Its situation near the entrance of the 
 Dardanelles gives it strategic importance (Map: 
 Greece, G 4). Area, 16 square miles. The only 
 town which bears the name of the island is in¬ 
 closed by walls and has an old castle and re¬ 
 mains of the storehouses erected by Justinian. 
 The surface of the island is uneven and rocky, 
 but the soil is fairly fertile. Wine is the most 
 important product, about 5,000,000 gallons being 
 annually exported. Population, about 4000, two- 
 thirds of whom are Greeks. Tenedos was succes¬ 
 sively under the control of Persia, Athens, Rome, 
 the Byzantine emperors, and Venice. It figured 
 in the Trojan War. Since 1455 it has been a 
 Turkish possession, and is included in the Archi¬ 
 pelago Vilayet. 
 
 TEN'EMENT (Lat. tenementum, a holding, 
 fief, from tenere, to hold, retain). In the strict 
 legal sense, anything of a permanent nature, 
 corporeal or incorporeal, which may be held or 
 be an object of tenure (q.v.). In the law of 
 real property the term is used in a broad sense 
 and denotes any estate or interest in land. Pop¬ 
 ularly, tenement means any rented house. See 
 Real Property. 
 
 TENEMENT-HOUSE AND HOUSING 
 REGULATION. See Town Planning and 
 
 Housing. 
 
 TENEMENT-HOUSE LAW. The name by 
 which are known various laws passed by munici¬ 
 palities in an effort to prevent unhealthful con¬ 
 gestion of population. Perhaps the best known 
 of these is the New York Tenement House Law 
 of 1901, sometimes known as the “New Law.” 
 See Apartment House; Building Laws; City 
 Planning; Housing Problem; Town Plan¬ 
 ning and Housing. 
 
 TENEMENT-HOUSE PROBLEM. The 
 
 problem of the making possible a healthful 
 human existence under the conditions of dense 
 population in our modem cities. With the 
 
TENERANI 
 
 95 
 
 TENIERS 
 
 growth of great cities, a double movement of 
 population takes place. The well-to-do are driven 
 from former residential districts by the en¬ 
 croachments of business, while working people 
 crowd into their vacated houses. Rear tene¬ 
 ments are built behind the old houses; new 
 structures are put up solely for use as tene¬ 
 ments; and the whole process is left in the 
 hands of private builders and landlords, ill regu¬ 
 lated by the municipality, until its two most 
 obvious evils, the danger from epidemics and the 
 danger from fire, force themselves upon public 
 attention. 
 
 The first step in reform is legislation com¬ 
 pelling the destruction or renovation of existing 
 dwellings that are unsanitary, but it is equally 
 important to provide for rehousing the displaced 
 population, and to see that new tenements are 
 properly built. These problems have been at¬ 
 tacked by sociologists and legislators in nearly 
 all centres where there is great congestion of 
 population and are discussed under Apartment 
 House ; Building Laws ; City Planning ; Hous¬ 
 ing Problem; Town Planning and Housing. 
 
 Bibliography. “Slums of'the Great Cities,” 
 in United States Commissioner of Labor, Sev¬ 
 enth Annual Report (Washington, 1894) ; J. A. 
 Riis, A Ten Years’ War (Boston, 1900) ; E. 
 R. L. Gould, Housing of the Working People 
 (Washington, 1895) ; J. S. Nettlefold, Practical 
 Housing (London, 1910) ; “Improved Housing,” 
 in New York School of Philanthropy, Bul¬ 
 letin No. 6 (New York, 1906) ; American Insti¬ 
 tute of Architects, Journal (Harrisburg, Pa., 
 1914) ; Georges Risler, Housing of the Working 
 Classes in France (San Francisco, 1915) ; Na¬ 
 tional Housing Conference, Proceedings (Cam¬ 
 bridge, Mass., annually). 
 
 TENERANI, ta'na-ra'ne, Pietro (17 89— 
 1869). An Italian sculptor, born at Torano, 
 near Carrara. He studied at the Carrara Acad¬ 
 emy and later in Rome under Thorvaldsen, to 
 whom he became a favorite assistant, and by 
 whom he was strongly influenced. Tenerani was 
 appointed professor at the Academy of St. 
 Luke and was the leader of Roman art during 
 the middle of the nineteenth century. His work 
 is in the classicist style and is characterized by 
 dignity, refinement, and harmony of line. Among 
 his best-known sculptures are the group “Cupid 
 and Venus” (Chatsworth) ; the bas-reliefs of 
 “Charity” (Castle Ashby Church, Northampton¬ 
 shire) ; the “Deposition from the Cross,” in the 
 Lateran (Rome) ; an “Angel of the Resurrec¬ 
 tion,” in Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Rome 
 (replica in the Friedenskirche, Potsdam) ; and 
 the tomb of Pius VIII in St. Peter’s. He 
 was one of the first Italian sculptors to use 
 modern costume for his fine portrait statues, 
 which include those of Bolivar (Colombia, South 
 America) and of Pellegrino Rossi (Carrara). 
 
 •TEN'ERIFFE / (Sp. Tenerife). The largest 
 of the Canary Islands (q.v.), a little west of the 
 centre of the group, between the islands of 
 Palma and Gran Canaria (Map: Spain, F 4). 
 Area, 782 square miles. It consists of a nearly 
 circular main portion from which a peninsula 
 projects northeast. The latter consists of 
 ancient, eroded, and forest-covered mountains, 
 while the main portion rises into the magnifi¬ 
 cent Peak of Teneriffe or Pico de Teyde, a dor¬ 
 mant volcano 12,192 feet high. The base of this 
 enormous cone consists of pasture land inter¬ 
 spersed with forests of chestnut and oak, but the 
 steep upper slopes are covered with volcanic 
 
 scoriae, the summit being capped with snow in 
 winter. The last serious eruption of the volcano 
 occurred in 1910. The climate is mild and 
 healthful, and dates, coconuts, and other tropical 
 and northern fruits are cultivated, as well as 
 grain, cotton, sugar, and grapes. Pop., 1900, 
 137,302; 1910, 180,307. The capital of the 
 
 island and of the whole archipelago is Santa 
 Cruz de Tenerife (q.v.). 
 
 TENERIFFE, Marquis of. See Weyler, 
 N. V. 
 
 TENES / MUS (Neo-Lat., from Lat. tenesmos, 
 from Gk. Teiveagos, teinesmos, a straining at 
 stool, from re Lveiv, teinein, to stretch). Pain 
 referred to the rectum or bladder, due to the 
 spasmodic contraction of the sphincter ani or 
 sphincter vesicae, and associated with an unsuc¬ 
 cessful desire to evacuate the bowels or bladder. 
 Rectal tenesmus is a constant symptom of dys¬ 
 entery (q.v.), and may accompany hemorrhoids, 
 fissure, fistula, or malignant disease of the lower 
 rectum. Causes of vesical tenesmus are chiefly 
 cystitis (q.v.) and pressure on the bladder. 
 Treatment will depend on the disease of which 
 tenesmus is a symptom, but cold or hot applica¬ 
 tions, enemas containing laudanum, or supposi¬ 
 tories of opium, cocaine, belladonna, or hyoscy- 
 amus will relieve the pain. 
 
 TE'NIA. See Tapeworm. 
 
 TENIERS, te-ners'; often, as Fr., te-nya', or, 
 as Eng., ten'yerz, David, the Elder (1582-1649). 
 A Flemish genre and landscape painter. He was 
 born at Antwerp, and studied with his brother 
 Juliaen, under Rubens, and then with Elsheimer 
 at Rome. Many of his early sub jects, painted in 
 the manner of Elsheimer, were landscapes with 
 mythological figures, of which eight are in the 
 Vienna Museum. He essayed also religious 
 and mythological subjects, but his chief impor¬ 
 tance is as a genre painter, particularly of peas¬ 
 ant scenes, kermesses, and the like, rendered with 
 wholesome humor and in an individual style. 
 Typical examples of his work are the “Tempta¬ 
 tion of Saint Anthony” (Berlin Museum) ; 
 “Peasants Carousing in Front of a Tavern” 
 (Darmstadt Gallery) ; and “A Dutch (properly 
 Flemish) Kitchen” (Metropolitan Museum, New 
 York). He is well represented also at Brussels, 
 Munich, Dresden, St. Petersburg, Madrid, and 
 in the National Gallery, London. 
 
 TENIERS, David, the Younger (1610-90). 
 The principal genre painter of the Flemish 
 school. He was born at Antwerp, the son and 
 pupil of the preceding. Before he was twenty 
 his work bore the stamp of maturity, and in 
 1633 he entered the guild as master. His early 
 manner and choice of subjects is represented by 
 such examples as “The Prodigal Son” (Pinako- 
 thek, Munich), “The Five Senses” (Brussels 
 Museum), “A Merry Repast” (Berlin Museum), 
 and “The Misers” (1634, National Gallery, Lon¬ 
 don). The delineations from peasant life, which 
 thenceforth were his chief productions, show 
 the influence of Adrian Brouwer, although there 
 is no evidence of Teniers having been his 
 pupil. Of more than 100 such pictures which 
 Teniers painted, some of the most characteristic 
 are: the “Interior of Village Inn,” “Flemish 
 Tap-Room” (1643); “Peasants’ Dance” (1645); 
 “The Smokers” (1650, all in the Pinakothek, 
 Munich) ; “Hour of Rest” (Amsterdam), “Smok¬ 
 ing Club” (Dresden), and “Backgammon Play¬ 
 ers” (1641, Berlin). Brouwer’s spirit also pre¬ 
 vails in subjects like “The Dentist” and “The 
 Barber Shop” (both in Cassel), “The Village 
 
TENIMBER 
 
 96 
 
 TENNANT 
 
 Doctor” (Brussels) ; also in various treatments 
 of “The Alchemist” (The Hague and Dresden), 
 and of the “Temptation of Saint Anthony” 
 (Brussels, Dresden, and—dated 1647—Berlin). 
 
 In 1637 Teniers married Anna Breughel, the 
 daughter of Jan Breughel and ward of Rubens, 
 who was one of the marriage witnesses. Soon 
 after the death of Brouwer in 1638 the influence 
 of Rubens became apparent in Teniers’s coloring, 
 which changed to a warm golden tone with rich 
 and luminous local colors, and in the dramatic 
 life animating his large compositions. This 
 phase is well exemplified by a “Peasants’ Dance” 
 (1640, Berlin) and the “Flemish Kinness” 
 (1641, Dresden, Vienna, Madrid; 1652, Brussels 
 and Amsterdam). Especially remarkable for the 
 number of figures is “The. Great Italian Fair” 
 (Munich), and interesting portrait groups are 
 represented in “The Artist and his Family” 
 (c.1645, Berlin) and “Teniers in Front of his 
 Castle near Perck” (National Gallery, London). 
 In 1642 he was commissioned to paint for St. 
 George’s Guild an “Archers’ Festival” (St. 
 Petersburg), containing 45 characteristic por¬ 
 trait figures. A few scenes from military life 
 are depicted in the fine “Guard Room” (Amster¬ 
 dam), “Robbers Plundering a Village” (1648, 
 Vienna), and “Relief of Valenciennes by the 
 Spaniards” (Antwerp). His few religious paint¬ 
 ings are unimportant. 
 
 After Teniers had, about 1643, become lord of 
 the manor of Dry Toren (Three Towers), near 
 Brussels, he seems to have been more than ever 
 absorbed in rural life and work, as may be seen 
 in the “Cow Stable,” and “Goat House” (Vi¬ 
 enna), especially noteworthy for their chiaros¬ 
 curo. In 1644 he was chosen head of the painters’ 
 guild in Antwerp, appointed court painter to 
 Archduke Leopold William, Regent of the Neth¬ 
 erlands. He removed to Brussels in 1650. He 
 depicted notable events in the life of the Arch¬ 
 duke and his consort, Isabella, including the 
 “Shooting Match at Brussels” (1652, Vienna), 
 containing more than 470 figures. As director 
 of Leopold’s gallery he was in charge of ex¬ 
 tensive purchases, and he painted a series of in¬ 
 teriors, faithfully representing these treasures 
 to the minutest detail (Munich, Vienna, Madrid, 
 and Brussels). Among the works of Teniers’s 
 later period are rural scenes and landscapes, be¬ 
 sides his parodistic monkey pictures, of which 
 three are in the Pinakothek, Munich. Unique 
 among his works is the “Sacrament of the Mir¬ 
 acle of St. Gudule” (Berlin), painted on white 
 marble, the grain of which is visible through the 
 colors. The Metropolitan Museum, New York, 
 possesses a “Marriage Festival” and a “Temp¬ 
 tation of Saint Anthony,” and four others, two 
 being landscapes after Bassano. 
 
 Teniers left in all about 900 paintings. Con¬ 
 sult: Alfred von Wurzbach, “David Teniers 
 der Jtingere,” in Robert Dohme, Kunst und 
 Kunstler des Mittelalters, vol. xx (Bielefeld, 
 1877); Adolph Rosenberg, “David Teniers der 
 Jungere,” in Kunstler Monographien, No. 8 (ib., 
 1895) ; Masters in Art, vol. viii (Boston, 
 1907); Roger Peyre, David Teniers: Biographie 
 Critique, in “Les Grands Artistes” (Paris, 
 1911); Oscar Schellekens, Les trois David Te¬ 
 niers (Termonde, 1912). 
 
 TENIM'BER. A group of islands in the 
 Malay Archipelago. See Timorlaut. 
 
 TENINO, ta-ne'nd. A tribe of Shahaptian 
 stock (q.v.) formerly- claiming most of the 
 Deschutes River country of northern Oregon, 
 
 and now gathered with other tribes upon Warm¬ 
 spring reservation in the same region. In 1855 
 they made their first treaty with the govern¬ 
 ment, and agreed to come upon their present 
 reservation. See Shahaptian Stock. 
 
 TEN KATE, Jan J. L. See Kate, Jan J. L. 
 Ten. 
 
 TEN'LIE. See Jackal. 
 
 TEFNANT, Charles (1768-1838). A Brit¬ 
 ish chemist. He was born in Ochiltree, Scot¬ 
 land, and followed the trade of bleaching. While 
 experimenting, he found that by passing chlorine 
 into lime suspended in water, a product was ob¬ 
 tained that possessed similar properties to the 
 javelle water, then generally used as a bleaching 
 agent. The new product was found to be much 
 the cheaper. He was given a patent for his 
 process in 1798, but was unable to protect it 
 against frequent infringement. Later he pat¬ 
 ented a process for making bleaching powder by 
 passing chlorine over slaked lime, a method that 
 is still of commercial value and extended use. 
 In 1800 he -founded the St. Rollox Chemical 
 Company in Glasgow. 
 
 TENNANT, Frederick Robert ( J866- ). 
 
 A British theologian, born at Burslem, Stafford¬ 
 shire. He was educated at Caius College, Cam¬ 
 bridge, and after teaching held various livings 
 in the Church. At Cambridge he was Hulsean 
 lecturer in 1901, lecturer on the philosophy of 
 religion in 1907, and lecturer on theology and 
 fellow of Trinity College after 1913. His publi¬ 
 cations include: The Origin and Propagation of 
 Sin (1902; 2d ed., 1906); Sources of the Doc¬ 
 trine of the Fall and Original Sin (1903) ; The 
 Concept of Sin (1912). 
 
 TENNANT, Smithson (1761-1815). An 
 English chemist. He was born in Selby, York¬ 
 shire, and was educated at Edinburgh and Cam¬ 
 bridge (M.D., 1790). Devoting himself to scien¬ 
 tific investigation, especially in agriculture and 
 chemistry, he made a famous discovery of the 
 elements iridium and osmium, which he found in 
 the residues obtained in the purification of na¬ 
 tive platinum. In 1813 he was called to a chair 
 of chemistry in Cambridge. 
 
 TENNANT, William (1784-1848). A Scot¬ 
 tish poet. He was horn at Anstruther, Fife- 
 shire, Scotland. A cripple almost from his birth, 
 he naturally turned to study. In 1799 he entered 
 the University of St. Andrews, which he left 
 after two years to become clerk to his brother, 
 a corn agent. The business proving unsuccessful, 
 he was glad to accept in 1813 the situation of 
 parish schoolmaster at Dunino, a small village 
 about four miles from St. Andrews, with a 
 salary of £40 a year. In 1812 he had published 
 his Anster Fair, a poem of much sprightliness 
 and humor. The piece gradually made its way, 
 aided by a highly laudatory notice in the Edin¬ 
 burgh Pevieio, from the pen of the then omnipo¬ 
 tent Jeffrey. In 1816 Tennant became teacher of 
 a school at Lasswade, near Edinburgh, whence 
 three years afterward he was transferred to the 
 Dollar Academy in Clackmannanshire. His at¬ 
 tainments as a linguist were by this time ex¬ 
 traordinary. In 1834 he was appointed professor 
 of Oriental languages in the University of St. 
 Andrews. In connection with his new duties he 
 published a Syriac and Chaldee Grammar 
 (1840). He died at Devon Grove, Oct. 14, 1848. 
 Besides other miscellanies in verse, Tennant 
 published: The Thane of Fife, a Poem (1822) ; 
 Cardinal Beaton, a Tragedy (1823); and John 
 Baliol, a Drama (1825). None of these later 
 
DAVID TENIERS—THE RUSTIC WEDDING 
 
 FROM THE PAINTING IN THE PINAKOTHEK, MUNICH 
 
TENNENT 
 
 97 
 
 TENNESSEE 
 
 productions increased the literary reputation 
 which his first work had won for him. Consult 
 Conolly, Life of William Tennant (Edinburgh, 
 18G1). 
 
 TEFNENT, Gilbert (1703-G4). An Ameri¬ 
 can Presbyterian minister, born in County Ar¬ 
 magh, Ireland. In 1718 he came to America with 
 his father, William Tennent, who is known as 
 the founder of a theological school at Neshaminy, 
 Pa., called, because of the way it was housed, 
 the Log College. Many eminent clergymen were 
 trained there. Gilbert early assisted his father, 
 studied medicine and theology, and was ordained 
 pastor of a church in New Brunswick, N. J., in 
 1726. This connection he continued until 1743, 
 though traveling and preaching with Whitefield 
 in New England for several months. Then he 
 founded and became pastor of a church in Phila¬ 
 delphia, with which he remained until his death. 
 In 1753 he visited England with President Davies 
 to obtain aid for the College of New Jersey (later 
 Princeton) and raised £1500. He published 
 many sermons. For notices of Gilbert and other 
 prominent members of the Tennent family, con¬ 
 sult W. B. Sprague, Annals of the American 
 Pulpit , vol. iv (New York, 1858). 
 
 TENNENT, Sir James Emerson (1804-69). 
 A British traveler, politician, and author, born 
 at Belfast, Ireland. He traveled through the 
 Levant and Greece in 1824-25, and was a Liberal 
 member of Parliament from 1832 to - 1834, but 
 from the latter year until 1845 was a Liberal- 
 Conservative and follower of Sir Robert Peel. 
 In 1842 he secured the passage of the bill grant¬ 
 ing copyrights to designers. He was secretary 
 to the India Board (1841-43) ; civil secretary to 
 the Ceylon colonial government (1845-50) ; and 
 shortly after his return to England, again en¬ 
 tered Parliament (1852). There he was succes¬ 
 sively secretary for the Poor Law Board (1852) 
 and a joint secretary of the Board of Trade 
 (1852-67). After resigning the latter post he 
 was made Baronet. Under his original name of 
 Emerson, to which he had added his wife’s name, 
 Tennent, Sir James published a number of books, 
 including: A Picture of Greece in 1825 (1826) ; 
 Christianity in Ceylon (1850) ; Ceylon: An Ac¬ 
 count of the Island (2 vols., 1859) ; Sketches of 
 the Natural History of Ceylon (1861) ; and The 
 Story of the Guns (1865). 
 
 TENNESSEE, ten' e-se'. A south central 
 State of the United States, popularly called the 
 Volunteer State. It lies between lat. 34° 59' and 
 36° 41' N. and between long. 81° 37' and 90° 
 17' 27" W., and has an extreme length of 491.12 
 miles and an extreme breadth of 113.55 miles; its 
 area is 42,022 square miles, of which 335 are 
 water. It ranks as the thirty-fifth State in size. 
 
 Topography. The surface is divided into 
 seven well-marked topographical regions. The 
 easternmost is a belt with a maximum width 
 of 10 to 15 miles—the Appalachian Mountain 
 region. It is formed by the Great Smoky and 
 Unaka Mountains, whose main ridges average 
 5000 feet in elevation and in places exceed 6000 
 feet. Mount Guyot has an elevation of 6636 feet. 
 Next westward is the Great valley of East Ten¬ 
 nessee, a depression 30 to 60 miles wide, con¬ 
 sisting of an alternate succession of parallel 
 ridges and valleys. Next to the west is the 
 Cumberland plateau, with an average elevation 
 of about 2000 feet and an extreme elevation of 
 3550 feet. The eastern edge of this plateau is a 
 straight, abrupt scarp, but its western edge has 
 been deeply crenulated by headwater stream 
 
 erosion. Next is the highland rim or plain, 
 with an elevation of about 1000 feet along its 
 eastern border and 600 or 800 feet along its 
 western margin, which lies, for the most part, 
 a few miles west of the Tennessee River in its 
 northern course across the State. Within the 
 highland plain and 300 to 400 feet below its 
 level, in middle Tennessee, there is an oval de¬ 
 pression about 125 miles long and 60 miles wide, 
 known as the central basin. West of the high¬ 
 land plain is the West Tennessee plain, 600 to 
 800 feet high on its eastern border, with a west¬ 
 ward slope to 300 or 400 feet where it overlooks 
 the alluvial plain of the Mississippi. This latter 
 is a narrow' belt, largely swamp}^ with a depressed 
 area in the north containing Reelfoot Lake. 
 
 Hydrography. The drainage of the entire 
 State reaches the Mississippi River. The eastern 
 portion is drained by the Tennessee River, which 
 flow's southwestward into Alabama, then turns 
 and flows northward across the State. The Cum¬ 
 berland, heading in southeastern Kentucky, flows 
 southwestward into the central basin, turns 
 northw'ard, like the Tennessee, and flows across 
 western Kentucky to the Ohio. The West Ten¬ 
 nessee plain is drained directly into the Missis¬ 
 sippi through the Wolf, IJatchie, Forked Deer, 
 and Obion rivers. The Cumberland and Tennes¬ 
 see, with a few of the larger tributaries of the 
 latter in East Tennessee, are navigable, but are 
 undergoing further improvement. Much power 
 has been developed in the upper part of the 
 Tennessee River and much more awaits develop¬ 
 ment both on it and on the Cumberland. 
 
 Climate. The climate is usually mild and 
 equable. The mean annual temperature is 
 58° F., and the variation from this is not over 
 2 or 3 degrees in any section, except the Appa¬ 
 lachian region, w'here the mean is 45° F. July, 
 with a mean of 78° F., is the hottest month, and 
 January, with a mean of 38° F., the coldest. 
 The maximum rarely exceeds 100° F., but has 
 reached 106° F.; and the minimum seldom falls 
 below 10° F., though zero is reached occasionally, 
 and — 30° F. has been recorded in the Cumber¬ 
 land plateau. The annual rainfall averages about 
 50 inches and is well distributed geographically. 
 The average annual snowfall is about 8 inches. 
 The prevailing, winds are from the south and 
 southwest. 
 
 Soils. The soils of the various topographic 
 regions differ greatly because of differences in 
 the nature of the underlying rocks. The alluvium 
 of the Mississippi and other river bottoms forms 
 the richest soil. The uplands along the Missis¬ 
 sippi bluffs have a fertile soil of loess and brown 
 loam that to the east becomes sandy, and near 
 the Tennessee River is in places barren. Where 
 the rocks of the highland plain are siliceous 
 shales the soils are poor, but where they are 
 limestone fertile soils result. The central basin 
 and the eastern valley have very fertile limestone 
 soils; the Cumberland plateau is poor and 
 sandy; and the Appalachian region thin and 
 stony on steep slopes and rich and deep in coves. 
 
 Fiora. Numerous species of oak, as w r ell as 
 poplar ( Liriodendron tulipifera), chestnut, 
 maple, beech, hickory, walnut, locust, persim¬ 
 mon, and dogwood are common throughout the 
 State. In the higher mountains white pine, 
 birch, ash, and hemlock are also found. In the 
 Cumberland plateau short-leaf pine is common. 
 Red cedar is common in the central basin, and 
 in the river swamps of the west cypress, red gum, 
 swamp oak, and cottonwood are characteristic. 
 
TENNESSEE 
 
 98 
 
 TENNESSEE 
 
 About 55 per cent of the area of the State is 
 forested. The most valuable timber is in the 
 mountain coves and the Mississippi swamps. 
 
 Geology. Differences in the kind and atti¬ 
 tude of the rocks correspond with, and are largely 
 responsible for, differences in topography. The 
 only igneous rocks are small areas of Archean 
 granite, gneiss, and schist in the northern half of 
 the high ranges of the eastern boundary. Else¬ 
 where along this eastern border the rocks are 
 much folded and metamorphosed siliceous sedi¬ 
 ments of Cambrian age. The rocks of the Great 
 valley are chiefly of Cambrian and Ordovician 
 age, though the Silurian and Devonian also oc¬ 
 cur. Limestones and dolomite form the valleys 
 and sandstones, cherts and shales the interven¬ 
 ing ridges. The rocks of the Cumberland plateau 
 are of Pennsylvanian age, chiefly sandstones and 
 shales. They and all to the west of them are 
 flat-lying, while all to the east are highly folded 
 and faulted. Mississippian limestones and shales 
 form the highland plain, an,d with Silurian and 
 Devonian rocks form the rim, while Ordovician 
 limestones form the floor, of the central basin. 
 The Silurian and Devonian rocks are prominent 
 in the western valley of the Tennessee River. 
 The West Tennessee plain consists of uncon¬ 
 solidated sands- and clays, the eastern part of 
 which overlap the Paleozoics of the highland 
 plain and are of Cretaceous age, while farther 
 west they are of Tertiary and more recent age. 
 
 Mineral Resources. A belt of limonite iron 
 ore occurs in the western part of the highland 
 plain, while another occurs along the eastern 
 edge of the Great valley, and elsewhere in this 
 valley are large deposits of zinc, marble, and 
 bauxite, which along its western side is an im¬ 
 portant belt of red hematite. Large copper de¬ 
 posits occur in the extreme southeast. The Cum¬ 
 berland plateau contains a number of valuable 
 coal seams, while phosphate is found in the 
 central basin and large clay deposits occur in 
 West Tennessee. In 1914 Tennessee ranked 
 twenty-fifth among the States in value of mineral 
 products. Coal is the most important of the 
 minerals, and in 1914, 5,943,258 tons, valued at 
 $6,776,573, were mined. Copper ranks second 
 among the State’s minerals, and in 1914 there 
 were produced 18,737,656 pounds, valued at 
 $2,492,108. The metal is obtained from pyritic 
 ores, from which a large quantity of sulphuric 
 acid is obtained as a by-product. In the produc¬ 
 tion of phosphate rock Tennessee ranks second in 
 the Union, and in 1914 produced 483,203 tons, 
 valued at $1,822,770. Clay products were pro¬ 
 duced to the value of $1,546,315. The produc¬ 
 tion of iron ore, chiefly hematite and brown 
 ore, amounted to 330,214 tons, valued at $466,- 
 523. The pig iron produced was valued at 
 $2,150,452. This is not included in the total 
 of the State’s production. Quarrying is another 
 of Tennessee’s important mineral industries. 
 The principal products are marble and limestone, 
 the former of which stands in high repute for 
 interior decoration. The value of the stone 
 products in 1914 was $1,932,462. Other mineral 
 products of varying importance are clay prod¬ 
 ucts, zinc, mineral waters, and silver, cement, 
 and lime. The total value of the mineral pro¬ 
 duction in 1914 was $19,645,213. 
 
 Agriculture. The total land area of Ten¬ 
 nessee is approximately 26,679,680 acres, of 
 which 20,041,657 were in farms in 1910, 10,890,- 
 484 acres being improved land. The number of 
 farms in that year was 246,012, averaging 81.5 
 
 acres. The total value of all farm property, 
 including land, buildings, implements, and ma¬ 
 chinery, domestic animals, and bees was $612,- 
 520,836. The average value of land per acre was 
 $18.53 in that year. Of the total number of 
 farmers in 1910, 144,951 were owners and man¬ 
 agers and 101,061 tenants. The white farmers 
 numbered 207,704 and the nonwhites 38,308, of 
 whom 73,504 and 27,557 respectively were ten¬ 
 ants. The total acreage operated by whites was 
 18,435,579 and by nonwhites 1,606,078. 
 
 The acreage, production, and value of some of 
 the principal crops as estimated by the United 
 States Department of Agriculture for 1915 are 
 as follows: 
 
 CROPS 
 
 Acreage 
 
 Production 
 in bushels 
 
 Value 
 
 Corn. 
 
 3,500,000 
 
 94,500,000 
 
 $54,810,000 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 860,000 
 
 9,030,000 
 
 9,752,000 
 
 Oats. 
 
 357,000 
 
 8,746,000 
 
 4,373,000 
 
 Rye. 
 
 18,000 
 
 189,000 
 
 195,000 
 
 Potatoes (Irish). 
 
 36,000 
 
 3,168,000 
 
 1,996,000 
 
 Sweet potatoes. 
 
 27,000 
 
 2,835,000 
 
 1,673,000 
 
 Hay. 
 
 950,000 
 
 * 1,396,000 
 
 19,404,000 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 92,900 
 
 169,675,000 
 
 4,390,000 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 780,000 
 
 t 295,000 
 
 15,957,000 
 
 * Tons. | Pounds. J Bales of 500 pounds gross weight. 
 
 The total value of all crops in 1909 was $120,- 
 706,211. The leading crops in that year in order 
 of importance were corn, cotton, hay and for¬ 
 age, wheat, tobacco, cottonseed, and oats. In 
 1909 corn had an acreage of 3,146,348 and a 
 production of 67,682,489 bushels, valued at $45,- 
 819,093. The acreage of cotton harvested was 
 787,516, and the production amounted to 264,- 
 562 bales, valued at $17,966,517. Under hay 
 and forage were cultivated 1,052,816 acres, 
 which produced 1,077,836 tons, worth $12,617,- 
 538. Wheat had an acreage of 619,861, the pro¬ 
 duction amounting to 6,516,539 bushels, valued 
 at $6,913,335. The area cultivated for tobacco 
 was 90,468 acres, from which were produced 
 68,756,599 pounds, valued at $5,661,681. To po¬ 
 tatoes were devoted 40,963 acres; the production 
 was 2,922,713 bushels, valued at $1,790,233. 
 Sweet potatoes and yams had an acreage of 
 26,216 and a production of 2,504,490 bushels, 
 estimated at $1,625,056. Vegetables other than 
 potatoes, sweet potatoes, and yams were grown 
 over 100,055 acres, the production being valued 
 at $7,015,686. Small fruits produced in 1909 
 amounted to 13,895,493 quarts, valued at $923,- 
 613. The acreage devoted to these was 12,539. 
 Strawberries were the most important of the 
 small fruits. Of the orchard fruits, apples 
 and peaches were the most important. The 
 total production in 1909 was 6,484,550 bushels, 
 value $3,459,077. Other fruits grown were 
 grapes, pears, plums, cherries, quinces, mul¬ 
 berries, and figs. Total of sorghum cane and 
 sirup produced in 1909 was $1,146,000. 
 
 Live Stock and Dairy Products. In 1910 
 the total number of domestic animals reported 
 was 4,465,500, valued at $106,608,122. The United 
 States Department of Agriculture estimated 
 that on Jan. 1, 1916, horses numbered 349,000, 
 value $35,249,000; mules numbered 272,000, 
 value $30,736,000; milch cows numbered 366,000, 
 value $14,457,000; other cattle numbered 518,000, 
 value $11,707,000; sheep numbered 661,000, value 
 $2,710,000; swine numbered 1,531,000, value 
 $10,411,000. The production of wool in 1915 
 was 1,953,000 pounds. In 1910 the number of 
 
THE 
 
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 UNIVERSITY Of ILLINOIS 
 
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 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
TENNESSEE 
 
 99 
 
 TENNESSEE 
 
 fowls was reported as 8,056,145, value $3,757,- 
 337. These produced 39,352,433 dozens of eggs, 
 value $6,793,640. The milk produced was re¬ 
 ported at 117,101,970 gallons, and the butter 
 made at 39,827,906 pounds. Total value of all 
 milk, cream, and butter fat sold and butter and 
 cheese made in 1909 was reported at $8,715,441. 
 
 Forest Products. Tennessee is one of the 
 most active lumbering States of the South. In 
 1908 there were about 15,000,000 acres of forest 
 land whose trees represented over 100 varieties. 
 (See Flora.) The number of active mills re¬ 
 ported in 1913 was 1155, which produced 
 872,3] 1 M feet board measure. Forest products 
 produced on farms in 1909 were valued at $8,- 
 510,710. The total value of lumber and timber 
 products in 1909 was $30,457,000. About 83 
 per cent of the products were hard wood. Most 
 of this was oak, in the production of which Ten¬ 
 nessee led the Union in that year. It also led 
 in the production of yellow poplar and hickory. 
 
 Manufactures. In 1909 Tennessee ranked 
 twenty-sixth in the Union in value of its manu¬ 
 factured products and the value per capita was 
 $82. The following table gives the more impor¬ 
 tant details regarding manufactures for the 10 
 leading industries in 1909 and 1904: 
 
 the value of their products in 1909 are: Mem¬ 
 phis, $30,241,519; Nashville, $29,649,697; Chat¬ 
 tanooga, $16,036,455; Knoxville, $8,149,377, and 
 Jackson, $2,709,773. For further details, see 
 these titles. 
 
 Transportation. Considerable water trans¬ 
 portation is obtained on the Mississippi, Ten¬ 
 nessee, and Cumberland rivers. A number of 
 trunk-line railroads cross the State, most of 
 them centring at Memphis and Nashville. The 
 total mileage of all railroads in 1915 was 4165. 
 The principal roads and their mileage are the 
 Nashville, Chattanooga, and St. Louis, 900; the 
 Louisville and Nashville, 861; the Southern, 764; 
 the Tennessee Central, 292; the Cincinnati, New 
 Orleans, and Texas Pacific, 142. 
 
 Banks. The first bank in the State was the 
 Nashville Bank, established in 1807, with a capi¬ 
 tal of $200,000. In 1838 the Bank of Tennessee 
 was organized with a capital of $5,000,000, all of 
 which was to be supplied by the State, partly 
 from funds on hand and partly by sale of bonds. 
 It started with an actual capital of only $2,073,- 
 355, which was all the State could get together. 
 In 1866, by order of the Legislature, the Bank of 
 Tennessee was formally placed in liquidation, 
 when its assets of $12,478,483 were found to 
 
 SUMMARY OF MANUFACTURES FOR 1909 AND 1904 
 
 THE STATE -TEN LEADING INDUSTRIES 
 
 
 
 Num- 
 
 PERSONS ENGAGED 
 
 IN INDUSTRY 
 
 Capital 
 
 Wages 
 
 Value 
 
 of 
 
 products 
 
 Value 
 added by 
 manufac- 
 
 INDUSTRY 
 
 Census 
 
 ber of 
 establish- 
 
 
 Wage 
 
 
 
 ture 
 
 \ 
 
 
 ments 
 
 Total 
 
 earners 
 
 (average 
 
 number) 
 
 
 Expressed in thousands 
 
 
 All industries. 
 
 1909 
 
 4,609 
 
 87,672 
 
 73,840 
 
 $167,924 
 
 $28,252 
 
 $180,217 
 
 $76,201 
 
 Cars and general shop construe- 
 
 1904 
 
 3,175 
 
 69,287 
 
 60,572 
 
 102,439 
 
 22,806 
 
 137,960 
 
 58,608 • 
 
 tion and repairs by steam-rail- 
 
 1909 
 
 17 
 
 5,884 
 
 5,566 
 
 4,035 
 
 3,252 
 
 6,777 
 
 3,661 
 
 road companies. 
 
 1904 
 
 16 
 
 4,939 
 
 4,760 
 
 2,029 
 
 2,617 
 
 5,839 
 
 2,861 
 
 Cotton goods, including cotton 
 
 1909 
 
 17 
 
 3,164 
 
 3,078 
 
 7,454 
 
 857 
 
 5,201 
 
 1,857 
 
 small wares. 
 
 1904 
 
 16 
 
 2,362 
 
 2,294 
 
 5,113 
 
 531 
 
 3.561 
 
 1,320 
 
 Flour-mill and gristmill products 
 
 1909 
 
 454 
 
 2,658 
 
 1,577 
 
 8,511 
 
 559 
 
 29,070 
 
 3,784 
 
 1904 
 
 387 
 
 2,429 
 
 1,595 
 
 6,927 
 
 591 
 
 25,351 
 
 3,439 
 
 Foundry and machine-shop prod- 
 
 1909 
 
 124 
 
 4,694 
 
 4,041 
 
 9,253 
 
 2,006 
 
 9,190 
 
 4,630 
 
 ucts. 
 
 1904 
 
 100 
 
 3,716 
 
 3,313 
 
 4,616 
 
 2,482 
 
 6,124 
 
 3,270 
 
 Hosiery and knit goods. 
 
 1909 
 
 22 
 
 3,229 
 
 3,117 
 
 3,055 
 
 724 
 
 3,565 
 
 1,445 
 
 1904 
 
 16 
 
 1,855 
 
 1,810 
 
 1,160 
 
 341 
 
 1,628 
 
 659 
 
 Iron and steel, blast furnaces.... 
 
 1909 
 
 13 
 
 1,268 
 
 1,143 
 
 7,122 
 
 519 
 
 4,653 
 
 1,272 
 
 1904 
 
 13 
 
 1,486 
 
 1,358 
 
 5,688 
 
 546 
 
 3,428 
 
 819 
 
 Lumber and timber products.... 
 
 1909 
 
 1,977 
 
 26,283 
 
 22.389 
 
 30,159 
 
 6,906 
 
 30,457 
 
 16,816 
 
 1904 
 
 1,122 
 
 19,705 
 
 17,277 
 
 20,431 
 
 6,456 
 
 26,864 
 
 15,274 
 
 Oil, cottonseed, and cake. 
 
 1909 
 
 20 
 
 957 
 
 806 
 
 3,371 
 
 290 
 
 6,583 
 
 1,392 
 
 1904 
 
 20 
 
 819 
 
 701 
 
 2.914 
 
 245 
 
 3,744 
 
 660 
 
 Patent medicines and compounds 
 
 1909 
 
 76 
 
 998 
 
 433 
 
 2,225 
 
 148 
 
 3,515 
 
 2,174 
 
 and druggists’ preparations. 
 
 1904 
 
 47 
 
 739 
 
 489 
 
 1,317 
 
 143 
 
 2,789 
 
 1,888 
 
 Printing and publishing. 
 
 1909 
 
 413 
 
 4,442 
 
 2,914 
 
 6,493 
 
 1,701 
 
 7,173 
 
 5.219 
 
 1904 
 
 340 
 
 3,373 
 
 2,330 
 
 4,415 
 
 1,231 
 
 5,091 
 
 3,768 
 
 The production of lumber and timber products 
 is the most important industry in value of prod¬ 
 ucts, number of persons employed, and number 
 of establishments. In 1909, 1,223,849 M feet 
 board measure of rough lumber, 31,179,000 lath, 
 and 35,392,000 shingles were produced. (See 
 Forest Products.) In 1909 the flour and grist 
 mills produced 2,999,501 barrels of white flour, 
 valued at $17,218,719; 1,981,746 barrels of corn 
 meal and corn flour, valued at $6,505,710; and 
 26,720,930 pounds of hominy, valued at $441,371. 
 
 Of the total number of wage earners 64,648 
 were male. The wa°fe earners under 16 vears of 
 age numbered 2445 of whom 813 were female. 
 The prevailing hours of labor for about half the 
 wage earners are 60 a week, and for about one- 
 fourth from 54 to 60 a week. Leading cities and 
 
 consist mainly of Confederate bonds, certificates, 
 treasury bonds, etc. In 1883 the State finally 
 assumed the liability for the bank notes, and 
 
 ITEMS 
 
 National banks 
 
 State banks 
 
 Number 
 
 Capital . 
 
 116 
 
 $14,375,000 
 
 5,753,000 
 
 5,178,000 
 
 62,932,000 
 
 73,387,000 
 
 404 
 
 $14,897,911 
 
 5,625,392 
 
 13,190,955 
 
 62,778,993 
 
 62,904,763 
 
 Surplus . 
 
 Cash, etc. 
 
 Deposits. 
 
 Loans. 
 
 
 they were redeemed for special certificates of 
 indebtedness. The depositors of the bank, in¬ 
 cluding the State school fund, never realized any- 
 
TENNESSEE 
 
 ioo 
 
 TENNESSEE 
 
 thing. The constitution prohibits the State 
 forming a bank; or even holding stock in one. 
 The condition of the various banks in 1914 is 
 shown on page 99. 
 
 Government. The constitution adopted in 
 1870 has not been amended in any important 
 particulars. Amendments which may be pro¬ 
 posed in either house must be passed by two 
 consecutive assemblies and submitted to the 
 people for approval. The Legislature, however, 
 may not propose amendments to the constitution 
 oftener than once every six years, but it may at 
 any time submit to the people the question of 
 calling a convention to alter, reform, or abolish 
 the constitution. 
 
 Legislative. —The legislative authority is vested 
 in a general assembly, consisting of the Senate 
 and House of Representatives, members of which 
 hold office for two years. The membership of 
 the House of Representatives must never exceed 
 99. Senators are proportioned among the coun¬ 
 ties and districts and must not exceed one-third 
 the number of Representatives. 
 
 Executive. —The supreme executive power is 
 vested in the Governor, elected for two years, 
 who must be 30 years of age, and a resident of 
 the State seven years before his election. The 
 Secretary of State is appointed by joint vote of 
 the General Assembly and commissioned for a 
 term of four years. 
 
 Judiciary. —The judicial power is vested in a 
 supreme court, and a circuit court, chancery, and 
 other inferior courts. The Supreme Court con¬ 
 sists of five judges, of whom not more than two 
 may reside in any one of the grand divisions, 
 and who are elected by the qualified voters. 
 Candidates must be 35 years of age and must 
 have been residents of the State for five years. 
 The term of service is eight years. 
 
 Suffrage and Elections. —Every male citizen 
 21 years of age or over, who has been a resident 
 of the State for 12 months and of the county 
 for six months, is entitled to vote. A State 
 board of elections has general charge of conduct¬ 
 ing all elections. In all counties of 50,000 in¬ 
 habitants and over, and in all civil districts cf 
 2500 inhabitants or over, registration is an es¬ 
 sential for voting. General registrations are 
 held every two years. A corrupt practices act 
 was passed in 1907. 
 
 Local and Municipal Government. —The unit 
 of local government is the county. County 
 officers are coroner and ranger. New counties 
 may be established by the Legislature to consist 
 of not less than 275 square miles, with a popula¬ 
 tion of at least 700 qualified voters. Cities and 
 towns are permitted to adopt a commission form 
 of government. In 1916 the cities of Chatta¬ 
 nooga, Knoxville, Memphis, Nashville, Bristol, 
 Jackson, Lafolette, Lebanon, Murfreesboro, and 
 Springfield had adopted this form of civic 
 administration. 
 
 Miscellaneous Statutory and Constitutional 
 Provisions. —The Legislature has no power to 
 grant divorces, but may authorize the courts of 
 justice to grant them. Intermarriage between 
 whites and negroes is forbidden. No person shall 
 at any time be required to perform any duties 
 in the State on any day set apart by his religion 
 as a day of rest. Gambling on horse races is 
 prohibited. The State is under prohibition. See 
 History # 
 
 Finances. The history of the public debt con¬ 
 stitutes the most important and interesting part 
 of the financial history of the State. The first 
 
 debt was created in 1832 and 1838 for the pur¬ 
 pose of establishing State banks. Between 1840 
 and 1850 the State inaugurated the system of 
 public improvements. Bonds were issued to 
 turnpike and railroad companies for construc¬ 
 tion, and first mortgages were the usual guaran¬ 
 tees. In 1861 the total amount of bonds out¬ 
 standing was over $18,000,000, and a war loan 
 of $3,000,000 was added. The four years of the 
 Civil War destroyed the sources of State income, 
 made payment of interest impossible, and swelled 
 the total indebtedness considerably. In 1865 it 
 rose to $25,277,406, out of which $5,169,740 was 
 interest overdue. The current interest charges 
 alone amounted to $1,185,048, while the revenue 
 was far below it, taxation inadequate, and the 
 amount actually collected considerably less than 
 the sum assessed. Most of the companies to 
 which the bonds were issued failed to pay the in¬ 
 terest. The carpet-bag regime that followed the 
 Civil War did not improve matters. New bonds 
 to the amount of $3,408,000 were issued to 14 
 railroad companies in 1868, interest remained 
 unpaid, and in 1869 the total debt reached $39,- 
 S96,504. Measures of relief were then passed by 
 the Legislature; sale of the delinquent roads 
 was authorized, and the solvent railroads were 
 permitted to pay their debts in State bonds 
 which were below par. By these means the debt 
 was rapidly reduced to $27,920,386 in 1874. Yet 
 even then the State was unable to meet its obli¬ 
 gations. Repudiation began to be talked of 
 towards 1880, and, frightened by this agitation, 
 the bondholders began to offer various plans of 
 settlement. A plan of refunding at 50 per cent 
 was agreed to by the bondholders and the Legis¬ 
 lature in 1879, but was rejected by popular vote. 
 
 In that year the debt question was the main 
 campaign issue, and the repudiation party lost. 
 A final settlement was reached in 1883, when the 
 State debt proper was scaled down 20-24 per 
 cent and the railroad guarantee bonds 50 per 
 cent. The total debt was reduced bv this opera¬ 
 tion from $28,000,000 to about $15,000,000. The 
 conversion was completed in 1890. On Dec. 20, 
 1914, the total State debt was $11,752,667. The 
 cash balance on Dec. 20, 1912, was $785,120, the 
 balance on Dec. 20, 1914, was $172,410. The 
 receipts during this period amounted to $9,166,- 
 870 and the disbursements to $9,779,579. 
 
 Militia. Males of militia age in 1910 num¬ 
 bered 428,088. The organized militia in 1915 
 included 110 officers and 1703 enlisted men. It 
 consisted of a, regiment of infantry, two separate 
 battalions, a separate company of colored troops, 
 a troop of cavalry, and a detachment of sanitary 
 troops, including a field hospital. 
 
 Population. The population of Tennessee by 
 periods is as follows: 1790, 35,691; 1810, 261*- 
 727; 1830, 681,904; 1850, 1,002,717; 1870, 1,- 
 258,520; 1890, 1,767,518; 1900,2,020,616; 1910, 
 2,184,789; 1915, 2,271,379; 1920, 2,337,885. In 
 1910 the State ranked seventeenth in the Union, 
 the density per square mile being 52.4. The urban 
 population was 441,045. In that year there were 
 1,711,432 whites and 473,088 negroes; foreign- 
 born whites formed only 0.8 per cent of the total. 
 By sex the population was divided into 1,103,491 
 males and 1,081,298 females. Of the native popu¬ 
 lation 13.5 were born outside of the State, most 
 of whom came from Mississippi. The males of 
 voting age numbered 552,668 in 1910. Memphis 
 is the largest city; its population in 1910 was 
 141,105 and in 1915 jest.) 146,113. Other cities 
 with their populations in 1910 and as estimated 
 
TENNESSEE 
 
 IOI 
 
 TENNESSEE 
 
 for 1915 are Nashville, 110,304 and 115,978; 
 Chattanooga, 44,604 and 58,570; Knoxville, 36,- 
 340 and 38,300; Jackson, 15,779 and 17,069. 
 
 Education. In 1910 the percentage of illit¬ 
 eracy in the population ten years of age and 
 over was 13.0 per cent. The total number of 
 illiterates in 1910 was 221,071. Among native 
 whites of native parentage the percentage of il¬ 
 literacy was 9.7 in 1910, among negroes it was 
 27.3. Of the school population 563,158 were na¬ 
 tive whites, 10,099 were foreign-born whites, and 
 163,397 were negroes. The report of the State 
 Superintendent of Education for 1914 shows that 
 on June 30 of that year the school population 
 of the State was 776,895. The total enrollment 
 in the public schools on the same date was 
 593,437. The total expenditure for schools dur¬ 
 ing the year was $6,064,353. The total enroll¬ 
 ment of white children in 1914 was 468,106 and 
 of colored children 115,381. The average daily 
 attendance of whites was 346,676 and of colored 
 children 83,077. There were in the State, in 
 1914, 134 high schools, in which were 492 teach¬ 
 ers. The pupils in these schools were 9950, with 
 an average daily attendance of 7400. Legisla¬ 
 tion aiming to bring about the consolidation of 
 schools has been in force since 1912. There is 
 a compulsory educational law. A uniform ex¬ 
 amination law for teachers was put into effect 
 in 1914. Industrial work in high schools and 
 in elementary schools in some instances has been 
 inaugurated with satisfactory results. Several 
 counties employ supervisors for rural schools. 
 Preferential schools have also been established in 
 several counties. State institutes are held each 
 year for white and colored persons. 
 
 There are four normal schools in the State: 
 the East Tennessee State Normal School at 
 Johnson City, the Middle Tennessee State Normal 
 School at Murfreesboro, the West Tennessee 
 State Normal School at Memphis, and the Agri¬ 
 cultural and Industrial State Normal School 
 for colored pupils at Nashville. There are a 
 large number of institutions of collegiate rank. 
 The most important of these are the University 
 of Tennessee, which is a part of the State system 
 of education, situated at Knoxville, the Univer¬ 
 sity of Chattanooga at Chattanooga, Lincoln 
 Memorial University at Cumberland Gap, Cum¬ 
 berland University at Lebanon, Maryville Col¬ 
 lege at Maryville, Vanderbilt University at 
 Nashville, Burritt College at Spencer, Milligan 
 College at Milligan, and Carson and Newman 
 at Jefferson City. These are all coeducational. 
 Colleges for men only are King College at 
 Bristol, Southwestern Presbyterian University 
 at Clarksville, Christian Brothers College (Ro¬ 
 man Catholic) at Memphis, and the Univer¬ 
 sity of the South at Sewanee. Colleges for 
 women are Sullins College at Bristol, Howard 
 College for Young Ladies at Gallatin, Memphis 
 Conference Female Institute at Jackson, Tennes¬ 
 see College at Murfreesboro, Ward-Belmont Col¬ 
 lege for Young Women at Nashville, Boscobel 
 College at Nashville, Synodical College for Fe¬ 
 males at Rogersville. Colleges for negroes are 
 Knoxville College at Knoxville, Fisk University 
 at Nashville, and Waldon University at 
 Nashville. 
 
 Charities and Corrections. Charitable and 
 correctional institutions under the control of 
 the Board of State Charities include the Eastern 
 Hospital for the Insane and the Tennessee Deaf 
 and Dumb School at Knoxville, Western Hos¬ 
 pital for the Insane at Bolivar, the Central Hos¬ 
 
 pital for the Insane, the Tennessee Reformatory, 
 the Tennessee Industrial School, Tennessee 
 School for the Blind, and the two State prisons, 
 all at Nashville, and a branch prison at Petros. 
 
 History. Probably De Soto (q.v.) reached 
 the Mississippi at the present site of Memphis in 
 1541. La Salle, about 1682, built a fort at this 
 point, and called it Fort Prud'homme. The place 
 was again occupied by the Frencli in 1714. The 
 grant by Charles II to the Lords Proprietors of 
 Carolina of the territory between lat. 29° and 
 36° 30' N. in 1665 included this territory. 
 (See North Carolina.) The first English set¬ 
 tlement was Fort Loudon, built in 1756, at the 
 suggestion of Governor Loudon of Virginia, and 
 garrisoned by royal troops, but afterward cap¬ 
 tured by the Cherokees. Before this, however, 
 Dr. Thomas Walker with a party of Virginians 
 had named the Cumberland River and Moun¬ 
 tains, and Daniel Boone (q.v.) and others had 
 entered the wilderness, then regarded as a com¬ 
 mon hunting ground by the Cherokees, Creeks, 
 Miamis, Choctaws, and Chickasaws. In 1768 the 
 Iroquois, who claimed sovereignty by conquest, 
 ceded their claim to the English, and in 1769 
 William Bean’s cabin on the Watauga marked 
 the first settlement. James Robertson (q.v.) and 
 others came in 1770, another settlement was 
 made near Rogersville in 1771, and soon after 
 Jacob Brown opened a store on the Nolichucky. 
 After the defeat of the Regulators (q.v.) in North 
 Carolina a number of settlers came, supposing 
 the territory to be Virginia soil. When the ter¬ 
 ritory was found to be within North Carolina, 
 the inhabitants of the first two settlements met 
 in 1772 and formed the Watauga Association 
 (q.v.), which served as a form of government 
 for several years. In 1775 Col. Richard Hender¬ 
 son (q.v.) bought from the Indians the territory 
 between the Cumberland and the Kentucky 
 rivers. More settlers came in 1778-79 and in 
 1780 a compact of government was drawn up at 
 Nashborough, by Colonel Henderson, who had 
 been Chief Justice of North Carolina, and James 
 Robertson, who had been one of the signers of 
 the Watauga Association. These two compacts 
 were much alike and served their purpose ex¬ 
 cellently. 
 
 The Watauga settlers in 1775 or 1776 gave 
 the name Washington District to their colony, 
 and in 1776 it was annexed to North Carolina, 
 though some had dreamed of a separate State. 
 The number of settlers increased rapidly, and 
 nearly 500 men under John Sevier (q.v.) and 
 Isaac Shelby (q.v.) went across the mountains 
 and took part in the attack on the British under 
 Ferguson, at King’s Mountain (q.v.), in 1780. 
 All this time the settlers were harassed by severe 
 Indian wars. In 1784 North Carolina ceded to 
 the general government all the territory of the 
 present State on condition that the cession be 
 accepted within two years, but retained until 
 that time full sovereignty. The inhabitants, 
 indignant at being transferred without their con¬ 
 sent, and thinking that they had been abandoned, 
 elected delegates from each military company, 
 who met at Jonesboro, Aug. 23, 1784, and formed 
 the State of Franklin, or Frankland; John Sevier 
 was chosen Governor. Congress ignored the re¬ 
 quest to be recognized as a State and North Caro¬ 
 lina promptly repealed the act of cession and 
 asserted its jurisdiction. Civil war Avas averted 
 by the tact of the North Carolina governors. 
 Confusion, howe\ 7 er, reigned, as there were two 
 bodies of officers, and many settlers neglected to 
 
TENNESSEE 
 
 102 
 
 TENNESSEE 
 
 pay taxes to either, though furs, skins, and other 
 articles were made legal tender by the infant 
 State. At the expiration of Sevier’s term in 
 1788 the State of Franklin ended. In this at¬ 
 tempt at statehood the Cumberland settlers did 
 not join. Davidson County was laid out in 1783 
 and the Davidson Academy (now the University 
 of Nashville) was founded in 1785. Indian 
 troubles threatened the life of the settlement, 
 and the intrigues of the Spaniards, who still 
 held Louisiana and the Mississippi, made the 
 position more difficult. See McGillivray, Alex¬ 
 ander. 
 
 In February, 1790, North Carolina again ceded 
 the territory to the general government, stipu¬ 
 lating that all the advantages of the Ordinance 
 of 1787 (q.v.) should be preserved to the inhab¬ 
 itants, except that slavery should not be prohib¬ 
 ited. The act of government for the territory 
 south of the Ohio was passed in April, 1790, 
 and the seat of government was moved from 
 Rogersville to Knoxville. The Indians were se¬ 
 verely punished in 1794 and the Spanish influ¬ 
 ence was broken. In the same year the first ter¬ 
 ritorial assembly met. In 1795, as the territory 
 was found to contain more than 60,000 white 
 inhabitants, a constitutional convention was 
 called, which met in January, 1796. A constitu¬ 
 tion for the State of Tennessee modeled after 
 that of North Carolina was adopted without sub¬ 
 mission to popular vote; the first General As¬ 
 sembly met March 28, and the State was 
 admitted June 1, 1796. Almost from the date of 
 admission there was a sharp distinction between 
 East and Middle (West) Tennessee, which was 
 recognized in the appointment of the judi¬ 
 ciary. In wealth and material progress the 
 mountainous eastern part lagged. The western 
 part of the State began to fill up after 1818, 
 Memphis was laid out in 1819, and three sec¬ 
 tions came now to be recognized in law. The 
 State’s progress was rapid, though growth was 
 almost entirely along agricultural lines. Con¬ 
 struction of internal improvements began early. 
 Turnpike roads were built in 1804, and after 
 1823 roads and canals were pushed forward. 
 The first railroad was chartered in 1831, but the 
 Memphis and Charleston road was not built 
 until 1857. Much State aid was voted the rail¬ 
 roads, and the redemption of the bonds issued 
 for this was a political issue as late as 1882. 
 The eastern part of the State did not share 
 equally in these benefits. 
 
 There was a strong Union party in Tennessee 
 at the outbreak of the Civil War, and in Febru¬ 
 ary, 1861, the people refused to hold a conven¬ 
 tion to consider secession, but with President 
 Lincoln’s call for troops sentiment changed, and 
 through the influence of Governor Harris the 
 State declared itself by popular vote out of the 
 LTiion, June 8, though East Tennessee had 
 voted against secession more than two to one. 
 On June 17 a Union convention of delegates 
 from the eastern counties and a few middle 
 counties met at Greeneville and petitioned to be 
 allowed to form a separate State. The request 
 was ignored by the Legislature, and the presence 
 of a Confederate army prevented further action 
 on the part of the Unionists. During the war 
 the State furnished about 115,000 soldiers to the 
 Confederate cause and 31,092 to the Federal 
 army. When the advance of Federal troops 
 drove Governor Harris from Nashville, Andrew 
 Johnson (q.v.), who had refused to resign his 
 seat in the United States Senate on the secession 
 
 of the State, was appointed military governor. 
 He attempted to reorganize the State in 1864, 
 and set up Lincoln electors, who were rejected 
 by Congress. In 1865 the radical Legislature 
 proceeded to extreme measures. Suffrage was 
 extended to negroes under the Constitution of 
 1834, which gave that right to every freeman. 
 The State was readmitted July 23, 1866, but 
 there was much disorder. The Ivu-Klux Klan 
 (q.v.) appeared, and in 1869 nine counties in 
 Middle and West Tennessee were declared under 
 martial law. For a time after the war the 
 recovery of the State was slow, but more recent 
 development has been exceedingly rapid. The 
 principal events have been the conflicts between 
 convict and free labor in the mines in 1891-93, 
 and the Tennessee Centennial Exposition (q.v.), 
 held at Nashville in 1897. 
 
 The vote for President in 1908 was Bryan, 
 135,819; Taft, 118,519; for Governor, Patterson, 
 Democrat, 113,913; G. M. Tillman, Republican, 
 113,033. A State-wide prohibition bill was 
 passed over the Governor’s veto in 1909, and the 
 same Legislature enacted measures prohibiting 
 the manufacture of intoxicants within the State 
 after Jan. 1, 1910. 
 
 Opposition to Governor Patterson divided his 
 party with the result that the governorship went 
 to the Republicans in the election of 1910. 
 Captain B. W. Hooper defeated Robert L. 
 Taylor by a vote of 133,999 to 121,674. Gover¬ 
 nor Hooper was reelected in 1912, defeating 
 Benton McMillin. In the presidential election 
 of that year Wilson received 135,399 votes, 
 Taft, 60,674, and Roosevelt, 53,986. The Demo¬ 
 crats regained their strength and in the election 
 of 1914 Thomas C. Rye defeated Governor Hooper 
 by a vote of 136,816 to 115,821. 
 
 In the presidential elections Tennessee chose 
 Democratic-Republican electors from 1796 to 
 1824. In 1828 and again in 1832 the only issue 
 was Jackson, and the voters were almost unani¬ 
 mous for him. In 1836, however, Hugh Lawson 
 White, the States-Rights Democrat, was success¬ 
 ful in spite of Jackson’s efforts. From 1840 
 to 1852 Whig electors were chosen, Clay re¬ 
 ceiving the vote in 1844, though Polk was a 
 resident of the State. In 1856 the vote was cast 
 for Buchanan. The constitutional Union ticket 
 headed by John Bell was successful in 1860. The 
 State voted for Grant in 1868. The State has 
 been consistently Democratic since then, with 
 the exceptions of 1880 and 1910 when Republi¬ 
 can governors were elected. From the State 
 have come many men of national reputation, 
 including three Presidents, Jackson, Polk, and 
 
 Johnson. 
 
 GOVERNORS OF TENNESSEE 
 STATE OF FRANKLIN 
 
 John Sevier. . .1785-88 
 
 TERRITORY SOUTH OF THE OHIO 
 William Blount.1790-96 
 
 STATE OF TENNESSEE 
 
 John Sevier.Democratic-Republican.1796-1801 
 
 . 1801-08 
 .1803-09 
 .1809-15 
 ,1815-21 
 ,1821-27 
 1827-29 
 1829 
 
 Archibald Roan. 
 
 John Sevier. 
 
 Willie Blount. : . . 
 Joseph McMinn.. 
 William Carroll. . 
 Sam Houston.... 
 William Hall (acting) 
 
 William Carroll.Democrat.1829-35 
 
 Newton Cannon.States-Rights Democrat. ! 1835-39 
 
 James K. Polk.Democrat.1839-41 
 
 James C. Jones.Whig.1841-45 
 
 Aaron V. Brown.Democrat.1845-47 
 
 Neil S. Brown.Whig. 1847-49 
 
TENNESSEE 
 
 103 
 
 TENNIEL 
 
 GOVERNORS OF TENNESSEE — Continued 
 
 William Trousdale.Democrat.1849-51 
 
 William B. Campbell.Whig.1851-53 
 
 Andrew Johnson.Democrat.1853-57 
 
 Isham G. Harris. “ .1857-62 
 
 Andrew Johnson.Military.1862-65 
 
 Interregnum.4th March, 5th April, 1865 
 
 William G. Brownlow. .. .Republican.1865-69 
 
 DeWitt C. Senter.Conservative-Republican. 1S69-71 
 
 John C. Brown.Democrat.1871-75 
 
 James D. Porter. “ 1875-79 
 
 Albert S. Marks. “ 1879-81 
 
 Alvin Hawkins.Republican.1881-83 
 
 William B. Bate.Democrat.1883-87 
 
 Robert L. Taylor. “ 1887-91 
 
 John P. Buchanan. “ 1891-93 
 
 Peter Turney. “ 1893-97 
 
 Robert L. Taylor. “ 1897-99 
 
 Benton McMillin. “ 1899-1903 
 
 James B. Frazier. “ 1903-05 
 
 John I. Cox. “ 1905-07 
 
 Malcolm R. Patterson_ “ 1907-11 
 
 Ben W. Hooper.Republican.1911—15 
 
 Thomas C. Rye.Democrat.1915-19 
 
 A. H. Roberts. “ 1919-21 
 
 H. A. Taylor.Republican.1921- 
 
 Bibliography. General: Killebrew and Saf- 
 ford, Introduction to the Resources of Tennessee 
 (Nashville, 1874) ; Killebrew, Tennessee, its Ag¬ 
 ricultural and Mineral Wealth (ib., 1877) ; 
 
 Wright, ‘‘Antiquities of Tennessee,” in Smith¬ 
 sonian Institution, Annual Report for 1874 
 (Washington, 1875) ; Jones, “Explorations of 
 the Aboriginal Remains of Tennessee,” in Smith¬ 
 sonian Institution, Contributions to Knowledge, 
 vol. xxii (ib., 1876) ; Gates, West Tennessee, its 
 Advantages and its Resources (Jackson, Tenn., 
 1885) ; Thruston, The Antiquities of Tennessee 
 (2d ed., Cincinnati, 1897). History: John Hay¬ 
 wood, Civil and Political History of Tennessee 
 (Nashville, 1891); Allison, Dropped Stitches in 
 Tennessee History (ib., 1897); J. W. Fertig, 
 Secession and Reconstruction of Tennessee (Chi¬ 
 cago, 1898) ; Temple, East Tennessee and the 
 Civil War (Cincinnati, 1899) ; Theodore Roose¬ 
 velt, Winning of the West (new ed., 4 vols., 
 New York, 1904)-; J. W. Caldwell, Studies in 
 the Constitutional History of Tennessee (2d ed., 
 Cincinnati, 1907) ; G. R. McGee, History of Ten¬ 
 nessee from 1663 to 1911 (New York, 1911); 
 and publications of the Tennessee Historical 
 Society. 
 
 TENNESSEE, The. A formidable Confeder¬ 
 ate ram crippled by the Hartford of Admiral 
 Farragut’s fleet, and taken in Mobile Bay on 
 Aug. 5, 1864. 
 
 TENNESSEE, University of. A coeduca¬ 
 tional State institution, founded in 1794 as 
 Blount College. Its title was changed in 1807 
 to East Tennessee College, in 1840 to East Ten¬ 
 nessee University, and in 1879 to its present 
 name. The institution comprises a graduate 
 department, a college of liberal arts, a college 
 of engineering, a college of agriculture, a college 
 of law, a school of commerce, and a school of 
 education, all located at Knoxville; and a col¬ 
 lege of medicine, a college of dentistry, and a 
 school of pharmacy, located at Memphis. There 
 are the usual four-year courses in arts, engineer¬ 
 ing, agriculture, commerce, medicine, etc. In 
 addition to these there is a three years’ course 
 in law and one in dentistry, and two years’ 
 courses in agriculture, pharmacy, and prelim¬ 
 inary to medicine. Short courses are offered to 
 farmers, extending through six weeks in the 
 winter. The Summer School of the South is 
 conducted at the University of Tennessee. It 
 has very successful sessions, the attendance gen¬ 
 erally reaching nearly two thousand, this num¬ 
 ber having been several times exceeded. The 
 
 University has a liberal system of accrediting 
 schools, whose certificates are accepted in place 
 of the usual entrance examinations. Tuition in 
 liberal arts, engineering, agriculture, commerce, 
 and education is free to Tennesseans. The at¬ 
 tendance in 1916 was about 1200, and the faculty 
 numbered over 200. The library contained about 
 40,000 volumes. The endowment was about 
 $425,000, and the income about $250,000. The 
 grounds and buildings are valued at more than 
 $1,000,000. The President in 1916 was Brown 
 Ayres, Pli.D., LL.D., D.C.L., who was elected in 
 1904. 
 
 TENNESSEE CENTENNIAL EXPOSI¬ 
 TION. An exposition held in Nashville, Tenn., 
 May 1 to Oct. 30, 1897, to celebrate the one 
 hundredth anniversary of the admission of the 
 State into the Union. The site covered about 
 200 acres, and a characteristic feature of the 
 landscape plan was the sward planted with the 
 famous blue grass of the region. The buildings, 
 of which there were over a hundred, included 
 those devoted to agriculture, commerce, educa¬ 
 tion, fine arts, history, machinery, minerals and 
 forestry, and transportation, as well as those in 
 which the special exhibits pertaining to children, 
 negroes, the United States government, and 
 women were shown. The total attendance was 
 1,786,714, of which the total paid attendance 
 was 1,166,692. The total receipts were $1,101,- 
 285, and the disbursements $1,101,246. Consult 
 Justi, Official History of the Tennessee Cen¬ 
 tennial Exposition (Nashville, 1898). 
 
 TENNESSEE RIVER. The largest tribu¬ 
 tary of the Ohio River. It is formed by the 
 confluence of the IJolston and the French Broad 
 rivers, about four miles east of Knoxville (Map r 
 Tennessee, F 3). Thence it flows southwestward,. 
 enters into Alabama about 40 miles below Chat¬ 
 tanooga, Tenn., and after crossing the northern 
 part of Alabama again enters Tennessee in 
 Harding County, whence it flows northward 
 across Tennessee and Kentucky, and enters the 
 Ohio at Paducah, about 40 miles above Cairo. 
 Including the Holston, its length is about 1200 
 miles. Its drainage basin includes about 39,000 
 square miles. A canal having been constructed 
 (1889) around the Muscle Shoals, between Flor¬ 
 ence and Decatur, Ala., the main stream is now 
 navigable for 673 miles from its mouth. Its 
 chief affluents are the Clinch, Hiawassee, Se¬ 
 quatchie, Elk, and Duck rivers. The river takes 
 its name from the old Cherokee Indian town, 
 Tennassee, which stood near the present town of 
 Lenoirs, Tenn. 
 
 TENNIEL, ten'yel, Sir John (1820-1914). 
 An English cartoonist and illustrator. He was 
 born in London, and was practically self-taught. 
 In 1845 he won a prize in the competition for 
 the decoration of Westminster Palace, with a 
 cartoon, “Allegory of Justice,” the success of 
 which also secured for him the commission to 
 paint a fresco, Dryden’s “Saint Cecilia,” in the 
 House of Lords, but he soon devoted his time 
 entirely to work in black and white, upon which 
 his success rests. From 1851 to 1901 he was 
 cartoonist for Punch, executing about 2300 car¬ 
 toons, and also innumerable small drawings and 
 designs for Punch’s Almanac and Punch’s Poclcet- 
 boohs. His work is characterized by correct 
 draftsmanship, and by originality and freshness 
 of invention, combined with dignity of concep¬ 
 tion. His satire is genial, and the statuesque 
 beauty of his ideal subjects shows German 
 influence. He was knighted in 1893. Among 
 
TENNIS 
 
 104 
 
 TENNYSON 
 
 his principal book illustrations are those 
 for AEsop's Fables (1848); Moore’s Lalla 
 liookh (1861); Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Ad¬ 
 ventures in Wonderland (1860) and its se¬ 
 quel, Through the Looking Glass (1870); 
 the Ingoldsby Legends; and his classical illus¬ 
 trations to the Legendary Ballads. In collab¬ 
 oration he illustrated: Poets of the Nineteenth 
 Century (1857); Poe’s Works (1859); the 
 Arabian Nights (1863); Legends and Lyrics 
 (1865). 
 
 TENNIS. A game played with racquet and 
 ball in a covered court, inclosed by four walls. 
 A net with each end higher than the middle is 
 stretched across the court midway between the 
 end walls. The divisions made by the net are 
 termed the “service side” and the “hazard side.” 
 Points of vantage reserved for the spectators 
 include the “dedans,” an opening, covered with 
 netting, in the wall at the service end. The 
 main wall (on the right of the service side) is 
 clear, with the exception of a buttress (called the 
 “tambour”) on the hazard side. The other three 
 walls have penthouses, whose roofs slope down¬ 
 ward. The walls should be 30 feet high, the length 
 of the court about 94 feet, and its width about 
 31 feet at the dedans wall and about 30 feet at 
 the grille wall, exclusive of the penthouses. The 
 racquets used are strong and heavy, with long 
 handles, large face, and a bulging side. The 
 interior of the ball is of cloth and it is therefore 
 heavier, though of the size and of the same 
 color as the lawn-tennis ball. 
 
 The play is too complicated to be described 
 here in detail, but in a general way it may be 
 explained that, to be fairly served, the ball 
 must be struck from the service court directly 
 onto the roof of the left penthouse, or to the 
 wall above it, and must then rebound into the 
 hazard side in the court bounded by the pass 
 line and the winning (last) gallery; otherwise 
 it is a pass or a foul. If the ball goes to the 
 grille side of the pass line the play is termed a 
 “pass.” LTnless a pass has occurred, the striker- 
 out may volley a service, provided the ball has 
 not touched the penthouse on the grille side, and 
 if there is no danger of injuring the server. The 
 serve is counted as in lawn tennis (q.v.). Con¬ 
 sult Court Games, edited by F. R. Toombs, in 
 “Spalding’s Athletic Library” (ib., issued annu¬ 
 ally), and “Tennis,” in the Encyclopedia of 
 Sport (London, 1911) 
 
 TENNIS ELBOW.’ See Neurosis. 
 
 TENNO, Jimmu. See Jimmu Tenno. 
 
 TEN'NYSQN, Alfred, first Baron Tennyson 
 (1809-92). The most representative English 
 poet of Victoria’s reign. He was born on August 
 6, 1809, at Somersby, in Lincolnshire, a village 
 of which his father was rector. Two of his 
 brothers also displayed no slight poetic gifts, 
 Frederick (q.v.), and Charles, afterward known 
 as Charles Tennyson Turner (q.v.). Alfred 
 spent four years (1816-20) at the grammar 
 school of Louth, a few miles from his home, and 
 for the next eight years his education was 
 directed by his father, a man of some literary 
 talent. He roamed the country round, delight¬ 
 ing in the rural charm of the neighborhood, and 
 laying the foundations of that full and minute 
 knowledge of nature for which his verse is con¬ 
 spicuous, read extensively, and tried his hand 
 in the manner of Pope, Thomson, Scott, Moore, 
 and Byron. Fragments of this early work found 
 their way into Poems by Two Brothers (1827; 
 reprinted 1893), written in conjunction with his 
 
 brother Charles. In 1828 the two brothers en¬ 
 tered Trinity College, Cambridge, to which Fred¬ 
 erick had gone a year earlier. At the university 
 Tennyson was associated with a remarkable 
 group of young men, most of whom formed the 
 famous society known as The Apostles. To 
 this group belonged Thackeray, Spedding, 
 Trench, Monckton Milnes, afterward Lord 
 Houghton, Merivale, Alford, and Arthur Henry 
 Hallam, son of the historian, who discerned his 
 friend’s genius and in 1829 told Gladstone that 
 Tennyson “promised fair to be the greatest poet 
 of our generation, perhaps of our century.” 
 
 In that same year, with Timbuctoo, a poem in 
 blank verse, Tennyson won the Chancellor’s gold 
 medal, and while still in residence published the 
 epoch-making volume of Poems, Chiefly Lyrical. 
 In 1830, when the slim little book appeared, 
 poetry seemed to be dead, and the novel, under 
 the impulse of the unprecedented success of the 
 Waverley series, held the field. Showing the 
 influence of Coleridge and Keats, the poems in 
 this volume were by no means essentially imita¬ 
 tive; rather, they contain in germ nearly all of 
 Tennyson’s great original qualities. In the same 
 year he traveled in the Pyrenees with Hallam, 
 and there, in the valley of Cauterets, he wrote 
 parts of “CEnone.” 
 
 He left Cambridge without a degree in Feb¬ 
 ruary, 1831, for various reasons, but chiefly the 
 ill health of his father, who died a few weeks 
 later. The family, however, remained at Som¬ 
 ersby for six years longer. The second volume 
 of Poems (1833) contained many of his choicest 
 minor pieces: “The Lady of Shalott,” “The 
 Miller’s Daughter,” “The Palace of Art,” “The 
 Lotos-Eaters,” and “A Dream of Fair Women.” 
 Except by his friends, the collection was not well 
 received; Lockhart wrote an especially brutal 
 review in the Quarterly for April. In Septem¬ 
 ber a lifelong sorrow fell upon the poet in the 
 death of Hallam, his dearest friend, who was 
 engaged to his sister Emily. For ten years he 
 remained silent, reading largely, revising old 
 poems, and writing new ones. By 1836 he had 
 definitely given his heart to his future wife, 
 Emily Sarah Sellwood, the sister of his brother 
 Charles’s wife. But, though deficiency of in¬ 
 come seemed an insuperable bar to marriage, 
 and though her relatives forbade even corre¬ 
 spondence, Tennyson had no thought of deserting 
 the art to which his life belonged to take up a 
 profession more lucrative. 
 
 In 1842 he gained his public with Poems in 
 two volumes, representing a wide range of theme 
 and metrical structure. Here first appeared 
 “Morte d’Arthur,” the first sketch of the Idylls 
 of the King; “Ulysses,” “Locksley Hall,” “Go- 
 diva,” “Break, break, break,” and “The Two 
 Voices.” Tennyson’s place in English poetry 
 was now secure; but fortune seemed far off. His 
 capital was shattered by a strange investment 
 in wood-carving machinery; and in 1845 Peel 
 was moved by Lord Houghton to grant him a 
 civil-list pension of £200. In 1847 appeared 
 The Princess, a romantic medley in musical 
 blank verse, marked by his “curious felicity” of 
 style, and containing, in its third (1850) edition, 
 some wonderful lyrics. The year 1850 has been 
 called his annus mirabilis. In June he published 
 In Memoriam, a tribute to the memory of Arthur 
 Hallam. At first not well understood, it has 
 now definitely taken its place with Lycidas, Ad- 
 onais, and Thyrsis among the great English 
 elegies. In the same month he married Miss 
 
TENNYSON 
 
 FROM AN ETCHING BY PAUL RAJON 
 

 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY Of 1111*018 
 
TENNYSON 
 
 105 
 
 TENNYSON 
 
 Sell wood (with whom, he said afterward, “the 
 peace of God came into my life”) ; and in No¬ 
 vember he was appointed poet laureate, succeed¬ 
 ing Wordsworth. He settled with his bride at 
 Twickenham, where he lived until (in 1853) he 
 leased and shortly afterward purchased the es¬ 
 tate of Farringford, near Freshwater, in the Isle 
 of Wight, where he was wont to live for a part 
 at least of each year for the rest of his life. 
 After 1870 he divided his time between Farring¬ 
 ford and Aldworth, a house which he built on 
 Blackdown Hill, near Haslemere. 
 
 In 1855 appeared Maud, and Other Poems. 
 “Maud,” a great favorite with Tennyson, puzzled 
 the critics, who tried to find in it the result 
 of the author’s own experience, though it is 
 rather a vivid dramatic conception, rare with 
 Tennyson. “No modern poem,” said Jowett, 
 “contains more lines that ring in the ears of 
 men.” The same volume contained the popular 
 “Brook” and “The Charge of the Light Bri¬ 
 gade.” Returning to Arthurian legend, Tennyson 
 published in 1859 four of the Idylls of the King; 
 others were added in 1869, and in 1872 they 
 were arranged in sequence, with a completion in 
 “Balin and Balan” (1885). Though^ his concep¬ 
 tion of the Arthurian romances has been severely 
 criticized, and though it must be confessed that 
 his favorite heroes have here something of the 
 aspect of carpet knights, the Idylls still remain 
 on the whole a fine achievement and in scattered 
 passages quite above criticism. Enoch Arden 
 (1864) was the most immediately popular of all 
 his volumes; sixty thousand copies were sold, 
 and the title poem was translated into eight 
 languages. From the epic Tennyson turned to 
 the drama, producing Queen Mary ( 1875), Har¬ 
 old (1876), and Bechet (1844). Besides these 
 imposing historical pieces are The Falcon 
 (1884), The Cup (1884), The Promise of May 
 (1886), and The Foresters (1892), of which 
 The Cup was the most successful as an acting 
 play. Tennyson’s productive imagination contin¬ 
 ued active throughout his last years. His last 
 volumes were Ballads and Other Poems (1880), 
 containing “Rizpah” and “The Northern Cob¬ 
 bler”; Tiresias and Other Poems (1885); De¬ 
 meter and Other Poems (1889), containing 
 “Crossing the Bar”; and the posthumous Death 
 of CEnone and Other Poems (1892). 
 
 In 1884, after some hesitation, the poet ac¬ 
 cepted a peerage. He died at Aldworth, Oct. 
 6, 1892, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 No English poet has produced masterpieces in 
 so many different kinds as Tennyson; he is the 
 representative figure in literature of the Victo¬ 
 rian era, because he touched and reconciled a 
 greater number of its diverse interests than any 
 other writer. Yet he is in constant protest 
 against the individualism which that period in¬ 
 herited from the Romantic revival. The most 
 salient feature of his mental attitude is his 
 sense of law; it is the “reign of law” as shown 
 by modern science which most attracts him to 
 scientific subjects. The consummate artistic ex¬ 
 cellence of his verse, resembling in many of its 
 qualities that of Vergil, gives him an abiding 
 place in literature. No better example exists 
 in English of the eclectic style made up of 
 elements inherited from many of his great pred¬ 
 ecessors, emulating “by turns the sweet felicity 
 of Keats, the tender simplicity of Wordsworth, 
 the straightforward vigor of Burns, the elusive 
 melody and dreamlike magic of Coleridge, the 
 stormy sweep of Byron, the large majesty of 
 
 Milton”; and he expressed, with such an in¬ 
 strument, a teaching which was uniformly pure, 
 noble, and consoling. 
 
 Bibliography. Standard editions of Tenny¬ 
 son's Complete Works: Cambridge ed., by W. J. 
 Rolfe (Boston, 1898); Household ed. (ib., 
 
 1899) ; Cabinet ed. (I vol., ib., 1899; the same, 
 12 vols., ib., 1902); Riverside ed. (7 vols., ib., 
 
 1904) ; New Popular ed. (3 vols., ib., 1906) ; 
 Popular ed. (ib., 1907); Globe ed. (New York, 
 
 1907) ; Eversley ed., by Hallam, Lord Tenny¬ 
 son (6 vols., ib., 1908) ; in Everyman’s Library 
 (ib., 1910) ; Works of Tennyson, with Notes by 
 the Author, edited with Memoir by Hallam, 
 Lord Tennyson (ib., 1913). Concordances and 
 bibliographies: D. B. Brightwell, Concordance 
 to the Entire Works of Alfred Tennyson (Lon¬ 
 don, 1870) ; R. H. Shepherd, Bibliography of 
 Tennyson (ib., 1896) ; J. C. Thomson, Bibliog¬ 
 raphy of the Writings of Tennyson (New York, 
 
 1905) ; T. J. Wise, Bibliography of the Writings 
 of Alfred, Lord Tennyson (2 vols., London, 
 
 1908) ; A. E. Baker, Concordance to the Poetical 
 and Dramatic Works of Alfred, Lord Tenny¬ 
 son (ib., 1914). Biographies: the authorized 
 life of Tennyson is Hallam, Lord Tennyson, 
 Alfred, Lord Tennyson: A Memoir (2 vols., New 
 York, 1898; new ed., ib., 1905; in 1 vol.,* 
 ib., 1911) ; see also Mrs. A. T. Ritchie, Records 
 of Tennyson, Ruskin, and Browning (Lon¬ 
 don, 1896) ; Sir A. C. Lyall, Tennyson, in “Eng¬ 
 lish Men of Letters Series” (London, 1902) ; 
 Andrew Lang, Alfred Tennyson (ib., 1901); A. 
 C. Benson, Alfred Tennyson (ib., 1907) ; A. 
 Turnbull, Life and Writings of Lord Tennyson 
 (ib., 1915) ; T. R. Lounsbury, The Life and 
 Times of Tennyson from 1809 to 1850 (New 
 Haven, 1915). General criticism, etc.: Edward* 
 Dowden, “Tennyson and Browning,” in Studies 
 in Literature (5th ed., London, 1889) ; Mrs. A. 
 T. Ritchie, Tennyson and his Friends (ib., 
 1893) ; J. C. Walters, Tennyson: Poet, Philoso¬ 
 pher, Idealist (ib., 1893) ; S. A. Brooke, Tenny¬ 
 son: His Art and Relation to Modern Life 
 (2d ed., ib., 1894) ; G. E. B. Saintsbury, in 
 Corrected Impressions (New York, 1895) ; V*. D. 
 Scudder, in Life of the Spirit in the Modern 
 English Poets (Boston, 1897) ; E. L. Cary, 
 Tennyson: His Homes, his Friends, and his 
 Work (New York, 1898) ; Henry van Dyke, 
 The Poetry of Tennyson (10th ed., ib., 1898); 
 A. H. Strong, Great Poets and their Theology 
 (Philadelphia, 1899) ; E. H. Sneath, The Mind 
 of Tennyson (New York, 1900) ; Frederic Har¬ 
 rison, Tennyson, Ruskin, and Mills (ib., 1900) ; 
 J. C. Collins, Early Poems of Tennyson, with 
 Bibliography and Various Readings (London, 
 
 1900) ; S. A. Brooke, “Browning and Tenny¬ 
 son,” in Poetry of Robert Browning (ib., 1903) ; 
 R. H. Hutton, “Tennyson,” in Literary Essays 
 (ib., 1893) ; Morton Luce, Handbook to the 
 Works of Alfred, Lord Tennyson (New York, 
 1908); P. E. More, in Shelburne Essays (7th 
 series, ib., 1910) ; E. W. Gosse, in Portraits 
 and Sketches (London, 1912) ; Hallam, Lord 
 Tennyson, Tennyson and his Friends (ib., 
 1912) ; H. D. Rawnsley, Memoirs of the Tenny- 
 sons (New York, 1912) ; Oliver Huckel, Through 
 England ioith Tennyson (ib., 1913). 
 
 TENNYSON, Charles. See Turner, Charles 
 Tennyson. 
 
 TENNYSON, Frederick (1807-98). An 
 English poet, brother of Alfred Tennyson (q.v.), 
 born at Louth, in Lincolnshire. In 1827 he left 
 Eton, as captain of the school, and went up to 
 
TENNYSON 
 
 106 
 
 TENSKWATAWA 
 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated 
 in 1832. He passed most of his time for many 
 years on the Continent, living for a long period 
 at Florence. In 1859 he settled in the Isle of 
 Jersey, where he remained until 1896. He then 
 removed to Kensington, where he died. With 
 his brothers, Alfred and Charles, Frederick 
 wrote verse before his college days. To their 
 Poems by Two Brothers (1827) he contributed 
 four poems. In 1854 he published Days and 
 Hours, which contained several beautiful and 
 noble lyrics. In 1890 appeared The Isles of 
 Creece ; in 1891, Daphne and Other Poems; and 
 Poems of the Day and Year (1895). His Short¬ 
 er Poems, with an introduction by Charles B. L. 
 Tennyson, were collected in 1913. Alfred Tenny¬ 
 son said that his brother’s poems “were organ- 
 tones echoing among the mountains.” 
 
 TENNYSON, Hallam, second Bakon Tenny¬ 
 son (1852- ). Eldest son of the poet, Alfred, 
 
 Lord Tennyson (q.v.). He was born at Twicken¬ 
 ham, was educated at Marlborough College, and 
 at Trinity College, Cambridge, and studied law 
 at the Inner Temple, after which he was for some 
 years his father’s private secretary. To the 
 Contemporary Review for November, 1876, he 
 contributed a translation of the old English 
 song of Brunanburh, which was afterward 
 turned into verse by his father. In 1880 he 
 edited, with an introduction, the sonnets and 
 lyrics of his uncle Charles Tennyson Turner 
 (q.v.) ; and in 1897 he published the authorized 
 life of his father, under the title Alfred, Lord 
 Tennyson: A Memoir. Governor of South Aus¬ 
 tralia from 1899 to 1902, he was then Governor- 
 General of the Commonwealth of Australia for 
 two years. He received the G.C.M.G. and honor¬ 
 ary degrees from Oxford and Cambridge. In 
 1908 he brought out the Eversley edition of his 
 father’s complete works, which contained notes 
 by his father and by himself; and in 1912 ap¬ 
 peared Tennyson and his Friends, edited by 
 him, a work abounding in personal anecdote 
 and literary reminiscence. 
 
 TENOCHTXTLAN, ta-noch'tet-lan'. The 
 ancient capital of the Aztecs, occupying the site 
 of the present city of Mexico (q.v.). 
 
 TENOR (OF. tenour, teneur, from ML. tenor, 
 chief melody, highest male voice to which this 
 was assigned, Lat. tenor, a holding, tone, accent, 
 from tenere, to hold, retain). In music, one of 
 the classes into which voices are divided in re¬ 
 spect to their compass. It is the highest adult 
 male voice, with an approximate range from c 
 to a 1 . Music for tenor voices is generally writ¬ 
 ten .in the treble clef, or an octave higher than 
 its true pitch. The sign of the C clef is also 
 often used, but it is not placed on the second 
 line, but second space, so that the music is read 
 as in the treble clef, but an octave lower. Two 
 classes of tenors can be recognized, the heroic 
 and lyric tenors ( tenore robusto, tenore di 
 grazia). The heroic tenors have something of 
 the sonorous quality of the barytone in the 
 lower register. 
 
 TE'NOS, or TINOS, te'nos. An island in the 
 yEgean Sea belonging to the Cyclades (q.v.) and 
 known as one of the most productive in the 
 group (Map: Greece, G 6). It has an uneven 
 surface and covers an area of 79 square miles. 
 On the south coast is the little town of the same 
 name, called also Hagios Nikolaos (St. Nich¬ 
 olas). It is on the site of the ancient town of 
 Tenos, the remains of whose temple of Poseidon 
 were laid bare in 1902. The chief industries are 
 
 wine making and marble quarrying. Corn grows 
 in abundance and fig exportation is important. 
 Pop., 1906, 12,300. Tenos played an active part 
 in the struggle between the Greeks and Persians, 
 as well as in the Greek revolution of 1821-27. 
 
 TENOT'OMY (from Gk. revwv, tenon, tendon, 
 from reiveLv, teinein, to stretch, strain -f- ropy, 
 tome, a cutting, from repveiv, temnein, to cut). 
 The division of a tendon; a surgical procedure 
 which usually has for its object the relief of 
 some variety of deformity by severing a perma¬ 
 nently contracted muscle at its tendinous por¬ 
 tion. The affections in which tenotomy is most 
 frequently found useful are clubfoot (q.v.), 
 contractions of the extremities following paraly¬ 
 sis, deformity from contraction of the palmar 
 fascia, wryneck (q.v.), ankylosis of the joints, 
 and strabismus (q.v.). 
 
 TEN PERSECUTIONS OF THE CHRIS¬ 
 TIANS. See Persecutions of the Christians, 
 The Ten. 
 
 TEN'REC (Malagasy name). An insectivore 
 of the African family Centetidse. Of the seven 
 genera and many species, the best known is the 
 tenrec (also spelled tendrac and tanrec), which 
 is about a foot long, and owes its specific 
 name ( Centetes ecaudatus) to having no tail. 
 Its hairs are rather spiny, but actual spines ap¬ 
 pear only in the young, which have three lines 
 of them along the back, shed at the time of the 
 arrival of the permanent teeth. The tenrecs are 
 nocturnal animals, natives of Madagascar and 
 the Mascarene isles. Three other species exist. 
 They feed mainly on earthworms, aestivate dur¬ 
 ing the hot season, and produce many young, 
 sometimes more than 20. The flesh is edible, 
 and the animal is so useful in the destruction of 
 worms and insects that it has been introduced 
 into Mauritius and Bourbon. See Plate of Por¬ 
 cupines and Hedgehogs. 
 
 TENSA. See T;ensa. 
 
 TENSE. In grammar (q.v.), the change in 
 the form of a verb which marks the time of the 
 action. See Conjugation; Verb; Grammar; 
 Philology, Syntax. 
 
 TENSKWATAWA, ten-skwa'ta-wa, or ELK- 
 SWAT AW A, elk-swa/ta-wa (the open door) 
 
 (c. 1775-1834). A Shawnee prophet, younger 
 brother of Tecumseh (q.v.). Fie attracted no 
 special notice in his tribe until November, 1805, 
 when, at the ancient town of Wapakoneta, in 
 what is now northwestern Ohio, he made public 
 proclamation of a vision during a recent trance, 
 in which he claimed to have been taken up to the 
 spirit world and to have received there a reve¬ 
 lation from the God of the Indians, by which 
 they w T ere commanded to return to their primi¬ 
 tive condition and customs. In a short time his 
 followers were numbered by the thousands 
 throughout the region of the Ohio valley and 
 the upper lakes. He was believed to be the liv¬ 
 ing incarnation of Manabozho (q.v.), the great 
 culture god of the Algonquian race. In the 
 spring of 1808 he removed, together with his 
 brother, from Greenville, Ohio, to a more central 
 location on the Wabash just below the entrance 
 of the Tippecanoe, the new settlement being 
 familiarly known as Prophet’s Town. Here the 
 prophet continued to preach, but the battle of 
 Tippecanoe, Nov. 7, 1811, broke his power 
 
 and prestige. His followers scattered to their 
 tribes until again summoned to battle by the 
 English. Everywhere denounced as a liar and 
 deceiver, he finally found refuge with the Wyan¬ 
 dot. On the outbreak of the War of 1812 he 
 
TENSON 
 
 107 
 
 TENURE 
 
 crossed over into Canada, but returned when 
 peace was declared and rejoined his tribe in 
 Ohio, removing with them to the West in 1827. 
 
 TENSON. See Tenzon. 
 
 TENT. A portable structure of canvas, skin, 
 or other fabrics, designed for shelter. Animal 
 skins and foliage doubtless formed the earliest 
 coverings, for which textile fabrics have been 
 substituted. In the Book of Genesis the patri¬ 
 archs are represented as dwelling in tents, prob¬ 
 ably the same as the modern Arab tents, large 
 rude structures, low, but covering a considerable 
 space of ground. The early Greek and Mace¬ 
 donian military tents were small coverings of 
 skin, each tent sheltering two soldiers. The Ro¬ 
 mans used two sorts of tents, one of canvas, con¬ 
 structed with two upright poles and a ridgepole 
 between, similar to the camping tent of to-day; 
 the other resembling a light hut—a wooden 
 skeleton, covered by bark, hides, thatch, or 
 other material affording warmth or protection. 
 This latter type, it may be presumed, was only 
 employed in the winter or for more permanent 
 camps. Each tent sheltered ten soldiers with 
 their decanus. Possibly the tent has reached its 
 highest perfection in Persia, where there are 
 many tribes who dwell in tents. They are nearly 
 hemispherical, over a wooden framework, and 
 covered with felt, with worked hangings cover¬ 
 ing the entrance. The Chinese lower classes also 
 live much in tents, and while their construction 
 is invariably of matting, they are usually of 
 great size and comfortable in design. Mod¬ 
 ern military tents are made of cotton canvas, 
 and latterly, since the adoption of the khaki and 
 olive-drab color and its wide use in military 
 uniforms, tents made in this color have been 
 very largely employed both in England and in 
 America as being cooler than those of white 
 canvas. The largest military tents are those 
 used for hospital purposes. They are oblong in 
 shape, with high side walls. The tent most com¬ 
 monly used in military camps is conical or py¬ 
 ramidal, about 12 feet in diameter and 10 feet 
 high, affording sleeping accommodation to about 
 16 men. In the United States army live kinds of 
 tents are employed: hospital, wall, A, pyramidal, 
 and shelter. Where possible a fly or outer roof 
 is used over the tent proper. The shelter or 
 “dog tent” is a small, easily carried contrivance 
 which affords a degree of shelter for two men. 
 Whether field troops should be supplied with 
 tents or not is a much discussed question. In 
 a thickly settled country they may not be needed. 
 They are needed, however, under conditions re¬ 
 quiring the semipermanent occupation of a 
 sparsely settled region (e.g., the Mexican border, 
 1914-16). The leading consideration is one of 
 transportation, as the tentage of a modern army 
 would add enormously to the transport facilities 
 needed. See Encampment. 
 
 TENTACULITES, ten'tak-u-li'tez (Neo-Lat. 
 nom. pi., from tentaculum, tentacle, feeler, from 
 Lat. tentare, to touch, test, try). An important 
 genus of fossil shells found in Silurian and De¬ 
 vonian rocks and often so abundant that they 
 constitute the greater portion of thin limestone 
 beds. The shells are of delicate, elongate conic 
 form with the outer surface marked by regular 
 transverse striations of either the same or alter¬ 
 nate sizes, and also by very delicate longitudinal 
 lines in the hollow between the striations. The 
 species range from ^4 to 3 inches in length. See 
 Pteropoda. 
 
 TENT CATERPILLAR. The larvse of four 
 Vol. XXII.— 8 
 
 species of silk-spinning moths of the genus Mala- 
 cosoma (formerly Clisiocampa) . The female 
 of the apple-tree tent caterpillar ( Malacosoma 
 americana) , a dull reddish-brown moth with 
 two oblique pale stripes on the fore wings, lays 
 eggs in ringlike masses fastened to small twigs 
 of apple, cherry, thorn, etc. The caterpillars 
 hatch in early spring in the nearest fork of the 
 twigs and spin a web or tent in which they live 
 in company, but which they leave when hungry, 
 to feed upon leaves. The tent is enlarged as the 
 creatures grow. They hibernate in the egg 
 stage. The eggs are easily seen in the winter 
 and may be destroyed and the caterpillars killed 
 just at nightfall within the tents by burning or 
 spraying with kerosene. The so-called forest 
 tent caterpillar, or forest army worm ( Malaco- 
 soma disstria) , has similar habits, but the ring 
 of eggs is perfectly cylindrical instead of being 
 rather elliptical as with the former. Both of 
 these species are of Eastern distribution. On 
 the Western coast the larva of Malacosoma con- 
 stricta infests fruit trees in the late summer, 
 and the larva of Malacosoma californica is found 
 upon oaks early in the season. An incredible 
 amount of damage is done by these larvse every 
 year to forest and fruit trees in America. 
 
 TEN'TERDEN, Charles Abbott, first Baron 
 (1762—1832). An English lawyer and jurist, 
 born at Canterbury. Abbott graduated at Cor¬ 
 pus Christi College, Oxford, in 1785, *and soon 
 afterward was made a fellow. After being a 
 student of the Inner Temple he was called to 
 the bar in 1796. He joined the Oxford circuit, 
 and rapidly acquired a lucrative practice. He 
 published, in 1802, his treatise on Merchant 
 Ships and Seamen, in all respects the best- 
 written book which had till then appeared on 
 one department of English law and still a stand¬ 
 ard authority. In 1816 he accepted a puisne 
 judgeship in the Court of Common Pleas; and 
 in 1818 he was knighted, and chosen to succeed 
 Lord Ellenborough as Chief Justice of the King’s 
 Bench. He was raised to the peerage in 1827 as 
 Baron Tenterden of Hendon. 
 
 TEN THOUSAND, Retreat of the. See 
 Anabasis ; Xenophon. 
 
 TEN THOUSAND A YEAR. A novel by 
 Samuel Warren (1841). 
 
 TENURE (OF., Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, 
 to hold, retain). The manner in which a person 
 holds or owns real property. The word implies 
 something less than an absolute and unqualified 
 ownership. Before the development of the feudal 
 system, an individual could own a piece of land 
 absolutely, and such allegiance as he might owe 
 to a superior power was a personal matter. How¬ 
 ever, at the very basis of the feudal system were 
 the ideas of protection and service, of the do¬ 
 minion of the King and the dependence and sub¬ 
 ordination of the subject. Out of these ideas 
 originated the feudal doctrine that the King 
 should own all the land, and that his subjects 
 were only entitled to hold such portions of it as 
 he might parcel out to them, and on such con¬ 
 ditions as he might impose. The Anglo-Saxons 
 held their lands allodially, i.e., by absolute and 
 unqualified ownership; but when the Conqueror 
 assumed the throne he parceled out the country 
 to his men as if it were his private estate and 
 introduced the intricate feudal tenures which 
 had grown up on the Continent. See Feudalism. 
 
 With respect to their character and dignity, 
 tenures under the feudal system in England may 
 be classified as free and base or nonfree tenures. 
 
TENURE 
 
 108 
 
 TEOSINTE 
 
 The most common of the free tenures was that 
 by knight’s service, which involved allegiance, 
 military service, and other duties to the King 
 or overlord. This tenure was created by a 
 solemn ceremony, in which the prospective ten¬ 
 ant was said to pay homage to his lord, who 
 thereby became bound to protect him in exchange 
 for his promises of service and fealty. The chief 
 service was performed by actual military duty 
 when necessary, although at a later period a 
 practice of making payments or sending sub¬ 
 stitutes, instead of the personal service, was 
 sanctioned. Other heavy burdens incident to 
 this tenure were known as reliefs, aids, ward¬ 
 ships, and marriage (qq.v.), which yielded a 
 large revenue to the great men of the realm. 
 
 Less common, but of greater dignity, was the 
 tenure by grand sergeanty, which involved som’e 
 personal service to the King, usually something 
 other than military duty, as to be his cupbearer, 
 chief justice, standard bearer, etc. Petty ser¬ 
 geanty did not usually involve personal service, 
 but some tribute, such as rendering to the King 
 annually a weapon or a pair of spurs. See 
 Grand Sergeanty. 
 
 Lands were frequently conveyed to the clergy 
 on condition that they sing masses for the souls 
 of the poor or distribute alms at certain inter¬ 
 vals. This was known as tenure by frankal¬ 
 moign or free alms. In early times such land 
 also remained subject to the burdens of feudal 
 tenure. 
 
 As the rigor of the feudal system relaxed ten¬ 
 ure by socage became the common and popular 
 manner of holding land. See Socage. 
 
 Gavelkind, borough English, and burgage ten¬ 
 ures were merely forms of socage tenure, changed 
 somewhat by local custom. The Statute of Mili¬ 
 tary Tenures in 1640 converted the military ten¬ 
 ures into free and common socage. 
 
 During the Norman era there existed in Eng¬ 
 land a large class of people known as villeins, 
 who were practically serfs, and were generally 
 attached to the land. They were given small 
 plots to cultivate and were required to perform 
 the most menial services for the lord at his will. 
 This was known as the tenure of villeinage and 
 was a base or nonfree tenure. It became the 
 custom, however, to note the succession of a son 
 to his father, and the character of services per¬ 
 formed by the latter, on the rolls or records 
 of the court baron of the manor. By this cus¬ 
 tom the services required of villeins in each 
 manor assumed a more certain and definite char¬ 
 acter, and they were said to hold by virtue of a 
 ‘‘copy of the rolls of the court.” At a later 
 period the payment of rent in some form was 
 substituted for menial services, and the copy- 
 hold tenant, as he came to be called, became a 
 respectable member of the community. Many 
 copyhold tenures still prevail, and the old prac¬ 
 tice of resorting to the “custom of the manor” 
 to ascertain their character or incidents still 
 obtains. 
 
 In the United States most of the lands origi¬ 
 nally granted by the crown and proprietors of 
 plantations were held in free and common soc¬ 
 age, and a modified form of this tenure still 
 obtains in a few States. In most of the States, 
 however, all feudal tenures have been abolished 
 and lands are held allodially, i.e., absolutely and 
 subject only to the right of eminent domain in 
 the State. 
 
 Bibliography. James Kent, Commentary on 
 American Law (14th ed., 4 vols., Boston, 1896) ; 
 
 Sir K. E. Digby, History of the Law of Real 
 Property (5th ed., Oxford, 1897) ; Encyclopedia 
 of the Laws of England (London,, 1897-98) ; 
 Sir William Blackstone, Commentaries (4tli 
 Amer. ed., 2 vols., Chicago, 1899) ; Pollock and 
 Maitland, History of English Law Before the 
 Time of Edward l (2d ed., 2 vols., Cambridge, 
 1903) ; Joshua Williams, Principles of the Law 
 of Real Property (21st ed., London, 1910). 
 
 TENURE IN CHIVALRY. See Chivalry, 
 Court of; Feudalism; Knight; Tenure. 
 
 TENURE OF OFFICE ACT. A measure 
 growing out of the controversy between Congress 
 and President Johnson and passed over his veto 
 on March 2, 1867, providing that the consent of 
 the Senate should be necessary to the dismissal 
 of any officer appointed by and with the advice 
 and consent of that body. Cabinet officials were 
 also included in this. This was a complete re¬ 
 versal of the policy of the government with re¬ 
 gard to removals from office, and the President’s 
 disregard of the law in removing Secretary 
 E. M. Stanton (q.v.) was the main cause of his 
 impeachment by the House of Representatives. 
 (See Impeachment; Johnson, Andrew.) With 
 the accession of General Grant to the presidency 
 in 1869 the more objectionable features of the 
 Act were stricken out, and finally, in 1887, the 
 Act as a whole was repealed. 
 
 TENU-TERU. See Teru-teru. 
 
 TENZON, ten'zon, or Tenson (Prov. tenso, 
 from Lat. tensio, stretching, contention, from 
 tendere, to stretch). In Provengal poetry, a de¬ 
 bate in verse between two poets, and hence a 
 special metrical form adopted for the purpose. 
 See PROVENgAL Literature. 
 
 TEOCALLI, ta'6-kal'ye (Nahuatl, house of 
 the god). The ancient Mexican term for a tem¬ 
 ple and place of sacrifice and worship. The 
 teocallis were commonly low, truncated, four¬ 
 sided pyramids of earth, stone, or adobe brick, 
 with a small temple on the flat summit. There 
 was also as a rule a sacrificial stone on the 
 summit, where public sacrifices were made. The 
 term has come to be applied more specifically 
 to the teocalli of the city of Mexico. This 
 famous structure, completed in 1487, was a 
 double pyramid with one temple to the Aztec 
 god of war, Huitzilopoclitli, and the other to the 
 god of rain, called Tlaloc. The teocalli was in 
 the Tecpan or temple inclosure, a great cere¬ 
 monial centre which also contained many smaller 
 temples. Human sacrifice reached the most hor¬ 
 rible extreme on the sacrificial stones of this 
 teocalli that it ever reached anywhere in the 
 world. The Codex Telleriano-Remensis, an Aztec 
 document, records that 20,000 captives were sac¬ 
 rificed at the dedication ceremonies of the great 
 teocalli. 
 
 TE'OS (Lat., from Gk. Tews). An ancient 
 Ionian city on the west coast of Asia Minor, 
 situate on a peninsula projecting into the Gulf 
 of the Cayster, northwest of Ephesus. Here 
 was a celebrated temple of Dionysus and a the¬ 
 atre, of which remains still exist, while the walls 
 of the modern town of Sigliajik contain many 
 interesting inscribed stones from the ancient 
 site. Teos was prosperous till the Persian con¬ 
 quest, when a large part of its inhabitants with¬ 
 drew to their colony of Abdera (q.v.) in Thrace. 
 It was the birthplace of the lyric poet Anacreon 
 (q.v.). The place regained some importance in 
 Roman times. 
 
 TEOSINTE, te'6-sin'te (Mexican name), 
 Euchlena mexicana. A tall, spreading, leafy 
 
TEOTOCHI 
 
 TERATOLOGY 
 
 annual closely related to maize or Indian corn. 
 It is a native of the warmer parts of Mexico 
 and Central America, from whence it has been 
 introduced as a forage crop. The plant requires 
 a rich, moist soil and a long, hot season. In its 
 native habitat it grows rapidly, often attaining 
 a height of 10 to 15 feet in a few months. The 
 stalks bear tassels of staminate flowers and a 
 number of small, flattened, poorly filled ears, the 
 grain of which seldom matures farther north than 
 lat. 30°. On account of its extensive tillering 
 (30-50 stalks often springing from a single root) 
 and its very leafy habit, teosinte produces as 
 much green fodder upon a given area as any 
 other grass. The stalks are tender, and the 
 whole plant is readily eaten by stock. The 
 plants may be cut several times during the sea¬ 
 son, but a single cutting just before the advent 
 of autumn frosts is said to yield about as much 
 forage as the more frequent cuttings. Teosinte 
 grows best in the United States in the region of 
 the Gulf coast. In Texas, where it is grown for 
 green forage and hay, it produces three crops a 
 year and matures seed only in the extreme 
 southern part of the State. An analysis of the 
 green fodder shows it to contain: water, 66.77 
 per cent; ash, 3.97; protein, 2.54; fibre, 12.33; 
 nitrogen-free extract, 13.60; fat, 0.79. Consult 
 C. V. Piper, Forage Plants and their Culture 
 (New York, 1914). 
 
 TEOTOCHI, Isabella. See Albrizzi, 
 Countess d\ 
 
 TEPARY. See Bean. 
 
 TEPEHUAN, ta'pa-hwan' (mountaineer, or 
 conqueror). A brave and warlike tribe of Piman 
 stock (q.v.) formerly occupying a considerable 
 territory in the Sierra Madre, south of the Taru- 
 mari (q.v.), but now restricted to the moun¬ 
 tainous region in the extreme northwestern por¬ 
 tion of Durango, with adjoining portions of 
 Chihuahua and Sinaloa, Mexico. In former 
 times they were reputed the bravest people of 
 Mexico, and they are still extremely jealous of 
 their tribal rights. They are an industrious, 
 agricultural people, living in houses of logs or 
 stone set in clay mortar, or frequently utilizing 
 the mountain caves for shelter. They cultivate 
 cotton, which they weave into fabrics of beauti¬ 
 ful texture and colors. They are now reduced to 
 a mere remnant. 
 
 TEPIC, ta-pek'. A territory in western 
 Mexico (Map: Mexico, F 6, 7). Area, 11,275 
 square miles. The surface is low on the coast 
 and mountainous toward the eastern frontier. 
 Agriculture is the chief industry, the principal 
 products being wheat, coffee, tobacco, and sugar. 
 Gold, silver, copper, and lead are found. Pop., 
 1910, 171,173, mostly semi-independent Indians. 
 Capital, Tepic (q.v.). The Nayarit population 
 long resisted the Spanish sway and were not 
 subdued until 1722, and then only nominally. 
 In 1872 they rebelled against the Mexican gov¬ 
 ernment, but were subdued after a bloody 
 struggle. The Territory of Tepic was organized 
 in 1889. 
 
 TEPIC. The capital of the Territory of 
 Tepic, Mexico, 28 miles east of the port of San 
 Bias, with which it is connected by a railway 
 (Map: Mexico, F 7). Situated on a plateau 
 3069 feet above the sea, it commands a fine view 
 of the Pacific; its climate, mild and healthful, 
 attracts many summer residents from San Bias. 
 It has cotton and cigar manufactures. Pop., 
 1910, 16,778. It was founded in 1531 by Nufio 
 de GuzmSn. 
 
 TEPIDARIUM. See Bath. 
 
 TEP'LITZ, or TOPLITZ, tepTits. A town of 
 Bohemia, Austria, 46 miles northwest of Prague, 
 in the valley of the Biela, between the Erzge¬ 
 birge and the Mittelgebirge ranges (Map: Aus¬ 
 tria, Cl). It is a favorite watering place, 
 famous for its hot springs, which range in tem¬ 
 perature from 97° F. to 120° F.; they are almost 
 free from mineral properties and are visited as 
 an aftercure by patients from Marienbad, Carls¬ 
 bad, etc. The most important building is the 
 castle of Prince Clary, which, with its sur¬ 
 rounding park and gardens, constitutes the chief 
 resort of the town. Teplitz has important manu¬ 
 factures of machinery, hardware, buttons, cotton 
 and india-rubber goods, chemicals, glass, pottery, 
 and sugar. The springs have been celebrated 
 since the eighth century. The town is known 
 for the treaty of alliance signed here Sept. 9, 
 1813, by the monarchs of Russia, Prussia, and 
 Austria against Napoleon. Pop., 1900, 24,117; 
 1910, 26,775. 
 
 TERAI. See Tarai. 
 
 TER'AKTOG'ENOS KTJR'ZII. A large 
 tree, 40 to 60 feet in height, belonging to the 
 family Bixaceae. It is most abundant in Chitla- 
 gong and Burma, the seeds furnishing the true 
 chaulmoogra oil, instead of Gynocardia odorata, 
 as formerly reported. The seeds are marketed 
 largely in Calcutta and are found in two forms, 
 mature brown seeds rich in oil and immature 
 seeds black in color, poor in oil. Chaulmoogra 
 oil has long been used in India for cutaneous 
 diseases, and it has attained some repute in the 
 treatment of rheumatism, scrofula, and leprosy 
 (qq.v.). 
 
 TERAMO, taTa-mO. The capital of the 
 Province of Teramo, Italy, 32 miles northwest 
 of Chieti, at the confluence of the Tordino and 
 Vazzola rivers (Map: Italy, D 3). It lies 
 amid attractive mountain scenery, and has in¬ 
 teresting Roman remains. The fourteenth-cen¬ 
 tury cathedral was restored in 1898. The 
 Church of Sant’ Agostino is a handsome Gothic 
 structure. Pottery, leather, fine furniture, 
 straw hats, and cream of tartar are manufac¬ 
 tured. The Gran Sasso d’ltalia is often as¬ 
 cended from here. Pop. (commune), 1901, 24,- 
 563; 1911, 24,312. 
 
 TER'APHIM. A Hebrew word, plural in 
 form but of obscure origin, designating a cer¬ 
 tain kind of images used for oracular pur¬ 
 poses. The teraphim appear to have been of 
 various shapes, in some instances small enough 
 to be hidden in the camel litter—as in the story 
 of Rachel’s theft of the teraphim belonging to 
 her father, Laban (Gen. xxxi. 19, 34), while in 
 others they had a human form and were large 
 enough to be used as a substitute for a man, 
 as in the story of Michal’s successful deception 
 of her father, Saul, by placing a teraph in 
 David’s bed (1 Sam. xix. 13-16). The reverence 
 paid to the teraphim as household deities lent 
 a persistence to the practices connected with 
 them that survived even Josiah’s reform (2 
 Kings xxiii. 24), and we find teraphim in 
 vogue even in the Greek period (Zech. x. 2). 
 Connected in some way with ancestor worship, 
 it is not unlikely that there is some relationship 
 between teraphim and Rephaim (q.v.)—the 
 shades of the dead. Consult Schwally, Das 
 Leben nach dem Tode (Giessen, 1892) ; I. Ben- 
 zinger, Hebrdische Archaologie (2d ed., Tubin¬ 
 gen, 1907). 
 
 TER'ATOL'OGY. The study of the abnormal 
 
TERBIUM 
 
 no 
 
 TEREBRATULA 
 
 structures of plants, arising from any cause. 
 Conspicuous among causes are parasitic fungi 
 and insects, resulting in hypertrophies, some of 
 which are known as galls. Many unusual struc¬ 
 tures arise in plants, however, which cannot be 
 referred to such obvious causes. See Malforma¬ 
 tion; Monstrosity. 
 
 TERBIUM, ter'bi-um (Neo-Lat., from Yt- 
 terb-y, in Sweden). A very rare metallic ele¬ 
 ment discovered by Mosander in 1843, but first 
 isolated from other metals, in the form of its 
 pure oxide, by Urbain in 1904. It was origi¬ 
 nally found with erbia, yttria, and other rare 
 earths, in the mineral gadolinite from Ytterby, 
 Sweden. The chemical symbol of terbium is Tb; 
 its atomic weight is 159.2. It forms a white 
 oxide of the formula Tb 2 0 3 and a dark-brown 
 peroxide of the formula Tb 4 0 7 . 
 
 TERBORCH, ter'borK (Ter Borch, Ter- 
 burg), Gerard (1617-81). One of the most 
 eminent genre and portrait painters of the 
 Dutch school. Born at Zwolle, he was first 
 instructed by his father, an artist’ of some 
 ability. In 1632 he went to Amsterdam, and 
 in 1634 he was at Haarlem, the chief pupil 
 of Pieter Molyn. The influence of the grand 
 master of Haarlem, Frans Hals, is noticeable 
 in his first dated picture, “Consultation” (1635, 
 Berlin Museum). To the same period may be 
 assigned the “Knife-Grinder’s Family” (ib.), 
 and “Boy with a Dog” (Pinakothek, Munich). 
 In 1635 he went to England, where he painted 
 several portraits of William III; in 1649 he 
 was at Rome, and in 1645 again at Amsterdam. 
 Thence in 1646 he went to Munster, Westphalia, 
 where he painted his most celebrated work, the 
 •“Peace Congress of Munster” (1648, National 
 Gallery, London), containing 60 likenesses, a 
 perfect specimen of miniature portrait paint¬ 
 ing, and one of the most imposing historical 
 works in Dutch art. Accompanying Count 
 Peneranda, one of the Spanish envoys, to Ma¬ 
 drid, he achieved high success, and is credibly 
 reported to have portrayed Philip IV. By 
 1650 he was back in Holland. In 1654 he 
 settled at Deventer, where he resided till his 
 death. Terborch’s work falls into two stylistic 
 periods—an early, resembling that of the earlier 
 Amsterdam genre painters, Codde, Duck, and 
 Duyster; and a later, beginning with 1651, 
 strongly reminiscent of Metzu. A comparison 
 of his paintings before and after the Spanish 
 visit does not confirm the supposed influence 
 of Velazquez. From 1651 till 1680 he painted 
 a series of genre and small portrait subjects, 
 unexcelled in Dutch or any other art. Among 
 the best known are: “The Reading Lesson,” 
 “An Offer of Money,” and “The Concert” (all 
 in the Louvre) ; “The Despatch” (The Hague) ; 
 “Paternal Admonition” (c.1655, Amsterdam and 
 Berlin) ; “Trumpeter Delivering Love-Letter” 
 (Munich); “Officer Writing Letter” and “Of¬ 
 ficer Reading Letter” (both in Dresden) ; and 
 the “Guitar Lesson” (National Gallery, Lon¬ 
 don). From 1669 his style became more delicate 
 and simple, as may be seen in such works as: 
 “The Music Lesson” (1660, Louvre); “Lute 
 Player” (Antwerp, Cassel, and Dresden) : “The 
 Concert” (Berlin) ; “Lady Washing Her Hands” 
 (Dresden) ; “Paring an Apple” (Vienna) ; and 
 “The Letter” (Buckingham Palace, London), 
 one of his most distinguished delineations. A 
 striking example of fine modeling and masterly 
 textures is “The Smoker,” in the Berlin Mu¬ 
 seum. His “Meeting of the Town Council” 
 
 (1667, Town Hall, Deventer) ranks next to his 
 Munster picture as regards the number of 
 figures. He painted also a large number of 
 excellent single portraits, about 180 of which 
 survive, masterly alike in characterization and 
 in execution. Perhaps the most celebrated of 
 these is the portrait of himself at The Hague. 
 There are four excellent examples in the Berlin 
 Museum, and one in the Metropolitan Museum, 
 New York, which possesses also “A Lady Play¬ 
 ing the Theorbo” (Altman collection) and “The 
 Toilet,” a wonderful arrangement in rose, loaned 
 by J. P. Morgan. Terborch is one of the most 
 perfect technicians in Dutch or any art. He 
 excels in all pictorial qualities, line, composi¬ 
 tion, color, treatment of light, and atmosphere. 
 His exquisitely finished detail never distracts 
 from the general effect, and his textures are 
 especially fine. Consult: Michel, Terburg et 
 sa famille (Paris, 1888) ; Rosenberg, Terborch 
 and Jan Steen (Leipzig, 1897) ; Masters in Art, 
 vol. ii (Boston, 1901,); Wilhelm Bode, Great 
 Masters of Dutch and Flemish Painting (New 
 York, 1909) ; Hofstede de Groot, A Catalogue 
 of Dutch Painting (London, 1913). 
 
 TERCE. See Breviary. 
 
 TERCEIRA, ter-sVe-ra. The second largest 
 island of the Azores (q.v.) (Map: Portugal, 
 B 4). Area, 223 square miles. It is of volcanic 
 origin. The coast is lined with precipitous cliffs 
 of lava and the diversified surface attains a 
 maximum altitude of 3500 feet in Caldeira de 
 Santa Barbara. Wine, lumber, and archil are 
 produced and largely exported. Angra do 
 Heroismo (q.v.), the chief town of the island, 
 is also the seat of government for the entire 
 group. The population of Terceira in 1900 was 
 48,920. 
 
 TER'CEL. See Peregrine Falcon. 
 
 TER'CENTEN'NIAL EXPOSITION AT 
 JAMESTOWN. A military, naval, marine, and 
 historic exhibition in commemoration of the 
 first permanent settlement of English-speaking 
 people in America, on Hampton Roads, near 
 Norfolk, Virginia, held from April 26 to Nov. 
 30, 1907. A site at Sewall’s Point covering 
 400 acres of land space, with three miles of 
 water front, was selected on which buildings 
 were erected chiefly in the Colonial style of 
 architecture for the purpose of displaying ex¬ 
 hibits pertaining to army and navy, art, food 
 products, historic art, machinery and transpor¬ 
 tation, manufactures and liberal arts, medicine, 
 sanitation and hygiene, mines and metallurgy, 
 mothers and children, the negro, United States 
 government, and Virginia manufactures. State 
 buildings, as well as an Auditorium and Con¬ 
 vention Hall, and an Arts and Crafts Village, 
 contained Colonial articles in metals, woods, and 
 fabrics. The history of the United States from 
 the settlement of Jamestown was portrayed. The 
 government appropriated $1,575,000 in aid of 
 the exhibition, and of this amount $50,000 was 
 for a permanent monument at Jamestown. 
 
 TER/EBRAT'ULA (Neo-Lat., nom. pi., di¬ 
 minutive of Lat. terebratus, p.p. of terebrare, to 
 bore, pierce). A name properly applicable to 
 certain species of the Mesozoic and Tertiary fos¬ 
 sil shells which are closely allied to Terebratula 
 phillipsi of the Middle Jurassic. This group 
 appeared in the Devonian, and, with a great ex¬ 
 pansion during the Mesozoic, it continues to the 
 present day. As a rule the shells have a pentag¬ 
 onal or oval outline, with both valves convex, 
 the ventral beak prominent and arching over the 
 
TEREDO 
 
 hi 
 
 TERESA 
 
 dorsal beak and perforated by an unusually 
 large foramen. The earlier species are smooth- 
 surfaced shells, while those of the Mesozoic are 
 sometimes striated and in a few instances pli¬ 
 cated. 
 
 TERE'DO. A small Lamellibranch mollusk 
 of the genus Teredo. The common shipworm 
 (Teredo navalis) is found widely distributed 
 throughout the oceans, where it inhabits long 
 and complicated borings which it makes in sub¬ 
 merged piles of wharfs, floating logs, or the 
 exposed bottoms of wooden ships. Wood which 
 is attacked by teredos is soon rendered useless, 
 and much damage is done by them annually, 
 especially in tropical waters. The only absolute 
 protection against the attack of the teredo is 
 mechanical, such as sheathing the wood with 
 copper, or with broad-headed short iron nails. 
 Impregnating the wood with preservatives (creo¬ 
 sote, etc.) has been tried with widely varying 
 results. See Shipworm. 
 
 TEREK, ter'ek. A river of southeast Russia, 
 one of the chief streams flowing from the 
 Caucasus. It rises in a glacier near the sum¬ 
 mit of Mount Kazbec at an altitude of nearly 
 14,000 feet, and descends the north slope of the 
 Caucasus in a tumultuous course through deep 
 and narrow gorges. It then turns east, and 
 after a flow of 400 miles, enters the Caspian 
 Sea through a large delta. The river is navi¬ 
 gable 254 miles for small vessels. 
 
 TEREK. A province in the eastern part of 
 north Caucasia (see Caucasus) bordering on 
 the Caspian Sea. Area, about 28,153 square 
 miles (Map: Russia, F 6). It is bounded on 
 the south by the Caucasus Mountains, many of 
 whose highest peaks it contains. The interior 
 is occupied to a large extent by the offshoots 
 of the main chain and slopes towards the 
 Terek and the coast, which is low and marshy. 
 The region is watered by the Terek and its tribu¬ 
 taries, and abounds in mountain lakes. In the 
 lowlands along the coast and the Terek the cli¬ 
 mate is very unhealthful. Hence most of the 
 settlements are found in the mountainous dis¬ 
 tricts. Terek produces few minerals aside from 
 petroleum, which is obtained in increasing 
 quantities in the Grozny oil field, which in 1913 
 yielded 3275 tons per day. At Pyatigorsk (q.v.) 
 are the best known of the mineral springs. 
 Agriculture gives occupation to about 80 per 
 cent of the inhabitants, but only a small por¬ 
 tion of the cultivated land is utilized. The 
 chief products are wheat, corn, rye, and hemp. 
 The output of wine is extensive. The natives 
 keep large numbers of horses and sheep. Pop., 
 1912, 1,231,600. Capital, Vladikavkaz (q.v.). 
 
 TER'ENCE (Publius Terentius Afer) 
 (c.190—c.159 b.c.). A Roman writer of comedies. 
 He was born at Carthage, but was of African 
 (not Phoenician) origin. He was brought to 
 Rome as the slave of the Roman Senator Teren¬ 
 tius Lucanus, who gave him a good education, 
 and finally manumitted him. His first play 
 was the Andria, staged in 166 b.c. Its success 
 introduced its author to the most refined so¬ 
 ciety of Rome, where his engaging address and 
 accomplishments made him a particular favor¬ 
 ite. His chief patrons were Lcelius (q.v.) and 
 the younger Scipio (q.v.). After living with 
 them in great intimacy for some years he 
 went to Greece, where he spent a year in study¬ 
 ing the Greek comedies of Menander, Diphilus, 
 Apollodorus, and others, and adapting them in 
 Latin for the Roman stage. He never returned. 
 
 He is supposed to have died by drowning. Six 
 comedies are extant under the name of Teren¬ 
 tius: Andria, Hecyra > Ileautontimoroumcnos, 
 Eunuchus, Phormio, and Adelphi. Terence pre¬ 
 served a sort of charmed life throughout the 
 dark ages when classical literature was almost 
 forgotten, and on the revival of letters was 
 studied as a model by the most accomplished 
 playwrights, e.g., by Moliere (q.v.). For his 
 influence on English comedy see the introduction 
 to the edition of the Heautontimoroumenos, 
 by F. G. Ballentine (Boston, 1910). His lan¬ 
 guage is pure, almost immaculate. Though he 
 is inferior to Plautus in comic power, he is 
 more than his match in consistency of plot and 
 character drawing, in tenderness, in wit, and in 
 metrical skill. The best text editions are those 
 of Wagner (Cambridge, 1869), Umpfenbach 
 (Berlin, 1870), Dziatzko (Leipzig, 1884), and 
 Fleckeisen (ib., 1901). Good annotated editions 
 of individual plays are those of the Andria 
 by H. R. Fairclough (Boston, 1901); Adelplii, 
 by K. Dziatzko (2d ed., rev. by R. Kauer, 
 Leipzig, 1903) ; Phormio, by Dziatzko (4th ed., 
 rev. ed., by E. Hauler, Leipzig, 1913) ; Eunuchus, 
 by P. Fabia (Paris, 1895). A convenient an¬ 
 notated edition of all six plays is that by S. G. 
 Ashmore (Oxford, 1908). The ancient Scholia 
 to Terence by Donatus (q.v.) were edited by 
 P. Wessner, 3 vols. (Leipzig, 1902-05). There 
 are English translations by Colman (London, 
 1841); Riley (New York, 1859); Sargeaunt 
 (London, 1912) ; and of the Phormio by M. H. 
 Morgan (Cambridge, Mass., 1894). Consult 
 W. Y. Sellar, The Roman Poets of the Republic 
 (3d ed., Oxford, 1889) ; W. S. Teuffel, History of 
 Roman Literature (Eng. trans., from 5th Ger. 
 ed. by G. C. W. Warr, London, 1891) ; Martin 
 Schanz, Geschiehte der romischen Litteratur, 
 vol. i, part i (3d ed., Munich, 1907) ; J. W. Duff, 
 A Literary History of Rome (New York, 1909) ; 
 M. S. Dimsdale, A History of Latin Literature 
 (New York, 1915). 
 
 T ERE NTI ANUS MAURUS, te-ren'shi-a'nus 
 ma'rus. A Roman poet, a native of Mauretania 
 (q.v.), who flourished at the end of the second 
 century a.d. We have three poems by him, in 
 hexameters, on prosody and the various metres, 
 entitled Be Litteris, De Syllabis, and De Metric. 
 This work was much used by later writers. 
 It has been edited by Santen and Van 
 Lennep (with commentary, Utrecht, 1825), 
 Lachmann (Berlin, 1836), Gaisford (Oxford, 
 1855), and, best of all, by IT. Keil, in his Granin 
 matici Latini, vol. vi (Leipzig, 1871-74). Con¬ 
 sult Martin Schanz, Geschiehte der romischen 
 Litteratur, vol. iii (2d ed., Munich, 1905) ; W. S. 
 Teuffel, Geschiehte der romischen Literatur, 
 vol. iii (6th ed., Leipzig, 1913). 
 
 TERE'SA, Saint (1515-82). A famous Car¬ 
 melite nun and mystical writer. She was born 
 at Avila, in Old Castile. In her eighteenth 
 year she entered a convent of the Carmelite 
 Order in her native city, making her solemn 
 vow on Nov. 3, 1534. In this convent she con¬ 
 tinued to reside for nearly 30 years. After a 
 time her religious exercises reached a most 
 extraordinary degree of asceticism. She began 
 her work of reforming the Carmelite Order in 
 the Convent of Avila, but afterward obtained 
 permission from the Holy See, under the direc¬ 
 tion of Peter of Alcdntara, to remove with her 
 little community to St. Joseph’s, a small and 
 very humble convent in the same city, where 
 she established in its full rigor the ancient 
 
TEREUS 
 
 112 
 
 TERMITE 
 
 Carmelite rule, with some additional observ¬ 
 ances. This new convent was established in 15G2. 
 The general of the Carmelite Order, J. B. Rossi, 
 was so struck with the condition of the con¬ 
 vent that he urged upon her the duty of ex¬ 
 tending throughout the Order the reforms thus 
 successfully initiated. Teresa entered upon the 
 work with great energy, and succeeded in carry¬ 
 ing out her reforms. (See Carmelites.) She 
 died at Alba, Oct. 4, 1582, and was canonized by 
 Gregory XV in 1622, her feast being fixed on 
 October 15. The third centenary of her death 
 was celebrated with great splendor in 1882. 
 Her works consist, besides her famous letters, 
 mainly of ascetical and mystical treatises. Com¬ 
 plete editions in Spanish were published at Madrid 
 in 1877 and 1881; an excellent French edition 
 is that of Bouix (Paris, 1859). English trans¬ 
 lations of her Life are edited by David Lewis 
 (4th ed., New York, 1911) and by J. J. Burke 
 (ib., 1911). Consult also: H. J. Coleridge, Life 
 and Letters of Saint Teresa (3 vols., London, 
 1881-96) ; Alexander Whyte, Santa Teresa 
 (New York, 1898) ; H. H. Colvill, Saint Teresa 
 of Spain (ib., 1909) ; Alice, Lady Lovat, Life of 
 Saint Teresa (St. Louis, 1912). 
 
 TEREUS, te're-us. See Philomela. 
 
 TERGOES, ter'Goos'. A seaport of the Neth¬ 
 erlands. See Goes. 
 
 TERGOVISTE, ter'go-vish'te, or Targu- 
 vishtea. The capital city of the District of 
 Dimbovitza, Rumania, 50 miles northwest of 
 Bucharest, on the right bank of the Jalomitza 
 (Map: Balkan Peninsula, E 2). As the former 
 capital of Wallachia it had a population of 60,- 
 000 in the sixteenth century. The town is now 
 an important strategic point. Pop., 1900, 9398. 
 
 TERHUNE, ter-hun', Mary Virginia 
 (Hawes) (1831- ). An American novelist 
 
 and journalist, born in Richmond, Va., of New 
 England ancestry. She married in 1856 Rev. 
 Edward P. Terhune of Brooklyn, was editorially 
 connected with Babyhood, Wide Awake, Saint 
 Nicholas, and The Home-Maker, and published 
 under the name of Marion Harland many domes¬ 
 tic manuals, social essays, sketches of travel, 
 novels, and short stories, among which may be 
 noted: Alone, A Tale of Southern Life and 
 Manners (1854); Husks (1863); Sunnybank 
 (1866) ; At Last (1870) ; Common Sense in the 
 Household (1872), one of her best-known books; 
 Judith (1883); A Gallant Fight (1888); 
 Dr. Dale (1900), with Albert Payson Ter¬ 
 hune; When Grandmama was Fourteen (1905) ; 
 Distractions of Martha (1906); Where Ghosts 
 Walk (1st series, 1908; 2d series, 1910); 
 Marion Harland’s Autobiography (1910); Look¬ 
 ing Westward (1914); The Long Lane (1915). 
 
 TERLIZZI, ter-lit'se. A town in the Prov¬ 
 ince of Bari delle Puglie, Italy, 20 miles west 
 by north of Bari and about 7 miles from the 
 Adriatic. It has an ancient castle. It is active 
 commercially. Wine and almonds are leading 
 products. Pop. (commune), 1901, 23,232; 1911, 
 22,874. 
 
 TERM (OF. terme, from Lat. terminus, OLat. 
 termo, termen, boundary, limit). In the law of 
 real property, the time during which a tenant is 
 entitled to enjoy an estate, according to his 
 lease. The word is also sometimes employed to 
 denote the estate or interest of the tenant. See 
 Landlord and Tenant. 
 
 TERM. See Logic. 
 
 TERM, Connotation of a. See Connotation. 
 
 TERM, of Court. In practice the word “term” 
 
 denotes a period in which a court holds a ses¬ 
 sion. Under the common-law system in England 
 the judicial j^ear was divided into four terms, 
 the names of which indicated the time of the 
 year in which they were held, viz.: Hilary term, 
 Easter term, Trinity term, and Michaelmas 
 term. These terms were abolished by the 
 Judicature Acts. In the United States the 
 terms of court are ‘ arranged with reference to 
 the number of judges available and the probable 
 volume of judicial business to be disposed of. 
 It is usual, however, to have a vacation of 
 several months during the summer. The phrase 
 is also used in the United States to describe 
 the parts of the court, such as trial and special 
 terms. The tendency of the modern system of 
 courts is to divide the parts or terms accord¬ 
 ing to the nature of the litigation. 
 
 TER'MINAL, Railway. See Railways, 
 Yards and Terminals. 
 
 TER'MINATjIA. See Terminus. 
 
 TERMINAL SUGGESTION. See Hypno¬ 
 tism. 
 
 TERMINER. See Oyer and Terminer. 
 
 TERMINI IMERESE, ter'me-ne e'ma-ra'za. 
 A city on the north coast of Sicily in the Prov¬ 
 ince of Palermo, on the San Leonardo, 21 miles 
 east-southeast of Palermo (Map: Italy, D 6). 
 Though of archaeological interest the modern 
 town is flourishing but dull. It contains a col¬ 
 lection of pictures and a few antiques, besides 
 a library and school of seamanship. There are 
 extensive tunny and sardine fisheries. The ex¬ 
 ports include Sicilian macaroni (for which the 
 town is famous), besides wine, olive oil, fruits, 
 grain, and rice. The warm saline springs are 
 much frequented for bathing. Pop. (commune), 
 1901, 18,650; 1911, 20,319. Termini Imerese, 
 the Roman Termse Himerenses, was founded by 
 the Carthaginians in 407 R.C., after the destruc¬ 
 tion of the ancient Himera (q.v.), the ruins of 
 which are still to be seen. It had become 
 largely Hellenized when it was captured by the 
 Romans in the First Punic War. 
 
 TER'MINOL'OGY, Medical. See Nosology. 
 
 TERM INSURANCE. See Life Insurance. 
 
 TER'MINUS (Lat., boundary, limit). A 
 Roman divinity presiding over public and pri¬ 
 vate boundaries. His only sanctuary was in the 
 Temple of Jupiter, on the Capitol, where he was 
 honored in the form of a boundary stone, above 
 which was an opening in the roof, that his rites 
 might be performed, as ritual required, in the 
 open air. Terminus has been regarded by some 
 as an early god who later yielded to Jupiter, 
 by others as a later schematizing offshoot from 
 the original conception of Jupiter as the guard¬ 
 ian of all boundaries. The Terminalia seems 
 to have been simply a festival of neighbors at 
 their common boundary lines. We hear of an¬ 
 nual sacrifices also at the frontier (real or as¬ 
 sumed), but dedications to Terminus are un¬ 
 known before the days of the Empire. “Termini” 
 or “terminal figures” are names applied to bound¬ 
 ary marks consisting of a stele or upright stone 
 carved at the top into the likeness of the head 
 of the god. Such stones were imitated in the 
 Renaissance in Italy as decorations for the cor¬ 
 ners of parterres or other garden divisions. 
 Consult W. W. Fowler, Roman Festivals (Lon¬ 
 don, 1899) ; Georg Wissowa, Religion und Kul- 
 tus der Romer (2d ed., Munich, 1912). 
 
 TER'MITE (from Lat. termes, tarmes, wood¬ 
 worm; connected with terere, Gk. relpeiv, teirein, 
 to rub). Any one of the insects of the order 
 
TERMITE 
 
 TERNATE 
 
 ii3 
 
 Isoptera, comprising those forms known as 
 white ants. They are not at all related to the 
 true ants, but their general appearance and the 
 fact that they live in societies have given them 
 the popular name. For an account of the com¬ 
 munity life and of the different castes of the ter¬ 
 mites, see Insect, Social Insects. 
 
 The order Isoptera, which is most numerously 
 represented in the tropics, includes only the 
 single family Termitidse, whence their common 
 name “termite.” They undergo practically no 
 transformation. The young when it hatches 
 from the egg is an active, crawling creature 
 
 American northern white ant ( Termes flavipes ). 
 
 1, adult male; 2, worker; 3, soldier; 4, supplementary 
 queen. (After Marlatt.) 
 
 with six legs, much resembling the adult except 
 in size. All species are social, and the com¬ 
 munities consist of both wingless and winged 
 individuals. The males and females which are 
 winged have very long membranous longitudinally 
 veined wings, in repose lying flat along the back, 
 extending far beyond the abdominal tip. The 
 hind wings are of nearly the same shape and 
 size as the front wings, and across the base 
 of each wing is a line of weakness indicating 
 where the wing breaks after the nuptial flight. 
 The nests, often built of earth, are hard and 
 persistent, and sometimes more than 12 feet 
 high. These ant hills are divided into chambers 
 and galleries, and there are generally two or 
 three roofs within the dome-shaped interior. 
 The thick walls are perforated by passages lead¬ 
 ing to the nurseries and storehouses. Termites 
 sometimes attack the woodwork of houses and 
 soon reduce the thickest timbers to a mere shell. 
 Those species which live in trees sometimes con¬ 
 struct nests of great size, like sugar casks, of 
 particles of gnawed wood cemented together and 
 very strongly attached to the branches. 
 
 In the United States there are comparatively 
 few species, and only one ( Termes flavipes ) 
 which has a northward range. This is the com¬ 
 mon white ant found frequently living in the 
 joists and other large timbers of houses. In 
 these they make innumerable tunnels, running 
 usually with the grain of the wood, so that, 
 although a great deal of the substance of the 
 wood is devoured, the main longitudinal fibres 
 support the building structure for a long time. 
 In fact, their presence in many houses would not 
 be noticed except for the spring flight of the 
 
 winged males and females. This species is 
 probably native to North America, although it 
 was accidentally introduced into Europe. A spe¬ 
 cies known as Termes tubiformans occurs in 
 Texas, and makes tubes around the grass stems 
 and stems of other plants, while their nests are 
 placed deep in the ground. 
 
 The origin of a new termite colony occurs 
 after the nuptial flight, when the female’s 
 (queen’s) wings break off; her body swells with 
 eggs, grows enormously, .and egg laying com¬ 
 mences. Unlike the true ants or any of the 
 other social Hymenoptera, the young require 
 very little care from the workers. Just as with 
 the true ants and other social insects, there 
 are many termitophilous or guest insects to 
 be found in the nests of termites. The damage 
 
 o 
 
 done by termites in tropical regions is very 
 great. In Central America it is almost impos¬ 
 sible to erect wooden telegraph poles which will 
 last for any length of time, as they are tun¬ 
 neled by these insects and fall very soon. Con¬ 
 sult David Sharp, “Insects,” in Cambridge 
 Natural Bistory, vol. v (London, 1895), and 
 L. O. Howard, The Insect Book (new ed., New 
 York, 1914). 
 
 TERMONDE, ter'moNd'. See Dendermonde. 
 
 TERN (Dan. terne, Icel. perna, tern), or Sea 
 Swallow. One of a group, the Sterninse, of 
 small gulls (q.v.), found in most parts of the 
 world, and essentially gulls in habits and ap¬ 
 pearance. About 75 species are known, varying 
 in size from the Caspian tern ( Sterna tsche- 
 grava or caspia) , which is nearly 2 feet long 
 and 4^ feet across the wings, down to the 
 dainty least tern ( Sterna antillarum), which is 
 only 9 inches long. The typical color of the 
 terns is blue-gray above, white beneath, and 
 black on the crown, but one ,or two species 
 are pure white, some are black and white, some 
 sooty brown, and some almost wholly black. 
 The common tern is Sterna liirundo, abundant 
 on the coasts of the whole Northern Hemisphere 
 and of Africa. It breeds locally on the coast 
 and in the Mississippi Valley from the Gulf 
 States to Greenland, but, owing to incessant per¬ 
 secution, it selects only unoccupied sandy islets 
 for its breeding places, and from New Jersey to 
 Maine its only resorts now are Gull Island, 
 N. Y., and Penikese, Weepecket, and Muskeget 
 Islands, Mass. The Arctic tern ( Sterna para- 
 discea) is very similar. Its egg is shown on Col¬ 
 ored Plate, Eggs of American Game and Water 
 Birds, and is typical of tern’s eggs generally. 
 The gull-billed tern (Gelochelidon nilotica) of 
 the Southern States, a cosmopolitan species; the 
 roseate tern {Sterna dougalli ) of the Atlantic 
 coast; the sooty tern, or egg bird, of the West 
 Indies ( Stemo fuliginosa or fuscata), also 
 southern; and the elegant tern ( Sterna elegans ) 
 of the Pacific coast from California southward, 
 are the most interesting among the 15 or 16 
 other North American species. 
 
 TERNATE, ter-na'ta. A small but important 
 island of the Moluccas, situated off the west 
 coast of the island of Gilolo (Map: East India 
 Islands, G 5). Area, about 25 square miles. It 
 consists of an active volcanic peak, rising 5600 
 feet above the sea. The chief town, Ternate, 
 has a population of about 9000 and a good har¬ 
 bor. It is the seat of the Sultan of Ternate, 
 who has large dominions in Celebes, and is the 
 capital of the Dutch Residency of Ternate, 
 which embraces the northern Moluccas and 
 parts of New Guinea and Celebes. Its climate 
 
TERNAUX-COMPANS 
 
 TERPSICHORE 
 
 114 
 
 is peculiar, owing to the difficulty of determin¬ 
 ing whether its one season is dry or wet. See 
 Moluccas. 
 
 TERNAUX-COMPANS, tar'no' koN'paN', 
 Henri (1807-64). A French historian, bibli¬ 
 ographer, and diplomatist, born in Paris. He 
 is best known for his remarkable collection of 
 books and manuscripts on the early history of 
 America, collected during diplomatic employ¬ 
 ment in Spain, Portugal, and Brazil. He was 
 also once a member of the French Chamber of 
 Deputies. He published a catalogue of Ameri¬ 
 cana before 1700, Bibliothequc americaine 
 (1836); also translations of documents in his 
 collection in 20 volumes, Voyages, relations et 
 memoires originaux pour servir a Vhistoire de 
 la decouverte de VAm&rique (2 series, 1836—40) ; 
 and other works of less significance. 
 
 TERNAY, tar'na', Charles Louis D’Arsae 
 de (1722-80) . A French naval officer, born at 
 Ternay, in Normandy. He entered the navy 
 in 1738 and fought at Louisburg in the French 
 and Indian War. In 1762, in command of a 
 squadron, he attacked Newfoundland, and cap¬ 
 tured St. John’s and several British vessels. 
 He was Governor of the island of Bourbon 
 (1772-79). In 1780 he commanded the French 
 fleet that brought over to America Count Ro- 
 chambeau and his forces. He died at Newport 
 soon after his arrival. 
 
 TERNI, teUng. A city in the Province of 
 Perugia, Italy, 59 miles south by east of the 
 city of Perugia, on the Nera River, near its 
 confluence with the Velino (Map: Italy, D 3). 
 The many Roman remains, including an amphi¬ 
 theatre, sculptures, baths, inscriptions, etc., are 
 interesting. The city has a large government 
 arsenal and extensive iron and steel interests. 
 Woolen goods, brick, olive oil, and wine are also 
 manufactured. Near by are the famous falls 
 of Terni, in the Velino River—the Cascate delle 
 Marmore—with a total descent of 650 feet, sup¬ 
 plying power to the city. Pop. (commune), 
 1901, 30,641; 1911, 32,754. Terni, the ancient 
 Interamna, was of considerable importance 
 under the Romans. 
 
 TERNINA, ter-ne'na, Milka (1864- _ ). 
 
 An Austrian dramatic soprano, born at Vezisce 
 (Croatia). At 12 she began her vocal studies 
 with Madame Winterfeld, and in 1880 she 
 entered the Vienna Conservatory, where for two 
 years she studied with Gansbacher. While still 
 a student she made her debut at Agram as 
 Amelia in Verdi’s Ballo in Maschera. From 
 1883 she sang successfully at Leipzig, Graz, and 
 Bremen. In 1890-99 she was a member of the 
 Court Opera at Munich, where she soon was 
 acknowledged one of the foremost interpreters 
 of Wagner’s heroines. In 1896 she made her 
 American debut with Mr. Damrosch’s company, 
 and instantly won marked favor. In 1899-1904 
 she was one of the principal attractions of the 
 Metropolitan Opera House, where she sang 
 Kundry in the first American performances of 
 Parsifal. After 1899 she appeared frequently in 
 Bayreuth. Owing to ill health her appearances 
 after 1906 were rare. Although in the front 
 rank of the great Wagner interpreters, she won 
 scarcely less fame as a lieder singer, especially 
 in the songs of Brahms. 
 
 TERN'STRCEMIA'CEJE (Neo-Lat. nom. pi., 
 from Ternstroemia, named in honor of the 
 Swedish naturalist Ternstrom). A family of 
 dicotyledonous trees and shrubs, including about 
 16 genera and 160 species, natives of warm and 
 
 tropical regions. The best-known representa¬ 
 tives are the tea (q.v.) plant and camellia (q.v.). 
 The family is represented in North America 
 by -Stewartia and Gordonia (q.v.), the latter 
 being called loblolly bay or tan bay. Another 
 name of the family is Theaceae (tea family), 
 which is coming into common use. 
 
 TERPAN'DER (Lat., from Gk. Tep-iravdpos, 
 Terpandros ). A Greek musician who lived in 
 the seventh century b.c. He was born at An- 
 tissa, in the island of Lesbos, went to Sparta, 
 and in 676 was crowned victor in the first 
 musical contest at the feast of Apollo Carneius. 
 He established there the first musical school in 
 Greece and is credited with the enlargement of 
 the compass of the lyre to an octave. He was 
 the first to set poetry regularly to music. 
 
 TERPENES. Unsaturated compounds of the 
 composition (C 5 H 8 ) yielded by plants or built up 
 by organic synthesis. They are divided into the 
 following groups: Hemiterpene, C 5 H 8 , consisting 
 of isoprene chains from which the well-known 
 geranial or citral is a derivative. Terpenes, 
 C 10 H 16 , ring forms, familiar as pinene and li- 
 monene. Sesquiterpene, C 15 H 24 , contained in oils 
 of clove, cedar, hops, patchouli, etc. Polyter- 
 penes, C 30 H 48 , principally occurring as caoutchouc 
 or rubber. Isoprene or methyl butadiene, C 5 H 8 , 
 is chiefly important as the starting point for 
 the synthesis of rubber. By heating two or more 
 equivalents of the compound in the presence 
 of weak acetic acid from 100-200° C. (212- 
 392° F.) rubber is formed. According to Pickles, 
 Journal Chemical Society (London, 1910), rub¬ 
 ber consists of a long chain made up of isoprene 
 links—CH 2 • CCH 3 • CH • CH 2 • CH, • CCH 3 -- 
 CH • CH 2 —etc. See Rubber ; Synthetic Rubber. 
 
 The terpene, C 10 H 16 , group contains two im¬ 
 portant hydroaromatic forms, limonene and 
 pinene. The former is monocyclic and absorbs 
 two molecules of halogen acid or four atoms of 
 halogen, the latter is bicyclic and absorbs one 
 molecule of halogen acid or two atoms of halo¬ 
 gen. Pinene occurs in American oil of turpen¬ 
 tine as the dextrorotary form (australene) and 
 in German or French turpentine as the levo- 
 rotary type (terebenthene). Both occur in vari¬ 
 ous essential oils—rosemary, sage, juniper, etc. 
 Pinene combines with dry hydrogen chloride to 
 form an addition product known as artificial 
 camphor. On heating the hydrochloride with 
 alcoholic potash, camphene, an isomer of pinene, 
 is formed. The same result is obtained by the 
 action of strong sulphuric acid on turpentine. 
 By oxidation with chromic acid camphene yields 
 camphor, C 10 H 16 O. 
 
 Limonene occurs in two optically active forms: 
 dextrolimonene in orange, lemon, and caraway 
 oils; levolimonene in firwood oil. Both form 
 liquid hydrochlorides with two molecules of HC1, 
 and take four atoms of bromine. By mixing 
 equal quantities of the dextro and levo forms 
 a racemic type is obtained; this is called di- 
 pentene and occurs in Russian and Swedish tur¬ 
 pentine. Caroplivllene of cloves, humulene of 
 hops, cedrene of cedar oil, and conimene of in¬ 
 cense resin are among the sesquiterpenes isolated 
 and studied. See Hydrocarbons. 
 
 TERPSICHORE, terp-sik'6-re (Lat., from 
 Gk. Tep\f/ix°PV> fern. of repxf/ixopos, terpsichoros, 
 delighting in the dance, from r<fpi/as, terpsis, en¬ 
 joyment -f- X°P° S > choros, dance). In Greek 
 mythology, one of the nine Muses (q.v.). She 
 presided over the choral dance. In the later 
 assignment of functions to the Muses, she was 
 
TERQUEM 
 
 TERRA COTTA 
 
 ii5 
 
 regarded as the Muse of the lesser lyric poetry, 
 and was distinguished by the lyre. 
 
 TERQUEM, tar'ka.N / , Olry (1782-1862). A 
 French geometer, born at Metz of Jewish par¬ 
 ents. In 1804 he was called to Mainz as pro¬ 
 fessor of mathematics in the Lyceum, and after¬ 
 ward to a similar position in the school of 
 artillery. Returning to Paris in 1814, he was 
 appointed librarian in the artillery depot at 
 Saint-Thomas-d’Aquin. Terquem was a distin¬ 
 guished geometer and is well known for his 
 Nouvelles annales de mathematiques, a publica¬ 
 tion which he founded together with Gerono in 
 1842, and which is still continued. He also 
 wrote a work entitled Bulletin de bibliographic, 
 d’histoire et de biograpliie mathematiques (7 
 vols., 1855-61). 
 
 TERRACE (Fr. terrasse, from It. terraccia, 
 terrazzo, terrace, from terra, from Lat. terra, 
 earth). 1. In geology, a stretch of comparatively 
 level land along the shore of a lake or the 
 ocean or bordering a river course and elevated 
 some distance above water level. Terraces 
 frequently occur in series, one rising above the 
 other as the distance from the shore increases. 
 River terraces owe their origin to the cutting 
 down of flood plains; as a river channel widens 
 and deepens the flood plain is gradually cut 
 away until only the edges near valley walls 
 remain. This process may be repeated several 
 times, giving rise to a succession of terraces— 
 the oldest having the highest elevation and 
 being farthest removed from the river. The drift 
 terraces so common in the northern States are 
 remnants of flood plains that were formed when 
 the overloaded streams of the Glacial period 
 filled their preglacial valleys. Lake terraces 
 mark former shore lines and are evidence of 
 a shrinkage in the volume of the lakes. They 
 are well marked around most of the Great Lakes, 
 on the shores of Lake Champlain, and lakes of 
 the Great Basin. Their abundance has sug¬ 
 gested the term “Terrace epoch” to designate 
 the geological period during which they were 
 produced. See Beaches, Raised; Lake; Lake 
 Agassiz; River; etc. 
 
 2. In architecture and gardening, a terrace is 
 a level space or platform of earth or masonry, 
 raised or embanked above the surrounding grade, 
 or partly cut out and partly embanked on a 
 slope to provide a horizontal surface for plant¬ 
 ing, for promenading, or for decorative build¬ 
 ings. In formal gardening the terrace is faced 
 and held up by a vertical retaining wall, often 
 of decorative design, crowned by a balustrade 
 and provided with stairways from the next 
 level below. English country houses are usually 
 set on a low broad terrace projecting in front 
 or both in front and rear. The terraces of Ital¬ 
 ian gardens are adorned with flowers, trees, 
 grottoes, fountains, and statuary, and consti¬ 
 tute their most distinctive feature. 
 
 TERRACINA, t£r'ra-che'na. A city in the 
 Province of Rome, Italy, 76 miles southeast of 
 the city of Rome, on the Tyrrhenian Sea, and 
 at the south end of the Pontine Marshes (Map: 
 Italy, D 4). The ancient city occupied a com¬ 
 manding position on the crest of a hill over¬ 
 looking the modern site. This section affords 
 a magnificent view and has interesting remains 
 of the Roman period, notably those of the im¬ 
 posing Temple of Venus, which until 1894 were 
 supposed to belong to a palace of Theodoric the 
 Ostrogoth, and an amphitheatre. The Cathedral 
 SS. Pietro and Cesareo in the modern city, oc¬ 
 
 cupying the site of another Roman temple, is 
 of much architectural beauty. Pop. (commune), 
 1901, 11,310; 1911, 11,121 '(town, 7579). Ter- 
 racina, the Volscian Anxur and the Latin Tar- 
 racina, was of considerable military importance 
 under the Romans. 
 
 TER'RA COT'TA (It., baked earth). Hard- 
 fired earthenware, especially that which is used 
 for architectural material. 
 
 Greece. Terra-cotta statuettes are among the 
 most charming and dainty products of Greek 
 art. The archaic terra cottas are numerous, 
 especially on sacred sites. The later figurines 
 from the fourth century b.c. and the Hellenistic 
 period have been found in tombs at many sites, 
 but the earlier group is best represented by the 
 statuettes from Tanagra in Breotia, which are 
 strongly influenced by the art of Praxiteles and 
 his contemporaries. In the later period the 
 characteristics of Hellenistic art are seen in 
 terra cottas from Asia Minor (especially 
 Myrina), Sicily, and southern Italy. The at¬ 
 tractiveness of these figures had led to many 
 imitations, frequently very skillful. The an¬ 
 cient figures were made in molds, sometimes as 
 many as 16 being employed for one figure; then 
 after baking they were often retouched or en¬ 
 graved, and finally painted in brilliant colors on 
 a coating of white lime. For architecture the 
 pieces were finished in true ceramic painting, 
 simple but excellent. In central Italy, especially 
 in Etruria and Latium, crude brick seems to 
 have been largely employed, and hence terra 
 cotta was used for decorative purposes in impor¬ 
 tant buildings at a time when in Greek lands it 
 had been largely supplanted by stone. In this 
 region also terra cotta seems to have been used 
 much more extensively for large figures than 
 among the Greeks. 
 
 Middle Ages and Renaissance. Throughout 
 the Middle Ages, baked clay was used in archi¬ 
 tecture, chiefly for floor tiles, but also for roof- 
 crestings and ornamental finials. In the great 
 plain of north Germany, where stone was rare 
 and fictile clay abundant, a whole school of 
 Gothic architecture in brick grew up in the 
 fourteenth century and continued for 200 years; 
 the decorative reliefs modeled in clay and used 
 as capitals, friezes, etc., are of singular in¬ 
 terest. Elaborate decorative gables and para¬ 
 pets were made of this material and baked so 
 hard that they are terra cotta rather than brick. 
 In Italy, at the time of the early Renaissance, 
 the material is used very freely in elaborate 
 detail in churches and in private dwellings. 
 Another epoch of art during which terra cotta 
 was freely employed was of the eighteenth cen¬ 
 tury, when, especially in France, terra-cotta 
 statuettes and groups were made in profusion, 
 and vases, clocks, etc., decorated by reliefs and 
 figures in the round, were made for decorative 
 effect. Famous masters of this art were three 
 sculptors of the name of Adam (Lambert Sigis- 
 bert, and his brothers Nicholas S£bastien and 
 Francois Gaspard), and especially Claude 
 Michel, commonly known as Clodion. 
 
 Nineteenth Century. In the latter half of 
 the nineteenth century the use of terra cotta as 
 a building material was resumed in connection 
 with the Gothic revival and increasing demand 
 for decorative detail. Late in the century some 
 slight attempts were made to introduce poly- 
 chromv of a permanent kind in connection with 
 this material. Some of the best terra cotta 
 for buildings is made in the United States; and 
 
TERRA DEL EUEGO 
 
 116 
 
 TERRE HAUTE 
 
 here also color has been sparingly used. Among 
 its advantages as a building material are the 
 ease with which it may be molded to any desired 
 architectural or sculptural form and indefinitely 
 repeated, its durability, lightness, strength, and 
 cheapness. It may be made in almost any de¬ 
 sired color, but is usually dark red. 
 
 Manufacture. A better grade of clay is re¬ 
 quired for terra cotta than for brick. Often¬ 
 times clays from different localities must be 
 mixed to secure the right color, while vitrifying 
 ingredients (pure white sand, old pottery or 
 fire brick finely ground) are added to secure 
 partial vitrification. After weathering, the se¬ 
 lected clay is ground or washed (see Clay, Clay 
 Mining and Working), mixed with vitrifying 
 ingredients and water; next, the various sorts 
 of clay are piled in layers. Vertical slices from 
 this mass are taken to either a pug mill or 
 rollers for tempering. The material is next 
 sent to the molding room in cakes of convenient 
 size. If only one piece is required, the clay 
 may be modeled by hand, ready for baking; but 
 if the design is to be repeated a model is made 
 and a mold taken, into which the clay is forced 
 by hand. After partial drying the product is 
 turned over to the finisher, who may be more or 
 less skilled, according to the character of the 
 design. After drying, the forms are baked or 
 burned, as described under Kiln. 
 
 Bibliography. Greek, etc.: Reinhard Kekule 
 von Stradonitz, Griechische Thonfiguren aus 
 Tanagra (Stuttgart, 1878) ; id., Die antiken 
 Terra-Kotten (3 vols., Berlin, 1880-1903) ; 
 Camille Lecuyer, Terres cuites antiques trou- 
 vees en Grece et en Asie-Mineur (2 vols., Paris, 
 1882-85) ; Joseph Cheret, Die Terrakotten (Ber¬ 
 lin, 1886) ; Edmond Pottier, Les statuettes de 
 terre cuite dans Vantiquite (Paris, 1890) ; C. A. 
 Hutton, Greek Terra-Cotta Statuettes (London, 
 1899) ; Henry Strack, Brick and Terra Gotta 
 Work During the Middle Ages and the Renais¬ 
 sance in Italy (Boston, 1914) ; M. B. Huish, 
 Greek Terra-Cotta Statuettes (ib., 1900). The 
 Etruscan funeral urns are treated by Brunn, I 
 rilievi delle urne etrusche (Rome, 1870 et 
 seq.). On the use of terra cotta in architecture 
 consult: Dorpfeld, Graber, Borrmann, and Sie- 
 bold, Ueber die Verwendung von Terrakotten am 
 Geison und Dache griechischer Bauwerke (Ber¬ 
 lin, 1881). For application of ornamental terra 
 cotta to buildings, consult F. E. Kidder, “Ma¬ 
 son’s Work,” in Building Construction and 
 Superintendence, part i (9th rev. ed., New York, 
 1909). For the manufacture of the various wall 
 and floor fireproofing materials, roof coverings, 
 and other clay goods often going under the 
 name of terra cotta, also for porous terra cotta 
 and terra-cotta lumber, see Brick; Tile. For 
 the application of these materials, see Fire¬ 
 proof Construction. 
 
 TERRA DEL FUEGO, ter'ra del fwa'go. A 
 corrupted form of Tierra del Fuego (q.v.). 
 
 TERRAMARE, ter'ra-ma'ra (from It. terra 
 amara ) bitter earth). The term applied to cer¬ 
 tain low mounds with level tops in the valley 
 of the Po, which are supposed to have formed 
 the foundations of prehistoric Italian villages. 
 In them are found fragments of bones, pottery, 
 tools, implements of war, and the like, which 
 cast light oii the ancient civilization of Italy 
 in the Neolithic period. See Italy, Ethnology; 
 Kitchen Midden; Lake Dwellings. 
 
 TERRANOVA, ter'ra-no'va. A seaport in 
 the Province of Caltanissetta, Sicily, 75 miles 
 
 by rail east by south of Girgenti (Map: Italy, 
 E 6). There are tunny and sardine fisheries, 
 and manufactures of woolen goods. The exports 
 are grain, wine, sulphur, soda, and cotton. Ter- 
 ranova was built by Frederick II in the thir¬ 
 teenth century on the site of Gela (q.v.). The 
 ruins of the ancient necropolis have yielded 
 numerous vases, and the excavations of 1906 
 uncovered the remains of an important temple. 
 Pop. (commune), 1901, 22,114; 1911, 22,019. 
 
 TER'RAPIN (probably of North American 
 Indian origin). Any of several species of fresh- 
 
 EDIBLE TERRAPIN, OR DIAMOND-BACK. 
 
 water or brackish-water or mud turtles of 
 the family Emyidae, natives of tropical and the 
 warmer temperate countries. The neck can 
 be wholly retracted within the shell; the head 
 is flat, and the jaws prolonged into a beak. 
 Terrapin feed partly on vegetable food, but also 
 devour fish, reptiles, and other aquatic animals. 
 They swim very well, and even on land move 
 with much greater swiftness than land tortoises. 
 The family is represented in the United States 
 by about 20 species. The word “terrapin” has 
 no exact scientific significance, but in the United 
 States it is more commonly applied to the dia¬ 
 mond-back terrapin ( Malacolemmys centrata or 
 palustris) . This species is found in salt 
 marshes from New York to Texas, and is gray 
 with black markings. Its flesh is highly es¬ 
 teemed as a table delicacy, and in some places 
 along the southern coast these turtles are 
 reared for market in inclosures in large numbers. 
 
 TERRAZZO, ter-rat'so. A kind of flooring 
 much used in modern practice for corridors and 
 floors of public buildings; it is composed of 
 small fragments of marble set in a white cement 
 and rubbed to a polish after it has set. By the 
 use of fragments of different colors decorative 
 effects of mosaic may be produced. The process 
 and the name are derived from Italy, where it is 
 called “terrazzo Veneziano.” It was introduced 
 into the United States towards the end of the 
 nineteenth century. 
 
 TERRE, ter, La (Fr., The Earth). One of 
 Zola’s Rougon-Macquart novels (1887), in 
 which the author presents a brutally realistic 
 study of peasant life. 
 
 TERRE HAUTE, ter'e hot'. A city and the 
 county seat of Vigo Co., Ind., 72 miles west 
 by south of Indianapolis, on the Wabash River, 
 and on the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago, and 
 St. Louis, the Vandalia, the Chicago and East¬ 
 ern Illinois, and the Chicago, Terre Haute, and 
 Southeastern railroads (Map: Indiana, C 6). 
 Terre Haute is the seat of the Rose Polytechnic 
 Institution, Indiana State Normal School, and 
 St. Mary’s Institute. Other noteworthy insti¬ 
 tutions include the Rose Orphans’ Home, St. 
 Ann’s Orphans’ Home, St. Anthony’s Hospital, 
 Union Hospital, the Elks’ and Odd Fellows’ 
 lodges, the Y. W. C. A., and Rose Dispen¬ 
 sary. The Emeline Fairbanks Memorial Li- 
 
TERRELL 
 
 brary has about 47,000 volumes. The State 
 Normal Library has G5,000 volumes. Terre 
 Haute carries on considerable trade, being the 
 centre of a productive region, largely devoted 
 to agriculture, and containing valuable coal, 
 clay, oil, and gas deposits. The various manu¬ 
 factures (1900 census) had $10,371,000 capital 
 and a production valued at $21,793,000. There 
 are also foundries and machine shops, flour and 
 hominy mills, clothing factories, rolling mills, 
 slaughtering and meat-packing establishments, 
 car works, breweries, distilleries, planing mills, 
 and manufactures of carriages, glass, electric 
 motors, stoves, brick, enameled ironware, gun- 
 stocks, tools, steel castings, wheels, etc. There 
 are three large ice plants. An important industry 
 of the district is the raising of fine show and 
 harness horses. For maintenance and operation 
 the city spent, in 1913, $692,500, the principal 
 items being: schools, $270,000; fire department, 
 $124,000; police department, $78,000; for high¬ 
 ways, $64,000; and interest on debt, $33 000. 
 Pop., 1900, 36,673; 1910, 58,157; 1915, 64,806; 
 1920, 66,083. Terre Haute was founded in 1816 
 and was chartered as a city in 1833. 
 
 TER'RELL. A city in Kaufman Co., Tex., 
 32 miles east of Dallas, on the Texas and 
 Pacific and the Texas Midland railroads (Map: 
 Texas, D 3). It is the seat of the North Texas 
 Hospital for the Insane, and has a military 
 college for boys, Carnegie library, and an 
 Elks’ Home. Terrell is the commercial centre 
 of a region engaged in truck farming, cotton, 
 wheat, and fruit growing, and having besides 
 important cattle-raising and lumber interests. 
 It is also known for the manufacture of cotton¬ 
 seed oil. It has shops of the Texas Midland 
 Railroad, cotton gins, a cotton compress, a flour 
 mill, a foundry, a canning factory, a manufac¬ 
 tory of cotton goods, etc. The city has adopted 
 the commission form of government. Pop., 1900, 
 6330; 1910, 7050. 
 
 TERRESTRIAL ELECTRICITY. The 
 
 science pertaining to electrical phenomena ex¬ 
 hibited Ijy the earth and atmosphere. Under 
 normal conditions the surface of the earth is 
 everywhere negatively charged, and the magni¬ 
 tude of the charge density is such that the 
 potential gradient, or increase of electrical po¬ 
 tential per meter increase of altitude above the 
 surface, amounts to about 150 volts per meter. 
 The potential gradient shows annual and diurnal 
 variations of very considerable amount; it di¬ 
 minishes with increase of altitude, and probably 
 becomes sensibly zero at altitudes of little more 
 than 10 kilometers, a fact which leads, by a 
 direct application of the fundamental princi¬ 
 ples of electrostatics, to the conclusion that 
 there is a positive charge in the atmosphere, 
 sensibly equal in total amount to the negative 
 charge on the earth. 
 
 The atmosphere possesses the power of con¬ 
 ducting electricity to an extent which, though 
 extremely small, is nevertheless sufficient to in¬ 
 sure that nine-tenths of the charge on the earth 
 would disappear in 10 minutes if there were no 
 means of replenishing the loss. Although many 
 attempts have been made to account for the 
 permanent existence of an electrical field in a 
 conducting atmosphere, no completely satisfac¬ 
 tory theory has yet been evolved. See Atmos¬ 
 pheric Electricity. 
 
 The conductivity of the atmosphere arises from 
 the presence in it of positive and negative ions 
 formed by the splitting up of neutral gas mole- 
 
 117 TERRESTRIAL ELECTRICITY 
 
 cules. These ions are of two main classes, the 
 so-called small ions, which contribute the greater 
 part of the conductivity, and large ions; the 
 latter move in a unit electrical field with veloci¬ 
 ties only about l-3000th of that of the former, 
 and are probably formed by the combination of 
 small ions with dust nuclei. The usual methods 
 of measurement reveal only the small ions, and 
 about 800 pairs of these are usually found per 
 cubic centimeter. 
 
 Since ions, when left to themselves, recombine 
 at a rate given by a n+n— where n + and n_ 
 are the numbers of positive and negative ions 
 per cubic centimeter and a is a constant, it is 
 necessary to suppose that in the steady state 
 they are produced at a rate q per cubic centi¬ 
 meter per second, equal to this amount. If we 
 leave the large ions out of consideration, the 
 value of q necessary to account for the presence 
 of the small ions is about 1 . 6 . 
 
 Radioactive substances are known to emit 
 radiations which possess the power of ionizing a 
 gas (see Radioactivity), and the radioactive 
 materials in the earth and atmosphere over 
 land are known to be sufficient to account for 
 a value of q equal to about 4.3, i.e., a value suf¬ 
 ficiently large to provide for all of the measured 
 ions and for some of the large ions as well. 
 There is, however, another important source of 
 ionization in the atmosphere. 
 
 If a vessel which has been freed from radio¬ 
 active air is hermetically sealed, it is found 
 that over land about 10 ions are produced in 
 it per cubic centimeter per second. Calling this 
 quantity in any particular case R, a portion of 
 R must be considered as caused by radioactive 
 impurities in the walls of the vessel itself, but 
 the phenomenon which is responsible for the 
 ionization not produced in this way is called 
 the penetrating radiation. A part of the pene¬ 
 trating radiation is undoubtedly nothing more 
 than that portion (the 7 rays) of the radiation 
 from the external radioactive materials in the 
 soil and air which is sufficiently penetrating to 
 pass through the walls of the containing vessel; 
 but over the great oceans, where the radioactive 
 material in the sea water and air is found to 
 be insignificant in amount, values of R equal 
 to about 4 are obtained, and these must conse¬ 
 quently be attributed to some other cause. That 
 the whole effect is not a result of impurities 
 in the walls of the vessel is borne out by the 
 fact that R increases very considerably with 
 altitude. 
 
 The numbers of ions per cubic centimeter have 
 been found to be as large over the great oceans 
 as over land, or larger, a result amply confirmed 
 by the recent extensive observations made on 
 cruises of the yacht Carnegie, belonging to the 
 Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Car¬ 
 negie Institution of Washington. The result is 
 at first sight surprising when it is remembered 
 that the radioactive material, which forms so im¬ 
 portant a factor in the ionization over land, is 
 almost entirely absent over the great oceans. 
 It is probable that the influence of the greater 
 value of q which must certainly exist over land 
 is offset, as far as the measured ionic numbers 
 are concerned, by a larger proportion of the 
 ions produced over land going into the large 
 type as a result of combination with dust nuclei, 
 and it is not improbable that over the large 
 oceans the ions are practically all of the small 
 type. 
 
 Instrumental Appliances. The appliances 
 
TERRESTRIAL ELECTRICITY 118 TERRESTRIAL ELECTRICITY 
 
 for potential-gradient measurements over land 
 are described in the article on atmospheric elec¬ 
 tricity (q.v.). For ocean work the usual forms of 
 “collector” are unsuitable mainly on account of 
 the difficulty of securing satisfactory insulation. 
 In the apparatus employed on the Carnegie a 
 long brass tube, carrying a sort of parasol at¬ 
 tachment at one end, is mounted on insulated 
 bearings fixed to the stern rail of the ship in 
 such a way that it can be turned in a vertical 
 plane containing the fore-and-aft line. Relative 
 values of the potential gradient are obtained by 
 measuring the alteration in potential which the 
 insulated system undergoes when it is turned 
 through a fixed angle from an earthed position. 
 
 The values of n + and W- are usually measured 
 by drawing air at a measured rate through the 
 space between two concentric cylinders charged 
 to a difference of potential sufficiently high to 
 insure that all of the ions of sign opposite to 
 that on the central cylinder are drawn thereto 
 as the air passes through. The central cylinder 
 is connected to an electroscope, and the altera¬ 
 tion in potential of the electroscope during the 
 passage of a known amount of air, combined with 
 a knowledge of the electrical capacity of the 
 apparatus and the charge e on a single ion, leads 
 directly to the evaluation of n+ or n- as the case 
 may be. 
 
 The conductivities A+ and for positive 
 
 and negative ions are respectively n + ev+ and 
 n~ev-, where v+ and v- are the velocities under 
 unit electrical field of the particular ion con¬ 
 cerned. They are usually measured by a method 
 similar to that for measuring n+ and n_, except 
 that the space between the cylinders is wider, 
 and the potential difference between them is 
 less than the amount necessary to extract from 
 the air all of the ions concerned. Under these 
 conditions the theory of the instrument shows 
 that the rate of alteration of the potential of 
 the central insulated system is independent of 
 the velocity of the air; it depends only upon A 4 . 
 or A_ as the case may be, on the initial poten¬ 
 tial difference between the cylinders, and on the 
 capacities of certain parts of the instrument. 
 
 Estimates of the amount of radioactive mate¬ 
 rial in the atmosphere have generally been made 
 by utilizing the fact that a negatively charged 
 body exposed to air containing radioactive sub¬ 
 stances collects an active deposit. (See Radio¬ 
 activity.) Measurements of the activity of the 
 deposit obtained under specified conditions in 
 this way afford a rough means of obtaining 
 relative values of the amount of active material 
 in the atmosphere. More accurate measurements 
 of an absolute nature are made by drawing the 
 air over coconut charcoal; the charcoal absorbs 
 the emanation, which may subsequently be ex¬ 
 pelled by heat and measured by its effect in pro¬ 
 ducing ionization in a suitable vessel. 
 
 The intensity of the penetrating radiation is 
 usually ascertained by measuring the saturation 
 current / in a hermetically sealed vessel of 
 volume V, provided with an insulated central 
 electrode connected to an electroscope. The 
 value of R is then equal to I/Ve, where e is the 
 electronic charge (4.7 X 10 10 E.S.U.). 
 
 Upper Atmosphere. Our knowledge of the 
 electrical conditions in the upper atmosphere is 
 very small, and is for the most part a matter of 
 conjecture, but many considerations suggest that 
 at great altitudes the conductivity is enormously 
 greater than at altitudes which are attainable. 
 The chief sources of ionization in the upper at¬ 
 
 mosphere are probably the ultra-violet light from 
 the sun, and the negatively (and possibly posi¬ 
 tively) charged particles generally supposed to 
 be emitted by that body. These corpuscles, enter¬ 
 ing the vicinity of the earth’s magnetic field, 
 will be deflected thereby according to known 
 laws, and by following out the consequences of 
 this view, Birkeland has formulated a theory 
 (illustrated by many laboratory experiments) 
 in which the aurora is explained by the en¬ 
 trance into our atmosphere of high-speed nega¬ 
 tive corpuscles from the sun. In order, how¬ 
 ever, to account for the necessary magnitude 
 of the magnetic deviation, and for the extension 
 of the aurora to low altitudes, it is necessary 
 to postulate that the negative corpuscles have 
 energies very much greater than we are familiar 
 with in laboratory experiments. These diffi¬ 
 culties are to some extent lessened by supposing, 
 as Stoermer and Vegard have done, that the 
 particles concerned are, at any rate in part, 
 positively charged atoms of great energy, simi¬ 
 lar to or identical with a rays. 
 
 Estimates of the altitude of the aurora are 
 attended with considerable uncertainty; some 
 claim to have observed it at altitudes as low 
 as 10 or even 1 kilometer. Stoermer has re¬ 
 cently made precise measurements of the parallax 
 of its beams and arches, by taking, at stations a 
 few kilometers apart, simultaneous photographs 
 of the aurora and of the brightest stars appear¬ 
 ing through it. The altitudes obtained range 
 from 40 kilometers to 260 kilometers. More re¬ 
 cently Stoermer has employed the cinematograph 
 to facilitate the following of rapid changes in 
 the aurora. 
 
 Earth. Currents. During periods of sun-spot 
 activity and magnetic storms (see Terrestriai. 
 Magnetism) earth currents may attain values 
 sufficiently great to render them a source of 
 serious trouble in telegraphy, but during undis¬ 
 turbed periods they are very small, the potential 
 difference which causes them being only of the 
 order of magnitude of 0.1 volt per kilometer. 
 The general direction of the earth current in 
 Europe seems to be from southwest to northeast. 
 
 Earth currents have so far been investigated 
 mainly by measuring the current obtained in a 
 wire terminating in two large plates embedded 
 in the soil at a considerable distance apart; 
 the product of the current so obtained and the 
 resistance of the wire gives the potential dif¬ 
 ference between the plates, which is the quantity 
 of primary interest. Lines ranging in length 
 from a few meters to thousands of kilometers 
 have been employed, but naturally the electro¬ 
 lytic effects at the plates become a source of se¬ 
 rious trouble in the case of the shorter lines. 
 The most extensive series of observations on 
 earth currents are those of Weinstein, extending 
 over a period of eight years and made on two 
 telegraph circuits, one from Berlin to Dresden, 
 120 kilometers nearly N.S., and the other from 
 Berlin to Thorn, 262 kilometers nearly E.W. 
 The normal earth currents show decided diurnal 
 variations, which are related in a very remark¬ 
 able way with the diurnal variation of the 
 horizontal intensity of the earth’s magnetic 
 field. 
 
 Bibliography. B. Weinstein, Die Erdstrome 
 im Deutschen Reichstelegraphen-gebiete (Bruns¬ 
 wick, 1900) ; Kristian Birkeland, Noricegicin 
 Aurora Polaris Expedition, 1902—03 (New York, 
 1909) ; Mache and Von Schweidler, Die atmos- 
 phiirische Elelctrizitdt (Brunswick, 1909); A. 
 
TERRESTRIAL EQUATOR 
 
 119 
 
 TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 
 
 Nippoldt, “Ueber das Wesen des Erdstromes,” 
 in Meteorologische Zeitschrift, vol. xxviii (Ber¬ 
 lin, 1911); Karl Kiihler, Luftelektrizitat (ib., 
 
 1913) ; Muller-Pouillets Lehrbuch der Physik 
 und Meteorologie, vol. iv (10th ed., Brunswick, 
 
 1914) ; L. Steiner, “On Earth Currents and 
 Magnetic Variations,” in Journal of Terrestrial 
 Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, vol. xiii 
 (Baltimore, 1908) ; Carl Stoermer, “Results of 
 the Aurora-Polaris Expedition to Bossekop, 
 1913,” in Journal of Terrestrial Magnetism and 
 Atmospheric Electricity, vol. xx (ib., 1915). 
 See Aurora Borealis ; Lightning. 
 
 TERRESTRIAL EQUATOR. See Equator, 
 Terrestrial. 
 
 TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. The sci¬ 
 ence which concerns itself with the magnetic 
 properties of the earth and the various phe¬ 
 nomena exhibited in consequence of these prop¬ 
 erties. That the earth has magnetic properties 
 is shown by the behavior of a magnetic needle 
 when freely suspended at any one place on the 
 earth’s surface; it is found to take a definite 
 direction, to which it invariably returns when 
 displaced. It is not known as yet whether the 
 earth’s magnetism arises chiefly from substances 
 in the magnetized condition exhibited by the 
 natural magnet, the lodestone or magnetic 
 (q.v.), and by the artificial magnet (q.v.), or 
 whether it has arisen as the result of electric 
 currents circulating approximately in the direc¬ 
 tion from east to west within the earth. In 
 brief, we do not know as yet whether the earth 
 is a magnet or an electromagnet. All that we 
 can say is that the earth acts like a magnet, and 
 that, in consequence, it is surrounded by a mag¬ 
 netic field whose lines of force extend far out 
 into illimitable space; the direction taken by 
 the freely suspended needle, supposed above, is 
 tangent to one of these lines of force. We do 
 know, however, the following definite facts: 
 
 a. The systems of magnetic and electric forces 
 which may be responsible for the earth’s mag¬ 
 netic field are situated almost entirely below the 
 earth’s surface. Indeed, probably not over 5 
 per cent of the earth’s field is caused by systems 
 located in the regions above the surface. 
 
 5. The internal system of forces and about 
 half of the external system (the 5 per cent) may 
 be referred to a potential, i.e., if we are dealing 
 with electric currents, they circulate in such a 
 manner as not to cut the earth’s surface. A 
 system of electric currents cutting the earth’s 
 surface, so as to pass, e.g., from the atmosphere 
 into the earth, or vice versa, is at present sup¬ 
 posed. to account for the remaining 2 or 3 per 
 cent of the total magnetic field. 
 
 c. If magnetized substances cause the earth’s 
 magnetic field, then they probably would have 
 to be confined to a stratum extending down not 
 over 10 miles below the surface, for beyond this 
 depth temperatures would be encountered at 
 which, as far as we know, substances could not 
 exist in the magnetized state. Whether or not 
 the increase of pressure encountered as we pene¬ 
 trate into the earth’s interior would tend to 
 counteract the deleterious effect of increased 
 temperature on magnetized substances is not 
 definitely known. However, the increase of tem¬ 
 perature with depth would be conducive to the 
 production of a magnetic field caused by electric 
 currents. 
 
 d. Roughly, 65 to 70 per cent of the earth’s 
 magnetic field can be represented by a formula 
 based on some kind of uniform magnetization 
 
 (see Magnetism) parallel to a diameter inclined 
 about 11.5° to the earth’s axis of rotation. At 
 present the average effective intensity of mag¬ 
 netization (magnetic moment per unit of volume), 
 in C. G. S. units, is about 0.07, and the magnetic 
 moment of the entire earth, if R be the earth’s 
 mean radius, 0.32/2 3 = 0.32 X (6.37 X 10 s ) 3 = 
 8.3 X 10 2 '’. The earth’s average intensity of 
 magnetization is about ^,q 00 that of very highly 
 magnetized steel. 
 
 e. The earth’s magnetic field is more or less 
 unstable and is in a continual state of flux. 
 External causes may, in a moment, cause a 
 change amounting at times to as much as 5 
 per cent of its apparently permanent intensity 
 of magnetization ( p ). Generally this derange¬ 
 ment may be regarded as being caused by a 
 demagnetizing system, the effect of which is 
 equivalent to a diminution in p which may 
 last for a comparatively long period. Thus it 
 took the earth’s magnetic field about three 
 months to recover from the effect of the ex¬ 
 ceptionally severe magnetic storm of Sept. 25, 
 1909. 
 
 The earth’s complex magnetic field may be 
 resolved into the following main magnetic sys¬ 
 tems: ( 1 ) The polar system—a uniform mag¬ 
 
 netic system, symmetrical about and parallel to 
 the earth’s axis of rotation, oriented so as to 
 cause the north end of a magnetic needle to 
 point everywhere north, and below the horizon, 
 in the Northern Hemisphere; (2) the equatorial 
 system—a uniform magnetic system of about 
 one-fifth of the strength of ( 1 ), symmetrical 
 about and parallel to a diameter lying in the 
 equatorial plane, oriented, did it alone exist, 
 so as to cause the north end of a magnetic needle 
 to point everywhere at present towards a subsidi¬ 
 ary pole on the equator in longitude about 70° 
 west of Greenwich; (3) the distorting, trans¬ 
 verse system giving rise to a subsidiary mag¬ 
 netic field approximately of one-fifth of the 
 strength of the combined system (d), composed 
 of ( 1 ) and (2), asymmetrical both about the 
 earth’s axis of rotation and its equatorial plane, 
 oriented in opposite directions in the Northern 
 and Southern Hemispheres; (4) regional and 
 local disturbance systems. Were systems 1 and 
 2 alone existent, magnetic observations at but 
 very few places would suffice to determine the 
 positions of the magnetic poles (see below) and 
 to calculate in turn, with high accuracy, the 
 values at all other places on the earth of the 
 magnetic elements (q.v.): declination (D), in¬ 
 clination or dip (I), and horizontal intensity 
 ( H ), or the horizontal component of the total 
 strength of the field. Owing, however, to the 
 effects from systems 3 and 4, no formula has 
 as yet been established which will yield computed 
 values of the magnetic elements with accuracy 
 sufficient for even the purely practical purposes 
 of the surveyor and the navigator. Nor has any 
 one as yet succeeded in establishing laws by 
 means of which reliable values of the magnetic 
 elements could be predicted for any place on the 
 basis of the existing values. Hence the need 
 of magnetic surveys of land and ocean areas 
 for determining by actual observation the prev¬ 
 alent values of the magnetic elements at suffi¬ 
 cient places for the construction of magnetic 
 charts. 
 
 Magnetic Charts. Nearly every civilized 
 country has organized magnetic services for the 
 purpose of charting the magnetic elements. The 
 most extensive work of this kind at present is 
 
TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 
 
 120 
 
 TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 
 
 Deing done by the Carnegie Institution of Wash¬ 
 ington, through its Department of Terrestrial 
 Magnetism. This organization has as its special 
 aim the securing of magnetic data in regions, 
 either not within the jurisdiction of any one 
 country, or where, for one reason or another, 
 there are no existing data nor any likely to be 
 obtained in the near future. Since 1905 its 
 expeditions have been sent to almost every 
 region of the globe, and magnetic data have been 
 secured in all the oceans on cruises of aggregate 
 length nine times that of the earth’s circum¬ 
 ference. The specially constructed non-magnetic 
 
 the compass direction were occurring in 1916 in 
 the following regions: Along the northeastern 
 coast of Brazil, where the north end of the com¬ 
 pass was moving westward at the annual rate of 
 about 16'; along the extreme southeastern coast 
 of Africa, where the north end of the compass 
 was moving eastward at the annual rate of about 
 14'. The largest annual change in the magnetic 
 dip was about 18' (increase of dip of north end 
 of needle below the horizon), and was occurring 
 in Colombia, South America. 
 
 The curves (Fig. 3) represent those described 
 in the course of time by the north end of freely 
 
 Fig. 1 . Chart showing lines of equal magnetic inclination for the earth in 1905 (British Admiralty). The north end of 
 the dip needle points below the horizon in all of the region (north magnetic hemisphere) north of the zero line (magnetic 
 equator), and above the horizon in all the region (south magnetic hemisphere) south of the line. 
 
 vessel, the Carnegie, reached the parallel of 80° 
 N., off Spitzbergen, in 1914; in 1915-16 she 
 circumnavigated the region between the parallels 
 50° to 60° S. By the end of 1917 this depart¬ 
 ment, it is expected, will be able to undertake 
 the construction of world-magnetic charts, with 
 an accuracy and detail not heretofore possible. 
 The accompanying plate shows the lines of equal 
 magnetic declination, or isogonic lines (q.v.), 
 and of equal annual change for the United States 
 in 1915, and the second plate similar lines for 
 the earth in 1915. Under Declination will be 
 found a table of Magnetic Declinations and An¬ 
 nual Changes in the United States for Jan. 
 1, 1910. Fig. 1 shows the lines of equal inclina¬ 
 tion or isoclinics (q.v.) for the earth in 1905. 
 Similarly there are charts giving the lines of 
 equal horizontal intensity, of equal vertical in¬ 
 tensity, and of equal total intensity of the earth’s 
 magnetic field. See Isodynamic Lines ; Isomag- 
 netic Lines. 
 
 Secular Variation of the Earth’s Magnet¬ 
 ism. The various magnetic elements suffer from 
 year to year more or less progressive changes 
 which continue for a period the length of which 
 is not known at present; it may be as long as 
 1500 years or more. It is not even known 
 whether or not the secular change is a strictly 
 periodic one. Suffice it to sav that because of 
 this long-period change the earth’s magnetic 
 state undergoes such remarkable changes that it 
 is necessary, even for the purely practical pur¬ 
 poses of navigation, to issue new magnetic charts 
 of the earth at intervals preferably not longer 
 than five years. The largest annual changes in 
 
 suspended magnetic needles at London, Boston, 
 and Baltimore, the motion being viewed by an 
 observer supposed to be standing at the point 
 of suspension of the needle. It will be seen that 
 the area of the London curve is considerably 
 larger than those of the United States stations, 
 
 Fig. 2. Showing the direction assumed by a dip needle in 
 various parts of the earth. Some idea of the complexity of 
 the earth’s magnetic field is gained by the amount of depar¬ 
 ture of the magnetic equator from the true equator. 
 
 or, in other words, the secular changes in declina¬ 
 tion and inclination appear to be larger for Eng¬ 
 land than for the United States. However, we 
 do not know what may have occurred in the 
 United States prior to the date when the ob- 
 
TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 
 
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TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 
 
 LINES OF EQUAL MAGNETIC DECLINATION FOR THE EARTH IN' 1915 
 
 Rag.-H on the United States Hydrographic Office Chart, with additions 
 
TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 
 
 121 
 
 TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 
 
 servations began, nor can we predict what the 
 future changes will be. For example, the Lon¬ 
 don curve may not close itself, if it ever does, 
 in a simple manner; there may be introduced 
 one or more loops of area smaller than that of 
 
 Fig. 3. Curves showing the secular change in the magnetic 
 declination and in the inclination (dip) at London, Boston, 
 and Baltimore. [Drawn for supposed length of freely sus¬ 
 pended magnetic needle of about 37 centimeters, or nearly 
 15 inches.] 
 
 the present curve. There is some evidence that 
 such loops may have occurred several centuries 
 ago, and there is no reason why they may not 
 occur again. 
 
 Table I shows the irregularities in the 
 secular change from year to year at a typi¬ 
 cal station, Cheltenham, Md., where a mag¬ 
 netic observatory is in operation under the 
 auspices of the United States Coast and Geodetic 
 Survey. 
 
 Magnetic Poles. The approximate position 
 of the north magnetic pole in 1916 was lat. 
 70° N., long. 97° W., and of the south magnetic 
 
 TABLE I 
 
 ANNUAL VALUES AND CHANGES OF THE MAGNETIC ELEMENTS 
 AT CHELTENHAM, MD. 
 
 (7 denotes 0.00001 of a C. G. S. unit of field intensity) 
 
 
 DECLINATION 
 
 INCLINATION 
 
 HOR. 
 
 INT. 
 
 YEAR 
 
 Value 
 
 Change 
 
 Value 
 
 Change 
 
 Value 
 
 Change 
 
 
 o / 
 
 / 
 
 o 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 1902 
 
 5 06.8W 
 
 
 70 
 
 21.9 
 
 
 20,178 
 
 
 
 3.2W 
 
 
 
 + 0.8 
 
 
 -40 
 
 1903 
 
 5 10.0W 
 
 3.3W 
 
 70 
 
 22.7 
 
 + 1.3 
 
 20,138 
 
 -37 
 
 1904 
 
 5 13.3W 
 
 4.5W 
 
 70 
 
 24.0 
 
 + 1.4 
 
 20,101 
 
 -37 
 
 1905 
 
 5 17.8W 
 
 3.7W 
 
 70 
 
 25.4 
 
 + 1.5 
 
 20,064 
 
 -40 
 
 1906 
 
 5 21.5W 
 
 4.5W 
 
 70 
 
 26.9 
 
 + 2.1 
 
 20,024 
 
 -52 
 
 1907 
 
 5 26.0W 
 
 5.1W 
 
 70 
 
 29.0 
 
 + 1.5 
 
 19,972 
 
 -50 
 
 1908 
 
 5 31.1W 
 
 5.3W 
 
 70 
 
 30.5 
 
 +2.3 
 
 19,922 
 
 -59 
 
 1909 
 
 5 36.4W 
 
 5.0W 
 
 70 
 
 32.8 
 
 + 2.6 
 
 19,863 
 
 -57 
 
 1910 
 
 5 41.4W 
 
 4.2W 
 
 70 
 
 35.4 
 
 + 2.0 
 
 19,806 
 
 -61 
 
 1911 
 
 5 45. 6 W 
 
 4.4W 
 
 70 
 
 37.4 
 
 + 1.7 
 
 19,745 
 
 -63 
 
 1912 
 
 5 50.0W 
 
 4.6W 
 
 70 
 
 39.1 
 
 + 2.0 
 
 19,682 
 
 -83 
 
 1913 
 
 5 54. 6 W 
 
 5.2W 
 
 70 
 
 41.1 
 
 +2.9 
 
 19,599 
 
 -89 
 
 1914 
 
 5 59. 8 W 
 
 
 70 
 
 44.0 
 
 
 19,510 
 
 
 pole, lat. 72° S., long. 153° E. A straight line 
 connecting these two poles would pass through 
 the earth 750 miles distant from the centre. We 
 do not possess observations sufficiently extensive, 
 
 or of requisite accuracy, to determine definitely 
 the paths followed by the magnetic poles as the 
 result of the secular change in the earth’s mag¬ 
 netism. Nor do we know as yet the precise 
 cause for this mysterious change. It has been 
 shown, however, that the system of forces caus¬ 
 ing the changes is a resultant one, composed of 
 a system inside the earth and of another 
 above the earth’s surface. It is also known now 
 that the secular change is caused not only by 
 a change in the direction of magnetization but 
 likewise by a change in the intensity of mag¬ 
 netization. The earth’s magnetic moment dur¬ 
 ing the past three-quarters of a century ap¬ 
 pears to have been diminishing at the average 
 annual rate of about part. But it is not 
 
 known whether this apparent decrease will 
 continue. 
 
 Diurnal Variation of the Earth’s Magnet¬ 
 ism. This is one of the most striking of the 
 earth’s magnetic phenomena. The magnetic ele¬ 
 ments run through a certain course having the 
 solar day as period, the ranges of the changes 
 being greater in the summer months than in 
 the winter months, and greater during periods 
 of maximum sun-spot activity than during 
 periods of minimum sun-spot activity. Table II 
 shows the diurnal changes for a typical station, 
 
 TABLE II 
 
 DIURNAL VARIATION OF THE MAGNETIC ELEMENTS AT CHEL¬ 
 TENHAM, MD., IN 1912 
 
 (y denotes 0.00001 of a C. G. S. unit of field intensity) 
 
 
 DECLINATION 
 
 INCLINATION 
 
 HOR. 
 
 INT. 
 
 HOUR 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 1 A.M. 
 
 - 0.1 
 
 + 0.1 
 
 + 0.1 
 
 - 0.2 
 
 -2 
 
 +4 
 
 2 
 
 0.0 
 
 +0.3 
 
 + 0.1 
 
 - 0.2 
 
 -1 
 
 +4 
 
 3 
 
 +0.3 
 
 + 0.6 
 
 0.0 
 
 - 0.1 
 
 0 
 
 +3 
 
 4 
 
 + 0.4 
 
 +0.9 
 
 0.0 
 
 - 0.1 
 
 + 1 
 
 +2 
 
 5 
 
 + 0.3 
 
 + 1.8 
 
 - 0.1 
 
 0.0 
 
 +2 
 
 + 2 
 
 6 
 
 + 0.8 
 
 + 3.6 
 
 - 0.1 
 
 0.0 
 
 + 1 
 
 + 1 
 
 7 
 
 + 1.2 
 
 + 5.2 
 
 0.0 
 
 + 0.5 
 
 0 
 
 -8 
 
 8 
 
 + 1.3 
 
 + 5.3 
 
 0.0 
 
 + 1.1 
 
 -1 
 
 -21 
 
 9 
 
 + 1.0 
 
 +3.3 
 
 + 0.1 
 
 + 1.5 
 
 -3 
 
 -SO 
 
 10 
 
 0.0 
 
 -0.5 
 
 + 0.2 
 
 + 1.3 
 
 -6 
 
 -28 . 
 
 11 
 
 -1.4 
 
 -3.6 
 
 + 0.2 
 
 + 0.5 
 
 -7 
 
 -14 
 
 Noon 
 
 -2.2 
 
 -5.3 
 
 + 0.2 
 
 - 0.2 
 
 -5 
 
 0 
 
 1 P.M. 
 
 - 2.0 
 
 -5.6 
 
 + 0.1 
 
 - 0.6 
 
 -1 
 
 + 10 
 
 2 
 
 - 1.0 
 
 -4.3 
 
 - 0.1 
 
 —0.7 
 
 + 3 
 
 + 14 
 
 3 
 
 - 0.2 
 
 - 2.2 
 
 -0.2 
 
 -0.5 
 
 + 5 
 
 + 12 
 
 4 
 
 + 0.2 
 
 -0.4 
 
 -0.2 
 
 -0.3 
 
 + 5 
 
 +8 
 
 5 
 
 - 0.1 
 
 + 0.6 
 
 - 0.1 
 
 - 0.2 
 
 + 3 
 
 + 5 
 
 6 
 
 + 0.1 
 
 +0.4 
 
 - 0.1 
 
 - 0.2 
 
 + 3 
 
 + 5 
 
 7 
 
 + 0.3 
 
 - 0.1 
 
 - 0.1 
 
 - 0.2 
 
 + 2 
 
 + 5 
 
 8 
 
 + 0.4 
 
 - 0.1 
 
 - 0.1 
 
 - 0.2 
 
 + 2 
 
 +4 
 
 9 
 
 +0.3 
 
 - 0.1 
 
 + 0.1 
 
 -0.3 
 
 -1 
 
 +6 
 
 10 
 
 + 0.4 
 
 - 0.2 
 
 + 0.1 
 
 -0.3 
 
 -2 
 
 + 5 
 
 11 
 
 + 0.2 
 
 + 0.1 
 
 + 0.1 
 
 -0.3 
 
 -1 
 
 + 6 
 
 Mid’t 
 
 - 0.1 
 
 - 0.1 
 
 + 0.1 
 
 -0.3 
 
 -1 
 
 _+6 
 
 Range 
 
 3.5 
 
 10.9 
 
 0.4 
 
 2.2 
 
 12 
 
 44 
 
 Cheltenham, Md., for a summer month (August) 
 and a winter month (January), and for the 
 year 1912, near the epoch (in 1913) of minimum 
 sun-spot activity. A + sign means motion of 
 north end of compass needle to the east, motion 
 of north end of dip needle downward, and an 
 increase in the horizontal intensity. Thus, 
 at Cheltenham the mean values of the magnetic 
 elements were, in 1912: declination, D = 5° 50.0' 
 west; inclination, I = + 70° 39.1' ( + means 
 
 north end of dip needle down) ; horizontal in¬ 
 tensity, H = 0.19702 (C. G. S. unit). At 8 a.m., 
 on the average in August, 1912, D — 5° 44.7' 
 west, / = + 70° 40.2' II = 0.19681. At 1 P.M., 
 
TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 
 
 122 
 
 TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 
 
 on the average in August, 1912, D = 5° 55. 6' 
 west, I = 70° 38.5' H = 0.19712. The turning 
 points (maxima and minima) are indicated in 
 the table by heavy black figures and italicized 
 figures. The ranges (difference between maxi¬ 
 mum and minimum values) are given at the 
 bottom of the table. 
 
 For a year of maximum sun-spot activity the 
 diurnal ranges are, in general, increased, the 
 percentage increase being greater for the win¬ 
 ter months than for the summer months. The 
 
 mean annual ranges at Cheltenham were ap¬ 
 proximately 30 to 40 per cent greater in the 
 year of maximum sun-spot activity than they 
 were in the year of minimum sun-spot activity. 
 
 Confining attention chiefly to the diurnal var¬ 
 iation of the magnetic declination (Fig. 4) at 
 an average station in the Northern Hemisphere, 
 we may say broadly that the north end of the 
 compass needle moves eastward in the morning 
 hours until about seven or eight o’clock, and 
 then turns and moves westward until about one 
 o’clock in the afternoon. For an average sta¬ 
 tion in the Southern Hemisphere, the motion just 
 described would be reversed as far as the north 
 end of the compass is concerned, though for the 
 south end it would be the same. 
 
 It is seen (Table II and Fig. 4) that the 
 diurnal variation for all the elements is de¬ 
 veloped chiefly during the daylight hours. The 
 seat of the system of forces causing the mag¬ 
 netic diurnal variation is chiefly above the 
 earth’s surface, though a large percentage of 
 the variation arises also from a system situated 
 within the earth. 
 
 Acyclic Effect. The diurnal variation is not 
 a strictly cyclic phenomenon, i.e., the mean 
 daily values of the magnetic elements, even on 
 undisturbed days, are not necessarily the same 
 on one day as they were the preceding day or 
 as they will be on the following day. One cause 
 of this is of course the slowly progressing 
 change. But there is a more serious cause 
 for acyclicism, which, if it persisted through¬ 
 out the year, would give a secular change 
 10 to 100 times larger than is actually found, 
 i.e., if a pair of consecutive, magnetically 
 calm days be selected, then it is found that the 
 mean daily value of the horizontal intensity on 
 the second day is, on the average for the year, 
 slightly greater than on the first day; this ef¬ 
 fect is known as the acyclic effect. On the 
 other hand, the general effect of magnetic per¬ 
 turbations, or of magnetic storms, is to dimin¬ 
 ish the horizontal intensity. Now the mag¬ 
 netically disturbed days outnumber the quiet 
 days at least two to one. The acyclic ef¬ 
 fect of the nondisturbed days is thus counter¬ 
 balanced, in a measure, by that of the dis¬ 
 turbed days, so that the residual effect at the 
 end of the year is reduced, i.e., at Cheltenham, 
 
 Md., at present to about 2 or 5 per cent of the 
 regular secular change. 
 
 Annual Variation of the Magnetic Ele¬ 
 ments. Aside from the progressive change 
 throughout the year, caused by the secular va¬ 
 riation, the earth’s magnetic state undergoes 
 changes varying with the season and having the 
 year as period. The total range of these changes 
 for the magnetic declination, or for the magnetic 
 inclination, is usually about a minute of arc or 
 less. The most instructive feature is best ex¬ 
 hibited by the 
 changes in the hori¬ 
 zontal and in the 
 vertical intensities, 
 when grouped as 
 shown in Table III. 
 A plus sign means 
 that the value of 
 the magnetic ele¬ 
 ment was at the 
 time numerically 
 greater than its 
 mean value for the 
 year; if the vertical 
 intensity be given the plus sign for the northern 
 magnetic hemisphere, and the minus sign for the 
 southern magnetic hemisphere, then the signs 
 in the table for this element should be reversed 
 for the Southern Hemisphere. 
 
 It is evident from this table that the magni¬ 
 tude and signs of the changes depend upon the 
 earth’s motion in declination during the year, 
 and that the changes, for the same time of year, 
 are, on the average, of opposite signs in the 
 Northern and Southern hemispheres. The seat 
 of the system of forces giving rise to the annual 
 
 TABLE III 
 
 ANNUAL VARIATION OP THE EARTH’S MAGNETISM 
 
 (y denotes 0.00001 of a C. G. S. unit of field intensity) 
 
 MONTHS 
 
 NORTHERN HEM¬ 
 ISPHERE 
 
 SOUTHERN HEM¬ 
 ISPHERE 
 
 Hor. In. 
 
 Yer. In. 
 
 Hor. In. 
 
 Ver. In. 
 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 Nov., Dec., .Tan. 
 
 -2.1 
 
 + 2.1 
 
 + 5.1 
 
 -5.7 
 
 Feb., Mar., Apr. 
 
 -1.4 
 
 + 3.3 
 
 -0.9 
 
 + 3.9 
 
 May, June, July. . . . 
 
 + 5.7 
 
 -1.7 
 
 -2.7 
 
 + 0.2 
 
 Aug., Sept., Oct. 
 
 -2.2 
 
 -3.7 
 
 -1.5 
 
 + 1.6 
 
 April to Sept. 
 
 +2.5 
 
 -1.7 
 
 -2.6 
 
 +0.3 
 
 Oct. to March. 
 
 -2.5 
 
 + 1.7 
 
 +2.5 
 
 -0.3 
 
 variations of the magnetic elements is chiefly 
 above the earth’s surface. 
 
 Magnetic Storms and Perturbations. These 
 are sudden, spasmodic changes in the earth’s 
 magnetic state, of greater or less severity, oc¬ 
 curring quite frequently. They are usually ac¬ 
 companied by displays of polar lights and the 
 generation of electric currents in the earth, suf¬ 
 ficiently strong to interfere seriously with trans¬ 
 mission of telegraphic signals. (See Terres¬ 
 trial Electricity.) During periods of severe 
 magnetic storms, such as occur most frequently 
 near times of maximum sun-spot activity, com¬ 
 passes may be deflected by a whole degree and, 
 at times, by several degrees at places even in me¬ 
 dium latitudes. In the polar regions, during such 
 periods, the compass deflection may be many 
 degrees. Magnetic storms in general have a 
 wide area of action and their effects may be felt 
 all over the earth at nearly the same instant of 
 
 7 g 9 10 11 NOON 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 —— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I— 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o' 
 
 -i' 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -2 
 
 
 1 -1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I r— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 4. Showing the diurnal variation of the magnetic declination at Baldvdn, Kan., in 
 December and August, 1901. 
 
TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 
 
 time. Sometimes, however, there are storms, 
 usually less severe in intensity, which may be 
 more restricted in their area of action, e.g., may 
 make themselves felt only in the sunlit region 
 of the globe. 
 
 Corresponding Solar and Terrestrial-Mag¬ 
 netic Changes. It has been known for many 
 years that there are changes in the earth’s mag¬ 
 netism which run an approximately parallel 
 course with changes in the sun’s activity, as in¬ 
 dicated, e.g., by sun spottedness. In general, 
 it is found that the ranges of the diurnal 
 changes of the magnetic elements are larger, and 
 magnetic storms are more frequent and more 
 severe during the period of maximum sun-spot 
 development than during the period of minimum 
 development. The magnetic and solar changes 
 here discussed follow approximately the same 
 periods, of which the so-called sun-spot period, 
 11.4 years, is the chief one; subordinate periods 
 of about 22 and 70 years are also indicated. 
 The correspondence between these magnetic and 
 solar changes is, however, not exact, either as 
 regards time of occurrence or as to magnitude. 
 The epoch of minimum sun-spot activity oc¬ 
 curred recently in 1913, while the epoch of 
 minimum magnetic activity of the earth had 
 taken place the year before. Thus we cannot 
 predict from an observed group of sun spots the 
 precise time and severity of a magnetic storm 
 on the earth. 
 
 There appears to be some correspondence be¬ 
 tween certain magnetic changes and changes in 
 the solar radiation, as shown by the solar-con¬ 
 stant values observed by the Smithsonian In¬ 
 stitution at Mount Wilson, Cal., 1905-15. 
 Neither sun-spot numbers, sun-spot areas, cal¬ 
 cium flocculi, solar protuberances, nor solar- 
 constant values, however, may be regarded as 
 fully indicative of the character or magnitude 
 of the agencies responsible directly, or indirectly, 
 for the magnetic changes. It seems probable 
 that the latter are initiated by such solar 
 radiations and emissions (ultra-violet rays, 
 electrically charged particles, etc.), which may 
 ionize the upper atmospheric levels (see Ter¬ 
 restrial Electricity) and thus cause an alter¬ 
 ation in the electric conductivity at these levels. 
 The changes in conductivity in turn may be re¬ 
 sponsible, in conjunction with the energy of the 
 earth’s rotation, for the magnetic fluctuations 
 and magnetic storms associated apparently with 
 solar changes. 
 
 Minor Magnetic Fluctuations. Chief among 
 these is the lunar-diurnal variation, having 
 as a period the lunar day, and characterized 
 chiefly by a double oscillation, during 24 hours, 
 like the earth’s tides. The range from crest 
 to trough of a single oscillation is usually less 
 than one minute of arc. There is also a mag¬ 
 netic fluctuation dependent upon the moon’s 
 declination and phase. Some investigators also 
 believed that they had detected with certainty 
 a small terrestrial-magnetic fluctuation having 
 the sun’s rotation as period. The more sensi¬ 
 tive the recording instrument, the more evi¬ 
 dence is furnished that the earth’s magnetic 
 state is in continual flutter. Some of the ele¬ 
 mental fluctuations have an amplitude of only 
 a fraction of a minute of arc, or of 0.00001 
 part of the horizontal intensity, and a period 
 ranging from a fraction of a second to a frac¬ 
 tion of a minute. There are also often shown 
 on recording instruments, even of ordinary sen¬ 
 sitiveness, more or less rhythmic fluctuations 
 Vol. XXII.—9 
 
 TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 
 
 (pulsations) of small amplitude, lasting at 
 times several hours. 
 
 Local Disturbances. There are a number of 
 places, distributed over the earth, where, be¬ 
 cause of local deposits of substances affecting 
 the magnetic needle, the magnetic elements have 
 abnormal values. These local centres of at¬ 
 traction are at times sufficiently intense to cause 
 a compass to point to them and a dipping needle 
 to stand vertical, just as it would at the mag¬ 
 netic poles. Such centres may deflect compasses 
 on board ships several miles away, and cause 
 shipwreck, if the mariner fails to make proper 
 allowance. These phenomena indicate interest¬ 
 ing correlations between geological formations 
 and regional disturbances in the earth’s mag¬ 
 netic field. Consult Rucker and Thorpe’s “Mag¬ 
 netic Survey of the British Isles for 1891,” vol. 
 clxxxviii, Series A, Philosophical Transactions of 
 the Royal Society, London, 1896. 
 
 Instruments and Methods. The limits of 
 this article will not permit detailed descriptions 
 of the most modern instruments used in land 
 and ocean magnetic surveys and at magnetic 
 observatories, nor will it be possible to enter into 
 the latest methods of observation. It must suf¬ 
 fice to refer the interested reader to the articles 
 Magnetograph, Magnetometer, Declinometer, 
 Dip Circle, Compass, and to the references 
 given below. 
 
 Solar and Planetary Magnetism. In 1913 
 it was shown by Hale, of the Mount Wilson 
 Solar Observatory, that the sun, like the earth, 
 is enveloped by a magnetic field. The sun’s 
 north magnetic pole is near the sun’s true north 
 pole, just as is the earth’s north magnetic pole 
 near its true north pole, hence the polarity of 
 the sun’s magnetic field is the same as that of 
 the earth. The strength of the solar field, at the 
 magnetic poles, is about 80 times that of the 
 earth’s at its poles, which is about 0.65 C. G. S. 
 unit. If the sun at a temperature so high 
 that no substance, as far as we know, could be 
 in a magnetic state, nevertheless possesses a 
 magnetic field, the question arises as to what 
 common cause could give rise to a magnetic 
 field for a hot body, like the sun, and a com¬ 
 paratively cold body, like the earth. The query 
 first raised by Schuster as to whether every 
 large mass rotating with sufficient speed may not 
 be a magnet is one receiving at present much 
 serious attention. If size, density, and angular 
 velocity are sufficient requisites, then there is 
 no reason why every one of our planets, or 
 celestial bodies, may not also be endowed each 
 with a magnetic field. And it may thus tran¬ 
 spire that the interacting magnetic effects of the 
 members of our solar system cannot be neg¬ 
 lected in astronomy of precision. Even now 
 astronomers are seeking some magnetic cause 
 to account for outstanding motions in the moon, 
 Venus, Mercury, and the sun, which cannot be 
 explained on the gravitation theory alone. 
 
 Origiii of the Earth’s Magnetism. If it 
 should be found possible to prove the existence 
 of a magnetic field for another rotating body, 
 like Jupiter, e.g., then the belief would be greatly 
 strengthened that rotation of a large mass is 
 the chief cause for the observed magnetic field. 
 Unfortunately, the proof as to rotation being the 
 chief cause appears to be beyond present labora¬ 
 tory appliances. There are various facts which 
 point strongly to rotation as being the chief 
 agency involved in the production of the mag¬ 
 netic fields of the earth and of the sun. 
 
TERRIER, 
 
 TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURE 
 
 Bibliography. Bauer, Principal Facts of the 
 Earth’s Magnetism (Washington, 1902) ; Haz¬ 
 ard, Directions for Magnetic Measurements (ib., 
 1911); Mascart, Magnetisme terrestre (Paris, 
 1900) ; Chree, Studies in Terrestrial Magnetism 
 (London, 1912) ; Nippoldt, Erdmagnetismus, 
 Erdstrom und Polarlicht (Berlin, 1912) ; Journal 
 of Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Elec¬ 
 tricity (Baltimore, Md., annual) ; Reports of 
 the Division of Terrestrial Magnetism, United 
 States Coast and Geodetic Survey (Washington) ; 
 also “Researches of the Department of Terres¬ 
 trial Magnetism,” in Carnegie Institution of 
 Washington, Publication Ao. 175 (2 vols.) ; these 
 two volumes describe latest instruments and 
 methods of observation and give results of land 
 magnetic observations in all parts of the earth 
 (1905-13). See Electricity ; Magnetism ; Ter¬ 
 restrial Electricity. 
 
 TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURE. See 
 
 Temperature, Terrestrial. 
 
 TERRIER (OF. terrier, from ML. terrarius, 
 from Lat. terra, earth, land, so called from its 
 scratching the ground in pursuit of prey). A 
 small active domestic dog, used to catch rats. 
 Sixteen distinct breeds are officially recognized, 
 several having two subvarieties—rough-haired 
 and smooth. The earliest authentic mention of 
 the terrier is by Dr. Caius, who wrote a Latin 
 treatise on the dog before 1572. He enumerates 
 among the British dogs “the terrare” described 
 as a hunter of the fox and badger. This breed 
 was what is now called a fox terrier, at that 
 time black-and-tan, or pied with white or yel¬ 
 low, of which a large and a small variety were 
 bred. The larger variety became a rough-haired, 
 strong animal, the foundation stock of the Eng¬ 
 lish white terrier. This breed, crossed with the 
 bulldog, produced the bull terrier, a dog of 
 infinite courage, out of which, however, all other 
 bulldog characteristics have been eliminated. 
 The fox terrier was gradually degraded into a 
 fighting dog, and so lost caste that it became 
 nearly extinct, but was revived about 1865, and 
 became the most popular of all terriers as a 
 house pet as well as useful about the stable. 
 While in one direction all the color was being 
 bred out of the original terrier to produce the 
 white dog, in another direction all the white was 
 being eliminated to produce the pure black-and- 
 tan, until that race was perfected. From the 
 smaller specimens of this breed came, by selec¬ 
 tion, the toy black-and-tan weighing as little as 
 three pounds. The Welsh terrier is a large wire- 
 haired black-and-tan; the Irish terrier is a 
 wire-haired yellow variety, claimed to be in¬ 
 digenous and of the highest antiquity. The 
 Bedlington is a wire-haired variety supposed to 
 be a cross between the low-legged, wire-haired 
 Dandie Dinmont and the otter hound, but it 
 much more strikingly resembles the Irish water 
 dog. The Airedale is a cross of the rough-haired 
 English terrier with the otter hound; and the 
 Boston terrier is a cross of a smooth-coated ter¬ 
 rier with the bulldog. 
 
 In contrast to the above group of long-legged, 
 short-bodied, up-standing dogs, with either rough 
 or smooth coats, are the long-bodied, short-legged 
 dogs, with a long and silky covering. This lat¬ 
 ter group were originally developed in northern 
 Scotland. They are the Scotch, a rough wire- 
 haired variety; the Dandie Dinmont with a 
 woollier coat; and the Skyes and Clydesdales with 
 long silky coats. The Yorkshire is the only 
 English specimen of the low-bodied, silky-haired 
 
 terrier. Japan boasts the shan-tung, which is 
 almost indistinguishable from the Skye; and the 
 Maltese terrier, named from the island, has a 
 coat as long and silky as a Blenheim spaniel. 
 
 The characteristics of standard varieties are 
 as follows: The fox terrier is generally lively 
 and of active appearance, with bone and strength 
 in small compass, capable of speed and endur¬ 
 ance, and weighing about 20 pounds. The head 
 must be broad between the ears and decreasing 
 in width to the eyes; nose tapering and black; 
 ears V-shaped and drooping forward close to the 
 cheek; jaws strong and muscular; legs straight 
 and strong. The coat of the smooth variety is 
 flat and abundant; of the wire-haired, hard, 
 wiry, and broken. The tail, usually docked, 
 is set on high and carried gayly, but not over the 
 back. The bull terrier is a short-haired terrier, 
 weighing from 15 to 50 pounds, of perfect 
 symmetry, the embodiment of agility, grace, and 
 determination. An all-white coat is most ap¬ 
 proved, but the American standard permits 
 markings. The tail is left uncropped; in Amer¬ 
 ica cropping of the ears is permitted by the 
 standard, but not in England. The black-and- 
 tan is judged in three classes not exceeding 7 
 pounds, 16 pounds, and 20 pounds respectively. 
 He is a typical terrier, jet black, marked with 
 deep tan as follows: On the head the muzzle 
 must be tanned to the nose, which is black; a 
 bright spot of tan on each cheek, and above each 
 eye; chin, throat, and inside of the ears, and 
 the forelegs up to the knees are tan, with black 
 lines up each toe, and a black thumb mark above 
 the foot inside the hind legs. The Welsh ter¬ 
 rier is a wire-haired variety, black or grizzle 
 and tan in color. They are 15 inches high at the 
 shoulder and 20 pounds in weight. The Irish 
 terrier is a wire-haired variety, whole-colored, 
 bright red or wheaten yellow, weighing 24 
 pounds, active, lively, and lithe—a gamy dog, 
 but with the kindest disposition. The Bedling¬ 
 ton is a rough-looking, loosely built dog, with 
 the least general expression of the true terrier. 
 He is 15 to 16 inches high and weighs 24 pounds. 
 His coat is shaggy and usually dark blue. The 
 Airedale, the latest and largest variety, weigh¬ 
 ing 40 to 45 pounds, is a wire-haired dog, with 
 crown, back, and sides black, and face, throat, 
 and limbs tan; the tail is docked, and the aspect 
 square, trim, and powerful. The Boston terrier 
 is a. pet dog of recent creation, which is as 
 much bulldog as terrier, but has lost the 
 wrinkled face and bowed legs of the former, while 
 retaining its brindled markings and screw tail. 
 It weighs 15 to 30 pounds, and is judged in two 
 classes, large and small. The Scotch terrier is 
 a long-barreled, bow-legged, rough-haired dog, 
 weighing from 18 to 20 pounds, with prick ears, 
 and tail carried straight up. This dog has a 
 very sharp, bright, and active expression. His 
 coat is intensely hard and wiry, dense all over 
 his body, and iron gray, grizzly, or black in color, 
 though sometimes sandy. His feet are large, 
 with strong claws, and he is most capable in un¬ 
 earthing vermin. The Dandie Dinmont is from 
 8 to 11 inches high, weighs from 14 to 24 pounds, 
 and has a mixed coat of hard and soft hair, and 
 a salt-and-pepper color. His ears are long and 
 pendulous. The Skye terrier, a good vermin dog, 
 and built low and long (from 8 y 2 to 10 inches 
 high and 22 y 2 inches long), has two coats, the 
 under one short, close, soft, and woolly, the top 
 one 5% inches long, hard, straight, flat, and free 
 from crisp or curl. The ears and tail are 
 
TERRISS 
 
 125 
 
 feathered with long soft hair and the tail is 
 never carried higher than the line of the back. 
 In color it is usually a light blue, gray, or fawn. 
 The Clydesdale, or Paisley, is practically a little 
 Skye with smaller ears, set high and perfectly 
 erect. It is covered with long silky hair, hang¬ 
 ing in a fringe down the side of the head. The 
 Yorkshire is also practically a smaller Skye, 
 with a more silky coat. He is judged in two 
 classes, one under 5 pounds and another from 
 5 to 12 pounds. The Maltese was the lap dog 
 of the Greeks and Romans of the classic period— 
 a small, short-legged dog, not exceeding 6 pounds 
 in weight, with pure white, rather transparent 
 wavy hair, not less than 7 inches long. It is 
 called terrier by its devotees, but it might as 
 reasonably be called a spaniel or toy dog. It 
 has almost if not entirely disappeared from 
 Malta. See Dog and references there given. 
 
 TER'RISS, William (1847-97). An English 
 actor, whose true name was William Lewin. 
 Born in London, he studied medicine at Christ’s 
 Hospital in that city, later was in the merchant 
 service, and after various adventures made his 
 first appearance as an actor at Birmingham in 
 1867. Immediately successful, lie appeared in 
 the London theatres in the following year as 
 Lord Cloudrays in Robertson’s Society, a*nd sub¬ 
 sequently as Squire Thornhill in Wills’s Olivia 
 (1878); Chateau-Renaud in The Corsican 
 Brothers (1880) ; and in Shakespearean roles. He 
 made an American tour with Sir Henry Irving 
 in 1883, and one with Miss Millward in 1889. 
 He was assassinated by a madman. His daugh¬ 
 ter, Ellaline Terriss, also became well known 
 as an actress, playing with her husband, Seymour 
 Hicks (q.v.). Consult Arthur J. Smythe, The 
 Life of William Terriss (London, 1898). 
 
 TER'RITO'RIAL WATERS. Waters which 
 are subject to the jurisdiction of a sovereign 
 state as distinguished from the high seas (q.v.). 
 They may be divided into waters lying within 
 the state, waters which are boundaries between 
 states, and waters upon the coast. The law 
 in regard to the first two classes may be definitely 
 stated and is settled. Waters lying within a 
 particular state are subject only to the jurisdic¬ 
 tion of that state. When, however, they are the 
 means of communication between two portions 
 of the high seas, such as straits, the Dardanelles, 
 the Bosporus, the Suez and the Panama canals 
 (qq.v.), the regulation of navigation is usually 
 fixed by treaties, but is governed by the prin¬ 
 ciple of international law that they are to be 
 used by all nations for the innocent passage of 
 vessels not of war. Treaties and this principle 
 of international law also govern waters which 
 are within the territory of a particular nation, 
 but which are outlets to the sea, such as the 
 rivers Rhine, St. Lawrence, and the Amazon. 
 In the United States each State exercises juris¬ 
 diction over waters lying wholly within the 
 State, unless they form part of the system of 
 interstate waterwavs, in which case they are 
 subject to the control of the Federal govern¬ 
 ment under the power granted by the constitu¬ 
 tion. Over waters which are boundaries be¬ 
 tween two sovereign states, such as lakes, rivers, 
 and narrow bodies of water, jurisdiction is fixed 
 by treaties and is now settled. An imaginary 
 line drawn through the centre of such bodies of 
 water is usually the limit of jurisdiction. Ter¬ 
 ritorial waters on the coast are not clearly de¬ 
 fined. The question which most frequently 
 arises is the point on the high seas to which 
 
 TERRITORIAL WATERS 
 
 jurisdiction of a state extends. The former 
 theory of international law was that the juris¬ 
 diction extended for three miles from low-water 
 mark. This strip along the coast is what is 
 known as the maritime belt, and the theory on 
 which jurisdiction is recognized was based on 
 the cannon shot of the period, but the changed 
 condition of warfare may modify the extent 
 of this territorial jurisdiction. For revenue 
 purposes, for the protection of special industries, 
 such as fishing and other reasons, various limits 
 beyond the three-mile line have been claimed and 
 acknowledged from time to time; e.g., such 
 questions have arisen as to the status of the 
 Bay of Fundy, the bays in Alaska, in the Bering 
 Sea controversy (q.v.). The general rule is 
 that arms of the sea which are not more than 
 10 miles apart are territorial waters. Claims 
 have been made both by the United States and 
 Great Britain of control over bodies of water 
 with larger openings. The Hague Convention 
 of 1882 adopted 10 miles between headland and 
 headland as the limit. The House of Lords de¬ 
 cided that Conception Bay, Newfoundland, was 
 territorial water, although the headlands were 
 20 miles apart. Chesapeake Bay with head¬ 
 lands of 12 miles apart is conceded to be ter¬ 
 ritorial water. The Hague Convention of 1907 
 confirmed the law and practice then existing. 
 Ihe subject was to be considered at the next 
 Hague Conference. The questions involved were 
 to be fisheries, the rights of neutral nations in 
 naval warfare, and the jurisdiction of the state 
 over vessels and acts committed upon vessels 
 within territorial waters. In general, it may be 
 stated that in all territorial waters there is 
 a recognized common right of navigation for all 
 nations and especially to the proprietary nation 
 in time of war. The principle of self-protection 
 is recognized by the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty in 
 regard to the Panama Canal, and it is to the in¬ 
 terest of all nations to provide the utmost 
 liberty of navigation. A state has always the 
 right to refuse access to armed vessels of other 
 states. Where the coastal line is indented the 
 question arises as to how far bays and other 
 large bodies of water may be considered within 
 the territory of a particular sovereignty. The 
 nature of the sovereignty does not mean owner¬ 
 ship, but it is a right of jurisdiction limited to 
 the protection of its coast from the effect of 
 hostilities between other belligerent states, the 
 regulation of fisheries and the prevention of 
 frauds upon the customs and its laws. The 
 authority of a sovereign state cannot extend 
 beyond its boundaries. Its boundary is not the 
 high seas (q.v.), but for purposes of inter¬ 
 national law is considered as including the 
 maritime belt. It may prevent ships approach¬ 
 ing with intent to violate its laws. The exclu¬ 
 sive jurisdiction is both civil and criminal over 
 vessels within territorial waters, although con¬ 
 current jurisdiction is sometimes given by con¬ 
 vention to the state owning the vessel over 
 criminal acts committed on foreign vessels in 
 such waters. It is in consequence of this 
 principle of law that during the Great War 
 vessels of belligerent nations have sought the 
 protection of the harbors and ports of the United 
 States. Such vessels are subject to the juris¬ 
 diction of the United States. On the same prin¬ 
 ciple American vessels which have entered the 
 territorial waters of foreign nations are sub¬ 
 ject to the jurisdiction of those nations. The 
 law of nations requires every national govern- 
 
TERRITORIES 
 
 126 
 
 TERRY 
 
 ment to use due diligence to prevent a wrong 
 being done within its own territory to any other 
 nation with which it is at peace. The distinc¬ 
 tion is made between merchant ships and ships 
 of war. A foreign ship of war or any prize of 
 hers within a port of the L nited States is not 
 subject to local jurisdiction, but a prisoner on 
 board such vessel may be released on habeas 
 corpus issued by the courts of the United States. 
 This, however, is on the ground of international 
 comity and is usually regulated by treaty. The 
 laws of one country are sometimes administered 
 in the territory of another, as in certain estab¬ 
 lished ports in eastern countries known as con¬ 
 sular courts. Consult J. B. Moore, International 
 Arbitration (6 vols., ib., 1898) ; F. Wharton, 
 Digest of International Law of the United States 
 (2d ed., 3 vols., Washington, 1887); L. Op- 
 penheim, International Law (2 vols., London, 
 1905-06) ; R. de Villeneuve, De la determination 
 de la ligne separative des eaux nationales et de 
 la mer territoriale (Paris, 1914). See Mare 
 Clausum. 
 
 TERRITORIES ( OF. territorie , Fr. terri- 
 toire, from Lat. territorium , district, from terra , 
 earth, land). The name given in the United 
 States to certain parts of the national domain 
 which have not been erected into States. In 
 1916 they were the District of Columbia, and 
 Alaska on the continent, Porto Rico in the West 
 Indies, and Hawaii, the Samoan Islands, Guam, 
 and the Philippine Islands in the Pacific. They 
 may be classified, under their present status as 
 political bodies, as (1) unorganized Territories; 
 (2) the Federal District; and (3) the insular 
 possessions. In the first class belongs Alaska. 
 Hawaii among the insular possessions has a 
 popularly elected local Legislature of two cham- 
 bers chosen for a term of two years by a suf¬ 
 frage determined by local law. This legislative 
 power extends to all rightful subjects not incon¬ 
 sistent with the Constitution and laws of the 
 United States, but any law passed is subject 
 to the veto of Congress. The executive power 
 is vested in governors appointed for a term 
 of four years by the President of the United 
 States with the consent of the Senate. The 
 other important officers of the Territory are 
 likewise appointed by the President and are paid 
 from the Treasury of the United States. The 
 Territories are not regularly represented in Con¬ 
 gress, but are allowed to send a delegate, who is 
 given a seat in the House of Representatives with 
 a right to take part in the debates, but not to 
 vote. For the Government of Alaska, the Dis¬ 
 trict of Columbia, Porto Rico, the Samoan Is¬ 
 lands and the Philippine Islands, see separate 
 articles under these titles. 
 
 By the United States Constitution the national 
 Congress is given power “to make all needful 
 rules and regulations respecting the territory 
 or other property belonging to the United 
 States.” From the beginning this clause was 
 construed as giving the powers incident to juris¬ 
 diction as well as to ownership, and even before 
 the adoption of the Constitution the Northwest 
 Territory was regularly organized by. the old 
 Confederation Congress, which for this purpose 
 passed the famous Ordinance of 1787. (See 
 Northwest Territories.) This ordinance served 
 as the model for much of the subsequent legis¬ 
 lation in the same field, though there were a 
 number of important variations. Thus, in the 
 organization of the Territories of Tennessee and 
 Mississippi the clause of the Ordinance of 1787 
 
 prohibiting slavery was omitted. Of the present 
 States of the United States all, except the origi¬ 
 nal 13 and Vermont, Maine, Kentucky, V est 
 Virginia, Texas, and California, have passed 
 through the Territorial stage. Vermont, Ken¬ 
 tucky, Maine, and West Virginia were each 
 formed out of territory which belonged to one 
 of the original 13 States, and Texas and Cali¬ 
 fornia were regularly admitted to statehood 
 without ever having been organized as Terri¬ 
 tories. The size of many of the Territories, 
 however, differed widely from the size of the 
 States which bear the same names, and there 
 has been a radical changing of boundaries. Thus 
 the Territory of Mississippi originally included 
 Alabama; the Territory of Indiana as organized 
 in 1804 contained all of the Northwest Terri¬ 
 tory except Ohio; the Territory of Illinois as 
 organized in 1809 included the land now consti¬ 
 tuting the States of Illinois and Wisconsin, and 
 part of Upper Michigan; the Territory of Mich¬ 
 igan after 1834 included all of the territory 
 north of Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, 
 and between Lakes Erie and Huron and the Mis¬ 
 souri River; the Territory of Oregon as organ¬ 
 ized in 1848 covered all the territory of the 
 United States north of lat. 42° N., and west 
 of the Rocky Mountains; Nebraska Territory as 
 organized in 1854 contained land now in Mon¬ 
 tana, the Dakotas, Wyoming, and Colorado. 
 
 The Territorial stage is one of preparation 
 for the Commonwealth status. The Constitu¬ 
 tion empowers Congress to erect the Territories 
 into States and admit them into the Union 
 whenever it sees fit. Usually when the Terri¬ 
 tory has a population equal to that of an aver¬ 
 age congressional district the inhabitants me¬ 
 morialize Congress to pass an “enabling act” 
 empowering them to form a constitution, and 
 prescribing the conditions to be fulfilled. In 
 a number of instances, however, the inhabitants 
 without asking for an enabling act have adopted 
 a constitution and then applied for admission 
 to the Union. As the language of the Consti¬ 
 tution is not mandatory, but permissive, the 
 question has arisen as to whether Congress in 
 admitting new States may impose such conditions 
 as it chooses, especially if such conditions were 
 not imposed upon the original States. This was 
 the main question in the Missouri Compromise 
 (q.v.) controversy, since which time Congress 
 has admitted many new States under conditions 
 which were not imposed upon the old States. 
 
 After the Spanish-American War the exact 
 status of Territories as compared with the na¬ 
 tional government and the rights and duties of 
 the national government with regard to Terri¬ 
 tories again came into controversy. In 1901, 
 however, in the Insular Cases, the United States 
 Supreme Court decided that Congress may freely 
 determine when new Territories are to be in¬ 
 corporated into the Union, can create such forms 
 of government as it sees fit for regions outside 
 the limits of the States, and legislate differently 
 for different parts of the national domain. 
 
 TERRITORIES OE FRENCH SUDAN. 
 See Military Territories of French Sudan. 
 
 TERROR, Mount. See Erebus and Terror. 
 
 TERROR, Reign of. See French Revolution. 
 
 TER'RY, Alfred Howe (1827-90). An 
 American soldier, born at Hartford, Conn. He 
 studied at the Yale Law School, was admitted to 
 the bar in 1849, and in 1854 was appointed 
 Clerk of the Superior Court of Connecticut. He 
 was a colonel in the State National Guard from 
 
TERRY 
 
 127 
 
 TERRY 
 
 1854 until May, 1861, when he and his regiment 
 entered the service of the Federal government. 
 He participated in the first battle of Bull Bun, 
 was mustered out the following month, and in 
 September reentered the service as colonel of the 
 Seventh Connecticut Infantry. From that time 
 until April, 1864, he was engaged in the mili¬ 
 tary operations along the South Atlantic coast. 
 He was promoted to the rank of brigadier 
 general of volunteers in 1862, and in 1864 he 
 was given command of the Tenth Corps of the 
 Army of the James. In January, 1865, he com¬ 
 manded the second, and successful, Fort Fisher 
 expedition. (See Fort Fisher.) Soon after¬ 
 ward he occupied the city of Wilmington, N. C., 
 which had been the last refuge of the blockade 
 runners. For his services he was commissioned 
 major general of volunteers, and brigadier gen¬ 
 eral and brevet major general in the regular 
 army. From June, 1865, to August, 1866, he 
 commanded the Department of Virginia. He 
 was then placed in command of the Department 
 of Dakota, and in 1876 he commanded the main 
 column which drove Sitting Bull and his fol¬ 
 lowers into Canada after the massacre on the 
 Little Big Horn. Later he commanded the De¬ 
 partment of the South and the Military Division 
 of Missouri. He retired in 1888. 
 
 TERRY, Benjamin (1857- ). An Amer¬ 
 
 ican historian, born at St. Paul, Minn. He grad¬ 
 uated from Colgate University in 1878, studied 
 at Hamilton and Rochester theological semi¬ 
 naries, and for several years was a Baptist 
 minister. He was professor of history at Col¬ 
 gate from 1885 to 1892, when he received the 
 degree of Pli.D. at Freiburg and accepted the 
 chair of English history at the University of 
 Chicago. His writings include: A History of 
 England from Earliest Times to Death of Vic¬ 
 toria (1901), a standard work; A History of 
 England for Schools (1903); and articles in 
 periodicals. 
 
 TERRY, Charles Sanford (1864- ). A 
 
 British historian. He graduated at Clare Col¬ 
 lege, Cambridge (B.A., 1886; M.A., 1890), and 
 taught at several institutions successively, be¬ 
 coming lecturer in history at Aberdeen in 1898 
 and professor there in 1903. He published Life 
 and Campaigns of Alexander Leslie , First Earl of 
 Leven (1899); The Rising of 17J/5 (1900; new 
 ed., 1915) ; The Chevalier de St. George (1901) ; 
 The Cromwellian Union (1902) ; The Young Pre¬ 
 tender (1903); John Graham of Claverhouse 
 (1905); The Scottish Parliament (1906); 
 Craig’s De Unione (1909), a translation, with 
 notes; and A Short History of Europe (3 vols., 
 1911-15) ; and German Sea Power and The 
 Growth of Germany’s Navy, in “Oxford War 
 Pamphlets” (1915). 
 
 TERRY, Edward O’Connor (1844-1912). 
 An English comedian and manager. He was 
 born in London, and began his career upon the 
 stage in 1863 in Hampshire.. In 1867 he made 
 his appearance in London at the Surrey Theatre. 
 Then followed successful engagements at the 
 Strand (1869) and Gaiety (1876) theatres, among 
 his characters being Paul Pry, Little Don Csesar 
 de Bazan, and Bluebeard. In 1886 he presented 
 at the Olympic Theatre his comedy of The 
 Churchwarden. He opened Terry’s Theatre in 
 October, 1887, and there, a few months later, 
 produced Sweet Lavender, himself playing Dick 
 Phenyl; in this role he gave 670 performances. 
 In 1892 he revived The Magistrate. In the sea¬ 
 son of 1897-98 he appeared in The White Knight. 
 
 Terry traveled all over the world. He was much 
 interested in actors’ benefit societies. 
 
 TERRY, Ellen (Alice) (1848- ). An 
 
 English actress. She was born at Coventry, 
 daughter of Benjamin and Sarah Terry, actors 
 whose talent was inherited by five children. 
 Her first appearance on the stage was as the 
 boy Mamillius in Charles Kean’s revival of 
 A Winter’s Tale, at the Princess’s Theatre in 
 1856. In March, 1863, Miss Terry made her 
 appearance at the Haymarket in London, but 
 after her marriage in 1864 to the painter G. F. 
 Watts, she retired temporarily from the stage. 
 She was later married to Charles Kelly, and 
 in 1907 to James Carew, both actors. In 1875 
 she joined the Bancrofts at the Prince of Wales’s 
 Theatre, where she acted the part of Portia, and 
 in 1876 she played at the Court with John Hare, 
 in Lord Lytton’s The House of Darnley. Early 
 in 1878 she had a great success in Wills’s Olivia 
 at the Court. At the end of the same year she 
 began her long association (24 years) with 
 Henry (later Sir Henry) Irving (q.v.) at the 
 Lyceum, as Ophelia to his Hamlet. Earlier, 
 however, she had played with him in The Tam¬ 
 ing of the Shrew. Her most notable roles dur¬ 
 ing this period were: Portia in The Merchant of 
 Venice (1879), probably the most famous of all; 
 Camma in Tennyson’s The Cup (1881); Juliet 
 (1882); Viola in Tivelfth Night (1884); Mar¬ 
 guerite in Faust (1885) ; Fair Rosamond in 
 Tennyson’s Bechet (1893); Madame Sans-Gene 
 in a Sardou adaptation (1897) ; and Clarissa in 
 Robespierre (1899). Miss Terry’s leading place 
 among English actresses became undisputed. 
 Her later roles included: Mistress Page in The 
 Merry Wives of Windsor (1902); Alice Grey 
 in Barrie’s Alice Sit-by-the-Fire (1905); Lady 
 Cecily Waynflete in Shaw’s Captain Brass- 
 bound’s Conversion (1906); Hermione in A 
 Winter’s Tale (1906). At various times Miss 
 Terry lectured on Shakespeare’s heroines, with 
 impersonations. In 1915, for this purpose, she 
 visited the United States. Her first visit to 
 America as an actress had been made with Irv¬ 
 ing in 1883, when she won a welcome that was 
 repeated on eight subsequent occasions. A 
 jubilee performance was held in her honor at 
 Drury Lane, London, in June, 1906. In 1913 
 she published The Russian Ballet. Consult, first 
 of all, Miss Terry’s own Story of my Life (New 
 York, 1908) ; also William Winter, Shadows of 
 the Stage (ib., 1892) ; Hiatt, Ellen Terry and 
 her Impersonations (London, 1898) ; Clement 
 Scott, The Drama of Yesterday and To-day 
 (ib., 1899) ; id., Ellen Terry (New York, 1900) ; 
 T. E. Pemberton, Ellen Terry and her Sisters 
 (ib., 1902). See Terry, Fred; Terry, Phyllis 
 Neilson; Craig, Edward Gordon. 
 
 TERRY, Fred (1863- ). An English 
 
 actor manager, brother of Ellen Terry. He was 
 born in London, and married Julia Neilson 
 (q.v.). His first stage appearance was at the 
 Haymarket in 1880. During his career he played 
 in all the principal cities of the United King¬ 
 dom, the United States, and Canada. For many 
 years he was in the companies of noted actors. 
 In 1900, with his wife, he assumed the manage¬ 
 ment of the Haymarket, and in 1915 of the 
 Strand. He played at the New Theatre, Lon¬ 
 don, part of each year between 1905 and 1912. 
 For his daughter, see Terry, Phyllis Neilson. 
 
 TERRY, Milton Spenser (1840-1914). An 
 American Methodist Episcopal minister, educa¬ 
 tor, and author. He was born at Coeymans, 
 
TERRY 
 
 128 
 
 TERTIARY SYSTEM 
 
 N. Y., and was educated at Troy University 
 and at Yale Divinity School. Between 1863 
 and 1884 he was pastor of churches near New 
 York City. He became professor of Christian 
 doctrine in the Garrett Biblical Institute, Evans¬ 
 ton, Ill., in 1885. He published, besides several 
 Bible commentaries: Biblical Hermeneutics 
 (1883); Sibylline Oracles (1890); The New 
 Apologetic (1897); Biblical Apocalyptics 
 (1898); Moses and the Prophets (1901); The 
 New and Living Way (1902); The Mediation 
 of Jesus Christ (1903); The Primer of Chris¬ 
 tian Doctrines (1906); Biblical Dogmatics 
 (1907) ; The Shinto Cult (1910) ; Baccalaureate 
 Sermons and Addresses (1914). 
 
 TERRY, Phyllis Neilson (1892- ). 
 
 An English actress, daughter of Julia Neilson 
 and Fred Terry (qq.v.). She was born in Lon¬ 
 don, made her first stage appearance in Henry 
 of Navarre (1909), and played Viola in Twelfth 
 Night at the Haymarket in 1910. Subsequently 
 she appeared in the leading roles of other 
 Shakespearean plays and in a revival of London 
 Assurance (1913). She had great success in 
 New York in 1915 in an all-star revival of 
 Trilby, taking the title role. 
 
 TERSCHELLING, ter-sKePlmg. One of the 
 West Friesian Islands, in the North Sea, belong¬ 
 ing to the Province of North Holland, Nether¬ 
 lands (Map: Netherlands, D 1). Area, about 
 42 square miles. Pop., 1899, 3929; 1909, 4124. 
 
 TERSTEEGEN, ter'sta-gen, Geriiabd (1697- 
 1769). A German mystic, noted as a hymn 
 writer. He was born at Mors, was too poor to 
 study theology, and thus remained a ribbon 
 weaver till 1728, after which he devoted himself 
 entirely to religious writing. After his conver¬ 
 sion he practiced great self-denial in order to 
 get means to help the poor.. His religious ideas 
 are like those of Angelus Silesius and Poiret, 
 but the cast of his theology is Reformed. Be¬ 
 sides his Letters (1773-75), he wrote Geistliches 
 Blumengdrtlein (1729; new ed., 1905) ; Lebens- 
 beschreibungen heiliger Seelen (1733-53); and 
 Geistliohe Brosamen (1769-74). A collected 
 edition of his writings appeared at Stuttgart 
 (1844-45). Consult: Winkworth, Christian 
 Singers of Germany (London, 1869) ; H. E. 
 Govan, Life of Gerhard Tersteegen, ivith Selec¬ 
 tions from his Writings (new ed., ib., 1902) ; 
 John Julian, Dictionary of Hymnology (rev. ed., 
 New York, 1907). 
 
 TERTIAN (ter'shan) FEVER. See Ma¬ 
 laria. 
 
 TER'TIARY (Lat. tertiarius, one of the 
 third rank, i.e., after the male and female mem¬ 
 bers strictly belonging to an order, from tertius, 
 third). A class in the Roman Catholic church, 
 who, without entering into the seclusion of a 
 monastery, aspire to practice as far as possible 
 in ordinary life the counsels of perfection laid 
 down in the gospel. It reached full develop¬ 
 ment under the organizations founded by St. 
 Francis and St. Dominic. The rules for ter- 
 tiaries were made public in 1221. The intend¬ 
 ing members must restore ill-gotten goods, must 
 renounce evil practices, and abandon feuds with 
 their neighbors. Wives cannot be received with¬ 
 out the consent of their husbands. The obliga¬ 
 tion of a tertiary, once accepted, is irrevocable, 
 unless the party should be released, or should 
 enter into a more strict religious life. The 
 members are required to renounce luxury; they 
 must frequent the sacraments; hear mass, if 
 possible, daily; observe the fasts, as well as 
 
 certain special austerities; and cultivate char¬ 
 ity towards all. None of these obligations were 
 supposed to bind the members under pain of 
 mortal sin. Consult Adderly and Marson, Third 
 Orders (Oxford, 1902). 
 
 TERTIARY SYSTEM. A term applied in 
 geology to the group of rocks included between 
 the Cretaceous and Quaternary systems. It is 
 one of the two periods constituting the Ceno- 
 zoic era, the Quaternary being the other period. 
 The term Tertiary was first suggested when it 
 was considered that all strata were divisible 
 into three groups, primary, secondary, and ter¬ 
 tiary. The first two have been replaced in most 
 localities by other names, but the third is still 
 used, although not with its original significance. 
 The Tertiary is one of the most interesting 
 periods of geological history, presenting most 
 complete sections and a great abundance of or¬ 
 ganic remains, and yet there has been much dif¬ 
 ficulty in classifying its different members cor¬ 
 rectly. The rocks are mostly unconsolidated and 
 have rarely been laid down over great areas, so 
 that in the United States, alone, there are no 
 less than three or four separate regions of Ter¬ 
 tiary rocks, in each of which a different series 
 of subdivisions has to be adopted. 
 
 Following the European classification, the 
 strata may be divided into four separate series— 
 Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene—in 
 the order of their occurrence. These main series 
 are recognized in all the Tertiary areas of the 
 United States, of which there are four, viz., the 
 Pacific coast, Western interior, Atlantic coast, 
 and Gulf States. The section in the last-men¬ 
 tioned area is taken as the type. 
 
 At the end of the Cretaceous period a great 
 topographic revolution took place in many parts 
 of the world, and at that time the American 
 continent had practically received its present 
 form. The marine Tertiary deposits are found, 
 therefore, chiefly along the borders of the con¬ 
 tinent, while the interior areas are of fresh¬ 
 water formation, or perhaps in part seolian de¬ 
 posits. Many of the highest mountain ranges 
 of the world, such as the Alps, Atlas, Caucasus, 
 and Himalaya, were uplifted in the Tertiary 
 period, their height being due to the fact that 
 they are young geologically and consequently 
 have not suffered greatly from erosive agencies. 
 
 The life of the Tertiary period presents many 
 similarities to that of the present, although 
 modern types had already begun to appear to 
 some extent in the Cretaceous. In early Ter¬ 
 tiary time the climate was very mild over the 
 entire globe, and there was an abundant plant 
 growth far to the north, plants being found in 
 the rocks in many parts of Greenland. A grad¬ 
 ual cooling of the climate followed, until at the 
 end of the Tertiary there began the formation 
 of the great continental glaciers that subse¬ 
 quently spread over so much of the temperate 
 zone. The faunal changes that occurred during 
 this period were in many respects remarkable. 
 Of the smaller animals—the ammonites, belem- 
 nites, and other molluscan types that swarmed 
 in the Cretaceous—few lived in the Tertiary. 
 The great reptiles had also disappeared, but 
 their place was taken by still more gigantic 
 mammals. The fishes, amphibians, and birds 
 closely resembled modern types. 
 
 The Tertiary deposits inclose a variety of 
 economic minerals. In the Cordilleran region 
 many of the metalliferous veins are probably of 
 Tertiary age, as are also some of the bituminous 
 
TERTULLIAN 
 
 129 
 
 TERZA RIMA 
 
 coals and lignites, in this same area, notably in 
 Washington and Oregon. In the Tertiary beds 
 of the Atlantic and Gulf States are many de¬ 
 posits of brick, pottery, and fire clays, while 
 much of the green sand obtained in the Atlantic 
 coastal plain region is of Tertiary age. In 
 Texas deposits of limonite are known in this 
 formation, while in Florida and South Carolina 
 there are great supplies of rock phosphate. 
 Petroleum and asphalt are obtained from the 
 Tertiary deposits of southern California. 
 
 Consult: W. H. Dali, “A Table of North Amer¬ 
 ican Tertiary Horizons,” in United States Geo¬ 
 logical Survey, Eighteenth Annual Report, part 
 ii (Washington, 1898) ; Chamberlin and Salis¬ 
 bury, Geology (New York, 1907-09) ; Archibald 
 Geikie, Text-Book of Geology (4tli ed., 2 vols., 
 ib., 1903). See Eocene Epoch; Geology; Mio¬ 
 cene Epoch; Paleontology; Pliocene Epoch. 
 
 TERTUL'LIAN (Lat. Tertullianus) , Quin¬ 
 tus Septimius Florens (born before 160, died 
 after 220). A Latin Church father, the creator 
 of ecclesiastical Latinity. He was born in Car¬ 
 thage, of heathen parentage, and trained for the 
 profession of the law, which he practiced in 
 Rome. Becoming a convert to Christianity 
 about 197-198, he returned to Carthage, where 
 he was made presbyter and spent the rest of his 
 life. About the year 203 Tertullian became a 
 Montanist, and left the Catholic church about 
 207. He was thenceforth unsparingly severe in 
 his views of ecclesiastical discipline and in his 
 judgments upon the alleged moral laxity of the 
 “psychics,” as he called the members of the 
 Catholic church. No other figure in the early 
 Church stands out so distinctly as does this 
 Carthaginian lawyer priest. His intensity of 
 character, alert intellect, blunt speech, keen 
 satire, dialectical skill, moral strenuousness, 
 and bitter partisanship, all combine to render 
 him a marked personality. It was no doubt 
 largely the result of his training that the ex¬ 
 pression of Tertullian’s views was made in such 
 a form as to imprint upon Western theology a 
 legalistic character which it has never lost. 
 He enjoys the further distinction of being the 
 first to formulate in Latin the principles by 
 which Catholic orthodoxy could infallibly be 
 known. His Prescription of Heretics, for the 
 clearness with which it enunciates these prin¬ 
 ciples, has not improperly been described as a 
 classic. Were it not for his Montanist errors, 
 Tertullian would rank among the greatest of 
 the Latin fathers. The time and circumstances 
 of his death are unknown; there is no trace of 
 him after about the year 220. 
 
 Among his many writings the best known is 
 the Apology, written probably in 197. It is a 
 vigorous vindication of the Christians against 
 the attacks and false charges of the heathen 
 world. His polemical zeal was further directed 
 against Jews and heretics, e.g., in his To the 
 Nations, Against the Jews, Against Marcion, 
 Against the Valentinians, and Against Praxeas, 
 the last named being especially valuable for the 
 history of doctrine. He wrote many tracts on 
 subjects connected with morals and church dis¬ 
 cipline, e.g., On Baptism, Penance, Prayer, Pa¬ 
 tience, Idolatry, and Shoios. His characteristic 
 strictness comes out even more strikingly in the 
 works written after he became a Montanist, 
 Women’s Apparel, The Veiling of Virgins, Mo¬ 
 nogamy, The Exhortation to Chastity, and 
 Fasting. 
 
 Bibliography. G. A. Simcox, History of 
 
 Latin Literature (2 vols., New York, 1883) ; C. 
 T. Cruttwell, Literary History of Early Chris¬ 
 tianity (2 vols., ib., 1899) ; Teuffel-Schwabe, His¬ 
 tory of Roman Literature, translated by Warr 
 (ib., 1900); P. Monceaux, Histoire litMraire 
 de VAfrique chrMienne, vol. i (Paris, 1901) ; Rob¬ 
 ert Rainy, The Ancient Catholic Church (New 
 York, 1902) ; Williston Walker, Great Men of 
 the Christian Church (Chicago, 1908). The 
 Works of Tertullian are published in the Corpus 
 Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum, vol. xx 
 (ed. by Reiffersclieid and Wissowa, Vienna, 
 1890; new ed. by A. Kroymann, Tubingen, 
 1907 et seq.) ; an English translation is in The 
 Ante-Nicene Library, vols. iii and iv (American 
 ed., New York, 1885 et seq.). 
 
 TERUEL, ta'rbo-al'. The capital of the 
 Province of Teruel, in Aragon, Spain, on the 
 left bank of the Guadalaviar, 72 miles north¬ 
 west of Valencia (Map: Spain, E 2). It is a 
 quaint old town with a handsome Gothic cathe¬ 
 dral, a great aqueduct, normal and primary 
 schools, good hospitals and asylums, a library, 
 and a meteorological station. Pop., 1900, 9538; 
 1910, 11,935. 
 
 TERU-TERU, ter'oo-ter'oo. A lapwing plover 
 (Vanellus cayenensis) of the eastern part of 
 South America, whose specific characteristics are 
 the long crest and long blunt yellow spur; also 
 its sharp repetitive cry copied in its local name. 
 Its habits on the pampas, where in the breeding 
 season it executes remarkable dances, are de¬ 
 scribed at length by Hudson, who says the bird 
 seems absolutely fearless of man at that period, 
 dashing into his face until it becomes a nuisance. 
 Consult Hudson, Argentine Ornithology (Lon¬ 
 don, 1888). 
 
 TERZA RIMA, ter'tsa re'ma (It., rhyme of 
 three). An Italian verse form, of which the 
 first and most notable use was made by Dante 
 in the Divina Commedia. Each stanza consists 
 of three hendecasyllabic lines with two rhymes; 
 lines 1 and 3 repeat the middle rhyme of the 
 preceding stanza, and thus the stanzas are 
 closely interwoven. The series or canto neces¬ 
 sarily begins and ends with an alternating coup¬ 
 let: a b a, b c b, c d c . . . y z y z. The end 
 of a stanza tends to coincide with a pause in 
 the thought. There is a prevailing inclination 
 to seek the origin of the terza rima in the ser- 
 ventese (Provengal, sirventes). Dante may have 
 invented it as a form symbolically adapted to 
 his poem. Sir Thomas Wyatt, who was much 
 under the influence of Italian models, introduced 
 the stanza into English, choosing it for three 
 satires. Sir Philip Sidney experimented with 
 it in his Arcadia, and Milton tried it in a ver¬ 
 sion of the second Psalm. There have been some 
 attempts to preserve the original metre of the 
 Divina Commedia in English translation, not¬ 
 ably by Byron, who made a version of the 
 Francesca episode in the Inferno. Byron’s 
 Prophecy of Dante is also written in terza rima. 
 The exact replica of the Italian hendecasyllable 
 verso piano (which ends with a “feminine” foot: 
 — vv), such as that recently attempted by John 
 Pyne (An English Dante, New York, 1914), is 
 singularly unadapted to the English language. 
 The best English specimen of this difficult stanza 
 is Shelley’s Ode to the TFest Wind. Consult: 
 H. Schuchardt, Ritornell und Terzine (Halle, 
 1875) ; G. Paris, in Romania, vol. iv (Paris, 
 1875): Cassini, Suite forme metriche italiane 
 (2d ed., Florence, 1890) ; Stengel, “Romanische 
 Verslehre,” in Groeber, Grundriss der romani- 
 
TESCHEN 
 
 130 
 
 TESTAMENT OF LOVE 
 
 schen Philo-logie, vol. ii, part i (Strassburg, 
 1893) ; and R. M. Alden, English Verse (New 
 York, 1903). 
 
 TESCHEN, tesh'en (Pol. Cieszyn) . A town 
 of Silesia, Austria, 63 miles west-southwest of 
 Cracow, on the right hank of the Olsa (Map: 
 Austria, F 2). It was formerly the capital of 
 the Duchy of Teschen. It has manufactories of 
 modules, carriages, clocks, screws, and furniture. 
 There are also breweries, distilleries, flax-spin¬ 
 ning mills, and bookbinderies. Teschen is cele¬ 
 brated for the peace, May 13, 1799, which closed 
 the War of the Bavarian Succession. Pop., 
 1900, 20,454; 1910, 22,540. 
 
 TES'LA, Nikola (1857- ). An American 
 
 inventor and electrician, born at Smitjan, Lika, 
 Austria-Hungary. His mother and mother’s 
 father were inventors. After studying engineer¬ 
 ing at the Polytechnic School at Graz and the 
 exact sciences at the University of Prague he 
 worked in the telegraphic engineering depart¬ 
 ment of the Austrian government until 1881, 
 when he became engineer to an electric company 
 in Budapest. In 1884 he came to America, where 
 he was naturalized and at first was employed in 
 the Edison plant at Orange, N. J. Subsequently 
 working at Pittsburgh and elsewhere, he de¬ 
 voted himself to experimental research and in¬ 
 vention. He discovered the principle of the ro¬ 
 tary magnetic field, applying it in a practical 
 form to the induction motor. Tesla’s discovery 
 made possible the alternating current motor and 
 the transmission of power by such current, em¬ 
 ploying what became known as 2-phase, 3-phase, 
 multi-phase,' and poly-phase systems, particu¬ 
 larly on long-distance lines, later used exten¬ 
 sively. His patents, which were the subject of 
 litigation, were sustained in 1906. Tesla in¬ 
 vented many electrical appliances, including 
 dynamos, transformers, induction coils, oscil¬ 
 lators, and arc and incandescent lamps, and is 
 principally known for his researches in alternat¬ 
 ing currents of high frequency and high poten¬ 
 tial. Tesla’s later work dealt with the appli¬ 
 cation of such currents to wireless telegraphy, 
 the transmission of power without wires, and 
 many similar problems. Consult T. C. Martin, 
 The Inventions, Researches, and Writings of 
 Nikola Tesla (New York, 1894). 
 
 TESLA COIL. See Induction Coil. 
 
 TESQUE. See Tanoan Stock. 
 
 TESSIN, tes-sen r . The German name of the 
 Swiss Canton of Ticino (q.v.). 
 
 TESSIN, tes-sen', Carl Gustaf, Count 
 (1695-1770). A Swedish statesman, born at 
 Stockholm, son of Count Nicodemus Tessin 
 (q.v.). At 30 he was Ambassador to Vienna. 
 Appointed Prime Minister in 1738, he became 
 spokesman for the “Hat” party. In 1739-42 
 he was Ambassador in Paris. Under Adolf Fred- 
 rik he exerted much influence as Premier, but 
 because he opposed the extension of the King’s 
 power he had to resign from office (1752). 
 Tessin was the foremost representative of French 
 culture in Sweden, and one of the most bril¬ 
 liant personages of his time. His literary style 
 is excellent and he was a fine orator. He wrote 
 a daybook of 29 volumes, and En gammal mans 
 href till en ung prins (Stockholm, 1753; Eng. 
 eds., 1755 and 1756). 
 
 TESSIN, Nicodemus (1615-81). A Swedish 
 architect, born at Stralsund. In 1646 he be¬ 
 came royal architect and in 1674 he was 
 knighted. Among the buildings he erected, many 
 still standing, are: Skokloster, Ekolsund, Stroms- 
 
 holm, Drottningholm (completed by his sou, see 
 below), and Borgholm castles, Kalmar Cathe¬ 
 dral, his principal work of the sort, and at 
 Stockholm, St. Mary’s Church, the Wrangel 
 Palace, and Axel Oxenstierna Palace. 
 
 TESSIN, Nicodemus, Count (1654-1728). 
 A Swedish architect and statesman, born at 
 Nykoping, son of Nicodemus Tessin (q.v.). He 
 was educated at Stockholm and Upsala uni¬ 
 versities, then studied architecture under his 
 father and for four years in Italy under Bernini 
 and Fontana. He became royal architect in 
 1676. His most notable work, the present Royal 
 Castle at Stockholm, begun in 1697 to replace 
 the palace burned that year, was completed after 
 his death. Tessin finished Drottningholm Castle 
 and built the Auditorium Gustavianum at 
 Upsala, Steninge Castle, his home, and various 
 churches. Several foreign monarchs employed him 
 and he held various honorary offices. He is known 
 as the most distinguished of Swedish architects. 
 
 TES'TA. The special protective coat of seeds, 
 which is usually hard, but sometimes (as in cer¬ 
 tain gymnosperms) develops also a fleshy layer. 
 
 TESTA, Gherardi della. See Giierardi 
 della Testa. 
 
 TEST ACTS. Numerous acts of the English 
 Parliament imposing religious tests upon per¬ 
 sons in public office. The most famous are the 
 Corporation Act of 1661 and the Test Act of 
 1673. The Corporation Act directed that all 
 magistrates should take the oaths of allegiance 
 and supremacy, as well as an oath renouncing 
 the doctrine that it is lawful to take arms 
 against the King, and provided that they must 
 receive communion according to the rites of the 
 Church of England. The Test Act, so called, im¬ 
 posed the like conditions on the holders of all 
 public offices, civil and military, and obliged them 
 in addition to abjure all belief in the doctrine of 
 transubstantiation. Both of these acts were the 
 result of the struggles against the Catholics in 
 the reign of Charles II. They were repealed in 
 1828 as regards most of the provisions. See 
 England. 
 
 TES'TAMENT (OF., Fr. testament, from Lat. 
 testamentum, will, publication of a will, from 
 testari, to make a will, attest, testify, from 
 testis, witness). Literally, a calling upon wit¬ 
 nesses. Technically, in Roman law, a will; an 
 act by which a person determines what person 
 or persons shall take his property after his 
 death. The oldest form of testation at Rome 
 was a declaration in the presence and with the 
 sanction of the Roman people in assembly or 
 meeting as an army on the eve of battle. Of 
 the scope and effect of this form of testation 
 little is known. It could, apparently, be em¬ 
 ployed by patricians only, and it probably af¬ 
 fected only such property as did not form part 
 of the household estate ( pecunia as distinguished 
 from familia) . In any case, the later Roman 
 testament was developed on a different and in¬ 
 dependent basis. It started as a sale {man- 
 cipatio ) of the inheritance, and became a secret 
 and revocable instrument, signed and sealed by 
 the testator and seven witnesses. As this man¬ 
 cipation testament is the ancestor of the testa¬ 
 ment or will in all modern countries, its de¬ 
 velopment is described under Will. 
 
 TESTAMENT, Inofficious. See Inoffi¬ 
 cious Testament. 
 
 TESTAMENTARY, Letters. See Letter. 
 
 TESTAMENT OF LOVE, The. A prose 
 work erroneously credited to Chaucer by Speght 
 
TESTAMENTUM PORCELLI 
 
 TESTING MACHINE 
 
 131 
 
 in the 1598 edition. It was written about the 
 close of the fourteenth century by a prisoner 
 in peril of his life, and modeled on Boethius’s 
 Consolation of Philosophy, substituting for phi¬ 
 losophy Divine Love. 
 
 TES'TAMEN'TUM PORCEL'LI (Lat., Last 
 Will of a Little Pig). An amusing Latin skit 
 parodying the legal testamentary forms. It is 
 of unknown authorship, and was written before 
 the fourth century a.d. According to St. Je¬ 
 rome it was a favorite recitation by schoolboys. 
 The text is in Biicheler’s smaller edition of 
 Petronius (Berlin, 1886), and is edited with 
 English notes in Peck and Arrowsmith’s Roman 
 Life in Latin Prose and Verse (New York, 
 1894). 
 
 TESTICARDINES. See Brachiopoda. 
 
 TESTIMONY (from Lat. testimonium, testi¬ 
 mony, from testis, a witness). The oral evi¬ 
 dence given in a judicial proceeding. This may 
 be adduced either on the trial of an action in 
 court or before an authorized investigation of 
 a committee or commission. The term is popu¬ 
 larly used as synonymous with evidence. The 
 latter is an inclusive term. A document is 
 marked in evidence, but the relevant or com¬ 
 petent statement of a witness on the stand is 
 testimony. The usual course of the proceedings 
 consists of the direct examination by the pro¬ 
 ducing counsel and subsequent cross-examination 
 by the opposing counsel, and then, if necessary, 
 redirect examination. See Evidence. Consult 
 F. Wellman, Art of Cross-Examination (New 
 York, 1903), and F. Wrottesley, Examination of 
 Witnesses in Court (rev. ed., London, 1910). 
 
 TESTIMONY, Ark of. See Ark of the 
 Covenant. 
 
 TESTIMONY, Psychology of. There are 
 three groups of problems in applied psychology 
 (see Psychology, Applied) which have a bear¬ 
 ing upon the nature and weight of certain forms 
 of evidence in legal practice: the report of the 
 witness, the possibility of discovering hidden 
 emotional and ideational complexes from which 
 it may be inferred whether the accused is with¬ 
 holding important facts, and the mental status 
 of the witness or the accused. 
 
 Judges and advocates of the courts have long 
 known that a conflict of evidence, in cases where 
 the perceptions and memories of witnesses are 
 concerned, need not mean dishonesty. Experi¬ 
 mental psychology has shown that such indi¬ 
 vidual differences must be expected. It remains 
 for applied psychology to determine the varia¬ 
 tion in range and accuracy of report; the effect 
 of suggestion by way of leading‘questions; and 
 the degree of accuracy with which an event may 
 be reconstructed from conflicting accounts. The 
 general method employed is to present a group 
 of objects, a picture, or an enacted scene, and 
 after an interval to request the observers to give 
 an account, either by narrative or in response 
 to questions, of what they saw. The results, 
 which are not to be regarded as final, are as 
 follows: errorless reports are the exception 
 (about 2 per cent) ; the narrative form gives a 
 larger coefficient of accuracy than the inter¬ 
 rogatory (90 per cent as against 75 per cent) ; 
 the range of the latter is much larger (65 per 
 cent as against 40 per cent) ; as the time inter¬ 
 val between presentation and report increases, 
 there is a fairly constant (though slight) de¬ 
 crease both in range and accuracy; children are 
 more suggestible than adults, and their reports 
 are more inaccurate and of less range; both 
 
 range and accuracy increase with practice; an 
 experienced interpreter can construct an ac¬ 
 count, from a number of conflicting reports, 
 with an error of less than 1 per cent. 
 
 For attack upon the second problem, a method 
 has been devised which takes advantage of the 
 reaction experiment (see Reaction) and the 
 laws of association of ideas (q.v.). The suspect 
 is told that he will be given a word, and that he 
 must reply with the first word that comes to 
 mind. Both the reaction word and the reaction 
 time are recorded. A list of words previously 
 prepared by the experimenter contains critical 
 words, i.e., words that will probably associate 
 to some phase of the crime. The reactor may 
 now betray himself either by the nature of his 
 verbal reaction to a critical word or, in case 
 there is an inhibition, by the increased length 
 of his reaction time. The experiment has proved 
 successful in many instances, and in others it 
 has failed: much work is yet necessary before 
 all the conditions can be brought under control. 
 
 Finally, for obvious reasons, it is desirable 
 to know whether a witness or an accused is of 
 normal mind, or is insane, defective, hysterical, 
 etc. Mental tests (q.v.) are employed for this 
 determination; and, so far as regards mental 
 defectives, with good success. A closely related 
 problem, and one that has important psychologi¬ 
 cal bearings, is the prevention of crime. Consult: 
 L. W. Stern, Bcitrdge zur Psychologie der Aus- 
 sage (Leipzig, 1903-06); Hugo Miinsterberg, On 
 the Witness Stand (New York, 1908); G. M. 
 Y\ hippie, “The Observer as Reporter,” in Psycho¬ 
 logical Bulletin f vol. vi (Baltimore, 1909); 
 C. J. Jung, “The Association Method,” in Ameri¬ 
 can Journal of Psychology, xxi (Worcester, 
 
 1910) ; H. Gross, Criminal Psychology (Boston, 
 
 1911) ; O. Lipmann, Die Spuren interessebetouter 
 Erlebnissc u. Hire Symptome (Leipzig, 1911) ; 
 Hugo Miinsterberg, Psychology, General and Ap¬ 
 plied (New York, 1914). See Criminology. 
 
 TESTING MACHINE. A machine employed 
 for testing and determining the strength" of 
 materials used in construction and engineering 
 works. In order to determine the strength of 
 a given material such as the iron or steel used 
 in a boiler or engine, the wood of a building, or 
 brick, stone, cement, etc., it is usual to select 
 small samples and submit them to stresses of 
 varying degrees, from which the characteristics 
 of the material may be learned and various 
 numerical values obtained. With the use of 
 iron and steel in building construction it is 
 found desirable to test beams, columns, and 
 other forms on a large scale often to failure or 
 destruction. Testing machines may depend upon 
 the action of an hydraulic press or of a system 
 of screws and gears by means of which the 
 known force applied can be greatly multiplied 
 by the time it is directly exerted on the piece 
 under test. For many years the testing machine 
 at the Watertown (Mass.) Arsenal enjoyed a 
 unique distinction. Large testing machines are 
 now installed at the laboratories of the United 
 States Bureau of Standards at Washington and 
 Pittsburgh. At Washington there are two ma¬ 
 chines of the Emery type with capacities of 
 2,300,000 pounds and 230,000 pounds respec¬ 
 tively, while at the Pittsburgh laboratory there 
 is a 10,000.000 pound Olsen testing machine 
 with which tests of full-sized concrete and brick 
 columns have been made. The Riehle testing 
 machine in smaller sizes is extensively used for 
 structural materials, while for paper, textiles, 
 
TESTRY 
 
 132 
 
 TETANUS 
 
 and other substances special machines and meth¬ 
 ods are employed. The various tests will be found 
 discussed under Strength of Materials. Con¬ 
 sult publications of the American Society for 
 Testing Materials and of the United States Bu¬ 
 reau of Standards. 
 
 TESTRY, tes'tre'. A village of France, be¬ 
 tween Peronne and Saint-Quentin, in the De¬ 
 partment of Somme, noted as the scene of a 
 battle (687) in which Pepin of Heristal, the 
 Austrasian Mayor of the Palace, defeated the 
 forces of Xeustria and Burgundy, thus bringing 
 the three Frankish kingdoms under his power. 
 See Franks. 
 
 TESTS, Mental. See Mental Tests. 
 
 TESTU'DINA'TA. The reptilian order 
 
 Chelonia (q.v.). 
 
 TESTU'DO (Lat., tortoise). A device of 
 Roman warfare, by means of which a body of 
 men advanced for assault. The attackers would 
 move in close order, with shields held above 
 their heads, edges overlapping. The effect re¬ 
 sembled the shell of a tortoise {testudo) , and 
 proved an effective protection from weapons of 
 the defenders. A later improvement was the 
 testudo machine (on wheels and roofed over), 
 under the protection of which soldiers could de¬ 
 stroy or undermine defensive walls. A modified 
 form of the same principle is seen in the flying 
 sap. *- 
 
 TET'ANUS (Lat., from Gk. reravos, spasm, 
 tension, from reipeiv, teinein, to stretch, strain), 
 or Lockjaw. An infectious disease character¬ 
 ized by tonic spasms of the voluntary muscles, 
 with marked exacerbations. The contractions 
 may be confined to the muscles of the lower jaw 
 (trismus), to certain other groups of muscles, 
 or involve all the muscles of the body. The 
 disease is dependent on a bacillus, discovered 
 by Nicolaier in 1884, and cultivated by Kitasato 
 in 1889. The bacillus is a slender rod, with 
 one rounded end containing a spore, and exists 
 in the faeces of the herbivora and man, and un¬ 
 der favorable conditions the spores remain viru¬ 
 lent for years. It is found especially in well- 
 manured soil and in dust and surface soil. This 
 accounts for the fact that wounds infected by 
 dust are often followed by tetanus. The organ¬ 
 ism gains entrance to the tissues often through 
 wounds so slight as to be overlooked. The dis¬ 
 ease may follow surgical operations or child¬ 
 birth, infecting the mother through the par¬ 
 turient canal and the child through the cut um¬ 
 bilical cord (trismus naseentium, q.v.). Vac¬ 
 cination wounds are sometimes the port of entry 
 for the bacillus. The microorganism is anaero¬ 
 bic, i.e., it flourishes only in the absence of air 
 or oxygen. 
 
 After an injury the disease sets in usually 
 within ten days. Without warning the pa¬ 
 tient feels a stiffness at the back of the neck, 
 and then in the jaws, so that he is unable to 
 open his mouth widely or to masticate properly. 
 These symptoms continue for a day or two, or 
 the patient may rapidly come to the stage of 
 general rigidity, in which the muscles of the 
 trunk and extremities are affected. The back 
 becomes rigid and arched (opisthotonus) ; the 
 muscles of the abdomen become hard and board¬ 
 like; respiratory movements are limited by the 
 rigid muscles. By this time the jaw is firmly 
 closed by contraction of the masseter muscles, 
 and the other muscles of the face drawn into 
 the painful smile known as the risus sardonicus. 
 At this stage violent convulsions of the hitherto 
 
 rigid muscles supervene. During a paroxysm the 
 patient’s teeth are tightly clenched, while breath¬ 
 ing is in temporary suspension, with imminent 
 danger of death. The spasms are intensely pain¬ 
 ful, and occur at first at intervals of half an 
 hour or more with gradually increasing fre¬ 
 quency. Muscular contractions are sometimes so 
 forcible as to rupture a muscle or break a bone. 
 In untreated cases the end comes in a few days; 
 the paroxysms being more violent and frequent 
 and death ensuing from exhaustion, fixation of 
 the respiratory muscles, or glottal spasm. 
 There may be little fever during the attack, 
 but before death an extraordinary rise in tem¬ 
 perature may take place. 
 
 The preventive treatment of tetanus is most 
 important. Wounds likely to be contaminated 
 with earth should be opened freely, disinfected 
 thoroughly, with tincture of iodine preferably, 
 and well drained; and a dose of antitetanic serum 
 administered. When these precautions have not 
 been taken and lockjaw sets in, the serum should 
 be promptly injected either into the muscles or 
 spinal canal. Intraspinal injections of mag¬ 
 nesium sulphate have cured some patients. 
 Drugs may be given to control the spasms, the 
 most useful of which are chloral hydrate, liyos- 
 cine, the bromides, and calabar bean. Chloro¬ 
 form may be necessary during the worst con¬ 
 vulsions. 
 
 A great many cases of infantile tetanus can 
 be prevented by antiseptic treatment of the 
 stump of the umbilical cord. Tetanus in in¬ 
 fants (tetanus neonatorum) is very fatal, being 
 uninfluenced even by antitoxin. Consult article 
 by J. M. Anders in William Osier, Modern Medi¬ 
 cine (New York, 1915). See Trismus Nascen- 
 
 TIUM. 
 
 TETANUS, in Animals. The disease due 
 to the action of Bacillus tetani attacks domesr 
 tic animals, most frequently horses and sheep. 
 It is an acute infectious disease due to an in¬ 
 toxication of the nervous system, characterized 
 by persisting spasmodic contractions of the en¬ 
 tire body musculature or of single groups of 
 muscles, without impairment of consciousness. 
 In an acute attack the animal usually dies 
 within four days. The symptoms usually come 
 on gradually, involving most of the muscular 
 structures, which become hard and rigid. The 
 nose is protruded, the limbs move stiffly, the 
 tail is upraised, the bowels are constipated. The 
 sufferer must be kept perfectly quiet, in an 
 airy but comfortably warm place, and plentifully 
 supplied with cold water, and soft, sloppy, but 
 nutritious food, to be sucked in through the 
 firmly closed teeth. In treating the disease it is 
 essential that the seat of infection be thoroughly 
 disinfected at once. The administration of drugs 
 by mouth is dangerous and should not be at¬ 
 tempted. The antitetanic serum has given only 
 indifferent results in affected animals, but may 
 be beneficial if administered at the onset of the 
 disease in relatively high doses. Successful re¬ 
 sults have been reported to follow subcutaneous 
 injection of carbolic acid and the injection of 
 a solution of magnesium sulphate. Horses which 
 receive wounds or upon which surgical opera¬ 
 tions are performed—in districts where tetanus 
 frequently occurs—may receive a very high de¬ 
 gree of protection through the administration 
 of a dose of tetanus antitoxin. Consult: Leon¬ 
 ard Pearson and others, Special Report on Dis¬ 
 eases of the Horse, published by the United 
 States Bureau of Animal Industry (Washington, 
 
TETANY 
 
 1011 ), and Hutyra and Marek, Special Pa¬ 
 thology and Therapeutics of the Diseases of Do¬ 
 mestic Animals (Amer. ed. from 3 d Ger. ed. by 
 Moliler and Eichhorn, Chicago, 1912). 
 
 TET'ANY. A form of tonic muscular spasm, 
 affecting especially the muscles of the extrem¬ 
 ities, most frequently observed during infancy, 
 although it may occur at any age. The prin¬ 
 cipal exciting cause is gastrointestinal irrita¬ 
 tion, teething, worms, etc., and the disease is 
 commonly associated with rickets (q.v.). Dur¬ 
 ing an attack the legs and arms are bent and 
 rigid, the hands, feet, and fingers are tightly 
 flexed. The attack may last only a few minutes, 
 or may be prolonged over hours or days. There 
 is no fever, nor loss of consciousness, and the 
 disease is in itself rarely fatal; the prognosis 
 depending on the associated disorder, to which 
 treatment should be addressed. 
 
 TETE DE PONT, tat de poN (Fr., bridge¬ 
 head). In modern fortifications a group of 
 works intended to cover one or more bridges, 
 whether permanent or military, so as to prevent 
 the crossing of the enemy, or to enable troops to 
 cross over to the enemy bank, or to permit them 
 to retreat to their own bank. The nature of 
 the works constituting the bridgehead will vary 
 according to the objective. They may be situ¬ 
 ated two miles or more from the stream whose 
 crossing is in question, with the flanks resting 
 on the river and securely guarded. In other 
 words, a bridgehead under modern conditions 
 is a fortified position rather than a single work. 
 See Fortification. 
 
 TETEENIKOV, Feodor. See Sologub, 
 Feodor. 
 
 TE'THYS (Lat., from Gk. TyOvs). In Greek 
 mythology, daughter of Uranus and Gsea, and, by 
 Oceanus, mother of the Oceanids and the river 
 gods. 
 
 TET'BABItAN'CHIA'TA. See Cephalopoda. 
 
 TET'XtACHOPD (from Gk. rerp&xopdos, 
 tetrachordos, having four strings, from rerpa-, 
 tetra-, four -{- x°P^V, chordc, string, cord). In 
 music, a system of four tones comprised within 
 the compass of a perfect fourth. The Greek scales 
 were composed by joining two tetrachords. In 
 the Middle Ages the tetrachord was superseded 
 by the hexaclicrd, introduced by Guido d’Arezzo. 
 See Greek Music. 
 
 TET'RAD. See Bacteria. 
 
 TETRAD'YMITE (from Gk. rerpaovpos, tet- 
 radymos, fourfold, from rerpa-, tetra-, four; so 
 called from its frequent occurrence in twin crys¬ 
 tals ). A mineral bismuth telluride frequently 
 containing sulphur and selenium. It is crys¬ 
 tallized in the hexagonal system, has a metallic 
 lustre, and is of a steel-gray color. It is found 
 in Norway, Sweden, and in the United States 
 at various localities in Virginia and North 
 Carolina. 
 
 TETRAG'ONAL SYSTEM. See Crystal¬ 
 lography, and Plate of Crystal Forms. 
 
 TET'EAGEAM'MATON (Gk. rerpaypappa- 
 rov, word of four letters, neut. sing, of rerpaypap- 
 paros, tetragrammatos, having four letters, from 
 rerpa-, tetra-, four -f- ypappa, gramma, letter, 
 from ypacpeiv, graphein, to write). A term used 
 to designate the name of Israel’s God, consisting 
 of the four letters Y H W H . In the Masoretic 
 text it occurs 6823 times and is written with the 
 vowels of Adonai, Lord (originally my Lord), 
 or with those of Elohim, God. By these vowels 
 the reader was warned not to pronounce the di¬ 
 vine name, but to substitute for it Adonai or 
 
 133 TETRAPOLITAN CONFESSION 
 
 Elohim. On the reasons for this custom, see 
 Jeiiovah. The Greek version (see Bible) uses 
 Kvpios, Kyrios, Lord, for the tetragrammaton. 
 The editorial revision of Book II in the Psalter 
 (Psalms xlii-lxxii) also substitutes for it 
 Elohim. There is little room for doubt that the 
 original pronunciation was Yahwe, the final h 
 being inaudible. According to Theodoret the 
 Samaritans (q.v.) pronounced the name Ia/ 3 e, 
 Yabe, or Yave, and this statement is borne out 
 b% extant Samaritan hymns where the rhyme 
 indicates that pronunciation, and by direct 
 testimony. The same pronunciation is ascribed 
 to a Christian sect by Epiphanius and is found 
 in Egyptian papyri. An Ethiopic manuscript 
 gives the form \awe, in which the vowels are 
 indicated. The name Iao frequently found in 
 manuscripts and papyri goes back to Yahu. 
 J hat \ ahu or Tah existed in Syria as a divine 
 name before the Hebrew invasion is probable and 
 receives some support from Egyptian and Babv- 
 lonian inscriptions. The fact 'that Yah occurs 
 chiefly in late Old Testament writings may be 
 due to an archaistic tendency not seldom "seen 
 in connection with the liturgy. Yah at the end 
 of a name and Yeho at the beginning meet us so 
 often in preexilic times that it is likely to be 
 very old. It is also significant that Yahwe 
 never seems to be used in theophorous names. 
 Since it was at all times permitted to pronounce 
 Yahu, it is not strange that the Greeks and 
 Romans should have got the impression that the 
 name of the god of the Jews was Iao. The earli¬ 
 est datable occurrence of the tetragrammaton is 
 in the inscription of King Mesha of Moab, 
 c.840 b.c. Through the Samaritans and certain 
 Jewish sects the knowledge of the proper pro¬ 
 nunciation was perpetuated. While the Samari¬ 
 tans of the seventeenth century refused to di¬ 
 vulge this secret, Sabbatai Zewi (see Messiah), 
 the famous mystic and claimant to the Messiah- 
 ship, insisted upon the pronunciation of the 
 tetragrammaton. See Jehovah, and consult the 
 works referred to in that article. 
 
 TET'RAHEJDIIITE (from tetrahedron, so 
 called from the prevailing forms of its crystals). 
 A sulphantimonite of copper, crystallizing in the 
 isometric system, and often occurring in mas¬ 
 sive forms. It is commonly associated with 
 chalcopyrite (q.v.), massive varieties frequently 
 forming intimate mechanical mixtures; it is also 
 associated with other mechanical sulphides. 
 Tetrahedrite is universally distributed and con¬ 
 stitutes an important ore of copper (q.v.). 
 
 TET'RAHE'DRON (from Gk. rerpa-, tetra-, 
 four -f- edpa, hedra, base). A solid bounded by 
 four planes. It appears in nature, and as a 
 crystal is classified as a secondary form of the 
 octahedron, produced by removing the alternate 
 angles or edges of the latter. See Polyhedron. 
 
 TETRAI/OGY (from Gk. rerpaXoyLa, tetra- 
 logia, group of four dramas, from rerpa-, tetra-. 
 four + Xoyos, logos, word). (1) In Greek drama, 
 a series of three tragedies and a satvric drama 
 presented in sequence. The satvric drama was 
 in some cases connected with the tragedies in 
 subject, but its main purpose was to relieve the 
 tension caused by the trilogy. (2) A musical 
 drama in four parts. Wagner’s famous tetral¬ 
 ogy, Der Ring des Nibelungen, consists of Das 
 Rhein gold, Die Walkiire, Siegfried, and Gotter- 
 dammerung. See Trilogy. 
 
 TETKAM'ETER. See Versification. 
 
 TET'RAPOL'ITAN CONFESSION. See 
 Sacramentarians. 
 
TETRARCH 
 
 TEUCER 
 
 TE'TRARCH (Lat. tetrarclies, from Gk. 
 TerpapxvS) governor of a fourth of a country, 
 from Terpa-, tetra-, four, fourth + apxew, archein, 
 to rule). Originally, the governor of one of 
 four divisions of a kingdom or country; e.g., 
 of Thessaly, according to the arrangements of 
 King Philip, father of Alexander the Great, and 
 of Galatia (q.v.) before it was conquered by the 
 Romans; but, in the usage of the later Roman 
 Empire, any minor ruler, especially in the East, 
 possessing sovereign rights within his territory, 
 but dependent on, and in many cases removable 
 at the pleasure of, the Emperor. This was es¬ 
 pecially the case in Syria, where the princes of 
 the family of Herod are called indiscriminately 
 by this title (Luke iii. 1) and by that of King 
 (Matt. xiv. 9). 
 
 TETRAZZINI, tet'ra-tse'ne, Luisa (1874— 
 
 ). An Italian coloratura soprano, born at 
 Florence. Before she was 12 years old she sang 
 without having received instruction, and knew 
 perfectly a number of operas which she had heard 
 her elder sister Eva (later the wife of Cleofonte 
 Campanini (q.v.) practice. After only three 
 months’ regular study under Ceccherini at the 
 Liceo Musicale of Florence she made her debut 
 as Inez in L’Afrioaine (1895), and then sang 
 in Rome and other Italian cities. Her successes 
 in Russia and Spain secured an engagement for 
 Buenos Aires. From there she went through 
 Mexico to California, whence her fame as a 
 second Patti began to spread (1906). The next 
 vear she made a sensation at Covent Garden, 
 and in 1908 Oscar Hammerstein (q.v.) engaged 
 her for his Manhattan Opera House in New 
 York. Subsequently she appeared as guest with 
 the Metropolitan, Boston, and Chicago com¬ 
 panies, and also made several triumphant con¬ 
 cert tours. A voice of wonderful purity, power, 
 and charm, combined with a faultless technical 
 execution of the most florid and difficult pas¬ 
 sages, made her indeed the legitimate successor 
 to Patti. 
 
 TET'RONAL (C 2 H 5 ) 2 C(SO 2 0 2 H 5 ) 2 . A white, 
 crystalline substance similar to sulphonal and, 
 like the latter, used medicinally as an hypnotic. 
 It melts at 85° C. (185° F.) and is but slightly 
 soluble in water. See Sulphonal; Trional. 
 
 TETSCHEN, teclFen. A town of Bohemia, 
 situated on the right bank of the Elbe, near the 
 Saxon frontier. An active industrial place, hav¬ 
 ing a number of factories and carrying on a 
 lively trade, it is the emporium for the shipping 
 traffic on the Elbe, and forms with Bodenbach 
 practically one town. They are connected by 
 three bridges. The handsome chateau of Count 
 Thun, built in 1867-73, with a fine park, garden, 
 and hothouses, library, and collection of coins 
 and weapons, was once fortified and a place of 
 some importance in the Seven Years’ War. 
 Pop., 1900, 9698; 1910, 10,641. 
 
 TETTENBORN, tet'en-born, Friedrich Karl, 
 Baron (1778-1845) . A German soldier, born in 
 the Principality of Sponheim. He entered the 
 Austrian army in 1794, serving in the wars of 
 the French Revolution. At the battle of ha- 
 gram, in 1809, he won distinction by his bravery. 
 Just before the invasion of Russia by Napoleon 
 in 1812 he entered the Russian army as a lieu¬ 
 tenant colonel, commanded Kutusoff’s vanguard, 
 and greatly harassed the French on their re¬ 
 treat. In 1813 he entered Berlin, together with 
 the Russians, and thence proceeded to Hamburg, 
 which he occupied, but whence he was driven 
 May 30. He next fought against Davout and 
 
 134 
 
 Peclieux and captured Bremen October 15. He 
 served with Bernadotte in Jutland and on the 
 Rhine in 1814. In France, during the invasion 
 of the allies, he did excellent service in keeping 
 open communications. In 1818 he entered the 
 service of Baden, and in 1819 was promoted to 
 be lieutenant general, and was sent as Ambassa¬ 
 dor to Vienna, where he died. 
 
 TETUAN, tet-wan'. A town of Morocco 
 about 38 miles southeast of Tangier, on the 
 Martil. It lies in the midst of fine gardens and 
 is surrounded by dilapidated walls. In the 
 background loom the Rif Mountains. The rows 
 of white houses rise in terraces. The streets 
 are narrow and dirty, but there are many fine 
 residences built by the Moors expelled from 
 Spain. Gun barrels, coarse woolen cloth, slip¬ 
 pers, and sashes are manufactured. Grain, 
 fruits, wool, silk, leather, and beef cattle are 
 exported, mainly to Gibraltar. The port, forti¬ 
 fied by two forts, is one mile below the town at 
 the mouth of the Martil, and is the only open 
 Mediterranean port in the country. Population, 
 about 25,000, of which 6000 are Jews. Tetuan 
 was the centre of operations in the Spanish- 
 Moroccan War of 1859-60. The city was aban¬ 
 doned by the Spanish in 1862. 
 
 TET'ZEL, Johann (c.1460-1519). A Ger¬ 
 man Dominican, famous for his connection with 
 the Reformation through Luther’s attacks on his 
 sale of indulgences. He was born at Pirna, in 
 Saxony, and educated at the University of 
 Leipzig, where he graduated in 1487, soon after¬ 
 ward entering the Dominican Order. Being a 
 popular and effective preacher, he was intrusted 
 with the proclamation of an indulgence, first 
 on behalf of the Teutonic Knights from 1503 to 
 1510, and from 1516 as a subordinate of Albert 
 of Brandenburg, Archbishop of Mainz, on the 
 occasion of the indulgence in favor of contribu¬ 
 tors to the building of St. Peter’s at Rome. In 
 opposition to the preaching of Tetzel Martin 
 Luther published his celebrated theses, on Oct. 
 31, 1517. Tetzel published a series of counter 
 theses in the following January, and in April 
 a reply to Luther’s celebrated sermon on indul¬ 
 gences. In January, 1519, he was called upon to 
 appear before the papal legate Von Miltitz to an¬ 
 swer charges made against him, and was severely 
 rebuked for unguarded language and impro¬ 
 prieties in procedure. Consult: K. W. Kayser, 
 Ceschichtsquellen iiber Tetzel (Annaberg, 1877) ; 
 Hermann, Johann Tetzel (2d ed., Frankfort, 
 1883) ; J. B. Rohm, Zur Tetzel-Legende (Hildes- 
 heim, 1890) ; N. Paulus, Johann Tetzel cler 
 Ablassprediger (Mayence, 1899) ; Cambridge 
 Modern History, vol. ii (New York, 1904). 
 
 TETJBNER, toip'ner, Benedictus Gottiielf 
 (1784-1856). A German bookseller, printer, and 
 publisher. He was born at Gross-Kraussnigk, 
 and became a bookseller at Leipzig in 1811. His 
 house soon grew to be one of the most important 
 in Germany. In 1832 he founded a printing 
 house in Dresden. The firm is best known for 
 cheap, accurate, and scholarly editions of Greek 
 and Latin classics, as well as for scientific pub¬ 
 lications, especially those of the Saxon Royal 
 Academy. 
 
 TEU'CER (Lat., from Gk. TevKpos, Teukros). 
 The name of two kings in Greek legend. The 
 first seems merely an invented eponymous hero 
 for the Teucri, traditionally the early inhabit¬ 
 ants of the Trojan plain. He is not mentioned 
 in the early epic, but later is called the son of 
 the river god Scamander and a nymph of Mount 
 
TEUFELSBRUCKE 
 
 135 
 
 TEUTONIC LANGUAGES 
 
 Ida. Another version brought him from Crete. 
 It was said that he gave his daughter, Bateia, 
 in marriage to Dardanus (q.v.), who succeeded 
 him as King. The other Teucer appears in the 
 Iliad, and remained a popular figure of legend. 
 He was the son of Telamon, King of Salamis, 
 and Hesione, daughter of Laomedon, King of 
 Troy. He accompanied his half brother Ajax 
 the Greater (see Ajax) to Troy, where he was 
 the best archer among the Greeks, but on his 
 return his father would not allow him to land 
 at Salamis because he had not avenged the death 
 of his brother Ajax, and had not brought back 
 Tecmessa and Eurysaces, her son by Ajax. 
 Teucer sailed for Cyprus, where he founded 
 another Salamis. Cf. Horace, Carmina, 1 , 7. 
 
 TEUFELSBRUCKE. See Devil’s Bridge. 
 
 TEUFELSDROCKH, toi'fels-drek, Herr Di¬ 
 ogenes. In Carlyle’s Sartor Itesartus, the eccen¬ 
 tric German professor whose speculations on the 
 philosophy of clothes form the vehicle for the 
 satire of the work. 
 
 TEUFFEL, toi'fel, Wilhelm Sigismund 
 (1820-78). A German classical scholar, born 
 at Ludwigsburg, Wurttemberg. He studied at 
 Tubingen, where he became professor of classical 
 philology in 1849. His principal work is the 
 Geschichte der romischen Litteratur (Leipzig, 
 1870; 5th ed., 1890, translated into English by 
 G. C. W. Warr, London, 1891-92; 6th ed., by W. 
 Kroll, F. Skutsch, and others, vols. ii-iii, Leip¬ 
 zig, 1910-13). Teuffel also published Studien 
 und Charakteristiken zur griechischen und 
 romischen, soivie zur deutschen, Litteraturge- 
 schichte (Leipzig, 1871; 3d ed., 1889), and 
 Lateinische Stililbungen, besides editions of the 
 Persce of iEscliylus and the Clouds of Aris¬ 
 tophanes. 
 
 TEUTONES, tu'to-nez. A powerful tribe of 
 Germany, dwelling at the mouth of the Elbe. 
 About 120 b.c. the Teutones joined the Cimbri 
 (q.v.) in their migration southward. In 104- 
 102 they remained in Gaul. In 102 they were 
 annihilated by Marius (q.v.) at Aqme Sextise 
 (Aix). See Germania ; Teutonic Race. Con¬ 
 sult: Clerc, La bataille d’Aix (1906) ; K. Miillen- 
 hoff, Deutsche Alter turn skunde, ii (2d ed., Berlin, 
 1906) ; L. Schmidt, Allgemeine Geschichte der 
 germmnschen Yolker (1909). 
 
 TEUTONIC AND SCANDINAVIAN 
 MYTHOLOGY. See Scandinavian and Teu¬ 
 tonic Mythology. 
 
 TEUTONIC KNIGHTS (The Teutonic 
 Knights of St. Mary’s Hospital at Jerusalem). 
 An order of knighthood which originated in a 
 brotherhood formed by German knights in 1190 
 during the siege of Acre by the Crusaders and 
 recognized by Pope Clement III in 1191. In 
 1198 this association was changed into an order 
 of knighthood as a balance to the political influ¬ 
 ence of the Templars and Hospitalers. Her¬ 
 mann von Salza, grand master from 1210 to 1239, 
 saw no future in Palestine, and the order en¬ 
 gaged in the conquest of the heathen Prussians, 
 inhabiting the Baltic regions to the northeast 
 of Germany. After a fierce struggle of half a 
 century they completed their subjugation in 
 1283. Christianity was planted with fire and 
 sword, cities were founded, and the land was 
 colonized by Germans. In 1237 the Teutonic 
 Knights absorbed the order of the Brothers of 
 the Sword, and so acquired Livonia and Kur¬ 
 land. They waged long wars with the Lithu¬ 
 anians for the possession of the territory in¬ 
 
 tervening between these regions and the Prus¬ 
 sian country. Early in the fourteenth century 
 they extended their dominion westward, making 
 themselves masters of Danzig and Little Pom¬ 
 erania (Pomerellen). They became "a great 
 power and their State prospered, but the Knights 
 themselves remained a ruling aristocracy, and 
 were hated by the conquered natives and Ger¬ 
 mans alike. In 1410 the power of the Teutonic 
 Knights sustained a great blow through their 
 defeat in the battle of Tannenberg at the hands 
 of the Poles and Lithuanians. In 1466 they 
 were compelled in the Treaty of Thorn to cede 
 West Prussia to Poland and to agree to hold 
 East Prussia as a Polish fief. Half a century 
 later the Knights of the Sword cut loose from 
 the Teutonic Knights, whose dominion was now 
 restricted to East Prussia. In 1525 the grand 
 master, Albert of Brandenburg (q.v.), having 
 embraced Protestantism, laid down his office 
 and converted the State over which he ruled 
 into the hereditary Duchy of Prussia, for which 
 he did homage to the King of Poland. The 
 order was composed of knights, priests, and 
 servants. The rule followed was that of St. 
 Augustine. The insignia were the white mantle 
 and the black cross. After the secularization 
 of the Prussian domain of the Teutonic Knights 
 the order continued to exist in Germany, having 
 numerous possessions, mostly of very small ex¬ 
 tent, scattered throughout the Empire. Its head 
 resided at Mergentheim (now a town of Wurt¬ 
 temberg). The order was abolished by Napoleon 
 in 1809, and its possessions were confiscated. 
 It was revived as an Imperial Austrian order in 
 1834. Its head is an Austrian archduke. Con¬ 
 sult: Johannes Voigt, Geschichte des deutschen 
 Ritterordens (Berlin, 1857-59) ; Ernest Strehlke, 
 Tabulae Ordinis Theutonici (ib., 1869) ; Max 
 Perlbach, Die Statuten des deutschen Ordcns 
 (Halle, 1890) ; Johann Loserth, Geschichte des 
 spiiteren Mittelalters (Munich, 1903). 
 
 TEUTONIC LANGUAGES (Lat. Teutoni- 
 cus, from Teutoni, Teutones, an ancient German 
 tribe, connected with Goth, piuda, AS. peod, 
 OHG. diot, Ir. tuath, country, people), or Ger¬ 
 manic Languages. The group of languages of 
 the Indo-Germanic or Indo-European family (see 
 Indo-Germanic Languages) spoken by the 
 Teutonic or Germanic stock. (See Teutonic 
 Race.) It is divided into three main groups: 
 East, North, and West. These three groups 
 were offshoots of a common stock called primi¬ 
 tive Teutonic or Germanic, distinguished from 
 other branches of the Indo-Germanic family by 
 the phenomenon of “sound shifting.” 
 
 East Germanic. This division seems to be 
 entitled to the collective name Vandal. The 
 more prominent East German peoples were the 
 Goths (q.v.), the Vandals (q.v.) (in the nar¬ 
 rower sense), and the Burgundians. (See Bltr- 
 gundy. ) Of the last-named only scanty lin¬ 
 guistic remnants have survived, which are dis¬ 
 cussed by R. Kogel, in Haupt’s Zeitschrift fur 
 deutsches Altertum, vol. xxxvii (Berlin). Of 
 the language of the Vandals likewise little re¬ 
 mains. The remnants of their dialect are 
 treated by Wrede, Ueber die Sprache der Tan- 
 dalen (Strassburg, 1886). The most important 
 of the East Germanic peoples were the Goths. 
 (See Gothic Language.) The Gothic language 
 perished with their empires, except that a last 
 remnant of Goths found an oasis on the Ru¬ 
 manian coast of the Black Sea where the dia¬ 
 lect became extinct in the ninth century, except 
 
TEUTONIC LANGUAGES 
 
 TEUTONIC LANGUAGES 
 
 for the Krim or Crimean Gothic which con¬ 
 tinued to exist as late as the sixteenth century. 
 Our knowledge of Gothic depends almost en¬ 
 tirely upon the language of the Visigoths in 
 the Roman provinces of-Mcesia and Dacia (Bul¬ 
 garia and Rumania), as written down by 
 Ulfilas (q.v.). Here the Teutonic dialects as¬ 
 sume for the first time literary form. 
 
 North Germanic. The four dialects of this 
 group, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, and Ice¬ 
 landic, show but slight traces of dialectic dif¬ 
 ference before the eleventh century, as is proved 
 by the evidence of the Norse runes (q.v.). The 
 Scandinavian languages after the eleventh cen¬ 
 tury, however, are divided into East and West 
 Scandinavian, or East and West (or Old) Norse. 
 The eastern division consists of Swedish (in¬ 
 cluding the dialect of the island of Gotland) 
 and Danish; the western division of Norwegian 
 and Icelandic. 
 
 West Germanic. Linguistically West Ger¬ 
 manic is best divided into Anglo-Saxon or Eng¬ 
 lish, Frisian, Low German (Old Saxon), Fran¬ 
 conian (or Frankish), and High German. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon or English. —There were three 
 main divisions of Anglo-Saxon, the Northern, 
 Midland, and Southern, or also known as North¬ 
 umbrian, Mercian, and Wessex Anglo-Saxon in 
 the narrower sense. Anglo-Saxon records, which 
 begin with the eighth century, belong almost 
 entirely to the dialect of Wessex. Modern Eng¬ 
 lish is properly derived from the dialect of the 
 East Midland 'or East Mercian division, but as 
 very little material of that dialect has been 
 preserved, it is customary to connect English 
 words with the dialect of Wessex. Northum¬ 
 brian gave rise to the later Scottish dialect. 
 English proper begins about 1100 when flexional 
 terminations show signs of weakening. This 
 is usually called the Old English period which 
 ended about 1350, when began Middle English 
 ending about 1460. The Modern English period, 
 from the latter date on, is characterized by an 
 almost complete loss of adjective and noun 
 flexions and verb flexions in respect to persons 
 and moods. See Anglo-Saxon Language and 
 Literature; English Language. 
 
 Frisian. —Frisian is still spoken in Holland, 
 but in general Low German has taken its place. 
 Frisian had originally three dialects, West 
 Frisian in northern Holland, East Frisian be¬ 
 tween the mouths of the Ems and Weser, and 
 North Frisian northward of the mouth of the 
 Elbe. Old Frisian and the Anglian dialect of 
 Anglo-Saxon are closely related in grammar and 
 vocabulary. See Frisian Language and Lit¬ 
 erature. 
 
 Low German (Old Saxon). —Low German 
 speech differs markedly from Anglo-Saxon. The 
 Old Saxon dialects were to the south of the 
 Frisian and east of the lower and middle Frank¬ 
 ish, extending over an area roughly correspond¬ 
 ing to modern Westphalia, Hanover to Schles¬ 
 wig-Holstein. In its modern continuation Old 
 Saxon is Plattdeutsch. See German Language; 
 Plattdeutsch. 
 
 Franconian. —The Franconian or Frankish 
 dialects of the present day in Middle Germany 
 (Middle or Rhenish Franconian, and South or 
 Upper Franconian) differ but little from High 
 German. (See German Language.) The North 
 Franconian, spoken in the Netherlands as late 
 as the sixteenth century, is also called Old Low 
 Franconian. It is continued to the present day 
 in the Dutch of Holland, and in the Flemish of 
 
 Flanders in Belgium. See Dutch Language; 
 Flemish Language and Literature. 
 
 High German. —For the character of High 
 German speech, see German Language. The 
 principal modern dialects of High German are 
 the Alemannic, spoken in Alsace, the south of 
 Baden, and parts of Switzerland; the Swabian 
 of Wiirttemberg and western Bavaria, and the 
 Bavarian of Bavaria, parts of Tirol, Salzburg, 
 Austria proper, North Styria, North Carinthia, 
 and other districts of the Austrian Empire. 
 
 General Characteristics. The Teutonic lan¬ 
 guages have developed striking special charac¬ 
 teristics which differentiate them from the re¬ 
 maining languages of the Indo-Germanic family. 
 These concern vocalism, consonantism, declen¬ 
 sion, and conjugation. As regards vocalization 
 the Teutonic treatment of ablaut (q.v.) is pe¬ 
 culiar. In the common Indo-Germanic period 
 ablaut was a purely phonetic phenomenon, but 
 in the Teutonic languages, owing to the prevail¬ 
 ing loss of the reduplication (q.v.) in the per¬ 
 fect of the verb, and the reduction or loss of 
 endings, ablaut has been adapted to a quasi- 
 grammatical property. Thus the changes of the 
 root vowel in Greek depKo/uicu, Sedopica, edpaKov, 
 are identical with those in German loerde, ward, 
 geworden, but in Greek the vocalic changes are 
 not associated consciously with the changes of 
 tense. On the other hand, in the German ward 
 the vowel a carries the preterite sense of the 
 verb. The prominence of the ablaut has also 
 contributed to analogical spread, and a consid¬ 
 erable degree of generalization which has re¬ 
 sulted in the six so-called ablaut series com¬ 
 prising the majority of the so-called strong 
 verbs. Some of the types of these series in 
 Gothic stre: beita, bait, bitum, to bite; kiusa, 
 leans, kusum, to choose; binda, band, bundum, 
 to bind. The phenomenon known as umlaut 
 (q.v.), i.e., the assimilation of a given vowel 
 to the vowel of a neighboring syllable, although 
 it rests upon a universal phonetic tendency, is 
 also specially prominent in all periods of the 
 history of Teutonic speech. 
 
 Very characteristic is the treatment of the 
 Indo-Germanic lingual and nasal vowels in all 
 Teutonic languages, as u + lingual or nasal, 
 giving the groups ur, ul, um, and un; e.g., Indo- 
 Germanic *ulqos, Skt. vrka, wolf, appears in 
 Gothic as wulf; and Indo-Germanic *kmtom, 
 Skt. satam, hundred, appears in Gothic as liund. 
 
 The most characteristic of all Teutonic phe¬ 
 nomena is the so-called shift or rotation of con¬ 
 sonants, known as Grimm’s law (q.v.). A group 
 of apparent exceptions to Grimm’s law was ex¬ 
 plained by Karl Verner. See Verner’s Law. 
 
 In the domain of noun declension the most im¬ 
 portant Teutonic phenomenon is the spread of 
 the n stems, giving rise to the important dis¬ 
 tinction between the weak declension (n declen¬ 
 sion) and the strong declension (declensions 
 without n). Especially, every adjective may be 
 inflected according to the weak or n declension, 
 being then used as the so-called definite form of 
 the adjective in connection with the definite 
 article, in distinction from the indefinite adjec¬ 
 tive with the indefinite article. The starting 
 point for this is prehistoric. Already in Indo- 
 Germanic times adjectives were substantivized 
 by transition to the n declension. A parallel to 
 tiie double adjective is ‘found in the Balto-Slavic 
 languages, which have produced a definite ad¬ 
 jective by compounding the indefinite with the 
 pronominal stem io-. 
 
TEUTONIC ORDER 
 
 TEXAS 
 
 The most important feature of the Teutonic 
 languages in the field of conjugation is the dis¬ 
 tinction between strong and weak verbs, based in 
 the main upon the different treatment of the 
 perfect. The strong verbs were originally pri- 
 mary; they employed the nonthematic, and very 
 largely reduplicated, perfect of Indo-Germanie 
 times; as Gothic present wairpa, I become, per¬ 
 fect warp. The weak verbs were mostly secon¬ 
 dary or denominative present stems, which sup¬ 
 plied their perfect by a periphrastic form made 
 by fusion of the verb stem with a preterite form 
 of the root dhe, to set, as Gothic present nasja, 
 I save, perfect nasida. Especially in the later 
 periods of Teutonic speech the historical limits 
 of the two classes are effaced. The old type of 
 preterite presents, which are presents in func¬ 
 tion, also associate with themselves the weak 
 perfect, so that German weiss, know (Gothic 
 ivait, Greek olda), forms the weak perfect wusste, 
 knew. 
 
 Bibliography. Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik 
 (new ed., Berlin, 1870-97) ; Streitberg, Urger- 
 manisohe Grammatik (Heidelberg, 1896) ; Die¬ 
 ter, Laut- und Formenlehre der altgcrmanischen 
 Dialekte (Leipzig, 1900) ; Paul, Grundriss der 
 germanischen Philologie, vols. i-v (3d ed., 
 Strassburg, 1911-13) ; Loewe, Germanische 
 Sprachwissenschaft (Leipzig, 1905) ; Hoops, 
 Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde 
 (2 vols., Strassburg, 1911-15) ; Kluge, Urger- 
 manisch (3d ed., ib., 1913); Kossinna, Die 
 deutsohe Vorgeschichte (2d ed., Wurzburg, 
 1914) ; Kluge, Etymologisches Wbrterbuch der 
 deutschcn Spraohe (8th ed., Strassburg, 1915). 
 See also the articles on the various languages of 
 the Teutonic group and the bibliographies there 
 given. 
 
 TEUTONIC ORDER. See Teutonic 
 Knights. 
 
 TEUTONIC RACE. The name popularly 
 applied to a division of the European peoples, 
 comprising nearly the whole of the population of 
 the German Empire, the Scandinavian countries, 
 the Netherlands, Great Britain, and Switzer¬ 
 land; a large proportion of the people in the 
 United States, Canada, Newfoundland, Australia, 
 New Zealand, and Cape Province; about two- 
 thirds of the inhabitants of Cisleithan Austria; 
 and half the population of Belgium (Flemings). 
 It is also represented by large numbers in Hun¬ 
 gary and in the Baltic provinces, Finland, and 
 other parts of Russia, and is found scattered 
 over the.whole world. See Europe, Peoples of. 
 
 TEUTSCHENBRUNN, John Heumann von. 
 See Heumann von Teutschenbrunn. 
 
 TEVERONE, ta'va-ro'na. See Anio. 
 
 TEWA, tfiAva. A group of Tanoan-speaking 
 pueblos in New Mexico. See Tanoan Stock. 
 
 TEWFIK (Mohammed) PASHA, tu'fik 
 pa-sha' (1852-92). Khedive of Egypt from 
 1879 to 1892. He was the eldest son of Ismail 
 Pasha, who secured from the Sultan a firman 
 decreeing the khedival succession to Tewfik in¬ 
 stead of his brother Halim. In February, 1879, 
 when the ministry of Nubar Pasha was dis¬ 
 missed (see Egypt), Prince Tewfik became presi¬ 
 dent of the Council, but he, like Nubar, showed 
 too much sympathy with Egypt’s European cred¬ 
 itors and soon retired. On June 26, 1879, the 
 Sultan deposed Ismail and Tewfik became Khe¬ 
 dive, at a time when Egypt was deeply embar¬ 
 rassed financially and the power of the Khedive 
 was much curtailed. His general policy was 
 modern and European, and the year 1880 wit¬ 
 
 nessed the establishment of the dual control of 
 Egypt by England and France. Tewfik soon had 
 to face the rebellion of the Nationalists under 
 Arabi Pasha (q.v.), and Egypt was rescued from 
 anarchy by the intervention of England, which 
 thereby established a controlling influence in 
 the country. Consult F. C. Penfield, Present 
 Day Egypt (rev. ed., New York, 1903). 
 
 TEWKESBURY, tuks'ber-i. A town and 
 parliamentary and municipal borough in 
 Gloucestershire, England, on the Avon, 10 miles 
 northeast of Gloucester (Map: England, D 5). 
 The parish church, an ancient and noble Norman 
 edifice, is a noteworthy architectural feature, 
 and is all that remains of a great Benedictine 
 abbey founded in the twelfth century. Tewkes¬ 
 bury is famous as the scene of the battle fought 
 within half a mile of it on May 4, 1471, when 
 the Yorkists under Edward IV and the Duke 
 of Gloucester inflicted a signal defeat on the 
 Lancastrians. Pop., 1901, 5419; 1911, 5260. 
 
 Consult Blunt, History of Tewkesbury (2d ed., 
 London, 1877), and Mass6, Tewkesbury Abbey 
 Church (ib., 1900). 
 
 TEWKS'BURY. A town in Middlesex Co., 
 Mass., 5 miles southeast of Lowell, on the Bos¬ 
 ton and Maine Railroad (Map: Massachusetts, 
 E 2). It contains the State infirmary. There 
 are extensive horticultural interests, and a 
 chemical factory. Pop., 1900, 3683; 1910, 3750; 
 1915 (State census), 5265. 
 
 TEXARKANA, teks'ar-kan'a. The name of 
 two adjoining cities situated on each side of 
 the boundary between Arkansas and Texas, 
 145 miles southwest of Little Rock; on the 
 Texas and Pacific, the St. Louis, Iron Moun¬ 
 tain and Southern, the Memphis, Dallas, and 
 Gulf, the St. Louis Southwestern, and the Kan¬ 
 sas City Southern railroads (Map: Texas, E 3). 
 One of the municipalities is the county seat of 
 Miller Co., Ark., and the other is in Bowie 
 Co., Tex. They form, however, practically one 
 industrial community. There are two Federal 
 courts, a county court, two hospitals, a fine 
 post-office building, two city halls, and St. Agnes 
 Academy, besides several handsome residences 
 and business blocks. Texarkana has consider¬ 
 able importance in commerce and manufactures. 
 It is the centre of large timber interests, and 
 ships also cotton, cottonseed oil, and hides. 
 Foundries and machine shops, various plants 
 connected with the cotton industry, large creo- 
 soted timber and glass plants, railway shops, 
 cooperages, lumber mills, and furniture, casket, 
 candy, screen, sulphur, mattress, and pottery 
 factories constitute the leading industrial es¬ 
 tablishments. Pop., Texarkana in Texas, 1900, 
 5256; 1910, 9790; 1915, 12,181; 1920, 11,480; 
 Texarkana in Arkansas, 1900, 4914; 1910, 5655. 
 
 TEX'AS. A state in the south-central part 
 of the United States, popularly called the Lone 
 Star State. It is, next to Florida, the southern¬ 
 most State of the Union, lying between latitudes 
 25° 51' and 36° 30' N., and between longitudes 
 93° 27' and 106° 43' W. It is of an irregular 
 triangular shape with the apex pointing south 
 and a square panhandle extending northward. 
 Its greatest length from north to south is 
 about 800 miles, and its greatest breadth about 
 750 miles. It is the largest State in the Union, 
 having an area of 265,896 square miles, of 
 which 3498 square miles constitute water sur¬ 
 face. Its area is larger than the combined 
 area of the Atlantic States from Maine to 
 Virginia, inclusive. 
 
TEXAS 
 
 TEXAS 
 
 138 
 
 Topography. In general the land rises gradu¬ 
 ally towards the west boundary by a succession 
 of broad and more or less terraced slopes run¬ 
 ning parallel with the Gulf coast. Five or six 
 well-marked topographical regions may be dis¬ 
 tinguished. The first is the coastal plain, a 
 continuation of the same formation in the other 
 Gulf States. It rises gradually from sea level 
 to an altitude of 500 feet about 150 miles in¬ 
 land, and is very level in its lower portion, 
 becoming somewhat hilly near its inner border. 
 The coast itself is lined almost throughout its 
 length of 375 miles by lagoons cut of! from 
 the sea by long, narrow sand islands. The 
 northern lagoons generally extend some distance 
 inland in large, irregular bays and estuaries, 
 lined partly by low marshy shores, partly by 
 high bluffs. The principal bays are those of 
 Galveston, Matagorda, San Antonio, and Corpus 
 Christi. The western part of the coastal plain 
 is a belt of rolling country known as the Black 
 Prairie, about 100 miles wide in the north and 
 south, but very narrow in its middle portion. 
 It is succeeded on the northwest by a very 
 broad belt of country called by geologists the 
 central denuded region. This rises from a 
 height of 600 feet in the east to over 2000 
 feet in the west, being bounded by the escarp¬ 
 ment of the Llano Estacado, and is a rugged 
 and much eroded, though not mountainous, re¬ 
 gion, with ridges, prairie valleys, isolated table¬ 
 lands, and irregular depressions. It is bounded 
 on the west and southwest by the Plateau Re¬ 
 gion, a southern continuation of the Great 
 Plains. South of the Panhandle this forms a 
 large, flat-topped table-land, the Llano Estacado, 
 which from an altitude of 4000 feet falls on 
 the east into the Denuded Region in a high, 
 steep, and ragged escarpment cut back by 
 several large river valleys. On the southeast it 
 runs out into a lower plateau of different forma¬ 
 tions known as the Grand Prairie. This sweeps 
 around the southern end of the Denuded Region, 
 and geologically, and according to some also 
 'topographically, it runs northward between the 
 latter and the Black Prairie, though it is here 
 much lower than in the south. It extends south¬ 
 ward to the Rio Grande Valley, and is bounded 
 on the southeast by an escarpment. The last 
 topographical region is the portion of the 
 State lying beyond the Pecos River in the south¬ 
 west. This is a mountainous country with a 
 number of high, isolated, and barren ridges alter¬ 
 nating with broad and arid plains. The highest 
 point is Guadalupe Peak, with an altitude of 
 over 9000 feet. 
 
 Hydrography. Practically all the rivers of 
 Texas flow southeastward. With the exception 
 of the Canadian River in the north and the 
 Rio Grande with the Pecos in the south, which 
 rise in the Rocky Mountains, all the larger 
 rivers rise on the eastern edge of the Great 
 Plains, the Llano Estacado, and the Grand 
 Prairie. The extreme northern part of the 
 State belongs to the Mississippi basin. The 
 Canadian River crosses the Panhandle to join 
 the Arkansas, while the Red River rises on the 
 escarpment of the Llano Estacado and forms for 
 a long distance part of the northern State 
 boundary. The independent rivers flow directly 
 to the Gulf of Mexico, and all, except the Brazos 
 and Rio Grande, empty through estuaries 
 into the coast lagoon. The principal rivers are 
 the Sabine, on the Louisiana boundary, the 
 Neches, Trinity, Brazos, Colorado, Guadalupe, 
 
 San Antonio, Nueces, and the Rio Grande. 
 Most of these rivers flow through deep canons 
 immediately after leaving the Great Plains. 
 Several of them are navigable for considerable 
 distances at high water, but their mouths are 
 generally obstructed by bars. 
 
 Soil. ' The alluvial' bottom lands along the 
 lower river courses are the most fertile portions 
 of the State. Next to these ranks the Black 
 Prairie belt, which is covered with a remark¬ 
 ably fertile marl formed by the mixture of 
 clay with the disintegrated Cretaceous lime¬ 
 stone. The soil of the coastal plain is generally 
 sandy; in some places the sand is mixed with 
 clay to form a black loam. In the northwest 
 there are heavy deposits of red clay containing 
 much potash, but little nitrogenous matter. 
 The soil on the southern plateau is thin, but 
 the Llano Estacado is covered with a red sandy 
 loam which would be rendered fertile by irriga¬ 
 tion. 
 
 Climate. As Texas reaches to within two and 
 a half degrees of the tropical zone, it naturally 
 has a warm climate, but the great range in 
 latitude, and to some extent in altitude, pro¬ 
 duces also a considerable range in climatic con¬ 
 ditions. Although warm, the climate is drier 
 and less enervating than that of the other 
 Gulf States. The mean temperature in July 
 at Galveston on the coast is 83.7° F., at El Paso 
 in the extreme west 81.9° F., and at Amarillo 
 in the northwest 76° F. The corresponding 
 figures for January are 52.7° F. at Galveston, 
 44.5° F. at El Paso, and 31.9° F. at Amarillo. 
 On the coast the temperature seldom falls below 
 the freezing point, while in the northwest it 
 may fall several degrees below zero. In the 
 western uplands, on the other hand, the tem¬ 
 perature rises above 100° F., while on the 
 coast the maximum is between 90° F. and 95° F. 
 In winter the State is subject to severe north 
 winds, known as northers, which often lower the 
 temperature 50 degrees in a few hours. In the 
 eastern section the southeast winds from the 
 Gulf are prevalent and bring abundant rain to 
 that part of the State. lire rainfall decreases 
 rapidly westward, so that in the western part it 
 is insufficient for agriculture without irrigation. 
 In the eastern portion, near the mouth of the 
 Sabine River, the rainfall is sometimes over 
 60 inches, while in the extreme south, even 
 near the coast, it is sometimes only 5 inches 
 in a year. The normal annual average, at Gal¬ 
 veston is 49 inches, at Corpus Christi 30, at 
 Austin 34, at Abilene, nearly in the centre of 
 the State, 25, at Amarillo, in the Panhandle, 22, 
 and at El Paso 9 inches. 
 
 Vegetation. The principal forest area of 
 Texas is in the extreme eastern portion. The 
 coast is bordered by marshes and prairies ex¬ 
 tending 30 or 40 miles inland. North of the 
 prairies in the eastern quarter pines prevail, 
 long-leaf pine in the lower and short-leaf in 
 the higher pine barrens. Westward towards the 
 centre' of the State the deciduous species pre¬ 
 dominate—oaks, elm, maple, hickory, mulberry, 
 sweet gum, ash, and walnut. The Osage orange 
 is common in the black prairie region, and the 
 dwarf palmetto in the eastern part lends a 
 tropical aspect to the vegetation. In the river 
 bottoms the characteristic species are cotton¬ 
 wood, pecan, various oaks, sweet gums, syca¬ 
 more, ash, and cypress. Along 1 ; -stern border 
 of the Black Prairie two el belts of 
 
 hardwood forest, chiefly oak i known as 
 
» Welch o\ 
 ^Centralia 3Iic 
 => FaiSi 
 
 ICVini tft g A! 
 
 fO'Catale 
 
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 /jairo 
 
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 7 OTOES AND > 
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 % DICKENS | 
 
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 V<, oBi^kena^f' 
 
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 MKK T ' 
 
 1 A^^^SatriFtou 
 
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 L- QuemaUa 
 
 AA/'^f^Ar^lruri.CyiFaV 
 
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 “I /Jo .HuMana 
 ^ 7 ann)n V .0- 
 
 LadopiajO^I ^ 
 
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 X 5] liOPKJ^fe 
 
 r O^M'^Vseldllo^ 
 
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 • 1 r - r 
 
 1 \f RAi.MS .Winneboro 
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 ! SFTrsJlCvXoo 
 
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 Guthrie 
 
 I E 6 tacado j 
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 Crosbjton 
 
 CRUSIIY 
 
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 e! t , 1 , 0 Bonliam; 
 
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 ,ni () 5 I T"!"',® 
 
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 COCIIUAN 
 
 ARCHER 
 
 Z 
 
 HOCKLEY 
 
 Benjapjn 
 
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 j Slide ^ 
 f °c>>aton 
 
 ;rove 
 
 "X ^e*rj 
 
 Pjroepect 0 
 
 ’c/CmV Spring C'®tfeVfcey - F " l{l J--VQu 1 
 
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 \ °WoJd8un>\dX! 
 
 fvan j~X * Y 1 
 
 Wolfe Oy. 
 
 Decatur 
 
 Cel< 5 > 
 
 armer 
 
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 Paradlei 
 
 Rot an 
 
 jDr 5 u2°V'W*o _ 
 .EcnjRDL.STEPHlf.N9 j 
 
 0 ( Pal ° 
 ./ i Breckcnridge'r/ 
 /\Wajland 0 \ 6 f 
 Mo/anMln«sight 0 } .Str*r5«' 
 ‘S ./f~;F M t]gpd t; 
 
 ' y'V : CaUaUAN !„ EAitTLAkD ' 
 
 , < o^ .°f)url \f> v 1 Carbon o -d>esd<*ru 
 
 ! , a! 
 
 W^cOvalo CuUwawpod v. 
 
 T/Ue^% Vjeing.StaSo,^j6o4^ti'\ 
 
 A°j 0 V,o\*^ b. - tCArrsA 
 
 •Mineral 
 
 Anson 0 
 @ Lued< 
 
 ip.\ES/ 
 
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 Colorado jj o 
 
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 f N 0 L A 
 
 MART 
 
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 Big Spring- 
 
 I Decker 
 
 Stanton 
 
 ■J Hendersoni PAN 
 Minden° 
 
 ilillsbo 
 
 S-_l_ 4 __BtAK»-N vi.4 RUO=S^— 
 
 \ A filLE &Kk_yngus_d^—V: 
 
 ^'JW\rAbb 0 rt\ 7 ^ TKS~ 
 
 <<^^! 7 r ^- ?r -- h “FT rTi: 
 
 'FrosaoAMexJa' Tetfgue 
 .LlMEStt'NE \ }0« 
 
 f Gcoopi^cE.. 
 
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 -'i9 VmrUn a 
 
 MqoayV f aN iv$ tt 7 
 
 1 ABstcf v\ fifwyvx? I - 
 
 CaTe'iiipke W'f Bremon i3 / i 
 
 Cj No 1 
 
 cxKogerF’ ^\\ ** PrankUn 
 
 1 9 F'' C a m o ro v e -^t* ( 
 
 j Hearne-||| - " 
 
 0 Bartletr*M-I/L A M r \A 
 
 rtfeluom— ^ 
 
 f. Tan«lrU'd' Ca, ^' n C 
 
 ** l I or , V' ? VcrSW 
 
 Walnut^Sprs. > 
 ;ander / " ->/ \ 
 
 • > ^Morgan— 
 MeridiaFiW^ 
 o \ BOSQUE 
 Fairy. ogn 
 
 a ? iiT ° s rv^n> 3 . 
 
 A--' Mhjs-. 
 
 gC»g«n':bf\. 
 
 jhv v \ "'' au " in ®. 
 AI5 r.OiW 11 Wootj 
 )«wij j i;uiii/\ Fiji 
 
 ’ena] 
 
 \ \ OJaUsouviile 
 V-fC H E Rtylr/^?- 0 ? 0 - -1 
 ANDES2<^l2B ^KuU '-[CuBhing / ' 
 
 WfeUnK A i,o\^\ N ‘ ,c T ei 
 
 /M Cl kifakC—-Cp^rj e t V\N AC</l[XJC 
 
 GrapjJ&nd \ n 0 
 
 s ? Poiicika -./hK. 
 
 7 \ IIQUSTOjr\i\jfktn^/^^- < 
 
 Crqbkett 
 
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 | C,, y®\zaov! Or. C J*f ' 
 IglasscDcjC^SL ? 
 
 l .STERyiNQ^ 
 
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 1 ~~~ • ZfiiZ 1 
 
 ;aov!®w 0 •-J 
 
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 lOLE.MAN 
 ) frickhjlm 1 
 
 in NVc 
 iguBtineCaa 
 HempHUl 
 lire on 0 /(J 
 
 'n sabineS 
 
 <11 rookeland / 
 
 id'f "Delmtj 
 
 ] Burkeville 
 
 In ^^toniaql 
 
 rigtotrS^JW^ <n 
 
 ,il i ANGe lvn f 
 
 Scjfcimp'Oria X,avalm> 
 
 ieetrrNi 
 
 CRANE ; r 
 
 tural I Veil) 
 \ Horse It ea d. 
 
 / areroAjry 
 
 Crotber^w 
 
 Kennard' 
 
 CentraliacT' 
 
 x'oPennil 
 
 ^TRINITOC 
 
 Cron# in 
 
 jjr Uciton 
 
 o- v - .- Ho tlan 
 x/CornhTD^ 
 
 ;rtram-^ 
 
 tan N 8 AB ^^'Sp» 6 l 
 
 Chappert-^.--' 
 
 -^Charoia 
 o^Falley Spring T\im 
 
 nan gee 
 
 roveton' 
 
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 / Ad am 8 
 
 Eldorad, 
 
 ba^ka P 0 |( K 
 
 ^ Lrvlpgston 
 ir 6 rk«. ^'Lauio^t * 
 
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 6 WarreivV 
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 ', WALKER 
 r New Way 
 
 Ozona 
 
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 Y /C Ancfirson V VSS&J* *' 
 
 ^uVa vnso t a \ 
 
 A c Courtney \ 
 
 mJ-\ -FV. MO^ITOijhlERY 
 
 ^H^Jnp stea, i^Hufasu E\ 
 
 O^wenville 
 
 Jtmctioi 
 
 
 F 5 Ray> 
 ^Glevelaml 
 LIBERTY 
 
 v. . \Bttf 
 ^Liberty 
 
 Manor' 
 
 A J 0 I L L E : 
 S E_r» l lejJcktjburg 
 
 . !&> ckenbach 
 
 u vF r 
 
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 FvK 41 Siarat i 
 
 ^ay mo;id\ °n ^ 
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 Sanderson - 
 
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 BLANCO / r '. 
 
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 BASUJIj 
 
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 Whined"! 
 
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 j B A a\ I) E R A^'Boerne, 
 j-o x °i)ir v x ^ 
 
 A anderjod \ Bandera f 
 
 b\V:] Sunny Side Houston Heights 
 y> Euiek*V ^ 
 
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 i 
 
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 mos- 
 
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 Carrizo S] 
 
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 ISLANO 
 
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 'jFBhaeffeP 
 
 fOO VTo^ST.JOSEPH |. 
 
 ^X^ 7 l\Yuu 3 a 3 Pass 
 Portland? Aransas Pass 
 Corpuy Christi Bay 
 
 -Arnus Christi 
 
 flirni. 
 
 j\Bur).si*Erji; 
 
 ^V-t.t. Hancock bv.uoa 
 
 Joritus Chi 
 
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 \ D IKT A L/ ; ^ I ,' 
 
 ! W; 
 
 • v. Sweden© —s- 
 
 BfunXlIe^^NjitQB I Cvapo- 
 
 10 a 1 , -4 i . I K 
 
 I ^<H®f>bronnlle p rc {uon 
 
 Corpus Christi Pass 
 
 Brennans 
 
 Kingsvih 
 
 Presido 
 
 Viejo 
 
 Camaron 
 
 Sarit a 
 
 Fal(urriaa ? X?—i-j- 
 
 [BROOKSi 
 
 i°Sanisidro ‘ 
 _ J . ol 
 
 jr 1 Sanramon l 
 
 10 , ^uvl-^ej 
 
 JEFF irv\. 
 Wend^t. / 
 ^Walentf^re —0 
 
 ; j 131 
 
 1 ° Raniado 
 
 PECOS 
 
 Norias 
 
 Carrizo o 
 
 3 Iarfa 
 
 iBahO 
 
 Yturria \ ^ ' 
 • Raytnondvule 
 
 HILLACYV % 
 
 Xl.yford y 
 
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 rrrAllaylingen c 
 
 pCAj^HON 
 
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 o Rujdo«a\° 
 Oja Berrendo \l 
 o 1 
 Ranch' 
 
 ithon 
 
 r4?V3(jq 
 
 Reynoea Viejo 
 
 SCALE or STATUTE MILES 
 
 Isabel or 
 P'| : nt Isabel 
 
 Ojinaga) 
 
 oBi^TT^nd 
 
 Los^ XXi 
 
 ownsvtii^ 
 
 Matamoros 
 
 o Santa'Rosa 
 Caracol d ^ 
 
 Bravo 
 
 County Towns ® 
 
 Railroads 
 
 ENGR’G C 
 
 Greenwich 
 
TEXAS 
 
 139 
 
 TEXAS 
 
 the Cross Timbers, extend southward as far 
 as the Brazos River. To the south and west 
 of these the State is practically treeless except 
 along rivers. There are scattered areas of 
 scrub and chaparral composed largely of mes- 
 quite, the most characteristic tree or shrub of 
 western Texas. Still farther west even the 
 prairie grasses give place to or grow in the 
 midst of a desert flora in which the yuccas and 
 cacti predominate. 
 
 Geology and Minerals. The oldest rocks 
 come to the surface in the central denuded 
 region. In the southern part of this region, 
 west of Austin, there is a small area of Archean 
 rock surrounded by a narrow outcrop of Cam¬ 
 brian and Silurian strata. To the north of 
 this there is a considerable area of Carboniferous 
 formation, followed on the northwest, along the 
 eastern base of the Llano Estacado, by a still 
 larger region of Permian rocks. Another large 
 area of Paleozoic and early Mesozoic rocks is 
 found in the Trans-Pecos region, where the pre¬ 
 dominant formation is Triassic, as in the Pan¬ 
 handle, and of Ordovician, Carboniferous, and 
 Permian, as in the Marathon Plains and in the 
 Glass Mountains. In the westernmost moun¬ 
 tainous part of the State there is much Tertiary 
 igneous rock. The Llano Estacado, like the Great 
 Plains to the north, is of comparatively recent 
 formation, consisting of lacustrine Tertiary and 
 Pleistocene deposits. The southern plateau or 
 Grand Prairie region is older, being of Lower 
 Cretaceous formation, and this formation also 
 skirts the central Paleozoic area on the east. 
 It is succeeded on the east by a band of Upper 
 Cretaceous strata constituting the Black Prairie 
 belt. Beyond this the coastal plain is com¬ 
 posed to a large extent of marine Tertiary de¬ 
 posits. Workablte beds of bituminous coal oc¬ 
 cur in the central portion of the State, and 
 large deposits of lignite are stretched along 
 the western border of the coastal plain. In 
 the eastern part of the State, near the mouth 
 of the Sabine, petroleum deposits of great ex¬ 
 tent have been found at a depth of from 600 
 to 4000 feet. Other oil fields have been de¬ 
 veloped in Wichita, Clay, Palo Pinto, Shackle¬ 
 ford, Navarro, and Williamson counties. Gas 
 has been discovered in San Patricio County. 
 Iron and copper ores, as well as lead and tin, 
 occur in the southeastern part of the central 
 region, and silver is found in the west. The 
 Trans-Pecos region, still but partly explored, 
 probably contains varied mineral deposits, the 
 most important being the cinnabar ores found 
 in the Cretaceous limestone in the south. The 
 most important of the remaining minerals are 
 the immense beds of gypsum found in the Per¬ 
 mian strata of the northwestern Red Lands. 
 
 Mineral Resources. In 191^ Texas ranked 
 eighteenth among the States in value of mineral 
 products, the value of the total production 
 in that year being $30,363,426. Petroleum is 
 the most important product and the State was 
 fourth in quantity and seventh in value of oil 
 marketed in 1914, the production amounting to 
 20,068,184 barrels valued at $14,942,848. Fully 
 half of the oil produced comes from the Electra 
 field in the north. Coal is second in importance, 
 Texas being unique among the States in produc¬ 
 ing considerable quantities of both bituminous 
 coal and lignite. It is believed that about 55,- 
 000 square miles are underlain with lignite, 
 while the known bituminous areas measure 
 about 8200 square miles. In 1914 there were 
 Vol. XXII.— 10 . 
 
 produced 2,323,773 tons valued at $3,922,459. 
 Clay products, consisting of common brick, 
 sewer pipe, vitrified brick, pottery, and front 
 brick, hold a prominent position in the State’s 
 mineral resources. The production in 1914 was 
 valued at $2,280,987. In 1914 there were pro¬ 
 duced 2,096,140 barrels of cement valued at 
 $2,686,653. Texas is one of the leading States 
 in the production of quicksilver, upward of 112,- 
 500 pounds being produced annually. In the 
 production of asphalt Texas ranks first. This 
 is chiefly residue obtained from the heavy 
 asphaltic oils, though natural asphalt is found 
 in considerable quantities. The manufactured 
 asphalt produced in 1914 amounted to 57,934 
 tons valued at $608,132. Other minerals pro¬ 
 duced are gypsum, salt, stone, lead, lime, silver, 
 sulphur, and zinc. 
 
 Agriculture. Texas has an approximate land 
 area of 167,934,720 acres, of which 112,434,067 
 acres were in farms in 1910. The improved land 
 in farms was 27,360,666 acres and the number 
 of farms 417,770, averaging 269.1 acres. The 
 total value of farm property, including land, 
 buildings, implements and machinery, domestic 
 animals, poultry, and bees, was $2,218,645,164. 
 The average value of land per acre was $14.53. 
 Of the total number of farmers in 1910, 198,195 
 were owners and managers operating 87,155,- 
 963 acres, and 219,575 were tenants operating 
 25,279,104 acres. The native-white farmers 
 numbered 318,988, the foreign-born whites 28,- 
 864, and the non white 69,918. The tenants 
 among the whites numbered 170,970 and among 
 the nonwhite farmers 48,605, operating 22,956,- 
 867 acres and 2,322,237 acres respectively. Of 
 the foreign-born whites, 10,815 came from Ger¬ 
 many, 5236 from Austria, and 1026 from Sweden. 
 
 The following table shows the acreage, produc¬ 
 tion, and value of some of the principal crops 
 as estimated for 1915 by the United States De¬ 
 partment of Agriculture. 
 
 CROPS 
 
 Acreage 
 
 Production 
 in bushels 
 
 Value 
 
 Corn. 
 
 7,450,000 
 
 175,075,000 
 
 $101,544,000 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 1,475,000 
 
 22,862,000 
 
 24,462,000 
 
 Oats. 
 
 1,250,000 
 
 44,375,000 
 
 18,638,000 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 42,000 
 
 2,730,000 
 
 2,866,000 
 
 Sweet potatoes. . 
 
 60,000 
 
 5,880,000 
 
 4,116,000 
 
 Hay. 
 
 450,000 
 
 *765,000 
 
 6,044,000 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 10,200,000 
 
 f3,175,000 
 
 168,812,000 
 
 Rice. 
 
 260,000 
 
 7,930,000 
 
 7,058,000 
 
 * Tons. t Bales. 
 
 In 1909 Texas ranked third among the States 
 in the total value of all crops. This amounted 
 to $298,133,466 and the acreage of all crops 
 reporting such was 18,389,092. In that year the 
 leading crops in order of importance were corn, 
 cotton, cottonseed, hay and forage, rice, kafir 
 corn and milo maize, oats, wheat, and sweet 
 potatoes and yams. Texas is the leading State 
 in the production of cotton. The principal pro¬ 
 ducing counties form a group in the eastern 
 part extending from the Red River to the 
 southern boundaries, but concentrated particu¬ 
 larly in the Calcareous prairies. Ellis, Hill, 
 McLennan, Williamson, and Navarro counties 
 are the leading producers. In 1909 tlje total 
 acreage under cotton was 9,930,179 and the pro¬ 
 duction 2,455,174 bales, valued at $162,735,041. 
 Corn had an acreage of 5,130,052 and a produc¬ 
 tion of 75,498,695 bushels, valued at $50,564,- 
 618. The acres of hay and forage harvested in 
 
TEXAS 
 
 140 
 
 TEXAS 
 
 1909 amounted to 1,311,967, the crop amounting 
 to 1,257,845 tons, valued at $12,824,433. In 
 the production of rice Texas ranks second and, 
 in 1909, 237,586 acres were devoted to it. The 
 production was 8,991,745 bushels, valued at 
 $6,106,323. Kafir com and milo maize had an 
 acreage of 573,384 and a production of 5,860,- 
 444 bushels, valued at $3,785,463. To oats 
 were given 440,001 acres, and the production 
 amounted to 7,034,617 bushels, valued at $50,- 
 564,618. The area devoted to wheat was 326,176 
 acres; the production was 2,560,891 bushels, 
 valued at $2,891,061. The acreage under sweet 
 potatoes and yams was 42,010, and the pro¬ 
 duction 2,730,083 bushels, valued at $2,197,799. 
 Irish potatoes had an acreage of 36,092 and a 
 production of 2,235,983 bushels, valued at $1,- 
 825,150. Vegetables other than potatoes and 
 yams had an acreage of 124,690 and a produc¬ 
 tion valued at $8,099,306. Of the small fruits 
 strawberries were most important in value in 
 1909. The area devoted to small fruits in 1909 
 was 5053 acres, producing 6,182,742 quarts, 
 valued at $480,331. The most important or¬ 
 chard fruits were peaches, apples, pears, and 
 plums. The value of the total production 
 of orchard fruits was $1,060,998. Texas is 
 noted for its production of pecan nuts, which 
 in 1909 amounted to 5,832,367 pounds, valued 
 at $556,203. Of the tropical fruits raised, figs 
 are the most important; the production in 1909 
 was 2,411,876 pounds, valued at $97,078. The 
 total value of the sugar-cane products in 1909 
 was $1,669,683, by far the greater part of 
 which was from sorghum cane. The sirup made 
 amounted to 2,246,774 gallons, valued at $1,- 
 106,733. 
 
 Live Stock and Dairy Products. Texas is 
 the leading grazing State and ranching is still 
 one of its greatest interests. In 1915 it was 
 far ahead of any other State in the number of 
 neat cattle and of mules; in 1909 ranking sec¬ 
 ond in the total value, $313,164,540, of the 
 domestic animals on farms. The United States 
 Department of Agriculture estimated that on 
 Jan. 1, 1916, there were 1,180,000 horses valued 
 at $92,040,000, 768,000 mules valued at $76,- 
 800,000, 1,119,000 milch cows valued at $57,- 
 069,000, 5,428,000 other cattle valued at $179,- 
 667,000, 2,156,000 sheep valued at $7,977,000, 
 and 3,197,000 swine valued at $24,617,000. The 
 amount of wool produced in 1915 was 9,280,- 
 000 pounds. In 1909 the amount of milk pro¬ 
 duced was reported as 197,039,954 gallons, but¬ 
 ter made, 64,993,214 pounds, and cheese made, 
 194,990 pounds. The total value of milk, cream, 
 and butter fat sold and butter and cheese 
 made in 1909 was $15,679,924. The number of 
 fowls on farms was reported as 13,669,645, and 
 the eggs produced as 62,479,894 dozens, valued 
 at $9,586,114. 
 
 Irrigation. The normal rainfall varies from 
 over 50 inches in the east to less than 10 in the 
 west. This is sufficient for the growing of all 
 crops throughout the eastern part and for some 
 crops in the rest of the State. For this reason 
 and because irrigation is not necessary every 
 year, its practice has received less attention 
 than in most of the States west of it. About 
 50 per -cent of the area irrigated exclusive of 
 that used for rice growing is in the valley of 
 the Rio Grande. Irrigation is also common in 
 the valleys of the Pecos and Nueces rivers. The 
 number of farms irrigated in 1910 was 4150 and 
 the area so treated was 164,283 acres out of pos¬ 
 
 sible 340,641 acres. The Carey Act does not apply 
 to Texas and neither the United States Reclama¬ 
 tion Service nor the Indian Service irrigates 
 any land here. The number of independent en¬ 
 terprises in 1910 was 2161; the total length of 
 ditches was 1663, of which 722 were in laterals. 
 The main ditches had a capacity of 12,818 cubic 
 feet per second. The acreage irrigated per mile 
 of main ditch in that year was 1746. 
 
 Forest Products. The estimated area of for¬ 
 est land in Texas in 1908 was about 46,900 
 square miles. What valuable woods are found 
 occur mostly in the east, though a great part 
 of the timber is hardly fit for anything but 
 firewood. In 1913, 341 active mills reported 
 having cut 2,081,471 M feet board measure. 
 Three or four species of pine make up about 
 96 per cent of the total lumber output. Next 
 in importance are oak, red (sweet) gum, ash, 
 cottonwood, and cypress. Farms having forest 
 products reported a total value of $8,925,662 
 in 1910. See Manufactures. 
 
 Manufactures. The manufactures of Texas 
 depend largely upon the raw materials derived 
 from its stock-raising, agricultural, and mineral- 
 producing activities. In 1909 the State ranked 
 seventeenth in value of products. The gross 
 value per capita in that year was $70. The 
 table opposite gives the more important details 
 for the 10 leading industries and the State 
 as a whole for the years 1909 and 1904. 
 
 The slaughtering and meat-packing industry, 
 one of the youngest in the State, had grown in 
 less than a decade from a position of insig¬ 
 nificance to be the most important in value of 
 products in 1909. The value of material used 
 in that year was $37,409,785. The number of 
 beeves slaughtered was 527,469, value $15,089,- 
 886; calves 234,172, value $2,074,188; hogs 939,- 
 674, value $10,933,088. The most important 
 product was fresh beef, of which there were pro¬ 
 duced 208,016,588 pounds, value $12,408,125. 
 The amount of pork produced was 32,054,404, 
 value $3,195,006. The flour and grist mills 
 produced 3,339,479 barrels of white wheat flour, 
 value $19,110,676, 877,314 barrels of corn meal 
 and flour, value $2,875,994, 280,168 tons of 
 feed, value $7,325,154. Texas ranked seventh in 
 the cut of lumber in 1909, 2,099,130 M feet 
 board measure, of which 2,021,617 M feet were 
 soft woods, the short-leaf yellow pine contribut¬ 
 ing by far the greater part. See Forest Products. 
 
 Of the total number of wage earners in 1909, 
 166,120 were male. The wage earners under 
 16 years of age numbered 1256, of whom 223 
 were ‘ females. The lumber and timber industry 
 employed the greatest number of people in that 
 year—25,843. For about half the wage earners, 
 the prevailing hours of labor were 60 per week. 
 
 Dallas is the largest manufacturing centre. 
 The leading industries as measured by value of 
 products were in 1909 those connected with 
 slaughtering and meat packing, flour and grist 
 milling, cottonseed products, printing and pub¬ 
 lishing, leather goods, foundry and machine 
 shops. The number of wage earners was 4882, 
 employed in 305 establishments, and the value 
 of products was $26,959,000. Houston ranked 
 second with products valued at $23,016,000. 
 San Antonio was third and had products valued 
 at $13,434,897. Other cities and the value of 
 the products of their industries in 1909 are 
 Fort Worth, $8,660,882; Galveston, $6,308,076; 
 Beaumont, $4,830,591; Waco, $4,769,358. See 
 also under individual titles. 
 
TEXAS 
 
 TEXAS 
 
 Transportation. Texas is well supplied with 
 both rail and water transportation. There are 
 a number of streams which afford communica¬ 
 tion to a large area in the east and though 
 navigable only to light-draft vessels, considerable 
 transportation is done by water. Most of the 
 railroad mileage is confined to the more closely 
 settled part of the State, east of a line through 
 Fort Worth, Waco, Austin, and San Antonio. 
 There are several lines crossing the State from 
 
 the life of the Republic of Texas. The consti¬ 
 tution of 1845, adopted after the admission of 
 r J exas into the Union, prohibited the creation 
 of new banks, the necessary banking business 
 being performed by the one existing bank and 
 by private bankers. W 7 hen after the Civil War 
 the reconstruction forces came in, a new consti¬ 
 tution was adopted which did not have this 
 prohibitory clause, and in 1871 a free banking 
 law was passed. Five or six banks availed 
 
 SUMMARY OF INDUSTRIES FOR 1909 AND 1904 
 
 THE STATE -TEN LEADING INDUSTRIES 
 
 
 
 Num- 
 
 PERSONS ENGAGED 
 
 IN INDUSTRY 
 
 Capital 
 
 Wages 
 
 Value of 
 products 
 
 Value 
 added by 
 manufac¬ 
 ture 
 
 INDUSTRY 
 
 Census 
 
 ber of 
 establish- 
 
 
 Wage 
 
 earners 
 
 (average 
 
 number) 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 ments 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Expressed in thousands 
 
 
 All industries. 
 
 1909 
 
 4,588 
 
 84,575 
 
 70,230 
 
 $216,876 
 
 $37,907 
 
 $272,896 
 
 $94,717 
 
 Bread and other bakery products 
 
 1904 
 
 3,158 
 
 57,892 
 
 49,066 
 
 115,665 
 
 24,469 
 
 150,528 
 
 58,924 
 
 1909 
 
 385 
 
 2,078 
 
 1,391 
 
 4,003 
 
 671 
 
 5,311 
 
 2,249 
 
 Cars and general shop construc¬ 
 tion and repairs by steam-rail¬ 
 road companies. 
 
 1904 
 
 244 
 
 1,198 
 
 851 
 
 1,276 
 
 395 
 
 3,049 
 
 1,297 
 
 1909 
 
 62 
 
 10,527 
 
 9,782 
 
 9,362 
 
 6,715 
 
 13.359 
 
 7,813 
 
 1904 
 
 47 
 
 9,025 
 
 8,593 
 
 4,599 
 
 5,370 
 
 10,473 
 
 5,997 
 
 Flour-mill and grist-mill products 
 
 1909 
 
 238 
 
 1,899 
 
 1,216 
 
 13,219 
 
 669 
 
 32,485 
 
 3,828 
 
 Foundry and machine-shop prod- 
 
 1904 
 
 154 
 
 1,430 
 
 986 
 
 7,785 
 
 528 
 
 22,083 
 
 3,120 
 
 1909 
 
 143 
 
 3,441 
 
 2,925 
 
 8,241 
 
 1,925 
 
 8,068 
 
 4,209 
 
 ucts. 
 
 1904 
 
 111 
 
 2,376 
 
 2,080 
 
 4,994 
 
 1,268 
 
 5,179 
 
 2,877 
 
 Liquors, malt. 
 
 1909 
 
 12 
 
 931 
 
 765 
 
 7,027 
 
 566 
 
 6,464 
 
 4,769 
 
 Lumber and timber products.... 
 
 1904 
 
 10 
 
 740 
 
 626 
 
 5,150 
 
 [412 
 
 4,154 
 
 3,059 
 
 1909 
 
 799 
 
 25,843 
 
 23,518 
 
 45,552 
 
 11,602 
 
 32,201 
 
 21,197 
 
 Oil, cottonseed, and cake. 
 
 1904 
 
 391 
 
 16,101 
 
 14,623 
 
 20,452 
 
 6,500 
 
 18,880 
 
 13,925 
 
 1909 
 
 194 
 
 3,923 
 
 3,073 
 
 21,506 
 
 1,296 
 
 29,916 
 
 6,477 
 
 Printing and publishing. 
 
 1904 
 
 157 
 
 3,368 
 
 2,739 
 
 14,180 
 
 • 1,020 
 
 18,699 
 
 2,894 
 
 1909 
 
 1,067 
 
 7,177 
 
 4,408 
 
 9,127 
 
 2,785 
 
 11,587 
 
 8,780 
 
 Rice, cleaning and polishing. 
 
 1904 
 
 850 
 
 5,288 
 
 3,444 
 
 6,107 
 
 2,071 
 
 7,830 
 
 6,067 
 
 1909 
 
 19 
 
 643 
 
 430 
 
 3,820 
 
 189 
 
 8,142 
 
 1,020 
 
 Slaughtering and meat packing. . 
 
 1904 
 
 17 
 
 609 
 
 432 
 
 2,139 
 
 212 
 
 4,640 
 
 1,132 
 
 1909 
 
 14 
 
 14,248 
 
 3,639 
 
 12,438 
 
 1,902 
 
 42,530 
 
 5,120 
 
 
 1904 
 
 9 
 
 2,354 
 
 2,019 
 
 6,375 
 
 866 
 
 15,621 
 
 2,028 
 
 east to west, and north-south travel is afforded 
 by numerous roads. The railroads centre about 
 Houston in the south and Fort Worth and 
 Dallas in the north. Texas leads all States in 
 the mileage of railroads. This (excluding sid¬ 
 ing and yard tracks) in 1914 was 15,569. Some 
 of the principal roads with their mileage in 
 that year are: the Southern Pacific, 2803 (Gal¬ 
 veston, Harrisburg, and San Antonio, 1332; 
 Houston, East and West Texas, 191; Houston 
 and Texas Central, 828; Texas and New Orleans, 
 452) ; the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe, 2334 
 (Cane Belt, 108; Concho, San Saba, and Llano 
 Valley, 60; Gulf, Beaumont, and Great Northern, 
 78; Gulf, Beaumont, and Kansas City, 63; Gulf, 
 Colorado, and Santa Fe, 1145; Gulf and Inter¬ 
 state, 70; Jasper and Eastern, 18; Panhandle 
 and Santa Fe, 125; Pecos and Northern Texas, 
 570; Texas and Gulf, 95) ; the Missouri, Kan¬ 
 sas, and Texas, 1119; the International and 
 Great Northern, 1106; the Texas and Pacific, 
 1038; the Colorado and Southern, 745 (Abilene 
 and Southern, 72; Fort Worth and Denver City, 
 454; Stamford and Western, 83; Wichita Falls 
 and Oklahoma, 23; Wichita Valley, 113); the 
 San Antonio and Arkansas Pass, 724; the St. 
 Louis Southwestern, 695; the St. Louis, Browns¬ 
 ville, and Mexico, 472; the Chicago, Rock Is¬ 
 land, and Gulf, 469; the Kansas City, Mexico, 
 and Orient, 465; the St. Louis and San Fran¬ 
 cisco, 326 (Fort Worth and Rio Grande, 223; 
 Paris and Great Northern, 17; St. Louis, San 
 Francisco, and Texas, 85). 
 
 Banks. Only one bank was chartered during 
 
 themselves of this law, but after the recon¬ 
 structionists were overthrown and home rule 
 again established, the old prohibitory rule was 
 again included in the constitution of 1875. Be¬ 
 cause of this prohibition, national banks reached 
 a high degree of development, and their num¬ 
 ber rapidly increased. The number and condi¬ 
 tion of the various banks in 1914 is shown in 
 the following table. 
 
 ITEMS 
 
 National 
 
 banks 
 
 State 
 
 banks 
 
 Private 
 
 banks 
 
 Number 
 
 519 
 
 789 
 
 36 
 
 Capital. 
 
 $52,239,000 
 
 $20,286,000 
 
 $995,020 
 
 Surplus. 
 
 26,988,000 
 
 4,758,169 
 
 284,970 
 
 Cash, etc. 
 
 21,311,000 
 
 564,731 
 
 182,524 
 
 Deposits. 
 
 174,033,000 
 
 52,218,506 
 
 2,351,108 
 
 Loans. 
 
 40,172,000 
 
 65,143,936 
 
 3,191,221 
 
 Government. The present constitution was 
 ratified by the voters in 1876, and has been 
 amended in important details. The Legislature 
 by a vote of two-thirds of all the members 
 may propose amendments to be voted upon by 
 the qualified electors, and these amendments 
 when approved by a majority of the voters be¬ 
 come part of the constitution. 
 
 Legislative .—The legislative power is vested 
 in a Senate and House of Representatives, which 
 meet biennially. The Senate consists of 31 
 members. The membership of the House of 
 Representatives must never exceed 150. Sen¬ 
 ators are chosen for four years, half of whom 
 
TEXAS 
 
 TEXAS 
 
 142 
 
 take office every two years. The members of the 
 House are elected for two years. Senators must 
 be at least 2G years old, and must have resided 
 in the State for five years preceding their elec¬ 
 tion. Members of the House must be at least 
 21 years of age, and must have resided in the 
 State for two years. 
 
 Executive .—The executive department consists 
 of the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary 
 of State, Comptroller of Public Accounts, Treas¬ 
 urer, Commissioner of the General Land Office, 
 and Attorney-General, all except the Secretary 
 of State being elected by the qualified voters 
 at the same time and places as members of 
 the Legislature. The Governor must be at least 
 30 years of age, and must have resided in the 
 State for five years preceding his election. He 
 has power to convene the Legislature in ex¬ 
 traordinary session, but must state specifically 
 the purpose for which it is convened. The Secre¬ 
 tary of State, appointed by the Governor with 
 the advice and consent of the Senate, continues 
 in office during the service of the Governor. 
 
 Judiciary .—The judicial power is vested in 
 the Supreme Court, courts of civil appeals, a 
 court of criminal appeals, district courts, county 
 courts, commissioner courts, and such other 
 minor courts as may be provided by law. The 
 Supreme Court consists of a justice and two 
 associate justices, who are elected and hold 
 office for six years. The court of criminal ap¬ 
 peals consists of three judges elected by the 
 voters for a term of six years. This court 
 has appellate jurisdiction coextensive with the 
 limits of the State in all criminal cases. The 
 State is divided into districts in each of which 
 is a court of civil appeals. The judges of these 
 courts are elected for six years. 
 
 Suffrage and Elections .—Every male of the 
 age of 21 years or over, who has resided in the 
 State for one year next preceding an election 
 and six months within the district or county in 
 which he offers to vote, and every male of foreign 
 birth, who, in not less than six months previous 
 to any election at which he offers to vote, shall 
 have declared his intention to become a citi¬ 
 zen of the United States, and who has resided 
 in the State for one year next preceding the 
 election, are deemed qualified voters. Voters 
 are subject to pay a poll tax, those more than 
 60 years of age, or blind, deaf, or dumb, or 
 permanently disabled are exempt. Primaries 
 are held on the fourth Saturday in July of 
 even years. In the year of a presidential elec¬ 
 tion voters are given the opportunity to signify 
 their preference for President and Vice Presi¬ 
 dent at a preferential election held on the first 
 Tuesday in May. 
 
 Local and Municipal Government .—The legal 
 subdivision of the State is the county. Cities 
 and towns having a population of less than 
 5000 inhabitants are chartered by general laws. 
 Cities of more than 5000 inhabitants may by a 
 majority vote of the qualified voters adopt 
 their own charter. 
 
 Miscellaneous Constitutional and Statutory 
 Provisions .—All property both real and per¬ 
 sonal of a wife, owned and claimed by her before 
 marriage, is her separate property. Provision 
 is made for the guaranty of bank deposits by 
 either giving a bond or contributing to a de¬ 
 posit fund. Provision is made for suspended 
 and interminant cases of prisoners, and for 
 parole of convicted persons. The State is under 
 county local option as regards the liquor ques¬ 
 
 tion and about 87 per cent of the population 
 were under “no license” in 1915. 
 
 Finances. The fiscal history of the Republic 
 of Texas was mainly a record of debts, as 
 the strained relations with Mexico demanded 
 greater expense than the taxable property of 
 the young Republic could bear. The issue of 
 loans was stopped only by the inability to 
 float them. An investigation by the Legislature 
 of the State in 1848 ascertained the nominal 
 debt to be $9,647,253, to which the value of 
 $4,807,764 was assigned, as Texas decided to 
 redeem its debt at its actual value when issued. 
 By 1850 the nominal amount and assigned value 
 of the debt were respectivelv $12,322,443 and 
 $6,818,798. The sum of $10,000,000 which the 
 State received from the Federal government can¬ 
 celed the debt and left a surplus. By 1856 
 there was no State debt, and the surplus was 
 over $1,000,000. Several loans were made dur¬ 
 ing the Civil War, but the war debt was re¬ 
 pudiated by the first reconstruction Legislature. 
 The disarranged condition of the finances ne¬ 
 cessitated the issue of new bonds in 1870 and 
 the following years. By 1875 there was a debt 
 of $4,644,000, but the overthrow of the recon¬ 
 struction forces in 1875 caused a radical change 
 in the financial policy of the State. The con¬ 
 stitution of that date prohibited any further 
 issue of bonds, except for war purposes, as well 
 as the lending of the State’s credit to private 
 enterprises. Because of the difficulty of paying 
 the interest, the debt continued to grow for some 
 time and in 1880 reached its maximum of $5,- 
 566,928, after which it steadily declined. On 
 Aug. 31, 1914, the bonded debt amounted to 
 $3,976,200, all of which was held by school, 
 university, agricultural and mechanical college, 
 and the various asylum funds. The income is 
 derived mainly from a general property tax and 
 sale and lease of public land. The total re¬ 
 ceipts in the fiscal year 1914 were $14,608,344 
 and disbursements $12,886,344. The cash bal¬ 
 ance was $1,721,609. 
 
 Militia. The males of militia age in 1910 
 numbered 804,980. The organized militia in 
 1915 included 181 officers and 2956 enlisted men. 
 It comprised a brigade of three regiments of 
 infantry, a corps of cavalry, a battery of field 
 artillery, and a detachment of sanitary troops 
 with a field hospital. 
 
 Population. The population of Texas by 
 decades since its admission into the Union is as 
 follows: 1850, 212,592; 1860, 604,215; 1870, 
 818,579; 1880, 1,591,749; 1890, 2,235,527; 1900, 
 3,048,710; 1910, 3,896,542; 1915, 4,343,710; 1920, 
 4,663,228. The State ranked fifth in 1910. 
 The density per square mile was 14.8, and the 
 urban population 938,104. There were 2,017,626 
 males and 1,878,916 females. In that year 
 the whites numbered 3,204,848, the negroes 
 690,049, and the Indians 712. The white popu¬ 
 lation of foreign birth numbered 239,984. Of 
 the latter Mexicans were the most numerous 
 with 124,238; Germans numbered 44,917, and 
 Austrians 20,566. The number of natives born 
 in other States was 923,847. Those coming from 
 Tennessee led in numbers with 134,702, Ala¬ 
 bamans, Mississippians, and Arkansans follow¬ 
 ing in order mentioned. The males of voting 
 age numbered 1,003,357 whites and 166,398 ne¬ 
 groes. The leading cities with their populations 
 in 1910 and as estimated for 1915 are: San 
 Antonio, 96,614 and 119,447; Dallas, 92,104 and 
 118,482; Houston, 78,800 and 108,172; Fort 
 
TEXAS 
 
 143 
 
 TEXAS 
 
 Worth, 73,312 and 99,528; El Paso, 39,279 and 
 51,936; Galveston, 36,981 and 41,076; Austin, 
 29,860 and 34,016; Waco, 26,425 and 32,756. 
 
 Education. The chief educational problem in 
 Texas lies in handling satisfactorily the rural- 
 school situation in sparsely settled communi¬ 
 ties. Coupled with this there is the problem 
 of a comparatively large colored population. A 
 large decrease in the percentage of illiteracy in 
 the decade for 1900 and 1910 indicated a con¬ 
 siderable improvement in general conditions. In 
 1910 there were 288,904 illiterates of ten years 
 of age or over, comprising 9.9 per cent of the 
 entire population; among whites of native par¬ 
 entage there was a percentage of 3.3 per cent; 
 among negroes the percentage of illiteracy was 
 24.6 per cent. The total school population ac¬ 
 cording to the thirteenth census was 1,363,713; 
 of these 793,796 attended school, of which 582,995 
 were native whites, and 130,708 were negroes. 
 The total number of children over seven and un¬ 
 der 17 years of age Sept. 1, 1913, the latest date 
 for which statistics are available, was 1,048,570, 
 according to the report of the State Superin¬ 
 tendent of Schools. Of these, 840,130 were 
 white, and 208,440 were colored. The State 
 available school fund in 1913 was proportioned 
 among the school population at the rate of 
 seven dollars per capita, amounting in all to 
 $7,339,990. To this amount should be added 
 $5,899,619.96 raised through local taxation and 
 $1,143,865.03 received from other sources, mak¬ 
 ing a total expenditure of $14,383,968.04 or 
 $13.71 per capita for public education in Texas 
 for the year 1913—14. There were 249 counties 
 receiving State apportionment. Each county has 
 a county superintendent and a school board. 
 The Legislature of 1915 enacted a compulsory 
 attendance law. It also passed a law establish¬ 
 ing a county board of education. The normal 
 schools are the West Texas Normal School at 
 Canyon City, the North Texas Normal College at 
 Denton, the Sam Houston State Normal College 
 at Huntsville, the Prairie State Normal and In¬ 
 dustrial College for colored persons at Prairie 
 View, and the Southwestern State Normal 
 School at San Marcos. Other State institutions 
 „ are the State University at Austin, the Agricul¬ 
 tural and Mechanical College of Texas at College 
 Station, the State Medical College at Galveston, 
 and the College of Industrial Arts. Other insti¬ 
 tutions of collegiate rank are: Simmons College 
 at Abilene, Howard Payne College at Brownwood, 
 Polytechnic College at Fort Worth, Texas Chris¬ 
 tian University at Fort Worth, Southwestern 
 University at Georgetown, Westminster College at 
 Tehuacan, Baylor University at Waco, and Trin¬ 
 ity University at Waxahachie. These are all 
 coeducational. Colleges for men only are St. 
 Louis College at San Antonio, and Austin Col¬ 
 lege at Sherman. Colleges for women are the 
 Baylor Female College at Belton, the North 
 Texas Female College at Sherman, and Asgard 
 College at South Houston. 
 
 Charities and Corrections. The charitable 
 and correctional institutions under the control 
 of the State include the State penitentiaries 
 at Huntsville and Busk, the State Lunatic Asy¬ 
 lum at Austin, the North Texas Hospital for the 
 Insane at Terrell, Southwestern Insane Asylum 
 at San Antonio, State Orphans’ Home at Ersi- 
 cana, State Epileptic Colony at Abilene, Deaf 
 and Dumb Institute, State School for the Blind, 
 Confederate Home, the Women’s Confederate 
 Home, and the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind Institute 
 
 for Colored Youth, all at Austin, State Juve¬ 
 nile Training School at Gatesville, the State 
 Tuberculosis Sanitarium at Carlsbad, and the 
 Girls’ Training School at Gainesville. The last 
 mentioned institution was opened in 1915. 
 
 Religion. The Baptists are numerically the 
 strongest church, followed closely by the Meth¬ 
 odists and Roman Catholics. These three bodies 
 together contain considerably over three-fourths 
 of the church membership. The Disciples of 
 Christ (Christian), Presbyterians, and Luther¬ 
 ans are the only other Protestant sects numeri¬ 
 cally important. 
 
 History. The first Europeans to tread the 
 soil of Texas were probably Cabeza de Vaca and 
 three other survivors of the Narvaez expedition 
 of 1528. (See Nunez Cabeza de Vaca.) Cabeza 
 de Vaca’s account of his wanderings through 
 Texas stimulated Mendoza, the Viceroy of Mex¬ 
 ico, to send a party northward under Friar Mar¬ 
 cos de Niza to search for the mythical Cibola or 
 Seven Cities, rumored to be golden as Mexico. 
 It returned empty-handed, as did an expedition 
 led by Vasquez de Coronado (q.v.). Several 
 other expeditions probably penetrated Texas 
 during the next hundred years, notably those of 
 Espejo in 1582, Sosa in 1590, and Governor Onate 
 of New Mexico in 1601 and in 1611. An entrada 
 in 1650, led by Capt. Hernan Martin and Diego 
 del Castillo, is said to have reached the Tejas 
 (Texas) tribe of Indians in the region of the 
 Neelies and Sabine; one in 1684 under Padre 
 Nicolas L<5pez and Capt. Juan Domingo de Men¬ 
 doza crossed the Rio Grande into the Pecos 
 country. The first town in the State, lying 12 
 miles north of El Paso, was founded in 1682 
 and called Taleta. 
 
 The history of the State practically begins in 
 1685 with the landing of La Salle (q.v.), and 
 though his attempt at colonization ended in 
 failure, the Spaniards took fright, fearing that 
 France might seize the land. In 1690 Alonzo de 
 Leon and Padre Manzanet were sent to found a 
 mission in that quarter, which was to serve the 
 double purpose of holding the country and of 
 converting the natives to Christianity. Mission 
 San Francisco de los Tejas was accordingly 
 founded among the Tejas Indians not far from 
 the Neches River. The next year another ex¬ 
 pedition came out under Teran, but nothing re¬ 
 sulted, and for years after Teran’s entrada there 
 was no further colonizing by Spaniards. French 
 activity in Louisiana roused them, and in 1714 
 Juchereau de Saint-Denis, a bold French trader, 
 led an expedition across the country to the Rio 
 Grande, where he was made prisoner and- sent to 
 Mexico City. His account of Texas fired the 
 Viceroy and Council to renewed efforts. In 1716 
 Capt. Domingo Ramon was chosen to lead an 
 expedition which founded several missions. He 
 settled San Antonio de Bejar, which in the 
 course of time became the centre of the most 
 prosperous group of missions in the Province of 
 Texas, as it was now called. 
 
 For a half century mission founding went on, 
 but it became apparent that failure was certain. 
 Many establishments were abandoned, and some 
 were moved about in the wilderness. The Indians 
 destroyed more than one mission. When, in 
 1763, France surrendered Louisiana to his Cath¬ 
 olic Majesty, the prime reason for the occupa¬ 
 tion of Texas no longer existed, as there could 
 be no further French aggression from Louisiana. 
 So the missions near the Neches and Sabine 
 were abandoned and only those about San An- 
 
TEXAS 
 
 144 
 
 TEXAS 
 
 tonio de Bejar—Alamo, Concepcion, San Jose, 
 Espada—showed signs of surviving. There came 
 in time to be three main foci of settlements— 
 at Nacogdoches in the east; at what is now 
 Goliad in the south; and at San Antonio de 
 Bejar in the southwest. The latter overshad¬ 
 owed the others in importance. 
 
 __In 1799 Philip £7olan, an American, invaded 
 the country from LtmT&iana with a small party 
 for the ostensible purpose of purchasing horses. 
 Two years later on a second expedition the Span¬ 
 iards attacked the adventurers, killing some 
 and sending the rest to Mexican mines. This 
 was the beginning of the end of the Spanish 
 regime. After the purchase of Louisiana in 
 1803, the people of the United States, and es¬ 
 pecially the inhabitants of the Southwest, looked 
 on Texas as part of the destined dominion of the 
 Republic and never lost an opportunity to strike 
 at the Spanish power. In 1806 it looked as 
 though war must result with Spain over the 
 possession of the region. The L T nited States 
 claimed westward to the Rio Grande on the 
 strength of the French occupation; Spain as 
 stoutly disputed the claim, and in October, 1806, 
 armies of the two powers stood facing each other 
 across the Sabine. However, Gen. James Wil¬ 
 kinson, who commanded the Americans, was glad 
 of the opportunity given him by the retreat of 
 the Spaniards to the west of the Sabine and by 
 the excitement attending the rumored conspir¬ 
 acy of Aaron Burr to make a neutral ground 
 treaty with the opposing commander, Herrera, 
 which practically conceded to Spain the terri¬ 
 tory west of the Sabine. 
 
 In 1810, when the great revolution in Mexico 
 against Spain had begun, the Southerners sym¬ 
 pathized intensely with the natives, and before 
 very long were lending secret aid to Mexico. A 
 filibustering expedition into Texas was led by 
 James Long, a Natchez merchant and ex-officer 
 in the United States army. At Nacogdoches 
 Texas was declared a republic and a provisional 
 government organized; but the Spanish forces 
 soon broke it up. For several years the coast 
 of Texas became a rendezvous for pirate and 
 adventurer. Louis de Aury, Captain Perry, Gen¬ 
 eral* ^fTfrrr; and Lafitte are best known. They 
 made Galveston Island their headquarters. From 
 here Mina sailed on his expedition against the 
 Spaniards in Mexico; and from here Lafitte the 
 pirate scoured the Gulf till the United States 
 government broke up the settlement. The early 
 years of the nineteenth century witnessed the 
 expiration of the Spanish power in Texas. What 
 with the filibustering expeditions and hostile 
 Apaches and Comanches, and the struggle for 
 independence in Mexico, the Spanish foci of 
 civilization were nearly extinguished. When the 
 harsh Spanish law which forbade the entry of 
 Americansintrr^£lie~region could no longer be en¬ 
 forced, frontiersmen from Kentucky, Tennessee, 
 and Louisiana wandered in with their families 
 and remained. 
 
 In 1821 Moses Austin secured from the Mexi¬ 
 can government the right to establish a colony 
 in Texas. He died soon after, but his son 
 Stephen took up the work. Being free to choose 
 the location for his colony, Austin selected the 
 lower Brazos and Trinity valleys. Before long 
 many empresarios had been granted, covering 
 with claims the region from the Sabine to the 
 Nueces. Discontent with the Mexican rule was 
 not long in appearing. This reached a crisis on 
 Dec. 16, 1826. The struggle which ensued is 
 
 known as the Fredonian War. A band of dis¬ 
 satisfied Americans, headed by Benjamin Ed¬ 
 wards, proclaimed the eastern part of the State 
 an independent republic with Nacogdoches as its 
 capital. A skirmish in which one man was 
 killed and one wounded ended the uprising. The 
 time for a change was soon to come. 
 
 The United States was making repeated offers 
 to the Mexican government to buy Texas, but 
 this only made the Mexicans more determined to 
 retain it at any cost. The Mexicans, resenting 
 all attempts of the United States to possess the 
 land, turned their attention to the Texans. De¬ 
 crees were drawn up prohibiting s laver y, in 
 Mexico and forbidding further colonization. 
 These decrees were specially aimed at Texas and 
 roused bitterness and indignation. The march 
 of events was hastened by the closing of all 
 Texas ports except Anahuac, and by the pres¬ 
 ence of military forces. An uprising occurred 
 in June, 1832, which led to the removal of cer¬ 
 tain obnoxious officials. This was followed by 
 the calling of a convention which elected Stephen 
 F. Austin President. Petitions were drawn up 
 asking the Mexican government for free trade 
 for three years, begging for a grant of land from 
 the State to promote education, and asking for 
 a separate government. Austin was sent with 
 the petition to Mexico, but could not gain a 
 hearing and was made a prisoner. During 1833 
 and 1834 the Mexican government acceded to 
 certain reforms; but in 1835 the spirit of revolt 
 reappeared among the colonists. Then the Mexi¬ 
 can government made another attempt to collect 
 duties at the Texas ports. An armed schooner 
 was sent to Anahuac, but after it committed va¬ 
 rious outrages, a Texas vessel captured it and 
 the struggle against Mexico was precipitated. 
 The first victory was that of Gonzales, Oct. 2, 
 1835, when the Texans put the Mexicans to 
 flight. On October 28 Col. James Bowie and 
 Capt. J. W. Fannin defeated the Mexicans near 
 Mission Concepcion, a few miles below San An¬ 
 tonio; on December 11 that city was taken. 
 A provisional government was formed, Henry 
 Smith was elected Governor, and Sam Houston 
 major general of the armies of Texas; Branch T. 
 Archer, William H. Wharton, and Stephen F. 
 Austin were appointed commissioners to the 
 United States. Many Americans, principally 
 from Mississippi, hurried to the assistance of the 
 Texans. Texan dissension, however, nearly 
 proved disastrous. In March, 1836, two parties, 
 one under Johnson and the other under Grant, 
 were captured by Mexicans, and the prisoners 
 slaughtered; Fannin’s command, which had been 
 in possession of the Goliad fortress, surrendered 
 and was shamelessly massacred. Nearly 500 
 Texans met death. In February-March occurred 
 the heroic defense of the Alamo (q.v.). March 
 2 the Texans issued a declaration of independ¬ 
 ence, and as if to answer this, Santa Anna, the 
 Mexican President, hurried his army in three 
 columns eastward over the country. On April 
 21 the Texan army under Houston on the field 
 of San Jacinto avenged the slaughter of Fannin’s 
 men and the Alamo. (See San Jacinto, Battle 
 of.) Santa Anna, a prisoner, was glad to sign 
 a treaty in which he engaged to do what he could 
 for the independence of Texas with boundaries 
 not to extend beyond the Rio Grande. 
 
 Thus was launched the Republic of Texas. A 
 constitution was ratified in September, 1836, and 
 Houston was elected President. Houston was 
 the capital city from 1837 to 1839, when Austin 
 
TEXAS 
 
 TEXAS 
 
 145 
 
 became the capital. The great and pressing need 
 of the Republic was money. With little taxable 
 property, the government ran deeply in debt. 
 By 1841 the amount reached $7,500,000. To 
 the financial difficulties of the Republic was 
 added the aggravation of invasions from Mexico, 
 which had never abandoned her claims on the 
 country. Three times Mexican forces reached 
 San Antonio, but always retreated without at¬ 
 tempting to hold the place. 
 
 Meantime the independence of Texas had been 
 recognized by the United States, France, Hol¬ 
 land, Belgium, and Great Britain, and the pres¬ 
 ence of the representatives of these powers lent 
 zest to the interest with which the subject of 
 the annexation of Texas to the Union was in¬ 
 vested. The question of annexation was bound 
 up with that of slavery, and the whole Union 
 was agitated. (See under United States.) 
 r l he matter finally became a national issue, and 
 James K. Polk was elected President on a plat¬ 
 form favoring annexation; but before he took 
 office a joint resolution was passed by Congress 
 making an offer of statehood to Texas. This was 
 accepted by the Texans, and in December, 1845, 
 the State was formally admitted into the Union. 
 The Mexican War (q.v.), originating in a dis¬ 
 pute over the boundaries of Texas, followed, and 
 the first fighting took place near the Rio Grande, 
 at Palo Alto (May 8, 1846). 
 
 As a State of the Union Texas grew rapidly. 
 Politics played small part until the wave of se¬ 
 cession reached its borders. Texas, a slavehold¬ 
 ing State, thereupon seceded from the Union 
 (Feb. 1, 1861). Sam Houston was Governor at 
 the time, and threw all his weight in opposition 
 to secession, but there was no staying the resolve 
 of the people, many of whom went soon to join 
 the armies of the Confederacy. The State was 
 fortunate in that it was not the scene of much 
 active fighting. Galveston was captured and 
 held by the Federal forces for three months in 
 the fall and winter of 1862; but two attempts 
 of the Union forces to enter the State from Lou¬ 
 isiana were disastrously defeated. The last 
 battle of the war was fought on the lower Rio 
 Grande, near Palo Alto, a month after 
 Appomattox. 
 
 Following out his plan of reconstruction, June 
 17, 1865, President Johnson appointed as pro¬ 
 visional Governor A. J. Hamilton, a man con¬ 
 spicuous in antebellum Texas politics. A con¬ 
 vention was called which adopted the constitu¬ 
 tion in force in the State prior to secession, 
 with amendments recognizing the abolition of 
 slavery, renouncing the right of secession, con¬ 
 ferring civil rights on freedmen, repudiating 
 the State debt incurred during the war, and as¬ 
 suming the tax which had been laid by the 
 United States government on the State during 
 the period of secession. The people ratified this 
 constitution, and under it J. W. Throckmorton 
 was elected Governor. The Reconstruction Acts 
 of 1S67 placed the State under the military au¬ 
 thority, with General Sheridan in command. 
 The carpetbaggers followed and the new recon¬ 
 struction occupied the next three years. A con¬ 
 stitution was submitted to the people in No¬ 
 vember, I860, when Congressmen and State of¬ 
 ficers were elected, and on March 30, 1870, Texas 
 was readmitted to the L T nion. At the election in 
 November, 1872, the Democrats secured control 
 of the State; and in December, 1873, a Demo¬ 
 cratic victory made Richard Coke Governor. By 
 this time the State had become involved in debt 
 
 to the extent of several millions of dollars on the 
 score of reconstruction. The memory of recon¬ 
 struction and the race problem have served to 
 keep the State consistently Democratic. 
 
 I he decade ending in 1915 was taken up 
 largely with the elimination of the influence of 
 large corporations and with the prohibition ques¬ 
 tion. The Standard Oil Company and its sub¬ 
 sidiaries were finally driven from the State. 
 Several attempts to adopt constitutional amend¬ 
 ments providing for State-wide prohibition 
 failed, but legislation putting the sale of liquor 
 under strict supervision was enacted. In the 
 presidential election of 1908, Bryan received 
 216,737 votes, and Taft 64,602. Measures pro¬ 
 hibiting betting at races and a bank guaranty 
 bill were adopted by the Legislature of 1909 in 
 a second extraordinary session called by Gov¬ 
 ernor Campbell. O. B. Colquitt was 'elected 
 Governor in 1910. In the presidential election 
 of 1912 Wilson received 221,425 votes, Taft 
 28,688, and Roosevelt 26,740. Governor Colquitt 
 was reelected. James E. Ferguson was elected 
 Governor in 1914, and at this election a consti¬ 
 tutional amendment providing for the initiative 
 and referendum was defeated. See articles 
 United States and Mexico for conditions 
 brought about in Texas by the revolutionary 
 conditions in Mexico. See Great American 
 Desert. 
 
 GOVERNORS OF COAHUILA AND TEXAS 
 
 Jos6 Marfa Viesca, First Constitutional Governor.. . 1827-30 
 
 Rafael Eca y Musquiz.1830-31 
 
 Jos6 Marfa de Letona.1831—32 
 
 • Rafael Eca y Musquiz.1832-33 
 
 Juan M. de Veramendi.1833-34 
 
 Francisco Vidauri y Villasenor.1834-35 
 
 Jose Marfa Cantti. ’ 1835 
 
 Marciel Borrego.^ ’ 1835 
 
 Augustin Viesca. 1835 
 
 PROVISIONAL GOVERNOR 
 BEFORE THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 
 
 Henry Smith.Nov. 12, 1835-March 18, 1836 
 
 PRESIDENTS UNDER THE REPUBLIC, 
 
 David G. Burnet.March 18, 1836-October 22, 1836 
 
 Sam Houston.October 22, 1836-December, 183S 
 
 Mirabeau B. Lamar.December, 1838-December, 1840 
 
 David G. Burnet (acting). . December, 1840-December, 1841 
 
 Sam Houston.December, 1841-December, 1844 
 
 Anson Jones.December, 1844-February 19, 1846 
 
 GOVERNORS OF THE STATE 
 
 James P. Henderson. . . .Democrat.1846-47 
 
 George T. Wood. “ 1847-49 
 
 P. Hansborough Bell.... “ 1849-53 
 
 Elisha M. Pease. “ 1853-57 
 
 Hardin G. Runnels. “ 1857-59 
 
 Sam Houston.Independent and Unionist. . .1859-61 
 
 Edward Clark (acting). .Democrat. 1861 
 
 Francis R. Lubbock. “ .1861-63 
 
 Pendleton Murray. “ .1863-65 
 
 Andrew J. Hamilton, Prov.. . .Unionist.1865-66 
 
 James W. Throckmorton. “ .1866-67 
 
 Elisha M. Pease.Republican.1867-70 
 
 Edmund J. Davis. “ 1870-74 
 
 Richard Coke.Democrat.1874-77 
 
 Richard B. Hubbard.... “ .1877-79 
 
 Oran M. Roberts. “ 1879-83 
 
 John Ireland . “ 1883-87 
 
 Lawrence S. Ross. “ 1887-91 
 
 James S. Hogg. “ 1891-95 
 
 Charles A. Culberson. . . “ 1895-99 
 
 Joseph D. Sayers. “ 1899-1903 
 
 S. W. Lanham. “ 1903-07 
 
 Thomas M. Campbell.. . “ 1907-11 
 
 Oscar B. Colquitt. “ 1911-15 
 
 James E. Ferguson. “ 1915-17 
 
 Wm. P. Hobby. “ 1917-21 
 
 Pat M. Neff. “ .*. 1921- 
 
 Bibliography. General: Kennedy, Texas, 
 Geography, Natural History and Topography 
 (New York, 1844) ; Roberts, Description of 
 Texas (St. Louis, 18S1) ; Spaight, The Resources , 
 
TEXAS 
 
 TEXCOCO 
 
 Soil, and Climate of Texas (Galveston, 1882); 
 Hill, “Present Condition of the Knowledge of 
 the Geology of Texas,” in United States Geolog¬ 
 ical Survey, Bulletin J>5, containing bibliography 
 (Washington, 1887); Rhodes, Birds of South¬ 
 western Texas and Arizona (Philadelphia, 
 1892); C. W. Raines, Bibliography of Texas 
 (Austin, 1898) ; also publications of the State 
 Geological Survey (Austin, 1858 et seq.). His¬ 
 tory: Yoakum, History of Texas (New York, 
 1856) ; Thrall, History of Texas (ib., 1856) ; H. 
 H. Bancroft, Mexican States and Texas (San 
 Francisco, 1885) ; Baker, History of Texas (New 
 York, 1893) ; Wooten (ed.), Comprehensive His¬ 
 tory of Texas, 1685—189 7 (Dallas, 1898) ; Noah 
 Smithwick, Evolution of a State (Austin, 1900) ; 
 Lubbock, Six Decades in Texas (ib., 1900) ; G. 
 P. Garrison, Texas: A Contest of Civilizations, 
 in “American Commonwealth Series” (Boston, 
 1903) ; C. T. Brady, Conquest of the Southwest 
 (New York, 1905) ; C. W. Ramsdell, Reconstruc¬ 
 tion in Texas (ib., 1910) ; also Texas State 
 Historical Quarterly (Austin, 1897 et seq.); 
 B. B. Paddock (ed.), History of Central and 
 Western Texas (2 vols., Chicago, 1911); J. T. 
 Shields, Border Wars of Texas (Tioga, 1912) ; 
 N. P. G. Tiling, History of the German Element 
 in Texas from 1820 to 1850 (Houston, 1913). 
 
 TEXAS, University of. A coeducational 
 State institution at Austin, Tex., with a med¬ 
 ical department at Galveston, founded upon a 
 grant of 1,000,000 acres of land by the Legis¬ 
 lature in 1876. In 1883 an additional million 
 acres was set apart and the university was 
 opened. The medical building at Galveston was 
 completed in 1890, when the department was 
 opened and the John Sealey Hospital, presented 
 the previous year, was occupied. The medical 
 buildings were in great part rebuilt after the 
 disastrous Galveston flood of 1900. Besides the 
 medical department, the university embraces 
 the departments of literature, sciences, and arts, 
 offering the degrees of B.A., M.A., and Ph.D.; 
 the department of engineering, conferring the 
 degrees of bachelor of science in architecture, in 
 civil engineering, in electrical engineering, and 
 in mechanical engineering, and also the degrees 
 of C.E., E.E., M.E., and master of science in 
 architecture; the department of law, conferring 
 the degrees of LL.B. and LL.M.; and the depart¬ 
 ment of education, divided into schools, as fol¬ 
 lows : the art of teaching, educational ad¬ 
 ministration, the history of education, and the 
 • philosophy of education. The department of 
 extension was organized in 1909 and the gradu¬ 
 ate department in 1910. Two summer schools 
 are conducted at Austin during June and July. 
 In 1914-15 the student attendance was 3445. 
 The library had 115,000 volumes. For 1915-16 
 the endowment was $2,000,000 and the income 
 $940,000. The acting president in 1916 was 
 William James Bante. 
 
 TEXAS CHRISTIAN' UNIVERSITY. An 
 
 institution for higher education, founded at 
 Fort Worth, Tex., in 1873, under the auspices 
 of the Disciples of Christ. The total attendance 
 in all departments in the autumn of 1915 was 
 697 and the faculty numbered 34. The plant of 
 the university includes five buildings, and the 
 total value of the equipment was about $500,- 
 000. The library contains about 5000 volumes. 
 The president in 1916 was F. D. Kershner, M.A., 
 LL.D. 
 
 TEXAS FEVER (also known as Bovine 
 Piroplasmosis, or Babesiasis, Splenetic Fever, 
 
 Tick Fever, Southern Cattle Fever, Hemo¬ 
 globinuria, Redwater, Dry Murrain, Black- 
 water, Spanish Fever, etc.). A febrile infec¬ 
 tious disease of cattle, usually observed in ezo- 
 otic extension in the course of which hemoglobin 
 appears in the urine as a result of the breaking 
 down of red blood corpuscles. It is caused by 
 ( Piroplasma ) Babesia bigeminum in the red 
 blood corpuscles. This protozoan is transmitted 
 to uninfected cattle by the progeny of ticks, par¬ 
 ticularly of the genus Margaropus or Boophilus, 
 that have developed on infected animals. The 
 disease is characterized by fever, greatly en¬ 
 larged spleen, destruction of the red blood cor¬ 
 puscles, escape of the coloring matter of the 
 blood through the kidneys, giving the urine a 
 deep-red color, yellowness of the mucous mem¬ 
 branes and fat, rapid loss of strength, and fatal 
 results in a large proportion of cases. 
 
 Medicinal treatment has but little value, al¬ 
 though in chronic cases and those occurring late 
 in the fall beneficial results have followed the 
 administration of Epsom salts and quinine, and 
 stimulating tonics. Recent work indicates that 
 the dye known as trypanblue has a valuable 
 curative effect when introduced intravenously. 
 When the disease has broken out, all animals 
 should at once be removed to a pasture known 
 to be free from ticks in order that noninfected 
 animals may be kept free. All ticks should be 
 removed from sick animals in order to prevent 
 the abstraction of blood and thereby retard the 
 final recovery. Good nursing and a nutritious 
 laxative diet with plenty of clean drinking water 
 are essential. 
 
 In order to protect animals shipped into in¬ 
 fected territory, they are immunized at from 6 to 
 15 months of age by introducing the micropara¬ 
 site from immune animals into their systems. 
 Animals immunized in this way have a mild 
 form of the disease which usually appears in 
 from 3 to 19 days after the first inoculation 
 and runs a course of from 6 to 8 days, followed 
 in 30 days after the injection by a second at¬ 
 tack of a milder character than the first. 
 
 Work of eradicating the cattle tick, which 
 transmits the disease, from the southern United 
 States—where the disease occurs—has been con¬ 
 ducted by the United States Department of Ag¬ 
 riculture in cooperation with the infected 
 States. Up to July 1, 1915, a total area of 
 275,782 square miles had been' released as free 
 from ticks, or more than one-tliird of the origi¬ 
 nal area in the United States infested with the 
 cattle tick. Tick eradication may be accom¬ 
 plished through dipping infested animals in vats 
 which contain a solution sufficiently strong to 
 kill the ticks without injury to the host. A 
 system of pasture rotation whereby the ticks 
 meet death from starvation before finding a host 
 is also made use of. 
 
 Consult: James Law, Text Boole of Veteri¬ 
 nary Medicine, vol. v (Ithaca, N. Y., 1911); 
 Hutyra and Marek, Special Pathology and Ther¬ 
 apeutics of the Diseases of Domestic Animals, 
 vol. i (Amer. ed. from 3d Ger. ed., by Mohler 
 and Eichhorn, Chicago, 1912) ; United States 
 Bureau of Animal Industry, Special Report on 
 Diseases of Cattle (rev. ed., Washington, 1912). 
 
 TEXAS RANGERS. See Rangers, 
 Mounted. 
 
 TEXAS STEER. See Cattle. 
 
 TEXAS UMBRELLA TREE. See China 
 
 Tree. 
 
 TEXCOCO. See Tezcugo. 
 
TEXEL 
 
 147 TEXTILE MANUFACTURING 
 
 TEX'EL. The southernmost and largest of 
 the \\ est Frisian Islands, belonging to the 
 Dutch Province of North Holland, and situated 
 at the entrance to the Zuider Zee (Map: Neth¬ 
 erlands, Cl). It is separated from the main¬ 
 land on the south by the Marsdiep about 5 
 miles wide. Area, 73 square miles. It consists 
 largely of good meadow land lined on the north 
 and west by sand dunes, and protected from the 
 sea on the other sides by dikes. The principal 
 industry is sheep raising, there being some 34,- 
 000 sheep on the island, and wool and cheese of 
 fine quality are exported. Pop., 1899, 5954: 
 1909, 6407. 
 
 TEXIER, tes'ya', Charles Felix Marie 
 (1802-71). A French archaeologist, born in 
 Versailles. He explored the antiquities of Asia 
 Minor and taught at the College de France. His 
 works include: Description de I’Asie Mineure, 
 published in Paris and London (1839-48); De¬ 
 scription de VArmenie, la Perse et de la Mesopo- 
 tamie (1842-45); Asie Mineure (1862). 
 
 TEXTILE DESIGNING (Lat. textilis, relat¬ 
 ing to weaving, from text us, fabric, composition, 
 text, from texere, to weave; connected with Gk. 
 retcTuv, tehton, carpenter, rexvy, techne, art, Skt. 
 taks, to cut, form). That branch of textile 
 manufacturing which is devoted to the construc¬ 
 tion of fabrics, their weaves and patterns or de¬ 
 signs for the same. LTnlike the designing for 
 printed patterns, whether for textiles, wall¬ 
 paper, or other purposes, which are termed ap¬ 
 plied designs—and for which the designer is 
 only called upon to use his skill in drawing and 
 color combination—the designing of fabrics in 
 which the pattern is to be woven of threads 
 colored before weaving, or in which the pattern 
 is produced by the weaves, necessitates in ad¬ 
 dition to knowledge of combining colors and 
 drawing a thorough knowledge of each of the 
 various departments or processes of textile man¬ 
 ufacturing (q.v.). The designer must be able 
 to construct fabrics of a required weight, tex¬ 
 ture, and finish, or for a specific purpose, telling 
 the manufacturer what size of warp and filling 
 to use, how many threads of each to the inch, 
 and what weave will give the required results. 
 
 The construction of various weaves is one of 
 the most important features of textile designing, 
 and an account of weave construction will be 
 found in the article Weaving. A complete de¬ 
 sign for a woven fabric must contain at least the 
 following specifications: Number of warp threads 
 to an inch; number of inches wide on loom; num¬ 
 ber of picks, or filling threads, to an inch; size 
 of warp and filling yarns and materials for same; 
 the weave and the arrangement of the warp 
 thread on the loom harness, with full particulars 
 relative to manipulation of materials in the 
 process of manufacturing; the estimated weight 
 of the fabric as woven; the finishing processes 
 it is to be submitted to, together with its finished 
 width, weight, and texture, that is, the count 
 in warp and filling threads to the inch. When 
 the pattern is to be worked out in colored threads 
 the arrangement of these must be given; and 
 when the pattern is drawn and possibly colored, 
 then the weave is constructed in such a way as 
 to produce with the woven threads the effect of 
 the drawing as nearly as possible. See Loom; 
 Weaving; Textile Manufacturing. 
 
 Bibliography. T. R. Ashenhurst, Practical 
 Treatise on Weaving and Designing of Textile 
 Fabrics (5th ed., Huddersfield, 1893); A. F. 
 Barker, Introduction tc the Study of Textile 
 
 Design (London, 1903); Harry Nisbet, Gram¬ 
 mar of Textile Design (ib., 1906) ; Fenwick Um- 
 pleby, Design Texts: A Practical Treatise on 
 1 extile Design (Lowell, 1910) ; Woodliouse and 
 Milne, Textile Design, Pure and Applied (ib., 
 1912); Roberts Beaumont, Colour in Woven 
 Design: Being a Trea tise on the Science and 
 Technology of Textile Colouring (New York, 
 1912); William Watson, Textile Design and 
 Colour (London, 1912) ; id., Advanced Textile 
 Design (ib., 1913). Schools: C. P. Brooks, 
 “Report on the European Textile Schools,” in 
 United States Bureau of Education, Annual Re¬ 
 port (Washington, 1899); C. H. Eames, The 
 Textile School: Its Scope (Boston, 1909). 
 
 TEXTILE MANUFACTURING. The in¬ 
 dustrial group of manufactures embracing the 
 production from the various raw materials of 
 fabrics of cotton, wool, silk, flax, hemp, and jute; 
 hosiery and knit goods; felt goods and wool 
 hats; cordage and twine; laces, braids, and em¬ 
 broideries. 
 
 Textile Manufacturing in the United 
 States. Statistics. The importance of the 
 textile industry in the United States is seen fro m 
 the table (I, page 148) of statistics derived from 
 Census Reports of 1920 and earlier years which 
 shows 75.4 per cent increase in the capital in- 
 ested, during the first decade of the present 
 century, over the decade immediately preceding; 
 and an increase of 141.3 per cent from 1909 to 
 1919. There was an increase of 59.7 per cent 
 in the annual amount of wages paid between 
 1899 and 1909 and 170.1 per cent from 1909 to 
 1919. An exact knowledge of the general growth 
 of the industries is difficult to arrive at, in con¬ 
 sequence of varying conditions, and probably the 
 best idea of its growth is the increase of wage 
 earners as shown by decades in Table II. The 
 inciease in the annual value of the manufac¬ 
 tured product rose from 79.2 per cent in 1899- 
 1909 to 221.3 per cent in 1909—1919. In spite 
 of the fact that the improved machinery makes 
 the productive power of one man’s labor many 
 times greater than it was a half or three quar¬ 
 ters of a century ago, the increase in wage 
 earners each decade has exceeded the general 
 growth of the population of the country except 
 in the decade between 1850 and 1860. 
 
 The importance of the industry is also shown 
 by Table II, which shows not only the “com¬ 
 bined textiles,” but individual industries classed 
 to show conditions by decades, 1860-1919 and in 
 more detail for the last named year in Table III. 
 
 The increase m the amount of the various raw 
 materials used by decades from 1840 to 1919 
 is shown by Table IV, which also furnishes a 
 measure of the relative growth of the several in¬ 
 dustries. It is well to notice in this connection, 
 however, that because of the unsettled conditions’ 
 in the Southern States from 1860 to 1870 there 
 was a decrease in the amount of cotton used, 
 while for each decade there is a large and steady 
 increase in the amount of wool used. During 
 the twenty-year period 1860 to 1880 the amount 
 of cotton used did not double itself, while the 
 use of wool increased over 300 per cent; but 
 the use of cotton shows a wonderful increase 
 from 1880 to 1919, due largely to the develop¬ 
 ment of the cotton-manufacturing industry in the 
 Southern States, which bids fair to monopolize 
 the production of the medium and coarser grades 
 of cotton fabrics. 
 
 The world’s production of commercial cotton 
 in 1914, i.e., the amount available for mill 
 
TEXTILE MANUFACTURING 
 
 TEXTILE MANUFACTURING 
 
 148 
 
 purposes was approximately 24,764,000 bales 
 of 500 pounds net weight, representing a maxi¬ 
 mum from which there was a decline due to the 
 war and other causes so that in 1921 this pro¬ 
 duction was estimated at about 15,593,000 bales, 
 the smallest crop since 1900. 
 
 The world’s consumption of cotton for 1919 
 was estimated at 15,970,000 bales. In the United 
 States in 1919 the cotton-growing States took 
 2,938,000 bales and the other States 2,491,000 
 
 as in Tables II and III, the rapid growth. It 
 must be said, however, that modern machinery 
 is being introduced and these countries are des¬ 
 tined to figure not only as sources of raw 
 but of manufactured material. (See Silk.) 
 
 Influences Controlling Development. The 
 influences controlling the establishment of the 
 textile industry in a given country are prima¬ 
 rily the supply of the raw material and the 
 adaptability of the people to manufacturing 
 
 TABLE I 
 
 COMPARATIVE SUMMARY OF TEXTILE INDUSTRIES, 1889 TO 1919, WITH PER CENT OF INCREASE 
 
 COMBINED TEXTILES 
 
 
 
 JE-- 
 
 Number or amount 
 
 
 Per cent of increase 
 
 
 1919 
 
 1909 
 
 1899 
 
 1889 
 
 1909- 
 
 1919 
 
 1899- 
 
 1909 
 
 1889- 
 
 1899 
 
 Number of establishments.. .. 
 
 7,143 
 
 5,352 
 
 4,521 
 
 4,420 
 
 33.5 
 
 18.4 
 
 2.3 
 
 Persons engaged in the in- 
 
 
 915,858 
 
 t 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 dustry. 
 
 
 .... 
 
 • • • • 
 
 • • i 
 
 Proprietors and firm 
 
 
 3,522 
 
 t 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 tnpmhprs . 
 
 
 ... 
 
 .... 
 
 • • • 
 
 Salaried employees. 
 
 
 31,208 
 
 17,024 
 
 t 
 
 .... 
 
 83.3 
 
 • • • 
 
 Wage earners (average 
 
 
 
 
 520,196 
 
 
 32.6 
 
 t 
 
 number). 
 
 1,052,327 
 
 881,128 
 
 664,429 
 
 .... 
 
 Primary horse power. 
 
 3,037,732 
 
 2,099,050 
 
 1,310,834 
 
 831,730 
 
 19.4 
 
 60.1 
 
 57.6 
 
 Capital. 
 
 $4,441,379,160 
 
 $1,841,242,131 
 
 $1,049,636,201 
 
 $772,673,605 
 
 44.7 
 
 75.4 
 
 35.8 
 
 Expenses. 
 
 SprvioGS. 
 
 1,488,817,311 
 
 384,522,370 
 
 824,336,963 
 
 233,602,184 
 
 681,538,9S1 
 
 182,165,458 
 
 1 
 
 141.3 
 
 80.6 
 
 64.6 
 
 21.0 
 
 2S.2 
 
 Salaries. 
 
 Wages. 
 
 910,047,629 
 
 49,123,634 
 
 335,398,736 
 
 23,532,793 
 
 210,069,411 
 
 .... 
 
 10S.7 
 
 59.7 
 
 16.1 
 
 Materials. 
 
 3,258,527,390 
 
 992,635,299 
 
 527,209,771 
 
 454,272,489 
 
 170.1 
 
 88.3 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 111,650,642 
 
 63,525,008 
 
 45,101,034 
 
 238.2 
 
 75.8 
 
 40.8 
 
 Value of products. 
 
 5,481,883,549 
 
 1,684,636,499 
 
 940,052,688 
 
 768,357,254 
 
 225.4 
 
 79.2 
 
 22.3 
 
 Value added by manufacture 
 (value of products less cost 
 
 
 
 
 
 221.3 
 
 67.6 
 
 31.4 
 
 of materials). 
 
 2,223,356,159 
 
 692,001,200 
 
 412,842,917 
 
 314,084,765 
 
 * A minus sign (—) denotes decrease. Where percentages are omitted, comparative figures are not available, 
 f Comparable figures not available. t Figures not strictly comparable. 
 
 bales. There were 153,657,680 active and idle 
 spindles in the world in 1922, of which there 
 were in the United States 36,843,000. In 1919 
 there were in the United States 33,718,953 active 
 spindles. There were located in the South Atlan¬ 
 tic States at that time 12,708,516 active spindles, 
 in New England 17,542,926, and in the other 
 States 3,467,571. 
 
 Great Britain leads in cotton manufactur¬ 
 ing as may be told from her greater number of 
 spindles; but because of the fact that the greater 
 part of the spindles in the United States run 
 on coarse or medium-sized yarns, and those of 
 England on much finer yarns, the United States 
 actually spins more pounds of the raw material. 
 
 Great Britain has perhaps the most impor¬ 
 tant woolen industry, since the quality of wool 
 used is better and a greater amount of labor 
 is employed. More fine goods are produced 
 in France than in the United States. The carpet 
 industry, which absorbs large quantities of wool, 
 is probably more important in the United States, 
 but large amounts of coarse goods are produced 
 in both countries. See Wool Manufactures; 
 also Sheep. 
 
 Among the several countries engaged in silk 
 manufacturing the United States now stands 
 in first place, having surpassed France in the 
 value of its product in the early years of the 
 twentieth century. This is the more remarkable 
 when we consider that the industry in the United 
 States has-]>een developed since 1870, and note, 
 
 life. Among the earliest forms of machinery 
 are the hand loom and spinning wheel; and as 
 sheep usually are raised in any country where 
 clothing must be warm, it is not surprising to 
 find in the world’s earliest history records of 
 the production of fabrics of wool; these came 
 to be known as homespun, because made from 
 yarn spun at home and woven by hand in the 
 household. That the woolen industry should 
 spring up in primitive communities, and among 
 people not easily able to purchase clothing ma¬ 
 terial, is only natural; as the comforts of life 
 became more accessible and labor became diver¬ 
 sified and specialized, owing to the increase in 
 population, the tendency was to produce fabrics 
 for sale and in such quantities as required the 
 use of more improved machinery; and in order 
 to reduce the cost further large numbers of ma¬ 
 chines were collected and there resulted the mill 
 or factory. 
 
 As cotton is a subtropical plant and the lint 
 is easily separable from the seed by hand, 
 and as "the fibre can be spun and woven in as 
 simple a way as wool was manufactured in 
 primitive communities, it would seem that the 
 cotton industry should have developed near the 
 source of the raw material; but the sections of 
 the countries suited to raising cotton were largely 
 inhabited by people with agricultural instincts, 
 hence the industry developed in thickly settled 
 communities remote from the cotton field. One 
 important feature in the early days of the cot- 
 
TEXTILE MANUFACTURING 
 
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TEXTILE MANUFACTURING 150 TEXTILE MANUFACTURING 
 
 ton industry in factories was the fact that cot¬ 
 ton fabrics "must necessarily he light in weight 
 and of comparatively fine yarns—consequently 
 the proportion of labor cost to the cost of pio- 
 
 In the thickly settled centres of India the m* 
 dustry had its greatest growth in a semitropieal 
 country, fully adapted to the production of the 
 fibre; yet the inhabitants make better laborers 
 
 TABLE III 
 
 textiles and their products: u. s. census of manufactures, 1919 
 
 INDUSTRY 
 
 Number 
 of estab¬ 
 lishments 
 
 Wage 
 
 earners 
 
 (average 
 
 number) 
 
 Capital 
 
 Wages 
 
 Cost of 
 materials 
 
 Value of 
 products 
 
 Total. 
 
 28,552 
 
 1,611,309 
 
 $6,096,161,183 
 
 $1,482,326,820 
 
 $5,382,079,303 
 
 $9,216,102,814 
 
 Textile fabrics and materials.... 
 
 7,143 
 
 1,052,327 
 
 4,441,379,160 
 
 910,047,629 
 
 3,258,527,390 
 
 3,481,883,549 
 
 
 1,288 
 
 430,966 
 
 1,853,099,816 
 
 355,474,937 
 7,162,218 
 6,086,557 
 125,199,820 
 108,226,330 
 88,571,734 
 19,654,596 
 168,108,681 
 66,595,826 
 101,512,855 
 4,873,490 
 1,387,777 
 24,216,181 
 2,653,169 
 909,7S8 
 2,896,453 
 14,700,061 
 6,436,286 
 1,635,642 
 447,373 
 
 1,277,785,597 
 
 0 a of;q qf^i 
 
 2,125,272,193 
 
 40,896,835 
 
 29,396,853 
 
 713,139,689 
 
 688,469,523 
 
 590,237,835 
 
 98,231,688 
 
 1,065,434,072 
 
 364,896,590 
 
 700,537,482 
 
 39,229,540 
 
 6,739,652 
 
 123,253,828 
 
 23,254,398 
 
 17,361,231 
 
 13,679,584 
 
 133,366,476 
 
 34,442,698 
 
 6,998,046 
 
 2,369,114 
 
 <arrm.ll WfirfLS. 
 
 164 
 
 9,396 
 
 29,559,474 
 
 2 /i y u jy j y 01 
 
 13,075,994 
 a 07 hqf; F;fin 
 
 
 44 
 
 6,490 
 
 32,260,216 
 
 516,457,991 
 
 
 2,050 
 
 172,572 
 
 gz /,uyo,ouu 
 
 QQC A AO 009 
 
 
 1,369 
 
 126,782 
 
 532,732,163 
 
 OOQ A Q r; 0/1 F^ 
 
 
 1,040 
 
 97,342 
 
 447,966,397 
 
 OOOj luOji/xO 
 
 55,033,077 
 
 665,594,683 
 
 217,965,333 
 
 447,629,350 
 
 22,780,775 
 
 0 gno coo 
 
 
 329 
 
 29,440 
 
 84,765,766 
 
 
 852 
 
 166,787 
 
 831,694,748 
 
 
 560 
 
 62,957 
 
 273,973,670 
 
 
 292 
 
 103,830 
 
 557,721,0/8 
 
 
 49 
 
 5,236 
 
 35,024,373 
 
 
 40 
 
 1,448 
 
 3,831,376 
 
 0 jOy 
 
 67,118,039 
 16,076,315 
 12,809,592 
 7,228,350 
 89,705,282 
 17,798,834 
 a 1 on 1 C7 
 
 Carpets and rugs, other than rag. 
 
 75 
 
 13 
 
 22,933 
 
 2,568 
 
 119,196,461 
 
 16,990,722 
 
 
 24 
 
 705 
 
 8,853,43/ 
 
 
 33 
 
 2,177 
 
 10,049,960 
 
 
 120 
 
 17,622 
 
 100,248,987 
 
 
 26 
 
 7,138 
 
 41,335,845 
 
 
 10 
 
 1,890 
 
 7,527,596 
 
 iyu, 10 / 
 1,708,670 
 
 
 20 
 
 420 
 
 / s3,y58 
 
 Mats and matting, from cocoa 
 
 12 
 
 1,073 
 
 7,190,675 
 
 810,607 
 
 19,642,531 
 
 425,149 
 
 2,102,580 
 
 40,158,019 
 
 2,259,142 
 
 4,860,855 
 
 82,745,308 
 
 3,315,113 
 
 
 176 
 
 18,510 
 
 58,127,770 
 
 
 18 
 
 425 
 
 2,999,150 
 
 Dyeing and finishing textiles, ex¬ 
 clusive of that done in textile 
 
 628 
 
 55,985 
 
 229,948,486 
 
 57,189,978 
 
 1,564,661 
 
 174,742,815 
 
 1 7Q 1 A1 
 
 323,967,683 
 
 3,690,858 
 
 Cloth, sponging and refining. 
 
 67 
 
 1,206 
 
 1,465,956 
 
 1/0,101 
 
 duction was much greater than in the production 
 of fabrics of wool, and the tendency was to con¬ 
 centrate in their production; this also stimu¬ 
 lated invention of labor-saving machinery. The 
 result is that virtually the whole manufacture 
 is in the hands of invested capital, and the tend- 
 
 TABLE IV 
 
 Consumption of textile fibres, 1840 to 1919 
 
 YEAR 
 
 Cotton 
 pounds * 
 
 Wool 
 pounds f 
 
 1919 . 
 
 2,732,000 
 
 443,461,904 J 
 
 1914 . 
 
 2,530,000 
 
 510,424,203 
 
 1910 . 
 
 2,335,344,906 
 
 559,S50,995 
 
 1900. 
 
 1,910,509,193 
 
 412,323,430 
 
 1890. 
 
 1,193,374,641 
 
 372,797,413 
 
 1880. 
 
 798,344,838 
 
 296,192,229 
 
 1870 . 
 
 430,781,937 
 
 219,970,174 
 
 I860. 
 
 443,845,378 
 
 98,379,785 
 
 U^50. 
 
 288,558,000 
 
 70,862,829 
 
 
 126,000,000 
 
 
 Silk 
 
 pounds 
 
 25,890,728 
 
 22,374,700 
 
 17,472,204 
 
 9,760,770 
 
 6,376,881 
 
 2,690,482 
 
 684,488 
 
 462,965 
 
 ies cotton consumed in establishments classed as 
 is, cotton small wares; woolen goods, worsted 
 3 and rugs, other than rag; felt goods; wool hats; 
 ^d knit goods. 
 
 consumed in establishments classed as 
 ited goods, carpets and rugs, other than 
 hats; and hosiery and knit goods, 
 woolen goods and worsted goods in¬ 
 
 land in communities where 
 d, and, unless favored by 
 nguish or to be neglected 
 wly introduced. 
 
 in the factories than they do cultivators of the 
 crop. Those who follow agricultural pursuits 
 are content to do so in a small way, simply 
 raising the product for individual use rather 
 than in commercial farming. 
 
 In China, Japan, the East Indies, and Mexico 
 there has been of recent years a considerable 
 introduction or development of the industry, 
 due almost entirely to the adaptability of the 
 people to a manufacturing life. Yet it is doubt¬ 
 ful if the movement would have been as success¬ 
 ful in some of these cases if there had not been 
 encouragement in the way of government 
 measures. 
 
 The most wonderful growth of the cotton¬ 
 manufacturing industry has been in the southern 
 United States. The ‘ availability of the raw 
 material, made possible largely by the agricul¬ 
 tural labor of the negro, and the presence of a 
 class of the white population who, after the 
 Civil War, found themselves without homes or 
 occupation and who it was found were teachable 
 and tractable, and would make good factory 
 hands, and were to be had in abundance, were 
 chief factors in this development; there were 
 available water power and land which could be 
 secured cheaper than elsewhere, and at first 
 municipal aid in the way of exemption from 
 taxation for a term of years. The growth of the 
 industry in the Southern States has been re¬ 
 markably steady since 1880, and ample proof 
 of its success is evidenced by the fact that more 
 and larger mills have been built and that older 
 ones have been enlarged and developed. 
 
TEXTILE MANUFACTURING 
 
 151 TEXTILE PRINTING 
 
 The sources which first gave the so-called civ¬ 
 ilized nations their fine and beautiful fabrics of 
 silk were China and Japan; there the silkworm 
 flourished, labor was plentiful and cheap, and 
 the nations aesthetic; they produced beautiful 
 but costly fabrics which were considered luxuries 
 as far back as the nations have a history, yet 
 these nations now put forth less in value than 
 
 TABLE V 
 
 NUMBER OF SPINDLES IN COTTON MANUFACTURING 
 COUNTRIES, FEBRUARY 1, 1922 
 
 Returns to International Federation of Master Cotton 
 Spinners’ and Manufacturers’ Associations, Manchester, 
 England. 
 
 COUNTRIES 
 
 Number of 
 spinning spindles 
 as per returns 
 received 
 
 Total estimated 
 number of 
 spinning spindles 
 in each country 
 
 Europe: 
 
 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 51,162,519 
 
 56,420,078 
 
 France. 
 
 6,787,604 
 
 9,600,000 
 
 Germany. 
 
 8,627,998 
 
 9,400,000 
 
 Russia. 
 
 1,100,000 
 
 7,100,000 
 
 Italy. 
 
 4,078,297 
 
 4,550,000 
 
 Czecho-Slovakia.... 
 
 2,824,615 
 
 3,565,164 
 
 Spain. 
 
 1,805,785 
 
 1,805,785 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 1,584,601 
 
 1,584,601 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 1,511,508 
 
 1,550,000 
 
 Poland. 
 
 451,080 
 
 1,185,623 
 
 Austria. 
 
 1,021,792 
 
 1,021,792 
 
 Holland. 
 
 637,484 
 
 637,484 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 • 491,416 
 
 575,897 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 94,262 
 
 400,000 
 
 Finland. 
 
 238,932 
 
 238,932 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 95,844 
 
 95,844 
 
 Norway. 
 
 66,724 
 
 66,724 
 
 Total. 
 
 82,580,461 
 
 99,797,924 
 
 Asia: 
 
 
 
 India. 
 
 5,587,462 
 
 6,870,804 
 
 Japan. 
 
 4,112,662 
 
 4,483,258 
 
 China. 
 
 1,732,632 
 
 2,066,582 
 
 Total. 
 
 11,432,756 
 
 13,420,644 
 
 America: 
 
 
 
 U. S. America. 
 
 36,843,000 
 
 36,843,000 
 
 Canada. 
 
 975,446 
 
 1,051,112 
 
 Mexico (Jan. 15). .. 
 
 219,802 
 
 725,000 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 1,570,000 
 
 1,570,000 
 
 Total. 
 
 39,608,248 
 
 40,189,112 
 
 Sundries. 
 
 94,115 
 
 250,000 
 
 Grand total. 
 
 133,715,580 
 
 153,657,680 
 
 many others, though they still produce fabrics 
 which the more highly civilized nations can 
 hardly equal and latterly are increasing their 
 commercial output due to the larger use of 
 machinery. The growth of the silk industry 
 should be greatest in those countries which can 
 produce the raw material, but this is not always 
 the case. The introduction of the silkworm into 
 central and western Europe caused a remarkable 
 expansion of the manufacture of silks in Switzer¬ 
 land, Italy, Austria, and France. The Germans, 
 producing practically no raw silk, however, have 
 made a great success of the industry, as has the 
 United States in recent years. England, how¬ 
 ever, with a wonderful capacity for manufactur¬ 
 ing, having attempted the silk industry, relying 
 on imported silk, though fairly successful for a 
 time, has seen it decline for the last half century, 
 while the cotton industry during the same period 
 has had an extraordinary development. The 
 most important reason for this localization of 
 cotton and silk mills found in the United States 
 as in New England, Pennsylvania, New York, 
 
 Connecticut, and New Jersey is the presence of 
 sufficient labor of requisite skill to manufacture 
 the raw material and produce fine fabrics. 
 
 These are briefly the important features in 
 connection with the development of the most im¬ 
 portant of the world’s textile industries. Con¬ 
 sult: E. A. Posselt, Recent Improvements in Tex¬ 
 tile Machinery (Philadelphia, 1905) ; A. F. 
 Barker, Textiles (New York, 1910) ; Lamb’s Tex¬ 
 tile Industries of the United States (5 vols., 
 Boston, 1911); Ephraim Lipson, The History 
 of the Woolen and Worsted Industries (London, 
 1921) ; W. H. Dooley, Textiles for Commercial, 
 
 TABLE VI 
 
 NUMBER AND CHARACTER OF THE LOOMS IN THE 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 KIND OF* 
 LOOMS 
 
 Total 
 
 Carpets 
 and 
 „ rugs 
 
 Cotton 
 
 goods 
 
 Silk 
 
 goods 
 
 Woolen 
 
 goods 
 
 Power: 
 
 1919. 
 
 1914. 
 
 864,336 
 
 848,246 
 
 9,821 
 
 692,169 
 
 672,754 
 
 96,438 
 
 85,058 
 
 75,729 
 
 76,789 
 
 1910. 
 
 793,004 
 
 11,736 
 
 632,963 
 
 75,406 
 
 72,899 
 
 1905. 
 
 696,750 
 
 11,002 
 
 559,781 
 
 59,775 
 
 38,104 
 
 1900. 
 
 573,194 
 
 9,841 
 
 455,752 
 
 44,257 
 
 36,714 
 
 Hand: 
 
 1910. 
 
 248 
 
 207 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 41 
 
 1905. 
 
 1,039 
 
 690 
 
 * 
 
 283 
 
 66 
 
 1900. 
 
 1,311 
 
 1,055 
 
 • 
 
 * 
 
 173 
 
 83 
 
 * Not reported. 
 
 Industrial, and Domestic Art Schools (ib., 
 1914) ; E. B. McGowan, Textiles and Clothing 
 (New York, 1919); C. H. Lander, Ventilation 
 and Humidity in Textile Mills and Factories 
 (New York, 1914) ; V. W. Clark, History of Man¬ 
 ufactures in the United States 1607-1860, “Tex¬ 
 tiles” (Washington, 1916) ; and the various 
 issues of the U. S. Census of Manufactures. See 
 Cotton; Factories and the Factory System; 
 
 MaNFACTURES; SlLK; WOOL AND WORSTED MAN¬ 
 UFACTURES; ETC. 
 
 TEXTILE PRINTING. The printed cloths 
 of the eighteenth century in Europe were made in 
 imitation of the Indiennes that for two hundred 
 years had been imported from India, which may 
 be regarded as the home country of printed 
 cottons much as China is the home country of 
 brocaded silks, and Flanders the home country of 
 fine woolens. But block printing of textiles in 
 one form or another can be traced back among 
 the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Chinese to re¬ 
 mote ages, and it was closely associated with 
 other similar processes that produce similar re¬ 
 sults, such as painting, stenciling, and dyeing. 
 In printing fabrics the color is stamped on from 
 an engraved block or roller. Pliny says that the 
 Egyptians figured fabrics by applying several 
 mordants with different powers of resistance, pre¬ 
 sumably by stamping or stenciling, in such a 
 way that one dipping in the dye pot produced a 
 pattern in several colors. There are still pre¬ 
 served in European museums many examples of 
 block-printed textiles from early Christian (Cop¬ 
 tic) Egypt. A. fragment of printed cotton was 
 found at Arles in the grave of St. Caesarius, 'who 
 was Bishop there in the middle of the sixth cen¬ 
 tury a.d. During the twelfth, thirteenth, and 
 fourteenth centuries, in Germany the place of 
 the rich Saracenic, Byzantine, and Italian dam¬ 
 asks and brocades was largely taken by inex¬ 
 pensive block-printed imitations. There survive 
 examples of Rhenish thin-printed silks with sim- 
 
TEXTILE PRINTING 
 
 TEXTILE PRINTING 
 
 plified patterns in gold and silver; and coarse 
 linens outlined in dark browns and blacks. In 
 the seventeenth century the industry revived 
 and Augsburg was famous for its printed linens, 
 supplying Alsace and Switzerland with many 
 trained workmen. In 1676 textile printing was 
 introduced in England by a French refugee who 
 opened an establishment on the Thames near 
 Richmond. In the last half of the eighteenth 
 century the art was brought to a high point of 
 perfection in France, especially at Jouy, near 
 Versailles, where Oberkampf produced printed 
 linens that excelled in technique as well as in 
 design, so that a leading place in the market 
 to-day is held by modern reproductions of Jouy 
 prints, some of these made from the original 
 blocks. The most prolific designer for the works 
 at Jouy, many of whose original drawings are 
 still preserved at the Musee des Arts Decoratifs 
 in Paris, was Jean Baptiste Huet. • At this 
 period the popularity of printed linens and wall 
 papers became such that they crowded tapestries 
 from the walls of even stately mansions, and 
 brought to humbler homes decoration that had 
 previously been lacking. At the end of the 
 eighteenth century metal rollers took the place 
 of wooden blocks for the production of simple 
 repeat patterns inexpensively, and the modern 
 machine period had begun. The invention of 
 rollers is attributed in France to Oberkampf and 
 in Great Britain to Bell. * In the last quarter 
 of the nineteenth century William Morris raised 
 the standard of design greatly by his introduc¬ 
 tion of ingenious and richly colored flower and 
 bird patterns, going back for his inspiration to 
 Persian and Indian flat ornament, away from the 
 modeled shapes and monotonous tiny repeats 
 that had been in vogue in Europe since the Em¬ 
 pire period. To-day block prints are again used 
 for picture effects and large patterns, and the 
 designs of the roller prints are growing con¬ 
 stantly better. The block prints and the finer 
 roller prints are on linen, the cheaper ones on 
 cotton. 
 
 Block Printing. The blocks used are rectan¬ 
 gular planks of wood about three inches thick, 
 six inches wide, and nine inches long, built up 
 out of two or more layers of pine with facing of 
 sycamore, plane, or pear, and with a strong 
 handle to lift them by. The design is trans¬ 
 ferred to the blocks by rubbing off a tracing in 
 lampblack and oil of the outlines of the par¬ 
 ticular color, and then tinting the portions that 
 are to be left in relief to distinguish them from 
 those that are to be cut away. Fine details 
 difficult to cut in wood, and that in printing 
 from wood would wear down or break off, are 
 inserted by coppering or building up with thin 
 strips of brass bent io shape and driven edge- 
 Avise into the wood. Where large surfaces of 
 solid color occur the background is cut away 
 and replaced by felt that gives a better impres¬ 
 sion than is given by a large surface of wood. 
 Besides his blocks the printer needs a table and 
 a color sieve. The top of the table is a slab of 
 stone that is covered with a thick woolen blanket. 
 The color sieve is a shallow box which floats in 
 a swimming tub of starch paste, and which has 
 a bottom of fine woolen stuff over which the 
 color is distributed evenly with a brush. The 
 cloth comes from a roll on the right of the table, 
 and after being printed is carried to the ceiling 
 on rollers, from which it hangs until dry and 
 ready for its next color. When the first section 
 of the cloth has reached its table the printer 
 
 inks the block by applying it twice in different 
 directions to the color sieve, and then presses 
 it hard against the cloth, driving home the im¬ 
 pression by striking the back of the block with 
 a heavy wooden mallet. The impression with 
 the second block on the second section of the 
 cloth is made to join the first exactly by means 
 of the guide pins at the corners of the blocks. 
 These pin marks are one of the most obvious 
 features • that distinguish block from roller 
 prints. The perrotine is a block-printing ma¬ 
 chine invented by Perrot of Rouen in 1834, and 
 still occasionally used in France and Italy, which 
 automatically prints three colors from long nar¬ 
 row blocks, infusing the second and third colors 
 on the first while it is still wet. 
 
 Roller Printing. While the design in block 
 printing is cut in relief on wood the design in 
 roller printing is engraved on copper rollers. 
 The process was patented for a six-color machine 
 by Bell in England in 1785. In this machine, 
 that now carries sometimes as many as sixteen 
 colors, the rollers of the different colors are 
 mounted around the circumference of a huge 
 drum, the surface of which, wrapped with sev¬ 
 eral thicknesses of lapping, takes the place of 
 the block printer’s table. As the drum revolves, 
 the cloth is pressed between the drum and the 
 rollers, each of which leaves its color and pat¬ 
 tern, so that the cloth that comes to the drum 
 in the gray, leaves it completely printed with 
 all the colors. Each roller is inked by a wooden 
 roller revolving in a color box below it, and has 
 the surplus color (i.e., the color on the surface 
 of the roller, as distinguished from the color in 
 the engraved incisions) removed by a knife 
 called the doctor. The roller printing is rapid 
 and inexpensive, one machine producing from 
 10,000 to 15,000 yards a day. The pattern on 
 the copper rollers is produced by etching, or by 
 indention from a mill. In the first process the 
 pattern is photographed, magnified on a zinc 
 plate, and colored by hand. Then the outlines 
 of each color are engraved by hand, and trans¬ 
 ferred and reduced in the pantograph machine 
 to a varnished copper roller which is then 
 etched with nitric acid, the acid eating copper 
 away only where the design has been pin-pricked 
 with the pantograph needle. In the mill process 
 the design is first engraved by hand on a soft 
 steel roller, which is the die. The die is then 
 hardened and rotated against a softened steel 
 roller until the latter has the design in relief. 
 This is the mill that when itself hardened and 
 rotated against the copper roller produces this 
 pattern on the latter in intaglio. 
 
 Stenciling. This process is nearer painting 
 than printing, the colors being applied with a 
 brush through sheets of thick paper or thin 
 metal from which the pattern has been cut 
 completely out with a sharp knife, the uncut 
 portions covering the parts of the surface that 
 are to be left uncolored. A peculiarity of sten¬ 
 ciled patterns is the ties that have to be left to 
 keep detached or nearly detached portions of 
 the background connected with the rest of the 
 stencil. These ties spoil the design when badly 
 placed, but when skillfully used add distinctive 
 charm. The Japanese are especially skillful in 
 the use of stencils, often employing them in con¬ 
 nection with painting and with block p ‘ ig. 
 As of blocks, so of stencils; there must 1 ep- 
 
 arate set for each color. A special m L of 
 applying the color that produces resu 1 un¬ 
 
 usual delicacy is spray printing wit 3 air 
 
TEXTILE PRINTING 
 
 AMERICAN CRETONNES, TAFFETAS, AND REPS 
 
TEXTILE PRINTING 
 
 THE STRAWBERRY THIEF 
 BY MORRIS 
 
 AND CURIOUS CHINOISERIE 
 
 A RICH FRENCH RENAISSANCE PATTERN 
 
 FROM ONE OF GRINLING GIBBONS’ 
 FAMOUS CARVINGS 
 
 ORIGINATED FOR KING GEORGE V 
 
 EUROPEAN HAND-BLOCKED DRAPERIES 
 
TEXTILES AND CLOTHING 
 
 153 
 
 TEXTUAL CELTICISM 
 
 brush, invented in Lyons and first practiced in 
 America about the year 1908. Discharge print¬ 
 ing stamps upon colors dyed in the cloth acids 
 or alkalies that remove the colors or the mor¬ 
 dants, producing patterns in white upon a col¬ 
 ored ground. Resist or reserve printing stamps 
 upon the cloth before the dyes are applied sub¬ 
 stances that prevent the dyes or mordants from 
 fixing themselves. The effect is similar to that 
 of discharge printing, and to that produced in 
 a more primitive way in the Orient by tying 
 knots in the cloth before dyeing, or by covering 
 certain portions with wax. The printing of 
 woolen and silk cloths is similar to that of cot¬ 
 ton, except that the woolen cloth requires more 
 preparation before printing and the silk cloth 
 less; and that silks are particularly adapted to 
 discharge and reserve effects. (See Dyeing.) 
 Consult: J. Persoz, L’Impression des Tissus 
 (Paris, 1846) ; Rothwell, Printing of Textile 
 Fabrics (Philadelphia, 1892) ; R. Forrer, Die 
 Kunst des Zeugdrucks (Strassburg, 1894) ; Ge- 
 rogievic, Chemical Technology of Textile Fabrics 
 (Eng. trans. by Salter, London, 1902). 
 
 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING. Textiles and 
 clothing taken together constitute one of the 
 chief subdivisions of home economics, and form a 
 subject which has to do with the chemical, phys¬ 
 ical, and biological nature of fibre, textiles, and 
 other materials used, with the aesthetic, li 3 7 gienic, 
 and economic values of fabrics and articles of 
 dress, with their relation to household man¬ 
 agement and with the principles governing their 
 selection, preparation, and use. Broadly speak¬ 
 ing, textiles include not only fabrics woven from 
 wool, cotton, silk, linen, and other familiar natu¬ 
 ral fibres of animal or vegetable origin, but 
 also those made from inorganic substances, such 
 as asbestos, glass, and metal, and from synthetic 
 materials, like artificial silk. Clothing includes 
 all natural and manufactured articles used to 
 cover the body, to defend it from injury, annoy¬ 
 ance, the elements, or public gaze, or for pur¬ 
 poses of ornamentation; and the term, when so 
 employed, embraces articles for the head, feet, 
 and hands, as well as for the body, and is nearly 
 synonymous with costume (q.v.). 
 
 The item “clothing” occupies a conspicuous 
 place in every classified list of expenditures, 
 whether of family or individual, often represent¬ 
 ing a financial outlay exceeded only by the ex¬ 
 penditures for food and shelter. Statistics re¬ 
 ported by the United States Bureau of Labor show 
 that in the case of family incomes not exceeding 
 $1200, about 14 per cent is spent for clothing; 
 and, as the economist Engel demonstrated years 
 ago, this general percentage obtains even in 
 families of far ampler resources. Studies of the 
 budgets of independent working women show a 
 somewhat higher ratio of clothing to the total 
 cost of living, and if to the sum spent for cloth¬ 
 ing there is added in all cases the cost of tex¬ 
 tiles used in house furnishing—bed and table cov¬ 
 erings and draperies, etc.—the item assumes even 
 greater significance. Because of the commercial 
 importance of these two commodities and of the 
 large sums now invested in their manufacture, 
 problems connected with their production and 
 use are of social as well as of household im¬ 
 portance. 
 
 As the result of investigations in government, 
 commercial, and private laboratories, informa¬ 
 tion concerning the nature and properties of 
 textile fibres is constantly accumulating, and 
 many of the facts thus obtained have important 
 
 bearing on practical questions. Scientists who 
 are studying methods of producing the various 
 fibres are discovering distinctive characteristics of 
 each which serve as a foundation for tests of pur¬ 
 ity. Others are studying fibres or fabrics with 
 reference to their tensile strength, wearing quali¬ 
 ties, reactions towards dyes or cleaning materials, 
 or other matters connected with permanence of 
 color or durability. Still others are studying 
 clothing with reference to porosity, capillarity, 
 hydroscopicity, and conductivity of heat or mois¬ 
 ture, in order to throw light upon the relation of 
 dress to comfort and health. The fine arts, too, 
 are the source of much information, chiefly con¬ 
 cerning color combinations and designs. 
 
 In spite of the rapid increase of knowledge, 
 development of the subject along economic and 
 educational lines has been slow—a circumstance 
 attributable, no doubt, to the fact that fashion 
 has introduced an element which, though elusive 
 and immeasurable, has a well-recognized effect 
 upon values and has interfered with the estab¬ 
 lishment of standards for judging these com¬ 
 modities based on durability and sesthetic con¬ 
 siderations. An expenditure for clothing, for 
 example, unwarranted by health or beauty, may 
 be justified under present conditions of employ¬ 
 ment by its effect upon the earning capacity of 
 the Avearer. It is more difficult, therefore, than 
 in the case of food and shelter to distinguish be- 
 tween necessities and luxuries, and educators 
 have been handicapped in their efforts to organ¬ 
 ize the subject for teaching purposes. 
 
 When household methods of production pre¬ 
 vailed, there Avas an almost universal need 
 among women for training in technical proc¬ 
 esses—-spinning, weaving, seAA r ing, and others— 
 but these were taught by one person to another 
 and formal instruction was almost unknoAvn. 
 With the extension of educational systems to in¬ 
 clude manual training, courses in sewing and 
 dressmaking were introduced into many schools. 
 These have found favor because, besides training 
 the hand they enrich the general education and 
 are of practical value in the home and as prep¬ 
 aration for self-support. Of late, hoAvever, need 
 has arisen for the training that enables one to 
 judge of textiles and to understand the hygiene 
 of dress, and this must be based on scientific 
 data. The result is that the subject has been 
 so enlarged on the scientific side that it is find¬ 
 ing a place in many colleges and universities. 
 In these institutions, however, the chief empha¬ 
 sis is not upon technique, but upon the his¬ 
 torical, scientific, and economic aspects of the 
 subject. Consult: E. H. Richards, The Cost of 
 Living as Modified by Sanitary Science (3d ed., 
 New York, 1905) ; J. M. Matthews, Textile Fab¬ 
 rics: Their Physical, Microscopical, and Chem¬ 
 ical Properties (2d ed., ib., 1907) ; Kinne and 
 Cooley, Clothing and Textiles (ib., 1913) ; Wool- 
 man and McGoAA^an, Textiles: A Handbook for 
 the Student and Consumer (ib., 1913) ; Barker 
 and Midgely, Analysis of Woven Fabrics (ib., 
 1914). See Home Economics and references 
 there given. 
 
 TEXTUAL CRITICISM (OF., Fr. textuel, 
 from Lat. textus, text, composition, fabric, from 
 texere, to AA 7 eave). The criticism of existing 
 texts of literary A\mrks with a view to the de¬ 
 tection of errors Avhich have crept in, and the 
 restoration of the reading intended by the au¬ 
 thor. Such criticism may be necessary in the 
 case of any literary production which is no 
 longer under the control of its author, but it 
 
TEXTUAL CRITICISM 
 
 finds its most difficult problems in tlie Old and 
 New Testaments, the Greek and Latin authors 
 whose works are preserved to us, in the older 
 monuments of the national literatures, and in 
 the texts of some modern writers, e.g\, Chaucer 
 and Shakespeare. 
 
 The criticism of the texts of Greek and Latin 
 authors, to take them as examples, is based first 
 of all on a careful study and comparison of all 
 existing manuscripts, then on quotations and 
 unconscious reminiscences of the writer in ques¬ 
 tion, in other Greek or Latin authors, and finally 
 on such helps as may be obtained from ancient 
 commentaries, Scholia (see Scholiasts), or 
 from early translations, such as the Latin and 
 Arabic renderings of certain works of Aristotle. 
 Most classical manuscripts belong to the period 
 from the ninth to the fifteenth century; a few 
 are earlier, one or two possibly as old as the 
 fourth century, and some are later, but ordina¬ 
 rily the manuscripts of the fifteenth and six¬ 
 teenth centuries are of little or no value. No 
 existing manuscript is free from error. The 
 scribes often did their work mechanically and ig¬ 
 norantly ; the blunders thus made were perpetu¬ 
 ated and spread by each successive copyist. Such 
 errors may be corrected by comparison with a 
 manuscript which does not contain the identical 
 blunders; but in case all existing manuscripts 
 are descended from the same incorrect original, 
 or archetype, the same errors will probably ap¬ 
 pear in all. In such case, if the subsidiary aids 
 named above fail, the only resort is to conjectu¬ 
 ral emendation. Or it may happen that a num¬ 
 ber of manuscripts have different readings in the 
 same passage, all intelligible. The problem then 
 is to determine which of the several readings is 
 the one intended by the author. 
 
 Errors in manuscripts may be divided into: 
 
 (1) Errors of Omission, (2) Errors of Insertion, 
 (3) Errors of Substitution, (4) Errors of 
 Transposition, (5) Errors of Emendation, (6) 
 Errors due to the Confusion of Letters or Con¬ 
 tractions. 
 
 (1) Errors of Omission. —The simplest form 
 of this class of errors is that known as hap- 
 lography, when of two identical letters, syllables, 
 or words only one is written; e.g., Plautus, Miles 
 Gloriosns 54, si riverent for sivi viverent; Ver¬ 
 gil, Georgies, 4, 311, magis aera carpunt for 
 magis magis aera carpunt. The omission of a 
 syllable, word, or passage may also be due to the 
 inexcusable carelessness of tlie scribe, a failure 
 to understand, a defect in the archetype, etc. 
 Most such omissions come under the head of 
 what is technically known as lipography. Ex¬ 
 amples are furnished by Vergil, JEneid, 4, 491, 
 descere for descendere; 6, 708, indunt for in- 
 sidunt. The omission of clauses or sentences in 
 prose, or of whole lines in poetry, is frequently 
 occasioned by the similar endings of clauses or 
 verses (homoeoteleuton), or by similar words in 
 the same position within the lines, so that the 
 eye of the scribe jumped from one to the other. 
 In Plautus’s Bacchides, the oldest manuscript 
 lacks two entire verses, owing to the fact that 
 v. 507 has atque and v. 509 usque in the same 
 position. The texts of Lucretius and Vergil also 
 furnish examples of this kind of error. 
 
 (2) Errors of Insertion. —One of the most 
 common forms of this class of errors is that 
 known as dittography, whereby a letter, syllable, 
 or word is written twice. A case of double dit¬ 
 tography is furnished by the Palimpset of 
 Cicero, De Republica, 2, 57, secvtvtvsecvtvs for 
 
 ^ TEXTUAL CRITICISM 
 
 secutus. Often an explanatory word, gloss, or 
 passage, either interlinear or marginal, is in¬ 
 serted in the body of the text. Tlius in Plau¬ 
 tus’s Truculent us, v. 79 is an unmetrical line, 
 Phronesium, nam phronesis est Sapientia, which 
 apparently was originally a marginal gloss in 
 explanation of the proper name Phronesium in 
 v. 77. Or any marginal note may be incor¬ 
 porated by the scribe, such as caput, chapter, 
 nota, take notice, deest, there is lacking, etc. In 
 some cases insertions have been made with 
 fraudulent intent. There is an ancient tradition 
 that the mention of Athens in the Iliad, 2, 
 533 ff., was interpolated to give the dignity of 
 antiquity to the capital of Attica. Syntactical 
 corrections, both intentional and unintentional, 
 from a difficult to an easier construction are not 
 uncommon; and Renaissance scholars seem often 
 to have been more concerned with making a 
 readable than with making a correct text. 
 
 (3) Errors of Substitution. —This class of 
 mistakes may arise from various causes. An ex¬ 
 planatory gloss may have been substituted for 
 the word it explains, as in Vergil, Eclogues, 
 6, 40, rara per ignaros errent animalia montis, 
 where some manuscripts have rara per ignotos, 
 etc., ignotos being evidently a gloss substituted 
 by some copyist for the correct ignaros. In the 
 case of archaic writers like Plautus, a classical 
 word may have ousted the early form; an ex¬ 
 ample is furnished by Amphitruo, 631, where 
 one manuscript has the classical simul for the 
 archaic simitu. The earlier form is correctly 
 given by two manuscripts, while the writer of a 
 fourth "first copied correctly simitu and then 
 changed it to simul. Not infrequently, also, a 
 word has been substituted from the context or 
 from a parallel passage which lingered in the 
 copyist’s mind. Further, the mediaeval scribes, 
 being monks, might corrupt a passage by sub¬ 
 stituting a word from a similar passage in the 
 Bible. A famous example is that of Horace;, Odes, 
 3, 18, 11, where the monk who was writing a 
 manuscript which afterward became the arche¬ 
 type of a considerable class had in mind Isaiah 
 xi. 6, habitabit lupus cum agno et pardus cum 
 hcedo accubabit, and so substituted pardus for 
 pagus in the passage festus in pratis vacat otioso 
 cum bove pagus. The most common cause of 
 this class of errors, however, is the confusion of 
 similar words: addit and adit, adesse and ad 
 sese, hospitium and hostium, precor and prcetor, 
 etc. 
 
 (4) Errors of Transposition. —These errors, 
 whether of letters, syllables, words, or lines, are 
 very common in classical manuscripts. They are 
 due most often to the carelessness of the copy¬ 
 ist whose eye traveled faster than his pen. 
 Transposed letters and syllables are easily de¬ 
 tected by any one familiar with the language; 
 transposed words are not so readily discovered 
 in prose as in verse, for in versq the trans¬ 
 position usually spoils the metre; so, e.g., the 
 reading of certain manuscripts of Horace, Odes, 
 3, 13, 14, ternos ter attonitus cyathos petet rates 
 will not scan, but the metre is perfect when 
 the correct cyathos attonitus is read. The trans¬ 
 position of entire lines is generally due to the 
 fact that the copyist carelessly dropped the line 
 or lines, and later, on discovering his error, in¬ 
 serted the missing lines out of place, often with¬ 
 out any indication of the misplacement. Lucre¬ 
 tius and Vergil furnish many excellent examples. 
 Finally, one or more entire pages may be mis¬ 
 placed either because the scribe carelessly 
 
TEYTE 
 
 omitted a page or because the sheets of the 
 archetype had become disturbed before the copy 
 was made. A well-known example of the last 
 is furnished by Lucretius, where the error en¬ 
 abled Lachmann to determine the size of the 
 lost archetype from which the extant manu¬ 
 scripts are descended. 
 
 (5) Errors of Emendation. —These errors have 
 been touched on under sections 2 and 3. They 
 occur chiefly in manuscripts dating from the 
 ninth century or later, and are especially com¬ 
 mon in manuscripts written by Renaissance 
 scholars. These errors may arise simply from 
 the wrong division of words, as in Seneca,' Epist., 
 89, 4, where the copyist senselessly divided quid 
 arnet of his original into quidam et. Madvig, 
 by a stroke of the pen, first restored the correct 
 quid amet. Y\ hile Alcuin’s efforts to restore 
 Latin orthography were for the most part bene¬ 
 ficial, they also led to certain errors, mostly due 
 to the substitution of a familiar for an un¬ 
 familiar word, e.g., facile for facete, etc. Re¬ 
 naissance scholars of the fifteenth and sixteenth 
 centuries not only corrected passages, but also 
 filled out lacunae, supplied missing scenes, etc. 
 
 (6) Errors Due to the Confusion of Letters 
 and ( ontractions. —These mistakes are few in 
 capital and uncial writing, but in minuscule 
 writing the possibilities of the confusion of let¬ 
 ters are much greater, and the use of contrac¬ 
 tions constantly increased with the centuries. 
 A treatment of the subject is impossible here, 
 as it belongs to paleography (q.v.). 
 
 Bibliography. For a bibliography of the 
 text criticism of the Bible, see articles on 
 Bible, Biblical Criticism, etc. On the text 
 criticism of classical authors, consult Boeckh, 
 Encyklopddie und Methodologie der philolo- 
 gischen Wissenschaften (2d ed., Leipzig, 
 1886) ; Madvig, Adversaria Critica, 3 vols. 
 (Copenhagen, 1871-74) ; Cobet, Varice Lectiones 
 (2d ed., Leyden, 1873) ; F. Blass in Mueller’s 
 Handbuch der Jclassischen Alt er turn swiss en- 
 schaft, vol. i (2d ed., Munich, 1892); W. M. 
 Lindsay, Introduction to Latin Textual Emen¬ 
 dation (London, 1896) ; H. T. Peck, A History of 
 Classical Philology (New York, 1911); F. W. 
 Hall, A Companion to Classical Texts (Oxford, 
 1913 ) ; Th. Birt, Kritik und Hermeneutik nebst 
 Abriss des Antiken Buchwesens (Munich, 1913) ; 
 and the best critical editions of the separate 
 authors, such as the edition of Vergil bv O. 
 Ribbeck, of Lucretius by Lachmann and Munro, 
 of Horace by Keller and Holder, and of Plautus 
 by Ritschl-Goetz-Lowe—Schoell. 
 
 TEYTE, tat, Maggie_ ( 1890- ) e An Eng¬ 
 lish lyric soprano, born in Wolverhampton. Hav¬ 
 ing received her entire musical education under 
 Jean de Reszke in Paris, she made her d6but at 
 Monte Carlo in 1908 as Zerlina in Mozart’s Don 
 Giovanni. For the next two years she was a 
 member of the Opera Comique, where Beech am 
 heard her and engaged her for his first operatic 
 season in London (1910). In 1910-15 she was 
 a member of the Chicago Opera Company and 
 also made extensive concert tours of the States. 
 Her favorite roles were Mimi in La Boheme and 
 Melisande in Pelleas et Melisande. 
 
 TEZCUCO, tas-koo'kd, or TEXCOCO, tas- 
 ko'ko. A town in the State of Mexico, Mexico, 
 sixteen miles east of the city of that name, east 
 of the Lake of Tezcuco (Map: Mexico, E 8). 
 
 It is on the Interoceanic Railway, whose shops 
 form its chief industry. It also has glass and 
 cotton manufacture. Tn the plaza is a monument 
 Vol. XXII.—11 
 
 155 THACHEE 
 
 to Netzahualcoyotl, the most famous Tezcucan 
 king. Previous to the Spanish conquest the place 
 was occupied by a Chichimeca tribe, known as tile 
 Texcucans or Acolhuans, who claimed a preem¬ 
 inence in Nahuatl culture and civilization. Here, 
 in 1521, Cortes built the brigantines with which 
 he besieged Mexico. Pop., 1900, 5930. 
 
 TEZIUTLAN, ta's6-oot-lan / . A town of the 
 state of Puebla, Mexico, seventy-six miles north¬ 
 east of Puebla, and thirty-seven miles northwest 
 of Jalapa (Map: Mexico, K 8). Its streets are 
 steep and irregular. It has an extensive com¬ 
 merce with Mexico City and with the towns of 
 Vera Cruz. Pop., (est.) 15,000. 
 
 THAALIBI, thii-leT)e (Ar. Abu Mans ur Abd 
 al Malik ibn Muhammad ibn Ismd’il al Tha- 
 ‘dlibi) (961-1038). A prolific writer upon philo¬ 
 logical and literary subjects. He was a native 
 of Persia, his birthplace being Nishapur, and he 
 represented the Persian-Arabic school of litera¬ 
 ture. Arabic philology was now passing from 
 the ancient schools of Basra and Kufa to Persian 
 soil. Thaalibi’s great anthology, Yatimat al dohr, 
 is an invaluable source of information concerning 
 Moslem poets, and reveals critical judgment as 
 well as erudition. Portions of Thaalibi’s works 
 have been edited in Europe and translated, e.g.: 
 J. Seligman, Prooemium et Specimen Lexici Sy- 
 nonymici Arabici Atthalibi (Upsala, 1863) ; P. 
 Cool, *S electa ex Thaalebii Libro Facetiarum 
 (Leyden, 1835) ; J. Ph. Valeton, Talibii Syntag¬ 
 ma Dictorum Brevium et Acutorum (Leyden, 
 1844); Fr. Dieterici, De Anthologia Arabica 
 Tsaalebii Vnio YEtatis Appellata (Berlin, 1846). 
 Consult: C. Broekelman, Geschichte der arabis- 
 chen Litteratur (Weimar, 1898); R. Nicholson, 
 Literary History of the Arabs (New York, 1907)! 
 
 THACHTE, James (1754—1844). An Amer¬ 
 ican physician and writer, born in Barnstable, 
 Mass. From 1775 to 1783 he was a surgeon in 
 the Revolution. Afterward he practiced in 
 Plymouth, Mass., until his death. Thatcher is 
 best known through his Military Journal during 
 the American Revolutionary War (1823), and 
 Observations Relative to the Execution of Major 
 John Andre as a Spy in 17S0 (1834). In these 
 books he supported Washington’s treatment of 
 Andre (Thatcher had been stationed at West 
 Point in 1780). Among his medical books was 
 an American New Dispensatory (1810; 4th ed 
 1821). 
 
 THACHEE, John Boyd (1847-1909). An 
 American manufacturer, writer, and book col¬ 
 lector, born in Ballston, N. Y. He graduated at 
 Williams College in 1869 and settled at Albany, 
 N. Y., where he became a successful manufac¬ 
 turer of car wheels. In 1884-85 he was a Demo¬ 
 cratic member of the State Senate, taking an 
 especial interest in tenement house reform; and 
 in 1886, 1887, 1896, and 1897 he was mayor of 
 Albany. His publications include: The Conti¬ 
 nent of America, Its Discovery and Its Baptism; 
 An Essay on the Nomenclature of the Old Conti¬ 
 nents, etc. (1896) ; a drama, Charlecote: or The 
 Trial of William Shakespeare (1896); The Ca- 
 botian Discovery (1897); and Christopher 
 Columbus, His Life, His Works, His Remains, 
 together with an Essay on Peter Martyr of 
 Anghera and Bartolom6 de las Casas, the First 
 Historians of America (2 vols., 1903) ; an im¬ 
 portant work, made especially valuable by the 
 publication of many original documents and of 
 various early accounts of the life and voyages 
 of Columbus; Outlines of the French Revolution 
 told in Autographs (1905). 
 
THACHER 
 
 THACKERAY 
 
 150 
 
 THACHER, Thomas Antony (1815-86). 
 An American educator, born in Hartford, Conn. 
 He graduated at Yale in 1835, was appointed tutor 
 there in 1838, and, in 1842, professor of Latin, 
 a position which he held during the remainder 
 of his life. In 1843 he went to Germany and 
 for a time gave instruction in English to the 
 Crown Prince of Prussia and to Prince Frederick 
 Charles. He was one of the editors of Webster's 
 Dictionary and also edited many of the Latin 
 classics, such as Cicero’s De Officiis (1850), and 
 made an English version of Madvig’s Latin 
 Gram mar. 
 
 THACK'ERAY, Anne Isabella. See 
 Ritchie, Anne Isabella. 
 
 THACKERAY, William Makepeace (1811— 
 63). A famous English novelist. He was born 
 in Calcutta, where his father was at the time 
 in the service of the East India Company, July 
 18, 1811. At the age of six he was sent to 
 England, his father having died, and placed in 
 the care of an aunt; but in 1821 his mother re¬ 
 turned with her second husband and settled near 
 Ottery Saint Mary in Devonshire. The boy re¬ 
 garded her as “a daughter of the gods’’ and his 
 stepfather, it is asserted, was the original of 
 Colonel Newcome, whom, in certain traits, he did 
 as a matter of fact resemble. After attending 
 two small schools, Thackeray entered Charter- 
 house, also vividly described in The Neivcomes, 
 and remained there six years (1822—28). Then 
 he spent a little over a year at Cambridge as a 
 member of Trinity College and of the brilliant 
 society of which Tennyson (q.v.) was one. Then 
 during two years abroad he met Goethe at Wei¬ 
 mar. On' his return to England he studied law 
 for a while at the Middle Temple, which fur¬ 
 nished material for Pendennis. On his coming 
 of age, he inherited a fortune of now indeter¬ 
 minate size, but variously estimated at £20,000 
 and £500. At all events, much of it was lost by 
 the failure of an Indian bank, and a quantum of 
 it at play, and he had to depend on his own ex¬ 
 ertions for a living. In 1833 he became editor and 
 proprietor of the National Standard, a periodical 
 devoted to art and literature, but it lived only 
 about a year, after which he spent some time in 
 Paris studying art. He offered to illustrate Pick¬ 
 wick, but his services were declined by Dickens. 
 In 1836 he became Paris correspondent for 
 the Constitutional, and married there Isabella, 
 daughter of Colonel Shawe of Doneraile, County 
 Cork. 
 
 After his marriage he settled in London and 
 contributed regularly to Frazer's Magazine, and 
 was busy with his pencil also. His first book 
 was Flore et Zephyre by Th4ophile Wagstaff 
 (1836), with nine comic plates from his own 
 drawings. To Fraser’s he contributed The Yel- 
 loioplush Papers in 1838. Then followed The 
 Paris Sketchbook (1840), and The Irish Sketch¬ 
 book (1843). In 1842 he began writing for 
 Punch, to which he contributed nearly four 
 hundred sketches. The most successful were 
 “Jeames’s Diary” (1845-46), the “Prize Novel¬ 
 ists” (1847), and the “Snob Papers” (1846-47). 
 Thackeray had now proved himself a master of 
 burlesque, and an acute critic of contemporary 
 manners. In their kind nothing could be better 
 than the “Prize Novelists,” in which he exag¬ 
 gerates the weaknesses of Bulwer, Disraeli, Le¬ 
 ver, Cooper, and Scott. Barry Lyndon (1844) 
 was slow in winning the recognition which later 
 criticism has given it in justly' declaring it to 
 be, in the concentrated power of its satire, in its 
 
 literary economy and in other literary qualities 
 one of his very finest achievements. He had also 
 begun, as he continued throughout life, to write 
 occasional verse, commonly in the ballad 
 measure, at will grave and pathetic or richly 
 humorous. 
 
 In 1847-48 Vanity Fair appeared in monthly 
 parts, and Thackeray assumed his place in Eng¬ 
 lish literature by the side of Fielding. This, 
 with his other great novels, Pendennis (1848- 
 50), Henry Esmond (1852), and The Neivcomes 
 (1853-55), shows him at the height of his power. 
 Like Vanity Fair, the last three named novels 
 appeared in monthly installments. Somewhat 
 inferior, but still to" be mentioned in this con¬ 
 text, are The Virginians (in monthly parts 
 (1857-59) and The Adventures of Philip 
 (1862). Henry Esmond, especially, has taken 
 rank by universal consent at the head of Eng¬ 
 lish historical fiction. With its other merits, it 
 is on the whole a wonderfully faithful repro¬ 
 duction, not only of the language, but of the 
 thought and the manners of the early eighteenth 
 century. This was a period by which Thack¬ 
 eray was always strongly attracted; Addison, 
 Swift, Steele, and the eighteenth-century novel¬ 
 ists were his masters in literature. He even 
 thought of writing a history of the century; and 
 his studies took shape in the delightful lectures 
 on The English Humorists. These he delivered 
 in America in 1852 and 1853 with such success 
 that he came again in 1855 with The Four 
 Georges. In 1857 he tried for Parliament, 
 standing for Oxford in the Liberal interests, but 
 was fortunately defeated. In 1860 he became 
 the first editor of the Cornhill Magazine, for 
 which he wrote his last novels, Lovel the IT id- 
 ower (1860), The Adventures of Philip (1862), 
 and the beautifully written Denis Duval (1864). 
 In the Cornhill appeared (1860-63) the Round¬ 
 about Papers, models of the familiar essay, which 
 represent his style in its ripest perfection. 
 
 Though not far beyond middle life, Thackeray 
 felt the burden of years, and resigned the editor¬ 
 ship of the Cornhill in April, 1862. On the 
 morning of Dec. 24, 1863, he was found dead in 
 his bed. He was admirable both as a man and 
 as a novelist. Tennyson called him lovable and 
 noble-hearted. So said Carlyle and all who 
 knew him well. He has been often called a 
 cynic; and indeed he was unsparing in the fierce¬ 
 ness with which he plied the lash on anything 
 which savored of sham or pretense, and his keen 
 vision detected alloy in the finest natures. Yet 
 there is a tremendous contrast between his satire 
 and that of Swift, a cynic in truth, who hated 
 and despis*ed human nature and rejoiced in lay¬ 
 ing bare its weaknesses. Thackeray wrote al¬ 
 ways with a noble tenderness and with reverence 
 for all that was good and true. Yet it must be 
 admitted that, almost without exception, the 
 strongest characters in his novels are the bad 
 ones, and that he has drawn scarcely a woman 
 whom we can love and admire without quali¬ 
 fication. 
 
 Thackeray described the life of the upper 
 classes, with its fringe of servants and retainers, 
 as Dickens that of the lower; and between them 
 they give an unrivaled picture of English life 
 in the middle of the nineteenth century, with its 
 characteristic notes, one may say, for the first 
 time in the history of literature, a picture of a 
 society whose chief concern is the making or the 
 spending of money. The interest in social ques¬ 
 tions which he was among the first to import 
 
THAI 
 
 THADDSEUS 
 
 into fiction has never died out; though Charlotte 
 Bronte’s enthusiastic picture of him (in the 
 pieface to the second edition of Jane Eyre) as 
 a prophet who comes before the great ones of 
 society much as the son of Inilah came before 
 the throned kings of Judah and Israel, and who 
 speaks truth as deep, with a power as prophet¬ 
 like and as vital, a mien as dauntless and as 
 daring, may seem to us overdrawn. The most 
 indisputable of his qualities is his mastery of 
 a singularly pure, flexible, varied, and simple 
 style—the natural unstrained expression of his 
 thoughts, however lofty or however homely they 
 may ha\e been. “He blew on his pipe, and words 
 came tripping round him, like children, like 
 pretty little children who are perfectly drilled 
 for the dance; or came, did he will it, treading 
 in their precedence, like kings, gloomily.” 
 
 Bibliography. Out of respect for Thackeray’s 
 request, no authorized biography of him has ever 
 been vritten. His daughter, Mrs. Richmond 
 Ritchie, however, has written sketches for each 
 volume of the Biographical Edition of his works 
 (London, 1898-99), and his son-in-law, Sir Les¬ 
 lie Stephen, wrote the excellent article on him 
 in the Dictionary, of National Biography. A 
 good edition of the 1 Vorks is that with introduc¬ 
 tion by Walter Jerrold (New York, 1902). An¬ 
 thony Trollope’s Thackeray, in the “English Men 
 of Letters Series’ (London, 1879), is interesting 
 on the score of a few personal impressions, but 
 on the whole unsatisfactory and unworthy of its 
 subject. See also: Lewis Melville, Life (London, 
 1899), and L. S. Benjamin, Life (2 vols., New 
 York, 1906). For early work, not found in the 
 Biographical Edition, see Unidentified Contribu¬ 
 tions of Thackeray to Punch, edited by Spielmann 
 (ib., 1899), and Thaclcerdy’s Stray Papers, 1821 
 to 1847, edited by Melville (ib., 1901).* Consult 
 also Hunter, The Thackerays in India (ib., 1897) ; 
 the biography by Merivale and Marzials in the 
 “Great Writers Series” (ib., 1891) ; Whibley (ib., 
 1903) ; Crowe, Homes and Haunts of Thackeray 
 (ib., 1897) ; id., With Thackeray in America 
 (ib., 1893); Wilson, Thackeray in the United 
 States (New York, 1904). For criticism, con¬ 
 sult especially the essays by Harrison, in Early 
 Victorian Literature (London, 1895); Brownell, 
 in Victorian Prose Masters (New York, 1901) ;’ 
 Scudder, Social Ideals in English Letters (Bos¬ 
 ton, 1898); Lilly, in Four English Humorists 
 of the Nineteenth Century (London, 1895) ; Skel¬ 
 ton, Table Talk of Shirley (ib., 1895) ; Melville, 
 Thackeray Country (New York, 1905); L. S. 
 Benjamin, Some Aspects of Thackeray (Boston, 
 1911). 
 
 THADD.ZETTS, thad-de'us (Gk. 0a5 daios, Thad- 
 daios, a name of uncertain derivation and mean- 
 ing). One of the 12 Apostles in the list given 
 in Mark iii. 16-19 and Matt. x. v 2-4 (authorized 
 version, “Lebbseus”). In the corresponding lists 
 in Luke vi. 14—16 and Acts i. 14 he is named 
 Judas [son] of James, doubtless to distinguish 
 him from Judas Iscariot. As so named he may 
 be the Judas referred to in John xiv. 22. Some 
 inferior manuscripts in the lists of Mark and 
 Matthew substitute Lebbseus for Thaddseus, a 
 reading possibly due to some scribe who, igno¬ 
 rant of the identity of Levi with Matthew, in¬ 
 troduced the former into the apostolic list under 
 this name (cf. Origen, Contra Celsum, i. 62, 
 where Lebes is used as the equivalent of Levein 
 [Levi]). Eusebius (Hist. Eccles. i. 13) makes 
 Thaddseus one of the Seventy, and refers to him 
 as sent by Thomas the apostle to Abga r , King 
 
 57 
 
 of Edessa, in fulfilment of a promise of Christ to 
 him to heal him of an incurable disease and to 
 evangelize his household. Eusebius claims to 
 ha\e taken this story direct from Syrian sources. 
 In the Greek Acts of Tliaddceus he is identified 
 
 ith Lebbseus, and referred to as evangelizinir 
 Syrians and Armenians. The Syrian tradition 
 embodied in the Doctrine of Addai makes Addai, 
 one of the Seventy, the apostle of the Syrian 
 church. 
 
 THAD DEUS OF WAR/SAW\ A romance 
 by Jane Porter (1803). 
 
 THAER, tar, Albrecht Daniel (1752-1828). 
 A noted German agriculturist, whose work revo¬ 
 lutionized certain forms of farm management 
 and animal production of his day. Born at Celle, 
 Hanover, he was trained as a physician, but 
 early turned his attention to agriculture. On 
 his farm in Celle he demonstrated the value of 
 intensive farming, stall feeding of soiling crops, 
 and rotation of crops in connection with potato 
 culture. He was active in applying scientific 
 principles to agriculture, systematizing accounts, 
 introducing agricultural implements, and im¬ 
 proving sheep for the production of fine wool. 
 In 1802 lie began a course of agricultural lec¬ 
 tures, out of which grew the Agricultural Insti¬ 
 tute of Celle. In 1806 he established at Moglin, 
 near Berlin, an agricultural institute, which be¬ 
 came celebrated. He was appointed professor 
 at the University of Berlin in 1810, started his 
 famous sheep-breeding farm at Moglin in 1811, 
 and from 1815 on had charge of the royal sheep¬ 
 breeding farms, which he improved. Resigning 
 his professorship in 1818, he devoted himself to 
 his institute at Moglin, which was raised to a 
 Royal Academy of Agriculture in 1824. Thaer 
 founded and edited the Annalen der nieder - 
 sdchsischen Landunrtschaft (1798-1804), and 
 was the author of a. large number of treatises on 
 agriculture, several of which were epoch-making, 
 lhe Linleitung zur Kenntnis der englisclien 
 Landwirtschaft (1798; 3d ed., 1816) made his 
 name first more widely known, and his great 
 work Grundsiitze der rationellen Landwirtschaft 
 (1809-10; new ed., 1880) was translated into 
 most of the European languages. For his biog¬ 
 raphy, consult Korte (Leipzig, 1839). 
 
 THAI, ta'e, or TAI (free). A group of 
 peoples of Farther India, including the Thos 
 (q.v.) and Muongs (q.v.) in the northeast 
 (Tongking and China), the Shans (q.v.) in the 
 northwest (Burma, Siam, China), the Laotians 
 (see Laos) in the south (the Laos States, French 
 Siam), and the Siamese in the southwest 
 (Siam). The term Thai is applied by certain 
 writers to the Siamese in particular, but their 
 proper appellation is rather Little Thai, their 
 ancestors, the Shans, being called the Great Thai. 
 The Thai peoples speak languages belonging to 
 the same linguistic stock. The Siamese present 
 the Thai type, much changed by intermixture 
 with Khmers, Hindus, Kuis, Malays, and other 
 stocks. They are of medium stature and brachv- 
 cephalic, while the Laotians are shorter and less 
 broadheaded. Among some of the Shan tribes 
 the primitive Thai type is best preserved. The 
 Ihai peoples have shown much political capacity. 
 Consult: Pellegoix, Description du royaume Thai 
 ou Siam (Paris, 1854) ; Bastian, Die Volker des 
 bstlichen Asians (Leipzig, 1866); Hellwald, Hin- 
 terindische Lander und Volker (ib., 1880) ; 
 Forbes, Comparative Grammar of the Languages 
 of Further India (London, 1881); Colquhoun 
 Across Chryst (ib., 1883) ; Diguet, Etude de la 
 
THAIS 
 
 THALLUS 
 
 langue Tai (Paris, 1896). See China, Eth¬ 
 nology. 
 
 THAIS, tha'is (Lat., from Gk. Oafs). An 
 Athenian courtesan, famous for wit and beauty. 
 She accompanied Alexander the Great to Asia, 
 and, according to Cleitarchus, induced him, dur¬ 
 ing a festival, to set fire to the palace of the 
 Persian kings at Persepolis (compare Drvden, 
 Ode to Saint Cecilia’s Day ). After the death 
 of Alexander she lived with Ptolemy Lagi, King 
 of Egypt, who is said (by Athenseus) to have 
 married her, and by whom she gave birth to 
 two sons, Leontiscus and Lagus, and a daughter, 
 Irene. 
 
 THAIS. An opera by Massenet (q.v.), first 
 produced in Paris, March 16, 1894; in the 
 United States, Nov. 24, 1907 (New York). 
 THAKURA. See Tagore, Sir R. 
 THALBERG, tal'berK, Sigismund (1812-71). 
 
 A German pianist, born at Geneva, Switzerland. 
 He was the natural son of Prince Moritz Die- 
 trichstein and received his musical education 
 from 1822 on at Vienna, where he studied under 
 Hummel and composition under Sechter. Ilis 
 appearance in public in 1830 was a success, and 
 he became chamber virtuoso to the Emperor of 
 Austria in 1834, appearing in Paris (1835) as 
 a rival of Liszt. After triumphs in England, 
 Russia, and Italy, in Brazil (1855—56), and in 
 the United States (1856-58), he retired to his 
 home at Posilipo, near Naples, whence he only 
 once more undertook a concert tour to Paris and 
 London (1862) and to Brazil (1863). Perhaps 
 his strongest point as a pianist was his mastery 
 of the legato singing tone. In every other re¬ 
 spect his style, though brilliant, was shallow. 
 
 THALER, ta'ler. A German coin, first struck 
 at Joachimsthal, Bohemia, in 1519 and hence 
 called Joachimthaler, whence the modern name. 
 The thaler, divided into 30 silbergroschen of 
 12 pfennigs, was the German unit of value until 
 1873, when the mark was adopted. The thaler 
 is still in circulation with the value of 3 marks, 
 about 69 cents. See Plate II of Numismatics. 
 
 THALES, "tha'lez (Lat., from Gk. ©aA^s). 
 The earliest of the Greek philosophers, and the 
 founder of the Ionic or Physical school. (See 
 Ionian School.) He flourished in the first half 
 of the sixth century b.c. He was a native of 
 Miletus, in Asia Minor, and is said to have been 
 of Phoenician descent. He was reckoned one of 
 the Seven Wise Men (q.v.), possessed sufficient 
 astronomical knowledge to enable him to predict 
 the eclipse of the sun in the reign of the Lydian 
 King Alyattes, and was an excellent mathema¬ 
 tician. He was famed also for his practical and 
 political wisdom, but especially because he was 
 the first among the Greeks to set aside the cur¬ 
 rent explanations of the universe and look for a 
 first principle ( apxv ) which might be grasped 
 through reason. This first principle he found 
 in water, the source of all things, into which, 
 also, all things were resolved. Thales left no 
 writings, and even among the Greeks consider¬ 
 able doubt prevailed as to his exact teachings. 
 Consult: Zeller, Philosophic der Griechen, vol. i 
 (4th ed., Berlin, 1900) ; James Burnet, “From 
 Thales to Plato,” in Greek Philosophy, part i 
 (London, 1914) ; Ritter and Preller, Historia 
 Philosophice Grcecw (9th ed., Gotha, 1914). 
 
 TEALI'A (Lat., from Gk. ©aXeia, Thaleia, 
 from 6a\eia, thaleia, luxuriant, blooming, from 
 edWeiv, thallein, to bloom). One of the nine 
 Muses (q.v.). In the assignment of specific 
 functions to the Muses she became the Muse of 
 
 158 
 
 Comedy, and was represented as holding the 
 comic mask. 
 
 THALLINE, thal'in or -en. A synthetic 
 drug derived from coal tar. As thalline sali¬ 
 cylate it is employed as an intestinal antiseptic 
 and in rheumatism; as thalline sulphate it is 
 used as an antiseptic and antipyretic and has 
 been suggested as a substitute for antipyrine, but 
 its effects are not so lasting, nor is the drug 
 without danger. 
 
 THALLIUM (Neo-Lat., from Gk. 6a\\os, 
 thallos,, green shoot). A metallic element dis¬ 
 covered by Crookes in 1861, and independently 
 by Lamy in 1862. It was originally found by 
 the bright green line which its compounds give 
 when examined by the spectroscope. It occurs 
 as the selenide in combination with copper and 
 silver, in the rare mineral crookesite, in small 
 quantities in copper and iron pyrites, and in the 
 seleniferous deposits from sulphuric acid; also 
 in minute quantities in other minerals, and in 
 certain mineral waters. It may be prepared from 
 the flue dust of sulphuric acid works in which 
 pyrites containing thallium are burned, by heat¬ 
 ing the dust with water acidulated with sul¬ 
 phuric acid, precipitating the resulting solution 
 with hydrochloric acid, heating the precipitate 
 to dryness with sulphuric acid, dissolving the 
 resulting thallium sulphate in water, and precip¬ 
 itating the metallic thallium by zinc. Thallium 
 (symbol, Tl; atomic weight, 204.0) is a soft, 
 crystalline, leadlike metal, with a specific grav¬ 
 ity of 11.9, and a melting point oi 290° C. (554° 
 E.). When exposed to the air it tarnishes 
 rapidly, becoming coated with a thin layer of 
 oxide, which preserves the rest of the metal. It 
 combines with oxygen to form a monoxide (TLO) 
 and a trioxide (T1 2 0 3 ), which yield correspond¬ 
 ing series of salts, known as the thallous and 
 thallic compounds. The compounds of thallium 
 are very poisonous, producing symptoms like 
 those of lead poisoning. Their presence in a 
 given substance may be readily detected by the 
 beautiful green color which they impart to a 
 nonluminous gas flame. 
 
 THAL'LOPHYTES (from Gk. 6a\\os, thallos ,. 
 green shoot, from da\\ei.v, thallein, to bloom -j- 
 < pvrov, phyton, plant). One of the four great 
 divisions of the plant kingdom, containing the 
 algae and fungi (qq.v.). In theory the thallo- 
 plivtes are distinguished from the other groups 
 by having a thallus body. As a matter of fact, 
 there are many thallophytes with upright stem- 
 like axes, rootlike regions of attachment, and 
 lateral members which function as and resemble 
 leaves, although not at all homologous with the 
 leaves of higher plants. The best examples of 
 these are found among the Phseophyceae, Rhodo- 
 phycese, and Charales (qq.v.). The thallophytes 
 are readily distinguished from the bryophytes 
 above them by the absence of the peculiar female 
 sexual organ (archegonium, q.v.), and the sex¬ 
 less phase or plant (sporopliyte, q.v.) character¬ 
 istic of the bryophytes and pteridophytes. They 
 are, therefore," defined more through the absence 
 of structures found in the higher plants than by 
 any agreement among themselves. 
 
 THALLUS (Lat., from Gk. 8a\\os, green 
 shoot). A plant body whose vegetative struc¬ 
 ture is not differentiated into such organs as 
 stem, leaf, etc. Most of the algae and fungi 
 (thallophytes, q.v.) have thallus bodies. Many 
 liverworts, the sexual phase (gametophyte) of 
 ferns, and even certain reduced and simplified 
 flowering plants such as the duckweed ( Lemna ), 
 
THAMES 
 
 159 
 
 THANE 
 
 present a thalloid structure. On the other hand, 
 certain thallophytes, especially among the brown 
 and red algae, have bodies dilFerentiated far be¬ 
 yond the limits of the definition of a thallus. 
 
 THAMES, temz. The most important river 
 in Oreat Britain, flowing witli a southeastern 
 trend through the southern portion of the King¬ 
 dom and passing through London (Map: Eng¬ 
 land, G 5). Its headwaters, rising on the south¬ 
 east slope of the Cotswold Hills, in Gloucester, 
 five miles south of Cheltenham, converge on Ox¬ 
 ford and flow thence in a southeasterly direction 
 to Reading, through a gap in the Chiltern es¬ 
 carpment. The Thames thereafter follows a gen¬ 
 erally eastward trend. A few miles below Graves¬ 
 end it expands into a wide estuary, and enters the 
 North Sea. Its length is about 215 miles. The 
 upper part of the river is sometimes called the Isis. 
 At London Bridge the width of the river is about 
 290 yards; at Woolwich, 490 yards; at Gravesend 
 pier, 800 yards; 3 miles below Gravesend, 1290 
 yards; at Nore Light, 6 miles; and at its mouth, 
 between Whitstable and Foulness Point, about 
 8 miles below the Nore, the estuary is 18 miles 
 across. The river is navigable for barges to 
 Lechlade, upward of 200 miles above its mouth, 
 and it is connected with several important canals, 
 affording communication with the west and 
 south coasts, and with the interior of the coun¬ 
 try. Its upper reaches and islands are much 
 resorted to for their sylvan beauty, and pleasure 
 steamers ply daily between Kingston, Henley, 
 and Oxford. The London docks now embrace 35 
 miles of the river from the Tower Bridge to Til¬ 
 bury Dock and the largest steamships are moored 
 at these docks. While the upriver docks are 
 tidal, the lower ones admit any vessel at any 
 stage of the tide. On the average a vessel ar¬ 
 rives at the port of London every 10 minutes. 
 The Thames is also the main source of the water 
 supply of London, the daily supply delivered ex¬ 
 ceeding 225,000,000 gallons. The part of the 
 river immediately below London Bridge is called 
 the Pool, and the part between the bridge and 
 Blackwall is called the Port. Two embankments 
 have been formed, one on the north shore from 
 Blackfriars Bridge to Westminster, and one on 
 the south shore from Westminster Bridge to 
 Yauxhall. Among the places on the Thames be¬ 
 sides those above mentioned are Windsor, Eton, 
 and Richmond. Consult: H. W. Wack, In 
 Tliamesland (New York, 1906) ; T. R. Way, The 
 Thames from Chelsea to the Nore (ib., 1907); 
 Hilaire Belloc, Historic Thames (ib., 1907); 
 T. H. M. Howe, The Thames (ib., 1911) ; G. E. 
 Mitton, The Thames (ib., 1914). See Loxdon. 
 
 THAMES, temz, or GRA'HAMSTOWN. A 
 gold-mining town on the east coast of the Firth 
 of Thames, an inlet in the Hauraki Gulf, North 
 Island, New Zealand, 40 miles east-southeast of 
 Auckland (Map: New Zealand, N., B 4). Pop., 
 1911, 4104. 
 
 THAMES, temz; locally, also thamz, tamz. 
 
 A river of eastern Connecticut (Map: Connecticut, 
 
 G 4). It is a broad and navigable tidal estuary, 
 15 miles long, receiving the Shetucket, and en¬ 
 tering Long Island Sound at its eastern end. At 
 its mouth stands New London, and at its head 
 Norwich. The Shetucket and its branches supply, 
 power for considerable manufactures. 
 
 THAMES, Battle of the. A battle fought 
 at the Moravian settlement on the Thames River • 
 in the township of Oxford, Ontario, Canada, on 
 Oct. 5, 1813, during the War of 1812, between an 
 American force of about 3000 (largely Kentucky 
 
 volunteers) under Gen. William H. Harrison and 
 a British force of about 650 under General Proc¬ 
 tor, aided by a force of Indians, whose number 
 has been variously estimated at from 800 to 
 2000, under Tecurnseh. For days Proctor had 
 retreated before Harrison, but had at last de¬ 
 cided to give battle and had drawn up his troops 
 to receive the advancing Americans. The battle 
 was begun and virtually decided by a cavalry 
 charge under Col. Richard M. Johnson, who has 
 been credited with having personally killed Te- 
 cumseh. The British broke, and fled from the 
 field, with Proctor at their head; the only seri¬ 
 ous resistance was that of the Indians. The 
 American loss in killed and wounded was re¬ 
 ported by Harrison as 29; that of the British was 
 about 35, a large number being taken prisoners. 
 The Indian loss is not definitely known, but it 
 does not appear to have been large. Proctor was 
 soon afterward disgraced for his conduct during 
 the battle. Johnson contended that the battle 
 was fought and won by his regiment of mounted 
 Kentuckians. By this battle the right division 
 of the British army in Upper Canada was 
 greatly weakened, and as the result of Tecumseh’s 
 death the powerful Indian confederacy in the 
 Northwest against the United States was broken 
 up. 
 
 THAMES EMBANKMENT. An important 
 public work in London consisting of broad roads 
 along the Thames, protected on the river side 
 by massive granite walls. The finest portion, 
 the Victoria Embankment, on the north bank of 
 the river, between Blackfriars Bridge and West¬ 
 minster, was constructed in 1864-1870. It has 
 a carriageway 64 feet wide, flanked by broad 
 footwalks, and is planted with trees and 
 adorned with gardens containing statues of no¬ 
 table men. The obelisk known as Cleopatra’s 
 Needle stands near the Adelphi Steps. The Al¬ 
 bert Embankment on the right bank, between 
 Westminster Bridge and Vauxhall Bridge, with a 
 60-foot roadway, was completed in 1869, and the 
 Chelsea Embankment, on the left bank, in 1873. 
 
 THAMXJGA'DI. Another name for Tim- 
 gacl (q.v.). 
 
 THAMTRIS (Lat., from Gk. Qd/uivpis) . A 
 Thracian bard who challenged the Muses to a 
 contest of singing. He was overcome by them 
 and as a punishment was blinded and deprived 
 of his gift of song. 
 
 THAM'ATGP'SIS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. ddva- 
 tos, thanatos, death -f- opis, opsis, sight, view). 
 A well-known poem by William Cullen Bryant, 
 written in 1811, and published in 1817. 
 
 THANATOS (Gk. Odvaros, death). The 
 Greek god of death, called by the Romans Mors, 
 and twin brother of Sleep (see Somnus ), with 
 whom he is usually represented. 
 
 THANE (AS. pegen , pegn, OHG. degan, at¬ 
 tendant, servant, soldier, Ger. Degen, heroic war¬ 
 rior), or Tiiegn. The name by which the class 
 of minor nobles was known in Anglo-Saxon 
 times. Any freeman who had acquired five hides 
 of land and a special appointment in the King’s 
 hall became a thane. He was bound to service 
 in war, but was protected by a higher wergild 
 (q.v.) than the ordinary freeman. Like the 
 gesith, who was the noble living with the King, 
 the thane was a development from the Germanic 
 comitatus or noble follower of some chief, de¬ 
 scribed by Tacitus. After the Norman Conquest 
 the thanes were merged in the class of knights. 
 In Scotland, however, it was long used as a 
 designation of high rank, e.g., the chief of a clan. 
 
THANE OF CAWDOR 
 
 THAUN 
 
 160 
 
 Consult Sir William Stubbs, Constitutional His¬ 
 tory of England, vol. i (6th ed., Oxford, 1897). 
 THANE OF CAWDOR. See Cawdor/ 
 THAN'ET, Isle of. The northeast corner of 
 Kent (q.v.), England (Map: England, H 5). It 
 is 8 miles, in length and from 4 to 6 in breadth. 
 Agriculture is successfully pursued. It contains 
 the well-known watering places, Ramsgate, Mar¬ 
 gate, Westgate, and Broadstairs. Pop., 1901, 
 68,350; 1911, 72,574. Consult SimSon, Historic 
 Thanet (London, 1891). 
 
 THANET, Octave. See French, Alice. 
 THANKSGIVING DAY. In America, the 
 name of a national holiday, which originated 
 in New England. After the first harvest of the 
 New England colonists in 1621 Governor Brad¬ 
 ford made provision for a day of thanksgiving 
 and prayer. In 1623 a day of fasting and prayer 
 in the midst of drought was changed into thanks¬ 
 giving by the coming of rain during the prayers; 
 gradually the custom prevailed of appointing 
 thanksgiving annually after harvest. These ap¬ 
 pointments were by proclamation of the Gover¬ 
 nors of the several New England Colonies. Dur¬ 
 ing the Revolution a day of national thanksgiv¬ 
 ing was annually recommended by Congress. In 
 1817 New York adopted it as an annual custom, 
 and it spread through many of the States by the 
 middle of the nineteenth century. In 1864 Presi¬ 
 dent Lincoln appointed a day of thanksgiving, 
 and since then the presidents have issued a 
 Thanksgiving proclamation, generally designat¬ 
 ing the last Thursday of November. The memory 
 oAts origin as a State appointment survives in 
 the proclamations of the governors of the States, 
 which follow that of the president. Consult 
 Love, The Fast and Thanksgiving Days of New 
 England (New York, 1895). 
 
 THAR, thar (East Indian name), or Tahr. 
 A goat antelope (Hemitragus jemlaicus) allied 
 to the Nilgiri goat (see Nilgai), which inhabits 
 the higher forest regions of the southwestern 
 Himalayas. It is about 3% feet tall. It is usu¬ 
 ally dark brown, but variable, and lighter in win¬ 
 ter The female is singular in having four 
 teats. The horns are black and bend backward. 
 This species is known in Kashmir as kras, and 
 in Nepal as jharal. See Plate of Goat Ante¬ 
 lopes. 
 
 THARAUD, ta'rd', Jerome (1874- ) 
 
 and Jean (1877- ). French novelists, 
 
 brothers, both bom at St. Julien. Their liteiary 
 partnership was so close that when they signed 
 their joint work “J. J.” it was impossible to dis¬ 
 tinguish between them. (For similar collabora¬ 
 tions, see articles on the brothers Goncourt, 
 Margiteritte, and Rosny. ) The Tharauds were 
 awarded the Goncourt prize in 1906. They 
 wrote: Le coltineur debile (1899); La lumiere 
 (1900); La legende de la Vierge and Dingley, 
 Villustre ecrivain (both 1902) ; Contes de la 
 Vierge, Les moines de VAtlios, and Les hobe- 
 reaux (all 1904) ; La mile et les champs (1906) ; 
 Bar cochebas (1907); La maitresse servante 
 (1911); La fete arabe (1912); La tragedie de 
 Ravaillac (1913); La bataille de Scutari et 
 d’Albani (1913). 
 
 THA'SOS (Lat., from Gk. 0d<ros). The most 
 northerly island in the ZEgean Sea, a few miles 
 off the coast of Macedonia (Map: Greece, F 3). 
 Circumference, about 40 miles; pop., 1914, ac¬ 
 cording to Baedeker, about 12,000, mostly Greeks, 
 scattered over 8 villages. Thasos is mountain¬ 
 ous, the chief summit, Hypsarion, being about 
 3400 feet in height, and is,' on the whole, barren. 
 
 It exports some oil, honey, wax, and timber. The 
 island seems to have been the seat of a Phoenician 
 trading post in very early times, but near the 
 end of the eighth century b.c. it was colonized by 
 Parians. The settlers had a severe struggle with 
 the natives before possessing the island and its 
 rich gold mines. They later reached the neigh¬ 
 boring coast, where gold was also found, and be¬ 
 came very wealthy. Thasos submitted to the 
 Persians, but after the defeat of Xerxes joined 
 the Delian League. After an attempt to revolt, 
 it was reduced by the Athenians, who held it for 
 most of the time until the end of the third cen¬ 
 tury b.c., when it passed into the hands of Mace- 
 don. After the battle of Cynoscephahe (197 b.c.) 
 Thasos long enjoyed autonomy under the Romans. 
 Consult: Conze, Reisen auf den Inseln des thra- 
 kischen Meeres (Hannover, 1860) ; H. F. Tozer, 
 Islands of the AEgean (Oxford, 1890); Jacobs, 
 Thasiaca (Gottingen, 1893); J. Baker-Penroye, 
 in Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. xxix (Lon¬ 
 don, 1909); K. Baedeker, Konstantinopel, Bal- 
 kanstaaten, Kleinasien, Archipel, Cypern (2d 
 ed., Leipzig, 1914). 
 
 THATCH, Edward. See Teach, Edward. 
 
 THATCH'ER, Henry Knox (1806-80). An 
 American naval officer, born at Montpelier, near 
 Thomaston, Me. He entered the navy as a mid-/ 
 shipman in 1823; rose through successive grades 
 to the rank of commodore in 1862 and to that of 
 rear admiral in 1866. In 1862 he was placed in 
 command of the steam frigate Colorado, with 
 which he joined the North Atlantic Squadron. 
 In December, 1864, and January, 1865, he com¬ 
 manded the first division of Admiral David D. 
 Porter’s fleet in the attacks upon Fort Fisher, 
 and showed so much ability that he was soon 
 afterward appointed acting rear admiral and 
 assigned to succeed Farragut in command of 
 the West.Gulf Squadron. In cooperation with 
 Major General Canby he then besieged and cap¬ 
 tured the city of Mobile with its remaining for¬ 
 tifications and the fleet of Confederate ironclads. 
 Soon afterward he occupied Galveston without 
 opposition, and so completed the conquest of the 
 Gulf coast. In 1866 he was given command of 
 the North Pacific Squadron, a position which he 
 held until 1868, when he was placed upon the 
 retired list. 
 
 THAU. See Amboina. 
 
 THAULOW, tou'lov, Frits (1847-1906). A 
 Norwegian landscape painter. He was born in 
 Christiania and studied at the Copenhagen Acad¬ 
 emy and under Gude at Karlsruhe. On his re¬ 
 turn to Norway he joined the new movement in 
 art and about 1880 removed to Paris. His fa¬ 
 vorite subjects were running water, snow scenes, 
 and nocturnes, which he interpreted with truth¬ 
 fulness and rare poetic charm. Fine examples 
 are “A November Day in Normandy” (National 
 Gallery, Berlin) and “Winter in Normandy” 
 (Luxembourg, Paris). Other works are in the 
 museums of Munich, Stockholm, and Christiania. 
 He held many exhibitions in the L T nited States, 
 where he is very well represented in private col¬ 
 lections, such as the Walters collection, Balti¬ 
 more, and that of ex-senator Clark, New York. 
 
 THAU'MATUR'GUS. See Gregory Thau- 
 mataitrgus, Saint. 
 
 THAUMATURGY, thji'ma-tur'ji. See Leger¬ 
 demain. 
 
 THAUN, ta'en', Philippe de (fl. c.1100- 
 c.1135). The earliest Anglo-Norman poet whose 
 work has come down to us. Little is known of 
 him. He probably belonged to a family near 
 
THAUSING 
 
 161 
 
 THAXTER 
 
 Caen, France, whence he went to England. He 
 wrote “Li Cumpoz,” or “Computus,” the so-called 
 “Livre des Creatures,” about 1115. It is a poeti¬ 
 cal treatise in six-syllabled lines on the ecclesi¬ 
 astical calendar. Of its seven manuscripts three 
 are in the British Museum and three in the 
 Vatican. More important is “Li Bestiare,” or 
 “Physiologus,” which the poet probably composed 
 about 10 years later. It was dedicated to Ade¬ 
 laide, Queen of Henry I. But one manuscript 
 has survived, viz., Cotton, Vespasian, E. x. It 
 contains 3194 verses, consists of lines of six and 
 eight syllables, and rhymes in couplets. It is 
 the first French bestiary based on the Latin 
 Physiologus, one of the most noteworthy of the 
 bestiaries (q.v.). Philippe groups his creatures 
 as beasts, birds, and stones, and treats each 
 creature as a symbol. His allegories are in gen¬ 
 eral naive; those of a dove and the pelican are 
 not without beauty. He is more valuable for his 
 linguistic legacy in connection with the langue 
 d’o'il than for his poetic talents, which were in 
 fact poor. Consult Mall, Li Cumpoz de Philippe 
 de Thatin (Strassburg, 1873), and Walberg, Le 
 bestiaire de Philippe du Thaiin (Paris, 1900). 
 
 THAUSING, tou'slng, Moritz (1838-84). 
 An Austrian art historian. He was born near 
 Leitmeritz, Bohemia. He studied history and 
 Germanic philology at the universities of Prague, 
 Vienna, and Munich, and in 1868 became curator 
 of the Archduke Alliert’s collection of drawings 
 and engravings in the Albertina, Vienna. In 
 1873 he was called to the University of Vienna 
 as professor of art history. Thausing was an 
 able pioneer in research on Albrecht Diirer. His 
 chiefs works are: Diirers Briefe, Tagebiicher, und 
 Reime (1872) ; Diirer: Geschichte seines Lebens 
 und seiner Kunst (2d ed., 1884). 
 
 THAW CASE. A criminal trial remarkable 
 for the tenacity with which the issue of in¬ 
 sanity was contested. On June 25, 1906, Harry 
 Kendall Thaw of Pittsburgh, son of William 
 and Mary Copley Thaw, shot and killed 
 Stanford White (q.v.), a leading architect 
 of New York City, at Madison Square Roof 
 Garden. Occurrences preceding the murder 
 involved Evelyn Nesbit, an actress and ar¬ 
 tist's model, whom Thaw had married. Thaw 
 was indicted for murder, first degree, in Janu¬ 
 ary, 1907, his trial beginning Jan. 22, 1907. 
 William Travers Jerome (q.v.), district attor¬ 
 ney, prosecuted the action and insisted upon 
 having Thaw r examined as to his sanity, despite 
 the defendant’s opposition. The commission 
 which examined Thaw pronounced him sane, and 
 the trial continued. The testimony introduced 
 was of a highly sensational nature. The jury 
 disagreed and was discharged, certain members 
 refusing to convict because of belief that an 
 unwritten law was applicable. Thaw was again 
 brought to trial in the following January 
 (1908). It was in this trial that the terms 
 “brainstorm” and “dementia Americana” were 
 first employed—the former to indicate sudden, 
 impulsive insanity, and the latter, as used by 
 Delphin Delmas, Thaw’s counsel, to describe a 
 kind of righteous frenzy. Acquitted on the 
 ground that he was insane when he killed White, 
 Thaw was committed to Matteawan State Hos¬ 
 pital for the Criminal Insane, the order of com¬ 
 mitment providing, as usual, that he should 
 continue in restraint until discharged by due 
 course of law. 
 
 Immediately after entering Matteawan, Thaw 
 obtained a writ of habeas corpus to determine 
 
 whether his confinement was legal. The super¬ 
 intendent of the asylum opposed Thaw’s release, 
 and Jerome again appeared for the State. After 
 several hearings this writ was dismissed on 
 May 25, 1908, the presiding justice holding that 
 Thaw’s release would be dangerous to the pub¬ 
 lic. In June an application made by Thaw for 
 his transfer to Middletown State Hospital was 
 denied, but in the same month he demanded a 
 jury trial to prove his sanity. When the United 
 States Supreme Court finally refused to review 
 the action of the State court, refusing Thaw’s 
 application, this long proceeding was closed. 
 Ihe second writ of habeas corpus was dismissed 
 Aug. 12, 1909, the third was dismissed July 26, 
 1912, and the fourth (issued March 1, 1913) was 
 later withdrawn, on the ground that the scan¬ 
 dal resulting from the Anliut incident had preju¬ 
 diced Thaw’s case. In November, 1912, Thaw 
 had given John N. Anhut, a New York lawyer, 
 $25,000 to influence the superintendent of Mat¬ 
 teawan to procure his release. Thaw disclosed 
 this in the criminal prosecution resulting from 
 the bribery and later cited the value of his 
 testimony in this action as substantiating his 
 claim to sanity. Several legal proceedings with 
 reference to the application of the rules and reg¬ 
 ulations of the hospital were brought during 
 Thaw’s stay at Matteawan. His right to con¬ 
 sult with counsel unattended by guards and the 
 number and length of visits by strangers were 
 diligently litigated. 
 
 Thaw escaped from Matteawan, Aug. 17, 1913, 
 in a motor car and succeeded in reaching Canada. 
 Under deportation proceedings he returned across 
 the border to New Hampshire. An indictment, 
 charging him with conspiracy in effecting his 
 escape from confinement, was unsuccessfully 
 brought, but the State of New York, after stren¬ 
 uous opposition, succeeded in procuring his re¬ 
 turn to its jurisdiction on the ground that he 
 was a fugitive from justice. The extradition 
 proceedings, finally carried on appeal to the 
 United States Supreme Court, were upheld by it. 
 Brought to trial on the conspiracy charge, Thaw 
 was acquitted by a jury and was thereupon or¬ 
 dered back into custody at Matteawan. On 
 March 15, 1915, the fifth and final writ of habeas 
 corpus was issued, and on July 16 the jury re¬ 
 turned its verdict that Thaw was sane, thereby 
 releasing him from custody. For a history of 
 the Thaw case to the date of Thaw’s escape from 
 Matteawan, consult the New York Times of 
 Aug. 18, 1913. 
 
 THAX'TER, Celia (Laighton) (1836-94). 
 An American poet, born at Portsmouth, N. H. 
 Her father was keeper of the United States Gov¬ 
 ernment lighthouse on the Isles of Shoals, where 
 her girlhood and much of her after life were 
 passed. In 1851 she married Levi Lincoln Thax- 
 ter, a Browning scholar. Mrs. Thaxter’s poetry 
 was reflective of her quiet life on the islands. 
 It expressed with simplicity and delicacy her 
 feeling for the sea and its perils, and also for 
 the gentler aspects of nature. Her works in¬ 
 clude: Poems (1871) ; Among the Isles of Shoals 
 (1873), a series of papers begun in the Atlantic 
 Monthly in 1867; Drift-Weed (1878); Poems 
 for Children (1884) ; The Cruise of the Mystery, 
 and. Other Poems (1886); Idyls and Pastorals 
 (1886) : The Yule Log (1889) ; An Island Gar¬ 
 den (1894); Stories and Poems for Children 
 (1895). For her son, see Thaxter, Roland. 
 
 THAXTER, Roland (1858- ). An 
 
 American botanist. He was born at Newton, 
 
THAYER 
 
 162 
 
 THAYER 
 
 Mass., son of Celia Thaxter (q.v.), and was 
 educated at Harvard (A.B., 1882; Ph.D., 1888), 
 where he was an assistant in biology in 1886— 
 88, assistant professor of cryptogamic botany 
 from 1891 to 1901, and thenceforth professor. 
 In the meantime he had served as mycologist 
 of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Sta¬ 
 tion from 1885 to 1891. In 1907 he became the 
 American editor of the Annals of Botany, an 
 important English series, and in 1909 was presi¬ 
 dent of the Botanical Society. He was elected 
 to the National Academy of Sciences in 1912. 
 Thaxter contributed many monographs to scien¬ 
 tific publications, dealing particularly with the 
 fungous diseases of insects and with cryptogamic 
 botany. 
 
 THAYER, Abbott Handerson (1849-1921 ). 
 An American figure, landscape, and portrait 
 painter. He was born in Boston, Mass., and 
 from 1875 to 1879 studied at the Beaux-Arts, 
 Paris, under Gerome and Lehmann, but was most 
 influenced by the work of Bastien-Lepage. Upon 
 his return to the United States he at first painted 
 portraits and occasional landscapes, but soon 
 devoted himself to ideal figure compositions. 
 His highly individual style is characterized by 
 broad draftsmanship, well balanced composition, 
 and the use of color in simple strong masses. 
 His favorite subject is a young female figure, 
 alone or in company with one or two accessory 
 figures, frequently members of the artist’s fam¬ 
 ily. They are treated with much ideality, and 
 great dignity and charm of expression. Fine ex¬ 
 amples of his work are: “Young Woman” (Met¬ 
 ropolitan Museum, New York) ; “Caritas” (Bos¬ 
 ton Museum) ; “Winged Figure” (Albright Art 
 Gallery, Buffalo) ; “A Virgin” (Freer collection, 
 National Gallery, Washington, which also pos¬ 
 sesses several other works), and “Virgin En¬ 
 throned.” In 1884 he executed a mural decora¬ 
 tion, “Florence,” for Bowdoin College. He was 
 an original member, and for two years president 
 of the Society of American Artists, and was 
 elected a member of the National Academy 
 (1901), and of the American Academy of Arts 
 and Letters. He made his home at Monad- 
 nock, N. H. 
 
 THAYER, Benjamin Bowditch (1862- 
 ). An American mining engineer, born in 
 San Francisco. After graduating from the Law¬ 
 rence Scientific School (Harvard) in 1885, he 
 engaged in mining operations in Montana, Cali¬ 
 fornia, New Mexico, and Mexico. Becoming con¬ 
 nected with the Anaconda Copper Mining Com¬ 
 pany, he served after 1908 as its president until 
 1915, when the Anaconda absorbed the Amal¬ 
 gamated Copper Company. Thenceforth he was 
 vice president of the greater company. In 1914 
 he served as president of the American Institute 
 of Mining Engineers and in 1915 was appointed 
 to the United States Naval Consulting Board. 
 
 THAYER, Eli (1819-99). An American 
 educator, inventor, and antislavery agitator, 
 born at Mendon, Mass. He graduated at Brown 
 University in 1845, and in 1848 founded Oread 
 Institute, a school for young women at Wor¬ 
 cester, Mass. In 1853-54 he was a member of 
 the Lower House of the Massachusetts Legisla¬ 
 ture. He is chiefly remembered for his connection 
 with the Kansas * Crusade, the purpose of which 
 was to secure the admission of Kansas as a free 
 State. With this aim in view he early in 1854 
 organized the Massachusetts Emigrant Aid Com¬ 
 pany; soon afterward affiliated it with the Emi¬ 
 grant Aid Company of New York; and a year 
 
 later reorganized the two under the name of the 
 New England Emigrant Aid Company. Local 
 leagues were established whose members emi¬ 
 grated to Kansas and settled in localities (Law¬ 
 rence, Topeka, Manhattan, Osawatomie) where 
 the company had erected hotels for temporary 
 accommodation and had provided sawmills and 
 other improvements. The company proved a 
 financial failure, but its main purpose was suc¬ 
 cessful. (See Kansas, History.) In 1856 
 Thayer began a somewhat similar but unsuccess¬ 
 ful work in Virginia, and founded the town of 
 Ceredo, containing about 500 inhabitants from 
 New England. From 1857 till 1861 he was a 
 member of the National House of Representa¬ 
 tives. He was also an inventor, and he patented, 
 among other things, a hydraulic elevator, a sec¬ 
 tional safety steam boiler, and an automatic 
 boiler cleaner. He published a volume of Con¬ 
 gressional speeches (1860), a collection of lec¬ 
 tures (1886), and History of the Kansas Cru¬ 
 sade (1889). 
 
 THAYER, Ezra Ripley (1866-1915). An 
 American lawyer and educator, son of James 
 Bradley Thayer (q.v.). He was born at Milton, 
 Mass., and was educated at Harvard (A.B., 
 1888; LL.B., 1891). Admitted to the bar at 
 Boston in 1891, he was a member of the law 
 firm of Brandeis, Dunbar, and Nutter from 1896 
 to 1900, and of Storey, Thorndike, Palmer, and 
 Thayer from 1900 to 1910. Thenceforth until 
 his death he was Dane professor of law at Har¬ 
 vard and dean of the Law School. Through in¬ 
 fluence in this latter office he did much to raise 
 the standards and improve the curriculum of 
 legal education in the United States. In a fit 
 of insanity he committed suicide by drowning. 
 
 THAYER, James Bradley (1831-1902). An 
 American lawyer and author, born at Haverhill, 
 Mass. He graduated at Harvard in 1852 and 
 at the Harvard Law School in 1856. From that 
 time until 1874 he engaged in the practice of 
 law, and from the latter year until his death 
 he was a professor in the Harvard Law School. 
 He was the father of Ezra Ripley Thayer (q.v.). 
 Flis publications include: Letters of Chauncey 
 Wright (1877); A Western Journey with Mr. 
 Emerson (1884); The Origin and Scope of the 
 American Doctrine of Constitutional Law 
 (1893); The Teaching of English Law in Uni¬ 
 versities (1892); Cases on Evidence (1892); 
 Cases on Constitutional Law (1895); The De¬ 
 velopment of Trial by Jury (1896) ; A Prelimi¬ 
 nary Treatise on Evidence at the Common Law 
 (1898); and John Marshall (1901). Consult 
 the Harvard Graduates’ Magazine, vol. x (1901- 
 02), and the Harvard Law Review (April, 
 1902). 
 
 THAYER, John Adams (1861- ). An 
 
 American publisher, born in Boston. He was 
 educated in the public schools of Cambridge, 
 Mass., and became a printer and typefounder. 
 He served as advertising manager of the Ladies’ 
 Home Journal in 1892-98, as business manager 
 of Munsey’s Magazine in 1898, and as advertis¬ 
 ing director of the Delineator from 1898 to 1903. 
 In the latter year he joined in organizing the 
 Ridgeway-Thayer Company, publishers of Every¬ 
 body’s Magazine, but retired from this enter¬ 
 prise in i906. Thayer lived in Paris from 
 1906 to 1911, when he became publisher and 
 owner of the Smart Set Magazine. He wrote 
 Astir, a Publisher’s Life Story (1910; rev. ed., 
 1912). 
 
 THAYER, John Milton (1820-1906). An 
 
THAYER 
 
 THEATRE 
 
 163 
 
 American soldier and politician. He was born 
 at Bellingham, Mass., was educated at Brown 
 University, and was admitted to the Massachu¬ 
 setts bar. In 1853 he went West and in the fol¬ 
 lowing year settled at Omaha, Neb., which lie 
 made his permanent home. In 1855 he was 
 elected major general of the Territorial forces, 
 and until 18G1 conducted the campaigns against 
 the Indians, in 1859 capturing the Pawnees and 
 placing them on a reservation: At the outbreak 
 of the Civil War he became colonel of volunteers 
 and served with distinction till 1805. For his 
 bravery at Fort Donelson and Shiloh lie was 
 promoted brigadier general, and assisted Sher¬ 
 man in the siege of Vicksburg. In 1867-71 he 
 was l nited States Senator from Nebraska, and 
 in 1875—79 Governor of Wyoming Territory. 
 From 1887 to 1893 he was Governor of Nebraska. 
 
 THAYER, Joseph Henry (1828-1901). An 
 American biblical scholar, born in Boston. He 
 graduated at Harvard in 1850, and at Andover 
 Theological Seminary in 1857. In 1864 he be¬ 
 came associate professor of sacred literature 
 in Andover Theological Seminary, and in 1884 
 professor of New Testament criticism in Har¬ 
 vard Divinity School. He translated the New 
 Testament grammars of Winer (1869) and of 
 Buttmann (1873), and published A Greek-Eng- 
 lish Lexicon of the Neic Testament (1886). He 
 was a member of the American New Testament 
 Company of Revisers of the Authorized Version. 
 
 THAYER, Sylvanus (1785-1872). An 
 American soldier, known as the father of the 
 United States Military Academy. He was born 
 at Braintree, Mass., graduated at Dartmouth 
 in 1807 and at West Point in 1808, and en¬ 
 tered the corps of engineers. During the War 
 of 1812 he served under General Dearborn as 
 the chief engineer of the Northern army (1812) ; 
 under General Hampton as aid-de-camp and 
 chief engineer of the right division of the 
 Northern army (1813); and under General 
 Porter at Norfolk, Va., as chief engineer and 
 brigade major . (1814-15). The two following 
 years he spent in Europe studying fortifications 
 and military schools, and observing the opera¬ 
 tions of the allies. From 1819 to 1833 he was 
 superintendent of the Military Academy at 
 West Point, and thoroughly reorganized the 
 institution, improving it greatly. During the 
 following years he was employed in constructing 
 fortifications and harbor improvements around 
 Boston and as a member of various boards until 
 1858, when he was granted sick leave. In 
 March, 1863, he was commissioned colonel of en¬ 
 gineers and shortly afterward was brevetted 
 brigadier general in the regular army. On June 
 1, 1863, he was retired from active service. He 
 gave liberally to education, founded a free li¬ 
 brary and endowed an academy at Braintree, 
 and founded (1867) the Thayer Engineering 
 School at Dartmouth College. 
 
 THAYER, William Roscoe (1859- ). 
 
 An American author and editor. He graduated 
 from Harvard in 1881, and became editor of 
 the Harvard Gi~aduates y Magazine in 1892. In 
 1914 he was elected to the American Academy of 
 Arts and Letters, and he received honorary de¬ 
 grees from Harvard, Yale, Brown, and other 
 universities. His verse includes The Confessions 
 of Hermes (1884) ; Hesper, an American Drama 
 (1888) ; Poems, Neic and Old (1894). In prose 
 he published, notably: The Dawn of Italian In¬ 
 dependence (1893); History and Customs of 
 Harvard University (1898); Throne-Makers 
 
 (1899); A Short History of Venice (1905); 
 Life and Times of Cavour (2 vols., 1911) ; Life 
 and Letters of John Hay (1915); Germany vs. 
 Civilization (1916). 
 
 THAYER, William Sydney (1864- ). 
 
 An American physician. He was born at Milton, 
 Mass., and was educated at Harvard (A.B., 
 1885; M.D., 1889). After some years on the 
 faculty of Johns Hopkins University, he became 
 professor of clinical medicine there in 1901. 
 He made important investigations in malarial 
 fevers and typhoid, and was the first to report 
 clinically the third sound of the heart. His 
 many essays deal with his investigations. 
 
 THEGETE'TUS (Lat., from Gk. OeaiTtjTos, 
 Theaitetos). An important dialogue of Plato, 
 discussing all the answers to the question: What 
 is knowledge? The speakers are Socrates and 
 the Athenian youth Theaetetus. 
 
 THEAGENES, the-aj / e-nez. The hero of a 
 Greek romance by Heliodorus (q.v.). See also 
 Ciiariclea; Heliodorus. 
 
 THE'ATINES. A Roman Catholic religious 
 community, which played, next to the Jesuits, 
 the most important part in the movement for 
 reform from within the Church in the sixteenth 
 century. Its founders were St. Cajetan (Gae¬ 
 tano da liene) and Giovanni Pietro Caraffa, at 
 that time Bishop of Chieti, from the Latin 
 title of whose see, Theate, the order took its 
 name. With two other friends, they obtained a 
 brief of Clement VII, dated June 24, 1524, 
 formally constituting the new brotherhood, with 
 the three usual vows, and with the privilege of 
 electing their superior, who was to hold office 
 for three years. They were all to be priests. 
 Their first convent was opened in Rome, and 
 Caraffa was chosen as superior. He was suc¬ 
 ceeded in 1527 by Cajetan, and the congregation 
 began to extend to the provinces. After a time, 
 however, it was thought advisable to unite it 
 with the somewhat analogous Order of the Soma- 
 schians (q.v.) ; but Caraffa, who was elected Pope, 
 under the name of Paul IV, restored the origi¬ 
 nal constitution in 1555. The Theatines ex¬ 
 tended themselves over Italy, and into Spain, 
 Poland, and Germany, especially Bavaria. The 
 first French house was founded in Paris under 
 Cardinal Mazarin in 1644. To their activity 
 and zeal Ranke ascribes much of the success 
 of the Counter-Reformation in the south of 
 Europe. At the present time the order num¬ 
 bers not more than 100 members. In 1909 
 Pius X united the order with the Spanish con¬ 
 gregation of the holy family at Barcelona. 
 
 There is an order of nuns bearing this name. 
 It was founded in Naples, in 1583, by Ursula 
 Benincasa. It never spread out of Italy and 
 has now only a few nunneries. 
 
 THEATEE (OF. theatre, Fr. theatre , from 
 Lat. theatrum, from Gk. Oearpov, theatron, place 
 to view shows or plays, from Oeaadai, theasthai, 
 to view, behold, from Oea, thea, view, sight). A 
 building used for the presentation of dramatic 
 and similar spectacles. 
 
 Ancient. The theatre as a form of architec¬ 
 ture was originated by the Greeks and naturally 
 developed with the drama. At first it was 
 simply the open space near the Temple of 
 Dionysus, where the chorus danced about the 
 altar of the god while the solitary actor, per¬ 
 haps standing on the steps of the altar, carried 
 on a dialogue with their leader. It is probable 
 that at times the chorus of satyrs (see Satyr) 
 actually drew a wagon containing the actor who 
 
THEATRE 
 
 THEATRE 
 
 impersonated the god, and who naturally ad¬ 
 dressed his companions from this vantage 
 ground, and it is quite possible to sec in such 
 a scene the car of Thespis, with which the 
 founder of tragedy is said to have traversed 
 Attica. When tragedy became a state institu¬ 
 tion at Athens, set places for its performance 
 were naturally provided; one of these was the 
 Orchestra near the Agora, a circular dancing 
 place which was surrounded by raised seats 
 for the spectators. The other theatre was in 
 the precinct of Dionysus Eleuthereus at the 
 eastern end of the southern slope of the Acro¬ 
 polis, afterward occupied by the stone theatre. 
 
 The earliest Athenian theatre was simply a 
 large circular place (6pxv<TTpa, orchestra, from 
 dpx^crdai, orcheisthai, to dance) about 75 feet in 
 diameter, near the temple. On the hill rose the 
 seats for the spectators ( dearpov , theatron, in 
 the strict sense), and these were further en¬ 
 larged by artificial mounds of earth, so as to 
 form rather more than a semicircle. The orchestra 
 was entered by two passages ( irapodoi , parodoi) 
 from the sides; these lay between the ends of 
 the seats for the spectators and the skene 
 (see below). The nature of the ground was 
 such that at the rear it was raised some dis¬ 
 tance above the level of the sacred precinct, thus 
 affording an opportunity for an underground 
 passage, Charon’s steps, by which actors could 
 rise from the ground in the centre of the or¬ 
 chestra. There was at first no scenery or back¬ 
 ground, and some neighboring house was used 
 as dressing room. In the centre of the orchestra 
 might be an altar or tomb or other structure, 
 probably of no great height. Such simple set¬ 
 tings are all that seem required for the earlier 
 plays of vEschylus, such as the Suppliants, 
 Seven Against Thebes, and Persians. Soon, how¬ 
 ever, an innovation was made. A tent {cupy-t], 
 skene) was introduced to serve as a dressing 
 room, and thism^pd|fej Lecame a building, ap¬ 
 parently erectea^tts^fi^ilf^wde the circle of the 
 orchestra, and proviof%^fc^three doors. ^ It 
 might represent a palac^^-^^ple or any other 
 building called for by the^play; o'fr the front 
 might be covered with a painted scene, as in 
 the Birds of Aristophanes. During all this 
 time actors and chorus were on the same level 
 in the orchestra, except that gods and occa¬ 
 sionally other characters seem to have appeared 
 on the roof of the skene. Our knowledge of 
 this theatre of the fifth century is partly 
 based on the very scanty ruins of the earliest 
 structure, and partly on the internal evidence 
 of the plays themselves, in which there are 
 
 many passages which imply that actors and 
 
 chorus are on the same level, and none, with 
 the exception above noted, that clearly imply 
 any raised stage for the actors. In the fourth 
 century, probably, the theatre at Athens was 
 rebuilt in stone, the orchestra being moved 
 farther back into the hill, and reduced to 
 
 about 60 feet in diameter, stone seats were 
 provided for the spectators, and outside the 
 
 circle of the orchestra was erected a long stone 
 skene, with projecting wings (TrapaaKrjpia, para- 
 skenia ). Later, in the Greek theatre, the or¬ 
 chestra became less than a circle, but regularly 
 more than a semicircle. It seems probable that 
 between these wings the scenery was now dis¬ 
 played, but there is no evidence, in the re¬ 
 mains, of any raised stage. The old view, still 
 held in modified form by many, is that in the 
 fifth and fourth centuries there was a stage 
 
 for the actors, probably low, in front of the 
 skene, and that when the chorus was discon¬ 
 tinued this was replaced by the high platform 
 of the Hellenistic theatre. Somewhat later 
 there was erected, a short distance in front of 
 the skene, a low wall (TrpoaKpviov, proskenion) 
 about 12 feet high, composed of columns, or 
 half columns, supporting an entablature, and 
 with the intercolumniations filled with wooden 
 panels. There was a door *in the centre, with 
 possibly two more, one near each side. In front 
 of this structure the paraskenia projected but 
 a little. The space between the skene and pro¬ 
 skenion was roofed over, forming a platform, 
 which varies in different theatres, but is from 
 10 to 12 feet in height and from about 7 to 9 
 feet in width. It is maintained by some that 
 in the plays of the Hellenistic time the actors 
 appeared on this level, as there was no chorus. 
 On this point the evidence is far from clear, 
 but it seems not improbable that actors in 
 the drama proper occupied the lower level, and 
 that this platform was for gods. In Asia 
 Minor, under the influence of modified condi¬ 
 tions, another type was developed by diminish¬ 
 ing the height and increasing the width of 
 the stage, reducing the orchestra to less than 
 a semicircle. This operation might be described 
 as sinking a part of the orchestra, for the 
 lowest row of seats is frequently (as at 
 Aspendus) on a level with the stage, and not, 
 as in earlier Greek theatres, at the level of 
 the orchestra. It is to be noted that this is not 
 really a lowering and extension of the pro¬ 
 skenion, for at the rear of the new stage ap¬ 
 pears a decorated front of columns or half 
 columns and cornices, which forms a background 
 to the actor, similar to th|^ formed by the old 
 proskenion. There was no curtain in the Greek 
 theatre. The seats for spectators in the Greek 
 theatre were usually laid in whole or in great 
 part against a hillside; the Roman theatre, on 
 the other hand, was regularly built on level 
 ground so that huge substructures of concrete 
 and masonry were necessary to carry the seats. 
 
 In the Roman theatre the plan is very similar 
 in outline, but the details differ widely. The 
 orchestra was only a semicircle, and was used 
 commonly for seats of honor. The other half 
 of the circle was covered by a low stage ( pul - 
 pitum), whose depth was somewhat less than 
 a radius of the orchestra, and its width not over 
 two diameters of the orchestra. In the rear 
 wall were three or five doors, and in the side 
 walls two. Entrance into the orchestra was pro¬ 
 vided by the building of arched passages under 
 the seats at the sides of the stage; these arched 
 passages took the place of the parodoi of the 
 Greek theatre. In the Roman theatre there was 
 a curtain which worked on a roller that re¬ 
 volved in a wide, deep slot at the front of the 
 stage. The curtain was lowered at the begin¬ 
 ning of a play, raised at the close. 
 
 In Greece, outside of Athens, the chief 
 theatres are at Epidaurus, Eretria, Sicyon, 
 Megalopolis, Mantinea, Delphi, Oropus, and 
 Delos. In Asia Minor Greek theatres have been 
 studied at Pergamum, Magnesia on the Meander, 
 Priene, and Miletus. In Sicily and Lower Italy 
 the Greek theatres have been altered in Roman 
 times. Fine ruins remain at Taormina, Syra¬ 
 cuse, Segesta, Pompeii, and Fiesole (near Flor¬ 
 ence). At Timgad, too, in Africa there are 
 remains of a fine Roman theatre; so too in 
 Aspendus in Asia Minor, and at Orange (an- 
 
THEATRE 
 
 cient Arausio) in France. The last-named 
 theatre, which is. well preserved, and has been 
 partly restored, is particularly large and im¬ 
 posing. 
 
 In Athens plays were performed only in con¬ 
 nection with the festivals of Dionysus (see 
 Greek Festivals), i.e., the Country' Dionysia, 
 the Lenaea, and the Greater or City Dionysia. 
 It was at the latter that tragedy developed, 
 and here the great tragedies were first pro¬ 
 duced. Comedy was at first confined to the 
 Lenaea, but after about 465 b.c. was also part 
 of tlio Greater Dionysia. At the Greater Dionysia 
 three tragic poets competed, each producing a 
 tetralogy, i.e., three tragedies and a satyr play. 
 One tetralogy seems to have been performed on 
 eacn of the three days. The three comedians 
 produced only one comedy each, which seems 
 to have followed on each day the group of 
 tragedies. The arrangements "were in charge 
 of the Archon Eponymus, who chose the three 
 poets from among those submitting works, and 
 assigned to each a choregus, i.e., a wealthy citizen 
 upon whom devolved the expense of the produc¬ 
 tion. The production was a competition be¬ 
 tween the choruses, and the victorious choregus 
 dedicated a tablet to Dionysus. The poets re¬ 
 ceived a crown of ivy and a sum of money. At 
 first it seems to have been usual for the poet 
 to play the .leading role. The view long held 
 that only three actors in all were allowed in a 
 Greek play has been challenged. After the fifth 
 century b.c. and perhaps earlier the leading 
 actors also competed for a prize. The profes¬ 
 sion was not dishonorable, and the actors seem 
 to have been always free citizens, as were the 
 chorus. Women did not appear on the stage, 
 unless possibly as flute girls. The costume of 
 the. tragic actor wafa long tunic, with close- 
 fitting sleeves often richly embroidered, and a 
 cloak or mantle, with sometimes a shorter 
 tunic under the cloak. Masks were also worn, 
 and the stature was somewhat increased by 
 padding, a high top to the mask, and thick- 
 soled shoes (cothurni), which also served to 
 raise the actor somewhat above the level of 
 the chorus (the use of the cothurni in the best 
 period of the drama has been disputed by K. K. 
 Smith). The dress of the tragic chorus seems 
 to have resembled that of daily life, except of 
 course in such cases as the Eumenides of 
 ^Eschylus, where the Furies produced a great 
 impression by their awe-inspiring appearance. 
 The satyr chorus wore masks reproducing the 
 typical satyr countenance, a goatskin around 
 the loins, and phalloi. The comic actors wore 
 tights, apparently often of gav colors, a short 
 tunic and cloak, a phallus, and comic mask; 
 the costume of the chorus varied with its charac¬ 
 ter, and the poets allowed free scope to the 
 imagination, as in the Birds and Clouds of Aris¬ 
 tophanes. In the new comedy the dress was 
 modified and more nearly approached that of 
 daily life, from which the characters were 
 taken. At the same time there was introduced 
 a typical series of masks, so designed that the 
 mask at once indicated the character, a device 
 quite useful, in the absence of programmes. 
 
 At Rome the drama, like the theatre, was 
 largely borrowed from the Greek, but it was 
 not a state performance by citizens, at least in 
 its developed form. The government was long 
 hostile to the theatre, so that it was neces- 
 sary to make the plays as completely Greek as 
 possible in appearance. The actors were troupes 
 
 165 THEATRE 
 
 (grcges ) of freedmen or slaves, and the plays 
 were in general adapted from the Greek, espe¬ 
 cially in tragedy, though the fabulce prcetextce, 
 tragedies based on Roman themes, in which the 
 hero wore the toga prcetexta and not the Greek 
 costume, were an attempt to treat national 
 subjects in the Greek tragic style. In the 
 comedy were distinguished the fabulce palliatce, 
 based on the Greek new comedy in which the 
 Greek cloak ( pallium) was worn, and the 
 fabulce togatce, treating of native life and char¬ 
 acter, and appropriately costumed. The plays 
 were produced at public games (ludi) , and also 
 at the games or shows given on special occasions 
 by private individuals. The magistrate or 
 giver of the games paid the leader of a troupe 
 (dominus gregis) , who owned plays and pro¬ 
 duced them. The theatre thus never entered 
 into or reproduced the national life in Rome 
 as in Greece, and in later times the favorite 
 Roman shows were the Mimes and the Atellance, 
 both of which seem to have been marked by 
 buffoonery and indecency. See Mime; Atel- 
 
 LANvE. 
 
 Mediaeval and Modern. During the Middle 
 Ages theatrical performances began with dia- 
 logue additions acted out in the church service 
 for Christmas and Easter. They developed in 
 the twelfth century into plays in' the vernacular 
 presenting the chief events in sacred story 
 from the creation to the last judgment. In the 
 fifteenth century even miracles connected with 
 the lives of the saints were told in drama. 
 Such development made necessary performances 
 on scaffolds by the church walls and by the 
 fifteenth century the assignment of various 
 plays to the amateur actors of the town or the 
 guilds. The shipwrights, e.g., produced the play 
 of Noah. Allegorical dramas depicting the con¬ 
 tention between the personified good and evil 
 powers of the soul for the possession of man 
 developed fully in the ffftey^tj^ fcentury and 
 gave larger opportuni j j ^ f-Tox. aLnmg because of 
 lealistic comic (‘le m ynj.s. ‘•'iftn Spain the religious 
 plays were at f%^L;|)yoduccd in open town 
 squares on ,£■ planobrtf carried by 12 men, but 
 later on cars or floats provided with curious 
 mechanical contrivances. In France the pre¬ 
 vailing type of stage was a long platform 
 
 erected for the occasion, on which were repre¬ 
 sented, one beside the other, the places of action, 
 as the garden of Gethsemane, the pretorium of 
 Pilate, the hill of Calvary, and the mouth of 
 Hell. The actors moved from one place to 
 another before the eyes of the spectators. In 
 England the commonest way was to have the 
 separate plays in a series produced on a suc¬ 
 cession of pageants, or stages on wheels, so 
 
 that the populace at any one station might 
 witness without stirring all scenes in the pro¬ 
 cessional drama. While the great towns were 
 thus elaborately producing these religious plays 
 there grew up for smaller places and private 
 houses bands of strolling players. They formed • 
 a guild of their own in England as early as 
 1469. In Spain one of the founders of’ the 
 national drama is Lope de Rueda, whom we 
 first hear of as the head of a company of 
 
 players in Benavente in 1554. His stage, ac¬ 
 
 cording to Cervantes, “consisted of four benches 
 arranged in a square, with four or five boards 
 upon them, raised about four spans from the 
 ground.” 
 
 In Madrid places for the representation of all 
 secular plays were merely the yards of houses. 
 
THEATRE 
 
 THEATRE 
 
 166 
 
 The stage was at the rear. The audience stood 
 in the courtyard, while the windows about 
 served as boxes for the more distinguished spec¬ 
 tators. There was no roof or other protec¬ 
 tion from sun or rain. When a theatre was 
 built in 1574 it differed from this original in 
 few respects. When charitable societies erected 
 their own permanent playhouses, in the Street 
 of the Cross in 1579 and in the Street of the 
 Prince in 1582, they soon became the only public 
 homes of Madrid for the greatest masterpieces 
 in the history of Spanish drama. In them the 
 court was paved and protected by an awning, 
 and contained near the stage a number of port¬ 
 able benches. Rows of seats rose in an amphi¬ 
 theatre about the court beneath the boxes and 
 galleries, and at the rear was a gallery ex¬ 
 clusively for women. In England also these 
 players of interludes performed in innyards, 
 but they likewise acted in town halls and the 
 banqueting halls of nobles. Under Elizabeth 
 these companies increased in importance until it 
 became a great distinction for a nobleman to have 
 players under his protection. The most famous 
 company is the one originally formed by the 
 Earl of'Leicester with James Burbage as leader, 
 because Shakespeare eventually joined it, wrote 
 all of his plays for it, and produced all of 
 them with it. * Probably the inn suggested to 
 James Burbage some features of the first public 
 theatre, which he erected just outside of Lon¬ 
 don in 1576. It was an amphitheatre, and, some¬ 
 what like the Spanish interior, had three gal¬ 
 leries running around it and standing room for 
 the vulgar in the pit or central space. But 
 Ms stage was a platform projecting far into 
 the pit so that the audience was on three sides 
 of the actor, whereas the Spanish stage seems 
 to have been within a frame, like our modern 
 stage without the front curtain. The most 
 famous of London theatres, the Globe, was 
 erected in 1598 south of the Thames. In it 
 Shakespeare produced all his most famous plays. 
 There was no curtain except at the rear to cut 
 off a recess or alcove under the balcony, and 
 another across the balcony itself, which was 
 used to represent a tower, the walls of a city, 
 or such a balcony as Juliet’s. The curtains 
 might be drawn aside to discover new persons 
 or properties. More than one place was fre¬ 
 quently indicated on the stage at once by 
 hanging up placards over the doors or else¬ 
 where. Properties, such as chairs, trees, rocks, 
 booths, were much used, and the costumes were 
 rich. Performances were given by daylight in 
 the afternoon, a flag above the theatre announc¬ 
 ing a play, and a bugler by a blast givifig notice 
 of the beginning of the performance. The 
 Spanish theatre at this time also used no 
 scenery, or almost none, except curtains of a 
 single color at the back and the sides of the 
 stage. In the Blackfriars, north of the Thames, 
 which was roofed over and frequented by per¬ 
 sons of quality, seats were provided and plays 
 presented by candlelight. 
 
 In France the playhouses were modeled on 
 those of Italy, where architects adapted the 
 plans of ancient theatres to new uses. In Rome 
 one was built of wood as early as 1514. In 
 1580 Palladio began to erect at Vicenza prob¬ 
 ably the first theatre of stone in Europe. It 
 is still extant. The stage was divided by three 
 arches, in each of which a street built in in 
 perspective could be seen leading off to one side 
 or the other. The Hotel de Bourgogne, erected 
 
 in 1548 by the Brothers of the Passion, who 
 had held the privilege of acting plays since 
 1402, was the first public theatre in Paris. 
 Its stage, like those for the passion play, 
 represented several places at once. But the 
 theatre opened by Richelieu in 1641 in his 
 palace had a stage inclosed as by a picture frame 
 as in a modern playhouse. The only scenery 
 for the first production represented a colonnade 
 and a terrace with a view of the sea. Such was 
 the stage on which Moliere produced nearly 
 every one of his plays. The performance usu¬ 
 ally began at five o’clock. The floor, to-day 
 called the orchestra, was then the pit, where for 
 a few cents the common spectators stood during 
 the performance. The gentry sat in the gal¬ 
 leries or on wooden benches on low steps at 
 the rear of the auditorium. His productions 
 were very simple. For The Misanthrope, his 
 masterpiece, the scene was a room in which only 
 six chairs were needed. For a century the 
 scenery was no more pretentious, because the 
 smartly dressed dandies were allowed to sit 
 on the stage and to shout to each other 
 or to address the actors as insolently as they 
 pleased. In fact, sometimes only one actor 
 at a time could make his way to the front 
 through the crowd, and in 1739 a performance 
 of Racine’s great tragedy, Athalie, could not be 
 completed for this reason. In 1759 the Count 
 of Lauraguais got rid of these spectators on 
 the stage by giving the Comedie-Franqaise 12,- 
 000 livres to make good the loss. During the 
 seventeenth and eighteenth centuries most of 
 the improvements in staging came in connec¬ 
 tion with the opera, which received in Italy 
 a gorgeous development. Scenery was built to 
 slide into place on grooves from the sides, 
 so that the stage was given the appearance 
 of great depth. Room was also provided for 
 large troupes and for machinery needed in 
 transformations and other scenic wonders. 
 Lighting was arranged above, at the sides, and 
 as footlights, below. In eighteenth-century 
 France even Watteau did not think it beneath 
 him to paint scenery for the Opera and the 
 Opera Comique, and a similar development took 
 place in Spain, England, and Germany. The 
 costumes in the French theatre were lavish 
 but utterly conventional, all heroes, e.g., ap¬ 
 pearing in Louis XIV wigs, three-cornered hats, 
 and gilt armor. 
 
 The great transformation in the English 
 theatre began with the Restoration in 1660. 
 The actors now included both men and women, 
 as had been true for several decades in French, 
 Spanish, and Italian companies. The build¬ 
 ing was from now on a hall roofed over. The 
 pit was filled with benches for those of modest 
 means, while the occupants of the galleries were 
 sharply divided socially. The hour of perform¬ 
 ance was at first three o’clock, but by the end 
 of the century it was five, and in time was 
 advanced to six because of the later hour for 
 dining. Sitting on the stage, which, introduced 
 into France, was to linger for a century yet, 
 was permitted only on nights when the play 
 was given as a benefit. The curtain was a 
 long way back from the front of the stage, 
 and as the actors played well forward and as 
 boxes extended back to* the curtain, the audience 
 was still on three sides of the player. The 
 space before the curtain, however, was gradually 
 shortened into an apron stage until in the nine¬ 
 teenth century, hardly projecting beyond the 
 
THEATRE 
 
 proscenium arch, it became the now universal 
 picture-frame stage. Scenery had first been 
 used in 1656, and was developed during the 
 Restoration period, particularly in opera. In 
 the theatre the shifts were mostly fiats running' 
 in grooves. The lighting was from branches 
 or hoops of candles suspended from the ceiling. 
 In 1765, at the height of Garrick’s fame, Drury 
 Lane had only six chandeliers, each holding 
 12 candles, which had to be let down at the 
 end of every act to be snuffed. Though foot¬ 
 lights had been common in opera for many 
 years, Garrick after his return from France in 
 1765 introduced lamp footlights and seems to 
 have made much more extensive use of such 
 lighting in plays than had been customary. 
 Even under these circumstances the stage would 
 have seemed to us a dim and confusing place. 
 The costuming was little more appropriate than 
 in France at this period. Garrick played Mac¬ 
 beth in a scarlet and gold military suit of 
 his own day, and he dressed Hotspur in a 
 laced frock and Ramillies wig. One of his 
 actors, Henderson, boasted of having played 
 10 characters in one season in the same costume. 
 Naturally, therefore, new plays were usually 
 produced with the stock scenery. 
 
 Theatrical history in America appears to 
 have begun with the production of Addison’s 
 Cato in Philadelphia in August, 1749. The 
 stage was set up in a warehouse on King or 
 Water, between Pine and Lombard streets. ‘ The 
 alleged evil influences of theatrical activity 
 drove the Murray and Kean company to New 
 York, where they presented Richard III on 
 March 5, 1750. The advertisement shows how 
 similar conditions were to those in England, 
 declaring that the performance was “to begin 
 precisely at half an hour after 6 o’clock, and no 
 person to be admitted behind the scenes.” Of 
 the playhouse all we know is that it was a 
 room in Nassau Street “lately belonging to the 
 Hon. Rip Van Dam, deceased.” The season con¬ 
 tinued to July 8, 1751, when the company dis¬ 
 banded. But it was reorganized the next year 
 to appear in Annapolis in another reformed 
 warehouse. A longer history is that of the 
 American Company, organized in England and 
 directed by Lewis Hallam, which first appeared 
 in the colonies at Williamsburg, Va., Sept. 5, 
 1752, in The Merchant of Venice, in a building 
 on the outskirts of the town which was turned 
 into a theatre for the occasion. Lewis Hallam’s 
 company next appeared in New York, where he 
 built “a fine, large theatre in the place where 
 the old one stood.” He played only on Mondays, 
 Wednesdays, and Fridays from Sept. 17, 1753, 
 to March 18, 1754. In April he began a two- 
 months’ season in Philadelphia in the warehouse 
 that had been occupied by Murray and Keane. 
 Thence he went to the West Indies. After his 
 death Mrs. Hallam married in Jamaica David 
 Douglass, who reorganized the company. In 
 New York in 1758, as the Nassau house had 
 given place to a church, he built a new theatre 
 on Cruger’s wharf, near what is now called 
 Old Slip, not far from the Wall Street Ferry. 
 He opened with Jane Shore, Dec. 28, 1758, arid 
 closed on February 7 following. His “Histrionic 
 Academy,” as he called it, must have been a 
 very rude structure, for it was demolished soon 
 after he left. Undaunted by the hostility in 
 New York he built another temple of the drama 
 in Philadelphia, on the southwest corner of Ver¬ 
 non and South streets, on Society Hill, opposite 
 
 67 THEATRE 
 
 the famous Blue Anchor Inn, where Penn landed 
 when he came from Chester in 1682. His bril¬ 
 liant season lasted for only six months on ac¬ 
 count of a law prohibiting plays. It was not 
 till 1766 that the first permanent playhouse 
 in America was built—the old Southwark 
 Theatre in South Street, Philadelphia. The 
 first-story walls were of brick, the rest of 
 wood—all painted a glaring red. The stage 
 was lighted by oil lamps without chimneys. 
 Hie company was now known as the American 
 Company, and presented The Prince of Parthia 
 on April 24, 1767, the first American play ever 
 presented on the stage. The first permanent 
 theatre in New York was opened by Douglass 
 in John Street on Dec. 7, 1767. It too was 
 principally of wood and painted red. It had 
 two rows of boxes, a pit, and a gallery. The 
 dressing room and the green room were in an 
 adjacent shed. In 1771 he erected by subscrip¬ 
 tion a brick theatre in Annapolis with a seating 
 capacity of about 600. In 1773 by the same means 
 lie erected a playhouse in Charleston, where the 
 Southern aristocracy supported a brilliant sea¬ 
 son. After the Revolution the first handsome 
 and complete theatre in the United States was 
 the Chestnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia. It 
 was modeled after the playhouse in Bath, Eng¬ 
 land, and was opened on Feb. 17, 1794, by a 
 newly organized company, chiefly from England. 
 Scarcely inferior was the Federal Street Theatre 
 in Boston, opened by an English company earlier 
 in the same month. The prosperity of these 
 years was followed at the close of the century 
 by a period of depression. 
 
 Since the last decade of the nineteenth cen¬ 
 tury the theatre has developed so enormously on 
 all sides that it cannot easily be described in 
 terms of anything previously existing. This 
 change has been due, first, to the literary genius 
 which was thrown into dramatic writing in the 
 second half of the nineteenth century, an amount 
 of genius greater than the theatre has had at 
 any time since the age of Elizabeth; and second, 
 to the rapid progress of the physical sciences, 
 especially in electricity. These two influences 
 have raised the theatre from the position of a 
 third-rate institution, scarcely related to liter¬ 
 ature or the arts, to one of unsurpassed power 
 as a cultural force and an artistic instrument. 
 Dramatic literature, which had for two centuries 
 been held in rigid conventional grooves, has been 
 freed to take all knowledge as its province. All 
 types of social questions can now be discussed 
 in dramatic form; nearly all genres of literary 
 production have their dramatic parallels; and all 
 types of pictorial and plastic art can be repro¬ 
 duced in the scenic setting. The theatre is now 
 the only one of the arts which makes use of 
 all the others. In the last quarter of the nine¬ 
 teenth century it was absorbing artistic and 
 literary forces from the outside; in the first 
 quarter of the twentieth it was established as 
 a creative force and was reflecting back new 
 influences to the other arts. 
 
 Types of Organization. Theatres exist in 
 many various relations to their audiences and to 
 the money which supports them. In Germany the 
 important theatres are operated by the state 
 or municipality, through appointees who may or 
 may not receive a salary. In France the state- 
 owned theatre is generally sublet to a private 
 entrepreneur on terms which are supposed to 
 protect the public. In both countries public 
 subsidization prevails. In England, where the 
 
THEATRE 
 
 168 
 
 THEATRE 
 
 theatres are entirely commercial, there is a 
 sharp distinction between London and the prov¬ 
 inces, the latter being served by traveling com¬ 
 panies which rarely touch the capital. A few 
 cities like Manchester have local repertory thea¬ 
 tres, private in their business organization but 
 semi public in the spirit of their management. 
 In the larger cities of Russia state endowment 
 prevails, and for the poorer classes, both in 
 urban and rural districts, the government has 
 developed an elaborate system of cheap theatres, 
 formerly supported out of the income from the 
 liquor tax. In America we find an astonishing 
 lack of system and stability in the business of 
 play producing. Usually the plays are first 
 produced in New York or some other large city 
 by a private individual with a cast of actors 
 hired specially for them, and then, if successful, 
 sent on the road to play for the smaller cities as 
 long as success continues. The method of financ¬ 
 ing these enterprises varies greatly. Sometimes 
 the large producing firms supply the capital and 
 the theatres; often private individuals furnish 
 the money as a speculation, and the theatre may 
 be rented' or secured on a basis of the division 
 of gross profits. On the road the last-named 
 method prevails, but the theatres, though usually 
 privately owned, are under the control of the 
 national booking agencies, which arrange a play’s 
 tour to suit their interest. 
 
 Commercial Theatre. The commercial thea¬ 
 tre, operated frankly for private profit, is a 
 comparatively recent development. The view 
 that theatrical production is primarily a busi¬ 
 ness lias flourished chiefly in England and Amer¬ 
 ica, where individual initiative has traditionally 
 been exalted over state action. Under this sys¬ 
 tem each play produced is a distinct speculative 
 venture. An individual or corporation sup¬ 
 plies all necessary capital, making contracts 
 with actors and other artists contingent upon 
 the success of the play, and in general distrib¬ 
 uting the risks as widely as possible. The 
 failure of a play under this system becomes a 
 loss not only for the producing individual or 
 corporation, but also for the theatre, the actors, 
 and the supplementary staff. This high risk 
 tends to the inflation of prices on all sides. With 
 the prices of seats prevailing in England and 
 America (25 cents to $2 or $2.50) a play brings 
 in at the maximum from 100 per cent to 300 per 
 cent net profit per week. Because of the high 
 risk on the one hand and the high potential 
 profit on the other, the commercial manager 
 tends to confine himself to those plays which 
 have the widest possible appeal. And since these 
 conditions have inflated abnormally the prevail¬ 
 ing cost of theatrical production, it follows that 
 the play of limited appeal is placed under a 
 heavy economic disadvantage. Hence commer¬ 
 cial production has generally been prejudicial 
 to the special and experimental forms of dra¬ 
 matic art. It is to offset this condition that 
 (in America and England) numerous semicoin- 
 mercial theatres have arisen, quite distinct from 
 the commercial theatre in organization and 
 personnel, and variously known by the names 
 little theatre, art theatre, community theatre, 
 and the like. 
 
 State Theatre. The state theatre (either 
 national or municipal), which prevails through¬ 
 out France and Germany, is operated on a dif¬ 
 ferent basis. Its success is measured not in net 
 financial profit, but in the quality and quantity 
 of the art product produced for a given sum of 
 
 money. It is assumed that the theatre exists 
 for the benefit of the public (as it was in earlier 
 days for the benefit of the King patron). The 
 state theatre always draws a subsidy from the 
 public treasury. But this subsidy is never a 
 blanket underwriting of future losses; it is a 
 fixed amount advanced to cover estimated losses 
 over a given period. For all further losses the 
 manager is held responsible (though not always 
 in a financial sense). In Germany the manager 
 or intendant is usually a man of social dis¬ 
 tinction serving without pay. In provincial 
 France he is a business man or entrepreneur, 
 agreeing under bond to produce a certain quan¬ 
 tity and quality of plays at a fixed tariff of 
 prices, making good any losses out of his own 
 pocket and receiving as his own any profits that 
 may accrue. In either case the theatre has a 
 stable and business-like organization. The state 
 subsidy can hardly be said to be applied to 
 losses; rather it is applied to reducing the price 
 of seats, in recognition of the public utility of the 
 institution. The theatre, with its business and 
 artistic staff, is a business unit. Contracts are 
 made by the year and financial speculation is re¬ 
 duced to the minimum. The yearly budget is a 
 relatively constant factor, since nearly all the 
 expenses can be foreseen. This, however, would 
 be impossible if the yearly income were not 
 equally constant. The cause for this stability 
 of demand, which continues in nice equilibrium 
 with the supply, is to be found, first, in the fact 
 that the state theatre has usually had a mo¬ 
 nopoly over many decades and has thus been 
 able to measure itself to the supply; and second, 
 in the stable cultural background of the French 
 and German peoples, which tends to create 
 definite and homogeneous standards in the 
 audiences. 
 
 Prices in the state theatres of France and 
 Germany usually range between 25 cents and 
 $1, with an abundance of special seats at from 
 6 to 15 cents. It is chiefly towards these latter 
 seats that the subsidy is directed. The amounts 
 of the subsidy vary widely. One of the largest 
 is that given the Burgtheater in Vienna, which 
 is more than $125,000 a year. The Royal Thea¬ 
 tre of Berlin and the Theatre Franqais in Paris 
 receive about $50,000. In other large German 
 cities the municipal theatre receives from $25,000 
 to $40,000 a season. In provincial France the 
 subsidy varies from $20,000 to $50,000. In 
 many cases this subsidy covers both opera and 
 spoken drama, which are often combined in the 
 same theatre. The larger opera houses, of 
 course, receive much larger subsidies. The 
 French government spends about $350,000 a year 
 on opera and drama in Paris alone. 
 
 Endowed Theatre. Endowed theatres are es¬ 
 sentially private in nature, and relatively few 
 in number. They usually exist for some particu¬ 
 lar purpose, such as the exploiting of a certain 
 type of play. The endowment may be in the 
 nature of a blanket underwriting of losses, or it 
 may yield merely a definite sum per year, but 
 in either case it is devoted to a theatre which 
 cannot be expected to pay for itself. This is 
 not true of the state subsidized theatre. Except 
 for a brief period of time, endowed theatres 
 usually show little vitality. For the best artis¬ 
 tic product the theatre should be organized on a 
 thoroughly business-like basis. Endowments are 
 often received by state theatres in Europe, but 
 usually for the increasing or bettering of the 
 artistic product in some specific way. 
 
THEATRE 
 
 THEATRE 
 
 Subscription Theatre. The subscription 
 theatre may be regarded as a distinct type, 
 although it is apparently but a variation of the 
 commercial theatre. It aims to receive, by 
 means of season subscriptions, a definite sum of 
 money in advance. This gives stability to its 
 financial organization, and practically takes it 
 out of the class of the commercial theatre of 
 England and America. The state theatre (as 
 well as opera the world over) rests largely on 
 the subscription system. 
 
 Folk Theatre. A distinct type of economic 
 organization has arisen in recent years in the 
 theatre owned by large societies, whose member¬ 
 ship becomes the chief constituent of the au¬ 
 dience. This we may call the folk theatre in 
 imitation of the German term, Volkstheater. It 
 is ideally exemplified by the Neue Freie 
 Volksbuhne of Berlin, which normally has over 
 50,000 members and owns the best theatre in 
 the city. Membership in the society gives ad¬ 
 mission to all plays produced during the season 
 in the society’s theatre, in addition to many ad¬ 
 ditional privileges at special rates. The mem¬ 
 bers, through their representatives, exert a con¬ 
 siderable, though not a preponderant, influence 
 on the conduct of the organization. Profits are 
 devoted to a sinking fund for future needs or to 
 some specific enlargement of the theatre’s activi¬ 
 ties. The total cost of plays to members is 
 about 30 cents each, for the best seats, and to 
 buyers of single tickets a little more. By this 
 scheme of organization the theatre attains the 
 maximum of stability, and hence the highest de¬ 
 gree of economy in theatre production which the 
 world has yet seen. Several other large folk 
 theatres exist in Germany and Austria. In 
 France this type of theatre, under the name of 
 theatre du peuple, has been only moderately 
 successful. 
 
 Artistic Organization. The organization of 
 the artistic staff of a theatre (actors, directors, 
 scene designers, costume makers, etc.) is dis¬ 
 tinct from that of its business management. 
 Any type of the former may exist under any 
 type of the latter. In America the commercial 
 system recruits a new artistic staff for each 
 production. In the foreign state theatres and 
 American art theatres, the company is usually 
 kept a unit for the whole season. In Germany 
 the commercial theatres usually have a perma¬ 
 nent company with frequent changes among the 
 leading actors, while in Paris and London they 
 are more fluid and approach the American com¬ 
 mercial system more closely. In general, the 
 more economical theatres operate with a per¬ 
 manent company, making their important 
 changes in personnel only at the end of the season. 
 
 Repertory Theatre. The term “repertory 
 theatre” is somewhat loosely used to include 
 several types, all of which, however, have a per¬ 
 manent company. Usually the term refers to 
 a producing theatre modeled after the state in¬ 
 stitutions of the Continent, which present a 
 dozen or more new plays each season, together 
 with many older pieces, alternating them from 
 night to night in accordance with the public 
 demand. The company is from two to three 
 times as large as would be needed for an average 
 play, and thus two plays can be in rehearsal, 
 so, to speak, while one is being performed. To 
 a certain extent the members of the company can 
 be specialized, some being saved for romantic 
 parts, some for comic parts, etc. But in general 
 a variety of ability is demanded of each member 
 
 of the troupe, and the repertory company thus 
 serves as an admirable training school for the 
 young actor. The plays of any given week are 
 usually highly varied in character, no piece 
 (except a new one) running for more than two 
 successive nights. The special economic ad¬ 
 vantage of this method is that the cost of 
 each production is figured in with the expenses 
 of the whole season, and a loss in the case of 
 any unsuccessful play can be distributed over 
 the various successful plays of the season. 
 Further, this repertory system is the only one 
 yet devised by which a play with a limited ap¬ 
 peal can be made to pay for itself. This greatly 
 increases the variety of product and hence the 
 efficiency of the theatre. 
 
 Stock Company. The stock company, which 
 for many decades was the chief purveyor of 
 drama to the smaller American cities, is organ¬ 
 ized in a manner similar to the repertory 
 theatre. The distinction between the two is 
 largely theoretical. In common usage the 
 repertory theatre is supposed to be first class in 
 price and to produce its new plays in the first 
 or second season of their theatrical life. The 
 American stock company, on the other hand, 
 has assumed the position of a cheap by-product 
 of the commercial system, with a scale of prices 
 as low as 10 to 35 cents and as high as 25 cents 
 to $1. It may or may not be a touring com¬ 
 pany. When it is not on tour it produces plays 
 singly for one or more weeks, and usually only 
 those plays which are no longer running in the 
 first-class theatre. Usually the artistic product 
 of such stock companies is poor. A few approx¬ 
 imate a fair standard of excellence, but these 
 usually succumb to competition when their prices 
 are raised. 
 
 Long-Run System. The popular term “long- 
 run system” has become the technical name for 
 the prevailing system of production in the first- 
 class commercial theatre of America. It is 
 duplicated in other countries, but nowhere has 
 it gained such complete control over the national 
 system of play production as in the United 
 States. It is based upon the premise that each 
 play is a unit of speculation and must be made 
 to yield the highest possible gross return. A play 
 may run as much as two full seasons in New 
 York City alone, and at the same time be put 
 on the road with as many as five additional com¬ 
 panies. The gross returns from one such play 
 must be figured in the millions of dollars. An 
 actor is sometimes obliged to act a single part 
 without respite for three or four years. The 
 net profits to the entrepreneur may be many 
 times the capital invested. Because of this 
 tremendous margin of potential profit the com¬ 
 mercial managers have been led to speculate 
 freely and to expend great sums of money in the 
 erection of theatres. The result has been a 
 material overproduction of the theatrical com¬ 
 modity to fill these theatres, and a consequent 
 increase in the risk and decrease in the average 
 quality of theatrical production. The remun¬ 
 eration to stars (actors and actresses of great 
 popularity) has been correspondingly inflated. 
 Much money and effort have also been expended 
 to bring the theatres of the road under the 
 centralized control of New York. The results 
 have been generally regarded as detrimental to 
 dramatic art in America. The growth of the 
 motion-picture business has modified this system, 
 but has not in any essential respect changed it. 
 
 Under this system the actors are hired on 
 
THEATRE 
 
 THEATRE 
 
 an agreed weekly wage, but the contract is 
 revocable on the part of the manager at any 
 time, upon notice of a week or less. Sometimes 
 the actor must contract to remain as long as the 
 play continues to be acted, without receiving 
 any reciprocal contract from the manager. 
 (Probably such a contract is not valid in law, 
 but it can usually be enforced by the custom 
 of the theatrical business.) In nearly every 
 case the actor gives his services gratis for the 
 period of rehearsal, which usually lasts three to 
 four weeks, but may be extended by the manager. 
 Stars are sometimes retained under long-time 
 contracts irrespective of the success or failure 
 of the plays in which they appear. The weekly 
 remuneration of actors of some experience and 
 professional standing is from $100 to $500 a 
 week. But stars may receive far more. 
 
 Prices for Theatre Seats. In England in 
 Shakespeare’s time prices varied from a penny to 
 a shilling. In the early American theatres the 
 prices were high—from three shillings for gal¬ 
 lery seats to six shillings for seats in the boxes. 
 Prices fell after the Revolution to 25 cents for 
 gallery seats and $1 for box seats. This re¬ 
 mained about the scale of prices until after 
 the Civil War, when there was a steady increase. 
 In 1870 first-class theatres in New York charged 
 $1.50 for orchestra seats and from 35 to 50 
 cents for the top gallery. About 1886 a few 
 New York theatres began charging $2 for the 
 best seats in the orchestra and the first row in 
 the first balcony, and gradually all first-class 
 theatres made $2 the price of .orchestra seats, 
 with $1.50 and $1 for the balconies, and 50 
 cents for the gallery. For operatic performances 
 $2 and $2.50 were the prices for orchestra seats 
 in the New York Academy of Music until 1878, 
 when the price was advanced by the English 
 manager, Mapleson, to $3. A few years later, 
 with the advent of Madame Patti, the price rose 
 to $5 for orchestra seats, at which it has since 
 remained. In Germany, with the exception of 
 Berlin, the price of the best seats for either 
 opera or drama seldom exceeds $1.50, and usu¬ 
 ally, for plays, is well beneath $1. 
 
 Law of Theatres. For legal purposes, a the¬ 
 atre is a house or building adapted and used 
 for the purpose of dramatic performances. The 
 courts differ in the various States as to what 
 may be considered a dramatic performance, but 
 generally almost any exhibition on the stage is 
 included in this term. Thus, negro-minstrel 
 shows and comic operas have been held to be 
 theatrical performances within a law governing 
 theatres. Laws regulating theatres are a con¬ 
 stitutional exercise of the police power. Be¬ 
 cause of the public character of theatres, statutes 
 have been enacted in most States prohibiting the 
 discrimination against persons or citizens wish¬ 
 ing to attend theatrical performances on the 
 ground of race, creed, or color. This legislation 
 is applicable also to hotels, barber shops, 
 and all places of public amusement. Any 
 discrimination for reasons other than race, creed, 
 or color, however, does not come within the 
 statutory prohibition, although the courts will 
 scrutinize carefully the nominal reason given for 
 withholding accommodation to see whether it be 
 in fact a mere sham. The penalties for vio¬ 
 lation of this portion of the Civil Rights Act 
 vary in the different States; generally the pen¬ 
 alty is a fine recoverable by the person dis¬ 
 criminated against and sometimes also punish¬ 
 ment by imprisonment. In the absence of stat¬ 
 
 ute or in instances where the statutory prohi¬ 
 bition is inapplicable a theatre ticket is regarded 
 as a revocable license and theatrical managers 
 may refuse to sell a ticket, or refuse to admit 
 a person with a ticket without assigning! any 
 reason. Where proper notice is given to ipur¬ 
 chasers of tickets, the management may make 
 it a condition that tickets shall not be trans¬ 
 ferable. This may be done by printing such con¬ 
 ditions on the back of the tickets themselves 
 and by notices posted at the theatre, or by giv¬ 
 ing actual notice to purchasers. Under such cir¬ 
 cumstances theatrical managers may refuse to 
 honor tickets bought from speculators. (See 
 Ticket.) The spectators may applaud or hiss 
 the players in moderation, but must do so to 
 express their spontaneous emotions, and not 
 come with the intention of stopping or inter¬ 
 fering with the performance, as in the latter case 
 they may be ordered to leave the theatre and be 
 forcibly removed if they refuse. In the Metcalfe 
 and Woollcott cases in New York, the courts have 
 sustained the owner’s right to exclude critics 
 who are supposed to be unfriendly, on the ground 
 that they come not as spectators but in order 
 to conduct business on the theatre premises. 
 
 The rapid increase of moving-picture theatres 
 has caused practically every State to adopt strin¬ 
 gent fire regulations and also regulations as to 
 the admission of minors. Such regulations are a 
 legal exercise of the police power and are usually 
 enforced by a revocation of license. While the 
 municipality has the licensing and regulating 
 power, it has been held that only the State has 
 power to make disobedience to such rules a 
 crime, as in the case of violation of the Sabbath. 
 In most States there is no legal and compulsory 
 form of censorship, but in Ohio, Kansas, and a 
 few other States statutes have been passed mak¬ 
 ing censorship by a duly appointed board of 
 censors necessary before the production of the 
 film. This legislation has recently been upheld 
 in the Supreme Court of the United States. 
 
 Construction. The larger theatres in Europe 
 and a few of those in the United States, e.g., 
 the Century in New York, are isolated buildings 
 of monumental design, usually in Europe erected 
 by the city or state. In interior arrangement 
 and design, European theatres, though sumptu¬ 
 ously decorated, are often inferior in comfort and 
 convenience to the more recent American the¬ 
 atres, in which special attention is given to the 
 seating, the heating, ventilation, and exits and 
 to fireproof construction and safety from ac¬ 
 cident. Most American theatres are, however, 
 built on inside lots or at the corners of street 
 blocks, hemmed in by other buildings and with 
 little external beauty of architecture. The 
 largest theatre in Europe is the La Scala at 
 Milan, seating about 3500; the largest in Amer¬ 
 ica is the Hippodrome in New York, seating 
 over 5000, and designed for spectacular enter¬ 
 tainments rather than for legitimate drama. 
 The acoustics of theatres constitute a difficult 
 and complex problem of great importance. See 
 Acoustics; Opera House. 
 
 The modern theatre is divided into two or 
 three parts, kept distinct in the structural 
 scheme. First, there is the stage, with all 
 necessary dressing rooms and mechanical equip¬ 
 ment for the production of the play, together 
 with space at each side and above for the stor¬ 
 ing of scenery, etc. Next there is the auditorium 
 with its corridors, lounging rooms, etc. Finally, 
 there is the outer lobby with its approaches. 
 
THEATRE 
 
 This 
 
 1 
 
 HEATRE i >71 
 
 *. .naih a part of the auditorium 
 structi . I i here tre several modern types of 
 theatn < n the traditional type based 
 
 on the Italian op e a house, which has its bal- 
 coni s in horse:-! nape and its seats generally 
 ine cur ed - dodern practice in theatre 
 buildii : > • ;ds ike both the balconies and 
 
 thff rows on iixc ground floor straight. The 
 larger opera houses, which seat upward of 3000, 
 may have as many as five distinct balconies, in¬ 
 cluding those composed of boxes. But the nor¬ 
 mal theatre for the spoken drama usually has a 
 capacity between 1100 and 1500. A distinct type 
 of playhouse, however, which has recently come 
 into vogue, is the little theatre, which may have 
 a capacity as small as 99, and rarely goes above 
 400. This is a direct result of the intimate and 
 lifelike character of many modern plays which 
 demand the most accurate attention. Recently, 
 too, the large outdoor theatre, modeled on the 
 Greek, has come into fashion. 
 
 Auditorium .—In the auditorium, the modern 
 theatre has been strongly influenced by German 
 methods. In addition to making straight rows, 
 modern theatre architects incline to a steeply 
 pitched floor, sometimes so much as to gk • 
 the spectators of each row a clear view ov" 
 the heads of those sitting in front. This t\ 
 of auditorium is known as the amphithea 7 
 without implying a semicircular plan. Mod 
 custom also tends to the elimination of > 
 and loges, or to placing them at the rear, 
 galleries must of course be more steeply pi 
 than the ground floor. In the matter of d 
 tion, too, modern taste follows the German 
 ornate quality which is to be found in t) 
 ian opera house is giving place to strai 
 bare walls, with a simple and harmonic 
 scheme. The science of acoustics has a 
 strides in recent years, although if 
 in its beginnings. Experience has pr . 
 the best acoustical results are obta 
 draperies and all textile accoutreme 
 duced to a minimum. 
 
 Stage .—The stage is primarily ni 
 box with a curtained opening, placi .e • 
 
 of the auditorium. But the recer ci , ur. 
 the art of theatrical production, 
 scientific discovery, has made it ' r; •••♦ I 
 orate part of the theatre. Norm;:' 17 ; 
 opening, or proscenium, is from y 
 wide and from 15 to 22 feet high, 
 is usually from 20 to 35 feet, si 
 quently, in small theatres, as sligl , ; k; 1 
 
 The dimensions of the whole - e 1 
 are highly various. In the oi.kr f t 
 necessary that the total heig 
 as that of the proscenium. : 1 
 
 ok 
 
 .iad 
 
 
 the raising of all scenery k . r.; i 
 But with the increasing ; f 
 
 
 15 ^ "adif s .. 
 
 th 
 
 R 
 
 this condition is no longe r 
 ever, the modern trend is 
 sions of the stage sectk 
 tions. The total width • amk t • ,.t k 
 that of the proscenium -k ; 
 
 least 35 feet, the height -kc d be y -> * 
 is frequently three t' | 
 
 necessary. Whereas tin- y • ><< . u to be 
 
 a mere appendage of • . : 
 
 the largest and moc ' jd , 
 
 t'icaf "■ 
 
 nent ol ; : ma 
 
 addition » 
 
 •ing the car avf.k y 
 jipnn nt of '*< i\ 
 
 The e 
 
 Ci ■ , 
 
 ii 
 
 el 1 ■ : 
 
 ICR 
 
 flies above for raising and lowering the scenery. 
 This apparatus is called the gridiron. The old 
 equipment of grooves or slots in the wings or 
 side spaces for the placing of masks or side 
 pieces of scenery has become needless with the 
 perfecting of the set scene. The stage itself is 
 no longer steeply pitched, as formerly. Usually 
 in the back there is a curved or semicircular 
 cyclorama, painted white or sky-blue, for 1 
 in outdoor scenes. This is ordinarily ina'’ 
 canvas which can be rolled up on a c* : 
 But it is sometimes constructed of soT 
 and may be domed out towards th 
 one or two European theatres th’ 
 rama can be raised by machk 
 taken out of the actors’ way. 
 theatres the stage is const- in f) 
 
 sections, which can be 
 pendently. There is ' 
 
 below. In g( 
 equipment of 
 simple thar 
 mechanise 
 
 mu cl 
 
 n 
 
 poses 
 
 tv 
 
 appe 
 
 XIL l t ‘ 1 ■!IS * r (j * f X 
 
 n^ 
 
 the a - 'lit 
 
 i 1 
 
 re 
 
 Tiiierly. On the 
 
 the 
 
 ieh may • be used 
 
 V 9 _ 
 
 A pur- 
 
 more • ar ea ■ ■ 
 
 C iCX. 
 
 demand foi 
 •f scene 
 
 'A of SI 
 
 /the d 
 / these 
 
 u: 
 
 a c 
 •1/ ft 
 
 le 
 <v- 
 en- 
 
 rec- 
 .vice 
 e at 
 or j and 
 
 utely 
 
 KXTL- 
 
 '> is now 
 n of the 
 
 imple or 
 for rais- 
 isually an 
 eys in the 
 
 . • ry and for 
 
 ^oed a number 
 j. to conquer one 
 which hamper the 
 . the best is the re- 
 e Deutsches Theater in 
 cular platform which re- 
 deeply set in concrete. It 
 m diameter and is capable of 
 r more complete sets, any one of 
 Drought before the proscenium (and 
 view of the audience) by the revolu- 
 the stage. The scene is not, however, 
 to the dimensions of the revolving plat- 
 it may be supplemented upon a surround- 
 tionary stage. Another type is the slid- 
 ige, which is in reality a stage of double 
 which may be moved laterally so that 
 of it is completely concealed in the wings 
 ither side; while the play is proceeding on 
 half of this platform, the setting for the 
 owing scene is being set up on the other. In 
 ae theatres the scenery is set upon small 
 .gons, which can be rolled on to the stage in 
 few seconds and placed in their proper posi- 
 mns. In general, all scenes are set, and the 
 tainted drop or hanging canvas has little place 
 in the modern theatre. Scene building has be¬ 
 come a highly specialized business, and demands 
 great ingenuity and expertness. Often realism 
 demands the use of wooden structure of the most 
 solid sort. On the other hand, the scene de¬ 
 signers of recent times have taken great free¬ 
 dom in the art of suggesting (rather than 
 depicting) reality by simple and conventional¬ 
 ized means. 
 
 Lighting .—The stage is usually lighted by 
 incandescent bulbs placed just within the pro¬ 
 scenium arch in the front, those below being 
 called footlights and those above, border lights. 
 These are in white and two or three colors, so 
 wired that any set may be turned on and off in¬ 
 dependently of the others. Their intensity may 
 be raised or lowered gradually at will by means 
 of dimmers. To supplement them is a set of arc 
 lamps called spot lights, which are movable and 
 are usually operated from the wings, so as to cast 
 a strong light on a certain spot or to eliminate 
 shadows cast by the front lights. A more power¬ 
 ful spot light, often a calcium lamp, may be placed 
 
THEATRE 
 
 THEATRE 
 
 172 
 
 in the gallery to throw a special illumination 
 upon one or more of the characters as they move 
 about the stage. But lighting methods, in recent 
 years, have undergone much change and ex¬ 
 perimentation, especially in Germany. The 
 “Fortuny system” and related methods throw 
 upon the stage an indirect light reflected from 
 bands of silk or plaster surfaces. Subtle grada¬ 
 tions of color can be obtained by the mixing of 
 the primary hues under this method. In some 
 theatres it is the practice to illuminate the 
 stage by means of arc lamps placed in the first 
 balcony, thus eliminating the unreal lighting 
 from beneath that exists under the footlight 
 system. At the present time producers are ex¬ 
 perimenting with many different systems and 
 types of lamp. 
 
 Production. The process of theatrical pro¬ 
 duction consists of assembling and rehearsing 
 the actors, of providing suitable scenery, and of 
 harmonizing all the separate elements into an 
 artistic whole. In the best theatres all this 
 work is directed by one man through his sub¬ 
 ordinates. Modern practice has divided stage 
 production into several distinct types. The 
 realistic type seeks to make all details accord as 
 accurately as possible with tke reality of every¬ 
 day life. What is loosely called the artistic 
 type seeks to provide, by more Npr less conven¬ 
 tional means, effects of decorative beauty for the 
 eye and ear, without strict regard to reality. Of 
 this latter type there are many varieties. Some 
 designers seek flat and picturesque effects accord¬ 
 ing to the laws of the easel painter. Some seek 
 depth and atmospheric quality by meahs of 
 perspective and lighting. Others seek an ar¬ 
 rangement, either with color or design or both, 
 that shall subtly symbolize the mood of thb, 
 scene. Often plays are produced in a highly 
 simplified fashion imitated from the Elizabethan, 
 in which crude scenery merely suggests the 
 locale and no pains are taken with realistic 
 appropriateness. All these methods make use 
 of deliberate and conventional simplification for 
 the sake of a definite artistic effect. The style 
 of the acting must also accord with the style 
 of the scenery, and vice versa; in the realistic 
 manner the actors must play with full regard 
 for the probabilities of the situation; in the 
 artistic they must keep in mind the decorative 
 effect of speech, gesture, intonation, etc. 
 
 In solving all these problems producers have 
 been obliged to call to an unprecedented extent 
 upon the workers in the various specialsaHs, and 
 carefully to mold their contributions to the de¬ 
 sired theatric effect. As a result, the theatre 
 has become a rich and flexible artistic instru¬ 
 ment, surpassing all others in variety and po¬ 
 tential power. 
 
 Bibliography. Ancient theatre: the best 
 general account in English, except on the stage 
 question, is A. E. Haigh, The Attic Theatre 
 (3d ed., revised by A. W. Pickard, Oxford, 
 1907) : a good brief statement is L. D. Barnett, 
 The Greek Drama (London, 1900). Good, with 
 respect to the production of plays, though 
 in need of revision, is G. Oehmichen, Das 
 Biihnemvesen der Griechen und Romer (Mu¬ 
 nich, 1890) ; also the article “Theatrum,” 
 in William Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and 
 Roman Antiquities, vol. ii (3d ed., London, 
 1891). A fine description of the two Roman 
 theatres in Pompeii is given in August Man, 
 Pompeii: Its Life and Art (Eng. trans. by F. W. 
 Kelsey, 2d ed., New York, 1902). The standard 
 
 work on the construction of the theatre is Dbrp- 
 feld and Reisch, Das griechische Theater 
 (Athens, 1896) ; also A. Muller, “Die griechi- 
 schen Biihnenaltertiimer,” in Hermann, Handbuch 
 der griechischen Antiquitdten (Freiburg, 1886) ; 
 Betlie, Prolegomena zur Geschichte der Theaters 
 im Altertum (Leipzig, 1896); Puchstein, Die 
 griechische Bilhne (Berlin, 1901); E. R. Fiech- 
 ter, Die Baugeschichtliche Entwicklung des 
 antiken Theaters (Munich, 1904) ; K. K. Smith, 
 “The Use of the Higli-Soled Shoe or Buskin in 
 Greek Tragedy of the Fifth and Fourth Cen¬ 
 turies b.c.,” in Harvard Studies, vol. xvi (Bos¬ 
 ton, 1905) ; K. Rees, The Rule of Three Actors 
 in the Classical Greek Drama (Chicago, 1908) ; 
 “Theater,” in Friedrich Liibker, Reallexikon des 
 klassischen Altertums, vol. ii (8th ed., Leipzig, 
 1914). For the theatre of Dionysus: M. L. 
 D’Ooge, The Acropolis of Athens (New York, 
 1908), and C. H. Weller, Athens and its Monu¬ 
 ments (ib., 1913). For the theatre at Epidau- 
 rus, see K. Baedeker, Greece (4th Eng. ed., Leip¬ 
 zig, 1909). See also J. G. Frazer, Pausanias, 
 vols. ii and v (2d ed., London, 1913) ; E. Capps, 
 “The Greek State According to the Extant 
 Dramas,” in Transactions of American Philologi¬ 
 cal Association, vol. xxii (Boston, 1891) ; A. W. 
 Pickard, “The Relative Positions of the Actors 
 and Chorus in the Greek Theatre of the Fifth 
 Century b.c.,” in American Journal of Philology, 
 vol. xiv (Baltimore, 1893). For the Roman 
 theatre, see the “Einleitung” to the edition of 
 Terence’s Phormio, edited by Ziatsko and Han- 
 ler (4tli ed., Leipzig, 1914), as revised by Charles 
 Knapp, in “Notes on Plautus and Terence,” in 
 American Journal of Philology, vol. xxxv (Balti¬ 
 more, 1914), and especially, Charles Knapp, 
 “The Roman Theatre,” in Art and Archaeology, 
 vol. i (Baltimore, 1915). Mediaeval and mod¬ 
 ern : Edmund Malone, History of the Stage 
 ('London, 1821), an exhaustive account of the 
 English stage to the beginning of the nineteenth 
 century; William Dunlap, History of the Amer- 
 iean Theatre and Anecdotes of the Principal 
 Actors' (New York, 1832), the best account of 
 the earfy American theatres; Gamier, Le nouvel 
 opera d'& Paris (Paris, 1876), an elaborate 
 treatise cm opera houses; Arthur Pougin, Dic- 
 tionnaire historique et pittoresque du theatre 
 (ib., 1885), a full history of French theatres; T. 
 F. Ordish,' Early London Theatres, in “The 
 Antiquary’s Library” (London, 1899) ; Karl 
 Mantzius, A History of Theatrical Art in An¬ 
 cient and Modern Times (5 vols., Philadelphia, 
 1903-09), the ;most scholarly and comprehensive 
 history of the ihtage in both its physical and cul¬ 
 tural development; L. H. Lecomte, Histoire des 
 thedtres de Paris (10 vols., Paris, 190o\10) ; M. 
 J. Moses, The American Dramatist (Boston, 
 1911), contains *some account of the early Amer¬ 
 ican theatre; H. K. Moderwell, The Theatre of 
 Today (New Yoi'k, 1914), with special chapters 
 on stage mechanism, stage scenery, and theatre 
 economics in the twentieth century. For the 
 theatre in its legl^l aspects, consult: S. H. Wan- 
 dell, Law of the Theatre: A Treatise upon the 
 Legal Relations 0 ;f Actors, Mane n( 'rs , and Au¬ 
 diences (Albany, ;1892), and S. uis, Law 
 
 of Theatre Tickets' (San Francis )5). Or¬ 
 ganization and economics: P. P. u The Rep¬ 
 ertory Theatre (N^w York, 191 •), record of 
 
 English experience yvitli the repcrr. method; 
 P. W. MacKave, Th\? Civic The<-', b., 1912), 
 
 contains suggestive aind far-reac - statements 
 of the possibilities of the folk i ; Rolland, 
 
THEBES 
 
 THEATRE ANTOINE 
 
 173 
 
 Le thddtre du peuple (Paris, 1913), an extensive 
 and detailed account of the folk theatre in 
 t ranee and Belgium; also series of articles on 
 European state and municipal theatres in The 
 Drama: A Quarterly Review (Chicago, 1913-14), 
 and L. E. Shipman, The True Adventures of a 
 Play (New York, 1914). Theatre architecture: 
 Suchs and W oodrow, Modern Opera Houses and 
 Theatres (3 vols., London, 1896-98); W. H. 
 Birkmire, The Planning and Construction of 
 American Theatres (New York, 1896); Martin 
 Hammitzsch, Der moderne Theaterbau (2 vols., 
 Berlin, 1906), an exhaustive history of theatre 
 construction since the Middle Ages;' W. P. Ger- 
 hardt, Theatres: Their Safety, Comfort, and 
 Healthfulness (New York, 1915). Stage ma¬ 
 chinery: iheodor W eil, Die elektrische Biihnen- 
 und Effekt-Beleuchtung (Vienna, 1904) ; Vaula- 
 belle and Hemardinquer, La science au theatre 
 (Paris, 1908); Jacques Rouche, L’Art thedtral 
 moderne (ib., 1910) ; also publications by the 
 Allgemeine Elelctricitats Gesellschaft (Berlin, 
 1904, 1913), on the Fortuny method of stage 
 lighting. Stage scenery: Adolphe Appia, Die 
 Musik und die Insceniei'ung ( Munich, 1899) ; 
 Georg Fuchs, Die Revolution des Theaters (ib., 
 1909) ; Gordon Craig, On the Art of the Theatre 
 (London, 1910) ; Carter, The New Spirit in 
 Drama and Art (ib., 1912) ; Gordon Craig, 
 Toward a New Theatre (ib., 1913) ; Sheldon 
 Cheney, The New Movement in the Theatre 
 (New York, 1914) ; also Rouchg and Moderwell, 
 mentioned above. 
 
 THEATRE ANTOINE. See Theatre Libre. 
 
 THEATRE DES ITALIENS, ta'a'tr’ da 
 ze'ta'lyaN' (Fr., theatre of the Italians). A for¬ 
 mer theatre of Paris from which the Boulevard 
 des Italiens derives its name. 
 
 THEATRE FRANQAIS, fraN's&'. The 
 French national theatre. See Comedie F ra y- 
 caise. * 
 
 THEATRE LIBRE, l<Ybr’ (Fr., free theatre). 
 The name of a dramatic enterprise founded in 
 1887 by Andre Antoine, then a young Parisian 
 clerk. With some fellow amateurs of the Gaulois 
 Club lie arranged the production (March 30, 
 1887) of four new one-act plays at the Elysee des 
 Beaux-Arts at Montmartre, and in the course of 
 the year formed the association of the Theatre 
 Libre, to be conducted upon the following prin¬ 
 ciples: the season to consist of eight different 
 representations, one each month from October to 
 June; no tickets to be sold to the public; the 
 enterprise to be supported by subscribers who 
 with invited guests should form the only audi¬ 
 ence. The design was to give young authors a 
 chance to try their strength; and also, for art’s 
 sake, to produce plays which for any reason, po¬ 
 litical or moral, might be forbidden by the cen¬ 
 sorship if undertaken at a public theatre. In 
 an artistic way the Theatre Libre won success, 
 though it excited much debate from the first. 
 Its founder aimed to do away with all conven¬ 
 tionality and to attain a degree of realism often 
 thought out of the question upon the stage. In 
 its first eight years about 150 writers contrib¬ 
 uted works for its performances, and a consid¬ 
 erable proportion of these previously unknown 
 pieces were afterward accepted and brought out 
 by other theatres. At the same time such fa¬ 
 mous writers as Zola, the Goncourts, Mendes, 
 Bergerat, Ibsen, and Tolstoy also found presen¬ 
 tation here. Financially, however, M. Antoine 
 found his difficulties accumulating, and in 1894 
 
 he accepted a position as an actor at the Gym- 
 nase Theatre. For a short time he was co¬ 
 director of the Od 6 on (1896) ; then he resumed 
 the direction of the Theatre Libre, for several 
 years located in the Salle des Menus-Plaisirs and 
 known since 1897 as the Theatre Antoine. To 
 this the general public is admitted in the usual 
 way, though subscribers still retain their special 
 privilege at eight representations a year. The 
 idea of the Theatre Libre has been copied in 
 other countries. In 1906 M. Antoine returned to 
 the Odeon. 
 
 THEA'TRTIM EU'ROPJE'TJM (Lat., survey 
 of Europe). A chronicle of events which ap¬ 
 peared in 21 volumes at Frankfort-on-the-Main 
 between 1616 and 1718. The work was in part 
 the forerunner of political journals. 
 
 THEBAINE. See Alkaloids. 
 
 THEBAIS, the'ba-is or thg-ba'ls (Lat., from 
 Gk. Qripals ). 1 . The territory of Thebes, in 
 
 Egypt. In later times the name was applml 
 by the ancients to Upper Egypt. 2. An 
 cient Greek epic giving in 7000 verses the story 
 of the house of Labdacus and the attack of the 
 seven chieftains on, Thebes. 3. A dull and long- & 
 drawn work by P. Papinius Statius, dedicated 
 to Domitian. It contains in 12 books the story 
 of the contests of Eteocles and Polynices. 
 
 THE'BAN CYCLE. The name' given to a 
 series of ancient Greek epics treating the legends 
 of Thebes. It includes the Thebdis (q.v.) ; the 
 Epigoni, a poem of about 7000 lines, telling of 
 the capture of the city by the descendants of the 
 heroes of the Thebdis / and the (Edipodeia, at¬ 
 tributed to Cinsethon, a Lacedaemonian, contain¬ 
 ing about 6000 lines and giving the story of 
 (Edipus. 
 
 THEBAN LEGION. See Legion, Theban. 
 
 THEBES, thebz (Lat. Thebce, from Gk. 
 Qij(3cu ). A celebrated city of ancient Egypt, situ¬ 
 ated on both sides of the Nile in about lat. 25° 
 
 50' N. (Map: Egypt, C 2 ). Its old Egyptian 
 name was Weset, but in later times it was also 
 called Nu(t) Amen, ‘The city of Ammon,” 
 Nu(t) ‘o, “the great city,” or simply Nu (t), 
 
 “the city” ( urbs ) ; in the Old Testament it is 
 called No or No Amon, and in the Assyrian in¬ 
 scriptions its name appears as NV. * By the 
 Greeks, who identified the god Ammon with 
 Zeus, it was sometimes called Diospolis, “the 
 city of Zeus,” and it was specially designated as 
 “Great Diospolis” to distinguish it from “Lesser 
 Diospolis,” the modern Hon. The origin of the 
 more usual Greek name 0 t)/3cu is obscure. 
 Thebes was the capital of the fourth nome of 
 Upper Egypt, and was a very ancient city, 
 but did not rise to importance until the time 
 of the eleventh dynasty, which was of Theban 
 origin. Under this and the following dynasty 
 the city was the capital of Egypt, and some of 
 its oldest temple buildings date from this 
 period. 
 
 Its real greatness, however, begins with the ex¬ 
 pulsion of the Hyksos invaders by the Theban 
 princes, who united the whole land under their 
 sway (eighteenth dynasty), and adorned their 
 city with temples and palaces of unprecedented 
 magnificence. The kings of the nineteenth and 
 twentieth dynasties added to the work of their 
 predecessors, and for centuries Thebes was the 
 chief residence of the Egyptian Pharaohs and 
 far surpassed all other cities of the land in 
 wealth and splendor. The persecution of the 
 worship of Ammon by the heretic King Ameno- 
 pliis IV (q.v.) and the temporary removal of 
 
THEBES 
 
 THEBES 
 
 174 
 
 the seat of government to Tel el Amarna af¬ 
 fected Thebes but little. Seti I and especially 
 Rameses II (c.1340-1273 b.c.) restored the dese¬ 
 crated sanctuaries and lavished enormous wealth 
 upon the Theban temples. Under the twenty- 
 first dynasty, however, Thebes ceased to be the 
 capital of Egypt, and from this time gradually 
 declined in importance. In the seventh century 
 B.c. it was again the seat of government, for a 
 time, under the twenty-fifth or Ethiopian dy¬ 
 nasty, but when the capital was removed to Sais 
 (q.v.) by the following dynasty (twenty-sixth), 
 it began a new period of decline. Its temples 
 were repaired and new buildings were erected 
 by later monarchs, especially by the Ptolemies, 
 but, overshadowed by the rise of new cities, it 
 gradually sank to the position of an insignificant 
 provincial town. Its great temples sustained 
 serious injuries in the course of various revolts 
 against the Ptolemies, and were further ruined 
 by an earthquake in 27 b.c. In the time of the 
 geographer Strabo (24 b.c.) Thebes was a ruined 
 city, as at present, its site being occupied merely 
 by a few scattered villages. 
 
 The city proper lay upon the east bank of the 
 river between the great temples now represented 
 by the ruins of Luxor (q.v.) and Karnak (q.v.) ; 
 a little to the north was the suburb Ma’du, the 
 modern Medamut, with a temple built by Amen- 
 ophis II (eighteenth dynasty) and dedicated to 
 the Theban war god Mont (q.v.). Additions 
 were made to this temple by Seti I, Rameses II, 
 and several of the Ptolemies, but it is now al¬ 
 most entirely destroyed. On the west side of 
 the river were suburbs of considerable size, and 
 Rameses III seems to have built his palace in 
 the neighborhood of his memorial temple at 
 Medinet Habu (q.v.), but in general this side of 
 the river was occupied by the Theban necropolis, 
 which extended to the Libyan range. It con¬ 
 tained numerous temples, erected as memorials 
 of the Egyptian kings and to these temples were 
 attached dwellings for the priests, schools, gran¬ 
 aries, stables, barracks, and other buildings. 
 Nearer the hills were the dwellings of the arti¬ 
 sans who were employed in the necropolis, stone¬ 
 masons, builders, painters, sculptors, and es¬ 
 pecially embalmers. There were also inns for 
 the entertainment of visitors, and many shops for 
 the sale of funeral offerings and other objects. 
 The necropolis, in fact, formed a great city. 
 The principal memorial temples of the Theban 
 necropolis, beginning at the north, were those 
 of Kurnah (q.v.) and Deir el-Bahri (q.v.), the 
 Ramesseum (q.v.), and that of Medinet Habu 
 (q.v.). The rocky hills bordering on the plain 
 of the necropolis are honeycombed with tombs. 
 In a narrow valley to the north of Kurnah are 
 the tombs of the kings, in which were buried 
 the monarchs of dvnasties XVIII-XX. Each 
 
 «/ f 
 
 of these tombs contains a number of galleries 
 and chambers whose Avails are covered with 
 paintings and religious texts. Here, next to the 
 tomb of Rameses IX, Theodore H. Davis dis¬ 
 covered in January, 1907, the tomb of Teia, the 
 mother of the heretic King Amenophis IV. The 
 hatred which this king had aroused by his at¬ 
 tempts to reform the state religion is shown by 
 the fact that the tomb of his mother was opened 
 after his death to erase every trace of his 
 abominated name. The queen’s mummy e\ 7 en 
 had been turned 0 A r er to erase the name of Akh- 
 en-Aten incised on a sheet of gold beneath it. 
 The tomb presented the same lavish display of 
 gold which was found in the tomb of the queen’s 
 
 parents, Tua and Yua, also found by Mr. Davis. 
 Instead of the usual sarcophagus the coffin was 
 sheltered by a great catafalque (torn to pieces 
 by the invaders of the tomb) plated heavily in¬ 
 side and out with gold. The coffin, too, was com¬ 
 pletely co\ r ered with a frame of gold inlaid with 
 lapis lazuli, carnelian, and green glass. The 
 mummy, as well, Avas entirely Avrapped in a 
 sheath of gold. The canopic jars offer consid¬ 
 erable interest in the four portrait heads of the 
 queen Avhich replace those of the usual gods’ 
 heads. Near Kom el-Hetan, between Medinet 
 Habu and the Ramesseum is the famous “vocal 
 Memnon” (see Memnon ). It was in no way 
 distinguished from other colossi. The chief 
 deities Avorshiped at Thebes Avere the great god 
 Ammon (q.v.), his spouse Mut (q.v.), and their 
 child Chons (q.v.). 
 
 Consult: Sir J. G. Wilkinson, Topography of 
 Thebes (London, 1835) ; Karl Lepsius, Denk- 
 maler aus Aegypten und Aethiopen (Berlin, 
 1850-59) ; A. E. Mariette, Monuments of Upper 
 Egypt (London, 1877) ; E. H. Naville, Deir El- 
 Bahari (ib., 1894-1906) ; N. de G. Davies, “Five 
 Theban Tombs,” in Archaeological Survey of 
 Egypt, Memoir, 21 (ib., 1913). For recent ex¬ 
 cavations at Deir El-Bahari see Bulletin of the 
 Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, 1914). 
 
 THEBES (Gk. Qij[3cu, Thebai) . The principal 
 city of Boeotia, in ancient Greece, situated in 
 the southeastern part of the country, on the 
 northern slope of a ridge which separates the 
 valley of the Asopus from the plain to the 
 north (Map: Greece, Ancient, C 2). The 
 Acropolis or Cadmea, noAV occupied by the 
 little toAvn of Tliiva or Phiva, lay on the high 
 ground between the Ismenus and Dirce. At its 
 greatest extent the ancient city seems to haA r e 
 extended beyond both streams. According to 
 legend, Cadmus (q.v.) Avas the founder of the 
 city—hence the Acropolis was known as the 
 Cadmea. The city played a prominent part in 
 the stories of the heroic age, the series of epics 
 (see Theban Cycle) vying in interest with 
 those which gathered about Troy. For these 
 stories, see CEdipus; Antigone; Eteocles and 
 Polynices; Creon; Amphion; Dirce. After 
 the Boeotian invasion Thebes seems gradually to 
 have secured the leading place in the Boeotian 
 league, reducing finally the rival city of Orcho- 
 menus (q.v.). Tradition told of the code of 
 laws drawn up for the city in the eighth century 
 b.c. by the Corinthian Philolaus. It is not till 
 near the end of the sixth century b.c. that Ave 
 reach a purely historical period—the earliest 
 well-attested event being the dispute betAveen 
 Thebes and Platsea (q.v.), as a result of which' 
 the latter city placed itself under Athenian 
 protection, and the former became involved in 
 an unsuccessful Avar. During the Persian inva¬ 
 sion under Xerxes Thebes sided with the in¬ 
 vaders, and fought against the confederated 
 Greeks at Platsea (479 B.c.). This conduct 
 greatly Aveakened for a time the prestige of 
 Thebes, and almost cost her the headship of the 
 Boeotian league. After the battle of Coronea 
 (447 b.c. ), however, the tendency to revolt Avas 
 checked, and from this time Thebes Avas almost 
 continuously the recognized leader in Boeotia. 
 In the Peloponnesian War Thebes sided with 
 Sparta, and at its close Avas eager for the de¬ 
 struction of Athens. But the policy of victori¬ 
 ous Sparta soon aroused distrust, and Thebes 
 gave a friendlv a come and shelter to those 
 Athenians Avhon oppression of the Thirty 
 
THEBES 
 
 175 
 
 THEISM 
 
 Tyrants (q.v.) compelled to abandon their city. 
 It was from Thebes that Thrasybulus and his 
 band started on their famous expedition for the 
 deliverance of Athens, accompanied by a body of 
 Theban citizens. During the following years the 
 Thebans completely changed their polity towards 
 Sparta, and in the Corinthian War were among 
 the bitterest enemies of their old ally. The 
 Peace of Antalcidas (q.v.) (387 b.c.), as inter¬ 
 preted by Sparta, broke up the Boeotian league, 
 and led to new disputes, culminating in the 
 treacherous seizure of the Cadmea by the Spar¬ 
 tans (382 b.c. ). The expulsion of this garrison 
 by Pelopidas (q.v.) and his associates (379 b.c.) 
 led to renewed hostilities, which culminated in 
 the battle of Leuctra (371 b.c.), where Epam- 
 inondas (q.v.) crushed the power of Sparta out¬ 
 side the Peloponnesus. Before his death at 
 Mantinea in 362 b.c., Epaminondas had secured 
 for Thebes the supremacy in Greece, though 
 Athens was estranged and even openly hostile. 
 Thebes, however, did not long hold the position 
 thus gained. The quarrel with Athens prevented 
 any union against the growing power of Mace- 
 don, until the seizure of Elatea (338 b.c.) fur¬ 
 nished an opportunity for Demosthenes (q.v.) 
 to secure by his eloquence a union for which he 
 had long striven. The effort came too late, and 
 in the same year the battle of Cliseronea (q.v.) 
 crushed the liberties of Greece. 
 
 After the death of Philip II, of Macedon, 
 father of Alexander the Great, the Thebans made 
 a fierce but unsuccessful effort to regain their 
 freedom. Their city was taken by Alexander, 
 who leveled it to the ground, sparing, it is said, 
 only the house of the poet Pindar, and sold the 
 entire surviving population into slavery (335 
 B.c.). For 20 years the city remained in utter 
 desolation, but in 315 b.c. it was rebuilt by Cas- 
 sander (q.v.), who gathered into it all the 
 Thebans he could find in Greece. It now had a 
 circuit of about five miles, and seems to have 
 prospered. It suffered at the hands of Mum- 
 mius (146 b.c.) and was severely punished by 
 Sulla for siding with Mithridates. After this 
 it steadily declined, and Pausanias found only 
 the Cadmea inhabited, and the lower city in 
 ruins. It revived under the later Roman Em¬ 
 pire, as it was a safer residence than the ex¬ 
 posed coast cities. During the eleventh and 
 twelfth centuries it was the seat of a consider¬ 
 able population engaged in the manufacture of 
 silk, and yielded a rich booty to Norman plun¬ 
 derers in 1146 a.d. Under the Turks it again 
 declined, and even now is only a country town 
 with a population of about 3500. The" course 
 of the town walls can be traced in some places, 
 and deep digging has brought to light some 
 remains, but in general there are but few ves¬ 
 tiges of the ancient city left. Consult: M. Mul¬ 
 ler, Geschichte Thebens (Leipzig, 1879) ; E. von 
 Stern, Geschichte der spartanischen und the- 
 banischen Hegemonie (Dorpat, 1884) ; E. Fabri- 
 cius, Theben (Freiburg, 1890).; K. Baedeker, 
 Greece (4th Eng. ed., Leipzig, 1909). 
 
 THEBES, Saint Paxil of. See Paul of 
 Thebes, Saint. 
 
 THE DALLES, dalz. A city and the county 
 seat of Wasco Co., Oreg., 88 miles east of Port¬ 
 land, on the Columbia River, the Oregon-Wash- 
 ington Railroad and Navigation Company and 
 the Great Southern railroads, the Dalles-Celilo 
 Canal, and on several steamship lines (Map: 
 Oregon, D 2). Noteworthy features are the 
 United States Land Office, county fair grounds, 
 
 Chautauqua, Carnegie library, city hall, court¬ 
 house, Federal building, high school, and the 
 city hospital. There are here railroad repair 
 shops, a large flouring mill, lumber ya'rds, 
 salmon and fruit canneries, a wool scouring 
 plant, planing mills, creamery, machine shops, 
 and a box factory. Pop., 1900, 3542; 1910, 4880. 
 
 THEDENAT, ta'de-na', Henri (1844-1916). 
 A French archaeologist, born in Paris. He stud¬ 
 ied in the Ecole Pratique des Hautes-Etudes at 
 the Sorbonne, devoting himself especially to 
 epigraphy. His publications, in collaboration 
 with Heron de Villefosse, include Les cachets 
 d’oculistes romains (1882) and Inscriptions ro- 
 maines de Frejus (1885). He also wrote Le 
 Forum romain et les Forums imperieux (4th 
 ed., 1914) and Une carriere universitaire, Jean- 
 Felix Nourrisson (1901). 
 
 THEFT. See Larceny. 
 
 THEGE-KONKOLY, Nikolaus. See Kon- 
 koly, Nikolaus Thege von. 
 
 THEGN, than. See Thane. 
 
 THEIL, Francois Jean Gabriel La Porte 
 du. See La Porte du Theil, F. J. G. 
 
 THEINE, the'In or the'en. See Caffeine. 
 
 THEINER, ti'ner, Augustin (1804-74). A 
 German Roman Catholic historian and canonist. 
 He was born at Breslau and educated there and 
 at Halle, where he took his degree as Doctor of 
 Law in 1829. His intercourse in Paris with 
 Lamennais (q.v.) seems to have disturbed his 
 religious views, but he was reconciled with the 
 Church at Rome in 1833, and became a teacher 
 in the College of the Propaganda. After his 
 ordination to the priesthood, he entered the 
 Congregation of the Oratory, and published sev¬ 
 eral historical and critical works. In 1855 he 
 was placed in charge of the Vatican archives. 
 In 1870 he was removed from the position of 
 archivist, apparently in consequence of the 
 charge that he had supplied documents with 
 which to combat the theory of the infallibility 
 of the Pope. His most important work was the 
 new edition of the Annals of Baronius and his 
 continuators, with three supplementary volumes. 
 Important also are the collections of documents 
 on the ecclesiastical history of various countries 
 and of the Council of Trent. In his Geschichte 
 des Pontificates Clemens XIV (1853), he at¬ 
 tacked the Jesuits and roused fresh suspicions 
 of his loyalty to the Church, which were con¬ 
 firmed by his Histoire des deux concordats de 
 la republique frangaise en I,SOI et 1803 (1868) 
 and by his friendly intercourse with the Ger¬ 
 man Old Catholic leaders. He died of apoplexy 
 at Civita Vecchia. Consult Gisiger, P. Theiner 
 und die Jesuiten (Mannheim, 1875), and Briick, 
 Geschichte der katholischen Kirche in Deutsch¬ 
 land (Mainz, 1896). 
 
 TIIETSM (from Gk. deos, theos, god). The 
 theory which assumes a living relation between 
 God and His creatures, though it does not neces¬ 
 sarily define it. The term came to be used in 
 England in the seventeenth century in contrast 
 with deism (q.v.), as expressing a more vital 
 and personal relation of God to His creation 
 than the term “deism” then served to denote. 
 In western thought the discussion of the rela¬ 
 tion of God to the world arose with the Greeks. 
 In the philosophic theism of Socrates, which was 
 a reply to the irreligion of the Sophists, we find 
 a clear conception of a divine personality and 
 an attempt to prove its existence. Socrates 
 makes use of the doctrine of final causes for 
 this purpose, maintaining, against the Sophistic 
 
THEISM 
 
 THEISM 
 
 176 
 
 materialism, that the universe is the product of 
 benevolent moral will (Phcedo, 06, 190); that 
 this will holds personal relations with all his 
 creatures, and seeks to bring the highest good 
 to all. Plato added little to the fundamental 
 conception except to develop it by means of his 
 doctrine of the Idea ( Idea, eldos ). The absolute 
 Idea is the Good, i.e., God. In the Republic 
 (500 b.) we accordingly read: “All intelligible 
 beings derive their being and their essence from 
 the good.” To this thesis he adduces four 
 proofs, all bearing on Socrates’ idea of final 
 cause. 1. From the notion of efficient cause. 
 All things proceed from some cause, and the 
 cause must be adequate to produce what exists. 
 (Sophist , 205 b.) 2. From the ideal nature 
 
 of the cause. If there be a universe of real 
 things, as no one can doubt, it can proceed only 
 from an ideally perfect cause, i.e., from God. 
 (Philebus , 30.) 3. From the idea of cause as 
 
 motion. All motion implies a self-mover, i.e, 
 an adequate originating cause for the motion 
 and change. ( Laios , x.) 4. From the finality 
 
 of cause. All things seek their end. The end 
 must be moral, and therefore transcendent. In 
 other words, the universe must at last prove 
 itself to be a revelation of the Good, i.e., God. 
 This is the heart of the Platonic theism. “Let 
 me tell you, then, why the Creator made this 
 world of generation. He was good, and the good 
 can never have any jealousy of anything. And 
 being free from jealousy, He desired that all 
 things should be as like Himself as they could 
 be.” [Tim. 29.) 
 
 Aristotle’s argument is the same as Plato’s, 
 but deeper in its empirical developments. He 
 rises, synthetically, through nature, to his proof 
 of the divine existence. In the eighth book of 
 his Physics he gives us what he calls his proof 
 of the First Mover. Everything that is in mo¬ 
 tion is moved either by something else or by 
 itself. If the former be the case, we are obliged 
 to follow up the series of causes until we arrive 
 at the idea of a self-mover, i.e., an immovable 
 cause having its end in itself. 
 
 Augustine, the most eminent of the early 
 Christian thinkers, adopted the Platonic theism, 
 seeking to combine it with the Christian views. 
 He accepted substantially all the principal 
 proofs of God’s existence and His providential 
 government as these had been prepared in Greek 
 thought; but there were points where he added 
 to previous thinking. The Greeks had put a 
 gulf between God and the world. Augustine 
 completed this by declaring that God made the 
 world out of nothing, and without the aid of 
 intermediate agents. Second, Augustine taught 
 that God creates out of His mere goodness and 
 bounty, not because He has need of anything; 
 so that in creating He adds nothing to His 
 nature. ( Conf. xiii. iv.) This view struck at 
 the Stoic pantheism, at the Oriental theories of 
 emanation, and at the fundamental weakness of 
 the Platonic theism, the failure to define the 
 nature of the relation between God and the 
 finite world. 
 
 The various other proofs of the existence of 
 God given in the Middle Ages pursue two meth¬ 
 ods, one a priori , the other a posteriori. That 
 is, one starts in Platonic fashion with the idea 
 of a perfect being and infers its existence from 
 this idea; the other argues, after Aristotle, 
 from the evidences of order and perfection in the 
 world to the idea of a perfect being who is the 
 author of them. Anselm is an early and promi- 
 
 i:ent representative of both this and the a priori 
 or ontological argument, which assumes that 
 God is a being of such q nature that it is im¬ 
 possible to conceive any greater. The defect of 
 this argument, as Gaunilo pointed out, consists 
 in arguing from existence in thought to exist¬ 
 ence in fact. From the former, of course, we 
 can logically infer nothing but an ideal thought 
 existence. 
 
 Other theistic proofs during the Middle Ages 
 were concerned with the course of nature and 
 history. Thus Duns Scotus declared that the 
 impossibility of conceiving an infinite chain of 
 natural cases necessarily carried the mind to 
 the idea of a great first cause adequate to the 
 production and preservation of the world. Aqui¬ 
 nas also ( Summa I., qu. 2) reaches the same 
 conclusion, a contingentia mundi, reproducing 
 Aristotle’s proofs almost word for word. The 
 contemplation of final causes, though not exten¬ 
 sively meditated upon, led to very similar logi¬ 
 cal results from the cosmological point of view; 
 for mediaeval thinkers were fond of dwelling on 
 the fact of the imperfection of the physical and 
 of inferring therefrom the existence of a perfect 
 being in whose spiritual essence the soul could 
 find the ground of the Christian faith. 
 
 In modern times philosophical meanings have 
 largely supplanted the theological. Thus Des¬ 
 cartes, the most important modern thinker on 
 this subject, developed his theism only after 
 sweeping aside all presuppositions derived from 
 a supernatural source or from the symbols of 
 the Church. Starting with the bare fact of 
 thought ( cogito, ergo sum), he argues that there 
 must be an adequate cause for the thought of 
 God in the mind. By this thought Descartes 
 says that he means “a substance infinite, eternal, 
 immutable, independent, all-knowing, all-power¬ 
 ful ; by which I myself and every other thing 
 have been produced.” {Med. iii.) Now this 
 thought cannot be a mere negation; for it has 
 reality. Nor can it have arisen by adding many 
 ideas together; for it is simple. Could it have 
 arisen as a result of my growing intelligence? 
 No; because the idea does not admit of growth: 
 God is infinite always and does not admit of 
 more or less. Hence the idea must have a divine 
 origin. A second proof may be stated thus. We 
 need this idea in order to explain to us the 
 immediate existence and continuance of the 
 universe. God is not only needed as a Creator, 
 but much more as a Preserver. The existence 
 now of a universe involves the self-existence of 
 its absolute cause. As a third proof Descartes 
 revived Anselm’s so-called ontological argument, 
 i.e., the argument from the idea of a most per¬ 
 fect being to its existence. Reality, in his view, 
 is as much a part of the idea of a perfect being 
 as the angles of a triangle are of the essence 
 of our idea of a triangle. 
 
 Kant, in the third part of his Dialectic, criti¬ 
 cizes this argument of Descartes. He does not, 
 indeed, deny the fact that we have the idea of 
 a perfect being, but he doubts if from the idea 
 we have any right to infer its real existence, 
 since it is possible for us to have an idea (e.g., 
 of a centaur) that does not correspond to any 
 object. And inasmuch as all possible proofs 
 of the existence of God are reducible to this one, 
 the ontological, Kant considers that all the argu¬ 
 ments of Descartes and of the mediaeval thinkers 
 failed to establish their point. Accordingly he 
 proposed a new and infallible proof, the so- 
 called practical or moral argument for the 
 
THEISS 
 
 177 
 
 THEMISTOCLES 
 
 existence of God, which is as follows. We have 
 the notion of a moral law; conscience responds 
 to the categorical moral imperative. Universal 
 experience proves that happiness and virtue in¬ 
 volve each other and cannot be separated. Now, 
 said Kant, for this conviction there is needed a 
 cause, supreme and infinite; a cause capable of 
 clinching this relation between happiness and 
 virtue to all eternity; a cause which will secure 
 the triumph of justice as against the moral in¬ 
 equalities of the present life. This moral cause 
 we call, by faith, God. 
 
 Hegel disagreed with Kant’s conclusions, and 
 sought to revive the ontological argument of 
 Anselm and Descartes, in a new form, contending 
 that the idea of a perfect being was an expres¬ 
 sion of the nature of all thought and all reality. 
 For him thought and reality are the same. We 
 can never get '‘beyond” thought. To put a bar¬ 
 rier, as Kant did, between thought and thing is, 
 for Hegel, to cease to think. Modern thought 
 tends to emphasize the personality of God, as 
 the ground of human personality. It also lays 
 great emphasis on the immanence of God, both 
 in man and in the natural world, yet not with 
 deistic or pantheistic implications. 
 
 Bibliography. J. S. Mill, Nature, the Utility 
 of Religion, and Theism (3d ed., London, 1885) ; 
 Robert Flint, Theism (7th ed., Edinburgh, 
 1889); G. J. Romanes, Candid Examination of 
 Theism (3d ed., London, 1892) ; B. P. Bowne, The¬ 
 ism, Deems Lectures, 1902 (New York, 1902) ; 
 G. P. Fisher, Grounds of Theistic and Christian 
 Belief (new ed., ib., 1903) ; Caldecott and Mack¬ 
 intosh, Selections from the Literature of Theism 
 (Edinburgh, 1907); C. C. Everett, Theism and 
 the Christian Faith (New York, 1909) ; W. N. 
 Clark, The Christian Doctrine of God (ib., 1909) ; 
 James Ward, The Realm of Ends; or, Plural¬ 
 ism and Theism, Gifford Lectures, 1907-10 
 (Cambridge, 1911); A. J. Balfour, Theism 
 and Humanism (New York, 1915). See Deism; 
 Pragmatism. 
 
 THEISS, tis (Hung. Tisza, Lat. Tissus ). The 
 largest tributary of the Danube, and, next to the 
 latter, the principal river of Hungary (Map: 
 Hungary, G 3). It rises in the Carpathian 
 Mountains and flows first westward, then south, 
 the lower half of its course being parallel with 
 that of the Danube below Budapest. After a tor¬ 
 tuous course of 800 miles it joins the Danube 
 about 30 miles above Belgrade. In its upper 
 course through the narrow mountain passes it is 
 rapid and clear, but in the great plain of central 
 Hungary it is very sluggish; from Szegedin to 
 the end of the Theiss—150 miles—the river has 
 a fall of but 15 feet, so that any rising of the 
 Danube drives back the Theiss and causes dis¬ 
 astrous inundations. Large sums have been ex¬ 
 pended in attempts to regulate the flow of the 
 river and drain the marshes. The Theiss is 
 navigable to Tokay, but steamboats ascend gen¬ 
 erally only to Szegedin at the mouth of the 
 Maros (q.v.), the chief tributary. From the 
 lower course of the river a canal runs westward 
 to the Danube. The Theiss is famous for its 
 fish. 
 
 THELLUSSON (teFlus-son, or Fr. pron., 
 ta'-lu'soN') ACT. See Perpetuity. 
 
 THEME (Lat. thema, from Gk. deya, thing 
 laid down, deposit, prize, proposition, subject, 
 from Tidevai, tithenai, to set, place). In music, 
 a term which is in a general sense svnonvmous 
 with subject or motive (q.v.). Every composi¬ 
 tion is built up from themes which constitute 
 
 the basic material. In a specific sense, the 
 theme of a fugue is the subject (dux). In va¬ 
 riations the theme is a complete musical idea, 
 generally of periodic structure. It is always 
 played in its entirety before the variations be¬ 
 gin. See Leitmotiv; Sonata; Symphony. 
 
 THE'MIS (Lat., from Gk. Qeyis, justice per¬ 
 sonified, from TiOevai, tithenai, to set, place). 
 In Greek mythology, the goddess and guardian 
 of the eternal laws, established by the gods. In 
 the ILesiodic theogony she is called the daughter 
 of Uranus and Gaea (heaven and earth), the wife 
 of Zeus, and, by him, mother of the IJorai 
 (Hours) and Moer* (Fates). In iEschylus she 
 is identified with Gaea, and called mother of 
 Prometheus. As guardian of the due order of 
 things, she was also possessed of prophecy. The 
 popular conceptions do not seem to have distin¬ 
 guished sharply between Themis and Gaea, and at 
 Athens we hear of Ge Themis as a single divinity. 
 At Rhamnus she was honored in the Temple of 
 Nemesis, and here has been found a fine statue 
 by Chairestratos of Rhamnus, an artist of the 
 early third century b.c. Consult: Otto Gruppe, 
 Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte 
 (2 vols., Munich, 1906) ; Rudolf Hirzel, Themis, 
 Dike, und Vencandtes (Leipzig, 1907) ; J. E. 
 Harrison, Themis: A Study of the Social Origins 
 of Greek Religion (Cambridge, 1912). 
 
 THEMIS'TIUS (Lat., from Gk. Qeylartos) 
 
 ( ?-c.388 a.d.). A Greek rhetorician of Paph- 
 lagonia, surnamed Euplirades (eloquent), who 
 lived at Constantinople, as a teacher of phi¬ 
 losophy and qratory. Though a pagan in re¬ 
 ligion, he was highly honored by several of the 
 emperors for his nobility and learning. He was 
 tutor to Arcadius, the son of Theodosius, who 
 made him Prefect in 384. There are extant 34 
 of his speeches, which, though chiefly eulogies 
 in compliment to various emperors, contain in¬ 
 teresting allusions to contemporary history, and 
 instructive quotations from the ancient phi¬ 
 losophers; and some of his paraphrases of por¬ 
 tions of Aristotle (the Posterior Analytics, the 
 Physics, the De Anima, the De Caelo, and Book 
 II of the Metaphysics; the last two are known 
 only through Hebrew versions). The orations 
 have been edited by Dindorf (Leipzig, 1832) ; 
 the paraphrases as a whole by Spengel (ib., 
 1866). 
 
 THEMIS'TO (Lat., from Gk. 0e/u<7™). In 
 Greek legend, the third wife of Athamas (q.v.). 
 Her husband, on discovering that his former 
 wife, Ino (q.v.), was still alive, sent for her, 
 and Themisto in revenge planned to slay Ino’s 
 children. With this intention she directed a new 
 slave to clothe her children in white and Ino’s 
 in black, but Ino, who was herself the slave in 
 disguise, reversed the command, and Themisto 
 killed her own children, whom she did not dis¬ 
 tinguish in the night. 
 
 THEMXS'TOCLES (Lat., from Gk. 0 eytaro- 
 k\i)s, Themistokles) (c.514-449 b.c.). An Athe¬ 
 nian general and statesman, born about 514 b.c., 
 the son of Neocles, an Athenian citizen of mid¬ 
 dling station and circumstances, and a Carian 
 or Thracian woman. After the battle of Mara¬ 
 thon (490 b.c. ), when the first invasion of the 
 Persians had been successfully resisted, Themis- 
 tocles, with keen foresight, recognized that the 
 final decision of the question of supremacy would 
 come on the sea, and that the only way for the 
 Greeks to be victorious was to have a large 
 fleet. He aimed, therefore, at the development 
 of a strong Athenian navy. To this end he 
 
THENARD 
 
 THEOCRITUS 
 
 178 
 
 persuaded the Athenians to devote the proceeds 
 arising from the working of the silver mines at 
 Laurion (q.v.), which it was intended to dis¬ 
 tribute among the citizens at large, to the con¬ 
 struction of a strong fleet. He secured the pas¬ 
 sage of a law that a certain number of new 
 triremes should be built every year. From the 
 time of the expulsion of Aristides by ostracism 
 (483 b.c.), Themistocles controlled the politics 
 of Athens, and in 481 b.c. was made archon 
 eponymus. When it was learned that Xerxes 
 was preparing a powerful armament to invade 
 Greece, and the Athenians had been told by the 
 Delphian oracle to defend themselves with the 
 “wooden wall,” Themistocles interpreted this 
 answer as referring to the ships of Athens. At 
 the battle of Artemisium (480 b.c.) Themisto¬ 
 cles, as commander of the Athenian fleet, which 
 was the largest in Greece, consented to fight un¬ 
 der the Spartan commander, Eurybiades, but it 
 was only through the former’s tact and adroit 
 use of bribes that the Greek commanders were 
 finally induced to make a stand in that place. 
 This engagement was indecisive. In the same 
 year, at Salamis (q.v.), was fought the battle 
 which shattered the naval power of Xerxes. 
 Here again Eurybiades was commander in chief, 
 and here again it was owing to Themistocles 
 alone that the Greeks were induced not to re¬ 
 treat to the Isthmus of Corinth, but to give bat¬ 
 tle in their present position. He threatened, if 
 a separation were now made, that the Athenians 
 would take their women and children and sail to 
 Italy, there to found a new hom$. Finally, he 
 precipitated the contest, by dispatching to Xerxes 
 a secret message to the effect that, if the Per¬ 
 sians wished to crush the Greek fleet, they should 
 advance to the attack without delay, before the 
 Greeks had an opportunity of fleeing. After the 
 battle of Salamis Themistocles was the most im¬ 
 portant man in Greece. When the Persians had 
 retreated from Greece and the Athenians under¬ 
 took to restore their city, the Spartans, sending 
 an embassy to Athens, urged the Athenians not 
 to attempt to rebuild the fortifications. Then 
 Themistocles, going on an embassy to Sparta, 
 entertained the Spartans with his false pro¬ 
 fessions, and kept the matter in abeyance till 
 such time as the walls were sufficiently advanced 
 to allow of their being defended. In 471 b.c. he 
 was ostracized and retired to Argos; and finally, 
 to escape being tried for treason, in which, ac¬ 
 cording to some accounts, he was implicated 
 by the correspondence of Pausanias (q.v.), he be¬ 
 took himself in 465 b.c. to the court of Ar- 
 taxerxes, King of Persia; but, before he would 
 see the King himself, he got permission to wait 
 a year, during which he made himself master of 
 the language and usages of the country. At the 
 end of this time he managed to raise himself so 
 high in the King’s favor that, after the Persian 
 fashion, the town of Magnesia was appointed to 
 supply him with bread, Lampsacus with wine, 
 and Myus with other provisions. He lived se¬ 
 curely at Magnesia until his death in 449 b.c. 
 Some authorities assert that he poisoned himself. 
 A monument was erected to Themistocles in the 
 market place of Magnesia, and it is said that his 
 bones were secretly taken to Attica, and there 
 burned. His life was written in ancient times 
 by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos. Consult: 
 Wecklein, Ueber Themistokles (Munich, 1892) ; 
 Bauer, Themistokles (Merseburg, 1881); and 
 the standard histories of Greece. 
 
 THENARD, ta'nar', Louis Jacques (1777- 
 
 1857). A French chemist, born at Nogent-sur- 
 Seine. He was professor of chemistry at the 
 Ecole Polytechnique, at the College de France, 
 and at the University of Paris. From 1810 he 
 was a member of the Institute. His original re¬ 
 searches resulted in numerous important contri¬ 
 butions to chemistry. He improved the methods 
 of ultimate organic analysis; investigated the 
 compound ethers or esters; discovered the perox¬ 
 ide of hydrogen, cobalt ultramarine (Thgnard’s 
 blue), etc. He published Traite elementaire de 
 chimie theorique et pratique (4 vols., 1813), 
 which passed through several editions, and, 
 jointly with Gay-Lussac, two volumes of Re- 
 cherches physico-chimiques (1811). 
 
 THE'OBALD I. King of Navarre. See 
 Thibaut I. 
 
 THEOBALD, the'6-bald or tib'ald, Lewis 
 (1688-1744). A Shakespearean editor, born at 
 Sittingbourne, in Kent. Though educated for the 
 law, he early turned to literature. He wrote 
 and adapted plays, and made translations from 
 Sophocles, Aristophanes, and other Greek au¬ 
 thors. In 1725 Pope published an edition of 
 Shakespeare, work for which he was ill equipped. 
 Theobald sharply reviewed it in a volume en¬ 
 titled Shakespeare Restored (1726). Pope re¬ 
 taliated by making Theobald the first hero of 
 the Dunciad (1728). Early in 1734 Theobald 
 brought out his own edition of Shakespeare in 
 seven volumes. At the time of his death Theo¬ 
 bald was at work on an edition of Beaumont 
 and Fletcher, which appeared six years later. 
 Theobald’s original prose and verse is of little 
 account, but as a textual critic he possessed rare 
 insight. His one aim was to divine, in a cor¬ 
 rupt passage, what Shakespeare wrote, and he 
 made over 300 corrections, wLich have been 
 generally adopted. Consult Collins, Essays and 
 Studies (London, 1895). See Pope, Alexan¬ 
 der Dunciad. 
 
 THE'OBRO'MA. See Cacao. 
 
 THE'OBRCFMINE (from Neo-Lat. Theo- 
 broma, from Gk. deos, theos, god -f- fipcoya, broma , 
 food), C 7 H 8 N 4 0o. An alkaloid chemically allied 
 to uric acid and still more closely related to 
 caffeine (theine). It is found in considerable 
 quantities in cocoa and may be extracted from 
 powdered cocoa beans with hot water; the re¬ 
 sulting solution is freed from tannin and other 
 impurities by precipitation with lead acetate; 
 next, the solution is freed from lead by means of 
 sulphureted hydrogen, and evaporated to dry¬ 
 ness; the theobromine is, finally, extracted from 
 the dry residue by boiling with alcohol. The the¬ 
 obromine may be obtained artificially from the 
 lead salts of xanthine by the action of methyl- 
 iodide. Theobromine is a white crystalline sub¬ 
 stance sparingly soluble in water and forming 
 crystalline compounds with both acids and bases. 
 Among its compounds may be mentioned theo- 
 bromine-sodio-salicylate, a substance obtained by 
 mixing sodium salicylate with sodium-theobro¬ 
 mine, and used in medicine under the name of 
 diuretin. Diuretin acts as a diuretic without 
 having any action upon the heart. See Alka¬ 
 loids. 
 
 THEOC'RITUS (Lat., from Gk. 0 eoKpiros, 
 Theokritos) (c.310-c.245 B.c.). The first and 
 greatest of the Greek bucolic poets. The details 
 of his life are not clearly known. He was com¬ 
 monly reckoned a Syracusan, although some 
 have believed that Cos was his birthplace. In 
 any case, he spent considerable time in that 
 island and eastern Greece, where he was ac- 
 
THEODICY 
 
 179 
 
 THEODORA 
 
 quainted with the elegiac poet Pliiletas and 
 the writer of epigrams Asclepiades, whom tradi¬ 
 tion makes his teachers, and also with the 
 physician Nicias of Miletus and the poet Aratus 
 (q.v.) of Soli. He spent some time at the court 
 of Ptolemy Philadelphia in Alexandria and also 
 at the court of Hiero II at Syracuse; hut the 
 exact dates for these periods cannot be deter¬ 
 mined, as the chronological order of his poems 
 is uncertain. We have current under his name 
 31 poems and a number of epigrams. Of the 
 longer poems 10 are bucolic, three are mimes in 
 imitation of the mimes of Sophron and very 
 similar to the recently discovered mimes of 
 Herondas, and the other poems are of varying 
 subjects and character, while a few are spurious. 
 Theocritus displayed marvelous power in uniting 
 artistic and popular elements in his verse in a 
 way which has never been equaled by his fol¬ 
 lowers and imitators. His language is, for the 
 most part, a modified Doric; two poems are 
 in the literary HColic. Though he lived in an 
 artificial period, there is in his work a simplic¬ 
 ity, a fidelity, and a love of nature that has 
 given him universal fame. His dramatic and 
 mimetic power was great, so that his peasants, 
 shepherds, reapers, and fishermen have a real 
 existence and are not merely literary creations. 
 He was imitated by Bion and Moschus among 
 the Greeks, and by Vergil most successfully 
 among the Romans (in the Eclogues). Impor¬ 
 tant editions are by Ahrens (2 vols., Leipzig, 
 1855), and especially by Ziegler (Tubingen, 
 
 1879) . The most recent edition of the text is 
 by U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorf (Oxford, 
 1907). The best edition with commentary is 
 by Fritzsche-Hiller (Leipzig, 1881). There are 
 English editions by Kynaston (Oxford, 1892) 
 and by Cholmeley (London, 1901); English 
 translations in verse by Calverley (2d ed., Cam¬ 
 bridge, 1869) ; by Andrew Lang (New York, 
 
 1880) ; A. S. Way (Cambridge, 1913) ; and in 
 prose, by Metcalfe (Boston, 1906). There is 
 a special lexicon to Theocritus by Rumpel 
 (1879). Consult also: Legrand, Etude sur 
 Theocrite (Paris, 1898) ; W. C. Wright, A Short 
 ■History of Greek Literature (New York, 1907) ; 
 Christ-Schmid, Geschichte der griechisohen Lit- 
 teratur, vol. ii, part i (5th ed., Munich, 1911). 
 
 THEODICY, the-od'i-si (from Gk. deos, tlieos, 
 god + dtKT], dike, justice). The exposition of 
 the theory of divine providence, and particu¬ 
 larly the defense of the goodness and wisdom 
 of God against objections drawn from the exist¬ 
 ence of pain and sin in the world. The problem 
 is as old as human thinking; the name is mod¬ 
 ern and dates from the close of the seventeenth 
 century. The first to consider the question in 
 its entire scope was Leibnitz (q.v.) in his 
 Essais de theodicee (1710). In England a long 
 list of publications has appeared, principally in 
 reply to the sensational school beginning with 
 Hume and closing with J. S. Mill, who could 
 scarcely maintain the existeifce of God, and 
 saved His benevolence only at the expense of 
 His omnipotence. In America, where Jonathan 
 Edwards made contributions to the discussion 
 in his famous Freedom of the Will (1754), and 
 was followed by Bellamy, Wisdom of God in the 
 Permission of Sin (1758) ; Hopkins, Sin through 
 the Divine Interposition an Advantage to the 
 Universe (1759); and many others, down to 
 N. W. Taylor (q.v.), whose contribution to the 
 subject may be condensed in the hypothesis that 
 in the best moral system a benevolent God might 
 
 not be able to prevent sin consistently with the- 
 maintenance of the system and the attainment 
 of the highest results therefrom. He thus gave 
 a place to the human will which no theologian 
 of orthodox descent had previously given. Since 
 the appearance of Hegel, the Christian idea of 
 God lias met with new objections, and theodicv 
 has been enlarged to consider these, especially 
 by Maret and Gratry in France. The appear¬ 
 ance of pessimism in Germany gave a new turn 
 to the argument, since it was no longer possible 
 to assume as undisputed the principle of Leib¬ 
 nitz, that God has chosen the best possible 
 world. And with the appearance of evolution 
 and the Spencerian agnosticism, the argument 
 has turned to the more fundamental matters; 
 so that theodicy has almost disappeared as a 
 distinct department of theology. 
 
 THEOD'OLITE (of uncertain etymology; 
 perhaps from Gk. deacrdai, theasthai, to see + 
 odos, hodos, way + Xtros, litos, smooth, even; 
 hardly from Gk. Oeacrdai, theasthai, to see -f- 
 SoXlxos, dolichos, long). An instrument used 
 in surveying especially in geodetic work for the 
 measurement of horizontal and vertical angles. 
 It is larger than the transit and, having larger 
 and more carefully graduated circles, is em¬ 
 ployed in measuring angles where the highest 
 accuracy is demanded. In its main features it 
 is similar to this instrument, but differs chiefly 
 in that its telescope does not revolve completely 
 or transit in its horizontal axis. See Geodesy; 
 Surveying Instruments. 
 
 THE'ODO'RA (c.508—548). A Byzantine Em¬ 
 press, wife of Justinian. She was the daughter 
 of Acacius, the keeper of the wild beasts at the 
 circus of Constantinople, and after his death 
 was for a time a favorite on the stage and a 
 famous courtesan. She fascinated Justinian, 
 nephew of the Emperor Justin I, by her great 
 beauty, and about 525 he married her. There¬ 
 after she led an exemplary domestic life. In 527 
 Justinian became Emperor, and Theodora hence¬ 
 forth exerted a commanding influence upon pub¬ 
 lic affairs. She was extremely cruel, and her 
 numerous spies ferreted out all who were op¬ 
 posed to their royal mistress. At the time of 
 the Nika Riot (532) she prevented Justinian 
 from fleeing and brought about the suppression 
 of the insurrection. Most of our information 
 concerning Theodora is derived from Procopius^ 
 Anecdota. Consult: Antonin Debidour, L’lm- 
 peratrice Theodora (Paris, 1885); C. E. Mallet, 
 “The Empress Theodora,” in the English His¬ 
 torical Review, vol. ii (London, 1886) ; Charles 
 Diehl, Justinien et la civilisation byzantine au 
 sixieme siecle (Paris, 1901); id., Theodora, im~ 
 peratrice de Byzance (3d ed., ib., 1904) ; Ed¬ 
 ward Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire, edited by J. B. Bury, vols. iv and v 
 (new ed., 1912). 
 
 THEODORA (?—867). Byzantine Empress. 
 She was born in Paphlagonia and in 829 married 
 the Emperor Theophilus (died 842), whom she 
 succeeded in the government as Regent for her 
 four-year-old son Michael III. While her hus¬ 
 band had been a violent iconoclast, she was at¬ 
 tached to the worship of images, and conse¬ 
 quently expelled the iconoclasts from office and 
 recalled the banished image worshipers. She 
 also convoked the Constantinople Synod of 842 
 which restored the images to the churches, a 
 triumph annually celebrated in the Greek church 
 by the Sunday of Orthodoxy (the first Sunday 
 in Lent). Her rule was on the whole wise, but 
 
THEODORA 
 
 180 
 
 THEODORIC 
 
 some of her wars were unfortunate. When 
 Michael came to the throne, in 856, he, influ¬ 
 enced by his uncle Bardas, deprived his mother 
 of her position and she died in a convent. 
 
 THEODORA. A member of the Roman no¬ 
 bility, who lived in the tenth century. She was 
 very" beautiful, of unknown parentage, wife of 
 the consul Theophylact. She ruled Rome and 
 controlled the papacy for a term of years, call¬ 
 ing herself by the title of Senatrix. She was 
 the mother of Marozia and Theodora II, who 
 were equally licentious and unscrupulous. She 
 placed several of her creatures on the papal 
 chair, among whom John X may be specially 
 mentioned. Consult Ferdinand Gregorovius, 
 History of the City of Rome during the Middle 
 Ages, translated by Annie Hamilton (London, 
 1895). 
 
 THEODORE, King of Abyssinia. See Abys¬ 
 sinia. 
 
 THEODORE I, King of Corsica. See Neu- 
 hof, Theodor von. 
 
 THE'ODORE OF MOP'SUES'TIA (c.350- 
 428). The most noted biblical scholar and the¬ 
 ologian of the school of Antioch. He was born 
 in Antioch, was educated under the rhetorician 
 Libanius, and studied theology with Diodorus. 
 At the age of 32 he was made presbyter of the 
 Antiochian church, and in 392 he became Bishop 
 of Mopsuestia, a small town in Cilicia, about 
 40 miles from Tarsus. In fame and influence 
 he surpassed all the other Christian teachers 
 and writers of the East. His biblical scholar¬ 
 ship seems almost modern. His commentaries 
 have in many cases perished, but enough re¬ 
 mains to show his historical spirit, and the 
 simple, literal method of interpretation which 
 characterized the school of Antioch, as against 
 the mystical, allegorical method of Alexandria. 
 Theodore expounded almost all the books of the 
 Bible. He also wrote on the incarnation and 
 various other theological topics. Soon after his 
 death, charges of doctrinal error began to be 
 brought against him, and his opinions were con¬ 
 demned by the Council of Ephesus (431), though 
 his name was not mentioned. He had no doubt 
 favored the Pelagians, and the fact that he had 
 been the teacher of Nestorius was afterward 
 remembered against him. Opposition to his the¬ 
 ology continued and increased until the fifth 
 general council (Constantinople, 553), when he 
 was explicitly condemned, in connection with the 
 “Three Chapter Controversy.” Part of the re¬ 
 mains of Theodore’s works are printed in Migne, 
 Patrologia Grceca, vol. lxvi. The Latin version 
 of his commentary on the minor Pauline Epis¬ 
 tles has been edited by Swete (Cambridge, 
 1880-82), and the Syriac version of his com¬ 
 mentary on John by Chabot (Paris, 1897). The 
 best general account of Theodore in English is 
 in Smith’s Dictionary of Christian Biography, 
 by Wace and Piercy (Boston, 1911). Consult 
 also H. Kihn, Theodore von Mopsuestia (Frei¬ 
 burg, 1880) ; Bardenhewer, Patrologie (Eng. 
 trans., St. Louis, 1908). For his theology, con¬ 
 sult A. Harnack, History of Dogma, vols. iii, iv 
 (Boston, 1898). See Chapters, The Three. 
 
 THEODORE OF TAR'SUS (c.602-690). 
 Archbishop of Canterbury. He was born at 
 Tarsus; studied at Athens; became a monk; 
 early distinguished himself as a scholar and was 
 familiar with Greek and Latin literature; was 
 consecrated at Rome as Archbishop of Canter¬ 
 bury by Pope Vitalian and arrived at his see 
 May 27, 669. He did a great work for the 
 
 Church in England, which at the time of his 
 coming had sunk to a low state. He divided 
 his large dioceses into more manageable ones; 
 appointed worthy bishops; promoted learning 
 and clerical discipline; increased the monas¬ 
 teries; held progressive synods; and so left the 
 Church a compact and enlightened body. His 
 life is recorded in Bede, Ecclesiastical History. 
 Consult G. F. Browne, Theodore and Wilfrith 
 (London, 1897). See England, Church of. 
 
 TFIEOD'ORET (Gk. Oeodupyros, Theodoretos) 
 (c.393-457). A Greek Church historian and 
 
 biblical scholar. He was born at Antioch, of 
 Christian parents. Theodoret, with Theodore 
 of Mopsuestia (q.v.), is to be classed with the 
 Antiochian school, as opposed to the Alexan¬ 
 drian. He was rational rather than mystical 
 in his theology, and historical rather than al¬ 
 legorical in his biblical interpretation. He en¬ 
 tered the monastic life at Apamea, and was 
 loth to leave his monastery when made Bishop 
 of Cyrus in Syria (423). Theodoret achieved 
 great success in winning back to orthodoxy the 
 survivors of the ancient Marcionites (see Mar- 
 cion), and in suppressing the use of Tatian’s 
 Diatessaron, a compilation of the Gospels which 
 had long been current in Syria. (See Tatian.) 
 His connection with the cause of Nestorius 
 (q.v.), which began in his youth, continued un¬ 
 til near the close of his life. He stoutly opposed 
 Nestorius’ condemnation at Ephesus (431) and 
 denounced the famous Anathemas of Cyril, 
 which had been launched against Nestorius 
 shortly before. His own orthodoxy was seriously 
 questioned, and the Robber Synod (449; see 
 Ephesus, Councils of) deposed him from his 
 see, but he was reinstated by the Council of 
 Chalcedon, two years later. Under great pres¬ 
 sure by the Council of Chalcedon, Theodoret was 
 finally prevailed upon to anathematize Nestorius, 
 but he did it with the utmost reluctance, and it 
 is doubtful whether his real opinion was ever 
 changed. About 200 of his letters survive, giv¬ 
 ing valuable information on the events of his 
 age. Most important perhaps of all his works 
 is the Ecclesiastical History, written in con¬ 
 tinuation of Eusebius and bringing the narra-* 
 tive down to 428. His Works have been several 
 times edited, e.g., by Schultze (Halle, 1769- 
 74), and Migne, Patrologia Crceca, lxxx-lxxxiv. 
 An English translation of the History, Dia¬ 
 logues, and selected Letters, with valuable pro¬ 
 legomena, is given in The Ficene Fathers, edited 
 by Schaff and Wace, 2d series, vol. iii (New 
 York, 1892). Consult: Harnack, History of 
 Dogma, vol. iv (Boston, 1898) ; Schubert-Moel- 
 ler, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte (Tubingen, 
 
 1902) ; Bright, Age of the Fathers (London, 
 
 1903) . 
 
 THEOD'ORIC I, King of the Visigoths (419- 
 451). See Goths. 
 
 THEODORIC, the-od'6-rlk (Lat. Theodori- 
 cus), surnamed The Great (c.454-526L The 
 founder of the ©strogotliic Kingdom in Italy. 
 He was born on the banks of the Neusiedler See, 
 in Pannonia. His father, Theodemir, was one 
 of the three brothers who on the death of Attila 
 (453 a.d. ) freed their nation from the yoke of 
 the Huns, and being the representatives of the 
 royal line of the Amali, exercised a united 
 sovereignty over it. In his eighth year Theo- 
 doric was "sent as a hostage to the eastern Em¬ 
 peror and was trained in all kinds of athletic 
 and martial exercises. He returned to his people 
 about 471 and in 474 succeeded his father as 
 
THEODORIC 
 
 THEODOSIUS 
 
 181 
 
 head of the nation. In the previous year the 
 Ostrogoths had obtained parts of Moesia and 
 Dacia, as settlements, from the Emperor Zeno, 
 lor the next 13 years Theodoric was frequently 
 engaged in strife, sometimes against the Em¬ 
 pire, sometimes in its service. In 484 he was 
 made consul, in 486 he was granted the honor 
 of a triumph. The Emperor, to free himself 
 from Theodoric, gave him permission to invade 
 Italy, and the warlike monarch began his march 
 in 488, and arrived early in 489 on the fron¬ 
 tiers of Italy. Odoacer (q.v.), King of Italy, 
 the first of the Germanic rulers of that country, 
 was forewarned and forearmed; a desperate 
 battle was fought near Aquileia (August, 489), 
 the result of which was to the advantage of 
 the Ostrogoths. A second and more disastrous 
 defeat was inflicted on Odoacer near Verona 
 (September 30), after which he took refuge in 
 Ravenna; but having again gathered a large 
 force, he was totally routed on the banks of 
 the Adda (August, 490), and again blockaded 
 in Ravenna, while the whole of Italy was being 
 subdued; and having at last surrendered, was 
 treacherously murdered (March, 493). Theo¬ 
 doric now assumed the title of King of Italy, 
 resisted the claim of suzerainty preferred by 
 the Eastern Emperor, and with the exception 
 of a victorious campaign against the Franks, to 
 stop their assaults on the Visigothic dominions, 
 the suppression of a rebellion in Spain against 
 the infant monarch, his own grandson Amalric 
 (during whose minority Theodoric administered 
 also the government of the Visigothic King¬ 
 dom), and an expedition against the robber 
 hordes of the Bulgarians, the whole of his long 
 reign was devoted to the consolidation and de¬ 
 velopment of his new kingdom. His followers 
 received only one-third of the public lands; 
 private property was legally secured to the 
 rightful possessors. He made Ravenna his capi¬ 
 tal, occasionally, when his northern frontier was 
 threatened, removing to Verona. 
 
 Theodoric showed no desire of further con¬ 
 quest; cultivated the friendship and esteem of 
 the surrounding nations; ruled all classes of his 
 subjects with irresistible authority, but with 
 corresponding, justice and moderation; zealously 
 promoted agriculture and commerce; and, him¬ 
 self an Arian, exhibited a tolerance of all other 
 sects wdiich was then almost unknown. The 
 government was administered by Romans on 
 Roman lines; separate codes of law were used 
 for Romans and Goths. Theodoric left no son; 
 but his daughter, Amalasuntha (q.v.), suc¬ 
 ceeded him as regent for her son, Athalaric. 
 Theodoric became a hero of many Germanic 
 legends under the name of Dietrich of Bern. 
 Among the men who held office under Theodoric 
 were Boethius and Cassidorus. The former, 
 who had incurred the suspicions of the monarch 
 towards the close of his reign, was unjustly put 
 to death. Consult: Felix Dahn, Die Konige 
 der Germanen, vol. iii (Wiirzburg, 1866) ; 
 Thomas Hodgkin, “Ostrogothic Invasion,” in 
 Italy and her Invaders, vol. iii (London, 1885) ; 
 id., Theodoric the Goth (New York, 1893) ; Cam¬ 
 bridge Medieval History, vols. i, ii (New York, 
 1911-13) ; Edward Gibbon, Decline and Fall of 
 the Roman Empire, vol. iv, edited by J. B. Bury 
 (London, 1912). 
 
 THEODORIC, Tomb of. A structure near 
 Ravenna, Italy, erected about 530 as a mauso¬ 
 leum by Theodoric’s daughter. It is now the 
 church of Santa Maria della Rotonda. 
 
 THEODOSIA, the'6-do'shi-a, or FEODOSIA, 
 fa'6-df/se-a. A seaport of the Crimea. See 
 Kaffa. 
 
 THEODOSIUS, the'6-do'shi-us. The name of 
 three Roman emperors.— Theodosius I, surnamed 
 The Great, Emperor 379-395, was of Spanish 
 descent, and was born either at Italica, or, more 
 probably, at Cauca, near Segovia, about 346. 
 His father, also named Theodosius, was the great 
 general of the Roman Empire, who, after free¬ 
 ing South Britain from the Caledonians, and 
 annihilating the formidable rebellion of the 
 Moor Firmus, was beheaded at Carthage in 376. 
 Theodosius accompanied his father in his Brit¬ 
 ish campaigns, and afterward, by routing the 
 Sarmatians, saved Moesia from devastation, but 
 retired from active service after his father’s 
 murder, and took up the care of his patrimonial 
 lands in Spain. But on the defeat and death 
 of Valens (q.v.), his colleague, Gratianus (q.v.), 
 feeling his inability to sustain alone the cares 
 of empire, intrusted to Theodosius, Jan. 19, 
 379, the administration of Thrace, Dacia, Mace¬ 
 donia, Egypt, and the East, and especially the 
 protection of the Empire against the Goths. 
 Theodosius found it most prudent to sow jeal¬ 
 ousy and dissension among the Goths by prom¬ 
 ises and bribes, and, after a four years’ so-called 
 campaign, succeeded in pacifying the Visigoths, 
 the Ostrogoths retreating towards Scythia. The 
 latter returned in 386, their ranks swelled by 
 Scythians, but were totally routed in attempt¬ 
 ing to go across the Danube, and the survi¬ 
 vors were transported to Phrygia and Lydia. 
 See Goths. 
 
 In 387 Theodosius undertook to restore to 
 the throne of the Western Empire Valentinian 
 II (whose sister Galla he married), the brother 
 of Gratian, who had been expelled by Maximus, 
 and after a successful contest captured Maxi¬ 
 mus and put him to death at Aquileia (388). 
 In 392 the suspicious death of Valentinian and 
 the elevation of the puppet Eugenius by Arbo- 
 gastes, the real ruler of the West, again made 
 Theodosius interfere; after two years of prepara¬ 
 tion his army gained a complete victory over 
 the army of the West, and the two portions of 
 the Roman Empire were again united under one 
 ruler. The union lasted only four months, ow¬ 
 ing to the death of Theodosius, Jan. 17, 395. 
 Though he professed the orthodox Christian 
 faith, Theodosius was not baptized till 380, and 
 his behavior after that stamps him as a cruel 
 and vindictive persecutor. His humiliation be¬ 
 fore St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, for the mas¬ 
 sacre at Thessalonica, was regarded by the 
 Church as one of its greatest victories over the 
 temporal power. See Ambrose. 
 
 Theodosius II, Emperor of the East from 408 
 to 450, was the only son and successor of Ar- 
 cadius (q.v.). He was but seven years old when 
 he ascended the throne. The chief events of 
 his reign were the invasion of the Empire by 
 the Huns under Attila, a war with Persia, re¬ 
 newed efforts to extirpate paganism, and the 
 compilation of the Codex Theodosianus (see 
 Codex; Code).—Theodosius III was an un¬ 
 important Byzantine Emperor (716-717 a.d. ), 
 who abdicated after a few months’ reign. On 
 all three consult Edward Gibbon, The Decline 
 and Fall of the Roman Empire, edited by J. B. 
 Bury (London, 1912) ; Thomas Hodgkin, Dy¬ 
 nasty of Theodosius I (Oxford, 1889) ; id., “Visi¬ 
 gothic, Hunnish, and Vandal Invasions,” in 
 Italy and her Invaders, vols. i, ii (Oxford, 
 
THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 THEODOSIUS 182 
 
 1892) ; Cambridge Medieval History, vol. i (New 
 York, 1911). 
 
 THEODOSIUS, Arch of. A triumphal arch 
 at Rome, erected in 405 a.d. at the approach to 
 the Pons Vaticanus, in honor of the three em¬ 
 perors Arcadius, Honorius, and Theodosius, in 
 commemoration of their destruction of the Goths. 
 
 THEOG'NIS (Lat., from Gk. Qioyvis) (sixth 
 century b.c.). A Greek elegiac poet, born at 
 Nisaean Megara. During the conflict in his na¬ 
 tive city between the aristocratic and democratic 
 parties, in which he took the side of the aristo¬ 
 crats, he lost his estate and was reduced to 
 poverty and driven into exile. He appears to 
 have visited Sicily, Bceotia, Euboea, and Sparta, 
 but later, apparently under changed conditions, 
 he returned to his native city. Theognis is the 
 only elegiac poet whose works have come down 
 to us in anything like complete condition. We 
 possess under his name 1389 verses, in two books, 
 which set forth the political belief and ideals of 
 the Dorian oligarchs. The work is fragmentary 
 and has suffered largely from interpolations. 
 The genuine remains of his work are valuable 
 evidence as to the state of political parties and 
 social conditions in the sixth century. The frag¬ 
 ments are edited by Bergk in his Poetce Lyrici 
 Greed (5th ed., Leipzig, 1914) ; by Ziegler (2d 
 ed., Tubingen, 1880) ; by Sitzler (Heidelberg, 
 1880) ; by Hartmann in his Studies in Theognis 
 (Cambridge, 1902) ; and by T. Hudson-Williams 
 (1910). Consult W. C. Wright, A Short His¬ 
 tory of Greek Literature (New York, 1907); 
 Christ-Schmid, Geschichte der griechischen Lit- 
 teratur, vol. i, part i ( 6 th ed., Munich, 1912). 
 
 THEOG'ONY (Lat. theogonia, from Gk. 
 Oeoyovia, from deos, theos, god -+- -yovia, -gonia, 
 generation, from 7 ovos, gonos, seed). A geneal¬ 
 ogy of the gods. The earliest theogonies among 
 the Greeks were that of the epic cycle, of un¬ 
 known authorship, now lost, and the extant 
 work of Hesiod (q.v.). According to Pausanias, 
 the poems of Onomacritus, who lived at the 
 close of the sixth century b.c., belonged to this 
 class. The Orphic theogony, which had a great 
 influence among the Neo-Platonists, was com¬ 
 posed at a late period, although it may have 
 embodied much of the earlier Orphic doctrine. 
 
 THE'OLOGTCAL ANTHROPOLOGY. See 
 Anthropology, Theological. 
 
 THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION. The system 
 of training in theology, with special reference to 
 professional preparation for the work of the 
 ministry. It will naturally have to be con¬ 
 sidered under two main heads, owing to funda¬ 
 mental differences in the point of view. 
 
 THE CATHOLIC SYSTEM 
 
 The older system of theological education, 
 prevailing in Catholic institutions, is the result 
 of the historical development of the Church. 
 The aim and ideal have remained unchanged, 
 but the matter has broadened and the lines 
 widened and deepened according to the Church’s 
 organic activity. The training of the man has 
 ever been its most important function—con¬ 
 sisting in the assimilating of his mind to the 
 object matter of theological disciplines and of 
 his conduct to the ideal of the priestly vocation. 
 The first theologians were instructed in the 
 school of Christ. They in turn handed on to 
 their disciples what they had received from their 
 master. Its matter was the Bible, the Old and 
 New Testament, the latter especially, with the 
 
 oral interpretation gathered and treasured from 
 the instructions of Jesus. The form was simple, 
 unsystematic, adapted to the synthetic rather 
 than the analytic mind. Both aspects—the 
 matter and the form—are indicated with suffi¬ 
 cient detail to enable one to estimate their char¬ 
 acter in the letter of St. Paul to Titus and his 
 two letters to Timothy. Contact with Judaism 
 developed a more definite exegesis, and conflict 
 with paganism a direct apologetic. The neces¬ 
 sity of defining and defending the explicit con¬ 
 tent of revelation resulted in a gradual growth 
 of dogmatics, with a well-marked branch of 
 polemics, while the bearings of the new reli¬ 
 gious-moral truths on the growing complexities 
 of life in the world and the cloister necessitated 
 an unfolding of moral and ascetical theology. 
 Eusebius in the meantime had founded ecclesi¬ 
 astical history, and with the Decretists and the 
 Decretalists canon law received an organic shape. 
 After the collapse of the Roman Empire educa¬ 
 tional activity, theological as well as secular, 
 was practically confined to the monasteries, and 
 limited to the conserving of the materials in¬ 
 herited from the past. 
 
 Throughout the Middle Ages the various 
 branches of the theological curriculum became 
 more systematic and coordinated. Biblical study 
 was emphasized, though principal attention was 
 given to the philosophico-theological systema¬ 
 tization of the speculative content of religious 
 faith and to the motives, faculties, and laws of 
 moral and religious conduct. Historical and 
 critical studies were at this time but superfi¬ 
 cially cultivated. 
 
 A great change begins with the rise of the 
 Humanists and the Reformation, followed by the 
 opposite reform instituted by the Council of 
 Trent. Progress lay principally in the circle 
 of biblical and historical studies. Exegesis was 
 pursued with great zeal, and the study of the 
 Bible centred mainly on historico-critical ques¬ 
 tions. The founder of isagogics as a special dis¬ 
 cipline was Richard Simon, and in the second 
 half of the eighteenth century, in which, besides, 
 the division of theology into separate depart¬ 
 ments was completed, it was marked off against 
 the- rest of biblical science. In church history, 
 reestablished by Baronius (1607), the auxiliary 
 sciences attained chiefly through the Benedictines 
 of St. Maur their form and demarcation: patrol- 
 ogy, archaeology, and chronology. In criticism 
 of sources Mabillon (1707), in the study of 
 the Catacombs Bosio (1639), in hagiography 
 Bollandus (1665), were most prominent. Be¬ 
 sides these Petavius (1652) and Thomassin 
 (1695) established scientifically the history of 
 dogma, which since the latter half of the eight¬ 
 eenth century has been independent. In sys¬ 
 tematic theology, moral theology, which had 
 made great advance, separated definitely from 
 dogmatic and was raised to an independent 
 discipline. Casuistry received particular inter¬ 
 est and care. In dogmatics Melchior Cano 
 (1560) created by his Loci Theologici the science 
 of theological noetics, to which Stapleton (De 
 Principiis Fidei Doctrince ) gave scientific finish. 
 In post-Tridentine dogmatics, polemics took a 
 broad and important place. To it men like 
 Bellarmine, Suarez, and Soto devoted their best 
 powers. Mystics and ascetics, earnestly culti¬ 
 vated even in patristic times (their founder was 
 the Pseudo-Dionysius), were greatly developed, 
 but attained no independent position. They 
 remained, like casuistics, in connection with and 
 
THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION 183 THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 11 . the service of moral theology. Thus the 
 theological cycle was, at the close of the six¬ 
 teenth century, divided into the following de¬ 
 partments: biblical science (undivided), church 
 history, dogmatics, moral and canon law. The 
 differentiation of the other theological disci¬ 
 plines was accomplished only in the second half 
 of the eighteenth century. The latest to appear 
 as a separate branch was pastoral theology, in 
 Germany, with the erection of a special chair 
 for its teaching under Maria Theresa. Later 
 on it divided into three departments: homiletics, 
 liturgies, and the theory of the pastoral life. 
 Apologetics, as fundamental theology, though 
 zealously cultivated for centuries, separated from 
 dogmatics only in the nineteenth century. 
 
 The actual curriculum of the ecclesiastical, or 
 the diocesan seminary, in which the system of 
 theological education is imparted, dates in its 
 present organization from the Council of Trent, 
 but is the outcome of a gradual historical 
 growth. In the early centuries theological edu¬ 
 cation was received partly at central schools 
 (e.g., at Alexandria and Antioch), but chiefly at 
 the Bishop’s residence under his guidance and 
 spirit. The episcopal school was afterward sup¬ 
 plemented by the monastic institutions and the 
 schools established by Charlemagne. These in 
 turn were succeeded by the great mediaeval 
 universities and the collegia attached thereto. 
 The growing laxity of discipline at these institu¬ 
 tions induced the Council of Trent to establish 
 the present seminary system. The purpose of 
 these institutions, which exist in almost every 
 diocese or ecclesiastical province, is primarily a 
 moral one. The graded course of study pursued 
 in them averages from 10 to 12 years, divided 
 into three distinct but closely connected stages: 
 the preparatory, the philosophical, and the 
 strictly theological, to which the first two are 
 subordinate. In the preparatory department, 
 special importance is placed on Latin. As this 
 language is the vehicle of most of the subse¬ 
 quent studies—textbook and lecture being usu¬ 
 ally in Latin—the student passing from the 
 preparatory seminary is required to have an 
 easy reading familiarity and a fair speaking 
 facility in the language. The two years of 
 philosophy are devoted to logic, psychology, 
 metaphysics, and ethics (including sociologv), 
 the physical sciences, Hebrew, and Greek. The 
 theological curriculum of four years is organized 
 as follows: 
 
 I. Theology in its Unity (Synthesis) .—1. 
 The theologian: his ideal, moral, and intellec¬ 
 tual equipment. 2. Nature, origin, and classifi¬ 
 cation of religion. 3. Relation of theology to 
 religion. 4. Object, nature, relations (to reason 
 and faith), history of theological science. 
 
 II. Departments of Theology (Analysis ).— 
 
 A. Historical. —1. The Bible, criticism, exege¬ 
 sis. 2. Biblical theology: (a) history of the 
 Old and New Testament; (b) their general doc¬ 
 trinal contents; (c) aids to study: biblical 
 philology, archaeology, hermeneutic's. 3. Church 
 history: (1) scope, methods, epochs; (2) divi¬ 
 sions: (a) patrology; (b) symbolism; (c) ec¬ 
 clesiastical archaeology and art; (d) auxiliary 
 disciplines: geography and statistics, ecclesiasti¬ 
 cal chronology, and philology. 
 
 B. Systematic Theology. —1. Apologetics. 2. 
 Dogmatics, relations to morals. 3. Moral theol¬ 
 ogy (Christian ethics). 
 
 C. Practical Theology. —1. The Christian pas¬ 
 torate as a continuation of Christ’s ministry. 
 
 2. Divisions: catechetics: pastoral didactics; the 
 instruction of children. 3. Homiletics: theory 
 of sacred eloquence. 4. Liturgy. 5. Theory of 
 the relations of pastor and people. 
 
 D. Canon Law .—Science of ecclesiastical dis¬ 
 cipline. 
 
 In the philosophical department empirical 
 psychology, epistemology, and sociology are ab¬ 
 sorbing more interest and are being pursued in 
 a more historical light and a more critical spirit 
 than was the case a generation ago. The same 
 is true of biblical studies, ecclesiastical history, 
 and apologetics within the theological domain. 
 
 There is no attempt at reconstructing theol¬ 
 ogy. The primary principles of that system are 
 the articles of faith contained within the de¬ 
 posit of revealed truth, which, together with 
 the assurance of inerrancy in discerning, formu¬ 
 lating, and interpreting them, she claims to have 
 received from her Founder. In the exercise of 
 the logical faculty developing those principles 
 and coordinating the conclusions into a sys¬ 
 tematic body of theological science, in the work 
 of the critical faculty within the domains of 
 biblical, historical, and scientific studies, she 
 recognizes the fullest rights of human reason, 
 provided it does not usurp the license of trans¬ 
 gressing the ascertained manifestations, divine 
 revelation. 
 
 THE PROTESTANT SYSTEM 
 
 The great leaders of the. Protestant Reforma¬ 
 tion insisted upon the necessity of higher edu¬ 
 cation for the clergy at the universities. This 
 was natural, as they believed in an established 
 church supported by the state, and strongly 
 emphasized the duty of its ministers to inculcate 
 sound doctrine, which necessitates special theo¬ 
 logical training. The Anabaptist thinkers, who 
 contended for freedom of conscience, liberty of 
 prophesying, and complete separation of church 
 and state, put the emphasis so strongly upon 
 experience and conduct as to make doctrinal 
 agreement a matter of secondary importance, 
 and the education of a special ' clerical class 
 seem undesirable. It was fortunate that the 
 prevailing tendencies made a home for Protes¬ 
 tant theology at the great centres of intellectual 
 life. The theological curriculum at the uni¬ 
 versities was changed in several respects, par¬ 
 ticularly by the greater attention given to the 
 biblical studies, the importance attached to the 
 Hebrew and Greek texts, and the more or less 
 determined abandonment of the allegorical 
 method of interpretation. Other Lutherali uni¬ 
 versities modeled their course upon that pre¬ 
 scribed by Luther and Melanchthon at Witten¬ 
 berg. Between 1529 and 1563 this system was 
 introduced at Marburg, Tubingen," Leipzig, 
 Konigsberg, Greifswald, Heidelberg, Jena, Ros¬ 
 tock, Upsala, and Copenhagen. Similar courses 
 of theological study were established by Beza at 
 Lausanne, by Calvin at Geneva, and theological 
 schools at Nimes, Sedan, Saumur, and Mon- 
 tauban followed the same methods. In Holland 
 the University of Leyden (founded 1575) be¬ 
 came the centre of Protestant theology. The 
 Free Church in Scotland established three divin¬ 
 ity halls at Edinburgh, Aberdeen, and Glasgow, 
 and the theological education at the universi¬ 
 ties of St. Andrews, Aberdeen, and Glasgow was 
 likewise modified in character. Cambridge, un¬ 
 der the teachings of Erasmus, Tyndale, and 
 Latimer, became the foremost exponent of the 
 new theological as well as humanistic teaching 
 
 o “ 
 
THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 and Vermigli at Oxford expounded Protestant 
 principles of exegesis. 
 
 If the theological education of the Reforma¬ 
 tion period was chiefly characterized by the 
 greater attention paid to the Bible, and a cer¬ 
 tain movement of thought away from Catholic 
 dogma, its most marked peculiarity in the im¬ 
 mediately succeeding period was the inculcation 
 of Protestant dogma, on which a growing em¬ 
 phasis was placed. In Germany the type of 
 teaching represented by Flacius proved more 
 acceptable than that of Melanchthon and his 
 followers, and Calovius bore off the victory over 
 Calixtus and the Helmstedt school. The great¬ 
 est service rendered by Flacius was the atten¬ 
 tion he and the other Magdeburg Centuriators 
 paid to the history of the Church. New centres 
 of theological study were created at Giessen, 
 Kiel, Dorpat, Lund, Groningen, and Utrecht. In 
 Holland the extreme orthodox tendencies pre¬ 
 vailing at the Synod of Dort were offset by the 
 influence of Scaliger and Grotius. In the French 
 schools Cameron, Amyrault, and Louis Cappel 
 maintained a more liberal type of thought. The 
 expatriation of the Huguenots left only Montau- 
 ban as a Protestant school. In England the 
 theological education was less affected by exag¬ 
 gerated doctrine concerning the Bible than was 
 the case in Germany, Switzerland, and Holland. 
 The Colonies were long supplied by ministers 
 who had had their training in European univer¬ 
 sities. A professorship in divinity was estab¬ 
 lished at Harvard College in 1638, and a sim¬ 
 ilar professorship was inaugurated at Yale in 
 1740. 
 
 A new direction was given to theological edu¬ 
 cation by the Pietist movement. At Halle a 
 university was founded in 1694, where it was 
 possible for Spener and Francke to exemplify 
 their principles. They maintained that the 
 Christian minister must himself have a pro¬ 
 found religious experience, that he should not 
 be bound by an oath to teach in accordance 
 with man-made creeds, but that he should pro¬ 
 claim the word of God contained in the Scrip¬ 
 tures. In the seminarium ministerii ecclesiastici 
 established at Halle in 1714 Francke endeavored 
 to give to converted men such a knowledge of 
 the Bible and such an acquaintance with the 
 practical duties of the pastor as to fit them to 
 be true spiritual leaders. While the demand 
 for a spiritual crisis rather than a normal 
 growth of religious experience could not be 
 carried out in a state church and had a tend¬ 
 ency to foster self-deception, the break with 
 dogmatism and the centring of interest upon 
 the practical aspect of the ministry, bore per¬ 
 manent results. The loosening of dogmatic fet¬ 
 ters led to biblical criticism, as is seen in Dip- 
 pel, Edelmann, Michaelis, Zinzendorf, and Sem- 
 ler, and a new estimate of the history of the 
 Church, doing more justice to the heretical 
 bodies, was introduced by Gottfried Arnold. 
 
 At the English universities rationalism exer¬ 
 cised a greater influence than pietism. This was 
 largely the result of the zealous cultivation of 
 natural science. The idea that revelation itself 
 is to stand or fall by the test of reason was ac¬ 
 cepted by the apologists as well as by the Deists, 
 by Lardner and Paley not less than by Collins 
 and Toland. From England this rationalistic 
 movement spread to the Continent. In the 
 school of the Remonstrants at Amsterdam, Le 
 Clerc expounded to theological students the 
 principles of Collins and Locke. Gottingen was 
 
 184 THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 established in 1737, largely to serve as a bul¬ 
 wark against supernaturalism, and other centres 
 of rationalism were Jena, Helmstedt, and Hei¬ 
 delberg. Theological students came under the 
 influence not only of Eichhorn, Paulus, and 
 Henke, but also of such men as Reimarus and 
 Lessing, Herder and Goethe, Kant and Fichte. 
 Each movement had its value. Pietism laid 
 stress upon the consciousness of an inner change, 
 and tended to the supremacy of religious emo¬ 
 tion; rationalism put the emphasis upon the 
 reasonableness of true religion and the suprem¬ 
 acy of morality. 
 
 During the nineteenth century certain impor¬ 
 tant changes occurred. A large number of 
 schools grew up in Europe and America. In 
 Germany the most important additions were 
 the universities of Berlin (1810), Bonn (1818), 
 and Strassburg (reorganized 1871). In Switz¬ 
 erland schools unsupported by the state have 
 been established at Geneva, Lausanne, Neu- 
 chatel, Basel, Bern, and Zurich, and state uni¬ 
 versities teaching theology at Fribourg and 
 Neuchatel. In France the theological faculty 
 of the University of Strassburg was removed to 
 Paris in 1877, and the Ecole des Hautes Etudes 
 was founded in 1868. The University of Am¬ 
 sterdam was established in 1877, and universi¬ 
 ties were founded in Christiania in 1813, and 
 Helsingfors in 1827. In England, besides Ox¬ 
 ford, Cambridge, and Durham, the Church of 
 England has 23 theological schools, the English 
 Methodists 10, the Congregationalists 11, the 
 Baptists 9, the Presbyterians 3, the Unitarians 
 1, and two are undenominational. Except the 
 Dutch Reformed Seminary at New Brunswick, 
 N. J. (1784), and the United Presbyterian 
 Seminary at Xenia, Ohio (1794), all Protestant 
 schools of theology in the United States were 
 founded in the nineteenth century. They 
 number about 120. When the large extent of 
 territory, the numerous denominations, and the 
 special needs of the colored and the foreign 
 churches are considered, the number is not ex¬ 
 cessive, although many of them are still very 
 inadequately equipped. Some of the schools are 
 connected with universities. Many are located 
 in or near important educational centres. The 
 course is generally three years in length, and 
 a collegiate training is as a rule required for 
 admission. 
 
 A tendency to seek independence of educa¬ 
 tional control is characteristic of the period. In 
 Germany, Switzerland, Holland, and France the 
 principle of academic freedom has won gen¬ 
 eral recognition. Berlin at the outset repudi¬ 
 ated all attachment to any particular creed or 
 school. While pressure is often brought to bear 
 in the matter of appointments, the tradition of 
 a German university is generally the determin¬ 
 ing feature. In Holland the relations between 
 pulpit and chair are more cordial. In England 
 and Scotland freedom of investigation is now 
 generally granted to the biblical teachers. In 
 the United States and Canada theological schools 
 arose under the control of the denominations, 
 and only a few, like Harvard and Union Semi¬ 
 nary, are yet independent. In some schools the 
 connection has become more nominal than real, 
 and there is freedom of teaching, while the 
 students are drawn from various denominations, 
 as in Yale and the University of Chicago. Some 
 others are strictly denominational schools. The 
 advantages of university connection have drawn 
 schools "into affiliation with universities, asj 
 
THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION 
 
 THEOLOGY 
 
 Harvard, Chicago, Columbia, Pennsylvania, 
 California, and others. 
 
 The most significant change in theological 
 education during the century was the general 
 introduction of historico-critical methods of in¬ 
 vestigation. In the interpretation of Hebrew 
 and early Christian literature, and the study 
 of Church history, German theological teachers 
 have been the chief leaders; but, owing to the 
 relations of the faculties to the Christian state 
 as well as to the Church, no provision is yet 
 made in any German university for the com¬ 
 parative study of the religions of mankind. 
 Paris offers the amplest facilities for such study, 
 but Leyden and Amsterdam also pay consider¬ 
 able attention to it. Critical methods prevail 
 in Old Testament exegesis in Great Britain and 
 America, as well as in the European universi¬ 
 ties. There is less consistency in their applica¬ 
 tion to New Testament exegesis. The treatment 
 of ecclesiastical history is characterized by in¬ 
 creasing fairness and objectivity. While many 
 contributions have been made to dogmatics by 
 theological teachers, the acceptance of the re¬ 
 sults of criticism has tended to render impos¬ 
 sible the old type of systematic theology. As 
 an attempt to explain the Bible, biblical theol¬ 
 ogy has taken its place. As a statement of 
 the meaning of creeds, the history of doctrine 
 supplies its place. As an attempt to bring all 
 truth into one system, it becomes a state¬ 
 ment of philosophy and religious psychology. 
 
 I heology has been enlarged from a system 
 of reason supported by proof texts to a" reli¬ 
 gious philosophy of the world, based on the 
 whole range of natural science and human ex¬ 
 perience. The broadening view of religion has 
 also caused a new emphasis on religious edu¬ 
 cation and social subjects. 
 
 Bibliography. Roman Catholic, early his¬ 
 tory: Gabriel Compayre, Abelard and the Origin 
 and Early History of the Universities (New 
 York, 1893) ; A. T. Drane, Christian Schools 
 and Scholars, or Sketches of Education from 
 the Christian Era to the Council of Trent (new 
 ed., ib., 1910) ; F. P. Graves, History of Edu¬ 
 cation during the Middle Ages and the Transi¬ 
 tion to Modern Times (ib., 1910) ; Roman Cath¬ 
 olic, general: S. J. Hunter, Outlines of Dogmatic 
 Theology (3 vols., ib., 1890) ; J. B. Aubry, 
 Essai sur la methode des 4tudes ecclesiastiques 
 en France (2 vols., Lille, 1891-92) ; Jules 
 Didiot, Cours de theologie catholique (5 vols., 
 Paris, 1891-99) ; Heinrich Kihn, Encyklopddie 
 und Methodologie der Theologie (Freiburg, 
 1892) ; J. B. Aubry, Les grands seminaires en 
 France (2 vols., Lille, 1893) ; id., Quelques idaes 
 sur la theorie catholique des sciences et sur la 
 synthase des connaissances humaines dans la 
 theologie (Paris, 1894) ; J. B. Hogan, Clerical 
 Studies (Boston, 1898) ; Cornelius Krieg, En¬ 
 cyklopddie der theologischen Wissenschaften 
 ( Freiburg, 1899) ; L. H. Jordan, The Study of 
 Religion in the Italian Universities (London, 
 1909). Protestant: Karl Schmidt, Geschichte 
 der Erziehung und der Unterrichts (3d ed., 
 Kothen, 1876) ; K. A. Schmid, Geschichte der 
 Erziehung vom Anfang an bis aus unsere Zeit 
 (Stuttgart, 1884-92); W. Lexis, Die deutschen 
 Universitdten (Berlin, 1893) ; Alfred Cave, In¬ 
 troduction to Theology (2d ed., New York, 
 1896) ; E. W. Blatchford, The Theological Semi¬ 
 nary from a Layman’s Standpoint (Chicago, 
 1899) ; W. Moeller, History of the Christian 
 Church, vol. iii (London, 1900) ; G. B. Smith, 
 
 185 
 
 Practical Theology: A Neglected Field in Theo¬ 
 logical Education (Chicago, 1903) ; D. S. Hill, 
 Education and Problems of the Protestant Min¬ 
 istry ( Worcester, Mass, 1908) ; T. F. Gailor, The 
 Christian Church and Education (New York, 
 1910). 
 
 THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY OF THE 
 REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA. A 
 
 divinity school at New Brunswick, N. J., or¬ 
 ganized in 1784. Its classes were held in New 
 York City until 1796, then at Flatbush, L. I., 
 for a year or more, and again in New York, 
 till 1810, when it was removed to its present 
 home. The seminary is under the direct con¬ 
 trol of the General Synod of the Reformed 
 church. Its theology is in sympathy with the 
 moderate Calvinism of the Reformed church 
 standards. The school has a well-equipped 
 dormitory, Peter Hertzog Hall; a capacious 
 building, James Suydam Hall, devoted to lec¬ 
 ture rooms, museums, and gymnasium; a fire¬ 
 proof library in the Gardner A. Sage building, 
 containing in 1915 over 52,000 volumes; and five 
 dwelling houses for professors. In 1915 the 
 endowment of the seminary was over $650,000, 
 and the attendance was 29, with a faculty of 
 eight instructors. The president in 1916 was 
 J. P. Searle. 
 
 THEOL'OGY (Lat. theologia, from Gk. 
 OeoXoyia, a speaking concerning God, from Oeos, 
 theos, god -$- -Xoyla, -logia, account, from Xeyeiv, 
 legein, to say). A term which, in the larger 
 sense, may be used as equivalent to the science 
 of religion, and will then include all the various 
 theological disciplines, the sacred languages, and 
 the interpretation of the Bible; the history of 
 the Church, including the history of doctrine; 
 the history of religions in general; the contribu¬ 
 tions of our own age to the knowledge of the 
 objects of theological study from other sciences, 
 such as biology; systematic theology, or the 
 system of doctrines and duties; and, finally, 
 practical theology, or the application of theol¬ 
 ogy to life, in the pulpit, in Church adminis¬ 
 tration, and in the various forms of contact with 
 the world. But more strictly and correctly, 
 the term “theology” is employed at present of 
 systematic theology, which may be defined as 
 the science of Christianity, or the scientific ex¬ 
 planation of the Christian life, the development 
 of its characteristic principles, conditions, and 
 general relations. Viewed thus it yields a sys¬ 
 tem of doctrines and a system of duties, or 
 dogmatics and ethics. The term was used in 
 the early and mediaeval Church in a narrower 
 sense, to mean the specific doctrine of God, the 
 rest of the field now covered by the word being 
 called sacred doctrine. This is the meaning of 
 it as late as Aquinas. 
 
 The claim of theology to be a science depends 
 upon the question whether there are any peculiar 
 facts of which it takes cognizance, as it pro¬ 
 fesses, and whether its method is calculated to 
 yield reliable knowledge. It claims as its field 
 two classes of facts—Christian experience and 
 the teachings of the Bible. In method, theology 
 has followed, with other sciences, the prevailing 
 methods of thought in the various ages. In 
 earlier times this was a priori, and the general 
 conservatism of everything connected with re¬ 
 ligion tended to retain the a priori method as 
 long as possible, but in modern times theology 
 uses the modern methods of inductive reason¬ 
 ing, desiring to find the truth rather than, as 
 in scholasticism, to prove traditional doctrines. 
 
THEOLOGY 
 
 186 
 
 THEOPHILTJS 
 
 Formerly a sharp distinction was drawn be¬ 
 tween natural and revealed theology. The for¬ 
 mer embraced those doctrines as to God, free¬ 
 dom, and immortality which could be reached 
 without the aid of revelation, and upon them 
 was built the proof of the Bible as a revelation 
 from God, and consequently the system of re¬ 
 vealed theology, which was then conceived as 
 exclusively the scientific interpretation of the 
 Bible. But with the increasing evidence that 
 even the first doctrines of natural theology, 
 such as the existence of God, have been histori¬ 
 cally dependent upon a human experience which 
 may be regarded as revelation, and that the 
 doctrines of revealed theology have their con¬ 
 firmation in facts drawn from other sources 
 than the Bible, the sharp line between the two 
 departments has been largely erased. Natural 
 theology is now replaced by apologetics, the 
 business of which is to defend the doctrines de¬ 
 veloped by systematic theology. 
 
 Bibliography. General: Richard Watson, 
 Theological Institutes (new ed., 3 vols., London, 
 1862) ; Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology (3 
 vols., New York, 1872) ; A. V. G. Allen, Con¬ 
 tinuity of Christian Thought: A Study of Mod¬ 
 ern Theology in the Light of its History (Bos¬ 
 ton, 1884) ; H. C. Sheldon, History of Christian 
 Doctrine (2 vols., New York, 1886) ; G. P. 
 Fisher, History of Christian Doctrine (ib., 
 1896) ; W. N. Clarke, Outline of Christian The¬ 
 ology (ib., 1898) ; Edward Caird, Evolution of 
 Theology in the Greek Philosophers, Gifford Lec¬ 
 tures (2 vols., Glasgow, 1904) ; A. H. Strong, 
 Systematic Theology (3 vols., Philadelphia, 1907- 
 09) ; W. A. Brown, Christian Theology in Out¬ 
 line (New Haven, 1915) ; A. C. McGiffert, Rise 
 of Modern Religious Ideas (New York, 1915). 
 Encyclopaedias: J. J. Herzog, Real-Encyclopddie 
 fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche (22 
 vols., Gotha, 1853-68; 3d ed., by A. Hauck, ib., 
 1896-1909) ; The 'New Schaff-Herzog Encyclo¬ 
 pedia (12 vols., New York, 1908-14) ; The Cath¬ 
 olic Encyclopedia (16 vols., ib., 1911-14). Also: 
 August Neander, History of Christian Dogmas, 
 Eng. trans. by Ryland (2 vols., London, 1858) ; 
 I. A. Dorner, History of Protestant Theology 
 (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1871) ; Adolf Harnack, 
 History of Dogma (Eng. trans. from 3d Ger. 
 ed., by Neil Buchanan, 7 vols., Boston, 1897- 
 1900), and other histories of dogma. See 
 Tubingen School. 
 
 THEOLOGY, Mercersburg. See Mercers- 
 burg Theology. 
 
 THEOLOGY, Natural. See Natural The¬ 
 ology. 
 
 THEOLOGY, Patristic. See Patristic 
 Theology. 
 
 THE'ON (Lat., from Gk. 0<W) OF ALEX¬ 
 ANDRIA (c.370 a.d.). One of the last of the 
 Greek mathematicians and astronomers. He was 
 a teacher at Alexandria and the father of the 
 celebrated Hypatia (q.v.), whose name is also 
 connected with the history of mathematical sci¬ 
 ence. Theon’s chief works are an edition of 
 Euclid’s Elements and a commentary on Ptol¬ 
 emy’s Almagest. The former was prepared for 
 his students at Alexandria and the various man¬ 
 uscripts have played an important role in all 
 subsequent attempts to reproduce the Elements. 
 The latter is especially valuable for its notes 
 showing the use of sexagesimal fractions and 
 the operations of division and square root. 
 
 THEON OF SMYRNA, smer'na (c.100 a.d.). 
 A Greek mathematician and astronomer. He 
 
 was the author of a work, commonly known as 
 the Expositio, treating of mathematical rules 
 necessary for the study of Plato. Two books of 
 this work, probably the whole of it, are extant, 
 one on arithmetic and the other on astronomy. 
 The work contains two propositions on the 
 theory of numbers of peculiar interest: (1) If 
 n is any number, n 2 or n 2 — 1 is divisible by 3 or 
 4 or both. If n 2 is divisible by 3 and not by 4, 
 n 2 — 1 is divisible by 4. (2) If two groups of 
 
 numbers are arranged as follows: 
 
 n\ = 1 + 0 
 712 ~~ 1 H - 1 
 
 Tiz = 2 -)- 3 
 n 4 = 5 -j- 7 
 
 di = 1 -f- 0 = 1 
 
 di — 2 —)— 1 = 3 
 
 dz — 4 -j- 3 — 7 
 
 d 4 = 10 + 7 = 17 
 
 7lf — TVr— i -)- dr-i dj — 271/—l ~}~ dr— i, 
 
 then d 2 is of the form 2 n 2 dz 1; e.g., d 2 —\ — 
 2 • n t — 1, c? 2 2 = 9 = 2 mA -f- 1. Theon called 
 these numbers diameters. It is interesting to 
 observe that the ratios 
 
 di_ d 2 _ 3 dz _ 7 
 
 n x ~ L ’ ^ “ 2’ nz ~ 5’ 
 are the convergents of the continued fraction 
 
 1 -f - - - 
 
 and hence approximate the value of also 
 
 that these diameters are solutions of a pair of 
 indeterminate quadratic equations, relations un¬ 
 known to Theon. See Pell, with reference to 
 the Pell Equation. 
 
 THEOPH'ANO (c.955-91). The wife of 
 Otho II of the Holy Roman Empire. She was 
 the daughter of the Byzantine Emperor Romanus 
 II, and was married to Otho II at Rome in 972. 
 She was a woman of great beauty and noble 
 character and soon won great influence over the 
 Emperor, in whose court she introduced much of 
 the learning and refinement of Constantinople. 
 After the death of her husband (983) she ruled 
 as Regent for her son Otho III till her death. 
 
 THEOPH'ANY (ML. theophania, theofania, 
 from Gk. deocfxxvia, theophania, deocpaveLa, theo- 
 phaneia, from deos, theos, god -f-’ (paiveadai , 
 phainesthai, to appear). An appearance of gods, 
 or of God, to men. In the heathen religions 
 theophanies under various forms were regarded 
 as of frequent occurrence. In Christianity the 
 term was often applied in the ancient church to 
 the appearance of God in Christ, in distinction 
 from the epiphany, which was the appearance 
 in the form of a dove, and the audible communi¬ 
 cation of God, at the baptism of Jesus (Mark 
 i. 9-11 and parallels). It is now generally re¬ 
 stricted to the appearances of God as related in 
 the Old Testament, whether in personal form 
 or by any other means. 
 
 THEOPHILTJS, the-oPi-lus (from Gk. 0e6</u- 
 \os, beloved of God). The name of the person 
 to whom two New Testament books, the third 
 Gospel and the Acts, are dedicated (Luke i. 3; 
 Acts i. 1). In Luke i. 3 he is addressed as “most 
 excellent” (Gk. Kparurre) , from which one would 
 naturally infer that he was a man of rank 
 or high position, but not necessarily (cf. Ram¬ 
 say, St. Paul the Traveler, p. 388 f.) a Ro¬ 
 man official of equestrian rank. The natural 
 inference from Luke j. 4 is that he was a convert 
 to Christianity, having already received the in¬ 
 struction usually imparted to new converts. 
 
THEOPHILUS 
 
 THEOREM 
 
 1 he name Theopliilus was not uncommon in Jew¬ 
 ish circles, being borne by a high priest who held 
 office 37-41 a.d. (cf. Josephus, Ant., xviii, 5, 3; 
 xix, 6,2), and even as early as c.254 b.c. it was 
 held by a member of a Samaritan community in 
 Egypt (cf. Deissmann, Bibelstudien, p. 19). The 
 Jews may have considered it the equivalent of 
 the Heb. El-dad (probably ‘‘beloved of God”), 
 but it was in use also as a pure Greek name 
 long before the Christian era. Hence one should 
 not infer that Theophilus* must have received 
 this name as his Christian name when baptized. 
 Nothing whatever is known of his history, not 
 even his place of residence. 
 
 THEOPHILUS. The hero of a mediaeval 
 legend, which became a precursor of the Faust 
 legend. The facts appear to be that in the 
 sixth century there was a Theophilus who was 
 treasurer of the church at Adana, near Tarsus, 
 in Cilicia Secunda. He was elected Bishop, but 
 refused the honor, out of humility. Later he 
 quarreled with the new Bishop, but on repent¬ 
 ance was forgiven. These facts were embel¬ 
 lished by later story-tellers, until the legend 
 arose that the devil tempted and finally won him, 
 making him sign a contract, with his blood, to 
 give his soul in exchange for the glories of this 
 world. Later he repented and prayed to the 
 Virgin, who then tore the parchment from the 
 very claws of Satan and returned it to Theo¬ 
 philus. This act became one of her celebrated 
 miracles. The legend was brought to the West 
 in the tenth century, and quickly spread far 
 and wide. It was made the subject of poems 
 and dramas in many languages, and frequent al¬ 
 lusions to it are found in Latin, German, Anglo- 
 Saxon, Icelandic, Swedish, French, and Spanish 
 literature, while it is also the subject of many 
 celebrated sculptures, particularly some in Notre 
 Dame, Paris. 
 
 THE'OPHRAS'TUS (Lat., from Gk. 0e6- 
 (ppacrros) (c.372—287 b.c.). A Greek philosopher, 
 born at Eresus in Lesbos. He studied philosophy 
 at Athens, first under Plato and subsequently 
 under Aristotle, who at his death made him head 
 of the Peripatetic school, which he directed for 
 35 years (322-287). Under his leadership the 
 character of the school was well maintained; it 
 had a large number of pupils, and enjoyed a 
 high reputation at home and abroad. In philoso¬ 
 phy he followed closely in the footsteps of his 
 master, but was more inclined to natural history 
 than to metaphysics. His discourses on ethics 
 were greatly admired, but his chief renown 
 was gained by his botanical works. Two of 
 these, his History of Plants, in nine books, and 
 his Theoretical Botany, in six, are still extant, 
 together with fragments of his work On Miner¬ 
 alogy (Ilepi Aidwv), On Fire (Ilepl IIupos), On 
 the Senses (nept Alcrdycreivv /cat AlaQyrwv), 
 Metaphysics (Mera0i/cri/cd), and other similar 
 subjects. Especially famous is his book of 
 sketches called Characters ('KapaKrijpes ). They 
 have been extremely popular and have been imi¬ 
 tated many times, especially by the French and 
 English of the eighteenth century. The best 
 complete editions of his works are by Schneider 
 (Leipzig, 1818) and by Wimmer (Paris, 1866). 
 The Characters have been many times edited 
 separately. Especially famous are the edition 
 by Casaubon with commentary (Leyden, 1592) ; 
 that by P. C. Jebb (London, 1870; revised by J. 
 E. Sandys, 1909) ; and the edition, with transla¬ 
 tion and commentary, by the Leipzig Philological 
 Society (1897). Consult: Eduard Zeller, Aris- 
 Vol. XXII.—13 
 
 187 
 
 totle and the Earlier Peripatetics (Eng. trans., 
 London, 1897) ; Theodor Gomperz, Greek Think¬ 
 ers, vol. iv (Eng. trans. by G. G. Berry, New 
 Tork, 1912) ; H. Ritter and L. Preller, Historic 
 Philosophic Greece (9th ed., Gotha, 1913). 
 
 THEOPH'YLACT (Gk. 0eo0i/\a/cros, Theo- 
 phylaktos) (died c.1107). A Bible commenta¬ 
 tor. He was a deacon at Constantinople and 
 became tutor to Constantine Porphyrogenitus, 
 son of Michael VII. In 1078 Theophylact was 
 made Archbishop of Achrida and Metropolitan 
 of Bulgaria. He labored diligently to extend 
 Christianity, but was hindered by the half- 
 civilized people of his diocese, and vainly en¬ 
 deavored to lay down the duties of his office. 
 He wrote valuable commentaries on the minor 
 prophets and on the greater part of the New 
 testament. In addition he wrote 130 epistles 
 and a number of tracts, including one on Educa¬ 
 tion of Princes. His commentaries are founded 
 on those of Chrysostom (q.v.). His exegesis is 
 direct, precise, and textual in its treatment. His 
 works were much esteemed by later writers. 
 J. F. B. M. de Rossi published his works in Latin 
 and Greek at Venice in 4 folio volumes (1754- 
 63). Consult Karl Krumbacher, Geschichte 
 der byzantinischen Litteratur (2d ed., Munich, 
 1897). 
 
 THE'OPHYI/LXNE. See Alkaloids. 
 
 TIIE'OPOM'PUS (Lat., from Gk. OeSTroyiros) 
 OP CHIOS (c.378—c.300 b.c.). A Greek his¬ 
 torian. In early life he left home with his 
 father, who was banished on account of his pre¬ 
 dilection for the Spartans, and took refuge in 
 Athens. There he was trained in oratory by 
 Isocrates. Besides numerous panegyrics, of 
 which that on Mausolus was the most celebrated, 
 his works included 'Zvvra^s 'E WyvacCjv, or 'EWyvi- 
 Kal 'I aropiai, a History of Greece in 12 books, 
 embracing the period from 411 b.c., where 
 Thucydides breaks off, to the battle of Cnidus, 
 in 394; and 3?i\L7nriKa, in 58 books, a history 
 of the life and times of Philip of Macedon. 
 Of these works only fragments remain, but an 
 abridgment of the Latin translation of the 
 <&i\nnriK&, by Trogus Pompeius, has been pre¬ 
 served by Justin. Ancient critics commend his 
 accuracy, but blame him for harshness and il- 
 liberality. This was due to his fearless exposi¬ 
 tion of the corruption of his day. According to 
 Pliny, the Elder, he was the first Greek writer 
 to make any definite mention of Rome. For the 
 fragments, consult Muller, Fragmenta Histo- 
 ricorum Grcecorum (Paris, 1841) ; Biinger, Theo- 
 pompea (Strassburg, 1874) ; and a complete edi¬ 
 tion, including the fragments of Cratippus by 
 Grenfell and Hunt, in Hellenica Oxyrhynchia 
 (Oxford, 1909). Consult Christ-Schmid, Ge¬ 
 schichte der griechischen Litteratur, vol. i (5th 
 ed., Munich, 1908) ; J. B. Bury, The Ancient 
 Greek Historians (New York, 1909) ; E. M. 
 Walker, The Hellenica Oxyrhynchia (Oxford, 
 1913). 
 
 THEOR/BO (It. tiorbo, etymology unknown). 
 An obsolete musical instrument of the lute fam¬ 
 ily, of which it formed the bass. Besides strings 
 running over the finger board, it had a number 
 of bass strings stretched alongside of the board. 
 These strings were longer and were fastened in 
 a separate neck attached to the neck containing 
 the strings stopped by the fingers. The theorbo 
 was indispensable in the orchestra of the seven¬ 
 teenth century and was used for accompanying 
 the voice. See Plate of Musical Instruments. 
 THE'OREM (Lat. theorema, from Gk. 
 
THEORY 
 
 188 
 
 THEOSOPHY 
 
 Oewppga, sight, principle considered, rule, the¬ 
 orem, from deupeiv, theorein, to view, from 
 decopos, theoros, spectator, from deaadai, thea- 
 sthai, to view, behold). In mathematics, a 
 proposition to be demonstrated. A theorem con¬ 
 sists of two parts: the hypothesis, or the given, 
 and the conclusion, or what is to be proved. One 
 theorem is the converse of another when the con¬ 
 clusion and the hypothesis are interchanged in 
 the two theorems. The converse of a theorem is, 
 however, not necessarily true. A corollary (q.v.) 
 of a theorem is a truth easily deduced from it 
 and not requiring a separate demonstration. A 
 lemma (q.v.) is generally a theorem used to pre¬ 
 pare the way for another theorem. 
 
 THEORY 1 . See Hypothesis. 
 
 THE'OSOPH'ICAL SOCIETY. A society 
 founded by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky (q.v.) 
 in New York, Nov. 17, 1875, assisted by Col. 
 Henry S. Olcott, William Q. Judge, and others. 
 Its objects were: (1) to form the nucleus of a 
 universal brotherhood of humanity; (2) to study 
 and make known the ancient religions, phil¬ 
 osophies, and sciences; (3) to investigate the 
 laws of nature and to develop the divine powers 
 latent in man. Blavatsky left New York, Dec. 
 17, 1878, and went to India, accompanied by 
 Colonel Olcott, where a system of propaganda 
 was organized and numerous branches were 
 formed. Judge remained in New York, and built 
 up the society in the United States. He formed 
 a strong branch, the Aryan Theosophical So¬ 
 ciety, in New York City, of which he was presi¬ 
 dent. Madame Blavatsky left the Theosophical 
 Society as an international body with head¬ 
 quarters at Adyar, India, and with three sec¬ 
 tions: the Indian, comprising the Orient; the 
 English Section, having jurisdiction over Eu¬ 
 rope; and the American Section for America. 
 Olcott, at Adyar, was president; Judge, at New 
 YY>rk, vice president. Each section had a gen¬ 
 eral secretary—Bertram Keightlev, of Adyar, of 
 the Indian; G. R. S. Mead, of London, of the 
 English; and Judge, of New York, of the Amer¬ 
 ican Section. There was an inner body, the 
 Esoteric Section (E. S.), at the head of which 
 was Madame Blavatsky. At her death, in 1891, 
 she was succeeded by Judge and by Annie Besant, 
 of London, jointly, both supposedly mouthpieces 
 of an unknown master, the real head of the theo¬ 
 sophical movement. Charges of fraudulent use 
 of this master’s name were preferred against 
 Judge by Mrs. Besant. These charges, though 
 never legally proved, caused a split between the 
 supporters and opponents of Judge. In Boston, 
 in April, 1895, the American Section almost 
 unanimously declared its autonomy as the ‘‘Theo¬ 
 sophical Society in America” (T. S. in A.), with 
 Judge as president. It then had about 150 
 branches, and in 1916 it had 157 branches with 
 about 5000 members. In so far as these mem¬ 
 bers belonged to the Esoteric Section, they recog¬ 
 nized Judge as the outer head (the real head 
 being the unknown master), and, following their 
 example, those Theosophists throughout the 
 world who believed the charges false formed in¬ 
 dependent bodies in their separate countries, 
 called respectively the Theosophical Society in 
 England (T. S. in E.), in Sweden (T. S. in S.), 
 in Australia, etc. 
 
 The society under Olcott kept up its organiza¬ 
 tion, though the English and American sections 
 were much weakened. Mrs. Besant remained the 
 head of that Esoteric Section which was con¬ 
 nected with the societv under Olcott. Judge 
 
 died March 19, 1890, leaving his society in a 
 flourishing condition, but with no successor as 
 head of the Esoteric Section, or the T. S. in A. 
 Katherine A. Tingley then obtained recognition, 
 first from a few members, and through skillful 
 advances from the bulk of the society, as the 
 successor of Blavatsky and of Judge. At a con¬ 
 vention in Chicago, in February, 1898, she 
 formed “The Universal Brotherhood Organiza¬ 
 tion,” of which she was the absolute ruler, and 
 the possessor of all its property. Of the rem¬ 
 nants of the T. S. in A. she made a literary de¬ 
 partment of her “Universal Brotherhood.” The 
 headquarters in New York City were abandoned 
 and she took her remaining followers, not more 
 than a dozen of the old members of the T. S. in 
 A., to Point Loma, near San Diego, Cal., where 
 she formed a colony. The Theosophical Society 
 in America, after Tingley’s departure for Point 
 Loma, soon divided, one of the sections having 
 headquarters in New York and the other in 
 Brooklyn. The theosophical movement con¬ 
 tinues, however, on the one hand as the organ¬ 
 ization, and on the other, under the form of 
 independent local societies, recognized as theo¬ 
 sophical by their adherence to the three objects 
 of the society. Since the foundation of the Theo¬ 
 sophical Society in 1875 over 1400 branches have 
 been chartered in different countries. In 1906 
 the total membership in all countries was ap¬ 
 proximately 30,000. The parent society is in¬ 
 ternational, with headquarters at Adyar, Ma¬ 
 dras, India. In 1916 Mrs. Annie Besant was 
 president. 
 
 THEOS'OPHY (Gk. Oeoacnpia, theosophia, wis¬ 
 dom in divine things, knowledge concerning God, 
 from 6eos, theos, god + <JO(pos, sophos, wise). 
 A name used for any system of philosophy which 
 starts from a supposed knowledge of God, and 
 proceeds to state laws of the universe on the 
 basis of revelation or of direct knowledge. 
 Usually the claim of a supernatural revelation 
 is made, though this is not essential, and 
 usually, also, theosophy is mystical, holding that 
 systems of truth are revealed through states of 
 mystic feeling. Tfie term has been applied to 
 cults of varying tenets and diverse uses of the 
 concepts of divinity at different periods. An¬ 
 cient systems of belief falling under this head 
 may be divided roughly into Oriental and Occi¬ 
 dental, the former being the older. The earliest 
 traces of theosophic thought are found in the 
 Sanskrit Upanishads (q.v.), which represent 
 mystic meditation on the nature of the All-Soul 
 or Atman. It is in a sense true that all sub¬ 
 sequent Hindu philosophy is theosophic. From 
 India this mystical speculation spread to Persia, 
 and from the Persians it was absorbed by the 
 Arabs after their conquest of Iran. In a some¬ 
 what similar sense the Yi-King and the Tao-teh- 
 Iiing of China may be regarded as theosophic. 
 
 Among the Jews a theosophy attained wide 
 currency in Europe between the twelfth and six¬ 
 teenth centuries. The teachings of the Cabbala 
 (q.v.) as represented in the writings of Simeon 
 ben Jochai and Moses de Leon, however, are so 
 widely different from the theosophy of India 
 as to preclude any idea of Hindu influence. On 
 the other hand, the caballistic doctrines were 
 profoundly modified by what may be regarded 
 as the typical Occidental theosophy—Neoplato¬ 
 nism (q.v.), represented by Ammonius Saccas, 
 Plotinus, Porphyrius, and Proclus—and by the 
 Gnostics, represented by Valentinus and Basi-, 
 lides. In the Middle Ages theosophy was taught 
 
THEOSOPHY 
 
 THEOSOPHY 
 
 bv Tauler, Eckhardt, Paracelsus, Van Helmont, 
 Robert Fludd, lliomas Vaughan, Heinrich Kun- 
 ratli, Jakob Boelime, Johann Georg Gichtel, and 
 later by Count Saint-Martin and Schelling. At 
 different periods in history men appeared, claim¬ 
 ing to teach the immortality of the soul, and the 
 existence of a vast cosmos, moved by occult 
 forces, of which cosmos this earth is but an 
 infinitesimal part, they claimed to show the 
 instability of material existence, the reality of 
 an occult world reaching everywhere into ours. 
 
 In modern times the name “theosophy” has been 
 given to a form of belief promulgated by a Rus¬ 
 sian, Madame Blavatsky (q.v.), who gave out 
 doctrines concerning cosmogony and anthropol- 
 °£y> which, she said, were obtained from certain 
 Masters who had reached a higher plane of ex¬ 
 istence than ordinary mortals. The system of 
 thought and the terms used are largely drawn 
 from Hinduism and Buddhism. Adept,' Master, 
 Mahatma (q.v.) represent different degrees of 
 individual spiritual development in the theo- 
 sophical system, the Mahatma being the highest. 
 The authoritative work on modern theosophy is 
 Madame Blavatsky’s The Secret Doctrine, which 
 states “the three fundamental propositions” as 
 follows: ( 1 ) An omnipresent, eternal, boundless, 
 and immutable principle on which all speculation 
 is impossible, since it transcends the power of 
 human conception and could only be dwarfed by 
 any human expression or similitude. (2) The 
 eternity of the universe in toto as a boundless 
 plane, periodically the playground of number¬ 
 less universes incessantly manifesting and dis¬ 
 appearing—the law of periodicity." (3) The 
 fundamental identity of all souls with the uni¬ 
 versal Over-Soul, the latter being itself an as¬ 
 pect of the unknown Root; and the obligatory 
 pilgrimage of every soul—a part of the Over- 
 Soul—through the cycle of incarnation in ac¬ 
 cordance with cyclic and karmic law, during the 
 whole term. The esoteric philosophy admits of 
 no privileges or special gifts in man save those 
 won by his own Ego through personal effort and 
 merit throughout a long series of reincarnations. 
 
 According to theosophic teaching, God is said 
 to be infinite and absolute. Therefore, no at¬ 
 tempt is made to qualify or describe the Great 
 Unknown, which is the source of both matter 
 and spirit. These are the two aspects of one 
 root nature. According to immutable law, the 
 spirit involves into matter and matter evolves 
 the spirit. Thus there is a circulation down¬ 
 ward and upward, from spirit into matter and 
 from matter to spirit. Evolution is accepted, 
 but only as half a law, whose other half is in¬ 
 volution. 
 
 All worlds pass through seven great periods 
 of manifestations called rounds. Spiritual at 
 first, they become denser and darker in the 
 downward cycle, the fourth of which is the 
 densest and our present material world. Thence 
 begins its upward movement towards spiritual¬ 
 ity. The advantage gained is the experience and 
 ultimately the emancipation of the soul. In 
 each of these rounds, periods of incalculable 
 duration, there are seven great root races. Each 
 root race has seven subdivisions or subraces 
 corresponding with the rounds, which become 
 more material from the first to the fourth. We 
 are at present in the fifth subrace of the fifth 
 root race, and on the upward cycle of the fourth 
 round. Evolution is constant progress, an un¬ 
 folding of consciousness from the most primitive 
 forms of life to the highest intelligence. 
 
 189 
 
 All souls are the same in essence, but they 
 differ in degrees of development; each bears a 
 certain relation to the others and to the whole. 
 The more advanced souls are the natural guar¬ 
 dians of the less developed. Man is composed of 
 seven principles, which are divided into a lower 
 or mortal, and a higher or immortal nature. The 
 lower nature, constituting his personalitv, is 
 fourfold. One-fourth, the physical body, is vis¬ 
 ible, three-fourths invisible. I hese three are 
 the astral or design body (lingo, Sarira) , on 
 which are molded the physical atoms, then the 
 life principle, and the principle of desire. The 
 physical body (sthula sarira) is material with¬ 
 out form. It is held in form by the astral body, 
 and moved to action by the fire of desire (kdma ). 
 This fourfold nature is common to all animal 
 beings, is mortal and subject to dissolution at 
 death. The higher nature of man is threefold, 
 the mind ( monas ), soul (buddhi) , and spirit 
 (dtman). The mind distinguishes man from 
 the animal. Entering the animal body, the mind 
 thinks of itself as separate from others. The 
 soul is universal, overcoming separateness and 
 showing relationship of soul with soul. The 
 spirit is the one indivisible which passes through 
 all things and unites them with each other. 
 Death is the separation of the principles. The 
 physical body returns to the elements which gave 
 it. The astral body disintegrates more slowly. 
 The life (prana, literally “breath”) passes at 
 once into the universal life (jlva) . Desire forms 
 itself into a body (kdmarupa) which gradually 
 becomes exhausted, leaving seeds (skandhasj, 
 from which the returning soul forms a later and 
 new personality. 
 
 I he trinity of mind, soul, and spirit, when 
 f 1 eed from the trammels of a mortal garment, 
 passes through certain states of consciousness 
 until it reaches the condition called heaven 
 (devacuna), where it enjoys a period of bliss 
 and rest proportionate to its good thoughts and 
 ideals while on earth. When these exalted ideals 
 have been exhausted, its period of rest is at an 
 end and it descends gradually to earth. The 
 trinity, after enjoying its rest, and realizing 
 those ideals which could not be attained on earth, 
 is attracted again to earth by the unfulfilled 
 longings and desires which remain behind as 
 seeds. These it animates. It sinks into the 
 emotional world, is attracted to a particular 
 family, who can furnish a body and surroundings 
 suited to its new experience, and is reborn into 
 this world. The higher nature must become con¬ 
 sciously immortal, i.e., it must acquire a con¬ 
 tinuity of consciousness, thus making it con¬ 
 sciously immortal while in the physical bodv. 
 One earth life is not sufficient. Hence rebirth 
 into the school of life is the lot of the soul until 
 all the lessons have been learned. This doctrine 
 is closely associated with that of Karma, which 
 is the law of balance, of action and reaction, of 
 effect inevitably connected with the preceding 
 cause. It retui ns to man measure for measure 
 his good or evil thoughts and deeds. It is in¬ 
 separable from reincarnation. When at last 
 Karma is exhausted, and no desire, either good 
 or evil, is left to produce a new Karma, then 
 reincarnation will cease. 
 
 The phenomenon of life is a question of planes or 
 states of consciousness. Human or “I am I” 
 consciousness (manas) is the self-identifvin^ of 
 the consciousness, as being distinct and sepa¬ 
 rate from others by the intelligent principle of 
 mind. At this point a man may rise to the 
 
THEOTOCOPULI 
 
 THEOTOCOPULI 
 
 divine or sink below the consciousness of the 
 brute—at will. Universal or “I am thou and 
 thou art I” consciousness ( bucldhi) is the relat¬ 
 ing of the elements and of all souls with each 
 other, thus overcoming the sense of separateness 
 of the mind by the principle of the divine soul. 
 Divine consciousness ( dtman) sees no separate¬ 
 ness, but unites all as one. 
 
 Hell {avid) is a low and depraved condition 
 on this earth. A life of intense selfishness and 
 wickedness with no spiritual thoughts or aspira¬ 
 tions causes the immortal soul to abandon the 
 body before death. In such a case, it is not, 
 however, the soul, but the body with the lower 
 principles which is lost. After the death of 
 such a body the desires with a reflection of the 
 mind may be reincarnated in human form almost 
 immediately. Such a creature is entirely 
 material and animal, intensely selfish in its pro¬ 
 pensities, and doomed to final destruction, unless 
 it makes a strong appeal to its divine soul, in 
 which event the soul might again connect with it 
 and try to help it on its upward path. 
 
 In man divine powers are latent, for he is 
 essentially a soul, a divine being. By purifica¬ 
 tion and training of the body, the latent and 
 divine powers will develop and become active. 
 In every period of evolution a number of souls 
 reach perfection. They are men whom the bonds 
 of personality no longer bind to the attractions 
 of the senses. They have consciously related 
 themselves to the source of their being and have 
 become one with the divine. They watch over 
 humanity and are its guardians. Although they 
 have earned their freedom from rebirth, they 
 prefer to remain in contact with men on earth, 
 to teach and to guide them. At certain periods 
 some appear among men as great lawgivers, 
 rulers, teachers; and their agents found religious 
 systems and schools of philosophy. 
 
 * Bibliography. A. P. Sinnett, Esoteric Bud¬ 
 dhism (Boston, 1884); id., The Occult World 
 (ib., 1885) ; id., Growth of the Soul (London, 
 1896) ; Anderson, Reincarnation (San Francisco, 
 1896) ; id., Septennary Man (ib., 1895) ; Annie 
 Besant, Death and After? (new ed., London, 
 1901); Franz Hartmann, Magic, Black and 
 White (7th Am. ed., New York, 1904) ; Bhaga 
 van Dasa, Science of Peace (ib., 1904) ; F. D. 
 Walker, Reincarnation (new ed., ib., 1904) ; An¬ 
 nie Besant, Seven Principles of Man (rev. ed., 
 ib., 1904) ; E. D. Walker, Karma (3d ed., ib., 
 1905) ; Richard Ingalese, From Incarnation to 
 Incarnation (rev. ed., ib., 1908) ; Annie Besant, 
 Theosophy and the New Psychology (new ed., 
 London, 1909) ; H. P. H. Blavatsky, Secret Doc¬ 
 trine (2 vols., Point Loma, Cal., 1909) ; id., Isis 
 Unveiled (2d ed., 2 vols., ib., 1910); Annie 
 Besant, Popular Lectures on Theosophy (Lon¬ 
 don, 1910) ; id., Esoteric Christianity (New 
 York, 1910) ; id., Ancient Wisdom (new ed., 
 London, 1910); id., The Changing World (new 
 ed., Chicago, 1910) ; W. Q. Judge, Echoes from 
 the Orient (2d ed., Point Loma, Cal., 1910) ; H. 
 p. H. Blavatsky, Key to Theosophy (3d ed., ib., 
 1913) ; Annie Besant, Man, Whence and Whither 
 (Madras, 1913) ; W. Q. Judge, Ocean of Theos¬ 
 ophy (Los Angeles, 1915). For its history, 
 consult: A. Lillie, Madame Blavatsky and her 
 “Theosophy” (London. 1895) ; H. S. Olcott, Old 
 Diary Leaves, 3 series (New York, 1895-1907) ; 
 J. H. Fussel, Incidents in the History of the 
 Theosophical Movement (Point Loma, 1910). 
 See Theosophical Society. 
 
 THEOTOCOPULI, tha-o'to-ko-poo'le, Domen¬ 
 
 ico, known as El Greco (the Greek) (c.1547- 
 1614). The foremost Spanish painter of the 
 sixteenth century. He was born at Candia, 
 Crete, and went early to Venice, where, between 
 1560 and 1570, he studied with Titian, but was 
 most influenced by Tintoretto. Through his 
 compatriot Giulio Clovio, the miniature painter, 
 he secured in 1570 the patronage of Cardinal 
 Alessandro Farnese at Rome, where he practiced 
 his art till c.1576. He then removed to Toledo, 
 having received an important commission from 
 the dean of the cathedral. There is record in 
 1577 of a lawsuit with the chapter of the 
 cathedral over his painting “L’Expolio,” to 
 which they objected on financial and theological 
 grounds. Another ambitious effort, “1 he Mar- 
 tvrdom of San Mauritius” (Escorial), painted 
 for Philip II, failed to meet with the approval 
 of that monarch. He was successful enough, 
 however, at Toledo, where the rest ot his life 
 was spent. He received important commissions 
 from churches, religious houses, and the nobil¬ 
 ity. The princes of the Church, civic rulers, and 
 notables of Toledo sat to him for portraits, be¬ 
 sides the poets, scholars, and artists whom he 
 reckoned among his friends. He was a man of 
 fine culture, the possessor of a library rich in 
 classic and religious lore, and wrote an impor¬ 
 tant work, The Art of Painting, now lost. He 
 lived in state in the 24 best rooms of the large 
 palace of his friend, the Marquis of Vilena, 
 which lay high over the Tajo, with the fine new 
 of Toledo seen in his landscapes (Greco Museum, 
 Toledo, and Havemeyer collection, New York). 
 Part of the palace is now a museum bearing his 
 name. All Toledo mourned his death (April 
 7 , 1614), and he was interred like a noble in 
 the church of Santo Domingo. Five sonnets, 
 written by distinguished poets, extolled his 
 merits. 
 
 The early or Italian period of El Greco’s work 
 shows the influence of Venetian color, Tintoretto’s 
 light and shade, and of Michelangelo in fore¬ 
 shortening and movement. Here belong such 
 works as “Christ Healing the Blind Man” (Dres¬ 
 den and Parma) ; “Boy Lighting a Coal” (Naples 
 Gallery) ; the “Adoration of the Shepherds” 
 (Vienna Gallery) ; and a “St. Jerome” (Na¬ 
 tional Gallery, London). 
 
 His early work at Toledo shows a transition 
 from the Italian to his later style, as may be 
 seen in the decorations of Santo Domingo 
 (1577), the central picture of which, “The As¬ 
 cension,” is now in the Art Institute, Chicago; 
 in “Christ Despoiled of his Garments” (L’Ex- 
 polio) (1579), still in Toledo Cathedral: and 
 
 the “San Mauritius” mentioned above. From 
 c.1584 his color becomes colder, with a subtle 
 use of blues, grays, and pale reds, strong con¬ 
 trasts of pure color, increasing emotional in¬ 
 tensity, and more dramatic light and shade ef¬ 
 fects. * El Greco became the foremost exponent 
 of Spanish mysticism in painting. The master¬ 
 piece of this period, if not of all his works, is 
 the “Burial of Count Orgaz” in San Tom6, a 
 marvel of color and dramatic feeling and fine 
 composition. Others are: “The Baptism of 
 Christ,” “The Resurrection,” “The Crucifixion,” 
 and “The Annunciation,” all in the Prado, 
 Madrid. 
 
 His latest style, beginning about 1604, shows 
 increasing emotional intensity with a corre¬ 
 sponding neglect of technique, the figures being 
 elongated out of all proportion in an effort to 
 obtain imaginative, visionary effects. To this 
 
THERA 
 
 191 
 
 THERAPEUT7E 
 
 period belong “Christ Dead in the Arms of God 
 the Father,” “The Ascension of San Vicente” 
 (finished in 1613) ; the five scenes from the 
 “Life of Mary Magdalen” (church of Titulcia) ; 
 “The Pentecost” (Prado, Madrid) ; “Christ’s 
 Agony in the Garden” (Lille Museum) ; and his 
 last work, “The Baptism of Christ,” in the Hos¬ 
 pital of San Juan, Toledo. 
 
 El Greco’s highly subjective portraits show a 
 wonderful subtlety of delineation. Among the 
 best-known examples are those of Giulio Clovio 
 (Naples Museum) ; the “Man with his Hand on 
 his Breast” (Prado, Madrid) ; the “Grand In¬ 
 quisitor of Spain” (Havemeyer collection, New 
 York) ; a “Portrait of a Lady” (Van Horne col¬ 
 lection, Montreal) ; “A Young Greek Woman” 
 (Sir John Stirling Maxwell, London). Of the 
 numerous portraits reputed to be of himself the 
 best and seemingly most authentic belongs to 
 Senor Beruete (Madrid). His art can best be 
 studied at Toledo, in the Museo del Greco, the 
 hospital, the cathedral, and other churches. In 
 the Prado, Madrid, are 24 examples, in the 
 Escorial six. He is next best represented in the 
 United States. In New York the Hispanic So¬ 
 ciety possesses six, including several excellent 
 examples; the Frick collection three; the Have¬ 
 meyer three; and many are owned by dealers, 
 two of whom held exhibitions of his works in 
 March, 1916. In Philadelphia there are three 
 examples in the Johnson and two in the Widener 
 collections. He is also represented in the pub¬ 
 lic collections of New York, Boston, and Chicago, 
 and in those of Great Britain, France, and Ger¬ 
 many, and particularly in the Royal Gallery 
 at Bucharest, Rumania. 
 
 El Greco was also an architect, and designed 
 the great altars containing his most ambitious 
 pictures, and the wooden statues decorating 
 them. The most important surviving example 
 is a portion of the lost altar of the “Expolio,” 
 in the seminary of Toledo. His son, Jorge 
 Manuel (1578-1631), assisted his father, and 
 later succeeded him as architect to the cathedral. 
 El Greco’s principal pupil was Tristan, and he 
 certainly exercised an influence on the young 
 Velazquez. At the present time El Greco is one 
 of the most popular of all the old masters, 
 his works commanding the highest prices. More 
 than any other old master he influenced the 
 Post-Impressionists (see Post-Impressionism), 
 who claimed him as a forerunner. 
 
 Bibliography. The best monograph on El 
 Greco, historically and critically, is by Cossio 
 (2 vols., Madrid, 1908), upon which the English 
 work by Calvert and Gallichan (New York, 
 1909) is based. Consult also: Masters in Art, 
 vol. ix (Boston, 1908) ; August Mayer, El Greco: 
 eine Einfuhrung in das Leben und Wirken des 
 Domenico Theotocopuli (Munich, 1911); Mau¬ 
 rice Barres, El Greco (Paris, 1911); id., El 
 Greco, ou le secret de Tolede (ib., 1912) ; Hugo 
 Kehrer, Die Kunst des Greco (Munich, 1914). 
 
 THE'RA. The ancient name of Santorin 
 (q.v.), one of the Cyclades. The chief town is 
 Thera. 
 
 THERAMENES, the-ram'e-nez (Lat., from 
 Gk. Orjpayevys) ( ?-404 b.c.). An Athenian poli¬ 
 tician. In 411 b.c. he was a leading member 
 of the oligarchy of the Four Hundred at Athens, 
 but soon, going over to the opposition, took a 
 leading part in the deposition of that body. In 
 410 he took part in the battle of Cyzicus, and 
 in 408 was present at the siege of Chalcedon and 
 the capture of Byzantium. At the battle of 
 
 Arginusoe, 406, he was one of the subordinate 
 officers in the Athenian fleet, and after the bat¬ 
 tle was ordered to return to the spot where the 
 action had taken place and rescue such of the 
 disabled ships and their crews as he could. A 
 severe storm having intervened, he found it all 
 but impossible to execute this order, and as a 
 result a large number of Athenian citizens were 
 drowned. Then, anticipating the wrath of the 
 people, he hastened to Athens and accused the 
 commanders in chief of negligence. When, in 
 404 b.c., Athens was besieged by the Lacede¬ 
 monians, Theramenes was sent to Lysander to 
 arrange a peace, but, after remaining in Lysan- 
 der’s quarters more than three months, until the 
 Athenians were reduced to such a state of suf¬ 
 fering that they were ready to submit to any 
 terms, he returned to report that he could ac¬ 
 complish nothing, but that an embassy must be 
 sent to the Spartan ephors. Being a second 
 time sent forth, this time to Sparta, he concluded 
 a peace unfavorable to the Athenians. He was 
 chosen one of the Thirty Tyrants (q.v.) who 
 were set up at Athens, but, taking sides against 
 the more violent members of that body, he was 
 accused by Critias of being a traitor' and was 
 put to death. Consult Pohlig, Der Athener 
 Theramenes (Leipzig, 1877), and B. Perrin, “The 
 Rehabilitation of Theramenes,” in The American 
 Historical Review, vol. ix (New York, 1904). 
 
 THER'APEIUT.® (Neo-Lat. nom. pi., from 
 Gk. depcnrevTrjs, therapeutes, attendant, servant, 
 from OepaiveveLv, therapeuein, to attend, from 
 depdivwv, therapon, attendant). The name of an 
 ascetic sect described by Philo Judaeus in his 
 treatise On the Contemplative Life. There were 
 groups of this sect in the various nomes of 
 Egypt, and elsewhere, but Philo especially 
 depicts the life of some of these “servants of 
 God and physicians of the soul” who were 
 settled in yovaarypia, monasteries, on the shores 
 of Lake Mareotis south of Alexandria. In their 
 cells, to which no food or drink was brought, 
 they devoted themselves to solitary contempla¬ 
 tion and allegorical interpretation of the Scrip¬ 
 tures. They had common meals in the evening, 
 a religious service on the Sgbbath, and a great 
 festive meal on the 50th day. Eusebius thought 
 that Philo described Christian monks, and this 
 view was still held by Montfaucon. Gratz, Lu¬ 
 cius, Hilgenfeld, Schurer, and others have re¬ 
 garded the work as spurious and as an early 
 description of Christian monasticism. Recently, 
 however, the preponderance of scholarly opinion 
 is in favor of Philonic authorship and the real 
 existence of the Jewish sect of the Therapeutae. 
 The arguments have been presented with great 
 force by Massebieau, Conybeare, and Wendland. 
 Even Brehier, who feels that the question can¬ 
 not be decided absolutely, concludes that “one 
 can, without contradiction, ascribe to Philo a 
 eulogy of the Therapeutae.” Consult the 
 French translation by Montfaucon, Le livre de 
 Philon de la vie contemplative (Paris, 1709) ; and 
 the English translations by Yonge, The Works 
 of Philo Judcens (London, 1854-55), and by F. 
 C. Conybeare, in The Jewish Quarterly Review, 
 vol. vii (ib., 1895) ; also H. Gratz, Geschichte der 
 Juden (2d ed., Leipzig, 1863) ; A. Lucius, Die 
 Therapeuten und Hire Stellung in der Geschichte 
 der Askese (Strassburg, 1880) ; A. Hilgenfeld, 
 in Zeitschrift fur icissenschaftliche Theologie 
 (Jena, 1880) ; A. Massebieau,. “Le traite de la 
 vie contemplative et la question des Thera¬ 
 peutes,” in Revue de Vhistoire des religions, vol. 
 
THERAPEUTICS 
 
 THERAPEUTICS 
 
 xvi (Paris, 1887) ; F. C. Conybeare, Philo About 
 the Contemplative Life (Oxford, 1895) ; Paul 
 Wendland, “Die Tlierapeuten und die philonische 
 Sclirift vom besohaulichen Leben,” in JaJir- 
 biicher fiir classische Philologie (Leipzig, 1896) ; 
 Emil Schiirer, Geschichte dcs judischen Volkes 
 im Zeitalter Jesu Christi, vol. iii (4th ed., Leip¬ 
 zig, 1909; Eng. trans. of 1st ed., New York, 
 1896) ; E. Brehier, Les idees philosophiques et 
 religieuses de Philon d’ Alexandria (Paris, 1908). 
 
 THER'APEU'TICS (from Gk. OepairevriKos, 
 the'rapeutilcos, relating to medical treatment, 
 from depcnrevTris, therapeutcs, attendant, serv¬ 
 ant). The branch of medicine which has as its 
 object the cure of disease. The conception of dis¬ 
 ease which is found among primitive races is 
 associated with the idea of demon possession. 
 The earliest therapeutic measures were devoted 
 to driving out these demons from the bodies of 
 their victims. Two methods were employed: one 
 consisted in the recital of charms or magic over 
 the ailing part, or over the sick person; and the 
 other consisted in internal administration or 
 external application of certain aromatic or bit¬ 
 ter herbs. In the early history of both Eastern 
 and Western nations there was a blending of 
 the office of priest and physician. Among the 
 ancient Egyptians the treatment of disease had 
 acquired a character by no means unscientific. 
 They used remedies of vegetable, mineral, and 
 animal nature, many of acknowledged value. 
 Careful directions as to administration of drugs 
 and indications for their use have been found. 
 Egyptian physicians’ knowledge of hydrotherapy, 
 dietetics, and hygiene was far advanced. Among 
 the Hebrews the infliction and cure of diseases 
 is on various occasions in Scripture ascribed to 
 the direct interposition of God. Their methods 
 of treatment consisted principally of strict hy¬ 
 gienic means, attention to diet, ablution, sepa¬ 
 ration, and combustion of infected garments. A 
 large list of remedies is mentioned in the Bible. 
 The Babylonians had no practitioners of medi¬ 
 cine; they exposed their sick in public places in 
 order that travelers might help as to the best 
 mode of cure. In Assyria the sick were sim¬ 
 ilarly exposed, and purges, emetics, and blisters 
 were employed for three days successively each 
 month. We know that they used salt and 
 alum, as well a's fumigations with mixtures of 
 various drugs. The Chinese assert that with 
 them the study of medicine was coeval with the 
 foundation of their empire. They possess works 
 on treatment of great antiquity. Ginseng they 
 regarded as a panacea, and also employed opium, 
 mercury, and many other drugs of value. The 
 Greeks may have borrowed something from the 
 Eastern nations of their knowledge of medicine 
 and treatment; but researches have shown that 
 under the scientific spirit of Hippocrates they 
 had evolved a fairly good system. Hippocrates 
 ascribed disease to alterations of the humors of 
 the body (the blood, phlegm, and yellow and 
 black bile). He employed baths, diet, exercise, 
 blood-letting, the actual cautery, and an exten¬ 
 sive series of medicines. The Alexandrian 
 school, which succeeded the Ilippocratean, op¬ 
 posed bleeding and returned to simple remedies. 
 This sect was followed by the Empiricists, who 
 followed experience as their sole guide. Then 
 came the Methodic school, which explained all 
 normal and abnormal processes by the contrac¬ 
 tion and relaxation of the pores of the body. 
 They regarded all medicines as possessing astrin¬ 
 gent or relaxant qualities, and chose remedies 
 
 for one of these effects. Galen represented the 
 highest development of Greek medicine. He ex¬ 
 plained the operation of drugs by reference to 
 their elementary qualities, heat, cold, dryness, 
 and moisture. In the early periods of Roman 
 history medicine was practiced by the slaves and 
 freedmen and its highest development was 
 reached under the influence of the Greek school. 
 In the Dark Ages medicine was practiced by the 
 monks. Magic and astrology were potent in¬ 
 fluences. During this time the doctrine of 
 “signatures” arose. According to this idea a 
 remedy was chosen on account of its fancied 
 resemblance in form or color to the organ af¬ 
 fected. To this doctrine we trace the introduc¬ 
 tion into medicine of such drugs as the blood- 
 root and liverwort. The old Galenists U3ed only 
 organic drugs, but in the fifteenth century under 
 Paracelsus and his followers there was an over¬ 
 throw of the older methods. He first introduced 
 chemical agents (employing mercury in syphilis) 
 and substituted tinctures, essences, and extracts 
 for various disgusting preparations. Towards 
 the middle of the eighteenth century the prac¬ 
 tice of therapeutics had reached a most compli¬ 
 cated stage. There were theories and counter¬ 
 theories and physicians were prescribing huge 
 doses of unpleasant mixtures in the hope of 
 securing good from all the remedies recom¬ 
 mended. A natural reaction set in which re¬ 
 sulted in the establishment of homoeopathy, an 
 outgrowth of the reactionary doctrine of vital¬ 
 ism. Later there arose the therapeutic nihil¬ 
 ists, prominent among whom were Van Swieten 
 and Skoda. This school rejected drug treatment. 
 
 Modern therapeutics may be said to have 
 begun with the discovery of morphine, an alka¬ 
 loid of opium, in 1817. The present method 
 of treatment is embodied in rational therapeu¬ 
 tics, which implies the use of remedies based 
 on a knowledge of the diseased condition present 
 in the patient, a knowledge of the nature of 
 disease itself, and of the physiological action 
 of the agent employed, as determined by ex¬ 
 perimental investigation on animals, from which 
 may be deduced the action on men. The knowl¬ 
 edge of the action of drugs must include the 
 manner in which they affect nerve centres, 
 respiration, circulation, and especially their in¬ 
 fluence on blood pressure and on body tempera- 
 ature. The range of medicinal doses, as well 
 as the minimum and maximum fatal doses, 
 must also be determined. In treating disease 
 it is the aim of the physician to seek the cause 
 of the condition present and to endeavor from 
 a true appreciation of the knowledge of drug 
 action to administer curative remedies. A rem¬ 
 edy which will usually cure a certain disease 
 is'called a specific. Such is the action of mer¬ 
 cury and salvarsan in syphilis, and quinine in 
 malaria. Empirical therapeutics was based on 
 the cumulative evidence that certain drugs were 
 of service in certain conditions, and experiment 
 was the sure guide. Symptomatic treatment 
 aims to relieve the symptoms of disease irrespec¬ 
 tive of their cause. Rational or scientific thera¬ 
 peutics recognizes that both these previous meth¬ 
 ods may have to be followed at times, but it 
 aims especially at the removal of the cause of 
 disease by appropriate treatment of whatever 
 sort. It has been developed by the increased 
 knowledge of disease which we have acquired 
 through the growth of the sciences of pathology 
 and bacteriology. Materia medica comprises a 
 knowledge of the remedies employed in medi- 
 
THERAPEUTICS i 93 THERIODOHTA 
 
 cine; while the methods by which drugs are pre¬ 
 pared and combined for administration, as well 
 as the separation of the active principles of 
 drugs, belongs to the department of therapeutics 
 known as pharmacy. It is essential that there 
 should be a uniform standard of strength and 
 purity of medicinal products, as well as uni¬ 
 formity in their preparation, and to attain this 
 object the various countries have standards 
 established by law or by professional authority, 
 to which the drugs prepared by the pharmacists 
 must conform. These standards are published 
 by each nation in works known as Pharma¬ 
 copoeias. The first United States Pharmacopoeia 
 was published in 1820, previous to which time 
 European works were mainly used as authori¬ 
 ties. This work is revised every 10 years by 
 a committee of physicians and pharmacists. 
 Those preparations which follow its direction 
 and are named in the work are called official. 
 Unofficial preparations, including many newer 
 drugs, are in use. The best of these are finally 
 included in the Pharmacopoeia (q.v.), provided 
 they are regarded of sufficient value. 
 
 The term “therapeutics” is usually restricted 
 to the administration of medicinal drugs, but 
 in its broadest sense, general therapeutics, it 
 includes every form of treatment. Natural 
 therapeutics is the healing power of nature to 
 cure disease through the operation of the so- 
 called vis medioatrix natures. In what is known 
 as expectant treatment the physician depends 
 solely on this force and sustains the patient’s 
 strength by food and nursing. Treatment by 
 surgical means is regarded as a special and 
 separate department of medicine. A large num¬ 
 ber of other means than treatment by drugs 
 are in use and each is designated by an appro¬ 
 priate prefix. Electrotherapeutics, the use of 
 electricity as a healing agent, is especially valu¬ 
 able in certain cases of disease of the nervous 
 system or local injury to a nerve. By this means 
 nutrition of paralyzed muscles may be main¬ 
 tained by electrical stimulation until the nerve 
 is in a condition to resume its function. Radio¬ 
 therapy or X-ray therapy is the use of the 
 Rbntgen rays for the purpose of treatment. 
 Hydrotherapy is treatment by the application 
 of water, either as baths of various temperatures 
 (balneotherapeutics) or by drinking, douching, 
 spraying, etc. Suggestive therapeutics, a branch 
 of mental therapeutics, is the name given to 
 treatment in the form of suggestion made to 
 the patient while in an induced hypnotic state, 
 with the object of the patient’s following the 
 suggestion when out of the hypnotic state. This 
 treatment is of limited utility in a few varieties 
 of nervous disease of so-called functional origin, 
 in which no organic disease exists. Climato- 
 therapeutics is the utilization of certain loca¬ 
 tions on account of their peculiar adaptability 
 to the patient’s condition; as the sending of 
 patients suffering with consumption to great 
 altitudes and dry climates. Thermotherapeutics 
 is the treatment of disease by the application of 
 heat. Therapeutics fully recognizes the value 
 of diet in disease in an important department 
 of the subject known as dietetics or dietothera- 
 peutics. The use of extracts of various glands 
 of the body, especially of the thyroid and the 
 suprarenal glands, has attracted considerable 
 attention. This department of therapeutics is 
 called opotherapy or organotherapy. Massage 
 and various allied measures have a prominent 
 place in the treatment of certain conditions and 
 
 assist in sustaining the nutrition of the muscles. 
 Ibis is sometimes called mechanical therapeutics 
 or mechanotherapy (q.v.). See also the separate 
 articles under the different forms of therapeutics 
 enumerated here. 
 
 There have been a number of methods of clas- 
 sifving remedies followed by various authorities, 
 but none of these is entirely satisfactory. The 
 most important are: (1) the botanical method, 
 which groups the vegetable remedies according 
 to the botanical classifications; and (2) the ar¬ 
 rangement according to the therapeutic action 
 of drugs. Many drugs, however, are used for a 
 number of purposes, and it is undesirable to de¬ 
 scribe them under more than one heading. Fi¬ 
 nally, there is (3) the pharmacological classifi¬ 
 cation, which arranges drugs according to their 
 action on living matter. This method does not 
 take into account the chemical composition or 
 therapeutic action of drugs, but those having 
 the most characteristics in common are placed 
 together. The groups are named for the most 
 prominent member or from some marked prop¬ 
 erty possessed by all. Consult: H. A. Hare, 
 Modern Treatment (2 vols., Philadelphia, 191CU 
 11); Frederick Forchheimer, Therapeusis of In¬ 
 ternal Diseases, edited by Billings and Irons 
 (2d ed., 5 vols., New York, 1914) ; H. A. Hare, 
 Textbook of Practical Therapeutics (15th ed., 
 Philadelphia, 1914) ; A. R. Cushny, Textbook 
 of Pharmacology and Therapeutics (6th ed., ib., 
 1915). See Psychotherapy. 
 
 THERE'SA, Saint. See Teresa. 
 THEKESXNA, ta're-ze'na, or THEREZXNA. 
 The capital town of the State of Piauhy, Brazil, 
 on the right bank of the river Parnahyba, 220 
 miles from the city of that name at its mouth 
 (Map: Brazil, J 5). The town is a commercial 
 centre of some importance. Pop. (est.), 30,000. 
 
 THERESI0PEL, ta-ra/zg-o'p’l, or Maria- 
 Theeesiopel (Hung., Szabadka) . A royal free 
 city of the county of Bacs, Hungary, 109 miles 
 by rail south-southeast of Budapest (Map: 
 Hungary, F 3). It is a scattered town, lying in 
 a great, rich plain between the Danube and the 
 Theiss, and has noteworthy churches. Theresi- 
 opel is the centre of a fine large corn-raising 
 district, which also produces tobacco. The 
 manufactures include linens and shoes. The 
 town has a fine trade in grain,. wine, horses, 
 cattle, hogs, hides, and wool. Pop., 1900, 82,122; 
 1910, 94.610. 
 
 THE'RIA. See Eutiieria. 
 
 THER'IDI'IIEE (Neo-Lat. nom. pi., from 
 Gk. Oepldiov, theridion, dimin. of 0rjp, ther, wild 
 beast). A family of spiders known as the 
 cobweb weavers. These are small spiders with 
 very slim legs, and include most of the familiar 
 house spiders. They are generally soft and of 
 a light color, with the abdomen large and round 
 and the legs lacking in spines. The eyes are all 
 of about the same size and are placed in two 
 rows across the front of the head. The mandi¬ 
 bles are weak and without teeth at the end. The 
 maxillae are pointed at the end and turn inward 
 toward each other. The family is one of the 
 largest of the order Arachnida. Many species of 
 Theridiidae spin their webs in the fields on 
 bushes. The web is a flat or curved sheet, sup¬ 
 ported by threads which run in many directions, 
 under which the spider hangs head downward. 
 The egg cocoons are round and soft and hang 
 in the web. 
 
 THE'RIODON'TA (Neo-Lat. nom. pi., from 
 Gk. OypLov, therion, dimin. of drip, ther, wild 
 
 * 
 
THERIOSUCHUS 
 
 THERMOCHEMISTRY 
 
 beast -f- oSous, odous, tooth). An order proposed 
 by Owen to include the mammal-like reptiles 
 with mammal-like teeth, from the South Afri¬ 
 can Karrov formation. The group has since 
 been subdivided, the Lower Permian types form¬ 
 ing the Therocephalia, the Upper Triassic forms 
 being placed in the order Cynodontia. 
 
 THE'RIOSU'CHUS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. 
 Orjpiov, therion, dimin. of drip, ther, wild beast 
 + < tovxos, souchos, crocodile). An extinct croco¬ 
 dile with body less than two feet long, skeletons 
 of which are found in the Purbeck beds of the 
 English Upper Jurassic. See Crocodile; Teleo- 
 
 SAURUS. 
 
 THERMAE, ther'me. The Latin term, used 
 also in English, for a Roman bathing establish¬ 
 ment. While the earlier thermae were com¬ 
 paratively modest in size, those built by Agrippa 
 (27 b.c. ) and by the emperors Titus, Trajan, 
 Caracalla, Diocletian, and Constantine, were of 
 immense size and complexity. They were all of 
 one general type, comprising a central block 
 flanked by courts, set upon an immense terrace 
 built on vaulted supports. Besides the frigi- 
 dariurn or cold plunge, the vast vaulted tepi- 
 darium or warm bath, the caldarium and suda¬ 
 torium, hot vapor chambers, the courts with 
 dressing rooms and long rows of smaller bath 
 chambers, they provided also gardens, stadia, 
 halls for clubs and lectures, and many other 
 features for exercise and recreation. The larg¬ 
 est was that of Caracalla, accommodating 3600 
 bathers at once; its ruins are the most imposing 
 in Rome with the possible exception of the Colos¬ 
 seum. The baths of the Forum and the Stabian 
 thermae at Pompeii are well preserved and very 
 interesting, though of small size. The tepida- 
 rium of the thermae of Diocletian at Rome is now 
 the church of Sta. Maria degli Angeli. See 
 Bath; Roman Art. 
 
 THERMAE ANTONINIAN7E. See Bath. 
 
 THERMO HERCULIS. See MehAdia. 
 
 THERMAE HIMERAEAE, or HIMEREN- 
 SES. See Himera. 
 
 THERMAE TITIANAE. See Titus, 
 Baths of. 
 
 THERMAE TRA JANAE. See Trajan, 
 Baths of. 
 
 THERMAL SPRING (from Gk. Oep/xv, 
 therme, heat, from Oep^os, thermos, hot). A 
 spring whose temperature is higher than the 
 average temperature of the locality in which it 
 emerges. The temperature may vary therefore 
 from a minimum of a few degrees above the 
 freezing point, which, however, is limited to 
 thermal springs in high altitudes or great eleva¬ 
 tions, to a maximum represented by the boiling 
 point of water under the local conditions. When 
 the temperature reaches the latter limit the flow 
 of the spring may take the form of periodical 
 eruptions; a thermal spring of this character 
 being known as a geyser (q.v.). The higher 
 temperature of thermal springs as compared 
 with ordinary springs may be caused by volcanic 
 agencies or by the circulation of the waters at 
 great depths in the earth’s crust previous to 
 emergence. The hottest springs are usually 
 found in volcanic regions, their high tempera¬ 
 ture due to coming in contact with uncooled 
 lava, which, buried at some depth, long retains 
 its heat. It seems probable, also, that some 
 springs are heated by gaseous emanations from 
 the earth’s interior, or, indeed, receive material 
 contributions from that source. Thermal springs 
 are common in districts that have been free 
 
 from volcanic disturbances, at least since re¬ 
 mote geological times. Such increase in tem¬ 
 perature can best be explained by peculiarities 
 of geological structure which permit the sur¬ 
 face waters to descend to great depths when 
 heated and thence return to the surface under 
 the influence of hydrostatic pressure. See 
 Spring. 
 
 THERMES, tarm (Fr., from Lat. thermce, 
 warm baths). The only remains of the Roman 
 palace which occupied the site of the present 
 Hotel de Cluny, Paris. The ruins are those of 
 the great baths connected with the palace, and 
 include a frigidarium 65 feet long and 59 feet 
 high, still uninjured, although up to 1820 it had 
 long borne the weight of a garden laid out over 
 it. The ships’ prows of the vaulting are said to 
 be the origin of the arms of Paris. A collection 
 of Roman antiquities discovered in Paris is pre¬ 
 served in the hall. 
 
 THERMIC (ther'mlk) FEVER. See Heat 
 
 Stroke. 
 
 THERMXDOR, Fr. pron. tar'me'dor' (Fr., 
 from Gk. depuy, therme, heat -j- bwpov, doron, 
 gift). The eleventh month in the French revolu¬ 
 tionary calendar. It extended from July 19 
 to August 18 in the years I-VII and from July 
 20 to August 19 in the years VIII-XIIL The 
 9th Thermidor of the year II (July 27, 1794) is 
 historically memorable as the date of Robe¬ 
 spierre’s fall and the termination of the Reign 
 of Terror. The name “Thermidorians” was given 
 to all those who took part in this coup d’etat, 
 but more particularly to those who were desirous 
 of restoring the monarchy. See French Revo¬ 
 lution; Robespierre. 
 
 THERMIT, ther'mit. See Alumino-Tiier- 
 mics ; Welding. 
 
 THERMOBAROMETER. See Hypsometer. 
 
 THERMOCHEMISTRY. The branch of 
 general chemistry that deals with the thermal 
 phenomena accompanying chemical transforma¬ 
 tions. Since the phenomena in question are 
 caused partly by the chemical changes proper, 
 but partly also by the purely physical changes 
 of state that often accompany chemical re¬ 
 actions, the scope of thermochemistry must 
 extend over physical as well as chemical changes 
 of matter. For the principles of thermochem- 
 ical notation, see Chemistry, Transformations. 
 
 What has thus far been accomplished in the 
 domain of thermochemistry may be summed up 
 as follows: First, a large number of trans¬ 
 formations have been subjected to calorimetric 
 measurement, and so the total amounts of 
 heat given off or absorbed during a great many 
 changes have been determined experimentally; 
 secondly, the principles of thermodynamics have 
 been successfully applied to the consideration of 
 chemical changes, and thus thermochemistry 
 has been highly developed theoretically. 
 
 Experimental Thermochemistry. The ac¬ 
 tual execution of thermochemical measurements 
 is a matter of some difficulty, owing to the 
 considerable errors that may be caused by more 
 or less heat being lost by radiation while the 
 measurement is being carried out. The heat 
 given off or absorbed is determined by keeping 
 the vessel in which the reaction takes place im¬ 
 mersed in a known quantity of water, and ob¬ 
 serving the temperature of the latter before 
 and after the reaction. In recent years Richards 
 and other experimenters have sought alto¬ 
 gether to eliminate loss of heat through radia¬ 
 tion, by keeping the vessel surrounding the 
 
THERMOCHEMISTRY 195 THERMOCHEMISTRY 
 
 calorimeter at the same temperature as the 
 calorimeter itself (adiabatic calorimetry). But 
 whatever the details of the calorimetric arrange¬ 
 ment many reactions would remain inaccessible 
 to thermochemical investigation if it were 
 not for the fact that early in the history of 
 thermochemistry a principle became known 
 that permitted of ascertaining the heat reac¬ 
 tions by indirect methods. The principle in 
 question is known as the law of constant heat 
 sums. While clearly established by Hess in 
 1844, i.e-., before the law of the conservation 
 of energy became known, it is nothing but a 
 special form of the law of conservation. It is 
 as follows: The amount of heat given off or 
 taken up when a given chemical system is 
 changed into another is the same whatever the 
 steps in which the change may take place. Let, 
 e.g., the given chemical system consist of 17 
 grams of gaseous ammonia in one vessel, its 
 equivalent 36.5 grams of gaseous hydrochloric 
 acid in another vessel, and a large quantity 
 of water. This system may be changed into a 
 dilute aqueous solution of ammonium chloride 
 in two different ways: (1) ammonia and hydro¬ 
 chloric acid may be caused to combine in the 
 gaseous state, yielding solid ammonium chloride 
 and developing 42,100 calories of heat; then 
 the ammonium chloride may be dissolved in the 
 water—a change accompanied by the absorption 
 of 3900 calories; or (2) the gaseous ammonia 
 may be dissolved in a large amount of water— 
 a process developing 8400 calories; the gaseous 
 hydrochloric acid may be dissolved in a sepa¬ 
 rate large quantity of water—a process develop¬ 
 ing 17,300 calories; and finally, the dilute 
 aqueous ammonia may be mixed with the dilute 
 aqueous hydrochloric acid—a process developing 
 12,300 calories. Whichever the way adopted, 
 the result is the same—viz. a dilute aqueous 
 solution of ammonium chloride. The heat de¬ 
 veloped when the first way is adopted is 
 42,100 — 3900 = 38,200 calories; the heat de¬ 
 veloped when the second way is adopted is 
 8400 -f- 17,300 -f- 12,300 = 38,000 calories. 
 The figures 38,200 and 38,000, differing by only 
 2 parts in 382 (little more than y 2 per cent), 
 i.e. by less than the unavoidable experimental 
 error, must be considered as equal—which is 
 in accordance with the law of constant heat 
 sums. If, for some reason, it were impossible 
 directly to measure, say, the heat produced by 
 the combination of gaseous ammonia and gas¬ 
 eous hydrochloric acid, that heat might be cal¬ 
 culated, according to the law of constant heat 
 sums, by adding 3900 calories (the heat ab¬ 
 sorbed when one equivalent of ammonium chlo¬ 
 ride is dissolved in much water) and 38,000 
 calories (the total heat produced during the 
 transformation, by the second way, of gaseous 
 ammonia and hydrochloric acid into dilute am¬ 
 monium chloride). The sum, 41,900 calories, 
 would be as near the truth as the 42,100 calories 
 found by direct experiment. 
 
 To take another, even simpler example, sup¬ 
 pose it were asked, How much heat would be 
 evolved or absorbed in the transformation of 12 
 grams of amorphous carbon into diamond? The 
 transformation, although accomplished on a 
 minute scale by Moissan, in his electric furnace, 
 is of course inaccessible to direct calorimetric 
 measurement. But the law of constant heat 
 sums permits of answering the question by 
 measuring the heat of combustion of amorphous 
 carbon and that of diamond. The transforma¬ 
 
 tion of amorphous carbon into carbon dioxide, 
 whether accomplished by direct combustion or 
 by first changing the carbon to diamond and 
 then burning the latter, must be accompanied by 
 the evolution of the same amount of heat, viz. 
 97,650 calories; and as the heat of combustion 
 of diamond is 94,310 calories, the transforma¬ 
 tion of amorphous carbon (12 grams) into 
 diamond must, according to the law of constant 
 heat sums, be accompanied by the evolution of 
 97,650 — 94,310 = 3340 calories. 
 
 In a similar manner Hess’s law permits of 
 ascertaining the heat that would be developed 
 during the formation of compounds (e.g. the 
 majority of organic compounds) whose forma¬ 
 tion from the elements could not be directly 
 studied calorimetrically. Let it be required, 
 i.e., to ascertain the heat that would be de¬ 
 veloped or absorbed if ordinary alcohol (C 2 H 0 O) 
 were made from its elements—carbon (in the 
 form of diamond), hydrogen, and oxygen. To 
 do this, we may determine calorimetrically the 
 heat (call it a) developed by the combustion 
 of one gram molecule of alcohol and the heats 
 of combustion (6 and c) of quantities of isolated 
 carbon (diamond) and hydrogen equal to those 
 contained in one gram molecule of alcohol. The 
 three combustions may be represented by the 
 following equations: 
 
 C 2 H 5 OH -j- 60 = 2C0 2 -j- 3H 2 0 -j- a calories; 
 
 2C -j- 40 = 2C0 2 -j- b calories; 
 
 3H 2 -j- 30 = 3H 2 0 -|- c calories. 
 
 Adding the second and third equations, we get: 
 
 2C + 3H 2 + 70 = 2C0 2 + 3H 2 0 + 6 -f c, 
 
 and subtracting the first equation from this, 
 we get: 
 
 2C + 3H 2 + O - C 2 H 6 OH = b + c - a, 
 or 2C + 3H 2 + O = C 2 H 5 OH + b + c -a. 
 
 This last equation, expressed in words, means 
 that if carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen combined 
 to form ordinary alcohol, an amount of heat 
 would be formed equal to the heat of combustion 
 of the isolated elements of alcohol minus the 
 heat of combustion of alcohol itself : b, the heat 
 of combustion of two atoms (i.e., twice 12 
 grams) of carbon is found to be 94,300 X 2 = 
 188,600 calories; c, the heat of combustion of 
 three molecules (i.e., 3X2 grams) of hydrogen 
 is found to be 67,500 X 3 = 202,500 calories; 
 finally, a, the heat of combustion of one molec¬ 
 ule (46 grams) of alcohol, is found to be 340,000 
 calories. Hence, b + c — a, the heat of forma¬ 
 tion of alcohol, is 188,600 -J- 202,500 — 340,000 
 = 51,100 calories. See Combustion. 
 
 Theoretical Thermochemistry. This, as 
 already stated above, consists in the application 
 of the principles of thermodynamics to chemi¬ 
 cal phenomena. The subject, though not very 
 difficult, requires a working knowledge of higher 
 mathematics and thermodynamics, and can 
 therefore be discussed here only in its more ele¬ 
 mentary aspects. The principal questions to 
 which thermodynamics has been applied con¬ 
 cern : (1) the influence of temperature upon 
 
 the total energy change of reactions, i.e., heat 
 given off or absorbed, no mechanical work being 
 performed; (2) the influence of temperature 
 
 upon the velocity of reactions (see Reaction, 
 Chemical) ; (3) the influence of temperature 
 on chemical equilibrium; (4) the determination 
 of the maximum mechanical work that can be 
 performed by the chemical energy of reactions. 
 We will briefly consider these questions in order. 
 
THERMOCHEMISTRY 
 
 THERMOCHEMISTRY ' 196 
 
 With reference to the dependence of the 
 energy change of a reaction upon the tempera¬ 
 ture, the verdict of thermodynamics is, first of 
 all, that in case the heat capacity of the re¬ 
 acting substances is the same as that of the 
 products of the reaction, the energy change of 
 the reaction does not vary with the temperature. 
 This is generally the case when the reacting 
 substances and the products of the reaction are 
 all solids. Thus the combination of silver and 
 solid iodine into silver iodide sets free prac¬ 
 tically the same amount of heat (about 14,000 
 calories), no matter at what temperature the 
 combination is caused to take place. On the 
 other hand, if a given reaction does cause a 
 change in the heat capacity, then, if t denotes 
 the difference between two temperatures at 
 which the reaction may take place, iq — u 2 the 
 difference between the energy change at the 
 first and that at the second temperature, and c 
 the difference between the heat capacity of the 
 reacting substances and that of the products 
 of the reaction, 
 
 u t — u 2 — ct. 
 
 By measuring calorimetrically the heat capaci¬ 
 ties in question a*d the energy change of the 
 reaction at some one temperature, it is there¬ 
 fore easy to calculate the energy change of the 
 reaction' at any other temperature—a result 
 of considerable importance, because direct 
 calorimetric measurement of the energy change 
 can by no means be readily carried out at any 
 desirable temperature. 
 
 As to the velocity of reactions (see Reaction, 
 Chemical), it is well known that rise of tem¬ 
 perature causes the velocity of reactions to in¬ 
 crease with great rapidity. Usually a rise of 
 10° C. doubles or even trebles the velocity. In 
 a perfectly general manner, however, the de¬ 
 pendence of the velocity on temperature cannot 
 as yet be formulated. Van’t Hoff has succeeded in 
 showing that in many cases the dependence of 
 reaction velocity on the temperature can be ex¬ 
 pressed by simple equations of the following form: 
 
 log k= -| + B, 
 
 an equation established by him by combining 
 the principles of thermodynamics with experi¬ 
 mental observations. In this equation k stands 
 for the velocity at the instant when the product 
 of the active masses equals unit; T stands for 
 the absolute temperature (i.c., the centigrade 
 temperature plus 273 degrees) ; and A and B 
 are constants whose numerical values depend on 
 the nature of the substances taking part in the 
 reaction. If k is actually measured at only two 
 different temperatures, and its two correspond¬ 
 ing values (say k and k 2 ) , together with the 
 two temperature numbers (say r l\ and T 2 ) , are 
 substituted in the above equation, we get: 
 
 logfci = - + B, 
 
 log hi. — - y 2 + B, 
 
 two equations with two unknowns,. A and B. 
 Solving these equations, and substituting the 
 resulting numerical values of A and B in the 
 general equation given above, we obtain a gen¬ 
 eral relation between k and T for the given re¬ 
 action. In other words, we can readily calculate 
 what may be termed the standard velocity for 
 any temperature whatever—the standard veloc¬ 
 ity beine- the velocity at the instant the concen- 
 
 trations of the reacting substances are such 
 that the product of their active masses equals 
 unit. The law of chemical mass action then per¬ 
 mits of calculating the reaction velocity for all 
 other possible concentrations. 
 
 With reference to chemical equilibrium (see 
 Reaction, Chemical), thermodynamics, as 
 Van’t Hoff has shown, permits of foreseeing 
 the equilibrium of a reaction at some tempera¬ 
 ture T 2 , if the equilibrium at some given tem¬ 
 perature T t and the average of the energy 
 changes (heats given off or taken up- by the 
 reaction) at the two temperatures are known. 
 I 11 this manner it is possible to calculate, i.e., 
 the degree of dissociation of ammonium chloride 
 (see Decomposition; Dissociation) at dif¬ 
 ferent temperatures, if the degree of dissociation 
 at some one temperature, and the heat of dis¬ 
 sociation, are known. In connection with the 
 influence of changes of temperature on chemical 
 equilibrium, it is necessary to mention also 
 Gibbs’s Phase Rule, which is of great importance 
 in classifying the phenomena of equilibrium in 
 material systems. See Phase Rule. 
 
 One more important application of thermody¬ 
 namics to chemical phenomena has been made 
 and requires mention. Thermodynamics, in 
 studying a transformation of some material sys¬ 
 tem, endeavors to ascertain the maximum me¬ 
 chanical work that might be produced by the 
 transformation, the maximum work meaning 
 the work that might be obtained by the use 
 of some ideal mechanical device, frictionless and 
 permitting, so to speak, of no leakage of energy. 
 The importance of knowing this maximum of 
 work is great. Any natural change taking place 
 of itself—whether it be the falling of a stone, 
 expansion of a compressed gas, combustion of 
 coal, or any other change, mechanical or chemi¬ 
 cal—may be used to produce mechanical work; 
 and no "material system is capable of changing 
 unless it possesses the capacity for producing 
 work—or, as Helmholtz terms it, free. energy. 
 In other words, it may be said that it is be¬ 
 cause a system can produce mechanical work 
 that it is capable of changing spontaneously. 
 The burning of coal (i.e., the chemical trans¬ 
 formation of the system, carbon and oxygen), 
 once started, can go on of itself because it can 
 be used to produce mechanical work, or, what is 
 the same, because the system carbon and oxy¬ 
 gen possesses a certain amount of free energy. 
 When, therefore, the free energy of a system 
 has been used, without loss, to produce mechani¬ 
 cal work, and that work has been measured, we 
 have a measure of the cause of the given trans¬ 
 formation. • The cause of chemical transforma¬ 
 tions is generally termed chemical affinity. 
 Obviously, then, the maximum work that can be 
 produced by a chemical transformation is a 
 measure of the chemical affinities involved in it, 
 and this is why the determination of maximum 
 work has great importance for chemical theory. 
 But it may also be valuable for purely practical 
 purposes. Take, e.g., again the combustion of 
 coal. It is well known that steam engines are 
 verv wasteful of energy. In connection with 
 the problem of a more economic use of coal 
 the question must naturally arise, How much 
 mechanical work could possibly be obtained alto¬ 
 gether by burning a certain amount of coal, 
 supposing that an ideally perfect device were 
 employed for the purpose? The direct measure¬ 
 ment of the maximum work, although theoreti¬ 
 cally possible, could not be actually carried out. 
 
THERMOCHEMISTRY 197 THERMODYNAMICS 
 
 But the maximum work of a reaction can be 
 readily calculated, with the aid of thermody¬ 
 namics, if the concentrations of the reacting sub¬ 
 stances and their products, when in the^state 
 of chemical equilibrium, are known. In the 
 case of the combustion of coal the equilibrium 
 concentrations have been determined by in¬ 
 direct measurement, and on the basis of this 
 Nernst has calculated approximately the maxi¬ 
 mum work of the combustion for three dif¬ 
 ferent temperatures: If 12 grams of carbon were 
 burned at the absolute zero of temperature 
 (— 273° C.), the equivalent of 97,650 calories 
 might be obtained; at 18° C. the maximum 
 work would be equivalent to 91,470 calories; at 
 1000° C. the equivalent of only 70,625 calories 
 can be obtained; this in spite of the fact that 
 the heat given off by the combustion is practi¬ 
 cally the same at all temperatures, viz., 97,650 
 calories. Only at the absolute zero of tempera¬ 
 ture could the heat produced by the combustion of 
 coal be entirely transformed into mechanical work. 
 
 In conclusion, a few words must be said 
 with reference to an erroneous principle ^ 
 has gained somewhat wide acceptance 
 chemists, viz., Berthelot’s principle, according 
 to which it is the heat produced by a reaction, 
 and not the maximum possible mechanical work, 
 that measures the cause of the reaction; and 
 of two reactions that might take place in a 
 given system, the one accompanied by the great¬ 
 est evolution of heat must necessarily take 
 place. This principle holds good often, but not 
 always, and so cannot be looked upon as a 
 law of nature. The most important argument 
 against it is that, were it unlimited in its ap¬ 
 plication, as Berthelot claims it to be, reversible 
 reactions would be impossible; for one of a pair 
 of reversible reactions not only does not develop 
 heat, but necessarily absorbs"heat; and hence, 
 if Berthelot s principle were correct, that reac¬ 
 tion could not take place at all, and its op¬ 
 posite reaction would be complete. (See Reac¬ 
 tion, Chemical.) An exceedingly promising 
 attempt to explain the facts that" led Berthelot 
 to the formulation of his principle has in re¬ 
 cent years been made by Nernst (see Nernst’s 
 Heat Theorem) ; but this matter cannot be 
 discussed in the present article. 
 
 The principal names connected with experi¬ 
 mental thermochemistry are those of Hess, 
 Julius Thomsen, Berthelot, Stohmann, and, per¬ 
 haps, Richards. The first to apply the princi¬ 
 ples of thermodynamics to chemical phenomena 
 was Horstinann. The problem was next taken 
 up by Willard Gibbs, of Yale University, whose 
 thorough and original treatment of the subject 
 remained unknown for a number of years. The 
 importance of Van’t Hoff’s thermochemical 
 work may be readily seen from the present 
 sketch. Finally, Le Chatelier, Planck, Riecke, 
 and Duhem have made noteworthy contributions 
 to the mathematical treatment of the subject. 
 
 Bibliography. H. P. J. J. Thomsen, Thermo- 
 chemische Untersuchungen (4 vols., Leipzig, 
 1882-86); Muir and Wilson, The Elements of 
 Thermal Chemistry (London, 1885) ; Max Nau- 
 mann, Grundriss der Thermochemie (Bruns¬ 
 wick, 1892); H. M. Jahn, Die Griindsatze der 
 Thermochemie (2d ed., Vienna, 1892) ; P. E. M. 
 Berthelot, Traits pratique de calorimetrie chi- 
 mique (Paris, 1893) ; id., Thermochemie (2 
 vols., ib., 1897) ; Max Planck, Grundriss der 
 allgemeinen Thermochemie (Breslau, 1893); id., 
 Treatise on Thermo-Chemistry (Eng. trans. by 
 
 Alexander Ogg (New York, 1903) ; also the 
 literature of theoretical and physical chemistry 
 under Chemistry. 
 
 THERMOCOUPLE, THERMOPILE. See 
 
 Thermoelectricity. 
 
 THERMODYNAMICS (from Gk. 6ep M , 
 thermo, heat + dvimyts, dynamis, power). The 
 application of the principles of mechanics to 
 heat phenomena. It is shown in the article 
 Heat that all heat effects can be traced for 
 tlieii cause to work having been done against 
 the molecular foices of the body—c.g., friction, 
 compression, etc. or to the reception of energy 
 by the minute portions of the body—e.g., radia¬ 
 tion, conduction, etc. In short, it may be re¬ 
 garded as proved experimentally that heat 
 effects always accompany changes in the in¬ 
 trinsic energy of a body; and the idea that 
 the numerical value of the heat effects depends 
 on the energy added to the minute portions 
 of the body and on that alone is now accepted 
 by every one. If a small amount of energy 
 ^Q 18 added to a body, its intrinsic energy is 
 changed (dU) and as a rule a certain amount 
 of external work is done by the expansion of 
 the body ( pdX, where p is tlie external pressure 
 on the body and dV is the change in volume). 
 By the conservation of energy, then, if no other 
 
 work is done, An _ ,,, . 
 
 AQ = dU + pdV. 
 
 This is sometimes called the first principle 
 of thermodynamics. If the external work is 
 of other form than that due to expansion, e.g., 
 if it is electric work, the first principle mav be 
 written . „ yTT , 
 
 AQ = dU + ATI 7 . 
 
 In any form of heat engine—e.g., a steam en¬ 
 gine—the working substance, water, starts at 
 ordinary temperature; heat energy is added to 
 it by the boiler; it reaches a high temperature, 
 that of the boiler, and a high pressure; it ex¬ 
 pands, doing work in pushing out the piston; 
 its temperature and its pressure therefore fall; 
 the cylinder is now joined to the condenser, 
 and the steam passes out and is condensed to 
 water, giving up heat energy; the piston is 
 drawn back and the process is repeated. So 
 far as the heat energy and work are concerned, 
 heat energy (Q x ) at a high temperature has been 
 given to the working substance, heat energy 
 (Q 2 ) at a low temperature is taken away from 
 it, external work (IF) is done. By the first 
 principle of thermodynamics TV = Q x — Q 2 , since 
 the water at the end of its cycle of changes 
 has the same energy that it had at the be¬ 
 ginning, provided its temperature and volume 
 are the same. The efficiency of the process 
 
 is defined as the ratio ^ or - 1 ~~ ^ 2 . In con- 
 
 sidering the efficiencies of various processes, 
 Sadi Carnot in 1824 was led to imagine one 
 which bears his name and which can be dis¬ 
 cussed theoretically. This process is one which 
 consists of a working substance inclosed in a 
 cylinder with a movable piston passing around 
 a cycle so as to return to its initial condition. 
 There are supposed to be two large reservoirs 
 of a liquid, at different temperatures. The 
 cylinder containing the working substance at 
 a high pressure and small volume is imagined 
 placed in the high-temperature tank; the sub¬ 
 stance is allowed to expand, so slowly that its 
 temperature remains practically unchanged at 
 that of the surrounding liquid in the tank; in 
 
THERMODYNAMICS 198 
 
 doing this, heat energy must flow into the work¬ 
 ing substance, otherwise its temperature would 
 fall; after the volume has increased sufficiently, 
 the cylinder is removed from the tank, and the 
 inclosed substance is allowed to expand under 
 such conditions that no heat energy can enter, 
 and its temperature falls; when it reaches that 
 of the second tank the cylinder is placed in it, 
 the piston is forced in by external force, thus 
 reducing the volume; if this process is done 
 slowly the temperature will not rise, but heat 
 energy will flow out into the liquid of the tank; 
 when the volume is sufficiently reduced, the 
 cylinder is removed and the piston is pushed 
 in under such conditions that no heat energy 
 can leave or enter; if the volume at the begin¬ 
 ning of this last step is chosen correctly the 
 working substance will after a sufficient com¬ 
 pression be restored to its original condition. 
 There have been four steps, two isothermal and 
 two adiabatic. The net result is: No change 
 in the working substance; external work (IV) 
 done by the substance; heat energy Q x with¬ 
 drawn from the high-temperature tank; heat- 
 energy Q 2 given out to the low-temperature 
 tank. Therefore, by the first principle of thermo¬ 
 dynamics, 
 
 W = Q t - Q 2 . 
 
 This process of Carnot’s is perfectly rever¬ 
 sible; by doing an amount of work W on the 
 working substance it may be made to pass 
 around the cycle in the reverse way; the low- 
 temperature bath losing an amount of heat en¬ 
 ergy Q 2 and the high-temperature bath gaining 
 an amount Q t . The conditions for reversibility 
 are that each point of the whole cycle should 
 be one of equilibrium; and it is apparent that 
 for this to be satisfied the changes must all be 
 made slowly, and that when the substance re¬ 
 ceives or gives out heat energy it must be in 
 contact with a large tank of liquid at the same 
 temperature, within an infinitesimal amount, as 
 it itself is at that instant. (If a gas expands 
 out of a high-pressure reservoir into the open 
 air—e.g., illuminating gas rushing out . of a 
 burner—the process is irreversible; if in an 
 engine the flame is at a higher temperature than 
 the steam in the boiler—as it always is—the 
 process is irreversible.) It was stated by Car- 
 
 W 
 
 not that the efficiency of his process, -z -, was 
 
 0i 
 
 the same for all working substances and de¬ 
 pended alone on the temperatures of the two 
 baths. His proof was, however, erroneous, and 
 was corrected by Clausius in 1850, who showed 
 that the statement was correct if one assumed 
 that heat energy of itself always passes from 
 high to low temperature. . This is in accord with 
 all our experiences of nature; thus, if a hot and a 
 cold body are left free to radiate or to conduct 
 to each other, the former always becomes colder 
 and the latter warmer. The statement that 
 heat energy of itself does always pass from high 
 to low temperature is called the second prin¬ 
 ciple of thermodynamics. Lord Kelvin has 
 shown that this principle is identical in its con¬ 
 clusions with the assumption that it is impos¬ 
 sible by any material agency to derive mechani¬ 
 cal effect from any portion of matter by cooling 
 it below the temperature of the coldest of the 
 surrounding objects. 
 
 W 
 
 Si nce — is a function of the temperatures 
 
 0i 
 
 of the two tanks alone, it is possible to give 
 
 THERMODYNAMICS 
 
 such numbers to the temperatures o£ these 
 tanks as will be independent of the working sub¬ 
 stance (i.e., thermometric substance). Lord 
 Kelvin—then William Thomson—suggested that 
 the numbers T t and T 2 be so chosen for the 
 
 temperatures of the tanks that — = . In 
 
 this case Tl ~ T - = ^ = 5- and is there- 
 
 1 1 Vi hh 
 
 fore independent of everything except the tem¬ 
 peratures. T t —T 2 may be given any arbitrary 
 value, e.g., 100; then the number T t for the 
 temperature of the hot bath is determined by 
 performing a Carnot’s process, using any work¬ 
 ing substance. All other thermometric systems 
 depend upon the selection of the thermometric 
 substance, and no two systems would in general 
 give the same numbers for the same tempera¬ 
 ture. Thus the great scientific advantage of 
 Thomson’s absolute scale is seen. It is found 
 by direct experiment that if — T 2 is chosen 
 as 100 for two tanks of melting ice and boil¬ 
 ing water, the numbers on Thomson’s absolute 
 scale are almost exactly the same as obtained 
 in a gas thermometer using the absolute centi¬ 
 grade scale. See Thermometry. 
 
 Since the efficiency increases as T 2 becomes 
 smaller, and since the efficiency cannot be 
 greater than unity, there must be a minimum 
 temperature in the universe. This is known as 
 the absolute zero; its value is about —273° C., 
 as shown by the agreement between the two abso¬ 
 lute scales just described. 
 
 Carnot stated further that the efficiency of an 
 irreversible process could not be greater than 
 that of a reversible one with the two limiting 
 temperatures of the tanks; and Clausius proved 
 that this is true if the second principle of 
 thermodynamics is true. 
 
 It is generally accepted that the efficiency of 
 an irreversible process is less than that of a 
 reversible one between the same two tempera¬ 
 tures, but it cannot be regarded as a deduction 
 from the two principles of thermodynamics. All 
 processes in nature—chemical, electrical, etc.— 
 are irreversible; and a natural systein will 
 therefore be in equilibrium if all imaginable 
 processes compatible with the existing condi¬ 
 tions necessarily involve an efficiency equal to or 
 greater than that which corresponds to a re¬ 
 versible process. 
 
 Clausius made an interesting application of 
 Carnot’s principle and Thomson’s definition of 
 
 T\ Q\ 
 
 temperature. As defined above — q-, i.e., 
 
 Qi __ Q 2 . p as8 i n g around a Carnot’s 
 
 r L\ T'l 
 
 cycle the heat added to the working substance 
 is Qt and it is added while the body is at tem¬ 
 perature Tt; no other heat is added; and the 
 heat taken away is Q 2 while the body is at 
 temperature T 2 . If we call heat added positive, 
 we must call heat taken away negative. Now, 
 
 form the summation of the ratio ^ for the 
 
 whole cycle. Along the higher isothermal this 
 
 is 5l; along both adiabatics it is zero (since 
 T 1 
 
 . . 02 
 
 AO = 0) ; along the lower isothermal it is — ■=■• 
 
 1 2 
 
 Hence the sum is ^ and by the above 
 
 1 i 1 2 
 
 equation this sum is zero. Since it is possible 
 
THERMODYNAMICS 
 
 199 
 
 THERMOELECTRICITY 
 
 to break up any cycle of operations into a 
 series of Carnot’s cycles, it is evident that 
 
 the summation of ~ around any cycle equals 
 
 zero; or, using the symbols of the calculus, 
 
 J' 7 around a cycle = 0 . The fundamental 
 
 property of a cycle of operations is that the 
 working substance returns to its former condi¬ 
 tion. So this equation signifies that = d<p, 
 
 where 0 is a property of the body itself (just 
 as are its temperature and its volume). This 
 property was called by Clausius the entropy. 
 
 If two bodies at different temperatures are 
 allowed to come to equilibrium, the hotter one 
 will lose heat, thus having its entropy decrease, 
 the colder one will gain heat, thus having its 
 entropy increase. The decrease in entropy of 
 
 the former is while A Q passes from it to 
 7 1 
 
 the colder body; and the gain in entropy of 
 
 the latter owing to this passage is But 
 
 -*2 
 
 T t , the temperature of the hot body, is greater 
 than T 2 , that of the cold body; hence consider¬ 
 ing the two bodies as a system there has been 
 a gain in entropy. The same is true during any 
 actual changes in nature, such as relative mo¬ 
 tion, which always involves friction, diffusion, 
 etc. Clausius stated this by saying “the entropy 
 of the universe tends to a maximum.” 
 
 This fact has been given mathematical ex¬ 
 pression in a different form. If one introduces 
 into Clausius’ equation defining entropy the 
 value of A Q as given in the first principle, 
 the equation becomes dU -f- pdV = Tduf>. Apply 
 this to a system of bodies which are in equi¬ 
 librium with each other and with external con¬ 
 
 ditions, i.e., there must be uniform temperature 
 and uniform pressure within the system and 
 without. Therefore, the above equation becomes 
 d{U + pV — T(p) =0, where U, V, and 0 
 are the values for the entire system. Now, if 
 the system is not in equilibrium, but changes 
 are going on, and if there is a constant tempera¬ 
 ture and a constant pressure on the outside of 
 the system, it is not difficult to prove that 
 d(U + P 0 V — T o 0 )<O where P 0 and T 0 are 
 these external values. Thus, there is a function 
 of the system, viz., U + P 0 V — T o 0 , such that 
 under constant external conditions, if any in¬ 
 ternal changes occur, this function decreases. 
 These changes will cease when the function 
 reaches its minimum value. Such a function 
 is called the thermodynamic potential at con¬ 
 stant pressure and temperature. The impor¬ 
 tance of this principle in considering various 
 chemical changes is evident. Gibbs, Planck, 
 Duhem, and others have made brilliant use of 
 it.. 
 
 This function has another property which has 
 been emphasized by Planck, and which justifies 
 its other name “characteristic function.” If 
 the independent variables of the system are p 
 and T, as they are in most experiments, it 
 may be proved that, provided this function is 
 known, all the thermodynamic properties of the 
 system may be deduced from it. 
 
 In what has gone before it is seen that there 
 are many properties of the system: its volume 
 (I 7 ), its pressure (p), its temperature (T), 
 its intrinsic energy ( U ), and its entropy ( 0 ). 
 Any two of these may be taken as independent 
 
 variables; and depending on this selection, there 
 is a definite characteristic function. Thus, if 
 T and V are the variables, this function is 
 U — T<p, which plays an important part in the 
 work of Helmholtz, and which he called the 
 free energy. 
 
 It is clear from the definition of entropy given 
 
 by Clausius, viz., d<f> = that the absolute 
 
 value of the entropy is not defined, only changes 
 in its value. Therefore direct experiments can¬ 
 not give the numerical value of the entropy 
 for any body; but it is possible and allowable 
 to assign a definite value to a body under 
 definite conditions and to see whether this 
 selection is justified by indirect experiments. 
 This bold step was taken by Nernst (1906). 
 What his theorem amounts to is to assume that 
 “at absolute zero the entropy of every chemically 
 homogeneous solid or liquid body has the nu¬ 
 merical value zero.” All the conclusions drawn 
 from this have been found to be in accord 
 with experiment. Two of these conclusions are 
 that as the temperature is lowered continuously, 
 both the specific heat and the coefficient of 
 expansion of all solids approach zero values. 
 Nernst himself has investigated the specific 
 heats of 28 substances at the lowest tempera¬ 
 tures available, and has shown that the specific 
 heat approaches zero. Nernst has shown further 
 that there is an important connection between 
 his results on specific heats and Planck’s 
 quantum hypothesis as to the nature of radia¬ 
 tion (q.v.). Debye (1912) made several modi¬ 
 fications in Nernst’s theory, and succeeded in 
 deducing from Planck’s equation for radiation 
 a formula which gives the correct values for 
 specific heats at low temperatures. One conclu¬ 
 sion is that at such temperatures the specific 
 heats of all solids is proportional to the cube 
 of the absolute temperature. 
 
 Bibliography. Edgar Buckingham, Theonj 
 of Thermodynamics (New York, 1900) ; Thomas 
 Preston, Theory of Heat (2d ed., ib., 1904) ; 
 G. H. Bryan, Thermodynamics (ib., 1907) ; 
 C. H. Peabody, Thermodynamics of the Steam- 
 Engine and other Heat Engines ( 6 th ed., ib., 
 1909) ; id., Thermodynamics of the Steam Tur¬ 
 bine (ib., 1911) ; Max Planck, Vorlesungen iiber 
 Thermodynamik (3d ed., Leipzig, 1911); F. E. 
 Cardullo, Practical Thermodynamics (ib., 1911) ; 
 W. D. Ennis, Applied Thermodynamics for En¬ 
 gineers (3d ed., New York, 1913) ; G. A. Good- 
 enough, Principles of Thermodynamics ( 2 d ed., 
 ib., 1914) ; Moyer and Calderwood, Engineering 
 Thermodynamics (ib., 1915) ; Hirshfeld and 
 
 Barnard, Elements of Heat Power Engineering 
 (2d ed., ib., 1915) ; Lucke and Flather, Text 
 Book of Engineen'ing Thermodynamics (ib., 
 1915). 
 
 THERMOELECTRICITY. It was observed 
 by Seebeck in 1822 that, if the two junctions of 
 a closed metallic circuit made up of two differ¬ 
 ent wires in series were at different tempera¬ 
 tures, there was produced an electric current. 
 As the difference of temperature at the junc¬ 
 tions is increased, the current increases. It 
 was shown, however, by Cumming in 1823, that 
 for any temperature of one junction there is 
 one for the other junction such that there is 
 no current; this is known as the temperature 
 of inversion. If in general, then, the tempera¬ 
 tures of the junctions are made more and more 
 different, the current increases, then decreases, 
 becomes zero, and is finally reversed. The 
 
THERMOELECTRICITY 
 
 200 
 
 THERMOMETER 
 
 average of the temperatures of the junctions 
 when the current is zero is called the neutral tem¬ 
 perature, and is a constant for any two bodies. 
 
 These thermoelectric currents are due to 
 molecular actions at the junctions and also 
 throughout the conducting wires, owing to their 
 nonuniformity of temperature. Where the two 
 different metals join there are electric forces 
 called the Peltier electromotive forces; while the 
 electric forces through the conductors themselves 
 are called Thomson electromotive forces. The 
 existence of these electromotive forces is proved 
 by forcing a current around a circuit by means 
 of a battery or cell; at the junctions there is 
 rise or fall of temperature, depending upon the 
 direction of the current, showing a force op¬ 
 posing or helping on the current; similarly the 
 conductor itself has its temperature raised or 
 lowered, depending upon the direction of the 
 current—quite apart from the usual heating 
 effect of a current. 
 
 The properties of thermoelectric currents are 
 best studied by diagrams. Some one metal is 
 chosen as a standard; lead is generally selected 
 because it has no Thomson effect. A circuit 
 is made part of lead and part of another metal; 
 one junction is kept at 0° C., and while the 
 temperature of the other is varied continuously, 
 both above and below zero the total electro¬ 
 motive force around the circuit is measured. 
 These values of the E.M.F. for different values 
 of the temperature of the variable junction are 
 plotted in a curve, having E.M.F. for ordinates 
 and temperatures for abscissae. These curves 
 when drawn for different bodies—all with refer¬ 
 ence to lead—are found to be approximately 
 parabolas. Another form of diagram is made 
 as follows: The junctions of the two metals, one 
 of which is lead, are kept at temperatures T and 
 T + AT, where AT is a small quantity; the 
 resulting E.M.F. around the circuit is measured, 
 
 o 
 
 AK 
 
 call it AE. The ratio —— is called the 
 
 AT 
 
 thermoelectric power; it is evidently a func¬ 
 tion of the temperature T, and when plotted 
 on a diagram having temperatures as abscissae, 
 the curves are practically straight lines. 
 
 A thermocouple is one of the most sensitive 
 instruments known for detecting differences in 
 temperature. It can be improved by joining in 
 a zigzag series several couples: first, a piece 
 of bismuth, then one of antimony, then one of 
 bismuth, etc., the first end of the first piece of 
 bismuth and the last end of the last piece of 
 antimony being joined by a wire passing around 
 a galvanometer. Thus every other junction of 
 bismuth and antimony is turned to form one 
 face of the zigzag; and, if one face is at a 
 higher temperature than the other, each couple 
 helps the others, and thus a considerable cur¬ 
 rent may be produced through the galvanometer. 
 Such a combination of couples forms a thermo¬ 
 pile. It was invented by Nobili in 1834. 
 
 Since the action of a thermocouple depends 
 upon raising the temperature of one junction, 
 it is evident that the sensitiveness of the in¬ 
 strument will be increased if the quantities of 
 metal used at the junction are very small, so 
 that in return for a small quantity of heat 
 there will be a large rise in temperature. It 
 will be increased still more if the instrument is 
 in a vacuum so that the junction does not lose 
 heat by convection currents. Applying these 
 principles A. H. Pfund in 1913 constructed a 
 thermocouple by means of which he was able 
 
 to measure the radiation of heat from some of 
 the fixed stars. See Thomson Effect. 
 
 THER'MOHYDROM'ETER. See Hydrom¬ 
 eter. 
 
 THERMOM'ETER (from Gk. dep/nj, therme, 
 
 heat -j- pArpov, metron, measure). An instru¬ 
 ment for measuring temperature, but in early 
 times erroneously supposed to measure heat. 
 A brief account of the underlying theory and 
 the history of thermometry are given under 
 the title Thermometry. This article will deal 
 only with those forms of thermometers that are 
 at present in ordinary use. 
 
 Air or Gas Thermometer. This form of the 
 instrument is accepted as the standard and 
 the indications of mercurial, alcohol, or other 
 thermometers are all supposed to be corrected 
 so as to agree with the standard adopted by the 
 International Bureau of Weights and Measures 
 at Paris. This standard consists of a hollow 
 bulb of platinum filled with pure, dry hydrogen. 
 When kept at a uniform pressure the volume 
 of the gas expands in direct proportion to its 
 temperature. By calling the volume at the 
 melting point of ice V, and the volume at the 
 boiling point of water V + 100°, we establish 
 a scale of Centigrade degrees, which may be ex¬ 
 tended above or below these limits, so that, e.g., 
 the temperature of the absolute cold or entire 
 absence of heat would be —2(3° C. and the 
 temperature of the boiling point of mercury 
 would be about -+-357° C. 
 are needed in the use 
 of the air thermometer, 
 all of which are ex¬ 
 plained in the Travaux 
 et memoires of the In¬ 
 ternational Bureau of 
 Weights and Measures, 
 and in Guillaume, Ther- 
 mometrie (Paris, 1890). 
 
 According to the theories 
 of thermodynamics the 
 peculiarities of platinum, 
 hydrogen, or of any 
 other materials that may 
 be used, introduce small 
 irregularities, so that the 
 scale of equal changes of 
 volume is not exactly 
 proportional to the quan¬ 
 tity of heat or the 
 change in temperature. 
 
 Therefore some recom¬ 
 mend that a slight cor¬ 
 rection be applied to the 
 hydrogen gas thermom¬ 
 eter in order to obtain 
 the ideal thermodynamic 
 equivalent. The hydro¬ 
 gen gas thermometer at 
 the present time, how¬ 
 ever, constitutes the 
 fundamental standard, 
 and all other forms are 
 secondary in nature and 
 their indications are 
 ultimately corrected to give the gas scale of 
 temperatures. 
 
 In Fig. 1 we see a simple or portable form 
 of air thermometer, as arranged by Jolv, for 
 measuring temperatures below the boiling point 
 of water. The large glass bulb on the left 
 is filled with dry air, or dry hydrogen, and 
 ends in a short vertical glass tube attached 
 
 Numerous precautions 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 JOLY AIR THERMOMETER. 
 
THERMOMETER 
 
 201 
 
 THERMOMETER 
 
 to the flexible rubber tube whose other end 
 opens into another short glass tube, shown on 
 the right-hand side, whose upper end is her¬ 
 metically closed and constitutes the vacuum 
 chamber of a barometric column of mercury. 
 r Ihe glass bulb is immersed .in a liquid or gas 
 whose temperature is to be measured. If the 
 volume of the inclosed gas expands with the 
 higher temperature that is to be measured, 
 then this expansion is counterbalanced by rais¬ 
 ing the vacuum chamber and the flexible tube 
 on the right until the increased pressure of 
 the mercury column compresses the expanding 
 gas in the large bulb so as to keep it at a 
 constant volume, which is indicated by the 
 fact that the mercury in the left-hand tube just 
 touches the tip of a fine glass point that is 
 permanently fastened inside the tube. The pres¬ 
 sure exerted by the mercurial column is meas¬ 
 ured by the difference in the level of the mer¬ 
 cury in the right-hand and left-hand tubes. 
 The scale for this measurement is graduated on 
 a strip of mirror set into the vertical framework 
 that supports the bulb and the tubes. 
 
 In Fig. 2 we see an arrangement of the air 
 thermometer for more exact measurements, etc. 
 The thermometric substance is inclosed in the 
 
 ured may completely surround the bulb by flow¬ 
 ing in at E and out at F. DD are metal 
 screens. There are a number of mercurial ther¬ 
 mometers, T, which are at the same temperature 
 as the bulb. The bulb communicates With the 
 barometer at G by the tube C, the connection 
 being shown enlarged at V. The pressure of 
 the mercurial column needed to keep the gas 
 in the bulb at a constant volume is that due 
 to the height of the column from X to Y, and 
 may amount to several atmospheres, or to a 
 height of many feet. The lower end of the 
 
 mercurial column, or the tube U, I, J, K, is 
 fixed, but the upper tube, PQ, can be raised 
 indefinitely. As Q rises inside of the large 
 tube, J , more mercury may be needed, and this 
 is supplied from the reservoir, R, through the 
 llexible tube, L. The difference in height be¬ 
 tween the mercurial surfaces at X and Z is 
 measured by a reading telescope or cathetometer. 
 xl/ is the upright standard carrying the ap¬ 
 paratus, N a movable cradle for the barometer 
 tube worked by the adjusting screw 0. 8 is 
 
 a similar arrangement for the reservoir, R, 
 with its adjusting screw, U. 
 
 Mercurial Thermometer. This consists fff a 
 glass bulb terminating in a long capillary tube. 
 The bulb and lower portion of the tube are 
 filled with clean mercury, while the upper por¬ 
 tion is supposed to be quite empty and to be 
 hermetically sealed. When the bulb is warmed 
 the mercury is seen to rise in the tube, because 
 ♦it expands more than the glass of the bulb. 
 This difference of expansion is not regular, nor 
 is it the same for all kinds of glass or for im¬ 
 pure mercury. If we wish to construct an inde¬ 
 pendent standard mercurial thermometer, we 
 immerse the bulb in melting ice and make a 
 slight scratch on the glass tube to mark the 
 height of the mercurial column. A similar 
 mark is made at the end of the column when 
 the thermometer is immersed wholly in the 
 steam from boiling water, the exact" tempera¬ 
 ture of the steam depending upon the air 
 pressure at the time. The space between the 
 two lines is divided into 100 more or less 
 equal parts for Centigrade degrees, or 180 
 equal parts for Fahrenheit degrees, according to 
 the exact temperature found for the boiling 
 water. The space between the freezing point 
 and the boiling point on a thermometer scale 
 is called the fundamental distance. Owing to 
 the irregular expansion of mercury in glass, 
 the so-called standard mercurial thermometer 
 will differ from the standard air thermometer 
 by as much as half a degree about midway be¬ 
 tween freezing and boiling water. Therefore for 
 accurate work the mercurial should be carefully 
 compared with the air thermometer and the re¬ 
 sulting system of corrections throughout the 
 entire length of the scale should be well deter¬ 
 mined and carefully applied. Owing to the 
 gradual contraction of the glass bulbs, which 
 goes on for several years after they are freshly 
 made, the mercurial thermometer usually has an 
 error that increases with the lapse of time. 
 This error is due to the change in the volume 
 of the bulb, and should be determined after 
 any important work has been done by im¬ 
 mediately making a new determination of the 
 freezing point. Instead of this procedure the 
 error can be calculated theoretically, but the 
 actual new determination is far preferable. 
 
 A thermometer is not considered first class 
 whose errors of division exceed one or two tenths 
 of a degree Centigrade, or two or three tenths 
 Fahrenheit, especially if these errors change 
 values greatly from point to point along the 
 scale. In determining the temperature of a 
 liquid by the use of the mercurial thermom¬ 
 eter one must be very careful to keep the liquid 
 thoroughly stirred, because when permitted to 
 rest the colder portions of the liquid settle. In 
 meteorological work all thermometers are ex¬ 
 posed in some sort of protecting cage through 
 which the wind rnav blow freelv, but into which 
 the sun’s rays, or any obnoxious radiation, can- 
 
THERMOMETER 
 
 202 
 
 THERMOMETER 
 
 not penetrate. It is believed that after making 
 due allowance for the sluggishness of the ther¬ 
 mometers and the inefficiency of the screens and 
 the ventilating apparatus, it is still true that 
 the various meteorological services of the world 
 obtain the temperature of the air within a half 
 degree Fahrenheit or two-tenths Centigrade. A 
 general comparison between the Centigrade and 
 Fahrenheit scales is here given. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 *b125° 
 
 +257° 
 
 0° 
 
 + 32° 
 
 100 
 
 212 
 
 -17.8 
 
 0 
 
 75 
 
 167 
 
 25 
 
 - 13 
 
 50 
 
 122 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 + 25 
 
 + 77 
 
 -273 
 
 -491 
 
 Dew-Point Thermometer. This is an ordi¬ 
 nary thermometer specially arranged for the 
 determination of the temperature at which dew 
 is formed in the atmosphere when the air is 
 cooled. To this end the bulb and larger part 
 of the stem of the thermometer are immersed 
 in a thin glass cup nearly full of sulphuric 
 ether. A current of air is driven through the 
 ether, causing it to evaporate and therefore to 
 cool. The thermometer follows the falling tem¬ 
 perature of the ether until the observer per¬ 
 ceives the deposition of dew on the outside of 
 the glass cup. The current of air is then cut 
 off. The ether and glass cup begin to warm; 
 the dew evaporates from the surface, and as 
 it disappears the temperature is again read off. 
 The mean of the two readings of the thermom¬ 
 eter corresponds closely to the dew point. The 
 results are most exact when the cooling is so 
 carefully conducted that the dew forms and dis¬ 
 appears with an inappreciable change in tem¬ 
 perature of the thermometer. See Hygrometer. 
 
 Wet-Bulb Thermometer. This is an ordi¬ 
 nary thermometer whose bulb is covered very 
 neatly with the thinnest muslin, which is kept 
 wet. The wet-bulb thermometer should either 
 be rapidly whirled in the air or else exposed 
 
 Alcohol Thermometer. This differs from 
 the mercurial thermometer only in that the in¬ 
 terior liquid is alcohol. But this difference is 
 important from many points of view, since one 
 class of errors disappears and another is intro¬ 
 duced. Alcohol, ether, and in recent years tol¬ 
 uol, are used in thermometers for the measure¬ 
 ment of very low temperatures, since mercury 
 freezes at about —40° Fahrenheit. The prin¬ 
 cipal error in using such liquids for low tem¬ 
 peratures arises from the fact that the liquid 
 adheres to the sides of the glass tube and re¬ 
 quires a long time to drain down, which indeed 
 it never does perfectly. 
 
 Solar-Radiation Thermometer, or Black- 
 Bulb Thermometer. This is essentially an or¬ 
 dinary mercurial thermometer, whose bulb is 
 covered with a thin layer of nonreflecting and 
 almost perfectly absorbing lampblack. Under 
 the assumption that the black-bulb thermometer 
 absorbs and radiates more easily than the plain 
 glass bulb, and especially more so than a pol¬ 
 ished silver bulb, the difference between the 
 readings of two such thermometers exposed to 
 the sunshine will depend primarily upon the 
 intensity of the radiation received by them. 
 In order to measure the solar radiation, it 
 is necessary, first, to diminish as much as pos¬ 
 sible the conduction and convection of heat 
 to or from thermometer bulbs. They are, 
 therefore, inclosed in large thin glass bulbs 
 within which there is as perfect a vacuum as it 
 is possible to make. It is also necessary to 
 cut off as much as possible of radiation from 
 the surrounding objects, and especially reflected 
 sunshine, by means of screens. Under these con¬ 
 ditions the solar-radiation thermometer, or the 
 so-called Arago-Davy actinometer, may be used 
 in two ways: (1) The static method. The ther¬ 
 mometers are allowed to attain the highest tem¬ 
 peratures they can in the full sunshine; the dif¬ 
 ference between their readings expresses approxi¬ 
 mately the intensity of the solar radiation, the 
 exact value of which may be more exactly com¬ 
 puted by the method and formulae given by Pro¬ 
 
 to a current of air at the rate of five or ten 
 feet a second. The evaporation of the water 
 cools the thermometer to the temperature of 
 evaporation, which is about half way between 
 the temperature of the air and the temperature 
 of the dew point. The combination of a dry- 
 bulb and a wet-bulb thermometer constitutes 
 a psychrometer, and the whirled or ventilated 
 psvchrometer is the ordinary apparatus used 
 by meteorologists for determining the humidity 
 of the atmosphere. The formulae and tables 
 used by the Weather Bureau in this work are 
 those prepared by Prof. C. F. Marvin and 
 published as Weather Bureau No. 235 (Wash¬ 
 ington, 1900). See Hygrometer for illustration 
 and further description. 
 
 fessor William Ferrel in his memoir “Tem¬ 
 perature of the Atmosphere and Earth’s Sur¬ 
 face,” pages 34-50, Professional Papers of the 
 Signal Service, No. 13 (Washington, 1884). (2) 
 The dynamic method. The bright and black-bulb 
 thermometers are successively exposed to the full 
 sunshine and shaded from it a minute at a time, 
 so that one may determine the initial rate of in¬ 
 crease of temperature in the sunshine and the 
 rate of cooling in the shade. From these rates 
 the solar radiation is calculated by the formulae 
 first applied by Pouillet to his actinometer. 
 Much more exact methods of measuring radia¬ 
 tion are now employed. See Pyrheliometer. 
 
 Maximum Thermometer. This is usually 
 a mercurial thermometer having a device by 
 
THERMOMETER 
 
 203 THERMOMETER 
 
 which the top of the column of mercury remains 
 at the highest point that it attains during any 
 given interval of time until the observer has 
 recorded the reading and adjusts the instrument 
 for another observation, in the Rutherford 
 maximum the stem of the thermometer lies nearly 
 horizontal. The rising mercury pushes a little 
 steel index upward within the bore of the tube. 
 When the temperature falls the index is left in 
 place until the observer draws it back to the 
 top of the mercurial column by means of a 
 magnet. In the Phillips or Walferdin ther¬ 
 mometer the thermometer stem is horizontal. A 
 small bubble of air makes a permanent break 
 in the upper part of the mercurial column. 
 When the temperature begins to fall the lower 
 column contracts into the bulb, but the upper 
 portion remains and registers the maximum tem¬ 
 perature. The Negretti and Zambra maximum 
 thermometer has the bore of the tube constricted 
 below the bottom of the scale so that the mer¬ 
 cury that has pushed up past this point can¬ 
 not easily slide back. After the maximum tem¬ 
 perature has been recorded the observer forces 
 the column of mercury back by whirling the ther- 
 
 in America for determining the temperature of 
 the human body (mouth or rectum). The bulb 
 is of high-grade thin glass, and the stem is oval 
 in cross section, forming a cylindrical lens which 
 serves to magnify the capillary mercury thread. 
 Temperatures from 94° F. to 110° F., graduated 
 in one-fifth degrees, are engraved on the front 
 of the lens face. The thermometer registers the 
 highest temperature to which it is exposed. The 
 self-registering device is usually obtained by 
 forming a constriction or trap in the capillary 
 tube between the bulb and the lowest tempera¬ 
 ture graduation on the scale, of exactly the cor¬ 
 rect size, such that the mercury may expand 
 through the contraction in fine globules* but can¬ 
 not flow back. From one-half to three minutes 
 are required to obtain the final temperature in¬ 
 dication when placed in the mouth, and before 
 the thermometer is used again the mercury col¬ 
 umn must be shaken down into the bulb. To 
 avoid the possible objection that the temperature 
 graduations, which are in part filled with black 
 coloring matter, may retain disease germs not 
 readily removable by antiseptic liquids, clinical 
 thermometers are sometimes made with the 
 
 CLINICAL THERMOMETER. 
 
 mometer in a circle. The clinical thermometers 
 of physicians are made after this pattern. 
 
 Minimum Thermometer. The best form 
 of this is the Rutherford alcohol minimum, in 
 which the stem is kept nearly horizontal, and 
 the contracting column of alcohol draws down¬ 
 ward a glass index, which remains in place when 
 the temperature rises. The observer sets the 
 index anew by inverting the instrument, when 
 the index slowly falls to the end of the column 
 of alcohol. 
 
 Combined Maximum and Minimum or 
 Six’s Thermometer. This consists of a U- 
 shaped tube whose upper ends have respectively 
 a large bulb full of alcohol and a small bulb 
 partly full of alcohol. The lower portion of the 
 legs of the U is filled with mercury and in each 
 leg there floats an index. One of these indices 
 is forced up by the expansion of the alcohol in 
 the bulb and the index is left at the maximum 
 temperature. The other index is raised by the 
 contraction of the alcohol and the consequent 
 rising of the mercury which is pushed up by the 
 expansive force of the air pressure in the small 
 bulb. Modifications of this thermometer are 
 used in Austria, England, and America, but none 
 of its forms is considered to be so reliable as 
 the separate maximum and minimum thermom¬ 
 eters previously described. 
 
 Upsetting Thermometers. These were in¬ 
 vented by Negretti and Zambra and have been 
 modified and improved from time to time. An 
 ordinary thermometer has its tube so bent that 
 when the thermometer is turned upside down the 
 column of mercury above the constriction will 
 run off into a separate portion of the tube, where 
 it remains until the observer can make the neces¬ 
 sary reading. The thermometer is especially 
 adapted for recording deep ocean temperatures 
 or temperatures at any hour of the night. 
 
 Clinical Thermometers. These are used to 
 determine the body temperature of animals. The 
 figure illustrates one of the more common forms 
 of mercurv in glass clinical thermometers used 
 Vol. XXII.— 14 
 
 scale inclosed in a smooth glass tube, or a 
 thermometer of the type illustrated is com¬ 
 pletely covered by a thin glass envelope. 
 
 Metallic Thermometers. These depend for 
 their action upon the differential expansion of 
 metals. As made by Breguet, 1817, or Herrman 
 and Pfister, 1865, they consist essentially of two 
 thin spiral bands of different metals soldered 
 together. Differences of temperature cause the 
 spiral to coil or uncoil and the apparatus can 
 easily be adapted for self-registration. 
 
 Optical Thermometers. The plane of polari¬ 
 zation of a quartz crystal is rotated about the 
 axis of a beam of light by the varying tempera¬ 
 ture of the quartz, increasing with great regular¬ 
 ity with the increase of temperature. This ap¬ 
 paratus is recommended by Cornu for the study 
 of high temperatures when the gas thermometer 
 fails because of the softening of the bulbs con¬ 
 taining the gas or air. 
 
 Thermoelectric Thermometers. Melloni’s 
 thermoelectric pile. Pairs of pieces of differ¬ 
 ent metals are soldered together and the ex¬ 
 tremities communicate by a wire with a needle 
 galvanometer or voltmeter. Any difference of 
 temperature between two consecutive junctions 
 causes the electric current to traverse the wire; 
 its strength is an index of the temperature. The 
 absolute value of the galvanometer scale can be 
 expressed in thermometric degrees by means of 
 careful comparisons. The thermoelectric ther¬ 
 mometer can be made to give extremely reliable 
 results. 
 
 Resistance Thermometer. Metallic conduc¬ 
 tors of electricity, such as iron, nickel, platinum, 
 and the like, change their resistance with change 
 of temperature, and this property is utilized in 
 the construction of electrical resistance ther¬ 
 mometers which have now become one of the 
 most convenient forms of secondary thermom¬ 
 eters available for precise temperature measure¬ 
 ments. On account of the permanence of its 
 properties and the wide range of temperatures 
 over which it may be employed, pure platinum 
 
THERMOMETER 
 
 THERMOMETER 
 
 204 
 
 in the form of wires or other appropriate shape 
 is generally best suited for exact work, but 
 nickel is also excellent for many purposes, es¬ 
 pecially for ordinary temperatures. One great 
 superiority of resistance thermometers is their 
 adaptability to almost any requirements and the 
 further fact that the measuring apparatus may 
 be located at some distance from the wire re¬ 
 sistance coil, the two being connected by ap¬ 
 propriate leads arranged to eliminate the ef¬ 
 fects of their resistance. A Wheatstone bridge 
 with accessories is employed to measure the 
 resistance of the platinum coil. In some cases 
 a potentiometer is employed for the same pur¬ 
 pose. The indications of resistance thermometers 
 must be reduced to the gas state by appropriate 
 corrections found by comparisons. 
 
 Thermophone. This is a resistance thermom¬ 
 eter, with which a telephone instead of a galva¬ 
 nometer is used to adjust the Wheatstone bridge 
 to a balance. The equality of resistance is indi¬ 
 cated by the absence of all sound when one lis¬ 
 tens at the telephone. This instrument, the in¬ 
 vention of G. C. Whipple, is both accurate and 
 portable and very convenient for use in boats 
 on lakes or at sea. Consult “The Thermophone,” 
 in Technology Quarterly, vol. viii, p. 25 (Bos¬ 
 ton, 1895). 
 
 Langley’s Bolometer. This is a differential 
 thermometer in which the difference of tempera¬ 
 ture of two delicate wires is shown by the de¬ 
 flections of a galvanometric needle. See Bolom- 
 
 KTER. 
 
 Deep-Sea Thermometer. This is an ordinary 
 or self-registering mercurial thermometer wholly 
 inclosed within a very strong protecting case of 
 glass. The space between the thermometer and 
 its inclosure is partly filled with water or mer¬ 
 cury above which some air remains. When this 
 arrangement is lowered to the bottom of the 
 ocean the great external pressure compresses 
 the inclosure but does not seriously affect the 
 bulb of the thermometer within. 
 
 Soil Thermometer. This was formerly made 
 with a large bulb and wide tube many feet 
 in length, so that a bulb buried at a depth of 
 even 20 feet would show the top of the liquid 
 column above the surface of the earth. As these 
 were expensive, sluggish, and liable to accident, 
 the modern practice is to use an ordinary ther¬ 
 mometer inclosed in a wooden tube and pushed 
 down to the proper depth in a hole in the 
 ground. Modern electric thermometers, espe¬ 
 cially the thermophone, are to be recommended. 
 
 Nocturnal-Radiation Thermometer. This 
 is supposed to give the approximate temperature 
 of a surface exposed to radiation during the 
 nighttime. The bulb is of glass, sometimes, but 
 not necessarily, blackened; it is fully exposed to 
 the open sky. If all terrestrial heat is cut off 
 by screens the thermometer may be made to give 
 an indication of the clearness of the sky or 
 the temperature of the air that occupies the 
 dome of the sky. If, however, no attempt is 
 made to cut off the radiation and conduction of 
 heat, the thermometers give the temperature of 
 the leaves on the trees. If the thermometer lies 
 upon the upper surface of a metal or wooden or 
 stone object, it gives approximately the tem¬ 
 perature of the upper surface layer of that ob¬ 
 ject. 
 
 Integrating Thermometer. This is intended 
 to sum up the temperature, or it may be the 
 temperature changes, during any given interval 
 of time. A clock or chronometer whose pendulum 
 
 or balance wheel is uncompensated or even in¬ 
 tentionally overcompensated has a rate that 
 varies with the temperature and becomes an ad¬ 
 mirable integrator. A metal bar, supported on 
 an inclined surface by means of sharp-pointed 
 feet at either end, creeps upward with alternat¬ 
 ing rising and falling temperatures. Each step 
 of its progress is proportional to the difference 
 between the successive maxima and minima. 
 Thus, such an arrangement will, in the course of 
 a month, sum up the daily ranges of temperature. 
 
 Evaporation Thermometer. In 1888 Dr. 
 Miiller-Erzbacli brought out a thermometer in 
 which a vessel full of water in the sunshine com¬ 
 municates with an empty vessel in the shade. 
 The water evaporated in the former condenses 
 over into the latter vessel, where it is absorbed 
 by concentrated sulphuric acid. The weight lost 
 in one vessel or gained in the other is an index 
 to the average temperature that has prevailed 
 in the water flask. Comparative observations 
 give the means of converting these weights into 
 temperatures. Experimental tests of this form 
 of integrating thermometer made at the See- 
 warte in Hamburg show that this apparatus 
 gives excellent results when the daily temper¬ 
 ature variations are not too great. 
 
 Thermographs. This term may include all 
 forms of apparatus in which continuous regis¬ 
 tration is introduced. To this end the English 
 Meteorological Office employs photography, main¬ 
 taining a continuous photographic register of the 
 variations of the top of the mercurial column. 
 The French and the United States Weather Bu¬ 
 reaus use the thermographs made by Richard at 
 Paris, in which some form of metallic thermome¬ 
 ter is attached to a pen which moves vertically 
 over a sheet of paper that is drawn horizontally 
 by clockwork so that the temperature may be 
 subsequently read off at any given moment. 
 
 Owing to the great importance of the ther¬ 
 mometer in every branch of science and the arts, 
 the principal governments of the world have es¬ 
 tablished bureaus of standards for the compari¬ 
 son and calibration of this and other forms of 
 measuring apparatus. In all cases private in¬ 
 dividuals may send their thermometers to these 
 institutions for examination and may receive 
 certificates stating the exact value of the correc¬ 
 tions for their errors if any exist. Such institu¬ 
 tions are the following: the Kew Observatory 
 at London, now a branch of the Bureau of 
 Standards; the Imperial Physical and Technical 
 Institute at Charlottenburg, near Berlin; the 
 International Bureau of Weights and Measures, 
 Paris; and the Bureau of Standards established 
 by the United States government at Washington, 
 under the Treasury Department in 1900, and 
 later transferred to the Department of Com¬ 
 merce. See Thermometry. 
 
 Bibliography. Cleveland Abbe, Meteorologi¬ 
 cal Apparatus and Methods (Washington, 1887) ; 
 Gerland and Tramiiller, Geschichte der vhysika- 
 lischen Experimentierkunst (Leipzig, 1899) ; 
 Harker and Chappuis, “Comparison of Platinum 
 and Gas Thermometers,” in Royal Society of Lon¬ 
 don, Philosophical Transactions, Series A, vol. 
 194 (London, 1900) ; H. C. Bolton, Evolution 
 of the Thermometer, 1592—11(^3 (Easton, Pa., 
 1900) ; Waidner and Burgess, Optical Pyrometry 
 (Washington, 1905) ; Paul Samel, Verwend- 
 barkeit von siede Thermometem und Quecksilber- 
 barometem zu hohenmessung (Marburg, 1910) ; 
 Dickinson and Muller, in United States Bureau of 
 Standards, Bulletin, vol. ix (Washington, 1912), 
 
THERMOMETER 
 
 205 
 
 THERMOMETER, Clinical or Medical. 
 See Thermometer. 
 
 THERMOM'ETRY (from Gk. deppnj, tlierme, 
 heat + -fierpia, -metria, measurement, from 
 li*Tpov, metron, measure). The science of as¬ 
 signing 1 proper numerical values to the tempera¬ 
 ture of bodies. As explained in Heat, this in¬ 
 volves several steps, the arbitrary selection of 
 
 (1) some substance as the thermometric body, 
 
 (2) some property of it which changes with the 
 temperature, (3) two standard thermal states, 
 e.g., melting ice and boiling water at standard 
 pressures, (4) the scale or the number of de¬ 
 grees between these standard temperatures, and 
 (5) two arbitrary numbers to represent these 
 standard temperatures. 
 
 By definition the temperature on the standard 
 hydrogen thermometer, Centigrade scale, is as 
 follows: 
 
 Hydrogen is the gas used, the initial pressure 
 being 100 cm. of mercury. Change in pressure at 
 constant volume is the effect measured. 
 
 The two standard thermal states are (1) melt¬ 
 ing ice and (2) vapor rising from boiling water 
 at normal atmospheric pressure. 
 
 One hundred degrees are chosen between these 
 two temperatures. The temperature of melting 
 ice is called 0°. Then, if p () is the pressure of the 
 gas at 0°, p 100 that at 100°, and p that at the 
 temperature (O to which a number is to be 
 given, 
 
 t = 100 
 
 V ~ Po 
 
 P100 — Po 
 
 Other gases than hydrogen might be used; and 
 the same definition would apply to temperature 
 on the new scale as on the hydrogen scale. 
 Slight differences, however, would" always be ob¬ 
 served between the numerical values for the same 
 temperatures. 
 
 If the change in volume is the heat effect ob¬ 
 served as the temperature is changed, the pres¬ 
 sure being kept constant, the obvious definition 
 of the numerical value of the temperature is 
 
 t = 100—-—, 
 
 ^ioo — Vo 
 
 where v 0 , v w0 , v are the measured values of the 
 volume of the gas or liquid at 0°, 100°, t°. 
 
 . !h e change in the electrical resistance of a 
 given conductor is the heat effect measured as 
 the temperature is changed, the definition of t is 
 
 t = 100 
 
 R — Ro 
 
 Rrn — Ro’ 
 
 where R 0 , R 100 , R are the electrical resistances at 
 0°, 100°, t°. 
 
 Similarly almost any heat effect of any body 
 may be taken as the one to measure in order to 
 secure a number for temperature; but the num¬ 
 bers so found all differ in general; and if any 
 thermometer other than the hydrogen one is 
 actually used, the observed numbers must all be 
 corrected by a calibration table connecting the 
 scale of the thermometer used with the hydrogen 
 one. 
 
 For measuring ordinary laboratory tempera¬ 
 tures either mercury-in-glass or air thermom¬ 
 eters are used; for measuring extremely low tem¬ 
 peratures, e.g., — 200° C., a hydrogen thermome¬ 
 ter or a platinum-resistance thermometer is gen¬ 
 erally used; for high temperatures, e.g., 300° C., 
 a platinum-resistance thermometer or a thermo¬ 
 couple is used. (See Pyrometer; Thermometer; 
 Thermoelectricity.) For a full discussion 
 
 THERMOMETRY 
 
 of these and other methods reference should 
 be made to the Reports of the International Con¬ 
 gress of Physics, Paris, 1900, vol. i, articles by 
 Chappuis and Barus, and specially to the publi¬ 
 cations of the National Bureau of Standards, 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
 I he scale of temperature as defined above is 
 known as the Centigrade or Celsius (q.v.) scale. 
 There are several other scales in use. The 
 Fahrenheit scale has 32° for the melting point 
 of ice and 212° for the boiling point of water; 
 the Reaumur (q.v.) scale has 0° for the former 
 temperature and 80° for the latter. 
 
 It is evident that the definition of tempera¬ 
 ture as given above is equivalent to stating that 
 in the equation connecting change of pressure 
 with change of temperature, viz., 
 
 P — Po = ap 0 t, 
 
 a is a constant, the same at all temperatures. 
 This quantity is called the coefficient of expan¬ 
 sion at constant volume. Its numerical value 
 for hydrogen is closely Writing the last 
 
 equation 
 
 P = Po (1 + at), 
 
 it is evident that if t = — 273, p = 0. For a 
 value of t less than this, the pressure would be 
 negative, which is meaningless. Therefore t = 
 
 273 is the lowest number which this instru¬ 
 ment can give; and the corresponding temperature 
 is called absolute zero on the gas scale. If 273 
 is added to the temperature as defined above on 
 the Centigrade scale, i.e., if temperatures are cal¬ 
 culated from absolute zero instead of from the 
 temperature of melting ice, the scale is called 
 the absolute gas scale. Or, in the general case, 
 the absolute gas scale adds to the temperature 
 on any scale the reciprocal of the coefficient of 
 cubical expansion of hydrogen as determined on 
 that scale—on the Centigrade scale this recipro¬ 
 cal is 273.04, and so t° C. is ( t -f 273.04)° 
 absolute. It is shown in thermodynamics (q.v.) 
 that there is a method of defining tempera¬ 
 ture which is quite independent of the ther¬ 
 mometric substance, and in which the only arbi¬ 
 trary things are 4he choice of a number for the 
 difference between the temperatures of any two. 
 thermal states. This scale is called Thomson’s ab¬ 
 solute scale, because it was proposed by William 
 Thomson (later Lord Kelvin). If it'is agreed 
 to have the temperature of freezing and boiling 
 water 100° apart, it is found that the numbers 
 on the Thomson absolute scale agree most re¬ 
 markably with those given on the absolute gas 
 scale as defined above. 
 
 In the practical use of thermometers there are 
 numerous precautions and corrections which are 
 necessary, and for these reference must be made 
 to some laboratory handbook. 
 
 The range of applicability of ordinary ther¬ 
 mometers is limited in many ways: the liquid 
 may freeze or may evaporate; the material of 
 the bulb may change its volume or it may ab¬ 
 sorb some of the gas if it is a gas thermometer, 
 etc. Thus a mercury thermometer cannot be 
 used with accuracy above about 450° C.; a hy¬ 
 drogen thermometer cannot be used above 500° 
 C.; nor a nitrogen thermometer above 1550° C.; 
 and at these high temperatures extraordinary 
 precautions are necessary if accuracy is to be 
 secured. Within recent years methods for giv¬ 
 ing numbers to temperatures much higher even 
 than these referred to have been perfected, based 
 upon laws of radiation (q.v.). It has been shown 
 
THERMOMETRY 
 
 206 
 
 THERMOMETRY 
 
 from theory that there are two laws connecting 
 temperature with the radiation from a black 
 body. These may be stated as follows: 
 
 1. The total radiation from 1 sq. con., E = aT 4 . 
 
 2. The radiation associated with waves whose 
 wave lengths lie between X and X + dk, Jd\ = 
 c _JL 
 
 — e xrd\, provided the waves are short, i.e., vis- 
 X 5 
 
 ible. Where T is the absolute temperature on 
 Thomson’s scale, X is the wave length, e is the 
 base of the natural system of logarithms, and 
 a, b, and c are constants. Calling 7' 273 + t° 
 C., it is possible to test the laws by meas¬ 
 uring the radiation from black bodies whose 
 temperatures are determined by nitrogen ther¬ 
 mometers. In this way the values of the con¬ 
 stants a, 1), and c may be deduced. Then, in 
 order to determine the temperature of any 
 black body at any temperature, no matter how 
 high, either the total or the partial radiation 
 may be measured; and since the constants are 
 now known, the value of T may be deduced. 
 This scale of temperature is called the radiation 
 scale. It is obvious that the method just indi¬ 
 cated can be applied to studying the temperatures 
 of black bodies only. But, if there is any body 
 at a high temperature, it must be possible to 
 have a black body at a somewhat lower tempera¬ 
 ture whose total radiation is the same as that 
 of the former, in which case, if the total radia¬ 
 tion from this is measured and T calculated, it 
 is the temperature not of the body but of the 
 equivalent black body—this T is less than the 
 temperature of the body, and is called its black- 
 body temperature with total radiation. Simi¬ 
 larly, if a partial radiation method were used, a 
 value of T would have been found, less than 
 the actual temperature, called the black-body 
 temperature with radiation of a definite wave 
 length. C. E. Mendenhall has devised a method 
 by which for different metals it is possible to 
 find the difference between their true temperature 
 and their black-body temperature: and so, if the 
 latter is observed, the former may be deduced. 
 
 Several types of instruments have been con¬ 
 structed for obtaining black-body temperatures: 
 one set making use of the Stefan-Boltzmann 
 law E — aT 4 ; the other, of Wien’s law 
 
 J = —.e xt. 
 
 One of the best known of the former is the 
 Fery radiation pyrometer, which is essentially 
 an instrument for measuring total radiation. 
 This is allowed to fall upon a blackened disk 
 whose temperature is read by a thermocouple. 
 In practice the instrument is calibrated by meas¬ 
 uring the E. M. F. of the thermocouple when the 
 instrument is exposed to radiation from a black 
 body whose temperature can be varied and 
 measured. Then, when the instrument is directed 
 to the body whose temperature is desired, the 
 E. jVT. F. is measured and the corresponding tem¬ 
 perature found from the calibration values. 
 
 c & 
 
 In the use of Wien’s equation J = —e XT, 
 
 where the partial radiation only is studied, X 
 is a constant, and the equation can be put in 
 
 the more convenient form log J=A—yp, where 
 
 for a known value of X, both A and B are known 
 constants. Therefore, to determine T it is neces¬ 
 sary to measure J. There are two well-known 
 instruments in ordinary use, the Wanner and 
 
 the Holborn-Kurlbaum optical pyrometers. In 
 the former instrument the light from the body 
 whose temperature is desired and also that from 
 a standard electric lamp is dispersed by a prism 
 (or passed through a colored screen, e.g., a piece 
 of colored glass), and only light of one color 
 used; and that from the standard lamp is weak¬ 
 ened in intensity by known fractions until it 
 equals that from the hot body; then the in¬ 
 tensity of the standard lamp is compared with 
 that of the light of the same color from a 
 black body of a known temperature, one being 
 altered by known fractions until they are equal. 
 Thus, by the use of the above formula, the value 
 of T may be deduced. What this procedure 
 really amounts to is this: by the latter observa¬ 
 tion the intensity of the standard source is 
 measured, since A, B, and T are known; by the 
 first observation the intensity of the light from 
 the body whose temperature is desired is meas¬ 
 ured in terms of that from the standard source 
 -—then, since J, A, and B are known, T may be 
 deduced. In comparing the intensities of the 
 two lights, a polarization photometer is used. 
 
 The Holborn-Kurlbaum instrument is essen¬ 
 tially a telescope containing in the focus of the 
 eyepiece the filament of an electric lamp, the 
 current through which can be varied. Light of 
 one color is secured for all the observations by 
 the use of absorbing screens. In order to cali¬ 
 brate the instrument, it is pointed so as to re¬ 
 ceive the radiation from a black body whose 
 temperature can be varied and can be measured; 
 the instrument is focused so as to bring the 
 light from the black body into focus exactly 
 in the plane of the filament of the lamp; the 
 current through this is varied until the filament 
 disappears against the background, showing that 
 the intensities of the two are equal. The tem¬ 
 perature of the black body and the current in 
 the lamp are noted; the former is changed and 
 the corresponding current is observed, etc. Then, 
 to determine the black-body temperature of 
 any surface, the instrument is focused upon it 
 and the value of the current in the lamp is ob¬ 
 served, which corresponds to the disappearance 
 of the filament; by means of the calibration the 
 temperature may be deduced at once. The in¬ 
 strument may be used in a different manner by 
 applying a revolving sectored disk to low r er the 
 intensity of the light. 
 
 History. The invention of the thermometer 
 must be attributed to Galileo, who in about the 
 year 1593 made an open-air thermoscope, con¬ 
 sisting of a bulb with a long tube attached, 
 which was provided with a scale and dipped 
 below the surface of a liquid—water or wine; 
 some of the air was expelled from the bulb, and 
 so the liquid rose in the tube. This thermometer 
 v r as used by Galileo for various purposes, such 
 as studying freezing mixtures and recording at¬ 
 mospheric temperatures. It was later used 
 (1611) by Sanctorius in the diagnosis cf fevers. 
 The v r ord “thermoscope” was used by Bianconi 
 in 1617 and “thermometer” in 1624 byLeurechon. 
 The first scaled thermometers were those of 
 Ferdinand II, Grand Duke of Tuscany (1641) ; 
 these contained alcohol. In 1661 Fabri made a 
 scale, using as the fixed temperatures those of 
 snow and of midsummer heat. Robert Hooke in 
 1664 proposed the freezing point of water as one 
 of the fixed temperatures; and in 1694 Renal - 
 dini proposed this as one, and the boiling point 
 of v r ater as the other. In 1709 Fahrenheit in¬ 
 troduced his alcohol thermometers, and in 1714 
 
THERMOPHORE 
 
 207 THEROMORPHA 
 
 his mercury ones. About 1731 Reaumur devised 
 his scale, which until recently was in extensive 
 use on the continent of Europe. In 1742 Celsius 
 proposed a Centigrade scale, with the tempera¬ 
 tures of melting ice 100° and boiling water 0°. 
 Christin, working independently of Celsius, pro¬ 
 posed a Centigrade scale in 1743 which is the 
 Celsius scale inverted, and is the one used now. 
 See Radiation; Thermometer. For bibliogra¬ 
 phy, see Thermometer. 
 
 THER'MOPHONE. See Thermometer. 
 THER'MOPILE. See Thermoelectricity. 
 
 THERMOPTL^l (Lat., from Gk. QepgoTrvXcu, 
 from Oepgos, thermos, hot + -rrvXa, pyla, gate). 
 A pass famous in ancient Greek history, leading 
 from Thessaly into Loeris, named from the pres¬ 
 ence of several hot springs (Map: Greece, An¬ 
 cient, C 2). It lies south of the present course of 
 the river Sperchius, between Mount (Eta and the 
 Maliac Gulf. In ancient times it was only a nar¬ 
 row track, less than 50 feet wide, but the alluvial 
 deposits have altered the coast line so that there 
 is now a broad swampy plain from a mile and a 
 half to three miles broad. Thermopylae has won 
 an eternal celebrity as the scene of the heroic 
 death of Leonidas I (q.v.) and his three hundred 
 Spartans in their attempt to. stem the tide of 
 Persian invasion (480 b.c.). But he was be¬ 
 trayed by Ephialtes, a Thessalian, into the hands 
 of the Persians, who advanced by a path over the 
 mountains and fell upon his rear. In 279 b.c. 
 a large army of Greeks held Brennus and his 
 Gauls at bay until they also found a path over 
 the mountains. The Greeks, however, escaped on 
 their fleet. Again, in 191 b.c., Antiochus en¬ 
 deavored to check the Romans at this point, but 
 Cato stormed the fortress which commanded the 
 path, and, aided by a frontal attack of the main 
 force, routed the Syrian army. Consult Herodo¬ 
 tus, vii, 175 ff., with the commentary by Messrs. 
 How and Wells, vol. ii (Oxford, 1912),'and that 
 by Macan (London, 1908). Consult G. B. 
 Grundy, The Great Persian War (London, 1893) ; 
 K. Baedeker, Greece (4th Eng. ed., Leipzig, 1909) . 
 
 THERMOS BOTTLE. See Liquefaction of 
 Gases. 
 
 THER'MOSCOPE (from Gk. depyri, therme, 
 heat + (TKoireiv, skopein, to look). A device to 
 indicate relative temperatures by making use of 
 the property possessed by substances of changing 
 their state or volume under the influence of heat. 
 See Thermometer. 
 
 THER'MOTHER'APY. See Hot-Air Treat¬ 
 ment; Therapeutics. 
 
 THERMOTROPISM (from Gk. 6 epy V , 
 therme, heat + rpoirp, trope, a turning, from 
 rpeireiv, trepein, to turn). Primarily, the sen¬ 
 sitiveness of plant organs to unequal tempera¬ 
 tures on opposite flanks which causes them to 
 bend (positively) towards or (negatively) away 
 from the higher temperature. The same organ 
 may be both positively and negatively thermo¬ 
 tropic at different ranges of temperature. 
 
 THEROIGNE DE MERICOURT, ta'rwan'y’ 
 de ma'rC'koor' (1762—97). A prominent figure 
 during the French Revolution. She was born at 
 Marcourt, near Li6ge. Her true name was Anne 
 Josephe Terwagne. Knowing all the leaders 
 of the Revolution, she became an enthusiastic 
 Republican and the commander of the mobs of 
 women that played such a conspicuous part in the 
 dramatic days of the Revolution. Armed with 
 sabre and pistol, she led her feminine battalions 
 against the Bastille, July 14, 1789, to Versailles 
 on October 5-6 of the same year, and after her 
 
 return from an Austrian prison was prominent 
 during the disturbances on June 20 and Aug. 
 10, 1792. In May, 1793, while defending the 
 Girondist Brissot, her lover, she was seized, 
 stripped, and whipped by a mob of maddened 
 women. She became insane from this treat¬ 
 ment, and spent the rest of her life in La 
 Salpetriere. 
 
 THE'ROMORTHA (Neo-Lat. nom. pi., from 
 Gk. Oyp, ther, wild beast -f- yopcpr], morphe, 
 form). A name applied to several widely dis¬ 
 similar groups of fossil reptiles which possess 
 certain common characters of skull, vertebrae, 
 limb girdles, and digital formula. Another or¬ 
 dinary name, Anomodontia, is often used syn¬ 
 onymously with Theromorpha. The theromorphs, 
 together with the turtles and plesiosaurs, com¬ 
 pose the great reptilian division Synapsida (Os¬ 
 born), characterized by certain * mammal-like 
 features of the skull and the mammalian digital 
 formula. All known theromorph remains have 
 been found in the rocks of Permian and Triassic 
 age. They were for the most part animals of 
 rather heavy build, adapted to land life and 
 sluggish habit, though one group appears to have 
 been marine. The following suborders are com¬ 
 monly recognized: 
 
 (1) Cotylosauria or Pareiasauria. A group 
 of reptiles having a solid cranial roof with a 
 large pineal foramen, and usually with teeth on 
 the vomer, pterygoid, and palatine bones. It is 
 probable that these forms stand closest to the 
 ancestral Stegocephalia or armored Amphibia. 
 
 skull or a theriodont ( GdleSdlirus ). 
 
 The best-known example is Pareiasaurus, from 
 the Karoo beds of South Africa, a heavily built 
 land animal, 8 feet long. (2) Theriodontia. 
 A group which closely resembles mammals in the 
 differentiation of the teeth into incisors, canines, 
 and molars, and in certain features of the skull. 
 Most genera have a distinctly carnivorous denti¬ 
 tion, but a few, the Gomphodontia, have crush¬ 
 ing molars. Nearly all the known theriodonts 
 are from the South African Trias. Cynognathus, 
 in which the skull is remarkably doglike, 
 equaled the black bear in size and general pro¬ 
 portions. Many zoologists believe that mammals 
 have been derived from theriodonts. (3) Di- 
 cynodontia. Land reptiles from the Trias of 
 Scotland and South Africa, known chiefly from 
 the skull, which is greatly modified, having the 
 teeth entirely wanting, as in Udenodon, or re¬ 
 duced to a single pair of large tusks in the 
 upper jaw, as in Dicynodon and Gordonia. 
 
 More recent research seems to show that it is 
 advisable to separate the Cotylosauria from the 
 mammal-like reptiles proper, and to place these 
 latter in an order, Therapsida. This order mav 
 be subdivided into five groups or suborders. 
 (1) Dinocephalians. These form a well- 
 marked group of large, heavily built, herbiv¬ 
 orous reptiles, which occur in South Africa and 
 Russia, and are especially interesting from their 
 forming a connecting link in essential structure 
 between tbe pelecosaurs of America and the 
 more mammal-like reptiles of South Africa. (2) 
 Dromasaurlans. A group of small, ratlike run- 
 
THERON 
 
 208 
 
 THESEUS 
 
 ning reptiles, which form the earliest-known 
 direct ancestors of the mammals. (3) Anomo- 
 dontia. Synonymous with the Dicynodontia 
 above mentioned. (4) Therocephalians. A 
 group of carnivorous reptiles living in Middle 
 and Upper Permian times in South Africa and 
 Russia. Though in many points of structure 
 they closely agree with the anomodonts, they 
 have a series of pointed incisors, one or two 
 large canines, and a number of small, pointed 
 molar teeth. (5) Cynodontia. These are the 
 extremely mammal-like carnivorous reptiles 
 which flourished in Middle and Upper Triassic 
 times in South Africa. They resemble the mam¬ 
 mals in the complicated structure of the molar 
 teeth, in the structure of the skull, and in the 
 joints of the toes, and there is little doubt 
 that the later mammals are descended from a 
 member of this order. 
 
 THERON (Lat., from Gk. Qypwv) ( ?-472 
 b.c. ). A tyrant of Agrigentum (q.v.), c.488- 
 472 b.c. He aided Gelon (q.v.) to win the great 
 victory over the Carthaginians at Himera, in 
 480 b.c. (See Sicily, History.) Consult G. 
 Grote, Greece, chap, xliii, and E. A. Freeman, 
 History of Sicily, 4 vols. (Oxford, 1891-94). 
 
 THEROP'ODA. See Dinosauria. 
 
 THERSITES, ther-sl'tez (Lat., from Gk. 
 OepaLrys) . In the Iliad, ii, the ugliest and most 
 impudent talker among the Greeks assembled 
 before Troy. He is represented as reviling Aga¬ 
 memnon and Achilles, and is beaten by Odysseus 
 for his insolence. Later writers said he was a 
 son of Agrios, brother of Gineus, and was slain 
 by Achilles, whom he had mocked after the death 
 of Pentliesilea. 
 
 THERY, Edmond (1854- ). A French 
 
 economist, born at Rognac. He was sent by his 
 government to various countries on economic 
 missions, was president of several societies, and 
 was made Commander of the Legion of Honor. 
 He wrote: Sous Vuniforme (1879); Les re¬ 
 formes economiques necessaires (1885); La 
 crise des changes (1894) ; Les valeurs mobilieres 
 en France (1897) ; Europe et Etats-Unis d’Ame- 
 rique (1899) ; Le peril jaune (1901) ; La France 
 economique et financiere pendant le dernier quart 
 de sieole (1900 ) ; La paix armee (1903) ; Etudes 
 economiques et financieres, 1890-1903 (1904); 
 La banque de France de 1897 d 1909 (1910) ; 
 L’Europe economique (1911); La fo'i'tune pub- 
 lique de France (1912); Le regime actuel des 
 chemins de fer en Russie (1913). 
 
 THESAU'RUS. See Dictionary. 
 
 THESE'UM. See Athens. 
 
 THESEUS, the'sus or the'se-us (Lat., from 
 Gk. Qgaevs ). The national hero of the Athe¬ 
 nians, and, next to Hercules, the most famous 
 character of Greek legend. His story owes its 
 prominence largely to the influence of Athens 
 in Greek art and literature, for in the epic The¬ 
 seus has but small place. A doubtful verse in 
 the Iliads associates him, not with Athens, but 
 with the Thessalian Lapithae and their conflict 
 with the Centaurs, and he appears in the late 
 passage of the Odyssey (book xi), which de¬ 
 scribes the visit of Odj’sseus to the lower world. 
 The early art knows only the slaying of the 
 Minotaur (q.v.), and seems to have borrowed 
 the type from Mycenaean tradition. Though a 
 thoroughly satisfactory analysis of the Theseus 
 legend is still lacking, it seems probable that it 
 was closely connected with the Marathonian 
 tetrapolis, then crossed to Trcezen, whence it re¬ 
 turned to Athens. Its first great development 
 
 occurred under the Pisistratidae, when Theseus 
 was recognized as the uniter of Attica, and the 
 type of the gentle and just ruler, beloved of his 
 people, a sort of mythical predecessor of Pisis- 
 tratus. (See Athens, History, first para¬ 
 graph.) Soon after the Persian Avars the 
 democracy transformed him into its real founder 
 who protected the injured from other states and 
 forced Creon and Eurystheus to observe justice 
 and humanity. At this time (473 b.c.) his 
 reputed bones were brought from Scyros to 
 Athens with great pomp by Cimon, and an 
 lierobn, the Theseum (q.v.), Avas erected. In 
 origin, Theseus is probably best considered as a 
 beneficent deity, a local parallel to Hercules, 
 who slays monsters and gives peace and security 
 to his Avorshipers, but, like other nature divini¬ 
 ties, descends into the loAver world and is subject 
 to the poAvers of death. Legend made Theseus 
 the son of iEtlira, daughter of Pittheus, King 
 of Trcezen. His father Avas commonly said to be 
 iEgeus, King of Athens, though early legend rec¬ 
 ognized the paternity of Poseidon. (The tAvo 
 versions are really the same, HCgeus being origi¬ 
 nally a name of the sea god.) He Avas brought up 
 at Trcezen, and on reaching manhood proceeded 
 to his father’s residence at Athens. On his Avay 
 thither across the isthmus he destroyed robbers 
 and monsters Avho rendered the route unsafe for 
 travelers, such as Periphetes, Sinis, the Crom- 
 myonian soav, Sciron, Cercyon, and Procrustes. 
 (See Procrustes.) On his arrival in Athens he 
 found the sorceress Medea (q.v.) living as his 
 father’s wife, and escaped her attempt to poison 
 him only through iEgeus’ timely recognition of 
 his own SAVord and sandals, AA T hich he had left 
 in Trcezen for his son. Medea fled and Theseus 
 overcame Pallas and his sons, who attempted to 
 secure the royal poAver. He also bound the Mara¬ 
 thonian bull, Avhich Avas ravaging the tetrap¬ 
 olis. Then came the expedition to Crete to 
 deliver Athens from its tribute to the Minotaur 
 (q.v.). On this voyage he proved his descent 
 from Poseidon by bringing back the ring of 
 Minos from the depths of the sea, and by the 
 help of Ariadne (q.v.) killed the Minotaur. On 
 his Avay back he founded a festival of Apollo at 
 Delos, to which the Athenians ever after sent an 
 annual embassy. 
 
 As his father, iEgeus, had destroyed himself in 
 the belief that his son had perished in Crete, 
 Theseus noAv became King of Athens and con¬ 
 solidated into one state the tAvelve independent 
 communities of Attica, in celebration of which 
 event was instituted the festival of the Panathe- 
 ntea (q.v.). That the festival commemorated such 
 an event is probable, but this does not proA 7 e the 
 historical personality of Theseus. Legend also 
 told of his friendship for the Lapith King Piri- 
 thofis, at Avhose Avedding he fought the Centaurs 
 (see Lapith^e ), with A\ r hose aid he carried off 
 Helen to Aphidna, and with AAdiom he finally 
 descended to the loAver world that his friend 
 might carry off Persephone as his bride. Piri- 
 thoiis never returned, and Theseus remained in 
 captivity till Hercules, on his quest for Cerberus, 
 prevailed on Hades to release him. Athenian 
 legend also told of the great invasion of the 
 Amazons (q.v.) in his reign, of the straits to 
 Avhich they reduced the Athenians, and of their 
 final rout by the hero, aa t ]io secured as Avife 
 their queen, Antiope or Hippolyta (q.v.), by 
 whom he had a son, Hippolytus. Later he mar¬ 
 ried Phaedra (q.v.), daughter of Minos and 
 sister of Ariadne. It was said that during his 
 
209 
 
 THESMOPHORIA 
 
 absence in the lower world Menestheus, with the 
 help of Castor and Pollux, who had come to res¬ 
 cue Helen, made himself King, and that Theseus, 
 unable to reestablish his authority, went to Scy- 
 ros, where he was murdered by Lycomedes 
 (q.v.). Much in the character of Theseus as it 
 appears in legend seems due to Athenian de¬ 
 sire to represent their national hero as the 
 embodiment in heroic times of the virtues on 
 which they prided themselves in historic times, 
 and which the great heroes of the national epic 
 often conspicuously lacked. Consult: J. E. Har¬ 
 rison, Mythology and Monuments of Ancient 
 Athens (London, 1890); Otto Gruppe, Griech- 
 ische Mythologie und Religionsgescliichte (2 
 yols., Munich, 1896) ; and the article “Theseus” 
 in Friedrich Liibker, Reallexikon des klassischen 
 Altertums (8th ed., Leipzig, 1914). 
 
 THES'MOFHO'RIA. See Greek Festivals. 
 THES'MQFHOR'XAZTUSiE (Lat., from Gk. 
 Qe<jfio(popiat;ov<jai, Th esm op horiazousai, women 
 
 celebrating the Thesmophoria). A comedy by 
 Aristophanes (about 410 b.c.). It is aimed 
 against Euripides for his innovations and his 
 dislike for women, on account of which he is 
 dragged to justice by women taking part in the 
 Thesmophoria. 
 
 THESPE'SIUS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. Qeairecnos, 
 divinely sounding, divine). An herbivorous 
 ornithopod dinosaur, allied to Hadrosaurus and 
 Iguanodon, which it closely resembles, found 
 fossil in the Upper Cretaceous beds of Colorado, 
 Wyoming, and Montana. It is a large animal, 
 25 to 30 feet long and 10 to 15 feet high, with 
 medium-sized head, small, almost useless fore 
 limbs, and well-developed three-toed hind limbs 
 upon which it ran in bipedal motion, using its 
 heavy tail to balance the forward portion of the 
 body. Another namq for this creature is Clao- 
 eaurus. A complete skeleton of this animal, 
 mounted as if in the act of running, is in the 
 museum of Yale University. Consult: O. C. 
 Marsh, “The Dinosaurs of North America,” in 
 Annual Report of the United States Geological 
 Survey, vol. xvi, part i (Washington, 1896) ; 
 Beecher, “The Reconstruction of a Cretaceous 
 Dinosaur, Claosaurus annectans Marsh,” in 
 Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of 
 Sciences, vol. xi (New Haven, 1902). See 
 Dinosauria. 
 
 THES'PLffi (Lat., from Gk. Oetrireial, Thes- 
 peiai, Oeamal, Tliespiai), or Thespia. An an¬ 
 cient town in Boeotia, near the foot of Mount 
 Helicon. Like Plataea (q.v.), it was hostile to 
 the Theban pretension to supremacy in Boeotia 
 (see Thebes), and these two were the only 
 Boeotian cities which refused to give earth and 
 water to the heralds of Xerxes and did not side 
 with the Persians at the battle of Salamis. Seven 
 hundred Thespians joined Leonidas at Ther¬ 
 mopylae (q.v.), and were slain in defending the 
 pass. Thespiss was burned by Xerxes, but was 
 subsequently rebuilt. Shortly after the battle 
 of Leuctra (371 b.c.) it was again destroyed, 
 and was afterward a second time restored. Here 
 was preserved a marble statue of Eros by Prax¬ 
 iteles (q.v.). On account of the vicinity of 
 Mount Helicon to the town the Muses were 
 called ThespiaMes. The site of the ancient town 
 was near the modern village of Eremokastro. 
 
 THES'PIS (Lat., from Gk. Oea-TTLs ). A na¬ 
 tive of the Attic deme of Icarus in the sixth cen¬ 
 tury b.c., called the father of Greek tragedy. He 
 introduced an actor to reply to the leader of 
 the chorus, who before had recited the adven- 
 
 THESSALONIANS 
 
 tures of Dionysus and had been answered by the 
 chorus, and thus made an important step towards 
 the drama. 
 
 TIIES'SALO'NIANS, Epistles to the. Two 
 °f. ^ ie Pauline group of New Testament 
 epistles. At Ihessalonica, the modern Salonika, 
 then the capital of the Roman Province of Mace¬ 
 donia, a Christian church was founded by Paul, 
 assisted by Silas (Silvanus), about 50 a.d., on 
 the Apostle’s second missionary journey (cf. 
 Acts xvii. 1-9). This church was composed, like 
 most of Paul s churches, of a small number of 
 converts from the local Jewish synagogue, to¬ 
 gether with a much larger number of Gentile 
 Christians. The Jews of the city, however, be¬ 
 came so violently hostile that the missionaries, 
 after a stay of not more than a few months, felt 
 that it was best to leave, although the church 
 was still very immature. From Beroea, the next 
 stopping place of the missionaries, Paul was 
 driven by persecution started by Jews from Thes¬ 
 salonica. He went on to Athens and eventually to 
 Corinth, where he remained a year and a half ("un¬ 
 til the fall of 51 a.d.). Anxious and uncertain 
 over the condition of things at Thessalonica, from 
 Athens Paul sent Timothy thither to strengthen 
 and comfort the infant church (1 Thess. iii. 1-2). 
 Timothy rejoined Paul at Corinth with a report 
 that rejoiced the Apostle’s heart. The young 
 church was indeed tried and persecuted, but 
 thoroughly loyal to the faith and full of love 
 for the missionaries. At the same time Paul 
 perceived that on certain matters the church 
 was in sore need of sound advice. Unable to 
 go to it in person, he sent a letter, now known 
 as 1^ Thessalonians, probably the earliest of 
 Paul s letters still extant. Though written in 
 the name of the three missionaries (i. 1), the 
 letter was essentially Paul’s own. After the 
 usual epistolary greeting (i. 1) the writers 
 fervently thank God as they recall how heartily 
 the Thessalonians had received the gospel mes¬ 
 sage, and for their exemplary devotion to the 
 gospel ever since (i. 2-10). Fearing lest their 
 sudden departure from Thessalonica might have 
 given rise to suspicions or even charges that 
 they were impostors, the missionaries protest 
 their sincerity and unselfish love, which must 
 have been evident to all the brethren (ii. 1-12), 
 and are thankful that their message had been 
 received as the word of God, although persecu¬ 
 tion was the result (ii. 13-16). They are re¬ 
 minded how Paul had earnestly desired to re¬ 
 visit them but was prevented (ii. 17-20). He 
 had therefore sent Timothy (iii. 1-5), who had 
 just returned with a most comforting report 
 (iii. 6-10). He prays that he may be guided to 
 see them again and that they may be preserved 
 perfect unto the end (iii. 11-13). The letter 
 now becomes less personal and more didactic. 
 The readers are reminded that they must live 
 pure and holy lives (iv. 1-8) and abound in 
 brotherly love (iv. 9-12). Those who had re¬ 
 cently been bereaved and were in fear that be¬ 
 lievers who died before the Parousia would not 
 share in its glory and blessing are comforted by 
 the assurance that such will not be the case 
 (iv. 13-18). The teaching is added that the 
 Parousia, though it will come suddenly, will 
 bring no disaster to those who are watchful 
 and faithful (v. 1-11). After a number of brief 
 practical exhortations the letter closes with a 
 prayer, injunction as to its being read to all, 
 and a benediction (v. 12-28). The whole letter 
 doubtless reflects the general character of Tim- 
 
THESSALONIANS 
 
 210 
 
 THESSALY 
 
 othy’s report of conditions at Thessalonica. But 
 it is more than a message based on that report. 
 It also reflects and unveils the Apostle’s own 
 state of mind as he thought of himself and his 
 message in connection with that little company 
 of believers, bereft of his counsel and subject 
 to trial and persecution. The epistle is a most 
 valuable witness to Paul's love for and devotion 
 to his converts. The absence of doctrinal dis¬ 
 cussion incidentally reveals how comparatively 
 simple Paul’s missionary preaching was. This 
 infant church, but a few months old, was not 
 prepared for such deep discussions as are con¬ 
 tained in Romans. 1 Thessalonians bears on its 
 face so unmistakably the stamp of genuineness 
 that it is accepted as Paul’s by practically all 
 modern scholars. 
 
 This letter, no doubt, was eagerly read by the 
 believers at Thessalonica and its admonitions 
 heeded. In the meantime Paul was busy with 
 his missionary work in Corinth. During this 
 period Paul iearned, presumably through mes¬ 
 sengers from Thessalonica, that while the gen¬ 
 eral condition of the church there was satis¬ 
 factory, yet on some points it was in need of 
 further instruction or admonition. In particu¬ 
 lar the expectation of the speedy second coming 
 of Christ was causing some a great deal of 
 anxiety, and in other cases leading to the ex¬ 
 pression of startling views. Paul’s teaching on 
 this subject was as yet only imperfectly under¬ 
 stood. What he had said on this matter in his 
 first letter had produced on some an effect other 
 than that intended by the Apostle. Certain 
 ones, perhaps those of a more excitable tempera¬ 
 ment, were asserting that the Parousia was im¬ 
 mediately impending (cf. 2 Thess. ii. 2), even 
 claiming (so it was told Paul) that letters from 
 Paul contained such teaching. Such agitation 
 led some to neglect their everyday duty (cf. 
 2 Thess. iii. 10) or to be less careful to main¬ 
 tain that high moral standard of conduct that 
 Paul always made absolutely essential (cf. 
 2 Thess. iii. 6-15). On the other hand, the 
 way Paul had emphasized (in 1 Thess. v. 1-11) 
 the idea that the day of the Lord would take 
 swift vengeance on all the wicked had apparently 
 led some oversensitive souls to be discouraged 
 and feel that they were unworthy of being in¬ 
 cluded among the blessed ones destined to be 
 ‘‘ever with the Lord” after his Parousia. 
 Mainly, then, to reassure the timid and dis¬ 
 heartened, to discourage unwarranted expecta¬ 
 tion as to the immediateness of the second ad¬ 
 vent, and to give helpful, practical advice, such 
 was the purpose of Paul in writing 2 Thessalon¬ 
 ians. The encouraging character of the extended 
 thanksgiving section (i. 3-12), the special dis¬ 
 cussion of the Parousia (ii. 1-12), in which it is 
 explained that first there must be a great mani¬ 
 festation of wickedness which is now held in 
 restraint (by the Roman government with its 
 insistence on law and order?), the words of en¬ 
 couragement in ii. 13—16, and the practical ad¬ 
 vice in iii.—all these appear perfectly natural 
 and in order in the light of such a purpose. 
 
 The Pauline authorship of 2 Thessalonians has 
 been seriously questioned. At present, however, 
 the acceptance of it as Paul’s lias become more 
 general. The grounds for assigning it to some 
 post-Pauline writer which are entitled to serious 
 consideration are in the main two: (a) the many 
 close resemblances to 1 Thessalonians in vocabu¬ 
 lary and style, and (6) the difference between 
 the two letters in the treatment of the subject 
 
 of the Parousia (1 Thess. iv. 13-v. 11, compared 
 with 2 Thess. ii. 1-12). The significance of 
 (a) is thought to be that it indicates the work 
 of a forger, using 1 Thessalonians as his model, 
 while (b) is said to prove diversity of authorship. 
 For a full discussion of these points the reader 
 is referred to the commentaries noted below. 
 The explanation given above of the purpose of 
 2 Thessalonians fully meets, it is believed, these 
 objections. 
 
 In both letters Paul the missionary is revealed 
 as in no other of his extant letters. The general 
 character of his missionary preaching, his large 
 sympathy and his patience with the faults and 
 limitations of his converts, his high hopes for 
 and ideal confidence in them, his anxious care for 
 their moral and spiritual welfare, his firm in¬ 
 sistence on morality (purity, temperance, in¬ 
 dustry, honesty, etc.), and, behind all, the 
 Apostle’s own personal consecration and faith— 
 for all this the Epistles to the Thessalonians 
 will ever remain among the most precious me¬ 
 morials of the apostolic age. 
 
 Bibliography. The earlier literature on these 
 Epistles is amply reviewed in the larger modern 
 commentaries and need not be cited here. Con¬ 
 sult: the Introductions of Theodor Zahn (Ed¬ 
 inburgh, 1909) and of James Moffatt (New 
 York, 1911), and for commentaries: W. Borne- 
 mann in the Meyer series (6th ed., Gottingen, 
 1894) ; George Milligan (London, 1908) ; E. von 
 Dobschiitz in the Meyer series (Ttli ed., Gottin¬ 
 gen, 1909), in many respects the best modern 
 commentary on these Epistles; James Moffatt, 
 in Expositor’s Greeh Testament (New York, 
 1910) ; J. E. Frame, in International Critical 
 Commentary (ib., 1912). 
 
 THES'SALQNFCA (Gk. QeaaaXovlKy ). An 
 ancient Greek city, on the northeastern shore 
 of the Tliermaic Gulf ill Mygdonia. Tradi¬ 
 tion told of an early city, Eumathia or Halia, 
 on this site, but the historical Greek city ap¬ 
 pears in Herodotus and Thucydides as Thermae, a 
 name due to the presence of hot springs in the 
 neighborhood. The exact origin of the later 
 name, which appears in Polybius, is uncertain. 
 Most probable is the story of Strabo, that the 
 town was enlarged and in part rebuilt in 315 b.c. 
 by Cassander, who gave it the name of his wife, 
 Thessalonica, the daughter of Philip of Macedon. 
 Its strong fortifications enabled it to repel a 
 Roman attack, and after the Roman conquest of 
 Macedonia (146 b.c.) it became one of the chief 
 cities of the province. Situated on the great Via 
 Egnatia, it attracted a large trade by land and 
 sea, while the support given to Mark Antony 
 and Octavian seems to have made it a free city. 
 It contained a considerable Jewish colony, and 
 was the seat of a Christian church, founded by 
 the Apostle Paul. It was severely punished by 
 the Emperor Theodosius I, when 7000 citizens 
 are said to have perished because of an uprising, 
 but appears in the later history of the Empire 
 as a strong defense against the Goths and Slavs. 
 It was, however, captured by the Saracens in 
 904 a.d., by the Normans in 1185, and finally by 
 the Turks in 1430. For the modern city, see 
 Saloniki. 
 
 THES'SALY (Lat. Thessalia, from Gk. 9e<r- 
 craXta, Attic 9erraXta, Thettalia, Thessaly, from 
 9eo-<xaX6s, Thessalos, Attic 9erraXos, Thettalos, 
 Thessalian). The largest division of ancient 
 Greece, separated on the north from Macedonia 
 by the Cambunian Mountains, and on the west 
 from Epirus by the Pindus range. The JEgean 
 
THESSALY 
 
 211 
 
 THETIS 
 
 Sea is on the east. (Map: Greece, Ancient, C 
 2.) J hough Achaea, yEnis, and Malis can prop¬ 
 erly be included in the general term, Thessaly 
 proper reaches only to the range which extends 
 from Pindus to the head of the Pagasaean Gulf. 
 Others, who include Achaea (Phthiotis), call 
 Mount Othrys the southern boundary. Thessaly 
 proper is a vast plain shut in on every side by 
 mountains; on the north and the west by those 
 already named, and on the east by mounts 
 Pelion and Ossa, the only opening being the Vale 
 of Tempe (q.v.) in the northeast between Ossa 
 and Olympus. The plain of Thessaly is said at 
 one time to have been a vast lake, the waters of 
 which found an outlet by the Vale of Tempe. 
 r J his plain is drained chiefly by the river Peneus 
 (now Salambria) and its tributaries, and is the 
 most fertile in all Greece; it produced in ancient 
 times abundance of grain and cattle, and a breed 
 of horses considered the finest in Greece, and it 
 still yields large crops. 
 
 History. In the epic, Thessaly seems inhab¬ 
 ited by a number of tribes, among whom are the 
 Pelasgians of the Peneus valley, and the Ach- 
 ceans and Hellenes in the south. During the 
 migrations that marked the period between the 
 heroic age and that of historical Greece, tribes 
 from the mountains of Epirus and the north 
 pushed into this region, driving out or subju¬ 
 gating the inhabitants. Part of these latter 
 migrated to Asia Minor, where they colonized 
 ,/Eolis. The Boeotians, too, were said to have 
 been crowded out by the newcomers, blit it is 
 probable that Boeotians and Phocians were really 
 the vanguard of the invaders. The conquerors 
 settled in the Peneus valley, reducing the orig¬ 
 inal owners to serfs of the soil, who cultivated 
 the land on their own account, paying a fixed 
 proportion to the owners. These Penestse, as 
 they were called, could not be sold out of the 
 (Country nor put to death without a trial. The 
 Thessalians themselves constituted a landed no¬ 
 bility gathered about the cities. In these cities 
 a few great families exercised almost unlimited 
 power. Of these, in the sixth and fifth centuries 
 B.c., the most famous were the Aleuadae of La¬ 
 rissa and the Scopadae of Crannon and Pharsalus. 
 The league between the cities was a loose one, 
 and there, was no supreme authority, except as 
 some family obtained a leading position. Four 
 districts were recognized from early times, 
 Hestiaeotis at the north, Thessaliotis and Pelas- 
 giotis in the centre, and Phthiotis in the south, 
 each of which in the fourth century was led by a 
 polemarch. A general council seems to have met 
 when any occasion calling for united action 
 arose, and in war a general called the tagus 
 (Tcryos) was chosen as commander in chief. The 
 league was thus essentially military, but there 
 must have been a well-established system, for 
 in the sixth century b.c. the Thessalians were 
 threatening to extend their power over southern 
 Greece, and seem at one time to have occupied 
 Phocis. Their strength was in their cavalry, 
 composed of the nobles, to which were added 
 peltasts or light infantry, composed probably of 
 Penestae. 
 
 The Thessalians soon brought under their rule 
 the mountainous districts surrounding the 
 Peneus valley, occupied by the Perrhaebians, 
 Magnetes, and Achaeans of Phthiotis, who as in¬ 
 dependent tribes had places in the Amphictvonic 
 Council (q.v.), but later paid tribute and mili¬ 
 tary service to the Thessalians. The other bor¬ 
 der tribes (Dolopians, iEnianians, and Malians) 
 
 were also in actual, if not nominal, depend¬ 
 ence. The power of Thessaly received a check 
 at the hands of the Phocians, and after the 
 Persian wars it played but a small part in Greek 
 history, until, in the fourth century b.c. for a 
 brief period it was united under the rule of the 
 able tyrant of Pherse, Jason, who secured his 
 election as tagus, collected a strong force of cav¬ 
 alry and mercenary infantry, organized a fleet, 
 and at the time of his assassination (370 b.c.) 
 seemed likely to anticipate the career of Philip 
 of Macedon. His successors were blood-thirsty 
 tyrants and the united Thessaly was quickly 
 dissolved, though the old district organization 
 was revived under the influence of Pelopidas 
 (q.v.) and the Thebans. During the Sacred 
 wars (q.v.) the country was at one time occu¬ 
 pied by the Phocians, but in 352 b.c. passed 
 under Macedonian control, and in 344 b.c. Philip 
 was elected arclion (the new name of the tagus) 
 of Thessaly and the country was virtually united 
 to Macedon. Thessaly remained subject to the 
 Macedonian kings till the victory of Flamininus, 
 at Cynoscephalae, in 197 b.c., placed it under the 
 protection of Rome. Under the Roman emperors 
 Thessaly .was united with Macedonia, but after 
 Constantine it was a separate province. In 1204, 
 with other portions of the Eastern Empire, it 
 came under the dominion of the Venetians, 
 and in the fourteenth century it was conquered 
 by the Turks. The southern part of Thessaly 
 was freed from Turkish rule at the time of the 
 Greek Revolution. The bulk of the region was 
 ceded to Greece in 1881 as a result of the de¬ 
 mand of the Great Powers made on the conclu¬ 
 sion of the Russo-Turkisli War. A small moun¬ 
 tainous district in the north still belongs to 
 Turkey. In 1897 Thessaly was the principal 
 seat of the Greco-Turkish War, the Turks 
 forcing the Milouna and Raveni passes, in the 
 Olympian range, on the frontier, and finally oc¬ 
 cupying Larissa. Thessaly comprises the nomes 
 of Phthiotis, Larissa, Karditsa, Trikkala, and 
 Magnesia. Consult: W. M. Leake, Travels in 
 Northern Greece (4 vols., London, 1835) ; A. 
 Philippson, Thessalien und Epirus (Berlin, 
 1897) ; R. G. Kent, A History of Thessaly from 
 the Earliest Historical Times to the Accession 
 of Philip V of Macedon (Lancaster, Pa., 1904) ; 
 K. Baedeker, Greece (4th Eng. ed., Leipzig, 
 1909) ; Wace and Thompson, Prehistoric Thes¬ 
 saly (Cambridge, 1912). 
 
 THET'FOR-D. A municipal and Parliamen¬ 
 tary borough and market town in Norfolk, Eng¬ 
 land, on the Little Ouse, 79 miles northeast of 
 London (Map: England, G 4). It has an event¬ 
 ful history and in the reign of Edward III con¬ 
 tained eight monasteries and twenty churches. Its 
 most important relic of antiquity is the castle 
 hill, a mound 1000 feet in circumference and 100 
 feet high, probably the largest Celtic earthwork 
 in England. Pop., 1901, 4600; 1911, 4778. 
 
 THETEORD MINES. A town in Megantic 
 County, Quebec, Canada, on the Quebec Central 
 Railway, 76 miles by rail south of the city of 
 Quebec. There are asbestos mines in the vicin¬ 
 ity, and the town has various manufactures. 
 Pop., 1901, 3256; 1911, 7261. 
 
 THE'TIS (Lat., from Gk. Gens). The most 
 famous of the Nereids (q.v.), daughter of 
 Nereus and the Oceanid Doris. She was 
 loved by both Zeus and Poseidon. When 
 Themis prophesied that her son would be 
 mightier than his father the gods desisted from 
 their suit and compelled her to wed Peleus 
 
THETIS’S HAIR STONE 
 
 212 
 
 THICKHEAD ELY 
 
 (q.v.). By Peleus she became the mother of 
 Achilles (q.v.)* In Homer she is represented as 
 living with her father in the depths of the sea. 
 She was said to have protected Dionysus when 
 he fled from Lycurgus, and to have tended 
 Hephaestus when he was hurled from heaven by 
 Hera. 
 
 THETIS’S HAIR STONE. See Rock 
 
 Crystal. 
 
 THEURIET, te're'a', Andre (1833-1907). A 
 French poet and novelist, born in Marly-le-Roi 
 (Seine-et-Oise). He studied law in Paris, began 
 practice in 1857, and soon afterward accepted a 
 position in a department of the Ministry of 
 Finance. His interests soon had turned to liter¬ 
 ature. His favorite field is the provincial idyl 
 of humble life. His first poems were entitled 
 Le chemin des bois (1867). The human figures 
 are hewers of wood whose struggles the poet 
 describes truthfully and with feeling. Le bleu 
 et le noir, poemes de la vie reelle (1876) is among 
 his best volumes of verse. Theuriet describes 
 Breton landscapes with charming touches. Of 
 about sixty volumes of fiction the best are Le 
 mariage de Gerard (1875; Eng. trans., 1906) 
 and Amour d'automne (1888). He also wrote: 
 Reine des hois (1890) ; La Chanoinesse (1893) ; 
 La scaur de lait (1902) ; Godson of a Marquis 
 (1906). The nearest analogue to his best fiction 
 is the pastoral work of George Sand, but his 
 style, marked by occasional archaisms, more 
 nearly resembles that of Bernardin or of Rous¬ 
 seau. In the drama, Theuriet wrote Jean-Marie 
 (1871) ; La maison des deux Barbeaux (1885) ; 
 and Jours d’ete (1901). In 1896 he was elected 
 to the Academy. 
 
 THEVENET, tav'na', Marius (1845-1910). 
 A French politician, born in Lyons. He studied 
 law and gained great distinction at the bar of 
 his native city, and was elected a deputy from 
 the Department of the Rhone in 1885. He was 
 appointed Minister of Justice and Public Wor¬ 
 ship Feb. 22, 1889, in the second cabinet of Ti- 
 rard. He displayed great activity in this po¬ 
 sition in the suppression of Boulangism, and 
 vigorously prosecuted Paul Deroulede as chief 
 of the League of Patriots. He was reelected 
 deputy in 1889, lost his portfolio at the fall of 
 the ministry, March 17, 1890, and in 1892 was 
 elected Senator from the Department of the 
 Rhone. He was implicated in the Panama scan¬ 
 dal, but escaped prosecution. His militant at¬ 
 titude in the Dreyfus affair caused him to fail 
 of reelection to the Senate in 1900. 
 
 THIBAUDEAU, te'bo'do', Antoine Claire, 
 Count (1765-1854). A French statesman and 
 historian, born at Poitiers. At the outbreak of 
 the French Revolution he was a lawyer in his 
 native city. Lie was elected to the Convention in 
 1792, joined the party of the Mountain, and 
 voted for the death of the King. In 1796 he was 
 chosen President of the Council of Five Hun¬ 
 dred. He abandoned his extreme views, opposed 
 the coup of the 18th Fructidor (Sept. 4, 1797), 
 and was saved from deportation by the inter¬ 
 vention of friends. After the coup of the 18th 
 Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799) he was made Prefect 
 of Bordeaux, and held the position of Councilor 
 of State till 1808. In that year lie became 
 Prefect of the Department of Bouches-du-Rhone. 
 He helped in the collaboration of the Code and 
 was made Count of the Empire in 1809. On 
 the second return of the Bourbons he was pro¬ 
 scribed as a regicide and lived abroad till the 
 revolution of 1830. He was made a Senator by 
 
 Napoleon III, and died in Paris, March 8, 1854. 
 He wrote: Memoires sur la Convention et le 
 Directoire (1824); Memoires sur le Consulat 
 (1827); Histoire generalc de Fapoleon Bona¬ 
 parte (1828) ; Le Consulat et VEmpire (1835) ; 
 Histoire des Etats Generaux et des institutions 
 representatives en France (1843). His auto¬ 
 biography appeared in 1875. 
 
 THIBAULT, te'bo', Jacques Anatole. See 
 France, Anatole. 
 
 THIBAUT, te'bo', or THEOBALD, I (1201- 
 
 53J, King of Navarre from 1234 to 1253, origin¬ 
 ally Count of Champagne and Brie. He was born 
 in France and educated at the court of Philip 
 Augustus. He is said to have been in love with 
 Blanche of Castile, Queen of Louis VIII, and 
 when Louis died, in 1226, some suspected that 
 he had been poisoned by Thibaut. The latter at 
 first allied himself with the league of nobles 
 against Blanche, Regent during the minority of 
 her son, but was soon won over by her. On the 
 death of his uncle, Sancho the Strong of Na¬ 
 varre, in 1234, he succeeded to that Kingdom. 
 He went to Palestine in 1239, but was badly de¬ 
 feated at Gaza. He was a friend of literature 
 and a trouvere of no mean order, Dante and 
 Petrarch being among his admirers. His poems 
 were first published by Levesque de la Ravalliere 
 (2 vols., Paris, 1742), and have been repub¬ 
 lished several times since. Consult Ernest La- 
 visse, Histoire de France, vol. iii, part vi 
 (Paris, 1901). 
 
 THIBAUT, Anton Friedrich Justus (1772— 
 1840). A German jurist. He was born at 
 Hameln, and studied at Gottingen, Konigsberg, 
 and Kiel, at which latter university he was 
 appointed professor of civil law in 1798. In 
 1802-06 he was professor at Jena, where he 
 became a friend of Goethe and Schiller. In the 
 latter year he went as professor of civil law to 
 Heidelberg, where he remained until his death. 
 He published: Tlieorie der logischen Auslegung 
 des romisehen Rechts (1799; 2d ed., 1806); 
 Ueber Besitz und Verjahrung (1802); System 
 des Bandeletenrechts (2 vols., 1803; 9th ed., 
 1846); Zivilistiscke A bhandhmgen (1814). 
 
 THIBET, tib'et or ti-bet'. A dependency of 
 China. See Tibet. 
 
 THIBODAUX, te'bo-do'. A town and the 
 parish seat of Lafourche Parish, La., 47 miles 
 west by south of New Orleans, on Bayou La¬ 
 fourche, and on the Texas and Pacific and 
 Morgan’s Louisiana and Texas railroads (Map: 
 Louisiana, LI 7). It derives considerable com¬ 
 mercial importance from its situation in a 
 fertile rice, corn, trucking, and sugar-cane re¬ 
 gion. Foundry products, ice, and canned goods 
 are manufactured. Thibodaux College, Mount 
 Carmel Academy, and the Guion Academy are 
 here. Pop., 1900, 3253; 1910, 3824. 
 
 THICKET (AS. piccet, from piece, thick; 
 connected with Ger. dick, Welsh, Corn, tew, 
 thick, and Ger. dicht, Dan. test, Eng. tight). A 
 plant society dominated by shrubs. In regions 
 of great rainfall thickets may be regarded as 
 forerunners of forests, but in many arid regions 
 while present conditions remain they are usu¬ 
 ally the ultimate type of vegetation. Various 
 names have been given to the xerophytic thicket 
 areas. In the southwestern L T nited States they 
 are called chaparral; in the Mediterranean re¬ 
 gion, maqui; in southern South America, espi- 
 nal; in Australia, scrub. 
 
 THICKHEAD FLY. Any one of the flies of 
 the family Conopidee, a group comprising species 
 
THICK-KNEE 
 
 213 
 
 THIEKS 
 
 with large and conspicuous heads. They are 
 rather large insects, but are generally slender 
 and with a stalked abdomen. They frequent 
 flowers and their larvae are parasitic, chiefly 
 upon bumblebees and wasps, and also more 
 rarely upon grasshoppers. About 30 species 
 occur in the United States. 
 
 THICK-KNEE. A large, plover-like shore 
 bird of the Old World, representing the family 
 (Edicnemidae, of which several species are known, 
 all characterized by the enlargement of the 
 tibiotarsal joint. The familiar one of western 
 Europe ((Edicnemus cedicnemus) is known in 
 Great Britain as the great or stone or Norfolk 
 plover, or stone curlew, and is a favorite among 
 gunners. See Plate of Bustards. 
 
 THICKLEY, East. See Shildon and East 
 Thickley. 
 
 THIEBAUD, tya/bo', Georges (1850-1915). 
 A French publicist, born at Toulouse. He was 
 editor of the Courrier des Ardennes, went to 
 Paris in 1885, and in 1887 initiated and man¬ 
 aged the unsuccessful campaign of General Bou¬ 
 langer (q.v.) for the presidency. He traveled 
 through France to popularize the idea of digging 
 the Panama Canal and with Barres (q.v.) 
 preached nationalistic ideals. He was a con¬ 
 cise and brilliant writer as well as a gifted 
 orator. He wrote: Deposition devant la haute 
 cour le seize decembre (1889); Le devoir na¬ 
 tional a VHotel de Ville and Parlementaire et 
 plebiscitaire (botli 1900) ; Le parti protestant 
 et le progres protestantisme en France depuis 25 
 ans (1905); Souvenirs d’un puhliciste (1908); 
 Le secret du regne (1909). 
 
 THIEF EIVER FALLS. A city and the 
 county seat of Pennington Co., Minn., 50 miles 
 by rail northeast of Crookston, on Red Lake 
 and Thief rivers and on the Great Northern 
 and the Minneapolis, St. Paul, and Sault Ste. 
 Marie railroads (Map: Minnesota, A 2). It 
 has a Carnegie library and a large municipal 
 auditorium. The city is situated in a produc¬ 
 tive farming region, adapted particularly to 
 the growing of wheat, and has large ironworks 
 and a foundry, a flour mill, and a sash and door 
 factory. Pop., 1900, 1819; 1910, 3714. 
 
 THIELE, te'le, Johannes (1865- ). A 
 
 German chemist. He was born in Ratibor and 
 was educated at Breslau and Halle (Ph.D., 
 1890). In 1893 he was called to Munich and 
 in 1902 to Strassburg, where he served as rector 
 of the university during 1910-11. The results 
 of his many investigations were communicated 
 to the Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesell- 
 schaft and other chemical journals. 
 
 THIELMANN, teFman, Johann Adolf, 
 Baron (1765-1824). A Prussian general, born 
 at Dresden. He entered a Saxon regimqnt in 
 1782, served through the Rhine campaigns, and 
 fought for Prussia in the battle of Jena in 
 1806. He was next sent by Saxony as ambas¬ 
 sador to Napoleon I, became his ardent admirer, 
 and did much to bring about the Franco-Saxon 
 Alliance. He served with the French as major 
 in the campaign of 1807; fought at Friedland 
 in that year, was made major general, and oper¬ 
 ated against the Austrians in Saxony. In the 
 Russian campaign of 1812 he commanded a 
 brigade of cavalry and for exceptional bravery 
 in the battle of Borodino was made Baron. 
 As commander of Torgau in the early part of 
 1813 he entered into communications with the 
 allies, and on being ordered by the Saxon King 
 to deliver the town to the French, resigned his 
 
 post and went over to the enemy. He was 
 given command of a Saxon corps which partici¬ 
 pated in the invasion of France in 1814. He 
 next joined the Prussian army (1815), and led 
 the Third Army Corps at Ligny and at Wavre, 
 contributing materially to the victory at Water¬ 
 loo. 
 
 THIELT, telt. A town in the Province of 
 West Flanders, Belgium, 20 miles southwest of 
 Ghent (Map: Belgium, B 4). It has an ancient 
 cloth hall and belfry and manufactures cotton 
 and woolen goods, linen, leather, etc. In 1383 
 it was almost totally destroyed by fire, and has 
 never regained its importance.' Pop., 1900, 
 10,727; 1910, 11,605. 
 
 THIERRY, tyAfie', Amedee ( 1797-1873). A 
 French historian, born at Blois, brother of the 
 following. He was associated with the Roman¬ 
 tic school and especially with its journal, the 
 Globe, and obtained a clerical post under the 
 government in recognition of His contribution 
 to the history of Guienne in 1825. His Histoire 
 des Gaulois (1828) won for him a professorship 
 of history at Besangon, but his teaching proved 
 unpalatable to the reactionary government of 
 Charles X and his course of lectures was sus¬ 
 pended by official order. The revolution of 
 1830 brought to him the Prefecture of Haute- 
 Saone, which he held till 1838, when he received 
 the office of Maitre des requctes. In 1860 he 
 was appointed Senator of the Empire. He was 
 advanced to high office in the Legion of Honor 
 and elected member of the Academy of Inscrip¬ 
 tions in 1841. The most important of his books 
 are: Histoire de la Gaule sous Vadministration 
 romaine (1840-47); Histoire d’Attila (1856); 
 Tableaux de Vempire romain (1862); Recits de 
 Vhistoire romaine (1860-64). He wrote also 
 Saint-Jerome (1867) and Chrysostome et Eu- 
 doxie (1873). 
 
 THIERRY, Augustin (1795-1856). A 
 French historian, born at Blois. He studied at 
 the college of his native town and in the Ecole 
 Normale at Paris, and became a teacher in a 
 provincial school. In 1814 he went to Paris, 
 and published his first work, De la reorganisa¬ 
 tion de la societe europeenne. Adopting the 
 views of Saint-Simon, Thierry became his assist¬ 
 ant for three years. In 1S17 he joined Comte 
 and Dunoyer as editor of the Censeur Europeen, 
 for which he wrote many articles, literary, po¬ 
 litical, and historical, in 1820 he became en¬ 
 gaged on the Courrier Fran-cais, in which he 
 published his Dix lettres sur Vhistoire de 
 France. Fie then turned almost exclusively to 
 historical writing. His masterpiece, L’Histoire 
 de la conquete d’Angleterre par les Normands, 
 was first published in 1825. His Lettres sur 
 Vhistoire appeared in 1827. In 1835 he pub¬ 
 lished his Dix ans d’etudes historiques. In 1840 
 appeared his Recits des temps merovingiens, 
 which gained the great Gobert prize. His last 
 publication was the Essai sur Vhistoire de la 
 formation et de progres du tiers-etat (1853). 
 He edited for Guizot’s Collection des monuments 
 inedits de Vhistoire de France the Recueil des 
 monuments inedits de Vhistoire du tiers-etat 
 (1849-56). He died May 22, 1856. His com¬ 
 plete works were published in 10 volumes (1856- 
 60). His principal works have been translated 
 into English. Consult Valentin, Augustin 
 Thierry (Paris, 1895). 
 
 THIERS, tyar. The capital of an arron- 
 dissement in the Department of Puy-de-D6me. 
 France, 23 miles east-northeast of Clermont-Fer- 
 
THIERS 
 
 214 
 
 THIERSCH 
 
 rand (Map: France, S., H 3). It is pleasantly 
 situated on a hillside and consists of an upper 
 and a lower town, the latter in a nearly sunless 
 gorge (the Ville Noire of George Sand's novel of 
 that name). The eleventh-century Romanesque 
 Gothic church of Saint-Genes contains a note¬ 
 worthy tomb of the thirteenth century, and the 
 church of Le Moutier is an interesting Ro¬ 
 manesque structure founded in the seventh cen¬ 
 tury. The town is noted for its manufactures 
 of cutlerv, buttons, paper, and playing cards. 
 Pop., 1901, 17,625; 1911, 17,437. 
 
 THIERS, tyar, Adolphe (1797-1877). A 
 French statesman and historian, born at Mar¬ 
 seilles, April 15, 1797. He was distinguished as 
 a student at the lycee, and in 1815 he went to 
 Aix to study law. 1 There he formed a friendship 
 with Mignet, the historian, in company with 
 whom, after he had taken his degree as advocate 
 (1818), he set off for Paris. Obtaining an in¬ 
 troduction to Lafitte, he was enrolled among the 
 contributors to the Constitutionnel, then the 
 leading Liberal organ. His vigorous articles 
 attracted attention and won him a place in the 
 most brilliant circles of the Opposition. His 
 Histoire de la revolution frangaise (1823-27) 
 gave him high rank as an historian. In Jan¬ 
 uary, 1830, he, with Mignet and Armand Carrel, 
 established an able Opposition paper, the Na¬ 
 tional. Thiers in this journal waged unrelenting 
 war against the Polignac administration, whose 
 publication of the celebrated Ordinances of July 
 brought on the revolution of 1830. Under 
 the new government of Louis Philippe Thiers 
 was elected a member of the Chamber of Depu¬ 
 ties, where he quickly made his mark as a de¬ 
 bater, was appointed to a secretaryship in the 
 Department of Finance, and in October, 1832, 
 was made Minister of the Interior. During the 
 next four years he acted as Minister of the 
 Interior, Minister of Commerce and Public 
 Works, and Minister of Foreign Affairs under 
 various chiefs—Soult, Gerard, Mortier, and Bro¬ 
 glie. His views became more conservative, and 
 he repressed with severity the democratic up¬ 
 risings against the new government. In Febru¬ 
 ary, 1836, he became President of the Council 
 and Minister of Foreign Affairs, but in August 
 retired when the King refused to approve his 
 plan for intervention in Spain and became Op¬ 
 position leader. In March, 1840, he again as¬ 
 sumed the premiership and the Ministry of 
 Foreign Affairs. He wished to support Mehemet 
 Ali (q.v.) in his struggle against the Sultan, 
 thus seeking to carry out the Napoleonic idea 
 of a controlling influence by France in Syria 
 and Egypt. He therefore refused to enter the 
 alliance of Western powers formed for the pres¬ 
 ervation of the Ottoman Empire. (See Quad¬ 
 ruple Alliance. ) When Mehemet Ali was 
 driven out of Syria, popular irritation in France, 
 fostered by Thiers, w’as great, but Louis Philippe 
 refused to countenance armed interference, as 
 he had done in the Spanish matter, and accepted 
 Thiers’s resignation, October, 1840. The next 
 five years Thiers spent in travel and in work 
 upon his second history, L’llistoire du consulat 
 et de Vempire (1845-62). After 1846 he again 
 became active politically, and appeared fre¬ 
 quently in the Chamber as an eloquent spokes¬ 
 man of the Opposition. In the revolution of 
 1848 his part was that of a Moderate friendly 
 to the Republic. He was banished after the 
 coup d’etat of 1851, but in 1852 was permitted 
 to return to Paris. 
 
 Thiers entered the Corps L6gislatif in 1863, 
 and became the leader of the Liberal opposition, 
 assailing the Imperial policies in a series of 
 masterly speeches. He eloquently opposed the 
 war with Prussia and predicted the defeat of 
 France. After the collapse of the Empire he 
 became the brains of the rehabilitation of 
 France. He undertook diplomatic journeys to 
 England, Russia, Austria, and Italy, on behalf 
 of France—a self-imposed mission in which he 
 was unsuccessful, but he acquired the gratitude 
 of his countrymen. After the capitulation of 
 Paris Thiers was elected to the National As¬ 
 sembly by 26 constituencies, and on Feb. 17, 
 1871, became chief of the executive power in 
 the provisional government, and as such nego¬ 
 tiated the treaty of peace with Germany. Upon 
 the outbreak of the War of the Commune (q.v.) 
 Thiers took swift and energetic measures for its 
 suppression. On Aug. 31, 1871, the National As¬ 
 sembly conferred upon him the title of Presi¬ 
 dent of the Republic, making his term of office 
 three years. Thiers, contrary to the expecta¬ 
 tions of the monarchical parties, became con¬ 
 vinced of the need of a republican form of gov¬ 
 ernment, and in November, 1872, sent to the 
 National Assembly a message urging the neces¬ 
 sity of formulating an organic instrument of 
 government for the Republic. The Clericals and 
 Monarchists thereupon decided upon his fall, 
 and, as the result of a vote of censure passed 
 on the ministry, Thiers resigned May 24, 1873. 
 He retired from public life for some time, but 
 in 1S76 was elected from Paris to the Chamber 
 of Deputies, exercising his influence to the last 
 in the defense of the Republic against Mon¬ 
 archist plots. 
 
 Thiers was perhaps the most influential po¬ 
 litical leader France has produced. His figure 
 was small, his appearance far from impressive, 
 and his early attempts at oratory are said to 
 have been ridiculous, but when he adopted the 
 rapid, incisive style adapted to his personality 
 he became a most effective speaker. His course 
 as a statesman was guided by an intense love 
 of country, bordering on Chauvinism, and the 
 conviction that the political power should rei- 
 pose in the hands of the middle class whose 
 interests and tastes he so well represented. His 
 histories are merely brilliant eulogies of the 
 Revolutionary and Napoleonic ideals. He was 
 elected a member of the Academy in 1834. His 
 Notes et souvenirs were published in Paris in 
 1907. 
 
 Bibliography. Memoirs of M. Thiers, 1870- 
 1873 (Eng. trans.. 1915) ; also Frangois Le Goff, 
 The Life of Louis Adolphe Thiers (trans. from 
 the unpublished manuscript by Theodore Stan¬ 
 ton, New York, 1879) ; P. L. E. de Remusat, 
 Thiers (Eng. trans. by M. B. Anderson, Chicago, 
 1889) ; Edgar Zevort, Thiers (Paris, 1892) ; 
 id., “La presidence de M. Thiers,” in Histoire 
 de la troisieme republique, vol. i (ib., 1896) ; 
 G. Hanotaux, Le gouvernement de M. Thiers 
 (ib., 1903) ; E. de Marcere, L’Assemble na¬ 
 tionals de 1871 (ib., 1904) ; C. Belot, Le pouvoir 
 executif sous le gQuvernement de M. Thiers 
 (Dijon, 1908) ; P. F. Simon, Adolphe Thiers: 
 chef du pouvoir executif et president de la R6- 
 publique Frangaise (Paris, 1911), containing a 
 bibliography. 
 
 THIERSCH, tersli, Friedrich (1784-1860). 
 A German classical scholar, born at Kirch- 
 scheidungen, and educated at Leipzig and Got¬ 
 tingen. In 1809 he was appointed professor in 
 
THIERSCH : 
 
 the newly established Gymnasium in Munich, 
 where he became the founder of philological 
 studies in Bavaria. The Philological Institute 
 established by him was joined to the University 
 of Munich in 1826. As a result of his sojourn 
 in Greece, in 1831-32, he published his impor¬ 
 tant work De l’6tat actuel de la Grece, etc. 
 (1833). He was a prime mover in establishing 
 in 1837 regular meetings of German philologists 
 and teachers. In 1848 he became president of 
 the Bavarian Academy of Sciences. His writ¬ 
 ings include: Griechische Grammatik (3d ed., 
 
 1828) ; Pindar (1820); TJeber die Epochen der 
 bildenden Kunst unter den Griechen (2d ed., 
 
 1829) ; Allgemeine Aesthetik in akademisclien 
 Lehrvortrdgen (1846) ; and many works on edu¬ 
 cation. Consult his biography by his son Hein¬ 
 rich (Leipzig, 1866); J. E. Sandys, A History 
 of Classical Scholarship, vol. iii (Cambridge, 
 1908). 
 
 THIERSCH, Karl (1822—95). A German 
 surgeon, born at Munich, the son of the philolo¬ 
 gist Friedrich Thiersch (1784-1860). He 
 studied in Munich, Berlin, Vienna, and Paris, 
 and was a pupil of Stromeyer (q.v.). In 1854 
 he became professor of surgery at Erlangen and 
 in 1867 at Leipzig. In the Franco-German War 
 of 1870-71 he served as consulting surgeon. 
 Thiersch is known through his work in " skin 
 grafting and in epithelial cancer. Moreover, he 
 was one of the first continental surgeons to ac¬ 
 cept the teachings of Lister, and with others he 
 introduced salicylic acid in the treatment of 
 wounds. Among his works is Der Epithelial- 
 lcrebs namentlich der Haut (1865). 
 
 THIERSCH, Ludwig (1825-1909). A Ger¬ 
 man decorative and historical painter. He was 
 born in Munich and studied at the Munich Acad¬ 
 emy. After visiting Rome he was for three 
 years professor at the Industrial Art School at 
 Athens, where he was engaged by the Russian 
 government to fresco the church of St. Nicode- 
 mus. He received similar commissions for the 
 Greek church in Vienna, the chapels of the Grand 
 Dukes Nicholas and Michael, and the Protestant 
 church of St. Catharine at St. Petersburg (1860- 
 64) and for the Greek churches in Karlsruhe 
 (1864) , London (1880), and Paris (1892). 
 
 THIES PROCESS. See Chlorination. 
 
 THIETMAR, tet'mar, Bishop of Merseburg 
 (975 or 976-1018). A German chronicler of 
 aristocratic family, related to the Emperor 
 Henry II. Thietmar was educated in the clois¬ 
 ter schools at Quedlinburg and Magdeburg, was 
 created in 1002 Provost of Walbeck, shared in 
 the campaign of 1007 against Boseslav of Po¬ 
 land, and in 1009 was made Bishop of Merse¬ 
 burg. He passed the remainder of his life for 
 the greater part at court and sharing in cam¬ 
 paigns against the Slavs. His Chronicon covers 
 in eight books the period from Henry I (the 
 Fowler) to 1018, and the last three books are 
 almost a diary. It is rough and inflated in 
 diction, credulous in narration, but shows an 
 earnest search for truth, and is the principal 
 source of history for the Trans-Elbian Slavic 
 districts during the period it covers. The best 
 edition of the Chronicon is by Kurtz in Scrip- 
 tores Rerum Germanicarum (Hanover, 1889), 
 in the Monumenta Germanics Historica. It was 
 translated by Laurent (Berlin, 1848, and Leipzig, 
 1892). Consult Kurze, Bischof Thietmar von 
 Merseburg und seine Chronik (Halle, 1890). 
 
 THIGH. The portion of the lower extremity 
 which extends from the hip to the knee. The 
 
 15 THIOSINAMINE 
 
 muscles of the front of the thigh are tensor 
 fascise femoris, sartorius, and quadriceps exten¬ 
 sor, the last of which is a powerful group of 
 four muscles (rectus, crureus, and the two 
 vasti) which are inserted below into the patella, 
 or kneecap, and whose action is to strengthen 
 the knee, thus being a most important factor 
 in the preservation of the erect position and 
 m locomotion. The muscles of the back of 
 the thigh are biceps, semitendinosus, and semi¬ 
 membranosus, also called the hamstring muscles. 
 Their action is to flex the leg on the thigh, to 
 support the pelvis upon the head of the femur, 
 or thigh, bone, and to draw the trunk backward. 
 On the inner side of each thigh is a group of 
 adductor muscles, whose action is to bring 
 the knees together. There is but one bone in 
 the thigh, the femur, which articulates with 
 the pelvis above and with the tibia below. The 
 most important structures of the thigh lie 
 in the triangle of Scarpa (q.v.). This is 
 bounded above by Poupart’s ligament, which is 
 the base of the triangle, internally by adductor 
 longus, and externally by sartorius. The great 
 femoral arteryV and vein pass through the tri¬ 
 angle, dividing it into nearly equal parts, the ar- 
 tery giving off here the profunda femoris and the 
 vein receiving the long saphenous. The anterior 
 crural nerve lies to the outer side of the artery. 
 Femoral hernia appears in Scarpa’s triangle, 
 and not infrequently the extremity of a fistula 
 running from Pott’s disease of the'spine appears 
 in this space. 
 
 THIG'MOTAX'IS. See Tropism, Stereo- 
 tropism. 
 
 THIGMOT'ROPISM, or HAPTOTROPISM 
 
 (from Gk. dlyya, tliigma, anything touched + 
 Tpo-irr), trope, a turning, from rperreir, trepein, to 
 turn). The sensitiveness of organisms to 
 stimuli, by contact, especially to prolonged con¬ 
 tact with solid substances. The responses in 
 plants depend chiefly upon a modification of the 
 growth of the organs concerned. It is espe¬ 
 cially marked in tendrils. Other examples are 
 to be found in the similar curvatures of the 
 petioles of leaf climbers, and in the stems of 
 dodder. See Growth; Tropism, Stereotropism. 
 
 THIL'LY, Frank (1865- ). An Amer¬ 
 
 ican educator, born in Cincinnati, Ohio. He 
 graduated at the university of his native city 
 in 1887 and then studied at Berlin and at 
 Heidelberg. He was professor of philosophy at 
 the University of Missouri (1893-1904)' of 
 psychology at Princeton (1904-06), of philoso¬ 
 phy at Cornell (from 1906), where he also be¬ 
 came dean of the Arts College. He was editor 
 of the International Journal of Ethics (from 
 1909) and president of the American Philosophi¬ 
 cal Association (1912). His publications in¬ 
 clude: Leibnitz’s Controversy with Locke 
 
 (1891) ; Introduction to Ethics (1900) ; Process 
 of Inductive Inference (1904); A History of 
 Philosophy (1914) ; and translations of Weber’s 
 History of Philosophy (1896) and Paulsen’s In¬ 
 troduction to Philosophy (1885) and System of 
 Ethics (1899). He contributed to the New 
 International Year Book. 
 
 THING. See Fierding Court. 
 
 THI'OAI/COHQLS. See Mercaptans. 
 THI'OCYAN'IC ACID. See Sulpiiocyanic 
 Acid. 
 
 THIONVILLE, te'ON'vel'. See Diedenhofen. 
 
 THIOSINAMINE, thl'o-sm-am'in or -en. A 
 substance prepared by heating together oil of 
 mustard 3 parts, alcoliol 3 parts, and ammonia 
 
THIOSTJLPHURIC ACID 
 
 216 
 
 THIRTY YEARS’ WAR 
 
 6 parts, and known chemically as allyl-sulpho- 
 carbamide. It occurs as colorless crystals, 
 soluble in alcohol and ether and to some extent 
 in water, with a bitter-sweetish taste, and a 
 faint odor of garlic. Its main use in medicine 
 is in the removal of scar tissue wherever found. 
 Thus it is indicated in corneal opacities, keloid, 
 deafness due to thickening of the tympanic 
 membrane or fixation of the ossicles. Where 
 possible it is best given by hypodermic injection, 
 but it is also said to be moderately efficient when 
 given by mouth or applied locally in solution. 
 Combined with sodium salicylate it is believed 
 to act more satisfactorily and to give less pain 
 when injected. 
 
 THI'OSULPHU'RIC ACID (from Gk. Belov, 
 theion, sulphur + Eng. sulphuric), H 2 S ? 0 3 , less 
 properly hyposulphurous acid. An acid com¬ 
 pound unknown in the isolated state and but 
 little known in the form of dilute aqueous solu¬ 
 tions, but well known in the form of its salts, 
 called thiosulphates (or hyposulphites), espe¬ 
 cially its sodium salt. The thiosulphates are 
 formed by the action of metals (such as zinc, 
 iron, etc.) on acid sulphites. The thiosulphates 
 of the alkalies are freely soluble in water; those 
 of the alkaline earths are much less soluble; 
 while those of the heavy metals are by them¬ 
 selves insoluble, but generally form soluble 
 double compounds with the thiosulphates of the 
 alkalies. The thiosulphate of sodium may be 
 prepared in the laboratory by boiling a solution 
 of sodium sulphite with sulphur. It may also 
 be made from the thiosulphate of calcium. The 
 latter is produced by the action of sulphur on 
 lime. Hence it is produced (along with calcium 
 pentasulphide) when lime is used for the puri¬ 
 fication of illuminating gas. Further, it is 
 formed when a solution of calcium pentasulphide 
 is exposed to the oxidizing action of the air—• 
 a reaction causing the production of the thi¬ 
 osulphate in the manufacture of soda (q.v.) 
 and its increased production in the purification 
 of illuminating gas. Aqueous sodium thiosul¬ 
 phate has the remarkable property of dissolving 
 the halogen salts of silver, mercurous chloride 
 (calomel) and iodide, the iodide and the sul¬ 
 phate of lead, the sulphate of calcium, and the 
 oxides of copper. Owing to its capacity for 
 dissolving the halogen salts of silver unaltered 
 by light, it is extensively used in photography. 
 It is further employed in the manufacture of 
 certain coal-tar colors and in dyeing. 
 
 THIRD. See Interval. 
 
 THIRD ESTATE (Fr. tiers etat) . See 
 France; French Revolution; States-General. 
 
 THIRI/W ALL, Newell Connop (1797— 
 1875). An English historian and bishop, born 
 in London. He studied at Charterhouse School 
 and graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 
 1818. In 1820 he entered Lincoln’s Inn and was 
 called to the bar in 1825, but this profession 
 was distasteful and he spent the years until 
 1828 in travel and literary pursuits, publishing 
 translations of tales from Tieck and Schleier- 
 macher’s Critical Essay on the Gospel of St. 
 Luke (1825). In 1827 be took up his residence 
 in Cambridge, and until 1834 held various offices 
 in the university when he was called upon to 
 resign his appointment as assistant tutor on 
 account of a pamphlet, Letter on the Admission 
 of Dissenters to Academical Degrees. He ac¬ 
 cepted a living at Kirby Underdale in York¬ 
 shire, where he wrote his History of Greece 
 (1835-44). In 1840 he was appointed Bishop 
 
 at St. David’s in Wales; in 1874 he resigned 
 his see and retired to Bath, where he died. 
 With J. C. Hare he translated Niebuhr’s History 
 of Rome (1828-32). His Remains, Literary 
 and Theological, and Essays, Speeches, and Ser¬ 
 mons were edited by J. J. S. Perowne (London, 
 1877-80) ; his Letters to a Friend, with a me¬ 
 morial sermon, was edited by Dean Stanley (ib., 
 1882), and his Letters, Literary and Theological, 
 with a Memoir, by Perowne and Stokes (ib., 
 1881). 
 
 THIRST (AS. purst, pyrst, Ger. Durst, 
 thirst; connected with Lat. torrere, to parch, 
 Gk. repaeadai, tersesthai, to become dry). A sen¬ 
 sation normally due to a lack of water in the 
 tissues of the body. Although the sensation of 
 thirst is referred principally to the mouth and 
 throat, it is not a purely local feeling and can 
 be satisfied by the introduction of fluid into 
 the circulation through various channels. Water 
 may be absorbed and thirst relieved by transfu¬ 
 sion of saline solution into the veins, by injec¬ 
 tion into the tissues (hypodermoclysis), and 
 to a less extent by absorption from the skin, as 
 well as by drinking. In a state of thirst, the 
 body fluids become reduced in volume, and of 
 higher specific gravity and more saline, and 
 these conditions explain the craving for water. 
 Thirst is occasioned physiologically by profuse 
 perspiration from exercise—especially in a 
 warm, dry atmosphere—by a highly seasoned 
 diet, by smoking, or by salty food. Many mor¬ 
 bid conditions give rise to thirst; it Is always an 
 accompaniment of fevers and inflammations; dis¬ 
 eases which, like cholera asiatica, diabetes, and 
 diarrhoea, are characterized by great loss of 
 fluid from the body, are thirst-producing. Loss 
 of blood brings on a craving for liquids. As an 
 exception to the rule that fevers demand drink, 
 it may be noted that in typhoid fever thirst 
 is sometimes blunted or suppressed. Thirst is 
 most effectively relieved by slightly acidulated 
 drinks, these provoking an outflow of saliva. 
 
 THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES OF RELI¬ 
 GION, The. See Articles, The Thirty-Nine. 
 
 THIRTY TYRANTS. 1. A body of rulers in 
 Athens, invested with sovereign power after 
 the close of the Peloponnesian War, 404 b.o. 
 They were all native Athenians, chosen by the 
 Spartan conquerors, who, knowing the animosity 
 existing between the democracy and the oligarchy 
 of Athens, hoped to rule the city through the 
 agency of the latter. One of "the most un¬ 
 scrupulous members of the body was Critias 
 (q.v.), while Theramenes (q.v.) headed the 
 moderate division. Their rule, after a year, 
 was overthrown by Thrasybulus (q.v.). 2. The 
 
 petty usurpers who sprang up during the reign 
 of the Roman emperors Valerian and Gal- 
 lienus (q.v.) (254-268 A.n.). They endeavored 
 
 to establish themselves as independent princes. 
 In reality, historians can only reckon 19— 
 Cyriades, Macrianus, Balista, Odenathus, and 
 Zenobia, in the East; Postumus, Lollianus, Vic- 
 torinus (with his mother, Victoria), Marius, 
 and Tetricus, in the West; Ingenuus, Regillianus 
 (more properly Regalianus, as the name ap¬ 
 pears on coins), and Aureolus, in Illyricum and 
 the countries about the Danube; Saturninus, 
 in Pontus; Trebellianus, in Isauria; Piso, in 
 Thessaly; Valens, in Achaea; iEmilianus, in 
 Egypt; and Celsus, in Africa. 
 
 THIRTY YEARS’ WAR. The name given 
 to the great European struggle (1618-48) which 
 marked the climax of the Reformation (q.v.), 
 
THIRTY YEARS’ WAR 
 
 THIRTY YEARS’ WAR ; 
 
 closing the period of distinctively religious poli¬ 
 tics and opening that in which secular state¬ 
 craft replaced it. The Religious Peace of Augs¬ 
 burg (1555) afforded no permanent settlement 
 of the questions stirred up by the Protestant 
 revolution. Its terms recognized only Lutherans 
 and Catholics; meanwhile the Calvinists had 
 grown strong, and, unfortunately for the Protes¬ 
 tant cause, violent enmity existed between them 
 and the Lutherans. The relations of the Em¬ 
 peror and the German princes were ill-defined, 
 and little real adjustment had been reached.’ 
 France had already separated her natural in¬ 
 terests from the affiliations of religion and aided 
 the German Protestant princes in their in¬ 
 subordination towards their Tmnerial Catholic 
 head. lhe Reformation, by overthrowing the 
 idea of Christ’s unity in the Church, broke 
 down the theory of a Holy Roman Empire and 
 put forward in its place the Germanic idea of 
 autonomy for individual states. In the turmoil 
 of sixteenth-century Europe it was inevitable 
 that the solvent for these and other issues 
 should be found in a general war. The outbreak 
 came in an unexpected way. The liberal reign 
 of Maximilian II (1564-76) was favorable to 
 the growth of Protestantism in the Austrian 
 dominions. His successor, Rudolph II (1576- 
 1612), brought in the reactionary Jesuit in¬ 
 fluence and allowed full play to the forces 
 of the Counter Reformation. Open interference 
 with the practice of the Protestant religion 
 was permitted and numbers of Protestant 
 churches were destroyed. In 1607 Maximilian I, 
 the Catholic Duke of Bavaria, made himself 
 master of the free Imperial city of Donauworth, 
 whose inhabitants were mainly Protestants. A 
 number of Protestant princes and cities founded 
 in 1608 the Evangelical Union for the defense 
 of their interests and their faith, and this 
 was met by the formation of the Catholic 
 League under the leadership of Maximilian of 
 Bavaria in 1600. In that year the Emperor 
 was forced to publish his Majestdtsbrief, by 
 which the Protestants of Bohemia were guar¬ 
 anteed free exercise of their religion. At this 
 time the political state of the Empire was 
 further unsettled by the Jiilich-Cleves war of 
 succession. (See Julich.) In 1612 the Em¬ 
 peror Rudolph II died arid was succeeded by 
 his brother Matthias, to whom the Archduchy 
 of Austria, Moravia, Hungary, and Bohemia 
 had previously been transferred as a result of 
 Rudolph’s reckless rule. In 1617 the Bohemian 
 estates were called upon to crown, as their 
 prospective King, Duke Ferdinand of Styria, 
 the Hapsburg heir presumptive, in accordance 
 with a custom which had become established. 
 Ferdinand had made himself prominent by the 
 relentless manner in which he had rooted out 
 Protestantism in his paternal Styrian domin-' 
 ions. His attitude encouraged the Catholic 
 church in Bohemia in its aggressions, and soon 
 a dispute regarding the interpretation of the 
 Majestdtsbrief brought on open conflict. On 
 May 23, 1618, a body of Protestants, led by 
 Count Thurn, entered the royal palace of 
 Prague, and hurled two odious representatives 
 of the crown, Martinitz and Slavata, from its 
 windows. This defenestration, the victims es¬ 
 caping with their lives, inaugurated a struggle 
 which was to convulse Europe for 30 years. 
 
 The Bohemians rose under Thurn, and the 
 insurrection spread into adjoining Hapsburg 
 dominions. A body of troops of the Union, 
 
 17 
 
 under Count Mansfeld, appeared, and Bethlen 
 Gabor, Prince of Transylvania, prepared to 
 make war on Austria. Matthias was unpre¬ 
 pared to meet the onslaught. Spain came to 
 his aid, but the Spanish force was too weak to 
 stay the advance of the enemy. The Emperor 
 died in March, 1610, and Ferdinand, succeeding 
 as the head of the house of Hapsburg, found 
 himself beleaguered in Vienna by the victorious 
 Thurn. Through firmness he* succeeded in 
 averting the fall of his capital, and made his 
 way to Frankfort, where he was elected Holy 
 Roman Emperor as Ferdinand II (August, 
 1619). The Bohemians, having declared their 
 throne vacant, crowned the Elector Palatine 
 Frederick V, the son-in-law of James I of 
 England. Ferdinand, whose capital was in the 
 meanwhile again threatened, this time by the 
 Prince of Transylvania, was enabled to attack 
 Frederick by means of the forces of the Catho¬ 
 lic League, whose leader, Maximilian of Ba¬ 
 varia, was offered a rich indemnity. John 
 George, Lutheran Elector of Saxony, eager for 
 territorial acquisitions, entered the field against 
 thg Bohemians, while the Spaniards invaded 
 the. Lower Palatinate. The Protestant Union 
 dared not move, and James I kept aloof from 
 Frederick. On Nov. 8, 1620, a battle was fought 
 at the White Hill, before the walls of Prague, 
 in which the army of the League, under Tilly, 
 was completely victorious. Frederick fled from 
 Bohemia, which was chastised in a fearful 
 manner by the Emperor, and forced back into 
 the fold of the Catholic church. The dissolu¬ 
 tion of the Evangelical Union ensued. The 
 cause of the Elector Palatine, however, whose 
 hereditary dominions, the Upper and the Lower 
 Palatinate, were assailed, found intrepid cham¬ 
 pions in Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick, 
 lawless partisan leaders. George Frederick, 
 Margrave of Baden-Durlach, also took up arms 
 for Frederick, and with Mansfeld gained a 
 victory over Tilly at Wiesloch on April 27, 
 1622. On May 6, however, the former was 
 vanquished by Tilly at Wimpfen; June 20 a 
 like disaster" befell Christian of Brunswick at 
 Hochst. On Aug. 6, 1623, Christian of Bruns¬ 
 wick sustained a second defeat by Tilly at 
 Stadtlohn. Frederick was stripped of his pos¬ 
 sessions. The Upper Palatinate and the elec¬ 
 toral dignity were conferred on Maximilian of 
 Bavaria. 
 
 The war might have ended with this local 
 struggle, but the outrageous treatment to which 
 the Protestant states of north Germany were 
 subjected pressed the conflict on to its second 
 phase. Christian IV of Denmark, aided by a 
 British subsidy, went to the aid of his German 
 coreligionists in 1625, and, being joined by Mans¬ 
 feld and Christian of Brunswick, advanced into 
 Lower Saxony, whilrf the Emperor, hampered 
 by the political jealousy of the Catholic League, 
 was at first unable to oppose him. It was at 
 this juncture that Wallenstein came forward 
 and placed a great army, raised by himself, at 
 the disposal of Ferdinand. This army acted in 
 cooperation with that of the Catholic League 
 under Tilly. Mansfeld was completely defeated 
 by Wallenstein at Dessau (April 25, 1626), 
 and the forces of Christian IV were routed by 
 Tilly at Lutter (Aug. 27, 1626). Wallenstein 
 marched as far as Hungary in pursuit of Mans¬ 
 feld, who died in November, 1626. The com¬ 
 bined Imperialists and Leaguers overran north 
 Germany and Wallenstein penetrated into the 
 
2l8 
 
 THIRTY YEARS’ WAR 
 
 THIRTY YEARS’ WAR 
 
 heart of Denmark. The Imperialist commander 
 conceived the design of making Austria a power 
 on the Baltic, but his career in this direction 
 was checked by the heroic defense of Stralsund 
 (1628). King" Christian was forced to conclude 
 the humiliating peace of Liibeck (May 12, 
 1629). Inflamed bv success, Ferdinand had, 
 on March 6, 1829, issued the Edict of Restitu¬ 
 tion, by which the Protestant titles to all ec¬ 
 clesiastical lands acquired after 1552 were 
 declared void. Thus closed the second period of 
 the war, with the Protestant States infuriated by 
 the edict and the proud city of Magdeburg alone 
 in arms to resist its execution. 
 
 Richelieu (q.v.), developing the anti-Hapsburg 
 policy of‘Henry IV, had promoted, as far as the 
 internal affairs of France would allow, dissen¬ 
 sion in Germany. He now succeeded in bringing 
 into the struggle the able and*ambitious Protes¬ 
 tant King of Sweden, Gustavus Adolphus (q.v.). 
 This ruler, desirous of promoting Protestantism 
 and of securing control of the Baltic, took 
 the field, and the Swedish phase of the war 
 began with the landing of the Swedes on the 
 coast of Pomerania in the summer $>f 1630. 
 Just at this time the princes of the Catliglic 
 League, exasperated by the overbearing conduct 
 of Wallenstein and the excesses of his goldiery., 
 forced the Emperor to dismiss him, Tilly being 
 made commander in chief of the Catholic forces. 
 Gustavus Adolphus, who* in January, 1631, en¬ 
 tered into a subsidiary alliance with France, 
 advanced southward into Germany. The elec¬ 
 tors of Saxony and Brandenburg at first re¬ 
 mained neutral, but finally were forced to join 
 him. The obstacles in his path delayed him 
 until it was too late to rescue Magdeburg, 
 which on May 20, 1631, was stormed by Tilly 
 and Pappenheim, whose troops burned the town 
 and massacred the inhabitants. On Sept. 17 
 (O.S., Sept. 7), 1631, the Swedish King, 
 
 strengthened by the Saxon army under Arnim, 
 overwhelmed Tilly at Breitenfeld, near Leipzig, 
 a victory which completely restored the Protes¬ 
 tant cause. He then victoriously traversed the 
 Main and Rhine valleys; forced the passage of 
 the Lech in front of the army of Tilly, who 
 was mortally wounded (April 15, 1632) ; entered 
 Munich, and threatened the Hapsburg domin¬ 
 ions. Wallenstein, meanwhile, had been recalled 
 to raise and command the Imperialist armies 
 to meet this formidable enemy. He compelled 
 the Swedes by skillful strategy to return to 
 Saxony. There the Swedes won the battle of 
 Liitzen (q.v.) * Nov. 16 (O.S., Nov. 6), 1632, 
 after an obstinate engagement in which Gus¬ 
 tavus was killed. His death was a severe blow 
 to the Protestant cause, but the energy and 
 ability of the Swedish Chancellor, Oxenstierna 
 (q.v.), and the brilliant talents of the Swedish 
 generals, preserved the advantages that had 
 been gained. After the battle of Liitzen Wal¬ 
 lenstein remained long inactive, engaging in 
 endless negotiations. Bernhard (q.v.) of S'axe- 
 Weimar, one of the ablest of the Protestant 
 leaders, overran Bavaria, and on Nov. 14, 1633, 
 stormed Ratisbon. The behavior of Wallenstein, 
 after a display of activity, inaugurated by a 
 victory over the Swedes at Steinau, Oct. 13, 
 
 1633, finally left no doubt in the mind of Ferdi¬ 
 nand II that his general was meditating treason. 
 He was deposed from his command and was 
 assassinated at Ege^ in Bohemia, on Feb. 25, 
 
 1634. His virtual successor, Gallas, inflicted a 
 crushing defeat on Bernhard of Weimar and 
 
 the Swedish general, Horn, at Nordlingen (Sept. 
 
 6, 1634), which again restored to the Emperor 
 a preponderating influence in Germany. Saxony 
 now made peace at Prague (May 30, 1635), 
 the Elector securing important territorial gains. 
 Other Lutheran states withdrew from the con¬ 
 flict, the Calvinists being left to their fate. 
 
 Final success now appeared to demand only 
 one more strenuous effort on the part of Aus¬ 
 tria: but Oxenstierna was determined to pre¬ 
 serve to Sweden her German acquisitions, and 
 Richelieu saw that the time had come for France 
 to throw herself into an active struggle against 
 both Austria and Spain. The conflict advanced 
 into its final and most extended phase. At first 
 the Hapsburg side was enabled to make a show 
 of strength, loanee being invaded by a combined 
 force of Spaniards, Imperialists, and Lotharin- 
 gians, but with such commanders on their side 
 as Bernhard of Weimar and the Swedish general 
 Baner, the tide soon set strongly in favor of 
 the Protestants. The victory of Baner over the 
 Imperialists and Saxons at Wittstock (Oct. 4, 
 1636) restored to Sweden the advantage lost 
 two years before. Bernhard of Weimar, in the 
 pay of France, fought with energy and success, 
 ambitious to found a state for himself. In 1638 
 he won a victory at Rheinfelden and reduced 
 the fortress of Breisach, but in the following 
 year hejnet untimely death. In February, 1637, 
 Emperor Ferdinand II died and was succeeded 
 by his son, Ferdinand III. After the death of 
 Baner in 1641, the Swedish arms were led to 
 fresh triumphs by Torstenson, a general famous 
 for the rapidity of movement. He defeated the 
 Archduke Leopold William and Piccolomini at 
 Breitenfeld Nov. 2, 1642; in 1644 he overran 
 Denmark, whose ruler, Christian IV, had been 
 induced to take up arms against Sweden; in the 
 same year he defeated Gallas at Jiiterbock; and 
 on Mar. 6, 1645, he won a great victory over 
 the Imperialists, under Hatzfeld, at Jankau, 
 southern Bohemia. His repeated invasions car¬ 
 ried devastation and ruin into the territories, 
 even to the gates of Vienna, until the Austrians 
 hardly dared appear north of the Danube. 
 Meanwhile, in the west and south, the French 
 were waging war with varying success. ^ In 
 January, 1642, they were successful at Kem- 
 pen, near Diisseldorf, and in May, 1643, the 
 Duke d’Enghien (the future Cond6) won a sig¬ 
 nal victory over the Spaniards at Rocroi, but on 
 Nov. 24, 1643, the French-Weimar forces suf¬ 
 fered a great defeat at Tuttlingen, in Swabia, 
 at the hands of Johann von Werth and Mercy. 
 Conde and Turenne restored the fortunes of 
 the French by a victory at Allersheim, near 
 Nordlingen, Aug. 3, 1645. The Emperor was 
 now deserted bv all his allies except the Duke 
 of Bavaria, whose territories were already 
 mostly in the hands of Turenne and the Swedish 
 general Wrangel; and a combined invasion of 
 Austria from the west and north was on the 
 point of being executed, when the diplomatic 
 representatives of the different .governments, 
 who had been at work for seven years at 
 Munster, in Westphalia, and at Osnabriick, 
 agreed upon terms of peace which closed the 
 struggle. See Westphalia, Peace of. 
 
 Aside from the political disintegration of 
 Germany which resulted, the 30 years’ struggle 
 had brought desolation upon the country. 
 Scarcely any part of the Empire had escaped 
 the horrors of the conflict, the people had been 
 made the victims of a licentious soldiery whose 
 
THISBE 
 
 THOBURN 
 
 excesses long remained in popular memory. 
 YY hole regions were laid waste, prosperous 
 towns wiped out, commerce and industry de¬ 
 stroyed. Germany lost half of her population 
 and two-thirds of her wealth; in Bohemia, the 
 decrease in population rose to two-thirds or 
 more. Religion and morality sank to a low 
 ebb, and the loss entailed on the intellectual 
 side was one which it took generations to make 
 good. 
 
 Consult: S. R. Gardiner, The Thirty Years’ 
 War (London, 1874) ; Anton Gindely, Geschiclite 
 des dreissig jdhrigen Kriegs (4 vols., Prague, 
 1869-80; Eng. trans. by A. Ten Brook, New 
 \ork, 1884) ; “The Thirty Years 5 War,” in 
 Cambridge Modern History, vol. iv (New York, 
 1906), containing a comprehensive bibliography; 
 J. C. F. von Schiller, History of the Thirty 
 Years’ War in Germany (Sterling ed., Boston, 
 1910). Consult also references under Gustavus 
 Adolphus; Richelieu; Wallenstein; etc. 
 
 THISBE. See Pyramus AND TlIISBE. 
 
 THISTLE (AS. pistel, OHG. distula, distil , 
 Ger. Distel, thistle). A popular name for va¬ 
 rious plants of the family Compositse. They 
 usually have stout, spinv-tipped herbage or 
 flowering bracts. They are*' widely distributed, 
 mostly as weeds. In the United States the 
 name applies to the species of Gnieus, Cirsium, 
 Carduus, Onopordon, Silybum, Gentaurea, and 
 Sonchus. By some botanists the first two genera 
 are combined under the name Gnieus. The 
 principal distinction between these two is that 
 Cirsium has plumose pappus and hence is often 
 called plume thistle, while Cnicus has bristly 
 pappus. The species belonging to the other 
 genera are all introduced from the Old World. 
 The pasture thistle ( Cirsium pumilum), yel¬ 
 low thistle ( Cirsium spinosissimum), bull 
 
 thistle ( Cirsium lanceolatum), and others are 
 comnton and troublesome in pastures and on 
 roadsides. Cirsium arvensis, the so-called Can¬ 
 ada thistle, a European species, is one of the 
 most troublesome and difficult to eradicate of all. 
 It is a slender perennial, 1 to 3 feet high, with 
 rather small, rose-colored flowers. It spreads 
 rincipally by its spreading rootstocks, but can 
 e eradicated by persistent cultivation. The 
 heads are imperfectly dioecious and not all pro¬ 
 duce seed. Among the other common European 
 thistles found in the United States is the milk 
 thistle ( Silybum marianum) , a biennial plant 
 4 to 6 feet tall. The leaves are sometimes used 
 as salads, or as potherbs. The roots, for which it 
 was formerly cultivated, were used like salsify. 
 The blessed thistle ( Cnicus benedictus) , native 
 of Asia, was formerly considered to have medic¬ 
 inal properties. It resembles the star thistle 
 (Gentaurea) , of which there are many species, 
 the best known of which are Centaurea calci- 
 trapa and Centaurea cyanus, the blue-bottle or 
 bachelor’s button. The cotton or Scotch thistle 
 (Ortopordon acanthium) is recognized by its 
 deeply honeycombed receptacle and cottony or 
 woolly leaves. It is said to be the emblem of 
 Scotland, but Cirsium acaulis, a stemless thistle 
 common in Scotland, seems more worthy this 
 designation. The Carline thistle ( Carlina vul¬ 
 garis) is a rather troublesome weed in poor 
 soils in Europe, and was named Carline thistle 
 because Charlemagne, according to tradition, 
 used its roots as a cure for the plague. Species 
 of Sonchus are called sowthistle, of which three 
 are found in the United States, Sonchus olera- 
 ceus, the common sow thistle, Sonchus asper, the 
 Vol. XXII.—15 
 
 219 
 
 spiny leaved sow thistle, and Sonchus arvensis, 
 the field sow thistle. Other plants of different 
 families are sometimes called thistles, as species 
 of Dipsacus (see Teasel) and blue thistle 
 (Echium vulgare) , the latter belonging to the 
 family Boraginacece. See Plate of Tansy, etc. 
 
 The so-called Russian thistle is Salsola tragus, 
 a plant related to the saltwort. It was intro¬ 
 duced into America some years ago in flax 
 seed, and was for a time a very troublesome 
 weed in the western United States. Its name 
 thistle came from the spiny leaves and stems. 
 
 THISTLE. A steel yacht built in 1887 at 
 Glasgow. She lost the contest for the America’s 
 cup to the Volunteer, and afterward became the 
 property of the German Emperor under the 
 name of Meteor. See Yachting. 
 
 THISTLE, Order of the; less commonly 
 Order of Saint Andrew. A Scottish order 
 having the year 787 as the mythical date of its 
 foundation. It was established by James V in 
 1540, reorganized by James II of Great Britain 
 in 1687, and a second time reconstituted by 
 Queen Anne in 1703. The statute of 1827 limits 
 the number of knights to 16 members of the 
 Scottish nobility, in addition to the sovereign 
 and princes of the blood. The star of the order 
 is of silver with a round gold plaque bearing 
 a thistle on a green field. The ribbon is green. 
 The motto runs, Nemo me impure lacessit. 
 THISTLE BIRD. See Goldfinch, 2. 
 THISTLEWOOD CONSPIRACY, or Cato 
 Street Conspiracy. A plot against the Brit¬ 
 ish government formed in 1819-20 by Arthur 
 Thistlewood (1770-1820). It was planned to 
 murder-the Ministers at a dinner given by Lord 
 Harrowby on Feb. 23, 1820, to seize the Man¬ 
 sion House, attack the Bank of England, and 
 to set fire to London in several quarters. All of 
 Thistlewood’s intentions were, however, regu¬ 
 larly reported to the authorities by one of his 
 confidants, George Edwards. On Feb. 21, 1820, 
 the conspirators hired a loft in Cato Street, and 
 there they were arrested on February 23. 
 Thistlewood escaped, but was captured the fol¬ 
 lowing day. He was found guilty on April 19, 
 and hanged with four other conspirators. 
 
 THLINKITS, tlm'kits. See Alaska, Popu¬ 
 lation. 
 
 THNETOPSYCHITES. See Intermediate 
 State. 
 
 THO'AS (Lat., from Gk. 0oas). 1 . The son 
 of Dionysus and Ariadne. He was King of 
 Lemnos and father of Hypsipyle (q.v.), who 
 saved him when the men of the island were 
 killed by the Lemnian women. 2. A King of 
 Tauris. Artemis carried Iphigenia (q.v.) into 
 his dominion after saying her from the sacrifice 
 at Aulis. 
 
 THO'BURN, James Mills (1836- ). 
 
 An American Methodist Episcopal missionary 
 bishop. He was born at St. Clairsville, Ohio, 
 graduated at Allegheny College (1857), and was 
 admitted to the Pittsburgh Conference (1858). 
 From 1859 to 1908 (except for the years 1886- 
 88) he was a missionary in India, becoming 
 presiding elder of the Indian Conference, and 
 for the last 20 years of the period being mis¬ 
 sionary Bishop of Tndia and Malaysia. He pub¬ 
 lished: My Missionary Apprenticeship (1887); 
 Missionary Addresses Before Theological Schools 
 (1887) ; India and Malaysia (1893) ; Christless 
 Nations: Graves Lectures at Syracuse Univer¬ 
 sity (1895); Light in the East (1898); The 
 Christian Conquest of India (1906) ; India and 
 
THOLEN 
 
 220 
 
 THOMAS 
 
 Southern Asia (1907). Consult W. H. Craw¬ 
 ford, Thoburn and India (New York, 1909). 
 
 THOLEN, to'len. An island belonging to the 
 Province of Zealand, Netherlands, 22 miles 
 north by west of Antwerp (Map: Netherlands, 
 C 3). It covers an area of about 47 square 
 miles. The little town of Tholen is in the east¬ 
 ern part. Pop., 1899, 3076; 1909, 3254. 
 
 THOLUCK, toTuk, Friedrich August Gott- 
 reu (1799-1877). A German theologian, born 
 in Breslau. He became professor extraordinary 
 of theology at Berlin in 1823, and full pro¬ 
 fessor at Halle in 1826, where he spent the re¬ 
 mainder of his life with the exception of a so¬ 
 journ in Rome in 1828-29. Tholuck was an 
 influential preacher, writer, and teacher on 
 behalf of a religion of experience. His most im¬ 
 portant work was exegetical. His commentaries 
 on the Psalms, the Sermon on the Mount, John, 
 Romans, Hebrews, have all been translated into 
 English. His best-known works are Die wahre 
 Weihe dcs Zweiflers (1823; 9th ed., 1870; Eng. 
 trans., Guido and Julius , 1854) ; Das Alte 
 Testament im Neuen (1836; 7th ed., 1877) ; and 
 Stunden christlioher Andacht (1840; Eng. trans., 
 Hours of Christian Devotion, New York, 1875). 
 Among his other works may be mentioned 
 Lebenszeugen der lutherischen Kirche vor und 
 mdhrcnd der Zeit des dreissigjdhrigen Krieges 
 (1859) and Geschichte des Rationalismus (1st 
 part, 1865). Consult his Life by L. Witte 
 (Bielefeld, 1884-86), and M. Kahler, August 
 Tholucks Gedachtnis (Leipzig, 1899). His col¬ 
 lected works were published at Gotha (11 vols., 
 1863-72). 
 
 THOM, t6m, John Hamilton (1808-94). A 
 Unitarian clergyman and author, born at Newry, 
 County Down, Ireland, where his father was 
 settled as a Presbyterian minister. He studied 
 at the Belfast Academical Institution with a 
 view to the Presbyterian ministry, but he was 
 won over to Unitarianism by the writings of 
 William Ellery Channing (q.v.). From 1831- 
 54 and from 1857-66 he was minister of Ren- 
 shaw Street Chapel, Liverpool. From 1854 to 
 1857 his place was taken by William Henry 
 Channing (q.v.). Meanwhile (1838) he became 
 editor of the Christian Teaeher (afterward the 
 Prospective Revieiv ). In company with Mar- 
 tineau he conducted a famous controversy with 
 Anglican divines on the interpretation of the 
 New Testament (1839). Besides a life (1845) 
 of Joseph Blanco White, Thom published mainly 
 St. Paul’s Epistles to the Corinthians (1861); 
 Letters, Embracing his Life, by John James 
 Tayler (1872) ; Laws of Life after the Mind of 
 Christ (1883). After his death appeared A Spir¬ 
 itual Faith (1895). 
 
 THOMA, to'ma, Hans (1839- ). A Ger¬ 
 
 man painter, illustrator, and lithographer. 
 With Feuerbach, Marees, and Bocklin, he be¬ 
 came one of the leaders of modern painting in 
 Germany. He was born at Bernau, in the 
 Black Forest, and studied at the Karlsruhe Acad¬ 
 emy with Schirmer, at Diisseldorf (1867), and 
 then in Paris, where he came under the in¬ 
 fluence of Courbet. Afterward he spent four 
 years in Munich with Victor Muller, who also 
 exerted a powerful influence upon him. His 
 style, however, was formed chiefly on the old 
 German wood engravers. After a visit to Italy 
 he settled in Frankfort, and in 1899 removed to 
 Karlsruhe, where he was appointed director 
 of the gallery and professor at the Academy. 
 His intense individuality and sometimes defec¬ 
 
 tive technique at first blinded the public to 
 the freshness and richness of his color, the 
 power and poetry of his imagination, and the 
 depth of his sympathy with German life, but 
 after the Collective Exhibition of German art 
 at Munich in 1890 his true value began to 
 be appreciated. His paintings cover a wide 
 range—landscapes, portraits, genre scenes of 
 German life, religious, mythological, allegorical, 
 and purely fantastic subjects. He also did 
 some work in lithography, etching, and illustra¬ 
 tion. His lithographs are strong, simple, and 
 full of decorative value. His best-known paint¬ 
 ings include: “A Spring Idyl” and “The Guard¬ 
 ian of the Valley” (Dresden Gallery) ; “Soli¬ 
 tude” (Munich Pinakothek) ; “On the W ay to 
 the Castle of the Grail” (Vienna Gallery) ; “At 
 Lake Garda” (Metropolitan Museum, New 
 York); “Longing” (1900); “Paradise” (1901); 
 “Scenes from the Life of Christ” (1907—08, 
 Karlsruhe Gallery). Consult: Fritz von Ostini, 
 “Thoma,” in Kiinstler-Monographien, vol. xlvi 
 (Bielefeld, 1900) ; Franz Servaes, Hans Thoma 
 (Berlin, 1900) ; M. Spanier, Bans Thoma und 
 seine Kunst (Leipzig, 1903) ; and Henry Thode, 
 in Der Ring des Frangipani (4th ed., Frankfurt, 
 1909). 
 
 THOMA, Ludwig (1867-1921 ). A German 
 journalist and author, who used the pseudonym 
 of Peter Schlemihl. He was born in Oberam- 
 mergau, Bavaria, and studied law at Munich 
 and Erlangen, practicing his profession for a 
 time at Dachau and Munich. After 1899 he 
 was editor of Simplicissimus. He is noted 
 for his rather broadly humorous short stories 
 and sketches, especially of Bavarian life, for his 
 dramas and political satires. Among his writ¬ 
 ings, which went through many editions, aje: 
 Agricola und andere Bauerngeschichten (1897) ; 
 Assessor Karlchen und andere Geschichten 
 (1900); Die Medaille, a comedy (1901) ;* Die 
 Lokalbahn, a comedy (1902); Lausbubenge- 
 schichten (1904) ; Andreas Bost, a novel (1905) ; 
 Tante Frieda, a tale (1906); Moral, a comedy 
 (1909); Der Wittiber, a novel (1911); Mag¬ 
 dalena (1912); Das Sduglingsheim (1913). 
 
 THOMAR, Count de. See Costa Cabral, 
 A. B. da. 
 
 THOMAS, tbm'as (Gk. Owpds, Aram. Te- 
 ’uma’, from Heb. Toam, twin). One of the Twelve 
 Apostles. In the Synoptic Gospels and the Acts 
 he is mentioned by this name in the lists of the 
 twelve disciples (Mark iii. 18; Matt. x. 3; Luke 
 vi. 15; Acts i. 13). In the Fourth Gospel, how¬ 
 ever, it is made apparent that this name is an 
 appellative (John xi. 16; xx. 24; xxi. 2). In the 
 Sinai tic Syriac manuscript John xiv. 22 reads 
 “Thomas” ^instead of “Judas,” which hints at an 
 early identification of Thomas with Judas, the son 
 of James. This identification appears also in the 
 Syriac source from which Eusebius translated 
 the story of King Abgar and Thaddaeus, and 
 in the apocryphal Acts of Thomas. The Fourth 
 Gospel alone gives us any information of him 
 beyond his name, disclosing him as one who was 
 inclined to overestimate difficulties (xiv. 5) and 
 to be troubled with doubts (xx. 24, 25), but, 
 at the same time, as one whose loyalty to the 
 Master made him willing to face whatever diffi¬ 
 culties there were (xi. 16), and whose response 
 to the Master’s assurances changed his doubts 
 into instant faith (xx. 26-28). Though nothing 
 more is said of him in the New Testament, he 
 figures prominently in the traditions concerning 
 the spread of Christianity in the Far East. The 
 
THOMAS 
 
 221 
 
 Syrian Abgar legend relates that it was lie who 
 sent dhaddacus, the Apostle of eastern Syria, 
 to that country. A tradition older than Eusebi*us 
 gives Parthia as his mission field; while another, 
 embodied in the Gnostic Acts of Thomas, made 
 ® tlie Apostle of India. To him the "Thomas 
 Christians of southern India assign their origin. 
 Mount St. Thomas, near Madras, is the place of 
 his reputed martyrdom. As these Christians 
 were closely connected with east Syrian Chris¬ 
 tianity, it is probable that the basis of the 
 whole fabric of tradition is some actual mis¬ 
 sionary labor of the Apostle Thomas in eastern 
 Syria. See Apocrypha; Christians of Saint 
 Thomas. 
 
 THOMAS, Christians of Saint. See Chris¬ 
 tians of Saint Thomas. 
 
 THOMAS, Gospel of. See Apocrypha, New 
 Testament. 
 
 THOMAS, A(lbert) E(llsworth) (1872- 
 ). An American playwright. He was born 
 at Chester, Mass., and graduated from Brown 
 University in 1894. From 1895 to 1909 he was 
 engaged in newspaper work in Hew York on the 
 stalls of the Tribune, Evening Post, Times, and 
 Sun. Thomas wrote the novel Cynthia’s Re¬ 
 bellion (1904), and the plays Her Husband’s 
 Wife (produced, 1910; published, 1914); What 
 the Doctor Ordered v 1911 ) ; The Divorce Fund 
 (1911); Little Boy Blue (1911); The Rain¬ 
 bow (1912). 
 
 THOMAS, to'ma', Ambroise (1811-96). A 
 French operatic composer, born in Metz. In 
 1828 he entered the Paris Conservatory, studied 
 under Zimmermann and Kalkbrenner (piano), 
 and under Dourlen, Barbereau, and Le Suer 
 (counterpoint, harmony, and composition). He 
 won the Grand Prix de Rome in 1832. He 
 succeeded Auber as director of the Conservatory 
 in 1871. His chief success lay in opera comique, 
 the best example of which was Mignon (1866). 
 His compositions include the operas: Le pander 
 fleuri (1839) ; Le Ca'id (1849) ; Le songe d’une 
 nuit d’ete (1850); Psyche (1857); Hamlet 
 (1868); Frangoise de Rimini (1882); ballets; 
 cantatas; a requiem; and chamber music. 
 THOMAS, to'ma', Andr£ Antoine (1857- 
 ). A French philologist and historian. He 
 was born at Saint-Yrieux-la-Montaigne (Creuse), 
 and was educated in Paris at the Ecole des 
 Chartes and the Ecole des Hautes Etudes (1875- 
 /8), passing thence to the Ecole Francaise at 
 Rome (18/9—81). From 1881 to 1889 lie taught 
 in the faculty of letters, 1 oulouse, and there¬ 
 after in the University of Paris, rising to be 
 professor of French literature of the Middle Ages 
 and Romance philology. His work is character¬ 
 ized by a severe and careful method as well as 
 a perspicacious originality. He came to be gen¬ 
 erally considered the leading lexicographical au¬ 
 thority in France. In 1889 he founded at 
 Toulouse the quarterly review Les Annales du 
 Midi, of which he was editor until 1898. His 
 most important publications are: Les etats 
 Vf ovinciaux de la France centrale sous Charles 
 1// (2 vols., 1879); Inventaire sommaire des 
 archives communales de Limoges (1882); Nou- 
 velles recherches sur I’entrde de Spagne (1882) ; 
 Francesco da Barberino, etude sur la littera- 
 ture provengale en Italie (1883) ; Po4sies com¬ 
 pletes de Bertran de Born (1888); Essais de 
 philologie frangaise (1897) ; Melanges d’etymol¬ 
 ogic frangaise (1902) ; Nouveaux essais de 
 philologie frangaise (1904); Le comU de la 
 Marche ct le parlement de Poitiers UdlH-lJ/SG) 
 
 THOMAS 
 
 (1910) ; Les registres de Boniface VIII (3 vols. 
 1884-1911), with G. Digard and M. Faucon; 
 L Entree d’Espagne, chanson de geste franco- 
 italienne (2 vols., 1913). In collaboration with 
 A. Hatzfeld and A. Darmesteter he published the 
 Diotionnaire general de la langue frangaise (2 
 vols., 1899-1900), a standard French lexicon. 
 He became a member of the Institute of France 
 and director of courses at the Ecole des Hautes 
 Etudes. 
 
 THOMAS, tom'as, Augustus (1859- ). 
 
 An American playwright, born in St. Louis, Mo" 
 He was a page in the Forty-first Congress, and 
 subsequently, after studying law and gaining 
 some experience in practical railway work, took 
 to journalism, becoming editor and proprietor of 
 the Kansas City Mirror in 1889. Subsequentlv 
 he devoted himself wholly to playwriting. His 
 Alabama (produced 189i) and Arizona (pro¬ 
 duced 1899; published 1904) were played both 
 m America and England. Other plays'include: 
 In Mizzoura, Colorado, The Man Upstairs, Oliver 
 Goldsmith, The Earl of Pawtucket, The Other 
 Girl, Mrs. Leffingrvell’s Boots, The Education of 
 Mr. Pipp, Jim Delanccy, The Embassy Ball, The 
 Witching Hour, The Harvest Moon, As a Man 
 Thinks (published 1911), Indian Summer, The 
 Rio Grande. A master in the technique of the 
 drama, Ihomas reaches a high artistic level in 
 Arizona and The Witching Hour. A noveliza- 
 tion of the latter appeared in 1908. He was 
 elected . to membership in the American Acad¬ 
 emy oi Arts and Letters, was awarded the 
 Rational Institute’s gold medal in 1913, and in 
 1914 received an honorary A.M. degree from 
 Williams College. 
 
 . THOMAS, Brandon (1856-1914). An Eng¬ 
 lish actor and playwright, born in Liverpool. H?s 
 first appearance on the stage was in 1879. His 
 farce. Charley’s Aunt (1892) made a great hit, 
 running for 1200 successive performances in 
 London and afterward standing the strain of 
 perennial revival. It was also translated into 
 several languages, and proved a success abroad 
 as well as at home. Other plays of Thomas’s 
 were: Comrades (1882), his first success; The 
 Colour Sergeant (1885); The Lodgers (1887); 
 The Cola Craze (1S89) ; The Lancashire Sailor 
 (1891); Marriage (1892); 22a Curzon Street 
 (1898); Women Are So Serious (1901); Four- 
 chette and Co. (1904) ; and A Judge’s Memory 
 (1906). J 
 
 THOMAS, Calvin (1854-1919). An Ameri¬ 
 can scholar, bom near Lapeer, Mich. He o-rad- 
 uated in 1874 at the University of Michigan, 
 where, after studying philology at Leipzig, he 
 became a member of the faculty, rising to be 
 professor of Germanic languages' and literature 
 (1886-96). In 1896 he accepted the correspond¬ 
 ing chair at Columbia University. Calvin 
 Thomas was president of the Modern'Language 
 Association of America in 1896-97, and of the 
 American Dialect Society in 1912-13. His pub¬ 
 lications include: A Practical German Grammar 
 (1895; 4th ed., rev., 1905); Goethe and the 
 Conduct of Life (1886) ; The Life and Works of 
 Schiller (1901); A History of German Litera¬ 
 ture ( 1909). In addition he edited Faust (part 
 i, 1892; part ii, 1897), Hermann und Dorothea 
 (1891), and Torquato Tasso (1888), and An 
 Anthology of German Literature (1909), and 
 contributed to the New International Ency¬ 
 clopaedia. 
 
 THOMAS, Charles Louis Ambroise. See 
 Thomas, Ambroise. 
 
THOMAS 
 
 222 
 
 THOMAS 
 
 THOMAS, Charles Spalding (1849- # )'. 
 
 An American legislator. He was born at Darien, 
 Ga., graduated LL.B. from the University of 
 Michigan in 1871, and practiced law at Denver, 
 Colo., in 1871-79, at Leadville in 1879-85, and 
 again at Denver after 1885. Thomas was a 
 member of the Democratic National Committee 
 from 1884 to 1896, and served as temporary 
 chairman of the Democratic National Conven¬ 
 tion at Kansas City, Mo., in 1900. From 1899 
 to 1901 he was Governor of Colorado, and in 
 1913 was elected United States Senator for the 
 unexpired term of Charles J. Hughes, being re¬ 
 elected for the term 1915-21. 
 
 THOMAS, Cyrus (1825-1910). An Ameri¬ 
 can anthropologist, born at Kingsport, Tenn. 
 Admitted to the bar in 1851, he practiced law 
 until 1865, when he became a minister of the 
 Evangelical Lutheran church. He served as an 
 assistant on the United States Geological Sur¬ 
 vey in 1869-73, as professor of natural science 
 in the Southern Illinois Normal University in 
 
 1873- 75, as State entomologist of Illinois in 
 
 1874- 76, and as a member of the United States 
 Entomological Commission in 1876-77. From 
 1882 until his death he was archaeologist of the 
 United States Bureau of Ethnology. He pub¬ 
 lished: Synopsis of the Acrididce of North Amer¬ 
 ica ( 1873); Mound Explorations of the Bureau 
 of American Ethnology (1887) ; Introduction to 
 the Study of North American Archccology 
 (1898); Indians of North America in Historic 
 Times (1903), with W J McGee; and a large 
 number of bulletins on Indian languages, calen¬ 
 dars, writings, and similar subjects. 
 
 THOMAS, David (1813-94). A British Con¬ 
 gregational minister. He was born at Vatson, 
 near Tenby, Wales; was educated at Newport- 
 Pagnell (now Cheshunt) College; and from 1844 
 to 1877 was minister of the Stockwell Independ¬ 
 ent Church, London. The remainder of his life 
 was spent in retirement. He was greatly ad¬ 
 mired as a preacher, and had a large circle of 
 readers for his monthly, The Homilist, or Voice 
 for the Truth (1852-82), and for his collection 
 of writings called The Homilist Library (1882— 
 89). He compiled a liturgy for Evangelical 
 churches (1856), and a hymn book (1866), 
 which contained some fair hymns of his own 
 composition. 
 
 THOMAS, Edith Matilda (1854- ). An 
 
 American writer. She was born in Chatham, 
 Ohio, and was educated at the normal school of 
 Geneva, Ohio. She began writing early for the 
 local newspapers, and was encouraged by Mrs. 
 Helen Hunt Jackson in 1881 to send verse to more 
 important periodicals. Her first volume appeared 
 in 1885, entitled A Nets Year's Masque and Other 
 Poems. Other books are: The Round Year 
 (1886); Lyrics and Sonnets (1887); Babes of 
 ■the Year (1888) ; Babes of the Nation (1889) ; 
 Heaven and Earth (1889) ; The Inverted Torch 
 (1890) ; Fair Shadow Land (1893) ; In Sunshine 
 Land (1895); In the Young World (1895); 
 A Winter Swallow, and Other Verse (1896); 
 The Dancers (1903); Cassia, and Other Verse 
 (1905); Children of Christmas (1907); The 
 Guest of the Gate (1909); The White Messen¬ 
 ger, and Other War Poems (1915). 
 
 THOMAS, George Henry (1816-70). A dis¬ 
 tinguished American soldier, born in Southamp¬ 
 ton 0 Co., Va. He graduated at West Point in 
 1840; served in the Mexican War, and distin¬ 
 guished himself at Monterey and Buena Vista. 
 After the close of the Mexican War he served 
 
 a year in Florida, three years as cavalry and 
 artillery instructor at West Point, and then for 
 fHe years in Texas as major in the Second 
 Cavalry. On the outbreak of the Civil War, 
 though he was by birth and associations a 
 Southerner, he adhered to the Union cause; was 
 lieutenant colonel (afterward colonel) of the 
 Second Cavalry; commanded a brigade in the 
 first Shenandoah campaign; and early in 1862 
 won the battle of Mill Springs, Ky. He com¬ 
 manded the right wing of the Army of the Ten¬ 
 nessee during the siege of Corinth, and was in 
 full command during a great part of June, 
 1862. He held command of the centre of the 
 Army of the Cumberland, and though appointed 
 to supersede Buell as commander of the whole 
 army, asked to remain in a subordinate position. 
 He rendered conspicuous service at Perryville 
 and Stone River (q.v.), and led the Fourteenth 
 Army Corps in the campaign of middle Ten¬ 
 nessee in the summer of 1863. At Chickamauga, 
 Sept. 19-20, 1863, Thomas stood firm, and re¬ 
 sisted the concentrated attack of a victorious 
 enemy, gaining the title of “the Rock of Cliicka- 
 mauga.” Soon after he reluctantly succeeded to 
 the post held by Rosecrans, and commanded the 
 Army of the Cumberland at Missionary Ridge, 
 and in the campaign of 1864 up to the capture 
 of Atlanta. When Sherman marched thence to 
 the sea, Thomas was sent into Tennessee, where, 
 in the battle of Nashville, Dec. 15-16, 1864, he 
 crushed Hood’s army. He was at once appointed 
 a major general in the regular army, and Con¬ 
 gress tendered him a vote of thanks. In 1865— 
 66 General Thomas commanded the Military 
 Division of the Tennessee, including Kentucky, 
 Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, 
 and the Department of the Tennessee, including 
 the same States, in 1867. From June, 1869, 
 until his death, he was in command of the Mili¬ 
 tary Division of the Pacific, with headquarters 
 at San Francisco. General Thomas was a man 
 of sterling qualities, and a courageous and skill¬ 
 ful officer. He enjoyed to a marked degree the 
 loyalty of his men and the confidence of his 
 superiors. Consult: T. B. Van Horne, Life of 
 Major General G. H. Thomas (New York, 1882) ; 
 Henry Coppee, Life of General Thomas (ib., 
 1893) ; Gamaliel Bradford, in Union Portraits 
 (Boston, 1916). 
 
 THOMAS, Isaiah (1749-1831). An Ameri¬ 
 can printer, born in Boston, Mass. He was 
 a printer at Newburyport in 1767, and in 1770, 
 in partnership with his former employer, estab¬ 
 lished the Massachusetts Spy, becoming sole edi¬ 
 tor at the end of three months, and conducting 
 the paper first at Boston and then (after 1774) 
 at Worcester until 1801. Flis paper became the 
 organ of the Whig or Patriot party, and fear¬ 
 lessly attacked the measures of the British min¬ 
 istry. At ’Worcester and later at Walpole, N. H., 
 he published a number of reprints of standard 
 English works, besides Bibles, hymn books, school 
 books then in general use, and a magazine. 
 The Farmers’ Museum. In 1788 he opened a 
 bookstore and publishing house in Boston and 
 (1789-1796) published The Massachusetts Maga¬ 
 zine. - He issued the Neiv England Almanac 
 (1775-1801), wrote an excellent History of 
 Printing in America (1810), and founded (1812) 
 the* American Antiquarian Society, giving it his 
 large library and a liberal endowment. Consult 
 B. °F. Thomas, Memoir of Isaiah Thomas (Bos¬ 
 ton, 1874), and “Diary of Isaiah Thomas, 1805- 
 1828,” edited bv B. T. Hill, in American An- 
 
THOMAS 
 
 THOMAS 
 
 223 
 
 tiquarian Society, Transactions, vols. ix, x (Wor¬ 
 cester, 1909). 
 
 THOMAS, John ( 1725—7G). An American 
 soldier, born at Marshfield, Mass. He studied 
 medicine, and became eminent as a physician. 
 In 1746 he served as surgeon in a regiment sent 
 to Nova Scotia, and in 1747 acted first as sur¬ 
 geon and then as lieutenant under Shirley. In 
 
 1759 he became a colonel of provincials, and in 
 
 1760 led a regiment at Crown Point and was at 
 the capture of Montreal. He was appointed a 
 brigadier general in June, 1775, and a major 
 general in the following March. During the 
 siege of Boston he was stationed on the Roxbury 
 side, and on the night of March 4, 1776, with 
 3000 men, occupied Dorchester Heights, thus 
 rendering Boston untenable for the British, who 
 evacuated it on the 17th. He then was appointed 
 to succeed Montgomery in Canada, and took com¬ 
 mand before Quebec on May 1; but, finding the 
 army small in numbers and weakened by dis¬ 
 ease, he ordered a retreat. Contracting the 
 smallpox, he died near Montreal on May 30. 
 
 THOMAS, John Jacob (1810-95). An 
 American horticulturist and writer. He was 
 born near Lake Cayuga, in central New York, 
 and there spent his life on a farm. For nearly 
 60 years he exercised a wide influence as an edi¬ 
 torial writer for the Cultivator and the Country 
 Gentleman, his articles dealing with a great va¬ 
 riety of practical farm topics. He also pub¬ 
 lished a book, Farm Implements and Machinery 
 (1869), and a nine-volume work, Rural Affairs 
 (1855-81), both of which were valuable in their 
 day and serve as records of their time. His fame 
 rests chiefly upon his work as a pomologist and 
 upon his book, The Amen'ican Fruit Culturist, 
 which appeared first in 1845. As revised by 
 W. H. S. Wood in 1897 it reached its twentieth 
 edition. The twenty-first edition was issued in 
 1903, and this was reprinted in 1909. 
 
 THOMAS, Joseph (1811—91). An American 
 lexicographer and physician. He was born in 
 Cayuga Co., N. Y.; educated at the Polytechnic 
 Institute, Troy, and at Yale College, and then 
 studied medicine in Philadelphia. In 1857-58 
 in India, and afterward in Egypt, he made a 
 special study of Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, and 
 other Oriental languages. Subsequently he be¬ 
 came professor of Latin and Greek at Haver- 
 ford College, Pa. In association with Thomas 
 Baldwin he published in 1845 A Pronouncing 
 Gazetteer, in 1854 A Few and Complete Gazet¬ 
 teer of the United States, and in 1855 The Com¬ 
 plete Pronouncing Gazetteer of the World, which 
 lias been often revised. In 1870—71 appeared 
 his Universal Pronouncing Dictionary of Bi¬ 
 ography and Mythology, a work of painstaking 
 labor (3d ed., revised, 1905). Thomas also 
 edited A Comprehensive Medical Dictionary 
 (1864; revised, 1886). 
 
 THOMAS, Lorenzo (1804-75). An Ameri¬ 
 can soldier, born in Newcastle, Del. He gradu¬ 
 ated at the United States Military Academy in 
 1823, and served in the Florida War. In 1838 
 he was appointed assistant adjutant general, in 
 1839-40 was chief of staff of the forces in Flor¬ 
 ida, served in the Mexican War as chief of staff 
 of Gen. W. O. Butler, and was brevetted lieu¬ 
 tenant colonel for gallantry at Monterey. From 
 1861 to 1863 he was adjutant general with rank 
 of brigadier general, and during the remaining 
 two years of the war organized colored troops 
 in the Southern States. President Johnson in 
 1868 appointed him Secretary of War, dismissing 
 
 Stanton, but as the latter refused to vacate his 
 post, Thomas did not assume the office. In 1865 
 he was brevetted major general, -and in 1869 
 was retired. 
 
 THOMAS, M(artiia) Carey (1857- ). 
 
 An American educator, born at Baltimore, Md. 
 She graduated at Cornell in 1877, and studied 
 also at Johns Hopkins and at Leipzig and Zurich 
 (Ph.D., 1883). She was the first woman to re- 
 ceive such a doctorate at a European university. 
 In 1885 she became professor of English and 
 dean, and in 1895 president, of Bryn Mawr Col¬ 
 lege. She was elected a trustee of Cornell, and 
 was honored by the degree of LL.D. from the 
 Western University of Pennsylvania and from 
 Brown. She published: Sir Gawayne and the 
 Green Knight (1883); Education of Women 
 (1900) , and articles in the Educational Review. 
 In 1915 Miss Mary Garrett, who had been promi¬ 
 nent in suffrage work and a benefactor of Bryn 
 Mawr, left to President Thomas $15,000,000 to 
 be disposed of as she saw fit. 
 
 THOMAS, Seth, (1785—1859). An American 
 manufacturer, born in Wolcott, Conn. After re¬ 
 ceiving a meagre education, he was apprenticed 
 to a carpenter and joiner in New Haven. Sub¬ 
 sequently he settled in Plymouth Hollow (now 
 Ihomaston) and with two partners began the 
 manufacture of clocks, finally becoming sole 
 proprietor of an establishment which grew to 
 be one of the largest clock factories in the world. 
 
 THOMAS, Sidney Gilchrist (1850-85). A 
 British metallurgist and inventor. Born in Lon¬ 
 don, he received an elementary education at 
 Dulwich College, but by study after hours spent 
 as a clerk was able to gain a knowledge of chem¬ 
 istry, especially in its relations to technology. 
 When opportunity offered he attended lectures 
 at the Royal School of Mines and was able to 
 pass examinations for the degree in metallurgy, 
 but this was denied him, owing to absence from 
 day lectures. From 1870 he worked on the 
 elimination of phosphorus in the Bessemer con¬ 
 verter, and in 1875 reached a practical solution 
 of the problem by employing a basic lining of 
 magnesia or magnesian limestone. He secured 
 the cooperation of his cousin Percy Gilchrist, 
 also a chemist, and after obtaining a first patent 
 in November, 1877, announced the invention in 
 the following year. The process (discussed un¬ 
 der Iron and Steel, Bessemer Process ) soon 
 came into wide use everywhere, and Thomas re¬ 
 ceived both financial returns and scientific hon¬ 
 ors, notable among which was the Bessemer 
 medal of the Iron and Steel Institute of Great 
 Britain in 1883. Consult Jeans, Creators of 
 the Age of Steel (London, 1884). 
 
 THOMAS, Theodore (1831-1905). An 
 American orchestral conductor, born in Esens, 
 East Friesland. He received his musical educa¬ 
 tion from his father, and played the violin at 
 public concerts when only six years of age. He 
 came with his parents to America in 1845, was 
 a member of the orchestra of the Italian opera 
 in New York, and played first violin in the first 
 American concert tour of Jenny Lind. In 1861 
 he began the formation of an orchestra that be¬ 
 came famous, and in 1864 gave his first sym¬ 
 phony concerts in New York. In 1866 he* in¬ 
 stituted summer-night festivals. For nine years 
 from 1869 he made an annual round of the prin¬ 
 cipal American cities. In 1878 he accepted the 
 position of director of the College of Music at 
 Cincinnati, but in 1880 he returned to New 
 York, where he was conductor of the Philhar- 
 
THOMAS 
 
 THOMAS SLAG 
 
 224 
 
 monic Society until 1890. The orchestra which 
 he built up in Chicago, where he lived there¬ 
 after, came to be recognized as one of the great 
 orchestras of the world. Notwithstanding a 
 heavy annual deficit, the orchestra’s guarantors 
 supported Thomas in his determination to pre¬ 
 sent nothing but the best in music. He finally 
 succeeded in winning the public to his own ideals. 
 (See Chicago Orchestra.) Consult G. P. Up¬ 
 ton, ed., Theodore Thomas: a Musical Autobi¬ 
 ography (2 vols., Chicago, 1905), and for side¬ 
 lights, Rose Fay Thomas (his wife), Our Moun¬ 
 tain Garden (New York, 1904; new ed., 1915). 
 
 THOMAS, Theodore Gaillard (1832-1903). 
 An American gynaecologist, born in Edisto 
 Island, S. C., and educated in Charleston. He 
 studied in Europe, principally in Paris and 
 Dublin, in 1853-55, and began the practice of 
 his profession in New York. He was a lecturer 
 in New York University (1855-63), and pro¬ 
 fessor in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, 
 New York City (1863-89), where he held the 
 chair of gynaecology when he retired. Thomas 
 was the first to perform and publish an account 
 of vaginal ovariotomy (1870). He wrote Dis¬ 
 eases of Women (Philadelphia, 1868), which 
 passed through six editions in English, and was 
 translated into French, German, Spanish, Chi¬ 
 nese, and Italian. 
 
 THOMAS, W. H. Griffith (1861- ). A 
 
 Canadian theologian. He was born in England, 
 graduated at Christ Church, Oxford, and was 
 ordained priest of the Church of England in 
 1885. After filling several minor appointments 
 he was vicar of St. Paul’s, Portman Square, 
 London, in 1896-1905, and principal of Wycliffe 
 Hall, Oxford, in 1905-10. In the latter year he 
 was appointed professor of the Old Testament at 
 Wycliffe College, Toronto. His publications in¬ 
 clude: Methods of Bible Study (1902); Hand¬ 
 book of the Acts (1905); The Catholic Faith 
 (1906) ; Commentary on Genesis (3 vols., 1907- 
 OS) ; The Power of Peace (1908) ; Christianity 
 in Christ (1909); Life Abiding and Abounding 
 (1909) ; Commentary on Romans (3 vols., 1911- 
 12); The Work of the Ministry (1911); The 
 Holy Spirit of God (1913) ; The Prayers of St. 
 Paul (1914). 
 
 THOMAS A BECKET, a bek'et. See Becket. 
 
 THOMAS A KEM'FIS. See Kempis. 
 
 THOMAS AQUINAS. See Aquinas. 
 
 THOMAS HUBBARD, Cape. See Heiberg 
 Land. 
 
 THOMASIUS, td-ma'ze-us, Christian (1655- 
 1728). A German philosopher and jurist, born 
 in Leipzig. He began to lecture in the Univer¬ 
 sity of Leipzig. His lectures were free from ped¬ 
 antry, arid were delivered in the German lan¬ 
 guage instead of the traditional Latin. These 
 innovations brought hostility from conservative 
 educators. He edited the first scientific journal 
 in German, but its liberal tone excited so much 
 opposition that he was forced to leave Leipzig. 
 He went to Halle in 1690, where he was one of 
 the founders of the university and its first pro¬ 
 fessor of jurisprudence. His great aim was to 
 harmonize and blend science and life. His im¬ 
 portant works were: Institutionum Jurispru¬ 
 dential Divince Libri Tres (1688); Fundamenta 
 Juris Naturce et Gentium (1705) ; and Geschichte 
 der Weisheit und Thorheit. Consult B. A. Wag¬ 
 ner, Christian Thomasius: ein Beitrag zur 
 Wiirdigung seiner Verdienste um die deutsche 
 Litteratur (Berlin, 1872) ; R. Kayser, Thom¬ 
 
 asius und der Pietismus (Hamburg, 1900) ; 
 A. D. White, Seven Great Statesmen in the War¬ 
 fare of Humanity with Unreason (New York, 
 1910). 
 
 THOMASIUS, Gottfried (1802-75). A Ger¬ 
 man theologian. He was born at Egenhausen, 
 Wiirttemberg, studied at Erlangen, Halle, and 
 Berlin, and was professor of systematic theology 
 at Erlangen from 1842 till his death. His most 
 important publications were: Origines (1837); 
 Christi Person und Werk (1852-61; 3d ed., 
 1886-88) ; Die christliche Dogmengescliichte 
 (1874-76; 2d ed., 1886-89). Consult A. von 
 Stahlin, Lohe, Thomasius, Harless (Leipzig, 
 1887). 
 
 THOMAS ( Lat . pron. tho'mas) MAGIS'TER 
 (Gk. O oj/ias 6 Mayiarpos, Thomas ho Magistros, 
 Master Thomas). A Greek rhetorician and 
 grammarian of the early part of the fourteenth 
 century, born probably at Thessalonica. For 
 some time at the court of the Byzantine Emperor 
 Andronicus Palteologus II, he held important 
 offices. Later, having retired to a monastery, 
 he compiled a Lexicon of Attic Greek (WKXoyal 
 ’Ovoyaruv ’Attikuv). His works also include 
 scholia to JEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and 
 three plays of Aristophanes, which are preserved 
 with the other scholia to those authors, as well 
 as lives of these writers which have come down 
 to us in the manuscripts of their works. Letters 
 and orations of Thomas Magister have been pre¬ 
 served. Especially noteworthy is the oration on 
 Gregorv of Nazianzus. The earliest edition of 
 the Lexicon is that of Z. Callierges (1517) ; the 
 latest, that of Ritschl (1832). 
 
 THOMAS OE AQUINO. See Aquinas, 
 Thomas. 
 
 THOMAS OE CELANO, cha-laYio (c.1200- 
 c.1255). One of the first members of the Fran¬ 
 ciscan Order. He was born at Celano, in the 
 Abruzzi, became acquainted with Francis of 
 Assisi, and Avas in 1221 sent by him upon a mis¬ 
 sion to Germany. In 1222 he was placed over 
 the monasteries of Worms, Speyer, Mainz, and 
 Cologne, but in 1230 we find him again in Italy. 
 His intimacy with Francis eminently fitted him 
 to be his biographer, and he wrote two sketches 
 of the saint, which are of primary importance 
 (Eng. trans., 1908), as well as the Life 
 of St. Clara (Eng. trans., 1910). Of more 
 universal interest is his claim, now prac¬ 
 tically admitted by all scholars, to be considered 
 the author of the Dies Irce (q.v.), except perhaps 
 
 flip loaf oiV VOTQPQ 
 
 THOMAS OE ERCELDOUNE. See Thomas 
 
 the Rhymer. 
 
 THOMAS SLAG, Piiosphatic Slag, Basic 
 Slag. A by-product of the manufacture of steel 
 from piiosphatic ores by the basic or Thomas 
 (see Thomas, S. G.) process, in which phos¬ 
 phorus is eliminated from the pig iron by means 
 of basic (rich in lime) lining to the Bessemer 
 converters and by adding lime to the molten pig 
 iron. The slag is therefore rich in lime (about 
 15 per cent in the free state and 40 per cent com¬ 
 bined with other substances). The phosphoric 
 acid content of the product as found in the mar¬ 
 ket is very variable, ranging from 10 to 25 per 
 cent. Slag of average quality contains 15 to 20 
 per cent of phosphoric acid. In good slag 80 
 per cent of this phosphoric acid should be avail¬ 
 able, as shown by the chemical methods of de¬ 
 termining availability, viz., treatment with a 
 weak solution of citric acid or ammonium citrate. 
 The phosphoric acid of slag, unlike that of super- 
 
THOMPSON 
 
 THOMAS THE RHYMER 
 
 225 
 
 phosphates, is practically insoluble in water. 
 Attempts have been made with some success to 
 prepare a slag in which the phosphoric acid is 
 more available by fusing the product as obtained 
 from the converters at about 900° C. with suffi¬ 
 cient silica (quartz) to convert the free lime 
 into silicate. Such slag differs materially from 
 the untreated product not only in containing a 
 higher percentage of available phosphoric acid 
 and of silica, but in being practically devoid of 
 free lime. Basic slag is not suited to the manu¬ 
 facture of superphosphates and is generally used 
 without any treatment except fine grinding. 
 The value of the material depends very largely 
 upon its fineness. 
 
 Slag has been used in large quantities for 
 agricultural purposes in Europe for a number of 
 years. At the time of the outbreak of the Great 
 War in 1914 the world’s consumption had reached 
 about 4,500,000 tons annually. It has not been 
 extensively introduced into the United States, 
 although a limited amount is being made there. 
 Experiments have shown slag to be a very val¬ 
 uable phosphatic fertilizer, and on account of its 
 high percentage of lime especially suited to use 
 on acid soils and those rich in organic matter. 
 It would not be wise to use it freely on poor 
 sandy soils deficient in organic matter. 
 
 Slag appears to be especially suited to legumi¬ 
 nous crops. Six hundred to 1000 pounds per 
 acre is considered a liberal dressing. It should 
 not be mixed with ammonium sulphate before 
 use, since its high percentage of free lime is 
 likely to cause a loss of ammonia by volatiliza¬ 
 tion. Mixtures of the slag with other salts, 
 such as muriate of potash and nitrate of soda, 
 cake badly and are difficult to handle and dis¬ 
 tribute uniformly. See Manures and Manuring. 
 
 THOMAS THE RHYMER, or more correctly 
 Thomas of Erceldoune, or Thomas Learmont 
 ( C.1220-C.1297) . A Scottish seer and poet, about 
 whom very little is positively known. Ercel¬ 
 doune (now called Earlston) was a village in 
 Berwickshire on the river Leader, about two 
 miles above its junction with the Tweed. There 
 is mention of Thomas as a seer in the con¬ 
 tinuation of Fordun’s Scotichronicon, attributed 
 to Walter Bower (died 1449). For centuries all 
 sorts of prophecies were connected with his 
 name. A collection of them was published at 
 Edinburgh in 1603 under the title The Whole 
 Prophesie of Scotland. To Thomas the Rhvmer 
 has been attributed a beautiful fairy story in 
 verse. According to the legend, Thomas met a 
 lady fair” at Huntly Banks and was conveyed 
 to fairyland, where he acquired knowledge that 
 made him famed. After some time there he 
 was permitted to go to the earth to practice his 
 prophetic skill, on condition that he should 
 return at the fairy ’3 bidding. One day, while 
 he was making merry with his friends, the sum¬ 
 mons came. He disappeared in the forest and 
 never came again to earth. The poem, consist¬ 
 ing of the minstrel’s usual prologue and three 
 fyttes, contains 700 lines. It exists in four 
 complete manuscripts, the oldest being the 
 Thornton at Cambridge (assigned to 1430-40). 
 Though they are all in English, they point to an 
 older original, which may have been the com¬ 
 position of Thomas. Sir Walter Scott and others 
 also ascribed to Thomas the verse romance of 
 Sir Tristrem. It exists in a single manuscript 
 in the Advocates’ Library at Edinburgh. 
 Though the poem contains allusions to Thomas 
 of Erceldoune, his authorship is now questioned. 
 
 Consult The Romance and Prophecies of Thomas 
 of Erceldoune, edited by J. A. H. Murray for 
 the Early English Text Society (London, 1875) ; 
 Thomas of Erceldoune, edited by Brandi (Ber¬ 
 lin, 1880). 
 
 THOMASTON. A town in Litchfield Co., 
 Conn., 10 miles by rail north of Waterbury, on 
 the Naugatuck River and on the New York, 
 New Haven, and Hartford Railroad (Map: Con¬ 
 necticut, C 3). 4here are large clock and watch 
 
 factories, a brass rolling mill, and manufactories 
 of cutlery and brass products. Pop., 1900, 3300; 
 1910, 3533. 
 
 THOMASVILLE, tom'as-vil. A city and 
 the county seat of Thomas Co., Ga., 200 miles 
 west of Savannah, on the Ochlocknee River and 
 on the Atlantic Coast Line, the Atlanta, Bir¬ 
 mingham, and Atlantic, and the Florida Central 
 railroads (Map: Georgia, B 5). It is pictur¬ 
 esquely situated on high ground, and has at¬ 
 tained considerable prominence as a winter and 
 health resort. There are three large hotels. The 
 South Georgia College and Young’s College for 
 Women are here, and the city has also a public 
 library, a normal school for negroes, the Vashti 
 Home for Girls, and Paradise, McIntyre, and 
 Magnolia parks. Thomasville is surrounded by 
 a fertile region producing cotton, sugar cane, 
 tobacco, melons, figs, pears, grapes, and vege¬ 
 tables. Its manufacturing interests are centred 
 mainly in the lumber industry, and there are iron¬ 
 works. Thomasville was settled in 1850 and 
 received its present charter in 1889. Pop., 1900 
 5322; 1910, 6727. 
 
 ^ THOMASVILLE. A city in Davidson Co., 
 N. C., 22 miles southwest of Greensboro, on the 
 Southern and the Carolina and Yadkin railroads 
 (Map: North Carolina, B 2). It contains the 
 Thomasville Baptist Orphanage. There are ma¬ 
 chine shops, a veneer and woodworking plant, 
 cotton mills, and manufactories of chairs, 
 spokes, handles, and furniture. Pop., 1910, 3877. 
 
 THOME, td'ma', Francois (commonly called 
 Francis) (1850—1909). A French composer, 
 born at Port-Louis, Mauritius. From 1866 to 
 1870 he attended the Paris Conservatory, study¬ 
 ing pianoforte with Marmontel and theory with 
 Duprato. He is known chiefly for his piano 
 pieces, which are distinguished by grace and re¬ 
 finement. His ballets and pantomimes enjoyed 
 considerable popularity during the composer’s 
 life. 
 
 THOMIST, thoYnist. A follower of Thomas 
 Aquinas (q.v.) in philosophy or theology. See 
 Auexandrists. 
 
 TKQMMEN, tom'men, Achilles (1832-93). 
 An Austrian engineer, born at Basel, and edu¬ 
 cated at the university of his native town and in 
 the polytechnic institute of Karlsruhe. He built 
 the railroad over the Brenner Pass in 1861-67. 
 From 1867 to 1869 he was head of the railroad 
 system of Hungary. He wrote Die Gotthard- 
 hahn-Bemerlcungen zur Reform (1877). 
 
 THOMPSON, tomp'son. A town, including 
 several villages, in Windham Co., Conn., 3 
 miles northeast of Putnam, on the Quinebaug 
 River, and on the New York, New Haven, and 
 Hartford Railroad (Map: Connecticut, H 2). 
 Farming and the manufacture of cotton goods 
 and woolens are the leading industries of the 
 community. Originally a part of Killinglv, 
 Thompson became a parish in 1728, and was in¬ 
 corporated as a town in 1785. Pop., 1900, 6442; 
 1910, 4804. 
 
 THOMPSON, Augustus Charles (1812- 
 
THOMPSON 
 
 226 
 
 THOMPSON 
 
 1901). An American Congregational clergyman. 
 He was born at Goshen, Conn., and studied at 
 Yale College, at Hartford Theological Seminary, 
 and the University of Berlin. He became pastor 
 of the Eliot Congregational Church, Roxbury, 
 Mass. (1842). He visited India with Dr. Rufus 
 Anderson (1854-55), and lectured on foreign 
 missions at Andover Theological Seminary 
 (1877-80), at Boston University (1882), and 
 at Hartford Theological Seminary (1885-86). 
 His publications include memorials of Mrs. Anna 
 J. Waters (1854), of H. M. Mill (1856), of Rev. 
 Dr. Rufus Anderson (1880) ; Moravian Missions 
 (1882); Foreign Missions (1889); Protestant 
 Missions (1894); Eliot Memorial (Boston, 
 1900) ; and numerous works of a popular char¬ 
 acter. 
 
 THOMPSON, Benjamin. See Rumfoed, 
 Benjamin Thompson, Count. 
 
 THOMPSON, Charles Miner (1864- ). 
 
 An American editor and author. He was born 
 at Montpelier, Vt., and graduated from Harvard 
 in 1886. In 1887-90 he served as literary editor 
 of the Boston Advertiser. He was associate edi¬ 
 tor of the Youth’s Companion from 1890 to 1911, 
 thereafter editor in chief, and after 1912 part 
 owner. Among his entertaining stories are: 
 The Nimble Dollar (1895), a book for boys; The 
 Calico Cat (1908) ; An Army Mule (1910). 
 
 THOMPSON, Daniel Greenleaf (1850-97). 
 An American psychologist and sociologist. He 
 graduated at Amherst College in 1869 and was 
 admitted to the bar in New York in 1872. How¬ 
 ever, he devoted his time mainly to the psy¬ 
 chology of religion and sociological subjects, and 
 is chiefly known for his System of Psychology (2 
 vols., 1884) ; The Religious Sentiments of the 
 Human Mind (1888); Social Progress (1889); 
 The Philosophy of Fiction in Literature (1890) ; 
 Politics in a Democracy (1893). In his books 
 Thompson takes a position violently antagonistic 
 to various dogmas. 
 
 THOMPSON, Daniel Pierce (1795-1868). 
 An American lawyer, politician, and novelist, 
 born at Charlestown, Mass. He graduated at 
 Middlebury College (1820), went to Virginia as 
 tutor, studied law there, and was admitted to the 
 bar (1823). He settled in Montpelier, Vt., in 
 1824, held various legal offices in that State, 
 compiled, by legislative appointment, Laws of 
 Vermont from 1824 doion to and including the 
 Year 183i f f (1835), was Secretary of State of 
 Vermont (1853-55), and editor of a political 
 weekly, The Green Mountain Freeman (1849— 
 56). * His first novel was a satire on the Anti- 
 Masonic agitation, The Adventures of Timothy 
 Peacock (1835). In the same year was pub¬ 
 lished his May Martin, or the Money Diggers. 
 Much popularity was achieved by The Green 
 Mountain Boys (1840) and The Rangers (1857), 
 romances of Revolutionary Vermont. He also 
 wrote a History of Montpelier, 1181-1860 
 (1860). 
 
 THOMPSON, David (1770-1857). A Cana¬ 
 dian explorer, born in Westminster, London. 
 He was educated at Oxford and in 1789 came 
 to America in the service of the Hudson’s Bay 
 Company. He became engaged in explorations 
 near the Great Lakes, in i798 discovered Turtle 
 Lake, one of the sources of the Mississippi, and 
 in 1807-11 crossed the Rocky Mountains and 
 explored the course of the Columbia River. In 
 1797 he became connected with the Northwest 
 Company. He was with the Canadian-United 
 States boundary survey (1816-26), later hav¬ 
 
 ing charge of surveying and exploring expedi¬ 
 tions in the Canadian Northwest. He published 
 A Map of the Northwest Territory of the Prov¬ 
 ince of Canada (1814). 
 
 THOMPSON, Denman (1833-1911). An 
 American actor, best known for his impersona¬ 
 tion of the rustic “Josh” Whitcomb. He was 
 born in Erie Co., Pa., but passed his boyhood 
 in Swanzey, N. H., where he found some types 
 that he later made famous. His stage d6but was 
 at Lowell, Mass., in 1852. Joshua Whitcomb 
 was first brought out in 1875. In 1886 Mr. 
 Thompson produced The Old Homestead, in which 
 the same leading character appears, and this 
 play, with its depiction of country life, became 
 the material of his subsequent popularity. It 
 ran for four successive seasons in New York 
 (1888-91), and toured the United States for 
 years. Consult McKay and Wingate, Famous 
 American Actors of To-Day (New York, 1896). 
 
 THOMPSON, Sir Edward Maunde (1840- 
 ). An English antiquary, born in Jamaica, 
 West Indies. After studying at Rugby and at 
 University College, Oxford, he was called to the 
 bar at the Middle Temple in 1867. In 1861 
 he was appointed assistant in the British Mu¬ 
 seum; in 1878 he became keeper of the manu¬ 
 scripts and Egerton librarian; and was princi¬ 
 pal librarian (1888-1909). He was Sandars 
 reader in bibliography at Cambridge (1895-96; 
 1905-06), and was knighted in 1895, receiving 
 the G.C.B. in 1909. Editions by him include: 
 Chronicon Anglice, 1328-88, in the “Rolls Se¬ 
 ries” (1874); and, for various societies: Letters 
 of Humphrey IWideaux (1875) ; Chronicon Adce 
 de Usk, 1311-1404 (1876); Correspondence of 
 the Family of Hatton (1878) ; Diary of Richard 
 Cocks in Japan, 1615-22 (1883); the facsimile 
 of the “Laurentian Sophocles” (1885), with 
 Professor Jebb. Thompson’s Handbook of Greek 
 and Latin Palaeography (1893) appeared in an 
 enlarged edition as Introduction to Greek and 
 Latin Palaeography (1912). 
 
 THOMPSON, Ernest Seton. See Seton,. 
 Ernest Thompson. 
 
 THOMPSON, Francis (1860-1907). An 
 English poet, the son of a Lancashire physician. 
 He was educated at the Ushaw Roman Catholic 
 College, near Durham, and then studied medi¬ 
 cine at Owens College, Manchester. Giving up 
 medicine, he went to London, where, after a sharp 
 struggle with poverty, he was “discovered” and 
 rescued by Wilfrid and Alice Meynell (qq.v.), 
 and then suddenly found himself famous. His 
 Poems (1893) ran through several editions, re¬ 
 ceiving high praise from the reviewers and from 
 Browning. This volume was followed by Sister 
 Songs (1895) and New Poems (1897). Thomp¬ 
 son’s early experience broke down his health, and 
 he died of tuberculosis. Essentially a mystic, 
 he takes high rank among the poets of his 
 time. In prose, he wrote literary criticism 
 for the Academy and the Athenceum; Health 
 and Holiness (1905), and the following books 
 posthumously published: Life of St. Ignatius 
 Loyola (1909); the admirable essay, Shelley 
 (2d ed., 1909) ; A Renegade Poet, and Other Es¬ 
 says (1910) ; Life of John Baptist de la Galle 
 (1911). A three-volume edition of his Works 
 appeared in New York in 1913. Consult: P. E. 
 Morej Shelburne Essays (7th series, New York, 
 1910) ; G. A. Beacock, Francis Thompson (Mar¬ 
 burg, 1912); K. Rooker, Francis Thompson (in 
 French, London, 1913) ; Everard Meynell, Life 
 of Francis Thompson (New York, 1913) 
 
THOMPSON 
 
 227 
 
 THOMPSON 
 
 THOMPSON, George (1804-78). An Eng¬ 
 lish abolitionist. He was born in Liverpool, 
 England, and first became known in 1833 by his 
 lectures in connection with the antislavery agi¬ 
 tation throughout the British colonies. He was 
 largely instrumental in procuring the freedom of 
 the slaves and the abolition of the apprentice¬ 
 ship system. He was a member of the Anti- 
 Corn Law League, and also took an active part 
 in forming the British India Association, which 
 procured better government for the people of 
 India. He was associated with Garrison, Whit¬ 
 tier, and others in the anti slavery movement in 
 the United States, and a visit which he paid to 
 that country in 1834 led to the formation of up¬ 
 ward of 150 antislavery societies. He belonged 
 to the National Parliamentary Reform Associa¬ 
 tion of England, and from 1847 to 1852 was a 
 member of Parliament for the Tower Hamlets 
 District, London. 
 
 THOMPSON, Sir Henry (1820-1904). An 
 English surgeon, born in Framlingham, Suffolk. 
 He was educated at University College, London, 
 and was appointed assistant surgeon of the Uni¬ 
 versity College Hospital, London, in 1856; sur¬ 
 geon in 1863; professor of clinical surgery in 
 1866; and consulting surgeon in 1874. In 1884 
 he was professor of surgery and pathology in 
 the Royal College of Surgeons, London. He was 
 especially known through his operation upon the 
 bladder. In 1864 he became surgeon extraordi¬ 
 nary to Leopold I of Belgium (by whom, owing 
 to the success of an operation, he was knighted 
 in 1867), and in 1868 to his successor, Leopold 
 II. He also operated upon Napoleon III (1872) 
 shortly before the ex-Emperor’s death. He stud¬ 
 ied painting, and frequently exhibited pictures 
 at the Royal Academy (London), the Salon 
 (Paris), and elsewhere. He first brought be¬ 
 fore the English public the desirability of cre¬ 
 mation and in 1874 founded the Cremation So¬ 
 ciety of London. Several of his books were 
 translated into German and French. The best 
 known include: Practical Lithotomy and Lith- 
 otrity (1863) ; Clinical Lectures on Diseases of 
 the Urinary Organs (1868) ; Modern Cremation 
 (1890) ; On Food and Feeding (1901) ; and the 
 novels Charley Kingston’s Aunt and All But, 
 which appeared under the pseudonym of “Pen 
 Oliver.” 
 
 THOMPSON, Jacob (1810-85). An Ameri¬ 
 can politician, born in Caswell Co., N. C. He 
 graduated at the University of North Carolina 
 and in 1834 he was admitted to the bar, and in 
 the next year removed to the Chickasaw country 
 in Mississippi. From 1839 to 1851 he was a 
 member of the United States House of Represen¬ 
 tatives, served as chairman of the Committee 
 on Indian Affairs, and advocated nonacceptance 
 of the Compromise of 1850. In 1857 he became 
 Secretary of the Interior, and greatly systema¬ 
 tized the work of the department, though the 
 defalcation of a trusted clerk clouded his ad¬ 
 ministration. In January, 1861, he resigned and 
 was appointed aid to General Beauregard, and 
 served with him through the Shiloh campaign. 
 From 1862 to 1864 Thompson was Governor of 
 Mississippi. In the latter year he was sent as 
 Confederate Commissioner to Canada, and to 
 organize the Confederate sympathizers in Ohio, 
 Indiana, and Illinois. Unsuccessful attempts 
 were made to capture the gunboat Michigan, and 
 to organize the escaped Confederate prisoners, 
 and to take Camp Douglas, free the prisoners 
 there confined, and take Chicago. After the 
 
 assassination of Lincoln, Thompson was charged 
 with complicity, and a price was put upon his 
 head. He escaped to Europe, "however, and re¬ 
 mained there some time. When he returned he 
 was not brought to trial, though' a civil suit 
 was brought in 1876 for the money taken by 
 the dishonest clerk while Thompson was Secre¬ 
 tary of the Interior. 
 
 THOMPSON, John Reuben (1823-73). An 
 American journalist and poet, born in Richmond, 
 Va. He graduated at the University of Virginia 
 (1844), practiced law in Richmond, became in 
 1847 editor of the Southern Literary Messenger, 
 which for 12 years he made influential. In it 
 appeared early writings of D. G. Mitchell, John 
 E. Cooke, Philip P. Cooke, Paul Hayne, and 
 Henry Timrod. In 1859 he moved to Augusta, 
 Ga., to edit The Southern Field and Fireside. 
 The Civil War drove him in 1863 to London, 
 where he wrote for English magazines defending 
 the Confederacy. After the war he returned to 
 America and was literary editor of the New 
 York Evening Post till 1872. His poems enjoyed 
 local popularity. 
 
 THOMPSON, Sir John Sparrow David 
 (1844-94). A Canadian statesman, born at 
 Halifax, Nova Scotia. He received a common- 
 school education and was admitted to the bar 
 in 1865.. Here his ability and industry soon 
 placed him in the first rank. He took an active 
 interest in politics and in 1877 was elected to 
 the Nova Scotia Assembly. The next year he 
 was appointed Attorney-General and in 1881 he 
 became Premier. In 1882 he was appointed a 
 justice of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia, 
 but in 1885 he gave up this position to accept the 
 portfolio of Minister of Justice in the Dominion 
 government, and in 1886 he brilliantly defended 
 the conduct of the administration in regard to 
 Louis Riel (q.v.). The next year he was chosen 
 legal adviser to the British plenipotentiaries 
 who negotiated the fisheries treaty of 1887 with 
 the United States, and as a reward for his 
 services was knighted (K.C.M.G.). In 1892 
 he became Prime Minister of Canada and in 
 1893 one of the arbitrators on the Bering Sea 
 Controversy (q.v.). He died while in Windsor 
 Castle, where he had just taken the oath as a 
 member of the Queen’s Privy Council. 
 
 THOMPSON, Joseph Parrish (1819-79). 
 An American clergyman and scholar, born in 
 Philadelphia. He graduated at Yale in 1838, 
 was ordained a Congregational minister in 1840, 
 was pastor in New Haven (1840-45) and New 
 York (1845-71), lecturer on Egyptology at An¬ 
 dover (1871), and engaged in Oriental studies, 
 chiefly in Berlin, from 1872 till his death. 
 Thompson aided in establishing the New York 
 Independent. Among his publications the more 
 noteworthy are: Egypt, Past and Present (1856) : 
 Man in Genesis and Geology (1869) ; Church and 
 State in the United States (1874) ; The United 
 States as a Nation (1877); The Workman, his 
 False Friends and his True Friends (1879). 
 His political and social essays are gathered in 
 American Comments on European Questions 
 (1884) 
 
 THOMPSON, Launt (1833-94). An Ameri¬ 
 can sculptor, born in Abbeyleix, Queen’s County, 
 Ireland. He came to America in 1847, settling 
 at Albany, where he was a pupil and assistant 
 of Erastus Palmer, with whom he remained nine 
 years. In 1858 he opened a studio in New York 
 City, where he first attracted attention by his 
 medallion heads and later by some successful 
 
THOMPSON 
 
 228 
 
 THOMPSON 
 
 portrait busts and statues. He was elected a 
 member of the National Academy in 1862. In 
 1868 he passed a year at Rome, and in 1875-87 
 again visited Italy, residing principally at Flor¬ 
 ence. His best-known medallions are “Morning 
 Glory” and a portrait of Gen. John A. Dix. 
 Among his statues, which are characterized by 
 good workmanship and dignified presentation, 
 are: Napoleon (1867, Metropolitan Museum, 
 New York) ; President Abraham Pierson (1874, 
 Yale University) ; Gen. Ambrose Burnside, an 
 equestrian statue at Providence, R. I.; Gen. Win¬ 
 field Scott and Admiral Dupont, equestrian stat¬ 
 ues in Washington. Good examples of his nu¬ 
 merous busts are those of Edwin Booth as Ham¬ 
 let, Samuel F. B. Morse, and William Cullen 
 Bryant (Metropolitan Museum, New lY>rk). 
 
 THOMPSON, (James) Maurice (1844- 
 1901). An American novelist, poet, and journal¬ 
 ist, born in Fairfield, Ind. His boyhood was 
 spent chiefly in Kentucky and Georgia. He 
 served in the Confederate army, and after the 
 war returned to Indiana, and practiced law and 
 civil engineering at Crawfordsville. From 1885 
 to 1889 he was State geologist. In 1890 he went 
 to New York and joined the editorial staff of the 
 Independent, having already made a name for 
 himself in literature by Hoosier Mosaics ( 1875), 
 The Witchery of Archery (1878), A Tallahassee 
 Girl (1882), His Second Campaign (1882), 
 Songs of Fair Weather (1883), At Love's Ex¬ 
 tremes (1885), By-Ways and Bird Notes (1885), 
 The Boy’s Book of Sport (1886), A Banker of 
 Bankersville (1886), Sylvan Secrets (1887), 
 The Story of Louisiana (1888), and A Fortnight 
 of Folly (1888). His later writings include: 
 Poems (1892); The Ethics of Literary Art 
 (1893); The Ocala Boy (1895); My Winter 
 Garden (1900), good impressionist descriptions 
 of subtropical Louisiana; Alice of Old Vincennes 
 (1900), a very popular novel and his best. Post¬ 
 humously printed were two immature novels, 
 Sweetheart Manette and Milly (1901). 
 
 THOMPSON, Mortimer (1832-75). An 
 American journalist and humorist, born at Riga, 
 Monroe Co., N. Y. He studied at the Univer¬ 
 sity of Michigan, contributed humorous articles 
 to the Advertiser of Detroit, and afterward was 
 a writer for the New York Tribune, in which 
 were published his series of letters from Niagara 
 Falls and his account of the Pierce-Butler slave 
 auction at Savannah, printed by the Antislavery 
 Society as a tract. For several years he was a 
 popular lecturer. He published under the pseu¬ 
 donym “Q. K. Philander Doesticks, P.B.”—inter¬ 
 preted by him as “Queer Kritter, Philander Doe- 
 sticks, Perfect Brick”—a number of volumes, in¬ 
 cluding Doesticks—What he Says (1855); a 
 parody of Hiawatha, Plu-ri-bus-tah: A Song 
 that’s by No Author (1856); and Nothing to 
 Say, Being a Satire on Snobbery (1857). 
 
 THOMPSON, Richard Wigginton (1809- 
 1900). An American political leader, born in 
 Culpeper Co., Va. In 1831 he removed 
 to Louisville, Ky., but soon afterward went to 
 Lawrence Co., Ind., where in 1834 he was ad¬ 
 mitted to the bar. In 1840 he was elected to Con¬ 
 gress, and in 1847 was again elected. He was 
 appointed judge of the Fifth Indiana Circuit in 
 1867, and in 1877 was Secretary of the Navy 
 in the cabinet- of President Hayes. His publica¬ 
 tions include: The Papacy and the Civil Power 
 (1876); History of Protective Tariff Laws 
 (1888) ; Personal Recollections of Sixteen Presi¬ 
 dents (1894) ; Footprints of the Jesuits (1894). 
 
 THOMPSON, Robert Ellis (1844- ). 
 
 An American educator, born near Lurgan, Ire¬ 
 land. At an early age he emigrated to the 
 United States, and in 1865 graduated at the 
 University of Pennsylvania. From 1868 until 
 1892 he was a professor in the University of 
 Pennsylvania, and in 1894 became principal of 
 the Philadelphia Central High School. He was 
 editorially connected with several periodicals, 
 and published: A History of the Presbyterian 
 Churches of America (1895) ; The Hand of God 
 in American History (1902); Harvard Univer¬ 
 sity Lectures on Protection to Home Industries 
 (1908); The Historic Episcopate (1910); The 
 History of the Dwelling House and its Future 
 (1914). 
 
 THOMPSON, Silvanus Phillips (1851- 
 1916). An English physicist. He was born at 
 Y^ork, and was educated at the Royal School of 
 Mines and the University of London (B.A., 
 1869; B.Sc., 1876; D.Sc./l878). He was lec¬ 
 turer and professor of experimental physics in 
 the University College, Bristol, from 1876 to 
 1885, when he became principal and professor 
 of physics in the City and Guilds Technical Col¬ 
 lege, Finsbury. Professor Thompson did much 
 to spread knowledge of electricity, while also 
 carrying on original researches. His publications 
 include: a popular textbook, Elementary Les¬ 
 sons in Electricity and Magnetism (1881; 7th 
 ed., rev., 1915) ; Dynamo-Electric Machinery 
 (1886; 7th ed., 1904); Light, Visible and In¬ 
 visible (1897; 2d ed., 1910) ; Polyphase Electric 
 Currents and Alternate-Current Motors (1895) ; 
 Michael Faraday: His Life and Work (1898) ; 
 The Life of Lord Kelvin (1910). 
 
 THOMPSON, Smith (1768-1843). An Amer¬ 
 ican jurist and cabinet officer. He was born in 
 Stanford, Dutchess Co., N. Y., graduated at 
 Princeton College in 1788, and was admitted to 
 the bar in 1792, having studied under Chan¬ 
 cellor Kent. After serving as a member of the 
 New York Legislature (1800) and of the State 
 Constitutional Convention (1801), he became as¬ 
 sociate justice of the State Supreme Court (1802- 
 14), and Chief Justice (1814-18). In 1818 he 
 became Secretary of the Navy in Monroe’s cab¬ 
 inet, and in 1823 was appointed to the United 
 States Supreme Court, of which he remained an 
 associate justice until his death. 
 
 THOMPSON, Thomas Perrgnet (1783- 
 1869). An English general and political re¬ 
 former. He was born in Hull and was educated 
 at Queens’ College, Cambridge. He took part in 
 the Buenos Aires campaign, 1807, and in 1808 
 was made Governor of Sierra Leone. His recall 
 to England in 1810 was due to the influence of 
 the slave traders, against whose traffic he had 
 taken active measures. He was with the British 
 army in the Peninsular and French campaigns 
 of 1813 and 1814, and in the Indian Pindari 
 campaign of 1818. In 1820, with a small force, 
 he was defeated at Sur, on the Arabian coast, 
 by a band of Arabs, whom he was attempting to 
 punish for piracy. He returned to England and 
 in 1824 became one of the founders, and later 
 proprietor, of the Westminster Review, to which 
 he was a versatile and prolific contributor. 
 Amon" his well-known publications are Cate- 
 chi sm°on the Corn Laws (1827), Catechism on 
 the Currency (1848), Fallacies against the Ballot 
 (1855). His miscellaneous writings were pub¬ 
 lished as Exercises, Political and Other (6 vols., 
 1S42). He was elected to Parliament (1835, 
 1847, and 1857). He became general in 1868. 
 
THOMPSON 229 THOMSEN 
 
 THOMPSON, Waddy (1798-1868). An 
 American legislator and diplomat, born in Pick- 
 ensville, .S. C. He graduated at the South Caro¬ 
 lina College in 1814 and in 1819 was admitted 
 to the bar. I rom 1835 to 1841 he was a member 
 of the National House of Representatives as a 
 Whig, and in 1840 was chairman of the Com¬ 
 mittee on Military Affairs. In 1842-44 he was 
 Minister to Mexico, and secured the release of 
 200 Texan prisoners. He published Recollections 
 of Mexico (1846). 
 
 THOMPSON, William (1725-81). An 
 American soldier. He was born in Ireland, emi¬ 
 grated to Pennsylvania, served (1759-60) as 
 captain of militia in the French and Indian War, 
 and in June, 1775, was placed in command of 
 eight Pennsylvania companies, with the rank of 
 colonel. In January, 1776, he took the same rank 
 in the regular Continental army, and on March 1 
 became brigadier general. (V March 19 he re- 
 lie\ed Gen. Charles Lee at New York, and in 
 April led 14 regiments to Canada to re¬ 
 enforce Gen. John Thomas, assuming chief 
 command during Thomas’s illness and holding 
 it until the arrival (June 4) of General Sulli¬ 
 van. He led the Americans in the unsuccessful 
 attack on the English at Three Rivers (June 
 6), and was taken prisoner. Though imme¬ 
 diately paroled, he was not exchanged until 
 Oct. 25, 1780. 
 
 THOMPSON, William Howard (1871- 
 ). An American legislator. He was born 
 at Crawfordsville, Ind., and moved to Kansas 
 with his parents in 1880. After graduating 
 from the Seneca (Kans.) Normal School in 1886 
 he studied law under his father, and was ad¬ 
 mitted to the Kansas bar in 1894. A Democrat 
 in politics, he served as clerk of the Kansas 
 Court of Appeals from 1897 to 1901, was judge 
 of the thirty-second judicial district of Kansas 
 in 1906-13, and was elected United States Sena¬ 
 tor for the term 1913-19. 
 
 THOMPSON, William Tappan (1812-82). 
 An American journalist and humorist, born at 
 Ravenna, Ohio. He removed to Philadelphia, 
 subsequently to Florida, and thence, in 1835, to 
 Augusta, Ga., where he was attached to the staff 
 of several literary weekly papers. To the Mis¬ 
 cellany, of Madison, Ga., he contributed the 
 Major Jones Letters,” upon which his fame as a 
 humorist rests. They were published in book 
 form as Major Jones’s Courtship (1840). In 
 1850 he established at Savannah the Morning 
 News, which he continued to edit during the re¬ 
 mainder of his life. In the Civil War he served 
 m the Confederate army as a private and on 
 the staff of Gen. J. E. Brown. He published 
 Major Jones’s Chronicles of Pineville (1843) and 
 Major Jones’s Sketches of Travel (1848). A 
 posthumous collection, entitled John’s Alive, or 
 the Bride of a Ghost, and other Sketches, was 
 published by his daughter, Mrs. M. A. Wade, in 
 1883. 
 
 THOMPSON, Wordsworth (1840-96). An 
 American genre and historical painter. He was 
 born in Baltimore, Md., and studied under Gleyre 
 and Pasini in Paris. In 1868 he opened a studio . 
 in New York City, being elected a member of 
 the National Academy in 1875, and of the So¬ 
 ciety of American Artists two years later. He 
 is best known as a painter of American histori¬ 
 cal subjects, executed with a smooth but skill¬ 
 ful technique. Among his paintings are the 
 ‘"Review at Annapolis, Maryland, 1776” (Buffalo 
 Academy) ; “Passing the Outpost” (Union 
 
 League Club, New York) ; a “New England 
 Homestead,” awarded a gold medal at the Paris 
 exhibition, 1889; and his last and best work, 
 “Old Bruton Church, Virginia, in the time of 
 Lord Dunmore” (Metropolitan Museum). 
 
 THOMPSON RIVER INDIANS. An im¬ 
 portant Salishan-speaking tribe of Indians for¬ 
 merly residing on the river of the same name in 
 British Columbia. Their proper name is Ntlaky- 
 apamuk, and their culture is typically interior 
 Salishan (q.v.). Consult: James Teit, “Tradi¬ 
 tions of the Thompson River Indians,” in Ameri¬ 
 can lolk-Lore Society, Memoirs, vol. vi (Boston, 
 1898) ; id., “Thompson River Indians of British 
 Columbia,, and “Mythology of the Thompson 
 River Indians, in Jesup North Pacific Expedi¬ 
 tion, Publications, vol. i, part iv and vol. viii, 
 part ii, published by the American Museum of 
 Natural History (New York, 1900, and Leyden, 
 1912). J ’ 
 
 THOMPSON SETON, Ernest. See Seton, 
 E. T. 
 
 THOMS, tomz, William John (1803-85). 
 An English antiquary, born in London. For sev- 
 eial yeais, up to 1845, he was a clerk at Chelsea 
 Hospital, and then was appointed clerk of the 
 House of Lords; and from 1863 to 1882 he was 
 its deputy librarian. In recognition of his 
 scholarship he was elected a fellow of the Society 
 of Antiquaries (1838) and secretary of the Cam¬ 
 den Society (1838—73). Thoms is most widely 
 known as the founder (1849) of Notes and 
 Queries. Thoms published a large number of 
 books of great value to the student and to the 
 curious. Among them are Early Prose Romance 
 (1827-28; revised by another hand, 1858); 
 Lays and Legends of Vannous Nations (1834); 
 Anecdotes and Traditions Illustrative of Early 
 English History and Literature (Camden So¬ 
 ciety, 1839); Hannah Liglitfoot (1867); the 
 Death of Charles I (1872) ; and Human Lon¬ 
 gevity (1873). Consult Thoms’s reminiscences 
 under the title “Gossip of an Old Bookworm,” 
 m Nineteenth Century (London, July and De¬ 
 cember, 1881). 
 
 THOMSEN, tom'sen, Julius (1826-1909). 
 
 A Danish chemist, born in Copenhagen. He was 
 educated in the Copenhagen Polytechnic School, 
 where he was professor of chemistry (1847-56)’ 
 and of which he was director (1883-92). For 
 30 years (1856—86) he held a chair in the Mili¬ 
 tary High School, and for 25 years (1866-91) 
 occupied one in the University of Copenhagen. 
 Thomsen was the inventor of a process for"the 
 manufacture of soda from cryolite, brought from 
 Greenland, but he became best known by his 
 researches on thermochemistry, the results of 
 which are given in his Thermochemiske Under- 
 sogelser (1869-73; Ger. trans., 1882-86; Emr. 
 trans., 1908). 
 
 THOMSEN, Vilhelm Ludvig Peter (1842- 
 
 ). A Danish philologist, born in Copen¬ 
 hagen, where he became professor of compara¬ 
 tive philology at the university in 1887. He 
 traveled extensively in Europe and Asia. Among 
 his works are Den gotiske Sprogklasscs Indfly- 
 delse pan den finske (1869) ; The Relations Be¬ 
 tween Ancient Russia and Scandinavia and the 
 Origin of the Russian State (1877; Ger. trans., 
 1879), originally lectures delivered at Oxford 
 University; the important D6chiffrement des in¬ 
 scriptions de I’Orkhon (1894) and Inscriptions 
 de I’Orkhon, dtchiffrtes par V. L. P. Thomsen 
 (1896), wherein he claims that certain ancient 
 inscriptions found in Mongolia represent the 
 
THOMSON 
 
 THOMSON 
 
 oldest forms known of the Turkish language. 
 Other works deal with Lycian, Etruscan, and 
 Runic inscriptions. Thomsen was one of the 
 foremost philologists of his time. 
 
 THOMSON, tom'son, Alexander (1817-75). 
 A Scottish architect, born at Balfron. At the 
 age of 17 he entered an architect's office in Glas¬ 
 gow and became deeply interested in Greek archi¬ 
 tecture. When some years later he began to 
 practice architecture independently, he showed 
 much originality and cleverness in adapting 
 Greek motives to the modern requirements of 
 churches and public buildings; but modern criti¬ 
 cism denies the validity of the theory on which 
 his designs were based, and regards his buildings 
 in Glasgow (churches, Egyptian hall, etc.) and 
 Edinburgh as curiosities rather than as master¬ 
 pieces. He is often referred to as “Greek 
 Thomson.” 
 
 THOMSON, toN'soN', Cesar (1857- ). 
 
 A Belgian violinist, born at Liege. He made 
 successful tours through Spain and Italy and 
 became a member of Bilse’s orchestra at Berlin. 
 He gave instruction on the violin at the Liege 
 Conservatory from 1883 to 1897. In 1894 and 
 1895 he made trips to the United States, and 
 four years later he became Ysave’s successor as 
 professor of violin playing at the Brussels Con¬ 
 servatory. He is noted for his double-stop tech¬ 
 nique and for his clean-cut bowing. 
 
 THOMSON, Charles. See Ritchie, Baron. 
 
 THOMSON, tom'son, Charles (1729-1824). 
 An American patriot. He was born in County 
 Derry, Ireland, and in 1740 was brought to New 
 Castie, Del. He was educated at New London, 
 Pa., and when very young assumed charge of the 
 Friends’ Academy at New Castle. He took an 
 active interest in all the controversies between 
 the colonies and the British ministry, and, re¬ 
 moving to Philadelphia in 1774, was chosen 
 secretary of the Continental Congress, in which 
 capacity he served until 1789, keeping a careful 
 record of all the proceedings and making copious 
 notes of the debates. John i^dams (in his diary 
 for Sept. 30, 1774) speaks of him as “the Sam 
 Adams of Philadelphia, the life of the cause of 
 liberty.” In 1789 he was delegated to announce 
 to Washington, at Mount Vernon, his election to 
 the presidency. He published An Enquiry into 
 the Causes of the Alienation of the Delaware and 
 Shawanese Indians (1759); an able translation 
 of the Bible, containing the first English version 
 of the Septuagint (4 vols., 1808) ; and a Synop¬ 
 sis of the Four Evangelists (1815). He also pre¬ 
 pared a history of the Revolution, which, how¬ 
 ever, he destroyed in manuscript. Consult L. R. 
 Harley, The Life of Charles Thomson (Philadel¬ 
 phia, 1900). 
 
 THOMSON, Charles Edward Poulett, first 
 Baron Sydenham. See Sydenham. 
 
 THOMSON, Sir Charles Wyville (1830- 
 82). A British naturalist, born in Scotland as 
 Wyville Thomas Charles, which name was 
 changed when he was knighted. He was edu¬ 
 cated in medicine, but turned his attention to 
 botany, and afterward to a broader considera¬ 
 tion of natural history, and became in 1853 pro¬ 
 fessor of natural history in Queen’s College, 
 Cork. In 1860 he became professor of natural 
 science at Belfast, and in 1870 at the Univer¬ 
 sity of Edinburgh. He became interested in 
 problems relating to deep-sea life, and in 1868, 
 with Dr. W. B. Carpenter, made investigations 
 north of Scotland in the gunboat Lightning. 
 Other ocean voyages for scientific sounding and 
 
 230 
 
 dredging were conducted subsequently, and their 
 results were popularly explained in The Depths 
 of the Sea ( 1873), a volume which attracted 
 much attention. The interest thus aroused was 
 influential in causing the British government to 
 undertake the renowned Challenger Xq.v.) ex¬ 
 ploring expedition, the scientific conduct of which 
 was given to Professor Thomson. Its successful 
 and brilliant outcome was recognized at its close 
 ( 1876) by the conferring of knighthood upon 
 Thomson and by scientific honors from many 
 countries. Sir Wyville resumed his lectures at 
 the university, and began to superintend the dis¬ 
 posal of scientific material from the expedition, 
 placing it in the hands of specialists for ex¬ 
 haustive study. He prepared a general narra¬ 
 tive, The Voyage of the Challenger (2 vols., 
 1877), but became ill in 1879 and died in 1882. 
 Besides these books, he was the author of over 
 forty papers of importance published in scien¬ 
 tific periodicals, relating largely to marine zo¬ 
 ology and especially to echinoderms, recent and 
 fossil. He devised many methods and invented 
 much apparatus used in deep-sea exploration 
 (q.v.). 
 
 THOMSON, Edward (1810-70). An Ameri¬ 
 can Methodist Episcopal bishop. He was born 
 at Portsea, England, came to America in 1818, 
 and settled in Wooster, Ohio. He graduated in 
 medicine from the University of Pennsylvania in 
 1829. After joining the Ohio conference in 
 1833 he was pastor at Norwalk and Sandusky. 
 In 1836 he was stationed at Detroit. Later he 
 was successively principal of Norwalk Seminary, 
 editor of the Ladies’ Repository, president of 
 Ohio Wesleyan University (1846-60), and editor 
 of the Christian Advocate and Journal, New 
 York. Soon after he was elected Bishop in 1864 
 he made a world-wide survey of Methodist mis¬ 
 sions. He published: Moral and Religious Es¬ 
 says (1856); Educational Essays (1856); 
 Sketches, Biographical and Incidental (1856); 
 Letters from Europe (1856) ; Our Oriental Mis¬ 
 sions (1870); Evidences of Revealed Religion 
 (1872). 
 
 THOMSON, Edward William (1849- ). 
 
 A Canadian journalist, story writer, and poet. 
 He was born in Peel County, Ontario. He served 
 in the American Civil War in 1864-65, and for 
 some years was a civil engineer on the Carillon 
 Canal. Entering journalism, he was chief edito¬ 
 rial writer on the Toronto Globe in 1879-91; 
 went to Boston, where he was editor of the 
 Youth’s Companion (1891-1901); returned to 
 Canada, became Ottawa correspondent of the 
 Boston Transcript, and contributed to many pe¬ 
 riodicals. He published: Old Man Savarin and 
 Other Stories (1895) ; Walter Gibbs, the Young 
 Boss, and Other Stories (1896) ; Between Earth 
 and Sky (1897) ; Aucassin and Nicolette, a ver¬ 
 sification of M. S. Henry’s translation (1898): 
 Peter Ottawa (1908); When Lincoln Died and 
 Other Poems (1909); The Many-Mansioned 
 House and Other Poems (1909). 
 
 THOMSON, Elihu (1853- ). An Amer¬ 
 
 ican electrical engineer. He was born in Man- 
 . Chester, England, and came to the United States 
 in 1858. He was educated in the Philadelphia 
 Central High School (A.B., 1870), where he was 
 professor of chemistry and mechanics until 1880. 
 Meanwhile he devoted much attention to the 
 study of electricity, and lectured at Franklin In¬ 
 stitute. In 1880 he became electrician to the 
 Thomson-Houston Electric Company, which was 
 organized by him, and subsequently he became 
 
THOMSON 
 
 THOMSON 
 
 231 
 
 associated also with the General Electric Com¬ 
 
 pany. He devoted himself to inventions relating 
 to arc lighting, incandescent lighting, motor work 
 inducting systems, and especially electric weld¬ 
 ing. In recognition of his extensive contribu¬ 
 tions to applied science numerous honors were 
 bestowed upon him: he was elected a member 
 of the National Academy of Sciences and presi¬ 
 dent of the American Institute of Electrical En¬ 
 gineers (1889), and was appointed Officer of 
 the I rencli Legion of Honor, received the Rum- 
 ford medal of the American Academy of Arts 
 and Sciences, grand prizes at Paris in 1889 and 
 1900 and at St. Louis in 1904, the Edison medal 
 of the American Institute of Electrical Engi¬ 
 neers, and others. 
 
 THOMSON, George (1757-1851). A Scot¬ 
 tish composer, born at Limekilns, Fife. He was 
 a constant and untiring collector of Scotch, 
 Welsh, and Irish melodies, and had the most 
 celebrated musicians of that period, among them 
 Haydn and Beethoven, engaged in writing ac¬ 
 companiments for them. Each song contained a 
 prelude, code, and ad libitum parts throughout 
 for violin, flute, or cello. Among his works are: 
 A Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs; A 
 Collection of Songs of Robert Burns, Sir Walter 
 Scott, etc. (1822) ; Select Collection of Original 
 Welsh Airs (1809); and a Select Collection of 
 Original Irish Airs (1814 to 1816); besides 20 
 Scottish melodies (1839). He died at Leith. 
 Consult I. C. Hadden, George Thomson (London, 
 1898). 
 
 THOMSON, James (1700—48). A Scottish 
 poet, born at Ednam, in Roxburghshire, where 
 his father was minister. After attending school 
 at Jedburgh Abbey by the Tweed, he was sent to 
 the University of Edinburgh (1715) with a view 
 to the Church. Forsaking all thought of the 
 ministry, he went to London to seek fame and 
 fortune in poetry (1725). Though poor, he was 
 well received by the Duke of Montrose and 
 others, who helped him bring out Winter (1726). 
 This was followed by Summer (1727) and Spring 
 (1728). In 1730 appeared Autumn, bound with 
 the previous poems under the title of The Sea¬ 
 sons. These poems, issued separately and col¬ 
 lectively, were from the first successful, and were 
 exceedingly popular for a century. They marked 
 the return of blank verse and a feeling for na¬ 
 ture, of which there had been few traces since 
 Milton. With The Seasons the literary histo¬ 
 rian dates the beginning of the romantic move¬ 
 ment in English literature. Appointed in 1730 
 tutor to the son of Sir Charles Talbot, afterward 
 Lord Chancellor, Thomson traveled for three 
 years in France and Italy. On his pupil’s death 
 (1733) he returned to London and was ap¬ 
 pointed by the Lord Chancellor secretary of 
 briefs, a sinecure, at a salary of £300 a year. 
 He was now able to settle in a pretty cottage at 
 Richmond. The death of his patron in 1737 
 ended his sinecure; but through Lyttelton he ob¬ 
 tained from the Prince of Wales a pension of 
 £100 (1738). He now revised The Seasons, en¬ 
 larging greatly each poem. The new edition was 
 published in 1744. In 1740 appeared The Masque 
 of Alfred, written by Thomson and David Mallet 
 and containing Thomson’s famous ode, “Rule 
 Britannia,” the national patriotic hymn of Eng¬ 
 land. At Richmond, too, was written Thomson’s 
 finest poem, The Castle of Indolence ( 1748) . For 
 it he employed the Spenserian stanza. The poem 
 is exquisitely colored and reveals here and there 
 rare gleams of imagination. Besides these sig¬ 
 
 nificant and beautiful poems, Thomson was the 
 author of several tragedies, of which Sophonisba, 
 pioduced at Drury Lane (Feb. 28, 1730), was 
 the first, and Tancred and Sigismunda, produced 
 at Drury Lane by Garrick (March 18, 1745), the 
 most successful. His cenotaph was erected in 
 \\ estminster Abbey by the side of Shakespeare’s. 
 
 Tianslations and imitations of The Seasons 
 were numerous in France and Germany. Thom¬ 
 son was thus a forerunner of the romantic re¬ 
 vival, not only for England, but for the 
 Continent. 
 
 Bibliography. The first collected edition of 
 Ins Works was edited by George, Lord Lyttelton 
 (4 vols., London, 1750) ; the best modern edition 
 of his Works is the Aldine, edited with a biog¬ 
 raphy by D. C. Tovey (ib., 1897). Consult also: 
 Leon Morel, James Thomson, sa vie et ses oeuvres 
 (Paris, 1895); Lefevre Deumier, in Celebrites 
 anglaises (ib., 1895) ; Joseph Texte, Cosmopoli- 
 tisme litteraire au XVIIIeme siecle (ib., 1895; 
 Eng. trails, by J. W. Matthews, New York, 
 1899); W. Bayne, Life of James Thomson, in 
 the “Famous Scots Series” (Edinburgh, 1898); 
 Samuel Johnson, “Thomson,” in Lives of the 
 British Poets, vol. iii, edited by G. B. Hill (Ox¬ 
 ford, 1905) ; and G. C. Macaulay, James Thom¬ 
 son (New York, 1908). See Romanticism. 
 
 THOMSON, James (1822-92). A British 
 physicist and engineer, the elder brother of Wil¬ 
 liam Thomson, Lord Kelvin (q.v.). He was born 
 at Belfast and was educated at the University of 
 Edinburgh. He settled as a civil engineer in Bel¬ 
 fast, where in 1857 he was appointed professor 
 of civil engineering in Queen’s College. In 1873 
 he was elected professor in Glasgow University, 
 succeeding W. J. M. Rankine (q.v.). He made 
 many improvements in hydraulic machinery and 
 predicted from theory the effect of pressure in 
 lowering the freezing point of water. (See Rege¬ 
 lation.) His collected papers in physics and 
 engineering, together with unpublished mate¬ 
 rial, were edited by Sir Joseph Larmor and 
 James Thomson, with a biographical sketch by 
 J. T. Bottomley (Cambridge, Eng., 1912). 
 
 THOMSON,’ James (1834-82). An English 
 poet, born at Port Glasgow, Scotland. In 1840 
 his father was disabled by a paralytic stroke and 
 two years later his mother died.’ He was edu¬ 
 cated at the Royal Caledonian Asylum (1842- 
 1850) and then entered (1850) the Military 
 Asylum, Chelsea, to qualify as an army school¬ 
 master. The next year he was sent as a teacher 
 to Ballincollig, near Cork, where he fell in love 
 with a beautiful girl, who died in 1853. After 
 serving as schoolmaster at various other places, 
 he was discharged from the service in 1862 
 for a trivial offense against discipline. Through 
 the influence of his friend Charles Bradlaugh, he 
 obtained a clerkship in London; and under the 
 pen name of Bysshe Vanolis, or shortened to 
 B. V. (Bysshe, the middle name of Shelley and 
 Vanolis, an anagram of Novalis), he began writ¬ 
 ing for the radical magazines, and proved him¬ 
 self a vigorous and active champion of free 
 thought. Except for a few months in the United 
 States and as correspondent for the New York 
 World in Spain (1873), he passed the last 16 
 years of his life in a one-room London lodging. 
 He died an inebriate in University College Hos¬ 
 pital. Thomson was a thorough-going pessimist 
 wholly out of joint with the ways of men. He 
 first attracted attention as a poet with his “City 
 of Dreadful Night” (in the National Reformer, 
 1874, reprinted with other poems in 1880), a 
 
THOMSON 
 
 232 
 
 THOMSON 
 
 lurid poem of great imaginative power. Hardly 
 less impressive is the volume entitled Vane’s 
 Story, Weddah and Om-el-Bonain, and Other 
 Poems (1881). The same year he collected some 
 of his prose writings under the title Essays and 
 Phantasies. After his death appeared A Voice 
 from the Nile, and Other Poems (1884) ; Satires 
 and Profanities (1884) ; and Poems, Essays, and 
 Fragments (1892). Consult Poetical Works, ed¬ 
 ited with memoir by Bertram Dobell (London, 
 1895) ; also H. S. Salt, Life of James Thomson 
 (ib., 1889) ; Bertram Dobell, in Biographical 
 and Critical Studies (ib., 1896) ; P. E. More, 
 Shelburne Essays, 5th series (New York, 1908). 
 
 THOMSON, John (1778-1840). A Scottish 
 landscape painter. He was born at Dailly, Ayr¬ 
 shire, and studied for a short time under Alex¬ 
 ander Nasmyth. Destined for the church, and 
 for 35 years minister at Duddingston, near Edin¬ 
 burgh, Thomson lacked systematic artistic train¬ 
 ing, but nevertheless he was the greatest Scot¬ 
 tish landscape painter of his time and the first 
 to render the true character of Scottish scenery. 
 Among his finest paintings are “Aberlady Bay” 
 and three other landscapes in the National Gal¬ 
 lery, Edinburgh: “Fast Castle,” “Castle Baan,” 
 and the “Graves of the Martyrs.” He was an in¬ 
 timate friend of Sir Walter Scott. 
 
 THOMSON, John Arthur (1861- ). A 
 
 British zoologist, born in East Lothian, and 
 educated at the universities of Edinburgh, Jena, 
 and Berlin. He was for a time lecturer on zo¬ 
 ology and biology at Edinburgh University and 
 was University Gifford lecturer at St. Andrews 
 in 1915. Among his writings are: Evolution of 
 Sex (1899; 3d ed., 1901), with Patrick Geddes; 
 The Study of Animal Life (3d ed., 1896) ; Out¬ 
 lines of Zoology (6th ed., 1914) ; The Science of 
 Life (1904); Progress of Science in the Nine¬ 
 teenth Century (1904) ; Herbert Spencer (1906) ; 
 Heredity (1908; 2d ed., 1912); The Bible of 
 Nature (1909); Darwinism and Human Life 
 (1910) ; The Biology of the Seasons (1911) ; Ev¬ 
 olution (1911), with Geddes; Introduction to 
 Science (1911); Sex (1914), with Geddes; The 
 Wonder of Life (1914). 
 
 THOMSON, Joseph (1858-95). A Scottish 
 traveler and explorer. He was born in Dum¬ 
 friesshire, and after studying at Edinburgh under 
 Sir Archibald Geikie joined Keith Johnston’s 
 east central African expedition ( 1878), and 
 after Johnston’s death became leader in June, 
 1879. He reached Lake Tanganyika, and then 
 started to go to the Congo, but was held back by 
 his carriers. He discovered Lake Rukwa and 
 afterward went to Bagamoyo on the coast, whence 
 he sailed to London. He headed an expedition 
 to Masai Land in 1882; went to Sokoto in behalf 
 of the Royal Niger Company in 1885, when he 
 secured a part of the Central Sudan to Great 
 Britain; and, after exploring the Atlas Moun¬ 
 tains in Morocco (1888), visited the region be¬ 
 tween lakes Nyassa and Bangweolo. In all his 
 journeys he showed great tact and presence of 
 mind and avoided serious conflict with the na¬ 
 tives. He published To the Central African 
 Lakes and Back (1881); Through Masai Land 
 (1885; rev. ed., 1887); Ulu: An African Ro¬ 
 mance (1888), with Miss Harris-Smith; Travels 
 in the Atlas and Southern Morocco (18S9) ; and 
 Mungo Park and the Niger (1890). He also 
 wrote a large number of articles on his explora¬ 
 tions, and on geographical and geological sub¬ 
 jects. Consult J. B. Thomson, Joseph Thomson, 
 African Explorer (London, 1896). 
 
 THOMSON, Sir Joseph John (1856- ). 
 
 An English physicist. He was born near Man¬ 
 chester and was educated at Owens College in 
 that city and at Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 where he graduated with honors in 1880. In 
 1884 he became Cavendish professor of experi¬ 
 mental physics at Cambridge, and in 1905 was 
 appointed professor of physics in the Royal In¬ 
 stitution. At Princeton University in 1896 he 
 delivered a series of lectures, published in 1897 
 as Discharge of Electricity through Gases. In 
 1903 he again visited the United States, where 
 he received honorary degrees from Columbia, 
 Princeton, and Johns Hopkins. Thomson was 
 awarded medals by the Royal Society, the Hodg¬ 
 kins medal of the Smithsonian Institution 
 (1902), and the Nobel prize in physics for 
 1906. He was knighted in 1908 and received the 
 Order of Merit. To Thomson, more than to any 
 one else, is due the development of the modern 
 ionic theory of electricity, the theoretical and 
 experimental discussion of radioactivity, and 
 the electrical theory of inertia of matter. His 
 papers on these subjects were epoch making. 
 (See X Rays.) In 1914 he delivered at Oxford 
 the Romanes lecture, which appeared as The 
 Atomic Theory. He published also: On the Mo¬ 
 tion of Vortex Rings (1883); Application of 
 Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry (188S); 
 Recent Researches in Electricity and Magnetism 
 (1893); Elements of the Mathematical Theory 
 of Electricity and Magnetism (1895); Conduc¬ 
 tion of Electricity through Gases (1903) ; Elec¬ 
 tricity and Matter (1904), Silliman lectures at 
 Yale; Corpuscular Theory of Matter (1907); 
 Rays of Positive Electricity and their Applica¬ 
 tion to Chemical Analyses (1913) ; Thermochem¬ 
 istry (1915). With J. H. Poynting (q.v.) he 
 wrote A Text Book of Physics (1899-1914). In 
 another field Thomson identified himself with 
 the Society for Psvchical Research. 
 
 THOMSON, Thomas (1773-1852). A Scot¬ 
 tish chemist, born at Crieff, Perthshire. He was 
 educated at St. Andrews and at Edinburgh. As 
 early as 1802 he published a System of Chemis¬ 
 try. In 1817 he was appointed lecturer, and in 
 IS 18 regius professor of chemistry at the Uni¬ 
 versity of Glasgow. Thomson was the first to 
 publish ( System of Chemistry, 3d ed., 1807) a 
 detailed account of Dalton’s atomic theory, which 
 had been communicated to him in a private in¬ 
 terview (1804) and which Dalton himself did 
 not publish until 1808. He was also the first 
 English chemist to give laboratory instruction 
 to students. His works include: Elements of 
 Chemistry (1810) ; An attempt to Establish the 
 First Principles of Chemistry by Experiment 
 (1825; the analytical data of the elements were 
 shown by Berzelius to be far from accurate) ; 
 Chemistry of Organic Bodies (1838) ; History of 
 Chemistry (1830-31) ; History of the Royal So¬ 
 ciety (1812); Outlines of Mineralogy and Geol¬ 
 ogy (1836). 
 
 THOMSON, Sir William. See Kelvin, Wil¬ 
 liam Thomson, first Baron. 
 
 THOMSON, William McClure (1806-94). 
 An American Presbyterian missionary and 
 writer. He was born in Springfield (now Spring 
 Dale), Ohio, and graduated at Miami College 
 (1826) ; studied at Princeton Theological Semi¬ 
 nary; and went as a missionary of the American 
 Board to Syria and Palestine (1833). The next 
 year he went to Beirut and there resided till his 
 return to America in 1876. His reputation rests 
 upon his familiar work, The Land and the Book, 
 
THOMSON EFFECT 
 
 233 
 
 THOREAU 
 
 Biblical Illustrations Drawn from the Manners 
 and Customs , the Scenes and the Scenery of the 
 Holy Land (1859; 2d ed., 3 vols., 1880-85; re¬ 
 issue, 1 vol., 1911). 
 
 THOMSON EFFECT. A thermal effect in 
 an electric circuit where the temperature of 
 the wire carrying the current varies from 
 point to point. When the current is flowing in 
 one direction along such a conductor, heat will 
 be liberated at a given point, whereas if the cur¬ 
 rent is reversed the heat at this point will be 
 absorbed. The relative direction of the current 
 and the absorption or liberation of heat depend 
 upon the metal. See Thermoelectricity. 
 
 THOMSONITE, tom'sun-it. See Chloras- 
 
 TROLITE. 
 
 THOR, thor (Icel. p6rr, thunderer; cf. Lat. 
 tonare, Ger. donner ). In Scandinavian my¬ 
 thology, the god of thunder. He was the son of 
 Odin and Frigg, while his wife was Sif the De¬ 
 lighter. His palace, where he received the war¬ 
 riors who had fallen in battle, was called Bils- 
 kirnir. Thunder was caused by the rolling of 
 his chariot, which was drawn by h e-goats. He 
 was in the vigor of youth, had a red beard, and 
 was the strongest of all the gods. He was a 
 terror to the giants, with whom he was perpetu¬ 
 ally at strife, and whom he struck down with his 
 hammer Mjolnir, or the smasher, which returned 
 to his hand after being hurled. In the contest 
 at the twilight of the gods Thor slew the serpent 
 of Midgard, but fell at the same time poisoned 
 by the venom exhaled from its mouth. The name 
 of Thor was widespread. The Saxons worshiped 
 him as Thunar, and Torden, the "wrathful deity 
 dreaded by the Lapps, is evidently the Scandi¬ 
 navian Thor. The Gallic god Tarannis, or Tan- 
 arus, appears also to be identical. Of all the 
 iEsir (q.v.), Thor had unquestionably the most 
 worshipers. In Norway he was the national god, 
 and there, as in Iceland, temples were almost 
 exclusively erected to him. Offerings were made 
 to him, particularly in times of pestilence. 
 Thursday was named for him. The heathen 
 Scandinavians marked their rune stones with the 
 sign of the hammer of Thor. See Ragnarok; 
 Scandinavian and Teutonic Mythology. 
 
 THORACIC (tho-ras'ik) DUCT (from Lat. 
 thorax, from Gk. 6upa£, breastplate, part of 
 the body covered by the breastplate, thorax). 
 A canal equal in diameter to a goose quill, pro¬ 
 ceeding from the receptaculum chyli (into which 
 the contents of the lacteals are collected, and 
 which is situated in the front of the body of 
 the second lumbar vertebra), which ascends 
 along the front of the vertebral column, between 
 the aorta and ascending vena cava, as high as 
 the fourth dorsal vertebra; it then inclines to 
 the left, and passing behind the arch of the 
 aorta, ascends as high as the seventh cervical 
 vertebra, when it bends forward and downward, 
 and empties into the subclavian at its junction 
 with the internal jugular vein of the left side, 
 where it is provided with a pair of semilunar 
 valves, which prevent the admission of venous 
 blood into it. It is also provided with other 
 valves on its upward course. It is the common 
 trunk of all the lymphatic vessels of the body, 
 excepting those of the right side of the head, 
 neck, thorax, the right upper extremity, the 
 right lung,'right side of the heart, and the upper 
 surface of the liver, the lymphatics of ivhich 
 empty into the right lymphatic duct, a vessel 
 less than an inch long, which pours its contents 
 into the right subclavian or internal jugular 
 
 vein. This duct is not liable to any special 
 diseases, but if its function of conveying chvle 
 from its source into the general circulation "be 
 interfered with, by injury, hemorrhage, or in¬ 
 flammation, or by the pressure of a tumor, nu¬ 
 trition is impaired and there may be an accumu¬ 
 lation of chylous fluid in the peritoneal cavity 
 or pericardium or pleura, or there may be chy- 
 luria, or chylous oedema of the pelvis, genitals, 
 or lower abdominal wall. 
 
 THORAH. See Toraii. 
 
 THO'RAX. See Chest. 
 
 THORBECKE, tor'bek-e, Heinrich (1837- 
 90). A German Arabic scholar. He was born at 
 Meiningen, and studied at Munich and Leipzig. 
 He was appointed professor at Heidelberg (1873) 
 and at Halle (1885). He is especially noted for 
 his knowledge of Arabic poetry. He "published: 
 Antarah, ein vorislamitischer Dichter ( 1867); 
 Al-Harlri’s Durrat-al-gaicnvas (1871); Al- 
 A’schd’s Lobgedicht auf Mahammed (1875) ; Ibn 
 Duraid's Kitdb al-maldhin (1882); Die Mufad- 
 dali-jdt (1885) ; Mihail Sabbag’s Grammatik der 
 arabischen TJmgangssprache in Syrien und 
 Aegypten (1886). 
 
 THOREAU, tho'rd or tho-ro', Henry David 
 (1817-62). An American naturalist and author, 
 of French and Scotch extraction, born at Con¬ 
 cord, Mass., where his father was a manufacturer 
 of lead pencils. At this trade the younger Tho- 
 reau worked at intervals. He graduated from 
 Harvard in 1837, and was for five or six years 
 engaged in school teaching and tutoring in Con¬ 
 cord and at Staten Island, N. Y. Preferring to 
 live a life of contemplation, he abandoned teach¬ 
 ing and proceeded, during the rest of his days, 
 to demonstrate how simply and agreeably a man 
 might live. He was for a time an inmate of 
 Emerson’s house, but his most characteristic act 
 was his residence, from July, 1845, to September, 
 1847, in a hut on the shores of Walden Pond, a 
 beautiful body of water on the outskirts of Con¬ 
 cord. Here he lived, doing what little work was 
 necessary to supply the necessaries of life, and 
 devoting the major part of his time to the study 
 of nature and to the society of friends. On leav¬ 
 ing Walden he again lived with Emerson, 1847- 
 48, and the years after 1849 were spent with 
 his parents and sister at Concord. During his 
 life at Walden Pond and elsewhere in Concord, 
 he supported himself by odd jobs of gardening, 
 land surveying, carpentering, etc., but without 
 more exertion than he needed to keep himself in 
 food and clothing. His leisure time he devoted 
 to the study of nature, to the reading of Greek, 
 Latin, French, and English classical literature, 
 to excursions, to pondering metaphysical prob¬ 
 lems, and to friendly chat with his neighbors, by 
 whom he was beloved. 
 
 From 1837 till his death he kept a journal^ 
 and this furnished the source and basis of 
 writings, and gave them uniformity of eh; 
 
 Of the volumes which comprise^ 
 the standard Riverside edition. ~* 
 
 Familiar Letters of Tho^ 
 born) but two appeaj 
 first of these, A We<tf 
 mac Rivers (1849^ 
 trip taken in 
 rable descript 
 ture, mingle 
 tal philos j 
 experienc 
 at Wald " 
 
 (1854), 
 
THORESEN 
 
 234 
 
 THORNDIKE 
 
 ognized as one of the most original and sincere 
 productions in American letters and as one of 
 the most genuine of woodland books. It gives a 
 plain unaffected statement of the reasons for the 
 author’s life as a hermit, and an admirably spe¬ 
 cific account of the main details of that life. 
 The other volumes, largely made up of material 
 from his journal, and edited and published post¬ 
 humously, are: Excursions (1863); The Maine 
 Woods (1864) ; Cape Cod (1865) ; Early Spring 
 in Massachusetts (1881) ; Summer (1884) ; Win¬ 
 ter (1888); Autumn (1892); and Miscellanies 
 (1894). In 1905 appeared The First and Last 
 Journeys of Thoreau, lately discovered among his 
 unpublished Journals and Manuscripts (ed. by 
 F. B. Sanborn, Boston). A new and complete 
 edition was published in 1906. Their publica¬ 
 tion indicated an increasing interest in Thoreau 
 and a sense of the permanent value of his work. 
 The literary quality of the writing was high; he 
 had a marked gift for style, and wrote with 
 great care and unfailing freshness. His best es¬ 
 says, to be found in the volumes entitled Mis¬ 
 cellanies and Excursions, are perhaps not ex¬ 
 celled in American literature, whether for sub¬ 
 stance or for style, and it may be doubted 
 whether the work of any of his contemporaries is 
 wearing as well. His poems are interesting, but 
 occupy a minor place in his writings. 
 
 Bibliography. A. H. Japp, Thoreau: His 
 Life and Aims (Boston, 1877) ; H. S. Salt, Life 
 of David Henry Thoreau, in “Great Writers 
 Series” (New York, 1896) ; F. B. Sanborn, Henry 
 D. Thoreau, in “American Men of Letters” (Bos¬ 
 ton, 1896) ; A. R. Marble, Thoreau: His Home, 
 Friends, and Books (New York, 1902) : W. E. 
 Channing, Thoreau: The Poet-Naturalist (new 
 ed., Boston, 1902) ; R. W. Emerson, in Biograph¬ 
 ical Studies (Centenary ed., ib., 1903) ; Brad¬ 
 ford Torrey, in Friends on the Shelf (ib., 1906) ; 
 Arthur Rickett, The Vagabond in Literature 
 (New York, 1906) ; P. E. More, in Shelburne 
 Essays, First and Fifth Series (ib., 1907-08); 
 W. M. Payne, in Leading American Essayists 
 (ib., 1910). 
 
 THORESEN, tS'ra-sen (Anna) Magdalene 
 (Kragh) (1819-1903). A Norwegian poet, born 
 at Fredericia, in Denmark. She married a Nor¬ 
 wegian clergyman and gained opportunity to 
 study the peasant life and wilder nature of that 
 country. Her sympathetic observations found 
 literary expression in Fortcellinger (Tales, 
 1863) ; Signes Historic (1864) ; Solen i Siljeda- 
 len (1868); Billeder fra Vestkysten af Norge 
 (Pictures from the West Coast of Norway, 
 1872) ; Nyere Fortcellinger (1873) ; Herluf Nor- 
 dal ( 1879) ; she published also two volumes of 
 poems (1860 and 1887) ; several dramas, among 
 them Et Rigt Parti (1870), the story Billeder 
 f ra Midnatsolens Land (2 vols., 1884-86), and 
 volume of tales (1899). Her earlier 
 n _wa s translated into German by Reinmar: 
 
 Hrzdhlungen (5 vols., Berlin, 1878— 
 mr biography by Clara Bergsoe 
 
 See Ari Tiiorgilsson. 
 ^oriurn silicate crys- 
 stem. It has a 
 yellow to dark 
 ious places in 
 oxide that 
 
 kScandina- 
 ,ient dis- 
 n mona- 
 
 zite, orangite, thorite, and other minerals con¬ 
 taining the cerium group of metals, and found 
 in Brazil, Norway, and in North and South 
 Carolina. For the extraction of thorium, mona- 
 zite sand is heated with strong sulphuric acid, 
 then cold water is added, and the resulting solu¬ 
 tion is separated from the insoluble residue and 
 partially precipitated with alkali; the precipi¬ 
 tate is dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and from 
 this acid solution the thorium is precipitated, in 
 the form of its oxalate, with oxalic acid. The 
 metal itself may be obtained by decomposing 
 thorium chloride with potassium or sodium. 
 Thorium (symbol, Th; atomic weight, 232.4) is 
 a gray powder which assumes an iron-gray lustre 
 when burnished. It has a specific gravity of 
 about 11 and takes fire when heated in air, 
 burning with a bright flame. It combines with 
 oxygen, forming a white dioxide (Th0 2 ), called 
 thoria, and a peroxide. None of the compounds 
 of thorium have any important commercial value 
 except the dioxide, which has been used with 
 ceria in the mantle of the Welsbach burner. Tho¬ 
 rium is a distinctly radioactive element, its grad¬ 
 ual disintegration producing a series of elements 
 of more or less ephemeral existence, like the 
 series yielded by radium. See Radioactivity. 
 
 THORN. See Crataegus. 
 
 THORN, torn. A strongly fortified town of 
 Prussia, in the Province of West Prussia, on the 
 right bank of the Vistula, which here divides 
 into two branches, 87 miles northeast of Posen 
 (Map: Germany, H 2). There are many antique 
 houses with striking architectural features. The 
 ruins of a castle of the Teutonic Order, the church 
 of St. John (1231-60), the Gothic St. James 
 (1309 ), and the Marienkirche (1367) are worthy 
 of notice, also a town hall with museum, library, 
 and archives. In the market place stands a 
 bronze statue of Copernicus, who was born here. 
 There are iron foundries, and machine, tobacco, 
 and soap works. The town carries on trade by 
 water and rail in corn, lumber, mineral waters, 
 chocolate, gingerbread, and alcohol. Thorn was 
 founded in 1231 by the Knights of the Teutonic 
 Order. It became an important member of the 
 Hanseatic League. It was annexed in 1454 to 
 Poland. In 1466 a treaty of peace was concluded 
 here between Poland and the Teutonic Knights 
 (q.v.). The town became a part of Prussia in 
 1793. Pop., 1900, 29,626; 1910, 46,227. In the 
 early part of the Great War which began in 1914 
 Thorn was bombarded and seriously threatened 
 by the Russians. (See War in Europe.) Con¬ 
 sult Kestner, Beitrdge zur Geschichte der Stadt 
 Thorn (Thorn, 1883). 
 
 THORN, Christ's. See Jujube, 
 
 THORNABY (thor'na-b!) ON TEES, for¬ 
 merly South Stockton (Map: England, E 2). 
 A municipal borough in the North Riding of 
 Yorkshire, England, suburban to Stockton, 
 with which its manufacturing industries and 
 public works are identified. It is mentioned as 
 Thormodby in Domesday. Pop., 1901, 16,053; 
 1911, 18,605. 
 
 THORN ACACIA. See Locust Tree. 
 
 THORN APPLE. See Stramonium. 
 
 THORN'DIKE, Ashley Horace (1871- 
 ). An American English scholar, brother of 
 Edward L. Thorndike. He was born at Houl- 
 ton, Me., and graduated at Wesleyan University 
 in 1893, later taking higher degrees at Harvard. 
 After serving as principal of Smith Academy, 
 Hatfield, Mass., and teaching at Boston Univer¬ 
 sity and at Western Reserve, he held a chair 
 
THORNDIKE 
 
 235 
 
 THORNYCROFT 
 
 at Northwestern (1902-0G), and served there¬ 
 after as professor of English at Columbia. He 
 wrote: Influence of Beaumont and Fletcher on 
 Shakespeare (1901); Elements of Rhetoric and 
 Composition (1905) ; Tragedy (1908) ; Everyday 
 English (1913); Shakespeare’s Theatre (1916). 
 
 THORNDIKE, Edward Lee (1874- ). 
 
 An American psychologist, brother of Ashley H. 
 Thorndike. He was born at Williamsburg, Mass., 
 and graduated from Wesleyan University in 
 1895, from Harvard in 1896, and from Colum¬ 
 bia (Ph.D.) in 1898. In 1898-99 he taught at 
 Western Reserve University, and afterward was 
 identified with Teachers College, Columbia, where 
 by 1904 he had become professor of educational 
 psychology. In 1912 he was president of the 
 American Psychological Association. Besides 
 monographs and articles, he published: The Hu¬ 
 man Nature Club (1901) ; Educational Psychology 
 (1903; 3d ed., 3 vols., 1913-14); Mental and 
 Social Measurements (1904; 2d ed., rev., 1913) ; 
 The Elements of Psychology (1905) ; Principles 
 of Teaching (1905) ; Animal Intelligence (1911) ; 
 Education: A First Book (1912 ) ; The Measure¬ 
 ment of Ability in Reading (1914) ; Educational 
 Psychology , Briefer Course (1914). 
 
 THORNE, Will(iam James) (1857- ). 
 
 An English labor leader and Socialist, born at 
 Birmingham. He began to work when six years 
 old. He founded the National Union of Gas- 
 workers and General Laborers in 1889, and there¬ 
 after was its general secretary. He was elected 
 in 1890 to the town council of West Ham, of 
 which he was deputy mayor in 1898, and he en¬ 
 tered the House of Commons in January, 1906. 
 
 THORN'HILL. A town in the West Riding 
 of Yorkshire, England, l 1 /^ miles south of Dews¬ 
 bury. It is a prosperous woolen-milling town 
 and also manufactures carpets and shoddy. Pop., 
 1901, 10,290; 1911, 10,974. 
 
 THORN'TON, Sir Edward (1817-1906). An 
 English diplomat. He was born in London and 
 was educated at King’s College, London, and at 
 Pembroke College, Cambridge. He entered the 
 diplomatic service as attache to the mission at 
 Turin in 1842, filled the same position in Mexico 
 in 1845, and was made Secretary of Legation 
 in that capital in 1S53. During 1848 he did 
 much to forward the conclusion of the important 
 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. In 1852 he was 
 appointed Secretary of Legation at Buenos Aires; 
 charge d’affaires to Uruguay (1854); Minister 
 to the Argentine Republic in 1859, to Brazil in 
 1865, and from 1867 to 1881 to the United 
 States. He was knighted in 1870; in 1871 was 
 a member of the commission on the Alabama 
 Claims, and was appointed Privy Councilor; and 
 in 1873 was arbitrator in the commission on the 
 Mexican and United States claims. He was ap¬ 
 pointed Ambassador at St. Petersburg in 1881, 
 Ambassador at Constantinople in 1884, and re¬ 
 tired to private life in 1887. 
 
 THORNTON, John Wingate (1818-78). 
 An American historian, born at Saco, Me. He 
 graduated at the Harvard Law School in 1840, 
 and became a practicing lawyer. His great in¬ 
 terest, however, lay in genealogical and histori¬ 
 cal work, and he published a number of books 
 along these lines, including: The Landing at 
 Cape Ann (1854) ; The First Records of Anglo- 
 American Colonization (1859) ; The Pulpit of the 
 American Revolution (1860). He was the 
 founder of the New England Historical and Gen¬ 
 ealogical Society (1844). Consult Amory, Me¬ 
 moir of J. TF. Thornton (Boston, 1879). 
 
 Vol. XXII.—16 
 
 THORNTON, Matthew (1714-1803). A 
 signer of the Declaration of Independence. He 
 was born in Ireland; went to America in 1717, 
 lived at Wiscasset, Me., and later at .Worcester, 
 Mass., where he was educated; settled as a phy¬ 
 sician at Londonderry, N. H., and was surgeon 
 under Sir William Pepperell in the Louisburg 
 expedition of 1745. He was president of the 
 provincial convention of 1775, and in 1776 
 was a delegate to the Continental Congress, tak¬ 
 ing his seat in November, when he was allowed 
 to sign the Declaration of Independence, though 
 not elected until after its passage. He was Chief 
 Justice of the Court of Common Pleas prior to 
 1776, and from 1776 to 1782 was a judge of the 
 New Hampshire Supreme Court. 
 
 THORNTON, William (1762-1828). An 
 American architect, born on Tortola Island in 
 the West Indies. He was without technical 
 training, but cultivated the study of classic 
 architecture as a gentleman amateur, and in 
 1793 submitted plans for the proposed Capitol 
 at Washington to the Commissioners of the Dis¬ 
 trict of Columbia. These plans were approved 
 by President Washington, and their execution 
 was begun under the superintendence of Stephen 
 Hallet, a Frenchman, and James Hoban (q.v.) ; 
 but in 1794 Thornton, who had come to the 
 United States meanwhile, was appointed a com¬ 
 missioner of the District, and in that capacity 
 until 1802 supervised the work. His design, 
 though later modified in detail, survives in the 
 central block of the Capitol, in spite of the fire 
 of 1814. He also designed the “Octagon” man 
 sion at Washington. From 1802 until the time 
 of his death Thornton held the office of Commis¬ 
 sioner of Pensions. 
 
 THORN'WELL, James Henley (1812-62). 
 An American Southern Presbyterian theologian. 
 He was born in Marlborough District, S. C., and 
 graduated at South Carolina College, Colum¬ 
 bia, in 1829. He held several pastorates; was 
 for a time president of South Carolina College, 
 and held professorships in the theological semi¬ 
 nary at Columbia. He published Arguments of 
 Romanists Discussed and Refuted (1845), Dis¬ 
 courses on Truth (1854), On the Rights and 
 Duties of Masters (1861), The State of the 
 Country (1861), and was one of the most ortho¬ 
 dox and conservative of theologians. His col¬ 
 lected writings were published at Richmond 
 (1871-73). Consult his Life and Letters by 
 B. M. Palmer (Richmond, 1875) and J. L. Girar¬ 
 deau (1871-73). 
 
 THORN'YCROFT', Sir John Isaac (1843- 
 ). An English naval architect, brother of 
 William Hamo Thornvcroft. He was born 
 in Rome. Early showing an aptitude for me¬ 
 chanics, at 18 he built a steam launch, the 
 Nautilus, which was the fastest boat of its kind 
 on the Thames. Earlier, he had constructed a 
 little model steamer which contained several im¬ 
 portant innovations afterward introduced by him 
 into his torpedo boats. After completing the en¬ 
 gineering course at the University of Glasgow, 
 he opened a shipyard at Chiswick in 1866, and 
 achieved remarkable success as a builder of tor¬ 
 pedo boats. Among his improvements were the 
 closed stoke-hole and fan, a special indicator, a 
 water-tube boiler, and the turbine propeller. He 
 contributed to the Transactions of the British 
 Association and to the publications of the Insti¬ 
 tution of Naval Architects (of which he became 
 vice president) and the Institution of Civil En¬ 
 gineers. In 1902 he was knighted. 
 
THORNYCROFT 
 
 THORPE 
 
 236 
 
 THORNYCROFT, William Hamo (1850- 
 ). An English sculptor, the son of Thomas 
 Thornycroft (1815-85), a sculptor of classical 
 tendencies,- and Mary Thornycroft, a pupil of 
 John Gibson, who carved many statues and busts 
 of the royal family for Queen Victoria. He was 
 born in London and studied with his father, at 
 the Royal Academy Schools, and also in Italy. 
 He first won recognition with his “Warrior Bear¬ 
 ing a Wounded Youth” (1876). His ideal fig¬ 
 ures were at first conceived in a strongly classic 
 spirit with much beauty and purity of taste. 
 To this style belong such works as “Lot’s Wife” 
 (1878) ; “Artemis” (1880, Duke of Westminster, 
 Eaton Hall, Chester) ; “Teucer,” perhaps his 
 masterpiece (1881, Tate Gallery, London), and 
 “Medea” (1888). He afterward became more 
 modern in treatment and spirit, as may be seen 
 in the “Mower” (1884, Liverpool Gallery), and 
 the “Sower” (1886). Among his many public 
 monuments, the most notable include the Stan¬ 
 ley Memorial (1898, Holyhead Church); the 
 General Gordon monument in Trafalgar Square, 
 London; the statue of Queen Victoria in the 
 Royal Exchange; Bishop Goodwin of Carlisle 
 (1895, Carlisle Cathedral); Cromwell (1900, 
 Westminster) ; the colossal “King Alfred” (1901, 
 Winchester) ; the Gladstone Monument (Strand, 
 London) ; the Armstrong Memorial (Newcastle) ; 
 and the statue of Tennyson (1909, Trinity Col¬ 
 lege, Cambridge). He also executed some not¬ 
 able work in relief and in decorative sculpture. 
 Thornycroft was elected a member of the Royal 
 Academy (1888), honorary member, Royal Acad¬ 
 emy of Munich (1889), and received gold medals 
 at the Royal Academy (1875) and in Paris 
 (1900). See Thornycroft, Sir John Isaac. 
 
 THORODDSEN, thor'od-SEn, J6n Thordar- 
 son (1819-68). An Icelandic poet and novelist, 
 born at Reykholar. After studying law at the 
 University of Copenhagen, he took part in the 
 war against the Schleswig-Holstein insurgents 
 and in 1850 returned to Iceland. He died at 
 Borgarfjartharsysla. In point of both time and 
 excellence, Thoroddsen is the first Icelandic nov¬ 
 elist. His best-known works are his first novel, 
 Piltur og Stxilka (Lad and Lass) (1850; many 
 editions; Ger., Dan., and Dutch trans.), and 
 Mathur og Kona (Man and Wife), published 
 posthumously (1876). These books are charac¬ 
 terized by a faithful delineation of Icelandic life 
 and by a quaint and pleasing humor. Thorodd¬ 
 sen also wrote a number of witty and satirical 
 poems, published in 1871. Consult Poestion, 
 Islandische Dichter der Neuzeit (1897). 
 
 THOROLD, tho'ruld. A town in Welland 
 County, Ontario, Canada, on the Welland Canal 
 and on the Grand Trunk and the Niagara, St. 
 Catherines, and Toronto Electric railways (Map: 
 Ontario, F 7). It has a public library. There 
 are various manufactures. Pop., 1901, 1979; 
 1911, 2273. 
 
 THOR'OLD, Anthony Wilson (1825-95). 
 An English bishop. He was born at Hough am 
 in Lincolnshire; graduated at Queen’s College, 
 Oxford, in 1847; entered the ministry, and filled 
 prominent livings in London from 1857 till lie 
 became Bishop of Rochester in 1877. In 1890 
 he was transferred to Winchester. He is best 
 known as the author of the devotional works, of 
 rare spirituality: The Presence of Christ ( 1869) ; 
 The Gospel of Christ (1882) ; The Yoke of Christ 
 (1884); Questions of Faith and Duty (1892); 
 The Tenderness of Christ (1894). Consult 
 his Life by Simpkinson (London, 1896). 
 
 THOROUGHBASS. See Figured Bass. 
 
 THOROTJGHWORT. See Boneset; Eupa- 
 
 TORIUM. 
 
 THORPE, Benjamin (1782-1S70). An Eng¬ 
 lish philologist who studied at Copenhagen under 
 the famous philologist Rasmus Kristian Rask 
 (q.v.). While there he published a translation 
 of Rask’s Anglo-Saxon Grammar (1830; rev., 
 1865). Returning to England (1830), he con¬ 
 tinued his studies in Old English and Old Norse. 
 Most widely known in his Northern Mythology, 
 comprising the principal popular Traditions and 
 Superstitions of Scandinavia, North Germany, 
 and the Netherlands (3 vols., 1851). This was 
 supplemented by Yule Tide Stories: A Collec¬ 
 tion of Scandinavian Tales (1853) and a trans¬ 
 lation of the Edda of Scemund the Learned. 
 (1866). Thorpe’s pioneer work in Old English 
 translation, philology, and history is still of 
 great value. Among his publications in this 
 department are Ccedmon’s Metrical Paraphrase 
 (1832) ; Analecta Anglo-Saxonica (1834; 3d ed., 
 1868) ; Ancient Laws and Institutes of England 
 (1840) ; Codex Exoniensis, a Collection of Anglo- 
 Saxon Poetry, with English Translation and 
 Notes (1842) ; Anglo-Saxon Poems of Beowulf, 
 with a Literal Translation, Notes, and Glossary 
 (1855); The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, according 
 to the several Original Authorities (2 vols., 
 1861) ; and Diplomatarium Anglicum /Evi Sax- 
 onici: A Collection of English Charters from 
 605 to 1066 (1865). 
 
 THORPE, Sir Edward (1845- ). An 
 
 English chemist. He was born near Manchester 
 and was educated at Owens College, where he 
 came under the influence of Sir Henry E. Roscoe 
 (q.v.). Later he studied at Bonn and Heidel¬ 
 berg (Ph.D.). He was professor successively in 
 the Andersonian Institution, Yorkshire College, 
 Leeds, and the Royal College of Science, Lon¬ 
 don. In 1909 he was knighted. At various 
 times he served as president of the Society of 
 Chemical Industry, the Chemical Society of Lon¬ 
 don, and the chemical section of the British 
 Association. Besides many addresses and im¬ 
 portant papers he published: Chemical Problems 
 (1870); Qualitative Analysis (1873); Quanti¬ 
 tative Analysis (1873); Inorganic Chemistry 
 (2 vols., 1874) ; A Dictionary of Applied Chem¬ 
 istry (3 vols., 1893; 5 vols., 1912) ; A History 
 of Chemistry (2 vols., 1909-10). 
 
 THORPE, Francis Newton (1857- ). 
 
 An American historian, born at Swampscott, 
 Mass. He was educated at Syracuse University 
 and at the Law School of the University of 
 Pennsylvania. From 1885 until 1898 he was 
 fellow, and professor of American constitutional 
 history, at the University of Pennsylvania. In 
 1910 he accepted the chair of political science 
 and constitutional law at the University of 
 Pittsburgh. He published: The Government of 
 the People of the United States (1889) ; A Con¬ 
 stitutional History of the American People, 
 1776-1850 (2 vols., 1898) ; The Constitutional 
 History of the United States, 1765-1895 (3 vols., 
 1901); Short Constitutional History of the 
 United States (1904) ; An American Fruit Farm 
 (1915). He edited The History of the Civil 
 1 Var — National View (1906) and The States¬ 
 manship of Andrew Jackson (1909). 
 
 THORPE, Rose Hartwick (1850- ). An 
 
 American author, born at Mishawaka, Ind. In 
 1871 she was married to E. Carson Thorpe. 
 She became best known for her ballad Curfew 
 Must Not Ring To-Night (1882). The Poetical 
 
THORVALDSEN 
 
 237 THORVALDSEN 
 
 Works of Rose Hartwick Thorpe were published 
 in 1912. In addition to verse she wrote several 
 stories. 
 
 THORVALDSEN, tor'wqld-sen (Ger. Thor- 
 waldsen) ,j Bertel (1770-1844). An eminent 
 Danish sculptor, the most important and gifted 
 exponent of classicism in sculpture (q.v.) in 
 the nineteenth century. He was born at Copen¬ 
 hagen, Nov. 19, 1770, the son of an Icelandic 
 carpenter and carver of figures upon galleons. 
 He was sent to the academy at the age of 11, 
 and received, in 1793, the' great gold medal, 
 with a stipend for three years’ study at Rome. 
 r J his city, however, he did not reach until March, 
 1797. In Rome he was less influenced by the 
 master works of antiquity than by Carstens 
 (q.v.) who had already been his model at Copen¬ 
 hagen. On the point of returning home, in 1803, 
 he received a commission from Sir Thomas Hope 
 to execute in marble the colossal statue of 
 “Jason with the Golden Fleece,” the plaster cast 
 of which had called forth the admiration of all 
 connoisseurs and critics, and even of Canova. 
 Orders now came in abundance, especially after 
 he had finished the spirited relief of the “Abduc¬ 
 tion of Briseis,” one of his most perfect crea¬ 
 tions in the realm of relief sculpture. In 1804 
 he produced the famous group of “Cupid and 
 Psyche,” and the relief of “Dance of the Muses 
 on Mount Helicon,” and in 1805 the statues of 
 “Apollo,” “Bacchus,” and “Ganymede,” which 
 was later followed by a “Ganymede Filling the 
 Cup,’ and the graceful group of “Ganvmede 
 Watering the Eagle of Zeus.” With his in¬ 
 creasing reputation came new distinctions and 
 honors; in 1804 the Florence Academy appointed 
 him professor and in 1808 he was elected a 
 member of the Accademia di San Luca in Rome, 
 sending as his reception piece the relief “A 
 Genio Lumen.” About 1809 Thorvaldsen won 
 a new patron in Crown Prince Louis of Bavaria, 
 who sought his advice in purchasing antique 
 works of art and commissioned him to execute 
 a statue of “Adonis” (1832, Glyptothek, 
 Munich). 
 
 To the year 1809 belong four of his most at¬ 
 tractive reliefs, the group of “Hector, Paris, 
 and Helena,” and three other mythological sub¬ 
 jects, and in 1810-11 he carved the life-size 
 statue of “Psyche,” one of his creations ap¬ 
 proaching nearest to the spirit of antique art, 
 and a heroic-sized “Mars Weighing Cupid’s Ar¬ 
 rows.” In honor of the proposed visit of Napo¬ 
 leon to Rome he was commissioned to model a 
 frieze representing the “Entry of Alexander the 
 Great into Babylon,” witli which he achieved 
 prodigious success. The marble version found a 
 permanent home in the Villa Carlotta on Lake 
 Como, and a modified replica was acquired by 
 the Danish government for Kristiansborg Castle. 
 From a purely artistic point of view the “Memo¬ 
 rial to Baroness Schubart” (1814) is most akin 
 to the Greek reliefs of the fourth century b.c., 
 and of his compositions dating from 1814-15, 
 the medallions of “Morning” and “Night” have 
 probably given him the widest reputation. In 
 1816-18 he produced “Venus with the Apple,” 
 “Hebe,” “Cupid Triumphant,” “Bacchante Danc¬ 
 ing,” “Shepherd Boy Resting,” “Mercury, Slayer 
 of Argus,” and “The Three Graces.” The latter 
 subject he treated even more successfully in 
 the high relief for the tomb of the Milanese 
 painter Appiani. A series of charming reliefs 
 with Cupid as the central figure date from the 
 same period. The year 1819 saw the realization 
 
 of the unique “Lion of Lucerne,” a memorial to 
 the Swiss guards who fell guarding Versailles 
 Palace, chiseled out of the natural rock by the 
 Swiss sculptor Ahorn after Thorvaldsen’s model. 
 
 Arriving at Copenhagen in October of the 
 same year, he was received with great honors. 
 He received a commission for the plastic decora¬ 
 tion of Vor Fruekirke (Church of Our Lady), 
 with figures, groups, and reliefs, executed sub¬ 
 sequently in Rome. They comprise the colossal 
 statue of “Christus Consolator,” one of his 
 masterpieces, the statues of the “Twelve Apos¬ 
 tles,” and the reliefs of the “Institution of Bap¬ 
 tism” and of the “Institution of the Holy Com¬ 
 munion.” The Christ was finished by his own 
 hand, the others with the assistance of his 
 pupils after his return to Rome. He left Copen¬ 
 hagen in 1820 and, having arranged at Warsaw 
 for the erection of his equestrian statue of 
 Prince Poniatowski and the Copernicus Monu¬ 
 ment, returned to Rome, where he devoted him¬ 
 self zealously to his new commissions. To these 
 were added the “Monument to Pope Pius VII” 
 in St. Peter’s (1831), and the statue of Lord 
 Byron (1835, Trinity College, Cambridge). A 
 statue of “Hope” (1829) adorns the tomb of 
 the Humboldt family in the park at Teo-el 
 near Berlin. 
 
 I 11 1825 Thorvaldsen was elected president of 
 the Accademia di San Luca in Rome, notwith¬ 
 standing the objections to him as a Protestant. 
 Important works, other than those already men¬ 
 tioned, are the statue of Duke Eugene of 
 Leuchtenberg, in St. Michael’s Church, Mu¬ 
 nich, and the equestrian statue of the “Elector 
 Maximilian I” (Munich), the first instance in 
 which he represents an historical personage in 
 the costume of the time. This was done most 
 successfully in the statue of Conradin, Last of 
 the Hohenstaufen, in Santa Maria del Car¬ 
 mine, at Naples. Besides reliefs of antique 
 subjects, he produced in the thirties the figure 
 of a “Young Dancer” (1837, Palazzo Torlonia) 
 and a colossal statue of “Vulcan,” one of his 
 last works at Rome. 
 
 His return, consequent upon the King’s re¬ 
 quest, was made in a royal Danish frigate. 
 Besides his monumental tasks for the Frue¬ 
 kirke, it was principally reliefs from Greek 
 mythology tha^ now claimed his attention, and 
 in the 3pring v of 1841 he repaired once more to 
 Rome to finish some subjects he had left behind. 
 His journey through Germany was a triumphal 
 progress, and after one year in Rome he returned 
 to Copenhagen, devoting himself to work in 
 relief. The pieces known as “Christmas Joy in 
 Heaven,” “The Rape of Hylas,” and the famous 
 “Four Seasons” are the most remarkable. He 
 died at the theatre, on March 24, 1844, and was 
 escorted to his burial place with princely honors. 
 His possessions were bequeathed to his native 
 city for the establishment of the Thorvaldsen 
 Museum, in which all his works, in the original 
 or in plaster models, his sketches and studies, 
 and his art collections are preserved, and in 
 the court of which he lies buried. His art is 
 the best which the so-called classicist tendency 
 has produced in sculpture. Unlike Canova, his 
 inspiration was Greek rather than Roman, and 
 his works approach nearest of all to the purity 
 and repose of Greek art. He excelled especially 
 in relief and in ideal and mythological sub¬ 
 jects. As he sought chiefly to attain general 
 types, his art was deficient in characterization, 
 and also in dramatic action. 
 
THOS 
 
 THOTHMES 
 
 238 
 
 Bibliography. J. C. Andersen, B. Thorvald¬ 
 sen (Berlin, 1845) ; J. M. Thiele, Life of Thor¬ 
 valdsen , translated from the Danish by M. R. 
 Barnard (London, 1865) ; id., Thorvaldsen and 
 his Works, English translation by Sinning (New 
 York, 1869) ; Eugene Plon, Thorvaldsen: sa vie 
 et son oeuvre (2d ed., Paris, 1874) ; M. Hammer- 
 ich, Tliorwaldsen und seine Zeit (Gotha, 1876) ; 
 H. Liicke, “Canova und Thorvaldsen,” in Dohme, 
 Kunst und Kiinstler des neunzehnten Jahrhun- 
 derts, vol. i (Leipzig, 1886) ; Julius Lange, Thor- 
 waldsen’s Darstellung des Mensehen, German 
 translation by Mathilde Mann (Berlin, 1894); 
 Adolf Rosenberg, “Thorvaldsen,” in Kiinstler - 
 monographien, No. 16 (Bielefeld, 1901). 
 
 TITOS, thoz. A tall, non-Mongoloid people of 
 Tonking, in the valley of the Claire River, with 
 subbrachycephalic head form, a member of the 
 Mois (q.v.) group of tribes. They are husband¬ 
 men, living in houses on piles, and wearing a 
 very picturesque costume. The Thos and the 
 Muongs (q.v.) of the valley of the Black River 
 in Tongking may be regarded as one of the 
 principal groups of the Thai stock, to which be¬ 
 long the Shans (q.v.), the Laotians (see Laos ) , 
 and the Siamese. Consult Garcin, JJn an chez 
 les Muongs au Tonkin (Paris, 1891) ; De Lanes- 
 san, L’lndo-Chine frangaise (ib., 1889) ; Pinabel, 
 Sur quelques peuples sauvages dependant du 
 Tong-King (ib., 1884). 
 
 THOTH, thoth or tot (Gk. Giod, Thoth, 
 Qwvd, Thoyth, Gevd, Theyth, from Egypt. Dhut'i ). 
 An Egyptian deity identified by the Greeks with 
 Mercury (q.v.). Consult E. A. T. Wallis Budge, 
 The Gods of the Egyptians (London, 1904). See 
 Hermetic and Plate of Egyptian Deities. 
 
 THOTHMES, thoth'mez or tothnes (Egypt. 
 Dhuti-mose, son of Thoth; Gk. T ovdyuais, Touth- 
 mosis) or Tahutimes. The name of four kings 
 of Egypt of the eighteenth dynasty. 
 
 Thothmes I was the son and successor of 
 Amenopliis I (q.v.) and ascended the throne 
 about 1560 b.c. According to Manetlio, as cited 
 by Africanus, he reigned for 22 years, though 
 no date higher than his ninth regal year has 
 as yet been found upon the monuments. The 
 first recorded military expedition of Thothmes 
 I was against the Nubians, whom he defeated, 
 returning in triumph to Thebes with the body 
 of their chief at the bow of his ship. In his 
 third year he found it necessary to chastise 
 the Nubian tribes in another expedition. Not 
 long after, he invaded Asia and, marching as 
 far as the Euphrates, set up a stele which was 
 later seen and mentioned by Thothmes III. The 
 remainder of his reign seems to have been 
 peaceful and was largely devoted to building 
 operations. At Karnak (q.v.) he built two 
 pylons and two hypostyle halls, and erected 
 two obelisks, one of which (76 feet high) is 
 still standing. (See Obelisk.) He also con¬ 
 structed buildings in the necropolis of Thebes, 
 at Abydos, at Ibrim (a rock-hewn chapel), and 
 at other places. The coffin of Thothmes I was 
 found in 1881 at Deir el Bahri, but whether the 
 mummy it contained is that of the King is not 
 altogether certain. 
 
 Thothmes II, the son and successor of Thoth¬ 
 mes I, reigned for about nine years, accord¬ 
 ing to the monuments, and according to Manetlio 
 for 12 or 13 years. An inscription at Assuan, 
 dated in the first year of his reign, states that 
 he sent an expedition against Nubian tribes 
 who had raided his territory, and he seems to 
 have fought against the Asiatic Bedouin, but 
 
 he undertook no extensive wars. He made 
 additions to the great Temple of Ammon at 
 Karnak, and his name is inscribed upon build¬ 
 ings in many parts of Egypt. The mummy of 
 the King, found in 1881 at Deir el Bahri, is 
 that of a young man, apparently not over 30 
 years of age. His sister and wife, the able and 
 energetic Hatshepsut (see Hatasu), was co¬ 
 regent throughout his reign, and was the real 
 ruler of the kingdom. 
 
 Thothmes III was one of the greatest of all 
 the Egyptian monarchs. The evidence as to his 
 parentage is not altogether clear, but in all 
 probability he was the son of Thothmes I by a 
 wife named Iset, or Isis, and the half brother 
 of the great Queen Hatshepsut (Hatasu). In 
 a short time the party'of Hatshepsut was able 
 to thrust Thothmes III into the background. 
 Her rule was, however, soon terminated for a 
 while by the coalition of Thothmes I and II who 
 got control and ruled together until the death 
 of the former gave the party of Thothmes III a 
 chance to regain the throne. The Queen, how¬ 
 ever, was powerful enough to dominate and 
 until her death the government seems to have 
 been in her hands, while she seems to have 
 allowed Thothmes III merely a nominal share in 
 the government. As soon as her death left him 
 sole ruler he entered upon a career of conquest 
 unrivaled in the annals of Egyptian history. 
 Assembling an army for the invasion of Syria, 
 he celebrated the twenty-third anniversary of 
 his accession at Gaza. Marching thence through 
 the passes of Mount Carmel, he defeated the 
 allied Syrian forces on the plain of Esdraelon 
 and forced them to take refuge in the city of 
 Megiddo, which capitulated after a brief siege. 
 The captive Syrian chiefs were restored to their 
 dignities - as vassals of Egypt, and Thothmes, 
 after receiving messages of congratulation from 
 many foreign princes, among them the King 
 of Assyria, returned laden with booty. The 
 conquest was not yet complete. Some of the 
 Syrian and Phoenician cities offered stubborn 
 resistance and there were frequent revolts, op¬ 
 ponents of Egypt being encouraged and sup¬ 
 ported by the powerful State of Mitanni (see 
 Amarna Letters), which at that time occupied 
 northern Syria and northern Mesopotamia. 
 War with this state soon followed, in the course 
 of which Thothmes ravaged Mitannian territory 
 and captured a number of cities, including the 
 important city of Carchemish, on the Euphrates. 
 He gained no permanent possessions in this 
 quarter, but the result of the war enabled him 
 to extend his dominions, undisturbed by Mitan¬ 
 nian interference, over northern Palestine and 
 Phoenicia. At the city of Ni, near the Lower 
 Orontes, he set up a stele to mark the limit of 
 the Egyptian Empire in that quarter. During 
 his reign Thothmes conducted at least 14 Asiatic 
 campaigns, and the booty and tribute he ob¬ 
 tained were lavished upon the Egyptian temples. 
 In the fiftieth year of his reign he caused the 
 old canal at the first cataract of the Nile to 
 be cleared and sailed through it on an expedi¬ 
 tion against the Nubians. As a builder Thoth¬ 
 mes was hardly less energetic than as a warrior, 
 and his monuments occur throughout Egypt and 
 Nubia. He made important additions to the 
 great Temple of Ammon at Karnak and caused 
 his annals to be inscribed upon its walls, and 
 he also built at Heliopolis, Memphis, Abydos, 
 Hermonthis, Edfu, Esneh, Ombos, and other 
 places. In Nubia, where he built or restored 
 
THORVALDSEN 
 
 “CHRIST,” FROM THE STATUE IN THE CHURCH OF OUR LADY AT COPENHAGEN 
 
T!’“ .TV 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY Qf ILLINOIS 
 
THOU 
 
 THOUGHT 
 
 239 
 
 many temples, he was the founder of the large 
 temple at Soleb, near the third cataract. 
 Thothmes III died about 1485 b.c. (Breasted 
 says 1447) ; his mummy was among those found 
 at Deir el Bahri in 1881. 
 
 Thothmes IV, the son of Amenophis II (q.v.) 
 and the grandson of Thothmes III, ruled for 
 nine years from about 1460 b.c. He conducted 
 military expeditions to Nubia and to Phoeni¬ 
 cia, collecting booty and tribute in both coun¬ 
 tries, and an inscription at Ghizeh records that 
 he cleared away the sand from the great Sphinx 
 (q.v.). From the Amarna tablets it appears 
 that he maintained friendly relations with Baby¬ 
 lonia and with Mitanni, and married the daugh¬ 
 ter of Antatama, King of the latter country. 
 
 Consult: Eduard Meyer, Geschichte des alien 
 TEgyptens (Berlin, 1887); W. M. Flinders Pe¬ 
 trie, A History of Egypt (New York, 1897) ; 
 E. A. T. Wallis Budge, A History of Egypt (ib., 
 1902) ; Max Muller, “Die alten A^gypter als 
 Krieger und Eroberer in Asien,” in Der alte 
 Orient, vol. v (Leipzig, 1903) ; J. H. Breasted, 
 Ancient Records of Egypt (5 vols., Chicago, 
 1907) ; id., A History of the Ancient Egyptians 
 (New York, 1908). 
 
 THOU, too, Jacques Auguste de (1553- 
 1617). A French historian, born in Paris. He 
 studied jurisprudence at Orleans and Valence 
 and in 1576 became an ecclesiastical councilor 
 of the Parlement of Paris. He was an active 
 member of the Politiques (q.v.). De Thou was 
 made keeper of the Royal Library and vice 
 president of the Parlement by Henry of Navarre. 
 In 1591 he began his great work, the Historia 
 Sui Temporis, which covered the period from the 
 death of Francis I to that of Henry IV (1547- 
 1610), and which occupied him during the re¬ 
 mainder of his life. He took an important part 
 in the drawing up of the Edict of Nantes. The 
 history was completed by Rigault from materials 
 left by De Thou and comprises in its full form 
 143 books. The work is marked by striking 
 fairness and a faithful adherence to fact, remark¬ 
 able in a history dealing with a period of bitter 
 partisan spirit, civil war, and anarchy. The 
 history was published in 11 volumes (Paris, 
 1609-14) and 4 volumes (Frankfort, 1625), both 
 in Latin. A French translation appeared in 10 
 volumes (Paris, 1740), and one in English by 
 Buckley in 7 volumes (London, 1773). After 
 De Thou’s death appeared his memoirs, Thuani 
 I Commentarii de Vita Sua (Orleans, 1620). Con¬ 
 sult: Collinson, Life of Thuanus, with some Ac¬ 
 count of his Writings (London, 1807) ; Chasles, 
 Discours sur la vie et les ouvrages de J. A. De 
 Thou (Paris, 1824). 
 
 THOUARS, Dupetit-. See Dupetit-Tiiouars. 
 
 THOUGHT. In logic, thought is the intel¬ 
 lectual act whereby all knowledge is obtained 
 (see Logic; Knowledge; Judgment; Concept; 
 Inference). In functional psychology the term 
 is used in a narrower sense, to denote the high¬ 
 est or most complex intellectual function, dis¬ 
 tinguished from sense perception as dealing with 
 general or abstract rather than with concrete 
 objects, and from memory as being constructive 
 rather than purely representative. 
 
 The thought consciousness itself resembles in 
 general pattern that of active imagination. Ac¬ 
 tive attention is characteristic of both, and in 
 both the content processes depend not merely 
 upon associative, but also and essentially upon 
 determining tendencies, set into activity by the 
 presence of a particular problem. In imagina¬ 
 
 tion, however, the problem is the production 
 of a single, and as yet unrealized object: a 
 machine, a future event, a work of art. In 
 thought, on the other hand, the problem is the 
 relation of some object of thought, taken by 
 the thinker as real, to other objects or to truth. 
 r Ihis diilerence of problem involves first a dif¬ 
 ference of attitude; in imagination the attitude 
 is that of newness or strangeness, while in 
 thought it is that of validity or consistency. 
 More importantly, it involves further a typical 
 difference in the course of consciousness. Imag¬ 
 ination begins with a more or less complete 
 apprehension of the requirements to be met, 
 proceeds by a sort of constructive realization, 
 and ends with an idea which satisfies those 
 requirements. Thought typically begins with 
 the aggregate idea (see Idea), advances by 
 repeated dissections, and ends when the various 
 parts or aspects of the idea have been com¬ 
 pletely related. These features of similarity 
 and difference have been expressed in the exag¬ 
 gerated statement that imagination is thinking 
 in images (typically concrete), and thought is 
 imagining in words (typically abstract). 
 
 The fact appears to be that, although thought 
 may originally have implied the presence of 
 language (q.v.), and still is carried on to a large 
 extent in words, it may now go on in other 
 terms as well. Even in the early experimental 
 investigations of thought, it became evident that 
 any idea, and not merely verbal ideas, might 
 carry the meaning of generality or of abstract¬ 
 ness. Under suitable determination, e.g., the 
 abstract meaning of triangle may be repre¬ 
 sented by the visual image of an equilateral 
 triangle, or by a flicker of kinaesthesis accom¬ 
 panying eye movement towards a board on which 
 triangles have recently been drawn, just as 
 well as by the word “triangle” itself. Further¬ 
 more, observers frequently reported yet other 
 processes which seemed not to belong definitely 
 to any previously recognized class of mental 
 formations. They found, e.g., doubts, assur¬ 
 ances, beliefs, expectations, consciousness of 
 such-and-such matters, thoughts about this or 
 that,—conscious contents which represented as 
 if in a nutshell wide ranges of meaning and 
 knowledge. These contents they were unable, 
 under the complex and poorly controlled con¬ 
 ditions of experimentation, to reduce to familiar 
 elements; they merely indicated and named 
 them. To such formations the name of “con¬ 
 scious attitudes” ( Bewusstseinslagen) was 
 given. Later experiments, under conditions more 
 favorable for analysis, have demonstrated the 
 complex character of many conscious attitudes, 
 and have shown that they can be reduced to 
 sensation, image, and affection. In particular, 
 the use of the genetic method reveals the atti¬ 
 tudes as condensations of sensation and image, 
 often affectively toned, and shows that they take 
 shape partly under the laws of repeated impres¬ 
 sion (association), and partly under those of 
 selective attention (determination). 
 
 The thought idea (abstract idea, general idea, 
 conscious attitude) may further be replaced, 
 in accordance with the general laws of meaning 
 and abstraction (q.v.), by purely physiological 
 processes. The classical example of such a case 
 is that of knowing perfectly well what we intend 
 to say without the least representation of the 
 coming sentence in any sort of imagery. If we 
 here refuse to regard the nervous set or dis¬ 
 position as the vehicle of logical meaning, we 
 
THOUSAND AND ONE DAYS 
 
 THRACE 
 
 240 
 
 must have recourse to a novel type of mental 
 content, a thought element whose essence is to 
 point beyond itself and whose nature (aside 
 from this indication of function) is not de- 
 scribable. Many psychologists at the present 
 time hold, in fact, to some form of the doctrine 
 of imageless thought, and maintain that con¬ 
 sciousness is made up of functional acts as well 
 as of content processes. The point of view from 
 which such a belief derives has been set forth 
 under Mind (q.v.). 
 
 Consult: A. Messer, Empfindung und Denken 
 (Leipzig, 1908) ; E. B. Titchener, Experimental 
 Psychology of the Thought-Processes (New 
 York, 1909) ; W. B. Pillsbury, Psychology of 
 Reasoning (ib., 1910) ; A. Messer, Psychologie 
 (Stuttgart, 1914); R. M. Ogden, Introduction 
 to General Psychology (New York, 1914). 
 
 THOUSAND AND ONE DAYS. An imita¬ 
 tion of the Thousand Nights and One Night, or 
 Arabian Nights (q.v.), written by Petis de la 
 Croix, a French Orientalist and traveler, in 
 1710. 
 
 THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS. See 
 
 Arabian Nights. 
 
 THOUSAND ISLANDS, The. A collection 
 of small islands, numbering about 1700, situated 
 in an expansion of the St. Lawrence River, about 
 40 miles long and from 4 to 7 miles wide, be¬ 
 tween Ontario, Canada, and Jefferson and St. 
 Lawrence counties, New York (Map: Ontario, 
 J 5). They are favorite resorts for summer 
 tourists on account of their picturesque beauty. 
 Many are private property and contain the 
 summer homes of wealthy Americans and Cana¬ 
 dians. 
 
 THOUSAND LEGS. See Myriapoda. 
 
 TEOYEAS, Paul de Rapin de. See Rapin 
 de Tiioyras, Paul de. 
 
 THRACE, thras (Lat. Thracia, from Gk. 
 Qp&K7], Thrake, Thrace, from 0/sa|, Thrax, Thra¬ 
 cian ). The ancient name of an extensive region 
 in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula, 
 whose boundaries varied at different periods. At 
 first the designation seems to have included part 
 of Macedonia, where early story knows of Thra¬ 
 cians in Pieria, with whom was connected the 
 worship of the Muses, mythical bards, and 
 Dionysus. Later the name was applied to the 
 great district northeast of Macedonia, with the 
 Danube on the north, on the east the Euxine, 
 on the south the Bosporus, Propontis (Sea of 
 Marmora), Hellespont, the Aegean, and Mace¬ 
 donia, and on the west Illyria and Macedonia. 
 Under the Romans it designated the region 
 south of the Haemus Mountains (Balkans), the 
 region to the north being the Province of Moesia. 
 This part of Thrace belongs mostly to Servia. 
 (See Servia, History.) From the Haemus three 
 lesser chains stretch south. The three most 
 , important rivers of Thrace were the Strymon 
 (mod. Struma), which during the Greek period 
 formed the boundary between Thrace and Mace¬ 
 donia; the Nestus (mod. Kara-Su) ; and the 
 Hebrus (mod. Maritza, q.v.), the largest—all 
 flowing southward into the Aegean Sea. The 
 climate was considered by the Greeks very se¬ 
 vere—even that of AEnos, on the shores of the 
 Aegean, was described by Athenseus as eight 
 months of cold and four months of winter. The 
 country was largely uncultivated and covered 
 with forests, but the river valleys were fertile. 
 The chief products were grain, millet, wine, and 
 hemp. Cattle, sheep, horses, and swine were 
 raised in great numbers. The minerals were a 
 
 vast source of wealth, the rich gold mines of 
 Mount Pangaeus attracting the Thasians, and 
 leading the Athenians to the foundation of 
 Amphipolis. 
 
 While the exact relation between Thracians 
 and Greeks is still uncertain, it is clear that 
 the former belonged to the great Indo-European 
 family, and were probably closely akin to the 
 Phrygians of Asia Minor, whose language indi¬ 
 cates some connection in the past with the 
 Hellenic people. In historic times the Thracians 
 appear as a wild and barbarous race, fond of 
 war, ruled over by many petty kings. In the 
 sixth century B.c. they were subdued by the 
 Persians, but after the retreat of Xerxes re¬ 
 sumed independence, of which they had probably 
 been only nominally deprived by their con¬ 
 querors. In the fifth century a King, Teres, 
 seems to have secured a decided supremacy, 
 and under his rule and that of his son Sitalces, 
 with whom the Athenians contracted an alliance, 
 it is possible to speak of a Thracian kingdom. 
 After the death of Sitalces his territory was 
 divided into three parts, and internecine strife 
 was resumed. Thrace thus fell an easy prey to 
 Philip of Macedon (after 359 b.c.), who in¬ 
 corporated the western portion of the country, 
 as far as the Nestus, in Macedonia, while Mace¬ 
 donian garrisons held the rest of the country. 
 After the fall of Macedon before the power of 
 Rome (168 b.c.) Thrace was for a short time 
 independent, but in 133 b.c. it came under the 
 Roman rule. Moesia was formed into a prov¬ 
 ince in 29 b.c., but Thrace continued under de¬ 
 pendent kings until 46 a.d., when it was organ¬ 
 ized as a province. After the division of the 
 Roman Empire (395) it shared the history of 
 the Eastern Empire. The natural resources of 
 the country and the opportunities for profitable 
 trade early led to the establishment of Greek 
 colonies along the coast. The first were natu¬ 
 rally along the waters flowing to the Black Sea, 
 among them Byzantium, Selymbria, Perinthus, 
 Sestus, and Elseus. Before the end of the sixth 
 century b.c. Miltiades had secured the Thracian 
 Chersonese (the modern Peninsula of Gallipoli) 
 for Athens. Along . the AEgean coast were 
 Amphipolis, Abdera, Mesembria, AEnus, and 
 many others, while on the Black Sea were 
 Istrus, Tomi, Odessus, and Apollonia. These 
 colonies, however, never attempted to control 
 the interior, and, though they submitted to 
 the Persians, and later to the Macedonians and 
 Romans, their history belongs to Greece rather 
 than to Thrace. In 334 a.d. a colony of Sarma- 
 tians was planted in Thrace by Constantine, 
 and in 376 another of Goths by permission of 
 Valens. In 395 it was overrun by Alaric and 
 in 447 by Attila. Soon after the middle of the 
 fourteenth century Sultan Amurath I obtained 
 possession of all its fortresses, except Constan¬ 
 tinople. After the fall of Constantinople in 
 1453 all of Thrace came under the control of 
 the Turks. As a result of the Russo-Turkish 
 War ( 1878) the northern part of Thrace was 
 set up as a separate administrative district 
 (Eastern Rumelia). The Conference of London 
 in 1913, which closed the Balkan Wars (q.v.), 
 gave this province outright to Bulgaria. Con¬ 
 sult: Hiller von Gaertringen, De Grcecomm 
 Fabulis ad Thraces Pertinentibus (Gottingen, 
 1886) ; Tomaschek, Die alten Thraker (Vienna, 
 1893-95) ; Kalopathakes, De Thracia, Provincia 
 Romana (Berlin, 1894) ; W. Ridgway, The Early 
 Age of Greece, vol. i (Cambridge, 1902) ; and the 
 
THRACES 
 
 THREADFISH 
 
 241 
 
 article “Thrakien” in Friedrich Liibker, Real¬ 
 lexikon des klassisohen Altertums (8th ed., 
 Leipzig, 1914). See Balkan Peninsula; 
 Bulgaria. 
 
 THRACES. The name given by the Romans 
 to a kind of gladiator (q.v.). 
 
 THRA'CIAN SA'MOS. See Samotiirace. 
 
 THRALE, thral, Hester Lynch. An English 
 author. See Piozzi. 
 
 THRA'SEA PiE'TUS (Publius Clodius 
 Thrasea Phcttjs ) (c.20-66 a.d.). A Roman of 
 Nero’s time, famous, as a Stoic philosopher. He 
 was born at Patavium (Padua). As Stoic he 
 took as his model Cato the Younger (q.v.). He 
 married Arria the Younger (see Arria, at the 
 end), and gave his daughter in marriage to 
 Helvidius Priscus (q.v.). His independence and 
 boldness of speech won the hatred of Nero, and 
 the Senate, at Nero’s command, condemned him 
 to death. Consult Pliny, Epistles, iii, 6, with 
 the notes in the edition of that book by J. E. B. 
 Mayor (London, 1880), and Tacitus, Annales, 
 xvi, 21-35. 
 
 THRASH'ER (variant of thrusher, from 
 thrush). A name given in the United States to 
 the various species of thrushlike wrens of the 
 
 genus Harporhynchus or Toxostoma. They have 
 generally a rather long decurved bill, not notched 
 near the tip; short concave wings, much shorter 
 than the tail. In color they are brown or ash 
 above, usually spotted on the breast. Their 
 names are brown thrasher ( Toxostoma rufum) ; 
 Cape San Lucas thrasher ( T. cinereum) ; gray 
 curve-bill thrasher ( T . curvirostre) ; California 
 thrasher (T. redivivum) ; crissal thrasher (T. 
 crissale) ; and Arizona or Bendire’s thrasher 
 (T. bendirei) ; besides which there are several 
 subspecies. Only the brown thrasher is widely 
 distributed; all the others are confined to the 
 
 southwestern United States, especially Arizona 
 and Mexico. The brown thrasher, often im¬ 
 properly called brown thrush, is common in the 
 eastern United States, ranging north to Canada 
 and west to the Rockies. It is migratory in the 
 north, but winters in the Southern States. It 
 is about a foot long, rich ferruginous above, 
 creamy, spotted with brown beneath. It is one 
 
 of the finest songsters native to America and 
 is also a very fine mimic, thus resembling the 
 mocking bird, to which it is nearly related. Its 
 nest is placed in a low bush or on a brush heap, 
 and the eggs are profusely peppered with brown 
 specks. The brown thrasher, although a vege¬ 
 tarian in part, still is to be considered as a 
 beneficial bird because of the numerous grass¬ 
 hoppers, caterpillars, and bugs destroyed by it. 
 Y hile it does destroy some young grain and 
 fruit it more than makes up" for this in the 
 destruction of cutworms and cankerworms, 
 larva? very injurious to crops. See Plate of 
 Eggs of American Song Birds. Consult Coues, 
 Birds of the Colorado Valley (Washington, 
 1878), and E. H. Forbush, Useful Birds and 
 their Protection, published by the Massachu¬ 
 setts State Board of Agriculture (Boston, 1913). 
 
 THRAS'YBTULUS (Lat., from Gk. Qpaav^ov- 
 \os, Thrasyboulos) ( ?—390 b.c.) . An Athenian gen¬ 
 eral and a prominent member of the democratic 
 party at Athens during the last years of the 
 Peloponnesian War. In company with Thrasyl- 
 lus at Samos, in 411, he vigorously opposed the 
 establishment of the Four Hundred, and helped 
 secure the recall of Alcibiades from exile. In 
 the same year he, with Thrasyllus, defeated the 
 Peloponnesian admiral Mindarus at Cynossema, 
 and in 407, in command of a fleet of 30 vessels, 
 he compelled the submission of the revolted 
 cities in Thrace. He held a subordinate com¬ 
 mand in the battle of Arginusse (406 b.c.), and 
 afterward concurred with Theramenes (q.v.) 
 in the accusation of the generals therein en¬ 
 gaged. Being banished (404) by the Thirty 
 Tyrants (q.v.), he went to Thebes, where he 
 planned the overthrow of the Thirty and the re¬ 
 establishment of the democracy. With 100 men, 
 refugees also, he seized the deserted fort of 
 Phyle, and, joined by others, advanced on the 
 Piraeus. In the ensuing battle the Thirty were 
 worsted, and, as a result, the democratic form 
 of government was soon reestablished at Athens. 
 In 395 Thrasybulus commanded a force sent to 
 assist Thebes against the Spartans. In 391 he 
 was dispatched, in command of 40 triremes, to 
 the assistance of Rhodes, but, first sailing to 
 the Hellespont, succeeded in extending the al¬ 
 liances of Athens in those regions. When the 
 fleet of Thrasybulus reached Pamphylia he was 
 slain by night in his tent by the people of As- 
 pendus, in consequence of some of his soldiers’ 
 misdeeds. 
 
 THRASYL'LUS (Lat., from Gk. QpacrvWos), 
 Monument of. A clioragic monument at Athens 
 erected in 320 b.c., by Thrasyllus, in a cave 
 above the Theatre of Dionysus. An ornamental 
 architectural front closed the cave and was sur¬ 
 mounted by a statue of Dionysus, now in the 
 British Museum. The monument is in ruins, 
 except an inscribed architrave, and two columns 
 for votive tripods, on the rock face above the 
 cave. 
 
 THREAD. A twisted filament of two or 
 more strands of some such substance as cotton, 
 silk, or wool, spun out to a considerable length, 
 and suitable for sewing. See Spinning. 
 
 THREADEIN. See Barbudo; Mango Fish. 
 
 THREADFISH, Cobbler Fish, or Sunfish. 
 A well-known fish ( Alectis ciliaris) allied to 
 the pompanos, of both coasts of tropical Amer¬ 
 ica, where it has some commercial importance. 
 It is of moderate size, has the curious shape 
 shown in the illustration, and owes its names 
 to the long filaments (becoming shorter with 
 
THREAD HERRING 
 
 THREE RIVERS 
 
 242 
 
 THREADFISH. 
 
 THREAD HERRING, or Machuelo. A 
 
 small fish ( Opisthonema oglinum) , closely re¬ 
 lated to sardines and menhaden, common along 
 the southern coast; it is 12 inches long, bluish 
 above and silvery below, with an indistinct 
 bluish shoulder spot, and has a long dorsal-fin 
 filament, from which the fish receives its name. 
 
 THREAD'NEE'DLE STREET. A London 
 street, on which stands the Bank of England, 
 hence popularly called the Old Lady of Thread- 
 needle Street. The origin of the name is said 
 to be the three needles as the escutcheon of the 
 Needlemakers’ Company. 
 
 THREADWORMS. The threadworms or 
 roundworms, so called from their slender round 
 threadlike body, are members of the class Nema- 
 telminthes, order Nematoidea. The dense skin is 
 not segmented, and the body cavity (coelome) is 
 not lined with epithelium, but is directly bounded 
 by the muscles of the body. There is a definite 
 digestive canal. Two excretory canals open in 
 front on the ventral side of the body, while 
 the nervous system consists of a ring around 
 the pharynx, from which two main nerve cords 
 pass backward. The true threadworms undergo 
 no metamorphosis. They are mostly parasitic 
 and usually bisexual. Some are free, living 
 coiled up under stones between tide marks; 
 certain minute species occur in fresh water or 
 damp earth. A few live in plants, and Tylencha 
 tritiei damages wheat. The more common para¬ 
 sitic forms are species of Ascaris, Trichina, 
 Oxyuris, etc. Of Ascaris, the human round- 
 worm (Ascaris lumbricoides ) is remarkable for 
 its great size, being 5-6 inches long, and about 
 ^ of an inch in diameter; it has three papillae 
 around the mouth and is milk white. The 
 common pinworm ( Oxyuris vermicularis) lives 
 in the rectum of children; the palisade worm 
 (Eustrongylus gigas), one female of which was 
 39 inches in length and the thickness of a quill, 
 the male being one-third as long, has been found 
 living in man; allied species occur in the brain 
 or brain cavitv of birds. Among the most 
 formidable human parasites of this group are 
 the Trichina (q.v.), the guinea worm (q.v.), 
 and the species of Filaria. Filaria sanguinis 
 hominis, a microscopic threadworm found liv¬ 
 ing in the blood of the mosquito in India and 
 China, is thought to occasion the disease known 
 as elephantiasis. The formidable disease beri¬ 
 beri is supposed to be due to a nematode worm, 
 whose eggs and embryos swarm by millions in 
 soil and puddles near villages. In certain spe¬ 
 cies of the family Anguillulidae there is an 
 alternation of generations (see Partiienogene- 
 
 sis), from an hermaphroditic internal parasitic 
 to a free dioecious generation. Thus Rhabditis 
 ( Rhabdonema) nigrovenosa lives in mud, and 
 gives rise to a second form living in the lungs 
 of frogs. 
 
 THREATS. See Blackmail; Conspiracy; 
 False Imprisonment; Intimidation; and con¬ 
 sult the authorities referred to under Conspi¬ 
 racy and Criminal Law. 
 
 THREE CHAPTER CONTROVERSY. See 
 
 Chapters, The Three. 
 
 THREE CHOIRS FESTIVAL. An English 
 musical festival which had its first regular or¬ 
 ganization in 1724, when the three cathedral 
 choirs of Gloucester, Worcester, and Hereford 
 joined for the performance of a cathedral serv¬ 
 ice, and an oratorio performance given in the 
 Shire Hall. The proceeds have always been de¬ 
 voted to a fund for the relief of the widows and 
 orphans of the poorer clergy of the three dio¬ 
 ceses. In 1753 the festival was extended to 
 three days, and in 1836 to four days, the period 
 which still prevails. The festivals are held al¬ 
 ternately in each of the three cities. 
 
 THREE-COLOR PROCESS. A photome¬ 
 chanical process of reproducing in color appli¬ 
 cable either to stone or metal. The general proc¬ 
 ess consists in first making three photograph 
 negatives of the same subject through three dif¬ 
 ferent color screens representing the three pri¬ 
 mary colors, red, yellow, and blue. From these 
 three negatives printing blocks are made and 
 the result is obtained by making three printings, 
 one from each block, with three different pig¬ 
 ments, each pigment representing as nearly as 
 possible the color originally used in the color 
 screen. The accuracy of the finished picture 
 depends, therefore, to a great extent, upon the 
 correctness of the pigments selected. In much 
 of the best modern color work a fourth plate 
 printing in black or gray is employed to give 
 greater depth to the shadows. Reference should 
 also be made to Color Photography, where the 
 underlying principles are explained. The method 
 of making the metal half-tone plates is discussed 
 under Photo-Engraving; while three-color work 
 with stone plates is treated under Lithography. 
 
 THREE EMPERORS’ LEAGUE. See 
 Triple Alliance. 
 
 THREE IMPOSTORS, The. See Impostors, 
 
 e Three 
 
 THREE KINGS OF COLOGNE. The three 
 
 wise men of the East or Magi who followed the 
 star to the birthplace of the infant Jesus. Their 
 names are usually given as Gaspar, Melchior, 
 and Balthazar. Their bones are supposed to be 
 preserved in Cologne cathedral. 
 
 THREE MUSKETEERS. See Trois Mous- 
 quetaires. 
 
 THREE RIVERS (correctly, Trois Rivieres ). 
 A port of entry and the capital of St. Maurice 
 County, Quebec, Canada, at the junction of the 
 St. Lawrence and St. Maurice rivers, and on 
 the Grand Trunk and the Canadian Pacific 
 railroads, midway between Montreal and Quebec 
 (Map: Quebec, H 5). It was founded in 1634 
 by Laviolette, who was sent by Champlain,, and 
 is 23 miles from the famous falls of Shawinigan. 
 It has a Roman Catholic cathedral, a convent, a 
 classical college, a commercial academy, and 
 various manufactures. Here on June 8, 1776, 
 an American force of about 2000 men under 
 General Thompson attacked a British force of 
 about 6000 men, and was disastrously defeated. 
 Pop., 1901, 9981; 1911, 13,691. 
 
THREE COLOR PROCESS 
 
 4 
 
 COPrPiGM 1903 5r DOOO, MEAO 4 COMPANY 
 

 
 V r \.■~Y . 
 
 t'NiVtRbllV U* illINOIS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
THREE RIVERS 
 
 243 
 
 THREE RIVERS. A city in St. Joseph 
 Co., Mich., 25 miles south of Kalamazoo, on 
 the Michigan Central and the New York Cen¬ 
 tral railroads (Map: Michigan, D 7). It is 
 situated at the junction of the St. Joseph, Por- 
 tage, and Rocky rivers. The leading manu¬ 
 factures are cars, railroad supplies, marine en¬ 
 gines, leather, robes, knit goods, paper, tools, 
 brass, and foundry and machine-shop products. 
 It maintains a Carnegie library. Pop., 1900 
 3550; 1910, 5072. 
 
 THRESHER SHARK, Fox Shark, or 
 S wingletail . A peculiar shark (Alopias vulpes ) 
 abounding in all warm seas, especially in the 
 Mediterranean and the Atlantic, and distinguished 
 by its long tail. (See Plate of Great Sharks 
 under Shark. ) This is an extension of the up¬ 
 per lobe of the heterocercal tail to a length 
 equal to or exceeding that of the body, and is 
 used in obtaining the food. This shark feeds on 
 schools of herring, menhaden, etc., rushing into 
 them, and threshing about with its tail. It is 
 about 15 feet long, lead color above, whitish 
 beneath. 
 
 THRESHING (from thresh, AS. perscan, 
 OHG. clrescan, G,er. dreschen, to thresh) and 
 Threshing Machines. Threshing is the sepa¬ 
 rating of the grain or seeds of plants from the 
 straw or haulm. This has been accomplished 
 in various ages and countries by differing means, 
 more or less effective. The first method known 
 was the beating out of the grain from the ears 
 with a stick. An improvement on this was the 
 practice of the ancients of spreading the loos¬ 
 ened sheaves of grain on a circular piece of hard 
 ground and driving oxen or other animals over 
 it, so as to tread the grain out; but as this 
 was found to damage some of the grain, it was 
 partially superseded in later times by the 
 threshing sledge, a heavy frame mounted on 
 three rollers, or having pieces of iron or sharp 
 flints fastened to the lower side, in place of 
 rollers. The threshing sledge is still to be seen 
 in operation in Greece, Asia Minor, Georgia, 
 and Syria. The primitive implement in north¬ 
 ern Europe was the stick, and an improved 
 modification of it, the flail, which consists of 
 two sticks loosely fastened together by stout 
 thongs, is still sometimes used" in Europe and 
 America. 
 
 Early but unsuccessful inventions to supersede 
 the flail by a machine, both in England and 
 America, were largely of the rotary beater or 
 flail type, as was that devised by Meiizie in 1750. 
 
 In 1786, however, Andrew Meikle, an ingenious 
 Scotch mechanic, produced a threshing machine 
 so perfect that, despite nearly a century of im¬ 
 provers, it is essentially the machine of its in¬ 
 ventor and embodies many of the essential fea¬ 
 tures of the improved modern machine. 
 
 THRESHING 
 
 Meikle s drum with two grooved cylinders 
 have, however, been almost entirely superseded 
 in modern machines by a high-speed cylinder 
 with radial teeth playing between inwardly pro¬ 
 jecting teeth set in a fixed concave or section 
 of a cylinder. With the exception of the endless 
 apron machine patented by the Pitt Brothers 
 of Winthrop, Me., in 1837, little progress was 
 made in perfecting the threshing machine in 
 America prior to 1840. Since that date im¬ 
 provement has been rapid, and the modern 
 American machine with a capacity of 1000 
 bushels per day is a marvel of ingenuity and 
 efficiency. The first machine merely threshed 
 the grain. In its most advanced form the mod¬ 
 ern machine cuts the bands of the sheaves and 
 feeds itself; thoroughly separates the grain from 
 the straw; winnows and weighs the grain and 
 deposits it in sacks or loads it into wagons; re¬ 
 moves the straw and stacks it. The figure shows 
 the principal features of the interior construc¬ 
 tion of a simpler form of modern thresher. The 
 concave is open and has in rear an open grate 
 so that the larger part of the grain is separated 
 from the straw at this point and is conveyed di¬ 
 rectly to the fan. A considerable portion, how¬ 
 ever, still remains in the straw and can be sepa¬ 
 rated only by further agitation, which is secured 
 by the vibrating separator, revolving pickers or 
 beaters, and shaking forks shown in the centre 
 of the machine to the rear of the cylinder. 
 These devices beat the straw thoroughly while/C 
 conveying it to the rear of the machine, where 
 it is taken by the stacker, which consists either 
 of an elevator or tube with blast. The sepa¬ 
 rated grain drops through the perforated bottom 
 of the separator and with the grain coming 
 directly from the drum is carried to the fan¬ 
 ning mill by means of a vibrating platform or 
 conveyor located immediately beneath the sepa¬ 
 rator. The parts of the modern thresher are in 
 large measure adjustable, so that it may be 
 adapted to different kinds of grain and to a 
 variety of conditions, but separate machines 
 for special purposes are also made, as, e.g., 
 for threshing rice, peas and beans, peanuts, 
 clover, and for husking maize and shredding the 
 fodder. Pea and bean threshers usually have 
 two cylinders running at different rates of speed. 
 Clover hullers have an additional hulling cylin¬ 
 der. Inventive genius is also being exercised 
 
 in devising ingen¬ 
 ious accessories to 
 the thresher proper 
 —automatic band 
 cutters and feed¬ 
 ers, stackers, and 
 grain measurers 
 and loaders. 
 
 The motive force 
 is horse power or 
 steam. The former 
 (treads and 
 sweeps) was most 
 common in the 
 earlier days, but 
 has been largely 
 superseded by the 
 portable steam en¬ 
 gine and the internal combustion engine. En¬ 
 gines with straw-burning furnaces have been 
 used in Hungary and in the rice regions of the 
 United States. 
 
 Thresher fires are of frequent occurrence, 
 often due, as the Washington Agricultural Ex¬ 
 
 longitudinal SECTION OF MODERN THRESHER. 
 
 \ 
 
THRIFT 
 
 244 
 
 THROAT 
 
 pert Station has shown ( Bulletin 117), to igni¬ 
 tion and explosion of dust by static electricity 
 generated by the cylinder. The danger is espe¬ 
 cially great in very dry seasons and with a 
 large amount of smut and organic dust from 
 broken grain and straw. One of the preventives 
 suggested is to ground the cylinder. Consult: 
 G. F. Conner, Science of Threshing (St. Joseph, 
 Mich., 190G) ; Davidson and Chase, Farm Ma¬ 
 chinery and Farm Motors (New \ork, 1908) ; 
 G. F. Conner, “Using the Modern Grain Separa¬ 
 tor,” in Poicer Farming (Chicago, January, 
 1916). 
 
 THRIFT (Icel. prift, from prifa, to thrive, 
 clutch, grip; so called from the rapid growth of 
 the plant), Armeria. A genus of plants of the 
 family Plumbaginacese, having the flowers col¬ 
 lected into a rounded head. By many botanists 
 it has been regarded as a subdivision of the 
 genus Statice, from which it is distinguished 
 chiefly by having the flowers in heads. The 
 common thrift ( Armeria maritime) is a Euro¬ 
 pean seacoast plant which grows in turflike 
 form, with linear leaves, scapes a few inches 
 high, and beautiful rose-colored flowers in mid¬ 
 summer. Being hardy and easily cultivated, it 
 is often planted in gardens as a border, but it 
 must be renewed every two or three years; the 
 smallest roots grow, however, with great readi¬ 
 ness in the moist weather of spring. A num¬ 
 ber of other species, i.e., Armeria elongate, Ar¬ 
 meria plantaginea, are planted as ornamentals. 
 
 THRIPS (Lat., from Gk. dpip, woodworm). 
 Any one of the minute insects of the order Thy- 
 sanoptera. They are slender insects with four 
 wings, which are also very slender and short, 
 perfectly transparent, and without veins. The 
 wings are fringed with long, delicate hairs, and 
 when at rest lie along the back of the abdomen. 
 The metamorphosis is incomplete, and the mouth 
 parts function in sucking, but are intermediate 
 between true biting and true sucking mouth 
 parts. The feet bear each a little bladder-like 
 vesicle at the tip, from which an old name of the 
 order (Physapoda) was derived. Thrips are 
 found in flowers, and do some damage to the es¬ 
 sential organs. They also occur upon the leaves 
 of plants, and one species damages onions (see 
 Onion Insects) and tobacco. Another species 
 (IAmothrips poaphagus) works in the joints of 
 timothy grass, causing the heads prematurely to 
 turn yellow and die. Some species have been 
 observed feeding upon other insects and others 
 undoubtedly have some beneficial effect as pol¬ 
 linators of flowers. Parthenogenesis sometimes 
 occurs with these insects. Rather more than 30 
 species occur in the United States. The name 
 “thrips” has been erroneously applied by vine 
 growers to some of the leaf hoppers of the fam¬ 
 ily Jasskke. Consult Hinds, Contribution to a 
 Monograph of the Insects of the Order Thysan- 
 optera Inhabiting North America (Washington, 
 1902). See Leaf Hopper. 
 
 THROAT (AS. 'protu, OHG. drozza, Ger. 
 Drossel, throat; connected with MHG. strozze, 
 throat, Ger. strotzen, to swell, Eng. strut), Af¬ 
 fections of the. The throat includes those 
 structures lying behind and below the anterior 
 pillars of the fauces. In common acceptation, 
 it also means the anterior portion of the neck, 
 containing the windpipe, gullet, and a number 
 of large blood vessels and nerves. The throat 
 may be divided anatomically into the pharynx 
 and the larynx, the latter being the upper part 
 of the windpipe and the principal organ of the 
 
 voice. The nasal passages and the Eustachian 
 tubes open into the pharynx, and its entrance 
 is nearly surrounded by a ring of lymphoid 
 tissue, comprising the faucial, lingual, and 
 pharyngeal tonsils. The first of these (usually 
 called the tonsils) are always present, and 
 often enlarged, and are situated at the sides 
 of the fauces between the anterior and posterior 
 pillars. The lingual tonsil, when it exists, lies 
 at the base of the tongue, in front of the epi¬ 
 glottis. The pharyngeal tonsils, more often 
 called adenoid growths, spring from the roof 
 and sides of the pharyngeal vault. They are 
 often present in children and when in any 
 amount constitute a pathological condition, giv¬ 
 ing rise to obstructed nasal breathing, nasal 
 catarrh, and general poor health. Any or all 
 of these structures may be involved in diseases 
 of the throat, and expert examination of them 
 is often necessary. Inspection is usually con¬ 
 ducted by light reflected into the throat from 
 a head mirror, a circular, concave reflector 
 pierced with a hole for vision. The light is 
 projected through the open mouth upon the 
 back of the throat. From this point the rays 
 of light may be reflected by means of a small 
 mirror introduced into the pharynx either down¬ 
 ward to examine the larynx (laryngoscopy) or 
 upward to inspect the posterior nares and the 
 vault of the pharynx (rhinoscopy), the tongue 
 being meanwhile held out or depressed. In 
 direct examination the tonsils, soft palate, uvula, 
 posterior wall of the pharynx, and often the 
 top of the epiglottis may be seen. Laryngoscopy 
 shows the whole of the epiglottis, the root of the 
 tongue, lingual tonsil, the true and false vocal 
 cords, the opening of the glottis, and even the 
 bifurcation of the trachea. The throat is lined 
 with mucous membrane, plentifully supplied 
 with blood vessels, glands, and nerves, and is 
 often the seat of acute or chronic catarrhal 
 inflammation. Acute or chronic inflammation 
 of either the pharynx or larynx may be due 
 to exposure, sudden change of temperature, the 
 inhalation of dust, steam, or irritating vapors, 
 indigestion and constipation, and certain dis¬ 
 eases such as rheumatism, gout, and tubercu¬ 
 losis. Specific inflammations of the throat ac¬ 
 companying scarlatina and diphtheria are de¬ 
 scribed under these titles. Catarrhal inflamma¬ 
 tion of the throat is marked by a sense of dry¬ 
 ness, or of a foreign body in the pharynx, a 
 slight but annoying cough, and the expectoration 
 of viscid, tenacious mucus, sometimes tinged 
 with blood. The voice is hoarse, easily fatigued, 
 or entirely absent. In the treatment of catar¬ 
 rhal conditions in this region, alkaline and an¬ 
 tiseptic douches are given to remove the mucous 
 accumulations, and stimulating and astringent 
 applications, such as tannin, iron, and nitrate 
 of silver, used to reduce congestion and restore 
 the membrane to its normal action. Naso¬ 
 pharyngeal catarrh is frequently caused by in¬ 
 tranasal abnormities and may as often be reme¬ 
 died by restoring natural respiration through 
 the nose. Chronic inflammation of the acces¬ 
 sory sinuses of the nose is often a sequel of the 
 acute infectious diseases such as grippe, and 
 tends to keep up a chronic nasal discharge. 
 General tonic treatment is always necessary. 
 Internally iron, quinine, and strychnine are the 
 best remedies. 
 
 Abscesses sometimes occur in the throat either 
 in the region of the tonsils (see Quinsy) or at 
 the base of the tongue. An acute and alarming 
 
THRUSH 
 
 THROMBOSIS 
 
 inflammation of the loose tissues about the 
 larynx is found in connection with abscess, 
 acute laryngitis, the injecting of scalding fluids 
 or irritant poisons, and as a complication of 
 certain diseases such as smallpox, scarlatina, or 
 Blights disease. In this condition, known as 
 oedema of the glottis, the swollen and dropsical 
 tissues fill up or overlap the opening of the 
 glottis, preventing the ingress of air and threat¬ 
 ening immediate suffocation. If not speedily 
 relieved, oedema of the glottis causes death by 
 asphyxiation. This affection is treated by punc¬ 
 ture or scarification of the dropsical sac, the 
 application of leeches over the sides of the 
 larynx, and the administration of pilocarpine. 
 Sometimes intubation, laryngotomy, or trache¬ 
 otomy may be necessary, intubation consists in 
 the introduction of a metal or hard-rubber tube 
 between the vocal cords, with a flange resting 
 above them to prevent slipping into the trachea. 
 Laryngotomy or tracheotomy is employed when 
 intubation is not feasible. The former consists 
 in opening the larynx from the outside through 
 the cricothyroid membrane, and introducing a 
 tube through which the patient breathes. In 
 tracheotomy the opening is made lower down, 
 in the trachea. 
 
 Tuberculous laryngitis occurs in many phthis¬ 
 ical patients. There is swelling, ulceration, and 
 destruction of the vocal cords and adjacent 
 structures, with hoarseness, loss of voice, great 
 pain, and inability to swallow solid food. Syph¬ 
 ilis, particularly in its tertiary stage, often at¬ 
 tacks the throat, producing fibrous tissue which 
 gradually contracts, and narrows, distorts, and 
 partially destroys the larynx. Foreign bodies 
 sometimes find their way into the larynx, and 
 if small may pass into the trachea or bronchial 
 tubes, and failing removal may produce death 
 by suffocation or set up a fatal pneumonia. In 
 children it is often possible by inverting and 
 shaking the patient to dislodge a foreign body; 
 in other cases these have to be removed by 
 specially devised instruments or a cutting opera¬ 
 tion. A long, electrically lighted metal tube 
 called a bronchoscope is now generally employed 
 for the purpose. Cancer and other tumors" of 
 a polypoid or fibrous character may develop in 
 the larynx or its neighborhood. Cancer is nearly 
 always fatal. Consult: J. W. Downie, Clinical 
 Manual for Study of Diseases of the Throat (2d 
 ed., New York, 1906) ; W. L. Ballenger, Diseases 
 of the Nose, Throat, and Ear: Medical and Sur¬ 
 gical (4th ed., Philadelphia, 1914); D. B. Kyle, 
 Textbook of Diseases of the Nose and Throat 
 (5th ed., ib., 1914); H. W. Loeb and others, 
 Operative Surgery of the Nose, Throat, and Ear 
 (2 vols., St. Louis, 1914-15) ; B. C. Giles, Nose, 
 Throat, and Ear: Their Function# and Diseases 
 (Philadelphia, 1915). See Adenoid, Adenoids; 
 Catarrh; Diphtheria; Laryngitis; Quinsy: 
 Tonsil. 
 
 THRQMBO'SIS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. Qpoyfiw- 
 cns, the state of being curdled, from 0p6/x(3os, 
 throw bos, curd, clot). A term, originally sug¬ 
 gested by Virchow, and employed to designate 
 an affection of the blood vessels (either veins or 
 arteries) which essentially consists in a coagula¬ 
 tion of blood (forming a true clot) at a certain 
 fixed spot, owing to disease of the blood vessel, 
 pressure against its side or laceration of it, 
 or microbial infection. It is a common cause 
 of sudden death in persons who appear to be in 
 robust health. If death does not result, after 
 the detachment of a thrombus and its lodgment, 
 
 245 
 
 as an embolism, in a cerebral artery, softening 
 of the brain follows. See Apoplexy; Embolism! 
 
 THROM'BUS. A stratified clot formed 
 within a blood vessel by coagulation at a bifurca¬ 
 tion of a vessel or upon a surface roughened, 
 e, o') inflammatory or sclerotic changes. See 
 Thrombosis. 
 
 THEONDHJEM. See Trondhjem. 
 
 THROOP. A borough in Lackawanna Co., 
 la., adjoining Scranton, on the New York, On¬ 
 tario, and Western and the Delaware, Lacka¬ 
 wanna, and Western railroads. There are pro¬ 
 ductive coal mines and a silk mill. Pop., 1900 
 2204; 1910, 5133. 1 
 
 THROOP, Montgomery Hunt (1827-92). 
 An American lawyer, nephew of Enos T. Throcm 
 Governor of New York. He was born at Au¬ 
 burn, N. Y., was educated at Hobart College 
 and abroad, was admitted to the New York 
 bar in 1848, and practiced in partnership with 
 Roscoe Conkling. In 1870 he was appointed a 
 commissioner to revise the statutes of the State; 
 afterward was chairman of the commission that 
 prepared the Code of Civil Procedure, and after 
 1878 devoted himself to legal writing. His pub¬ 
 lications include a Treatise on the Validity of 
 Verbal Agreements (1870); an Annotated Code 
 of Civil Procedure (1880); and the Revised 
 Statutes of New York (1888). 
 
 THROSTLE. See Spinning. 
 
 THROW (AS. prawan, OHG. drahan, drajan, 
 Ger. drehen, to turn, twist). The term applied 
 in mining to the amount of dislocation (q.v.), 
 in a vertical direction, produced by a fault in 
 the strata. That side of the fracture which has 
 moved downward relatively is spoken of as the 
 downthrow side, the opposite one as the up¬ 
 throw. See Fault. 
 
 THRUSH (AS. pry see, OHG. droscela, Bav. 
 Droschel, thrush; connected with AS. prostle, 
 prosle, Eng. throstle, Ger. Drossel, thrush). 
 The thrushes comprise the subfamily Turdinae 
 of the family Turdidse, usually ranked as the 
 highest group of birds. They have a bill of 
 moderate size, straight, shorter than the head, 
 and provided at the base with rictal bristles; 
 the nostrils are oval and bare; the tarsi are 
 long, slender, and booted; ten primaries are 
 present, but the outermost is exceedingly small; 
 tail shorter than wings. About 150 species, all 
 of moderate size, are known, and they are widely 
 distributed, and most of them are migratorv. A 
 few species are gregarious, but the majority live 
 singly or in pairs. Their food is mainly adult 
 insects and caterpillars, of which they "destroy 
 incalculable numbers, but in winter ' they eat 
 berries and seeds, and in spring small fruits. 
 Thrushes are to be considered as birds of eco¬ 
 nomic value both because of their destruction of 
 many insect pests, such as the forest tent cater¬ 
 pillar and the gypsy moth, and also because cer¬ 
 tain of the thrushes aid in reforesting burnt 
 areas through eating stone fruits, as cherries. 
 All are excellent singers, and some are counted 
 the best of bird songsters. 
 
 In America, north of Mexico, there are about 
 a dozert species of thrush, of which the best 
 known is the common robin (q.v.), which ranges 
 over the whole continent. In Lower California 
 there is an allied species; and in the Northwest 
 occurs the varied thrush. (See Oregon Robin.) 
 The more distinctive thrushes are considerably 
 smaller than the robin, and all of them are birds 
 of the woods. They belong to the genus Eylo- 
 cichla, formerly included in Turdus. 
 
THRUSH 
 
 THUCYDIDES 
 
 246 
 
 The best known are the Wilson’s thrush or 
 veerv ( H. fuscescens), the song or wood thrush 
 ( H. mustelina), the olive-backed thrush (H. 
 ustulata), and the hermit thrush (II. guttata), 
 the two latter being divided into a number of 
 subspecies. All these are seven or eight inches 
 long, olive or brown above, white, more or less 
 creamy, and spotted below. The wood thrush 
 or wood robin is a less retiring bird, not infre¬ 
 quently seen on lawns and in orchards. He is 
 larger than the veery, with the head bright cin¬ 
 namon brown, changing gradually into light 
 olive brown towards the tail. Moreover, he is 
 thickly marked with large round black spots un¬ 
 derneath. The song of this thrush, especially as 
 evening approaches, is remarkably sweet and 
 has made him a great favorite with bird lovers. 
 The ordinary calling note has been likened to 
 striking pebbles together; it is utterly unlike 
 the clear whistle of the veery. The nest is 
 usually in a bush or on a tree limb or a stump, 
 live or ten feet from the ground, and is dis- 
 tinctivelv characterized by always having a 
 foundation of dead leaves, often with some mud. 
 The eggs are clear blue. The olive-backed thrush 
 is a more northerly species than either of the 
 preceding, and occurs in the United States 
 chiefly as a migrant, while it winters in the 
 tropics. It is readily distinguished by the uni¬ 
 form olive upper parts, and the bright buff lores 
 and rings around the eyes. The only species with 
 which it is at all likely to be confused is the 
 gray-cheeked thrush (H. alicice) , a bird of simi¬ 
 lar range and habits, without the buff lores and 
 eye rings, and formerly regarded only as a va¬ 
 riety. The eggs of both are blue, spotted and 
 speckled with bright brown. The hermit thrush 
 may be easily recognized by the fact that the 
 tail is rufous, brighter than the back. It is 
 also a somewhat smaller and more slender bird 
 than either the veery or wood thrush. It is 
 distributed over the whole of North America, 
 but breeds mainly north of the United States. 
 There are several subspecies recognized by 
 names, as in the preceding species. Owing to 
 priority of description the olive-backed thrush 
 of the East is the subspecies sioainsoni and the 
 hermit thrush of the same region is the sub¬ 
 species pallasi. The latter is one of the most 
 renowned songsters of America, although, on ac¬ 
 count of its northern breeding grounds and re¬ 
 tiring habits, few persons hear it. While some 
 regard the notes as not essentially superior to 
 those of the wood thrush, most writers on bird 
 music agree that, for purity and sweetness of 
 tone and exquisite modulation, the hermit is 
 unequaled. The nest and eggs are very similar 
 to those of the veery. 
 
 The thrushes of the Old World are numerous 
 and well-known birds, of which several are 
 common in Great Britain, as the song thrush or 
 mavis, the mistle thrush, blackbird, ouzel, field¬ 
 fare, and redwing (qq.v.). 
 
 The name “thrush” is sometimes given to birds 
 of other families, which are exceptional song¬ 
 sters. Thus in the United States the thrasher 
 (q.v.), one of the finest singers of all, is 
 often called brown thrush, although more nearly 
 a wren. On the other hand, various members 
 of the family are known by other names, as the 
 bluebird, robin redbreast, stonechat, and various 
 small Oriental genera. 
 
 The Turdina?, characterized by the fact that 
 the young are constantly spotted, although they 
 may become concolorous when adult, is only one 
 
 of the five subfamilies into which, according to 
 some authors, the great thrush family (Turdidse) 
 is divided. The other subfamilies are the Myio- 
 dectinae, a small group of brownish flycatcher¬ 
 like birds; the Sylviinae, or Old World warblers 
 (see Warbler); the Polioptilinae, or gnat 
 catchers and wren tits (qq.v.) ; and the Minima?, 
 or American mocking birds, including the incom¬ 
 parable mocking bird of the Southern States. It 
 should be added that some ornithologists object 
 to this widely inclusive use of the family name 
 and confine it to the thrushes proper. Consult 
 authorities cited under Bird. Consult Forbush, 
 Useful Birds and their Protection, Massachu¬ 
 setts Board of Agriculture (Boston, 1913). 
 
 THRUSH (dialectic Swed. trosk, Swed. torsk, 
 tongue thrush). An inflammation and ulcera¬ 
 tion of the sensitive surfaces within the frog of 
 horses’ feet, giving rise to a fetid discharge, con¬ 
 stituting unsoundness, and usually causing lame¬ 
 ness. Want of cleanliness is the chief cause. 
 The disease is most common in draft horses. 
 The term “thrush” is often applied to foot-and- 
 mouth disease (q.v.). Consult Leonard Pearson 
 and others, Special Report on Diseases of the 
 Horse, published by the United States Bureau 
 of Animal Industry (rev. ed., Washington, 1911). 
 
 THRUSH; Sprue; Infantile Sore Mouth. 
 A disease of early infancy, characterized by the 
 presence of small, roundish white specks or 
 patches on the lining membrane of the cavity of 
 the mouth and throat, on the surface of the 
 tongue, the angles of the lips, etc. These 
 patches, which are termed aphthce, look like 
 minute drops of tallow or fragments of curd, 
 and are formed by elevated portions of epithelium 
 covering a drop of serous fluid; and as the dead 
 epithelium falls off, a red, usually raw, surface 
 is exposed. The cause is a fungus, the Oidium 
 (or Saccharomyces) albicans, which combines 
 with cast-off epithelial cells and with food 
 (milk) to form the spongy, fragile membrane. 
 In thrush crops of these little patches com¬ 
 monly succeed one another. These spots render 
 the mouth hot and tender, and sucking is there¬ 
 fore accompanied by difficulty and pain. The 
 general symptoms are fever, flatulence, colic, 
 and diarrhoea. The stools are green, slimy, and 
 acrid. The disorder usually lasts 8 or 10 
 days, and is attended with danger only when 
 the local affection becomes gangrenous. Thrush 
 is contagious and is transmitted chiefly by dirty 
 nipples and feeding bottles. The disease rarely 
 appears in healthy individuals, but in those 
 whose vitality has been impaired by the exan¬ 
 themata, pneumonia, or even slight intestinal 
 disturbances, it may be contracted. Acidity of 
 the saliva, often produced by fermentation of 
 milk curds, or normal in infants, may further 
 the growth of the thrush fungus. The preven¬ 
 tive treatment is absolute cleanliness of nursing 
 bottle and nipples and pasteurizing the milk: 
 too vigorous cleansing of the child’s mouth is 
 bad. When the disease is established, gentle 
 cleansing of the oral cavity with a solution of 
 borax, boracic acid, or bicarbonate of soda, or 
 potassium permanganate, together with such 
 constitutional treatment as may be needed, is 
 indicated. 
 
 THUCYDIDES, thu-sidT-dez (Lat., from Gk. 
 QovKvdidps, Thoukydides) (?-c.399 b.c.). A fa¬ 
 mous Greek historian, son of Olorus and 
 Hegesipyle, born in the Attic deme Halimus. 
 The date of his birth is unknown, but was cer¬ 
 tainly not earlier than 470 b.c. nor later than 
 

 WOOD THRUSH -TURDUS MUSTELINUS 4 BLUEBIRD- SlALIA SIALIS 
 
 BALTIMORE ORIOLE- ICTERUS GALBULA 5 NIGHTINGALE - DAU LIAS LUSCINIA 
 
 MOCKING BIRD - MIMUS POLYG LOTTOS 6 SC AR LET TAN A G E R - P I R A N GA ERYTHROMELAS 
 
 7 RED-SPOTTED BLUETHROAT - CYAN OSYLYIA Sll Fr.ir A 
 

 * 
 
 
 HNiVERSITV Of ILLINOIS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
THUCYDIDES 
 
 THUG 
 
 247 
 
 454. Conservative opinion now favors a date 
 near the latter year. By descent he belonged 
 to an ancient aristocratic family on one side, 
 and on the other was connected with a line of 
 Thracian princes. From this Thracian side of 
 his family he possessed gold mines in Thrace 
 (q.v.) opposite the island of Thasos (q.v.). He 
 was well educated; tradition says that he was 
 the pupil of Antiphon and Anaxagoras. In 
 politics he favored the aristocratic party, but 
 his views are all marked by moderation and 
 fairness. When the Peloponnesian War broke 
 out, Thucydides was of an age to enable him 
 to discern the importance of the contest and to 
 form plans for recording its course and result. 
 In 424 he was appointed to command a portion 
 of the fleet off the Thracian coast, and "in the 
 same year he failed to arrive in time to relieve 
 Amphipolis (q.v.), which was besieged by Brasi- 
 das (q.v.). For this failure he was condemned 
 to death for treason, but left Athens and lived 
 the next 20 years in exile. This period he spent 
 partly on his estates in Thrace and partly 
 without doubt in examination of the scenes of 
 the war in Italy and Sicily. He also resided 
 for a time at the court of King Archelaus (q.v.) 
 in Macedonia. After the restoration of the 
 democracy at Athens in 403, Thucydides was 
 recalled from exile. His history, which covers 
 21 years of the Peloponnesian War, breaks off 
 in the middle of the year 411. The last book 
 did not receive its final form, but there is no 
 reason to doubt that it comes from his hand. 
 The present division into eight books was made 
 by later grammarians. 
 
 Thucydides is now regarded by all as the first 
 critical historian and the greatest historian of 
 antiquity. He brought to his undertaking a 
 practical acquaintance with politics and mili¬ 
 tary science, his natural endowments fitted him 
 to pass impartial judgment on the events that 
 he narrates, and he emphasizes more than once 
 the care with which he endeavored to find out 
 the truth. His materials were obtained in the 
 main by personal observation or by questioning 
 those who had been upon the ground; but for 
 the earlier period he depended upon his predeces¬ 
 sors. His purpose being to narrate the war, he 
 clung closely to his subject and made few digres¬ 
 sions, so that we have to regret that he has noth¬ 
 ing to say of literature, art, or the conditions of 
 the people. But the military movements of the 
 time are portrayed with a vividness which has 
 never been equaled. In form, his history is 
 strictly annalistic, the account being givpn b/ 
 summers and by winters, so that his v >rk t- 
 fers from his failure to group events • ■ d 1 v ' y 
 His style is the older Attic. His y < * ^re 
 not polished or rounded out, and his 1 tj after 
 brevity often makes his meaning < sc; re and 
 hard to reach. Yet his style was ly ad¬ 
 
 mired in antiquity, and became F. ,del of 
 many historians in the following c e u es (e.g., 
 among the Romans, Sallust and F ,us). In 
 his characterization of the leaders 1 struggle 
 between Athens and Sparta he most sue* 
 
 cessful, and frequently employs ■ ( reat skill 
 speeches which he puts into the ths. 
 
 Bibliography. Of critical ■! d ■ s the most 
 important are by Bekker (3 vr din, 1821) ; 
 
 Haase (Paris, 1846); Iiude 0 Is., Leipzig, 
 1898—1901). There are anruf , editions by 
 Thomas Arnold (3d ed., 3 '■■Ys. Ixford, 1847- 
 54); Bloomfield (2 vols., ! ondon, 1842-43); 
 Kruger (3d ed., 2 vols., Bi rii*., 1861); and, 
 
 most ^useful of all, Classen (8 vols., Berlin, 
 1862-78; frequently reedited). Editions of single 
 books are very numerous. Consult also the 
 Lexicon Thucydideum by Betant (Geneva, 1843) ; 
 Index Thucydideus by Von Essen (Berlin, 1887). 
 I he best English translations of the history are 
 by Bloomfield (3 vols., London, 1829) ; IT. Dale, 
 in the Bohn Classical Library; and Benjamin 
 Jowett, with introduction and historical notes 
 (2 vols., London, 1881; Boston, 1883). On the 
 speeches see Wilkins’s translation (3d ed., Lon¬ 
 don, 1881) and Jebb’s essay in Abbott’s Ilellen- 
 ica (ib., 1880). Consult also, besides the stand¬ 
 ard histories of Greece, Christ-Schmid, Ge- 
 schichte der griechischen Litteratur, vol. i (5th 
 ed., Munich, 1908); A. and M. Croiset, An 
 Abridged History of G-reek Literature (Eng. 
 trans. by G. F. Heffelbower, New York, 1904) ; 
 W. C. Wright, A Short History of Greek Litera¬ 
 ture (ib., 1907); 'F. M. Cornford, Thucydides 
 Mythohistoricus (ib., 1907) ; J. B. Bury, The 
 Ancient Greek Historians (ib., 1909); "G. B. 
 Grundy, Thucydides and the History of his Age 
 (London, 1911) ; and the article “Thukydides,” 
 in Friedrich Lubker, Reallexikon des klasSischen 
 Altertums (8th ed., Leipzig, 1914). 
 
 THUG (Hind, thag, a cheat, from Skt. sthaga, 
 rascal). The name in northern India of a re¬ 
 ligious fraternity which committed murders in 
 honor of Kali (q.v.), the wife of Siva (q.v.), 
 and lived chiefly upon the plunder obtained 
 from its victims. In the south of India they 
 used to live under the protection of the native 
 chieftains in consideration of a settled contribu¬ 
 tion. The Thugs were first generally known 
 about 1800, although they existed as early as 
 1290. Although at the beginning of the nine¬ 
 teenth century they had become little more than 
 murderers, the original religious character of 
 their deeds survived in many ways, particularly 
 in the bloodless character of their assassination, 
 which points back to an unbloody sacrifice in 
 honor of the female aspect of the destructive 
 power of nature. They really formed a caste, 
 as the profession was in the main hereditary, 
 although a few recruits were admitted from 
 without, and a number of Mohammedans joined 
 the order. When they learned through watchers 
 or spies th° : persons of property were about to 
 undertak ;; ourt y, they either managed to 
 accon ■ thorn or to follow them, often for 
 hundreo > miles before a safe opportunity 
 ^ cself for accomplishing their purpose, 
 they threw around the neck of the vic- 
 in a cloth called the rumal, or yard of cotton, 
 v ith a knot in the left end, which one of the 
 gang held at one end, while the other was seized 
 by an accomplice. While these two Thugs drew 
 the noose tight and pressed the head of their 
 victim forward, a third seized him by the leg 
 and thus threw him to the ground. If properly 
 strangled, the sacrifice was dead before he 
 touched the ground. The utmost care was taken 
 to commit the murder in an unfrequented spot, 
 and the body was buried in a place where it 
 was not likely to be found. 
 
 Another class of Thugs murdered those in 
 charge of children, whom the assassins then 
 sold into slavery. Castes or classes exempt 
 from the Thugs were washermen, sweepers, 
 musicians, poets, blacksmiths, carpenters, oil 
 venders, cripples, lepers, bearers of the holy 
 Ganges water, and those who had with them a 
 cow. Neither would a true Thug kill a woman. 
 
 A portion of the plunder was usually set aside 
 
THTJGUT 
 
 THUMMEL 
 
 248 
 
 for their tutelary deity, and a part was often 
 allotted for the widows and families of deceased 
 Thugs. 
 
 Kali was believed to have formerly assisted 
 the Thugs in disposing of the bodies of their vic¬ 
 tims by devouring them. But through an in¬ 
 discretion of one of the fraternity, who looked 
 back, she became displeased, and condemned them 
 to bury their victims. But though she refused 
 her assistance, she presented her worshipers with 
 one of her teeth for a pickaxe, a rib for a knife, 
 and the hem of her lower garment for a noose. 
 On the faith of this legend the pickaxe was the 
 instrument especially esteemed by the Thugs 
 and its fabrication was the subject of cere¬ 
 monials. After every murder the Thugs per¬ 
 formed a special solemnity called tapuni, which 
 was celebrated in honor of Kali. Another feast 
 observed by the Thugs throughout India was 
 called Kurhae Kama or Kote, likewise in honor 
 of Kali. The superstitions of the Thugs were 
 of Hindu origin; but they were adopted also 
 by Mohammedan Thugs, who sometimes identi¬ 
 fied Kali and Fatima. 
 
 It was only after 1831 that energetic meas¬ 
 ures against the Thugs were adopted by the 
 British authorities, and in 1835 almost 400 were 
 hanged and 986 were transported or imprisoned 
 for life. By 1840 they were practically sup¬ 
 pressed. 
 
 Bibliography. Sir W. H. Sleeman, Rama- 
 seeana (Calcutta, 1836) ; Edward Thornton, 
 Illustrations of the History and Practices of the 
 Thugs (London, 1837) ; James Hutton, Account 
 of the Thugs and Dacoits (ib., 1857) ; Meadows 
 Taylor, Confessions of a Thug (3 vols., ib., 
 1839; new ed., ib., 1873-79); Caleb Wright, 
 India and its Inhabitants (Cincinnati, 1885) ; 
 E. W. Hopkins, Religions of India (Boston, 
 1895). 
 
 THTJGUT, too'goot, Franz Maria, Baron 
 (1736-1818). An Austrian statesman, born at 
 Linz. He was admitted to the Oriental Acad¬ 
 emy in Vienna in 1752, went to Constantinople 
 in 1754, and became court interpreter at Vienna 
 in 1766. He was appointed diplomatic repre¬ 
 sentative at Constantinople in 1769 and obtained 
 the cession of Bukowina to Austria in 1771. In 
 1780 he was made Austrian Ambassador at War¬ 
 saw and in 1787 at Naples. He negotiated the 
 Peace of Sistova with Turkey in 1790 - was made 
 Director General of Foreign Affairs in L793, in 
 which capacity he continued the anti-Prussian 
 policy of Kaunitz, but sought also to advance 
 Austrian interests at the expense of France. 
 This plunged the country into the disastrous 
 war with revolutionary France, which ended 
 with the Peace of Campo-Formio (q.v.) in 1797. 
 After acting for some time as administrator in 
 the newly acquired Italian provinces, he took 
 up his old post in the ministry. He retired in 
 1800 and devoted the rest of his life at Press- 
 burg and Vienna to the study of Oriental 
 literature. 
 
 THUILLE, too-effe, Ludwig (1861-1907). A 
 German composer, born at Bozen (Tirol). After 
 receiving his first instruction from his father, 
 an enthusiastic amateur, he was placed in 1877 
 under Pembaur at Innsbruck. In 1879-81 he 
 attended the Musikschule at Munich, where he 
 studied piano with Barmann and organ and 
 composition with Rheinberger. In 1883 he wa? 
 appointed instructor of piano and theory, and 
 in 1890 became professor. He died in Municl. 
 His works comprise a sextet for piano and 
 
 strings; a piano quintet; a sonata for cello 
 and piano; several choruses for female voices; 
 and the operas Theuerdank (1897), Lobetana 
 (1898: in New York, 1911), Gugeline (1901). 
 Together with R. Louis he wrote an excellent 
 Harmonielehre (1907). 
 
 THU'JA. A genus of Conifers including 
 about four species which occur in North Amer¬ 
 ica and eastern Asia. The common representa¬ 
 tive is Thuja occidentals (white cedar or arbor 
 vitae). 
 
 THULE, thu'le (Lat., from Gk. Oov\ v , 
 Thoule) . The name generally given by the an¬ 
 cients to the most northerly part of Europe 
 known to them. According to Pliny the Elder 
 it was an island in the northern ocean, discov¬ 
 ered by the navigator Pytheas (q.v.), who 
 reached it after six days’ sail from the Orcades. 
 Many modern geographers identify Thule with 
 Iceland. Some, however, prefer to seek for it in 
 that part of Norway called Thile or Thilemark, 
 or in Jutland, the extremity of which is known 
 as Thy or Thyland. Perhaps Mainland, the 
 principal member of the Shetland group, has 
 the best claim to being regarded as the Thule of 
 Pytheas. The Romans used the phrase Ultima 
 Thule to denote the most distant unknown land. 
 
 THU'LIUM. A rare chemical element that 
 occurs in the minerals euxenite, samarskite, 
 ytterspar, and others. Its existence was first 
 suspected by Cleve in 1879, but it was first iso¬ 
 lated in a probably pure state by Urbain in 
 1900. The element (symbol Tm; atomic weight 
 168.5) forms an oxide of the formula Tm 2 0 3 
 and a series of well-defined salts. 
 
 THUMANN, tooYnan, Paul (1834-1908). A 
 German illustrator and painter, born in 
 Tschacksdorf, Brandenburg. He studied in Ber¬ 
 lin, Dresden, and Weimar, and taught succes¬ 
 sively in the academies of Weimar, Dresden, and 
 Berlin. He illustrated Chamisso’s Frauenliebe 
 und -Leben and Lebenslieder und -Bilder, 
 Goethe’s Dichtung und Wahrheit, Heine’s Buch 
 der Lieder, Tennyson’s Enoch Arden, etc. His 
 paintings include five scenes from the life of 
 Luther (1872-73), in the Wartburg, near Eise¬ 
 nach. His work is characteristically German 
 and his early style possessed much freshness 
 and charm; later it became sentimentalized. 
 
 THUMB. See Hand. 
 
 THUMB, tump, Albert (1865-1914). A Ger¬ 
 man Greek scholar, born at Freiburg. He was 
 educated at Freiberg, Heidelberg, Leipzig, and 
 Berlin. In 1890-92 and again in 1894 and 1912 
 he journeyed and studied in Greece. From 1895 
 to* 1901 he was professor at Freiburg, from 1901 
 to 1909 at Marburg, from 1909 to his death at 
 Stra^sburg. He was an authority on modern 
 Greek. , His publications include: Die neugrie- 
 chische Sprache (1892) ; Handbuch der neugrie- 
 chischen Sprache (1895; 2d ed., 1910; for an 
 elaborate summary of this book in English by 
 C. D. Buck, consult Classical Philology, vol. 
 ix, pp. 84"-96, Chicago, 1914) ; Handbuch der 
 Sanskrit (2* vols., 1905) ; a revision (the fourth 
 edition) of K. Brugmann’s Griechische Gram- 
 matik (1913) . 
 
 THUMB, Tom. See Stratton, Charles 
 
 Sherwood. 
 
 THUMB BIBLE. See Bible, Curious Edi¬ 
 tions of. 
 
 THUMMEL, tu'mel, Moritz August von 
 (1738-1817). A German statesman and author, 
 born at Schoenfeld'. In 1768 he became Minister 
 to Duke Ernest Frederick of Saxe-Coburg, from 
 
THUMMIM 
 
 249 
 
 THURBER 
 
 whose service he retired in 1783. He wrote a 
 humorous prose epic, Wilhelmine (1764); a 
 story in verse, Inokulation der Liebe (1771); 
 and a pai tly autobiographical and once very 
 popular novel, in 10 volumes, Reise in die mit- 
 t a g lichen Provinzen von Frankreich (1791- 
 1805). Der heiligc Kilian was posthumously 
 published in 1818. His works (in 6 vols., 1812) 
 were edited by himself with a biography (1820) 
 by Gruner, and reedited (8 vols., 1854-55). 
 
 THUMMIM. See Urim and Thummim. 
 
 THUN, toon. A town of Switzerland, on the 
 Aar, near where it issues from the Lake of 
 Thun, 19 miles southeast of Bern, 1845 feet 
 above sea level, and one mile from the Lake 
 of Thun (Map: Switzerland, B 2). The old 
 castle of the twelfth century with its corner 
 towers and the Gothic church are the chief 
 buildings. There is a military institution for 
 aimy officers, as the town is the chief artillery 
 arsenal of Switzerland. The chief manufactures 
 are pottery and bricks. Many tourists visit 
 the town on their way to the Bernese Oberland. 
 Pop., 1900, 6100; 1910, 7415. 
 
 THUN, Lake of. A lake in the Canton of 
 Bern, Switzerland, between the town of Inter¬ 
 laken on the east and that of Thun on the north¬ 
 west (Map: Switzerland, B 2). It is 10y 2 miles 
 long and 2}/o miles wide. The scenery, though 
 scarcely grand, is very attractive. The railway 
 from Thun to Interlaken skirts the south shore. 
 
 THUNBERG, tobn'herK, Gael Petek (1743- 
 1828). A Swedish botanist. He studied with 
 Linnaeus at Upsala; sailed with a Dutch ship 
 as surgeon (1771-75), cruising at the Cape of 
 Good Hope; lived six years in Java and Japan, 
 returning in 1779 to Sweden, where he was ap¬ 
 pointed successor to Linnaeus in 1781 as profes¬ 
 sor of botany at the University of Upsala. To 
 the university he donated his large and valuable 
 collections of plants. He was honorary member 
 of 60 learned societies at home and abroad. 
 A genus of about 50 species of the family Acan- 
 thaceae and numerous Oriental species of other 
 genera are named in his honor. Among his writ¬ 
 ings are: Flora Japonica (1784) ; Resa uti Eu- 
 ropa, Africa, Asia (4 vols., 1788-93; Ger., Fr., 
 and Eng. trans.,— Travels in Europe, Africa, and 
 Asia, 1796); Prodromus plantarum Capensium 
 (2 vols., 1794-1805); Flora Capensis (1807-13; 
 new ed., 1823). 
 
 THUNDER. See Lightning. 
 THUNDERCLOUD (c.1856-1916). An 
 American Blackfoot Indian chief, born in Can¬ 
 ada. He served as a scout for the United States 
 army in 1872-76, and participated in the cap¬ 
 ture of Bed Cloud (q.v.). He was one of the 
 Indian guides of King Edward VII (then Prince 
 of Wales), when he hunted in the Northwest. 
 Later Chief Thundercloud became famous as an 
 artist’s model, posing for Frederic Remington, 
 Edwin A. Abbey, John S. Sargent, Karl Bitter, 
 and Howard Pyle (qq.v.). He is found in many 
 of the historical paintings in the capitol at St. 
 Paul, Minn., which are the work of F. D. Millet, 
 Kenyon Cox, Douglas Volk, and Edwin H. 
 Blashfield (qq.v.). Victor Brenner used his 
 head for the gold coins minted by the govern¬ 
 ment. He died in a lodging house at Roches¬ 
 ter, N. Y. 
 
 THUNDERING LEGION. See Legion, The 
 Thundering. 
 
 THUNDERSTORM. See Brontometer. 
 THUNEN, tu'nen, Johann Heinrich von 
 (1783-1850). A German economist, born in 
 
 Oldenburg. After receiving a thorough educa¬ 
 tion in the theory and practice of agriculture 
 and passing two semesters at Gottingen, he 
 bought in 1810 an estate called Tellow, iii Meck- 
 lenburg-Schwerin, which under his skillful man¬ 
 agement became famous as a model farm. His 
 fame rests on his work Der isolirte Staat in 
 Beziehung auf Landwirtschaft und National- 
 okonomie, the first volume of which appeared in 
 1826, the second in 1850 and 1863, and the third 
 in 1863. In this work Thiinen simplified the 
 complex conditions of economic life bv imagining 
 an isolated state, circular in form, with land of 
 equal fertility, laborers of equal productivitv, 
 with the sole city and market at the centre. 
 Haying so simplified his premises, he proceeded 
 to investigate, principally, the effect of distance 
 from the market upon the agricultural economy 
 of the several zones of the territory surrounding 
 the maiket. In the second volume Thiinen 
 struck a new note in the political economy of his 
 time by protesting against the common treat¬ 
 ment of wages as the price of an inanimate com¬ 
 modity, and insisting upon the introduction of 
 ethical factors. His treatment here, as gener¬ 
 ally, was highly abstract, and with the aid of 
 the differential calculus he arrived at the con¬ 
 clusion that natural wages — y ap, where a is 
 the amount required to support the laborer and 
 his family and p is the product of the labor of 
 one man, this product being defined as that part 
 of the gross product remaining after deduction 
 of profits, insurance, and cost of management. 
 This law of w T ages expresses in a highly inter¬ 
 esting way the modern theory that wages vary 
 as the productivity of the laborer. At Thunen’s 
 request it was engraved on his tombstone. Con¬ 
 sult: H. Schumacher, ,7. 77. von Thiinen, ein 
 Forscherleben (2d ed., Rostock, 1883); H. L. 
 Moore, in the Quarterly Journal of Economics, 
 vol. ix (Boston, 1895). See Political Economy. 
 THUNNY. See Tunny. 
 
 THUN UND HOHENSTEIN, toon unt ho'- 
 en-stln, Leo, Count (1811-88). An Austrian 
 statesman, born at Tetschen, in Bohemia. Be¬ 
 fore the revolution of 1848 he was secretary in 
 the Imperial Chancery, and in that year became 
 Governor of Bohemia. From 1849‘to 1860 he 
 was Minister of Public Worship and Instruc¬ 
 tion. He introduced mapy reforms in educa¬ 
 tional systems. In 1861 he was elected to the 
 Bohemian Diet, where he became the leader of 
 the Feudalists, and he continued this attitude 
 in the Austrian House of Peers, which he entered 
 in the same year. In 1867 he strenuously op¬ 
 posed the Ausgleich with Hungary. He retired 
 from the Bohemian Diet in 1871, and reentered 
 it in 1883. 
 
 THUR'BER, George (1821-90). An Ameri¬ 
 can botanist, naturalist, and editor. He was 
 born at Providence, R. I., where he obtained his 
 early education. From 1850 to 1853 he was 
 botanist, commissary, and quartermaster of the 
 United States Boundary Commission upon the 
 Mexican and United States borders, where he 
 collected a large number of new species of 
 plants. In 1856 he became lecturer upon botany 
 and materia medica in the Cooper Union and 
 College of Pharmacy of New York, and in 1859 
 professor of botany and horticulture in the 
 Michigan Agricultural College, which institu¬ 
 tion he left in 1863 to become editor of the 
 American Agriculturist, a post which he held 
 until shortly before his death. In addition, he 
 edited various horticultural and agricultural 
 
THUREAU-DAN GIN 
 
 THURINGIA 
 
 250 
 
 books, and revised and in part rewrote Darling¬ 
 ton’s Agricultural Botany. 
 
 THUREAU-DANGIN, tu'ro'-diiN'gaN', Paul 
 (1837-1913). A French historian, born in Paris. 
 He was educated at the Lyc6e Louis le Grand 
 and afterward took up the study of law. In 
 1893 he was elected to the French Academy, 
 of which he became the permanent secretary 
 in 1908. His literary output, though not large, 
 is notably scholarly. He wrote: La Pologne 
 et les traites de Vienne (1863) ; Paris, capitate 
 pendant la revolution frangaise (1872); Roy- 
 alistes et republicains (1874); Le parti lib¬ 
 eral sous la restauration; I’eglise et Vetat sous 
 la monarchic de juillet (1879); L’histoire de 
 la monarchic de juillet (7 vols., 1884-92), his 
 most important work; Histoire de la renais¬ 
 sance catholique en Angleterre au XIXe siecle 
 (1906; Eng. trans., ed. and rev. by Wilfred 
 Wilberforce, 2 vols., 1914). He was several 
 times awarded the Gobert prize by the French 
 Academy. 
 
 THURET, tu'r&'j Gustave (1817-75). A 
 French botanist, born in Paris. While attached 
 to the French Embassy at Constantinople he col¬ 
 lected plants in the Balkan Peninsula, and re¬ 
 turned to France in 1844. His specialty was 
 algae and his Recherches sur les zoospores des 
 algues et les antheridees des cryptogames (1851) 
 were crowned by the academy. Other publica¬ 
 tions include Recherches sur la fecondation des 
 Fucactes (1855-57), and numerous monographs, 
 such as Essai de classification des Nostochinees 
 (1875). He established a splendid botanical 
 garden at Antibes, where he planted the first 
 eucalyptus trees in Europe, and which he be¬ 
 queathed to the state. He died at Nice. 
 
 THURGAU, toor'gou, or Thurgovie. A can¬ 
 ton in the northeast of Switzerland, separated 
 from Germany by Lake Constance (Map: Switz¬ 
 erland, D 1). Area, 381 square miles. The 
 surface is elevated but not mountainous, and is 
 cut by the valley of the Thur, the chief river 
 of the canton. Almost the entire area of the 
 canton is productive, and the chief occupations of 
 the inhabitants are agriculture and viticulture. 
 Stock raising and cheese making are also impor¬ 
 tant industries. The principal manufactures are 
 cotton and woolen goods, knit goods, machinery, 
 leather, etc. The constitution of the canton, 
 dating from 1869, is purely democratic, the 
 members of the Legislative Assembly as well as 
 of the Executive Council being elected directly 
 by the people. The obligatory referendum and 
 the initiative are in force. Pop., 1900, 113,221; 
 1910, 134,055, largely German-speaking Prot¬ 
 estants. Capital, Frauenfeld (q.v.). 
 
 Prior to the ninth century the country known 
 as Thurgau comprised almost the entire region 
 bounded by Lake Lucerne, the Rhine, the Reuss, 
 and Lake Constance. With the extinction of 
 the house of Ivyburg, Thurgau, reduced almost 
 to its present size, passed in 1264 to the house 
 of Hapsburg. In 1460 the country was seized 
 by the Confederates and occupied the position of 
 a subject district until 1798, when it was made 
 a canton of the Helvetic Republic. In 1803 it 
 was constituted a canton of the reorganized 
 Swiss Confederation. Consult Meyer, Thur- 
 gauisches Urkundenbuch (Frauenfeld, 1881 et 
 seq.), and Pupikofer, Geschichte des Thurgaus 
 (ib., 1884-89). 
 
 THU'RIBLE. See Censer. 
 
 THU'RIEER (Lat., incense bearer). The at¬ 
 tendant in the Roman Catholic church, at solemn 
 
 mass, vespers, and other ceremonies, whose duty 
 it is to carry the thurible, or incense vessel, 
 and either to minister incense himself, or to 
 present the thurible for that purpose to the 
 officiating priest. The office of thurifer orig¬ 
 inally belonged to the so-called minor order of 
 acolyte, but is now commonly exercised by lay¬ 
 men. See Censer; Incense. 
 
 THU'RII. A city in Magna Grsecia (south¬ 
 ern Italy), founded by the people of the neigh¬ 
 boring city of Sybaris (q.v.) after the destruc¬ 
 tion of the latter. In 443 b.c. a colony, of which 
 Herodotus (q.v.) was a member, went from 
 Athens to Thurii. For a long time the city 
 prospered. It formed an alliance with the Ro¬ 
 mans in 282 b.c., but was plundered by Hanni¬ 
 bal in 204 b.c. A Roman colony came to the 
 city in 193 b.c., but the city declined presently 
 and at last was wholly deserted. Only scanty 
 ruins remain. 
 
 THURINGER WALD, tu'ring-er valt (Ger., 
 Thuringian Forest). A mountain range of cen¬ 
 tral Germany, extending from the banks of the 
 Werra near Eisenach in a southeasterly direc¬ 
 tion to the north boundary of Bavaria, where 
 it joins the Frankenwald, a ramification of the 
 Fichtelgebirge (Map: Germany, D 3). It forms 
 the southwest boundary of the trough of Thu¬ 
 ringia, which in outward features resembles a 
 plateau extending to the Harz Mountains. 
 Length, about 70 miles; highest summit, Gross- 
 Beerberg, 3238 feet. The range falls steeply 
 towards the northeast and is covered to the sum¬ 
 mits with magnificent pine forests. The Triassic 
 deposits which once clothed its surface have been 
 worn away, exposing older granites, porphyries, 
 and schists. It is rich in minerals, among 
 which iron ore, copper, manganese, and gypsum 
 are the most important. The range passes 
 through a well-populated industrial region. 
 
 THURXN'GIA (Ger. Thuringen) . A pic¬ 
 turesque region of Germany, traversed by the 
 Thiiringer Wald (q.v.), lying between the Prus¬ 
 sian Province of Saxony on the north and Ba¬ 
 varia on the south, and between the Kingdom of 
 Saxony on the east and the Prussian Province 
 of Hesse-Nassau on the west (Map: Germany, 
 D 3). It embraces a number of duchies and 
 principalities together with some Prussian dis¬ 
 tricts. The so-called Thuringian states are 
 Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe- 
 Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg, Schwarzburg-Rudol- 
 stadt, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, and the two 
 Reuss principalities. The .largest city is Er¬ 
 furt, in the Prussian Province of Saxony. The 
 region took its name from the Thuringians, who 
 at the time of the great migration of nations es¬ 
 tablished an extensive kingdom near the centre 
 of the present Germany. In the early part of 
 the sixth century the Franks overthrew this 
 kingdom, of which the northern part was joined 
 to the country of the Saxons and the southern 
 to Franconia. The name Thuringia came to be 
 applied to the country between the rivers Werra 
 and Saale and the Harz and Thuringian moun¬ 
 tains. Under the weak Merovingian rulers dukes 
 arose in this Thuringia, which for a time was 
 virtually independent. Christianity was intro¬ 
 duced in the eighth century. Under the Carlo- 
 vingian sovereigns Thuringia constituted an im¬ 
 portant frontier province or march, whose Gov¬ 
 ernor was charged with the task of repressing 
 or keeping down the Slavic Serbs. In the tenth 
 century the country was under the rule of the 
 dukes "of Saxony. In the twelfth and thirteenth 
 
251 
 
 THURNEYSEN 
 
 THURINGIAN DIALECT 
 
 centuries the landgraves of Thuringia held a 
 prominent place among the German princes. 
 They had their seat at the famous Castle of 
 Wartburg. (See Eisenach.) Landgrave Her¬ 
 mann I (1190-1216) is noted as a patron of the 
 minnesingers. I he old dynasty of landgraves 
 became extinct in 1247. The Landgraviate of 
 Thuringia then passed to the house of Wettin, 
 which ruled in the Margraviate of Meissen, and 
 which in the fifteenth century came into posses¬ 
 sion of the electoral Duchy of Saxony. On the 
 partition of the Saxon dominions in 1485 be¬ 
 tween the Ernestine and Albertine lines the bulk 
 of the Thuringian possessions passed to the 
 Ernestine or electoral branch. After the War 
 of the Schmalkald League (1546-47) the Er¬ 
 nestine house was stripped of its possessions 
 outside of Thuringia. Here arose the various 
 modern Saxon (Thuringian) duchies. (See 
 Saxe-Weimar. ) Consult: Thomas Knocken- 
 hauer, Geschichte Thiiringens in der karolin- 
 gischen und sdchsischen Zeit (Gotha, 1863) ; 
 id., Geschichte Thiiringens zur Zeit des ersten 
 Landgrafenhauses (ib., 1871); Ernst Devrient, 
 Thuringische Geschichte (Leipzig, 1907). 
 
 THURXN'GIAN DIALECT. See German 
 Language. 
 
 THURINGIAN FOREST. See Tiiuringer 
 Wald. 
 
 THURLOE, thfir'lo, John (1616-68). An 
 English Puritan statesman. After Cromwell 
 was proclaimed Protector, Thurloe was ap¬ 
 pointed chief of the intelligence department, a 
 position which he managed with striking fidel¬ 
 ity and success. He continued as Secretary of 
 State under Richard Cromwell until May, 1659, 
 and in spite of royalist opposition in 1660 was 
 reappointed prior to the Restoration. After 
 Charles II’s return he was arrested on a charge 
 of high treason, but soon afterward was freed 
 on condition of attending on the secretaries of 
 state whenever they should require his service. 
 His large collection of state papers and cor¬ 
 respondence, comprising the most authentic ma¬ 
 terials respecting the period of the Civil War 
 and Cromwell’s Protectorate, were discovered in 
 a secret recess in his chambers at Lincoln’s Inn 
 during the reign of William III* and are now 
 in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Dr. Thomas 
 Birch issued a Collection of State Papers; con¬ 
 taining authentic memorials of the English af¬ 
 fairs from the year 1638 to the Restoration of 
 King Charles II, published from the originals, 
 etc., prefixed by a Life of Thurloe (London, 
 1742). 
 
 THUR'LOW, Edward, Baron (1731-1806). 
 An English lawyer. He was born at Bracon-Ash, 
 Norfolk, was educated at Caius College, Cam¬ 
 bridge, and was admitted to the bar in 1754. 
 At this time he formed an intimate friendship 
 with the poet William Cowper. Through the 
 patronage of the Viscount Weymouth, Thurlow 
 was elected to Parliament for Tamwo.rth in 1768. 
 In 1770 he was appointed Solicitor-General and 
 the next year Attorney-General. He attracted 
 the favorable notice of George III by zealously 
 supporting the governmental policy of coercing 
 the American Colonies, and in 1778 was made 
 Baron Thurlow of Ashfield and Chancellor of 
 the Exchequer, which office he retained under 
 the Rockingham administration. Under the 
 coalition ministry he was compelled to retire; 
 but he - was restored as Chancellor when Pitt 
 came to power. For a time he supported the 
 government; but, relying on the favor of the 
 
 Vol. XXII.—17 
 
 King, he finally ventured to oppose the meas¬ 
 ures of his colleagues. Pitt then intimated 
 that he or Thurlow must retire, and the King 
 consented to the removal of Thurlow (1792)° 
 Consult Edward Foss, Judges of England, with 
 Sketches of their Lives (London, 1848-64). 
 
 THUR'MAN, Allen Granbery (1813-95). 
 An American political leader and legislator, born 
 in Lynchburg, Va. In 1819 he was taken by his 
 parents to Chillicothe, Ohio. He studied law in 
 the office of his uncle, William Allen (1806-79; 
 q.v.), became private secretary to Governor 
 Robert Lucas in 1834, and in 1835 was admitted 
 to the bar and became a partner of Allen. In 
 1845-47 he was a Democratic member of Con¬ 
 gress, then resumed his law practice, and from 
 1851 to 1856 was on the bench of the Ohio 
 Supreme Court, after December, 1854, as Chief 
 Justice. In 1867 he was the Democratic candi¬ 
 date for Governor of Ohio, but was defeated by 
 R. B. Hayes. From' 1869 to 1881 he was a mem¬ 
 ber of the United States Senate, and the leader 
 of the Democrats in that body. In the Forty- 
 sixth Congress he was elected President pro 
 tempore of the Senate* He was active as an 
 advocate of a liberal reconstruction policy, was 
 one of the authors of the bill creating the 
 Electoral Commission in 1876, and a member of 
 that body. He was also the author of the well- 
 known Thurman Act, designed to compel the 
 Pacific railroads which had received government 
 aid to fulfill their obligations to the govern¬ 
 ment, and secured the passage of the bill. In 
 1881 he was appointed by President Garfield a 
 member of the International Monetary Confer¬ 
 ence at Paris. In 1888 he was nominated by 
 acclamation for Vice President on the Cleveland 
 ticket, which was defeated by Harrison and 
 Morton. Consult Hensel and Parker, Lives and 
 Public Services of Grover Cleveland and Allen 
 G. Thurman (Philadelphia, 1892).—His son, 
 Allen W. Thurman (born 1847), was prom¬ 
 inent as a Democrat in Ohio and became presi¬ 
 dent of the Special State Canal Commissioners. 
 
 THURN tobrn, Heinrich Matthias, Count 
 (1580-1640). A leader of the Bohemian Prot¬ 
 estants in the Thirty Years’ War. For his serv¬ 
 ices in the Turkish wars the Emperor Rudolph 
 II made him Burgrave of Karlstein in Bohemia. 
 He was among those who wrung from Rudolph 
 the Majestdtsbrief of 1609, an edict of tolera¬ 
 tion, and was named by the Bohemian estates 
 one of the Thirty Defenders of the Faith. He 
 was deprived of his estates and title soon after. 
 On May 23, 1618, he gave the signal for the 
 Protestant uprising in Bohemia by the defenes¬ 
 tration of the Imperial legates at Prague. (See 
 Thirty Years’ War.) At the head of the Prot¬ 
 estant forces he besieged the Emperor Ferdinand 
 II in Vienna (1619), but was finally compelled 
 to withdraw. After the battle of the White Hill 
 in 1620, in which the army of Frederick, the 
 Protestant King of Bohemia, was vanquished, 
 he sought refuge with Bethlen Gabor, ruler of 
 Transylvania. In 1626 he commanded a corps 
 in Silesia. Later he joined Gustavus Adolphus, 
 and fought at Leipzig (1631) and Liitzen 
 (1632). 
 
 THURNEYSEN, toor'nt-zen, Rudolph (1857- 
 ). A German Celtic philologist. He was 
 born in Basel, and studied at the universities 
 of Basel, Leipzig, Berlin, and Paris. From 1882 
 to 18S7 he was successively privatdocent and 
 assistant professor of Romance philology in the 
 1 niversity of Jena, and then was professor of 
 
THURSBY 
 
 THYESTES 
 
 252 
 
 comparative philology at the University of Frei¬ 
 burg in Baden. In 1912 he was called to a 
 similar chair at Bonn. He wrote: Ueber Her- 
 kunft and Bildung der lateinischen Verba auf 
 -io (1879); Das Verbum etre and die franz- 
 osische Conjugation (1882); Keltoromanisches 
 (1884); Der Saturnier (1885); Mittelirische 
 Verslehren (1891); Sagen aus dem alten In¬ 
 land (1901) ; Handbuch des altirischen (2 vols., 
 1909). 
 
 THURS'BY, Emma (1857- ). An Amer¬ 
 
 ican singer, born in Brooklyn, N. Y. She stud¬ 
 ied in the United States under Julius Meyer, 
 Errani, and Madame Rudersdorff, and also 
 abroad. She made a successful tour of the 
 United States and Canada (1875), and was 
 warmly received in England and France (1878— 
 79), afterward being engaged by Maurice 
 Strakosch as prima donna of his company 
 (1880)’. A subsequent tour of the United States 
 with Theodore Thomas was especially successful. 
 In 1903 she made a tour of Japan and China. 
 In her prime she was frequently compared with 
 Patti. 
 
 THUR'STON, John Mellen (1847-1916). 
 An American politician and lawyer, born in 
 Montpelier, Vt. He removed to Wisconsin, 
 where he was educated at Wayland Academy, 
 Beaver Dam, in 1869 was admitted to the bar, 
 and in the following year took up the practice 
 of law at Omaha, Neb. He allied himself with 
 the Republican party, and was elected to the 
 State Legislature in 1875. In 1895-1901 he 
 served as United States Senator, and in the 
 latter year was a commissioner for the Louisi¬ 
 ana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis. He was 
 chairman of the Republican National conven¬ 
 tions in 1888 and 1896. From 1888 he was 
 general counsel of the Union Pacific Railway. 
 
 THURSTON, Katherine Cecil (c.1864- 
 1911). A British novelist, born in Cork, Ire¬ 
 land. In 1901 she was married to Ernest T. 
 Thurston, an English novelist, from whom she 
 subsequently secured a divorce. She is princi¬ 
 pally known for her novel The Masquerader 
 (published in England as John Chilcote, M.P., 
 1904), which had a large and deserved success. 
 Other of her books include: The Circle (1903) ; 
 The Gambled (1906); Mystics (1907); The Fly 
 on the Wheel (1908); and Max (1910). 
 
 THURSTON, Robert Henry (1839-1903). 
 An American engineer and educator, born in 
 Providence, R. I. He graduated at Brown Uni¬ 
 versity in 1859. During the Civil W^r he 
 served in the Federal navy as an engineer, and 
 in 1865 he was appointed assistant professor of 
 natural and experimental philosophy at Annap¬ 
 olis. He was professor of engineering at Stevens 
 Institute of Technology from 1871 to 1885, and 
 in the latter year conducted a series of impor¬ 
 tant experiments on steam boilers. Thurston 
 was a member of the United States Scientific 
 Commission to the Vienna Exhibition in 1873, 
 and edited the Report of the commissioners, 
 which included his individual report on ma¬ 
 chinery and manufactures (1875-76). From 
 1885 till His death lie was director of Sibley 
 College, Cornell, and professor of mechanical 
 engineering in the university. His thorough¬ 
 ness, organizing ability, and genius as a teacher 
 placed him in the front rank of educators in his 
 field. His writings, notably influential because 
 clear, comprehensible, and reliable, include: A 
 History of the Growth of the Steam Engine 
 
 (1878; 4th ed., rev., 1902; Ger. and Fr. trans.) ; 
 
 Manual of Steam Boilers (1888; 7th ed., 1901) ; 
 Manual of the Steam Engine (1891; 5th ed., 
 1900-02) ; Materials of Engineering (3 vols., 
 1883-84; new ed., 1907-10); Stationary Steam 
 Engines (1884; 7th ed., 1902); Treatise on 
 Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill 
 Work (1885; 7th ed., 1903); A Handbook of 
 Engine and Boiler Trials, and of the Indicator 
 and Prong Brake (1890; 5th ed., 1903) ; A Text¬ 
 book of the Materials of Construction (1890; 
 6th ed., 1900); Life of Robert Fulton (1891). 
 Professor Thurston’s inventions include a mag¬ 
 nesium-ribbon lamp, a magnesium-burning naval 
 and army signal apparatus, and autographic 
 recording and testing machine, a steam-engine 
 governor, and an apparatus for determining the 
 value of lubricants. From 1880 to 1883 he 
 served as first president of the American So¬ 
 ciety of Mechanical Engineers. Consult W. F. 
 Durand, Robert Henry Thurston (Washington, 
 1904). 
 
 THURY, tu're', Vicomte de. See Hericart- 
 Ferrand, L. E. F. 
 
 THUSNELDA. See Germanicus Uesar. 
 
 THWAITES, thwats, Reuben Gold (1853- 
 1913). An American historical writer, born in 
 Dorchester, Mass. In 1866 he removed to Wis¬ 
 consin. From 1876 to 1886 he was managing 
 editor of the Wisconsin State Journal, at Madi¬ 
 son. From 1886 he was secretary and super¬ 
 intendent of the State Flistorical Society of 
 Wisconsin. In 1899 he was president of the 
 American Library Association. He edited the 
 Wisconsin Historical Collections (vols. xi-xix, 
 1888-1911) ; The Jesuit Relations (73 vols., 1896- 
 1901); Early Western Travels, 1748-1846 (32 
 vols., 1904-07) ; Original Journals of Lewis and 
 Clark (7 vols., 1905) ; and similar works. He 
 also published: Down Historic Waterways 
 (1888; 2d ed., rev., 1902) ; The Colonies, 1492- 
 1750 (1891); Daniel Boone (1902); Father 
 
 Marquette (1902) ; George Rogers Clark (1903) ; 
 Brief History of Rocky Mountain Exploration 
 (1904) ; France in America (1905) ; Wisconsin 
 (1909); School History of the United States 
 (1912). For a critical analysis of the work of 
 Thwaites consult an article by C. V 7 . Alvord, 
 Proceedings of the Mississippi Valley Historical 
 Association (Cedar Rapids, la., 1913-14) ; con¬ 
 sult also F. J. Turner, Reuben Gold Thwaites 
 (Madison, W 7 is., 1914). 
 
 THWING, twang, Charles Franklin (1853- 
 ). An American clergyman and educator, 
 born at New Sharon, Me. He graduated from 
 Harvard in 1876, and from the Andover Theo¬ 
 logical Seminary in 1879; was pastor of churches 
 in Cambridge, Mass., and in Minneapolis, and in 
 1890 became president of Adelbert College and 
 Western Reserve University at Cleveland, Ohio. 
 He published: The Reading of Books (1883); 
 The Family (1886; 2d ed., 1913), with Carrie F. 
 Butler Thwing; Within College Walls (1893); 
 College Administration (1900); History of 
 Higher Education in America (1906); Educar- 
 tion in the Far East (1909) ; A History of Edu¬ 
 cation in the United States since the Civil War 
 (1910); Universities of the World (1911); 
 Letters from a Father to his Son Entering Col¬ 
 lege (1912) ; Letters from a Father to his 
 Daughter Entering College (1913) ; The Ameri¬ 
 can College (1914). 
 
 THYESTES, thi-es'tSz (Lat., from Gk. Qvea- 
 T 7 )s ). The son of Pelops (q.v.) and Hippodamia. 
 Having seduced HSrope, the wife of his brother 
 Atreus (q.v.), he was banished from Mycense 
 
THYLACINE 
 
 253 
 
 TI 
 
 GARDEN THYME. 
 
 (q.v.), and in revenge sent Plisthenes, the son 
 of Atreus, whom he had brought up, to slay his 
 father. Atreus, not recognizing Plisthenes, 
 
 killed him. In revenge, summoning Thyestes to 
 Mycenae, he placed before him at a feast "the flesh 
 of Tln'estes’ two sons. 
 
 THY'LACINE. See Dasyure. 
 
 THYME, tun (OF., Fr. thym, from Lat. thy- 
 mum, from Gk. 6vp.ov, Ovpos, thyme, sweetbread, 
 warty excrescence; connected with 6vo s, thy os, 
 incense). Thymus. A genus of humble half- 
 shrubby plants, of the family Labiatae, having a 
 two-lipped calyx and four diverging stamens. 
 
 Garden thyme ( Thym us vul¬ 
 garis) is 6 to 10 inches high, 
 with narrow, almost linear 
 leaves, and whitish or red¬ 
 dish flowers, which grow 
 in separate whorls, six in 
 a whorl. It is common 
 upon dry hills in southern 
 Europe, and is cultivated in 
 gardens for its fragrance 
 and as a culinary herb. It 
 is also used in medicijie. 
 Wild thyme ( Thymus ser- 
 pyllum) has a procumbent 
 stem with many branches, 
 2 to 3 feet long, oval leaves, 
 and purplish flowers, ar¬ 
 ranged in whorls, which are 
 united in a head. It is 
 abundant on hills and moun¬ 
 tains in all parts of Europe 
 and northern Asia. It is 
 less fragrant than garden 
 thyme, but both species con¬ 
 tain an aromatic essential oil. The lemon thyme, 
 or lemon-scented thyme, is a variety of Thymus 
 serpyllum, generally of lower growth than the 
 common thyme. No species is indigenous in 
 America. 
 
 THYMOL, tlm'ol or -61. The active prin¬ 
 ciple of the oil of thyme, having powerful anti¬ 
 septic and anaesthetic properties. Its chemical 
 formula is C 10 H 14 O. It occurs in large, colorless 
 plates, having a thymelike odor, v T hich are 
 slightly soluble in water and readily soluble in 
 alcohol. Besides its employment in the form of 
 a spray in infections of the upper respiratory 
 tract, it is given in intestinal affections and is 
 almost a specific in hookworm disease (q.v.). 
 
 THY'MUS GLAND (Neo-Lat., from Gk. 
 dvgos, thyme, so called from its fancied resem¬ 
 blance to a branch of sweet thyme). A ductless 
 gland, peculiar to infantile life. In the human 
 being it occupies a space in the neck below the 
 thyroid gland and in the chest beneath the ster¬ 
 num in the anterior mediastinal space, on the 
 level of the fourth costal cartilage. The gland 
 is developed early in foetal life, increases in size 
 during the first two or three years of life, then 
 remains stationary until the tenth to the four¬ 
 teenth year, when it begins to atrophy and un¬ 
 dergo fatty degeneration. At its maximum 
 development the organ is over 2 inches long, 
 114 inches broad, and about % of an inch thick. 
 At birth its weight is normally about half 
 an ounce. Comparatively little is known of the 
 function of this organ, but it is believed to 
 manufacture an internal secretion, which has a 
 profound influence on growth and development, 
 and is concerned in the retention of the calcium 
 salts by the body for the formation of bone. 
 The thymus gland of young ‘animals such as 
 
 the lamb and calf constitutes the delicacy known 
 as sweetbreads, though the pancreas or belly 
 sweetbread of certain animals is often substi¬ 
 tuted in trade for this article. Thymus has 
 been used in medicine in the treatment of mal¬ 
 nutrition, delayed growth, rickets, and rheuma¬ 
 toid arthritis. See Alimentary System; Or¬ 
 ganotherapy. 
 
 THY'NI. See Bitiiynia. 
 
 TKY'SOID GLAND (from Gk. 9vpeoeL5r)s, 
 thyi eoeides, shield-shaped, from Ovpeos, thyreos, 
 large oblong shield, from dvpa, thyra, door -j- 
 eiSos, eidos, form). One of the ductless or vas¬ 
 cular glands, lying at the upper part of the 
 trachea, and consisting of two lateral lobes, 
 placed one on each side of this canal, and con¬ 
 nected together by a narrow transverse portion 
 at the lower third, called the isthmus. It is of 
 a brownish-red color and its normal weight is 
 about an ounce. Each lobe is somewhat conical, 
 and is about 2 inches long and % of an inch 
 broad. Minute examination of the gland shows 
 it to consist of lobes and lobules held together 
 by connective tissue. Each lobule is made up 
 of numerous completely closed sacs 0.04 to 0.1 
 inch in diameter. The sacs contain a trans¬ 
 parent, viscid, albuminous fluid. Each sac is 
 surrounded by a plexus of capillary blood vessels 
 which do not pierce the lining of the 3 acs. 
 Numerous lymphatic vessels are also present. 
 At an early period the sacs dilate, their cellular 
 lining atrophies, and their contents undergo col¬ 
 loid degeneration. The function of the thyroid 
 gland is mainly the production of an internal 
 secretion which influences bodily nutrition in 
 many ways. It is subject to several varieties 
 of enlargement known under the general name 
 of goitre, and is also the seat of various benign 
 and malignant tumors!. Myxoedema (q.v.) is"a 
 condition of the system brought about through 
 loss of function of the thyroid gland, either from 
 atrophy or removal of the organ. The prepared 
 extract of the thyroid gland of the sheep is used 
 in the treatment of this condition. See Ali¬ 
 mentary System; Cretinism; Organotherapy; 
 Secretions, Internal. 
 
 THYR'SUS (Lat., from Gk. Ovpcros, stalk, 
 stem). An ivy and vine wreathed staff tipped 
 with a pine cone, which was carried by Bacchus 
 (q.v.) and his followers in their religious rites. 
 
 TITYSSEN, tgs'sen, August (1840- ). 
 
 A German industrial leader. He engaged in 
 the iron industry in the late sixties at DuTsburg, 
 but after 18/1 lived at Mulheim-Ruhr, where he 
 founded the firm of Thyssen and Company, the 
 parent house of his many industrial interests. 
 He became the chief owner of a mining company 
 employing about 18,000 men, of 641 coke ovens, 
 and of 7 blast furnaces. He built the first 500- 
 ton blast furnace in Germany, the first 100-ton 
 Martin furnace, and the first large tube works. 
 
 TI, te (Polynesian name), Cordyline termi- 
 nalis. A treelike plant of the family Liliacese, 
 found in southeastern Asia, the eastern Archi¬ 
 pelago, and the Hawaiian and other Pacific 
 islands. It sometimes exceeds 12 feet in height. 
 The reddish, lanceolate leaves are used as cattle 
 food and as thatch for houses, as food wrappers, 
 etc. Their fibres are sometimes made into cloth! 
 The large, hard, fibrous, and almost insipid root 
 becomes soft and sweet when baked. It is 
 very nutritious, and is much used as an 
 article of food. The juice is used for mak¬ 
 ing sugar, a fermented beverage, and a dis¬ 
 tilled liquor. Fully 25 varieties of Cordyline 
 
TIAHUANACO 
 
 TIBALDI 
 
 254 
 
 are grown under glass for their ornamental, 
 often variegated, foliage. See Hog Plum. 
 
 TIAHUANACO, te-a'wa-na'ko. A ruined 
 city of Bolivia, a few miles from the Peruvian 
 frontier, on an arid plain midway between lakes 
 Titicaca and Aullagas, at an elevation of 12,- 
 900 feet. The present town of the same name 
 stands a short distance from the ruins and is 
 built for the most part of beautifully cut stones 
 from the ancient buildings. In the ruined town 
 five great structures besides an equal number of 
 shapeless mounds may be traced. These build¬ 
 ings are commonly known as the Fortress, the 
 Temple, the Palace, the Hall of Justice, and the 
 Sanctuary. The fortress consists of a rectangu¬ 
 lar mass of earth 620 feet long, 450 feet wide, 
 and about 50 feet high, supported by walls of 
 stone forming terraces, the walls sloping inward. 
 On the summit are traces of rectangular build¬ 
 ings. Adjoining the pyramid to the east is a 
 rectangular apron mound. The Fortress has 
 been almost destroyed by excavations for treas¬ 
 ures, but these diggings show that there were 
 subterranean structures within the mound. All 
 the buildings of Tiahuanaco are oriented to 
 within 10 degrees of the cardinal points. The 
 Temple, believed to be the oldest building here, 
 is a rectangle 388 by 455 feet, defined by erect 
 stones between 8 and 10 feet high, 2 by 4 feet 
 broad, and from 20 to 30 inches thick. On the 
 eastern side, aligned along a lower terrace, are 
 10 columns about 15 feet high, by 4 feet by 3 
 feet. The interior of the rectangle is raised 
 8 feet above the level of the ground and has a 
 sunken court 280 feet long and 190 feet broad. 
 To the east of the Temple is the Palace, of which 
 the massive foundation remains, composed of 
 blocks of trachyte 8 to 10 feet long and 5 feet 
 wide. The piers of this building are deeply 
 sunk in the ground and rest on a pavement of 
 cut stones. The Hall of Justice stood at one 
 end of a sunken court in a rectangle in plan like 
 that of the Temple. It was a platform 131 feet 
 long and 23 broad, built of enormous blocks of 
 stone, and had three groups of alcoves or seats 
 arranged at the ends and in the centre, and 
 between the central and side groups were mono¬ 
 lithic doorways with sculptured friezes. The 
 Hall of Justice also stands on a raised area, in 
 the centre of which was a building about 50 
 feet square, constructed of very large stones, 
 and called the Sanctuary. Within the building 
 is a slab of stone 13 feet 4 inches square and 
 20 inches thick. On its surface is cut what 
 seems to be the plan of a building resembling 
 that of the Fortress, and six niches in which 
 perhaps statues were located. 
 
 Tiahuanaco is famous for its great monolithic 
 gateway of hard trachyte 13 feet 5 inches, long, 
 7 feet 2 inches high above ground, and 18 inches 
 thick. The lintel over the front of the gateway 
 is sculptured in low relief and the back is carved 
 to represent doors and windows. The masonry 
 at Tiahuanaco is laid without mortar, the stones 
 on each course are tongued and grooved at the 
 ends, and bronze pins and T-clamps were em¬ 
 ployed to hold the courses in place. Earlier 
 travelers speak of statuary at Tiahuanaco, but 
 these pieces have been destroyed except a head, 
 which belonged to a figure probably about 18 
 feet high. The building stone was transported 
 from 15 to 40 miles and the dressing was done 
 with bronze and stone tools. There is no reliable 
 tradition as to the builders, who it is supposed 
 were the Incas or Aymaras, and no reason can 
 
 be assigned for the location of the city on a bar¬ 
 ren plain at a great altitude, unless it be that 
 the foundation was determined by religious 
 ideas. Consult Stiibel and Uhle, Die Ruinen- 
 stdtte von Tiahuanaco (Breslau, 1892). 
 
 TIAN-SHAN, te-iin' shan', or Celestial 
 Mountains. A great mountain system of Cen¬ 
 tral Asia 1500 miles long (Map: Asia, J, K 4). 
 It begins near the Desert of Gobi in a rocky 
 crest,^ and, running soutlnvestward, is joined 
 by a second, a third, and many other ranges, 
 which, as they advance westward, open out more 
 or less fanwise, the several ranges being con¬ 
 nected by intervening plateaus, and continuing 
 to preserve somewhat of a parallel direction. 
 Towards the centre the plateau is 250 miles 
 wide, while to the west the ridges become re¬ 
 duced in number, and sink into the plains about 
 Tashkend, in southeast Russian Turkestan. It 
 forms the north boundary of the great Tarim 
 Basin, which it separates from the watersheds 
 of Lake Balkash and the Syr-Darya. It is con¬ 
 nected by broken ranges with the Altai Moun¬ 
 tains to" the north, and, through the Sarikal, 
 with the Kuen-lun, Hindu-Ivush, and Himalaya 
 systems. In the central portion there is a main 
 ridge forming an unbroken wall covered with 
 perpetual snow throughout its length, and cul¬ 
 minating in the west in the Khan-Tengri, a 
 peak bearing enormous glaciers and reaching an 
 altitude of 24,000 feet. East of this ridge the 
 mountains descend in a broad plateau with scat¬ 
 tered peaks and ridges from 6000 to 10,000 feet 
 high. In the west portion there are several 
 important passes affording routes between Rus¬ 
 sian and East Turkestan. The system incloses 
 numerous large longitudinal valleys whose bot¬ 
 toms form wide steppe regions. Above, the 
 slopes are covered with spruce forests succeeded 
 by an alpine flora to the snow line. The loftiest 
 group in the eastern portion, the Bogdo-ola, is 
 held sacred by the Mongolians. Consult Gott¬ 
 fried Merzbacher, Central Tian-Shan Mountains 
 (New York, 1905). 
 
 TIARA, ti-a'ra or te-ii'ra (Lat. tiara, tiaras, 
 from Gk. ndpa, Tiapr]s, headdress of the Persian 
 kings). The triple crown of the Pope. Although 
 a cap called a tiara was worn by some Oriental 
 monarchs, as by the Achsemenid dynasty of Per¬ 
 sia, as an ecclesiastical headdress it has more 
 affinity with that of the Jewish high priests, the 
 form of which is more or less preserved in the 
 mitres worn by the bishops of the Eastern church 
 to-day. (See Costume, Ecclesiastical.) It 
 is composed of a high cap of gold cloth, encircled 
 by three coronets, with a mound and cross of 
 gold on the top. From the cap hang two pend¬ 
 ants, embroidered and fringed at the ends. The 
 original papal crown consisted of the cap alone, 
 and was first used by Pope Nicholas I (858- 
 867). Alexander II" added a second coronet 
 about 1065, and Urban V (1362-70) the third. 
 A symbolic meaning has since been found in the 
 triple crown, as representing the authority of 
 the Pope over the Church militant, expectant, 
 and triumphant. It is placed on the Pope’s head 
 at his coronation by the second cardinal deacon, 
 with the words “Receive the tiara, adorned with 
 three crowns, and know that thou art father of 
 princes and kings, ruler of the world, vicar of 
 our Saviour Jesus Christ.” At ceremonies of a 
 purely spiritual character the Pope wears the 
 mitre, like other' bishops, not the tiara. See 
 Crown. 
 
 TIBALDI, te-biiFde, Pellegrino (1527-98). 
 
TIBBTJS 
 
 TIBERIUS 
 
 255 
 
 An Italian architect and painter, born at Bo¬ 
 logna. A pupil of Daniele da Volterra in paint¬ 
 ing, lie subsequently worked both as an architect 
 and painter under the influence of Michelangelo 
 in Home, whither he had gone in 1547. His 
 graceful altar pieces, especially attractive 
 through the loveliness of the female heads, are 
 very rare. Of his frescoes “Hercules Taming 
 the Animals” may still be seen in the Loggia 
 dei Mercanti (Exchange) at Ancona. He is 
 important also as an architect of the late 
 Renaissance, especially in Milan where (1560— 
 70) he designed the Jesuit church of San Fedele, 
 reconstructed the archiepiscopal palace, and 
 designed the baroque facade of the cathedral. 
 Called to Madrid by Philip II in J5S6 to take 
 part in the erection of the Escorial, Tibaldi also 
 decorated its library with warmly colored fres¬ 
 coes, was created Marchese di Valsolda, and 
 after nine years returned to Milan, where he 
 died. Consult Zanotti, Le pitture di Pellegrino 
 Tibaldi (Venice, 1756), and Gurlitt, Der Ba- 
 rockstil in Italien (Stuttgart, 1887). 
 
 TIB'BUS, TIBUS, or TUBUS (rock people). 
 A people inhabiting Tibesti, in the eastern 
 Sahara, and extending southward into the Su¬ 
 dan. Von Luschan regards them as possibly 
 related to the central Sudanese negroes such as 
 the Kanuri. In these different areas they vary 
 greatly in hair and features. There are only 
 70,000 of them spread over an area of 300,000 
 square miles, under the names, Tedas, Dasas, 
 Bedeyat, Zoghawa, and Bulzeda. For genera¬ 
 tions they have been active in the traffic by 
 caravan across the Sahara. In religion they 
 are Mohammedan. Consult Rohlfs, Quer durch 
 Afrika, vol. i (Leipzig, 1874), and Nachtigal, 
 Sahara und Sudan (Berlin, 1879-89). 
 
 TUBER (Lat. Tiberis, poetical Thybris; Ital. 
 Teve're ). The principal river of central Italy. 
 It rises in Tuscany, at the south of the Monte 
 Fumajolo, in the Province of Arezzo, about 30 
 miles east of the source of the Arno, at an 
 altitude of more than 3600 feet above the level 
 of the sea, and flows towards the south in a wind¬ 
 ing course, across Perugia (Umbria). After 
 receiving the waters of many small streams, 
 at Orte, where it is joined by the Nera (the 
 ancient Nar), it forms the boundary between 
 Umbria and Rome, encircling Mount Soracte and 
 entering the Campagna Romana (Map: Italy, 
 D 4). About three miles above Rome it is 
 swelled by the Anio (now Aniene or Teverone), 
 then passes through the city of Rome, where it 
 forms an island, the Insula Tiberina (now Isola 
 di San Bartolommeo), and enters the Tyrrhen¬ 
 ian Sea about 26 miles below. 
 
 The total length of the Tiber is 245 miles; 
 its breadth at Rome is about 250 feet. It is a 
 swift-running stream, carrying down an enor¬ 
 mous amount of alluvial matter, which, in solu¬ 
 tion, gives the water that yellowish color for 
 which the flavus Tiberis was renowned. The 
 sediment deposited at the mouth of the Tiber 
 is pushing out the land at the rate of about ten 
 feet a year, so that the ruins of Ostia, the ancient 
 harbor of Rome, are now more than four miles 
 inland. The delta is formed of two mouths; the 
 fiumicino, originally a channel dug by Trajan 
 for his harbor (Portus Traiani), now the larger 
 and navigable branch, and the fiumara, now al¬ 
 most choked by sand banks; and these inclose 
 the Isola Sacra, a desolate and unhealthful 
 island once sacred to a Venus. The Tiber is 
 navigable by small steamers as far as Rome, and 
 
 by smaller craft 60 miles higher up. It is sub¬ 
 ject to frequent and often disastrous inunda¬ 
 tions, of which the ancient writers have recorded 
 no less than 23. Among the more famous floods 
 are that mentioned by Horace (Odes, 1, 2), that 
 of 1598, when the water at Rome rose 51^4 
 feet, and that of 1900, when it reached a flood 
 height of almost 54 feet. To remedy this evil, 
 the government, beginning in 1876, constructed 
 massive embankments at Rome, at the expense 
 of more than $25,000,000; but the carefully 
 planned work has proved defective. The stream 
 on the north of the Tiber island has become 
 clogged with sand, and in the flood of 1900 fully 
 a quarter of a mile of the south embankment 
 was carried away by the water. Consult Nar- 
 ducci, Saggio di Bibliografia del Tevere (Rome, 
 1876), and S. A. Smith, The Tiber and its Tribu¬ 
 taries (London, 1877). 
 
 TIBE'RIAS, Lake or Sea of. A lake in 
 Palestine. See Galilee, Sea of. 
 
 TIEE'RII CAS'TRUM. The Roman name 
 of the site now occupied by the Bavarian town 
 of Lindau (q.v.). 
 
 TIBE'RIUS (Tiberius Claudius Nero 
 Ufsar) (42 b.c-37 a.d.). The second Emperor 
 of Rome (14-37 a.d.). He was the son of 
 Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla 
 (q.v.), and was adopted by Augustus (q.v.) 
 when the latter married Livia in 38 b.c., after 
 her compulsory divorce. He was carefully edu¬ 
 cated, and early manifested intellectual power 
 and military skill. His first important com¬ 
 mand was the expedition sent in 20 b.c. to re¬ 
 store Tigranes (q.v.) to the throne of Armenia. 
 A more noteworthy commission was given him 
 in 15 b.c., when, in company with his younger 
 brother Drusus (q.v.), he defeated the Rhaetians. 
 Two years later he was consul with P. Quin- 
 tilius Varus, and in 11 b.c. he fought success¬ 
 fully against the Dalmatians and Pannonians. 
 The death of Drusus in 9 b.c. recalled Tiberius 
 to Germany, but in 7 b.c. he held the consul¬ 
 ship for the second time. The troubles which 
 were to overshadow his life had, however, al¬ 
 ready beg*un. In 11 b.c. he had been forced by 
 Augustus to divorce his wife, Vipsania Agrip¬ 
 pina, whom he loved deeply, and to marry the 
 Emperor’s daughter Julia, the widow of Marcus 
 Vipsanius Agrippa (q.v.). Her conduct, and 
 perhaps his own jealousy of the growing favor 
 of Gains and Lucius Caesar, the two grandsons of 
 Augustus, children of Julia and Agrippa, led 
 him to retire, against the Emperor’s will, to 
 Rhodes in 6 b.c., the year in which the tri- 
 bunician power was conferred upon him for five 
 years. He remained in Rhodes seven years, and 
 before his return Julia had been banished for 
 life to the island of Pandataria. The death of 
 Lucius Caesar in 2 a.d. and of Gaius in 4 led 
 Augustus to adopt Tiberius as his heir. From 
 this time until the Emperor’s death Tiberius 
 was in command of the Roman armies, and cam¬ 
 paign followed campaign. In 4 a.d. he reduced 
 Germany from the Rhine to the Elbe, from 6 to 
 9 he waged war again in Dalmatia and Pan- 
 nonia, and from 10 to 11 he held the Rhine 
 against the Germans who had defeated Varus 
 (q.v.). In 12 he was honored with a W’ell- 
 earned triumph. 
 
 When the death of Augustus occurred, August 
 19, 14, Tiberius was on his way to Illyricum. 
 He was summoned home by his mother, and at 
 once assumed control of the Empire. Despite his 
 execution of Postumus Agrippa, the grandson 
 
TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS 
 
 TIBET 
 
 256 
 
 of Augustus, his reign was at first beneficent. 
 Gradually, however, a change took place in 
 Tiberius. He minimized the power of the peo¬ 
 ple, and transferred the election of magistrates 
 from them to the Senate. At the same time he 
 watched with suspicion the increasing popular¬ 
 ity of Germanicus Csesar (q.v.), his nephew. In 
 19 Germanicus died, poisoned, reports current 
 at the time declared, at the instigation of his 
 uncle. About this time the evil genius of the 
 reign of Tiberius, iElius Sejanus (q.v.), gained 
 his ascendancy over the Emperor. Under his 
 influence a system of espionage was instituted 
 which doomed all who in any way opposed Tiber¬ 
 ius. Freedom was abolished in Rome, the Senate 
 was demoralized, and the Emperor sank to the 
 level of a cruel and ruthless tyrant. In 23 
 Sejanus abetted the murder of the only son of 
 Tiberius, Drusus Caesar (q.v.). Three years 
 later the Emperor left Rome with Sejanus, going 
 first to Campania and in 27 to Capri, where he 
 remained till his death. 
 
 In 29 Livia Drusilla died, thus removing one 
 of the last barriers to the complete degeneration 
 of her son. Two years later Tiberius learned of 
 the treachery and ambition of Sejanus, who was 
 put to death, only to be replaced by Macro, as 
 corrupt as his predecessor. In 37 Tiberius died, 
 smothered, though already on his death bed, by 
 Macro, and was succeeded by Caligula (q.v.). 
 The reign of Tiberius was beneficial to the 
 Empire at large, and the provinces especially 
 flourished under his sway. Only in Rome, and 
 only where his personal interests were at stake, 
 was he merciless. 
 
 The writings of Tiberius have been lost. His 
 style is said to have been obscure, archaic, and 
 affected. He wrote a brief autobiography, a lyric 
 on the death of Lucius Caesar, and a number of 
 Greek poems. 
 
 Bibliography. Eduard Pasch, Zur Kritifo 
 der Geschichte des Kaisers Tiberius (Altenburg, 
 1866) ; A. W. T. Stahr, Tiberius’ Leben, Regie -. 
 rung, Charakter (2d ed., ib., 1873) ; H. Schiller, 
 Geschichte der rbmischen Kaizerzeit (Gotha, 
 1883) ; Sabine Baring-Gould, Tragedy of the 
 Ccesars (5th ed., London, 1901); j. C. Tarver, 
 Tiberius the Tyrant (New York, 1902) ; E. S. 
 Beesly, Catiline, Clodius, and Tiberius (ib., 
 1907) ; T. S. Jerome, “The Tacitean Tiberius: A 
 Study in Historiographic Method,” in Classical 
 Philology, vii, 265-292 (Chicago, 1912) ; and the 
 article “Iulius, 34,” in Friedrich Liibker, Real- 
 lexikon des klassischen Altertums (8th ed., 
 Leipzig, 1914). 
 
 TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS. See Claudius I. 
 
 TIBET, or THIBET, tib'et or tl-bet'. A 
 province in Central Asia forming the southwest 
 part of China, and under the suzerainty of that 
 country. In its main features it is now fairly 
 well known through the efforts of many ex¬ 
 plorers, in spite of the policy of exclusion. The 
 name long covered half of Kashmir in the west 
 occupied by peoples of Tibetan origin. But 
 three regions are now excluded from Tibet: 
 (1) Little Tibet, between 74° and 79° east long., 
 now included in Kashmir, and composed of Bal- 
 tistan and Ladakh (qq.v.) ; (2) and (3) the 
 
 two regions known as Ku-ku-nor and the 
 Ts’aidam, or Ch’aidam, lying south of the Nan- 
 shan, east of tfie Altin-tagh, and north of the 
 curve formed by the eastern and southeastern 
 extension of the Kuen-lun system, bearing the 
 names of Akka, Tolai, Angirtekshia, Barkhan- 
 Bhoba, Shuga, etc. Area, 463,200 square miles. 
 
 Physical Features. Tibet is the highest and 
 most massive plateau in the world, suspended 
 between the two great continental chains of the 
 Kuen-lun and the Himalaya. This lofty table¬ 
 land contrasts sharply with the lowlands of 
 Hindustan on one side of it and the desert of 
 the Tarim basin on the other, the latter being 
 one of the lowest depressions in the interior of 
 any continent; so that the highest plateau on 
 the earth’s surface rises close to one of the 
 deepest depressions in the interior of the dry 
 land. Within the mountains forming the periph¬ 
 ery of this wide-spreading highland three dis¬ 
 tinct physical features may be recognized: (1) 
 The great plain stretching away from the west¬ 
 ern confines,of Tibet for about 700 miles east 
 and spanning the parallels of latitude between 
 the Kuen-lun and the valley of the Sanpo, which 
 collects the northern drainage of the Himalaya; 
 (2) the valleys and ranges of south Tibet, in¬ 
 cluding the valley of the Sanpo or upper Brah¬ 
 maputra ; and (3) the intricate system of ranges 
 and gorges in the east and southeast which con¬ 
 tain the sources of great rivers of China, Indo- 
 China, Siam, and Burma. 
 
 The table-land or high plateau has an eleva¬ 
 tion of 14,000 to 17,000 feet in the west and 
 slopes very gradually to the east and south. 
 Some important areas have not yet been visited, 
 but explorers’ routes seem to show that most 
 of the surface is a mass of mountains and val¬ 
 leys, the elevations rising from 2000 to 3000 feet 
 above the plain. A great many depressions con¬ 
 tain lakes which are salt unless they are drained 
 to other lakes, the entire hydrography being a 
 system of closed basins. 
 
 The long east and west depression of south 
 Tibet is still very high land, its ranges running 
 parallel with the Himalaya and its fertile val¬ 
 leys containing most of the population of Tibet. 
 The valley of the Sanpo is most important both 
 for agriculture and transportation. In this 
 southern part of the country are the seat of 
 the government and the centres of culture and 
 refinement; and far in the west of south Tibet, 
 within a few days’ march of one another, are 
 the sources of three great rivers—the Brahma¬ 
 putra, Sutlej, and Indus. 
 
 Eastern Tibet is a mass of ranges, partly cov¬ 
 ered with timber. It has more streams that rise 
 in neighboring valleys, but reach different seas 
 as great rivers, than any other part of the 
 world. The mountains among which they rise 
 have a larger rainfall than the plains to the 
 west, for they are reached by moist winds from 
 the Indian Ocean. Thus the headwaters of the 
 Hoang, the Yangtse, the Mekong, and the Sal win 
 rivers are already important streams before 
 leaving Tibet. These highlands, 15 times more 
 extensive than the Alps, are not so well known 
 as the western plateau. 
 
 Climate. Owing to the dryness of the air, 
 precipitation, either as rain or snow, is small 
 except among the eastern ranges to which humid 
 winds have access. The climate, however, is 
 severe on account of the great elevation in lati¬ 
 tudes corresponding with those of the Mississippi 
 delta and Memphis. Explorers have found the 
 winter cold, combined with deficiency of oxygen 
 on the plateau, almost unendurable, and several 
 of them have lost all their pack animals. The 
 rarefaction of the air and the clearness of the 
 sky give the rays of the summer sun full power 
 and the hottest of days are often succeeded by 
 night temperatures below freezing. The extremes 
 
TIBET 
 
 257 
 
 TIBET 
 
 of temperature are less in tlie partly wooded and 
 lower levels of east and south Tibet. 
 
 Flora. Trees do not grow on the table-lands 
 except in sheltered depressions, and then they 
 are stunted. It lias been settled that the flora, 
 so far as the northern and eastern sections are 
 concerned, belongs to the Arctic alpine division 
 of the great northern region. In the south, the 
 hot summer days, with irrigation, perfect a large 
 variety of fruits and farm products. In the 
 sheltered valleys of southeast and east Tibet 
 are forests of timber still untouched. 
 
 Fauna. This includes the wild yak ( Poepli- 
 agus grunniens ), antelope, gazelle, kyang or 
 wild ass {Equits hemionus ), nyang or mountain 
 sheep and goats (found above an elevation of 
 15,000 feet), wolf, fox, wild dog, bear (regarded 
 by the natives with dread as the primitive 
 speechless wild man and hence unmolested), 
 musk deer, and hare. In gam§ birds—especially 
 in eastern Tibet—there are the sand grouse, 
 several species of pheasant, ducks, teal, the bar¬ 
 headed goose, coolen, etc. Among the domestic 
 animals are the horse, sheep, cat, and dog, but 
 no fowls. Song birds are not found, except as 
 birds of passage. 
 
 Mineral Resources. Clay, slate, granite, 
 quartz, and limestone are the chief materials 
 forming the mountain ranges. The country is 
 known to be extremely rich in minerals, and 
 gold, silver, iron, and coal are prominent. 
 Gold washing is a common occupation both in 
 the east and west. In Thok Jolang, in the 
 southwest part of the Chang-tang, Littledale 
 found mining operations carried on six months 
 of the year, exclusively by Lhasa people. Lapis 
 lazuli and other semiprecious stones, as well as 
 gems, are extensively used for personal adorn¬ 
 ment by both sexes, and it is supposed the coun¬ 
 try must be rich in these. The Kuen-lun Moun¬ 
 tains have for many centuries been the chief 
 source of the jade supplies of China. 
 
 Agriculture. Farming and the tending of 
 flocks and herds are the chief occupations, but, 
 owing to the elevated and rugged nature of the 
 country, both are attended with many hard¬ 
 ships. The Chang-tang (north plain) has some 
 grass, but it is only at elevations less than 13,500 
 feet that the growing of barley—the hardiest of 
 all the cereals, and the chief article of food in 
 Tibet—becomes possible. The other crops are 
 wheat, buckwheat, cabbages, potatoes, turnips, 
 radishes, and pulse, and among the fruits, ap¬ 
 ples, apricots (especially in the western prov¬ 
 ince), and peaches, and in the south pomegran¬ 
 ates and jujubes. In much of the extreme south 
 agriculture in the valleys is in a flourishing 
 condition. 
 
 Industries. Tibet has no factories, but many 
 minor industries are carried on in the settled 
 districts, and the people are reputed to be skill¬ 
 ful weavers,' potters, and metal workers. Many 
 women embroider artistically with gold thread 
 and colored silks and manufacture large quanti¬ 
 ties of felt. An excellent kind of serge called 
 pulo is produced everywhere. 
 
 Commerce. The chief products of Tibet are 
 wool, lambskins, lynx, fox, leopard, and other 
 skins, yak tails, used in India as chowries or 
 flyflaps, deers’ horns, musk, rhubarb, gold dust, 
 precious stones, borax, nitre, salt, and live stock. 
 Much of the wool (from goats) goes to Kashmir 
 to be manufactured into Kashmir shawls. In 
 exchange for these Tibet receives tea, cotton, and 
 cotton goods, silk, sugar, and tobacco from both 
 
 China and India; satins, gold brocades, red 
 leather, chinaware, gun barrels, hardware, drugs, 
 and flour from China; leather and saddles from 
 Mongolia; broadcloth, indigo, spices, coral beads, 
 and pearls from India; and rice from Sikkim. 
 Owing to the failure of Tibet to keep Yatung, 
 near the Indian frontier, open to trade, the In¬ 
 dian government sent an armed mission to Tibet 
 in 1904 (the Younghusband expedition), which 
 compelled the Tibetans to open Yatung, Gyangtse, 
 and Gartok to British trade, and British agents 
 are now established at those towns. The treaty 
 signed by Tibet also provides that all forts be¬ 
 tween the Indian frontier and Gyangtse on routes 
 traversed by merchants shall be destroyed and 
 that no customs duties shall be imposed upon 
 merchandise excepting those agreed upon by 
 Great Britain and Tibet. 
 
 Transportation and Communication. Lhasa, 
 the capital, is the great central mart, from 
 which trade routes radiate in all directions. 
 There are three highroads from Lhasa to the 
 Chinese border and others to various points on 
 the frontier of Mongolia, Bhutan, and India and 
 through southern Tibet, from Lhasa to Gartok, 
 700 miles. Transportation is difficult and tedi¬ 
 ous, most of these journeys requiring months to 
 complete. Robbers are numerous and bold, hence 
 traders travel in large companies; the pack 
 animals are yaks, mules, ponies, and, where the 
 road is too stony for the yak, sheep are used, one 
 sheep carrying 25 to 30 pounds. Food, fodder, 
 and tents must be carried; the passes are precip¬ 
 itous and frequently blocked with snow. The 
 animals are never housed by the way, and the 
 mortality among them is very great. In the set¬ 
 tled parts of the country the streams are usually 
 bridged, or if unfordable they can be crossed in 
 round wickerwork boats covered with skins, the 
 animals swimming. 
 
 Government. At the present day the govern¬ 
 ment of Tibet is in a very uncertain state, be¬ 
 cause the country claims independence of China, 
 to which China does not agree, and because of 
 the great increase of British influence over 
 Tibetan affairs since the Younghusband expedi¬ 
 tion of 1904 and the Simla Conference of 1913— 
 14. Before the present unrest the government was 
 as follows: At the head stood the Dalai Lama, 
 theoretically an absolute ruler, residing in the 
 Potala or palace near Lhasa. Practically, how¬ 
 ever, his action was restrained to spiritual af¬ 
 fairs, and he was represented in political matters 
 by a regent, chosen for life by the Chinese gov¬ 
 ernment from among the chief lamas. This 
 regent, in rank a step below the Dalai Lama, 
 was supposed to be the most learned lama in the 
 country. Then came four ministers of state, one 
 of them a lama and the other three laymen. The 
 one who had served longest was Prime Minister. 
 Behind this machinery were two Ambans who 
 represented Chinese authority and had charge 
 of foreign and military affairs. Both the civil 
 and religious duties were largely in the hands 
 of Tibetans. There were courts of justice with 
 two judges residing in Lhasa. 
 
 Population. Officially, the population of 
 Tibet is given as 6,430,000, and by the Chinese 
 Michengpu census of 1910 as 6,500,000, about 14 
 to the square mile. But these figures are far 
 too high. Little estimates the number at about 
 1,000,000, and Pere Richard at from 2,000,000 to 
 3,000,000. Rockhill estimates the population of 
 central Tibet during the middle of last century 
 at 1,500,000, and this same authority regards 
 
TIBET 
 
 TIBET 
 
 258 
 
 the present population of the entire area now 
 known as Tibet as 3,500,000, which is no doubt 
 near the truth. Many influences are at work 
 to keep down the population, among which may 
 be mentioned the absence of immigration, the 
 prevalence of polyandry and of celibacy among 
 the lamaists, and the great hardships of life 
 among conditions that render the struggle for 
 existence intense and incessant. 
 
 Religion. Bon, the indigenous religion of the 
 country, is a kind of Shamanism (q.v.). It still 
 has many adherents, especially in eastern Tibet; 
 but the state religion, and the prevailing one, 
 is the corrupt form of Buddhism called Lamaism 
 (q.v.). There are several sects, but the most 
 powerful is the Gelugpa, which constitutes the 
 established church. (See Tsong-k’a-pa. ) For 
 the mass both of lamas and people religion is 
 reduced to a system of magic in which worship 
 has no object except to conjure the evil spirits. 
 Followers of this sect wear yellow caps as dis¬ 
 tinct from the unreformed Nyingmepas, who 
 wear red caps, and are the next most powerful 
 sect. The lamas or monks are very numerous 
 and dwell in great lamaseries, of which there 
 are a great number. The largest is 7 miles west 
 of Lhasa, and is known as the Dupon monastery. 
 It is a city in itself and accommodates at present 
 7500 lamas. Here is the Great Oracle of State, 
 operated by supposedly inspired lamas. Its in¬ 
 fluence is even greater than ancient Delphi. The 
 Sera monastery at Lhasa has 5500 lamas, and 
 the Gandan monastery about 2000. These 15,000 
 lamas practically control the country, and at 
 times even the Dalai Lama and the Ambans 
 are forced to give way to them. The power and 
 richness of the monasteries increase yearly, and 
 education is chiefly in their hands. 
 
 Ethnology. Judged by their language alone, 
 Tibetans proper belong to the Tibeto-Indo-Chi- 
 nese branch of Keane’s Homo Mongolicus. Phys¬ 
 ically, however, they exhibit marked variations, 
 there being present at least two types—one Mon¬ 
 goloid, the other a somewhat slender figure, thin, 
 prominent, often aquiline nose, straight eyes, and 
 long, sometimes wavy hair. In the permanently 
 settled portions of the country, where centres 
 of population have existed for centuries, the 
 people have varied considerably from the orig¬ 
 inal type, the result being a mixed race, becoming 
 more Chinese as one goes towards China, or more 
 Indian (Nepalese or Kashmiri) as one travels 
 southward or westward. This mixture is in part 
 due to the concubinage of native women with 
 foreign traders, soldiers, pilgrims, officials, etc., 
 and in part to the system of polyandry. Mo¬ 
 nogamy prevails among the nomads, but else¬ 
 where polyandry is common, one woman becoming 
 the wife of the brothers of a family, the oldest 
 being considered the father of all the children, 
 the others being regarded merely as uncles. 
 There is also some polygamy among the wealthy, 
 as in China. 
 
 History. The early history of Tibet is leg¬ 
 endary and obscure. In the middle of the eighth 
 century Tibet extended from Kuku Nor and 
 Ladakh on the north into India in the south, 
 while on the east the tribesmen came into fre¬ 
 quent conflict with China, and it is recorded 
 that they even entered Chang-an, the capital, in 
 763. In 747 the famous Indian wizard and 
 teacher, Padma-sambhava, had arrived; he made 
 a long missionary journey through the country, 
 everywhere vanquishing the Shamanistic devils, 
 and laid the foundation of Lamaism. In 749 the 
 
 first monastery was built. Muni-tsanpo came to 
 the throne in 789. In order to better the condi¬ 
 tion of the poor he compelled the rich to share 
 their wealth with the indigent. This leveling 
 process was unsuccessful. Lang-dharma, who 
 died in 899, left only minor sons; the kingdom 
 was broken up into two, later into a number of 
 petty principalities, and it was easy for Genghis 
 Khan to incorporate Tibet into his empire in 
 1206. 
 
 Kublai Khan, the conqueror of China, actively 
 promoted the spread of Buddhism throughout 
 the Mongol Empire. Buddhism having entered 
 from India and China in the first half of the 
 seventh century, the language was reduced to 
 writing, the translation of the sacred books was 
 begun, and about 650 the first temple—the Lab- 
 rang, at Lhasa—was erected. From this time 
 forth the internal history of Tibet is the history 
 of the struggle of Buddhism (already corrupt) 
 with the indigenous Shamanism (q.v.), the rise 
 and development of Lamaism (q.v.) and the 
 Lamaistic hierarchy, the abolition of the kingly 
 dignity and the establishment of the supremacy 
 of the Grand Lama at Lhasa as the head of both 
 church and state. In 1270 he made the chief 
 of the Sakya sect head of the church, and con¬ 
 ferred on him the temporal power. Near the 
 end of the fourteenth century arose Tsong-k’a-pa 
 (q.v.), the great reformer, through whose ef¬ 
 forts Lamaism was purified somewhat, and a 
 new and powerful sect, the Gelugpa, was 
 founded. In 1642 Kushri Khan, the Mongol 
 Prince of Kuku Nor, conquered Tibet, and in 
 1645 made over the sovereignty of it to the 
 Grand Lama of the time, with the title of Dalai 
 (or Tale) Lama. He has continued ever since 
 to be both the head of the state and the head 
 of the church, the Chinese Empire having con¬ 
 firmed him in both offices in 1650. In 1717 the 
 Sungars invaded the countrv, but were driven out 
 by Chinese armies in 1720, when eastern Tibet 
 was placed under the direct rule of Chinese of¬ 
 ficials at Kansu and Szechwan. In 1774 War¬ 
 ren Hastings sent from India an envoy to nego¬ 
 tiate friendly commercial relations between Tibet 
 and the British East India Company. Another 
 embassy was sent under Turner in 1783, but 
 his efforts were made futile by the policy of the 
 company under the administration of Lord Corn¬ 
 wallis, who, under treaty engagements with 
 Nepal, assisted the Gurkhas when in 1790 they 
 invaded Tibet and plundered Tashilunpo. They 
 were driven out in 1792 and the passes between 
 India and Tibet remained virtually closed until 
 1903. 
 
 The latter years of the Manchu dynasty saw a 
 steady decline in Chinese control over Tibet. 
 The inability of the Peking government to es¬ 
 tablish order and security finally led to the send¬ 
 ing of a mission with an escort (the Young- 
 husband expedition) by the Indian'government 
 to Lhasa in 1904, in order to arrange matters 
 directly with the Tibetan authorities. (See 
 above.) These direct negotiations between India 
 and Tibet led to a protest from the Chinese 
 government, who demanded recognition as the 
 suzerain of Tibet. The lengthy negotiations 
 which followed resulted in the Anglo-Chinese 
 convention of 1906, supplemented by a trade 
 agreement in 1908. China, as the recognized 
 sovereign power in Tibet, paid to the British 
 an indemnity of 2,500,000 rupees, and Great 
 Britain began to evacuate the Cliumbi valley in 
 Februarv, 1908. 
 
 V ' 
 
TIBET 
 
 TIBIA 
 
 259 
 
 Great Britain next made a convention with 
 Russia, Aug. 31, 1907, in which both high con¬ 
 tracting parties agreed not to enter into negotia¬ 
 tions with Tibet except through the Chinese 
 government; nor was either power to send rep¬ 
 resentatives to Lhasa. 
 
 The Chinese retained their hold on Tibet until 
 the revolution of 1911. When it broke out the 
 Chinese garrison at Lhasa mutinied in sympathy, 
 but their lawless excesses against the inhabitants 
 led to a revolt. They were besieged in Lhasa 
 until August, 1912, when they were forced to 
 retire, minus arms and ammunition, from Tibet 
 by way of India. An expedition was immediately 
 organized in China for the purpose of reconquer¬ 
 ing Tibet, and it would have been successful 
 had not Great Britain protested that such ex¬ 
 pedition was a violation of the Anglo-Chinese 
 treaty of 1906. China claimed the right to send 
 troops into Tibet to restore order and to pacify 
 the borderland, also to police and administer 
 the country according to her suzerain rights. 
 She disclaimed all intention to convert Tibet 
 into a Chinese province. Great Britain, how¬ 
 ever, prevented the sending of the expedition 
 and the consequent subjugation of the country 
 by the Chinese. 
 
 By 1913 all Chinese troops had been driven 
 out of Tibet, and the Tibetans claimed inde¬ 
 pendence. An agreement to that effect Was 
 made, Jan. 11, 1913, with Mongolia. The Dalai 
 Lama, as Sovereign of Tibet, approved of the 
 formation of an independent state in Mongolia 
 (Outer), which, had also revolted from Chinese 
 authority, while the Sovereign of Mongolia (the 
 Hutukhta of Urga) likewise approved of Tibet 
 as an independent state. Buddhism was to be 
 established on a firm footing, and mutual as¬ 
 sistance and protection (against China) was 
 promised by one new state to the other. 
 
 An attempt to end the anomalous situation 
 in Tibet and to establish its status was made 
 by the Simla Conference, which met in October, 
 1913, with representatives from China, the In¬ 
 dian government, and the Dalai Lama. The 
 conference resulted, April 27, 1914, in a pro¬ 
 visional agreement of 11 articles and a later ex¬ 
 change of notes of seven articles. The following 
 provisions were adopted: (1) For administra¬ 
 
 tive purposes Tibet was to be divided into Outer 
 and Inner Tibet, Inner Tibet being the region 
 adjacent to China. (2) Tibet was to form 
 part of Chinese territory, under Chinese suzer¬ 
 ainty. (3) Outer Tibet was to be autonomous. 
 Great Britain and China were to abstain from 
 all interference with its administration. China 
 was to agree that Outer Tibet would not be rep¬ 
 resented in any future Chinese parliament, and 
 was not to send troops into the country, or 
 establish any Chinese colonies or civil or mili¬ 
 tary officers in that region. (4) A Chinese of¬ 
 ficial was to be maintained at Lhasa, with an 
 eshort of 300 men. (5) The British agent at 
 Gyangtse might visit Lhasa with an escort. (6) 
 The trade regulations of 1893 and 1908 were to 
 be cancelled. (7) Difficulties between the Chi¬ 
 nese and Tibetan (Outer) governments arising 
 out of this agreement were to be referred to 
 Great Britain for adjudication. 
 
 The Chinese government at Peking repudiated 
 the acts of its representative and refused to 
 sign, although Great Britain and Tibet signed 
 on July 3, 1914. China based her refusal on the 
 fact that Chiamdo was included in Outer instead 
 of Inner Tibet, and that Litang and Ba+ang in 
 
 Inner Tibet were in reality parts of Szechwan 
 Province. Great Britain notified the Chinese 
 government that, until the convention was 
 signed, China would be deprived of all the rights 
 and benefits accruing to her therefrom. 
 
 Bibliography. Samuel Turner, Account of 
 an Embassy to the Court of the Teshoo Lama in 
 Tibet (London, 1800) ; Thomas Thomson, West¬ 
 ern Himalaya and Tibet (ib., 1852) ; Koppen, 
 Tibet und der Lamaismus bis zur Zeit der Mon¬ 
 gol enherr sclia ft (Berlin, 1859) ; Sir T. E. Gor¬ 
 don, Roof of the World (Edinburgh, 1876) ; 
 Konrad Ganzemuller, Tibet nach den Resultaten 
 geographischer Forscliungen fruherer und neues- 
 ter Zeit (Stuttgart, 1878) ; W. J. Gill, River of 
 Golden Sand (2 vols., London, 1880) ; W. W. 
 Rockhill, Land of the Lamas (New York, 1891) ; 
 A. E. Pratt, To the Snows of Tibet through 
 China (London, 1892) ; E. Lamairesse, L’Empire 
 Chinois; la Bouddhisme en Chine et en Thibet 
 (Paris, 1893) ; W. W. Rockhill, Diary of a 
 Journey through Mongolia and Tibet in 1891 
 and 1892 (Washington, 1894) ; I. B. Bishop, 
 Among the Tibetans (Oxford, 1894) ; A. H. S. 
 Landor, In the Forbidden Land; an Account of a 
 Journey in Tibet (2 vols., London, 1898) ; E. R. 
 Hue, Travels in Tartary, Tibet, and China, Dur¬ 
 ing the Years 181fJf-5-6, trans. from the French 
 by W. Hazlitt (2 vols., Chicago, 1898); M. S. 
 Wellby, Through Unknown Tibet (London, 
 1898) ; H. H. P. Deasy, In Tibet and Chinese 
 Turkestan (New York, 1901); A. J. Little, 
 Mount Omi and Beyond, a Record of Travel on 
 the Thibetan Border (London, 1901); Sven 
 Iledin, Central Asia and Tibet towards the Holy 
 City of Lassa (2 vols., ib., 1903) ; id., Adven¬ 
 tures in Tibet (ib., 1904); Das Sarat Chandra, 
 Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet, ed. by W. 
 W. Rockhill (new ed., New York, 1904) ; Perce¬ 
 val Landon, The Opening of Tibet (ib., 1905) ; 
 L. A. Waddell, Lhasa and its Mysteries, with a 
 Record of the Expedition of 1903-1,90 J (London, 
 1905) ; T. H. Holdich, Tibet the Mysterious 
 (New York, 1906) ; W. J. Ottley, With Mounted 
 Infantry in Tibet (London, 1906) ; Ahmad Shah, 
 Four Years in Tibet (Benares, 1906) ; C. A. 
 Sherring, Western Tibet and the British Border¬ 
 land (New York, 1906) ; W. Filchner, Das 
 Kloster Kumburn in Tibet: ein Beitrag zu seiner 
 Gesqhiclite (Berlin, 1906) ; id., Das Rdtsel des 
 Matschu; meine Tibet-expedition (ib., 1907); 
 A. H. Francke, A History of Western Tibet, One 
 of the Unknoion Empires (London, 1907) ; Sven 
 Hedin, Trans-Himalaya; Discoveries and Ad¬ 
 ventures in Tibet (3 vols., ib., 1909-13) ; F. E. 
 Younghusband, India and Tibet (ib., 1910) . For 
 language see H. A. Jaschlce, Tibetan Grammar 
 (2d ed., London, 1881); id., Tibetan-English 
 Dictionary (ib., 1881); Dictionnaire Thibttain- 
 latin-frangais (Hongkong, 1899) ; Graham Sand¬ 
 berg, Handbook of Colloquial Tibetan (Calcutta, 
 1894). 
 
 TIBET, Little. See Baltistan. 
 
 TIB'IA (Lat., shin bone). In anatomy, the 
 larger of the two bones forming the leg, the 
 other being the fibula. It articulates with the 
 femur above and with the astragalus below. 
 
 The tibia was also the name of the com¬ 
 monest musical instrument of the Greeks and 
 Romans. It was a pipe or flute, originally 
 made of bone, but later of a reed, with the 
 opening at the top, protected by a natural knot, 
 with a tongue beneath, partially detached by 
 a longitudinal slit. It was used at festivals, 
 sacrifices, and dances, as an accompaniment to 
 
TIBULLUS 
 
 260 
 
 TICINO 
 
 the rowing of the trireme, sometimes also to the 
 march of troops to battle. The tibia dextra 
 was the bass instrument and was held in the 
 right hand, the tibia sinistra, or treble instru¬ 
 ment, in the left. The tibiae pares were both 
 treble or both bass, and the tibiie impares were 
 one bass and one treble. 
 
 TIBUL'LUS, Albius (c.54-c.19 b.c.). A 
 Roman elegiac poet, born of a noble family. 
 He inherited an estate at Pedum, between Tibur 
 and Prseneste, which had been either wholly 
 or partially confiscated in the civil wars. Tibul¬ 
 lus, however, recovered part of his property, and 
 spent there the best part of his life. He was 
 patronized by Messala, whom in 31 he ac¬ 
 companied to Aquitania, to help suppress a 
 serious revolt. He was present at the battle of 
 Atax, a final blow to the insurgents; and he 
 celebrates in a fine strain of poetry his honorable 
 part in the campaign. Next year Messala was 
 sent to the East, and again Tibullus accom¬ 
 panied him; but, having been obliged from ill¬ 
 ness to stop at Corcyra, he returned to Rome. 
 Henceforth he devoted himself to poetry. His 
 Elegies (four books) are mainly addressed to 
 his mistresses, Delia, Nemesis, and Glycera. The 
 third book is now believed to be the work, 
 not of Tibullus, but of an inferior poet; while 
 the hexameter poem on Messala (opening the 
 fourth book) is also supposed to be by another. 
 The character of Tibullus was pure, amiable, 
 and winning. During life he had the honor of 
 being addressed in an ode and an epistle by 
 Horace; after death, of being bewailed in an 
 elegy of matchless beauty by Ovid. The best 
 editions are those of Raehrens (Leipzig, 1878), 
 Hiller (ib., 1885), Muller (ib., 1885), Postgate 
 (1906), and, with admirable Introduction and 
 Commentary, by K. F. Smith (New York, 1913). 
 The poems were translated into English by 
 Grainger (1752) and Cranstoun (1872), into 
 English prose by Kelly (1854), and into English 
 verse by T. C. Williams (1905). Consult: W. Y. 
 Sellar, Horace and the Elegiac Poets (Oxford, 
 1892) ; J. W. Duff, A Literary History of Rome 
 (New York, 1909) ; W. S. Teuffel, Geschichte 
 der romischen Litteratur, vol. ii (6th ed., Leip¬ 
 zig, 1910) ; Martin Schanz, Geschichte der 
 romischen Litteratur, vol. ii, part i (3d ed., 
 Munich, 1911). 
 
 TI'BUR. See Tivoli. 
 
 TIBUS. See Tibbus. 
 
 TICAO, te-ka'6. An island belonging to the 
 Philippine Province of Masbate (q.v.). 
 
 TIC DOULOUREUX, tik dbo' loo'roo', Fr. 
 pron. -re. See Facial Neuralgia. 
 
 TICK'BORNE TRIAL. A celebrated trial 
 in which an impostor attempted to obtain pos¬ 
 session of the Tichborne estates in Hampshire 
 and Dorsetshire, England, by assuming to be 
 the heir, Roger Charles Tichborne. The case was 
 remarkable for the interest it aroused, for the 
 thoroughness of the trial, and for the impostor’s 
 success in deceiving many people. The real 
 Roger Charles Tichborne was born in 1829, and 
 after some education in France, and at the Ro¬ 
 man Catholic College at Stonyhurst, England, 
 entered the British army. His accent and ec¬ 
 centricities made him unpopular and he re¬ 
 signed and went to Brazil. In 1854 he sailed 
 from Rio de Janeiro in the ship Bella, which 
 was lost at sea with all 011 board. His father, 
 Sir James Tichborne, died in 1862, and as Roger 
 was supposed to be dead, a younger son, Alfred, 
 became heir. Lady Tichborne refused to believe 
 
 that her son Roger was dead, and advertised 
 extensively for information regarding his where¬ 
 abouts. In 1865 a butcher, Arthur Orton, who 
 resided at Wagga Wagga, in New South Wales, 
 under the name of Thomas Castro, conceived 
 the idea of representing himself to be Roger 
 Charles Tichborne and claiming the estates. He 
 wrote a letter to Lady Tichborne claiming to 
 be her son. The letter was illiterate and con¬ 
 tained statements as to his identification which 
 were wholly false and inapplicable to the true 
 heir. He subsequently came to England, went 
 over the Tichborne estates, gained all the infor¬ 
 mation he could as to the former life and habits 
 of Roger, and succeeded in convincing the family 
 solicitor and others of his identity. In January, 
 1S66, he called on Lady Tichborne in Paris 
 and was received as her son. This was re¬ 
 markable, as there was no similarity in the 
 * _ ** 
 
 appearance of Orton and Roger Tichborne, and 
 Orton had no knowledge of the French language, 
 in which the true heir was proficient. After 
 this recognition he had great success in gaining 
 adherents, but the Tichborne family repudiated 
 him, and investigated his life, discovering his 
 true name and past career. He • succeeded in 
 raising large sums of money by issuing bonds, 
 payable upon his obtaining possession of the 
 property. These were widely distributed. He 
 brought ejectment suits to recover the estates in 
 1871, and succeeded in inducing over 100 wit¬ 
 nesses to swear that they recognized him or be¬ 
 lieved him to be Roger Tichborne. Despite his 
 ignorance, he exhibited remarkable shrewdness 
 and cunning at the trial, which lasted 103 days 
 and ended in his being nonsuited. In 1873 he 
 was tried for perjury, being defended by Edward 
 Kenealy, and after a trial of 188 days was 
 convicted, and sentenced to 14 years’ penal 
 servitude. He was released in 1884, and unsuc¬ 
 cessfully attempted to stir up public sentiment 
 in his favor. The cost of the two trials has 
 been estimated at £200,000. Orton died in 
 abject poverty in 1898. Consult The Tichborne 
 Romance (Manchester, England, 1871) and 
 Charge of Lord Chief Justice of England in the 
 Case of Queen vs. Thomas Castro (London, 
 1874). 
 
 TICINO, tg-che'nd. A river of Switzerland 
 and north Italy (Map: Switzerland, C 3). It 
 rises on the south slope of the St. Gotthard, 
 flov r s in a general southerly course through Lago 
 Maggiore, and empties into the Po after passing 
 the city of Pavia. Its length is 154 miles. 
 Its upper course is a wild mountain torrent 
 flowing through romantic gorges, but below the 
 lake it is navigable and communicates with 
 several canals. 
 
 TICINO (Ger. Tessin). A southern canton of 
 Switzerland, bordering on Italy. Area, 1088 
 square miles (Map: Switzerland, C 2). It has 
 a very mountainous surface intersected by the 
 valleys of the Ticino, Maggia, Moesa, and of a 
 few other streams. In the north rise the Lepon- 
 tine Alps with the St. Gotthard, in the east 
 are the Adula Alps, wiiile the south around 
 Lago Maggiore is comparatively low, and is 
 the most fertile part of the canton. Notwith¬ 
 standing its mountainous character, Ticino has 
 two-thirds of its area under cultivation. Cereals 
 are the chief products, but southern fruits and 
 grapes are also cultivated on a large scale. 
 The manufacturing industries are undeveloped 
 and native artisans emigrate annually to other 
 parts of Europe. The chief means of transpor- 
 
TXCINUM 
 
 261 
 
 TICKELL 
 
 tation is the St. Gotthard Railway. The con¬ 
 stitution (as amended in 1892 and 1904) pro¬ 
 vides for a Legislative Assembly elected by the 
 people on the basis of proportional representa¬ 
 tion, and an Executive Council, also elected by 
 the people. The optional referendum prevails. 
 Pop., 1900, 138,638; 1910, 158,556, almost ex¬ 
 clusively Italians. Capital, Bellinzona (q.v.). 
 
 Ticino as part of Gallia Cisalpina was early 
 joined to the Roman Republic. After the de¬ 
 cline of the Roman poAver it passed successively 
 into the hands of the Ostrogoths, Lombards, and 
 Franks. During the later mediawal period its 
 territory formed a portion of the Duchy of 
 Milan, from which it was wrested in successive 
 conquests during the fifteenth and sixteenth cen¬ 
 turies by the members of the Swiss Confederacy, 
 whose title was confirmed by the Eternal Peace 
 of 1516. The attempt to establish Protestantism 
 in the District of Locarno Avas rigorously 
 stamped out by the exile of members of that 
 faith in 1555. Ihe rule of the Italian district 
 by the other members of the confederacy was 
 harsh, but only one rebellion, in 1755, marked 
 its course. In 1798 this district, divided into 
 the cantons of Bellinzona and Lugano, was con¬ 
 stituted part of the Helvetic Republic; in 1803 
 they were united into one canton—Ticino— 
 Avhich received greater privileges as a full 
 member of the confederacy. Other difficulties 
 Avere removed by the constitution of 1830, but 
 measures of a religious and commercial nature 
 have often separated the inhabitants from the 
 sympathy of their northern neighbors, and local 
 struggles of Radical and Ultramontane parties 
 have often necessitated Federal interference. 
 Consult Motta, Bibliografia storica ticinese (Zu¬ 
 rich, 1887) ; Samuel Butler, Alps and Sanctu¬ 
 aries of Piedmont and the Canton Ticino (New 
 York, 1913). 
 
 TICI'NUM. See Pavia (second paragraph). 
 
 TICK (AS., ticia, misAvritten for tiica, tica, 
 Ger. Zecke, tick; connected with Armen, tiz, 
 tick). One of those members of the order Aca- 
 rina which belong to the families Argasidse and 
 Ixodidae, which have been grouped together in the 
 superfamily Ixodoidea. The ticks or louse flies 
 are eight-legged creatures in which the cephalo- 
 thorax is coalesced with the abdomen. The 
 newly hatched individual is flat and nearly cir¬ 
 cular and has only six legs. With the first molt 
 it enters the second or nymphal stage, which 
 is characterized by the presence of a fourth pair 
 of legs. After the second molt it becomes ma¬ 
 ture. In the free-living state the body of a 
 mature tick is flattened dorsally and is of an 
 oval shape. The body is covered with a leathery 
 integument which generally assumes on the 
 dorsal surface a hardened, chitinous, more or 
 less smooth, and darker appearance. Near the 
 margin it is impressed by a depressed line leav¬ 
 ing a distinct rim around the body. 
 
 All ticks, so far as knoAvn, although found 
 upon plants in their early stages, are parasites 
 of animals. The young seek on every possible 
 occasion to fasten themselves to vertebrate ani¬ 
 mals, usually mammals and birds, choosing spots 
 AA r here the skin is soft. When the young first 
 fasten themselves they cannot penetrate deeply 
 enough to draw blood, but the irritation causes a 
 suppuration on which they feed. When thev 
 ha\-e grown sufficiently to enable them to reach 
 a blood vessel, the small, flat, semitransparent 
 creatures soon become distended, the body be¬ 
 comes rounded, and the color frequently becomes 
 
 dark red. In a week or more the larva is 
 transformed into the nymph, Avhich at the ex¬ 
 piration of another week is changed to a mature 
 individual. Only the female sucks blood, so far 
 as is knoAAm. The male retains its form and 
 size, and although it attaches itself to warm¬ 
 blooded animals, it evidently does so only to 
 seek the female. 
 
 Several species occur in the United States. 
 The common dog tick or wood tick ( Derma- 
 centor electus) is found frequently in the AA r oods 
 in the Northern States. The common tick oc¬ 
 curring upon the ground squirrel in the Missis¬ 
 sippi A'alley is Ixodes rioinus. Argas miniatus 
 is destructive to chickens in parts of Texas and 
 Florida, and Argas reflexus, the pigeon tick, is 
 common in pigeon houses in Europe and the 
 southern United States. This species is capable 
 of living a great length of time without food. 
 In Persia a species, the miana bug (Argas 
 persicus) , lives in houses and seeks human prey 
 at night; its bite causes serious disturbance, 
 and is said even to cause death. In South 
 America a species known as garapate (Am- 
 blyomma americanum) occurs in dry, bushy 
 places, where it clings to twigs and transfers it¬ 
 self to passing horses or cattle. It also lives 
 in the United States and has been found on 
 human beings. Eight species of ticks in the 
 United States have been found upon cattle, one 
 associated with the Texas cattle fever ( Bo- 
 ophilus annulatus) being the most noted and 
 most destructive. Other species of the same 
 genus transmit the same or similar diseases 
 of cattle in other parts of the world. Bobphilus 
 australis transmits what is probably the same 
 disease in Australia, and Bobphilus decoloratus 
 (the so-called blue tick) acts the same way 
 in South Africa, carrying the disease commonly 
 known as red water. Texas cattle fever is par¬ 
 ticularly destructive to northern cattle that 
 have been shipped south or that have been 
 brought into contact with southern infested 
 cattle shipped north. The dipping of cattle in 
 vats containing cottonseed oil or any one of 
 seA T eral mixtures, knoAvn as cattle dips, destrovs 
 the ticks. 
 
 Certain mites of the family Gamasidse are 
 sometimes known as ticks, although the name in 
 this application is erroneous. The bird tick 
 (Dermanyssus avium) is a familiar parasite of 
 caged birds. The poultry tick ( Dermanyssus 
 gallince ) t also knoAvn as the little chicken mite, 
 clings to fowls and sucks their blood. Certain 
 of the true insects are also erroneously called 
 ticks. For example, the flies of the family Hip- 
 poboscidae are quite generally knoAvn as bird 
 ticks. (See Forest Fly; Pupipara.) The de¬ 
 graded Avingless flies of the family Nycteribiid* 
 are called bat ticks. 
 
 Consult G. H. F. Nuttall and others, Ticks: 
 
 A Monograph of the Ixodoidea (2 vols., NeAv 
 York, 1908-11), containing a bibliography, and 
 W. A. Hooker and others, Life History and 
 Bionomics of some North American Ticks 
 (Washington, 1912). See also Dove Tick; 
 Louse Fly. 
 
 TICK'ELL, Thomas (1686-1740). An Eng¬ 
 lish poet, born at Bridekirk, in Cumberland. He 
 was educated at Queen’s College, Oxford, of 
 which he became fellow (1710-26). He at¬ 
 tracted the attention of Addison by some lines 
 praising the latter’s Rosamond; and Addison, 
 on becoming Secretary of State in 1717, made 
 him Undersecretary. He Avas secretary to the 
 
TICKER 
 
 262 
 
 TICKET OF LEAVE 
 
 Lords Justices of Ireland from 1724 till liis 
 death. He published Prospect of Peace (1712), 
 The Royal Progress (1714), and a poetical 
 version of the first book of the Iliad (1715), 
 out of which grew the famous quarrel between 
 Pope (q.v.) and Addison (q.v.). His best- 
 known poem is Colin and Lucy; the longest is 
 Kensington Gardens (1722). Goldsmith calls 
 his Elegy on Addison (prefixed to Addison’s 
 Works, 1721) one of the finest odes in our 
 language. Consult Samuel Johnson, Lives of 
 the British Poets, vol. ii (ed. by G. B. Hill, 
 Oxford, 1905). 
 
 TICKER. See Telegraph. 
 
 TICKET (OF. estiquette, etiquette, Fr. eti¬ 
 quette, ticket, label, etiquette, from OHG. steh- 
 han, Ger. stechen, to stick). A slip of paper 
 containing a statement or certificate that the 
 person to whom it is issued, or the holder, is 
 entitled to some right or privilege therein re¬ 
 ferred to or described, as railroad tickets, 
 theatre tickets, pawn tickets, and lottery tickets. 
 A ticket is evidence of a contract between the 
 holder of the ticket and the person or corpora¬ 
 tion issuing it. Usually tickets do not purport 
 to express the entire contract between the 
 parties, and the terms or conditions which are 
 not expressed may be supplied by parol evidence 
 (q.v.). Where the ticket grants the right or 
 privilege of using the grantor’s real estate, 
 as in case of theatre tickets, the holder of 
 the ticket acquires no title or interest in the 
 real estate, but becomes a mere licensee (see 
 License) entitled to use the real estate in the 
 manner and for the purposes specified. The 
 licensor or grantor of the ticket, however, may 
 at will revoke the license, even though such a 
 revocation is a breach of the contract; and 
 upon such revocation the holder of the ticket 
 becomes a mere trespasser and may be sum¬ 
 marily ejected, but only necessary force can 
 lawfully be used for that purpose. He may, 
 however, be entitled to recover damages for 
 breach of the contract in ejecting him. This 
 right of the theatre proprietor, however, is not 
 an absolute one, to be exercised under all cir¬ 
 cumstances, and if the discrimination against 
 a patron is for reasons of race, creed, or color 
 a severe penalty will be imposed for each ejec¬ 
 tion or revocation of license. Furthermore,, a 
 license, evidenced by a ticket, may become ir¬ 
 revocable when coupled with an interest, as in 
 cases where the licensee has an interest in the 
 property or enterprise which is involved in the 
 transaction. The courts of New York have held 
 that an adverse critic may be excluded, inasmuch 
 as his exclusion is not on the ground of dis¬ 
 crimination for reasons of race, creed, or color. 
 See Theatre. 
 
 This rule does not apply in the case of 
 tickets issued by common carriers, who, by virtue 
 of their public calling, are compelled to accept 
 for carriage all who pay a reasonable fare and 
 comply with their reasonable rules and regula¬ 
 tions.' Passenger tickets under ordinary cir¬ 
 cumstances are generally now held to be 
 contracts, and not mere symbols or means of 
 identification of the passenger, so that the 
 holder of a ticket is deemed to assent to its 
 terms. Such stipulations, which usually restrict 
 the liability of the carrier, have been held to 
 be valid and binding if reasonable and not 
 against public policy. Common carriers may 
 require passengers to buy tickets as a condi¬ 
 tion of their being carried; and, when reasonable 
 
 opportunity to do so is given, the carrier may 
 charge an additional rate when the passenger 
 has failed to buy a ticket. Common carriers 
 may make any condition as to the time and 
 use of tickets which is reasonable. Thus pro¬ 
 visions contained in the ticket that it shall be 
 used before a date named, or that it shall 
 be stamped by the carrier before it is presented 
 for a return trip, or that it shall not be trans¬ 
 ferable, have been held to be valid. 
 
 The carrier may require the passenger to 
 produce the ticket or an identification check for 
 inspection whenever requested to do so, and 
 upon the passenger’s failure to comply with the 
 regulation may eject him. This appears to be 
 the general rule even when the passenger’s in¬ 
 ability to comply with the regulation is due 
 to the neglect of the carrier’s agents, as when 
 the wrong ticket is given out by the carrier’s 
 ticket agent or the wrong coupon is taken up 
 by one conductor, so that the passenger is left 
 without the proper coupon at a subsequent 
 stage of his journey. The passenger’s right in 
 such a case is not to insist upon being carried 
 without payment of the fare demanded by the 
 conductor or other agent of the carrier, but to 
 pay the fare demanded and to bring an action 
 against the carrier for breach of the contract 
 evidenced by the ticket. Purchase of a ticket 
 entitles the holder to all the accommodations 
 usually given by the carrier to holders of that 
 class of tickets. If, however, they are not 
 provided, as in case the carrier fails without 
 excuse to provide the passenger with a seat, his 
 right is not to refuse to pay fare or surrender 
 his ticket, but to recover damages for the car¬ 
 rier’s breach of contract or undertaking to carry. 
 Where the passenger is riding on a free pass 
 the duty of the carrier towards him is the same 
 as that owing to a trespasser, viz., to refrain 
 from wanton or willful injury. See Carrier, 
 Common; Transportation; etc. 
 
 TICKET OF LEAVE. In Great Britain 
 and its Australian colonies, a kind of permit 
 or license granting a prisoner his liberty for 
 good conduct, and revocable for subsequent mis¬ 
 conduct, under the terms of its conditions. The 
 term was first applied to the license of liberty 
 granted to convicts in Van Diemen’s Land as a 
 part of the reform in prison methods in 1840, 
 and later to those who were granted a similar 
 license in England as a partial compensation 
 for their long term of imprisonment after trans¬ 
 portation had been discontinued, but the terms 
 of sentence had not been shortened. These con¬ 
 victs became so numerous, and the number of 
 crimes committed by them became so serious, 
 that a still further' reform led to the system 
 of granting the license upon the mark system, 
 under which it was given only to convicts sen¬ 
 tenced for terms longer than two years, who 
 by their work and industry, as shown by their 
 marks, became entitled to it. Under this system 
 the ticket of leave has been found to work well, 
 its chief defect being the drawback put upon the 
 prisoner’s chance of success in obtaining, work 
 and living among reputable people by his lia¬ 
 bility to constant surveillance by the police of¬ 
 ficials. This defect is largely removed bv the 
 existence of various private charitable institu¬ 
 tions which look after the prisoners who place 
 themselves under their charge in such a manner 
 as to remove the publicity of their being 
 watched. The prisoner is practically free to 
 come and go as he chooses within a certain 
 
TICK FEVER 
 
 TICUNA 
 
 263 
 
 district, under certain conditions of living an 
 honest, industrious life among honest people, 
 and making periodical reports. 
 
 1 lie eilectiveness of such a system of reward¬ 
 ing good conduct on the part of prisoners, arid 
 inducing them to live honest lives without im¬ 
 prisonment, but yet where their conduct is 
 subject to control, has become so generally recog¬ 
 nized that similar acts have been passed in 
 many of the United States, the license being 
 generally called a parole. Most of these acts 
 have been passed since 1890, and under none of 
 them can a parole be granted to a person con¬ 
 victed of murder in either the first or second 
 degree; and most of them refuse it to a pris¬ 
 oner serving under a second conviction of crime. 
 
 Consult Penology, and works referred to 
 there; Prisons. 
 
 TICK FEVER. See Spotted Fever. 
 
 TICKLING. See Cutaneous Sensations; 
 Laughter. 
 
 TICK'NOR, Francis Orrery (1822-74). An 
 American poet, born in Baldwin Co., Ga. He 
 studied medicine in the North and practiced his 
 profession at Columbus, Ga. A small volume of 
 miscellaneous verses— Poems, with a memoir, 
 by Paul H. Hayne—was published in 1879. 
 Two poems of Ticknor’s are well known and 
 rank among the best lyrics produced in the 
 South. They are the pathetic “Little Giffen” 
 and the stirring “Virginians of the Valley.” 
 His Poems, edited and collected by M. C. Tick¬ 
 nor, appeared in New York in 191 i. 
 
 TICKNOR, George (1791—1871). An Ameri¬ 
 can literary critic and historian, born in Boston. 
 Educated in a scholarly home, a graduate of 
 Dartmouth (1807), admitted to the Boston bar 
 in 1813, he gave up the legal^profession for 
 literature, went to Europe in 1815, studied four 
 years at Gottingen and in other continental 
 cities, and returned in 1819 with a valuable 
 library to a professorship of modern languages 
 and literature in Harvard College. Here he 
 devoted himself especially to French and Span¬ 
 ish, attracting marry beyond the university cir¬ 
 cle. He resigned his professorship in 1835, 
 passed three years in Europe and 11 more years 
 in elaborating his greatest work, History of 
 Spanish Literature (1849), which was trans¬ 
 lated into German and Spanish and came to be 
 regarded as a standard work even in Spain. It 
 was reissued in 1854, and again reedited and 
 enlarged in 1863. A fourth edition embodies his 
 latest revisions. He published also a Life of 
 William Hiokling Prescott (1864) and several 
 minor works. His Life, Letters, and Journals 
 are collected in two volumes (1876). Other 
 letters describing his life as a German student 
 may be found in W. P. Trent’s English Culture 
 in Virginia (Johns Hopkins University Studies). 
 His library, containing one of the best collec¬ 
 tions of Spanish literature in existence, was be¬ 
 queathed to the Boston Public Library. As an 
 educator Ticknor was in advance of his genera¬ 
 tion; as a citizen he represented the best tradi¬ 
 tions of Boston; as a scholar he held his own 
 with the erudite men of his day, but his great¬ 
 est work is now losing its prestige. 
 
 TICKNOR, William Davis (1810-64). An 
 American publisher, born at Lebanon, N. H. He 
 helped to found at Boston in 1832 the publish¬ 
 ing firm of Allen and Ticknor, succeeding to 
 the business of Carter and Hendee. His partner 
 retiring the next year, Ticknor carried on the 
 business alone for some six or seven years, and 
 
 then John Reed and James T. Fields (q.v.), 
 flic latter formerly in the employ of Carter and 
 Hendee, joined him. For about 10 years after 
 1854, when Reed withdrew, the firm name read 
 Ticknor and Fields. Ticknor and Fields became 
 the publishers of the Atlantic Monthly and the 
 North American Review. Their office, in the 
 “Old Corner Book Store” building (still stand¬ 
 ing in 1916), was a gathering place for the lead¬ 
 ing literary men of the time. They were among 
 the first American publishers to make payments 
 for editions of English and other foreign au¬ 
 thors, beginning with £100 to Tennyson in 1842. 
 
 TICON 'DERO'GA. A village in Essex Co., 
 N. Y., 100 miles north by east of Albany, on 
 the creek which conveys the waters of Lake 
 George into Lake Champlain, and on the Dela¬ 
 ware and Hudson and the Rutland railroads 
 (Map: New York, G 3). It is rich in reminis¬ 
 cences of Colonial and Revolutionary periods. 
 The vicinity is noted for its extensive produc¬ 
 tion of crystalline graphite, furnishing the 
 greater part of the total output of the United 
 States. The water power afforded by the falls 
 is utilized by several industrial establishments. 
 Paper, wood pulp, and lumber products consti¬ 
 tute the leading manufactures. Pop., 1900, 
 1911; 1910, 2475; 1915 (State census), 2918. 
 
 In 1755 the French, recognizing the strategic 
 value of the promontory, built a fort here and 
 called it Fort Carillon (chime of bells), in allu¬ 
 sion to the pleasing sound of the waterfalls 
 near by. Several years later the present name 
 was adopted. In 1757 Montcalm assembled here 
 a force of 9000 men, with which he took Fort 
 William Henry, on Lake George. On July 8, 
 1758, General Abercromby, with 15,000 men, 
 stormed Fort Carillon, but was repulsed with a 
 loss of 2000, Viscount George A. Howe being 
 among the killed. In 1759 General Amherst 
 with a force of 12,000 men invested it, and the 
 French being too weak to withstand an at¬ 
 tack, dismantled and abandoned both this fort 
 and Crown Point, which were then enlarged and 
 strengthened by the English. Being "weakly 
 garrisoned after the, cession of Canada to Great 
 Britain, Ticonderoga was surprised and cap¬ 
 tured on May 10, 1775, by Ethan Allen. On 
 June 30, 1777, Burgoyne invested it, and on 
 July 5, by placing a battery on Mount Defiance, 
 a higher point, then called Sugar Loaf Hill, 
 he forced the garrison to evacuate the place. 
 Later in the year General Lincoln attacked the 
 British here and captured Mount Defiance, re¬ 
 leasing 100 American prisoners and taking 293 
 of the English, but he failed to recover the fort 
 itself. After Burgoyne surrendered at Sara¬ 
 toga, the English garrison was removed and 
 the fort dismantled, though in 1780 another 
 English force under General Haldimand was 
 stationed here. The fort has gradually fallen 
 in ruins. Consult W. C. Watson, Military and 
 Civil History of the County of Essex, New York 
 (Albany, 1869), and L. E. Chittenden, “The 
 Capture of Ticonderoga,” in Vermont Historical 
 Society, Proceedings (Montpelier, 1872). 
 
 TIC-POLONGA. See Daboia and Colored 
 Plate under Snake. 
 
 TICUNA, te-kbo'na, or Tucuna. A wild 
 tribe of uncertain affinity inhabiting the forests 
 of the Upper Amazon (Maranon) about the con¬ 
 fluence of the Javary, on the Brazil-Peru fron¬ 
 tier. They go naked, excepting for necklaces 
 of monkey teeth and armlets of feathers, and 
 depend for a living upon hunting and fishing. 
 
TIDAL 
 
 TIDE 
 
 264 
 
 Physically they are well formed, and rather 
 slender, with dark complexion and mild ex¬ 
 pression. In disposition they are honest and 
 direct. They bury their dead in great earthen 
 jars, with their face turned towards the rising 
 sun, and weapons and fruit placed upon the 
 bosom. They have interesting masked dances 
 and an operation allied to circumcision is prac¬ 
 ticed on infants at the time of assigning them 
 names. Jesuit missions were established be¬ 
 tween 1083 and 1727. Consult K. F. P. von 
 Martius, Ethnographic und Sprachenkunde Bra- 
 siliens, vol. i (Erlangen, 1863), and A. F. Cham¬ 
 berlain in Journal de la Societe des Ameri¬ 
 canist es de Paris, new series, vol. vii (Paris, 
 1910). 
 
 TIDAL (Heb. Tid‘al). A king of Gonm, 
 who, according to Gen. xiv. 1, accompanied Chedor- 
 laomer of Elam, Amraphel of Shinar, and Ai ioch 
 of Ellasar in an expedition against Palestine. 
 Goiim is supposed by many scholars to be a 
 clerical error for Gutim. Tidal would then be 
 a ruler of Gutium (see Arrapachitts ; Ar- 
 pachshad), like Amraphel subject to the suze¬ 
 rainty of Elam. Amraphel is, no doubt, identi¬ 
 cal with Hammurapi (2141-2081 b.c.), and the 
 passage referring to Tidal in Gen. xiv may have 
 been drawn from a cuneiform account. The 
 name Tudhul, which may have been rendered 
 Tid‘al, occurs in a late cuneiform inscription, 
 as the son of Gannazi; but the mutilated text 
 does not permit any definite conclusion. See 
 Chedorlaomer. 
 
 TIDAL WAVE. A term erroneously applied 
 to almost any unexpected wave that inundates 
 the seacoast or the shore of a great lake. These 
 waves are rarely, if ever, due to the tides, 
 since the tidal wave is a phenomenon admitting 
 of exact calculation and prediction; on the 
 other hand, they may usually be traced to some 
 distant earthquake or violent storm. The Mes¬ 
 sina earthquake of 1908 which had its origin in 
 the narrow strait between Sicily and the Italian 
 coast set up sea waves which reached a height 
 of 35 or 40 feet and were responsible for 
 much damage. The Galveston floods of 1900 
 and 1915 were caused by the piling up of the 
 waters driven in by West Indian hurricanes. 
 See Earthquake; Inundation. 
 
 TIDE (AS. tid, OHG. zit, Ger. Zeit, time; 
 connected with Skt. a-diti, boundless, and ulti¬ 
 mately with Eng. time). The daily rising and 
 falling of the waters of the ocean. When the 
 water has reached the highest point it is called 
 high water, and at its lowest point low water. 
 The rising of the water is called flood, the fall¬ 
 ing ebb. ‘ Tides are caused by the gravitational 
 attraction or pull of the sun and moon upon the 
 water, and upon the earth itself. The moon, 
 being so much nearer than the sun, is of course 
 the principal cause. When the moon is directly 
 over a given place it pulls the water under it, 
 and thus tends to heap up a tidal wave just 
 under the moon. At the same time it is pulling 
 the earth itself; but it pulls the water more 
 than the earth underneath, simply because the 
 moon is nearer to the water on the surface than 
 it is to the solid earth behind it. For we must 
 remember that, according to Newton’s law of 
 attraction, the pull decreases rapidly when the 
 body pulled is removed to a greater distance. But 
 this reason also makes the attraction exerted 
 upon the solid earth greater than that affecting 
 the mass of water upon the side of the earth 
 remote from the moon. This water, being still 
 
 farther away than is the solid earth, gets^ the 
 least pull of all. The earth is, so to speak, 
 pulled away from that part of the ocean. This 
 causes another distinct heaping up of water on 
 the farther side of the earth giving us a second 
 tidal wave. There should be, therefore, two 
 lunar tidal-wave crests, one directly under the 
 moon and the other on the side of the earth 
 diametrically opposite. At these points it will 
 be high water, while along the circle of the 
 earth distant 90° from the sublunar point it 
 will be low water. In the same way, -the sun 
 gives rise to two tidal-wave crests which, how¬ 
 ever, are not so pronounced as those due to the 
 moon, since, on account of the greater distance 
 of the former body and notwithstanding its 
 enormously greater mass, its tide-raising force is 
 only about f of that of the moon. The actual 
 tide, then, will be that due to the added effects 
 of the solar and lunar tide-raising forces, which 
 result in a tidal wave with two crests that are 
 at times a little in advance, at others a little 
 behind, the positions of the crests due to the 
 moon alone, depending on the relative positions 
 of the sun and moon. The double tidal wave 
 explains why there are two high tides and two 
 low tides every 24 hours; actually the average 
 period is 24 hours 51 minutes, since, owing to 
 the eastward motion of the moon, it comes to 
 the meridian later each day, the average daily 
 retardation being 51 minutes. At new and full 
 moon, the earth, sun, and moon are in a direct 
 line with one another, and consequently the 
 crests of the solar and lunar tidal waves will 
 then coincide, and we shall have high water 
 higher, and low water lower, than the average; 
 these are the spring tides. On the other hand, 
 at first and third quarters, the moon is at 
 right angles to the sun as seen from the 
 earth, and the crests of \he lunar tide coincide 
 with the troughs of the solar tide, with the 
 result that high water is lower, and low water 
 higher, than the average; these are the neap 
 tides. The heights of spring and neap tides 
 are very nearly in the ratio? of 13 to 5. Both 
 tides are most marked about January when 
 the sun is nearest the earth and therefore its 
 tide-raising force is greatest whether acting 
 with or against that of the moon. Between new 
 moon and first quarter, and also between full 
 moon and last quarter, the crest of the solar 
 tide is in advance of that of the lunar tide, 
 and consequently high water occurs a little 
 before the time at which it would be due were 
 the moon the only tide-raising body concerned; 
 and the tides are then said to prime. On the 
 other hand, between first quarter and full moon, 
 and between last quarter and new moon, high 
 water is later in arriving, and the tides are said 
 to lag. The foregoing explanation is called the 
 equilibrium theory of the tides. It is very 
 plausible, but unfortunately it fails to agree 
 with observed facts, though it is nevertheless 
 of great use in leading up to a better theory. 
 Under the equilibrium theory we should expect 
 high water at any place about the time when 
 the moon, as astronomers say, passes the merid¬ 
 ian. This time might be modified by the solar 
 effects, as we have seen, but only to a trifling 
 amount which can be easily calculated. Un¬ 
 fortunately, this theory is not in accord with 
 observation. There are places where the high 
 water comes as much as six hours away from 
 the meridian passage of the moon. In other 
 words, the equilibrium theory is at times in 
 
TIDE 
 
 265 
 
 TIDE WATERS 
 
 error by the maximum possible amount. The 
 trouble is that it tells us what would happen 
 if the forces governing the tides had plenty of 
 time to act. But the turning of the earth on 
 its axis continually presents a new meridian to 
 the moon, so that the tidal-wave crest is al¬ 
 ways following the moon, ever trying to be 
 highest directly under it. Thus what should 
 occur under the equilibrium theory is greatly 
 modified by the theory of the motion of fluid 
 waves. Phis leads then to the dvnamical theory 
 of the tides. 
 
 A consideration of the subject is much simpli¬ 
 fied by assuming a condition of things that does 
 not really exist in nature. Let us imagine a 
 canal full of water encircling the earth* at the 
 equator. Sir Isaac Newton was the first to 
 investigate what would happen to a wave set in 
 motion in such a canal. It can be shown 
 mathematically that the speed at which such 
 a wave would travel depends simply on the 
 depth of the canal. The deeper the canal, 
 the greater the speed of the wave. This is, 
 of course, very important, and shows what a 
 perfectly free wave would do under such simpli¬ 
 fied conditions. It can even be computed that 
 if the canal Avere 13% miles deep, the wave would 
 ti aA el round the earth in exactly twenty-four 
 hours. Noav, it is the tendency of the sun and 
 moon to set such a free wave in motion at each 
 instant of time; and these go on traveling along 
 more or less like the supposed simple Avave in the 
 .canal. If the ocean were 13% miles deep, the 
 waves would have a period of one day; and the 
 neAV free waves forming all the time" would re¬ 
 inforce the old ones, leading to an enormous 
 tidal accumulation. Fortunately, the ocean is 
 much less than 13% miles deep, and the 
 waves travel much more slowly than once a day. 
 It may happen, therefore, that as the Avaves 
 travel around the earth, their speed may be 
 such that we shall find a wave holloAv instead 
 of a wave crest under the moon. Thus, the 
 modification of the equilibrium theory by the 
 Avave motion may at times completely reverse 
 things, giving us low tide when we should ex¬ 
 pect high tide. 
 
 . w e may carry the canal idea a step further, 
 Avith a remarkably interesting result. Suppose 
 the whole surface of the earth were covered Avith 
 a series of canals parallel to the equatorial 
 canal. Then, as we approach the pole, the 
 canals will be shorter, since the equatorial cir¬ 
 cumference of the earth is longer than it is 
 in any other latitude. Thus the Avaves in high 
 latitudes would not have so far to go as the 
 waves in the Ioav latitudes, and so might tend 
 to reinforce each other as explained above. So 
 Ave might have inverted tides in the equatorial 
 regions and direct ones in the polar regions; 
 and in some intermediate latitude there Avould 
 be, as Darwin says, “very great tides, the na¬ 
 ture of Avhich cannot be specified exactly.’ 5 This 
 AA'ould occur, as we have seen, Avhere the earth’s 
 circumference is short enough to permit a 
 free wave to go all around in about 24 hours. 
 These dynamical considerations of Avave mo¬ 
 tion in canals lead to results bearing some 
 sort of resemblance to the actual observed phe¬ 
 nomena of nature. It should be noted, of course, 
 that the foregoing considerations refer to theo¬ 
 retical conditions such as Avould exist if the 
 earth AA'ere simply covered Avith a layer of Avater. 
 But the actual facts of nature are so different 
 t ey modify very greatly the theoretical 
 
 tidal action of the sun and moon. So large 
 a part of the terrestrial surface is covered by 
 land that the free motion of tidal waves is 
 seriously impeded. It is therefore impossible to 
 predict the times of high water accurately 
 from theoretical considerations alone. Fortu¬ 
 nately, the practical prediction of the time of 
 high water for any place can be effected by 
 analyzing a long series of tidal observations 
 made at the place in question. This method of 
 procedure has been in use for manv years, and 
 we now possess tidal tables for all" principal 
 seaports accurate enough for navigation. 
 
 . A modification of ordinary tides occurs in 
 rivers. Here the tidal rise appears of course 
 as a strong current running up-stream, Aidiere 
 the ocean level outside the river-mouth has been 
 raised. At times this tidal current advances 
 with a high and dangerous wave crest (called a 
 bore), and it may acquire velocity enough to 
 raise the AA r ater level in the river considerably 
 aboA e that of the ocean outside. These phenom¬ 
 ena, and indeed all tidal phenomena, are partly 
 modified by the configuration of the coast line 
 and the depth of Avater. (See Hydrography.) 
 Consult: Sir R. S. Ball, Time and Tide (Lon¬ 
 don, 1892) ; G. H. DarAvin, Tides and Kindred 
 Phenomena in the Solar System (Boston, 
 1898) ; William Dampier, in Voyages (2 vols., 
 ib., 1906) ; W. H. Wheeler, Practical Manual 
 of Tides and I Vaves (ib., 1906) ; W. B. DaAvson, 
 Methods of Investigation of Tides and Current 's 
 (OttaAva, 1911); W. H. Hunter, Rivers and 
 Estuaries, or Streams and Tides (New York 
 1913). 
 
 TIDEMAND, te'da-man, Adolf (1814-76). 
 
 A Norwegian genre painter, born at Mandal. 
 He studied at the Academy of Copenhagen and 
 under Hildebrandt and Schadow at Diisseldorf. 
 whence he went to Munich and later to Rome. 
 Afterward he usually spent the summer in Nor- 
 Avay and the winter in Diisseldorf. Besides 
 large historical compositions, he painted chiefly 
 genre scenes illustrating Norwegian peasant life, 
 which he depicted, in the manner of the Dus- 
 seldorf school, from the idyllic and romantic 
 rather than the pictorial side. Such are: “De¬ 
 votional Meeting of the Haugianers” (gold 
 medal, 1848, Christiania and Diisseldorf gal¬ 
 leries) ; a cycle of 10 pictures (1850, Chateau 
 of Oscarsliall, near Christiania) ; “Summer 
 Evening on a Lake” (1851, National Gallerv, 
 Berlin). 
 
 TIDE WATERS; The legal term for Avaters 
 subject to the ebb and flow of the tide. For¬ 
 merly the term was synonymous with navigable 
 Avaters. The modern development of waterways 
 and commerce has made many nontidal Avaters, 
 such as canals, lakes, and rivers, navigable, and 
 the terms are now interchangeable. Navigable 
 means for the ordinary modes of travel or trade. 
 The fact that a body of AA^ater or stream is 
 not. navigable throughout, or that it is only 
 periodically navigable, is immaterial. Nor does 
 it mean Avater that is used for pleasure alone, 
 such as shalloAv streams or marshes, Avhere a 
 row boat may be floated. The legal questions 
 arising concern first the water, and second, the 
 shore and land under Avater. Under the first 
 heading are questions relating to navigation and 
 fishing, and under the second, OAvnership of the 
 shore, pier rights, and oystering. Because they 
 are navigable such A\ r aters, in the same ivay as 
 highAvays, are considered public property." In 
 England the common Irav theory Avas that such 
 
TIDE WATERS 
 
 266 
 
 TIECK 
 
 waters, land thereunder, and land between high 
 and low watermark, belonged to the crown. 
 Following that theory the separate States in 
 the United States have ownership, but under 
 the powers delegated to it by the Constitution 
 the Federal government regulates foreign and 
 interstate commerce, and exercises supervision 
 over interstate waterways, also in regard to 
 irrigation. (See Water Rights. ) Before their 
 admission as States the title to tidal waters and 
 land within Territories is in the Federal govern¬ 
 ment. The question of control over boundary 
 waters often arises between States, both foreign 
 and in the United States, but is usually settled 
 by conventions. (See Territorial Waters.) 
 Navigable waters may not be obstructed in any 
 manner which would interfere with navigation 
 or use by the public. They may be privately 
 owned, such as canals and small lakes, but 
 thev are subject to the supervision of the 
 State. Any obstruction may be removed as a 
 nuisance. Bridges may be placed over tidal or 
 navigable waters, but they must be built in 
 such a manner—either with draws or of suf¬ 
 ficient height—as not to prevent ordinary trans¬ 
 portation on the water beneath. A grant to a 
 railroad to erect a causeway without adequate 
 provision in this regard would be considered 
 illegal. The right of fishing on tidal waters is 
 a public right, on the theory that such waters 
 belong to the State. It is usually supervised 
 by commissions or officials. 
 
 In regard to the shore and land under water 
 the public has no right to the use of the banks 
 of a stream, and on the seashore no right of land¬ 
 ing except where the shore is connected with 
 a public highway. It has, however, the right 
 of passage over lands between high and low 
 watermark. The famous Cliff Walk at New¬ 
 port, R. I., is an illustration of this principle 
 —the public having the right of passage over 
 the shore when the tide is out, the owners of 
 the upland have found it more convenient to 
 provide a fixed walk. Frequently grants are 
 made by the State to municipalities, as in the 
 case of New York City, and at times to in¬ 
 dividuals. By early statute in Maine, Massa¬ 
 chusetts, New Hampshire, and Virginia, title to 
 land between high and low water was granted 
 to the owners of the upland, and in all States 
 such grants must be authorized by special 
 statute. In isolated instances rights have been 
 acquired by use and prescription. 
 
 The ownership and use of the banks of a 
 stream and of the shore involve questions of 
 riparian rights (q.v.). Broadly it may be stated 
 that while on nontidal waters the rights of the 
 littoral owners to the centre of lake or streams 
 are absolute, on navigable waters they are 
 limited. The littoral owner has the right of 
 access to the point of navigation, i.e., he may 
 build a pier or wharf to the navigable part of 
 the water, but he must not in any way inter¬ 
 fere with navigation nor with his adjacent 
 neighbor. Land under water belongs usually 
 to the State, but title thereto may be given by 
 special grant where the owner of the shore in¬ 
 tends filling in, or for bulkheads or wharves. 
 Special grants are in existence of the bottoms 
 of bays or lakes independent of ownership 
 of the upland, the right, e.g., of oystering on 
 the bottom being absolute while the right of the 
 public to navigation on the surface remains. 
 Consult Gould, Law of Waters (Chicago, 1900). 
 See High Seas ; Mare Clausum. 
 
 TIDORE, te-do'ra. A small island of the 
 Molucca Archipelago, off the west coast of 
 Gilolo, a few miles south of Ternate (q.v.). 
 It is important as the seat of the Sultan of 
 Tidore, who, under Dutch supervision, resides 
 at Soa Sia and exercises authority over parts 
 of New Guinea and neighboring islands. Pop., 
 about 10,000, consisting mainly of Mohamme¬ 
 dans. See Moluccas. 
 
 TIE. In music, an arch drawn over two notes 
 on the same degree, uniting them so that they 
 are played or sung as one single note of the 
 same value. See Syncotatton. 
 
 TIECK, tek, Christian Friedrich (177 6— 
 1851). A German sculptor. He was born in 
 Berlin and studied there under Schadow, and 
 later under David d’Angers in Paris. In 1801- 
 05 he was employed at Weimar, where he was 
 associated with Goethe, and modeled his bust. 
 After a sojourn in Italy, Switzerland, and Mu¬ 
 nich, where he made numerous busts, including 
 those of Prince Ludwig of Bavaria, Schelling, 
 Humboldt, and his brother, Ludwig Tieck, he 
 returned in 1819 to Berlin, and in 1820 was 
 made professor at the academy. His. chief 
 works in Berlin are a mythological relief for 
 the Royal Theatre, the bronze group of “Horse 
 Tamers” on the roof of the Berlin Museum, and 
 a statue of Schinkel in the corridor. Tieck’s 
 style remained thoroughly classical, unaffected 
 bv the naturalism of his contemporary Rauch. 
 
 ‘ TIECK, Ludwig (1773-1853). A German ro¬ 
 mantic novelist, translator, and critic, brother 
 of the preceding, born in Berlin. After stud¬ 
 ies at Halle, Gottingen, and Erlangen and four 
 years of literary work in Berlin, Tieck went to 
 Jena in 1799 and joined the Schlegels and 
 Novalis in their romantic agitation. Leaving 
 Jena, he went to Dresden, moved to Ziebingen 
 near Frankfort on the Oder, visited Italy 
 (1805), England and France (1817), and in 
 1825 became director of the Dresden Court 
 Theatre after having since 1819 been the centre 
 of a literary circle there. Royal favor brought 
 him in 1841 back to Berlin, where his dramatic 
 talents were used in the production of several 
 Greek plays. Tieck’s significant literary career 
 opens with Abdallah (1795), Sternbalds^Wande- 
 rungen (1798), and William Lovell (1795—96), 
 the last a novel of “storm and stress.” His 
 youthful imagination ran riot also in mediaeval 
 legends and fairy tales, e.g., the three volumes 
 of' Volksmdrchen (1797), among which were ver¬ 
 sions of Puss in Boots and Bluebeard. A com¬ 
 edy, The World Topsy-Turvy (1799), Die ver- 
 kehrte Welt, proclaimed even more emphatically 
 his period of romantic revolt. To this year 
 belongs also the ultraromantic work written in 
 collaboration with Wackenroder, Phantasien 
 iiber die Kunst, full of enthusiasm and of a 
 mystic religiosity. His Romantische Dichtungen 
 (2 vols., 1799 and 1800) were the first work 
 to show the direct influence of association with 
 the Schlegels. They were followed by an admir¬ 
 able translation of Don Quixote (1799-1801) 
 and by Liaiser Octavianus (1804), which he 
 published as a Lustspiel. This period of rapid 
 production was succeeded by an attack of the 
 gout. His subsequent work is less mystic, less 
 erratic, more artistic, e.g., Phantasus (1812— 
 17), but Tieck did not reach his mature style 
 till his visit to England, the direct results of 
 which are Shakespeares Vorschule (1823—29), 
 Dramaturgische Blatter (1826). and the noble 
 continuation of Schlegel’s translation of Shake- 
 
TIEDEMANN 
 
 TIENTSIN 
 
 267 
 
 speare, of which he was the moving spirit, 
 although his daughter, Dorothea, and Count 
 Baudissin did the actual work. Indirectly the 
 same influence is seen in the Novellenkranz 
 (1831—35; 12 vols., 1853). Tieck’s Works are 
 in 28 volumes (1828-54); select works edited 
 by Witkowski (4 vols., Leipzig, 1903) and by 
 B*ernd (2 vols., Berlin, 1908). Some tales and 
 novels are translated by Carlyle, by Thirlwall, 
 and others. Consult the German studies by 
 Kopke (Leipzig, 1855) and Friesen (Vienna, 
 1871). Carlyle’s Essay on Tieck was published 
 in 1827 and introduced him to English readers. 
 
 TIEDEMANN, te'de-man, Friedrich (1781- 
 18G1). A German anatomist and physiologist. 
 Born and educated at Marburg, the son of the 
 philologist Dietrich Tiedemann (1748-1803), he 
 studied medicine at Marburg, Wurzburg, and 
 Paris, and became professor of anatomy and 
 zoology at Landshut (1806) and professor of 
 anatomy and physiology at Heidelberg (1816), 
 resigning from the latter office in 1849. He 
 became known as one of the leaders in his pro¬ 
 fession. Tiedemann’s later years were spent at 
 Frankfort-on-Main and Munich. Among his 
 many works are: Anatomie des Fischherzens 
 (1809); Anatomie der kopfiosen Missgeburten 
 (1813); Anatomie and Bildungsgeschichte des 
 Gehirns (1816); Physiologie des Menschen 
 (1830-36); Geschichte des Tabaks (1854). 
 
 TIEDGE, tet/ge, Christoph August (1752- 
 1841). A German poet, born at Gardelegen, 
 Prussian Saxony. After studying jurisprudence 
 at Halle, he was secretary and tutor at Magde¬ 
 burg, Ellrich, and Halberstadt, and in 1799 
 settled in Berlin. There he met the celebrated 
 Elisa von der Kecke, whom he accompanied on a 
 journey to Italy in 1804-06, remaining after¬ 
 ward her faithful companion, first in Berlin and 
 from 1819 on at Dresden, where, placed beyond 
 material care by his friend’s last will, he con¬ 
 tinued to live until death. Some lyrics, of 
 which “Schone Minka, ich muss scheiden” is 
 still unforgotten, first established his reputa¬ 
 tion, and Urania iiber Gott, Unsterblichkeit und 
 Freiheit (1800; 18th ed., 1862), a lyric-didactic 
 poem, inspired by the ethics of Kant, enjoyed 
 wide popularity in its day. A kind of sequel 
 to it were the Wanderungen durch den Markt 
 des Lebens (1833). Among his other poetical 
 efforts, the Elegien und vermischte Gediclite 
 (1803) met with the greatest success. After 
 his death the Tiedge Foundation was estab¬ 
 lished (1842) in Dresden for the purpose of 
 caring for the poet’s grave and of granting sub¬ 
 ventions to poets and artists or their widows 
 and children. Administered by t the Saxon Min¬ 
 istry of Public Instruction, its funds amounted 
 to more than 662,000 marks, in 1901. Consult: 
 Falkenstein, Tiedges Leben und poetischer Each- 
 lass (Leipzig, 1841); Eberhard, Blicke in 
 Tiedges und Elisas Leben (Berlin, 1844) ; and 
 Kern, Beitriige zu einer Charakteristik des 
 Dichters Tiedge (ib., 1896). 
 
 TIEFFENBRUCKER, te'fen-bruk'er. See 
 Duiffopruggar, Caspar. 
 
 TIEGHEM, Philippe Edouard L^on. See 
 Van Tieghem, P. E. L. 
 
 TIEL, tel. A town in the Netherlands, Prov¬ 
 ince of Gelderland, situated on the right bank 
 of the Waal, 19 miles west of Nimeguen (Map: 
 Netherlands, D 3). The town possesses the 
 beautiful church of St. Mary, the church of St. 
 Martin, dating probably from the twelfth cen¬ 
 tury, and a communal college. Tiel was an 
 Vol. XXIL—18 
 
 important commercial centre as early as 972, 
 when it received municipal privileges from the 
 Emperor Otho I. It is the principal trading 
 place of the Neuse-Waal district. It manu¬ 
 factures mustard, madder, furniture, and to¬ 
 bacco. Pop., 1909, 10,654. 
 
 TIELE, te'le, Cornelis Petrus (1830-1902). 
 A Dutch theologian. He was born near Leyden, 
 and studied at Leyden and Amsterdam. He 
 then entered the ministry, being connected with 
 the Remonstrant or Radical sect of the Evangeli¬ 
 cal church, and served churches at Moordrecht 
 and Rotterdam (1853-72). Meanwhile he con¬ 
 tinued his theological studies and published a 
 valuable work on Zoroastrianism, De Godsdienst 
 van Zarathustra (1864). In 1866 he began with 
 Kuenen the editing of the Theologiscli Tijd- 
 schrift which at once became one of the leading 
 continental reviews. In 1872 he published a 
 Comparative History of Egyptian and Semitic 
 Religions. In 1873 he became professor of 
 theology at the Remonstrant Seminary at Ley¬ 
 den, and while there published a Manual of the 
 History of Religions (1876), which at once took 
 a leading place in the literature of the subject 
 (Eng. trans., 1877). In 1877 Tiele became pro¬ 
 fessor in the newly founded chair of the history 
 and philosophy of religion at the University 
 of Leyden, from which he retired in 1901. In 
 1886-88 he published Babylonisch-assyrische Ge¬ 
 schichte. In 1893 he began the publication of 
 a monumental work on The History of Religions 
 Dotcn to the Days of Alexander the Great 
 (translated into German, Geschichte der Reli¬ 
 gion im Alterthum , Gotha, 1895). In 1896-97 
 he gave two courses of lectures at Edinburgh on 
 the Gifford Foundation, published as The Ele¬ 
 ments of the Science of Religion (1897-99), and 
 also in Holland and Germany. Consult The 
 Study of Religion (New York, 1902), and L. H. 
 Jordan, Comparative Religion (ib., 1905). 
 
 TIENEN, te'nen. A town of Belgium. See 
 Tirlemont. 
 
 TIENTSIN, tyen'tsm'; properly TIEN¬ 
 TSIN (Heaven’s Ford). A city and treaty 
 port of Province of Chihli, China, situated on 
 the eastern edge of the Great Plain, on the right 
 bank of the Pei-ho (Map: China, L 4). It 
 is at the junction of the Pei-ho with the Grand 
 Canal, which, prior to the silting of the canal, 
 afforded easy inland communication with many 
 of the great cities of the country and bore 
 to Tientsin the great fleets of junks engaged in 
 the transportation from the south of the tribute- 
 rice for the provisioning of Peking. It is 70 
 miles by water from the sea, and about 70 
 southeast of Peking. It is in rail communica¬ 
 tion with Peking, the Kaiping coal mines, Shan- 
 liai-kwan, and Manchuria, and with Paotingfu, 
 and thence southward through Chingting with 
 Hankow. The city, which was only a wei or 
 military station until 1782, is comparatively 
 small. Its walls of brick and stone are 30 feet 
 high, nearly 4 miles in circuit, and pierced 
 with four gates surmounted with towers. The 
 houses are generally of brick or pressed mud, 
 and only one story high. Like those of most 
 Chinese cities, the streets are filthy and ill-kept. 
 The suburbs are very large, and in them is car¬ 
 ried on most of the trade. Pop., about 800,000. 
 In 1860 Tientsin was opened by treaty to 
 foreign residence and trade. The foreign settle- 
 ment—known as Tsuchulin, or Red Bamboo 
 Grove—is also situated on the right bank of 
 the river and about 1^ miles below the city. 
 
TIENTSIN 
 
 268 
 
 TIEPOLO 
 
 but within the line of circumvallation known 
 as San-ko-lin-sin’s Folly. (See Seng-ko-lin- 
 sin.) It is laid out in foreign style, has a 
 jetty or pier and a fine esplanade along the 
 river bank, well-kept streets, fine dwellings and 
 warehouses, gas, electric lights, and many good 
 public buildings, such as the customhouse and 
 the town hall, known as Gordon Hall. There 
 are schools, hospitals, clubhouses, and the naval 
 school established by Li Hung Chang, and within 
 a short distance are two well-equipped arsenals. 
 The government of the settlement is vested in 
 a municipal council elected by and composed of 
 the land renters. 
 
 Tientsin has no factories. Its principal manu¬ 
 factures are straw braid and samshu, and cured 
 skins and tobacco. There is an immense trade 
 in salt. 
 
 The customs collections at Tientsin for 1913 
 were second highest of all Chinese ports and 
 amounted to $3,253,966. Direct foreign imports 
 in 1913 equaled $38,053,534, and foreign im¬ 
 ports from Chinese ports to Tientsin, $15,018,- 
 693, a total of $53,072,227. The net value of 
 native Chinese goods imported into Tientsin in 
 1913 was $18,424,399. Exports reached a total 
 of $28,031,010. Foreign goods sent inland from 
 Tientsin amounted to $27,700,000. Shipping 
 consisted of 1001 steamers entering with total 
 tonnage of 1,247,767, and clearances of 998 
 steamers with tonnage of 1,244,188. The prin¬ 
 cipal imports are woolens, drills, sheetings, 
 shirtings, jeans, twills, seaweed, sugar, rice, 
 grain, kerosene oil, tea, opium, cigarettes, paper, 
 munitions of war, steel, and salt (the last is a 
 government monopoly). The articles of export 
 are samshu, straw braid, furs, goatskins, camels’ 
 wool, coal, wood, tobacco, fruit, and rhubarb. 
 A very large proportion of the tea consumed in 
 Asiatic Russia is shipped from the south to 
 Tientsin, from which point it is taken overland 
 by caravans to Kalgan and thence to Siberian 
 ports. 
 
 In 1853 Tientsin was besieged by a strong 
 force of Taiping rebels on their way to Peking, 
 but they were defeated by the Mongol general 
 San-ko-iin-sin and driven off. In 1860 it was 
 taken by the Anglo-French punitive expedition 
 on its way to Peking. While Li Hung Chang 
 was Viceroy of Chihli, from 1870 to 1895, he 
 made his headquarters at Tientsin, and in con¬ 
 sequence the city was the centre of much politi¬ 
 cal interest. its importance in this respect 
 greatly declined when Li was removed from 
 office "after the disastrous war with Japan in 
 1894-95. During the Boxer uprising in 1900 
 the foreign settlement suffered from the besieg¬ 
 ing Boxers, and the city from the relieving 
 forces of the allies. The city held out until 
 the severe fighting of July 13-14, during which 
 the allies lost in killed and wounded between 
 800 and 900, the United States contingent, in 
 proportion to its number, suffering most. The 
 city is connected with the rest of the world 
 by" cable. Owing to the importance of the for¬ 
 eign business interests centred here, and the 
 proximity of the town to Peking, the Viceroy of 
 the province, whose seat is at Paotingfu, spends 
 a large portion of the year here. As the river 
 freezes over in winter, Tientsin is cut off from 
 the outer world from about November to April, 
 but the foreign admirals always agree to have 
 at least one gunboat stationed off the bund 
 during that period. The foreign concessions are 
 favorite places of residence for the native 
 
 Chinese merchants and business men, because of 
 the settled and orderly conditions. 
 
 TIEPOLO, te-a'po-16, Giovanni Battista 
 (1696-1770). The last great master of the 
 Venetian school of painting. He was born April 
 . 5, 1696, but was not a member of the celebrated 
 family of Tiepolo, as has been supposed. At an 
 early age he was placed with the painter Lazzarini, 
 a mannerist, and perhaps studied with Piazzetta. 
 He was, however, more influenced by Veronese. 
 It is impossible to fix the dates for his pictures 
 before 1737. We know that he was famous 
 long before that, and was patronized by the 
 Doge Cornaro and noble Venetian families, and 
 by many cities and churches in northern Italy. 
 The first of his principal works that can with 
 certainty be dated are the beautiful decorations 
 of the Villa Valmerana at Vicenza, executed in 
 1737. The subjects are taken from Homer, 
 Vergil, Ariosto, and Tasso. In freshness and 
 charm, in conception and technique, they bear 
 favorable comparison with Veronese’s master¬ 
 pieces in the Villa Maser. In 1739 followed 
 the three ceiling decorations in Santa Maria del 
 Rosario (Venice), including the “Institution of 
 the Rosarv,” and in 1743-44 those of the church 
 of the Scalzi, the chief of which represents 
 “Angels Bearing the Casa Santa from Nazareth 
 to Loreto” (these were ruined by an Austrian 
 bomb in 1915). To the same period belong the 
 ceiling paintings of the Palazzo Rezzonico, and 
 about 1745 he decorated the grand hall of the 
 Palazzo Labia. The ceiling is highly fantastic, 
 and the illusive architectural decorations of the 
 walls form an admirable framing for two of his 
 best frescoes, “Cleopatra’s Banquet” and the 
 “Embarkment of Cleopatra and Antony.” The 
 date of his decorations in the archiepiscopal 
 palace at Udine, one of his best works, is not 
 known. 
 
 Under the patronage of Karl Philipp of Grei- 
 fenklau, Bishop of Wurzburg, Tiepolo passed the 
 years 1750-53 in that city, engaged in decorat¬ 
 ing the episcopal (now the royal) palace. On 
 the lofty ceiling over the grand staircase he 
 painted frescoes of “Olympus” and of the “Four 
 Quarters of the Earth”; in the Kaisersaal, three 
 scenes from the life of Frederick Barbarossa; in 
 the chapel, two large altarpieces, the “Ascen¬ 
 sion of the Virgin” and the “Fall of the Angels.” 
 Returning to Venice in 1754, he became director 
 of the Venetian Academy. Between this time 
 and his departure for Spain he painted another 
 grand ceiling decoration, the “Triumph of 
 Faith,” in the Chiesa della Pieta, and perhaps 
 most of his easel pictures. In 1763 he was 
 summoned by King Charles III to Spain to 
 decorate the roy^l palace. In the guard room 
 he painted the “Smithy of Vulcan,” in the ante¬ 
 room an “Apotheosis of Spain,” and in the 
 throne room magnificent ceiling frescoes of 
 “Spain and her Provinces.” At Madrid he exe¬ 
 cuted most of his etchings, about 50 plates, 
 the most important, showing the influence of 
 Goya, being the series Scherzi di Fantasia. He 
 died at Madrid, March 22, 1770. 
 
 In the classical reaction immediately follow¬ 
 ing Tiepolo’s death, scant justice was done him, 
 and not until comparatively recent times has 
 he been accorded his place. His art is essen¬ 
 tially decorative, and harmonizes perfectly with 
 the rococo architecture of the day. The color 
 is light and flaky, and exquisitely delicate, and 
 the treatment of. light is above reproach. To 
 a wonderfully rich fantasy and invention he 
 
I 
 
 TIERCE 
 
 269 TIERRA DEL FUEGO 
 
 joined an equal facility of execution. Some¬ 
 times he degenerates into extravagances, and 
 what prevents him from ranking with the great¬ 
 est artists of all time is the frivolity of his con¬ 
 ceptions and the artificiality consequent upon 
 the lack of a more direct contact with nature. 
 
 Tiepolo’s easel pictures show the same grace 
 of form and charm of color as his frescoes, and 
 are more carefully composed and executed. 
 Among the best known are “Christ in the Gar¬ 
 den of Olives” and “Calchas and Iphigenia,” 
 in the Lichtenstein Gallery at Vienna; “St. 
 Catharine of Siena” and an “Adoration of the 
 Kings,” in the Imperial Gallery (ib.) ; “Martyr¬ 
 dom of St. Agatha” and “After the Bath,” in 
 the Berlin Museum; the “Immaculate Concep¬ 
 tion” at Vicenza and Madrid; and a “Holy 
 Family with St. Gaetano,” in the Venetian 
 Academy. In the Venetian churches are several 
 altarpieces, like “Madonna in Glory” in the 
 church of the Jesuits, and “Christ Bearing the 
 Cross” in Sant’ Aluise. lie is represented in 
 the Metropolitan Museum, New York, by five 
 .canvases, including two sketches for ceiling 
 decoration. Of his two sons, who assisted in 
 most of his works, Domenico (1727-1804) 
 etched several of his father’s paintings and 
 painted inferior frescoes in his style, while 
 of Lorenzo, the younger son, almost "nothing is 
 known. 
 
 Bibliography. Zanetti, Della pittura vene- 
 ziana (Venice, 1771) ; J. C. Wessely, “Giovanni 
 Battista Tiepolo,’’ in Kunst und Kiinstler 
 italiens, vol. xlvii (Leipzig, 1877); Urbani de 
 Gheltof, Tiepolo e la sua famiglia (Venice, 
 1879); id., Tiepolo in Ispagna (Venice, 1881); 
 F. F. Leitschuh, Giovanni Battista Tiepolo: 
 eine Studie zur Kunstgeschichte des 1,8 Jahr- 
 hunderts (Wurzburg, i896) ; F. H. Meissner, 
 “Tiepolo,” in Kiinstler-Mcmographien, vol. xxii 
 (Bielefeld, 1897) ; Masters in Art, vol. vi (Bos¬ 
 ton, 1907) ; P. G. Malmenti, G. B. Tiepolo, la 
 sui vita e le sue opere (Milan, 1909), the most 
 complete monograph on the subject. 
 
 TIERCE (OF., Fr. tiers, third part, from Lat. 
 tertius, third, from tres, three). In music, an 
 interval (q.v.) synonymous with a third. In 
 the organ, a mutation stop pitched 2 y 3 octaves 
 above the diapason. 
 
 TIERCE. In heraldry (q.v.), a term of 
 blazon used to indicate that the field is divided 
 by lines into three equal parts of different 
 tinctures. 
 
 TIER'CEROON. See Quadroon. 
 
 TIERGARTEN, ter'gar-ten (Ger., Zoological 
 Garden). The largest park of Berlin, on the 
 south side of the Spree and west of the Branden¬ 
 burg Gate. It contains 600 acres and is about 
 2 miles long. It contains a number of fine 
 statues and the column of victory from which 
 the Siegesallee, the most fashionable drive of the 
 city, leads south. 
 
 TIER'NEY, George (1761-1830). An Eng¬ 
 lish politician. He was born at Gibraltar, Spain, 
 was educated at Eton and Cambridge, and in 
 1778 entered Parliament as a Whig. There he 
 soon acquired a high reputation as a debater, 
 and, after Fox’s withdrawal, became a prom¬ 
 inent, if not tbe leading opponent of Pitt’s policy. 
 For several years it was his custom to bring 
 forward a series of resolutions opposed to those 
 of the Chancellor of the Exchequer. He was 
 finally accused by the latter of deliberately im¬ 
 peding public business, and as a consequence 
 fought a bloodless duel with him. In 1803 he 
 
 became Treasurer of the Navy and a Privy Coun¬ 
 cilor, and after acting as Secretary of State for 
 Ireland (1806) was President of "the Board of 
 Control (1806-07) and Master of the Mint in 
 Canning’s ministry J1827-28). After 1817 he 
 was the recognized leader of the Opposition. 
 
 TIERRA DEL FUEGO, tS-er'ra del fwa'go 
 (Sp., Land of Fire; formerly often written in 
 the corrupted form Terra "del Fuego). An 
 archipelago between lat. 52 6 40' and 55° 59' 
 S., off the extreme south end of South Amer¬ 
 ica, from which it is separated by the Strait 
 of Magellan (Map: America, South, C 8). It 
 consists of a large main island sometimes called 
 King Charles South Land, and a number of 
 smaller islands, lying to the west and south of it, 
 the southern group being separated from tbe main 
 island by Beagle Channel. The total area of 
 the archipelago is estimated at over 27,000 square 
 miles, of which the main island occupies more 
 than four-fifths. The principal of the smaller 
 islands are, beginning at the northwest, Deso- 
 lacion, Santa Inez, Clarence, Hoste, Navarin, 
 Wollaston, and at the extreme south, Horn 
 Island, ending in Cape Horn. At the extreme 
 east lies the isolated Staten Island or Isla de 
 los Estados. All these islands are separated 
 from each other and from the mainland by nar¬ 
 row, deep, and tortuous channels, and are, to¬ 
 gether with the west coast of the main island, 
 deeply indented by narrow fiords. The east 
 coast is more regular. The Andean mountain 
 system is continued in several ranges through 
 the western part of the archipelago, covering 
 all the smaller islands and the western half 
 of the main island. They are mostly of Mesozoic 
 formation with considerable granitic and volcanic 
 intrusions, though there are no volcanoes. 
 Their height averages 3500 feet, and Mount 
 Sarmiento, an imposing snow-clad peak on the 
 southwestern peninsula of the main island, has 
 an altitude of 7200 feet. The eastern half of 
 the main island is a continuation of the Pata¬ 
 gonian plateau. 
 
 The climate of Tierra del Fuego is not so 
 rigorous as it was formerly supposed to be. 
 It is an equable oceanic climate with no extreme 
 heat or cold. A meteorological station estab¬ 
 lished since 1896 at Ushuaia on Beagle Channel 
 shows a mean temperature for January to be 
 52.7° and for July 31°. The rainfall is greater 
 than on the Patagonian plateau, and the country 
 is more favorable for settlement than the more 
 northern regions. The eastern region has good 
 soil and pasture land, and along the base of the 
 mountains there are extensive forests of beech 
 (Fagus antarctica) and pine. The western is¬ 
 lands, not yet thoroughly explored, are less fa¬ 
 vorable as regards climate and soil, but in the 
 east and along Beagle Channel hardy cereals 
 will ripen, and considerable areas of land have 
 already been brought under cultivation by white 
 settlers. Agriculture and cattle raising "are the 
 main occupations, though gold has been found 
 in paying quantities, and seams of lignite have 
 also been discovered. The native Fuegians are 
 rapidly disappearing, and now number probably 
 less than 1000. They belong to three distinct 
 tribes—the Aliculufs in the central regions, the 
 Onas in the west, and the Yaghans in the south. 
 Politically the portion of the main island lying 
 east of a line running from the eastern entrance 
 of the Strait of Magellan to the middle of Beagle 
 Channel, together with the Isla de los Estados, 
 constitutes the Argentine Territory of Tierra 
 
270 
 
 TIFFANY 
 
 TIERRA DEL FUEGO 
 
 del Fuego (q.v.). (See also Argentina, His¬ 
 tory. ) ° The remaining portions belong to 
 
 the Chilean Territory of Magallanes. The civil¬ 
 ized population of the Argentine Territory, which 
 contains practically all the inhabitants, was 
 2500 in 1912. The archipelago was discovered 
 by Magellan in 1520, but not systematically ex¬ 
 plored until late in the nineteenth century. 
 
 Bibliography. Bove, Patagonia, Terra del 
 Fuoco (Genoa, 1883) ; Hyadcs and Deniker, An- 
 thropologie et ethnographie (Paris, 1891); W. 
 Conway, Aconcagua and Tierra del Fuego (Lon¬ 
 don, 1902); R. Crawshay, The Birds of Tierra 
 del Fuego (ib., 1907); Wilhelm Riinz, Das 
 Feuerland nach seiner Geschiclite, seiner Natur, 
 und seiner Bewohnern (Alirweiler, 1910). 
 
 TIERRA , DEL FUEGO. A territory of Ar¬ 
 gentina, formed of a portion of the main island 
 of the Archipelago of Tierra del Fuego (q.v.) 
 and of the Isla de los Estados (Map: Argentina, 
 F 8). Its area is about 8299 square miles. 
 The territory of the island was in dispute until 
 1881, when by arbitration of the United States 
 it was divided between Chile and Argentina. 
 The territorial government of the Argentine 
 portion was organized in 1884. The principal 
 river is the Poppei. The chief industries are 
 lumbering, seal fishing, and sheep raising. 
 Pop. (est.), 2500, not including the Indians of 
 the Ona tribes. The capital is Ushuaia (q.v.). 
 
 TIERS ETAT, te-ar' za'ta'. See States- 
 General. 
 
 TIES, Railway. See Railways. 
 
 TIETJENS, te'tyens, or TITIENS, Teresa 
 (1831-77). An operatic singer, born at Ham¬ 
 burg, of Hungarian parents. She made her 
 d6but in that city in the character of Lucrezia 
 Borgia in 1849, taking at once a very high posi¬ 
 tion on the lyric stage; at Frankfort and Vienna 
 she was even more warmly received; and her 
 first appearance in London in 1858 was a com¬ 
 plete triumph. After this she remained perma¬ 
 nently in London, making only two more tours, 
 one to Paris (1863) and one to the United 
 States (1875). She died in London. The great 
 volume and purity of her voice and her sympa¬ 
 thetic and dignified acting combined to make 
 her famous in strong dramatic parts. 
 
 TIF'FANY, Charles Comfort (1829-1907). 
 An American Protestant Episcopal clergyman. 
 He was born in Baltimore; studied at Dickinson 
 College, at Andover Theological Seminary, and at 
 Halle, Heidelberg, and Berlin; and was ordained 
 priest in 1866. "He was rector at Fordham, N. Y. 
 
 ( 1867-70), assistant rector at Trinity Church, 
 Boston (1871-74), rector in New York (1874- 
 90), and Archdeacon of New York (1893-1902). 
 His publications include History of the Protes¬ 
 tant Episcopal Church (1895) and The Prayer 
 Boole and, Christian Life (1897). 
 
 TIFFANY, Charles Lewis (1812-1902). 
 An American merchant. He was born at Kil- 
 lingly, Conn., and after receiving an academic 
 education at Plainfield Academy, and serving an 
 apprenticeship in a cotton manufactory, he re¬ 
 moved to New York City in 1837. There in 
 partnership with a fellow townsman, John B. 
 Young, on a borrowed capital of $1000, he es¬ 
 tablished at 259 Broadway, next door to A. T. 
 Stewart’s, a stationery and fancy-goods store. 
 The venture prospered, and gradually the jewelry 
 part of the business became the most important. 
 In 1847 the firm began the manufacture of gold 
 jewelry. In 1848, when as a result of wide¬ 
 spread revolutionary movements in Europe the 
 
 price of diamonds fell one-half, Mr. Tiffany. sent 
 word to his partner, who was then in Paris, ta 
 buy all the diamonds he could. This was done; 
 the house reaped a large fortune and became one 
 of the principal firms of diamond merchants in 
 the world. Several times rapidly increasing 
 business necessitated moving farther up town 
 and the firm name was changed somewhat, finally 
 becoming Tiffany & Co. in 1851. At that time a 
 branch house was established in Paris. During 
 the Civil War Mr. Tiffany placed his store and 
 resources at the disposal of the government, and 
 it became for a time one of the principal depots 
 of military supplies. During the draft riots 
 (q.v.) in 1863 the store was barricaded and the 
 clerks were armed in preparation for a threatened 
 attack of the mob. In 1868 the firm ,was incor¬ 
 porated and in 1870 removed to a specially con¬ 
 structed building on Union Square. At that 
 time, in addition to the Paris branch, a branch 
 house was maintained in London, and an office 
 and watch factory in Geneva, Switzerland, and 
 the house took rank as the leading importers 
 of gems and works of art as well as the chief 
 manufacturing jewelers in America. In 1905 
 the firm removed to a splendid new building at 
 Fifth Avenue and Thirty-seventh Street. Mr. 
 Tiffany was the first to adopt the department- 
 store plan for the jewelry business and was the 
 originator of many ideas and methods in the 
 jewelry trade since generally adopted. The ster¬ 
 ling silver standard 0.925 fine, adopted by him in 
 1851, became the recognized standard throughout 
 the country. Mr. Tiffany was made a member of 
 the French Legion of Honor in 1878 and received 
 at various times decorations from other foreign 
 rulers. He was a liberal patron of the fine arts, 
 and did much to encourage and promote the 
 study and knowledge of art in America. For his 
 son, see Tiffany, Louis Comfort. 
 
 TIFFANY, Louis. Comfort (1848- ). 
 
 An American decorative designer and painter. 
 He was born in New York City, a son of Charles 
 Lewis Tiffany (q.v.), and studied under .George 
 Inness and Samuel Coleman, and in Paris with 
 Leon Bailly, making a special study of the deco¬ 
 rative arts in their relation to architecture, 
 After his return to the United States he devoted 
 himself to stained glasses, enamels, and other 
 decorative work in connection with the Allied 
 Arts Company and the Tiffany Studios, New 
 York, of which he became director. He intro¬ 
 duced the art of mosaic in America, pro¬ 
 ducing designs of strength and fine decorative 
 quality. His best-known invention is the Tif¬ 
 fany favrile glass, fvhich possesses delicate 
 refracting powers capable of iridescent effects. 
 Louis Tiffany made paintings on glass to serve as 
 windows in the old Columbia University Library; 
 in Memorial Hall, Harvard; and in Chittenden 
 Library, Yale; and for numerous churches, in¬ 
 cluding the church of the Pilgrims, Brooklyn, 
 and All Angels Church, New York. His prin¬ 
 cipal mosaics are in the crypt of St. John’s 
 Cathedral, New York. Good examples of his 
 easel paintings, principally Oriental scenes, are: 
 “Algerian Shops” (1895) and “The Pool’ 
 (1896). He was elected a member of the Na¬ 
 tional Academy in 1880, and Chevalier of the 
 Legion of Honor (1900). His numerous prizes 
 include gold medals at Paris (1900), Buffalo 
 (1901), Dresden (1901), St. Louis (1904), 
 Jamestown (1907), and San Francisco (1915). 
 Consult The Art Work of Louis C. Tiffany (Gar¬ 
 den City, N. Y., 1914). 
 
TIFFIN 
 
 271 TIGER 
 
 TIF'FIN. A city and the county seat of 
 Seneca Co., Ohio, 42 miles southeast of Toledo, 
 on the Sandusky River, here spanned by several 
 bridges, and on the Baltimore and Ohio, the 
 Pennsylvania, and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, 
 Chicago, and St. Louis railroads (Map: Ohio, D 
 3). It is the seat of Heidelberg University (Re¬ 
 formed), opened in 1850, and of the College of 
 the Ursuline Sisters, and has the National 
 Home of the Junior O. U. A. M. and a public li¬ 
 brary. Other prominent features are the court¬ 
 house and Riverview Park. Among its manu¬ 
 factures are tools, pottery, glass, emery wheels, 
 elevating and hoisting machinery, church furni¬ 
 ture, agricultural implements, wagons, well-drill¬ 
 ing machines, nail, bolt, and nut machines, un¬ 
 derwear, gloves, and woolen goods. Pop., 1900, 
 10,989; 1910, 11,894; 1915, 12,370; 1920, 14,375. 
 
 TIFFIN, Edwakd (1766-1829). An Ameri¬ 
 can physician, preacher, and political leader. 
 He was born at Carlisle, England, removed to 
 Charlestown, Va., about 1786, and graduated in 
 medicine at the University of Pennsylvania in 
 1789. In 1792 he became a local preacher in the 
 Methodist church, and also studied law. About 
 1798 he removed to Chillicothe, in the Northwest 
 Territory, and in 1799 was Speaker of the Terri¬ 
 torial Legislature. In 1802 he presided over 
 the convention to frame a State constitution of 
 Ohio, and was the first Governor of the State 
 (1803-07). During his second term he arrested 
 the Burr-Blennerhasset expedition. In 1807-09 
 he was a member of the United States Senate, but 
 resigned, and in 1809 was Speaker of the Ohio 
 Legislature. When the General Land Office was 
 established in 1812, President Madison appointed 
 Tiffin the first Commissioner, and by his fore¬ 
 sight the latter saved all the papers when the 
 Capitol was burned by the British troops in 1814. 
 From 1815 until just before his death he was 
 Surveyor-General of the Northwest Territory. 
 
 TIFLIS', Russ. pron. tyef-lyes'. A govern¬ 
 ment in the centre of Transcaucasia, Russia. 
 Area, 23,146 square miles (Map: Russia, F 6). 
 It belongs to the region of the Caucasus (q.v.) 
 and contains numerous snow-clad peaks, includ¬ 
 ing Kazbek, over 16,000 feet in height. Be¬ 
 tween the mountain chains are deep and narrow 
 valleys, which make Tiflis one of the most pic¬ 
 turesque and striking parts of the Caucasus. 
 The principal river is the Kur. The climate is 
 very severe in the mountainous region. About 
 one-third of the total area is covered with for¬ 
 ests. Agriculture is the principal occupation in 
 the valleys and stock raising in the mountain 
 regions. Besides cereals, of which wheat is the 
 most important, fruits, especially grapes, are 
 extensively raised. Various metals occur and 
 copper is mined to some extent. The chief manu¬ 
 factures are flour, cotton goods, tobacco, spirits, 
 etc. The natives produce various woolen arti¬ 
 cles, such as felt, rough cloth, etc., copper and 
 silver articles, silver thread, filigree work, etc. 
 Pop., 1912, 1,202,500, of whom the Georgians 
 and the Armenians constituted 45 and 24 per 
 cent, respectively, and the Russians less than 
 5 per cent. 
 
 TIFLIS. The former Georgian capital, the 
 administrative centre of the Caucasus, and the 
 capital of the Government of Tiflis, situated on 
 the Kur, about 340 miles by rail northwest of 
 the seaport of Baku (Map: Russia, G 6). The 
 town presents a very mixed appearance. The 
 Russian quarter is well built, with handsome 
 churches and public buildings and European 
 
 shops, while the native quarter is built in Orien¬ 
 tal fashion. The most noteworthy ecclesiastical 
 
 */ 
 
 structures are the ancient cathedral of Zion, 
 containing interesting icons and manuscripts; the 
 monastery of St. David; and the old church in 
 the fortress, supposed to date from the fifth cen¬ 
 tury. There are a natural-history museum with 
 a library, a sericultural station with a museum, 
 and extensive botanical gardens. Agriculture is 
 its chief occupation. Lying at the intersection 
 of the trading routes from the Caspian to the 
 Black Sea and from the Armenian uplands across 
 the Caucasus, Tiflis enjoys considerable prosper¬ 
 ity. The principal manufactures are felt, cotton 
 goods, woolens, carpets, leather products, oil, 
 wine, and tobacco. ' The trade, mostly in Armen¬ 
 ian hands, is very extensive, Tiflis, in virtue of 
 its railway connection with the two main sea¬ 
 ports of the Caucasus, as well as with European 
 Russia, being the distributing centre for Trans¬ 
 caucasia. Pop., 1913, 350,000, principally Ar¬ 
 menians, Georgians, and Russians. The environs 
 abound in sulphurous springs. The city is very 
 hot in summer, when its mean temperature is 
 74° F. 
 
 TIGER (Lat. tigris, from Gk. rcypis, tiger; 
 probably connected with Av. tlyra, arrow, tiyra, 
 sharp). The largest and most powerful of cats, 
 Felis tigris, and the most specialized and efficient 
 of the Carnivora, comparable only with the lion, 
 and very similar in size and structure, but dif¬ 
 ferent in appearance and habits. It is more 
 slender and catlike than the lion, with a rounder 
 head, no trace of a mane, but with hair of the 
 cheeks rather long and spreading. Its skull 
 may be distinguished from that of the lion by the 
 fact that the nasal bones reach backward beyond 
 the frontal processes of the maxillae. The males 
 are larger than the females, and make a more 
 square, less oval footprint or “pug.” The pupil 
 of the eye is round, however much contracted. 
 The average size of an adult male is 9 y 2 feet 
 from nose to tip of tail. Authentic measure¬ 
 ments exceeding 11 feet are very rare, and sto¬ 
 ries of 15 to 18 feet entirely erroneous. Its 
 height at the shoulder is proportionately less 
 than that of the lion, a large male measuring 
 from 3 Vs to 3feet. A 10-foot tiger will 
 weigh about 500 pounds. The hair is thick, 
 fine, and shining; imiffie~nffitler-eeuntries thicker 
 and longer thafi in tropical regions. The color 
 is a bright tawny yellow, beautifully marked 
 with dark transverse bands,, passing into pure 
 white on the underparts; the dark bands are 
 continued as rings on the tail, which is long 
 and .tapering^ and has no terminal tuft. These 
 colors and stripes so blend with the gloom and 
 slender shadows of the bamboo jungle or long 
 grass as to make a lurking animal practically 
 invisible. 
 
 The tiger inhabits Asia, where it has an ex¬ 
 tensive but rather localized distribution. West- 
 wardly its range extends to the lower Euphrates 
 and the southern shores of the Caspian; but it 
 does not occur in Persia south of the Elburz 
 Mountains, nor in Beluchistan or Afghanistan. 
 Northward, it is to be found throughout south¬ 
 ern Siberia and Mongolia, eastward in the Amur 
 valley to the Sea of Okhotsk, in Sakhalin and 
 Japan. The elevated Tibetan plateau has no 
 tigers. Southward the species ranges through¬ 
 out China, Siam, Burma, the Malay Peninsula, 
 Sumatra, Java, and Bali, and all of India, but 
 is unknown in Ceylon. This is an evidence lead¬ 
 ing naturalists to conclude that the tiger is a 
 
TIGER 
 
 272 
 
 TIGER FLOWER 
 
 % 
 
 comparatively recent immigrant into the south, 
 and not naturally a tropical species. 
 
 In general the tiger is an inhabitant of woods 
 and thickets and although able to leap into or 
 climb trees (except smooth, perfectly upright 
 ones), it does so only for some special purpose. 
 Usually it hides in dense cover by day and 
 roams for prey at night. It is most numerous 
 in the swampy shore jungles around the Bay of 
 Bengal and on the Malayan coasts and marshy 
 estuaries, where it swims miles from island to 
 island or across rivers and inlets. 
 
 Its prey consists of almost anything in the 
 way of flesh, from a bison or crocodile to any 
 small creature which it may strike down. Car¬ 
 rion may be eaten under stress of famine, but as 
 a rule the animal devours only what it has itself 
 killed, and ordinarily does not even return to 
 a carcass from which it has taken one full meal. 
 It stalks its prey, or lies in ambush and leaps 
 upon it like other cats; and its method of kill- 
 in" large animals is to seize the shoulders with 
 one paw, grasp the forehead with the other, and 
 break the neck by a twisting pull. A band of 
 bison or wild oxen, guarded by bulls (see 
 Bison), will beat it off and often kill it; even 
 a single bull in favorable circumstances is a 
 match for it. The elephant and rhinoceros have 
 little to fear, and a bear will make a stout re¬ 
 sistance, but such encounters rarely occur; nor 
 do fights between male tigers seem to be com¬ 
 mon, as this cat is not, like the lion, polygamous. 
 In India and eastward the tiger subsists largely 
 upon domestic cattle and hogs, and upon human 
 beings. Man-eaters, when they do not wholly de¬ 
 pend upon human victims, apparently prefer 
 them; many, but not all, of these victims are 
 old and feeble. The destruction of human life 
 in India and eastward is great, and there seems 
 little diminution in spite of improved arms, 
 number of sportsmen, and government rewards. 
 In 1902 about 1300 lives were so lost in British 
 India alone. The prey when struck down is 
 usually carried away by the tiger to be eaten 
 elsewhere, and many stories of the tiger’s 
 strength have been related. A tiger will lift 
 from the ground and partly carry, partly drag, 
 an animal of 200 or 300 pounds’ weight, with 
 considerable ease. 
 
 > Tigers are solitary beasts, rarely hunting even 
 in pairs, and much less noisy than the lion. 
 Their usual call is a prolonged, moaning, thrill¬ 
 ing sound, repeated twice or thrice and becom¬ 
 ing louder or quicker. In the cooler season they 
 wander widely, but in the hot weather remain 
 in some narrow district near water—a single 
 one in each beat. Tigresses breed irregularly, 
 once in two or three years only, regardless of 
 season, and produce usually two cubs, almost 
 invariably one male and the other female. The 
 cubs require three years to reach maturity and 
 stay with their mother most of this time. When 
 caught young tigers may easily be tamed, but 
 are more difficult to rear and less tractable than 
 lions. Captive and tamed tigers have been kept 
 by the East Indian rulers from the days of an¬ 
 tiquity, and a favorite amusement was to pit 
 them in the arena against lions, in which com¬ 
 bats they were usually victorious. The royal 
 Bengal tiger has been a part of the showman’s 
 stock in trade ever since, and is to be seen in 
 every menagerie, where these animals breed, but 
 less readily than do the lions. Some have been 
 trained to go through certain performances. 
 
 Bibliography. Fayrer, Royal Tiger of Ben¬ 
 
 gal (London, 1875) ; D. G. Elliot, Monograph of 
 the Felidce (1878-83) ; Pollok, Sport in British 
 Burma (London, 1879) ; W. T. Blanford, Fauna 
 of British India (ib., 1888) ; Baker, Wild Beasts 
 and their Ways (ib., 1890) ; St. G. J. Mivart, 
 The Cat (New York, 1892) ; Sanderson, Wild 
 Beasts of India (London, 1893) ; Porter, Wild 
 Beasts (New York, 1894) ; Richard Lydekker, 
 The Game Animals of India, Burma, Malaya and 
 Tibet (London, 1907) ; Augustus Mockler-Ferry¬ 
 man, Life-Sto / ry of a Tiger (New York, 1910) ; 
 Sainthill Eardley-Wilmot, Life of a Tiger (ib., 
 1911); also general natural histories, and the 
 writings of Kinloch, Forsyth, Shakespeare, Wal¬ 
 lace, Rice, Baldwin, Dawson, and other sports¬ 
 men travelers in eastern Asia. See Tiger Hunt¬ 
 ing ; Hunting Big Game ; Colored Plate of 
 Felidae accompanying article Lion. 
 
 TIGER BEETLE. One of the active, preda¬ 
 tory beetles of the family Cicindelidae. Of car¬ 
 nivorous beetles they are among the most active, 
 voracious, and fierce, whence their name. They 
 frequent sandy places and earthen paths, and 
 when approached run rapidly for some distance, 
 occasionally turning suddenly back, and often 
 taking to flight. While variously colored, and 
 sometimes even bright green spotted with yel¬ 
 lowish, they harmonize as a rule with the gen¬ 
 eral color of their environment. Their larvae 
 live in deep, straight vertical burrows in the 
 ground, and station themselves near the burrow’s 
 mouth, holding themselves in position by means 
 of a pair of strong hooks on the fifth segment of 
 the abdomen. The head and thorax are broad, 
 and are used to block the mouth of the burrow 
 while waiting for prey. The food consists of 
 insects which alight on the spot or run over it. 
 Some 1500 species are known, the majority in¬ 
 habiting the tropics. Some species are wingless, 
 others very active; some are found only on the 
 mounds of termites; some fre¬ 
 quent the trunks of trees, which 
 they ascend in a spiral man¬ 
 ner. Less than 100 species are 
 known in the United States, 
 but tiger beetles are abundant 
 and are seen everywhere. The 
 largest American form is Am- 
 blychila eylindriformis, found 
 in sandy regions in the 
 mid-Western States. Tetracha 
 Carolina and Tetracha virginica 
 are large greenish species oc¬ 
 curring in the Atlantic and Southern States. 
 The genus Cicindela contains more than half the 
 species in the entire family, and a great major¬ 
 ity of the forms which are found in North Amer¬ 
 ica. A typical American species, the spotted 
 tiger beetle ( Cicindela sex-guttata), is depicted 
 upon the Colored Plate of Insects. 
 
 TIGER CAT. Any wild cat of medium size 
 which resembles the tiger in form or markings. 
 The ocelot, serval (qq.v.), and especially the 
 cliati (Felis mitis) of South America, and 
 clouded tiger of India, are frequently so called. 
 See Wildcat. 
 
 TIGER EYE. See Crocidolite. 
 
 TIGER FLOWER (so called from the color¬ 
 ing), Tigridia pavonia. A plant of the family 
 Iridaceae, distinguished by the three large outer 
 segments of the perianth and by the filaments 
 being united into a long cylinder. It is a na¬ 
 tive of Mexico, but hardy enough to endure 
 the climate of the United States, and it is often 
 cultivated in flower gardens for the singularity 
 
TIGER HUNTING 
 
 and great beauty of its ephemeral flowers. The 
 root is a scaly bulb. 
 
 TIGER HUNTING. A sport which probably 
 taxes man’s skill and courage in a higher degree 
 than the pursuit of any other sort of game, and 
 may justly be placed first in the lists of the 
 chase. The enormous strength of the beast, 
 coupled with savage cunning, renders it the most 
 formidable of brute foes. Nothing is more 
 patent in the voluminous history of the sport 
 (see Tiger for outline of pertinent literature) 
 than that no two tigers behave in the same way 
 when encountered; the same animal may act 
 differently at different times. Tigers learn by 
 experience, have no fear of man as man, and 
 rarely make tactical mistakes. In some parts 
 of India hunters in parties go after them on 
 foot, but this is regarded as extremely rash; 
 the hunter’s handicap is far too great, and few 
 men dare its risks. Methods usually chosen 
 are: (1) lying in wait for the animal'at night 
 (when there is moonlight) on an elevated plat¬ 
 form, or (2) seeking him upon the back of a 
 trained elephant. The former is the choice in 
 cases where a tiger is known to haunt a particu¬ 
 lar locality. The hunter then chooses a likely 
 spot and builds a platform or machan (usually 
 in a small tree), which must be raised not less 
 than 12 feet above the ground, and be large 
 enough to hold two persons. On the ground 
 near by is placed the carcass of a deer or cow; 
 an even better bait is a tethered live goat. An 
 hour before sunset the hunter, with a native as¬ 
 sistant, climbs upon the platform and awaits the 
 coming of the tiger. Sometimes the animal 
 steals out of the shadows and seizes and carries 
 off the prey too quickly for a shot. Again it 
 will stalk boldly out and stand in full view. 
 Sometimes when fired at, but not killed, it darts 
 back into the jungle and disappears, but it may 
 also attack and tear down the machan, or lurk 
 near by to seize the men when they descend. 
 
 The most effective method of hunting the tiger 
 is by means of elephants, and with the aid of 
 native shikaries and beaters. Frequently the 
 preparations are upon a scale of royal magnifi¬ 
 cence, for so kings and princes are accustomed 
 to entertain one another in the East, especially 
 when a native ruler desires to honor or gratify 
 some European guest or ally. On such oc¬ 
 casions the game has been surrounded and 
 watched for days by an army of natives. King 
 Edward VII was thus entertained when visiting 
 India as the Prince of Wales. The method is 
 to surround the tiger by a sufficient number of 
 beaters, who by noise of drums drive it towards 
 the favorable spot where the sportsmen are 
 waiting upon the backs of elephants, which are 
 furnished with open, boxlike howdahs. As the 
 circle narrows the drivers become more cautious, 
 for the animal knows the country perfectly, and 
 will make use of every means of escape or at¬ 
 tack. Men are stationed in trees to try to trace 
 his movements and warn by cries and signs. 
 Meanwhile the sportsmen press forward on their 
 elephants, depending largely upon the sagacity 
 of these animals for a warning of the terrific 
 and usually unforeseen charge of the animal, 
 which may by a bold leap tear the hunter from 
 the howdah, or stampede the elephant, or get 
 through the barrier alive. Nine out of ten ele¬ 
 phants, even if stanch before, will become panic- 
 stricken and bolt, when the danger of their 
 riders being dashed against a tree and killed is 
 imminent. Unforeseen casualties are numerous, 
 
 TIGLATH-PILESER 
 
 and the reward is only a hide, which may often 
 be of inferior beauty and value. 
 
 TIGER LAKE. See NAnuEL-HuAPi. 
 
 TIGER LILY. See Lily. 
 
 TIGER MOTH. A name applied on account 
 of their coloration to certain moths of the family 
 Arctiidse, as Arctia nais, and especially to the 
 Isabella tiger moth ( Isia isabella) , an American 
 species, grayish yellow with black markings. 
 The caterpillar is known as the woolly bear, and 
 is densely clothed with reddish brown and black 
 hairs. It feeds upon a great variety of low- 
 growing herbage. See Colored Plate of Ameri¬ 
 can Moths, under Motii. 
 
 TIGER SHARK. The largest, fiercest, and 
 most formidable of West Indian sharks ( Galeo - 
 cerdo tigrinus), brown in color, with numerous 
 small dark spots which give the fish its name, 
 but grow indistinct with age. 
 
 TIGER SNAKE. An elapine, poisonous 
 snake (Hoplocephalus curtus) of Australia. See 
 Death Adder. 
 
 TIGERT, John James (1856-1906). An 
 American Methodist bishop, born in Louisville, 
 Ky. He graduated from Vanderbilt University 
 in 1877 and later studied at the Southern Bap¬ 
 tist Theological Seminary. Between 1881 and 
 1890 he was tutor and professor of moral 
 philosophy in Vanderbilt University. He en¬ 
 tered the ministry of the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church South in 1890. From 1894 to 1906 he 
 was the editor of the Methodist Quarterly Re¬ 
 view of Nashville and the book editor of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church South. In 1906 
 he was elected bishop. He edited several works, 
 among them The Doctrines of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church in America (2 vols., 1902), 
 and wrote: A Constitutional History of American 
 Episcopal Methodism (1894; 2d ed., revised and 
 enlarged, 1904) ; The Making of Methodism 
 (1898); Theism (1901); The Christianity of 
 Christ and his Apostles (1905). 
 
 TIGER WOLF. See Dasyure. 
 
 TIGHE, ti, Mrs. Mary (Blachford) (1772— 
 1810). An Irish poet. Her father, a clergyman, 
 was a librarian in Dublin. In 1793 she married 
 her cousin, Henry Tighe, a member of the Irish 
 Parliament. Mrs. Tighe was greatly admired 
 for her beauty, and for her poem, in Spenserian 
 stanzas, Psyche, or the Legend of Love (pri¬ 
 vately printed in 1805). The poem was a ver¬ 
 sion of the story of Cupid and Psyche in the 
 Golden Ass of Apuleius. This and other poems 
 were published in 1811, with a portrait after a 
 painting bv Romney. 
 
 TIG'LATH-PILE'SER (Heb.; Ass. Tukulti- 
 apal-E-sharra, My confidence is the son of 
 Esharra, i.e., Ninib). The name of several 
 Assyrian kings: 1. Tiglath-pileser I (c.1140- 
 1105 b.c. ) was the son of Asurresisi II. Under 
 him the dominion of Assyria was considerably 
 enlarged by conquests in northern Syria, Com- 
 magene, Melitene, Cappadocia, Armenia, and 
 Kurdistan. He claimed to have conquered no 
 less than 42 countries, and in his days Baby¬ 
 lonia was forced to acknowledge Assyrian su¬ 
 premacy. He placed his statue on the Supnat, 
 a tributary of the Tigris. Twice he invaded 
 the south and entered the city of Babylon itself. 
 His activity in rearing temples and palaces 
 was no. less remarkable, and he devoted himself 
 especially to the embellishment of the old city of 
 Assur (q.v.) on the Tigris, which he once more 
 made the seat of government in place of Calah. 
 Although he was able to hand over the succes- 
 
TIGLATH-PILESER 
 
 TIGRIS 
 
 274 
 
 sion to his son Asurbelkala, his great empire 
 was not maintained, and shortly afterward a 
 period of decay set in. 2. Tiglath-pileser II 
 (c.1050 b.c. ) is" little known. 3. Tiglath-pileser 
 III (c.950 b.c.) apparently belonged to the same 
 dynasty, but no inscriptions by him throw any 
 light "upon his reign. 4. Tiglath-pileser IV 
 (745-728 b.c.) was a usurper. Rising from ob¬ 
 scurity, he either set on foot a rebellion against 
 Asurnirari IV, or availed himself of an oppo¬ 
 sition that had sprung up against this King to 
 seize the throne for himself. He assumed the 
 name of Tiglath-pileser as King, his original 
 name having been Pulu or Pul, by which he 
 continued to be known in Babylonia and which 
 is given to him likewise in the Old Testament 
 (2 Kings xv. 19). To reenforce his position 
 lie proceeded to the south and brought to sub¬ 
 mission the Aramaean tribes, who had been caus¬ 
 ing: the Babvlonians considerable trouble. Se- 
 curing in this way the good will of the Baby¬ 
 lonians, by whom he was hailed as a deliverer, 
 he could" devote himself to the troublesome t 
 neighbors in Media to the east of Assyria. Two 
 expeditions were required before the pacification 
 of the country was secured. Tiglath-pileser IV 
 appears to have introduced the policy of planting 
 Assyrian colonies in hostile districts with a 
 view of thus making Assyrian influence a more 
 permanent factor than could be accomplished 
 merely by military invasions. Successful also 
 in breaking up a combination that had been 
 formed against him in Ararat under the leader¬ 
 ship of Sarduris II, aided by a group^of allies 
 in Asia Minor, he secured a large booty in a 
 battle in which he claims to have captured no 
 fewer than 72,950 soldiers of the enemy. He 
 encountered more difficulty in quelling a revolt 
 in northern Syria in 742-740 b.c. As early as 
 739 b.c. there was a conflict between the Assyr¬ 
 ians and Azariah of Jaudi. The King overthrew 
 Azariah and his allies and again showed his ad¬ 
 ministrative abilities by placing the hostile dis¬ 
 trict, divided into small principalities, under 
 Assyrian governors. He enumerates in liis in¬ 
 scriptions a long list of rulers of petty states in 
 Asia Minor and Syria who brought him tribute, 
 and among these we find Menahem of Samaria, 
 the notice thus confirming the statement in 2 
 Kings xv. 19-21. 
 
 In 734 b.c. Tiglath-pileser IV again proceeded 
 to the west, being appealed to by Ahaz, King of 
 Judah (2 Kings xvi. 7), to assist him against 
 the combination formed by Pekah, King of 
 Israel, and Rezin of Damascus. Rezin was de¬ 
 feated and fled to his capital, and while a por¬ 
 tion of the Assyrian army laid siege to it, an¬ 
 other section was sent to ravage and plunder 
 the Syrian, Israelitish, and Philistine towns. In 
 732 b.c. Damascus fell and an Assyrian official 
 was appointed governor. Among those who 
 hastened to pay homage to Tiglath-pileser, we 
 find his vassal King Ahaz of Judah. This visit 
 is the one referred to in 2 Kings xvi. 10. Tig¬ 
 lath-pileser IV also claims to have deposed 
 Pekah of Israel and to have put Hoshea in his 
 place. According to the biblical statement (2 
 Kings xv. 30) Pekah was murdered in the course 
 of a revolt instigated by Hoshea, who no doubt 
 was abetted by the Assyrian King. Shortly 
 after his successful campaign in Syria and Pal¬ 
 estine, Tiglath-pileser IV was obliged to pro¬ 
 ceed once more against Babylonia, where trouble 
 had broken out. Two years elapsed before he 
 could take the decisive step of having himself 
 
 crowned King of Babylonia. The ceremony took 
 place on the Babylonian New Year’s festival of 
 the year 728 b.c. As King of Babylonia he 
 assumed his original name of Pulu (identical 
 with Parus in the Ptolemaic canon). Not long 
 afterward, in 728 b.c., he died, leaving his pol¬ 
 icy of political centralization to be carried on 
 by his son Shalmaneser V. Consult the Baby- 
 lonian-Assyrian histories of Winckler, Tiele, 
 Hommel, Rogers, Johns, and other works quoted 
 in the article on Assyria. 
 
 TIG'LIUM, Oil of. See Croton Oil. 
 
 TIGRA'NES (Lat., from Gk. Tiypavys, Ar¬ 
 men., Tigran ). The name of several kings of 
 ancient Armenia. The most famous was Ti- 
 granes the Great, who was born about 121 b.c. 
 He was for many years a hostage at the Par¬ 
 thian court, but was exchanged for 70 districts 
 about 95 b.c., when lie succeeded to the throne. 
 He made an alliance with his father-in-law, 
 Mithridates (q.v.), King of Pontus, against the 
 Romans. About 83 b.c. he conquered Syria, 
 later extending his power over much of Asia 
 Minor, besides taking from the Parthians Meso¬ 
 potamia and other provinces. In 71 b.c. Mith¬ 
 ridates fled to him for refuge from the Roman 
 general Lucullus (q.v.). In 69 b.c. Tigranes 
 was defeated by the Romans at Tigranocerta. 
 his newly founded capital, although a mutiny 
 prevented Lucullus from following up his advan¬ 
 tage. Three years later Pompeius (q.v.) took 
 the field against the Armenians, and in 64 b.c. 
 after a long siege compelled Tigranes to sur¬ 
 render at Artaxata. He remained in posses¬ 
 sion of Armenia Major, and died about 56 b.c., 
 being succeeded by his son Xrtavasdes. Consult 
 Theodore Reinach, Mithridate Eupator roi de 
 Pont (Paris, 1890). 
 
 TIGRE, te-gra'. The northernmost of the 
 three divisions of Abyssinia proper, lying north 
 of the Bahr el Aswad (Map: Egypt, D 5). The 
 capital is Adowa (q.v.). Tigre contains the 
 town of Axum (q.v.), which is noted for its 
 antiquities and which was the capital of the old 
 Ethiopic empire. The language of the country 
 is Tigrina, a Semitic dialect which more nearly 
 resembles the ancient Geez than does the Am- 
 haric (q.v.). Tigr6 is administered by a ras 
 and is variously called a division, a province, 
 or a kingdom of the Abyssinian Empire. 
 
 TI'GRIS (Greek, from the old Persian tigra, 
 an arrow). One of the two large rivers which 
 inclose the historic region of Mesopotamia, in 
 Asiatic Turkey (Map: Turkey in Asia, E 3). 
 Its origin is usually traced to the southern 
 flank of the eastern Tauric Mountains south of 
 Kharput, but the Bitlis and Botan springs, on 
 the south slope of the Van Mountains, supply 
 the greater head of water. Thence it flows in a 
 winding southeast course of about 950 miles 
 till it joins the Euphrates at Korn a to form 
 the Shat el Arab, which after a short course 
 flows into the Persian Gulf. The Tigris is a 
 rapid and turbid stream. In its upper course it 
 receives numerous tributaries from both sides. 
 Below Mosul, the tributaries come nearly all 
 from the east, the region between the Tigris 
 and the Euphrates being here a desert over-* 
 grown with wormwood and similar scrub. Far¬ 
 ther down the Tigris communicates across the 
 desert with the Euphrates by a number of bayous 
 or canals, some of which are dry the greater 
 part of the year. At the confluence the Tigris, 
 though shorter than the Euphrates, is more vo¬ 
 luminous, and it is navigable for steamers to 
 
TIGTJA 
 
 275 
 
 TILDEN 
 
 Bagdad, above which foreign steamers are not 
 allowed. Thence smaller vessels proceed to 
 Mosul, and above that city rafts descend (they 
 are broken up and transported back by camel) 
 from Diarbekir, almost at the source of the 
 river. The main tributary of the Tigris is the 
 Diyala, which joins it from the east, a short 
 distance below Bagdad, and which is navigable 
 for some distance by small vessels. Next to 
 the Diyala, the largest affluent is the Greater 
 Zab. Outside of the three cities mentioned the 
 banks of the Tigris are very thinly populated. 
 Among the remains of ancient cities on the 
 banks of the Tigris are those of Nineveh, Seleu- 
 cia, and Ctesiphon. 
 
 TIG-UA, te'gwa. A group of pueblos in New 
 Mexico speaking a Tanoan language. See Ta- 
 noan Stock. 
 
 TIKTJS. See Bulatj. 
 
 TILANUS, te-la'nus, Christian Bernard 
 (1796-1883). A Dutch surgeon, born at Har- 
 derwijk. He studied medicine at Utrecht (M.D., 
 1819) and became, in 1828, professor of surgery 
 and gynecology at Amsterdam. Before his time 
 the teachers of surgery in the Netherlands, who 
 were also anatomists, had taught the subject 
 from the theoretical standpoint only, while prac¬ 
 tice was left to a less highly educated clan of 
 surgeons. Tilanus was a practical surgeon as 
 well as a professor. In 1848, at his instance, a 
 chair of gynecology, separate from surgery, was 
 founded. He retired in 1872, but his influence 
 upon surgical education in Holland continued to 
 be of great importance. 
 
 TILBURGf, tll'berg. A manufacturing town 
 in the Netherlands, Province of North Brabant, 
 36 miles southeast of Rotterdam, and 19 miles 
 east of Breda (Map: Netherlands, D 3). The 
 town has a new church in the Gothic style, 
 and a cloth hall, and is besides an important 
 manufacturing centre, with more than 300 fac¬ 
 tories, most of them woolen and cloth mills, and 
 tanneries, and iron foundries. Pop., 1910, 
 50,326. 
 
 TILBURY, Gervase of. See Gervase of 
 Tilbury. 
 
 TILTBURY FORT. A fortification in Essex, 
 England, on the north bank of the Thames, op¬ 
 posite Gravesend, 30 miles below London (Map: 
 England, G 5). Originally erected in the time 
 of Henry VIII as a blockhouse, it was con¬ 
 verted (1667) into a regular fortification after 
 the bold expedition of De Ruyter into the 
 Thames and Medway, and has been greatly 
 strengthened since 1861. The large docks, com¬ 
 prising 588 acres, are important, as the pas¬ 
 senger traffic with London by steamship centres 
 here. 
 
 TIL'DEN, Douglas (1860- ). An Amer¬ 
 
 ican sculptor. He was born at Chico, Cal., 
 and studied at the National Academy of Design, 
 New \ork, with Ward, Flagg, and Mowbray, and 
 for several years under Paul Chopin in Paris. 
 Afterward he was professor of sculpture at the 
 Mark Hopkins Art Institute, University of 
 California (1894-1900). Good examples of his 
 work, which is modern in spirit and treats 
 typically American subjects in a robust, realis¬ 
 tic manner, are: “Baseball Player” (1889, Gol¬ 
 den Gate Park, San Francisco) ; “Tired Boxer” 
 (1890, Olympic Club, San Francisco); “Indian 
 Bear Hunt” (1892); “Foot-Ball Players” (1893, 
 University of California) ; the “Native Sons’ 
 Fountain” (1894) and the overexuberant “Me¬ 
 chanics’ Fountain,” both in San Francisco. Im¬ 
 
 portant among his various public monuments 
 are: the “Commemoration of the Admission of 
 California into the Union”; “California Volun¬ 
 teers of the Spanish-American War”; the memo¬ 
 rial to Junipero Serra (San Francisco) ; and 
 Senator Stephen M. White (Los Angeles). He 
 became a member of the National" Sculpture 
 Society. Totally deaf from the age of five, he 
 originated and was vice president of the first 
 International Congress of the Deaf, held in 
 Paris in 1889. 
 
 TILDEN, Samuel Jones (1814-86). An 
 American lawyer and statesman, born at New 
 Lebanon, N. Y. He attended Yale College and 
 the University of the City of New York, where 
 he graduated in 1837; studied law, and in 
 1841 was admitted to the bar of New York City. 
 As a lawyer he rose to the first rank. In 1846 
 he was a member of the State Legislature, in 
 which he devoted his attention particularly to 
 the subject of the State canals, and in the same 
 year served as member of the State Constitu¬ 
 tional Convention. In 1867 he once more sat 
 as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. 
 Having been elected again to a seat in the 
 
 Legislature, he took the lead in 1872 in im¬ 
 
 peachment proceedings against Barnard and 
 Cardozo, two of Tweed’s corrupt and subservient 
 judges. He helped expose the frauds of the 
 
 Tweed Ring, having the leading part in the 
 
 prosecution of its guilty members. By 1868 he 
 had become acknowledged leader of the Demo¬ 
 cratic party in New York, and his activity in 
 overthrowing the Tweed Ring led to his election 
 in 1874 as Governor of the State. His admin¬ 
 istration (1875-76) was marked by economy in 
 the management of the State canals. In June, 
 1876, he was nominated by the Democratic Na¬ 
 tional Convention at St. Louis for President 
 of the United States, and in the ensuing presi¬ 
 dential election received a majority of the popu¬ 
 lar vote, and according to the final count came 
 within one vote of receiving a majority of the 
 electoral vote. Because of alleged frauds in the 
 elections of Louisiana, South Carolina, and 
 Florida, the votes of those States, which were 
 nominally given for the Democratic party and 
 which would have turned the election in Til- 
 den’s favor, were claimed by the Republicans, 
 and the excitement which followed threatened 
 to disturb the peace of the country. Finally 
 Congress created an Electoral Commission (q.v.), 
 consisting of five justices of the Supreme Court, 
 five Senators, and five Representatives, to settle 
 the dispute, and by a strict party vote of 8 to 7 
 it gave its decision in favor of Tilden’s opponent, 
 Rutherford B. Hayes (q.v.). Tilden thereupon 
 promptly requested his friends to accept the de¬ 
 cision, though many continued to believe and 
 to assert that he had rightfully been elected 
 president. He lived his remaining years in 
 retirement near Yonkers, N. Y. He bequeathed 
 the greater portion of his fortune of about 
 $5,000,000 to philanthropic purposes, chiefly for 
 the establishment and endowment of a public 
 library in the city of New York. The will was 
 contested and only about $2,000,000 went to the 
 establishment of the Tilden Foundation of the 
 New York Public Library (q.v.). Consult: John 
 Bigelow, Life of Samuel J. Tilden (2 vols., NeAv 
 York, 1895) ; id., Letters and Literary Memo¬ 
 rials, edited by John Bigelow (2 vols., ib., 1908) ; 
 id., Writings and Speeches , edited by John Bige¬ 
 low (2 vols., ib., 1885) ; also Haworth, The Dis¬ 
 puted Election of 1876 (Cleveland, 1906). 
 
TILDEN 
 
 TILE 
 
 276 
 
 TILDEN, Sir William Augustus (1842— 
 ). An English chemist, born in London. 
 He was educated at the Royal College of Chem¬ 
 istry, and served successively as science mas¬ 
 ter/ Clifton College (1872-80); professor of 
 chemistry, Mason College (1880—94) ; and pro¬ 
 fessor of chemistry, Royal College of Science, 
 London (1894-1909). He was president of the 
 Institute of Chemistry in 1899-1903 and of the 
 Chemical Society of London in 1903-05, and in 
 1908 he received the Davy medal from the Royal 
 Society. In 1909 he was knighted. He pub¬ 
 lished: Introduction to Chemical Philosophy 
 (1876); Practical Chemistry (1880); Hints on 
 Teaching Chemistry (1895) ; A Manual of Chem¬ 
 istry (1890) ; A Short History of the Progress 
 of Scientific Chemistry (1889); The Elements 
 (1910). 
 
 TILE (AS. tigol, tigele, from Lat. tegula, tile, 
 from tegere, to cover). Properly a piece of ma¬ 
 terial for covering a roof, but limited to harder 
 materials than wood. Slate, marble, and other 
 stones which can be cut into thin slabs and 
 resist ordinary breakage have been used for 
 tiles. Ordinary roof tiles are of earthenware 
 and these may be perfectly flat and used to 
 shed the water by being laid over one another 
 on a sloping surface, exactly as shingles are 
 laid. There is also a kind of tile which has a 
 flat and a raised ridgelike convexity cast or 
 molded in the same piece which is known as 
 the pan, or Belgic tile. From the use of the 
 term to cover various kinds of clay products it 
 has come to have two different meanings. First, 
 any flat slab, if small and forming one of many 
 pieces used to cover a large surface, is a tile; 
 second, the. different ceramic wares used in build¬ 
 ing and in all kinds of engineering work, drain¬ 
 age, and the like are called tiles. 
 
 The tile floors of the Middle Ages were com¬ 
 posed of earthenware tiles, each of which ,is 
 complete and of one color, or incised with a pat¬ 
 tern in such a way that a different-colored clay 
 may be inlaid. In the south of Europe tiles 
 were much used according to a fashion preva¬ 
 lent in the East. In Spain tiles with intaglio 
 patterns filled in with colored glazes were made 
 extensively in the sixteenth and seventeenth 
 centuries. These tiles, unfit for floors, are very 
 decorative when used for the linings of walls. 
 They are known as Cuenca tiles. The Gothic 
 revival in England between 1840 and 1870 
 brought with it a strong movement to restore 
 these appliances of decorative buildings; and 
 many tile floors were designed and made in 
 mediaeval taste. In consequence of this the 
 earthenware tile industry became an extensive 
 one in Great Britain and for many years the 
 greater number of tiles imported into the United 
 States came from England. Other tiles have 
 been made with heads, human figures, and groups 
 in slight relief, the ornamentation being ob¬ 
 tained by sculpture rather than color. 
 
 Clay tiles may be divided broadly into solid 
 and hollow, the former being thin and, except 
 for some roofing tiles, generally flat, while hollow 
 tiles have a great variety of thickness and shape. 
 In the preparation of the clay for molding some 
 one or more of the processes described under 
 Clay, Clay Mining and Working, are employed, 
 varying with the class of clay and the final 
 product. For tile burning, see Kiln; Terra 
 Cotta. 
 
 Encaustic Tiles, for floors, walls, and other 
 purposes, are decorative tiles in which the main 
 
 body is of one color of clay and a pattern is in¬ 
 laid in a contrasting color of clay. The term 
 is a mere trade name, without special signifi¬ 
 cance. Unglazed floor tiles in plain colors, 
 the design being made by the combination of 
 tiles of different colors and shapes, are commonly 
 called mosaic tiles. Tiles bearing fixed designs 
 in verifiable colors are also sometimes called 
 encaustic tiles. The famous Dutch tiles are 
 simply enameled earthenware, usually in blue, 
 but sometimes in colors, and generally with 
 Scriptural subjects for the design. 
 
 Floor Tiles are now made by machinery in 
 metal dies, in which they are subjected to heavy 
 pressure by what is kqown as the Prosser proc¬ 
 ess. The day is first prepared as for ordinary 
 ceramic work and then dried again and ground 
 to powder. Wall tiles are made with the back 
 surface broken by undercutting, so the cement 
 may have a better hold. They usually have a 
 highly glazed surface. Floor tiles are generally 
 preferred unglazed. The pattern is produced 
 by the use of brass plates, % of an inch thick, 
 or paper stencils, a separate one being used 
 for each color. Thus, for an ornament in red 
 and white on a blue ground, dne plate is per¬ 
 forated so as to enable the red portion of the 
 clay powder to be filled in, another is cut for the 
 white portion, and a third for the blue ground, 
 etc. When all are filled up the tile is subjected 
 to great pressure in a screw press and fired as in 
 the ordinary plain tile. 
 
 Fireproofing, Structural, or Hollow Tiles 
 
 are rapidly growing in use (see Fireproof 
 Construction), particularly for fitting around 
 steel columns and girders forming partitions, 
 floor arches, and ceilings. Their lightness is 
 greatly in their favor. They are divided into 
 three classes: dense, porous, or terra-cotta lum¬ 
 ber, and semiporous. Dense tiles are prepared 
 for molding much like terra cotta. They are 
 given heavy pressure and a long burning, and 
 are sometimes made from fire clay. Porous 
 tiles are made by mixing one part by bulk of 
 soft wood sawdust or finely cut straw with two 
 parts of clay, passing the mixture through a 
 disintegrator or cutter, and then between two 
 sets of corrugated rolls, one below the other. 
 From the rolls conveyors take the mixture to the 
 tile machines described below. The subsequent 
 burning destroys the sawdust or straw, leaving a 
 very porous tile into which nails may be driven, 
 or which may be cut with a saw; hence the 
 name terra-cotta lumber. Semiporous tiles are 
 made of good fire clay containing 60 per cent 
 of silica, calcined fire clay, and coarsely ground 
 bituminous coal. These materials are mixed, 
 molded, and burned much like porous tiles. 
 
 Hollow Tile Machines are of various forms 
 according to the character of the clay. The 
 tempered clay is forced through forms and 
 around plugs. The forms give the outer and the 
 plugs the inner shape to the tiles. The plugs 
 are of metal, with their front ends just inside 
 the form. Plungers force the clay over or 
 around the plugs, then through the forms. The 
 continuous shapes are separated by wires or 
 knives. Some of the special forms require par¬ 
 tial hand shaping. 
 
 Roofing Tiles, when of clay, are something 
 like terra cotta (q.v.) in their composition 
 and manufacture. They are made in various 
 colors and shapes, the shapes being governed 
 largely by the kind of vertical joints employed. 
 In Pennsylvania fiat, or Germanic, tiles of un- 
 
TILGNER 
 
 TILEFISH 
 
 277 
 
 glazed red clay, about 15 inches in length with 
 a nib at the back for hanging on a rafter, were 
 made extensively through most of the eighteenth 
 century. 
 
 Bibliography. Emile Ame, Les carrelages 
 emailles clu moyen age et de la renaissance 
 (laris, 1859) ; Jules Bourgoin, Les arts arabes: 
 architecture (ib., 1868-70); A. C. T. E. Prisse 
 d Avennes, L’ Art arabe d’apres les monuments 
 de Kaire, etc. (ib., 1877); M. Meurer, Italien- 
 ische M a jo likafliesen, etc. (Berlin, 1881) ; J. E. 
 Jacobstal, Siiditalienische Fliesenornamente (ib., 
 1886) ; P. F. Knochenhauer, Niederldndische 
 Fliesenornamente (ib., 1888); Henry Wallis, 
 Italian Ceramic Art: The Maiolica 'Pavement 
 Tiles of the Fifteenth Century (London, 1902). 
 In modern building: Julien Foy, La ceramique 
 des constructions (Paris, 1883); Sparkes and 
 Gandy, Potters, their Arts and Crafts (New 
 \ork, 1899) ; J. K. Freitag, The Fireproofing of 
 Steel Buildings (ib., 1899) ; Leon Lefevre, 
 
 Architectural Pottery, English translation by 
 Bird and Binns (ib., 1901) ; W. J. Furnival, 
 Leadless Decorative Tiles, Faience, and Mosaic 
 (Stone, Staffordshire, 1904) ; Bruno Kerl, Hand- 
 buch der gesammten Thonioaarenindustrie (3d 
 ed., Brunswick, 1907); Frederick Squires, Hol¬ 
 low-Tile House (New York, 1913). 
 
 TILEFISH (name coined from penultimate 
 syllable of generic name). A deep-sea fish 
 (Lopholatilus chameleonticeps) chiefly remark¬ 
 able for its strange history. It w4s accidentally 
 discovered in large numbers in 1879 by fishermen 
 trawling for cod south of Isantucket, and was 
 
 TILEFISH. 
 
 found again in 1880 and 1881. In the spring of 
 1S82 shipmasters reported that an immense area 
 of ocean surface about 300 miles south ©f Long 
 Island was covered with many millions of float¬ 
 ing fish, dead or dying, chiefly tilefish, which 
 showed no marks of injury or disease. Verrill 
 and other ichthyologists, judging by various 
 circumstances, explained this as the result of an 
 incursion of cold water, forced by the heavy 
 northerly gales of that spring, into the warm 
 area of the Gulf Stream. 
 
 This fish represents a. genus of the family 
 Malacanthidie, which includes several edible 
 fishes of the seas of both sides of tropical Amer¬ 
 ica, one of which, the blanquillo or whitefish 
 (Caulolatilus princeps), is a well-known food 
 fish of southern California. The tilefish is a 
 large, big-headed, brilliantly colored, active fish, 
 sometimes 40 pounds in weight, but ordinarily 
 from 10 to 20 pounds. It is characterized by a 
 big'll adipose protuberance upon the nape in ad¬ 
 vance of the long dorsal fin, and by a short bar¬ 
 bel at the angle of the lips on each side. Its 
 flesh was found to be excellent, and the United 
 States Fish Commission made great efforts to 
 learn where it might be found, but the disaster 
 of 1882 seemed to have wholly exterminated the 
 
 species. Some 10 years later an occasional one 
 was captured, and investigation of the edge 
 of the continental plateau was resumed by the 
 Fish Commission. It was finally determined 
 that the area of their distribution extends along 
 a band of sea bottom from about 39° N. lat 
 southward between 69° and 73° W. long, to an 
 unknown distance, in water from 60" to 80 
 fathoms deep, wdierever the water has a temper¬ 
 ature not colder than 50° F. Increasing catches 
 were made in 1902 and in succeeding years. 
 
 Consult: Collins, “History of the Tile Fish,” in 
 Annual Report of the United States Commis¬ 
 sioner of Fish and Fisheries for 1882 (Wash¬ 
 ington, 1884) ; F. A. Lucas, in Annual Report of 
 the United States Rational Museum for 1889 
 (ib., 1891); H. C. Bumpus, “The Reappearance 
 of the Tilefish,” in Bulletin of the United States 
 Fish Commission (ib., 1899). 
 
 TILE KQLTJP. See Holzschuh. 
 
 TILGHMAKT, tiFman, Matthew (1718-90). 
 An American patriot, born in Queen Anne Co.' 
 Md. . He was early engaged in the Indian wars, 
 and in 1751 was elected a delegate to the Mary¬ 
 land Assembly, where he sat continuously until 
 the formation of the State government, Feb. 5, 
 1777, and was Speaker of the House in 1773-7s! 
 From 1774 until the establishment of the State 
 government he was president of the convention 
 which exercised the chief authority. He was 
 also head of the Committee of Correspondence 
 of the Council of Safety, and of the delegation 
 to the Continental Congress. He was a strong 
 advocate of independence, but was prevented 
 from signing the Declaration of Inde¬ 
 pendence by being called home to preside 
 over the convention to frame a State 
 constitution. He was an earnest, en¬ 
 thusiastic patriot and did much for the 
 American cause in Maryland. 
 
 TILGHMAN, Tench (1744-86). An 
 American soldier, born near Easton, Md. 
 Prior to the Revolution he was engaged 
 in mercantile pursuits at Philadelphia, 
 but early in 1775 entered the American 
 army as lieutenant in an infantry com¬ 
 pany, and in July was sent as a special 
 commissioner to treat with the Iroquois. 
 From August, 1776, until the close of the war, 
 he was an aide and military secretary of General 
 Washington, participating in all the battles of 
 the main army during this period; and in Octo¬ 
 ber, 1781, carried to Congress the news of Corn¬ 
 wallis’ surrender, covering the distance from 
 Yorktown to Philadelphia in four days. In May, 
 1781, he was made a lieutenant colonel, to take 
 rank from April 1 , 1777, and in October, 1781, 
 Congress voted him “a horse properly capari¬ 
 soned and an elegant sword, in testimony of 
 their high opinion of his merit and ability.” 
 After the war he removed to Baltimore, where 
 he died. Consult Memoir of Tench Tilghman 
 (Albany, 1876). 
 
 TILGNEIi, tilK/ner, Viktor (1844-96). An 
 Austrian sculptor. He was born in Pressburg, 
 and studied under Franz Bauer and Joseph 
 Gasser at the Vienna Academy. He was later 
 influenced in favor of the baroque and rococo 
 styles by the French sculptor Deloye, and at the 
 Exposition of 1873 attracted much attention 
 with his bust of the actress Charlotte Wolter. 
 This was the first of a series of remarkably 
 spontaneous and individual portraits, which in¬ 
 clude the statue of Emperor Francis Joseph and 
 the busts of Crown Prince Rudolf, Hans Makart, 
 
TILIACEiE 
 
 TILLO 
 
 278 
 
 Liszt, and Rubens (Kiinstlerhaus, Vienna). His 
 strong sense of the decorative later found expres¬ 
 sion in such vital and attractive works as foun¬ 
 tain groups for the Imperial villas at Ischl and 
 in the Volksgarten and the Tiergarten near 
 Vienna, the heroic-sized figure of “Falstaff” 
 
 (Burgtlieater, Vienna), and a number of suc¬ 
 cessful polychrome busts and genre statuettes. 
 In his monuments, such as those to Hummel at 
 Pressburg, to Werndle at Steyr, and to Mozart 
 (1896) at Vienna, he combined baroque ex¬ 
 travagance with a thoroughly naturalistic 
 treatment. 
 
 TIL'IA'CEiE (Neo-Lat. nom. pi., from Lat. 
 tiliaceus, relating to the linden, from tilia, 
 linden tree, Gk. 7 rreXea, ptelea, Arm. te\i, elm). 
 The Linden Family. A family of dicotyledon¬ 
 ous trees, shrubs, and rarely herbs, including 
 about 35 genera and 275 species, widely distrib¬ 
 uted in warm and tropical regions, a few occur¬ 
 ring in the temperate zones. The representative 
 of the family in the north temperate zone is 
 Tilia, with about 20 species, which are trees 
 variously known as linden and basswood. The 
 Tiliaceae yield valuable light timber (see 
 Grewia), jute or corchorus (q.v.), and other 
 fibres. 
 
 TILL. The unstratified deposit of clay, bowl¬ 
 ders, and more or less sand that lies upon bed 
 rock in the region covered by the Pleistocene ice 
 sheet. It is also called bowlder clay. See Gla¬ 
 cial Period. 
 
 TILLAGE (from till, AS. tilian, teolian, 
 OHG. zilon, zilcn, Ger. zielen, to aim, strive for). 
 The process of stirring and mixing the soil for 
 the purpose of increasing its productiveness. 
 The operations of plowing, harrowing, spading, 
 hoeing, etc., constitute tillage. There are three 
 distinct classes of tillage: (1) surface tillage 
 brought about by such implements as plows, 
 harrows, cultivators, and weeders; (2) sub- 
 tillage, such as is secured by use of subsoil plows 
 and other deep-tillage implements; and (3) 
 intertillage, such as is carried on while the soil 
 is occupied by a crop. Pulverizing the soil by 
 tillage not only favors the root growth of plants 
 but improves the moisture and other physical 
 conditions of the soil, checks evaporation, pro¬ 
 motes weathering and disintegration, which set 
 plant food free, supplies conditions favorable to 
 the activity of beneficial organisms in the soil 
 (nitrification, q.v.), and destroys weeds (and in 
 many cases injurious insects). Deep tilth of 
 soil is generally desirable, but should as a 
 rule be brought about gradually. See Plow, 
 Plowing. 
 
 TIL'LAMOOK. See Salisiian Stock. 
 
 TILLEMONT, tel'moN 7 , Sebastten le Nain 
 de (1637-98). A French ecclesiastical historian, 
 born in Paris. He was educated at Port Royal, 
 under the Jansenist influence, and was ordained 
 a priest in 1676. In 1681 Tillemont made a 
 visit to Holland and Flanders, for the purpose 
 of seeing Arnauld and other Jansenist refugees. 
 He had worked meanwhile on his Church history. 
 To avoid the opposition of the censor, he sepa¬ 
 rated from the Church history the history of 
 the emperors, which he was enabled to print as 
 a distinct work, without referring it to the 
 censorship, under the title Histoire d£S empe- 
 rcurs, etc. (1691-1738). In 1693 the first volume 
 of the Church history appeared under the title 
 MSmoires pour servir a Vhistoire ecclesiastique 
 cles six premiers siecles, complete in 16 volumes 
 (1693-1712). The Histoire des empercurs com¬ 
 
 prises all the reigns from Augustus to Anasta- 
 sius (518) ; the Histoire ecclesiastique comes 
 down to about the same period. Both are 
 laborious compilations from the original writ¬ 
 ers. He was also author of Vie de Saint-Louis 
 (new ed., 1847-51). 
 
 TIL'LETT, Ben (jamin) (1859- ). An 
 
 English labor leader and Socialist, born at Lower 
 Easton, Bristol. As a boy he worked in coal 
 pits and brickyards until he was 14 years old, 
 and then went to sea, spending three years in 
 the merchant service and two in the navy. 
 While working as a tea cooper he came in con¬ 
 tact with the dock and wharf work, and in 1887 
 was active in organizing the Tea Coopers’ and 
 General Laborers’ Association. Later he suc¬ 
 ceeded in forming the Dock, Wharf, and General 
 Workers’ Union of Great Britain and Ireland, 
 of which he was thereafter general secretary, 
 and with Tom Mann (q.v.) he led the Great 
 Dock Strike of 1888. For many years he was 
 an alderman in the London County Council, 
 and he contested seats for Parliament in 1892, 
 1895, 1906, and 1910. In 1915 he visited the 
 British battle front in France, and upon his re¬ 
 turn urged the working class to increased efforts 
 to supply the needs of the soldiers. He wrote 
 Trades Unions and Socialism (1894) and His¬ 
 tory of the London Transport Workers’ Strike, 
 191,1 (1912). 
 
 TILLETT, Wilbur Fisk (1854- ). An 
 
 American Methodist clergyman and educator, 
 born at Henderson, N. C. He graduated from 
 Randolph Macon College in 1877 and from 
 Princeton Theological Seminary in 1880. He 
 entered the ministry of the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church South in 1881. In Vanderbilt Univer¬ 
 sity he was professor of systematic theology 
 and dean of the theological faculty after 1884 
 and vice chancellor after 1886. He published 
 Personal Salvation (1902; Span, trans.) ; A 
 Statement of the Faith: World Wide Method¬ 
 ism (1906); Hymns and Hymnwriters of the 
 Church (1911), with C. S. Nutter. 
 
 TILL'MAN, Benjamin Ryan (1847-1918). 
 An American politician, born in Edgefield Co., 
 S. C. He was educated at Bethany Academy, 
 became a planter, and interested himself in the 
 development of industrial and technical educa¬ 
 tion in South Carolina. He became the recog¬ 
 nized leader of the farming element in the Demo¬ 
 cratic party in South Carolina, received the 
 support of the Farmers’ Alliance, and in 1890, 
 as the Democratic candidate, was elected Gov¬ 
 ernor of the State. He was reelected in 1892, 
 and secured the passage of a law providing for 
 the dispensary system of selling liquor under 
 State control." In 1894 he was elected United 
 States Senator, being reelected to that office in 
 1900, 1906, and 1912. His speeches against 
 President Cleveland in 1895-96 in the Senate 
 won him the name of “Pitchfork” Tillman. He 
 was active in both free-silver campaigns, in 
 1896 and 1900, as one of the most radical sup¬ 
 porters of the candidacy of W. J. Bryan. An 
 assault which he made on his colleague; J. L. 
 McLaurin, in the Senate, Feb. 22, 1902, led to 
 the censure of both by that body. From 1912 
 he was a. member of the Democratic National 
 Committee. 
 
 TIUTiO, Alexei Andreyevitch (1839-1900). 
 A Russian general and scientist, distinguished 
 for his work in geodesy, meteorology, terrestrial 
 magnetism, livpsometry. He was born at Kiev 
 and was a student, then an officer, in Russian 
 
TILLODONTIA 
 
 279 
 
 TILTON 
 
 military schools. He studied at the Astronomi¬ 
 cal Observatory at Pulkova, receiving a thor¬ 
 ough training in geodesy under Struve and 
 Doellen, and it was chiefly through his efforts 
 that the Imperial Department of Agriculture 
 organized expeditions to study the sources of 
 the principal Russian rivers. His elaborate in¬ 
 vestigations and careful computations of iso- 
 baric, magnetic, and locational elements won 
 him a European reputation, and his works in¬ 
 clude atlases of isobars of Russia and Asia, of 
 distribution of magnetic lines and catalogues 
 of latitudes and longitudes. 
 
 TILLODONTIA, til'l5-don / shi-a (Neo-Lat. 
 nom. pi., from Gk. rlWeiv, tillein, to pluck, 
 tear + odovs, odous, tooth). An extinct sub¬ 
 order of early Tertiary fossil mammals sup¬ 
 posed to be ancestral to the modern rodents. 
 The principal genera, Esthonyx, Tillotherium, 
 Stylinodon, Dryptodon, and Anchippodus, are 
 found in the Eocene and Miocene beds of the 
 western United States. See Rodextia. 
 
 TIL'LOTSON, John (1630—94). Archbishop 
 of Canterbury. He was born in Sowerby, in 
 Yorkshire, in 1630, the son of a clothier, who 
 was a zealous Independent. He was educated at 
 Clare Hall, Cambridge. He was a preacher in 
 1661—attached apparently to the Presbyterian 
 party in the Church of England, for at the Sa¬ 
 voy conference (q.v.) he was present as an au¬ 
 ditor on the Presbyterian side; but he submitted 
 at once to the Act of Uniformity (1662), and in 
 1663 he was appointed to the rectory of Ked- 
 dington in Suffolk, and almost immediately 
 after was chosen preacher at Lincoln’s Inn. 
 In 1666 he published The Rule of Faith, in reply 
 to a work by an English clergyman named 
 Sargeant, who had gone over to the Roman 
 Catholic church. He was made a prebendary 
 of Canterbury in 1670 and dean in 1672. With 
 Burnet he attended Lord Russell during his 
 imprisonment for complicity in the Rye House 
 Plot, and on the accession of William III rose 
 high into favor. In March, 1689, he was ap¬ 
 pointed clerk of the closet to the King; in No¬ 
 vember, made dean of St. Paul’s; and in April, 
 1691, was raised to the see of Canterbury, vacant 
 by the deposition of Sancroft (q.v.), after vainly 
 imploring William to spare him an honor which 
 he foreboded would bring him no peace. Nor 
 was he mistaken in his painful presentiment. 
 The nonjuring party pursued him to the end of 
 his life; but he bore their animosity without 
 complaint or attempt at retaliation. A collected 
 edition of his Sermons, in 14 volumes, was pub¬ 
 lished after his death by his chaplain, Dr. 
 Barker (London, 1694), and has been frequently 
 reprinted. The best edition of his sermons and 
 other works is by Dr. T. Birch, who also wrote 
 his Life (London, 1752). 
 
 TILLY, Johann Tserklaes, Count of (1559- 
 163,2). A Catholic general in the Thirty Years’ 
 Y\ ar, born at the Castle of Tilly, in Brabant. 
 He received his military training in the Span¬ 
 ish armies, fought against the Turks in Hun¬ 
 gary, and in 1610 was selected by Duke Maxi¬ 
 milian of Bavaria to reorganize his army. At 
 the outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War (q.v.) 
 he was placed in command of the forces of the 
 Catholic League and on Nov. 8, 1620, won the 
 battle of the White Hill, near Prague, which 
 put an end to the short reign of Frederick of the 
 Palatinate in Bohemia. He then carried on the 
 struggle in the Palatinate, was defeated by Mans- 
 feld and the Margrave of Baden-Dur’lach at 
 
 Wlesloch (April 27, 1622), but gained a deci¬ 
 sive victory over the latter at Wimpfen (May 6), 
 and defeated Christian of Brunswick at Hochst 
 (1622) and Stadtlohn (1623). For these serv¬ 
 ices he was created Count of the Empire. He 
 defeated Christian IV of Denmark at Lutter 
 (Aug. 27, 1626), and cooperated with Wallen¬ 
 stein in bringing about the complete triumph 
 of the Catholics in this second phase of the 
 Thirty Years’ War. When the influence of the 
 League secured Wallenstein’s retirement (1630), 
 Tilly succeeded to the command of the Imperial 
 forces, and took by storm the town of Magde¬ 
 burg (May 20, 1631). The atrocities which’the 
 Croats and Walloons of his army perpetrated on 
 this occasion form a stain upon a character 
 that was remarkable in that age for honesty 
 and loyalty to conviction. The capture of 
 Magdeburg was Tilly’s last triumph. Gustavus 
 Adolphus completely routed him at Breitenfeld 
 (Sept. 17, 1631). In April, 1632, the Swedish 
 King forced the passage of the river Lech in 
 Tilly’s front after a desperate conflict, in which 
 Lilly was mortally wounded. He was removed 
 to Ingolstadt, where he died. Consult: Viller- 
 mont, Tilly (Tournay, 1859); Klopp, Tilly im 
 Dreissigjdh/rigen Kriege (Stuttgart, 1861), both 
 written from the Catholic point of view; and 
 Wittich, Magdeburg, Gustav Adolf und Tilly 
 (Berlin, 1874). 
 
 TIL'SIT. A town of Prussia, in the Prov¬ 
 ince of east Prussia, on the left bank of the 
 Memel or Niemen, 61 miles northeast of Konigs- 
 berg (Map: Germany, J 1). It stands in a 
 fruitful district, has broad streets, a cleanly 
 appearance, and has paper, sugar, and oil mills, 
 iron foundries, machine shops, distilleries, chem¬ 
 ical establishments, breweries, and shoddy mills. 
 It also gives its name to a pungent and popular 
 cheese. Pop., 1900, 34,539; 1910, 39,013. 
 
 At Tilsit, on a raft in the middle of the Nie¬ 
 men, occurred, June 25, 1807, the celebrated 
 meeting between Napoleon and Alexander I of 
 Russia, following the defeat of the Russian 
 forces at Friedland (q.v.). On July 7 peace 
 was concluded at Tilsit between France and 
 Russia and on the ninth between France and 
 Prussia. The latter was stripped of her posses¬ 
 sions west of the Elbe and of the Polish terri¬ 
 tories acquired in 1793-95, out of which Na¬ 
 poleon created the Duchy of Warsaw. Danzig 
 was made a free city. Prussia joined the 
 Continental System and closed its ports to Eng¬ 
 lish vessels. Its army was reduced to 42,000 
 men, and until the payment of a heavy indem¬ 
 nity a number of the chief strongholds were to 
 remain in the hands of the French. A secret 
 agreement between France and Russia provided 
 for the imposition by force of the Continental 
 System on Portugal, Austria, and the Scan¬ 
 dinavian countries. Practically at Tilsit the 
 French and Russian monarchs divided between 
 them the mastery in Europe, France remaining 
 the arbiter in west and central Europe, while 
 Russia was given a free hand in Sweden and 
 Turkey. Tilsit was occupied but later evacuated 
 by the Russians in the Great War which began 
 in 1914. See War in Europe. 
 
 TIL'TON, James (1745-1822). An American 
 physician and army surgeon, born in Kent Co., 
 Del. He studied at the University of Pennsvl- 
 vania (M.D., 1771). He entered* the Colonial 
 army in 1775 as first lieutenant, becoming 
 surgeon in 1776 and resigning in 1782 as senior 
 hospital physician and surgeon. In 1780 Doctor 
 
TILTON 
 
 TIMBY 
 
 280 
 
 Tilton introduced with the best results a system 
 of log hospital huts admitting free ventilation, 
 and each accommodating only six patients. 
 From 1783 to 1785 he was a delegate to the 
 Continental Congress. As surgeon-general in 
 the War of 1812, Tilton greatly improved the 
 government medical service. He practiced first 
 at Dover and later at Wilmington, Del. 
 
 TILTON, Theodore (1835-1907). An Amer¬ 
 ican journalist, poet, and novelist, born in New 
 York. He graduated at the College of the City 
 of New York in 1855, and was an editor of The 
 Independent for most of the years between 1856 
 and 1871, and of The Golden Age (1871-74). In 
 1874 he brought criminal charges against the 
 Rev. Henry Ward Beecher (q.v.), whom he ac¬ 
 cused of improper relations with his wife. After¬ 
 ward he attracted attention as a platform 
 speaker, chiefly in behalf of woman’s rights. 
 After 1888 he lived in Paris. His books in¬ 
 clude: The Sexton’s Tale and Other Poems 
 (1867); Sancta Sanctorum, or Proof Sheets 
 from an Editor’s Table (1869) ; Tempest-Tossed , 
 a romance (1873) ; Thou and I, verses (1880) ; 
 Swabian Stories, ballads (1882); The Chame¬ 
 leon’s Dish (1883) and Heart’s Ease (1894), 
 volumes of verse; and The Fading of the May¬ 
 flower: A Poem (1906). His Complete Poeti¬ 
 cal Works appeared in 1897. 
 
 TIL WOOD. See Oreodaphne. 
 
 TIMiE'US (Lat., from Gk. Tifiouos, Timaios) 
 
 (c.352-256 b.c.). A Greek historian, son of 
 Andromachus, tyrant of Tauromenium, in Sic¬ 
 ily. He was banished from Sicily by Agathocles, 
 and passed most of his life in Athens. His 
 chief work, a History of Sicily in 68, or, accord¬ 
 ing to others, 38 books, embraced the period from 
 the earliest times to 264 b.c. Polybius and 
 others, notably Diodorus Siculus, pronounce him 
 unfit for writing history on account of his “lack 
 of critical acumen, malignity, and tendency to 
 superstition.” But, although most of these 
 charges are founded on truth, Timseus’s deficien¬ 
 cies have probably been exaggerated, since mod¬ 
 ern critics and most of the ancients praise his 
 general knowledge and his accuracy in indicating 
 the chronology of the events which he describes. 
 He is said to have introduced the practice of 
 recording events by Olympiads. Consult: Mul¬ 
 ler, Fragmenta Historicorum Grcecorum (Paris, 
 1841) ; F. Susemihl, Geschiehte der griechisohen 
 Litteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit, vol. i (Mu¬ 
 nich, 1891); J. B. Bury, The Ancient Greek 
 Historians (New York, 1909) ; Christ-Schmid, 
 Geschiehte der griechischen Litteratur, vol. ii, 
 part i (5th ed., Munich, 1911). 
 
 TIMARU, te'ma-roo; colloq. tim'a-rbo. A 
 seaport and agricultural port of entry on the 
 main railway line between Christchurch and 
 Dunedin, South Island of New Zealand (Map: 
 New Zealand, S. I., C 5). It is the junction of 
 the branch line by which tourists proceed to the 
 alpine regions around Mount Cook. Flour and 
 woolen mills and frozen-meat works are the 
 chief industries. A concrete breakwater has 
 made an efficient harbor at Timaru. Pop., 1911, 
 7927. 
 
 TIMBER (AS. timber, OHG. zimbar, timber 
 work, room, Ger. Zimmer, room). In law, such 
 trees as are suitable for building purposes. 
 Timber trees belong to the owner of the land, 
 both when standing and fallen, unless converted 
 into lumber in a convenient form for trans¬ 
 portation. Therefore timber will pass with the 
 land under a conveyance, and is included in a 
 
 mortgage on the land without being specifically 
 mentioned. A sale of standing timber, the terms 
 of which indicate an intention to pass title 
 thereto at once, is considered a sale of realty, 
 and must consequently be in writing to satisfy 
 the Statute of Frauds; but if the title is not to 
 pass until severance, the transaction is viewed 
 as the sale of a chattel merely. A tenant is 
 not legally entitled to cut more timber than is 
 necessary for the purposes for which he hired 
 the land, unless under special agreement. The 
 term “timber” is also applied to large pieces of 
 lumber suitable for the framework of buildings, 
 bridges, etc., as distinguished from shingles, lath, 
 etc. See Real Estate. 
 
 TIMBER. See Lumber Industry. 
 
 TIMBER AND TIMBER SUPPLY. See 
 Lumber Industry. 
 
 TIMBERING. See Mining. 
 
 TIMBER PRESERVATION. See Forestry. 
 
 TIMBRE, tim'ber. See Clang Tint, Ex¬ 
 planation of. 
 
 TIMBREL (derivation uncertain). An an¬ 
 cient .musical instrument like a tambourine 
 (q.v.), a tabor. In architecture, the same as 
 tympanum (q.v.), but this use of the term is 
 very rare. 
 
 TIMBUKTU, tim-buk'too, or TIMBUCTOO. 
 
 A town in the Timbuktu District of the Military 
 Territory of the Niger, French West Africa, 9 
 miles north of the Niger (Map: Africa, D 3). 
 The climate is unhealthful. The town, near the 
 southern borders of the Sahara Desert, lies be¬ 
 tween a rolling table-land on the north and the 
 swamps of the Niger. It has flat, windowless 
 clay houses. It was largely in ruins when taken 
 by the French. They have, however, introduced 
 improvements, and new streets and European' 
 churches and schools have been constructed. 
 Timbuktu is fortified. There is also a fortress 
 at Kabara on the Niger. There are two impor¬ 
 tant and handsome mosques. Timbuktu is not¬ 
 able for its commerce, and is the focus of the 
 caravan trade in West-Central Africa. The an¬ 
 nual value of the transit trade alone is put at 
 $4,000,000. Gums and rubber are perhaps the 
 leading articles. Gold, ivory, wax, salt, hard¬ 
 ware, beads, and cheap cloth are also prominent 
 items. The trade is chiefly by barter. The few 
 local manufactures include cottons, leather ar¬ 
 ticles, and pottery. French goods and money 
 are replacing those of other countries. Tim¬ 
 buktu is a centre of Mohammedan learning and 
 has a large Moslem library. The population, 
 which has greatly diminished in recent times, is 
 5107. The town was founded in 1077 by the 
 Tuareg tribe. It passed through different hands, 
 began to be a place of commercial importance in 
 the sixteenth century, and was seized by an army 
 from Morocco in 1591. The Fulahs drove out 
 the Moors early in the nineteenth century. Tim¬ 
 buktu was first visited by a European in 1826— 
 Major Laing, an Englishman. From 1844 to 
 1846 it was again in the hands of the Tuaregs. 
 In 1863 Ahmed el-Bathai drove out the Fulahs 
 for the last time. The town passed into the 
 possession of the French in 1894. Consult: 
 Oskar Lenz, Timbuktu (2 vols., Leipzig, 1892) ; 
 F6lix Dubois, Timbuctoo the Mysterious (Lon¬ 
 don, 1896) ; Toutee, Du DahomA au Sahara 
 (Paris, 1899) ; Lugard, A Tropical Dependency 
 (London, 1905). 
 
 TIM'BY, Theodore Ruggles ( 1822 - 1909 ). 
 An American inventor, born in Dover, N. Y. In 
 1841 he prepared a model of a revolving battery 
 
TIME 
 
 281 
 
 TIME 
 
 which he submitted to thfc military authorities 
 in \\ ashington, and from which he subsequently 
 developed a metallic revolving fort to be used 
 on land and water, and for this in 1862 he ob¬ 
 tained a patent for a revolving tower for defen¬ 
 sive and offensive warfare. In consequence of 
 this patent he received a royalty of $5000 in 
 1862 for eacli turret constructed by the builders 
 of the Monitor. His other inventions include 
 a method for firing heavy guns by electricity 
 (1861); a cordon of revolving towers across a 
 channel (1862); a mole and tower system of 
 defense (1880); a subterranean system of de¬ 
 fense (1881) ; and a revolving tower and shield 
 system (1884), for all of which he obtained 
 patents. 
 
 TIME (AS. tlma; connected with tid, OHG. 
 zit, Ger. Zeit, time, Eng. tide, Skt. a-diti, bound¬ 
 less). In philosophy there has been even more 
 difference of. opinion as to the nature of time 
 than of space (q.v.). In addition to the views of 
 time which parallel those of space, there are 
 still others about time on the part of thinkers 
 who regard time as more fundamental than 
 space in the constitution of the world. This way 
 of regarding time as more real than space is al¬ 
 most inevitable in idealism (q.v.), and was taken 
 by the first great idealist in modern philosophy, 
 Bishop Berkeley. If the whole material world 
 is nothing but ideas in minds, and if minds are 
 conceived as immaterial and as not having 
 spatial extension, it seems to follow that the 
 apparent space in which the material world 
 exists, being in a spaceless mind, cannot itself 
 be what it seems. Thus Berkeley came to the 
 conclusion, reenforced by considerations drawn 
 from an associational psychology, that “neither 
 distance nor things placed at a distance are them¬ 
 selves, or their ideas, truly perceived by sight 
 . . . what he (any one) sees only suggests to 
 his understanding that, after having passed 
 a certain distance, to be measured by the motion 
 of his body, which is perceivable by touch, he 
 shall come to perceive such and such tangible 
 ideas, which have been usually connected with 
 such and such visible ideas.” “As we see distance 
 so we see magnitude. And we see both in the 
 same way that we see shame or anger in the 
 looks of a man. Those passions are themselves 
 invisible.” In the last analysis space is resolved 
 into time with its suggestions. Ideas being in 
 the mind are indeed in time, but not in space. 
 But this time is not an independent entity; it is 
 “ nothing , abstracted from the succession of ideas 
 in our minds,” and it follows “that the duration 
 of any finite spirit must be estimated by the num¬ 
 ber of ideas or actions succeeding each other in 
 that same spirit or mind.” When we say, then, 
 that ideas are in time, we should not mean that 
 they are contained in some medium which has an 
 independent existence, but that they follow each 
 other, and that the fact of this sequence is it¬ 
 self time. This position taken by Berkeley was 
 one of unstable equilibrium, and subsequent 
 idealists have endeavored in various ways to 
 maintain a more secure poise. Some, like T. 
 H. Green, have practically denied the ultimate 
 reality of time altogether; consciousness, for 
 which alone there is reality, is “an agent for the 
 neutralization of time.” This is the most com¬ 
 mon way of dealing with the difficulty, and re¬ 
 sults in the doctrine of the timeless Absolute. 
 Another way out of the difficulty is taken by 
 Josiah Boyce, who makes time a fundamental 
 character of the real world as experienced by the 
 
 Absolute; the difference of before and after for 
 the Absolute is just the same as that of before 
 and after for us within the small span of the 
 specious present. Just as we can hear at the 
 same time several successive taps and experience 
 their successiveness within the same moment, 
 so the Absolute within his all-comprehensive 
 span experiences immediately all the past and 
 all the future at once, without, however, failing 
 to experience their relative priority and posteri¬ 
 ority. There is nothing future or past to his 
 experience, but things are future or past to 
 one another for his experience. Time is thus 
 ultimately real. Royce claims that this is a 
 justifiable extension to the Absolute Experience 
 of what is an empirical fact in our finite ex¬ 
 perience; he has .been criticized for failing to 
 note that what makes temporal priority or 
 posteriority in our experience is the order in 
 which events enter into this experience: as into 
 the Absolute Experience nothing enters, it is 
 claimed that nothing can be experienced therein 
 as temporal. For the Absolute the time order 
 would not be essentially different from the space 
 order or some other type of static order. This 
 is a serious objection to any attempt to combine 
 the reality of time with an idealistic absolutism. 
 
 Apart from idealistic interpretations, recent 
 discussions of time have taken their departure 
 from James’s or Bergson’s views. In his Prin¬ 
 ciples of Psychology, James developed the thesis 
 that “the sensible present has duration.” “In 
 short, the practically cognized present is no knife- 
 edge, but a saddleback, with a certain breadth of 
 its own on which we sit perched, and from which 
 we look in two directions into time. The unit 
 of composition of our perception of time is a 
 duration, with a bow and a stern, as it were— 
 a rearward and a forward looking end. It is 
 only as parts of this duration block that the re¬ 
 lation of succession of one end to the other is 
 perceived. We do not first feel one end and 
 then feel the other after it, and from the per¬ 
 ception of the succession infer an interval of 
 time between, but we seem to feel the interval 
 of time as a whole, with its two ends embedded 
 in it. The experience is from the outset a syn¬ 
 thetic datum, not a simple one; and to sensible 
 perception its elements are inseparable, although 
 attention looking back may easily decompose 
 the experience, and distinguish its beginning 
 from its end. As we have seen, Royce iniinitizes 
 this specious present and gets the absolute ex¬ 
 perience, for which the whole future is as real 
 as the whole past. James, on the contrary, in¬ 
 sists on the growth of time; the future is not 
 yet, not even for an absolute. Time “grows by 
 finite buds or drops, either nothing coming at 
 all, or certain units of amount bursting into 
 being ‘at a stroke.’ ” Real processes of change 
 are not continuous but take place “by finite not 
 infinitesimal steps, like the successive drops by 
 which a cask of water is filled, when whole 
 drops fall into it at once or nothing.” This 
 view, like Berkeley’s, is in unstable equilibrium. 
 If one emphasizes the durational character of 
 the specious present with past and future in¬ 
 cluded in it, one moves in one direction; if one 
 emphasizes the discontinuous accretions of finite 
 amounts of time, one moves in another. The 
 former direction leads to the view of time as a 
 continuum; the latter to time as a discrete some¬ 
 what. This latter view has been developed by 
 Lovejoy. 
 
 James leaves no doubt as to his belief that 
 
TIME 
 
 282 
 
 TIME 
 
 the future is not yet real; but he is not equally 
 clear about the past, although it would seem 
 that the past also is on his view no longer real. 
 Here Bergson parts company with James. The 
 past is not left behind; it is not differentiated 
 from the present by its status, but by its lesser 
 efficacy. Time is likened to a snowball which, as 
 it rolls onward, carries the snow over which it 
 has traveled along with it. In reality the past 
 is preserved by itself, automatically. In its en¬ 
 tirety, probably, it follows us at every instant; 
 all that we have felt, thought, and willed from 
 our earliest infancy is there, leaning over the 
 present which is about to join it, pressing against 
 the portals of consciousness that would fain 
 leave it outside. 
 
 While both the Bergsonian and the Jamesian 
 doctrines of time claim to be purely empirical, 
 and not based upon dialectical considerations, 
 it is also claimed for them by their authors that 
 they obviate the dialectical difficulties that have 
 been raised against the reality of time. These 
 difficulties are the Zenonian paradoxes. Zeno 
 (q.v.) himself was probably arguing against the 
 view of the discontinuity of time, but the recent 
 philosophers who have made use of his arguments 
 have turned them against the doctrine of the 
 continuity of time. It is urged that if time 
 is continuous in the sense that it is infinitely 
 divisible, as there must be an infinity of points 
 on a line of any length, it would take a cor¬ 
 respondingly infinite number of moments to 
 traverse all these points. But an infinite num¬ 
 ber of moments would be infinite time; but if 
 it would take an infinite time to accomplish 
 any result, the result could never be accom¬ 
 plished. As James states the argument, “That 
 Achilles should occupy in succession all the 
 points in a single continuous inch of space, 
 is as inadmissible a conception as that he should 
 count the series of whole numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., 
 to infinity and reach an end.” Bergson returns 
 again and again to the difficulties involved in 
 such a view of time, and alleged to be insur¬ 
 mountable. But it would seem that the diffi¬ 
 culty is factitious. One way of meeting the 
 difficulty has been to say that if an inch of 
 space be conceived as containing an infinite 
 number of points, a minute of time can by a 
 similar treatment be conceived as containing an 
 infinite number of instants; and whatever in¬ 
 stant be taken as correlated with any point, 
 a last instant can be conceived as correlated 
 with the last point, and when this instant is 
 reached the line is traversed. Against this reply 
 it is urged that the difficulty is not met by 
 doubling it. An infinite number of instants of 
 time cannot elapse any more than an infinite 
 number of points can be traversed. Or as James 
 puts it, the puzzle is not so much one involved 
 in motion as in the flight of time itself. Un¬ 
 less time is composed of a finite number of in¬ 
 divisible moments, no smallest length of time 
 can run its course until the infinite number of 
 its constituent instants has been summated, 
 i.e., it can never happen. 
 
 Argument upon such a basis is sophistical. 
 The continuity of time does not mean that it is 
 composed or aggregated out of an infinity of 
 moments, but that any length of time is capable 
 of being divided into any number you please of 
 smaller lengths. Any division you make is a 
 finite division; to say that the divisibility of 
 time is infinite is not to say that time is actually 
 infinitely divided, but that it may be divided 
 
 as much as you please. But however much di¬ 
 vided, the division actually made is always 
 finite; the parts are of finite length, and a 
 definite number of these definite parts makes up 
 the total length you started to divide up. Any 
 part of time you choose is always some length 
 of time, and time is not composed of lengthless 
 elements. In other words, if instant be de¬ 
 fined as the temporal correlate of the spatial 
 point, which has no length, breadth, or thick¬ 
 ness, and thus is conceived as having no dura¬ 
 tional length, it is not a part of time. It is 
 the termination of a length of time. It is the 
 boundary between two adjacent lengths, but is 
 a lengthless boundary. A length of time, then, 
 say a minute, is not made up of an infinite num¬ 
 ber of lengthless instants, but is divisible into 
 any number of correspondingly smaller lengths 
 of duration, each terminating at the lengthless 
 instant at which the next begins. If the pas¬ 
 sage of time be represented by spatial analogies, 
 it may be illustrated, not by a 'point traversing 
 a line composed of an infinite number of points, 
 but by a short line traversing a longer line—a 
 process which does not involve the perplexity in 
 question. Such an illustration is more in keep¬ 
 ing with James’s own description of the “specious 
 present” previously quoted; but this description 
 must be amended in one point. Instead of say¬ 
 ing that we “do not first feel one end and then 
 feel the other after it, and from the perception 
 infer an interval of time between,” we should 
 say that while both the prior and the posterior 
 parts of the contents included in the span of the 
 present are both felt together, we came first to 
 feel the prior and then the posterior, just as, 
 when a short line is traversing a longer, the 
 part of the longer which is towards the rear 
 of the moving line is as much spanned by the 
 latter as is the part which is towards its front, 
 and yet the former part entered into that span 
 before the latter part. It was this -failure to 
 reckon both with the entrance of elements into 
 the span of the present and with their inclu¬ 
 sion within this span, that has led both James 
 and Royce to their vagarious treatment of time, 
 one in the case of the finite experience and the 
 other in the case of the assumed Eternal Ex¬ 
 perience. 
 
 In its legal aspect, the meridian of the sun 
 is the generally recognized standard of time; but 
 where persons enter into legal relations ex¬ 
 pressly with reference to some arbitrary system, 
 as that adopted by railroads for their conven¬ 
 ience, the courts will apply the standard con¬ 
 templated by the parties in case of a contro¬ 
 versy. In computing a period of time from a 
 certain day, the general rule is to exclude the 
 first day and include the last day of the count. 
 This rule may be disregarded if it will best ef¬ 
 fectuate the intention of the parties to an agree¬ 
 ment. It is generally held that a policy of in¬ 
 surance includes the last day of the period 
 named therein. In many States Sunday, or other 
 dies non, is included in the computation of a 
 number of days if they exceed a week, i.e., seven 
 days, but excluded if less than seven days. In 
 some States a dies non is included unless it 
 would be the last day of a period. See Dies 
 non ; Month ; Day. 
 
 In music, time is the division of a measure 
 into the fractional parts of a whole note. The 
 sign which indicates the character of the subdi¬ 
 vision, and which consequently regulates the 
 rhvthm of the movement, is called the time 
 
TIME 
 
 TIME 
 
 283 
 
 signature. This is generally a fraction ( f, |, 
 etc.) placed after the clef at the beginning 
 of a movement. In the fraction the lower figures 
 represent the kind of notes to be used asltime 
 standards, while the upper figure shows how 
 many of them are to be given in a bar. There 
 are two general classes of time, duple and triple; 
 in the former, the number of beats in a bar is 
 divisible by two; in the latter, by three. Com¬ 
 mon time, so called, is £ and is represented 
 by the sign C. Compound duple time and com¬ 
 pound triple time differ only from their originals 
 in that each beat (containing a dotted note or 
 its equivalent) is divisible by three. See 
 Rhythm; Tempo. 
 
 Consult: Herbert Nichols, Psychology of Time 
 (New York, 1891); J. E. Boodin, Time and 
 Reality (ib., 1904) ; James Arthur, Time and its 
 Measurements (Chicago, 1909) ; Henri Bergson, 
 Time and Free Will, Eng. trans. by F. L. Pogson 
 (ib., 1910); Love joy, “The Problem of Time in 
 Recent French Philosophy,” in The Philosophical 
 Review (Boston, 1912); McGilvary, “Time and 
 the Experience of Time,” in The Philosophical 
 Revieiv (ib., 1914) ; and the bibliography in the 
 article Space. 
 
 TIME, Equation of. See Equation of Time; 
 Navigation. 
 
 TIME, Reckoning of. See Day; Hour; In¬ 
 ternational Date Line; Month; Time, Stand¬ 
 ard; Year. 
 
 TIME, Standard. The time in common use 
 
 of no consequence for our present purpose, when 
 that celestial body is on the meridian of any 
 place we call the time at that place noon, or 
 12 o clock. (See Equation of Time.) It fol¬ 
 lows that when it is noon at any given place 
 it is similarly noon at all other places having the 
 same meridian, and at places having different 
 meridian it is either forenoon or afternoon. In 
 fact, as the sun rises in the east and sets in the 
 vest, it is evident that when it is crossing the 
 meridian of any place it must have already 
 passed that of neighboring places to the east¬ 
 ward, and not yet have reached that of neighbor¬ 
 ing places to the westward. In other words, 
 when it is noon in the given place it is already 
 afternoon in places to the eastward, and still 
 forenoon in places to the westward. The farther 
 east one travels, the later is the local time; and 
 this gives rise to the rather perplexing time 
 differences so familiar to travelers. 
 
 In the case of railroads this matter of time 
 differences has caused especially confusing com¬ 
 plications. It was formerly customary for a 
 road to use throughout large sections of its ter¬ 
 ritory the local time of one of the principal 
 cities through which it passed. The result was 
 that when two railroads met in some smaller 
 town, it happened not infrequently that they 
 were running under widely different time sys¬ 
 tems. As many as five different kinds of time 
 have been thus simultaneously in use in a single 
 town. 
 
 TABLE OF THE WORLD’S TIME STANDARDS 
 
 COUNTRIES 
 
 Central meridian 
 
 Fast or slow on 
 Greenwich 
 
 Great Britain, Faroe Islands, France, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Gibral¬ 
 tar, Algeria, Morocco, Upper Senegal-Niger, Ivory Coast, Dahomey, 
 
 Togoland, Sao Thome and Principe Islands. 
 
 Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Luxemburg, Germany, Austria-Hungary, 
 Switzerland, Italy, Malta, Alontenegro, Bosnia, Tunis, French Equa¬ 
 torial Africa, Cameroons, Belgian Congo, Angola, German South¬ 
 west Africa. 
 
 Rumania, Bulgaria, Turkey (railways), Egypt, German East Africa, 
 
 Mozambique, British South Africa. 
 
 Uganda, British East Africa. 
 
 Aden, Somaliland, Madagascar. 
 
 Mauritius, Seychelles, Reunion. . 
 
 Chagos Archipelago, Portuguese India. ... . 
 
 India (Bombay, Madras), Qeylon, French India. !..!.!!!!! 
 
 India (Calcutta). 
 
 Burma. . 
 
 Straits Settlements, Indo-China.. . .'.. 
 
 Hongkong, Macao, Eastern China, Formosa, Philippines, British Bor¬ 
 neo, Labuan, Portuguese Timor, West Australia. 
 
 Japan, Korea. 
 
 Guam, Northern Territory, South Australia.’.'.’.’.’.’.'.' ' ’ ’ 
 
 Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, German New 
 
 Guinea... 
 
 New Caledonia, New Hebrides. 
 
 New Zealand. 
 
 Iceland, Madeira, Senegal, Portuguese Guinea, French Guinea, Sierra 
 
 Leone. 
 
 Cape Verde Islands, Azores, Fernando da Noronha, Trinidad (Bra¬ 
 zilian) ... 
 
 Eastern Brazil. ' 
 
 Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, Sainte-Pierre and Miquelon, Porto 
 Rico, Lesser Antilles, French Guiana, British Guiana, Amazonas 
 (Brazil). 
 
 New Brunswick, Quebec, Eastern Ontario, Eastern United States, Baha¬ 
 mas, Jamaica, Canal Zone, Peru, Acre (Brazil), Chile. 
 
 Western Ontario, Manitoba, Central United States, Honduras, British 
 
 Honduras. 
 
 Saskatchewan, Alberta, Mountain United States .. 
 
 British Columbia, Pacific United States . 
 
 Alaska, Yukon. 
 
 Tahiti. . . 
 
 Hawaii .' 
 
 Samoa . 
 
 0 ° 
 
 If, 0 E. 
 
 30° E. 
 37 E. 
 45° E. 
 60° E. 
 75° E. 
 82V 2 ° E. 
 
 90° E. 
 97 46° E. 
 105° E. 
 
 120° E. 
 135° E. 
 142 y 2 ° E. 
 
 150° E. 
 165° E. 
 17246° E. 
 
 15° W. 
 
 30° W. 
 45° W. 
 
 60° W. 
 
 75° W. 
 
 90° W. 
 105° W. 
 120° W. 
 135° W. 
 150° W. 
 157 46° W. 
 172 46° W. 
 
 0 h. 
 
 1 h. fast 
 
 2 h. fast 
 243 h. fast 
 
 3 h. fast 
 
 4 h. fast 
 
 5 h. fast 
 546 h. fast 
 
 6 h. fast 
 6 46 h. fast 
 
 7 h. fast 
 
 8 h. fast 
 
 9 h. fast 
 9 y 2 h. fast 
 
 10 h. fast 
 
 11 h. fast 
 11 y h. fast 
 
 1 h. slow 
 
 2 h. slow 
 
 3 h. slow 
 
 4 h. slow 
 
 5 h. slow 
 
 6 h. slow 
 
 7 h. slow 
 
 8 h. slow 
 
 9 h. slow 
 10 h. slow 
 
 1046 h. slow 
 1146 h. slow 
 
 for regulating the ordinary affairs of life. It is 
 derived from the sun. Leaving out of account 
 small irregularities of the solar motion that are 
 Vol. XXII.—19 
 
 The establishment of an international standard 
 of time appears to have been first suggested by 
 Charles Dowd, of Saratoga Springs, in 1870. 
 
TIME 
 
 284 
 
 TIMES 
 
 In 1879 the question was raised anew by Mr. 
 (afterward Sir) Sandford Fleming (q.v.), chief 
 engineer of the Canadian Pacific Railway, and 
 through his efforts was brought to the attention 
 of the leading governments of the world, with the 
 result that in" 1882 the United States Congress 
 passed a joint resolution authorizing the Presi¬ 
 dent to call an international conference to fix 
 and recommend for universal adoption a com¬ 
 mon prime meridian to be used in reckoning 
 longitude, and in the regulation of time through¬ 
 out the world. The conference assembled in 
 Washington, Oct. 1, 1884. Delegates represent¬ 
 ing 26 countries were present, but they were not 
 able to agree unanimously upon a prime me¬ 
 ridian. However, most of them favored the 
 adoption of Greenwich, England, as the origin 
 of longitudes. The French delegates represented 
 the only important nation that would not agree, 
 and it was not until March 10, 1911, that France 
 abandoned the use of the meridian of Paris and 
 adopted that of Greenwich as its prime meridian. 
 
 When the Prime Meridian Conference met, 
 the United States and Canada had already se¬ 
 lected a series of standard meridians, differing 
 in longitude from that of Greenwich, England, 
 by exact multiples of 15°. On Oct. 18, 1883, 
 a convention was called by W. F. Allen, Secre¬ 
 tary of the General Railway Time Convention, 
 which decided on the introduction of standard 
 time to take effect at noon on Nov. 18, 1883, 
 and the change was made without difficulty. 
 Now 15° of longitude corresponds exactly to 
 one hour of time difference, and therefore the 
 local times of the several standard meridians 
 differ from Greenwich by an even number of 
 hours without fractional minutes and seconds. 
 In the United States the standard time merid¬ 
 ians are those whose longitudes are west of 
 Greenwich G0°, 75°, 90°, 105°, and 120°. The 
 times of these meridians are respectively 4 hours, 
 5 hours, 6 hours, 7 hours, and 8 hours slow on 
 Greenwich time. The time of the 60th meridian 
 is called Colonial, that of the 75th meridian 
 Eastern, that of the 90th Central, that of the 
 105th Mountain, and that of the 120th Pacific 
 time. The limiting lines of the time zones have 
 been so drawn arbitrarily that they never divide 
 any town. Where such a division is theoretically 
 unavoidable, the dividing line for actual use is 
 drawn on the map with a crook in it, so as to 
 put the whole town on one side of the line. 
 
 Most of the countries throughout the world 
 now use standard time based on one of the even 
 hour meridians as reckoned from Greenwich. In 
 a few cases, however, it is found more convenient 
 to use the even half-hour meridians. Belgium 
 and Holland were the first continental nations 
 to follow the example of the United States in 
 introducing the zone system, and other countries 
 fell rapidly into line. (Brazil established four 
 time zones in 1913.) Of the countries of Europe, 
 only Ireland, Holland, Russia, and Greece hold 
 aloof, and base their time systems on the merid¬ 
 ians of their respective capitals (except in the 
 case of Russia, where Pulkowa time is used on 
 the railways), Holland having abandoned the 
 meridian of Greenwich for that of Amsterdam 
 on May 1, 1909. 
 
 Consult: Harold Jacoby, Practical Talks by 
 an Astronomer (New York, 1902) ; W. F. Allen, 
 Short History of Standard Time (Philadelphia, 
 1904) ; H. H. S. Cunvnghame, Time Clocks (New 
 York, 1906). See Clock: Day; Horology; In¬ 
 ternational, DateLine; Month; Time Signals. 
 
 TIM'ELITDAS (Neo-Lat. nom. pi., from 
 Timelia, from the East Indian name). An as¬ 
 semblage of passerine birds resembling thrushes 
 in a general way, which has been formed as a 
 sort of catch-all to contain many genera difficult 
 of definite assignment elsewhere. All are birds 
 of the Old World, and most of them belong to the 
 
 The slaty-headed babbling thrush (Pomatorhinus schis- 
 ticeps) of the Himalaya Mountains. 
 
 Oriental and Ethiopian regions, and are denizens 
 of woods, jungles, and rough mountains. The 
 most distinctive timeliines, perhaps, are the bab¬ 
 bling thrushes of the genera Timelia, Pomato¬ 
 rhinus, Orthonyx, and their allies, and the hill 
 robins of the genus Liothrix. 
 
 TIME OF ADVENT. See Advent. 
 
 TIMES, The. A famous daily newspaper of 
 London, England. Its publication really began 
 Jan. 1, 1785, with the first number of the 
 London Daily Universal Register, the present 
 name being first applied to the issue of Jan. 1, 
 1788, by its founder, John Walter (1735-1812). 
 The paper was, up to 1908, managed and con¬ 
 trolled by the descendants of the first John 
 Walter, his successors being John Walter (1776- 
 1847), John Walter (1818-94), and Arthur 
 Fraser Walter (1846-1910). Under their skill¬ 
 ful management, with the assistance of some of 
 the ablest journalists the world has known, the 
 Times has achieved a reputation for unequaled 
 journalistic enterprise and unusual political in¬ 
 fluence. It has also been a pioneer in the 
 adoption of new inventions in printing and pub¬ 
 lishing. Among improvements of the latter sort, 
 one of the greatest was the introduction of steam 
 printing presses, the use of which was begun 
 with the issue of Nov. 29, 1814, in spite of strong 
 opposition from the employees. Subsequently 
 experiments in the Times office led to the perfec¬ 
 tion of stereotyping, to the introduction of the 
 Walter press, from which by the use of stereo¬ 
 type plates the paper was printed on.both sides 
 by a single operation, and to important improve¬ 
 ments in folding, stitching, and typesetting 
 machines. A farther improvement was the in¬ 
 troduction of the Wicks Rotary Type-casting 
 Machine in 1899. 
 
 For the first few years of its existence the 
 Times was edited and managed solely by the two 
 Walters—father and son. Its outspoken crit- 
 
TIMES 
 
 TIME STUDY 
 
 285 
 
 icism of the King and his Ministers during this 
 period drew down on the proprietors the wrath 
 of the government, and as a result they were 
 several times fined and imprisoned in Newgate. 
 Several attempts were likewise made to hamper 
 or suppress their foreign news service, but this 
 department of the paper had been carefully and 
 systematically developed with the result that the 
 news of Trafalgar and Waterloo and other no¬ 
 table victories of the British arms were published 
 in London before the arrival of the official 
 dispatches. 
 
 For some time prior to 1816 the Times was 
 edited by Sir John Stoddart. In the latter year 
 the editorial control was intrusted to Thomas 
 Barnes. He was assisted as a leader writer by 
 Edward Sterling, whose virile articles earned for 
 it the name of “The Thunderer.” For a period 
 of 36 years—from 1841 to 1877—the editor was 
 John Thaddeus Delane (q.v.), one of the greatest 
 of English journalists. He was succeeded in 
 turn by Thomas Chenery, upon whose death in 
 1884 George Earle Buckle became editor. The 
 influence and position of the Times rank it as 
 having been for nearly a century unquestionably 
 the leading paper of the British Empire. It has 
 remained independent of party and has consis¬ 
 tently favored a strong foreign policy and a con¬ 
 stant strengthening of the ties between the 
 mother country and the colonies. It supported 
 in turn Beaconsfiekl’s stand on the Eastern ques¬ 
 tion and Gladstone’s Egyptian policy. When, 
 however, the latter adopted the idea of Home 
 Rule for Ireland, the Times withdrew its sup¬ 
 port, was an active factor in the promotion of the 
 Liberal-Unionist party, and contributed largely 
 to the defeat of the Home Rule bills. It was in 
 the course of this campaign that it made one 
 of its few great blunders in the publication of 
 the famous Pigott forgeries, known as “The 
 Parnell Letters.” It supported Salisbury’s min¬ 
 istry in its South African policy in 1899-1902, 
 although it vigorously criticized the conduct 
 of the war after it had begun. In addition to 
 its daily issue the Times publishes a tri-weekly, 
 known as the Mail, a weekly edition (1877- 
 ), a weekly Literary Supplement (1901- 
 ), and other periodical supplements con¬ 
 cerned with law, commerce, engineering, educa¬ 
 tion, and finance. Supplements on Russia, South 
 America, etc., have been republished in volumes. 
 It has published also an Atlas (first edition, 
 1895) and a Gazetteer, and in 1898 undertook a 
 reprint of the Eneyclopcedia Britannica, which, 
 with the subsequently published supplementary 
 volumes, constitutes the tenth edition of that 
 work. 
 
 Two other notable invasions of the book field 
 were represented by M. Busch, Bismarck: Some 
 Secret Pages of His History (published for the 
 Times by Macmillan, London, 1898), and The 
 Times History of the War in South Africa 
 (completed in 6 vols., ib., 1909). In 1908 
 an epoch in the history of the Times was 
 made when the paper passed into the hands 
 of a stock company financially controlled by 
 Lord Northcliffe (Alfred Charles William 
 Harmsworth). Mr. A. F. Walter (1846-1910), 
 who had been chief owner since 1891, then be¬ 
 came chairman of the board of directors and 
 Mr. C. Moberly Bell (1847-1911) became man¬ 
 aging director. In 1910 Mr. A. F. Walter’s son, 
 John Walter (1873- ), took his father’s 
 
 place. In 1912 Mr. Geoffrey Robinson became 
 editor of the Times and director of the Times 
 
 Publishing Company. In the period before the 
 Great War, the Times steadily urged a larger 
 army, and more complete preparations for de¬ 
 fense, and pointed out the grave danger of an 
 attack on the British Empire by Germany. It 
 criticized the conduct of the war, and did much 
 to bring about the coalition ministry, May, 
 1915. In common with other newspapers, the 
 Times was unable under a rigid censorship to 
 anticipate the official publication of war news. 
 Consult: Progress of British Newspapers in 
 the 19th Century (London, 1901); S. V. Ma- 
 kower, Some Notes Upon the History of the 
 Times, 1785-1904 (Edinburgh, 1904) ; A. I. 
 Dasent, John Thaddeus Delane (2 vols., ib., 
 1908); and Sir E. T. Cook, John Delane, in 
 “Makers of the Nineteenth Century Series” 
 (New York, 1915). See also Newspaper. 
 
 TIMES, The (New York). See Newspaper. 
 
 TIME SIGNALS. Signals used for the ac¬ 
 curate regulation of clocks and watches. In the 
 United States time signals are based on astro¬ 
 nomical observations made at the United States 
 Naval Observatory in Washington. These ob¬ 
 servations enable the astronomers there to keep 
 their standard clock regulated; and from this 
 clock a daily noon signal is sent out by electric 
 telegraph to the Western Union Telegraph Com¬ 
 pany. This company in turn uses the observa¬ 
 tory signal to regulate its standard clock, from 
 which accurate time is distributed telegraphically 
 to the public. Various persons, jewelers, and 
 others, who are subscribers to the Western 
 Union time service, receive signals electrically, 
 and are thus able to keep their own standard 
 clocks correct. In certain places a time ball is 
 let fall exactly at noon by means of an automa¬ 
 tic electric signal from the telegraph company, 
 and the public are enabled to regulate watches 
 and clocks. In England an analogous time serv¬ 
 ice is furnished from the Royal Observatory 
 at Greenwich; and other European countries, 
 such as France and Germany, have similar ar¬ 
 rangements in successful operation. Thus the 
 direct determination of time by actual astro¬ 
 nomical observation has been rendered unneces¬ 
 sary on the part of jewelers and nautical instru¬ 
 ment makers. These latter were formerly com¬ 
 pelled to observe time stars themselves with 
 small transit instruments (q.v.), in order to 
 regulate the chronometers of vessels about to 
 put to sea. 
 
 In the most recent development of time sig¬ 
 naling wireless telegraphy is used. In 1908 the 
 Bureau des Longitudes suggested the advantages 
 to be derived from a series of hourly wireless 
 signals from the Eiffel Tower for the determina¬ 
 tion of longitudes. The service was first put into 
 operation in 1910. Soon afterward other sta¬ 
 tions began to send out signals by wireless teleg¬ 
 raphy, and the possibility of confusion arising 
 from the overlapping of signals from different 
 stations led the French government to call an 
 International Conference for the regulation of the 
 whole question. The conference met in 1912, 
 and formulated a scheme whereby wireless sig¬ 
 nals would be sent out on the even hours of 
 Greenwich time, the entire work being shared 
 by 10 or 12 stations situated in widely scat¬ 
 tered parts of the globe. The scheme went into 
 effect on July 1, 1913, but, on account of the 
 European war, was suspended. 
 
 TIME STUDY. A process of analytical de¬ 
 termination and record of manual, mechanical, 
 or other operations, used by the practitioners 
 
TIME-TABLE 
 
 286 
 
 TIMOLEON 
 
 of Scientific Management (q.v.) to fix stand¬ 
 ards of performance and remuneration. Its suc¬ 
 cessful prosecution demands specially-trained ob¬ 
 servers, the cooperation of the workers under 
 observation, and the use of the stop-watch. By 
 resolving the operation into its elements and 
 measuring them separately, those parts of the 
 cvcle which are variable in time requirement 
 may be identified and separated from those which 
 are fixed; delays may be detected and measured, 
 their extent determined, and their causes dis¬ 
 covered ; units may be isolated for reassembly 
 in other combinations, and a definite and exact 
 knowledge may be put in the place of the gen¬ 
 eral intuition or experience which, under the 
 older fashion of management, formed the basis 
 of an estimate, or a more or less assured guess 
 at the total time in a lump. 
 
 TIME-TABLE. See Railways. 
 
 TIM'GAD. The site of Colonia Marciana 
 Trajana Thamugas, a town founded by Trajan 
 100 a.d. and named from his sister. It was a 
 fortified post on the road between Theveste and 
 Lambaesis or Lambaesa (see Lambessa). It 
 is in the department of Constantine, Algeria. 
 It preserves the military plan of the outpost 
 which it replaced, in its two main streets, 
 Decumanus Maximus and Cardo Maximus. 
 Originally laid out as a rectangle, 357 m. by 
 324 m.,‘ with eleven streets intersecting at 
 
 right angles, as the town expanded in the sec¬ 
 ond and third centuries, the new streets gave up 
 this regularity. Monotony was avoided by col¬ 
 onnades along the main streets and fountains 
 at many corners. The main entrance to the town 
 was from the northern end of the Cardo Maxi¬ 
 mus. Inside the gate, on the left, was a bath, 
 and, one block from the Forum, a library erected 
 by a citizen at a cost of 400,000 sesterces. The 
 Forum, which was entered from the Cardo, 
 through a monumental gate, is a rectangle, 50 m. 
 by 43 m., surrounded by porticoes. On its west¬ 
 ern side are the Curia and a temple. Much of 
 the eastern side is occupied by the basilica, to 
 the north of which was the public toilet. South 
 of the Forum is the theatre, dating from the 
 second century. It accommodated 3500 people. 
 While the simple dwellings recall those of Pom¬ 
 peii by their plain exteriors, they differ from 
 them internally. Instead of an atrium there 
 is often a court, much like a patio, paved and 
 supplied with a fountain. Sometimes one house 
 occupied a whole block. The majority were sup¬ 
 plied with water, and, when more luxurious, 
 with baths. Except the public and private 
 baths the buildings were not heated, which is 
 astonishing when one recalls that in Italy such 
 comforts were common. Of the public baths 
 the most imposing, 80 m. long by 66 m. wide, was 
 located just outside the northern gate of the 
 city: it contained over 30 halls. Besides the 
 public or city baths were those established by 
 individuals or societies, such as those called 
 Filadeifes. The capitol, situated to the south¬ 
 west of the original limits of Timgad, is almost 
 entirely destroyed; but its dimensions, 53 m. by 
 23 m., indicate that the structure was imposing 
 in appearance. The building was of the Corin¬ 
 thian order, with six columns along the front 
 and colonnades along the side. Around it was 
 a great court with porticoes. Throughout the 
 town many inscriptions and statues have been 
 found. 
 
 In the third century the town had become 
 Christianized, and in the fourth it was an 
 
 important centre for the Donatists. From 
 the time of its foundation the city apparently 
 prospered, but, as the Roman Empire declined in 
 the fourth century, Timgad too declined. 1 he 
 city suffered also through the invasions of Van¬ 
 dals, Byzantines, and Arabs. The life of the 
 city in fact terminated with the appearance of 
 the Arabs. From then until the nineteenth 
 century—except for stray visitors—the town 
 was unnoticed. In 1881 the Service des Monu¬ 
 ments historiques undertook to clear the site. 
 After some interruption the work was resumed 
 in 1892 and then carried on regularly with the 
 result that Timgad may justly be called the 
 African Pompeii. Besides the structures named 
 above there are two triumphal arches, one 
 in honor of Trajan. Consult: Albert Ballu, 
 Guide illustre de Timgad (2d ed., Paris, 1911) ; 
 id., Les mines de Timgad: sept annees de de- 
 cou/aertes, 1903—10 (ib., 1911); and W. Cart, 
 “Timgad, la Pompeii Algerienne,’’ in Bibliotheque 
 universelle (ib., Nov. and Dec., 1915). 
 
 TIM'GCLES (Lat., from Gk. TVo/cAf/s, Timo- 
 Ides) (4th cent. b.c.). An Athenian comic poet, 
 belonging to the Middle Comedy, noted for his 
 pungent style and for his attacks on Demos¬ 
 thenes. Consult T. Kock, Comicomm Atticorum 
 Fragmenta, vol. ii (Leipzig, 1886). 
 
 TIMO'CREON (Lat., from Gk. TiyoKpeuv, 
 Timolcreon). A Greek lyric poet of the early 
 fifth century b.c., born at Ialysus, in Rhodes. 
 His works are lost, but his name has survived 
 through his hatred for Themistocles, whom he 
 bitterly attacked. The statesman was defended, 
 however, by his friend Simonides, whose sarcastic 
 epigram on Timocreon’s gluttony and bibulous 
 habits has been preserved by Athenseus. He 
 excelled in drinking songs, to which he gave a 
 satiric tone. Fragments are in Bergk, Foetce 
 Lyrici Greed, vol. iii (5th ed., Leipzig, 1914). 
 
 TIMOFEYEFF, Yermak. See Yermak 
 Timofeyeff. 
 
 TIMO'LEON (Lat., from Gk. hpo\4wv, Timo¬ 
 leon) (c. 394-337 b.c.). A Greek general, the 
 liberator of Sicily from the dominion of Diony¬ 
 sius the Younger. He was born at Corinth, of a 
 noble and illustrious family. In battle he saved 
 his brother Timoplianes’ life at the risk of his 
 own, but, when Timophanes attempted to over¬ 
 throw the democratic form of government at 
 Corinth and make himself sole tyrant, Timoleon 
 brought about his brother’s death and the re¬ 
 establishment of the old constitution. Just af¬ 
 ter this event, and while the Corinthians were 
 still deliberating with regard to the act, in 344 
 B.c., an embassy arrived at Corinth from Syra¬ 
 cuse in Sicily, a colony of Corinth, requesting 
 the aid of the Corinthians in the civil dissensions 
 in the island. A force was sent to assist the 
 Syracusans, with Timoleon at the head. In 
 Sicily at this time Hicetas and Dionysius the 
 Younger were both striving to obtain the suprem¬ 
 acy in Syracuse (q.v.). The force commanded 
 by Timoleon was small, but in a short time he 
 drove both of the would-be tyrants from the 
 city. After repeopling the almost desolate city 
 by recalling the exiles, and inviting new colo¬ 
 nists from Greece, Italy, and Sicily, he spent 
 the next two years in enacting laws and or¬ 
 ganizing a constitution, which he put on a com¬ 
 pletely democratic footing. The Carthaginians, 
 alarmed at the reviving power of Syracuse, and 
 the prospect of union among the Sicilian Greeks, 
 now sent an army of 80,000 men under Has- 
 drubal and Hamilcar to subdue the whole is- 
 
TIMON 
 
 TIMOTHEUS 
 
 287 
 
 land. Timoleon, with only 12,000 men, encoun¬ 
 tered them (339 b.c. ) on the Crimissus, and 
 gained one of the greatest victories ever won 
 by Greeks over barbarians. He now proceeded 
 to free the other Greek cities from the rule of 
 the tyrants, and made a treaty with the Cartha¬ 
 ginians, whereby the Halycus River was fixed 
 as the boundary between the Greek and the 
 Carthaginian dominions in Sicily. Hicetas was 
 driven from Leontini, and Mamercus from 
 Catana, and free constitutions were conferred 
 upon all the Greek cities in Sicily. After his 
 great work was accomplished Timoleon lived as 
 a private citizen at Syracuse, respected and 
 honored, until his death. He was buried in the 
 market place of Syracuse, where a Gymnasium, 
 called the Timoleonteum, was afterward erected 
 over his tomb. Consult Plutarch’s Life of Timo¬ 
 leon, the standard histories of Greece, and E. A. 
 Freeman, History of Sicily (Oxford, 1891-94). 
 
 TI'MON (Lat., from Gk. Ti ywv), called 
 The Misanthrope. A native of Athens, who 
 lived at the time of the Peloponnesian War. The 
 little that is known concerning him is learned 
 chiefly from Aristophanes and the other comic 
 poets of the period, and from Lucian, who made 
 him the subject of one of his best-known dia¬ 
 logues. Disgusted with mankind, on account of 
 the ingratitude of his early friends and com¬ 
 panions, he lived a life of almost total seclusion 
 from society, the only visitor whom he would 
 receive being Alcibiades. Shakespeare’s Timon 
 of Athens has as its ultimate source Lucian’s 
 dialogue. 
 
 TIMON OF ATHENS. A tragedy produced 
 in 1G07 or 1608, printed in 1623, of which Shake¬ 
 speare wrote only the chief scenes, and which 
 another, possibly Wilkins, finished; or perhaps 
 Shakespeare’s remodeling of an old play. The 
 sources are the story of Timon told in the life 
 of Antony in North’s Plutarch and in Painter’s 
 Palace of Pleasure, and used by Boiardo in his 
 corned v II Tim one. 
 
 TIMON OF PHLI'US. A Greek poet and 
 skeptic, who lived at Athens about 275 b.c. He 
 wrote numerous works in both prose and verse. 
 The most celebrated of his poems were the three 
 books of hlWoi, in which, in the form of a parody 
 of Homer’s epic poetry, he ridicules the tenets 
 of all dogmatic philosophers, living or dead, 
 from the skeptic’s point of view. Like the 
 classic satire of Rome, these pieces were written 
 in hexameter verse and, according to the testi¬ 
 mony of the ancients (Diog. Laert. ix. 12, 109- 
 115; Euseb. Praep. Ev. xiv. p. 761), were ex¬ 
 cellent productions of their kind. The frag¬ 
 ments are published in Wolke, De Grcecorum 
 Syllis (Warsaw, 1820) ; Paul, Disscrtatio de 
 Sillis (Berlin, 1821); and Wachsmuth, De 
 Timone Pliliasio Ceterisque Sillographis Grcecis 
 (Leipzig, 1885). 
 
 TIMOR, te-mor'. The largest and most south¬ 
 easterly of the Lesser Sunda Islands, situated 
 330 miles southeast of Celebes and 700 miles 
 east of Java, between which and Timor the 
 main chain of Lesser Sunda Islands intervenes 
 (Map: Australasia, E 3). It has an extreme 
 length from northeast to southwest of about 280 
 miles, with an average breadth of 55 miles, and 
 an area estimated at 12,593 square miles. The 
 coasts are for the most part steep, lined with 
 coral reefs, and difficult of approach. The in¬ 
 terior is not well known. It is traversed by a 
 forest-covered moimtain range, and the geologi¬ 
 cal formation seems to be a core of slate, dio- 
 
 rite, and serpentine flanked by beds of carbonifer¬ 
 ous limestone, Triassic sandstone, and some 
 Tertiary formations. The mineral wealth is 
 considerable, but unexploited. The climate is 
 hot and unhealthful on the coast, and the rain¬ 
 fall is very slight, especially in the south. The 
 flora and fauna are less varied than in the other 
 East Indian islands, and the island forms a 
 transition region between these and Australia. 
 Hie resources of the island are not developed; 
 agriculture is primitive, and the exports are few 
 and small in quantity, coffee, wax, and a little 
 sandalwood being the chief staples. Politically 
 the island is divided nearly equally between 
 Holland and Portugal, the latter possessing the 
 northeastern half, with the seat of government 
 at the small town of Deli or Dilli. The Dutch 
 portion forms the principal member of the Resi¬ 
 dency of Timor, which includes also the islands 
 of Rotti, Savu, and Sumba, eastern Flores, and 
 the Solar and Allor groups. The capital of the 
 Residency is Kupang, a town of about 8500 in¬ 
 habitants at the southern extremity of the 
 island. The inhabitants of the island are mainly 
 Papuans with some intermixture of Malays and 
 Chinese. The Portuguese estimate the population 
 of the part of the island controlled by them at 
 300,000, and the Dutch estimate the population 
 of their part at 308,500. The number of Euro¬ 
 peans in the entire Dutch Residency was only 
 372 in 1905. Consult: Wichmann, Sammlungen 
 des Geologischen Reichmuseum (Leyden, 1881— 
 84); A. Bastian, Indonesien (Berlin, 1885); 
 H. O. Forbes, A Naturalist’s Wanderings in the 
 Eastern Archipelago (London, 1885). 
 
 TIMORLATJT, te-mor'lout, or Tenimber. A 
 group of coralline islands in the East Indian 
 Archipelago belonging to the Dutch Residency 
 of Amboina, and situated between the Banda 
 and Arafura seas, 240 miles southeast of the 
 island of Ceram in the Moluccas and about 
 midway between New Guinea and the Lesser 
 Sunda Islands (Map: Australasia, F 3). It 
 consists of the large islands of Yamdena (1151 
 square miles), Larat, a volcanic island, and 
 Selaru, and a number of smaller islands, with 
 a total area of about 2096 square miles. The 
 large islands are hilly and forested, rising to 
 a height of about 1000 feet, while the others 
 are low and flat, and of coral formation. The 
 inhabitants, a mixture of Malays and Negritos, 
 are engaged in primitive agriculture, cattle rais¬ 
 ing, and trepang fishery. Pop., about 25,000. 
 
 TIMOTE, te-mo'ta. A group of small tribes 
 apparently constituting a distinct linguistic 
 stock, whose modern representatives still occupy 
 the mountainous district of Merida, southward 
 from Lake Maracaibo, in western Venezuela. In 
 former times they usually went naked, with their 
 bodies painted red, and were agricultural, cul¬ 
 tivating corn, chile, and various edible roots. 
 They buried their dead in caves or in under¬ 
 ground vaults, depositing with the corpse sacred 
 figurines of clay. Consult: Ernst, in Zeitschrift 
 filr Ethnologie (Berlin, 1885) ; Jose Ignacio 
 Lares, Resumen de las Actas de la Academia 
 Venezolan-a, 1886 (Caracas, 1886) ; D. G. Brin- 
 ton, The American Race (New York, 1891). 
 
 TIMOTHEUS, t!-mo'th£-us (Lat., from Gk. 
 T lyodeos), OF Miletus (c.450-c.357 B.C.). A 
 Greek poet and musician, son of Thersander. 
 He was first of all a citharodes—one who, while 
 singing, played his accompaniment on the 
 cithara. The form of lyric poetry used for these 
 performances was the Nomos, whose name Ter- 
 
TIMOTHY 
 
 288 
 
 TIMOTHY AND TITUS 
 
 pander was said to have established. Originally 
 this was a musical performance of hexameters 
 from the epic, but Timotheus gave definite form 
 to novelties already attempted, and greatly in¬ 
 creased artistic display by introducing a free 
 metrical structure, giving full scope for elabo¬ 
 rate composition and vocal execution. He en¬ 
 larged his opportunities by increasing the 
 number of cithara strings to 11. His innova¬ 
 tions met with strong opposition, and were 
 distasteful to the Spartans, against whom he 
 defends himself in his “Persians.” His works 
 have till recently been known only through 
 scanty fragments and allusions, but in 1902 a 
 papyrus manuscript of his nomos, the “Per¬ 
 sians,” was discovered by the German Oriental 
 Society in a Greek sarcophagus at Abusir, near 
 Memphis, in Egypt. About 116 lines of con¬ 
 siderable length are preserved, and 80 of these 
 are practically complete. It is the oldest Greek 
 manuscript yet found and was copied but a few 
 years after the death of the author, and the fact 
 that it is the only specimen of this branch of the 
 Greek lyric lends special value to the poem. 
 Tiie subject is the defeat of the Persians at Sala- 
 mis, and it seems to belong to the early years 
 of the fourth century, when Athens was humbled 
 and Sparta supreme, for in the vivid descrip¬ 
 tion of the battle there is no mention of Athens. 
 The dialect, however, is the Attic of the poets. 
 Timotheus seems to have been less a poet than 
 a musician, and with only his libretto it is 
 scarcely possible to estimate properly his real 
 position in Greek literary art. Consult: U. 
 von Wilamowitz-Mollendorf, Timotheos, Die Per- 
 ser (Leipzig, 1903), text, a Greek paraphrase, 
 and explanatory essay; Der Timotheos Papyrus 
 (ib., 1903), photographic facsimile; Reinach 
 
 and Croiset, in Revue des etudes grecques, vol. 
 xvi (Paris, 1903), an essay and translation into 
 French; W. C. Wright, A Short History of Greelc 
 Literature (New York, 1907) ; Christ-Schmid, 
 Gesohichte der griechischen Litteratur, vol. i 
 (6th ed., Munich, 1912). For the nomos or 
 nome, see H. W. Smyth, Greek Melic Poets (New 
 York, 1900). 
 
 TIM'OTHY (Gk. TifioOeos, Timotheos, honor¬ 
 ing God). One of the assistants of the Apostle 
 Paul. Our most reliable information regarding 
 Timothy is that contained in the undoubted 
 Epistles of Paul and in Acts. The credibility 
 of what is said or implied about him in the 
 Epistles to Timothy depends on the character of 
 those Epistles (q.v.). He was a native of 
 Lystra, in Lycaonia, the son of a Gentile father 
 and a Jewish mother (Acts xvi. 1). The cir¬ 
 cumstances of his conversion are unknown. On 
 Paul’s second visit to Lystra Timothy was al¬ 
 ready favorably known in the neighborhood as 
 an active Christian. Paul persuaded him to go 
 with him as an assistant. To avoid unneces¬ 
 sary offense to the Jews, he was circumcised 
 (Acts xvi. 2-3). These statements of Acts may 
 be supplemented by those in 2 Tim. iii. 15, i. 5; 
 1 Tim. i. 8, iv, 14. From this time until the 
 close of Paul’s life Timothy was one of his most 
 faithful, trusted, and intimate disciples. He 
 was intrusted several times with important mis¬ 
 sions to the churches founded by the Apostle. 
 At Berea (Acts xvii. 14), Athens, and Thes- 
 salonica (1 Thess. iii. 1-6), at Corinth, and later 
 at Ephesus (1 Cor. iv. 17, xvi. 10), and again in 
 Macedonia (Acts xix. 21-22) he rendered im¬ 
 portant services, and is joined with himself by 
 Paul in the addresses of several of his epistles. 
 
 His important and delicate mission to Corinth, 
 however, seems to have resulted unfavorably (see 
 Corinthians, Epistles of Paul to tiie). 
 Though he went to Jerusalem with Paul (Acts 
 xx. 4), he was probably engaged in labors else¬ 
 where when the Apostle embarked on his voyage 
 to Rome. He visited his master at Rome (see 
 the opening words of Philippians, Colossians, 
 and Philemon), and was probably sent by Paul, 
 shortly before his release, with a message to 
 Philippi (Phil. ii. 19). According to the usual 
 interpretation of 1 and 2 Timothy, after the 
 Apostle’s release he joined Timothy in the East, 
 and later left him in charge at Ephesus in a posi¬ 
 tion full of great responsibility. In his anxiety 
 Paul wrote him the letter of advice and warning 
 known as 1 Timothy. When Paul was impris¬ 
 oned the second time, and probably not long 
 before his death, he wrote 2 Timothy, summon¬ 
 ing his beloved disciple to come to him as 
 quickly as possible. At some later date Timo¬ 
 thy himself was arrested, but afterward released 
 (Heb. xiii. 23). According to tradition he passed 
 the remainder of his days as Bishop of Ephesus. 
 
 TIMOTHY AND TITUS, Epistles to. 
 Three New Testament letters, often designated 
 the Pastoral Epistles. These three epistles form 
 a group by themselves, in that they are very 
 similar to each other in general character, 
 style, and vocabulary, and seem to have been 
 occasioned by the same general situation and 
 written by the same author. 
 
 1 Timothy, purporting to be from Paul to his 
 younger disciple and associate Timothy, opens 
 by Paul reminding Timothy that he had left 
 him in Ephesus to combat teachings that were 
 opposed to the gospel as Paul taught it (i. 
 1-17). Specific directions on various points of 
 church order follow. Timothy is to see that 
 these are obeyed (i. 18—iii. 16). Reverting to 
 the subject of heretical teachers, Timothy is 
 urged to exercise the most careful watch over 
 his own conduct that it may be exemplary in 
 every respect (iv. 1-v. 2). Special instructions 
 follow as to how to deal with certain specified 
 classes in the Church (v. 3-vi. 2). Turning 
 once more to the subject of the false teachers, 
 especially those who are actuated by the love of 
 money, Paul urges Timothy to courageous and 
 loyal devotion to his Master Jesus Christ (vi. 
 3-21). Only a brief benediction (in which 
 “you” is plural), with no salutations, closes 
 the letter. 
 
 The Epistle to Titus is briefer but quite 
 similar to 1 Timothy. After a rather long in¬ 
 troduction (i. 1-4) the letter explains that Titus 
 had been left in Crete to complete the organiza¬ 
 tion of the Church there (i. 5), in particular, 
 to install elders or bishops, whose qualifications 
 are stated (i. 6-9; cf. 1 Tim. iii. 1-8). The 
 generally low-minded character of the Cretans 
 and the presence of false teachers make this 
 more necessary (i. 10-16). Titus is next advised 
 as to how he should conduct himself towards 
 different classes (cf. 1 Tim. v. 3-vi. 2) as is 
 required by the nature of the Christian salvation 
 (ii. 1-15). Titus is next urged to teach his 
 people to practice the principles of morality 
 in all their relations in life (iii. 1-8), avoiding 
 heretical opinions and persons (iii. 9-11). Per¬ 
 sonal directions to Titus, salutations, and a 
 benediction close the letter (iii. 12-15). 
 
 2 Timothy has more decidedly the appearance 
 of a private letter. The first section, full of 
 exhortation to Timothy to be faithful to his 
 
TIMOTHY AND TITUS 
 
 TIMOTHY AND TITUS 
 
 289 
 
 trust, closes with a reference to the Apostle’s 
 own suffering for the faith, his treatment by 
 enemies, and his gratitude for the kindness 
 shown by Onesiphorus (i. 1-14). Timothy is 
 urged to be courageous, earnest, and faithful in 
 administering his charge (ii. 1-13). Against 
 all false teaching and teachers he is to take a 
 firm stand (ii. 14-19), insisting by word and 
 example that the test of true doctrine is sound 
 morality (ii. 20-26). The last times, full of 
 hardship and wickedness, are at .hand (iii. 1-9) ; 
 but, like Paul himself, Timothy must remain 
 loyal and manfully endure persecution (iii. 10- 
 iv. 5). Paul expecting his end to come soon, 
 and deserted by many, summons Timothy to 
 come to him (at Rome?), adding certain minor 
 requests (iv. 9-15) and a reference to his trial 
 and prospect of martyrdom (iv. 16-18). Salu¬ 
 tations, information, greetings, and a benedic¬ 
 tion close the letter. 
 
 The Pauline authorship of the Pastoral Epis¬ 
 tles is questioned by many scholars, and for 
 reasons that cannot be called arbitrary. It is 
 generally admitted that the problem is a serious 
 one, even by those who still hold the traditional 
 opinion. No one who has made a close study 
 of the remaining 10 Pauline Epistles, has be¬ 
 come fairly familiar with their thought and 
 style, and has gained from them to some extent 
 a familiarity with the Apostle’s mind, can read 
 the Pastorals without being conscious that here 
 he has something different—a different habit 
 of thought, vocabulary, point of view, and set 
 of interests, which even the presence of the name 
 of Paul in the letters and the many personal 
 allusions do not avail to offset. Briefly, these 
 differences between the Pastorals and the Epis¬ 
 tles accepted as Paul’s (and our knowledge of 
 Paul derived from Acts) may be specified as 
 follows: {a) the character of the church or¬ 
 ganization; (6) the nature of the heresies com¬ 
 bated; (c) the situation (or situations) in 
 which Paul and those addressed are placed; 
 
 ( d ) the literary character of the Pastorals, es¬ 
 pecially their vocabulary; ( e) the general char¬ 
 acter of the Christianity of the Pastoral Epis¬ 
 tles. In the earlier stages of criticism it was 
 on the first two of these points that the chief 
 emphasis was laid. But to-day it is quite freely 
 admitted, on the one hand, that we know very 
 little about the details of the church organiza¬ 
 tion of the apostolic age or of the nature of 
 early heresies, and, on the other, that on these 
 matters the statements of the Pastorals, inter¬ 
 preted fairly, do not necessarily imply a post- 
 Pauline date. It is otherwise, however, with 
 the last three points. No known period of the 
 Apostle’s life presents the situation required 
 by these Epistles. Usually it has been held that 
 2 Timothy implied a second imprisonment of 
 Paul at Rome, and consequently 1 Timothy and 
 Titus belonged to a period of missionary activity 
 between the first imprisonment (where the record 
 of Acts ends) and a second one, known only 
 from vague tradition. This is possible, but 
 cannot be proved. But even on this supposition 
 the movements of Paul and his companions are 
 anything but clearly discerned from these let¬ 
 ters, and it is most difficult to construct a con¬ 
 sistent picture of the situation. To say the 
 least, this creates a suspicion that the letters 
 may not be genuine letters of Paul. The last 
 two points ( d ) and ( e) are, however, the ones 
 that seem most decisive against the Pauline 
 authorship. The vocabulary of the Pastorals is 
 
 strikingly un-Pauline, containing a remarkably 
 large number of words not used in the other 
 Pauline Epistles and omitting many character¬ 
 istically Pauline words or expressions where 
 such would be expected to occur. This feature 
 of an un-Pauline character of the language is so 
 deeply stamped upon these letters that the sup¬ 
 position of Pauline authorship (even on the 
 hypothesis of a different amanuensis) is almost 
 impossible. The general character of the Chris¬ 
 tianity of these letters differs considerably from 
 the well-known Pauline type. The distinctively 
 Pauline characteristics are absent or are appre¬ 
 ciably modified. The Christianity of the Pas¬ 
 torals can easily be explained as that of the 
 next succeeding age when the general positions 
 of the Christian faith had become fixed and the 
 distinctively Pauline type had become somewhat 
 obscured and matters had settled more nearly to 
 the level we reach in the Christianity of the 
 first half of the second century. For these 
 reasons the most natural date for the Pastorals 
 seems to be somewhere between the period of 
 Paul’s own activity and the age of the so-called 
 Apostolic Fathers, or about 90 a.d. 
 
 The most serious objections to the argument 
 sketched above are (a) the large number of 
 personal allusions, the use of personal names, 
 etc., which seem to make so strongly for genu¬ 
 ineness (especially in the case of 2 Timothy), 
 and (b) the difficulty of accounting for the 
 acceptance and circulation of spurious Pauline 
 Epistles in a period so soon after the time of 
 Paul himself (it is generally acknowledged that 
 the Pastorals cannot be dated much later than 
 100 a.d. ). In regard to (a), some have thought 
 that use was made (especially in 2 Timothy) of 
 fragments of Pauline correspondence, but this 
 hypothesis is difficult to work out successfully. 
 In regard to (5), it must be remembered that 
 literary habits and standards were somewhat 
 different in ancient times from those we are 
 familiar with. Spurious writings could circu¬ 
 late more easily and the practice of pseudonym- 
 ity was not viewed as reprehensible, if done to 
 promote the cause of truth or sound doctrine. 
 
 The general purpose of the Pastorals may be 
 said to have been to furnish the Church with a 
 convenient set of instructions regarding the 
 administration of church affairs and the neces¬ 
 sity of combating the insidious and corrupting 
 forms of error that threatened to work the moral 
 undoing of the Church. 
 
 Hence though apparently private letters, in 
 the words of the Muratorian Canon (c.175 a.d.), 
 —in honore tamen ecclesice catholicce in ordina- 
 tionern ecclesiastical disciplines sanctificatce sunt, 
 which may be rendered—“nevertheless they have 
 been sanctified in honor of the Church universal 
 and in the regulation of ecclesiastical discipline.” 
 
 Bibliography. The article by W. Lock in 
 James Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible (new 
 ed. in 1 vol., New York, 1909), and the one 
 by James Moffatt in the Encyclopcedia Biblica 
 (4 vols.', ib., 1899-1903) are comprehensive and 
 present respectively the traditional and the more 
 liberal views. Consult also: Theodor Zahn, 
 Introduction to the New Testament (Edinburgh, 
 
 1909) ; James Moffatt, Introduction to the Lit¬ 
 erature of the New Testament (New York, 
 1911); and the commentaries of R. F. Horton 
 in The Century Bible (ib., 1901) ; N. J. D. 
 White in The Expositor’s Creek Testament (ib., 
 
 1910) ; M. Dibelius in Leitzmann, Handbuch 
 zum neuen Testament (Tubingen, 1913). 
 
TIMOTHY GRASS 
 
 290 
 
 TIMUR 
 
 TIMOTHY GRASS (so called from Timothy 
 Hanson, who, it is said, introduced its cultiva¬ 
 tion into the Carolinas about 1720), Phleum 
 pratense, the most valuable species of the genus 
 for hay and pasturage. It is the herd’s grass 
 of New England and New York, and along with 
 the other species of the genus, is in England 
 often called cat’s-tail grass. It has a long 
 cylindrical panicle so compact as to resemble a 
 close spike, strong culms, becoming 4 to 5 feet 
 high, but tender and nutritious, and much rel¬ 
 ished by cattle. It is perennial, but springs up 
 rapidly, even in the year in which it is sown. 
 The seed is very small*. The plant varies in size 
 according to soil and situation. In the United 
 States timothy hay is considered one of the 
 most valuable hays made wholly from grass 
 and is commonly used as the standard with 
 which to compare other hays. (For its feeding 
 value, see Grasses; Hay.) It may be sown 
 alone, or (more commonly) mixed with clover, 
 generally with red clover. It succeeds best on 
 moist, rich soils. Upon dry soils it is often 
 bulbous at base, and this form, which is due to 
 the conditions of growth, was once described 
 as a distinct species ( Phleum nodosum ). A 
 smaller species, Phleum alpinum, is a common 
 grass in alpine regions throughout the Northern 
 Hemisphere. See Plate of Grasses. 
 
 TIM'PEREEY, Charles H. ( 1794-C.1846). 
 An English printer and author, born in Man¬ 
 chester, and educated at the free grammar school 
 there. He served in the Napoleonic wars and 
 was wounded at Waterloo. Returning to Eng¬ 
 land, he worked under an engraver and copper¬ 
 plate printer, and in 1821 he became a letter- 
 press printer. Late in life he settled in Lon¬ 
 don, where he died. His valuable publications 
 connected with printing comprise The Printer’s 
 Manual (1838); A Dictionary of Printers and 
 Printing (1839) ; and Songs of the Press, origi¬ 
 nal and selected, the best collection of printers’ 
 songs in English (1833). The first two books 
 were issued in 1842 as an Encyclopcedia of Lit¬ 
 erary and Typographical Anecdotes. Timperley 
 also published Annals of Manchester (1839). 
 
 TIM'ROD, Henry (1829-67). An American 
 poet, born in Charleston, S. C. He was educated 
 at the University of Georgia and studied law 
 with the well-known jurist James Louis Petigru, 
 but finally became a private tutor in families, 
 which gave him more leisure for verse writing. 
 During the years before the Civil War he formed 
 one of the coterie presided over by William 
 Gilmore Simms (q.v.), and contributed poems 
 to Russell’s Magazine and the Southern Literary 
 Messenger. In 1860 he published a volume of 
 poems which was favorably noticed. He was 
 war correspondent of the Charleston Mercury 
 and in 1864 removed to Columbia, S. C. His 
 later years were passed in poverty and physical 
 pain. His friend Paul H. Hayne superintended 
 an edition of his poems (1873), which was well 
 received by competent judges. In 1899 a memo¬ 
 rial edition of his works was undertaken. His 
 fame as the best of southern lyrists, after Poe, 
 and probably Sidney Lanier, is now well estab¬ 
 lished. One of his best poems is an admirable 
 ode on the Confederate dead buried in Magnolia 
 Cemetery, Charleston. Consult J. A. B. Scherer, 
 Holy Grail: Six Addresses (Philadelphia, 1905). 
 
 TIMSAH, tlm'sa, Lake. A lake traversed 
 by the Suez Canal (q.v.). 
 
 TIMUCUA, te-mob'kwa, or Timuquanan 
 ( ruler, master). A group of tribes, constituting 
 
 a distinct linguistic stock, formerly occupying 
 central and northern Florida from about Tampa 
 Bay and Cape Canaveral northward to St. Mary’s 
 River. When first known to the Spaniards they 
 had about 40 settlements, principally along 
 the lower St. John’s River. Narvaez (1527) 
 and De Soto (1539) both passed through their 
 territory, each meeting determined resistance. 
 The Huguenots, under Laudonniere, landing on 
 the east coast in 1564, were received with friend¬ 
 ship, continued during the brief existence of the 
 French colony. At this time there seem to have 
 been at least five cognate tribes, with differing 
 dialects. On the expulsion of the French the 
 Timucua came under the dominion of the Span¬ 
 iards, by whom they were compelled to work 
 upon the fortifications of St. Augustine. In 
 1687, greatly diminished, they made an unsuc¬ 
 cessful attempt to revolt. In 1702-06 inroads 
 of the English of Carolina, with their hundreds 
 of Indian allies, wiped out the mission villages 
 of the Timucua, who fled to the upper waters of 
 the St. John’s, where Tomoco River in the pres¬ 
 ent Volusia County preserves their name. The 
 Seminole (q.v.) took their abandoned territory. 
 Consult Pareja, Arte de la lengua timuquana 
 (new ed. by Adam and Vinson, Paris, 1886). 
 
 TIMUR, te-mbor r , Timur-beg, Tamerlane, 
 or Timur-leng (Timur the Lame) (1336-1405). 
 
 A Mongol conqueror, born at Kesh or Sebz, about 
 40 miles south of Samarkand. His father Tera- 
 gai was head of the clan of Berlas. Among the 
 Mongol chiefs who were then in control of Turk¬ 
 estan was Haji Berlas, uncle of Timur, who had 
 established himself at Kesh, and here the future 
 conqueror passed his youth under the careful 
 guidance of his studious father. In 1360 the 
 Kalmucks of Jettah, led by Tughlak Timur, sub¬ 
 jugated Turkestan. Declining to accompany 
 his uncle in flight, Timur met Tughlak, who 
 made him governor of Kesh. The Kalmucks 
 were ultimately expelled in 1365, and Turkestan 
 was divided between its two liberators, Hussain 
 and Timur. In 1369 war broke out between 
 them, Hussain was defeated and slain, and 
 Timur became lord of Turkestan. He then pro¬ 
 ceeded to take vengeance on the Kalmucks and 
 turned westward to punish the predatory tribes 
 of Khwarizm, who had plundered Bokhara. He 
 spent the interval between these campaigns in 
 supporting Toktemesh Khan, one of the claim¬ 
 ants to the throne of Iviptchak, whom he placed 
 in 1376 in undisputed possession. In 1383 the 
 people of Herat, whom he had subdued a short 
 time before, rebelled and murdered his envoys. 
 In punishment for this 2000 of the garrison, 
 built up with alternate layers of brick and 
 mortar into the form of a pyramid, were left 
 by Timur as a reminder of the consequences of 
 rebellion. In the following year he invaded 
 Mazanderan, and by the close of 1387 the whole 
 of the country east of the Tigris, from Tiflis to 
 Shiraz, was subdued. 
 
 Meanwhile, Toktemesh Khan invaded Timur’s 
 territories on the Amu. Timur brought him to 
 bay on the banks of the Bielaya (a tributary of 
 the Kama), June 18, 1391, where he almost anni¬ 
 hilated his forces. In 1392 Timur subdued the 
 warlike principalities to the east of the Eu- • 
 phrates, then advanced northward, through the 
 gates of Derbend, to the Volga; and after again 
 routing Toktemesh at the Terek in 1395, he ex¬ 
 tended his conquests as far as Moscow, returning 
 by Astrakhan and the Caucasus. In 1398 Timur 
 entered India by the passes of the Hindu Kush, 
 
TIN 
 
 291 
 
 TIN 
 
 near Kabul, and routed the opposing armies 
 till the number of prisoners became so great 
 that four days before the great battle at Delhi 
 he ordered the murder of all the males (said to 
 be 100,000 in number), and then took the capi¬ 
 tal. After advancing to the Ganges, Timur re¬ 
 turned to Samarkand, where he expended the 
 spoils of the expedition in the adornment of his 
 city. In the following year he attacked the 
 Egyptian Empire in Syria, and was as usual 
 successful. Timur’s aid was then invoked by 
 the Emperor of the East and other princes to 
 help them defeat the Turks led by Bajazet I 
 (q.v.). The two hosts met at Angora on July 
 20, 1402, and Bajazet was defeated and captured. 
 The conquest of the whole of Asia Minor speed¬ 
 ily followed. The Byzantine Emperor as well as 
 the Turkish ruler of Thrace did homage to the 
 victor. On his return Timur conquered Georgia, 
 where he passed the winter, and, resuming his 
 inarch in the following year, he reached Samar¬ 
 kand in 1404. Here he resumed preparations for 
 his long projected invasion of China, and was 
 marching along the Sihun when he was attacked 
 by ague, and died after a week’s illness, Feb. 17, 
 1405. 
 
 Timur did much to promote the arts and sci¬ 
 ences throughout his dominions, and, despite his 
 cruelty in war, was an able and kindly ruler 
 in time of peace, although the speedy dissolu¬ 
 tion of his Empire deprived his labors of any 
 permanent utility. Two works are attributed 
 to him, entitled Malfuzat, or Annals, trans¬ 
 lated by Stewart (London, 1830), and Tukiizat, 
 or Ordinances, translated by Davy-White (Ox¬ 
 ford, 1783) and Langles (Paris, 1878). Their 
 authenticity is neither proved nor disproved. In 
 literature Timur is best known through Mar¬ 
 lowe’s (q.v.) drama Tamburlaine the Great. 
 Consult: Sharaf ud din Ali Yazdi, Zafarnamah, 
 translated by Petis de la Croix, Histoire de 
 Timur-Beo, connu sur le nom du grand Tamer¬ 
 lan (4 vols., Paris, 1722) ; Manger, Vita Timuri, 
 a translation of the Arabic biography by Ibn 
 Arabshah (Leeuwarden, 1767—72) ; Stanley Lane- 
 Poole, Mediceval India (London, 1003) ; Horn, 
 “Geschichte Irans in islamitischer Zeit,” in 
 Geiger and Kuhn, Grundriss der iranischen Phi- 
 lologie, vol. ii (Strassburg, 1904) ; “Cour-Emir,” 
 in Les mosquees de Samarcande, part i, pub¬ 
 lished by the Commission Imperiale Archeolo- 
 gique (St. Petersburg, 1905). 
 
 TIN (AS. tin, OHG. zin, Ger. Zinn, tin; con¬ 
 nected with Goth, tains, AS. tan, OHG. zein, 
 twig, thin leaf of metal). One of the elements, 
 a metal known since times of great antiquity. 
 Relics of Assyrian civilization include imple¬ 
 ments made of alloyed copper and tin, a form 
 of what is now known as bronze. The tin used 
 in making the alloy was obtained by the Phoeni- • 
 cians from the Cassiterides, islands probably 
 situated somewhere off the west coast of Eu¬ 
 rope. The location of this source of supply has 
 given its name to the principal ore of tin— 
 cassiterite. It is known that after the Roman 
 conquest of Britain, tin was carried from the 
 Cornish mines through Gaul by way of Marseilles 
 to Italy. Pliny distinguished tin as plumbum 
 album or candidum from plumbum nigrum 
 (lead), and about the fourth century the name 
 “stannum” was given to tin. Because of its 
 qualities, among which is the property of form¬ 
 ing brittle alloys, the alchemists ' called it 
 diabolus metallorum; by others it was called 
 jupiter. It is sometimes found native in irregu¬ 
 
 lar, rounded, crystalline grains, or aggregations 
 of grains. It occurs with platinum, iridosmine, 
 gold, copper, cassiterite, and corundum in wash¬ 
 ings from the Aberfoil and San rivers (head¬ 
 waters of the Clarence River) near Obau, New 
 South \\ ales. Other occurrences of native tin 
 have been reported, but all of them are doubt¬ 
 ful. The principal tin ore is cassiterite, tin 
 oxide (Sn0 2 ), in which tin forms 78.6 per cent 
 and oxygen 21.4 per cent. Sometimes a little 
 Ta 2 0 3 enters into association with it. Cassiterite 
 is often referred to as tinstone. It occurs in 
 crystals and massive, and has specific gravity 
 varying from 6.7 to 7.02, the ordinary variety 
 being about 6.96. Tin is also found as the sul¬ 
 phide, with copper and zinc, the mineral being 
 known as stannite, or tin pyrites. Small quantf- 
 ties of tin are found in other minerals, but not 
 in such quantities as to be of commercial value 
 as tin ores. 
 
 Tin (symbol, Sn, stannum; atomic weight, 
 118.7) is a silver-white, lustrous metal that has 
 a specific gravity of about 7.3, and melts at 
 235° C. (455° F.). It can be easily rolled or 
 hammered out to thin foil and at 100° C. (212° 
 F.) it may be drawn into wire, which has but 
 little tenacity. At moderately low tempera¬ 
 tures (—48° C.) it transforms itself into a 
 modification known as gray tin, which is brittle 
 and useless. This form is sometimes called the 
 tin disease. White tin, which has a fibrous, 
 crystalline structure, is used in the manufacture 
 of tin plate, which is so largely used in the mak¬ 
 ing of cans for preserving foods, and the articles 
 usually referred to as tinware. It is also used 
 for making tinfoil, for making noncorrosible 
 pipe, and for alloys, including amalgam for sil¬ 
 vering mirrors, bell metal, Britannia metal, 
 bronze, gun metal, pewter, type metal, etc. A 
 large amount of tin is used for making roofing 
 plates, but the tin is usually, in such uses, 
 alloyed with lead, the resulting plates being 
 known technically as terne sheets. Tin does 
 not oxidize in the air at ordinary temperatures, 
 but is easily oxidized on heating in the air or 
 in oxygen. It forms two oxides. Stannous 
 oxide, or monoxide, is an olive-brown powder 
 obtained when stannous oxalate is heated out 
 of contact with air. It combines with basic 
 radicals to form stannates, of which the sodium 
 stannate is used in calico dyeing and printing. 
 The stannic oxide, or dioxide, which is found 
 native as cassiterite, is obtained as a white 
 powder when tin is heated until it burns in 
 air. In the form of putty powder it is used 
 for polishing plate glass, and for giving a white 
 color to glass and enamels. Stannous chloride, 
 SnCL, and stannic chloride, SnCl 4 , are both 
 used as mordants in dyeing and calico printing 
 under the name of tin salts or tin crystals, and 
 are readily prepared by dissolving the metal in 
 hydrochloric acid. Stannic sulphide, which is 
 prepared by heating tin with mercury, sulphur, 
 and ammonium chloride, is known commercially 
 as mosaic gold, and was formerly used for gild¬ 
 ing, imitating bronze, etc. The purple colored 
 precipitate obtained by the reaction of gold 
 chloride on stannous salts has been described 
 under Cassius, Purple of. Hot, strong hydro¬ 
 chloric acid dissolves tin readily, forming stan¬ 
 nous chloride and evolving hydrogen. Warm, 
 dilute sulphuric acid gives stannous or stannic 
 sulphate, according as the tin or acid is in excess, 
 and hydrogen is evolved; but with hot, concen¬ 
 trated acid sulphur dioxide, sulphureted hydro- 
 
TIN 
 
 TIN 
 
 gen and sulphur are obtained in place of hydro¬ 
 gen. The strongest nitric acid has no action; 
 when sufficiently diluted it forms metastannic 
 acid, H 10 Sn 5 0 15 , probably owing to the hydroly¬ 
 sis of previously formed stannic nitrate. The 
 dilute acid forms stannous and ammonium ni¬ 
 trates. Aqua regia forms stannic chloride. Hot, 
 strong, caustic soda or potash forms sodium or 
 potassium stannate with evolution of hydrogen. 
 
 Occurrence and Production. i in ore, or 
 cassiterite, has been found in many parts of the 
 world, but from a commercial standpoint its 
 deposits are limited. Its sources are veins in 
 the older rocks, particularly a variety of granite 
 called greisen, and alluvial deposits, the latter 
 having been formed by the erosion of rocks 
 carrying the veins. The ores obtained from 
 veins are known as lode tin, while those found 
 in stream deposits are known variously, ac¬ 
 cording to locality, as black tin, tin sand, stream 
 tin, and barilla. ‘ The principal supplies of ore 
 are obtained from the East Indies, in the islands 
 of Banca, Billiton, and Sumatra, the Malay 
 Peninsula, Australia, Bolivia, and Cornwall, 
 England. Most of the ore from the East Indies 
 and the Malay Peninsula is obtained by washing 
 alluvial gravels. There are also mines in Sax¬ 
 ony, Bohemia, Russia, Spain, Portugal, and 
 Japan, but the total output of these countries 
 is insignificant. The presence of tin deposits 
 in California, Texas, South Dakota, and North 
 Carolina has been known for a long time, but 
 up to this time there has been no mining on a 
 commercial scale. A discovery of tin ore in the 
 York District of Alaska has induced exploration 
 in that region, and Bolivia is an important 
 source of tin production. The exports from 
 Bolivia in 1915 were estimated to be about 
 42,000 tons of tin concentrates, all of which was 
 smelted abroad, since there were no facilities 
 for tin smelting in Bolivia. In the United 
 States the most promising district is along the 
 border of North and South Carolina, extending 
 from Cherokee County, in the latter State, over 
 into Lincoln Co., N. C. These deposits have 
 been worked in a desultory way only, but they 
 may become commercially important if they 
 can be exploited as a unit and in a modern, 
 systematic way. Some ore is produced from the 
 Alaska deposits, but the amount is insignificant 
 as compared with the domestic tin requirements. 
 A smelter for tin ores and an electrolytic plant 
 for the refining of the tin bullion was built at 
 Perth Amboy, N. J., in 1915. This plant was 
 expected to bring South American ores to the 
 United States for smelting, practically all the 
 smelting having been done in Europe hereto¬ 
 fore. The accompanying table from the En¬ 
 gineering and Mining Journal shows the tin 
 production and consumption for 1915. 
 
 In addition to the localities already mentioned, 
 tin is mined in the Belgian Congo, and also at 
 Briseis, Tasmania; at Yunnan, China; Siamese 
 Malaya; and in South Africa. 
 
 Metallurgy. The only ore of tin extensively 
 used for the extraction of the metal is tinstone, 
 or cassiterite. The preliminary processes are 
 essentially concentration, and the result is a 
 high-grade product containing 60 per cent or 
 more of tin. See Ore Dressing. 
 
 The tin ore thus provided has next to be de¬ 
 prived of its sulphur and arsenic, if these sub¬ 
 stances are present. This is usually done in a 
 reverberatory furnace, although one of the forms 
 of roasting machines may be used. The flues 
 
 of the roasting device, whatever its type, are 
 connected with condensing chambers in which 
 the arsenic is deposited in crystalline form. The 
 sulphur, present in the form of iron sulphide, 
 
 TIN PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION 
 
 IN LONG TONS 
 
 LOCALITY 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 Exports, ^traits and Malay Pen. 
 
 Exports, Australian. 
 
 Banca and Billiton sales. ...... 
 
 Chinese exports and production 
 
 Bolivian exports.. 
 
 South African production. 
 
 Nigerian production. 
 
 Cornwall production. 
 
 Total . 
 
 62,242 
 
 3,253 
 
 17,142 
 
 8,200 
 
 22,719 
 
 1.900 
 
 4.900 
 
 61,986 
 
 1,771 
 
 10,975 
 
 8,255 
 
 24,844 
 
 2,276 
 
 1,962 
 
 4,500 
 
 66,760 
 
 2,275 
 
 15,093 
 
 7,097 
 
 18,800 
 
 2,158 
 
 1,899 
 
 4,000 
 
 120,356 
 
 45,900 
 
 28,736 
 
 16,573 
 
 21,250 
 
 1.000 
 
 6,500 
 
 116,569 
 
 42,995 
 
 30,531 
 
 15,810 
 
 18,633 
 
 1,050 
 
 6,400 
 
 118,082 
 
 49,480 
 
 39,937 
 
 7,625 
 
 11,550 
 
 1,100 
 
 6,650 
 
 U. S. imports and consumption 
 Great Britain, imports and cons. 
 
 Holland, imports. 
 
 Other Europe, imports. 
 
 Australian consumption....... 
 
 China and India consumption 
 
 Totals . 
 
 119,959 
 
 16,045 
 
 115,419 
 
 13,432 
 
 116,342 
 
 14,535 
 
 Visible stocks, Dec. 1. 
 
 is decomposed by the heat into sulphurous-acid 
 gas, and the remaining oxide of iron is removed 
 by subsequent washing. Copper sulphide, when 
 present, is converted into copper sulphate by 
 roasting and oxidation, when it is easily removed 
 by leaching. 
 
 After this final washing the ore is ready for 
 smelting, which is usually performed in a rever¬ 
 beratory furnace. The charge consists of from 
 20 to 25 cwt. of ore mixed with about % its 
 weight of powdered anthracite or charcoal, and 
 a small quantity of lime or fluorspar to serve as 
 a flux for the siliceous matter. Before being 
 put into the furnace the mixture is moistened 
 with water to prevent the finely powdered ore 
 from being carried away by the draft. When 
 the charge is placed on the hearth of the furn&ce, 
 the doors are closed and the heat gradually 
 raised for about six hours. The oxide is then 
 reduced by the carbon. Then the furnace door 
 is opened and the mass worked with a paddle 
 to separate the slag, which is raked off, and the 
 richer portion of it smelted over again. The 
 reduced tin sinks to the bottom, and is run off 
 into a cast-iron pan, from which it is ladled or 
 run into molds to produce ingots of convenient 
 size. 
 
 The tin has still to be purified, or refined, and 
 a process of liquation is followed. This con¬ 
 sists of moderately heating the tin ingots in a 
 reverberatory furnace until the tin, owing to its 
 low melting point, melts and flows into the 
 refining basin, leaving on the hearth a residu¬ 
 ary alloy of tin and other metals. When the 
 refining basin contains its full charge, it is 
 ready for boiling. In this operation billets of 
 green wood are plunged into the melted metal, 
 the disengagement of gas from which gives rise 
 to a constant boiling, and causes a scum, chiefly 
 tin oxide, to rise to the surface. It is then 
 removed, while at the same time the impure and 
 dense particles fall to the bottom. When the 
 agitation has continued long enough the bath is 
 allowed to settle and cool. The tin then sepa¬ 
 rates into zones—the upper consisting of the 
 purest part, the'middle being more mixed with 
 other metals, and the lower so impure that it 
 has to go through the refining process again. 
 
TINAMOU 
 
 293 
 
 TINDAL 
 
 The residuary alloy of the liquation process 
 also has its tin extracted and is again refined. 
 While the process described is one that is fol¬ 
 lowed to a great extent, and is the standard 
 one of former practice, modern improvements are 
 making changes that are coming more and more 
 into use. Recent experiments have shown that 
 the electric furnace is probably more adaptable 
 to tin smelting than to most of the other metals. 
 Electrolytic refining is also successful, and has 
 already been incorporated into operating plants. 
 
 In former times in Cornwall tin was smelted 
 in a blast furnace, but through the use of this 
 process there is a great deal of waste because of 
 the applications of high temperatures and, be¬ 
 sides, the conditions of the blast furnace are 
 such that a great deal of iron is also reduced, a 
 condition that is prejudicial to good smelting 
 practice. 
 
 Tin ores that contain the mineral wolframite 
 (tungstate of iron and manganese) are treated 
 by a process patented by Oxland, and known by 
 his name. This mineral cannot be separated 
 successfully because its specific gravity is so 
 nearly that of tin ore. In Oxland’s process the 
 tin ore is roasted with sodium sulphate, the in¬ 
 soluble iron tungstate converted into soluble 
 sodium tungstate, which is then leached out. 
 Oxides of iron and manganese are left finely 
 divided, and because of their lower specific grav¬ 
 ity they can be washed away from the tin com¬ 
 pounds. The tungstate of soda thus obtained 
 has been used for fireproofing cotton cloth. 
 
 Tin Plate. A great part of the tin produced 
 is used for making tin plate, which is iron or 
 steel in sheet form, covered on both sides with 
 tin. The sheets are cleaned with acid, after 
 which they are plunged into baths of molten tal¬ 
 low and tin. The tallow prevents oxidation of 
 the tin during the process, which must be car¬ 
 ried out at a temperature at which tin would 
 oxidize if allowed to come into contact with the 
 air. After the sheets have taken on a plating of 
 the required thickness they are cleaned with 
 bran. 
 
 Bibliography. A. G. Charleton, Tin, Chief 
 Methods of Mining, Dressing and Smelting (Lon¬ 
 don, 1884) ; S. Fawns, Tin Deposits of the World 
 (ib., 1905) ; F. L. and E. Hess, Bibliography of 
 the Geology and Mineralogy of Tin ( Washing¬ 
 ton, 1912) ; The Mineral Industry (New York, 
 annual). For the metallurgy of tin: Carl 
 Schnabel, Handbook of Metallurgy (Eng. trans. 
 by Henry Louis; 2d ed., 2 vols., London, 1905- 
 07) ; Henry Louis, Metallurgy of Tin (ib., 1911). 
 
 TINAMOU, tin'a-moo. The native, and now 
 the popular, name for birds of the family 
 Tinamidoe, inhabiting the tropical portions of 
 South America, having many remarkable fea¬ 
 tures in their internal organization, and the 
 striking external character that the tail is ex¬ 
 ceedingly short or entirely absent. Like par¬ 
 tridges in general appearance, and varying in 
 size from that of a quail to the bigness of a 
 large grouse, and prevailingly brown in color, 
 they are classed as game birds in South Amer¬ 
 ica, and are frequently called partridges. Their 
 flight is strong and swift, but of short duration 
 and very direct, yet they haunt the undergrowth 
 of dense forests or bushy and grassy flats, run 
 with amazing rapidity, and conceal themselves 
 with great skill, rather than take to flight. 
 Their food is miscellaneous, like that of game 
 birds generally, and their voice a mellow whistle. 
 The flesh is delicious. They make very simple 
 
 nests on the ground, and lay eggs varying from 
 reddish chocolate, wine purple or liver color, to 
 dark blue or green, and burnished to a metallic 
 sheen. See Plate of Cassowaries, etc. 
 
 The tinamous have been regarded by many 
 systematists as within the Ratitse, but more re¬ 
 cently are considered as a separate group of 
 ordinal rank at the foot of the Carinata?, just 
 preceding the Galliformes. Consult: Hans 
 Gadow, “Aves,” in Bronn’s Klassen und Ord- 
 nungcn des Thier-Reichs (Leipzig, 1893) ; Al¬ 
 fred Newton, Dictionary of Birds (New York, 
 189G); Sclater and Hudson, Argentine Orni¬ 
 thology (London, 1889); A. H. Evans, “Birds,” 
 in Cambridge Natural History, vol. ix (New 
 \ork, 1900) ; F. H. Knowlton, Birds of the 
 World (ib., 1909). 
 
 TINAVELLY. See Tinnevelli. 
 
 TINAYRE, te'nar', Marcelle {nee Ciias- 
 teau) (1877- ). A French novelist, born 
 
 at Tulle and married in 1889 to Julien Tinayre, 
 an engraver. Her first novels attracted little 
 attention, but the third, Hall6, was crowned by 
 the French Academy in 1896. Later notable 
 fiction comprises: L’Oiseau d’Orafe (1901); La 
 maison du peche (1902); La rebelle (1906); 
 L’Amour qui pleure (1908) ; L’Ombre de Vamour 
 (1910; Eng. trans., The Shadow of Love, 1911) ; 
 La douceur de vivre (1911); Madeleine au 
 miroir (1912; Eng. trans., Madeleine at her 
 Mirror , 1913); Le depart (1915). Consult 
 
 Winifred Stephens, French Novelists of To-day, 
 (2d series, New York, 1915)* Her novels are 
 didactic, the enfranchisement of woman consti¬ 
 tuting an important theme; they are marked 
 by rare delicacy and a graceful wit and are 
 strikingly objective and intellectual. 
 
 TINCTURA GIOBERTINA. See Giober- 
 tine Tincture. 
 
 TINCTURE (from Lat. tinctura, a dyeing, 
 from tingere, to dye, Gk. reyyeit/, tengein, to 
 moisten, dye). A medicinal preparation of a 
 drug by maceration or by dissolving nonvolatile 
 principles in strong or dilute alcohol. In almost 
 all cases the resulting liquid is of a decided 
 color; hence the name. Obviously tinctures 
 must be kept in tightly closed bottles to pre¬ 
 vent evaporation. There are over 70 official 
 tinctures in the United States Pharmacopoeia. 
 Among these are the tincture of aconite, the 
 once popular tincture of arnica, used for bruises 
 and sprains; the bitter tincture; compounol tinc¬ 
 ture of cinchona; tincture of the chloride of 
 iron; tincture of digitalis; tincture of iodine; 
 tincture of ipecac and opium; compound tinc¬ 
 ture of lavender; tincture of myrrh, largely em¬ 
 ployed in mouth washes and dentifrices; tinc¬ 
 ture of opium, or laudanum; camphorated tinc¬ 
 ture of opium, or paregoric; tincture of rhubarb; 
 tincture of squill; tincture of valerian; and 
 tincture of ginger, frequently known as essence 
 of ginger. 
 
 TINCTURE. The general designation for 
 colors, metals, and furs in heraldry (q.v.). 
 
 TINCTURE OF OPIUM. See Laudanum. 
 
 TIN'DAL, Matthew (c.1653-1733). An 
 English deistical writer. He was the son of a 
 clergyman at Beer-Ferris, in Devonshire, was 
 educated at Oxford, and elected fellow of All 
 Souls College in 1678. After a brief lapse 
 into Romanism during the reign of James II 
 he reverted to Protestantism, or rather, as 
 events showed, into rationalism. It was not 
 till 1706 that he attracted particular notice, 
 when the publication of his treatise on The 
 
TINDER 
 
 294 
 
 TINGUIAN 
 
 Rights of the Christian Church Asserted Against 
 the Romish and All Other Priests Who Claim 
 an Independent Power Over It raised a storm 
 of opposition in England, but in Protestant 
 circles on the Continent was highly praised. 
 In 1730 he published his most celebrated trea¬ 
 tise, entitled Christianity as Old as the Creation, 
 or The Gospel a Republication of the Religion 
 of Nature. The design of the work is to strip 
 religion of the miraculous element, and to prove 
 that its morality i3 its true and only claim to 
 the reverence of mankind. Tindal’s book is in ex¬ 
 cellent English and commanded much attention. 
 Bishop Butler’s Analogy was largely written as 
 an answer to it. Consult Leslie Stephen, His¬ 
 tory of English Thought in the Eighteenth Cen¬ 
 tury (3d ed., 2 vols., New York, 1902). See 
 Deism. 
 
 TINDER. An inflammable material, usually 
 made of half-burned linen. It was formerly one 
 of the chief means of procuring fire before the 
 introduction of friction matches. The tinder 
 was made to catch the sparks caused by striking 
 a piece of steel with a flint; and the ignited 
 tinder enabled the operator to light a match 
 dipped in sulphur, Jhis was necessary, as tinder 
 will not flame. Decaying wood—of willows and 
 similar trees—also affords tinder; certain fungi 
 furnish the German tinder, or amadou (q.v.). 
 
 TIN'EA (Lat., gnawing worm). A name 
 given to several varieties of vegetable parasitic 
 skin diseases. For tinea favosa, see Favus. 
 Tinea trichophytina or ringworm may appear 
 as an eruption on several parts of the body, 
 receiving a modification of the name in each 
 case, as corporis, cruris, capitis, barbae, etc. It 
 is common among the poorer classes, and spreads 
 rapidly in schools and asylums. Tinea of the 
 scalp "often comes from indiscriminate use of 
 towels, combs, and brushes. A red spot appears, 
 marking the beginning of the eruption, which 
 soon becomes scaly and enlarges, forming a 
 ring possibly half an inch in diameter, leaving 
 a clear centre. The margin of the circle is 
 well defined, elevated, red, and covered with 
 fine scales easily detachable. Mycelium and 
 spores are seen in microscopical examination. 
 There is seldom much irritation, except in 
 cases where the crural fold or axilla is invaded. 
 The tinea trichophytina cruris or eczema mar¬ 
 ginatum is not infrequent in the United States. 
 In warm climates it is common and severe, and 
 is known as Indian, Chinese, or Burmese ring¬ 
 worm, also as Dhobie’s itch. Hyposulphite of 
 soda, bichloride of mercury, acetate of copper, 
 and tincture of iodine are frequently efficacious 
 in the tinea corporis and cruris. Bulkley recom¬ 
 mended sulphurous acid for the latter. Tinea 
 capitis, also called tinea tonsurans, is very in¬ 
 tractable, and the application of carbolic acid, 
 green soap, mercury, oil of cade, etc., must be 
 kept up, always in the form of an ointment. 
 The X-ray is now extensively and successfully 
 used to kill the mycelium. Tinea versicolor, or 
 Pityriasis versicolor, is very common in warm 
 countries, though also frequent in the United 
 States. The front of the chest is most often 
 attacked, the back next. The parasite Micro- 
 sporon furfur is probably the cause of tinea 
 versicolor. The treatment consists of frequent 
 bathing with soap, hyposulphite of soda applica¬ 
 tions, or the use of mercurial preparations, 
 salicvlic acid, sulphur, and glycerin. 
 
 TINEID^E, tl-ne'i-de. See Leaf Miner. 
 
 TINEL, te'nel', Edgar (1854-1912). A Bel¬ 
 
 gian pianist and composer, born at Sinay. In 
 1863 he studied at the Brussels Conservatory, 
 and (1873) received first prize for pianoforte 
 and published four nocturnes for solo voice 
 with piano. In 1877 his cantata Klokke Roeland 
 won the Grand Prix. He succeeded Lemmens 
 as director of the Institute for Sacred Music 
 at Mechlin, in 1882, and in 1888 produced the 
 oratorio Franciscus, which gave him fame. In 
 1889 he became inspector of the state music 
 schools of Belgium, and in 1896 professor of 
 counterpoint and fugue at Brussels Conserva¬ 
 tory. He produced a Grand Mass of the Holy 
 Virgin of Lourdes for five parts; Te Deum for 
 four-part mixed choir with organ; Alleluia for 
 four equal voices with the organ; the music 
 drama Godoleva (1897); the sacred opera 
 Katharina (1909); motets and sacred songs. 
 He also published Le chant gregorien, theorie 
 sommaire de son execution (1895). Consult Van 
 der Elst, Edgar Tinel (Ghent, 1901). 
 
 TINGHAI, tlng'hi'. Chief town of the island 
 of Chusan (q.v.), Chekiang Province, China. 
 
 TINGITID.ZE, tin-jit'i-de. See Lace Bug. 
 
 TINGLEY, ting'll, Katherine {nee West- 
 cott) (1852- ). An American theosophist, 
 
 born at Newburyport, Mass. In 1889 she was 
 married to P. B. Tingley. After 1898, as leader 
 and official head of the Universal Brotherhood, 
 a theosophical organization which she had 
 founded, she gained recognition as the successor 
 of W. Q. Judge and Madame Blavatskv (qq.v.). 
 She conducted theosophical crusades around the 
 world in 1896-97 and 1904. The headquarters 
 of the society were removed from New York 
 to Point Loma, Cal., where Mrs. Tingley founded 
 a colony that became noted. Here she estab¬ 
 lished her School of Antiquity, a Raja Yoga 
 Academy, and also an orphanage. During the 
 Spanish-American War she was active in re¬ 
 lief work. She became editor of a theosophical 
 journal, the Century Path, and published: The 
 Mysteries of the Heart Doctrine (1902); A 
 Nosegay of Everlastings (1914); Theosophy 
 and Some of the Vital Problems of the Day 
 (1915). See Theosophical Society. 
 
 TINGUAITE, tin'gwa-it (named from Sierra 
 de Tingua, Brazil). An igneous rock of gran¬ 
 ular or porpliyritic texture, characterized by 
 the mineral combination alkali feldspar, nephe- 
 line, and aegerine, or tegerine augite. It is a 
 rock of very limited distribution, but generally 
 occurs in dikes associated with nepheline syenite, 
 to which it is genetically and chemically related. 
 
 TINGUIAN, tin'gi-iin', or Itneg, it-neg / . A 
 pagan mountain people of northwestern Luzon. 
 Their stronghold is in the subprovince of Abra, 
 but their settlements extend into the Ilocos 
 provinces. They have domestic animals, ex¬ 
 tensive rice fields, and compact villages. Until 
 recently the custom of head-hunting made loose 
 federations among groups of villages necessary, 
 and thus a number of dialect groups have sprung 
 up. 
 
 The government is an oligarchy, the old men 
 of each village constituting its ruling class. 
 A peculiar but highly developed form of spirit¬ 
 ualism, combined with an elaborate ceremonial, 
 is found among them. An unorganized priest¬ 
 hood forms the medium through which the su- 
 perior beings make known their wishes. Along 
 the northern and western borders the people are 
 skilled ironworkers, and their spears and head 
 axes have a wide distribution throughout north¬ 
 western Luzon. Consult F. C. Cole, “The Tin- 
 
TINKER BIRD 
 
 TINTORETTO 
 
 295 
 
 guian,” in Philippine Journal of Science (Man¬ 
 ila, 1909). See Philippine Islands. 
 
 TINKER BIRD, or Tinker Barbet. See 
 Coppersmith. 
 
 TINKER’S ROOT. See Feverwort. 
 
 TINNE, te'na' (Athapascan, people). A col¬ 
 lective term sometimes used as synonymous with 
 Athapascan stock (q.v.), but more usually em¬ 
 ployed to designate the tribes of that stock re¬ 
 siding- in the Canadian northwest. See Atha¬ 
 pascan Stock. 
 
 TINNE, tin'na, Alexandrine (or Alexine) 
 (1839-69). A Dutch explorer in Africa, born 
 at The Hague. In 1856 she visited Palestine, 
 Syria, and Egypt. She started for the Upper 
 Nile in January, 1862, and reached Gondokoro 
 in September, but was compelled by sickness to 
 return to Khartum. In February, 1863, she set 
 out with an enormous train on a second expedi¬ 
 tion, with Bahr-el-Ghazal for its goal, in which 
 Ileuglin and Steudner participated and which 
 advanced as far as Dembo in the Bongo country. 
 Steudner and Miss Tinne’s mother having suc¬ 
 cumbed to the climate, the expedition returned 
 to Khartum in March, 1864. Its results were 
 described in the Transactions of the Historical 
 Society of Lancashire , etc., vol. xvi (Liverpool, 
 1864). In 1865 Alexine Tinne visited Crete, 
 Greece, and Italy, went to Algiers in 1866, 
 traveled through the French Sahara in 1868, 
 and in January, 1869, started with a strong 
 retinue for the interior, intending to penetrate 
 to the Nile via Bornu. Detained by sickness 
 at Murzuk, she then proceeded towards Ghat 
 by invitation of the Tuareg chief Ikhenukhen, 
 but was assassinated by the Tuaregs escorting 
 her, on August 1. Consult Heuglin, Die Tinn- 
 esche Expedition im westlichen Nilgebiet, 1863- 
 6^ (Gotha, 1865), and id., Reise in das Gebiet 
 des Weissen Nil, etc. (Leipzig, 1869). 
 
 TINNEVELLI, tm'6-vel'i, or TIN A- 
 VELLY. The capital of a district of Madras, 
 British India, 99 miles southwest of Madura, 
 on the left bank of the Tambraparni River 
 (Map: India, C 8). It is connected with Palam- 
 cotta on the opposite bank by a handsome bridge. 
 The most striking edifice is the Siva temple. 
 There are two colleges, and the town has long 
 been an important centre for Protestant mis¬ 
 sions. Cotton goods are extensively manufac¬ 
 tured. Tinnevelli became a British possession 
 in 1801. Pop., 1901, 40,469; 1911, 43,741. 
 
 TINNI'TUS ATTRIUM (Lat., ringing of 
 the ears). Ringing in the ears. In most cases 
 it is an unimportant symptom, depending on 
 some local temporary affection of the ear, or on 
 some disturbance of the digestive system; but 
 as it is also a common symptom of organic 
 disease of the auditory nerve, it may indicate 
 a dangerous condition, or may be a prelude to 
 complete deafness. It may be a symptom of 
 neurasthenia (q.v.), and may occur in a number 
 of diseases. Hence it is a symptom that, espe¬ 
 cially if permanent, must be carefully watched. 
 It may be induced for a few hours by a large 
 dose of quinine or of the salicylates. 
 
 TINOC'ERAS. A huge proboscidean, allied 
 to Coryphodon, Dinoceras, and Uintatherium, 
 found fossil in the Middle Eocene (Bridges) 
 formations of Wyoming. Its most prominent 
 characteristic was the long, narrow, somewhat 
 quadrangular skull, bearing six great protuber¬ 
 ances, one pair on the nasal bones pointing 
 forward, a second outward-bending pair on the 
 upper jawbones (maxillaries), and a third over 
 
 the eyes (on the parietals), where there was a 
 semicircular upright crest of bone. These pro¬ 
 tuberances seem not to have been covered with 
 ordinary horn. The typical species is Tinoceras 
 ingens, described by O. C. Marsh, Dinocerata: 
 A Monograph of an Extinct Order of Gigantic 
 Mammals (Washington, 1884). 
 
 TINOS, te'nds. One of the Cyclades. See 
 Tenos. 
 
 TIN PYRITES. See Stannite. 
 
 TINSEAU, t&N'so', Leon, Count de (1842- 
 ). A French novelist, born at Autun. He 
 wrote many popular and ably written novels 
 which show especial skill in development of plot. 
 Among them are: Robert d’Epirien (1882) ; La 
 meilleure part (1884), crowned by the French 
 Academy; Bouche close (1889); Plus fort que 
 la haine (1891); Mensonge blanc (1900); La 
 princesse errante (1903); Les ttourderies de la 
 chanoinesse (1906); La deuxieme page (1914). 
 
 TINSTONE. See Cassiterite. 
 
 TINT'ERN ABBEY. A beautiful monastic 
 ruin in England, in a meadow on the west 
 bank of the River Wye, 9 miles below Mon¬ 
 mouth. Theodoric, British King of Glamorgan, 
 was said to have fallen in battle against the 
 heathen Saxons here, 600 a.d. The abbey was 
 founded in 1131 for Cistercian monks by Walter 
 de Clare; the church was begun a century later 
 through the munificence of Roger de Bigod, Earl 
 Marshal, and dedicated in 1268. The tower 
 and roof are gone; but the church remains 
 a fine example of the Decorated style—the Eng¬ 
 lish High Gothic—beautiful in composition and 
 delicate in execution. The nave is 228 feet 
 long, the transept 150, and the width of nave 
 and choir 37 feet. The ruins of the convent 
 buildings also remain. Tintern Abbey is well 
 known through Wordsworth’s poem. 
 
 TIN'TORET'TO, II (1518—94). The name 
 usually applied to Jacopo Robusti, one of the 
 chief masters of the High Renaissance in Venice. 
 He was born at Venice, the son of a dyer 
 {tintore), whence his name, and at an early age 
 was placed with Titian. According to the tra¬ 
 ditional account, Titian’s jealousy soon forced 
 him to leave; but their separation was probably 
 due to Tintoretto’s point of view, which saw in 
 the plastic rendition of the human body in 
 action, rather than in color, the chief problem 
 of art. Taking an independent atelier, he sub¬ 
 jected himself to a severe course of training. 
 Following his great aim, as announced in the 
 motto upon the wall of his studio, to unite 
 Michelangelo’s design with Titian’s color, he 
 drew constantly from casts of the former’s 
 sculptures. He dissected bodies to learn anat¬ 
 omy, studied foreshortening and movement from 
 suspended figures, worked by day and lamplight 
 for chiaroscuro, and even learned from house 
 painters the secrets of their craft. Besides the 
 color of Titian he studied the work of his 
 friend Schiavone, from whom he acquired the 
 technique of fresco, and also with Bonifazio 
 Veronese, Berenson believes. 
 
 After such preparation his eagerness for Ac¬ 
 tivity led him to solicit work at low prices. v/lis 
 earliest paintings, which are rare, show also the 
 influence of Giorgione in color and landscape. 
 The first to attract attention was a lost por¬ 
 trait of his brother and himself with night ef¬ 
 fect, but the most important surviving example 
 is a “Circumcision” in Santa Maria del Carmine. 
 Later he painted five subjects from Genesis for 
 Santa Trinita, two of which, the “Fall” and 
 
TINTORETTO 
 
 TINTORETTO 
 
 296 
 
 the “Murder of Abel,” are preserved in the 
 Venetian Academy, the former especially being 
 idyllic in sentiment, and almost equal to Titian 
 in color. After a number of facades, none of 
 which survive, his next work of importance was 
 the decorations of the choir of the Madonna 
 del Orto, 50 feet in height, with a “Last Judg¬ 
 ment” and other subjects. To the same period 
 belong the startlingly original “Crucifixion” in 
 San Cassiano, Venice. Finally, Tintoretto’s 
 reputation was definitely established by the 
 series of pictures in the Scuola di San Marco 
 describing abduction of the body of the patron 
 saint of Venice from Alexandria to Venice. The 
 episodes represented the “Finding of the Body” 
 (Brera, Milan), its “Abduction from Alex¬ 
 andria,” “St. Mark Saving a Saracen from 
 Shipwreck” (both in the Royal Palace, Venice), 
 and^Miracle of St. Mark” (Academy, Venice). 
 All show Tintoretto at bis best, especially the 
 last, which so good a critic as Taine esteemed 
 the greatest painting in Italy. It is remarkable 
 for intense dramatic action and for the treat¬ 
 ment of the light which issues from the saint’s 
 head and shoulders, lending rich color to the 
 well modeled groups. 
 
 Tintoretto seldom dated his works, and there 
 is no record of his activity between 1550 and 
 1560. It is probable that during this period 
 he painted a large number of his easel pieces, 
 and perhaps the three grand compositions in 
 the Ducal Palace, which were burnt in 1577. 
 In 1560 began his remarkable activity for the 
 guild of San Rocco, whose scuola (guild house) 
 forms a perfect museum of his works, of which 
 it and the adjoining church contain 56 in all, 
 painted at different periods of his life. In 1565 
 he finished the “Crucifixion,” a splendid piece 
 of naturalism, and one of his very best works; 
 in 1577 the two panels of the ceiling of the 
 great hall: the “Paschal Feast” and “Moses 
 Striking the Rock.” Meanwhile he had become 
 a member of the guild, and in 1577 he was 
 employed at a salary of 100 ducats to furnish 
 three pictures* a year—fulfilling this until his 
 death. Among the best are a series from the 
 life of Christ, including a strikingly original 
 “Visitation,” “Annunciation,” “Christ Before 
 Pilate,” “Christ Bearing His Cross,” “Ecce 
 Homo,” and a “Resurrection.” 
 
 In the decorations of the Ducal Palace, begun 
 about the same time (1560), he was extensively 
 aided by pupils, especially by his son Domenico. 
 In the Sala del Scrutinio he painted the “Cap¬ 
 ture of Zara”; in the Antecollegio, four charm¬ 
 ing mythological representations: “Bacchus, 
 Ariadne, and Venus,” “Mercury and the Graces,” 
 “Minerva Expelling Mars,” and the “Forge of 
 Vulcan”; in the Sala del Collegio, four votive 
 pictures of doges, the finest of which represents 
 the “Marriage of St. Catharine”; and in the 
 Hall of the Senate, “Venice, Queen of the Seas.” 
 In the Hall of the Grand Council the Doge and 
 Senate offer the spoils of the conquered cities to 
 “Venice in Glory,” and the four battle pieces 
 of the ceiling show keenest effects of foreshorten¬ 
 ing,. There, too, a whole wall is occupied by 
 his f last great work, the “Paradise,” 74 by 30 
 feet, the largest oil painting in the world, but 
 which has suffered much from the ravages of 
 time and restoration. 
 
 / His altarpieces and easel pictures are legion, 
 ( and may be found in the churches of Venice 
 and principal galleries of Europe. We can 
 mention only the three fine examples in San 
 
 Giorgio Maggiore; “Susanna’s Bath.” in Vienna, 
 Paris, and Madrid; “Vulcan, Cupid, and Venus” 
 (Pitti, Florence) ; “Abraham’s Sacrifice” (Uf- 
 fizi) ; “Origin of the Milky Way” and “St. 
 George and the Dragon” (National Gallery, 
 London) ; “Luna and the Hours” (Berlin) ; and 
 “Christ Visiting Mary and Martha” (Augs¬ 
 burg), one of his loveliest works. The Metro¬ 
 politan Museum, New York, possesses “Doge in 
 Prayer before the Redeemer” and the large 
 “Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes.” During the 
 same period he also designed for St. Mark's 
 Church a series of mosaics of subjects from the 
 life of Christ. 
 
 Tintoretto shared with Titian the reputation 
 of being the greatest portraitist of his day. 
 His early portraits, indeed, are often confounded 
 with Titian’s, but he soon developed a highly 
 individual style, characterized by naturalism 
 and simplicity. Eliminating all incident, even 
 gesture, the great painter of movement produced 
 likenesses in the highest sense typical. With 
 incredible rapidity he painted the doges and 
 the nobility who were his sitters. Of these 
 portraits over 100 survive; there are important 
 examples which we knew were lost, but many 
 of which were probably executed bv his son, 
 Domenico. Among the best are his own like¬ 
 ness in the Louvre and in the Lffizi; \ incenzo 
 Morosini, Paolo Paruto, Tomaso Contarini, and 
 Niccolo Priuli, in the Ducal Palace; the doges 
 Trevisan and Priuli, Jacopo Soranzo, Andrea 
 Dandolo, and Antonio Capello, in the Academy 
 .of Vienna; the Doge Niccolo da Ponte Sebastiano 
 Venier, the hero of Lepanto, a “Young General”; 
 a number of admirable unknown portraits, in 
 the Vienna Gallery; “Two Brothers,” a fine 
 psychological study of two boys; and a “Sena¬ 
 tor,” Gardner collection, Boston. 
 
 The adverse opinion of some critics upon Tin¬ 
 toretto’s works is due to the effect of time upon 
 them. He used a dark ground and applied the 
 colors but lightly, with the result that they 
 have greatly darkened. His rapidity of execu¬ 
 tion often impelled him to do work which was 
 sketchy, sometimes even negligent; but in his 
 best work he shows himself one of the greatest 
 painters of all times. He was, in a way, 
 the culmination of Renaissance painting, and 
 united in himself more than did any other man 
 all its different tendencies. Tintoretto extended 
 the plastic character to the entire composition, 
 and Titian’s color harmony of flat surfaces 
 became with him a light symphony of the 
 whole painting. By his mastery of light and 
 shadow he was enabled to put a world of poetry 
 and sentiment in his pictures, without de¬ 
 generating into illustration. He had a wonder¬ 
 ful fertility of imagination. His most startling 
 innovations, however, were in composition: for 
 the problem is far more difficult in Tintoretto’s 
 plastic work than in the relief-like productions 
 of others. Sometimes he separated foreground 
 and background, using the action in the latter 
 to concentrate attention on the principal action 
 in the foreground. In dramatic power he is 
 the worthy compeer of Michelangelo, and like 
 him he indicated emotion by the action of the 
 body. 
 
 Excepting a year’s stay at Mantua, Tintoretto 
 passed all of his life at Venice. Before 1560 
 he married Faustina dei Vescovi, who seemed 
 to have her share of worry in taking care 
 of her spouse, who was impracticable in money 
 matters. Of his eight children, Marietta, the 
 
TINTYPE 
 
 297 
 
 TIPPU SAHIB 
 
 eldest, a gifted artist and his favorite child, 
 met with an early death in 1590, whence the 
 beautiful tradition of the old painter painting 
 his dead daughter. lie did not long survive 
 her, and died at Venice, May 31, 1594. His son 
 and assistant Domenico painted many works in 
 superficial imitation of his father. 
 
 Bibliography. The chief literary source for 
 Tintorettos life is Ridolfi, Meraviglie dell’ arte 
 (Venice, 1048). The first among modern writ¬ 
 ers to establish his fame was Ruskin in Stones 
 of Venice and other works. Consult also: 
 Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Most Eminent 
 Painters, Sculptors, and Architects, Eng. trails, 
 by Blashfield and Hopkins, vol. iii (New York, 
 1890) ; F. P. Stearns, Four G reat Venetians 
 (ib., 1901); Henry Thode, “Tintoretto,” in 
 
 Kiinstler Monographien, No. 49 (Bielefeld, 
 1901) ; Masters in Art, vol. iii (Boston, 1902), 
 containing an exhaustive bibliography; J. B. 
 Stoughton Holborn, Jacopo Rohusti called Tin¬ 
 toretto, in “Great Masters in Painting and 
 Sculpture” (London, 1903) ; S. L. Bensusan, 
 Tintoretto (ib., 1907); E. M. Philipps, Tin 
 toretto (New York, 1911); F. P. B. Osmaston, 
 Art and Genius\ of Tintoret (2 vols., ib., 1915). 
 
 TINTYPE. See Ferrotype. 
 
 TIN WEDDING. See Wedding Anniver¬ 
 saries. 
 
 TINY TIM. In Dickens’s Christmas Carol, 
 a cripple, the little son of Bob Cratchit. 
 
 TIORBA, tS-orTia, Della. See Ferrari, 
 Benedetto. 
 
 TIPPECANOE, tip'pe-ka-noo'. A popular 
 nickname of Gen. William Henry Harrison, due 
 to his victory over the Indians at the Tippecanoe 
 River in 1811. 
 
 TIPPECANOE, Battle of. An engagement 
 fought on Nov. 7, 1811, near the site of the 
 present village of Battle Ground, on the Tippe¬ 
 canoe River, in Tippecanoe Co., Ind., between 
 an American force of about 800, including 500 
 Indiana and Kentucky militiamen, under Wil¬ 
 liam Henry Harrison, then Governor of In¬ 
 diana Territory, and an Indian force, estimated 
 by Harrison at about 6000, but probably much 
 smaller, under the actual command of White 
 Loon, Stone Eater, and Winnemac. On Oct. 11, 
 1811, while Harrison was building a stockade on 
 the site of Terre Haute, one of his sentinels 
 was killed from ambush, and Harrison, consider¬ 
 ing this the beginning of hostilities, soon after¬ 
 ward marched against the town on the Tippe¬ 
 canoe, where the Prophet, a brother of Tecumseh 
 (q.v.), was supposed to be inciting the Indians 
 to attack the whites because of the alienation 
 of Indian lands. On the night of November 6 
 he encamped within about a mile of the town, 
 and posted his troops in the form of a triangle, 
 having previously arranged with the Prophet 
 for a conference on the following day. Before 
 dawn on the 7th the Indians attacked the camp 
 with great ferocity and bravery, but after more 
 than two hours of stubborn fighting were driven 
 from the field. On the following day Harrison 
 advanced to the town, found it deserted, and 
 almost completely destroyed it. He then re¬ 
 turned to Vincennes. The loss of the whites in 
 the battle in killed and wounded was about 
 190, of whom 34 were officers; that of the In¬ 
 dians, though undoubtedly large, is not defi¬ 
 nitely knoAvn. The battle rendered virtually im¬ 
 possible the realization of Tecumseh’s plans, 
 weakened and almost destroyed the prestige of 
 the Prophet, hastened the general outbreak of 
 
 hostilities by the Indians against the Americans 
 in the NorthAvest, and greatly enhanced the 
 reputation of General Harrison, avIio later, 
 partly on the strengtli of this success, Avas placed 
 in command of the American troops in the 
 V est. A full account of the Tippecanoe ex¬ 
 pedition is given in Harrison’s report to the 
 Secretary of War, November, 1811. 
 
 TIP'PERA'RY. An inland county of the 
 Province of Munster, Ireland, lving north of 
 Waterford (Map: Ireland, D 6). "Area, 1659 
 square miles. The county for the most part is 
 in the basin of the river Suir. Other riA r ers 
 are the Shannon, the Nore, the Nenagh, and 
 the Brosna; lakes are numerous, but of small 
 size. The surface is generally level. The Galtees 
 Mountains which diversify it are rather groups 
 than portions of any connected range; these 
 mountains rise to 3000 feet. The soil of the 
 plain is fertile; there is a considerable amount 
 of bog in the central and eastern districts. The 
 mineral productions are coal (anthracite), cop¬ 
 per, and lead, also zinc and good fire clay; 
 slates of an excellent quality are quarried near 
 Killaloe. Wheat was formerly grown in large 
 quantities, but of late years its cultivation 
 has been superseded by dairy farming and the 
 raising of cattle. Pop., 19*01, 160,232; 1911, 
 151,951. 
 
 TIPPERARY. The capital of Tipperary 
 County, Ireland, on the Arra, 111 miles south¬ 
 west of Dublin (Map: Ireland, C 7). It oc¬ 
 cupies a central position in a fine country, and 
 carries on an extensive trade in butter and 
 condensed milk. The town, of ancient origin, 
 is well built, and contains Roman Catholic and 
 Protestant churches, national schools, and a 
 school of the Erasmus Smith endowment. In 
 1890 the foundation of a New Tipperary, hoav in 
 ruins, Avas an attempt, under the Irish League’s 
 plan of campaign, to boycott the land proprietor 
 of the old town. It proved abortive within a 
 year. Pop., 1901, 6281; 1911, 5974. 
 
 TIPPLE, tlp'p’l, Ezra Squier (1861- ). 
 
 An American Methodist Episcopal clergyman and 
 educator, born at Camden, N. Y. He gradu¬ 
 ated from Syracuse University in 1884 and from 
 Drew Theological Seminary in 1887, taking his 
 Ph.D. at Syracuse the same year. AfterAvard he 
 held various pastorates in New York City. In 
 1905 he was elected professor of practical theol¬ 
 ogy and in 1912 president of Drew Theological 
 Seminary. Besides several series of Drew Ser¬ 
 mons, he published: The Heart of Asbury’s Jour¬ 
 nal (1905) ; The Minister of God (1906) ; The 
 Life of Freeborn Garrettson (1910); Some Fa¬ 
 mous Country Parishes (1911) ; Francis Asbury 
 (1916). 
 
 TIPPU SAHIB, te-poo' saffiib (1751-99). 
 Sultan of Mysore, in India. He Avas a son of 
 Hyder Ali (q.v.). He was actively engaged in 
 the Avars of his father, and routed the British 
 at Perimbakum (Sept. 10, 1780), and on the 
 banks of the Kolerun in Tanjore (Feb. 18, 
 1782). On the death of his father in 1782 he 
 was croAvned Sultan. On April 28, 1783, he 
 captured and put to death the garrison of 
 Bednore. The peace between England and 
 France deprived him of his French allies and 
 he made a treaty in 1784 on the basis of the 
 status quo. He then gaA r e his attention to the 
 internal affairs of Mysore, establishing a splen¬ 
 did court at Seringapatam. He sought, in 1787, 
 to bring on a reneAval of the Avar between France 
 and England, and failing, invaded in 1790 the 
 
TIPTON 
 
 TIROL 
 
 298 
 
 protected state of Travancore. In the ensuing 
 war (1790-92) the British, under Colonel Stuart 
 and Lord Cornwallis, were aided by the Maha- 
 rattas and the Nizam, who joined in the struggle 
 against their powerful neighbor both out of 
 fear and religious hatred, Tippu being a fanatical 
 Mohammedan. The Sultan laid waste the Car¬ 
 natic and advanced almost to the gates of 
 Madras, but was defeated near Seringapatam in 
 March, 1792, and compelled to cede one-half 
 of his dominions. Hostilities began again in 
 March, 1799, and two months afterward Tippu 
 was driven from the open field and attacked in 
 his capital of Seringapatam, which was stormed 
 on May 4, the Sultan himself being slain after 
 an heroic resistance. His dominions and prop¬ 
 erty were confiscated, a portion of Mysore, how¬ 
 ever, being assigned to the Nizam. Consult 
 L. B. Bowring, Haidar All and Tipu Sultan 
 (London, 1893). 
 
 TIP'TON. A town in South Staffordshire, 
 England, 4 y 2 miles southeast of Wolverhamp¬ 
 ton, with collieries, blast furnaces, and iron 
 manufactures. Pop., 1901, 30,543; 1911, 31,756. 
 
 TIPTON. A city and the county seat of 
 Tipton Co., Ind., 40* miles north by east of In¬ 
 dianapolis, on the Lake Erie and Western Rail¬ 
 road (Map: Indiana, E 4). It is the trade centre 
 of an agricultural and stock-raising district. 
 The manufactures are canned vegetables, catsup, 
 brooms, cutlery, and shoes. It was settled in 
 1844 and incorporated 10 vears later. Pop., 
 1900, 3764; 1910, 4075. 
 
 TIPU'LID^E. See Crane Fly. 
 
 TIPWORM. The larva of one of the gall 
 midges ( Gecidomyia oxycoccana) , which occurs 
 in the terminal buds of the cranberry plant and 
 causes them to become unusually prominent and 
 to stop the development of the leaves. After 
 attack the tip usually dies. The adult fly has a 
 red abdomen and a grayish thorax, and is about 
 one-sixteenth of an inch in length. The female 
 has a long, extensible ovipositor by means of 
 which she thrusts her eggs into the heart of 
 the voung shoot. See also Hop Insects. 
 
 TIRABOSCHI, te'ra-bds'ke, Girolamo (1731- 
 94). An erudite Italian, born at Bergamo, 
 author of a monumental and still useful Storia 
 della letteratura italiana (1772-81, in 14 vols.), 
 of which translations have appeared in French 
 and German. Other works: Vetera Humilia- 
 torum monumenta (1766), Biblioteca modenese 
 (1781-86), and Memorie storiche modenesi 
 (1793). 
 
 TIRARD, t£'rar', Pierre Emmanuel (1827- 
 93). A French statesman, born at Geneva. He 
 went to Paris about 1846, and in 1870 became 
 mayor of the Second Arrondissement. In 1876 
 he "entered the Chamber of Deputies as a radical 
 Republican and he was successively Minister of 
 Agriculture and Commerce (1879-81 and in 
 1882), Minister of Finance (1882-85), and 
 Premier (1887-88 and 1889-90). Subsequently 
 he resumed the seat in the Senate to which he 
 had been elected in 1883. From December, 1892, 
 to April, 1893, he was Minister of Finance. 
 
 TIRASPOL, te-ras'pol. A town in the Gov¬ 
 ernment of Kherson, South Russia, on the left 
 bank of the Dniester, 73 miles by rail northwest 
 of Odessa (Map: Russia, C 5). It manufactures 
 flour, brick, pottery, and ironware, and has a 
 large trade. Pop., 1900, 29,323; 1910, 35,242. 
 
 TIREE, ti-re', or TYREE. A Scottish island, 
 one of the Inner Hebrides (q.v.), included in 
 Argyllshire, 20 miles northwest of Iona (Map: 
 
 Scotland, A3). It is 13 miles long and over 6 
 miles in extreme breadth. There are interesting 
 antiquities. The inhabitants support themselves 
 bv rearing cattle, fishing, and exporting poultry 
 and eggs. Pop., 1901, 2195; 1911, 2306. 
 
 TIREH, te're. A town of the Turkish Vilayet 
 of Smyrna, Asia Minor, 25 miles southeast of 
 the city of Smyrna, with which it has railway 
 connection (Map: Turkey in Asia, B 3). It is 
 the ancient Tyrrha of the Kingdom of Lydia. 
 Tapestry and cotton manufacturing constitute 
 the chief industries. Pop., estimated at from 
 13,000 to 20,000. 
 
 TIRE'SIAS (Lat., from Gk. Teipealas, Teire- 
 sias) . In Greek legend, a famous Theban seer. 
 He is called son of Eueres and Chariclo, and was 
 blind from early youth, because he had seen 
 Athena bathing. To recompense him for his 
 loss of sight, the goddess gave him power to 
 understand the voices of birds. Another legend 
 represents Hera as depriving him of his sight 
 because, being made arbiter in a dispute be¬ 
 tween her and Zeus, he had decided in favor 
 of the latter; Zeus as a compensation gave him 
 unerring power in interpreting omens, and pro¬ 
 longed life. He appears prominently in the 
 Theban cycle of legends. In the Odyssey (book 
 xi) it is" recorded that Odysseus went to the 
 lower world to consult him. 
 
 TIRHAKAH, ter-ha'ka. A king of ancient 
 Ethiopia. See Taiiarka. 
 
 TIRLEMONT, terl'moN' (Flem. Tienen or 
 Thienen) . A town in the Province of Brabant, 
 Belgium, 29 miles east by south of Brussels, on 
 the Geete River (Map: Belgium, C 4). Its 
 walls, which had a circumference of about 6 
 miles, were dismantled early in the nineteenth 
 century. The chief objects of interest are the 
 restored churches of St. Germain and Notre 
 Dame du Lac. The former is a composite of 
 the Romanesque and early Gothic, and was be¬ 
 gun in the ninth century. Its most striking fea¬ 
 ture is the altarpiece by Wappers. The church 
 of Notre Dame du Lac dates partly from the 
 thirteenth and partly from the fifteenth century. 
 There are manufactures of engines, leather, 
 cotton and woolen goods, etc. The town was 
 occupied by the Germans in 1914. See War in 
 Europe. Pop., 1900, 17,855; 1910, 17,581. 
 
 TIRNATJ. See Tyrnau. 
 
 TIRNOVA, ter'no-va (Bulgarian Trnova ). 
 A district town in Bulgaria, 124 miles northeast 
 of Sofia (Map: Balkan Peninsula, E 3). It 
 contains a number of mediaeval churches. The 
 chief industries are dyeing and the manufacture 
 of copper ware. Tirnova was the capital of 
 Bulgaria for about two centuries until 1393, 
 when it was taken by the Turks. It was in 
 Tirnova on Oct. 5, 1908, that Prince Ferdinand 
 of Bulgaria solemnly proclaimed the complete 
 independence of his county and assumed the 
 title of King. Pop., 1905, 12,171. 
 
 TI'RO, Marcus Tullius. Slave, pupil, and 
 subsequently amanuensis of Cicero, whose life he 
 wrote and whose letters he collected. He is 
 known chiefly as the inventor of the ancient 
 stenography (see Shorthand), called after 
 him Notre Tironoanre. 
 
 TIR'OL, or TYR'OL, Ger. pron. te-rol'. A 
 Crownland of Austria, united with Vorarlberg 
 under one administration (Map: Austria, B 3). 
 Area about 10,305 square miles. Tirol like 
 Switzerland is almost entirely covered by the 
 Alps. It lacks lakes, however, the Lago di 
 Garda on the south frontier being the only 
 
TIROL 
 
 TIRTJRAY 
 
 important one. Through the north extends the 
 valley of the Inn, with the Lech Alps on the 
 northwest. The Inn is the most important river 
 in the crownland. It becomes navigable at Hall, 
 just below Innsbruck. The watershed in Tirol 
 between the Danube and the Po, separating 
 northern from southern Tirol, is formed by the 
 Oetzthal Alps on the west (reaching about 12,- 
 500 feet) and by the Zillertlial Alps towards the 
 east. The Brenner Pass connecting Innsbruck 
 with Verona, Italy, by an elevation of only 
 4500 feet lies between and marks the chief de¬ 
 pression of the divide. In the Zillertlial group 
 rises the Drave. It flows through the Puster- 
 thal, and leaves Tirol on the extreme eastern 
 boundary. The south end of Tirol is mainly 
 occupied by the valley of the Adige, with the 
 remarkable Dolomite Alps on the east. The 
 Adige flows south and enters Italy west of the 
 Lessinian Alps, which line the Italian frontier. 
 The Sarnthal Alps lie in the centre of Tirol, 
 at the eastern foot of the Oetzthal Alps. The 
 Holie Tauern (with the Gross Glockner peak, 
 about 12,500 feet) forms the northeastern bound- 
 ary, the Kitzhtihl Alps lie on the Salzburg 
 border, and the Ortler group enters from the 
 southwest and forms the loftiest elevation in 
 Tirol—12,790 feet. The mountains of Tirol are 
 famous for their picturesque valleys. The cli¬ 
 mate is of great variety. The north slopes, as 
 the Inn valley, are raw and cold, but the south¬ 
 ern slopes, especially the Adige valley, are 
 warm in summer. 
 
 Tirol is in general little adapted to tillage, 
 the better portions being devoted mainly to 
 meadows. About two-thirds of the surface is 
 covered with forests. The agricultural sections 
 are in the valleys in the northern and southern 
 districts. Southern Tirol is noted for its wine, 
 and it grows much fruit. Zinc and sulphur 
 are mined; also some coal, iron, and copper. 
 The industries are not extensive. Cotton goods 
 are produced in the Inn Valley and silk goods in 
 the Adige district. Spinning and weaving as 
 house industries are conspicuous. The wood 
 carving is famous. Carpets, iron wares, and 
 marble are shipped, as well as cattle, lumber, 
 and cheese. 
 
 There is a university at the capital, Inns¬ 
 bruck (1340 students in 1912). Tirol has a 
 Diet of 68 members—34 representing the rural 
 communities, 13 the towns, and 10 the landed 
 aristocracy, the principal ecclesiastical digni¬ 
 taries having seats in the body. The Statthalter 
 in Innsbruck is at the head of the administra¬ 
 tion for Tirol and Vorarlberg, but Vorarlberg 
 has its own Constitution and Diet. Tirol sends 
 25 members to the Lower House of the Aus¬ 
 trian Reichsrat. The population in 1910 was 
 946,613, of whom the vernacular of 57.3 per cent 
 was German and of 42 per cent Italian or 
 Ladin. Over 99 per cent are Roman Catholic. 
 
 History. In Roman times Tirol formed part 
 of Rhsetia, which was conquered by the Romans, 
 14 H.c. At the time of the great migration of 
 nations it was overrun by various German 
 tribes, including the Ostrogoths. The southern 
 portion later fell into the hands of the Lombards, 
 and the northern became subject to the Bava¬ 
 rians, who were subdued by the Franks. Ulti¬ 
 mately the country was divided into a number 
 of petty lordships, some under the suzerainty of 
 the dukes of Bavaria, some under that of the 
 bishops of Trent, and others under that of 
 the bishops of Brixen. The whole of German 
 
 Vol. XXII.—20 
 
 299 
 
 Tirol finally came into possession of one family, 
 the counts of the Adige or of Tirol (the latter 
 being the name of their castle, so called from 
 the Roman Teriolis, near the site of which it 
 stood). The last count, who died in 1335, 
 left one daughter, Margaret Maultasch. She 
 bequeathed her rights to her cousins, the dukes 
 of Austria, who thus acquired possession of 
 Tirol in 1363. The Italian slope remained in 
 possession of the bishops of Trent, who were 
 dispossessed in 1803. By the Treaty of Press- 
 burg in 1805 Tirol was ceded to Bavaria, much 
 to the discontent of the people, who were warmly 
 attached to the house of Austria. They made 
 a gallant resistance to the French in 1809, 
 under Andreas Hofer (q.v.), but were defeated. 
 Tirol was restored to Austria by the Treaty of 
 Paris in 1814. The acquisition of Italian Tirol 
 forms part of the programme of the Italian ir¬ 
 redentists. Tirol was invaded by the Italians 
 in the great war which began in 1914. See War 
 in Europe; Irredentism. 
 
 Bibliography. General description: Schnel- 
 ler, Landeskunde von Tirol (Innsbruck, 1872) ; 
 R. H. Busk, The Talleys of Tirol (London, 
 1874) ; W. A. Baillie-Graham, Tirol and the 
 Tirolese (ib., 1876) ; Purtscheller and Hess, Der 
 Hochtourist in den Ostalpen (Leipzig, 1899) ; 
 Achleitner and Uhl, Tirol und Vorarlberg (ib., 
 1902) ; M. Haushofer, Tirol und Vorarlberg (2d 
 ed., Bielefeld, 1903) ; W. A. Baillie-Graham, 
 Land in the Mountains (Philadelphia, 1907) ; 
 id., Tyrol (New York, 1908). History: Huber, 
 Geschichte der Vereinigung Tirols mit Oester- 
 reich (Innsbruck, 1864) ; Josef Egger, Ge¬ 
 schichte Tirols von der altesten Zeiten bis in 
 die Neuzeit (3 vols., ib., 1872-80); id., Die 
 bsterreichische-ungarische Monarchic in Wort 
 und Bild, vol. xiii (Vienna, 1893). 
 
 TIRPITZ, Alfred von (1849- ). A Ger¬ 
 
 man naval officer, born at Kiistrin. He became 
 a cadet in the Prussian navy in 1865, attended 
 the Marineakademie in 1874-76, and rose 
 through the grades to be admiral (1903). He 
 commanded a cruiser division on the East Asia 
 station in 1896-97, became Secretary of State 
 of the Imperial navy, and plenipotentiary to 
 the Bundesrat in 1897, and from the following 
 year served also as Prussian Minister of State. 
 Tirpitz was ennobled in 1900, and received the 
 following orders: Black Eagle (1907), House 
 of ILohenzollern, and Pour le Merite (1915). 
 In 1911 he was created Lord High Admiral of 
 the Imperial navy. During the great war which 
 broke out in 1914, he was prominent because, 
 in his official capacity, he declared a war zone 
 about the British Isles, within which vessels, 
 neutral as well as belligerent, would sail at 
 their own risk. To mark the zone he instituted 
 a submarine blockade, a novelty in naval war¬ 
 fare. As the outcome of this policy, many bel¬ 
 ligerent and neutral vessels were destroyed by 
 submarines, one of the most spectacular catas¬ 
 trophes being the sinking of the Lusitania 
 (q.v.). The loss of American lives on such 
 vessels severely strained the relations between 
 Germany and the United States. Von Tirpitz 
 retired in March, 1916, ill health being the rea¬ 
 son given. See War in Europe. 
 
 TIRSO DE MOLINA, ter's6 da md-le'na. 
 See Tellez, Gabriel. 
 
 TIRURAY, te'roo-rl'. A Malay people found 
 near the mouth of the Cottabato River in south¬ 
 western Mindanao. At the time of the Spanish 
 conquest this tribe was very powerful, but later 
 
TIRYNS 
 
 300 
 
 TI3CHEND0RF 
 
 suffered so greatly from the slave raids of 
 the Moro that they are now only a miserable 
 remnant of the original population. See Philip¬ 
 pine Islands. 
 
 TFRYNS (Lat., from Gk. Tlpws). An an¬ 
 cient city of Argolis, in the Peloponnesus, south¬ 
 east of Argos, near the head of the Argolic gulf, 
 not far from Nauplia (Map: Greece, Ancient, 
 C 3). According to tradition it was founded 
 by Prcetus, a mythic king of Argolis; and its 
 massive walls, like other rude massive struc¬ 
 tures in Greece of unknown antiquity, were 
 reputed to be the work of the Cyclopes (see 
 Cyclopean Architecture). Later, Perseus was 
 said to have ruled here, and Hercules resided 
 there while in servitude to Eurystheus. At the 
 time of the Dorian conquest Argos seems to 
 have secured the supremacy over the plain, 
 though during the Persian wars Tirvns was in¬ 
 dependent and sent troops to Plattea. Some 
 time later, probably about 468 b.c., the city 
 was taken by the Argives; after this period 
 Tiryns remained uninhabited, the walls of the 
 citadel only being left standing, the wonder and 
 admiration of later ages. The acropolis or 
 citadel of Tiryns was built on the summit of 
 a low, flat, rocky hill, about 980 by 330 feet 
 in extent, which rises abruptly out of the dead 
 level of the plain of Argos to a height of from 
 30 to 60 feet. It consists of three terraces, of 
 which the highest was occupied by a prehistoric 
 palace, the middle by lesser buildings, while the 
 lowest has been scarcely explored, but seems 
 to have contained only small structures. This 
 hill was surrounded by a massive wall of huge 
 blocks of limestone of irregular shape laid in a 
 clay mortar. The original height is uncertain; 
 in some places the wall is still nearly 25 feet 
 high. The thickness around the lower terrace 
 is not quite uniform, but does not exceed 26 
 feet; around the upper terrace it varies from 
 16 to the prodigious figure of 57 feet. A part 
 of this wall was occupied by galleries and cham¬ 
 bers, probably meant for the storing of provi¬ 
 sions. The main entrance was on the east, and 
 was reached by a ramp; on the west was a pos¬ 
 tern gate with a stairway in the rock. The 
 palace on the summit was excavated by Schlie- 
 mann and Dorpfeld in 1884-85, and until the 
 recent discoveries in Crete was the most com¬ 
 plete example of the home of a Mycenaean king. 
 After passing the entrance gate the way leads 
 to a large propylaea, which opens into a great 
 open court; from this a second gateway leads 
 to another paved court ( avXrj, aule) , sur¬ 
 rounded by colonnades. On one side low steps 
 and a door lead to a vestibule, which again 
 opens into the great hall ( yeyapov, megaron), 
 with a circular hearth in the centre. Around 
 this central structure is a complex of passages 
 and lesser rooms, including a bath and a 
 smaller court with its own megaron, probably 
 the women’s apartments. The essential identity 
 of this palace with that described in the Homeric 
 poems lends peculiar interest to the discovery. 
 Decent excavations have shown another palace 
 beneath the one described above. 
 
 Bibliography. Schliemann, Tiryns, Eng. 
 trans. (London, 1886) ; Schuchhardt, Schlie- 
 mann’s Excavations, Eng. trans. by Eugenie 
 Sellers (ib., 1891); Perrot and Chipiez, His- 
 toire de Vart dans Vantiquite, vol. vi (Paris, 
 1894) ; Tsountas and Manatt, Tfve Mycencean 
 Age (London, 1897) ; K. Baedeker, Greece (4th 
 Eng. ed., Leipzig, 1909) ; and the article 
 
 “Archaeology,” in the New International Year 
 Book for 1913, p. 52 (New York, 1914). 
 
 TISCHBEIN, tishfijin. A German family of 
 artists who lived in Hesse during the eighteenth 
 century. Johann Heinrich, the Elder (1733— 
 89), a painter, born at ITaina, studied first in 
 Cassel, then under Van Loo, Boucher, and Wat¬ 
 teau in Paris, and finally under Piazzetta in 
 Venice. Returning to Cassel in 1754 he became 
 court painter to the Landgrave and director of 
 the New Academy (1776). His historical pic¬ 
 tures and portraits in the style of the French 
 eighteenth-century masters are well drawn, 
 though affected, and rank among the best works 
 of the time in Germany. Examples are: “Les¬ 
 sing” (Berlin) and Landgrave Frederick II 
 (Cassel).— Johann Friedrich August (1750- 
 1812), also a painter, nephew of the preceding, 
 was born in Maestricht. He studied with his 
 uncle and in Paris and Italy. Afterward 
 he became court painter in Waldeck and then 
 director of the Leipzig Academy (1800). He 
 was one of the finest colorists of his day. His 
 canvases include nine pastel portraits of princes 
 and princesses of Orange-Nassau (Amsterdam), 
 and portraits of Schiller (1804; Leipzig), Wie- 
 land, and Mozart.— Johann Heinrich Wil¬ 
 helm, the Elder (1751-1829), a painter and 
 etcher, also known as the Neapolitan, cousin of 
 the preceding, was the most celebrated of the 
 family, though artistically the least gifted. He 
 was born at Haina and studied with his uncle, 
 Johann Heinrich, and in Hamburg, Bremen, and 
 Holland. In 1779 he went to Italy, where he 
 became intimate with Goethe, whom he accom¬ 
 panied to Naples. From 1789 to 1799 he 
 was director of the Naples Academy. In 1809 
 he was made court painter to the Duke of 
 Oldenburg. He was one of the chief representa¬ 
 tives in Germany of the school of David. Among 
 his paintings are a portrait of Goethe in the 
 Campagna (Frankfurt) and 43 “Idyls” (Olden¬ 
 burg). He issued about 150 etchings and en¬ 
 gravings in connection with various publica¬ 
 tions. Consult: Michel, Etude biographique sur 
 les Tischbeins (Lyons, 1881) ; Franz Landberger, 
 Wilhelm Tischbein (Leipzig, 1908) ; Wolfgang 
 Soerrensen, Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tisch¬ 
 bein: sein Leben und seine Kunst (Berlin, 
 1910) ; Hermann Bahlmann, J. H. Tischbein 
 (Strassburg, 1911). 
 
 TISCHENDORF, tish'en-d6rf, Konstantin 
 von (1815-74). One of the most eminent tex¬ 
 tual critics and paleographers of the nineteenth 
 century, born at Lengenfeld, Saxony. In 1840, 
 as a privatdocent at Leipzig, he published his 
 first edition of the Greek New Testament (dated 
 1841), and then went to Paris, where for over 
 two years he labored incessantly among the 
 manuscript treasures of the National Library. 
 In 1842 the decipherment and publication of the 
 Greek text of the important palimpsest Codex 
 Ephraemi, followed soon after by his edition of 
 the Codex Claromontanus, marked him as a 
 textual scholar of the first rank. Though he 
 became a professor of theology at Leipzig, the 
 greater part of his time was spent in journeys 
 in search of biblical manuscripts, and in editing 
 and publishing the same, or in work on succes¬ 
 sive editions of the Greek New Testament. He 
 discovered in 1844, at the monastery of St. Cath¬ 
 arine at Mount Sinai, a few leaves of a manu¬ 
 script of the Greek Old Testament. Fifteen years 
 later, on a third visit, he discovered the re¬ 
 mainder of the manuscript, the famous Codex 
 
TISHRI 
 
 TISZA 
 
 301 
 
 Sinaiticus, containing both the Old and New 
 Testaments, one of the two oldest-known manu¬ 
 scripts of the Greek Bible. The crowning work 
 of r I ischendorf's life was his eighth edition 
 
 (1865-72) of the Greek Testament with its 
 large critical apparatus, the indispensable vade 
 mecum of every student of the text of the New 
 Testament. A list of Tischendorf’s numerous 
 publications may be found, with a sketch of 
 his career, in the Prolego7nena to the eighth 
 edition by Ur. C. R. Gregory (Leipzig, 1884-94). 
 
 TISHRI, tish'rS. A month in the Babylo¬ 
 nian, Persian, and Jewish calendars correspond¬ 
 ing to the Seleucid Hyperboretaios, September— 
 October. The Babylonian name tish-ri-tum is 
 regarded as derived from shurru, to begin, to 
 dedicate, the civil year having begun in the au¬ 
 tumn with this month, while the ecclesiastical 
 year seems to have begun in the spring with 
 the month of Nisan. Tishri is not mentioned 
 in the Bible, but the name is found in the 
 Mishna treatise Shekalim, iii, 1, and probably 
 in Josephus, Antiquities, viii, 4, 1. The Jewish 
 civil year begins with the month of Tishri. 
 See I. Benzinger, Hebraische Archdologie (2d 
 ed., Tubingen, 1907). 
 
 TISHAS (Lat., from Gk. T eicrias, Teisias) . A 
 Greek rhetorician of Syracuse, teacher at Athens, 
 of Gorgias (q.v.), Lysias (q.v.), and Isocrates 
 (q.v.), and author of a manual on rhetoric. 
 Consult: F. W. Blass, Die attische Beredsamkeit, 
 vol. i (2d ed., Leipzig, 1887); R. C. Jebb, The 
 Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isceos (2 vols., 
 London, 1876) ; Christ-Schmid, Geschichte der 
 griechischen Litteratur, vol. i, part i (6th ed., 
 Munich, 1912). 
 
 TISIO, te'zg-6, Benvenuto. See Garofalo. 
 
 TISSAPHERNES, tis'sa-fer'nez (Lat., from 
 Gk. TLaocMpepi/ys, from OPers. *Cithrafarnd, pos¬ 
 sessed of manifold glory) ( ?-395 b.c.). A Per¬ 
 sian, appointed satrap of the coast lands of 
 Asia Minor by Darius II in 414 b.c. He played 
 a part by intrigue and arms in the Pelopon¬ 
 nesian War. He became the jealous rival of 
 Cyrus the Younger on the latter’s arrival in 
 Asia Minor in 407 b.c., and when it became 
 manifest that Cyrus was plotting against his 
 brother, King Artaxerxes II, and aiming at the 
 throne, Tissaphernes was the first to inform 
 the King of the impending danger. He held a 
 command in the Persian army and distinguished 
 himself at the battle of Cunaxa (q.v.). After 
 the death of Cyrus he entrapped the generals 
 of the Greek mercenaries of Cyrus. He then 
 succeeded to the provinces that had been held 
 by Cyrus, but was unsuccessful in an attempt 
 to establish his authority over Ionia. Finally, 
 through the influence of Parysatis, the King’s 
 mother, Tissaphernes was put to death at 
 Colossae, in Phrygia, in 395 b.c. 
 
 TISSERAND, tis'raN r , Francois Felix 
 (1845-96). A French astronomer, born at 
 Nuits-Saint-Georges, Cote-d’Or. In 1863 he 
 entered the Ecole Normale Superieure. In 1866 
 he became professor in the lvcee at Metz, where 
 he only remained one month, being called by 
 Leverrier to the Paris Observatory as adjunct 
 astronomer. He received his doctor’s degree in 
 1868, presenting a very remarkable thesis on the 
 method of Delaunay, which he showed to be 
 applicable to the calculation of the inequalities 
 of all the planets and thus of a wider applica¬ 
 tion than had been supposed by the inventor. 
 In 1873 he became director of the observatory 
 at Toulouse and professor of astronomy in the 
 
 Faculty of Sciences in the university. In 1878 
 he succeeded Leverrier as member of the Acad¬ 
 emy of Sciences and became member of the 
 Bureau des Longitudes. In the same year he 
 was appointed professor of rational mechanics 
 at the Sorbonne, and in 1883 was transferred 
 to the chair of celestial mechanics. He took 
 part in the French expeditions to Japan and 
 Santo Domingo which observed the transit of 
 Venus in 1874 and 1882 respectively. In 1892 
 he succeeded Moucliez as director of the. Paris 
 Observatory. 
 
 Besides the generalization of the method of 
 Delaunay, which he continued till his death, he 
 made observations for the determination of 
 planetary orbits, on the ring of Saturn, on the 
 perturbations of Pallas, the origin of comets 
 and their capture by the larger planets, and 
 gave also a valuable criterion for identifying a 
 periodic comet. He also observed the shifting 
 of the orbital plane of Neptune’s satellite as a 
 result of Neptune’s ellipsoidal shape. In con¬ 
 sequence of this shifting of orbit the retrograde 
 motion of the pole of the satellite completes a 
 cycle in 500 years. His principal work, Traite 
 de mecanique celeste (4 vols., Paris, 1888-96), 
 gives a complete account of the state of knowl¬ 
 edge of that branch of astronomy up to the 
 time of his death. Since 1884 he edited the 
 Bulletin astronomique. He made many astro¬ 
 nomical contributions to the Bulletin and to the 
 Comptes Rendus, and also wrote Reoueil com- 
 pUmentaire d’exercises sur le calcul infinitesi¬ 
 mal (Paris, 1876; 2d ed., 1896). Consult Poin¬ 
 care, “La vie et les travaux de F. Tisserand,” 
 in Revue generate des sciences (Paris, 1896). 
 
 TISSOT, tis'sd', James Joseph Jacques 
 (1836-1902). A French painter. He was born 
 at Nantes, studied at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts 
 under Lamothe and Flandrin, and first exhibited 
 in 1859. After the Commune, in which he was 
 accused of having taken part, he lived in Eng¬ 
 land for 12 years, gaining recognition as an 
 etcher and a painter of portrait and genre sub¬ 
 jects. Until he was 50 years old Tissot’s work 
 dealt principally with the worldly aspects of 
 Parisian life.* The drawing in these works is 
 always careful, and the coloring exact and fin- 
 ished. Examples of this style are “Faust and 
 Marguerite” (Luxembourg) and “La Femme a 
 Paris,” the latter a series of demimondaines. 
 Experiencing a change in his religious views 
 about 1886, he left Paris and passed 10 years in 
 Palestine engaged upon a series of 350 studies 
 for his “Life of Christ.” The series, which was 
 purchased by a French firm for 1,100,000 francs, 
 is now in large part in the possession of the 
 Brooklyn Institute Museum. It is an attempt 
 to portray the real environment of Christ, the 
 cities, buildings, and habits of the country, as 
 they were in his time, based upon the supposition 
 that Oriental life has not changed materially 
 since then. The details are painted with minia¬ 
 ture faithfulness. At the time of his death 
 Tissot had begun a similar set of illustrations 
 relating to the Old Testament. 
 
 TISSUE, Animal and Plant. See Histology. 
 
 TISSUE, Muscular. See Muscle and Mus¬ 
 cular Tissue. 
 
 TISZA, tis'so, KalmAn (Koloman) (1830- 
 1902). An Hungarian statesman, born at Geszt, 
 County of Bihar. He studied law and entered 
 the government service. In 1855 he accepted 
 a semiecclesiastical position in the Reformed 
 church, and in 1859 he vigorously combated the 
 
TISZA 
 
 302 
 
 TITAN OTHEEIUM 
 
 attempt of the Austrian Minister of Public Wor¬ 
 ship, Count Leo Thun, to curtail the autonomy 
 of the Protestant church in Hungary. In 1861 
 he was elected to the Diet and soon became the 
 recognized leader of the opposition. Long op¬ 
 posed to the Ausgleich, Tisza finally, in 1875, 
 united his followers with the Deak party and 
 organized the new Liberal party. In the Wenck- 
 heim cabinet he assumed the portfolio of the 
 Interior (March, 1875), becoming Premier in 
 October. He retired from the ministry in 1890, 
 but was regularly returned as a deputy from 
 the city of Grosswardein until 1901. Consult 
 his biography by Visi (Budapest, 1886). 
 
 TISZA, Stephan (Hung. Istvan), Count 
 (1861-1918). A Hungarian statesman, son of 
 Kalman Tisza (q.v.). He was born at Budapest, 
 and was educated at the universities of Berlin, 
 Heidelberg, and Budapest. He entered the Hun¬ 
 garian Ministry of the Interior in 1882 and in 
 1886 became a member of the Hungarian Parlia¬ 
 ment. In politics Tisza became one of the 
 strongest supporters of the agreement and eco¬ 
 nomic union with Austria. In 1898 he was in¬ 
 strumental in obtaining the passage of the Tisza 
 law for the purpose of breaking up the policy 
 of obstruction against the Banffv cabinet. (See 
 Banffy, D.) As the leader of the Liberal party 
 Tisza became Premier and Minister of the In¬ 
 terior in 1903, but was dismissed in 1906. At 
 the same time he lost his seat in Parliament. 
 He returned to power as Premier on June 9, 
 1913, holding office during crucial months of the 
 European War. He opposed the proposed Ger¬ 
 man plan of establishing a customs union and 
 economic federation between the Central Powers 
 and their allies. See Hungary. 
 
 TITAN. See Titans. 
 
 TITA'NIA. 1. An epithet of Latona, as 
 the daughter of the Titan Coeus. Ovid uses the 
 name for Diana and for Pyrrha, daughter of 
 Epimetheus. 2. In Shakespeare’s Midsummer 
 Night’s Dream, the fairy queen, wife of Oberon. 
 
 TITANIA. See Uranus. 
 
 TITANIC DISASTER. The Royal Mail 
 steamship Titanic of the White Star Line, sail¬ 
 ing on her maiden voyage from Southampton to 
 New York with 2223 passengers and crew, was 
 lost at sea by collision with an iceberg on the 
 night of Sunday, April 14, 1912, and 832 pas¬ 
 sengers and 685 of the crew perished. Among 
 those lost were John Jacob Astor, Archibald W. 
 Butt, F. D. Millet, William T. Stead, and Isidor 
 Straus (qq.v.). The Titanic was the largest 
 ship in the world at the time, with dimensions: 
 length, 852.5 feet; beam, 92.5 feet; depth, 73 
 feet 3 inches; draft, 34 feet 7 inches; gross ton¬ 
 nage, 46,328; net registered tons, 21,831; speed, 
 21 knots per hour. See Safety at Sea. 
 
 TITAN'IC IRON ORE. See Ilmenite. 
 
 TI'TANITE (from titanium). A calcium 
 titano-silicate which crystallizes in the mono¬ 
 clinic system. It has a resinous lustre, and is 
 brown or black in color. It usually occurs in 
 crystals embedded in granite, gneiss, mica 
 schists, granular limestone, or in beds of iron 
 ore and volcanic rocks. It is found in the 
 St. Gotthard region, in Switzerland, Finland, 
 and Ireland. In the United States it occurs in 
 numerous localities along the Appalachian Moun¬ 
 tains from Maine to North Carolina. The brown 
 or black varieties are often called lederite in 
 distinction from the lighter colored titanite 
 called sphene. The latter transparent and color¬ 
 less varieties are frequently cut as gem stones. 
 
 TITA'NIUM (Neo-Lat., from Lat. Titan, 
 from Gk. Tircb, Titan). A metallic element dis¬ 
 covered by Gregor in 1789. It is not found 
 native, but as the oxide in the minerals anatase, 
 brookite, and rutile; in combination with iron 
 as ilmenite, and as the silicate with calcium in 
 titanite. In smaller quantities it also occurs in 
 other minerals. It may be prepared by heating 
 the potassium titanofiuoride (obtained from 
 rutile) with potassium or sodium out of contact 
 with air. In 1910 Hunter obtained titanium 
 in a state of high purity by heating titanium 
 tetrachloride with sodium. 
 
 Titanium (symbol, Ti; atomic weight, 48.1) 
 is a steel-like metal that melts at about 1825° C. 
 (above 3300° F.). Its specific gravity is 4.5. 
 When heated to redness in the air it burns with 
 an intensely brilliant white light. It can be 
 dissolved in sulphuric, hydrochloric, or nitric 
 acid. Metallic titanium‘ readily unites with 
 nitrogen at high temperatures. Titanium gives 
 hardness and toughness to steel and a fine lustre 
 to silver, while added to carbon used for arc 
 lamps, it increases the brilliancy of the light. 
 Titanium is also used for making filaments 
 for incandescent lamps; its compounds have 
 been recommended as excellent ingredients of 
 paint for the protection of iron from the air; 
 and, finally, titanium salts are at present 
 used to a "considerable extent in dyeing. The 
 element combines with oxygen to form a mon¬ 
 oxide, TiO, a dioxide, Ti0 2 , a trioxide, Ti0 3 , 
 and a sesquioxide Ti 2 0 3 . Of these, the dioxide 
 is found native and combines with bases to form 
 titanates. 
 
 TI'TANOSAU'RUS, or Atlantosaurus. A 
 genus of extinct, sauropodous, herbivorous dino¬ 
 saurs (q.v.), found fossil in the Jurassic rocks 
 of the Rocky Mountain region and Dakota, 
 whose species were among the most gigantic 
 land animals that ever existed, one specimen, 
 exhumed in Colorado by O. C. Marsh, measuring 
 about 60 feet long and standing about 30 feet 
 high. The characteristics of the genus were 
 similar to those of its near relatives Bronto¬ 
 saurus and Diplodocus (qq.v.). 
 
 TI'TANOTHE'RIUM (Neo-Lat., from Gk. 
 Ttrd?', Titan -+- dgpLov, therion, dimin. of 6pp, 
 ther, wild beast). The type genus of a family, 
 Titanotherida, of ungulates, occurring in the 
 Olijxocene formations of North America, and 
 comprising a number of species of gigantic ani¬ 
 mals somewhat resembling the rhinoceros in 
 general form. Though .belonging to the perisso- 
 dactyls, they approximate the artiodactyls or 
 even-toed ungulates in certain structural points, 
 especially of the vertebrae and limb bones. The 
 most striking feature of the titanotheres is a 
 pair of bony processes resembling horn cores, 
 which grow upward and outward from the 
 maxillary bones above the snout. These promi¬ 
 nences are variable in development according to 
 asre and sex, and also differ in size and form in 
 different species to such an extent that many 
 generic names, such as Menodus, Brontotherium, 
 Brontops, and Titanops, have been bestowed upon 
 forms which later study has shown to be only 
 different stages in the evolution of the same 
 genus. Careful comparative study of the re¬ 
 mains from the White River beds of Canada, 
 South Dakota, Colorado, and Nebraska shows 
 that during the Oligocene period the genus in¬ 
 creased in size, and the horns, which are mere 
 knobs in the (presumably) earlier types, such 
 as Titanotherium heloceras, increased greatly in 
 
TITANS 
 
 TITHES 
 
 303 
 
 length, and became flattened and wide spreading A. B. Cook, “Zeus, God of the Bright Sky,” in 
 m the later species, culminating in the highly Zeus, a Study in Greek Religion, vol. i (Cam- 
 specialized Titanotherium ramosum and Ti- bridge, 1914) 
 
 tanotherium platyceras —the last survivors of 
 their race. Of some 40 specific names which 
 
 TITCHENER, tich'e-ner, Edward Bradford 
 (1867- ). An American psychologist, born 
 
 various writers have proposed, often on the at Chichester, England. He was educated at 
 
 Malvern College and at 
 Brasenose College, Oxford, 
 where he graduated B.A., in 
 1890; in 1906 he received 
 the degree of D.Sc. from 
 Oxford. After taking his 
 Ph.D. at Leipzig, he became 
 assistant professor of psy¬ 
 chology (1892) at Cornell 
 University and subsequently 
 professor (1895) and re¬ 
 search professor (1910). 
 At Cornell he brought the 
 laboratory of experimental 
 psychology to a point of 
 great efficiency. He made 
 numerous original investi¬ 
 gations in the fields of sen¬ 
 sation, affective process, at¬ 
 tention, and action. Har¬ 
 vard, Clark, and Wisconsin 
 universities gave him hon¬ 
 orary degrees. He wrote: 
 An Outline of Psychology 
 (1896; new ed., 1902); A 
 Primer of Psychology (1898; rev. ed., 1903); 
 Experimental Psychology (4 vols., 1901-05); 
 Elementary Psychology of Feeling and Atten¬ 
 tion (1908); Experimental Psychology of the 
 Thought Processes (1909); A Textbook of Psy¬ 
 chology (2 vols., 1909-10) ; A Beginner’s Psy¬ 
 chology (1915). He translated Kiilpe’s Outlines 
 of Psychology and other works, became the 
 American editor of Mind in 1894, and associate 
 editor of the American Journal of Psychology in 
 1895, and contributed to the New Interna¬ 
 tional Encyclopaedia. 
 
 TIT'COMB, Timothy. A nom de plume used 
 by J. G. Holland (q.v.). 
 
 ' TITE, Sir William (1798-1873). An Eng¬ 
 lish architect. He was born in London, where 
 he was educated, and studied architecture under 
 David Laing. His first work, assisting in re¬ 
 building the church of St. Dunstan-in-the-East 
 in the Gothic style (1817-20), established his 
 
 basis of a single fragmentary skull, only a few 
 designate sharply marked species. One" of the 
 best-known titanotheres is Titanotherium ro- 
 bustum, a form with moderately developed 
 horns, which measured nearly 14 feet in total 
 length, and 8 feet in height at the shoulder. 
 
 TI'TANS (Lat., from Gk. T ltclv, Titan, and 
 T iTcivls, Titanis) . The offspring in Greek my¬ 
 thology of Uranus (Heaven) and Gaea (Earth). 
 Their names as given by Hesiod were: Oceanus, 
 Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, Cronos, Theia, 
 Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, and Tethys. 
 Dione, Phorcys, and Demeter are added by some 
 writers. As Uranus imprisoned in the earth 
 the Cyclopes and Hekatoncheires (100-handed 
 monsters), Gaea in anger instigated the Titans 
 to revenge. Cronos alone ventured to act. He 
 surprised and mutilated his father and reigned 
 in his stead. As Uranus had called down a 
 like fate on the Titans, Cronos swallowed his 
 children by Rhea as soon as they were born. 
 Only Zeus escaped, his mother giving Cronos a 
 stone wrapped in swaddling clothes. Later, 
 Zeus forced Cronos to disgorge his offspring, and 
 then began a war, in which he was aided by 
 Themis, Mnemosyne, Styx, Prometheus, the 
 Cyclopes and Hekatoncheires, as well as by his 
 brothers and sisters. Iapetus and Cronos are 
 the representative Titans. After a long strug¬ 
 gle the conquered Titans were cast into Tartarus 
 and guarded by the Hekatoncheires. In the 
 Prometheus Unbound, ZEschylus represented the 
 Titans as released and reconciled to Zeus, now 
 firmly established as King of Heaven. The 
 name Titan is given also to the descendants of 
 the Titans, Prometheus, Hecate, Helios, Selene, 
 etc. Consult: Maximilian Mayer, Die Gigan- 
 ten und Titanen in der antiken Sage und 
 Kunst (Berlin, 1887) ; Otto Gruppe, Griechische 
 Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte f 2 vols. 
 (Munich, 1906) ; J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to 
 Greek Religion (2d ed., Cambridge, 1908) ; 
 C. M. Gayley, The Classic Myths in English 
 Literature and in Art (2d ed., Boston, 1911); 
 
 fame. Among his best designs was that of 
 Edward Irving’s church in Regent Square, Lon¬ 
 don (1827-28), and he was the architect of 
 the Royal Exchange (1841-44), and of several 
 palatial railway stations in France and Eng¬ 
 land. From 1855 until his death he sat in 
 Parliament for Bath. He was knighted in 
 1869. He was a man of varied attainments, 
 a member of several learned societies, and pub¬ 
 lished A Catalogue and Description of the An¬ 
 tiquities Found in the Excavations for the Royal 
 Exchange (1848), and several essays and lec¬ 
 tures. 
 
 TITHES (AS. teopa, a tenth part, from tcon, 
 tien, tyn, ten, Goth, talhun, OHG. zehan, Ger. 
 zehn, ten). A tenth part of the produce of the 
 land, which has from earlv times been a com- 
 mon rate in systems of taxation for civil and 
 religious purposes. Tithing is still the prevail¬ 
 ing method of taxation in Mohammedan coun¬ 
 tries. It was established and definitely regu¬ 
 lated for the support of religion among the 
 Hebrews. For the details of th£ Hebraic insti¬ 
 tution of tithes see Lev. xxvii, Num. xviii, and 
 
TITHING 
 
 TITIAN 
 
 304 
 
 Dent, xiv, where it is provided that the tribe 
 
 of Levi, not having lands assigned to them as 
 was the case with the other tribes, should draw 
 their support from this system of taxation. 
 
 In the usage of the Christian churches tithes 
 have been one of the methods employed in 
 providing for the support of the clergy. (See 
 Stipends, Clerical.) The system was urged 
 as of moral obligation by the Apostolic canons, 
 the Apostolic constitutions, and the writings of 
 the Fathers, on the ground that the Christian 
 priesthood continued that of the Old Testament. 
 Many Church councils in the sixth, seventh, and 
 eighth centuries confirmed the system; and at 
 length the Emperor Charlemagne, by his capi¬ 
 tularies at the beginning of the ninth century, 
 formally established the tax within that portion 
 of the ancient Roman Empire to which his legis¬ 
 lation extended. 
 
 The introduction of tithes into England is 
 ascribed to Offa, King of Mercia, at the end 
 of the eighth century; and the practice was 
 made general for all England by Ethelwulf, 
 about the year 850. It would seem that at 
 first, although all were required to pay tithes, 
 it was optional with each to select the church 
 to which payment should be made; but by a 
 decretal of Pope Innocent III, addressed to the 
 Archbishop of Canterbury in the year 1200, 
 all were required to pay tithes for the support 
 of the clergy of their respective parishes, and 
 this parochial distribution of tithes has ever 
 since obtained in England. Consult: B. White- 
 head, Church Law: Dictionary of the Statutes 
 (London, 1892) ; W. Easterby, The History of 
 the Law of Tithes in England (Cambridge, 
 1888); R. Palmer (Lord Selborne), Ancient 
 Facts and' Fictions Concerning Churches and 
 Tithes (2d ed., London, 1892); H. W. Clark, A 
 History of Tithes (2d ed., ib., 1894) ; H. Lans- 
 dell, The Sacred Tenth, Ancient and Modern (ib., 
 1906). See Church Rates. 
 
 TITHING. A territorial or personal division 
 in early English history. The territorial tithing, 
 a tenth part of the hundred (q.v.), dates from 
 early Anglo-Saxon times. The personal tithing 
 probably came in with the Normans, though 
 many give it a place in Anglo-Saxon polity. It 
 consisted of 10 men mutually responsible for one 
 another, with a head pledge or tithing man to 
 represent the whole. (See Frankpledge. ) This 
 officer survived as a petty parish official long 
 after the system to which he owed his origin 
 had decayed. 
 
 TITHO'NUS (Lat., from Gk. Titfowis). In 
 Greek legend, a son of Laomedon and brother of 
 Priam, who was carried off by Eos (the Dawn). 
 (See Aurora.) She bore him Memnon, and ob¬ 
 tained from the gods for him the gift of immor¬ 
 tality. The Homeric hymn to Aphrodite adds 
 that,' since Eos forgot to ask for eternal youth, 
 Tithonus withered into helpless old age, remain¬ 
 ing behind closed doors, only his piping voice 
 heard. A late account told of his final trans¬ 
 formation into a cicada. 
 
 TITIAN, tish'an (It., Tiziano Vecelli or 
 Vecellio) (1477-1576). The most celebrated 
 and important painter of the Renaissance in 
 Venice, and one of the greatest painters of all 
 times. He was born at Pieve di Cadore, a 
 small town in the Alps of Friuli. The year of 
 his birth has been variously given, the most 
 probable assumption (1477) being based upon 
 his own statement in a letter to Philip II of 
 Spain. His family, the Vecelli, belonged to 
 
 the petty nobility, and had long been identified 
 with the public service in Pieve, Titian's father, 
 Gregorio, being honorably known as a magis¬ 
 trate and military commander. At nine the lad 
 was sent to Venice in care of an uncle who 
 lived there. He was first apprenticed to the 
 mosaicist Sebastiano Zuccato, then to Gentile 
 and Giovanni Bellini, having Giorgione and 
 Palma Vecchio as fellow pupils. His develop¬ 
 ment was slow and while Giorgione lived, lie 
 was content to follow in his footsteps. His 
 work also had much in common with that of 
 Palma Vecchio, but in this case Titian was 
 probably the controlling influence. 
 
 During the first part of Titian’s early period, 
 lasting till 1512, his style resembles that of 
 Giorgione, except that it is more rugged and 
 the lines and colors are not so soft and melting. 
 To this early period belong a “Madonna with 
 Saints” (Liechtenstein collection, Vienna) ; a 
 “Holy Family” (National Gallery, London) ; 
 and the so-called “Gypsy Madonna” (Imperial 
 Gallery, Vienna). They show uncertainty of 
 drawing, but much charm of color. The first 
 of his pictures that can with surety be dated 
 is “Pope Alexander VI Commending Jacopo 
 Pesaro to the Madonna” (1502-03, Antwerp). 
 A higher phase of technical development is 
 shown by the “Madonna with the Cherries ’ 
 (Imperial Gallery, Vienna), and the Madonnas 
 with Saints at Dresden, Paris, Florence (Uffizi), 
 and London (National Gallery). The “Concert,” 
 in the Pitti Palace, Florence (see Giorgione), 
 has been attributed to him and the “Tribute 
 Money” (Dresden), representing the incident be¬ 
 tween Christ and the Pharisee, is the most care¬ 
 fully finished of his pictures. Only Leonardo has 
 created a Christ type that can vie with this in 
 gentleness, intellectuality, and majesty, and the 
 contrast between it and the cunning coarseness 
 of the Pharisee is especially striking. The 
 Uffizi also possesses his “Daughter of Herodias,” 
 for whom Titian’s daughter sat as model. Other 
 celebrated works are the beautiful allegory of 
 the “Three Ages” (Bridgewater Gallery, Lon¬ 
 don), and at the end of the period, summing 
 up its best qualities, is “Sacred and Profane 
 Love,” more properly called “Medea and Venus,” 
 a remarkable contrast of the nude and vested 
 figure in a beautiful sunny landscape. 
 
 The facade frescoes of the Fondaco dei 
 Tedeschi (1507-08), which Titian executed as 
 an assistant of Giorgione, have perished, but of 
 those in Padua several survive, though not well 
 preserved. One is in the Scuola del Carmine, 
 and in the Scuola del Santo he depicted three 
 miracles from the life of St. Anthony (1511). 
 It was probably after his return to Venice in 
 1512 that he painted the well-known altarpiece 
 of Santa Maria della Salute, representing “St. 
 Mark Enthroned” with four other saints. 
 
 In 1513 Titian was summoned to Rome by 
 Pope Leo X, but, preferring to remain at Venice, 
 he petitioned the Senate to grant him a posi¬ 
 tion like that of Giovanni Bellini, who was 
 official painter to the state, and a commission 
 to paint a large battle piece in the Hall of 
 the Grand Council. This petition was granted, 
 but when, upon the death of Bellini, Titian was 
 named his successor, with a yearly pension of 
 300 crowns, he neglected the promised battle 
 piece. He did, however, complete Bellini’s pic¬ 
 ture, the “Submission of Barbarossa,” in 1522, 
 and executed a series of frescoes in the chapel 
 of the Ducal Palace—both of which were de- 
 
II 
 
 TITIAN 
 
 THE TRIBUTE MONEY,” FROM THE PAINTING IN THE ROYAL GALLERY, DRESDEN 
 
the UBSABy 
 OF Tr’E 
 
 UNIVERSITY Of Hums 
 
TITIAN 
 
 TITIAN 
 
 305 
 
 stroyed in the great fire of 1577, but his fresco 
 of “St. Christopher” (1523) still survives. 
 
 The work executed between 1513 and 1530 
 may be classed as belonging to a second part of 
 litian s early period. It still shows reminis¬ 
 cences of Giorgione, but also an increasing 
 realism, breadth of treatment, and mastery of 
 color. To this period belong most of his great 
 altarpieces, beginning with the “Assumption of 
 the Virgin” (1518), formerly the high altarpiece 
 of the church of the Frari. Its position called 
 for an over life-size figure and great breadth 
 of treatment, the effects of which are lost in 
 the present position of the picture in the Vene¬ 
 tian Academy. The lower part is a scene of 
 great exaltation among a group of the Apostles, 
 the figures of Peter and John being particularly 
 strong. Above the Virgin rises to the heavens 
 in an effulgence of golden light, surrounded by 
 hosts of the most beautiful angels imaginable. 
 Another fine example is the Madonna painted 
 for San Niccold dei Frari (1523, Vatican Gal¬ 
 lery ), but the most perfect and important of 
 his madonnas is probably the “Pesaro Madonna” 
 (1526),, still in the Frari. This very original 
 composition represents the Madonna seated on 
 the side of the picture at the base of a mighty 
 column, where several saints commend to her 
 the members of the Pesaro family. The cele¬ 
 brated “Death of Peter Martyr” (1530), de¬ 
 stroyed by fire in 1867, survives only in an en¬ 
 graving. To the same period, probably, belong 
 the “Noli me tangere” (Christ appearing to 
 Magdalen), with marvelous balance of senti¬ 
 ment in figure and landscape, in the National 
 Gallery, London, the delightful “Madonna with 
 the Rabbit,” “Holy Family,” and the grandly 
 dramatic “Entombment”—all in the Louvre. 
 
 Among Titian’s mythological pictures of this 
 period, chiefly painted for Alfonso, Duke of 
 Ferrara, are the “Worship of Venus,” in which 
 numberless little Cupids disport themselves be¬ 
 fore a statue of Venus, a “Bacchanal” (both 
 at Madrid), and “Bacchus and Ariadne” (Na¬ 
 tional Gallery, London), a highly dramatic 
 representation of fine coloristic quality. As 
 state painter he had the monopoly of portraying 
 the Doge. His official portraits perished in 
 the fire of 1577, but many replicas survive, 
 like that of the Doge Gritti (Czernin collection, 
 Vienna). He found also a generous patron in 
 Alfonso d’Este, Duke of Ferrara, whose reputed 
 portrait, lately declared to be that of his son, 
 Ercole II, is at Madrid. At Ferrara is a fine 
 likeness of the poet Ariosto (National Gallery), 
 now, however, properly attributed to Palma 
 Vecchio, and there also is the idealized por¬ 
 trait widely known as “Alfonso d’Este and 
 Laura Dianti” (Louvre), erroneously called 
 “Titian’s Mistress.” The same model is por¬ 
 trayed in the “Flora” (Uffizi) with wonderful 
 effect of light draperies. Other celebrated 
 portraits belonging to this period are the 
 “Young Man with a Glove” (Louvre), the por¬ 
 trait of an unknown man (Munich), and the 
 so-called “Alessandro de’ Medici” (Hampton 
 Court). 
 
 The death of his wife, Cecilia, in 1530 was 
 the cause of change in Titian’s mode of life. 
 In the quiet northeastern quarter of Venice he 
 purchased a house which he furnished with great 
 magnificence, and which speedily became the 
 centre of a famous literary and artistic circle, 
 which even kings joined when visiting Venice. 
 In painting, his treatment grew broader and his 
 
 work more powerful, and while his ideals grew 
 more sensuous and realistic, it was a gracious 
 and dignified sensuality. In 1531 he painted 
 in the Ducal Palace the celebrated picture of 
 the “Doge Andrea Gritti Presented to the Virgin 
 by St. Mark, and in 1537 he at length finished 
 the great battle piece of Cadore, both destroved 
 in the fire of 1577. The celebrated “La fede” 
 (1555), a votive offering of Doge Andrea Gri- 
 mani, had a better fate. Other decorative works 
 are the ceiling of the choir and sacristy of 
 Santa Maria della Salute, and the wonderful 
 figure of “Wisdom,” on the ceiling of the li¬ 
 brary of St. Mark (now the Royal Palace). 
 Splendid decorative canvases of unusual size 
 are the “Presentation of the Virgin in the 
 Temple” (Venetian Academy) and the realistic 
 “Ecce Homo” (Vienna). 
 
 In 1532 he was summoned to Bologna to por¬ 
 tray Charles V and performed his task with 
 such success that he was named court painter,, 
 Knight of the Golden Spur, and Count Palatine, 
 with the privileges of the Spanish court, and his 
 children were made nobles of the Empire. One 
 of these portraits of the Emperor (1533) is at 
 Madrid. Other celebrated portraits of this 
 period are those of Ippolito de’ Medici (Pitti 
 Palace, Florence), the “Maltese Knight” (Ma¬ 
 drid), and the so-called “Young Englishman” 
 (Uffizi). Very fruitful for Titian’s art were 
 his relations (1532-38) with the Duke of 
 Urbino, whose portrait in full armor, as well 
 as that of his wife, Eleanora Gonzaga, is in 
 the Uffizi. With subtle flattery he portrayed 
 the lady’s rejuvenated features in the celebrated 
 “La bella di Tiziano,” perhaps his finest fe¬ 
 male portrait, in the “Girl with a Fur Cloak” 
 (Vienna), and in the “Venus of Urbino” 
 (Uffizi), a rival of Giorgione’s Venus, and the 
 most beautiful representation of refined volup¬ 
 tuousness in modern painting. In 1545, after 
 invitations from the Pope, Titian visited Rome, 
 where he was received with highest honors. 
 Of his portraits of Paul III an original is at 
 St. Petersburg and an excellent copy in the 
 Naples Museum, which also possesses the splen¬ 
 did psychological study of the Pope and his two 
 nephews. At Rome he met Michelangelo, whose 
 influence may perhaps be seen in the “Danae” 
 (Madrid) painted there. Other famous works 
 executed about this time are the realistic 
 “Venus,” with the features of his daughter 
 Lavinia (Uffizi), and a similar figure listening 
 to music, at Madrid. 
 
 In 1548 Titian was summoned by Emperor 
 Charles V to Augsburg, and there he painted 
 that ruler’s equestrian portrait in full armor 
 (Madrid)—a wonderful characterization of the 
 irresistible but disappointed master of Europe 
 and the New World. Another portrait of 
 Charles V (1548), in black costume seated in a 
 loggia, is at Munich. At the same time Titian 
 portrayed the captive John Frederick, Duke of 
 Saxony (Vienna), and Cardinal Granvella 
 (Besangon). He enjoyed the intimate friend¬ 
 ship of the world-weary Charles V, and together 
 they designed the “Trinity,” the Emperor’s 
 last commission. After Charles’s death Titian 
 continued to serve his son Philip II, whom he 
 portrayed repeatedly, as in the excellent example 
 in possession of Mrs. T. J. Emery, Cincinnati. 
 
 It is impossible to mention even the important 
 works of Titian during the last period of his 
 long career (1530-76). Among religious pic¬ 
 tures some of the most celebrated are a “Magda- 
 
TITIAN 
 
 TITI MONKEY 
 
 306 
 
 len” (Pitti Palace) ; a “Madonna with St. John 
 and Catharine” (National Gallery), celebrated 
 for the landscape; “Christ at Emmaus” 
 (Louvre); “St. Margaret”; and several others 
 at Madrid. His mythological subjects include 
 the celebrated “Venus and Cupid” (Borghese 
 Gallery, Rome), “Jupiter and Antiope” (Louvre), 
 and “Rape of Europa” (Gardner collection, 
 Boston). Of his innumerable portraits we 
 mention only those of his beloved daughter 
 Lavinia, with a dish of fruit (Berlin), and as 
 a bride and a matron (both at Dresden); of 
 himself at Berlin, Vienna, Florence, and Madrid; 
 his friend Aretino (1545, Pitti) ; Doctor Parma 
 and the antiquarian Strada, in Vienna; and the 
 splendid Cornaro family (Duke of Northumber¬ 
 land) . 
 
 Titian’s last pictures were chiefly religious, 
 like the “Saviour of the World” (St. Peters¬ 
 burg) and the grand “Pieta” (Academy, Ven¬ 
 ice), finished after his death by Palma Giovane. 
 In his hundredth year he was stricken by the 
 plague, Aug. 17, 1576. He was buried in the 
 Frari Church, where a fine modern monument 
 marks his resting place. His son Orazio, an 
 able painter and his faithful assistant, soon fol¬ 
 lowed him. For Titian’s important pupils, see 
 Painting; Tintoretto. 
 
 If, as is the modern custom, painting be 
 judged by the pictorial qualities only, then surely 
 Titian is the greatest painter of Italy, if not 
 of all times. All Venetian art centred in him. 
 Certain painters of Venice and of other schools 
 have equaled Titian in single pictorial elements, 
 but no one united all these qualities with the 
 same degree of excellence. His color is bright, 
 but deep and transparent; a splendid golden 
 tone suffuses his pictures, which only in his 
 later work tends towards a more sombre brown. 
 Light and shade, atmosphere and perspective 
 are all perfectly rendered, and his rapid, sweep¬ 
 ing handling, in place of the former detailed 
 finish, revolutionized painting, preparing the 
 way for Rembrandt and Velasquez. Being a 
 Venetian, he was not as scientific a draftsman 
 as the Florentines, though at best his draw¬ 
 ing is good. His composition is always good, 
 and at best it is excellent. He did not attempt, 
 like the Tuscans, to make art the vehicle of 
 intellectual ideas, but his grasp upon life was 
 firmer than theirs, and his art was wider in 
 scope. He preferred an art that was tranquil 
 and serene, though at times—witness the “As- 
 sunta” and the “Peter Martyr”—he could be 
 profoundly dramatic. 
 
 If Giorgione was the founder of the modern 
 landscape, Titian did more for its development, 
 achieving the highest perfection before Poussin 
 and Claude. Eliminating the detail of former 
 painters, he rendered the typical in a landscape 
 with high poetic charm. Though he used land¬ 
 scape as only a setting for his figures, this set¬ 
 ting was in itself perfect and complete. His 
 favorite subjects were the Alps of his native 
 Cadore and the lagoons of Venice. No one 
 ever excelled him in the combination of power¬ 
 ful, sometimes merciless, realism, combined with 
 noble and striking characterization. He was 
 the greater painter of kings and nobles. 
 
 Bibliography. The most complete monograph 
 on Titian is still Crowe and Cavaleaselle, Titian: 
 Eis Life and Times (2 vols., London, 1879—81), 
 which should, however, be supplemented by the 
 more modern criticism of G. Morelli, Italian 
 Painters at Munich and Dresden, Eng. trans. 
 
 by C. J. Ffoulkes (London, 1893) ; Bernhard 
 Berenson, Venetian Painters of the Renaissance 
 (New York, 1894) ; and G. B. Rose, Renaissance 
 Masters (3d ed., ib., 1908). Also: Max Jordan, 
 “Tizian,” in Dohme, Kunst und Kiinstler des 
 Mittelalters, No. 72 (Leipzig, 1878) ; G. E. 
 Lafenestre, La vie et Veeuvre de Titien (new 
 ed., Paris, 1886) ; Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the 
 Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and. Archi¬ 
 tects, Eng. trans. by Blashfield and Hopkins, vol. 
 iv (New York, 1896); C. Phillips, The Earlier 
 Work of Titian, and The Later Work of Titian, 
 in “Portfolio Monographs,” Nos. 34, 37 (London, 
 1897-98) ; H. Knackfus, Tizian (Bielefeld, 
 1897) ; Masters in Art, vol. i (Boston, 1900) ; 
 Osker Fischel, Tizian (Stuttgart, 1904); Georg 
 Gronau, Titian and his School (New York, 
 1904); S. L. Bensusan, Titian (London, 1909) ; 
 Charles Ricketts, Titian (ib., 1910). An ex¬ 
 haustive and really satisfactory life of Titian 
 has not yet been written. 
 
 TITIAN, The Spanish. See Navarrete, 
 J. F. DE. 
 
 TITICACA, te'te-ka/ka, Lake. The largest 
 lake in South America (Map: America, South, 
 C 4), situated on the boundary of Peru and 
 Bolivia, being about equally divided between 
 the two countries. It lies in a large and lofty 
 lacustrine basin inclosed between the main 
 Andean range and the Cordillera Real, with 
 cross ranges on the north and south. This basin 
 has an average elevation of 13,000 feet, and 
 the surface of the lake itself lies about 12,500 
 feet above the sea. The lake has a length of 
 130 miles with an average breadth of 30 miles. 
 It is divided by promontories into three unequal 
 parts, and contains several islands. The depth 
 in some places reaches 700 feet, but large por¬ 
 tions of it are shallow, and the shores, especially 
 in the south, are lined with marshy tracts cov¬ 
 ered with reeds. The vegetation along the shores 
 is otherwise scanty, and the surrounding coun¬ 
 try is bleak and treeless. The lake receives a 
 number of streams from the surrounding moun¬ 
 tains, and discharges through the Desaguadero 
 into Lake Aullagas, whose waters finally evapo¬ 
 rate in the great salt marshes in the south¬ 
 ern part of the closed basin. In former ages 
 the lake occcupied the whole of the basin. Its 
 surface stood then much higher, and it dis¬ 
 charged eastward into the Amazon. The region 
 around Lake Titicaca was one of the seats 
 of early Indian civilization, and contains many 
 interesting architectural remains, some of which 
 antedate the Incan periods. The most imposing 
 of the ruins are those of Tiahuanaco (q.v.). 
 (See Peruvian Archeology.) The lake was 
 formerly navigated only by crude Indian rafts, 
 but since the opening of a railroad to Arequipa 
 and the Pacific coast steamboats have plied on 
 it between the Peruvian and Bolivian ports. 
 Consult A. F. A. Bandelier, The Islands of I 'iti- 
 caca and Koati, published by the Hispanic So¬ 
 ciety of America (New York, 1910), and A. A. 
 Adams, The Plateau Peoples of South America 
 (London, 1915). 
 
 TITIENS, tet'yens, Teresa. See Tietjens. 
 
 TITIES. One" of the three patrician tribes 
 of ancient Rome, the others being the Luceres 
 and Ramnes. 
 
 TITI (te-te') MONKEY, or Teetee. A small 
 South American squirrel monkey (q.v.) of the 
 genus formerly called Chrysothrix or Callithrix, 
 now more correctly given as Saimiri, but the 
 word is often used for a marmoset. They are 
 
TITLARK 
 
 TITLE INSURANCE 
 
 307 
 
 gentle, beautiful, playful little creatures, in great 
 repute as pets in their own country but too 
 delicate to survive in cold climates. 
 
 TIT'LARK (from tit, from Icel. tittr, little 
 bird, probably connected with Eng. tit, small 
 thing lark). A small, brown, terrestrial 
 bird ( Anthus pennsylvanicus or rubescens) of 
 the wagtail or pipit family (Motacillidoe), allied 
 to the larks, and familiar throughout North 
 America during its migrations. It breeds, nest¬ 
 ing on the ground, in the far north, and winters 
 in the tropics, and in spring gives a pleasing 
 song. A near relative is the Missouri skylark 
 (Neocorys, or Anthus, spraguei) , of the Western 
 plains, whose habits and song, uttered while 
 soaring in the air, closely resemble those of 
 the skylark. In this group come the numerous 
 European wagtails (Motacilla) , which keep near 
 streams and flirt their long tails incessantly, 
 and the pipits (Anthus), several species of 
 which are among the most pleasing of European 
 summer birds, frequenting fields, open spaces, 
 and rocky slopes, and singing much like finches. 
 Consult Elliott Coues, Birds of the Northwest 
 (Washington, 1874). See Wagtail. 
 
 TI'TLE (OF. title, litre, tiltre, Fr. titre, title, 
 from Lat. titulus, title, superscription, token). 
 The union of all the elements which constitute 
 legal ownership of property, or the means by 
 which a person holds property. The common- 
 law authorities are to the effect that there are 
 three essential elements to a complete title: 
 possession, the right of possession, and right of 
 property. This is technically true, but 'the 
 latter two requisites are practically interchange¬ 
 able, and it is customary to speak of title as 
 consisting of possession with right of possession. 
 (See Possession.) Title to property may be 
 vested in one or a number of persons. All titles 
 to real estate are acquired by descent or pur¬ 
 chase. A title by descent is one which is acquired 
 by an heir of a deceased person by virtue of 
 the laws of intestacy and succession. Any other 
 source of title is said to be by purchase. The 
 latter term is used technically, as it includes 
 other means than a bargain and sale, as, e.g., a 
 devise of property in a will and a conveyance 
 by way of gift. By virtue of the statute of 
 limitations, 20 years’ adverse possession of real 
 estate will give the occupant a good title in 
 most States. Title to personal property is 
 generally transferred by delivery, although a 
 writing such as a bill of sale is effective, and a 
 contractual meeting of the minds of the parties, 
 by which an intention to pass title is evidenced, 
 will also suffice. Generally six years’ adverse 
 possession of a chattel will operate as a transfer 
 of title thereto by operation of law. Title to 
 patentable inventions is said to vest in the in¬ 
 ventor by virtue of original acquisition, but the 
 real source of ownership is really derived from 
 the protection secured by the patent laws. A 
 title may be capable of being established in a 
 court of law and yet have such apparent defects 
 as not to be readily salable. A court of equity 
 will not compel a purchaser to accept a title 
 which is not marketable. Consult the authori¬ 
 ties referred to under Accession; Possession; 
 Property; Real Property; etc.; and also see 
 Occupancy; Tenure; Title, Registration of; 
 Torrens System; etc. 
 
 TITLE, Abstract of. See Abstract of 
 Title. 
 
 TITLE. Registration of. A system of regis¬ 
 tration of titles to land prevailing in England 
 
 and many of the United States. The question 
 of how to avoid the litigation and expense so 
 often attendant upon transactions relating to 
 real estate and the transfer of title to real 
 estate has always been most perplexing. Many 
 methods have been tried, varying from the earlv 
 custom in most counties of England by which 
 transfers were effected without any recording 
 or registration, to the system of registration in¬ 
 troduced into South Australia by Sir Robert 
 Richard Torrens in 1857, by which titles were 
 to be registered and in effect guaranteed by the 
 government. (See Torrens System and consult 
 authorities there referred to.) Until compara¬ 
 tively recent times the method prevailing in the 
 United States consisted in the recording system 
 by which title papers were transcribed at length 
 on the public records of the county in which 
 the land was situated. This form of recording 
 was extended to deeds, mortgages, liens, foreign 
 wills,. and similar documents, and was chiefly 
 effective in giving constructive notice to all the 
 world of the existence of such instrument and 
 the claim of the person recording it. This sys¬ 
 tem is still in force and is being extended and 
 made more effective in some States, notably New 
 lork, by the adoption by the registrar of uni¬ 
 form forms of deeds, mortgage and other papers 
 customarily recorded, in this way greatly simpli¬ 
 fying the search of titles. See Real Property; 
 Recording of Deeds; Title Deeds. 
 
 TITLE, Search of. See Search of Title. 
 
 title DEEDS. The instruments in writing 
 which constitute the evidences of the title of the 
 owner of real property. In England the title 
 deeds are of great importance, and the purchaser, 
 heir, or devisee of the land is entitled to the 
 possession of the title deeds establishing the 
 chain of title to his predecessor in title. Thus 
 in England the deposit of the title deeds as 
 security for a loan creates a lien on the land 
 in the nature of a mortgage. Such is not the 
 law generally in the United States, however, 
 where the recording acts have dispensed with 
 the necessity of having custody of the original 
 documents of title. See Abstract of Title; 
 Conveyance; Deed. 
 
 TITLE INSURANCE. An agreement or 
 undertaking by which the insurer, for a valua¬ 
 ble consideration, contracts to indemnify the 
 insured in a specified amount against loss or 
 damage suffered because of defects of title to 
 real estate in which he has some insurable in¬ 
 terest. The business of title insurance is of 
 comparatively recent growth. The first title 
 insurance company was organized in Philadel¬ 
 phia in 1876, but the development of the busi¬ 
 ness has been most rapid since about 1885. 
 Contracts of title insurance are subject to the 
 same rules as govern other classes of insurance 
 contracts. The policy is usually granted upon 
 written application, which is made a part of 
 the policy and which contains statements or 
 promises which are deemed to be warranties or 
 conditions of the policy. 
 
 Generally the liability of the insurer is not 
 limited in point of time, and the undertaking 
 is to indemnify the insured against all loss or 
 damage resulting from any defect in the title 
 not known or specified in the policy, including 
 defects in the chain of title and incumbrances 
 of every description existing at the time the 
 insurance is effected. When the undertaking of 
 the policy is to indemnify against loss or 
 damage only, the obligation incurred by the 
 
TITLES OF HONOR 
 
 TITMOUSE 
 
 308 
 
 insurer is substantially like that of a grantor 
 whose deed contains the usual covenants of war¬ 
 ranty. (See Covenant.) It is not unusual for 
 the policy of title insurance to provide that the 
 insurer shall take the property at an appraised 
 valuation in the event that any defect of title 
 is discovered rendering the title unmarketable. 
 
 There are also usually provisions contained 
 in the policy that the insured shall notify the 
 insurer of any claim or demand against the 
 property founded on any defect of title insured 
 against, and that the insurer shall be permitted 
 to bring or defend actions in the name of the 
 insured, but at its own expense, for the purpose 
 of establishing that the title is free from such 
 defect. When the insured is a mortgagor, pro¬ 
 vision may be made in the policy for the pro¬ 
 tection of a mortgagee of the property by a 
 mortgagee’s clause making the loss payable to 
 the mortgagee, or the same result may be ac¬ 
 complished by issuing an independent policy in 
 favor of the mortgagee. 
 
 There is no fixed method of ascertaining the 
 amount of premiums in title insurance as is the 
 case in life insurance. Experience has shown 
 that the losses under title-insurance contracts 
 have been comparatively small, and that in 
 fact an important benefit to be derived from 
 the policy of title insurance in addition to the 
 insurance features is the painstaking and ex¬ 
 haustive examination of the title made by the 
 insurer. In many cases, however, the insurance 
 feature is of great importance, since there may 
 always be defects of title which an examination 
 of the record title may not disclose. Many 
 title-insurance companies possess complete rec¬ 
 ords and title maps of all real estate within 
 the territory where they do business and have 
 other special facilities for the expert examina¬ 
 tion of titles. The prospective purchaser of 
 real estate within such territory, by applying 
 for title insurance, may thus procure a com¬ 
 plete examination of the title before the con¬ 
 veyance is made. The policy issued may, with 
 the consent of the insured, be transferred to 
 a subsequent purchaser of the property. This, 
 however, is not customary except upon the pay¬ 
 ment of an additional premium. See Convey¬ 
 ance; Covenant; Deed; Insurance; Record¬ 
 ing of Deeds. Consult T. G. Frost, Treatise 
 on Guaranty Insurance and Compensated Surety¬ 
 ship (2d ed., Boston, 1909). 
 
 TITLES OF HONOR. Designations to which 
 certain persons are legally entitled in conse¬ 
 quence of possessing particular dignities or of¬ 
 fices. Titles of honor may be divided into 
 those of sovereignty, superior and inferior, no¬ 
 bility, greater and lesser, and titles of peculiarly 
 official significance. Superior sovereign titles 
 are emperor and king (qq.v.) and, in Tur¬ 
 key and Persia, sultan (q.v.) and shah. Czar 
 and kaiser (qq.v.), from Caesar, correspond 
 to emperor. Inferior sovereign titles include 
 grand duke (ranking next to king), duke, and 
 prince (qq.v.) in some of the German states. 
 The ruler of Monaco is also called prince. 
 Eastern equivalents of the inferior titles are 
 bey, khan (both post-positive), khedive, rajah 
 (qq.v.). Greater nobility titles include, in de¬ 
 scending scale, prince, duke, marquis, count 
 (earl in Great Britain), viscount, and baron 
 (qq.v.). In Great Britain there is no title 
 prince outside of the royal family. In Austria 
 there is no duke, except archduke (q.v.) (of 
 the Imperial family), and in a few princely 
 
 houses, where the term remains as a sub¬ 
 title, but is not used; in Germany, no vis¬ 
 count; in Russia, no viscount, marquis, or duke, 
 except grand duke (of the Imperial family). 
 Lesser nobility titles include baronet and es¬ 
 quire (qq.v.), peculiar to Great Britain, and 
 knight (q.v.), chevalier, and ritter, the last 
 three being practically equivalent terms. There 
 are also lesser nobility titles for the chiefs 
 of Scottish and Irish clans, and such Eastern 
 titles as bey, effendi, and pasha (qq.v.), all 
 three post-positive. The titles of honor having 
 peculiarly official significance are largely such 
 ecclesiastical, military, and governmental terms 
 as archbishop, general, governor, etc. Courtesy 
 titles, distinct from true titles of honor, since 
 their validity rests in custom rather than law, 
 are given to the sons of the British nobility. A 
 noble takes his highest title and is permitted 
 to set aside an inferior title, usually his sec¬ 
 ond, to be assumed by his eldest son. The 
 younger sons of dukes and marquises have the 
 courtesy title lord (q.v.) prefixed to their given 
 name or surname, and the daughters of dukes, 
 marquises, and earls prefix lady. The younger 
 sons of earls and the sons and daughters of 
 viscounts and barons are called honorable. In 
 Great Britain the titles duke, marquis, earl, 
 viscount, baron, and baronet are inheritable and 
 are in English law considered a species of prop¬ 
 erty and classed as incorporeal hereditaments. 
 Among lesser dignities are the various orders of 
 knighthood and the knights bachelors, but these 
 are personal and not hereditary, and the same 
 is true of the spiritual peers and the law lords 
 of Parliament, who are created for life only. 
 
 Certain forms of reference are used in re¬ 
 spect to various titles. Majesty is attributed to 
 emperor and king, and to the former often 
 Imperial Majesty; Imperial Highness to title of 
 child of an emperor; Royal Highness to title of 
 child of a king (in Great Britain also grand¬ 
 child of the sovereign) and to grand duke and 
 prince reigning; Highness alone or variously 
 qualified to prince; in Great Britain, Grace to 
 duke, Lordship to any other peer (q.v.). See 
 Dignity; Forms of Address; Nobility; Peer; 
 Precedence. 
 
 TIT'MARSH, Michael Angelo. The nom de 
 plume under which Thackeray published the 
 Yelloicplush Papers and other works. 
 
 TIT'MOUSE' (from tit, from Icel. tittr, little 
 bird -f- ME. mose, AS. muse, OHG. meisa, Ger. 
 Meise, sort of song 
 bird). One of a 
 family (Paridae) 
 of small active 
 birds allied to the 
 nuthatches, and 
 familiar in the 
 United States as 
 chickadees. The 
 family is widely 
 distributed and ex¬ 
 hibits much vari¬ 
 ety in appearance 
 and habits. Typi¬ 
 cal colors seem to 
 be black, gray, and 
 white, but many 
 Old World species 
 are distinctlv marked, or suffused, with tints of 
 blue, red, brown, or yellow, or several of these; 
 and the Western American genus Auriparus 
 (see Goldtit) is thus gayly colored. The fe- 
 
 TITMOUSE. 
 
 Head of an Arizona crested tit¬ 
 mouse (Bceolophus wollweberi). 
 
TITTONI 
 
 TITUS 
 
 309 
 
 males and young are closely like the males. 
 Fhese cheerful little birds are everywhere famil¬ 
 iar, coming about gardens and roads, and nesting 
 year after year in orchard trees, or some in 
 garden bird boxes, as well as in the forest. 
 Their food consists mainly of insects, and they 
 are everywhere of great service by their con¬ 
 sumption of these, and, especially in winter, of 
 the eggs and hibernating larvae of aphids and 
 other minute pests. Most of them make nests 
 of soft materials in holes and crannies, but 
 some, like the European penduline tit (see 
 Plate of Pensile Nests of Birds in article 
 Nidification ), the long-tailed tits of the genus 
 Acredula, and the Western American bush tits 
 (Psaltriparus), weave bag-shaped pouches of 
 hempen materials, or of moss or grass, sus¬ 
 pended beneath a tree branch. The breeding 
 habits of the whole group are interesting. Their 
 notes are sharp, quickly repeated exclamations, 
 varied by a few sweeter calls, and are well 
 illustrated by the familiar chickadees (Parus, or 
 Pentliestes, atricapillus, hudsonicus, and others), 
 which are among the most characteristic of North 
 American resident birds. Consult A. H. Evans, 
 “Birds,” in Cambridge Natural History, vol. ix 
 (New York, 1900), and American ornithologies. 
 
 TITTONI, tet-to'ne, Tommaso (1854- ). 
 
 An Italian statesman and diplomat. He was 
 born in Rome, and was educated at the uni¬ 
 versity there and at Oxford. He was elected a 
 member of the Chamber of Deputies in 1886, 
 was appointed prefect of Perugia in 1897 and 
 of Naples in 1900, and in 1901 became Senator. 
 In 1903—06 he was Minister of Foreign Affairs, 
 which portfolio, after a short interval, he again 
 held until 1910. He then became Ambassador 
 to France. A volume of his speeches, Sei 
 anni di politica estera, 1903-09, discorsi 
 (1912), was translated into English as Italy’s 
 Foreign and Colonial Policy (1914). 
 
 TIT'ULAR BISHOPS (from Lat. titulus, 
 title, superscription, token). In the Roman 
 Catholic church, bishops other than diocesan, 
 who take their titles from some formerly exist¬ 
 ing but now extinct see. The practice of so 
 designating them is due to the ancient principle 
 of not consecrating bishops without a definitely 
 assigned sphere of labor. With the multiplica¬ 
 tion of suffragan and missionary bishops some 
 such system of nomenclature was naturally, 
 therefore, adopted. When the territory occu¬ 
 pied by the Crusaders fell once more into Mo¬ 
 hammedan hands the expelled bishops were 
 utilized in various parts of Europe, retaining 
 their former titles; and these titles, with those 
 of sees which broke away from communion with 
 Rome in the great Eastern schism, are still 
 employed to designate coadjutor or missionary 
 bishops. In England until 1850, and in Scot¬ 
 land until 1878, the Roman Catholic bishops 
 bore such titles, owing to legal and other diffi¬ 
 culties in the way of assuming territorial titles. 
 Titular bishops were formerly often known as 
 bishops in partibus infidelium; but in 1881 
 Leo XIII abolished the use of this name, on 
 the ground that many of these sees had come 
 into the hands of states which, if not Catholic, 
 were Christian, and that the designation was 
 inappropriate. See Suffragan. 
 
 TI'TTJS. One of the most trusted and de¬ 
 voted of the disciples and fellow workers of 
 the Apostle Paul. Nothing is said of Titus in 
 the Acts, and all we know of him is contained 
 in scattered notices in Paul’s Epistles, especially 
 
 Galatians and 2 Corinthians. He was of Gentik 
 origin (Gal. ii. 3), converted to Christianitv 
 through Paul (Tit. i. 4), and was one of the 
 brethren taken along by Paul and Barnabas on 
 their mission from the church of Antioch to 
 the mother church of Jerusalem at the time 
 of the Apostolic Council (c.49 a.d.; cf. Gal. ii. 1 
 and Acts xv. 2). At Jerusalem, though he was 
 uncircumcised, he appears to have been allowed 
 to mingle freely with members of the mother 
 church. It is reasonable to suppose that he re¬ 
 turned to Antioch with Paul and accompanied 
 him thence on his third missionary journey. 
 From the notices in 2 Corinthians we learn that 
 he was sent by Paul from Ephesus on two, per¬ 
 haps three, missions to Corinth, bearing let¬ 
 ters and intrusted with the management of 
 delicate and important business. In all re¬ 
 spects he was completely successful. The Co¬ 
 rinthians contributed liberally towards the great 
 collection Paul was raising for the Jerusalem 
 church, willingly obeyed Paul’s injunctions in 
 regard to cases of discipline, and evidenced most 
 sincere love and loyalty to the Apostle. These 
 results were supremely satisfactory to Titus, 
 and his report to Paul, who had left Ephesus 
 (spring of 55 a.d.) expecting to meet Titus at 
 Troas, but, disappointed in this, had pressed 
 on anxiously into Macedonia, so cheered the 
 Apostle that he at once sent back the warm¬ 
 hearted message contained in 2 Cor. i—iv. We 
 know no more of Titus’s movements until the 
 time of the letter written to him by Paul. 
 The date of this Epistle, presupposing its gen¬ 
 uineness, must be placed between Paul’s first 
 and second imprisonments. (See New Testa¬ 
 ment Chronology. ) Titus had accompanied 
 Paul to Crete, where he had been left by the 
 Apostle to organize further the churches there 
 planted. Fie was summoned thence to join Paul 
 at Nicopolis, where Paul planned to winter. We 
 do not know whether this plan was carried out. 
 Titus is next mentioned in 2 Timothy (iv. 10), 
 the last of Paul’s letters, as having departed, 
 presumably from Rome, for Dalmatia. Nothing 
 more is said of Titus in the New Testament. 
 The impression made by the references given is 
 that he was a true and capable assistant to the 
 great Apostle, one of the foremost of that circle 
 of loyal disciples through whom Paul accom¬ 
 plished his great work. Tradition makes him 
 Bishop of Crete, but of this there is no early 
 evidence. See Timothy and Titus, Epistles to. 
 
 TITUS (Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespa- 
 sianus ) (c.40-81 a.d. ), Roman Emperor (79-81 
 a.d. ). He was the eldest son of the Emperor 
 Vespasian and Flavia Domitilla, and was born 
 at Rome. Brought up at the court of Nero, 
 he received an excellent training, and subse¬ 
 quently, as tribunus militum in Germany and 
 Britain, and commander of a legion in Judaea 
 under his father, proved his qualities as a 
 soldier and a general. On his father’s elevation 
 to the Imperial throne Titus was left to prose¬ 
 cute the Jewish War, which he brought to a 
 close by the capture of Jerusalem (Sept. 8, 70 
 a.d.) after a long siege. The news of the 
 success was received with the utmost joy. On 
 his return to Rome he obtained the honor of 
 a joint triumph with Vespasian (71 a.d.). 
 
 About thi3 time Titus became his father’s col¬ 
 league in the Empire. He gave himself up to 
 the pursuit of pleasure in all its forms, put 
 to death various suspected persons very sum¬ 
 marily, and even caused one of his gaiests, whom 
 
TITUS 
 
 TIVOLI 
 
 310 
 
 he justly suspected of conspiracy, to be assas¬ 
 sinated as he left the palace. V hen, on the 
 death of his father (79 a.d.), he became Em¬ 
 peror, his first act was to put a stop to all 
 prosecutions for lsesa majestas, which had 
 abounded since the time of Tiberius (q.v.). 
 The ancient and venerated buildings of Rome 
 were repaired; new structures, such as the 
 Baths of Titus (see Titus, Baths of), were 
 erected; and the tastes of the populace were 
 gratified by games on the most stupendous scale, 
 which lasted for 100 days. Titus’s beneficence 
 was unbounded, and it so happened that during 
 his brief reign there was the most urgent need of 
 its exercise. In 79 a.d. occurred the eruption 
 of Vesuvius, which overwhelmed Herculaneum 
 and Pompeii and ruined numerous other towns 
 and villages; in 80 a.d. a fire broke out in 
 Rome, which raged for three days, destroying 
 the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, which had 
 just been rebuilt, and other public edifices, be¬ 
 sides numerous houses; and in the tracks of 
 these calamities followed a dreadful pestilence. 
 Titus dealt out gifts with lavish hand to the 
 houseless and ruined sufferers; he even despoiled 
 his palaces of their valuable ornaments to ob¬ 
 tain money for distribution, and schemed and 
 planned to furnish occupation for the afflicted. 
 He was now the idol of his subjects, the “love 
 and delight of the human race”; but, unfortu¬ 
 nately, in the commencement of the third year 
 of his reign he became suddenly ill, and died at 
 Reate, in the Sabine country. The reign of 
 Titus saw the extension of the Roman power in 
 Britain. Consult the article “Flavius, 49,” in 
 Friedrich Liibker, Reallexikon des klassischen 
 AItertums, vol. i (8th ed., Leipzig, 1914). 
 
 TITUS, Arch of. A triumphal arch in Rome 
 at the highest point of the Sacred Way, facing 
 the Forum, and situated between the Temple of 
 Venus and Rome and the Temple of Jupiter 
 Stator. It was erected by Domitian in 81 a.d. 
 in commemoration of the taking of Jerusalem 
 by Titus (70‘ a.d.) and is adorned with fine 
 reliefs on the inner sides of the archway, repre¬ 
 senting the triumph of Titus, and the spoils of 
 the temple, including the seven-branched candle¬ 
 stick and the table with showbread. During 
 the Middle Ages the arch was built into the 
 fortifications of the Frangipani; and when these 
 were demolished the arch was taken down in 
 1822 and rebuilt to insure its safety, the miss¬ 
 ing portions being supplied by travertine instead 
 of the original Pentelic marble. 
 
 TITUS, Baths of. Extensive baths north¬ 
 east of the Coliseum at Rome, built by Titus 
 (Thermae Titianae) on the ruins of the Golden 
 House of Nero and supplied by the Aqua Marcia. 
 Their exact situation was long a matter of 
 dispute, and they were generally conceived to 
 be identical with the Baths of Trajan and to 
 have been called by the latter name because 
 restored by him. Excavations in 1895 finally 
 determined" their topography and showed them to 
 be distinct from the adjoining Baths of Trajan. 
 Consult S. B. Platner, The Topography and Monu¬ 
 ments of Ancient Rome (2d ed., Boston, 1911). 
 
 TITUS, Epistle to. A letter in the New 
 Testament, attributed to the Apostle Paul. See 
 Timothy and Titus, Epistles to. 
 
 TITUS AN'DRONI'CUS. The name of a 
 tragedy usually included among Shakespeare’s 
 works, though it is now generally considered to 
 have been only retouched by Shakespeare in 
 1589-90, on the foundation of an earlier play. 
 
 It is alluded to by Meres in 1598 among Shake¬ 
 speare’s tragedies; but, though a quarto edi¬ 
 tion is said to have been printed in 1594, no 
 extant copy is earlier than the quarto of 1600. 
 Crude as it is, it belongs to the same type 
 of play as Hamlet; both are dramas of revenge, 
 after the fashion of Kvd. 
 
 TI'TUSVILLE. A city in Crawford Co., Pa., 
 38 miles southeast of Erie, on Oil Creek, and 
 on the Pennsylvania and the New Tork Central 
 railroads (Map: Pennsylvania, B 2). It has a 
 public librarv and a hospital. In August, 1859, 
 the first oil well in the United States was 
 sunk here, and the city is still largely interested 
 in the oil industry. It has oil refineries, large 
 iron and steel works, radiator works, a tannery, 
 cutlery works, silk mills, saw and planing 
 mills, engine works, etc. Titusville has adopted 
 the commission form of government. The water 
 works and the electric-light plant are owned and 
 operated by the municipality. Titusville was 
 settled in 1796. On June 5, 1892, Oil Creek, 
 swollen by a cloudburst, flooded the lower part 
 of the city. Soon afterward several oil tanks 
 gave way. The liberated oil, covering nearly 
 the whole surface of the flood, became ignited, 
 and the fire and flood together destroyed about 
 60 lives and fully one-third of the city. Pop., 
 1900, 8244; 1910/8533; 1915 (U. S. est.), 8684. 
 
 TIUMEN, or TYUMEN,' tybo-man'y’. A 
 town in the Government of Tobolsk, west Si¬ 
 beria, on the Tura, at the east end of the 
 Perm-Tiumen Railway line (Map: Asia, H 3). 
 It is an important centre in the transit trade 
 of Siberia and has shipbuilding yards, woolen 
 mills, and tanneries. Pop., 1908, 33,791. 
 
 TIV'ERTON. A municipal and Parliamen- 
 tarv borough and market town in Devonshire, 
 England, 14 miles north of Exeter (Map: Eng¬ 
 land, C 6). There are important weekly mar¬ 
 kets, and great animal markets for cattle. There 
 is a large lace factory, in which nearly 2000 hands 
 are employed; there are also breweries and flour 
 mills. Blundell’s School, just outside the town, 
 is one of the most important schools in the west 
 of England. Pop., 1901, 10,382; 1911, 10,205. 
 
 TIVERTON. A town in Newport Co., R. I., 
 adjoining Fall River, Mass., on the New York, 
 New Haven, and Hartford Railroad (Map: 
 Rhode Island, D 3). Cotton manufactures and 
 fishing are the chief industries. Pop., 1900, 
 2977; 1910, 4032. 
 
 TIV'OLI (Lat. Tibur ). An old town of Cen¬ 
 tral Italy, Province of Rome, 19 miles east- 
 northeast of Rome (Map: Italy, D 4). It 
 stands on the slope of Monte Ripoli, one of 
 the Apennines. Tivoli is walled and has. a 
 fortress. The surrounding hills are covered with 
 olive trees. The vines of Tivoli are famed for 
 a peculiar sort of grape, in great request for 
 its firmness and luscious flavor, noticed as 
 early as the time of Pliny the Elder. The stone 
 called travertine, of which a great part of 
 Rome is built, comes from quarries just below 
 Tivoli. On the western slope of the town lies 
 the famous Villa cl’Este, of the sixteenth cen¬ 
 tury. Within and without the city there are 
 many monuments of antiquity. In a command¬ 
 ing position above the falls of the Anio stand 
 the remains of two temples, one circular (so- 
 called Temple of the Sibyl) and one rectangular 
 (so-called Temple of Tiburtus), the former of 
 which antedates the Christian era. In the 
 neighborhood there are extensive remains of 
 the° Emperor Hadrian’s magnificent villa, the 
 
TIVOLI 
 
 TLINKIT 
 
 villa of Maecenas, remains of mausoleums, aque¬ 
 ducts, baths, etc. The place is much visited by 
 tourists for its waterfalls, which are lofty and 
 very picturesque. The Anio furnishes excellent 
 water power, which since 1892 has been utilized 
 for electric lighting both at Tivoli and at Rome, 
 and for ironworks at the former town. Tibur 
 existed as a town (according to ancient tradi¬ 
 tion) long before the building of Rome, under 
 whose dominion it fell about 335 b.c. It was a 
 favorite place of sojourn with Horace, who men¬ 
 tions it repeatedly. Consult K. Baedeker, Central 
 Italy and Rome (15th Eng. ed., Leipzig, 1909). 
 
 TIVOLI, Plato of. See Plato of Tivoli. 
 
 TIXTLA, tes'tla, or Tixtla de Guerrero. 
 A town formerly the capital of the State of 
 Guerrero, Mexico, 5 miles east of the capital, 
 Chilpancingo (Map: Mexico, J 9). The town 
 is in a fertile, well-watered valley, with silver 
 mines in the vicinity. An earthquake on April 
 14, 1907, destroyed Tixtla and two other towns 
 in Guerrero. Pop., 1900, 6316; 1910, 6448. 
 
 TLACOLULA, tla'kO-loo'la. A town of the 
 state of Oaxaca, Mexico, 18 miles southeast of 
 the city of Oaxaca (Map: Mexico, L 9). Pop., 
 1900, 5675; 1910, 4934. 
 
 TLACOTALPAN, tlii'ko-tal'pan. A Gulf 
 seaport of Mexico, 50 miles southeast of Vera 
 Cruz, at the mouth of the Papaloapan (Map: 
 Mexico, L 8). Pop., 6300. 
 
 TLALPAM, tlal'pam. A town of the Federal 
 District, Mexico, 10 miles south of the capital 
 (Map: Mexico, C, D 10). It is a noted summer 
 resort and each spring at Whitsuntide its church 
 of San Antonio de las Cuevas is visited by 
 thousands of pilgrims. Pop., 1910, 15,448. 
 
 TLATLAUQUITEPEC, tla-tlou 'ke-ta-pek'. A 
 town of the State of Puebla, Mexico, 42 miles 
 northwest of Jalapa. Pop., 1900, 9829. 
 
 TLAXCALA, or TLASCALA, tlas-ka'la 
 (Mex., land of maize). The smallest state of 
 Mexico. Area 1534 square miles (Map: Mexico, 
 K 8). It lies within the central plateau of 
 • Mexico at an elevation of about 7000 feet above 
 the sea. Several mountain peaks rise on the 
 west and the south frontiers. The Sierra Ma- 
 linche has an altitude of 13,475 feet. The rivers 
 are short and unnavigable. The chief industry 
 is agriculture, and the principal products are 
 cereals, especially maize. The state has good 
 transportation facilities. Pop., 1910, 184,171. 
 Capital, Tlaxcala. 
 
 The natives of Tlaxcala were of Nahuan 
 stock (q.v.) and spoke the same language as the 
 Aztecs, the dominant people of the Mexican 
 Empire, but maintained their independence in 
 spite of repeated attempts of the Aztec em¬ 
 perors to subjugate them. On the arrival of 
 Cortes in 1519 he was at first fiercely resisted 
 by the people of Tlaxcala, but they were de¬ 
 feated, and, submitting, furnished a large con¬ 
 tingent to assist in the conquest of Mexico. 
 In recognition of their services they were ac¬ 
 corded special privileges under the Spanish gov¬ 
 ernment, and on account of their loyalty and 
 fighting qualities numbers of them were after¬ 
 ward colonized at Saltillo, in Coahuila, and at 
 Izalco, in Salvador, as a check upon the hostile 
 inroads of the native tribes. The present popu¬ 
 lation of Tlaxcala is chiefly of the aboriginal 
 stock and language. They maintain many of 
 their ancient beliefs and customs. 
 
 TLAXCALA, or TLASCALA. A Mexican 
 town, the capital of the state of the same name, 
 58 miles east of the City of Mexico, on a branch 
 
 ii 
 
 of the Mexican Railway, running between 
 Puebla and Apizaco, in the valley of the river 
 Atoyac (Map: Mexico, K 8). The modern town, 
 near the site of the Indian capital, has lost 
 much of its former greatness. It contains the 
 state house, and the ancient bishop’s palace, 
 probably the oldest Franciscan building in 
 America, while near it are many remains of for¬ 
 mer Indian structures. The magnificent sanc¬ 
 tuary of Ocotlan is one of the landmarks of 
 the surrounding country. The principal ex¬ 
 ports are grain, hides, and cloth. Pop., 1900, 
 2715; 1910, 2812. 
 
 TLAXIACO, tla-syiPko. A town of the State 
 of Oaxaca, Mexico, 63 miles northwest of the 
 city of that name, on the headwaters of the 
 Atoyac (Map: Mexico, K 9). It is an impor¬ 
 tant commercial centre. Pop., 1910, 7847. 
 
 TLEMCEN, tlem-sen'. The capital of an 
 arrondissement in the Department of Oran, Al¬ 
 geria, near the Moroccan frontier. It is 81 
 miles southwest of the city of Oran, with which 
 it is connected by rail, and stands in an undulat¬ 
 ing country, everywhere irrigated and highly 
 cultivated (Map: Africa, El). It is also 
 connected by rail with its port, Rashgun, 37 
 miles distant. The town is accessible only from 
 the southwest, the other sides presenting steeply 
 escarped fronts. It is protected from the south 
 wind by a range of mountains, 4200 feet in 
 height, and is surrounded by the ruins of its 
 ancient battlemented wall. It contains Roman 
 Catholic and Protestant churches, magnificent 
 mosques, synagogues, and a museum of interest¬ 
 ing antiquities. The town is well supplied with 
 spring water, and a basin under the walls 720 
 feet long by 490 feet wide and 10 feet deep, 
 used for naval exhibitions by the ancient Tlern- 
 cen rulers, is now a reservoir. The district is 
 covered with fruit trees of all kinds, of which 
 the olive is one of the most valuable; cereals, 
 tobacco, etc., are extensively produced. Besides 
 the special markets, a daily market is held, at 
 which cattle, wool, grain, and oils are sold. 
 Ostrich feathers and cork are exported; and 
 woolen goods, leather, saddles, slippers, and arms 
 are manufactured. Pop., 1911, 39,874, more than 
 two-thirds of whom were of native origin. Dat¬ 
 ing from 1002, Tlemcen has an interesting his¬ 
 tory under Berber, Arab, Spanish, and Turkish 
 rule. It had about 100,000 inhabitants in the 
 thirteenth century. It has been on the decline 
 since the early part of the sixteenth century. 
 The French ultimately occupied it in 1842. 
 
 TLIN'KIT, or Tlingit (people), or Kolosh 
 (Russ., from Aleut kolosh, kaluga, little trough, 
 in allusion to the enormous and peculiarly shaped 
 labrets worn among them, especially by the Sitka). 
 A group of tribes, of which the Auk, Chilkat, 
 Henya, Huna, Hutsnuwu, Kake, Kuyu, Sitka, 
 Stikine, Taku, Tongas, and Yakutat are still 
 recognized. They constitute a distinct lin¬ 
 guistic stock known as the Kolushan, occupying 
 the coast and islands of southern Alaska from 
 Mount St. Elias southward to the entrance of 
 the Nass River. They are a seafaring people 
 with strongly marked characteristics. Before 
 the demoralization wrought by the advent of 
 the white man they lived in permanent villages 
 of solidly constructed houses of massive beams 
 and great planks of cedar, each with its tall 
 totem pole, and with corner posts also carved 
 in totemic designs. Their canoes were hewn 
 from cedar trunks, and their mats and cordage 
 were woven from cedar bark fibre. They were 
 
TMESIS 
 
 312 
 
 TOAD 
 
 expert stone carvers and copper workers. They 
 were enterprising traders and controlled the 
 trade from the coast to the interior tribes, us¬ 
 ing dentalium shells as a currency medium and 
 setting great store upon the acquisition of prop¬ 
 erty. They had two phratries, the Raven and 
 Wolf, with descent in the female line, but the 
 chieftainship was elective, being usually ac¬ 
 corded to the most generous distributor at the 
 ceremony of the potlatch (q.v.). Slavery was 
 an established custom, slaves from other tribes 
 being a staple article of trade and treated by 
 their masters with great cruelty. The dead 
 were cremated, excepting priests, whose bodies 
 were wrapped in mats and deposited with their 
 sacred belongings in grave houses on commanding 
 cliffs. Their principal mythologic hero was the 
 Raven, who brought fire to the people and set 
 the sun and moon in their courses. They did 
 not flatten the head, as did the more southern 
 tribes, but wore labrets as marks of distinction 
 and honor, the insertion of each successive 
 larger labret being the occasion of a potlatch 
 distribution. They were a warlike race, strong 
 and well built, and regarded by the Russians as 
 of superior intellect, but have deteriorated by 
 contact with civilization. They numbered 4426 
 in 1910, and derive a large part of their sub¬ 
 sistence by labor in the salmon canneries. Con¬ 
 sult Krause, Die Tlinkit Inclianer (Jena, 1885). 
 See also Sitka; Yakut at. 
 
 TMESIS, t’me'sis or me'sis. See Etymology, 
 Figures of. 
 
 T.N.T. See Trinitrotoluenes. 
 
 TOA, or AITOA. See Casuarina. 
 
 TOAD (AS. tadige, tadie, toad; of unknown 
 etymology). The common name applied to any 
 one of the numerous species of tailless Amphibia 
 belonging to the family Bufonidae and a few 
 kindred families. More than 120 species belong 
 to the typical genus Bufo, which is nearly cosmo¬ 
 politan, but most numerously represented in 
 tropical America, and absent from Madagascar, 
 Papuasia, and the islands of the Pacific Ocean. 
 Toads differ from typical frogs (Raninse) in the 
 absence of teeth, in having the sacral diapo¬ 
 physes dilated, and the sternum wholly carti¬ 
 laginous. Most have a short-limbed, thickset 
 figure and warty skin, and the majority are 
 quite terrestrial or burrowing, but some are 
 aquatic and others arboreal or aberrantly modi¬ 
 fied. There are eight genera in the family, 
 besides Bufo. Noticeable among these are 
 the common Australian toad (Myobatraclms 
 gouldi ), smooth-skinned; the repulsive egg- 
 shaped, long-tongued, termite-eating Mexican 
 species (Rhinophrynus dorsalis) ; and the large, 
 warty, swimming toads of the East Indian genus 
 V ectopliryne. 
 
 The common toad of eastern North America 
 (Bufo lentiginosus) is a fair type of the group. 
 It reaches a length of about 3Yo inches, is 
 brownish olive, with a yellowish vertebral line 
 and some brownish spots, but is exceedingly vari¬ 
 able. The skin of young toads is nearly smooth, 
 that of adults very warty. It contains many 
 poison glands from which a milky somewhat acrid 
 fluid exudes when the animal is roughly handled. 
 This and the urine are harmless to man, but 
 have a protective value against predatory 
 animals. 
 
 The food of the toad consists of worms, in¬ 
 sects, and snails, which must be alive and mov¬ 
 ing in order to attract its notice. These are 
 seized by the rapid darting out of the tongue. 
 
 (See Frog.) This fare is captured mainly dur¬ 
 ing twilight and at night. The list of known 
 foods embraces almost every sort of insect 
 and larva, including many injurious to horticul¬ 
 ture; there is no doubt that toads keep down 
 pests. They molt the outer skin several times 
 a year, struggling out of it, and then swallowing 
 it. When cold weather comes they dig a hole 
 in the ground, or find some warm, dry crevice 
 among rocks, in a cellar, etc., and become dor¬ 
 mant. This power of hibernation, and their 
 ability to endure deprivation of food and water, 
 tend to great longevity; toads under favorable 
 conditions will live perhaps 30 years. . The 
 stories of buried toads surviving for long inter¬ 
 vals in solid clay or rock, are usually unworthy 
 of belief. Experiment has shown that no toad 
 can long endure deprivation of air, water, and 
 food, though in porous stone or moist soil they 
 might remain alive for long periods. As soon 
 as toads emerge in the spring their piping 
 is heard, and they make their way to water, 
 where fighting between males and mating begin. 
 After a few days long gelatinous ropes of black 
 holoblastic eggs, each about one-fifteenth of an 
 inch in diameter, are to be found coiled or 
 matted in warm ponds and roadside pools. 
 Each female begins to breed when about four 
 years old, and lays six to ten thousand eggs 
 annually. These eggs rapidly develop into em¬ 
 bryos, and hatch in four weeks or less, accord¬ 
 ing to weather. The larvse are considerably 
 advanced when freed from the egg, and are pro¬ 
 vided with a peculiar temporary organ in place 
 of the yet undeveloped mouth, by which they 
 cling to weeds and similar supports; and with 
 bushy external gills as breathing organs. There 
 is no trace of limbs, but a swimming organ 
 is present in the form of a large fin-bordered 
 tail. Development proceeds rapidly. The true 
 mouth is soon formed, and the tadpoles begin to 
 feed upon the minute algse coating the bottom 
 and floating on the surface, and later eat ani¬ 
 mal substances. They are good scavengers for 
 an aquarium. They keep in shallow water near 
 shore, but are preyed upon by newts, turtles, 
 fishes, and predaceous aquatic insects. Gradu¬ 
 ally growth advances, the fore legs appear, and 
 later the hind legs are developed and the tail 
 and gill tufts are gradually absorbed. (For ex¬ 
 periments in rearing tadpoles under various 
 food conditions, see Evolution, Polymorphism.) 
 By midsummer the limbs are perfected, lungs 
 have been formed, the tail is reduced to a 
 stump, and the tadpoles emerge as small toads. 
 Here they encounter enemies—birds, snakes, tur¬ 
 tles, etc.—so that a very small proportion de¬ 
 velop into adulthood, when they have few 
 enemies except snakes. 
 
 The common toad of the Old World (Bufo 
 vulgaris) is very similar to the American toad. 
 It inhabits almost the whole Palsearctie region, 
 eastward to China and Japan. India and the 
 Malay Archipelago have a widely prevalent and 
 very rough-skinned species (Bufo meh tvs), 
 
 with the power of changing color. green 
 
 toad of the Mediterranean region (B ridis) 
 
 is highly variable in color; and th • erjack 
 and panther toads (qq.v.) of we? Turope 
 resemble it. The largest member o . enus is 
 the huge agua toad of tropical A' (See 
 
 Agua.) Various more distantly rel - amphib¬ 
 ians are called toads, e.g., tree toa^ e Hyla; 
 Tree Frog); the South Americai ' id frogs 
 (q.v.) of the cystignathine genu e tophrys; 
 

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TOAD BUG 313 TOBACCO 
 
 the Surinam toad (see Pipa), and others. Cf. 
 Frog ; Spadefoot. 
 
 Fossil toads are quite rare, but are found 
 scattered through the Tertiary formations from 
 the Eocene upward, especially in Europe. Some 
 very fine skeletons of toads, and even remains 
 of tadpoles, have been found in the fresh water 
 Miocene deposits of Germany. 
 
 Consult: E. D. Cope, “Batrachia of North 
 America, ’ in United States National Museum, 
 Bulletin No. 34 (Washington, 1889); G. A. 
 Boulenger, Tailless Batrachians of Europe, pub¬ 
 lished by the Ray Society (London, 1896) ; Kirk¬ 
 land, “Habits, Food, and Economic Value of the 
 American Toad,” in Hatch Experiment Station, 
 Bulletin No. 6 (Amherst, Mass., 1897); Hans 
 Gadow, ‘Amphibia and Reptiles,” in Cambridge 
 Natural History, vol. viii (London, 1901) ; M. C. 
 Dickerson, The Frog Booh (new ed., New York, 
 1914); and E. G. Boulanger, Reptiles and 
 Batrachians (ib., 1914). See accompanying Col¬ 
 ored Plate. 
 
 TOAD BUG. Any of the curious lieterop- 
 terous insects of the family Galgulidae. They 
 have a short, broad body, projecting eyes, and 
 dull, mottled colors, suggesting a miniature toad. 
 They live in moist places along the banks of 
 streams and ponds. About 20 species are known, 
 of which three inhabit the United States, where 
 the commonest species is Galgulus oculatus. 
 
 TOADFISH, or Sapo. One of a family 
 (Batraclioididse) of fishes allied to the gobies, 
 the young of which fasten themselves to rocks 
 
 by a central disk which is soon lost. They are 
 small carnivorous and scavenging coast fishes of 
 all warm seas, abundant about weedy rocks and 
 coral reefs. They have a robust form, are inac¬ 
 tive, and resemble toads in the mingled browns 
 and yellows of their coloration. The species il¬ 
 lustrated (Opsansus pardus) inhabits the Gulf 
 of Mexico. 
 
 TOADFLAX, Ramsted or Butter-and-Eggs 
 (Linaria). A genus of plants of the family 
 Scrophulariaceie, distinguished chiefly by the 
 spur at the base of the corolla and the capsule 
 opening by valves or teeth. The species are 
 herbaceous, natives chiefly of the colder and tem¬ 
 perate parts of the Old World. Common toad¬ 
 flax (Linaria vulgaris) has an erect stem one 
 to three feet high, with glaucous, linear-lanceo¬ 
 late leaves which thickly cover the stem, and 
 terminal spikes of yellow flowers. It grows in 
 fields along roadsides, etc., in Europe and Amer¬ 
 ica, where it has been introduced and where it 
 is usually considered a troublesome weed. A 
 monstrosity called peloria is sometimes seen 
 in this plant, the flower presenting five spurs and 
 five usually imperfect stamens. 
 
 TOADSTOOL. A fungus of the group Basidio- 
 mvcetes (q.v.), whose spore-bearing body is 
 Ulv a stalk bearing a cap. The name is often 
 used • ular way as applying to poisonous 
 
 fo.nis 1 inction from the edible mushrooms, 
 
 ’ . U- inction is not one of classification. 
 
 See I v a . Odible and Poisonous; Mushroom. 
 
 TOAST (OF. toste, from ML. tosta, toast, 
 Lat. fern. sing, of p.p. of torrere, to dry). Origi¬ 
 nally the name given to bread dried or scorched 
 before the fire. As early as the sixteenth cen¬ 
 tury toast formed a favorite addition to English 
 drinks, especially sack and punch. The appli¬ 
 cation of the word to a lady whose health is 
 drunk, and thence to any sentiment mentioned 
 with honor before drinking, is said to have 
 originated from an incident described in The 
 Tatler (No. 24, June 4, 1709), as having hap¬ 
 pened at Bath in the eighteenth century, when 
 it was the fashion for ladies to bathe publicly, 
 in elegant dresses made for the purpose. It 
 happened that on a public day a celebrated 
 beauty of these times was in the Cross Bath, and 
 one of the crowd of her admirers took a glass 
 of the water in which the fair one stood, and 
 drank her health to the company. There was 
 in the place a gay fellow, half fuddled, who of¬ 
 fered to jump in, and swore, though he liked 
 not the liquor, he would have the toast (meaning 
 the lady). In the later sense, the word has 
 been adopted both in French and German. Con¬ 
 sult Edmund and Williams, compilers, Toaster ’s 
 Handbook (White Plains, N. Y., 1914). 
 
 TOBA, tefba (opposite, so called by the 
 Guarani, as living on the opposite or western 
 bank of the Paraguay). A powerful and savage 
 people of Guaicuruan stock, the most important 
 tribe of the Chaco region of northern Argentina. 
 They rove along the Pilcomayo and Vermejo 
 rivers. Their language is a dialect of that for¬ 
 merly spoken by the Abipone (q.v.), whom they 
 exterminated about a century ago. They hunt 
 and fight on horseback with the lance and bow, 
 and are warlike and untamably hostile to all 
 whites who attempt to enter the region. See 
 Guaicuruan. 
 
 toadflax (Linaria vulgaris). 
 
 TOBACCO (Sp. tabacco, tabaco, from the 
 Carib name, of uncertain meaning; perhaps the 
 name of the pipe smoked by the Indians, or 
 of the tubes into which the leaves are rolled for 
 
 
TOBACCO 
 
 TOBACCO 
 
 314 
 
 smoking, or the Haitian name of the plant, or 
 the old name of the island now called Tobago, 
 near Trinidad, or the name of a province To- 
 baco, said to be in Yucatan), Nicotiana tabacum. 
 A plant of the family Solanacese, cultivated 
 for its leaves, which when cured are used for 
 smoking, chewing and as snuff. It has broad 
 leaves, terminal panicles of flowers, and two- 
 celled, five-valved fruits (manv-seeded capsules). 
 It is a native of the Western Hemisphere, where 
 the aborigines cultivated and used it from re¬ 
 mote times. Its generic name is in honor of 
 Jean Nicot, who introduced it into France in 
 1559 from Spain, where it had been introduced 
 from Santo Domingo in the same year. In 1585 
 
 tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). 
 
 it was taken to England by Sir Francis Drake, 
 and the practice of pipe smoking introduced 
 among the Elizabethan courtiers by Sir Walter 
 Raleigh. Its use rapidly extended throughout 
 Europe, and soon became extensively prevalent 
 among Oriental nations. Tobacco was at first 
 recommended for medicinal virtues, but soon 
 became an article of luxury. 
 
 In America the culture of tobacco began in 
 Vi rgini a with the earliest settlement of the 
 colony. It is recorded that in 1615 the gardens, 
 fields, and even the streets of Jamestown were 
 planted with tobacco, which immediately be¬ 
 came, not only the staple crop, but the principal 
 currency of the colony. The culture of tobacco 
 was introduced into the Dutch colony of New 
 York in 1646, though it never gained the same 
 prominence there as farther south. Maryland, 
 the Carolinas, Georgia, and later Kentucky, 
 made it the leading crop almost from their 
 first settlement. It "long constituted the most 
 valuable export of the colonies. From 1744 to 
 1776 the exports of the crop averaged 40,000,000 
 pounds a year. Its culture without the use of 
 manure or fertilizer led to the injury of much 
 land, and was condemned by thoughtful farmers 
 like Washington. 
 
 As a commercial crop tobacco is now con¬ 
 fined to rather limited areas in a few States. 
 In the production of wrapper leaf for cigars 
 Florida and Connecticut take the lead. Penn¬ 
 sylvania. Ohio, and Wisconsin produce a great 
 deal of filler leaf for cigars. Chewing, smoking, 
 snuff, and export types of tobacco are grow 
 
 extensively in Kentucky, North Carolina, Vir¬ 
 ginia, Tennessee, South Carolina, and Mary¬ 
 land, in the order named. 
 
 The United States produces more tobacco than 
 any other country in the world, about 35 per 
 cent of the world’Vcrop, and exports about one- 
 third of the product, chiefly to the United King¬ 
 dom, Germanv, France, Italy, Holland, and Spain. 
 The tobacco crop of the United States in 1915 
 amounted to 1,060,587,000 pounds, grown on 1,- 
 368,400 acres, the average yield being 775 pounds 
 per acre. The crop represented a value on the 
 farm of $96,041,000. In 1913 the United States 
 exported to foreign countries 444,371,661 pounds 
 of unmanufactured tobacco, and imported for its 
 use 66,899,275 pounds of leaf. 
 
 In addition to being the leading tobacco pro¬ 
 ducer in the world, the United States is also the 
 greatest exporter, the greatest importer, and the 
 greatest consumer of tobacco. India is the 
 second largest producer and likewise the second 
 largest consumer, consuming most of its own 
 tobacco. Russia is the third producing country, 
 exporting and importing but little, and Austria- 
 Hungary the fourth producing country, import¬ 
 ing about a fourth as much as it raises and ex¬ 
 porting about an eighth of its crop. r lhe Dutch 
 East Indies produce great quantities of leaf for 
 export, and Japan nearly supplies its own needs. 
 Germany raises an important crop but imports 
 about two and a half times as much more. Tur¬ 
 key, France, Belgium, Italy, Greece, and Rumania 
 produce considerable quantities, as do also Cuba, 
 Porto Rico, Santo Domingo, the Philippines, and 
 Mexico. Brazil leads among the South American 
 countries. 
 
 Cultivation. The variety of tobacco planted 
 depends upon soil, climate, and market demands. 
 The plant is unusually susceptible to the effects 
 of soil, fertilizers and climate, which affect the 
 quality of the leaf. In the more northern re¬ 
 gions the seed is sown in a hotbed and trans¬ 
 planted to the field in five or six weeks. Culti¬ 
 vation should be frequent and shallow and should 
 cease when the plants begin to button. Where 
 the production of seed is not desired the plants 
 are topped to prevent flowering, that their whole 
 strength may be directed to the leaves except in 
 the case of that grown for cigar wrappers when 
 a thin leaf is the more valued. Fertilizers af¬ 
 fect the quality of tobacco more than the yield. 
 Barnyard manure produces a rank growth but 
 poor 'quality. Potash is the most important ele¬ 
 ment to be supplied in growing tobacco, and the 
 best forms are the carbonate and the sulphate. 
 Nitrogen is best supplied in cottonseed meal, 
 bone meal, and dried blood. Some types of 
 cigar-wrapper tobacco, notably Sumatra, are 
 grown under cheesecloth shade to improve the 
 texture and quality of the leaf. 
 
 The crop is harvested by cutting down the 
 stalk near"the ground, or picking off the leaves. 
 The method of curing depends upon the kind of 
 tobacco and the use it is to be put to. In some 
 cases heat is employed. After curing tobacco 
 goes through the process of fermentation or age- 
 ing in which enzymes take part. This results 
 in°a reduction in the per cent of nicotine and 
 the development of aroma. 
 
 Tobacco, owing to the high rate of duty when 
 in any manufactured form, is mostly imported 
 in the leaf; but small quantities are brought in, 
 chiefly for reexport, in various states of manu¬ 
 facture. The cultivation and manufacture of 
 tobacco in foreign countries are frequently made 
 
TOBACCO 
 
 TOBACCO 
 
 315 
 
 government monopolies, and in some its cultiva¬ 
 tion is prohibited. 
 
 Classes of Tobacco. Variations in soil and 
 climatic conditions, combined with the methods 
 of culture and handling, give rise to certain well- 
 defined types, and on these are based market re¬ 
 quirements, as follows: cigar types—wrappers 
 and binder leaf, and filler leaf; export types— 
 dark fire-cured, and air-cured; and manufactur¬ 
 ing types—burley, dark manufacturing leaf (in¬ 
 cluding so-called onesucker variety and Virginia 
 sun-cured), bright flue-cured (yellow tobacco), 
 and Perique produced in Louisiana on a small 
 scale. The requirements for cigar tobacco are 
 very exacting, differing essentially from those 
 for other types of leaf. 
 
 Tobacco Diseases. Among the various dis¬ 
 eases of tobacco perhaps the best known is calico 
 or mottled top, a Connecticut name for the 
 mosaic disease of Holland and elsewhere. The 
 mosaic disease is characterized by mottled light 
 and dark green leaves a few weeks after the 
 plants are set. As the disease progresses some 
 of the thin areas' dry out, giving a decidedly 
 mottled appearance to the leaf. The diseased 
 plants are usually irregularly distributed 
 throughout the field. The cause has been the 
 subject of much controversy, many observers 
 claiming it is of bacterial origin, while others 
 claim it to be due to certain enzymes which dis¬ 
 turb the balance between the normal functions of 
 certain cells. The spot disease is characterized 
 by white or brown spots of various size and 
 shape upon the leaves. In some cases the leaves 
 resemble the spotted condition which is consid¬ 
 ered so desirable in some tobaccos, as the 
 Sumatra wrapper leaf. The cause of the spot 
 is not definitely known. In the seed bed tobacco 
 plants are subject to several diseases that may 
 be controlled by sterilizing the soil with steam. 
 In the curing of tobacco two diseases, poleburn 
 and stem rot, are common. Poleburn is likely 
 to develop if long continued damp, sultry weather 
 occurs while the plants are being cured. Cer¬ 
 tain fungi seem always present in this disease, 
 as well as many bacteria. It may be prevented 
 by artificial heat and ventilation. The stem rot 
 is due to the fungus Botrytis longibrachiata. It 
 attacks the stems and veins, producing patches 
 of velvety white fungus and causing more or less 
 decay. To prevent stem rot the tobacco barn 
 should be thoroughly fumigated with sulphur 
 fumes before and after curing a crop. 
 
 Tobacco Manufactures. The principal manu¬ 
 factured products are cigars and cheroots, ciga¬ 
 rettes, smoking tobacco (for pipes and cigarettes), 
 snuff and chewing tobacco—plug, twist and fine 
 cut. Both the cigar and cigarette manufacture 
 have been revolutionized by machinery. Al¬ 
 though in cigar making there is still much hand 
 work, cigarette making is more largely con¬ 
 centrated in factories. The manufacture and 
 consumption of cigarettes in the United States 
 has grown with marvelous rapidity, the increase 
 in the decade ending 1913 amounting to over 
 450 per cent. The manufacture of smoking to¬ 
 bacco, formerly conducted by crude, hand meth¬ 
 ods, has also been modified by machinery and a 
 great variety of forms, blends and flavors pro¬ 
 duced. The cost has been greatly lessened by 
 machinery for packing. Fine-cut chewing to¬ 
 bacco is made in much the same manner as 
 smoking tobacco, and the making of plug chew¬ 
 ing tobacco is a comparatively simple process. 
 Snuff making is the most complicated of all 
 Vol. XXII—21 
 
 pioducts. It is divided into two classes, drv 
 and moist, each varying greatly in quality. 
 
 The internal revenue receipts from tobacco 
 and the tobacco industry in the United States 
 approximate $100,000,000 a year. 
 
 . Indian tobacco (Lobelia inflata) has nothing 
 in common with this subject. See Lobelia. 
 
 Tobacco has been used as a sedative or nar¬ 
 cotic over a larger area and among a greater 
 number of people than any similar substance, 
 opium ranking next, and hemp third. Tobacco 
 leaves, when submitted to chemical analysis, 
 yield nicotine, which is its most characteristic 
 constituent, albumin, a gluten-like substance, 
 gum, resin, malic and citric acids, and a large 
 amount of inorganic constituents, 100 parts of 
 the dry leaf yielding from about 19 to 27 per 
 cent of ash, in which potash, lime, and silica 
 preponderate. Nicotine (q.v.), the alkaloid con¬ 
 tained in tobacco and considered a violent poison, 
 does not appear in tobacco smoke. It is split 
 into pyridine and collodine. Of these the latter 
 is said to be the less active and to preponderate 
 in cigar smoke, while the smoke from pipes con¬ 
 tains a larger amount of pyridine. The ques¬ 
 tion of the effect of tobacco on the human body 
 is an old one, often discussed with a diversity of 
 opinion and without definite conclusions. Stud¬ 
 ies made on man and the lower animals have 
 helped to demonstrate important facts. 
 
 If tobacco possesses, like alcohol, opium, tea. 
 coffee, etc., the power of arresting oxidation of 
 the living tissues, and thus checking their dis¬ 
 integration, and if it also produces a nervous 
 excitement which an immature body is unable 
 to control, it follows that the habit of smoking 
 must be most deleterious to the young, causing 
 in them impairment of growth, premature man¬ 
 hood, and physical degradation. Smoked just 
 after a meal tobacco is said to act as a digestive 
 stimulant, and as a food when other forms of 
 nourishment are not procurable. In some per¬ 
 sons smoking increases, in others diminishes 
 mental activity. Of special interest has been 
 the action of tobacco upon the heart. And here 
 nicotine seems to be the chief factor to be 
 considered. It has been proved that this alka¬ 
 loid affects the ganglion cells, interposed be¬ 
 tween the centre of the nervous system and the 
 nerve endings in the heart, through the vagus 
 and the sympathetic, ^thus effecting depression 
 or acceleration of the action of the heart (to¬ 
 bacco heart), and constriction or dilation of the 
 blood vessels. These changes, when becoming 
 permanent, can be dangerous in their final re¬ 
 sults, upon circulation, respiration, and diges¬ 
 tion. In affections, therefore, of these systems, 
 as well as in nervousness, and in diseases of 
 the nose, mouth, and throat, and of the eye 
 (through the smoke) tobacco should be avoided. 
 Otherwise, moderate use of tobacco by a healthy, 
 mature person seems to be harmless, if not 
 beneficial. 
 
 The different kinds of tobacco exert a differ¬ 
 ent influence on the smoker according to the 
 amount of noxious ingredients which they con¬ 
 tain. Those which yield a small proportion are 
 termed mild tobaccos. The use of tobacco in 
 medicine has been entirely discontinued. 
 
 Bibliography. C. G. W. Lock, ed., Tobacco 
 Growing , Curing, and Manufacture (London, 
 1886) ; A. M. and J. Ferguson, All About To¬ 
 bacco, Including Practical Instruction in Plant¬ 
 ing, Cultivation, and Curing (Colombo, Ceylon, 
 1889); Killebrew and Mvrick, Tobacco Leaf: 
 
TOBACCO-BOX SKATE 
 
 TOBACCO PESTS 
 
 316 
 
 Its Culture, Cure, Marketing, and Manufacture 
 (New York, 1897) ; B. W. Arnold, History of the 
 Tobacco Industry in Virginia (Baltimore, 1897) ; 
 J. B. Killebrew, How to Cultivate, Cure, and 
 Prepare for Market (Nashville, Tenn., 1900); 
 A. E. Tanner, Tobacco from the Grower to the 
 Smoker (New York, 1912); E. H. Matthewson, 
 “The Export ancl Manufacturing Tobaccos of 
 the United States, with Brief Reference to the 
 Cigar Types,” in United States Bureau of Plant 
 Industry, Bulletin No. 2U (Washington, 1912) ; 
 Carl Werner, Textbook on Tobacco (4th ed., New 
 York, 1914). 
 
 TOBACCO-BOX SKATE. The common 
 
 small American skate {Raja erinacea ). See 
 Plate of Rays and Skates. 
 
 TOBACCO HEART. An irritable condition 
 of the heart occurring in many persons who use 
 toLacco to excess. Irregularity of cardiac action 
 and debility are the chief symptoms, which clear 
 up promptly on discontinuing the habit. See 
 Tobacco. 
 
 TOBACCO PESTS. The tobacco flea beetle 
 (Epitrix par vula ) is generally distributed 
 throughout the United States. It is a minute, 
 oval, reddish-brown species occurring upon many 
 solanaceous plants, which appears in July, at¬ 
 tacking the tobacco leaves, which soon become 
 spotted. The spots become holes and the leaf 
 is practically destroyed. In the larval state the 
 insect feeds upon the roots. The small holes 
 eaten by the beetles become entrance points for 
 bacteria, which start a leaf disease often more 
 injurious to the plant than the actual work of 
 the beetles. The so-called horn worms, or horn 
 blowers, of tobacco are the larvae of two sphingid 
 moths ( Protoparce Carolina and Phlegethontius 
 celeus) , large green caterpillars with oblique 
 white stripes on the sides of the body, and the 
 anal end of the body armed with a horn. These 
 larvae live upon tobacco leaves, transform to 
 pupae under ground, and the moths issue in 
 May or June. The eggs are laid singly on the 
 under side of the tobacco leaf just at nightfall. 
 There are two generations each summer in a 
 
 TOBACCO BEETLES. 
 
 a, tobacco flea beetle (Epitrix parvula), greatly enlarged; 
 b, leaves, as damaged by this flea beetle; c, green bug ( Eu - 
 schistus variolarius ). 
 
 large part of the tobacco-growing region. Two 
 insects, both larvae of noctuid moths, are known 
 as bud worms in tobacco fields. They are Helio- 
 this armiger (also known as bollworm (q.v.), 
 corn-ear worm, and tomato-fruit worm), which 
 preferably lives in the ears of corn until the 
 grain becomes hard, and therefore works in to¬ 
 bacco usually towards the end of the season, 
 and Heliothis rhexice. The latter is the true 
 
 bud worm. (See Colored Plate of American 
 Moths.) The adult is a small greenish moth, 
 and the larva is found in the bud of the plant 
 about the time it is ready to top. They trans¬ 
 form to pupae under the surface of the ground. 
 
 TOBACCO BUD WORMS. 
 
 a, moth of the true bud worm (Heliothis rhexia ); b, cater¬ 
 pillar of same; c, buds injured by false bud worm ( Heliothis 
 
 armiger ). 
 
 A true bug ( Dicyphus minimus ) damages the 
 second crop in late tobacco by puncturing the 
 leaves and sucking the cell sap. Infested leaves 
 become yellowish, somewhat wilted, and the 
 older ones eventually split in places, becoming 
 ragged. The bug, when immature, lives on the 
 under side of the leaves, but the adults live both 
 above and below. The eggs are deposited singly 
 in the tissues of the leaf and hatch after four 
 days. One entire generation is produced in 15 
 days. Several other sucking bugs puncture to¬ 
 bacco leaves, but are not serious enemies of the 
 crop, except, perhaps, the green bug ( Euschistus 
 variolarius ). 
 
 The tobacco leaf miner or split worm ( Phtho - 
 rimcea operculella) hatches from eggs laid upon 
 the leaves by a minute grayish moth, and bores 
 between the surfaces of the leaf, making a flat 
 mine often of considerable size. This insect is 
 a cosmopolitan species and works upon potatoes 
 as well as upon tobacco, boring into tubers as 
 well as leaves. Several species of cutworms 
 (q.v.) damage the tobacco plant early in the 
 season. A mealywing (q.v.) ( Aleyrodes tabaci) 
 damages the leaves of tobacco in Europe and in 
 the southern United States. The common mealy 
 bug {Dactylopius citri) affects the plant, as 
 also do several species of plant lice. Tobacco 
 thrips ( Thrips tabaci ) is an enemy of tobacco 
 in Bessarabia. It occurs upon plants in the 
 United States, especially upon onions, but has 
 not been found upon tobacco. 
 
 Most of the insects mentioned may be de¬ 
 stroyed by spraying the plants with an arsenical 
 mixture. Nearly all of them feed upon solana¬ 
 ceous plants, and a good plan is to allow a few 
 weeds of this family— Solanum nigrum or Datura 
 stramonium —to grow near the field which is to 
 be planted to tobacco. These weeds act as traps 
 for nearly all early tobacco insects, and they 
 can be treated with heavy doses of Paris green 
 for the leaf-feeding species, and with a spray 
 of kerosene emulsion and water for the sucking 
 bugs. Large numbers can thus be killed, greatly 
 to the protection of the young tobacco plants. 
 
 Dried tobacco is attacked and frequently 
 ruined, even after having been made up into 
 cigars and cigarettes, by the so-called cigarette 
 beetle ( Lasioderma serricorne), an insect which 
 works not only in tobacco, but in many other 
 dried herbs as well as certain dried foods. It is 
 a cosmopolitan species, and multiplies rapidly 
 
TOBIT 
 
 TOBACCO PIPE 
 
 317 
 
 throughout the greater part of the year, feeding 
 both as laivflB and as adults. The drug-store 
 beetle ( Sitodrepa panicea) and the common rice 
 weevil ( Calandra oryza) also feed upon dried 
 tobacco. These insects are destroyed by fumi¬ 
 gating the rooms or the establishments in which 
 they occur with bisulphid of carbon or hydro¬ 
 cyanic acid gas. 
 
 4 11 of ( tlie species above mentioned occur in the 
 United States, although several of them are cos- 
 mopolitan. In Europe 144 species are recorded 
 as occurring in tobacco fields. The most im¬ 
 portant of these, among the species which do not 
 occur in America, is a tenebrionid beetle ( Opa - 
 trum intermedium ), which injures the plant by 
 attacking the stems under ground. Consult L. 
 0. Howard, The Principal Insects Affecting the 
 Tobacco Plant (Washington, 1900). 
 
 TOBACCO PIPE. An implement for the 
 smoking of tobacco. The use of a pipe for smok¬ 
 ing herbs of various sorts dates from a period 
 when these plants were burned in a container 
 and the smoke employed for sacrifices or for 
 healing. Aside from the specimens discovered 
 in ancient sites in Europe, the greatest prehis- 
 toi ic distribution of the pipe is in America. Here 
 the widespread primitive form is a drilled tube 
 of stone, wood, bone, or pottery, in the form of a 
 laige cigar holder, evidently taking its shape 
 from that of a tube of cane. This type is found 
 almost exclusively west of the Mississippi, and 
 its early use was for blowing out smoke and not 
 for drawing it into the mouth. This form, when 
 put into clay, shows a later transition towards 
 the modern pipes by bending the stem. In the 
 eastern United States the prehistoric pipe shows 
 considerable modification of the original tube, and 
 some of the varieties are the monitor pipe with 
 the bowl set on a flat base perforated as a stem, 
 hour-glass pipes, biconical pipes, etc. The peace 
 pipe or calumet (q.v.) descends from the moni¬ 
 tor form. The red stone called catlinite, com¬ 
 monly. used for calumets, came into use in 
 historic times. The Alaskan Eskimo pipe is of 
 Asiatic form, with a very small cavity in a mush¬ 
 room bowl attached to a stem, while the Labra¬ 
 dor. Indian pipe is of a well-marked type, con¬ 
 sisting of a separate bowl of stone beautifully 
 worked and a short stem. Numerous examples 
 of sculptured pipes have been found in Ohio and 
 Illinois, and have been attributed to the so- 
 called mound builders. The tomahawk pipe was 
 introduced through trade by the French, English, 
 and Spanish, and certain tribes affected a certain 
 style of this pipe. 
 
 The ethnographic study of the pipe or its mod¬ 
 ification and adaptation to their uses by different 
 peoples shows not only that the spread of the 
 pipe into different environments has given rise 
 to a great number of inventions connected with 
 this utensil, but that their forms, materials, and 
 artistic conceptions have taken upon themselves 
 racial or tribal individuality, as, e.g., Turkish 
 and Chinese pipes. Most of the inventions have 
 grown out of the desire to cool the smoke and 
 relieve it of acrid principles, giving rise to the 
 great class of water pipes widespread in Asia 
 and Africa, as the hookah or narghile, and the 
 ornate Chinese water pipe, and in other countries 
 resulting in absorbing bowls, as the meerschaum, 
 clay, brier root, or other substances, as well as 
 devices for condensing the nicotine in a recep¬ 
 tacle below the bowl, as in the German lange 
 Pfeife. 1 he same result is attained by the long 
 stem of the pipe and by the long coiled tube of 
 
 the narghile. The opium pipe of China is a 
 special development with a large bowl having a 
 small aperture, and a large flute-shaped stem de¬ 
 signed for the inhalation of a small quantity of 
 fumes from a pellet of burning opium. The hemp 
 pipe of India is a form of water pipe in which 
 tobacco or a mixture of tobacco and hemp may 
 be smoked. The Chinese and Japanese prefer a 
 pipe with a very small bowl in which a pellet of 
 finely shredded tobacco is smoked. The Koreans 
 use a larger bowl with an extremely long stem. 
 In Africa the water pipe is rudely made of a 
 cow’s horn perforated for stem and bowl holder. 
 It is said that a Kaffir lacking a pipe will often 
 dig a small hole in the ground in which he puts 
 tobacco, fit a stem in position below it, and, 
 
 Vy lr i*-i? n b * s bel bb en j 0 y a smoke. Consult: 
 Aadaillac, Les pipes et le tabac (Paris, 1885); 
 McGuire, Pipes and Smoking Customs of the 
 American Aborigines (Washington, 1897). 
 
 TOBACCO WORM. See Tobacco Pests. 
 
 _ 49?^ or TAB A GO. An island of the 
 British West Indies, belonging to the Colony of 
 Irmidad, and situated 22 miles northeast of the 
 island of that name (Map: West Indies, G 5). 
 Area,. 114 square miles. It is of volcanic origin 
 and is mountainous, with peaks rising about 
 2000 feet above the sea. The climate is warm, 
 and the lainfall on the windward side amounts 
 to 66 inches. The chief products are cotton, 
 sugar, tobacco, coffee, rubber, and cacao, the 
 bulk of which are exported. Pop., 1901, 18,750; 
 1911, 20,/49, chiefly negroes. The chief town, 
 Scarborough, had, in 1911, 729 inhabitants. The 
 island was discovered by Columbus in 1498. It 
 was successively held by the British, Dutch, and 
 French, and was finally ceded to Great Britain 
 m 1814. 
 
 T9BERENTZ, to'be-rents, Robert (1849-95). 
 A German sculptor. He was born in Berlin, and 
 studied at the Academy there and then under 
 Schilling in Dresden. From 1872 to 1875 he 
 was in Rome. After his return to Berlin he 
 became a follower of Begas, in whose manner 
 he executed, among other works, the bronze fig¬ 
 ure of a “Shepherd Resting” (1878, National 
 Gallery). In 1879 he was appointed director 
 of a master studio connected with the Breslau 
 Museum, and after living in America in 1885- 
 89 returned to Berlin in 1890 and became pro¬ 
 fessor in 1895. He completed the “Luther Mon¬ 
 ument” of Paul Otto, in Berlin, modeled the 
 equestrian statue of Frederick Barbarossa for 
 the Kaiserhaus at Goslar, and made the statue 
 of Frederick the Great for the Royal Palace in 
 Berlin. 
 
 TOBIN BRONZE. See Alloy, Bronze. 
 TO'BIT, Book of (Gk. Tw/3err, Tobeit, Tu(3eid, 
 Tobeith, from Heb. Tobiydh, Yahwe is good). 
 One of the deuterocanonical books (q.v.) of the 
 Old Testament. The personage around whqm the 
 story of the book centres is Tobit of the tribe of 
 Naphtali, who was carried away to Assyria 
 by Shalmaneser. Here he obtains "an official po¬ 
 sition with the King, but loses it under Sen¬ 
 nacherib, and because he has buried certain 
 Jews killed by order of the King, he flees from 
 Nineveh. Ilis nephew, Achiacharus (see Acrn- 
 kar), pleads with the successor of Sennacherib, 
 and under Esarhaddon Tobit returns to Nine¬ 
 veh. Again he buries the dead, and while in an 
 “unclean” condition he sleeps outside the wall of 
 his courtyard and loses his eyesight. In his mis¬ 
 fortune he is supported by" his nephew Achia¬ 
 charus, but, taunted by his wife, Anna, he sends 
 
TOBOLSK 
 
 TOBLER 
 
 318 
 
 his son Tobias to collect an outstanding debt 
 in Ragse in Media. Tobias takes with him as 
 guide one Azarias (in reality Raphael, the 
 angel). On the way Tobias is attacked by a 
 fish, whose heart, liver, and gall he takes at 
 the command of Raphael. They, come to the 
 house of Raguel, a kinsman of his, and Tobias 
 marries Sarah, the only daughter of Raguel. 
 By burning the heart and liver 01 the fish m 
 the bridal' chamber the evil spirit, Asmodeus 
 (q.v.), who has already killed seven husbands of 
 Sarah, is driven away. The debt collected, the 
 three return to Nineveh, and Tobias applies the 
 gall of the fish to his father’s eyes and their 
 sight is restored. Tobit dies at Nineveh and is 
 buried there; Tobias dies at Ecbatana, yet not 
 before he has heard of the destruction of Nineveh 
 by Nebuchadnezzar. The book was probably 
 written in the first half of the second century 
 b.c. It is very generally held that it was com¬ 
 posed in Egypt, on account of the flight of the 
 demon to Egypt, and the dependence upon the 
 Achikar story which was known to Egyptian 
 Jews in the fifth century b.c., and possibly the 
 stories of Khons and of the Grateful Dead. But 
 it is not certain that, in the original text, the 
 demon fled to Egypt, and the matter does not 
 seem to have any real bearing on the place of 
 composition; the story of Achikar is likely to have 
 reached the Jews in Yeb from Syria or Meso¬ 
 potamia in its earlier Aramaic form (see 
 Achikar; Elephantine Papyri). The similar¬ 
 ity to the story of Khons is very slight, and 
 that of the Grateful Dead has not been found 
 at all in Egypt. Tobit appears to have been 
 written originally in Hebrew or Aramaic, and 
 such terms as Ather and Atliuria speak in fai 01 
 of the Aramaic. In the Ptolemaic period, how¬ 
 ever, the Jews in Egypt wrote in Greek; an 
 Aramaic book is more likely to have been wiit- 
 ten in Palestine. The geographical error of 
 placing the Tigris between Nineveh and Ec¬ 
 batana seems to exclude an origin in Adiabene, 
 Media, or Mesopotamia. The emphasis upon 
 the wickedness of exposing the dead, and the 
 virtue of burying those that are exposed in 
 public places, cannot be accounted for by the 
 example of the patriarchs in Genesis; it is mani¬ 
 festly a protest against the Mazdayasnian cus¬ 
 tom of exposing the dead and the prohibition 
 against burying them. The Greek manuscripts 
 present three divergent types: Codex T aticanus 
 and Codex Alexandrinus probably represent the 
 earliest, Codex Sinaiticus a somewhat later, and 
 some minuscules as well as the Oxyrhvncus papy¬ 
 rus 1076 a mixed test. The Aramaic versions 
 are made from the Greek, as are also the 
 Latin, Hebrew, Syriac, and Ethiopic transla¬ 
 tions. Consult: A. Neubauer, The Book of 
 Tobit (Oxford, 1878) ; Theodor Noldeke, in 
 Monatsberichte dev Berliner A ka demie (Berlin, 
 1879) ; J. Rendel Harris, in American Journal 
 of Theology, vol. iii (Chicago, 1899); Max 
 Lohr, in E. Kautzsch, Die Apokryphen und 
 P seudepigraphen des Alten Testaments (Tu¬ 
 bingen, 1900) ; D. G. Simpson, in R. H. Charles, 
 Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testa¬ 
 ment (Oxford, 1913). See Apocrypha; Deu- 
 terocanonical Books. 
 
 TOBLER, tf/bler, Adolf (1835-1910). A 
 Swiss Romance philologist, born at Hirzel, Can¬ 
 ton of Zurich, and educated at the universities of 
 Bonn and Paris. In 1867 he became professor 
 at the University of Berlin, and in 1881 a mem¬ 
 ber of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. His 
 
 monographs on philological subjects are many, 
 and his researches have contributed greatly to 
 the knowledge of Old French syntax. In 1895 
 a Festgabe was presented to him by his pupils 
 and friends. His publications include: Ge- 
 dichte von Jehan de Condet (1860) ; Mitteilungen 
 aus alt franzosischen Handschriften (1870); Li 
 dis dou vrai aniel (1871; 2d ed., 1884); Tom 
 franzosischen Yersbau alter und neuer Zeit 
 (1880; 4th ed., 1903; French trans., 1885); 
 TJguQon des Laodho (1884) ; Girard Pat eg 
 (1886); Vermischte Beitrdge zur franzosischen 
 Grammatik (five series, 1886—1912; French 
 trans., 1905); an edition of Li proverbe an 
 vilain (1895). The first Lieferung of his monu¬ 
 mental Altfranzbsisches Worterbuch appeared 
 in 1915 (Berlin) under the editorship of E. 
 Lommatzsch. 
 
 TOBLER, Titus (1806-77). A Swiss Orien¬ 
 tal scholar. He was born at Stein, Canton of 
 Appenzell, studied and practiced medicine, 
 traveled in Palestine, and, after taking part in 
 the political affairs of Switzerland, settled in 
 1871 at Munich. His principal work is Topo- 
 graphie von Jerusalem und seinen Umgebungen 
 (1853-54), which was supplemented by Beitrag 
 zur medizinischen Topographie von Jerusalem 
 (1855); Planographie von Jerusalem (1858); 
 Dritte Wanderung nach Paldstina (1859); Bib- 
 liographia Geographica Palestinee (1867). Con¬ 
 sult H. J. Heim, Titus Tober: Paldstinafahrer 
 (Zurich, 1879). 
 
 TOBOGGANING (from North American 
 
 Indian otobanask, odabagan, sled). Coasting 
 upon smooth slopes of snow or ice upon a 
 special sled with no runners beneath its flat 
 surface. It seems to have been improvised by 
 the Indian hunters, who used it to bring in 
 their game over the snow. With them it was 
 simply a strip of bark turned up at the front 
 and braced by strips or pieces of wood running 
 both crosswise and along the edges. Among the 
 Eskimos it was made from strips of whalebone. 
 It is of the same primitive pattern to-day, ex¬ 
 cept that in some cases a light rail runs along 
 its sides. For recreation purposes it is usually 
 made of thin strips of ash, maple, or hickory, 
 slightly oval on the bearing surface, placed side 
 by side and fastened at the ends, the undei sui - 
 face being highly polished. The ordinary to¬ 
 boggan is about 18 inches wide and 6 to 8 feet 
 long. The steersman sits crouching, one leg 
 bent, the other stretched behind him to be used 
 as a rudder, for which purpose his moccasin 
 has a hard leather steering tip. In some cities, 
 especially Montreal, chutes are constructed for 
 this sport. See Coasting. 
 
 TOBOLSK', Russ. pron. to-bol'y’sk. A gov¬ 
 ernment of west Siberia (Map: Asia, J 2). 
 Area, estimated at 539,659 square miles. The 
 surface is flat with, the exception of the noith- 
 western part, which is covered with offshoots 
 of the Ural Mountains, attaining an altitude 
 of over 4000 feet. The larger part of the north 
 belongs to the region of tundras and is practi¬ 
 cally "uninhabited. The southern part is some¬ 
 what undulating and consists to a large extent 
 of forest land and vast steppes, well watered 
 and with a rich black soil which makes that part 
 of the government one of the richest agricul¬ 
 tural regions in the Empire. The chief water¬ 
 way is the Obi (q.v.), which, with its great 
 tributary, the Irtysh (q.v.), drains almost the 
 entire region. Lakes are very numerous and 
 some of them are salty. The climate is con- 
 
TOBOLSK 
 
 319 
 
 TOCQUEVILLE 
 
 tinental and severe, the average annual tempera¬ 
 ture varying from 24° F. at Berezov (q.v.) in 
 the north to about 32° F. at Tobolsk in the 
 south. Considerable quantities of grain are ex¬ 
 ported. Wheat and rye are the principal prod¬ 
 ucts. Dairying is a growing industry and the 
 export of butter exceeds $1,500,000 per annum. 
 The manufactures are chiefly paper, cloth, 
 spirits, leather, and glassware. Of the popula¬ 
 tion, estimated at 2,005,500 in 1914, the non- 
 Russian element numbered only about 100,000, 
 composed chiefly of Tatars, Ostiaks, Samoyeds, 
 and Voguls. 
 
 TOBOLSK. The capital of the government 
 of the same name in west Siberia, situated on 
 the Irtysh, 172 miles north of Tiumen, the ter¬ 
 minal of the North Siberian Railway (Map: 
 Asia, H 3). It is well built and has a pictur¬ 
 esque appearance with its Kremlin and numer¬ 
 ous churches. The proximity of marshes makes 
 the town unhealth ful. Its importance has 
 greatly diminished since the construction of the 
 Trans-Siberian Railway, but it retains commer¬ 
 cial importance, owing to its position at the 
 junction of the Irtysh and the Tobol. Its chief 
 industries are fishing and fur making. Tobolsk 
 was founded in 1587 and is the ancient capital 
 of Siberia. Pop., 1910, 21,405. 
 
 TOBY, M. P. See Lucy, Sir Henry. 
 
 TOBY, Uncle. A leading character in 
 Sterne’s Tristram Shandy. He is a retired sea 
 captain, simple, kindly, and gallant, said to 
 have been modeled on Sterne’s father. 
 
 TOCANTINS, to'kan-tens', Portug. pron. to r - 
 kaN-teNsh', Rio. A large river of Brazil (Map: 
 Brazil, H 3). It rises in the southern part of 
 the State of Goyaz, and flows northward, empty¬ 
 ing into the Atlantic Ocean through the large 
 estuary known as the Rio Para (q.v.), which 
 communicates with the estuary of the Ama¬ 
 zon. The total length of the Tocantins is about 
 1700 miles. About 600 miles from its mouth 
 it receives the Araguaya (q.v.), which flows 
 nearly parallel with, and exceeds in length, the 
 main river from the point of confluence. The 
 Tocantins is obstructed in several places by 
 rocky reefs formed by spurs of the cordillera 
 which it skirts. The last of these, the Falls 
 of Itaboca, are situated below the confluence 
 of the Araguayfl, only 130 miles above the es¬ 
 tuary, and completely obstruct navigation. 
 Small steamers, however, ply on the upper 
 reaches, though the country along the banks is 
 very sparsely populated and its resources almost 
 undeveloped. 
 
 TOCCATA, tok-ka'ta (It., touched). In 
 music, a term originally applied to compositions 
 written for keyed instruments, thus having a 
 somewhat more restricted meaning than sonata, 
 a composition for any instrument. The oldest 
 toccatas preserved are some written for the 
 organ by Claudio Merulo (published 1598). 
 They generally begin with full chords which 
 gradually give way to passage work among 
 which small fugato sections are interspersed. 
 The modern toccato does not materially differ 
 from that of Merulo. 
 
 TOCCOA, tok'6-a. A city and the county seat 
 of Stephens County, Ga., 93 miles northeast of 
 Atlanta, on the Southern Railway (Map: 
 Georgia, C 1). Toccoa is both a summer and 
 winter resort, being noted for its springs of 
 chalybeate and sulphur waters, and for the 
 famous Toccoa Falls, with a perpendicular de¬ 
 scent of 186 feet. There are manufactories of 
 
 cotton goods and yarns, furniture, and cotton¬ 
 seed oil. Pop., 1900, 2176; 1910, 3120. 
 
 TOCHER, td'Ger (Ir. tochar, Gael, tochradh, 
 dowry, portion). In the Scotch law, an ancient 
 name for money or property given or settled by 
 a father on his daughter at her marriage. 
 
 TOCHIGI, to'che-gg. A town in the Prefec¬ 
 ture of Tochigi in central Hondo, Japan, 55 
 miles by rail north of Tokyo (Map: Japan, F 5). 
 It is of some industrial importance and had in 
 1908 a population of 26,301. 
 
 TO'CORO'RO. A Cuban trogon ( Priotelus 
 temnurus) , named from its cry. It breeds in 
 holes abandoned by woodpeckers, and is re¬ 
 markable for the concave outline of the end 
 of its short tail. 
 
 TOCQUEVILLE, tok'veF, Alexis Charles 
 Henri Clerel de (1805-59). A French states¬ 
 man and political philosopher, born at Verneuil, 
 in the Department of Seine-et-Oise. At the 
 Restoration his father was made a peer of 
 France. Hiis mother was a granddaughter of 
 Malesherbes, the academician, political writer, 
 and magistrate, who defended Louis XVI at 
 the bar of the Convention. Alexis de Tocque- 
 ville studied law, was admitted to the bar in 
 1825, traveled in Italy, and on his return be¬ 
 came an assistant magistrate at Versailles. In 
 1831 he gave up his appointment at Versailles, 
 and with his colleague there, Gustave de Beau¬ 
 mont, accepted a government mission to Amer¬ 
 ica, to study the working of the penitentiary 
 system. The commissioners, after their return 
 to Europe, published their report ( Du systeme 
 penitentiaire aux Etats-Unis, 1832; Eng. trans., 
 Philadelphia, 1833), an admirable work, which 
 modified all the ideas previously entertained in 
 France regarding prison discipline. An impor¬ 
 tant result of his travels was his great work 
 De la democratie en Am6rique, published in 
 1835. In his introduction he sought to show 
 that a great democratic revolution had for cen¬ 
 turies been going on in Europe. There is a 
 general progress towards social equality. In 
 France it has always been borne on by chance, 
 the intelligent and moral classes of the nation 
 never having sought to guide it. In America 
 he found that the same revolution had been 
 going on more rapidly than in Europe, and had 
 indeed nearly reached its limit in the absolute 
 equality of conditions. There, accordingly, he 
 thinks we may see what may sometime happen 
 in Europe. The work made a profound impres¬ 
 sion. Its author was elected to the Academy 
 of Moral Science in 1836 and to the French 
 Academy in 1841. 
 
 In 1835 De Tocqueville visited England, where 
 he received an enthusiastic welcome from the 
 leaders of the Whig party. In 1837 he was 
 defeated as a candidate for the Chamber of 
 Deputies frpm Valognes, but two years after 
 he was elected bv an overwhelming majority, 
 and ranged himself with the Moderate Opposi¬ 
 tion party. After the February Revolution he 
 was a formidable opponent of the Socialists and 
 extreme Republicans, as well as of the parti¬ 
 sans of Louis Napoleon. He became, in 1849, 
 vice president of the Legislative Assembly, and 
 from June to October in the same year was 
 Minister of Foreign Affairs. During that time 
 he defended the policy of the expedition to 
 Rome, on the ground that it would secure lib¬ 
 eral institutions to the states of the Church. 
 After the coup d’etat of December, 1851, he re¬ 
 tired to Tocqueville, where he devoted himself 
 
TOCUYO 
 
 320 
 
 TODD 
 
 to agricultural pursuits. In 1856 appeared his 
 second great work, L’Ancien regime et la revo¬ 
 lution. In June, 1858, he took up his abode 
 at Cannes, where he died. De Tocqueville’s 
 Oeuvres et correspondance inedites were pub¬ 
 lished (1860) by his friend De Beaumont, who 
 prefixed a biographical notice. His Memoires 
 are a valuable contribution to the history of 
 the revolution of 1848 and the coup d’6tat. An 
 English translation, The Recollections of Alexis 
 de Tocqueville, was published in New York in 
 1896. Consult: H. Jacques, Alexis de Tocque¬ 
 ville (Vienna, 1876) ; Bryce, “The Predictions 
 of Hamilton and de Tocqueville,” and H. B. 
 Adams, “Jared Sparks and Alexis de Tocque¬ 
 ville,” in Johns Hopkins University Studies in 
 History and Political Sciences, series 5, vol. ix, 
 and series 16, vol. xii (Baltimore, 1887 and 
 1904);' Henry Sidgwick, “Alexis de Tocque¬ 
 ville,” in Miscellaneous Essays and Addresses 
 (New York, 1904) ; also Correspondance entre 
 A. de Tocqueville et Arthur de Gobineau (Paris, 
 1908). 
 
 TOCUYO, t6-koo r yo. A town of the State of 
 Lara, Venezuela, 180 miles southwest of Cara¬ 
 cas, on the Tocuyo River. The valley of this 
 river is one of the richest agricultural and 
 grazing districts of the Republic, producing in 
 abundance sugar cane, wheat, coffee, and cacao. 
 Besides exporting these products Tocuyo has 
 wool and leather manufactures, salt works, and 
 household weaving. Tocuyo was founded in 
 1535. Pop. (est.),4775. 
 
 TODAS, to'daz. A people of the Nilgiri Hills 
 in southern Hindustan, considered to be of 
 Dravidian stock. They are tall, well-built, 
 dolichocephalic, with prominent nose, features 
 approaching the Caucasian, full beard, black 
 hair, and rather light-brown skin. They live 
 a simple pastoral life and are concerned almost 
 solely with the care of the dairy. They form 
 a typical polyandrous community in which when 
 a woman marries it is understood that she be¬ 
 comes the wife of her husband’s brothers. Con¬ 
 sult Marshall, A Phrenologist Among the Todas 
 (London, 1873), and W. LI. R. Rivers, The Todas 
 (ib., 1906). 
 
 TODD, Alpheus (1821-84). A Canadian 
 author and librarian. He was born in London, 
 England, and went with his parents to Canada 
 in 1833. In 1856 he became principal librarian 
 and constitutional adviser to both Houses at 
 Ottawa, and he expended £10,000 abroad in pur¬ 
 chasing books for the parliamentary library. 
 Upon confederation in 1867, he was appointed 
 librarian to the Dominion Parliament. His 
 writings on constitutional law and parliamentary 
 government, which take high rank, include: The 
 Practice and Privileges of the Two Houses of 
 Parliament (1839); Brief Suggestions in Re¬ 
 gard to the Formation of Local Governments 
 for Upper and Lower Canada, in Connection 
 xoith a Federal Union of the British North 
 American Provinces (1866); On Parliamentary 
 Government in England (1867) ; On Parliamen¬ 
 tary Government in the British Colonies (1880). 
 
 TODD, Charles Burr (1849- ). An 
 
 American historian, born at Redding, Conn. In 
 1895 he was secretary of the committee ap¬ 
 pointed by Mayor Strong for the printing of 
 early records of New York City. He wrote: 
 A General History of the Burr Family (1879; 
 4th ed., 1902) ; History of Redding, Conn. 
 
 (1880; 2d ed., 1907) ; The Story of Washington, 
 the National Capital (1897) ; The Real Benedict 
 
 Arnold (1903); In Olde Massachusetts (1907); 
 The Washington’s Crossing Sketch Book (1914). 
 
 TODD, David (Peck) (1855- ). An 
 
 American astronomer, born at Lake Ridge, 
 N. Y., and educated at Amherst College. He was 
 assistant to the United States Transit of Venus 
 Commission in 1875-78, and his reductions of 
 the observations were the first derived from the 
 American photographs. He took charge of the 
 Lick Observatory observations of the transit 
 of Venus in 1882. He led eclipse expedi¬ 
 tions to Japan in 1887 and 1896, to West Africa 
 in 1889-90, to the Dutch East Indies in 1901, to 
 Tripoli in 1900 and 1905, the Mars expedition 
 to the Andes in 1907, and an expedition to Rus¬ 
 sia in 1914. His publications include: A Con¬ 
 tinuation of De Damoiseau’s Tables of the Sat¬ 
 ellites of Jupiter to the Year 1900 (1876; also 
 extended back to 1665), used by American and 
 foreign nautical almanacs; A New Astronomy 
 (1897; new ed., 1906); Stars and Telescopes 
 (1899); Lessons in Astronomy (1902). 
 
 His wife, Mabel Loomis Todd, daughter of 
 Eben Jenks Loomis (q.v.), wrote on astronomy, 
 travel, anthropology, etc., and edited the Poems 
 and Letters of Emily Dickinson. 
 
 TODD, Henry Alfred (1854- ). An 
 
 American Romance philologist, born at Wood- 
 stock, Ill. He was educated at Princeton (A.B., 
 1876), at Paris, Berlin, and Madrid (1880-83), 
 and at Johns Hopkins (Ph.D., 1885), where he 
 taught for several years. After holding the 
 chair of Romance languages at Stanford in 
 1891-93, he became professor of Romance philol¬ 
 ogy at Columbia. In 1910, with Raymond 
 Weeks (q.v.) and other scholars, he founded the 
 Romanic Review, the first learned review in 
 English devoted entirely to the Romance lan¬ 
 guages. As a member of the advisory council 
 of the Simplified Spelling Board, Todd took a 
 prominent part in the reform of English ortho¬ 
 graphy. In 1906 he was president of the Mod¬ 
 ern Language Association of America. Among 
 his publications are La panthere d’amour, an 
 allegorical poem of the thirteenth century, the 
 first text to be edited by a foreigner in the series 
 of the Societe des Anciens Textes Frangais 
 (1883) ; Guillaume de Dole, in which he showed 
 that the so-called Roman de la rose of the Vati¬ 
 can is the unique text of an important poem an¬ 
 tedating by about 40 years the first part of the 
 celebrated Roman de la rose (1887); La nais- 
 sance du Chevalier au Cygne, an important 
 French poem of the twelfth century, embodying 
 the earliest form of the Lohengrin legend 
 (1889). 
 
 TODD, John (1800-73). An American Con¬ 
 gregational minister. He was born at Rutland, 
 Vt., and graduated at Yale College in 1822, 
 and at Andover Theological Seminary in 1826. 
 He was pastor successively at Groton and 
 Northampton, Mass., at Philadelphia, and at 
 Pittsfield, Mass. He was one of the founders 
 of Mount Holyoke Female Seminary (later 
 College). He had a vigorous and original mind, 
 much practical shrewdness and wit, and fine 
 descriptive power. Some of his works had a 
 large circulation, especially The Student’s 
 Manual (1835; 20th ed., 1853). Dr. Todd wrote 
 many books for children and young people. His 
 complete works appeared in London (new ed., 
 1882, 6 parts). 
 
 TODD, Robert Bentley (1809-60). A Brit¬ 
 ish physician, born in Dublin, and educated 
 there at Trinity College. The first part of .his 
 
TODDY CAT 
 
 321 
 
 TOGA 
 
 C yclopcedia of Anatomy and Physiology was 
 published in 1835 and the entire work was com¬ 
 pleted in 1859. Todd was professor of physi¬ 
 ology and general and morbid anatomy at King’s 
 College, London, from 1836 to 1853. ' Todd was 
 known for his pioneer work in the treatment 
 of fevers and inflammations. He published sev¬ 
 eral medical works. 
 
 TODDY CAT. See Palm Civet. 
 
 TOD'HUN'TER, Isaac (1820-84). An Eng¬ 
 lish mathematician. He was educated at Uni¬ 
 versity College, London, and at St. John’s Col¬ 
 lege, Cambridge. He was elected fellow of 
 St. John’s in 1845, and the rest of his life 
 was devoted to mathematical writing and teach- 
 ing, and to the study of philosophy and of lan¬ 
 guages. He was a fellow of the Royal Society 
 (1862). Todhunter’s textbooks were the most 
 popular ones ever published in England. They 
 include, besides a number of elementary text¬ 
 books: Differential and Integral Calculus 
 
 (1852); Analytical Statics (1853); Analytical 
 Geometry of Three Dimensions (1858) ; History 
 of the Progress of the Calculus of Variations 
 During the Nineteenth Century (1861) ; History 
 of Probability (1865); History of the Mathe¬ 
 matical Theories of Attraction (1873); Re¬ 
 searches on the Calculus of Variations (1871); 
 Treatise of Laplace’s, Lamp’s, and Bessel’s Func¬ 
 tions (1875) ; History of the Theory of Elastic¬ 
 ity (posthumous, 1886). Consult: Proceedings 
 of the London Mathematical Society (London, 
 1884), with list of writings; Proceedings of 
 the Royal Society, vol. xxvii (ib., 1884). 
 
 TODHUNTEIt, John (1839- ). An 
 
 Irish author and scholar, born in Dublin, Ire¬ 
 land. He graduated in medicine at Trinity Col¬ 
 lege, Dublin, in 1866, and continued his medi¬ 
 cal studies in Vienna and Paris. After practic¬ 
 ing his profession for a time in Dublin, he 
 became professor of English literature in Alex¬ 
 andra College, Dublin (1870-74). After trav¬ 
 eling on the Continent and in Egypt, he finally 
 settled in London. His work includes: Laurella 
 and Other Poems (1876) ; Forest Songs (1881) ; 
 The Banshee and Other Poems (1888); Three 
 Irish Bardic Tales (1896); Heine’s Book of 
 Songs (1907), a translation. His dramas in¬ 
 clude: Alcestis (1879); Rienzi (1881); Helena 
 in Troas (1885) ; A Sicilian Idyll (1890) ; The 
 Poison Flower (1891); The Black Cat (per¬ 
 formed in 1893). His prose comprises: The 
 Theory of the Beautiful (1872); A Study of 
 Shelley (1880) ; and A Life of Patrick Sarsfield 
 (1895). 
 
 TODI, to'de. A town in the Province of 
 Perugia, Italy, situated on an abrupt hill near 
 the Tiber, 23 miles south of Perugia (Map: 
 Italy, D 3 ). Its Etruscan origin is shown in its 
 dilapidated walls and numerous tombs. Its fine 
 remains of the Roman period include a temple 
 or basilica, a theatre, and amphitheatre. The 
 Romanesque cathedral has a huge tower and 
 frescoes by Lo Spagna. The Renaissance 
 Church of Santa Maria della Consolazione, a 
 massive structure surmounted by a slender, 
 soaring dome, is simple but wonderfully im¬ 
 pressive. The splendid Gothic Palazzo Comun- 
 ale contains a small picture gallery. Todi, the 
 Umbrian Tuder, was the scene of" the decisive 
 victory of Narses over the Goths in 552. Pop. 
 (commune), 1901, 16,561; 1911, 17,032. 
 
 TODLEBEN, Franz Eduard Ivanovitch. 
 See Totleben, F. E. I. 
 
 TOD'MORDEN, locally ta'mor-den. A mar¬ 
 
 ket-town in Lancashire, England, on the border 
 of Yorkshire, 6 miles north-northeast of Roch¬ 
 dale. Cotton manufactures form the staple in¬ 
 dustry; coal abounds in the neighborhood, and 
 there are foundries and machine works. Pop , 
 1911, 25,404. 1 
 
 TODY (from Lat. todus, sort of small bird). 
 Any of several species of small West Indian 
 birds forming the family Todidae, and related to 
 the kingfishers, bee eaters, and motmots (qq.v.). 
 They are less than three inches long with a short 
 tail and long bill. The plumage is brilliant, 
 grass-green, carmine-red, and white. They 
 breed in holes in banks and lay white eggs. The 
 best-known species is the common green tody 
 (Todus viridis) of Jamaica, a familiar and use¬ 
 ful little bird, often called robin redbreast by 
 English residents. The name tody is incor¬ 
 rectly applied to rollers, barbets, and other 
 highly colored tropical birds, even in the East 
 Indies. See Plate of Wrens, Warblers, etc. 
 
 TOE, Wry. See Hallux Valgus. 
 
 TOFT, Albert (1862- ). An English 
 
 sculptor. He was born in Birmingham, and at 
 first worked as a modeler with Wedgwood and 
 .Sons. He studied at the Newcastle-under-Lyme 
 School of Art, and at the Royal College of Art, 
 London, and first attracted favorable attention 
 with his ££ Fate-Led” (1892; Walker Art Gal¬ 
 lery, Liverpool). This was followed by ££ The 
 Sere and Yellow Leaf” (1892); ££ The Oracle” 
 (1894) ; “The Goblet of Life” (1894) ; “Spring” 
 (Birmingham Museum) ; “Hagar” (1899) ; “Vic¬ 
 tory” (1900); and the “Spirit of Contempla¬ 
 tion” (1901), perhaps his best effort. His ideal 
 statues, although realistic in conception, show 
 considerable imaginative quality, and the model¬ 
 ing is vigorous and sure. In another field are 
 memorials to Robert Owen, Queen Victoria 
 (Nottingham), and King Edward (Birming¬ 
 ham), the Welsh National War Memorial, and 
 busts of several noted men. Toft also did good 
 work as a medalist and decorative sculptor, and 
 published Modeling and Sculpture (1911). 
 
 TOGA (Lat., mantle). The principal outer 
 garment of the Roman citizen, worn over a shirt 
 [tunica). For ordinary citizens the toga was 
 pure white in color ( toga virilis, toga pura) : 
 boys, and most of the magistrates, wore togas 
 with a border of crimson ( toga prcetexta) . At 
 a triumph (q.v.), the victorious generals ap¬ 
 peared in a toga entirely of crimson embroidered 
 with gold ( toga picta) , worn over a tunica of 
 similar character ( tunica palmat a) . Candi¬ 
 dates for public office presented themselves in 
 togas freshly cleansed and artificially whitened 
 (Candida , shining). On the other hand, per¬ 
 sons in mourning for any reason wore carelessly 
 arranged and soiled togas [sordida), or even 
 those artificially darkened [pulla) . Its ma¬ 
 terial was wool, closely woven, and fulled, with 
 a combed nap, making it (at least in late Re¬ 
 publican and early Imperial days) cumbrous, 
 expensive, and (except in winter) too heavy. 
 The shape of the toga, like its size, the elabora¬ 
 tion of its folds, and the way it was worn, varied 
 at different times. It was less voluminous in 
 earlier days. By the beginning of the Empire it 
 must have been fully twice as long as the wearer 
 was tall, of elliptical shape, folded lengthwise, 
 hanging over the left shoulder (with the fold 
 towards the neck) so that the end rested a few 
 inches upon the floor in front. The rest of the 
 garment was passed around the back, under the 
 right arm, and thrown backward over the left 
 
TOGASASTI 
 
 TOGO 
 
 322 
 
 shoulder, so that the end hung down behind, but 
 cleared the ground. The folds were most care¬ 
 fully and systematically arranged (later, pins or 
 clasps were used), the end depending in front was 
 raised to clear the floor, and the slack (nodus, 
 umbo) allowed to hang down over the mass of 
 folds (sinus) that crossed the front of the body 
 towards the left shoulder. It gave place under 
 the Empire, except on formal occasions, to 
 lighter and more convenient garments, chiefly 
 of foreign origin. Consult the article “Toga” 
 in William Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and 
 Roman Antiquities, vol. ii (3d ed., London, 
 1891) ; H. W. Johnston, The Private Life of the 
 Romans (Chicago, 1903). See Costume. 
 
 TOGASASTI. See Tagosati. 
 
 TOGGLE JOINT (probably connected with 
 ME. tog gen, tug gen, to tug). A mechanical 
 appliance acting on the principle of the inclined 
 plane. Let ad and ag represent the arms of 
 the toggle joint, with the joint at a. Then, if 
 the arms are brought to a perpendicular, the 
 end d being stationary, the point a will move 
 through the arc ab to b, and at each point in the 
 arc in the direction of a tangent at that point. 
 As the point a approaches b the tangent will. 
 
 become more and more hori¬ 
 zontal, and at last perpendic¬ 
 ular to the arms ad and ag. 
 When they form one and the 
 same straight line the weight 
 w will have been raised to 
 twice the height be. The 
 form in the figure here pre¬ 
 sented is given to show 
 more clearly the action of the 
 knee and elbow joints in man, 
 but that which is more fre¬ 
 quently used, particularly in 
 mechanical presses (to which 
 the appliance is peculiarly 
 adapted), makes the ends d 
 and g of the arms approach 
 each other, applying the power at a making ac 
 the perpendicular. It will be seen that on the 
 application of power the motion of the point a 
 will at first be quite rapid (when the material 
 to be pressed, such as hay or cotton, is loose), 
 becoming slower and slower as the points d and 
 g approach each other, so that when both arms 
 become very nearly perpendicular the weight 
 or resistance will move very slowly; but the 
 power will be extremely great, and adapted to 
 the resistance offered by the greatly compressed 
 bale. See Inclined Plane. 
 
 TOGHRA, to'Gra. A term in Turkey for the 
 cipher or signature of the Sultan reigning over 
 the Ottoman Empire. This cipher, changing 
 with every reign and with the name of the 
 ruler, displays the Arabic characters which make 
 up his name and title in a whorl-like form, 
 which reads from right to left. It appears on 
 the coinage of the realm, on postage stamps, 
 the Imperial buildings, and in any place where 
 a coat of arms would be displayed in a European 
 monarchy. 
 
 The word Toghra is derived from the Turkish 
 verb toghramak, to cleave, to cut, to mark, 
 having in this respect a derivation not unlike 
 that of the English phrase “to make his mark,” 
 used of signatures. 
 
 A legend, often quoted, represents the Toghra, 
 whose convolutions are not unlike those on the 
 thumb, as having been made by a sultan dip¬ 
 ping his thumb in ink, which some ingenious 
 
 calligrapher modified into a cipher of the royal 
 name. But the date of this legend, which is as¬ 
 sociated with the illiterate Othman who founded 
 the Ottoman dynasty, falls some two centuries 
 later than the use of the word for the royal 
 sign manual. Under a Seljuk sultan, Malik 
 Shah, better known as Jalal din (1072-1104), 
 a Persian poet, Abou Esmail Hosein (1063- 
 1121), bore the title of Toghrayi. A contem¬ 
 porary speaks of him as the officer whose duty 
 it was to write upon firmans and other instru¬ 
 ments the Sultan’s signature, which was ac¬ 
 cepted as written by the Sultan himself. 
 
 It is not uncommon for an Oriental ruler 
 to affect an inability to write. The Emperor 
 of China simply made his mark with a ver¬ 
 milion pencil. The Sultan of Morocco—often 
 in cases where he, as with Mulai Hassen, was 
 one of the best-educated men in the Empire— 
 placed a scroll at the end of the documents he 
 signed. 
 
 The Toghra was selected anew by each ruler 
 and has analogies to the French paraph. It 
 seems to be the case that the Turkish sultans 
 originally made their mark. This was suc¬ 
 ceeded by an intricate calligraphic cipher, giv¬ 
 ing the name and title. In time this came to be 
 accepted as signifying a ruler’s assent, and, as 
 the English Chancellor affixes the royal seal, so 
 the Toghrayi performed the same office. 
 
 TOGO, to'go, or TOGOLANE. A territory in 
 West Africa, bounded by Dahomey on the east, 
 the Gulf of Guinea on the south, the Gold Coast 
 Colony on the west, and the colony of Upper 
 Senegal and Niger on the north (Map: Africa, 
 E 4). Area, estimated at about 33,700 square 
 miles. The low sandy coast rises towards the 
 interior, which is mostly undulating and trav¬ 
 ersed by the Aposso Mountains, entering from 
 northern Dahomey. The chief rivers are the 
 Mono, the Dako, the Sio, and the Haho. There 
 are many coast lagoons. The climate is moist 
 and unhealthful. Togo possesses abundant nat¬ 
 ural resources. Extensive coconut plantations 
 have been established along the coast, and good 
 crops of corn and rice are raised. Tobacco and 
 coffee are also cultivated. The chief products 
 for export are palm kernels, palm oil, rubber, 
 ivory, and copra. The imports and exports 
 amounted in 1913 to 10,631,000 and 9,138,000 
 marks respectively. The chief ports are Lome, 
 which is also the seat of administration, and 
 Little Popo. There are 327 kilometers of rail¬ 
 way: Lome-Anecho (Little Popo), 44 kilometers; 
 Lome-Palime, 119 kilometers; Lome-Atakpame, 
 164 kilometers. The native population is esti¬ 
 mated at 1,032,000; white population, Jan. 1, 
 1913, 368, of whom 320 were German. Togo- 
 land was declared a German protectorate in 
 1884. On Aug. 7, 1914, it was seized by British 
 and French forces. See War in Europe. 
 
 TOGO, Heihachiro, Count (1847- ). A 
 
 Japanese admiral, born in Kagoshima, of a 
 Samurai family. He entered the navy in 1863, 
 fought in the Civil War of 1868, and after¬ 
 ward received training on the British ship 
 Worcester, and at the Naval College, Greenwich. 
 As captain of the cruiser Nanhca in 1894 he 
 precipitated the war with China by firing upon 
 and sinking the Chinese transport Kowshing. 
 At the end of the war he was made rear ad¬ 
 miral, and in 1900 became vice admiral with his 
 station at Maizuru. As commander in chief 
 of the combined Japanese fleet he delivered the 
 first great blow of the Russo-Japanese War by 
 
TOGUE 
 
 323 
 
 TOKYO 
 
 his torpedo attack on the enemy’s fleet at Port 
 Arthur on the night of Feb. 8-9, 1904. For 
 his career in the war, see Russo-Japanese War. 
 In 19]2 lie was admiral of the fleet, and he also 
 held the post of chief of the naval general staff. 
 Togo was honored with the British Order of 
 Merit. 
 
 TOGUE, tog. See Namaycush. 
 
 TOILERS OF THE SEA. See Travailleurs 
 
 DE LA MER. 
 
 TOKAIDO, to-kl'dd. An ancient division of 
 Hondo, the principal island of Japan, occupying 
 the eastern part of the island. It developed 
 later than the western and southern parts of 
 the island, but since the triumph of Yoritomo 
 (q/v.) at the end of the twelfth century it has 
 been dominant, ruling Japan from Kamakura 
 and \edo (Tokyo). It is now the most populous 
 and richest part of Japan. 
 
 TOKAIDO. A name applied to the great 
 highway which connects Tokyo with Kyoto. It 
 is 323 miles long. Starting from Nihombashi 
 (Jap., Bridge of Japan) in Tokyo, it skirts the 
 Bay of Tokyo and the Pacific, climbs the Ha- 
 kone Mountains across the peninsula of Idzu, 
 again follows the coast line through many lar^e 
 towns to Kuwana, 247% miles from Nihom¬ 
 bashi, where it turns inland to Lake Biwa and 
 Kyoto. Here in the days of the Tokugawa 
 regime the daimyos from the centre and west of 
 Japan traveled with their trains of armed men 
 to and from their enforced residence in Yedo. 
 The sides of the road were planted with lines of 
 gieat cedars. . By the completion of the railway 
 between the cities its importance has diminished. 
 
 TO'KAJ (Ger. pron. to'koi), TOKAY, tb'kL 
 A tow 11 in the County of Zemplin, Hungary, at 
 the confluence of the Bodrog and Theiss, 41 
 miles north of Debreczin (Map: Hungary, G 2). 
 In the vicinity are sapphire and carnelian de¬ 
 posits. and salt works. Tokaj is celebrated for 
 its wines from vineyards 138 square miles in 
 extent, producing over five million gallons 
 annually. Pop. (town), 1910, 5321, mostly 
 Magyars. 
 
 . TOKAT, to-kat' (Arm. Evtoghia). The cap¬ 
 ital of a sanjak in the Vilayet of Sivas, Turkey 
 in Asia, 125 miles northeast of Kaisarieh (Map*: 
 Turkey in Asia, C 2). It is in a hilly region, 
 abounding in fine scenery, and is well laid out. 
 The chief features of interest are the Byzantine 
 castle and the old Roman tombs. The town is 
 the commercial centre for a section producing 
 fruit, hemp, corn, and tobacco, and has manu¬ 
 factures of cotton cloth, dyestuffs, copper wares, 
 and leather. A number of copper smelters are 
 operated in the suburbs of the town. Pop., 
 about 30,000, the majority being Mohammedans. 
 Dui ing the Middle Ages Tokat, the ancient 
 Daznnon, was an important trading centre. It 
 
 was _ the scene of an Armenian massacre in 
 1895. 
 
 TOKEN MONEY. See Money. 
 
 TOKIO. See Tokyo. 
 
 TOKOL'OGY. See Obstetrics. 
 
 TOKOLYI, te'kel-yi, or TOKOLI, Imre 
 ( E meric 11 ) , Count (1656-1705). An Hungarian 
 patriot. He belonged to a Lutheran family and 
 was born at the Castle of K6smfirk, in the 
 County of Zips. . His father, Count Stephen, 
 was implicated in the conspiracy of Zrinyi, 
 Rakoczy, and Frangipani against Leopold I 'of 
 Austria; and after his death, and the execu¬ 
 tion of Zrinyi and others, young Tokolyi sought 
 an asylum in Poland, where he had large pos¬ 
 
 sessions. After vain endeavors to recover from 
 the Emperor his patrimonial estates he obtained 
 the support of Apafi, Prince of Transvlvania, 
 and in 16/8 he took the lead in the insurrec¬ 
 tion in Hungary. He captured a number of 
 towns, and even penetrated into the heart of 
 Moravia. The Turkish Sultan, Mohammed IV, 
 espoused his cause, and in 1682 declared him 
 ™.f. 0 . f . Hu ng ar y under Turkish suzerainty, 
 lokolyi joined Kara Mustapha in the great on¬ 
 slaught on Austria in 1683, but after the dis¬ 
 aster to the Turks at Vienna many of his fol¬ 
 lowers fell off from him, and in 1685 he was 
 imprisoned by the Turks. He was soon released 
 and unsuccessfully resumed operations. In 1689 
 he was made Prince of Transylvania by the 
 pultan, and invaded that country with a Turk¬ 
 ish army, but was forced back into Wallachia. 
 He . took part in the subsequent campaigns 
 against Austria, and after the Peace of Karlo- 
 witz lie was made by the Sultan Prince of 
 V iddin and resided as his pensioner at Con¬ 
 stantinople, where he died. 
 
 to'koo-ga'wa. The name of the 
 great family which ruled Japan for more than 
 two centuries and a half (1600-1868). Its 
 founder was Ieyasu, one of the five generals 
 from the east of Japan who restored peace after 
 centuries of feudal strife and anarchy. He 
 claimed descent from an early Emperor through 
 the Minamoto family, and took their hereditary 
 tit! ® “ sho gun” (generai) (q.v.). He made Yedo, 
 or Tokyo, then an obscure village, the capital of 
 Japan, reformed the laws, and established the 
 system which was characteristic of Japan and 
 made it unique in the eyes of foreigners. Ieyasu 
 letiied in 1604 to Shidzuoka, but continued to 
 rule through his son until his death in 1616. 
 His descendants were shoguns to the number of 
 fourteen. The greatest of them was Iemitsu, 
 his grandson, who ruled from 1623 to 1649. 
 Most of the Tokugawa shoguns were weaklings 
 and debauchees. The fifteenth shogun resigned 
 his powers to the Emperor in 1868 and retired 
 to Shidzuoka. Since that time the family has 
 exerted no political power. 
 
 TOKUSHIMA, to'koo-she'ma. The capital of 
 the Prefecture of Tokushima, in Japan, near the 
 coast in the northeastern part of the island of 
 Shikoku (Map: Japan, D 6). It is the largest 
 city on the island, and is beautifully situated. 
 Pop., 1908, 65,561. 
 
 TOKYO, to'ke-o, or TOKIO (formerly Yedo) 
 (Jap., Eastern Capital). The capital of Japan, 
 situated on the southeast side of the main island, 
 ITonshiu, or Hondo, on the Bay of Tokyo (Map:’ 
 Japan, F 6). Tokyo is the largest city of Japan 
 and succeeded Kyoto as the capital upon the 
 Imperial restoration in 1868. The city covers 
 about 30 square miles, and is exceedingly ir¬ 
 regular in outline, being, indeed, a number of 
 towns grown together rather than a single city 
 laid out according to design. It is divided into 
 two unequal parts by the river Sumida. The 
 eastern portions along the river and fronting the 
 bay are level and low, the western rise into con¬ 
 siderable hills with a dense population in the 
 valleys which separate them. The chief feature 
 is the palace inclosure within the grounds of 
 the ancient castle. These grounds under the old 
 regime were very extensive and were surrounded 
 by an outer wall and moat more than two and a 
 half miles in length. This wall has been leveled 
 in part and the moat filled up. Within was a 
 second moat and wall, and even a third in 
 
TOKYO 
 
 324 
 
 TOLAND 
 
 parts. The old residence of the shogun within 
 the third wall was burned in 1872 and has been 
 replaced by the palace of the Emperor, in a mixed 
 Japanese-European style of architecture. It 
 stands in the ancient and beautiful park called 
 Fukiage. The palace was first occupied by the 
 Emperor in 1889. Much of the area inclosed by 
 the outer wall and moat was occupied in the 
 past by the mansions of the feudal barons, but 
 these are now destroyed and in their place are 
 the various buildings devoted to the use of the 
 government, in European style and devoid of 
 especial interest. To the east of the castle is 
 the distinctively commercial portion of the city, 
 with banks, warehouses, shops, hotels, restau¬ 
 rants, newspaper offices, and dwellings. A long 
 main street, variously named in different parts 
 and without any general designation, passes 
 through this part of the city from northeast to 
 southwest. It is broad, with rows of trees, a 
 tramway, electric lights, and rows of low build¬ 
 ings of stone and brick in a semi-European style. 
 From it lanes and streets diverge in all direc¬ 
 tions, for the greater part lined with small 
 wooden buildings, inexpensive and without pre¬ 
 tension. Mingled with them are storehouses 
 made of mud or clay, and incongruous modern 
 buildings. Of late years some of the streets 
 have been straightened and widened, wooden 
 bridges have been replaced by iron ones, and 
 many improvements have been introduced. 
 Nevertheless the old styles of shops and dwellings 
 are in so vast a majority that this part of 
 Tokyo is still essentially as in the centuries 
 past. 
 
 In the northern part of the city is the arsenal, 
 with the beautiful garden attached which for¬ 
 merly belonged to the mansion of the barons of 
 Mito. Not far away is the ancient building 
 used as a library which was once the great 
 Confucian College. Farther to the north on 
 the site of the town mansion of the Baron of 
 Kaga is the Imperial University. (See Tokyo, 
 University of.) Farther to the east is the 
 great park, Ueno, with the mortuary shrines 
 of eight of the shoguns of the Tokugawa fam¬ 
 ily, and the Imperial Museum filled with ob¬ 
 jects of great interest. Still farther to the 
 east is the great temple of the goddess of mercy, 
 Kwannon Sama, with a park, many shrines, a 
 pagoda, rows of shops, and innumerable places 
 of amusement. Across the river Sumida the 
 eastern portion of the city embraces the two 
 districts called Honjo and Fukiage, a quiet re¬ 
 gion known to visitors chiefly for its displays 
 of flowers, the cherry blossoms at Mukojima, the 
 wistaria at Kameido, and the iris at Horikiri, 
 and for the great wrestling matches at the 
 temple E-ko-in. On the west bank of the Sumida 
 was the Foreign Concession, but since the aboli¬ 
 tion of extraterritoriality foreigners are per¬ 
 mitted to live in all parts of the city. In the 
 same district, on the shore of the bay, is the 
 Imperial park known as Enryo-kwan. In the 
 southern part of the city is the park called 
 Shiba, with the magnificent mortuary shrine of 
 the second shogun, and the almost equally fine 
 shrines of six others. Beyond the park, still 
 following the line of the bay, is the Temple of 
 Sankakuji, famous for the little cemetery con¬ 
 taining the tombs of the 47 Ronins. To the 
 west of the palace are many large residences 
 surrounded by gardens and high walls. In the 
 suburbs there are many delightful resorts, es¬ 
 pecially Meguro, Oji, Futago, and Ikegami. The 
 
 city is protected against fire by a well-organized 
 fire department. It has also an excellent police 
 system. The affairs of the city are administered 
 by a mayor, a municipal council, and a munic¬ 
 ipal assembly. Tokyo has few industrial in¬ 
 terests, although there are numerous factories 
 in the neighborhood. It is unfavorably situ¬ 
 ated for commerce. Trade is carried on by way 
 of Yokohama. Pop., 1898, 1,440,121; 1908 (city), 
 2,186,079; 1912, 2,099,000; 1920, 2,173,162. 
 
 Originally an obscure hamlet called T edo 
 (gate of the inlet) stood on the seashore in 
 the district of the city now called Asakusa, 
 while most of the busiest parts of the present 
 city were covered with the waters of the bay 
 and of lagoons. Near Yedo a rude castle was 
 built in the fifteenth century, but the place 
 continued without importance until towards the 
 end of the sixteenth century, Tokugawa Ieyasu 
 took possession of it, and in 1603 made it the 
 seat of his government of the Empire. He re¬ 
 tained the ancient name Yedo, but made it 
 speedily the most important city in Japan. 
 
 The records of the city contain accounts of 
 many terrible catastrophes. It was repeatedly 
 destroyed in conflagrations, until in recent times 
 the building of rows of brick and stone houses 
 has furnished efficient barriers. It has also 
 suffered greatly from earthquakes and from epi¬ 
 demics, while terrible storms have destroyed 
 thousands of dwellings. After the weakening 
 of the house of Tokugawa, in 1863, the require¬ 
 ment of residence for the barons was relaxed, 
 and the population fell off greatly. But after 
 the fall of the shogunate on Sept. 13, 1868, it 
 was made the eastern capital, and its name was 
 changed accordingly to Tokyo. It was opened 
 to the residence of foreigners in 1869. Though 
 nominally only the eastern capital, yet, as the 
 residence of the Emperor, the meeting place 
 of the Diet, and the seat of the government in 
 all departments, it is in reality the only capi¬ 
 tal of the Empire, Kyoto retaining an empty 
 title merely. 
 
 TOKYO, University of. A Japanese uni¬ 
 versity founded in 1868 by the union of two 
 older schools, as one of the results of the great 
 political and social revolution of that year. It 
 has grown with the growth of modern Japan. 
 At first officered largely by foreigners, these 
 have been gradually superseded by Japanese, for 
 the most part trained in Europe and the United 
 States. The university is a government insti¬ 
 tution. Its administration is vested in a presi¬ 
 dent and a board of councilors, two from each 
 college, named by the Minister of Education, for 
 a term of five years. The colleges comprise law, 
 medicine, engineering, literature, science, and 
 agriculture. Two degrees are given, one for 
 work in course, the other for special distinc¬ 
 tion. The university includes an observatory 
 and a library. There were 5354 students in 
 1912-13, nearly half the number being in the 
 college of law. The library in 1912 contained 
 491,082 volumes, of which '267.718 are in Jap¬ 
 anese and Chinese, and 223,364 in foreign lan¬ 
 guages, and some 100,000 pamphlets. Consult 
 C. F. Thwing, Universities of the World (New 
 York, 1911).° 
 
 TOLA, toffa. See Kermes. 
 
 TOLA. See India, Weights and Measures. 
 
 TO'LAND, John (1670-1722). A deistical 
 writer. He was born near the village of Red- 
 castle, in the County of Londonderry, Ireland. 
 He was brought up as a Roman Catholic, but in 
 
TOLBOOTH 
 
 325 
 
 his sixteenth year was a Protestant. He en¬ 
 tered the University of Glasgow in 1G87, but re¬ 
 moved to that of Edinburgh, where he took the 
 degree of master of arts in 1690. Thence he 
 passed to Leyden, where he entered upon theo¬ 
 logical studies. On his return to England he 
 resided for some time at Oxford, where he was 
 already looked upon as a free-thinker. Chris¬ 
 tianity not Mysterious, which he published in 
 London in 1696, and in which he fully avowed 
 his principles, created a sensation in the theolog¬ 
 ical world. In the following year Toland re¬ 
 turned to Ireland, but his book was burned pub- 
 hely by order of the Irish Parliament. Finding 
 it necessary to flee from Ireland, Toland re¬ 
 turned to London, where he published a defense 
 against this judgment of the Irish Parliament; 
 but he soon afterward turned his pen from 
 theological to political and literary subjects. 
 His Life of Milton (1698) was attacked as 
 containing heresy, and he defended himself in 
 Amyntor jl699). A pamphlet entitled Anglia 
 Libera (1701), on the succession of the house 
 of Brunswick, led to his being received with 
 favor by the Princess Sophia at the court of 
 Hanover, and to his being sent on a kind of 
 political mission to some of the German courts. 
 In L05 he openly avowed himself a pantheist. 
 In tins course he was emboldened by the pa¬ 
 tronage of Harley, by whom he was sent abroad 
 to Holland and Germany in 1707. He returned 
 to England in 1710; and having forfeited the 
 fa\ 01 of his patron, or at least having separated 
 from him (1714), lie engaged as a partisan pam¬ 
 phleteer on the side of Harley’s adversaries. 
 Duiing this period he published Nazarenus 
 (1/18) and Pantlieisticon (1720). His later 
 life was spent in obscurity and poverty. Con¬ 
 sult Leslie Stephen, History of English :Thought 
 m the Eighteenth Century (3d ed., 2 vols. New 
 York, 1902). 
 
 TOLBOOTH, tol / booTH' or -boothh A massive 
 structure, dating from various periods, on Castle 
 Hill, Edinburgh, removed in 1817. It served 
 as a Parliament House, a court, and a prison. 
 
 It figures in Scott’s Heart of Midlothian. 
 
 TOLDY, toEdi, Ferencz (1805-75). An Hun- 
 gaiian literary historian. His real name was 
 Schedel. He was born in Ofen, and was edu¬ 
 cated at Budapest as a physician. In 1830 he 
 founded with Paul Bugat, at Budapest, the 
 Orvosi Tar, the first Hungarian medical jour¬ 
 nal, and from 1833 to 1844 he was assistant 
 professor of dietetics at the university. From 
 1835 to 1861 he was secretary of the Hungarian 
 Academy, and in 1836 he founded the great 
 Kisfaludy literary society, of which he became 
 president in 1841. After 1849 he devoted him¬ 
 self entirely to the history of Hungarian litera¬ 
 ture, and in 1861 was appointed professor of 
 that subject in the university. His works in 
 German and Hungarian include: Handbuch der 
 ungarischen Poesie (2 vols., 1828); Kultur- 
 zustande der T ngarn vor der Annahme des 
 Christentums (1S50) ; A magyar nemzeti iroda- 
 lom tortenete (History of the Hungarian Na¬ 
 tional Literature, 3 vols., Budapest, 1851-53); 
 
 A magyar kolUszet tortenete (History of Hun¬ 
 garian Poetry, 1855; 3d ed., 1875); Marci 
 chronica de gcstis Hungarorum (1867); and A 
 magyar IcolUszet ktziJcdnyve ('Handbook of Hun¬ 
 garian Poetry, 2 vols., 1857; 2d ed., 5 vols., 
 1872). Consult the eulogies of Toldv by Gre- 
 guss and Szasz in the Annals of the ’Kisfaludy 
 Society (new series, xi), as well as the notice 
 
 TOLEDO 
 
 U87G) GjUlai in the Annals of the Academy 
 
 See Mozarabic Liturgy. 
 
 IOLEDO, to-le'do; Sp. pron., to-la'THO. The 
 capital of the Province of Toledo, Spain, 42 
 miles south-southwest of Madrid, on the Tagus 
 (. a P : Spain, C 3). The hundred-towered city, 
 situated on a bold promontory, bordered on 
 three sides by a bend of the Tagus and sur¬ 
 rounded by a lofty wall, preserves almost un¬ 
 changed its mediaeval appearance. The Ta«ris 
 is spanned by the bridge of San Martin, a 
 well-constructed specimen of the military archi¬ 
 tecture of the Middle Ages, and the thirteenth- 
 century bridge of Alcantara; the walls are 
 pierced by a number of gates, of which the most 
 beautiful is the Arabic Puerta del Sol. The 
 houses of the city cluster in the form of a 
 semicircle around the Alc&zar. The streets are 
 winding, narrow, and steep. Among the many 
 interesting churches are the Gothic cathedral 
 dating from 1227, with its forty chapels and 
 library of ancient manuscripts; the cloister 
 of San Juan de los Reyes, a gift of the Roman 
 Catholic sovereigns; Santa Maria la Blanca, 
 first a mosque, then a Jewish synagogue of the 
 tv elfth century, and now after many vicissi¬ 
 tudes a church; and El Tr&nsito, another svna- 
 gogue dating from 1366, and given by the 
 Roman Catholic sovereigns to the Knights of 
 Calatrava. Many former convents are devoted 
 to the services of the state as prisons and hos¬ 
 pitals. The city hall with two towers and 
 classic fagade dates from the fifteenth century. 
 Theie are a beautiful theatre, and a provincial 
 library containing 70,000 volumes, housed in the 
 archbishop’s palace. Toledo is the seat of an 
 archbishop who bears the title of primate of 
 all the Spains—one of the few survivals of the 
 period when the city was the centre of Spanish 
 national life. It is largely untouched by mod¬ 
 ern industrial life and exists as a survival of 
 the golden age of Spanish chivalry. The cli¬ 
 mate is rather unhealthful and the surrounding 
 region largely barren and cheerless. The city 
 has manufactures of spirits, beer, chocolate, 
 varnish, church ornaments, cloth, silk goods, 
 pottery, brick, and fans. But the most famous 
 establishments of Toledo are those devoted to 
 the manufacture of arms, for even before the 
 time of Roman domination Toledo blades were 
 famous. The present government factory dates 
 from 1777; within recent years establishments 
 for the manufacture of cartridges have been 
 added. There are also several private establish¬ 
 ments for the manufacture of arms and am¬ 
 munition. Pop., 1900, 20,201; 1910, 22,274. 
 
 Nothing certain is known of the origin of 
 Toledo. Under the name of Toletum it is men¬ 
 tioned by Livy in connection with the date 192 
 b.c. After the period of Roman sway it fell 
 first into the power of the Alani, and a little 
 later came under the control of the Visigoths, 
 of whose kingdom it became the capital. From 
 400 to 701 a.d. it was the meeting place of 
 eighteen Church councils which exercised a great 
 political as well as religious influence on Spain. 
 Under the Arabs it was a city of great im¬ 
 portance. After the dissolution of the Caliphate 
 of Cordova it was the seat of a short-lived 
 Mohammedan kingdom. Alfonso the Valiant 
 of Leon and Castile conquered this state in 
 1085 and gave the name of New Castile to the 
 region. The town became an important place 
 of residence for the Castilian monarchs. In 
 
TOLEDO 
 
 TOLEDO WAR 
 
 326 
 
 the War of the Communes (1520-21) Toledo 
 espoused the popular cause. In 1808 it took 
 part in the national uprising against the French, 
 and in 1810 and 1813 suffered much from the 
 vandalism of their armies. Consult Hannah 
 Lynch, Toledo, in the “Mediaeval Towns Series” 
 (New York, 1899); A. F. Calvert, Toledo: 
 An Historical and Descriptive Account (ib., 
 1907). 
 
 TOLEDO. A town of Cebu, Philippines, sit¬ 
 uated on the central part of the west coast, 
 
 39 miles from Cebu. Petroleum and natural 
 gas are found in the region. Pop., 1903, 12,929. 
 
 TOLEDO, to-le'dO. The county seat of Lucas 
 County, the fourth largest city in Ohio, on 
 the Maumee River at its entrance into Maumee 
 Bay, 9 miles from Lake Erie (Map: Ohio, D 
 2). The city covers 30 square miles; its north¬ 
 ern boundary extends to within 2 miles of the 
 Michigan State line. It is the terminus of a 
 number of railroads, among which are the Penn¬ 
 sylvania, the Hocking Valley, the Clover Leaf, 
 the Pere Marquette, and the Grand Trunk, in 
 all there are 17 railroads operating 22 divi¬ 
 sions, 12 electric interurban, and five passenger 
 steamship lines connecting with Detroit, Macki¬ 
 naw, Duluth, and Chicago. 
 
 Situated at the west end of Lake Erie and 
 at the foot of the upper chain of the Great 
 Lakes, Toledo is the natural receiving point 
 of the ore traffic from the Lake Superior re¬ 
 gion, and of grain and lumber from the North- 
 west. Likewise it is the natural distributing 
 point for Ohio and Virginia coal to the north 
 and northwest. Its harbor is one of the finest 
 on the Great Lakes. The government channel 
 is 400 feet wide and 21 feet deep through the 
 bay, and from 700 to 1400 feet wide to the 
 dock farthest up the river. Of the 35 miles of 
 river front, 15 are lined with docks. In 1915, 
 4500 freighters loaded and unloaded in the 
 harbor. Federal statistics for 1915 show that 
 7,114,483 bushels of grain and 46,318,804 tons 
 of ore were received in Toledo. The city’s 
 export of soft coal in 1915 exceeded 4,000,000 7 
 tons. 
 
 Industrially Toledo is second to Cleveland 
 among Ohio’cities. In 1915 there were 2000 
 establishments employing about 40,000 people. 
 The most important industry is the manufacture 
 of automobiles, one plant alone employing 15,- 
 000 persons. There is also a large bottle manu¬ 
 factory with an annual output of 1,300,000,000 
 bottles. Other important products include plate 
 glass, wagons, malleable castings, elevators, 
 springs, baby carriages, scales, atomizers, wheel¬ 
 barrows, electrical apparatus, linseed and castor 
 oils, pig iron, coffee, flour, sugar, and women’s 
 clothing. The city has 420 miles of streets, 
 230 of which are paved, 116 miles of electric 
 street railway, 312 miles of water mains, and 
 262 miles of sewers. There are 12 large parks 
 and 41 triangular parks, covering 1024 acres. A 
 25-mile boulevard connects the parks and sur¬ 
 rounds the city. 
 
 Toledo’s prominent buildings include an art 
 museum of white marble, Scott and Wait high 
 schools, a new post office, a courthouse, Second 
 National Bank, Newsboys’ Building, the Toledo 
 Club, St. Francis de Sales School and Chapel, 
 State Hospital for the Insane, and the Cherry 
 Street Bridge. The public-school system in¬ 
 cludes two high schools and 43 elementary 
 schools. The teaching corps numbers 900. To¬ 
 ledo is one of the five cities maintaining a munic¬ 
 
 ipal university. The university had, Jn 1915, 
 
 36 instructors, and 150 full-time and 700 part- 
 time students. There are 16 parochial schools, 
 the Ursuline and Notre Dame academies, and 
 St. John’s College, maintained by the Roman 
 Catholic church. The public library contains 
 100,000 volumes. There are 110 Protestant and 
 23 Roman Catholic churches. 
 
 A charter which went into effect on Jan. 1, 
 1916, makes the mayor, vice mayor, and council 
 the only officers elected by the people and sub¬ 
 ject to the recall. The heads of all departments 
 and all boards are appointed by the mayor, to 
 whom they are directly responsible. They in¬ 
 clude a director of law, finance, public service, 
 public safety, public welfare, and public utilities. 
 The mayor also appoints the university trustees, 
 and the civil service, city plan, and public ef¬ 
 ficiency commissions. The city’s annual expendi¬ 
 ture for maintenance approximates $2,000,000, 
 the bonded debt interest about $397,000. The 
 water works are municipally owned. The water 
 is taken from the Maumee River, and passes 
 through several filtrations. 
 
 Toledo is the outgrowth of two sparsely set¬ 
 tled townships, Port Lawrence in 1817, and Vis¬ 
 tula in 1832. Originally it was the hunting 
 grounds of the Indians, and later the theatre of 
 important historical incidents in connection 
 with the Indian War, conducted in the region 
 of northwestern Ohio by Mad Anthony W ayne. 
 Near the original site was fought the battle of 
 Fallen Timbers which ended all savage warfare 
 in the Northwest. The city was named in 1835 
 after the old Moorish capital in Spain. The 
 village was incorporated in 1836. With the 
 opening of the Wabasli and Erie canal in 1843 
 and the Miami and Erie canal in 1845, the town 
 developed rapidly. Pop., 1900, 131,822; 1910, 
 168,497; 1915, 205,000; 1920, 243,109 (exclusive 
 of West Toledo, Rossford, and other outlying 
 districts). Consult Harvey Scribner, ed., Mem¬ 
 oirs of Lucas County and the City of Toledo, 
 from the Earliest Historical Times down to the 
 Present (2 vols., Madison, Wis., 1910). 
 
 TOLEDO WAR: A boundary controversy 
 which arose in 1835 between the State of Ohio 
 and the Territory of Michigan. Congress in 
 the Ordinance of 1787 had reserved the right 
 to form new States out of that part of the 
 territory northwest of the Ohio River lying 
 north of an east and west line drawn through 
 the southerly bend or extreme of Lake Michigan. 
 At this time the southern extreme of Lake 
 Michigan was unknown, and was supposed to be 
 much farther north than it actually was. Ohio 
 was admitted as a State in 1803 ; the above 
 line being described in the act as its northern 
 boundary, though the State constitution claimed 
 more territory. When in 1805 Michigan Terri¬ 
 tory was organized, and, later, Indiana and Il¬ 
 linois became States, the most confused ideas 
 existed on the boundary question. A survey 
 was made by order of Congress in 1817 which 
 established the present line. The old line had 
 included in Michigan the city of Toledo, and 
 this was the main point in dispute. In 1835 
 Ohio laid claim to all within the new line, 
 known as the Harris line, and proceeded to 
 organize townships therein. Michigan declared 
 the intention of resisting such invasion, and the 
 militia of both sides were called upon to main¬ 
 tain the alleged rights of their respective gov¬ 
 ernments. An opinion of the United States 
 Attorney-General B. F. Butler (q.v.) (1795-1858), 
 
TOLENTINO 
 
 TOLSTOY 
 
 327 
 
 favored Michigan; President Jackson sent out 
 a peace commission with no result, and serious 
 conflict seemed imminent. J 11 September, 1835, 
 the Michigan troops occupied Toledo to prevent 
 the formal organization of Wood County by 
 Ohio officers. The latter, however, accomplished 
 their purpose secretly and withdrew. The 
 trouble was finally settled by the admission of 
 Michigan into the Union on condition that she 
 accept the Harris line, while as a makeweight 
 that State was given the upper Wisconsin Penin¬ 
 sula, which afterward proved from its mineral 
 wealth to be far more valuable than the disputed 
 territory. 
 
 TOLENTINO, toTen-te'no. A town in the 
 Province of Macerata, Italy, on the Chienti, 30 
 miles south-southwest of Ancona (Map: Italy, 
 D 3). The cathedral has a good portal by 
 Rosso. The churches of San Catervo and San 
 Francesco possess noteworthy frescoes and re¬ 
 liefs. There are manufactures of machinery, 
 silks, woolens, wine, and olive oil, and stone 
 quarries. Tolentino was the scene of Murat’s 
 defeat by the Austrians on May 2-3, 1815. Pop. 
 (commune), 1901, 12,872; 1911, 14,254. 
 
 TOL'ERA'TION (Lat. toleratio, from tol- 
 erare, to endure, tolerate; connected with Gk. 
 TXijvcu, tlenai, to bear, endure, Skt. tul, to lift up, 
 weigh). The recognition of the right of private 
 judgment; specifically, such recognition, on the 
 part of the government, in matters of faith and 
 worship. By governmental toleration is granted 
 not only the liberty of holding and putting 
 into practice varied religious opinions, but ol 
 teaching and defending them publicly. But 
 thereby no permission is given to violate the 
 rights of others, or to infringe laws designed 
 for the security of the governing power or for 
 the protection of decency, morality, or good 
 order. See Liberty, Religious. 
 
 TOLIMA, to-le'ma. A department of south 
 Colombia, South America (Map: Colombia, B 
 3). Area, about 10,080 square miles. It lies 
 between the Central Cordillera and the Magda¬ 
 lena River. Agriculture is carried on chiefly 
 in the central part, where coffee, sugar, cacao, 
 rice, and tobacco form the chief products. Stock 
 raising is important. The mineral deposits in¬ 
 clude gold, silver, copper, lead, and sulphur. 
 The climate along the river is tropical, but it 
 is cold in the upper mountain regions. There 
 are no good means of communication. Pop., 
 282,426. Capital, Ibague (q.v.). 
 
 TOLIMA. A quiescent volcano in Colombia 
 rising from the Central Cordillera of the Andes, 
 75 miles west of Bogota. It is the highest peak 
 in the country, having an altitude of 18,325 feet. 
 
 TOLL (AS. toll, tol, OHG. zol, Ger. Zoll, toll, 
 tax; probably from Lat. telonium, from Gk. 
 reXuinov, customhouse). In law, a charge or 
 duty paid for some service, or the license to 
 use something, generally in the nature of a 
 public franchise. The right to exact toll is al¬ 
 most entirely created by statute, and generally 
 is only granted to persons who maintain some 
 public convenience, as a ferry, bridge, or turn¬ 
 pike. The setting forth of facts which establish 
 a bar to the maintenance of an action by reason 
 of lapse of time is sometimes described as a toll 
 of the Statute of Limitations. See Ferry; 
 Franchise; Highway. 
 
 TOLL, til, Eduard, Baron von (c.1850-1902). 
 
 A Russian scientist and explorer. He began 
 arctic research with Bunge (1885-87), investi¬ 
 gating the Post-Tertiary fauna of the Jana and 
 
 adjacent regions. In an expedition to the New 
 Siberian Islands (1893) he found the body of 
 a mammoth in the Jana delta. He commanded 
 the Sarja expedition, which wintered (1901-02) 
 on the west coast of Kotelnoi Island. The ex¬ 
 plorations of F. G. Seeberg and Von Toll dis¬ 
 closed extensive Post-Tertiary fauna on this is¬ 
 land. Many specimens, mammoths, reindeer, 
 etc., were superimposed on enormous ice cliffs, 
 70 feet thick in places, remnants of the Ice age. 
 The two explorers started south in November^ 
 1902, and perished en route. Their records w r ere 
 found the next year by Kolchek on Bennett Is¬ 
 land. Consult Emma Toll, Die Russische Polar- 
 fahrt der Sarja (Berlin, 1909). 
 
 TOLL, tol, Johan Christopher, Count (1743- 
 1817). A Swedish statesman and soldier, born 
 at Mollerod in Skane. He participated in the 
 coup d’etat of Gustavus III in 1772, after which 
 he played an important part in the government, 
 especially as the efficient head of the War De¬ 
 partment. In the war with Russia (1788), 
 begun against his advice, he was unjustly ac¬ 
 cused of neglect of the country’s defense. Under 
 Gustavus IV also he was active as a public 
 officer and diplomat and for many years was 
 Governor-General of Skane. 
 
 TOLLENDAL, Baron de. See Lally, T. A. 
 
 TOLLENS, toFens, Bernhard (1841- ). 
 
 A German agricultural chemist. Born at Ham¬ 
 burg, he received his doctorate in philosophy at 
 Gottingen in 1864, became an assistant at 
 Heidelberg in 1865, and studied at Paris (1868) 
 and at Coimbra (1869). Returning to Gottin¬ 
 gen in 1870, he was professor and director of the 
 university agricultural-chemical laboratory from 
 1873 until his retirement in 1911. He w'as editor 
 of the Journal filr Landwirtschaft and author of 
 Kurzes Handbuch der Kohlenhydrates (1888; 
 3d ed., rev., 1914). 
 
 TOLLENS, tcl'lens, Hendrik Caroluszoon 
 (1780-1856). A Dutch poet, born in Rotter¬ 
 dam. He was the son of a merchant and him¬ 
 self was engaged in commerce till 1846. His 
 early work followed French models and ideas. 
 His first original works were poems (1802), fol¬ 
 lowed by Lucretia (1805) and other historical 
 tragedies and works of much strength. His 
 subsequent productions were mainly lyric and 
 more distinctively national and simple. These 
 poems, gathered under various titles (1808-53), 
 show powers undiminished to the last. He won 
 wide popularity through the national song Wien 
 Neerlandsch bloed. His best work is Tafereel 
 van de overtvintering op Nowa Zembla (Picture 
 of the Wintering on Nova Zembla, 1819). A 
 complete edition of his works appeared in 12 
 volumes (Leeuwarden, 1855-57). Consult Scho- 
 tel, Tollens en zijn tijd (Tiel, 1860). 
 
 TOLL ROADS. See Highway; Road. 
 
 TOLOSA, tO-lo'sa. The former capital of the 
 Province of Guipuzcoa, Spain, 16 miles south¬ 
 west of San Sebastian, in the valley of the Oria 
 and on the Irun-Burgos line of the Northern 
 Railway (Map: Spain, El). It contains the 
 church of Santa Maria, the Palacio Idiaquez, 
 and two handsome paseos. During the nine¬ 
 teenth century it was an important Carlist 
 centre. Its principal manufactures are paper, 
 woolens, steel, brassware, and malt liquors. Pop , 
 1900, 8100: 1910, 9747. 
 
 TOLSTOY, Alexander Ivanovitcii Oster- 
 mann. See Ostermann-Tolstoy, A. I. 
 
 TOLS'TOY, Russ. pron. tdl-stoi', Alexei Kon- 
 stantinovitch, Count (1817-75). A Russian 
 
TOLSTOY 
 
 TOLSTOY 
 
 328 
 
 author. He was born in St. Petersburg and 
 studied at Moscow. After seeing diplomatic 
 service and traveling extensively, he took part 
 in the Crimean War and subsequently held a 
 high position at the court. He wrote lyric and 
 epic poetry and one novel, Prince Serebriany 
 (trans. by J. Curtin, 1893), after the manner 
 of Sir Walter Scott. His chief literary achieve¬ 
 ment, however, was his dramatic trilogy, The 
 Death of Ivan the Terrible (1866; Eng. trans. 
 by F. Harrison, London, 1869), Czar Fiodor 
 Ivanovitch (1868), and Czar Boris (1870). 
 
 TOLSTOY, Dmitri, Count (1823-89). A 
 Russian statesman. After serving in the min¬ 
 istry of the navy, he became procurator of the 
 Holy Synod in 1865 and Minister of Public In¬ 
 struction in 1866. His preference for the clas¬ 
 sical languages in the intermediate schools and 
 his petty tutelage over the universities brought 
 him such widespread enmity that lie was 
 obliged to resign his education post in 1880. 
 He was appointed president of the Academy of 
 Sciences in 1882 and served as Minister of the 
 Interior in 1883—85. He was the author of a 
 history of the finances of Russia to the reign 
 of Catharine II (1847) and of Le catholicisme 
 remain en Russie (1863-64). 
 
 TOLSTOY, Liov, (Leo) Nikolaievitch, 
 Count (1828-1910). A famous Russian author 
 and one of the world’s greatest novelists. Lie 
 was born on his father’s estate at Yasnaya 
 Polyana in the Government of Tula, Aug. 28, 
 1828. In 1843 he studied Oriental languages at 
 the University of Kazan, but soon found lin¬ 
 guistic study uncongenial and took up law. He 
 received his diploma in 1848, “knowing literally 
 nothing,” as he declared later. He lived on his 
 estate until 1851, when his brother, an artillery 
 officer, induced him to visit Caucasia. Charmed 
 by the life there, he joined an artillery regiment 
 and in 1853 was attached to the army of the 
 Danube during the Crimean campaign. During 
 this period he published Childhood (his maiden 
 work), The Incursion, Boyhood, The Morning 
 of a Landed Proprietor, and The Cossacks. He 
 took part in the defense of Sebastopol, embody¬ 
 ing his experiences in Sebastopol in December of 
 1854, Sebastopol in May of 1855, and Sebastopot 
 in August of 1855. These sketches immediately 
 placed Tolstoy among the great writers of the 
 day. They painted the horrors of war, with its 
 false and real heroes, in the spirit of that cruel, 
 cold-blooded realism which is the chief trait of 
 Tolstoy’s unique art. At the end of that war 
 Tolstoy resigned and went to the capital. A 
 visit abroad in 1857 shattered his faith in mod¬ 
 ern civilization, and From the Memoirs of 
 Prince Nekhlyudov was an indignant protest 
 against the poverty and ignorance in modern 
 society. He settled on his estate at Yasnaya 
 Polyana and devoted himself to teaching peasant 
 children. Finding himself deficient in educa¬ 
 tional knowledge, he went abroad (for the sec¬ 
 ond time) to study German methods of educa¬ 
 tion, which, however, served only to intensify his 
 doubts and disappointment. He questioned the 
 right and wisdom of all compulsory education 
 and maintained that the pupil's interest must 
 alone determine the curriculum. About this time 
 work on The Decembrists, a long novel, of which 
 only three chapters appeared, led Tolstoy to the 
 study of the reign of Alexander I, and his in¬ 
 terest gradually centred on the great Napoleonic 
 campaign. Thus he came to write his War and 
 Peace (1864-69), a colossal prose epic, reflecting 
 
 the whole range of Russian life at the beginning 
 of the nineteenth century. 
 
 Again the elemental forces of the common 
 people in contrast to the artificiality of the up¬ 
 per classes are lovingly dwelt upon. With the 
 artistic exposition is intertwined a new philos¬ 
 ophy of history, which in the last analysis is 
 but old fatalism in a new guise. After this the 
 above-mentioned pedagogical pursuits absorbed 
 Tolstoy’s energies until in 1875-76 Anna Ka¬ 
 renina appeared in the Russian Herald. This 
 great work deals with the unlawful relations 
 of the social lion, Vronsky, and Anna, wife of 
 Karenin, the bureaucratic official. The great 
 questions of human life which centre about mar¬ 
 riage are here treated with inimitable mastery, 
 force, and naturalness. The novel has a second 
 plot—the life of the rationalist landed pro¬ 
 prietor, Konstantin Levin, and his wife, Kitty. 
 Amid perfect home surroundings Levin is discon¬ 
 tented and even contemplates suicide, until he 
 is “regenerated” through contact with the com¬ 
 mon people and finds new strength in manual 
 labor. According to Tolstoy’s own statements 
 this work contained much autobiographical ma¬ 
 terial. 
 
 After this philosophical and social questions 
 took complete possession of Tolstoy, and for 
 more than a decade he gave to the world a 
 series of religious, social, and philosophical 
 treatises, such as Commentary on the Gospel; 
 Letter on the Census (1883); Confession: My 
 Religion; What Shall we then Do? a few short 
 stories written for the people; The Death of Ivan 
 Ilyitch (1885); and the dramas The Power of 
 Darkness and Fruits of Culture. Works of liter¬ 
 ary art were also produced at this period. 
 The Kreutzer Sonata (q.v.), its intent mis¬ 
 understood, raised a storm of indignation on 
 both sides of the Atlantic. What is Art? 
 (1898), a great philippic against art as com¬ 
 monly understood, was a brilliant contribution 
 to the literature of the subject, although its 
 author left the question raised by the title un¬ 
 answered for many of his readers. It contains 
 ideas of great depth and breadth, interspersed 
 with paradoxes, and affords an interesting illus¬ 
 tration of the thoroughness with which Tolstoy 
 entered upon his work. It involved a minute 
 study of every writer of any consequence on the 
 subject. In 1899 Resurrection, a new work of 
 fiction, appeared. Its central figure, Nekhlyu¬ 
 dov, while acting as a juror, recognizes in the 
 culprit the woman whom he had betrayed in 
 his youth. Torn by remorse, he finally comes 
 to the conclusion that he is the real cause of the 
 woman’s guilt and downfall and wishes to 
 
 expiate his former wrongdoing by accompanying 
 her to Siberia and sharing with her all the 
 hardships of exile. All the bitterness that 
 
 had welled up in the heart of the author seems 
 to have found free utterance in this work, 
 
 which is a powerful arraignment of all existing 
 institutions. In 1900 his drama, The Living 
 Corpse, appeared. In March, 1901, the Holy 
 Synod issued the excommunication which had 
 been hanging over his head for 30 years. 
 
 In 1862 Tolstoy married Sophie Andreevna 
 Behrs, of Moscow. One of his sons, Liov 
 
 Lioviteh, who inherited literary inclinations, at¬ 
 tracted attention by his sketches in periodical 
 publications. Another son, Ilya, wrote Reminis¬ 
 cences of his father. In 1910, in pursuance of 
 a long-delayed plan to end his days in solitude, 
 Tolstoy suddenly fled his estate, but contracted 
 
TOLSTOY 
 
 pneumonia on his journey and died, Nov. 20, 
 1910, at a small railroad station (Astapovo). 
 
 Tolstoy has the same power of psychological 
 analysis that characterizes Dostoyevsky (cpv.), 
 whom he greatly excels, however, in range and 
 variety. . Dostoyevsky never gets beyond the 
 narrow circle of the middle classes, while Tol¬ 
 stoy is equally at home in all walks of life. 
 He draws, with the same firm and unerring 
 hand, the rulers of men’s fates, courtiers, gen- 
 eials, petty officers, common soldiers, great 
 noblemen, peasants, prisoners in the dungeons 
 and on their weary march to Siberia, '"men, 
 women, children, and everywhere he fathoms the 
 depths of human character. There is in Tolstoy 
 none of Dostoyevsky’s nerve harassing for the 
 sake of satisfying the author's abnormal bent, 
 the great reformer is actuated by nothing but 
 the desire to get at truth, and "his conscience 
 can never rest until he succeeds. Hence Tol- 
 stoy s woiks, although depicting the genesis and 
 growth of controlling passions in a masterly 
 manner and containing scenes that are fasci¬ 
 nating, possess none of those elements of 
 piquancy that attract many to the works of 
 the realistic school. 
 
 Coming to know his peasants through his 
 pedagogical work among them, he became a 
 gieat belie\er in the salutary influence of labor. 
 His community work during the famines of 
 1873 and 1891 gave him an impulse for the 
 simplification of life, and soon the foreign 
 pei iodicals were filled with sensational pictures 
 and descriptions of lolstoy in a cheap blouse 
 or smock, girded with a rope, with his hands 
 on a plow, tilling his estate at Yasnaya Polyana. 
 Gradually he dispensed with all unnecessary 
 comforts of life and did cobbling and other 
 manual labor for himself, preaching Earma 
 (q.v.) and the doctrines of Lao-tse. (See Taoism. ) 
 The principle of simplification was carried into 
 nis religious beliefs: all teaching not coming 
 fi om Christ himself was ruthlessly discarded, 
 and his gospel was newly constructed. The doc¬ 
 trine of Christian humility was carried to an 
 extreme in his famous championship of non- 
 resistance, especially remarkable side by side 
 with individualism of an extreme kind. All 
 human institutions—kingly power, state, church, 
 judiciary, jury, army, even marriage—were 
 ruthlessly criticized as standing in the way of 
 the natural development of the powers of the 
 individual. Always allowing his logic to lead 
 him as it would, Tolstoy had to denounce his 
 own literary achievements along with all 
 pi oducts of civilization, as begotten of idle fancy 
 and human craving for the plaudits of the 
 world. In 1905 and 1906 he addressed to the 
 Czar notable letters advocating universal suf¬ 
 frage, representative assemblies, and other re¬ 
 forms. 
 
 Bibliography. Tolstoy’s works have been re¬ 
 peatedly collected and published in translations 
 as well as in the original. Biryukov’s (24 vols., 
 Moscow, 1913) is the most authoritative com¬ 
 plete Russian edition. Collected translations in 
 English have been made by N. H. Dole, I. Hap- 
 good, and others (22 vols., New York, 1902) 
 and Leo Wiener (24 vols., Boston, 1904-05). 
 
 A complete translation of Tolstoy’s plays, in¬ 
 cluding the posthumous works, has been made 
 by L. and A. Maude (2 vols., New York, 1914). 
 
 A vast literature has grown up about Tolstoy. 
 Among the best lives and studies in English are: 
 
 C. E. Dupuy, Great Masters of Russian Litera- 
 
 329 
 
 TOLU 
 
 ture (New York, 1886); G. H. Perris, Leo 
 lolstoy, the Grand Mujik: A Study in Personal 
 Evolution (London, 1898) ; D. S. Merezhkovsky, 
 lolstoy as Man and Artist (New York, 1902) ; 
 E. A. Steiner, Tolstoy tlve Man (ib, 1904); 
 Aylmer Maude, The Life of Tolstoy (2 vols 
 ib, 1910; 4th ed, 1911); J. A. T. Lloyd, Two 
 Russian Reformers: Ivan Turgenev and Leo 
 Tolstoy (ib, 1911); Romain Rolland, Tolstoy 
 (ib, 1911); I. L. Tolstoy (his son), Reminis¬ 
 cences of Tolstoy (ib, 1914) ; Constance Garnett, 
 lolstoy: His Life and Writings (London, 1914 ) 
 Interesting briefer studies of Tolstoy will be 
 found in Matthew Arnold, Essays in Criticism 
 (2d series, London, 1889) ; Ivan Panin, Lectures 
 on Russian Literature (New York, 1889) ; W. D. 
 Howells, My Literary Passion# (ib, 1895) ; 
 E. W. Gosse, Critical Kit-kats (London, 1896) ; 
 G. K. Chestertop, Varied Types (New York’, 
 1903) ; P. E. More, Shelburne Essays (1st 
 series, ib, 1904) ; Maurice Baring, Landmarks 
 of Russian Literature (London, 1910) ; W. L. 
 Phelps, Essays on Russian Novelists (New York, 
 1912) ; M. de Vogue, The Russian Novel (Lon¬ 
 don, 1913) ; E. A. Steiner, Tolstoy: The Man and 
 Ins Message (New York, 1914). 
 
 TOL'TEC, or TOLTECA, tol-ta'ka (people of 
 lollan, the modern Tula). An early cultured 
 people of Mexico, the subject of considerable 
 historical controversy. According to the general 
 Mexican tradition they were the most ancient 
 civilized race of Mexico, preceding the arrival 
 of the ruder Aztec, who derived their own best 
 culture by absorption from the Toltec. Their 
 capital was at the now ruined city of Tollan 
 or Tula, whence their dominion extended over 
 all the central plateau, eastward to the Gulf 
 and southward to the Maya border. After some 
 centuries of flourishing existence their Empire 
 fell to pieces through internal dissensions and 
 the invasion of barbarous northern tribes about 
 the close of the tenth century, the survivors 
 from war and famine being either incorporated 
 by the conquering Aztec or driven southward to 
 become the culture pioneers among the southern 
 tribes as far as Guatemala. The entire subject 
 of Toltec history is so interwoven with myth 
 and disfigured by exaggeration and uncertainty 
 of dates that it is difficult to arrive at any 
 conclusion, but enough remains to indicate that 
 the Toltec had an important historic existence, 
 either as a distinct race finally absorbed by 
 conquering invaders from the north, or, which 
 is more probable, as the advance guard of the 
 Nahuan stock (q.v.), preceding the arrival 
 of the Aztec by several centuries. 
 
 Archaeological research has lifted ancient 
 Mexican history out of the obscurity of its 
 confused traditions. Three great layers are 
 recognized. The lowest is called the ’ Archaic, 
 the middle one is called the Toltec, and the 
 top one the Aztec. According to such a clas¬ 
 sification the Toltec is given a broader significa¬ 
 tion than in tradition. The Archaic" epoch 
 seems to have been brought to a close by the 
 rise of the Maya. The Toltec shows a close 
 connection with the Maya and flourished ap¬ 
 parently from the fourth to the twelfth cen¬ 
 tury of the Christian era. Among the great 
 cities of the Toltec period were Tula, San Juan 
 Teotihuacan, and Xochicalco in the valley of 
 Mexico, and possibly La Quemada, Chalchihuites, 
 etc, in Zacatecas and Durango. 
 
 TOLU, tO-loo', Balsam of. See Chewing 
 Gum. 
 
TOLUCA 
 
 TOMB 
 
 TOLUCA, to-loo'ka. The capital of the State 
 of Mexico, Mexico, 34 miles southwest of the 
 city of that name, on the National Railways of 
 Mexico (Map: Mexico, J 8). It is a clean, 
 well-built city, with an altitude of 8761 feet 
 and a cool and healthful climate. Its Institute 
 and state buildings are interesting. It is a 
 busy commercial and manufacturing centre, with 
 breweries, cotton mills, and oil and flour mills. 
 It is well known for its drawn work. In the 
 vicinity is the extinct volcano Nevado de Toluca, 
 a snow-capped peak 15,155 feet high. Tradition 
 assigns the city a Toltec origin; it was an im¬ 
 portant Aztec pueblo called Tollan at the time 
 of the conquest. Pop., 1900, 25,940; 1910, 
 
 31,023. 
 
 TOM, Mount. A mountain peak on the west 
 bank of the Connecticut River, in Hampshire 
 Co., Mass., about 4% miles northwest of 
 Holyoke (Map: Massachusetts, B 3). It is 
 1214 feet high and affords a wide view of the 
 Connecticut valley. It is a finely kept park, 
 the summit reached by a mountain railway. 
 
 TO'MAH. A city in Monroe Co., Wis., 42 
 miles by rail east by north of La Crosse, on the 
 Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul Railroad 
 (Map: Wisconsin, C 5). The chief industrial 
 establishments are a large saw mill and bridge 
 works of the railroad. A government Indian 
 industrial school is situated here. Pop., 1900, 
 2840; 1910, 3419. 
 
 TOM'AH A WK (Algonquian tomehagan, Mo¬ 
 ll egan tumnahegan, Delaware tamoihecan, toma¬ 
 hawk ). In general, the hatchet, axe, or spiked 
 club made and used by the American natives. 
 The club form usually ended in a ball bearing 
 a celt or spike of bone. The early white traders 
 adapted the European hatchet to these forms 
 from which developed the type now seen in col¬ 
 lections. Practically all of these metal toma¬ 
 hawks are of white manufacture and design. In 
 early colonial literature the tomahawk became 
 a symbol of war; hence the phrase “bury the 
 hatchet.” For bibliography, consult Handbook 
 of American Indians (Washington, 1907). 
 
 TOMAHAWK. A city in Lincoln Co., Wis., 
 23 miles north of Merrill, on the Wisconsin 
 River, and on the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. 
 Paul, and the Marinette, Tomahawk, and West¬ 
 ern railroads (Map: Wisconsin, D 3). There 
 are pulp, paper, and saw mills, woodworking 
 factories, and a tannery. Bradley Park is of 
 interest. Pop., 1900, 2291; 1910, 2907. 
 
 TOMASZOW, tom'a -shov. An important 
 manufacturing town in the Government of 
 Piotrkov, Russian Poland, 41 miles northeast 
 of Piotrkov. It has extensive textile mills, with 
 an annual output valued at over $3,000,000. 
 Pop., 1912, 30,000, including many Germans 
 and Jews. Tomaszow was occupied by the Ger¬ 
 mans in the Great War which began in 1914. 
 See War in Europe. 
 
 TOMATO (Sp., Port, tomate, from Mexican 
 tomatl , tomato), Ly coper sicum esculentum. A 
 semivinelike annual herb of the family Sola- 
 nacese, native to South America in the region 
 of the Andes. It was formerly called love apple 
 and was considered poisonous. It is now widely 
 cultivated in all temperate regions and con¬ 
 sidered one of the most wholesome and impor¬ 
 tant garden vegetables. The numerous varieties 
 vary much in form from the red currant forms 
 to the small yellow pear-shaped varieties and 
 the larger red sorts. The red sorts with smooth 
 round fruits somewhat flattened at the ends 
 
 330 
 
 and varying from 2 to 4 inches in diameter are 
 most in cultivation. The tomato is propagated 
 from seed and in greenhouses often by cuttings. 
 In the temperate regions these are usually 
 started in the greenhouse, hotbed, or cold frame, 
 and the plants transferred to the field when the 
 weather is warm and all danger from frost is 
 past. The plants thrive best in a sandy soil, 
 well fertilized. They are set in the field about 
 5 feet apart each way and in garden culture 
 are often trained to stakes to keep the fruit 
 off the ground. In the United States the large 
 markets are supplied with tomatoes practically 
 all the year round, the winter crop being grown 
 in Florida and Texas. Also, more tomatoes are 
 grown for canning than any other vegetable. Over 
 10,000,000 cases, of 24 cans each, are packed an¬ 
 nually. Maryland, New Jersey, Indiana, Dela¬ 
 ware, and Florida are the leading States in pro¬ 
 duction. Italy has recently developed a new in¬ 
 dustry in the production of tomato-seed oil which 
 is used for making soap. Tomato rot is caused 
 by various fungi, e.g., Phytoph'thora infestans, 
 Macrosporium tomato, attacks the green fruits 
 of the tomato usually at the blossom end and 
 first shows as a smalfblack spot, which increases 
 rapidly until half the fruit is a soft, black, 
 sunken mass. Fusarium lycopersici attacks the 
 ripe fruit, covering it with a thick, white mold, 
 which later becomes reddish. It also causes a 
 wilting of the plants. This disease is less com¬ 
 mon than the others. Repeated sprayings with 
 Bordeaux mixture or other fungicide have been 
 recommended as checks. Diseased fruits should 
 be removed and burned. A stem-end rot of 
 the fruit, that is attributed to over watering 
 and excessive use of certain nitrogenous fer¬ 
 tilizers, has been reported as of wide occur¬ 
 rence. The bacterial blight ( Bacillus solana- 
 cearum) attacks also the egg-plant and po¬ 
 tato. The leaves become yellow, and the 
 stems wilt and later become brown or black, 
 the plant being destroyed. Spraying for the 
 disease itself appears to have little effect, but 
 preventing insect attack is thought to act as 
 a check. The leaf blight (Cladosporium ful- 
 vum) , often a more serious pest, appears as 
 brownish spots on the under side of the leaves 
 and yellow on the upper. As the disease pro¬ 
 gresses the leaves curl up and finally drop from 
 the stem. A leaf-spot disease ( Septoria lyco- 
 persici) , sometimes troublesome, causes nu¬ 
 merous spots to appear on the leaves and young 
 stems, ultimately destroying them. Consult: 
 W. W. Tracy, Tomato Culture (New York, 
 1907) ; L. H. Bailey, The Forcing Book (8th ed., 
 ib., 1909); “Tomato Growing in the South,” 
 in United States Department of Agriculture, 
 Farmers’ Bulletin No. 6^2 (Washington, 1915). 
 See Vegetables. 
 
 TOMATO INSECTS. Many of the insects 
 that attack the tomato also live upon other 
 members of the family Solanaceae. Among the 
 most common are biister beetles, plant lice, 
 flea beetles, and cutworms, descriptions of which 
 will be found under their respective titles. 
 Others are discussed under Potato Insects; 
 Tobacco Pests; Stalk Borer. The bollworm 
 (q.v.) is sometimes seriously troublesome. See 
 illustration under Cotton Insects. 
 
 TOMB (OF. tombe, tumbe, Fr. tombe, from 
 Lat. tumba, from Gk. tv/jl^os, tymbos, sepulchral 
 mound, grave, tomb; connected with OIr. tomm, 
 little hill, Skt. tunga, vaulted). A chamber or 
 structure for the burial of the dead. In all 
 
TOMB 
 
 331 TOMBIGBEE RIVER 
 
 ages the belief in immortality and the desire 
 to honor the dead have led to the bestowal of 
 the highest efforts of art upon their burial 
 places. The ancient belief in the intermediate 
 shadowy existence in the tomb of the ka or 
 double of the deceased led also to the decora¬ 
 tion of the tomb interior with pictured or carved 
 doubles of the appurtenances of mundane life 
 for the delectation of this imprisoned shade, as 
 in the tombs of Egypt and Etruria. 
 
 Tombs may be either excavated or structural. 
 
 1 hose cut in the rock are called hvpogaea. Of 
 these the most noted are those which honey¬ 
 comb the west bank of the Nile in Egypt, some 
 having roomy chambers with open porches in 
 front; others, more numerous, penetrating deep 
 into the cliffs (that of Seti I extending 800 
 feet) with a complex of descending passages, 
 chambers, and pits. Other rock-cut sepulchres 
 are in the Valley of the Kings, near Jerusalem ; 
 at Petra in Syria, where are Roman hvpogsea 
 with elaborately carved facades; the tomb of 
 Darius at Naksh-i-Rustam in Persia; and many 
 Etruscan tombs with less elaborate fagades at 
 Caere, Vulci, Corneto, etc. In Lycia, besides 
 hypogaea with carved fronts, there are many 
 tombs above ground hewn each from a single block 
 into the semblance of a timber-framed structure. 
 The splendid Sidon sarcophagi in the Constanti¬ 
 nople Museum, shaped like small shrines or 
 temples, almost deserve to be called tombs on 
 account of their size and architecture. Inter¬ 
 mediate between the rock-cut and structural 
 tombs are such subterranean or buried struc¬ 
 tures as the hive-shaped Pelasgic tombs of 
 Mvcense, e.g., the so-called Treasury of Atreus. 
 
 Structural tombs in the open air follow usu¬ 
 ally the type of a tumulus, shrine, temple, tower, 
 or of a canopy over a solid podium or pedestal. 
 The Pyramids of Egypt are the grandest ex¬ 
 amples of the first type. (See Pyramid. ) The 
 Romans sometimes built circular tombs sur¬ 
 mounted by a cone or tumulus of earth or 
 masonry—tombs of Caecilia Metella, of Augustus, 
 and of Hadrian; the last named, on the Vatican 
 side of the Tiber, over 200 feet in diameter, 
 but like the others destitute of its mound, is 
 now known as Castle Sant’ Angelo. The Greeks 
 attempted little in sepulchral architecture ex¬ 
 cept in Asia Minor, where the magnificent tomb 
 of Mausolus (whence mausoleum, q.v.) in Caria 
 was accounted one of the Seven Wonders. The 
 Romans, whose tombs were impressive, perfected 
 the canopy or tower type, as in good examples 
 at Saint-Remy and Vienne in France, Igel, near 
 Treves, Mylassa in Asia Minor, and many other 
 places. They lined the highways beyond their 
 city gates with tombs of various types and often 
 of great beauty, and in the fourth century 
 developed, in examples like the tomb of St. 
 Helena, the circular tomb with a dome, which 
 was in the Middle Ages adopted by the Moslems 
 and perfected, first on a small scale, but with 
 great richness of detail, in the hundreds of 
 domed and minareted tombs at Cairo known as 
 tombs of the Khalifs, and later in such ma¬ 
 jestic structures as the tombs of Soliman, Shah 
 Zadeh, and Khurrem at Constantinople, of 
 Humayun at Delhi, and of Mahmud at Bijapur, 
 and in the incomparable Taj Mahal (q.v.) at 
 Agra. Syria abounds in tombs of all types, 
 mostly dating from the early Christian cen¬ 
 turies, though not a few belong to the Roman 
 dominion, e.g., the Tomb of Absalom at Jeru¬ 
 salem, the tombs at Palmyra, etc. 
 
 Vol. XXII.—22 
 
 In early Christian times and the Middle Ages 
 the practice of interment within the church 
 edifice became common, springing from that of 
 erecting the altar over the tomb or sarcophagus 
 of a martyr (altar tomb). Throughout the 
 Middle Ages the decoration of indoor tombs as¬ 
 sumed a great variety of shapes, the most com¬ 
 mon type being that of a sarcophagus bearing 
 on the cover a recumbent figure of the de¬ 
 ceased, under a richly wrought canopy borne by 
 twisted shafts or clustered columns and pointed 
 arches and embellished with sculpture and often 
 with mosaic. These tombs were sometimes free¬ 
 standing, sometimes set against a wall, or even 
 set high up upon the wall, especially in Italy. 
 Both kinds are to be seen imitated in the cele¬ 
 brated open-air tombs of the Scaligers at Ve¬ 
 rona, and there are beautiful variants of them 
 in the English cathedrals of York, Salisbury, 
 and Exeter. The bronze shrine of St. Sebaldus 
 at Nuremberg is a late Gothic example of the 
 canopy tomb. The Renaissance adopted these 
 types, but altered their details and filled the 
 churches of Italy, France, England, Germany, 
 and Spain with splendid monuments, some of 
 great refinement and beauty, others marvelously 
 rich and even ostentatious, to the memory of the 
 great dead. The fifteenth-century wall tombs 
 of Italy are especially beautiful, and such 
 churches as Santa Croce at Florence, Santi 
 Giovanni e Paolo at Venice, Santa Maria del 
 Popolo at Rome, and Westminster Abbey be¬ 
 came great repositories of sepulchral art. Sculp¬ 
 ture played an increasing part in these works, 
 and in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries 
 was employed in allegorical groups, often theat¬ 
 rical and vulgar. 
 
 In modern cemeteries, besides the ordinary 
 graves with stones or obelisks, are to be seen 
 tombs shaped like classic shrines, and occasion¬ 
 ally more elaborate structures fronted or sur¬ 
 mounted by well-wrought groups of allegorical 
 sculpture. Among important mausolea may be 
 mentioned the impressive dome of the Invalides 
 at Paris, serving as the tomb of Napoleon, 
 and the massive Grant mausoleum in New York. 
 Neither of these compares in splendor, however, 
 with some of the Oriental tombs mentioned 
 above. Modern sepulchral art is inferior to 
 mediteval, Renaissance, or Oriental art. The 
 modern preference is to erect imposing monu¬ 
 ments to the dead in the frequented squares of 
 populous cities, rather than over their quiet 
 graves in remote cemeteries. Consult: Tosi and 
 Becchio, Altars, Tabernacles, and Tombs (Lagny, 
 1843) ; E. W. Trendall, Designs for Monuments, 
 Cenotaphs, Tombs, and Tablets (London, 1856) ; 
 Brindley and Weatherly, Ancient Sepulchral 
 Monuments (ib., 1887) ; Lawrence Weaver, Me¬ 
 morials and Monuments, Old and New (New 
 York, 1915) ; and for Greek and Roman tombs, 
 0. M. Stackelberg, Die Grdber der Griechen in 
 Bildwerken und Yasengemdlden (Berlin, 1837) ; 
 Rossi, Roma sotteranea cristiana (Rome, 1887- 
 88) ; M. de G. Davies, Five Theban Tombs 
 (Oxford, 1913). See Burial; Campo Santo; 
 Cemetery; Cenotaph; Necropolis; Pyramid; 
 Sepulchral Mound. 
 
 TOMBIGPBEE RIVER. One of the chief 
 rivers of Alabama (Map: Alabama, A, B 4). It 
 rises in the northeast corner of Mississippi and 
 flows in a south-southeasterly direction with 
 numerous abrupt windings. After a course of 
 450 miles it joins the Alabama River to form 
 the network of channels composing the Mobile 
 
TOMB OF THE SCIPIOS 
 
 TOMMASEO 
 
 332 
 
 and Tensas rivers, which empty through several 
 arms into Mobile Bay. The largest tributary 
 is the Black Warrior, which drains the north 
 central part of Alabama. The Tombigbee is 
 navigable to Aberdeen, Miss., 410 miles from 
 Mobile Bay. 
 
 TOMB OF THE SCIPIOS. See Scipios, 
 Tomb of the. 
 
 TOM BROWN’S SCHOOL DAYS. A noted 
 story of life at the famous Rugby School under 
 the rule of Thomas Arnold, by Thomas Hughes 
 (1856), and continued in Tom Brown at Ox¬ 
 ford (1861). 
 
 TOMBS, Sir Henry (1824-74). An English 
 soldier, born at sea and educated at the India 
 Company’s Military College at Addiscomb. In 
 1841 he entered the service of the East India 
 Company as second lieutenant and soon distin¬ 
 guished himself. In the Sepov Mutiny he won 
 the Victoria Cross by his gallant conduct at 
 the siege of Delhi in 1857. Afterward he took 
 part in the capture of Lucknow, the relief of 
 Shahjahanpur, and in an expedition to Shakabad. 
 In 1863 he was made brigadier general and 
 in 1867 major general. During his later years 
 he was in command of several important expedi¬ 
 tions in India, but in 1872 resigned his com¬ 
 mand and returned to England, where he died. 
 Consult: F. W. Stubbs, History of the Bengal 
 Artillery (2 vols., London, 1877) ; G. B. Mal- 
 leson, History of the Indian Mutiny (ib., 1878- 
 80) ; and Field Marshal Earl Roberts, Forty-one 
 Years in India (ib., 1898). 
 
 TOMBS, The. The city prison of New York, 
 erected in 1838, and so named from its massive 
 and gloomy appearance. It was torn down in 
 1898 and replaced by a larger building. 
 
 TOMBS OF THE MEDICI. See Medici, 
 Tombs of the. 
 
 TOMCOD. One of the small codfish of the 
 genus Microgadus, as Microgadws tomcodus of 
 the Atlantic coast, or Microgadus proximus of 
 the Pacific. They are very abundant and of con¬ 
 siderable importance as food. See Plate of Cod¬ 
 fish and Allies. 
 
 TOM CRINGLE’S LOG. A sea yarn by 
 Michael Scott, which first appeared in Black¬ 
 wood’s Magazine. 
 
 TOME, to-maL A seaport of Chile, 12 miles 
 north of Concepcion, and a shipping point for 
 grain. Municipal pop., 1903, 6358. 
 
 TOME. An old settlement on the Rio Grande, 
 Valencia Co., N. M. It was settled early in 
 the sixteenth century by 70 Spanish families. 
 For a century it was the most important place 
 in the Rio Grande valley, and for a time was 
 the seat of government of the colony. Sept. 
 7, 1708, the town was sacked by the Comanche 
 Indians, who killed half of the inhabitants and 
 carried many others into captivity. Pop., 1910, 
 512. 
 
 TOME (tom) INSTITUTE. See Jacob Tome 
 Institute. 
 
 TOMELLOSO, to'mel-yo'so. A town in the 
 Province of Ciudad Real (La Mancha), Spain, 
 in the District of Alcazar de San Juan. The 
 town dates from the sixteenth century and is 
 well built. The chief industry is the cultiva¬ 
 tion of the vine and of cereals, and there are 
 manufactures of spirits, leather goods, and 
 cloths. Pop., 1900, 13,917; 1910, 17,733. 
 
 TOM JONES. A well-known novel by Henry 
 Fielding (1749). 
 
 TOMLINE, tom'lin, Sir George Pretyman 
 (1750-1827). An English divine, Pretyman by 
 
 name, who assumed the cognomen of Tomline on 
 falling heir to an estate in 1803. He was born 
 at Bury St. Edmunds and was educated in that 
 town and at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where 
 he formed the acquaintance of the younger Pitt 
 —as his tutor in 1773—which was the making 
 of his own career. In 1783 he became private 
 secretary to Pitt, when that statesman was 
 made First Lord of the Treasury, and his 
 mathematical ability was serviceable to his 
 patron. Tomline was made dean of St. Paul's 
 and Bishop of Lincoln in 1787, and received the 
 see of Winchester in 1820. In 1821 appeared 
 his memoir of Pitt. This work was disappoint¬ 
 ing in that it took no notice of Pitt’s career 
 after 1793 and made scant use of opportunities 
 the writer had to depict the inner history of 
 the time. 
 
 TOM'LINSON, Charles (1808-97).. An 
 English scientist, born in London, studied at 
 Wadham College, Oxford, and under George 
 Birkbeck, the founder of the London Mechanics’ 
 Institute. For a while he had a school with 
 his brother Lewis, at Salisbury. Becoming 
 known for original investigation, he was called 
 to London, where he was appointed lecturer on 
 experimental science at King’s College School. 
 In 1872 he was elected to the Roval Societv, and 
 in 1874 he took a leading part in founding 
 the Physical Society. As a scientist Tomlinson 
 made valuable contributions to the knowledge 
 of the surface tension of liquids. His last years 
 were devoted to literature, and in 1878-80 he 
 held the Dante lectureship at University College, 
 London. Besides several works on mechanics 
 and the useful arts, he published: The Bonnet, 
 Its Origin, Structure, and Place in Poetry 
 (1874); a translation of Dante’s Inferno 
 (1877); The Literary History of the Divine 
 Comedy (1879); Dante, Beatrice, and the Di¬ 
 vine Comedy. (1894) ; and a volume of original 
 Bonnets (1881). 
 
 TOMLINSON, Everett Titswortli (1859- 
 ). An American author, born at Shiloh, 
 N. J. He was educated at Williams College, and 
 served as principal of the high school at Au¬ 
 burn, N. Y., in 1881-83, and as head master of 
 the preparatory department of Rutgers Col¬ 
 lege in 1883-88. After 1894 he wrote many 
 popular stories for boys, usually with historical 
 setting. 
 
 TOMMASEO, tom'ma-za'o, Niccol6 (1802- 
 74). An Italian poet, critic, philosopher, and 
 lexicographer, born at Sebenico, in Dalmatia. 
 He went to Padua to study law, but turned to 
 literature. In Florence he collaborated on Vies- 
 sieux’s Antologia, which the government sup¬ 
 pressed in 1832. Tommaseo, having to leave 
 Florence, went to Paris, where he endeavored 
 to make the French better acquainted with his 
 countrymen, through various writings, e.g., Dell ’ 
 Italia (1835). In 1838 he took up his abode 
 in Corsica, and there made a collection of popu¬ 
 lar songs, Canti populari cor si, toscani, greci e 
 illirici (1841). He returned to Venice, where 
 he was permitted to stay from 1839 to 1848. 
 In January, 1848, he was arrested because of his 
 liberal opinions, but the Manin (q.v.) insurrec¬ 
 tion freed him. After the fall of Venice in 1849 
 he went to Corfu, going thence in 1854 to 
 Turin, where he began the publishing of his 
 great Dizionamo della lingua italiana. He 
 passed his last days in Florence, refusing the 
 honors and positions offered him as a venerable 
 patriot of arisen Italy. 
 
TOMMASI 
 
 333 
 
 TOMSK 
 
 As a philologist he possessed vast and ac¬ 
 curate erudition. His aim in all his writings, 
 religious, moral, and pedagogical treatises, po¬ 
 litical essays, philological, literary, and critical 
 works, poems, and ballads is constantly educa¬ 
 tional. These reveal vigor and acuteness. As 
 a critic of literature he is hampered by classic 
 prejudices and an inborn polemical spirit. 
 Among his other most valuable contributions 
 are: II dizionario estetico (1840), Bellezza e 
 dvilta (1857), Ispirazione e arte (1858), and 
 Storia civile nella letteraria (1872), besides a 
 noteworthy Commento alia commedia. Consult 
 1\ Prunas, La critica, Varte, e Videa sociale di 
 
 iccold Tommaseo (Florence, 1901), and B. 
 Croce, “X. Tommaseo,” in La Critica, vol. x 
 (Naples, 1912). 
 
 TOMMASI, tom-ma'ze, Donato (1848-1907). 
 An Italian chemist and electrician, born in 
 Naples and educated at Paris and at the Uni¬ 
 versity of Brussels. He took as his specialty 
 electrochemistry, a branch of science in which 
 he made valuable investigations. His discoveries 
 include various methods for separating and ex¬ 
 tracting metals by electricity (1892) and an 
 accumulator which has , been much used on 
 railways. His publications include: Traite 
 theorique et pratique d’electrochimie (1889); 
 Traite des piles electriques et des accumulateurs 
 (1890) ; and Manuel pratique de galvanoplastie 
 (1890). 
 
 TOMMY ATKINS. The popular name for 
 a private soldier in the British army. It had 
 its origin in the government usage of the ficti¬ 
 tious name of Thomas Atkins to designate the 
 place of the soldier’s signature in such docu¬ 
 ments and army forms as were to be signed by 
 him. 
 
 TOMOCHICHI, to'mo-che'che (one who makes 
 a bird fly upward) (c.1642-1739). A noted 
 chief of the Yamacraw, a detached band of the 
 Creek confederacy, in the early period of Georgia 
 colonization. He was a native of the lower 
 Creek town of Apalachukla near the site of 
 present Columbus,- Ga! He had incurred the 
 displeasure of the confederacy and withdrew 
 with his immediate followers and established 
 himself on the Savannah River at Yamacraw 
 Bluff, now a part of Savannah. Here he con¬ 
 cluded a treaty of friendship with Governor 
 Oglethorpe, and through his influence a treaty 
 was made in 1733, at Savannah, with the lower 
 Creeks, by which the latter ceded all their 
 claims from the Savannah to the Altamaha. 
 In 1734, with a retinue, he accompanied Ogle¬ 
 thorpe to England. A monument to him was 
 erected in Savannah. 
 
 TOMPA, Mihaly (1817-69). A Hungarian 
 poet, born at Rimaszombat and educated at 
 Saros-Patak. He served in the Honved army in 
 the revolution of 1848, and in 1852 he became 
 a minister at Hanva, where he remained until 
 his death. In 1847 he was elected to the Kis- 
 faludy Society and in 1858 to the Hungarian 
 Academy. His first work was Nepregek, Nep- 
 mondak (Pest, 1846), a collection of popular 
 tales. His Szuhay Matyas (1847), a comic 
 story in verse, was crowned by the Hungarian 
 Academy. His complete works were published 
 in 1884 (5 vols.). Consult Ferenczy, Mihaly 
 Tompa (Kaschau, 1878), and Kont, Geschichte 
 der ungarischen Litteratur (Leipzig, 1906). 
 
 TOMP'KINS, Daniel D. (1774-1825). An 
 American political leader and Vice President 
 of the United States. He was born in Fox 
 
 Meadows (Scarsdale), Westchester Co., X. Y., 
 graduated at Columbia in 1795, and in 1797 
 was admitted to the bar. In 1804 he was elected 
 to Congress, but before taking his seat was 
 appointed by Gov. Morgan Lewis to the vacancy 
 on the State Supreme bench caused by the pro¬ 
 motion of -fudge Kent to the chief justiceship. 
 In 1807 he became the candidate of the Clin¬ 
 tonian Republicans for Governor to succeed 
 Morgan Lewis, who had been renominated by 
 the Livingston party with strong Federalist sup¬ 
 port. He was elected over Lewis by 4085 ma¬ 
 jority and was reelected four times, serving 
 10 years. During his third term an attempt 
 to secure a charter from New York State for 
 the Bank of America was accompanied by a 
 wholesale bribing of the State Legislature. 
 After the lower house had sanctioned the char¬ 
 ter, on March 27, 1812, Governor Tompkins pro¬ 
 rogued both houses—a power then granted by 
 the constitution, but never before exercised. 
 The charter was granted at the next session of 
 the Legislature, but Tompkins’ action had in¬ 
 creased his popularity. During the War of 1812 
 Governor Tompkins recruited and equipped 40,- 
 000 militia in New York State, providing funds 
 for this raised partly on his personal security. 
 On a recommendation made in his last message 
 to the Legislature in January, 1817, the New 
 York Legislature passed a ‘ law setting all 
 slaves free on and after July 4, 1827. From 
 1817 to 1825 he was Vice President of the 
 United States. Consult De A. S. Alexander, 
 Political History of the State of New York 
 (3 vols., New York, 1906-09). 
 
 TOMP'SON, Benjamin (1642-1714). An 
 American poet, born at Braintree, Mass. He 
 was educated at Harvard College and became a 
 school teacher in Cambridge. He is known by 
 his poem on King Philip’s War, New England’s 
 Crisis (1675). 
 
 TOM’S. A former London coffeehouse in 
 Covent Garden, a fashionable resort, and the 
 headquarters of a club founded in 1764, which 
 among its 700 members included many noted 
 names of the day. Tom’s was taken down in 
 1865. 
 
 TOMSK, tOmsk. A government of West Si¬ 
 beria (Map: Asia, K 3). Area, about 331,159 
 square miles. The southern and southeastern 
 parts belong to the region of the Altai Moun¬ 
 tains and contain many snow-clad peaks, some 
 of them 11,000 feet high. r fhe Kuznetzky 
 Alatau, along the eastern frontier, is densely 
 wooded and rises to about 6000 feet. The re¬ 
 mainder of the region is mostly low and con¬ 
 sists of vast densely wooded marshes and open 
 steppes. The region is watered mainly by the 
 Obi (q.v.) and its tributaries, including the 
 Irtysh (q.v.). The climate is severe and un¬ 
 healthful in the lowlands. The mineral de¬ 
 posits of the Altai Mountains are being gradu¬ 
 ally opened up and give promise of great abun¬ 
 dance. Agriculture is the principal occupation, 
 and the output of cereals is far above the local 
 demand. Stock raising is also an extensive 
 industry. Manufactures are undeveloped, but 
 the trade with Mongolia is on the increase and 
 there is considerable navigation on the Obi. 
 The trade with European Russia also shows an 
 increase since the construction of the Trans- 
 Siberian Railway. Pop., 1914 (est.), 3,919.800, 
 of whom the natives (Tatars, Samoyeds, Osti- 
 aks, etc.) numbered only about 75,000, the re¬ 
 mainder being Russians. 
 
TOMSK 
 
 TONE 
 
 334 
 
 TOMSK. The capital of the Siberian govern¬ 
 ment of Tomsk and the intellectual centre of 
 Siberia, situated on the Tom, a tributary of the 
 Obi, and connected by a short line of 54 miles 
 with the Trans-Siberian Railway (Map: Asia, 
 K 3). It is one of the finest cities of Siberia, 
 with electric lighting and street railways, but 
 without an adequate water supply and unsatis¬ 
 factory in its sanitary arrangements. Its im¬ 
 portance dates from the year 1824, when gold 
 was discovered in its vicinity. The university, 
 established in 1888, has two faculties of medi¬ 
 cine and law, 987 students, and a library of 
 226,000 volumes. The commerce is very exten¬ 
 sive, Tomsk being one of the chief distributing 
 centres of Siberia. Pop., 1911, 112,083. 
 
 TOMS RIVER. The county seat of Ocean 
 Co., 1ST. J., 35 miles southeast of Trenton, at 
 the head of Toms River and Bay, and on the 
 Pennsylvania and the Central of New Jersey 
 railroads (Map: New Jersey, D 4). It is a 
 summer resort. Farming, especially cultivation 
 of cranberries, fishing and oyster planting, 
 lumbering and yacht building, are leading in¬ 
 dustries. Pop., 1915, about 2000. Early in the 
 Revolutionary War a small blockhouse was 
 erected to protect the salt works here. On March 
 24, 1782, this blockhouse, occupied by Capt. 
 Joshua Huddy and 25 men, was attacked by 
 a larger force of Loyalists under Capt. Evan 
 Thomas and Lieut. Owen Roberts and was cap¬ 
 tured. Immediately afterward the village it¬ 
 self was almost totally destroyed. Consult a 
 pamphlet by Striker, The Capture of the Old 
 Blockhouse at Toms River f 'New Jersey (Tren¬ 
 ton, 1883). 
 
 TOM THUMB. See Stratton, Charles 
 Sherwood. 
 
 TOM-TOM. See Tam-Tam. 
 
 TON. See Weights and Measures. 
 
 TON. See Measurement of Ships for 
 Tonnage. 
 
 TONAL'ITY (from tonal, from tone, OF. ton , 
 from Lat. tonus, from Gk. tovos, tone, sound). 
 In music, the grouping of certain chords around 
 a central tonic chord. The principle rests upon 
 the relationship which various chords bear to 
 one another. Briefly stated, a tone is related 
 in the first degree to all tones forming conso¬ 
 nant intervals with it; in the second degree to 
 all tones forming dissonant intervals with it. 
 Thus we can establish the relationship of D to 
 C by means of Ihe chord of the dominant seventh 
 d-fj-a-c, which is the dominant of G major, 
 which, in turn, is the dominant of C major. 
 
 The relationship of single tones becomes in¬ 
 telligible only through the agency of chords. 
 It is sufficient to recognize only two degrees. 
 Since, when considering the relationship of 
 chords, each chord is considered a tonic chord, 
 it will perhaps be best to speak of triads. A 
 sharp distinction must be made between similar 
 and dissimilar triads. If a major triad is fol¬ 
 lowed by another major, or a minor triad by 
 another minor, the two major triads are similar, 
 as are also the two minor triads. But if a 
 major triad is followed by a minor, or vice 
 versa, the two triads are dissimilar. It must 
 also be borne in mind that when speaking of 
 major triads all intervals are reckoned upward; 
 when speaking of minor triads all intervals are 
 reckoned downward. A triad is related in the 
 first degree to all similar triads whose funda¬ 
 mental tone is related in the first degree to the 
 fundamental tone of the original triad. Thus, 
 
 the triad of C major is related in the first degree 
 to the similar major triads of G, F, E, Afc, 
 Eb, A. It is also related in the first degree 
 to the dissimilar minor triads whose funda¬ 
 mental lies a fifth below any of the tones of 
 this C major triad. These are F, A, C, a fifth 
 below C, E, G, respectively. To these must 
 also be added the triad built upon the mediant, 
 which in a major key is always a minor triad, 
 and vice versa. Hence every triad is related 
 to 10 other triads in the first degree. In the 
 case of a minor triad similar relations exist. 
 
 All triads other than the 10 just mentioned 
 are related to the original triad in the second 
 degree. Here the degree of affinity may be more 
 or less remote. Consult: H. Riemann, Musi- 
 lcalische Syntaxes (Leipzig, 1877) ; id., Skizze 
 einer neuen Methode der Harmonielehre (ib., 
 1880); id., Systematische Modulationslehre (ib., 
 1887). See Comma; Consonance; Dissonance; 
 Harmony, Chords; Key. 
 
 TON'AWAN'DA. A city in Erie Co., N. Y., 
 9 miles by rail north of Buffalo, on the Niagara 
 River and the Erie Canal and on the New 
 York Central and the International railroads 
 (Map: New York, B 4). It is connected with 
 North Tonawanda by two bridges. The promi¬ 
 nent features of the city include the armory, 
 the high school, the public library, and a park. 
 Tonawanda is an important lumber market and 
 is also interested in manufacturing, the chief 
 products being steel, lumber, roofing, and paper 
 boards. Pop., 1900, 7421; 1910, 8290; 1915 
 (State census), 9147 ; 1920, 10,068. 
 
 TON'BRIDGE, pronounced Tunbridge. A 
 market town in Kent, England, on the Medway, 
 29 miles southeast of London (Map: England, 
 G 5). The manufacture of toys, boxes, and 
 articles of wood in Tonbridge ware, a mosaic 
 veneer of beech, holly, etc., is a specialty. A 
 notable feature is the remains of a mediaeval 
 castle which stands on the Medway, near the 
 entrance of the town. Among other structures 
 are the parish church and the grammar school, 
 founded in 1553. Pop., 1901, 12,736; 1911, 
 
 17,247. 
 
 TONE. In music, the name given to the 
 larger intervals in the diatonic scale, so called 
 in contradistinction to the semitones (q.v.), or 
 smaller intervals. Theoretically some of the 
 intervals called tones are larger than others, 
 and none of them are equal to two semitones; 
 thus, in the scale of C, the intervals CD, FG, 
 and AB are all equal; but DE and GA, which 
 are also called tones, are smaller; and the semi¬ 
 tones, EF and BC, are larger than half even of 
 the larger tones. In instruments, however, 
 which are tuned according to the equal tempera¬ 
 ment (q.v.), all the tones are made equal, and 
 each equivalent to two semitones. 
 
 TONE, Theobald Wolfe (1763-98). An 
 Irish revolutionist. He was born in Dublin, 
 where he was educated, graduating at Trinity 
 College. He was called to the Irish bar in 1789. 
 He was one of the founders of the first club 
 of United Irishmen at Belfast and similar or¬ 
 ganizations in other parts of Ireland and agent 
 of the Roman Catholic committee (1792); was 
 implicated in Jackson’s treasonable designs with 
 the French government in 1794, but was allowed 
 to go to Philadelphia, U. S. A., in 1795. In the 
 following year, however, he went to France 
 for assistance and returned suddenly to Ireland, 
 recalled by rumors of a revolt. In the expedi¬ 
 tion to Bantry Bay he was adjutant general to 
 
TONE COLOR 
 
 TONGALAND 
 
 335 
 
 the commander Hoche, but the fleet was driven 
 oil the coast and scattered. In 1798 he again 
 set sail for Ireland with a small French expedi¬ 
 tion and was captured by an English fleet off 
 Lough Swilly. Having been sentenced to be 
 hanged, he cut his throat, dying a few days 
 later. Consult The Life of Theobald Wolfe Tone, 
 etc., tenth his Political Writings, edited by his 
 son, W. T. W. Tone (2 vols., Washington, 1826), 
 and Harry Graham, Splendid Failures (London, 
 1913). 
 
 TONE COLOR. In music, the quality of the 
 tone of musical instruments or of the human 
 voice. See Clang Tint, Explanation of. 
 
 TO'NER, Joseph Meredith (1825-96). An 
 American physician, born in Pittsburgh, Pa. He 
 graduated at Jefferson Medical College in 1853 
 and two years afterward settled in Washington, 
 D. C., where he founded the Providence Hospital 
 and became identified with several other similar 
 institutions. In 1871 he gave the fund which 
 established the well-known Toner lectures. He 
 was president of the American Medical Associa¬ 
 tion and of the American Health Association 
 in 1874 and was vice president of the Interna¬ 
 tional Medical Congress of 1887. Toner was one 
 of the very few American physicians who took 
 an interest in the history of medicine, and his 
 A Century of American Medicine (1876) still 
 remains a standard work. His publications in¬ 
 clude, besides: Compulsory Vaccination (1865); 
 Annals of Medical Progress and Medical Edu¬ 
 cation in the United States (1874); Medical 
 Men of the Revolution (1876). 
 
 TON'GA ISLANDS, or Friendly Islands. 
 A group of Polynesian islands in the Pacific 
 Ocean, about 350 miles southeast of Samoa, ex¬ 
 tending from lat. 15° to 23%° S. and from 
 long. 173° to 177° W., the Fiji Islands being 
 to the northwest (Map: Australasia, L 4). 
 The Tonga Islands form a native kingdom, 
 but are under the protection of Great Britain. 
 They number about 100, but only Tongatabu, 
 Eua, and Vavau are of any importance, the 
 first being low, the others of moderate height. 
 Area, about 390 square miles. The islands lie 
 generally in a long north and south chain and 
 form the subgroups of Tonga, Nomuka, Haapai, 
 and Vavau, but the outlying islands Niua- 
 tobatabu or Keppel Island, Tafahi or Bos- 
 cawen, and Niuafoou are included in the King¬ 
 dom of Tonga. The residence of the native 
 King and seat of government is at Nukualofa in 
 Tongatabu (Holy Tonga). The eastern islands 
 are of coral limestone formation, low and com¬ 
 paratively level. In the Tonga subgroup is the 
 largest and most fertile island of all, Tongatabu. 
 It is in the south and contains about 140 square 
 miles. It has about half the population of all 
 the Tonga Islands. The western row of islands 
 are volcanic, high, and steep. Of these Late 
 and Tofoa are active, and Kao (about 2850 
 feet high) is extinct. The climate of the Tonga 
 Islands is oppressive and humid. The annual 
 rainfall is heavy, over 75 inches. Serious earth¬ 
 quakes are not infrequent, and small islands rise 
 suddenly at times and as suddenly disappear. 
 A hurricane wrought havoc in Vavau in 1900. 
 The flora is rich, especially in palms. The na¬ 
 tive fauna is comparatively insignificant; there 
 needs to be mentioned onlv the lanje fruit-eatino- 
 bat ( Pteropus tonganus ). 
 
 The main islands are covered with luxuriant 
 vegetation. The soil is rich. The land is leased, 
 not sold; and as its tenure is not assured, im¬ 
 
 provements are both meagre and poor. Copra 
 and fungus are . exported, and tapa and mats 
 are made. The imports, mostly from Australia 
 and New Zealand, amounted to‘f81,044 in 1913— 
 14 and include draperies and foods; the exports 
 amounted to £82,321, consisting mainly of copra 
 and green fruit. There is regular steam com¬ 
 munication with the neighboring British posses¬ 
 sions. There are many good harbors. The 
 revenue in 1913 amounted to £32,489 and the 
 expenditures to £39,103. There is no debt. The 
 population was given in 1911 as 23,900, nearly 
 all natives, and among the most civilized of the 
 Polynesians. They are agriculturists and adept 
 seafarers. While eager to learn and imitate, 
 they lack qualities necessary to success. 
 
 r lhe Tonga Islands were discovered in 1643 
 by Tasman. He gave to Tongatabu the name 
 of Amsterdam and called Eua and Nomuka 
 respectively Middleburgh and Rotterdam. In 
 1781 the Spanish navigator Maurelle discovered 
 Vavau and several of the neighboring islands. 
 In 1789 Lieutenant Bligh, of the Bounty, visited 
 Nomuka. In 1791 Captain Edwards, in the Pan¬ 
 dora, made two visits tp the group. In 1796 
 a mission was established at Tongatabu. This 
 was the first missionary enterprise on the island, 
 but was abandoned a few months later owing to 
 the violence of the islanders. In 1822 the first 
 Wesleyan missionary landed on the island. The 
 mission was, however, not fully established until 
 1826. All the natives are now Christians—many 
 Methodists, some Roman Catholics. In 1773 
 and in 1777 they were visited by Cook, who 
 explored them, and gave them the name of 
 Friendly Islands on account of the attitude of 
 the natives. Before the breaking out of the 
 civil wars early in the nineteenth century the 
 islands were under the rule of two reigning 
 families. During this political upheaval the 
 local hereditary chiefs declared their independ¬ 
 ence, but were united under the wise rule of 
 George I, who in 1875 introduced a sort of 
 constitutional government, allowing the chiefs 
 a share in the administration. Treaties were 
 concluded with Great Britain, Germany, and 
 also, in 1888, with the United States. The privi¬ 
 lege of building a naval station was abandoned 
 by Germany in 1899 in favor of Great Britain, 
 which country declared its protectorate over the 
 group in that year. The present ruler, King 
 George II, is assisted by a Legislative Assembly, 
 meeting every three years, composed partly of 
 hereditary nobles and partly of members elected 
 on a property qualification. There are a cabinet, 
 a Privy Council, and judiciary. 
 
 Bibliography. William Ellis, Polynesian Re¬ 
 searches (2 vols., London, 1853) ; H. S. Cooper, 
 The Coral Islands of the Pacific (new ed., ib., 
 1882-83) ; W. Coote, The Western Pacific (ib., 
 1883) ; Elis6e Reclus, Nouvelle geographic uni- 
 verselle, voi. xiv (Paris, 1889) ; P. A. Monfat, 
 Les Tonga ou Archipel des Amis (Lyon, 1893) ; 
 A. R. Wallace, “Australasia,” in Stanford, 
 Compendium of Geography (London, 1894) ; E. 
 Reeves. Brouyn Men and Women in the South 
 Sea Islands (ib., 1898) ; M. M. Shoemaker, Is¬ 
 lands of the Southern Seas (2d ed., New York, 
 1898) ; W. T. Brigham, “An Index to the Islands 
 of the Pacific,” in Bishop Museum, Memoir, vol. 
 i, no. 2 (Honolulu. 1900) ; R. L. Stevenson, In 
 the South Seas (Biographical ed., New York, 
 1910). 
 
 TON'GALAND, or AMATONGALAND. A 
 
 district of Zululand and accordingly of Natal 
 
TONGAS 
 
 TONGUE 
 
 336 
 
 in southeast Africa (Map: Cape of Good Hope, 
 L 6). It forms the northern neck of Zululand. 
 Area, 1280 square miles. The Lebombo Moun¬ 
 tains border it on the west. The country is 
 generally level and low. The climate is very un¬ 
 healthful. The inhabitants are Zulu-Kafirs, the 
 Amatonga. The possession of Tongaland was 
 strongly desired by the Boers, since it would 
 have "furnished them an outlet to the sea and a 
 haven. Great Britain was eager to frustrate 
 their plans, however, and declared Tongaland 
 under British protection, June, 11, 1895. It was 
 annexed to Zululand (q.v.), Dec. 27, 1897. This 
 action embraced also the small possessions of 
 the Sambana and Umtegiza chiefs, which formed 
 the narrow portion of Tongaland west of the 
 Pongola River. Zululand, including Tongaland, 
 was annexed to Natal, December, 1897. 
 
 TONGAS. See Tlinkit. 
 
 TONG-KAK, tong-hiik' (Sinico-Korean, Ori¬ 
 ental culture). The watchword of a revolution¬ 
 ary party in Korea (Chosen), founded in 1859 
 by a native Korean scholar named Choi. They 
 were prominent in a rebellion preceding the 
 Chino- Japanese War of 1894-95. See Korea. 
 
 TONGKAH. See Salang. 
 
 TONGKING', TONKIN', or TONQUIN, 
 ton'ken', Fr. pron. toN'kaN'. A French protec¬ 
 torate in French Indo-China (q.v.), situated 
 just south of the tropic of Cancer, bordering the 
 Gulf of Tonglcing (Map: French Indo-China, 
 D, E 2). Area, estimated at 46,000 square 
 miles. Tonglcing has a heavily forested plateau 
 in the north. The eastern part is tilled and 
 contains slate and limestone. The protectorate 
 is traversed in a southeasterly direction by the 
 navigable Red River (q.v.), or Song-ka, its delta 
 district covering some 5000 square miles. This 
 district, traversed by many streams, is especially 
 fertile and well tilled. The climate for the greater 
 part of the year is hot and humid. Storms are 
 frequent in summer. The flora in the south¬ 
 west resembles that of India; that of the north¬ 
 east is akin to that of southern China. Nuts 
 and tropical fruits abound. 
 
 Copper, iron, and coal are mined. The soil is 
 very fertile, and the cattle industry is promi¬ 
 nent. Opium, cacao, sugar, tea, cotton, corn, 
 coffee, and tobacco • are cultivated. Rice, the 
 staple crop, equals the best in the world. Furni¬ 
 ture, glass, silk, cottons, indigo, paper, oil, and 
 sugar are manufactured. The commerce has 
 rapidly increased. The imports consist largely 
 of machinery, metals, and textiles. The main 
 exports are rice and animal products. The 
 leading commercial points are Haiphong (the 
 chief port, possessing a fine harbor), Kwang- 
 yen, and Nam-Dinh. A railway extends from 
 Haiphong to Hanoi. From Hanoi a line runs 
 to Lungehow, another to Yiinnanfu, and a third 
 southward along the coast to a point a little 
 beyond Vinh. The Yunnan line carries a large 
 transit trade. There are ocean cables to Hue 
 and Hongkong. The largest city is Hanoi, the 
 seat of the resident superior of Tongking, as 
 well as of the Governor-General of French Indo- 
 China. There are 21 provinces and four mili¬ 
 tary territories. The local budget for 1914 
 balanced at 8,994,000 piasters (piaster = 0.469). 
 
 Estimates of population vary widely; an of¬ 
 ficially published estimate relating to 1911 is 
 6,118,000. Europeans, exclusive of the military, 
 number upward of 6000. The race is Annamese. 
 Besides these, who dwell largely in the delta 
 reeion and who are taller and darker than their 
 
 o 
 
 kindred in Cochin-China and Annam, the in¬ 
 terior contains a number of more or less primi¬ 
 tive peoples, such as the Thos (q.v.) of the 
 Claire River basin, the Muongs (q.v.) of the 
 Black River valley, and others who belong to 
 the Thai (q.v.). The Chinese number upward 
 of 35,000. Several hundred thousand of the in¬ 
 habitants profess Roman Catholicism. Tong¬ 
 king was an independent state before it came 
 under the control of Annam in 1802. In 1873 
 the first military expedition of the French was 
 sent into the territory, but by agreement the 
 next year they retired. In 1882 the French gov¬ 
 ernment, having conceived the design of secur¬ 
 ing the delta of the Red River for French 
 commerce, sent an expedition against the preda¬ 
 tory Black Flags, a Chinese soldiery, represent¬ 
 ing' a remnant of the Taiping rebels. The French 
 sailed up the Red River and occupied the 
 citadel of Hanoi. Annam lent her support to 
 the Black Flags, whereupon in August, 1883, 
 the French fleet under Courbet bombarded Hue 
 and compelled Annam to accept a French pro¬ 
 tectorate and to allow France to prosecute her 
 designs with regard to Tongking. The French 
 pushed their operations with success, but soon 
 had to face a war with China, to whose suzer¬ 
 ainty Annam was still nominally subject. This 
 conflict, which lasted a year (1884-85), left 
 France in virtual possession of Tongking. In 
 1887 Tongking was made a part of French Indo- 
 China. 
 
 Bibliography. Pinabel, Sur quelques peuples 
 sauvages dependants du Tonkin (Paris, 1884) ; 
 Calixte Imbert, Le Tonkin industriel et commer¬ 
 cial (ib., 1885) ; E. Miliot, Le Tonkin (ib., 
 1888) ; Edouard Hocquard, Une campagne au 
 Tonkin (ib., 1892) ; Paul Marabail, Etude eco- 
 nomique et administrative sur le Haut Tonkin 
 (ib., 1908), containing a bibliography; Russier 
 and Bremier, L’Indochine francaise (ib., 1910) ; 
 H. Baudesson, Indo-China and its Primitive 
 Peoples (London, 1914). 
 
 TONGKING, Gulf of. An arm of the South 
 China Sea extending northward between French 
 Indo-China on the west and the Chinese island 
 of Hainan together with the Lei-chau peninsula 
 on the east (Map: French Indo-China, E 2, 3). 
 It is 150 miles wide and 300 miles long and 
 receives the Red River. Its depth is everywhere 
 less than 300 feet. 
 
 TONGUE (AS. tunge, Goth, tug go, OHG. 
 zunga, Ger. Zunge, tongue; connected with 
 OLat. dingua, Lat. lingua, tongue). A sym¬ 
 metrical muscular organ, extending from the 
 hyoid bone forward and downward to the lips 
 in front and occupying the buccal cavity. The 
 superior surface, borders, and anterior third of 
 the inferior surface are free, while the remaining 
 parts are attached to adjacent parts by the in¬ 
 vesting mucous membrane and subjacent struc¬ 
 tures. At certain points this membrane, on leav¬ 
 ing the tongue, forms distinct folds, containing 
 fibrous or muscular tissue, which act to a cer¬ 
 tain extent as ligaments of the tongue. The 
 most considerable of these folds is termed the 
 framum (or bridle) of the tongue and connects 
 its anterior free extremity with the lower jaw. 
 It acts as a strong ligament and limits the back¬ 
 ward movement of the tip of the tongue. In 
 rare cases this ligament extends aonormallv to 
 the tip, so as to interfere with speech and masti¬ 
 cation, and the child is said to be tongue-tied; 
 recourse must be then had to division of the 
 framum, popularly known as cutting the tongue. 
 
TONGUE 
 
 337 TONGUE 
 
 Other folds of mucous membrane (the glosso- 
 epiglottid folds) pass from the base of the 
 tongue to the epiglottis, while from the sides of 
 the base, passing to the soft palate, are seen two 
 
 folds on either side, known as the pillars of the 
 fauces. (See Palate.) The superior surface 
 of the tongue is divided into two symmetrical 
 lateral parts by a median longitudinal furrow 
 beginning at the tip and extending back about 
 two-thirds of the tongue’s length. The various 
 kinds of papillae which are seen on their surface 
 are described under Taste. At the back of the 
 surface, just behind the circumvallate papillae 
 (papillae vallatae), are large mucous glands, ex¬ 
 tending into long and capacious canals and help¬ 
 ing to secrete the fluid that moistens the tongue. 
 On the inferior surface, the longitudinal fur¬ 
 row, which extends from the tip to the fraenum, 
 is deeper than on the upper surface; on each 
 side of it veins are seen running forward; and 
 immediately beneath the tip is a cluster of 
 mucous glands, known as the glands of Nuck 
 (Dutch anatomist, 1650-92). The posterior ex¬ 
 tremity, or base, is flattened and extended lat¬ 
 erally before it is inserted into the hyoid bone. 
 
 Serous Glands 
 
 SECTION THROUGH A PAPILLA VALLATA. 
 
 The muscles of the tongue are usually divided 
 into two groups, viz., the extrinsic muscles, which 
 attach the tongue to certain fixed points external 
 to it and move it on them, and the intrinsic 
 muscles, which pass from one part of the tongue 
 to another, constitute its chief bulk, and move it 
 
 on itself. These intrinsic muscular fibres run 
 vertically, transversely, and longitudinally and 
 are so interlaced as mutually to support one 
 another and to act with the greatest advantage. 
 By the action of the various muscles the upper 
 surface of the tongue may be made concave or 
 convex or may be pressed against the roof of 
 the mouth; the tip may be protruded straight 
 
 SECTION SHOWING STRUCTURE AND ARRANGEMENT OF 
 
 PAPILLAE. 
 
 out or laterally, upward and downward, and to 
 any recess (as e.g., a hollow tooth) within the 
 mouth where food might lodge; and the whole 
 organ may be drawn back. The nerve supply to 
 the tongue is motor and sensory. The motor 
 nerve is the hypoglossal. The sensory nerves are 
 the lingual (or gustatory) branch of the fifth, 
 which confers sensibility on the mucous mem¬ 
 brane of the anterior two-thirds of the tongue; 
 the lingual branch of the glossopharyngeal, which 
 confers ordinary sensibility and the sense of 
 taste on the posterior third of the tongue; the 
 chorda tympani, which is the special nerve of 
 taste for the anterior two-thirds, of the tongue. 
 
 The functions of the tongue are gustation, pre¬ 
 hension (in man and monkeys this function is 
 supplied by the hand), mastication, insalivation, 
 deglutition, and speech; and in the case of the 
 Gasteropoda, trituration of the food. 
 
 The tongue is subject to several diseases, 
 among which may be mentioned glossitis, or in¬ 
 flammation of the tongue, tuberculosis, and 
 syphilis; new growths, usually malignant in na¬ 
 ture; certain affections which the mucous mem¬ 
 brane of the tongue shares with the skin, such 
 
 VERTICAL SECTION THROUGH A TASTE BUD. 
 
 as herpes, lichen, and leucopacia. It is also 
 subject to excoriations, ulcers, and fissures. 
 Macroglossia is a term applied to certain chroni¬ 
 cally enlarged conditions of the tongue. It is a 
 condition often found in cretins and is probably 
 due in this case to lymphangioma. Hypertrophy 
 and also cancer may attack the tongue. 
 
 Tongue in Diagnosis. The tongue furnishes 
 a valuable index in the diagnosis of disease and 
 presents certain characteristic appearances in 
 many morbid conditions. An inspection of this 
 
TONIC 
 
 TONKA BEAN 
 
 338 
 
 organ is an important part of any clinical ex¬ 
 amination, and its condition should be noted with 
 reference to color, size, muscular tone, mobility, 
 dryness, and special sensation. The tongue is 
 pallid in anaemia and bluish in cyanosis. It is 
 large and tender in glossitis, bright red and 
 studded with brilliant points in scarlet fever 
 (the strawberry tongue). It is apt to be flabby, 
 indented by the teeth, and coated in diseases 
 of the gastrointestinal tract. It is ulcerated in 
 aphthous fever, thrush, stomatitis, the secondary 
 stages of syphilis, mercurial poisoning, etc. It 
 is coated with brown fur (sordes) and tremulous 
 in profound septic conditions, such as typhoid 
 fever and pyaemia. The elongated and pointed 
 tongue is supposed to indicate irritation of the 
 stomach and bowels, whereas the broad flabby 
 tongue indicates atony and sluggish action on 
 the part of the same organs. In acute diseases 
 with dryness of the tongue, improvement .sets 
 in when the tongue becomes moist, and this is 
 nearly always considered a favorable symptom. 
 Spasm, tremor, and one-sided paralysis of the 
 tongue are seen in various nervous diseases. 
 Tremor is a frequent symptom of acute and 
 chronic alcoholic poisoning. See Alimentary 
 System. 
 
 TONIC (from Gk. tovlk6s, tonikos, relating to 
 tone, from tovos, tonos, tone, sound, tension, 
 strength, cord). An agent or medicine that 
 promotes nutrition and, in common parlance, 
 gives tone to the system. It is a rather vague 
 term, since any medicine which corrects a path¬ 
 ological condition in the body will make the 
 patient feel better and stronger, e.g., a chola- 
 gogue, by stimulating the flow of bile and clear¬ 
 ing out the intestines, may act as a tonic. 
 Tonics are to a certain degree stimulant, but 
 their effect is supposed to be more permanent 
 without producing obvious stimulation. Most 
 tonics act primarily through the nervous system; 
 their effect upon the muscular system becomes 
 secondary. They are of especial value during 
 convalescence from wasting fevers. Typical 
 medicines of this class are iron, quinine, strych¬ 
 nine, and the vegetable bitters. Those acting es¬ 
 pecially on the heart are digitalis, squill, and 
 convallarin; those given for anaemia are iron, 
 manganese, arsenic, and cod liver oil; those 
 acting especially on the stomach are cinchona, 
 nux vomica, and other simple bitters. Strych¬ 
 nine is of peculiar value as a tonic, acting both 
 on the spinal cord and general circulation. For 
 the general nervous system, in addition to these 
 drugs, phosphorus, small doses of quinine, and 
 the valerianates are supposed to be peculiarly 
 efficacious. Most of these drugs are described 
 at length under their own titles. More impor¬ 
 tant than drugs, however, as tonic agents, are 
 baths, massage, and exercise in the open air. 
 Sea bathing, shower baths, sponge baths, spinal 
 douches, and various medicated baths are most 
 powerful tonics in suitable cases. See Bath; 
 Exercise; Hydrotherapy. 
 
 TONIC, or Keynote. In music, the note 
 which forms the basis of any scale or key and on 
 which a piece of music written in that key natu¬ 
 rally closes. The tendency of modern harmony is 
 to conceive the tonic not as a single tone, but as 
 a triad built upon that tone. See Key; Tonal¬ 
 ity. 
 
 TONICA, to-ne'ka, or TUNICA. A peculiar 
 tribe, constituting a distinct linguistic stock, who 
 lived, when first known to the French (about 
 1700), on the lower Yazoo River in Mississippi, 
 
 near its junction with the Mississippi, where a 
 mission was established. Probably at an earlier 
 period they had lived at the Tunica Old Fields 
 in the county bearing their name in the north¬ 
 western corner of the same State. They made 
 an alliance with the French, but were hostile to 
 most of their Indian neighbors, particularly the 
 Chickasaw, and in 1706 nearly exterminated the 
 Huma in a massacre near New Orleans. Subse¬ 
 quently they removed to the east bank of the 
 Mississippi, about opposite Pointe Coupee, be¬ 
 low Red River, where they still lived in 1802, 
 numbering then 120. In 1817 they were settled 
 about 90 miles up Red River, where about 25 
 persons were found near Marksville, La., in 
 1886 by Gatschet, who obtained the first vocabu¬ 
 lary of their language. In 1910 they numbered 
 43. Consult J. R. Swanton, Indian Tribes of 
 the Lower Mississippi Valley and Adjacent Coast 
 of the Gulf of Mexico (Washington, 1911). 
 
 TONIC SOL-FA. Various attempts have 
 been made at different times to introduce a musi¬ 
 cal notation which dispenses with the staff and 
 its lines and spaces. Jean Jacques Rousseau 
 suggested, but afterward discarded, a notation 
 where the notes of the scale were indicated by 
 the Arabic numerals. A system similar to 
 Rousseau’s in its leading features, called the 
 tonic sol-fa, has, through the influence of its 
 principal promoter, the Rev. John Curwen (who 
 obtained his main principles from the writings 
 and practice of Miss Glover of Norwich), been 
 brought into use to a considerable extent in 
 singing schools in England. It proceeds on the 
 principle of giving the chief prominence to the 
 fact that there is in reality but one scale in 
 music, which is raised or lowered according to 
 the pitch of the key. This method is a revival 
 of the old sormization system invented by Guido 
 d’ Arezzo, but it admits the interval of the 
 seventh, excluded by Guido. For the complicated 
 music of modern masters the tonic sol-fa is as 
 inadequate as Guido’s solmization had been 
 found. It also favors the system of unequal 
 temperament, directly opposed to the fundamen¬ 
 tal principle of equal temperament, without 
 which the achievements of modern music would 
 have been impossible. It is of value as an edu¬ 
 cational system, since it can be taught quickly 
 and produces better immediate results than the 
 usual notation. 
 
 TONITE. See Explosives. 
 
 TONK. A native Rajputana state in central 
 India. Area, 2553 square miles. Pop., 1911, 
 303,181. Capital, Tonk. 
 
 TONK. The capital of the native Rajputana 
 State of Tonk, central India, near the river 
 Banas, 55 miles south of Jaipur (Map: India, 
 C 3). It is defended by a mud fort and a wall. 
 Pop., 1901, 38,641; 1911, 53,764. 
 
 TONKA, ton'ka. The Chinese name of 
 Puket (q.v.). 
 
 TONKA BEAN; also called Tonga and Ton¬ 
 kin Bean. The seed of a tall leguminous tree, 
 Dipteryx odorata, found in Venezuela, Guiana, 
 and neighboring regions. The seeds are about 
 the size of almonds, though somewhat longer, 
 and are covered with a shining black skin. 
 They are very fragrant from the presence of 
 cumarin and are used in perfumery, ground as 
 sachet powder, and extracted with alcohol as a 
 flavor in cookery, in tobacco manufacture, soap 
 making, etc. The fluid extract has been used 
 as an adulterant or cheap substitute for vanilla; 
 but the former contains cumarin, while true 
 
TONKAWA 
 
 TONNAGE 
 
 339 
 
 vanilla contains vanillin. The native name of 
 the tree is cumara. 
 
 TONKAWA, tdng-ka'wa (from Hueco In¬ 
 dian tonkaweya, many staying together). A 
 peculiar tribe, apparently constituting a distinct 
 linguistic stock, originally occupying the coun¬ 
 try about the lower Colorado and Guadalupe 
 rivers in southeastern Texas. They were noted 
 for cannibalism. The Tonkawa roved about, 
 built circular thatched houses, lived by hunting 
 and wild fruits, and were at war with almost 
 all their neighbors, by whom they were despised 
 as man-eaters. According to their tradition 
 they came from the south. In 1760 some of them 
 were attached to the San Antonio missions. In 
 1849 they were reported to number 600 or 700, 
 who had been driven to "the upper Brazos on 
 account of depredations among the American 
 settlements near the coast. In the fall of 1855, 
 with other small Texas tribes, a part of them, to 
 the number of 170, were gathered upon a reserva¬ 
 tion on the Brazos, a few miles below Fort Bel¬ 
 knap, but they were removed in 1895 to a new 
 reservation on the Washita, near the present 
 Anadarko, Okla. Here they remained until the 
 outbreak of the Civil War, when, thinking that 
 they were about to enter the Confederate service, 
 other tribes took the opportunity to wipe out 
 old scores. A force of about 200 Shawnee, Dela¬ 
 ware, Caddo, and other Indians attacked the 
 agency and the neighboring Tonkawa village near 
 Anadarko in October, 1862, and killed one or 
 two of the agency employees and 137 out of 
 about 320 Tonkawa men, women, and children. 
 The Tonkawa made a stout resistance and in¬ 
 flicted severe loss upon the enemy. The surviv¬ 
 ors led a vagrant existence in northern Texas, 
 most of the men enlisting as scouts against the 
 Comanche, Kiowa, and other wild tribes. In 
 1875 they were reported to number but 119 and 
 were in poor condition. In 1882 they were put 
 in charge of a special agent, who reported them 
 as numbering then only 98. Two years afterward 
 they were removed to a reservation in northern 
 Oklahoma. In 1910 they were reduced to 42 
 and derived their principal income from the 
 leasing of their surplus lands. 
 
 TONKS, Oliver Samuel (1874- ). An 
 
 American professor of art, born at Malden, Mass. 
 He was educated at Harvard (A.B., 1898; A.M., 
 1899; Ph.D., 1903) and was a fellow of the 
 American Classical School at Athens in 1901- 
 02. In 1902-03 he served as assistant curator 
 of the department of classical art at the Mu¬ 
 seum of Fine Arts in Boston. He was instruc¬ 
 tor in Greek at the University of Vermont in 
 1903-04, lecturer at Columbia in 1904-05, and 
 preceptor in art and archaeology at Princeton in 
 1905-11. In the latter year he became profes¬ 
 sor of art at Vassar. Besides contributing to 
 the New International Encyclopaedia, he col¬ 
 laborated in writing The Art Museum and the 
 Public School (1912 ). 
 
 TONKUNSTLER-SOCIETAT. One of the 
 
 oldest musical societies of Vienna. Founded 
 in 1771, reorganized in 1797, in 1865 it was 
 once more reorganized and, in recognition of the 
 generous gifts of the composer, renamed Haydn- 
 Societiit. 
 
 TONLE SAP, ton'la sap', or Tale Sap. A 
 lake of central Cambodia, connected with the 
 Mekong by an arm of that river known also as 
 the Me-Sap (Map: French Indo-China, D 4). 
 The lake acts as a great reservoir. During the 
 summer monsoon the waters of the Mekong back 
 
 up through the Me-Sap, bringing the length of 
 the lake to about 120 miles; during the dry sea¬ 
 son the lake is drained by the same arm to 
 about 80 miles in length. During high water 
 navigation is maintained from Saigon to Bat- 
 tambang in western Cambodia. Approaching 
 shores divide the lake into sections, the Caman 
 Dai in the northwest and the Caman Tieu in 
 the southeast. 
 
 TON MILE. See Railways. 
 
 TON'NA, Charlotte Elizabeth (Browne) 
 (1790—1846). An English author, born at Nor¬ 
 wich. She was twice married, first to a Captain 
 Phelan and after his death to Lewis H. J. 
 Tonna, an English writer. She began her liter¬ 
 ary career in Ireland, writing under the pseu- 
 donym of Charlotte Elizabeth. Her works were 
 largely of a religious nature and evinced con¬ 
 siderable hostility towards the Catholic church. 
 She was connected with various magazines and 
 wrote numerous religious tracts, novels, poems, 
 and short stories for children. Consult Works 
 of Charlotte Elizabeth , with an introduction by 
 H. B. Stowe (3 vols., New York, 1844-45). 
 
 TONNAGE (formerly also tunnage, from 
 tun, ton, from OF. tonne, pipe, tun, ML. tunna , 
 OHG. tunna, Ger. Tonne, tun). The carrying 
 capacity or weight of a ship expressed in tons. 
 There are four ways of expressing it: gross ton¬ 
 nage, net tonnage, dead-weight tonnage (or dead¬ 
 weight carrying capacity), and displacement 
 (q.v.) tonnage. The gross tonnage of a ship is 
 ascertained by dividing by 100 the whole in¬ 
 terior capacity (expressed in cubic feet) of the 
 hull of a ship and her inclosed deckhouses; this 
 method presumes that an average cargo of light¬ 
 weight freight will require not far from 100 
 cubic feet for each ton of actual weight. Net 
 tonnage is derived from the gross tonnage by 
 deducting the capacity of all spaces not used, or 
 capable of being used, for cargo or passengers. 
 The dead-weight tonnage is the actual weight of 
 cargo a vessel can carry without immersing her 
 too deeply for safety. Displacement tonnage is 
 the weight of ship and cargo or contents when 
 immersed to some fixed depth. For war vessels 
 the displacement tonnage is usually given for 
 an arbitrary condition called “at normal draft,” 
 which is assumed to be the average seagoing con¬ 
 dition, with about two-thirds of all fuel and 
 stores. Full-load displacement is the condition 
 when all fuel and stores are on board. For mer¬ 
 chant vessels the displacement is usually given 
 for the full-load condition, i.e., when the ship 
 is immersed to her Plimsoll mark. (See Load- 
 Line Marks of Vessels.) In freighting ships 
 40 cubic feet of merchandise is considered a 
 ton; but if that bulk exceeds 2240 pounds (or, 
 in the United States, frequently 2000 pounds) 
 the charge is made by weight. For merchant 
 vessels of ordinary type the displacement is 
 greatest, gross tonnage next, then net tonnage. 
 Dead-weight carrying capacity is always greater 
 than the net tonnage and is usually greater than 
 the gross tonnage; but it is less than the full¬ 
 load displacement by the weight of the ship and 
 contents exclusive of the cargo. 
 
 Each of the great ship canals of the world has 
 a tonnage measurement of its own upon which 
 the laying of the tolls is based. The result so 
 obtained is approximately the same as the net 
 register tonnage determined by American and 
 British rules, but there are some additions. By 
 the rules of measurement that have been adopted 
 for the Panama Canal all vessels except war- 
 
TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE 
 
 340 
 
 TONTINE 
 
 ships are required to present a certificate show¬ 
 ing gross and net tonnages as determined by the 
 rules under which they were measured and reg¬ 
 istered. Warships are required to furnish a 
 curve or table of displacement from which may 
 be derived the displacement corresponding to any 
 mean draft. The measurement of the underdeck 
 space is the same as is provided by the British 
 and Suez Canal rules for vessels having double 
 bottoms with the inner bottom horizontal; but 
 by the American rules the double-bottom spaces 
 intended for carriage of oil fuel and feed water 
 are added. The space for feed water is, how¬ 
 ever, deducted from the gross tonnage inde¬ 
 pendently of the allowances for engine and fire 
 rooms. See Displacement; Measurement of 
 Ships for Tonnage; Panama Canal; Ship¬ 
 building. 
 
 TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE. Certain 
 duties on wine and other merchandise, w r hich be¬ 
 gan to be levied in England in the reign of Ed¬ 
 ward III. They were at first granted to the 
 crown by the vote of Parliament for a limited 
 number of years and renewed on their expira¬ 
 tion. Originally fluctuating in amount, tonnage 
 and poundage came to be fixed at 3s. on every 
 tun of wine and 5 per cent on all goods imported. 
 In the reign of Henry V they were first con¬ 
 ferred on the King for life; and, the same 
 course being followed with his successors, the 
 sovereign began gradually to consider them as 
 his proper right and inheritance, and the vote 
 of Parliament as but a formality expressive of 
 the popular recognition of his prerogative. It 
 was usual to levy these duties during the period 
 intervening between a sovereign’s accession and 
 his first Parliament, and this was done by 
 Charles I as by his predecessors. The Commons, 
 however, in Charles’s first Parliament accorded 
 these imposts not for life, but for a year only; 
 and the House of Lords objecting to this de¬ 
 parture from previous usages and rejecting the 
 bill, an attempt was made to levy tonnage and 
 poundage by the royal authority alone, a proceed¬ 
 ing which aroused the opposition of the Com¬ 
 mons. Charles was, in 1629, induced to pass 
 an act renouncing the power of levying these or 
 any other imposts without parliamentary sanc¬ 
 tion. On the restoration Charles II obtained a 
 grant of tonnage and poundage for life, but by 
 three several statutes of Anne and George I 
 these imposts were made perpetual and mort¬ 
 gaged for the public debt. The duties were 
 abolished in 1787. 
 
 TONQM'ETER (from Gk. toms, fonos, tone, 
 sound, tension, strength, -f- fjLerpov, metron, 
 measure). An instrument for measuring ten¬ 
 sion, as of the eyeball or of the blood pressure as 
 transmitted by the ventricles of the heart. Ha¬ 
 mer’s tonometer consists of a tube of metal, with 
 a peg or small rod projecting and so arranged 
 that a coiled watchspring matches its tension 
 against the tension of the body to which the peg 
 is pressed. Roy’s tonometer consists of a tube 
 containing oil in which a cylinder plays, carry¬ 
 ing a registering index. 
 
 TONQUIN, ton-ken'. A division of French 
 Indo-China. See Tongking. 
 
 TONSBERG, tens'berg. One of the oldest 
 towns of Norway, in the Amt of Jarlsberg and 
 Larvik, on a fjord of the same name, 45 miles 
 south of Christiania (Map: Norway, D 7). The 
 seal and whale fisheries employ a large pro¬ 
 portion of its male population. Pop., 1900, 
 8620; 1910, 9719. 
 
 TON'SIL. One of a pair of small ovoid bodies 
 situated between the pillars of the soft palate, 
 one on each side of the throat, corresponding in 
 position with the angles of the lower jaw. The 
 tonsil has about 12 spaces within its substance, 
 from which smaller follicular depressions ex¬ 
 tend into its structure, and is classed with the 
 ductless glands. It is frequently inflamed after 
 infection by entrance of germs into the crypts 
 and follicles described. Severe suppurative dis¬ 
 ease about the tonsil causing swelling and dis¬ 
 placement of it is termed quinsy (q.v.). See 
 Palate. 
 
 TONSIL, Nasopharyngeal, or Lusciika’s. 
 See Adenoid. 
 
 TON'SILLI'TIS. See Pharyngitis ; Quinsy. 
 
 TON'SON, Jacob (c.1656-1736). A famous 
 London publisher. He opened his shop at the 
 Judge’s Head in Chancery Lane, near Fleet 
 Street, in 1677. Towards the close of the cen¬ 
 tury he moved to Gray’s Inn Gate, taking into 
 company with him his nephew, Jacob Tonson, 
 and in 1710 to the Shakespeare’s Head in the 
 Strand. For Dryden Tonson published several 
 plays, the translation of Vergil (1697), and The 
 Fables (1699). He was also helped by Dryden 
 to start the famous Miscellanies, of which the 
 first appeared in 1684. With this prestige he 
 became the popular publisher among the next 
 generation of authors. He bought out the rights 
 in Milton’s Paradise Lost and from his press 
 issued Rowe’s edition of Shakespeare (1709) 
 and Pope’s in 1725. About 1700 he joined in 
 forming the famous Kit-Cat Club, of which he 
 was made secretary. About 1703 he bought a 
 house at Barn Elms on the Thames and built a 
 room for the club. 
 
 TONSTALL, Cuthbert. See Tunstall, 
 Cuthbert. 
 
 TON'SURE (Lat. tonsura, a shearing, from 
 tondere, to shear). A religious observance of 
 the Roman Catholic and Oriental churches, which 
 consists in shaving or cutting the hair as a sign 
 of the dedication of the person to the special 
 service of God and commonly to the public min¬ 
 istry of religion. Probably it first arose in 
 reference to the monastic rather than the cleri¬ 
 cal life. Jerome disapproved of the tonsure for 
 clerics. Paulinus of Nola, in the end of the 
 fourth or beginning of the fifth century, alludes 
 to it as then in use among the Western monks, 
 and it speedily passed from them to the clergy. 
 The form of the tonsure was different in dif¬ 
 ferent churches. That of the Roman church, 
 called the tonsure of Peter, consisted in shaving 
 the crown as well as the back of the head, so 
 that there remained a circular ring or crown 
 of hair. In the Scottish (or Irish) tonsure the 
 entire front of the head was shaved, leaving the 
 front bare as far back as the line from ear to 
 ear. This tonsure was called the tonsure of 
 John and sometimes of Simon Magus. The 
 Greeks and other Orientals shaved the entire 
 head. Originally the tonsure was merely the 
 symbol of admission to the clerical state (see 
 Clerk), but about the seventh century it came 
 to be used as a distinct and independent cere¬ 
 monial. Consult E. L. Taunton, The Laic of the 
 Church (London, 1906). 
 
 TONTI, Henri de. See Tonty, Henri de. 
 
 TONTINE, ton'ten (Fr., from It. tontina, 
 from Tonti). A tontine exists whenever sev¬ 
 eral persons are united in a group on such 
 terms that on the death of any member of 
 the group certain specified advantages previously 
 
TONTINE 
 
 TONTY 
 
 enjoyed by him are distributed among the sur¬ 
 viving members. The principle has been em¬ 
 ployed in many kinds of transactions, of which 
 the most important are government loans and 
 life insurance. The application of the tontine 
 principle to government loans began in the later 
 Middle Ages. The idea was introduced into 
 France about the middle of the seventeenth cen¬ 
 tury by an Italian named Lorenzo Tonti, but it 
 had already long been known in Italy and Ger¬ 
 many. It was one of numerous devices adopted 
 by various states to induce the public to sub¬ 
 scribe to government loans. The first French 
 loan on this principle was made in 1689 and 
 the last one in 1759. Existing tontines were 
 wound up in 1770 and life annuities substituted 
 for their privileges. The English government 
 made less use of tontines than the French. The 
 earliest one was organized in 1692 and the third 
 and last in 1789. There were a few Irish ton¬ 
 tines in the eighteenth century. In England 
 none of the loans was fully subscribed, though 
 offered on favorable terms. 
 
 A subscriber to a tontine loan was the buyer of 
 a life annuity, which increased in amount with 
 the death of any member of the class to which 
 the subscriber belonged. On the death of the 
 last survivor the obligation of the government 
 terminated. In most cases the subscribers were 
 divided into classes according to age, the right 
 of survivorship prevailing only among the mem¬ 
 bers of the same age class. Sometimes the 
 amount of the annuity at the beginning varied 
 for the different classes. Thus, in the first Eng¬ 
 lish loan the annuity increased from class to 
 class, being slightly over 4 per cent for those 
 under 20 years of age and more than 5*4 per 
 cent for those over 60. Occasionally there were 
 other limitations: the first English loan, which 
 did not classify subscribers according to age, 
 provided that when the number of survivors was 
 reduced to seven the right of survivorship should 
 cease. On the third loan it was stipulated that 
 no single annuity should exceed £1000. Usually 
 the subscriber to a loan had the privilege of 
 naming any other person as the recipient of the 
 life annuity, with the natural result that a large 
 proportion of the annuitants were young. The 
 feature of a tontine loan which was relied on to 
 attract subscribers was the great return secured 
 by those investors who lived longest. 
 
 It is obvious that a tontine loan is an unwise 
 fiscal measure. As to ordinary life annuities, 
 it is fairly safe for the government to assume 
 that premature deaths will largelv offset ex¬ 
 ceptionally long lives, but in the case of a ton¬ 
 tine there is no such balancing. It is not the 
 average duration of life of the group which 
 determines the amount of interest which the 
 government will have to pay, but a much more 
 uncertain thing, the duration of the longest 
 life. 
 
 The application of the tontine principle to life 
 insurance has taken two forms. Under the old 
 or full tontine plan, in use before the days of 
 surrender values, an insured person who al¬ 
 lowed his policy to lapse recovered nothing from 
 the company. The gain which the company had 
 made on his policy was put to the credit of 
 the other insured of the same class. At the end 
 of the tontine period all such profits were dis¬ 
 tributed among the members of the group still 
 holding policies. After the introduction of sur¬ 
 render values, partly under legal compulsion 
 and partly by the voluntary action of the in¬ 
 
 surance companies, the so-called s^mitontine 
 plan was adopted. Under this there is a simi¬ 
 lar division of surplus among those members 
 of the group whose policies are in force at 
 the end of the tontine period, but the surplus to 
 be divided is comparatively small. It arises 
 chiefly from two sources—an expense rate so 
 low that some part of the loading of the pre¬ 
 mium is saved, and an interest rate on invest¬ 
 ments higher than that assumed in calculating 
 reserve values. A person taking out a semi¬ 
 tontine policy enters into an agreement with 
 the company that the profit thus arising on his 
 policy shall be put into a pool along with the 
 corresponding profit on other policies of the same 
 class, and that at the end of the tontine period— 
 usually 10, 15, or 20 years—the pool shall be 
 divided among those members of the class whose 
 policies are still in force. 
 
 The question of the desirability of applying 
 the tontine principle to life insurance lias been 
 the occasion of much discussion. That the full 
 tontine plan was a bad one cannot be questioned, 
 but the evils arose more from the absence of 
 surrender values than from the tontine method 
 of distributing the surplus. For the semiton¬ 
 tine plan the purely financial argument would 
 seem, on the whole, favorable. In all forms of 
 life insurance the indemnities paid on the poli¬ 
 cies of those dying early are partly at the ex¬ 
 pense of those whose policies run a longer time. 
 The distribution of the surplus on the tontine 
 principle is at least a partial reparation. It 
 ought always to be clearly understood that 
 the larger return to those whose policies are 
 kept in force to the end of the tontine period 
 necessarily means a smaller return to those who 
 die or whose policies terminate before that time. 
 The weightiest objection to tontine insurance is 
 a moral one. It is introducing additional un¬ 
 certainty into the transaction of life insurance, 
 where the speculative element is already large. 
 
 Private tontines were by no means uncommon 
 down to the end of the eighteenth century. They 
 were frequently taken up to raise money for 
 purposes requiring large investments of capital. 
 Large buildings in many cities of the United 
 States were erected in that way. At the present 
 time they are almost unknown, partly because 
 the abundance of capital has made it unneces¬ 
 sary to resort to them, partly because the large 
 element of uncertainty involved in them is in¬ 
 consistent with the spirit of modern business. 
 
 TONTY, or TONTI, toN'te', Hexri de 
 (c.1650-c.1704) . A companion of La Salle (q.v.) 
 in the exploration of the Mississippi valley. He 
 was a native of Gaeta in Italy and at an early 
 age entered the military service of France. In 
 July, 1678, he went with La Salle to Quebec. 
 In the autumn of 1679 Tonty sailed up along 
 the eastern shore of Lake Michigan and met 
 his chief at the St. Joseph River. In March, 
 1680, he was left bj'' La Salle in command of 
 Fort Crevecoeur in the Illinois country. Forced 
 to flee by a mutiny among his soldiers, he made 
 his way to Green Bay, where he passed the 
 winter of 1680-81 and in May met La Salle at 
 Michilimackinac. In 1682 he was with La 
 Salle in the memorable voyage down the Missis¬ 
 sippi. and in May of that year he was dispatched 
 to Mackinac for supplies. In December Fort 
 St. Louis was erected at Starved Rock on the 
 Illinois, and Tonty was left in charge. In 1685 
 he took part in an expedition of the Illinois 
 Indians against the Senecas, and in 1687 he was 
 
TOOELE 
 
 342 
 
 TOOLE 
 
 with Denonville in the expedition against the 
 English colonies. In February of the preceding 
 year he had descended the Mississippi in search 
 of La Salle. He continued to live among the 
 Illinois Indians till 1702, when he joined Iber¬ 
 ville in Louisiana. Spurious memoirs were pub¬ 
 lished under his name at Paris in 1697 under the 
 title Derniere decouverte de la Salle dans 
 VAmerique septentrionale. His real memoirs 
 were published by Margry in Origines frangaises 
 des pays d’outre-mer (Eng. ed., New \ork, 1906). 
 Consult J. C. Parish, The Man with the Iron 
 Hand (Boston, 1913), and C. B. Reed, Masters 
 of the Wilderness (Chicago, 1913). 
 
 TOOELE, tbd-el'e. A city and the county seat 
 of Tooele Co., Utah, 35 miles southwest of Salt 
 Lake City, on the San Pedro, Los Angeles, and 
 Salt Lake and the Tooele Valley railroads 
 (Map: Utah, B 2). There are large smelting 
 and refining works, saw mills, a creamery, and 
 a flour mill. Tooele has a Carnegie library. 
 Pop., 1900, 1200; 1910, 2753. 
 
 TOOKE, took, John Horne (1736-1812). An 
 English etymologist and politician. He was 
 born in London, his father being John Horne, a 
 poulterer. He was educated at Westminster 
 and Eton and at St. John’s College, Cambridge. 
 He entered the Church strongly against his own 
 wish and in 1760 became curate at New Brent¬ 
 ford. In 1763 he traveled in France for a year 
 as the tutor of the son of John Elwes, and two 
 years later, while acting again as a tutor, he 
 met John Wilkes (q.v.) and visited Voltaire 
 (q.v.) at Ferney. When Wilkes stood as a can¬ 
 didate for the County of Middlesex in 1768, 
 Tooke zealously aided him, but the pair after¬ 
 ward quarreled. Tooke still, however, continued 
 to meddle in political affairs and ventured to 
 encounter Junius, with whom some have even 
 sought to identify him. In 1773 he resigned 
 his living at New Brentford and, besides con¬ 
 tinuing his legal studies, commenced the study 
 of philology. About this time he rendered some 
 important private service to William Tooke of 
 Purley in Surrey, who intended to make him 
 his heir. In consequence he adopted in 1782 
 the surname of Tooke, by which he is now known. 
 In 1777 he was fined and imprisoned for having 
 published in 1775 an advertisement in which 
 he accused the King’s troops of barbarously 
 murdering the Americans at Lexington. While 
 in prison he penned his celebrated Letter to 
 Mr. Dunning (dated April 21, 1778), in which 
 are to be found the germs of his Diversions of 
 Purley. On his release Tooke made repeated 
 attempts to gain admission to the bar, but was 
 refused on the ground of his clerical orders. 
 Afterward he returned to political writing, and 
 in a Letter on Parliamentary Reform advocated 
 universal suffrage. In the struggle between Pitt 
 and Fox he wrote pamphlets on the side of the 
 former, but soon got to hate Pitt, as he had 
 learned to hate many other public men. In 
 1786 appeared the first volume of his famous 
 Epea Pteroenta, or the Diversions of Purley, 
 vol. ii (1805), a work on the analysis and ety¬ 
 mology of English words. As a philologist 
 Tooke was among the first to realize the neces¬ 
 sity of studying Gothic and Anglo-Saxon. But 
 his passion for politics soon drew him from 
 literature into public life, and in 1801 he en¬ 
 tered Parliament for the borough of Old Sarum; 
 but he made no figure there. The best edition 
 of the Diversions of Purley is that of Taylor 
 
 (London, 1840). Consult Alexander Stephens, 
 
 Memoirs of John Horne Tooke (2 vols., London, 
 1813), and J. A. Graham, Memoir of John Horne 
 Tooke (New York, 1898). 
 
 TOOKE, Thomas (1774-1858). A British 
 economist. He was born in St. Petersburg. 
 In 1804 he became partner in a prominent Rus¬ 
 sian house in London; later he became director 
 of the Royal Exchange Assurance Corporation, 
 president of the Calhamie Dock Company, mem¬ 
 ber of the managing board of the London and 
 Birmingham Railway. He was a member of the 
 first great factory commission and president of 
 the commission appointed to inquire into the 
 evils of child labor in factories. From his prac¬ 
 tical experience in the Russian trade Tooke de¬ 
 veloped a strong antipathy to governmental in¬ 
 terference in foreign commerce. He was author 
 of the Merchants’ Petition in Favour of Free 
 Trade, presented to Parliament in 1820. He was 
 chiefly interested, however, in questions relating 
 to money and banking. In these subjects he is 
 regarded as one of the best authorities of the 
 times. He was the leading opponent of the 
 quantity theory of money and was a harsh 
 critic of Paul’s Banking Act of 1844. He was 
 author of several works on currency problems, 
 of which the most important are his On the Cur¬ 
 rency in Connection ivith the Corn Trade, and 
 on the Corn Laws (1820) ; Considerations on the 
 State of the Currency (1826) ; An Inquiry into 
 the Currency Principles and the Connection of 
 the Currency with Price (1844); A History of 
 Prices, 1793-1856 (1838-57), six. volumes, the 
 last two written in collaboration with W. 
 Newmarch. 
 
 TOOKE, William (1744-1820). An English 
 historian, born at Islington, London, and edu¬ 
 cated there at an academy. Taking holy orders 
 in 1771, he became chaplain to the English 
 church at Kronstadt in Russia and three years 
 later chaplain to the English merchants at St. 
 Petersburg. Coming into possession of a for¬ 
 tune, he resigned in 1792 and returned to Lon¬ 
 don, where he devoted the rest of his life to 
 literature. His most valuable work was in 
 Russian history, based upon research in the 
 Imperial Library at St. Petersburg. It embraces 
 mainly The Life of Catharine II, partly a trans¬ 
 lation from the French (1798) ; A View of the 
 Russian Empire during the Reign of Catharine II 
 and to the Close of the Present Century (1799) ; 
 A History of Russia from the■ Foundation of 
 the Monarchy hy Rurik to the Accession of 
 Catharine II (1800). He published numerous 
 miscellaneous books, as The Loves of Othniel and 
 Achsah (1769), a Chaldee romance; Varieties 
 of Literature (1795) ; Lucian of Samosata, from 
 the Greek, with the comments of Wieland and 
 others (1820). His son, William Tooke (1777— 
 1863), took a prominent part in founding Uni¬ 
 versity College, London, and also the Society for 
 the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. He was also 
 a member of the Royal Society and president 
 of the Society of Arts. He edited the poems of 
 Churchill, compiled The Monarchy of France 
 (1855), and published a volume of verse. 
 
 TOOLE, John Lawrence (1830-1906). An 
 English comedian, born in London. He made 
 his debut in London at the Haymarket Theatre 
 in 1852. Upon the opening of the new Adelphi 
 Theatre by Benjamin Webster in 1858, Toole 
 became the leading comedian, and there, in 
 1862, he appeared in his great part of Caleb 
 Plummer, in Boucicault’s dramatization of The 
 Cricket on the Hearth. In 1868 he played the 
 
TOOMBS 
 
 TOPAZ 
 
 343 
 
 Artful Dodger at the Queen’s Theatre, with 
 Henry Irving as Bill Sykes. He visited Amer¬ 
 ica in 1875 and in 1890 made a successful trip 
 to Australia. He opened Toole’s Theatre (the 
 Folly Theatre reconstructed) in February, 1882, 
 and managed it as a home of comedy for a num¬ 
 ber of years. Consult: Toole’s Reminiscences , 
 chronicled by Joseph Hatton (London, 1888) ; 
 Matthews and Hutton, Actors and Actresses 
 of Great Britain and the United States (New 
 \ork, 188G); Scott, The Drama of Yesterday 
 and To-Day (London, 1899). 
 
 TOOMBS, Robert (1810—85). An American 
 statesman, born at Washington, Ga. He studied 
 at the State University at Athens and graduated 
 (1828) at Union College, Schenectady, N. Y. 
 He studied law at the University of Virginia 
 and began practice in Wilkes Co., Ga. After 
 service against the Creeks in 1836 and several 
 years in the Georgia Legislature as a States’ 
 Rights Whig, he was elected to Congress in 1844 
 and held his seat for four terms, until 1853, 
 when he was elected to the United States Senate 
 and in 1859 reelected. He opposed the Mexican 
 War and the annexation of territory by force, 
 aided in the adoption of the Compromise of 1850, 
 opposed the Nashville Convention, and helped 
 secure the famous Georgia Platform. As an 
 impassioned political speaker he had few equals. 
 The movement of secession had his full ap¬ 
 proval; and it was chiefly his influence, in 
 opposition to the more conservative views of his 
 lifelong friend, Alexander H. Stephens, that led 
 his State to pass its ordinance of secession, to 
 which there was a strong opposition, especially 
 among the old line Whigs. On the election of 
 Davis Toombs was offered the office of Secre¬ 
 tary of State and with reluctance accepted it 
 for a short time, on his resignation receiving a 
 commission as brigadier general. He served in 
 the second battle of Bull Run and at Antietam 
 and later was made brigadier general of the 
 Georgia militia. After the war he lived for 
 some time abroad; then from 1867 he carried 
 on a successful law practice at his old home, 
 being especially serviceable to Georgia by win¬ 
 ning his contention that railroads should pay 
 taxes like other property. He was noted for 
 his brilliant wit, his legal sagacity, and his 
 benevolence. He opposed the Reconstruction 
 measures and never took the oath of allegiance. 
 He is mainly remembered as an unrelenting 
 Southern partisan. Consult: W. P. Trent, 
 Southern Statesmen of the Old Regime (New 
 York, 1897) ; U. B. Phillips, The Life of Robert 
 Toombs (ib., 1913) ; W. W. Hicks, Tributes and 
 Memories (Boston, 1914). 
 
 TOON (Hind, tun , tun, from Skt. tunna , 
 toon), or Toona . ( Cedrela toona) . A tree of 
 the family Meliaceae, one of the largest timber 
 trees of India, occurring also in Australia, where 
 it attains a height of 150 to 180 feet and a 
 diameter of 5 to 7 feet. Hooker mentions one 
 which he measured in India which was 30 feet 
 in girth at 5 feet above the ground. The flowers 
 are used in India for dyeing. The tree, some¬ 
 times called bastard cedar, occurs at 4000 feet 
 on the Himalaya and is found in the farthest 
 south of the East Indies. The bark contains 
 considerable tannin and is used to produce a 
 kind of purplish leather. The wood is soft, 
 durable, easily worked, and extensively used in 
 housebuilding and for furniture. The timber 
 called in English markets Maulmain cedar is 
 exported from India in considerable quantities. 
 
 TOOROP, to'rop, Jan (1860- ). A Dutch 
 
 East Indian painter, of Norwegian, Dutch, and 
 Javanese ancestry. He was born at Porworedjo 
 (Java), was educated at Batavia and in Delft, 
 Holland, and after 1881 studied art at the acad¬ 
 emies of Amsterdam and Brussels and also in 
 London and Paris. In the latter city he joined 
 the post-impressionist movement and after his 
 return to Brussels helped to found the radical 
 Societe des Vingt. Later he introduced the 
 new phase of art into Holland. The brutal 
 realism, power, and strength of his earlv work 
 are well illustrated in his “Broeck-in-Water- 
 land,” “The Wave,” and “Melancholy.” After¬ 
 ward his ideas became more intricate and mysti¬ 
 cally symbolical. His treatment of line, though 
 archaic, is masterly, and he often displays great 
 decorative skill and delicacy of handling. Char¬ 
 acteristic examples of his later manner are: 
 “The Sphinx”; “The Three Brides”; “Our 
 Time”; “With the Sower”; “Nirvana”; “Rustic 
 Trinity.” He also painted many dainty por¬ 
 traits of children and produced lithographs and 
 etchings. 
 
 TOOTH. See Teeth. 
 
 TOOTHACHE TREE. See Arabia; Zan- 
 
 THOXYLUM. 
 
 TOOTH-BILLED PIGEON. An extraordi¬ 
 nary member of the pigeon tribe ( Didunculus 
 strigirostris) , native to Samoa and alone repre¬ 
 senting a separate family (Didunculidse). This 
 species, known to the Samoans as manu-mea, or 
 redbird, is about 1 foot long and glossy green¬ 
 ish black, with a chestnut tinge on the upper 
 parts and brown on the wing quills and abdo¬ 
 men. Its most striking characteristic is a 
 great orange-colored, hawklike, toothed bill, 
 suitable for gathering the bananas and other 
 large fruits upon which it lives. It was origi¬ 
 nally wholly terrestrial in its habits, spending 
 its time on the wooded mountain sides, where it 
 roosted on rocks and stumps and nested on the 
 ground, rarely gathering into parties. It was 
 hunted for food. This circumstance, the fact 
 that it laid but a single egg, and the introduc¬ 
 tion by white settlers of cats, rats, and guns 
 led not only to its speedier destruction, but to 
 an interesting change in habits, since it soon 
 resorted much more to tall trees than previously 
 and placed its nest on high branches. See Plate 
 of Pigeons. 
 
 TOOTH FUNGI. See Basidiomycetes. 
 
 TOOTH SHELL. See Tusk Shell. 
 
 TOPALIAS, Lake. See Bceotia. 
 
 TO'PAZ (Lat. topazion, topazus, from Gk. 
 Toira^iov, Tora^os, topaz; possibly connected with 
 Skt. tapas, heat). A mineral aluminium fluo- 
 silicate, crystallized in the orthorhombic system. 
 It has a vitreous lustre and may be colorless, 
 yellow, green, blue, or red. Topaz occurs in 
 gneiss or granite associated with beryl, mica, 
 tourmaline, etc., and occasionally with apatite, 
 cassiterite, and fluorite, and also in certain 
 talcose rocks, mica slate, rhyolite, and in allu¬ 
 vial deposits and drift. The crystallized varie¬ 
 ties, owing to their hardness, are valued as 
 gems, and the best of these come from Ceylon 
 and other parts of India, the Urals, Minas 
 Geraes, Brazil, and in the United States from 
 various localities in Maine, Colorado, and Utah. 
 The most popular color for topaz gem stones is 
 a rich orange yellow somewhat resembling the 
 color of sherry wine. Rose topaz is a delicate 
 rose pink in color. The name “topaz” was ap¬ 
 plied by Pliny and others to yellow crystals, 
 
TOPE 
 
 344 
 
 TOPEKA 
 
 probably chrysolite. Among the ancients it was 
 regarded as symbolical of friendship; when worn 
 as an amulet it was said to drive away sadness, 
 strengthen the intellect, and bestow courage; 
 mounted in gold and hung around the neck, it 
 dispelled enchantment. It is the birthstone of 
 November. The true Oriental topaz is the yel¬ 
 low sapphire, and the Saxon, Scottish, Spanish, 
 smoky, and false topaz are yellow varieties of 
 quartz. See Gems. 
 
 TOPE, top (Hind, top, from Pali, Prak. thiipa, 
 from Skt. stupa, mound, accumulation). The 
 vernacular name of Buddhistic monuments, in 
 the form of tumuli, intended for the preservation 
 of relics or as memorial mounds commemorating 
 some religious event. In Ceylon they are called 
 dagabas; the designation more generally em¬ 
 ployed by Indian archaeologists is stupa, from 
 the Sanskrit, of which tope is merely a dialectic 
 corruption. Not only the Buddhists erected 
 these monuments, but the Jains, their rival sect, 
 did likewise. No Jain specimen appears to have 
 been preserved. The oldest topes are in the 
 form of a hemisphere or sometimes an ellipse, 
 solidly constructed of brick, stone, and masonry, 
 resting on a base similarly constructed and sur¬ 
 rounded by a stone railing, which was modeled 
 after a prototype of mud and served to mark off 
 the processional path for the worshipers to fol¬ 
 low in circumambulating the mound. The 
 domical • stupa has been thought to owe its 
 shape to an original earthen tumulus, but it may 
 have been derived from the curved roof of bam¬ 
 boos built over a primitive circular hut shrine 
 constructed of perishable materials. (Cf. V. A. 
 Smith, History of Fine Art in India.) The ele¬ 
 vation of the dome tended in course of time to 
 rise higher and higher until gradually it as¬ 
 sumed a tower-like form and was even further 
 developed in the Chinese pagoda. In the case 
 of the tope the cupola is crowned by a small 
 structure generally quadrangular, but sometimes 
 in the shape of a reversed stepped pyramid, over 
 which is a roof shaped like an extended parasol. 
 Sometimes there are several parasols, and their 
 multiplication and varied arrangement led to 
 variations of form in the tope itself. This was 
 in many cases made of pyramidal form, espe¬ 
 cially in China, where the superposed stories 
 took the form of a tower and the cupola type 
 wholly disappeared; while the topes of the Mon¬ 
 gols, the ssuvurghans, are pyramids erected on 
 a low quadrangular base. The top of the py¬ 
 ramidal topes always carries some metal orna¬ 
 ment, frequently gilt, resembling a parasol, a 
 needle, a trident, or a rising flame. The height 
 of these buildings varies from a few feet to 300; 
 while the circular Abayagiri tope in Ceylon is 
 360 feet in diameter. If erected in a cave 
 temple, the tope generally stands at the end of 
 a long hall especially cut out for it, but some¬ 
 times also in the sanctuary of the cave temple 
 itself; if erected overground, it stands always 
 in the vicinity of a temple or convent. 
 
 In the interior of the tope is the cell or 
 chamber ( dhdtugarbha) containing the box of 
 relics with their accompanying “seven precious 
 things”—gems, gold, silver, coral, etc. The box 
 itself generally consists of an outer case of 
 stone, clay, or bronze, which incloses a silver 
 cylinder, and within this a golden cylinder con¬ 
 taining the relics, both bearing commemorative 
 inscriptions. In some cases the relics were 
 placed not within but under the tope. The 
 cupola form represents the water bubble, the 
 
 Buddhistic symbol of the hollowness of mun¬ 
 dane existence, while the parasol is the emblem 
 of the royal dignity possessed by a Buddhistic 
 saint. The number of stories in topes of pyram¬ 
 idal or tower-like form had likewise a symboli¬ 
 cal import. Thus, only the topes of the most 
 accomplished Buddhas had 13 terraces, to show 
 that these Buddhas had passed beyond the 12 
 causes of existence; three terraces imply the 
 three worlds of desire, of form, and of absence 
 of form; five, the steps of Mount Meru; and 
 so on. 
 
 The topes generally occur in groups, of which 
 the most important is the Bhilsa group in Cen¬ 
 tral India, to which belongs the famous Sanchi 
 tope, and near it are two minor groups, at 
 Sonari and Satdhara. In Bengal is that of 
 Sarnath, 128 feet high. The great tope at 
 Amravati is the most interesting for the wealth 
 and beauty of its sculptures. Others are at 
 Gandhara, Telelabad, and Menikalya, and in 
 Ceylon at Tuparamaya, Ruanwalli, Abayagiri, 
 Anuradhapura, etc. In 1909 near Peshawar was 
 discovered the ruins of a famous stupa erected 
 by King Kanishka (c.l a.d.) containing in 
 a reliquary casket a part of Buddha’s remains, 
 which have since been ceremoniously transferred 
 to Burma. The sculptured rails are described 
 under Indian Art. Consult: Koeppen, Die 
 Religion des Buddha (Berlin, 1857) ; James Fer- 
 gusson, History of Indian and Eastern Archi¬ 
 tecture (London, 1876) ; A. Foucher, L’Origine 
 grecque de Vimage des Buddha (Paris, 1913). 
 
 TOPE. A small European shark ( Galeorhinus 
 galeus) . It is represented on the Western Amer¬ 
 ican coast by the so-called oil or soup-fin shark 
 (Galeorhinus zyopterus), about 6 feet long and 
 gray with black-edged dorsals. The name is 
 also given to the related small dog shark ( Mus - 
 telus eanis ) of the North Atlantic. See Plate 
 of Lampreys and Dogfish. 
 
 TOPE'KA. The capital of Kansas and the 
 county seat of Shawnee County, 65 miles west 
 of Kansas City, on the Kansas River and on 
 the Missouri Pacific, the Union Pacific, the 
 Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe, the Leaven¬ 
 worth and Topeka, and the Chicago, Rock Island, 
 and Pacific railroads (Map: Kansas, G 4). It 
 is situated on rolling prairie land, at an eleva¬ 
 tion of over 800 feet, and covers an area of 
 about 16 square miles. Beautiful shade trees 
 and handsome residences add to the city’s at¬ 
 tractiveness. The most notable structures are 
 the State Capitol and the Kansas Memorial 
 Building, both in the heart of the city. Other 
 noteworthy edifices are the public library (con¬ 
 taining 32,000 volumes), the United States 
 government building, the State printing plant, 
 State museum, the county courthouse, and the 
 city hall and auditorium. The Melan Arch 
 Bridge possesses considerable architectural merit. 
 Topeka is the seat of Washburn College (Con¬ 
 gregational), opened in 1865, and of the College 
 of the Sisters of Bethany (Protestant Episco¬ 
 pal), opened in 1861. The State Insane Asylum 
 and the State Reform School are also here. The 
 prominent local charitable institutions include 
 the Provident Association, the Santa Fe Railway 
 Hospital, the St. Francis Hospital, the Jane C. 
 Stormont Hospital and Training School for 
 Nurses, Christ Hospital, Detention Hospital, the 
 Methodist Old Peoples’ Home, and Ingleside, a 
 [jhome for aged women. 
 
 '(✓'The industrial interests are centred chiefly in 
 me extensive shops of the Santa Fe Railroad 
 
TOPELIUS 
 
 TOPINARD 
 
 345 
 
 and in the manufacture of flour and butter. Of 
 the smaller establishments the most important 
 afle foundries and machine shops, lumber mills, 
 and manufactories of boilers, trusses, woolen 
 goods, etc. The 1914 census showed the total 
 capital invested in all industries to be $14,186,- 
 000; the value of their output amounted to $19,- 
 742,000. Considerable wholesale and jobbing 
 business is carried on in Topeka. The commis¬ 
 sion form of government was adopted in 1910. 
 The electric-light plant and the water works 
 are owned by the municipality. The city spent 
 in 1913 for maintenance and operation $581,- 
 000, the chief items being: schools, $251,000: 
 interest of debt, $114,000; streets, $35,000; fire 
 department, $63,000; and police department, 
 $31,000. Pop., 1900. 33.608; 1910, 43,684; 1915 
 (State census), 46,747; 1920, 50,022. 
 
 ^gss'^Topeka, laid out in 1854, was one of the Free 
 State towns founded by Eastern antislavery 
 men immediately after the passage of the Kan- 
 sas-Nebraska Bill. In 1856 an antislavery con¬ 
 vention adopted here the Topeka Constitution, 
 in pursuance of which the Topeka government 
 was established, to be soon broken up by the 
 United States troops. During this year Topeka 
 became notorious for the raids made by its citi¬ 
 zens on proslavery settlements. In 1857 Topeka 
 was chartered as a city, becoming a city of the 
 first class in 1881. It was made the capital of 
 the State in 1861. Consult: Giles, Thirty Years 
 in Topelca: A Historical Sketch (Topeka/ 1886) ; 
 Z. L. Potter, Industrial Conditions in Topeka 
 (New York, 1915), and D. O. Decker, Municipal 
 Administration in Topeka (ib., 1915), both pub¬ 
 lished by the Russell Sage Foundation. 
 
 TOPELIUS, to-pa'ls-us, Zaciiarias (1818— 
 98). A Swedish-Finnish poet and novelist, born 
 at Kuddnas, near Ny Karleby. He was educated 
 at the University of Helsingfors, where, after 
 gaining the doctorate (1847), he was professor 
 of the history of Finland and the North from 
 1853 to 1878. As a lyric poet he was second 
 only to Runeberg, and his children’s stories have 
 been translated into many languages. His pub¬ 
 lications include: Ljungblommor (Flowers of 
 the Heath, 3 parts, 1845-54) ; Efter femtio dr 
 (After Fifty Years, 1851), a play; Fdltskams 
 Berdttelser (Tales of an Army Surgeon, 5 vols., 
 1853-67) ; Ldsning for Barn (Children’s Storied, 
 
 8 parts, 1865-96); Boken om vdrt land (1875; 
 9th ed., 1899) ; En resa i Finland (A Journey 
 in Finland, 2d ed., 1885) ; Blad ur min tdnke- 
 bok (1898; 3d ed., 1900). His collected works 
 were published at Stockholm, 30 vols. (1899- 
 1910). 
 
 TOPETE Y CARBALLO, t6-pa'ta e kar-ba'- 
 lyo, Juan Bautista (1821-85). A Spanish ad¬ 
 miral and politician, born at San Andres de 
 Tuztla, Mexico, son and grandson of Spanish 
 admirals. He entered the navy at the age of 17 
 and became midshipman in 1843 and lieutenant 
 two years later. From 1846 to 1849 he served 
 in Cuban waters and subsequently was on duty 
 in the Mediterranean. He was promoted to 
 the captaincy of a frigate in 1857 and during the 
 war with Morocco in 1859 was chief of staff to 
 the fleet. About this time he formed political 
 affiliations with the Union Liberal party under 
 O Donnell and in 1862 was elected to the Cortes 
 from Cadiz. He was on the Pacific station dur¬ 
 ing the conflict with Peru and Chile in 1865-66 
 and was severely wounded in the bombardment 
 of Callao in May of the latter year. Made 
 brigadier on his return and placed in command 
 
 of the port of Cadiz, he took an active part in 
 the political conspiracies of the times and by his 
 pronunciamiento of Sept. 17, 1868, gave the sig¬ 
 nal for the outbreak of the revolution which 
 drove Isabella II from the throne. He sent a 
 ship to bring back the generals who had been 
 deported to the Canaries (see Spain) and after 
 he had been joined by Prim and Sagasta won 
 over the city of Cadiz to the revolution. In the 
 provisional government Topete assumed the port¬ 
 folio of Marine. He favored the election of the 
 Duke of Montpensier to the throne and laid 
 down his post when the choice fell upon Ama¬ 
 deus of Savoy. In 1872, however, he resumed 
 office under Serrano and during the latter’s ab¬ 
 sence from the capital presided over the Minis¬ 
 terial Council. In the revolution of 1873 he was 
 imprisoned for a short time, but regained influ¬ 
 ence under the presidency of Serrano, who placed 
 him once more at the head of the navy. With 
 Serrano he fought against the Carlists in the 
 north. On the accession of Alfonso XII Topete 
 retired from active participation in politics. In 
 1879 he was made a life Senator and in 1881 
 became vice admiral. His services were re¬ 
 warded with grand crosses in many orders. He 
 died at Madrid, Oct. 29, 1885. 
 
 TOPFFER, tepf'er, Rodolphe (1799-1846). 
 A Swiss novelist and draftsman, born in Geneva, 
 son of the landscape and genre painter Adam 
 Topffer (1766-1847), under whose instruction he 
 devoted himself to art. His eyesight failing, he 
 took up teaching in 1825, established a boarding 
 school, and in 1832 became professor of aesthetics 
 at the Academy of Geneva. His novel Le pres- 
 bytere (1839) attracted universal attention. 
 The Nouvelles genevoises (1838), Nouvelles et 
 melanges (1840), La bibliotheque de mon oncle 
 (1843 ), and Rose et Gertrude (1845) are hardlv 
 less delightful than the humorous sketches of 
 travel, Voyages en zigzag (1848) and Nouveaux 
 voyages en zigzag (1853), illustrated by himself. 
 A little archaic in style, his work is simple, 
 artistic, sound, and witty, with a childlike fancy 
 and sentiment. Among his best productions are 
 the seven little novels in pictures: Mr. Jabot, 
 M. Crdpin, M. Pencil, Le docteur Festus, His- 
 toire d’Albert, Les amours de M. Vieux-Bois, 
 and M. Cryptogame, published together in Col¬ 
 lections des histoires en estampes (Geneva, 1846— 
 47). Consult Georg Glockner, Rodolphe Topffer: 
 sein Leben und seine Werke (Zerbst, 1891), and 
 Hermann Wolterstoff, Essai sur la vie et les 
 oeuvres de Rodolphe Topffer (Magdeburg, 1894). 
 
 TQPHET, to'fet (Heb. topheth) . A place in 
 the valley of Hinnom, south of Jerusalem, asso¬ 
 ciated with the worship of Molech (2 Kings 
 xxiii. 10; Isa. xxx. 33; Jer. vii. 31-32, xix. 6, 
 12-14). It is probably a loan word of Aramaic 
 origin, tephath, meaning “fireplace,” given a 
 pronunciation topheth, to suggest bosheth 
 (shame). See Hinnom, Valley of; Molech. 
 
 TOPHI. See Concretion. 
 
 TOPI, Tantia. See Tantia Topi. 
 
 TOPINARD, td'pe'naU, Paul (1830-1911). 
 A French anthropologist, born at Isle-Adam 
 (Seine-et-Oise). Fie spent 10 years in the United 
 States, returned to study medicine in Paris, and 
 established himself there in 1869, but after 1871 
 gave up his practice in order to study anthro¬ 
 pology under Broca. He became curator for the 
 Societe d’Anthropologie in 1872, assistant di¬ 
 rector of the anthropological laboratory in the 
 Ecole des Hautes Etudes, professor in the school 
 of anthropology (1876), and secretary general 
 
TOPINISH 
 
 OUCH DANCE 
 
 346 
 
 of the SociSte d’Anthropologie after Broca's 
 death in 1880. He also succeeded Broca as ed¬ 
 itor of the Revue Anthropologique, was com¬ 
 missioner for the section of anthropology at the 
 Exhibition of 1889, and in that year was ad¬ 
 mitted to the Legion of Honor. His publica¬ 
 tions include: Etude sur la taille consid4ree 
 suivant Vdge, le sexe, Vindividu, les milieux et 
 les races (1865) ; Etude sur les races indigenes 
 d y Australia (1872) ; L’Antliropologie (1876) ; 
 Des anomalies de nombre de la colonne verte- 
 brale chez Vhomme (1877); Elements d’an- 
 thropologie generate (1885); Science et foi — 
 I’anthropologie et la science sociale (1900). 
 
 TOP'INISH. See Shaiiaptian Stock. 
 
 TOP'LADY, Augustus Montague (1740- 
 78). A clergyman of the Church of England. 
 He was born at Farnham, Surrey, and was edu¬ 
 cated at Westminster School and Trinity Col¬ 
 lege, Dublin (B.A., 1760). He was ordained 
 priest in 1764 and became rector of Broad Hem- 
 bury in 1768. In 1775 failing health necessi¬ 
 tated his removal to London, where he died of 
 consumption, Aug. 14, 1778. He was the great 
 champion of Calvinism in the Church of Eng¬ 
 land and wrote much against the Methodists, 
 with vigor of language and argument, but often 
 with undue asperity of style. He is best known 
 as the author of the popular hymn ‘"Rock of 
 Ages, Cleft for Me” (1775). He edited for 
 several years the Gospel Magazine. His con¬ 
 troversial works, mostly in reply to Wesley, are 
 numerous. The best was The Historic Proof of 
 the Doctrinal Calvinism of the Church of Eng¬ 
 land (1774). His works were published with 
 memoir (6 vols., 1794; 2d ed., 1825); the best 
 edition of his poetry is by D. Sedgwick (London, 
 1860). Consult Thomas Wright, “Augustus 
 Topladv and Contemporary Hymn-Writers,” in 
 Lives of British Hymn-Writers, vol. ii (ib., 
 1911), containing a bibliography. 
 
 TOPLER, tep'ler, August (1836-1912). A 
 German physicist. He was born in Briihl on 
 the Rhine, was educated in Berlin, and after 
 various minor appointments became professor 
 at the Polytechnic School in Riga in 1864 and 
 in 1868 professor of physics in Graz, where he 
 built the Physical Institute. In 1876 he was 
 called to the professorship of physics in the 
 Polytechnic Institute in Dresden, a position 
 which he filled until 1900. He devised numerous 
 forms of apparatus, especially in connection 
 with optical and electrical phenomena. The 
 electrical machine and the vacuum pump that 
 bear his name are perhaps the best known of 
 his inventions. Besides numerous papers he 
 wrote Optische Studien nach der Methode der 
 Schlierenbeobachtung (1865). 
 
 TOPLITZ, tep'lits. A town of Austria. See 
 Teplitz. 
 
 TOP MINNOW. One of the minnows of 
 the extensive genus Gambusia. They are small 
 viviparous fishes inhabiting still waters in the 
 Southern States, Mexico, and Cuba and keeping 
 near the surface of the water. See Minnow, 
 and Plate of Killifishes and Top Minnows. 
 
 TOP SHELL. A mollusk of the scutibran- 
 chiate family Trochidte, so called because the 
 shell, when reversed, often presents a striking 
 similarity in shape to a boy’s top. When ground 
 and polished they are extremely beautiful and 
 are largely used as ornaments. The operculum 
 is horny, circular, multispiral, and has a cen¬ 
 tral nucleus; and these operculae were formerly 
 
 top shell (Trochus nilo- 
 ticus ). 
 
 highly valued in the East to serve the purpose 
 of an artificial eye. These mollusks dwell in 
 great numbers and variety along all weedy 
 coasts and feed upon 
 
 marine herbage. 
 
 TOPSY. A young 
 
 slave girl in Uncle 
 
 Tom’s Cabin. 
 
 TORAH, or THO- 
 
 RAH, to'ra (Heb. ha- 
 tordh, law, direction, 
 
 Babylon, tertu, oracle, di¬ 
 vine revelation). The 
 Hebrew term technically 
 applied to the Penta¬ 
 teuch. Besides the term 
 Torah there is also used Torath Moshe, i.e., Law 
 of Moses, on the basis of the tradition which 
 ascribes the whole Pentateuch (the historical 
 as well as the legal portions) to Moses. Traces 
 of the original sense of Torah as oracle are to 
 be found in various passages of the Old Testa¬ 
 ment. Consult Haupt, “Babylonian Influence in 
 the Levitic Ritual,” in the Journal of Biblical 
 Literature, vol. xix (Boston, 1900), and Zim- 
 mern, Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der babylonischen 
 Religion (Leipzig, 1896-1900). 
 
 TORBANEHILL (tor'ban-hiP) MINERAL. 
 See Torbanite. 
 
 TORBANITE, torfioan-It, Torbanehill Min¬ 
 eral, or Boghead Coal. A dark-brown variety 
 of cannel coal found at Torbanehill, near Bath¬ 
 gate, Scotland. It contains over 60 per cent of 
 volatile matter and is extensively used for the 
 extraction of burning and lubricating oils, 
 paraffin, and illuminating gas. 
 
 TOR'BERT, Alfred Thomas Archimedes 
 (1833-80). An American soldier, born at 
 Georgetown, Del. He graduated at West Point 
 in 1855. He took part in the Peninsular cam¬ 
 paign, and in August, 1862, became commander 
 of a brigade of the Sixth Corps, which he led 
 during the campaigns of northern Virginia and 
 Maryland, participating in the second battle 
 of Bull Run and in the battles of South Moun¬ 
 tain and Antietam. He was commissioned 
 brigadier general of volunteers in 1862 and by 
 his gallantry at Gettysburg earned the brevet of 
 major in the regular army. In April, 1864, he 
 Was transferred to the cavalry and was placed in 
 command of the First Division of the Army of 
 the Potomac. He commanded at Hanovertown, 
 Winchester, Kearnysville, Milford, Luray, Mount 
 Crawford, Gordonsville, and elsewhere. He was 
 brevetted major general of volunteers in 1864 
 and in the regular army in 1865. He was mus¬ 
 tered out of the volunteer service in 1866 and 
 resigned his commission in the regular army. In 
 1869 he became United States Minister to the 
 Central American States, in 1871 went as Con¬ 
 sul General to Havana, Cuba, and in 1873 was 
 transferred as Consul General to Paris. , This 
 last office he held until 1878. He was drowned 
 in a wreck off Cape Canaveral, Fla. 
 
 TORCELLO, tor-chel'16. A small town and 
 island in the lagoon of Venice, Italy, 6 miles 
 northeast of Venice. The seventh-century By¬ 
 zantine cathedral, Santa Maria, has a gorgeous 
 twelfth-century mosaic representing biblical 
 scenes. The Santa Fosca Church is also archi¬ 
 tecturally interesting. There are two small mu¬ 
 seums of antiquities. Pop., 1911, 147. 
 
 TORCH DANCE. Specifically a ceremony 
 held at certain European courts, especially that 
 of Prussia, upon the marriage of any member 
 
TORCHON 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 * 
 
 ( 
 
 t 
 
 ' 
 
 i 
 
 ' 
 
 347 TORLONIA 
 
 of the ruling house. Ministers of state and 
 privy councilors take part as well as members 
 of the royal family. A striking feature is a 
 march or procession by the bride and bridegroom 
 accompanied by their relatives and led by the 
 ministers and councilors, in pairs, all carrying 
 lighted wax candles. The rite is probably a sur¬ 
 vival from the early fire-worship ceremonials, 
 which appeared in Europe during the Middle 
 Ages. 
 
 TORCHON. See Lace. 
 
 TORCH RACE. See Lampadephoria. 
 
 TORDENSK JOLD, tor'den-shdld, Peter 
 (1691-1720). A Norwegian-Danish naval officer 
 and national hero. He was born at Trondhjem, 
 his family name being Wessel. Appointed a 
 lieutenant in the royal navy in 1711, he proved 
 to be a most successful scout and harrier of 
 the Swedish coast. Later, in command of a 
 sloop of war of 20 guns, he was equally success¬ 
 ful, never hesitating to attack, and either cap¬ 
 turing the enemy or escaping by excellent sea¬ 
 manship. In 1716 he was given noble rank 
 under the title of Tordenskjold (thunder shield). 
 Later in the year, with only seven ships, he 
 captured and destroyed the Swedish fleet of 44 
 ships in the Dynekil, thus compelling Charles 
 XII to raise the siege of Fredrikshald. He was 
 then only 25 years old. After becoming rear 
 admiral in 1718, he captured Marstrand and 
 partially destroyed the principal Swedish squad¬ 
 ron and was then made vice admiral (1719). 
 In 1720 he was killed at Hanover in a duel with 
 Col. J. A. Stael von Holstein, who had been in 
 Swedish service. For nearly 200 years principal 
 vessels of the Danish and Norwegian navies have 
 borne his name. 
 
 TORDESILLAS, tor'da-seFyas, Convention 
 of. See Demarcation, Line of. 
 
 TORELL, t6-reF, Otto Martin (1828-1900). 
 A Swedish naturalist, born at Varberg. He 
 studied medicine and the natural sciences at 
 Lund, where he gained the doctorate (1853), 
 and then traveled through Scandinavia, Switzer¬ 
 land, and Iceland engaged in scientific investi¬ 
 gation. In 1858 and in 1861 he accompanied 
 Nordenskiold to Spitzbergen. In 1866 he was 
 appointed professor of zoology and geology at 
 Lund. From 1870 to 1897 he was chief of the 
 Swedish Geological Survey. His map of Sweden 
 ranks with the best that have been made. Be¬ 
 sides many papers on the Ice age and upon 
 animal life in northern Europe and North Amer¬ 
 ica, he wrote an account of the Swedish expedi¬ 
 tions to Spitzbergen of 1861, 1864, and 1868. 
 He traveled through most of the European coun¬ 
 tries and in North America. 
 
 TORELLI, to-rel'lS, Achille (1844- ). 
 
 An Italian dramatist, born at Naples. Of his 
 numerous works, many of Goldonian imitation 
 in the Neapolitan dialect, the best is I mariti 
 (1867). In 1878 he was made director of the 
 San Carlo Theatre at Naples, and later libra¬ 
 rian of the library of San Giacomo. 
 
 TORELLI, Giuseppe (c.1660-1708). An 
 Italian violinist and composer, one of the earliest 
 masters of the Concerto grosso (q.v.). He was 
 born in Verona. This form of music remained 
 in favor until the time of Handel and prepared 
 the way for the modern symphony. With Cor¬ 
 elli, Torelli was the principal musician of his 
 time. He became connected with the church of 
 San Petronio at Bologna (1685), joined the Ac- 
 cademia Filarmonica of that city, and in 1698 
 was concert master to the Margrave of Branden- 
 
 Vol. XXII.—23 
 
 burg. In 1701 he returned to Bologna, where 
 he died. 
 
 TORELLI-TORRIANI, -tor'rS-a'n^, Maria 
 Cl 846- ). An Italian novelist, born at 
 
 Novara. Under her pseudonym, Marchesa Co- 
 lombi, she published many tales of “veristic” 
 sentimentalism, of which La gente per bene 
 (1877) and In Risaia (1877) are typical. 
 
 TO REMAIN BIBLE. See Bible, Curious 
 Editions of. 
 
 TORENO, to-ra'nd, Francesco de Borja 
 Queipo de Llano y Gayoso, Count of (1840-90). 
 A Spanish statesman. He held various portfolios^ 
 was twice President of the Chamber of Deputies, 
 effected many important reforms in matters 
 concerning scholarship, the historical archives, 
 and public works, and was frequently consulted 
 by the three sovereigns under whom he served. 
 
 TORENO, Jose Maria Queipo de Llano 
 Ruiz de Saravia, Count of (1786-1843). A 
 Spanish statesman and historian, father of the 
 above-mentioned Count of Toreno. He had much 
 to do with framing the constitution of 1812, 
 held various portfolios during the minority of 
 Isabella II, and was for a while Prime Minister. 
 His principal work is the Levantamiento, guerra, 
 y revolucion de Espana (1836-38), which ap¬ 
 pears in vol. lxi of Biblioteca de autores es- 
 panoles, where it is preceded by a life of the au¬ 
 thor by Antonio de Cueto. 
 
 TORFiEUS, tor-fe'us, Thormodus, or Thor- 
 modr Torfason (1636—1719). An Icelandic an¬ 
 tiquary. He was born at Engo, Iceland, was 
 educated at the University of Copenhagen, and 
 in 1662 returned to Iceland by command of 
 Frederick III to collect saga manuscripts. In 
 1667 he was appointed royal antiquary and in 
 1682 royal historiographer for Norway. He 
 translated several Icelandic works into the Dan¬ 
 ish language and was the author of Historia 
 Vinlandice Antiques (1705), Grcenlandia Antiqua 
 (1706), and Historia Rerum Norvegicarum (4 
 vols., 1711). 
 
 TORGAU, tor'gou. A fortified town of the 
 Province of Saxony, Prussia, on the left bank 
 of the Elbe, 31 miles east-northeast of Leipzig 
 (Map : Germany, E 3). The castle of Hartenfels 
 (1481-1544), one of the largest Renaissance edi¬ 
 fices in Germany, was once the residence of the 
 electors of Saxony. It is now used as barracks. 
 There is a museum of Saxon antiquities. Gloves, 
 glass, druggists’ sundries, cigars, and biscuits are 
 manufactured. Frederick the Great here de¬ 
 feated the Austrians in 1760. Pop., 1900, 
 11,807; 1910, 13,493. 
 
 TORIES. See Loyalists; Whig and Tory. 
 TORII, to're-e (Jap., bird rest, or, less prob¬ 
 ably, gateway). An archway formed by two 
 upright posts and two horizontal beams, placed 
 before the Shinto shrines in Japan. It is sup¬ 
 posed that the Torii was originally a perch for 
 sacred fowl who were to herald the approach 
 of day. 
 
 TORLO'NIA. A princely Roman family. 
 Its founder, Giovanni Torlonia (1754-1829), 
 was a poor cicerone of Rome, who grew enor¬ 
 mously rich in manipulating assignats during 
 the French Revolution and as banker for many 
 kings and princes. He was made a grandee of 
 Spain, and Duke of Bracciano by the Pope. His 
 three sons married into the highest families, the 
 eldest succeeding to the dukedom, the youngest, 
 Alessandro, becoming Prince of Civitella-Cesi 
 and Duke of Ceri, and acquiring immense wealth, 
 of which he made charitable use. He acquired 
 
TORMENTIL 
 
 TORONTO 
 
 348 
 
 fame by successfully draining Lake Celano 
 (Fucino), thereby restoring to cultivation 36,000 
 acres of land. 
 
 TOR'MENTIL (Fr. tormentille , from ML. 
 tormentilla, tormentella, tormentil, from Lat. 
 tormentum, torment). A popular name for Po- 
 tentilla tormentilla, formerly called Tormentilla 
 officinalis, common on European moors and 
 heaths. Its large woody roots have been used as 
 an astringent and for staining leather. It also 
 supplies material for a red dye sometimes used 
 in Lapland. The leaves are ternate, the leaflets 
 lanceolate and inciso-serrate, the stems ascend¬ 
 ing and forking, the flower stalks axillary and 
 terminal, and the flowers yellow. 
 
 TORNA'DO. See Wind. 
 
 TORNEA, tor'ne-6. A town in the Govern¬ 
 ment of Uleaborg, Finland, Russia, situated on 
 the Tornea, near the north end of the Gulf of 
 Bothnia (Map: Russia, B 1). Pop., 1910, 1716. 
 About 33 miles north is the mountain of Avas- 
 akra (1573 feet), which is visited by many tour¬ 
 ists at the summer solstice, when the sun is 
 visible continuously for almost two days. 
 
 TORNEA. A river, forming the boundary 
 between Russia and Sweden. It rises in the 
 Tornea Lake near the Norwegian boundary and 
 flows southeast through Sweden, then south on 
 the Russian boundary, entering the Gulf of Both¬ 
 nia after a course of 250 miles (Map: Sweden, 
 G 3). Near its mouth is the town of Tornea 
 (q.v.). Its chief tributary, the Muonio, forms 
 the northern part of the boundary. 
 
 TORO, to'ro. An ancient town of Spain, in 
 the modern Province of Zamora in Leon, on the 
 right bank of the Duero, 38 miles southwest of 
 Valladolid, on the Medina del Campo-Zamora 
 Railroad (Map: Spain, C 2). It contains numer¬ 
 ous religious houses and palaces, most of which 
 have been allowed to fall into a state of decay, 
 and the collegiate church of Santa Marla la 
 Mayor, dating from the reign of Alfonso VII. 
 There are brandy distilleries, vineyards, tan¬ 
 neries, and woolen manufactories. Pop., 1900, 
 8187; 1910, 8288. 
 
 TOROK-SZENT-MIKLOS, te'rek-sent-me'- 
 klosli. A commune of the County of Jasz-Nagy- 
 Kun-Szolnok, Hungary, 66 miles southeast of 
 Budapest (Map: Hungary, G 3). The exten¬ 
 sive plain in which it is situated is noted for its 
 production of cereals and live stock, and in the 
 commune itself there is some manufacture of 
 brick and of agricultural implements. Pop., 
 1900, 21,881; 1910, 23,074. 
 
 TORONE, Count of. See Basile, G. B. 
 
 TORON'TO. The capital of the Province of 
 Ontario, Canada, on the north shore of Lake 
 Ontario, opposite the mouth of the Niagara 
 River and 333 miles southwest of Montreal 
 (Map: Ontario, F 6). It is situated on the 
 north side of a spacious inlet called Bay of 
 Toronto, has a water frontage of about 10 miles 
 from east to west, and extends inland from south 
 to north about 6 miles, extreme width. The 
 harbor or bay, about 5 miles long and 1 mile 
 in width, is protected by a sandy islet, which 
 extends into the lake in a south and west di¬ 
 rection to a distance of 5 miles. The port ac¬ 
 commodates the largest vessels that pass through 
 the Welland Canal, and the passenger traffic 
 employs a fleet of fast steamers. Canada’s three 
 transcontinental railways pass through the city, 
 and one of them, the Canadian Northern, has its 
 head offices located here. 
 
 The site of the city rises gently north from 
 
 the lake shore for about 3 miles, where it as¬ 
 cends abruptly. The limits of the city have 
 been extended on the hill, which has become 
 a beautiful residential section. Toronto is 
 brick-built. In general characteristics it is 
 American, but the spirit and ideals of the people 
 are thoroughly British. The city possesses many 
 beautiful edifices, comprising chiefly office and 
 educational buildings, churches, and public 
 buildings. It has numerous attractive private 
 homes. A group of four office buildings, rang¬ 
 ing from 12 to 20 stories in height, form the 
 hub of the business section, on the corners of 
 King and Young streets. The most conspicuous 
 group of buildings, for their beauty, is-located 
 in Queen’s Park, about a mile from the water 
 front, and comprises the Provincial Legislative 
 Building and the University of Toronto. The 
 former occupies a commanding position at the 
 head of the broad University Avenue. To the 
 west and north are situated the various edifices 
 of the university, arranged in a wide circle. 
 This is the premier seat of learning of the Do¬ 
 minion. Chief among these edifices is the main 
 Arts building, a Norman structure. In the cir¬ 
 cle stands the new Knox College (Presbyterian), 
 collegiate Gothic in architecture, while Victoria 
 College (Methodist) and Wvcliffe College (An¬ 
 glican) are located in the vicinity. Other fine 
 educational buildings are McMaster University 
 (Baptist), Trinity College (Anglican), Upper 
 Canada College, and St. Andrews College. The 
 new $2,000,000 Technical School, a massive im¬ 
 posing structure, is one of the best-equipped 
 schools of its kind in the world. Other notable 
 buildings are the City Hall, with its stupendous 
 300-foot clock tower; Casa Loma, the residence 
 of Sir Henry Pellatt, situated on the brow of 
 the hill north of the city, a castle of old-English 
 type; and the Government House, the home of 
 the Lieutenant Governor of the Province, situ¬ 
 ated in Rosedale. 
 
 Toronto is distinguished for its churches, of 
 which it has 263. The principal are St. James 
 Cathedral (Anglican), a fine building in early 
 English, erected in 1852; St. Michael’s Cathe¬ 
 dral (Roman Catholic) ; St. James and St. An¬ 
 drews (Presbyterian) ; the Metropolitan Meth¬ 
 odist Church, noted for its huge organ; Jarvis 
 Street Baptist; Bond Street Congregational; 
 St. Paul’s and church of the Ascension (Angli¬ 
 can). Toronto maintains an excellent free-li- 
 brary system, including a reference library, a 
 handsome structure situated on College Street, 
 and 19 branches, with 231,000 volumes. It has 
 three colleges of music, the Hambourg Conserva¬ 
 tory, the Toronto Conservatory, and the Toronto 
 College of Music, and possesses creditable art 
 galleries, the John Ross Robertson historical 
 collection at the College Street branch of the 
 Public Librarv, and the Art Museum of Toronto 
 collection at the Grange. The new Royal On¬ 
 tario Museum on Bloor Street contains an im¬ 
 portant collection of historical and geological 
 relics. The city is the hospital centre of On¬ 
 tario, and in addition to the new $2,000,000 
 General Hospital there are the Western, Sick 
 Children’s, Wellesley, St. Michael’s, Orthopaedic, 
 and Victoria, all imposing and well-equipped 
 buildings. Six daily newspapers are published, 
 the oldest of which, the Globe (Liberal), was 
 founded in 1846. The others are the Daily Star 
 (Liberal), the Daily News, the Mail and Empire, 
 the World, and Telegram, the four latter being 
 Conservative. 
 
TORONTO 
 
 TORP 
 
 The city possesses 55 parks, several of them 
 large and beautiful, having a total area of 1879 
 acres. Chief of these are High Park (335 
 acres), Exhibition Park (235 acres), and Hum¬ 
 ber Boulevard (129 acres), all within the city 
 limits and equipped with splendid driveways. 
 Exhibition Park is the home of the Annual 
 Canadian National Exhibition, continuing two 
 weeks each year, and one of the greatest of its 
 kind in the world. The yearly attendance ag¬ 
 gregates 1,000,000 people/ It is famous for its 
 agricultural, industrial, and art exhibits. On¬ 
 tario s noted breeds of live stock are shown 
 there. Riverdale Park possesses a zoological 
 garden, with a valuable collection of animals. 
 There are two amusement parks—Hanlan’s 
 Point, on the Island, and Scarborough Beach, at 
 the eastern extremity of the city. The Island 
 provides Toronto with another extensive, well- 
 wooded park. It is the lungs of the city and 
 lends itself to aquatic sports, for which Toronto 
 is noted. Toronto has commodious armories, 
 which are the headquarters of the city’s three 
 volunteer regiments. 
 
 The city possesses water, gas, electric-light 
 plants, and street-railway systems. It draws its 
 light and much of its heat and power from 
 Niagara Falls, at an exceptionally low rate of 
 cost, through the medium of a private company 
 and the Ontario Hydro-Electric Commission, a 
 public institution. The phenomenal growth of 
 the city hap necessitated the erection of a new 
 Union Station. Being the second financial and 
 commercial centre of the Dominion, Toronto has 
 an active shipping trade. Freighters come east 
 with-grain and return to the head of the lakes 
 with Toronto manufactures for delivery in north¬ 
 west Canada. In 1914, 2961 vessels with a 
 tonnage of 3,040,000 tons arrived at the port. 
 In 1916 the city was engaged in an elaborate 
 programme for public improvements, involving 
 an expenditure estimated at $350,000,000. Its 
 per capita debt is the lowest of all large cities 
 in Canada. A thousand acres of marsh on To¬ 
 ronto Bay has been reclaimed and is available 
 for manufacturing plants. 
 
 Toronto is the chief distributing centre of the 
 most productive province in the Dominion, es¬ 
 pecially in grain, fruits, and live stock, the lat¬ 
 ter involving a turnover of $50,000,000 a year. 
 Manufacturing is important and widely diversi¬ 
 fied, the farm-implement industry and publishing 
 business being the most notable. In normal 
 times all industries employ 75,000 men. It is 
 famous for its departmental stores, which do a 
 Dominion-wide trade. It is a large wholesale 
 centre, including dry goods, leather, footwear, 
 and fruit. Its five packing establishments make 
 it the Chicago of Canada. A new civic abattoir 
 is a successful municipal enterprise. Manu¬ 
 facturing establishments number 1620, employ¬ 
 ing capital amounting to $215,000,000 and pro¬ 
 ducing yearly manufactures worth $230,000,000, 
 which represent one-eighth of Canada’s total in¬ 
 dustrial output. Its iron and steel foundries are 
 important, and its chief products are machinery, 
 lumber, wall paper, stationery, clothing, ships, 
 cabinet ware, iron rails, stoves, pianos, bicycles, 
 carpets, brewery and distillery products, and 
 drugs. It is an important insurance and bank¬ 
 ing centre. Clearings for 1915 aggregated $1,- 
 886,000,000. The city has an active mining- 
 stock exchange as well as a large industrial- 
 stock exchange. 
 
 The name Toronto is of Indian origin, meaning 
 
 “a place of meeting,” and was probably given by 
 the Indians in 1749, when the French, who 
 possessed the country at that time, built a 
 fort and traded with them. British traders 
 soon appeared from the New England colonies, 
 and in the war between France and Britain, in 
 1759, which gave the country to Britain, the 
 fort was destroyed in order to prevent English 
 occupation. Governor Simcoe founded the pres¬ 
 ent city in 1794, naming it York and making it 
 the capital of Upper Canada. It was occupied 
 and burned in 1813 by the United States forces. 
 It was created a city in 1834, when its popula¬ 
 tion had grown to 9000, and then became known 
 once more as Toronto. It suffered severely dur¬ 
 ing the rebellion of 1837 and also from fire 
 in 1849 and 1904, the loss in property in the 
 latter disaster being $8,000,000. Pop., 1871 
 59,000: 1881, 96,196; 1891, 181,215; 1901, 208,- 
 040; 1911, 376,538. Consult C. B. Robinson, 
 History of Toronto and County of York (2 vols., 
 Toronto, 1885), and S. M. Wickett, “Municipal 
 Government of Toronto,” in University of To¬ 
 ronto Studies: History and Economics vol. ii 
 (ib., 1902). 
 
 TORONTO. A village in Jefferson Co., Ohio. 
 
 9 miles north of Steubenville, on the Ohio River, 
 and on the Pennsylvania Railroad (Map: Ohio’ 
 
 J 5). Sewer pipe, brick, pottery, and glass are 
 manufactured. The place was first settled in 
 1790 and was incorporated in 1878. Pop., 1900, 
 3526; 1910, 4271. 
 
 TORONTO, University of. An institution of 
 higher education at Toronto, Canada, established 
 in 182,' as King’s College. The opening of the 
 college was delayed for 14 years, and "not till 
 1842 were the faculties of arts, medicine, law, 
 and divinity established. In 1849 the institu¬ 
 tion assumed its present title, and in 1853 the 
 faculties of medicine and law were abolished and 
 the functions of the institution were divided be¬ 
 tween the two newly organized corporations of 
 the University of Toronto and University Col¬ 
 lege. By the Federation Act of 1887 the faculty 
 of University College consists of professors in 
 classical languages and literature, ancient his¬ 
 tory, Oriental languages, English, French, Ger¬ 
 man, and moral philosophy. All other portions 
 of the arts course were assigned to the faculty 
 of the University of Toronto, the lectures of 
 which are open to the students of University 
 College and of all federating institutions. A 
 faculty of medicine was established in 1887; 
 in 1888 the Ontario Agricultural College was 
 affiliated, and subsequently the Royal College 
 of Dental Surgeons, the College of* Pharmacy, 
 the Toronto College of Music, the School of 
 Practical Science, and the Ontario Veterinary 
 College became parts of the university. Fed¬ 
 erated with the university are Victoria Univer¬ 
 sity, St. Michael’s College, Trinity College, Knox 
 College, and Wycliflc College. The attendance 
 in 1914—15 was 4428, and the whole number of 
 instructors in the university and University 
 College was 401. The library contained about 
 135,000 volumes and 50,000 pamphlets. The 
 total assets of the institution on June 30, 1915, 
 were valued at $6,696,219, of which $5,521,899 
 represented the lands, buildings, and equipment. 
 The income for the year 1914-15 was $916,895. 
 
 TORP, torp, Alf (1853- ). A Norwegian 
 
 philologist, born in Stryn. He studied at Chris¬ 
 tiania University under Sophus Bugge (q.v.) 
 and at Leipzig under Georg Curtius (q.v.). In 
 1S94 he became professor of comparative phi- 
 
TORPEDO 
 
 350 
 
 TORPEDO 
 
 lology and Sanskrit at Christiania. Among his 
 works are: Beitrage zur Lehre von den gesch- 
 leohtlosen Pronomen in den indogermanischen 
 Sprachen (1888); Den grceske Nominalftexion 
 (1890); with H. S. Falk: Dansk-Norskens Lyd- 
 historie (1898); Dansk-N orskens Syntax i 
 historisk Fremstilling (1900); Etymologisk 
 Ordbog over det Norske og det Danske Sprog 
 (2 vols., 1901-06; Ger. trans., 2 vols., 1910- 
 11) ; Gamalnorsk Ordbok med Nynorsk Tydning 
 (1909), with K. M. Hsegstad. He also wrote on 
 the ancient languages of Asia Minor and Etruria 
 and on Greek inscriptions. 
 
 TORPE'DO (Lat. torpedo, numbness, cramp- 
 fish, torpedo, from torpere, to be numb, stupid). 
 
 A naval torpedo is an explosive device designed 
 to destroy or injure a ship by blowing a hole in 
 her hull at or below the water line. It consists 
 essentially of the explosive charge, the fuse 
 (which ignites the charge), and the case con¬ 
 taining these. . , 
 
 Torpedoes have hitherto been divided into two 
 classes, fixed and moving. The uncontrolled 
 drifting torpedo was a forbidden weapon on 
 account of the danger to noncombatant and 
 neutral shipping. But its manifest na^ al ad 
 vantages under certain circumstances caused im¬ 
 provement in its design, and a com ention of 
 the Second Hague Conference of 1907 permits 
 the laying of drifting torpedoes under the desig¬ 
 nation of “unanchored contact mines,” pro¬ 
 vided they automatically become inoperative one 
 hour after the person who lays them ceases to 
 control them. Unanchored contact mines were 
 much employed during the Great War. In some 
 cases, notably in the Dardanelles, the one-liour 
 provision was not followed, though the mines 
 may have been adjusted to become harmless after 
 a longer interval had expired. 
 
 The classification of the drifting torpedo as 
 a mine calls for a slight change in nomencla¬ 
 ture. Instead of fixed and moving, we should 
 be more accurate if we adopted the terms non- 
 propelled and propelled. Nonpropelled torpe¬ 
 does are fully described under the head of 
 Mine, Submarine, the designation “torpedo 
 now being confined to some form of the pro¬ 
 pelled type. 
 
 Propelled torpedoes are (1) controlled or (2) 
 uncontrolled. The controlled type are (a) 
 spar, (b) towing, and (c) dirigible—the last- 
 named class being either (1) locomotive or (2) 
 self-propelled. The uncontrolled type includes 
 (1) automobile, (2) projectile, (3) rocket. 
 
 Controlled torpedoes have long since passed 
 out of favor, though attempts to develop a 
 self-propelled torpedo steered by wireless ap¬ 
 paratus have been made and some degree of 
 success was obtained. The other types are all 
 obsolete, and, so far as known, no attempt was 
 made to use them in the Great War. 
 
 The spar torpedo was secured at the end 
 of a spar rigged out from the bow or side of a 
 boat or ship.' Torpedoes of this kind were used 
 with considerable success in the Civil War 
 against vessels at anchor or operating in narrow 
 vTaters. The searchlight and the rapid-fire 
 oun rendered them obsolete. The Harvey tow¬ 
 ing torpedo and its modifications were towed 
 by a boat or ship, its shape and steering vanes 
 keeping it well out on the quarter of the ship 
 usin" It. Its defects were apparent from the 
 start, and it was never much used. The locomo¬ 
 tive torpedo carried its own machinery, but 
 received power from an external source. Nearly 
 
 all were electrically driven through wires lead¬ 
 ing to the source of power and unreeling as the 
 torpedo advanced; but the Brennan was pro¬ 
 pelled by two ordinary steel wires reeled up 
 on drums within the shell. By hauling on 
 these wires the screws were made to rotate 
 and develop considerable speed. The self-pro¬ 
 pelled controllable torpedoes carried their own 
 source of power—usually compressed air or 
 carbonic-acid gas—and were all electrically 
 steered through a small cable. 
 
 The projectile type of uncontrolled torpe¬ 
 does was fired from a submarine gun. It re¬ 
 ceived its most successful development in the 
 hands of Ericsson, but he was unable to give 
 it a reliable range of more than 150 yards, and 
 this prevented its use. Rocket torpedoes are 
 propelled by the reaction of gas escaping from 
 the rear end of the torpedo. The surface type 
 could be used only on very smooth water; the 
 submerged type lacked speed; both carried very 
 small explosive charges, were erratic, unreli¬ 
 able, and never had much vogue. 
 
 The class of propelled torpedoes most m use 
 is the automobile or fish type. There are many 
 varieties in service, each nation having devel¬ 
 oped its own or purchased its supply from the 
 Whitehead Company. The Howell torpedo needs 
 a passing notice. Its propelling power con¬ 
 sisted of a heavy bronze flywheel driven at high 
 speed up to the instant of discharge. The en¬ 
 ergy thus stored was utilized to drive the pro¬ 
 pellers and the gyroscopic force employed. to 
 keep the torpedo on its course. A fairly high 
 speed was attained, but more important than 
 this was its inherent strong directive -force 
 which made it much more accurate than the 
 Whitehead. It continued to be used until a 
 small gyroscope was added to the Whitehead 
 type for steering purposes, and then the greater 
 speed of the latter caused the Howell to be 
 dropped. 
 
 The Whitehead was the first successful au¬ 
 tomobile torpedo and the most widely used. 
 The details of the latest type are secret, but 
 they differ but slightly from those shown in 
 the accompanying plans. The torpedo shell is 
 in three sections, consisting of the war head, 
 the air flask, and the afterbody. In Fig. 1 A is 
 the war nose, which is screwed into the head 
 over the primer seat and carries a firing pin 
 and releasing screw; B is the war head (an ex¬ 
 ercise head without explosive charge or war 
 nose is used in ordinary torpedo target prac¬ 
 tice) ; C is the air flask, a forged steel cylinder 
 which is much thicker than the other parts of 
 the shell; P is the guide stud for holding the 
 torpedo in position in the tube; Q is a strength¬ 
 ening band to support the guide stud; V is the 
 balance chamber; F is the engine compartment; 
 G is the afterbody; H is the tail frame which 
 carries the rudders; 1 is the firing pin; 2 is one 
 blade of the releasing screw; B, the war head, 
 containing the explosive charge 3 of wet gun¬ 
 cotton, and 4 the priming charge of dry gun¬ 
 cotton in a hermetically sealed case which is 
 inserted in the front end of the war head be¬ 
 fore screwing in the war nose. The releasing 
 screw is then in the locked position. As the 
 torpedo moves ahead the blades of the releasing 
 screw cause it to revolve and unscrew until 
 the firing pin is unlocked. If the torpedo then 
 strikes any object, such as a ship, the firing pin 
 is driven in and explodes the charge. In Fig. 2, 
 6 and 8 are the charging and stop valves for 
 
TORPEDO 
 
 35i 
 
 TORPEDO 
 
 charging the air flask with compressed air at 
 about 2500 pounds per square inch; T is the 
 depth regulator which connects by the bell- 
 crank lever M to the regulator spring, which 
 presses against the hydraulic piston (16); the 
 hydraulic piston receives the water pressure on 
 its after side, as the engine room ( F ) is opened 
 to the sea, and operates small levers pressing 
 against a lever that is pivoted on a pendulum 
 (17), and the motion is transmitted through 
 the rod N to a crank and thence to the steering 
 engine (18), which moves horizontal rudders 
 (not shown) by means of the rod 24; D is the 
 operating valve group which controls the sup¬ 
 ply of air to the engine (W) ; 10 is the start¬ 
 ing lever; E is the releasing mechanism; K is 
 
 expanded in the engine it caused intense cold 
 and congealed the lubricating oil to an extent 
 that almost destroyed its usefulness. The alco¬ 
 hol heater obviated this difficulty and added 
 25 to 50 per cent to the available speed or 
 range. It also facilitated the use of higher air 
 pressures in the flask and in this way again 
 improved the general efficiency. The "turbine 
 engine was not at first very satisfactory, but 
 by carefully balancing the 'effort in both di¬ 
 rections the tendency to rotate the torpedo was 
 avoided and the new machinery was found to 
 be much superior to the reciprocating Brother¬ 
 hood engine of the Whitehead. Both the White- 
 head and the Bliss-Leavitt torpedoes are used 
 in the United States naval service. 
 
 Fig. 1. WHITEHEAD TORPEDO. 
 
 tl ie gyroscope for steering in a horizontal plane, 
 and 20 is the gyroscope wheel; 13 and 14 are 
 the propellers; i5 is the bevel gear which per¬ 
 mits the two-propellers to be driven in opposite 
 directions; and 22 are the rudders actuated by 
 the gyroscope, which serves to keep the torpedo 
 on the desired course. It is able to do this 
 through the property of the gyroscope to re¬ 
 tain its position in the plane of rotation. See 
 Gyroscope. 
 
 The recent types of the Whitehead torpedo 
 are larger than the one shown (which is the 
 18-incli). The most powerful are 21 inches in 
 diameter, about 22 feet long, have larger war 
 heads than the one shown and more engine 
 power; also alcohol reservoirs and heaters which 
 are located in the afterbody close to the air 
 flask. These torpedoes have long range and 
 small explosive charges or short range and large 
 charges. The maximum effective range of tor¬ 
 pedoes is now about 8000 yards, though torpe¬ 
 does of 10,000 yards’ range have been made. 
 The average speed for long range is 25 knots 
 
 History. It is not unlikely that attempts 
 to employ torpedoes or mines were made in the 
 early days of gunpowder, but the first occasion 
 on record in which they were used was in 1585, 
 when an Italian engineer by the name of Giani- 
 belli (q.v.) partially destroyed a bridge across 
 the Scheldt at Antwerp by means of small ves¬ 
 sels each carrying a considerable quantity of 
 gunpowder which was exploded by clockwork 
 mechanism. Nothing more is heard of torpe¬ 
 does until 1730, when the French scientist 
 Desaguliers made some experiments with some 
 of the rocket type which were fired under water 
 and with which he is said to have destroyed 
 several boats. The first torpedoes to be used 
 in war against ships were designed by an Ameri¬ 
 can, Capt. David Bushnell, who also built the 
 first submarine torpedo boat, though not the 
 first submarine boat. After making numerous 
 successful experiments Captain Bushnell made 
 three attempts to destroy British men-of-war. 
 In the first Sergeant Lee used Bushnell’s sub¬ 
 marine boat (see Torpedo Boat, Submarine, for 
 
 Fig. 2. propelling and steering mechanism op whitehead torpedo. 
 
 or less. For short ranges (up to 2500 yards) 
 speeds exceeding 50 knots have been attained. 
 The short-range torpedo for submarine use has 
 a large explosive charge, the Germans employing 
 a type which carries 428 pounds or more of 
 trinitrotoluol. 
 
 The Bliss-Leavitt torpedo was devised by F. 
 M. Leavitt of the Bliss Company of Brooklyn. 
 While in many respects similar to the White- 
 head, it contained two very important improve¬ 
 ments. First, alcohol was used to heat the 
 compressed air, and. second, the engine was of 
 the turbine type. The use of compressed air 
 had always given much trouble. As the air 
 
 description and illustration) and actually got 
 under H.M.S. Eagle, but failed to attach and 
 explode his torpedo, owing to inexperience in 
 handling his novel craft and the bluntness of the 
 screw he tried to use. The second attack was 
 made on H.M.S. Cerberus by drifting torpedoes; 
 this failed, but one of the torpedoes was picked 
 up by the crew of the i prize schooner astern 
 of the Cerberus and, exploding on board, killed 
 three men, destroyed a boat, and injured the 
 schooner. The third attempt, in the Delaware 
 River, was the celebrated Battle of the Kegs, 
 and it failed because the British ships had 
 hauled in to the wharves to avoid the ice; but 
 
TORPEDO 
 
 352 
 
 TORPEDO 
 
 it created much confusion and alarm among 
 their crews. The next man to take up torpe¬ 
 does seriously was Robert Fulton, who began 
 his experiments on the Seine in 1797. His first 
 attempts were chiefly failures, but in 1801, at 
 Brest, he destroyed a small vessel with a sub¬ 
 marine mine containing 20 pounds of gunpow¬ 
 der. This is believed to be the first vessel sunk 
 by a torpedo, but he afterward succeeded in 
 several instances, and where the attack failed 
 it was owing to the movement of the vessel 
 from above the torpedo and not to defects in 
 the torpedo. In one instance a British brig 
 was destroyed by two torpedoes made by him 
 containing 180-pound charges of gunpowder fired 
 by clockwork. In 1812 and 1813 another Ameri¬ 
 can, Mr. Mix, made unsuccessful attempts to 
 blow up British ships. In 1820 Captain John¬ 
 son, an Englishman, with a submarine boat at¬ 
 tached a torpedo to the bottom of a vessel and 
 exploded it. In 1829 Col. Samuel Colt began 
 his torpedo investigations, developed the electric 
 firing of mines in 1842, using in one instance 
 wires 40 miles long with complete success. 
 
 In the Civil War in America the torpedo came 
 quickly to the front as a serious weapon. The 
 few ships of the Confederates offered little op¬ 
 portunity for the use of torpedoes by the Fed- 
 erals, but the great fleet of the latter and the 
 necessity which often compelled the vessels to 
 operate in narrow waters gave a multitude of 
 chances which their enterprising antagonists 
 were quick to seize. The unsuccessful attempts 
 were hundreds in number, but during the course 
 of the struggle 7 Federal armor-clads, 9 gun¬ 
 boats, 6 transports, and 1 cruiser were sunk or 
 destroyed, and 2 armor-clads, 3 gunboats, 1 
 transport, and 1 large cruiser were seriously 
 injured. Of the latter, 1 cruiser and 1 armor- 
 clad were attacked by boats using spar tor¬ 
 pedoes. The only important Federal success 
 was the destruction of the armor-clad Albemarle 
 by Lieutenant Cushing, who also used a spar 
 topedo. 
 
 While all this was going on Captain Lupuis 
 of the Austrian navy and Mr. Whitehead began 
 the development of the self-propelled torpedo. 
 The idea of a small, self-propelled boat carrying 
 an explosive charge and directed from a dis¬ 
 tance had occurred to Captain Lupuis in 1860, 
 but it was not until 1864 upon his association 
 with Mr. Whitehead that any craft of the sort 
 were built. Mr. Whitehead, who was an Eng¬ 
 lish engineer acting as superintendent of engi¬ 
 neering works at Fiume, took hold of the proj¬ 
 ect with great interest. He soon gave up the 
 plan of using directing wires and bent his en¬ 
 ergies to the development of a completely au¬ 
 tomatic device. In 1868 the first official trial 
 was held before a board of Austrian officers, and 
 its report resulted in the adoption of the weapon 
 in the Austrian service, although the speed at¬ 
 tained was only about seven knots. From this 
 time to the present the improvement has been 
 continuous, the speed rising to 50 knots and the 
 directive force becoming almost absolutelv cer¬ 
 tain when the conditions are favorable. All na¬ 
 val powers now use the Whitehead or some 
 modification of it, and many (including the 
 United States) have purchased the right to 
 manufacture them. 
 
 Shortly after Whitehead’s successful experi¬ 
 ments Captain Harvey, R.N., brought out his 
 towing torpedo, which had a vogue wholly un¬ 
 warranted by its performance, but it was pleas¬ 
 
 ing from its simplicity. About 1870 Com¬ 
 mander (later Rear Admiral) Howell, U.S.N., 
 conceived the idea of applying the principle of 
 the gyroscope to automobile torpedoes for the 
 purpose not only of steering them but to afford 
 motive power as well. His torpedo was grad¬ 
 ually improved until in 1898 it attained a speed 
 of about 28 knots with almost perfect direc¬ 
 tive force. As already stated, the application 
 of the Obry gyroscopic gear to the otherwise 
 perfected Whitehead, drove the Howell out of 
 the field. 
 
 In 1873, while the success of the Whitehead 
 remained uncertain in many minds, J. L. Lay 
 brought out his first controllable torpedo, pro¬ 
 pelled by carbonic-acid gas and directed by 
 electricity through wires paid out from a reel 
 in the torpedo as it advanced. The Lay was fol¬ 
 lowed by a host of similar inventions, the 
 Lay-Haight, Patrick, Nordenfelt, Brennan, Sims- 
 Edison, and others; but all are now discarded. 
 Controlled torpedoes of the dirigible,. self-pro¬ 
 pelled type and steered by wireless induction 
 currents have been under experiment for many 
 years. All the earlier designs apparently failed, 
 but an American design, brought out in 1915, 
 by J. H. Hammond, Jr., is very promising. 
 
 ‘ The first automobile torpedo fired with hos¬ 
 tile intent was directed at the Peruvian moni¬ 
 tor Huascar by the British cruiser Shah, but the 
 shot failed through being fired at too long a 
 range. In subsequent wars it has been used 
 with increasing frequency and with moderate 
 success. But it was not until the advent of 
 the submarine that the full measure of its 
 importance was reached. The ability of the 
 submarine to approach its target closely with¬ 
 out being discovered brought out a new type 
 of torpedo in which the explosive charge was 
 greatlv increased at the expense of range. In 
 the Great War almost every vessel struck by 
 one of these torpedoes was destroyed; and, ow¬ 
 ing to the short ranges at which the shots 
 were made, few of them missed. 
 
 The enormous gun power of modern battle¬ 
 ships and battle cruisers, whereby the fight¬ 
 ing range has greatly increased, seems to pre¬ 
 clude the use of torpedoes by such vessels ex¬ 
 cept under unusual circumstances and it . is 
 nossible that very few if any will be carried 
 in future vessels of this sort. Nor ha^ sur¬ 
 face torpedo boats achieved much success, though 
 it must not be forgotten that the great battle 
 fleets had not up to May 1, 1916, exposed them¬ 
 selves to any form of torpedo attack. See Tor¬ 
 pedo Boat; Torpedo Boat, Submarine; Torpedo 
 Director; etc. 
 
 Bibliography. C. Sleeman, Torpedoes and 
 Torpedo Warfare (2d ed., Portsmouth. England. 
 1889); H. Buchard, Torpilles et torpilleurs des 
 nations ctrangeres (Paris, 1889) ; M. F. Sueter, 
 Evolution of the Submarine Boat, Mine, and 
 Torpedo (London, 1907); Charles Noalhat, Tor¬ 
 pilles et projectiles automobiles (Paris, 1908): 
 Armstrong, Torpedoes and Torpedo Vessels (3d 
 ed., London. 1910) : also Annual of the Office of 
 TVaval Intelligence (Washington) ; Brassey, Na¬ 
 val Annual (Portsmouth) ; Proceedings of 
 United States Naval Institute (Annapolis, quar- 
 terlv). 
 
 TORPEDO, or Electric Ray. A .rav (q.v.) 
 of the family hTarcobatidse, which inhabits 
 warm seas and often is of large size. These 
 rays have a broad'flat body with a comparatively 
 slender tail and are of interest because of the 
 
TORPEDO BOAT 353 TORPEDO BOAT, SUBMARINE 
 
 electrical powers which they possess. (See 
 Electric Iish.) There are about 15 species, of 
 which the best known is Torpedo marmoratus of 
 southern Europe. A similar species, the cramp- 
 fish, or numbfish ( Torpedo occidental is) , occurs 
 on the Atlantic coast of the United States and 
 is said to attain a weight of 200 pounds. The 
 same or a very similar species is found on the 
 coast of California. See Plate of Electric 
 Fish. 
 
 TORPEDO BOAT. A small war vessel fitted 
 to use the torpedo as its primary weapon of 
 attack. The principal requirements of torpedo 
 boats are high speed, efficient means of launch¬ 
 ing their torpedoes, and, in proportion to size, 
 relative handiness and seaworthiness. They are 
 of two principal types—surface boats and sub¬ 
 marines. (See Torpedo Boat, Submarine.) 
 Surface boats are of three classes: (a) torpedo- 
 boat destroyers; (b) seagoing boats; (c) 
 harbor boats. Small torpedo boats of 5 to 15 
 tons were formerty carried by large ships, but 
 these are now obsolete and few harbor boats 
 have been built in recent years. 
 
 The destroyer, originally planned to destroy 
 torpedo boats, has nearly supplanted them and 
 in its development has extended over such a 
 wide range of size and characteristics as to de¬ 
 mand further subdivision. For instance, the 
 Sunft, of the British navy, is officially classed 
 as a destroyer, though she has a displacement 
 of 2170 tons. Moreover, there are compara¬ 
 tively few torpedo boats except submarines to 
 destroy. As a defense against these, the des¬ 
 troyer type of vessel is quite efficient. When 
 they are placed as a screen about a ship or 
 fleet, whether steaming or at anchor, subma¬ 
 rines have found it nearly impossible to get 
 home an attack. 
 
 In order to be efficient as protectors to battle¬ 
 ships and cruisers great seaworthiness is de¬ 
 manded, and this requires large dimensions. 
 The average size of the modern destroyer which 
 is designed to accompany the fleet is 900 to 
 1200 tons. Larger boats have been built, but 
 the necessity for them is not yet fully proved. 
 The armament of a first-class destroyer is four 
 4-inch guns and four to eight torpedo tubes. 
 The speed is from 29 to 35 knots. In size de¬ 
 stroyers range from 300 to 2170 tons, but the 
 larger ones should be styled torpedo vessels and 
 those below 400 tons called torpedo boats. 
 
 The modern torpedo boat is usually designed 
 to form a part of the defense mobile of a coast. 
 The displacement varies from 200 to 400 tons; 
 the armament consists of one or more 3-inch 
 guns and smaller pieces or of smaller pieces 
 only; the speed is from 25 to 30 knots; usually 
 2 or 3 torpedo tubes are carried. 
 
 Surface torpedo boats can hope to be success¬ 
 ful only when attacking under cover of night 
 or of thick fog, and several should attack a 
 ship simultaneously—from different directions 
 if possible. If the vessel is under way and 
 steaming at good speed, an attack from abaft 
 the beam gives little promise of success, as the 
 approach must necessarily be slow and the 
 chances of discovery increase, while the torpedo 
 may be deflected bv the ship’s wake and can 
 onlv overtake the ship at a rate equal to the 
 difference in speeds of ship and torpedo. The 
 boat must, therefore, be nearer her target when 
 she fires than if attacking an approaching ship. 
 In the Great War torpedo boats were used 
 chiefly as scouts against submarines. 
 
 In its earliest form the torpedo boat contained 
 ruereiv a large quantity of powder and was it¬ 
 self destroyed by the explosion. Craft of this 
 type were used by Gianabelli at Antwerp in 1585. 
 (.See 1 orpedo. ) The first evolutionary step de¬ 
 veloped boats which carried torpedoes that were 
 designed to be attached to the bottom of the 
 enemy s ship. All of this type were submarine. 
 (See Torpedo Boat, Submarine.) The first 
 surface boats appeared during the American 
 ( ivil W ar, and the first partial success was 
 achieved (October, 1863) in an attack by a Con¬ 
 federate boat on the Federal armor-clad New 
 Ironsides, in which the latter was slightly in¬ 
 jured. Practically all of the torpedo boats of 
 the war used spar torpedoes, which were carried 
 at the end of a long spar or boom rigged out be¬ 
 yond the bow, and nearly all were ordinary 
 steam launches or pulling boats, though the boat 
 which attacked the New Ironsides and one or 
 two others were specially built craft with nearly 
 submerged hulls. In 1873 the first fast (speed, 
 15 knots) specially designed torpedo boat was 
 built by Thornycroft, of Chiswick, England, for 
 the Norwegian government and was fitted for 
 using the Harvey towing torpedo, then in much 
 favor. In the next year both Thornycroft and 
 \arrow (of Poplar, near London) constructed 
 boats for various foreign governments, and they 
 built several in the ensuing year, but none for 
 Great Britain. About the same time Herreshoff 
 completed a very fast boat for the United States 
 navy. In 1877 Herreshoff brought out the first 
 boat fitted to use Whitehead torpedoes, and al¬ 
 though many subsequent boats were designed to 
 carry spar torpedoes, the Whitehead rapidly 
 made its way, so that by 1880 it had practically 
 displaced all rivals except the Howell and 
 Schwartzkopf, which were of somewhat similar 
 type. Consult J. T. Scharf, History of the Con¬ 
 federate Navy (New York, 1887), and Johnson, 
 Defense of Charleston Harbor (Charleston, 
 1890). See Torpedo; Torpedo Boat, Subma¬ 
 rine; Torpedo Net, and references there given. 
 
 TORPEDO-BOAT DESTROYER. See Tor¬ 
 pedo Boat. 
 
 TORPEDO BOAT, SUBMARINE. Except 
 for purposes of naval war the submarine boat 
 had, up to 1916, a very narrow field of use¬ 
 fulness. Lake’s first boat was designed for ex¬ 
 ploration of the ocean bottom by furnishing a 
 base from which divers could readily operate 
 undisturbed by rough water, but it was not 
 often employed. As torpedo boats, submarines 
 are built of three types: (a) coast-defense, (b) 
 cruising, and ( c ) fleet. 
 
 Coast-defense boats are small, have a very 
 moderate radius of action, and possess infe¬ 
 rior habitability. They are designed to operate 
 from a base which is near at hand, so that the 
 cruising radius and habitability can be sacri¬ 
 ficed without loss of efficiency. The early sub¬ 
 marines were all of this type, being small, slow, 
 and defective in many ways. More recent boats, 
 embodying later improvements, were specially 
 designed to operate from a base near at hand, 
 and sacrificed size, habitability, and cruising 
 radius without loss of efficiency in other di¬ 
 rections. They vary in displacement (sub¬ 
 merged) from 250 to 600 tons, the surface 
 tonnage being 20 to 40 per cent less. The 
 length is 150 to 200 feet: beam, 15 to 20 feet; 
 speed, 10 to 16 knots on the surface and 8 to 
 ii knots when submerged. Greater speed is 
 desirable, but is difficult tc obtain in boats of 
 
TORPEDO BOAT, SUBMARINE 354 TORPEDO BOAT, SUBMARINE 
 
 small size. The cruising radius is 1000 to 2000 
 miles; the number of torpedo tubes, 4 to 8; 
 one gun of 3-inch or 2.25-inch calibre is usu¬ 
 ally carried, supplemented by an antiaeroplane 
 gun and perhaps a machine gun of musket cal¬ 
 ibre. The latter is almost invariably kept be¬ 
 low until the boat has reached the surface, 
 when it is passed up the hatch and placed on 
 its mount. There are no quarters for officers 
 or crew (20 to 30 in number), all possible 
 space and weight being devoted to machinery 
 and torpedoes. Small transoms or seats are 
 provided for the officers and men not actually 
 on watch or engaged in work. The propelling 
 machinery consists of electric motors for sub¬ 
 merged navigation and Diesel or gasoline en¬ 
 gines for surface cruising. The current for the 
 motors is supplied by storage batteries which 
 are charged at the base, but the charge may 
 be renewed by connecting up the charging ap¬ 
 paratus to the oil engines when on the sur¬ 
 face. 
 
 Cruising submarines are designed for long¬ 
 distance, independent work. They must pos¬ 
 sess good habitability, large cruising radius, 
 space for a number of torpedoes, and as much 
 surface speed as it is possible to give them 
 after satisfying these requirements. They have 
 a submerged displacement of 800 to 1200 tons 
 and a surface displacement of 650 to 1000 tons. 
 The length is from 225 to 275 feet; beam, 18 
 to 25 feet; maximum surface speed, 16 to 20 
 knots; maximum submerged speed, 10 to 14 
 knots; cruising radius, 4000 to 8000 miles (us¬ 
 ing part of the submerging tanks for oil fuel 
 when leaving the base)j_ submerged radius of 
 operation on a single charge of the batteries, 
 50 to 100 miles; number of torpedo tubes, 4 to 
 8; battery, one or more 3-inch guns, one or 
 more antiaeroplane guns, one or more machine 
 guns (kept below when the boat is submerged) ; 
 officers and crew, 40 to 50. The machinery is 
 similar to that of coastal submarines, though 
 man}^ of the larger boats are fitted with steam 
 engines for surface cruising, as the Diesel en¬ 
 gines have given much trouble. The principal 
 difficulty with steam machinery is the heat radi¬ 
 ated. This has been largely overcome by non¬ 
 conducting and water-cooled jackets and the 
 cooling effect of the expanding compressed air 
 which has been water-cooled during compres¬ 
 sion or afterward. The engines of new boats 
 are either Diesel, geared steam turbines, or fitted 
 for electric driveV (see Shipbuilding, Marine 
 Machinery ) ; the latter, when perfected, may be 
 adopted, as it offers many advantages in connec¬ 
 tion with storage batteries and electric propul¬ 
 sion when the boat is submerged. 
 
 Fleet submarines were a new type which in 
 1916 had not yet been tested by actual service. 
 They were expected to be able to accompany 
 the battle fleet. They must, therefore, possess 
 seaworthy qualities of a fairly high order, have 
 good habitability, excellent surface speed, and 
 a large radius of action, though fuel supplies 
 could be obtained from the surface vessels, 
 preferably from auxiliaries or “mother” ships. 
 They must be efficiently armed to destroy the 
 submarines and torpedo vessels of the enemy 
 and to stand some punishment from guns of 
 small craft. Owing to the novelty of their role, 
 the details are not well settled and cannot be 
 until experience has furnished its lessons. So 
 far as known, the designs of boats building in 
 <1916 called for displacements of 1500 to 2000 
 
 tons when submerged and 1200 to 1600 tons 
 on the surface; the maximum surface speeds, 
 20 to 26 knots, submerged speeds, 12 to 15 
 knots; cruising radius, 3000 to 6000 miles; 
 submerged radius on a single charge of batter¬ 
 ies, 75 to 150 miles; number of torpedo tubes, 
 4 to 10; battery, two to four 4-inch guns; one 
 or more antiaeroplane guns, several machine 
 guns; officers and crew, 50 to 100. The pro¬ 
 pelling machinery is similar to that of cruising 
 submarines, but of greater relative power in 
 order to secure higher speed. 
 
 Still larger submarines, called submersible 
 battleships, have been proposed. The designs 
 provide for one or more armored turrets car¬ 
 rying heavy guns. In some of the proposals the 
 whole vessel may be submerged; in other plans 
 the turrets are always above water. No ves¬ 
 sels of this sort were building so far as known 
 in 1916. 
 
 The earlier submarines had very little re¬ 
 serve buoyancy and could run on the surface, 
 with open conning towers or ventilating pipes, 
 only when the sea was smooth. Their habita¬ 
 bility was therefore poor, and their radius of 
 action was more circumscribed by this fact than 
 from all other causes. About 1900 the French 
 brought out a type which they styled submers- 
 ibles. They differed radically from previous 
 boats, having two hulls, one inside the other. 
 The outer hull resembled that of an ordinary 
 torpedo boat, but with few projections from 
 or irregularities in the general outline in order 
 to present a smooth surface when submerge^ 
 Inside this there was a second hull of nearly 
 circular cross section and as large as the shape 
 of the outer boat permitted. To effect sub¬ 
 mergence water was admitted into the space 
 between the hulls. This brought the boat to the 
 awash condition; further submergence was ef¬ 
 fected by permitting the ballast tanks to filL_ 
 As compared with the submersible, the relative 
 advantages of the former submarine type were: 
 greater submerged speed and strength and more 
 tubes in the bow (made possible by the blunt 
 form) ; the disadvantages were less habitability, 
 due to reduced buoyancy and sea-keeping qual¬ 
 ities, and lower surface speed, due to poor 
 form of hull. The relative advantages of the 
 submersible were greater surface speed, supe¬ 
 rior habitability, and better sea-keeping quali¬ 
 ties; the disadvantages were less strength of 
 hull, reduced speed when submerged, and fewer 
 torpedo tubes In the bow on account of fineness 
 of form. 
 
 In the course of time the two types have 
 approached each other in design. The * sub¬ 
 marine has been given a finer model and a 
 superstructure whose top forms the deck. The 
 present submersibles have only partial double 
 hulls. It is therefore difficult to classify many 
 recent boats. In the first submersibles the 
 light cruising displacement was only half of 
 tha't in the submerged condition. In recent 
 French types the surplus buoyancy is about 
 35 per cent, in British boats about 20. Good 
 habitability is obtained in the latter by raising 
 the superstructure, but its width is reduced to 
 keep the submerged displacement as moderate 
 as practicable in order to prevent unnecessary 
 reduction of the submerged speed. The high, 
 roomy conning tower introduced by Lake is 
 very generally adopted and affords support for 
 a deck steering station high above the Avater, 
 where it can be protected against spray by a 
 
TORPEDO BOAT, SUBMARINE 355 TORPEDO BOAT, SUBMARINE 
 
 removable canvas screen similar to that of 
 ordinary surface vessels. 
 
 Like other types of war craft, the submarine 
 has steadily increased in size, for it was only 
 by augmenting 1 the dimensions that its present 
 powers could be attained. The first American 
 boats displaced 120 tons when submerged; the 
 fleet submarines designed in 1915 were to have 
 a tonnage of more than 1500. The same sort 
 of development has taken place in other navies. 
 1 he British and German boats which made long 
 cruises in the Great War (see War in Europe) 
 were of 800 to 900 tons. By using part of their 
 submerging tanks for fuel, these boats have a 
 cruising radius of 3000 to 5000 miles. As 
 submarines have increased in size and speed, 
 they have become more and more expensive to 
 build. The cost of large fleet submarines, fully 
 equipped, is about $1000 per ton, or more than 
 twice that of surface battleships or cruisers. 
 
 One of the most notable changes in the equip¬ 
 ment of recent submarines is the battery. 
 About 1912 a short 3-inch gun was mounted 
 on a few of the larger boats. The next step 
 was to fit antiaeroplane guns, for the aeroplane 
 is a deadly enemy. Later machine guns were 
 supplied, and the larger boats were to be fitted 
 with 4-inch guns in place of 3-inch. As a de¬ 
 fense against the guns of similar craft and of 
 surface boats, it is proposed to fit a protec¬ 
 tion deck in submarines. This will be just 
 below the surface when the submarine is in 
 ordinary cruising condition, and the space above 
 it is to be closely subdivided. Another impor¬ 
 tant addition to submarine equipment is the 
 gyroscope compass. (See Compass.) Mag¬ 
 netic compasses are very unreliable when wholly 
 surrounded by the hull of a vessel, and accu¬ 
 rate steering by means of them was found to be 
 impossible when the boat was submerged. The 
 gyro compass has changed all this and made 
 submerged navigation much more accurate and 
 safe. The gyro principle may also be used 
 to keep the boat on an even keel, laterally and 
 transversely—now a difficult matter and re¬ 
 quiring constant care and watchfulness. 
 
 Submarines are kept on an even keel by bal¬ 
 last tanks and horizontal rudders. The water 
 is moved by compressed air acting on the sur¬ 
 face of the water in the tanks and by pumps. 
 The horizontal rudders are operated by hand 
 or by motors. If gyro stabilizers are used they 
 will automatically operate the machinery and 
 control this work. 
 
 Submerging is effected by admitting water 
 to the submerging tanks, and the boat is brought 
 to the surface by expelling this water with 
 compressed air and pumps. The time required 
 to submerge and emerge depends on the size 
 of the boat, the reserve displacement, and the 
 capacity of the ejecting and pumping equipment. 
 When in the presence of the enemy boats do 
 not run in cruising trim, but in a condition 
 called awash, with only the conning tower and 
 a small portion of the hull above water. When 
 so close that they may be observed (or at¬ 
 tacked), they are submerged until only the 
 periscope (q.v.) is visible. From the awash con¬ 
 dition this takes but a few seconds. Under favor¬ 
 able circumstances it takes two or three minutes 
 for a boat to emerge sufficiently to use her guns, 
 and this is a dangerous time for her if discovered 
 by a surface vessel or another submarine. Con¬ 
 sequently every effort is made to shorten the 
 interval as much as possible by carrying large 
 
 tanks of compressed air and very efficient 
 pumps and by forcing her to the surface with 
 the horizontal rudders. In the earlier boats 
 submerging and emerging were almost entirely 
 effected by the horizontal rudders, the hull be¬ 
 ing inclined at a considerable angle during the 
 operation; this of course facilitated the filling 
 or emptying of the tanks. Some recent boats 
 submerge and emerge on a level keel without 
 using the rudders; others use them, as already 
 noted, to expedite the operations. 
 
 The chief difficulties in the way of submarine 
 navigation are: (a) securing safety; ( b) ob¬ 
 
 taining high speed on the surface and fair speed 
 below; ( c ) steering a straight course and avoid¬ 
 ing obstacles; ( d) securing adequate habitabil¬ 
 ity; (e) insuring stability. For submarine tor¬ 
 pedo boats there are other difficulties, such as 
 directing and discharging the torpedo and the 
 slow submerging and emerging which add to the 
 dangers of operation. 
 
 Perfect safety can never be obtained, and the 
 frequent accidents to submarines show we are 
 yet far from such a goal. The greatest source 
 of trouble seems to be the storage batteries. 
 No solution is in sight except to improve the 
 batteries and inclose them in such a manner 
 that the gases from them cannot escape into 
 the hull nor collect in such a way as to per¬ 
 mit a dangerous explosion. 
 
 High speed in surface torpedo boats is ob¬ 
 tained through lightness of hull construction. 
 This is not possible in submarines which must 
 have heavy framing and thick plating to re¬ 
 sist strong water pressure. Except by the sacri¬ 
 fice of every other attribute, high speed is im¬ 
 possible in the smaller boats; adequate size 
 is necessary. The earlier submarines used gas¬ 
 oline engines for surface propulsion. For vari¬ 
 ous reasons heavy oil engines replaced them. 
 But these in turn have proved unsatisfactory, 
 and, as already stated, steam machinery is 
 being fitted in large boats. 
 
 The navigation of submerged vessels is ex¬ 
 ceedingly difficult. The periscope (q.v*) is 
 nearly useless at night, and it is impossible to 
 see clearly under water, even for a few feet, 
 unless the vessel is absolutely at rest. The 
 gyro compass and gyro stability gear are do¬ 
 ing much to facilitate operations, but subma¬ 
 rine navigation is still very uncertain and 
 dangerous. The habitability of boats naturally 
 increases with their size as well as through 
 
 O 
 
 improved appliances. Large vessels can have 
 separate compartments for sleeping and cook¬ 
 ing and for the machinery, and ventilation is 
 easier. The cooking and heating are done with 
 electric stoves or waste heat from the boilers 
 or engines. This waste heat is often a serious 
 source of trouble, especially in small craft. 
 
 The conditions affecting the stability of an 
 entirely submerged vessel differ considerably 
 from those which control that of one floating 
 on the surface. (See Shipbuilding.) Since 
 the sectional area of the immersed body re¬ 
 mains unchanged at all angles of heel and pitch, 
 the position of the centre of buoyancy remains 
 constant; the righting moment therefore grows 
 very slowly as the boat heels or pitches. Bv suit¬ 
 able ballasting or arrangement of weights ade¬ 
 quate transverse stability is not very difficult 
 to obtain. But longitudinal stability is quite 
 another matter. The shifting of weights (mov¬ 
 ing of men, torpedoes, and liquids in partly 
 filled tanks) is a very serious matter, partic- 
 
356 TORPEDO BOAT, SUBMARINE 
 
 TORPEDO BOAT, SUBMARINE 
 
 ularly in small boats. It is counteracted by 
 horizontal rudders or quickly shifting water 
 ballast. To do this effectively requires expe¬ 
 rience and constant attention. If the gyro sta¬ 
 bility gear can perform the duty automati¬ 
 cally, it will add much to •comfort and safety. 
 
 The difficulties experienced in discharging 
 torpedoes are closely connected with the ques¬ 
 tion of stability. In addition to the trouble 
 of handling the torpedoes in a very contracted 
 space and of giving them the correct direction 
 at the moment of firing, it is necessary that 
 the boat should be nearly horizontal when the 
 torpedo leaves the tube, else it will take too 
 deep a dive or rise to the surface at the begin¬ 
 ning of its run. The shock of firing and the 
 sudden release of weight at the bow as the 
 torpedo leaves the tube cause much longitudinal 
 disturbance in the boat and may bring it to 
 the surface if not carefully counteracted, while 
 the change in trim adds to the difficulty of 
 maintaining a constant depth. 
 
 The torpedoes used in submarines are usu¬ 
 ally the same as those for surface boats, but 
 the Germans (and other navies are following 
 their lead) are supplying a short-range tor¬ 
 pedo with a very large bursting charge—more 
 
 f? 
 
 go to war we shall have to lock our dread¬ 
 noughts up in some safe harbor, if we can find 
 one. (6) If by means of submarines we stop 
 egress from the North Sea and the Mediter¬ 
 ranean, it is difficult to see how our commerce 
 can be much interfered with. (7) Not only 
 is the open sea unsafe, but in narrow waters 
 and harbors surface ships are at the mercy 
 of submarines. (8) What we require is an 
 enormous fleet of submarines, airships, and 
 aeroplanes, and a few fast cruisers, provided 
 we can find a place to keep them in safety dur¬ 
 ing war time. 
 
 Admiral Scott’s letter created a great sen¬ 
 sation, both in the naval world and in the 
 world at large, chiefly because he was the 
 greatest living naval artillerist. The enormous 
 improvement in naval target practice and the 
 accuracy of gun fire in recent years had been 
 due to him more than to any other man. 
 Moreover, he was regarded as an ardent ad¬ 
 vocate of the dreadnought battleship and a 
 firm believer in the superiority of the gun 
 over all other naval weapons. 
 
 The War in Europe of 1914-16 witnessed 
 the first test of the submarine on an extensive 
 scale. Opinions of naval experts differ consid- 
 
 LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT. 
 
 than double that of the ordinary long-range 
 type—the reduction of weight in the air flask 
 being utilized to increase the explosive charge. 
 As ordinary submarines must approach the en¬ 
 emy quite closely (except in very smooth water) 
 in order to see clearly, it is thought by some 
 that long-range torpedoes are not so necessary 
 for them. See Torpedo. 
 
 For several years the relative importance of 
 the submarine as a weapon of war has been the 
 subject of much speculation and discussion. A 
 few weeks before the outbreak of the great war, 
 on June 5, 1914, Rear Admiral Sir Percy Scott 
 of the British navy wrote a letter to the Lon¬ 
 don Times on the subject of the “Submarine 
 Menace,” in which he expressed himself sub¬ 
 stantially as follows: (1) Submarines have done 
 away with the utility of surface ships. (2) As 
 no man-of-war will dare to come within sight 
 of a coast that is adequately protected by 
 submarines, battleships in future will not be 
 able to (a) attack ships that come to bombard 
 our ports, (&) attack ships that come to block¬ 
 ade us, ( c ) attack ships convoying a landing 
 party. (3) Nor will battleships be able to 
 ( d ) bombard an enemy’s ports, (e) blockade an 
 enemy’s ports, (/) blockade an enemy’s fleet, (g) 
 convoy a landing force. (4) As there will be 
 no enemy’s fleet to attack, when it is unsafe 
 for any fleet to put to sea, this function of 
 the battleship will cease to exist. (5) If we 
 
 erably as to how far this war demonstrated the 
 effectiveness of the submarine for offensive pur¬ 
 poses. During the early stages of the war the 
 success of the German submarines in sinking a 
 number of British and French warships led many 
 persons to believe that the predictions of Ad¬ 
 miral Scott were warranted. As the war pro-, 
 gressed, however, the British authorities appear 
 to have adopted some effective means of pro¬ 
 tecting their battleships, at least in the re¬ 
 stricted area about the British Isles, from sub¬ 
 marine attack. As commerce destroyers the 
 submarines scored heavily, but their use in this 
 connection involved serious questions of inter¬ 
 national law. The frail construction of the sub¬ 
 marines made them vulnerable to attack even 
 by armed merchantmen, if they were discovered 
 before attacking. It was difficult, therefore, for 
 the commanders of submarines to observe the 
 accepted rules of international law, which re¬ 
 quired that noncombatants on merchant vessels 
 should not be jeopardized, without exposing 
 their vessels to destruction. Under these condi¬ 
 tions German submarines sank a considerable 
 number of belligerent and neutral merchant¬ 
 men without warning, which involved Germany 
 in serious difficulties with neutral nations, espe¬ 
 cially the United States. (See War in Europe.) 
 While the operation of submarines in accordance 
 with the principles of warfare laid down for 
 above-surface warships materially reduces their 
 
TORPEDO BOAT, SUBMARINE 357 TORPEDO BOAT, SUBMARINE 
 
 effectiveness for offensive purposes, nevertheless, 
 they are weapons of vast naval usefulness and, if 
 properly handled, can greatly change the charac¬ 
 ter of naval war. Indeed they have done this 
 much already. If fitted with long-range torpe¬ 
 does and handled in groups against an active fleet 
 of battleships properly protected by destroyers 
 and aircraft, we shall be able to form a more 
 definite opinion of their capabilities. Up to 
 191G they seem to have operated independently 
 except in the vicinity of their own coast, though 
 the British boats in the Baltic may be an ex¬ 
 ception. 
 
 The great dread that submarines first inspired 
 was largely due to lack of knowledge as to 
 means of defense against them. In the great 
 war a screen of destroyers surrounding ships 
 or fleets proved very effective. In the nar¬ 
 row waters of the English Channel heavy wire 
 nets kept this area nearly free from submarine 
 activity and permitted the British to trans¬ 
 port troops and munitions of war with com¬ 
 parative safety. In connection with the nets 
 the British employed small, fast motor boats 
 armed with light guns, and these destroyed 
 many submarines of the enemy which were 
 caught in the nets and rose to the surface. 
 
 losing his life in the second submergence trial. 
 In the following year David Bushnell built his 
 first boat, with which Sergeant Lee attacked 
 H.M.S. Eagle in New York harbor. Lee actu- 
 ally got under the ship, and the attack failed 
 only because the screw by which the torpedo 
 was to be attached to the Eagle’s bottom was 
 not sharp enough. Robert Fulton’s experiments 
 in France and America (1795-1812) demon¬ 
 strated that a vessel could be built which could 
 descend to any given depth and reascend at will. 
 Plunging mechanism was devised about the 
 middle of the eighteenth century, but Fuiton 
 developed the vertical and horizontal rudders 
 and provided for the artificial supply of air. A 
 form of periscope existed in 1692 and an im¬ 
 proved kind was patented in 1774; in 1854 Davy 
 still further developed it. Germany’s first sub¬ 
 marine, Bauer’s Plongeur-Marin (Fig. 1 on Plate) 
 was built at Kiel, 1850—51, but it was crushed by 
 the vrnter pressure and remained at the bottom 
 for many years. In 1863 McClintock and How- 
 gate built a semisubmarine hand-propelled boat 
 for the attack on the Federal fleet, but it sank 
 four times, each time drowming the entire crew 
 of eight men. In the same year several larger 
 boats propelled by engines were commenced in 
 
 TORPEDO. 
 
 HATCH 
 
 QUARTERS 
 
 CENTRAL OPERATING COMPARTMENT 
 
 imp 
 
 OFFICERS^ 
 
 , B 
 
 QUARTER 
 
 S_ 
 
 
 SSI 
 
 
 
 HEAVY OIL FUEL STORAGE 
 
 DLASS" 
 
 TORPEDO COMPARTMEN 
 WORKSHOP. WIRELESS 
 TELEGRAPHV ROOM 
 
 flTTHm 
 
 jfYVY. „ 
 
 OMFRESSED A 
 
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 LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT, 
 
 PERISCOPE 
 
 Destroyers and patrol boats of various kinds 
 Were also successfully used, while the aeroplane 
 proved to be an excellent detector even when 
 the boats were some distance below the sur¬ 
 face. In addition to signaling the enemy’s 
 position and course they assisted in the at¬ 
 tack, and at least two sub¬ 
 marines were destroyed by 
 aeroplane bombs. In the 
 protection of fleets against 
 submarine operations they 
 may prove a most decisive 
 factor. 
 
 History. When or by 
 whom was built the first 
 submarine boat will prob¬ 
 ably never be known. It 
 is said that Alexander the 
 Great was interested in 
 submarine navigation, 
 
 . w T hile subaqueous attack 
 of vessels was studied at 
 least as early as the thir¬ 
 teenth or fourteenth century. M. Delpeuch states 
 that some English ships were destroyed in 1372 
 by fire carried under water. In the early part of 
 the seventeenth century, submarine boats were 
 numerous, and in 1624 Cornelius Dreblxfi exhib¬ 
 ited to King James I on the Thames a submarine 
 boat of his own design. By 1727 no less than 
 14 types of submarines had been patented in 
 England alone. In 1774 Day began experiments 
 with a submarine boat at Plymouth, England, 
 
 CROSS SECTION OF SUB¬ 
 MARINE TORPEDO BOAT. 
 
 Europe, and these at intervals were followed 
 by others designed by Hovgaard, Goubet, Zede, 
 Nordenfeldt, Tuck, Holland, etc. The French 
 navy began experimenting with submarine boats 
 about 1885. The Gymnote was built in 1888 
 
 TORPEDO SCREW. 
 VENTILATORS- 
 
 VERTICAL 
 
 PROPELLER 
 
 DEPTH GAUGE 
 X PROPELLER 
 
 BALLAST TANK 
 BALLAST. 
 
 detachable ballast 
 
 AND ANCHC 
 
 7FL00DING VALVE 
 .PUMP 
 
 BALLAST TANK 
 
 bushnell’s boat (1775). 
 
 and the Gustave Zede in 1893. The Morse was 
 commenced in 1894, but remained uncompleted 
 until 1899, pending additional experiments with 
 the Gymnote and the Zede. In that year the 
 
TORPEDO NET 
 
 TORPEDO BOAT, SUBMARINE 
 
 358 
 
 key, but little was ever clone with them after 
 they passed into Turkish hands. In 1889 Spain 
 built the Peral, Portugal following with the 
 Plongeur in 1892. Itaiy built the Delfino in 
 1895. The United States had the submarine 
 boat under consideration for several years. The 
 
 construction of submarines was actively com- Fife and others, Submarines of the World’s 
 menced, 10 being launched in 1901. In 1886 Navies (ib., 1911); Robert Fulton, “Torpedo 
 Norden’feldt built two large submarines for Tur- War and Submarine Explosions, 5 ' in Magazine of 
 
 History, extra No. 35 (Tarrytown, 
 N. Y., 1914) ; Farnham Bishop, The 
 Story of the Submarine (New York, 
 1916) ; also Proceedings of the United 
 States Naval Institute (Annapolis, 
 current) and various numbers of the 
 Scientific American (New York, 
 weekly). 
 
 TORPEDO DIRECTOR. An instru¬ 
 ment designed to indicate the proper 
 moment at which to fire a torpedo from 
 a ship or torpedo boat. It is placed on 
 deck, or in a port or airport giving a 
 clear view of the enemy. The type 
 shown in the sketch is for a bow tor¬ 
 pedo tube on a torpedo boat; a broad¬ 
 side director differs chiefly in having a 
 greater arc of train for the arm B. 
 The instrument consists of a metal 
 sector, A, graduated along the limb E 
 into degrees of arc. On this are three 
 movable arms, B, C, and D. B and D 
 are pivoted on A at the centre of the 
 arc E, while C pivots on the sliding 
 block G. B and G are graduated into 
 similar and equal divisions, representing the 
 speed of the torpedo and the enemy respectively. 
 The arm B is first set parallel to the axis of 
 the torpedo tube, and the block G is set at 
 the division of the scale K, corresponding to 
 the speed of the torpedo. The block H is set 
 at the division of the scale L which corre¬ 
 sponds to the estimated speed of the enemy, 
 and the arm G is swung around until parallel 
 to his supposed course. Then the clamp screws 
 M and N are screwed down. The direction 
 MN (or IJ) is therefore the direction in which 
 the enemy must be in order to be hit by 
 the torpedo moving in the direction MF, if 
 the estimated speeds of enemy and torpedo are 
 correct. The moment that the enemy is on the 
 proper bearing is ascertained by looking over 
 the sights I and J. Other means of ascer¬ 
 taining the direction in which to fire the tor¬ 
 pedo have superseded the torpedo director to 
 a considerable extent, but it is still largely 
 used in most navies. 
 
 TORPEDO NET. A net made of heavy wire 
 rings connected with one another by small steel 
 rings and surrounding a vessel of war below 
 water as a defense against torpedoes. The net 
 is made up in sections about 15 by 20 feet in size, 
 and these sections join to make the total pro¬ 
 tection, which is divided into three parts, called 
 the main defense, bow defense, and stern de¬ 
 fense. All except the main defense are fre¬ 
 quently omitted, and it can be carried only if 
 the vessel is moving slowly, while no nets are 
 of any use if the ship is moving at fair speed. 
 The type of net most in favor is that devised by 
 Mr. Bullivant, an Englishman in the employ 
 of the Admiralty. The Bullivant net is made 
 of wire rings or grommets (see Knotting and 
 Splicing), 6 inches in diameter, connected to 
 each other by galvanized steel rings. Each sec¬ 
 tion weighs about 400 pounds and has a heavy 
 piece of chain at the foot to keep it as nearly 
 vertical as possible when the ship is under way 
 or anchored in a current; the sections are joined 
 to each other by stout wire lashings. The up¬ 
 per edge of the net has small rings sliding on 
 a wire rope, called a jackstay, which is shackled 
 
 first boat ordered (about 1895) was never com¬ 
 pleted, but seven of the Holland type were or¬ 
 dered in 1900 and one was purchased when 
 nearly complete early in that year. 
 
 Bibliography. Delpeuch, La navigation sous 
 marine d travers les siecles (Paris, 1902) ; A. H. 
 Burgoyne, Submarine Navigation , Past and Pres¬ 
 ent (2* vols., London, 1903) ; H. C. Fyfe, Subma¬ 
 rine Warfare, Past and Present (2d ed., New 
 York, 1907); Cyril Field, Story of the Sub¬ 
 marine (Philadelphia, 1909) ; C. W. Domville- 
 
SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOATS 
 
 tt 
 
 PLONGEUR-MARIN ”— GERMAN — 1 851 
 
 ENTRANCS 
 
 HATCH 
 
 CONNING TOWER 
 
 tower_ 
 
 _C0%NINQ rows* 
 
 ENG 
 
 ME 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 TORPEOO TUB£3 
 
 SCREW VERTICAL SCREW FOR 
 TRIMMING & DIVING 
 
 VERTICAL SCREW TOR 
 TRIMMING & BIVINS 
 
 NORDENFELDT No. 4 ENGLISH — 1887 
 
 GOUBET”— FRENCH —1889 
 
 HOLLAND “ FULTON "—UNITED STATES —1901 
 
Photos Copyright by International Film Service, Inc. 
 
 1. “U- 53 ” off Newport, Rhode Island, U. S. A. 
 
 2 , "Deutschland” off New London, Conn., U. S. A. The first submarine to make a commercial trans-atlantic trip. 
 
 GERMAN SUBMARINES 
 
TORPEDO SCHOOL 
 
 TORQUES 
 
 359 
 
 to the outer ends of the booms. Each of the 
 booms is of hollow steel tubing and is about 
 30 feet long. The inner end is fitted with a 
 ring which passes through another ring at the 
 upper end of a pivot bolt which works in a 
 lug secured to the ship’s side. The outer end 
 is fitted with two topping lifts and two guys. 
 The booms are placed about 45 feet apart. 
 W hen not in use the booms are swung in along¬ 
 side and with the net landed on a sort of shelf, 
 or if there is no shelf the net is drawn up 
 snugly and the whole lashed to eyebolts on the 
 ship’s side. Torpedo nets are not regarded with 
 favor by many naval officers, as they cannot 
 be used except when the ship is at anchor, 
 and many torpedoes are now fitted with net 
 cutters which enable them to get through. Nets 
 have never been carried by United States naval 
 vessels, and experience with them in the great 
 war and in recent experiments have confirmed 
 the wisdom of this practice. 
 
 TORPEDO SCHOOL. See Naval Schools 
 of Instruction. 
 
 TORPEDO STATION. A torpedo supply 
 station and headquarters for torpedo boats. 
 The L nited States naval torpedo station is on 
 Goat Island, Newport harbor. It consists of a 
 torpedo factory, repair shops, buildings for the 
 storage and care of reserve torpedoes, and a 
 school for enlisted men in the construction, care, 
 and operation of torpedoes, submarine mines, 
 etc. Only a small part of the torpedoes used 
 in the United States navy are made in the fac¬ 
 tory, the others being built by contract in pri¬ 
 vate works. All torpedoes delivered under con¬ 
 tract are sent there from the makers and are 
 inspected, tested, and put into adjustment for 
 service; also, all torpedoes which have been 
 injured in service or need serious repairs. In 
 addition, all necessary supplies for working 
 torpedoes are made there, together with tor¬ 
 pedo mines, guncotton, primers for heavy 
 guns, and certain other ordnance supplies and 
 fittings. 
 
 TORQUATO TASSO, tor-kwa'tO tas'sd. A 
 tragedy by Goethe (1790) suggested by a visit 
 to Sorrento and Sicily. 
 
 TORQUAY, tor-ke'. A fashionable health 
 resort and watering place on the south coast 
 of Devon, England, occupying a cove on the 
 north side of Tor Bay, 23 miles south of Ex¬ 
 eter (Map: England, C 6). Marble works and 
 terra-cotta manufactures are its industrial spe¬ 
 cialties, and it is an important yachting station. 
 It has a large harbor. Till about 1800 Tor¬ 
 quay was an assemblage of fishermen’s huts. 
 Then its climate and freedom from fogs caused 
 it to be resorted to by tuberculous patients; it 
 soon attained European celebrity. St. John’s, 
 a fine church of modern Gothic architecture, 
 the town hall, a museum, a theatre, and an 
 opera house are the chief structures. Torquay 
 was incorporated in 1892. Kent’s Cavern, dis¬ 
 covered in 1824, and the Brixham Cave, dis¬ 
 covered in 1858, are rich in fossils and have sup¬ 
 plied the earliest English evidences of prehis¬ 
 toric man. After the defeat of the Spanish 
 Armada Don Pedro’s galley was brought into 
 Tor Bay, and an old thirteenth-century building, 
 where the survivors were housed, is known as 
 the Spanish barn. Torquay was the landing 
 place of William of Orange in 1688. Pop., 
 1901, 33,625; 1911, 38,772. 
 
 TORQUEMADA, tor'kft-ma'Da, Juan de, 
 also known by the Latinized form Turrecre- 
 
 mata (1388 1468). A Spanish theologian and 
 Cardinal, born at Valladolid. He entered the 
 Dominican Order in 1403 and completed his 
 studies at the University of Paris in 1423. Af¬ 
 ter presiding over houses of his order at Val¬ 
 ladolid and Toledo, he was made master of 
 the sacred palace by Eugenius IV in 1431 and 
 employed in various important negotiations, 
 lie was made Cardinal priest in 1439, later 
 Cardinal Bishop of Albano, and in 1464 Car¬ 
 dinal Bishop of Sabina. The large revenues 
 of various preferments he devoted to church 
 building and works of charity, but attained 
 greater renown by his numerous theological 
 writings, many of which dealt with the con¬ 
 troversies of the day. He took part in the 
 councils of Constance, Basel, and Florence and 
 drew up the plan for the union between the 
 Greek and Latin churches at the last named. 
 Consult S. Lederer, Der spanische Cardinal 
 Johannes von Torquemada (Freiburg, 1879), 
 and H. C. Lea, History of the Inquisition of 
 Spain (4 vols., New York, 1906-07). 
 
 TORQUEMADA, Tomas de (1420-98). A 
 Spanish Inquisitor General. He was born at 
 Valladolid, of the same family as that to which 
 belonged the famous theologian, Juan de Tor¬ 
 quemada (q.v.). He entered the Dominican 
 Order and became prior of the monastery at 
 Segovia, a post which he held for 22 years. 
 In 1478 the Inquisition (q.v.) was reestablished 
 m Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella, and four 
 years later some assistants were given to the 
 first inquisitors. Torquemada was among these 
 and so distinguished himself bv his zeal that 
 in ,1483 he was named by Sixtus IV Grand 
 Inquisitor for Castile and Aragon. He erected 
 four tribunals, at Seville, Cordova, Jaen, and 
 Villa Real, the last of which was afterward 
 transferred to Toledo. The Grand Inquisitor 
 was assisted by a council of theologians and 
 jurists named by the King, but deriving their 
 jurisdiction from the Inquisitor General in 
 virtue of the latter’s papal authority. In politi¬ 
 cal and legal questions he was obliged to act 
 only in concert with .them, but in theological 
 matters merely asked their advice. Torquemada 
 drew up the code of procedure, which was con¬ 
 firmed by the Pope, though the Holy See steadily 
 impressed upon the inquisitors the necessity of 
 exercising charity towards those who were" ac¬ 
 cused of heresy and frequently mitigated the 
 rigor of their sentences. Torquemada took a 
 prominent part in the expulsion of the Jews 
 from Spain. Towards the end of his life he re¬ 
 tired into the Dominican monastery of Avila, 
 where lie died. Consult De Molenes, Documents 
 inedits: Torquemada et VInquisition (Paris, 
 1897), and H. Gaultier de Saint-Amand, Tor¬ 
 quemada: Essai sur VInquisition d’Espagne en 
 11/83 (Saint-Denis, 1910). As a typical repre¬ 
 sentative of the Spanish Inquisition, Torquemada 
 stands convicted of wanton cruelty on the evi¬ 
 dence of his own code of procedure and on the 
 evidence of the Jesuit historian Juan de Mariana 
 (q.v.) and of the later historian Juan Antonio 
 Llorente (q.v.), who was general secretary of 
 the Inquisition and made a careful study of 
 its archives. 
 
 TORQUES, torks (Lat. torques, torquis, 
 twisted neck ring, necklace, collar, from torquere, 
 to rack, twist, torment). A species of gold 
 ornament, meant to be worn round the neck, 
 which was much in use in ancient times among 
 Asiatic and North European nations. It com 
 
TORRE 
 
 TORRENS SYSTEM 
 
 360 
 
 sisted of a spirally twisted bar of gold, bent 
 nearly into a circle, with the ends free and 
 terminating in hooks or sometimes in serpents. 
 Numerous examples have been dug up in Great 
 Britain and France. 
 
 TORRE, tor'ra, Duke de La. See Serrano y 
 Dominguez. 
 
 TORRE DEL GRECO, tor'ra del gra'ko. A 
 seaport and bathing resort in the Province of 
 Naples, Italy, situated at the base of Vesuvius, 
 
 7 miles southeast of Naples (Map: Italy, E 4). 
 The town has been largely rebuilt since the 
 great eruption of Vesuvius in 1861. It manu¬ 
 factures wine, coral ware, lava ware, and rope. 
 There are shipbuilding yards. The inhabitants 
 are largely engaged in the coral, tunny, oyster, 
 and sardine fisheries. Torre del Greco suffered 
 severely from lava streams in 1631, 1737, 1794, 
 and 1906. Pop. (commune), 1901,33,299; 1911, 
 35,320. 
 
 TORRE DELL’ ANNUNZIATA, -an-noon'- 
 tse-a'ta. A seaport in the Province of Naples, 
 Italy, situated at the base of Vesuvius, 12 miles 
 southeast of Naples (Map: Italy, E 4). It 
 makes a specialty of macaroni. There are fine 
 thermal baths. It has a government arms fac¬ 
 tory, extensive fisheries, and a trade in wine 
 and lava products. Pop. (commune), 1901, 
 28,143; 1911, 25,070. 
 
 TORREDONJIMENO, -don-He-ma'n6. A 
 town in the Province of Jaen, Spain, 8 miles 
 west of the city of Jaen, on the right bank 
 of the Salado de Porcuna (Map: Spain, D 4). 
 It is a well-constructed town with regular plazas 
 and wide streets. There are gypsum quarries 
 in the vicinity. Spirits and soap are the chief 
 manufactures. Pop., 1900, 10,044; 1910, 12,328. 
 
 TORRENCE, (Frederic) Kidgely (1875- 
 ). An American poet, born at Xenia, Ohio, 
 and educated at Miami University and at Prince¬ 
 ton. He was successively a librarian in the 
 Astor and Lenox libraries, New York, assistant 
 editor of the Critic, and associate editor of the 
 Cosmopolitan Magazine (1906-07). He was 
 honored with membership in the National In¬ 
 stitute of Arts and Letters. Flis work includes: 
 The House of a Hundred Lights (1900); El 
 Dorado: A Tragedy (1903) ; Abelard and Eloise 
 (1907), a poetic drama; Rituals for the Events 
 of Life (1910) ; Three Plays for Women (1910). 
 
 TOR'RENS, Henry Wiiitelock (1806-52). 
 An English writer, born at Canterbury and 
 educated at Charterhouse and Christ Church, 
 Oxford. He held various positions in the civil 
 service and in 1837 became one of Lord Auck¬ 
 land’s secretaries, but his reputation rests upon 
 bis translation of the Arabian Nights. The 
 first volume appeared in 1838. The work was 
 never completed, but the existing fragment is 
 considered superior to any later version. His 
 collected works were published by J. Hume in 
 1854 (Calcutta and London). 
 
 TOR'RENS, Lake. A large lake depression 
 in South Australia, situated about 35 miles 
 north of the north extremity of Spencer’s Gulf 
 (Map: South Australia, D 2). It is about 130 
 miles long, with an average breadth of 20 miles, 
 but is very shallow. In the wet season it re¬ 
 ceives a number of streams from the Flinders 
 Range, but for a large part of the year it is 
 only a salt marsh. 
 
 TORRENS, Robert (1780-1864). An Irish 
 economist. He is best known as an economist 
 and as one of the first to state the law of 
 diminishing returns, the modern theories of 
 
 wealth, and theory of international trade, and 
 is credited with having proposed the separation 
 of the Bank of England into banking and issue 
 departments. His publications include: An Es¬ 
 say on Money and Paper Currency (1812); 
 An Essay on the Production of Wealth (1821) ; 
 Letters on Commercial Policy (1833); On 
 Wages and Combinations (1834); Tracts on 
 Finance and Trade (1852). 
 
 TORRENS, Sir Robert Richard (1814-84). 
 A British colonial statesman, born at Cork, 
 and educated at Trinity College, Dublin. In 
 1840 he went to South Australia, of which he 
 became Treasurer in 1852 and, after responsible 
 government was established, Premier and Treas¬ 
 urer in 1857. In the following year were passed 
 the land laws which bear his name, whereby 
 public registration was substituted for convey¬ 
 ancing. (See Torrens System.) In 1863 Tor¬ 
 rens retired from Australian public life, re¬ 
 turned to England, and in 1868 entered Parlia¬ 
 ment, where he sat for Cambridge until 1874, 
 but failed to introduce his. reform in the land 
 laws. Flis publications include The South Aus¬ 
 tralian System of Conveyancing (1859) and 
 Transfer of Land by “Registration of Title” as 
 now in Operation in Australia under the “Tor¬ 
 rens System” ( 1863). 
 
 TORRENS, William Torrens McCullagh 
 (1813-94). An Irish politician and author, who 
 in middle life (1863) assumed his mother’s 
 name of Torrens. He was born at Greenfield, 
 near Dublin, was educated at Trinity'College, 
 Dublin, and was admitted to the Irish bar 
 in 1836 and the English in 1855. In 1842 he 
 was one of the founders of the Mechanics’ Insti¬ 
 tute of Dublin. Elected to Parliament in 1847, 
 he sat for Dundalk until 1852, was returned in 
 1857 for Yarmouth, but was unseated on peti¬ 
 tion, and then sat for Finsbury from 1865 to 
 1884. He was known for his interest in social 
 questions. He introduced the Artisans’ Dwell¬ 
 ings Act and that by which the School Board 
 of London was established. His publications in¬ 
 clude: The Industrial History of Free Nations 
 (2 vols., 1846) ; The Lancashire Lesson (1864) ; 
 Our Empire in Asia: How ice Came by it 
 (1872) ; Memoirs of Viscount Melbourne (2 vols., 
 1878); Twenty Years in Parliament (1893); 
 History of Cabinets (2 vols., 1894). 
 
 TORRENS SYSTEM. A system of registra¬ 
 tion of titles to real estate introduced into 
 South Australia by Sir Robert Richard Torrens 
 in 1857 in the Real Property Act. This system 
 of official examination and registration of titles 
 has been adopted in England, Australia, New 
 Zealand, British Columbia, parts of Canada, 
 and in somewhat modified form in some of the 
 United States and Territories including New 
 York, Massachusetts, Illinois, California, Colo¬ 
 rado, Oregon, Minnesota, Ohio, Washington, 
 Hawaii, and the Philippines. The chief charac¬ 
 teristics of the system are (1) the creation of 
 truly indefeasible titles warranted and guaran¬ 
 teed by the state; (2) provisions for special 
 proceedings by which the validity of the title 
 is established and a governmental certificate 
 issued attesting that fact; (3) the transfer of 
 title to registered land by entry on the register 
 to the exclusion of all other methods; (4) the 
 creation of an indemnity fund to compensate 
 those injured by the operation of the system. 
 
 England. The present English system is the 
 result of agitation and experimental legislation 
 of upward of 50 years. As now in force, the 
 
TORREY 
 
 TORRES NAHARRO 
 
 361 
 
 English Act provides for three forms of regis¬ 
 tered titles, absolute, qualified, and possessory. 
 The extended examination necessary to justify 
 a certificate of absolute title and the expense 
 attendant thereto have tended to discourage ap¬ 
 plication for such titles; and the fact that a 
 certificate of qualified title tended onlv to 
 emphasize the existing defect in title had a 
 similar effect upon applications for qualified 
 certificates. The system has operated with con¬ 
 siderable success in reference to possessory titles, 
 however, in spite of the fact that the certificate 
 issued in such applications does not affect rights 
 existing before the time of the possession certi¬ 
 fied to and does not cut off rights to the title 
 not yet possessory in character. In other words, 
 such a certificate merely vests in the applicant 
 "such title as he may have” at the time of the 
 application. 
 
 United States. Because of the due-process 
 clause of the Constitution of the United States, 
 the pioneer Illinois Act of 1895 was declared un¬ 
 constitutional, since it appointed a registrar of 
 titles whose functions in effect amounted to 
 the exercise of a judicial power. Accordingly 
 all the registration acts now in force provide 
 for a regular proceeding in court, brought by 
 the person seeking to have his title registered, 
 and eflective only against persons interested 
 upon the giving of notice as prescribed in the 
 statute. Under the Massachusetts Act a court 
 of land registration is established for the whole 
 State, its sessions being held in Boston. After 
 the completion of such a proceeding, provided 
 the case has been properly conducted and all 
 necessary parties served, a period, generally two 
 years, as in the Illinois Act, must elapse before 
 the title of the applicant becomes indefeasible. 
 It has become customary to protect the parties 
 during this period by the issuance of a bond. 
 In the United States only estates in fee simple 
 may be registered. See Conveyance; Deed; 
 Real Property; Recording of Deeds; Title, 
 Registration of; Title Deeds. 
 
 Bibliography. Jacques Dumas, Registration 
 of Title under Torrens System (Chicago, 1900) ; 
 William Niblack, The Torrens System (ib., 
 1900); id., The Torrens System: Its Cost and 
 Complexity (ib., 1903) ; J. E. Ilogg, Australian 
 Torrens System (London, 1905); R. B. Morris, 
 Law of Land and Mortgage Registration (ib., 
 1905); J. P. Kennedy (comp.), List of Refer¬ 
 ences in the Torrens System of Land Registration 
 (Richmond, Va., 1906) ; William Niblack, Analy¬ 
 sis of the Torrens System of Conveyancing Land 
 (Chicago, 1912) ; A. G. Cameron, The Torrens 
 System: Its Simplicity, Serviceability, and Suc¬ 
 cess (Boston, 1915). 
 
 TORRES NAHARRO, tor'ras na-hiir'rb, 
 Bartolome de. A Spanish poet and dramatist, 
 born at Torre de Miguel Sexmero, near Badajoz, 
 towards the end of the fifteenth century. He 
 lived at Rome and subsequently at Naples, 
 where he published his collected works under 
 the title Propaladia (1517) and dedicated them 
 to Ferdinand d’Avalos, the husband of Vit- 
 toria Colonna. His plays have action, char¬ 
 acter, and plot and are of historic value. 
 Torres Naharro is called the creator of Span¬ 
 ish comedy, but this title belongs rather to 
 Juan del Encina. Torres Naharro can, how¬ 
 ever, be considered the first real master of 
 the Romanesque drama, and he was the first 
 Spanish writer who developed his plots and 
 examined their effect on the public. He also 
 
 wrote ballads, sonnets, and epistles. It was 
 some time before his plays became known in 
 Spain, and the first Spanish edition of them did 
 not appear until 1520. But during the follow¬ 
 ing century his works were very popular, al¬ 
 though, owing to his manner of describing the 
 clergy, the later editions were expurgated. 
 ( onsult lorres Naharro, La Propaladia, edition 
 by Manuel Canete and Marcelino Menendez v 
 Pelayo (with an excellent study by the latter), 
 in Libros de Antano, vols. ix and x (Madrid 
 1880, 1900). 
 
 TORRES NOVAS, tor'ras no'vas. A town of 
 the District of Santarem, Portugal, 56 miles 
 northeast of Lisbon (Map: Portugal, A3). It 
 is in an olive-producing region and lias im¬ 
 portant oil mills and cotton and linen manu¬ 
 factories. Pop., 1900, 10,738. 
 
 TORRES (tor'res) STRAIT. The channel 
 which separates New Guinea from the Aus¬ 
 tralian continent (Map: Australia, G 4). It is 
 about 80 miles in width. Its navigation is 
 rendered difficult by coral reefs, sand banks, and 
 islands. It was discovered by Torres in 1606. 
 
 TORRES VEDRAS, va/dras. A town in the 
 District of Lisbon, Estremadura, Portugal, on 
 the left bank of the Sizandro, 24 miles northwest 
 of Lisbon, on the Lisbon-Figueira Railroad. 
 Pop., 1900, 6891. It carries on some trade in 
 wine. The Lines of Torres Vedras consist of 
 three lines of fortifications, begun by Welling¬ 
 ton in 1809 and behind which he retired in 
 October, 1810, before the invading army of 
 Massena. He held the lines against all the at¬ 
 tempts on the part of the French and in August, 
 1811, forced Massena to retreat. The first of 
 these lines, extending from Alhandra on the 
 Tagus to the mouth of the Sizandro on the sea- 
 coast, was 29 miles long; the second lay from 
 6 to 10 miles behind the first and had a' length 
 of 24 miles; the third, situated to the southwest 
 of Lisbon, at the very mouth of the Tagus, was 
 very short, being intended to cover a forced em¬ 
 barkation if that became necessary. The entire 
 ground thus fortified was equal to 500 square 
 miles. 
 
 TOR'REY, Bradford (1843-1912). An 
 American ornithologist and author, born at 
 Weymouth, Norfolk Co., Mass. He entered busi¬ 
 ness in Boston, and from 1886 to 1901 was a 
 member of the staff of the Youth’s Companion 
 of that city. Among his books, marked by ac¬ 
 curate and discriminating observation and a 
 happy style, are Birds in the Bush (1885; 8th 
 ed., 1895); A Rambler’s Lease (1889); Spring 
 Notes from Tennessee (1896); A World of 
 Green Hills (1898); Every-Day Birds (1901); 
 The Clerk of the Woods (1903); Nature’s In¬ 
 vitation (1904); Friends on the Shelf (1906); 
 Field Days in California (1913). 
 
 TORREY, Charles Cutler (1863- ). 
 
 An American Semitic scholar, born at East 
 Hardwick, Vt. He graduated from Bowdoin 
 College in 1884, from Andover Theological Semi¬ 
 nary in 1889, and from the University of Strass- 
 burg (Ph.D.) in 1892. He was afterward in¬ 
 structor and professor of Semitic languages at 
 Andover until 1900, when he accepted a like 
 chair at Yale. In 1900—01 he was director of 
 the American School of Archaeology in Jeru¬ 
 salem, and in 1906 he became chairman of the 
 managing committee of this school. He served 
 as coeditor of the Journal of the American 
 Oriental Society. Ilis publications include: The 
 Commercial-Theological Terms in the Koran 
 
TORREY 
 
 TORRIGI AN 0 
 
 362 
 
 (1892) : The Composition and Historical Value 
 of Ezra-N ehemiah (1896); The Mohammedan 
 Conquest of Egypt and North Africa (1901); 
 Selections from Bokhari (1906); Ezra Studies 
 (1910). 
 
 TORREY, Charles Turner (1813-46). An 
 American reformer, born at Scituate, Mass. He 
 graduated at Yale in 1830, studied theology, and 
 became pastor of a Congregational church in 
 Princeton, N. J. Later he had charge of a 
 church at Salem, Mass., but finally gave up his 
 pastoral duties to devote himself to the aboli¬ 
 tionist movement. He removed to Maryland, 
 and in 1843, for writing an account of a slave¬ 
 holders’ convention held at Baltimore, he was 
 arrested and imprisoned. He aided fugitives 
 by the underground railroad and in 1844 was 
 convicted of having attempted to help slaves 
 to escape and was sentenced to a long term in 
 the State penitentiary. Two years later he 
 died in prison of consumption. His body was 
 taken to Boston, where it was given a public 
 funeral. He was hailed as a martyr in the 
 antislavery cause. 
 
 TORREY, John (1796-1873). An American 
 botanist. He was born in New York State; 
 graduated at the New York College of Physi¬ 
 cians and Surgeons (1818); was professor at 
 West Point (1824-27) ; in the College of Phy¬ 
 sicians and Surgeons (1827-55); at Princeton 
 (1830-54); chief assayer in the United States 
 Assay Office, New York (1853-73). In 1855 he 
 was president of the American Association for 
 the Advancement of Science. His best-known 
 publications are: Catalogue of Plants Grouting 
 Spontaneously within Thirty Miles of New York 
 (1819); Flora of the Northern and Middle 
 States (1824) ; Flora of the State of New York. 
 With Prof. Asa Gray he began the publication of 
 Flora of North America (1838-43). His-valu¬ 
 able herbarium and botanical library he pre¬ 
 sented in 1860 to Columbia College, in which 
 institution he held a professorship of chemistry 
 at the time of his death. A noted botanical 
 club has been named for him. 
 
 TORREY, Joseph William (1828-84). An 
 American newspaper man and merchant, born 
 at Bath, Me. He was for a time connected with 
 the Boston Times and the Carpet Bag. In 1853 
 he went to Australia, where he entered a com¬ 
 mercial house, and in 1859 to China, where he 
 became editor of the Hongkong Times and the 
 China Mail. He engaged in commerce, organ¬ 
 ized the American Trading Company of Borneo, 
 and in 1865 was recognized by the Sultan as 
 Rajah of the Marudu and Ambong districts. 
 He retained the position until 1879, when he 
 became Secretary of the American Legation at 
 Bangkok. He returned to the United States in 
 1883. 
 
 TORREY, Reuben Archer (1856- ). 
 
 An American evangelist, born at Hoboken, N. J. 
 He was educated at Yale (A. B., 1875; B.D., 
 1878) and at Leipzig and Erlangen (1882-83). 
 Ordained to the Congregational ministry in 
 1878, he was city missionary in Minneapolis, 
 Minn., for some years and then became asso¬ 
 ciated with the work of Dwight L. Moody, serv¬ 
 ing as superintendent of the Moody Bible 
 Institute from 1889 to 1908. Besides preaching 
 in many American cities he made a world 
 evangelistic tour in 1902-03 and held meetings 
 in Great Britain in 1903-05 and 1911. His 
 writings include: What the Bible Teaches 
 (1898); Eow to Work for Christ (1901); Re¬ 
 
 vival Addresses (1903); How to Promote and 
 Conduct a Successful Revival (1901; new ed., 
 1906); Anecdotes and Illustrations (1907); 
 Studies in the Life and Teachings of Our Lord 
 (1909); The Person and Work of the Holy 
 Spirit (1910); The Return of the Lord Jesus 
 (1913). 
 
 TOR'REYA (Neo-Lat., named in honor of 
 John Torrey). A genus of conifers belonging 
 to the Taxineae, or yew tribe, and comprising 
 four species of remarkable distribution. All 
 of the species are very local, but very widely 
 separated, occurring in restricted localities in 
 Florida, California, Japan, and China. The 
 California species known as Californian nutmeg 
 is the largest, reaching a height of 70 feet and 
 occasionally 100 feet. 
 
 TORREY BOTANICAL CLUB, The. A sci¬ 
 entific society in New York City, incorporated 
 in 1871 and now one of the six associated so¬ 
 cieties forming the Scientific Alliance (q.v.). 
 It has a valuable herbarium of several thousand 
 specimens, illustrating the flora within 100 
 miles of New York, exhibited at the museum 
 of the New York Botanical Garden, which is the 
 home of the club. The membership in 1916 was 
 about 400, of whom 300 were active members. 
 The club publishes the Bulletin, Torrey a, and 
 
 ^ 0 X T'S • 
 
 TORRIANI, Maria Torelli-. See Torelli- 
 Torriani, Maria. 
 
 TORRICELLI, tor're-chel'16, Evangelista 
 (1608-47). An Italian mathematician and 
 physicist, born at Piancaldoli or, according to 
 some authorities, at Modigliana in the Romagna. 
 From about 1628 he studied mathematics in 
 Rome, under Benedetto Castelli (1577-1644), 
 the favorite disciple of Galileo. Galileo’s theo¬ 
 ries on force and motion especially engaged his 
 attention and led to his publishing a Trattato 
 del moto (1641), a meritorious work, but con¬ 
 taining few new discoveries of consequence. He 
 was then invited by Galileo to visit him at 
 Florence, and aided the old philosopher, now 
 blind, in the preparation of his Discorsi. On 
 Galileo’s death he was appointed his successor 
 in the chair of philosophy and mathematics at 
 Florence. Torricelli was the first to use a column 
 of mercury in a tube closed at one end to 
 balance the pressure of the atmosphere, and 
 found that a much shorter column could be used 
 than in the case of water, as in Galileo’s experi¬ 
 ment. This feat, actually performed in 1643 
 by his assistant, Viviani, furnished him with 
 the idea of the barometer (q.v.) in which the 
 space above the mercury in the closed tube 
 has since been known as a Torricellian vacuum. 
 Torricelli also effected the quadrature of the 
 cycloid, but in this he was anticipated by Rober- 
 val. He was also the first to construct a simple 
 microscope and improved the telescope. In 1908 
 was celebrated in Italy the third centenary of 
 Torricelli’s birth, and interesting memorials 
 were published reproducing his original work. 
 
 TORRIGI ANO, tor're-ja'nd, Pietro (also 
 Torrigiani and Torregiani) (c.1472-1528). A 
 Florentine sculptor of the late Renaissance. He 
 was born in Florence and studied under Bertoldo 
 in the Giardino Medici, where in a jealous rage 
 he broke the nose of his fellow pupil, Michel¬ 
 angelo, thereby permanently disfiguring him. He 
 was afterward taken by Florentine merchants 
 to London, where he worked for King Henry 
 VIII, executing the stately tomb of Henry VII 
 and his Queen (1518) in Westminster Abbey. 
 
TORRINGTON 
 
 363 TORSTENSON 
 
 TTe also designed there a bronze monument for 
 the Duchess of Richmond, and the tomb of Dr. 
 \ oung in the Rolls Chapel, Chancery Lane. 
 Later he went to Spain, where he executed com¬ 
 missions for the cathedral of Seville and modeled 
 the fine statue of St. Jerome (now in the Mu¬ 
 seum, Seville). Imprisoned by the Inquisition 
 for destroying a statue of the Virgin for which 
 he considered himself underpaid, Torrigiano 
 starved to death in confinement. His work is in 
 the light decorative style of the late Quattro¬ 
 cento, but shows greater emphasis on the archi¬ 
 tectonic structure. 
 
 TOR'RINGTON. A town in Litchfield Co., 
 Conn., 35 miles by rail west of Hartford, on 
 the Naugatuck River, and on the New York, 
 New Haven, and Hartford Railroad (Map: Con¬ 
 necticut, C 2). It has a public library, the 
 Hungerford Hospital, and a fine municipal 
 building. Torrington is extensively interested 
 in manufacturing. The leading products are 
 brass articles, hardware, needles, skates, novel¬ 
 ties, woolen goods, gasoline engines, and ma¬ 
 chine tools. Pop. (town), 1900, 12,453; 1910, 
 16,840; 1915 (U. S. est.), 19,153; 1920, 22,055. 
 Torrington was settled in 1737 and was incorpo¬ 
 rated in 1/40 as a town and in 1887 as a borough. 
 (Population 1920, 20,623.) Consult Samuel Or- 
 cutt, History of Torrington (Albany, 1878). 
 
 TORRINGTON, Frederick Herbert (1837- 
 1917). A Canadian musician, born at Dudley, 
 Worcestershire, England. In 1853 he became 
 organist at St. Anne's, Bewdley, and in 1857- 
 69 was organist at Great St. James’s Street 
 Methodist Church in Montreal, Canada. He 
 was organist and musical director at King’s 
 Chapel, Boston, in 1869-73, and also professor 
 in the New England Conservatory of Music; 
 in 1873-1907 he was organist and choirmaster 
 at the Metropolitan Church at Toronto, Canada, 
 and conducted the Philharmonic Society there. 
 He founded in 1886 the first Toronto musical 
 festival and in 1888 instituted the Toronto Col¬ 
 lege of Music. He also conducted Toronto musi¬ 
 cal festivals in 1895 and 1896. In 1903 he 
 was associate conductor, with Sir Alexander 
 Campbell Mackenzie (q.v.), of the cycle of musi¬ 
 cal festivals in that city. He was elected presi¬ 
 dent of the Canadian Society of Musicians in 
 1892. Among his works are organ music, 
 choruses, hymn tunes, and services. 
 
 TORRINGTON, Viscount. See Byng, 
 George. 
 
 * TOR'SION BALANCE. An instrument orig¬ 
 inally designed by the Rev. John Mitchell and 
 after his death improved by Henry Cavendish, 
 who used it in performing the well-known Cav¬ 
 endish experiment of determining the mass of 
 the earth. The apparatus was reinvented by 
 Coulomb and is often known by his name, hav¬ 
 ing been used by him to study electrical and 
 magnetic attractions. It consists of a horizontal 
 rod suspended by a fine wire or, in the most 
 recent experiments, a fibre of quartz and carry¬ 
 ing at either end two small spheres having a 
 mass equivalent to one gram. Adjacent to but 
 on opposite sides of these small masses are 
 two large spheres of lead which attract the two 
 smaller masses and cause the horizontal rod to 
 deflect, the movement being observed by a mir¬ 
 ror and telescope and scale as in the case of the 
 reflecting galvanometer. The force of attraction 
 between two different masses can thus be ascer¬ 
 tained, and, as the attraction of the earth for 
 a unit mass as well as its radius is known, 
 
 Vol. XXII.—24 
 
 we can thus determine the mass of the earth. 
 In electricity charged conductors were substi¬ 
 tuted for the masses, and to study the strength 
 and action of magnetic poles a long thin magnet 
 was suspended and a similar magnet placed in a 
 vertical position near one of its poles. The 
 
 amount of force exerted was ascertained by 
 finding the angle through which it was necessary 
 to turn the head carrying the wire in order 
 to keep the suspended bar at its original posi¬ 
 tion. The Cavendish experiment enables the 
 physicist to compute the mass of the earth and 
 to determine also its mean density, which ac¬ 
 cording to Boys is 5.5268. 
 
 TORSK (Norw., Dan., Swed. torsk, connected 
 with Eng. thirst), or Cusk. A small cod (Bros- 
 mius brosme ) of the European side of the North 
 Atlantic, taken in deep water and regarded as 
 valuable. It is usually about 20 inches long 
 and is distinguished by its long dorsal fin and 
 yellow color. 
 
 TOR'SO (It., stump, trunk). An ancient 
 statue of which only the body remains. Of 
 such imperfect relics of classic art, the most 
 famous is the Torso of the Belvedere in the 
 Vatican, the work of Apollonios, son of Nestor, 
 an Athenian. It is a masterpiece of the later 
 Greek sculpture (first century b.c. ), showing a 
 thorough mastery of the treatment of the nude 
 in all its details, though without the ideality of 
 the best period. It represents a man of gi¬ 
 gantic build, seated on a rough rock over which 
 a skin is thrown. It is usually called Hercules, 
 though Sauer prefers to consider it Polyphemus. 
 No successful or convincing restoration has 
 yet been made. The common story that it was 
 discovered in the Campo del Fiore at the be¬ 
 ginning of the sixteenth century and placed by 
 order of Pope Julius II in the Vatican, is cer¬ 
 tainly wrong. It is only known that it was for¬ 
 merly in the possession of the Colonna family 
 and was brought to the Vatican by Pope Clement 
 VII (1523-34). Consult Loewy, Inschriften der 
 griechischen Bildhauer, No. 343 (Leipzig, 1885), 
 and B. Sauer, Torso von Belvedere (Giessen, 
 1894). 
 
 TOR'STENSON, Lennart, Count of Obtala 
 
TORT 
 
 TORTOISE 
 
 364 
 
 (1603-51). A Swedish general, born at Tor- 
 stena, West Gothland, Aug. 17, 1603. He be¬ 
 came a royal page in 1618 and attended Gusta- 
 vus Adolphus in most of his earlier campaigns. 
 When Gustavus entered Germany in 1630, Tor¬ 
 stenson was captain of the bodyguard; and the 
 brilliant services he rendered were rewarded with 
 rapid promotion. In 1641, on the death of 
 Baner, he was appointed to the command of 
 the Swedish forces in Germany. He invaded 
 Silesia in May, 1642, routed the Imperialists 
 at Glogau and Schweidnitz, reduced most of 
 Moravia, and being pressed back into Saxony 
 by the Archduke Leopold William and Pic- 
 colomini, turned upon his pursuers (Nov. 2, 
 1642) and signally defeated them on the his¬ 
 toric field of Breitenfeld. He then laid Moravia 
 and Austria under contribution. The Emperor, 
 Ferdinand III, despairing of protecting his ter¬ 
 ritories from Torstenson, negotiated with Chris¬ 
 tian IV of Denmark to make a diversion by 
 invading Sweden; but Torstenson with charac¬ 
 teristic promptitude left Moravia in September, 
 1643, traversed Saxony, burst into Holstein, and 
 in less than six weeks subjugated the Danish 
 mainland. The Imperialists under Gallas fol¬ 
 lowed him to aid their allies, but arrived too 
 late and were routed and driven into Saxony, 
 and again totally defeated at Jiiterbog in at¬ 
 tempting to bar Torstenson’s return into Bo¬ 
 hemia (1644). The Swedish general won a 
 great victory over Hatzfeld at Jankau (March 
 
 6, 1645) and carried his arms to the Danube. 
 The Emperor was compelled to flee from Vienna, 
 the Saxons again joined the Swedes, and the 
 Danes, routed at sea as well as on land, sought 
 peace. In 1646 disease compelled Torstenson to 
 resign the command and retire to Sweden, where 
 he was created Count and appointed to vari¬ 
 ous high offices. He died at Stockholm, April 
 
 7, 1651. Consult De Peyster, Torstenson (New 
 York, 1886). See Thirty Years’ War. 
 
 TORT (Lat. torquere, to twist, OF. torte, 
 twisted). A civil wrong. A short and exact 
 definition of tort is not possible. Legal au¬ 
 thorities have attempted such definition, but 
 unsatisfactorily, as “a wrong independent of 
 contract.” Yet the assault on a passenger by 
 the employee on a street car gives rise to an 
 action in tort and an action for breach of the 
 contract of transportation. The elements of 
 a tort are that it consists of the breach of a 
 legal duty which may have been created by con¬ 
 tract or implied by law, and such duty must He 
 owing to the party injured. It is distinguished 
 from contracts in its nature in that it involves 
 a greater amount of moral turpitude. The 
 very names of the principal torts connote wrong, 
 such as slander, fraud, negligence, and conver¬ 
 sion (q.v.). An action in tort usually carries 
 with it the right to arrest the defendant. It 
 differs from a crime, as it is an offense against 
 an individual, while a crime is an offense against 
 the state. It is one of the earliest branches 
 of law, as undoubtedly in primitive communities 
 the settlement of active disputes was one of 
 the first functions of authoritv, while contract 
 rights, breaches of agreement, were left to the 
 individuals. Later, as acts tended to become 
 breaches of the peace, the state assumed them 
 to be offenses against itself. The distinction 
 between contracts, torts, and crimes has, even 
 in modern communities, not been clearly held. 
 The law of torts is itself constantly changing. 
 With changing social conditions and the recog¬ 
 
 nition of altered obligations new legal duties 
 of one individual to another are defined. Acts 
 which were not torts have become so. For 
 example, at common law the landlord owed little 
 or no obligation to repair. The roof of the 
 house might fall in or the stairs give way, and 
 the landlord was not liable, but under modern 
 conditions, where frequently a number of ten¬ 
 ants dwell in a tenement house, statutes impose 
 a duty on the landlord; the Iheory being that 
 the landlord exercises supervision and control 
 over the roof and hallways used by the tenant 
 jointly, no responsibility resting on the indi¬ 
 vidual tenant. The landlord therefore is held 
 liable for injuries in an action in tort, for 
 negligence in failure to make repairs, after 
 notice. A branch of the law of tort which is not 
 settled and is yet in process of change is 
 that of what is known as “unfair competition.” 
 Another example of the change of the law 
 of torts with altered social conditions is the 
 modern recognition by statutes of the obligation 
 of employers in regard to accidents to their 
 employees. The essential element of legal duty 
 should be distinguished from moral duty. Thus, 
 a man’s property may be injured by fire which 
 a bystander could have extinguished or pre¬ 
 vented at little risk. No cause of action would 
 lie for the neglect of the bystander because he 
 was under no legal obligation to act. Thus, 
 many accidents happen and injuries result for 
 which no remedy exists. But where a right of 
 action does exist damages are not confined to 
 those which the law would recognize in an 
 action on contract, and exemplary damages may 
 be recovered. A classification of the principal 
 torts has been attempted on the basis of the 
 nature of the injuries. Injuries to property 
 are such as conversion, trespass, nuisance; to 
 person, negligence, assault; to feelings, such as 
 injuries to reputation, libel, slander, alienation 
 of affection, and seduction (q.v.). As a gen¬ 
 eral rule the party must elect whether to sue 
 on a contract or a tort. An example of the 
 same act which is both a breach of contract, a 
 tort, and a crime, is that of the misappropria¬ 
 tion of funds by a trustee. It is a breach of 
 the contract of trust; it is a tort, conversion; 
 and it is a crime, embezzlement. The law will 
 award damages for the breach, equity will follow 
 the misappropriated funds and allow arrest of 
 the defendant, and the state will punish for the 
 crime. Another act which may be given as an 
 example is that of criminal libel. The libel 
 may be of such a nature that it is punishable 
 by the state as a crime, and at the same time 
 give a right of redress to the individual in tort. 
 See Campbell’s (Lord) Act. 
 
 Bibliography. C. G. Addison, A Treatise on 
 the Law of Torts (7th ed., 2 vols., London, 
 1893) ; E. A. Jaggard, Hand-Book of the Law 
 of Torts (2 vols., St. Paul, Minn., 1895) ; 
 Rudolf Sohm, Institutes of Roman Law (Eng. 
 trans. by J. C. Ledlie, 3d ed., Oxford, 1901); 
 F. M. Burdick, Cases on Torts (3d ed., Albany, 
 1905) ; T. M. Cooley, Treatise on the Law of 
 Torts (3d ed., 2 vols., Chicago, 1906); Sir 
 Frederick Pollock, Law of Torts (8th ed., Lon¬ 
 don, 1908) ; Clerk and Lindsell, The Laic of 
 Torts (6tli ed., Toronto, 1912); F. M. Burdick, 
 Law of Torts (3d ed., Albany, 1913) ; F. H. 
 Bohlen (ed.), Cases on the Law of Torts (2 
 vols., Indianapolis, 1915). 
 
 TORTICOLLIS. See Wryneck. 
 
 TORTOISE, tor'tus, -tis (OF. tortue, tortugue % 
 
TORTOISE 
 
 TORTOISE SHELL 
 
 365 
 
 Fr. tortue, tortoise, from Lat. tortus , twisted, so 
 called from its crooked feet; termination in¬ 
 fluenced by Eng. porpoise). A turtle-of ter¬ 
 restrial habits. The term is indefinite, but 
 usually distinguishes land chelonians from ma¬ 
 rine species, although tortoise shell is exclu¬ 
 sively a marine product, and certain fresh-water 
 turtles, as the terrapins, are spoken of as marsh 
 tortoises. Its most exact application is prob¬ 
 ably to the family Testudinidse, in which the 
 shell is always covered with well-developed 
 horny shields. It includes the terrapins or 
 aquatic mud turtles of the genera Emys, 
 Chrysemys , and similar groups, in which the 
 feet are adapted for both walking and swim¬ 
 ming and the carapace is often ornamented by 
 gay colors or sculpturings. Many are almost 
 wholly terrestrial, as is the case with the com¬ 
 mon box tortoise (see Turtle) of the United 
 States. Near allies are the famous Greek tor¬ 
 toise of the Mediterranean region and many 
 other species of the typical genus Testudo; 
 also the Florida gopher. See Gopher Tortoise. 
 
 The most important and distinctive members 
 of the group are the gigantic land tortoises of 
 various oceanic islands, now extinct or nearly 
 so. (See Extinct Animals.) All these belong 
 to the genus Testudo and differ little except in 
 size from the other members of the family. 
 Some of them are not larger than other large 
 turtles, but those most noted greatly exceed 
 any other living forms, although surpassed by 
 the Testudo atlas of the early Pliocene in India, 
 whose shell was 6 feet or more in length. Others, 
 with shells about 4 feet in length, were its 
 contemporaries in Europe and in North America. 
 Their representatives survived until a recent 
 date or still live in the Galapagos Islands, 
 Madagascar, and the Mascarene Islands, but 
 nowhere upon any continent. 
 
 Specimens of small species have been known 
 to live more than 100 years and one, at least, 
 more than 150 years. The Madagascar species 
 (Testudo grandidieri ) became extinct probably 
 before that island was discovered by white men, 
 but at least two species of the Camoros have 
 remained until within historic times. One (the 
 elephant tortoise, Testudo gigantea, see Land 
 Tortoise) is now extinct in its original home, 
 the North Island of Aldabara, but preserved in 
 the Seychelles, and a specimen living in England 
 in 1897 then measured 5214 X 50 inches over 
 the curve of its shell and weighed 358 pounds; 
 another in St. Helena was more than a century 
 old in 1900. Daudin’s tortoise, of South Alda¬ 
 bara, also survives in small numbers, and several 
 were taken to Europe in 1895, one of which, at 
 least 100 years old, had a shell 55 inches long. 
 Several other species, probably or surely ex¬ 
 tinct, inhabited Rodriguez and other islands of 
 the Indian Ocean, where they were found in 
 abundance by the early voyagers and planters, 
 but were slaughtered for food or as curiosities. 
 
 The Galapagos Islands had several species 
 of similar gigantic tortoises, one to each island 
 of the archipelago, which differed from the 
 Eastern ones mainly in haying longer necks and 
 smaller heads. Some were long ago exter¬ 
 minated by man or by the pigs which Ecua¬ 
 dorans turned loose upon the islands a century 
 aero: others still survive in small numbers, 
 although in 1893 and again in 1898 large num¬ 
 bers were taken away and distributed to 
 zoological gardens in various parts of the world. 
 New York and Washington getting several old 
 
 and young specimens. The largest collection of 
 all living species is that at Tring Park, Eng¬ 
 land, where the biggest known Gal&pagos tor¬ 
 toise ( Testudo elephant opus) is one measuring 
 56 X 49 inches over the curve of its carapace, 
 which was taken from Duncan Island in 1813 
 to Rotuina, thence to Sydney in 1880, and finallv 
 to England. 
 
 Bibliography. C. R. Darwin, A Naturalist’s 
 Voyage around the World (London, I860; new 
 ed. in Everyman’s Library, New York, 1908); 
 A. C. Gunther, Gigantic Land-Tortoises (London, 
 1877); Hans Gadow, “Amphibia and Reptiles,” 
 in Cambridge Natural History, vol. viii (Lon¬ 
 don, 1901) ; United States National Museum, 
 Annual Report (Washington, 1889); R. L. 
 Ditmars, Reptiles of the World (New York, 
 1910), and especially John Van Denburgh, “The 
 Gigantic Land Tortoises of the Galapagos Archi¬ 
 pelago,” in California Academy of Sciences, 
 Proceedings, vol. ii (San Francisco, 1914). Cf. 
 Turtle; and see illustration under Land Tor¬ 
 toise. 
 
 TORTOISE BEETLE, or Shield Beetle. A 
 leaf beetle of the subfamily Cassidinse. The 
 adults are rounded convex beetles with a curious 
 marginal expansion of the upper surface and 
 with the power of withdrawing the head into 
 the thorax, which gives them a resemblance to a 
 tortoise. Their larvge are flattened, fringed with 
 spines, and the anal end of the body is pro¬ 
 vided with a forked appendage which is bent 
 forward over the back; to this are attached the 
 cast-oil skins of the larvae and their excrement as 
 a protective covering. A remarkable group of 
 tortoise beetles, belonging to the genus Por- 
 phyraspis, cover themselves in the larval state 
 with a dense coat of fibres of the palm tree, 
 upon which they live, each of the fibres being 
 many times the length of the insect’s body and 
 elaborately curved so as to form a round nest 
 under which the larva lives. Many species have 
 a brilliant golden-green or iridescent metallic 
 coloring which disappears after death, but may 
 be restored by moistening the dead insect. 
 Several very beautiful species occur upon the 
 morning-glory and upon sweet potato (see 
 Sweet-Potato Insects), a large species ( Phy - 
 sonata unipunctata) feeds upon the wild sun¬ 
 flower, and a very common brick-red species 
 (Chelymorpha argus) feeds upon the milkweed. 
 See Plate of Beetles. 
 
 TORTOISE PLANT. See Hottentot Bread. 
 
 TORTOISE SHELL. The semitransparent 
 and beautifully mottled material of the scales 
 covering the carapace of the hawksbill (q.v.), a 
 marine turtle found in all tropical seas. In 
 this species the 13 shield plates do not join at 
 the edges, but overlap posteriorly; the larger 
 central ones are broadly triangular in outline, 
 keeled, and 6 or 7 inches broad, and those of 
 a large turtle may weigh eight pounds. They 
 are rarely thick enough to serve the ornamental 
 purposes to which tortoise shell is usually ap¬ 
 plied, but when heated in oil or boiled in water 
 may be welded together under pressure, or 
 molded into a form which will be retained when 
 cooled. “In genuine articles of Oriental manu¬ 
 facture these welds can generally be detected, 
 or their compound nature is indicated by the 
 beautiful pattern, which is too regular in the 
 imitations now common.” Even the shavings 
 and fragments are welded into serviceable pieces. 
 The turtles are taken usually when they come 
 ashore to lay their eggs; and the plates are 
 
TORTURE 
 
 TORTOISE-SHELL BUTTERFLY 
 
 (or were) sometimes removed by roasting the 
 living animal until they were loosened and 
 could be torn off. This cruel process injures the 
 shell. The proper way is to kill the turtle and 
 then detach the plates by immersion in boiling 
 water. In its nature and chemical composition 
 the material closely resembles horn (q.v.). The 
 use of tortoise shell has long been known. 
 Julius Caesar found great quantities of it in 
 the storehouses of Alexandria. The Romans 
 veneered furniture with it. In modern times, in 
 addition to comb making, tortoise shell is made 
 into cardcases, trays, handkerchief boxes, and 
 various other articles of ornament and the toilet. 
 It is used still to inlay expensive furniture, the 
 Chinese and Japanese producing the most com¬ 
 plicated and beautiful examples of this sort of 
 Si rt 
 
 TORTOISE-SHELL BUTTERFLY. Any 
 
 one of the butterflies of four or five common 
 American genera. They are usually of medium 
 size and have the wings on the upper side 
 of some shade of black or brown marked with 
 red, yellow, or orange. The commonest species 
 in the eastern United States are the following: 
 Euvanessa antiopa, sometimes called the mourn¬ 
 ing cloak (q.v.) and in England known as the 
 Camberwell beauty. Aglais milberti is com¬ 
 mon in the northern United States and Canada. 
 Its caterpillars feed upon the nettle plants of 
 the genus Urtica. Eugonia californica is con¬ 
 fined to California and in the larval stage feeds 
 upon Ceanothus. Eugonia j-album, the Comp¬ 
 ton tortoise, is a northern species whose larvae 
 feed upon willows. 
 
 TORTO'LA. One of the Virgin Islands (q.v.). 
 
 TQRTONA, tor-td'na. A town in the Prov¬ 
 ince of Alessandria, Italy, on the Scrivia, 12 
 miles east of Alessandria (Map: Italy, B 2). It 
 has a ruined castle overlooking the town. The 
 town manufactures silk, markets grain and wine, 
 and quarries stone. Tortona was destroyed by 
 Frederick Barbarossa in the twelfth century for 
 its allegiance to the Guelphic cause. Pop. 
 (commune), 1901, 17,425; 1911, 20,151. 
 
 TORTOSA, tor-to'sa. A fortified town of 
 Spain, Province of Tarragona, 42 miles from the 
 city of Tarragona, picturesquely situated on a 
 sloping eminence overlooking the Ebro, from the 
 mouth of which it is distant about 22 miles, and 
 which is navigable to this town for vessels of 
 light draft (Map: Spain, F 2). The town has 
 a cathedral with fine carved work and marbles. 
 There are manufactures of rope, paper, leather, 
 soap, and pottery, of palm leaf and feather grass, 
 but the fisheries give employment to most of the 
 people. In the vicinity are ruins of a Roman 
 city. Pop., 1900, 24,306; 1910, 28,097. 
 
 TORTRIC'IDJE. See Leaf Roller. 
 
 TORTUGA, tor-too'ga, or TORTUE, tor-tn'. 
 An uninhabited island off the north coast of 
 Haiti, West Indies (Map: West Indies, D 2). 
 Area, about 80 square miles. Its surface is 
 broken. It was formerly occupied by buccaneers 
 and produced sugar, tobacco, etc. 
 
 TORTUGAS, tor-too'gaz. A group of islands 
 off the coast of Florida. See Dry Tortugas. 
 
 TORTURE (Lat. tortura, a twisting, torture, 
 from torquere, to rack, twist, torment). The 
 infliction of severe bodily pain either as pun¬ 
 ishment or for purpose of revenge or for the 
 purpose of compelling the person tortured to give 
 evidence or make confessions in judicial pro¬ 
 ceedings. Among primitive and savage peoples 
 torture has been used as a means of ordeal (q.v.) 
 
 and as a means of punishing captured enemies. 
 During the Middle Ages the Church made use 
 of torture as a means of compelling religious 
 conformity and for the purpose of extorting 
 evidence in heresy trials. Throughout southern 
 and western Europe the most extreme cruelties 
 were practiced for this purpose (see Inquisi¬ 
 tion), and it was not until 1816 that torture 
 was finally prohibited by papal bull. Examina¬ 
 tion by torture, otherwise called “the question, ’ 
 has been largely used in many countries as a 
 judicial instrument for extracting evidence from 
 unwilling witnesses or confessions from accused 
 persons. In ancient Athens slaves were always 
 examined by torture, and their evidence seems 
 on this account to have been deemed more valu¬ 
 able than that of freemen. No free Athenian 
 could be examined by torture, but torture seems 
 occasionally to have been used in executing crimi¬ 
 nals. Under the Roman Republic only slaves 
 could be legally tortured, and, as a general rule, 
 they could not be tortured to establish their 
 master’s guilt. Under the Empire, however, tor¬ 
 ture, besides being much used in examining 
 slaves, might by order of the Emperor be in¬ 
 flicted even on freemen, to extract evidence of 
 the crime of Icesa majestas, a prerogative fre¬ 
 quently exercised by the Roman emperors. Cic¬ 
 ero and other enlightened Romans condemned 
 its use. Until the thirteenth century torture 
 seems to have been unknown to the canon law; 
 about that period the Roman treason law began 
 to be adapted to heresy as crimen Iwsce majes- 
 tatis Divince. A decree" of Pope Innocent IV in 
 1282, calling on civil magistrates to put persons 
 accused of heresy to the torture to elicit con¬ 
 fessions against themselves and others, was prob¬ 
 ably the earliest instance of ecclesiastical sanc¬ 
 tion being extended to this mode of examina¬ 
 tion. Gradually the ecclesiastical courts devel¬ 
 oped from the Roman law and applied a system 
 of torture which reached its culmination in the 
 atrocities of the Inquisition. The influence of 
 the Church during the Middle Ages undoubtedly 
 contributed to the adoption of torture by the 
 civil tribunals. It was early adopted by the 
 Italian municipalities, but its introduction into 
 western Europe as an instrument of judicial in¬ 
 quisition as distinguished from the ordeal or 
 compurgation was slow. It first appeared in 
 France in the latter part of the thirteenth cen¬ 
 tury and in Germany in the fifteenth century 
 and ultimately became a part of the legal system 
 of every European nation except Sweden and 
 England. The use of torture seems to have been 
 repugnant to the genius of the law of England, 
 and it never became a part of the common law, 
 although its use by exercise of the royal preroga¬ 
 tive was lawful both in state trials and in the 
 case of ordinary crimes. The first instance we 
 have of its use'is in 1310, in aid of the ecclesi¬ 
 astical law, during the struggle between Pope 
 Clement V and the Templars. Edward II, when 
 applied to to sanction the infliction of torture 
 by the Inquisitors in the case of certain Tem¬ 
 plars accused of heresy and apostasy, at first re¬ 
 fused; but on a remonstrance by Clement he re¬ 
 ferred the matter to the Council; and on the 
 recommendation of the Council the Inquisitors 
 were authorized to put the accused to the tor¬ 
 ture, but without mutilation or serious injury 
 to the person, or effusion of the blood. During 
 the Tudor period the Council frequently assumed 
 the power of directing torture warrants to the 
 lieutenant of the Tower and other officers both 
 
TORUS 
 
 TOSCANINI 
 
 367 
 
 against state prisoners and those accused of 
 other serious crimes; and similar warrants were 
 at times issued under the sign manual. Under 
 James I and Charles I torture was less resorted 
 to and only in state trials. In 1628, in the 
 ease of Felton, the assassin of the Duke of Buck¬ 
 ingham, the judges declared the examination of 
 the accused by torture, for the purpose of dis- 
 eovering his accomplices, to be illegal. The last 
 recorded instance of the use of torture in Eng¬ 
 land was in the reign of Charles I (1640) to 
 compel a confession of treason. The use of tor¬ 
 ture was never legal in the English colonies, 
 and the few instances of torture in the American 
 colonies were properly forms of execution, or 
 the infliction of peine forte et dure (q.v.) as a 
 means of compelling the defendant to plead to an 
 indictment. 
 
 Even during the period when the use of torture 
 was most prevalent its cruelty was recognized 
 and its employment deplored as an evil neces¬ 
 sary to the due administration of justice. In 
 all ages there have been leading writers and 
 thinkers who denounced the use of torture, not 
 only because of its cruelty and its debasing 
 effect upon public morals, but because of its 
 unreliability as a means of discovering the 
 truth, since it oftentimes led the innocent from 
 weakness and exhaustion to plead guilty or 
 accuse others of crimes which had not been com¬ 
 mitted. The horrors of the Inquisition and 
 the excessive use of judicial torture from the 
 fourteenth to the sixteenth century led to a 
 gradual but nevertheless progressive change of 
 public sentiment, which ultimately caused its 
 disuse in all the countries of Europe. The use 
 of torture was abolished in Prussia, Saxony, 
 Austria, and Switzerland by the middle of the 
 eighteenth century. Its use in Russia was lim¬ 
 ited by command of Catharine II in 1762 and 
 finally abolished in 1801. In France it was 
 abolished in 1789 (although temporarily restored 
 by the Bourbons in 1814), in Wiirttemberg in 
 1806, in Bavaria in 1807, in Hanover in 1822, 
 and in Baden in 1831. 
 
 The instruments and methods of judicial tor¬ 
 ture have been numerous. Among the Greeks 
 torture was inflicted by the rack (q.v.), the 
 scourge, by thrusting the victim bent double 
 into a vault which compelled him to retain that 
 position until his suffering became extreme, by 
 the injection of vinegar into the nostrils, and 
 by the application of fire. The Romans also 
 made use of the rack, torture by fire, the scourge, 
 and mutilating the flesh by hooks. The wheel, 
 upon which the victim was bound and his bones 
 broken by the gradual application of force, was 
 also used throughout the Middle Ages. Among 
 the lesser tortures may be mentioned the thumbi- 
 kins, boots, pincers, and manacles; and in Eng¬ 
 land an instrument corruptly called the scav¬ 
 enger’s daughter, the invention of Sir William 
 Skeffington (or Skevington), lieutenant of the 
 Tower in the reign of Henry VIII. This enu¬ 
 meration, however, by no means includes all the 
 methods, ingenious and unspeakably cruel, by 
 which torture was inflicted upon innumerable 
 victims during the Middle Ages. Consult: 
 David Jardine, Reading on the Use of Torture in 
 the Criminal Law of England (London, 1837) ; 
 Sir J. F. Stephen, History of the Criminal Law of 
 England (3 vols., ib., 1883) ; H. C. Lea, Super¬ 
 stition and Force (4th ed., Philadelphia, 1892). 
 
 TO'RUS (Lat., protuberance , mattress, bed). 
 A convex molding having a semicircular profile; 
 
 a larger form of the bead. Its principal use is in 
 base moldings of all kinds in classic and neo¬ 
 classic architecture; notably the circular tori 
 of the Doric, Attic, and Corinthian bases. See 
 Base; Molding. 
 
 TO'RY (from Ir. toridhe , tornidhe, tornighe, 
 pursuer, plunderer, from torighim , to fancy, 
 pursue). The name of one of the historic par¬ 
 ties in England. It was originally the term ap¬ 
 plied to Irish brigands and about the year 1680 
 was given as a nickname to the supporters of 
 the Duke of York, afterward James II, when 
 his exclusion from the succession on account of 
 his (Catholic) religion was proposed by Shaftes¬ 
 bury. It was intended to imply that those who 
 opposed the exclusion were papists. About 1830 
 the name Conservative began to take the place 
 of Tory. I 11 the United States during the Revo¬ 
 lution the adherents of the crown were called 
 Tories. See Loyalists; Whig and Tory. 
 
 TORY, Henry Marshall (1867- ). A 
 
 Canadian educator. He was born at Guysboro, 
 Nova Scotia, and graduated at McGill Univer¬ 
 sity in 1890. He studied theology at the Wes¬ 
 leyan Theological College, Montreal, entered the 
 Methodist ministry in 1889, but retired in 1893. 
 He was lecturer in mathematics at McGill in 
 1893-1902 and then associate professor until 
 1908, and in the latter year was appointed presi¬ 
 dent of the newly established Provincial Uni¬ 
 versity of Alberta at Strathcona. He published 
 A Manual of Laboratory Physics (1902). 
 
 TORZHOK, t6r-zhok'. An old district town 
 in the Government of Tver, Russia, situated on 
 the Tvertza, 294 miles southeast of St. Peters¬ 
 burg (Petrograd) (Map: Russia, E 3). In its 
 vicinity lace and gold and silver embroideries 
 are extensively produced by peasant women. In 
 the tenth century Torzhok was a dependency of 
 Novgorod. Pop., 1910, 13,723. 
 
 TOSCA. An opera by Puccini (q.v.), first 
 produced in Rome, Jan. 14, 1900; in the United 
 States, Feb. 4, 1901 (New York). 
 
 TOSCANELLI DAL POZZO, tos'ka-nel'le 
 dal pdt'so, Paolo (1397-1482). An Italian as¬ 
 tronomer and geographer, born at Florence. 
 Through the accounts of Marco Polo and other 
 travelers he came to believe that India could 
 be reached by an ocean voyage to the West. 
 In 1474 he imparted his views by letter to 
 Columbus, and also to the King of Portugal. 
 It is doubtful if Toscanelli was the first to 
 suggest the idea of a sea journey to the West 
 to Columbus, although he may have strength¬ 
 ened Columbus’ determination to carry out 
 his plans. Consult Henry Vignaud, Toscanelli 
 and Columbus (New York, 1902). 
 
 TOSCANINI, tds'ka-ne'ng, Arturo (1867- 
 ). An Italian orchestral conductor, born at 
 Parma. He received his education at the Con¬ 
 servatory of Parma, studying piano, cello, and 
 composition. Having made his debut as operatic 
 conductor at Turin, he was engaged for the Dal 
 Verme in Milan. There his brilliant work at¬ 
 tracted such general attention that Gatti-Casazza 
 (q.v.), who assumed the directorship of La 
 Scala in 1895, secured his services. In this 
 position he found ample opportunity to display 
 his genius as operatic and symphonic conductor. 
 From 1908 to 1915 he was principal conductor 
 at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York. 
 Through consummate musicianship, a magnetic 
 and authoritative personality, and dignified re¬ 
 serve, he gained a strong hold upon his artists 
 as well as his audiences. As a builder of tre- 
 
TOSCHI 
 
 TOTEMISM 
 
 368 
 
 mentions climaxes lie had no superior and few 
 equals. He directed without score a repertory of 
 almost 100 operas of all nationalities and schools 
 and, in addition, an extensive concert repertory. 
 Even during rehearsals he conducted by memory. 
 
 TQSCHL to'ske, Paolo (1788-1854). An 
 Italian engraver, one of the last representatives 
 of the old school of line work. He was born at 
 Parma, went to Paris in 1809 to study engraving 
 under Bervic, with whom he remained until 
 1819, when he returned to Parma, founded a 
 school of engraving, and was appointed director 
 of the Academy of Fine Arts. His best-known 
 engravings are from Gerard’s “Entrance of Henry 
 IV into Paris” (1818); Daniele da Volterra’s 
 “Descent from the Cross”; Raphael’s “Spasimo” 
 (Madrid) ; Correggio’s “Madonna della Sco- 
 della,” and a series of that master’s Parmesan 
 frescoes. His work is solidly and carefully exe¬ 
 cuted, but without brilliancy or originality. 
 
 TOSSING THE CABER. See Caber, Toss¬ 
 ing THE. 
 
 TOSTI, to'ste, Sir Francesco Paolo (1846- 
 1916). An Italian-English song composer, born 
 in Ortona di Mare in the Abruzzi. After study¬ 
 ing at the Naples Conservatory he was appointed 
 an instructor there. He resigned in 1869, went 
 to Rome and appeared in concerts as a singer, 
 after which he was made vocal instructor at the 
 court, Rome. In 1875 he Avent to London and 
 in 1880 was appointed singing teacher to the 
 royal family. He was knighted in 1908. In 
 1913 he returned to Italy, making Rome his 
 permanent residence. His numerous English 
 and Italian songs have become exceedingly 
 popular. 
 
 TOS'TIG (died 1066). A powerful English 
 earl, brother of King Harold II. He was prob¬ 
 ably the third son of Earl Godwin and shared 
 in his father’s banishment, returning with him 
 in 1052. Edward the Confessor was very fond 
 of Tostig, and when Earl Siward died, in 1055, 
 Tostig received Northumbria, Northamptonshire, 
 and Huntingdonshire. Tostig proved an able 
 and energetic ruler, restoring security to the dis¬ 
 ordered country. But his tyranny alienated the 
 Northumbrians, and in 1065 they declared Tostig 
 an outlaw and chose Morkere in his place. Har¬ 
 old sided with the rebels against his brother, 
 and as a result Tostig was banished, though 
 Edward regretted it exceedingly. In 1066, when 
 Harold had succeeded Edward the ponfessor as 
 King of England, Tostig offered hik support to 
 William of Normandy. This offer was accepted, 
 and Tostig thereupon went to King Harald 
 Haardraade of Norway and induced him to make 
 an invasion into England. But on Sept. 25, 
 1066, King Harold met them at Stamford Bridge 
 and totally defeated them. Harald Haardraade 
 and Tostig were both slain. Consult E. A. Free¬ 
 man, History of the Norman Conquest, vols. ii 
 and iii (3d ed., Oxford, 1877). See Harold IT. 
 
 TOTAL ABSTINENCE. See Temperance. 
 
 TOTANA, to-ta'na. A town of the Province 
 of Murcia, Spain, 24 miles southwest of the town 
 of that name (Map: Spain, E 4). A gorge di¬ 
 vides the town into two parts, the Barrio de 
 Sevilla and the Barrio de Triana. The town is 
 celebrated for its oranges, the mining of salt¬ 
 petre, linen spinning, and especially for its tina- 
 jas (terra-cotta jars), widely used for holding 
 oil and wine. Water is brought to the fountains 
 by an aqueduct 7 miles long. Pop., 1900, 13,714; 
 1910, 13.591. 
 
 TOTARA. See Podocarpus. 
 
 TO'TEMISM (irregularly derived from Al¬ 
 gonquin ototeman, his brother-sister kin). An 
 association between a form of social organiza¬ 
 tion and a form of worship. Complex ethnologi¬ 
 cal phenomena, such as totemism, cannot be 
 readily defined; thus, any definition of totemism, 
 including the one proposed above, can give but 
 an inadequate idea of the institution. A brief 
 generalized description of the content of totem¬ 
 ism, on the other hand, may prove of consider¬ 
 able service. A tribe or group of tribes which 
 have totemism may be said to comprise & 
 totemic complex. The essential aspects of a 
 totemic complex are three in number: 
 
 1. The totemic tribe is subdivided into a num¬ 
 ber of social units, usually clans or gentes, but 
 sometimes families or local groups. 
 
 2. The people of the tribe possess a set of be¬ 
 liefs and practices, mythological, religious, cere¬ 
 monial, artistic, economic, which almost in all 
 cases centre around certain attitudes towards 
 animals, plants, or inanimate objects. 
 
 3. These beliefs and practices are distributed 
 among the people of the tribe in such a way that 
 the beliefs and practices of each social unit, 
 usually clan or gens, while not identical with 
 those of all the other social units, are equivalent 
 to them. The social units are thus constituted 
 equivalent totemic units, while the entire sys¬ 
 tem is a totemic complex. 
 
 Geographical Distribution of Totemic 
 Tribes. While by no means universal in 
 primitive society, totemism is widely distributed. 
 In North America totemic complexes are repre¬ 
 sented, roughly speaking, in five areas: the Pa¬ 
 cific Northwest, the Southwest, the Southeast, the 
 Northeast, and the Eastern Plains area inhabited 
 by tribes speaking Siouan languages and divided 
 into totemic gentes. While our knowledge of 
 South America is as yet very fragmentary, 
 totemic tribes have been reported from ^British 
 Gu iana a nd Brazil. With the accumulation of 
 further data the totemic tribes of South Amer¬ 
 ica may prove to be as numerous as are those 
 of the Northern continent. In Africa a large 
 number of totemic communities have been re¬ 
 corded among the negroes of the Congo, in the 
 central eastern area, and in several districts 
 along the western coast. Some of the exogamous 
 gotras of India are certainly totemic. Totemism 
 has been found in one district in Sumatra, in the 
 southeastern section of New Guinea, in almost 
 all of the Melanesian Islands, and in parts of 
 Polynesia. Practically all of the known tribes 
 of Australia have some form of totemism. 
 
 Whatever the limitations of the scope and 
 bearing of totemism. the wide distribution of the 
 institution indicates that the beliefs and asso¬ 
 ciations involved in totemism are peculiarly 
 congenial to earlv society and must be rooted in 
 psychological attitudes widely entertained by 
 primitive man. 
 
 Totemism as a Universal Stage in the De- 
 velomnent of Religion. Impressed by the wide 
 distribution of totemic phenomena and the al¬ 
 most universal character of the attitudes towards 
 •animals, plants, and inanimate objects which 
 are so common in totemism, a number of authors 
 have attempted to represen tUbtemism as a stage 
 in religious evolution through which all society 
 must have passed. Most prominent among these 
 attempts are those of Jevons, Gomme, Wundt, 
 and Durkheim. While Gomme was satisfied to 
 see in totemism a peculiar combination of social 
 form and psychic disposition which to him 
 
TOTEM POLES, SOUTHERN ALASKA 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1902, BY DODD, MEAD l COMPANY 
 

 
 jit 
 
 OF THE 
 
 (‘WIVERbil V OF ILLINOIS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
TOTEMISM 
 
 TOTEMISM 
 
 seemed a necessary phase of religious and social 
 development, Jevons’s theory is much more am¬ 
 bitious. According to him totemic beliefs and 
 rites, in addition to constituting a natural and 
 universal outgrowth of primitive animism, also 
 lie at the root of all animal worship, of sacrifice, 
 oT the blood covenant, of the domestication of 
 ^anini al s> - Wundt differs from Jevons in so far 
 as he posits a stage in human development, a 
 stage of very great duration, when totemism \\ 4 as 
 unknown and the attitudes which characterize 
 totemism remained dormant. This early period, 
 the Era of Primitive Man, was succeeded by the 
 Totemic Era, also of impressive duration and 
 distinguished by a set of specific beliefs, activi¬ 
 ties, and institutions. In Durkheim’s view to¬ 
 temism again becomes the root of all religion. 
 He finds the birthplace of religious rites, beliefs, 
 and concepts in the totemic institutions of cen- 
 tral Australia. Durkheim first identifies the 
 totemic principle, the fundamental concept un¬ 
 derlying totemism, with mana, supernatural 
 magic power, then derives it from the social 
 setting of the individual, which in primitive 
 Australia is constituted by the totemic clan. 
 Frorn the totemic principle on its conceptual 
 sklejirises the belief in souls as well as the con¬ 
 cept of deity or god, while in its dynamic aspect 
 it becomes the forerunner of force,' the scientific 
 concept of power. The very categories of 
 thought, such as causality, space, time, totality, 
 find, according to Durkheim, their early proto¬ 
 types in the totemic classifications of nature and 
 its phenomena. 
 
 Theories of the Origin of Totemism. An¬ 
 other aspect of totemic phenomena which has 
 received wide attention is the hypothetical ori¬ 
 gin of totemism. While differing in their specific 
 interpretations, the different authors agree in 
 holding that the theory of the origin of totem¬ 
 ism which to them seems most plausible must 
 thence have universal validity. Thus, Frazer 
 has at different times propounded three dif¬ 
 ferent totemic-origin theories. The earliest one 
 ascribes totemism to the belief in ‘‘bush souls,” 
 according to which individuals may temporarily 
 deposit their souls in animals, plants, or inani¬ 
 mate objects. The second theory sees the root 
 of totemism in the magical ceremonies of the 
 Central Australians, which are performed by the 
 members of each totemic clan to further the 
 multiplication of its sacred animal. The last 
 hypothesis, finally, known as the conceptional 
 theory of the origin of totemism, is based on cer¬ 
 tain Australian beliefs with reference to the 
 conception of children, according to which the 
 visions or real experiences of pregnant women 
 determine the totemic membership of the child. 
 Lang claims that the first impetus towards the 
 development of totemic ideas and practices was 
 derived from the animal names by means of 
 which primitive tribes so often distinguish one 
 another. Out of the primitive speculations with 
 reference to the origin and significance of such 
 names totemism arose. According to Hill-Tout 
 the totem is closely related to the personal 
 guardian spirit, from which, in fact, it must 
 TiaveJ^een derived. Haddon, finally, believes that 
 tolemism must have arisen in a state of society 
 where local groups possessed special hunting 
 rights and taboos with reference to different 
 animals. 
 
 Ethnological Interpretation of Totemic 
 Complexes. The justification of approaching 
 totemic phenomena from the standpoints out- 
 
 369 
 
 lined above was sought in certain general and 
 certain special postulates. The general postu¬ 
 lates are those of the classical evolutionary con¬ 
 ception, according to which culture in its en¬ 
 tirety as well as in its special phases every¬ 
 where begins in essentially the same way and 
 passes in its subsequent development through es¬ 
 sentially similar stages. It must suffice to note 
 here that the consensus of scientific opinion no 
 longer supports this classical theory, serious 
 flaws in which have been revealed by a more in¬ 
 tensive study of fact as well as a more rigorous 
 application of method. The special postulates 
 underlying the totemic theories here discussed 
 are that the particular traits of which totemism 
 consists are always nearly the same; that these 
 traits are organically, i.e., genetically, related; 
 that they are specifically totemic traits; and 
 that one is consequently justified in assuming 
 the former existence of one or several of such 
 traits which may be missing in any given to¬ 
 temic. community at the time of investigation. 
 All of these postulates may readily be shown 
 to be erroneous. The totemic traits here re¬ 
 ferred to are totemic exogamy, the rule that no 
 t wo ind ividuals of a totemic clan may inter¬ 
 marry g totemic taboo, the prohibition to eat 
 or kill the totemic animal; totemic names, clan 
 names derived from the totemic animal or plant; 
 totemic descent, the belief that the individuals 
 of the clan have descended from their totemic 
 nJlimal^—etc. Now, if one examines any two 
 totemic areas, he will often discover that the 
 above traits are by no means equally represented 
 in the two areas. The comparison, e.g., of the 
 totemism of some of the tribes of the American 
 Northwest with that of some of the Central 
 Australian tribes, reveals the fact that, while 
 totemic names are found in both places, they 
 do not apply to the corresponding social units; 
 that exogamy, while represented in both areas, 
 does not appear as a primary feature of the to¬ 
 temic clan, but as a derivative feature, due to 
 the fact that the clan is comprised in a larger 
 social unit, the phratry; that totemic taboo and 
 descent, while represented in the Australian 
 area, are altogether absent in the American one; 
 and, what is still more significant, one finds that 
 in addition to the classical totemic traits cer¬ 
 tain other traits appear in both areas: in Amer¬ 
 ica^ association of the totem with the gihrrdian 
 spirit, a feature not found in Australia, and 
 a Highly developed art deeply saturated with 
 totemic ideas, whereas the totemic art of Aus¬ 
 tralia is at best a passive reflection of the totemic 
 content; in Australia magic ceremonies for the 
 multiplication of the totemic animal, while in 
 America similar ceremonies appear altogether 
 apart from totemism; and a belief in the in¬ 
 carnation of ancestral totemic spirits, while in 
 America the belief in incarnation exists, but 
 again does not refer to totemic spirits. A fur¬ 
 ther comparison of the results reached with the 
 conditions in other totemic areas, in America, 
 Africa, Melanesia, confirms the impression that, 
 while several of the totemic traits here enumer¬ 
 ated have a wide distribution, the various to¬ 
 temic groups or complexes differ often strikingly 
 in the nature, number, and cultural significance 
 of their totemic traits. The more extended com¬ 
 parison also reveals the fact that the traits 
 so far considered in association with totemism 
 are bv no means restricted in their distribution 
 to totemic complexes, but occur also where there 
 is no totemism. Thus, animal names and taboos 
 
TOTEMISM 
 
 TOTEMISM 
 
 370 
 
 must be recognized as features of much wider 
 distribution than totemism, and the same is true 
 of the belief in animal descent; exogamy not 
 infrequently is associated with groups that are 
 not totemic, such as villages, or groups of in¬ 
 dividuals related by blood; and so on with the 
 other traits. Thus, the conclusion is reached 
 that totemic complexes are not genetically sim¬ 
 ple, but must be regarded as highly complex 
 aggregates of features of disparate historic der¬ 
 ivation, which, being brought together by a 
 process of secondary association, are welded into 
 a more or less perfectly integrated totemic sys¬ 
 tem. The acceptance of the above view of to¬ 
 temic phenomena inevitably leads one to assume 
 a critical attitude towards the conception of 
 totemism as derived from one particular source, 
 or as the most primitive form of religion, or 
 as a universal stage in the development of re¬ 
 ligion. Being correlated with a definite form 
 of social organization, usually a clan system, 
 totemism may not be ascribed to tribes that are 
 not organized on such a basis. Tribes whose so¬ 
 cial organization is of the family-village type 
 are very numerous, nor is there any evidence that 
 such tribes have ever passed through a clan 
 stage; hence they never had totemism. More¬ 
 over, some tribes with clan systems have no 
 totemism, and, in the absence of convincing 
 evidence to the contrary, one is not justified in 
 attributing totemism to them in the past, there 
 being: no necessary genetic connection between 
 totemism and clan systems. Totemism not be¬ 
 ing universal, religion, which is universal, can 
 obviously not be derived from it. Totemism, 
 moreover, cannot be strictly conceived as a primi¬ 
 tive institution, for it must have been unknown 
 during that entire period designated by Wundt 
 as the Era of Primitive Man, when the local 
 group and the loosely articulated family con¬ 
 stituted the framework of social organization. 
 When totemism is considered on its religious 
 side, one must always remember that, if that 
 term is at all applicable to totemism, it is an 
 altogether peculiar variety of religion, in so far 
 as an essential aspect of totemism is constituted 
 by its social connotations. Totemism is not a 
 religion of the tribe but of the clan, which 
 means that the specific content of that religion 
 differs with each clan, the unity of the tribal 
 complex being conditioned by the formal identity 
 of these clan religions. Therefore, the Kangaroo 
 clansmen of central Australia, e.g., whose par¬ 
 ticular beliefs and rites are altogether different 
 from those of the Dingo clansmen, will neverthe¬ 
 less have no quarrel with the latter, although in¬ 
 dividuals of the two clans will often be repre¬ 
 sented in the same local group, in fact, in one 
 family; therefore, also, the Kangaroo men, who 
 may not kill nor eat the kangaroo, will remain 
 undisturbed if the killing and eating are done 
 by a Dingo man. It has also been observed that 
 the totemic religion scarcely ever constitutes 
 the whole of the religion of a people, but is ac¬ 
 companied by ancestor worship, or fetichism, or 
 any other form of belief. As to the origin of 
 totemism, it needs hardlv be said that all 
 monogenetic attempts in that direction must be 
 summarily rejected, for an institution so com¬ 
 plex in its composition can obviously not be 
 assumed to have alwavs found its beginning 
 in one source. 
 
 Totemic Complexes and Religious Socie¬ 
 ties. Totemic communities, as complexes of his¬ 
 torically and psychologically heterogeneous fea¬ 
 
 tures, display certain striking similarities to 
 another form of socio-religious association fairly 
 common in primitive groups, viz., religious so¬ 
 cieties. A religious society is a group of in¬ 
 dividuals who bear a common name (often de¬ 
 rived from an animal), share a set of religious 
 and mythological beliefs, and perform together 
 certain ceremonies. Where the societies occur, 
 there is always more than one such society in the 
 tribe, while often a large part of the individuals 
 of the tribe are grouped in religious societies. 
 While male societies are by far the more com¬ 
 mon, female societies also occur, but almost in¬ 
 variably the membership of a society does not 
 include both sexes, but is restricted to the one 
 or the other. The geographical distribution of 
 religious societies is rather striking. In a large 
 number of totemic areas religious societies also 
 occur, e.g., in the Northwestern, Southwestern, 
 Southeastern, and Eastern Plains areas of North 
 America, in west Africa, and Melanesia. This 
 distribution suggests possibilities of genetic re¬ 
 lationship. Webster has propounded a theory 
 according to which religious societies are to be 
 regarded as totemism in decay, as a normal 
 stage of evolution from totemism to other forms 
 of religious organization. In this dogmatic form 
 the theory must certainly be rejected, but it 
 may contain a germ of truth in so far as ge¬ 
 netic relationship between totemism and religious 
 societies may have obtained in individual in¬ 
 stances. Thus, in the southwest of North 
 America religious societies may have developed 
 out of totemic clans, while in the Eastern Plains 
 area, represented by the Omaha and other Siouan 
 tribes, totemic gentes may have grown out of 
 local groups with religio-ceremonial functions. 
 According to recent evidence such relations be¬ 
 tween the two institutions also seem probable in 
 certain parts of Melanesia. Of even greater in¬ 
 terest than the geographical and the possible 
 genetic relations between totemism and religious 
 societies, are the similarities and contrasts of 
 the two institutions from the theoretical stand¬ 
 point. In the one case as in the other the tribe 
 is divided into a set of social units; these-units 
 have common functions, ceremonial, religions, 
 artistic; and these functions cluster about or 
 grow out of certain attitudes towards animals, 
 plants, or inanimate objects, although the latter 
 feature is by no means so characteristic of re¬ 
 ligious societies as it is of totemic complexes. 
 In the one case, moreover, as in the other the 
 institution must be regarded as a complex of his¬ 
 torically disparate traits. The similarity thus 
 seems almost to approach identity. The con¬ 
 trasts, however, are equally significant. While 
 religious societies, like clans, are social units, 
 they are constituted social units solelv bv the 
 exercise of common functions. Take away the 
 functions and nothing remains but an aggregate 
 of wholly unrelated individuals. Not so in the 
 case of the clan. While it is true that with the 
 clan also the functions determine its precise posi¬ 
 tion in the culture of the group, the clan would 
 remain a social unit even if stripped of all its 
 functions. This is due to its social composi¬ 
 tion, for a clan is a hereditary group of indi¬ 
 viduals who are in part related by blood and in 
 part assume themselves to be so related. This 
 constitutes perhaps the most fundamental con¬ 
 trast between a clan and a religious society. 
 Other differences are not lacking, however. The 
 religious aspect is almost invariably more pro¬ 
 nounced in the societies than it ever is in to- 
 
TOTERO 
 
 TOTONAC 
 
 371 
 
 TOT'ILA (?-552). An Ostrogothic king 
 whose real name was Baduila. He was chosen 
 
 temic clans. The societies are largely unisex¬ 
 ual, while the clan always embraces related 
 individuals of both sexes. The clan is a heredi¬ 
 tary unit, while the. society is usually non- 
 hereditary, although certain offices in it may be 
 hereditary, and a tendency towards inheritance 
 of the society itself occurs here and there. 
 Thus, what might be called the sociopsychologi- 
 eal flavor of a tribal group of religious societies 
 is quite distinct from that of a totemic complex. 
 Therefore, while the two institutions present 
 from the theoretical standpoint a set of similar 
 problems, it will be profitable to keep them 
 apart conceptually as well as for purposes of in¬ 
 tensive study. 
 
 Bibliography. McLennan, “Worship of 
 Plants and Animals," in Fortnightly Review, 
 vol. vi (n. s., London, 1869) ; J. G. Frazer, To¬ 
 temism (Edinburgh, 1887); F. B. Jevons, In¬ 
 troduction to the History of Religion (London, 
 1896) ; Leon Marillier, “La place du totemisme 
 dans 1 Evolution religieuse, ’ in Revue de Vhistoire 
 des religions, vols. xxxvi, xxxvii (Paris, 1897- 
 98); Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Cen¬ 
 tral Australia (London, 1899) ; Vincenz Zaple- 
 tal, Der Totemismus und die Religion Israels 
 (Freiburg, 1901); Charles Hill-Tout, “Origin 
 of the Totemism of the Aborigines of British 
 Columbia" and “Totemism: A Consideration of 
 its Origin and Import," in Royal Society of 
 Canada, Proceedings and Transactions, vols. vii, 
 ix (2d series, Ottawa, 1901—03) ; J. J. Atkinson, 
 Primal Law (London, 1903) ; Andrew Lang, So¬ 
 cial Origins (New York, 1903); E. B. Tylor, 
 Primitive Culture (4th ed., 2 vols., ib., 1903); 
 Spencer and Gillen, Northern Tribes of Central 
 Australia (London, 1904) ; Arnold van Gennep, 
 Tabou et totemisme a Madagascar: etude de¬ 
 scriptive et theorique (Paris, 1904) ; Andrew 
 Lang, The Secret of the Totem (New York, 
 1905) ; G. L. Gomme, Folklore as an Historical 
 Science (London, 1908) ; Hutton Webster, Primi¬ 
 tive Secret Societies: A Study in Early Politics 
 and Religion (New York, 1908) ; J. G. Frazer, 
 Totemism and Exogamy (4 vols., ib., 1910) ; A. 
 A. Goldenweiser, “Totemism: An Analytical 
 Study," in Journal of American Folk-Lore, vol. 
 xxiii (Boston, 1910) ; Avebury, Marriage, To¬ 
 tem-ism, and Religion (London, 1911); W. 
 Wundt, Elemente der Volkerpsychologie: Grund- 
 linien einer psychologischen Entwicklungsge- 
 schichte der Menschheit (Leipzig, 1912) ; W. H. 
 R. Rivers, History of Melanesian Society (2 
 vols., Cambridge, 19 i5) ; E. Durkheim, Ele¬ 
 mentary Forms of the Religious Life: A Study 
 in Religious Sociology (Eng. trans. by J. W. 
 Swain, London, 1915). 
 
 TOTE'RO. See Tutelo. 
 
 TOTH, tot, Koloman (1831-81). An Hun¬ 
 garian poet, born at Baja, County of Bacs- 
 Bodrog. He took part in the revolution of 1848 
 and published in 1852 his first collection of pa¬ 
 triotic poems, which achieved instant success. 
 The next year appeared Paul Kinizsi, composed 
 in imitation of the Toldi of Aranv (q.v.). Then 
 came a number of plays, one of which, Egy 
 kirdlynd (A Queen, 1857), took the Hungarian 
 Academy’s prize. In 1860 Toth founded the 
 comic paper Bolond Miska (Foolish Michael). 
 The same year he was elected to the Kisfaludy 
 Society and in 1861 to ^the academy. The play 
 A n-dk az alkotmdnyban (Women in Constitu¬ 
 tional Life, 1871) was the first to be well re¬ 
 ceived on the stage, Toth’s popularity being in 
 the field of patriotic verse. 
 
 m 541 to occupy the throne made vacant by the 
 assassination of his uncle Hildibald. He prose¬ 
 cuted the war against the forces of the Eastern 
 Emperor not only with great success but also 
 with generosity and humanity. After reducing 
 southern Italy he laid siege to Rome, to relieve 
 which Justinian had sent out the celebrated Bel- 
 isarius. The city fell, however, in 546, and 
 after two more years of warfare, in which he 
 was poorly supported, Belisarius asked to be re¬ 
 called. Totila thereupon ravaged Sicily, re¬ 
 duced Sardinia and Corsica, and harassed the 
 coasts of Greece, but in 552 was defeated and 
 killed at Taginse by an army under the eunuch 
 Narses. Consult Edward Gibbon, Decline and, 
 Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. bv J. B. Burv, 
 vol. iv, London, 1912), and Cambridge Medieval 
 History, vol. ii (New York, 1913). 
 
 TOTLEBEN, tot'la-ben, or TODLEBEN, 
 Franz Eduard Ivanovitch, Count (1818-84). 
 A Russian general of engineers. He was born at 
 Mitau, Courland, May 20, 1818, and after study¬ 
 ing at Riga was admitted as a student to the 
 college of engineers at St. Petersburg. He served 
 as a lieutenant of engineers in the Caucasus 
 campaign of 1848-51 and in 1854 took part in 
 the siege of Silistria. When the French and 
 English troops undertook the siege of Sebasto¬ 
 pol, Totleben, then a colonel, was sent to assist 
 in its defense. The fortifications were placed 
 under his direction. The principle on which he 
 acted was to watch the works of the allies and to 
 establish against them on every point a supe¬ 
 riority of fire, by multiplying the number and in¬ 
 creasing the calibre of his guns. The prodigious 
 activity displayed by the Russians in making 
 good the damage sustained by the heavy fire of 
 the enemy filled the allied army with astonish¬ 
 ment. Massive ramparts mounted with formid¬ 
 able batteries rose at each threatened point 
 within the line of defense. In June, 1855, Totle¬ 
 ben was wounded, and he was forced to relin¬ 
 quish active supervision of the defense. After 
 the conclusion of peace, he expanded what was 
 at first a mere engineer’s report into a history 
 of the war in the Crimea, entitled Defense de 
 Sebastopol. For his services Totleben was made 
 adjutant to the Emperor and in 1869 general of 
 engineers. In the Russo-Turkish War of 1877- 
 78 Totleben was intrusted with the investment 
 of Plevna after repeated assaults on the works 
 had been repulsed with immense slaughter. He 
 succeeded in completely cutting off the city from 
 all outside relief, so that finally nothing was 
 left to Osman Pasha but to attempt to break 
 through the lines of the besiegers, in which he 
 failed. In April, 1878, he received the supreme 
 command of the Russian forces in Turkey. He 
 became Governor-General of Odessa in 1879 and 
 commandant of Vilna in the following year. He 
 died at Soden, Germany, July 1, 1884,* and was 
 buried in Sebastopol. (See Crimean War.) 
 There are biographies of Totleben by Brialmont 
 (Brussels, 1884) and bv Krahmer (Berlin, 
 1888). 
 
 TOTNES, tbt r n€s, George Carew, Earl of. 
 See Carew. 
 
 TOTO'NAC. An ancient cultured nation 
 whose territory embraced the northern portion of 
 the present State of Vera Cruz, with the adja¬ 
 cent portion of Puebla, Mexico. Their language 
 has numerous Mayan and Nahuatlan affinities, 
 but appears to be of distinct stock. They claim 
 
TOTONICAPAN 
 
 TOUCAN 
 
 372 
 
 to have come from the northwest about 800 
 years before the Spanish Conquest and to have 
 been the builders of the remarkable ruins of 
 Teotihuacan, about 10 miles northwest of the 
 city of Mexico. For several centuries they had 
 maintained their independence, but had been con¬ 
 quered by the Aztec emperors some time before 
 the coming of the Spaniards. Cortes made his 
 first landing in their territory. They were fully 
 as advanced as the Aztecs. Their capital, Cem- 
 poalla, was about 5 miles from the seacoast, with 
 houses built of brick and mortar, each house in 
 the centre of a small garden watered by a con¬ 
 stantly flowing stream, and the city itself was 
 surrounded by fruit trees and fields of grain. 
 Their religion was a ceremonial sun worship, 
 and they practiced circumcision and head flat¬ 
 tening. They still constitute an important part 
 of the population of their former territory, re¬ 
 taining many of their ancient rites interwoven 
 with those of the conquering religion. 
 
 The superbly carved stones of peculiar shapes 
 that are commonly ascribed to the Totonac have 
 an excellence second only to Maya sculpture. The 
 most interesting stones are shaped like a capital 
 U and are called sacrificial yokes, although 
 their original use is unknown. Human and rep¬ 
 tile motives are combined in the elaboration of 
 these yokes. Other stones of peculiar shapes 
 bear remarkable sculptures of birds, etc. In 
 pottery the most beautiful objects are the so- 
 called “laughing faces,” which are infectious in 
 their realism. All of these faces wear broad 
 smiles. It is in the Totonac area that the art 
 of the Archaic Mexican type, seems to have first 
 come under the influence of the Maya. The 
 most famous ruin is that of Papantla. 
 
 TOTONICAPAN, to'to-ne-ka-panL A town 
 in the department of the same name, Guatemala, 
 61 miles northwest of the capital city (Map: 
 Central America, B 3). Its population is al¬ 
 most wholly native, of Quiche descent, and its 
 industries accordingly consist of simple weaving 
 and wood and stone work. The town was the 
 centre of the Quiche opposition to Alvarado. 
 Pop. (est.), 18,000. 
 
 TOT'TEL, Richard (c.1525-94). An English 
 publisher, compiler of the celebrated Tottel’s 
 Miscellany . Of his early life nothing is known. 
 Granted in 1553 a seven years’ patent to print 
 law books, and charter member of the Stationers’ 
 Company in 1557, his patent was renewed for life 
 in 1559. He reached a high position in the Sta¬ 
 tioners’ Company, but left it in 1589 on account 
 of ill health. Besides the law books issued, Tot- 
 tel published volumes of general literature which 
 invest him with a bibliographic interest. Among 
 these were More’s Dialogue of Comfort (1553) ; 
 Lydgate’s Fall of Princes (1554); Hawes’s 
 Pastime of Pleasure (1555) ; Grimald’s transla¬ 
 tion of De Officiis (1556) ; and Surrey’s transla¬ 
 tion (1557) of the second and fourth books of 
 the JEneid —the earliest English blank verse 
 known. The Miscellany appeared June 5, 1557, 
 and contained 271 unpublished poems by Surrey, 
 Wyatt, Grimald, Forrest, Hey wood, Thomas, 
 Vaux, and others unidentified. The verse of 
 Surrey and Wyatt is not known to have ap¬ 
 peared elsewhere. The Miscellany was the first 
 of poetic anthologies in England. 
 
 TOT'TEN, Joseph Gilbert (1788-1864). An 
 American soldier, born at New Haven, Conn. He 
 graduated at West Point in 1805 and during the 
 War of 1812 served as chief engineer in the cam¬ 
 paign of 1812-13 on the Niagara frontier and in 
 
 that of 1813-14 on the Lake Champlain line of 
 operations, and participated in the battle of 
 Queenstown Heights, the capture of Fort George, 
 the attack on La Cole Mill, and the battle of 
 Plattsburg. For gallant conduct in the last- 
 named engagement he was brevetted lieutenant 
 colonel. In 1847, during the Mexican War, he 
 directed the engineering operations in the siege 
 of Vera Cruz and for his services was brevetted 
 brigadier general. During the Civil War he 
 served as commander of the corps of engineers 
 (1861-64), as president of a board to regulate 
 and fix the ordnance of permanent fortifications 
 and field batteries (1861-62), and on April 21, 
 1864, one day before his death, was brevetted 
 major general, U. S. A. He was much interested 
 in the natural sciences and was an authority on 
 conchology. Two species of shells, the Gemma 
 Tottenii and the Succinea Tottenii, were named 
 in his honor. He published Reports on Rational 
 Defenses (1851), Essays on Ordnance (1857), 
 and other works. 
 
 TOTTENHAM, tot'en-am. A town in Middle¬ 
 sex, England, a connecting suburb of London, 6 
 miles northeast of St. Paul’s (Map: London, 
 C 8), on the river Lea. The town is mainly 
 residential, and among its public parks is the 
 Bruce Castle Park, the site of the old Bruce 
 estate and castle in which King Robert’s father 
 died in 1303. Alexandra Palace, a favorite 
 metropolitan pleasure resort, is partly within 
 the urban limits. Pop., 1901, 102,703; 1911, 
 137,418. 
 
 TOTTORI, tot-to're. The capital of the Pre¬ 
 fecture of Tottori, in west Hondo, Japan, 70 
 miles northwest of Kobe (Map: Japan, D 6). 
 It has manufactures of cotton and silk goods. 
 Pop., 1908, 32,682. 
 
 TOUCAN, too-kan' or too'kan (Brazil, tou- 
 cano, probably “nose bone,” less plausibly ex¬ 
 plained as meaning “feather,” or of onomato- 
 poetic origin). A bird of the family Rham- 
 phastidse, related to the barbets, jacamars, and 
 puff birds (qq.v.), and not very distantly to the 
 woodpeckers, and containing about 60 known 
 species, all natives of tropical America and 
 remarkable for the magnitude of the bill. They 
 are divided into two groups, the true toucans 
 (Rhamphastos) and the aragaris {Pteroglossus), 
 of which the latter contains the greater number 
 of species; the former has the larger bill, and 
 the tail is shorter. There is a difference also in 
 the prevalent colors, the aragaris generally ex¬ 
 hibiting much green and yellow, while the true 
 toucans have the ground color of the plumage 
 usually black; the throat, breast, and rump 
 often gayly adorned with white, yellow, and red. 
 The colors, however, are not in general finely 
 blended, but appear in strong contrast. The 
 legs of toucans are short; the feet have two 
 toes before and two behind. The form of the 
 body is short and thick; the tail is compara¬ 
 tively short, rounded or even, and is turned up 
 over 'the body when the bird is at roost. The 
 base of the enormous bill is of the full width 
 and depth of the head; it is in some species more 
 than half the length of the body. The bill is 
 arched towards the tip, irregularly toothed along 
 the margins of the mandibles, and extremely 
 cellular and light, yet strong in structure. The 
 tongue is long, narrow, and singularly feathered 
 on each side and takes an important part in 
 gathering food. Toucans eat fruits with avidity, 
 but they also seize and devour small birds, liz¬ 
 ards, etc. They make a curious clattering noise 
 
TOUCEY 
 
 373 
 
 I with their great mandibles and emit a harsh cry. 
 They live chiefly in the depths of the South 
 American forests, in small flocks. Almost noth¬ 
 ing is known of their life histories, hut they 
 are supposed to lay white glossy eggs in hol¬ 
 lows of trees, making little if any nest for them. 
 Toucans are easily tamed and in captivity read¬ 
 ily eat rice, bread, potatoes, eggs, meat, and 
 other kinds of food and make amusing pets. 
 The colors of the bill are in most species bril¬ 
 liant during life, but disappear from stuffed 
 specimens. The largest species, as the toco of 
 Argentina ( Rhamphastos toco), are about 24 
 inches in length, the bill in this species measur¬ 
 ing 7 y 2 inches and the tail 10 inches. One of 
 the most familiar species is the Brazil ariel, in 
 which the throat is yellow and the rump scarlet. 
 See Plate of Hornbills and Toucans. ‘ 
 TOUCEY, tou'sl, Isaac (1796-1869). An 
 American statesman, born at Newtown, Conn. 
 He was educated privately, studied law, and was 
 admitted to the bar at Hartford in 1818. From 
 1822 to 1825 he was State’s attorney for Hart¬ 
 ford County and from 1835 to 1839 was a mem¬ 
 ber of the United States House of Representa¬ 
 tives. He was again State’s attorney in 1842- 
 44 and was elected Governor by the Legislature 
 in 1846, when the election, instead of being 
 decided by the people, was put upon that body. 
 From June, 1848, to March 3, 1849, he was At¬ 
 torney-General of the United States. In 1850 
 he served in the State Senate and in 1852 in 
 the State House of Representatives. In 1852-57 
 he was United States Senator and under Presi¬ 
 dent Buchanan he was Secretary of the Navy 
 (1857 to March 3, 1861). It was charged by 
 the Republicans that he had manifested sym¬ 
 pathy with the Southern cause by sending the 
 warships of the United States to distant sta¬ 
 tions so that they could not readily be ioined 
 for action. 
 
 TOUCH (OF. toucher, tocher, Fr. toucher, It. 
 toccare, from Ger. *tukkon, OHG. zuckan, Ger. 
 zucken,. to twitch). One of the five special 
 senses; the tactile sense. The sense of touch is 
 widely distributed, but it must be distinguished 
 from the other varieties of common sensation— 
 pain, and temperature perception. These are 
 perceived through the same nerves—the sensory 
 —but the nerve fibres which are identified with 
 the sense of touch proper are provided with 
 special end organs, and the sense, moreover, is 
 exercised in any degree of perfection only in 
 
 1 those parts where there is an abundance of 
 special end organs. These are of two kinds: 
 touch corpuscles, situated chiefly in the skin; 
 and end bulbs, found mainly in the mucous 
 membranes. The lips and genital organs, being 
 on the border line of skin and mucous membrane, 
 are possessed of both touch corpuscles and end 
 bulbs. The Pacinian corpuscles are widely dis¬ 
 tributed, but their part in connection with the 
 tactile sense is only partially understood. They 
 
 I are numerous as the nerves of the palmar sur¬ 
 face of the fingers, but, when found, are situ¬ 
 ated deeply in the skin or in the subcutaneous 
 tissue. The acuteness of the sense of touch de¬ 
 pends to some extent on the cutaneous circula¬ 
 tion, and this is largely influenced by the sur¬ 
 rounding temperature. The numbness produced 
 by the application of cold to the surface of the 
 body is thus explained. 
 
 The acuteness of the sense of touch is com¬ 
 monly measured by an instrument known as 
 the aesthesiometer and consisting of two needle 
 
 TOUCH IN ANIMALS 
 
 points in arms movable upon a graduated scale. 
 A pair of compasses may be used in the same 
 way. The nearer together the points can be 
 separately perceived, the greater the delicacy of 
 touch. I he distance at which these two points 
 can be separately distinguished in various parts 
 of the body is indicated in the following table: 
 
 Millimeter 
 
 Tip of tongue. _ j j 
 
 Palm of terminal joint of finger. !!!!!!!!!!!..'.'!. 2.2 
 
 Palm of second joint of finger.j [ 4 4 
 
 Tip of nose. .....!!!!!!!!!!!!]* g!6 
 
 white part of Hps ...!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! s!s 
 
 Back of second joint of finger. ...!!!!!!!!!! ll!l 
 
 Skin over cheek bone. ..!!!!!!!!!!.! 15.4 
 
 Back of hand. 29 8 
 
 Forearm. '. 39.6 
 
 Sternum. 44 0 
 
 Back. .'.'.V.'.'.V.‘.'.‘.’.'.‘.'. '.'.66.0 
 
 It will thus be seen that the point of greatest 
 delicacy of touch is the tip of the tongue, and 
 the seat of the least developed tactile sense is the 
 skin over the spinal column. The sense of touch, 
 like all other perceptions, can be sharpened by 
 use. This improvement is not to be explained 
 by an increased development of the terminal 
 organs, nor by a growth of new nerve fibres in 
 the skin, but by a more exact limitation of the 
 sensation areas in the brain. Many artisans 
 acquire a highly specialized sense of touch. The 
 delicacy of the tactile sense in the blind is 
 well known; they are able to read fine raised 
 letters and to make articles of delicate structure 
 in a manner impossible to individuals who can 
 see. See Cutaneous Sensations; Psychologi- 
 cal Apparatus; Psychology; Sensation; 
 Skin. 
 
 TOUCH. In music, a term denoting the 
 manner in which the digitals of a keyed instru¬ 
 ment are manipulated. Most important are the 
 smooth legato touch and the detached staccato 
 touch. It is of vital importance which muscles 
 are employed in playing different passages. The 
 muscles of the fingers, the wrist, and the arm 
 produce very different effects, generally distin¬ 
 guished as tone color. Thus, when we speak of a 
 pianist as lacking in color, it means that he em¬ 
 ploys one set of muscles almost to the exclusion 
 of others. It is the matter of touch that pro¬ 
 duces what are called singing, velvety, or hard 
 tones. 
 
 TOUCH IN ANIMALS. A general term for 
 the cutaneous senses of pressure, pain, and 
 temperature, as evidenced by the selective re¬ 
 actions of animals to contact, warmth, and cold. 
 
 Mammals behave as if sensitive to contact, 
 and it is probable that the hairs which are found 
 upon the skin of all mammals are organs of 
 pressure. (See Cutaneous Sensations.) The 
 vibrissse of rats have been shown to be highly 
 developed forms of such pressure organs. Most 
 mammals, moreover, appear to possess a sense 
 of support; thus, they will not, when blinded, 
 walk off the edge of a table. The ability of 
 bats to avoid small wires stretched in the path 
 of their flight depends to a great extent upon 
 the excitability of the ears, as is shown by the 
 result of stopping the auditory meatus. It has 
 been suggested that the drumskin of the ear acts 
 in this case as an organ of touch, excited by 
 the condensations of the air which occur when 
 the bat approaches a wire. Fish and amphibia 
 show many responses to contact. Some fish are 
 unequally sensitive to pressure in different 
 regions; and some, it is thought, swim against 
 the current of a stream in response to pressure 
 
TOUCH PAPER 
 
 TOULON 
 
 374 
 
 cues from the flowing water. See Kinesthetic 
 Sensations in Animals; Mechanical Sense 
 in Animals. 
 
 In general, mammals are sensitive to thermal 
 stimuli. Rats and squirrels have been trained 
 to discriminate between two temperatures sepa¬ 
 rated by as little as 10° C. A study of the 
 dependence upon temperature of the breathing 
 rhythm of the decerebrized frog makes it appear 
 that the frog, at least in a reflex manner, is as 
 sensitive as the human being to thermal changes. 
 For touch in man, see Cutaneous Sensations. 
 Consult J. B. Watson, Behavior (IjTew York, 
 1914). 
 
 TOUCH PAPER. See Pyrotechny. 
 
 TOUCHSTONE, or Lydian Stone. A hard 
 black variety of quartz or flinty jasper used for 
 testing the purity of precious metals, especially 
 gold. The stone originally used was a peculiar 
 bituminous quartz from Lydia in Asia Minor. 
 When a piece of gold is rubbed across the sur-. 
 face of the stone, it leaves a streak which is 
 more or less reddish, according to the amount 
 of copper that it contains, and by comparing the 
 streak with those of alloys of known composi¬ 
 tion the expert can determine approximately 
 the value of the metal. See Basanite. 
 
 TOUCH'WOOD. The decayed wood of wil¬ 
 lows and some other trees used as tinder. See 
 Amadou. 
 
 TOUL, tool (anciently Tullum Leucorum) . A 
 fortified town, capital of an arrondissement 
 in the Department of Meurthe-et-Moselle, France, 
 14 miles west of Nancy (Map: France, N., L 4). 
 The former cathedral of St. Etienne is noted 
 for its graceful proportions, octagonal towers, 
 and thirteenth-century cloisters; the fine Gothic 
 church of Saint-Gengoult also has elegant clois¬ 
 ters, in the flamboyant style of the sixteenth 
 century, and the eighteenth-century episcopal 
 palace is now used as the town hall. The bishop¬ 
 ric, founded in the fifth century, was suppressed 
 at the time of Napoleon. In the latter part of 
 the Middle Ages and later down to 1552 Toul 
 was a free city of the German Empire. In that 
 year it was seized by Henry II of France. In 
 1790 its fortifications were reconstructed upon 
 the Vaubanian principle. In 1814 the town was 
 stormed by the Russians, and on Sept. 23, 1870, 
 it was taken by the Germans after a siege of 
 nearly six weeks. Pop., 1901, 12,287; 1911, 
 13,663. 
 
 TOULINGUET, tooTaN'ga'. See Twillin- 
 
 GATE. 
 
 TOULMIN, tool'min, Henry (1767-1823). 
 An American jurist, born at Taunton, England. 
 He removed in 1793 to Virginia and from 1794 
 to 1796 was president of Transylvania Univer¬ 
 sity. In 1796-1804 he was Secretary of State 
 of* Kentucky and in the latter year was ap¬ 
 pointed judge of the United States Circuit Court 
 of Mississippi. Subsequently he served in the 
 Alabama Legislature and assisted in framing 
 the constitution of that State. He published: 
 A Description of Kentucky (1792); Collection 
 of the Acts of Kentucky (1802) ; Revieio of the 
 Criminal Laio of Kentucky (1804), with James 
 Blair; Digest of the Territorial Laws of Ala¬ 
 bama (1823). 
 
 TOULMIN, Joshua (1740-1815). An Eng¬ 
 lish Unitarian clergyman. He was born in Lon¬ 
 don and became pastor of a dissenting congre¬ 
 gation in Colyton, Devonshire, in 1761. In 1765 
 he accepted a call from a Baptist congregation 
 in Taunton. He then turned Unitarian and 
 
 in 1804 became minister of a Unitarian congre 
 gation at Birmingham. He published many 
 biographies, including Memoirs of Faust us So- 
 cinus (1777), also A Historical View of the 
 State of the Protestant Dissenters in England 
 under King V/illiam (1814), and edited ^Neal a 
 History of the Puritans (new ed., 5 vols., 1822). 
 A volume of sermons was published after hia 
 death (1825). 
 
 TOULON, too'ldN'. The capital of an arron¬ 
 dissement in the French Department of Var, a 
 fortress of the first class, and the second naval 
 station in France (Map: France, S., L 5). It is 
 situated on a fine and well-protected bay of the 
 Mediterranean, 42 miles east-southeast of Mar¬ 
 seilles, and is partly surrounded by hills,, 
 crowned by detached forts. The old town in 
 the southern part of the city is of uninviting 
 appearance. Surrounding it on the north are 
 the modern quarters embellished with wide 
 avenues and fine buildings. In the old town 
 is situated the only ancient building of any 
 particular architectural value—the Sainte-Marie 
 Majeure Church. It is Romanesque and dates 
 from the eleventh century; it contains a hand¬ 
 some reredos. Besides the numerous naval and 
 military open spaces and grounds (including the 
 Place d’Armes) in Toulon, there are in the 
 northern part two spacious and prominent 
 squares—the Place de la Liberte (the finest in 
 the new town) and the Jardin de la Ville, an 
 attractive promenade. The most important 
 avenue of the city, the Boulevard Strasbourg, 
 connects the two "squares, and on it are the 
 Musee Bibliotheque (a handsome modern Re¬ 
 naissance edifice) and the immense Marine Hos¬ 
 pital. The Place d’Armes, to the southeast and 
 near the port, is the main square in the city. 
 
 The harbor has five principal basins. It con¬ 
 nects with surrounding bays, which stretch 
 away under hills bristling with forts, and ex¬ 
 tends past Fort de l’Aiguillette out into the 
 great harbor or roadstead which opens into the 
 sea. The port has an easy access and is well 
 sheltered. The marine arsenal, an immense and 
 complete establishment with its buildings, basins, 
 and canals, adjoins the city on the west. It 
 dates from the time of Henry IV and on an 
 enlarged scale was planned by Vauban. It 
 embraces 650 acres. 
 
 Toulon has a lyceum, the Ecole Rouviere, 
 marine schools, a marine library, a marine bo¬ 
 tanic garden, and a marine observatory. Ship¬ 
 building, iron and copper founding, lace making, 
 fishing, and viticulture are the main industries. 
 The vicinity produces olives and figs. The prin¬ 
 cipal exports are wines, oils, and fruits. In 
 1912 there entered and cleared 1043 vessels 
 of 587,948 tons. Pop., 1901, 101,602; 1911, 
 
 104,582. 
 
 Toulon is the ancient Telo Martius, noted for 
 its dye works. It was destroyed by the Saracens 
 in 889, and like calamities befell it in the 
 twelfth century. It surrendered to the forces of 
 Charles V in i524 and also in 1536. Henry IV 
 and Louis XIV fortified it. It repelled the allied 
 fleets of England and Holland in 1707. In 1793 
 it was turned over by the Royalists to the Eng¬ 
 lish and their allies. It was thereupon besieged 
 by the forces of the Convention, Napoleon Bona¬ 
 parte gaining there great distinction as com¬ 
 mander of the artillery. The town was taken 
 in December, and its inhabitants were ruthlessly 
 punished. Consult: Octave Teissier, Notice sur 
 les archives communales de la ville de Toulon 
 
TOULOUSE 
 
 TOULOUSE 
 
 375 
 
 (Toulon, 1863) ; G. Lambert, Histoire de Toulon 
 (3 vols., ib., 1886—89) ; Rozet, Essai sur la 
 climatologie de Toulon (Paris, 1890). 
 
 TOULOUSE, tooTooz'. A city of France, 
 formerly the capital of Languedoc and the pres¬ 
 ent capital of the Department of Haute-Garonne. 
 It is situated 130 miles southeast of Bordeaux 
 (Map: France, S., F 5). Toulouse lies in a rich 
 valley on the right bank of the navigable Ga¬ 
 ronne. It is subject to high winds, to floods, 
 and in summer to very hot weather. Three 
 bridges across the river connect the city with 
 the Faubourg Saint-Cyprien on the west bank. 
 The noble Pont Neuf, a stone bridge of seven 
 arches, dates from 1543. The streets of TAu- 
 louse are for the most part narrow, unattractive, 
 and poorly paved. Two wide lines of boule¬ 
 vards, however—the outer one following the 
 canals—divide the city from the surrounding 
 suburbs, and many extensive improvements have 
 been begun. On the extreme east is the Parc 
 du Caousou. 
 
 In the centre of the town, in the Place du 
 Capitole, stands the Capitole, or town hall. It 
 dates from the sixteenth century, but has re¬ 
 cently been almost wholly reconstructed. It 
 possesses little architectural merit. The edifice 
 owes its name to the city magistrates, or Capi- 
 touls, who ceased to exercise their functions 
 about the time of the French Revolution. It is 
 the seat of the famous Academie des Jeux- 
 Floraux, an ancient literary institution which 
 lends especial renown to the city. These Jeux- 
 Floraux, or Floral Games, which date from 1324, 
 are poetical tournaments, in which the prizes 
 allotted on May 3 of each year consist of flowers 
 of gold and silver. In the Capitole also are an 
 academy of legislation, founded in 1851, and 
 an academy of science, inscriptions, and belles- 
 lettres, founded in 1640. 
 
 Near the Capitole are the Municipal Theatre 
 and a square donjon, restored by Viollet-le-Duc. 
 The latter contains the city’s archives. Farther 
 south is the museum of fine arts, occupying in 
 part an ancient Augustine convent. In this sec¬ 
 tion of the city is the cathedral of Saint-Etienne, 
 a curious inharmonious edifice belonging to 
 different times and architectural types. 
 
 In the extreme southern part of the city are 
 the Jardin des Plantes and the Jardin Royal. 
 Here splendid, spacious avenues unite in the 
 sightly Grand Rond, which is decorated with 
 statues. To the west is the Palace of Justice, 
 formerly the Palace of the Parlement, with sev¬ 
 eral beautiful rooms. In the vicinity stands the 
 statue of the jurist Jacques de Cujas, a na¬ 
 tive of Toulouse. Northward is the church of 
 Notre Dame de la Dalbade, whose square tower, 
 splendid Renaissance portal, and interior merit 
 mention. Prominent among the old mansions 
 in the vicinity is the Hotel Lasbordes—a splen¬ 
 did creation of Bachelier, much of whose work is 
 to be seen in Toulouse. Farther north, near the 
 Pont Neuf, is the church of Notre Dame de la 
 Daurade. Not far away is the lycee, occupying 
 part of the extensive Renaissance establishment 
 of the merchant Bernuy, who guaranteed the 
 ransom of Francis I after the French defeat at 
 Pavia. In the vicinity is the Protestant church. 
 To the north of the Capitole and connected with 
 it by the Rue du Faur, the most important street 
 in the city, is Saint-Sernin, the finest church in 
 Toulouse. It is a superb cruciform Romanesque 
 structure, begun in the eleventh century and 
 restored under Viollet-le-Duc. The splendid 
 
 octagonal tower rises 210 feet, with tiers of 
 triangular arches. Saint-Saturnin, the martyred 
 apostle of Toulouse, is buried here. 
 
 At the head of the educational institutions 
 stands the university. (See Toulouse, Univer¬ 
 sity of.) There are a splendid school of medi¬ 
 cine, a school of fine arts, a veterinary college, 
 an observatory, an artillery school, a museum 
 of industrial art and antiquities, and, in addi¬ 
 tion, many learned societies which occupy now 
 the splendid Hotel d’Assezat, bequeathed to them 
 in 1896. The city library has over 213,000 vol¬ 
 umes and 1000 manuscripts. 
 
 loulouse is a city of wealth and prominence 
 industrially and commercially, owing to its com¬ 
 manding position in the south of France. The 
 Canal du Midi (q.v.) is here joined by the Canal 
 Lateral, and thus commerce between the Atlan¬ 
 tic and the Mediterranean is accommodated by 
 water, Toulouse being the centre of this traffic. 
 Much of the commerce from interior France to 
 Spain also passes through Toulouse. The trade 
 of the city is very extensive in wine and grain. 
 There are two historic mills on the river. One 
 is known to have existed in 1182; the other 
 traces its origin back to the ninth century. 
 There are a national tobacco factory, iron and 
 copper foundries, a cannon foundry, and car¬ 
 riage and farm-machinery works. Stained glass 
 is also manufactured. Pop. (commune), 1901, 
 149,841; 1911, 149,576. 
 
 History. Toulouse, the ancient Tolosa, was 
 long prominent before the Romans came into 
 Gaul. It was taken by the consul Csepio in 
 106 b.c., and he despoiled its great shrine of 
 the rich treasures for which it had been famous. 
 It became the chief city of the Visigoths in 
 419, and it fell into the hands of the Franks 
 in 507. It was long important as the seat of 
 the counts of Toulouse. In the early part of the 
 thirteenth century it suffered terribly in the 
 Albigensian troubles. In 1562, 4000 Huguenots 
 were killed in Toulouse. The Protestant Jean 
 Calas, made famous by the noble exertions of 
 Voltaire, was broken on a wheel here in 1762 
 on an unjust charge. At Toulouse Soult made 
 an unsuccessful stand against Wellington on 
 April 10, 1814. Consult: A. L. C. A. Du Mege, 
 Histoire des institutions religieuses, politiques 
 . . . de Toulouse (4 vols., Toulouse, 1844-46) ; 
 Justin Jourdan, Panorama historique de Tou¬ 
 louse (ib., 1877) ; Toulouse: histoire, archeologie 
 monumentale, facultes, etc. (ib., 1887), published 
 anonymously; C. Douais, L’Art a Toulouse: 
 materiaux pour servir d son histoire de XVme 
 au XVIIIme siecle (Paris, 1904). 
 
 TOULOUSE, County of. A feudatory state, 
 which played a prominent role among the prin¬ 
 cipalities of mediaeval France. It was estab¬ 
 lished by Charles the Great in 778, and its 
 rulers became hereditary about the middle of 
 the ninth century. The dominion of the counts 
 finally extended over the whole of Languedoc, 
 over Rouergue, and over part of Guienne and 
 Provence. Count Raymond IV had a distin¬ 
 guished share in the First Crusade (1096-99). 
 He died in 1105. His son Bertrand established 
 the Principality of Tripolis on the coast of 
 Syria. Raymond VI (1194-1222) is celebrated 
 as a patron of the Provencal poets and in con¬ 
 nection with the Albigensian wars. Having re¬ 
 fused to take severe measure against the Albi- 
 genses, he incurred the wrath of the Church, 
 which let loose against him the crusading forces 
 of Simon de Montfort, to whom Raymond’s 
 
TOULOUSE 
 
 TOURGEE 
 
 376 
 
 possessions were transferred by Pope Innocent 
 III. Raymond was unable to make head against 
 the invaders, who overran and laid waste his 
 country. Simon de Montfort fell at the siege 
 of Toulouse in 1218, and not long after Raymond 
 succeeded in recovering a part of his lands. He 
 enjoyed his regained power, however, for only a 
 brief time, dying in 1222. His son Raymond \ II 
 (1222-49) secured possession of most of the do¬ 
 minions of his house, but in 1229 he was forced 
 to cede a large part to Louis IX of France and 
 acknowledge him as his overlord. His daughter 
 and heiress, Jeanne, was married to the King’s 
 brother, Alphonse, Count of Poitou, on whose 
 death, in 1271, the County of Toulouse was 
 united with the French crown. 
 
 TOULOUSE, Edouard (1865- ). A 
 
 French alienist and psychologist, born at Mar¬ 
 seilles. He studied medicine in his native city 
 and at Paris, and was physician of the insane 
 asylums of the Seine and then head physician of 
 the asylum at Villejuif. At the latter place 
 he established a laboratory of experimental 
 psychology and with N. Vaschide invented much 
 of the apparatus there used. He was founder 
 and editor of the Bibliotheque de Psychologie 
 Experiment ale and of the Revue de Psyohiatrie 
 and an editor of La Revue Scientifique. His 
 writings include: Les causes de la folie (1896) ; 
 Emile Zola (1896); Organisation scientifique 
 d’un service d’alienes (1900); Les conflits in- 
 tersexuels et sociaux (1904); Technique de 
 psychologie experimentale (2 vols., 1905; 2d ed., 
 1911), with N. Vaschide and H. Pieron; Les 
 legons de la vie (1906) ; Henri Poincare (1910) ; 
 Comment former un esprit (1910); Comment 
 conserver sa sante (1914). 
 
 TOULOUSE, University of. A French uni¬ 
 versity, founded as a result of the Albigensian 
 heresy and the crusade against Toulouse, as a 
 bulwark of orthodoxy, by Pope Gregory IX 
 in 1230-33. It is the first of European universi¬ 
 ties founded by deliberate purpose and thus be¬ 
 came the model for later foundations. Its chief 
 purpose was originally theological, but it de¬ 
 veloped into a noted school of law and event¬ 
 ually took up the royal as against papal inter¬ 
 ests.* It was particularly rich in colleges, no 
 fewer than 10 well-endowed foundations being 
 enumerated. At the Napoleonic reorganization 
 it was, like other universities, merged into the 
 national system. It includes now four regular 
 faculties: law, medicine and pharmacy, science, 
 and philosophy, besides the faculty of Protestant 
 theology of Montauban, and the two “free facul¬ 
 ties of" theology and philosophy.” In 1913 it 
 had nearly 2869 students. The university li¬ 
 brary contains over 139,423 volumes, besides 
 30.500 volumes at Montauban. 
 
 TOUMEY, James William (1865- ). 
 
 An American forester, born at Lawrence, Mich. 
 He graduated in 1889 from the Michigan Agri¬ 
 cultural College and later studied at Harvard. 
 Fie served as professor of biology at the Uni¬ 
 versity of Arizona in 1891-98 and as director of 
 the Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station in 
 1897-98. For two years he was connected with 
 the government forestry service; he then went to 
 Yale, rising to be director of the Forest School 
 (1910). ITis writings include articles and bulle¬ 
 tins on agriculture, botany, and forestry. 
 
 TOUR, toor, Maurice Quentin de la. See 
 La Tour, Maurice Quentin de. 
 
 TOURACOO, or Touraco. Same as Turaco 
 (q.v.). 
 
 TOURAINE, tod-ran'. One of the former 
 provinces of France, corresponding to the present 
 Department of Indre-et-Loire. The capital was 
 Tours (q.v.). After having been under the rule 
 of its own counts Touraine was united about 
 the middle of the eleventh century with Anjou.. 
 With Anjou it passed in 1154 to England. It 
 was reacquired by France half a century later, 
 was made a duchy in 1356, and was definitively 
 united with the crown in 1584. See ‘'Map of 
 France, Showing Former Provinces,” under 
 France. 
 
 TOURANE, too-ran', or Touran. A town of 
 Annam, 40 miles southeast of Hue (q.v.) (Map: 
 FFencli Indo-China, E 3). There are large sub¬ 
 stantial markets, a silk filature, an opium farm, 
 etc. Numerous steamers maintain communi¬ 
 cation with Europe and the adjacent ports, and 
 there is an extensive commerce carried on in 
 sugar, rattan, bamboo, areca nuts, silk, and 
 cassia. Tea, coffee, and the mulberry are culti¬ 
 vated in the neighborhood, and coal is mined. 
 Pop., 1913, 7853, of whom 184 were Europeans. 
 
 TOURAS'SXAN EPOCH. The name some¬ 
 times applied to an epoch of European prehis¬ 
 toric archseology at the end of the Paleolithic 
 period, just before the close of the Quaternary. 
 It is so named from the rock shelter of Tourasse 
 at Saint-Martory, Haute-Garonne, France. See 
 Paleolithic Period. 
 
 TOURCOXNG, tobr'kwaN / . The capital of an 
 arrondissement in the Department of Nord, 
 France, 7% miles northeast of Lille (Map: 
 France, N., J 2). It is practically a part of the 
 great industrial centre Roubaix. The town has 
 a fine modern Gothic church, a large new town 
 hall, a chamber of arts and manufactures, and 
 schools of painting, drawing, music, and archi¬ 
 tecture. In 1866 a monument was erected to 
 commemorate the defeat here in 1794 of the Eng¬ 
 lish and Austrians by Jourdari and Moreau. The 
 wool-manufacturing output of this district rep¬ 
 resents nearly the entire output of north France. 
 There are manufactories of velvet-pile carpets, 
 woven goods, and furniture stuffs, also cotton, 
 linen, and silk mills, dye works, machine shops, 
 and a sugar refinery. Tourcoing was captured 
 by the Germans in the War which began in 
 1914. It was later damaged by allied aircraft. 
 See War in Europe. Pop., 1901, 79,243; 1911, 
 82,644. 
 
 TOURGEE, toor-zha', Albion Winegar (1838- 
 1905) . An American novelist, born in Williams- 
 field, Ohio. He graduated from the University 
 of Rochester (New York) in 1862, receiving his 
 degree while serving in the Federal army. He 
 had been wounded at Bull Run and was dis¬ 
 charged, but reentered the service, only to be taken 
 prisoner at the battle of Murfreesboro, Tenn. 
 Immediately after the war lie became an editor 
 and took up the practice of law at Greensboro, 
 N. C. From 1868 to 1875 he was judge of the 
 Superior Court of North Carolina, and was later 
 (1881-84) editor of the Continent at Philadel¬ 
 phia. He was appointed United States Consul 
 at Bordeaux in 1897 and was transferred to 
 Halifax in 1903. His numerous novels were 
 founded chiefly on his experience in the South 
 during the Reconstruction period. The list in¬ 
 cludes: Toinette (1874) ; A Fool’s Errand 
 (1879), perhaps his best-known work; Bricks 
 ivithout Straw (1880) ; John Eax and Mamelon 
 (1882) ; Hot Plowshares (1883) ; An Appeal to 
 Ccesar (1884); Black Ice (1888); Letters to a 
 King (1888); Murvale Eastman, Christian So- 
 
TOURMALINE 
 
 TOURNAMENT 
 
 377 
 
 cialist (1890); An Outing with the Queen of 
 Hearts (1894); The Mortgage on the Hip-Roof 
 House (1896). Tourg6e also published several 
 legal books, North Carolina Code of Civil Proce¬ 
 dure (1878) and A Digest of Cited Cases (1879). 
 
 TOURMALINE, toor'ma-lln (Fr. tourmaline, 
 from Singhalese tournamal, turamali, tourma¬ 
 line). A complex aluminium borosilicate, con¬ 
 taining also chromium, iron, magnesium, and 
 the alkalies. It crystallizes in the hexagonal 
 system. According to composition, several varie¬ 
 ties are distinguished, as chromium tourmaline, 
 iron tourmaline, lithium tourmaline, magnesium 
 tourmaline, and magnesium-iron tourmaline. It 
 has a vitreous lustre, may be either transparent 
 or opaque, and may be colorless as well as blue, 
 green, red, brown, and black. Some crystals 
 are red internally and green externally, and still 
 others are red at one extremity and green, blue, 
 or black at the other. Tourmaline is the most 
 dichroitic of all gems. The mineral is usually 
 found in granite, gneiss, or mica schist. It oc¬ 
 curs also in dolomite, granular limestone, and in 
 certain contact rocks near dikes of igneous rocks, 
 also in rolled pebbles in alluvial deposits. The 
 white or colorless tourmalines are called acliro- 
 ite, the black varieties aphrizite and schorl, while 
 those of various shades of blue are known as 
 indicolite, the red varieties as rubellite, and the 
 green transparent specimens from Brazil are 
 known as Brazilian emeralds. The colored crys¬ 
 tallized varieties of tourmaline, when transpar¬ 
 ent, are highly prized as gems. They are found 
 in Burma, Ceylon, and India, in the Urals, the 
 Harz, and Brazil, while in the United States 
 splendid specimens occur in Maine, especially 
 near Paris. Specimens also occur in Massachu¬ 
 setts, Connecticut, New York, and California. 
 Consult G. F. Kunz, Gems and Precious Stones 
 of North America (New York, 1892). See Gems. 
 
 TOURNACHON, tbbr'na'shoN / , Felix (1820- 
 1910). A French author, artist, and aeronaut, 
 better known under the pseudonym Nadar. He 
 was born in Paris, studied medicine at Lyons, 
 and returned to Paris as a journalist. In 1849 
 he founded the Revue Comique and in 1854 pub¬ 
 lished he Pantheon-Nadar, a gallery of contem¬ 
 porary celebrities. He soon afterward engaged 
 in experiments in aerial navigation and con¬ 
 structed Le G4ant, the largest balloon hitherto 
 made. In it he made a number of ascensions and 
 was once carried as far as Hanover. During the 
 siege of Paris by the Prussians he made use of 
 his knowledge as an aeronaut to carry informa¬ 
 tion to the outside country and commanded the 
 company of aeronauts of the Place Saint-Pierre, 
 Montmartre. Among his numerous published 
 works are: La rohe de Dejanire (1841; 2d ed., 
 1859); Quand j’6tais etudiant (1856); Me¬ 
 mories du Ceant (1864) ; Le droit au vol (1865) ; 
 Les ballons en 1870 (1871) ; Le monde ou Von 
 patauge (1883). 
 
 TOURNAI. See Tournay. 
 
 TOURNAMENT, todr'na-ment (OF. tour- 
 noyement, tournoiement, from tournoier, to joust, 
 tilt, tourney, wheel about, from tourner, to turn, 
 from Lat. tornare, to turn in a lathe, from 
 tornus, from Gk. ropvos, compasses, carpenter’s 
 chisel). A knightly sport of the Middle Ages, in 
 which combatants engaged one another with the 
 object of exhibiting their courage, prowess, and 
 skill in the use of arms. It existed first probably 
 in France, whence it spread to Germany and 
 England and afterward to the south of Europe. 
 A tournament was usually held on the invita¬ 
 
 tion of some prince, who sent a king-of-arms or 
 herald through his own dominions and to foreign 
 courts. The intending combatants hung up their 
 armorial shields on the trees, tents, and pavilions 
 around the arena for inspection, to show that 
 they were worthy candidates for the honor of 
 contending in the lists in respect of birth, mili¬ 
 tary prowess, and character. The combat took 
 place on horseback, or at least was always be¬ 
 gun on horseback, though dismounted combatants 
 frequently continued it on foot. The usual 
 arms were blunted lances or swords; but the or¬ 
 dinary arms of warfare, called arms a Voutrance, 
 were sometimes used by cavaliers who were am¬ 
 bitious of special distinction. The prize was 
 bestowed by the lady of the tournament on the 
 knight to whom it had been adjudged, he rever¬ 
 ently approaching her and saluting her and her 
 two attendants. The period when tournaments 
 were most in vogue comprised the twelfth, thir¬ 
 teenth, and fourteenth centuries; and the place 
 where the most celebrated English tournaments 
 were held was the tiltyard near St. James’s, 
 Smithfield, London. The Church at first dis¬ 
 countenanced tournaments, some of its decrees 
 prohibiting persons from engaging in them under 
 pain of excommunication and denying Christian 
 burial to a combatant who lost his life in one. 
 The Church seems, however, to have looked with 
 more favor on these combats after the middle of 
 the thirteenth century. During the fifteenth and 
 sixteenth centuries tournaments continued to 
 be held, but the alteration in the social life and 
 warfare of Europe had changed their character, 
 and they are rather to be regarded as state 
 pageants than as real combats. The death’of 
 Henry II of France, in 1559, consequent on the 
 loss of his eye at a tournament, led to their 
 general abandonment, both in France and else¬ 
 where. 
 
 Military Tournaments. The modern mili¬ 
 tary tournament embraces all the personal skill 
 in the use of arms of the ancient chivalric tour¬ 
 nament and has much of its pageantry. New 
 inventions and contact with many nations have 
 incorporated into military necessities and pas¬ 
 times many novelties unknown in ancient times, 
 and these find their supreme exposition in the 
 national tournaments of both America and Eng¬ 
 land. There is no mystery about the origin of 
 the modern military tournament; data, place, 
 and reason are all available. In 1878 the staff 
 of the Military Gymnasium, Aldershot, gave 
 an exhibition of military exercises at the Albert 
 Hall in London in aid of the widows and orphans 
 of the British soldiers killed in the Zulu War. 
 It was of necessity very limited in its functions; 
 but the next year a fully organized competition 
 in the use of weapons of offense and defense, be¬ 
 tween all branches of the service, cavalry, in¬ 
 fantry, artillery, engineers, and hospital corps, 
 was held. The programme was (and still is) 
 practically divided into two parts: one coming 
 strictly within the line of military duty, such 
 as feats of strength and skill with sword, lance, 
 sabre, and bayonet, and horsemanship, including 
 riding and driving; the other division consisting 
 of sports and pastimes, such as tent pegging, 
 mounted wrestling, etc. To such an extent did 
 the desire to compete extend in Great Britain 
 that it has become necessary to impose the re¬ 
 striction of passing through and obtaining the 
 first place in merit in a district tournament as 
 a condition precedent to competition at the na¬ 
 tional tournament. The peg used in tent pegging 
 
TOURNAY 
 
 TOURS 
 
 378 
 
 is an ordinary wooden tent peg 3 inches broad 
 and 1 foot long, driven nearly perpendicular 
 into the ground until less than one-half of it is 
 in sight. The trooper rides at the gallop, strikes 
 it if possible, and, without relaxing the grasp 
 of his lance or the speed of his horse, wrenches 
 the peg out of the ground and carries it away on 
 his lance point. 
 
 In America the military tournament held 
 each year in Madison Square Garden, New York, 
 has become a recognized institution. It dillers 
 from the British tournament in that the latter 
 consists of competitions as well as of exhibition 
 performances, while in America it is made up 
 entirely of exhibition work. The tournaments 
 have been regularly held since 1897. Consult: 
 Dillon, “Tilting in Tudor Times,” in Archceo- 
 logical Journal, vol. lv (London, 1898-99) ; 
 A. Schaer, Die altdeutschen Fechter und Spiel- 
 leute (Strassburg, 1901); J. L. Weston, The 
 Three Days’ Tournament: A Study in Romance 
 and Folk-Lore (London, 1912) ; K. G. T. Web¬ 
 ster, “The Twelfth-Century Tourney,” in Anni¬ 
 versary Papers, by colleagues and pupils of 
 G. L. Kittredge (Boston, 1913). 
 
 TOURNAY, toor'na', or TOURNAI. The 
 capital of an arrondissement and the largest 
 town in the Province of Hainault, Belgium, 48 
 miles south by west of Ghent, on the Scheldt 
 River, here spanned by several bridges (Map: 
 Belgium, B 4). The most striking edifice is 
 the twelfth-century cathedral of Notre Dame in 
 the Romanesque style. The nave, dating from 
 1146, and the fagade with its porch and sculp¬ 
 tures are of special interest. Other architectural 
 features of the town include the twelfth-century 
 belfry, the church of Saint-Quentin in the Tran¬ 
 sitional style, the church of Saint-Brice, with 
 the tomb of Childeric, and the church of Saint- 
 Jacques. The thirteenth-century bridge, the art 
 gallery, the museum of natural history, and the 
 old monastery buildings, now utilized as the 
 municipal headquarters, are also noteworthy. 
 The public library has 60,000 volumes. Manu¬ 
 facturing is the principal industry, the town 
 being noted for its carpets and high-grade porce¬ 
 lain. Cotton and woolen goods, linen, and 
 liquors are also produced. Pop., 1900, 35,004; 
 1910, 37,523. Tournay, the ancient Civitas 
 
 Nerviorum or Turnacum, was for a time the 
 capital of the kingdom of the Franks. A bishop¬ 
 ric was founded here in 484. The town was at 
 various times and for long periods a possession 
 of France, which finally relinquished it in 1748. 
 It is famous for the gallant defense made by its 
 garrison, under the Princess d’Epinoy, against 
 Alexander of Parma in 1581. 
 
 TOURNEFORT, toorn'fCr', Joseph Pitton 
 de (1656-1708). A French botanist, born at 
 Aix, Provence. After having explored the flora 
 of his native district, he was sent, at the 
 King’s expense, to Spain, Portugal, England, 
 and Holland, the Grecian Archipelago, and 
 Thrace, the shores of the Black Sea, and Asia 
 Minor, and other parts of the East, adding many 
 species to the list of known plants. He pub¬ 
 lished several botanical works and a Voyage to 
 the Levant (1717). His botanical system, which 
 maintained its ground till the time of Linnaus, 
 was of great use in promoting the progress of 
 botany, but he rendered still greater service to 
 science by grouping plants in general and is re¬ 
 garded, therefore, as the founder of genera. 
 
 TOURNEUR, Tubnotjr, or Turner, ter'ner, 
 Cyril (?1575-1626). An English dramatist. 
 
 He found employment in the Low Countries and 
 served as secretary to Sir Edward Cecil in the 
 expedition to Cadiz (1625). He is the author 
 of two plays, The Atheist’s Tragedie (written 
 probably about 1603, published 1611) and The 
 Revenger’s Tragedie (published 1607). The lat¬ 
 ter is a powerful though lurid tragedy, in praise 
 of which Swinburne’s fine rhetoric has taken a 
 free rein. Tourneur also wrote elegies and other 
 nondramatic pieces. Consult his Plays and 
 Poems (ed. by J. C. Collins, 2 vols., London, 
 1878) ; the two plays edited, with Webster, by 
 J. A. Symonds (“Mermaid Series,” ib., 1888) ; 
 and A. C. Swinburne, “Cyril Tourneur,” in The 
 Age of Shakespeare (New York, 1908). 
 
 TOURNEUX, (Jean) Maurice (1849- ). 
 
 A French litterateur and bibliographer, born 
 in Paris. His work is noted for erudition 
 combined with charm of style. He published 
 bibliographies of Prosper Merimee (1876) and 
 Theophile Gautier (1877); Diderot et Cath¬ 
 erine II (1899); Eugene Delacroix (1902); J. 
 B. Perronneau (1903) ; Table generale de la 
 Revue d’histoire litteraire de la France, 189Jy- 
 1898 (1900); La Tour (1904); L6on Sapin 
 
 (1906); Bibliographie de Vhistoire de Paris 
 pendant la revolution frangaise (5 vols., 
 1900-13). 
 
 TOURNIQUET, toor'ni-ket (Fr. tourniquet, 
 turnstile, tourniquet, from tourner, to turn). 
 An instrument for compressing an artery of the 
 thigh or arm, either for the purpose of pre¬ 
 venting too great a loss of blood in amputa¬ 
 tion, or checking dangerous hemorrhage from 
 accidental wounds, or stopping the circulation 
 through an aneurism. 
 
 The common tourniquet consists of three parts, 
 viz., (1) a pad to compress the artery, (2) 
 a strong band which is buckled round the limb, 
 and (3) a bridgelike contrivance over which 
 the band passes, with a screw whose action raises 
 the bridge and consequently tightens the band. 
 
 To prevent the loss of venous blood during 
 an amputation, it is customary to elevate the 
 limb to a vertical position or to strap it with 
 an elastic bandage for several minutes before 
 the tourniquet is applied. The older forms of 
 tourniquet are now almost universally replaced 
 by a simple rubber strap or piece of rubber tub¬ 
 ing which is passed several times around the 
 limb under tension and fastened. This general 
 type is known as Esmarch’s tourniquet. 
 
 TOURS, toor. A city of France, the capital 
 of the Department of Indre-et-Loire. It is 145 
 miles by rail southwest of Paris, in the rich 
 level valley of the Loire, on the left bank of that 
 stream, and extends 2 miles southward to the 
 Cher (Map: France, N., F 5). The pleasant 
 situation and the equable climate attract many 
 English and American families as. sojourners. 
 Two great lines of boulevards, extending through¬ 
 out the city, cross at its geographical centre, 
 where the modern Palace of Justice adorns a fine 
 square. In this square stands Fournier’s bronze 
 statue of Balzac. Saint-Gatien, the stately 
 French-Gothic cathedral of Tours, rises in the 
 northeastern part of the city, near the river. 
 It dates from 1170, was finished about 1550, 
 and is exceptionally complete as to execution. 
 The flamboyant turreted fagade is profusely deco¬ 
 rated, and the rose window is of an exquisite 
 pattern. Near the centre of the city are the 
 striking detached towers of Saint-Martin and 
 Charlemagne—remains of the celebrated church 
 of Saint-Martin marking the site of the tomb 
 
TOURS 
 
 379 TOUSSAINT 
 
 Oi the saint. The church was rebuilt about the 
 twelfth century in splendid proportions. The 
 structure was torn down in 1802, making way 
 for a street. Near by is the new basilica of 
 Saint-Martin. The ruined chateau Plessis-les- 
 Tours, identified with the life of Louis XI, lies 
 just southwest of Tours. Besides the statue of 
 Balzac should be mentioned the statues of Des¬ 
 cartes and Rabelais and also the Renaissance 
 fountain. 
 
 The city has an art school, a large and a small 
 seminary, the College de Saint-Louis de Gonzaga, 
 and a drawing school. The public library con¬ 
 tains 170,000 volumes and 2007 manuscripts. 
 In the archiepiscopal palace is a museum of 
 archseology, paleontology art, coins, etc. The 
 Museum of Tours, near the river, has some 500 
 pictures of small value and collections of sculp¬ 
 tures, enamels, antiquities, etc. The city has 
 manufactures of steel, machinery, iron imple¬ 
 ments, silk stuffs, corsets, leather, confectionery, 
 painted glass, pottery, and chemicals. There are 
 printing works. The trade is very active, both 
 by rail and by river. Pop. (commune), 1901, 
 64,695; 1911, 73,398. 
 
 History. Tours, named from the Gallic tribe 
 of Turones, was an active ally of Vercingetorex 
 against the Romans. It was later the Roman 
 Caesarodunum. The place became at a very early 
 date the seat of an important bishopric, which 
 soon rose to the rank of an archbishopric. Nu¬ 
 merous councils were held here. Tours was taken 
 by the Visigoths in 473 and by Clovis in 507. It 
 is famous for the momentous battle fought in 
 the direction of Poitiers in 732, when Charles 
 Martel (q.v.) repulsed the vast invading army 
 of the Saracens. The city was the capital of 
 Touraine (q.v.). It rose to great importance un¬ 
 der the Valois kings, Louis XI in particular 
 favoring the city, which for a time was a great 
 seat of the silk manufacture. The States-Gen- 
 eral were repeatedly assembled here. In Oc¬ 
 tober, 1870, the Government of National Defense 
 was organized at Tours, whence it was removed 
 in December to Bordeaux. The Germans occu¬ 
 pied the city from Jan. 10 until March 8, 1871. 
 Consult: Eugene Giraudet, Histoire de la ville 
 de Tours (2 vols., Tours, 1873) ; P. C. A. Grand- 
 maison, Tours archeologique (ib., 1879) ; Casi- 
 mir Chevalier, Tours capitate (ib., 1896) ; Paul 
 Vitry, Tours et les chateaux de Touraine (Paris, 
 1905) ; Chanoine Boissonnot, La cathedrale de 
 Tours: histoire et descriptive (Tours, 1909). 
 
 TOURS, Berengarius of. See Berengarius 
 of Tours. 
 
 TOURS, Martin of. See Martin of Tours. 
 
 TOURVILLE, toor'veP, Anne Hilarion de 
 Cotentin, Count de (1642-1701). A French 
 admiral. He was born at Tourville, near 
 Coutances, Nov. 24, 1642. He entered the French 
 navy and became a captain at 25, having distin¬ 
 guished himself by service against the Turks 
 and Algerians. In 1669 he participated in the 
 French expedition for the relief of Candia and 
 fought with distinction at Agosta, off the coast 
 of Sicily, in April, 1676, and received the com¬ 
 mand of a squadron with which in June of the 
 following year he won a decisive victory over 
 the allied British and Dutch off Palermo (June 
 2). He became lieutenant general of marine 
 and from 1682 to 1688 saw active service against 
 the Barbary pirates, varied bv his share in the 
 bombardment of Genoa in 1684. In 1689 he 
 was made a vice admiral and commanded the 
 French fleets in the operations against England 
 Vol. XXII.—25 
 
 an d Holland. In June, 1690, he entered the 
 English Channel at the head of a powerful fleet 
 and inflicted a disastrous defeat on the united 
 English and Dutch armament near Beacliy Head. 
 In 1692, Louis XIV having decided upon an 
 invasion of England on behalf of James II, a 
 fleet was assembled at Brest under Tourville in 
 order to protect the descent. With 44 ships of 
 the line Tourville assailed an Anglo-Dutch fleet 
 of 82 vessels under Lord Russell off Cape La 
 Hogue and after a desperate fight was decisively 
 beaten (May 29). Tourville, however, suffered 
 no discredit for this defeat, in which his talents 
 and courage were abundantly displayed. In 1693 
 he was made a marshal of France and in June 
 defeated a British-Dutch fleet under Sir George 
 Rooke off Cape St. Vincent, capturing 27 ships 
 of war and merchant vessels and destroying 45 
 others. He was subsequently charged with the 
 defense of the Mediterranean coasts of France, 
 but saw no active fighting. He died in Paris, 
 May 28, 1701. Fraudulent Memoires in Tour- 
 ville’s name were published in 1742-58. Con¬ 
 sult Delarbre, Tourville et la marine de son 
 temps (Paris, 1889). 
 
 TOUSSAINT, too'saN / , Anna Louisa Geer- 
 truida (1812-86). A Dutch novelist, born at 
 Alkmaar, of parents descended from French Prot¬ 
 estant refugees. In 1851 she married the archi¬ 
 tectural painter Jan Bosboom (1817-91) and 
 thenceforth lived at The Hague. The .reputation 
 won with her first works, Almagro (1837), De 
 Graaf van Devonshire (1838), and De Engelsclien 
 te Rome (1839), was enormously increased on 
 the appearance of Het huis Lauernesse (1841; 
 10th ed., 1885), an historical romance of the 
 Reformation, which was translated into several 
 languages. Among her other historical novels, 
 dealing mainly with English, Dutch, and Spanish 
 scenes, the Leicester trilogy, Leycester in 'Neder¬ 
 land (1846), De vrouwen uit het Leycestersche 
 tijd,vak (1849—50), and Gideon Florensz (1854— 
 55), is the most remarkable. Subsequently she 
 was eminently successful with modern character 
 delineations, of which Majoor Frans (1874) is 
 an excellent example. Fine artistic workman¬ 
 ship distinguishes her dialogue tale Raymond de 
 schrijnmerker (1880). Her collected works were 
 published in 25 volumes (Arnhem, 1880-88). 
 For her life, consult Jan ten Brink (Amster¬ 
 dam, 1886). 
 
 TOUSSAINT, Francois Dominique, called 
 l’Ouverture (1743-1803). A Haitian soldier 
 and statesman. He was born near Cape Fran- 
 cais in the island of Haiti in 1743 and was a 
 full-blooded negro, his father and mother both 
 being African slaves. He was coachman and af¬ 
 terward assistant to the overseer of his master’s 
 sugar plantation and acquired some little edu¬ 
 cation, which he used to good advantage. When 
 the French Revolution broke out, he was the 
 overseer of his master, a planter named De 
 Libertat. A decree of the French Constituent 
 Assembly, May 15, 1791, gave to all free persons 
 of color the privileges of French citizenship, but 
 the white planters of Haiti did everything in 
 their power to delay the application of the de¬ 
 cree. On Aug. 23, 1791, the slaves became a 
 factor in the problem by rising in a fierce in¬ 
 surrection. Toussaint took part in the uprising 
 and won a prominent place among the leaders 
 of the insurrection. The revolt was temporarily 
 suppressed, but the repeal by the French As¬ 
 sembly in May, 1792, of the Decree of 1791, 
 reopened the civil war. For a while Toussaint 
 
TOWER 
 
 TOUSSAIISTT-MAIZEROY 380 
 
 took service with the Spaniards in the east of 
 the island, with whose aid he overran a part of 
 the French territory. Commissioners from 
 France attempted to settle the troubles of the 
 island and finally proclaimed universal freedom 
 'n August, 1793. This won Toussaint over to 
 the side of the French Republic, and he came to 
 the front as the recognized leader of his race. 
 The English at this time had seized Port au 
 Prince and were besieging the French Governor, 
 Laveaux, in Port de la Paix. Toussaint went 
 to his assistance, and it was Laveaux who by 
 his exclamation, Mais cet homme fait ouverture 
 partout, gave Toussaint the surname I’Ouverture, 
 by which he has since been known. In 1796 
 Toussaint was made commander in chief of the 
 French forces on the island and signalized him¬ 
 self in the following year by compelling the 
 surrender of the English who had invaded Haiti. 
 H6douville, the French Commissioner, had suc¬ 
 ceeded in stirring up dissension between the 
 negroes and the mulatto element, and in 1799 
 a fierce civil war was waged between the blacks 
 under Toussaint and the mulattoes under Gen. 
 Andre Rigaud. Toussaint succeeded in crush¬ 
 ing his opponent, December, 1799. By January, 
 1801, he had brought the whole island under his 
 power. He now became virtually a dictator, but 
 ruled the island with moderation and firmness 
 and with justice towards the different classes 
 of the population. He had an administrative 
 council of nine, eight of whom were white men. 
 A constitution was drawn up, providing for free 
 trade and naming Toussaint life President. Af¬ 
 ter the Treaty of Amiens had freed him tempo¬ 
 rarily of danger from England, Napoleon pro¬ 
 claimed the reestablishment of slavery in the 
 island. Toussaint replied by a declaration of 
 independence in July, 1802. Napoleon sent Gen¬ 
 eral Leclerc with 30,000 men to reduce the 
 Haitians to submission. Leclerc was joined by 
 many of Toussaint’s enemies, among them being 
 Rigaud and the future rulers, Petion and Boyer. 
 Toussaint was treacherously arrested, taken to 
 France, and imprisoned without trial in the 
 Chateau Joux, near Besangon, where he died, 
 April 27, 1803, from cruelty and neglect. Con¬ 
 sult his Memoires, precedes d’une etude histor- 
 ique et critique ... by Saint-Remy (Aux Cayes, 
 Haiti, 1853) ; J. R. Beard, Toussaint L’Ouver- 
 ture: A Biography and Autobiography (Boston, 
 1863) ; T. P. Gragnon-Lacoste, Toussaint L’Ou¬ 
 verture, general en chef de I’armce de Saint 
 Domingue, surnomme le premier des Noirs 
 (Bordeaux, 1877), based on the l’Ouverture fam¬ 
 ily papers; Victor Schoelcher, Vie de Toussaint 
 L’Ouverture (Paris, 1889) ; C. W. Mossell, Tous¬ 
 saint L’Ouverture: The Hero of Saint Domingo 
 (Lockport, N. Y., 1896) ; also Wordsworth’s 
 poem, “To Toussaint L’Ouverture.” 
 
 TOU SS AIN'T-MAIZEROY, Rene. See 
 Maize&oy. 
 
 TOUT, tout, Thomas Frederick (1855- ). 
 
 An English historian, born in London, and edu¬ 
 cated at Balliol College, Oxford (M.A., 1882). 
 He was a fellow of Pembroke College and also 
 professor at St. David’s College, Lampeter, until 
 1890, when he was appointed to the chair of 
 mediieval and modern history in Manchester 
 University. In 1912-13 he lectured at Oxford. 
 His publications include: History of England 
 for Schools (2 vols., 1890, 1898), with Prof. 
 York Powell; Analysis of English History 
 (1891) ; Edward the First (1893) ; The Empire 
 and the Papacy (1898) ; History of Great Brit¬ 
 
 ain (3 vols., 1902-06) ; “Germany and the Em¬ 
 pire,” in Cambridge Modem History (vol. i ? 
 1902) ; History of England , 1216-1317 , vol. iii of 
 Longman’s Political History of England (1905) ; 
 The Place of the Reign of Edward II in English 
 History (1914). 
 
 TOWAGE (from tow; connected with AS. 
 teon, Goth, tiuhan, OHG. zogan, ziohan, Ger. 
 ziehen, to draw, Lat. ducere, to lead). Assist¬ 
 ance in propelling or drawing rendered by one 
 vessel to another. Towing is usually done by 
 tugs, but the service may be performed by any 
 sort of vessel. Where such service is rendered 
 to vessels which have been injured it becomes 
 salvage (q.v.). A vessel thus assisted is com¬ 
 monly referred to as a tow. A tug is not held 
 to the strict responsibility of a common carrier 
 and is liable only for lack of reasonable skill 
 in such service and for negligence. The master 
 of the tug is obliged to see that the tow is 
 properly made up, having regard to the voyage to 
 be made; must have skill in navigation and be 
 reasonably familiar with the course to be fol¬ 
 lowed. The master of the tow must follow all 
 reasonable orders of the master of the tug as 
 to steering, etc. A tug should not abandon a 
 tow except in cases of extreme necessity, and, 
 in general, it may be said that it must seem in¬ 
 evitable that the . tug will be lost unless the 
 tow is abandoned in order to justify that course. 
 The charges for towage constitute a maritime 
 lien upon the tow, which will follow it until 
 paid. All questions of towage are governed by 
 admiralty law. Consult the authorities referred 
 to under Admiralty Law. See Rules of the 
 Road. 
 
 TQWAjSFDA. A city and the county seat of 
 Bradford Co., Pa., 80 miles northwest of Wilkes- 
 Barre, on the Susquehanna River, and on the 
 Lehigh Valley and the Susquehanna and New 
 York railroads (Map: Pennsylvania, J 2). It 
 has a public library and fine high-school and 
 courthouse buildings. Towanda is known pri¬ 
 marily for its industrial interests, which include 
 flour/planing, and silk mills, a foundry and ma¬ 
 chine shop, dye works, and manufactories of 
 talking machines, cut glass, toys, and furniture. 
 Towanda was settled in 1770 and first incorpo¬ 
 rated in 1828. Pop., 1900, 4663; 1910, 4281. 
 
 TOWER (AS. tur, from Lat. turris, Gk. 
 rvppLs, tyrris, rvpcns, tyrsis, tower). Generally, 
 a building higher than its horizontal dimensions. 
 In antiquity the tower was used chiefly as a 
 lookout or for defense and occasionally for light¬ 
 house purposes, though the form of those build¬ 
 ings is not accurately known. In connection 
 with ancient and mediaeval fortifications the 
 term is applied to structures but little higher 
 than the adjacent walls. A special form of for¬ 
 tress tower was the keep or donjon (q.v.). In 
 mediaeval Italy strong lookout towers were often 
 erected by powerful families in the cities, and 
 those of Bologna (Garisenda, Asinelli, etc.) and 
 San Gimignano are still standing. The civic 
 belfries of Bruges, Ghent, and other Flemish 
 cities were not merely bell towers, but visible 
 tokens of municipal or communal liberties and 
 privileges. In the Far East the tower is asso¬ 
 ciated with the double purpose of commemora¬ 
 tion and religious sacrifice, in such buildings as 
 the stupa and tope (q.v.) of southern Asia and 
 the paoh-tah or octagonal tower of China. The 
 lofty wooden pagodas connected with the tem¬ 
 ples of Japan are emblematic and commemora¬ 
 tive features of the temple group aiid no more. 
 
TOWER 
 
 381 TOWER OF LONDON 
 
 (For the wide use of the tower in Mohammedan 
 architecture, see Minaret.) The round towers 
 of Ireland, long the subject of animated con¬ 
 troversy, have such small window openings that 
 
 j. r were not intended as bell 
 
 towers, t hey are very slender, high, and costly 
 in comparison with the humble churches which 
 stand near them; and the soundest conclusion 
 seems to be that they were intended partly as 
 watchtowers, partly as places for the deposit 
 of valuables in the case of sudden forays. In 
 the Christian world the tower appears in Italy 
 at an early time and at least as early as the 
 eighth centu^, perhaps in the sixth, in the two 
 round bell towers at Ravenna of San Apollinare 
 Kuovo and San Apollinare in Classe. In Italy 
 the detached and separate tower (see Campa¬ 
 nile) held its own until the complete disap¬ 
 pearance of mediaeval architecture in the fif¬ 
 teenth century, and many of the civic towers 
 of the Italian cities rival those of the great 
 churches; but in northern Europe it is found 
 incorporated with the main structure of the 
 church at a period at least as early as the 
 eleventh century. The tower generally stands 
 upon the ground, with its vertical lines easily 
 seen from foundation to summit; and this re¬ 
 mains true throughout the Middle Ages, except 
 for the central towers of the cruciform churches. 
 
 I lie last-named towers are built over the open 
 interior and are supported on four great arches 
 or groups of arches, spanning the four sides 
 of the crossing of nave and transept. Nearly 
 all of these' towers were originally designed to 
 carry lofty spires (q.v.), but in many cases these 
 were never built. 
 
 The complete Gothic cathedral was intended 
 to have seven towers—two to the west front, 
 four to the transept fronts, and one over the 
 crossing. (See Bell Tower; Belfry; Cam¬ 
 panile; Leaning Tower; Minaret.) These 
 mediaeval towers and spires are among the most 
 impressive and beautiful features of the Old 
 Y\ orld architecture. The Renaissance developed 
 several types of tower and steeple, especially in 
 England after 1650, whence the Wren-Gibbs 
 type was carried into American Colonial church 
 architecture. There are a few fine Renaissance 
 tow r ers in Italy, notably that of San Giorgio 
 Maggiore at Venice; hardly any in France or 
 Germany. Modern towers of note (apart from 
 such monuments as those of Bunker Hill and 
 Washington) are not numerous. The loftiest is 
 the Eiffel Tower at Paris (1889), of steel, 300 
 meters (980 feet) high, used as a scientific ob¬ 
 servatory; the tower of the Sacre Cceur on 
 Montmartre, Paris; the Victoria Tower of the 
 London Houses of Parliament; and the church 
 towers completed in modern times in Germany. 
 (See Spire.) Some tall office buildings (q.v.) 
 in the United States are really lofty towers. 
 Consult: Charles Wickes, Spires and Towers of 
 Mediceval Churches of England (3 vols., London, 
 1859) ; Conrad Sutter, Thurmbuch: Thurmformen 
 alter Stile und Lander (2d ed., Berlin, 1895) ; 
 A. P. Heywood, Bell Towers and Bell Ringing 
 (New York, 1914) ; W. G. Rice, Carillons of 
 Belgium and Holland (ib., 1914). See Leaning 
 Tower. 
 
 TOWER, tou'er, Charlemagne (1848- ). 
 
 An American capitalist and diplomat, born in 
 Philadelphia. He was educated at Harvard. 
 From 1882 to 1887 he was president of the 
 Duluth and Iron Range Railroad and managing 
 director of the Minnesota Iron Company. He 
 
 then removed to Philadelphia, whe*re during the 
 next 10 years he was an ofiicer in various im¬ 
 portant corporations. He was United States 
 Minister to Austria-Hungary from 1897 to 1899 
 and was Ambassador to Russia from 1899 to 
 1902 and to Germany from 1902 to 1908. He 
 published: The Marquis de La Fayette in the 
 American Revolution (2 vols., 1895); Catalogue 
 of a Collection of American Colonial Laws 
 (1890) ; Essays I'olitical and Historical (1914). 
 
 TOWER, William Lawrence (1872- ). 
 
 An American zoologist, born at Halifax, Mass. 
 He was educated at the Lawrence Scientific 
 School (Harvard), the Harvard Graduate 
 School, and the University of Chicago (B.S., 
 1902), where he taught thereafter, becoming 
 associate professor in 1911. He did important 
 experimental work in heredity, investigating es¬ 
 pecially the laws of heredity in beetles and "pub¬ 
 lishing An Investigation of Evolution in Chrys- 
 omelid Beetles of the Genus Leptinotarsa (1906). 
 He published also The Development of the Colors 
 and Color Patterns of Coleoptera (1903) and, 
 with Coulter, Castle, Davenport, and East, an 
 essay on Heredity and Eugenics (1912). 
 
 TOWER, Zealous Bates (1819-1900). An 
 American soldier, born at Cohasset, Mass. He 
 graduated with first honors at West Point in 
 1841, served under General Scott in the Mexican 
 War, led the storming column at Contreras, and 
 was wounded at Chapultepec. At the outbreak 
 of the Civil V ar he was chief engineer in the de¬ 
 fense of Fort Pickens. In November, 1861, he 
 was made brigadier general of volunteers and on 
 Aug. 30, 1862, was severely wounded at Manas¬ 
 sas. After recovering he was superintendent of 
 West Point from July until September,. 1864. 
 He then became chief engineer of the defenses of 
 Nashville, Tenn., and his skillful work at that 
 Place contributed to the total defeat of General 
 Hood in December, 1864. He was brevetted 
 major general in the United States army in 
 March, 1865, and in November of that year be¬ 
 came lieutenant colonel in the Engineer Corps. 
 He was promoted colonel in January, 1874, and 
 retired in 1883. 
 
 TOWER BRIDGE. A drawbridge spanning 
 the Thames just below the Tower of London^, 
 opened in 1894. The carriage way, at a height 
 of 29% feet, consists of two approaches of 270 
 feet and a central span of 200 feet, with a ris¬ 
 ing draw formed by twin bascules, which can be 
 raised in a minute and a half. There is an 
 elevated footway above the draw, which is used 
 when the draw is open, 142 feet above the river, 
 reached by elevators and stairs. The Gothic 
 towers are of steel and masonry. The cost was 
 over £1,000,000. 
 
 TOWER CLOCKS. See Clock. 
 
 TOWER HILL. An elevation northwest of 
 the Tower of London, formerly the public place 
 of execution for persons sentenced for treason. 
 Here many of the most noted men of England 
 were put to death, their bodies being buried in 
 the adjacent chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula. 
 TOWER OF BABEL. See Babel, Tower of 
 TOWER OF LONDON. In feudal davs a 
 powerful fortress and long afterward a state 
 prison of gloomy memories. It is now a govern¬ 
 ment storehouse and armory. It is a collection 
 of buildings in the form of‘an irregular quadri¬ 
 lateral on the north bank of the Thames, and on 
 the east side of the city of London. The space 
 occupied is between 12 and 13 acres of rising 
 ground, and the whole is surrounded by a broad 
 
TOWER OF LONDON 382 TOWERS OF SILENCE 
 
 but shallow moat, now dry. The moat is bor¬ 
 dered within by a lofty castellated wall, with 
 massive flanking' towers at frequent intervals. 
 Within this wall rises another of similar con¬ 
 struction, but of greater height, within which 
 are the various barracks and armories; and in 
 the centre of all is the lofty keep or donjon 
 known as the White Tower. This last-named 
 building, erected by the Bishop of Rochester 
 in the time of William the Conqueror, is the 
 most interesting in the whole structure. Its 
 walls are in parts 16 feet thick and of solid 
 masonry. The White Tower was the court of 
 the Plantagenet kings, whereas the various other 
 towers are principally noteworthy on account 
 of the illustrious prisoners who have been con¬ 
 fined in them. The southeast angle of this tower 
 is occupied in its upper part by the chapel of 
 St. John, the oldest place of worship in London, 
 a perfect example of the early Anglo-Norman 
 style. The rest of this tower is occupied by the 
 old state apartments and the royal Armory, 
 which contains a collection of ancient and 
 medieval arms and armor, the latter exhibited 
 in complete suits on wooden figures of men and 
 horses. Some of these figures represent English 
 kings arrayed in the armor which the kings 
 actually wore while living. The Wakefield Tower 
 contains the Jewel Office, in which are exhibited 
 the magnificent crown jewels, sceptre orb, and 
 some of the royal gold service. To the Jewel 
 Office and the Armory visitors are admitted on 
 payment of a small fee. In the northwest cor¬ 
 ner of the quadrangle is St. Peter’s Chapel, now 
 the garrison church. 
 
 Early writers have alleged that Julius Csesar 
 built the Tower of London as a Roman fortress. 
 The spot was in fact occupied by some structure 
 before the time of William the Conqueror, as is 
 shown by the massive foundations discovered in 
 the course of later erections; but of the nature 
 of these earlier buildings we know little. The 
 White Tower, already mentioned, is the begin¬ 
 ning of the historical Tower of London. During 
 the reigns of the first two Norman kings the 
 Tower seems to have been used as a fortress 
 merely. In Henry I’s time it was already a 
 state prison. That monarch and his successors 
 gradually increased the size and strength of the 
 ramparts and towers, until the whole became a 
 great feudal stronghold. The kings frequently 
 lived there, holding their courts, and often sus¬ 
 taining sieges and blockades at the hands of 
 their rebellious subjects. On the accession of 
 Queen Elizabeth, however, the Tower ceased to 
 be a palace. Of the long list of executions for 
 political offenses which it witnessed, those occur¬ 
 ring during the war which began in 1914 were 
 the first after those of the rebellion of 1745. 
 
 In 1841 a fire broke out in the Bowyer Tower, 
 and extended to the armories, causing the de¬ 
 struction of numerous modern buildings and 
 many thousand arms. At present the Tower of 
 London is in charge of the War Department and 
 contains arms and accoutrements for the com¬ 
 plete equipment of a large army. The mint and 
 public records were formerly kept in it, but have 
 now been removed to more suitable buildings. 
 The government of the Tower is vested in a 
 constable, who has great privileges and is usu¬ 
 ally a military officer of long service and dis¬ 
 tinguished rank, whose position is honorary; the 
 deputy constable, also an officer of repute, is the 
 actual governor. He has under him a small 
 staff and the corps of yeomen of the guard, more 
 
 commonly known as beefeaters. See Beef¬ 
 eater. 
 
 Bibliography. J. W. Bayley, History and 
 Antiquities of the Tower of London (2 vols., 
 London, 1825) ; W. H. Dixon, Her Majesty’s 
 Tower (2 vols., New York, 1901) ; Violet Brooke- 
 Hunt, Prisoners of the Tower of London (Lon¬ 
 don, 1901) ; Lord Gower, The Tower of London 
 (2 vols., ib., 1901-02) ; William Benham, The 
 Tower of London, ‘‘Portfolio Monographs,” No. 
 47 (ib., 1906) ; C. G. Harper, The Tower of 
 London: Fortress, Palace and Prison (ib., 1909) ; 
 Richard Davey, The Tower of London (ib., 
 1910) ; Rene Francis, The Tower of London 
 (Philadelphia, 1915). 
 
 TOWER OF THE WINDS. An octagonal 
 building, north of the Acropolis of Athens, be¬ 
 longing to the second or first century b.c., 42 
 feet high and 26 feet in diameter, bearing on the 
 upper part of each side the sculptured symbol 
 of a wind. It was originally surmounted by a 
 bronze weathercock in the form of a Triton. Be¬ 
 sides indicating the direction of the wind, the 
 exterior walls were marked to serve as a sun¬ 
 dial, and there appears to have been within the 
 tower a water clock, the method of operating 
 which has not been clearly ascer¬ 
 tained. It is also called the Clep¬ 
 sydra of Andronicus Cvrrhestes. 
 
 1 TOWER SHELL. One of the 
 elongated, tightly coiled shells of 
 the gastropods of the family Tur- 
 ritellidee, allied to Vermetus (see 
 Worm Shell), about 131 species 
 of which are known from the 
 warmer seas, and many fossil 
 forms. Most of them are covered 
 with a brownish epidermis, which, 
 when removed, exhibits a delicately 
 sculptured and often finely colored 
 surface. Only the lower part of the spiral is 
 occupied by the adult animal, the distal half 
 of the shell being partitioned off. 
 
 TOWERS OF SILENCE. The structures 
 upon which the Parsis (q.v.) and Ghebers (q.v.) 
 expose the bodies of their dead to be devoured by 
 vultures, or sometimes dogs, in accordance with 
 the precepts of their religion as taught by Zo¬ 
 roaster (q.v.). The prescription for building 
 these structures is as old as the Avesta (q.v.), 
 where they are called Dakhmas. The best mod¬ 
 ern specimens are to be seen on Malabar Hill, 
 Bombay, India, and across the Bombay harbor 
 at Ooran; there is also one near Teheran and 
 another near Yezd in Persia, where the ruins 
 of a deserted tower are likewise to be seen. 
 Though the older shape of the Dakhmas seems 
 to have been rectangular, the modern towers are 
 circular. The best constructed are of massive 
 stone or of bricks covered with cement. They 
 are 20 or 30 feet high, 75 to 100 in diameter, 
 and they resemble huge gas reservoirs in form, 
 with a small door at one side for the entrance of 
 the bodies. The top is open to the sky; the 
 floor below is built of large slabs of stone; in 
 each slab is a slight depression, called a pavi, in 
 which the body is laid for the “heaven-sent birds” 
 to devour. Small ducts lead from every pavi into 
 the central pit where the bones are placed after 
 they have been denuded of flesh by the vultures, 
 which is often accomplished in a few hours. 
 From this central well there run four drains, 
 at right angles, to carry away any deposit that 
 might remain and conduct it through quick¬ 
 lime, sand, and other absorbents lest the earth 
 
TOWHEE 
 
 TOWN HALL 
 
 might be defiled by its contact. Herodotus 
 (Hist., i, 140) alludes to this method of dispos¬ 
 ing of the dead in ancient Iran, and the Zoroas- 
 trians, who still keep up the practice, maintain 
 that it is a solution of the sanitary question. 
 Consult: D. Karaka, Histcn'y of the Parsis (2 
 vols., London, 1884) ; Modi, A Tower of Silence 
 (Bombay, 1885) ; id., Funeral Ceremonies of the 
 Parsees: Their Origin and Explanation (2d ed., 
 ib., 1905) ; A. V. W. Jackson, Persia Past and 
 Present (New York, 1906). 
 
 TOWHEE. See Chewink. 
 
 TOWLE, tol, George Makepeace (1841-93). 
 An American historian and journalist, born in 
 Washington, D. C. He graduated at Yale in 
 1861 and at the Harvard Law School in 1863 
 and practiced law in Boston. He was United 
 States Consul at Nantes (1866-68) and at Brad¬ 
 ford, England (1868-70), was managing editor 
 of the Boston Commercial Bulletin (1870-71), 
 foreign editor of the Boston Post (1871-76), 
 and later was connected with Appleton’s Jour¬ 
 nal, the Art Journal, and the Youth’s Compan¬ 
 ion. His works include: History of Henry the 
 Fifth , King of England (1866); The Eastern 
 Question (1877); Principalities of the Danube 
 ( 1877); Beaconsfield (1878); Young Folks’ 
 Heroes of History (1878-82); Modern France, 
 1851-79 (1879) ; Certain Men of Mark (1880) ; 
 England and Russia in Asia (1885); England 
 in Egypt (1885); Young People’s History of 
 England (1886); Young People’s History of 
 Ireland (1887J. 
 
 TOWN (AS. tun, OHG. ziin, Ger. Zaun, 
 hedge, inclosure; connected with Ir. dun, Welsh 
 din, hill fort). The name applied generally 
 throughout the Punted States to small munici¬ 
 palities or urban communities between the vil¬ 
 lage and the city. In New England it more often 
 denotes a quasi-corporate area, either urban or 
 rural, constituting a subdivision of the county, 
 which elsewhere is usually called the town¬ 
 ship or supervisor’s district. (For the urban 
 town, see Municipality, or Municipal Corpo¬ 
 ration.) The New England town is the most 
 important local administrative unit in the gov¬ 
 ernmental system. The centre of political activ¬ 
 ity is the town meeting, which meets usually 
 once a year and may be attended by all the legal 
 voters of the town. It discusses measures of 
 common interest to the town, elects the town 
 officers, and votes the taxes for the ensuing year. 
 The government of the New England town is 
 therefore a pure democracy and the only real 
 example of the kind in the American political 
 system. The town meeting governs through a 
 body of officers, varying according to the needs 
 of the community. These are usually the select¬ 
 men, varying in number from three to nine, who 
 are the executive magistrates of the town, the 
 town clerk, treasurer, constables, tax assessors, 
 overseers of the poor, and school trustees. In 
 some towns there are such officers as field drivers, 
 pound keepers, fence viewers, measurers, sealers, 
 etc. In England the word “town” applies to the 
 small municipalities as in the United States, 
 although the word “borough” is used to designate 
 certain of the old towns. See Township. Con¬ 
 sult: Edward Channing, Town and County Gov¬ 
 ernment in the English Colonies of North Amer¬ 
 ica (New York, 1884) ; J. A. Fairlie, Local Gov¬ 
 ernment "in Counties, Toions and- Villages (ib., 
 1906) ; Bryce, American Commonwealth (new 
 ed., 2 vols., ib., 1910) ; C. A. Beard, Readings in 
 American Government and Politics (ib., 1914). 
 
 TOWN CROSS. See Cross. 
 
 TOWN, Itiiiel (1784-1844). An American 
 architect, born at Thompson, Conn. In partner¬ 
 ship with Alexander J. Davis he opened an office 
 in New Pork City in 1829, and with him de¬ 
 signed the old State capitol (demolished) of 
 Connecticut at New Haven, the capitols of In¬ 
 diana and North Carolina, the former city hall 
 at Hartford, Conn., and several interesting 
 churches in New Haven and Hartford. Town 
 built also several government buildings at Wash¬ 
 ington and a number of bridges, including one 
 over the James River near Richmond, Va. His 
 works represent the transition from the expir¬ 
 ing Georgian style to the Greek and Graeco-Ro¬ 
 man types of the Classical Revival in America. 
 They reveal a refined taste both in composition 
 and in detail. He was one of the original mem¬ 
 bers of the National Academy of Design, New 
 York. A large part of his extensive library on 
 art went to Yale College. His publications in¬ 
 clude Description of Improvements in the Con¬ 
 struction of Bridges .(1821) and Atlantic Steam¬ 
 ships (1838). 
 
 TOWNE, Henry Robinson (1844- ). 
 
 An American manufacturer, born in Philadel¬ 
 phia. He studied at the University of Penn¬ 
 sylvania in 1861—62 and then became a drafts¬ 
 man for the Port Richmond Iron Works. In 
 1863-66, for the national government, he had 
 charge of work on gunboats and monitors. In 
 1868 he became associated with Linus Yale in 
 the manufacture of locks and after Yale’s death 
 in 1868 became president of the Yale & Towne 
 Manufacturing Company at Stamford, Conn. 
 In 1889 he was president of the American So¬ 
 ciety of Mechanical Engineers and in 1908-13 
 of the Merchants’ Association of New York. 
 He wrote A Treatise on Cranes (1883) and 
 Locks and Builders’ Hardware (1904). 
 
 TOWNELEY, Charles (1737-1805). An 
 English archaeologist and collector of classical 
 antiquities. He was born at Burnley, Lanca¬ 
 shire, was educated at Douai College and under 
 the tutorship of John Tuberville Needham. 
 Upon visiting Rome and Florence, in 1765, he 
 became interested in antiquities, which, after 
 receiving advice from Winckelmann and other 
 archaeologists, he began to collect in 1768. In 
 1772 he bought two houses in Park Street, West¬ 
 minster, London, where he deposited his col¬ 
 lection. He made frequent visits to Rome and 
 until 1780 continued to add to his acquisitions, 
 including the Nollekens (q.v.) collection. In 
 1786 he was chosen a member of the Society of 
 Dilettanti and in 1791 trustee of the British 
 Museum. After his death his marbles and terra 
 cottas were purchased by the British Museum 
 for £20,000, and in 1814 his bronzes, coins, gems, 
 and drawings were also acquired. His collec¬ 
 tions in the Museum are described and illus¬ 
 trated by Ellis, Townley Gallery (London, 1846). 
 
 TOWN HALL. A building for the legislative 
 and administrative business of a town or city, 
 containing usually the public offices of the mayor 
 and various municipal administrations, and the 
 chambers for the meetings of the legislative 
 bodies of the city (aldermen, council, etc.). In 
 small towns court rooms and a jail are added, 
 and a large public hall is also often provided. 
 A belfry and clock tower is a feature of nearly 
 all French, German, Flemish, and British town 
 halls and of many of the more notable American 
 examples. The French include a salle des ma- 
 riages in their town halls and treat with cs- 
 
TOWNLEY 
 
 384 TOWN PLANNING AND HOUSING 
 
 pecial effectiveness the entrances, lobbies, and 
 grand stairways. 
 
 The oldest examples of the town hall in Eu¬ 
 rope belong to the Middle Ages. They date from 
 the time of recognition of the right of municipal 
 self-government, of which they are the expres¬ 
 sion. In southern France the town hall of Saint- 
 Antonin (twelfth century) is one of the oldest 
 in Europe. In Italy there grew up by the thir¬ 
 teenth century almost as many states as cities, 
 each of which provided itself in time with one 
 or more municipal buildings according to its par¬ 
 ticular form of administration. Of these the 
 greater part date from the late thirteenth and 
 the fourteenth centuries, some of the most im¬ 
 portant being those at Cremona (1245) ; at Siena 
 the superb red-brick Palazzo Pubblico with its 
 slender tower (1289) ; at Pistoia the two palaces 
 del Podesta and del Communale (1294-1385) ; at 
 Florence the vast Palazzo Vecchio (1298), with 
 its impressive tower overhanging the street; 
 the Doge’s Palace at Venice; the elegant Palazzo 
 del Consiglio at Verona (1473). The Renais¬ 
 sance added but few to the Italian list. In 
 Germany the Rathaus, or municipal council 
 house, appears in the fourteenth century (e.g., 
 Brunswick), but the finest and most numerous 
 examples belong to the Renaissance, as at 
 Bremen, Cologne, Liibeck, Altenburg, Augsburg, 
 and Nuremberg, with picturesque towers and 
 high gables. Very notable are the sumptuously 
 ornate Belgian town halls of the fourteenth and 
 fifteenth centuries at Brussels, Louvain, Ghent, 
 Bruges, Courtrai, Arras in France (destroyed in 
 the Great War), and Oudenarde, and the fine 
 Renaissance structure at Antwerp. But few 
 mediaeval town halls remain in France, that of 
 Compiegne being the finest (late fifteenth cen¬ 
 tury ). 
 
 The Renaissance gave France the fine town 
 halls of Beaugency, Rheims, Rouen, Lyons, and 
 Paris, the last two now replaced by modern edi¬ 
 fices, recalling the original structures. The 
 Paris example is the largest and most splendid 
 of modern town halls, especially in its interior 
 decorations. In Great Britain it was not until 
 the nineteenth century that the town hall be¬ 
 came important; it forms one of the most in¬ 
 teresting and successful subjects of recent archi¬ 
 tectural design, as, e.g., at Sheffield and at Ox¬ 
 ford. The town hall at Hamburg is the finest 
 of recent German works in the same line, far 
 superior to the modern Gothic town hall at 
 Vienna. 
 
 In the United States the Philadelphia city 
 hall is the largest and ugliest of modern exam¬ 
 ples; that at New York, dating from 1809, one 
 of the most refined and elegant. The earlier 
 town halls of the United States follow Colonial 
 or “Greek revival” models; the later ones are in 
 
 the stvle of the French Renaissance or in what 
 */ 
 
 may be called the neo-Roman style. Early in 
 the twentieth century the tower or skyscraper 
 type came into use for town halls (e.g., Los 
 Angeles, Cal.) and municipal offices (Municipal 
 Building, New York). See Municipal Archi¬ 
 tecture. 
 
 TOWNLEY, James (1714-78). An English 
 clergyman and dramatist, born in Barking, near 
 London. He was educated at the Merchant Tay¬ 
 lors’ School, London, and at St. John’s College, 
 Oxford. After holding various preferments in 
 the Church, lie was appointed, in 1760, head 
 master of the Merchant Taylors’ School and in 
 1772-77 was vicar of Hendon in Middlesex. He 
 
 is best remembered as the author of the satirical 
 farce High Life below Stairs (Drurv Lane, Oct. 
 31, 1759), which has been translated into French 
 and German and has been performed throughout 
 the world. It was formerly attributed to Gar¬ 
 rick. Two other farces written by Townley did 
 not succeed. Consult J. Genest, Some Account 
 of the English Stage, vol. iv (Bath, 1832). 
 
 TOWNLEY, James (1774-1833). An Eng¬ 
 lish minister of the Wesleyan denomination. He 
 was born in Manchester. He was president of 
 the Wesleyan Conference in 1829. As a scholar 
 he was second only to Adam Clarke in the de¬ 
 nomination. His most important work was 
 Illustrations of Biblical Literature, Exhibiting 
 the History and Fate of the Sacred Writings, 
 Including Notices of Translators and Other Emi¬ 
 nent Biblical Scholars (3 vols., 1821; 2 vols., 
 1842). 
 
 TOWN PLANNING AND HOUSING. 
 
 Town planning, or city planning, and housing 
 are so closely related that one cannot be con¬ 
 sidered without reference to the other. But 
 since city planning (q.v.) has been treated in 
 the article under that title, reference to it here 
 will be merely incidental. Housing, as the 
 term is now understood, has to do with all 
 dwellings. Until comparatively recently the 
 attention of housing workers was concentrated 
 upon the dwellings of the poor. Even in Amer¬ 
 ica, where class distinctions are not so gener¬ 
 ally recognized, it began with the same attitude 
 of mind, as indicated by the word “tenement” in 
 the legislation. But the change in the United 
 States has been more rapid than in Great Brit¬ 
 ain. In the United States it was early found 
 that the popular distinction between tenement 
 house and apartment house was not tenable 
 when requiring minimum standards. Here, as 
 everywhere, it was the poor who suffered most 
 from bad housing conditions. As is not the 
 case in England, the poor in the metropolis, to 
 whom attention was first directed, lived in tall, 
 row tenement houses. Consequently it was 
 they for whose benefit the earliest efforts were 
 made. But when the first really effective law 
 was drafted, the New York Tenement House 
 Law of 1901, it was found that the minimum 
 requirements for certain fundamentals, such as 
 light and air, were greater than were provided 
 by the builders of many expensive apartment 
 houses. Since the words “tenement house” as 
 used in this law include “any house or building, 
 or portion thereof, which is rented, leased, let, 
 or hired out, to be occupied, or is occupied, as 
 the home or residence of three families or more 
 living independently of each other, and doing 
 their cooking upon the premises, or by more 
 than two families upon any floor, so living and 
 cooking,” they cover the most expensive apart¬ 
 ment houses as well as the cheapest tenements. 
 The result is that “new law” tenement houses, 
 i.e., erected since the enactment of the Law 
 of 1901, on the lower east side are better lighted 
 and ventilated than many “old law” apartment 
 houses in fashionable districts. 
 
 The long struggle to secure effective housing 
 legislation in New York attracted attention 
 throughout the country, and many other cities 
 enacted tenement-house legislation based upon 
 that of the metropolis, though the worst of 
 their housing was to be found not in multiple 
 dwellings but in unsanitary shacks and hovels. 
 Once these cities had passed beyond the purely 
 imitative stage and had begun to study their 
 
TOWN PLANNING AND HOUSING 385 TOWN PLANNING AND HOUSING 
 
 needs, they discovered that what they required 
 was not tenement-house regulation applicable 
 only to the type of dwelling prevalent on Man¬ 
 hattan, but housing regulation applicable to 
 all dwellings. The first American city to act 
 upon this discovery was Columbus, Ohio, which 
 in 1911 passed an ordinance that covers one 
 and two-family houses as well as tenement 
 houses. Since then the application has been 
 made still wider, and the later codes cover “any 
 house or building or portion thereof which is 
 occupied in whole or in part as the home, resi¬ 
 dence, or sleeping place of one or more human 
 beings, either permanently or transiently.” 
 (Housing Ordinance, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 
 1914.) 
 
 Relation of Town Planning and Housing. 
 Further study of the housing problem showed 
 that even this was not sufficient. Regulation 
 of individual houses, essential as it is, cannot 
 alone produce housing of the standard now de¬ 
 manded. So the housing worker has been drawn 
 into city planning. The size and shape of lots 
 are matters of first importance to him, for 
 these influence the type and character of the 
 dwelling; and size and shape of lots are largely 
 determined by the size and shape of blocks, 
 i.e., by the direction and arrangement of streets. 
 Many other problems of city planning also 
 have a direct effect upon housing, as, e.g., that 
 of transportation. Good and cheap transporta¬ 
 tion makes larger areas accessible and so per¬ 
 mits of spreading out the population in houses 
 of good type; inadequate or expensive trans¬ 
 portation causes the population to crowd near 
 the centre and raises land values so that only 
 closely packed and multiple dwellings will yield 
 a profit. 
 
 The fundamental trouble in the past, that 
 which it is most anxiously sought to prevent 
 in the future, is land overcrowding. This has 
 been almost universal in cities. The convenience 
 of living near the centre, even with modern 
 means of transportation, is the temptation 
 which leads first to overcrowding the land with 
 buildings until adequate open space even for 
 lighting and ventilating the rooms is sacrificed, 
 then to the erection of high multiple dwellings 
 that pile one family above another. 
 
 Fortunately the superintensive use of land by 
 the erection of multiple dwellings is not univer¬ 
 sal. In some countries the multiple dwelling 
 is almost unknown. Even on the continent of 
 Europe Holland and Belgium, despite their 
 dense populations, have escaped it, while in 
 the British Isles England remains essentially 
 a nation of families living in single houses, 
 though Scotland has followed the French tradi¬ 
 tion and put its people into high tenement 
 houses or landes. The United States and Can¬ 
 ada in recent years have shown an inclination 
 to follow continental precedents, but, except 
 in the neighborhood of New York and in New 
 England, wffiere the wooden “three-decker” has 
 obtained a strong foothold, our cities are not 
 of a predominantly tenement character, while 
 some, even among the oldest, like Philadelphia 
 and Baltimore, have refused to welcome the 
 multiple dwelling. 
 
 In none, however, have we escaped other ills 
 which go with unregulated growth. Philadel¬ 
 phia packs its little houses together so closely 
 that in some of the oldest districts there is 
 scarcely room for a narrow passageway to the 
 doors of dwellings that occupy what once were 
 
 back yards. There is no space here, either in¬ 
 doors or out, for proper toilets, several families 
 being compelled to use one convenience, often a 
 filthy privy, placed at the far end of the nar¬ 
 row passageway and directly under the win¬ 
 dows of the end houses. Baltimore, Washing¬ 
 ton, many of the Southern cities, even Chi¬ 
 cago, have alley dwellings placed on the rear 
 of lots. Unsanitary conditions; filthy dilapi¬ 
 dated privies, surface drainage for all house¬ 
 hold waste water, decaying accumulations of 
 garbage and other refuse, windowless rooms, 
 cellar dwellings, room overcrowding, prevail to 
 an extent which no city will believe until in¬ 
 vestigation has produced facts and pictures. 
 (Consult lists of reports on housing conditions 
 in American cities, National Municipal Revieio, 
 October, 1912, and January, 1914.) Even in 
 small cities, in towns, in villages these con¬ 
 ditions abound. 
 
 American cities and towns are in no way 
 peculiar in this respect. Descriptions of con¬ 
 ditions found in neglected sections of European 
 cities and towns, and in those of Australia, might, 
 with change of names, almost be substituted 
 for the descriptions of those found in America. 
 The results of ignorance and neglect, of taking 
 the profit of the moment without regard for the 
 future, have everywhere been the same. 
 
 Housing Movement in Europe and Amer¬ 
 ica. Public concern for housing is not wholly 
 modern, though the thorough study we are now 
 giving it and the effective measures we are be¬ 
 ginning to use are comparatively recent. Eber- 
 stadt, in his Handbuch des Wohungswesens, 
 states that in Rome in the later period of the 
 Empire a population of between one and two 
 millions was huddled in tenement barracks of 
 many stories. There were 46,602 of these at 
 one time as against 1780 patrician houses. The 
 northern barbarians who overran the Empire 
 were not accustomed to the closely packed 
 cities of the south, but what they found they 
 adopted, and during the Middle Ages, urged 
 by the necessity for keeping their increasing 
 populations behind expensive city walls, even 
 the towns of Germany subdivided their lots 
 and made houses narrower and narrower, cling¬ 
 ing to the single family house despite pressure 
 of population. The time came, however, when 
 these old houses must be shared by two or more 
 families, and finally, in the sixteenth century, 
 the tenement house was introduced from Italy 
 to become the characteristic dwelling of the 
 middle and lower classes. 
 
 From early times there have been building 
 regulations both on the Continent and in the 
 British Isles. But these dealt chiefly, as do 
 present American building codes, with the pro¬ 
 tection of property. The need of light and air 
 and cleanliness was scarcely recognized until 
 modern times. So the cities grew more crowded 
 and cleanliness was scarcely recognized until the 
 industrial era, with its great expansion of urban 
 populations, made conditions in towns so un¬ 
 endurable that serious attention was given to 
 making cities fit for people to live in. 
 
 England, as the first industrial nation, was 
 perhaps the first to feel the need for regula¬ 
 tion which would safeguard the dwellings of 
 its people. Writers with a social vision like 
 Dickens, statesmen like Disraeli, saw the men¬ 
 ace to the nation if conditions were not bet¬ 
 tered. Parliament passed a series of acts giv¬ 
 ing greater and greater powers to public offi- 
 
TOWN PLANNING AND HOUSING 386 TOWN PLANNING AND HOUSING 
 
 cials in the regulation of private property until 
 in the Housing and Town Planning Act, etc., 
 1909, was enacted a constructive measure which 
 made possible the prevention of future slums 
 by permitting local authorities to town-plan un¬ 
 developed areas and impose regulations which 
 would maintain wholesome standards. This 
 act, it was admitted, met but part of the prob¬ 
 lem, leaving as it did the already built upon 
 areas to be dealt with only according to the 
 fragmentary legislation of the past. Germany 
 was more prompt than England to recognize 
 the social significance of the industrial era. 
 As it came to Germany later than to England, 
 Germany had the advantage of seeing its effects 
 before these had become a part of the national 
 life. Moreover, the nearly universal military 
 service of German youth brought more vividly 
 to the attention of the authorities the evil ef¬ 
 fect of bad housing in the rapidly growing in¬ 
 dustrial cities. So regulation of urban de¬ 
 velopment and of housing was quicker and 
 more effective than in England. The results 
 of German thoroughness in this as in other 
 phases of municipal life have been recognized 
 by both American and English students who 
 have frequently called attention to the non¬ 
 existence in German cities of the sordid, de¬ 
 pressing slums of American and British in¬ 
 dustrial centres. But Germany has not yet 
 solved its housing problems, as men like Ru¬ 
 dolph Eberstadt, Bernhard Dernburg, and 
 Werner Hegemann freely admit. “Berlin,” e.g., 
 houses “nearly one-half of its population in 
 one-room dwellings in tall tenements crowded 
 around one or more internal courts.” 
 
 Tiie Germans have come to see that the funda¬ 
 mental defect in their housing is the type of 
 building, the barrack tenement which they 
 adopted from Italy in the sixteenth century. 
 Their first efforts in town planning and hous¬ 
 ing reform accepted this type. The desire there 
 was to produce an imposing, a beautiful, and 
 sanitary city. Wide boulevards, impressive 
 public buildings and open spaces, and model 
 tenements engaged their attention. Now they 
 see that wide paved residence streets impose 
 burdens on abutting property which practically 
 necessitate high multiple dwellings, that wide 
 spaces between streets lead to the building of 
 rear tenements about interior courts, and that 
 the model tenement, no matter what advan¬ 
 tages it may offer in the way of kindergartens 
 for the children of the tenants or common rooms 
 for the tenants themselves, is not to be com¬ 
 pared in social value with the single family 
 house. 
 
 Unfortunately, however, the coming of the 
 tenement raises land values so that the single 
 family house becomes economically impossible. 
 Land in German cities is 8 or 10 times as costly 
 as in corresponding sections of English cities, 
 where the single family house is the rule. (Pehl- 
 mann.) Yet the Germans have set themselves 
 to the task of encouraging the erection of single 
 family houses and discouraging the erection of 
 tenement houses. They have begun by seeking 
 regulations which will limit the height of dwell¬ 
 ings and the proportion of the lot that may be 
 occupied, thereby reducing the value of a par¬ 
 ticular lot, but spreading this value over areas 
 which under the system of close tenement build¬ 
 ing would lie undeveloped for many years. 
 
 The improvement of housing conditions is a 
 matter of public concern in all countries of 
 
 western Europe, but the examples of Germany 
 and Great Britain may be taken as illustrative. 
 
 In America the housing awakening dates 
 back to about 1910, though in some of the 
 older cities, notably New York, housing re¬ 
 form has been a vital issue since the middle 
 of the nineteenth century. In 1900 Governor 
 Roosevelt appointed a commission, headed by 
 Robert W. deForest, which secured the enact¬ 
 ment of a law which worked almost a trans¬ 
 formation in the plans of multiple dwellings 
 and provided for effective enforcement by the 
 creation of a Tenement House Department. 
 One and two-family houses were not included 
 in its scope—a matter of increasing importance, 
 since the city extended its boundaries to take 
 in Brooklyn, Queens, and Richmond. This part 
 of the problem was being approached along 
 city-planning lines and in the proposal to dis¬ 
 trict the city, applying different regulations to 
 the different districts. 
 
 METHODS USED 
 
 As the housing problem is most complicated, 
 many methods are used in its solution. Among 
 these are: regulation, setting definite minimum 
 standards; districting or zoning, setting pro¬ 
 gressively higher standards for new develop¬ 
 ments; the creation of garden suburbs. or vil¬ 
 lages; the building of improved dwellings on 
 a limited dividend basis; and the social man¬ 
 agement of wage earners’ dwellings. 
 
 Regulation. Regulation is recognized as an 
 essential in all the countries where serious ef¬ 
 forts to improve housing are being made. In 
 America it first took the form of tenement- 
 house legislation. Later laws, however, cover 
 all dwellings and include: general provisions; 
 dwellings hereafter erected, light and ventila¬ 
 tion, sanitation, fire protection,, alterations, 
 maintenance, improvements, requirements and 
 remedies. 
 
 After the enactment of the New York law 
 (which applies only to cities of the first class) 
 in 1901, New Jersey enacted (1904) a similar 
 law applying to the whole State. Since then 
 other States (Connecticut, Massachusetts, In¬ 
 diana, Pennsylvania, California) have enacted 
 laws which apply to all or a large proportion 
 of their cities, and many cities have adopted 
 local ordinances of secured State laws of local 
 application. 
 
 Districting. Such general regulations must 
 necessarily be based upon existing conditions 
 in the worst sections of a city or in the worst 
 city of the State. State legislation therefore 
 usually provides that any city may raise the 
 standards it sets. It is proposed that city 
 ordinances be similarly supplemented by dis¬ 
 tricting or zoning regulations which will per¬ 
 mit of progressively higher standards being re¬ 
 quired in new districts or those further re¬ 
 moved from the old crowded centres. One of 
 the most promising features of regulation by 
 districts is the power it gives to establish new 
 industrial centres, so relieving the pressure upon 
 the old centre and permitting an increasing 
 proportion of the population to live in homes 
 of good type within easy distance of their work. 
 This is a form of regulation which has been ap¬ 
 plied in part in several cities, but was not thor¬ 
 oughly worked out until 1916, when a New York 
 City commission submitted a plan for districting 
 the metropolis. So far the efforts have been 
 
TOWN PLANNING AND HOUSING 387 TOWN PLANNING AND HOUSING 
 
 confined to height regulation and to setting 
 aside certain areas for residence purposes and 
 forbidding their invasion by business or in¬ 
 dustry. 
 
 Garden Suburbs. Simply to apply regula¬ 
 tions, which at best are negative, is not suf¬ 
 ficient, so the creation of garden suburbs or 
 villages is being undertaken. In these the lat¬ 
 est lessons of city planning are applied to se¬ 
 cure not only economy and convenience, but also 
 all those attributes of pleasant living which 
 may be grouped under the word “amenities.” 
 To the Englishman, accustomed to closely packed 
 towns where solid lines of brick buildings run un¬ 
 broken to the open country, most of the smaller 
 cities and towns of the United States and 
 the suburbs of the larger cities, with their de¬ 
 tached houses and yards, are garden cities and 
 suburbs. The limit of 8 or 10 or 12 houses 
 per acre, which he sets, is one that is scarcely 
 approached in good American developments. 
 But in the planning of the area and the archi¬ 
 tecture of the houses America is only beginning, 
 as at Forest Hills Gardens (New York) and 
 Roland Park (Baltimore), to realize the pos¬ 
 sibilities. 
 
 Improved Housing. Improved housing in¬ 
 cludes the garden suburb or village, though, 
 as used in America, the term has generally been 
 confined to the erection and social manage¬ 
 ment of dwellings, often in the older sections 
 of cities, without reference to the town planning 
 which is a characteristic of the garden com¬ 
 munity. The chief features of improved hous¬ 
 ing are careful planning of dwellings so as to 
 promote in every way the welfare of the ten¬ 
 ants, financing on a limited-dividend basis (usu¬ 
 ally 5 per cent) so that excess income is used 
 for the improvement of the dwellings or the re¬ 
 duction of rent instead of the profit of the 
 owners, and social management, which, while 
 aiming to secure a fair return upon the invest¬ 
 ment, also seeks to establish a friendly and help¬ 
 ful relationship between tenant and owner. 
 
 In all of these respects the builders of im¬ 
 proved dwellings have been of far greater serv¬ 
 ice than is indicated by the number of people 
 for whom they have provided. Alfred T. White, 
 who in 1877 erected his first group of dwellings 
 in Brooklyn, by his demonstration of the fact 
 that dwellings could be planned so as to se¬ 
 cure abundant light and air and provide proper 
 sanitary conveniences and yet pay a fair re¬ 
 turn upon the investment, brought about one of 
 the most important advances in local housing 
 regulation. (Tenement House Law, 1879.) In 
 Washington and in Philadelphia the plans of the 
 improved houses have been used by other build¬ 
 ers. But the full benefit was not secured owing 
 to the lack of an organized propaganda such 
 as that conducted in England by the Garden 
 Cities and Town Planning Association, which 
 has spread the idea from one end of the country 
 to the other. 
 
 Housing by Employers. Aside from the 
 limited-dividend companies are a considerable 
 number of corporations which have provided 
 for the housing of their employees. Some of 
 these have built villages about their plants 
 which rival in beauty the much better known 
 villages of the Cadburys (Bournville), Lever 
 Brothers (Port Sunlight), and the Rowntrees 
 (New Earswick) in England. 
 
 Copartnership. Two methods which have 
 won approval abroad have not yet been tried 
 
 in America. The copartnership companies, in 
 which the tenants by regular payments in ad¬ 
 dition to rent gradually acquire stock in the 
 company, so retiring outside capital, have ap¬ 
 parently demonstrated their value in England, 
 but up to 1916 only one attempt along similar 
 lines has been made in America. This was at 
 Billerica, Mass., and at that date was not yet 
 in full operation. 
 
 Government Aid. This method is that of 
 government loans of cash or credit, usually to 
 municipalities or to approved limited-dividend 
 companies. The details vary in different coun¬ 
 tries, but a brief description of English pro¬ 
 cedure must suffice. The money must be used 
 in the erection of workingmen’s houses (a work¬ 
 ingman is one whose annual income does not 
 exceed £160). After assuring itself that the 
 building conforms to its standards the govern¬ 
 ment will advance 85 per cent of the cost se¬ 
 cured by a first mortgage and repayable in 
 annual installments over a period of "from 20 
 to 80 years, usually 30 years. The interest 
 rate varies from 2% to 4% per cent, but is usu¬ 
 ally from 3^2 to 3% per cent. 
 
 Canada has made a beginning in government 
 aid through a provincial law which authorizes 
 cities and towns of Ontario to guarantee se¬ 
 curities of approved housing companies up to 
 85 per cent of the total value of the develop¬ 
 ment. Under this act Toronto guaranteed 
 the securities of the Toronto Housing Com¬ 
 pany, which erected several groups of dwell¬ 
 ings. In the United States there have been 
 two definite attempts to secure government aid. 
 The Massachusetts Homestead Commission in¬ 
 troduced a bill providing for the loan of State 
 money to be used in building workingmen’s 
 dwellings. The Supreme Court of the Com¬ 
 monwealth declared that this bill would be un¬ 
 constitutional, since it would involve taxation 
 for private rather than public benefit. The 
 Commission therefore prepared an amendment 
 to the constitution permitting the Legislature 
 to authorize the Commonwealth to buy and im¬ 
 prove land, build upon it, and sell the same 
 for the purpose of relieving congestion of pop¬ 
 ulation and providing homes for citizens, pro¬ 
 vided the sale was not made at less than cost. 
 This amendment was adopted by a large ma¬ 
 jority at the general election in November, 1915. 
 
 In 1915 bills were introduced in Congress 
 authorizing the loan of government money for 
 the erection of workingmen’s dwellings in the 
 District of Columbia. The amount of the loan 
 was not to exceed three-fourths of the value of 
 the property, was to be repaid within 40 years, 
 and was to bear interest not exceeding 4 per cent. 
 
 Municipal Housing. Another form of gov¬ 
 ernmental activity in Europe has not received 
 such general approval, and there is no attempt 
 in America to imitate it. This is the building 
 of dwellings by the government itself. Here 
 Germany’s experience differs from that of Eng¬ 
 land, especially in the success which has at¬ 
 tended municipal operations in Ulm. 
 
 Liverpool is the great English example of 
 government house building and management, 
 though many other English cities have under¬ 
 taken large developments. Necessary as they 
 may have been to improve sanitary and social 
 conditions, they have all been failures finan¬ 
 cially. Liverpool, however, presents a strong 
 argument even on the financial side by its 
 showing of more than compensating savings in 
 
TOWNS 
 
 TOWNSEND 
 
 388 
 
 charges for health, police, etc., as a result of 
 its housing schemes. See City Planning; 
 Housing Problem. 
 
 Bibliography. Wagner, Die Tdtigkeit der 
 Stadt Ulm (Ulm, 1903) ; G. W. W. Hangar, 
 “Housing of the Working People in the United 
 States by Employers,” in United States Bureau 
 of Labor, Bulletin No. 54 (Washington, 1904) ; 
 Budgett Meakin, Model Factories and Tillages 
 (Philadelphia, 190G) ; H. I. Triggs, Town Plan¬ 
 ning: Past, Present, and Possible (London, 
 1909); J. S. Nettlefold, Practical Housing 
 Problem, (popular ed., New York, 1910) ; Ru¬ 
 dolph Eberstadt, Handbuch der Wohnungswesens 
 und der Wohnungsfrage (Jena, 1910) ; C. M. 
 Robinson, Width and Arrangement of Streets 
 (New York, 1911) ; American Association of 
 Commerce and Trade, The Housing Problem as 
 Solved by the German City of Ulm (Berlin, 
 
 1911) ; R. M. Hurd, Principles of City Land 
 Values (3d ed., New York, 1911); Ebenezer 
 Howard, Garden Cities of Tomorrow (London, 
 
 1912) ; C. B. Purdom, The Garden City: A 
 
 Study in the Development of a Modem Toivn 
 (ib., 1913) ; H. B. Bashore, Overcrowding and 
 Defective Housing in the Rural Districts (New 
 York, 1915); John Nolen (ed.), City Plan¬ 
 ning (ib., 1915) ; G. R. Taylor, Satellite Cities 
 (ib., 1915) ; George Cadbury, Town Planning 
 (ib., 1915), with special reference to Bir¬ 
 
 mingham. Publications of commissions, societies, 
 etc.: Tenement House Department of New York 
 City, Reports (New York, 1902 et seq.) ; Na¬ 
 tional Housing Association, Proceedings (ib., 
 1911 et seq.) ; Heights of Buildings Commission, 
 Report (ib., 1913) ; National City Planning 
 
 Conference, Proceedings (London, 1914) ; New 
 York School of Philanthropy (New York, 1909 
 et seq.) ; Presidents’ Homes Commission (Wash¬ 
 ington) ; City Homes Association (Chicago) ; 
 Philadelphia Housing Commission (Philadel¬ 
 phia). Periodicals: National Municipal Review 
 (Philadelphia, quarterly) ; The Survey (New 
 York, weekly) ; The American City (ib., monthly) ; 
 Housing Betterment (ib., quarterly) ; Garden 
 Cities and Toivn Planning (London, monthly); 
 Co-Partnership (ib., monthly); Gartenstadt 
 (Berlin, monthly). 
 
 TOWNS, Charles B. ( ?- ). An Ameri¬ 
 
 can expert on drug habits. He established a 
 hospital in New York, where he successfully 
 treated persons addicted to the use of alcohol, 
 morphine, opium, tobacco, etc. Towns, who 
 visited China in 1908, opened hospitals at 
 Peking, Tientsin, and Shanghai and cured 
 4000 opium users. Having at this time fully 
 demonstrated the efficiency of his method, he 
 published it for the benefit of the medical pro¬ 
 fession. He was author of the restrictive drug 
 legislative act of New York, known as the 
 Boylan Law, which was enacted in 1914. He 
 published Habits that Handicap: The Menace 
 of Opium, Alcohol, and Tobacco and the Rem¬ 
 edy (1915). 
 
 TOWNS'END, Charles Elroy (1856- ). 
 
 An American legislator, born at Concord, 
 Jackson Co., Mich. He attended the University 
 of Michigan in 1877-78, was register of deeds 
 of Jackson County in 1886-97, was admitted to 
 the bar in 1895, and thereafter practiced at 
 Jackson, Mich. He served as a delegate to the 
 Republican National Convention in 1888 and 
 from 1898 to 1902 was a member of the Re¬ 
 publican State Central Committee. A member 
 of the Fifty-eighth to the Sixtv-first Congresses 
 
 (1903—11), he was reelected to his seat in the 
 House, but in 1911 became United States Sen¬ 
 ator. 
 
 TOWNSEND, Charles Haskins (1859- 
 ). An American zoologist, born at Par¬ 
 nassus, Pa. From 1883 to 1902 he was connected 
 with the United States Fish Commission, and 
 thereafter was director of the New York 
 Aquarium. He also served as a member of 
 the Bering Sea Fur Seal Commission in 1896 
 and as an expert before the Russo-American 
 fisheries arbitration at The Hague (1902). In 
 1912-13 he was president of the American Fish¬ 
 eries Society. He published a number of 
 scientific papers and popular articles. 
 
 TOWNSEND, Edward Waterman (1855 — 
 
 ). An American journalist and novelist, 
 notable for his studies of lower New York life 
 and dialect. He was born in Cleveland, Ohio. 
 After a common-school education he became en¬ 
 gaged in journalism in New York and attracted 
 attention by sketches of Bowery life done in 
 the picturesque slang of the streets, and con¬ 
 tributed to the Sun and the Journal. These 
 are collected in part as Chimmie Fadden, Major 
 Max, and Other Stories (1895); Chimmie Fad- 
 den Explains, Major Max Expounds (1895), and 
 Near a Whole City-Full (1897). A Daughter 
 of the Tenements (1895) and Days Like These 
 (1901) are novels, also of New York life. La¬ 
 ter books are Chimmie Fadden and Mr. Paul 
 (1902) ; Lees and Leaven (1903) ; Sure (1904) ; 
 Reuben Larkmead (1905) ; Our Constitution 
 (1906); Beaver Creek Farm (1907); The 
 Climbing Courvatels (1909). He was elected to 
 the National Institute of Arts and Letters in 
 1914. 
 
 TOWNSEND, George Alfred (1841-1914). 
 An American journalist, born in Georgetown, 
 Del. He was educated in Philadelphia and was 
 successively connected with the Inquirer and 
 Press of that city, the New York Herald and 
 World, and the Chicago Tribune. He first 
 gained distinction as a war correspondent in 
 the Austro-Prussian War (1866). Among his 
 books are: Campaigns of a Non-Combatant 
 (1865) ; Poems (1870) ; Washington Outside and 
 Inside (1871) ; Tales of the Chesapeake (1880) ; 
 The Entailed Hat (1884); President Cromwell 
 (1885), a drama; Poems of Men and Events 
 (1899); Poems of the Delaware Peninsula. 
 Much of his newspaper correspondence was over 
 the signature Gath. 
 
 TOWNSEND, Luther Tracy (1838- ). 
 
 An American Methodist Episcopal theologian, 
 educator, and author. He was born at Orono, 
 Me., and graduated at Dartmouth College in 
 1859, and at Andover Theological Seminary in 
 1862. In 1863-64 he served as adjutant in the 
 army. He was professor of Hebrew and Greek 
 in Boston University School of Theology (1868- 
 72), and then professor of practical theology 
 and sacred rhetoric until his retirement in 1893. 
 Among his publication are: Credo (1869); 
 Sword and Garment (1871); The Supernatural 
 Factor in Revivals (1877) ; The Intermediate 
 World ( 1878); Story of Jonah in the Light 
 of Higher Criticism (1897); Evolution or Cre¬ 
 ation (1899); Anastasis (1900); Adam and 
 Eve, History or Myth? (1904); God and the 
 Nation (1905); The Deluge (1907); Bible In¬ 
 spiration (1909) ; Bible Studies (1913) ; The 
 Stars are not Inhabited (1914). 
 
 TOWNSEND, Thomas Seaman (1829-1908). 
 An American compiler, born in New York City. 
 
TOWNSEND 
 
 TOWNSHEND 
 
 389 
 
 From 1860 to 1901 he collected and arranged all 
 important items concerning the Civil War that 
 appeared in the newspapers of the country, thus 
 forming a chronological history of great value 
 to future historians. This enormous collection 
 of 125 volumes is now in the Columbia Uni¬ 
 versity Library. It is entitled the Townsend 
 Library of National, State, and Individual Civil 
 War Records. He published Honors of the Em¬ 
 pire State in the War of the Rebellion (1899). 
 
 TOWNSEND, William John (1835- ). 
 
 An English Methodist clergyman, born at New- 
 castle-on-Tyne. Educated at Ranmoor College, 
 Sheffield, he entered the ministry of the Meth¬ 
 odist New Connexion in 1860, and was presi¬ 
 dent of the conference in 1886, general mis¬ 
 sionary secretary (1886—91), and Connexional 
 editor (1893-97). He was president of the Na¬ 
 tional Free Church Council in 1902 and of 
 the first annual session of the United Metho¬ 
 dist Conference (1908). Besides helping to 
 edit A New History of Methodism (2 vols., 
 1909), he published: The Great Schoolmen of 
 the Middle Ages (1881) ; Madagascar: Its Mis¬ 
 sionaries and Martyrs (1892) ; The Great Sym¬ 
 bols (1901; new ed., 1912); History of Popu¬ 
 lar Education in England and Wales (1903) ; 
 Robert Morrison (new ed., 1904) ; The Story of 
 Methodist Union (1906). 
 
 TOWNSEND’S WARBLER. A wood war¬ 
 bler ( Dendroeca townsendi ) of the Pacific coast 
 of the United States, black and yellow in color 
 (see Colored Plate of American Wood Warb¬ 
 ler with the article Warbler) and having 
 the general habits of its congeners. (See 
 Warbler.) It is not numerous and lives in 
 the mountain forests. This and several other 
 birds of the West owe their names to the 
 naturalist J. K. Townsend, who in 1834, in 
 company with Thomas Nuttall (q.v.), traveled 
 overland to the Pacific coast and brought to 
 the notice of science many novel species of 
 animals. 
 
 TOWNSHEND, toun'zend, Charles, second 
 Viscount (1674-1738). An English statesman. 
 A descendant of a very ancient English family of 
 Norfolk, he succeeded to the peerage in 1687, 
 was educated at Eton and King’s College, Cam¬ 
 bridge, and took his seat as a Tory in the 
 House of Lords in 1697. He was named by 
 the Godolphin administration one of the com¬ 
 missioners for arranging the union with Scot¬ 
 land (1706), was joint plenipotentiary with 
 Marlborough at Gertruydenburg, and negotiated 
 with the States-General in 1710 the Barrier 
 Treaty, which pledged the States-General to the 
 Hanoverian succession, and England to procure 
 the Spanish Low Countries for the United 
 Provinces, as a barrier against France. In 1712, 
 upon the formation of the Harley ministry, 
 Townshend was dismissed from his places, and 
 the Barrier Treaty was censured by the House 
 of Commons, which voted that Townshend and 
 all who had been concerned in the treaty were 
 enemies to the Queen and Kingdom. This per¬ 
 secution raised him from the rank of a fol¬ 
 lower to the station of a leader. He main¬ 
 tained a close correspondence with the court of 
 Hanover and obtained the entire confidence of 
 George I, who on his accession to the throne 
 of England made Townshend Secretary of State 
 with power to name his colleagues. He selected 
 General, afterward Earl, Stanhope and formed 
 a ministry entirely Whig in its party charac¬ 
 ter. He strengthened it by the addition of his 
 
 brother-in-law, Sir Robert Walpole, who, from 
 being at first paymaster of the forces, was soon 
 made Chancellor of the Exchequer and First 
 Lord of the 1 reasury. Through misrepresen¬ 
 tations on the part of his colleagues, Townshend 
 lost favor with the King and was, in 1716, dis¬ 
 missed from office. After the breaking up of 
 the South Sea Bubble and the death of Sun¬ 
 derland (q.v.) and of Stanhope, Townshend 
 again (1721) became Secretary of State. But 
 he was no longer the acknowledged leader of 
 the Whigs. The superior talent of Walpole, his 
 financial abilities, and his influence in the 
 House of Commons caused a change in the rela¬ 
 tive position of the two ministers and con¬ 
 verted the two men into rivals and enemies. 
 Townshend, resigning the contest, retired to 
 Rainham, to cultivate his paternal acres. 
 “Never minister had cleaner hands,” said 
 Chesterfield; and his reputation for both pri¬ 
 vate and public integrity remains unsullied. 
 
 TOWNSHEND, Charles (1725-67). An 
 English politician. He was the second son of 
 the third Viscount Townshend and was edu¬ 
 cated at Leyden and Oxford. He entered Parlia¬ 
 ment in 1747, attached himself to Lord Hali¬ 
 fax, and was given a position in the Board of 
 Trade in 1748. In 1754 Townshend was made 
 Lord of the Admiralty, but resigned the follow¬ 
 ing year. Becoming a member of the Privy 
 Council under Pitt in 1757, upon the dissolu¬ 
 tion of the Whig government in 1761 he was 
 won over by Bute with an offer of the post 
 of Secretary for War. On Bute’s resignation 
 in 1763 he was appointed President of the 
 Board of Trade. After opposing the Grenville 
 administration he accepted the position of 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer under Pitt in 1766. 
 But Pitt soon lost control over his colleagues 
 by his acceptance of the peerage and his long 
 periods of illness, so that Townshend began to 
 advocate measures to which Pitt was opposed. 
 In 1767 his first budget was rejected, and he 
 thereupon proposed those taxes on certain goods 
 imported into America which was one of the 
 chief causes of the Revolution. Townshend him¬ 
 self did not live to see this result, but died 
 suddenly on Sept. 4, 1767. He was ranked as 
 an orator with Pitt and was far more popu¬ 
 lar than the Great Commoner Avith the House 
 of Commons. Consult P. H. Fitzgerald, Charles 
 Townshend: Wit and Statesman (London, 
 1866), and Harry Graham, Splendid Failures 
 (ib., 1913). 
 
 TOWNSHEND, Sir Charles James (1844- 
 ). A Canadian jurist. He was born at 
 Amherst, Nova Scotia, and was educated at 
 King’s College, Windsor. Called to the bar in 
 1866, he practiced his profession at Amherst. 
 He was a Conservative member of the Pro¬ 
 vincial Legislature in 1878-84, a member of 
 the Provincial cabinet in 1878-82, and of the 
 House of Commons in 1884-87. In 1887 he 
 was appointed a puisne judge of the Supreme 
 Court of Nova Scotia and in 1907-15 was Chief 
 Justice of the Province. In 1911 he was 
 knighted. 
 
 TOWNSHEND, Charles Vere Ferrers 
 (1861— ). A British soldier, commander in 
 
 chief of the Mesopotamia campaign in the Great 
 War. He entered the Royal Marines in 1881, 
 but joined the army in 1886 and was promoted 
 through the grades to major general in 1911. 
 He served in the Stidan and Nile expeditions 
 (1884-85) and in the Hunza Nagar expedition 
 
TOWNSHEND 
 
 TOXJEMIA 
 
 390 
 
 (1891-92); commanded Chitral Fort during a 
 siege; and participated in the Dongola expedi¬ 
 tion (1898) and in the South African War 
 (1899-1900). Townshend was assistant adju¬ 
 tant general of the Ninth Division Army in 
 India in 1907-09, and in 1912-13 commanded a 
 division of the Territorial Force. During the 
 European War (see War in Europe) he com¬ 
 manded the British army that withstood for 
 nearly five months a Turkish siege at Kut el 
 Amara in Mesopotamia, and was compelled to 
 surrender in April, 1916, for lack of food. 
 
 TOWNSHEND, George, first Marquis (1724— 
 1807). A British soldier. He served early in 
 the Netherlands and at Culloden and Laufeld. 
 While temporarily retired from the army he 
 drafted the Militia Bill of 1757. In 1759, as 
 brigadier general, he joined Wolfe’s expedition 
 against Quebec, commanded the left wing on 
 the Heights of Abraham, and at Wolfe’s death 
 succeeded to the chief command. In 1764 he 
 took the family title, Viscount Townsliend. As 
 Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in 1767-72 he was 
 in continual dispute with the Irish House of 
 Commons. He was made Marquis in 1786 and 
 field marshal in 1796. 
 
 TOWNSHIP (AS. tunscipe, from tun, in¬ 
 closure, town + -scripe, Eng. -ship). A minor 
 political or territorial division in England and 
 the United States. In England, in Anglo-Saxon 
 times, as a political unit it was known as the 
 tunscipe; as an ecclesiastical area it was the 
 parish. As a political unit it had a popular 
 assembly (tun moot) ; as an ecclesiastical unit 
 it had a vestry meeting. The chief executive 
 officer was the tun reeve. He with the priest 
 and four other persons represented the township 
 in the popular assembly of the hundred and 
 county. Upon the settlement of the American 
 Colonies the township was transplanted to 
 America and still survives, like many other polit¬ 
 ical institutions of English origin. Here it is 
 a subdivision of the county, and its political 
 importance varies with the locality of the State. 
 In New England, under the name of the town, 
 it plays a far more important part in the work 
 of the local administration than the county—in 
 fact, it performs most of the business of local 
 government which in the Southern States is at¬ 
 tended to by the county. (See Town.) In the 
 Middle and Western States the township plays 
 a somewhat less important part in the work of 
 the local government than it does in New Eng¬ 
 land, the county there sharing with the town¬ 
 ship many of the important functions of local 
 government. 
 
 In the Southern States the township is not an 
 administrative unit of much importance. On 
 account of early social and political conditions 
 there, the county has been from the first the 
 chief unit of local government, although there 
 are signs of development in the Southern town¬ 
 ship which may increase its administrative im¬ 
 portance in the future. In some of the Middle 
 and Western States the town meeting exists, hav¬ 
 ing been transplanted from New England. Else¬ 
 where the chief governing authority is a township 
 board. The township has a quasi-corporate ca¬ 
 pacity, being able to own real estate and to sue 
 and be sued, but in performing public govern¬ 
 mental duties it acts for the State and cannot 
 be held liable for the negligence or tortious acts 
 of its agents. The word “township” is also ap¬ 
 plied to the units of the congressional survey 
 in some of the Southern and Western States, 
 
 these being rectangular areas 6 miles square, 
 each of which is subdivided into 36 sections 
 containing 640 acres. (See diagram under 
 Surveying.) This is probably the most simple 
 svstem of land division yet established. The 
 congressional township, as it is sometimes called, 
 is not a public corporation or juristic person¬ 
 ality, but a geographical convenience. Consult 
 Ashley, “The Anglo-Saxon Township,” in Quar¬ 
 terly Journal of Economics, and Bryce, Ameri¬ 
 can Commonwealth (new ed., 2 vols., New York, 
 1910). 
 
 TOWNS'LEY, Clarence Page (1855- ). 
 
 An American soldier, born at Dekalb, St. Law¬ 
 rence Co., N. Y T . He graduated from the State 
 Normal School at Potsdam, N. Y., in 1872, from 
 Union College in 1876, and from the United 
 States Military Academy in 1881. Entering the 
 artillery service, he was promoted captain in 1899 
 and colonel in 1911. During the Spanish-Ameri- 
 can War he served on the staff of General Ludlow, 
 who was chief of artillery and chief ordnance 
 officer of the Department of Havana, Cuba. In 
 1909—11 he was commandant of the Coast Artil¬ 
 lery School at Fort Monroe and in 1912-16 was 
 superintendent of the United States Military 
 Academy (West Point). 
 
 TOWNS'VILLE. A fortified seaport on the 
 east coast of Queensland, Australia, situated 
 on Cleveland Bay at the mouth of Ross Creek, 
 870 miles northwest of Brisbane (Map: Queens¬ 
 land, E 5). It has a cathedral, courthouse, 
 technical school, barracks, etc. Its industrial 
 establishments include foundries, distilleries, 
 and meat-exporting establishments. It .is the 
 terminus of the railway from Winton, 365 miles 
 inland, and has an extensive shipping trade; 
 the harbor is tidal and has been much improved 
 by two long breakwaters, large vessels being 
 enabled to enter. Pop., 1901, 12,717; 1911, 
 
 13,835. 
 
 TOWSE, J(ohn) Ranken (1845- ). An 
 
 American dramatic critic. He was born at 
 Streatliam, Surrey, England, and was educated 
 at Cambridge. Coming to the United States 
 in 1869, he joined the staff of the New York 
 Evening Post the next year and after 1874 was 
 its dramatic critic. To this paper he contrib¬ 
 uted notable articles on all the most impor¬ 
 tant theatrical productions. Some of his criti¬ 
 cisms appeared also in the Nation. In the. Sat¬ 
 urday supplement of the Post were published 
 his Sixty Years of the Theatre: An Old Critic’s 
 Memories (1913-14; part ii, 1915-16). 
 
 TOW'TON. A parish in Yorkshire, England, 
 about 11 miles southwest of York, noted as the 
 scene of a decisive victory gained by the Yorkist 
 forces under Edward IV and the Earl of M ar¬ 
 wick over the Lancastrians, commanded by the 
 Duke of Somerset and the Earl of Northumber¬ 
 land, March 29, 1461. The battle is said to 
 have been the most sanguinary ever fought on 
 English soil, and according to a contemporary 
 statement 28,000 men were left dead upon the 
 field. The victory secured Edward IV (q.v.) 
 in possession of the throne. See Roses, Wars 
 of THE. 
 
 TOXiE'MIA. A poisoned condition of the 
 blood due to the circulating in it of toxic ma¬ 
 terials, either chemical or bacterial in their 
 nature. These toxins may be derived from 
 putrefactive or other fermentative changes in 
 the intestinal tract or from the products of 
 bacterial activity in the tissues circulating the 
 blood. When bacteria themselves find entrance 
 
TOXICOLOGY 
 
 391 
 
 TOXICOLOGY 
 
 into the blood stream, the condition is known 
 as bacteraemia. See Autointoxication; Immu¬ 
 nity; Toxin; Vaccine Therapy. 
 
 TOXTCOL'OGY (from Gk. to^lkov, toxikon, 
 poison, neut. sing, of to^lkos, toxikos, relating to 
 the bow, from to&v, toxon, bow, so called be¬ 
 cause first used to poison arrow points -f- -\oyia, 
 -logia, account). The branch of medical science 
 which treats of the nature of poisons, their 
 morbific effects on the animal system, their de¬ 
 tection in the organs or tissues of the body, 
 their antidotes, of the treatment of poisoning, 
 and of the legal questions connected with poi¬ 
 soning. A poison may be defined as any sub¬ 
 stance which when applied to the body or in¬ 
 troduced into the system, in whatever manner, 
 produces death or serious bodily harm. Poisons 
 may enter by the mouth or may be absorbed 
 by the skin in amounts sufficient to cause death 
 or severe toxic symptoms, as from lotions or 
 salves containing opium, corrosive sublimate, 
 arsenic, carbolic acid, etc. Gaseous or volatile 
 poisons may enter the lungs through inspired 
 air, e.g., illuminating gas, carbon monoxide, or 
 chlorine. Poisons may gain access to the cir¬ 
 culation through ulcerated surfaces or wounds; 
 by direct injection into the tissues, as by hypo¬ 
 dermic injection, poisoned weapons, or snake¬ 
 bites; or they may be introduced by way of the 
 mucous membrane of the rectum, vagina, urethra, 
 etc. 
 
 Most medicinal agents are poisonous if taken 
 in sufficient quantity, this quantity varying 
 with the individual, the state of health, fullness 
 or emptiness of the stomach, habit, and other 
 circumstances. The influence of habit is shown 
 by opium habitues who take enormous doses of 
 the drug without immediate evil effects. A spe¬ 
 cial susceptibility to certain substances is noted 
 in some individuals. This is called idiosyn¬ 
 crasy. Idiosyncrasy towards certain articles of 
 food or towards foreign proteins such as egg 
 albumen, serums, etc., when injected, is now 
 looked upon as a phase of anaphylaxis (q.v.). 
 Races and individuals may possess or attain a 
 high degree of immunity to particular poisons— 
 the Oriental is much less susceptible to opium 
 than the European, and the latter bears alcohol 
 better than savage races. In certain diseases 
 there is a diminished susceptibility to the ac¬ 
 tion of particular poisons, while in others there 
 is increased sensibility. Thus, in tetanus, hy¬ 
 drophobia, mania, or delirium tremens doses of 
 various sedatives may be given with benefit 
 which would in health prove fatal; on the 
 other hand, when there is a predisposition to 
 apoplexy, an ordinary dose of opium may cause 
 death. Some poisons are harmless to the stom¬ 
 ach, but violently toxic when injected beneath 
 the skin. 
 
 Poisons may be classified according to their 
 chemical properties or their physiological ac¬ 
 tion. The latter is the usual and most satis¬ 
 factory basis and depends upon the effects of 
 poisons upon the system when in healthy con¬ 
 dition. According to the physiological classi¬ 
 fication poisons are divided into two great 
 groups: (1) the irritants and (2) the neurotics. 
 An irritant poison is one which when swallowed 
 produces irritating effects upon the mucous 
 membrane of the alimentary canal, resulting in 
 nausea, vomiting, purging, pain in the abdo¬ 
 men, cramps in the stomach and other parts of 
 the body. This group is subdivided into (a) 
 corrosives, whose action is chiefly local, and (6) 
 
 the true irritants, whose local effects may be 
 slight, but which produce their characteristic 
 effect after absorption. Many drugs act in both 
 ways, e.g., oxalic acid and carbolic acid. A 
 neurotic poison is one which acts chiefly on the 
 nervous system, producing drowsiness, giddi¬ 
 ness, headache, delirium, stupor, coma, con¬ 
 vulsions, or paralysis. 
 
 A few principles of the general treatment of 
 poisoning may be given. The indications are 
 (1) to neutralize and render harmless the 
 poison by the administration of the proper 
 antidote (q.v.); (2) to remove the poison from 
 the body by inducing vomiting or washing out 
 the stomach; (3) to combat the effects of poison 
 already absorbed by giving drugs which are 
 antagonistic to the one absorbed and supporting 
 life until the body rids itself of the poison 
 through natural excretory channels. Mechani¬ 
 cal antidotes include the use of the stomach 
 tube or pump, the employment of emetics, ca¬ 
 thartics, stimulants, injections, ligations, etc. 
 The true or chemical antidotes include albu¬ 
 min, milk, charcoal, soap, starch, oils, tannin, 
 turpentine, acids, alkalies, potassium perman¬ 
 ganate, sodium chloride, iodine, iron, etc. 
 
 When a poison has been taken by the mouth 
 the stomach should be emptied immediately by 
 means of the stomach tube or emetics, except 
 where there is severe corrosion and perforation 
 of the stomach is feared. A prompt and cer¬ 
 tain emetic is apomorphine, which will act when 
 given hypodermically. Domestic resources are 
 usually limited to large drafts of mustard and 
 warm water, warm milk in large quantities, 
 oils, butter, and lard, common salt solution, 
 soapsuds; these often act with great prompt¬ 
 ness. Ipecac in the form of the sirup is found 
 in most households and may be given in doses 
 of one or two tablespoonfuls to adults or half 
 that to children. It is safe and unirritating, 
 but is too slow for emergencies. Other useful 
 emetics are copper sulphate, zinc sulphate, tur- 
 peth mineral, and alum. In poisoning it is 
 better to use almost any emetic at once than to 
 lose valuable time getting the right one.. When 
 poisoning is due to irritants after evacuation of 
 the stomach, bland and viscid fluids should be 
 given to protect the wall of the alimentary tract 
 and allay inflammation. These agents are 
 called demulcents—flaxseed tea, white of egg, 
 milk, etc. Where the poison has gained en¬ 
 trance by inoculation, as in the case of dog- 
 bites or the stings of reptiles, the part should 
 be washed, sucked, or incised freely, and a liga¬ 
 ture applied about the extremity above the 
 wound, i.e., between it and the heart. The 
 wound should then be thoroughly cauterized. 
 
 The stomach having been emptied, the next 
 step is to administer the proper antidote or 
 physiological antagonist. In general it is to 
 be remembered that alkalies counteract acids 
 and vice versa, since they tend to form harm¬ 
 less salts. Poisoning by the irritant metallic 
 salts is best treated with albumin, in the form 
 of white of egg, an inert, insoluble albuminate 
 being formed. The antidote for the vegetable 
 alkaloids is tannin, most conveniently given in 
 the form of strong green tea. Chemical anti¬ 
 dotes act only on such portions of the poison 
 as have not been absorbed and must be given 
 promptly. 
 
 Physiological antidotes or antagonists follow 
 the poison into the circulation and combat its 
 effects as long as it remains in the body. 
 
TOXICOLOGY 
 
 392 
 
 TOXICOLOGY 
 
 Corrosive Poisons include acetic, carbolic, 
 chromic, lactic, oxalic, and salicylic acids; con¬ 
 centrated mineral acids (sulphuric, nitric, etc.) ; 
 creosote; corrosive sublimate, the caustic alka¬ 
 lies (potassium and sodium dioxide, usually 
 in the form of lye, ammonia, etc.) ; quick¬ 
 lime; potassium chlorate; and potassium nitrate. 
 These poisons act either on the surface of the 
 body, causing deep and painful destruction of 
 tissue, or internally, by producing intense gas¬ 
 troenteritis and collapse. The symptoms com¬ 
 mon to the group are nausea, vomiting, pain, 
 and purging, the vomited and dejected matters 
 being mucous, serous, or bloody. The mouth 
 and lips, hands and face, are frequently burned 
 and corroded. Treatment consists in neutraliz¬ 
 ing the poison and giving demulcents. In the 
 case of weak acids, magnesia, chalk, soap, and 
 dilute ammonia may be given as antidotes; for 
 alkaline poisoning weak acids, such as dilute 
 vinegar or lemon juice, may be given. When 
 the poison is concentrated the stomach tube 
 should not be used. Carbolic acid is best an¬ 
 tidoted with dilute alcohol. The sulphate of 
 magnesia is also a perfect antidote. 
 
 True Irritants include, besides certain of the 
 corrosive poisons already mentioned, bromine, 
 blister beetle, croton oil, chlorine, antimony, ar¬ 
 senic, copper, chromium, lead, tin, zinc, phospho¬ 
 rus, and iodine (qq.v.). In concentrated form 
 most of them cause irritation to the gastroin¬ 
 testinal tract, and also show specific action on 
 various organs after their absorption by the 
 blood. Arsenic is commonly employed, or taken 
 accidentally, with homicidal or suicidal in¬ 
 tent. It is widely used in the arts and is a 
 constituent of vermin exterminators. Poisoning 
 may be acute or chronic. In acute cases the 
 symptoms are those common to irritant poisons. 
 The chemical antidote is known as arsenic an¬ 
 tidote, or dialyzed iron. A small dose of arsenic 
 (1 to 3 grains) is sufficient to kill. Chronic 
 poisoning by arsenic is also common as a re¬ 
 sult of inhalation or contact with the various 
 arsenical greens used in coloring wall papers, 
 carpets; etc., grinding arsenic in mills, and 
 from vapors in smelting copper. Symptoms are 
 gastric irritation, cough, throat troubles, grad¬ 
 ually failing health, and paralysis. See Arsenic. 
 
 Lead poisoning may also be acute or chronic, 
 the latter being the most usual form. Acute 
 cases are due to the ingestion of the acetate 
 (sugar of lead), carbonate, oxide, or chromate 
 of lead, and painters are the chief sufferers. 
 The prominent symptoms are gastrointestinal 
 irritation, cramps in the legs and abdomen, fol¬ 
 lowed by paralysis of the extremities, convul¬ 
 sions, and coma. The sulphate of magnesia 
 (Epsom salt) is the antidote, forming an in¬ 
 soluble sulphate of lead and acting also as a 
 purge. Chronic poisoning arises from handling 
 paints, drinking ‘water conducted in lead pipes, 
 the use of cosmetics containing lead, and eating 
 canned foods contaminated by solder. It is 
 an incident of many different trades. (See Oc¬ 
 cupational Diseases.) The symptoms come 
 on insidiously and consist of a peculiar grip¬ 
 ing colic (lead colic), obstinate constipation, 
 muscular cramps, paralysis of the extensor mus¬ 
 cles of the forearms (wrist-drop), and a blue 
 line at the junction of the gums and teeth. 
 Chronic poisoning is treated by removing its 
 source and by the administration of Epsom 
 salt and potassium iodide to eliminate the lead 
 already absorbed. See Lead. 
 
 Phosphorus poisoning is due to yellow phos¬ 
 phorus, commonly derived from matches or rat 
 poisons. Workers in match factories are most 
 usually attacked, although rat poison is some¬ 
 times taken with suicidal intent. The poison is 
 very active and recovery is rare. The promi¬ 
 nent symptoms in acute poisoning are vomiting 
 of matters luminous in the dark, a smell of 
 phosphorus in the breath, inflammation of the 
 stomach and intestines, jaundice, convulsions, 
 and coma. Treatment consists in washing out 
 the stomach and the administration of old oil 
 of turpentine or potassium permanganate. 
 
 Poisonous Foods. Many foods which, owing 
 either to their inherent properties (mushrooms 
 and other fungi) or to the development of putre¬ 
 factive bodies within them (ptomaines), produce 
 symptoms of poisoning when eaten. The symp¬ 
 toms are very diverse, but intense gastrointestinal 
 irritation is common to all of them, and they 
 may therefore be appropriately classed as ir¬ 
 ritants. Mushroom poisoning arises through 
 mistaking various fungi, such as mushrooms, 
 toadstools, and truffles, for edible varieties. 
 The toxic substance in many of these is mus¬ 
 carine, a deadly alkaloidal poison, producing 
 violent vomiting, colic, thirst, dyspnoea, paraly¬ 
 sis, and death. Ptomaine poisoning is due to 
 the products of putrefactive decomposition in 
 animal or vegetable matter. The ptomaines are 
 alkaloids and resemble chemically many of the 
 'vegetable alkaloids. Not all ptomaines are 
 poisonous and not all food poisons are pto¬ 
 maines. The foods which sometimes produce 
 symptoms of poisoning, whether ptomaine or 
 other, are corned beef, sausage, pickled or de¬ 
 caying fish, putrid game, cheese, milk, shellfish, 
 particularly mussels and crayfish, land crab, 
 etc. The treatment of food poisoning, from 
 whatever cause, is prompt evacuation of the 
 stomach, preferably by stomach tube, using 
 plenty of water, and administration of tannic 
 or gallic acid or strong tea. See Mushroom ; 
 Ptomaines. 
 
 Neurotic Poisons. These act principally 
 through the nervous system and as a rule pro¬ 
 duce little or no tissue change. 
 
 Alcohol may act as an acute or chronic poison. 
 Its effects are fully considered under Intoxica¬ 
 tion. 
 
 Opium and its chief alkaloid (morphine) 
 laudanum, Majendie’s solution (of morphine), 
 and paregoric are often used for suicidal or 
 homicidal purposes. Paregoric was formerly re¬ 
 sponsible for many cases of opium poisoning in 
 children, being a common ingredient of soothing 
 sirups. Acute opium poisoning is characterized 
 by a short preliminary stage of pleasurable ex¬ 
 citement followed by drowsiness, sleep, and com¬ 
 plete unconsciousness. In a moderately ad¬ 
 vanced case the pupils are contracted to a pin 
 point, the respirations are slow, the pulse full, 
 the skin moist. The breathing grows slower un¬ 
 til death supervenes from respiratory paraly¬ 
 sis. The stomach must be promptly emptied 
 and tannic acid or potassium permanganate 
 given as antidote. Stupor is combated by ad¬ 
 ministration of strong coffee, atropine, or strych¬ 
 nine, and by cold douches, flicking with wet 
 towels, electrical stimulation, and later by forced 
 artificial respiration. Chronic opium poisoning 
 is seen in those habituated to the drug, both in 
 eastern and western countries. See Morphine; 
 Opium. 
 
 Cocaine is extensively used as a local anses- 
 
TOXICOLOGY 
 
 TOXICOLOGY 
 
 thetic, and alarming symptoms have followed 
 its absorption by the mucous membrane or its 
 hypodermic injection. Death occurs very rapidly 
 (from 40 seconds to four minutes), with great 
 depression and respiratory or cardiac failure. 
 If the patient can be kept alive for half an 
 hour, recovery is almost certain. If the poison 
 has been taken by the mouth, evacuate the 
 stomach, and in any case fresh air, artificial 
 respiration, and stimulants are called for. See 
 Cocaine. 
 
 Chloral is quite often injudiciously used by 
 the public to induce sleep and quiet the nerves; 
 it is also taken with suicidal intent and given 
 by criminals (knock-out drops) to induce pro¬ 
 longed stupor, often with fatal results. The 
 patient simply passes into a deep sleep without 
 previous excitement, and death occurs from heart 
 failure. Treatment is like that of opium and 
 cocaine. See Chloral. 
 
 Belladonna and its alkaloid atropine produce, 
 when taken in poisonous amounts, dilatation of 
 the pupil, flushing of the skin, dryness of the 
 mouth, delirium, and sometimes convulsions. 
 Recovery is the rule, but when death occurs it 
 is from paralysis of the heart. Treatment con¬ 
 sists in washing out the stomach, and opium is 
 the physiological antidote. Similar in effects 
 and treatment to belladonna are homatropine, 
 hyoscyamus (henbane), hyoscyamine, hyoscine, 
 stramonium, and dulcamara. See Atropine; 
 Belladonna. 
 
 Strychnine and nux vomica are contained in 
 certain vermin killers and used both for suicide 
 and murder. In poisonous doses they act prin¬ 
 cipally on the spinal cord, producing cramps 
 and convulsions like those of tetanus. Death 
 or recovery is usually speedy. The patient is 
 to be put in a quiet dark room, and tannic acid 
 or charcoal is given, followed by stomach wash¬ 
 ing. This must be done before spasms set in. 
 Chloroform and ether control the convulsions, 
 and the bromides and opium act in the same 
 way, but more slowly. See Strychnine; Tet¬ 
 anus. 
 
 Prussic acid and the various cyanogen com¬ 
 pounds contained in cyanide of potash, bitter 
 almonds, peach and plum pits, are exceedingly 
 rapid and fatal poisons. When smaller doses 
 have been taken sulphate of iron may be given 
 as an antidote, and affusions and douches of 
 cold water and a resort to artificial respiration 
 are the most useful measures. See Hydrocyanic 
 Acid. 
 
 Among other substances in the class which 
 are occasionally taken in poisonous doses are 
 aconite, cannabis indica, curare (arrow poison), 
 digitalis, hemlock, and the various coal-tar prod¬ 
 ucts, such as acetanilid, phenacetine, and sul- 
 phonal (qq.v.). 
 
 Anaesthetics (ether, chloroform, and nitrous 
 oxide) act as narcotic poisons when taken in 
 overdose. The symptoms may be divided into 
 two stages—one of excitement with rapid pulse 
 and respiration, struggling and flushed face; 
 and one of depression, in which the muscles are 
 relaxed, the patient is insensible, passes into 
 coma, and dies from cardiac or respiratory fail¬ 
 ure. When dangerous symptoms come on during 
 the administration of an anaesthetic, this is to 
 be stopped, the tongue drawn forward, the pa¬ 
 tient exposed to a current of fresh air, and 
 if breathing stops subjected to artificial respira¬ 
 tion. Hypodermic injections of atropine or 
 strychnine are also given. The inhalation or 
 
 drinking of ether and chloroform is indulged in 
 as a habit by a few individuals. See Anaes¬ 
 thetic. 
 
 Gaseous Poisons. The more common of these 
 are carbonic-acid gas, carbon monoxide, hydro¬ 
 gen sulphide, sulphurous oxide, illuminating gas, 
 sewer gas, and cesspool emanations, and car¬ 
 bonic-acid gas (choke damp) as found in the 
 air of mines, cellars, and wells. Miners are 
 frequently killed by the latter. Carbon mon¬ 
 oxide occurs in charcoal fumes, fuel gas, and il¬ 
 luminating gas and passes into the air of a 
 room from defective flues or pipes. Air con¬ 
 taining 1 per cent of this gas is rapidly fatal. 
 When exposure to this poison has been long 
 and unconsciousness exists, recovery is not prob¬ 
 able. The effects of illuminating gas are similar 
 to those of carbonic oxide. Sewer gas is a 
 mixture of sulpliureted hydrogen, ammonium 
 sulphide, nitrogen, and carbonic-acid gas. The 
 symptoms of the gaseous poisons depend on 
 the amount absorbed and vary from slight head¬ 
 ache and dizziness to suffocation and collapse. 
 The treatment is to get the patient into the 
 fresh air, give oxygen, or perform artificial 
 respiration, use the pulmotor, and stimulate. 
 See Pulmotor. 
 
 Animal Poisons. The stings of insects, the 
 bites of scorpions, tarantulas, snakes, and rabid 
 dogs are comprised in this group. Their action 
 is complicated. The local effects are irritation, 
 redness, swelling, and oedema, or even gangrene. 
 The poison after entering the circulation may 
 disorganize the blood, causing jaundice, haemo- 
 globinuria, hemorrhage into the tissues, and 
 cyanosis. There are in addition general symp¬ 
 toms, such as vertigo, dyspnoea, prostration, car¬ 
 diac paralysis, and finally collapse. Local treat¬ 
 ment of such bites consists in the application 
 of a tight band or ligature above the wound 
 to prevent absorption; the destruction by the 
 knife or cautery of the area containing the 
 poison after removing as much as possible by 
 suction; and the administration of stimulants 
 such as ammonia, alcohol, or strychnine, to keep 
 up the strength until the poison is eliminated. 
 A serum known as antivenene has been employed 
 as treatment in bites of poisonous snakes with 
 doubtful results. See Glanders ; Hydrophobia ; 
 Serum Therapy. 
 
 The medicolegal duties of the medical ex¬ 
 aminer in cases of fatal poisoning, whether sui¬ 
 cidal or homicidal, are: (1) to establish the 
 presence or absence of conditions characteristic 
 of any poison; (2) to preserve all necessary 
 material for subsequent analytical examination 
 and to avoid introducing possible causes of 
 error; (3) to recognize or exclude natural 
 causes of death; (4) to perform experiments 
 on animals, if necessary, in order to demonstrate 
 the toxic effect of the substance separated by 
 the chemical; and (5) to record carefully all 
 observations and state clearly the conclusions 
 as to the cause of death. Difficult cases con¬ 
 stantly arise in which the post-mortem appear¬ 
 ances are not decisive or are consistent with 
 either disease or poison. In performing an 
 autopsy for medicolegal purposes the identity 
 of the body must first be established and the 
 autopsy should be done in the presence of wit¬ 
 nesses. The organs and tissues to be removed 
 and preserved for future analysis are deposited 
 separately in clear glass jars, which are sealed. 
 The tissues and organs to be removed are the 
 stomach, and intestines ligated and unopened, 
 
TOXIN 
 
 TOYNBEE 
 
 394 
 
 the entire liver, the blood from the heart and 
 vessels, both kidneys, the urine, the entire brain, 
 a large piece of muscle from the thigh, and 
 portions of the bone and spleen. Important 
 information as to the time of absorption is 
 evidenced by the distribution of poison in the 
 various tissues. The unabsorbed residue is 
 found in the stomach and intestines. Poisons 
 in both stomach and liver indicate a short in¬ 
 terval between the taking and death, while 
 poison in the liver and other organs, with none 
 in the stomach, indicates a greater interval. 
 Most poisons remain in the liver after disap¬ 
 pearing from the stomach and remain longer 
 in the muscles and bones than in any other 
 tissue. Poisons are found in their greatest 
 purity in the kidneys and urine. Proof of 
 poisoning has been established by chemists by 
 analysis of muscles or one kidney, when all 
 the other tissues have been destroyed by the 
 suspected parties. Besides the examination for 
 poisons and their lesions, every organ must 
 be examined for all natural causes of death, 
 and in particular the causes of sudden death 
 should be rigidly excluded. Consult: Witthaus 
 and Becker, Medical Jurisprudence, Forensic 
 Medicine, and Toxicology (New York, 1894) ; 
 J. J. Reese, Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicol¬ 
 ogy (8th ed., Philadelphia, 1911) ; W. R. Smith, 
 Medical Jurisprudence (London, 1913) ; W. 
 Autenrieth, Laboratory Manual for the Detec¬ 
 tion of Poisons and Powerful Drugs (Phila¬ 
 delphia, 1915) ; A. H. Brundage, Manual of 
 Toxicology (8th ed., New York, 1915). See 
 Alkaloids; Autopsy; Death; Medical Juris¬ 
 prudence; Occupational Diseases. 
 
 TOX'IN. Toxins are specific poisonous sub¬ 
 stances elaborated by the metabolic activities 
 of certain microorganisms. A few varieties of 
 bacteria secrete their toxins directly into the 
 tissues or culture media in which they grow 
 and are known as soluble, exogenous, extracel¬ 
 lular, or true toxins. Other bacteria retain 
 most of the poisonous material within them¬ 
 selves and hence are known as intracellular or 
 endotoxins, these being liberated only when the 
 bacteria become disintegrated by chemical, physi¬ 
 cal, or mechanical means. Besides bacterial 
 toxins there are characteristic poisons produced 
 by various plants and animals and termed re¬ 
 spectively phytotoxins and zootoxins. The more 
 important true toxins causing infection in man 
 are those of diphtheria, tetanus, botulism, dysen¬ 
 tery, staphylolysin, and other bacterial toxins. 
 Owing to their extreme susceptibility to various 
 chemical and physical influences, such as light, 
 heat, age, etc., toxins are difficult to isolate 
 in their pure state. Oxidizing agents destroy 
 them, and our knowledge of them has been 
 gained chiefly through the lesions and symptoms 
 which they produce when injected into suscepti¬ 
 ble animals. They are all poisonous, but in 
 order to become effective must enter into chemi¬ 
 cal combination with the animal cells. They 
 are, with the exception of botulin, destroyed 
 by the gastrointestinal juices. While their 
 exact chemical nature is unknown, it is the 
 general belief that they are toxalbumins and 
 closely allied to proteins. It has also been 
 abundantly demonstrated that they are colloid 
 in nature and bear a close resemblance to 
 enzymes. They differ from ptomaines in that 
 they are absolutely specific synthetic products, 
 whereas ptomaines are cleavage products from 
 the medium upon which the bacteria grow. 
 
 Toxins, moreover, can give rise to antibodies, 
 whereas ptomaines cannot produce them. See 
 Antitoxin; Bacteria; Diphtheria; Immunity; 
 Serum Therapy. 
 
 TOXODONTIA, tok's6-don'shi-a (Neo-Lat. 
 nom. pi., from Gk. to£ov, toxon, bow + <35oi's, 
 odous, tooth). An extinct suborder of ungulate 
 mammals found fossil in the Tertiary deposits 
 of Argentina and Patagonia, South America. 
 Toxodon was a heavily built animal as large as 
 a rhinoceros, with a large heavy head placed on 
 a short neck which sloped down from the 
 shoulders, so that the head was much lower 
 than the back. The teeth are large, compressed 
 laterally, and either triangular or prismatic in 
 section, and they grew from persistent pulps. 
 The bones of the skeleton are all massive, the 
 legs short and thick, and the feet are three-toed. 
 Nesodon, an earlier genus than Toxodon, was 
 of smaller size and less robust build. 
 
 TOXOPH'ILUS. A work in two books on 
 archery by Roger Ascham (q.v.), in the form of 
 conversations between Philologus and Toxoph- 
 ilus on the attractions of books and archery 
 (q.v.). 
 
 TOXOPHYLAX'INS. See Immunity. 
 
 TOX'OSO'ZINS. See Immunity. 
 
 TOY, Crawford Howell (1836- ). An 
 
 American Orientalist. He was born in Norfolk, 
 Va., and graduated at the University of Virginia 
 in 1856. He studied at Berlin in 1866-68, be¬ 
 came professor of Hebrew at the Southern Bap¬ 
 tist Theological Seminary in 1869, and in 1880 
 was called to Harvard, where he served as Han¬ 
 cock professor of Hebrew and other Oriental 
 languages till his retirement in 1909, and also 
 as Dexter lecturer on biblical literature till 
 1903. In 1879 he served as president of the 
 American Philological Association. His pub¬ 
 lications include a translation and revision of 
 Erdmann’s commentary on Samuel in Lange’s 
 series (1877) ; an edition of Murray’s Origin 
 of the Psalms (1880); The Religion of Israel 
 (1882; 3d ed., 1884); Quotations from the Old 
 Testament in the New Testament (1884); 
 Judaism and Christianity (1890); the Book of 
 Ezekiel in the Polychrome Bible (Hebrew text, 
 1896; English, 1898) ; Proverbs, in the Inter¬ 
 national Critical Commentary (1899); Intro¬ 
 duction to the History of Religions (1913). 
 
 TOYAMA, to'ya'ma. The capital of the Pre¬ 
 fecture of Toyama in Japan, situated in the 
 central part of Hondo, near the west coast 
 (Map: Japan, E 5). The old castle is used 
 as a school. There are manufactures of leather. 
 Pop., 1908, 57,437. 
 
 TOYN'BEE, Arnold (1852-83). A pioneer 
 of the Social Settlement movement. He was 
 educated at Balliol College, Oxford, and after¬ 
 ward became a tutor and iecturer there. He was 
 the author of a number of well-known addresses 
 on political economy, but is best known by his 
 efforts to understand the economic and social 
 problems of the working classes of Whitechapel, 
 among whom he made his home, associating 
 himself with the religious work carried on there 
 by his friend S. A. Barnett. Early in life 
 Toynbee had come under the influence of Ruskin, 
 but his sympathy with the artisan class found 
 a means "of expression entirely his own. His 
 favorite maxim, “The welfare of the producer 
 is as much a matter of interest to the consumer 
 as the price of the product,” voiced the religion 
 of the student of social conditions. His name 
 is associated with the modern Social Settlement 
 
TOYNBEE 
 
 TRACERY 
 
 395 
 
 (q.v.). Two years after his death in the 
 crowded Whitechapel district, which had been 
 the scene of his efforts, Toynbee Hall Avas 
 erected by the men of Oxford and Cambridge 
 who had shared his labors there. Consult F. C. 
 Montague, Arnold Toynbee (Baltimore, 1889), 
 and A. Milner, Arnold Toynbee (3d ed., NeAV 
 York, 1901). 
 
 TOYNBEE, Paget (1855- ). An Eng¬ 
 
 lish scholar, especially known for his studies 
 in Dante. A brother of Arnold Toynbee, he \\ r as 
 born at Wimbledon, near London, attended 
 Haileybury College, Hertfordshire, and Balliol 
 College, Oxford, and was a private tutor (1878— 
 92). He published: Specimens of Old French 
 (ninth to fifteenth century) (1892); Historical 
 French Grammar, which is a skillful revision 
 and amplification of Brachet (1896); lticerche 
 e Note Dantesche (1899; 2d series, 1904) ; Criti¬ 
 cal Text of the “Divina Commedia” (1899); 
 Life of Dante (1900; 4th ed., enlarged, 1910; 
 Ital. trans., 1908) ; Dante Studies and Researches 
 (1902) ; Dante in English Literature, from Chau¬ 
 cer to Cary (2 vols., 1909) ; A Concise Diction¬ 
 ary of Proper Names and Notable Matters in 
 the Works of Dante (1914) ; The Correspondence 
 of Gray, Walpole, West, and Ashton (1915). 
 
 TOYNBEE HALL. The first social settle¬ 
 ment in the world, founded in 1884 by Canon 
 Samuel A. Barnett, vicar of St. Jude’s, White¬ 
 chapel, East London. It was named in honor of 
 Arnold Toynbee (q.v.), who while a student at 
 Oxford became interested in bettering the condi¬ 
 tion of the poor in the Whitechapel district. 
 In 1877 Canon Barnett formed at Oxford a 
 committee to consider university extension, as 
 a result of which various lectures were given 
 in Whitechapel. In 1884 the University Settle¬ 
 ment Association was formed and Toynbee Hall 
 AA T as opened. 
 
 A basic principle in the minds of its founders 
 was that constructive action for the alleviation 
 of the condition of the poor required that prac¬ 
 tical experience of their problems to be gained 
 only by intimate association. The plan provided 
 that young university men, unencumbered with 
 family affairs, should live as residents at the 
 hall and devote some of their free time to the 
 problems of the community. About the resi¬ 
 dents was grouped a body of “associates,” about 
 100 in number, who lived near and cooperated. 
 Moreover “guest rooms” at the hall afforded 
 temporary quarters for graduates and under¬ 
 graduates who desired to spend short periods 
 there assisting and learning. Toynbee Hall 
 gradually became the centre of educational and 
 social endeavor for the district. Its activities 
 have broadened and its influence deepened. It 
 has libraries, lecture courses, reading clubs, 
 technical classes, musical societies, numerous 
 educational activities, Avorkingmen’s clubs, and 
 is an active factor in local government. Con¬ 
 sult: Philip L. Gell, Account of the Work of 
 Toynbee Hall in East London, in Johns Hopkins 
 University Studies (Baltimore, 1889) ; Canon 
 S. A. Barnett and Mrs. S. A. Barnett, Prac¬ 
 ticable Social ism (London, 1915). 
 
 TOYOHASHI, to'yO-ha'she. A toAA r n in the 
 Prefecture of Aichi, central Hondo, Japan, 45 
 miles bv rail southeast of Nagova (Map: Japan, 
 E 6). 'Pop., 1898, 21,785; 1908, 43,980. 
 
 TO'ZER, Henry Fansiiaave (1829-1916). 
 An English Avriter, teacher, and traA T eler. Af¬ 
 ter graduating from Exeter College, Oxford, 
 in 1850, he Avas tutor there from 1855 to 1893 
 Vol. XXII.—26 
 
 and AA 7 as also curator of the Taylor Institution 
 (Oxford) from 1869 to 1893. He traA 7 eled much 
 in Greece and in European and Asiatic Turkey, 
 and, besides editing various Avorks, published: 
 The Highlands of Turkey (2 vols., 1869) ; Lec¬ 
 tures on the Geography of Greece (1873); 
 Primer of Classical Geography (1877) ; Turkish 
 Armenia and Eastern Asia Minor (1881); The 
 Church and the Eastern Empire (1888) ; The 
 Islands of the JEgean (1890) ; History of An¬ 
 cient Geography (1897); An English Com¬ 
 mentary on Dante’s Divina Commedia (1901), 
 and a translation of the Divina Commedia 
 (1904). 
 
 TRABERT, tra'bert, Wilhelm (1863-1921 ). 
 An Austrian meteorologist, born in Franken- 
 berg, Hesse. He took his Ph.D. in 18S8 at 
 Vienna University, where he became associate 
 professor in 1901. The next year he \\ r as ap¬ 
 pointed to the chair of cosmical physics at Inns¬ 
 bruck and later to the directorship of the Central 
 Bureau of Meteorology at Vienna. He became 
 a member of the( International Polar Commis¬ 
 sion. Trabert published: Meteorologie (1896; 
 2d ed., 1901); Meteorologie und Klimatologie 
 (1905); Lehrbuch der Kosmischen Physik 
 (1911). 
 
 TRA'CERY (from trace, OF. tracer, trassei', 
 Fr. tracer, to trace, track, delineate, from ML. 
 *tractiare, frequentative of Lat. trahere, to draAV, 
 drag). The decorative subdivision of a AvindoAv, 
 arch, or other opening into smaller parts by 
 means of mullions, cusps, and foils, perforated 
 stonevmrk, etc.; but the term is not applied to 
 such perforated slabs as fill many Oriental and 
 some Romanesque Avindows. Tracery was de¬ 
 veloped during the Gothic period chiefly in 
 France and England from its germ in tAvo open¬ 
 ings grouped under an arch with a decorative 
 opening pierced in the spandrel above them. 
 This early phase, called plate tracery, is seen 
 in the early rose windows of Chartres (1170) 
 and in English churches of the twelfth century. 
 The openings were multiplied and in later ex¬ 
 amples replaced by slender mullions, arches, 
 circles, cusps, and foils of stone (bar tracery). 
 The general frame of each window inclosed sev¬ 
 eral separate lights, and above and betAveen their 
 arched summits were minor foiled openings. 
 These became more elaborate in the succeeding 
 centuries, seeking ever more complex geometric 
 combinations of lines. The rose or wheel Avin- 
 doAvs, such as those of Notre Dame in Paris, 
 and the clerestory and chapel AvindoAvs of the 
 cathedrals of Rheims and Amiens, illustrate the 
 various stages of this development. This tracery 
 spread gradually from the windoAvs until it 
 overran almost every part of the church Avith 
 its delicate lace patterns, sometimes on a solid 
 ground (Avail tracery), sometimes pierced. The 
 period of a Gothic structure can generally be 
 judged Avith tolerable accuracy by the style of 
 its tracery. This is particularly the case in 
 England, Avhere tAvo of the three main di\ r isions 
 of the Gothic movement, the Decorated and the 
 Perpendicular, are so called on account of their 
 distinctive styles of tracery. During the Deco¬ 
 rated fq.v.) period the tracery, at first composed 
 of simple arches, circles, and cusps (geometric), 
 later assumed freer curved lines (curvilinear 
 or floAving). About 1375 there is an almost 
 abrupt transition to the Perpendicular (q.v.) 
 tracery, in Avhieh vertical mullions dominate the 
 design. The English tracery, especially in the 
 vast east and west AvindoAvs, is on the Avhole 
 
TRACHEA 
 
 TRACT SOCIETIES 
 
 396 
 
 richer and more varied than the French. The 
 finest French examples are the great rose win¬ 
 dows of the west fronts and especially the 
 transepts of the great cathedrals (whence the 
 term Rayonnant). The Flamboyant (q.v.) 
 style in France, contemporary with the English 
 Perpendicular, had tracery of a very different 
 description, composed of swaying and flowing 
 lines, an elaboration of the English curvilinear 
 type. German tracery followed in the main, 
 but with variations, the French types (e.g., 
 Strassburg, Freiburg). With a few exceptions 
 Italian tracery is negligible, as large windows 
 were not in favor. See Gothic Art; Window. 
 
 TRACHEA, tra'ke-a (Neo-Lat., from Lat. 
 
 trachia, from Gk. rpaxeia, tracheia, trachea, 
 
 windpipe, rough artery, so called because of the 
 
 rings of gristle, from rpa%es, trachys, rough), 
 
 or Windpipe. The tube through which air- 
 
 breathing vertebrates receive air into the lungs. 
 
 It extends from the throat to the bifurcation 
 
 of the bronchi. It is sufficientlv described under 
 
 */ 
 
 Respiration. Tracheotomy (q.v.), or the more 
 modern practice of bronchoscopy, is necessary 
 for the removal of foreign bodies lodged in the 
 trachea and bronchi. The trachea shares cer¬ 
 tain inflammations and morbid processes in com¬ 
 mon with the larynx and the bronchi. For figure 
 of trachea, see Bronchus. 
 
 TRACHEYE. The characteristic elements of 
 woody tissue. See Tracheid. 
 
 TRACHEID, tra'ke-id. A cell of the woody 
 tissue in which the wall is thickened (lignified), 
 but with thin areas of various forms left, result¬ 
 ing in different patterns of wall sculpture. 
 Tracheids are single cells as distinguished from 
 tracheae (q.v.), which are cell fusions. Tra¬ 
 cheids are characteristic of the secondary wood 
 of gymnosperms, while tracheae make up the 
 wood of angiosperms. See Histology. 
 
 TRA'CHEOT'OMY (from Gk. rpa X eia, tra¬ 
 cheia, trachea, windpipe, rough artery + ropn 7 , 
 tome, a cutting, from reyveiv, temnein, to cut) 
 and Laryngotomy (from Gk. \apvy£, larynx, 
 larynx + Toyy, tome, a cutting). Opening the 
 trachea by incision in order to admit the en¬ 
 trance of air when suffocation is threatened. 
 
 Among the conditions 
 which demand trache¬ 
 otomy are foreign 
 bodies in the air 
 passages, cut throat, 
 diphtheria, oedema of 
 the glottis, and tu¬ 
 mors either within 
 the larynx or press¬ 
 ing upon the air pas¬ 
 sages from without 
 (as a goitre). The 
 air passages may be 
 opened in three differ¬ 
 ent situations, viz., 
 through the crico¬ 
 thyroid membrane 
 (see Larynx ), when 
 the operation is 
 termed laryngotomy; 
 through the cricoid 
 cartilage and the up- 
 instruments for intubation, per rings of the 
 
 trachea, the operation 
 being known as laryngotracheotomv; and 
 
 through the trachea, below the isthmus of the 
 thyroid gland, constituting tracheotomy proper. 
 
 The incision is made in the middle line of the 
 
 neck, longitudinally, the blood vessels being 
 pushed aside as much as possible with the handle 
 of the knife. When the trachea is exposed and 
 is cut through, the wound is held apart with 
 tenacula that the tube may be inserted. When 
 the operation is completed a large curved tube 
 to breathe through is inserted in the aperture 
 and secured round the neck with tapes. 
 
 A double tube or cannula possesses many ad¬ 
 vantages, as by withdrawing the inner one, 
 which should slightly project at its lower ex¬ 
 tremity, it may be cleared of any mucus or blood 
 that may have accumulated in it, without dis¬ 
 turbing the wound. The calibre of the inner tube 
 should always be sufficiently large to admit as 
 much air as usually passes through the chink 
 of the healthy glottis. Up to the time of 
 O’Dwyer (q.v.) the operation of tracheotomy 
 was frequently and successfully performed. In 
 1885 Dr. Joseph O’Dwyer, of New York, devised 
 instruments wherewith intubation of the larynx 
 was performed as a substitute for tracheotomy, 
 especially in laryngeal diphtheria. Intubation 
 consists in placing a short tube in position in the 
 larynx, between the vocal cords, its lower end 
 reaching a point as low as an incision would 
 be made if the air passages were opened and 
 thus admitting air from the throat. The re¬ 
 coveries from diphtheria in cases in which in¬ 
 tubation is practical average over 50 per cent. 
 The necessity for tracheotomy has further been 
 reduced by the introduction of electrically lighted 
 tubes (laryngoscopes, bronchoscopes), through 
 which polypoid or fungous growths in the larynx 
 and foreign bodies in even the smaller bronchial 
 tubes can be seen and removed with special 
 forceps. 
 
 TRACHXNIiE, tra-kin'i-e (Lat. nom. pi., 
 from Gk. T paxiviai, women of Trachis). A 
 tragedy by Sophocles describing the death of 
 Hercules, caused by the poisoned coat of Nessus, 
 sent to him by Deianira in jealousy of the cap¬ 
 tured Iole. The play takes its name from the 
 chorus composed of women of Trachis, where 
 Deianira is awaiting the return of her husband. 
 
 TRACHOMA, tra-ko'ma. A disease of the 
 conjunctiva. See Conjunctivitis, Ora/nular 
 Conjunctivitis. 
 
 TRACHYTE, triEkit or trak'it (from Gk. 
 Tpaxvrys, trachytes, roughness, from rpax'-’s, 
 trachys, rough). The name given to certain 
 volcanic rocks which are composed essentially 
 of alkali feldspar, having no quartz, but a small 
 proportion of either biotite, hornblende, or 
 augite. It agrees thus with syenite in mineral 
 constitution, although it differs from the latter 
 in its finer texture, indicative of rapid cooling 
 at or near the surface. The presence of small 
 cavities often gives the rock a rough feel; hence 
 the name. 
 
 TRACK, Railway. See Railways. 
 
 TRACK ATHLETICS. See Field Sports. 
 
 TRACKER ACTION. See Organ. 
 
 TRACT. See Gradual. 
 
 TRACTA'RIANS. A popular name given, 
 in the early days of the Oxford movement (q.v.), 
 to the party led by Newman, Pusey, and Keble, 
 from the Tracts for the Times, written by these 
 and other members of the party. 
 
 TRACTION ENGINE. See Automobile. 
 
 TRACT SOCIETIES (Lat. tractus, treat¬ 
 ment, discussion, handling, drawing, from tra- 
 here, to draw, drag). The word “tract” signifies 
 a brief treatise. In the modern use of the term 
 it is applied almost exclusively to treatises upon 
 
TRACT SOCIETIES 
 
 TRACT SOCIETIES 
 
 397 
 
 religious subjects, and a tract is distinguished 
 from a book mainly by its external (pamphlet) 
 form and its brevity. The earliest illustration 
 of a tract is found in the separate books of the 
 Bible, each one of which, as originally circulated 
 in manuscript form from hand to hand, may be 
 considered a tract. Apart from this, however, 
 we may consider Wiclif, the great English re¬ 
 former, as the first to begin the work of writing 
 and distributing tracts, which, though laboriously 
 produced by hand, yet obtained a large circula¬ 
 tion. With the invention of printing the possi¬ 
 bilities for the development of tract literature 
 were wonderfully enlarged, and the religious 
 movement which culminated in the Reformation 
 may be said to mark the commencement of the 
 general dissemination of Christian literature in 
 tract form. 
 
 The availability of tracts as a means for prop¬ 
 agating Christian knowledge led to the forma¬ 
 tion of societies for that express purpose. An 
 early pioneer among tract societies for English- 
 speaking peoples was the Society for Promoting 
 Christian Knowledge, which was organized in 
 England in 1698 and incorporated in 1701 to cir¬ 
 culate Bibles and religious tracts both at home 
 and abroad. The publication of tracts, begun 
 by John Wesley in 1742, was soon carried for¬ 
 ward upon a large scale, and in 1728 he organized 
 the Society for the Distribution of Tracts among 
 the Poor. The first interdenominational union of 
 Christian effort for the circulation of tract 
 literature was effected in 1750, in the city of 
 London, by the formation of the Society for 
 Promoting Religious Knowledge among the Poor. 
 This was followed by the organization of simi¬ 
 lar societies in other cities, and, though none 
 of these maintained a permanent existence, they 
 must be regarded as forerunners of the great 
 tract societies of modern times. In the closing 
 decade of the eighteenth century, at Bath, Eng¬ 
 land, Hannah More (q.v.) initiated a move¬ 
 ment for the better circulation of Christian liter¬ 
 ature by putting forth a series of short religious 
 tales in tract form, named the Cheap Repository. 
 In 1795 the Religious Tract Society of Scotland 
 (now known as the Religious Tract and Book 
 Society) was founded in Edinburgh, by Rev. 
 John Campbell. This was followed, in 1799, by 
 the organization of the Religious Tract Society of 
 London, which stands foremost in age and influ¬ 
 ence among tract societies of the present day. 
 
 In America the work of religious publication 
 was begun by the Methodist Book Concern, which 
 issued its first publication in 1789. The Massa¬ 
 chusetts Society for Promoting Christian Knowl¬ 
 edge, founded in 1803, may be properly regarded 
 as the first interdenominational organization for 
 tract work in America. This was followed by 
 the formation of various local societies, among 
 which were the New York Religious Tract So¬ 
 ciety, organized in 1812, and the New England 
 Tract Society, organized at Andover in 1814. 
 The latter society in 1823 changed its headquar¬ 
 ters to Boston and its name to the American 
 Tract Society, and two years later became merged 
 in the American Tract Society, which was or¬ 
 ganized in New York City, on May 11, 1825, by 
 friends of tract work, who desired to see a so¬ 
 ciety of national scope and influence. Since 
 that time tract societies have multiplied, but 
 the American Tract Society still remains the 
 principal agency for tract distribution in 
 America. 
 
 A board of managers, consisting of a presi¬ 
 
 dent, vice president, and 36 members, are elected 
 annually by this society. This board elects the 
 publishing, distributing, and finance committees. 
 The members of these three committees consti¬ 
 tute an executive committee to conduct the 
 business of the society. To promote in the 
 highest degree the objects of the society, the con¬ 
 stitution specifies that the officers and managers 
 shall be elected from different denominations of 
 Christians, that the publishing committee shall 
 contain no two members from the same ecclesi¬ 
 astical connection, and that no tract shall be 
 published to which any member of that com¬ 
 mittee shall object. • 
 
 Some idea of the magnitude of the work of 
 this society may be gained from the following 
 statistics. The whole number of titles of dis¬ 
 tinct publications (not including periodicals) 
 issued by the society from the home office from 
 1825 to 1916 was 9117. These have been pub¬ 
 lished in more than a score of different lan¬ 
 guages. The total number of volumes issued 
 during the previous 90 years is 35,018,140; of 
 tracts, 460,663,742; and of periodicals, 295,- 
 460,168, making a grand total of 791,142,050 
 copies of publications printed. Four periodicals 
 are published: American Messenger, Apples of 
 Gold, Amerikaniseher Botschafter und Deutscher 
 Vollcsfreund, and Manzanas de Oro. The so¬ 
 ciety has made foreign cash appropriations 
 amounting to $796,137, by the aid of which 
 5667 publications have been issued in 178 lan¬ 
 guages and dialects. It has also furnished 
 electrotypes to foreign-mission stations to the 
 value of $61,177.96. 
 
 Missionary colportage is an important feature 
 of the society’s work. Since its organization 
 the missionary colporteurs of the society have 
 circulated by sale and grant 17,326,937 volumes; 
 they have made 18,406,676 family visits, and 
 they have addressed 585,948 religious meetings. 
 The total value of the Christian literature cir¬ 
 culated gratuitously by the society since its 
 formation amounts to $2,617,820.90. 
 
 During the 116 years of its existence the 
 Religious Tract Society of London, England, 
 has printed or assisted the printing of books and 
 tracts in 282 languages, dialects, and characters; 
 its annual circulation is over 65,000,000, and its 
 total distribution to March, 1916, is estimated at 
 over 540,000,000 copies of its publications. 
 
 In New York and manv other cities there 
 
 «/ 
 
 are city-mission and tract societies which find 
 the printed page a valuable auxiliary in reaching 
 the “submerged tenth.” Many of the evangeli¬ 
 cal denominations have their own boards of 
 publication or publishing societies, which employ 
 tract literature, especially in aid of their Sun¬ 
 day-school work. In Great Britain, in addition 
 to the Religious Tract Society, there are several 
 other tract societies, such as the Monthly Tract 
 Society and the Stirling Tract Enterprise. On 
 the continent of Europe there are perhaps a 
 score of societies which are engaged more or less 
 in the publication and circulation of tract liter¬ 
 ature. Among the most important of these are 
 the Paris Tract Society (Societe des Traites Re- 
 ligieux), the Toulouse Religious Book and Tract 
 Society, the Geneva Evangelical Society, the 
 Italian Evangelical Publication Society of Flor¬ 
 ence, and the German Evangelical Book and Tract 
 Society. In India, China, Japan, and other 
 heathen lands there are a large number of 
 tract societies which aim to provide Christian 
 literature in the native languages. 
 
TRACY 
 
 TRADE ASSOCIATIONS 
 
 398 
 
 Bibliography. The literature on the subject 
 of tract societies consists chiefly of the annual 
 reports, pamphlets, etc., published by the vari¬ 
 ous societies themselves. The Story of the Re¬ 
 ligious Tract Society for One Hundred Years, by 
 Rev. S. G. Green, D.D. (London, 1899), was pre¬ 
 pared by an editorial secretary of the Religious 
 Tract Society of London and is an authoritative 
 history of that society. The American Tract 
 Society: An Historical Sketch (New York, 
 1915), though but a brief pamphlet, presents the 
 salient points concerning the history of the 
 American Tract Society. 
 
 TRACY, tra'se', Auexandre de Prouville, 
 Marquis de (1603-70). A French soldier and 
 administrator. After serving in several wars 
 he w r as appointed lieutenant general of the 
 French possessions in North America on Nov. 
 19, 1663, and reached Quebec, June 30, 1665, 
 accompanied by many young nobles and 200 
 soldiers. In 1666 with 1300 men he led an ex¬ 
 pedition against the Mohawks, burned several of 
 their towns, and forced them to sue for peace. 
 This expedition greatly alarmed Gov. Richard 
 Nicolls (q.v.), of New York, who attempted in 
 vain to secure the aid of the New England 
 Colonies for an expedition against the French. 
 Soon after this expedition Tracy returned to 
 France. 
 
 TRACY, Antoine Louis Claude Destutt, 
 Count de. A French philosopher. See Destutt 
 de Tracy. 
 
 TRACY, Benjamin Franklin (1830-1915). 
 An American lawyer, soldier, and cabinet offi¬ 
 cer, born at Owego, N. Y. He was educated at 
 Owego Academy and was admitted to the bar in 
 1851. In 1853 he was elected on the Whig 
 ticket as district attorney of Tioga County 
 and in 1856 was reelected. Prior to this he 
 took an active part in the formation of the 
 Republican party in his State. In 1861 he was 
 elected to the State Assembly. In 1862 he re¬ 
 cruited the 109th and 137th New York V olun¬ 
 teers and became colonel of the former. For his 
 gallantry in the battle of the Wilderness he re¬ 
 ceived the congressional medal of honor in 1895. 
 Wounded in this battle, he was compelled to re¬ 
 linquish his command, but within a year he 
 again entered the army as colonel of the 127th 
 United States Regiment of negro troops. Subse¬ 
 quently he commanded the prison camp at Elmira 
 and at the close of hostilities was brevetted 
 brigadier general of volunteers. From 1866 to 
 1873 he was United States District Attorney 
 for the Eastern District of New York and from 
 1881 to 1883 was associate judge of the State 
 Court of Appeals. As Secretary of the Navy in 
 President Harrison’s cabinet (1889-93) he did 
 such important work in increasing the number 
 of battleships and raising the standards of the 
 service to a high level that he has been called 
 the “father of the navy.” In 1893 he resumed 
 his law practice in New York and in 1897 was 
 the unsuccessful Republican candidate for mayor 
 of New York City. In 1899 he was counsel for 
 Venezuela before the Anglo-Venezuelan Boundary 
 Arbitration Commission. For many years he 
 was head of the law firm of Tracy, Boardman, 
 and Platt; this he left in 1900 to associate him¬ 
 self with Coudert Brothers. At the age of 83 
 he argued a case before the United States Su¬ 
 preme Court. 
 
 TRADE, Balance of. See Balance of 
 
 Trade. 
 
 TRADE, Board of. A department of govern¬ 
 
 ment in England designated “the lords of the 
 committee of his Majesty’s Privy Council ap¬ 
 pointed for the consideration of all matters re¬ 
 lating to trade and foreign plantations.” Crom¬ 
 well in 1655 was the first to establish a perma¬ 
 nent committee for matters of trade. Charles II 
 continued the policy and in 1660 created two 
 separate councils for trade and for foreign plan¬ 
 tations, which in 1672 were consolidated into one. 
 In 1786 the present department was established 
 as a permanent committee of the Privy Council. 
 The board as now constituted consists of the 
 President, who is a member of the cabinet, to¬ 
 gether with the First Lord of the Treasury, the 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer, and numerous other 
 ex-officio members; but, like the Treasury Board, 
 the Board of Trade does not meet and consists in 
 practice of the President and his staff. It com¬ 
 prises the following departments: (1) The com¬ 
 mercial, labor, and statistical department, whose 
 principal function is the collection and dissemi¬ 
 nation of information concerning matters of 
 trade. Since 1886 it has published the Board of 
 Trade Journal. (2) The railway department, 
 established in 1840, with numerous duties of 
 supervision and inspection. (3) The marine de¬ 
 partment, established in 1850, which has general 
 supervision over merchant shipping and the care 
 of seamen. (4) The harbor department, whose 
 province includes, besides lighthouses, harbors, 
 etc., weights and measures, coinage, and other 
 miscellaneous matters. (5) The finance depart¬ 
 ment, which keeps the accounts for the board 
 and audits for Parliament the reports of the life- 
 insurance companies. (6) The fisheries depart¬ 
 ment. 
 
 TRADE, Restraint of. See Restraint of 
 Trade. 
 
 TRADE ASSOCIATIONS. Associations of 
 men engaged in manufacture or trade, for the 
 furtherance or protection of their mutual in¬ 
 terests. In England these associations antedate 
 the nineteenth century. In the United States 
 some were founded before 1850; by 1890 they had 
 been formed in most well-established industries; 
 while by 1900 they had spread to almost every 
 subdivision of the industrial world. Trade as¬ 
 sociation may include one or more of three 
 classes of functions—the commercial, the indus¬ 
 trial, and the protective. Associations to do the 
 work of business agencies display most clearly 
 the commercial function. The London Associa¬ 
 tion of Guardians for the Protection of r I rade 
 was established as far back as 1776. The opera¬ 
 tion of the earlier societies was confined chiefly 
 to compilations of registers of bankruptcies, in¬ 
 solvencies, and private settlements with cred¬ 
 itors. Societies may undertake investigations 
 into the circumstances connected with a bank¬ 
 ruptcy and perform the general agency business 
 of their members. Later features are in con¬ 
 nection with credit. Large commercial concerns 
 furnish general information, but there is still 
 room for information bureaus within some 
 trades. Many establishments have special credit 
 men, who have formed a national association, 
 with branches in many chief cities of the 
 United States. 
 
 The general industrial functions of trade asso¬ 
 ciations include, first, the surveillance of impor¬ 
 tant influences, such as legislation or railway 
 rates, which affect the entire trade. With many 
 associations the tariff question is a weighty and 
 permanent issue, while laws affecting labor, the 
 quality, the method of sale, or the inspection of 
 
399 
 
 TRADE ASSOCIATIONS 
 
 TRADE-MARK 
 
 goods (as in brewing or boiler making), are 
 constantly watched, advocated, or contested. In 
 the second place, associations may seek to es¬ 
 tablish agreement in business methods to keep 
 their members informed of new inventions or 
 processes, of market conditions, etc. A result 
 of this activity is the publication of a trade 
 journal, of which the Bulletin of the Natio 7 uil 
 Association of 11 ool Manufacturers (formed in 
 1864) is a well-known example. Various special 
 functions are often assumed. Provision may be 
 made for exhibits at fairs, trade schools may 
 be encouraged, selling agencies established, bu¬ 
 reaus of employment maintained, local improve¬ 
 ments furthered, or, as in the lumber business, 
 a system of mutual insurance may be attempted. 
 An important function is the promotion of so¬ 
 ciability and good will. It is not always easy 
 to draw a line between the acts of a trade asso¬ 
 ciation and those of a trade combination in 
 which the financial management has been cen¬ 
 tralized. At present the typical forms of pro¬ 
 tection are: (1) against introduction of so- 
 called unfair methods within the trade, (2) 
 against railroad discrimination in rates, and 
 (3) against labor organizations. Jobbers’ and 
 retailers’ associations protest against sales di¬ 
 rect from manufacturer to consumer and some¬ 
 times establish a boycott against recalcitrant 
 manufacturers. The decreasing importance of 
 the jobber in the distributive system makes the 
 efforts of their associations of interest. “Ex¬ 
 clusive agreements” may be made by a middle¬ 
 men’s association with certain manufacturers, in 
 which case no other but the latter’s goods will be 
 used. The object of certain associations is “to 
 help the manufacturer decide who are legitimate 
 dealers.” 
 
 In trades where freight forms an important 
 item of cost, a prime object of the association 
 is likely to be adjustment of railroad rates. 
 The National Association of Stove Manufactur¬ 
 ers and the National Transportation Association, 
 an organization of shippers, are examples. In 
 1903 the Georgia Sawmill Association took the 
 radical move of disregarding the possibility of an 
 appeal to the Interstate Commerce Commis¬ 
 sion and themselves asked for an injunction re¬ 
 straining certain Southern railroads from ad¬ 
 vancing rates on yellow pine. They asked that 
 the Southern Freight Association be declared an 
 illegal combination in restraint of trade. In¬ 
 creased demands of labor organizations in recent 
 years have greatly stimulated defensive action 
 by trade associations. 
 
 In the period 1906-16 there was a rapid 
 growth of trade associations formed to deal with 
 powerful and well-organized labor unions. Some 
 are openly hostile to and oppose collective bar¬ 
 gaining, some are willing to cooperate with the 
 unions. The latter associations conclude agree¬ 
 ments on wage scales and on conditions of labor 
 with representatives of unions or federated 
 unions in a particular industry. The control 
 of the association over the individual member is 
 relatively weak. Employers’ associations have 
 sometimes been started to cooperate with the 
 union, but, failing to reach an agreement, have 
 become bitterly opposed to the aims and methods 
 of unionism, the National Erectors’ Association 
 is a case in point: organized in 1903, it treated 
 with the unions, and, being unable to reach an 
 agreement satisfactory to both sides, finally re¬ 
 fused to treat further. A bitter struggle ensued, 
 characterized by strikes and dynamite outrages. 
 
 Many of the associations insist on the right of 
 the employer to determine whom he shall em¬ 
 ploy and what the conditions of labor shall be. 
 Frequently special employment) agencies are main¬ 
 tained by the association to enable members to 
 secure an adequate supply of nonunion labor. 
 Some have been active in improving the condi¬ 
 tions of labor, introducing safety systems, and 
 promoting welfare work. 
 
 In the United Kingdom in 1912 there were 
 1079 local employers’ associations and 83 fed¬ 
 erations and national associations of employers, 
 these figures do not include those formed merely 
 for purposes of trade protection, insurance, the 
 diffusion of knowledge, or the advancement of 
 technical knowledge. In recent years many as¬ 
 sociations of employers have been organized in 
 Germany. The Federation of German Employ¬ 
 ers’ Associations, one of several such organiza¬ 
 tions, had in 1907 a membership of 300 associa¬ 
 tions, with a total of over 1,200,000 men in the 
 employ of their members. In Germany in 1913 
 there were 111 federations or national associa¬ 
 tions and 3320 local or district organizations, 
 comprising as far as reported a membership of 
 145,207 employers, who employed 4,641,000 work¬ 
 men. Most of these associations were principally 
 concerned with the relations between their mem¬ 
 bers and workmen. There are no satisfactory 
 statistics of employers’ associations in the 
 L nited States. Consult: Hollander and Barnett, 
 Studies in American Trade Unionism (New 
 York, 1906) ; G. Kessler, “Die deutschen Arbeit- 
 geberverbande,” in Schriften des Vereins fur 
 Sozialpolitik, vol. cxxiv (Leipzig, 1907) ; Com¬ 
 mission on Industrial Relations, Final Report 
 (Washington, 1915). 
 
 TRADE-MARK. A mark, name, emblem, or 
 device adopted by a tradesman or manufacturer 
 and attached to or stamped upon his goods in 
 some manner for the purposes of identification 
 by the public and protection against the sale 
 of fraudulent imitations. The law of trade¬ 
 marks is of modern development. In 1742 Lord 
 Hardwick declared that he could not protect a 
 trade-mark adopted by a trader from being used 
 by another. It was not until 1803 that the Eng¬ 
 lish courts attempted to prevent the fraudulent 
 use of an adopted trade-mark. Since that time 
 the law on the subject has developed rapidly. 
 The statute now in force in England is known 
 as the Trade Marks Act, 1905. It provides for 
 registration and makes the registry conclusive 
 after seven years, unless the registration was 
 fraudulent or contrary to morality. 
 
 The first trade-mark statute in the United 
 States was passed in 1870. The salient features 
 of the present law were enacted in 1905, although 
 slight amendments were passed in 1906, 1907, 
 and 1909. Under the decisions of the United 
 States courts the office of a trade-mark is to in¬ 
 dicate the origin or ownership of an article on 
 which it is found. Therefore it follows that a 
 valid trade-mark must fulfill one of the above 
 essentials, either from its own nature or by rea¬ 
 son of association with the article itself and 
 the maker’s name. A name which is merely de¬ 
 scriptive of the qualities or nature of an article 
 cannot constitute a valid trade-mark, as its use 
 as such might tend to create a perpetual mo¬ 
 nopoly in the sale of the article. For example, 
 the United States courts held that the words 
 “acid phosphate” could not be protected as a 
 trade-mark, as they were considered to be de¬ 
 scriptive of the essential characteristics of the 
 
TRADE NAME 
 
 TRADE-UNIONS 
 
 400 
 
 preparation sold under that name, and, as it 
 was a known form of chemical combination, it 
 would prevent others from describing accurately 
 a similar combination. 
 
 In general, a geographical name cannot be used 
 as an exclusive trade-mark; although the use of 
 a geographical name as a trade name, where the 
 article bears no relation to the name and is 
 manufactured elsewhere, will sometimes be pro¬ 
 tected. Fantastic and newly coined words may 
 be regarded as trade-marks. A person's own 
 name will not be protected as a trade-mark as 
 against a person of the same name who, acting 
 in good faith, desires to use his name on his own 
 goods. A trade name is therefore to be dis¬ 
 tinguished from a trade-mark and can be pro¬ 
 tected by a court of equity only where some one 
 attempts to deceive the public and take another 
 person’s trade by adopting his trade name. A 
 close imitation of a trade-mark may amount to 
 an infringement, especially if there are other 
 circumstances tending to show that there is an 
 intention to deceive the public and take advan¬ 
 tage of the business reputation of another. The 
 use of the national emblem cannot in any sense 
 constitute it a trade-mark. On the other hand 
 an Illinois statute prohibiting the use of the 
 American flag for advertising purposes has been 
 held unconstitutional. 
 
 Any one who handles goods may impress his 
 trade-mark upon them and be protected in its 
 use if he has exercised any peculiar skill or 
 judgment in their selection, care, or alteration. 
 The right to an exclusive trade-mark may be lost 
 by abandonment, but the evidence of the inten¬ 
 tion to discontinue using it must be very clear. 
 A trade-mark is not generally considered to be 
 property in the sense that it can be taken 
 under an execution, but it may be transferred 
 from one person to another, unless it is of such 
 a nature that to allow it to be used on the goods 
 of a person other than the one who originally 
 adopted and used it would tend to deceive the 
 public. The sale of a business, good will, etc., 
 usually includes the trade-marks under which 
 goods were sold by the owners. See Copyright; 
 Patent; Trade Name. 
 
 Bibliography. W. H. Browne, Treatise on 
 the Law of Trade-Marks (2d enlarged ed., Bos¬ 
 ton, 1898) ; Sir Thomas Barclay, Law of France 
 Relating to Trade-Marks (London, 1899) ; J. L. 
 Hopkins, Law of Trademarks, Tradenames , and 
 Unfair Competition (2d ed., Chicago, 1905) ; 
 L. B. Sebastian, Law of Trade Marks and their 
 Registration (5th ed., London, 1911); Berthold 
 Singer, Trade Mark Laws of the World and Un¬ 
 fair Trade (New York, 1913) ; H. C. Underwood, 
 How to Select Trade-Marks (Fort Wayne, Ind., 
 1913) ; G. S. Rogers, Good Will, Trade-Marks, 
 and Unfair Trading (Chicago, 1914). 
 
 TRADE NAME. A name under which a 
 person or corporation does business and which 
 by user becomes so associated with the good will 
 of the business as to be valuable. A trade name 
 is to be distinguished from a trade-mark which 
 is affixed to or impressed on merchandise, and 
 when .registered is protected by statute. The 
 wrongful user of an established trade name will 
 be restrained by a court of equity on the ground 
 that it constitutes fraud and deceit against the 
 public and an unlawful appropriation of some¬ 
 thing which is so closely allied to the business of 
 another as to be a species of property right. A 
 trade name may sometimes be registered as a 
 trade-mark, and this fact is the source of the con¬ 
 
 fusion resulting from the use of these terms as 
 being interchangeable. The statutes of most 
 States prohibit one corporation from adopting 
 the same name as another, and the Secretary of 
 State should be consulted before a name is 
 adopted for a new corporation. Furthermore, 
 equity will protect a corporation in the use of its 
 name. See Trade-Marks, and references there 
 given. 
 
 TRAD'ESCANT, John (C.1570-C.1637 ). A 
 traveler, naturalist, and gardener, said to have 
 been born in Holland. In 1620 he fought against 
 the Algerine pirates. Afterward he was in the 
 service of the Duke of Buckingham and seems 
 to have become royal gardener. He established 
 a physic garden and museum at South Lambeth 
 and was the first Englishman to make a con¬ 
 siderable collection of objects in natural history. 
 His son John (1608-62), born at Meapham, 
 Kent, added largely to his father’s collection and 
 in 1637 visited Virginia, where he gathered “all 
 varieties of flowers, plants, shells, etc.” In 
 1656 he published his Museum Trades cant ianum: 
 or a Collection of Rarities, Preserved at South 
 Lambeth, Near London. Upon his death the 
 museum went by will to Elias Ashmole and in 
 1682 became the nucleus of the Ashmolean Mu¬ 
 seum at Oxford. 
 
 TRADESCANTIA, trad'es-kan'sln-a. A 
 genus of monocotyledonous plants, including 
 about 35 species, natives of tropical and tem¬ 
 perate America, and commonly known as spider- 
 worts. About 15 species are natives of the 
 United States. 
 
 TRADE SCHOOLS. See Technical Edu¬ 
 cation. 
 
 TRADE-UNION CONGRESS. A British 
 
 federation of trade-unions, organized in 1868, 
 which has met annually since that date except 
 in 1871. At the time of its formation the Brit¬ 
 ish unions were engaged in an earnest struggle 
 for favorable legislation, and the congress played 
 an important part in securing the legislative 
 victories of 1871-75. (See Trade-Unions.) 
 Since that time it has confined itself largely to 
 the tasks of creating a favorable public opinion, 
 voicing the demands of organized labor, provid¬ 
 ing a place for common meeting, and securing 
 favorable labor legislation. The last function 
 is exercised largely through a permanent parlia¬ 
 mentary committee, the expenses of which are 
 paid by a per capita tax upon the affiliated 
 unions "of fl 10s. per 1000 members. The par¬ 
 liamentary secretary devotes all his time to the 
 work and receives a salary of £250 per annum. 
 The congress itself is thus a deliberative body 
 merely, but it has started two auxiliary fed¬ 
 erations—the Labor Representation Committee 
 (see Labor Party, British) and the General 
 Federation of Trade-Unions. (See Trade- 
 Unions, The General Federation of.) The 
 membership of the trade-unions represented in 
 the trade-union congresses in the United King¬ 
 dom increased from 110,000 in 1866 to 1,500,- 
 000 in 1890. At the Forty-fourth Congress,, 
 held in Newcastle in 1911, there were 127 trade- 
 unions with a membership of 1,650,000 members 
 represented. The total income for the year was 
 £6928. 
 
 TRADE-UNIONS. “The term ‘national 
 trade-union,’ ” says the Federal statute provid¬ 
 ing for the incorporation of trade-unions, “in 
 the meaning of this act shall signify any asso¬ 
 ciation of working people having two or more 
 branches in the States or Territories of the 
 
40i 
 
 TRADE-U 
 
 TRADE-UNIONS 
 
 Lnited States for the purpose of aiding its mem¬ 
 bers to become more skillful and efficient work¬ 
 ers, the promotion of their general intelligence, 
 the elevation of their character, the regulation 
 of their wages and their hours and conditions 
 of labor, the protection of their individual rights 
 in the prosecution of their trade or trades,°the 
 raising of funds for the benefit of the sick, dis¬ 
 abled, or unemployed members, or the families of 
 deceased members, or for such other object or 
 objects for which working people may lawfully 
 combine, having in view their mutual protec¬ 
 tion or benefit.” No definition less complete 
 is sufficient fully to indicate the complex char¬ 
 acter of the trade-union, since the trade-union 
 has always been an insurance association and a 
 social and educational club, as well as “a con¬ 
 tinuous association of wage earners for the pur¬ 
 pose of maintaining or improving the conditions 
 of their employment,” as Beatrice and Sidney 
 Webb define it. 
 
 History. The connection between the modern 
 trade-union and the journeymen clubs of the 
 Middle Ages is in dispute. Throughout the later 
 Middle Ages and frequently after the fourteenth 
 century traces are encountered of journeymen 
 clubs the German Schenken, the French con- 
 freries de compagnons —which maintained a more 
 or less continuous existence, regulated appren¬ 
 ticeship, paid benefits, and engaged in conflicts 
 with employers, characterized by the elements 
 of the modern strike. Admitting, as Professor 
 Ashley suggests, that the journeymen of these 
 fraternities “were almost all unmarried, that 
 when employed they lived in the master’s house, 
 that the masters themselves had usually been 
 journeymen, that the number of masters and 
 journeymen was very much the same,” there 
 nevertheless seems no tenable reason for denying 
 to these associations the essential attributes of 
 the modern trade-union. It is evident that ef¬ 
 fective and solid trade-unionism is intimately 
 dependent upon the existence of a body of work¬ 
 ers who will naturally remain wage earners 
 throughout their lives. In other words, the 
 trade-union follows in general the permanent 
 separation of the employing and wage-earning 
 classes. This separation, speaking generally, 
 was a product of the industrial revolution and 
 the factory system. Trade-unions consequently 
 did not become numerous until late in the 
 eighteenth centurv. 
 
 •i- «/ 
 
 In England trade-unionism in the eighteenth 
 century is marked by increasing hostility on 
 the part of Parliament towards combinations of 
 laborers. Laws regulating wages, apprentice¬ 
 ship, movement of laborers from parish to par¬ 
 ish, etc., existed, and the activity of the trade- 
 unions during that century seems to have 
 been largely directed towards enforcement of 
 those laws, which the employers did not always 
 observe. Laws against combinations of work¬ 
 ingmen in specific trades began to multiply as 
 the doctrine of laissez-faire secured wider ac¬ 
 ceptance. These culminated in the Combination 
 Acts of 1799 and 1800, by which every form of 
 combination, whether of employer or employees, 
 was rigidly prohibited. In effect, the acts were 
 enforced against the laborers only. For 25 
 years the unions were driven into hiding, but 
 were by no means extirpated. In 1824 the 
 whole group of combination laws was repealed, 
 but in 1825 a reaction set in, and in another 
 statute the law against combination was re¬ 
 vived, but it left laborers free to combine; to 
 
 NS 
 
 fix wages or hours of Bibor of parties to the 
 combination. / 
 
 the Act of 1825 was followed by the rise of 
 labor organizations dr general trade-unions of a 
 Socialistic nature /described under Labor Or¬ 
 ganizations. But the trade-union proper was 
 making steady progress within the separate 
 trades, in which identity of interests made unity 
 of organization and policy a v comparatively easy 
 task. About 1850 a reaction against the strike 
 set in, and reforms in the management of the 
 friendly-benefit system were inaugurated. The 
 union which applied the new ideas most suc¬ 
 cessfully was the Journeymen Steam Engine and 
 Machine Makers’ and Millwrights’ Friendly So- 
 ciety, which in 1850 absorbed other large unions 
 of mechanics and became the Amalgamated So¬ 
 ciety of Engineers, whose careful set of rules 
 for the. financial and general administration of 
 the union served, according to Mr. and Mrs. 
 Webb, as the “model for all national societies” 
 founded between 1852 and 1889. The reaction 
 from the Socialistic trade-unionism of the thir¬ 
 ties brought to the front a remarkable group 
 of labor leaders, acute, tactful, industrious, and 
 conservative, who (1860-75) united in a per¬ 
 sistent and energetic campaign for legislative 
 reform. The first victory came in the Master 
 and Servant Act of 1867, which corrected the 
 most glaring defects of the old law on this sub¬ 
 ject. The union leaders, however, aimed at more 
 sweeping concessions. By the celebrated Trade- 
 Union Act of 1871 it was provided that no trade- 
 union should be deemed illegal simply because 
 it was in restraint of trade, and unions were 
 given a legal standing carrying with it protec¬ 
 tion of their funds, without exposing them to 
 the ordinary obligations of an incorporated com¬ 
 pany. Finally in 1875 the unions secured the 
 passage of a very liberal Employers’ and Work¬ 
 men’s Act (replacing the Master and Servant 
 Act of 1867), and a revolutionary Conspiracv 
 and Protection of Property Act, which expressly 
 permitted peaceable picketing, and provided that 
 no combination to do any act in furtherance of 
 a trade dispute between employers and workmen 
 should be indictable as a conspiracy unless such 
 act if committed by one person would be punish¬ 
 able as a crime. 
 
 In 1860 a giant stride towards collective bar¬ 
 gaining was taken by the formation in the 
 hosiery trade of the first joint conference be¬ 
 tween employers and employees for peaceful set¬ 
 tlement of trade disputes. Federation of trade- 
 unions began; trade councils became common in 
 the cities, and in 1868 the first national Trade- 
 Union Congress was held at Manchester. Fi¬ 
 nally the successful legislation of 1871, like that 
 of 1824, was followed by an expansion of trade- 
 unionism and the reappearance of many of the 
 phenomena which had marked the epoch of la¬ 
 bor organizations in the thirties, with their 
 ideal of an aggressive, militant organization, 
 free from the incumbrance of friendly benefits, 
 embracing workingwomen and unskilled labor’ 
 participating actively in politics, and with ten¬ 
 dencies towards Socialism. 
 
 The most noteworthy event of late years is 
 the formation in 1899 and 1900 respectively of 
 the General Federation of Trade-Unions ‘(see 
 Trade-Unions, The General Federation of) 
 and the Labor Representation Committee, later 
 the Independent Labor party. Between 1892 
 and 1911 inclusive the membership of British 
 trade-unions grew from 1,500,451 to 3,010,346. 
 
TRADE-UNIONS 
 
 TRADE-UNIONS 402 
 
 In the United States there is no positive record 
 of a trade-union before 1803, the year in which 
 the New York Society of Journeymen Ship¬ 
 wrights was incorporated. In 1806 a union of 
 the House Carpenters of the City of New York 
 was organized, and the first union of the Jour¬ 
 neymen Tailors is said to have been organized in 
 the same year. As early as 1817 the New York 
 Tvpographical Society had been in active ex¬ 
 istence for some time, and in 1822 the Charitable 
 Society of Shipwrights and Calkers of Boston 
 and Charlestown was formed. 
 
 The most important events of the period 
 1825-50 are briefly described under Labor Or¬ 
 ganizations. For a time trade-unionism seems 
 to have become involved in general reform; 
 wide-reaching and ambitious federations were 
 formed which worked at the same time for the 
 abolition of slavery, for woman’s rights, land 
 nationalization, and cooperation, as well as im¬ 
 provement of conditions of employment. Dur¬ 
 ing this period trade-unionism proper was un¬ 
 doubtedly making progress in the separate 
 trades, and by 1840 in the principal industrial 
 centres local unions had been organized among 
 masons, marble cutters, shoemakers, saddleis, 
 hatters, tailors, printers, bricklayers, roofers, 
 painters, carpenters, and shipworkers. 
 
 The 15 years between 1850 and 1865 may 
 well be described as the period of nationalization. 
 Labor leaders had learned that for a time the 
 labor movement must go forward cautiously, 
 that participation in politics and broad attempts 
 to reform things were dangerous, that labor or¬ 
 ganizations must be extended within trade lines 
 and not by all-embracing amalgamations. In 
 1850 the union now known as the International 
 Typographical Union was organized. (See 
 Typographical Union of North America, The 
 International.) This was probably the first 
 American national union, though there is some 
 reason to believe that the Silk and Fur Hat Fin¬ 
 ishers’ National Association was organized as 
 earlv as 1843. The National Association of Hat 
 Finishers of the United States of America was 
 
 has been perfected, their administration im¬ 
 proved. A number of vigorous labor journals 
 have appeared; labor parties have been formed 
 and in places have elected labor candidates; per¬ 
 manent boards of collective bargaining or arbi¬ 
 tration and conciliation have been formed in 
 many trades; boycotting through the union label 
 and labor press has been systematized and de¬ 
 veloped; favorable legislation has been secured 
 in every State; and, more important than any 
 other result, public opinion has been brought to 
 concede the utility and even the necessity of 
 the trade-union. The most striking phenomenon 
 of the epoch has been the formation of large 
 federations of unions. Among these larger or¬ 
 ganizations may be named the National Labor 
 Union (1866)/the Knights of Labor (1869), 
 the International Association of Workingmen 
 (1864), the Industrial Brotherhood (1873), the 
 American Federation of Labor (1881), the Na¬ 
 tional Building Trades Council (1897), and the 
 American Labor Union (1898). By far the most 
 important of these is the American Federation 
 of Labor. (See Labor, American Federation 
 of.) Until 1906 this organization avoided di¬ 
 rect participation in politics, confining itself to 
 the organization of new unions, the passage of 
 legislation favorable to labor, the extension of 
 the union label, etc. In 1906, on account of al¬ 
 leged violations of the Federal labor laws, the 
 American Federation decided to enter politics. 
 It concentrated its efforts upon defeating a num¬ 
 ber of congressional candidates who were said to 
 be especially hostile to organized labor, but its 
 efforts were without success. 
 
 Statistics of Trade-Unions in the United 
 States. These are collected by the labor bureaus 
 of a few States, but no complete enumeration for 
 the whole country has ever been made. The re¬ 
 port of the Industrial Commission gave the es¬ 
 timated membership of labor organizations in 
 the United States on July 1, 1901, at 1,400,000. 
 The average membership of the American Federa¬ 
 tion of Labor alone during the year ending 
 Sept. 30, 1911, was 1,761,835. 
 
 
 NEW YORK STATE 
 
 AVERAGE MEMBERSHIP 
 
 OP AMERICAN FEDERATION 
 
 OF LABOR 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 TEAR 
 
 Organiza¬ 
 
 tions 
 
 Membership 
 
 Organiza¬ 
 
 tions 
 
 Membership 
 
 Organiza¬ 
 
 tions 
 
 Membership 
 
 1892 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,203 
 
 1,500,451 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,259 
 
 1,478,474 
 
 1 £04 
 
 860 
 
 157,197 
 
 
 
 1,299 
 
 1,437,765 
 
 1 £0^ 
 
 927 
 
 180,231 
 
 
 
 1,303 
 
 1,404,898 
 
 1 £Qfi 
 
 962 
 
 170,296 
 
 
 
 1,308 
 
 1,491,007 
 
 1 £07 
 
 1,009 
 
 168,454 
 
 75 
 
 264,825 
 
 1,287 
 
 1,609,909 
 
 i £Q£ 
 
 1,087 
 
 171,067 
 
 110 
 
 278,016 
 
 1,310 
 
 1,688,531 
 
 1 £00 
 
 1,320 
 
 209,020 
 
 158 
 
 349,422 
 
 1,302 
 
 1,848,570 
 
 1 000 
 
 1,635 
 
 245,381 
 
 181 
 
 548,321 
 
 1,272 
 
 1,955,704 
 
 1 001 
 
 1,881 
 
 276,141 
 
 221 
 
 787,537 
 
 1,282 
 
 1,969,424 
 
 i Q02 
 
 2,229 
 
 329,098 
 
 226 
 
 1,024,399 
 
 1,250 
 
 1,954,594 
 
 1 QOS 
 
 2,583 
 
 395,598 
 
 374 
 
 1,465,800 
 
 1,237 
 
 1,931,558 
 
 1 904 
 
 2,504 
 
 391,676 
 
 174 
 
 1,676,200 
 
 1,211 
 
 1,901,674 
 
 1 905 
 
 2,402 
 
 383,236 
 
 200 
 
 1,494,300 
 
 1,209 
 
 1,928,569 
 
 1 900 
 
 2,420 
 
 398,494 
 
 189 
 
 1,454,200 
 
 1,232 
 
 2,122,241 
 
 1 907 
 
 2,497 
 
 436,792 
 
 237 
 
 1,538,970 
 
 1,221 
 
 2,419,816 
 
 1 90S 
 
 2,444 
 
 372,459 
 
 181 
 
 1,586,885 
 
 1,195 
 
 2,383,244 
 
 1 909 
 
 2,368 
 
 372,729 
 
 192 
 
 1,482,872 
 
 1,168 
 
 2,362,450 
 
 1 91 0 
 
 2,457 
 
 481,924 
 
 255 
 
 1,562,112 
 
 1,153 
 
 2,435,704 
 
 1911. 
 
 2,498 
 
 504,314 
 
 209 
 
 1,761,835 
 
 1,168 
 
 3,010,346 
 
 founded in 1854, the National Protective Asso¬ 
 ciation (the Locomotive Engineers) in 1855, the 
 Sons of Vulcan and the National Spinners’ As¬ 
 sociation in 1858. 
 
 Since the Civil War many local and national 
 unions have been organized, their government 
 
 A more satisfactory idea of the growth of 
 trade-unions may be gained from the preceding 
 table, in which the total membership of unions 
 in Great Britain and New York is given, and 
 the average membership reported or paid upon to 
 the American Federation of Labor. 
 
TRADE-UNIONS 
 
 TRADE-UNIONS 
 
 403 
 
 Trade-Unions and the Daw. The develop¬ 
 ment of the law in the United States has been 
 different from that in England. A few early 
 cases are recorded in which trade-unions were 
 declared illegal, but as early as 1821 in Penn¬ 
 sylvania and 1842 in Massachusetts a view 
 diametrically opposite to the English law was 
 taken, and since has been consistently main¬ 
 tained by American courts, except in so far as 
 it has been modified in recent years by antitrust 
 acts. Workmen may combine to improve con¬ 
 ditions of employment and agree not to work 
 for less than a certain amount or to refuse to 
 work for employers paying less than this amount 
 without active interference from legal authori¬ 
 ties; and in several important cases the courts 
 have gone to the point of recognizing the legality 
 of the by-laws of unions and even of enforcing 
 them (Master Stevedores’ Association v. Walsh, 
 2 Daly, 1; People v. Musical Mutual Protective 
 Union, 118 N. Y. 101). Legislatures have gone 
 even further than the courts in recognizing the 
 legality of the purposes of trade-unions. The 
 Federal government and many of the largest 
 States have enacted statutes providing for the in¬ 
 corporation of trade-unions under exceptionally 
 favorable conditions. But only a few unions 
 have taken advantage of the incorporation laws, 
 and labor leaders generally oppose this, on the 
 ground that it would subject the unions to many 
 vexatious and costly suits at law. The State 
 legislatures have also conferred several special 
 privileges upon labor organizations. Massa¬ 
 chusetts and Kansas, e.g., have exempted labor 
 organizations from the operation of the statutes 
 regulating fraternal beneficiary associations; 
 and some of the States have passed statutes pro¬ 
 hibiting employers from discharging workmen 
 for joining labor organizations and even from 
 
 probably be given to the State statutes save 
 where they are specifically labor organizations. 
 Little attempt has been made to dissolve unions 
 or punish their officers under antitrust statutes, 
 but where these laws apply the legality of the 
 most reputable unions is threatened. 
 
 Trade-Unions in Other Countries. While 
 probably the germs of labor organizations in al¬ 
 most every country of continental Europe may be 
 found in earlier and even in mediaeval organiza¬ 
 tions and movements, they owe their present 
 strength, spirit, and methods chiefly to the So¬ 
 cialistic propaganda; most of them have re¬ 
 mained in close connection with the Social 
 Democratic parties, and many of them—partic¬ 
 ularly in France, Belgium, Italy, and the Scan¬ 
 dinavian countries—are as much political clubs 
 as trade-unions. (See Socialism.) There are, 
 however, a number of strict trade-unions on the 
 Continent—particularly among printers—and 
 this number is increasing. As the continental 
 labor-union grows more powerful, it manifests 
 a stronger disinclination to be treated as a mere 
 appendage of a political party. The continental 
 union was late in developing. The year 1864, 
 which marks the formation of the International 
 Workingmen’s Association (see International 
 Workingmen’s Association), furnishes a sub¬ 
 stantially accurate date for the beginning of 
 the trade-union movement on the Continent. 
 
 The political character of continental unionism 
 has decreased its efficiency by dividing the forces 
 of labor into several semihostile groups. In 
 Germany, e.g., we find the labor organizations 
 divided into three distinct classes: a group of 
 “peace” unions, known as the Hirsch-Dunckersche 
 Gewerkvereine, assert the essential harmony 
 of interests between employers and employees 
 and depend upon arbitration and friendly bene- 
 
 COUNTRY 
 
 Beginning 
 of the 
 modern 
 movement 
 
 APPROXIMATE MEMBER¬ 
 SHIP OF LABOR ORGAN¬ 
 IZATIONS 
 
 EXPLANATORY 
 
 
 Date 
 
 Number 
 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 1811 
 
 1907 
 
 12S,845 
 
 148,483 
 
 78,119 
 
 1,029,238 
 
 Freedom of combination was granted in 1811; chief 
 development did not come until later. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 1840 
 
 1905 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 1858 
 
 1911 
 
 Labor Bureau in 1907 estimated that 20 per cent of 
 labor was organized. 
 
 In addition there were 912,944 persons in agricultural 
 associations and 40,145 members of mixed associations 
 of employers and employees. 
 
 France. 
 
 1874 
 
 1911 
 
 Germany. 
 
 1865 
 
 Austria. 
 
 1867 
 
 1911 
 
 421,905 
 
 128,224 
 
 46,397 
 
 85,387 
 
 In the general federation of Gewerkschaften. 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 1871 
 
 1911 
 
 Norway. 
 
 1871 
 
 1910 
 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 1883 
 
 1911 
 
 
 
 
 making it a condition of employment that they 
 should not belong to such organizations. A few 
 States and many local legislative bodies have 
 enacted laws providing, directly or indirectly, 
 that certain public work—usually printing—• 
 shall be performed only by union labor. Within 
 recent vears the legal status of trade-unions has 
 been seriously affected, at least in theory, by the 
 so-called antitrust acts passed by Congress and 
 many State legislatures, making contracts or 
 combinations in restraint of trade or commerce 
 illegal. The Federal statute—concerned, of 
 course, only with interstate trade and com¬ 
 merce—has been held to apply to a labor organ¬ 
 ization of draymen and longshoremen (United 
 States v. Workingmen’s Amalgamated Council, 
 54 F. R. 004) ; and the same interpretation will 
 
 fits rather than strikes for the improvement of 
 the conditions of employment. Clearly distin¬ 
 guished from the former by their aggressive 
 methods in general are the socialistic Gewerk- 
 schaften, which in turn are divided into two 
 groups over the question of direct participation 
 in politics: the unions federated under the Cen¬ 
 tral Commission advocating a separation of the 
 labor and the Socialistic movements, and the 
 local organizations opposed to this separation. 
 The Christian Unions constitute a third class 
 distinct from and opposed to the preceding 
 groups by their anti-Socialistic principles. In 
 Belgium the labor organizations have been prac¬ 
 tically dominated bv the political parties. In 
 France the factional quarrels of the Socialists 
 have been carried into the labor organizations, 
 
TRADE-UNIONS 
 
 404 
 
 TRADE-UNIONS 
 
 with the consequence that in almost every city 
 the trades are grouped into several hostile 
 unions whose antagonism makes unity of action 
 almost impossible. In Australia, on the other 
 hand, where according to some authorities as 
 many as 75 per cent of the male workingmen 
 belong to trade-unions and where the unions 
 have secured a large proportion of their victories 
 by political action, Socialism has made little 
 headway. 
 
 With the view of giving some idea of the be¬ 
 ginning and extent of labor organization in the 
 various continental countries, the tabular state¬ 
 ment (page 403) has been prepared. It is almost 
 impossible to distinguish the labor organizations 
 from the political clubs and fraternal associa¬ 
 tions in many countries, so that the figures must 
 be interpreted as rough estimates of the extent 
 of labor organization in the several countries 
 rather than exact statistical measurements. 
 
 Classification of Trade-Unions. As was 
 pointed out under Labor Organizations, the 
 trade-union is simply one branch of the great 
 family of labor organizations. The following 
 classification brings out clearly the great di¬ 
 versity of structure which exists both among 
 organizations of laborers and among trade- 
 unions themselves: 
 
 Government. The government of local unions 
 is distinguished by its thoroughgoing democracy. 
 The tenure of office is usually six months, and 
 there is a widespread feeling in favor of rotation 
 in office. The most important local officers are 
 the business agent or walking delegate and the 
 chairman of the grievance committee. Only a 
 small proportion of the locals have such officers, 
 but where they do there is a strong tendency to 
 reelect men who have proved themselves the 
 possessors of the unusual abilities which these 
 positions require. The government of the na¬ 
 tional union usually comprehends a periodical 
 convention, a permanent executive board, a corps 
 of organizers, a president, several vice presidents, 
 and a secretary treasurer. As the referendum is 
 apparently becoming more and more popular in 
 America, the general membership must be counted 
 in many unions as the ultimate source of legis¬ 
 lative power, and indeed of the judicial and 
 executive power, as well as in the numerous 
 cases in which the general membership decides 
 appeals, votes strikes and special assessments, 
 etc. In unions which do not employ the referen¬ 
 dum system the supreme executive and judicial 
 powers are vested in the periodical conventions 
 and in the executive boards between conventions, 
 but, as these boards are usually composed of 
 
 Labor 
 
 Organizations 
 
 Continuous 
 
 Temporary 
 
 Not on the trade 
 principle 
 
 Political,* e.g., Independent Labor party. 
 
 Fraternal,* e.g., Ancient Order of United Workmen. 
 ■ Mixed assemblies, e.g., Knights of Labor. 
 
 Industrial unions, e.g., United Mine Workers. 
 General amalgamations, e.g., Knights of Labor. 
 
 On the trade 
 principle 
 
 f Strike 
 \ Boycott 
 
 Nonfedera- 
 
 tive 
 
 ' Sublocals, e.g., Printers’ chapels. 
 
 Local unions, e.g., “Big Six” of New York. 
 District councils, e.g., of Carpenters and 
 Joiners. 
 
 National unions, e.g., Iron Molders’ Union. 
 International unions, e.g., Cigar Makers’ In¬ 
 ternational Union of America. 
 
 Federative 
 
 Central unions, e.g., Chicago Federation of 
 Labor. 
 
 State federations, e.g., Massachusetts Feder¬ 
 ation of Labor. 
 
 Industrial federations, e.g., National Building 
 Trades Council. 
 
 General federations, e.g., American Federa¬ 
 tion of Labor. 
 
 * These are not strictly labor organizations, but are included here because their membership is drawn almost ex¬ 
 clusively from the ranks of labor. 
 
 The preceding classification emphasizes the 
 difference between amalgamated labor unions and 
 trade-unions or federations in which the in¬ 
 dividuality of each trade is preserved. The 
 “mixed assembly” is simply the governmental 
 unit of the amalgamated union. It was a per¬ 
 manent feature of the Knights of Labor, but it is 
 also used by the Federation of Labor, and is 
 known as the “federal union.” It supplies a 
 union for workmen in unorganized trades, or in 
 places where there are not enough workers in one 
 organized trade to start a local union. The 
 industrial union is merely a centralized union, 
 in which are united all the workers of any one 
 industry, irrespective of trade or occupation. 
 The United Mine Workers, e.g., aim to coalesce 
 in the same local union all wage earners “work¬ 
 ing in and about the mines except mine man¬ 
 ager and top boss.” There are also industrial 
 unions which do not aim to unite all classes of 
 workmen in the same locals, but which attempt 
 to unite local unions of the different trades in a 
 single national body. The latter are to be re¬ 
 garded as federations of trade-unions rather 
 than labor organizations. The “central” or 
 “central union” is merely another name for the 
 municipal federation of trade-unions. 
 
 unsalaried workmen living in different cities 
 and conducting their deliberations by mail, it 
 frequently happens that their powers are vir¬ 
 tually exercised by the president, who, with the 
 vice president and secretary treasurer, almost 
 invariably have seats in the executive board. 
 
 Problems of Organization. The difficulties 
 of labor organizations show themselves in bitter 
 disputes between unions. In the first place, 
 there are disputes between dual unions. This is 
 a trade war between rival unions which claim 
 control of the same trade and the same field. 
 Secondly, jurisdiction disputes . are likely to 
 arise. These may be divided into several classes, 
 according to the cause of the conflict, (a) 
 Territorial disputes. A typical instance is noted 
 in the Twenty-fourth Annual Report of the Bu¬ 
 reau of Statistics of New Jersey. Here the 
 work on a large building was seriously inter¬ 
 rupted for months by a quarrel between the 
 New York and Newark local unions of the In¬ 
 ternational Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 
 the New York union claiming exclusive right to 
 all work in Newark in accordance with an agree¬ 
 ment made with the international union. The 
 dispute was finally settled by an agreement, in 
 accordance with which the Newark union was 
 
405 
 
 TRADE-UNIONS 
 
 TRADE-UNIONS 
 
 given “one-half the jobs which a New York con¬ 
 tractor may have to dispose of on a building in 
 Newark, the Newarkers to have the New York 
 rate of wages.” (b) Demarcation disputes, 
 arising from conflicting claims to certain work 
 lying midway between two distinct trades. The 
 shipbuilding industries on the Tyne, e.g., were 
 tied up for 18 months or more at one time by 
 demarcation disputes which hinged largely about 
 the “limit of the size of the iron pipes to be 
 fitted by the engineers and the plumbers respec¬ 
 tively, and whether the joiners should or should 
 not oe confined to woodwork of one and one- 
 half inches’ thickness.” (c) The third class 
 consists of those arising between a more ex¬ 
 tensive and a less extensive union, concerning 
 the autonomy of the latter. Thus, the increased 
 division of labor in the printing trade made of 
 the pressmen a separate class, and new inven¬ 
 tions produced the stereotyper and electrotyper. 
 It was inevitable that these classes should de¬ 
 sire trade independence, and that the original 
 union should oppose all secessions. There has 
 been a long series of conflicts between the old 
 Typographical Union and bodies of discontented 
 pressmen, bookbinders, stereotypers, and electro- 
 typers. ( d ) Industrial organization versus 
 trade autonomy. A similar but far more im¬ 
 portant source of jurisdiction disputes is the 
 rapidly growing practice of adapting labor or¬ 
 ganization to industrial organization and unit¬ 
 ing in one union all the trades represented 
 in a single industry. Industrial organization 
 inevitably brings the union adopting it into 
 conflict with the unions of the separate trades 
 represented in the industry. Thus, the United 
 Mine Workers have had serious conflicts with 
 the stationary firemen and the blacksmiths, and 
 the brewery workers have been in constant strife 
 with the painters and coopers, the team drivers, 
 etc. In the strike and in all phases of collec¬ 
 tive bargaining industrial organization is su¬ 
 perior, both for employers and employees. On 
 the other hand, the subordination of a minority 
 of skilled workers to a larger number of less 
 skilled craftsmen is frequently a source of weak¬ 
 ness and always a source of dissatisfaction. 
 
 Ultimate Form of Organization. One of 
 the most persistently advocated remedies for 
 jurisdiction disputes has been that of amalga¬ 
 mation, the form of organization in which all 
 the trades are coalesced in a strong central 
 union. Amalgamation has never proved prac¬ 
 ticable. United action is plainly necessary, but 
 it must be secured by federation and not by 
 consolidation. Another remedy for the jurisdic¬ 
 tion dispute, tried with only partial success, is 
 the “jurisdiction statement.” The constitution 
 of the National Building Trades Council, e.g., 
 provides that “all organizations affiliated with 
 any local Building Trades Council shall plainly 
 and satisfactorily define the class of work they 
 claim, and no trade will be permitted to do the 
 work pertaining to another.” Up to the present, 
 the jurisdiction statement has been of but 
 little use in preventing conflicts between unions. 
 The indications are strong that the ultimate 
 structure of union organization will be com¬ 
 plex; that the unit of government will be the 
 simple trade-union of the old type, but that 
 these unions will be combined in a very large 
 number of cross-cutting federations, each dis¬ 
 tinct and independent, but all of them formed, 
 as it were, of the same material. The simple 
 trade-union will probably retain jurisdiction over 
 
 such questions as industrial education, appren¬ 
 ticeship, and friendly benefits. On the other 
 hand, the regulation of the strike and the settle¬ 
 ment of demarcation disputes will in all proba¬ 
 bility come within the province of industrial 
 federations, which are even now multiplving 
 rapidly. The industrial federations have come 
 to stay. Yet there will undoubtedly be addi¬ 
 tional federations. The broad general federa¬ 
 tion represented at present by the American 
 I edei ation of Labor will surely persist, devot¬ 
 ing itself particularly, as the 'federation does, 
 to education of the working classes, the rapid 
 extension of labor organization, the promotion of 
 favorable legislation, the defeat of unfavorable 
 legislation, the wider use of the boycott, and the 
 maintenance of a labor press. It is probable 
 that the time is almost ripe for political action 
 by labor organizations. But past experience 
 teaches unequivocally that almost without ex¬ 
 ception the entrance of trade-unions as such into 
 politics lias proved disastrous. Such being the 
 case, it is probable that the trade-union will 
 enter politics by _ means of distinct political 
 federation. A striking example of this is the 
 Labor Representation Committee (see Laeor 
 Party, British) of Great Britain. 
 
 METHODS AND POLICIES OF TRADE-UNIONISM 
 
 Trade-Unionism and Monopoly. Probably 
 no social institution in existence represents the 
 change from the old economic policy of laissez 
 faire more concretely than the trade-union. Al¬ 
 most every method adopted by trade-unions 
 is in essence a regulation of competition. The 
 essential function of the trade-union is collective 
 bargaining; and the first condition of successful 
 collective bargaining on its part is that it shall 
 secure substantial control of the efficient supply 
 of labor. In securing and maintaining such con¬ 
 trol two policies are adopted, a policy of inclu¬ 
 sion and one of exclusion. To obtain control of 
 a particular trade in a particular jurisdiction, 
 the utmost effort will be made to bring into the 
 union every effective competitor for work to be 
 done in that jurisdiction. Once having control, 
 there is the strongest temptation, if not a real 
 necessity, for limiting the supply of craftsmen 
 by regulation of apprenticeship, etc. Many 
 trade-unions prosecute the work of organization 
 vigorously and incessantly. In the beginning 
 trade-unionism was sporadic and instinctive, and 
 the national union was the product of the amal¬ 
 gamation of two or more self-organized locals. 
 At present organization is deliberate, systematic, 
 and proceeds from the top down; the local is the 
 child rather than the parent of the national. Even 
 exclusive unions like the Window Glass Workers 
 enter heartily into the work of organizing the 
 unskilled workers, because with the increasing 
 use of machinery this body constitutes a constant 
 menace to all trades. The organization of wage 
 earners is the special work of the Federation of 
 Labor. In 1911, e.g., an aggregate amount of 
 $40,962.05 was expended by the federation to 
 defray organization expenses. Of this amount 
 $2,020.15 was paid to district or volunteer or¬ 
 ganizers, while the remaining amount was paid 
 to 49 salaried organizers of the federation. New 
 charters were issued to three international 
 unions, 61 city central bodies, 207 local trade- 
 unions, and 55 Federal labor unions. 
 
 Restriction of Membership. In almost 
 every American union the applicant for admis- 
 
TRADE-UNIONS 
 
 TRADE-UNIONS 406 
 
 sion must be accepted by the local which, he de¬ 
 sires to enter, and in voting upon applicants a 
 minority of the members—in some important 
 unions as few as three blackballs—are usually 
 sufficient to exclude the candidate. But in most 
 American unions the terms of admission are 
 purely nominal. 
 
 Entrance to a Trade. Trade-union regula¬ 
 tions concerning the entrance to a trade fall un¬ 
 der four heads: apprenticeship, limitation of boy 
 labor, progression within the trade, and the ex¬ 
 clusion of women. Boy labor will be treated 
 with the limitation of apprenticeship, while the 
 regulation of promotion within a trade is not a 
 question of great practical importance in Amer¬ 
 ican unions, except perhaps in the union of Post 
 Office Clerks, where for obvious reasons the regu¬ 
 lation of promotion becomes the main object. 
 The exclusion of women is no longer attempted 
 by American or English unions, the only case 
 to the contrary in the United States known to 
 the writer being that of the Upholsterers’ In¬ 
 ternational Union of North America. Never¬ 
 theless, only a small proportion of the female 
 breadwinners are organized. In Great Britain, 
 e.g., in 1911 the women and girls constituted 
 only 9 per cent of the members of trade-unions 
 and were found in only 187 out of the 1168 
 unions, though the census of occupations showed 
 that the female breadwinners were nearly one- 
 third as numerous as the males. In 1912 in 
 New York State the women constituted 7 per 
 cent of all members of trade-unions. 
 
 Regulation of Apprenticeship and Boy- 
 Labor. The regulation of apprenticeship was 
 not in origin a trade-union policy; it was intro¬ 
 duced, adopted, and sanctioned by statute law 
 at a time when the trade-union did not exist. 
 Consequently, although the trade-unions indorse 
 the regulation of apprenticeship with striking 
 unanimity and still regard it as an ideal, such 
 regulation is at present enforced only in an in¬ 
 significant number of trades and seems to be 
 disappearing. The apprentice system is much 
 less prevalent in the United States than in Creat 
 Britain; and in the latter country in 1897 Mr. 
 and Mrs. Webb estimated that out of 1,490,000 
 members of the trade-unions only 90,000 belonged 
 to unions actually able to enforce apprentice 
 regulations. The desirability and expediency of 
 the regulation of apprenticeship by trade-unions 
 are questionable. An examination of the ap¬ 
 prenticeship regulations of the few Amei ican 
 labor-unions which are able to enforce them 
 shows that the educational motive is decidedly 
 a minor one, while these regulations exercise 
 no perceptible effect in checking child labor un¬ 
 der any given set of conditions. On the other 
 hand, unions which have acquired sufficient 
 power to regulate apprenticeship have evinced a 
 strong disposition to restrict unduly the num¬ 
 ber of apprentices. A wide examination of the 
 apprenticeship regulations of American unions 
 shows that the average period of apprenticeship 
 is more than three years and the average num¬ 
 ber of apprentices to journeymen somewhat less 
 than 1 to 10. Finally—and this seems con¬ 
 clusive—the restriction of membership to work¬ 
 men who have been apprenticed is not necessary 
 to the successful operation of the union. The 
 United Mine Workers, the Locomotive Engineers, 
 the Carpenters and Joiners, and in fact most 
 of the large unions, in practice if not in theory, 
 are completely open. 
 
 Monopolistic Alliances between Trade- 
 
 Unions and Employers’ Associations. The 
 
 evil possibilities of the policy of exclusion are 
 well illustrated in occasional compacts between 
 trade-unions and combinations of manufacturers 
 in which the two organizations combine to mo¬ 
 nopolize a certain industry for the benefit of 
 both. In the Birmingham (England) Metal 
 Trades these alliances, as they are called, were 
 common about 1897-98. The essential featuie 
 of the Birmingham alliance was an agreement 
 by which the employers bound themselves to 
 employ none but union men, in return for which 
 the latter agreed to work for no manufacturer 
 who sold his product at prices less than those 
 formally adopted by a wages board composed 
 of an equal number of employers and employees. 
 For every advance in price there was to be a 
 proportionate, though not an equal, advance in 
 wages. Monopolistic alliances of this kind are 
 rare and as a rule not lasting. 
 
 Regulation of Wages. The most essential 
 function, as well as the explanation and justifi¬ 
 cation of trade-unionism, is the determination of 
 the conditions of employment by collective in¬ 
 stead of individual bargaining. The most im¬ 
 portant condition of employment is the rate of 
 wages, as is well illustrated by the fact that in 
 both England and the United States more than 
 50 per cent of the strikes which occur are from 
 wage disputes. The conditions and character¬ 
 istics of the regulation of wages by trade-unions 
 may be briefly summed up: (1) The standard 
 rate as maintained by American unions is a local 
 rate fixed by the local union. In a few trades 
 working largely by piece, such as the Potters, 
 Glass Blowers, etc., the scale of prices is fixed 
 for the whole country by the national union; 
 and in a few other unions, such as the Brewery 
 Workmen and the United Hatters of North 
 America, a national minimum time rate is pre¬ 
 scribed. But in the vast majority of unions 
 the regulation of wages is left wholly to the 
 local union, and no strong demand for uniformity 
 seems to exist. (2) Contrary to general opin¬ 
 ion, the majority of trade-unions, in trades in 
 which it is possible, favor work by the piece- 
 rate system. In England Mr. and Mrs. Webb 
 have made a careful study of the wage system 
 of every trade-union having more than 1000 
 members, unskilled laborers and transport woik- 
 ers excepted. Of these, 111 unions, having 1,- 
 003,000 members, were examined; 49, with 
 573,000 members, insisted on piecework; 24, with 
 140,000 members, willingly recognized piece¬ 
 work; and 38, with 290,000 members, insisted 
 on time-work. A similar investigation in the 
 United States was made by the Industrial Com¬ 
 mission. Information was secured concerning 50 
 important unions in which piecework was pos¬ 
 sible. Of these unions 28 accepted the piecework 
 system in some department without acti\ e op¬ 
 position, while 22 unions either forbade or ac¬ 
 tively discouraged piecework. The reasons for 
 this are clear. In some occupations, such as 
 spinning and weaving, the intensity of the labor 
 is determined by the speed of the machine, 
 or, speaking generally, the employer finds it 
 possible to set the pace for the employee. In 
 such occupations it is evident that the workers 
 will insist upon piece payment to prevent forcing 
 and overexertion. In other occupations, such 
 as ordinary carpentering or repair work in gen¬ 
 eral, it is impossible to estimate how much skill 
 or time will be required to perform a given job 
 or piece, and here the time rate is the workman s 
 
TRADE-UNIONS 
 
 TRADE-UNIONS 
 
 407 
 
 only defense against exploitation. The testi¬ 
 mony collected by the Industrial Commission 
 amply proves that the majority of the labor lead¬ 
 ers of the United States would abolish the piece- 
 rate system instantly if it were possible. The 
 leaders hold that under the piecework system 
 the most proficient workmen set the pace and 
 fix the standard rate, thereby depressing the 
 earnings of the less talented but no less indus¬ 
 trious or deserving shopmate. In addition the 
 argument is made that the piece-rate system 
 either encourages excessive production and thus 
 depresses prices, or throws the work into the 
 hands of a few workmen, thus increasing the 
 amount of nonemployment, both of which re¬ 
 sults tend strongly to reduce wages. The feel¬ 
 ing is also prevalent that the piece system stimu¬ 
 lates employees tb overexert themselves and to 
 work themselves out at an early age. 
 
 The piece system in practice may be, and often 
 is,, manipulated to the injury of the general body 
 of wage earners. It is true that employers are 
 disposed to reduce piece rates as soon as the 
 more efficient workmen in their employ demon¬ 
 strate an ability to earn an unusually high rate 
 by the system; and furthermore, the testimony 
 seems convincing that in many instances the 
 piece-rate system leads overambitious employees 
 to injure their health in the attempt to earn high 
 wages; but the objection to piecework on the 
 ground that it leads to overproduction, and the 
 defense of a uniform wage irrespective of pro¬ 
 ductive power, are untenable, if not from the 
 standpoint of the trade-union, at least from the 
 standpoint of the general public. 
 
 Hours of Labor. The regulation of the hours 
 of labor is an important function of the trade- 
 union, as the question of the working day is 
 primarily one of health, morals, and the neces¬ 
 sary leisure for education and social and reli¬ 
 gious duties. In this respect the trade-unions 
 have from the beginning placed unusual reliance 
 upon the law. But they have also worked in¬ 
 cessantly to reduce the hours of labor by direct 
 negotiations with employers, by strikes, and by 
 boycotts. 
 
 The normal day, like the standard wage in 
 most American unions, is generally left to the 
 separate locals, and even in the few nationals 
 which have a maximum working day for the 
 whole country the locals are left free to secure 
 a shorter working day if possible. But although 
 the locals have wide discretion in fixing the 
 normal day, the national organizations and lead¬ 
 ers constantly urge them to reduce the number 
 of hours, and among the national organizations 
 strong enough to lead in this matter, laws re¬ 
 quiring increased rates for overtime, or wholly 
 forbidding overtime except in cases of extreme 
 emergency, are common. 
 
 Restriction of Output. The preceding sec¬ 
 tion makes it plain that trade-unions do restrict 
 the industrial output openly and systematically. 
 The restriction of the output of individual work¬ 
 ers is accomplished in several ways: by adopting 
 a normal day and discouraging or prohibiting 
 overtime; by limiting the daily task or the earn¬ 
 ings of pieceworkers; by discouraging or pro¬ 
 hibiting the grading of time-workers and thus 
 leveling wages; by forbidding piecework, time¬ 
 work, contract jobs, or the butty system; and in 
 some cases by encouraging the go-easy system 
 of secret loafing, or the “adulteration of labor.” 
 
 A variety of arguments are brought forward 
 in defense of the general policy of the limitation 
 
 of output. Trade-unions claim that this is the 
 only way of preventing overexertion on the part 
 of workmen, particularly under the piece sys¬ 
 tem ; that it tends to prevent unemployment and 
 moderates the destructive competition of the 
 army of the unemployed; and finally, that it 
 tends to prevent overproduction. There is a 
 large degree of truth in all these contentions. 
 The history of the factory system is one long 
 proof of the truth that, under a regime of free¬ 
 dom of contract in the sale and purchase of 
 labor, wage earners are driven by the employers 
 and led by the pace of the hardier workmen to 
 impair the health both of themselves and their 
 offspring. It is true also that increased leisure, 
 wisely spent, tends to elevate the standard of 
 life, and that wages are in a measure determined 
 by the standard of life; that collective bargain¬ 
 ing presupposes given rules based upon the aver¬ 
 age efficiency and endurance, thus restraining 
 in its operation the strongest workmen from 
 doing their utmost; that in periods of temporary 
 depression distributive justice sanctions a lim¬ 
 itation of the work and income of each, in order 
 that all may have some work and some income. 
 
 No judgment upon this subject may, however, 
 be rendered except in concrete cases. When the 
 United Mine Workers demand an eight-hour day 
 in underground mines, the justice of the demand 
 seems unanswerable; when the Window Glass 
 Workers insist on a four months’ stop each year, 
 the demand is questionable; but when the Chi¬ 
 cago plumbers limit, as they did in 1889, the 
 amount of work in some branches to about half 
 as much as could be performed by an able-bodied 
 workman without undue strain, the demand is 
 prima facie inequitable. 
 
 The point is even clearer in the limitation of 
 wages as distinct from the limitation of hours. 
 That the Detroit Stove Founders should limit 
 piece earnings per day to $4.50 may seem rea¬ 
 sonable as a preventive of overexertion ; but that 
 time-workers, like stonecutters, carpenters, and 
 coopers, should oppose the payment of more 
 than the standard rate to exceptionally efficient 
 workers, or that the machinists should oppose a 
 classification of their workmen by the W r ar and 
 Navy departments, thus forcing all to the level 
 of the idlest or most incompetent, seems in¬ 
 defensible.. 
 
 Attitude towards Machinery. Historically 
 trade-unions have opposed the introduction of 
 labor-saving machinery, but, speaking generally, 
 the unions have realized at last that it is im¬ 
 possible effectively to oppose the introduction of 
 labor-saving devices; and among trade-union 
 leaders the number of those who fully realize 
 that the machine in the long run is the friend 
 and ally of the wage-earning classes is rapidly 
 increasing. Trade-union leaders may be said in 
 general to have learned how to meet successfully 
 the industrial problems caused by the intro¬ 
 duction of machinery. Thus, when the printers 
 were confronted with a great decrease in the de¬ 
 mand for labor as a result of the invention 
 of the typesetting machine, the Typographical 
 Union met the problem in a rational manner. 
 It insisted that the operators of the machines 
 should be selected from ordinary printers, and 
 that they should be paid as much at least as the 
 wages of the hand printers. For a short time 
 large numbers of printers were thrown out of 
 employment, but in three years, according to the 
 estimate of the president of the Typographical 
 Union, the increased demand for printers, conse- 
 
TRADE-UNIONS 
 
 TRADE-UNIONS 
 
 408 
 
 quent upon the decrease in the cost of printing, 
 afforded work for more than the old supply of 
 printers. The justice of trade-union regulation 
 respecting the use of machinery must in each 
 case be decided in accordance with its intent. 
 Trade-unions are justified in the attempt, if not 
 clothed with the duty, of lessening hardships oc¬ 
 casioned by the introduction of labor-saving 
 inventions. It is permanent antagonism to ma¬ 
 chinery which is hopeless and economically 
 fallacious. 
 
 Trade-Union Insurance. Mutual insurance 
 —aid to the traveling journeyman in search of 
 work, assistance in case of sickness, and a col¬ 
 lection to defray burial expenses—was perhaps 
 the principal function of the trade-union of the 
 eighteenth century and still constitutes a prin¬ 
 cipal function of trade-unionism in foreign coun¬ 
 tries, particularly in England. In the 13 years 
 (1898-1910), e.g., the 100 principal trade-unions 
 in England expended $2,948,314 in dispute or 
 strike pay, $6,656,632 in unemployment benefits, 
 $10,997,694 in other benefits, and $5,567,926 for 
 administration expenses. 
 
 Among American unions, however, conditions 
 are entirely different. Of 115 international 
 unions reporting to the Federation of Labor in 
 1911, 71 paid death benefits to the amount of 
 $1,471,381.37, 29 paid $818,556.88 in sick bene¬ 
 fits, 8 paid traveling benefits of $58,784.71, 3 
 paid tool insurance to the amount of $5,648.70, 
 and 16 paid total unemployment benefits of 
 $218,742.71. 
 
 While it is evident that the friendly benefit 
 is not essential to the successful conduct of a 
 trade-union, it is also true that the leading 
 American labor leaders strongly advise the in¬ 
 stitution of the benefit system, and in unions 
 maintaining this system it has been of immense 
 service in accumulating large reserve funds, in 
 forcing obedience from members, in preventing 
 them from dropping out when their interest 
 wanes, and in stimulating a more conservative 
 policy in general. The powerful Cigar Makers’ 
 International Union, e.g., and the railroad 
 brotherhoods furnish illustrations of the advan¬ 
 tages of the insurance system as an auxiliary 
 to trade-unionism. (See Railway Brother¬ 
 hoods.) The insurance function, however, is 
 strictly subordinate, except in one or tw T o organi¬ 
 zations. The insurance funds are unprotected 
 and may be expended in strikes, trade wars, or 
 for any purposes meeting the approval of con¬ 
 stituted authorities. After having paid insur¬ 
 ance assessments for years the individual mem¬ 
 ber may be expelled for a trifling infraction of 
 rules, or may see the insurance system abolished 
 and all funds dissipated in supporting a sympa¬ 
 thetic strike. Nevertheless the individual mem¬ 
 bers acquiesce in this condition of affairs and 
 oppose any attempt at regulative legislation. 
 The widespread opposition of trade-unions to in¬ 
 corporation rests largely upon the belief that it 
 would destroy this unlimited freedom in the use 
 of insurance funds. 
 
 Collective Bargaining, Arbitration, and 
 Conciliation. Modern political economy recog¬ 
 nizes in collective bargaining a legitimate and the 
 most important function of trade-unionism. 
 This concerted action, by which employers are 
 prevented from fixing wages at the rate accept¬ 
 able to the neediest competitor, is the goal and 
 aim of trade-unionism. The walking delegate, 
 or business agent, who represents a body of union 
 workmen, advises them w T hat rate of wages to 
 
 demand, and conducts their negotiations for 
 them, is thus not an ugly incident, but an es¬ 
 sential necessity of trade-unionism—the very 
 heart of the institution. 
 
 In England systematic collective bargaining 
 by recurrent joint conferences w T as first intro¬ 
 duced in the hoisery trade about 1860. At the 
 present time Mr. and Mrs. Webb estimate “that 
 in all skilled trades where men work in concert 
 on the employer’s premises 90 per cent of the 
 workmen find either their rate of wages or their 
 hours of work and often many other details pre¬ 
 determined by a collective bargain in which they 
 personally have taken no part, but in which their 
 interests have been dealt with by representatives 
 of their class.” And in the United States the 
 system has been introduced to an extent scarcely 
 realized by the general public. Thousands of 
 local agreements exist in the cities, particularly 
 in building industries; in about a dozen trades 
 national agreements exist. The history of trade 
 arbitration and collective bargaining shows that 
 the value of these agreements lies in the concilia¬ 
 tory spirit engendered by conferences in which 
 employees and employers meet on a footing of 
 friendly equality. This arbitrator or umpire, 
 with decisive vote, is relatively unimportant. 
 The reason for this statement lies in the im¬ 
 portant difference between the adoption of new 
 contracts and the interpretation of existing 
 contracts. The latter function is judicial and 
 may safely be left to authoritative arbiters. On 
 the other hand, the adoption of new principles, 
 or the determination of future conditions, is a 
 matter of competitive struggle, which, except 
 on extraordinary occasions, should not be left 
 to outside parties, however disinterested. Recog¬ 
 nizing this truth, trade-union leaders generally 
 oppose compulsory arbitration; and even in col¬ 
 lective bargaining arbitration seems to be going 
 out of favor both in England and the United 
 States. In the printing (newspaper) and gen¬ 
 eral foundry trades agreements for arbitration 
 exist, but none of the national systems of collec¬ 
 tive bargaining in the United States contain a 
 provision for arbitration in case representatives 
 of employers and employees fail to agree. 
 
 Collective bargaining is somewhat dependent 
 upon the organization of employers, and it in¬ 
 creases in extent and efficiency as employers’ 
 organizations increase. Associations of employ¬ 
 ers are not new, but in the last few years they 
 have become not only more numerous than in the 
 past, but more systematic and more thoroughly 
 managed. (See Trade Associations.) Most of 
 the existing manufacturers’ associations, like 
 the Stove Founders’ National Defense Associa¬ 
 tion and the National Association of Builders, 
 encourage collective bargaining and thus make 
 for industrial peace. A large majority of Amer¬ 
 ican unions officially indorse arbitration and 
 conciliation. In Great Britain Mr. and Mrs. 
 Webb think that the opposition to arbitration 
 in the strict sense is steadily growing. In the 
 United States opinion is divided, and it is im¬ 
 possible to say whether opposition is increasing 
 or decreasing. It is, however, indisputable that 
 the employees far more frequently invoke the 
 aid of State boards of arbitration than the em¬ 
 ployers, and that they are practically undivided 
 in support of collective bargaining on the one 
 hand and in opposition to compulsory arbitration 
 on the other hand. 
 
 Strikes. Trade-union regulations respecting 
 strikes (see Strikes and Lockouts) are so di- 
 
TRADE-UNIONS 
 
 TRADE-UNIONS 
 
 409 
 
 verse that it is impossible to describe them in a 
 few sentences. Generally speaking, the local 
 union is the active agent in the strike; the na¬ 
 tional organizations in which a local may be 
 forced to strike against its will number prob¬ 
 ably less than a dozen, and in only three or four 
 may a local be expelled for striking against 
 the decision of the national officers. The con¬ 
 trol of the locals is through the purse. Many 
 unions maintain protective funds, or war chests, 
 which in well-managed organizations assume very 
 respectable proportions. If the local desires 
 strike pay and other financial support, it must 
 refrain from striking except in accordance with 
 established regulations of the union. In the 
 better organized unions a procedure like the fol¬ 
 lowing is imposed upon locals: Before the strike 
 may be considered a local grievance committee, 
 or the local president or business agent, must 
 attempt to settle the grievance amicably with the 
 employer in question. If this fails/the local 
 may then vote upon the question of striking, and 
 this ballot is usually secret, while in most unions 
 a two-thirds vote is required to authorize the 
 strike. If the local indorses the strike, the 
 decision must be ratified by the national presi¬ 
 dent or executive board, and at this point, again, 
 most unions require the national president to 
 proceed to the scene immediately and make 
 every effort to adjust the grievance by peaceable 
 negotiation with the employer. Only after the 
 failure of this attempt may the national sanc¬ 
 tion be conferred upon the strike. 
 
 The effect of such regulations can be easily ap¬ 
 preciated. The strike of the past was sporadic, 
 passionate, and directed against some abuse 
 which the workers believed intolerable. The 
 strike of the present day is deliberately and sys¬ 
 tematically conducted; it marks the rising mar¬ 
 ket and periods of prosperity; with many trade- 
 unions it has become a settled policy. It is not 
 intended to suggest that trade-unions encourage 
 strikes; the general opinion of economic writers 
 is to the contrary. What is meant is that the 
 strike as conducted by the trade-union is gov¬ 
 erned by interest and not by passion; and that 
 “while the most intelligent and conservative 
 labor leaders freely recognize the expensiveness 
 of strikes and desire to supplant them as far 
 as possible with peaceable methods of negotia¬ 
 tion, they almost uniformly maintain that work¬ 
 ingmen gain in the long run far more than they 
 lose by the general policy of striking.” For the 
 statistics of strikes, see Strikes and Lockouts. 
 
 Boycotts. The American union has done with 
 the boycott what it has done with the strike— 
 made it less violent, but more deliberate and 
 systematic. The old form of boycott—the fiery 
 crusade for the social and commercial ostracism 
 of the offending employer—is still met with oc¬ 
 casionally, but the favorite method at present 
 is to place the recalcitrant employer on an un¬ 
 fair list and spread the ban through the medium 
 of the labor press. The initiative is largely 
 taken by complaint of the local union to the na¬ 
 tional executive board that some employer is 
 violating union rules. The national officers 
 usually offer the employer a hearing at which to 
 disprove the charges, or offer proof of intention 
 to discontinue the objectionable practice, and 
 if such proof is not supplied the offender is 
 placed on the list of merchants or manufactur¬ 
 ers with whom loyal trade-unionists are encour¬ 
 aged to have no business dealings either as pur¬ 
 chasers of commodities or sellers of labor. A 
 
 majority of American unions use this system to 
 a greater or less extent. The Federation of 
 Labor gives national scope to the more impor¬ 
 tant boycotts by indorsing them and including 
 the offenders’ names in the column of the Amer¬ 
 ican Federationist. It is clear that if the 
 1,465,800 or more members of the Federation 
 strictly observed every official boycott the latter 
 would become a formidable weapon against man¬ 
 ufacturers and sellers of commodities in general 
 use among the laboring classes. The observance, 
 however, is so lax that the boycott is not ef¬ 
 fective except in a few industries, such as the 
 brewing industry, and in some union strong¬ 
 holds, such as Chicago, Milwaukee, and the larger 
 cities generally. 
 
 The question of the legality 'of boycotts has 
 long been a matter of controversy in the Ameri¬ 
 can courts. In the Danbury Hatters’ case in 
 1915 the Supreme Court of'the United States 
 held that a boycott conducted by a trade-union 
 against a firm whose products are sold in any 
 State other than that in which they are manu¬ 
 factured, constitutes a combination in restraint 
 of trade and is in violation of the Sherman Anti¬ 
 trust Act. While this case was in the courts, 
 in 1914, the Clayton Act was passed, including 
 a clause which expressly declares that boycotts 
 are not in violation of any law of the United 
 States. 
 
 Finally, trade-unions exert what is often called 
 “a legal boycott” through the familiar union 
 label, which has played such an important part 
 in the building up of the Cigarmakers’, Garment 
 Workers’, and Hatters’ unions in America, and 
 the use of which is now spreading, not only 
 among American unions, but among those of 
 England, Germany, Austria, and Australia. See 
 Union Label. 
 
 Bibliography. Sidney and Beatrice Webb, 
 History of Trade Unionism (new ed., London, 
 1911), containing an exhaustive bibliography; 
 Adams and Sumner, Labor Problems (New 
 York, 1905) ; R,. T. Ely, The Labor Movement 
 in America (new ed., ib., 1905) ; Hollander and 
 Barnett, Studies in American Trade Unionism 
 (ib., 1906) ; Samuel Gompers, Labor in Europe 
 and America (ib., 1910) ; F. T. Carlton, History 
 and Problems of Organized Labor (Boston, 
 1911); E. D. Bullock (comp.), Selected Ar¬ 
 ticles on Trade-Unionism (White Plains, N. Y., 
 1913) ; Helen Marot, American Labor Unions 
 (New York, 1914); Louis Levine, Syndicalism 
 in France (2d ed., ib., 1914); also Annual Re¬ 
 ports of the Industrial Commission (Washing¬ 
 ton, 1885 et seq.) ; Bulletins of the United States 
 Bureau of Labor (ib., bimonthly) ; Report of the 
 Royal Commission on Labor (London, annually) ; 
 Reports of the Massachusetts Bureau of Statis¬ 
 tics of Labor (Boston); Annual Reports of the 
 New York Bureau of Labor Statistics, and 
 monthly journals published by various trade- 
 unions. 
 
 TRADE-UNIONS, THE GENERAL FED¬ 
 ERATION OF. The central labor organiza¬ 
 tion of Great Britain. It was organized July 
 1, 1899, under the auspices of the British Trade- 
 Union Congress for the purposes of upholding 
 “the rights of combination of labor,” promoting 
 industrial peace, and establishing a fund for 
 mutual assistance and support. The Federation 
 is “open to every bona-fide trade-union in Great 
 Britain,” but the unit of membership is the 
 trade-union and “no branches or individuals are 
 allowed to join.” It is governed by a general 
 
TRADE WINDS 
 
 410 TRAFFIC AND TRAFFIC PROBLEMS 
 
 council of delegates which meets annually, and 
 between these sessions by a management com¬ 
 mittee of 15. Appeals may be taken from the 
 decisions of both the council and the committee 
 to the general membership. The Federation is 
 “nonpolitical and nonlegislative,” leaving to 
 the Labor Representation Committee (see Labor 
 Party, British) the campaign for the elec¬ 
 tion of labor representatives to Parliament, 
 and to the Parliament committee of the 
 Trade-Union Congress the agitation for favor¬ 
 able labor laws. The Federation pays, in 
 strikes authorized by the general council or the 
 management committee, two grades of strike 
 benefits—five shillings a week per member “on 
 the higher scale” and half this amount “on 
 the lower scale.” Unions on the higher scale 
 contribute sixpence a member per quarter, and 
 unions on the lower scale threepence a member 
 per quarter, on 90 per cent of the total member¬ 
 ship, exclusive of superannuated members. In 
 cases of emergency the management committee 
 is authorized to increase the regular dues 100 
 per cent. The entrance fee is one penny per 
 member upon 90 per cent of the total member¬ 
 ship, but in addition it is provided that “Any 
 society desirous of joining the Federation shall 
 pay ten per cent of the average worth per mem¬ 
 ber of the class or scale the union or society is 
 joining, in addition to their entrance fee, but 
 any society not in existence at the time of adop¬ 
 tion of this scheme shall be allowed to join on 
 payment of five per cent of the average worth 
 per member of the Federation at the time of 
 joining.” No union is entitled to benefits until 
 it has belonged to the Federation for 12 months. 
 The Federation started with 343,000 members. 
 In 1910 the membership was 709,564. 
 
 TRADE WINDS. See Wind. 
 
 TRADING STAMPS. Slips of engraved or 
 printed paper, usually in the form of gummed 
 stamps, which are given by merchants to pur¬ 
 chasers of goods and which may be presented to 
 some person or corporation in exchange for ar¬ 
 ticles of value. The purchasers of goods are 
 generally given books in which the stamps are 
 pasted until a sufficient number have accumu¬ 
 lated for redemption. The advertising advan¬ 
 tages of this scheme have made it very profitable, 
 and one method of obtaining the desired publi¬ 
 city is the printing of books containing the names 
 of "all subscribers and distributing these books 
 among the residents of the surrounding country 
 or district. 
 
 Although frequently attacked as constituting a 
 contract void against public policy, because of 
 the element of chance involved, the courts have 
 uniformly upheld such contracts. In certain 
 specific instances, however, as when stamps con¬ 
 taining certain numbers, the obtaining of which 
 depends upon mere chance, are more valuable 
 than others, the scheme constitutes a violation 
 of the statutes against the maintenance of lot¬ 
 teries. Because of the claim that the trading- 
 stamp business is demoralizing in that it fosters 
 a desire in the public to get something for noth¬ 
 ing and that it tends to maintain the gambling 
 spirit, statutes were passed in many States pro¬ 
 hibiting the distribution of such stamps. It 
 was contended also that the scheme was objec¬ 
 tionable because many people who received 
 stamps failed to present them for the premium 
 offered, and that in any event the dealer dis¬ 
 tributing the stamps was bound to reduce the 
 quality of his wares or increase the price. 
 
 These statutes, however, have, with a few slight 
 exceptions depending upon the peculiar wording 
 of the particular statute, been held to be un¬ 
 constitutional as an improper exercise of the 
 police power and a taking of property without 
 due process of law. Such was the fate of such 
 legislation in New York and New Hampshire. 
 See Lottery. 
 
 TRADU'CIANISM (from Lat. traducianus, 
 from tradux , vine branch for propagation, from 
 traducer, to lead along, train, propagate, from 
 trans, across, through -j- ducere, to lead). One 
 of the theories adopted for the purpose of ex¬ 
 plaining the production of the soul in the pro¬ 
 creation of human species. It is ascribed to 
 Tertullian (q.v.) as its first author and is 
 elaborately explained and defended by him in 
 his book On the Soul, written after he had lapsed 
 into the Montanist heresy. In opposition to 
 others who had held the theory of preexist¬ 
 ence of souls, Tertullian taught that souls, like 
 bodies, are propagated from one generation 
 to the next. In another place he describes this 
 origin of soul from soul as generation, and even 
 of a class analogous to corporeal generation; and 
 this more gross and material exposition of the 
 theory of traducianism is sometimes called gener- 
 ationism, which, however, is commonly looked 
 upon as a totally distinct theory. A third 
 hypothesis to explain the origin of the soul 
 is that of creationism (q.v.). 
 
 TRAETTA, trli-et'ta, Tommaso (1727-79). 
 An Italian composer, born at Bitonto. He stud¬ 
 ied at the Conservatorio di Loreto, Naples (1738- 
 48), and in 1751 produced his first opera, Far- 
 nace, in Naples. From 1765 to 1768 he was a 
 director of a conservatory in Venice and re¬ 
 signed to become court composer to Catharine II 
 at St. Petersburg. Of his 40 operas perhaps the 
 most important is Ippolito ed Aricia (1759), 
 which gained for its composer a life pension 
 from the King of Spain. His works were char¬ 
 acterized by theatrical effectiveness and harmonic 
 vigor. Consult V. Capruzzi, Traetta e la musica 
 (Naples, 1878). 
 
 TRAFALGAR', or, more commonly in Eng¬ 
 land, tra-fal'ger, Cape. A low promontory on 
 the south coast of Spain, about 29 miles south¬ 
 west of Tarifa (q.v.), at the western entrance 
 to the Strait of Gibraltar. It is memorable for 
 the great naval victory obtained off its shores 
 by the British fleet under Nelson over the com¬ 
 bined fleets of France and Spain on Oct. 21, 
 1805. The allies had 33 ships, commanded by 
 the French vice admiral, Villeneuve, while Nel¬ 
 son had 27. The British fleet was arranged in 
 two columns. The first under Collingwood fell 
 upon the rear of the allied fleet, commanded by 
 the Spanish vice admiral, Gravina. After a ter¬ 
 rible contest, in which Nelson himself lost his 
 life, the two British columns completely disor¬ 
 ganized the hostile line. Eighteen ships were 
 captured, and Napoleon’s naval power was gone 
 forever. For the influence this victory had on 
 the course of the Napoleonic wars, see Nelson, 
 Horatio; Napoleon I. Consult Edward Fraser, 
 The Enemy at Trafalgar (London, 1906). 
 
 TRAFALGAR SQUARE. A London square 
 named from the battle of Trafalgar and contain¬ 
 ing the imposing granite column in memory of 
 Nelson and statues of Havelock, Napier, Gor¬ 
 don, and George IV. About it are many public 
 buildings. 
 
 TRAFFIC AND TRAFFIC PROBLEMS. 
 
 See Railways. 
 
TRAFTON 
 
 411 TRAJAN 
 
 TRAF'TON, Mark (1810—1901). An Ameri¬ 
 can Methodist Episcopal minister, born in Ban¬ 
 gor, Me. He joined the Maine conference in 
 1831, but held most of his charges in the New 
 England and Providence conferences. In 1855, 
 while serving as pastor at Westfield, Mass., he 
 was elected to represent his district in the 
 Thirty-fourth Congress. He was known as a 
 poet also. He published: A Plea for Infant Bap¬ 
 tism and against Exclusive Immersion (1846) ; 
 Rambles in Europe (1852) ; The Safe Investment 
 (1856); Baptism, Subjects and Modes (1870); 
 Scenes in my Life (1877). 
 
 TRAG'ACANTH. See Gums. 
 
 TRAGEDY. See Drama. 
 
 TRAGIC POET, House of the. One of the 
 most attractive houses of Pompeii, made famous 
 as the home of Glaucus in Bulwer’s Last Days 
 of Pompeii. The name was assigned through 
 misconception of a painting discovered at the 
 time of the excavation. It had two stories and 
 was richly decorated with paintings, among them, 
 ‘‘The Nuptials of Zeus and Hera” and “The Send¬ 
 ing Away of Briseis,” both preserved in the 
 Naples Museum, together with the noted mosaic 
 of a dog with the motto “Cave Canem,” origi¬ 
 nally in the floor of the vestibule. Consult 
 August Mau, Pompeii: Its Life and Art (Eng. 
 trans. by F. W. Kelsey, 2d ed., New York, 1902). 
 
 TRAG'OPAN (Neo-Lat., from Gk. rpayos, 
 tragos, goat _=|- II av, Pan, Pan), or Horned 
 Pheasant. One of the pheasant-like birds of 
 the genus Tragopan, which have naked cheeks, a 
 hornlike caruncle projecting backward from be¬ 
 hind each eye, and a loose wattle, capable of be¬ 
 ing inflated, hanging beneath the bill. Five 
 species are known, all found in India and China. 
 They are brilliantly colored, live high up among 
 the mountains, and are probably the only mem¬ 
 bers of their family which nest in trees. See 
 Horned Pheasant. 
 
 TRAILING ARBUTUS. See Arbutus, 
 Trailing. 
 
 TRAILL, tral, Catherine Parr. A sister of 
 Agnes Strickland (q.v.). 
 
 TRAILL, Henry Duff (1842-1900). An 
 English journalist and author, born at Black- 
 heath, near London. He was educated at the 
 Merchant Taylors’ School, London, and at St. 
 John’s College, Oxford. In 1869 he was called 
 to the bar at the Inner Temple, but he soon gave 
 up law for journalism. He edited the Observer 
 from 1889 to 1891 and was the projector and 
 first editor of Literature (established 1897). 
 Traill did much miscellaneous work of good 
 quality. For the “English Men of Letters Series” 
 he wrote Sterne (1882) and Coleridge (1884); 
 for “English Worthies,” Shaftesbury (1886); 
 for “English Statesmen,” William III (1888); 
 and for “English Men of Action” Strafford 
 (1889). Other biographies by him are Lord 
 Salisbury (1891), Sir John Franklin (1896), 
 and Lord Cromer (1897). In politics and his¬ 
 tory notable works of his are: Central Govern¬ 
 ment (1881); the exhaustive Social England 
 (1892-1904), of which he was editor: From 
 Cairo to the Soudan Frontier (1896) ; England, 
 EffVPt, an d the Soudan (posthumous, i900). 
 The New Lucian (1884), Number Twenty (1892), 
 and The New Fiction and Other Essays (1897) 
 represent him at his best as a satirist and as 
 a commentator on life whose humor is stronglv 
 tinctured with melancholy. Political verse con¬ 
 tributed to various periodicals was collected 
 under the titles Recaptured Rhymes (1882) and 
 You. XXII.—27 
 
 Saturday Songs (from the Saturday Review , 
 1890). 
 
 TRAIN, George Francis (1829-1904). An 
 American author, born in Boston, Mass. Af¬ 
 ter engaging in the mercantile business in Bos¬ 
 ton and Australia he went to England in 1860 
 and undertook to form street-railway companies 
 in Birkenhead and London, but his plans were 
 obstructed by legal opposition. His publications 
 include: An American Merchant in Europe, Asia, 
 and Australia (1851); Young America Abroad 
 (1857); Irish Independency (1865); Champion¬ 
 ship of Women (1868). He also published an 
 autobiography entitled My Life in Many States 
 and in Foreign Lands (1902). 
 
 TRAIN BANDS. Early English militia 
 raised by commissions of musters and organized 
 and drilled as military bodies. On the abolition 
 of the fyrd in 1604, James I organized in its 
 place the train bands to the number of nearly 
 200,000 men. As an organization the train bands 
 were neither militia nor volunteers, but partook 
 of the nature of both and in point of efficiency 
 lacked both discipline and drill. During the 
 Civil War they sided almost to a unit with the 
 Parliamentarians and rendered very effective 
 service. After the Restoration the command and 
 control of the army w^ere definitely assigned to 
 the King; before this time the question had been 
 in doubt. The term is also found in connection 
 with 4 forces of militia in the early American 
 Colonies. 
 
 TRAIN DISPATCHING. See Railways. 
 
 TRAINED NURSES. See Nurses, Train¬ 
 ing of. 
 
 TRAINING. See Physical Education. 
 
 TRAIN STOP, Automatic. See Block- 
 Signal System. 
 
 TRA'JAN (Marcus Ulpius Traianus) 
 (51-117 a.d.). A Roman Emperor (98-117), 
 born at Italica, near Seville, in Spain. He was 
 descended from a family which was probably of 
 Roman origin and was early trained to arms, 
 becoming a leader in the Parthian and German 
 campaigns during the reigns of Titus and Domi- 
 tian. He was prsetor (85) and consul (91) and 
 was adopted (97) by Nerva (q.v.) as his col¬ 
 league and successor. Trajan celebrated his ac¬ 
 cession, in January, 98, by largesses to the sol¬ 
 diers and to Roman citizens and their children. 
 He also made provision out of the Imperial 
 treasury for the maintenance of the children of 
 poor freemen in Rome and other Italian towns. 
 In 101 Trajan set out on his first campaign 
 against the Dacians, who had exacted tribute 
 from Rome since Domitian’s time. The struggle 
 was long and destructive, but the Romans at 
 last gained a decisive superiority and in a sub¬ 
 sequent campaign (104-105) completely subdued 
 their opponents, whose country thenceforth be¬ 
 came the Roman province of Dacia and was se¬ 
 cured by partial colonization. This conquest, 
 the first since the death of Augustus, v r as cele¬ 
 brated, on Trajan’s return to Rome, by a tri¬ 
 umph and by games on a most extensive scale, 
 which continued for four months. The Column 
 of Trajan was erected to commemorate this vic¬ 
 tory. In 106 Trajan again went to the East. 
 Landing in Syria, he marched northward, re¬ 
 ceiving on his way the submission of numerous 
 princes, and conquered Armenia, wffiich he made 
 a province. The record of the events of the next 
 seven years of Trajan’s reign is extremely de¬ 
 fective, the few notices in Dio Cassius and others 
 being insufficient for the construction of a con- 
 
TRAJAN 
 
 TRAJECTORY 
 
 412 
 
 secutive narrative. In 115 he again set out from 
 Syria, directing his march this time against the 
 Parthian Empire. He took Ctesiphon almost 
 without a struggle and, descending the Tigris, 
 subdued the tribes on both banks, being the first 
 and only Roman general who navigated the Per¬ 
 sian Gulf. On his return he found that Mesopo¬ 
 tamia, north Syria, and Arabia required to be 
 subdued again. This being done, and Partliia 
 again conquered, Trajan attempted to reach 
 Italy, but died at Selinus in Cilicia. 
 
 Though most of Trajan’s reign was spent in 
 the gratification of his warlike ambition, inter¬ 
 nal affairs were not neglected; the administra¬ 
 tion of justice was vigorous and impartial; that 
 of finance was equally acceptable; informers 
 (delatores) were severely punished, and pecu¬ 
 lating governors of provinces rigorously prose¬ 
 cuted. The improvement and beautifying of 
 Rome were carried on; the Empire was traversed 
 in all directions by new military routes, canals 
 and bridges were constructed, new towns built, 
 the Via Appia was restored, the magnificent 
 Forum Traiani erected, and the harbor of Cen¬ 
 tum Cell® (Civitavecchia) constructed. Dur¬ 
 ing Trajan’s reign a mild persecution of the 
 Christians took place. Consult: Johannes Dier- 
 auer, Beitrdge zu eine kritisohen Geschichte Tra- 
 jans (Leipzig, 1868) ; Schiller, Geschichte der 
 romischen Kaiserzeit (Gotha, 1883); and the 
 article “Ulpius, 8,” in Friedrich Lubker, Real¬ 
 lexikon des klassischen Altertums (8th ed., 
 Leipzig, 1914). 
 
 TRAJAN, Arch of. 1. An arch at Bene- 
 vento, Italy, somewhat resembling the Arch of 
 Titus at Rome, erected in 114 a.d. to commemo¬ 
 rate the completion by Trajan of a new road to 
 Brundisium. It is of white marble with one 
 archway 27 feet high, the whole structure being 
 50 feet in height. The reliefs represent the tri¬ 
 umphs of Trajan over the Dacians. The arch is 
 one of the finest and best-preserved specimens of 
 the Roman arch. 2. A triumphal arch, in good 
 preservation, at Ancona, Italy, built by the 
 Roman Senate in 112 a.d. It commemorates the 
 building of new quays by Trajan. The single 
 archway is 29 by 46 feet. 3. An arch at Tim- 
 gad (q.v.). 
 
 TRAJAN, Baths of. Baths built by Trajan 
 on portions of the remains of the Golden House 
 of Nero in Rome (Therm* Trajan*). The 
 scanty ruins are situated on the Appian Way, 
 where some remains may be seen in the Villa 
 Field. They adjoin the Baths of Titus (q.v.), 
 with which they were confused until 1895, on 
 the northeast. The materials of the magnificent 
 edifice were used in limekilns and in construct¬ 
 ing other buildings. Consult S. B. Platner, The 
 Topography and Monuments of Ancient Rome 
 (2d ed., Boston, 1911). 
 
 TRAJAN, Forum of. An immense group of 
 public buildings in ancient Rome, filling the 
 space between the Capitoline and Quirinal hills. 
 It was named after its principal builder, the 
 Emperor Trajan, and included the Forum proper, 
 entered by the famous Arch of Trajan and con¬ 
 taining his equestrian statue in bronze; the 
 Basilica Ulpia; the celebrated Column of Trajan, 
 in the midst of a cloistered court, where were 
 also located the two Ulpian libraries, one Greek, 
 the other Latin; and the Temple of Trajan, built 
 by Hadrian. See Forum. 
 
 ' TRAJAN’S COLUMN. A celebrated column 
 at Rome, erected 114 a.d., near the centre of the 
 Forum of Trajan, ostensibly by the Roman Sen¬ 
 
 ate and people, in honor of the Emperor Trajan. 
 The pedestal is covered with sculptured trophies 
 of Dacian arms, and a very remarkable series of 
 bas-reliefs, forming a spiral round the shaft, 
 3-4 feet wide and 660 feet long, exhibits a con¬ 
 tinuous history of the military achievements of 
 Trajan in his Dacian wars. These are in excel¬ 
 lent preservation and, independently of their 
 beauty as works of art, are invaluable as records 
 of ancient costume, military operations, and his¬ 
 tory. A spiral staircase in the interior of the 
 column leads to its summit. The column proper 
 is of the Roman Doric or, rather, Tuscan order; 
 its height, including base, shaft, and capital, 
 but excluding the lofty pedestal (18 feet), is 
 just 100 Roman feet (29.57 meters). The tradi¬ 
 tion that its total height of 147 feet above the 
 pavement marked the height of the hill removed 
 to level the site of the Forum is now generally 
 discredited. The summit was crowned by a colos¬ 
 sal statue of the Emperor, which was incongru¬ 
 ously replaced (by Pope Sixtus V in 1588) by 
 one of St. Peter. The ashes of Trajan, who died 
 in the East, were said to have been deposited 
 under this column in a golden vase, but no 
 traces of such a burial have been found, though 
 a few years ago a chamber was found in the 
 base in which the ashes may once have been 
 deposited. Consult: C. E. Frohner, La colonne 
 Trajane (4 vols., Paris, 1872-74) ; Salomon 
 Reinach, La colonne Trajane au musee de Saint- 
 Germain (ib., 1886) ; Conrad Cichorius, Die Re¬ 
 liefs der Trajanssdule (2 vols., Berlin, 1896— 
 1900) ; E. Petersen, Trajans dakische Kriege 
 (Leipzig, 1899) ; S. B. Platner, The Monuments 
 and Topography of Ancient Rome (2d ed., Bos¬ 
 ton, 1911). 
 
 TRAJAN’S WALL. A line of fortifications 
 stretching across the Dobrudja from Czerna- 
 voda, where the Danube bends northward, to a 
 point of the Black Sea coast near Kustendje. It 
 consists of a double and in some places a triple 
 line of ramparts of earth (8%-ll feet in height 
 on the average, though occasionally it attains 
 an altitude of 19% feet), bounded along its 
 north side by a valley which, being generally 
 marshy, serves admirably the purpose of a ditch. 
 The construction of this rampart is attributed to 
 Trajan, the general of the Emperor Valens, who 
 in 377 a.d. endeavored by this means to check 
 the advance of the Visigoths. In 1854 Trajan’s 
 wall became an important line of defense on the 
 invasion of the Dobrudja by the Russians, and 
 the invaders were twice defeated in their at¬ 
 tempts to pass it—at Kostelli (April 10) and 
 Czernavoda (April 20-22). 
 
 TRAJEC'TORY (from Lat. trajicere, trans- 
 jicere, to throw across, from trans, across, 
 through -{- jacere, to throw). In mathematics, 
 any plane curve which cuts at a constant angle 
 a series of plane curves of the same species 
 having a common origin. If the constant angle 
 is a right angle, the curve is called an orthogonal 
 trajectory of the system. The question of such 
 a curve was proposed by Johann Bernoulli 
 (1691) in his Acta Eruditorum, and Newton 
 (1716) laid the foundation for the theory of 
 trajectories. Consult, for the history of the 
 trajectory, Terquem, in the Nouvelles armales de 
 mathematiques (Paris, 1845) ; for the various 
 classes, Brocard, Notes de bibliographic des 
 eourbes geometriques (Bar-le-Duc, 1897, and 
 supplement, 1899). See Gunnery. 
 
 TRAJECTORY, in Gunnery. See Bal¬ 
 listics. 
 
TRALEE 
 
 TRAMP 
 
 413 
 
 % 
 
 TRALEE'. A seaport of Ireland, the chief 
 town of County Kerry, on the Lee, 1 mile from 
 its mouth and 207 miles west-southwest of Dub¬ 
 lin (Map: Ireland, B 7). The town is well 
 built and dates from the twelfth century Pop 
 1901, 9867; 1911, 10,300. 
 
 TRALLES, tral'lez. An ancient city of 
 Lydia in Asia Minor, on the Eudon River, a 
 northern branch of the Mseander. Its origin was 
 ascribed to Argive and Thracian settlers. It 
 was a thriving commercial centre. Under the 
 Seleucidse it was known as Seleucia and An- 
 tiochia. 
 
 TRAM. See Silk. 
 
 TRAMP. The American equivalent of the 
 English “sturdy beggar” and “vagrant.” His 
 first statutory appearance was in 1876 in New 
 Jersey, and he was soon recognized legally in 
 21 States. He is commonly defined as an able- 
 bodied man without visible means of support, 
 wandering aimlessly, begging, and refusing 
 work, camping and kindling fires on highways 
 and private property, and terrorizing women and 
 children. What really distinguishes him from 
 the prosaic vagrant of other countries is his 
 extensive use of the railways—stealing rides, or, 
 in his argot, “jumping trains.” From 1901 to 
 1905 inclusive 23,964 “trespassers” were killed 
 and 25,236 injured by railroads in the United 
 States, or more than the combined numbers for 
 passengers and trainmen. From one-half to 
 three-fourths of these trespassers are tramps. 
 
 The great difficulty with the train-jumping 
 tramp is that local authorities do not like to 
 bear the expense of prosecutions and mainte¬ 
 nance in jail. The common custom is for the 
 authorities to put the tramp back on the next 
 train or give him 24 hours to leave town. By 
 this method each town naturally receives as 
 many as it gets rid of. Action by a unit at least 
 as broad as the State is absolutely necessary. 
 In 1895 Massachusetts showed a mean daily 
 tramp population of 791, as against 451.4 in 
 1890, implying a total for the "State of 2832, 
 as against 1616 before, and of 79,427 for the 
 United States. The mean was lower, with but 
 two slight intermissions, afterward, and in 1902- 
 03 was 369.6, suggesting 1323 for Massachusetts 
 and 38,636 for the United States. In 1905 
 Massachusetts passed an effective vagrancy law, 
 and conditions in that State ceased to be in¬ 
 dicative for the country as a whole. The effects 
 are shown by the numbers of tramps sheltered 
 in almshouses in the State in the successive 
 years. In 1905 there were 23,341; 1906, 7200; 
 1907, 3127; 1908, 423; 1909, 272; 1914, 131. 
 Unfortunately no general decrease in vagrancy 
 is indicated, as they were merely driven to 
 other States. In 1915 the problem was most 
 acute in New York City, which has the reputa¬ 
 tion of being “the best town for bums in the 
 L’nited States.” The average cost of the tramp 
 to the community is about $4.40 a week, inde¬ 
 pendent of his possible depredations; and al¬ 
 though 83.5 per cent of tramps say their health 
 is good, 10 per cent of them admit having had 
 a dangerous contagious disease. 
 
 There are no national repressive laws. Those 
 of the various States have been characterized by 
 a severity born of panic, a penalty sometimes 
 being 12 months’ imprisonment, and in two 
 States sale at public auction for a designated 
 period. Contrary to the common impression, 
 the tramp generally has learned and frequently 
 practiced a trade or profession, about one-half 
 
 having this ability. The proportion of pro¬ 
 fessionals, or those who never work, is small, 
 their real weakness being chronic tendency to 
 intermittency in work. This is fostered by 
 their habits and marital condition, 63 per cent 
 being admitted drunkards and 93 per cent un¬ 
 married; and again by the conditions of indus¬ 
 trial activity, the drunkard being employed only 
 when he is indispensable, and discharged, along 
 with the unmarried man, when business slack¬ 
 en 8 witness the great rise in tramp popula¬ 
 tion after 1873 and the fall after 1901. Statis¬ 
 tics seem to show that the surest way of correc¬ 
 tion lies in prevention. 
 
 In England the ancient penalties against what 
 we call tramping were very severe. Under 
 Edward VI the punishment was branding on 
 the breast with a V and two years’ slavery. In 
 1572 it was whipping for the first offense, bor¬ 
 ing the ear with a hot iron for the second, and 
 death for the third. A fine of 10 times the dole 
 was imposed on the person helping the vagrant. 
 The vagrant may now be lodged in the casual 
 ward of the Union (almshouse), where he must 
 break stone or pick tow in payment. The alarm¬ 
 ing increase in the evil in England led the 
 President of the Local Government Board in 
 v 1904 to appoint a departmental committee on 
 vagrancy. In its report in 1906 this committee 
 recommended much more stringent treatment 
 and the introduction of the Swiss and German 
 travel-card system to distinguish vagrants from 
 honest work seekers. 
 
 In Germany the most drastic modern measure 
 against the prime vice of tramping, open men¬ 
 dicancy, was that taken in Bavaria in 1790-95, 
 under Count Rumford, where in four years 10,- 
 000 vagabonds were arrested. It proved effec¬ 
 tive. The number of tramps in Germany is 
 unknown, but has been set at 100,000. The 
 tramp there is the lineal descendant of the old 
 artisan wandering abroad to complete his knowl¬ 
 edge of his craft. Beginning in 1854, when 
 Professor Perthes, of Bonn, founded a cheap 
 tavern for them, where no drink stronger than 
 beer could be had, the number of these home 
 refuges (Eerbergen zur Heimat) increased in 
 1901-02 to 462, a gain of 72 from 1892 to 1902, 
 with an aggregate of paying guests for the year 
 of 1,931,575 and of nonpaying guests or those 
 rendering an equivalent in work of 759,057. For 
 108,505 of these situations were found. In 1910 
 the number was 449, according to the statistics 
 of the association (Deutschen Hevbevgs Vei'ein) 
 into which they had been organized in 1886. 
 Three new ones were opened and nine closed 
 during the year. Of these 217 were connected 
 with V erpflegungstationen or Wander arbeits- 
 stdtten. The number sheltered during the year 
 was _ 2,726,850, aggregating 4,727,297 nights’ 
 lodgings (as against 2,622,000 and 4,547,028 
 the previous year). Employment was found for 
 133,899, a decrease of 5189 compared with the 
 previous year. In more or less direct commu¬ 
 nication with the Eerbergen, in 240 instances 
 under the same roof, is, on the one hand, a great 
 network of local establishments (Verpflegung- 
 stationen) where lodging and a meal is fur¬ 
 nished in exchange for work, generally wood¬ 
 chopping; or, if there is no separate building, 
 an order is given for cheap entertainment at a 
 local tavern. 
 
 On the other hand is a chain of labor colonies 
 {Arbeiterlcolonien ), the first of which was estab¬ 
 lished in 1882 at Wilhelmsdorf in Westphalia by 
 
TRAMP 
 
 414 
 
 TRANSBAIKALIA 
 
 Pastor von Bodelschwingli. The number in 1910 
 was 34 in Germany, with an additional one for 
 Germans in England at Libury Hall, near Lon¬ 
 don. Twenty-six were established between 1882 
 and 1892, a decade of especial industrial de¬ 
 pression. During the year 1910, 12,303 persons 
 were admitted (against 12,878 for 1909) and 
 12,445 dismissed. The total number admitted 
 from the beginning was 226,935, and the capac¬ 
 ity of the existing colonies 4888. It is inter¬ 
 esting to note that, of the 12,303 admitted, 4/42 
 came for the first time and 2548 for the second, 
 while 1342 had been over seven times in a col¬ 
 ony; 9467 had never been married, and only 513 
 were married at the time of admission. Of those 
 dismissed, about exactly half (6324) left at 
 their own request,” situations were found by 
 the colonies for 911 and by the occupant him¬ 
 self in 1295 cases. The rest were mainly dis¬ 
 charged for misdemeanors of various sorts or 
 ran away or were turned over to the poor-relief 
 authorities or hospitals; 37 died. Of recent 
 years public action dealing with vagrancy has 
 been growing in Germany. A Prussian Law 
 of June 29, 1907, empowers the Diet (Landtag) 
 of any province to compel communal and munic¬ 
 ipal authorities to establish wayfarers’ lodges 
 {Wanderarbeitsstatte ), and Westphalia has since 
 put in operation a complete system. The best 
 example of what may be done is afforded by the 
 Kingdom of Wiirttemberg, where a quasi-public 
 Society for the Promotion of Wanderarbeits- 
 statten in Wiirttemberg, assisted by fiscal ap¬ 
 propriations, maintains a chain of 27 institu¬ 
 tions (close of 1909). During the year October, 
 1909, to September, 1910, 82,212 migratory work¬ 
 ers were admitted to the lodges. r Ihe cost to 
 the state of a day’s entertainment is about one 
 mark (25 cents) ‘ against an estimated average 
 intake of from two to three times as much when 
 they are permitted to beg. The system reduced 
 court sentences for begging and vagrancy by 
 78.5 per cent the first year. Three labor colo¬ 
 nies with a capacity of 150 are an adjunct of the 
 system. Every applicant received must have a 
 travel card {Wander schein ), to be obtained on 
 establishment of identity and proof of a clear 
 police record and of having been employed or 
 prevented from work by sickness during the pre¬ 
 ceding three months. A day’s entertainment is 
 given for four hours’ work. After the midday 
 meal the wanderer must, if no suitable work 
 can be furnished him, proceed to the next Ar- 
 beitsstatt, the time of arrival and departure 
 being punched on the Wander schein. 
 
 The Swiss labor colonies have attracted par¬ 
 ticular notice in the United States. They are 
 compulsory and under the supervision of the 
 cantonal authorities; there is one in each can¬ 
 ton, that at Wytzwyl being the largest and 
 most successful. * They have nearly eliminated 
 vagrancy from Switzerland. Partly as a result 
 of Mr. Edmond Kelly’s book on “The Elimina¬ 
 tion of the Tramp” (1908), the New York 
 Legislatures of 1911 and 1912 passed bills es¬ 
 tablishing a tramp farm along the Swiss lines 
 in the State. Land was purchased, but owing 
 to insufficient appropriations the work has not 
 been carried to completion (1913). Massachu¬ 
 setts has a tramp farm. 
 
 Labor colonies are also more or less success¬ 
 ful in Holland and Belgium, and the French 
 have experimented, under Paris municipal pat¬ 
 ronage, along the same lines, at La Chalmelle 
 in the Department of Marne. 
 
 Bibliography. J. F. Willard (Josiah Flynt, 
 pseud.), Tramping with Tramps (New York, 
 1899); W. A. Wyckoff, The Workers: An Ex¬ 
 periment in Reality (2 vols., ib., 1899) ; id., A 
 Day with a Tramp (ib., 1901); Report of the 
 Departmental Committee on I agrancy ( London, 
 1906), a thorough discussion of the situation 
 and methods of dealing with it in Europe; O. F. 
 Lewis, “Vagrancy in the United States,” in 
 Proceedings of the Conference on Charities^ and 
 Correction (New \ork, 1907) ; Edmond Kelly, 
 The Elimination of the Tramp (ib., 1908) ; W. 
 H. Dawson, The Vagrancy Problem (London, 
 1910) ; Report of the New York Prison Asso¬ 
 ciation (New York, 1912) ; S. A. Rice, The 
 Vagrancy Problem in New York,” in Proceedings 
 of the Conference of Charities and Correction 
 (ib., 1914). 
 
 TRANCE (OF., Fr. transe, extreme fear, Sp., 
 Portug. trance, crisis, hour of death, from Lat. 
 transitus, passage over, from transire, to pass 
 over, cross, from trans, across, through + 
 to go). A general term in psychology denoting 
 various forms of modified consciousness. The 
 psychological symptoms vary from seeming in¬ 
 animation to a waking condition, though a mani¬ 
 festly abnormal one, of exaggerated suggestibil¬ 
 ity in respect to some dominating idea. In gen¬ 
 eral there is more or less marked anaesthesia. 
 What may be termed the waking trance is also 
 characterized by extraordinary concentration or 
 automatic mental action, while the ordinary 
 functions of the body are little interrupted. The 
 thoughts of the subject are ordinarily fixed on 
 one kind of idea, frequently religion. In trance 
 sleep, except in its protractedness and the less¬ 
 ened sensibility to external stimuli, there ap¬ 
 pears to be little that is abnormal. In trance 
 coma these symptoms are more intense, and 
 respiration and circulation are feebler. In death 
 trance, except sometimes the inner dream life, 
 all animation ceases, including the action of 
 heart and lungs. The thought, or dream, of 
 trance is likely to be more sequential and coher¬ 
 ent in character than that of normal sleep. 
 Various pathological and psychopathic condi¬ 
 tions are often called trance, such as deep and 
 unusually protracted sleep, lethargy, suspended 
 animation, the hypnotic state, and altered per¬ 
 sonality. Consult: J. M. Charcot, Lectures on 
 the Diseases of the Nervous System (London, 
 1877-89) ; G. J. Preston, Hysteria and Certain 
 Allied Conditions (Philadelphia, 1897); Irank 
 Podmore, Modern Spiritualism (2 vols., London, 
 1902) ; Morton Prince, Dissociation of a Per¬ 
 sonality (2d ed., New York, 1908) ; J. H. Hyslop, 
 Psychical Research and Survival (London, 1913). 
 See Somnambulism. 
 
 TRANI, trii'ne. A seaport in the Province 
 of Bari delle Puglie, Italy, 27 miles by rail 
 northwest of Bari (Map: Italy, F 4). Its an¬ 
 cient walls have given place to spacious boule¬ 
 vards. The twelfth-century cathedral has a 
 very high tower and magnificent bronze doors. 
 The Santa Maria Immaculata is a beautiful 
 church. The Gothic palace (the seat of a priests’ 
 seminary) and the old castle (now a prison) 
 are both interesting. Excellent building stone 
 is quarried. Trani first came into notice when 
 it submitted to the Normans in 1073. During 
 the Crusades it carried on a heavy trade with 
 the Levant. Pop. (commune), 1901, 31,800; 
 1911, 32,059. 
 
 TRANSBAIKALIA, tr&ns'bi-ka'le-a. A 
 province of eastern Siberia (Map: Asia, N 3). 
 
TRANSCASPIA 415 TRANSCENDENTALISM 
 
 Area, 238,308 square miles. The province is 
 divided by the Yablonoi Mountains, a part of 
 the Stanovoi (q.v.) chain, into two parts, of 
 which the western has the character of an 
 elevated plateau intersected by a deep valley 
 that extends from Lake Baikal to the Uda River 
 and is used by the chief highways as well as 
 by the trans-Siberian Railway. The portion 
 east of the Yablonoi chain is lower than the 
 western part and is traversed in the southeast 
 by the Nerchinsk Mountains. The region is 
 watered by the Argun and Shilka, which unite 
 to form the Amur, by the Vitim, a tributary of 
 the Lena, and by the Selenga (q.v.), a tributary 
 of Lake Baikal. Of the numerous lakes the 
 principal is Baikal (q.v.). The climate is con¬ 
 tinental, dry, and very severe, the temperature 
 being occasionally as low as —58°. The snow¬ 
 fall is slight. Transbaikalia is one of the most 
 highly mineralized regions of Siberia. Gold is 
 found especially in the Nerchinsk Mountains, 
 where there are also rich deposits of silver and 
 lead. Coal is found near the southeastern shore 
 of Lake Baikal, and iron in many parts. The 
 mining industry, however, is not highly devel¬ 
 oped, and only the gold output is important. 
 The mines are owned to a large extent by the 
 state and worked by convict labor, the centre 
 of the mining industries being the Nerchinsk 
 region. Agriculture is confined chiefly to the 
 south, where the natural conditions are more 
 favorable. Stock raising is extensively carried 
 on, and hunting is still of considerable impor¬ 
 tance. The chief manufactures are leather, 
 spirits, and flour. The transit trade with Mon¬ 
 golia through Kiakhta (q.v.) is large. Esti¬ 
 mated population at the beginning of 1914, 
 945,700, of which the town population was 144,- 
 300. The Russian population is largely in the 
 Nerchinsk mining region. Prosperous settle-* 
 ments of Raskolniks are in the Chikoi, Khilok, 
 Uda, and other valleys. There are many Cos¬ 
 sacks, largely Mongolian in character. The 
 aboriginals, mostly Buryats (about 180,000) 
 and Tunguses (about 30,000), have still in the 
 main preserved their clan organization, although 
 many of them have been assimilated with the 
 Russians. Capital, Tchita (q.v.). 
 
 TRANSCAS'PIA. A Russian province in 
 west Asia (Map: Asia, G 4). Its area is 235,- 
 120 square miles. In its general features the 
 region resembles Turkestan, of which it may be 
 considered a western continuation. The larger 
 part of the norjh consists of elevated table-lands 
 with some mountains in the peninsula of 
 Manghishlak in the northwest and a deep de¬ 
 pression near the Khivan frontier in the east. 
 The central part is lower and is practically a 
 desert with shifting sands and dried-up river 
 courses. The southern part is traversed by a 
 mountain chain which separates the sandy des¬ 
 erts of Turcomania from the highlands of 'north 
 Persia and from its structure and direction 
 appears to be a continuation of the Caucasus 
 system. This region is watered by the Atrek, 
 which flows along the southern boundary to 
 the Caspian and by the Tejend and the Murghab. 
 As a whole, Transeaspia is scantily watered. 
 Irrigation is practiced. The coast is indented by 
 a number of deep inlets, of which that of Kara 
 Bugas is noted for its extreme salinity. The 
 climate is hot and dry, and the precipitation 
 extremely meagre. The region contains rich 
 mineral deposits, of which salt, naphtha, ozo¬ 
 cerite, and gypsum are mined to some extent. 
 
 Agriculture is developing in the southern part, 
 which is more favorably situated with regard 
 to irrigation. The principal products are wheat, 
 sorghum, rice, and barley. Cotton is also suc¬ 
 cessfully cultivated. The natives have extensive 
 herds of sheep and other stock and export skins 
 and wool. A number of household industries, 
 such as rug weaving and the production of 
 various articles of felt, are more or less devel¬ 
 oped. The chief medium of transportation is 
 the Transcaspian Railway, which traverses the 
 southern part of the territory. Pop., 1912, 486,- 
 200, of whom the Turcomans constituted about 
 two-thirds. Capital, Askhabad (q.v.). 
 
 TRANS'CAUCA'SIA. The southern part of 
 the Caucasus (q.v.), comprising six governments, 
 three provinces, and two districts of Russia 
 (Map: Asia, F 4). Area, about 95,405 square 
 miles. It was the scene of severe fighting be¬ 
 tween the Russians and the Turks during the 
 Great War. (See War in Europe.) Pop., 
 1912, 6,931,900. 
 
 TRAN'SCENDEN'TAL, TRAN'SCEND'- 
 
 ENT (from transcendent, from Lat. transcendens, 
 pres. p. of Lat. transcendere, to surpass, from 
 trans, across, through -f- scandere, to climb, 
 Skt. skand, to spring, ascend). Words employed 
 by various schoolmen, in particular Duns Sco- 
 tus, to describe the conceptions that by their 
 universality rise above or transcend the 10 Aris¬ 
 totelian categories. (See Category. ) Thus, 
 according to Scotus, ens, or being, because it is 
 predicable of substance and accident alike, of 
 God as well as of the world, is raised above these 
 by including or comprehending them. 
 
 Between the hitherto convertible terms “tran¬ 
 scendental” and “transcendent” Kant drew a 
 distinction, of considerable importance in un¬ 
 derstanding his own system. By the word 
 “transcendental” he designates the various 
 forms, categories, or ideas assumed to be con¬ 
 stitutive or regulative elements of human ex¬ 
 perience; although they are manifested only in 
 experience, they are not products of experience. 
 Among such transcendental elements are space 
 and time, causality, and substantiality. The 
 knowledge that these elements are not of empiri¬ 
 cal origin is called transcendental knowledge. 
 The word “transcendent” Kant reserves, but 
 not with uniform consistency, for those objects 
 that lie in the world of things in themselves, 
 entirely inaccessible to experience, and for any 
 pretended knowledge of such objects. See Kant. 
 
 TRANSCENDENTAL DEDUCTION. See 
 Deduction. 
 
 TRAN'SCENDEN'TALISM. A term ap¬ 
 plied in philosophy to Kant’s system and to 
 those like it in maintaining that there can be 
 knowledge of transcendental elements. (See 
 Transcendental.) The terms Transcendental¬ 
 ism and Transcendental school are now fre¬ 
 quently used by English-speaking peoples to 
 designate the views of thinkers like Emerson 
 (see Emerson, Ralph Waldo) and his col¬ 
 leagues in the Transcendental Club (1836) and 
 at Brook Farm (q.v.). The so-called Tran¬ 
 scendental movement was mainly confined to 
 New England, especially to Massachusetts, and 
 in point of time to about 1830-50. In its origin 
 it dates much further back, and in its effects it 
 can scarcely be said to be entirely extinct to-day. 
 In character it was partly philosophical, thus 
 connecting with German and French thought; 
 partly economic, thus connecting with French 
 and English schemes of social reform; partly 
 
TRANSCENDENTALISM 
 
 TRANSCENDENTALISM 416 
 
 literary, thus connecting with the poetry of such 
 dissimilar characters as Wordsworth and Shel¬ 
 ley and with the gospel of Carlyle; partly 
 theological in a loose sense, thus connecting 
 with Unitarianism; but on the whole, as Emer¬ 
 son averred, primarily spiritual, thus connect¬ 
 ing with and finally coalescing in contemporary 
 movements for regeneration of every kind. It 
 may be said that New England Transcendental¬ 
 ism was in the main a result of a revolt from 
 the formalism both of Unitarianism and of Cal¬ 
 vinism, and coalesced with a loose system of 
 intuitional philosophy borrowed from Germany 
 and with the Romantic revolt from classicism in 
 literature, as well as with a contemporaneous 
 American movement for securing the benefits of 
 foreign culture, and which finally more or less 
 merged in the great antislavery agitation. It 
 will be necessary to dwell briefly on each element. 
 
 Transcendentalism in New England was in¬ 
 volved in the great awakening of a century 
 before, for both were spiritual manifestations, 
 the earlier of which did much to shake the hold 
 of rigid Calvinism and to introduce the religious 
 emotionality and liberalism that were later to 
 culminate in men like William Ellery Clianning 
 and Theodore Parker (qq.v.). Within 20 years 
 after the awakening Arminianism and Arian- 
 ism, through the agency of the Deists and other 
 British writers, had made many converts, es¬ 
 pecially in eastern Massachusetts. Jonathan 
 Mavhew (q.v.) is typical of these early liberals 
 or Unitarians. The followers of Jonathan Ed¬ 
 wards struggled valiantly against the innova¬ 
 tors and held most of New England for ortho¬ 
 doxy, but by 1785 there was a distinctively 
 Unitarian church (King’s Chapel) in Boston, 
 even if 30 years were to elapse before this name 
 could be definitely fastened on the seceders from 
 Calvinism. This change of faith was not effected 
 without heartburning and a development of 
 religious unrest among New Englanders, which 
 made the acceptance of new philosophical ideas, 
 new literary standards, and new social theories 
 all the easier when the time was ripe. The ap¬ 
 pointment of Unitarian professors at Harvard, 
 resulting in the founding of Andover Theologi¬ 
 cal Seminary (q.v.), and the preaching of such 
 men as the younger Buckminster and Channing, 
 undoubtedly prepared the way for Emerson, 
 Alcott, Ripley, and Parker. 
 
 But although by 1825 Unitarianism had won 
 a victory in Boston and its environs, it was 
 not destined to maintain its ascendency for so 
 long a period as its foe, Calvinism, had done. 
 It, too, showed a tendency to formalism, both 
 in thought and in taste, and impressionable 
 souls soon broke away into new paths of phi¬ 
 losophy, theology, and literature. Some little 
 knowledge of Kant and his successors, of Schlei- 
 ermacher, and of Goethe had been obtained by a 
 few persons prior to 1830. Before 1840 the 
 labors of George Ripley, F. H. Hedge (qq.v.), 
 and other translators had considerably increased 
 this knowledge; in consequence the influence of 
 German thought upon New England Transcen¬ 
 dentalism cannot be ignored, although it is 
 easily exaggerated. French thought, as illus¬ 
 trated by Cousin and more by Fourier, was less 
 influential, but that there was a decided taste 
 for foreign literature which gave an impetus 
 to the contemporaneous movement for a greater 
 and freer spiritual life seems to be clearly es¬ 
 tablished. This meant dissatisfaction with 
 eighteenth-century standards and with the colo¬ 
 
 nial character of American literature and thus 
 involved the founding of the Dial (q.v., 1840- 
 44). Nor in this connection should we forget 
 the interest displayed by some Transcendental- 
 ists in the Oriental Scriptures, in Neoplatonism, 
 and in more or less occult literature. But be¬ 
 hind the revolt from formal Unitarianism and 
 the craving for new forms of philosophy and 
 literature that characterized many young per¬ 
 sons in New England between 1830 and 1840, 
 there was the uplift of the world’s spirit that 
 showed itself in many ways, and there was also 
 on the part of aspiring souls a contempt for 
 the vulgarity and selfishness of American polit¬ 
 ical and business life of this epoch. It is no 
 wonder that New England was unable to de¬ 
 velop orderly schools of thought and literature 
 and seemed given over to extremists and fad¬ 
 dists of all sorts. 
 
 In 1836 (September 19) Emerson, Hedge, 
 Alcott, and others formed the so-called Hedge 
 or Transcendental Club. Little came of this 
 organization until the Dial was started in 1840 
 and Brook Farm (q.v.) was founded in 1841. 
 Neither enterprise was fully successful, but both 
 were influential upon literature and thought, 
 though not greatly upon action. Under Mar¬ 
 garet Fuller (q.v.) and Emerson the Dial was a 
 hospitable receptacle for the verses of the Tran- 
 scendentalist poets—C. P. Cranch (q.v.), the 
 younger W. E. Channing (q.v.), and others, 
 whose merits are slowly being recognized—and 
 for many of the best papers of the two editors 
 and of Thoreau. (See Thoreau, Henry D.) 
 It did not create or recreate American literature, 
 but it undoubtedly stimulated important writers. 
 Brook Farm community life was laughed at by 
 the hard-headed and not effectively supported by 
 many of the leading Transcendentalists them¬ 
 selves, but it set up a beneficial ideal of “plain 
 living and high thinking,” it furnished Haw¬ 
 thorne material for his Blithedale Romance, and 
 it doubtless leavened the utilitarian spirit of the 
 country and the age. 
 
 No writer upon New England Transcenden¬ 
 talism has failed to remark upon the exceedingly 
 elusive character of the movement. It is diffi¬ 
 cult to disengage its elements, to delimit it in 
 point of time, to say what it really accom¬ 
 plished, to determine what it became. If it had 
 been fully organized, the case would have been 
 different for the student, yet the results would 
 probably have been less fortunate, both to the 
 Transcendentalists themselves and to the Ameri¬ 
 can people at large. Not being hampered by or¬ 
 ganization, by formulas, by the apparatus of 
 propagandism, the Transcendentalists were bet¬ 
 ter able to serve a more specific cause of greater 
 moment—that of Abolition. They were also en¬ 
 abled to follow the bent of individual genius 
 after having experienced the stimulating effects 
 of having lived in a period of uplift. Emerson 
 became the favorite moralist of his countrymen 
 and an important poet; Alcott gave full vent 
 to his eccentricity and ended as the patron 
 saint of the Concord Philosophers; Margaret 
 Fuller had a brilliant and only too short career 
 as a critic and woman of letters; Ripley, by 
 his reviews in the Tribune and his services with 
 C. A. Dana (q.v.) as an encyclopaedist, showed 
 that a Brook Farmer was capable of valuable 
 if homely work in the cause of letters and 
 science; Thoreau revealed nature to his country¬ 
 men and became a high priest of individualism 
 as well as a writer of truly classic prose; Theo- 
 
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS 
 
 TRANSFORMER 
 
 417 
 
 dore Parker died just before the beginning of the 
 crusade of which he was perhaps the greatest 
 preacher. Thousands of men and women 
 throughout New England were inspired by 
 Transcendentalism to devote themselves to every 
 form of philanthropy. The era of the Tran¬ 
 scendental ists was in many respects an Ameri¬ 
 can Renaissance, the effects of which were not 
 confined to this country, but were spread, chiefly 
 through the writings of Emerson, Thoreau, and 
 Channing, to England and to some extent to 
 the continent of Europe. That their ideas were 
 vague and often transcended reason, not to 
 say common sense, that their literary work was 
 largely amateurish, that their extravagances 
 gave much occasion to legitimate ridicule, that 
 their so-called movement was the forerunner of 
 religious and social manias of all sorts, can 
 scarcely be gainsaid; hut it is equally idle to 
 deny the loftiness of their aims and the impor¬ 
 tance of their works. 
 
 Consult: O. B. Frothingliam, Transcendental¬ 
 ism in New England (New York, 1876) ; Lind¬ 
 say Swift, Brook Farm: Members, Scholars, and 
 Visitors (ib., 1900) ; T. W. Higginson, Old Cam¬ 
 bridge (ib., 1900) ; G. W. Cooke, Unitarianism 
 in America (Boston, 1902) ; id., The Poets of 
 Transcendentalism: An Anthology (ib., 1903) ; 
 Leighton, French Philosophers and New England 
 Transcendentalism (Charlottesville, Va., 1908); 
 H. C. Goddard, Studies in New England Tran¬ 
 scendentalism (New York, 1908). The last two 
 works contain bibliographies. 
 
 TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS. See 
 Number. 
 
 TRANSCONTINENTAL RAILWAYS. See 
 
 Canada; Siberia; United States, Transpor¬ 
 tation. 
 
 TRANSCRIP'TION (Lat. transcriptio, from 
 transcribere, to transcribe, from trans, across, 
 through + scribere, to write). In music, an ar¬ 
 rangement of a composition for instruments or 
 voices other than those employed by the com¬ 
 poser. See Paraphrase. 
 
 TRANSEPT (from Lat. trans, across, 
 through + septum, sceptum, inclosure, parti¬ 
 tion; connected with scopes, hedge). A pro¬ 
 jecting wing at right angles with the nave and 
 aisles of a church, forming one of the smaller 
 arms of the cross. The term is improperly used 
 in the singular to designate the two transepts 
 together. In some early basilicas and a few 
 Italian churches of later date (e.g., Santa Croce 
 and San Lorenzo, Florence) the transepts are 
 at the extreme east end, forming a T-plan. The 
 square space at the meeting of the nave and 
 transepts is called the crossing. In the early 
 Middle Ages the transept became quite common 
 and in the Gothic age almost universal. The 
 transepts sometimes project beyond the side 
 aisles; when this is not the case, they show 
 externally by their height above the side-aisle 
 roofs and internally by their width and height, 
 which are equal to those of the nave. The cross¬ 
 ing is often surmounted by a spire, tower, or 
 dome requiring much heavier piers than those 
 of the nave and choir generally. 
 
 While single transepts were the rule, double 
 transepts were sometimes used in England and 
 Germany. The double English transept was on 
 the scheme of the archbishop’s or Passion cross, 
 with both arms east of the nave; the double 
 German transept was connected with the double 
 choir, one at each end of the church. The 
 ends of the transepts in Gothic churches were 
 
 often treated as fagades only second in im¬ 
 portance to the main front, with their large 
 rose or wheel windows and their elaborate por¬ 
 tals. Those of Notre Dame in Paris, of Chartres, 
 Rouen, and Amiens are particularly beautiful. 
 Many of the English transepts have only one 
 side aisle; the French examples have usually 
 two. See Church. 
 
 TRANSFER PROCESS. See Lithography. 
 
 TRANSFIG'URA'TION (Lat. transfigura- 
 tio, from transfigurare, to transfigure, from trans, 
 across, through -f- figurare, to form, from figura, 
 shape, form) of Christ. The temporary revela¬ 
 tion of the glory of Jesus during his earthly 
 ministry, recorded in Mark ix. 2-8 and parallel 
 passages. The festival commemorating it can 
 be traced back to the fifth century, but was 
 established on August 6 as a solemn feast for 
 the whole Roman Catholic church in 1457, as a 
 thanksgiving for the victory over the Turks near 
 Belgrade. It was retained as a black-letter fes¬ 
 tival by the Church of England and restored as 
 a greater feast by the American Episcopal 
 church at the revision of the Prayer Book in 
 1892. 
 
 TRANSFORMA'TION. See Marble Faun. 
 
 TRANSFORM'ER. In electrical engineer¬ 
 ing, an apparatus for transforming or convert¬ 
 ing an electric current. The term commonly 
 is applied to a device for transforming an al¬ 
 ternating current to a higher or lower voltage. 
 Machines for converting alternating currents to 
 continuous currents and vice versa are known 
 as converters or rectifiers (q.v.) and are de¬ 
 scribed under dynamo-electric machinery (q.v.). 
 Devices for obtaining pulsating currents of high 
 potential from pulsating currents of low po¬ 
 tential are described under induction coil (q.v.). 
 Devices for transforming a continuous current at 
 one voltage to a continuous current at another 
 
 Iron Core 
 
 Fig. 1. DIAGRAM OF ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A TRANSFORMER. 
 
 voltage are known as dynamotors and are de¬ 
 scribed under dynamo-electric machinery (q.v.). 
 The present article treats only of devices used 
 to transform alternating currents into other 
 alternating currents differing in magnitude and 
 potential and known as static transformers. 
 
 A transformer consists of two electric cir¬ 
 cuits, each made up of turns of insulated con¬ 
 ductor, interlinked with a magnetic circuit, 
 usually consisting of iron, in such a manner 
 that any magnetic flux set up by a current in 
 one electric circuit will thread the other. (See 
 Magnetism.) Any change in the current in 
 one of the coils causes a change in the mag¬ 
 netic flux, and a change in the magnetic flux 
 threading the second coil generates a voltage 
 in that coil. If the current in one coil is 
 continually changing, as is the case with an 
 alternating current, an alternating flux is set up 
 
TRANSFORMER 
 
 TRANSFORMER 
 
 418 
 
 and the alternation of that part of this flux 
 threading the second coil produces an alter¬ 
 nating voltage in the second coil. At the same 
 time the alternation of the flux produces an 
 alternating voltage in the first coil which op¬ 
 poses the current and is known as the counter 
 electromotive force (C. E. M. F.). 
 
 Since with an iron magnetic circuit practi¬ 
 cally all the magnetic flux set up by the coil 
 into which a current is sent (the primary) 
 threads the other coil (the secondary), there 
 is very little leakage of flux and the voltage 
 induced in any one turn of either coil is prac¬ 
 tically the same. Thus, if there are 10 turns 
 in the primary coil and one turn in the sec¬ 
 ondary coil, the counter electromotive force of 
 the primary will be 10 times the induced elec¬ 
 tromotive force of the secondary coil, whereas, 
 in accordance with the law of conservation of 
 energy, if power is given out by the secondary 
 it must be taken from the primary, and both 
 members have very nearly the same power, i.e., 
 the product of volts and amperes in the pri¬ 
 mary is equal to the product of volts and am¬ 
 peres in the secondary. Hence the currents are 
 inversely proportional to the voltages or to the 
 respective numbers of turns in the two windings. 
 
 The winding having the greater number of 
 turns and the higher voltage is known as the 
 high-tension winding; the one with the lower 
 voltage and turns is the low-tension winding. 
 The winding connected to the source of energy 
 is called the primary and that connected to the 
 load the secondary. If the low-tension winding 
 is the primary we have a step-up transformer, 
 and if the high-tension winding is the pri¬ 
 mary we have a step-down transformer. The 
 former type is used in power stations to raise 
 the voltage of the alternating-current genera¬ 
 tors (usually about 2200 volts) to a suitable 
 voltage for the transmission line (30,000 to 
 60,000 volts), while the step-down transformer 
 is used at the other end of the line to lower 
 the voltage of the transmission line to a volt¬ 
 age suitable to the consumer. 
 
 When the secondary winding is closed through 
 an external circuit, a current will flow and 
 set up a magnetic reaction. The turns of the 
 secondary carrying a current form a magneto¬ 
 motive force opposing the primary flux and 
 tending to reduce it. A reduction in primary 
 flux causes a decrease in the counter electro¬ 
 motive force, which permits more current to 
 flow in the primary, so that the primary wind¬ 
 ing may always be resolved into two magneto¬ 
 motive forces—one overcoming the counter mag¬ 
 netomotive force of the secondary and one un¬ 
 opposed producing the primary flux. The latter 
 unopposed magnetomotive force results from the 
 magnetizing current or no-load current. 
 
 Since in practice both windings have elec¬ 
 trical resistance, there will be a loss of voltage 
 in each whenever current flows, and thus the 
 observable voltage at the terminals of the sec¬ 
 ondary or load will be less than that gener¬ 
 ated by the primary flux, and the voltage im¬ 
 pressed on the primary must be greater than 
 the counterelectric force by the amount of the 
 resistance drop in that circuit. 
 
 Since it is impossible to place the two wind¬ 
 ings so that all the flux set up by either wind¬ 
 ing will interlink the other winding, there is a 
 leakage of flux between the two windings, and 
 besides the mutual or useful flux common to both 
 windings each winding has an additional flux 
 
 caused by its own particular current and linked 
 only with itself. The windings are thus inductive 
 and have induced in them a voltage which serves 
 no useful purpose, but reacts against the main 
 voltage. This is the same in effect as if choke 
 coils (i.e., coils so wou#id as to have consider¬ 
 able reactance) or inductances were connected 
 into the external part of each winding. The 
 reactive voltage in such an inductance is out 
 of phase with the current which produces it, 
 and its effect must be shown by vector rela¬ 
 tions. If the current is in phase with the 
 useful voltage, the reactive voltage is at one- 
 quarter period out of phase or at right angles 
 to the useful voltage. On the other hand, if the 
 load is inductive and the current lags behind 
 the useful voltage, the reactive voltage will be 
 directly subtractive. Thus, when supplying a 
 load the secondary external voltage for a given 
 impressed voltage on the primary is less than 
 when the transformer is not loaded, and the 
 ratio of transformation is different, being less 
 than the ideal in a step-up transformer and 
 more than the ideal in a step-down transformer. 
 The transformer is said to have a regulation 
 expressed by the percentage decrease in second¬ 
 ary terminal voltage from no load to full load. 
 
 Under all operating conditions there must 
 be a certain mutual magnetic flux in order to 
 produce voltage, the voltage depending upon the 
 magnitude of this flux and its rate of change, 
 i.e., the frequency of the impressed voltage. 
 To produce this flux a magnetizing current must 
 flow. This magnetizing current is in phase with 
 its flux and therefore out of phase with the 
 voltage, as an alternating voltage is always 
 one-quarter period out of phase with the flux 
 which produces it. The magnetizing current 
 is therefore said to be reactive or wattless, as 
 it represents very little active power or heat 
 power. On the other hand, the alternation of 
 the magnetic flux in the iron produces various 
 losses in the iron known as hysteresis (q.v.) 
 and eddv-current losses. (See Foucault Cur- 
 rents.) Hence a small component of the no- 
 load current must be in phase with the voltage 
 to supply this heat-power loss and is known 
 as the energy component of the no-load current. 
 
 These losses are reduced as far as possible 
 in practice by using specially selected steel hav¬ 
 ing a low hysteresis loss and a high electrical 
 resistance to reduce the eddy-current loss. Re¬ 
 cent forms of steel containing silicon are very 
 good in this respect. In addition the steel is 
 divided into thin sheets or laminations to re¬ 
 duce the value of the loss from eddy currents. 
 
 The loss in voltage due to the electrical re¬ 
 sistance of the two windings also represents a 
 loss of energy, and the energy output of the 
 secondary is less than the amount of energy 
 input to the primary due to these so-called cop¬ 
 per losses as well as the losses in the iron 
 called the core loss. Thus, the energy equation 
 of the transformer is Input = Output + Core 
 loss + Copper loss in both windings. The core 
 loss varies only a fraction of a per cent be¬ 
 tween no load and full load and is called a con¬ 
 stant loss, while the copper loss, being pro¬ 
 portional to the square of the current, is very 
 nearly proportional to the square of the load. 
 It is called the variable loss. At that load of 
 any transformer at which the copper loss is 
 equal to the iron loss the efficiency is a maxi¬ 
 mum. 
 
 These losses of energy manifest themselves 
 
I 
 
 TRANSFORMER 419 TRANSFORMER 
 
 in the body of the transformer as heat, and a 
 considerable skill is displayed in the design of 
 a transformer to dispose of this heat without 
 causing a rise in temperature of the transformer 
 which will injure the insulating materials used. 
 This is accomplished by allowing spaces in the 
 iron core between the windings and the core 
 and between various parts of the windings 
 themselves. These are known as ducts, and 
 through these ducts either oil or air is circu¬ 
 lated to carry olf the heat. The former method 
 gives what are known as air-cooled, and the 
 latter, oil-cooled transformers. The air-cooled 
 type is usually supplied with a ventilating fan 
 to force the air through the transformer, while 
 the oil-cooled type is placed in a large tank of 
 oil, and as the oil next to the heated parts of 
 the body becomes heated, it rises to the top, 
 is replaced by cooler oil, and the hot oil gives 
 
 sides of the tank, which in 
 turn transmit it to the sur¬ 
 rounding outside air. 
 
 Transformers are divided 
 into two types in accordance 
 with the arrangement of 
 their magnetic and electric 
 circuits. The core type 
 (Figs. 1, 2) consists of one 
 magnetic circuit with the 
 two electric circuits wound 
 on the two legs of a rec¬ 
 tangular core, the windings 
 being divided into many sections and inter¬ 
 spersed to reduce the magnetic leakage. The 
 shell type (Fig. 3) consists of two magnetic cir¬ 
 cuits with a common leg around which the vari¬ 
 ous sections of the two windings are placed. 
 The relative advantages of the two types are a 
 
 up its heat to the 
 
 Fig. 2. core-type 
 
 TRANSFORMER. 
 
 Iron 
 
 Fig. 3. shell-type transformer. 
 
 matter of detail of design and mechanical con¬ 
 struction, but in 1916 the core type was growing 
 in favor and the shell type was declining. 
 
 The first transformers were constructed by 
 Michael Faraday in England in 1831 and nearly 
 at the same time by Joseph Henry in the United 
 States. Faraday discovered that when the cur¬ 
 rent in a coil was varied a voltage was induced 
 in a near-by coil, although both were stationary 
 and did not touch. This is called mutual in¬ 
 duction. For a long time the only applica¬ 
 tion of this discovery was in the making of 
 induction coils (q.v.), Ruhmkorff coils, and other 
 similar small apparatus. With the introduc¬ 
 tion of alternating currents into electrical en¬ 
 gineering, however, the transformer found a 
 wide field of application. When a current flows 
 through a conductor there is a loss of energy 
 proportional to the resistance of the conduc¬ 
 tor multiplied by the square of the current. 
 The energy transmitted, however, is propor¬ 
 tional to the product of the current and the 
 voltage. Tf we double the voltage we can use 
 one-half the current for the same energy trans¬ 
 
 mitted, and one-half the current gives one- 
 quarter the amount of energy lost as heat in 
 the conductor. From this relation comes the 
 law that the amount of copper required in a 
 conductor to transmit a given amount of energy 
 over a given distance with a certain loss is 
 inversely proportional to the square of the 
 voltage used. It is desirable to use a high 
 voltage in the transmission system, but it is 
 dangerous and inconvenient to use a high volt¬ 
 age in the generating machinery and particu¬ 
 larly in the small devices in which the energy 
 is utilized. It is thus economically advanta¬ 
 geous to use step-up transformers between the 
 generators and the transmission line and to 
 use step-down transformers between the trans¬ 
 mission line and the load. 
 
 The transformer is therefore the keystone of 
 the present-day transmission systems, making 
 it possible to operate the transmitting lines at 
 from 60,000 to 150,000 volts and still use safe 
 and convenient voltages in the machinery at 
 each end of the system. By this means it is 
 possible to transmit electrical energy economi¬ 
 cally over distances of from 100 to 200 miles. 
 Transformers for 100,000 volts are quite com¬ 
 mon, those for 150,000 volts are found in com¬ 
 mercial operation, while transformers for 750,- 
 000 and 1,000,000 volts are in use for testing 
 •purposes. In regard to size the largest units 
 are of 15,000 kilo volt ampere capacity. Trans¬ 
 formers for a given power are much smaller 
 in bulk than any other class of electrical ap¬ 
 paratus of the same capacity on account of their 
 high efficiency, and on this account as well as 
 because they have no moving parts they are 
 much cheaper. 
 
 There are three general classes of transform¬ 
 ers: (a) constant potential; (b) current or 
 series; (c) constant current. The first class 
 is intended to receive power from a circuit of 
 approximately constant potential and deliver an 
 approximately constant potential. The great 
 majority of power transformers are of this 
 class. The current or series transformer is in¬ 
 tended to be connected in series with the load, 
 is independent of the potential, and is designed 
 to deliver from its secondary a current bearing 
 
 Fig. 4. three-phase transformer. 
 
 a definite proportion to the primary current. 
 It is used for supplying instruments and con¬ 
 trolling devices. Its success depends upon the 
 accuracy and constancy of the relation of the 
 currents in the two windings. The constant- 
 current transformer is intended to receive en¬ 
 ergy from a source of constant potential and 
 to supply a constant current in the secondary 
 irrespective of the amount of the load. It is 
 used for supplying arc lamps operating upon 
 a series circuit. The method of operating is 
 
TRANSFORMER 
 
 420 
 
 TRANSFUSION OF BLOOD 
 
 to vary the relative position of the two windings 
 and thus the amount of flux from the primary 
 which interlinks the secondary. 
 
 Power transformers may be single phase, con¬ 
 taining one primary circuit and one second¬ 
 ary circuit, or polyphase, containing two or 
 three primary circuits and a like number of 
 secondary circuits, one primary and one sec¬ 
 ondary each wound on one of several legs of 
 the magnetic circuit having a common connec¬ 
 tion (Fig. 4). 
 
 An autotransformer, sometimes called a com¬ 
 pensator, but more properly named a single¬ 
 circuit transformer, consists of a single elec¬ 
 trical circuit wound on a magnetic core. When 
 a voltage is impressed upon this circuit and a 
 current flows, a flux is set up which generates 
 the same counter electromotive force in each 
 turn of the winding. If a connection is made to 
 the middle point of this winding, the voltage 
 between this point and either extremity is one- 
 lialf of the total, and if the intermediate con¬ 
 nection is made at any other point the main 
 voltage is divided into parts directly propor¬ 
 tional to the number of turns between the 
 special connection and the main terminals. It 
 is thus possible to get any fractional voltage 
 desired by tapping at the proper turn of the 
 single winding. This device is used when it 
 is desired to obtain a transformation of volt¬ 
 ages varying only slightly from unity, i.e., from 
 100 volts to 80 volts. The current will be in¬ 
 versely transformed. The advantage of the ar¬ 
 rangement is that, when the ratio of trans¬ 
 formation is not very great, much less copper 
 and somewhat less iron are required for the 
 same output. If the difference between the 
 primary and secondary voltage is 10 per cent 
 of that of the primary, the device need have 
 only 10 per cent of the size of the usual two- 
 circuit transformer. 
 
 A potential regulator is a special form of 
 transformer in which the secondary coil is con¬ 
 nected in series with the primary so that its 
 voltage is either added to or subtracted from 
 the primary, giving a convenient regulation of 
 voltage. The magnitude of the secondary volt¬ 
 age is varied by changing the position of the 
 magnetic circuit so that the amount and di¬ 
 rection of the flux set up by the primary may 
 be varied with respect to the secondary. It is 
 used for regulating the voltage at the ends of 
 alternating-current transmission circuits. 
 
 An induction regulator is a device constructed 
 like a polyphase induction motor, but both 
 members are normally stationary and each phase 
 of the secondary is designed for a low voltage 
 and connected in series with one primary phase. 
 The flux set up by the primary rotates accord¬ 
 ing to the law of the polyphase magnetic field 
 and induces voltages in the secondaries propor¬ 
 tional to the number of turns. By varying the 
 position of the secondary with respect to the 
 primary by hand, the secondary voltage may be 
 added to or subtracted from the primary or may 
 be connected in some intermediate phase so that 
 it is possible to vary the voltage per phase by 
 gradual increments from primary minus sec¬ 
 ondary voltage to primary plus secondary volt¬ 
 age. Its use is the same as the potential regu¬ 
 lator, except that it is adapted to polyphase cir¬ 
 cuits. 
 
 Bibliography. S. P. Thompson, Dynamo 
 Electric Machinery, vol. ii (7th ed., New York, 
 1905) ; Gisbert Kapp, Transformers for Single 
 
 and Multiphase Currents (2d ed., ib., 1908) ; 
 C. P. Steinmetz, Theory and Calculation of Al¬ 
 ternating Current Phenomena (4tli ed., ib., 
 1908) ; H. M. Hobart, Design of Static Trans¬ 
 formers (ib., 1911); Franklin and Esty, Ele¬ 
 ments of Electrical Engineering, vol. ii (3d ed., 
 ib., 1912) ; Vladimir Harapetoff, Experimental 
 Electrical Engineering and Manual for Electri¬ 
 cal Testing (2d ed., 2 vols., ib., 1912-13) ; 
 W. T. Taylor, Transformer Practice (2d ed., 
 ib., 1913) ; D. C. Jackson, Alternating Currents 
 and Alternating Current Machinery (new ed., 
 ib., 1913) ; Harold Pender (ed.), American Hand¬ 
 book for Electrical Engineers (ib., 1914) ; W. 
 P. Maycock, Alternating Current Work (ib., 
 1915) ; also Transactions of the American In¬ 
 stitute of Electrical Engineers (ib., annually) 
 and the General Electric Review (Schenectady, 
 monthly). 
 
 TRANSFU'SION OF BLOOD (Lat. trans- 
 fusio, from transfundere, to pour from one to 
 the other, from trans, across, through + fun- 
 dere, to pour). The injection into one person 
 of blood taken from another, either directly, 
 from vein to vein, or after it has been defi- 
 brinated. The operation has been regarded as 
 legitimate in obstetric surgery since the year 
 1824, when Dr. Blundell published his well- 
 known work entitled Physiological and Patho¬ 
 logical Researches. The operation had, however, 
 been vaguely known to the medical profession 
 for the last four centuries; and there are ob¬ 
 scure allusions in the Roman poets, which would 
 seem to indicate that it was practiced as early 
 as the Augustan age. References to transfu¬ 
 sion are also found in the papyri of the Egyp¬ 
 tians and in the works of Pliny and Celsus. 
 Pope Innocent VIII was transfused in 1492, 
 three boys who acted as donors losing their 
 lives, probably from air embolism, in this un¬ 
 successful experiment. The older and rather for¬ 
 midable operation of transfusion gave way for 
 a long time to the operation of infusion into 
 the veins or subcutaneous tissues of a hot saline 
 solution of a temperature of 100° F. to 120° F. 
 This solution contains sodium chloride in the 
 proportion in which it is found in solution in 
 normal physiological tissues (about 0.6 per 
 cent). But during the past few years the 
 technique of blood transfusion has been much 
 simplified, and the procedure is undertaken with 
 success in simple hemorrhage, as in the case 
 of bleeding from gastric or intestinal ulcer, 
 after surgical operations entailing shock and 
 loss of blood; and in altered blood conditions 
 such as those occurring in pernicious anaemia, 
 acute gas poisoning, cancer, etc. Transfusion 
 may be direct or indirect. In the latter method 
 the desired amount of blood is withdrawn from 
 the donor into a glass jar containing a small 
 amount of sodium citrate solution to prevent 
 clotting. The resulting mixture is injected into 
 a vein of the recipient. The direct method is 
 the most satisfactory, and its use wafs largely 
 stimulated in America by the work of Crile 
 in 1898 and Carrel in 1902. Their method in¬ 
 volves dissecting out the veins. A still sim¬ 
 pler procedure was invented by Linderman, 
 which with modifications is now the favored 
 method. Two small needles connected with 
 cannulas are inserted—one into a vein of the 
 donor, the other into a vein of the recipient. 
 A series of Record syringes are now filled rap¬ 
 idly with blood from the donor and emptied 
 into the vein of the recipient, warm saline so- 
 
TRANSISTHMIAN CANAL 
 
 421 
 
 TRANSIT OF VENUS 
 
 lution being injected in the intervals to keep 
 the blood from clotting in the needles. The 
 process may be further simplified by interpos¬ 
 ing a three-way stopcock, which renders the 
 flow nearly continuous. Consult J. S. Horsley, 
 Surgery of the Blood Vessels (St. Louis, 1915). 
 
 TRANSISTHMIAN CANAL. The projects 
 for a transisthmian canal have included two 
 principal routes, the Nicaragua and the Pan¬ 
 ama, though there also has been a discussion 
 of a number of secondary routes, some of which 
 have been investigated by engineers and re¬ 
 ceived study for many years. The most thor¬ 
 ough and comprehensive study of recent years 
 was that made by the Isthmian Canal Commis¬ 
 sion in 1899-1901, and not only were the two 
 main routes discussed, but also other possible 
 projects. The political questions involved have 
 largely been confined to the Nicaragua and 
 Panama schemes, and as these propositions have 
 attracted such widespread attention in the past 
 and as each possesses certain unique features, 
 both engineering and otherwise, they will be 
 found fully treated under their respective heads. 
 (See Nicaragua Canal; Panama Canal.) It 
 might be said, however, that the United States 
 Senate, on Feb. 18, 1916, ratified a treaty with 
 Nicaragua whereby, in exchange for a payment 
 of $3,000,000, the exclusive rights for an in- 
 teroceanic canal across Nicaraguan territory 
 were granted and a naval base in the Gulf of 
 Fonseca ceded for 99 years. 
 
 The result of many examinations showed that 
 there was no probability of the existence of any 
 practicable canal location between Panama and 
 the mouth of the Atrato River except by the 
 adoption of a tunnel line, and there seemed to 
 be no reason for further field work except in 
 the interest of geography. Consult Report of 
 Isthmian Canal Commission, 1899-1901 (Wash¬ 
 ington, 1901), and the bibliography under Nica¬ 
 ragua Canal and Panama Canal. 
 
 TRANSIT INSTRUMENT (Lat. transitus, 
 passage over). An astronomical instrument 
 consisting principally of a telescope fixed to a 
 horizontal east-and-west axis and revolving in 
 the plane of the meridian. It is employed, as 
 its name denotes, in the observation of the 
 meridian transits of the heavenly bodies, i.e., 
 in noting the exact instants when they reach 
 the meridian of the observatory. The axis, 
 which is the most important part of the instru¬ 
 ment and thus demands the utmost care in its 
 construction, consists of a. hollow sphere or 
 cube, to opposite sides of which are tightly 
 fastened the bases of two cones in whose apices 
 the pivots are screwed; the sphere or cube is 
 pierced for the admission of the telescope, which 
 is firmly fastened at right angles to the axis. 
 One of the pivots is hollowed so that a stream 
 of light can be directed from a lantern halfway 
 along the interior of the axis, and through an 
 aperture in the side, into the telescope tube, 
 where, being received by a small reflector, 
 set at 45° to the axis and telescope tube, it is 
 directed to the eyepiece, rendering visible a 
 series of fine spider threads stretched across the 
 field of view. The pivots must lie carefully 
 turned to a perfectly cylindrical form and fitted 
 into the instrument so that they are accurately 
 in line. One extremity of the axis carries one 
 and sometimes two small graduated circles, each 
 supplied with index, clamping screws, and 
 vernier; these circles are capable of indicating 
 angular measures to within 1' or 2'. There are 
 
 three adjustments necessary before a transit 
 instrument can be used: the axis must be hori¬ 
 zontal; the sight line of the telescope, as marked 
 by the spider threads, must be at right angles 
 to the axis of motion; and the latter must be 
 placed so as to point accurately east and west. 
 On the perfection of the first two of these ad¬ 
 justments depends whether the telescope sweeps 
 over a great circle of the sphere, and the third 
 is necessary to insure that this great; circle 
 shall be the meridian of the place of observa¬ 
 tion. These adjustments can never be made 
 quite perfect, and the usual mode is to investi¬ 
 gate the amount of error in each and allow for 
 it by a calculated correction applied to the ob¬ 
 served time of the star’s crossing the meridian. 
 To note accurately this observed time by the 
 astronomical clock is, as we have said, the es¬ 
 sential part of a transit observation. It is 
 best done by means of a chronograph (q.v.), 
 an instrument with which an automatic record 
 of the observed time can be made by means of 
 an electric signal sent out directly from the ob¬ 
 server’s hand. The transit used by engineers 
 will be found described and illustrated under 
 Surveying Instruments. 
 
 TRANSIT OF VENUS. The passing of 
 Venus across the sun’s disk, seen when the 
 planet is exactly in line with the sun and the 
 earth at inferior conjunction. The two planets, 
 Mercury and Venus, whose orbits lie between 
 the sun and the earth’s orbit, can at times pass 
 between us and the sun. They can then be 
 seen in the telescope, appearing as black dots 
 projected on the Juminous solar surface. These 
 transits can occur only when the earth is near 
 one of the nodes of the planet’s orbit, i.e., in 
 the case of Venus in June and December and 
 in the case of Mercury in May and November, 
 and at the same time the angular distance be¬ 
 tween the centres of the sun and the planet is 
 less than the sun’s angular semidiameter, or 
 about 16'. On account of the inclination of 
 the planet’s orbit to the ecliptic, this means, 
 in the case of Venus, that the planet must be 
 less than about 1° 42' from the node, and the 
 smallness of this limit alone shows that transits 
 of Venus are of rare occurrence. At present the 
 intervals in years between successive transits 
 occur in the following order: 8; 121%; 8; 
 
 105%; 8; 121%. The last two transits oc¬ 
 curred on Dec. 8, 1874, and Dec. 6, 1882; the 
 next two will not take place until June 8, 2004, 
 and June 6, 2012. Two transits of Mercury 
 have already occurred during the present cen¬ 
 tury, viz., on Nov. 12, 1907, and Nov. 6, 1914. 
 The remaining dates for the century are given 
 below; it will be noticed transits of Mercury 
 are more frequent than those of Venus. 
 
 May 7, 1924 
 November 8, 1927 
 May 10. 1937 
 November 12, 1940 
 November 13, 1953 
 
 November 6, 1960 
 May 9, 1970 
 November 9, 1973 
 November 12, 1986 
 November 14, 1997 
 
 If the exact instant of time be observed when 
 the planet first touches the solar disk and again 
 when it finally leaves it, the observations can 
 be used to calculate the solar parallax and the 
 distance from the earth to the sun. Transits 
 of Venus are especially well suited for this 
 purpose, and they have been very elaborately 
 observed in the past, especially in the years 
 1874 and 1882. Unfortunately experience has 
 proved that it is impossible to observe the re¬ 
 quired instants of time with sufficient preci- 
 
TRANSMISSION OF POWER 
 
 TRANSKEI TERRITORY 422 
 
 sion, and other methods of measuring the sun’s 
 distance are now preferred by astronomers. 
 
 Transits of Mercury are not well adapted for 
 solar parallax observations and are indeed of 
 quite minor importance astronomically. See 
 Black Drop : Parallax. 
 
 TRANSKEI (trans-ki') TERRITORY. A 
 dependency of the Cape Province, South Africa, 
 between the Great Kei River and TembulamL 
 Area, 3552 square miles. Pop., 1911, 188,895 
 (2189 whites), this being the most densely pop¬ 
 ulated part of Cape Province. The territory is 
 administered by a chief magistrate and is sub¬ 
 ject to the Native Territories Penal Code. 
 
 TRANSLATION. See Mechanics. 
 
 TRANSLATION, Sense of. See Static 
 Sense. 
 
 TRANS'LEITHA'NIA. A name applied to 
 the eastern division of the Austro-Hungarian 
 monarchy on account of its position east of the 
 Leitha River, which forms a part of the bound¬ 
 ary line between the two divisions of the 
 monarchy. See Cisleitiiania. 
 
 TRANSMIGRATION. See Metempsychosis. 
 
 TRANSMISSION GEAR, in Motor Ve¬ 
 hicle. See Motor Vehicle. 
 
 TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY ELEC¬ 
 TRICITY. The electrical transmission of en¬ 
 ergy in considerable quantities from the point of 
 generation to one or more distant points of deliv¬ 
 ery. This excludes telegraphy and telephony 
 where energy is transmitted over a wire but in 
 small quantities. Energy is transmitted in order 
 to utilize a cheap, convenient, or otherwise advan¬ 
 tageous source of energy supply, and the total cost 
 of generation and transmission to the point of use 
 must be less than would be the cost of generation 
 at the point of use, otherwise such transmis¬ 
 sion would not be profitable. Therefore trans¬ 
 mission plants are usually supplied by water 
 power or by cheap coal, and the electricity is 
 derived from generators. In general the term 
 “transmission” would include any arrangement 
 for the transmission of electrical energy from 
 a generator to the utilizing devices, but by con¬ 
 vention among engineers the term is confined 
 to the transmission of energy at comparatively 
 high voltages over considerable distances with¬ 
 out any division or distribution of the energy, 
 while the term “distribution” applies to the 
 transmission of energy from a local centre to 
 various utilizing devices over distances of 1 
 or 2 miles and at voltages from 100 to 2000. 
 Each transmission line is therefore only a part 
 of the whole system and is augmented by dis¬ 
 tribution lines in order to make the system 
 complete. The weight of copper required to 
 transmit any amount of energy for any dis¬ 
 tance with any specified loss in power is di¬ 
 rectly proportional to the square of the dis¬ 
 tance and inversely proportional to the square 
 of the voltage, and is given in exact terms for 
 direct-current work and to a close approxima¬ 
 tion for alternating-current work by the formula 
 W == 125 PD 2 -f- KE 2 , where W is the weight of 
 copper in pounds, P is the power delivered in 
 watts, D is the distance one way in thousands of 
 feet, K is the ratio of power lost in the line to 
 the power delivered, and E is the voltage de¬ 
 livered. 
 
 The fundamental fact in the transmission of 
 energy by electricity is that great distances 
 can be economically overcome only by the use 
 of high voltages. This explains why direct 
 current is seldom considered as a means of 
 
 transmission. Direct-current generators can¬ 
 not be built for more than 1500 volts on ac¬ 
 count of the trouble at the commutator. To 
 connect a large number of such generators in 
 series involves great difficulties in the use of 
 the energy at the receiving end. The motors 
 must also be connected in series and be insu¬ 
 lated to stand the maximum voltage. This lim¬ 
 its their use to places where skilled supervision 
 can be exercised. There are a few instances of 
 the use of direct-current transmission in Eu¬ 
 rope, but in the United States there is none. 
 
 Voltages. The alternating-current system 
 lends itself admirably to high-voltage trans¬ 
 mission because the alternating-current trans¬ 
 former (q.v.) permits the use of any convenient 
 voltage in the generators, such as 2200, and this 
 may be easily and economically transformed 
 to a high voltage suitable for transmission, 
 such as 30,000 to 150,000. At the load end 
 of the line other transformers receive the high 
 voltage and transform it to some low alternat¬ 
 ing voltage suitable to the consuming devices. 
 Thus, the alternating-current transformer makes 
 possible the economical operation of high-volt¬ 
 age transmission lines. The usual voltages em¬ 
 ployed in transmission lines vary from 30,000 
 to 150,000 volts, depending upon the amount of 
 power and the distance over which energy is 
 to be transmitted, and practice shows that the 
 voltage chosen is about 1000 for each mile of 
 transmission. With the higher voltages the ex¬ 
 pense for copper for a given power decreases 
 very rapidly, but the expense of the insulators 
 and poles increases, and the cost for insulation 
 at voltages over 100,000 is very considerable. 
 At this voltage the phenomenon of the loss of 
 energy between the two wires suspended in air, 
 known as corona and due to the breaking down 
 and ionization of the air, becomes of importance, 
 and to reduce this loss it is necessary to space 
 the wires at a considerable distance from each 
 other and to increase the size of the wire used. 
 
 The electrical energy may be transmitted in 
 the form of single-phase, two-phase, or three- 
 phase alternating currents as well as by direct 
 current. Single-phase and direct-current sys¬ 
 tems require two wires, the three-phase requires 
 three wires, while the two-phase system requires 
 four wires. For a given voltage between wires 
 the relative weights of copper required are: 
 single-phase and two-phase, 100; three-phase, 
 75; direct-current, 50. For reasons mentioned 
 above the direct-current system is not much 
 used and the three-phase system, being next in 
 economy of copper, is most generally used. The 
 single-phase system is objectionable because 
 single-phase motors are not easily made to be 
 self-starting and have a poorer efficiency than 
 the three-phase, while the three-phase induc¬ 
 tion motor is a very satisfactory device. 
 
 Frequencies. The frequency of the alternat¬ 
 ing current is either 25, 50, or 60 cycles per 
 second. From the point of view of the trans¬ 
 mission line alone 25 cycles is preferable on 
 account of the lesser effect of the inductance 
 and capacity of the line and the advantages of 
 a low frequency for generators and motors of 
 very large size." But for lighting purposes the 
 higher frequency is necessary and the cost of 
 transformers is less with the higher frequency. 
 The inductance of a line depends upon the length 
 of line and the distance between the wires and 
 produces a reactive drop in voltage proportional 
 to the frequency. This loss in voltage does 
 
 
TRANSMISSION OF POWER 
 
 TRANSMISSION OF POWER 
 
 423 
 
 not represent a loss of energy, but interferes 
 with the voltage regulation. The capacity of a 
 line depends upon the length of the line and 
 the proximity of the conductors to each other 
 and is very great in underground cables. The 
 capacitjf causes a charging current proportional 
 to the voltage and frequency, which may be 
 called an idle current, as it represents no en¬ 
 ergy but flows even at no load. 
 
 As a result of the inductance and capacity 
 of a transmission line which represent energy 
 stored either in electromagnetic or electrostatic 
 form, the line is subject to dangerous potentials 
 whenever anything causes a sudden variation 
 in the distribution of this stored energy. 
 
 Line Construction. The construction of a 
 transmission line may consist either of wooden 
 poles and wooden cross arms carrying the 
 wires on glass or porcelain insulators, or steel 
 latticework poles, or sometimes towers carry¬ 
 ing the wires suspended from the arms by sus¬ 
 pension insulators. The wooden pole is satis¬ 
 factory and cheaper for voltages up to about 
 60,000, while the steel type is better for the 
 higher voltages. In the wooden-pole construc¬ 
 tion the insulators are fastened rigidly on up¬ 
 right pins on the cross arms, and the conduc¬ 
 tors, consisting usually of copper but sometimes 
 of stranded aluminium, are laid on these insula¬ 
 tors and fastened to them. The poles are usu¬ 
 ally from 40 to 50 feet in height, spaced 100 to 
 150 feet apart, and carry two cross arms with 
 duplicate transmission lines on each side of 
 the pole, giving increased capacity and reli¬ 
 ability. The steel construction may consist 
 either of lattice poles for moderate voltages or 
 large towers for high voltages with duplicate 
 lines. The latter are 40 to 6Q feet high, spaced 
 from 400 to 600 feet apart and arranged to 
 place the wires from 5 to 10 feet apart, the 
 wires being hung from arms on the tower by 
 suspension insulators connected like links in 
 a chain. 
 
 The wires used are generally between No. 2 
 and No. 0000 Brown and Sharp gauge, and solid 
 if of copper, but of larger cross section and 
 stranded around a steel core if of aluminium. 
 A transmission line usually costs from $2000 to 
 $4000 per mile, not including the cost of the 
 right of way. 
 
 Cables. Another type of transmission devel¬ 
 oped as a result of conditions in the large 
 cities is by means of underground cables, in 
 which the three conductors, shaped roughly like 
 sectors of a circle, are insulated from each 
 other and from the outside bv rubber or prefer¬ 
 ably paper and the whole incased in a lead 
 sheathing and sometimes by a steel armor. 
 This type of transmission is in general use at 
 voltages of 13,000, and there are certain ex¬ 
 amples in operation with voltages as high as 30,- 
 000. It is much more expensive to install and 
 used only where lopal conditions require it. 
 
 Regulation. Tne line regulation is the dif¬ 
 ference between the voltage delivered and the 
 voltage impressed at the generator end of the 
 line and in practice has values from 5 to 20 
 per cent, as the loss in voltage due to the self¬ 
 inductance of the line may be quite great and 
 varies considerably with the load. This varia¬ 
 tion in voltage is no longer objectionable, as 
 regulating devices are available which will main¬ 
 tain the voltage delivered to the customer fairly 
 constant irrespective of the voltage of the trans¬ 
 mission line. The loss of energy and power in 
 
 the transmission line varies from 5 to 15 per 
 cent and depends largely upon economic condi¬ 
 tions. If the cost of energy at the source is 
 low, it is advisable to be economical in the 
 amount of copper installed in the line and thus 
 save in the cost of the line. This relation is 
 expressed in a very general form by what is 
 known as Kelvin’s law, which states: “The 
 most economical transmission system is that 
 in which the annual interest on the cost of 
 the copper of the line is equal to the value 
 of the energy lost in the line in one year.” 
 However, this does not take account of the cost 
 of #the poles, insulators, right of way, main¬ 
 tenance, etc., and must be qualified in practice. 
 
 Notable Installations. As interesting ex¬ 
 amples of the latest practice in electrical trans¬ 
 mission of energy in 1916, the following in¬ 
 stallations may be mentioned: the Pacific 
 Light & Power Co., at Los Angeles, Cal., trans¬ 
 mits 60,000 kilowatts over 241 miles at a volt¬ 
 age of 150,000 and a frequency of 60 cycles; 
 the line consists of aluminium conductors. The 
 Ausable Electric Co., near Battle Creek, Mich., 
 transmits 19,000 kilowatts, a distance of 245 
 miles by means of copper conductors operating 
 at 140,000 volts and 60 cycles; this in 1916 was 
 about the longest line in commercial operation. 
 The Hydro Electric Power Commission of On¬ 
 tario transmits 107,000 kilowatts from Niagara 
 Falls to Toronto and other cities, a distance of 
 135 miles, using both copper and aluminium con¬ 
 ductors and operating at 110,000 volts and 25 
 cycles. The Mississippi River Power Co. has 
 a plant of 112,000 kilowatts’ capacity, with pro¬ 
 vision for 225,000 kilowatts ultimately, at 
 Keokuk, Iowa, using the power of the Missis¬ 
 sippi River; this is transmitted over a distance 
 of 144 miles by means of copper conductors at 
 110,000 volts and 25 cycles and is the largest 
 capacity in a single plant. 
 
 Distribution Systems. The local distribu¬ 
 tion of electric energy may be by direct cur¬ 
 rents, by single-phase alternating currents, or 
 by polyphase alternating currents. The choice 
 between the alternating-current system and the 
 direct-current system depends upon the char¬ 
 acter of the apparatus used for the load and 
 upon the available current. Direct-current mo¬ 
 tors are usually preferable to alternating-cur¬ 
 rent motors on account of their convenience and 
 ease of control, but are limited in the voltage 
 at which they may be operated. The alternat¬ 
 ing-current system allows a greater freedom in 
 the choice of voltage on account of the sim¬ 
 plicity and cheapness of transformers. The 
 single-phase system is preferable for lighting 
 alone on account of the simplicity of its con¬ 
 nections, but if many motors are to be sup¬ 
 plied either the two-phase or three-phase sys¬ 
 tem should be used on account of the superior 
 starting ability and efficiency of the motors. 
 The three-phase system is generally used at 
 present on account of the economy of copper 
 in distribution. If the power is to be used 
 for a combined load of lighting as well as mo¬ 
 tors, a frequency of 50 or 60 cycles is prefer¬ 
 able, as the flickering of the lamps at 25 cycles 
 is unpleasant, although such lamps are in use 
 in some cities. 
 
 The most convenient voltage for local dis¬ 
 tribution is the 220-volt 3-wire system, in which 
 220-volt motors are operated between two of 
 the wires and 110-volt lamps and small motors 
 may be operated between the third wire and 
 
TRANSPORTATION 
 
 TRANS-MISSISSIPPI EXPOSITION 424 
 
 either of the others. This is a very common 
 arrangement both for direct-current and single¬ 
 phase distribution. If many large motors are 
 to be used, 500 to 600 volts is chosen on account 
 of the lesser copper required, and this is the 
 usual voltage in the distribution of energy for 
 street and interurban railways. In the three- 
 phase system a voltage of 220 between lines is 
 the more common, although voltages of 110, 440, 
 and 550 are in use. It is also quite customary 
 to distribute at 2200 volts and use step-down 
 transformers for a group of motors. 
 
 The use of the electric motor in factories and 
 shops is becoming more general, and on account 
 of the convenience and the economy of energy 
 the electric motor is rapidly taking the place 
 of shafting and belting for the transmission of 
 energy, even for the short distances between the 
 power station and the machinery of a factory. 
 Large and medium size machines are driven by 
 individual motors, and groups of small-size ma¬ 
 chines are driven by one motor and a short 
 shafting. Recent types of electric motors are 
 designed to have a range of speed of 1:3 or 1:4 
 by very gradual steps, resulting from a control 
 of the field. This gives a very nice control 
 of the machine. Another advantage of the use 
 of electric motors is that, when one machine 
 or group of machines is not in use, the motors 
 driving them may be shut down and a waste 
 of energy may be avoided. 
 
 Bibliography. Louis Bell, Electric Power 
 Transmission (5th ed., New York, 1907) ; J. O. 
 Ferguson, The Elements of Electrical Transmis¬ 
 sion (ib., 1911) ; R. A. Lundquist, Transmission 
 Line Construction (ib., 1912); Harold Pender 
 (ed.), American Handbook for Electrical Engi¬ 
 neers (ib., 1914) ; W. A. Del Mar, Electric Power 
 Conductors (ib., 1914) ; E. W. Keer, Power and 
 Power Transmission (3d ed., ib., 1914) ; Crocker 
 and Arendt, Electric Motors (2d ed., ib., 1914) ; 
 H. B. Dwight, Constant-Voltage Transmission 
 (ib., 1915) ; and for recent development, papers 
 in the Transactions of the American Institute 
 of Electric Engineers (New York, annually), 
 Proceedings of the National Electric Light As- 
 sociation (ib., annually), and the Electrical 
 Engineering Press. 
 
 TRANS-MISSISSIPPI EXPOSITION. An 
 
 exposition held in Omaha, Neb., June-October, 
 1898. The site covered about 200 acres, a mile 
 north of the city. The main buildings, with 
 exhibits devoted to agriculture, fine arts, ma¬ 
 chinery and electricity, manufactures, mines and 
 mining, and the United States government, were 
 grouped around a grand court and surrounded 
 the lagoon or canal which terminated at its 
 west end in a lake 400 feet across, at the end 
 of which was an electric fountain. The grounds 
 were skillfully improved by gardening, until 
 the prairie gained the name of' Magic City. Of 
 special interest among the features was the 
 ethnological gathering of 500 Indians, repre¬ 
 senting 25 tribes. The total attendance was 
 2,613,508, and the total receipts $1,924,077. 
 
 TRANS'PADANE REPUBLIC. A republic 
 formed by Napoleon in 1796 on the south side 
 of the Po and in 1797 united with the Cispa- 
 dane Republic, on the north side, to form the 
 Cisalpine Republic (q.v.). 
 
 TRANS'PIRA'TION (from Lat. trans, 
 across, through + spirare, to breathe). The 
 evaporation of water from the aerial surfaces 
 of plants. The term is used instead of evapor¬ 
 ation, first because the evaporation is modi¬ 
 
 fied by the action of the living organisms, and, 
 second, because the absorption of radiant energy 
 by the organism prevents the complete stoppage 
 of evaporation when the plant is surrounded 
 with a saturated atmosphere. In most land 
 plants transpiration from the epidermal cells 
 is inconsiderable, because such become nearly 
 waterproof by cutinization of the outer walls. 
 The cells bordering the interior air chambers 
 (see Aeration) are nearly or completely satu¬ 
 rated with water, and from them it evaporates 
 readily into the air occupying these spaces, 
 whence it finds its way by diffusion through the 
 stomata (q.v.). The rate of transpiration will 
 be determined by the relative humidity of the 
 outer air, temperature, wind, light, etc. Trans¬ 
 piration is unavoidable, because gases must be 
 absorbed from the air (see Absorption); it is 
 necessary, at least to some plants, for cooling; 
 and it is advantageous for the movement of 
 dissolved salts. See Conduction. 
 
 Since excessive loss of water is one of the 
 greatest dangers to which plants are subject, 
 plants growing in dry regions show a great 
 variety of adaptations to reduce the rate of 
 transpiration and to conserve the moisture which 
 reaches them. (See Xerophytes.) The amount 
 of water transpired varies greatly on account 
 of variation in external conditions and internal 
 structure. A few examples of transpiration 
 under normal conditions will illustrate. In 12 
 hours on a hot, dry day a sunflower 3.5 feet 
 high, having a leaf area of 5316 square inches, 
 lost 30 ounces of water. The loss of water 
 from 100 square centimeters of leaf surface in 
 24 hours for the pea was 2.51 grams, for the hop 
 4.3 grams, for the hemp 9.3 grams. Estimates 
 as to the loss of water during the growing 
 season by the plants of wheat grown on one 
 hectare (about 2.5 acres) equal 1,179,920 liters, 
 and by oats 2,277,760 liters. If all this water 
 could be caught and condensed on the same area, 
 it w r ould reach in the first case a depth of 118 
 millimeters (4% inches) and in the second 
 228 millimeters (9 inches). A beech tree hav¬ 
 ing 200,000 leaves was estimated to lose be¬ 
 tween 300 and 400 liters (about 2 barrels) on 
 a hot dav. See Energy of Plants. 
 
 TRANSPIRATION OF GASES. See Dif¬ 
 fusion : Effusion. 
 
 TRANS'PORTA'TION. The carrying of 
 
 persons and goods from place to place. The 
 part which transportation plays in the prac¬ 
 tical life of a community depends most directly 
 upon the complexity of its economic system. 
 Wherever the division of labor and the localiza¬ 
 tion of industry have reached a high degree of 
 development transportation necessarily attains 
 a correspondingly high development. The rise 
 of industry on a great scale and the creation of 
 efficient means of transportation mutually con¬ 
 dition each other. 
 
 More than 1000 years before our era Phoeni¬ 
 cian ships were trading in the Mediterranean, 
 and later along the shores of the same sea the 
 Greek cities built up their colonial and trade 
 system. Rome was relatively late in develop¬ 
 ing maritime traffic, but by the time of the Em¬ 
 pire an extensive commercial system had arisen, 
 bringing to Rome the raw produce of Sicily and 
 north Africa and extending westward even be¬ 
 yond Gibraltar. Ancient land transport was 
 comparatively insignificant. The Greek roads 
 were chiefly to sacred places, such as Delphi, and 
 their economic importance was small. The Ro- 
 
THE UE^ARY 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY Of ILLINOIS 
 

 COMMERCIAL MAP OF THE WORLD 
 
 SHOWING 
 
 TRANSPORTATION LINES 
 
 AND 
 
 TRADE REGIONS. 
 
 SCALES ALONG THE EQUATOR. 
 
 fcAOTIOAL MILES KILOMETERS 
 
 9 500 loop 2000 _3000 Q f>00 ,IP0Q 2000 3000 40 00 
 
 70 
 
 ^Pa^ry Islands'- 
 
 00 
 
 50 
 
 BangkoV;#*! 0 "^, - " ~-%L (r».) 
 
 5f'"rxi3i <J’lairds M I C[R O tj 
 
 / 'AAlalaV^ Sea ^ C u * 8 ).>* * v 
 
 Acbln VPeninsvVi ^ _ ~ ^roline Islands' \ 
 
 •■'i'yL M’^TriilTJ - A -- ' 1 _ * 
 
 N js.'s .-irA 
 
 if £ 
 
 I lars^i" Is. 
 {Ger.y. ,\ 
 
 sVllnmmi € 
 
 Salomon 
 Islan .ij \, 
 
 |\ , / 
 
 \ , •■: Union Group 
 
 IN El 
 
 \ ^ Palmerston 
 
 A N 
 
 {Loral Sea 
 
 EXA 
 
 15 
 
 CO 
 
 - -- -*.— 
 
 x N. \Y. Cape 
 
 v —X - -v - XH 
 
 O C E A XfX' 
 
 ..New Hybrid 
 
 X /P (1 L Y N E £ 
 
 */ Tutu la L 
 
 FiJb 
 
 . N »/ 
 
 Le eu win Ca- 
 
 dncjl _. 
 anbeera 
 
 ?lell)O , i.-no^>^. ll0we y o - i:tT . 
 
 " 'TAsmania^g. 
 
 Lflobart 
 
 * 4 • S 
 
 TV 
 
 South Isl t 
 
 Stetvjfrt-1 
 
 Dunedin 
 
 Antipodes.- 
 
 CEXTJi 
 •' AMI 
 
 ' / 
 
 / . 
 
 JHoTrland'T. 
 Baker I .- 
 
 (To 6 .) / 
 
 ' ; / 
 
 \ EQUATOR 
 
 GalapAgo^ Jsla: 
 
 ^ N 
 
 
 ; 5 .n— V- .XXslanda- 
 
 I / •€A - TaHti L'A A'' 
 
 TROPIC OF CAPRICORN 
 
 L4ND 
 
 '■Qhatham 12. 
 
 X 
 
 Scale of English Statute Miles at different Latitudes 
 
 o® 
 
 r< 
 
 East from Greenwich 
 
 ?•" __ Juan 
 
 Extreme 
 
 
 JccO 
 
 Longitude "West 
 
 
 ANTARCTIC CIRCLE 
 
 ANT ARCTI 
 
 from Greenwich 
 
I V 
 
 

 
 THf 
 
 CF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY Of ILLINOIS 
 
 
 
TRANSPORTATION 
 
 TRANSPORTATION 
 
 425 
 
 man roads were established for military rather 
 than economic reasons, but they were vastly 
 more extensive. Centring at Koine, they not 
 only stretched through Italy, but (under the 
 Empire) to Constantinople and Asia Minor, 
 along parts of the north coast of Africa, west¬ 
 ward to Spain, over the Alps to Gaul, and 
 through Britain. Excellent as these roads of¬ 
 ten were, their method of construction was 
 wastefully expensive from the modern stand¬ 
 point. 
 
 the return to a more primitive economy in 
 the early Middle Ages meant that for a time 
 transportation should cease to play any im¬ 
 portant part in the economic life of Europe. 
 The salient points in the story of its gradual 
 revival are the stimulus given‘by the Crusades 
 to trade with the East, the consequent growth 
 of the Italian cities, and, in the twelfth cen- 
 tury, the formation of the great trade league 
 (Hansa) of the north European towns. Al¬ 
 though the rise of towns and the establishment 
 of fairs made a certain amount of land or river 
 transport necessary, it was slow, insecure, and 
 costly and, at least on the Continent, was sub¬ 
 ject to burdensome and arbitrary tolls. The 
 destruction of the Eastern caravan routes 
 through the Turkish and Mongol invasions gave 
 especial importance to the discovery of an ocean 
 route to the Indies made by Portuguese naviga¬ 
 tors at the end of the fifteenth century. The 
 introduction of the compass made transoceanic 
 voyages readily possible. The discovery of 
 America made them profitable, and helped to 
 shift the centre of trade from the Mediter¬ 
 ranean to the Atlantic, from the Italian cities 
 to the Portuguese, the Spanish, and the Dutch. 
 The growth of colonial empires, based essen¬ 
 tially on transportation, marks a most impor¬ 
 tant era in the world’s economic history. 
 
 many of the local tolls were put aside. I 11 
 England little effective action was taken by the 
 central government, and, despite many Turnpike 
 Acts (granting rights to levy tolls in return 
 for maintaining roads) the English highways 
 remained poor throughout the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, till the efficient road-making methods of 
 McAdam (1756—1836) and Telford made possi¬ 
 ble the great improvements of the nineteenth. 
 In the L nited States, as in England, private or 
 local activity has been chiefly relied on for road 
 making. Private turnpikes were constructed in 
 Colonial times, and during the “internal im¬ 
 provement” era, after 1800, Federal roads were 
 built. Koadbuilding has been recently carried 
 on systematically in many parts of the United 
 States. 
 
 The slowness and costliness of land transpor¬ 
 tation, even in the eighteenth century, made it 
 impossible to convey ordinary goods any long 
 distance. An era of canal building, which began 
 in England soon after 1750, met in part the in¬ 
 creasing need of the growing industrial centres 
 for communication with one another and with 
 the sea. The same movement appears in the 
 L nited States in the first quarter of the next 
 century. V ith the rise of the factory system 
 following 1760, with the application of steam 
 power to mining and manufactures, and the pos¬ 
 sibilities of machine production on a large scale, 
 came an imperative need for more rapid and 
 more adequate means of transport, which only 
 the railroad and the steamship could supply. 
 Through them, in the nineteenth century, inter¬ 
 national industry has been made possible. 
 
 The following table, from the Report of the 
 United States Commissioner of Navigation 
 (1915), shows the merchant marines of the 
 world, according to Lloyds Register (1915-16). 
 Only vessels of over 100 tons are included. 
 
 COUNTRY 
 
 
 SAIL 
 
 STEAM 
 
 TOTAL 
 
 Number 
 
 Net tons 
 
 Number 
 
 Net tons 
 
 Number 
 
 Tonnage 
 (steam, gross) 
 sail, net 
 
 British: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 610 
 
 305,663 
 
 8,675 
 
 11,760,277 
 
 9,285 
 
 19,541,368 
 
 Colonies. 
 
 525 
 
 137,487 
 
 1,543 
 
 930,764 
 
 2,068 
 
 1,732,700 
 
 Total. 
 
 1,135 
 
 443,150 
 
 10,218 
 
 12,691,041 
 
 11,353 
 
 21,274,068 
 
 United States: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sea. 
 
 1,347 
 
 943,288 
 
 1,233 
 
 1,655,718 
 
 2,580 
 
 3,522 933 
 
 Northern Lakes. 
 
 31 
 
 92,323 
 
 569 
 
 1,681,788 
 
 600 
 
 2 323 397 
 
 Philippine Islands. 
 
 8 
 
 2,280 
 
 61 
 
 26,549 
 
 69 
 
 46,309 
 
 Total. 
 
 1,386 
 
 1,037,891 
 
 1,863 
 
 3,364,055 
 
 3,249 
 
 5,892,639 
 
 Germany. 
 
 269 
 
 286,860 
 
 1,897 
 
 2,661,945 
 
 2,166 
 
 4,706,027 
 
 N orway. 
 
 516 
 
 .551,379 
 
 1,658 
 
 1,179,568 
 
 2,174 
 
 2,529,188 
 
 r ranee. 
 
 523 
 
 376,119 
 
 1,016 
 
 1,090,809 
 
 1,539 
 
 2,285,728 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 522 
 
 222,914 
 
 1,155 
 
 655 
 
 1,162,331 
 
 925,464 
 
 1,155 
 
 1,177 
 
 1,826,068 
 
 1,736,545 
 
 Holland. 
 
 99 
 
 24,028 
 
 710 
 
 922,860 
 
 809 
 
 1,522,547 
 
 ■Sweden. 
 
 372 
 
 101,087 
 
 1,090 
 
 594,808 
 
 1,462 
 
 1.122,883 
 
 Kussia. 
 
 512 
 
 202,811 
 
 744 
 
 498,105 
 
 1,256 
 
 1,054,762 
 
 Austria-Hungary. 
 
 11 
 
 1,515 
 
 422 
 
 630,840 
 
 433 
 
 1,018,210 
 
 Greece. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 77 
 
 15,734 
 
 433 
 
 561,330 
 
 510 
 
 908,725 
 
 54 
 
 13,449 
 
 588 
 
 539.134 
 
 642 
 
 899,204 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 249 
 
 51,295 
 
 586 
 
 474,278 
 
 835 
 
 854,996 
 
 World’s total, including above with 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 all other countries. 
 
 6,212 
 
 3,532,561 
 
 24,508 
 
 28,159,895 
 
 30,720 
 
 49,261,769 
 
 Land transport lagged far behind that on the 
 sea. With the growth of centralized nations 
 a political motive arose for the improvement of 
 roads and of internal trade. Under Louis XIV 
 (1643-1715), during the ministry of Colbert, 
 the French roads were greatly bettered, and 
 
 It appears from these figures that steamships 
 comprise 68 per cent of the world’s vessels (not 
 reckoning China, Turkey, etc.) and nearly 89 
 per cent of their tonnage, although for some 
 nations the percentages are much higher. The 
 preponderance of British ships is most notable 
 
TRANSPORTATION 
 
 TRANSPORTATION 426 
 
 in steamships. In 1801 there was in the U nited 
 Kingdom a total net tonnage of 1,786,000; in 
 1850 the figure was 3,565,000; in 1880, 6,575,- 
 000; in 1915, 12,065,940. The percentage of 
 net steam tonnage was 4.7 in 1850, 41.4 in 1880, 
 and 97.4 in 1905. German shipping grew still 
 more rapidly. The sailing tonnage decreased 
 from 1,223,000 in 1885 to 286,860 in 1915, but 
 the (net) steam tonnage rose from 520,186 in 
 1885 to 1,057,525 in 1895 and from 1,910,660 
 in 1905 to 2,661,945 in 1915. 
 
 Before the introduction of iron ships Ameri¬ 
 can builders were greatly favored by the cheap¬ 
 ness of native timber, and for this and other 
 reasons American shipping was dominant in the 
 world’s carrying trade. The tonnage engaged 
 in foreign traffic was 667,000 in 1800, and, 
 though somewhat set back by the War of 1812, 
 it rose to 1,439,000 in 1850 and 2,497,000 in 
 1861. This was its maximum. The coasting 
 trade continued to rise from 1,117,000 in 1840 
 to 2,645,000 in 1860 and from 4,286,000 in 1900 
 to 6,486,000 in 1915, including vessels of all 
 sizes. But foreign shipping had fallen to 1,- 
 314,000 in 1880 and in 1910 was but 782,000. 
 However, on account of the Great War, this in¬ 
 creased to 1,863,000 in 1915. While in 1860 
 66.5 per cent of the imports and exports of the 
 United States were carried in American ves¬ 
 sels, in 1870 the percentage was only 35.6; in 
 1880, 17.4; in 1890, 12.9; and in 1900, 9.3. Yet 
 in 1915 the percentage rose to 14.3. 
 
 The growth of railway mileage since 1830 
 is shown in the following table, compiled from 
 the Journal de la Soctete de Statistique de Paris, 
 1909-10: 
 
 GROWTH OF RAILWAY MILEAGE SINCE 1830 
 
 YEAR 
 
 U nited 
 States 
 
 Great 
 
 Britain 
 
 and 
 
 Ireland 
 
 France 
 
 Ger¬ 
 
 many 
 
 Russia 
 
 The 
 
 World 
 
 1830 
 
 23 
 
 57 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 121 
 
 1840 
 
 2,818 
 
 838 
 
 303 
 
 360 
 
 17 
 
 4,792 
 
 1850 
 
 9,021 
 
 6,624 
 
 1,870 
 
 3,761 
 
 311 
 
 23,980 
 
 1860 
 
 30,626 
 
 10,437 
 
 5,865 
 
 7,285 
 
 989 
 
 67,055 
 
 1870 
 
 52,922 
 
 15,151 
 
 11,019 
 
 12,253 
 
 6,982 
 
 128,407 
 
 1880 
 
 93,262 
 
 17,929 
 
 16,109 
 
 21,057 
 
 14,617 
 
 230,515 
 
 1890 
 
 166,654 
 
 20,334 
 
 24,030 
 
 26,638 
 
 19,225 
 
 377,746 
 
 1900 
 
 194,334 
 
 21,932 
 
 26,611 
 
 31,933 
 
 29,892 
 
 491,236 
 
 1910 
 
 240,438 
 
 23,285 
 
 30,185 
 
 37,337 
 
 36,880 
 
 625,659 
 
 For further statistics and general discussion 
 of this subject, see Railways; Steam Navi¬ 
 gation. 
 
 Bibliography. W. S. Lindsay, History of 
 Merchant Shipping (4 vols., London, 1874-76) ; 
 A. T. Hadley, Railroad Transportation: Its His¬ 
 tory and its Laws (New York, 1885); Alfred 
 Picard, Trait4 des chemins de fer (4 vols., 
 Paris, 1887) ; W. Gotz, Die Verkehrswege im 
 Dienste des Welthandels (Stuttgart, 1888) ; A. 
 Vander Borght, Das Ver Kehrswesen (Leipzig, 
 1894) ; J. P. Davis, The Union Pacific Railway: 
 Study in Railway Politics, History, and Eco¬ 
 nomics (Chicago, 1894) ; H. Fry, History of North 
 Atlantic Steam Navigation (London, 1895) ; 
 William Hall, Modern Navigation: Text-Book of 
 Navigation and Nautical Astronomy (ib., 1904) ; 
 E. R. Johnson, Ocean and Inland Water Trans¬ 
 portation (New York, 1906) ; H. G. Moulton, 
 Waterways versus Railways (Boston, 1912) ; F. 
 A. Talbot, Steamship Conquest of the World 
 (Philadelphia, 1913) ; Seymour Dunbar, His¬ 
 
 tory of Travel in America (Indianapolis, 1915) ; 
 Kirkaldy and Evans, History and Economics of 
 Transport (New York, 1915); also Interstate 
 Commerce Commission Reports (Washington, 
 annual) ; Poor's Manual of Railroads (New 
 York, annual) ; Reports of the Commissioner of 
 Navigation (Washington, annual). 
 
 TRANSPORTATION, Conduct of. See 
 Railways. 
 
 TRANSPORTATION, in Law. See Ad¬ 
 miralty Law ; Carrier, Common ; Commerce ; 
 Highway; Maritime Law; Public Calling; 
 etc. 
 
 TRANSPORTATION, Penal. Banishment 
 from society in the form of exile, ostracism, or 
 ♦outlawry. The practice is well known among un¬ 
 civilized peoples and existed among the ancient 
 nations and in mediaeval Europe. In England, 
 under a Statute of Elizabeth (1597), “dangerous 
 rogues” might be banished by justices in quar¬ 
 ter sessions, but no system of transportation 
 can be said to have arisen till the time of 
 Charles II, when justices were empowered to 
 send certain offenders to America instead of 
 inflicting the death penalty. In 1717 trans¬ 
 portation was authorized as a substitute for 
 other punishments than hanging, and the con¬ 
 tract system, by which individuals agreed to 
 transport convicts in return for their labor 
 during the period of sentence, was established. 
 The business was profitable at first, but be¬ 
 came less so, until a payment had to be made 
 for each criminal transported. Protests from 
 America were frequent but unavailing. After 
 1776 a twofold system was developed. To meet 
 immediate needs, hulks stationed in the Thames 
 (later at Portsmouth and other places) were 
 arranged to receive convicts; and though this 
 was begun merely as a temporary expedient, 
 it endured as a legalized system for over three- 
 quarters of a century. Involving overcrowding 
 and bad sanitary and moral conditions, the 
 hulk system was severely criticized by several 
 parliamentary committees, but was abolished 
 only gradually, as penitentiaries were con¬ 
 structed. 
 
 Within a decade after 1776 a settlement for 
 criminals had been founded in Australia (q.v.). 
 In 1787 the first lot of convicts left for New 
 South Wales. In 1804 transportation to Tas¬ 
 mania began. The number sent was at first 
 small. The annual average up to 1816 was 
 less than 600, but it reached 2000 in 1820-30. 
 The spirit and practice of the system were es 
 sentially penal, not reformatory, and conditions 
 of life in a colony where most persons were 
 convicts were almost inevitably bad. The re¬ 
 port of the parliamentary committee of 1838 
 condemned the system at almost all points, and 
 (1842) a “probation system” was planned by 
 which prisoners were classified and might pass 
 through various stages towards pardon or free¬ 
 dom. The difficulty of the scheme was to find 
 work in the colonies for ticket-of-leave men 
 or “probationers,” while the matter was fur¬ 
 ther complicated by an increasing objection of 
 the colonists to the importation of convicts. 
 Norfolk Island was for years a criminal de¬ 
 pot, first of criminals from New South Wales, 
 and, afterward for about 20 years, after 1826, 
 from Van Diemen’s Land. Transportation to 
 New South Wales ceased after 1849 and to 
 Tasmania after 1852. Thenceforth Western 
 Australia was from 1850 the only outlet, and 
 though the probation system worked there sue- 
 
TRANSPORTATION 427 TRANSVAAL 
 
 cessfully, the colony was unable to provide for 
 all English convicts. With the development of 
 the system of penal servitude (1853-G3) trans¬ 
 portation declined, and the last shipment to 
 Western Australia was in 18G8. 
 
 In France penal transportation was estab¬ 
 lished by a Law of 1854. Guiana was at first 
 utilized as a place to send criminals, but its 
 climate proved quite unsuitable, and after 18G4 
 most prisoners condemned to transportation 
 were sent to New Caledonia. Here the penal 
 settlement numbered over 1200 in 1894, when 
 transportation to that colony was discontinued. 
 According to the present law persons condemned 
 to hard labor, if military offenders or recidi¬ 
 vists, may be sent to Guiana. In a representa¬ 
 tive year the number of convicts sent to Guiana 
 runs between 700. and 800. Russia is the only 
 other modern nation which has practiced trans¬ 
 portation on a large scale. Siberia (q.v.) was 
 made a place of settlement in the seventeenth 
 century, and after the discovery of the mines 
 the system grew apace. Between 1807 and 1899 
 it was estimated that 865,000 persons had been 
 transported to Siberia. Since 1869 the island 
 of Sakhalin (q.v.) has been used largely as a 
 penal colony. In 1896 it contained 15,000 con¬ 
 victs and exiles and less than 3000 free settlers. 
 The horrors of Siberian exile have been miti¬ 
 gated in recent years. Convict labor does not 
 prove of permanent economic advantage, and 
 in Siberia, as elsewhere, it has been found im¬ 
 possible to colonize a country with convicts. In 
 1900, following the investigation of a commis¬ 
 sion of 1899, the Russian penal system was radi¬ 
 cally reformed. Imprisonment is to take the 
 place of exile for all except political and re¬ 
 ligious offenders. No further attempt is to be 
 made to settle convicts as colonists, but all 
 those exiled will remain imprisoned during their 
 sentences. Consult: Franz Holtzendorff, Die De¬ 
 portation als Strafmittel in alter und neuer Zeit 
 (Leipzig, 1859) ; Sir E. F. Du Cane, Punishment 
 and Prevention of Crime (London, 1885); Kro¬ 
 potkin, In Russian and French Prisons (ib., 
 1887) ; George Kennan, Siberia and the Exile 
 System (2 vols., New York, 1891) ; F. H. Wines, 
 Punishment and Reformation (new ed., ib., 
 1910); H. De Windt, The New Siberia: Visit 
 to Penal Islands of Sakhalin (London, 1896). 
 
 TRANSPORTATION AND WATER 
 WORKS. See Public Utilities, Regula¬ 
 tion of. 
 
 TRANSPOSING INSTRUMENTS (from 
 transpose, OF., Fr. transposer, from Lat. trans- 
 ponere, to transpose, from trans, across, through 
 + ponere, to place). Those musical instruments 
 whose natural scale is always expressed in 
 C major irrespective of the actual pitch. Some 
 composers have begun to disregard the keys in 
 which parts for such instruments were always 
 written and to employ the key of the piece for 
 all instruments. See Musical Instruments. 
 
 TRANS'POSI'TION (Lat. transpositio, from 
 transponere, to transpose). In music, the per¬ 
 formance of a composition in a key other than 
 the one in which it was written by the composer. 
 Vocal works are most frequently transposed, 
 as when a tenor wishes to sing a work origi¬ 
 nally written for low voice. Transposition oc¬ 
 curs also often in transcription. Singers have 
 no difficulty in transposing a song into any key, 
 but the transposition at sight upon any instru¬ 
 ment, especially the organ or pianoforte, is diffi¬ 
 cult. See Score. 
 
 Vol. XXII.— 28 
 
 TRAN'SUBSTAN'TIA'TION (ML. transub- 
 stantiatio, change of substance). A word used 
 by Roman Catholic theologians to designate the 
 change which they believe to take place in the 
 eucharistic elements of bread and wine in virtue 
 of the consecration. The term was first officially 
 adopted by the Church at the Lateran Council 
 of 1215, and the doctrine involved by it explicitly 
 defined as an article of faith by the Council of 
 Trent: “The whole substance of the bread is 
 changed into the body of Christ, and the whole 
 substance of the wine into his Blood, the species 
 alone remaining.” 
 
 The definition of the manner of Christ’s pres¬ 
 ence is theological, and the terms thereof rest 
 on Scholastic philosophy, which to-day is the 
 system, taught in all Catholic seminaries. It 
 is based upon the belief in the existence in 
 everything of an essential distinctive principle 
 not cognizable by the senses, called substance; 
 the species or accidents of the thing are quali¬ 
 ties which are perceived by the senses—color, 
 taste, smell, solidity, etc. In transubstantia- 
 tion, accordingly, the accidents remain un¬ 
 changed, while the underlying substances of 
 bread and wine cease to exist, their places being 
 taken by the substance of the body and blood 
 of Christ. The objections to the doctrine have 
 been chiefly drawn from the philosophical diffi¬ 
 culties which are involved in it; and the de¬ 
 fenders of it have therefore added to the 
 proofs which they profess to draw from the 
 Scripture and tradition a general demonstra¬ 
 tion that the doctrine, although mvsterious, 
 does not involve any philosophical repugnance 
 or impossibility. Leibnitz (q.v.), although a 
 Protestant, has not only entered at great length 
 and in several portions of his works into this 
 philosophical, discussion, but professes to prove, 
 by strict philosophical principles—by the con¬ 
 sideration of the properties of matter, of sub¬ 
 stance, of space, extension, and the like—that 
 the essential principle of the body “may exist 
 in many places at the same time, nay, under 
 far-distant and distinct species.” See Lord’s 
 Supper, and bibliography there given; also Sub¬ 
 stance. 
 
 TRANSVAAL, trans-val', or Province of 
 the Transvaal; formerly South African Re¬ 
 public. A British possession in South Africa 
 (Map: Cape of Good Hope, H—K 5). There were 
 transferred to Natal, in January, 1903, 7000 
 square, miles of area, including the districts of 
 Vrijheid, Utrecht, and a section of the Wakker- 
 stroom District, with a total population of nearly 
 60,000, 8000 being whites. Its area is 110,426 
 square miles. 
 
 The interior of the Transvaal is a bush coun¬ 
 try (Bosch veld) lying 4000 feet above sea level, 
 studded with small hills. In the east this 
 plateau is terminated by the northern Drakens¬ 
 berg, culminating in the Mauchberg (8730 feet). 
 On the eastern border are the Lebombo Moun¬ 
 tains. Across the interior plateau stretches 
 from east to west the far-famed Witwatersrand, 
 with Johannesburg and the rich gold fields, 
 which separates the Limpopo and the Vaal 
 basins. Just north of the Witwatersrand and in 
 general parallel with it extend the Magalies 
 Mountains. Pretoria lies at the eastern outlet 
 of the narrow valley thus formed. In the centre 
 of the extensive Drakensberg system, which oc¬ 
 cupies the whole eastern third of the colonv, is 
 Barberton with its gold fields. The Transvaal 
 is drained mainly by the Limpopo River, which 
 
TRANSVAAL 
 
 TRANSVAAL 
 
 428 
 
 forms the boundary on the northwest and north, 
 and the Vaal River, which forms most of the 
 southern boundary. The Olifant River, the 
 principal affluent of the Limpopo, has nearly its 
 entire course within the Transvaal. The Bar¬ 
 berton region is drained by the Komati, which 
 flows into the Indian Ocean. None of the 
 rivers of the Transvaal, however, are navigable. 
 
 The climate west of the Drakensberg and 
 south of the Magalies Range is subtropical, with 
 a European character. The mean annual tem¬ 
 perature is 67° F. January is the warmest 
 month, July the coldest. There are winter 
 frosts. The northern and eastern sections of 
 the Transvaal are more tropical, especially the 
 valley of the Limpopo. Rain, on the whole very 
 uncertain, is most prevalent from October to 
 April, and it ranges from 40 inches in the east 
 to 12 in the west. The climate of the interior 
 uplands is noted for its healthfulness. Among 
 the distinctive trees are the thorny acacias and 
 the eucalyptus. The range of plants is very 
 large, including the European grains and many 
 of the valuable tropical species. The northeast¬ 
 ern section is the least fruitful. The flocks 
 and herds of the Boers were very large before 
 the War of 1899-1902, and horses were also 
 bred, though to a much less extent. 
 
 Granite and slate are in general the basic for¬ 
 mations, upon which rests the so-called Cape For¬ 
 mation, above which are found quartzite and coal- 
 bearing layers. The Transvaal is exceptionally 
 rich in minerals, including copper, iron, coal 
 (in different sections), lead, diamonds (in the 
 Pretoria District and in the southwest corner 
 in the direction of Kimberley), and notably 
 gold. Gold was first discovered in 1867 and is 
 now found abundantly in numerous districts. 
 The rich gold fields of the Witwatersrand—the 
 Rand, of which Johannesburg is the mining 
 centre—and those of Barberton have made the 
 Transvaal particularly famous. Around them 
 developed the history of the colony. From 1905 
 to the end of 1914 the value of the gold pro¬ 
 duced was £312,546,987, chiefly in the Rand. 
 The largest output was in 1912, 9,107,512 
 ounces, £38,686,250; in 1914, 8,394,322 ounces, 
 £35,656,814. Other important mineral products 
 in 1914 were: diamonds, 1,142,683 carats, £1,- 
 162,031; coal, 5,157,268 tons, £1,150,746; tin 
 ores, 3386 tons, £307,282; copper, 14,957 tons of 
 concentrates, £320,327; silver (contained in 
 gold bullion and base metal ores), 890,782 
 ounces, £102,471. The total mineral production 
 in 1905 was valued at £22,698,275; in 1913, 
 £42,500,410. The number of persons working 
 at the gold mines in January, 1915, was 21,966 
 whites and 178,229 colored. The diamond mines 
 are situated chiefly in the Pretoria District; in 
 January, 1915, 367 whites and 222 colored were 
 engaged in diamond mining. The coal mines 
 are in the Barberton, Middelburg, and Peters¬ 
 burg districts; in January, 1915, 566 whites and 
 10,332 colored were engaged in coal mining. 
 Copper mining has increased rapidly in recent 
 years. 
 
 The country is well adapted to agriculture and 
 stock raising, though its possibilities are as 
 yet meagrely developed. The area under culti¬ 
 vation is increasing and amounts to upward of 
 2.000,000 acres, but much agricultural produce 
 has to be imported. Maize and tobacco are re¬ 
 garded as the most important crops. At the 
 end of 1913 sheep numbered 5,024,898; goats, 
 2,104,527. Horses in 1913 numbered about 89,- 
 
 000; mules, 25,000; asses, 106,000; cattle, 1,- 
 339,000; swine, 303,000; ostriches, 5400. Manu¬ 
 facturing is not greatly developed, but there are 
 iron and brass factories, breweries, brick, tile, 
 and pottery works, grain and saw mills, ma¬ 
 chine shops, and factories for tobacco, soap, 
 ice, explosives, etc. Since the establishment of 
 the Union of South Africa foreign-trade statis¬ 
 tics are not published for the separate prov¬ 
 inces. 
 
 The principal imports are ironwork and ma¬ 
 chinery, chemicals, wood, sugar, preserved meats, 
 flour, articles of apparel, and live animals. 
 The exports are principally mining products, 
 wool, tobacco, horses, and mules. The largest 
 amount comes through the Cape Province, 
 though almost as much enters through Natal. 
 The Transvaal has railway communication with 
 the sister provinces and with Portuguese East 
 Africa. At the end of 1913 there were 2638 
 miles of railway open to traffic, of which all 
 but 6 miles was government line. 
 
 The Transvaal was annexed to Great Britain, 
 Sept. 1, 1900. After an intermediate period 
 of military rule and crown colony government 
 it received in 1906 a constitution, which pro¬ 
 vided for a bicameral legislature consisting of 
 an elective lower house of 69 members and a 
 nominated upper house of 15 members. The 
 Transvaal is one of the original provinces of 
 the Union of South Africa, established May 
 31, 1910. It has an administrator appointed by 
 the Governor-General for five years and a pro¬ 
 vincial council of 36 members elected for three 
 years. The province elects eight members to 
 the Upper House and 45 members to the Lower 
 House of the Union Parliament. The suffrage is 
 conferred on every white male British subject. 
 The capital is Pretoria (q.v.), which is also the 
 seat of the Union administration. For the 
 fiscal year 1915 the estimated revenue was 
 £1,308,900; expenditure chargeable against reve¬ 
 nue, £1,349,580; capital expenditure, £435,801. 
 
 The population was returned by the censuses 
 of 1904 and 1911 as follows: 
 
 RACES 
 
 1 nn,i 
 
 
 1911 
 
 
 lyiH: 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 Total 
 
 Whites. 
 
 297,277 
 
 236,913 
 
 183,649 
 
 420,562 
 
 Bantu. 
 
 937,127 
 
 705,862 
 
 513,983 
 
 1,219,845 
 
 Mixed and other 
 colored . 
 
 35,547 
 
 28,780 
 
 17,025 
 
 45,805 
 
 Total. 
 
 1,269,951 
 
 971,555 
 
 714,657 
 
 1,686,212 
 
 The most numerous Bantu race is the Basuto, 
 with 455,801 in 1911; next are the Tonga, 171,- 
 848, and the Bechuana, 106,500. East Indians 
 numbered 10,048, and persons returned as 
 “mixed,” 22,655. The white and other adherents 
 of the leading churches were as follows in 1911: 
 Dutch churches, 204,058 and 24,634; Anglican, 
 89,805 and 51,355; Methodist, 27,938 and 92,- 
 969; Presbyterian, 24,739 and 6670; Lutheran, 
 6618 and 101,271; Roman Catholic, 22,312 and 
 6439. Persons returned as of no religion num¬ 
 bered 943,616. 
 
 History. The Transvaal was one of the two 
 states founded by the Boers after the “great 
 trek,” or emigration, from Cape Colony. These 
 Boers were descendants of the colonists who 
 had come into South Africa under the Dutch 
 control. They were a hardy, vigorous, bigoted 
 race, holding the natives in slavery and hence 
 
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 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY Of 
 
 
 
 
 
 "Y 
 
 ILLINOIS 
 
^ ! 
 
 o i 
 
 CQ => 
 
 eS Qj 
 
 S O , 
 

 

 THE L5EHARY 
 Or THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY Or ILLINOIS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
TRANSVAAL 
 
 429 
 
 TRANSVAAL 
 
 1i 
 
 
 
 not getting along well with their savage neigh¬ 
 bors. The dislike of the English which naturally 
 aiose after the latter took possession of Cape 
 Colony in 1806 culminated in 1833, when the 
 Emancipation Law was passed. Some years 
 later a considerable number of the Boers went 
 north with their families, flocks, and household 
 goods and at first founded a colony at Natal. 
 This was broken up by the British "government 
 in 1843, and the Boers, going westward, founded 
 the Orange Free State. In 1848 this also 
 was taken under British control (remaining 
 thus, however, only for a few years), and the 
 more irreconcilable of the Boers “trekked” once 
 more, across the Vaal, and founded the South 
 African Republic, commonly known as the 
 Transvaal. By the Sand River Convention, con¬ 
 cluded in 1852, Great Britain recognized the 
 independence of “the emigrant Boers living 
 north of the Vaal River” and boundaries were 
 duly established. The new state was for some 
 years allowed to take its own course, and the 
 only interference with its increasing prosperity 
 came from the struggles with the "natives, be¬ 
 tween whom and the Boers there was bitter 
 enmity. In 18/ / some discontented burghers 
 suggested to the British government that the 
 Transvaal should be taken under its protection. 
 Mistaking the appeal of a faction for national 
 sentiment, the British Commissioner, Sir The- 
 ophilus Shepstone, declared the Republic British 
 crown territory, and annexation was persisted 
 in by the British government in spite of re¬ 
 peated appeals. In 1880 the people revolted 
 against the British regime. On December 13 a 
 mass meeting was held at Heidelberg and the 
 restoration of the independent Republic was 
 declared. A brief campaign, in which the Boers 
 developed remarkable fighting powers, according 
 to methods especially adapted to the country, 
 followed this act. The Boer victories of Laing’s 
 Nek and Ingogo were followed by the battle of 
 Majuba Hill (Feb. 27, 1881), which resulted 
 in the worst defeat sustained by British arms 
 in many years. On Aug. 8, 1881, peace was 
 concluded by the Convention of Pretoria, in 
 which self-government was restored to the 
 Transvaal burghers, subject to the suzerainty 
 of the British crown. This latter reservation 
 gave Great Britain the right to maintain a 
 British Resident in the country and to march 
 her armies across the territory in time of war 
 and also the control of external relations. The 
 Convention of London, signed Feb. 27, 1884, 
 omitted the suzerainty clause, and the Boers 
 claimed that thereby Great Britain gave up all 
 control over their affairs. The British govern¬ 
 ment, on the contrary, maintained that the Con¬ 
 vention of London was supplementary to that 
 of Pretoria, and that the latter was in force 
 except where directly contravened by the former. 
 In the years 1881-93 several events occurred 
 which reacted upon the relations of Great 
 Britain and the South African Republic. The 
 first of these was the formation in Cape Colony 
 of the Afrikander Bond, with a platform calling 
 for a union of European races in South Africa 
 on a basis of South African nationality and 
 independence. This movement increased the dis¬ 
 like of the British government to the develop¬ 
 ment of any strong, independent power in the 
 neighborhood of the British South African pos¬ 
 sessions. The advance of the English into 
 Mashonaland and Matabeleland, which the Boers 
 had coveted and which hemmed them in, was to 
 
 them an added irritation; and the climax was 
 reached in the aggressive attitude of the British 
 South Africa Company, which held rights of 
 exploitation and administration in the new 
 British territories. 
 
 The discovery of gold in the Transvaal in 
 1884 opened a new and troubled era. Hitherto 
 the country had been agricultural and rural, 
 with a homogeneous population. Now there was 
 a sudden influx of mining men, promoters, and 
 adventurers of all nations. In the Witwaters- 
 land was founded the populous mining city of 
 Johannesburg, inhabited very largely by these 
 Uitlanders, or outlanders. The Boers felt that 
 the primitive life they had wished to preserve 
 was invaded, circumscribed, and likely to be 
 overwhelmed. They therefore sought to restrict 
 the privileges of citizenship in order to retain 
 the political control in their own hands. This 
 led to constant friction and to attempts to se¬ 
 cure British intervention. In the autumn of 
 1S95 a plan was arranged between the leaders 
 of the British South Africa Company—Cecil 
 Rhodes (q.v.), his colleague, Mr. Beit, and 
 Dr. Jameson, administrator of Rhodesia—on the 
 one hand, and several leaders of the Uitlanders 
 Lionel Phillips, Charles Leonard, and John 
 Hays Hammond representing them—on the 
 other, for an armed raid into the Transvaal 
 from Rhodesia for the purpose of bringing about 
 by a display of force the reforms desired. Dr. 
 Jameson made it understood finally that he 
 should act in behalf of the British supremacy. 
 The Johannesburg committee did not apparently 
 intend to overthrow the government, and when 
 this was known sought to stay action while 
 they issued a manifesto calling for the desired 
 reforms. Jameson, disregarding their warning, 
 entered the Transvaal December 29 with 600 
 men. He was defeated, surrounded, and obliged 
 to surrender (Jan. 2, 1896). The Transvaal 
 government turned the prisoners over to the 
 British government for trial. They were con¬ 
 victed in England and received light sentences. 
 Four of the Johannesburg leaders were con¬ 
 demned to death by the Transvaal courts, but 
 this was commuted to a heavy fine. The raid 
 caused a great excitement and assumed inter¬ 
 national importance. It brought the agitation 
 and the bitter feeling between the two countries 
 to an acute stage. The controversy, concealing 
 under diplomatic phraseology much irritation 
 on both sides, continued for some time longer. 
 Mr. Chamberlain, the English Colonial Secre¬ 
 tary, seemed determined to force the position 
 of the Republic, and President Kruger was 
 obstinate in his refusal to yield any important 
 point. In the autumn of 1899, when war seemed 
 imminent, the Orange Free State decided to 
 make common cause with the South African 
 Republic. On October 9 an ultimatum which 
 made peace and continued negotiation impos¬ 
 sible was presented to the British agent at 
 Pretoria and Mr. Chamberlain summarily closed 
 the correspondence. War broke out in'Novem¬ 
 ber, 1899 (see South African War), and ended 
 in May, 1902. As a result the Boer republics 
 were incorporated in the British Empire. The 
 protracted struggle left the Transvaal burghers 
 in a ruined condition, and the first necessity was 
 to restore the rural population to their homes. 
 For this purpose the British government, in 
 the treaty of peace signed at Vereeniging, prom¬ 
 ised to provide the sum of £3,000,000. and the 
 process of repatriation was immediately beoun. 
 
TRANSVAAL 
 
 TRANSVERSAL 
 
 430 
 
 Many Boers, however, preferred exile to living 
 under the British crown, and there was a 
 considerable emigration in the following years 
 to German Southwest Africa, Argentina, Mexico, 
 and the United States. The most prominent 
 question of the years immediately following the 
 war was connected with the supposed difficulty 
 of obtaining an adequate supply of native labor 
 for the Rand mines. An ordinance providing 
 for the importation of Chinese laborers was 
 nevertheless issued by the Legislative Council 
 in February, 1904, and the first consignment of 
 coolies arrived in June. By the end of 1905 
 about 50,000 Chinese had been brought to the 
 Rand. The hardships of the compound system 
 to which the laborers were subjected resulted 
 in constant, successful attempts at escape, and 
 wandering bands of Chinese soon became a seri¬ 
 ous menace to life and property in the Rand 
 section. The prospect of the grant of repre¬ 
 sentative government led, in 1905, to the rise 
 of political parties, including the Progressive 
 Association which stood for the maintenance of 
 complete British ascendency, the Responsible 
 Government Association, and Het \ oik repre¬ 
 senting the Boer element. The tremendous vic¬ 
 tory gained in Great Britain by the Liberals 
 in the general election of January, 1906, was 
 due in very large degree to the general abhor¬ 
 rence for the system of Chinese ‘‘servitude’ 
 established in the Transvaal. On July 31, 
 1906, the Liberal government announced a new 
 constitution for the colony (see above, section 
 on Government ). The first election took place 
 in February, 1907. The conciliatory spirit in 
 which the new government entered upon its 
 duties was shown in a speech of General Botha, 
 who became the first Premier, outlining his pro¬ 
 gramme at a banquet given in its honor at 
 Pretoria in March. He declared that the British 
 government and people had, by the grant of a 
 free constitution, trusted the people of the 
 Transvaal in a manner unequaled in history 
 and that it was impossible for the Boers ever 
 to forget such generosity. His cabinet would do 
 its best to create a united nation, in which 
 one section would not regard the other with 
 contempt or distrust. As soon as responsible 
 government was established in the Orange Liver 
 Colony, the cabinet would begin to work towards 
 a union of all South Africa. He denied that 
 the government was hostile to the mining in¬ 
 terests, but declared its opposition to any com¬ 
 bination of corporations aiming at monopolizing 
 portions of the country. No extreme measures 
 would be taken against the employment of 
 Chinese labor, and the natives would also be 
 treated fairly. As regards education, Dutch¬ 
 speaking and English-speaking children would 
 be taught, up to a certain point, each in his 
 own language. 
 
 A great question which agitated the Trans¬ 
 vaal was the immigration of Hindus, who came 
 in large numbers to work in the mines. In order 
 to maintain “white supremacy,” severe immigra¬ 
 tion and domicile laws were enacted and many 
 Hindus were compelled to leave the country. 
 On May 31, 1910, the Transvaal was united with 
 Cape of Good Hope, Natal, and the Orange 
 Free State to form the new Union of South 
 Africa, and Pretoria was made the capital and 
 the seat of government of the new federal union. 
 For the further history of the Transvaal, see 
 Union of South Africa. 
 
 Bibliography. General: Alfred Aylward, The 
 
 Transvaal of To-Day (new ed., Edinburgh, 
 1881); C. J. Alford, Geological Features of the 
 Transvaal (London, 1891): Goldmann and 
 Kitchin, South African Mines (3 vols., ib., 
 1895-96); F. R. Statham, South Africa as It 
 Is (ib., 1897); A. Seidel, Transvaal, die siid- 
 afrikanische Republik (Berlin, 1898) ; Sir F. E. 
 Younghusband, South Africa To-Day (London, 
 
 1899) ; Sir R. Tangye, In Few South Africa (ib., 
 
 1900) ; A. H. Keane, The Boer States: Land 
 
 and People (ib., 1900) ; Bryce, Impressions of 
 South Africa (3d ed., ib., 1900); A. R. Colqu- 
 houn, Renascence of South Africa (ib., 1900). 
 History: G. M. Theal, History of the Boers in 
 South Africa (London, 1887) ; id., History of 
 South Africa (ib., 1888-89); Albrecht, La 
 
 republique sudafricaine (Brussels, 1889) ; F. R. 
 Statham, Paul Kruger and his Times (London, 
 1898) ; J. C. Voigt, Fifty Years of the History^ 
 of the Republic of South Africa, 1795-1845 
 (ib., 1899); V. S. Aubert, Le Transvaal et 
 VAngleterre en Afrique du Sud (Paris, 1899) ; 
 H. Cloete, History of the Great Boer Trek (Lon¬ 
 don, 1899 ) ; Ireland, The Anglo-Boer Conflict 
 (ib., 1900) ; W. E. G. Fisher, The Transvaal and 
 The Boers (ib., 1900); Bryce, Brooks, and 
 others, Briton and Boer: Both Sides of the 
 South African Question (New York, 1900) ; 
 Jules Leclercq, L’Ind6pendance des Boers et les 
 origines des republiques sudafricaines (Brussels, 
 
 1900) ; A. C. Dovle, The Great Boer War (Lon¬ 
 don, 1900) ; Louis Creswicke, South Africa and 
 the Transvaal War (6 vols., New York, 1900— 
 01); A. T. Mahan, The War in South Africa 
 (London, 1901); J. Ogden, The War against 
 the Dutch Republics (Manchester, England, 
 
 1901) ; A. C. Doyle, War in South Africa: Its 
 Cause and Conduct (New York, 1902) ; E. H. 
 Walton, Inner History of the National Conven¬ 
 tion of South Africa (ib., 1912) ; Pierre M6rimee, 
 La politique anglaise au Transvaal (Toulouse, 
 1913). 
 
 TRANSVER'SAL (ML. transversalis, from 
 Lat. transversus, traversus, transverse, p.p. of 
 transvertere, to cross, transverse, from trans, 
 across, through + vertere, to turn). In geom¬ 
 etry, a term commonly applied to a line cutting 
 a pencil of parallels. In modern plane geometry 
 the term is extended to .mean any straight line 
 cutting the other lines of a figure. Thus, any 
 
 C - 
 
 line intersecting the three lines forming a 
 triangle ABC in P, Q, R, is a transversal of the 
 triangle. The theory of transversals is one of 
 the most important in modern geometry. It 
 has its origin in a theorem attributed to 
 Ptolemy (q.v.), but which is found in the 
 Spherics of Menelaus (q.v.) and which has been 
 thought to go hack to Hipparchus (q.v.). 
 This states that a straight line drawn arbi¬ 
 trarily in the plane of a triangle determines 
 on the lines of its sides six segments such that 
 the product of three not having a common ex¬ 
 tremity equals the product of the other three. 
 More generally, of course, a transversal may be 
 
TRANSYLVANIA 
 
 TRANSYLVANIA 
 
 43i 
 
 a curve cutting other curves; and in particular 
 a geodetic line cutting the sides of a spherical 
 triangle. Pappus (q.v.) in his Collections ap¬ 
 proaches the theory from another standpoint 
 and shows that if a pencil of four lines is cut 
 by a transversal in the points A, B, C, D, the 
 AC BC 
 
 ra/ ti° -j -jj — jyjj is constant for any position 
 
 of the transversal. Pappus also showed that 
 if a transversal cuts the sides and diagonals of 
 a complete quadrilateral, the six segments deter¬ 
 mined on this transversal are such that the 
 
 product of three not having a common extremity 
 will equal the product of the other three; that 
 each diagonal is cut harmonically by the other 
 two; and that when a hexagon has three of its 
 vertices collinear and the other three also col- 
 linear, the intersections of the opposite sides 
 are collinear also—a special case of Pascal’s 
 theorem on a hexagon inscribed in a conic. 
 Desargues (q.v.) in his Essai pour les coniques 
 generalized the theorem of Pappus with respect 
 to the quadrilateral. He showed that, if a 
 transversal cuts a conic and a quadrilateral 
 inscribed therein, the product of the segments 
 between either point of the conic and two op¬ 
 posite sides of the quadrilateral will have to 
 the product of the segments between this point 
 and the other two opposite sides the same 
 ratio as between the corresponding products 
 when the other point of the conic is taken. The 
 theory was extended by Pascal, who was a 
 friend of Desargues, and later by Newton, Cotes, 
 and Maclaurin. In more recent times Carnot 
 and Poncelet have been among the foremost to 
 elaborate the theory. To Carnot is due the 
 introduction of negative lines in the theory of 
 transversals, and the treatment of the subject 
 as related to modern geometry. See Concur¬ 
 rence and Collinearity, Ceva’s and Menelaus’ 
 theorems being important examples of the 
 theory of transversals. 
 
 TRAN'S YLVA'NIA (Hung, erdely, from 
 erdo, forest, the name corresponding to Lat. 
 Transilvania, beyond the forest; Ger. Siebenbiir- 
 gen). A former grand duchy and crownland of 
 Austria, since 1867 an integral part of the 
 lands of the Hungarian crown. Area, 57,804 
 square kilometers. It occupies the southeastern 
 corner of the Hungarian Kingdom, with an 
 area of 21,518 square miles (Map: Hungary, 
 J 3). It is separated from Rumania on the 
 east and south by the great range of the 
 Carpathian Mountains, which bends round at a 
 right angle, the part extending east and west 
 being known as the Transylvanian Alps. The 
 interior is crossed by numerous spurs of the 
 border chains and has an elevated surface 
 cut by many mature valleys of great fertility. 
 The chief river, the Maros, an affluent of the 
 Theiss, crosses the country from northeast to 
 
 southwest, The southern part is traversed by 
 the Aluta, an affluent of the Danube, which 
 breaks through the Transylvanian Alps in the 
 Red Tower Pass, while the northern part is 
 drained by the Szamos, an affluent of the 
 J heiss. Transylvania has a number of small 
 mountain lakes and is rich in mineral springs. 
 Hie region is famous for its scenery, and 
 the mixture of nationalities, with the various 
 costumes, adds greatly to its picturesqueness. 
 The climate has a continental character of con¬ 
 siderable range in temperature, and in the 
 mountain regions the winters are long and 
 severe. In spite of its mountainous surface 
 Transylvania has a very productive soil. The 
 chief crops are wheat, barley, rye, oats, flax, 
 tobacco, and some industrial plants. Fruits and 
 especially grapes are cultivated extensively. 
 Stock breeding is favored by the abundance of 
 meadow land and is carried on on a large scale. 
 The local breed of horses is superior and many 
 are exported. Wool is an important product. 
 The mineral products include salt, gold, silver, 
 and coal. Wild game still abounds in the moun¬ 
 tains and large forests, including bears, wolves, 
 foxes, and boars. Transylvania is well provided 
 with transportation facilities. Pop., 1900, 2,- 
 456,998; 1910, 2,678,367. The vernacular of 55 
 per cent of the population in 1910 was Ruma¬ 
 nian, 34.3 per cent Magyar, 8.7 per cent German. 
 The Germans represent mainly descendants of 
 colonists brought into the country from the 
 region of the lower Rhine by King Gejza II of 
 Hungary about the middle of the twelfth cen¬ 
 tury. They dwell mainly in the southern part 
 of the country, the district inhabited by them 
 being known as Saxon Land. Their chief town 
 is Hermannstadt (Nagyrzeben). The great bulk 
 of the inhabitants of Transylvania belong to 
 the peasant class. The nobility and gentry are 
 Magyars. Of the population 29.6 per cent are 
 Greek Orthodox, 28 per cent Greek Catholic, 
 26 per cent Protestant (including 2.5 per cent 
 Unitarian), 14 per cent Roman Catholic, and 
 2.4 per cent Jewish. 
 
 History. Transylvania formed part of the 
 Roman Province of Dacia. When the great 
 migration of nations took place it was for a 
 time occupied by the Germanic peoples. They 
 were followed by the Avars, after whom came 
 the Petchenegs. In the eleventh century the 
 country was brought under the sway of the 
 Magyars. The advent of German colonists in 
 the twelfth century improved the condition of 
 the country. It was probably not long after 
 this that the immigration of Wallachs set in 
 from the region now called Rumania. Under 
 the Hungarian kings Transylvania was ruled 
 by voivodes. In 1526, after the battle of Mohacs, 
 in which Louis II of Hungary was overwhelmed 
 by Solyman the Magnificent, the national party 
 among the Hungarians chose John Zapolya, Voi¬ 
 vode of Transylvania, King. He had a rival 
 in Ferdinand I of Hapsburg. Part of Hungary 
 remained in possession of John Zapolya, who 
 was upheld by the Turks. Transylvania was 
 severed from the Kingdom of Hungary, the 
 royal crown remaining in the possession of the 
 Hapsburgs. From 1571 to 1576 the country had 
 an able prince in Stephen B&thory, who in 1575 
 was elected King of Poland. Other princes of 
 the B&thory (q.v.) family followed. At the be¬ 
 ginning of the seventeenth century Transylvania 
 was for a short time in the power of Austria, 
 but in 1604 a great rising of the Protestants 
 
TRANSYLVANIA 
 
 TRAPANI 
 
 432 
 
 in the country and in Hungary took place un¬ 
 der the head of Stephen Bocskay (q.v.), who 
 was elected Prince of Transylvania in 1605 and 
 in 1606 forced the Hapsburgs to recognize the 
 liberties of the Hungarian Protestants. In the 
 Thirty Years’ War two princes of Transylvania, 
 Bethlen Gabor (q.v.) and George Rakoczy (q.v.), 
 figured among the champions of the Protestant 
 cause. When Leopold I of Austria, after the 
 overthrow" of the Turks at Vienna (1683), had 
 made himself master of the heart of Hungary, 
 he proceeded to secure possession of Transyl¬ 
 vania. Prince Michael I Apafi (q.v.) had to 
 acknowledge the Austrian ruler as overlord of 
 Transylvania, which was united with Hungary, 
 and his son, Michael II, was forced to renounce 
 his title for a money consideration. In the 
 Peace of Karlovitz, in 1699, the Turkish Sul¬ 
 tan recognized the sovereignty of Austria over 
 the country. The Diploma of Leopold I in 1691 
 had guaranteed to Transylvania its ancient 
 privileges and customs. It was erected into a 
 grand principality in 1765. In the Hungarian 
 revolution of 1848-49 Transylvania was the 
 scene of terrible massacres of the Magyars by 
 the Wallachs and of the victories and final de¬ 
 feat of General Bern (q.v.). In 1849 Transyl¬ 
 vania was separated from Hungary and made 
 an Austrian crownland. In 1867 it was again 
 united with Hungary. Transylvania was in¬ 
 vaded by the Russians in the Great War. 
 See War in Europe. Consult: G. A. Bielz, 
 Handbuch der Landeskunde Siebenbiirgens (Her- 
 mannstadt, 1857); Karl Reissenberger, Das 
 Gross furstentum Siebenbilrgen (Vienna, 1881); 
 Rudolf Bergner, Siebenbiirgen (Leipzig, 1884) ; 
 Hauer and Stache, Geologie Siebenbiirgens (Vi¬ 
 enna, 1885) ; E. Gerard, The Land beyond the 
 Forest (London, 1888) ; Cambridge Modern His¬ 
 tory, vols. ii, iii, v, x-xii (New York, 1904-10). 
 
 TRANSYLVANIA, Prince of. See Beth¬ 
 len Gabor. 
 
 TRANSYLVANIA COLLEGE. An institu¬ 
 tion for higher education founded in Lexington, 
 Ky., in 1798. It succeeded Transylvania Sem¬ 
 inary, which was chartered in 1783. The sem¬ 
 inary was located near Danville, Ky., but was 
 removed to Lexington in 1789. It was con¬ 
 solidated with Kentucky Academy and the 
 name changed to Transylvania University in 
 1798. Gifts to its endowment fund were given 
 by George Washington, John Adams, Aaron 
 Burr, John Jacob Astor, and General Lafayette. 
 In 1865 Transylvania was consolidated with 
 Kentucky University, the successor of Bacon 
 College, and the institution took the name of 
 Kentucky University. In 1908, however, the 
 name Transylvania was resumed, and in 1915 
 the title was changed from that of Transylvania 
 University to Transylvania College. The al¬ 
 umni of the college' number more than 4000. 
 In the autumn of 1915 there were 270 students, 
 of whom 142 were preparing for religious vo¬ 
 cations. The faculty numbered 24. The en¬ 
 dowment at the end of the collegiate year was 
 $499,249. The library contains 21,000 volumes. 
 The buildings, grounds, and equipment were 
 valued at $525,000, and the annual income 
 amounted to $70,648. The president in 1916 
 was Richard F. Crossfield, LL. D. 
 
 TRANSYLVANIA UNIVERSITY. See 
 Transylvania College. 
 
 TRAP (Ger. Trapp, from Swed. trapp, trap 
 rock, from trappa, Ger. Treppe, stair; so called 
 because often developed in steplike masses). 
 
 A very general term, little employed in scien¬ 
 tific language, but commonly used to designate 
 dense and generally fine-grained igneous rocks 
 of black or dark-green color. The term is al¬ 
 most synonymous with basalt (q.v.) or dia¬ 
 base (q.v.), but might include as well gabbro, 
 norite, peridotite, pyroxenite, etc. When al¬ 
 tered such rocks assume a green color from 
 the hornblende, chlorite, epidote, or other sec¬ 
 ondary minerals developed in them, and they 
 are then known as greenstone. Both greenstone 
 and trap include a wide range of rock families, 
 which by reason of their fine texture and often 
 altered condition are difficult to determine with¬ 
 out careful and generally microscopic study. 
 
 TRAP. See Plumbing. 
 
 TRA'PA (Neo-Lat., abbrev. of ML. calci- 
 trapa, caltrop, from Lat. calx, heel + ML. 
 trappa, snare, from OHG. trappa, trapa, AS. 
 trceppe, treppe, Eng. trap / so called from the 
 
 four spines of some species, which thus resemble 
 caltrops). A small genus of aquatic plants, the 
 only representative of the family Hydrocaryaceae, 
 now generally placed in the family Haloragi- 
 daceae. Trapa natans, the water caltrops, is 
 found in ditches and ponds in southern Europe, 
 is grown in ponds in Holland, and is found in 
 a few places in Massachusetts and New York. The 
 floating leaves are rhomboidal, toothed, and 
 smooth; those under water are cut into capillary 
 segments. The fruit has four spines; the large, 
 almond-like kernels are edible, either raw or 
 roasted or in soups, and taste somewhat like 
 chestnuts; hence the French name marron d’eau 
 (water chestnut). Nuts of Trapa bispinosa, 
 the Singhara nut, being starchy, are widely 
 used as food in Cashmere, where they are 
 made into cakes, etc. Trapa bicornis, by some 
 botanists considered to be a form of Trapa na¬ 
 tans, is much cultivated in China for its edible 
 fruit. Some botanists reduce all the species to 
 one, with possibly several varieties. 
 
 TRAPANI, tra'pa-ne. The capital of the 
 province of Trapani, Sicily, situated on a penin¬ 
 sula of the northwest coast, 45 miles west by 
 south of Palermo (Map: Italy, D 5). There 
 are several fine churches with noteworthy sculp¬ 
 tures and paintings, and palaces architectur¬ 
 ally interesting. The lyceum has a picture gal¬ 
 lery and a natural-history collection. The spe- 
 
TRAPDOOR SPIDER 
 
 433 
 
 TRAPPING 
 
 cial industries are connected with the working 
 of coral, shell cameos, marble, and alabaster 
 There are also shipbuilding yards, saltworks, 
 fisheries, and an export trade in wine, fruits, 
 olive oil, etc. The fine harbor, which is de¬ 
 fended by a fort, is the scene of much commer¬ 
 cial activity. Near the city is the ancient An- 
 nunziata pilgrimage church, with the famous 
 statue of the Madonna of Trapani. Trapani, 
 the ancient Drepanum and • seaport of Eryx 
 (q.v.), was fortified by the Carthaginians in 
 the third century b.c. Here in 24<f b.c. they 
 defeated the Romans in a great naval battle. 
 Eight years later, however, Trapani became a 
 Roman colony. It was a royal residence in the 
 Middle Ages. Pop., 1901, 59,452; 1911, 62,572. 
 
 TRAPDOOR SPIDER. Any one of the 
 large hairy tropical spiders of the family Thera- 
 phosidae, which make long tubes in the earth, 
 lining them with silk and fashioning at the en¬ 
 trance a bevel-edged, hinged, accurately fitting 
 trapdoor made of alternate layers of earth and 
 silk. The upper surface is covered with earth 
 or. gravel so as to disguise the entrance. The 
 spider hides in the nest when not seeking prey, 
 and with some species a branch to the tunnel 
 is built with a separate door. 
 
 The digging of the burrow (always on high 
 sloping ground) is a laborious task. The earth 
 is loosened with the mandibles and is carried 
 away piece by piece supported by the mandibles 
 and maxillae. One observed took an hour to 
 dig a hollow as large as half a walnut. A spe¬ 
 cies common in the southwestern United States 
 (Ctcnitza californica) digs holes nearly an inch 
 in diameter and sometimes a foot in length. 
 When the spider is on guard, holding the door 
 down from inside by means of its mandibles 
 and feet, it is impossible to raise the trapdoor 
 without tearing it. Experimenters at San Diego, 
 Cal., removed, the trapdoors of 60 nests, unhing¬ 
 ing them at night. Without exception the spider 
 had by morning completed a new door. Con¬ 
 tinued removal resulted in a falling off in the 
 quality of the doors, owing to the failure of 
 the spider’s supply of silk. The fifth door made, 
 by a single spider, was almost entirely of mud 
 with hardly enough web to coat and hinge it. 
 When the trapdoors were fastened down, a side 
 branch with a new door was always made over¬ 
 night with an opening near the original mouth. 
 
 The nests are generally in pairs, but it is 
 not known whether they are occupied by differ¬ 
 ent sexes. The young hatch in the mother’s 
 burrow and live there for a few weeks; then 
 they leave the nest and begin small tubes of 
 their own. The food of these spiders consists 
 largely of ants and other crawling wingless 
 insects. They have been known to eat earth¬ 
 worms and large caterpillars. The trapdoor 
 spiders of southern Europe make thin covers 
 which rest loosely on the top of the hole, but 
 they are covered with leaves or something of 
 the sort in order to disguise them. 
 
 Consult: J. T. Moggridge, Harvesting Ants 
 and Trap-Door Spiders (London, 1873) ; .T. H. 
 Emerton, The Structure and Habits of Spiders 
 (Salem, Mass., 1878); H. C. McCook, Ameri¬ 
 can Spiders and their Spinning Work, vol. iii 
 (Philadelphia, 1893); J. H. Emerton, Common 
 Spiders of the United States (Boston, 1902) ; 
 
 •T. II. Fabre, The Life of the Spider (Eng. trans. 
 by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos, New York, 
 1913) ; J. H. Comstock, Spider Book ( new ed., 
 ib., 1914). 
 
 TRAPE'ZITJM. As commonly defined in the 
 United States, a quadrilateral of which no two 
 sides are parallel. The distinction between 
 trapezium and trapezoid was not always clearly 
 made by Greek writers, but in general the word 
 
 tiapezium meant a quadrilateral having two 
 parallel sides, arid “trapezoid” meant a quadri¬ 
 lateral in general, ordinarily having no parallel 
 sides. In England this is the present usage, a 
 trapezium having two parallel sides and a trape¬ 
 zoid having no parallel sides. See Quadri¬ 
 lateral. 
 
 TRAP'EZOID (Gk. Tpaire^oeidrjs, trapezoeides, 
 s iaped like a trapezium, from rpaire^a, trapeza, 
 table, f i om rerpa- tetra -, four -J- ttovs, pous, 
 foot + eldos, eidos, form). As commonly defined 
 in the United States, a quadrilateral two of 
 whose sides are parallel; but see the discussion 
 under Trapezium. The parallel sides are called 
 the bases. The area of a trapezoid is given by 
 the formula A = y 2 (b + &') a, where b and V 
 are the bases and a the altitude. See Quadri¬ 
 lateral. 
 
 TRAPP, John (1601—69). A Puritan clergy¬ 
 man. He was born at Croome d’Abetot; gradu¬ 
 ated B.A. at Oxford (1622); was usher (1622- 
 24), then headmaster of the free school at Strat¬ 
 ford-on-Avon (1624-26); vicar of Weston-on- 
 Avon, 2 miles from Stratford (1636-46); rec¬ 
 tor of Welford (1646-60); then went back to 
 Weston, where he died. His fame rests upon 
 his biblical commentaries, which furnish a 
 specimen of Puritan Bible study at its best 
 and are often both witty and wise. They were 
 issued in a collected edition in 1662 et seq. and 
 reissued, with a Memoir by A. B. Grosart, as 
 Commentary on the Old and Hew Testaments 
 (1865-68). Consult Spurgeon, Commenting and 
 Commentaries (London, 1876). 
 
 TRAPPING (from trap, AS. trceppe, treppe, 
 OHG. trappa, trapa, trap, snare; connected with 
 Ger. Trappe, flight of stairs, ladder). The taking 
 of animals and birds by means other than the 
 arrow, spear, or gun. The methods used may 
 be divided into four classes: (1) the pit, the 
 inclosure, and the heavy deadfall, for the larg¬ 
 est animals, such as "the bear and the lion, 
 and the lighter deadfall and snap trap for 
 smaller beasts, as wolves, foxes, and beavers; 
 (2) the box trap, the switch-up, and various 
 snap traps and snares for the lesser kinds of 
 quadrupeds; (3) nets of various kinds with 
 or without decoys and birdlime for birds; (4) 
 nets and baskets for fish. 
 
 The pit is a hole in the earth, lightly covered 
 and carefully concealed. It is placed where 
 the game is likely to go voluntarily or where it 
 may be drawn, either by judicious beating or 
 by an enticing bait. The covering breaks and 
 the quarry is caught in the pit. The kind of 
 animal so caught varies with the country; e.g., 
 the Arabs trap lions in pits. The inclosure is 
 a space round which in Africa the heavy creep¬ 
 ing vines from tree to tree have been woven 
 together into rough hurdles, and in Asia the 
 bamboo is similarly employed. 
 
 The heavy deadfall inclosure is a pen about 
 3 feet wide, 4 feet deep, and 5 feet high, made 
 of logs driven into the soil. Four heavy corner 
 posts hold transverse logs and the fall log. 
 The principle of the trap is that when the bait 
 is disturbed,' say by a bear, a heavy log will 
 fall upon the animal’s back and crush its body 
 against the lower log fixed across the front 
 of the pen. To reach the bait the bear must 
 
TRAPPISTS 
 
 TRAQUAIR 
 
 434 
 
 enter the trap at least halfway. A slight for¬ 
 ward pull releases the lower end of the bait 
 stick and causes the fall log to drop. Some¬ 
 times the fall log is a heavy slab set up on 
 bait sticks. The box trap is practically the 
 deadfall, but, instead of the log falling on the 
 captive, the box lid falls down on the box’s 
 sides and end and incloses the catch unhurt. 
 This can be placed anywhere, even in a tree. 
 For the switch-up a runway of the animal 
 sought is selected, and on either side, a notched 
 stick is driven projecting about 8 inches 
 aboveground, with a crosspiece resting on the 
 notches. A spring sapling about 5 feet long 
 is then driven into the ground near by and 
 its springy head bent over the crosspiece and 
 fastened to it, after which a noose of brass 
 wire is hung on it (or an overhanging 
 branch of a tree may be used in the same 
 way). The rabbit or other small animal 
 hopping along the runway runs his head in 
 the sliding noose; this grips his neck, and 
 in his struggles he releases the crosspiece, which 
 lets the sapling spring up to vertical, and the 
 captive is lifted off its feet and strangled. The 
 steel-spring trap is used for every kind of 
 quadruped, from the bear to the rat. It is 
 made of two jaws of steel, which when open lie 
 flat on the ground harmless, but when the pan 
 between them is depressed the spring forces the 
 jaws together, generally catching the animal’s 
 leg. 
 
 Fish are trapped in many ways: by gill nets 
 spread from stake to stake across the swims 
 of the fish when they come from the sea, like 
 shad, into the estuaries in the spring to spawn; 
 or by other nets, set to catch fish migrating 
 from the fresh waters to the sea, like salmon 
 and trout. Similar ones are sometimes set un¬ 
 der ice, near holes cut through it, towards which 
 the fish will invariably come to the light. There 
 is the cast net, a circular net with lead weights 
 around its bottom edge, which when thrown 
 and spread, by a twirl of the arm, into shallow 
 water where a shoal of fish are, sinks rapidly 
 at the full extent of the circle, and when drawn 
 in by the caster pulls up all the fish within its 
 area. Baskets are set for eels, into which they 
 can crawl, but out of which they cannot re¬ 
 turn. Snares—or snigs, as they are sometimes 
 called—will capture fish in shallow water, 
 notably pike. They are wire nooses at the end 
 of a rod which the snarer deftly slips over the 
 head of the fish and tightens with a snatch. 
 Snaring game fish is generally prohibited in the 
 United States, and in most of the States seines 
 or nets of any kind may be lawfully used only 
 under rigid restrictions. Consult: Harding, 
 Wolf and Coyote Trapping (Columbus, Ohio, 
 1909) ; E. Kreps, Science of Trapping (ib., 
 1909) ; F. H. Buzzacott, Encyclopedia of the 
 Hunter’s and Trapper’s Art (2d ed., Chicago, 
 1913). 
 
 TRAP'PISTS. A branch of the Cistercian 
 Order, following the reforms introduced in 1664 
 by Jean le Bouthillier de Ranee (q.v.). They 
 take their name from th*e monastery of La 
 Trappe in Normandy, of which Ranc6 was abbot 
 when he began his reforms. They are among 
 the most austere of Roman Catholic orders. 
 The day in a Trappist monastery, begins with 
 matins in the church at 2 A.M., followed by 
 a half-hour’s meditation, and mass or study oc¬ 
 cupies the time until ten minutes to six. Then 
 follows prime, and from 7.30 to 9 manual labor 
 
 or instruction. At 9.45 terce, high mass, sext, 
 and examination of conscience. Dinner is at 
 11, except on fast days, when it is an hour 
 later. The hour after it is occupied by study 
 in winter, but a siesta is conceded in summer. 
 Work or teaching comes again from 2 to 4; 
 vespers and meditation at 5, at 6 compline, at 
 7 supper, and bed at 8. The dinner consists 
 of a small quantity of soup and vegetables with 
 a pound of bread;* a little fruit, and one glass 
 of beer. The supper is of a similar nature, 
 and those who need it are allowed a little 
 milk, coffee, or broth on rising. The fasting 
 season lasts from Holy Cross Day (September 
 14) until Easter. The Trappist sleeps in his 
 habit, removing only his shoes. Only the su¬ 
 periors have separate rooms; each of the others 
 has simply a curtained alcove in a dormitory. 
 Perpetual silence is the most characteristic re¬ 
 striction imposed. It is absolute, unless he lias 
 the care of guests or needs to speak to his supe¬ 
 riors ; other communications are by signs. When 
 sick, he is nursed in the infirmary ; dying, he 
 is carried into the church to receive the last 
 rites in the presence of his brethren. The 
 dead are buried in their habits, without coffins. 
 Novices are received after two years’ probation, 
 and three years later may be professed. Besides 
 the choir brothers, who are or mean to be 
 priests, and the lay brothers, oblates are also 
 received—persons who for some reason do not 
 wish to take the vows, but conform to the rule 
 during their residence. 
 
 The earlier houses of the order were nearly 
 all in France; their expulsion from that coun¬ 
 try at the time of the Revolution and under the 
 Third Republic has caused them to plant nu¬ 
 merous monasteries in other countries. Accord¬ 
 ing to official statistics, in 1908 they had 4000 
 members .in 71 monasteries. They have three 
 houses in England, two in Ireland, nine in Bel¬ 
 gium, five in Italy, five in Holland, three in 
 Germany, four in Asia, two in Africa, and 10 
 in America, including four in the United States, 
 five in Canada, and one in Brazil. The monas¬ 
 teries in the United States are located at Getli- 
 semane, Ky.; New Malleray (near Dubuque), 
 Iowa; Lonsdale, R. I.; Jordan, Oreg. They do 
 not as a rule undertake the cure of souls, but 
 conduct a few mission stations in South Africa, 
 the Congo State, Japan, China, etc. Consult: 
 C. Gaillardin, Les Trappistes ou Vordre de 
 Citeaux au XIXme siecle (2 vols., Paris, 1844) ; 
 La Trappe, par un Trappiste de Sept-Fons (ib., 
 1870) ; F. Pfannenschmidt, Geschichte der Trap- 
 pisten (Paderborn, 1874); Suchier, Der Orden 
 den Trappisten und die vegetarische Lebensiveise 
 (2d ed., Munich, 1906). For the ordinary 
 reader, the most vivid and accurate account of 
 life in a Trappist monastery is in J. K. Huys- 
 mans, En Route (Eng. trans. by C. Kegan Paul, 
 London, 1896). 
 
 TRAQUAIR, trak'war, Ramsey Heatley 
 (1840-1912). A British naturalist, born at 
 Rhynd, Perthshire. He graduated at Edinburgh 
 University and from 1873 to 1906 was keeper of 
 natural history collections at the Royal Scottish 
 Museum, Edinburgh. From 1883 till 1887 and 
 again from 1896 till 1900 he was Swiney lec¬ 
 turer on geology in the British Museum. Tra- 
 quair became a leading authority on fossil 
 ichthyology. His publications include: Struc¬ 
 ture and Affinities of the Paleeoniscidce (1879) ; 
 Structure and Affinities of the Platysomulce 
 (1879) ; Report on Fossil Fishes Collected by the 
 
TRARIEUX 
 
 435 
 
 Geological Survey of Scotland in the Silurian 
 Rocks of the South of Scotland (1900); Les 
 poissons Wealdiens de Bernissart (1911). 
 
 TRARIEUX, Gabriel (1870- ). A 
 
 French diamatist and poet, born at Bordeaux 
 and educated at the Lyc6e Condorcet. He was 
 codirector of the review L’Art et la Vie (1896- 
 98) and of the Revue d’Art Dramatique (1898- 
 1901) and in 1903 was appointed dramatic 
 critic of La Revue. Trarieux became a member 
 of the central committee of the League for the 
 Defense of the Rights of Man. He wrote: verse, 
 La chanson du prodigue (1892) and La coupe 
 de ThuU (1896); dramatic criticism, La lan- 
 terne de Diogene (1902); essays, Les petites 
 provinciales (1904) ; and the following dramas: 
 Joseph d’Arimathie (1898); Sur la foi des 
 traites (1900); Les vaincus; Hypatie; Savon- 
 arole (1900); La guerre au village (1903); 
 L’Otage (1907); L’Alibi (1908); La dette 
 (1909); Un soir and La brebis perdue (both 
 1911); L’Escapade (1912). 
 
 TRARIEUX, Jacques Ludovic (1840-1904). 
 A French advocate and Senator, father of Ga¬ 
 briel Trarieux (q.v.). He was born at Aube- 
 terre, Charente, and became an advocate at 
 Bordeaux, where he was elected a deputy in 
 1879. In the Chamber of Deputies he joined 
 the Republican Left. He failed in the elections 
 of 1881 and 1884, but was returned to the 
 Chamber for Charente in 1885. In 1888 he was 
 elected for Gironde to the Senate, where he sat 
 with the Left Centre, and in 1897 was reelected. 
 Trarieux served in the Ribot cabinet in 1895. 
 He was one of the four Senators who were 
 charged with the prosecution of General Bou¬ 
 langer (see Boulanger, Georges Ernest) be¬ 
 fore the High Court, and he was also active in 
 the revision of the Dreyfus case (see Dreyfus, 
 Alfred), being the founder and first president 
 of the League for the Defense of the Rights of 
 Man (Ligue pour la Defense de l’Homme et du 
 Citoyen). 
 
 TRASIMENO, tra'se-ma'nd, Lago (Lat. 
 
 7 rasimenus Lacus), or Lago di Perugia. A 
 lake in Italy, lying between Cortona and 
 Perugia (Map: Italy, D 3). It is about 10 
 miles in length by 8 in breadth; the greatest 
 depth is not above 30 feet. The lake "has no 
 apparent outlet, and the margins are flat and 
 overgrown with reeds. It is surrounded on 
 all sides by hills, those on the north side, ex¬ 
 tending from Cortona to the lake, being known 
 as Gualandro Hills—the montes Cortonenses of 
 Livy. They are covered at the present day with 
 oaks, vineyards, and olive plantations.' The 
 lake is memorable chiefly for the great victory 
 obtained by Hannibal in 217 b.c., during the 
 Second Punic War, over the Romans under 
 Flaminius. Consult Livy, xxii, 3-6. 
 
 TRASK, Spencer (1844-1909). An Ameri¬ 
 can banker and philanthropist, born in Brooklyn. 
 He graduated from Princeton in 1866 and en¬ 
 tered the Wall Street banking house of H. G. 
 Marquand. In 1881 he established the firm of 
 Spencer Trask & Co., which became well known 
 in finance, having branch houses in Philadelphia, 
 Albany, and Providence. He early saw the value 
 of Edison’s experiments and became one of the 
 inventor’s supporters, as president of the Edison 
 Electric Light Company and director in nu¬ 
 merous companies manufacturing the Edison 
 products. He was also identified with many 
 other corporations and with railroads, reorgan¬ 
 ized the New York Times, was a patron of "art, 
 
 TRAUTENAU 
 
 and built St. Christina’s Home for children at 
 * aratoga. He was deeply interested in munici¬ 
 pal reform and in local Democratic politics. He 
 was killed in a railroad collision. Spencer Trask 
 did much to restore to popularity the mineral 
 waters at Saratoga, and in 1915 an elaborate 
 memorial was erected there in recognition of 
 this service. His wife, Kate Nichols (“Ka- 
 trrna ) Trask, became well known as an author. 
 
 TRASTAMARE, Henry II of. See Henry 
 11 of Trastamare. 
 
 TRASTEVERE, tras-ta've-re. A district of 
 Rome about the Janiculum, which was annexed 
 to the city by Augustus as the Regio Transti- 
 benna. In Imperial times it was the abode 
 of street peddlers and during the Middle Amis 
 was frequented by foreigners. It is now almost 
 entirely inhabited by the working classes. Many 
 "valuable antiquities have been recovered in the 
 district, among them the Apoxyomenos (q.v.) of 
 Lysippus. Consult K. Baedeker, Central Italy 
 and Rome (15th Eng. ed., Leipzig, 1909). 
 
 TRAU, trou. A town of Dalmatia, Austria,, 
 on the Adriatic, 12 miles west of Spalato (Map: 
 Austiia, E 5). It is interesting for its remains 
 of Venetian domination, including a thirteenth- 
 century cathedral. Pop., 1910, 3507. 
 
 TRAUBE, trou'be, Ludwig (1818-76). A 
 German clinician, born at Ratibor, Silesia. He 
 studied at the universities of Breslau, Berlin 
 (M.D., 1840), and Vienna. He became lecturer 
 at the University of Berlin in 1849 and for 
 many years was connected with the Charite 
 lospital. In 1862 he was made professor at 
 the Friedrich-Wilhelm Institute and in 1872 
 professor at the university. Traube was espe¬ 
 cially noted for his experiments on animals for 
 the purpose of demonstrating pathological condi¬ 
 tions. The practice of auscultation and percus¬ 
 sion was greatly promoted by him, and he also 
 made important studies regarding diseases of 
 the heart, kidneys, and lungs. He published, 
 among other works, Gesammelte Beitrdge zur 
 Pathologie und Physiologie (1871) 
 
 TRAUMAT'RQPISM (from ' Gk. rpaOya, 
 trauma, wound -f- Tpo-iry, trope, a turning, from 
 rpeircLv, trepein, to turn). The sensitiveness of 
 plant parts to wounding, by reason of which 
 thej' change their growth so as to curve away 
 fiom the side wounded. This sensitiveness is 
 especially manifested by roots; in which, how¬ 
 ever, severe wounding may produce a purely me¬ 
 chanical effect, overpowering the true irritable 
 reaction, which is only manifest in response to 
 slighter wounds. See Growth. 
 
 TRAUH, troim. A river of Austria. It 
 rises on the Gross-Hochkasten in northwest 
 Styria and, entering Upper Austria, traverses 
 the Hallstattersee and the Traunsee (q.v.) and 
 flows into the Danube a few miles below Linz. 
 
 It is celebrated for its trout. Near the village 
 of Roitham it forms a notable waterfall. Leno-th 
 about 110 miles. 
 
 TRAUNSEE, troun'za, or GMUNDENER- 
 SEE, gmun'den-er-za. The largest lake of Aus¬ 
 tria after the Attersee (Map: Austria-Hungary, 
 
 C 3). It lies in Upper Austria, at an altitude 
 of 1376 feet, between Ebensee and Gmunden in 
 alley, and is 8 miles long and 626 
 feet deep. Like the Attersee, it is situated amid 
 impressive surroundings and is noted for its 
 picturesqueness. 
 
 TRAUTENAU, trou'te-nou. A frontier town 
 °f Bohemia, situated 74 miles northeast of 
 1 i ague, on the right bank of the Aupa, a tribu- 
 
trautwine 
 
 TRAVELING SIDEWALK 
 
 436 
 
 tarv of the Elbe. It is the centre of the linen 
 industry of the Riesengebirge and has in addi¬ 
 tion paper mills. Here occurred two engage¬ 
 ments between the Prussians and Austrians, 
 June 27 and 28, 1866. Pop., 1900, 14,791; 1910, 
 16,143. 
 
 TRAXJTWINE, trout'win, John Cresson 
 (1810-83). An American civil engineer, born 
 in Philadelphia, Pa. In 1828 he began study 
 in the office of William Strickland, whom he 
 assisted in building the United States Mint 
 at Philadelphia. Between 1831 and 1836 he 
 was an engineer on several railways and in 
 1836-42 was chief engineer of the Hiawassee 
 Railway, connecting Georgia and Tennessee. 
 Trautwine helped to build the Canal del Dique, 
 between the Bay of Cartagena and the Magda¬ 
 lena River, and he executed (1850) surveys for 
 the Panama Railway, for the Lackawanna and 
 Lanesborougli Railway (1856), and for a railway 
 route across Honduras (1857). He also planned 
 a system of docks for Montreal. He wrote: 
 Method of Calculating the Cubic Contents of 
 Excavations and Embankments (1851); Held 
 Practice of Laying out Circular Curves for Rail¬ 
 roads (1851)'; Civil Engineer’s Pocketbook 
 (1872). The Pocketbook was long known as the 
 “engineer’s bible” and under the editorship of 
 John C. Trautwine 2d and 3d passed through 
 many editions and is still current. 
 
 TRAVAILLEURS DE LA MER, tra/va'yer' 
 de la mar' (Fr., Toilers of the Sea). A novel by 
 Victor Hugo (1866), containing wonderful de¬ 
 scriptions of the sea. 
 
 TRAV'ANCORE'. A native state of Brit¬ 
 ish India, lying territorially within the Province 
 of Madras (Map: India, C 8). It occupies the 
 western part of the extreme south end of the 
 Indian peninsula and stretches from Cape Com¬ 
 orin northward along the coast to Cochin. 
 Area, 7129 square miles. The coast, which is 
 low and sandy, is lined with lagoons receiving 
 numerous small streams. The land rises gradu¬ 
 ally to the crest of the Anamalay Mountains, 
 which extend along the eastern boundary with 
 an average altitude of 4000 to 5000 feet, rising 
 in their highest peaks to over 8500 feet. The 
 climate is hot on the coast; the rainfall is 
 heavy, and the mountain slopes are covered with 
 forests of valuable woods, such as teak and 
 ivory. 
 
 Rice, the sago palm, and vegetables are among 
 the principal products. Pepper, coffee, tea, 
 coconut products, and timber are the chief arti¬ 
 cles exported. Travancore is one of the most 
 progressive of the native states of India. Its 
 chiefs for a long period have been highly quali¬ 
 fied by character and education for their posi¬ 
 tions, government has been well administered, 
 and a higher degree of prosperity has prevailed 
 than has been common in India. The chieftaincy 
 descends in the female line. The. ruling family 
 belongs to the Hindu race. A tribute of $400,- 
 000 is paid annually to the British in con¬ 
 sideration of the protection which they afford. 
 Pop., 1901, 951,038; 1911, 3,428,975, the great 
 majority being Hindus. About one-fifth of the 
 population are Syrian Christians. Trivandrum 
 (q.v.) is the capital. 
 
 TRAV'ELER, The. A poem by Oliver Gold¬ 
 smith (1764). 
 
 TRAVELERS, Law as to. See Carrier, 
 Common ; Highway ; Rules of the Road ; 
 Ticket. 
 
 TRAVELER’S JOY. See Clematis. 
 
 TRAVELER’S TREE, or Ravenala ( Rave- 
 nala madagascariensis) . A remarkable plant 
 of the family Musaceae, a native of Mada¬ 
 gascar. The stem resembles that of the plantain 
 or banana, but sends out leaves only on two 
 opposite sides. The lower leaves drop as the 
 stem grows, and in old trees they are sometimes 
 30 feet in air. A tree often has 24 leaves, 
 each leafstalk 6 or 8 feet long, and the blade 
 4 or 6 feet more. The blade of the leaf is 
 oblong, bright green, and shining. The fruit 
 is not succulent, but is filled with a brilliant 
 blue or purple fine silky fibre, among which 
 are 30 to 40 seeds. Forty or 50 fruits grow 
 in a bunch, and three or four bunches may be 
 seen at once on the tree. The leaves are used 
 for thatch and for other purposes, and the 
 leafstalks for partitions and often for walls 
 of houses. The bases of the leafstalks usually 
 hold water, even in the driest weather, more 
 than a quart being readily obtained by piercing 
 the thick part of the base. This water, used 
 for drinking in case of need, has suggested the 
 name. A second species, Ravenala guyanensis, 
 occurs in South America. 
 
 TRAVELING GRATES. See Shaking 
 Grates; Stoker, Automatic. 
 
 TRAVELING SIDEWALK. An arrange¬ 
 ment for the transportation of passengers, con¬ 
 sisting essentially of a series of parallel, closely 
 abutting platforms traveling on wheels or rollers 
 at different speeds. A sidewalk of this char¬ 
 acter was installed at the Columbian Exposition 
 at Chicago in 1893 to convey passengers from 
 one part of the grounds to another, and similar 
 structures have been employed at other exposi¬ 
 tions and elsewhere. The principle of opera¬ 
 tion of the traveling sidewalk may be readily 
 
 SECTION OF TRAVELING SIDEWALK. 
 
 understood by an explanation of the accompany¬ 
 ing diagram. In this diagram a, b , c, d, e, and 
 f are the parallel platforms. The platform a 
 is stationary, but the others all travel by means 
 of flexible rails riding on the rims of the wheels 
 g, h, i, j, and k. These wheels rotate on a com¬ 
 mon shaft at the same number of rotations per 
 minute, but, being of different diameters, they 
 carry the superimposed platforms at different 
 speeds; thus, platform b has, say, a speed of 3 
 miles per hour, c a speed of 6 miles, cl a speed 
 of 9 miles, e a speed of 12 miles, and f a speed 
 of 15 miles. The platforms travel continuously, 
 and a foot passenger desiring to use them steps 
 from the stationary platform a onto the mov¬ 
 ing platform b and then onto c, d, e, and / in 
 succession; the return to the stationary plat¬ 
 form is made in a similar manner, but, of 
 course, in the reverse direction. By having the 
 difference between the speeds of any two adja¬ 
 cent platforms no greater than the speed of a 
 brisk walk the transition from one speed of 
 travel to the next higher or lower is accom¬ 
 plished without difficulty, and the pedestrian 
 can board and leave the moving platforms at 
 any point he may choose. It has been proposed, 
 where the distances to be traveled are consider¬ 
 able, to have seats on the highest-speed section. 
 
TRAVELER’S TREE 
 

 THE UBR MW 
 
 Of Vr’.E 
 
 OHiVEBSlT^ Or 
 
 
 
TRAVELING STAIRWAY 
 
 437 
 
 TRAWLING 
 
 A traA eling stairway is a similar arrangement 
 placed on an incline, but supplied with but one 
 moving platform. It is used for ascending to 
 ele\ ated-i ail way platforms and in large shops, 
 and is called an escalator (q.v. ). See Elevator 
 Escalator. 
 
 TRAVELING STAIRWAY. See Elevator, 
 Escalator. 
 
 TRAVEMUNDE, tra'vc-mun'dc. A town of 
 Germany, the outport of Liibeck, lying 9 miles 
 northeast of that city, at the mouth of the Trave 
 (Map: Germany, D 2). It is a well-known 
 watering place. The old walls of the town were 
 torn down in 1882. Pop., 1900, 1849; 1910, 
 21/ 4. 
 
 TRAVERS, Jerome D(unstan) (1887- 
 ). An American golf champion. He was 
 metropolitan champion of New York for five 
 years, and for three years held the New Jersey 
 honors. The national amateur title, which he 
 first won in 1907, he held in 1907, 1908, 1912, 
 and 1913, losing to Francis Ouimet in 1914. 
 In 1915 he won the national open title, playing- 
 72 holes in 297 strokes. He published Ti •avers 3 
 Golf Book (1913), and The Winninq Shot 
 (1915), with Grantland Rice. 
 
 TRAVERS, Morris William (1872- ). 
 
 An English chemist. He was born in London 
 and studied there at University College and in 
 France at Nancy. At the former institution he 
 taught until 1903, was next professor of chem¬ 
 istry at University College, Bristol, and in 
 1906-14 was director of the Indian Institute 
 of Science at Bangalore. His researches on 
 gases at low temperatures are well known and 
 include Argon and its Companions, with Sir Wil¬ 
 liam Ramsay; The Liquefaction of Hydrogen 
 (1900); The Experimental Study of Gases 
 (1901; Ger. trans., 1905); Researches on the 
 Attainment of very Loio Temperatures (1904); 
 Further Notes on the Self-Intensive Process for 
 Liquefying Gases (1906). 
 
 TRAVESARI, tra'ver-sa're, Ambrogio. See 
 Ambrogio il Camaldolese. 
 
 TRAV'ERSE. In common-law pleading, a 
 denial of facts alleged in a pleading. A traverse 
 includes all pleadings by way of denial, whether 
 made by the defendant or "the plaintiff. See 
 Pleading. 
 
 TRAVERSE (OF., Fr. travers, from Lat. 
 traversus, transversus, lying across, transverse, 
 p.p. of transvertere, to turn across, from trans, 
 
 across, through + vertere, to turn). In forti¬ 
 
 fication, a mass of earth projecting inward from, 
 or flanking, the parapet, and designed to afford 
 protection against oblique or enfilade fire or 
 both, "traverses must not rise above the crest 
 of the work, otherwise they would reveal the 
 gun positions. In modern fortification they are 
 employed only to a limited extent. In gunnery 
 (q.v.) traverse describes the moving or pointing 
 of a gun. on its pivot, when taking aim, the gear 
 by which the operation is accomplished being 
 known as traversing gear. The platforms by 
 which heavy naval or fortress guns and carriages 
 are moved into position, or by which their 
 direction is changed, are called traversing plat¬ 
 forms. See Fortification. 
 
 TRAV'ERSE CITY. A city and the countv 
 seat of Grand Traverse Co.,‘Mich., 60 miles 
 northeast of Manistee, at the mouth of the 
 Boardman River, on Grand Traverse Bay, an 
 inlet of Lake Michigan, and on the Pere Mar¬ 
 quette, the Grand Rapids and Indiana, the 
 Traverse City, Leelanau, and Manistique, and 
 
 the Manistee and Northeastern railroads (Map: 
 Michigan, I) 4). It possesses an attractive 
 situation and good fishing facilities and enjovs 
 considerable reputation as a summer resort. 
 Hie Northern Michigan Insane Asylum is here, 
 and there are two public libraries. Traverse 
 City is situated in a noted cherry-growing re¬ 
 gion and is also extensively engaged in manu¬ 
 facturing. It is known for its production of 
 oval wood dishes. Some of the other im¬ 
 portant manufactures are baskets, lumber, 
 interior finishings, farm implements, shoes, 
 cider, candy, flour, leather, fur coats and robes, 
 furniture, foundry and machine-shop products, 
 etc. I lie city has adopted the commission 
 form of government. Traverse City was settled 
 about 1850 and was chartered as a citv in 1895 
 Pop., 1900, 9407; 1910, 12,145; 1915 (U S* 
 est.), 13,542; 1920, 10,925. 
 
 TRAV'ERTINE (from It. travertino, tibur- 
 tino , from Lat. tiburtinus, travertine, relating 
 to Tibur, from Tibur, an ancient town of 
 Latium, now called Tivoli). A massive or 
 cryptocrystalline variety of limestone that is 
 deposited from springs or rivers and usually 
 has an irregularly banded structure owing to 
 its mode of formation. A variety known as 
 calc tufa consists of cellular depositions from 
 the waters of small springs and often contains 
 fossil leaves, twigs, etc. See Calcareous Tufa. 
 
 TRAV'ESTY (OF. travesti, p.p. of travester, 
 to disguise, from Lat. trans, across, through -(- 
 vestire, to clothe, from vestis, garment). A 
 term applied in literature to denote a burlesque 
 representation of something previously executed 
 in a serious and lofty manner. It differs from 
 parody (q.v.) in this respect: that while the 
 latter changes the subject matter and the 
 dramatis person®, but mockingly imitates the 
 style of the original, the former leaves the sub¬ 
 ject matter partially, and the dramatis person® 
 wholly, unaltered; producing a purely comic 
 effect by the substitution of the mean, the 
 frivolous, and the grotesque in action or speech, 
 for the serious, the noble, or the heroic. See 
 Parody. 
 
 TRA VI AT A, tra'vi-ii'ta, La. An opera by 
 Verdi (q.v.), first produced in Venice, March 
 6, 1853; in the United States, Dec. 3, 1856 
 (New York). 
 
 TRAV'IS, William Barrett (1811-36). An 
 American soldier, born in Edgefield Co., S. C. 
 After studying law he began practice at Clai¬ 
 borne, Ala., about 1830. He removed to Texas, 
 then beginning the struggle for independence, in 
 1832 and at once took part in the insurrection. 
 He was made a colonel in the revolutionary 
 army and was captured by the Mexican forces, 
 but was finally released. With about 150 men 
 he defended the Alamo (q.v.) from Feb. 23 to 
 March 6, 1836, against Gen. Santa Anna (q.v.) 
 and about 5000 Mexicans. Desperate fighting- 
 continued until only Travis and five others were 
 left. They surrendered on being assured that 
 their lives would be spared, but by Santa Anna’s 
 orders they were all killed. 
 
 TRAWLING (from traivl, from OF. trauler, 
 troller, troler, Fr. troler, to ramble, stroll, drag 
 about). One of two modes of deep-sea fishing 
 or of exploration of the depths. In Europe a 
 trawl or beam trawl is a triangular purse¬ 
 shaped net, about 70 feet long, usually having- a 
 breadth of about 40 feet at the mouth. The 
 upper part of the mouth is secured to a wooden 
 beam which keeps the net open; this beam is 
 
TREACLE BIBLE 
 
 TREASON 
 
 438 
 
 supported on two upright iron frames, known as 
 trawl heads or irons. The underside of the 
 net is made with a deeply curved margin at¬ 
 tached to the ground rope, the whole length 
 of it in contact with the ground. A trawl 
 has also generally two pockets, one on each side, 
 made by lacing‘together the upper and under 
 parts, so that fish turning back from the cod 
 may be caught in them. The meshes vary m 
 size from 4 inches square at the mouth to 1 /4 
 inches square in the cod, or narrow hinder end 
 of the net. Two stout ropes about 15 fathoms 
 lono r are fastened to the trawl heads and form 
 a bridle, to which is shackled a towing line 
 150 fathoms long. Trawling is generally m the 
 direction of the tide and can be followed with 
 advantage only on a sandy or other smooth bot¬ 
 tom. The vessels employed on the Dogger bank 
 and near the English coast vary in size from 
 35 to 60 tons. Many of these trawlers stay 
 at sea for six weeks at a time in all seasons 
 of the year, their fish being packed in ice, col¬ 
 lected by fast-sailing cutters, and conveyed to 
 market. Cod, haddock, etc., are caught in great 
 numbers by trawling; some kinds of flat fish, 
 as soles, are scarcely to be obtained by other 
 means. Smaller trawl nets are used in bays 
 and estuaries. 
 
 In the United States a trawl is a long line 
 anchored on the fishing ground, from which 
 depends a row of short lines carrying baited 
 hooks. The device is principally used on the 
 fishing banks. See Deep-Sea Exploration ; 
 Fisheries 
 
 TREACLE (tre'k’l) BIBLE. See Bible, 
 
 Curious Editions of. 
 
 TREACLE MUSTARD. See Erysimum. 
 
 TREADMILL. A machine where the weight 
 of men or animals acting on a series of treads 
 or steps arranged on a cylinder or endless band 
 is employed to furnish power. The most gen¬ 
 eral application of this machine has been to 
 farming machinery, where horses and dogs aie 
 used to supply the motive power. The endless 
 band formed by the treads is inclined and is 
 connected with a flywheel, to which the ma¬ 
 chinery to be operated is connected by belting. 
 The term ‘Treadmill” is most generally applied, 
 however, to a device formerly in general use in 
 prisons in Great Britain for convicts sentenced 
 to hard labor. It consisted of a wheel in the 
 form of a long hollow cylinder, with steps 
 around its circumference and a hand rail above 
 the wheel, so that a prisoner might support 
 himself while treading the steps and thus work¬ 
 ing the wheel. The desired resistance could be 
 created by means of weights, or the motive 
 power thus created utilized to grind grain, 
 etc. The physical exercise was severe, and the 
 use of the treadmill in British prisons, which 
 had been gradually abandoned, was entirely 
 abolished early in the twentieth century. The 
 crank, a small wheel with paddles, which revolves 
 in a box partially filled with sand or gravel, 
 was substituted in some prisons where unpro¬ 
 ductive hard labor was necessary, but this also 
 was abolished in a more enlightened penology. 
 As the amount of work could be measured with 
 accuracy, the treadmill was occasionally em- 
 ploved in phvsiological investigations. 
 
 TREAD'WELL, Aaron Louis (1866- ). 
 
 An American zoologist, born at Redding, Conn., 
 and educated at Wesleyan University (B.S., 
 1888; M.S., 1890) and at the University of 
 Chicago .(Ph.D., 1898). He was professor of 
 
 zoology and geology at Miami University (1891 
 1900) and at Vassar College was professor of 
 biology (1900-14) and thereafter professor of 
 zoology. In addition, he was an instructor at 
 the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods 
 Hole (1898-1906, 1913) and honorary curator 
 of annulates at the American Museum of Nat¬ 
 ural History from 1909. His writings include 
 a number of papers dealing chiefly with annelid 
 systematics and embryology, the most important 
 of the latter being The Cytogeny of Podarke 
 obscura (1901). He contributed to the New 
 International Encyclopaedia. 
 
 TREADWELL, Daniel (1791-1872). An 
 American inventor, born at Ipswich, Mass. 
 Among his more important inventions aie a 
 power printing press; a system of turnouts for 
 single-track railroads (1826); the gypsy, a 
 hemp-spinning machine for the manufactuie. of 
 cordage (1829) ; and a method of constructing 
 cannon from wrought iron and steel according 
 to a process said to resemble that invented latei 
 by Sir William Armstrong. (See Armstrong, 
 William George, Baron.) Of these, the spin¬ 
 ning machine was probably the most successful. 
 In 1822, in conjunction with Dr. John Ware, he 
 founded the Boston Journal of Philosophy and 
 the Arts, and from 1834 to 1845 he occupied 
 the chair of Rumford professor at Harvard. 
 Treadwell had a taste for theology and was one 
 of Longfellow’s, circle of friends, and is the theo¬ 
 logian of the Tales of a Wayside Inn. He pub¬ 
 lished: The Relations of Science to the Useful 
 Arts (1855) ; On the Practicability of Construct¬ 
 ing a Cannon of Great Calibre (1856) ; On the 
 Construction of Hasped Cannon (1864).. Con¬ 
 sult biographical sketch by M. Wyman in Me¬ 
 moirs of the American Academy of Arts and 
 Sciences, vol. xi (Cambridge, 1888) ; also Sam¬ 
 uel Longfellow, Life of Henry Wadsworth Long¬ 
 fellow (Boston, 1886). 
 
 TREADWELL, Frederick Pearson ( 185 /- 
 1918). A chemist, long resident in Switzerland. 
 He was born in New Hampshire, but early went 
 abroad and studied chemistry at Heidelberg, 
 where he received the degree of Ph.D. in 1878 
 and served as assistant to the great Bunsen 
 (q.v.). In 1883 he went to Switzerland and 
 became assistant to Victor Meyer (q.v.) at the 
 Technical School in Zurich. There he had 
 become professor by 1894. With Meyer he 
 published Tabellen zur qualitativen Analyse, 
 but he is best known for his Lehrbuch der 
 analytischen Chemie (2 vols.) which passed 
 through, many editions and was translated into 
 several languages, the English version being 
 widely used as a textbook in American uni- 
 versities. 
 
 TREASON (OF. traison, traisson, Fr. trahi- 
 son, treason; from Lat. traditio, sui render, de 
 livery, from tradere, to deliver over, betray). 
 At common law there were two distinct classes 
 of crime known as treason, termed respectively 
 high treason and petit treason. The first was 
 disloyalty to the sovereign or a violation of 
 allegiance due him. The second was a violation 
 of the allegiance due from an inferior to a supe¬ 
 rior, by taking the life of the superior, as of a 
 wife to her husband, a servant to his master, or 
 an ecclesiastic to his superior. Petit treason 
 is now everywhere punished only as a homicide. 
 Hi Mi treason, being in effect treachery against 
 the sovereign, was the highest crime a subject 
 could commit. By the ancient common law, 
 however, the crime was not clearly defined; 
 
TREASON 
 
 439 
 
 TREASON 
 
 * 
 
 
 . 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 
 ; 
 
 
 !■ 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 v 
 
 hence there was great latitude as to what was 
 held by the judges to be treason. Thus, the 
 accroaching, or attempting to exercise, royal 
 power (a very uncertain charge) has been 
 treated as treason; and killing the King's father 
 or brother, or even his messenger, has also been 
 so treated. The inconvenience of these con¬ 
 structive treasons led to tlie passing of the 
 Statute of 25 Edw. Ill, c. 2, which attempted 
 to define treason; and it was defined in five 
 forms: (1) \\ hen a man compasses or imagines 
 the death of the King, Queen, or their eldest 
 son and heir. Under this clause it was held 
 that the husband of a queen regnant was not 
 included; but it includes a king de facto without 
 regard to his title. The phrase “compassing and 
 imagining the death of a king” has been held 
 to mean the mere purpose or design, as distin¬ 
 guished from the carrying such design into 
 effect; nevertheless, the purpose can be proved 
 only by some overt act, such as providing 
 weapons or ammunition for the purpose of 
 killing the King, or assembling and consulting 
 on the means to kill the King, although such 
 acts might fall short of the legal definition 
 of an attempt. The law has often, however, 
 been strained; a paper found in a closet was 
 held to convict Algernon Sidney (1683), though 
 merely speculative in its character. (2) An¬ 
 other form of treason was the violating of 
 the King’s companion (i.e., wife), or his 
 eldest daughter unmarried, or the wife of the 
 King’s eldest son and heir. (3) Another form 
 was that of levying war against the King in 
 his realm either by taking arms to dethrone 
 the King or under pretense to reform religion 
 or the laws; by resisting the King’s forces; or 
 by joining an insurrection. (4) It was also 
 treason to adhere to the King’s enemies in 
 Uie realm by giving them aid and comfort, as 
 by sending intelligence or provisions or selling 
 arms to them. (5) Lastly, it was treason to 
 siap the Chancellor, Treasurer, or the King’s 
 justices of the bench or in assize while in their 
 places administering justice. Besides these 
 specific forms of treason, the Statute of Edw. 
 Ill enacted that, if there should be other cases 
 not above specified, the judge should tarry 
 without going to judgment, till the King and 
 Parliament should judge it treason or other 
 felony—which was a safeguard against the 
 judges indulging too much in refinements-about 
 constructive treason. At a later period, between 
 the reigns of Henry IV and Mary, the courts, 
 nevertheless, returned to the practice of invent¬ 
 ing constructive treasons and included as such 
 the clipping of money, burning houses to extort 
 money, refusing to abjure the Pope, etc. These 
 and other newly invented treasons were totally 
 abolished by a Statute of 1 Edw. VI, c. 12, but 
 many of like nature were established under 
 Elizabeth. xV subsequent Statute of 1 Anne, 
 c. 17, provided that whoever endeavors to 
 hinder the next in succession under the Act 
 of Settlement from succeeding to the crown 
 is to be held guilty of treason; and whoever 
 maliciously affirms another to have right to the 
 crown otherwise than according to the Act of 
 Settlement commits treason. Moreover, bv 36 
 Geo. Ill, c. 7, whoever compasses or intends 
 death or bodily harm to the person of the King 
 is to be adjudged a traitor. The Act of 25 
 Edw. Ill, c. 2, was confirmed and made per¬ 
 petual by 57 Geo. Ill, c. 6, Avhich with the 
 other statutes referred to embody the English 
 
 statutory law upon the subject. There have 
 been numerous statutes making certain specific 
 acts treason, but most of these were repealed 
 shortly after their enactment. The crime is 
 neither a felony nor a misdemeanor, but a grade 
 of crime by itself. All acting and abetting in 
 the commission of treason are principals, there 
 being no accessories in the crime of treason. 
 See Accessory; Principal. 
 
 A copy of an indictment for treason and a 
 list of the witnesses and jurors, together with 
 the addresses of the latter, must be delivered 
 to the prisoner 10 days before the trial, and 
 he is entitled to have counsel assigned to de¬ 
 fend him. This right, which prisoners accused 
 of other crimes have not in English law, was 
 conferred by a Statute of William III. 
 
 The punishment for treason was the most 
 severe and revolting of the harsh punishments 
 imposed by the common law. The traitor was 
 to be drawn on a hurdle to the place of execu¬ 
 tion, hanged by the neck, his head then severed 
 from the body, the body divided into four 
 quarters, and the head and quarters to be at 
 the disposal of the crown. But in 1870 these 
 barbarities were abolished, and the penalty is 
 now changed to execution by hanging. The con¬ 
 sequence of a conviction of treason was also 
 forfeiture (q.v.) and corruption of blood, the 
 corruption of blood having the effect that the 
 attainted person could neither inherit lands 
 from his ancestors nor transmit them to any 
 heir. But this was altered as regards England 
 and Ireland in 1870 by the Statute of 33 and 
 34 Viet., c. 23. The convict suffers forfeiture 
 and is disqualified for any public office; the 
 court may order him to pay the costs of his 
 conviction, and his whole property is transferred 
 to administrators named by the crown, who ad¬ 
 minister it and retransfer the surplus to his 
 heirs and representatives. 
 
 There are certain minor offenses which are 
 called misprision of treason, being those closely 
 bordering on treason. (See Misprision.) Such 
 are offenses which consist in the bare knowl¬ 
 edge and concealment of treason, without any 
 degree of assent thereto, for any assent makes 
 the party a principal traitor. The punishment 
 of misprision of treason was loss of goods and 
 lands during life. 
 
 In the United States treason may be either 
 against an individual State or against the 
 United States. In the former case it may be 
 an offense at common law, although the con¬ 
 stitution or statutes of most of the States de¬ 
 fine the crime and provide a punishment. Most 
 of these provisions, however, are modeled after 
 the provisions of the United States Constitution 
 defining treason. The Constitution of the United 
 States (Art. Ill, Sec. 3) provides that treason 
 against the United States shall “consist only in 
 levying war against them, or in adhering to or 
 giving aid and comfort to their enemies.” It is 
 further provided that no person shall be con¬ 
 victed of treason unless on the testimony of 
 two witnesses to the overt act or upon confes¬ 
 sion in open court. The penalty is death or 
 imprisonment and fine at the discretion of the 
 court. Levying war within the meaning of 
 this provision must be a defiance of public 
 government by armed force and must amount to 
 more than a mere riot or an interference with 
 the execution of the laws for some private 
 purpose. The acts of the defendant must also 
 proceed beyond mere preparation, as by enlist- 
 
TREASURE ISLAND 
 
 TREASURY 
 
 440 
 
 ment of men for military service. They must 
 meet or be assembled for a treasonable purpose 
 and some act done towards executing with force 
 their purposes. Thus, an assembly of men 
 arrayed in a military manner for the purpose 
 of overawing the public and finally assailing 
 the government is levying war upon the gov¬ 
 ernment, although no actual blow is struck. Ad¬ 
 hering to or giving aid and comfort to the 
 enemies of the United States means more than 
 mere sympathy with enemies of the government; 
 it must be the voluntary giving of actual assist¬ 
 ance to those who are waging war against the 
 United States. 
 
 Most of the State constitutions contain pro¬ 
 visions similar to the clause of the United States 
 Constitution, defining treason against the State 
 and providing a punishment. Generally they 
 provide that treason against a State may be 
 committed by armed opposition to its laws 
 or by forcibly attempting to overthrow or 
 usurp the government. In practice, the common 
 law of crime and the statute law of crime 
 in the several States have been found adequate 
 to punish crime of a treasonable nature without 
 resorting to prosecution for treason, and there 
 have been few prosecutions for the specific of¬ 
 fense of treason against a State. Consult au¬ 
 thorities referred to under Criminal Law. 
 Cf. Praemunire. See Attainder. 
 
 TREASURE ISLAND. A stirring tale of 
 adventure by Robert Louis Stevenson (1883).' 
 
 TREASURER, Lord High. Formerly the 
 third great officer of the crown in England, 
 who was sole head of the King’s exchequer. 
 The office was originally held by one person, 
 but in 1612 James I put it in commission; and 
 from the accession of George I (1714) down to 
 the present time it has been the practice to vest 
 the office in a board of Lords Commissioners of 
 the Treasury. 
 
 TREASURE-TROVE ( treasure , from OF. 
 tresor, Fr. tresor, It., Sp. tesoro, from Lat. 
 thesaurus, from Gk. drjaavpos, treasure -f- trove, 
 from OF. trover, trouvei % Fr. trouver, to find). 
 In the common law of England, hidden treasure 
 of gold, silver, and bullion accidentally found 
 in the earth, the owner of which cannot be 
 ascertained. Treasure-trove belongs to the 
 crown, and in certain districts the right to 
 claim it has been granted to the nobility. In 
 order to come within this rule, the treasure 
 must be concealed, as distinguished from that 
 which is casually lost and remains on the sur¬ 
 face, as to which a different rule applies. A 
 finder of treasure-trove is bound by law to give 
 notice of his discovery to the proper officials 
 of the crown, and failure to do so may subject 
 him to fine and imprisonment. The present 
 policy of the English government is to allow 
 a finder to keep "treasure thus discovered, less 
 a small percentage of its value to be paid to the 
 crown, unless it is valuable as an object of his¬ 
 torical or antiquarian interest, in which cases 
 it is claimed by the crown in order to be pre¬ 
 served in the national museums. By the Treas¬ 
 ure-Trove Act of India, if no owner is found, 
 the finder is entitled to three-quarters and the 
 owner of the ground to one-quarter of its value. 
 Though there are dicta to the effect that the 
 common law as to treasure-trove applies in the 
 United States, such a right is seldom, if ever, 
 enforced. See Finding. 
 
 TREASURY, Department of the. The 
 executive department of the government of the 
 
 United States controlling the national finances. 
 It was established by Act of Congress in Septem¬ 
 ber, 1789, and was the successor of the Treasury 
 Department created by the Congress of the Con¬ 
 federation in 1781, of which Robert Morris 
 was for a time superintendent. It is the most 
 extensive and complex of the departments and 
 in rank stands next to the Department of State. 
 At its head is the Secretary of the Treasury 
 appointed by the President, who is a member 
 of the cabinet and receives a salary of $12,000. 
 He is second among the cabinet officers in the 
 line of succession to the presidency. The de¬ 
 partment as originally established consisted of 
 a Secretary, a Comptroller, an Auditor, a Treas¬ 
 urer, a Register, and an Assistant Secretary, 
 together with a few clerks. From this the de¬ 
 partment has grown to be a vast establishment 
 employing some 5000 persons at Washington, 
 with numerous bureaus, branches, and offices 
 throughout the country. The only qualification 
 for the office of Secretary of the Treasury is 
 the negative one that he shall not be interested 
 in foreign commerce. He is required to digest 
 and prepare plans for the revenue and public 
 credit, to prescribe forms for keeping the public 
 accounts, to superintend collection of the reve¬ 
 nues, to grant all warrants under certain limita¬ 
 tions for moneys issued from the Treasury in 
 pursuance of appropriations made by law, and, 
 in general, to perform such duties relative to 
 the finances of the United States as shall be 
 required by law. Simultaneously with the de¬ 
 velopment of the country the duties of the de¬ 
 partment have been extended to the manage¬ 
 ment of the national debt, the supervision of 
 the national banks, the internal-revenue system, 
 the legal-tender currency, the merchant marine, 
 the lighthouse system, the life-saving and public- 
 health services, the Coast Survey, etc. The Sec¬ 
 retary is ex officio a member of the Federal Re¬ 
 serve" Board. He is aided by three Assistant 
 Secretaries. The business of the department is 
 distributed among the following offices and bu¬ 
 reaus : the Comptroller of the Treasury, six 
 Auditors, the Treasurer, the Register, the Comp¬ 
 troller of the Currency, the Commissioner of In¬ 
 ternal Revenue, the Mint, the Bureau of En¬ 
 graving and Printing, and the Public-Health 
 Service. 
 
 The Comptroller of the Treasury, since 1894, 
 has been aided by an Assistant Comptroller. He 
 exercises a kind" of supervisory power over the 
 Auditors, countersigns warrants drawn by the 
 Secretary of the Treasury, etc. He is ex officio 
 a member of the Federal Reserve Board. The 
 original act creating the Treasury Department 
 provided for a single Auditor; four additional 
 Auditors were provided in 1817, and a sixth 
 was added in 1836. The six Auditors are as¬ 
 signed to the Treasury, War, Interior, Navy, 
 Post-Office, and State and other departments re¬ 
 spectively, with the duty of examining accounts. 
 The Treasurer is charged with the duty of sign¬ 
 ing the paper currency and of receiving and 
 keeping the moneys of the United States and 
 with disbursing the same on warrants properly 
 drawn and countersigned. There are Assistant 
 Treasurers at New York, Boston, St. Louis, 
 Philadelphia, New Orleans, Baltimore, Cincin¬ 
 nati, Chicago, and San Francisco. The Register 
 signs all stocks and bonds and all Treasury 
 notes and coin certificates issued under the 
 authority of the United States. The Comptroller 
 of the Currency enforces the provisions of the 
 
TREASURY NOTE 
 
 441 
 
 TREATIES 
 
 : 
 
 
 national banking laws and superintends the 
 issue of bank-note currency. At the head of 
 the Bureau of Internal Revenue is a commis¬ 
 sioner v I 10 is charged with the enforcement of 
 the internal-revenue laws and the collection 
 of the internal revenues. He is aided by a col¬ 
 lector in each revenue district. For the collec¬ 
 tion of the customs there is a collector in each 
 district, a surveyor in the larger ports, and 
 a general board of appraisers to hear appeals 
 against decisions of the collectors with regard 
 to the durability of imported goods. The^ Di¬ 
 rector of the Mint has the supervision of all 
 mints and assay offices throughout the country 
 and makes annual reports to Congress on the 
 coinage of the country, the yield of precious 
 metals, etc. The Bureau of Engraving, estab¬ 
 lished in 1874, has charge of the preparation of 
 designs, stamps, bank notes, bonds, Treasury 
 drafts, and other securities of the United States. 
 I he Solicitor of the Treasury has charge of all 
 legal measures to prevent the evasion of the 
 revenue laws and the counterfeiting of the 
 coin and other securities of the United States. 
 
 TREASURY NOTE. A certificate of credit 
 issued by the Treasury Department on the au¬ 
 thority of the government and made receivable 
 for government dues. In the United States 
 treasury notes bearing interest were issued at 
 different times before the Civil War, but it 
 was during that struggle that the financial 
 necessities of the government first led to the 
 issue of very great quantities of noninterest¬ 
 bearing Treasury notes, which, however, were 
 made legal tender for all public and private 
 debts except duties upon imports and interest 
 on the public debt. See Money. 
 
 TREAT, Robert (1622-1710). A Colonial 
 Governor of Connecticut, born in England. He 
 emigrated to America with his father and set¬ 
 tled in Wethersfield, Conn. In 1639 he settled 
 in Milford, from 1653 to 1659 was a deputy, 
 and from 1659 to 1664 was an assistant. He 
 opposed the union of the Connecticut River and 
 New Haven settlements and went with the dis¬ 
 satisfied faction which founded Newark, N. J. 
 In 1672 he returned to Milford and later dis¬ 
 tinguished himself in King Philip’s War. In 
 1676 he was chosen Deputy Governor of Con¬ 
 necticut and in 1683 was elected Governor and, 
 with the exception of the two years in which 
 the Colony was under Sir Edmund Andros 
 (1687-89), served until 1698. From the latter 
 year to 1708 he was again Deputy Governor. He 
 was a zealous guardian of popular liberty in 
 the Colony as against the interference and en¬ 
 croachments of Sir Edmund Andros (q.vj. 
 
 TREATIES, Indian. The first step of the 
 United States government in determining its 
 policy in regard to the Indians, whether ex¬ 
 pressed or implied, was to decide as to the 
 nature of their territorial rights, this being the 
 chief and altogether the most important factor 
 in their relations with the whites. The decision 
 reached on this point is distinctly stated by 
 the United States Supreme Court in the case 
 of Johnson and Graham’s Lessee v. McIntosh (8 
 Wheaton, 453 et seq.), as follows: “It has never 
 been contended that the Indian title amounted 
 to nothing. Their right of possession has never . 
 been questioned. The claim of the government 
 extends to the complete, ultimate title, charged 
 with the right of possession, and to the exclusive 
 power of acquiring this right.” The next step 
 was to determine the branch of the government 
 
 to carry out this policy. By the ninth of the 
 Articles of Confederation it was declared that 
 the United States in Congress assembled have 
 the sole and exclusive right and power of regu¬ 
 lating the trade and managing all affairs with 
 the Indians not members of any of the States.” 
 
 It is evident, therefore, that, while acting un¬ 
 der the Articles of Confederation, the right of 
 managing and controlling the relations with the 
 Indians resided in Congress alone. When the 
 Constitution was framed this authoritv was con¬ 
 ferred upon the legislative department in the 
 following brief statement: “To regulate com¬ 
 merce with foreign nations and among the sev¬ 
 eral States, and with the Indian tribes .” It is 
 apparent, from the use of the term “tribes,” 
 that the framers of the Constitution had in 
 contemplation the method of dealing with the 
 Indians as tribes through treaties. This is 
 clearly shown by the Act of March 1, 1793, in 
 which it is stated that no purchase or grant of 
 lands from the Indians shall be of any validity 
 unless the same be made by a treaty or con¬ 
 vention entered into pursuant to the Constitu¬ 
 tion. ’ 1 his action of Congress necessarily 
 
 placed the initiatory steps in dealing with the 
 Indians under the jurisdiction of the President 
 as the treaty-making power, subject to con¬ 
 firmation by the Senate. 
 
 The Colonies and also the mother country had 
 treated with the Indians as “nations,” their 
 chiefs or sachems often being designated as 
 “kings”—and this idea was ingrafted into United 
 States policy. It must also be remembered 
 that the Colonies were weak, the Indian tribes 
 comparatively strong and capable of requiring 
 recognition of equality. Notwithstanding the 
 evident anomaly of such a course, the growth in 
 numbers and strength of the whites, and the 
 diminishing power of the natives, this implied 
 equality was recognized in dealings between the 
 two until the Act of March 3, 1871. During 
 all this time Indian titles to lands were extim 
 guished only under the treaty-making clause 
 of the Constitution; and these treaties, though 
 the tribe may have been reduced to a small 
 band, were usually clothed in the same stately 
 verbiage as the most important treaty with a 
 great European power. From the formation of 
 the government up to March 3, 1871, 653 
 
 treaties were made with 97 different tribes or 
 recognized tribal organizations. 
 
 It was ordered by this Act of March 3, 1871, 
 that “No Indian nation or tribe within the ter¬ 
 ritory of the United States shall be acknowl¬ 
 edged or recognized as an independent nation, 
 tribe, or power with whom the United States 
 may contract by treaty,” thus terminating a legal 
 fiction that lasted nearly 100 years. It appears, 
 from the Annual report of the Commissioner of 
 Indian Affairs for 1890, that the Indian title 
 to all the public domain had been extinguished, 
 except in Alaska, in the portions included in 
 162 reservations, and those acquired by the 
 Indians through purchase. As the title to res¬ 
 ervations is derived in most cases from the 
 United States, and title by purchase is derived 
 directly or indirectly from the same source, it 
 may be stated that the Indian title to all the 
 public domain, except in Alaska, had practically 
 been extinguished by the year 1890. It would 
 seem, in fact, that the United States government 
 proceeded on the theory that all the lands 
 within its bounds were held by the natives, and 
 hence that their possessory right must be ex- 
 
TREATY 
 
 TREATY 442 
 
 tinguished. The only known variation from this 
 rule was in the case of the Uintah Utes, where 
 an omitted portion of their claimed territory 
 was taken possession of without agreement. 
 
 A natural corollary of land cessions by the 
 Indians to the United States government was 
 the establishment of reservations for these na¬ 
 tives either within the limits of the original 
 territory or elsewhere. These were the restricted 
 areas to which the Indians were confined in 
 order to bring them more directly under the 
 control and care of the government and to 
 lessen the liability of conflict with the whites 
 and warring between the tribes. It was hoped 
 also that by thus curbing the wandering habit 
 these reservations might become the first step 
 towards civilization. This policy (also followed 
 in Canada under both French and English con¬ 
 trol) was inaugurated by the government as 
 early as 1786 and continued as an established 
 policy to the present day. The earliest reserva¬ 
 tions were chiefly formed as the result of the 
 cession of lands by the tribes, thus restricting 
 their limits, but expressly stating in the treaty 
 defining the bounds that the portion so limited 
 was “allotted to” or “reserved for” the given 
 Indians. (For a list of these, see Indian Res¬ 
 ervations.) The method of establishing res¬ 
 ervations has not been uniform—some being 
 by treaty, some by executive order, and others 
 by act of Congress. Those established by execu¬ 
 tive order, independent of the act of Congress, 
 were not held to be permanent before the General 
 Allotment Act of 1887, under which the tenure 
 has been materially changed, and all reserva¬ 
 tions, whether by executive order, act of Con¬ 
 gress, or treaty, * are held permanent. Reserva¬ 
 tions by executive order under authority of 
 an act of Congress are those which have been 
 authorized or established by acts of Congress 
 and their limits defined by‘executive order, or 
 have been first established by executive order 
 and subsequently confirmed by Congress. 
 
 Other respects in which the power of Congress 
 intervenes in reference to Indian lands, or is 
 necessary to enable the Indians to carry out 
 their desires in regard thereto, are the follow¬ 
 ing: 1. Allotments of land in severalty previ¬ 
 ous to the Act of Feb. 8, 1887, could be made 
 only by treaty or by virtue of an act of Con¬ 
 gress, but by this act general authority is given 
 to the President for this purpose. 2. Leases 
 of land, sale of standing timber, granting of 
 mining privileges, and right of way to rail¬ 
 roads are all prohibited to the Indians without 
 some enabling act of Congress. On the other 
 hand, it is obligatory on the government to 
 prevent any intrusion, trespass, or settlement 
 on the lands of any tribe of Indians except 
 where their consent has been given by agreement. 
 Consult C. C. Royce, “Indian Land Cessions in 
 the United States,” in Bureau of American 
 Ethnology, Eighteenth Annual Report, part ii 
 (Washington, 1902). 
 
 TREATY (OF. traite, traicte, Fr. traite, It. 
 trattato, treaty, from ML. tractatus, treaty, 
 agreement, from Lat. tractare, to treat, manage, 
 frequentative of trahere, to draw, drag). A 
 compact or agreement entered into between the 
 governments or sovereigns of two or more states. 
 A treaty is somewhat analogous to a contract in 
 private" law, the main differences being in the 
 origin, purpose, and manner of enforcement. 
 Thus, a treaty is concluded with more formality 
 than a private contract, its purposes are usually 
 
 of a public character, while its enforcement rests 
 chiefly upon the good faith of the contracting 
 parties. The right of entering into treaty rela¬ 
 tions is one of the essential attributes of sov¬ 
 ereignty and is therefore not usually permitted 
 to so-called dependent states except under cer¬ 
 tain restrictions, nor to the component members 
 of states having the federal system of govern¬ 
 ment. So-called dependent states frequently 
 retain the right of making commercial and 
 extradition treaties, postal and customs conven¬ 
 tions, and sometimes treaties of alliance and 
 of naturalization. Component members of con¬ 
 federate states usually retain a considerable de¬ 
 gree of treaty-making power, as, e.g., the mem¬ 
 bers of the German Bund of 1815-66 or the 
 States of Argentina (q.v.) . Under the present 
 German Empire the individual states enjoy 
 the power to make treaties only with their 
 immediate foreign neighbors, and only concern¬ 
 ing postal and telegraph communication across 
 the boundary between them. The Common¬ 
 wealths of the United States are expressly for¬ 
 bidden to enter into treaty relations with foreign 
 states or to make agreements among themselves 
 except with the consent of Congress. Ihe treaty¬ 
 making power of a country is determined by its 
 constitution. In the United States it is vested 
 in the President, acting by and with the advice 
 and consent of the Senate, two-thirds of the 
 members concurring. ^The President exercises 
 this power through the Department of State or 
 through special plenipotentiaries appointed for 
 the purpose. In monarchical countries the 
 treaty-making power is usually a prerogative 
 of the crown, but an indirect influence is fre¬ 
 quently exercised by the Legislature, especially 
 when an appropriation of money is necessary 
 to carry into effect the stipulations of the treaty. 
 In the German Empire treaties which relate 
 to any subject already regulated by Imperial 
 law require the approval of the Legislature. In 
 the French Republic the President is empowered 
 to negotiate treaties; but if the treaty is one 
 of peace or commerce, or involves the finances 
 or the territory of the state, or relates to the 
 personal or property rights of Frenchmen in 
 foreign states, the approval of the two Chambers 
 is necessary. With the few exceptions of this 
 kind, the negotiation and ratification of treaties 
 in the European states are in the same hands, 
 but they are distinct and separate steps, and 
 ratification may be withheld after the treaty 
 has been negotiated. Everywhere formal rati¬ 
 fication is essential to the validity of a treaty. 
 
 In the United States, where the negotiating 
 and ratifying authorities are in different hands, 
 the question of ratification assumes a double 
 importance, for it by no means follows that 
 ratification is a matter of course. In several 
 notable instances treaties negotiated by the 
 President have been rejected by the Senate. 
 Foreign governments, therefore, negotiating with 
 the President of the United States are presumed 
 to know that negotiation is only the initial 
 stage in the procedure. The Senate has, more¬ 
 over, claimed the right, and has exercised it 
 in several instances, of ratifying only a part 
 of a treaty instead of sending it back as a 
 whole for revision. An important question has 
 arisen in the United States as to whether 
 Congress is bound to enact the necessary legisla¬ 
 tion to carry into effect the stipulations of a 
 treaty negotiated by the President and duly 
 ratified by" the Senate. This question first arose 
 
TREATY 
 
 443 TREATY 
 
 in 1704 in connection with the unpopular Jay 
 Treaty (q.v.), which called for an appropriation 
 of money to carry it into effect. The House of 
 Representatives was at first inclined to refuse 
 its concurrence and gave in only after a sharp 
 struggle, and then by a very close vote. It is 
 impossible to say even now that the question 
 has been decided one way or another. The rule 
 now is to lay reciprocity .treaties before Congress 
 for its approval and for the enactment of the 
 necessary legislation to carry them into effect. 
 This practice has been followed in the case of 
 reciprocity treaties with Mexico, Canada, and 
 Cuba. 
 
 The question has also been raised as to how 
 far the government is bound by the action of 
 its negotiator provided he has not exceeded his 
 instructions. Formerly the rule prevailed that 
 if the plenipotentiary acted in accordance with 
 his full power his principal was bound by his 
 action, since the knowledge of the full power 
 by the other party was a motive which induced 
 him to negotiate. Some writers, following the 
 doctrines of the Roman law, still hold that the 
 principals are in good faith bound by the acts 
 of their duly authorized plenipotentiaries. 
 Others make a distinction in this respect be¬ 
 tween. treaties proper and contracts, holding 
 that, in view of the magnitude of the interests 
 involved in agreements between states and the 
 possibility of errors of judgment or of policy 
 on the part of negotiators, a right of examina¬ 
 tion and of rejection is indispensable. It is 
 now universally conceded that the principal may 
 withhold his ratification from treaties nego¬ 
 tiated . strictly in pursuance of instructions 
 v here it is found to be impossible from physical 
 or other reasons to fulfill their stipulations, or 
 on account of mutual error by which both 
 parties were misled, or where ‘ a change of 
 circumstances upon which the validity of the 
 treaty was made to depend has occurred, or 
 where ratification of the treaty would involve 
 injury to a third party. 
 
 dhe extent of the treaty-making power unless 
 restricted, by the constitution is almost unlim¬ 
 ited. It includes the acquisition of foreign ter¬ 
 ritory, the disposal of domestic territory, the 
 recognition of new states, the creation of servi¬ 
 tudes, the formation of alliances, the granting 
 of special privileges with respect to trade, com¬ 
 merce, and residence, the delimitation and recti¬ 
 fication of boundaries, the guarantee of terri¬ 
 torial integrity, the neutralization of ship 
 canals, etc. It is a common provision in Euro¬ 
 pean constitutions to restrict the treaty-making 
 power with regard to the cession of domestic 
 territory by requiring the approval of the 
 legislature in such cases. A constitutional ques¬ 
 tion has been raised in the United States as 
 to whether the treaty-making power extends 
 to the alienation of land belonging to a State, 
 and on this point constitutional lawyers differ 
 in opinion, but the better view seems to be that 
 where doubt, exists as to the right of a State to 
 land which it claims the disputed territory may 
 be ceded by treaty. On the other hand, it is 
 contended that land to which the right of the 
 State is undisputed cannot be disposed of with¬ 
 out the consent of the State except in case of 
 conquest, where transfer is inevitable as a means 
 of terminating the war. 
 
 The usual conditions essential to the validity 
 of a treaty are, first, that the contracting 
 parties shall possess the requisite capacity for 
 
 Vol. XXII.—29 
 
 entering into treaty engagements. Thus, neu¬ 
 tralized states are lacking in the capacity to 
 enter into treaties which contemplate the wag¬ 
 ing of offensive war. In the second place, the 
 plenipotentiaries who negotiate the treaty must 
 be properly authorized. In the United' States 
 the President rarely if ever participates directlv 
 in the negotiations. This duty generally de¬ 
 volves upon the Secretary of State, although 
 not infrequently the work is intrusted to a 
 minister resident or to a special plenipotentiary 
 or commissioner. Agreements entered into in 
 excess of their authority are invalid and rati¬ 
 fication may be withheld. An unauthorized 
 agreement is called a sponsion and is of no effect 
 unless approved by the sponsor’s government. 
 The third essential to the validity of a treaty is 
 freedom of consent on the part of the signatory 
 powers-. If either party acts under constraint 
 the resulting, agreement is void except in the 
 case of treaties or other agreements arising in 
 the course of war, where from the nature of 
 the case the element is present. But an error 
 as to the value of a consideration such as may 
 result from imperfect geographical knowledge 
 with regard to a boundary will not affect the 
 validity of the treaty. Finally, treaties which 
 stipulate for the execution of objects which are 
 physically impossible of execution, which are 
 repugnant to the usages of international law, 
 or which conflict with previous engagements 
 with other powers are held to be invalid. Thus 
 treaties stipulating the establishment of slavery, 
 assuming joint, control over a portion of the 
 high seas, or impairing the sovereignty of a 
 third power would be invalid. 
 
 Treaties, are susceptible of classification along 
 different lines. Vattel classifies them as equal 
 and unequal, or those in which the reciprocal 
 considerations are equal and those in which they 
 are unequal; personal treaties, which expire 
 with the death of the sovereign who contracts 
 them; and real treaties, which bind the state 
 permanently. De Martens follows the same 
 arrangement, but adds transitory conventions 
 and mixed treaties. Calvo distinguishes treaties, 
 with reference to their form, into transitory 
 and permanent; with reference to their nature, 
 into personal and real; with reference to their 
 effects, into equal and unequal and simple and 
 conditional; and, finally, with reference to their 
 objects, into treaties of guarantee, commerce, 
 neutrality, alliance, etc. Hall arranges them 
 as follows: (1) those which are declaratory of 
 the law as understood by the contracting 
 parties; (2) those which stipulate for practices 
 which the contracting parties wish to incorporate 
 into the usages of law, but which they know to 
 be outside the actual law; (3) those which are, 
 in fact, mere bargains, in which, without any 
 reference to legal considerations, something is 
 bought by one party at the price of an equivalent 
 given by the other. 
 
 Cartels, capitulations, and suspensions of 
 arms, or truces, are sometimes involved in the 
 classifications of treaties, although strictly 
 speaking they are not treaties. Transitory 
 agreements or conventions are treaties which 
 contemplate the immediate execution of the 
 stipulations and which are complete when this 
 act has been performed. Examples are treaties 
 of delimitation, of cession, etc. Permanent 
 treaties are those which are continuous in ef¬ 
 fect, either perpetually or for a specified period. 
 Such are treaties of amity and commerce, of 
 
TREATY 
 
 444 
 
 TREATY 
 
 neutrality, of extradition, postal and customs 
 conventions, etc. Cartels are agreements entered 
 into in time of war between the commanders 
 of opposing armies for the purpose of effecting 
 an exchange of prisoners, and they may be 
 transitory or for the period of the war. Capitu¬ 
 lations are similar agreements for the surrender 
 of a place, fleet, or army. Every general com¬ 
 manding is presumed to have authority to enter 
 into agreements of this kind subject to any 
 restrictions that may be imposed by the au¬ 
 thority of his own state. 
 
 A creaty of alliance is an agreement between 
 two or more states with a view to concerted 
 action for a certain purpose. It may be tem¬ 
 porary or permanent, equal or unequal, and of¬ 
 fensive or defensive or both. Defensive alliances 
 are usually formed with a view to preventing 
 armed aggression against either party while of¬ 
 fensive alliances are formed for the purpose of 
 waging war against another state or states. A 
 good example of the first class was the Treaty 
 of 1778 between the United States and France, 
 while the alliances formed among various Euro¬ 
 pean states to curb the ambitions and aggres¬ 
 sions of Louis XIV and Napoleon I were in 
 form examples of offensive alliances, although 
 defensive in character. Treaties of guarantee 
 are entered into for the purpose of securing 
 the observance and execution of already existing 
 treaties or for the maintenance of certain exist¬ 
 ing conditions for a limited period or in per¬ 
 petuity. Among the conditions which have been 
 made the subject of guarantee may be mentioned 
 the independence and territorial integrity of 
 states, as, for example, Greece in 1832 and the 
 Ottoman Empire in 1856; the neutralization 
 of states, as in the case of Belgium and Switz¬ 
 erland; the neutralization of ship canals, as in 
 the case of the Suez and Panama canals; the 
 free navigation of rivers; and the payment of 
 state debts. 
 
 What are known as reciprocity treaties have 
 been the subject of frequent negotiations . in 
 recent years, on account of the increasing im¬ 
 portance of international commercial relations. 
 Such treaties provide for reciprocal commercial 
 advantages, usually in the form of reduced cus¬ 
 toms tariffs on the products of each state 
 when imported into the other. They are usually 
 entered into for limited periods of time and 
 are sometimes subject to revision at stated 
 periods. According to the older usage, in 1916 
 still followed by the United States, the special 
 privileges granted by reciprocity treaties cannot 
 be claimed of right by other nations simply 
 because they have treaties entitling them to 
 the same privileges as are allowed to the most 
 favored nation. The basis for refusal to grant 
 such privileges is that the nation demanding 
 them is not able to offer in return the same 
 advantages as the nation to which the privileges 
 have just been given. According to European 
 usage, such special privileges are forthwith ac¬ 
 corded to nations having most favored nation 
 treatment. Treaties of peace resemble ordinary 
 treaties in form and in substance, but differ 
 from them as regards the position of the con- 
 tractifig parties, since the element of duress is 
 usually present in the negotiations, and hence 
 freedom of conduct is not one of the requisites 
 to the validity of such treaties. See Wae. 
 
 As regards the preparation of treaties, it has 
 already been said that the ordinary method of 
 negotiation is by a regular agent or commis- 
 
 sioner. During the nineteenth century, however, 
 the preparation of a number of the most impor¬ 
 tant European treaties has been intrusted to 
 general international congresses or conferences 
 composed of ambassadors and in some cases 
 of the sovereigns of the states concerned. Such 
 were the Congress of Vienna of 1814-15 (see 
 Vienna, Congress of), called to settle the ques¬ 
 tions growing out of the Napoleonic wars; the 
 Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818 (see Aix-la- 
 Ciiapelle), which terminated the military oc¬ 
 cupation of France; the Congress at Paris in 
 1856 (see Paris, Treaties of), which effected 
 a partial settlement of the Eastern Question at 
 the close of the Crimean War and drew up a 
 declaration relative to the usages of maritime 
 warfare; the Congress of Berlin of 1878 (see 
 Berlin, Congress of), in respect to the ques¬ 
 tions growing out of the war between Turkey 
 and Russia; and the Congress of Bucharest in 
 1913 called to settle the terms of peace after the 
 second Balkan War. 
 
 The language employed in the preparation of 
 treaties was formerly Latin. Towards the close 
 of the seventeenth century it was replaced by 
 French, which is now the general diplomatic lan¬ 
 guage of Europe and America. Each signatory 
 power may insist upon the use of its own lan¬ 
 guage, in which case a copy is prepared for 
 each state in its own language and is usually 
 arranged in parallel columns. Two states having 
 a common tongue naturally employ that lan¬ 
 guage. With regard to the form it may be said 
 that no fixed rule prevails except that the stipu¬ 
 lations of the treaty are usually preceded by a 
 recital of the names and titles of the negotiators, 
 with a statement of the purposes which the 
 treaty is intended to accomplish. The treaty is 
 divided into articles and clauses, ending with 
 the terms of ratification and the signatures of 
 the negotiators. A copy is prepared for each 
 contracting party, and the signatures follow, 
 usually according to the principle of the alter- 
 nat, i.e., the plenipotentiary from each state 
 signs first the copy intended for the use of 
 his own government. After the act of ratifica¬ 
 tion by each of the parties there follows the 
 formal exchange of ratifications, when the opera¬ 
 tion of the treaty begins. Treaties sometimes 
 contain provisions for the accession of third par¬ 
 ties. Such were the Declaration of Paris (q.v.) 
 in 1856, the Geneva Convention (q.v.) of 1868, 
 and the Treaty of Washington of 1871. See 
 Washington, Treaty of. 
 
 Treaties are terminated in various ways. 
 They cease to be binding with the mutual con¬ 
 sent of the parties thereto; or with the denuncia¬ 
 tion of either party if that right has been 
 reserved when the object of the treaty has been 
 attained, as in the case of a boundary treaty, 
 an arbitration treaty, or convention for the set¬ 
 tlement of claims; when the operation of the 
 treaty is conditioned upon terms which no 
 longer exist, as in the case of a treaty allowing 
 free navigation on a river which has ceased to 
 be navigable; and when either party refuses to 
 perform mutual stipulations. In the latter case 
 the other party may consider itself released 
 from its obligations, or it may demand a ful¬ 
 fillment of the treaty and require an indemnity 
 for injuries resulting from any infractions 
 thereof. By the usages of international law the 
 refusal of either party to abide by a treaty, 
 however burdensome, is a sufficient cause of war, 
 since, as in the case of an ordinary contract, it 
 
TREATY 
 
 TREATY 
 
 445 
 
 ■ 
 
 is binding upon both parties until mutually 
 abrogated. r l hus, the German invasion of Bel¬ 
 gium in 1014, in defiance of the treaty of neu¬ 
 tralization to which Great Britain was a party, 
 afforded cause of war to the latter state. Ma¬ 
 terial change in the circumstances contemplated 
 in a treaty is sometimes put forward as sufficient 
 ground for disregarding it. Thus, in 1915 Greece 
 refused to live up to the terms of her treaty 
 with Servia, whereby she was bound to come 
 to Servia’s aid if attacked by Bulgaria, on the 
 ground that the treaty contemplated independent 
 aggression on Bulgaria’s part, and not aggres¬ 
 sion incidental to the action of powers of the 
 first rank. Finally, it is to be said that a 
 treaty is terminated when the state of things 
 contemplated by the parties, and hence its real 
 basis, no longer exists. Thus, a treaty is 
 entered into in contemplation of the continuance 
 of a particular form of government which in 
 the course of time is displaced by another. Or 
 the basis of the treaty may be changed by 
 the absorption of one state by another, as in 
 the case of Algeria, a state with which the 
 United States had a treaty previous to the 
 French conquest begun in 1S30. Similarly the 
 establishment of the German Empire in ' 1871 
 put an end to the treaties between the United 
 States and the several German states with 
 which she had entered into treaty relations. 
 ^ hen a state is destroyed or loses its national 
 character by other means, its treaties fall to the 
 ground, but ordinarily a mere change in the 
 form of government will not affect its obliga¬ 
 tions to other states. In case of war between 
 the contracting parties all treaties are sus¬ 
 pended, while certain of them are terminated, 
 treaties stipulating for a permanent arrange¬ 
 ment of territorial and other national rights are 
 at most simply suspended during the war and 
 revive at peace. Such are treaties which recog¬ 
 nize within certain territorial limits the inde¬ 
 pendence of one of the contracting parties; 
 treaties which establish new rules or modify old 
 rules of international law, such as the Declara¬ 
 tion of Paris of 1856; and treaties which con¬ 
 template a state of war and which come into 
 effect only at the outbreak of hostilities, such 
 as treaties of alliance and treaties which regu¬ 
 late blockades and define contraband of war, 
 regulate rules of capture, etc. Treaties of com¬ 
 merce and navigation and postal conventions are 
 usually extinguished by war. 
 
 Sir Travers Twies says that Great Britain in 
 practice admits of no exception to the rule that 
 all treaties as such are put an end to by subse¬ 
 quent war between the contending parties. In 
 pursuance of this rule the treaties of Westphalia 
 and Utrecht were several times reversed by the 
 signatory powers after they had engaged in 
 war with one another. (See Westphalia, 
 Peace of; Utrecht, Peace of.) A notable 
 diplomatic discussion between Great Britain and 
 the United States arose after the War of 1812 
 over the question whether the Treaty of 1783 
 (see Paris, Treaties of) , in so far as it granted 
 to the Colonists fishery rights off Newfoundland, 
 was suspended by the subsequent war between 
 the contracting parties. The United States 
 claimed that the treaty provision in question 
 was not extinguished, it being the recognition 
 of a preexisting right which the Colonies had 
 always enjoyed in common with the mother 
 country. Great Britain claimed, on the other 
 hand, that the permission to fish on British 
 
 coasts was in the nature of a grant of a special 
 privilege and therefore terminated by the war. 
 
 As in the case of private contracts, certain 
 rules for the interpretation of treaties have 
 grown up. Phillimore arranges the rules of 
 interpretation under three heads: (1) authentic 
 interpretation, i.e., the interpretation supplied 
 by the lawgiver himself; (2) usual interpreta¬ 
 tion, based on usage and precedent; and (3) 
 doctrinal interpretation, or the interpretation 
 founded upon scientific exposition of the terms 
 of the treaty itself. The following are the 
 commonest rules of interpretation: Words are pre¬ 
 sumed to have been used in their ordinary sense, 
 but technical terms are used in the sense and 
 with the meaning applied to them in the particu¬ 
 lar art to which they belong; the provision of 
 a treaty can have but one true meaning and the 
 interpretation must be mutual; the interpreta¬ 
 tion should be made with regard to the context 
 and spirit of the whole treaty; terms peculiar 
 to the language of one of the contracting par¬ 
 ties must be given the meaning which they have 
 in that language; clauses defining grants, privi¬ 
 leges, and favors should be strictly interpreted; 
 an interpretation which renders a treaty in¬ 
 operative is to be avoided; special clauses are 
 to be preferred to general, prohibitory to per¬ 
 missive; earlier clauses are explained by later 
 ones and obscure clauses by clearer ones in later 
 treaties, as later treaties explain and modify 
 earlier ones on the same subject. The rule has 
 been laid down by the United States Supreme 
 Court that a treaty is on the same plane of 
 equality with a statute of Congress, so that a 
 later statute may supersede a prior treaty, 
 while a subsequent treaty may supersede a 
 prior statute on a given subject. A notable 
 instance was the supersession in 1882 of a treaty 
 with China by the act of Congress for excluding 
 Chinese laborers. This mode of terminating 
 treaties, however, is not sanctioned by inter¬ 
 national law and does not affect the responsibil¬ 
 ity of either contracting party for the fulfill¬ 
 ment of its _ obligations. In the United States 
 treaties go into effect from the date of signa¬ 
 ture so far as the contracting parties are 
 concerned, but only from the date of ratification 
 so far as the rights of the individual are in¬ 
 volved. Another rule of interpretation in 
 the United States is that the Supreme Court 
 will not undertake to enforce a treaty which 
 requires congressional legislation for its execu¬ 
 tion. . Until such legislation is forthcoming the 
 individual concerned must address himself to 
 the political departments of the government. 
 
 To secure the enforcement of treaties, it was 
 formerly the custom to demand and receive 
 hostages, the last instance of the kind being in 
 1748 to secure the execution of the Treaty of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle. Solemn oaths accompanied by 
 religious rites on the occasion of ratification 
 were once common, but are no longer resorted 
 to. Pledges are sometimes required, as in the 
 case of the treaty of peace between Germany 
 and France in 1871, when certain French for¬ 
 tresses were retained by the Germans as security 
 for the payment of the large indemnity exacted 
 from France. The organs for the enforcement of 
 a treaty are the courts, the legislature, the ex¬ 
 ecutive, and the army and navy. Thus, treaties 
 of peace, of cession, of commerce, etc., are en¬ 
 forced for the most part by the legislative 
 branch assisted by the executive, while in the-' 
 case of treaties of naturalization, extradition, 
 
TREATY ELM 
 
 TREBBIA 
 
 446 
 
 and treaties affecting the rights of foreigners 
 the judicial branch plays an important part. 
 
 Bibliography. Sir Edward Hertslet, The 
 Map of Europe by Treaty (4 vols., London, 
 1875-91); Georg Jellinek, Die rechtliohe Natur 
 der Statenvertrdge (Vienna, 1880) ; Franz von 
 Holtzendorff, Handbuch des Volkerrechts, vol. 
 iii (Hamburg, 1887) ; S. M. Burnham, Struggles 
 of the Nations, or, The Principal Battles, Sieges, 
 and Treaties of the World (2 vols., Boston, 
 1891); Freeman Snow, Treaties and Topics in 
 American Diplomacy (ib., 1894); J. B. Moore, 
 History and Digest of the International Arbi¬ 
 trations to which the United States has 
 been a Party (6 vols., Washington, 1898) ; 
 C. H. Butler, The Treaty Making Power of 
 the United States (2 vols., New York, 1902) ; 
 Sir Edward Hertslet, The Map of Africa by 
 Treaty (3d ed., 3 vols., London, 1909) ; Treaties, 
 Conventions, etc., between the United States and 
 Other Powers, 1776-1909 (Washington, 1910) ; 
 Pierre Albin, Les grands traites politiques 
 (Paris, 1911); S. B. Crandall, Treaties: Their 
 Making and Enforcement (2d ed., Washington, 
 1915); R. B. Mowat (ed.), Select Treaties and 
 Documents to Illustrate the Development of 
 the Modern European States-System (Oxford, 
 1915). 
 
 TREATY ELM. The tree in Shackamaxon, 
 Philadelphia, under which William Penn made 
 his famous treaty with the Indians in 1682. Its 
 probable site is now occupied by the Penn 
 Treaty Monument. 
 
 TREATY RIGHTS, Ecclesiastical. Those 
 rights relating to the exercise of religion which 
 are secured by treaty to the subjects or citi¬ 
 zens of one state while they are residing in 
 the territory of another state. The international 
 agreements from which such rights arise differ 
 radically from those treaties, generally known 
 as concordats, which are made from time to 
 time between sovereign states and the see of 
 Rome to regulate the condition of the adherents 
 of the Roman Catholic church within the juris¬ 
 diction of the contracting state, since no ec¬ 
 clesiastical authority is made a party to the 
 contract, which is directly between sovereign 
 states in favor of the citizens of one or both. 
 Such a body of rights belongs to the department 
 of private international law. It had its origin 
 in the Reformation period, when the organic 
 unity of W 7 estern Christendom was broken and 
 there was no single ecclesiastical authority with 
 which a state could deal in relation to all its 
 subjects. At the present time among the Great 
 Powers of the world, and especially among those 
 of Western civilization, the liberties and rights 
 of foreign-born residents are amply secured by 
 what is known as “the most favored nation 
 clause” of the prevailing treaties. Those na¬ 
 tions, however, which have been foremost in 
 missionary enterprise among peoples of a dif¬ 
 ferent civilization have found their interests to 
 require intervention by their governments, and 
 the United States of America, in the protection 
 of widespread missionary enterprise, has secured 
 for its citizens ecclesiastical rights in many 
 countries. These rights differ considerably 
 both in extent and kind, although, speaking 
 generally, they have been elaborated as time 
 went on and intercourse became more frequent. 
 The first of such rights specifically mentioned 
 was secured by the United States in its Treaty 
 of 1805 with the Sultan of Tripoli, in which 
 it was provided that the Consul or Agent of 
 
 the United States should have liberty to exercise 
 his religion in his own house, and that his 
 servants should not be impeded in going to 
 his house at the hours of prayer. The Treaty of 
 Guadalupe Hidalgo concluded with the Republic 
 of Mexico in 1848 stipulated for American 
 residents freedom from prosecution on account 
 of their religion and also liberty to propagate 
 it. The Treaty concluded in 1856 with the 
 King of Siam provides that all American citi¬ 
 zens visiting or residing in Siam shall be al¬ 
 lowed the free exercise of their religion, and 
 liberty to build places of worship in such local¬ 
 ities as shall be assented to by the Siamese au¬ 
 thorities. Americans have ecclesiastical treaty 
 rights in China which were not abrogated by 
 the foreign intervention following the Boxer 
 uprising. They are provided by two treaties— 
 one of June 18, 1858, and the other of July 4, 
 1868. American citizens have a right by the 
 terms of these treaties to teach and practice 
 peaceably the principles of the Christian reli¬ 
 gion, to reside in those places where foreigners 
 are permitted to reside, and in such places to 
 establish and maintain schools and to maintain 
 cemeteries free from profanation. They have 
 also the right to attend the Chinese educational 
 institutions under the control of the central gov¬ 
 ernment. By the Treaty of 1858 with Japan 
 Americans are secured the free exercise of their 
 religion and the right to erect suitable places 
 of worship. American citizens are forbidden 
 to injure any Japanese temple or Mia, and 
 neither Americans nor Japanese are allowed to 
 do anything calculated to excite religious ani¬ 
 mosity. The government of Japan has abolished 
 the practice of trampling on religious emblems. 
 By the Treaty of 1859 with the Republic of 
 Paraguay citizens of the United States residing 
 in Paraguay are at liberty to exercise in private 
 and in their own dwellings or the dwellings of 
 the consuls of the United States their religious 
 services, but no right of propaganda is specified. 
 The Treaty of 1830 with the Ottoman Empire 
 merely confirmed as the treaty rights of Ameri¬ 
 cans privileges already existing. American mis¬ 
 sionaries were first established in Turkey in 
 1818, and the privileges of extraterritoriality 
 were then assigned to them by ancient usage. 
 The liberty to exercise their religious functions, 
 as a privileged class, had been db antiquo 
 granted by a voluntary extension of what is 
 known as* the Edict of Toleration granted by 
 the Turks, upon their conquest of Constanti¬ 
 nople, to the ecclesiastics of any friendly Chris¬ 
 tian nation. While the United States was not 
 a party to the Treaty of Berlin (1878), yet 
 the guaranty given by the Turkish delegates 
 applies to American citizens: “Throughout the 
 [Ottoman] Empire the most different religions 
 are professed by millions of the Sultan’s sub¬ 
 jects, and not one has been molested in his 
 belief or in the exercise of his mode of worship. 
 The Imperial government is determined to main¬ 
 tain this principle in its full force and to give 
 to it all the extension that it calls for.” By 
 a protocol of 1874 a qualified right to hold real 
 estate is granted to American citizens. What 
 is known as the Protestant Charter regulates 
 mission schools. 
 
 TREB'BIA (Lat. Trebia) . A river of north 
 Italy. It rises in the Apennines of Liguria and 
 after a northeasterly course of 58 miles joins 
 the Po above the city of Piacenza. Upon its 
 banks Hannibal defeated the Romans under 
 
TREBELLI 
 
 TREE 
 
 447 
 
 Sempronius in 218 b.c. (See Hannibal.) In 
 the vicinity the Austrians and Russians under 
 Suvarov were victorious over the French under 
 Macdonald, June 17-19, 1799. 
 
 TREBELLI, tra-bel'le, Zelia (1838-92). A 
 French dramatic and coloratura soprano, born 
 in Paris. Her real name was Gillebert. At the 
 age of six she began to study the piano and soon 
 was an excellent performer. In 1854-59 she 
 studied singing under Wartel and made her 
 d6but as Rosina in Rossini’s Barbiere di 
 Siviglia at Madrid (1859). The following year 
 she sang with success in Germany and in 1862 
 in London. From then until her retirement in 
 1889 her career was an uninterrupted series 
 of triumphs in all the European capitals. Twice 
 she visited the United States, in 1878 under 
 Mapleson, and in 1884 during the first season 
 of the Metropolitan Opera House under Abbey. 
 In 1863 she married the tenor Bettini, but 
 after a few years the union was dissolved. Her 
 death occurred at Etretat. She was equally 
 great as a singer and as a versatile actress. 
 
 T REE ITS CH, traffneh. A town of Moravia, 
 Austria, 40 miles by rail east of Briinn (Map: 
 Austria, D 2). A fine abbey in the transition 
 style of the thirteenth century and the palace 
 of Count Waldstein are worthy of notice. 
 Woolens, shoes, and malt are manufactured, and 
 horses are dealt in. Pop., 1900, 10,597; 1910, 
 
 11,665. 
 
 TREB'IZOND (Turk. Tirabzon; Lat. Trape- 
 zus; Gk. Tpaire^oiis, Trapezous, probably so called 
 because founded on a table-land, from rpaire^a, 
 trapeza, table). A city of Asia Minor, capital 
 of the Turkish Vilayet of Trebizond (Map: 
 Turkey in Asia, D 2). It is on the Black Sea 
 coast near its east end, 570 miles east of 
 Constantinople. The city is built on a small 
 table-land between two deep parallel valleys 
 which run out to the coast. The highest por¬ 
 tion is crowned by an ancient castle, and the 
 city is still surrounded by Byzantine walls. 
 The streets are narrow, but the city has a 
 wide extent, nearly every house being sur¬ 
 rounded by gardens. There are numerous 
 churches and mosques, some of the latter being 
 old Byzantine churches. The bazars are mostly 
 situated outside of the walls in the Christian 
 quarters, the intramural portion being reserved 
 for the Mohaanmedan population. The indus¬ 
 tries include wool, silk, and linen weaving, 
 tanning, dyeing, and filigree manufactures. The 
 harbor is an exposed roadstead, but the geo¬ 
 graphical position of Trebizond has for many 
 centuries made it the chief entrepot for the 
 transit trade between Persia and Europe. It 
 is the terminus of the main caravan route to 
 Persia via Erzerum. It is also the northern 
 port of a road attaining the Persian Gulf. 
 The transit trade has, however, greatly de¬ 
 clined since the opening of the Russian railroad 
 to Batum. Pop. (est.), about 55,000, of whom 
 considerably more than half are Mohammedans, 
 the rest being chiefly Greek and Armenian 
 Christians. Many Lazi dwell also in Trebizond 
 and obtain a living as bakers or gardeners. 
 
 Trapezus was founded by Greeks about 700 
 B.c. as a colony of Sinope. It was a flourish¬ 
 ing city when Xenophon and his Ten Thousand 
 reached it after the famous retreat. In 1204, 
 after the occupation of Constantinople by the 
 Crusaders, Prince Alexius of the Comnenian 
 family established the Empire of Trebizond and 
 made the city his capital. This Empire lasted 
 
 until 1461, when it was overthrown and the 
 city captured by the Turks. Trebizond was 
 bombarded several times by Russian fleets in 
 the Great War and in the early part of 1916 
 was captured by combined operations of land and 
 naval forces. See War in Europe. 
 
 TREBIZOND, George of. See George of 
 Trebizond. 
 
 TREBLE, treb /5 l (OF. treble, triple, from 
 Lat. triplus, threefold, from tres, three + -plus, 
 -fold). The highest part in harmonized music, 
 which in general contains the melody and is 
 sung by a soprano voice. The treble or G clef 
 is placed on the second line of the 
 staff, indicating that the note G oc¬ 
 cupies the line encircled by its lower 
 curve. It is one of the two clefs in 
 use in music for keyed instruments. For the 
 history of the sign, see Musical Notation, 
 Clefs. 
 
 TREBLE, Lillian Massey (1854-1909). A 
 Canadian philanthropist, the daughter of Hart 
 Almerni Massey (q.v.). She was born at New¬ 
 castle, Ontario, and was educated there and at 
 Toronto. In 1897 she married John Mill Treble. 
 Y\ hile engaged in deaconess and mission work 
 in Toronto she organized classes in domestic 
 science, and her increasing interest therein led 
 to the adoption of a complete curriculum in 
 household science in Toronto University, Mani¬ 
 toba University, and in several women’s col¬ 
 leges. She gave to Toronto University a hand¬ 
 some and commodious structure called the Lil¬ 
 lian Massey Household Science and Art Build¬ 
 ing, and this was opened in 1913. She died in 
 California. In addition to numerous benefac¬ 
 tions in her lifetime she bequeathed the greater 
 part of a large fortune to charitable institutions. 
 
 TRED'EGfAR. A market town on the north¬ 
 west border of Monmouthshire, England, 18 
 miles northwest of Newport (Map: England, 
 C 5). Coal mining is the chief industry. The 
 formerly important iron and steel works have 
 been abandoned. The town owns gas and water 
 works and cemeteries. Pop., 1901, 18,574; 1911, 
 23,601. 
 
 TREE. A plant which attains a considerable 
 height and has a relatively large development 
 of woody tissue. Trees differ from herbs in size 
 and development of woody tissue. They differ 
 from shrubs in having a single stem, or trunk, 
 which branches out at some distance from the 
 ground, while shrubs often have several stems 
 and are of lower growth and bushy habit. Trees 
 are commonly classed as deciduous or ever¬ 
 green, depending on the relative permanence of 
 their foliage. (See Duration; Forest.) They 
 also differ among themselves in the manner of 
 their growth, method of branching, etc. See 
 Stem. For descriptions, see Ash; Maple; 
 Oak: Pine; etc. 
 
 Bibliography. H. L. Keeler, Our Native 
 Trees and Hoio to Identify Them (New York, 
 1900) ; C. S. Sargent, Manual of the Trees of 
 North America (Boston, 1905) ; G. B. Sudworth, 
 Forest Trees of the Pacific Slope (Washington, 
 1908) ; E. R. Mosher, Studies of Fruit and 
 Nut-Bearing Trees (Syracuse, 1908) ; E. R. 
 Mosher, Studies of our Cone-Bearing Trees 
 (ib., 1910); A. O. Huntington, Study of Trees 
 in Winter (Boston, 1910) ; F. S. Mathews, 
 Familiar Trees and their Leaves (New York, 
 1911); S. B. Elliott, Important Timber Trees 
 of the United States (Boston, 1912) ; F. S. 
 Mathews, Field Book of American Trees and 
 
TREE 
 
 448 TREE HOPPER 
 
 Shrubs (New York, 1914) ; R. V. Cole, Ar¬ 
 tistic Anatomy of Trees (Philadelphia, 1914) ; 
 J. E. Rogers, The Tree Book (Garden City, 
 N. Y., 1914) ; B. E. Fernow, Trees and their Care 
 (New York, 1915) ; G. E. Massee, Diseases of 
 Cultivated Plants and Trees (2d ed., ib., 1916). 
 
 TREE, Sir Herbert Beerboiim (1853-1917 ). 
 An English actor manager, born in London. lie 
 made his debut in 1877 as Grimaldi at the 
 Globe. In 1884 he won great success in The 
 Private Secretary at the Prince s, and three 
 years later he undertook the management of the 
 Comedy Theatre and produced The Red Lamp. 
 From 1887 to 1896 he was manager of the 
 Haymarket, where one of his productions was 
 Trilby. Tree opened the new Her Majesty’s 
 (later His Majesty’s) Theatre with The Seats 
 of the Mighty (1897), afterward producing, 
 among other plays: Grundy’s The Musketeers, 
 Phillips’s Herod and Ulysses, Fitch’s The Last 
 of the Dandies, Belasco’s The Darling of the 
 Gods, Oliver Twist, and The Beloved Vagabond. 
 
 But he became best known for his elaborate 
 productions of Shakespearean plays. In most 
 of these he himself took leading parts. In 1905 
 he inaugurated a Shakespeare Festival, which 
 was repeatedly successful. With his company 
 Beerbohm Tree visited Germany in 1907, at 
 the invitation of Emperor William, and in 1916 
 played in the United States, presenting Henry 
 VIII and The Merchant of Venice. He was 
 knighted in 1909. His Thoughts and After¬ 
 thoughts appeared in 1913. 
 
 TREE BOA. Any of various long, slender, 
 active South American snakes of the boa family, 
 which spend their lives in trees and have ac¬ 
 quired a remarkable power of clinging to the 
 moving branches, even in a high wind, without 
 coiling their bodies about any support. Ihe 
 name is also specifically given to the large 
 ringed boa {Epicrates cenchris). See Boa. 
 
 TREE CAT. See Palm Civet. 
 
 TREE CREEPERS, or Wood Hewers. A 
 group of birds, forming the family Dendrocolap- 
 tidae, related to the ant thrushes (Formicariidse ) 
 and true ovenbirds (Furnariidae), with the tail 
 feathers stiff and sharp-pointed as in the wood¬ 
 peckers and similarly useful in climbing tree 
 trunks. The bill is usually curved and slender 
 and often is elongated, enabling them to pull 
 insects out of deep crevices. About 400 forms 
 are known, all confined to tropical America; all 
 have a similar style of coloration, some shade 
 of brown, with white spots beneath and rufous 
 on the wings. See Creeper. 
 
 TREE CRICKET. Any one. of a group of 
 small, pale-colored crickets which usually in¬ 
 habit trees and shrubs. They are nocturnal in 
 their habits and lay their eggs in the twigs of 
 various plants—a habit which, when the insects 
 are numerous, results in damage to vineyards 
 and to raspberry and blackberry plantations. 
 The common snowy tree cricket ( CEcanthus 
 niveus) is a delicate whitish-green insect. The 
 young hatch about the first of May and feed 
 upon plant lice and the eggs of other insects. 
 When full-grown they feed upon vegetation. 
 
 TREE DUCK. See Goose, Wild Geese. 
 
 TREE EISH. One of the Californian rock 
 fishes (Sebastodes sirriceps), about a foot long. 
 It is dark olive, blackish above and yellowish 
 beloAv, with the front of the head coppery red, 
 two black bands downward and backward from 
 the eye, and several oblique black crossbands 
 on the sides. Black prominent ridges cross the 
 
 cranium. See Rockfish, and Plate of Rock- 
 fish, etc. 
 
 TREE FROG, or Tr£e Toad. A frog of the 
 family Hylidae, connecting the toads with the 
 typical frogs and of prevailingly arboreal habits. 
 Tree frogs have teeth on the upper jaw and vo¬ 
 mers and in some genera elsewhere in the mouth. 
 The toes are invariably claw-shaped and swollen 
 at the base, and each carries at the tip a flat¬ 
 tened, adhesive cushion, whose sticky secretion 
 greatly aids the animal in clinging to smooth 
 surfaces. Most of them are of small size, more 
 elegant in form than the true frogs, of brighter 
 colors and more active habits. They feed on 
 insects, which they pursue on the branches and 
 among the leaves of trees or shrubs. All have 
 loud, piping notes and are remarkable for their 
 power of changing their colors to simulate the 
 tint of the resting place. (See Metachrosis.) 
 They are also remarkable for the great variety 
 in their methods of placing their spawn, and 
 the character of their metamorphoses, which are 
 severally described under Cricket Frog, Fer- 
 reiro, Marsupial Frog, etc. The principal 
 genus is Hyla, which contains about 200 species 
 scattered all over the warmer forested parts of 
 the world, but especially numerous in tropical 
 America. The type is Hyla arborea, common 
 throughout all central and southern Europe and 
 Asia. Of the North American species the most 
 familiar is Hyla versicolor, which is a green, 
 gray, or brown warty frog, whose clear, loudly 
 trilled rattle is an almost daily evening sound. 
 One of the first notes heard in the spring in the 
 eastern United States is the piping of Hyla pick- 
 eringii, a smaller, more yellowish species, often 
 called the peeper. The cricket frog (q.v.) is 
 another numerous species. Various others in¬ 
 habit the Southern States. Many species of the 
 West Indies and South America carry their 
 eggs about on the back of the females, glued to 
 or sunken into the skin, as is notably the case 
 with Hyla goeldii. Notable cases are described 
 in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of 
 London for 1895. Australia possesses several 
 species of great interest, especially the familiar 
 Hyla ccerulea, whose cry is a sharp crackling 
 bark. The whole group is one of extraordinary 
 variety and interest. Consult authorities cited 
 under" Frog. See Colored Plate accompanying 
 Toad. 
 
 TREE HOPPER. Any insect of the homop- 
 
 terous family Membracidae, a very strange group 
 comprising a variety of grotesque forms. The 
 antennae are inserted in front of and between 
 the eyes, and the prothorax is so prolonged that 
 it covers the rest of the body, and its curious 
 modifications have been developed in order to 
 bring about a protective resemblance of these in¬ 
 sects to various plant structures. The tree 
 hoppers, like other Homoptera, have an incom¬ 
 plete metamorphosis, and the young are active 
 and suck the juices of plants by means of their 
 beaks. The species are very numerous, and the 
 group is one of wide distribution. The most 
 bizarre forms occur in tropical regions, but 
 many curious species are found in the temperate 
 zone. A common form in the United States is 
 the little humpbacked Telemona monticola, which 
 sometimes swarms on the branches of the Vir¬ 
 ginia creeper in June. Another interesting form 
 (Entillia sinuata) is found upon the leaves of 
 the sunflower and other annual plants. It lays 
 its eggs in the midrib of the upper leaves; the 
 mother insect broods over her eggs, and the 
 
TREE KANGAROO 
 
 TREFOIL 
 
 449 
 
 young from the time of hatching until full- 
 grown are constantly attended by ants, which 
 are attracted by a sweet secretion. The buffalo 
 tree hopper (Ceresa bubalus), so called from its 
 horned prothorax, is a species of considerable 
 economic importance, which damages the small 
 twigs of fruit trees in the act of laying its eggs. 
 Large holes are made in the bark, in which the 
 eggs are inserted in clusters. Consult J. H. 
 Comstock, Manual for the Study of Insects (8th 
 ed., Ithaca, 1909), and L. O. Howard, The Insect 
 Book (new ed., New York, 1914). 
 
 TREE KANGAROO. One of a genus of 
 kangaroos which in the forests of northern Aus¬ 
 tralia and New Guinea inhabit trees, although 
 they creep awkwardly about the branches, as 
 if not yet well adapted to an arboreal life. They 
 constitute the genus Dendrolagus and embrace 
 several species, of which the black one ( Dendro¬ 
 lagus ursinus) of New Guinea, which is very 
 dark in color except the whitish face, and about 
 20 inches long exclusive of the tail, is one of the 
 best known. The relative length of the limbs is 
 of normal proportions, unlike that of ordinary 
 kangaroos. See Plate of Kangaroos. 
 
 TREE LIZARD. See Dragon. 
 
 TREE OF HEAVEN. See Ailanthus. 
 
 TREE PARTRIDGE. See Hill Partridge. 
 
 TREE PORCUPINE. One of the small, 
 prehensile-tailed arboreal porcupines of South 
 America of the genus Sphingurus. There are 
 eight or nine species, the most common of which 
 is the Brazilian tree porcupine (Sphingurus pre- 
 hensilis). See Porcupine, and Plate of Porcu¬ 
 pines and Hedgehogs. 
 
 TREE SHREW, or Squirrel Shrew. One 
 of the curious insectivorous animals of the fam¬ 
 ily Tupaiidae, of the Oriental region and east¬ 
 ward to Borneo. They are related to the hedge¬ 
 hogs, but outwardly have almost exactly the 
 appearance of ordinary squirrels, except for the 
 long, flexible, shrewlike nose. Some 48 forms 
 have been named, of which the Malayan banx- 
 ring ( Tupaia glis), with its several subspecies, 
 is one of the best known and often becomes a 
 pet or resides, half tame, in gardens and vil¬ 
 lage shade trees. The Madras tree shrew (Tu¬ 
 paia, or Anafhana, ellioti) is found throughout 
 India. All are much alike, feeding on both 
 insects and fruits. For the most complete sum¬ 
 mary, consult M. W. Lyon, “Treeshrews: An 
 Account of the Mammalian family Tupaiidse,” 
 in L nited States National Museum, Proceedings, 
 vol. xlv (Washington, 1913). 
 
 TREE SNAKE. Many snakes are more or 
 less arboreal in habits, but some are so dis¬ 
 tinctively so as to merit the name especially. 
 Many of the smaller boas (see Tree Boa) live 
 almost wholly in tree tops, as is necessary in 
 the flooded parts of the Amazonian region. 
 Among the colubrine groups of that region is the 
 genus Leptophis, whose species are very slender 
 with long whiplike tails. The best known 
 (Leptophis liocerus) is a beautiful creature 6 
 feet long, the upper surface golden green, the 
 lower yellow or white; it subsists upon small 
 reptiles and birds and their eggs. An Oriental 
 genus ( Dendrophis) has the ventral scales keeled 
 and notched, enabling them to take hold of a 
 surface so securely that they are able to glide 
 up the branches of trees in almost straight 
 lines. A group of tropical green tree snakes 
 (Dipsadomorphae) exists the species of which 
 are highly poisonous, and in Africa are found 
 tree vipers (q.v.). See Opistiioglypiia. 
 
 TREE TOAD. See Tree Frog. 
 
 TREE TOMATO (Cyphomandra betacea ). 
 A semi woody South American plant belonging to 
 the family Solanaceae, often cultivated for its 
 fruit. The plants are evergreen, 6 to 10 feet 
 in height, and they bear on long pedicels numer¬ 
 ous egg-shaped fruits about 2 inches in diameter. 
 In color the smooth-skinned fruits are greenish 
 purple, changing as they ripen to reddish or yel¬ 
 lowish brown. In flavor and uses the fruit is 
 similar to the ordinary garden tomato. Plants 
 begin to bear when about two years old from 
 seed and remain continuously in fruit for several 
 years. The tree tomato is not hardy and can be 
 grown in the North only under glass. 
 
 TREE VIPER. A genus ( Atheris) of rather 
 small, arboreal vipers of Africa. They are of 
 bright green and yellow colors, so as to be 
 readily concealed in foliage. Their tails are 
 especially prehensile, like those of boas. Four 
 species are known. 
 
 TREE WORSHIP. See Nature Worship. 
 
 TREFFEL, tre'feF, Georges (1873-1914). 
 A Frenchman of letters and encyclopaedist, born 
 at Vayrac. He studied at the lyc^es of Audi, 
 Toulouse, and Henry IV and became associated 
 with the editorial department of the Nouveau 
 Larousse. He contributed also to the Petit 
 Larousse, the Larousse pour tons, and the La¬ 
 rousse Mensuel. In addition to writing numer¬ 
 ous and excellent biographies for these works, 
 he compiled the Atlas departemental Larousse. 
 
 TREFFENFELD, Joachim Henniges von. 
 See Henniges von Treffenfeld, Joachim. 
 
 TRE'FOIL. A frequent charge in heraldry 
 (q.v.), representing the clover leaf, which is al¬ 
 ways depicted as slipped, i.e., furnished with a 
 stalk. 
 
 TREFOIL (OF. trifoil, trefeul, Fr. trefle, 
 from Lat. trifolium, trefoil, three-leaved, from 
 tres, three + folium, leaf), Bird’s-Foot Trefoil 
 (Lotus). A genus of plants of the family Legu- 
 minosse. The pods are cylindrical, somewhat 
 spongy within and imperfectly divided into many 
 
 bird’s-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus). 
 
 cells. 
 
 The name “bird’s-foot trefoil” is derived 
 from the resemblance of the clusters of pods to 
 a bird’s foot. The numerous species are natives 
 of the temperate and colder regions of the Old 
 World. The common bird’s-foot trefoil (Lotus 
 corniculatus) is common in European pastures. 
 The spreading decumbent stems, 4 to 16 inches 
 
THE FONTANE 
 
 TREITSCHKE 
 
 450 
 
 long, arise from a short thick rhizome and bear 
 umbel-like cymes of 5 to 10 yellow flowers, which 
 have' a rich honey-like odor. The leaves have 
 three obovate leaflets, and at the base of each 
 leafstalk there are two large •leaflike ovate stip¬ 
 ules. The plant is by some regarded as the 
 shamrock (q.v.) of Ireland. It is nutritious and 
 much liked while young by all kinds of stock. 
 It is common in the United States, especially 
 in the South. A larger species, similar, with 
 stem nearly erect, more compact heads of smaller 
 flowers, and smaller seeds, is the greater or nar¬ 
 row-leaved bird’s-foot trefoil (Lotus major) of 
 much the same range. Marsh bird’s-foot trefoil 
 (Lotus uliginosus) is common in damp meadows. 
 The winged pea (Lotus tetragonolobus), remark¬ 
 able for four membranous wings which run along 
 its pods, is a native of southern Europe, where 
 it is grown for salads and as an ornamental 
 plant. It is cultivated in the United States 
 mainly as a forage plant and a winter crop for 
 plowing under in spring as green manure. The 
 name “tick trefoil” is given to various species 
 of Desmodium, and shrubby trefoil is Ptelea 
 trifoliata. See Clover. 
 
 THE FONTANE, tra fon-ta'na (It., Three 
 Fountains). The traditional scene of St. Paul’s 
 martyrdom, a spot outside of Rome, 3 miles from 
 the Porta San Paolo. According to the legend, 
 when the Apostle’s head was struck off, it made 
 three bounds, and at each spot a spring gushed 
 forth. Over the springs stands the church of 
 St. Paul without the Walls, which contains the 
 column to which St. Paul was bound. 
 
 TREGELLES, tre-gel'Is, Samuel Prideaux 
 (1813-75). An English scholar and New Testa¬ 
 ment critic, born at Falmouth, of Quaker parent¬ 
 age. He attended the Falmouth Classical School 
 for four years (1825-28), but was in the main 
 self-educated. Tregelles’ interest in biblical 
 studies began early, and from 1838 to his death 
 he devoted himself assiduously to the study of 
 the New Testament text and related subjects. In 
 1844 he published The Book of Revelation in 
 Greek, Edited from Ancient Authorities with a 
 New England Version. In 1854 his valuable An 
 Account of the Printed Text of the Greek New 
 Testament appeared. This work was not only 
 a history, but a discussion of principles of tex¬ 
 tual criticism, and as such is still of value. His 
 next important work was his revision of the New 
 Testament part of Horne’s Introduction under 
 the title, An Introduction to the Textual Criti¬ 
 cism of the New Testament (1856). Meanwhile 
 he was diligently collecting material for a new 
 critical edition of the Greek Testament, collating 
 manuscripts, examining patristic readings and 
 important ancient versions. The first part of 
 Tregelles’s Greek New Testament, Edited from 
 Ancient Authorities, appeared in 1857. The last 
 installment was published in 1872, sent out while 
 the author was suffering from illness which 
 proved fatal not long after. Among other writ¬ 
 ings not directly connected with the New Testa¬ 
 ment text his facsimile edition of the Canon 
 Muratorianus (1860) and his translation of 
 Gesenius’ Hebrew Lexicon (1847) deserve mention. 
 Tregelles’ piety was sincere, his scholarship ex¬ 
 act and painstaking, and his industry remarkable. 
 His edition of the Greek Testament ranks with 
 those of Tischendorf and of Westcott and Hort, 
 as one of the three great critical editions of the 
 last century. His principles, clearly worked out 
 and consistently applied, were similar to those 
 of Lachmann, but his reconstructed text was 
 
 based on a wider and more thorough survey of 
 the field of evidence than Lachmann’s. An Ap¬ 
 pendix to Tregelles’ Greek Testament, edited by 
 Hort and Streane, from Tregelles’ own papers 
 was published in 1879. Consult Scrivener, A 
 Plain Introduction to the Textual Criticism of 
 the New Testament, vol. ii (4th ed., London, 
 1894), and Hauck-Herzog, Realencyklopadie 
 fur protestantische Theologie, vol. xx (Leipzig, 
 1908). 
 
 TRE'HALASE. See Enzyme. 
 
 TREITSCHKE, tritsh'ke, Heinrich von 
 (1834-96). A German historian and political 
 writer. He was born at Dresden, Sept. 15, 1834, 
 the son of an officer in the Saxon army. His 
 father’s family was of ’Bohemian descent (the 
 family name was originally Treschky) and had 
 emigrated at the beginning of the Thirty 
 Years’ War from Bohemia to Saxony, An 
 illness in early life impaired his hearing and 
 resulted some years later in complete deaf¬ 
 ness, and young Treitschke had to give up 
 his ambitions of a more active life for one 
 of study. The failure of the German revolu¬ 
 tion in 1848 made a deep impression on him, 
 and while still a boy he advocated, to the 
 disgust of his highly conservative family, a uni¬ 
 fication of Germany under Prussian leadership. 
 He studied history, economics, and politics at 
 Bonn and Leipzig. After first considering a 
 journalistic career Treitschke in 1858 became a 
 lecturer in history at the University of Leipzig. 
 Popular as a teacher from the beginning, he 
 lectured before large audiences on the constitu¬ 
 tional history of Germany. Political events he 
 followed always with close interest. In 1864 
 he published an essay “Bundesstaat und Ein- 
 heitsstaat,” one of his most important writings 
 and by many considered his best work, in which 
 he attacked the German confederacy and advo¬ 
 cated a German union. In 1866, when Baden 
 joined with Austria in the Seven Weeks’ War, 
 he resigned the chair he then held at Freiburg 
 and became editor of the Preussische Jahrbiicher 
 in Berlin. But in the same year he was called 
 to the University of Kiel, in 1867-73 he was a 
 professor at Heidelberg, and in 1873 he accepted 
 a chair at Berlin. After the foundation of the 
 German Empire he was elected to the Reichstag. 
 At first a member of the National Liberal party, 
 later he became a conservative. He attracted at¬ 
 tention as a parliamentary orator and was noted 
 for his speeches against the Ultramontanes 
 (q.v.) and the Socialists. His strong stand 
 against modern conceptions of social problems 
 and their solution led him into various literary 
 feuds with leading German economists like Bren- 
 tano and Schmoller and caused his resignation 
 as an editor of the Preussische Jahrbiicher. As 
 professor of history at the University of Berlin 
 he attracted large and notable audiences because 
 of his great powers as a speaker and especially 
 because of his uncompromising Germanism. He 
 bitterly denounced Catholics, Jews, and Social¬ 
 ists, in fact any one who in his opinion was not 
 truly Prussian and German. He died at Berlin, 
 April 28, 1896. 
 
 When a young man Treitschke had planned a 
 history of modern Germany, but the first volume 
 did not appear till 1876, and the work was left 
 unfinished, covering only the period down to the 
 events of 1848. With the possible exception of 
 Mommsen’s Roman History, the most brilliant 
 work of the kind in the German language is 
 Treitschke’s Deutsche Geschichte im neunzehn- 
 
TREITSCHKE 
 
 45i 
 
 TRELEASE 
 
 ten Jahrhundert (5 vols., 1874-94; Eng. trans., 
 History of Germany in the Nineteenth Century , 
 7 vols., New York, 1915 et seq.). Every side of 
 national life and thought is treated with a knowl- 
 edge, a \ igor, and an eloquence that have made 
 the book a national possession. But its faults 
 are as conspicuous as its merits. It is written 
 throughout from a Prussian standpoint, with a 
 pronounced antipathy to the smaller states and 
 without comprehension of the men and move¬ 
 ments that opposed the military and bureau¬ 
 cratic regime of the Hohenzollerns. Treitschke 
 was the last and greatest of the Prussian school 
 which arose in the years of national depression 
 and contributed powerfully to prepare the soil 
 for the idea of a national union of Germany 
 under Prussian leadership. 
 
 After the outbreak of the European War in 
 1914 the discussion of Treitschke’s position and 
 influence in the development of modern political 
 thought in Germany was revived, and he was 
 even attacked as one of the spiritual instigators 
 of the great war. Especially in England, where 
 he was almost unknown during his lifetime, many 
 of his writings were now read with interest, and 
 his anti-English utterances were held partially 
 responsible for the growing antagonism between 
 the countries in recent years. Originally, how¬ 
 ever, Treitschke was an admirer of England and 
 English institutions, although his later judg¬ 
 ment became more severe because of England’s 
 unfriendly attitude in the Franco-Prussian War. 
 W hen Germany entered upon the project of a 
 colonial empire, Treitschke prophesied an un¬ 
 avoidable clash of interests with England, and 
 without predicting a war he considered the 
 possibility of it. 
 
 Besides his greatest work, Treitschke’s writ¬ 
 ings include: Zehn Jahre deutscher Kdmpfe, 
 Schriften zur Tagespolitik (1874; 3d ed., sup¬ 
 plemented, 1897) ; Der Sozialismus und seine 
 Gonner (1875); Der Sozialismus und der Meu- 
 chelmord (1878) ; Ein Wort iiher unser Juden- 
 tum (1880) ; Historische und politische Aufsdtze 
 (1865; N. s., 1870; vol. iv, 1897); Zwei Kaiser 
 (1888) ; and the posthumous volumes Reden im 
 deutschen Reichstag (1896) and Politik, lectures 
 (2 vols., 1897-98). Selected writings, Aus- 
 gewahlte Schriften, appeared in 1907 (2 vols.). 
 In early life he published two volumes of verse, 
 Vaterldndische Gedichte (1856) and Studien 
 (1857). His letters to R. von Mohl and to his 
 wife and his correspondence with Gustav Freytag 
 are to be had in German. Selections from 
 Treitschke’s Lectures on Politics were translated 
 by A. L. Gowne (London, 1914), and in 1915 a 
 collection in English was made of essays written 
 between 1871 and 1895, under the title Germany, 
 France, Russia, and Islam. 
 
 Bibliography. Theodor Schiemann, Heinrich 
 von Treitschkes Lehr- und Wander jahre (2d ed., 
 Munich, 1898) ; Adolf Hausrath, Zur Erinrierung 
 an Heinrich von Treitschke (Leipzig, 1901) ; 
 Erich Marcks, Heinrich von Treitschke, ein 
 Gedenkllatt (Heidelberg, 1906) ; H. von Peters- 
 dorff, in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie (Leip- 
 zig, 1910) ; Joseph McCabe, Treitschke and the 
 Great War (New York, 1914) ; Antoine Giul- 
 land, Modern Germany and her Historians (Lon¬ 
 don, 1915) ; M. A. Miigge, Heinrich von Treitschke 
 (New York, 1915), containing a bibliography; 
 Edmund McClure, Germany’s War Inspirers: 
 Nietzsche and Treitschke (ib., 1915) ; H. W. C. 
 Davis, The Political Thought of Heinrich von 
 Treitschke (ib., 1915). For life and selected 
 
 writings: Adolf Hausrath, Treitschke: His Doc¬ 
 trines and his Life (ib., 1914). 
 
 TRELAWNY, tre-la'm, Edward John (1792— 
 1881). An English author, known as the friend 
 of Shelley and Byron (qq.v.). He was born in 
 London. 1 hough he was of an ancient and fa¬ 
 mous family, his education was neglected. En¬ 
 tering the royal navy at the age of 13, he served 
 in the fleet blockading Cadiz (1805). He sub¬ 
 sequently deserted and passed through exciting 
 adventures in the East Indies. In January, 
 1822, he met Shelley and Byron at Pisa. He 
 was the last to see Shelley’s boat disappear in 
 the fog on the memorable 8th of July, 1822; 
 he superintended the cremation of Shelley’s body 
 at Yiareggio, snatching the heart from the 
 flames. In 1823 he accompanied Byron to 
 Greece, where he took part in the war of libera¬ 
 tion and married, as his second wife, the sister 
 of the Greek chieftain Odysseus. After living 
 in Italy and traveling in the United States 
 (1833-35), he settled in England, becoming a 
 lion of London society. He died at Sompting in 
 Sussex. His body was cremated and buried by 
 the side of Shelley’s in the Protestant cemetery 
 at Rome. Irelawny charmed two generations by 
 his rich fund of anecdote. He was sought out by 
 young men who wished to meet the comrade of 
 Byron and Shelly. He figures as the old seaman 
 in Millais’s “Northwest Passage.” Trelawnv 
 wrote his early autobiography under the title 
 The Adventures of a Younger Son (anonymous, 
 1831) . How much is truth and how much fic¬ 
 tion in this book will probably never be de¬ 
 termined. Trelawny is best known for The 
 Recollections of the Last Days of Shelley and 
 Byron (1858), republished, with changes, as 
 Records of Shelley, Byron, and the Author 
 (1878). Both are brilliant books, the latter of 
 great value. Consult the edition of The Adven¬ 
 tures of a Younger Son, with memoir by E. Gar¬ 
 nett (London, 1890), and Letters (ed. by H. B. 
 Forman, Oxford, 1910). 
 
 TRELAWNY, Sir Jonathan (1650-1721). 
 An English bishop and third Baronet of Tre¬ 
 lawny. He was born at Pelynt, Cornwall, grad¬ 
 uated at Christ Church, Oxford, in 1672, and 
 took priest’s orders in 1676. He took an active 
 part in suppressing Monmouth’s Rebellion of 
 1685 and was rewarded with the bishopric of 
 Bristol. The appearance of the First Declara¬ 
 tion of Indulgence (see Declaration of Indul¬ 
 gence) alienated him from King James; he re¬ 
 fused to sign the declaration, and later success¬ 
 fully opposed the effort of the Earl of Bath to 
 control the Cornish elections in the interests of 
 the crown. On May 18, 1683, he united with 
 five other bishops and the Archbishop of Canter¬ 
 bury in drawing up a petition against the Second 
 Declaration of Indulgence. As a result all seven 
 were in the following month committed to the 
 Tower on a charge of seditious libel, but were 
 acquitted, and soon afterward King James II 
 was driven from the throne. Trelawny seems 
 not to have united in the invitation of William, 
 but after the coronation of the new sovereigns he 
 was made Bishop of Exeter. Consult Elizabeth 
 Strickland, Lives of the Seven Bishops Com¬ 
 mitted to the Tower in 1688 (London, 1866). 
 
 TRELEASE, tre-les', William (1857- ). 
 
 An American botanist, born at Mount Vernon, 
 N. Y. He graduated at Cornell in 1880, and, 
 after serving as instructor in botany at Harvard 
 and at the University of Wisconsin, was profes¬ 
 sor at Wisconsin in 1883-85. In 1885 he was 
 
TREMAREC 
 
 TRENCH 
 
 452 
 
 made Engelmann professor of botany in W asli- 
 ington University at St. Louis, and in 1889 be¬ 
 came, in addition, director of the famous Mis¬ 
 souri Botanical Garden there. In 1913 he was 
 appointed professor of botany at the University 
 of Illinois. He was the first president of the 
 Botanical Society of America (1884-85), served 
 also as president of the American Society of 
 Naturalists in 1903, and was elected to the Na¬ 
 tional Academy of Sciences in 1902. His chief 
 interest was the classification of certain groups 
 of flowering plants, especially the genus 
 Agave (q.v.). 
 
 TREMAREC, Yves Joseph de Kerguelen-. 
 See Kerguelen-Tremarec, Y. J. de. 
 
 TREM'ATO'DA (Neo-Lat. nom. pi., from 
 Gk. TpT}/jL<xTojdT]s, trematodes, having many holes, 
 porous, from rprjya, trcma, hole). A class of 
 Platyhelminthes, the flukes, characterized by the 
 possession of certain suctorial pores or openings. 
 They have soft roundish or flat bodies, and 
 their visceral organs are lodged in the paren¬ 
 chyma of the body. Most of them are her¬ 
 maphrodites. They seldom reach a large size 
 (at best about 5 inches), but are usually visible 
 to the naked eye. The color is dull gray, green, 
 or brown, sometimes mottled. The reproductive 
 organs are complicated and developed to a re¬ 
 markable degree, occupying a large part of the 
 body. These worms are not all parasitic, nor 
 are the parasitic forms confined to a single host 
 during the whole of their existence. Many of 
 them have a remarkable life history, showing 
 an extraordinary succession of generations, in 
 which the young resemble not parents or grand¬ 
 parents, but great-great-grandparents. The first 
 three or four generations live in the body of some 
 invertebrate, especially water snails; but the 
 next generation is free-swimming, and its off¬ 
 spring are like the original form and parasitic 
 within some vetebrate. 
 
 The Trematoda are divided into two orders: 
 
 (1) Ectoparasitica, trematodes with three or 
 more suckers, living on the outside of their hosts 
 and with a direct development from the egg; 
 
 (2) Endoparasitica, trematodes with not more 
 than two suckers, living in the blood vessels, 
 alimentary canal, or other spaces of higher 
 animals and undergoing a complicated alterna¬ 
 tion of generations. This order includes a large 
 number of species, many of which are dangerous 
 to domestic animals and also to man. See 
 Fluke. 
 
 TREMBLAY, traN'bla', Francois Leclerc 
 du. See Joseph, Father. 
 
 TREMBLEY, traN'bl^', Abraham (1700- 
 84). A Swiss naturalist, principally known for 
 his studies in Holland of the hydra, and the dis¬ 
 covery of its power of regenerating lost parts. 
 (See Begexeration.) His M6moires pour ser- 
 vir a Vhistoire d’un genre de polypes d’eau douce 
 a bras en forme de comes (2 vols., 1744) brought 
 him great fame and became a classic. 
 
 TREM'OLITE (from Tremolo, an Alpine 
 village, where the mineral was discovered). A 
 variety of ampliibole (q.v.), consisting of cal¬ 
 cium and magnesium silicate. It is white to 
 dark gray in color. It occurs usually in mono¬ 
 clinic prisms, although sometimes it is found 
 in fibrous aggregates with a silky lustre. 
 
 TREM'OLO (It., trembling). In music, an 
 expression indicating that a note or a chord is to 
 be reiterated with great rapidity for an indefinite 
 number of times, so as to produce a quavering 
 sort of effect. In singing the tremolo is highly 
 
 effective in dramatic situations. But with many 
 singers it is a mannerism arising from improper 
 control of the breath. (See Singing.) For 
 the stringed instruments the tremolo is exten- 
 
 sively employed by composers and is written ^ 
 It is produced by a very rapid alternation of the 
 up-and-down stroke of the bow. 
 
 TREMOUILLE. See La Tremoille. 
 
 TREM'TJLANT. See Organ. 
 
 TREMULOUS POPLAR. See Aspen. 
 
 TRENCH, Herbert (1865- ). A British 
 
 poet, born at Avoncore, County Cork, Ireland, 
 and educated at Oxford, where he took honors, 
 and became a fellow of All Souls. For a time 
 he was senior examiner at the Board of Educa¬ 
 tion; he traveled in many lands and served also 
 as director of the Haymarket Theatre. His 
 books include: Deirdre Wedded (1901), contain¬ 
 ing 19 poems in addition to that which gives the 
 volume its title; The Questioners (1907) ; Lyrics 
 and Narrative Poems (1911) ; Ode from Italy in 
 Time of War (1915). 
 
 TRENCH, Military (from OF. trencher, 
 trancher, Fr. tranches, to cut, from Lat. trun- 
 care, to lop, from truncus, trunk, from truncus, 
 OLat. troncus, maimed). An excavation of 
 varying dimensions, the earth from which is 
 placed directly in front to form a parapet. 
 Trenches are to be found in permanent and semi¬ 
 permanent fortifications as well as hasty in- 
 trencliments (see Fortification), their nature, 
 number, and methods of construction varying 
 with the circumstances. Trenches are necessary 
 for both the attack and the defense, modern con¬ 
 ditions and future indications giving a constantly 
 increasing importance to their use by an attack¬ 
 ing force. Time is often a great factor in the 
 determination of the style of trench to be 
 adopted, or the number of men required for its 
 construction. Usually an average of one pace 
 per rifle is reckoned for shelter trenches, which 
 for troops kneeling would require a depth of 
 about 3 feet, while as a shelter for men standing 
 it would be necessary to excavate to 4 feet, 7 
 inches, the removed earth in both cases being 
 sufficient to provide an upper parapet of about 
 3 feet in thickness. 
 
 Trenches have been long advocated by mili¬ 
 tary engineers and have been gaining greatly 
 in favor in general military opinion in late 
 years. The tendency for a long time to have 
 all such work done by the engineers is being 
 superseded by an attempt to establish simple 
 standard types which shall be generally under¬ 
 stood by all troops so that it shall only be neces¬ 
 sary in campaign operations to indicate to 
 troops that a lying-down, or a kneeling, or a 
 standing trench is to be constructed in a given 
 general position, and the troops which are to de¬ 
 fend the trenches will themselves construct them, 
 under- only the general supervision of the en¬ 
 gineers. in the case of occupation of the same 
 lines and works for a long time the works are 
 more closely supervised by the engineers to se¬ 
 cure the best construction and to avoid needless 
 changes as the commands occupying the lines are 
 changed. Modern warfare is carried on by enor¬ 
 mous armies which occupy long fronts whose ends 
 rest in the sea or on forbidding mountains. The 
 opposing lines therefore parallel each other for 
 miles during long periods of time. Increasing 
 attention is consequently focused on the trenches. 
 The tendency has been to make the front line 
 deep enough for standing and only wide enough 
 for the passage of a single file behind the line 
 
TRENCH 
 
 TRENCK 
 
 
 453 
 
 of soldiers defending the trench. A bench or 
 berm is left at the top and front of the trench 
 on which the soldier may rest his elbows in 
 taking his aim. 
 
 If trendies are made deeper than as just in¬ 
 dicated, a banquette or bench of suitable height 
 is left against the front face for the soldiers to 
 stand upon. To prevent them from caving in, 
 the nearly vertical faces of the trench are ordi¬ 
 narily revetted with planks, woven brush, or 
 bags filled with earth. The horizontal plan or 
 line of trenches is given small changes of di¬ 
 rection and provided with traverses to localize 
 the ellects of bursting shells and of enfilade or 
 flanking fire. The front or parapet is provided 
 with head cover of logs, sandbags, or earth sup¬ 
 ported on wooden roofs. Frequent loopholes for 
 firing are left in this head cover. 
 
 In front of the trenches the ground is cleared 
 to afford a better view of the enemy and to deny 
 him cover. Obstructive barriers or obstacles 
 largely of barbed wire are placed to impede his 
 progress in the event of a charge. Running for¬ 
 ward from the - front line of trenches are gal¬ 
 leries constructed as bases for mining operations 
 against the enemy. Running back from the 
 front line of trenches are communicating 
 trenches. These may be dug lower and covered 
 over for protection from fire and overhead view. 
 These lead to lines of trenches in the rear and to 
 the positions of the supports and reserves. Pub¬ 
 lished statements from the European War indi¬ 
 cated that an increasing use was being made of 
 subterranean passages and rooms where many 
 troops might rest during bombardment and 
 emerge to resist the subsequent charge. Fre¬ 
 quent variations of these details of construction 
 occur. In crossing low and swampy ground it 
 is impracticable to excavate and all protection 
 must be afforded by higher parapets. These in 
 turn have the objection of being visible; but a 
 choice must often be made between two defects 
 and the less objectionable accepted. Great care 
 must always be exercised to provide proper drain¬ 
 age for all trenches, as their value will other¬ 
 wise be decreased if not entirely sacrificed. See 
 Mines and Mining, Military; Siege. 
 
 TRENCH, Richard Chenevix (1807-86). 
 Archbishop of Dublin, poet, and scholar. He 
 was born in Dublin and educated at Harrow and 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took his 
 degree in 1829 and was intimate with the mem¬ 
 bers of the Apostles’ Club, including Tennyson, 
 Hallam, and Sterling. He was ordained deacon 
 in 1832 and became curate to Hugh James Rose 
 (q.v.) at Hadleigh, identifying himself to a cer¬ 
 tain extent with the High Church party. He 
 was curate of Curdridge in Hampshire from 
 1835 to 1841 and in 1845 was examining chap¬ 
 lain to Bishop Wilberforce. From 1846 to 1858 
 he held a theological professorship at King’s 
 College, London, having meantime been appointed 
 in 1856 to the deanery of Westminster. In 1863 
 he became Archbishop of Dublin and took a fore¬ 
 most position in the opposition to the disestab¬ 
 lishment of the Episcopal church in Ireland, as 
 ■well as in the settlement of the delicate ques¬ 
 tions which arose after it had been accomplished. 
 He resigned his see, owing to infirmity, in 1884 
 and died in London two years later. Noteworthy 
 among his theological works are: Notes on the 
 Parables (1841) ; Notes on the Miracles (1846) ; 
 Commentary on the Epistles to the Seven 
 Churches (i 861 ) ; Studies in the Gospels (1867), 
 all of which were widely popular and influential. 
 
 His poetical work is graceful, tender, and 
 thoughtful as a whole. A collected edition ap¬ 
 peared in two volumes (1885). His best-known 
 books in philology are The Study of Words 
 (1851); English, Past and Present (1855); 
 Proverbs and their Lessons (1905). To these 
 may be added his Lectures on Mediceval Church 
 History ( 1877). See Trench, Letters and Memo¬ 
 rials of Archbishop Trench (London, 1888 ) } and 
 J. Sylvester, Archbishop Trench (ib., 1891). 
 
 TRENCH FOOT. See Surgery, Military. 
 
 TRENCH'ARD, Stephen Decatur (1818— 
 83). An American naval officer, born in Brook¬ 
 lyn, N. Y. He became a midshipman at the 
 age of 16, was promoted to passed midshipman 
 in July, 1840, was wrecked in the Washington 
 off the coast of North Carolina in 1845, was 
 attached to the Saratoga during the Mexican 
 War, became a lieutenant in 1847, and was 
 slightly wounded while serving under Tatnall 
 when that officer assisted the English in their 
 attack on the Pei-ho forts in China. During the 
 Civil War he served on the Rhode Island, was 
 made commander in July, 1862, and participated 
 in the bombardments of Fort Fisher in 1864 and 
 1865. He was promoted to be captain in 1866, 
 commodore in 1871, and rear admiral in 1875, 
 commanded the North Atlantic squadron in 
 1876-78, and retired in 1880. 
 
 TRENCK, Franz von der, Baron (1711-49). 
 An Austrian soldier of fortune, born at Reggio in 
 Calabria, the son of a lieutenant colonel in the 
 Austrian service. He became a cavalry officer 
 at 17, distinguished himself by his mental ac¬ 
 complishments, his remarkable success in the 
 fields of gallantry, and his love for dueling and 
 miscellaneous murder, which in the end forced 
 him to leave the army. He went to Russia, 
 where he was made a captain of hussars, but was 
 cashiered not long afterward for gross insub¬ 
 ordination and imprisoned at Kiev, whence he re¬ 
 turned to settle on his estates in Slavonia. 
 Trenck armed and drilled 1000 of his tenants, 
 whom he called Pandours, and by their means 
 succeeded in restoring order on the frontier, 
 which was overrun with Turkish banditti. In 
 1741 he offered the services of his regiment to 
 Maria Theresa, and his aid was accepted. His 
 deeds of violence at last led to his trial before 
 a court-martial and condemnation to imprison¬ 
 ment for life. He was confined at the Spielberg, 
 near Briinn, until his death, caused by poisoning 
 himself when he found escape impossible. Con¬ 
 sult Hiibner, Franz von der Trenck (Stuttgart, 
 1788), and Trenck’s own memoirs, Merkwiirdiges 
 Leben und Thaten des Freiherrn Franz von der 
 Trenck (Vienna, 1770). 
 
 TRENCK, Friedrich von der, Baron (1726- 
 94 ). A German adventurer, born at Konigsberg, 
 the son of a Prussian general and cousin of the 
 preceding. At 1*6 he became a cornet in the 
 guards and in 1744 ordnance officer to Frederick 
 the Great. In 1749 he became captain of cuiras¬ 
 siers in the Austrian service. While in Danzig 
 in 1754 he was arrested by order of Frederick and 
 kept in severe confinement at Magdeburg till 
 1763. After his release he settled at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, where he married the burgomaster’s 
 daughter, gave himself to literary pursuits, and 
 went into business as a wine merchant. In 
 1774-77 he traveled in England and France, and, 
 restored to the possession of his Prussian es¬ 
 tates after the death of Frederick II, lived at 
 Berlin and Konigsberg. In 1791 he went to 
 Paris and became a zealous adherent of the 
 
TRENT 
 
 TRENDELENBURG 454 
 
 Mountain party. He was, however, suspected of 
 plotting with tfie foreign enemy and was guil¬ 
 lotined July 25, 1794. Consult the autobi¬ 
 
 ographical Friedrich Trencks merkwiirdige Le- 
 bensgeschichte (Berlin, 1787), which he rendered 
 into French in 1789. His collected writings 
 were published at Leipzig in eight volumes 
 (1786). 
 
 TRENDELENBURG, tren'de-len-burK, Fried¬ 
 rich (1844- ). A German surgeon, born in 
 
 Berlin, the son of Friedrich A. Trendelenburg. 
 He received his medical education in Edinburgh, 
 Glasgow, and Berlin and became professor of 
 surgery at Rostock (1875), at Bonn (1882), 
 and at Leipzig (1895), as successor to Karl 
 Thiersch (q.v.). He is best known for his 
 work in tracheotomy, for his operation to cuie 
 varicose veins, and for improvements in pelvic 
 operations. 
 
 TRENDELENBURG, tren'de-len-burK, 
 Friedrich Adolf (1802—72). A German phi¬ 
 losopher, born at Eutin. He was educated at 
 Kiel, Leipzig, and Berlin; was appointed profes¬ 
 sor extraordinary of philosophy in the Univer¬ 
 sity of Berlin, 1833, and full professor in 1837. 
 In this position, which he held until his death, 
 Jan. 24, 1872, he exercised very great influence 
 upon the course of philosophical thought. His 
 criticism of Hegel procured him great renown 
 and was one of the most effective forces that 
 broke the hold of Hegelianism on the German 
 mind. The foundation of his own philosophic 
 doctrine is Aristotelianism, which, however, was 
 modified by Platonic elements. He held and de¬ 
 veloped the teleological view and maintained that 
 it is confirmed by empirical fact. Mechanical 
 causation he viewed as the servant oi .teleology, 
 not its enemy. He called his philosophy the 
 “organic view of the world.” His most impor¬ 
 tant works are Elementa Logicce Aristotelicce 
 (1836; 9th ed., 1892; Eng. trans., 1881); 
 Erlduterungen zu den Elementen der Aristote- 
 lischen Logik (1842; 3d ed., 1876) ; Der logische 
 Frage in Ilegels System (1843); Logische Un- 
 tersuchungen (1840; 3d ed., 1870) ; Das Natur- 
 recht auf dem Grunde der Ethik (I860; 2d ed., 
 1868); Liicken im Vblkerrecht (1870). His 
 Historisehe Beitrage zur Philosophic (1846-67 ) 
 and Kleine Sohiften (1871) are also valuable 
 helps in the study of the history of philosophy. 
 Consult: Bonitz, Zur Erinnerung an Trendelen¬ 
 burg (Berlin, 1872) ; Bratuscheck, Adolf Tren¬ 
 delenburg (ib., 1873) ; Morris, in The New Eng¬ 
 lander (Boston, 1874). 
 
 TREN'HOLM, George A. (1806-76). An 
 American merchant and financier, born at Charles¬ 
 ton, S. C. He engaged in business at Charles¬ 
 ton and was very^successful. During the Civil 
 War he successfully ran the blockade and se¬ 
 cured much needed supplies for the Confederacy. 
 From June, 1864, until the end of the war he 
 held the office of Secretary of the Treasury of 
 the Confederate States. After being imprisoned 
 until October, 1865, he was pardoned by Presi¬ 
 dent Johnson. 
 
 TRENT. A river rising on the northwest 
 border of Staffordshire, England, about 10 miles 
 north of Burslem (Map: England, F 3). It 
 flows first southeast to the border of Derbyshire 
 and afterward, in a generally northeast direc¬ 
 tion, through the counties of Derby, Nottingham, 
 and Lincoln, then it unites with the Ouse (q.v.) 
 to form the Humber (q.v.). It receives the Der¬ 
 went, Idle, and Tarn from the west and the Soar 
 from’ the south; it is navigable for seagoing 
 
 steamers to Gainsborough and for barges, 120 
 miles, to Burton-upon-Trent. Length, 170 miles. 
 
 TRENT. The outlet of the series of bays be¬ 
 tween Lake Simcoe and the Bay of Quints, Lake 
 Ontario (Map: Ontario, H 5), flowing into the 
 latter body at Trenton. It issues from the 
 northeast end of Lake Rice as a wide and 
 picturesque river and is about 40 miles long. 
 
 TRENT (It. Trento, Ger. Trient) . A town 
 of Tirol, Austria, 76 miles northwest of Venice, 
 on the left bank of the Adige (Map; Austria, B 
 3). It is built largely in the Italian style and 
 has some beautiful old palaces. In the^ Piazza 
 Grande is the celebrated Fountain of Neptune, 
 made of red marble. A beautiful bronze statue 
 of Dante (by Zocchie, 1896) stands in the Piazza 
 di Dante. The Romanesque cathedral, begun in 
 its present form early in the thirteenth century 
 and completed in the fifteenth, constructed en¬ 
 tirely of white marble, is the most striking pub¬ 
 lic building. The church of Santa Maria Mag- 
 giore is noted as the sitting place of the Council 
 of Trent (q.v.), and a column in the square be¬ 
 fore it commemorates the eveijt. Among the 
 other interesting architectural features are the 
 castle (the former residence of the prince bish¬ 
 ops) and two ancient towers. The municipal 
 building contains a museum of Roman antiquities 
 and other objects. Trent is the chief town of 
 the Italian or Welsch division of Tirol. The 
 chief industries are silk weaving, the making of 
 salami (a kind of sausage), playing cards, pot¬ 
 tery, cloth, and wines, and the quarrying of 
 marble and gypsum. The town is the seat of a 
 bishop. Pop.; 1900, 24,908; 1910, 30,049. Trent 
 is the ancient Tridentum, which was a Roman 
 colony. It was under the rule of bishops from 
 the eleventh century to 1803, when it passed to 
 Austria. 
 
 TRENT, Council of. The most notable of 
 the modern ecumenical councils of the Roman 
 Catholic church, held with intermissions from 
 1545 to 1563. It was the culmination of the 
 Counter-Reformation (q.v.), and its decrees crys¬ 
 tallized the results of that movement into the 
 permanent law of the Church. For centuries 
 those who felt the need of reform within the 
 Church had appealed to a general council, and 
 the long-growing discontent with the condition 
 of things after the Great Schism had led to 
 the great councils of the fifteenth century. The 
 Protestant Reformation had taken many of 
 the most ardent advocates of reform out of 
 the Church and left the conservative-minded 
 party in control. A council was at first desired 
 by Luther and his supporters as a means of 
 closing the great breach. At the Diet of Nurem¬ 
 berg ?n 1523 the German estates appealed to 
 Adrian VI for the summoning of a council 
 “within a year, in concert with the Impelial 
 Majesty and in a German city.” Adrian died in 
 the same year, and his successor, Clement VII, 
 while not refusing a council, did nothing towards 
 calling one; and the political breach between 
 Charles V and the holy see made the Emperor’s 
 requests unfruitful. Thus it happened that when 
 the design was put into execution in the pontifi¬ 
 cate of Paul III the Augsburg negotiations (see 
 Reformation ) had failed, the break in Christen¬ 
 dom was an accomplished fact, and the sincere 
 but reactionary party was left in control. 
 
 The council was finally assembled at Trent, 
 Dec. 13, 1545. The Emperor desired to have 
 the discussions opened on points of general agree¬ 
 ment, in the hope of gaining the confidence of the 
 
TRENT 
 
 455 TRENT AFFAIR 
 
 Protestants; but the party in control brought to 
 the front the questions‘most in dispute—the 
 authority of the Scriptures in the Vulgate text, 
 the right of interpretation, ecclesiastical tradi¬ 
 tion and the doctrine of justification, as to 
 which the old positions were maintained. 
 Legates of the Pope presided, and approved of all 
 business presented to the council. Certain ad¬ 
 ministrative reforms were early decreed. Bish¬ 
 ops were to provide better schools in their 
 dioceses and were themselves to expound the 
 Va>rd of God; qualifications for the episcopal 
 office were defined, and penalties imposed for 
 the neglect of duties; dispensations and privi¬ 
 leges were restricted. The Emperor opposed the 
 course of the council, and on March 11, 1547, 
 its sittings were transferred to Bologna, where 
 it was thought the Imperial influence would not 
 be so much felt. In 1549 Paul III died and 
 was succeeded by Cardinal del Monte as Julius 
 III. The latter reassembled the council at 
 I rent, May 1, 1551; but, after the sixteenth 
 session, the city having become insecure on ac¬ 
 count of the activity of the Protestant forces 
 under Maurice of Saxony, the sittings were 
 again suspended for two years. After the brief 
 reign of Marcellus II, Cardinal Caraffa, one of 
 the ablest leaders of the uncompromising Catho¬ 
 lic party, came to the papal throne as Paul IV. 
 
 The council now proceeded to carry out a 
 conservative reorganization of the ‘ Church, 
 though its work was again suspended for a time 
 owing to the disturbances of Paul’s pontificate. 
 Pius IV, the former Cardinal Gonzaga, recon¬ 
 vened it in 1560. Ecclesiastical laws were codi¬ 
 fied, questions which had hitherto been open 
 were definitely ruled, uniformity of faith and 
 discipline was established. To regulate some of 
 the abuses of the system of indulgences, it was 
 decreed that bishops should collect the payments 
 made in connection with it, while the power of 
 granting indulgences was affirmed as instituted 
 by Christ and to be retained as useful to Chris¬ 
 tians. Episcopal control of monastic orders was 
 provided for, though the Jesuits secured a 
 larger measure of freedom. Several matters of 
 detail were referred to the Pope for decision. 
 The decrees were read and subscribed by about 
 200 bishops on Dec. 3 and 4, 1563, and the 
 council finally adjourned. The decrees were con¬ 
 firmed by the Pope, Jan. 26, 1564, and he also 
 prepaied a confession of faith summarizing 
 their doctrinal features. (See Pius IV, Creed 
 of.) In spite of opposition the work of the 
 council was so clear, logical, and thorough, and 
 so well supported by the hierarchy, that it had 
 a permanent and far-reaching effect, setting the 
 standard of Roman Catholic faith and practice 
 to the present day. The only things added have 
 been the two definitions of the Immaculate Con¬ 
 ception and the Infallibility of the Pope. 
 
 Bibliography. The best modern edition of 
 the documents relating to the council is Triden- 
 tinum Concilium; Actorum, Epistularum, Trac- 
 tatuum nova Collectio (Freiburg, 1901 et seq.), 
 or Theiner, Acta Genuina Sacri Concilii Tri- 
 dentini (Agrarn, 1874). The approved Eng¬ 
 lish translation is that by J. Waterworth (Lon¬ 
 don, 1896) ; also A. von Druffel, Monumenta 
 tridentina (Munich, 1884-87), continued by K. 
 Brandi (1897-99). Works supplementary to 
 that of the council itself were a catechism by the 
 Pope for parish priests and preachers, and au¬ 
 thentic editions of the Vulgate Bible, the missal, 
 and the breviary. A permanent tribunal at 
 
 Rome, the Congregation of the Council, deals 
 vith questions which arise as to the meaning, 
 authority, or effect of the decrees and canons 
 or the council. The contemporary histories of 
 the council were those of Fra Paolo Sarpi (see 
 Sarpi Paolo), Istoria del Concilio Tridentino 
 ( ondon, 1619; in Latin, 1620; Eng. trans. by 
 Brent, 1676)written from a hostile, almost a 
 1 rotestant, point of view; and Sforza Pallavicini 
 Istoria del Concilio di Trento (Rome, 1656-57 • 
 revised by the author, 1666; ed., annotated by 
 Zaccaria, 1833; Fr. trans. by Migne, Paris 
 1844) a friendly history, a reply to Sarpi! 
 Consult also: Joseph Mendham, Memoirs of the 
 Council of Trent (London, 1834-42) ; I. H. Wes- 
 senberg, Die grossen Kirchenversammlungen des 
 funfzehnten und sechszehnten Jahrhunderts 
 (Constance, 1840), a Roman Catholic work; 
 Goschl, C eschichtliche Darstellung des grossen 
 allgemeinen Concil s zu Trient (Regensburo- 
 1840); L. Maynier (pseud.), Etude historique 
 sur le concile de Trente (Paris, 1874); J. J. I. 
 von Dollinger, Sammlung von Urkunden zur Ge- 
 schichte des Konzils von Trient (Nordlino-en 
 1876) ; W. Arthur, The Pope, the Kings, and the 
 leople (2 vols., London, 1877) ; Martin Philipp- 
 son, Les origines du Catholicisms moderne • La 
 contre-revolution religieuse au XVIerne siecle 
 (Pans, 1884) ; Charles Dejob, De I’influence du 
 concile de Trente sur la litterature et les beaux- 
 arts (ib., 1884) ; R. F. Littledale, History of the 
 Council of Trent (London, 1888) ; J. A. Froude, 
 Lectures on the Council of Trent (ib., 1896) ; a! 
 R. Pennington, The Counter-Reformation in 
 Europe (ib., 1901) ; Cambridge Modern History 
 
 J. 0 ‘ Vy (Yew York, 1905), containing an exhaus¬ 
 tive bibliography. 
 
 TRENT, William Petterfteld (1862- ) 
 
 An American literary critic, born in Richmond! 
 Va. tie was educated at the University of Vir¬ 
 ginia and at Johns Hopkins. From 1888 to 
 1900 he was professor of English and historv in 
 the University of the South (Sewanee, Tenn ) 
 and from 1893 to 1900 was dean of the academic 
 department of that institution. In 1900 he be¬ 
 came professor of English literature at Colum¬ 
 bia. The hewanee Review, which he founded in 
 1892, was edited by him until 1900. In 1904 
 lie turned his attention mainly to the life of 
 Daniel Defoe and to English history and litera¬ 
 ture of. the period 1680-1730. He contributed 
 the article on Defoe, as well as articles on 
 American literature, to the New International 
 Encyclopaedia, edited Robinson Crusoe, and 
 wrote a biography and bibliography of ’Defoe 
 in 10 volumes (in manuscript to 1916). In 
 addition he edited various works and pub¬ 
 lished : William Gilmore Simms (1892); The 
 Authority of Critidsm (1899); Robert E. Lee 
 (1899); John Milton (1899); Progress of the 
 United States during the Nineteenth Century 
 (1901); A History of American Literature 
 (1903); Greatness in Literature, and Other 
 Papers (1905); Longfellow and Other Essays 
 (1910); Great American Writers (1912), with 
 John Erskine. 
 
 TRENT AFFAIR, The. A diplomatic epi¬ 
 sode growing out of the seizure by an American 
 vessel on Nov. 8, 1861, during the Civil War 
 in America, of two Confederate commissioners 
 on board a British mail steamer. In the autumn 
 of 1861 the Confederate government sent John 
 Slidell and James M. Mason (qq.v.) as com¬ 
 missioners to France and England respectively. 
 They embaiked at Havana for England on the 
 
TRENTE ET QUAKANTE 
 
 TRENTON 
 
 456 
 
 British mail steamer Trent. On November 8 
 Capt. Charles Wilkes (q.v.) of the I nited States 
 vessel San Jacinto stopped the Trent and took 
 them as. prisoners. This act was applauded by 
 many people, but President Lincoln and Secre¬ 
 tary of State Seward recognized its impropriety 
 and disapproved it, and when a formal demand 
 was made by the British Minister for the sur¬ 
 render of the commissioners it was complied with 
 and an apology tendered, on the ground that they 
 had been forcibly taken from a neutral vessel 
 on the high seas and upon a voyage from one 
 neutral point to another. Consult T. L. Harris, 
 The Trent Affair (Indianapolis, 1896), contain¬ 
 ing a bibliography, and C. F. Adams, The Trent 
 Affair: An Historical Retrospect (Boston, 1912). 
 
 TRENTE ET QUARANTE, traN'-ta ka'- 
 raNt'. See Rouge et Noir. 
 
 TREN'TON. A town and port of entry of 
 Hastings County, Ontario, Canada, on both banks 
 of the Trent, at its outlet in the Bay of Quints, 
 Lake Ontario, and on the Canadian Pacific, 
 Grand Trunk, and Canadian Northern railways 
 (Map: Ontario, H 5). It is the southern ter¬ 
 minus of the Trent Valley Canal and has various 
 manufactures. Pop., 1901, 4217; 1911, 3988. 
 
 TRENTON. A city and the county seat of 
 Grundy Co., Mo., 83 miles east by north of St. 
 Joseph, on Grand River, and on the Chicago, 
 Rock Island, and Pacific, and the Quincy, Omaha, 
 and Kansas City railroads (Map: Missouri, C 
 1). It has the* Jewett Norris Free Public Li¬ 
 brary and the Wright Hospital. Trenton is 
 largely interested in coal mining. The Chicago, 
 Rock Island, and Pacific Railroad maintains re¬ 
 pair and machine shops here. The chief manu¬ 
 factures are ice, canned goods, and brick and 
 tile. Large shipments of poultry are made. 
 Trenton was settled in 1840 and was first in¬ 
 corporated in 1857. Pop., 1900, 5396; 1910, 
 5656. 
 
 TRENTON. The capital of New Jersey and 
 the county seat of Mercer County, situated at 
 the rapids on the Delaware River, head of tide¬ 
 water navigation, and on the Delaware and Rari¬ 
 tan Canal, on the main line of the Pennsylvania 
 and of the Philadelphia and Reading railroads, 
 33 miles northeast of Philadelphia and 59 miles 
 southwest from New York (Map: New Jersey, 
 C 3). Electric lines gridiron the city and the 
 southern portion of the State, reaching to Phila¬ 
 delphia, to north Jersey, and to New York, 
 while there is a large traffic on the canal and 
 by steamships and barges on the Delaware to 
 the south. Bridges over the Delaware connect 
 the city with Morrisville in Pennsylvania.. 
 
 As a manufacturing centre it is conspicuous 
 among other things for its pottery-ware output. 
 In this industry there are 42 plants, making all 
 the way from the commoner varieties to the finer 
 decorated porcelain and china. The total esti¬ 
 mated annual value of these products is about 
 $9,000,000, in the making of which 6000 persons 
 are employed. The ironworks and wire mills, 
 said to be the largest of the kind in the world, 
 have 7000 employees and turn out from 80,000 to 
 100,000 gross tons of products annually. There 
 are also vast manufactures of rubber products, 
 brick and tile, electrical machinery, castings, 
 malt products, linoleum, woolen goods, and many 
 miscellaneous iron, steel, and other^ industries. 
 Total capital invested in manufacturing (1914), 
 $55,535,000; total value of manufactures (1914), 
 $53,588,000. The public library contains 73,094 
 volumes. There are four theatres and 15 mov¬ 
 
 ing-picture houses. Educational facilities in¬ 
 clude the State Normal and Model School, the 
 School of Industrial Arts, three private schools, 
 and a Catholic college. There were 15,569 
 public-school pupils enrolled in 1915 and 5376 
 in other schools. 1 here are also three hos¬ 
 pitals, the State Home for Girls, a reforma¬ 
 tory, the State Hospital for the Insane, and 
 the State Prison. Among the more important 
 public buildings are the State Capitol, Masonic 
 Temple, and State Armory. Notable, also, is 
 the old stone barracks, built in 1758-59 during 
 the French and Indian War. There are two 
 parks, and a large statue of Washington marks 
 the spot where he planted his cannon at the 
 battle of Trenton. 
 
 The total assessed value of Trenton real estate 
 in 1915 was $69,948,350; the funded debt, $5,- 
 703,796; and its total annual expenditures are 
 $1,615,319. The annual outlay for schools is 
 $508,594; for police, $177,807; for fire depart¬ 
 ment, $166,748; and for street lighting, $75,000. 
 In 1911 Trenton adopted the commission form 
 of city government. It has five commissioners 
 public affairs, revenue and finance, public safety, 
 streets and public improvements, and parks and 
 public property. Each commissioner has abso¬ 
 lute control of his own department, but is also 
 individually responsible to his fellow commis¬ 
 sioners and to the public. The mayor is director 
 of public affairs and an adviser of the other 
 commissioners. 
 
 Pop., 1790, 1946; 1810, 3002; 1850, 6461; 1870, 
 22,874; 1880, 29,910: 1890, 73,307; 1910, 96,815 
 (1915), 103,581; 1920, 119,289. The city has an 
 excellent municipally owned water-supply service 
 and ample sewerage. The municipality’s reser¬ 
 voirs have a total capacity of 120,000,000 gallons. 
 
 First settled about 1676, Trenton was generally 
 known as The Falls until in 1719 it received its 
 present name in honor of W illiam Trent, Speaker 
 of the House of Assembly. It was incorporated 
 as a borough in 1746, was selected as the State 
 capital in 1790, and was chartered as a city in 
 1792. In 1776 it was occupied by the British 
 in their pursuit of General Washington. Late 
 in December, 1776, Washington planned a move¬ 
 ment against Trenton and Bordentown. At the 
 former was Colonel Rahl with about 1500 Hes¬ 
 sians, and at the latter General Donop with a 
 small force. Gen. James Ewing with about 550 
 men was to cross the Delaware just below Tren¬ 
 ton, seize the Assanpink, and thus sever com¬ 
 munication between Donop and Rahl; Col. John 
 Cadwalader was to cross at Bristol, below Bor¬ 
 dentown, and attack Donop from the south; and 
 General Putnam with about 1000 men was to 
 cooperate with about 1000 men from Philadel¬ 
 phia. The main movement, however, was to be 
 made by Washington in person, who with 2400 
 men was to cross at McConkey’s Ferry, 9 miles 
 above Trenton, and assail Rahl at Trenton. The 
 movement was set for the night of December 25- 
 26. By reason of storms and of the river being 
 clogged with ice, Ewing and Cadwalader were 
 unable to effect a crossing, while Putnam was 
 detained in Philadelphia. Washington, how¬ 
 ever, with the aid of Marblehead fishermen under 
 Glover, crossed in spite of all obstacles by three 
 o’clock in the morning of the 26th, began his 
 march to Trenton at about four o’clock, and at 
 about eight completely surprised the garrison, 
 which, after a night of Christmas festivities, had 
 taken little precaution against surprise and had 
 made little preparation for resistance. Rahl 
 
TRENTON FORMATION 
 
 TRESHAM 
 
 457 
 
 was soon forced to surrender, and Washington 
 secured about 1000 prisoners. The American 
 loss was 2 killed and 3 wounded, while the Hes¬ 
 sians lost about 40 killed or wounded. Soon 
 afterward Washington recrossed the Delaware 
 to his former position. This success, together 
 with that at Princeton on Jan. 3, 1777, greatly 
 revived the spirits of the Americans and did 
 much to prevent the threatened disintegration 
 of Washington’s army. Trenton became the 
 State capital in 1790 and served as the tempo¬ 
 rary capital of the country in 1784 and 1793. 
 Consult: J. O. Raum, History of the City of 
 Trenton (Trenton, 1871) ; S. A. Drake, The Cam¬ 
 paign of Trenton, 1776-77 (Boston, 1895) ; Lee, 
 History of Trenton (Trenton, 1895); W. S. 
 Stryker, The Battles of Trenton and Princeton 
 (Boston, 1898) ; J. M. Lathrop, Atlas of the 
 City of Trenton and Borough of Princeton (Phil¬ 
 adelphia, 1905) ; Ernest Volk, Archaeology of the 
 Delaware Valley, published by the Peabody Mu¬ 
 seum (Cambridge, Mass., 1911). 
 
 TRENTON FORMATION. One of the divi¬ 
 sions of the Ordovician system, consisting mainly 
 of limestones and black carbonaceous shales, so 
 named from the type locality at Trenton Falls in 
 central New York. The rocks are distributed in 
 belts along the eastern, southern, and western 
 borders of the Adirondacks; they also occur on 
 the northern shores of Lake Ontario in Canada, 
 in the upper Mississippi valley, and elsewhere 
 in the Central West. In Ohio and Indiana Tren¬ 
 ton rocks are the source of oil and gas; while 
 the limestones of the formation are important 
 quarry materials, being utilized for building 
 stone, lime manufacture, and as an ingredient 
 of Portland cement. The black limestones are 
 sometimes polished and sold as black marble. 
 See Ordovician System. 
 
 TRE'PANG (from Malay tripang), or B£che 
 de Mer. The dried body of a holothurian (q.v.), 
 regarded as good food by the Chinese. They are 
 usually 8 or 9 inches long, but some are 2 feet 
 in length. They are often found in the coral 
 sand, the tentacles only appearing above it. 
 Large ones are sometimes speared in shallow 
 w^ater; but most are taken by divers. Macassar 
 is the centre of the trade, whence several hun¬ 
 dred tons are annually sent to China. Trepang 
 is also gathered and prepared to some extent 
 in California. It is gelatinous and nutritious, 
 though almost tasteless, and is an ingredient 
 in soups. 
 
 TREPHINE, trS-fin' or trS-fen', TREPHIN¬ 
 ING (Fr. trephine, for *trepine, dim. of tre¬ 
 pan, trepan, from ML. trepanum, from Gk. rpv- 
 7T avov, trypanon, auger). The operation of tre¬ 
 phining consists in the perforation of a bone by 
 means of a trephine, which is a small cylindrical 
 or circular saw, with a centre pin on which it 
 works. The trephine produces a hole in the 
 skull varying from W to 1 inch or more in 
 diameter. It is customary to make as small 
 an opening as possible with the trephine, en¬ 
 larging it when necessary by means of rongeur 
 forceps, the chisel, or some special form of saw. 
 Trephining is especially employed in fracture 
 of the skull where the fragments of bone can¬ 
 not otherwise be raised. In other conditions 
 the operation of trephining is often a mere in¬ 
 troductory step, giving a point of entrance at 
 one or more places from w r hich extensive flaps 
 of bone are broken awav or turned back for 
 free access into the cranial cavity. 
 
 TREPORT, tr5/por', Le. A town of the De¬ 
 
 partment of Seine-Inf6rieure, France, situated at 
 the mouth of the Bresle, under a high clifF 45 
 miles north-northeast of Rouen. Its proximity 
 to Paris has made it a popular bathing resort. 
 Le I report has a sixteenth-century tower, now 
 used as the town hall, the sixteenth-century 
 church of Saint-Jacques, an old Renaissance 
 timber house, and a conspicuous casino. There 
 is a considerable trade. Sugar is the leading 
 export. I lie harbor is good, and a canal ex¬ 
 tends to Eu. Pop., 1901, 4949; 1911, 4958. 
 
 TREPOV, tra'pof, Dmitry Feodorovitcii 
 (1855-1906). Russian soldier and administra¬ 
 tor. He was a son of the chief of police in St. 
 Petersburg whose attempted assassination by 
 ^ iera Zasulitch (q.v.) in 1878 constitutes one 
 of the earliest events of the Russian revolu¬ 
 tionary movement. Dmitry entered the army 
 in 1874, fought in the Russo-Turlcish W 7 ar of 
 1877-78, and retired in 1896 with the rank of 
 colonel to become chief of police in Moscow". 
 Because of the brutalities practiced by the po¬ 
 lice against the students, he was removed in 
 January, 1905, but after the massacre of “Red 
 Sunday” in St. Petersburg (Jan. 22, 1905), he 
 came to the capital and was appointed Governor- 
 General of St. Petersburg with extraordinary 
 powers. Later in the year he became Assistant 
 Minister of the Interior with control of the po¬ 
 lice throughout the Empire. In December he 
 was made commandant of the Imperial palace. 
 He escaped assassination in July, 1906, but 
 died a few months later of heart'failure. See 
 Russia. 
 
 TRES'COT, William Henry (1822-98). An 
 American diplomatist, born at Charleston, S. C. 
 He graduated at Charleston College in 1840, 
 studied law in Harvard and was admitted to the 
 bar in 1843, became Secretary of the United 
 States Legation in London in 1852, and w T as 
 Assistant Secretary of State from June, 1860, 
 until the secession of South Carolina. A part 
 of this period he was also the confidential agent 
 of his State. In 1862-66 he served in the State 
 Legislature and was also on the staff of General 
 Ripley. In 1877 he was one of the agents of 
 the United States Fishery Commission at Hali¬ 
 fax; in 1880 helped to revise the treaties be¬ 
 tween the United States and China; in 1881 
 was sent as special envoy to Chile, Bolivia, and 
 Peru, which were then at war; and in 1882 was 
 associated with General Grant in negotiating a 
 new treaty with Mexico. Among his published 
 works are: Diplomacy of the Revolution (1852) ; 
 An American View of the Eastern Question 
 (1854); Diplomatic History of the Administra¬ 
 tions of Washington and Adams (1857). 
 
 TRESGUERRAS, tr&s-gar'ras, Francisco 
 Eduardo (1745-1833). A Mexican architect, 
 born at Celaya. He began his artistic career 
 as a painter and a sculptor in wood; studied 
 in the Academy of San Carlos in Mexico City and 
 probably for a while under Jesuit teachers, but 
 was largely self-taught as an architect. He 
 nevertheless achieved remarkable success in the 
 designing of religious and civic buildings, as 
 in the church of Nuestra Senora del Carmen at 
 Celaya, a theatre at San Luis Potosi, the bridge 
 of La Laja, and conventual churches at 
 Queretaro, San Miguel de Allenda, and elsewhere. 
 He was a successful painter and widely known 
 also as a musician and poet. 
 
 TRESHAM, tresh'am, Francis (c. 1567-1605) . 
 An English conspirator. He participated in Es¬ 
 sex’s rebellion in 1601, for this w'as imprisoned, 
 
TRESPASS 
 
 TREVELYAN 
 
 458 
 
 and in 1602 was implicated in Thomas Winter’s 
 mission to the King of Spain. Initiated into 
 the Gunpowder Plot (q.v.), he disapproved of 
 the plans and revealed the plot to Lord Mont- 
 eagle, his brother-in-law. Later he was arrested, 
 and died in prison. 
 
 TRESPASS (Lat. trans, across + passus, 
 pace, OF. trespasser, to pass over, depart). In 
 law, the injury to person or property resulting 
 from some wrongful act committed with force. 
 The term at common law meant a certain form 
 of action. In modern law it includes several 
 kinds of torts and is sometimes used as equiva¬ 
 lent to tort. Although trespass means either an 
 injury to person or one to property, it is more 
 commonly used in regard to land. Assault and 
 battery and false imprisonment are examples of 
 trespass to the person. The rigidity of com¬ 
 mon-law pleading made the distinction between 
 action in trespass and actions on the case, e.g., 
 negligence, essential, but modern law has done 
 away with form and looks rather to the matter. 
 An interference with the possession of personal 
 property is a trespass. Such would be the 
 wrongful carrying away of property even with 
 no intention of converting or injuring it. 
 
 Trespass to lands is an unauthorized entry 
 thereon. Although no damage result, it is yet 
 trespass. An entry need not be by person. It 
 may be made by beasts, as driving or allowing 
 cattle to stray on another’s land, or by throw¬ 
 ing something thereon, as in blasting, or at¬ 
 taching anything thereto, such as the posting of 
 an advertisement on a house or the erection of 
 a building. In the view of the law every man’s 
 land is presumed to be separated from that of 
 his neighbor by a close or boundary. This may 
 be an actual fence, but the law implies an in¬ 
 visible and effectual boundary, and it is the un¬ 
 authorized crossing over this line which con¬ 
 stitutes the trespass. The entry may have been 
 at first lawful and unauthorized, but the person 
 entering may later become a trespasser. Thus, 
 the purchaser of a ticket to a theatre is licensed 
 to enter, but if he afterward create a disturbance 
 and is requested to leave and refuses, the license 
 having been revoked, he is a trespasser. In¬ 
 evitable accident, or, e.g., where a highway is 
 obstructed and it is necessary to pass over the 
 lands by the side, is a defense to an action. 
 Generally, however, the intent is immaterial and 
 it is the act itself. A trespass committed by 
 mistake is nevertheless actionable. But when 
 the act is willful or malicious the intent is con¬ 
 sidered with relation to the question of dam¬ 
 ages, and in some jurisdictions statutes have 
 made certain acts criminal trespass, allowing ex¬ 
 emplary damages. In New York State treble 
 damages are authorized for entering another’s 
 land and cutting timber thereon, in Missouri for 
 taking coal. At common law no trespass was 
 a crime unless it amounted to a breach of the 
 peace. Even when the owner or possessor has 
 put up notices “Trespassers will be prosecuted,” 
 it is not a crime except under statutes which 
 usually apply to inclosed or cultivated land. 
 
 The entry must be unauthorized. The law im¬ 
 plies a license where necessary to exercise a pub¬ 
 lic right or to prevent a great public disaster, 
 as blowing up a building to prevent the spread 
 of fire. Authority from the government may be 
 a justification of an act which would in the ab¬ 
 sence thereof be a trespass. An entry by com¬ 
 missioners appointed by the State to make plans 
 or ascertain boundaries is an example, or the 
 
 entry of an officer or person assisting him in the 
 execution of a search warrant. But the entry 
 of an officer without the authority of a w T arrant 
 is a trespass. In general, the law is that no 
 entry is authorized in the execution of civil 
 process, as in the service of a subpoena. The 
 maxim that “A man’s home is his castle” ex¬ 
 presses the general view of Anglo-Saxon law. 
 Damages are based on the actual injuries, al¬ 
 though they may be slight or nominal, such as 
 the trampling down of grass. The owner may 
 use all the force necessary to prevent a trespass 
 or to eject a trespasser, but if he use more force 
 than is necessary he becomes liable in tort for 
 assault and battery. There are many circum¬ 
 stances under which persons are invited by im¬ 
 plication to go upon the property of others and 
 so do not become trespassers. Thus, it is no act 
 of trespass to enter the house of a neighbor upon 
 matters of business or for a social call; so keep¬ 
 ers of hotels, stores, and theatres hold out to 
 the public a general invitation to enter. Again, 
 it has been held that a person who by contract 
 has become the owner of property which is on 
 the land of the seller may enter and take his 
 property unless he is forbidden to do so. If an 
 owner of land has wrongfully acquired posses¬ 
 sion of personalty and placed it on his own land, 
 the rightful owner may retake it. 
 
 The person who may maintain an action may 
 be either the owner or possessor. Possession usu¬ 
 ally gives the right, but ownership without pos¬ 
 session allows a right of action for permanent 
 injuries. A continuing or threatened trespass 
 may be restrained by injunction. 
 
 Consult: Pollock and Maitland, History of 
 English Law before the Time of Edward I (2d 
 ed., 2 vols., Cambridge, 1903) ; J. N. Pomeroy, 
 Code Remedies: Remedies and Remedial Rights 
 (4th ed., Boston, 1904) ; Sir Frederick Pollock, 
 The Law of Torts (8th ed., London, 1908). 
 
 TRES'SURE. In heraldry (q.v.), a sub¬ 
 ordinary, half the width of the orle (q.v.). 
 
 TRETJ, troi, Georg D. C. (1843- ). A 
 
 German archaeologist, born at St. Petersburg. 
 He was educated at the universities of Dorpat 
 and Berlin. In 1866—73 he lived in St. Peters¬ 
 burg, and thereafter till 1882 he taught at the 
 University of Berlin. In 1877—81 he had an 
 important part in the excavations at Olympia. 
 His publications include: Hermes und Praxiteles 
 (1878); Ausgrabungen von Olympia, vols. iii-v 
 (1879-81), with Curtius, Adler, and Dorpfeld; 
 Bildwerke von Olympia in Stein und Ton (1894- 
 97) ; C. Meunier (1898) ; Max Klingers Drama- 
 gruppe (1900) ; Olympische Forschungen, vol. i 
 (1907); Hellenische Stimmungen in der Bild- 
 liauerei von einst und jetzt (1910). 
 
 TREVELYAN, tre-vel'yan, Sir Charles Ed¬ 
 ward (1807-86). An Anglo-Indian official. He 
 was born at Taunton, Somersetshire, received 
 his education at the Charterhouse and Hailev- 
 burv College, entered the East India Company’s 
 civil service, and in 1827 went to Delhi as assist¬ 
 ant to Sir Charles Theophilus Metcalfe, chief 
 commissioner. In 1840 he was appointed As¬ 
 sistant Secretary to the Treasury, retaining the 
 position until 1859. With Sir Stafford North- 
 cote he prepared in 1853 a report entitled The 
 Organization of the Permanent Civil Service, 
 which is the basis of all subsequent civil-service 
 legislation. In 1848 he was made Knight Com¬ 
 mander of the Bath and in 1859 was appointed 
 Governor of Madras. He was appointed Finance 
 Minister in India in 1862 and retired in 1865 
 
TREVELYAN 
 
 459 
 
 TREVES 
 
 on account of ill health. Important reforms 
 were made in the system of accounts during 
 his financial administration and the resources 
 of India developed by a great expansion of 
 public works. He was created Baronet in 1874. 
 Trevelyan was the author of several valuable 
 ti eatises, some of his better-known works being: 
 Education of the People of India (1838); The 
 Irish Crisis (1848) ; Christianity and Hinduism 
 (1882). 
 
 TREVELYAN, George Macaulay (1876- 
 ). An English historian, a son of Sir 
 George Otto Trevelyan (q.v.), educated at Har¬ 
 row and at Trinity College, Cambridge. His 
 writings comprise chiefly: England in the Age 
 of B ycliffe (1899); England under the Stuarts 
 (1904); The Poetry and Philosophy of George 
 Meredith (1912); Garibaldi’s Defense of the 
 Roman Republic (1907); Garibaldi and the 
 Thousand (1909) ; Garibaldi and the Making of 
 Italy (1911) ; The Life of John Bright (1913) ; 
 Clio, a Muse, and Other Essays (1913). 
 
 TREVELYAN, Sir George w Otto (1838- 
 ). An English statesman and author, the 
 only son of Sir Charles Edward Trevelyan (q.v.) 
 by his wife, Hannah More Macaulay, sister of 
 Lord Macaulay. He was born at Rotliley Temple, 
 Leicestershire, and was educated at Harrow and 
 at Trinity College, Cambridge. After a short 
 period in the East Indian civil service, he en¬ 
 tered Parliament in the Liberal interest for 
 Tynemouth (1865) and for the Hawick Burghs 
 (1868). He represented the Bridgeton Division 
 of Glasgow from 1887 to 1897, when he resigned. 
 He was appointed Civil Lord of the Admiralty 
 under the first Gladstone administration (De¬ 
 cember, 1868), but resigned (July, 1870) owing 
 to disagreement with the Premier on the Edu¬ 
 cation Bill. In the second Gladstone adminis¬ 
 tration he became Parliamentary Secretary to 
 the Admiralty (November, 1880), Chief Secre¬ 
 tary for Ireland (May, 1882), and Chancellor 
 of the Duchy of Lancaster (1884). At the be¬ 
 ginning of the third Gladstone administration 
 he was appointed Secretary for Scotland (1886), 
 but he resigned (March, * 1886) because of the 
 bill for establishing an Irish Parliament. And 
 again in the last Gladstone administration he 
 was Secretary for Scotland (1892-95). Trevel¬ 
 yan was a leader in the abolition of the pur¬ 
 chase of commissions in the army and in the 
 extension of household suffrage to the counties. 
 Among his publications are: The Competition 
 Wallah (1864) ; Cawnpore (1865); The Ladies 
 in Parliament, and Other Pieces (1868); The 
 Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay (1876) ; The 
 Early History of Charles James Fox (1880); 
 Interludes in Prose and Verse (1905); The 
 American Revolution (4 vols., 1899-1909), a 
 notably valuable work; George III and Charles 
 James Fox (vol. i, 1912; vol/ii, 1914). 
 
 His son and heir, Charles Philips Trevel¬ 
 yan was a Liberal member of Parliament after 
 1899. From 1908 to 1914 he was Parliamen¬ 
 tary Secretary of the Board of Education, resign¬ 
 ing because he opposed England’s participation in 
 the European War. See also Trevelyan, George 
 Macaueay. 
 
 TREVEN'A, John, pseudonym of an English 
 novelist, Ernest George Heniiam (c.1873- ). 
 
 Attacked by consumption in his seventeenth 
 year, Henham led a wandering and often neces¬ 
 sitous life, seeking health at home and abroad, 
 and finding it finally 20 years later by living 
 upon Dartmoor, the scene of his most charac- 
 Vol. XXII.—30 
 
 teristic novels. Those of his books which were 
 published under his own name include: Meno- 
 tali: A Tale of the Canadian North West (1897) ; 
 
 ??oAn. Man ’ and the Devil ^897-) ; Trenbrae 
 6 Bonanza: A Story of the Outside 
 (IJOi); Scud: The Story of a Faud (1902); 
 The Plowshare and the Sword (1903); Krum: 
 A Study of Consciousness (1904) ; The Feast of 
 Bacchus: A Study in Dramatic Atmosphere 
 (1907). The books that appeared under his 
 pseudonym were: A Pixy in Petticoats (1906) ; 
 Furze the Cruel (1907), one of his best novels; 
 Arminel of the West (1907); Heather (1908); 
 The Dartmoor House that Jack Built (1909) ; 
 Granite (1909); Wintering Hay (1912); Sleep¬ 
 ing Maters (1913); Adventures among Wild- 
 flowers (1914); Matrimony and Moyle Church 
 Town (both 1915). Consult F. T. Cooper, Some 
 English Story Tellers (New York, 1912). 
 
 TREVES, trevz (Ger. Trier). A city of 
 Prussia, in the Rhine Province, on the right 
 bank of the Moselle, 69 miles southwest of 
 Coblenz (Map: Germany, B 4). It is situated 
 in a region of hills, vineyards, and woods and 
 presents a picturesque appearance. The town 
 lies in a compact form, surrounded on three 
 sides by promenades called allies. In the old 
 city proper the streets are narrow and crooked. 
 On the north is the Porta Nigra, an enormous 
 fortified gateway—a splendid Roman relic. In 
 the northeastern part of the city stands the 
 cathedral, one of the oldest churches in Europe. 
 The ancient edifice on whose site it stands ap¬ 
 pears to have been used as a church already in 
 Roman times. The building has been repeatedly 
 restored as the result of wars and the ravages 
 of centuries. It is regarded as the most impor¬ 
 tant pre-Carolingian church in Germany. Among 
 its contents are an alleged nail from the cross 
 and the famous seamless “Holy Coat.” There 
 are fine cloisters leading to the charming church 
 of Our Lady (Liebfrauenkirche), an early 
 Gothic structure said to date from 1143 and to 
 be the oldest Gothic church in Germany. 
 
 . In the southeastern part of Treves is the spa¬ 
 cious Palace Square, at the north end of which 
 stands a brick basilica dating probably from the 
 early part of the fourth century, restored in 
 1846-56 and now used as q Protestant church. 
 At the south end of the square is the Roman 
 palace, a picturesque mass of ruins. The valu¬ 
 able provincial museum is near by. Among its 
 remarkable antiquities are 60 hermse, torso of 
 Cupid, torso of an amazon, a mosaic credited to 
 Monnus, and the Roman tombs from Neumagen, 
 dating from the beginning of the Christian'era' 
 and representing the costumes and daily life 
 in this region at that period. A short distance 
 southeast of the city is a Roman amphitheatre, 
 built in Trajan’s time. In the southwestern 
 part of Treves, close to the Moselle, are the 
 Roman baths, a vast and impressive ruin. 
 
 The municipal library, containing over 102,500 
 volumes and manuscripts, is connected with the 
 Gymnasium and possesses rare works of ancient 
 date. Among them is the illuminated Codex 
 Egberti, dating from the close of the tenth cen¬ 
 tury. There are also the Codex Aureus and the 
 Fust and Gutenberg Bible of 1450. The manu¬ 
 facturing interests are varied and important. 
 There are tanneries, iron foundries, dye works, 
 furniture and piano factories, glass-painting 
 works, etc. The trade is extensive in wine, fruit, 
 and wood. The town possesses a school of viti¬ 
 culture. There are many mines in the vicinitv 
 
TREVES 
 
 TREVITHICK 
 
 460 
 
 including lead, copper, and tin mines. Pop., 
 1900, 43,324; 1910, 54,827. 
 
 History. Treves is usually considered the 
 most ancient town of Germany. It was the 
 capital of the Celtic Treviri, from whom it took 
 its name (anciently Augusta Trevirorum). The 
 Romans made it a colony, and it grew in impor¬ 
 tance. It was an Imperial residence in the later 
 times of the Roman Empire, which explains the 
 presence of the magnificent Roman relics. Treves 
 had a bishop at a very early date. It fell into 
 the hands of the Franks about the middle of 
 the fifth century. The see appears to have been 
 erected into an archbishopric soon after the 
 beginning of the ninth century. In 870 the 
 city, after having for a time belonged to Lor¬ 
 raine, was permanently united with Germany. 
 It rose to great importance under its archbish¬ 
 ops, who exercised temporal sway over a con¬ 
 siderable district and who held a place among 
 the Imperial Electors. After a long struggle 
 with its ecclesiastical overlords, Treves was 
 recognized as a free city towards the close of 
 the sixteenth century. The French took Treves 
 in 1794, and within a few years nearly the 
 whole of the archiepiscopal see was in their 
 possession. The archbishopric was abolished. 
 The Congress of Vienna (1814-15) handed the 
 city and the former see over to Prussia. Treves 
 was bombarded by an allied aerial force in the 
 great war which began in 1914. See War in 
 Europe. Consult: J. N. von Wilmowski, Der 
 Dom zu Trier (Treves, 1874) ; E. A. Freeman, 
 Historical and Architectural Sketches (London, 
 187G) ; Woerl, Fuhrer durch die Stadt Trier 
 (9th ed., Leipzig, 1905). 
 
 TREVES, Sir Frederick (1853- ). A 
 
 British surgeon, born in Dorchester and edu¬ 
 cated at the Merchant Taylors’ School. He was 
 Hunterian professor of anatomy and Wilson 
 professor of pathology at the Royal College of 
 Surgeons from 1881 to 1886 and examiner in 
 surgery at Cambridge in 1891—96. From 1905 
 to 1908 he served as lord rector of Aberdeen 
 University. In the South African W ar (1900) 
 he was consulting surgeon and served with the 
 Ladysmith relief column. In 1900-01 he was 
 surgeon extraordinary to Queen Victoria, and 
 in 1902 he operated upon King Edward VII for 
 perityphlitis. In the latter year he was created 
 Baronet. He was especially successful in opera¬ 
 tions for intestinal obstruction, appendicitis, and 
 peritonitis. Notable among his many medical 
 works is System of Surgery (1895). Treves 
 also published books on travel, war experiences, 
 etc. 
 
 TREVET, Nicholas. See Trivet, Nicholas. 
 
 TREVI, tra've, Fountain of. A noted 
 fountain in Rome, with which the superstition 
 is connected that a traveler’s return to Rome is 
 assured by dropping a coin in its basin and 
 drinking its waters. It is built against the 
 facade of the Palazzo Poli and was completed in 
 1762. The water of the ancient Aqua Virgo 
 spouts from the rock crevices and from the 
 nostrils of Neptune’s horses, above the fountain. 
 
 TREVILLE, Louis Rene Vassor, Viscount 
 de La Touche-. See Touche-Treville, L. 
 R. V. 
 
 TREVISO, tra-ve'zo. The capital of the 
 Province of Treviso, Italy, situated in a fertile 
 valley on the Sile, 18 miles north by west of 
 Venice (Map: Italy, D 2). It is connected with 
 the lagoons of Venice by a canal. The town has 
 a mediaeval appearance with its high walls 
 
 flanked with bastions. The imposing twelfth- 
 century cathedral, restored in the fifteenth cen¬ 
 tury, has five cupolas. The Gothic church of 
 San Niccolo has a curious wooden roof and is 
 adorned with admirable frescoes. The Borgo 
 Cavour contains a library of over 50,000 volumes 
 and a picture gallery. Among the educational 
 institutions are a technical school, a school of 
 navigation, a bishop’s seminary, and an academy 
 of sciences. The city manufactures silk and 
 woolen goods, metal ware, machinery, chemicals, 
 and paper. Pop. (commune), 1901, 33,987; 
 1911, 40,219. Treviso, the Roman Tarvisium, 
 was an important city towards the end of the 
 Roman Empire. It figured among the cities 
 of the Lombard League. It came under the rule 
 of Venice in the fourteenth century. In 1797 it 
 was taken by the French under Mortier, who 
 received the title of Duke of Treviso. 
 
 TREVISO, Duke of. See Mortier, E. A. C. J. 
 
 TREVTTHICK, Richard (1771-1833). A 
 British mechanical engineer and inventor, dis¬ 
 tinguished for his improvements of the steam 
 engine and as the designer of the first practi¬ 
 cable locomotive. He was born at Illogan in 
 Cornwall and received a common-school educa¬ 
 tion previous to becoming an engineer in the 
 mines in his vicinity. Engaged in the construc¬ 
 tion of pumping and other engines, he was asso¬ 
 ciated with Murdock, Bull, and other well-known 
 engineers and was constantly experimenting with 
 machinery. He effected various improvements 
 in pumps and designed a high-pressure steam 
 engine in 1800 which was soon in wide use in 
 the mines of Cornwall and Wales. Turning his 
 attention to the designing of steam vehicles, as 
 early as 1796 he made a number of models 
 on a small scale and in 1801 completed and 
 operated a full-size vehicle for which he received 
 a patent in the following year. This steam car¬ 
 riage was so successful that Trevithick with the 
 assistance of Andrew Vivian was led in 1804 to 
 build a locomotive engine to operate on the 
 Merthyr Tydfil tram road. This was the first 
 application of steam to the hauling of loads on 
 a railway and led to the construction of further 
 steam locomotives operating on rails, including 
 one which was exhibited in London in 1808 on a 
 circular track. As Trevithick understood that 
 the friction of the wheels on the rails was suffi¬ 
 cient for the traction of cars on ordinary grades 
 (in distinction from other inventors who em¬ 
 ployed a cog and rack), and as he was the first 
 to use a return flue boiler and a steam jet in 
 the chimney, and to couple together the wheels 
 of a locomotive, he is considered by many en¬ 
 titled to the credit of being the real inventor of 
 the locomotive steam engine. It is, however, to 
 Stephenson (q.v.) that we must look for the 
 perfection of a practical application of the 
 machine. See Locomotive; Railway's. 
 
 In 1816 Trevithick went to Peru, where a 
 number of his engines had been introduced into 
 the silver mines, and, after being successful in 
 several undertakings, lost his entire property 
 through the outbreak of war. At Cartagena in 
 1827 he encountered Robert Stephenson (q.v.), 
 who assisted him to return to England. The 
 remainder of his life was spent in further ex¬ 
 periments, few of which came to a successful 
 outcome, and he died in poverty. While Trevi¬ 
 thick reaped but little material reward for any 
 of his inventions, yet he made many discoveries 
 which wore of the greatest use to other engineers 
 when practically applied and successfully de- 
 
TRIAD 
 
 461 TRIASSIC SYSTEM 
 
 veloped. Consult: Smiles, Lives of Engineers 
 (London, 1861); Francis Trevithick, Life of 
 Richard Trevithick (ib., 1872) ; E. K. Harper, 
 A Cornish Giant, Richard Trevithick: The 
 Father of the Locomotive-Engine (ib., 1913). 
 
 TRIAD (from Lat. trios, from Gk. rpias, 
 number three, triad, from rpeis, treis, three). In 
 music a chord of three tones built upon any tone 
 with its third and fifth above. According to the 
 character of the intervals (major, minor, aug¬ 
 mented or diminished) the character of the triad 
 varies materially. See Harmony, Chords. 
 
 TRIAL (OF. trial, from trier, to try, choose, 
 thresh, from ML. tritare, to thresh, rub, fre¬ 
 quentative of Lat. terere, to rub, thresh). A 
 regular and formal examination or inquiry into 
 the material facts of a controversy in issue be¬ 
 fore a competent tribunal, in order finally to 
 determine the respective rights of the parties 
 thereto. Trials may be divided into two classes 
 —those by a judge and jury and those before a 
 judge without a jury. In a legal action the 
 trial is usually before a jury. (For the ordinary 
 steps in a jury trial, see Jury.) In courts of 
 equity trials are conducted before the chancellor 
 or judge without a jury, substantially in the 
 same manner as in a jury trial. The codes of 
 reformed procedure and practice acts in most of 
 the United States regulate the details of trials in 
 their various courts. See Evidence; Jury; 
 Nolle Prosequi; Nonsuit; Pleading; Prac¬ 
 tice; etc.; and consult authorities under Evi¬ 
 dence; Jury; Pleading; etc. 
 
 TRIAL BY BATTLE. See Battle, Trial 
 by; Ordeal. 
 
 TRIAL BY JURY. The first comic opera 
 by Gilbert and Sullivan (see Gilbert, Sir W. S.; 
 Sullivan, Sir Arthur), first produced in Lon¬ 
 don, March 25, 1875. 
 
 TRI'ANGLE (Lat. triangulus, three-cor¬ 
 nered, from tres, three + angulus, angle). A 
 figure formed by three intersecting lines. The 
 sides of a plane triangle are straight lines, and 
 those of a spherical triangle are geodetic lines or 
 arcs of great circles. Triangles are called equi¬ 
 lateral, isosceles, and scalene according as three 
 sides, two sides, or no sides are equal, but the 
 word “scalene’’ is rarely used. Of two angles 
 of a plane triangle, the one which is opposite 
 the greater side is the greater, but the angles 
 do not vary as the sides, the ratio of two sides 
 being equal to that of the sines of the opposite 
 angles. (See Trigonometry.) In a spherical 
 triangle the sines of the sides are proportional 
 to the sines of the opposite angles. The sum of 
 the angles of a plane triangle is 180° according 
 to Euclidean geometry (see Geometry), but in 
 the case of a spherical triangle the sum varies 
 from 0° to 540°. The geometry of the triangle 
 is extensive, and a few of the most important 
 propositions are given under Concurrence and 
 Collinearity and Maxima and Minima. The 
 area of any plane triangle is given by the for¬ 
 mulas A = ^ and A = Vs (s - a) (s - b ) (s - c), 
 
 where b is the base, h the altitude, a, b, c 
 the sides, and s the semiperimeter. In case 
 
 the triangle is equilateral, A = 
 
 a 2 V3 
 
 where a 
 
 is the side. If one angle of a plane triangle is a 
 right angle, the triangle is called a right-angled 
 triangle, the side opposite the right angle being 
 the hypotenuse. In the United States the term 
 
 “right 
 
 triangle” 
 
 is commonly used for 
 
 “right- 
 
 angled triangle.” The spherical triangle of one, 
 two, or three right angles is called a rectangular. 
 
 birectangular, or 
 
 trirectangular 
 
 triangle re¬ 
 
 spectively. The spherical triangle in which one, 
 two, or three sides are quadrants is called a 
 quadrantal, biquadrantal, or triquadrantal tri¬ 
 angle respectively. The area of a spherical 
 
 triangle is given by the formula A = , 
 
 where R is the radius of the sphere and E the 
 spherical excess (q.v.), or A + B + C — 180°. 
 Consult Catalan, “Quelques formules relatives 
 aux triangles rectilignes,” in the Memoires cou- 
 rowies of the Brussels Academy (1891), and 
 Casey, Sequel to Euclid (5th ed.,'Dublin, 1888). 
 
 TRIANGLE. A musical instrument con¬ 
 sisting of a steel rod bent into a three-sided 
 figure open at one angle. It is hung by a cord 
 at the upper angle and attached to the perform¬ 
 er’s left hand, to his desk, or to his drums. 
 Modern composers frequently use it in marches, 
 dances, and fantasias. As it is used only for 
 rhythmic figures, the music is written, as for 
 drums and other instruments without fixed pitch, 
 upon a single line. 
 
 TRIANGLE. In architectural and engineer¬ 
 ing drafting, an instrument of wood, hard rub¬ 
 ber, or celluloid for drawing lines at given angles 
 to the T-square. There are two forms commonly 
 used, both having one right angle and two acute 
 angles, of 45° in the one form and, in the other, 
 of 30° and 60°. 
 
 TRIANGLE OF FORCES. See Mechanics. 
 
 TRIANGLE SPIDER. A spider (Hyptiotes 
 cavatus) of the family Uloboridse, common in 
 the eastern United States. Its web is usually 
 stretched between the twigs of dead branches 
 and at first appears like the fragment of an orb 
 web. It consists of four plain radiating lines 
 and a series of double crosslines. From the 
 apex of the triangle a strong line extends to the 
 supporting twig. The spider stations itself on 
 this line and draws up a slack which when 
 loosened jars the whole web, entangling engaged 
 insects in the cross threads. Consult J. "H. 
 Comstock, The Spider Book (new ed., New York, 
 1914). 
 
 TRIAN'GULAR NUMBERS. See Number. 
 
 TRIAN'GULA'TION. A method used in 
 surveying when the area to be surveyed is of con¬ 
 siderable extent. It consists, as the name indi¬ 
 cates, in laying out a system of triangles by 
 mea,ns of which intermediate points are located. 
 See Geodesy; Surveying. 
 
 TRIANON, tre , a'noN / . The name given to 
 two villas in the Park of Versailles. The Grand 
 Trianon was built in 1685 by Louis XIV for 
 Madame de Maintenon. The Petit Trianon, 
 built by Louis XV in 1766 for Madame Du 
 Barry, was afterward a favorite resort of Marie 
 Antoinette. See Plate of Interior Decoration. 
 
 TRI'AR'THRUS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. Tpeis, 
 treis, three -f- apOpov, arthron, joint). A genus 
 of Ordovician trilobites with depressed convex 
 carapace of elongate oval outline, of which the 
 middle third is occupied by the broad axis. The 
 thorax has 14 to 16 segments, in the middle of 
 each of which there is a rounded knob, and the 
 pygidium is small and semicircular. The best- 
 known species is Triarthrus becki of the Utica 
 shale of North America. See Trilobita. 
 
 TRIAS'SIC SYSTEM (from Lat. trios, num¬ 
 ber three, triad). A group of rocks immediately 
 following the Carboniferous and preceding the 
 Jurassic system. It is therefore the oldest for- 
 
TRIBUNE 
 
 462 
 
 TRIASSIC SYSTEM 
 
 mation of the Mesozoic era. The rocks of this 
 system were at first associated with the Permian 
 under the name of the New Red Sandstone 
 (q.v.) / but they were finally separated and 
 designated as the Trias by German geologists, 
 who divided the system into three series, the 
 Keuper, Muschelkalk, and Buntersandstein. The 
 Rhsetic clays and sandstones were subsequently 
 added to the system. 
 
 Much difficulty has been found in subdividing 
 the American Trias and still more in correlating 
 it with the European beds. Indeed, in the 
 United States it is often difficult to separate the 
 Triassic from the Jurassic, and consequently 
 the plan adopted by the United States Geological 
 Survey is to designate them as the Jura-Trias, 
 and consider the deposits as one formation. 
 
 The Pacific Coast beds are marine, while those 
 of the Atlantic border are estuarine. In the 
 Eastern States the Triassic formation consists 
 of a series of sandstones and shales extending 
 more or less unbrokenly from the Connecticut 
 valley to South Carolina. The rocks were de¬ 
 posited in shallow water along the continental 
 shores. The Newark rocks are in many places 
 faulted and intruded by igneous rocks, the erup¬ 
 tions having in some cases occurred while the 
 deposition of sediment was still going on, be¬ 
 ing thus in the nature of submarine outbursts. 
 The Palisades of the Hudson River and the East 
 Rock at New Haven, Conn., are formed of dia¬ 
 base erupted during the Triassic period. Some 
 doubt exists as to whether the Triassic rocks 
 of the Atlantic border were one continuous belt 
 or whether they were deposited in separated 
 troughs. In the interior of the continent along 
 the Rocky Mountains there are extensive beds of 
 red sandstone which were deposited in an in¬ 
 land sea, but whether they belong to the Triassic 
 or Jura-Trias is unsettled. On the Pacific coast 
 the Triassic rocks have a maximum thickness of 
 nearly 5000 feet. Triassic rocks are known in 
 Central and South America, Europe, Asia, and 
 Australasia. 
 
 The plant life of the Triassic included ferns, 
 cvcads, conifers, and gigantic representatives of 
 the Equiseta, or horsetails. The accumulated re¬ 
 mains of these plants contributed t-o the for¬ 
 mation of important coal seams. Among the 
 vertebrates fishes were fairly abundant, the 
 dominant type being ganoids; but the most 
 characteristic class was the Amphibia, which 
 attained its greatest development in this period. 
 Of reptiles the ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, dino¬ 
 saurs, crocodiles, and turtles were present, while 
 the earliest representatives of the Mammalia 
 came into existence. 
 
 The Triassic beds of the Atlantic border 
 formerly were quarried extensively, yielding the 
 well-known brownstone once so popular as a 
 building material in the Eastern cities. De¬ 
 posits of coal are found in the Triassic of Vir¬ 
 ginia and North Carolina and in parts of Eu¬ 
 rope, but they are of minor importance compared 
 with the great coal measures of the Carbonif¬ 
 erous age. 
 
 Bibliography. Darton, “The Relations of 
 the Traps of the Newark System in the New 
 Jersey Region,” United States Geological Sur¬ 
 vey, Bulletin 67 (Washington, 1890) ; Russell, 
 “The Newark System,” United States Geological 
 Survey, Bulletin 85 (ib., 1892); Davis, “The 
 Triassic Formation of Connecticut,” United 
 States Geological Survey, 18th Annual Report, 
 part ii (ib., 1898) ; Shaler and Woodworth, 
 
 “Geology of the Richmond Basin, Virginia,” in 
 United States Geological Survey, Nineteenth 
 Annual Report, part ii (ib., 1899); Kiimmel, 
 “The Newark Rocks of New Jersey and New 
 York,” in Journal of Geology, vii (Chicago, 
 1899) ; Lull, “Triassic Life of the Connecticut 
 Valley,” in State Geological and Natural His¬ 
 tory Survey of Connecticut, Bulletin 21^ (Hart¬ 
 ford, 1915). See Geology; Paleontology; etc. 
 
 TRIBE (Lat. tribus, tribe; possibly connected 
 with trabs, beam, Lith. trobd, building, 0Welsh, 
 OBret. treb, habitation, subdivision of the people, 
 OHG. dorf, Ger. Dorf, Eng. thorp, village). A 
 territorial group of varying size, embracing in¬ 
 dividuals linked together by linguistic, cultural, 
 and perhaps primarily political bonds. It is a 
 matter of judgment whether to regard closely 
 allied groups speaking mutually intelligible 
 dialects as distinct tribes or not. This often 
 depends on the emphasis placed on political 
 independence as compared with, say, similarity 
 of speech. When the term is applied to several 
 groups each of which is restricted to a part of 
 the tribal area, these local subdivisions may 
 be called bands or hordes. A union of tribes, 
 when definitely organized, is called a league or 
 confederacy, as in the case of the five Iroquois 
 tribes; while Spencer and Gillen have applied 
 the term “nation” to the much vaguer union 
 of culturally and linguistically related tribes 
 of central and north-central Australia. The es¬ 
 sential thing is to confine the term “tribe” to 
 a local unit as contradistinguished from social 
 subdivisions, such as moieties, clans, gentes, or 
 castes. 
 
 A few concrete illustrations may elucidate 
 common ethnological usage. The Assiniboin 
 speak merely a dialect of the Dakota language 
 and from this point of view might be classed 
 as one tribe with the Yanktonnais Dakota. 
 Nevertheless, they have broken away so de¬ 
 cidedly as a political unit that no one would 
 deny to them the title of a separate tribe. The 
 Blackfoot are sometimes spoken of as a single 
 tribe, comprising as subdivisions the Blood, 
 Piegan, and Northern Blackfoot, while other 
 writers prefer to speak of a union of three 
 distinct tribes. Both usages seem permissible, 
 since here we have certainly a great degree 
 of unity when the Blackfoot divisions are com¬ 
 pared with alien groups, while at the same 
 time each preserved an appreciable degree of 
 individuality. In Africa the prominence of the 
 monarchical idea generally simplifies the use 
 of the term. There a tribe comprises usually 
 the entire following of a certain ruler, the polit¬ 
 ical factor even obscuring the territorial prin¬ 
 ciple, i.e., if a king for any reason shifts his 
 headquarters to those of another ruler, the 
 subjects of each would remain distinct units. 
 The term “tribe,” then, cannot be rigidly de¬ 
 fined, but in its use the territorial and political 
 features are clearly predominant. 
 
 TRI'BONIA'NUS. A distinguished Roman 
 jurist of the sixth century a.d. He was of 
 Macedonian parentage, but was born at Side in 
 Pamphylia, He held under the Emperor Jus¬ 
 tinian (q.v.) the offices of quaestor, master of 
 the Imperial household, and consul. But he is 
 famous chiefly through his labors in connection 
 with the Code of Justinian and the pandects 
 (q.v.). He died in 545. 
 
 TRIB'UNE (Lat. tribunus, originally a tribal 
 officer, from tribus, tribe). In ancient Rome 
 the name “tribune” was applied to two distinct 
 
TRIBUNE 
 
 TRICERATOPS 
 
 functionaries, the military tribunes ( tribuni 
 militum ) and the tribunes of the plebs ( tribuni 
 plebis) , which will be considered separately. 
 1. In the traditional organization of the citi¬ 
 zens by Romulus (q.v.) the leader of the quota 
 of warriors furnished by each of the three tribes 
 was called tribu/nus militum y and the same was 
 true when the tribes were increased to four un¬ 
 der Servius Tullius, when we read also of tri¬ 
 buni aerarii, whose duty it was to collect and 
 pay into the treasury the tribal taxes (tribute). 
 
 (See Rome, Ancient Rome, History of Rome 
 During the Earliest or Regal Period.) Under 
 the Republic each legion was under the com¬ 
 mand of six military tribunes, at first appointed 
 by the consuls (who were the commanders in 
 chief), afterward elected at the comitia tributa. 
 (See Comitia.) Their importance was greatly 
 diminished at the end of the Republic^ when 
 the actual command of the legion in the field 
 was confided to a skilled officer called legatus 
 legionis, and the six tribuni militum were re¬ 
 tained only as an honorary staff of the general. 
 (See Legion.) With the formal development 
 of the cursus honorum, or regular sequence of 
 offices for men of senatorial rank, the military 
 tribuneship took its place in the preliminary 
 service, as a stepping stone by which young- 
 nobles might reach the higher positions.' Un¬ 
 der the Empire the name tribuni was given also 
 to the officers of each cohort of the praetorian 
 guard (q.v.), city guards ( cohortes urbance), 
 and night watch (vigiles) . Consult the works 
 named at the end of 2, below; J. Marquardt, 
 Romische Staatsvenvaltung, vol. ii (2d ed., 
 Leipzig, 1884) ; G. H. Allen, “The Advancement 
 of Officers in the Roman Army,” in Supplement¬ 
 ary Papers of the American School of Classi¬ 
 cal Studies in Rome, vol. ii (New York, 1908) ; 
 G. L. Cheesman, The Auxilia of the Roman Im¬ 
 perial Army (Oxford, 1915). 
 
 2. In the early period all the perquisites and 
 prerogatives of government in Rome were in the 
 hands of the patricians, while the plebs, the 
 bulk of the people, had only the burdens of 
 taxation and military service. (See Rome, 
 Ancient Rome, History of Rome during the 
 Earliest or Regal Period; The Roman Re¬ 
 public from its Institution to the Abolition of 
 the Decemvirate, Internal History; From the 
 Abolition of the Decemvirate to the Defeat of 
 the Samnites, etc., Internal History.) This 
 galling condition is said to have been partly 
 remedied by the secession of the plebs in 494 
 B.c., when they secured the right to have an¬ 
 nual magistrates, called tribuni plebis, chosen 
 from their number to look after their especial 
 interests and needs. These were six in num¬ 
 ber (at first perhaps five), served for one 
 year, and were reeligible. They were invested 
 with three important privileges: (1) ius auxilii, 
 the right to defend a plebeian on any charge; 
 (2) intercessio, the right of vetoing any meas¬ 
 ure proposed by the Senate (q.v.) ; (3) per¬ 
 
 sonal inviolability during their term of office. 
 After 471 b.c. the tribunes were regularly elected 
 by the popular comitia tributa. (See Comitia.) 
 The power and energy of the plebeian tribunes 
 were responsible for the gradual extension of 
 political rights to all the people, and to the 
 struggle between the patricians and plebeians 
 that marks the history of the Republic. They 
 caused the codification of the laws (Twelve 
 Tables) in 451 b.c.; the recognition of the popu¬ 
 lar decrees (plebiscita) as binding on all alike 
 
 (449) ; the recognition of the right of intermar¬ 
 riage between patricians and plebeians by the 
 lex Canuleia (445); the successive opening up 
 of the high offices to the plebeians; the 
 Licinian Rogations (q.v., 367); and the agra¬ 
 rian agitation of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus. 
 (See Agrarian Laws; Gracchus.) Augus¬ 
 tus Caesar took to himself the power and 
 rights of the tribunes ( tribunicia potestas) f and 
 hence under the Empire the office lost its im¬ 
 portance, becoming a function for senators of 
 plebeian rank, held between the quaestorship and 
 the praetorship. Consult the article “Tribunus” 
 in W. Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman 
 Antiquities, vol. ii (3d ed., London, 1891); A. H. J. 
 Greenidge, Roman Public Life (ib., 1901) ; J. E. 
 Granrud, Roman Constitutional History (Bos¬ 
 ton, 1902) ; G. W. Botsford, The Roman As¬ 
 semblies (New York, 1909); F. F. Abbott, A 
 History and Description of Roman Political In¬ 
 stitutions (3d ed., Boston, 1911). 
 
 TRIBUNE. In architecture, a place or struc¬ 
 ture from which to address an audience; a use 
 of the term derived from the Roman provisions 
 for the promulgation of decrees of the tribunes 
 or magistrates. The term is variously applied 
 to {a) the apse of a church; (b) any pulpit or 
 platform, civil or ecclesiastical, and especially 
 the platform and desk from which alone, in 
 the French Senate or Chamber of Deputies, the 
 legislator is allowed to address the chamber; 
 (o) a balcony or gallery in a church or hall, for 
 musicians, as, e.g., those once in the cathedral 
 of Florence (now in the Opera del Duomo), 
 sculptured by Donatello and Luca della Robbia 
 with exquisite figures of children singing and 
 playing on instruments. 
 
 TRIBUT DE ZAMORA, tre'bu' de za'mo'ra', 
 Le. An opera by Gounod (q.v.), first produced in 
 Paris, April 1, 1881; in the United States, Jan. 
 12, 1888 (New Orleans). 
 
 TRIB'UTE (Lat. tributum, from tribuere , to 
 grant, pay, or assign, originally to a tribe, from 
 tribus, a tribe). Money, commodities of value, 
 or services rendered by one ruler or state to an¬ 
 other in token of submission, as distinguished 
 from taxation, which is the legal imposition of 
 financial burdens by a state upon its own sub¬ 
 jects. This distinction cannot be said, however, 
 always to have prevailed, and, under the feudal 
 system especially, taxation, tribute, and rent 
 were in many cases identical. This was natural 
 under a system where the political superior was 
 at the same time the owner of the land, and 
 where such land was held largely by military 
 tenure. Aids and reliefs were essentially of the 
 nature of tribute, as also were the tolls and serv¬ 
 ices levied upon the cultivators of the soil by 
 their lords, or exactions like that of heriot 
 (q.v.). See Feudalism. 
 
 TRICAR. See Cycle Car; Side Car. 
 TRICER'ATOPS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. rpeis, 
 treis, three -j- sepas, keras, horn -f- &\p, ops, 
 face). An interesting fossil reptile, a horned 
 dinosaur of formidable aspect, of which skele¬ 
 tons are found in the Upper Cretaceous rocks 
 of Colorado, Dakota, Wyoming, and Montana. 
 The animal was about 25 feet long, with 
 heavily built legs and powerful tail. The most 
 peculiar feature is the strong armature of the 
 massive head. The skull is larger than that 
 of any other known land animal, with a length 
 of 6 feet and a width across the crest of about 
 5 feet. It is wedge-shaped and narrow in front 
 of the small orbits and expanded behind into 
 
TRICHECHIDiE 
 
 TRICHINIASIS 
 
 464 
 
 a broad solid bony crest which projects far 
 backward over the neck and shoulders, with 
 edges armed with a row of sharp projections 
 that were covered by horn. On the facial re¬ 
 gion are three horns: a long outward spreading 
 pair over the orbits and a small horn on the 
 nose. The jaws have strong turtle-like beaks 
 on their tips and series of two-rooted teeth 
 placed in sockets in their posterior portions. 
 The brain of this creature was smaller than 
 that of any other known vertebrate, with a 
 ratio to bulk of body of two pounds to 10 tons. 
 The feet were three-toed, and the beast walked 
 on all fours and fed on plants. Consult: Zit- 
 tel and Eastman, Textbook of Palaeontology, vol. 
 ii (London and New York, 1902) ; Marsh, “The 
 Dinosaurs of North America,” in Annual Re¬ 
 ports of the United States Geological Survey, 
 vol. xvi, part i (Washington, 1896) ; Lucas, 
 Animals of the Past (New York, 1914), which 
 contains interesting observations on the habits 
 of Triceratops. See Dinosauria, and Plate of 
 Dinosaurs. 
 
 TRICHECHIDiE, tri-kekT-de. See Carniv¬ 
 ora; Pinnipedia. 
 
 TRICHIASIS, trl-ki'a-sis (Neo-Lat., from 
 Gk. Tpixlaacs, from 6pi£, thrix, rpixos, trichos, 
 hair). An inversion of one or more eyelashes, 
 their points rubbing against the globe of the 
 eye. It results from cicatricial contraction or 
 long-continued inflammation of the eyelids. The 
 symptoms, like those of entropion (q.v.), are 
 caused by irritation of the conjunctiva by the 
 rubbing "of the eyelashes. The treatment con¬ 
 sists in plucking out the offending hairs (if 
 they are few in number) from time to time. 
 Electrolysis may be employed. In other cases 
 it may be necessary to perform a plastic surgi¬ 
 cal operation on the lid. 
 
 TRICHINA, trl-kl'na (Neo-Lat., from Gk. 
 df n'|, thrix, hair). A peculiar nematode worm, 
 which in its sexually immature state inhabits 
 the muscles of mammals, usually the pig. It 
 was discovered in 1835. 
 
 The young trichinae, as seen in human mus¬ 
 cle, present the form of spirally coiled worms, 
 in the interior of small, globular, oval, or lemon¬ 
 shaped cysts, which appear as minute specks 
 scarcely visible to the naked eye. The cysts 
 are sometimes altogether absent and hence must 
 be regarded as formations resulting from local 
 inflammation set up by the presence of the 
 worm, which in this larval condition measures 
 about a millimeter long. These larval worms 
 exhibit a well-marked digestive apparatus and 
 afford evidence of the presence of reproductive 
 organs, which are often sufficiently developed to 
 enable the observer to determine the sex. The 
 number of larval trichinae that may simultane¬ 
 ously exist in the muscles of a single man or 
 animal is enormous. 
 
 When an animal is fed with flesh containing 
 the larval worm and is killed a few days after¬ 
 ward, a large number of minute worms are 
 found in the contents of the small intestines. 
 On the second day after their introduction 
 these intestinal trichinae attain full sexual ma¬ 
 turity, and in six days the females contain 
 perfectly developed and free embryos. 
 
 The female is a slender round worm, varying 
 in length from ^ to | of an inch. The 
 anterior end presents a beadlike appearance, 
 from which the intestinal canal proceeds. The 
 posterior three-fourths are mainly occupied by 
 the reproductive organ, which is filled partly 
 
 with free embryos and partly with eggs in vari¬ 
 ous stages of maturity. The females continue 
 bringing forth young for two or three weeks. 
 The embryos penetrate the walls of the intes¬ 
 tine and pass either through the body cavity 
 or by means of the blood vessels into the muscles 
 of the host, where, if conditions are favorable, 
 they are developed into the encysted form. 
 Some of them reach the muscles of the ex¬ 
 tremities and other distant parts; but the ma¬ 
 jority remain in those sheathed muscular groups 
 which are the nearest to the cavity of the body 
 (abdomen and thorax), especially in those 
 which are smaller and most supplied with con¬ 
 nective tissue. These embryos penetrate the in¬ 
 terior of the separate muscle fibres, and in 14 
 days acquire the size and organization of 
 Trichina spiralis. In the adult condition tri¬ 
 chinae perish in cold water in about an hour 
 and cannot survive the decease of their host for 
 more than six hours, but the larvae remain alive 
 in water for a month and will live for a long 
 time in flesh which has become putrid. In this 
 way a carcass near a marsh or rivulet may com¬ 
 municate the parasites to the ruminants that 
 drink the water or to pigs. The formation of 
 the cysts is the cause of more or less serious 
 injury to the host, according to the number 
 present. When abundant, the weakness is very 
 marked and is often fatal. In man infection 
 occurs almost invariably through the eating of 
 raw or underdone pork containing the cysts. 
 If the meat is properly cooked the worms will be 
 destroyed. Consult Max Braun, Die thierischen 
 Parasiten des Menschen (3d ed., Wurzburg, 
 1903). See Parasite, Animal. 
 
 TRICHINIASIS, trik'i-nl'a-sis, or TRICH¬ 
 INOSIS, -no'sls (Neo-Lat., from trichina, tri¬ 
 china). A disease caused by the ingestion of 
 meat (pork or sausage) containing trichina 
 (q.v.), characterized by a number of diverse 
 symptoms. In 1831 Hilton Warmald first 
 noted the characteristic specks while dissecting; 
 but the trichina was demonstrated by Paget 
 and the naturalist Sir Richard Owen in 1835. 
 Zenker first demonstrated, in 1860, that tri- 
 chiniasis caused death, and Virchow (q.v.) 
 first propagated the nematode in an animal and 
 demonstrated its presence in the intestine in 
 1859. Leuckart in the following year pre¬ 
 sented a full, lucid, and complete solution of 
 the whole question. After being swallowed, the 
 trichina worms traverse the connective tissue 
 and gain access to all parts of the body. They 
 are found in the muscles of the trunk and 
 head as well as in the extremities, and thickly 
 placed in the diaphragm, the intercostals, the 
 muscles of the neck and of the eyes. The in¬ 
 testinal canal shows catarrhal changes, and 
 the trichina may be found in the intestinal mu¬ 
 cosa. The mesenteric glands are swollen. The 
 heart muscle is almost invariably free from 
 invasion. 
 
 The parasite occurs in two forms—one, a 
 sexually mature form (intestinal trichina), the 
 other an immature form (muscle trichina). 
 The intestinal worm is small and hairlike, the 
 male being ^ of an inch long, the female. | 
 of an inch long. Muscle trichina develops its 
 sexual apparatus after invading the intestinal 
 canal, and the embryos at once migrate from 
 the intestines to the muscular system of the 
 victim, where they set up an inflammatory re¬ 
 action and become encapsulated in a fibrous en¬ 
 velope, where they lie coiled. Lime salts are 
 
TRICHINOPOLI 
 
 4^5 TRICOLOR 
 
 gradually, deposited about the capsule and in 
 the parasite itself. Development is very rapid; 
 within two da} T s after infected pork enters the 
 digestive tract the muscle larvae mature; em¬ 
 bryos are born six days later, and in about 
 two weeks migration to the muscle is completed. 
 1 he mortality of trichiniasis varies between 20 
 and 50 per cent. 
 
 I he early symptoms of the disease are nausea, 
 vomiting, colic, and diarrhoea. The muscles 
 become weak, and great weariness is experi¬ 
 enced. Between the tenth day and the sixth 
 week the muscles become stiff and tender. This 
 condition is most noticeable in the flexors of the 
 extremities, and occasionally the knees or el¬ 
 bows will be bent and rigid. (Edema is charac¬ 
 teristic and appears about the seventh day, first 
 in the eyelids and the face, next in the ex¬ 
 tremities, and is probably due to toxins ex¬ 
 creted by the parasites. Profuse sweating is 
 characteristic; insomnia is a common symptom 
 together with headache. In the blood the 
 eosinophile cells are greatly increased. Swine 
 suffer principally, among the lower animals; 
 but rats, mice, rabbits, and guinea pigs are 
 easily infected. Horses, cattle, sheep, goats, and 
 dogs are infected less readily. It has been 
 stated that rats carry the parasites to swine. 
 Cats are occasionally victims of trichiniasis. 
 
 It is supposed that the parasite gained ac¬ 
 cess into Europe through the introduction of 
 the Chinese pig early in the nineteenth century. 
 The disease was epidemic in Syria in 1881 and 
 has appeared in Algiers, in South America, in 
 the West and Massachusetts in the United 
 States, in France, in Basel, Switzerland, in Mal- 
 aga, Spain, in Russia, Sweden, Norway, and 
 Denmark, in England in 1871, in North Ger¬ 
 many since 1849, an epidemic occurring in 
 Hettstedt in 1863. 
 
 Prophylaxis consists in the careful inspec¬ 
 tion of swine, after slaughtering, by competent 
 microscopists, who take sections from the mus¬ 
 cles of mastication, the laryngeal and abdominal 
 muscles, and the diaphragm. There is no treat¬ 
 ment for the disease, and in all probability many 
 nonfatal cases occur which are diagnosed as 
 rheumatism or some acute fever, as well as some 
 cases, of pneumonia in which the trichina para¬ 
 site is the unidentified cause. Consult an ar¬ 
 ticle by C. W. Stiles, in William Osier, Modem 
 Medicine (New York, 1914). 
 
 TRICHINOPOLI, trich'i-nop'6-li. The cap¬ 
 ital of a district of Madras, British India, on 
 the right bank of the Kaveri, below the island 
 of Srirangam (q.v.), 56 miles from the sea and 
 190 miles by rail southwest of Madras (Map: 
 India, C 7). The old town, now inclosed by 
 boulevards, stands at the base and on the rugged 
 slope of a granite rock, 273 feet high, crowned 
 by a temple, a much-frequented pilgrimage 
 shrine. The native town is inhabited by a dense 
 population dwelling in low, closely packed huts. 
 The chief building is the former Nawab’s pal¬ 
 ace, now restored and used as government offices. 
 There are several Protestant missions and a 
 college and also a Jesuit college and a fine Ro¬ 
 man Catholic cathedral. Beyond the boulevards 
 is St. John's Anglican Church, containing the 
 tomb of Bishop Heber, who died here in 1826; 
 to the south near Golden Rock, a hill about 
 100 feet high, is the central jail, one of the 
 largest buildings of its kind in Madras. Che¬ 
 roots are manufactured in large quantities from 
 excellent tobacco grown in the vicinity. Weav¬ 
 
 ing and the manufacture of hardware, cutlery, 
 jewelry, gold chains, harness, and saddlery are 
 extensively carried on. Tric-hinopoli was gov¬ 
 erned by a line of rajahs that died out in 1732 
 when it came under the rule of the Nawab of 
 Arcot. It came under British control in 1801 
 with the rest of the region. Pop., 1901 104- 
 
 721; 1911, 123,512. 
 
 TRICHINOSIS, trik'l-no'sls. See Trichi¬ 
 niasis. 
 
 TRICHLO RQMETH'ANE. See Chloro¬ 
 form. 
 
 TRICHOGYNE, trik'6-jin (from Gk. 6pL£, 
 thrix, hair -f- yvrrj, gyne, woman, female). One 
 of the cells of the female organ (procarp) of 
 the red algae (see Alg,e), appearing as a hair¬ 
 like extension of the female cell. Against it the 
 male cells lodge, and into it they discharge their 
 contents, which pass into the female cell. 
 
 TRI'CHOME (from Gk. rpix^ya, trichoma, 
 growth of hair, from rpixovr, trichoun, to fur¬ 
 nish with hair, from 0/n'£, thrix , hair). A hair- 
 like outgrowth from the epidermis of plants, 
 usually arising from a single cell. These struc¬ 
 tures are known variously as hairs, glands, bris¬ 
 tles, bladders, scales, prickles, warts, etc., and 
 may be one or many celled. The long hairs 
 on the seeds of cotton are simple and unicel¬ 
 lular. The filaments on the stamens of the 
 spider lily (Tradescantia) are multicellular and 
 simple. Branched unicellular hairs may be 
 found on the common shepherd’s purse \Cap- 
 sella) and branched multicellular hairs on mul¬ 
 lein. Hairs with flattened expansions at the 
 top are called scales. Glandular hairs are 
 widely distributed among plants, being usually 
 unbranched and with a knob at the apex, 
 which secretes such substances as resins, gums, 
 ethereal oils, mucilage, and sugar. When the 
 substance is secreted in a liquid form it mois¬ 
 tens the surface, but when volatile it is recog¬ 
 nized as an odor. Root hairs are hairlike out¬ 
 growths from the epidermal cells of the root. 
 They greatly increase the surface of exposure 
 for the intake of soil water. Many plants and 
 organs which bear hairs during early stages 
 of development become smooth as they grow 
 older. Environment also affects the hairiness of 
 a structure. A plant growing in a very dry 
 situation may be hairy, while another individ¬ 
 ual of the same species growing in a wet situa¬ 
 tion may be much less hairy or even entirely 
 smooth. Systematists have made large use of 
 the trichome in describing plants and have de¬ 
 veloped a large number of descriptive terms. 
 
 TRICHOPTERA, tri-kop'te-ra (Neo-Lat. 
 nom. pi., from Gk. 6pL£, thrix, rpix-, trich-, hair 
 + 7 rrepov, pteron, wing). An order of insects 
 containing the caddis fly (q.v.). 
 
 TRI'CHROISM. See Dichroism. 
 TRICLIN'IC SYSTEM. See Crystallog¬ 
 raphy and Plate of Crystal Forms. 
 
 TRICLINUS, Demetrius. See Demetrius 
 Triclinus. 
 
 TRI'COL'OR (Fr. tricolor, from Lat. tres, 
 three + color, color). Literally a flag in three 
 colors, which is the case in almost every national 
 ensign, but usually restricted in sense to flags 
 having three’ colors in equal masses. The prin¬ 
 cipal tricolor ensigns are those of France—blue, 
 white, and red, divided vertically; Germany—• 
 black, white, and red, divided horizontally; Rus¬ 
 sia—white, blue, and red, divided horizontally; 
 Italy—green, white, and red: Belgium—black, 
 yellow, and fed; and Mexico—green, white, and 
 
TRICTRAC 
 
 triforium 
 
 466 
 
 red; the last three all divided vertically. The 
 French tricolor took its use at the outbreak of 
 the revolution of 1789, as the badge of the 
 National Guard. The red and blue were selected 
 as the arms of Paris, and the white was added 
 as the color of the army, to show the intimate 
 union which should subsist between the people 
 and the national defenders. 
 
 TRICTRAC. A variety of backgammon (q.v.). 
 
 TRI'DENT (Lat. tridens, three-toothed, from 
 tres, three -f- dens, tooth). In classic mythol¬ 
 ogy, the attribute of Poseidon (see Neptune), 
 god of the sea. It consists of a staff, armed at 
 one end with three short prongs, with double 
 barbs at the points. 
 
 TRIDOLIN, tre'do'laN'. See Fridolin. 
 
 TRID'YMITE (from Gk. rpiSvyos, tridymos, 
 threefold, from rpels, treis, three; so called from 
 its frequent crystallization in groups of three). 
 A mineral silicon dioxide crystallized • in the 
 hexagonal system. It resembles quartz, from 
 which it differs, however, in having a lower 
 specific gravity. It occurs chiefly in acidic vol¬ 
 canic rocks and was originally discovered in 
 1868 in the trachyte of San Cristobal in Mexico. 
 It has been prepared artificially by dissolving a 
 silicate in a bead of phosphorus salt. 
 
 TRIEN'NTAL ACT. A British statute of 
 the reign of William III (1694), directing that 
 no Parliament should last longer than three 
 years. This period was made seven years by the 
 Septennial Act of George I (1716) and reduced 
 to five in 1911. The session of the 1911-16 
 Parliament was extended, by a special bill, to 
 Jan. 31, 1917. 
 
 TRIER, trer. The German name for Treves. 
 
 TRIEST, tre-est', or TRIESTE. The prin¬ 
 cipal seaport of Austria-Hungary,, situated at 
 the northeast extremity of the Adriatic Sea, on 
 the Gulf of Triest, 367 miles by rail southwest 
 of Vienna (Map: Austria, C 4). Triest and 
 the adjoining district form an Austrian crown- 
 land, and the city is the general administrative 
 seat of the Austrian Kiistenland (q.v.). The 
 city, which is strongly fortified, extends some¬ 
 what in the manner of an amphitheatre along 
 the acclivity of the Karst (q.v.). The old 
 town, with its narrow, crooked, and steep streets, 
 lies at the base of the Castle Hill and between 
 it and the gulf. In its northwestern corner, 
 close to the water, is the Tergesteo, a huge edi¬ 
 fice, whose cruciform arcades, roofed with glass, 
 are used for the exchange and for various shops 
 and offices. Near by are the two leading 
 squares, the Piazza della Borsa and the Piazza 
 Grande.’ From this vicinity the Corso, the prin¬ 
 cipal street, extends eastward, separating the 
 old town from the new quarter, where broad 
 avenues lead up towards the inclosing hills. On 
 the west side of the Castle Hill, in the old town, 
 the cathedral of San Giusto occupies a conspicu¬ 
 ous site where a Roman temple once stood. It 
 is a composite structure, dating from the four¬ 
 teenth century. It was formed by joining three 
 ecclesiastical edifices, which had stood there 
 since the sixth century. On the Piazza Grande 
 are the splendid new municipal buildings. 
 Triest has a Museo Lapidario, an open-air mus¬ 
 eum of Roman antiquities, occupyihg a disused 
 cemetery. The town has a nautical academy con¬ 
 taining" the municipal museum, with Roman 
 antiquities, and the Ferdinand-Maximilian Mu¬ 
 seum, with its collection of Adriatic fauna. 
 
 Towards the southern end of the city is the 
 Museo Civico Revoltella in the palace of that 
 
 name. Near by stands the fine bronze monu¬ 
 ment to Maximilian of Mexico by Schilling. 
 From this point leading south and following the 
 curve of the gulf extends the Passeggio di 
 Sant’ Andrea, affording fine views for more 
 than 3 miles, and reaching the vast wharves 
 of the Lloyd Company. The public gardens 
 are in the northeast of the city. Among the 
 attractions of Triest is the famous chateau of 
 Miramar, situated on the sea to the northwest, 
 which belonged to Maximilian. It has a lovely 
 park and offers beautiful sea views. The city 
 contains a Greek church with rich decorations, 
 a Jesuit church, and a Capuchin convent. There 
 are a commercial academy, an astronomical and 
 meteorological observatory, a public library with 
 over 120,000 volumes, and museums of natural 
 history and antiquities. 
 
 The harbor, the main attraction of Triest 
 proper, has been greatly extended and improved. 
 There are a number of moles and an immense 
 breakwater. The Canal Grande (only 400 yards 
 long) penetrates the city north of the Corso 
 and permits vessels to load and unload at the 
 warehouses. Triest has a naval arsenal and is 
 the storehouse for the Austro-Hungarian. navy. 
 Triest has of late years found a rival in the 
 Hungarian port of Fiume, but its commercial 
 preeminence is vigorously supported by the 
 Austrian government. In 1913 there were en¬ 
 tered at the port 14,231 vessels, of 5,480,074 
 tons, and cleared 14,186, of 5,475,445 tons. 
 There is a very large trade in grain, oil, wine, 
 and many other products. The local mercantile 
 fleet is large. At the Austrian Lloyd shops many 
 vessels are annually constructed. Triest builds 
 ships of all varieties and manufactures marine 
 steam engines, cables, furniture, silks and cot¬ 
 tons, clothing, liquors, wax lights, soap, etc. 
 
 Pop., 1910 (city), 160,993; crownland, 229,510. 
 The crownland consists of the city and outlying 
 territory; its total area is only 36.9 square 
 miles. In the crownland the percentage of 
 persons whose vernacular was Italian was 62.3; 
 Slovene, 29.8; German, 6.2. Of the inhabitants 
 of the crownland, 94.9 per cent were returned as 
 Roman Catholic, 2.4 Jewish, and 1.1 Evangelical. 
 
 History. Triest is the Roman Tergeste. Since 
 1382 it has been a part of Austria, except in 1797— 
 1805 and 1809-13. It was made a free port in 
 1719 by Charles VI, which date marks the begin¬ 
 ning of its importance. It finally became the 
 commercial rival of Venice. With its territory 
 it was constituted a separate crownland in 1867. 
 Triest was the objective of an Italian campaign 
 in the great war. It was attacked by aerial 
 forces several times. See War in Europe. Con¬ 
 sult: J. Lbwenthal, Geschichte der Stadt Triest 
 (Triest, 1857-59) ; Scussa, Storia cronogrcifica 
 di Trieste (new ed., ib., 1885-86) ; F. H. Jack- 
 son, Shores of the Adriatic: The Austrian Side 
 (New York, 1908). 
 
 TRIFAIL, tre'fil. A town in Styria, Aus¬ 
 tria, on a tributary of the Save, 66 miles 
 southwest of Marburg. Trifail has one of the 
 most productive mines of lignite in Austria. 
 There are large cement, chemical, and glass 
 works. Pop., 1900, 10,851; 1910, 11,578. 
 
 TRIFO'LIUM. See Clover. 
 
 TRIFO'RIUM (ML., from Lat. tres, three 
 + foris, door, opening), or Triforium Gal¬ 
 lery. The arcade opened up in the wall of 
 the nave of a mediaeval church immediately 
 above the pier arches and under the clearstory 
 windows. The name was derived from the cus- 
 
TRIGGER FISH 
 
 TRIGONOMETRY 
 
 467 
 
 tom of dividing each bay of this gallery into 
 three arches, though this was by no means 
 the constant rule, early galleries having often 
 a single arch and later ones having two, four, 
 or more arches in each bay. The triforium, 
 whose origin is probably the open gallery above 
 the side aisle in Byzantine and Romanesque 
 churches, was in many Gothic churches in- 
 serted between the summit of the aisle vault 
 and the top of its slanting roof, though in 
 developed Gothic the roof line was often changed 
 so as to let light into the gallery. The earlier 
 churches had higher galleries, especially in Eng¬ 
 lish Norman churches; but during the thirteenth 
 century the French Gothic builders diminished 
 their size and usefulness, retaining them mainly 
 for decorative purposes and as blind or semiblind 
 galleries, not intended to be used by the congre¬ 
 gation. 
 
 TRIGGER FISH. One of the fishes of the 
 plectognath family Balistidae, characterized by 
 an ovate body covered with large rough scales, 
 and the fact that the first spine of the anterior 
 of the two dorsal fins is high and strong and 
 may be lifted, when it is locked erect by the 
 spine behind it; whence the name. About 50 
 species are known, mainly in Indo-Pacific re¬ 
 gions, where they become rather large and re¬ 
 main near shore; some are herbivorous, others 
 carnivorous. Their flesh is rarely eaten, as it 
 is reputed poisonous. Several species of the 
 genus Balistes inhabit the American tropics, of 
 which one, the cicuyo, or leather jacket ( Balis¬ 
 tes carolinensis ), is common in the Gulf of 
 Mexico and on the South Atlantic coast, and 
 also in the Mediterranean. See Plate of Plec¬ 
 tognath Fishes. 
 
 TRI'GLYPH (Lat. triglyphus, from Gk. 
 rply\v<pos, three grooved, from rpels , treis, three 
 -f- y\v(peu/, glyphein, to carve). In the Doric 
 frieze, the projecting block between the metopes 
 (q.v.). It is supposed to represent the ends of 
 the beams in the original structure of wood and 
 crude brick. Its face regularly contains two 
 triangular vertical furrows, and the edges are 
 chamfered. Consult Allan Marquand, Greek 
 Architecture (New York, 1909). 
 
 TRIG'ONAL SYSTEM. See Crystallog¬ 
 raphy and Plate of Crystal Forms. 
 
 TRIG'ONEI/LINE. See Alkaloids. 
 
 TRIGO'NIA (Neo-Lat. nom. pi., from Gk. 
 rpiywvos, trigonos, triangular, from rpels, treis, 
 three -f- yuvla, gonia, angle). This genus, rep¬ 
 resented at the present time by only five species 
 living in the Australian seas, was one of the 
 most important types of lamellibranchs in the 
 Mesozoic seas of Europe. Trigonia appeared 
 first in the Liassic, became very abundant in 
 the Middle and Upper Jura and the Middle Cre¬ 
 taceous, and then in the Tertiary declined in 
 number of species to the present time. The 
 Mesozoic species, some of which are four or five 
 times the size of the living species, are arranged 
 into groups according to the markings of their 
 shells, which are often elaborately sculptured. 
 Consult Louis Agassiz, Etudes critiques sur les 
 mollu-sques fossiles: M6moire sur les trigonies 
 (Neuchfttel, 1840), and John Lycett, “A Mono¬ 
 graph of the British Fossil Trigonias,” in Talce- 
 ontographical Society Monographs (London, 
 1872-79). 
 
 TRIG'ONOCAR'PUS (Neo-Lat., . from Gk. 
 rpiywvos, trigonos, triangular + Kapiros, karpos, 
 fruit). Fossil seed pods and fruits, probably 
 of various kinds of plants, which in cross sec¬ 
 
 tion have a triangular form. See Carpolith; 
 
 CONIFER.E ; CORDAITES; PALEOBOTANY. 
 
 TRIG'ONOMET'RIC SERIES. See Series. 
 
 TRIG'ONOM'ETRY (from Gk. rpiyuvov, 
 trigonon, triangle, from rpels, treis, three 
 ywvia, gonia, angle + -perpla, -metria, measure¬ 
 ment, from perpov, metron, measure, from pe- 
 rpelv,' metrein, to measure). Originally the study 
 of triangles, especially the theory of the measure¬ 
 ment of their sides, angles, and areas; now the 
 measure of triangles is merely a part of the 
 general subject. That portion of the subject 
 which deals with the measurement of figures in 
 a plane is called plane trigonometry, and that 
 which deals with figures on the surface of a 
 sphere is called spherical trigonometry. That 
 branch of the subject which deals with the circu¬ 
 lar functions of angles is called goniometry. The 
 pure theory of trigonometric functions,' apart 
 from their application to problems of measure- 
 
 B 
 
 ment, is called analytic trigonometry. Elemen¬ 
 tary trigonometry has many useful applications, 
 as in the measurement of areas, heights, and dis¬ 
 tances. It is indispensable to the study of as¬ 
 tronomy, physics, and the various branches of 
 engineering. 
 
 The common functions of trigonometry may be 
 defined as ratios of certain sides of a right tri¬ 
 angle. Thus, in the figure, the ratio - is called 
 
 c 
 
 the sine of the angle 9, commonly written sin 6 
 
 -. The ratio - is called the cosine of 
 c c b 
 
 the angle 6 , written cos 9 — The other func- 
 
 c 
 
 tions are tangent of 9, symbolically written 
 
 tan 9 = cotangent of 9, or cot 9 — -; secant 
 0 c a 
 
 of 9, or sec 9 = and cosecant of 9 or esc 9 
 
 (cosec 9) = There are also used the functions 
 
 a h 
 
 versine of 9, or vers 9 — 1 — cos 9 — 1 — -; and 
 
 c a 
 
 coversine of 9, or covers 9 — 1 — sin 9 — 1-. 
 
 c 
 
 Of these functions, the most important are sin 9, 
 cos 9, tan 9, and cot 9. These admit of easy ma¬ 
 nipulation by means of logarithms (q.v.). Since 
 
 sec 9 — - ^ and esc 9 = -J—, and since it is 
 cos 9 sin 9 
 
 as easy to find - and —— by logarithms as 
 
 cos 9 sm 9 J 0 
 
 to find cos 9 and sin 9, it is evident that sec 9 
 and esc 9 are of relatively little importance when 
 logarithms are used. As to vers 9 and covers 9, 
 they do not admit of easy treatment by loga¬ 
 rithms, and so they, like sec 9 and esc 9, have been 
 little used since the invention of these aids to 
 computation. The propriety of calling these 
 ratios functions of the angle 9 consists in this, 
 that the value of any ratio depends upon the 
 
TRIGONOMETRY 
 
 TRIGONOMETRY 
 
 468 
 
 value of #. That is, in any right-angled triangle 
 AB'C', having an acute angle #, the correspond¬ 
 ing ratios ^ (Fig. 2) are equal to the 
 
 c c 0 
 
 ratios an d in aa v right-angled triangle 
 
 c c b 
 
 in which the acute angle #' is not equal to # the 
 corresponding ratios are not equal to those for #. 
 
 C' 
 
 right of the vertical diameter, as OM, are called 
 positive, and those to the left, as OM 1} negative; 
 lines measured upward, as B t M, from the hori¬ 
 zontal diameter are called positive, and those 
 downward, as M 4 B if negative; the revolving ra¬ 
 dius OB is always positive. Thus (see Fig. 4), 
 the signs of the fimctions of an angle not ex¬ 
 ceeding 90° are all plus. The versine and cover- 
 sine are evidently always positive. The sine and 
 cosecant are positive in the first and second 
 quadrants and negative in the third and fourth. 
 The cosine and the secant are positive in the first 
 and fourth quadrants and negative in the second 
 and third. The tangent and cotangent are posi¬ 
 tive in the first and third quadrants and negative 
 in the second and fourth. We have, therefore, 
 the following relations: 
 
 sin ( — a ) = — sin a 
 cos ( — a) — cos a 
 tan ( — a ) = — tan a 
 cot ( — a ) = — cot a 
 
 The trigonometric functions as defined by the 
 above ratios are evidently limited to angles less 
 than 90°, since a triangle contains but one right 
 angle. However, the definition may be extended 
 to angles of any size and the functions may be 
 expressed by line segments. 
 
 For the definition of a negative angle, see 
 Angle. 
 
 A given value of a function does not, however, 
 uniquely determine the angle, as will appear 
 from the following table of relations: 
 
 FIRST QUADRANT 
 
 P' Q P 
 
 In Fig. 3 the radius 0 A (= OB) may be re¬ 
 garded as the unit of length, hence the ratio 
 
 = B 2 M 1 and sin AOB x = B 1 M. Similarly 
 
 OBz 
 
 cos AOB, — OM, tan AOB, = AT, cot AOB, ~ 
 J J Q, sec AOB, — OT, esc AOB, — OP, vers AOB, 
 — MA, and covers AOB, — QR. If the angle is 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 obtuse as AOB 2 , or reflex as AOB 3 , AOB 4 , the 
 functions are represented by the corresponding 
 lines. For example, sin AOB z — B 3 M„ tan AOB t 
 = AT'. The following convention of signs (see 
 Fig. 4), however, serves to associate these values 
 with the proper angle: Lines measured to the 
 
 sin (90° — 9) — cos # tan (90° — #) = cot # 
 cos (90° — 9) = sin # cot (90° — 9) — tan # 
 
 SECOND QUADRANT 
 
 sin (180° — 9) — sin # 
 cos (180° — 9) = — cos 9 
 tan(180° — 9) =—tan# 
 cot (180° — 9) — — cot 9 
 
 sin (90° 4 - 8) — cos 9 
 cos (90° -(-#) = — sin 9 
 tan (90° 4 ~ 9 ) = — cot 9 
 cot (90° 9 ) — — tan# 
 
 THIRD QUADRANT 
 
 sin (180° 4 - #) = — sin # 
 cos (180°-}-#) = — cos # 
 tan (180° 4 -#) = tan# 
 cot (180° -f- #) = cot# 
 
 sin (270° — #) = — cos 9 
 cos (270° — #) = — sin # 
 tan (270°— 9)— cot# 
 cot (270°— 9)— tan# 
 
 FOURTH QUADRANT 
 
 sin (360° — #) = — sin # 
 cos (360° — #) = cos# 
 tan (360 0 — #) = — tan # 
 cot (360° — #) =— cot# 
 
 sin (270° -(-#) — — cos# 
 cos (270° 4 - #) = sin# 
 tan (270° -f- #) = — cot# 
 cot (270° #) = — tan# 
 
 Thus, to express the trigonometric functions of 
 angles greater than 90° in terms of those of 
 angles less than 90°, determine first the sign of 
 the function to be so expressed, next subtract 
 from the angle whatever multiple of 90 is neces¬ 
 sary to make it less than 90°. If an even 
 multiple of 90° is subtracted the name of the 
 original function is retained, but if an odd mul¬ 
 tiple is subtracted the original function is re¬ 
 placed by the conamed function. For example, 
 to express cos (270° — #) in terms of a function 
 of #. This angle is in the third quadrant and 
 therefore its cosine is negative. To make the 
 angle 270° — # less than 90° we must subtract 
 180° and we have cos (270 — 9) — — cos (90° 
 — 9\. But cos (90° —9) = sin #, and we have 
 cos (270° — #) — — sin #. 
 
 The increasing of an angle by 360° or any mul¬ 
 tiple of 360° does not alter the value of the trig¬ 
 onometric functions of that angle. (See Func¬ 
 tion.) It appears from the geometric represen¬ 
 tation of the functions that the values of the 
 
TRIGONOMETRY 
 
 TRIGONOMETRY 
 
 469 
 
 sines and cosines of all real angles lie within the 
 interval —|— 1, — 1; the values of the tangents 
 and cotangents of all real angles lie within the 
 interval -f- 00 and — 00; those of the secants 
 and cosecants without the interval +1, — 1, as 
 is shown in the following table: 
 
 FUNCTION 
 
 0° 
 
 90° 
 
 180° 
 
 270° 
 
 360° 
 
 Sine. 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Cosecant. 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 — 1 
 
 0 
 
 Cosine. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 — 1 
 — 1 
 
 0 
 
 - 00 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 Secant. 
 
 Tangent. 
 
 Cotangent. 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 - 00 
 
 0 
 
 The variations of the functions are best ex¬ 
 hibited by means of graphs. In, the figures the 
 arcs are laid off as abscissas and the functions 
 as ordinates. See Coordinates. 
 
 GRAPH OF SIN 0 . 
 
 From the definition of the trigonometric func¬ 
 tions, it is evident that they bear certain rela¬ 
 tions one to another. Some of the fundamental 
 
 ones are, sin 2 9 + cos 2 9 = 1, sin 9 esc 9 — 1, 
 cos 9 sec 9 = 1, tan 9 cot 9 — 1, tan = sin 0/cos 9, 
 I + tan 2 9 = sec 2 9, 1 -|- cot 2 9 — esc 2 9, from 
 
 which many others readily follow. Besides these 
 relations existing between the functions of a 
 single angle, there are those connecting the func¬ 
 tions of several angles. Thus, 
 
 sin (A =t= B) = sin A cos B d= cos A sin B, 
 cos (A =fc B ) = cos A cos B =p sin A sin B, 
 
 tan (i±/f) 
 
 tan A ± tan B 
 1 =f tan A tan B ’ 
 
 cot (A d= B) 
 
 cot A cot B =p 1 
 cot A d= cot B ’ 
 
 and sin 2 A 
 
 sin 2 A, tan 2 A = 
 
 2 sin A cos A, cos 2 A = cos 2 A — 
 2 tan A 
 
 and cot 2 A = 
 
 cot 2 A - 1 , . , 1 - tan 2 A 
 
 2 cot A— ’ w llc 1 are ea sily derived from the 
 
 corresponding formulas for A + B by putting 
 A — B. Some of the formulas for functions of 
 
 half an angle are: sin^A = =hy/ ^ cosA ^ cos ^ 
 = ± + 2 C °sy tan U = * f T 
 
 — cos A 
 + cos A’ 
 
 and cot }A = d= + 008 A , Bv reapplying 
 
 V 1 — cos A J 
 
 these formulas it is evident that functions of 3A, 
 4A, . . . . nA may be expressed as functions of A 
 and also as functions of various fractional parts 
 of A. 1 
 
 To every function there is an inverse function 
 or antifunction, just as to every logarithm there 
 is an antilogarithm. The formula to express the 
 angle whose sine is x is sin- 1 x = 9, read “9 
 is the angle whose sine is x.” ;In most European 
 countries this is indicated by the symbol arc 
 sin a? = 9, read “0 is the arc (angle) whose sine 
 is x,” or merely “arc sine x is equal to 6.” Simi¬ 
 larly tan _1 i/ = 6 is read, “9 is the angle whose 
 tangent is y,” or antitangent of y equals 9, and 
 this is also written arc tan x — 6. All inverse 
 functions admit of translation into the direct 
 formulas. Thus, sin- 1 x = 6 reduces to sin d 
 = x, and tan- 1 — y — 9 to tan 6 = y. All in¬ 
 verse or antifunctions can be expressed in 
 series, as in the case of the functions. (See 
 Series. ) The following will serve as examples: 
 sin- 1 a? = 
 
 £ 1 aj 3 1 • 3 z 6 . 
 
 sino 1 x = —--.- b 
 
 1 ^2 3 ' 2-4 5 ‘ 
 
 2-2W+1 
 
 2n+ 1 
 
 tan = — — 
 
 •+ 
 
 x 3 
 
 1*3-(2n —1) 
 
 2-4- 2n 
 
 x° 
 
 + 5~ 
 
 + (- D” 
 
 X 
 
 2n-l 
 
 + 
 
 2n — 1 
 
 The values of the func¬ 
 tions of certain angles 
 may be calculated by ref¬ 
 erence to geometric fig¬ 
 ures, but "the tables of 
 such values for all angles 
 have been calculated to 
 a close degree of approxi¬ 
 mation by means of the 
 trigonometric series. The 
 equilateral triangle serves 
 to exhibit the values 
 of the functions of 60° 
 and 30°. If the side is 
 taken as 1, the figure 
 shows that sin 60° = 
 
 y 2 V3, cos 60° = y 2 , 
 
 tan 00° = V% and so on. 
 Similarly the functions of 45 °, as sin 45 0 = cos 45 ° 
 
 = — Vj V^2, may be obtained from the 
 
 square. 
 
 The following problems will serve to illustrate 
 the use of trigonometry in practical mensura¬ 
 tion: (1) Required the height of a hill above 
 the horizontal plane of an observer, the distance 
 of the observer from the point below the summit 
 being 5000 feet and the angle of elevation 10° 30'. 
 The height of the hill, represented by BC in the 
 figure, is given by the equation BC = tan 10° 30' 
 
TRIGONOMETRY 
 
 TRIGONOMETRY 
 
 470 
 
 5000 feet = 0.1853 X 5000 feet = 926.5 feet, 
 tan 10° 30' being taken from a table of natural 
 tangents. (2) Required the distance between 
 
 C 
 
 two points A and B separated by an impassable 
 swamp, the line AC, as represented in the figure, 
 being 15 chain lengths, the angle A 40° 15', and 
 
 B 
 
 the angle C 110° 32'. The length of the line AB 
 
 . . , ,, ACsin 110° 32' 
 
 is given by the equation AB — 7 — 0 y 7 "/ — 
 
 1 r a QQ/>r Sill -LOU a/ 
 
 _ io u. 00 _ 28 5 the sines of the angles being 
 
 “ 0.4881 
 
 taken from a table of natural sines. Therefore 
 AB is 28.5 chain lengths. 
 
 From the expressions of e x , sin a?, cos a?(see 
 Series ), it follows that e ix = cos a? -j- i sin a? 
 (see Complex Number), and that — cos x 
 — i sin; whence by adding and subtracting, 
 e ix _p e -u . e ix _ e -ix 
 
 — 1 sin x — -—-. Similarly 
 
 cos x — 
 
 2 ’ - 2 i 
 
 the other functions may be expressed in terms 
 of €f tx } e -tx. These are the exponential expres¬ 
 sions for the circular functions of x. If i is 
 omitted from these exponentials, the resulting 
 functions are called the hyperbolic cosine, hyper¬ 
 bolic sine of the angle x. Hyperbolic functions 
 are so called because they have geometric rela¬ 
 tions with the equilateral hyperbola analogous 
 to those between the circular functions and the 
 circle. The common notation for such functions 
 is sinh 9, cosh 9, tanh 9, corresponding to the 
 circular function sin 9, cos 9, tan 9. The values 
 of these functions have been tabulated and are 
 
 of service in analytic trigonometry. 
 
 The spherical triangle, like the plane triangle, 
 has six elements, the three sides a , ft, c, and the 
 angles A, B, C. But the three sides of the 
 spherical triangle are angular as well as linear 
 magnitudes. The triangle is completely deter¬ 
 mined when any three of its six elements are 
 given, since there exist relations between the 
 given and the sought parts by means of which 
 the latter may be found. In the right-angled 
 or quadrantal* triangle, however, as in the case 
 
 of the right-angled plane triangle, only two ele¬ 
 ments are necessary to determine the remaining 
 parts. Thus, given c, A, in the right-angled 
 
 B 
 
 triangle, ABC, the remaining parts are given by 
 the formulas sin a = sin c, sin A, tan 5 = 
 tan c, cos A, cot B = cos c, tan A. The cor¬ 
 responding formulas when any other two parts 
 are given may be obtained by Napier’s rules 
 concerning the relations of the five circular 
 parts (q.v.), viz., a, b, complement of A, comple¬ 
 ment of B, complement of c. In the case of 
 oblique triangles no simple rules have been 
 
 c 
 
 found, but each case is dependent upon the 
 
 appropriate formula. Thus in the oblique 
 
 triangle ABC, given a, b, and A, the formulas 
 
 , ,. . . , . „ sin A sin b 
 
 ror the remaining parts are sin B = - 7 --> 
 
 0 r sin a 
 
 tan \c 
 cot 
 
 , w M sin + B) 
 
 - tan 2 (a &)- gin i (A _ B y 
 
 It is evident in spherical trigonometry, as 
 well as in plane, that three elements taken at 
 random may not satisfy the conditions for a 
 triangle, or they may satisfy the conditions for 
 more than one. The treatment of the ambiguous 
 cases in spherical trigonometry is quite formi¬ 
 dable, since every line intersects every other 
 line in two points and multiplies the cases to be 
 considered. The measurement of spherical poly¬ 
 gons may be made to depend upon that of the 
 triangle. For if, by drawing diagonals, the 
 polygons can be divided into triangles each of 
 which contains three known or obtainable ele¬ 
 ments, then all the parts of the polygon can 
 be determined. Since the elements of the 
 spherical polygon measure the elements of the 
 polyhedral angle whose vertex is at the centre 
 of the sphere, the formulas of spherical trigo¬ 
 nometry apply to problems involving the rela¬ 
 tions of the parts of such figures. For example, 
 given two face angles and the included dihedral 
 angle of a trihedral angle, the remaining face 
 and dihedral angle may be determined by the 
 same formulas as apply to the corresponding 
 case of the spherical triangle. By aid of the 
 
TRIGONOMETRY 
 
 TRIKOUPIS 
 
 471 
 
 formulas of spherical trigonometry the theories 
 of transversals, coaxal circles, poles and polars, 
 may be developed for the figures of the sphere. 
 Spherical trigonometry is of great importance 
 also in the theory of power circles, stereographic 
 projection, and geodesy. It is also the basis of 
 the chief calculations of astronomy, e.g., the 
 solution of the so-called astronomical triangle 
 is involved in finding the latitude and longitude 
 of a place, the time of day, the azimuth of a 
 star, and various other data. 
 
 Some traces of trigonometry exist in the 
 earliest-known writings on mathematics. In 
 the Papyrus of Ahmes (see Aiimes) a ratio is 
 mentioned called a seqt, and because of its rela¬ 
 tion to the methods of measuring the pyramids, 
 this ratio seems to correspond to the cosine or 
 the tangent of an angle. But to the Greeks 
 are due the first scientific trigonometric in¬ 
 vestigations. The sexagesimal division of the 
 circle was imperfectly known to the Babylonians, 
 but Hipparchus was the first to complete a 
 table of chords. Heron (q.v.) computed the 
 
 O IT 
 
 values of cot —, for n — 3, 4, ... . 11, 12, 
 n 
 
 and calculated the areas of regular polygons. 
 Thirteen books of Ptolemy’s Almagest were 
 given to trigonometry and astronomy. The 
 Hindus, beginning with Aryabhatta (q.v.) and 
 including Brahmagupta and Bhaskara (qq.v.), 
 contributed an important advance by intro¬ 
 ducing the half chord for the whole chord as 
 used in the Greek calculations. They were 
 familiar with the sine and calculated ratios 
 corresponding to the versine and cosine. The 
 sine, however, first appears with a special name 
 ( jaib ) in the works of the Arab A1 Battani 
 (q.v.), and to his influence is due the final 
 substitution of the half for the whole chord. 
 A1 Battani knew the theory of the right-angled 
 triangle and gave the relation cos a = cos 5 
 cos c + sin 6 sin c cos A for the spherical tri¬ 
 angle. With another Arab writer, Abul Wefa 
 (940-998), begins the first systematic arrange¬ 
 ment of the theorems and proofs of trigonometry, 
 the use of the unit radius, and the use of the 
 secant. Nasir Eddin (born 1201) wrote the 
 first work in which plane and spherical trigo¬ 
 nometry appears as a science by itself, distinct 
 from astronomy. The celebrated astronomer 
 Jabir ibn Aflah, or Geber, eleventh century, 
 wrote a work confined chiefly to spherical trigo¬ 
 nometry and rigorous in its proofs, which was 
 translated into Latin by Gherardo of Cremona. 
 Regiomontanus (1436-76) wrote a complete 
 plane and spherical trigonometry, the De tri- 
 angulis Omnimodis Libri quinque (first printed 
 at Nuremberg in 1533), a work which had 
 very great influence upon the study of the sub¬ 
 ject. Vieta (1540-1603) made an important 
 advance by the introduction of the idea of the 
 reciprocal spherical triangle. Rhaeticus (1514- 
 76) made a great advance by considering the 
 functions as ratios instead of lines. To Napier 
 are due the formulas since called the analogies. 
 Gunter introduced the term “cosine,” and Finck 
 (1583) introduced “secant” and “tangent.” 
 Growing out of the desire to construct more ac¬ 
 curate tables and to simplify the methods of cal¬ 
 culation for astronomical purposes, there was 
 evolved by Napier and Biirgi or Bvrgius (q.v.) the 
 idea of the logarithm (q.v.). To Euler much is 
 due for simplifying and classifying the treatment 
 of the whole subject. Lagrange, Legendre, 
 Carnot, Gauss, and others expanded the theory 
 
 of polygonometry and polyhedrometry. The 
 nineteenth century has contributed the so-called 
 projective formulas and made further generaliza¬ 
 tion of formulas known before. 
 
 Bibliography. Augustus De Morgan, Trigo¬ 
 nometry and Double Algebra (London, 1849) ; 
 William Chauvenet, A Treatise on Plane and 
 Spherical Trigonometry (9th ed., Philadelphia, 
 1881) ; IT. S. Carslaw, Plane Trigonometry: An 
 Elementary Text-Book (London, 1909); W. A. 
 Granville, Plane and Spherical Trigonometry 
 (Boston, 1909; Teachers’ ed., ib., 1912); Hail 
 and Frink, Plane and Spherical Trigonometry 
 (New York, 1910) ; E. W. Hobson, Treatise on 
 Plane Geometry (3d ed., ib., 1912) ; R. E. Mo¬ 
 ritz, Plane and Spherical Trigonometry (ib., 
 1913) ; H. W. Marsh, Technical Trigonometry 
 (ib., 1914) ; Palmer and Leigh, Plane Trigonom¬ 
 etry (ib., 1914) ; BOcher and Gaylord, Trigonom¬ 
 etry, with the Theory and Use of Logarithms 
 (ib., 1914) ; Wentworth and Smith, Plane and 
 Spherical Trigonometry and Tables (Boston, 
 1915). For the history of the subject: Anton 
 von Braunmiihl, Beitrcige zur Geschichte der 
 Trigonometrie (Halle, 1897), and id., Vorles- 
 ungen uber Geschichte der Trigonometrie (2 
 vols., Leipzig, 1900-08). For reference to tables, 
 see Logarithms. 
 
 TRII'ODOMETH/ANE. See Iodoform. 
 
 TRIISODON, tri'I'so-don (Neo-Lat., from 
 Gk. rpas, treis, three, -f- i'tros, isos, equal, -f- 
 o8ovs, odous, tooth). A fossil creodont mammal 
 from the Puerco beds of New Mexico. The 
 skull is the oldest known mammalian skull. 
 Consult Matthew, “Additional Observations on 
 the Creodonta,” in Bulletin of American Museum 
 of Natural History, vol. xiv (New York, 1901). 
 See Creodonta; Mammalia. 
 
 TRIKALA, tre-ka'la, or TRIKKALA. A 
 town of Greece, capital of the Nomarchy of Tri- 
 kala, situated in the valley of the Peneus, on 
 the Trikkalinos River, 37 miles west of Larissa 
 and on the Volos-Kalabaka Railway (Map: 
 Greece, C 4). It manufactures cotton, woolen 
 stuffs, leather, and dye products. Pop., 18,000. 
 Trikala is the Homeric Trikka, which was cele¬ 
 brated for its temple of iEsculapius. 
 
 TRIKOUPIS, tre-koo'pis, Charilaos (1832- 
 96). A Greek statesman, son of Spiridon Tri- 
 koupis, born at Nauplia. He studied jurispru¬ 
 dence in Athens and Paris and in 1852 entered 
 the diplomatic service as attache to the Lega¬ 
 tion at London, where in 1863 he became 
 charge d’affaires. In 1865 he conducted the 
 negotiations with Great Britain regarding the 
 cession of the Ionian Islands. Elected to the 
 Boule in the same year, he became an adher¬ 
 ent of the radical party, was in 1866 appointed 
 Minister of Foreign Affairs, became Premier in 
 1875, was once more Minister of Foreign Affairs 
 under Canaris, in the coalition ministry of 
 1877, and Premier again in 1880, 1882-85, 
 1886—90, 1891-93, and 1893-95, when, owing 
 to the financial embarrassment of the govern- 
 ment, he met with a crushing defeat, losing 
 even the seat in the Boul 6 which he had held 
 for 30 years. While on his deathbed he was re¬ 
 elected by the District of Valtos. He died at 
 Cannes, France, April 11, 1896. A volume of 
 his speeches, A 0701 ttoXltlkoi, appeared at Athens 
 in 1888. Consult Tsokapoulos, Bioypacpia Xapi- 
 Xaov Tpucoviri] (Athens, 1896). 
 
 TRIKOUPIS, Spiridon (1788-1873). A 
 Greek author and statesman, born at Misso- 
 longhi. He studied in France and England, 
 
TRILBY 
 
 TRILOBITA 
 
 472 
 
 became secretary of the Earl of Guilford during 
 his occupancy of the position of Governor of 
 the Itnian islands, and played an important 
 part in the war for independence. After 1821 
 lie was employed in administrative and diplo¬ 
 matic business, being a member of the provi¬ 
 sional government in 1826 and of the National 
 Convention at Troezen in 1827. He was Presi¬ 
 dent of the Council and Minister of Foreign 
 Affairs in 1832, was thrice sent to London 
 (1835-38, 1841-43, and 1850-61) as Ambassa¬ 
 dor, was Minister of Foreign Affairs and of 
 Public Instruction in 1843, Vice President of 
 the Senate (1844-49), and Envoy Extraordi¬ 
 nary to Paris (1850) on the occasion of the 
 blockade of the ports of Greece by England. 
 His funeral oration on his friend Lord Bvron, 
 delivered in the cathedral of Missolonghi just 
 after the poet’s death, was translated into many 
 languages. Other orations, partly religious and 
 partly political, were collected and published 
 (Paris, 1836). His masterpiece is the history 
 of the Greek revolution, 'laropia rijs 'EWgrucrjs 
 ’E iravaGTo-aeois (London, 1853—57). 
 
 TRIL'BY. 1. A romance by Charles Nodier 
 (1822). 2. A novel by George du Maurier 
 
 (1895), and its chief character, a beautiful art¬ 
 ist’s model. The novel was very popular. 
 
 TRILL (Fr. triller, It., ML. trillare, to trill, 
 probably onomatapoetic). In music, an em¬ 
 bellishment produced by the continued and 
 rapid repetition of one note alternately with 
 another, either a whole tone or semitone above 
 it. Its sign is tr placed over or under the prin¬ 
 cipal, note. The trill was known and used at the 
 end of the sixteenth century, but its name was 
 added considerably later. 
 
 TRIL'LIUM (Neo-Lat., from Lat. tres, three, 
 
 common wake-robin (TriUium erectum). 
 
 the three outer and three inner segments). A 
 genus of about a dozen species of North Ameri¬ 
 can perennial herbs of the lily family, growing 
 in moist and shady (not marshy) grounds from 
 Maine to Florida. They have a naked stem, 4 
 
 to 15 inches high, terminated by three ovate, 
 pointed, broad, beautifully netted-veined leaves. 
 Trillium grandiflomim, also called wake-robin, is 
 a pretty wild flower, growing in rich woods from 
 Vermont to Kentucky, Wisconsin, and north¬ 
 ward. The flowers, which appear in spring, are 
 at first nearly white, but change with age to 
 rose color. They are borne on a peduncle from 
 2 to 3 inches long. Trillium erectum has 
 brownish-purple, sometimes white or pink pe¬ 
 dunculate flowers. Trillium sessile has brownish- 
 purple sessile flowers. Trillium nivale, a smal¬ 
 ler plant, has white flowers that appear very 
 early in spring. 
 
 TRI'LOBI'TA (Neo-Lat. nom. pi., from Gk. 
 rpeis, treis, three + Ao/ 3os, lobos, lobe). An 
 important group of extinct marine crablike ani¬ 
 mals, whose fossil body shields are found in 
 rocks of Paleozoic age in most parts of the 
 world. The trilobites constitute a subclass of 
 Crustacea, of which class they are very primi¬ 
 tive members. The trilobite body was covered 
 by a hard, calcareous dorsal shield and a thin 
 ventral integument. The dorsal shield or cara¬ 
 pace is of elliptical or oval outline and is di¬ 
 vided by two dorsal furrows into three longi¬ 
 tudinal lobes, the median axis and two lateral 
 pleural lobes. This trilobate division, which 
 characterizes this class of animals, gave the 
 group its name. The shield is also divided into 
 three transverse parts: the anterior head shield 
 or ceplialon, the median thorax consisting of 
 several movable segments, and the posterior 
 abdominal shield or pygidium. The cephalon 
 is generally of semicircular outline, and the pos¬ 
 terior lateral corners, known as the genal an¬ 
 gles, are often produced into spines. The more 
 elevated median portion of the cephalon is 
 the glabella, and this is separated from the 
 cheeks or lateral portions by the usually well- 
 marked dorsal furrows. The surface of the 
 glabella is broken up into a series of lobes by 
 three pairs of transverse furrows, called the lat- 
 eral furrows. The paired lobes are called the 
 lateral lobes, and the unpaired anterior lobe, 
 which is often very prominently developed, is 
 known as the frontal lobe of the glabella. The 
 cheeks are traversed in most trilobites by a 
 sinuous line, the facial suture, along which the 
 lateral portions or free cheeks break away from 
 the fixed cheeks. 
 
 The trilobites possess lateral or compound 
 eyes and median or parietal eyes. The lateral 
 eyes, which in most trilobites are of reniform 
 shape, are situated upon the cheeks. In some 
 species (as Acidaspis mira) these eyes are 
 placed at the summits of high immovable pe¬ 
 duncles; in certain genera (as Agnostus, Eodis- 
 cus, and Ampyx) the lateral eyes become atro¬ 
 phied; and other genera (as Trinucleus) have 
 lateral eye spots in their young stages and 
 only median ocelli when adult. Two types of 
 lateral eyes are present—compound, situated 
 
 REPRESENTATIVE TRILOBITES 
 
 1. Dorsal view of a trilobite ( Triarthrus becki), a species whose perfect specimens, preserved in the Utica slate (Or¬ 
 dovician), near Rome, N. Y., have yielded most of the known facts as to the external structure and appearance of these 
 animals. 2. Ventral view of the same. 3. Cephalic shield (cephalon) of Dalmanites hausmanni (Devonian): Z, limb or 
 border; m.f., marginal furrow; g.s., genal spines: gl., glabella; f.l., frontal lobe, beneath which are seen the “side lobes” 
 and “side furrows” of the glabella; n.f., occipital furrow; n.r., occipital ring; f.s., facial suture; e, visual surface of eye; 
 p.l., palpebral lobe. 4. Median antero-posterior vertical section of a trilobite ( Ceraurus pleurexanthemus) ; c, cephalon, with 
 hypostoma below it; p, test of the abdomen (pygidium); m, mouth; v.m., ventral membrane; i.c., intestinal canal. 5. 
 A trilobite ( Phacops latifrons: Devonian), rolled up; gl, glabella; e, eye. 6. Development (ontogeny) of a trilobite (Sao 
 hirsuta; Cambrian); 1, 1st larval stage (protaspis); 2-6, successive nepionic stages of development. 7. Ampyx nasuta 
 (Ordovician). 8. Deiphon forbesi (Silurian). 9. Proetus bohemicus (Silurian). 10. Eoharpes ungula (Ordovician). _ 11. 
 Cryptolithus goldfussi (Ordovician). 12. Profile view of Sphcerexochus mirus (Silurian). 13. Cheirurus insignis (Silurian), 
 14. Megalaspis extenuata (Ordovician). 15. Conocoryphe sulzeri (Cambrian) without the free cheeks. (After Zittel.) 
 
REPRESENTATIVE TRILOBITES 
 
 For names and description, see text. 
 
THE U3RARY 
 
 C*' ' • - 
 
 UNIVERSITY Of ILLINOIS 
 
TRILOBITA 
 
 TRILOBITA 
 
 473 
 
 
 i: 
 
 . 
 
 
 on the free cheeks, and simple eye spots, ocelli 
 or stemmata. The compound eyes are made up 
 of lenses, which may vary in number from 14 
 in Trimeroceplialus to 15,000 in Remopleurides. 
 The median or parietal eyes consist of an 
 ocellus with or without lens situated on the apex 
 of the glabella. It is most prominent in the 
 earlier growth stages, in Ordovician forms and 
 in trilobites with atrophied lateral eyes (“blind” 
 trilobites). The facial suture varies largely in 
 its course across the cephalon, not only in the 
 different species and genera, but also in the 
 individuals that represent different stages of 
 development of a single species. Its position 
 in the adult furnishes an excellent diagnostic 
 character. It is absent in the earliest Cambrian 
 trilobites. In most trilobites a groove, the oc¬ 
 cipital furrow, runs near to and parallel with 
 the posterior margin of the cephalon, and cuts 
 off the occipital lobe from the glabella. 
 
 The thorax is made up of several transverse 
 segments which articulate with one another in 
 such manner that some trilobites were able to 
 roll themselves into a ball like the armadillo. 
 The number of segments of the thorax is usually 
 constant in the adults of each genus, but it 
 varies within the subclass from two in Agnostus 
 to 42 in Menomonia. The pygidium, or caudal 
 shield, is a solid plate formed by union of several 
 segments, of which traces are still evident in 
 the ribs of its convex dorsal surface. The axis 
 and the pleural ribs are usually present, but 
 in some species of Asaphus and lllcenus they 
 are almost entirely suppressed. The trilobite 
 carapace is generally ornamented by small 
 tubercles. Many genera have smooth or punc¬ 
 tate tests;. others have the test marked by con¬ 
 centric wrinkles; and in other genera spines are 
 developed. 
 
 Ventral Surface. As a rule the ventral sur-, 
 face of the trilobite body is so closely united 
 with the rock matrix that it is only through 
 exceptionally favorable modes of fossilization 
 that anything at all has been learned about the 
 nature of the ventral integument and the ap¬ 
 pendages. The principal organ on the underside 
 of the head is a rather prominent plate, the 
 upper lip or hypostome, which articulates with 
 the anterior margin of the cephalon, and which 
 protects tiie small mouth opening at its pos¬ 
 terior end. Each segment of the carapace, ex¬ 
 cepting the hindermost anal segment, bears a 
 pair of appendages. The foremost pair, arising 
 near the sides of the hypostome, are simple 
 slender whiplike antennae, much like those of 
 the higher Crustacea. All the other appendages 
 are biramous; their endopodites are six-jointed 
 crawling legs, and their exopodites are many- 
 jointed feathery organs that probably served 
 both for swimming and respiration. The basal 
 joints of the cephalic limbs form jawlike organs 
 about the mouth. 
 
 Development. The ontogeny of several genera 
 of trilobites is known. Small rounded bodies 
 supposed to be the eggs of trilobites have been 
 found. Those species of which continuous series 
 of growth stages have been studied are found 
 to originate in a minute protaspis stage and 
 to attain their adult shape through a series of 
 progressive changes expressed in the successive 
 molts, in much the same manner as do the 
 crabs, and other Crustacea. The protaspis is a 
 circular or ovate shield, generally less than one 
 millimeter in length, with a slightly segmented 
 median axis and an indistinctly marked abdomi¬ 
 
 nal portion. Growth of the animal takes place 
 by increase in the number of segments and 
 through increase in size in the successive molts, 
 and each new segment is intercalated between 
 the cephalon or the last-formed segment and 
 the anterior edge of the pygidium. 
 
 Classification. The form and mode of de¬ 
 velopment of the free cheeks are made the princi¬ 
 pal features of the classification proposed by 
 Beecher, who divides the subclass into three 
 orders: Hypoparia, the most primitive forms 
 of trilobites, mostly small in size, without com¬ 
 pound eyes, and with simple eye spots in the 
 higher genera. This.order has lately been shown 
 to be based on a misconception and the genera 
 distributed among the other two orders. In 
 its place a new order, Protoparia, has been 
 erected for the Marellidse, which still lack the 
 facial suture (genera Marella and Nathorstia) 
 and link the trilobites to the branchiopods and 
 merostomes. Opisthoparia, with free cheeks 
 dorsal, separate and carrying the genal angles. 
 This group includes a large number of genera 
 ranging from Cambrian to Carboniferous, but 
 the majority of them are found in the Cambrian 
 and Ordovician rocks. The Opisthoparia are 
 divided into the suborders Mesonacida, Cono- 
 coryphida, Trinucleida, and Odontopleurida. 
 The Mesonacida comprise the families Meson- 
 acidse, Paradoxidae, and Zacanthoidse. The Me- 
 sonacidse contain th6 most primitive true trilo¬ 
 bites:. in them facial sutures are not yet dis¬ 
 tinguishable, segments are very numerous, and 
 the pygidium very small. The Conocoryphida 
 embrace the main body of the Opisthoparia, 
 viz., the families Prcetidae, Olenidae, Oryctocepha- 
 lidae, Ptychoparidae, Dikellocephalidse, Bath- 
 yuridae, Asaphidae, Illaenidae, Calvmenidae, and 
 Homalonotidae. The suborder Trinucleida con¬ 
 tains the families Harpedidae, Trinucleidae, 
 Rhaphiophoridae, Ellipsocephalidae, iEglinidae, 
 Shumardidae. The last suborder of the Opistho¬ 
 paria, the Odontopleurida, contains the families 
 Odontopleuridae, Bronteidae, and Lichadidae. The 
 last-named family has among its representatives 
 some of the most specialized as well as the 
 largest trilobites. The Odontopleuridae, with 
 species ranging from the Ordovician to the 
 Devonian, are remarkable because of excessive 
 development of the spines. In the order Pro- 
 paria the free cheeks do not carry the genal 
 angles and they are often united in front of 
 the glabella. The other orders had their origin 
 in pre-Cambrian time, for they appear in the 
 early Cambrian with their diagnostic features 
 fully differentiated and with a considerable de¬ 
 gree of evolution, but the Proparia originated 
 during the late Cambrian and were initiated in 
 the early Ordovician. The order reached its 
 maximum evolution during the Ordovician and 
 declined during the Silurian and Devonian. 
 The members of the family Encrinuridae recall 
 in the form of their cephalon the more primitive 
 members of the Opisthoparia, and like them they 
 have narrow marginal free cheeks, which do 
 not, however, include the genal angles. The 
 principal genera are Erwrinurus (Ordovician 
 to Silurian), Placoparia, Cybele, and Dindymene 
 (Ordovician). Cheiruridae is an interesting 
 family that begins in the Ordovician and ranges 
 into the Devonian and is represented by a 
 number of species. The principal genera are: - 
 Amphion (Ordovician), Ceraurv^s, Rpfuerexochns, 
 Staurocephalus (Ordovician to Silurian), Dei- 
 phon, and Onycopyge (Silurian). Phacopidae 
 
TRILOBITA 
 
 TRIMMER 
 
 474 
 
 is a large family containing perhaps the most 
 highly organized members of the subclass. The 
 frontal lobe of the glabella is large in all 
 genera, and in the successive species in each 
 race there is a general tendency towards 
 coalescence or obsolescence of the lateral lobes 
 of the glabella, and an increased prominence 
 of the frontal lobe. The eyes are well developed 
 and have large distinct facets. The family in¬ 
 cludes Phacops (Silurian to Upper Devonian), 
 Pterygometopus (Ordovician), Acaste and Chas- 
 mops (Ordovician to Silurian), Trimeroceplialus 
 (Silurian to Devonian), Dalmanites (Ordovician 
 to Devonian), and a number of subgenera. Here 
 also belong the Cambrian Burlingidae and prob¬ 
 ably the blind primitive Agnostidse, also of Cam¬ 
 brian age. 
 
 Habits. Trilobites appear to have been en¬ 
 tirely marine with various modes of existence. 
 Some were bottom crawlers, as Dalmanites; 
 others buried themselves in the mud of the bot¬ 
 tom, thereby losing their eyesight, and develop¬ 
 ing a broad brim (as Harpes, Cryptolithus, and 
 Trinucleus) ; and still others were free swim¬ 
 mers with big eyes, as HDglina, or crawled about 
 coral and hydroid masses, like the modern 
 isopods. The remains of trilobites are usually 
 found in dismembered condition, and entire 
 carapaces are rare. This is probably due to 
 the fact that the majority of specimens are 
 the discarded molts, broken in the process of 
 shedding. Trilobites abound in all the Cam¬ 
 brian formations, during which period they 
 were in fact dominant forms of life, and they 
 are abundant in some horizons of the Ordovician 
 and Silurian. During the Devonian they de¬ 
 clined rapidly, and only a few genera, repre¬ 
 sented by rare specimens, continued into the 
 Carboniferous. They are entirely absent from 
 all Mesozoic rocks, and they have no near rela¬ 
 tives at the present day. They are one of the 
 most important groups of fossil animals for 
 purposes of correlation. In all about 2000 spe¬ 
 cies and over 200 genera have been described, 
 the majority of them from the Cambrian and 
 Ordovician rock. See Acidaspis ; Harpes. 
 
 Bibliography. Hermann Burmeister, The 
 Organization of Trilobites Deduced from their 
 Living Affinities, edited for the Ray Society by 
 Bell and Forbes (London, 1846) ; J. W. Salter, 
 “Monograph of the British Trilobites,” in Mono¬ 
 graphs of the Palaeontological Society (ib., 1864- 
 83) ; Henry Woods, “Trilobita,” in Cambridge 
 Natural Bistory, vol. iv (ib., 1909) ; Zittel and 
 Eastman, Textbook of Palaeontology, vol. i 
 (2d ed., ib., 1913) ; also Hall and Clarke, 
 Palaeontology of New York, vol. vii (Albany, 
 1888) ; Bernard, “The Systematic Position of 
 the Trilobites,” in Quarterly Journal of the 
 Geological Society, vols. c and ci (London, 
 1894-95) ; Beecher, in American Geologist, vols. 
 xiii; xv, xvi (Minneapolis, 1894-95) ; id., in 
 American Journal of Science, 3d series, vols. 
 xcvi, xcvii, and 4th series, vol. i (New Haven, 
 1893-95); Beecher, “The Ventral Integument 
 of Trilobites,” in American Journal of Science, 
 4th series, vol. xiii (ib., 1902) ; Jaekel, “Beitrage 
 zur Beurtheilung der Trilobiten,” in Zeitschrift 
 der deutschen geologischen Gesellschaft, vols. liii 
 and liv (Berlin, 1901-02) ; Reed, “Lower Palaeo¬ 
 zoic Trilobites of the Girvan District,” in Mono¬ 
 graphs of the Pal-ceontographical Society (Lon¬ 
 don, 1903-06) ; Raymond, “The Trilobites of 
 the Chazy Limestone,” in Annals of the Carnegie 
 Museum, vols. iii, vii (Pittsburgh, 1905, 1910) ; 
 
 Lake, “Monograph of British Cambrian Trilo¬ 
 bites,” in Monographs of the Palceontographical 
 Society (London, 1906-13) ; Weller, “Palaeontol¬ 
 ogy of the Niagaran Limestone in the Chicago 
 Area,” in Chicago Academy of Sciences, Bulletin 
 IV (Chicago, 1907); C. D. Walcott, “Cambrian 
 Trilobites,” in Smithsonian Miscellaneous Col¬ 
 lections, vols. liii-lxiv (Washington, 1908 et 
 seq.) ; Swinnerton, “A Revised Classification of 
 Trilobites,” in Geological Magazine, Decade VI, 
 vol. ii (London, 1915); Ruedemann, “On the 
 Presence of Median or Parietal Eyes in Trilo¬ 
 bites,” in New York State Museum Bulletin 
 (Albany, 1916) ; also Dollo, La Paleontologie 
 Ethnologique (Brussels, 1910). 
 
 TRII/QGY (from Gk. rpthoyia, trilogia, 
 group of three dramas, from rpeis, treis, three 
 + \6yos, logos, word). The name given by the 
 Greeks to a group of three tragedies, often con¬ 
 nected by a common subject and representing 
 different stages or phases of the same story. 
 A satyric drama was customarily added as a 
 termination, whence the whole was sometimes 
 termed a tetralogy. A tragic poet who wished 
 to take part in one of the Athenian poetic 
 contests had to produce a trilogy along with 
 a satyric drama at the great Dionysiac, Lenaean, 
 or Anthesteriac festival. We possess only one 
 perfect specimen of the classic trilogy—the 
 Oresteia of HCschylus, which embraces the 
 Agamemnon, the Choephorce, and the Eumen- 
 ides. Consult: Welcker, Die Aeschyleische 
 Trilogie, etc. (Darmstadt, 1824) ; Franz, Des 
 Aeschylus Oresteia (Leipzig, 1846) ; Campbell, 
 The Oresteia of AEschylus, translation and 
 introduction (London, 1893). 
 
 TRIM, Corporal. The devoted companion of 
 Uncle Toby in Sterne’s Tristram Shandy. 
 
 TRIMBLE, trim'bl, Robert (1777-1828). An 
 American jurist, born in Berkeley Co., Va. 
 (now W. Va.). He was admitted to the Ken¬ 
 tucky bar in 1803 and subsequently was elected 
 to the Legislature. In 1808 he w T as appointed 
 second judge of the Court of Appeals, in 1810 
 Chief Justice of Kentucky, and in 1813 United 
 States district attorney. From 1816 to 1826 
 he was district judge of Kentucky, and from 
 1826 until his death a justice of the United 
 States Supreme Court. 
 
 TRIMETH'YLAM'INE (from tri- + methyl 
 -f- amine), (CH,) 3 N. An organic base with a 
 powerful and disagreeable fishy odor. It is 
 obtained as a colorless gas, readily soluble in 
 water, and, in aqueous solution, acting as a 
 strong alkali. With acids it forms soluble salts. 
 It is obtained by distillation from ergot of 
 rye, from guano, from the juice of the leaves 
 of red beet root, and from putrid yeast. It 
 may be formed artificially by the action of 
 methyl iodide on dimethylamine, but the 
 source from which it is most readily derived 
 is herring brine. See Amixes. 
 
 TRIM'MER, Mrs. Sarah (1741-1810). An 
 English author. Settling with her parents in 
 London, she became one of the pioneers in found¬ 
 ing Sunday schools. Her first schools were 
 opened at Brentford in 1786 and were so suc¬ 
 cessful that she was summoned by the Queen 
 to Windsor to help start others there. In 1787 
 she also established at Brentford a school of 
 industry for girls. Later she introduced into 
 the Sunday school the plan of teaching by 
 prints. Among her books are: Easy Introduc¬ 
 tion to the Knowledge of Nature (1782; 11th 
 ed., 1802) ; the books with pictures and ex- 
 
TRIMORPHISM 
 
 TRINIDAD 
 
 475 
 
 planations which after a large circulation were 
 issued as New and Comprehensive Lessons 
 (1814; 5th ed., 1830); Abridgments of the 
 Old and New Testaments, which, issued sepa¬ 
 rately by the Society for Promoting Christian 
 Knowledge in 1793, circulated a quarter of a 
 million copies. 
 
 TRIMOR'PHISM. See Pollination. 
 
 TRIMOR'PHOS. See Isomorphism. 
 
 TRIMURTI, tre-mobr'te (Skt. tri-miirti, 
 triple form). The name of the Hindu trinity, 
 consisting of the gods Brahma (q.v.), Vishnu 
 (q.v.), and Siva (q.v.), when regarded as an 
 inseparable unity of creation, preservation, and 
 destruction, though three in form. The concept 
 is relatively late and cannot be older than the 
 fifth or sixth century a.d. It is probable that 
 the gods Vishnu and Siva were first associated 
 as representatives of the two great Hindu sects 
 (see Saivas; Vaishnavas) and that Brahma 
 was added at a later time, as he was a later 
 philosophical concept. In Indian art the Tri- 
 murti is one body with three heads, and its 
 symbol is the mystic syllable dm (q.v.). Con¬ 
 sult E. W. Hopkins, Religions of India (Boston, 
 1895). 
 
 TRIN'COMALEE', or TRINCOMALI, trin'- 
 
 ko-mafie. A seaport town and former naval 
 station on the northeast coast of Ceylon, 99 
 miles northeast of Kandy (Map: India, D 8). 
 It is situated on an elevated and precipitous 
 peninsula on the north side of the fine harbor 
 of Trincomalee, the best in Ceylon. The temple 
 of the Thousand Columns, now in ruins, was 
 erected by the Malabars and destroyed by the 
 Portuguese in 1622. It is still a famous place 
 of pilgrimage of the Hindus. Near the ruins 
 rises Fort Frederick, which was built by the 
 Portuguese from the old material of the temple. 
 Pop., 1901, 13,000; 1911, 11,067. Trincomalee 
 was one of the last towns to surrender to 
 European authority. It was held successively 
 by the Portuguese, Dutch, and French and sur¬ 
 rendered to the British forces after a naval 
 siege of three weeks in 1795. Consult H. W. 
 Cave, The Ruined Cities of Ceylon (London, 
 1900). 
 
 TRINE, Ralph Waldo (1866- ). An 
 
 American author. He was born at Mount 
 Morris, Ill., graduated at Knox College in 1891, 
 and later studied political and social science 
 at Johns Hopkins. For a time he taught school, 
 lectured, and worked as a bank cashier and 
 special newspaper correspondent; but later he 
 devoted his time to writing on topics related 
 to ethical improvement and especially to New 
 Thought (q.v.). He removed to Croton-on-Hud- 
 son, where he engaged also in fruit culture. 
 His publications, some of which have been 
 widely translated, include: What All the World’s 
 a-Seeking (1896; 21st ed., 1915) ; In Tune with 
 the Infinite (1898), which reached a large cir¬ 
 culation; The Land of Living Men (1910); 
 The Neio Alinement of Life (1913); and book¬ 
 lets on similar subjects. 
 
 TRINTDAD'. An island lying off the South 
 American coast (Map: West Indies, G 5). To 
 the northeast is the island of Tobago; together 
 they constitute the British Colony of Trinidad 
 and Tobago. The area of the colony is 1868 
 square miles, Tobago covering 114 square miles 
 and Trinidad 1754 square miles. Trinidad has 
 only one good natural harbor, at Chaguaramas 
 on the west coast, but the whole Gulf of Paria 
 is safe for anchorage; the north coast is rock- 
 Vol. XXII.—31 
 
 bound, the south coast steep, and the east 
 coast exposed to heavy surf. At Chaguaramas 
 are a government floating dock and workshops 
 for ship repairs. Trinidad is traversed, roughly 
 from east to west, by three ranges of hills, 
 two being parallel with the north and south 
 coasts and the third crossing the middle of 
 the island. In the northwest Mount Tucuche 
 reaches an altitude of 3100 feet. The mineral 
 resources are becoming important, the minerals 
 now worked being asphalt, manjak, and petro¬ 
 leum. In the southwest is the famous Pitch 
 Lake, near the Gulf of Paria and in La Brea 
 ward; this lake, yielding large quantities of 
 asphalt for export (206,400 tons in 1913), 
 covers 114 acres. Trinidad has numerous 
 
 streams and a well-watered, fertile soil adapted 
 to the growth of many tropical products; agri¬ 
 culturally the island is one of the most success¬ 
 ful of the British West Indian possessions. The 
 staple products are sugar (1913 export, 653,- 
 098 hundredweights), cacao (482,534 hundred¬ 
 weights), and coconuts (16,391,000). Commer¬ 
 cially the colony ranks first in the British 
 West Indies; imports and exports in 1913 were 
 valued at £4,968,350 and £5,205,673 respectively. 
 Values of leading exports in 1913: cacao, £1,- 
 403,379; sugar, £418,067; asphalt, £230,565; 
 coconuts, £85,369; petroleum, £75,020. The 
 trade is mainly with the United Kingdom, the 
 United States, Venezuela, and France. The 
 trade of the United States with Trinidad was in 
 1915: imports from Trinidad $6,739,000, exports 
 thereto, $3,971,000. Imports were chiefly cacao, 
 fruits and nuts, chemicals, and asphalt; exports, 
 flour, coal, meats, mineral oil, and miscellaneous 
 merchandise. Trinidad has 95 miles of railway. 
 The colony is administered by a governor, who is 
 assisted by an executive and a legislative council, 
 all members being appointed. The revenue and 
 expenditure in 1913-14 were £970,789 and £951,- 
 982 (customs receipts, £467,374) ; public debt in 
 1913, £1,476,614. Education is largely subsidized 
 by the government; the total school enrollment 
 is upward of 51,000. Pop., 1901, 273,899; 1911, 
 333,552 (312,803 in Trinidad, 20,749 in Tobago). 
 The white population is small, principally Eng¬ 
 lish, French, and Spanish; a large number of 
 inhabitants are of mixed European and African 
 blood, speaking a French patois. There are up¬ 
 ward of 110,000 East Indian coolies whose immi¬ 
 gration is under government control. Port of 
 Spain, capital of the colony, on the northwest 
 coast of Trinidad, has over 60,000 inhabitants 
 and is one of the finest towns in the West Indies. 
 Other towns are San Fernando (pop., 8667), 
 Princess Town (4497), and Arima (4020). 
 
 Trinidad was discovered by Columbus, July 
 31, 1498. A governor was appointed in 1532, 
 but for many years the Spanish colonists made 
 little progress. San Jos6, the capital, was 
 burned by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1595. In 1640 
 and 1677 Trinidad was raided by the Dutch and 
 in 1690 by the French. Towards the end of 
 the eighteenth century there was a considerable 
 immigration, encouraged by the Spanish gov¬ 
 ernment and augmented bv manv French fam- 
 ilies driven from Haiti and other islands. In 
 February, 1797, Trinidad capitulated to a Brit¬ 
 ish force and in 1802 was finally ceded to Great 
 Britain by the Treaty of Amiens. 
 
 Bibliography. Sir L. A. A. De Verteuil, 
 Trinidad: Its Geography, Natural Resources, Ad¬ 
 ministration . . . (2d ed., London, 1884) ; Fraser, 
 History of Trinidad (ib., 1894) ; J. H. Stark, 
 
TRINIDAD 
 
 TRINITY 
 
 1 
 
 476 
 
 Guide-Boolc and History of Trinidad (ib., 1898) ; 
 F. Eversley, The Trinidad Reviewer (ib., 1900) ; 
 R. L. J. Guppy, “The Growth of Trinidad,” 
 with geological bibliography, in Transactions of 
 the Canadian Institute (Toronto, 1905) ; Wil¬ 
 helm Gommersbach, Geschichte, Geologie, und 
 Bedeutung der Insel Trinidad (Bonn, 1907), 
 containing a bibliography; L. W. Bates, The 
 Path of the Conquistadores: Trinidad and Vene¬ 
 zuelan Guiana (Boston, 1912). 
 
 TRINIDAD. A small, rocky, and uninhab¬ 
 ited island situated in the South Atlantic 
 Ocean in lat. 20° 31' S., long. 29° 20' W., 
 about 750 miles east by north of Rio de Janeiro 
 (Map: World, Western Hemisphere, M 18). It 
 now belongs to Brazil. 
 
 TRINIDAD. A town in Cuba, in the Prov¬ 
 ince of Santa Clara, situated about 45 miles 
 southeast of Cienfuegos and 5 miles from its 
 port, Casilda (Map: Cuba, E 5). It is within 
 easy reach of three ports and is of considerable 
 commercial importance. It is one of the most 
 healthful places on the island. Coffee, formerly 
 the chief article of export, is gradually giving 
 place to sugar. Trinidad was founded by Ve¬ 
 lazquez in 1514 and on account of the repeated 
 attacks by buccaneers was removed from the 
 coast to its present site. Pop., 1907, 11,197. 
 
 TRINIDAD. A city and the county seat of 
 Las Animas Co., Colo., 90 miles by rail south 
 of Pueblo, on the Denver and Rio Grande, the 
 Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe, the Colorado 
 and Wyoming, and the Colorado and Southern 
 railroads (Map: Colorado, E 4). It has a pub¬ 
 lic library, St. Joseph’s Academy, and St. 
 Raphael’s Hospital. Trinidad is the centre of 
 large cattle and sheep raising and farming 
 interests and is extensively engaged in coal 
 mining and coke manufacture. There are also 
 railway shops, bottling works, and a powder 
 mill. 'Pop., 1900, 5345; 1910, 10,204; 1915 
 
 (U. S. est.), 13,337; 1920, 10,900. 
 
 TRINIL (tre'nil) MAN. See Man, Science 
 of, Ancient Types. 
 
 TRIN'ITA'RIANS (from trinity, Lat. trini- 
 tas, number three, trinity, from trinus, three¬ 
 fold, from tres, three). The name most com¬ 
 monly applied in English to the members of the 
 Order of the Holy Trinity for the Redemption of 
 Captives, a Roman Catholic religious society 
 founded by St. John de Matha (1160—1213) 
 and St. Felix of Valois (1127-1212). Devoted 
 to the work of freeing Christian captives among 
 the infidels, they soon received the approbation 
 of Pope Innocent III (1198) and the permission 
 of Philip Augustus to settle in France. The 
 headquarters of the order were at Cerfroid, 
 near La Fert4 Milon, in the present Department 
 of Aisne, and the Pope gave them a second 
 convent in Rome. Their first journey resulted 
 in the liberation of 186 captives, who w T ere 
 brought to Paris amid great rejoicings. While 
 Felix remained at home, caring for the order’s 
 development, John made numerous journeys to 
 north Africa and the coast of Spain. Later the 
 Trinitarians erected houses for the care of 
 penniless captives after their release, and 
 some of them accompanied the Crusaders to min¬ 
 ister to their spiritual needs; they penetrated 
 even to India and Tartarv in search of the 
 objects of their charity. It is estimated that 
 in six centuries at least 900,000 prisoners re¬ 
 covered their freedom through the work of 
 this order. 
 
 The order spread rapidly, first through France 
 
 and Spain, until in the fifteenth century it 
 counted 880 houses; the number diminished 
 from various causes until at the beginning of 
 the eighteenth century there were only 250. 
 The present members are chiefly occupied with 
 other works of mercy, especially the care of the 
 sick, although in the nineteenth century they 
 devoted considerable labor to the work for negro 
 slaves. Besides several branches, due to various 
 reforms, among the male Trinitarians, there 
 were also two female branches, and a third 
 order of associates who labored for the cause 
 and under a simple rule lived in the world. 
 Consult: Carlier, Les trinitaires de la redemp¬ 
 tion (Lille, 1866) ; Pere Calixte de la Provi¬ 
 dence, Vie de Saint Felix de Valois (3d ed., 
 Paris, 1878) ; id., Vie de Saint Jean de Matha 
 (2d ed., ib., 1884) ; id., Corsaires et redempteurs 
 (Lille, 1884) ; Deslandres, L’Ordre des trini - 
 
 //11 r» / n viQ 1 Q (~l Q \ 
 
 TRINI'TROTOL'UENES. Nitrosubstitution 
 compounds produced by the substitution of nitro 
 (NOo) groups for hydrogen atoms in toluene 
 (C 6 H 5 -CH 3 ). Toluene is also known as methyl 
 benzene. Because hydrogen atoms can be replaced 
 not only in the C 6 H 5 group but also in the CH, 
 group, it becomes possible, through the different 
 positions these three N0 2 groups may occupy in 
 the molecule as regards one another, to produce 
 12 different trinitrotoluenes, each of which ex¬ 
 hibits its individual characteristics, such as 
 melting point, boiling point, specific gravity, 
 solubility, sensitiveness to detonation, and the 
 like. All are produced by nitration of the 
 hydrocarbon or its products or by indirect reac¬ 
 tions. Trotyl, known also as T. N. T., is that 
 trinitrotoluene which, as obtained in reaction, is 
 at ordinary temperatures a white to pale-yellow 
 crystalline solid having a melting point of 80.6° C. 
 It is now widely adopted as the bursting charge 
 for armor-piercing projectiles and for torpedoes 
 and mines. It is a very stable body, does not 
 attack metals, is nonhygroscopic, and practically 
 insoluble in water. Lender the influence of det¬ 
 onating mercury fulminate it explodes with 
 great violence. It is loaded in shells in the 
 molten condition and by cooling under pressure 
 attains a density of 1.7. Its detonation arouses 
 a higher activity in detonating explosives, such 
 as the dynamites and permissible explosives, 
 than mercury fulminate does; hence it is coming 
 into use in detonators and fuse. A form of the 
 latter known as cordeau detonant is formed by 
 filling a lead tube with molten trotyl. The tube 
 is drawn through a draw plate until it is 
 so reduced in size as to fit easily into the copper 
 capsules of the commercial detonators or blast¬ 
 ing caps. The detonation of the Detonator 
 causes the detonation of the T. N. T. in the lead 
 tube, which is thus communicated at the rate 
 of 4000 meters per second to other detonators 
 or charges of explosives. By its use separated 
 charges of explosive may be fired practically 
 simultaneously. 
 
 TRIN'ITY. A port of entry on Trinity Bay, 
 Newfoundland, the capital of Trinity District, 
 61 miles northwest direct of St. John’s (Map: 
 Newfoundland, G 4). It has important fishing 
 industries and a fine harbor. The bay is the 
 landing point of the Atlantic cables. Pop., 1901, 
 1459; 1911, 1604. 
 
 TRINITY, Doctrine of the. A doctrine of 
 theology which declares that there are three 
 persons in the Godhead, or divine nature—the 
 Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost—and that 
 
TRINITY 
 
 477 
 
 “these three are one true eternal God, the same 
 in substance, equal in power and glory—al- 
 though distinguished by their personal proper¬ 
 ties. ’ The most elaborate statement of the 
 doctrine is to be found in the Athanasian Creed, 
 which asserts that “the Catholic faith is this: 
 That we worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity 
 in Unity—neither confounding the persons nor 
 di\ iding the substance—for there is one person 
 of the Father, another of the Son, and another 
 of the Holy Ghost.’ But the Godhead of the 
 Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost 
 is all one; the glory equal; the majesty 
 coeternal.” 
 
 The doctrine is not found in its fully developed 
 form in the Scriptures. Modern theology does 
 not seek to find it in the Old Testament. In 
 the New Testament the elements out of which 
 it has been constructed are sought in the Trin¬ 
 itarian formula of baptism, the general char¬ 
 acter of the claims and prerogatives of Jesus 
 Christ by which his deity is established, and in 
 the functions attributed to the Holy Spirit. 
 It is generally conceded, however, that the Chris¬ 
 tians of the second and even of the third cen¬ 
 tury were content for the most part to use 
 scriptural expressions in speaking of the Father 
 and the Son and the Spirit, without defining 
 articulately their relation to one another. The 
 term Trinitas was first used by Tertullian, 
 but the concept took form only in the debates 
 of christology (q.v.). It was not until the 
 progress of opposing parties sought, on the one 
 hand, to degrade the divine dignity of Christ 
 (Ebionitism in,its various forms and Arianism), 
 or, on the other hand, to confound the person¬ 
 ality of Christ with God the Father (see Mo- 
 narchians ), that the Church was led to define 
 in the Nicene Creed the relation of the Son to 
 the Father, and further, in the Nicano-Constanti- 
 nopolitan Creed, the relation of the Spirit to 
 the Father. This creed (see Nicene Creed; 
 Filioque) was specially directed against the 
 opinions of Arius (q.v.). There was never much 
 discussion regarding the place and nature of the 
 Spirit. 
 
 At the time of the Reformation the Protes¬ 
 tant church took over the doctrine of the Trinity 
 without serious examination. The only excep¬ 
 tion in modern times to the reception of the 
 doctrine is in the case of the Socinians or 
 Unitarians (see Socinus), who occupy in their 
 teaching very much the position of the ancient 
 Humanitarians (Ebionites). 
 
 Bibliography. F. C. Baur, Die christliche 
 Lelire von der Dreieinigkeit (3 vols., Tubingen, 
 1841-43) ; I. A. Dorner, The History of the De¬ 
 velopment of the Doctrine of the Person of 
 Christ (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1861-63): id., 
 History of Protestant Theology (ib., 1871); P. 
 H. Steenstra, The Being of God as Unity and 
 Trinity (Boston, 1891); L. L. Paine, Critical 
 History of the Evolution of Trinitarianism 
 (ib., 1900) ; R. F. Horton, The Trinity (London, 
 1901); Jonathan Edwards, An Unpublished Es¬ 
 say ... on the Trinity, with Remarks on Ed¬ 
 wards and his Theology by G. P. Fisher (New 
 \ ork, 1903) ; J. R. Illingworth, Doctrine of 
 Trinity (ib., 1907) ; W. S. Bishop, The Develop¬ 
 ment of Trinitarian Doctrine in the Nicene and 
 Athanasian Creeds (ib., 1910). Anti-Trinita¬ 
 rian side: A. Norton, A Statement of Reasons for 
 not Believing the Doctrines of Trinitarians (10th 
 ed., Boston, 1877); J. F. Clarke, Orthodoxy: 
 Its Truths and Errors (4th ed., ib., 1880). 
 
 TRINITY COLLEGE 
 
 TRINITY CHURCH. The name of a great 
 number of churches in France, England, and the 
 United States. I he most famous of these are: 
 in France, that built by Matilda of Normandv 
 at Caen, commonly called l’Abbaye aux Dames 
 (c.1046 a.d. ) ; in England the cathedrals of 
 Bristol, Chichester, Gloucester, and Norwich, 
 and the parish churches of Hull and Stratford- 
 
 °^"^r VOn ’ * n ^ ie ^ n ited States, parish churches 
 at New York by Upjohn (1843) and at Boston 
 by Gambrill and Richardson (1876). 
 
 TRINITY COLLEGE. A college at Cam- 
 bridge, England, the largest and most splendid 
 collegiate foundation in the realm. It was 
 founded by Henry VIII in 1546 by the consolida¬ 
 tion of several earlier foundations, with consid¬ 
 erable additional endowments from other sources 
 for a master and 60 fellows and scholars. Ed¬ 
 ward VI issued the statutes, Mary added 20 
 scholars and increased the endowment, and Eliza¬ 
 beth interested herself in the college. It is 
 governed by a council, consisting of the master 
 and four other ex-officio members, and eight 
 elective members. The buildings are large and 
 imposing; the great court is the largest in either 
 university, comprising over two acres. The gate¬ 
 way is striking and characteristic, the Hall one 
 of the finest in England. The chapel, though 
 of great size, is not so fine as that of King’s. 
 The library is a large and important collection. 
 Among Trinity worthies may be mentioned Ba¬ 
 con, Newton, Barrow, Coke, Dryden, Cowley, 
 Byron, Tennyson, Edward FitzGerald, Thack¬ 
 eray, Macaulay, Richard Person, and Peacock. 
 Some distinguished masters were William Bill, 
 John Whitgift, Thomas Neville, Barrow, Bentley, 
 and William Whewell. The master of Trinity 
 is appointed by the crown, and the college 
 has apartments for the occupancy of royalty 
 when on a visit to Cambridge as well as for the 
 judges on assize. There were in 1913-14 in the 
 college 70 fellows, 72 scholars, and 672 other 
 students. Consult Mullinger, History of Cam¬ 
 bridge University (Cambridge, 1884), and Bou- 
 ghey and Clark, Trinity College (London, 1900). 
 
 TRINITY COLLEGE. See Dublin, Univer¬ 
 sity of. 
 
 TRINITY COLLEGE. A college at Oxford, 
 England, founded in 1554 by Sir Thomas Pope, 
 Privy Councilor to Henry VIII and Queen 
 Mary. The college occupied the site and build¬ 
 ings of a Benedictine mansion called Durham 
 College, which had been founded in 1290 by 
 Richard de Hoton, Prior of Durham, for the 
 education of the monks of that diocese. At the 
 dissolution of the monasteries this passed into 
 the hands of the newly constituted chapter of 
 Durham and thence to Sir Thomas Pope. Trin¬ 
 ity College was the first college founded by a 
 layman since Balliol and consisted at first of 
 a president, 12 fellows, and 12 scholars. Pope 
 was a Roman Catholic, and his charter was ob¬ 
 tained from Philip and Mary. By the changes 
 made in 17 and 18 \ ict., the college consists of 
 a president, 12 fellowships, of which nine are 
 occupied, several honorary fellows and lectur¬ 
 ers, a chaplain, college officers, 30 scholars and ex- 
 h ibitioners, and in all about 200 undergraduates. 
 The buildings are of various dates and are ar¬ 
 ranged in a most attractive open quadrangle. 
 The college presents to 10 livings. Among the 
 distinguished men who have been connected^with 
 Trinity may be mentioned Archbishop Sheldon, 
 Bishop Seth Ward, Ludlow and Ireton of Civil 
 War fame, Thomas Warton the poet and critic, 
 
TRINITY COLLEGE 
 
 TRINUCLEUS 
 
 478 
 
 Cardinal Newman, the elder Pitt, Lord North, 
 Landor, Stubbs, Freeman, George Rawlinson, 
 and Bryce. Consult H. E. D. Blakiston, Trinity 
 College (London, 1898). 
 
 TRINITY COLLEGE. An institution at 
 Hartford, Conn., founded by members of the 
 Protestant Episcopal church in 1823 as Wash¬ 
 ington College, the present name being assumed 
 in 1845. The college offers two courses, leading 
 to the degrees of B.A. and B.S. It also offers 
 graduate courses leading to the degrees of M.A. 
 and M.S. There is a system of alternative and 
 elective studies, most of the work of the last 
 three years being elective. It has no professional 
 schools, but offers courses in civil engineering. 
 The productive endowment in 1916 was $1,- 
 232,000 with a gross income from endowment 
 and students’ fees of $75,000. The library in 
 that year contained about 80,000 volumes and 
 about 40,000 pamphlets. The students num¬ 
 bered 237 and the faculty 25. The total value 
 of buildings and grounds is about $1,250,000. 
 The president in 1916 was Rev. Flavel S. 
 Luther, LL.D. 
 
 TRINITY COLLEGE. An institution for 
 higher education founded as Normal College in 
 Randolph Co., N. C., in 1851. It passed under 
 the control of the Methodist Episcopal Church 
 South in 1856 and in 1859 took the name of 
 Trinity College. In 1891 the college was re¬ 
 moved to Durham and opened its first session 
 in 1892. In 1897 the trustees authorized the 
 admission of women as students to all the de¬ 
 partments. A new charter was granted to the 
 college in 1903. The college confers the de¬ 
 grees B.A. and M.A., and its curriculum includes 
 the regular college departments. A school of 
 education was established in 1910, and there is 
 also a department of law established in 1904. 
 The enrollment in all departments of the college 
 in the autumn of 1915 was 653, and the faculty 
 numbered 45. A campaign for an endowment 
 fund carried on in 1912-13 resulted in contri¬ 
 butions (in addition to $800,000 and $200,000 
 for buildings, given by Messrs. N. and James B. 
 Duke, and $150,000 given by the general educa¬ 
 tion board) of $268,146, making a total of 
 $1,418,146. The library contains about 48,000 
 volumes. The president in 1916 was William P. 
 Few, Ph.D., LL.D. 
 
 TRINITY HALL. A college at Cambridge, 
 England. It was founded in 1350 by William 
 Bateman, Bishop of Norwich and cofounder of 
 Gonville and Caius College, under the name of 
 the College of the Scholars of the Holy Trinity 
 of Norwich, for a master and 30 scholars, de¬ 
 voted to the canon and civil law. It continues 
 to be the peculiarly legal college of the univer¬ 
 sity. By the new statutes in force since 1882 
 the college consists of a master and 18 fellows. 
 There are also college officials, two law students, 
 12 scholars and exhibitioners, and, in all, about 
 150 undergraduates. The college presents to 
 seven livings. Among the distinguished mem¬ 
 bers of the college have been Bishop Stephen 
 Gardiner (Master), Glisson the anatomist. Lord 
 Howard of Effingham, Chesterfield, Thomas 
 Bilney, and Chief Justice Cockburn. Consult 
 H. E. Malden, Trinity Hall (London, 1902). 
 
 TRINITY HOUSE, Corporation of. A 
 British corporation which controls the greater 
 part of the important lighthouses, light ves¬ 
 sels, and fog signals on the English coast, the 
 others being under the supervision of the Ad¬ 
 miralty, the Mersey Docks and Harbor Board, 
 
 and various local marine authorities. The head¬ 
 quarters of the corporation are in London, and 
 among its chief duties are the lighting and 
 buoyage of the Thames and adjacent coast. 
 Other companies, bearing the same name but 
 with less important duties, exist in some, other 
 ports. The London corporation has nothing to 
 do with the Scottish or Irish coast, the former 
 being under the Northern Lighthouse Commis¬ 
 sioners and the Clyde Lighthouse Trustees, and 
 the latter under the Irish Lights Commissioners. 
 The London corporation, the original Trinity 
 House, had previously existed as a religious fra¬ 
 ternity which took upon itself certain duties 
 connected with pilotage and the safety of mar¬ 
 iners. It was incorporated during the reign of 
 Henry VIII and gradually extended its work. 
 It is managed by a board called the Elder Breth¬ 
 ren, of which two are selected from the navy 
 and 11 from the merchant service. Consult 
 Mayo, Trinity House, London Past and Present 
 (London, 1905). See Lighthouse. 
 
 TRINITY RIVER,. A river of Texas, formed 
 by a network of small streams in Montague, 
 Jack, Wise, Denton, and Parker counties, Tex. 
 Above Dallas the stream frequently runs dry 
 (Map: Texas, E 4). It flows southeast through 
 a fertile and well-timbered region and empties 
 into Galveston Bay about 40 miles north of the 
 city of Galveston. It is over 550 miles long and 
 navigable at high water for 300 miles. 
 
 TRINITY SUNDAY. The Sunday immedi¬ 
 ately following Whitsunday, so called as being 
 set aside for the special honor of the Trinity. 
 No such festival was known to the early cen¬ 
 turies ; the general establishment of Trinity Sun¬ 
 day as a common festival of the whole Western 
 Church dates from a decree of John XXII, who 
 died in 1334. Nevertheless, the mass and office 
 peculiar to the day are of much greater an¬ 
 tiquity and may be traced, at least in part, in 
 several liturgical books of the earlier centuries. 
 
 TRINO'DA NECES'SITAS (ML., threefold 
 necessity). Three forms of assessment of lands 
 for public purposes during the Anglo-Saxon era. 
 No lands, either in secular or religious hands, 
 were exempt from these three duties, which were 
 known as bridge bot, for the maintenance of 
 bridges and highways; burg bot, for the erection 
 of and keeping fortresses in repair; and fyrd, 
 for the support of the King’s military and naval 
 forces. Blackstone mentions that in the time 
 of Henry II no less than 1115 castles were in 
 existence as a result of the tax for the estab¬ 
 lishment and maintenance of strongholds. Con¬ 
 sult Blackstone, Commentaries. 
 
 TRINUCLEUS, tri'niFkle-us (Neo-Lat., from 
 Lat. tres, three -f- nucleus, little nut, kernel, 
 nucleus). A genus of trilobites characteristic 
 of the middle and upper Ordovician rocks of 
 North America and Europe. The body is small, 
 seldom exceeding an inch in length, with a rela¬ 
 tively large and broad horseshoe-shaped head 
 shield. The glabella is convex and consists of a 
 prominent median and two less elevated lateral 
 lobes, and the head is bordered by a wide pitted 
 margin and provided with long, sometimes bifur¬ 
 cated, genal spines. In some forms the young 
 were provided with simple eyes (ocelli) on the 
 cheeks, and compound eyes, such as are seen in 
 most trilobites, are entirely absent, while prob¬ 
 ably all had a -median eye. The thorax has six 
 segments with narrow axis, and the pygidium is 
 small and of broadly triangular form. See 
 Trilobita. 
 
TRINUMMUS 
 
 TRIPLE ALLIANCE 
 
 479 
 
 TRINUM'MUS. A comedy by Plautus 
 (about 194 b.c. ), founded on Philemon’s The- 
 sauros. 
 
 TRIO, tre'6 or tri'o (It., musical composition 
 in three parts). In music, in a general sense, a 
 composition for three voices or for three instru¬ 
 ments. In instrumental music a trio is usually 
 understood to mean a composition written for 
 piano, cello, and violin. But it is better to 
 apply the name “piano trio.” A string trio is 
 generally written for violin, viola, and cello, or 
 two violins and cello. In a specific sense the 
 term "trio” is used to denote a middle section 
 in minuets, marches, or scherzi. It derived its 
 name from the fact that the older composers em¬ 
 ployed three-part writing in this middle section. 
 
 TRIOLEIN, tri-o'le-m. See Olein. 
 
 TRI'ONAL (CH 3 ) (C 2 H 5 )C(S0 2 C 2 H 5 ) 2 . A 
 white crystalline compound used as a hypnotic. 
 It is prepared by the action of methyl-ethyl 
 ketone (a substance similar to acetone) upon 
 mercaptan (q.v.) and the oxidation of the re¬ 
 sulting product by permanganate of potassium. 
 It melts at 76° C. (169° F.) and is readily 
 soluble in alcohol, but sparingly in water. It 
 is an excellent and harmless hypnotic, and, if 
 used judiciously and administered in connection 
 with a mild purgative, is believed to have no in¬ 
 jurious effects. Like sulphonal (q.v.), it is 
 best administered with hot milk. It is prompter 
 in its action and safer than sulphonal. 
 
 TRIOSON, Anne Louis Girodet-. See Giro- 
 det-Trioson, A. L. 
 
 TRIPAL'MITIN. See Palmitin. 
 TRIPHENYL-METHYL, (C 6 H 5 ) 3 C (?). A 
 remarkable substance discovered by Gomberg in 
 1901, one of the carbon atoms in its molecule 
 appearing to be trivalent (instead of quadri¬ 
 valent, as carbon usually is). It may be pre¬ 
 pared by the action of metals (say, silver) 
 upon chloro-triphenyl-methane, (C 6 H 5 ) 3 C.C1. It 
 forms a colorless crystalline solid that melts at 
 145° C. (293° F.) and dissolves in various sol¬ 
 vents with an orange-yellow color. It acts as 
 a highly unsaturated compound, giving a per¬ 
 oxide by direct union with oxygen, an iodide 
 with iodine, etc. When dissolved in liquid 
 sulphur dioxide, it conducts the electric current. 
 Molecular weight determinations show it to be 
 made up mostly of double molecules, [ (C c H 5 ) 3 C] 2 , 
 the color of its solutions being undoubtedly due 
 to the quinoid structure of these double "mole¬ 
 cules; but there is now little doubt left but 
 that single molecules of triphenyl-methyl exist, 
 in dynamic equilibrium with the double mole¬ 
 cules. Triphenyl-methyl is, obviously, a deriva¬ 
 tive of the radicle methyl, CH 3 , which can only 
 exist as part of a molecule, but not independ¬ 
 ently. See Methyl; Sciiorlemmer. 
 
 TRIPIT'AKA. See Pitaka. 
 
 TRIPLE ALLIANCE. The name given to 
 the alliance between Germanv, Austria, and 
 Italy formed in 1882. Bismarck was primarily 
 responsible for the system of alliances which 
 shaped European diplomacy during the last 
 quarter of the nineteenth century. In order to 
 assure the isolation of France after the Franco- 
 Prussian War of 1871 and prevent any effort 
 to regain the territory of Alsace Lorraine, Bis¬ 
 marck sought to’bring about a closer understand¬ 
 ing between Germany, Russia, and Austria. In 
 September, 1872, the Czar Alexander II and the 
 Austrian Emperor Francis Joseph visited Ber¬ 
 lin, and the chancellors of the three empires 
 exchanged notes whereby they agreed to work to¬ 
 
 gether for the following purposes: the mainte¬ 
 nance of the territorial boundaries recently laid 
 down, the settlement of questions arising from 
 the Eastern Question, and the repression of revo¬ 
 lutionary movements in Europe. This was the 
 so-called Three Emperors League. This league, 
 however, lacked solidarity. Two of its members, 
 Russia and Austria, had conflicting interests in 
 the Balkans, and when at the Congress of Ber¬ 
 lin, in 1878, Bismarck supported Austria in her 
 determination to limit Russian influence in the 
 Balkans, the alliance was broken. The with¬ 
 drawal of Russia led to a closer union of the 
 two central Powers. Bismarck and Count An- 
 drassy came to an understanding in an inter¬ 
 view at Gastein, Aug. 27-28, 1879. It was not 
 until Nov. 5, 1887, that the terms of this treaty 
 were made known, when they were published in 
 the London Times. The compact provides that, 
 if either Germany or Austria shall be attacked 
 by Russia, each Power must assist its neighbor 
 with all its forces. If, however, the attack shall 
 come from any other Power, the ally is pledged 
 merely to observe neutrality. Bismarck did not 
 abandon his policy of maintaining friendly re¬ 
 lations with his eastern neighbor, and in 1884, 
 at a second meeting of the three emperors, he 
 succeeded in renewing the old understanding. 
 He also negotiated a secret “reinsurance com¬ 
 pact” with Russia for mutual friendly neutral¬ 
 ity in case either were attacked by a third 
 Power. When Bismarck retired from office in 
 1890, Emperor William II abandoned that part 
 of the former Chancellor’s policy which called 
 for a close understanding with Russia. He re¬ 
 fused to renew the reinsurance compact and 
 turned his attention to welding more solidly the 
 alliance of the Teutonic Pow r ers. 
 
 Italy’s alliance with the Teutonic Powers was 
 largely due to her resentment against France 
 because of the latter’s acquisition of Tunis in 
 1881. This territory was regarded by Italy as 
 a field for her colonial expansion. Checkmated 
 by France, Italy turned to the Germanic Powers, 
 and on May 20, 1882, treaties were signed which 
 bound Italy to the central Powers for a term of 
 five years. Italy’s position in the Triple Al¬ 
 liance was from the beginning an unnatural one. 
 Bound to Austria, a country which had consist¬ 
 ently opposed the movement for Italian unity 
 and which still held provinces which Italy felt 
 should be a part of the Italian nation, any real 
 sympathy between these Powers was difficult to 
 maintain. Moreover, the interests of these Pow¬ 
 ers clashed in the Balkans. Italy resented the 
 acquisition of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Aus¬ 
 tria, and the extension of Austrian influence 
 along the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea was 
 regarded as a menace by Italy. While the treaty 
 was renewed at five-year intervals until 1902 and 
 was then extended for 12 years, it was evident 
 that Italy’s allegiance rested on none too solid 
 grounds. Evidence of her weakening support of 
 the Teutonic Powers appeared at the Algeciras 
 Conference in 1906, which attempted to settle the 
 dispute over Morocco. A still more serious blow 
 was given to the Alliance when Italy in 1911 
 seized Tripoli and declared war on Turkey, which 
 Power had come to be considered a member of 
 the Triple Alliance. It did not cause surprise, 
 therefore, when, at the outbreak of the European 
 War in 1914, Italy refused to join Germany 
 and Austria, claiming that it was not a defen¬ 
 sive war contemplated by the Treaty of Alliance. 
 The terms of the treaty were not published, but 
 
TRIPLE ENTENTE 
 
 TRIPOLI 
 
 480 
 
 during the early months of the war Italy stated 
 that under the treaty she was entitled to “com- 
 pensations” as a result of Austria’s occupation 
 of Servian territory. After several months of 
 fruitless negotiations Italy, on May 3, 1915, 
 formally withdrew from the Triple Alliance. 
 Consult: F. H. Geffcken, Frankreich, Russland, 
 und den Dreibund: geschichtliche Riickblicke fiir 
 die Gegenwart (Berlin, 1893) ; Vincent Bene- 
 detti, Studies in Diplomacy (Eng. trans., New 
 York, 1896) ; Francesco Crispi, Memoirs of 
 Francesco Crispi (3 vols., ib., 1912—14). See 
 Triple Entente; War in Europe. 
 
 TRIPLE ENTENTE. The name given to a 
 number of agreements or “understandings” con¬ 
 cluded between the governments of Great Britain, 
 France, and Russia. 
 
 The effect of the formation of the Triple Al¬ 
 liance (q.v.) between Germany, Austria, and 
 Italy in 1882 was to draw the other two great 
 continental powers, France and Russia, together. 
 This rapprochement at first took the form of 
 large loans of money by France to Russia. 
 These loans enabled Russia to consolidate her 
 debt on easier terms, to build strategic railroads, 
 and to increase the efficiency of her army and 
 navy. In July, 1891, the French Channel fleet 
 visited Cronstadt, and it is probable that at this 
 time military and naval understandings between 
 the two Powers were drawn up to serve as bases 
 for common action. It was not until 1895 that 
 the alliance was definitely avowed. The terms 
 of the treaty were not disclosed. An unofficial 
 version stated that if either nation were attacked 
 the other would come to its aid with the whole 
 of its military and naval forces. 
 
 Although England had always been included in 
 the concert of European powers, she avoided 
 limiting her freedom of action by declining to 
 enter a fixed alliance with any of the great 
 continental powers. Her unique geographical 
 position aYid her control of the seas gave her 
 great influence in maintaining the balance of 
 power on the Continent. The grouping of the 
 great continental powers into two opposing mili¬ 
 tary alliances made it more difficult for Great 
 Britain to maintain her policy of “splendid iso¬ 
 lation.” Moreover, Germany’s frank adoption 
 of naval policy in competition with Great Britain 
 made the latter consider the' dangers of her 
 isolated position. There were, however, serious 
 difficulties which had to be overcome, apart 
 from the abandonment of her policy of aloof¬ 
 ness, before England was able to join one of the 
 European alliances. France and Russia were by 
 long tradition hostile to England. With France 
 England had serious disputes in regard to the 
 partition of north Africa, about the boundaries 
 of Siam, and about the Newfoundland fisheries. 
 The two Powers nearly reached a break in 1898, 
 when a French force tried to take possession of 
 the upper waters of the Nile. (See Kodok.) 
 Negotiations, however, led to a final understand¬ 
 ing in 1904, by which England was conceded a 
 predominant position in Egypt, and France a 
 similar position in Morocco. 
 
 With Russia, Great Britain’s causes of fric¬ 
 tion were chiefly two. In the first place England 
 opposed the extension of Russian influence in 
 the Balkans, and secondly England opposed the 
 Russian advance towards the British possessions 
 in India. The first of these causes of dispute 
 was gradually removed as public feeling in Eng¬ 
 land turned against the Turks in favor of the 
 subject races in the Balkans which had been 
 
 protected by Russia. The special point of diffi¬ 
 culty in Asia was Persia. This country was in 
 a state of chronic confusion and disorder, which 
 was an invitation to two powerful nations, 
 Great Britain and Russia, to intervene in its 
 internal affairs. Each of these Pow r ers was in¬ 
 triguing to prevent the other from gaining any 
 advantage in this region. In 1907 Sir Edward 
 Grey entered upon negotiations with the Rus¬ 
 sian government to settle these and other out¬ 
 standing difficulties between the two Powers. 
 There resulted a series of agreements respect¬ 
 ing the countries of Tibet, Afghanistan, and 
 Persia, which bordered the territorial possessions 
 of the two Powers. 
 
 The way had thus been cleared for a close un¬ 
 derstanding between Great Britain, France, and 
 Russia. The precise nature of this understand¬ 
 ing was indefinite. There was no treaty agree¬ 
 ment specifying its scope. Some light was 
 thrown upon it in a speech made by Sir Edward 
 Grey in the House of Commons on Aug. 3, 1914. 
 He said that the Triple Entente was not an al¬ 
 liance, but a “diplomatic group.” As to Eng¬ 
 land’s relations with France, he said that at 
 the time of the Moroccan crisis in 1906 he had 
 stated to the representatives of Germany and 
 France that if war were forced on France because 
 of the Moroccan dispute, “in my view public 
 opinion in this country would have rallied to the 
 material support of France.” In view of such 
 a contingency the French Minister suggested 
 that, in order to make any cooperation effective, 
 conversations should, be held between the mili¬ 
 tary and naval experts of the two countries. To 
 this Sir Edward Grey agreed on the distinct 
 understanding that nothing which passed between 
 the military and naval experts should be binding 
 on either government. In 1912, following the 
 second Moroccan crisis, the British cabinet de¬ 
 cided that it would be well to have an under¬ 
 standing in writing that these conversations were 
 not binding upon the freedom of either govern¬ 
 ment. Accordingly Sir Edward Grey wrote to 
 M. Cambon, the French Ambassador, stating 
 clearly that the military conversations were not 
 binding, but at the same time he agreed that in 
 case either country were attacked by a third 
 Power “it should immediately discuss" with the 
 other whether both governments should act to¬ 
 gether to prevent aggression and to preserve 
 peace.” 
 
 In regard to England’s relations to Russia 
 Sir Edward Grey stated, “We are not parties 
 to Franco-Russian alliance. We do not even 
 know the terms of that alliance.” 
 
 With the outbreak of the European War in 
 1914, this rather vague and loose Entente was 
 made more binding, when on Sept. 5, 1914, the 
 representatives of the three Powers agreed not to 
 conclude a separate peace with Germany and 
 Austria, and secondly that wfien the terms of 
 peace should be discussed no one of the allies 
 should demand conditions of peace without 
 previous agreement with the other allies. See 
 War in Europe. 
 
 TRIPLET (from triple, Fr. triple, from Lat. 
 triplus, threefold). In music, a group of three 
 equal notes, to be performed in the time of two 
 of like value in the regular rhythm. For in¬ 
 stance, when a quarter note is divided into three 
 eighth notes, the group is called a triplet, and it 
 is usual to place the figure 3 over it. 
 
 TRIPOLI, trip'6-ll. Formerly a vilayet of 
 the Ottoman Empire. The name is now often 
 
TRIPOLI 
 
 TRIPOLI 
 
 481 
 
 applied to the Italian possession of Libya, situ¬ 
 ated on the northern coast of Africa between the 
 Libyan Desert on the east and Tunis on the 
 west (Map: Africa, F 2). The southern part 
 of the country is Fezzan, which has the French 
 Sahara on the west. The country is divided into 
 two governments—the one, Tripolitania, cor¬ 
 responding to the old Vilayet of Tripoli, and the 
 other, Cyrenaica, corresponding to the former 
 Mutessarifat of Bengazi (Barca). The bounda¬ 
 ries in the desert are only approximate, and 
 the area of Libya cannot be accurately stated. 
 r J he estimate in the Annuario statistico italiano, 
 published in 1915, is 1,000,000 to 1,500,000 square 
 kilometers (1 square kilometer = 0.3861 square 
 mile). Pop., according to a census taken in 
 1911, 523,176 natives and about 6000 Europeans. 
 
 The interior of Tripoli is elevated and sandy, 
 with fertile spots along the wadies. The country 
 is exposed to the clouds of sand from the deserts. 
 The coasts are mostly low and sandy, with the 
 exception of the northeastern part, where some 
 of the mountains attain an altitude of nearly 
 2000 feet. Tripoli has no permanent rivers, but 
 there are a considerable number of springs, and 
 the dry river courses fill up during the rainy sea¬ 
 son. The climate is hot during the summer, but 
 it has more of a Mediterranean than an African 
 character. In its flora and fauna Tripoli re¬ 
 sembles the rest of the countries on the northern 
 coast of Africa. Owing to the scarcity of pro¬ 
 ductive land and its small population, Tripoli 
 is very little developed. 
 
 Agriculture is carried on only to a limited 
 extent. More attention is paid to stock raising. 
 The chief agricultural products are wheat, dates, 
 grapes, and olives. Sheep are raised on a large 
 scale, and cattle are also to some extent. Some 
 sulphur and salt are obtained near the coast, and 
 there are small sponge fisheries. The commerce 
 was formerly very considerable, and the port of 
 Tripoli was once an important outlet for the 
 products of the interior, with which it is con¬ 
 nected by numerous caravan routes. The chief 
 exports are hides, sponges, and henna, besides 
 various articles from the interior of Africa, as 
 gold, ostrich feathers, ivory, rubber, and a few 
 other products. The imports from Europe con¬ 
 sist chiefly of manufactures and food substances. 
 The centre of foreign commerce is the city of 
 Tripoli (q.v.). Imports in 1912 were reported 
 at 27,782,000 lire, and exports at 4,029,000 lire. 
 
 The Italian Governor of Tripolitania resides 
 at the. city of Tripoli, and the Governor of 
 Cyrenaica at the city of Bengazi. The popula¬ 
 tion consists largely of Berbers and Moors, the 
 latter living mostly in the cities. The Turkish 
 element is very limited. Italian is the official 
 language, but Arabic is commonly spoken. 
 
 History. Tripoli appears early to have 
 formed a portion of the territory of the Cartha¬ 
 ginians. It next passed to the Romans, who 
 included it within the Province of Africa and 
 gave it the name of Regio Syrtica. About the 
 beginning of the third century a.d. it became 
 known as the Regio Tripolitana (on account of 
 its three principal cities, CEa, Sabrata, and 
 Leptis, which were leagued together; whence its 
 present name Tripoli), and was probably raised 
 to the rank of a separate province by Septimius 
 Severus, who was a native of Leptis. Later it 
 passed into possession of the Vandals and 
 Greeks. In the seventh century it was con¬ 
 quered by the Arabs (see Barbary States), and 
 the feeble Christianity of the natives was sup¬ 
 
 planted by a vigorous and fanatical Mohamme¬ 
 danism. In 1510 the city of Tripoli was cap¬ 
 tured by Ferdinand the Catholic, from 1530 to 
 1551 it was in possession of the Knights of St. 
 John. Since 1551 the country had formed part 
 of the Turkish Empire, though the authority of 
 the Sultan, down to 1835, had been virtually at 
 zero for more than a century. During this pe¬ 
 riod Tripoli was a piratical stronghold. In 
 consequence it was attacked by successive expe¬ 
 ditions of the English and the French. In 1801- 
 05 it was involved in an unsuccessful war with 
 the United States, and in 1815 an American ex¬ 
 pedition exacted reparation for injuries done to 
 American commerce. (See Barbary Powers, 
 Wars with the.) In 1835 an expedition was 
 dispatched from Constantinople; the ruling bey, 
 Karamanli (in whose family the sovereignty had 
 continued uninterrupted since 1714), was over¬ 
 thrown and imprisoned; a new Turkish pasha, 
 with vice-regal powers, was appointed, and the 
 state made a vilayet of the Ottoman Empire. 
 Several rebellions have since taken place (nota¬ 
 bly in 1842 and 1844), but they have always 
 been suppressed. In 1911 a war broke out be¬ 
 tween Italy and Turkey. By the terms of the 
 Treaty of Lausanne Italian sovereignty was 
 recognized in Tripoli, although Italy accepted a 
 clause which permitted the Caliph to exercise 
 religious authority. 
 
 Bibliography. General: Fournel, La Tripoli- 
 taine (Paris, 1887); Borsari, Geografia della 
 Tripolitania (Naples, 1888) ; Thompson, Life in 
 Tripoli (Liverpool, 1894) ; Jago, “Report on Ag¬ 
 riculture and Other Natural Resources of the 
 Vilayet of Tripoli,” in Great Britain Diplomatic 
 and Consular Reports, Series 527 (ib., 1900) ; 
 C. W. Furlong, The Gateway to the Sahara 
 (New York, 1909); M. L. Todd, Tripoli the 
 Mysterious (Boston, 1912). Antiquities: H. S. 
 Cowper, The Hill of the Graces (London, 1897). 
 History: G. F. Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli 
 (ib., 1912) ; Lapworth and Zimmern, Tripoli and 
 Young Italy (ib., 1912), containing a bibli¬ 
 ography; Alan Ostler, The Arabs in Tripoli (ib., 
 1912) ; Arturo Labriola, La guerra di Tripoli e 
 V opinione socialiste (Naples, 1912); Federico 
 Minutilli, La Tripolitania (2d ed., Turin, 1912). 
 
 TRIPOLI. The capital of Tripolitania, in 
 Africa, on a promontory in the Mediterranean 
 Sea, which forms a small bay. The Sahara ap-‘ 
 proaches within a short distance (Map: Africa, 
 FI). The town, whose high walls are dilapi¬ 
 dated, lies in a fertile plain. It is typically 
 Oriental with its slender minarets and domed 
 mosques. The castle of the beys is handsome. 
 There is a splendid Roman triumphal arch, 
 erected to Marcus Aurelius. Tripoli owes its 
 importance as the commercial centre of the coun¬ 
 try to the three historic caravan routes of which 
 it is the terminus. The first of these runs south 
 across the Desert of Sahara to Lake Chad; the 
 second, southwest to Timbuktu; and the third, 
 south by east to Wadai and points in Darfur.’ 
 The city manufactures carpets, scarfs, and Span¬ 
 ish leather. The harbor varies in depth from 
 15 to 24 feet. The trade is mostly in the hands 
 of the Jews, who are congregated in a quarter 
 of the town called Harra. Tripoli, one of the 
 oldest cities of Africa, is the CEa of the Phoeni¬ 
 cians. In February, 1804, the harbor was the 
 scene of Lieutenant Decatur’s brave exploit of 
 recapturing and burning the American frigate 
 Philadelphia. Pop., 29,761. 
 
 TRIPOLI, trlp'6-li, TRIPOLIS, trip'6-lis 
 
TRIPOLIS 
 
 TRIREME 
 
 (the classical name), or TARABTJLTJS, ta-ra' 
 bu-lys. A town in Syria, Asiatic Turkey, the 
 capital of a liwa in the Vilayet of Beirut, two 
 and a half miles from El Mina, its port, and 40 
 miles north-northeast of Beirut (Map: Turkey 
 in Asia, C 3). The streets are well paved and 
 covered in some places by arcades. The houses 
 are built of a porous conglomerate, giving the 
 town a picturesque Oriental aspect. There are 
 14 churches, nearly equally divided between the 
 Latin, Greek, and Maronite sects, an American 
 mission station and girls’ school, an orphanage 
 and girls’ home of the French Sisters of Charity, 
 a synagogue, 14 mosques, a monastery of danc¬ 
 ing dervishes, a castle, and several large khans. 
 Tripoli is famous for its silk sashes. Silk, sugar 
 cane, ivory, ostrich feathers, wool, and sponges 
 are exported. Mulberry trees are extensively 
 cultivated for the silkworms. The hills east of 
 the town contain numerous tobacco plantations. 
 There is a large overland trade by camels with 
 Aleppo. Pop., 30,000, including El Mina. Of 
 the inhabitants, 24,000 are Moslems, 4500 Ortho¬ 
 dox Greeks, 1500 Maronites. Tripoli was a mem¬ 
 ber of the Phoenician League. At that time it 
 lay on the coast. In 450 and in 550 it was de¬ 
 stroyed by earthquakes. The Saracens took it in 
 638. It was several times captured by the 
 
 Greeks. The Romans erected many fine build¬ 
 
 ings. After a siege of several years it was taken 
 in 1109 by the Crusaders, under whom it enjoyed 
 great prosperity. Destroyed by the Egyptian 
 Sultan, Kalaun, in 1289, it was rebuilt on its 
 present site. 
 
 TRIPOLIS. See Tripolitza; Tripoli. 
 
 TRIP'OLITE, or TRIPOLI (-11) (from 
 
 Tripoli, in Africa). A name sometimes applied 
 to diatomaceous earth (q.v.), but belonging 
 properly to certain highly siliceous rocks, 
 
 used chiefly for abrasive purposes. The best 
 known, or Missouri tripoli, is a light, porous 
 siliceous rock, of very fine texture and contain¬ 
 ing over 98 per cent silica. Consult Ries, Eco¬ 
 nomic Geology (3d ed., New York, 1910), and 
 Parr and Williams, Journal of Industrial and 
 Engineering Chemistry, vol. i, p. 692 (Easton, 
 Pa., 1909). 
 
 TRIPOLITZA, tre'po-lye'tsa, or TRIP'- 
 OLIS. The capital of the Nomarchy of Arcadia, 
 Greece, 34 miles southwest of Argos, on the 
 Argos-Kalamata Railway (Map: Greece, D 6). 
 It is on a plain, 2000 feet above sea level, near 
 the site of the ancient Tegea and Mantinea. 
 Tapestries and leather goods are manufactured. 
 Pop., 11,000. Tripolitza is a modern city and 
 under the Turkish pashas was the capital of the 
 Morea. It was captured and burned by the 
 Greek patriot Kolokotronis (q.v.), Oct. 5, 1821. 
 In 1825 it was taken by Ibrahim Pasha and 
 completely destroyed by him in 1828. 
 
 TRI'POS (from Lat. tripus, from Gk. rplnovs, 
 tripous, tripod). A term peculiar to Cambridge 
 University, denoting the three honor classes 
 composed of successful candidates in the final 
 examinations in the various departments. In 
 mathematics the first-honor men are known as 
 senior and junior wranglers. The term is also 
 used of the examination itself. 
 
 TRIP'PANT. In heraldry (q.v.), a term 
 used of a beast of chase represented as walking. 
 
 TRIPTOL'EMTJS (Lat., from Gk. TpnrroXe- 
 p,os ). A Greek legend, the bestower of grain 
 upon mankind. In the Homeric Hymn to Deme¬ 
 ter, Triptolemus is merely one of the princes of 
 Eleusis (q.v.) to whom Demeter (see Ceres) 
 
 teaches her sacred rites when she finally leaves 
 her temple for Olympus. Later, however, tradition 
 made him the son of King Celeus and Meteneira, 
 and a special favorite of Demeter, who gave him 
 a winged chariot, or one drawn by winged drag¬ 
 ons, and sent him forth to bear the knowledge 
 of her gift of grain among mankind. This scene 
 is frequently represented on Attic vases of the 
 fifth century and later. Triptolemus had a tem¬ 
 ple at Eleusis and was honored in Athens also 
 in connection with the two goddesses Demeter 
 and Kore. Attic belief also made him one of the 
 judges in the lower world, apparently in place 
 of Minos, who held an unfavorable place in local 
 legends. The Greek type of Triptolemus was 
 used by the Romans for Bonus Eventus, who 
 seems to have had much resemblance to the Eleu- 
 sinian hero. 
 
 TRIP TO SCARBOROUGH, A. A comedy 
 by Sheridan (1777), altered from Vanbrugh's 
 Relapse (q.v.). 
 
 # TRIPTYCH, trip'tik (from Gk. tpUtvxos, 
 triptyclios, folded thrice, from rpels, treis, three 
 + TTTvxy, ptyche, fold, from irrvaaeiv, ptyssein, 
 to fold). An altarpiece of three wings, each 
 painted or carved with a distinct subject, but 
 joined together by hinges and capable of being 
 folded so as to present a new face when closed. 
 During the early Middle Age and especially the 
 high Gothic period small ivory triptychs, exquis¬ 
 itely carved, were frequently used in private 
 devotions. During the late Gothic and early 
 Renaissance the triptych was commonly employed 
 as an important devotional altarpiece in the 
 churches of both northern and southern Europe. 
 The panels were of wood, often with architec¬ 
 tural framework, and were decorated with paint¬ 
 ings. This was especially the case in Flanders 
 and in Germany, where painting was combined 
 with elaborate wood carving in the decorations 
 of altarpieces. 
 
 TRUREME (Lat. triremis, galley with three 
 banks of oars, from tres, three -f- remus, oar). 
 In ancient times, a galley with three banks of 
 oars; the common form of the ancient ship of 
 war in the fifth and fourth centuries b.c. The 
 credit of the invention was given to the Corin¬ 
 thians, who were said to have used triremes in 
 their war with Corcyra in the seventh century 
 B.c. The details of the structure of the Athenian 
 trireme are still uncertain, as the statements of 
 the ancient writers leave many points obscure, 
 and the testimony of works of art is likewise full 
 of uncertainties. It seems clear that the banks 
 of oars were arranged one above the other, 
 though not perpendicularly; that there was only 
 one man to an oar; and that all the oars could 
 be, and in battle were, used at the same time. 
 For ordinary purposes the crew was, of course, 
 divided into watches. The ancient trireme was 
 of light draft and could be easily hauled on 
 shore, so that a high freeboard seems improbable, 
 for reasons of stability; while the difficulty of 
 keeping an effective stroke with oars of widely 
 different lengths also speaks against any such 
 mode of construction. The trireme was provided 
 with a mainmast which carried a large square 
 sail, that was lowered with its yard, or, if pos¬ 
 sible, left on shore, before going into action. In 
 the latter case the mast also was unstepped and 
 laid along the deck. There was also a small 
 foremast, which seems to have projected some¬ 
 what like a bowsprit and likewise carried a 
 square sail. The Attic trireme of the fourth cen¬ 
 tury carried 170 oars, but probably not over 150 
 
TBISAGION 
 
 were actually used, the rest being a reserve 
 equipment. Officers, sailors, and 10 or 12 hop- 
 lites brought the total crew up to about 200 
 men. The ship was steered by large paddles on 
 either side of the stern, connected inboard so 
 that they could be handled by a single man. The 
 time was given to the rowers by a special officer, 
 the keleustes. The lowest rank of rowers was 
 called tlialamitae, the second zeugitae, and the 
 uppermost thranitse; the thranitse received the 
 highest pay, as handling the longest oars. In 
 the early battles, such as that at Salamis, the 
 chief endeavor was to lay the ships aboard and 
 fight from the decks, trusting little to manoeu¬ 
 vring, in which the Greeks seem to have felt 
 themselves inferior. Later the Athenians devel¬ 
 oped a high degree of skill in handling their long 
 light vessels and preferred to regard the trireme 
 as the weapon and to aim at disabling or sinking 
 the enemy by the use of the ram, which projected 
 at the water line or below. The attack was 
 aimed at the quarter or side of the hostile ship, 
 and to meet bows on was held unskillful and 
 even dangerous, as the bow was not strongly 
 built. Against the Carthaginians the Romans 
 used boarding bridges in order to neutralize the 
 seamanship of their opponents and bring about 
 a conflict of soldiers. 
 
 Bibliography. Bernhard Graser, De Veterum 
 Re Navali (Berlin, 1864) ; Paul Serre, Les ma¬ 
 rines de guerre de I’antiquite et du moyen-dge 
 (2 parts, Paris, 1885—91); Arthur Breusing, 
 Die Nautik der Alten (Bremen, 1886) ; id., Die 
 Lasting des Trierenrdtsels (ib., 1889) ; Assmann, 
 “Seewesen,” in K. A. Baumeister, Denkmdler des 
 Jdassischen Altertums (Munich, 1888) ; E. Lue- 
 beck, Das Seewesen der Griechen und Romer 
 (2 parts, Hamburg, 1890-91); the article 
 A avis ’ in William Smith, A Dictionary of 
 Greek and Roman Antiquities, vol. ii ( 3 d ed., 
 London, 1891) ; Cecil Torr, Ancient Ships (Cam¬ 
 bridge, 1894). * 
 
 TILISAGION, tris-ag'i-on or -a'gl-on. See 
 Doxology. 
 
 TBXSEC'TION OF AN ANGLE (from tri¬ 
 sect, from Lat. ires, three -(- sectus, p.p. of 
 secure, to cut). One of the three famous prob¬ 
 lems of antiquity, the others being the duplica¬ 
 tion of the cube (q.v.) and the squaring of the 
 circle. (See Circle; Quadrature.) This prob¬ 
 lem, like the quadrature of the circle, is almost 
 as old as geometry itself, but first received 
 thorough investigation at the hands of the Soph¬ 
 ists (400 b.c.). Hippias of this school invented 
 the quadratrix (see Quadrature), by which any 
 angle may be trisected. In the figure BD is a 
 quadrant of a circle, BG is an arc of the quad¬ 
 ratrix, and the construction involves the re- 
 DB BA 
 
 lation -=-. Hence, by dividing BA into 
 
 FD EII 
 
 segments having any given ratio, the quadrant 
 or any arc BD can be divided into arcs having 
 the same ratio. If the arc is to be trisected 
 the line corresponding to BA is trisected.' The 
 trisection of an angle is also accomplished by 
 means of the conchoid (q.v.) of Nicomedes 
 (180 B.c.). If AOB in the figure is the angle 
 to be trisected, C any point on OB, CM is JL 
 to OA and CP is [ | to OA, it is easily seen that, 
 if P can be found so that PN — 2 CO, then PO is 
 a trisection line of angle AOB. But the tram¬ 
 mel of the conchoid with its directrix resting 
 on CM, parameter AM = CB — 2 CO, its pole at 
 0, will describe a curve cutting CP in the re¬ 
 
 483 TEJSECTION OF AN ANGLE 
 
 quired point. Many other methods have been 
 devised for the solution of this problem. Viete 
 (1591) showed its relation to the solution of the 
 
 cubic equation. Gauss (1801) showed its re¬ 
 lation to cyclotomic equations. Other mathe¬ 
 maticians of the nineteenth century have de¬ 
 clared its solution impossible by means of the 
 
 straight edge and compasses (i.e., by the postu¬ 
 lates of Euclidean geometry). But the real 
 reason for the failure of this method to solve the 
 problem and also its associates was set forth by 
 Klein. 
 
 The argument may be briefly stated as follows: 
 (1) According to the formula of De Moivre 
 (q.v.) the roots of the equation ad — cos cp -f- i sin (p 
 
 cis (p, are X\ = cis^, x 2 = cis 
 
 O 
 
 0 + ' 
 
 -jIT, 
 
 X z = CIS 
 
 <p~\-4:l 
 
 3 
 
 (2) These roots are represented geometrically 
 
TRISMEGISTUS 
 
 TRISTAN DA CUNHA 
 
 484 
 
 by the vertices of an equilateral triangle in¬ 
 scribed in the unit circle with its centre at the 
 origin. The figure shows that to the root x ± 
 
 corresponds the argument 
 
 o 
 
 Hence the equa¬ 
 
 tion x 3 — cos 0 + i sin 0 is the analytic expres¬ 
 sion of the problem of the trisection of the 
 angle. No root of the equation can be expressed 
 as a rational function of cos 0 and sin 0. That 
 is, the equation is irreducible and can be solved 
 by the aid of a finite number of square roots 
 only for special values of 0. Hence the tri¬ 
 section of an arbitrary angle cannot be ef¬ 
 fected with straight edge and compasses. Con¬ 
 sult: Felix Klein, Famous Problems of Elemen¬ 
 tary Geometry (Eng. trans., Boston, 1897); 
 Dickson, “Constructions with Ruler and Com¬ 
 passes,” in J. W. A. Young, Monographs on 
 Topics of Modern Mathematics (New York, 
 1911); Arthur Mitzscherling, Das Problem der 
 Kreisteilung (Leipzig, 1913). 
 
 TRIS'MEGIS'TUS. See Hermetic. 
 
 TRXS'MUS NASCEN'TIUM (Neo-Lat., lock¬ 
 jaw of the new born). A form of lockjaw occur¬ 
 ring in newly born children a few days after 
 birth and usually fatal. In some cases the at¬ 
 tack comes in 8 or 10 days after birth. The 
 cause is infection of the umbilical stump with 
 tetanus bacilli. See Tetanus. 
 
 TRISSINO, tres'se'no, Giovanni Giorgio 
 (1478-1550). An Italian critic and author, 
 born at Vicenza. Excluded for Imperialistic af¬ 
 filiations from his native territory by the Sig- 
 noria of Venice in 1509, he spent some time in 
 Germany, at Ferrara, and at Florence, and in 
 1514 went to Rome, where he was received with 
 favor by Pope Leo X, who sent him on missions 
 to the Emperor Maximilian and to the Signoria 
 of Venice. At the instance of Leo X the ban of 
 proscription was taken off. He enjoyed the es- 
 teeip of Popes Clement VII and Paul III and 
 passed some time at Venice as Nuncio of the 
 former pontiff. Between 1532 and 1545 he lived 
 at Venice and Padua, maintaining a splendid 
 literary hospitality in his villa at Cricoli. In 
 1545 he returned to Rome, where he died. 
 Trissino, a man of less than ordinary artistic 
 vision, is an immensely important figure in liter¬ 
 ary history. His conversations in Florence 
 (1514) gave rise to Machiavelli’s Dialogo in- 
 torno alia lingua and thereafter to the violent 
 polemics of the following decades on the “ques¬ 
 tion of the Italian language.” (See Italian 
 Language.) His Epistola to Clement VII 
 (1527), his Grammatichetta and Dubbj gram¬ 
 matical! (1529) advocated an orthographical re¬ 
 form of the Italian language (Gk. e = It. open 
 e, u — It. close 0 , f = It. sonant z, c — It. sonant 
 s, etc.), which he applied to the printing of his 
 own works. By his (the first) edition of Dante’s 
 De vulgari eloquentia (1523) and in his dia¬ 
 logue II castellano (1528) he propounded the 
 theory of the “Italian Language,” before then 
 referred to as “Tuscan,” “Florentine,” or simply 
 “vulgar,” which aimed at the construction of an 
 Italian dictionary and grammar based on a 
 synthesis of the Italian dialects. This theory 
 triumphed in northern Italy, where Trissino’s 
 principal follower was Girolamo Muzio. 
 
 In literary theory Trissino was an enthu¬ 
 siastic follower of neo-Aristotelian doctrine and 
 an illustrator of the methods of its application 
 to creative work. So his Italia liberata dai 
 Goti (1547-48) is the first “regular” epic poem, 
 and his Sofonisba (1515) the first regular 
 
 tragedy in modern literature, though not even 
 this sole distinction of priority clings to his 
 Simillimi, based on the Mencechmi of Plautus. 
 These works illustrate the Renaissance principles 
 of the unities of time, place, and action, the re¬ 
 lations of the episodic to the main themes, the 
 use of the supernatural, of realism in manners 
 and customs, etc. Trissino’s selection of the 
 unrhymed liendecasyllabic verse for epic and 
 tragedy was a permanent acquisition for the 
 Italian classic stage; though in the epic it was 
 crowded out by the popular Italian octave stanza 
 used by Pulci, Boiardo, Ariosto, and Tasso. 
 Only an erudite curiosity attaches to Trissino’s 
 ideas and experiments in the adaptation of Greek 
 and Latin metres to Italian lyric verse. Con¬ 
 sult: Tuttle le opere di Giovanni Giorgio Tris¬ 
 sino (Verona, 1729) ; Ciampolini, La prima tra- 
 gedia regolare nella letteratura italiana (Lucca, 
 1884); Ermini, L’Italia liberata dai Goti di 
 G. G. T. (Rome, 1893) ; Morsolin, Giangiorgio 
 Trissino, monografia di un gentiluomo letterato 
 del secolo XVI (2d ed., Florence, 1894) ; Tra- 
 balza, Storia della grammatica italiana (Milan, 
 1908). 
 
 TRIST, Nicholas Philip (1800-74). An 
 American lawyer and diplomatic agent, born at 
 Charlottesville, Va. He was educated at the 
 United States Military Academy, but did not 
 graduate. He studied law under direction of 
 Thomas Jefferson, whose granddaughter he mar¬ 
 ried and of whose household he was a member, 
 but became a clerk in the United States Treas¬ 
 ury Department in 1824 and was private secre¬ 
 tary to President Jackson in 1829. He was 
 United States Consul at Havana (1834-36) and 
 chief clerk in the Department of State (1845). 
 During the Mexican War, after American suc¬ 
 cesses at Buena Vista and Vera Cruz, President 
 Polk, in April, 1847, appointed Trist special 
 agent to negotiate for peace, but without notify¬ 
 ing General Scott. On the arrival of Trist a 
 quarrel ensued between him and Scott. Nego¬ 
 tiations were fruitless until after the capture 
 of the city of Mexico and the resignation of 
 Santa Anna as President. The succeeding gov¬ 
 ernment desired peace, and Trist, though his 
 powers had been withdrawn, feeling that the wish 
 for peace in the United States would excuse the 
 irregularity, proceeded with the negotiations, by 
 the advice of General Scott, now his friend. The 
 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed Feb. 
 2 , 1848, and was ratified by the United States 
 Senate. Trist afterward practiced law and in 
 1870 was appointed postmaster at Alexandria, 
 Va. 
 
 TRIS'TAN. See Tristram. 
 
 TRISTAN DA CUNHA, tris-tan' da koon'va. 
 A group of three small volcanic islands in the 
 South Atlantic Ocean, 1500 miles south-south¬ 
 west of St. Helena and nearly midway between 
 Cape Town and Buenos Aires (Map: World, 
 Eastern Hemisphere, N 20). Total area, 44 
 square miles. The largest and only inhabited 
 island consists of an extinct volcano 8500 feet 
 high. The • climate is equable and healthful. 
 The inhabitants numbered 102 in 1914. They are 
 chiefly the descendants of the British soldiers 
 stationed there during Napoleon’s captivity at 
 St. Helena and of settlers from whaling ships. 
 They are supported by agriculture and have a 
 considerable number of cattle. They are also 
 remarkable in having no organized form of gov¬ 
 ernment. Access to the outer world is main¬ 
 tained by the annual visit of a British warship. 
 
TRISTRAM 
 
 TRISTAN UND ISOLDE 
 
 485 
 
 The islands were discovered in 1506 by the 
 Portuguese navigator Tristan da Cunha and 
 were taken by Great Britain in 1816. 
 
 TRISTAN (tnVtan) UND ISOLDE, e-z61'de. 
 An opera by Wagner (q.v.), first produced in 
 Munich, June 10, 1865; in the United States, 
 Dec. 1, 1886 (New York). 
 
 TRISTE'ARIN. See Stearin. 
 
 TRXS'TIA (Lat., laments). Five books of 
 short poems, in the elegiac metre, written by 
 Ovid between 9 and 12 a.d. during his banish¬ 
 ment at Tomi. 
 
 TRIS'TRAM, TRISTREM, or TRISTAN. 
 
 r J he hero of a Welsh or Armorican romance origi¬ 
 nally distinct from the Arthurian cycle, but early 
 incorporated with it. Tristram was the son of 
 Roland of Ermonie (or, according to other ver¬ 
 sions, of Rivalen of north Britain) by Blanche- 
 fleur, sister to King Mark of Cornwall. His 
 father slain, his mother dead of grief (which 
 she expressed in the child’s very name), Tris¬ 
 tram was reared by a faithful steward. At the 
 age of 15 he drifted to the court of his uncle. 
 King Mark, whose favor he won by his skill in 
 the chase and in minstrelsy. He siew in mortal 
 combat Moraunt, or Morolt, brother of the 
 Queen of Ireland, who had come to demand 
 tribute from King Mark. After suffering for 
 three years from severe wounds he sailed to 
 Ireland, where they were healed by Iseult (vari¬ 
 ously spelled), daughter of the Queen. On his 
 return to Cornwall, Tristram told his uncle of the 
 marvelous beauty of the Irish princess and was 
 sent back to Ireland to ask her hand in marriage 
 for the King. On the voyage from Ireland to 
 Cornwall, Tristram and Iseult drank of a love 
 potion intended for King Mark and ever after 
 loved each other. Iseult married Mark, but con¬ 
 trived, with the aid of her clever maid, to have 
 many secret interviews with Tristram. At 
 length the lovers were discovered, and Tristram 
 fled to Wales, and later to Brittany, where he 
 married another Iseult, the White-handed, daugh¬ 
 ter to Duke Florentine; but he never forgot 
 Iseult of Ireland. Desperately wounded, he sent 
 a messenger to Cornwall to summon her to heal 
 him once more. He directed the messenger to 
 hoist a white sail on the return voyage if the 
 princess were on board; if not, a black sail. The 
 Queen of Cornwall hastened to save her lover. 
 As the vessel neared the shores of Brittany, 
 Iseult of the White Hand saw the white sail; 
 but, fired with jealous hate for her rival, she 
 told her husband that the sail was black. Tris¬ 
 tram sank back and died. Iseult of Ireland fell 
 prostrate over the body of Tristram and died 
 of a broken heart. King Mark subsequently 
 learned the story of the love potion and buried 
 the lovers in one grave, planting over Iseult a 
 rose and over Tristram a vine, growing so inter- 
 wined that no one could separate them. 
 
 This passionate story, probably originating, 
 according to Miss Schoepperle, in a Celtic elope¬ 
 ment myth, got into literature in the twelfth 
 century and spread through western Europe. 
 Professor B6dier argues that the various ver¬ 
 sions preserved to us were all derived from one 
 poem probably composed in England by an Anglo- 
 Norman monk. This poem, of which all traces 
 are now lost, was of such beauty that it gave 
 definite form to the Tristram legend. Though 
 this ingenious theory has been the subject of 
 controversy, it is now becoming more universally 
 accepted. The later versions may, however, be 
 traced back t-o a poem, now existing only in 
 
 fragments, by an Anglo-Norman trouvere named 
 B^roul (about 1150). A little later than this 
 (about 1160) the theme was treated by Chrestien 
 de Troyes (q.v.) in a poem now lost. So far 
 as has been determined, the source of the many 
 later Tristrams is a very prolix poem by an 
 Anglo-Norman named Thomas (about 1170). 
 Before the close of the twelfth century Tristram 
 and Iseult were among the favorite themes of 
 the troubadours. From the French the romance 
 passed into the German Ti'istrant (about 1175) 
 by Eilhard of Oberge and the Tristant und Isolde 
 (between 1200 and 1225) by Gottfried of Strass- 
 burg. Gottfried’s poem, extending to 19,573 
 lines, is the most beautiful of all early versions. 
 Left incomplete, it was continued by Ulric of 
 Turheim and by Henry of Freiburg. The great 
 popularity of the romance in Germany is fur¬ 
 ther attested by numerous chapbooks. To the 
 year 1226 belongs a Scandinavian version, Tris¬ 
 tram Saga ok Isondar, and this in turn was put 
 into Icelandic prose. The earliest extant Eng¬ 
 lish version is known as Sir Tristrem. The only 
 extant manuscript belongs to the middle of the 
 fifteenth century. It was composed in the last 
 part of the thirteenth century and has been 
 ascribed to Thomas the Rhymer (q.v.). In 1469 
 was published at Rouen an immense prose Tris¬ 
 tram in French, which was translated into Ger¬ 
 man, Spanish, and Italian. It was also used by 
 Sir Thomas Malory (q.v.) for his Morte d’Arthur 
 (1485). In the nineteenth century Tristram 
 and Iseult became a favorite theme in England 
 and Germany. Following Malory, Tennyson 
 wove the story into the Idylls of the King (‘‘‘The 
 Last Tournament ’). In his noble Tristram and 
 Iseult Matthew Arnold awakened pity for 
 Iseult of Brittany. But Swinburne in his Tris¬ 
 tram of Lyonesse best expressed the tremendous 
 passion of the mediaeval tale. The theme was 
 treated splendidly by Wagner in his operatic 
 poem Tristan und Isolde (1859). Consult the 
 English Sir Tristrem as edited by G. P. McNeill 
 for the Scottish Text Society (Edinburgh, 1886), 
 and by E. Kolbing in Die nordische und die 
 englische Version der Tristansage (Heilbronn, 
 1878-82) ; Golther, Tristan und Isolde (L eipzig, 
 1907) ; M. W. Austin, Tristram and Iseult (Bos¬ 
 ton, 1905). A charming version of the Tris¬ 
 tram story is that of J. Bedier, he roman de 
 Tristan et Iseut (5th ed., Paris, 1902; Eng. 
 trans. by Florence Simmonds, London, 1910, and 
 by Hilaire Belloc, New York, 1914). Other 
 works of importance are E. Muret, Le roman de 
 Tristan par Beroul (Paris, 1903); Piquet, 
 L’Originalit6 de Gottfried de Strassbourg dans 
 Tristan et Isolde (Lille, 1905) ; J. Bedier, Le 
 roman de Tristan par Thornes (2 vols., Paris, 
 1902-05) ; id., Les deux poemes de La folie Tris¬ 
 tan (ib., 1907) ; W. Hertz, Tristan und Isolde 
 (Stuttgart, 1907); Gertrude Schoepperle, Tris¬ 
 tan and Isolt (2 vols., London, 1913) ; Passerini, 
 II romanzo di Tristano e Isotta bionda (Milan, 
 1914). 
 
 TRISTRAM, Henry Baker (1822-1906). 
 An English clergyman, traveler, and author, born 
 at Eglingham, Northumberland. He graduated 
 at Lincoln College, Oxford, in 1844 and in 1880 
 became rural dean of Durham. He traveled ex¬ 
 tensively in biblical lands and elsewhere and 
 published, among other works: The Great Sahara 
 (1860); Land of Israel (1865; 2d ed., 1882); 
 Natural History of the Bible (1867; 5th ed., 
 1880) ; Bible Places, or Topography of the Holy 
 Land (1872-97); Land of Moab (l873; 2d ed., 
 
TRISTRAM SHANDY 486 TRIUMVIRATE 
 
 1874) ; Pathways of Palestine (2 vols., 1882) ; 
 Fauna and Flora of Palestine (18S4); Eastern 
 Customs in Bible Lands (1894). 
 
 TRISTRAM SHANDY, The Life and 
 Opinions of. A novel by Laurence Sterne in 
 nine volumes (1759—G7). The chief interest of 
 the work is in its characters: Walter; Captain 
 Shandy (Uncle Toby), the real hero of the 
 storv; Corporal Trim; and Yorick. 
 
 TRITHE'MIUS, Johannes (1462-1516). A 
 German Catholic theologian and historian. His 
 name was Heidenberg, but he was called Tritheim 
 or Trithemius from his birthplace, Trittenheim. 
 In 1482 he entered the Benedictine monastery at 
 Sponheim, near Kreuznach, and in 1483 became 
 its abbot. Here he collected a library which 
 made the house famous. His rule was strict, 
 and his monks resented his long absence in the 
 neighboring country; so in 1506 he exchanged 
 Sponheim for the Scottish monastery of St. 
 James at Wurzburg, where he died. His writ¬ 
 ings are very numerous; his sermons to monks 
 were published in 1576, and his letters in 1536. 
 He was also a pioneer author in German Church 
 history and invented a popular system of short¬ 
 hand, Steganographia (Frankfort, 1606; new 
 ed., 1635), for which see Bailey, John Dee and 
 the Steganographia of Trithemius (London, 
 1879). Consult: J. Silbernagel, J. Trithemius 
 (2d ed., Landshut, 1868) ; W. Schneegans, Abt 
 Johannes Trithemius und Kloster Sponheim 
 (Kreuznach, 1882) ; Johannes Janssen, History 
 of the German People at the Close of the Middle 
 Ages, vol. i (Eng. trans. by A. M. Christie, Lon¬ 
 don, 1896). 
 
 TRFTHING. See Riding. 
 
 TEUTON (Lat., from Gk. Tplrwv). In Greek 
 mythology, a son of Poseidon and Amphitrite, 
 who dwells with his parents in a golden palace 
 at the bottom of the sea. He seems especially 
 connected with Boeotia and was perhaps origi¬ 
 nally a local divinity of Alalcomenae or Tanagra. 
 In this region took place the conflict of Hercules 
 with Triton, which was a favorite subject in 
 early works of art. In the fourth century b.c. 
 and later, we find a whole race of Tritons, to be 
 compared with Panes, Sileni, and similar multi¬ 
 plications. In art they are at first human to the 
 breast or waist, ending in the tail of a sea ser¬ 
 pent or fish. In later art we find the legs re¬ 
 placed by fishes’ tails, or else the figure that of 
 a sea centaur, with the head and trunk of a 
 man, the forelegs and body of a horse, and 
 passing into a serpent with a fish tail. Char¬ 
 acteristic is Triton’s conch shell, on which he is 
 represented as blowing stormily or gently. 
 
 TRITON. 1. A 
 
 genus of aquatic am¬ 
 phibians, the newts. 
 (See Newt. ) 2. Any 
 of several large gas¬ 
 tropod shells, espe¬ 
 cially a large species 
 (Triton tritonis ), 
 having a spiral shell 
 more than a foot 
 long, which is used as a war trumpet by natives 
 of the South Sea Islands, the example illustrated 
 being one from the Admiralty Islands. 
 
 TRI'TONE (from Gk. rplrovos, tritonos, hav¬ 
 ing three tones, from rpels, treis, three + tovos, 
 tonos, tone, sound, tension, strength, cord). In 
 music, a term denoting the augmented fourth 
 which is a succession of three whole tones, 
 as F—B. A progression by the interval of 
 
 TRITON CONVERTED INTO A 
 WAR TRUMPET. 
 
 the tritone was strictly forbidden by the older 
 theorists. 
 
 TRUTONID. A sea slug. See Nudibranchi- 
 ata and accompanying Colored Plate. 
 
 TRITYL'ODON (Neo-Lat., from Gk. rpeis, 
 treis, three -f- tv\os, tylos, knob, knot, callus -f- 
 68ovs, odous, tooth). A primitive multitubercu- 
 late mammal from the lower Jurassic beds of 
 South Africa. In some points it seems to resem¬ 
 ble the cynodont reptiles and has been placed 
 by some authorities in that group. 
 
 TRUUMPH (Lat. triumplius, OLat. triumpus , 
 triumph, victory, shout of joy; of uncertain 
 etymology). The name given in ancient Rome 
 to the highest public honor bestowed on a gen¬ 
 eral who had been successful in war. The victor, 
 after having pronounced a eulogy on the brav¬ 
 ery of his soldiers, ascended his triumphal car 
 and passed through the Porta Triumphalis 
 (which probably stood on the Campus Martius), 
 where the Senate met him, and the procession 
 was organized and entered the city, passing by 
 the Via Sacra to the Capitol. First marched 
 the Senate, headed by the magistrates; next 
 came a body of trumpeters; then a train of car¬ 
 riages and frames laden with the spoils of the 
 vanquished; then a body of flute players, fol¬ 
 lowed by the oxen to be sacrificed and the sacri¬ 
 ficing priests; then the distinguished captives 
 with bands of inferior prisoners in chains; after 
 them walked the lictors of the imperator, having 
 the fasces wreathed with laurel. Next came the 
 hero of the day—the imperator—in a chariot. 
 He was attired in an embroidered robe and flow¬ 
 ered tunic (the toga picta and the tunica palm- 
 ata; see Toga). He bore in his right hand a 
 laurel bough, in his left a sceptre, and had his 
 brows garlanded with Delphic laurel. He was 
 accompanied by his children and his intimate 
 friends. His grown-up sons, the legates, trib¬ 
 unes, and equites, rode behind; behind came the 
 rest of the soldiery, singing or jesting at their 
 pleasure, for it was a day of carnival and license. 
 When the procession had reached the foot of the 
 Capitoline Hill, some of the captive chiefs were 
 put to death; the procession, after waiting to 
 hear their death announced, mounted to the 
 temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, where the oxen 
 were sacrificed and the laurel wreath was placed 
 in the lap of Jupiter. In the evening the im¬ 
 perator was publicly feasted, and it was cus¬ 
 tomary to provide him a site for a house at the 
 public expense. Under the Empire generals serv¬ 
 ing abroad were considered to be the Emperor's 
 lieutenants, and therefore, however successful 
 in their wars, they had no claim to a triumph. 
 They received instead triumphal decorations 
 and other rewards. 
 
 The ovation, or lesser triumph (Lat. ovatio), 
 differed from the greater chiefly in that the 
 imperator entered the city on foot, clad in the 
 simple toga prcetexta of a magistrate, and wear¬ 
 ing a wreath, not of laurel, but of myrtle; that 
 he bore no sceptre, was not preceded by the 
 Senate and flourish of trumpets, nor followed by 
 his victorious troops, but only by the equites 
 and the populace, and that the ceremonies were 
 concluded by the sacrifice of a sheep instead of a 
 bull, whence, doubtless, the name ovatio (from 
 ovis, a sheep). Some variations of these cere¬ 
 monies are found in various authorities and on 
 various monuments. 
 
 TRIUMPHAL ARCH. See Arch, Tri- 
 
 UMBHAL OR MEMORIAL. 
 
 TRIUM'VIRATE (Lat. triumviratus, union 
 
TRIVANDRUM 487 TROCHOSPHERE 
 
 of three men, from triumvir, one of a board of 
 three men associated in a public office, from 
 trium, gen. pi. of tres, three + vir, man). The 
 name given in Roman history to the private 
 league entered into between Pompey, Csesar, and 
 Crassus—the three most powerful men of their 
 time. This compact was not a triumvirate in 
 the proper sense of the term, since it had no 
 legally constituted existence. The term is also 
 applied to the division of government between 
 Octavian (Augustus), Antonius, and Lepidus in 
 the civil wars that followed the murder of 
 Caesar—an arrangement sanctioned by the Sen¬ 
 ate. The former is usually called the first, the 
 latter the second triumvirate. Consult Charles 
 Merivale, The Roman Triumvirates (new ed.. 
 New York, 1889). 
 
 TRIVAN'DRUM. A military cantonment 
 and the capital of the native state of Travancore 
 (q.v.), Madras, India, 53 miles southwest of 
 dinnevelli and about 2 miles from the Arabian 
 Sea (Map: India, C 8). Among the features are 
 the fort with its Maharaja palaces, the temple to 
 Vishnu, the observatory, and the Napier Mu¬ 
 seum. The Maharaja College here is one of the 
 leading institutions for higher education in 
 India. There are also a Sanskrit college and 
 art and medical schools. Wood carving is the 
 principal industry. Pop., 1911, including can¬ 
 tonment, 63,561. 
 
 TRIV'ET (or TREVET), Nicholas (c.1258- 
 1328). An English historian, belonging prob¬ 
 ably to a Somerset family. He is said to have 
 studied at Oxford and at Paris and to have been 
 a Dominican friar in London, becoming even¬ 
 tually the prior of his house. He wrote exten¬ 
 sively on theology and Latin literature, but he 
 is chiefly known for his Annales Sex Regum An- 
 glice qui a Comitibus Andegavensibus Originem 
 Traxerunt (ed. by T. Hog for the English His¬ 
 torical Society, 1845). This chronicle history 
 of the Angevins is particularly valuable for the 
 reign of Edward I, the period in which the 
 author flourished. The entire period covered by 
 the Annales is from 1136 to 1307. 
 
 TRIVTUM (Lat., meeting of three roads). 
 In the curriculum of the early universities, the 
 first three of the seven liberal arts, which em¬ 
 braced grammar, logic, and rhetoric. See 
 Quadrivium. 
 
 TRO'AD. The name of the district in Mysia, 
 Asia Minor, controlled by Troy (q.v.), Priam’s 
 city. 
 
 TRQADES, tro'a-dez (Lat., from Gk. T pxddes, 
 the Trojan Women). A play by Euripides‘(455 
 B.c.), the scene of which is laid at Troy in the 
 Grecian camp, where the captured were allotted 
 to their conquerors. 
 
 TROBRIAND, tro'bre'aN', (Philippe) Regis 
 (de Keredern) de (1816-97) . A Franco-Amer¬ 
 ican soldier and writer. He was born near 
 Tours, France; was educated in Paris, Rouen, 
 Tours, and Poictiers; and in 1841 traveled in 
 America. In 1843 he married an American wife 
 and for 10 years lived part of the time in the 
 United States and part in Paris. From 1854 to 
 1861 he was joint editor of the Courrier des 
 Etats-Unis. He entered the Federal army as 
 colonel of the Fifty-fifth New York Volunteers 
 (Guard Lafayette, a French troop) in 1861; 
 took a conspicuous part in the battles of Fred¬ 
 ericksburg, Chancellorsville, and Gettysburg; 
 became a brigadier general of volunteers in 
 January, 1864; and commanded a division in 
 Grant’s campaign against Lee. He was brevetted 
 
 major general of volunteers in April, 1865; was 
 commissioned colonel of the Thirty-first Infantry 
 in the regular army in 1866; was brevetted 
 brigadier general of the United States army in 
 1867, and afterward commanded the districts of 
 Dakota, Montana, and Green River. In Jan- 
 uary, 1875, he put under arrest the Louisiana 
 Legislature in Governor William P. Kellogg’s 
 (q.v.) attempt to keep possession of the State 
 government. (See Louisiana, History.) In 
 1879 he retired from active service. He pub¬ 
 lished Les gentilshommes de Vouest, a novel of 
 the insurrection of 1832 (1841), and Quatre 
 ans de campagnes a Varmee du Potomac (1868), 
 which was translated into English in 1889 by 
 Dauchy. Consult The Life and Memoirs of 
 Comte Regis de Trobriand (New York, 1910), 
 by his daughter, M. C. Post. 
 
 TROCADERO, tro'ka/da'rd'. An elevation 
 on the right bank of the Seine, opposite the Pont 
 d’lena, named after a Spanish fort near Cadiz 
 taken by the French in 1823. The ground was 
 laid out in terraces for the exhibition of 1867, 
 and for that of 1878 the present Palais du Troca- 
 dero was erected. The building, by Davioud, an 
 immense structure in Oriental style, consists of 
 a central portion flanked by curving wings each 
 220 yards in length. It contains an immense 
 concert hall, seating 6000; two towers or belve¬ 
 deres; and in the wings a fine museum of casts 
 of French sculpture. 
 
 TROCHEE, tro'ke (Lat. trochceus, from Gk. 
 rpoxaios, trochaios, trochee, tribrach, running, 
 from rpoxos, trochos, a running, from rptyet*/, 
 trechein, to run). The name of a foot, or meas¬ 
 ure, in Greek and Latin verse, consisting of a 
 long and a short syllable (— w ). This rapid 
 measure was employed both in tragedy and in 
 comedy. By analogy the term is used in modern 
 verse to designate a dissyllabic measure consist¬ 
 ing of a stressed and an unstressed syllable, e.g.: 
 
 When' shall we' three meet' again' ? 
 
 See Versification. 
 
 TROCHEL’M XNTIIES, trok'el-min'thez 
 (Wheel Animalcules). A phylum composed 
 of the Rotifera, the Dinophilea, and the Gastro- 
 tricha, characterized by having the larva in the 
 form of a trochosphere (q.v.). 
 
 TROCHES, tro'kgz. Troches, also called pas¬ 
 tilles or lozenges, are small, flattened cakes, con¬ 
 sisting of medicinal substances mixed with sugar 
 and mucilage and agreeably flavored. They are 
 intended to be dissolved in the mouth and act 
 locally upon inflammatory conditions of that 
 cavity or the throat. There are nine official 
 troches in the United States Pharmacopoeia, as 
 follows: those of tannic acid, ammonium chloride, 
 cubeb, gambir, liquorice and opium, krameria, 
 potassium chlorate, santonin, and sodium bi¬ 
 carbonate. 
 
 TROCHILID^E, tro-klFi-dS. The family of 
 the hummingbirds (q.v.). 
 
 TROCHILUS, trf/ki-lus. 1. The typical 
 genus of hummingbirds (q.v.), now being sup¬ 
 planted by the name Archilochus. 2. The an¬ 
 cient name of a certain plover. See Crocodile 
 Bird. 
 
 TROCHOID, trd'koid. See Cycloid. 
 
 TROCHOSPHERE, trok'o-sfer (from Gk. 
 rpoxos, trochos, wheel + <rcpaipa, spliaira, ball, 
 sphere), or Trochosphore. A larval form com¬ 
 mon to many of the lower invertebrates, which 
 consists of an oval or pearlike body of micro¬ 
 scopic minuteness, with a broader and a nar- 
 
TROCHTJ 
 
 TROGLODYTES 
 
 488 
 
 rower end and a distinct bilateral symmetry. 
 The body is encircled by a double zone of * 
 strong cilia. The mouth, just behind this cir¬ 
 clet, leads into an alimentary canal extending 
 towards the small end, where an anal aper¬ 
 ture opens. The broader end exhibits sense 
 organs varying in different species in number 
 and character. From this kind of larva the 
 adult forms of the higher groups (many worms, 
 polyzoans, mollusks, etc.) are developed by some 
 sort of true metamorphosis, resulting in an ani¬ 
 mal utterly different; but in certain very lowly 
 groups, such as the wheel animalcules (Rotifera) 
 and certain closely allied microscopic aquatic 
 forms, no metamorphosis occurs, and the adult 
 may be looked upon as a somewhat modified 
 trochospliere. These groups have therefore been 
 associated bv some zoologists into a phylum 
 termed Trochelminthes. Consult Parker and 
 Haswell, Text-Book of Zoology (New York, 
 1910). 
 
 TROCHU, trO'shu', Louis Jules (1815-96). 
 
 A French general, born at Palais, in the De¬ 
 partment of Morbihan. After studying in the 
 General Staff Academy he fought, after 1846, 
 with great distinction in Algeria and in 1851 be¬ 
 came head of a bureau in the Ministry of War. 
 During the Crimean War he served as aid to 
 Saint-Arnaud and Canrobert, was made a general 
 of brigade, and at Sebastopol distinguished him¬ 
 self in the storming of the Malakov bastion, 
 Sept. 8, 1855. As general of division during the 
 Austro-Italian War of 1859 he did excellent serv¬ 
 ice at Solferino, assuming, after the conclusion of 
 peace, an important post in the War Department. 
 In 1867 he published anonymously L’Armee fran- 
 gaise en 1867, in which he criticized severely the 
 defects in the French army organization, thereby 
 losing favor at court. After the outbreak of the 
 war with Germany he became (August, 1870) 
 Governor of Paris and on the downfall of the 
 Second Empire, after Sedan, was made head of 
 the Government of National Defense, remaining 
 at the same time in command of the military 
 forces of the city. His half-hearted defense of 
 the capital subjected him to bitter criticism, 
 and, when further resistance to the besieging 
 forces had become impossible, he laid down 
 the office of Governor, Jan. 22, 1871, a week 
 before the capitulation of the city. In 1873 
 he resigned from the army and retired to private 
 life. In defense of his conduct during the siege 
 of Paris he published L’Empire et la defense 
 de Paris devant le jury de la Seine ^(1872) ; 
 Pour la verite et pour la justice (1873) ; La 
 politique et le siege de Paris (1874). 
 
 TROELS-LTTND, trols-lund, Troels Fred- 
 erik (1840-1921 ). A Danish historian, born in 
 Copenhagen. He took the degree of Ph.D. at 
 Copenhagen University in 1871 and for several 
 years was connected with the Royal Archives. 
 He was professor at the Military School of 
 Frederiksberg (1874-1900). His publications 
 include an important work on Scandinavian his¬ 
 tory, Danmarks og Norges Historic i Slutningen 
 af det 16te Aarliundrede (History of Denmark 
 and Norway at the End of the Sixteenth Cen¬ 
 tury) (14 vols., 1879-1901; in part trans. into 
 Ger.) ; Sundhedsbegreberne i Norden i 16de 
 Aarhundrede (1900) ; De tre nordiske Brodrefolk 
 (1906); Peder Oxe (1906); Historiske Fortal- 
 linger, Tider og Tanker (8 vols.). Troels-Lund’s 
 writings, notable for a brilliant narrative style, 
 brought him a reputation not only as one 
 of the most distinguished figures among Dan¬ 
 
 ish writers of his time, but as an author 
 of international importance. 
 
 TROELSTRA, trool'stra, Pieter Jelles 
 (1860- ). A Dutch Socialist leader and edi¬ 
 
 tor, born at Leeuwarden. He graduated a doc¬ 
 tor of laws from the University of Groningen 
 in 1888 and became an attorney in his native 
 citv. After he had been employed in various 
 lawsuits in behalf of striking workers, he be¬ 
 came editor in 1892 of De Sneeker Gourant , 
 which in 1893 was removed to Amsterdam under 
 the name De Xieuwe Tijd. De Baanbreker, 
 founded by Troelstra at Utrecht in 1893, became, 
 as De Soeiaaldemocrata, the official organ of the 
 Dutch Social Democratic Workers’ party. 
 When this party established its daily paper, 
 Het Volk, in 1900, Troelstra was made its chief 
 editor. Later he practiced law at Haarlem, but 
 in 1915 retired because of ill health. He wrote: 
 De Sociaaldemokratische arbeiderspartij in 
 Xederland (1896; 2d ed., 1899); Het kiesrecht 
 en de soeiaaldemokratie (1894); I an leed en 
 strijd (1898; 2d ed., 1899); Woorden van 
 vrouwen (1898) ; Het legerwetschandaal (1901) ; 
 Sociaal Christendom (1902); Tlieorie en beweg- 
 ing (1902); Inzake partijleiding (1906); Het 
 kindje (1909). 
 
 TRCE'ZEN (Lat., from Gk. Tpoitfv, Troizen ). 
 An ancient city of Greece in Argolis, about 2 
 miles from the Saronic Gulf, nearly opposite 
 Calauria. It played some part in Greek legend, 
 being closely associated with Attica, as the 
 birthplace of Theseus (q.v.), whose mother, 
 ^Ethra, was daughter of King Pittheus. Here 
 also was localized the story of the fatal love 
 of Phaedra (q.v.) for her stepson Hippolytus 
 (q.v.). In historic times it was a Dorian city. 
 During the invasion of Xerxes it took a promi¬ 
 nent part in the defense of Greece, sending ships 
 to the Greek fleet and receiving with great kind¬ 
 ness the Athenian women and children when 
 driven from their city by the Persian advance. 
 It was later a faithful ally of Sparta during 
 the Peloponnesian and Corinthian wars. Under 
 the Macedonian supremacy it changed masters 
 frequently, now being in the hands of Macedon, 
 again under Sparta, and again brought by 
 Aratus into the Achaean League. In Roman 
 times it seems to have continued to flourish, for 
 Pausanias (q.v.) gives a somewhat detailed ac¬ 
 count of the objects of interest in the place. 
 The site near the modern village of Damala is 
 marked by few ruins, and excavations under¬ 
 taken by the French school at Athens have 
 brought* to light little beyond the foundations 
 of some large buildings of rather uncertain use. 
 
 TROGLODYTES, trogffO-dlts (Lat. troglo- 
 dyta, from Gk. rpojyXodvrys, troglodytes, cave 
 dweller, one who creeps into holes, from rpwyXy, 
 trogle, cave, hole + dveiv, dyein, to enter,_ creep 
 into ). The name given by the Greeks to tribes or 
 races of uncivilized men, who dw r elt either in nat¬ 
 ural caverns or in holes which they had dug for 
 themselves in the earth. They are mentioned by 
 Strabo as existing as far west as Mauretania and 
 as far east as the Caucasus. Perhaps the best- 
 known troglodytes of ancient times were those 
 of southern Egypt and Ethiopia, where a consid¬ 
 erable extent of country was called Regio Trog- 
 lodytica. According to the Greek accounts they 
 could not speak articulately, but shrieked or 
 screamed like the lower animals. Their chief 
 occupation was herding cattle, and their habits 
 were rude and debased. They are said to have 
 had a community of wives and to have put to 
 
TROGON, HOOPOE, ETC. 
 
 1. GREEN TROGON or QUETZAL (Pharomacrus 
 
 mocinno). 
 
 2. LESSER HONEY-GUIDE (indicator minor). 
 
 3. YELLOW-THROATED BARBET (Caplto Richardsonl). 
 
 4. CAYENNE PUFF-BIRD ^Bucco Ordi). 
 
 5. MADAGASCAR HOOPOE (Upupa marginata). 
 

 THE Ur-ARY 
 
 gf t;:e 
 
 UNIVERSITY Of ILLINOIS 
 
 
 
TROGLODYTES 
 
 TROJAN WAR 
 
 489 
 
 death the aged and infirm. The name is occa¬ 
 sionally applied loosely to any class of cave 
 dwellers (q.v.). 
 
 TROGLODYTES. See Chimpanzee. 
 
 TRO'GON (Neo-Lat., from Gk. rpcjyuv, pres. p. 
 of Tpibyeiv, trogein, to gnaw). A bird of the 
 family Trogonidae, including about 50 species 
 remarkable for the beauty of their plumage, 
 which is soft, full, and brightly colored. The 
 bill is short, strong, with a wide gape; the tail 
 generally long, in some species very long; the 
 feet small, and frequently feathered almost to the 
 toes. The toes are two in front and two behind, 
 but, unlike all other zygod&ctylous birds, the 
 reversed toes are the first and second instead of 
 the first and fourth. They are tropical, abound¬ 
 ing in South America, but some occur in Asia and 
 a few in Africa. One species, the~copper-tailed 
 trogon (Trogon ambiguus), is found as far north 
 as the valley of the Rio Grande. It is 11 inches 
 long, bright metallic golden green, throat white, 
 breast and belly carmine, middle tail feathers 
 coppery green, the rest of the tail white and 
 black. The most gorgeous is the quetzal (q.v.). 
 Trogons are usually seen singly or in small 
 flocks and are unsuspicious. They remain most 
 of the time in the thick forest, resting during 
 the heat of the day. The Old World species feed 
 principally on insects, but American trogons eat 
 fruit and also catch insects, crabs, crayfish, 
 small lizards, snails, etc., getting most of this 
 on the wing or by clinging to branches of trees 
 like woodpeckers. Their notes are loud, rather 
 discordant cries, varied by clucking, whistling, 
 and other strange notes. No nest is made, the 
 round whitish eggs being laid in a hole excavated 
 in a rotting tree stub. The group is ancient, as 
 is known by fossil examples, and sufficiently dis¬ 
 tinct to be ranked as a suborder. Extended ac¬ 
 counts of the American trogons are given by 
 Sclater and Salvin in Biologia Centrali-Ameri¬ 
 cana, vol. iii (London, 1896). See Plate of 
 Trogon, Hoopoe, etc. 
 
 TRO'GUS POMPE'TUS. A Roman historian 
 of Gallic origin who lived during the reign of 
 Augustus, son of one of Caesar’s secretaries. He 
 was the author of Historice Philippicce (in 44 
 books), a universal history from the time of Ni- 
 nus, King of Assyria, down to 5 a.d. The origi¬ 
 nal work, which was drawn from some of the 
 best Greek historical writers, is lost, but an epit¬ 
 ome of it by Justin (q.v.) is still extant. In 
 addition to the historical narrative the Avork is 
 said to have contained interesting accounts re¬ 
 lating to geography, ethnography, and natural 
 science. Trogus is said to have written several 
 zoological and botanical works, based largely 
 on Aristotle and Theophrastus. Consult: A. H. 
 L. Heeren, Gommentationes de Trogi Pompeii 
 ejusque Epitomatoris Justini Fontibus et Auc- 
 toritate, printed in C. H. Frotscher’s edition of 
 Justinus (Leipzig, 1827-30) ; Crohn, De Trogi 
 apnd Antiquos Auctoritate (Strassburg, 1882) ; 
 Martin Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Lit- 
 teratur, vol. i, part i (3d ed., Munich, 1911). 
 
 TRO'ILTJS (Lat., from Gk. TpouAos). A son 
 of Priam, or of Apollo, who was slain by Achilles. 
 
 TROILUS AND CRES'SIDA. A drama by 
 Shakespeare, probably originally written about 
 1602 and revised before 1609, when it was printed 
 in two editions. The sources were probably 
 Chaucer, Le Fevre’s Recuyel of the Histories of 
 Trope, Lydgate’s Troy-Book, and perhaps Chap¬ 
 man’s Homer, partlv translated in 1597. 
 
 TROIS MOTJSQTTET AIRES, trwa mys'ke- 
 
 tar', Les (Fr., The Three Musketeers). A ro¬ 
 mance by Dumas (1844). The scene is laid 
 in the time of Richelieu, in whose affairs the 
 three famous guardsmen Athos, Porthos, and 
 Aramis and their companion D’Artagnan take 
 part. 
 
 TROITSK, tro'Itsk. A town in the Govern¬ 
 ment of Orenburg, Russia, on the Uya, 394 miles 
 northeast of Orenburg (Map: Russia, K 4). It 
 has a barter court, where an extensive barter 
 trade with the Kirghizes and other tribes is 
 transacted. Pop., 1910, 36,830. 
 
 TRO'JAN WAR. A famous legendary war, 
 generally placed about the beginning of the 
 tAvelfth century b.c.; undertaken by the Greeks 
 for the recovery of Helen, wife of" King Mene- 
 laus of Sparta, who had been carried off by 
 Paris, son of the Trojan King, Priam. At the 
 marriage of Peleus and Thetis, Eris (Discord), 
 who alone of the gods had not been invited to 
 the wedding, flung among the guests a golden 
 apple inscribed “For the Fairest.” This was 
 claimed by Juno, Minerva, and Venus. When 
 the goddesses referred the decision as to which 
 of them was the fairest to Paris, he decided in 
 favor of Aphrodite, thereby securing Helen by 
 her favor and bringing down on the Trojans the 
 lasting wrath of the slighted Juno and Minerva. 
 The expedition to avenge the injury to Menelaus 
 was placed under the command of Agamemnon, 
 King of Argos, and was joined by the Greek 
 heroes, including Achilles, Patroclus, the two 
 Ajaxes, Teucer, Nestor, Odysseus, Diomedes, and 
 Idomeneus. They assembled at Aulis with 100,- 
 000 men and 1186 ships and proceeded to Troy, 
 where their demand for the return of Helen was 
 refused. The siege was then begun. It lasted, 
 according to the usual interpretation, 10 years 
 and was terminated only by treachery, when the 
 Greek warriors were introduced into the city 
 in the interior of a great wooden horse. The 
 .sack and burning of Troy follow, with the es¬ 
 cape of iEneas, whose progeny were to be the- 
 founders of Rome. For a very different theory, 
 that the war was in fact a short war, consult B 
 O. Foster, “The Trojan War Again,” in Ameri¬ 
 can Journal of Philology, vol. xxxvi (Baltimore, 
 1915). 
 
 The story of the war is told in various classi¬ 
 cal epic poems, of which the Iliad is the most 
 famous. (See Homer. ) It terminates with the 
 death of Hector, the principal hero of the Tro¬ 
 jans. The Little Iliad, ascribed to Lesches of 
 Lesbos, was composed about 660 b.c. (See 
 Cyclic Poets.) In four books it gave the story 
 of the contest of Odysseus and Ajax, son of 
 Telamon, for the armor of Achilles, the deaths 
 of Ajax, Paris, and Eurypylus, the stealing of 
 the Palladium, and the construction of the 
 wooden horse. At this point the legend was 
 taken up by the Iliou Persis or Sack of Troy, by 
 Arctinus, in two books, ending with the escape 
 of Polyxena at the tomb of Achilles. The Nostoi 
 (Returns), attributed to Agias of Troezen, in 
 five books, told of the wanderings of Menelaus, 
 Calchas, and Neoptolemus and the murder of 
 Agamemnon. The Telegonia, by Eugammon of 
 Cyrene, related various adventures of Odysseus 
 after the slaying of the suitors, his death at the 
 hands of his son Telegonus (q.v.), and the lat¬ 
 ter’s marriage to Penelope. 
 
 The legendary history of Troy before the Tro¬ 
 jan War, like other Greek myths, varied much 
 in details. It was said that the place owed its 
 name to Ilus, son of Tros, son of Dardanus. Its 
 
TROLLE 
 
 490 
 
 TROLLOPE 
 
 walls were built by Poseidon for Laomedon, who, 
 however, cheated the god of his promised reward. 
 Hercules rescued Hesione, the daughter of Lao¬ 
 medon, from the sea monster to which she had 
 been exposed, but was likewise cheated by the 
 King, whereupon he and Telamon attacked and 
 captured the city. 
 
 The Trojan legend was very popular in the 
 Middle Ages and formed, with the Charlemagne 
 story and the Arthurian traditions, one of the 
 three great divisions into which the work of the 
 French romance writers falls. Celtic legends 
 tell of a certain Brutus who, driven from Troy, 
 founded Brutannia or Britannia. Geoffrey of 
 Monmouth calls him a great-grandson of AEneas. 
 
 (See Brutus or Brute, The Trojan. ) The 
 spread of the legend is due mainly to Benoit de 
 Sainte-More. The gist of the Iliad was used 
 in the Latin of Dictys of Crete and by Dares 
 the Phrygian. Benoit knew both Dictys and 
 Dares, but preferred the drier account of the 
 latter, in which the people of the West were re¬ 
 ported to descend from the Trojans. This was 
 used about 1200 by Herbart von Fritzlar and 
 about 1250 by Konrad von Wurzburg; before 
 1288 Guido della Colonna had recast it in Latin 
 prose. Benoit’s version may also be traced in 
 Boccaccio’s Filostrato (1344). This is the main 
 source of Chaucer’s Troylus and Cryseyde 
 (c.1369), as that is of Shakespeare’s play. Con¬ 
 sult : Dunger, Die Sage vom trojanischen Kriege 
 in den Bearbeitungen des Mittelalters (Dresden, 
 1869) ; G. E. B. Saintsbury, The Flourishing of 
 Romance and the Rise of Allegory (London, 
 1897). Consult the article “Troi'ka,” in Fried¬ 
 rich Liibker, Reallexikon des klassischen Alter- 
 tums, vol. ii (8th ed., Leipzig, 1914). See Troy. 
 
 TROLLE, troFle, Herluf (1516-65). A 
 Danish statesman and admiral, born on the 
 island of Lillo. During the early part of his 
 career he was a statesman and diplomat. He 
 possessed the trust and confidence of the King, 
 and in 1559 was appointed inspector of the fleet 
 with the rank of admiral. He applied himself 
 to his new duties with zeal and energy and 
 greatly improved the condition of the navy. In 
 1563 he succeeded Admiral Peder Skram (q.v.) 
 as commander in chief. In May of that year, 
 with an inferior force, he defeated a powerful 
 Swedish fleet off Oland and captured the Swedish 
 admiral. In August, in an indecisive action, he 
 met a second Swedish force under the celebrated 
 Swedish admiral Klas Horn, and in June, 1565, 
 he again fought Horn at Femern without either 
 side achieving a victory. Trolle, however, was 
 severely wounded and died soon after. When 
 studying at Wittenberg, he became a close friend 
 of Melanchthon. His estate, Herlufsholm, he 
 turned into a school and home for children of 
 nobles and nonnobles alike, 
 
 TROLLEY (from troll, from OF. troller, trau- 
 ler, troler, Fr. trdler, to ramble, stroll, drag 
 about, probably from MHG., Ger. trollen, to roll, 
 run). A word first coined in England and 
 there used in the sense of a handcart and then 
 of a truck. In the United States and Canada 
 it means a sort of grooved metallic sheave or 
 pulley in contact with an overhead electrically 
 charged wire and connected with a rod or flexible 
 conductor to an electric motor on some moving 
 vehicle, such as an electric locomotive or street 
 car, so that the actuating current from the 
 power house may be transmitted, as the trolley 
 rolls on the charged wire. See Electric Rail¬ 
 ways. 
 
 TROLLING, troFlng. A form of angling. 
 Some trolling is from a moving boat; others 
 troll from the river or lake bank, winding in 
 the bait with the reel or moving it with the rod, 
 and still others troll in the surf, where the cur¬ 
 rent of tides or undertow of the sea carries 
 the bait. If a spinning artificial frog or fish 
 is used, the connection with the line should be 
 made by means of a swivel, to prevent the line 
 from twisting. This is not necessary if the lure 
 is a spoon which revolves without moving the 
 bait. The heaviest fish trolled for in fresh 
 water is the maskinonge, the standard bait for 
 which is a frog alive or imitation, but an effective 
 one is the spoon, preferably showing a golden 
 hue, size No. 8, the feathers at the head of 
 which should be bright scarlet, and a single 
 hook. The bluefish is taken by trolling from a 
 boat in motion or from a stationary boat into the 
 waters around which have been thrown small 
 pieces of menhaden. The Spanish mackerel is 
 taken by trolling, and many other fish of the 
 Atlantic and Pacific and of the Gulf. Off the 
 Florida coast and in the Gulf the tarpon is 
 taken by trolling from a slowly rowed boat. On 
 the California coast the tuna, the yellowtail, and 
 barracuda have been taken on hook. See 
 Angling; Bait Fishing; Fly Casting; Tar¬ 
 pon Fishing. 
 
 TROL'LIUS. See Globe Flower. 
 
 TROLLOPE, trol'lup, Anthony (1815y82). 
 An English novelist, born in London, April 24, 
 1815, son of Frances Trollope (q.v.). Educated 
 at Winchester and at Harrow, he proved a dull 
 scholar, and his poverty made his school days 
 most unhappy. In 1834 he obtained an official 
 position in the General Post Office in London. 
 While there he found time to amuse the public 
 with a series of novels of remarkable merit. 
 His first work to attract attention, The Warden 
 (1855), was followed by a continuation entitled 
 Barchester Towers (1857), perhaps the most 
 widely read of all his books. In rapid succes¬ 
 sion came Dr. Thorne (1858) ; The Three Clerks 
 (1858) ; The Bertrams (1859) ; Castle Richmond 
 (I860) ; Framley Parsonage (1861) ; Orley Farm 
 (1862) ; The Small House at Allington (1864) ; 
 Can you Forgive her? (1864-65); The Last 
 Chronicle of Bar set (1867); Phineas Finn 
 (1869); The Eustace Diamonds (1873); Phineas 
 Redux (1874) ; The Way we Live now (1875) ; 
 Is he Popenjoy ? (1878); and others. Trollope 
 also published volumes of travel, among them 
 being North America (1862), Australia and New 
 Zealand (1871-72), and South Africa (1878). 
 In biography he wrote a Life of Csesar (1870) 
 and one of Cicero (1880), besides sketches of 
 Thackeray (1879) and Palmerston (1882). His 
 Autobiography appeared in 1875-76. He died 
 at Harting, Sussex, Dec. 6, 1882. 
 
 Trollope is one of the most admirable of 
 English realists. He delineates the English so¬ 
 ciety of his time with wonderful penetration 
 and with an equal command of humor and of 
 pathos. He particularly excels in depicting life 
 in the cathedral towns, and his portraits of 
 bishops, archdeacons, and the minor clergy are 
 remarkable for their truth and humor. His Mrs. 
 Proudie in Barchester Towers and again in The 
 Last Chronicle of Barset is perhaps the best of 
 the shrewish type since Shakespeare’s Katherine. 
 Very attractive, too, are his young girls, as Lily 
 Dale, Mary Thorne, and Grace Crawley. Trol¬ 
 lope did not himself lay any especial claim to 
 psychological insight, yet it would be hard to 
 
TROLLOPE 
 
 TROMBONE 
 
 491 
 
 find in English fiction anything more true and 
 delicate than his analysis of the conscience of 
 Septimus Harding in The Warden, or anything 
 more poignant than his study of jealousy in He 
 Knew he Was Right. Trollope’s snobs, his rus¬ 
 tics, and his husband-hunting young women are 
 all draAvn with surprising vividness. On the 
 whole, his best work is contained in The Chroni¬ 
 cles of Barsetshire (13 vols., New York, 1892) ; 
 yet many of his less read novels, such as The Way 
 we Live now, The American Senator ( 1877), and 
 The Claverings (1867) are very little inferior. 
 Curious facts concerning his life and methods 
 of composition may be found in his Autobiogra¬ 
 phy (New York, 1883). Consult also: Henry 
 James in Partial Portraits (New York, 1899) ; Id. 
 T. Peck’s Introduction to vol. i of the Royal 
 Edition of Trollope’s best-known novels (Phil¬ 
 adelphia, 1900) ; James Bryce, Studies in Con¬ 
 temporary Biography (New York, 1903) ; W. L. 
 Cross, Development of the English Kovel (new 
 ed., ib., 1905) ; and for combined criticism and 
 biography, T. H. S. Escott, Anthony Trollope 
 (ib., 1913). 
 
 TROLLOPE, Edward (1817-93). An Eng¬ 
 lish clergyman and antiquary, educated at 
 Eton and Oxford, graduating B.A. from St. Mary 
 Hall in 1839. Ordained priest in the Anglican 
 church (1841), he held various preferments, be¬ 
 coming Bishop of Nottingham in 1877. As secre¬ 
 tary and as president of the Associated Archi¬ 
 tectural Societies, he took an active and judicious 
 part in the work of Church restoration. Among 
 his works are: Illustrations of Ancient Art, 
 Selected from Objects Discovered at Pompeii and 
 Herculaneum (1854); Life of Pope Adrian IV 
 (1856) ; Handbook of the Paintings and Engrav¬ 
 ings Exhibited at Nottingham, Illustrating the 
 Caroline Civil War (1864) ; Notices of Ancient 
 and Medieeval Labyrinths (1866). 
 
 TROLLOPE, Mrs. Frances (1780-1863). 
 An English novelist and miscellaneous writer, 
 and mother of Anthony Trollope (q.v.), born 
 at Stapleton, near Bristol, March 10, 1780. 
 Her father, William Milton, was subsequently 
 vicar of Heckfield in Hampshire. In 1809 she 
 was married to Thomas Anthony Trollope, a 
 barrister. In 1827 she went to America and dur¬ 
 ing a three years’ residence in the United States 
 gathered the materials of her first book, Domes¬ 
 tic Manners of the Americans (1832). This 
 work attracted great attention, and the severity 
 of certain of its strictures was much resented 
 in the United States, as was natural where the 
 author’s tendency towards broad humor magni¬ 
 fied vulgarity and left a picture not entirely 
 authentic. Indeed, in 1833 appeared a pamphlet 
 entitled American Criticisms. After the death 
 of her husband (1835) Mrs. Trollope had to turn 
 to literature for a living. For 20 years book 
 after book came from her pen. Of her novels 
 perhaps the best were: The Vicar of I Vrexhill 
 (1837); The Widow Barnaby (1838), and the 
 sequels of the latter, The I Widow Married (1840) 
 and The Barnabys in America (1843). Mrs. 
 Trollope’s last years were passed in Florence 
 with her eldest son, Thomas Adolphus Trollope 
 (q.v.). She died at Florence, Oct. 6, 1863. 
 The Domestic Manners of the Americans was 
 edited by H. T. Peck (New York, 1896). Con¬ 
 sult Frances Trollope, by her daughter-in-law, 
 Frances Eleanor Trollope (London, 1895). 
 
 TROLLOPE, Frances Eleanor. See Trol¬ 
 lope, Thomas Adolphus. 
 
 TROLLOPE, Thomas Adolphus (1810-92). 
 Vol. XXII.— 32 
 
 An English author, born in London, April 29, 
 1810. His mother was Frances Trollope (q.v.), 
 and Anthony Trollope (q.v.) was a younger 
 brother. He was educated at Winchester and 
 at Oxford. In 1843 he settled at Florence, where 
 his house on the Piazza Maria Antonia became 
 the gathering place of English and American 
 authors traveling in Italy. To his hospitable 
 wife Landor addressed the lines, “To Theodosia.” 
 Like his mother and brother, Trollope wielded 
 a ready pen. Not reckoning a prodigious num¬ 
 ber of articles contributed to newspapers and 
 other periodicals, he published fully 60 volumes; 
 and, it is said, he was always interesting. His 
 most conspicuous works were connected with 
 Italy. Among them are: Impressions of a Wan¬ 
 derer in Italy, etc. (1850); The Girlhood of 
 Catherine de’ Medici (1856) ; A Decade of Ital¬ 
 ian Women (1859) ; Filippo Strozzi: A History 
 of the Last Days of the Old Italian Liberty 
 (1860); A Lenten Journey in Umbria and the 
 Marches of Ancona (1862); A History of the 
 Commonwealth of Florence to the Fall of the 
 Republic in 1531 (1865) ; The Story of the Life 
 of Pius IX (1877). Trollope also wrote many 
 novels. His last years were passed in England. 
 He died at Clifton, Nov. 11, 1892. 
 
 His second wife, Frances Eleanor Trollope, 
 wrote Black Spirits and White (1877); That 
 Unfortunate Marriage (1888) ; Frances Trollope: 
 Her Life and Literary Work (2 vols., 1895). 
 Consult Trollope’s reminiscences under the titles 
 What I Remembered (2 vols., London, 1887) and 
 Further Reminiscences (ib., 1889). 
 
 TROLLS (Icel., Swed. troll, troll; connected 
 with Ger. Droll, Troll, troll, Eng. droll). In 
 mythology, misshapen dwarfs. They inhabited 
 hills and mounds, had abnormal thieving pro¬ 
 pensities, stole children and substituted their 
 own offspring. They were peculiarly sensitive 
 to noise, which was their especial aversion, 
 as it reminded them of the hammer of Thor, 
 which he was accustomed to throw after them. 
 They were called “the hill people.” Though 
 strong, they were easily outwitted by men. 
 They had the power to make themselves invisible, 
 to confer health and prosperity, and to foresee 
 the future. 
 
 TROM'BONE (It. trombone, augmentative of 
 tromha, trumpet, probably from OHG. trumba, 
 trumpa, Ger. Trommel, drum; ultimately con¬ 
 nected with Eng. drum ) . A musical instrument 
 of the trumpet family, the tones of which are 
 produced by means of a slide mechanispj. In 
 its present form it was known as early as the 
 beginning of the sixteenth century. To-day the 
 trombone is made in four different sizes, known 
 as the alto, tenor, bass, and contrabass trom¬ 
 bone. The compass of the alto trombone is 
 from A to efc> 2 , that of the tenor trombone from 
 E to bb 1 , that of the bass trombone from jB to 
 f 1 , and that of the contrabass trombone from 
 iE to d 1 . Besides this regular compass eacli 
 trombone is capable of producing seven pedal 
 tones, descending chromatically and beginning 
 a tritone (q.v.) below the lowest tone of the 
 compass of the instrument. The intermediate 
 tones between the highest pedal tone and the 
 lowest regular tone are wanting. The trombones 
 are nontransposing instruments, and the notes 
 all sound as written. Recently trombones have 
 been constructed in which the sliding mechanism 
 is replaced by piston or rotary valves. These 
 instruments permit more rapid execution than 
 the sliding trombones, but are much inferior 
 
TROPACOCAINE 
 
 492 
 
 TEOMP 
 
 to the latter in purity of intonation. See Or¬ 
 chestra. 
 
 TEOMP, tromp, Cornelis (1629-91). A 
 Dutch admiral, second son of Martin Tromp. 
 He was born at Rotterdam. As a youth he led 
 a squadron against the Barbary pirates. He 
 became rear admiral in 1653. With Opdam he 
 commanded the Dutch forces in the disastrous 
 battle of Lowestoft (June 13, 1665) and in the 
 rout succeeded in saving a part of the fleet. 
 In June, 1666, he was with De Ruyter in a des¬ 
 perate four days’ battle in the Downs against 
 an English fleet under Monk and Prince Rupert, 
 the combat resulting in victory for neither side. 
 In August his conduct in the battle of Dunkirk 
 led De Ruyter to prefer charges against him 
 which caused his removal. When war broke 
 out in 1672 between Holland and the allied 
 English and French, Tromp was restored to 
 his command and fought with consummate brav¬ 
 ery on June 7 and 14, 1673, against the com¬ 
 bined English and French fleets, under Prince 
 Rupert and D’Estrees, driving the enemy into 
 the Thames. On August 21 a third great bat¬ 
 tle was fought near the Zealand coast. After the 
 conclusion of peace Charles II made Tromp 
 Baron (1675). Tromp subsequently fought in 
 the employ of the Danes against the Swedes 
 and after De Ruyter’s death was made com¬ 
 mander in chief of the naval forces of the 
 Dutch. He died May 29, 1691, and was buried 
 at Delft by his father’s side. 
 
 TROMP, Martin Harpertzoon (incorrectly 
 Van Tromp) (1597-1653). A celebrated Dutch 
 admiral, born at Brielle. He went to sea at a 
 very early age, was made prisoner in an engage¬ 
 ment with an English frigate, in which his 
 father was killed, and for more than two years 
 was held in confinement on board an English 
 vessel. For some time after this his history 
 is obscure, but in 1624 he appears as captain of 
 a frigate in the Dutch navy, and in 1637 was 
 made vice admiral. In 1639 he won a brilliant 
 victory over a Spanish fleet off Gravelines in the 
 Strait of Dover, destroying 49 of the enemy’s 
 ships with the loss of only one vessel. His 
 greatest fame, however, was gained in the war 
 against England which broke out in 1652. In 
 May of that year he was worsted by Blake and 
 was compelled to yield the command to De 
 Ruyter, but, restored to his post in November, 
 he inflicted a severe defeat on Blake off the 
 Goodwin Sands and for a time was master of the 
 Channel. In February, 1653, while convoying 
 a large merchant fleet through the Channel, he 
 made a gallant running fight against a superior 
 English fleet under Blake, Penn, and Monk. In 
 June he encountered the English in the Channel 
 and was compelled to seek refuge in the Texel, 
 after losing 17 of his ships. In the first days 
 of August he once more took to the sea, and in 
 a battle against the English fleet, under Monk, 
 off Ter Heyde, which raged from August 8 to 
 August 10, he lost 26 of his ships and his life. 
 He was buried at Delft, and a splendid monu¬ 
 ment marks the grave of the victor in 33 naval 
 combats. 
 
 TROMPETER VON SAKKINGEN, tr6m- 
 
 pfi'ter fon zek'Ing-en, Der. An opera by Nessler 
 (q.v.), first produced in Leipzig, May 4, 1884; 
 in the United States, Nov. 23, 1887 (New 
 York). 
 
 TROMPETER VON SAKKINGEN, Der 
 
 (Ger., The Trumpeter of Sakkingen). An ex¬ 
 traordinarily popular poem by Joseph Viktor 
 
 von Scheffel (1853). The story is a legend con¬ 
 nected with a seventeenth-century tombstone in 
 the churchyard of Sakkingen which records the 
 death of Werner Kirchhofer, a musician, and 
 Maria Ursula, daughter of the Baron of 
 Sakkingen. 
 
 TROMSO, troms'e. A citv on the northwest 
 coast of Norway, in Tromso Amt (county), 
 and an episcopal city in Tromso Stift (diocese) 
 (Map: Norway, F 2). Beautifully located on a 
 fertile island, it has magnificent surroundings 
 of well-formed, snow-clad mountains. Owing 
 to the mildness of the Gulf Stream, which sweeps 
 the coast of Norway, its mean temperature is 
 36.4° F. The vegetation of the island is re¬ 
 markably luxuriant, and it raises barley and 
 potatoes. It has a town hall, fire department, 
 water works, electric lighting, three hospitals, 
 schools, a seminary for teachers, a navigation 
 school, a school for machinists, an Arctic mu¬ 
 seum, boat and ship building establishments, 
 fish-oil refineries, net and rope factories, and 
 dairies. All coast steamers call. It engages in 
 very productive fisheries in the Atlantic (near 
 Iceland) and in the Arctic Ocean. Imports 
 are grain, flour, coal, textiles, and salt. The 
 coast scenery, with numerous islands and snow- 
 clad mountains, is wild and beautiful. Tromso 
 dates from about 1250. Pop., 1910, 7633. 
 
 TRONDHJEM, trOnd'yem, THRONDHJEM 
 (DRONTHEIM). A city of Norway, situated 
 at the mouth of the Nid River, on the south 
 shore of the Trondhjem Fiord, 240 miles north 
 of Christiania (Map: Norway, D 5). Although 
 it is so far north, its climate is remarkably 
 mild, and the fiord never freezes. On one of 
 the surrounding picturesque hills stands the 
 fortress of Christianssten. Another fort is on 
 the small island of Munkholm in the fiord op¬ 
 posite the city, celebrated as the place of impris¬ 
 onment of the Danish Minister Griffenfeld (q.v.). 
 The town is regularly laid out with wide 
 streets. Many of the houses are built of wood. 
 The principal building is the large cathedral, 
 probably the finest church in Scandinavia. It 
 was founded in the eleventh century over the 
 tomb of St. Olaf and consists of a Gothic nave 
 and choir with a Romanesque transept. It has 
 latterly been restored. Noteworthy also are the 
 arsenal in the old Kongsgaard, the fisheries mu¬ 
 seum, the leading library, the Stiftsgaard, the 
 theatre, the Art Industry Museum, the museum 
 of the Society of Sciences. The industries are 
 represented by saw mills, wood-pulp factories, 
 fish-curing establishments, machine shops, and 
 shipyards. The commerce is very considerable. 
 It amounts to over $19,315,000 annually, while 
 the shipping in 1913 amounted to 832,400 tons. 
 The chief exports are copper ore from the Roros 
 mines, also iron and pyrites, timber, wood pulp, 
 and fish. Pop., 1901, 38,156; 1910, 44,996. 
 
 Trondhjem was founded by Olaf Tryggvason, who 
 built a palace there in 997. Its early name was 
 Nidaros. During the Middle Ages it was an im¬ 
 portant city and a goal of pilgrimage. 
 
 TRONEGE, Hagen von. See Hagen, or 
 Hagen von Tronege. 
 
 TROOP. See Army Organization ; Squadron. 
 
 TROOP'IAL (Fr. troupial, from troupe, 
 troop). A book name for the American hang- 
 nests and blackbirds of the family Icteridae. 
 
 TROOST'ITE. See Metallography, Heat 
 Treatment ; Willemite. 
 
 TRO'PACO'CAINE. A drug having the gen¬ 
 eral anaesthetic and mydriatic qualities of co« 
 
TROPJEOLIN 
 
 493 TROPICAL BIG LEG 
 
 caine. It is an alkaloid and is extracted from 
 a small-leaved variety of coca growing in Java. 
 It is used as tropacocaine hydrochloride, and it 
 is said to be more active and less toxic than 
 cocaine. 
 
 TROPAS'OLIN. See Coal-Tar Colors. 
 
 TROPAUOLUM (Neo-Lat., from Gk. rpoiraios , 
 tropaios, relating to turning or change, from 
 TpoTn ], trope, a turning, from rpeireiv , trepein, 
 to turn), Nasturtium, Indian Cress, Yellow 
 Larkspur. A genus of the family Tropseolaceae, 
 containing about 50 South American species of 
 beautiful twining or spreading annuals and per¬ 
 ennials, producing orange-yellow and sometimes 
 
 very dark purple or blue flowers in summer. 
 Many are cultivated for ornament upon arbors 
 and trellises. The pickled fruits are sometimes 
 employed as a substitute for capers, and the 
 fleshy rootstock of several species as a human 
 food. The best-known species is TropcEolwm 
 majus, a climbing or trailing annual in northern 
 climates, long known in the United States as an 
 ornamental plant. Dwarf varieties of this are 
 commonly grown in beds and borders. Tropoeolum 
 minus resembles the foregoing, but is of weaker 
 growth and produces smaller flowers. Tropceo- 
 lum lobbianum, a native of Colombia, is a vig¬ 
 orous clrmbing species, of which several beauti¬ 
 ful varieties are in cultivation. Tropceolum pere- 
 grinum, sometimes called canary-bird flower, is 
 grown as an annual in outdoor culture and as a 
 perennial in conservatories. Tropccolum tube- 
 rosuln, which produces scarlet and yellow flow¬ 
 ers in the late summer, yields edible tubers, 
 which are used as food in Peru. In northern 
 climates the tubers are taken up in the fall and 
 kept in a dry place during the winter. The an¬ 
 nual species are grown from seeds sown in the 
 spring in ordinary garden soil. The perennial 
 species are propagated by the tubers or by cut¬ 
 tings of the young shoots grown under glass or 
 by seeds. The perennials need rich soil and 
 plenty of moisture. 
 
 TROPE, tr6p. A figure of speech. See Rhet¬ 
 oric, Figures of. 
 
 TROPEO'NIUS (Lat., from Gk. UpocpdjvLos ). 
 
 An ancient god of the earth, worshiped at 
 Livadia in Boeotia, where he had a famous ora¬ 
 cle in a subterranean cavern. He who wished 
 to consult the oracle prepared himself by fast¬ 
 ing, sacrifices, and purifications in a building 
 dedicated to Tyche (Fortune) and Agathodae- 
 mon (Good Luck). A-sheep was sacrificed to 
 Agamedes, brother of Trophonius; water from 
 two springs, Forgetfulness and Memory, was 
 drunk; and the consulter descended by a ladder 
 to a vault opening. Through this the feet were 
 inserted, a honey cake to appease the spirits 
 was grasped in each hand, and then some hidden 
 force swept the visitor into the inner recesses, 
 where he saw visions or heard voices, and finally 
 returned feet foremost through the same open¬ 
 ing. He was then seated on the stone of Re¬ 
 membrance and questioned by the priests, who 
 interpreted his visions. Legend also told how 
 Agamedes and Trophonius (sons of Erginos and 
 famous early architects) built the temple at 
 Delphi, a treasury for King Hyrieus of Hyria 
 in Boeotia, and other buildings. According to 
 the story, they left a stone loose in the treasury 
 and thus availed themselves of the King’s riches 
 at their pleasure. At length Agamedes was 
 caught in a trap, whereupon Trophonius cut 
 off his brother’s head and escaped, but at Liva¬ 
 dia was swallowed up by the earth. Another 
 version laid the scene with King Augeas in 
 Elis and represented Agamedes as the father of 
 Trophonius and Cercyon. Trophonius cut off 
 his father’s head to escape detection and, while 
 Cercyon went to Athens, retired to Boeotia, 
 where he built himself an underground chamber. 
 The same story is told by Herodotus of King 
 Rhampsinitus in Egypt and is a widely dif¬ 
 fused folk tale. 
 
 TROPHY (OF. trophee, Fr. trophee, from 
 Lat. trophceum, tropceum, from Gk. Tpoiraiov, 
 tropaion, monument of an enemy’s defeat, neut. 
 sing, of Tpoiralos. tropaios , relating to turning or 
 change). A memorial of victory erected on the 
 spot where the enemy had been turned to flight. 
 Among the Greeks (with the exception of the 
 Macedonians, who erected no trophies) one or 
 two shields and helmets of the routed enemy, 
 placed upon the trunk of a tree, served as the 
 sign and memorial of victory. After a sea fight 
 the trophy consisted of the beaks and stern or¬ 
 naments of the captured vessels, set up on the 
 nearest coast. It was considered wrong to de¬ 
 stroy such a trophy and equally wrong to repair 
 it, when it had fallen down through time, for 
 animosity ought not to be perpetual. 
 
 TROPIC (from Lat. tropicus, from Gk. Tpoiri- 
 kos, tropikos, relating to a turn or change, or 
 to the solstice, from rpoirr), trope, a turning). 
 One of two parallels of latitude on the terrestrial 
 globe, passing through the most northerly and 
 southerly points on the earth’s surface at which 
 the sun can ever be directed overhead. The 
 tropic north of the equator is called the tropic 
 of Cancer, because the sun at the summer sol¬ 
 stice (at which time it is vertically over the 
 tropic) enters the constellation of Cancer; and 
 the southern one is, for a similar reason, denom¬ 
 inated the tropic of Capricorn. The distance of 
 the tropics from the equator, corresponding to 
 the obliquity of the ecliptic, is about 23% de¬ 
 grees^ They are not absolutely fixed at a uni¬ 
 form distance from the equator, but the limits 
 of their variation are extremely narrow. See 
 Perturbations. 
 
 TROPICAL BIG LEG. See Barbados Leg. 
 
TROPIC BIRD 
 
 TROPISM 
 
 TROPIC BIRD, or Boatswain Bird. A sea¬ 
 bird of the family Phaethontidae, related to the 
 gannets, having long wings and the two central 
 tail quills long and slender. Only three species 
 are known, all tropical, often wandering hun¬ 
 dreds of miles from land to hover about vessels. 
 Their flight is graceful; and they capture fish 
 by plunging in the water, often from a great 
 height. They breed upon rocky cliffs, making no 
 nests and laying a single pale-brown, spotted 
 egg. They are nearly helpless on land, and are 
 often caught at their breeding places and robbed 
 of their long tail feathers, prized among savages 
 as decorations. The yellow-billed tropic bird 
 (Phdethon flavirostris) breeds in the Bermudas 
 and West Indies and is white, with black on the 
 wings. The other species belong mainly to the 
 Indian and South Pacific oceans. See Plate of 
 Fishing Birds. 
 
 TROPISM (from trope, from Gk. Tporrri, trope, 
 a turning). The act of turning towards or be¬ 
 ing oriented by the stimulus of light, gravity, 
 wind, food, and so on. Thus, heliotropism, the 
 first to be used of the many terms ending in 
 tropism, means turning to the light. At first 
 the term was restricted to such plants as the 
 sunflower, which turns after or follows the sun, 
 owing to the stimulus of the sun’s rays. It was 
 then found that animals were heliotropic, and 
 further studies on the acts of animals in response 
 to different physical stimuli have resulted in a 
 somewhat extensive nomenclature. Tropism may 
 be positive or negative. Certain plants, as 
 plasmodia, and animals, as the sea cucumber, 
 the starfish, and even the lady beetle, which are 
 positively geotropic, are forced when on vertical 
 surfaces to crawl upward; this is negative geot- 
 ropism. The investigation of tropism has most 
 important bearings on comparative psychology 
 and the explanation of instinctive acts. 
 
 Anemotropism. An orientation of the body 
 with respect to the wind, seen in flies (Bibio 
 ophyra, etc.), which poise in swarms in the air, 
 heading directly towards the wind, all the 
 swarms of a given locality oriented in the same 
 direction like weathercocks. On the other hand, 
 the locusts move with the wind and head away 
 from it, i.e., they are negatively anemotropic. 
 
 (Wheeler.) 
 
 Chemotropism. The orientation of an organ¬ 
 ism by molecules emanating from a centre of 
 diffusion. As the name indicates, it means re¬ 
 sponse to odors or tastes emanating from food, 
 decaying substances, and other matters. Thus, 
 the maggot of the flesh and other flies are posi¬ 
 tively chemotropic towards certain chemical sub¬ 
 stances formed in decaying meat and cheese. 
 The female fly is led not so much by a special 
 instinct to these substances as by the stimulus 
 of the rank smelling meat. As soon, says Loeb, 
 as the fly is seated on the meat chemical stimuli 
 seem to throw into activity the muscles con¬ 
 cerned in egg laying and the eggs are deposited 
 on the meat. Negative chemotropism is forcibly 
 illustrated by the use of the oil of pennyroyal, 
 of tobacco smoke, or kerosene oil in driving away 
 flies and mosquitoes. For the botanical aspect 
 of this tropism, see Chemotropism. 
 
 Galvanotropism. When certain shrimps, 
 crayfish, and salamanders are subjected to the 
 effect of a galvanic current, such charges of 
 tension take place in the muscles of the appen¬ 
 dages that movement towards the anode be¬ 
 comes easier and towards the cathode more diffi¬ 
 cult. The result is, says Loeb, that if the cur- 
 
 494 
 
 rent is continued long enough all the animals 
 collect at the positive pole. It differs from 
 heliotropism chiefly in that the curves of the 
 current take the place of the rays of light. 
 
 Geotropism. As the result of the action of 
 gravity, plants and certain animals tend to de¬ 
 scend into or towards the earth. The act of 
 righting in a starfish or sea urchin, or in a 
 polyp (sea anemone), is the result of geotropic 
 irritability, i.e., of positive geotropism. The 
 effects of geotropism are seen in any moth or 
 butterfly which has just emerged from the pupa 
 case. It is restless till it finds a perpendicular 
 surface on which to support itself with its abdo¬ 
 men hanging down until the wings are fully ex¬ 
 panded. A fly orients its body head downward, 
 a position assumed by many web-weaving spiders. 
 Geotropism plays a part in the depth migrations 
 of pelagic animals. See also Geotropism in 
 Plants. 
 
 Heliotropism or Phototropism. Originally 
 applied to the property certain plants possess of 
 turning to the light. It has been found that 
 many animals also are oriented towards the 
 light. Loeb claims that in the case of animals 
 which possess nerves “the movements of orienta¬ 
 tion towards light are governed by exactly the 
 same external conditions and depend in the same 
 way upon the external form of the body, as in 
 the case of plants which possess no nerves.” 
 Many young or larval pelagic animals undergo 
 periodic depth migrations. They begin to mi¬ 
 grate vertically upward towards the surface of 
 the ocean in the evening, descending in the morn¬ 
 ing, but since they never sink beyond a depth 
 of about 1200 feet below, where light does not 
 penetrate, this fact suggests that the light is 
 the controlling power in their depth migrations. 
 Loeb finds that the free-swimming animals at 
 the surface of the sea are all permanently or 
 for a short period positively heliotropic. There 
 is a negative as well as a positive heliotropism. 
 If light strikes one side of a positively heliotropic 
 animal, an increase takes place in the tension 
 of those muscles which turn the head to the 
 source of light, while in the negatively heliotropic 
 animal under the influence of one-sided illu¬ 
 mination a decrease takes place in the tension 
 of the same muscles, with the result that the 
 negatively lieliotropic animal is forced to move 
 away from the source of light. The flight of 
 moths towards a light is a case of heliotropism. 
 Being a rapid flyer, the moth gets into the 
 flame before the heat can check it. See Photo¬ 
 taxis. For heliotropism in plants, see Helio¬ 
 tropism. 
 
 Paraheliotropism. This is defined by Dar¬ 
 win as the movement by which some leases tem¬ 
 porarily direct their edges to the source of 
 light. See Paraheliotropism. 
 
 Hydrotropism. If a king crab is placed on 
 shore a few feet from the water’s edge, it will 
 seek the water, perhaps oriented by the moisture 
 not far away. Ants exhibit a reaction to heat 
 (thermotropism) and also hydrotropism, in the 
 care with which they move the eggs, young, and 
 old larvae and pupae, as the nest becomes too 
 warm or cold, moist or dry, at different times. 
 For the influence of water on plants, see Hy¬ 
 drotropism. 
 
 Rheotropism. This is illustrated by the ac¬ 
 tion of fish in heading up stream and by tlfe 
 slime protozoan in creeping against the current. 
 For its botanical aspects, see Rheotropism. 
 
 Stereotropism or Thigmotropism. This 
 
TROPPAU 405 TROTTING 
 
 form of tropism is contact irritability, which 
 forces the animal to bring the ventral side of the 
 body in contact with solid bodies. Thus, the 
 ventral side of the starfish is positively stereo¬ 
 tropic; in other words, the starfish, off"the bot¬ 
 tom, becomes restless if its ambulacral feet are 
 not in contact with solid bodies. If earthworms 
 are placed in a transparent closed vessel, they 
 appear to be positively stereotropic. As soon, 
 says Loeb, as they reach an angle in the aqua¬ 
 rium they remain there, crawling along where 
 the glass can touch them on two sides. This 
 form of tropism plays, says Loeb, a very impor¬ 
 tant part in the processes of pairing and in the 
 formation of organs. The tendency of many ani¬ 
 mals to creep into cracks and crevices has, he 
 claims, ‘'nothing to do with self-concealment, but 
 only with the necessity of bringing the body on 
 every side in contact with solid bodies.” The 
 eel is positively stereotropic. It is forced to 
 bring every part of its body, as far as possible, 
 in contact with solid bodies. All the surface of 
 the eel’s body is stereotropic, and if touched 
 with the finger on one side there result positively 
 stereotropic curvatures towards the finger. 
 There is in such an act no more consciousness 
 than in the boring of a root in the sand. (Loeb.) 
 Stereotropism is called tliigmotropism or thig- 
 motaxis by some authors. Another form of 
 tropism is traumatotropism. 
 
 Consult Jacques Loeb, Introduction to Com¬ 
 parative Physiology of the Brain and Compara¬ 
 tive Psychology (New York, 1000) ; also 
 Wheeler, “Anemotropism and Other Tropisms in 
 Insects,” in Archiv fur Entivickelungsmechanik 
 der Organismen, vol. viii (Leipzig, 1899). 
 
 TROPPAU, trop'pou. The capital of Austrian 
 Silesia, on the right bank of the Oppa, 37 miles 
 northeast of Olmiitz (Map: Austria, F 2). It 
 has a Gothic church, a castle, a library of 43,000 
 volumes, and a museum of natural history and 
 antiquities; also the Franz-Josef Museum of art 
 and industry, the provincial insane asylum, etc. 
 Troppau manufactures large quantities of cloth 
 for army use; also stoves, machines, jute, etc. 
 It was founded in the thirteenth century. At 
 Troppau, in the fall and winter of 1820, a con¬ 
 gress of European monarchs assembled for the 
 purpose of dealing with the revolutionary dis¬ 
 turbances in Italy. It was one of the series of 
 European congresses which under the inspiration 
 of Metternich (q.v.) sought to check the spread 
 of liberal ideas and to carry out the policy of 
 the Holy Alliance (q.v.). Pop., 1910, 30,762. 
 
 TROSSACHS, tros'uks. A picturesque and 
 well-w r ooded valley in Perthshire, Scotland, be¬ 
 tween Lochs Acray and Katrine, amid hills rising 
 from 1851 feet to 2390 feet in height (Map: 
 Scotland, D 3). It has been a great tourist resort 
 since its immortalization by Sir Walter Scott in 
 The Lady of the Lake and Fob Roy. 
 
 TROTSKY, Leon. See Bolshevism and Vol¬ 
 ume XXIV. 
 
 TROTTING (from trot, from OF., Fr. trot¬ 
 ter, probably from OHG. trotton, to tread, MHG. 
 trotten, to run, frequentative of OHG. tretan, 
 Ger. treten, to tread, step). A gait of the horse. 
 Notwithstanding that the foundation of Amer¬ 
 ica’s trotting stock came from England, and 
 that in Russia there are the celebrated Orloff 
 trotters and another breed in Norway, the trot¬ 
 ting racer of to-day is distinctly the product of 
 America. The gait was known to the ancients, 
 but was abominated by them. Trotting was a 
 favorite gait among the English sportsmen of 
 
 Suffolk and Lincolnshire at the end of the eight¬ 
 eenth century, and a special breed there per¬ 
 formed wonders; Locksmith’s Gray trotted 72 
 miles in 6 hours in 1762. Ten years later, 
 a Lincolnshire horse trotted 30 miles in 2h. 
 10m., with a rider weighing 220 pounds, and 
 Phenomenon 17 miles in 53m. Yet as an his¬ 
 torical fact American trotters owe nothing to 
 these fast English trotters, but everything to 
 the thoroughbred. The modern trotter may be 
 traced back to Messenger, who was imported 
 in 1788 by Thomas Benger, of Bristol, Pa. His 
 father was Blaze, his grandsire Flying Childers, 
 his great-grandsire the Darley Barb. Ilis moth¬ 
 er’s father was Turf, who was directly descended 
 from the Godolphin Barb. So on both sides of 
 his pedigree Messenger brought the most select 
 thoroughbred blood into America. He was a 
 running-bred horse, yet from him the American 
 trotter derives its dominant characteristics—the 
 grit of the Arab, the gentleness of the Barb, and 
 the hardy endurance of the English thorough¬ 
 bred. The Hambletonians, comprising 90 per 
 cent of the American trotters, are derived from 
 Messenger on both sides through Rysdyk’s 
 Hambletonian, Abdallah, and Mambrino Messen¬ 
 ger. Hambletonian’s dam was the Charles Kent 
 mare, the daughter of One Eye, and granddaugh¬ 
 ter of Silver Tail, who was the daughter of Mes¬ 
 senger. Hambletonian’s family includes Dex¬ 
 ter, 2m. 17V>&-; Goldsmith’s Maid, 2m. 14s.; 
 Rarus, 2m. 13%s.; Saint-Julien, 2m. ll%s.; 
 Jay Eye See, 2m. 10s.; Maud S., 2m. 8%s.; 
 Sunol, 2m. 8i4s.; Nancy Hanks, 2m. 4s.; Alix, 
 2m. 3%s.; and Directum, 2m. 5*48. The second 
 great trotting family, the Mambrinos, great 
 for racing quality and beauty, is derived on 
 the father’s side from Messenger and on the 
 mother’s side from imported Paymaster. The 
 mingling of the blood of the Hambletonians and 
 Mambrino Chief has resulted in such ideal 
 trotters as Azota, 2m. 4%s., and Cresceus, 2m. 
 2i4s. The founder of the Clay family was 
 Young Bashaw, by Grand Bashaw, an imported 
 Barb, but on the female side are Messenger’s 
 progeny. The Star family, too, on the mother’s 
 side came from the same horse. 
 
 In the early trotting days colts were never 
 trained; only matured horses raced, and they 
 were capable of feats of endurance which no 
 modern horse is or could be called upon to 
 perform. Fanny Jenks in 1845 trotted 101 
 miles in 9h. 57m., drawing a sulky weighing 
 150 pounds. Lady Suffolk beat Dutchman two 
 three-mile heats in lm. 40V>s. and 7m. 56s. 
 respectively, and she trotted her fastest mile 
 when 12 years old. Goldsmith’s Maid trotted 
 a mile in 2m. 14V>s. when she was 17 years old. 
 She started 118 times and beat 2m. 30s. in 115 
 of them, and Maud S. made her then world’s 
 record, 2m. 8%s., when she was 11 years old. 
 These times, too, were all before the days of the 
 kite-shaped tracks, banked and rolled with scien¬ 
 tific nicety, and long before the rubber-tired 
 wheel sulky, both of which inventions have 
 helped to reduce the mile record. On Aug. 17, 
 1903, at the Brighton Beach (N. Y.) track, 
 the trotting record was reduced by J. K. Bill¬ 
 ings’s Lou Dillon to 2m., but in October of the 
 same year Lou Dillon still further''reduced the 
 record to lm. 58Y>s. Weather conditions were 
 unfavorable, but the mare had the advantage of 
 two pacemakers, one drawing a wire-net guard 
 acting as a wind shield. This form of record 
 making is protested by many authorities, who 
 
trotwood 
 
 TROUBADOURS 
 
 496 
 
 claim that such time should be recorded sepa¬ 
 rately. In 1916 the world’s record for trotting 
 1 mile was lm. 58s., done (against time) by 
 Uhlan at Lexington, Ky., Oct. 8, 1912. 
 
 For pleasure driving and friendly road com¬ 
 petitions a light wagon was in use as early as 
 1786, but not until after that did the trotter as 
 a racer become prominent. In that year Boston 
 Blue trotted a mile in little less than 3m. By 
 1825 the New York Trotting Club was formed, 
 and dashes of speed were daily indulged in on 
 what is now Third Avenue, from the Bull’s 
 Head to Harlem. Up to 1898, however, the 
 great bulk of the trotting of the country was 
 done on tracks, 2000 of which were scattered 
 over the continent. These tracks on which regu¬ 
 lar races are held are either exactly 1 mile 
 or mile from start to finish, and a horse 
 must win two heats to win the race. The courses 
 are in the main elliptical, though some, built 
 after 1890, are kite-shaped. 
 
 Since 1898 a great impetus has been given to 
 trotting competitions by the creation of civic 
 speedways, the first of which was constructed by 
 the municipality of New York, along the banks 
 of the Harlem River, from 155th Street to Fort 
 George. Many great cities throughout the coun¬ 
 try have followed the example. For bibliography, 
 see references under Horse Racing. 
 
 TROTWOOD, Betsy. In Dickens’s David 
 Copperfield, the hero’s great-aunt, eccentric but 
 good-hearted. 
 
 TROTYL. See Trinitrotoluenes. 
 
 TRQTZENDORF, trots'en-dorf, Valentin. 
 See Friedland, Valentin. 
 
 TROUBADOURS, troo'ba-ddorz (Fr. trouba¬ 
 dour, from Prov. trobador, troubadour, from 
 trobar, OF. trover, trouver, Fr. trouver, to find, 
 compose). The mediaeval poets of southern 
 France from about 1100 to about 1400, singers 
 of war and love, whose wandering lives, full of 
 passion and adventure, have made them typi¬ 
 cal romantic figures of their age. The feudal 
 conditions of the region to which they belonged 
 were favorable to the development of the 
 wandering minstrel. Society was divided into 
 three classes, commons, clergy, and nobles, the 
 nobles alone possessing either means or desire lib¬ 
 erally to reward literary and musical skill. The 
 nobility, moreover, consisted of many petty inde¬ 
 pendent barons, who tended to attach themselves 
 to powerful local houses, such as that of the counts 
 of Toulouse. There were, therefore, many courts, 
 not too far distant from each other, to which 
 troubadours could resort. Another social con¬ 
 dition which had an important influence upon 
 the character of Provencal poetry was the posi¬ 
 tion of noble ladies. They received fiefs (by 
 inheritance or as dowry), and they even gov¬ 
 erned and presided over a court. Usually mar¬ 
 ried young and for social and political reasons 
 rather than for love, they became queens of 
 society, objects of fervent passion or conven¬ 
 tional adoration. 
 
 With the accumulation of wealth and the prog¬ 
 ress of refinement, delight in life became con¬ 
 spicuous. The love of splendor manifested it¬ 
 self in gorgeousness of dress and magnificence 
 of entertainments. Prodigality was the fashion. 
 The ideal prince was he who bestowed gifts 
 lavishly. In addition to the chase and^ the 
 tourney, a favorite amusement was song—sup¬ 
 plied by the jongleurs and troubadours. The 
 jongleurs ( joculatores ) were the successors of 
 the Latin mimi. They wandered from town to 
 
 town, from castle to castle, supplying amusement 
 to the commons at fairs and in market places 
 and to the higher classes at their feasts. The 
 meaner kind not only recited, sang, and played 
 on musical instruments, but performed as jug¬ 
 glers, dancers, acrobats, and exhibitors of trained 
 animals. Members of this class were also to be 
 found in the following of every great lord, among 
 his permanent domestic servants or minis- 
 teriales. They were court minstrels and enter¬ 
 tainers. 
 
 From such singers sprang the troubadours. 
 It may be said that the jongleur was one who 
 made a trade of poetry and music; the trouba¬ 
 dour one who devoted himself to the produc¬ 
 tion of artistic court poetry, whether for gain 
 or not. The jongleurs were therefore always 
 poor, either by origin or by fate, whereas the 
 troubadours, though largely belonging to the 
 humble or the middle class, included knights, 
 barons, counts, and even kings. 
 
 The troubadours led a wandering life, though 
 they often lingered for years at the court of 
 some patron, praising the mistress in extrava¬ 
 gant terms and supporting the policy of the mas¬ 
 ter by vigorous exhortations to his friends or 
 by bitter denunciation of his enemies. War 
 and courtly service were their chief themes. 
 (See Provencal Literature.) Conventional as 
 this poetry was, there were no schools in which 
 the art was taught. Each troubadour learned 
 from his predecessors and handed down the 
 tradition. Even the art of writing was not 
 necessary, for the pieces were prepared chiefly 
 for hearers. They were usually sung by the com¬ 
 poser to his own accompaniment, but those who 
 could not sing taught words and music to their 
 jongleurs. By this method a wider audience 
 was reached than the individual author could 
 obtain. Whenever a lyric was sent to some 
 friend at a distance it was not intrusted to 
 writing, but to the voice of a messenger. This 
 poetry, therefore, required a pleasure-loving ar¬ 
 istocracy for its audience and wealthy and 
 generous patrons for its support. It mirrored 
 the soul of chivalry, an ideal of heroism, gen¬ 
 erosity, courtesy, and love. For flattering the 
 vanity of the nobles and lending his talent to 
 their taste for pleasure, the singer was re¬ 
 warded with gifts of money, weapons, horses, 
 or garments. Generosity was naturally praised 
 as the chief of princely virtues, and growing 
 avarice was a sign of the hopeless degeneracy of 
 the times. Richard Cceur de Lion was consid¬ 
 ered the mirror of knighthood, and the prac¬ 
 tical statesmanship of Philip Augustus of 
 France was judged low and unworthy. With 
 the disappearance of the society they repre¬ 
 sented, the troubadours vanished. 
 
 The first troubadour whose lyrics have been 
 preserved was William IX, Count of Poitou and 
 Duke of Aquitaine, but he must have had a 
 long line of humble forerunners. His grand¬ 
 daughter, Eleanor, the quick-witted but licen¬ 
 tious wife of Louis VII and Henry Plantagenet, 
 was the theme of the impassioned songs of 
 Bernart de Ventadour. Ermengarde of Nar- 
 bonne was another celebrated patroness of po¬ 
 etry, with many adorers in verse—this was 
 their flourishing period. Among their chief pa¬ 
 trons were the counts of Provence, the counts 
 of Toulouse, and several kings of Aragon and 
 Castile, the most notable of whom was Alfonso 
 II of Aragon. In Italy the lords of Este and 
 the Emperor Frederick II harbored the singers 
 
TROUBAT 
 
 497 
 
 TROUP 
 
 of Languedoc. At these courts minstrels were 
 kindly received and lavishly rewarded, taking 
 part apparently in the social pleasures mir¬ 
 rored in their songs. 
 
 Much of the romantic interest that has gath¬ 
 ered about the careers of these poets is derived 
 from the Provencal biographies and razos which 
 are found in some of the manuscripts containing 
 their works. Many of these are merely imagina¬ 
 tive tales in which elements of folklore, com¬ 
 bined with a fanciful interpretation of the 
 poems, have been set down as fact. Growing 
 up among the later jongleurs and other lovers 
 of poetry, they represent the conception which 
 the succeeding age had formed of the heroes 
 of Provengal song. Another fact has tended 
 to give a romantic coloring to the lives of the 
 troubadours: the fact that their poems deal so 
 largely with the subject of love. This love 
 was, it is true, chiefly factitious and conven¬ 
 tional rather than personal, and the formulas 
 in which it was expressed are exceedingly mo¬ 
 notonous; but the modern imagination has built 
 up for these wandering minstrels a sort of 
 butterfly existence of poetry and passion, with 
 the added excitement of constant adventures. 
 
 Bibliography. Eugene Baret, Les trouba¬ 
 dours et leur influence sur la literature du midi 
 de VEurope (3d ed., Paris, 18G7); Paul Meyer, 
 Les derniers troubadours de la Provence (ib., 
 1871); John Rutherford, The Troubadours: 
 Their Loves and their Lyrics (London, 1873) ; 
 Francis Hueffer, The Troubadours: A History 
 of Provencal Life and Literature in the Middle 
 Ages (ib., 1878) ; Manuel Mils, y Fontanels, 
 De los trovadores en Espaha (2d ed., Barcelona, 
 1889) ; Jules Arnoux, Les troubadours et les 
 felibres du midi (Paris, 1889) ; J. F. Row- 
 botham, The Troubadours and the Courts of 
 Love, in “Social England” series (London, 
 
 1895) ; Ida Farnell, Lives of the Troubadours , 
 Translated from the Mediceval Provengal (ib., 
 
 1896) ; J. H. Smith, The Troubadours at Home 
 (2 vols., New York, 1899); Joseph Anglade, 
 Les troubadours: Leurs vies, leurs oeuvres, leur 
 influence (Paris, 1908) ; LI. J. Chaytor, The 
 Troubadour, in “Cambridge Manuals of Science 
 and Literature” (Cambridge, 1912) ; Giulio Ber- 
 toni, I trovatori d’ Italia: biografici, esti, trad- 
 uzioni, note (Modena, 1915), containing a bibli¬ 
 ography; also H. J. Chaytor, The Troubadours 
 of Dante: Being Selections from the Works of 
 the Provengal Poets Quoted by Dante (Oxford, 
 1902) ; and for the music: Pierre Aubry, 
 Trouveres et troubadours (2d ed., Paris, 1910), 
 with music; J. B. Beck, La musique des trouba¬ 
 dours (ib., 1910) ; also references under Pro¬ 
 vencal Literature. 
 
 TROUBAT, troo'ba/, Jules Simon (1836- 
 1914). A French litterateur, born at Mont¬ 
 pellier. He was the last secretary of Sainte- 
 Beuve (q.v.), one of his testamentary executors, 
 and his legatee. He published a number of 
 posthumous works of Sainte-Beuve, such as his 
 Correspondence, an unfinished monograph on 
 Proudhon, and three volumes of articles origi¬ 
 nally contributed to the Premiers lundis. Trou- 
 bat himself wrote: Souvenirs et indiscretions 
 (1875) ; Notes et pensees (1888) ; Souvenirs du 
 dernier secretaire de Sainte-Beuve (1890); Es- 
 sais critiques (1902); Sainte-Beuve intime et 
 familier (1903); Souvenirs sur Champfleury et 
 le realisms (1905). 
 
 TROUBETZ'KOY, Amalie Rives, Princess. 
 See Rives, Amalie. 
 
 TROUBETZKOY, Prince Paul (1866- ). 
 
 A* Russian sculptor. He was born at Intra, 
 Lago Maggiore, Italy, son of a Russian nobleman 
 who had married an American (Miss Winans). 
 After desultory study under Ernesto Bazzaro, at 
 the Brera in Milan, he worked independently, 
 and in 1894 won recognition with his “Indian 
 Scout now in the Gallery of Modern Art, 
 Rome. In 1897 he removed to Moscow, where 
 he was appointed professor of sculpture at the 
 Academy, and where he modeled several busts 
 of Russian notables, an equestrian portrait of 
 Tolstoy (1899, Luxembourg Museum, Paris), a 
 seated figure of Prince Leon Golitzin, and 
 statuettes of Grand Duchess Serge, Grand Duke 
 Andre Vladimirovitch, and Count Witte. From 
 1905 Troubetzkoy lived in Paris. His art is 
 very modern in treatment and technique, with 
 a decided impressionistic effect. The subject 
 matter is handled with originality and refresh¬ 
 ing spontaneity; but the surfaces are sketchy 
 and unfinished. Troubetzkoy is represented in 
 many European galleries, and in that of San 
 Francisco. His later works include: portraits 
 of Giovanni Segantini (Berlin Museum), Au¬ 
 guste Rodin, Joaquin Sorolla (Hispanic Society, 
 New York), George Bernard Shaw, Anatole 
 France, Signor Giulio Savarese, and Paul ILel- 
 leu; the equestrian monument to Alexander III 
 (1909, St. Petersburg), and the “Daughter of 
 Prince Scipione Borghese on Horseback” (1908). 
 He also executed many charming genre stat¬ 
 uette groups of children, dogs, etc. Among 
 other honors, he was awarded gold medals at 
 Rome, Dresden, Paris (1900), and Berlin. A 
 representative exhibition of his sculptures was 
 held at the Hispanic Society in New York in 
 1911. His brother, Prince Pierre Troubetz¬ 
 koy, made New York his residence and became 
 known as a portrait painter. 
 
 TROUESSART, troo'e-sar', Edouard Louis 
 (1842— ). A French zoologist, born at 
 
 Angers, and educated at the University of Paris 
 (M.D., 1870). He was a surgeon in the French 
 army ( 1870-71); professor at Angers (1882); 
 director of the Natural History Museum of An¬ 
 gers (1882-85), and thereafter professor of 
 zoology at the Natural History Museum in 
 Paris. He published Sur les mamrniferes vivants 
 et fossiles (1879-1907) ; M&moires sur les Acari- 
 ens parasites et les Acariens marins (1880-1907) ; 
 Les microbes, les ferments, et les moisissures 
 (1886; Eng. trans., 1886); La Geographic 
 zoologique (1890); Faune des mammiferes de 
 France (1885); Les parasites des habitations 
 humaines et des denrees alimentaires (1895); 
 Catalogue des mammiferes vivants et fossiles 
 (1898-1904). Trouessart also collaborated on 
 La Grande Encyclopedic (1885-1899). He was 
 laureate of the Societe entomologique (1895). 
 
 TROUP, troop, George McIntosh (1780- 
 1856). An American politician, born in the 
 present Washington County, Ala. Lie graduated 
 at the College of New Jersey (Princeton) in 
 1797, was admitted to the bar in 1800, and prac¬ 
 ticed in Savannah. From 1801 to 1804 he was 
 a member of the Georgia Legislature; was a 
 member of the United States blouse of Represent¬ 
 atives from 1807 to 1815; was chairman of the 
 Military Committee during the War of 1812, 
 and opposed vigorously the Yazoo compromise. 
 From 1816 to 1818 lie was in the United States 
 Senate, and from 1823 to 1827 was Governor 
 of Georgia. During the dispute which arose 
 between the agents of the general government 
 
TROUPIAL 
 
 TROUT 
 
 498 
 
 and the State in regard to the extinguishment 
 of the Creek title to lands in Georgia, he did 
 not hesitate to defy the Federal government. 
 From 1820 to 1833 he was again a member of 
 the United States Senate. He was a strong 
 defender of States’ rights, and in 1833 presided 
 over the Georgia States’ Rights Convention. 
 
 TROUPIAL, troop'i-al. See Oriole. 
 
 TROUS-DE-LOUP, trbo'de-lbo, or Military 
 Pits. Excavations in the shape of an inverted 
 truncated cone or pyramid, with a pointed stake 
 in the bottom. They should not be so deep as to 
 afford cover to the enemy’s skirmisher. Two 
 and one-lialf feet or less is a suitable depth. 
 They are usually dug in 3 or 5 rows and the 
 earth thrown to the front to form a glacis. The 
 rear row is dug first and then the next in front, 
 and so on, so that no earth is cast over the fin¬ 
 ished pits. An excellent arrangement is to dig 
 the pits in a checkerboard plan, leaving alternate 
 squares and placing a stake in each of them 
 to form a wire entanglement. One man can 
 make 5 pits on a 2-hour relief. Such pits, placed 
 as obstacles in front of defensive positions, may 
 interfere seriously with the advance of infantry, 
 and are not susceptible of destruction by artil¬ 
 lery fire. Consult Engineer Field Manual United 
 States Army (Washington, Government Printing 
 Office, 1909). 
 
 TROUSSEAU, troo'so', Armand (1801-67). 
 
 A French physician, born at Tours. He became 
 
 M.D. at Paris in 1825, and after holding other 
 
 similar posts became professor at the Hotel 
 
 Dieu in 1852. Four vears later he was elected 
 
 «/ 
 
 a member of the Academy of Medicine. Trous¬ 
 seau is best known through his use of tracheot¬ 
 omy in croup: Nouvelles recherches sur la tra- 
 cheotomie pratique dans la pcriode extreme du 
 croup (1851). Among his works are best 
 known: Traite de th4rapeutique et de matiere 
 medicale (1826-37; 8th ed., 1870; Eng. trans., 
 1842), with H. Pidoux; and Traits pratique de 
 leu phthisie laryng6e (1837; Eng. trans., 1839), 
 for which classical work he received the grand 
 prize of the Academy of Medicine. 
 
 TROUT (AS. truht, from OF. truite, from 
 Lat. tructa, tructus, from Gk. rpurrys, troktes, 
 sort of sea fish, from rp&yeiv, trogein, to gnaw). 
 Any of many fishes of the family Salmonidse. 
 (See Salmon.) Some are partly anadromous, 
 but most of the species live exclusively in fresh 
 waters, and occur in most of the lakes and 
 streams of northern regions. They are all vora¬ 
 cious and more or less gamy. Their food con¬ 
 sists of almost any sort of fresh animal matter 
 —smaller fishes, crustaceans, insect larvae, and 
 the like. The trout, like the salmon, spawn dur¬ 
 ing the colder months of the year, varying with 
 the latitude and the species. 
 
 Trout may be classed into two main groups. 
 The one group, belonging to the genus Salmo, 
 has a flat vomer, supplied with teeth, the body 
 with larger scales than the other group, which 
 has a boat-shaped vomer, the shaft destitute of 
 teeth. The latter group is more perfectly re¬ 
 stricted to fresh waters than the former. The 
 former group includes the salmon trout, and 
 the latter the chars, such as the book trout. 
 The salmon trout of European waters ( Sal-mo 
 ' trutta ) resides in salt water, and enters the 
 rivers to spawn. Its fresh-water variety, the 
 brown trout ( Sal-mo fario) , occurs in the lakes 
 of Europe, and has been extensively domesti¬ 
 cated in English and North American waters. 
 In consequence of its greater adaptability, it is 
 
 now replacing the native brook trout in many 
 localities, much to the disgust of the sportsman. 
 Another Scottish variety, the Lochleven trout, 
 differs from the brown trout in the greater 
 growth of the pectoral and caudal fins, in the 
 greater number of csecal appendages, and in 
 other minor characters. 
 
 The American salmon trout (Salmo gaird- 
 neri ) is a large trout, abundant in the Columbia 
 and other rivers flowing to the Pacific coast. 
 (See Steelhead. ) A variety of it, the Kamloops 
 trout, or “stit-tse,” occupies the lakes of Brit¬ 
 ish Columbia and northern Washington. 
 
 The rainbow or Coast Range trout (Salmo 
 irideus) is smaller than the preceding, has 
 larger scales and brighter colors. It is native 
 in the mountain streams of the Pacific coast, 
 and probably enters the sea. It is very vari¬ 
 able, presents many geographical varieties, such 
 as the brook trout of western Nevada, the trout 
 of Mt. Shasta, golden trout of Mt. Whitney, the 
 McCloud River trout, and others. It has been 
 transplanted successfully into the mountain 
 streams of the eastern United States, and has 
 been domesticated to some degree. The “cut¬ 
 throat” or Rocky Mountain trout (Salmo my- 
 kiss) is a common trout of very wide distribution 
 in all the clear streams of the Rocky Moun¬ 
 tains and Sierra Nevada, from Kamchatka and 
 Alaska to northern Mexico. Its scales are 
 smaller than in the nearly related species, hy¬ 
 oid teeth are usually present, and it is very 
 closely related to Salmo gairdneri. This species 
 often enters the sea, and is very variable, many 
 geographical races being recognized, one of 
 which, “Clarke’s trout” of the Columbia River, 
 is illustrated on the Plate of Salmon. 
 
 The Great Lakes trout, “longe,” “togue,” or 
 “namaycush,” differs from Salmo in the absence 
 of teeth on the shaft of the vomer, and from 
 the brook trout in its larger size and well-de¬ 
 veloped teeth on the hyoid bone. It inhabits 
 all the larger lakes of eastern North America, 
 and is one of the more important food fishes 
 of the Great Lakes region. The variety “sis- 
 cowet,” found only in the deep water of Lake 
 Superior, has excessively fat flesh, and is not 
 prized as food. See Namaycush. 
 
 The principal chars of American waters are 
 the common brook or speckled trout, the Dolly 
 Varden, the oquassa, and the European brook 
 trout. The brook trout ( Salvelinus fontinalis ) 
 is the best known, abundant in all clear, cold 
 streams of eastern North America south to 
 the headwaters of the Savannah. It differs 
 from the other species of the genus in its back 
 being strongly marbled with olive and black. 
 It has been introduced into the Western 
 streams; and many hybrids between this and 
 the rainbow trout and other species exist. Its 
 extreme length may be 18 inches, but it is 
 usually much smaller. It is a favorite for its 
 gamy qualities and for its flavor. See Colored 
 Plate of Game Fishes. 
 
 The Dolly Varden trout (q.v.), or malma, is 
 a native of northwestern America, and has red 
 spots on both back and sides. The oquassa 
 trout ( Salvelinus oquassa), “quasky” or “blue- 
 back,” is a small trout of the Rangely group of 
 lakes in western Maine, dark blue, with small 
 red spots, usually confined to the sides. Sim¬ 
 ilar and still smaller varieties of this most 
 beautiful of the trout exist in the lakes of 
 Quebec and in those of subarctic America. 
 
 The European brook trout (Salvelinus al- 
 
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 1 
 
 1. MICHIGAN GRAYLING (Thymallus tricolor). 
 
 2. OQUASSA TROUT (Salvelinus oquassa). 
 
 3. DOLLY VARDEN TROUT (Salvelinus malma). 
 
 4. NAMAYCUSH (Cristivomer namaycush). 
 
 5. RAINBOW TROUT (Salmo irideus). 
 
 6. SUNAPEE TROUT (Salvelinus alplnus, var. aureolus). 
 

 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 THE library 
 
 Of h-,** 
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 >• 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
TROWARD 
 
 TROUT FISHING 
 
 499 
 
 pinus) has the red spots only on the sides, and 
 the mouth is rather smaller than in the preced- 
 It occurs in the cold lakes and mountain 
 streams of northern Europe and Asia, and in 
 northeastern North America. It is variable and 
 is represented by several varieties—such as the 
 Greenland, char, the long-finned char, and the 
 sunapee or golden trout. The last named is 
 very local in its distribution, having been taken 
 in Sunapee Lake and a few other lakes in 
 New Hampshire and Maine. It is highly prized 
 because of its brilliant colors and graceful form. 
 Much uncertainty remains as to its origin and 
 relationship. It has strong affinities with the 
 European form and by some is considered to 
 have been introduced from there. Much pains 
 is being taken to increase this species by arti¬ 
 ficial propagation and transplantation. See 
 Fish Culture. 
 
 There are other species of trout of minor im¬ 
 portance both in America and Europe and Asia; 
 and many fishes not truly trout are locally so 
 called. Compare Salmon; Grayling. Consult: 
 U. S. Jordan, Fishes (New York, 1908) ; Jordan 
 and Everinann, American Food and Game 
 Fishes (new ed., ib., 1914) ; Ernest Phillips, 
 Trout in Lakes and Reservoirs: A Practical 
 Guide to Managing, Stocking, and Fishing (ib., 
 1914) ; Louis Rhead, American Trout Stream 
 Insects (ib., 1916); also references under Ang¬ 
 ling; Fish; Salmon. 
 
 TROUT FISHING. With the possible ex¬ 
 ception of the black bass, there is no fish that 
 affords more sport to the angler or that is found 
 over a greater range of country than the brook 
 trout. It may be taken with the fly or with 
 bait, but the former method is considered gen¬ 
 erally the more sportsmanlike. In bait fishing, 
 the trout is likely to be killed or badly injured, 
 whereas. in fly fishing the fish generally is 
 hooked in the lip and can be returned to the 
 " a ter unharmed. In lakes and ponds in sum¬ 
 mer time, when the surface of the water be¬ 
 comes warm, trout make for deep water, and 
 bait must be used. It is impossible to do more 
 than give the general rules controlling the se¬ 
 lection of flies: In size, the fly should be se¬ 
 lected to meet the condition of the water rather 
 than the size of the fish; thus, if late in the 
 season and the water of a clear stream is low, 
 sober-colored flies on No. 10 or 12 hooks are 
 usually the best. See FIshing; Fly-Casting. 
 
 TROUT PERCH. One of the small fishes 
 of the North American family Percopsid®, rep¬ 
 resented abundantly in the Great Lakes by 
 the “sand roller” ( Percopsis guttatus) and by a 
 second genus and species in Oregon. This fam¬ 
 ily constitutes the suborder Salmopercae; the 
 form of the body and the head and mouth are 
 perchlike, while the fins are salmon-like. These 
 fishes are of particular interest because of their 
 relationship with generalized archaic forms, of 
 which they seem to be the survivors. Consult 
 Jordan and Evermann, Fishes of North and Mid¬ 
 dle America (Washington, 1896). 
 
 TROUVERE, trbo'var' (Fr., from trouver, to 
 find, compose). The Northern French term an¬ 
 swering to the Provencal troubadour (q.v.), ap¬ 
 plied usually to the original poets who com¬ 
 posed the works which the jongleur performed. 
 The distinction, however, is not absolute, as 
 there are instances of trouveres who performed 
 their own works, and occasionally of jongleurs 
 who aspired to composition. The trouvere was 
 usually a man of some rank and standing, either 
 
 priest or knight. See French Literature* 
 Jongleur. 
 
 TROUVILLE, troo'vel'. A fishing town and 
 seaside resort of the Department of Calvados, 
 France, at the mouth of the Touques, 136 miles 
 by rail west-northwest of Paris, and 9 miles 
 south of Havre (Map: France, N., F 3). It 
 has risen from the humble fishing village to 
 the rank of the most fashionable watering place 
 in France. Its equable climate, agreeable situ¬ 
 ation, remarkably fine beach, and many hand¬ 
 some villas make it an ideal resort during the 
 summer and autumn months. There are a Louis 
 XIII Hotel de \ ille and a large well-appointed 
 casino. The harbor is thronged with fishing 
 boats, and there is some trade. Pop. 19oT 
 6137; 1911, 6901. The port is shared with 
 Deauv ille, a small but well-known sea-bathing 
 resort, a short distance southwest, with a ca^ 
 ino. The August races here are attended by 
 the leading circles of Parisian society. 
 
 TROVATORE, IL, el tro'via-to'ra (It., The 
 Troubadour). An opera by Verdi (q.v.), first 
 produced in Rome, Jan. 19, 1853; in the United 
 States, May 2, 1855 (New York). 
 
 TRO'VER (OF. trover, trouver, to find, com¬ 
 pose). One of the old forms of action in com¬ 
 mon-law pleading, employed to recover dam¬ 
 ages for the wrongful conversion of personal 
 property. The action was a development of 
 the action of trespass on the case. It is based 
 upon a fiction that the plaintiff lias lost his 
 chattels and that the defendant has casually 
 found them, but refuses to deliver them to 
 the plaintiff. Although this fictitious state¬ 
 ment must be made in the declaration, it need 
 not be proved, and could not be traversed or 
 denied; and the plaintiff may recover dam¬ 
 ages on proof of a conversion of his property. 
 Any interest which will entitle a person to the 
 possession of goods is sufficient to maintain this 
 action. See Common Forms; Conversion; 
 Forms of Action. 
 
 TROWARD, trb'ard, Thomas ( 1847-1916). 
 A British philosopher. He was born at Bel- 
 gaum in the southern Maharatta country, India, 
 and was educated at Victoria College Jersey! 
 He prepared for the Indian Civil SerVice and 
 was appointed to a junior magistracy in the 
 Punjab. Eventually he retired'with the rank 
 of divisional judge. Returning to England, he 
 lectured in Edinburgh, London, and other cities 
 on topics relating to Mental Science and New 
 Thought (qq.v.). For this work he was well 
 fitted by experience and scholarship. Thirty 
 years’ residence in India, during which period 
 he decided cases according to Hindu, Sikh, and 
 Mohammedan law, and also studied the differ¬ 
 ent religious and philosophical systems, had 
 familiarized him with the best thought of the 
 Orient, practical as well as speculative. On the 
 other hand, the western point of view was his 
 by inheritance. Troward contended that the 
 basic spiritual principles underlying all re¬ 
 ligions were so developed in the Bible as to make 
 it entirely authoritative as a guide to thought 
 and action. Moreover he found spiritual prin¬ 
 ciples to be paralleled by the laws of nature 
 as revealed by modern science, thus indicating 
 a unity of the visible and invisible. Judge 
 Troward’s system has the practical aim of help¬ 
 ing the individual to recognize his spiritual 
 freedom by showing that mental attitude con¬ 
 trols material conditions. His widely read 
 writings, important in their field, include: 
 
TROWBRIDGE 
 
 500 
 
 TROY 
 
 Edinburgh Lectures on Mental. Science (1906) ; 
 Bible Mystery and Bible Meaning (1907); 
 Dor6 Lectures (1909); The Creative Process 
 in the Individual (1911). 
 
 TRQW'BRIDGE. A market town in Wilt¬ 
 shire, England, on a rocky eminence in the val¬ 
 ley of the Biss, 97 miles by rail west of London. 
 Cassimeres, kerseys, tweeds, and woolen cloths 
 of the best qualities are manufactured. The 
 parish church of St. James, which dates from 
 the fourteenth century, contains the remains of 
 Crabbe, the poet, who officiated as clergyman 
 from 1814 to 1832. There are a fine modern 
 town hall and many handsome villas, the resi¬ 
 dences of wealthy manufacturers. The town 
 owes its origin to an ancient castle, built on 
 the mound called Courthill, which held out 
 for Matilda against Stephen. It was demol¬ 
 ished before the reign of Henry VIII, and all 
 traces of it have disappeared. Pop., 1901, 11,- 
 562; 1911, 11,815. 
 
 TROWBRIDGE, Edmund (1709-93). An 
 American lawyer, born in Newton, Mass. He 
 graduated at Harvard in 1728, and soon rose 
 to eminence as a lawyer. He became Attorney- 
 General of the State in 1749, was for several 
 years a member of the council, and in 1767 was 
 appointed a justice of the Massachusetts Su¬ 
 preme Court, presiding with great ability and 
 fairness at the trial of Captain Preston and his 
 men after the Boston massacre. In 1772 he 
 retired to private life. Though not in full sym¬ 
 pathy with the Patriot party, he was strongly 
 opposed to the policy of the British ministry. 
 
 TROWBRIDGE, John (1843- ). An 
 
 American physicist. He was born in 1843 and 
 was educated' at the Lawrence Scientific School, 
 Harvard, graduating in 1866 and then serving 
 for three 'years as tutor. After occupying a 
 chair at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech¬ 
 nology, he returned to Harvard in 1880, was 
 made" professor of experimental physics, di¬ 
 rector of the Jefferson Physical Laboratory 
 (1884), and Rumford professor of the applica¬ 
 tion of science to the useful arts (1888). He 
 established a laboratory course in physics and 
 was one of the pioneers in introducing labora¬ 
 tory work as an essential part of instruction 
 in elementary science. Trowbridge was a mem¬ 
 ber of various international electrical con¬ 
 gresses, was elected to the National Academy 
 of Sciences in 1878, and became president of 
 the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. 
 He carried on many important investigations 
 in physics, particularly in electricity, and later 
 investigated the various phenomena connected 
 with the Rbntgen rays. Many of his communi¬ 
 cations were issued under the title of Contri¬ 
 butions from the Physical Laboratory of Har¬ 
 vard College. Besides these he wrote: The New 
 Physics (1884); What is Electricity? (1896; 
 new ed., 1903); Samuel F. B. Morse (1901). 
 Papers of importance include “The Longitudi¬ 
 nal Magnetic Field and the Cathode Rays,” 
 in Proceedings of the American Academy of 
 Arts and Sciences, vol. xliii (1908), and “Re¬ 
 search in Physics,” in Harvard Graduates’ Mag¬ 
 azine (1911). 
 
 TROWBRIDGE, John Townsend (1827- 
 1916). An American novelist, juvenile writer, 
 and poet, born at Ogden, N. Y. After a com¬ 
 mon-school education Trowbridge taught for 
 a year in Illinois and afterward was a jour¬ 
 nalist in New York and Boston, where he settled 
 in 1848. His Neighbor Jackwood (1857) was 
 
 one of the first realistic novels of New England 
 life. The more noteworthy of his many 
 stories, largely for boys and ranking with the 
 best of their kind, are: Father Brighthopes 
 (1853); The Drummer Boy (1863); Cudjo’s 
 Cave (1863) ; The Three Scouts (1864) ; Neigh¬ 
 bors’ Wives (1867) ; Coupon Bonds and Other 
 Stories (1872); The Silver Medal (1908); .4 
 Pair of Madcaps (1909); The Jack Hazard 
 Series; The Toby Trafford Series; The Start in 
 Life Series; The Tide Mill Series. Trowbridge 
 also wrote verse, his “Darius Green and his 
 Flying Machine” being especially well known. 
 
 A collected edition, Poetical Works, appeared 
 in 1903. His autobiography, My Oum Story 
 (1903), throws some interesting sidelights on 
 American literature during the second half of 
 the nineteenth century. 
 
 TROWBRIDGE, S(amuel) Breck Park- 
 man (1862- ). An American architect, 
 
 born in New York City. He graduated from 
 Trinity College, Hartford, in 1883, and from 
 the School of Architecture at Columbia in 1886, 
 and then had charge of the erection of the 
 building of the American School of Classical 
 Studies at Athens, Greece. After studying at 
 the Beaux-Arts in Paris, he returned to New 
 York, where he was employed in the office of 
 George B. Post (q.v.) for four years. Later 
 he became a member of the firm of Trowbridge 
 and Livingston, which built many residences, 
 business structures, and public buildings. In 
 1910 Trowbridge was appointed Chevalier of 
 the Legion of Honor, and in 1915 lie was elected 
 to the National Institute of Arts and Letters. 
 
 TROWBRIDGE, William Petit (1828-92). 
 An American engineer, born in Oakland Co., 
 Mich. He graduated, first in his class, at West 
 Point in 1848; was assigned to the Corps of 
 Engineers as a brevet second lieutenant; was 
 engaged in astronomical observations at the 
 Military Academy Observatory in 1848-50 and 
 performed important work from 1850 to 1856, 
 when he resigned from the army, on the United 
 States Coast Survey. In 1856-57 he was pro¬ 
 fessor of mathematics at the University of 
 Michigan and in 1857-61 was scientific secre¬ 
 tary of the Superintendent of the United States 
 Coast Survey. During the Civil War he was 
 in charge of'the Engineer Agency at New York 
 City. He was professor of dynamic engineering 
 in the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale Col¬ 
 lege (1870-77), was adjutant general of the 
 State of Connecticut (1872-76), and from 1877 
 until his death was professor of engineering in 
 the Columbia School of Mines. He is credited 
 by some with having first suggested the idea of 
 the cantilever bridge. Besides numerous maga¬ 
 zine articles, he published Heat as a Source of 
 Power (1874). 
 
 TROY (Lat. Troia, from Gk. Tpoia). The 
 most famous city of Greek legend. It was 
 in the northwest corner of Asia Minor, on a 
 small plain through which flows to the Helles¬ 
 pont the ancient Scamander (now Mendere), 
 entered near its mouth by a small stream from 
 the east, the ancient Simois (now Dumbrek Su). 
 In the angle once formed by these streams (the 
 modern courses have greatly altered) lies a low 
 hill, jutting from the range of Mount Ida, which 
 was known in Roman times as Ilium Novum , 
 and was regarded by many as the successor 
 of the Homeric Troy. Near by is the modern 
 village of Hissarlik. The claims of this site 
 had always found defenders, but since the work 
 
TROY 
 
 501 
 
 TROY 
 
 L 
 
 of Le Chevalier at the end of the eighteenth cen¬ 
 tury there had been a strong trend of scholarly 
 opinion in favor of the ruins near Bunarbashi 
 on the Bali Dagh, a steep cliff above the Sca- 
 mander, south of its entrance to the plain. The 
 presence of warm springs near by served to 
 strengthen this identification. The site, as well 
 as the summit on the opposite side of the val- 
 ley, was certainly fortified in early times as a 
 protection against incursions from the south, 
 but excavation has shown conclusively that the 
 capital of the district lay on the hill of Hissar- 
 lik, less than 4 miles from both the iEgean 
 and the Hellespont, and corresponding far more 
 closely than could have been reasonably ex¬ 
 pected with topographical indications in the 
 Iliad. The credit for the exploration of this 
 site belongs to Heinrich Schliemann (q.v.), who 
 began excavations in 1870, and in the three 
 following years had laid bare enough to show 
 that underneath the Roman and later Greek 
 ruins which crowned the hill were remains of a 
 settlement of unknown antiquity, even though 
 the names “Scaean Gate” and “Priam’s Pal¬ 
 ace” seemed extravagant. In 1878-79 another 
 campaign with scientific coadjutors led to more 
 definite results, which were still further in¬ 
 creased by excavations in 1882 by Schliemann 
 and Dbrpfeld. Another visit (1890) led to fur¬ 
 ther important modifications of previous re¬ 
 sults, and, though the death of Schliemann in 
 Decemlier, 1890, prevented immediate continu¬ 
 ation of the work, it was resumed in 1893 bv 
 Dbrpfeld. 
 
 the history of the hill as read in the excava¬ 
 tions and later writers is that of a series of at 
 least nine successive settlements, many only 
 small collections of wretched huts, though a 
 convenient terminology has dignified them all 
 as “cities.’ The first (1) settlement is a 
 small group of dwellings surrounded by a wall, 
 belonging to the end of the Neolithic period. 
 The second (2) city, held by Schliemann to be 
 the Homeric Troy, was defended by a strong 
 wall of rough stone, topped by crude brick, 
 and seems to have extended its circuit twice, 
 the second time with marked alterations in 
 the situation of the gates. Within were sev¬ 
 eral houses, consisting of a great hall and vesti¬ 
 bule, of the type found later in Mycenae and 
 Tiryns, and apparently described in the Homeric 
 poems. The civilization indicated by the pot¬ 
 tery and lesser finds shows that the inhabitants 
 were at the beginning of the Bronze age, be¬ 
 longing to the period of the so-called “Island” 
 civilization. (See Archaeology.) The rulers 
 were evidently of some wealth and power, but 
 their identity seems lost forever. The con¬ 
 tinuity of tradition in the pottery and general 
 type of building, and the similarity with much 
 found in Phrygia, seem to warrant the belief 
 that there was no change of race from the sec¬ 
 ond to the sixth city, and that this people were 
 kindred of the Indo-European Phrygians. Yet 
 they were not at peace with their neighbors, 
 as is shown by the fact that the second city 
 was burned, and the site left desolate. The 
 place was resettled, however, and the houses 
 of the third (3) city were built on the rub¬ 
 bish which concealed their predecessors; the 
 wall also was repaired, and the gates narrowed 
 for greater security. This city, too, was de¬ 
 stroyed, or perhaps abandoned, but was again 
 resettled (4), as an open village. To this 
 succeeded (5) another village of little huts, de¬ 
 
 fended by a wall of no great strength. The next 
 city (6) was, however, different. It was de¬ 
 fended by a strong wall of smoothed stone, of 
 far greater circuit than that of city No. 2, and 
 of such workmanship that a bit discovered by 
 Schliemann was attributed to the Hellenistic 
 period. r J his wall was pierced by gates, pro¬ 
 vided with strong flanking towers. Within 
 were houses of considerable size, but of the 
 same simple plan as those in the second city. 
 Owing to a great terrace built by the Romans, 
 which cut down the top of the hill, the remains 
 of this city are preserved only around the edge, 
 while the centre, which doubtless contained the 
 royal palace, has vanished. As Schliemann's 
 excavations were almost entirely confined to the 
 centre of the hill, it was possible for him to 
 miss this city, which belonged to the Mycenaean 
 period, and certainly corresponds to the Homeric 
 Troy. It seems clear, from the objqcts found, 
 that the kings of Troy ruled over a people not 
 advanced in artistic work, the old plain pottery 
 continuing in general use. After no very long 
 period another settlement (7) covered the hill. 
 Mycenaean vases have been found in its lower 
 strata, but whether the inhabitants were sur¬ 
 vivors of the Trojans, or the first wave of Greek 
 settlers, cannot certainly be determined. It is 
 clear that the Cimmerian invasion in the eighth 
 century b.c. reached this hill, and after destroy* 
 ing the inhabitants, either Treres or Cimmerians 
 took up their abode on the site, till in the 
 seventh century they were driven forth and 
 Troja or Ilion was occupied by Greeks (8). The 
 settlers seem to have been a small band of 
 HColian colonists, who were cut off from the 
 sea by other Greek towns, and seem to have 
 lived with little to recall the ancient glory of 
 the place. The prosperity of the place (9)* be¬ 
 gan with the visit of Alexander in 334 b.c., and 
 the temple of Athena Ilias became after his 
 death the centre of a league of free cities of the 
 Troad. Near the end of the fourth century 
 Lysimachus fortified it with a Avail some 0 
 miles in circumference, and also built on the 
 hill a marble temple of Athena. Later the 
 town was under the control of Seleucus, but its 
 history during this time is obscure. It passed 
 under the Roman protection (189 b.c.) and A\ T as 
 honored as the city of Aeneas, and thus the 
 parent of Rome. In the first civil war, about 
 85 b.c., it Avas stormed and sacked by the 
 Marian general Fimbria. NeAv prosperity 'came 
 Avith Julius Caesar, for the Julian family traced 
 their descent from Ascanius, and Augustus re¬ 
 built the temple of Athena and surrounded it 
 with courts and porticoes. Later emperors fa¬ 
 vored it, and Constantine planned to make it 
 the seat of his neAV capital. It Avas for a long 
 time the seat of a bishopric, but Avas plundered 
 about 1306 by the Turks and since then has 
 lain in ruins. 
 
 For the legendary history of Troy, see Trojan 
 War. 
 
 Bibliography. The excavations of Schlie¬ 
 mann and Dbrpfeld are recorded by them in 
 Trojan Antiquities (London, 1874)," Ilios, the 
 City and Country of the Trojans (ib., 1881), 
 Troja: The Results of the Latest Researches and 
 Discoveries on the Site of Homers Troy (ib., 
 1884), Bericht uher die Ausgrahungen in Troja 
 im Jahre 1890 (Leipzig, 1891); also C. Schu- 
 chardt, Schliemann’s Excavations (trans. by 
 Eugenie Sellers (London, 1891); W. Dbrpfeld, 
 Troja, 1893 (ib., 1894); W. Dbrpfeld and 
 
TROY 
 
 TROY 502 
 
 others, Troja und Mon (2 vols., 1902); Walter 
 Leaf, Troy: A Study in Homeric Geography (New 
 York, 1912); id., Homer and Histwy (London, 
 1915) ; K. Baedeker, Konst ant inop el, Balkan- 
 staaten, Kleinasien, Archipel, Cypern (2d ed., 
 Leipzig, 1914). See also Homer, 
 
 TROY. A city and the county seat of Pike 
 Co., Ala., 52 miles by rail south by east 
 of Montgomery, on the Atlantic Coast Line and 
 the Central of Georgia railroads (Map: Ala¬ 
 bama, D 4). It is the seat of a State normal 
 school, and has a Carnegie library. Troy is 
 the shipping centre for large cotton interests, 
 and has some manufactures, of which fertilizers 
 are the most important. Troy was settled in 
 1843 and incorporated the same year. Pop., 
 1900, 4097; 1910, 4961. 
 
 TROY. An important manufacturing city 
 and the county seat of Rensselaer Co., N. Y., 
 situated at the head of navigation of the 
 Hudson River, 6 miles north of Albany and 
 149 miles north of New \ork (Map: New 
 York, G 5). It is the western terminus of the 
 Boston and Maine Railroad and is also on the 
 New York Central and Hudson River, Delaware 
 and Hudson, and Rutland railroads, and five 
 interurban trolley systems. Additional tians- 
 portation facilities are afforded by the Hudson 
 River and the new State Barge Canal. ( q.v.). 
 On the west side of the river lie the cities of 
 Cohoes and Watervliet and the villages of Green 
 Island and Waterford, all connected with Troy 
 by bridges and commercially a part of it, mak¬ 
 ing a contiguous urban population exceeding 
 130,000. 
 
 Troy is situated on the level ground along 
 the river front and extends over the hills 
 directly eastward. The water front is seven 
 miles in length and is occupied by large fac¬ 
 tories and mercantile establishments. There are 
 100 acres in the parks, the largest being Pros¬ 
 pect Park, a well-developed pleasure ground 
 overlooking the lower sections of the city and 
 affording a view of the vicinity for miles 
 around. The Soldiers’ and Sailors Monument 
 is in Washington Square. Oakwood Cemetery 
 is of interest for its natural beauty; it con¬ 
 tains many notable monuments and the Earl 
 Memorial Chapel. Among edifices of note are 
 the courthouse, post office, the savings-bank 
 building with the music hall, and the Hart 
 Memorial Library, a fine example of Italian 
 Renaissance architecture. Prominent among 
 the city’s features is the Samaritan Hospital, 
 constructed in 1914 at a cost of more than $600,- 
 000. There are two other hospitals, four or¬ 
 phan asylums, four homes for the aged, a 
 Young Men’s Christian Association, a Young 
 Women’s Christian Association, and Boys’ and 
 Girls’ clubs. 
 
 Industrially Troy ranks fifth among the cities 
 of the State, while in the volume of its com¬ 
 merce it stands fourth. Nearly $60,000,000 is 
 invested in its manufacturing enterprises and 
 their products have a yearly value of over 
 $40,000,000. The annual payroll of its 21,000 
 employees exceeds $18,000,000. It enjoys ex¬ 
 ceptional water-power facilities from the State 
 dam across the Hudson at the north end of the 
 city and from two tributary streams which drop 
 more than 200 feet within the city limits. Troy 
 is the world centre for the manufacture of 
 shirts, collars, and cuffs, producing 89 per cent 
 of the collars and cuffs made in the United 
 States. It is the leading city of the country 
 
 also in the production of laundry machinery, 
 valves, horseshoes, engineering instruments, and 
 bells. Its brush, stove, ventilator, firebrick, 
 paper-box, hosiery, knit-goods, and malleable- 
 iron factories are also important. 
 
 Among the educational institutions are the 
 Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (q.v.), and the 
 Emma Willard Seminary, the pioneer school in 
 America for the higher education of women 
 (founded in 1815). "There are also two musi¬ 
 cal conservatories with a combined enrollment 
 of 900 pupils. 
 
 The government is vested in a mayor and 
 common council, elected every two years, and 
 in various administrative departments. More 
 than $1,250,000 is spent annually by the city 
 for maintenance and operation. The water 
 works, which represent an outlay of $4,620,710, 
 are the property of the municipality. The net 
 debt of the city in 1916 was $4,743,047.92; the 
 assessed valuation of real and personal property, 
 $60 313,860. The population, in 1800, was 4296; 
 in 1850, 28,785; in 1900, 60,651; in 1910, 76,- 
 813; and, according to the State census of 
 1915, 75,480; 1920, 72,013. 
 
 The site now occupied by Troy was visited 
 by members of the crew of Henry Hudson s Half 
 Moon in 1609, but it was not until 1659 that 
 Jan Barentsen Wemp, the first settler, arrived. 
 He purchased land from the Indians by the con¬ 
 sent of the patroon, this being part of the Van 
 Rensselaer grant of 1629. Derick van der Hey- 
 den bought a large farm here in 1707 and his 
 descendants laid out a town along the river 
 eighty years later to accommodate a stream of 
 emigrants from Connecticut. The settlement, 
 known first as Van der Heyden s or Ashley s 
 Ferry, was named Troy in 1789. Two years 
 later a town government was formed and in 
 1794 Troy was incorporated as a village. It 
 became a city in 1816. The annexation of 
 Lansingburg in 1901 gave it an area of 9.62 
 square miles. In 1916 its centennial was cele¬ 
 brated with appropriate ceremonies. Consult: 
 A. J. Weise, History of the City of Troy (Troy, 
 1876) ; id., City of Troy and its Vicinity (ib., 
 1886) ; id., Troy’s One Hundred Years (ib., 
 1891) ; G. B. Anderson, Landmarks of Rensse¬ 
 laer County (Syracuse, 1897) ; New Troy, a 
 pamphlet issued by the Troy Chamber of Com¬ 
 merce (Troy, 1913). 
 
 TROY. A city and the county seat of Miami 
 County, Ohio, 83 miles by rail north by east of 
 Cincinnati, on the Cincinnati, Hamilton,^ and 
 Dayton, and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago, 
 and St. Louis railroads (Map: Ohio, B 5). 
 Farming is the leading industry of the sur¬ 
 rounding country. There are manufactures of 
 carriages, wagons, electric coffee mills, hard¬ 
 ware, wind shields, automobile bodies, tile, 
 bricks, bentwood, dashboards, and iron and lum¬ 
 ber products. Pop., 1900, 5881; 1910, 6122. 
 
 TROY, trwa, Jean Francois de (1679-1752). 
 A French decorative and genre painter. He 
 was born in Paris and was the son and pupil 
 of the portrait painter Frangois de Troy (1654— 
 1730). He also studied for several years in 
 Italy and on his return to Paris was received 
 at the Academy (1708). Many important com¬ 
 missions for mural decoration were executed by 
 him, among the finest being the “Plague at 
 Marseilles” (excellentlv engraved by Thomas- 
 sin), and the “First Chapter of the Order of 
 the Holy Ghost” (Louvre). They are well com¬ 
 posed and display a vigorous style. He also 
 
TROYON 
 
 OXEN GOING TO WORK,” FROM THE PAINTING IN THE LOUVRE 
 

 
 THE V. r;ARY 
 . OF The 
 
 US 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
TROYENS 
 
 TRUBNER 
 
 503 
 
 painted many small canvases in the style of 
 Lancret, such as “The Oyster Breakfast” (Chan¬ 
 tilly), “The Hunt Breakfast” (Wallace col¬ 
 lection, London), and “The Surprise” (Soutli 
 Kensington Museum). In 1738 he was ap¬ 
 pointed director of the French Academy at 
 Koine, and about this time designed his cele¬ 
 brated series from rhe histories of “Esther,” 
 “Medea,” and “Jason” for the Gobelins tapestries. 
 
 TROYENS, Les, la trwa/yaN'. An opera in 
 two parts by Berlioz (q.v.). 1. La prise de 
 
 Troie (The Capture of Troy), first produced in 
 Karlsruhe, Dec. 7, 1890; 2. Les Troyens d 
 
 Carthage (The Trojans at Carthage), first pro¬ 
 duced in Paris, Nov. 4, 1863. The first com¬ 
 plete production of the entire work (both parts) 
 was the one at Karlsruhe, Dec. 7, 8, 1890. In 
 the United States only fragments have been pro¬ 
 duced in concert form (1877, 1887, New York). 
 
 TROYES, trwa. The capital of the Depart¬ 
 ment of Aube, France, on the left bank of the 
 Seine, 104 miles by rail east-southeast of Paris 
 (Map: France, N., J 4). It presents a quaint, 
 mediaeval appearance. The fine Cathedral of 
 Saint-Pierre (thirteenth to sixteenth century, 
 with a splendid rose window) is in the Flam¬ 
 boyant style. The small Church of Saint-Ur- 
 bain, founded by Pope Urban IV, is a charming 
 example of the thirteenth-century Gothic. La 
 Madeleine has a superb rood screen. Saint-Jean 
 (fourteenth to sixteenth century) is noteworthy 
 for its stained glass and its two paintings by 
 Mignard. Saint-Nicolas and Saint-Pantaleon 
 are both in the Gothic style of the sixteenth 
 century. In the old Abbey of Saint-Lupus are 
 the public library (136,000 volumes and 15,095 
 manuscripts) and an interesting museum. The 
 monument to the children of Aube, in commemo¬ 
 ration of the Franco-German War, was erected 
 in 1900. The chief industry is the manufac¬ 
 ture of silk, cotton, and woolen stockings. There 
 is a school of history. The Seine is canalized 
 here and divides into several arms in the city. 
 Pop., 1911, 55,486. 
 
 The capital of the Celtic Tricasses, Troyes was 
 the Roman Augustohona (later Trecce). The 
 town was the capital of the counts of Cham¬ 
 pagne, and early rose to importance as a centre 
 of trade. The treaty of 1420, which provided 
 for the succession of Henry V of England to the 
 French throne, was signed here. Jeanne d’Arc 
 took the town in 1429, and a century later it 
 was partly destroyed by Charles V. The revo¬ 
 cation of the Edict of Nantes reduced the popu¬ 
 lation, which was largely Protestant, to less 
 than one-fourth of its former numbers. Con¬ 
 sult J. T. Boutiot, Histoire de la ville de Troyes 
 et de la champagne meridionale (4 vols., Paris, 
 1870-74), and A. Prevost, Histoire du diocese de 
 Troyes pendant la revolution (3 vols., ib., 1908- 
 09). 
 
 TRO'YLUS AND CRY'SEYDE. A poem by 
 Chaucer, written about 1380, probably largely 
 a translation of Boccaccio’s Filostrato, though 
 Chaucer may have drawn directly from Benoit 
 de Sainte-More’s Roman de Troyes of the twelfth 
 century, in which the episode is first introduced, 
 or from Guido della Colonna’s prose novel based 
 on it. 
 
 TROYON, trwa'yoN', Constant (1810-65). 
 A French animal and landscape painter. He 
 was born at Sevres, Aug. 25, 1810, and early 
 worked there as a decorator in the porcelain 
 factory, receiving meanwhile lessons in design 
 from Rioceux and later from Poupart. His 
 
 first Salon pictures, exhibited in 1833, were 
 mediocre in character, but a fortunate acquaint¬ 
 ance with the Romanticist Roqueplan modified 
 his style. Later he became associated with 
 Rousseau, Diaz, and Dupre of the Barbizon 
 group and he soon became known as a success¬ 
 ful landscape painter. Of greatest importance 
 for his career was his visit, in 1847, to Holland. 
 Here his observation of the rich animal life 
 of the fields, together with his study of Dutch 
 art, especially the animal painters Potter and 
 Cuyp, turned his attention to animal painting, 
 to which thenceforth he devoted himself. Suc¬ 
 cess and fortune came to him early; he received 
 first-class medals in 1846, 1852, and 1855, and 
 the decoration of the Legion of Honor in 1849. 
 When orders multiplied, his rapidity of execu¬ 
 tion occasionally resulted in inferior workman¬ 
 ship. I 11 consequence of overwork he lost his 
 reason in 1863, and he died in Paris, Feb. 21, 
 1865. 
 
 Troyon is the principal animal painter of 
 France, if not of modern times. No man has 
 succeeded better in portraying the character of 
 animals—the stolid indifference of the ox, the 
 helplessness of the sheep. His animals, how¬ 
 ever, were never detached studies, but an in¬ 
 tegral part of the landscape. More than any 
 other cattle painter he is a consummate mas¬ 
 ter of landscape, which he portrays with an 
 epic simplicity equaled only by Rousseau. At 
 first rather heavy, his execution speedily be¬ 
 came broad and impressive; his color is rich and 
 glowing. The poetic treatment of his subject, 
 especially in the handling of light and shadow, 
 classifies him with the Barbizon group. His pic¬ 
 tures often bear no distinctive names beyond the 
 general designation of “Landscape with Cattle.” 
 In the Louvre are 31 examples, including 18 of 
 the Chauchard collection. Among the most 
 celebrated of these are: “Return from the 
 
 Farm”; “Oxen Going to Work”; “The Goose 
 Girl”; “White Cow Scratching Herself.” He 
 is also well represented in French provincial 
 museums, and in the public collections of the 
 United States. In the Metropolitan Museum, 
 including the Vanderbilt collection, are six 
 
 examples, of which the finest are “Holland 
 Cattle”; “On the Road,” a marvel of bright 
 color; and “Autumn Woods with Cattle.” 
 
 The Art Institute of Chicago possesses seven 
 examples, including “The Return from Market,” 
 “Cattle Scene,” and “Landscape with Cattle”; 
 and he is also represented in the Wilstach col¬ 
 lection, Philadelphia, the Brooklyn Institute 
 
 Museum, the Corcoran Gallery, Washington, and 
 the San Francisco Art Museum. Consult: 
 
 Henri Dumesnil, Troyon: Souvenirs intimes 
 (Paris, 1888) ; A. Hustin, Constant Troyon (ib., 
 1893) ; J. C. Van Dyke, Modern French Masters 
 (New York, 1896) ; Walther Gensel, Corot und 
 Troyon (Bielefeld, 1906) ; and for a list of his 
 works, Louis Soullie, Les grands peinires aux 
 rentes publiques (Paris, 1900). 
 
 TROY WEIGHT. See Weights and Meas¬ 
 ures. 
 
 TRUBNER, trub'ner, Nicholas (Nikolaus) 
 (1817-1884). A London publisher, born in 
 Heidelberg, Germany. After learning the book¬ 
 seller’s trade he went to London in 1843 and 
 was employed by the Longmans. In 1851 he 
 entered into partnership with Thomas Delf and 
 afterward with David Nutt, and soon became 
 the head of the flourishing publishing house of 
 Triibner & Co. One of his successful enterprises 
 
TRUCE 
 
 504 
 
 TRUE 
 
 was a development of the American trade. In 
 1855 he published the admirable Bibliographi¬ 
 cal Guide to American Literature, which was 
 greatly enlarged in 1859. He found time to 
 study Sanskrit, Hebrew, and Basque, and wrote 
 several learned books. He performed great 
 services to scholarship by issuing works shunned 
 by ordinary publishers. Two remarkable series 
 of such works were Triibner’s Oriental Series 
 and the British and Foreign Philosophical Li¬ 
 brary. He was also the publisher of the Early 
 English Text and other societies. 
 
 TRUCE (plur. of obsolete Eng. true, truce, 
 true, AS. trcowe, tryioe, Goth, triggws , Ger. 
 treu, true; connected with OPruss. druwis, 
 faith). In warfare, a truce closely resembles an 
 armistice (q.v.), the two terms being frequently 
 used as synonyms. Practically the truce is a 
 prelude to or the interval necessary to arrange 
 for an armistice. In either case it is but a tem¬ 
 porary cessation of hostilities, and may be 
 merely local, arranged to afford safe conduct for 
 the bearer of a message, or to permit the com¬ 
 batants to bury their dead; or, if general, to 
 admit of peace pourparlers. International 
 agreement as well as the unwritten law of the 
 battlefield forbids either side taking advantage 
 of a period of truce to improve their strategic 
 advantage by changes of position, disposition of 
 troops, bringing up of reserves, or other rein¬ 
 forcements. A general truce is only made by 
 the rulers or governments concerned, while a 
 local truce may be arranged by the local com¬ 
 manders. During a truce a definite arrange¬ 
 ment is made detailing the liberties permitted 
 each combatant. It is understood, however, 
 that each side is at liberty to carry out such 
 operations as would have been possible during 
 actual hostilities. Violation of a truce by either 
 party, or any form of treachery regarding it, 
 instantly terminates the truce. See Armistice; 
 Flag of Truce; War. 
 
 TRUCE, Flag of. See Parley. 
 
 TRUCE OF GOD (ME. treuga Dei). In the 
 Middle Ages private warfare was very common, 
 and the Church synods, in order to limit what 
 they could not wholly repress (see Peace of 
 God), in the eleventh century and later, fre¬ 
 quently passed decrees that there should be no 
 v such warfare during certain holy seasons and 
 on certain days. The seasons during which 
 peace was observed extended from Advent to 
 Epiphany, and from Septuagesima to one week 
 after Pentecost. In addition the time from 
 Wednesday night to Monday morning of each 
 week and all saints’ days were included. By the 
 end of the eleventh century only about eighty 
 days in the year were left free for private war¬ 
 fare, but most of these days came in summer 
 when the fighting would naturally be most com¬ 
 mon. These decrees of the councils, although 
 frequently repeated, had little effect. Some¬ 
 times the King, too, lent the truce the weight of 
 his authority and thus made it a peace of the 
 land. Consult: August Kluckhohn, Geschichte 
 des Gottesfriedens (Leipzig, 1857) ; Ludwig Hu- 
 berti, Studien zur Rechtsgeschichte der Got- 
 tesfrieden und Landfrieden (Ansbach, 1892) ; 
 Ernest Lavisse, Histoire de France, vol. ii, part ii 
 (Paris, 1901). 
 
 TRUCKEE (truk'e) RIVER. See Great 
 
 American Desert. 
 
 TRUCK FARMING. See Agriculture; 
 United States. 
 
 TRUDELIN, tru'de-laN'. See Fridolin. 
 
 TRUDEAU, troo'do, Edward Livingston 
 (1848-1915). An American physician, noted as 
 an authority on tuberculosis, to the study of 
 which he devoted his life. He was born in New 
 York City and graduated from the College of 
 Physicians and Surgeons there in 1871. After 
 a brief period of practice in New York he was 
 obliged by pulmonary disease, contracted 
 through nursing his brother, to go to the Adiron¬ 
 dack Mountains. There he remained from 1873 
 to the end of his life. In 1884 the guides and 
 residents of Saranac Lake gave money and land 
 enough to enable Trudeau to found his famous 
 sanitarium for the treatment and cure of in¬ 
 cipient tuberculosis in working men and women. 
 This was the first American institution to at¬ 
 tempt the climatic and open-air method of treat¬ 
 ment of the disease. In 1894 Trudeau founded 
 the Saranac Laboratory for the study of tuber¬ 
 culosis, the first of its kind in America. One 
 of his most noted patients w T as Robert Louis 
 Stevenson. Trudeau contributed a vast number 
 of articles to medical publications. His success 
 in fighting the great white plague received rec¬ 
 ognition at home and abroad; in 1905 he was 
 president of *the Association of American Phy¬ 
 sicians, in 1910 president of the Congress of 
 American Physicians and Surgeons, and he was 
 also the first president of the National Associa¬ 
 tion for the Study and Prevention of Tubercu¬ 
 losis. Consult his Autobiography (Philadelphia 
 and New York, 1916) ; Stephen Chalmers, The 
 Beloved Physician (Boston, 1916). 
 
 TRUE, Alfred Charles (1853- ). An 
 
 American educator and agriculturist, a son of 
 Charles K. True (q.v.). Born at Middletown, 
 Conn., he graduated at Wesleyan University in 
 1873. After teaching in the State normal 
 school at Westfield, Mass., for several years, 
 lie studied at Harvard in 1882-84. In 1884- 
 88 he was an instructor at Wesleyan. After¬ 
 ward in the United States Department of Agri¬ 
 culture, he was successively editor, vice director, 
 and from 1893 to 1915 director of the Office 
 of Experiment Stations, and in 1915 he became 
 director of the States Relations Service. He 
 instituted agricultural investigations in Alaska, 
 Hawaii, Porto Rico, and Guam, and for many 
 years supervised investigations on human nutri¬ 
 tion, irrigation, and drainage. He gave special 
 personal attention to studies of agricultural 
 education and was largely instrumental in its 
 improvement and extension. In 1902 he was 
 dean of the first graduate school of agriculture in 
 the United States, held at Ohio State University, 
 and thereafter of several such schools in other 
 States, and in 1914 was president of the Asso¬ 
 ciation of American Agricultural Colleges and 
 Experiment Stations. Later he had general su¬ 
 pervision of the cooperative extension work in 
 agriculture and home economics under the Smith- 
 Lever Extension Act. For many years he was 
 editor in chief of the Experiment Station Record 
 and of Experiment Station Work; he also pre¬ 
 pared numerous bulletins, and contributed to the 
 New International Encyclopaedia and the 
 New International Year Book. 
 
 TRUE, Charles Kittredge (1809-78). An 
 American Methodist Episcopal clergyman, edu¬ 
 cator, and author. He was born in Portland, 
 Me., graduated at Harvard in 1832 and the 
 next year entered the New England conference. 
 Subsequently he was agent of the New England 
 Education Society, principal of Amenia Semi¬ 
 nary, professor of intellectual and moral science 
 
TRUE 
 
 TRUFFLE 
 
 in Wesleyan University (1849-60 U and finan¬ 
 cial agent of Wesleyan (1870-73). He published: 
 The Elements of Logic (1840); Shawmut; or, 
 the Settlement of Boston by the Puritan Pil¬ 
 grims (1845); John Winthrop and the Great 
 Colony (1875) ; The Life and Times of Sir Wal¬ 
 ter Raleigh (1877) ; The Life and Times of John 
 Knox (1878); Memoirs of John Howard 
 (1878); The Thirty Years’ War (1878); He¬ 
 roes of Holland (1882); Life of Captain John 
 Smith (1882). 
 
 TRUE, Frederick William (1858- ). 
 
 An American zoologist, born at Middletown, 
 Conn., and educated at New York University 
 (B.S., 1878; M.S., 1881). Becoming connected 
 with the department of biology of the National 
 Museum in 1881, he was head curator from 
 1897 to 1911, and thereafter served as Assist¬ 
 ant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 
 He was the United States delegate to the Seventh 
 International Zoological Congress in 1907. In 
 his scientific work he made a specialty of the 
 study of whales, his writings including: Review 
 of the Family Delphinidce (1889); The Whale¬ 
 bone Whales of the Western North Atlantic 
 (1904); An Account of the Beaked Whales of 
 the Family Ziphiidec (1910); Observations on 
 Living White Whales (1911). 
 
 TRUE, Rodney Howard (1866- ). An 
 
 American botanist and physiologist, born at 
 Greenfield, Sauk Co., Wis. He graduated from 
 the State university in 1890 and studied also 
 at Leipzig (Ph.D., 1895). He taught school 
 for two years, served as principal of the Wis¬ 
 consin Academy at Madison in 1892-93, and 
 was instructor and assistant professor of phar¬ 
 macognosy at the University of Wisconsin in 
 1895-99. He lectured on botany at Harvard 
 from 1899 to 1901, when he became physiolo¬ 
 gist of the United States Department of Agri¬ 
 culture. His publications comprise government 
 bulletins and contributions to the Annals of 
 Botany, Botanisches Centralblatt, and other 
 scientific journals. 
 
 TRUEBA Y COSIO, troo-a'ua e ko-se'6, 
 Telesforo de (1798-1835). A Spanish and 
 English author, born at Santander and edu¬ 
 cated in a Catholic college in England. His 
 studies for a diplomatic career he made in Lon¬ 
 don and in Paris, where he afterward served as 
 attache to the Spanish Legation until 1822. Af¬ 
 ter his return to Spain he founded an academy 
 uniting the entire younger generation of poets 
 and presided over by Alberto Lista. The two 
 comedies, El veleta and Casarse con 60,000 duros, 
 which he wrote about this time, entitle him to 
 be ranked with the best Spanish dramatists. 
 In politics an ardent champion of the consti¬ 
 tutional party, he took refuge in London on the 
 restoration of the absolute regime and presently 
 earned wide reputation as an English writer. 
 Besides the novels Gomez Arias (1828) and The 
 Castilian (1829), in imitation of Walter Scott, 
 he published a Life of Hernan Cortes (1830) ; 
 Histoi'y of the Conquest of Peru (1830) ; The 
 Romance of History (1830); The Exquisites, 
 Salvador de Guerilla, The Incognito (1831); 
 produced the comedies Call Again Tomorrow 
 (1832), Mr. and Mrs. Pringle, The Man of 
 Pleasure (1832), and the historical drama 
 The Royal Fugitive (1834) ; but won his great- 
 * est success with the descriptive picture of man¬ 
 ners, Paris and London (1831). Returning 
 to Spain in 1834, he was elected to the Cortes 
 and Secretary of the Second Chamber. He died 
 
 in Paris. Consult Marcelino Menendez y Pelayo, 
 E studios criticos sobre escritores montaheses 
 (Santander, 1876). 
 
 TRUEBA Y LA QUINTANA, e la ken-ta'- 
 na, Antonio de (?1819-89). A Spanish poet 
 and novelist, born in the Basque region, of 
 peasant stock. He went to Madrid, where he 
 entered business, but devoted his leisure hours 
 to study, and even succeeded in obtaining a 
 university degree. He was made by Isabella II 
 historiographer of Biscay, but was deprived of 
 his post of historiographer when the Queen was 
 banished in 1868. His verse, contained in the 
 two collections El libro de los cantares (1852) 
 and El libro de las montahas (1868), is marked 
 throughout by a tender melancholy natural to 
 liis native Basque region, of which he sings. 
 His historical novels, such as El Cid Campeador 
 and Las hijas del Cid, are dreary performances. 
 In the short tale of manners, descriptive of his 
 beloved Basque district, he succeeded. There 
 are various collections of these tales, e.g., the 
 Cuentos de color de rosa, the Cuentos cam- 
 pesinos, the Cuentos de varios colores, the Nar- 
 raciones populares, the Cuentos de madres 6 
 hi) os. 
 
 TRUE BILL. See Indictment. 
 
 TRUE INSPIRATION CONGREGATION. 
 
 See Communism; Amana. 
 
 TRUFFLE, truf'T or trnPf’l (OF. trufle, 
 trufe, truffe, Fr. truffe, truffle, perhaps from 
 Lat. tubera, neut. pi., but taken as fern. sing, of 
 tuber, swelling, tumor, tuber), Tuber. A genus 
 of ascomycetous fungi, globose, or nearly so, of 
 a fleshy substance, with a distinct skin, the 
 whole substance pervaded by a network of ser¬ 
 pentine threads ( hymenium) which bear the 
 spore cases in minute cavities. The species, 
 which are not numerous, are found in central 
 and southern Europe; they are subterranean, 
 found frequently in groups of 10 to 20 a foot 
 or more below the surface soil. They generally 
 grow under deciduous trees, some species being 
 found only under oaks. Some of them are 
 among the most highly valued of esculent fungi. 
 The common truffle ( Tuber cibarium ) is black 
 and has a roughened surface. Its size varies 
 from that of a large plum to a large potato. 
 From its agreeable flavor, it is used in the 
 preparation of many 
 dishes. It is common 
 
 in the central and south¬ 
 ern parts of Europe, 
 
 chiefly in loose soils, in 
 ■woods and pastures, as in 
 the pine, oak, and chest¬ 
 nut woods of France and 
 Italy. Other species, as 
 Tuber cestivum, Tuber brumale, and Tuber me- 
 lanosporum, are found in some parts of France, 
 Italy, and other countries of Europe, and are 
 sought and used in the same manner as the 
 common truffle. Dogs and pigs are trained 
 
 to seek them, and readily discover their under¬ 
 
 ground location by the scent. Stirring of the 
 soil in gathering them seems to increase pro¬ 
 ductiveness. The white truffle (Terfezia leonis ), 
 a species of a nearly allied genus, also found in 
 many places, grows half aboveground, is pink¬ 
 ish, and generally as large as a walnut. It is 
 less aromatic, but is used like the common truffle. 
 Attempts have been made to introduce the cul¬ 
 ture of truffles in parts of the United States 
 where the edible species are little known See 
 Ascomycetes. 
 
 TRUFFLE. 
 
TRUJILLO 
 
 TRUMBULL 
 
 506 
 
 TRUJILLO, troo-Hel'yo (formerly Truxillo, 
 from Lat. Turns Julii). A town of the Prov¬ 
 ince of Cdceres, Spain, in Estremadura, 24 miles 
 east of the city of C&ceres on the main highway 
 from Madrid "to Portugal (Map: Spain, C 3). 
 The surrounding country is mountainous, but 
 produces wheat, wines, oil, and fruits; live stock 
 is raised. The principal manufactures are choc¬ 
 olate, leather goods, pottery, and delftware. 
 There are valuable forests in the vicinity. The 
 town contains many convents and churches, of 
 which the most famous is that of Santa Maria 
 de la Concepcion, which holds the tomb of Fran¬ 
 cisco Pizarro (q.v.). The so-called _Tower of 
 Julius and other Roman ruins are found in 
 the vicinitv. Pop., 1900, 9304; 1910, 11,530. 
 
 TRUJILLO, or TRUXILLO. An Atlantic 
 seaport of Honduras, situated on the Bay of 
 Truxillo, 137 miles northeast of Tegucigalpa 
 (Map: Central America, E 2). Formerly the 
 most important port of northern Honduras, it 
 has within recent years again become noted for 
 its banana shipments. Pop. (est.), 2000. Tru¬ 
 jillo was founded in 1523 and was formerly 
 the capital of the Republic. Here the Ameri¬ 
 can filibuster Walker was captured and exe¬ 
 cuted in 1858. 
 
 TRUJILLO, or TRUXILLO. A Peruvian 
 city, capital of the Province of Libertad, situ¬ 
 ated near the mouth of the river Moche, 320 
 miles northwest of Callao, and connected by 
 rail with its port, Salaverry (Map: Peru, B 5). 
 The town is still surrounded by walls of the 
 seventeenth century. It contains a cathedral, 
 a university, and a theological seminary. It 
 was formerly an important commercial centre. 
 It produces sugar, rum, alcohol, tobacco, and 
 coffee. Near it lie the ruins of the Inca city 
 Gran Chimu. Trujillo was founded by Pizarro 
 in 1535, and named in honor of his birthplace. 
 It was destroyed by an earthquake in 1619. 
 Pop. (est.), 15,000. 
 
 TRUL'LAU SYNOD. See Quinisext. 
 
 TRUM'BULL, Henry Clay (1830-1903). An 
 American clergyman and author, born at Ston- 
 ington, Conn., and educated at Williston Semi¬ 
 nary, at Yale, and at the University of New 
 York. He was ordained a Congregational min¬ 
 ister, served as chaplain of the Tenth Connecti¬ 
 cut Regiment in 1862-65, and was in several 
 Confederate prisons. In 1875 he became edi¬ 
 tor of the Sunday School Times. He wrote: 
 The Knightly Soldier (1865); Kadesh-Barnea 
 (1883); Principles and Practice (1889); 
 Studies in Oriental Social Life (1894); War 
 Memories of an Army Chaplain (1898); Old- 
 Time Student Volunteers (1902). Personal 
 Prayer was posthumously published (1915). 
 Consult P. E. Howard, Life Story of Henry Clay 
 Trumbull (Philadelphia, 1906). 
 
 TRUMBULL, James Hammond (1821-97). 
 An eminent American philologist, born in Ston- 
 ington, Conn., and educated at Yale. Feeble 
 health prevented the completion of his college 
 work as well as his entering upon active pro¬ 
 fessional life. After 1847 he was a resident 
 of Hartford. He was Assistant Secretary of 
 State (1847-52), and again (1858-61), and in 
 1861-65 was Secretary of State of Connecticut. 
 He was well versed in American philology and 
 a writer on historical subjects. He also made 
 a thorough study of the Indian tongues and 
 prepared a glossary of Eliot’s Indian Bible. 
 Trumbull was State librarian in 1854-56, and 
 from 1863 until his death was librarian of the 
 
 Watkinson Library of Hartford; secretary of 
 the Connecticut Historical Society (1849-63), 
 and its president from 1863 until his death. 
 In 1874 he served as president of the American 
 Philological Association. He was one of the 
 editors of the Colonial Records of Connecticut 
 (15 vols., 1850-90) ; he also edited the Memorial 
 History of Hartford County (1886); and he 
 prepared an edition of T. Lechford’s Plain Deal¬ 
 ing (1867) and of Roger Williams’s Key into the 
 Indian Language (1866). His own publications 
 include: The Composition of Indian Geographi¬ 
 cal Karnes (1870) ; The Best Method of Studying 
 the Indian Languages (1871); Historical Kotes 
 on the Constitution of Connecticut (1872) ; The 
 True Blue Laws of Connecticut, and the False 
 Blue Laws Invented by Rev. Samuel Peters 
 (1876) ; Indian Karnes of Places in and on the 
 Borders of Connecticut, with Interpretations 
 (1881); List of Books Printed in Connecticut 
 1109-1800 (Hartford, 1904). He wrote numer¬ 
 ous articles in his particular fields of study, 
 and also prepared the catalogue of George Brin- 
 ley’s library (1878-97). 
 
 'TRUMBULL, John (1750-1831). An Amer¬ 
 ican judge and poet, born in Westbury, now 
 Watertown, Conn. Precocious in childhood, he 
 passed his examinations for Yale at the age 
 of seven, but spent six further years in prepara¬ 
 tory study, and was not graduated until 1767. 
 In 1771 he became tutor at Yale, studied law, 
 and was admitted to the bar in 1773, having al¬ 
 ready signalized his satiric powers in The Prog¬ 
 ress of Dullness (1772). To this he added a 
 second and third part in 1773, and in that year 
 entered the law office of John Adams in Boston. 
 At New Haven in 1774 he composed the first 
 portion of his most famous satire, McFingal, a 
 mock epic after the fashion of Hudibras. Dur¬ 
 ing the Revolutionary War he lived in Westbury 
 and Hartford, where he completed McFingal 
 (1782). This work became very popular, no 
 less than thirty pirated editions being known 
 to collectors. His political writing after the 
 Revolution was Federalist in spirit. His poet¬ 
 ical works were collected in 1820. He cooper¬ 
 ated with the famous Hartford Wits in the 
 Anarchiad, and was State attorney (1789), leg¬ 
 islator (1792, 1800), and Superior Court judge 
 from 1801 to 1819, when he moved to Detroit, 
 where he died. 
 
 TRUMBULL, John (1756-1843). An Amer¬ 
 ican historical and portrait painter. The son 
 of Jonathan Trumbull, Governor of Connecticut, 
 he was born at Lebanon, Conn., June 6, 1756, 
 graduated at Harvard in 1773, and two years 
 later entered the Continental army. Having 
 made for Washington a plan of the British 
 works before Boston Neck, he was appointed 
 an aid-de-camp, and the following year a dep¬ 
 uty adjutant general under Gates. He retired 
 from the army in 1777, but in 1778 he took 
 part as a volunteer in General Sullivan’s expe¬ 
 dition to Rhode Island; and in 1780 he be¬ 
 came a pupil of Benjamin West, in London. 
 The news of Andre’s execution fastened upon 
 him the suspicion of being a spy, and he was 
 imprisoned for eight months. In 1782 he re¬ 
 turned to America and remained until 1784, 
 when he went back to London to continue his 
 studies under West. Here he painted “Battle 
 of Bunker Hill” (1786), and “Death of General 
 Montgomery” (1786), now in the Yale Univer¬ 
 sity Art Gallery. The four pictures, “The Sign¬ 
 ing of the Declaration of Independence,” “Sur- 
 
TRUMBULL 
 
 render of Burgoyne,” “Surrender of Cornwallis,” 
 “Resignation of Washington at Annapolis,” in 
 the Capitol at Washington, were finished in 
 1824 after eight years of labor. Most of his 
 pictures he presented to Yale in return for an 
 annuity of $1000. Among the principal ones, 
 besides those mentioned above, are, “Battle of 
 Princeton” (1795), “Battle of Trenton,” and 
 portraits of Washington, Hamilton, the Duke 
 of Wellington, and others. In the City Hall, 
 Kew York, are ten portraits by him, including 
 those of Washington, George Clinton, John Jay, 
 and Alexander Hamilton. The Metropolitan 
 Museum possesses a portrait of Alexander 
 Hamilton, and one of Robert Lenox is in the 
 New York Public Library. Others include Gen¬ 
 eral and Mrs. Washington, in the National Mu¬ 
 seum, Washington; John Adams, Jonathan 
 Trumbull (John Trumbull’s father), and Rufus 
 King. His work is good in composition and 
 color, and is pervaded by a healthy realism, but 
 it deteriorated. In 1789 he returned to America 
 and f i om 1/94 he served for seven years under 
 Jay as Secretary of Legation in England. From 
 181G to 1825 he was president of the Academy 
 of Fine Arts in New York, in which city he 
 died, Nov. 10, 1843. Consult his Autobiography 
 (New \ork, 1841) and Samuel Isham, History 
 of American Painting (new ed.. New York 
 1915). 
 
 TRUMBULL, Jonathan (1710-85). An 
 American patriot and political leader, born at 
 Lebanon, Conn. He graduated at Harvard in 
 1727, studied for the ministry, and held a pas¬ 
 torate at Colchester, Conn., but in 1731 joined 
 his father in mercantile pursuits. Meanwhile 
 he began to study law, and in 1733 was sent 
 to the General Assembly, becoming Speaker in 
 1739. In 1740 he was appointed Governor’s 
 assistant, holding this position many years; from 
 1766 to 1769 he was Deputy Governor, and as 
 such ex officio Chief Justice of the Superior 
 Court of Connecticut. From 1769 to 1783 he 
 was Governor, and at the outbreak of the Revo¬ 
 lutionary War was the only one of the Colonial 
 Governors who gave unqualified support to the 
 Patriot party. At the close of the war he was 
 prominent as an advocate of a strong federal 
 government. According to a long-accepted tra¬ 
 dition he was called by Washington “Brother 
 Jonathan,” a phrase which later came into gen¬ 
 eral use to personify the United States. The 
 story, however, seems to be without foundation. 
 See National Nicknames. 
 
 TRUMBULL, Jonathan (1740-1809). An 
 American political leader, the son of Jonathan 
 Trumbull (1710-85), born at Lebanon, Conn. 
 He graduated at Harvard, 1759; was for several 
 ylars in the State Legislature; was paymaster- 
 general of the Northern Department from July, 
 1775, to July, 1778; and was military secretary 
 to General Washington, with the rank of lieu¬ 
 tenant colonel, in 1781-83. He was a Federalist 
 member of Congress from 1789 to 1795, being 
 Speaker of the House in 1791-95; was a member 
 of the United States Senate in 1795-96; was 
 Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut in 1796-98; 
 and was Governor from 1798 to 1809. 
 
 TRUMBULL, Joseph (1782-1861). An 
 American lawyer, grandson of Jonathan Trum¬ 
 bull (1710-8.J-). He was born at Lebanon, Conn. 
 After graduating at Yale in 1801, he studied 
 law and from 1804 to 1828 practiced at Hart¬ 
 ford. In the latter year he became president 
 of the Hartford bank. He was a member of the 
 * Vol. XXII.— 33 
 
 507 TRUMPETER FISH 
 
 Legislature from 1832 to 1848 and in 1851. In 
 1834-35, on appointment, he served in Congress 
 as a Whig, and again in 1839-43 was a member 
 of that body. In 1849-50 he was Governor of 
 Connecticut. He was actively interested in pub¬ 
 lic internal improvements and in educational 
 matters. 
 
 TEUMBULL, Lyman (1813—96). An Ameri¬ 
 can jurist and politician, born at Colchester, 
 Conn. He received an academic education, 
 taught school in Georgia, and was admitted to 
 the bar in 1837. He removed to Belleville, Ill., 
 and in 1840 was elected to the Legislature as a 
 Democrat. In 1841—42 he was Secretary of 
 State, and from 1848—53 was a justice of the 
 Supreme Court. From 1855 to 1873 he was a 
 member of the United States Senate. He early 
 joined the Republican party', was chairman of 
 the Judiciary Committee after 1861, supported 
 the Emancipation Proclamation and suspension 
 of habeas corpus, and drafted the Thirteenth 
 Amendment to the United States Constitution. 
 After the war he was one of the seven Repub¬ 
 lican Senators who refused to vote for the 
 impeachment of President Johnson, and there¬ 
 after acted with the Democrats. In 1873 he 
 returned to the practice of law in Chicago. In 
 1880 he was the unsuccessful Democratic can¬ 
 didate for Governor of Illinois. He joined the 
 Populists in 1894, and defended the leaders of 
 the great railway strike in Chicago in that vear. 
 
 TRUMPET (OF., Fr. trompette, It. trom- 
 betta, trumpet, diminutive of Fr., OF. trompe, 
 It. tromba, trumpet, probably from OHG. trumba, 
 trumpa, Ger. Trommel, drum). A musical in¬ 
 strument of great antiquity, which, in its 
 present form, consists of a tube 8 feet long, less 
 in diameter than the horn, doubled up in the 
 form of a parabola, and sounded by a mouth¬ 
 piece. By means of crooks the instrument can 
 be adjusted to any degree of the chromatic scale. 
 With the exception of the one in C, all trum¬ 
 pets are transposing instruments. The music 
 is always written in the treble clef. The sound 
 is bright and penetrating. The older composers, 
 including Beethoven, had to be careful in the 
 selection of the trumpets for a particular com¬ 
 position, and even then it was not always pos¬ 
 sible to have the trumpet play all the notes 
 desired. To remedy this defect the instruments 
 were provided with valves, enabling them to 
 produce all chromatic intervals from g to g 2 . 
 
 TRUMPET, Speaking. See Speaking Trum¬ 
 pet. 
 
 TRUMPET CALLS. See Bugle and Trum¬ 
 pet Calls. 
 
 TRUMPETER (so called from its note), or 
 Agami. One of the birds of the family Pso- 
 phiidse, allied to the cranes, and natives of South 
 America. They have the plumage of the head 
 and neck short and velvety, while that of the 
 rump is long and loose, and possesses the re¬ 
 markable character of having a series of sub¬ 
 orbital bones as in reptiles. The best-known 
 species is Psophia crepitans, which occurs in 
 large flocks north of the Amazon, especially in 
 the forests of British Guiana. These birds, of 
 which several species exist, have little power of 
 flight. The flesh is palatable, and they are do¬ 
 mesticated by the Indians. Another species 
 (Psophia leucoptera) is termed “corcovoda.” 
 See Plate of Cranes, etc. 
 
 TRUMPETER FISH. An important com¬ 
 mercial food fish of New Zealand, Latris neca- 
 tia, often reaching a weight of 50 pounds. It 
 
TRUMPETER HORNBILL 
 
 TRUSS 
 
 is a member of the longfin family Cir- 
 rhitidte, related to the sea breams (Sparidte), 
 which furnishes many valuable food fishes 
 throughout the Indo-Pacific region. One species 
 (Chilodactylus macropterus) is highly prized 
 both at the Cape of Good Hope and in Australia, 
 and reaches a weight of 25 pounds. These fishes 
 are called “long fins” on account of a prolonga¬ 
 tion of one of the rays of the pectoral fins. See 
 Longfin. 
 
 TRUMPETER HORNBILL. See Hornbill. 
 
 TRUMPET FISH. See Snipefish. 
 
 TRUMPET FLOWER (so called from the 
 shape of the flower). The popular name of 
 the genus Tecoma (family Bignoniaceas), com¬ 
 prising over 100 species of Asiatic, Australian, 
 African, and North American mostly climbing 
 and twining shrubs' without tendrils, producing 
 large flowers with a long tubular corolla which 
 suggested the common name. The trumpet 
 
 trumpet creeper (Tecoma radicans). 
 
 creeper, or trumpet vine (Tecoma radicans), is 
 a beautiful North American hardy species which 
 climbs by means of aerial rootlets and has 
 large attractive funnel-shaped orange-yellow 
 and scarlet flowers. Tecoma australis is an 
 ornamental Australian climber. Tecoma jas- 
 minoides, another Australian species, is often 
 grown in greenhouses in cold climates. Tecoma 
 capensis is a South African climbing shrub with 
 clustered racemes of orange-scarlet flowers. Te¬ 
 coma grandiflora, a rather tender Chinese and 
 Japanese species, is in common cultivation. Te¬ 
 coma stans, a yellow-flo\yered Texan species, is 
 an erect shrub.' The plants are propagated by 
 seeds, layers, cuttings of well-developed shoots, 
 and most commonly by root cuttings. Species 
 of the closely related genus Bignonia are some¬ 
 times also called trumpet flower. 
 
 TRUMPET HONEYSUCKLE. See Honey¬ 
 suckle. 
 
 TRUMPET WOOD. See Cecropia. 
 
 TRUNK-BACK TURTLE. The leather¬ 
 back (q.v.). 
 
 TRUNKFISH (so called from its incase¬ 
 ment, which resembles a trunk), or Boxfish. 
 A fish of the order Ostracodermi, and family 
 Ostraciidse, with a short, cuboid body, covered 
 by a carapace formed of firmly united polygonal 
 bony scutes, the jaws, bases of the fins, and 
 caudal peduncle free and covered by smooth skin. 
 
 508 
 
 They swim by means of a curious sculling motion 
 of the small dorsal fins and anal fins, the tail 
 acting as a rudder, while the pectoral fins fan 
 water into the gills. There are about thirty 
 species, all of tropical seas, and dwelling near 
 the bottom, feeding on minute animals. The 
 common trunkfishes, such as the West Indian 
 Lactophrys trigonus, have the carapace or 
 “box” three-angled. A somewhat different one 
 (Lactophrys tricornis) is the “cowfish” or “toro” 
 of Florida and Cuba, distinguished by the 
 stout spines that form three “horns” on the 
 head. It ranges to the Cape of Good Hope, 
 reaches 18 inches in length, and makes good 
 food when baked in its shell. See Ostraco- 
 dermi, and Plate of Plectognath Fishes. 
 
 TRUN'NXON, Commodore. In Smollett’s 
 Peregrine Pickle, a retired sailor. 
 
 TRU'RO. A city in Cornwall, England, 8 
 miles north of Falmouth, at the junction of the 
 Allen and the Kenwyn with an inlet of the 
 sea called the Truro River (Map: England, B 
 G). Truro is the centre of a mining district, 
 and trades in tin and copper ore. Its modern 
 cathedral, an early English structure in gran¬ 
 ite, consecrated in 1887, ingeniously incorporates 
 St. Mary’s Church, a Perpendicular edifice of 
 the reign of Henry VII. The grammar school 
 dates from 1546. Anciently called Truera and 
 Truruburgli, Truro was the seat of the Stannary 
 Parliaments of Cornwall, and was a privileged 
 tin coinage town. Pop., 1901, 11,562; 1911, 
 
 11,325. . 
 
 TRURO. A town and the county seat of 
 Colchester Co., Nova Scotia, Canada, on the 
 Canadian Pacific and Intercolonial railways, on 
 the Bay of Fundy, 61 miles by rail north-north¬ 
 east of Plalifax (Map: Nova Scotia, G 6). It 
 contains the Provincial Normal College, the 
 Nova Scotia College of Agriculture, Truro Acad¬ 
 emy, and nearby there is a 1000-acre park. 
 There are various manufactures. Pop., 1901, 
 5993; 1911, 6107. 
 
 TRURO, Thomas Wilde, Baron (1782-1855). 
 An English jurist and Lord Chancellor. He was 
 born in London, was educated at St. Paul’s 
 School, and was trained as a lawyer. In 1805 
 he was admitted as attorney and for some years 
 practiced as such, but in 1817 was called to the 
 bar as barrister, and in 1820 made himself cele¬ 
 brated by his defense of Queen Caroline. In 
 1831 he entered Parliament in the Whig interest 
 and gradually won for himself as great dis¬ 
 tinction there as he had won in the courts. In 
 1839 he became Solicitor-General, and in 1841 
 became Attorney-General, but held the office 
 only a few months. In 1843 he introduced 
 Rowland Hill’s plan for postal reforms in the 
 House of Commons, in 1846 was again mad*e 
 Attorney-General on the resumption of office 
 by Lord John Russell, and a few days later 
 was appointed Chief Justice of the Court of 
 Common Pleas. In 1850 he was made Lord 
 Chancellor and created Baron Truro of Bowes, 
 but he resigned on the defeat of the govern¬ 
 ment in 1852. 
 
 TRUSS (OF., Fr. trousse, from trousser, to 
 pack, bind, tie, It. torciare, to twist, wrap, tie, 
 from Lat. tortus, p.p. of torquere, to twist). 
 An instrument employed in the relief of hernia, 
 with the view of preventing its descent or of 
 effecting a cure. It consists essentially of a 
 pad or cushion attached to a metallic spring, 
 with straps so arranged that its position may 
 be retained during varied movements of the 
 
TRUSS 
 
 TRUST 
 
 509 
 
 l)ody. The necessity of having recourse to a 
 suitable truss the moment that slight protru¬ 
 sion shows itself in any part liable to hernia 
 cannot be too strongly urged. Many varieties 
 of trusses have been devised. The instrument 
 required in any particular case should be left 
 to the surgeon. See Hernia. 
 
 TRUSS. In engineering and architecture, a 
 device for spanning a space between supports 
 by means of a number of pieces framed to¬ 
 gether trusses are employed when the space 
 is too great to be conveniently spanned by a 
 single beam or girder. The various pieces or 
 members, of wood or metal, are so proportioned 
 and disposed as to resist most effectively the 
 particular strain or stress of tension or com- 
 piession to which each is subjected. See 
 Bridge; Roof. 
 
 TRUST (ME. trust, trost, trist, tryst, Goth. 
 trausti, covenant, treaty, OHG. trost, Ger. Trost, 
 trust, protection). In its broadest sense, a 
 legal relation existing* between two or more 
 persons such that a court of equity will com¬ 
 pel one to hold property or an interest in prop¬ 
 erty of which he has the legal title for the 
 benefit of the other or others. The person so 
 holding the legal interest in property is called 
 the trustee, and the person entitled to the bene¬ 
 fit, or, as is sometimes said, “equitable interest’’ 
 in the property, is known as the beneficiary of 
 the trust, or the cestui que trust. The fidei- 
 commissum (q.v.) of the Roman law, which was 
 a form of trust created by will, has been sup¬ 
 posed to have been the model of uses, the early 
 form of trust introduced into England by the 
 clergy as a means of avoiding the operation of 
 the mortmain statutes (q.v.). Another anal¬ 
 ogy has been found in the Roman idea of usu - 
 fructus, or the right of temporary enjoyment 
 Oi a tiling as distinct from the legal ownership 
 of it. The analogy, however, between uses or 
 trusts on the one hand, and the fideicommissum 
 and the usufructus on the other, fails in many 
 important particulars, and it seems most prob¬ 
 able that the use is an independent product of 
 English jurisprudence, although its development 
 was greatly aided by the doctrines of the Ro¬ 
 man law with which the clergy were familiar. 
 
 The practice of conveying land to uses, that 
 is, the granting of land to one to be held by 
 him for the benefit of another, seems to have 
 existed as early as the reign of Edward III. 
 Such grants were made by debtors to avoid 
 levy of execution by creditors, and by disseisors 
 to avoid the claims of rightful owners of the 
 land. By thus conveying land to another to 
 the use of the grantor, the grantor retained 
 all the benefits of a .purely legal ownership, 
 while he divested himself of all its burdens. 
 First, the obligation of the grantee to uses to 
 hold land to the use of his grantor seems to 
 have had only a moral or religious sanction, 
 and, resting as it did upon conscience and good 
 faith, was a proper subject for the then rapidly 
 growing jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery. 
 (See Chancery.) There is some evidence that 
 the Chancellor took jurisdiction to enforce such 
 obligations upon equitable grounds in the reign 
 of Richard II, and the jurisdiction became well 
 established during the reigns of Henry VI and 
 Edward IV. By virtue of the Chancellor’s 
 power to command things to be done, he could 
 compel the feoffee to uses to carry out fully 
 the equitable obligations imposed upon him by 
 the grantor, and in the reign of Edward IV we 
 
 find the Chancellor imposing the same obliga¬ 
 tions upon those who acquired the legal title 
 from the feoffee by inheritance or by pur¬ 
 chase, if the purchaser had notice of the claim 
 of the cestui que use. Equity also came to rec¬ 
 ognize the right or interest of the cestui as an¬ 
 alogous to a legal interest in the land which 
 might be freely conveyed or assigned and which 
 might be inherited. Thus, in addition to the 
 power of the legal owner of land to divest him¬ 
 self of the burdens of legal ownership by the 
 conveyance to uses, he was also enabled to 
 giant the use in ways not permitted at common 
 law, as, e.g., the grant of the use of property 
 by the husband to his wife. 
 
 At this period (Edward IV) there were three 
 recognized methods of creating a use or trust in 
 lands: (1) By feoffment or transmutation of 
 jjosscssion, as already mentioned. Analogous 
 to this was the practice of enfeoffing another to 
 the uses to be declared in the feoffor’s will. 
 Equity in such cases compelled the feoffor or 
 trustee to hold the property for the benefit 
 of those named in the feoffor’s will. (2) By 
 bargain and sale. When the legal owner en¬ 
 tered into a legal contract for the sale of land 
 in which the buyer paid, or agreed to pay, the 
 vendee for the land, a court of equity treated 
 the vendor as a trustee and compelled him to 
 hold the land for the use or benefit of the 
 buyer. (3) By covenant to stand seized. This 
 was a covenant by which the legal owner of 
 land covenanted to stand seized or possessed 
 of the land to the use or for the benefit of a 
 blood relative. Courts of equity treated such 
 an instrument as a valid declaration of trust, 
 enforceable against the covenantor for the bene¬ 
 fit of the relative named in the covenant. 
 
 The use of the trust as a means of evading 
 the obligation of legal ownership led to the 
 enactment of the Statute of Uses, 27 Henry 
 VIII, chap. 10. Its purpose was to abolish the 
 practice of creating uses or trusts of land, and 
 its effect was to declare that, by operation of 
 law, the legal title should be deemed vested 
 in the beneficiary or cestui que use. Upon its 
 face the statute was effectual to serve this 
 purpose, and its immediate effect was. to per¬ 
 mit the creation and transfer of legal estates 
 in the same manner as uses or equitable es¬ 
 tates had been created and transferred before 
 the statute, and incidentally to permit the con¬ 
 veyance of a legal interest in land by mere deed 
 of bargain and sale without feoffment as at 
 common law. (See Conveyance; Uses.) In¬ 
 fluenced, however, by the same powerful mo¬ 
 tives which were responsible for the develop¬ 
 ment of the system of uses, the early lawyers, 
 by a method of reasoning now difficult to un¬ 
 derstand, ultimately gave to the statute a mean¬ 
 ing and effect the exact opposite of that in¬ 
 tended. It was held that when land was granted 
 to A for the use of B, the efficiency "of the 
 statute to vest the grantee to uses with the 
 legal title was exhausted, so that if the grant 
 was made to A for the use of B for the use of C, 
 then B, who acquired the legal title by opera¬ 
 tion of the statute, would hold it for the bene¬ 
 fit of C. It was also held that when an active 
 duty was imposed upon the grantee to uses or 
 trustee, as by a grant of real estate to A to 
 collect and pay over the rents to B, the use 
 was not executed by the statute by making B 
 the legal owner, but was enforceable by Chan¬ 
 cery as before the statute. The result, there- 
 
TRUST 
 
 TRUST 
 
 5io 
 
 fore, was that the system of trusts was pre¬ 
 served and its development stimulated rather 
 than hindered by the statute. In both Eng¬ 
 land and the United States there is a complete 
 system of trusts of both real and personal 
 property, either as developed by courts of 
 equity or modified by statutes. 
 
 In order to create a trust all that is now 
 necessary is that one should convey or grant, 
 either by will or by grant inter vivos, specific 
 property to one in trust for another, 01 that 
 one having the legal title to such property 
 should declare that he holds it in trust for 
 another. No consideration is necessary to cre¬ 
 ate a trust, and no writing or other formal 
 document is required, except that trusts of 1 cal 
 estate are required by the Statutes of F.r auds 
 to be evidenced by writing. No particular 
 words are necessary, but the intention of the 
 person creating the trust must be clear. Any 
 legal person or a corporation if within its 
 corporate powers may become a trustee. For¬ 
 merly the legal title held by the trustee, accord¬ 
 ing as it was real or personal property, passed 
 upon his death to his heirs or next of kin, whom 
 equity would compel to hold the property for 
 the benefit of the beneficiaries under the trust, 
 but generally by modern statutes provision is 
 made in case of the death or misconduct of a 
 trustee for the appointment by the court of 
 a new trustee, who acquires the title of the first 
 trustee. Any legal person may be a cestui que 
 trust, but it has been held upon somewhat un¬ 
 satisfactory reasoning that trusts for the bene¬ 
 fit of unascertained beneficiaries or for the 
 benefit of inanimate objects were invalid, even 
 though the trustee was able and willing to carry 
 out the trust. This rule has been greatly modi¬ 
 fied by statute, however, thus making it possible 
 both in England and in many of the United 
 States to create a valid trust for indefinite 
 beneficiaries, where the purposes of the trust 
 are charitable. Such is the case of a gift to 
 trustees to apply the income for the benefit 
 of the poor of a certain parish. In general, 
 also, all the rules governing and determining 
 the illegality of agreements are applied by 
 courts of equity in determining the validity 
 of trusts. 
 
 Trusts have been classified with reference to 
 the manner of their creation as Express, Im¬ 
 plied, Resulting, and Constructive. . (1) The ex¬ 
 press trust is one created by the intent of the 
 person creating or declaring the trust, expressed 
 in written or spoken language, such as the trust 
 created by express clauses in a will or by a for¬ 
 mal declaration of trust. (2) The term “im¬ 
 plied trusts,” which has been sometimes applied 
 to constructive trusts, denotes trusts created 
 by the intent of the person creating or de¬ 
 claring it, when his conduct or language, either 
 written or spoken, is such that the couit infcis 
 or implies the intention to create the trust. 
 (3) Resulting trusts are trusts which are not 
 created as a consequence of actual intention, 
 but which courts of equity in certain instances 
 treat as trusts intended to be created. As it 
 is said, under certain circumstances, the in¬ 
 tention to create a trust is presumed. Thus, 
 if the purchaser of real estate. pays the pur¬ 
 chase price, but takes the title in the name of 
 a third person, the courts of equity hold that 
 a resulting trust is created in favor of the 
 purchaser, or when one conveys property to 
 a trustee upon a trust which fails or is illegal, 
 
 a resulting trust is deemed to be created in 
 favor of the grantor, and in many cases when 
 voluntary conveyances or conveyances without 
 consideration are made a resulting trust is im¬ 
 plied in favor of the grantor. In some States, 
 notably New York, the rules applicable to the 
 creation of resulting trusts have been modified 
 by statute. (4) Constructive trusts include all 
 those cases not included in the preceding classes 
 in which courts of equity upon some equitable 
 ground will compel the person having the legal 
 title or interest in property to hold it for the 
 benefit of another. Like resulting trusts, they 
 differ from express and implied trusts in that 
 they are not created as a consequence of in¬ 
 tention of the interested parties. Thus, when¬ 
 ever the legal title of property has been wrong¬ 
 fully acquired by fraud, the person guilty of 
 the' fraud, or any person claiming under him 
 who is not a bona-fide purchaser of the prop¬ 
 erty for value, will be treated as a trustee and 
 compelled to turn the property over to the 
 person defrauded who is a constructive cestui 
 que trust. Equity acts in a similar manner in 
 enforcing equitable liens (q.v.) by compelling 
 the lienee to hold the property subject to the 
 
 claim of the lienor. 
 
 The so-called doctrine of tracing trust funds 
 is a special application of the doctrine of con¬ 
 structive trusts. Not only will equity follow 
 property acquired by fraud or breach of trust 
 into the hands of any person who is not a pur¬ 
 chaser in good faith for value, but it may com¬ 
 pel any such constructive trustee who has dis¬ 
 posed of the property to account for its pro¬ 
 ceeds in his hands, even though the proceeds 
 have in time been converted into other prop¬ 
 erty. As neither resulting nor constructive 
 trusts are created by. intention of the inter¬ 
 ested parties, neither is within the Statute o 
 Frauds requiring the trust to be evidenced by 
 writing. The trustee is, strictly speaking, the 
 le°al owner of the property, with all the lights 
 and obligations of legal ownership, subject only 
 to the rioht of the cestui que trust to compel 
 with the kid of a court of equity performance 
 of the trust. The trustee may sue and be sued 
 with reference to the trust property without 
 joining the cestui que trust. He may convey 
 it civing a complete legal title, although he 
 mav act in violation of the trust. W ith ref¬ 
 erence to the cestui que trust, however, he must 
 perform completely the terms of the trust, and 
 he cannot delegate his authority. He must act 
 in o-ood faith and with due care in administer- 
 ing his trust, and for failure to do this he must 
 account to his cestui. When he has funds in 
 hand he must keep them properly invested. In 
 many States the investments which a trustee may 
 make are regulated by. statute or by settled 
 practice. Aside from his fees allowed by law 
 or specificallv granted by the terms of the trust, 
 he cannot ikake any gain or profit from his 
 position as trustee. In several of the United 
 States, notably in New York, statutes have been 
 passed defining and generally regulating trusts 
 and attempting to some extent to limit the 
 doctrine of trusts as developed by the English 
 Court of Chancery. It may be said, however, 
 that neither by legislation nor otherwise has 
 there been any material modification of the no¬ 
 tion of a legal interest vested in one person and 
 held by him for the benefit of another, the ob¬ 
 ligation to so hold the property being enforced 
 by courts having equity powers. More changes 
 
TRUST 
 
 TRUST COMPANIES 
 
 5ii 
 
 have been made in the direction of substituting 
 one trustee for another with facility in case 
 of death or misconduct of a trustee, and in 
 providing for the accounting of trustees and 
 regulating their acts. Breach of trust or mis¬ 
 appropriation of trust funds was not a crime 
 at common law. It is now generally made a 
 crime, being punishable as one of the statutory 
 forms of embezzlement. In New York mis?.' 
 propriation of trust funds falls within the suit-, 
 utory definition of larceny and is punisl . . ;>h 
 as such. 
 
 Consult: T. A. Romer, The Judicial T. v^e s 
 Guide (London, 1898) ; Thomas Lewin. >:*• cal 
 Treatise on the Law of Trusts (11 ib., 
 
 1904) ; Robbins and Maw, Treatise ..•» U o Law 
 Relating to the Devolution of R /■ R-- late on 
 Death (4th ed., ib., 1908); J. Y . IV ry, Trea¬ 
 tise on the Law of Trusts and T u * (6th ed., 
 2 vols., Boston, 1911) ; also the statutes of the 
 various States. See Chance a quity; Fidu¬ 
 ciary; Fraud. 
 
 TRUST, Charitablf ee Charitable 
 Trusts. 
 
 TRUST COMP AN' Institutions char¬ 
 
 tered by the several S 1 A of the United States 
 for the purpose of > ming, as corporations, 
 the general acts a:. turning the general re¬ 
 sponsibilities ir upon individuals under 
 
 the law of trvis The trust company in the 
 United State a in various forms, and com¬ 
 
 bines with it-. istee business numerous other 
 lines of 1 g; as, e.g., the private savings 
 ban! br, sine-- in certain States, chiefly in the 
 West • ’o gage investment in nearly all 
 Sta' ’ ie guarantee and other insurance; 
 and cent years a general banking business 
 
 sin .. In most respects to that of the ordinary 
 de bank. 
 
 growth and extension of trust companies 
 ii 1 . United States has been noteworthy in 
 t country’s recent financial history. The 
 ( troller of the Currency, in his annual re¬ 
 summarizing the various banking institu- 
 i in the United States, had returns in 1898 
 )'( i 246 institutions of this class, which num- 
 •i > had on June 1, 1905, risen to 683. In 1905, 
 ording to the same report, the assets of the 
 
 3 companies aggregated $2,865,976,479. In 
 
 15 there were 1660 companies reporting, with 
 isets of $5,873,120,341. On Jan. 1, 1899, there 
 bad been incorporated in New York State 49 
 trust companies, having aggregate resources of 
 $579,205,442. In June, 1905, there were 79 
 such institutions in existence; with total as¬ 
 sets of $1,487,424,480, and in September, 1914, 
 81 companies with total resources of $1,714,- 
 953,823. On Jan. 1, 1898, the deposits of the 
 New York trust companies aggregated $383,328,- 
 24. At the opening of 1907 their total was 
 •1,084,376,517. In 1914 it was $1,404,809,646. 
 The loan account, which amounted at the open¬ 
 ing of 1898 to $261,765,000, had risen in June, 
 1905, to $929,640,957. In 1914 it was $787,040,- 
 !09. At the opening of 1898 investments by trust 
 
 S ipanies in stocks aggregated in New York 
 /te $113,525,797; in June, 1905, such invest- 
 nts had risen to $341,661,738. In 1914 
 estments in stocks and bonds aggregated 
 >7,774,567. 
 
 Tie trust companies have occupied public in- 
 cst and discussion chiefly because of the ex- 
 tional increase of deposits since 1896-97— 
 result partly of the general practice main- 
 ned by these companies of offering interest on 
 
 
 d /C -its, which has been generally abandoned 
 b banks in the larger cities. The trust corn- 
 pan in New York City offer interest on all 
 deposits at a rate varying from 2 to 4 per cent, 
 aceord'ng to agreement as to permanency of the 
 deposi In addition to the amount of deposits 
 b attracted, the immense credit fund in the 
 r i ds of the trust companies for loaning pur- 
 p ,es has made possible the increase of their 
 •deposits, through the making of such loans, at 
 a more rapid rate than heretofore. 
 
 The trust companies of New York State may 
 be taken as typical in a study of the problem. 
 The important point to notice in these companies 
 is that the law which created them is acknowl¬ 
 edged not to have contemplated the doing of 
 business on precisely the lines now followed by 
 many of the institutions. Seventeen trust com¬ 
 panies in New York State were chartered by 
 special act of the Legislature between 1822 and 
 1887. In the latter year the general trust com¬ 
 pany law was passed, which, as subsequently 
 amended, is now the basis of authorization for 
 the business of the 60 subsequently incorporated 
 companies. The purpose of the law, as clearly 
 shown in these various enactments, was to cre¬ 
 ate a class of institutions which in their pow¬ 
 ers, duties, and responsibilities should be able 
 to act as substitute for the individual trustee. 
 The general trust company law of New York 
 State as it now stands authorizes the companies 
 to perform the following functions: (1) To act 
 as the fiscal agent or transfer agent of any 
 State, municipality, body politic, or corpora¬ 
 tion, etc. (2) To receive deposits of trust 
 moneys, securities, and other personal property 
 from any person or corporation, and to loan 
 money on real or personal securities. (3) To 
 lease, hold, purchase, and convey any and 
 all real property necessary in the transaction 
 of its business, or which the purposes of 
 the corporation may require, or which it 
 shall acquire in satisfaction or partial satis¬ 
 faction of debts. (4) To act as trustee under 
 any mortgage bond issued by any munici¬ 
 pality, body politic, or corporation. (5)To ac¬ 
 cept trusts from and execute trusts for married 
 women, in respect to their separate property, 
 and to be their agent in the management of 
 such property. (6) To act under the order or 
 appointment of any court of record as guardian, 
 receiver, or trustee of the estate of minors. (7) 
 To take, accept, and execute any and all such 
 legal trusts, duties, and powers in regard to the 
 holding, management, and disposition of any 
 estate, real or personal, and the rents and profits 
 thereof, or the sale thereof, as may be granted 
 or confided to it by any court of record, or by 
 any person, corporation, municipality, or other 
 authority. (8) To take, accept, and execute 
 any and all such trusts and powers of whatever 
 nature or description as may be conferred upon 
 or intrusted or committed to it by any person 
 or persons, or any body politic, corporation, or 
 other authority. (9) To purchase, invest in, 
 and sell stocks, bills of exchange, bonds and 
 mortgages, and other securities. (10) To be 
 appointed and to accept the appointment of ex¬ 
 ecutor or of trustee under the last will and 
 testament, or administrator with or without the 
 will annexed, of the estate of any deceased per¬ 
 son, and to be appointed and to act as the com¬ 
 mittee of the estates of lunatics, idiots, persons 
 of unsound mind, and habitual drunkards. 
 
 These functions make plain both the nature 
 
 
TRUST COMPANIES 
 
 512 
 
 CRUST-FUND DOCTRINE 
 
 of the trust company’s business as contemplated 
 by the legislators, and its difference from 'the 
 banking business as conducted by.an ordinary 
 deposit bank. It will be observed that the/act 
 above quoted does not specifically in any place 
 authorize the trust company to transact a gen¬ 
 eral deposit banking business. But the statute- 
 does not deny such powers, and in section 8 iu 
 provides that a company incorporated under the 
 act may accept “any and all such trusts and 
 powers, of whatever nature or description, as 
 may be conferred upon or intrusted or committed 
 to it by any person or persons.” This is a suf¬ 
 ficiently sweeping proviso to cover the doing of 
 banking business in any deposits intrusted to 
 the company by individuals, and on that basis 
 a great part of the trust company business as 
 nowadays understood has been built up. 
 
 The question whether the cash deposited with 
 the banks was a legitimate reserve for all pur¬ 
 poses has been the bone of contention. The 
 banks have contended that it is not and that 
 the trust companies should be required to main¬ 
 tain in cash an adequate reserve. The trust 
 companies have in general answered that the 
 funds deposited by them with the banks, if they 
 are properly secured by the bank’s own reserve, 
 should be a sufficient guarantee against any sud¬ 
 den demands by the trust companies’ depositors. 
 In the early part of 1902 this controversy be¬ 
 came acute. At that time 27 trust companies in 
 Greater New York used by arrangement the 
 facilities of the New York Clearing House, for 
 the purpose of exchanging and redeeming 
 checks paid into them. Such checks were de¬ 
 livered by the trust company to a bank specified 
 as its clearing-house agent, and by that agent 
 were properly exchanged in the daily clearings. 
 On April 29, 1902, the New York Clearing House 
 adopted the following resolution: “Every in¬ 
 stitution which hereafter may be granted per¬ 
 mission to clear through a member of this 
 association shall be required to keep in its 
 vaults such cash reserve to its deposits as the 
 clearing-house committee may determine. The 
 percentage of such reserve, however, is not to 
 exceed that required of banks, members of the 
 Clearing House Association.” The rule did not 
 apply to any of the numerous trust companies 
 at that time actually* using the clearing-house 
 facilities. A year later, on Feb. 8, 1903, the 
 following more drastic resolution was adopted 
 by the clearing house: “Every nonmember in¬ 
 stitution (not a bank required by law to main¬ 
 tain a specified reserve) now or hereafter send¬ 
 ing its exchanges through a member of the 
 association shall on and after June 1, 1903, keep 
 in its vaults a cash reserve equal to 5 per cent 
 of its deposits; and on and after Feb. 1, 1904, 
 such cash reserve shall be at least 7% per 
 cent of its deposits, and on and after June 1, 
 1904, such cash reserve shall be such percent¬ 
 age as shall from time to time be fixed by the 
 clearing-house committee, but not less than 10 
 nor more than 15 per cent of its deposits. The 
 reserve hereby required shall be an average re¬ 
 serve as against the average deposits as shown 
 upon its weekly statements.” 
 
 A vigorous controversy arose as to whether 
 the trust companies should submit to this regu¬ 
 lation. It was pointed out that for many of 
 them the clearing-house facilities were not in¬ 
 dispensable, and that they could arrange indi¬ 
 vidually for the redemption of checks paid in 
 to them. On the basis of this reasoning 10 trust 
 
 companies, including several of the largest in¬ 
 stitutions of the kind in New York City, formally 
 withdrew from the clearing house. Those which 
 remained, numbering 17, acceded to the clearing¬ 
 house rule and began to build up a cash reserve 
 in accordance with its requirements. 
 
 Bibliography. W. TI. Hull, editor, Practical 
 Problems in Banking and Currency (New York, 
 1907); Kirkbride and Sterrett, The Modern 
 Trust Company (ib., 1908), containing a bibliog¬ 
 raphy; B. J. Downer, Compilation of Laws Relat¬ 
 ing to the Trust Companies of the United States 
 (il\., 1909); G. E. Barnett, State Banks and 
 Truest Companies since the Passage of the A a- 
 tionai Bank Act (Washington, 1911); H. W. 
 Magee,. Treatise on the Law of 'National State 
 Banks, Including the Clearing House and Trust 
 Companies^ (2d ed., Albany, 1914) ; Clay Herrick, 
 Trust Companies: Their Organization, Growth 
 and Management (2d ed., New York, 1915). 
 
 TRUSTEE. A person, natural or artificial, 
 acting in a fiduciary capacity towards property, 
 the beneficial ownership of which is in another, 
 generally called the oestui que trust. See Trust 
 and authorities there referred to. 
 
 TRUSTEE PROCESS. A legal process used 
 in Massachusetts and sevt~al other New England 
 States, corresponding to the garnishee process 
 in use in most jurisdictions. In New York 
 there are two methods by which a judgment 
 creditor may reach the income of a beneficiary 
 under a trust: by use of the isual garnishee 
 process which is made expressly applicable to 
 this situation, but by which only a small per¬ 
 centage of the income may be taksn; and by 
 a creditor’s bill to apply surplus income to 
 the satisfaction of the judgment, i.e., so much 
 of the income as is not necessary for the living 
 expenses of the beneficiary according to his sta¬ 
 tion in life. See Attachment and Garnishment, 
 and consult the authorities there referred to. 
 
 TRUST-FUND DOCTRINE. A theory 
 adopted at one time by the courts of the United 
 States. This doctrine regarded the entire capi¬ 
 tal stock of a corporation as a trust fund, h eld 
 by the directors of the same for the benefit 
 of creditors of the corporation. Based upen 
 this doctrine numerous decisions both of tl.ie 
 United States courts and of almost all the 
 State courts in the Union were written which 
 held that unpaid stock subscriptions could not 
 be evaded by the execution of releases by the 
 original subscribers or by cancellation by the 
 corporation itself or by a transfer to third 
 persons made for the purpose of evading pay¬ 
 ment. Under these decisions corporation cred¬ 
 itors could recover the difference between the 
 actual value of property transferred to a cor¬ 
 poration in return for stock and the par value 
 of the stock which the corporation issued for 
 the property, which stock is generally referred 
 to as watered. Other results of the applica¬ 
 tion of this theory were the prohibition of a 
 corporation employing its own capital for the 
 purchase of outstanding shares of its capital 
 stock and the illegality of paying dividends out 
 of its capital stock. 
 
 The extremes to which this theory was carried 
 in its application to corporation finance eventi- . 
 ally brought about a limitation of the doctr fie. 
 In 1893 the Supreme Court of the United Stiles 
 questioned its soundness and decided that if 
 the capital stock constituted a trust fund at 
 all, it could be regarded as such only after he 
 corporation had become insolvent and jurisdicton 
 
TRUSTS 
 
 513 
 
 TRUSTS 
 
 
 of its assets had been acquired by the courts 
 through receiverships. In the administration of 
 the bankrupt corporation’s estate the application 
 of the doctrine was reaffirmed. 
 
 1 he law as to stock subscriptions, watered 
 stock, the purchase by the corporation of its 
 own stock and payment of dividends out of 
 capital remains as it was before the doctrine 
 was criticized. Ihe only effect which the judi¬ 
 cial change of attitude towards the original 
 doctrine has had is that the basis of the reason¬ 
 ing arriving at the same conclusions has been 
 shifted from the concept of trust relationship. 
 
 The consideration underlying the decisions 
 which have practically nullified the effects of 
 the trust theory is that a corporation, as an 
 entity entirely distinct from its stockholders, 
 holds its property absolutely and that its title 
 cannot be qualified by the actions of these 
 individual stockholders or creditors. The prin¬ 
 ciple of corporate ownership requires that equi¬ 
 table or trust rights should not encumber its 
 possession and disposition of corporate prop¬ 
 erty. However, upon insolvency, the rights of 
 creditors require the application of the trust 
 doctrine to a limited extent in the administra¬ 
 tion of its estate after possession by the courts. 
 See Equity and the authorities there referred 
 to. See also Trusts. 
 
 TRUSTS. The word “trusts” in this article 
 is used of large corporations or associations of 
 corporations or of individuals mostly engaged 
 in manufacturing, which possess sufficient power 
 to fix the prices of their products, in part at 
 least, on the principle of monopoly. It does not 
 include railways or combinations of railways, or 
 trusts in the technically legal sense. 
 
 Industrial Conditions Reading to Forma¬ 
 tion of Trusts. The trusts are a late develop¬ 
 ment, since, until late in the nineteenth century, 
 industrial conditions were not favorable for 
 their formation. In earlier times organiza¬ 
 tions possessing monopolistic power were either 
 created by law or secured their power through 
 the possession of some natural advantage, such 
 as the exclusive possession of certain natural 
 resources, as mines, etc., or through the ad¬ 
 vantage which comes from the exclusive occu¬ 
 pancy of positions of advantage in doing their 
 work—railroads, telegraphs, etc. In the modern 
 trust we often find combined with the ad¬ 
 vantages of great capital and perfected business 
 organization also some of these natural ad¬ 
 vantages, but they are not the essence of the 
 trust advantage. The chief causes, from the 
 industrial point of view, which have led to 
 the organization of trusts are: (1) The exist¬ 
 ence of competition which was practically ruin¬ 
 ous in its nature, brought about in part by 
 the ease of intercourse between persons in 
 different localities and by the difficulty of with¬ 
 drawing readily capital once invested in fixed 
 plants. Such competition almost of necessity at 
 times will become so fierce that all parties con¬ 
 cerned will fail of making any profit. (2) 
 The possibility of saving industrially many of 
 the wastes which come from the competitive 
 system, provided the interests of the various 
 competitors are harmonized. Without discuss¬ 
 ing in detail these wastes of competition, there 
 may properly be mentioned the salaries of 
 traveling salesmen, the expense of keeping up 
 expensive show windows, the cost of competitive 
 advertising, the loss from undue extension of 
 credits, the loss of custom which comes from 
 
 
 carrying only a partial instead of a complete 
 stock, the loss from the payment of cross 
 freights, the loss from running manufacturing 
 plants to only part of their capacity or part 
 of the time. There may be mentioned also as 
 a gain from combination the saving from stand¬ 
 ardizing the machinery and from prevention of 
 the waste of time due to stopping and changing 
 machinery, the saving from the most efficient 
 organization of laborers and from managing 
 all plants in an enterprise by the most skinful 
 men instead of having part of them directed by 
 men of meagre ability, the certainty of a regular 
 supply of raw material, and the most efficient 
 use of by-products. 
 
 Other Influences as Causes. Aside from 
 the industrial conditions that have led to the 
 oiganization of trusts, certain other influences 
 are to be noted: (1) The promoters of the 
 
 large enterprises have in many cases succeeded 
 in making very large profits from the organiza¬ 
 tion. Likewise the financiers who have under¬ 
 written the stock have been able to exact very 
 large payment for the risks which they have 
 taken. The immediate personal interest'of the 
 promoter and financier has thus been a very 
 powerful factor—sometimes even the most pow¬ 
 erful factor—in bringing about the combinations. 
 (2) Governmental favors of various kinds have 
 sometimes tended in the same direction. Al¬ 
 though the protective tariff can scarcely be men¬ 
 tioned as a direct cause of the organization of 
 industrial combinations, it is doubtless true 
 that when an industry which otherwise would 
 not have prospered has been first made very 
 profitable by a protective tariff, so that numer¬ 
 ous rival establishments have invested large 
 sums of money in it, the consequent rivalry has 
 led to the formation of combinations. It is 
 also probable that in certain instances the 
 protective tariff, by lessening foreign competi¬ 
 tion, has promised to the promoters of a com¬ 
 bination the opportunity for greater profits 
 than could have been anticipated without the 
 existence of the tariff. In this indirect way, 
 therefore, we may well consider the legislative 
 favor of the protective tariff under certain 
 circumstances as an indirect cause of the trust. 
 Similarly the monopoly granted by the patent 
 laws, by copyrights, by trade-marks, and other 
 legislative benefits has led to the organization 
 of some of the great combinations. 
 
 Extent of Combination Movement. Ac¬ 
 cording to the Report on Manufactures of the 
 census of 1900 there were in the United States 
 185 combinations with 2040 plants. The total 
 capitalization was $1,436,625,910. The total 
 cost of materials used was $1,089,666,334 and 
 the value of the products $1,667,350,949. The 
 total gross value of all manufactured products 
 enumerated in the census was $13,004,400,143. 
 For the purpose of comparison there should be 
 subtracted from this total the value of the 
 products of the hand trades or the mechanical 
 and neighborhood industries, since these are not 
 adaptable to the form of management known as 
 the industrial combination. There remains a 
 total gross product of industries susceptible 
 of combination into trusts of $11,820,784,665. 
 Comparing this with the product of the indus¬ 
 trial combinations, it seems that in 1900 the 
 trusts produced nearly 14.1 per cent of the 
 total gross product of the manufacturing in¬ 
 dustries of the country, as enumerated by the 
 census. 
 
TRUSTS 
 
 514 
 
 TRUSTS 
 
 Between 1900 and 1907 occurred a much more 
 powerful movement towards concentration than 
 any that had appeared earlier, and, although 
 the movement was checked by the crisis of 1907- 
 OS, it would still appear that the volume of 
 consolidated industry and its proportionate 
 share in the manufacture of the country have 
 increased. But in consequence of the doubt cast 
 upon the legality of the various forms under 
 which trusts are organized and the adverse 
 decisions in the Standard Oil and Tobacco 
 Trust cases, it was deemed impossible in later 
 censuses to secure figures on combinations. Un¬ 
 official estimates, moreover, are of no value 
 because of the discrepancies among authorities 
 as to the forms of organization to be included. 
 
 Monopoly Character of the Trusts. Many 
 of the trusts are closely connected with natural 
 monopolies which give them a decided ad¬ 
 vantage over their competitors. It is well 
 known that the Standard Oil combination in 
 its earlier days derived great advantage from 
 the special rebates which it received from the 
 railroads. There is also reason to believe that 
 many other of the later combinations received 
 somewhat similar favors. Ownership of pipe 
 lines also played an important part in building 
 up the power of the Standard Oil Company. The 
 United States Steel Corporation, as well as some 
 of its constituent companies, has made it evi¬ 
 dent that one of the great advantages possessed 
 by these organizations is the ownership of mines 
 from which they derive a large part of their raw 
 material. Through this ownership of a large 
 percentage of all the available raw material in 
 the country they are able to put their rivals at 
 a decided disadvantage. Certain trusts also 
 may in certain localities control so large a per¬ 
 centage of the raw material that they may 
 readily crush their rivals in those localities, as, 
 e.g., the salt combination in its control of 
 salt wells and mines. The extent to which a 
 trust therefore may in itself be a monopoly 
 depends often to a great degree upon the extent 
 to which it has a monopoly of the raw material 
 of the industry which it seeks to control. The 
 effects of the trusts upon prices and their legal 
 and social status in the community may in 
 many cases depend upon this one factor. 
 
 Promoting and Financing. If, as is often 
 the case, the promoter organizes a new com¬ 
 pany to take over the various plants which he 
 is intending to combine under one management, 
 or to develop some new patent, it has been 
 the common practice for him to issue stock far 
 beyond the actual cash value of the plants under 
 consideration; then to pay for these plants with 
 as much of the stock of the new company as 
 was necessary to secure them, retaining the bal¬ 
 ance for his own services. In other cases, when 
 the company is organized, the distribution of 
 the stock among the different parties in interest 
 is agreed upon jointly, and the promoter re¬ 
 ceives a certain percentage of the entire amount 
 as his reward. Inasmuch as he in many cases 
 takes considerable risk, and as the success of 
 the enterprise is practically due largely if not 
 entirely to his initiative, it has at times been 
 possible for him to secure for his reward as 
 high as 20 per cent of the capital of the organ¬ 
 ization, paid to him in common stock. \\ ith 
 such large rewards as are often hoped for and 
 sometimes obtained, it is evident that the in¬ 
 terest of the promoter may become a very direct 
 cause for the formation of the trusts. 
 
 Scarcely less prominent than the promoter in 
 this regard is the financier. When either a 
 new enterprise is to be started or a combination 
 of existing establishments is to be made, it is 
 usually necessary to raise a considerable amount 
 in cash in order that the new institution may 
 start with capital in hand. Frequently also 
 many of the plants purchased need to be paid 
 for in cash. The stock of the new company is 
 ordinarily the source from which it is desired 
 that such cash should come. Inasmuch, how¬ 
 ever, as the general public is not likely to 
 take the stock" immediately and pay for it in 
 cash, it is desirable that some one be found 
 who will underwrite it, i.e., who will take the 
 stock and agree to furnish in exchange therefor 
 an agreed-upon sum in cash at a certain fixed 
 date in the future. For this service, so specula¬ 
 tive in its nature, the financier ordinarily de¬ 
 mands and frequently receives very high com¬ 
 pensation. In certain instances, which were 
 cited before the United States Industrial Com¬ 
 mission, for each $100,000 in cash furnished, the 
 promoter received $150,000 in common stock, 
 while the underwriter, the capitalist, received 
 $150,000 of common stock and in addition 
 thereto $100,000 in perferred. 
 
 Capitalization and Overcapitalization. In 
 the trusts organized especially around the year 
 1900 excessive capitalization was a prominent 
 feature. At that time both the economies of 
 consolidation and the possibilities of monopoly 
 profit were greatly overestimated by the in¬ 
 vesting public. Thus, the Carnegie Company, 
 having in 1899 assets valued at $75,000,000, was 
 taken by the promoters of the Steel Corporation 
 at a valuation of $492,000,000. Other prop¬ 
 erties taken by the corporation presented a 
 still wider discrepancy between independent 
 valuation and valuation for purposes of con¬ 
 solidation. Yet the Steel Corporation was, on 
 the whole, one of the more conservatively capi¬ 
 talized corporations of that era. 
 
 The disadvantages of excessive capitaliza¬ 
 tion appear to have fallen chiefly to the unwary 
 investor. Quite conceivably a corporation heavily 
 overcapitalized will take a shortsighted view 
 of market possibilities and charge excessive 
 prices in order to pay dividends. But the 
 weight of opinion appears to be that capitaliza¬ 
 tion policy has had very little to do with price 
 policy. Prices have been kept at a high level 
 or have remained at a low level according to 
 estimates of what the traffic would bear. 
 
 The abler trust managers have regarded over- 
 capitalization as a weakness and have pursued 
 a policy of ‘‘squeezing out water” by putting 
 profits back into the corporation without in¬ 
 crease in capital. Thus the Steel Corporation, 
 which in 1902 had water in its stock to the 
 extent of $625,000,000, had by 1910 reinvested 
 surplus profits to such an extent as to reduce 
 water to $281,000,000. The practice has been 
 continued, and by 1916 the water had practically 
 disappeared. 
 
 Forms of Organization and Management. 
 While the form of organization of the trust 
 may often not have any material effect upon its 
 economic influence, it is still very frequently 
 true that the form is determined to a con¬ 
 siderable extent by the legal institutions of the 
 country, and sometimes the form of organization 
 is of significance not merely from the legal point 
 of view, but also from the economic. In the 
 eighties and nineties of the last century, when 
 
TRUSTS 
 
 TRUSTS 
 
 515 
 
 the pressure of competition arising from the 
 large amount of capital for investment in the 
 United States had tended to lessen the profits 
 of manufactures, the first effort to lessen this 
 competition naturally resulted in agreements 
 upon prices or in agreements among different 
 manufacturers to divide the selling territory 
 among themselves, or in some other similar form 
 of agreement which left to each establishment 
 complete autonomy as regards its own manage¬ 
 ment, but which brought about some form of 
 an alliance to lessen the competition. Such 
 agreements were usually and more or less ac¬ 
 curately called pools. (See Pooling.) This 
 form of agreement (Kartell) is the usual form 
 of agreement in Germany, where the courts 
 uphold such contracts. In recent years the Ger¬ 
 man government has even taken an active part 
 in encouraging the formation of Kartells. The 
 potash Kartell, e.g., was formed under govern¬ 
 ment pressure and its export policy largely 
 determined by government. In Austria similar 
 conditions obtain. The sugar Kartell is essen¬ 
 tially a quasi-public institution. In the United 
 States, on the other hand, the courts have very 
 generally held that such agreements were in un¬ 
 reasonable restraint of trade, and in consequence 
 void, as contrary to public policy. The parties 
 to the pools therefore, knowing that they could 
 not be legally bound, frequently violated the 
 terms of the agreements by increasing their 
 output beyond the amount agreed upon, by cut¬ 
 ting prices, and by other similar means. To over¬ 
 come these difficulties the form of the trust 
 was at length invented and put in practice—in 
 the first place by the Standard Oil Company 
 in 1882. Under this form of organization the 
 stockholders of each of the separate companies 
 assigned their stock to a few trustees, giving 
 thus an irrevocable power of attorney. In lieu 
 of the stock assigned the trustees issued trust 
 certificates to the stockholders of the separate 
 companies, and upon these trust certificates 
 profits were divided. All of the earnings 
 from the different members of the com¬ 
 pany were pooled, and each manufacturer re¬ 
 ceived his due share as evidenced by the cer¬ 
 tificates regardless of the question whether his 
 establishment were running or closed. The 
 trustees, having in their hands the voting power 
 of all the stockholders, elected whatever persons 
 seemed to them best as officers of the separate 
 companies. In this way the management was 
 absolutely unified and* the interests of all 
 parties concerned became one. The courts finally 
 holding that this trust agreement was illegal, 
 the plan was later adopted of organizing a new 
 company which should buy up all of the sepa¬ 
 rate plants of the different companies entering 
 the combination, so that in this way a unified 
 management was secured that was believed to be 
 within the law. 
 
 In order that a more convenient form of 
 handling the properties of the different com¬ 
 panies might be secured, and that under certain 
 circumstances somewhat greater flexibility of 
 management could be attained, a third form of 
 organization was later adopted which was in 
 many respects quite like that of the earlier 
 trusts. In this form a new company was or¬ 
 ganized as a stockholding company. This com¬ 
 pany then bought up all or a large proportion 
 of the stocks of each of the companies coming 
 into the organization, and held these stocks, 
 ike officers of the central organization were thus 
 
 m a position, by voting the stocks of the dif¬ 
 ferent companies, to elect the directors and 
 officers of those companies and thus control 
 their policy. By the decisions of the Supreme 
 Court in the Standard Oil Case (May 15, 1911) 
 and the Tobacco Trust Case (May 29, 1911), 
 the power of the government to dissolve such 
 forms of organization was established. The 
 foim, nevertheless, is.employed by most existing 
 trusts, but only in default of action by the 
 Department of Justice. 
 
 Prices. Competitive prices, it is frequently 
 ,assumed, v\ ill in the long run be fixed mainly 
 by the cost of production of that part of the 
 stock which is produced at the greatest disad¬ 
 vantage. Monopoly price, on the other hand, is 
 fixed ac that point which will secure to the 
 monopolist the greatest net return. If greater 
 return will be secured by lowering the price, and 
 increasing the sales, the price will be lowered. 
 If the net returns will be greater by increasing 
 the price, even though the number of sales be 
 lessened, that policy will be adopted. In tech¬ 
 nical _ discussions regarding prices the assump¬ 
 tion is usually made of either a regime of free 
 competition or of what is substantially monop¬ 
 oly. In a practical discussion of the effects of 
 trusts upon prices we must recognize that there 
 may be certain monopolistic powers which may 
 enable prices to be raised somewhat above the 
 competitive rate, but which are still not suf¬ 
 ficient to enable the trust to fix prices entirely 
 regardless of.a potential competition. So, also, 
 this monopolistic power may vary in degree in 
 different industries or in the same industry at 
 different times. 
 
 If the economies of industrial combination 
 spoken of before are great, it is evident that 
 without lessening profits prices of the finished 
 product might be placed somewhat lower than 
 those under the competitive regime, or prices 
 of the raw materials used might be raised above 
 those prevailing under the competitive regime 
 without lessening profits. We see, therefore, 
 that it is within the power of the managers of 
 the trusts, provided the trust has been care¬ 
 fully organized in an industry adapted for com¬ 
 bination to put prices below the competitive 
 rates in order to drive out competitors, and 
 then if they have secured monopolistic power 
 thereby, to put prices, within certain limits at 
 any rate, above competitive rates. 
 
 Whatever may be the theoretic possibilities, 
 however, under the trust system, it is essential 
 to note what has in fact been the result, inas¬ 
 much as, in addition to the technical economic 
 powers that have been suggested, the psycholog¬ 
 ical factors of public opinion, of demands of 
 laborers, of the boldness of the managers, etc., 
 may all enter into the problem as factors in 
 price determination. It is impossible to make 
 any valid general statement as to the effect of 
 trusts upon prices. In some cases they have 
 raised prices and in other cases have reduced 
 them. While the trust was still comparatively 
 new the Industrial Commission proved conclu¬ 
 sively that in many cases the margin between 
 the price of finished product and the cost of 
 raw material had been raised—a fact indicating 
 that profits had been increased at the expense 
 of either the consumer or the producer of raw 
 materials. But in their later history many of 
 the trusts appear to have become more moderate 
 in their price policy. Possibly on account of 
 their strengthened financial position through the 
 
TRUSTS 
 
 TRUSTS 
 
 5i6 
 
 accumulation of reserves, they have taken a 
 broader view of the possibilities of developing 
 markets. It is certain that the fears generally 
 entertained in the early years of the twentieth 
 century of monopolistic extortion have not been 
 justified by experience. 
 
 Wages. As indicated in the discussion, on 
 prices, so far as the trusts really make savings 
 through their new method,of organization, they 
 have a surplus fund which could be used in some 
 way. The United States Steel Corporation raised 
 the average wages of its employees nearly 20 
 per cent in the 10 years 1902—11. The Standard 
 Oil Company lias usually pursued a policy of 
 liberal wages, and the same thing is true of 
 many of the other strong consolidations. It is, 
 however, to be borne in mind that these great 
 aggregations of capital have it in their power 
 to play one body of workers against another, 
 and so of fixing wages and conditions of em¬ 
 ployment more or less arbitrarily. The Steel 
 Corporation has never recognized unionism, and 
 is generally believed to exert its power to pre¬ 
 vent the rise of labor organizations. 
 
 Social Effects. It has often been charged 
 that the great corporations and trusts exert 
 a corrupting influence upon legislatures and the 
 courts. It is probable that in individual cases 
 this charge is true. On the other hand, legis¬ 
 latures have not been free from such charges 
 under the competitive system, and it probably 
 would be difficult to prove absolutely that condi¬ 
 tions are worse now than they were before the 
 great industrial corporations were formed, the 
 remedy for such an evil would seem to be 
 chiefly in improving the character of our legis¬ 
 latures. 
 
 A more significant consideration is whether 
 the trust, by bringing so many individuals under 
 one centralized management, destroys to any 
 material extent the powers of self-reliance and 
 of self-direction on the part of individuals which 
 are naturally developed by. the struggles of 
 the competitive system. Opinions differ to a 
 considerable extent on this subject, but there 
 can be no doubt that, although the opportunities 
 for a man to start an independent business in 
 certain lines of industry are lessened,. on the 
 other hand the competition for promotion and 
 for positions of responsibility within the com¬ 
 bination itself is severer in the case of the great 
 corporation than in the case of the private busi¬ 
 ness or partnership. When a group of two or 
 three partners are managing a business, they 
 may readily give preference to their sons or 
 friends even when the business ability of such 
 persons is not of the highest type. When the 
 interests of thousands of stockholders must be 
 considered, and there are large boards of di¬ 
 rectors, each feeling that his position depends 
 to a considerable extent upon the success of the 
 business, favoritism cannot he shown to any 
 very great extent. 
 
 Legal Position. When a trust or combina¬ 
 tion is organized, its rights and powers are de¬ 
 termined by the ordinary rules of common and 
 statute law applicable to the particular form 
 of organization adopted. That is, if the com¬ 
 bination is a trust, its rights and powers are 
 determined by the ordinary rules of law gov¬ 
 erning trusts; or if the combination is effected 
 by one of the methods of corporate combination, 
 its rights and powers are determined by the 
 general law of corporations. Aside from these 
 questions of the methods of organizing combina¬ 
 
 tions, the trusts raise no peculiar legal issues 
 except that as to their legality when organized. 
 
 In ascertaining whether a combination is un¬ 
 lawful at common law, it should be remembered 
 that the mere combination or cooperation of 
 several individuals is not in itself unlawful, 
 and in the case of partnerships and corporations 
 combination of individuals is encouraged by 
 the law. Combination by corporations, however, 
 as has already been indicated, when not au¬ 
 thorized by statute, may be such an abandon¬ 
 ment or misuse of their corporate franchises as 
 to be illegal under the general law of corpora¬ 
 tions. In general it may be said that com¬ 
 binations are unlawful per se only when the 
 purpose of the combination is unlawful or 
 against public policy, or when the means adopted 
 by the combination for effecting its purposes are 
 unlawful or against public policy. 
 
 The grounds upon which combinations have 
 been held to be unlawful at common law may 
 be somewhat roughly classified as follows: (1) 
 That the contract (when the combination has 
 been effected by contract) is illegal and void at 
 common law because in restraint of trade. (2) 
 That the combination is an unlawful conspiracy, 
 either civil or criminal. (See Conspiracy.) 
 Technically the second class includes the first, 
 since there can be no combination without two 
 or more parties to it who are technically guilty 
 of conspiracy where the purpose is to enter into 
 an illegal contract. Since, however, each is 
 recognized as a distinct ground for declaring 
 combinations illegal, the classification may be 
 adopted as both convenient and practical. In 
 the Standard Oil Case the Supreme Court held 
 that the intent of the Anti-Trust Law was to 
 prohibit monopolization, or attempts at monop¬ 
 oly, of interstate or foreign trade, and that 
 the powers of the court under the law were 
 broad enough to reach such monopolization 
 under whatever form it might assume. For 
 a full discussion of the legal doctrines relating 
 to restraint of trade and conspiracy, reference 
 should be made to those topics. (See also 
 Monopoly; Engrossing; Forestalling; IIe- 
 grating.) With reference to conspiracy, it may 
 be said that combinations are conspiracies, and 
 therefore unlawful, when the purpose of the 
 agreement or combination is either to do some- 
 
 o # 
 
 thing unlawful or to do something lawful in 
 an unlawful manner. In general, combinations 
 are held to be illegal because of their purposes 
 and methods when they restrain fair competition 
 or create oppressive monopolies. 
 
 At common law the remedies of individuals 
 against acts of illegal combination are limited 
 to the recovery of any damage suffered because 
 of the unlawful conspiracy involved in the com¬ 
 bination or to the securing of an injunction re¬ 
 straining those joined in the combination from 
 doing some threatened injury to the plaintiff. 
 In either case it is necessary for the plaintiff 
 to show actual damage suffered by him or that 
 the defendant threatened to do some act caus¬ 
 ing such damage. When the combination is in 
 the corporate form and is acting outside its 
 corporate powers, or its constituent corporations 
 have ceased to act as separate corporations so 
 as to amount to an abandonment of their char¬ 
 ters, the State may proceed against the cor¬ 
 porate combination or any of the constituent 
 corporations to compel a forfeiture of its char¬ 
 ter by quo warranto. There is, however, no 
 other method at common law by which either 
 
TRUSTS 
 
 TRUSTS 
 
 the State or a private individual could proceed 
 against a combination on the ground that it is 
 illegal and is working a public injury. As a 
 result of agitation upon the subject of trusts, 
 almost all of the United States have adopted 
 statutes or clauses in their State constitutions 
 restraining or prohibiting all contracts, agree¬ 
 ments, undertakings, or combinations in” re¬ 
 straint of trade or tending to create monopolies, 
 whether such restraint would have been unlaw¬ 
 ful at common law or not. In general the courts 
 have held that these statutes are constitutional 
 undei both State and Federal constitutions, 
 and not in violation of the constitutional provi¬ 
 sions against abridging the freedom of contract, 
 depriving citizens of liberty or property without 
 due process of law, or denying them equal pro¬ 
 tection of the laws. In the interpretation of 
 these statutes, however, the courts have justly 
 regarded them as an innovation upon the com¬ 
 mon law to be interpreted with strictness and 
 caution. Moreover, the difficulty of giving such 
 legislation its proper effect without making it 
 subversive of established rights of property has 
 to some extent prevented all these restraining 
 acts from having the effect intended. It may 
 be said that the principal test to be applied 
 in determining whether statutes of this class 
 aie violated is whether the act or agreement 
 complained of was done with intent to control 
 prices or whether such would be a natural 
 result of the act or agreement. They usually 
 provide that contracts made in connection with 
 such an act or agreement shall be void, and 
 attach penalties for their violation. In some 
 States parties injured by such violations of an¬ 
 timonopoly statutes are given rights of action 
 to recover damages for the injury suffered. 
 
 A far more effective agency for restricting the 
 growth of monopoly is the exercise of the power 
 of the several States to control all corporate 
 enterprises within their respective territories. 
 A State may grant to a corporation its charter 
 and power to do business upon such terms as 
 the Legislature may choose, and it is also within 
 the constitutional power of a State to impose 
 any terms, however exacting, as a condition to 
 which corporations created under the laws of 
 other States must conform if doing business 
 within its limits, provided such conditions do 
 not interfere with interstate commerce, the 
 power of regulation and control of which is 
 by the United States Constitution lodged with 
 the Federal government. 
 
 A State may thus limit the amount of capital 
 of a corporation organized under its laws; and 
 it may by its charter or general laws existing 
 at the time of its creation limit or regulate 
 its business. In the same manner a State may 
 impose similar or even additional conditions 
 upon all foreign corporations wishing to do busi¬ 
 ness that is not interstate commerce within 
 the State. In this connection, hoAvever, it 
 should be remembered that the charter or other 
 legislative authority to a corporation to do 
 business once granted is deemed to be a contract, 
 and that the State is forbidden by the United 
 States Constitution to impair the obligation of 
 contract. See Corporation ; Charter ; Dart¬ 
 mouth College Case. 
 
 T t will be seen that the powers of restriction 
 just referred to are limited to corporations and 
 have no application to natural persons or part¬ 
 nerships. r lhe important above-mentioned limi¬ 
 tations upon the power of the States to control 
 
 517 
 
 corporations, coupled with the fact that it has 
 been the policy of many, of the States to grant 
 to corporations organized under their laws prac¬ 
 tically unlimited power, have in effect seriously 
 interfered with any effective statutory restric¬ 
 tion of monopolies by the several States. 
 
 The Federal government may to some extent 
 restrain monopoly under cover of its constitu¬ 
 tional power to regulate interstate and inter¬ 
 national commerce. Its power in this respect 
 has been deemed to be practically absolute. It 
 cannot, however, be said at this' time that the 
 power of Congress to control or restrain the busi¬ 
 ness of individuals, or corporations, by enact¬ 
 ments that are not intended primarily for the 
 purpose of controlling or regulating interstate 
 commerce, but for the purpose of restricting, or 
 making unlawful, or assuming control over, a 
 business which is lawful and unrestricted in 
 the several States, is without limitation, since 
 that question has not been definitely and finally 
 determined by the Supreme Court of the United 
 States. Acting under its power to regulate 
 commerce, Congress in 1887 enacted the Inter¬ 
 state Commerce Act, having for its purpose 
 the control and regulation of business carried 
 on by common carriers engaged in interstate 
 commerce. Its particular object was the pre¬ 
 vention of unlawful discrimination in rates by 
 common carriers engaged in interstate com¬ 
 merce, which had contributed in a large degree 
 to the growth of monopolistic enterprises. This 
 was. followed in 1890 by a statute for the pro¬ 
 tection of interstate and international trade, 
 commonly known as the Sherman Act (26 
 United States Statutes at Large, 209). 
 
 this statute provides that all contracts, com¬ 
 binations in form of trusts or otherwise, or 
 conspiracies in restraint of interstate or inter¬ 
 national commerce are illegal, and that all per¬ 
 sons participating in such agreement, combina¬ 
 tion, or conspiracy are guilty of a misdemeanor 
 and subject to a penalty for violation of the 
 act. The statute also provides that all goods 
 in transportation in violation of the act may be 
 seized, and their forfeiture compelled by a pro¬ 
 ceeding brought in behalf of the government, 
 and that proceeding may be brought by the 
 Attorney-General enjoining all acts in violation 
 of the statute and for the dissolution of con¬ 
 tracts entered into in violation of it. 
 
 It has been held by the courts that this act 
 does not apply to monopolies created and au¬ 
 thorized by a State, but that it is intended to 
 apply to all direct restraints of trade by in¬ 
 dividuals or corporations, whether such re¬ 
 straints would have been deemed reasonable or 
 unreasonable at common law. The restraint or 
 monopoly need not be complete. The statute is 
 violated if the contract or combination tends to 
 such monopoly. As a consequence of a general 
 belief in the inefficiency of the Sherman Law to 
 cope with the trusts, two complementary meas¬ 
 ures were enacted in 1914, known as the Clayton 
 Law and the Federal Trade Commission Act. 
 The Clayton Law is chiefly significant because it 
 prohibits various practices, such as price cutting 
 and tying contracts, which appear by economic 
 analysis to facilitate the destruction of competi¬ 
 tion by the consolidated concern. The Federal 
 trade Commission Law created a commission, 
 more or less after the pattern of the Interstate 
 Commerce Commission, with powers of investiga¬ 
 tion and with extensive authority to prohibit 
 all forms of unfair competition. 
 
TRUSTS 
 
 TRUSTS 
 
 5i8 
 
 Antitrust laws were enacted by Kansas, 
 Maine, and Michigan -in 1889. Other States 
 soon enacted similar measures, and at present 
 some 30 States have laws prohibiting combina¬ 
 tions in the form of trusts. In some States, as, 
 e.g., in Ohio and Missouri, these laws are very 
 sweeping. In the latter State persons or cor¬ 
 porations convicted under the law are deprived 
 of the right to use the State courts in the col¬ 
 lection of debts. Such State laws have, of 
 course, no application to the acts of a single 
 corporation, and, as most trusts are organized 
 under that form, are of limited efficacy. In a 
 number of cases the State courts have, after long- 
 continued prosecutions, succeeded in proving the 
 existence of unlawful combinations. Thus in 
 1906 the Attorney-General of the State of Mis¬ 
 souri was successful in compelling the president 
 of the Standard Oil Company to admit that 
 that company controlled certain concerns doing 
 business in the State of Missouri, apparently in 
 competition with the Standard Oil Company. 
 While existing as quasi-independent corpora¬ 
 tions under the control of the Standard Oil 
 Company, these concerns were operating in 
 violation of the Missouri Antitrust Law, but 
 no such violation would appear when they 
 openly became constituent parts of the Standard 
 Oil Company. In 1909 the Texas courts suc¬ 
 ceeded in convicting the Waters Pierce Oil Com¬ 
 pany, as a subsidiary of the Standard Oil 
 Company, of violation of the State antitrust 
 law and forced the dissolution of the company 
 under the then existing form. The principal 
 effect of such State laws is to bring about 
 changes in the form, but not in the essential 
 features, of so-called trusts. 
 
 It is of course possible for a State to exclude 
 from business within its boundaries a corpora¬ 
 tion chartered in another State; but since no 
 State can prevent the shipping of the goods of 
 such a corporation across its boundaries, the 
 advantage of such exclusion is illusory. 
 
 In 1905 an attempt was made by the State of 
 Kansas to prevent the Standard Oil Company 
 from controlling the output of the Kansas oil 
 fields. Three laws were enacted, one declaring 
 pipe lines common carriers—a principle intro¬ 
 duced into Federal law by the amended Inter¬ 
 state Commerce Act of 1906—a second prohibit¬ 
 ing discriminations on pipe lines and railways, 
 and a third providing for establishing a branch 
 penitentiary in the oil fields, to be used in refin¬ 
 ing oil. The last measure was subsequently de¬ 
 clared unconstitutional by the State Supreme 
 Court. Proceedings to oust the Standard Oil 
 Company from the State under the State anti¬ 
 trust laws were instituted, but were eventually 
 dropped. 
 
 In 1913 the Legislature of New Jersey passed 
 seven corporation bills, known as the seven sis¬ 
 ters, which had the hearty indorsement of Wood- 
 row Wilson, then Governor of the State. New 
 Jersey had long been known not only for its 
 tolerance of monopolistic corporations, but for 
 laws which offered inducements to them. The 
 result was that many great trusts, against which 
 New York State had legislated, moved across 
 the Hudson and took out incorporation papers 
 in New Jersey. At the beginning of 1913 the 
 corporations incorporated in that State were 
 capitalized at $7,861,499,369. Of course no 
 contemplated measure could be retroactive, and 
 Governor Wilson said: “Every established busi¬ 
 ness can go on without interruption as hereto¬ 
 
 fore, but cannot hereafter expand by the acquisi¬ 
 tion of the stocks and bonds of other corpora¬ 
 tions for the purpose of controlling them, and 
 no corporation can in the future be organized 
 to take over, hold, or control other corpora¬ 
 tions.” (New Jersey had been distinguished for 
 the number of its “holding” companies.) The 
 bills passed in 1913 endeavored to fix personal 
 responsibility for the violation of the law upon 
 the directors of offending corporations, and pro¬ 
 vided that violation should constitute a mis¬ 
 demeanor, i.e., be punishable by imprisonment 
 not exceeding three years or a fine not exceeding 
 $1000, or both. It was sought thus, to overcome 
 the difficulty that had been encountered when a 
 trust sheltered itself by the plea that it was not 
 a person, could not do wrong, and could not be 
 punished. 
 
 The English government has gone no further 
 in the way of antimonopoly legislation than 
 the old provisions of the common law against 
 monopoly and the somewhat rigid provisions of 
 their corporation act regarding publicity in the 
 promotion and management of companies. 
 
 In France the status of the law seems not 
 to be definitely fixed, for although there are 
 statutes existing against combinations to influ¬ 
 ence prices, and although there have been certain 
 successful prosecutions under this law, notably 
 in the case of the Copper Syndicate, still indus¬ 
 trial combinations in the form of joint selling 
 bureaus do exist without apparent legal opposi¬ 
 tion. 
 
 In Germany, contracts for fixing prices, con¬ 
 trolling output, or in other ways tending to¬ 
 wards the prevention of destructive competition 
 have been upheld by the courts as reasonable, 
 and the restriction of such combinations is 
 apparently limited to those that can be shown 
 to be contrary to public policy. In Austria 
 the government has made efforts to put the 
 combinations under somewhat more rigid super¬ 
 vision, especially for financial reasons, but al¬ 
 though there has been considerable feeling 
 against the trusts, as yet comparatively little has 
 been done by either the legislature or the 
 courts, and some very strong combinations have 
 been in existence there for several years. Both 
 in Austria and in Germany, however, govern¬ 
 ment commissions have been studying the sub¬ 
 ject with reference to further legislation, and, 
 so far as their recommendations go, the in¬ 
 clination is to recognize the combinations as 
 proper, provided they place themselves suf¬ 
 ficiently under government supervision and con¬ 
 duct their business so that it will not be con¬ 
 sidered by the government officials as contrary 
 to public policy. 
 
 Bibliography. Arnold Steinmann-Bucher, 
 Wesen und Bedeutung der geioerblichen Kartelle 
 (Leipzig, 1891) ; Ernst von Halle, Trusts or 
 Industrial Combinations or Coalitions in the 
 United States (New York, 1895) ; Ludwig Pohle, 
 Die Kartelle der gewerblichen Unternehmer 
 (Leipzig, 1898) ; Paul de Rousiers, Les in¬ 
 dustries monopolisees (Paris, 1898); W. M. 
 Collier, The Trusts (New York, 1900); J. W. 
 Jenks, “Trusts and Industrial Combinations,” 
 in United States Department of Labor, Bulletin 
 No. 29 (Washington, 1900) ; J. E. Le Rossignol, 
 Monopolies, Past and Present (New York, 1901) ; 
 Arthur Raffalovich, Les trusts, cartels, et syn- 
 dicats (2d rev. ed., Paris, 1903); John Moody, 
 The Truth about Trusts (New York, 1904) ;V 
 F. W. Hirst, Monopolies, Trusts, and Kartells 
 
 t 
 
TRTJXILLO 
 
 TRYON 
 
 519 
 
 (ih., 1906) ; J. W. Jenks, The Trust Problem 
 (new ed., 1909) ; E. S. Meade, Trust Finance: 
 A Study of the Genesis, Organization, and Man¬ 
 agement of Industrial Combinations (new ed., 
 ib., 1909) ; Robert Liefmann, Kartelle und 
 Trusts und die Weiterbildung der Volksicirt- 
 schaftlichen Organisation (2d ed., Stuttgart, 
 1910) ; H. R. Seager, ‘‘The Recent Trust Deci¬ 
 sions, in Political Science Quarterly , vol. xxvi 
 (New York, 1911); I. M. Tarbell, History of 
 the Standard Oil Company (new ed., 2 vols., 
 it)., 1911); R. T. Ely, Monopolies and Trusts 
 (new ed., ib., 1912) ; C. R. Van Hise, Concentra¬ 
 tion and Control (ib., 1912); J. B. and J. M. 
 Clark, The Control of Trusts (ib., 1912) ; L. H. 
 Haney, Business Organization and Combination 
 (ib., 1914) ; W. H. Taft, The Anti-Trust Act 
 and the Supreme Court (ib., 1914); L. D. 
 Brandeis, Business a Profession (Cambridge, 
 Mass., 1914) ; E. D. Durand, The Trust Problem 
 (ib., 1915) ; J. F. Crowell, Trusts and Competi¬ 
 tion (Chicago, 1915); A. J. Eddy, New Com¬ 
 petition (4th ed., ib., 1915) ; W. J. Brown, 
 Prevention and Control of Monopolies (New 
 York, 1915) ; W. Z. Ripley (ed.), Trusts, Pools, 
 and Corporations (new ed., Boston, 1916). 
 TRTJXILLO, troo-Hel'yo. See Trujillo. 
 TRUX'TUN, Thomas (1755-1822). An 
 American naval officer, born at Jamaica, L. I. 
 Going to sea at the age of 12, he was first 
 an apprentice on an English packet, was sub¬ 
 sequently impressed for service on an English 
 frigate, and finally entered the merchant marine. 
 Coming to Philadelphia late in 1775, he was 
 made captain of the Congress, the first American 
 privateer sent out during the Revolution. In 
 command successively of this vessel, the Inde¬ 
 pendence, the Andrew Caldwell, the Mars, the 
 St. James, and the Commerce, he captured nu¬ 
 merous prizes, and overcame many vessels more 
 powerful than his own. After engaging for a 
 time in the East Indian service, he was ap¬ 
 pointed captain in the newly organized United 
 States navy, 1795, and was put in command 
 of the Constellation. On Feb. 9, 1799, during 
 the short naval war with France, he captured, 
 with the loss of only two killed and three 
 wounded, the French frigate Insurgente. In the 
 following year (February 1) he likewise de¬ 
 feated the Vengeance, which, however, after sur¬ 
 rendering, managed to escape. The French loss 
 in killed and wounded was 160, the American 39. 
 Subsequently he was put in command of the 
 West India squadron with the rank of commo¬ 
 dore. Retiring from the navy in 1802, he lived 
 for a time in New Jersey, and then removed to 
 Philadelphia, where he was sheriff, 1819-1821. 
 He published Remarks, Instructions, and Ex¬ 
 amples Relating to Latitude and Longitude, also 
 the Variation of the Compass (1794). Consult 
 Barnes, Naval Actions of the War of 1812 (New 
 York, 1896). 
 
 TRYON, trg'oN', Charles Forbes de. See 
 Montalembert, Count. 
 
 TRY'ON, Dwight William (1849- ). 
 
 An American landscape painter. He was 
 born in Hartford, Conn., and studied under 
 C. Daubigny, Jacquesson de la Chevreuse, and 
 Guillemet in Paris. Upon his return to the 
 United States he became director of the Hart¬ 
 ford School of Art in 1886, later professor of 
 art at Smith College, Northampton, Mass., and 
 finally settled in New York City, spending his 
 summers in Massachusetts. His New England 
 landscapes, simple in composition and somewhat 
 
 restricted in subject, but with a very personal 
 and poetic interpretation, are frequently shim¬ 
 mering misty effects, with delicate color and 
 fine tonalities. Good examples of his works are 
 to be found in all the important public collec¬ 
 tions in America, including 27 oil paintings and 
 several water colors and pastels in the Freer 
 collection (National Gallery, Washington), and 
 a Moonlight in the Metropolitan Museum, 
 New York. Among numerous prizes he received 
 gold medals from the American Art Association 
 (1886, 1887), at Munich (1892), the Carnegie 
 Institute, Pittsburgh (1898), Buffalo (1901), 
 and St. Louis (1904), and a silver medal at 
 San Francisco (1915). In 1891 he was elected 
 a member of the National Academy of Design. 
 
 TRYON, Sir George (1832-93). An English 
 admiral, born at Bulwick Park, Northampton¬ 
 shire. He was educated at Eton, and entered 
 the navy in 1848. In 1860 he was promoted to 
 commander, and in 1866 to captain. In the 
 following year he showed considerable talent for 
 organization and foresight as director of trans¬ 
 ports for the Abyssinian expedition. In 1874- 
 i 7 he was in command of a ship in the flving 
 squadron, and from that time till 1887 served 
 with the Mediterranean fleet. In 1884 he be¬ 
 came rear admiral, and in 1889 vice admiral. 
 His appointment in 1891 to the command of the 
 Mediterranean station was a popular one, but 
 there on June 22, 1893, off Tripoli, he was 
 responsible for one of the most terrible naval 
 accidents of modern times. During some ma¬ 
 noeuvres he ordered the battleships Camperdown 
 and Victoria, which were proceeding in parallel 
 lines, to turn inward, thus causing the former 
 to ram and sink the latter with great loss 
 of life. He went down with the Victoria. Con¬ 
 sult C. C. Penrose-Fitzgerald, Life (London, 
 1897). 
 
 TRYON, Thomas (1634-1703). An English 
 zealot, known as the Pythag’orean. He was born 
 near Cirencester in Gloucestershire, England. 
 He was taken from school before he had learned 
 to read and put to spinning and carding (1643- 
 46), and thereafter‘till his eighteenth year he 
 tended his father’s sheep. He then drifted to 
 London and joined the Anabaptists, but after¬ 
 ward renounced their doctrines, through the 
 influence of the mystical writings of Jakob 
 Bohme (q.v.). At the age of 48 he began a 
 long series of pamphlets, in which he recom¬ 
 mended for drink only water, and for food 
 only bread and fruit, with some liberty in 
 the use of butter and cheese. His book on this 
 theme is known as The Way to Health (1691), 
 published originally in 1682 as Health’s Grand 
 Preservative. It may be said by the way that 
 Benjamin Franklin, in his youth, was much 
 impressed by The Way to Health, and for a 
 time became a Tryonist. 
 
 TRYON, William (c.1725-88). A British 
 colonial governor, born in Ireland. He secured 
 a commission as captain in the British army 
 in 1751, and became lieutenant colonel in 1758. 
 Through his marriage to Miss Wake, a relative 
 of the Earl of Hillsborough, First Commissioner 
 of Trade and Plantations, he was appointed 
 Lieutenant-Governor of North Carolina, June 27, 
 
 1764, and succeeded to the governorship, July 20, 
 
 1765. Between 1767 and 1771 occurred the 
 insurrection of the Regulators (q.v.), which 
 he suppressed with severity. In July, 1771, 
 he was transferred to New York, where he 
 greatly strengthened the militia. He made a 
 
TRYPANOSOMIASIS 
 
 TSCHEEMAK VON SEYSENEGG 
 
 large grant of land to Kings College (Colum¬ 
 bia). He visited England in 1774, and on his 
 return in June, 1775, found the Colony in rebel¬ 
 lion. In October he took refuge on shipboard 
 and remained in the harbor until Howe's entry 
 in September, 1776. In 1777 he took active 
 command of some Loyalist troops, and in June, 
 1778,- was promoted major general in America. 
 In 1780 he made a raid into Connecticut. Dur¬ 
 ing the winter of 1779—80 he was in command 
 of the New York District, but returned to Eng¬ 
 land in 1780, and was promoted to the rank of 
 lieutenant general in November, 1782. 
 
 TRYP'ANOSQMX'ASIS. See Sleeping Sick¬ 
 ness. 
 
 TRYP'SIN (from Gk. rpveiv, tryein, to rub). 
 One of the ferments- or enzymes found in the 
 pancreatic juice. Its action is proteolytic, i.e., 
 it acts on the proteids, converting them into 
 peptones. It is most active in an alkaline 
 medium. About 1906 trypsin enjoyed a brief 
 vogue as a cure for cancer, but it was soon dis¬ 
 carded. It has also been used in tuberculosis, 
 and as a spray to dissolve the membrane in 
 diphtheritic croup. See Digestion, Organs and 
 Process of, in Man; Enzyme. 
 
 TRY'SA (Lat., from Gk. Tpvaa, now called 
 GeuJ-Bashi ). An ancient town, situated on 
 a plateau (2475 feet high) in southern Lycia, 
 a short distance west of Myra. The site is 
 of interest only from the Heroon erected near 
 the end of the fifth century b.c. by a native 
 prince. This is a quadrangular inclosure about 
 60 by 75 feet, with a door in the south wall. 
 In the northeast corner stood the large sar¬ 
 cophagus, and in the southeast the small booths 
 for the guard and the funeral feasts. The im¬ 
 portance of the monument is in its sculptured 
 decorations. Around the inner wall near the 
 top are two rows of sculptured frieze, and a 
 similar decoration adorns the outside of the 
 south wall. Only the sculptures around the 
 door show any trace of Oriental influence; 
 the rest are evidently derived from good Greek 
 models. On the outside are represented the ex¬ 
 pedition of the Seven against Thebes, a battle 
 between Greeks and Trojans on the right of the 
 door, and on the left battles of the Greeks with 
 Amazons and centaurs. Inside, on the south 
 wall, on the right are Odysseus slaying the 
 suitors and the Calydonian Hunt, on the left 
 a banquet and dance of youths and maidens. On 
 the east wall can be traced the deeds of Theseus, 
 a battle with centaurs, and a banquet. The 
 north wall contains the Dioscuri carrying away 
 the daughters of Leucippus, a hunting scene, 
 and the conflict of the Lapithae and centaurs. 
 The west wall contains the battle of Greeks and 
 Trojans between the city and the ships, the 
 storming of the city of Troy, and the battle 
 of Achilles with the Amazon. Apparently the 
 artist was influenced by the great painters of 
 the fifth century. The ruins were excavated 
 between 1881 and 1883 by an Austrian expedi¬ 
 tion, and the sculptures brought to Vienna. 
 Consult Benndorf and Niemann, Das Heroon 
 von Gjolbaschi-Trysa (Vienna, 1889). 
 
 TS’AIDAM, or CH’AIDAM, chi'dam. See 
 Tibet. 
 
 TSAI-FENG, tsi'-fimg' (Prince Chun) 
 
 ( ?- ). A Chinese prince regent, brother of 
 
 Kwang-sii (q.v.) and father of Pu-yi (Hsuan- 
 tung, q.v.), the tenth and last Manchu Emperor 
 of China. He was sent to Germany in 1901 as 
 China’s representative to apologize for the 
 
 520 
 
 murder of Minister von Kettcler during the 
 Boxer Rebellion. In 1908 he was a member of 
 the Commission of Constitutional Reform and the 
 Government Council. On the death of Kwang- 
 sii, Nov. 14, 1908, Prince Chun was appointed 
 She Chang-wang (Prince Regent), to act during 
 the minority of his son, who now succeeded as 
 the Emperor Hsuan-tung. One of the first de¬ 
 crees of the Prince Regent dismissed Yuan 
 Shih-kai (q.v.) from all of his offices and sent 
 him into retirement, as retaliation for his 
 share in the overthrow of Kwang-su’s reforms 
 in 1898. While in office, Prince Chun was liber¬ 
 ally inclined and popular, and on Nov. 26, 1911, 
 took the oath to observe the constitution. But 
 his fairly enlightened policy of reform failed 
 to stave off the growing revolt against the 
 Manchus, and on Dec. 6, 1911, he resigned as 
 Prince Regent. His duties were taken over 
 by the then Empress Dowager, and Yuan Shih- 
 kai was recalled from retirement as a last des¬ 
 perate effort to save the monarchy. After the 
 abdication of Hsuan-tung as Emperor, Feb. 12, 
 1912, Prince Chun retired to Kiaochau (Tsing- 
 tau). See China, Modern History. 
 
 TSAI T’XEN, tsP tyem'. See Kwang-su. 
 TSANA, Lake. See Tzana. 
 
 TSAR. See Czar. 
 
 TSARITSYN, tsa-re'tsm. A district capital 
 and one of the most important ports on the 
 Volga, situated in the Government of Saratov, 
 Russia (Map: Russia, F 5). Connected by rail 
 and water with the interior of Russia, Tsaritsyn 
 is the natural outlet for the region of the lower 
 Volga, and to some extent of the region of the 
 Don. The chief articles of commerce are fish, 
 salt, petroleum, grain, lumber, wool, and mus¬ 
 tard. The local manufactures are spirits, beer, 
 and machinery. A large gun factory was estab¬ 
 lished there in 1914. The town is poorly built. 
 There is a fine Lutheran church. Pop., 1910, 
 100,817. 
 
 TSARSKOYE SELO, tsar'sko-ye sye-16' (the 
 Tsar’s village). A district town and the sum¬ 
 mer residence of the Russian Emperor, situated 
 in the Government of St. Petersburg, about 15 
 miles south of the capital (Map: Russia, D 3). 
 It is a pretty town with extensive parks belong¬ 
 ing to the royal residences and villas of the 
 court aristocracy. The Old Palace is character¬ 
 ized by great splendor and contains a fine pic¬ 
 ture gallery and the celebrated amber room. 
 The Palace of Alexander, built by Catharine 
 II, is less pretentious. Tsarskoye Selo was 
 formerly the seat of the Alexander lycee, where 
 many of the most prominent literary men (in¬ 
 cluding Pushkin) and statesmen of Russia 
 were educated. Pop., 1911, 30,881. The rail¬ 
 way line from Tsarskoye Selo to St. Petersburg, 
 constructed in 1838, was the first railway in 
 Russia. 
 
 TSCHAIKOWSKY. See Tchaikovsky. 
 TSCHEEMAK VON SEYSENEGG, cher'- 
 
 mak, Gustav von (1836- ). An Austrian 
 
 mineralogist. He was born at Littau, Moravia: 
 was educated at the University of Vienna; and 
 in 1868 was appointed a professor in the uni¬ 
 versity and director of the Royal Mineralogical 
 Cabinet. In 1906 he retired. His contributions 
 to the proceedings of the Vienna Academy are 
 numerous, and treat for the most part subjects 
 of crystallography and petrography. He is also 
 a prominent authority on meteorites. In 1871 
 he established at Vienna the Mineralogische Mit- 
 teilungen, published since 1878 as the Mineral- 
 
TSCHIRNHAUSEN : 
 
 ogische und petrographicche Mitteilungen. His 
 publications include: Die Porpliyrgesteine 
 Oesterreichs (1869); Die mikroslcopische Be- 
 schaff enheit der Meteoriten (1883); Lehrbuch 
 der Mineralogie (1884; 6th ed., 1905). 
 
 TSCHIRNHAUSEN, chern'hou-zen, Ehren- 
 fried V alter, Count (1651—1708). A German 
 scientist and mathematician. He Avas born and 
 educated at Leyden. He traveled considerably 
 in France, Italy, and Switzerland, and served 
 in the army of Holland (1672-73). Tschirn- 
 hausen erected large glassworks in Saxony, 
 Avhere he constructed burning glasses of unusual 
 perfection and carried on his experiments 
 (1687—88). To him are due some valuable dis- 
 coveries in the manufacture of porcelain. His 
 Medicina Mentis (1687) testifies to the philo¬ 
 sophic tendency of his thought. In mathematics 
 Tschirnhausen is knoAvn as the founder of the 
 theory of catacaustics, or caustics by reflection. 
 The original articles appeared in the Acta 
 Eruditorum from 1682 to 1698. These publica¬ 
 tions contain also his work on equations and 
 quadratics. In connection with the latter he 
 invented the quadratrix (see Quadrature ) 
 known by his name. Consult Weissenborn, 
 Lebensbeschreibung des Tschirnhausen (Eisenach. 
 1866). 
 
 TSCHISTGPOL. See Tchistopol. 
 
 TSCHUDI, chob'de, HCgidius or Gilg (1505- 
 72). A Swiss chronicler, known as the father 
 of Swiss history. He was born at Glarus, stud¬ 
 ied at Basel, Vienna, and Paris, and after hold¬ 
 ing several administrative offices entered the 
 French army in 1536, serving till 1544. Once 
 more he held office in various cantons and be¬ 
 came, in 1558, chief magistrate of Glarus. He 
 was a bitter opponent of the Reformation and 
 sought to check the spread of the new doc¬ 
 trines by arms. This brought him great un¬ 
 popularity and necessitated his temporary 
 absence from ^he canton. During his last 
 years he took little share in political affairs, 
 and devoted his time to a study of the amount 
 of historical material which he had gathered 
 from the public archives and the libraries of 
 monasteries. His Die uralt wahrhaftig alpisch 
 Rhetia Avas published at Basel in 1538, but his 
 great Avorks, the Schweizerchronik, or Chroni- 
 con Helveticum, and the Gallia Comata, did 
 not appear till more than one hundred and 
 sixty years after the author’s death. The 
 Schweizerchronik covers the period 1100-1470, 
 and is valuable for the large number of ori¬ 
 ginal documents incorporated in the text. The 
 Schioeizerchronik has remained a great source 
 for Swiss history. The Gallia Comata is in 
 nature antiquarian, and aatis intended as an 
 introduction to the Ghronicon Helveticum. 
 
 TSCHUDI, Clara (1856— ). A Norwe¬ 
 
 gian author, bora at Tbnsberg. Intending to 
 become a dramatic singer, she studied at Dres¬ 
 den and Berlin, but presently turned her at¬ 
 tention to literature, and after publishing some 
 Avorks bearing on women's rights, such as 
 Kvindebevwgelsen (1885) and Tre Nutiskvinder 
 (1887), became knoAvn through the historical 
 portraits Eugenie Keiserinde af Frankrig 
 (1889; neAA r ed., 1906), Keiseidnde Augusta, 
 Bkildringer fra Hoflivet i Berlin (1892), Marie 
 Antoinettes XJngdom (1894); Marie Antoinette 
 og Revolutionen (1895-96); Napoleon’s Moder, 
 Silhouetter , Reiseminder, og Bkizzer (all 1898) ; 
 En Sommerfest i Trianon (1903) ; En Forglemt 
 Jleltinde ( 1904) ; Ludwig II of Bayern ( 1905-06). 
 
 TSENG KUO-EAN 
 
 TSCHUDI, Friedrich von (1820-86). A 
 Swiss scholar, brother of Johann Jakob von 
 Tschudi. He studied theology first at Schaff- 
 hausen, then at Basel, Bonn, and Berlin; and 
 was made pastor of Lichtensteig in 1843, but re¬ 
 signed in 1847. He settled in Saint-Gall, where 
 he Avrote, under the pseudonym of C. Weber, 
 Der Sonderbiind und seine Au fid sung (1848)' 
 &ml under his ovv r n name sev 7 eral agricultural 
 studies and the often reedited and frequently 
 translated Das Tierleben der Alpenwelt (1853; 
 11th ed., 1890). He held several official posts, 
 and AA r as distinguished for his services to edu¬ 
 cation. 
 
 TSCHUDI, Johann Jakob (1818-89). A 
 Swiss naturalist, born at Glarus. He studied 
 at SAviss, French, and German universities, and 
 then traveled extensively in South America 
 visiting Peru (1838-43), and Brazil, the Plata 
 States, Chile, and Bolivia (1857-59). From 
 1860 to 1862 he was Swiss Ambassador to Brazil, 
 and in 1866 became diplomatic representative; 
 at the court of Vienna, retiring in 1S83. He 
 published: System der Batrachier (1838); Vn- 
 tersuchungen iiber die Fauna peruana (1844- 
 47); Peru, Reiseskizzen (1846); Die Kechua- 
 sprache (1853); Antiguedades peruanas (1851), 
 with Don Mariano de Rivero; Reisen durch 
 Biidamerika (1866—69) ; Ollanta, an ancient 
 Peruvian drama out of the Quichua languaoe 
 (1875). & 
 
 Ilis son Hugo (1851-1911), born at Jakobs- 
 hof, Austria, studied in Vienna jurisprudence 
 and art history, and after extensive travels 
 through Europe became connected with the royal 
 museums in Berlin in 1884 and was appointed 
 director of the National Gallery in 1896. Be¬ 
 sides numerous important essays in various art 
 periodicals, he published, in collaboration with 
 Pulszky, the text to Die Landes-Gemdldegal- 
 lerie in Budapest (1883), and with Bode, Be- 
 schreibung der Bildwerke der christliohen Epoche 
 in den kdniglichen Museen zu Berlin (1883). 
 After 1894 he edited the Reportorium fur Kunst- 
 wissenschaft (Stuttgart, 1875 et seq.), conjointlv 
 with Thode. 
 
 TSENANFU. See Tsinanfu. 
 
 TSENG KI-TSEH, tsung' ke'tseh' (1837- 
 90). A Chinese statesman and diplomat, bet¬ 
 ter known as the Marquis Tseng, born in Hu¬ 
 nan. . He served under his father as secretary, 
 and in 1877 succeeded to the paternal title, in 
 the following year he aatis appointed Minister 
 to Great Britain and France. In 1880 he was 
 further intrusted with an embassy at St. Peters¬ 
 burg (Petrograd), and there negotiated the 
 treaty by which Kulja was restored to China. 
 In 1881 he was created Vice Director of the 
 Imperial Clan Court, and Vice President of the 
 Board of War, and in 1885 arranged a conven¬ 
 tion with Great Britain in regard to the opium 
 traffic, and was appointed Assistant Director of 
 the newly established Admiralty Board. In 
 1886 he returned to Peking, became a member 
 of the Tsung-li Yamen (q.v.) (now the Waich- 
 iaopu), and in 1887 Vice President of the Board 
 of Revenue. He was director of the Tung Wen 
 Kwan, or Peking School of Languages (1889- 
 DO). 
 
 TSENG KUO-FAN, tsung' kwo'fan' (1811- 
 72). A Chinese soldier and statesman, de¬ 
 scendant of the philosopher Tseng (Cincius), and 
 born in the Province of Hunan. In 1843 he 
 became chief literary examiner, and later was 
 
TSERKLAES 
 
 TSITSIHAR 
 
 522 
 
 appointed military examiner. In 1850 lie built 
 a fleet of war junks with which he attacked 
 the Taiping rebels. He made a brave defense 
 of Changsha, and the rebels lost 80 days in 
 vainly trying to capture the city. Later Tseng 
 captured Wuchang and Hanyang, and in re¬ 
 ward for this was made Vice President of the 
 Board of War. He won other military suc¬ 
 cesses, cleared Kiangsu of the rebels, and in 
 1857 received chief command in Chekiang. 
 Three years later he was made Viceroy of the 
 two Kiang provinces and Imperial War Com¬ 
 missioner. In 1864.he captured Nanking, and 
 was rewarded with the title of Hou, or Mar¬ 
 quis. He was less successful in the suppression 
 of the Nienfei Rebellion and was succeeded in 
 the chief command by Li Hung Chang (q.v.), 
 who had been one of his lieutenants. Tseng was 
 Viceroy of Chihli at the time of the Tientsin 
 massacre in 1870. His collected writings of 156 
 books were edited by Li Hung Chang in 1876. 
 Tseng’s son, Tseng Ki-tseh (died 1890), was the 
 first Chinese Minister to Great Britain. 
 
 TSERKLAES, tser'klas, Johann. See Tilly. 
 
 TSETSE (tset'se) FLY (South African name). 
 A biting fly (G-lossina morsitans ) of the family 
 Muscidae, related to the common stable fly 
 (q.v.), which occurs in portions of Africa. The 
 tsetse fly bites all warm-blooded animals, but 
 seems particularly attracted to cattle and 
 horses. Its bite was formerly considered poi¬ 
 sonous, and apparently produced death in 
 beasts of burden coming from regions where 
 the fly does not occur. The disease produced 
 by the bite is called nagana. Animals which 
 have once recovered appear to be immune, or 
 “salted.” It has been determined that the bite 
 of the tsetse fly is not specifically poisonous, 
 but that the insect acts as the carrier of a 
 hamiatozoan parasite, taking it with the blood 
 of diseased animals and carrying it to non- 
 immunes. The tsetse fly does not lay eggs, 
 but multiplies by producing, one at a time, full- 
 grown larvae which immediately change to 
 pupae, just as do the so-called pupiparous Dip- 
 tera. It was at one time supposed that the 
 tsetse fly would form a serious obstacle to the 
 settlement of Africa, but this is not the case. 
 Only certain animals are affected, and the fly 
 acts simply as a carrier; moreover, cattle be¬ 
 came immune after residence in infected regions. 
 
 TSETSE-FLY DISEASE. See Sleeping 
 Sickness. 
 
 TSHI, tshe, or CHWI. A negro people on 
 the African Gold Coast. See Sudan. 
 
 TSIMSCHIAN, TSIMSHIAN. See Ciiim- 
 
 ESYAN. 
 
 TSINANFTT, che'na'foo', TSENANFOO, or 
 TSINAN. A city of China, capital of the 
 Province of Shantung. It lies in a large fertile 
 plain, 3% miles south of the Yellow River, 245 
 southeast of Peking (Map: China, L 4). The 
 walls of the city proper have a circuit of 12 
 miles and are well built, but there is a large 
 extramural population protected by a great en¬ 
 circling mud rampart. The principal streets 
 are comparatively clean, and are lined with 
 good shops. The city is noted especially for its 
 silk brocades, its trade in precious stones, and 
 the varied glass and other products of Poshan- 
 hien, the chief city of the “black country” of 
 Shantung. It has a drum tower, a great ex¬ 
 amination hall capable of accommodating over 
 10,000 candidates, many fine temples, a Roman 
 Catholic cathedral, besides the Yamens, or of¬ 
 
 fices of the Governor and the high officers of 
 the province. In the western part of the city 
 are several geyser-like springs said to be con¬ 
 nected with similar springs in Taishan (q.v.), 
 some 60 miles distant. A splendid highway 
 connects the city with the Hoang-ho, 4 miles 
 to the north. A few miles east of the city 
 are several important iron mines. Pop., 300,- 
 000, including 2000 Mohammedan families. 
 Tsinan is on the railway line projected by the 
 Germans from Kiaocliow (Tsingtau) through 
 Shantung Province, and this railway was 
 taken over by the Japanese with the capture 
 of Kiaocliow. The foreign settlement is beau¬ 
 tiful and well kept, and contains some flourish¬ 
 ing business firms, mainly German. 
 
 TSINGTAO, tsing'tou', or TSING-TAU, a 
 city in China. See Kiaochow. 
 
 TS’ING-TTJ, or JODO. The Chinese and the 
 Japanese names respectively of “The Land of 
 Bliss,” sometimes called the “Paradise of the 
 West,” presided over by Amitabha (or Amida) 
 Buddha, rebirth in which is promised to all 
 who put their faith in Amida. Life is there 
 practically eternal, free from pain and misery, 
 and as it can be reached without the perform¬ 
 ance of works, its attainment has become the 
 aim of the adherents of the Ts’ing-tu sect of 
 Buddhists in China, and the Jodo and Shin- 
 shiu sects of Japan. Nirvana is too difficult. 
 Consult J. Edkins, Chinese Buddhism (London, 
 1880). 
 
 TSITSIHAR, che'che'har'. The largest, the 
 most northerly, and the most thinly populated 
 of the three provinces of Manchuria (q.v.), 
 known to the Chinese as Heilungkiang, and 
 containing about 190,000 square miles (Map: 
 China, N 2). It is generally mountainous, cov¬ 
 ered with forests, and abounds in both large 
 and small game, and hunting and trapping are 
 extensively carried on. In the southwest are 
 great prairies occupied by tl^g Mongols, who 
 maintain large herds of cattle, horses, etc., 
 upon them. The climate is severe, the mer¬ 
 cury falling in winter to 40° F. below zero, 
 and lower. In summer it sometimes rises to 
 90° F. and 95° F. Agriculture is chiefly con¬ 
 fined to the river valleys, where are produced 
 pulse, maize, millet, tobacco, wheat, sesamum, 
 and the poppy. The drainage is to the north 
 through the Sungari. Gold is found in the north¬ 
 west, north, and east, and is mined at Moho. 
 Much soda is produced and exported to China. 
 The province is crossed by the Trans-Manchu¬ 
 rian branch of the Russian Trans-Baikal Rail¬ 
 way, which connects at Harbin with the Jap¬ 
 anese Railway that runs south-southwest to 
 Port Arthur and Dalny. The population, esti¬ 
 mated at 1,500,000, consists of Manchus, Kor- 
 cliin Mongols, Solons, Yakuts from Siberia, 6600 
 families of whom settled on the banks of the 
 Nonni in 1687, and Chinese, chiefly from the 
 northern provinces. The government is mili¬ 
 tary, but there are two civil officials in as 
 many localities where the population is largely 
 Chinese. Besides the Bannermen a force of 
 7000 foreign-drilled Chinese troops is main¬ 
 tained. Tsitsihar has long been a penal colony, 
 and there is much brigandage. The capital, 
 Tsitsihar, on the Nonni, was built in 1692 in 
 order to overawe the neighboring tribes. It is 
 a few miles north of the Trans-Manchurian 
 Railway, and is a dirty, poorly built city with 
 a population of between 30,000 and 40,000. 
 It has a great trade in cattle, and the cattle 
 
TSONEKAN 
 
 523 
 
 
 TSUSHIMA 
 
 fairs draw thousands of Mongols to the city, 
 at which time the population is almost doubled. 
 See China; Manchuria. 
 
 TSONEKAN, ts<Yna-kan, or TZONECA, also 
 Chonek. A name sometimes applied to the 
 1 atagonian natives. The term Tsonekan is now 
 used to designate the linguistic stock to which 
 the Tehuelches (q.v.) belong. See Indians, 
 Linguistic Map. 
 
 TSONG KHA-PA, tsong' k’ha'pa', TSONG- 
 K A-PA, or TSON-K’A-PA (the man from 
 Isong-k’a) ; generally spoken of as Je-rim-po-ch’e 
 (c.1355—1419). A noted Tibetan reformer of 
 Lamaism (q.v.). He was born at Tsong-k’a, in 
 the Province of Amdo, near the Chinese frontier, 
 and while still a child he was devoted by his 
 parents to a religious life. At 16 he began 
 theological studies and a year later proceeded 
 to central Tibet. In southern Tibet-he spent 
 eight years as a hermit and became convinced of 
 the need of reform. Identifying himself with 
 the Kah-dam-pa, “The Sect bound by the Orders” 
 (of the T inaya, or “Books of Discipline”), which 
 had been purified and reformed by the Indian 
 monk Atfsha in the eleventh century, he reor¬ 
 ganized it, and gave it the name of Ge-lug-pa, 
 “The Followers of the Virtuous Order.” In 
 1409 he built the great monastery of Gah-ldan 
 (“Paradise”), 25 miles from Lhasa (q.v. )„• 
 where he preached regularly, and by the time 
 of his death his followers numbered over 30,000 
 in Lhasa alone. His reforms consisted in a 
 stricter observance of the 235 rules of the 
 ^ inaya, or “Discipline,” a life of ethical purity, 
 strict celibacy, simplicity in dress,, the aban¬ 
 donment of the red robes which had become 
 common, and the readoption of the yellow hat 
 and the patched yellow robe 3 worn and pre¬ 
 scribed by the Buddha. He also reinstated the 
 fortnightly “disburdenment,” or rehearsal of 
 the Pratimoksa Sutra in regular assemblies of 
 the order at Lhasa, and restored the custom of 
 retiring yearly for meditation. Tsong Klia-pa 
 was buried in the Gah-ldan, where his em¬ 
 balmed remains form the chief object of vener¬ 
 ation. 
 
 TSO TSUNG-T’ANG, tso' tsung / t’-ang / (1812- 
 85). A Chinese general and administrator. 
 He was born at Hiangyin, in Hunan, secured 
 his second or master’s degree in 1832, and during 
 the earlier years of the Taiping Rebellion served 
 in Hunan and Hupeh. In 1861 he had the com¬ 
 mand of the army operating in Chekiang, and in 
 the following year was also made Governor of 
 that province. In 1863 he was also appointed 
 Governor-General of the combined provinces of 
 Chekiang and Fukien, and by October, 1864, 
 he had entirely recovered Chekiang and was 
 rewarded with an earldom. When the rebellion 
 ended in 1865 he was also in command of 
 Kiangsi and Kwangtung. Appointed in 1866 
 Governor-General of Shensi and Kansu, then in 
 the hands of the Mohammedan rebels, he first 
 turned his attention to the Nienfei insurgents, 
 drove them from the neighborhood of Hankow, 
 entered Shepsi and defeated them there in 1867, 
 and utterly routed them near Tientsin in August, 
 1868. He returned to Shensi, pacified that prov¬ 
 ince in 1869, drove the rebels beyond the Great 
 Wall, and captured Suchow in Kansu in 1873. 
 In 1875 he was appointed Imperial Commissioner 
 for lurkestan, and in April, 1876, he advanced 
 with the main body of his army beyond the Great 
 Wall, crossed the desert of Hami, and by Oct. 10, 
 1877, had captured in succession Urumtsi, Tihua, 
 Vol. XXII.— 34 
 
 Manas, Pidjan, Turfan, and Kuche, north of the 
 Tian-Shan ; and by Jan. 2, 1878, Harashar, Aksu, 
 Kashgar, \arkand, Yengishar, and Khotan—all 
 in eastern Turkestan, south of the Tian-Shan— 
 had been reconquered, and the campaign brought 
 to a close. Iso was made a marquis and re¬ 
 ceived many other honors. On his return to 
 Peking in 1881 he became a member of the 
 Isung-li \amen (now the Waichiaopu), and im¬ 
 mediately succeeded in having all the Chinese 
 students in the United States recalled. In the 
 same year he was transferred to Nanking as 
 Governor-General of Hunan and Hupeh, whence 
 in 1884, on the outbreak of French hostilities 
 in connection with the Tongking affair, he was 
 ordered to Fuchow to direct the military opera¬ 
 tions, and died there in the following year. 
 
 TSOWHIEN, tsou'hyen'. A small district 
 or prefectural city of Shantung, China, noted 
 as the birthplace of Mencius (q.v.) and the home 
 of his descendant and representative. It is 
 about 15 miles east of Kiuhfow (q.v.), the birth¬ 
 place of Confucius, and in a region of great 
 historic interest, hallowed to followers of these 
 two early sages. There is a temple in honor of 
 Mencius, and south of the city is his tomb, 
 approached by a fine avenue of cypress and yew. 
 
 TSU, tsoo. The capital of the Prefecture of 
 Miye, central Hondo, Japan, situated on the 
 east coast, 4/ miles south-southwest of Nagoya 
 (Map: Japan, E 6). It has a number of fine 
 temples, of which that of K 0-110 Amida attracts 
 many pilgrims. Pop., 1898, 33,287; 1908, 
 
 41,229. 
 
 TSUNG-LI YAMEN (or Yamun), tsoong' 
 le' ya'mun' (Chin., general managing office). 
 The office or bureau through which the foreign 
 ministers in China until recently communicated 
 with the throne and the six departments of 
 government. It was established in 1861 as one 
 of the conditions of peace with the Powers, and 
 was organized by Prince Kung (who became its 
 first president) in conference with Sir Frederick 
 Bruce, the first British Minister, and comprised 
 between 8 and 12 members. In 1901 it was 
 superseded by the Wai Wu Pu, or Department 
 of Foreign Affairs, which was later known as 
 the Waichiaopu. 
 
 TSURUGA, tsoo'ru-ga. A seaport of the 
 Province of Echizen, Japan, about 50 miles north 
 of Kioto, with which it is connected by rail 
 (Map: Japan, D 6). It stands at the head of a 
 deep bay, and is well situated for trade with 
 Korea and Manchuria. Its harbor is protected 
 by a breakwater and a lighthouse, and is the 
 best on the northwest coast of the main island. 
 Junk building is the chief industry. It contains 
 one of the oldest Shinto temples of the country. 
 Pop., about 1700. 
 
 TSURUOKA, tsoo'roo-o'ka, or TSURU- 
 GAOKO. A town in the Prefecture of Yama- 
 gata, north Hondo, Japan, 75 miles north-north¬ 
 east of Niigata (Map: Japan, F 4). It was 
 formerly a castle town. Pop., 1908, 21,056. 
 
 TSUSHIMA, tseo'she-ma. An island of 
 Japan, commanding the south entrance to the 
 Sea of Japan, less than 50 miles south of Korea, 
 and separated from the island of Kiushu by 
 Krusenstern Channel (Map: Japan, A 6). It 
 is penetrated by a deep inlet on the west, which 
 at its narrowest is only 16 yards wide. At high 
 water the narrow connecting spit is overflowed, 
 forming two unequal islands. They are both 
 mountainous, with peaks ranging from 1128 to 
 2130 feet above the level of the sea. Area, 266 
 
 
TUA 
 
 TUATAEA 
 
 524 
 
 square miles. The northern or larger island is 
 indented with many fine bays, and the chief 
 coast town is Waniura. Fishing is the chief 
 industry and dried cuttlefish the chief export. 
 The chief city, Idzunoliara or Fuchu, on the 
 south island, has a population of about 10 , 000 . 
 Pop., 39,000. Korean blood is very noticeable 
 among the inhabitants. Near Tsushima Admiral 
 Togo destroyed the Russian fleet under Admiral 
 Rozhdestvensky, May 27—28, 1905. See Russo- 
 Japanese War. 
 
 TUA, tob'a, Teresina (1867- ). An 
 
 Italian violinist, born in Turin. Her principal 
 teacher was Massart of the Paris Conservatory, 
 under whom she made such rapid progress that 
 in 1880 she won the first prize. She was uni¬ 
 formly successful from the beginning of her 
 artistic career. In 1891 she retired from the 
 concert platform owing to her marriage with 
 Count Franchi-Verney della Valetta, but in the 
 autumn of 1895 she again took up her concert 
 work and made very successful European tours. 
 
 TUAILLON, tu'a'yoN', Louis (1862- ). 
 
 A German sculptor. ‘ He was born in Berlin 
 and studied there at the Academy and under 
 Begas. After visiting Vienna lie spent 17 years 
 in Rome (1885-1902), and after his return to 
 Berlin was appointed director of a master studio 
 at the Academy (1906). Tuaillon revived the 
 half-nude statue of the Roman classical age 
 and achieved great success with his austerely 
 beautiful bronze “Amazon on Horseback,” now 
 before the National Gallery, Berlin (replicas in 
 the .Thiergarten, Berlin, and in the Metropolitan 
 Museum, New York). Other works in the same 
 style are “The Horse Trainer” (Bremen), “The 
 Victor” (Wannsee), and the half-nude eques¬ 
 trian statue of the Emperor Frederick (Bremen). 
 He received gold medals at Berlin (1899), Dres¬ 
 den (1889), and Paris (1900). 
 
 TUAMOTU, tbb'a-mo'too, PAUMOTU, pii'u- 
 mo'tob (Low or Dangerous Archipelago). A 
 group of low coral islands in Oceanica, lying east 
 of the Society Islands (Map: World, L 7). It 
 consists of 80 islets, of which 42 are inhabited, 
 with a total area of over 335 square miles, of 
 which 270 square miles may be cultivated at 
 least to the extent of groAving coconuts. OAving 
 to the coral surface and scarcity of Avater the 
 vegetation is scanty. In the western islands are 
 found the breadfruit tree, banana, and pineapple. 
 The chief products of the group are copra, tre- 
 pang, coconut oil, and pearls, and the trade is 
 chiefly with Tahiti. The inhabitants are Poly¬ 
 nesians, and mostly Roman Catholic Christian, 
 and in 1911 numbered 3715. The principal port 
 and seat of administration is Fakarava, on the 
 Avestern island of Fakarava. The group was dis¬ 
 covered by the Spaniard Quiros in 1606 and 
 visited by many explorers, including Cook 
 (1769). it came under the protection of France 
 in 1844, and AA r as officially annexed in 1881. 
 Consult Friederici, Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss 
 der Tuamotu-Inseln. 
 
 TUAREGS, too-a'regz. Berber nomads in the 
 Middle Sahara, numbering some 300,000, and 
 perhaps descendants of the ancient Gsetulians. 
 (See G.etulia.) In various places they have 
 mixed with negroes. They are tall, Avith slender 
 figures and regular features, dark in complexion, 
 Avith an occasional blond, and, OAving to their 
 frugal diet, are long lived. The costume A’aries 
 Avith location, but a common article of dress is 
 the litham, a cloth Avrapped about the face to 
 protect the eyes and breathing organs from 
 
 the dust of the desert. The Amoshagh or Noble 
 Tuaregs AA 7 ear a black litham and the Imghad 
 or servile a Avhite one, Avhich grces rise to the 
 epithets Black Tuaregs and White iuaregs. 
 Their weapons are a long, straight SAVord, a dag¬ 
 ger, a spear 6 feet long, and occasionally a gun. 
 They Avere monogamists until the Mohammedan 
 conquest, Avhen they began to vary someAvhat in 
 this respect. The Avomen have freedom, go un¬ 
 veiled, and take part in public affairs. 
 
 Bibliography. Emile Masquerav, Diction- 
 naire frangais-touareg (Paris, 1893—95); V. J. 
 H. King, Search for the Masked Taicareks (Lon¬ 
 don, 1903) ; M. Cortier, D’une rive a Fautre du 
 Sahara (Paris, 1908) ; Jean Camille, Les Touareg 
 du Sud-Est (ib., 1909) ; C. Aymard, Les Tcmareg 
 (ib., 1911); M. Delafosse, IIaut-Sentgal-Niger 
 (ib., 1912); F. De Zeltner, “Les Touaregs du 
 Sud,” in Journal of Royal Anthropological In¬ 
 stitute (London, 1914). See Niger, Military 
 Territory of the. 
 
 TUAT, too-at'. A group of oases in Algerian 
 Sahara, north Africa, comprising the oases of 
 Gurara and Tidikelt. It is a comparatively ivell- 
 settled region and abounds in date palms. It is 
 watered principally by the Wadi Saura or Mzaud 
 and also by some subterranean watercourses. 
 The largest lake is the Sebkha Gurara. Pop., 
 1906, 49,873, of Avhom 134 were Europeans, the 
 remainder being Tuaregs, negroes, and Arabs. 
 Tuat Avas formerly regarded as a dependency of 
 Morocco, but with its occupation by French 
 troops in 1900 has practically become a part of 
 the French sphere of influence. It was con¬ 
 nected by road with the Algerian railway system 
 in 1903 and by rail in 1912. 
 
 TUATAEA, tbo'a-ta'ra (Maori, spiny). A 
 reptile of New Zealand ( Sphenodon or Hatteria 
 punctatus ), which looks like a large stout lizard, 
 but Avhose structure sIioavs it to be the sole sur¬ 
 viving representative of a primitive group, the 
 Rhyncliocepliali, otherivise extinct in the Trias- 
 sic age. Large males reach a length of 2V> feet, 
 are dark olive green, and have a toav of short, 
 yelloAvish, horn-sheatlied spines along the verte¬ 
 bral line. The skin is granular, except on the 
 belly, where it is scaly. All its anatomy dis¬ 
 tinguishes this animal from lizards and allies 
 it Avith the ancient Prosauria —the carpus, e.g., 
 has the primitive number of 10 bones, all sepa¬ 
 rate; and there is an entire absence of external 
 copulatorv organs. 
 
 The tuataras Avere once numerous through 
 New Zealand, but have been killed by civilization 
 and bush fires, until noAv they inhabit only some 
 small parts of the North Island. They dwell in 
 burrows of their oaati digging, which they share 
 with sundry petrels. They are fond of water, 
 and are able to remain submerged for hours 
 Avithout breathing. During the day they sleep, 
 but at night hunt for food, Avhich consists of in¬ 
 sects and worms in the interior and on the coast 
 of small fishes, crustaceans, etc.; all food is 
 taken alive. They move very slowly and lazily, 
 but are fierce fighters Avhen called upon to de¬ 
 fend themselves. They lay in summer about 10 
 eggs, elongated and hard-shelled, which are buried 
 in warm sand and left to hatch; but this does 
 not happen until about 13 months later, al¬ 
 though the embryos groAv to nearly their full 
 size in half that time or less, and then seem to 
 aestivate. Consult: Transactions of the New 
 Zealand Institute, vols. x, xiv (Wellington, 
 1878, 1881) ; Hans Gadow, “Amphibia and Repy 
 tiles,” in Cambridge Natural History, vol. viii 
 
TUATHADEDANAAN , 
 
 (New ’N ork, 1001); E. G. Boulanger, Reptiles 
 wnd Batrachians (ib., 1914) ; Newman, in 
 
 T ransactions Zoological Society, vol. xv (Lon¬ 
 don, 1897). 
 
 TUATHADEDANAAN, too-a'tha-da-da-nan' 
 (Ir., Race or Tribe of Danaan). A prehistoric 
 people of tall stature and blond type, who, 
 according to the ancient annals of Ireland, in¬ 
 vaded .the island from the north several cen¬ 
 turies before the C hristian era, and by defeating 
 the I irbolgs (q.v.) in the battle of Moytura be¬ 
 came masters of the country until in turn over¬ 
 come by the Milesians (q.v.). They were prob¬ 
 ably of Scandinavian origin. 
 
 TU'BA (Lat., trumpet). A name given to 
 the bass instruments of the saxhorn family, also' 
 called bombardons. Tubas are made in' many 
 keys, and, as they are played from the notes as 
 written, they require no special transposition. 
 
 I hey are the lowest of the bass instruments and 
 their range is from jBb to f 1 . Their tone is full 
 and majestic; the most usual sizes are the bass 
 tuba in Bj? and the contrabass tuba in JBb- 
 Their introduction into the orchestra is due to 
 Wagner, who obtained fine effects through them. 
 The tuba has since then become a fixture in the 
 orchestra, being used as the bass of the trombone 
 choir. As such it has entirely superseded the 
 ophicleide (q.v.). The instrument is built in 
 two forms, oblong and round. See Helicon. 
 
 TtPBAL-CAUNF. According to the narrative 
 in Gen. iv. 22, the son of Lantech and Zillali and 
 the instructor of all artificers in brass and iron. 
 
 TUBE NOSE. A tube-nosed or harpy bat 
 (q.v.), a small East Indian fruit bat of the genus 
 Harpyia, remarkable for the fact that the nos¬ 
 trils are in the form of two extended and some¬ 
 what divergent tubes projecting above the upper 
 lip. 
 
 TU'BER (Lat., swelling, tumor, knob on 
 plants). A thickened and shortened branch from 
 a subterranean stem. The leaves are usually 
 reduced to minute scales with buds in the axils, 
 forming in the potato the so-called eyes. It 
 serves as a food reservoir, and also gives rise 
 to new plants much more rapidly than do seeds. 
 See Stem. 
 
 TU'BERCLE (Neo-Lat., from Lat. tubercu- 
 lum, little swelling, pimple, tubercle, diminu¬ 
 tive of tuber, swelling, tumor, knob on plants). 
 
 A round, solid nodule on the skin, mucous mem¬ 
 brane, or surface of an organ, as in leprosy or 
 tuberculosis. In anatomy a rough elevation for 
 attachment of muscle or ligament. See Bac¬ 
 teria; Disease, Germ Theory of; Leprosy; 
 Serum Therapy; Tuberculosis. 
 
 TUBER/CULIN, Kocii’s Lymph, or Parato- 
 loid. A glycerin extract of pure cultures of the 
 Bacillus tuberculosis, first prepared in 1891 by 
 Robert Koch (q.v.). Several preparations of 
 tuberculin are made. Old tuberculin (Koch’s 
 original preparation, T. O.), a filtered glycerin 
 extract of tubercle bacilli, is a clear, amber 
 fluid. Tuberculin filtrate, known also as “tu¬ 
 berculin Denys” (B. F.) or bouillon filtrate, is 
 made from bouillon cultures of the human bacil¬ 
 lus filtered through porcelain. New tuberculin 
 (T. R.) is a glycerinated saline suspension of 
 the major part remaining after centrifugalizing 
 desiccated and pulverized tubercle bacillL Puri” 
 fied extract is a filtered culture of human bacilli 
 in 50 per cent glycerin. Tubercle bacillus emul¬ 
 sion, or bacillary emulsion, is a glycerinated 
 suspension of devitalized tubercle bacilli. Dix¬ 
 on’s tubercle extract, or fluid of Dixon, is an 
 
 25 TUBERCULOSIS 
 
 extract of bacilli dissolved in normal saline 
 solution. Dixon’s suspension of dead bacilli is 
 a saline suspension of killed bacilli which have 
 been subjected to prolonged treatment with al¬ 
 cohol and ether. Spengler’s Perlsucht is pre- 
 Pared from bovine tubercle bacilli in the same 
 way as Koch’s old tuberculin. It is but slightly 
 toxic for human beings. 
 
 When injected into the tissues of a healthy 
 (nontuberculous) person no reaction follows; 
 but in the presence of tuberculosis, wherever 
 situated, both a local and general febrile reac¬ 
 tion is observed. The general symptoms are 
 fever and chills; locally it affects the skin, which 
 becomes red and swollen. A better serum was 
 introduced by Koch in 1897, and efforts in the 
 same direction were made by Klebs in Germany 
 and Hunter in England, the earlier product hav¬ 
 ing been found to contain substances very toxic 
 to man. On its first appearance Koch’s lymph, 
 as it was called, was hailed as a specific and 
 widely used by unskilled observers in unsuitable 
 cases and in excessive doses. The results were 
 disappointing and the remedy fell into disrepute. 
 Y\ ith the production of purer serums, the ac¬ 
 quirement of experience, and the use of smaller 
 doses, treatment has been more successful and 
 tuberculin is now recognized as a valuable thera¬ 
 peutic aid. Tuberculin is reliable as a diagnos¬ 
 tic agent both in the human subject and in cattle, 
 and is largely used to guard against the con¬ 
 sumption of infected milk and meat. 
 
 For diagnostic purposes tuberculin may be 
 employed in several ways. The cutaneous test 
 of Von Pirquet (q.v.) consists in scarifying the 
 skin as in vaccination and dropping undiluted 
 tuberculin upon the raw surface. A reaction 
 may be expected in about 48 hours. According 
 to the technique of Calmette and Wolff-Eisner 
 (the ophthalmo-reaction) tuberculin is dropped 
 into the canthus of the eye. Moro’s inunction 
 test is performed by rubbing a 50 per cent lano¬ 
 lin ointment into the skin of the abdomen or 
 chest. Consult Bandelier and Roepke, Tuber¬ 
 culin in Diagnosis and Treatment (New York, 
 1913), and Cochrane and Sprawson, Guide to 
 the Use of Tuberculin (ib., 1915). See Tuber¬ 
 culosis. 
 
 TUBER'CULO'SIS (Neo-Lat., from Lat. tu¬ 
 ber culum, little swelling, pimple, tubercle, di¬ 
 minutive of tuber, swelling, tumor, knob on 
 plants), or Consumption. An infectious dis¬ 
 ease, caused by the Bacillus tuberculosis, char¬ 
 acterized by the formation, in the tissues, of 
 nodular bodies, called tubercles, and manifested 
 symptomatically by fever, cough, dyspnoea, and 
 progressive loss of strength. The disease is 
 widespread and causes about one-seventh of the 
 deaths throughout the world. Its clinical fea¬ 
 tures were recognized many centuries ago, and 
 Hippocrates and Galen described them very accu¬ 
 rately; but it was not until the growth of 
 anatomical study in the seventeenth and eight¬ 
 eenth centuries that the characteristic lesions 
 (tubercles) were recognized and associated with 
 the. disease. Important additions to the patho¬ 
 logical knowledge of tuberculosis were made in 
 the nineteenth century. Virchow’s work in cellu¬ 
 lar pathology and finally Koch’s brilliant dis¬ 
 covery of the causative liacillus in 1882 settled 
 all doubts as to the genesis and pathology of the 
 disease, and since then nothing essential has 
 been added to our knowledge concerning it. 
 
 Consumption prevails in all latitudes. Towards 
 the poles and in very high altitudes the mor- 
 
TUBERCULOSIS 526 
 
 TUBERCULOSIS 
 
 talitv is somewhat lower. No race is exempt, 
 but negroes and Indians, and other laces to 
 whom the disease is comparatively new, are 
 especially susceptible. In rare instances the 
 disease is congenital, derived from the motliei ; 
 there has been found no proof of paternal trans¬ 
 mission either in man or animals. Hereditary 
 predisposition has been thought to play an ini- 
 portant role in determining the disease in in¬ 
 dividuals. Children of tuberculous parents are 
 believed to be more liable than others to con¬ 
 tract consumption. A predisposition to tuber- 
 culosis is acquired under conditions that seri¬ 
 ously lower vital resistance. Among those are 
 overcrowding, deficient ventilation, poor food, 
 prolonged and exhausting disease, pregnancy and 
 lactation, and unhealthful occupations, such as 
 olass blowing, coal mining, street sweeping, ex¬ 
 posure to cold and damp, and the excessive use 
 of alcohol. The pulmonary complications fol¬ 
 lowing measles and whooping cough in children 
 are often forerunners of a tuberculous deposit 
 in the lungs. 
 
 The direct medium of contagion is the sputum 
 of the tuberculous patient. The number of 
 bacilli thrown off in this manner is enormous. 
 The sputum becomes dry and desiccated, the 
 bacilli are distributed by the dust and obtain 
 entrance to the body again through the respira¬ 
 tory tract. The flesh or milk of tuberculous 
 cattle is capable of transmitting the disease 
 both to man and to other animals. Many cases 
 of intestinal and mesenteric tuberculosis in chil¬ 
 dren are attributable to this source. Finally, 
 infection can be brought about by direct in¬ 
 oculation. 
 
 When the tubercle bacilli have once definitely 
 invaded the lungs the disease may be fatal in 
 three or four months, or from 10 to 15 years 
 may elapse between infection and death. During 
 this time it may be quiescent for months or a 
 year or more. Two types are usually recognized. 
 The rapid form (galloping consumption) begins 
 after a cold or exposure, with rapidly rising 
 temperature, pain in the side, difficult breath¬ 
 ing, rust-colored sputum and consolidation of one 
 or more lobes of a lung: in other words, like 
 an attack of pneumonia. Instead, however, of 
 improving at the end of the tenth day, the symp¬ 
 toms become graver, the fever continues high, 
 the lung is rapidly softened and destroyed, and 
 the patient rapidly succumbs. The second type, 
 sometimes called chronic ulcerative tuberculosis, 
 comes on more slowly and runs a longer course 
 and includes the majority of cases of pulmonary 
 tuberculosis. The disease begins with a slight 
 but annoying and unproductive cough, a slight 
 afternoon temperature, loss of appetite, and 
 gradually increasing weakness. As the trouble 
 progresses, the cough becomes severe and con¬ 
 stant, with yellow or whitish expectoration, 
 containing usually multitudes of bacilli, and 
 sometimes tinged with blood. Fever is higher 
 in the afternoon and evening and the tempera¬ 
 ture rarely drops to normal. Night sweats, 
 pains in the chest, steadily progressing weak¬ 
 ness, dyspnoea, and wasting are now present. 
 Occasionally quantities of blood are brought up 
 (haemoptysis) during a paroxysm of coughing. 
 It is bright red, frothy, and due to the ulceration 
 of an artery of some size. The course is not 
 always fatal; the disease may be arrested at 
 any stage, and partial or complete healing take 
 place, leaving scars or cavities in the lung. 
 Improvement may be only temporary and the 
 
 process start up again under favorable condi¬ 
 tions. In fatal cases the last stage is marked 
 bv an exhausting diarrhoea, and swelling of the 
 lower extremities. Death may take place sud¬ 
 denly from hemorrhage or gradually from ex¬ 
 haustion and profound toxamia. Examination 
 of the chest shows a deficient expansion of the 
 ribs, rapid heart action, exaggerated voice 
 sounds, irregular and high-pitched respiration, 
 and different varieties of rales, depending on the 
 stage of the morbid process. Diagnosis of the 
 disease depends on these symptoms and physical 
 signs, and on finding tubercle bacilli in the spu¬ 
 tum. The X-ray photograph is a reliable means 
 of distinguishing lesions in the lungs, peribron¬ 
 chial glands, and bones. Tuberculin (q.v.) is 
 even more widely applicable in diagnosis, but 
 the reaction is apt to occur in patients with 
 healed lesions as well as in those with active 
 processes. 
 
 The prevention of tuberculosis is one of the 
 most difficult problems with which the sani¬ 
 tarian has to grapple, the disease being so 
 widely disseminated, and so insidious in its 
 approaches. Efforts in this direction are mainly 
 directed to destroying tuberculous cattle, segre¬ 
 gation of tuberculous individuals, and destruc¬ 
 tion of their sputum. Municipal ordinances 
 against spitting in public places have been 
 passed in many cities. Tuberculous persons 
 should always use for their sputum special re¬ 
 ceptacles, which should be thoroughly disinfected 
 and burned. Boards of health in the larger cities 
 require physicians to report cases in private 
 life and see that precautions against contagion 
 are observed. 
 
 Individuals predisposed to consumption should 
 lead an exceptionally careful life in an equable 
 climate and out of 'doors. Particular attention 
 should be given to keeping the upper respiratory 
 passages in a healthy condition and guarding 
 against colds. Tuberculosis is a curable disease 
 in its earlier stages. Spontaneous cure is an 
 everyday phenomenon, and a large proportion 
 of individuals dying of other diseases are found 
 on autopsy to possess healed tuberculous lesions 
 in the lungs. 
 
 There is no successful specific treatment. 
 Koch’s tuberculin and its various modifications 
 and the different antitoxins and antitubercle 
 serums are being used, but have to be adminis¬ 
 tered with great circumspection. The treatment 
 of consumption is in most cases best carried out 
 in well-regulated sanatoria, where the patient’s 
 life and habits are under expert surveillance. 
 The main objects in view are to place the suf¬ 
 ferer in an environment favorable for the attain¬ 
 ment of the best possible nutrition, to relieve 
 the cough, sweats, and other wearing symptoms, 
 and to give medicines that tend to check the 
 progress of the disease. Fresh air is an essen¬ 
 tial" consideration, whether treatment is carried 
 on in sanatoria or at home. In general, a dry, 
 germ-free, bracing atmosphere, with an equable 
 temperature and plenty of sunlight, where the 
 patient can live out of doors, should be selected. 
 There is no advantage in sending patients with 
 inevitably fatal lesions away from home. The 
 patient should sleep out of doors, even in stormy 
 weather, if sheltered. Exercise should stop short 
 of fatigue. The mental condition of the patient 
 is of the utmost importance, and cheerful sur¬ 
 roundings and occupation should be chosen where 
 possible. Thus sanatoria for the tuberculous 
 have been established on the seashore, in the 
 
TUBERCULOSIS 
 
 527 
 
 TUBERCULOSIS 
 
 desert, and in the mountains, often supported by 
 private charity, a municipality, or State, by 
 unions of workingmen or by employers, in which 
 the treatment consists in living in the open air, 
 with exercise and nourishing food, with or with¬ 
 out tuberculin, under medical supervision. Simi¬ 
 lar sanatoria have been opened for tuberculous 
 children, and a special treatment developed in 
 Switzerland has been accepted in Europe and the 
 L nited States. It is given in sanatoria, situated 
 in sheltered localities in great altitudes, and 
 consists in exposing the whole body of the tuber¬ 
 culous child in the open, even in snow at a. 
 temperature below freezing point, to the rays 
 of the sun for a period ranging from a few 
 minutes to an hour. Astonishingly good results 
 have been reported. 
 
 Of drugs, the creosote group, cod-liver oil, and 
 the calcium salts are valuable. Cod-liver oil 
 improves the nutrition, acting better in children 
 than in adults, and better in glandular and bone 
 tuberculosis than in pulmonary. The emulsified 
 fats or cream are good substitutes wfiien cod-liver 
 oil cannot be taken. Iron, arsenic, strychnine, 
 and similar tonics are given according to indica¬ 
 tions. Fever is combated by rest, fresh air, and 
 small doses of quinine; severe cough by opiates; 
 night sweats by belladonna, strychnine, and the 
 mineral acids; hemorrhage by complete rest, 
 large doses of morphine, and suprarenal extract, 
 with ice over the point of bleeding when it can 
 be located. Vomiting, headache, indigestion, 
 diarrhoea, etc., must be managed as in other 
 diseases. 
 
 In 1906 Behring (q.v.) announced that after 
 extracting certain substances from the tubercle 
 bacilli with salt water and then with alcohol 
 and ether, he powdered the bacilli and injected 
 them subcutaneously with success. Practically 
 the same method has been pursued by Von 
 Ruck, of Asheville, N. C., since 1897. 
 
 Attempts to treat the disease locally by means 
 of inhalation of antiseptic vapors, and ozonized 
 air, and later by the X ray and concentrated sun¬ 
 light, have had a small measure of success. 
 
 Surgical treatment of tuberculosis of. the 
 lungs consists in producing temporary collapse 
 of the affected lung by nitrogen displacement, 
 the lung being flattened against the mediastinum 
 and a pneumothorax established. If such tem¬ 
 porary collapse is impossible on account of the 
 adherence of the two layers of the pleura, perma¬ 
 nent solidification of the lung is effected by 
 resection. Success has been reported of such 
 surgical treatment of tuberculosis of the lungs 
 in those cases in which (1) the disease is pro¬ 
 gressive, despite a two or three months’ trial 
 of sanatorium and tuberculin treatment, (2) 
 the disease is complicated by marked secondary 
 infection of tuberculous cavities, (3) severe and 
 repeated spitting of blood occurs. 
 
 Tuberculosis attacks, primarily or secondarily, 
 the lymph glands, bones, joints, intestines, peri¬ 
 toneum, brain, kidneys, bladder, spleen, liver, 
 pleurae, lungs, pericardium, heart, generative 
 organs, eye, and skin. Its manifestations in 
 these situations are described in the articles on 
 Adenitis; Bladder; Brtght’s Disease; Lupus; 
 Meningitis ; Pericarditis ; Peritonitis ; Pleu¬ 
 risy ; Pyelitis ; Scrofula ; etc. 
 
 Pathology and Bacteriology. Tuberculosis 
 is invariably due to the presence in the body 
 and to the action upon the body tissues of a 
 specific microorganism known as the tubercle 
 bacillus. 
 
 The organism is a thin bacillus from three 
 to four micromillimeters long, i.e., about one-half 
 the diameter of a red blood cell. It is often 
 slightly curved and there is a marked tendency 
 of the bacilli to hang together, two often lying in 
 the shape of a letter V. The bacillus grows on 
 ordinary culture media at body temperature, but 
 the growth is extremely slow. Thus, cultures on 
 blood serum or on nutrient agar rarely show anv 
 signs of growth earlier than two weeks, when 
 thin grayish dry scales begin to appear on the 
 surface of the medium. Cultures grow best in 
 the dark; in fact, the bacillus is killed by expo¬ 
 sure for a few hours to the direct Tays* of the 
 sun. From a pure culture successive cultures 
 may be made indefinitely. Such cultures show a 
 gradual loss of virulence, but no changes in 
 morphology. See Plate of Disease Germs. 
 
 The bacillus stains with difficulty with the 
 aniline dyes, but when once stained retains the 
 dye with great tenacity. This process consists 
 in treating a suspected specimen with a strong 
 solution of a red dye known as fuchsin, to which 
 carbolic acid has been added to increase its pene¬ 
 trating powers. After staining, the specimen is 
 washed in dilute acid, which extracts the stain 
 from all other bacteria. The tubercle bacilli 
 retain the red stain in spite of the action of the 
 acid and may thus be differentiated. Three 
 types of tubercle bacilli are recognizable by their 
 individual characters, the human, bovine, and 
 avian types. The human type, although so 
 named, is not the only one found in man; it is 
 the organism present in the majority of cases, but 
 in some cases of the human disease the bacilli 
 are of the bovine type. The human bacillus 
 produces a fatal tuberculosis in guinea pigs, 
 chimpanzees, and monkeys, but only slight in 
 cattle, goats, and pigs. The bovine tubercle 
 bacillus produces a fatal tuberculosis in cattle, 
 rabbits, guinea pigs, chimpanzees, monkeys, 
 goats, and pigs. Fowls are very susceptible to 
 the avian bacillus, but among the mammals 
 only the rabbit and the mouse are affected, while 
 in the other experimental mammals the bacillus 
 never produces tuberculosis. The differentiation 
 of the three types of bacilli is rather difficult 
 and the differences are not permanent and stable. 
 
 The changes which the tubercle bacillus causes 
 in the body tissues are various. Thus it may 
 stimulate the passage of serum and white blood 
 cells from the blood vessels into the tissues, 
 causing an exudative inflammation; or it may 
 stimulate the production of new connective tis¬ 
 sue, causing what is known as a productive 
 inflammation; or its effects may be more severe 
 and lead to death of tissue or necrotic inflamma¬ 
 tion. Any one of these effects may be produced 
 separately, or, as is commonly the case, they 
 are combined. The most distinctive feature of 
 the action of the tubercle bacillus in the body 
 is the production of tubercles or tubercle tissue. 
 This tubercle tissue may occur either as the 
 nodular tubercle or as diffuse tubercle tissue. 
 In the production of the tubercle the bacilli, ac¬ 
 cording to the extensive researches of Baum- 
 garten, first cause a proliferation of the connec¬ 
 tive tissue elements with the production of epi¬ 
 thelioid and giant cells. Following this is an in¬ 
 flammatory reaction with the exudation of serum 
 and white blood cells. The tubercle, which is 
 now fully developed, may next undergo degenera¬ 
 tive changes consisting of either caseation or 
 sclerosis. Caseation begins in the centre of the 
 growth and consists in a degeneration of the cells 
 
TUBERCULOSIS 
 
 TUBERCULOSIS 
 
 523 
 
 and their reduction to a homogeneous, struc¬ 
 
 tureless mass. Coincident with the caseation or 
 following it is a sclerosis by which the tubercle 
 is converted into a firm, hard substance com¬ 
 posed, of connective tissue rich in fibres. 
 
 Small tuberculous nodules are called miliary 
 tubercles. Seen with the naked eye the nodular 
 tubercle is a small white, gray, or yellowish 
 body, the smallest not visible without a micro¬ 
 scope. Microscopically these tubercles show 
 around their edges proliferated connective tissue 
 and endothelial cells, with often some giant cells, 
 while the centre is composed of tissue under¬ 
 going caseation or coagulation necrosis. Tu¬ 
 bercle bacilli may be few or numerous. 
 
 Diffuse tubercle tissue usually results from a 
 rather extensive local infection resulting in 
 many small foci near together. From these 
 tubercles start to grow, and these coalescing 
 form considerable areas of tubercle tissue. In. 
 addition to the formation of tubercles the bacilli 
 or the presence of the tubercle tissue may set 
 up secondary inflammatory processes. 
 
 Suppuration in connection with tuberculous 
 inflammation frequently occurs. In the so-called 
 cold abscess, however, the fluid is not, properly 
 speaking, pus, but the products of breaking down 
 of the tubercles. True suppuration in tuber¬ 
 culous conditions is due to what is known as 
 mixed infection, i.e., the presence of pyogenic 
 cocci as well as tubercle bacilli. 
 
 Acute general miliary tuberculosis is charac¬ 
 terized by a rapid development of tubercles, usu¬ 
 ally of small size, in many parts of the body at 
 about the same time. The number of tubercles 
 is frequently very large. One of the explanations 
 offered for such sudden general diffusion of tu¬ 
 bercles is that the infection is secondary to tu¬ 
 bercles located in the walls of some of the small 
 blood vessels or lymphatics. 
 
 Pulmonary tuberculosis, tuberculosis of the 
 lungs, lung consumption, or most commonly 
 called simply consumption, is a form of tuber¬ 
 culous infection in which the only or the most 
 prominent lesions are in the lungs. The bacilli 
 usually gain entrance by being taken into the 
 lungs with the inspired air. Less commonly in¬ 
 fection of the lung may occur through bacteria 
 brought to them by means of the blood or lymph 
 channels from tubercular foci in other parts 
 of the body. Several factors must be consid¬ 
 ered as determining the character of the in¬ 
 flammation which the tubercle bacillus may in¬ 
 duce in the lungs. Among these may be men¬ 
 tioned the number of bacilli introduced, their 
 virulence, the manner in which they enter the 
 lungs, whether in respiration or by means of the 
 blood or lymph, the susceptibility of the indi¬ 
 vidual, etc. As a result of variation in these 
 factors we find a variation in the character of 
 the inflammation set up. Thus there may result 
 an exudative inflammation in which the air 
 spaces of the lung and the smaller bronchi are 
 filled with serum, leucocytes, fibrin, and cast-off 
 epithelium. Such reaction is quite similar to 
 that induced by the pneumococcus in pneumonia. 
 On the other hand, instead of an exudative in¬ 
 flammation, the tubercle bacillus may bring 
 about the production of new tissue, i.e., a pro¬ 
 ductive inflammation. This new tissue is com¬ 
 posed of small round cells and epithelioid cells, 
 such as have been described above as tubercle 
 tissue. 
 
 While it is common for these different lung- 
 tissue reactions to tuberculous infection to be 
 
 associated, the predominance of one or another 
 allows us to differentiate several quite distinct 
 types of tuberculosis of the lungs. 
 
 Acute Miliary Tuberculosis of the Lungs. 
 This occurs usually as a part of a general 
 miliary tuberculosis, although it may be difficult 
 to find lesions in other organs. The tubercles 
 are found in both lungs, lying in the lung tissue 
 proper, in the walls of the vessels and bronchi, 
 or in the connective-tissue septa. These tubercles 
 may go on to suppuration. They may coalesce 
 to form larger tubercles. On the other hand, in¬ 
 stead of breaking down, the tissue is sometimes 
 converted into masses with or without calcified 
 centres. These are known as healed tubercles, 
 and may or may not contain tubercle bacilli. 
 
 Tuberculous Broncho-Pneumonia. In this 
 form of tuberculous infection of the lungs, the 
 tuberculous areas occur in the walls of the 
 smaller bronchi and in the contiguous lung 
 tissue. In its early stages the inflammation is 
 mostly catarrhal, there being a more or less 
 extensive exudate into the affected bronchi. As 
 more and more bronchi are affected, there is 
 frequently a coalescence of adjacent areas, with 
 the formation of quite large masses of consolida¬ 
 tion. These breaking down form cavities. 
 
 The term “phthisis” is sometimes applied to 
 this form and to diffuse exudative tuberculous 
 inflammation of the lungs, which may be either 
 acute or chronic. In the acute form extensive 
 areas of lung tissues may be involved, become 
 consolidated, and, undergoing necrosis, result in 
 the formation of large cavities. In the chronic 
 form there is a slower involvement of the lung 
 tissues, and there is apt to be more fibrous tis¬ 
 sue, especially in the walls of cavities. This 
 fibrous tissue lining often contains enormous 
 numbers of tubercle bacilli, which are cast off in 
 the sputum. It also furnishes a lodging place 
 for pyogenic cocci, which cause suppuration of 
 the membrane, and it is not at all improbable 
 that these pyogenic cocci are very largely con¬ 
 cerned in the formation of the cavities them¬ 
 selves. This secondary infection is also largely 
 responsible for the bronchitis and yellow or 
 greenish expectoration which so usually accom¬ 
 panies phthisis. Blood vessels stretch across 
 these cavities or lie exposed in their walls, to be 
 broken either by an extension of the disease it¬ 
 self or from a strain too sudden for their weak¬ 
 ened walls. In this way may be caused the 
 hemorrhages so frequently associated with 
 phthisis. 
 
 The most frequent site of tubercles in the 
 adult lung is the apex, although the initial lesion 
 may occur in any part of the organ. In children 
 the bronchial lymph nodes are usually first af¬ 
 fected. Healed tubercles of the apex are found 
 in a large proportion of autopsies. 
 
 Tuberculosis of Serous Membranes. Tuber¬ 
 culous pleurisy may be secondary to pulmonary 
 disease, or may occur independently of any 
 lesion in the lung proper. Tuberculous peri¬ 
 tonitis may be primary, but is more frequently 
 associated with tuberculous disease of some adja¬ 
 cent organs. In some cases minute tubercles are 
 scattered over a part or all of the peritoneum 
 and are usually accompanied by a serous or 
 serofibrinous exudate. Tuberculous pericarditis 
 may be primary or secondary, acute or chronic. 
 In the acute miliary form the membrane is 
 studded with tubercles and there is usually some 
 serofibrinous exudate. In chronic cases the 
 membrane is thickened, adherent, and. usually 
 
TUBERCULOSIS 
 
 529 TUBERCULOSIS 
 
 shows several cheesy tubercular masses. The 
 bronchial and mediastinal lymph nodes are regu¬ 
 larly involved. 
 
 Tuberculosis occurs in bones, periosteum, and 
 joints. Abscesses are sometimes formed, and the 
 adjacent joints are frequently involved. The 
 spongy parts of the bone are more susceptible 
 than the hard parts. The vertebrae, carpal and 
 tarsal bones are most commonly affected. The 
 chronic, purulent periostitis of poorly nourished 
 children is frequently tuberculous. For descrip¬ 
 tion of the lesion in tuberculous arthritis, see 
 Synovitis. 
 
 Genitourinary System. Tuberculosis of the 
 kidney may be primary or secondary. There 
 may be small nodules in the kidney proper, or 
 in the pelvis; or there may be quite large areas 
 of tubercular tissue with necrosis. These may 
 occur in only one kidney or in both kidneys. 
 \\ ith much destruction of kidney tissue, cavities 
 or cysts are formed, in some cases the kidney 
 being almost wholly replaced by cysts of various 
 size. There is apt to be thickening of the pelvis 
 and tubercle tissue in its walls. Tuberculosis 
 of the ureter and bladder is almost always 
 secondary, especially to disease of the kidney 
 pelvis. Small tubercles or patches of tubercle 
 tissue are present in the ureter or bladder walls. 
 
 1 uberculosis of the testes and epididymis occurs 
 as a primary lesion or, more frequently, sec¬ 
 ondary to lesions elsewhere. In tuberculosis of 
 the Fallopian tubes, the tubes are enlarged, 
 their walls thickened, and the lumen usually 
 filled with cheesy matter. Both tubes are fre¬ 
 quently involved. Adhesions and the formation 
 of abscesses are common results. 
 
 Liver. Miliary tubercles of the liver are quite 
 common as a part of a general miliary tubercu¬ 
 losis. Sometimes the tubercles are among the 
 liver cells, in other cases they develop in the 
 walls of the smaller bile vessels, forming ab¬ 
 scesses. Large tuberculous patches having a 
 diameter of an inch or more are sometimes found. 
 In connection with the tuberculous process there 
 may be a marked increase in the connective tissue 
 of the liver, constituting what is known as a 
 tuberculous cirrhosis. 
 
 Lips, Mouth, etc. In tuberculosis of the lips, 
 which is a rare disease, there develops on the 
 lip an extremely sensitive ulcer. This ulcer has 
 much the appearance of an epithelioma or a 
 chancre. Tuberculous laryngitis is most fre¬ 
 quently secondary to tuberculosis of the lungs. 
 Miliary tubercles form in the submucosa and 
 are accompanied by a catarrhal inflammation of 
 the mucous membrane. With necrosis of the 
 tubercles, ulcers are formed. These ulcers often 
 run together, involve adjacent parts, and deter¬ 
 mine extensive destruction of tissue. Tubercu¬ 
 losis of the tongue is marked by the appearance 
 of small nodules on the upper surface or edge 
 of the organ. These open on the surface and 
 become ulcers. It is a rare condition except 
 when associated with tuberculosis of other parts. 
 Tuberculosis also occurs in the palate, tonsils, 
 pharynx, oesophagus, and stomach. The lesions 
 are similar to those described in other mucous 
 membranes, i.e., the formation of nodules, a 
 catarrhal inflammation, and necrosis with the 
 formation of ulcers. 
 
 Intestines. In tuberculosis of the intestines 
 there is involvement of Pever’s patches and of 
 the solitary lymph nodules'as well as ulcers of 
 the mucous membrane between the patches. As 
 a primary lesion it is extremely rare in adults, 
 
 much less rare in children, where there is apt to 
 be involvement of the mesenteric glands or a 
 tubercular peritonitis. In the secondary form of 
 the disease in adults the lungs are the usual seat 
 of the primary lesion. The ulcers occur chieflv 
 in the colon, caecum, and ileum. They may be 
 ' er y extensive, affecting the greater portion of 
 the mucous membrane of both large and small 
 intestines. 1 he ulcers are irregular in shape, 
 rough in outline, their long axes transverse to 
 the lumen of the gut. They usually involve not 
 only the mucous membrane, but also the sub¬ 
 mucosa and muscular coats. They rarely per¬ 
 forate. With healing of the ulcers, extensive 
 scar tissues may form, so contracting the bowel 
 as to cause stenosis. Not uncommonly tubercles 
 are present on the peritoneum adjacent to the 
 intestinal ulcers. Tuberculosis of the rectum is 
 quite frequently associated with fistula, the 
 fistula being of the nature of a tuberculous 
 ulcer. 
 
 Tuberculous lesions may occur in the brain 
 as part of a general process. In such cases it 
 affects the meninges, causing meningitis, usually 
 associated with an increase in the fluid within 
 the ventricles (acute hydrocephalus). In 
 chronic tuberculosis of the brain the lesion is a 
 meningoencephalitis, the tubercles affecting both 
 meninges and brain tissue proper. The' lesiQn 
 is usually localized and there are in most cases 
 several nodules, usually attached to the pia 
 mater and extending from the surface into the 
 brain. The nodules may interfere with cere- 
 in al circulation, causing softening, or may in¬ 
 cite an acute meningitis. The pia is apt to be 
 thickened and adherent to the brain surface. 
 Instead of several nodules there may be one 
 large solitary tubercle. Lesions similar to those 
 described for the brain may occur in the cord 
 either with or without brain lesions. See the 
 articles Bacteria; Disease, Germ Theory of. 
 
 In the early part of the twentieth century an 
 active fight was waged in the United States 
 against this scourge. According to the National 
 Association for the Study and Prevention of 
 Tuberculosis, there was spent in 1915 over $22,- 
 000,000 for antituberculosis work in the United 
 States; over 100,000 people were employed in the 
 campaign against this disease; there were 800 
 open-air schools, fresh-air classes, and special in¬ 
 stitutions for tuberculous and amemic children; 
 450 tuberculosis dispensaries and clinics which 
 treated annually over 100,000 cases; 600 sana¬ 
 toria, hospitals, and day camps, having a total 
 bed capacity of over 35,000; 1500 antituberculosis 
 associations and committees, including 50 State 
 organizations. The death rate from pulmonary 
 tuberculosis in the registration area for 1913 
 was 127.7 per 100,000 population. 
 
 Bibliography. J. B. Huber, Consumption: 
 Its Relation to Man and his Civilization (Phil¬ 
 adelphia, 1906) ; Arthur Latham, Diagnosis and 
 Modern Treatment of Pulmonary Consumption 
 (3d ed., ib., 1907); T. N. Kelynack, editor. 
 Tuberculosis in Infancy and Childhood (ib., 
 1908) ; Arthur Newsholme, Prevention of Tuber¬ 
 culosis (New York, 1908) ; F. W. Burton-Fan¬ 
 ning, Open-Air Treatment of Pulmonary Tuber¬ 
 culosis (2d ed., ib., 1909) ; L. B. Lockard, Tuber¬ 
 culosis of the Nose and Throat (St. Louis, 1909) ; 
 
 S. G. Bonney, Pulmonary Tuberculosis and its 
 Complications (2d ed., Philadelphia, 1910) ; W. 
 W. Cheyne, Tuberculous Disease of the Bones 
 and Joints (Oxford, 1911) ; Report of the Royal 
 Commission on Tuberculosis (London, 191 i) - 
 
TUBERCULOSIS 
 
 TUBEROSE 
 
 530 
 
 William Osier, in Practice of Modern Medicine 
 (new ed., New York, 1912); W. Weinberg, Die 
 Kinder der Tuberculosen (Leipzig, 1913) ; W. E. 
 Cooke, Position of the X Rays in the Diagnosis 
 and Prognosis of Pulmonary Tuberculosis (Glas¬ 
 gow, 1914) ; F. Sylvan, Consumption and its 
 Cure by Physical Exercises (London, 1915) ; H. 
 Vallow, The Care and After Care of Consump¬ 
 tion (ib., 1915) ; Arthur Ransome, Campaign 
 against Tuberculosis (New \ork, 1915). 
 
 TUBERCULOSIS, in Animals. This disease 
 in the lower animals is now recognized as caused 
 by three types of the Bacillus tuberculosis dis¬ 
 tinct from"the human type, viz., the bovine and 
 avian types and the type occurring in cold¬ 
 blooded animals. Horses, sheep, goats, and dogs 
 are rarely affected; poultry and parrots fre¬ 
 quently; "cattle and hogs most commonly. The 
 annual loss in the United States due to tuber¬ 
 culosis in farm animals was estimated by the 
 Secretary of Agriculture in 1915 as no less than 
 $25,000,000 and was surpassed only by the loss 
 from hog cholera and from Texas fever and the 
 cattle tick. In order to emphasize the impor¬ 
 tance of this affection from the public-health 
 standpoint it should be pointed out that the 
 bovine type when ingested in milk by children 
 may produce tuberculosis—forms other than 
 phthisis. As a result of investigations and 
 statistical studies, Park and Krumwiede, well- 
 known authorities, have found that from 6 to 
 10 per cent of all deaths of young children due 
 to tuberculosis are caused by the bovine type. 
 The cases of tuberculous adenitis and abdominal 
 tuberculosis of children were indeed found to be 
 more often caused by the bovine than by the hu¬ 
 man type. It is known that the avian type may 
 be transmitted to other farm stock, particularly 
 the pig. Both the bovine and human types may 
 cause the disease in parrots, the bovine being 
 the more virulent. Other birds of domestication 
 possess considerable resistance to infection with 
 tubercle bacilli of the mammalian types. 
 
 European and American statistics from tuber¬ 
 culin tests and from meat inspection indicate 
 that from 5 to 50 per cent of the cattle are 
 affected. Tubercles may be found locally or 
 generally distributed in the respiratory, alimen¬ 
 tary, and lymphatic structures and in the bones 
 of the animal examined. For the detection of in¬ 
 cipient cases of tuberculosis in cattle tuberculin 
 is usually employed. This substance contains 
 what is called the toxin produced during the 
 growth of the bacillus, but does not contain the 
 living organism. When subcutaneously injected 
 into healthy cattle tuberculin produces no re¬ 
 action, but in more than 99 per cent of affected 
 cattle an elevation of from 1.5 to 3° or more 
 of body temperature and a slight swelling at the 
 point of injection are looked for. Animals which 
 show these symptoms are tuberculous and should 
 be separated from the rest of the herd. The 
 tuberculin may also be applied in several other 
 ways, which are known as the ophthalmic, der¬ 
 mal, and intradermal tuberculin tests. 
 
 Treatment of the disease in the domestic ani¬ 
 mals is not seriously considered by any authori¬ 
 ties at the present time. In suppressing the dis¬ 
 ease animals reacting to the tuberculin test are 
 slaughtered. In the early stages of the disease 
 much of the meat may be saved for food. Sev¬ 
 eral other methods of procedure have been sug¬ 
 gested for use with valuable breeding animals 
 that are affected. Of these, the method of Bang 
 has been the most widely employed, especially in 
 
 Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. This consists 
 in the destruction of animals in which the dis¬ 
 ease can be detected without the aid of the 
 tuberculin test, and the separation and isolation 
 of other animals that react to the test. Since 
 calves reared from affected animals are usually 
 born healthy, they may be removed at birth 
 from the isolated cows and be brought up by 
 hand or upon healthy cows. The milk of react¬ 
 ing cows may be used if it is first boiled or 
 pasteurized. Preventive measures are cleanli¬ 
 ness, airy quarters, pure water and food, and 
 free range upon good, well-managed pastures. 
 
 Bibliography. James Law, Text Book of 
 Veterinary Medicine, vol. iv ( 2d ed., Ithaca, N. T., 
 1905) ; Park and Krumwiede, “The Relative 
 Importance of the Bovine and Human Types of 
 Tubercle Bacilli in the Different Forms of Tu¬ 
 berculosis,” in Journal of Medical Research, 
 vols. xxiii, xxv,. xxvii (Boston, 1910-12); Bris¬ 
 coe and MacNeal, “Tuberculosis of Farm Ani¬ 
 mals,” in Illinois Experiment Station, Bulletin 
 No. lJf9 (Urbana, 1911)’; Hutyra and Marek, 
 Special Pathology and Therapeutics of the Dis¬ 
 eases of Domestic Animals, vol. i (Chicago, 
 1912) ; “Tuberculosis,” in United States De¬ 
 partment of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin, lfl3 
 (Washington, 1912) ; V. A. Moore, Bovine Tuber¬ 
 culosis and its Control (Ithaca, 1913) ; Van Es 
 and Schalk, “Avian Tuberculosis,” in North 
 Dakota Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 108 
 (Bismarck, 1914) ; United States Bureau of Ani¬ 
 mal Industry, Special Report on Diseases of 
 Cattle (rev. ed., Washington, 1912). 
 
 tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa). 
 
 TUBEROSE, tub'ros' or tu'ber-os' (from Lat. 
 tuberosa, fern. sing, of tuberosus, tuberous, from 
 tuber, swelling, tumor, knob on plants; asso¬ 
 ciated by popular etymology with Eng. tube 
 
TUBES 
 
 531 TUBINGEN SCHOOL 
 
 rose) , Polianthes tuberosa■. The only species 
 of its genus, which belongs to the family Amaryl- 
 lidaceoe. The plant, which is a native of Mexico, 
 has a tall stem with long leaves at the base and 
 shoi ter ones towards the top of the several- 
 flowered spike of very fragrant white blossoms. 
 The plant grows well in mild climates, but it 
 bears the open air in northern countries only 
 during the summer. Near Grasse, in southern 
 France, the tuberose is largely grown as a 
 source of perfume. The popularity of a double- 
 flowered form has suffered from its too exten¬ 
 sive use in funeral designs, etc. In outdoor cul¬ 
 ture in mild climates the plants are not dis¬ 
 turbed during the winter, but in northern cli¬ 
 mates the tuberous rootstocks are taken up and 
 stored in a dry, frost-proof place. In the colder 
 regions where the bulbs fail to mature completely 
 they are imported usually towards the end of the 
 year, planted in pots, and given bottom heat. 
 Y\ lien danger of frost has passed they are set 
 in light, moist, and rich soil and kept well sup¬ 
 plied with water. 
 
 TUBES. See Pipe. 
 
 TLTBES OF FORCE. See Electkicity. 
 
 TUBES OF. INDUCTION, TUBES OF 
 MAGNETIC FORCE. See Magnetism. 
 
 TUBEUF, tu'bef', Karl, Baron von (1862- 
 ). A German botanist, born at Amorbach. 
 He studied at the University of Munich, where 
 he taught from 1885, becoming professor of the 
 anatomy, physiology, and pathology of plants 
 in 1902. He was chosen a member of the Im¬ 
 perial Board of Health in 1899, and was ap¬ 
 pointed director of its biological section in 
 1901. He founded and edited several scientific 
 journals, and published: Samen, Friichte, und 
 Keimlinge der in Deutschland heimischen oder 
 eingefuhrten forstlichen Kulturpflanzen (1891) ; 
 Pflanzenkrankheiten, durch kryptogame Para- 
 siten verursacht (1895; Eng. trans., Diseases of 
 Plants Induced by Gryptogamic Parasites, 1897) ; 
 Die Nadelholzer (1897); Studien iiber die 
 Brandkrankheiten des Getreides (1901); Wand- 
 tafeln iiber Bauholzzerstorer (1910). 
 
 TUBE WEAVER. Any one of the tube¬ 
 building spiders of the families Drassidae and 
 Clubionidae. They are, as a rule, dark-colored 
 spiders, which spin no web, but wander about at 
 night in search of prey and hide during the day¬ 
 time. They make silken tubes in which they 
 hide in the winter and while molting or laying 
 eggs. See Spider. 
 
 ^^BIERES, tu'byar', Anne Claude Philippe 
 de. See Caylus, Count de. 
 
 TUBIGON, too'Be-gon'. A town of Bohol, 
 Philippines, situated about 28 miles northeast 
 of Tagbilaran (Map: Philippine Islands, E 6 ). 
 Pop., 1903, 15,168. 
 
 TUBINGEN, tiFbing-en. A town of Wiirt- 
 temberg, Germany, crowning a hill on the upper 
 Neckar, 18 miles south-southwest of Stuttgart, 
 on the edge of the Black Forest (Map: Germany, 
 
 C 4). It owes its celebrity chiefly to the ancient 
 university. (See Tubingen, University of.) 
 The antique houses and narrow streets of the old 
 part of the town give it a quaint appearance. 
 St. Georges Church ( Stiftskirche) contains a 
 beautiful choir, and the Roman Catholic church 
 is a superb edifice. The town hall is an inter¬ 
 esting timber-built structure, recently restored. 
 The poet Uhland, who was born in Tubingen, 
 is commemorated by a fine statue. On a "hill 
 above the city stands the interesting Renaissance 
 
 castle, Hohentubingen, completed in 1540. It 
 affords a magnificent view. The university li¬ 
 brary and observatory are here. North of Tu¬ 
 bingen is the Cistercian monastery of Beben- 
 hausen (1185), an exceptionally fine example of 
 Gothic architecture. It has beautiful cloisters 
 and an art collection. The Protestant seminary, 
 dating from 1536, became noted under Baur, 
 who founded the Tubingen school of theology’ 
 (See Tubingen School.) There is also a Ro¬ 
 man Catholic seminary. Both of these institu¬ 
 tions possess good libraries. The town has a 
 suigical clinic, a woman’s hospital, and a hospi¬ 
 tal for the insane. The manufacture of surgical 
 and scientific instruments, book printing, and 
 the cultivation of hops and the vine are the 
 leading industries. Pop., 1900, 15,338; 1910 
 16,809, nearly all Protestants. 
 
 Consult K. Fink, Tubingen (Zurich, 1891), 
 and Kliipfel and Eifert, Geschichte und Beschrei- 
 bung der Stadt und Universitdt Tubingen (2 
 vols., Tubingen, 1894). 
 
 TUBINGEN, University of. A German uni¬ 
 versity, founded in 14/ / by Count Eberhard im 
 Bart of Wiirttemberg. It was organized with 
 the usual four faculties. Reuchlin, Melanehthon 
 and Heinrich Bebel taught there at various 
 times. Under Dukes L lrich and Christopher, the 
 university took an active part in the Reforma¬ 
 tion. What made the university famous in its 
 early days and since is the Protestant seminary 
 established in 1536 for the education of evange¬ 
 lical ministers, which is directly under the Min¬ 
 ister of Public Worship and Education. It thus 
 became the leading theological university in 
 Germany. The institution maintained a steady 
 growth until the establishment of the Karls- 
 schule by Duke Charles Eugene, when it suffered 
 a temporary decline. King Frederick took away 
 from the university in 1811 most of its rights 
 and privileges. In 1817 the Catholic university 
 founded at Ellwangen in 1812 was united with 
 Tubingen, and a Roman Catholic theoloo-ical 
 faculty was added; at the same time the faculty 
 of political science was created, and in 1863 was 
 added the natural science faculty. In the nine¬ 
 teenth century the institution experienced a vig¬ 
 orous growth, due chiefly to the great theolo¬ 
 gians, such as Baur, the head of the Tubingen 
 school of criticism, Strauss, and many others. 
 Since 1832 the whole university has practically 
 been rebuilt. The university consists of the 
 following faculties: ( 1 ) Evangelical-theologi¬ 
 cal; ( 2 ) Catholic-theological; ( 3 ) law; ( 4 ) 
 medicine; J5) natural science; ( 6 ) philosophy; 
 (7) _ political science. It includes numerous 
 seminaries, laboratories, and clinics. The library 
 now contains over 550,000 volumes and nearly 
 4213 manuscripts. The attendance in 1913 was 
 2329. Consult references under Tubingen 
 TUBINGEN SCHOOL. A term applied to 
 a modern theological movement which had its 
 origin in the teachings of Ferdinand Christian 
 Baur (q.v.), of the University of Tubingen 
 Though he was unwilling to admit that he was 
 a disciple of Hegel, Baur’s distinctive and guid¬ 
 ing principles were those of the Hegelian phi¬ 
 losophy. It was his aim to reconstruct the his¬ 
 tory of early Christianity so that it would be 
 seen to be in harmony with the laws which 
 everywhere govern historical evolution. He be¬ 
 gan his critical work with the Apostolic a^e. 
 
 In 1831 he published his essay Die Christuspartei 
 in der korinthischen Gemeinde, der Gegensatz 
 des paulinischen und petrinischen Christentums 
 
TUBINGEN SCHOOL 
 
 TUCKER, 
 
 in der dltesten Kirche, der Apostel Petrus in 
 Rom. In this were foreshadowed all his later 
 critical results. His position was that the early 
 Apostolic church was split into two hostile 
 factions, Pauline (Gentile) and Petrine (Jew¬ 
 ish), between which there was a bitter conflict. 
 Although an element of Jewish Christianity (the 
 Ebionites) remained unreconciled to the last, 
 the Pauline party (mainly after Paul’s death) 
 made concessions, and thus brought about a re¬ 
 conciliation which resulted in the establishment 
 of the Old Catholic church. These views were 
 elaborated and fully stated in the works: TJeber 
 die sogenannten Pastoralbriefe (1835, the same 
 year in which Strauss’s Leben Jesu appeared) ; 
 Paulas der Apostle Jesu Christi, sein Leben and 
 Wirken, seine Briefe and seine LeJire (1845; 2d 
 ed., 18G6) ; Die kanonischen Evangelien (1847) ; 
 and Das Christentum and die christliche Kirche 
 der drei ersten Jahrhunderte (1853). Baur’s 
 position led him necessarily into a thorough re¬ 
 construction of the history of the origin of the 
 New Testament literature. His theory demanded 
 that the New Testament books in which the evi¬ 
 dences of the conflict were most patent, or in 
 which either of the two conflicting views was 
 positively stated, should be considered earliest 
 in date. Therefore, Paul’s four genuine letters 
 (Rom., 1 and 2 Cor., and Gal.) of the Pauline 
 wing, and the Apocalypse by John, with the early 
 Hebrew form of the Gospel of Matthew, of the 
 Petrine or Jewish wing, were named as the 
 earliest productions of the Apostolic church. 
 The other books were dated according to the 
 exigencies of the general theory—Mark, as al¬ 
 together neutral, being set down as the latest of 
 the Synoptics, and with our Greek Matthew, 
 Luke, Acts, John, and the Pastoral Epistles 
 placed very late, altogether outside of the Apos¬ 
 tolic age. In Acts, in particular, the desire 
 to reconcile the two parties, even at the ex¬ 
 pense of genuine Paulinism, was said to be quite 
 manifest. This criticism, based on the supposed 
 tendency ( Tendenz) of the New Testament docu¬ 
 ments and now known as “tendency criticism” 
 (Tendenzkritik) , was thoroughly under the con¬ 
 trol of the Hegelian conception of the history, 
 in accordance with which it moves from unity 
 through conflict into reunity, embodying, as 
 Hegel formulated it, the principles of “thesis, 
 antithesis, and synthesis.” Baur’s theory, prac¬ 
 tically unaltered, was advocated with great bril¬ 
 liancy by E. Zeller in the organ of the school, 
 the Theologische Jahrbucher (from 1842 on), 
 and in Die Apostelgeschichte nach ihrem Inhalt 
 and Ursprung (1856), by A. Schwegler in Das 
 nachapostolische Zeitalter (1846), and by Karl 
 Planck and Karl Kostlin in various publications. 
 Others of the school differed from the master 
 in important details, though fully accepting 
 his main principle. Of these Volkmar in Swit¬ 
 zerland, Hilgenfeld and Holsten in Germany, 
 Scholten in Holland, S. Davidson in England, 
 may be cited as representatives. David F. 
 Strauss (1808-1874) and Bruno Bauer (1809- 
 1882) are often spoken of as representatives of 
 the Tubingen School. This, however, is not 
 strictly correct as far as Strauss is concerned. 
 He was influenced both by Hegel and by Baur 
 in his early years, but that was before Baur him- 
 self had fully formulated his views, though Bruno 
 Bauer wrote under the full influence of the 
 movement. In fact, the position of Strauss 
 and of Bruno Bauer was, if anything, hostile to 
 that of the Tubingen School, carrying the natu- 
 
 532 
 
 ralistic principles of the school out to their logi¬ 
 cal results, and saying, in the case of Strauss, 
 that on this basis there was no outcome short 
 of a mythical history, and, in the case of Bauer, 
 that on this basis there was no issue but an 
 unhistorical literature. 
 
 The most important defection in the ranks of 
 Baur’s disciples was that of Albrecht Ritschl 
 (q.v.), who in the second edition of his Die 
 Entstehung der altkatholischen Kirche ( 1857) 
 asserted that it was a mistake to explain the 
 origin of Old Catholic Christianity as a union 
 of early Jewish, or Petrine, Christianity and 
 modified Paulinism. His trenchant criticism 
 and that of others gradually showed the base¬ 
 lessness of many of Baur’s positions. At his 
 death in 1858 it was already evident that the 
 dates he assigned to New Testament books could 
 no longer be defended. The wdiole theory, in 
 fact, as originally formulated by Baur, has no 
 advocates at the present time, although some 
 scholars, while independent of any formal ad¬ 
 hesion to Baur’s theory, are at one with the 
 great Tubingen professor on important points. 
 
 Bibliography. Besides the writings noted 
 above, consult I. A. Dorner, History of Protestant 
 Theology (Eng. trans., 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1871) ; 
 
 R. M. Mackay, Tlve Tubingen School and its Ad¬ 
 herents (London, 1863) ; E. Reuss, Geschichte 
 der heiligen Schriften des Neuen Testaments 
 (2d ed., Brunswick, 1890) ; Otto Pfleiderer, De¬ 
 velopment of Theology in Germany since Kant 
 (London, 1890) ; A. C. Zenos, The Elements of 
 the Higher Criticism (New York, 1895) ; H. 
 
 S. Nash, The History of the Higher Criticism of 
 the New Testament (ib., 1906) ; E. C. Moore, 
 An Outline of the History of Christian Thought 
 since Kant (1912). 
 
 TU'BULAE BRIDGE. See Bridge. 
 TU'BULIFLO'RZE. One of the great divi¬ 
 sions of Composite (q.v.), including the forms in 
 which the corolla of all the perfect flowers is 
 tubular. When ray flowers are present they 
 are either pistillate or neutral. The genera 
 Eupatorium, Aster, and Helianthus (sunflower) 
 are good representatives of this series. The con¬ 
 trasting division is Liguliflorse, in which all the 
 flowers are ligulate, as in Taraxacum (dande¬ 
 lion ). 
 
 TUBTJEAN, tob'Bbo-ran'. A town of Cebu, 
 Philippines, situated on the west coast, 32 miles 
 north of Cebu (Map: Philippine Islands, D 5). 
 Pop., 1903, 19,158. 
 
 TUBUS. A Nigritian people. See Tibbus. 
 TUCANO, too-ka'nd. A tribe residing upon 
 the Uaupes River, on the Brazil-Colombia bor¬ 
 der, and supposed to be remotely of Arawakan 
 stock (q.v.). They take their name from the 
 toucan bird. They tattoo three lines upon each 
 cheek, build circular houses of poles covered 
 with palm leaves, are good canoemen, and are 
 noted for their skill with the blowgun. 
 
 TUCK, Friar. The jolly chaplain and boon 
 •companion of Robin Hood and his men. 
 
 TUCKAHOE, tuk'a-ho'. A village in West¬ 
 chester Co., N. Y., 4 miles from New York City’s 
 northern limits, on the New York Central Rail¬ 
 road (Map: New York, B 2). It is the seat of 
 Concordia College. There are lime and marble- 
 dust works, marble quarries, and manufactories 
 of rubber goods, wire, furniture, grease guns, and 
 cabinets. Pop.,1910, 2722; 1915 (State census), 
 2753. 
 
 TUCK'ER, Abraham (1705-74). An English 
 moralist, born in London. He studied at Merton 
 
TUCKER 
 
 TUCKER 
 
 H , 
 
 1 
 
 >: 
 
 
 | 
 
 I 
 
 ' 
 
 College, Oxford, and was entered at the Inner 
 .Temple, but never called to the bar. Inheriting 
 a fortune from his father, he purchased in 1727 
 Betchworth Castle and estate, near Dorking, 
 in Surrey. During his last years he was blind. 
 Tucker’s great work is entitled The Light of 
 Nature Pursued (1768—78). It was begun in 
 1/56, and occupied most of his remaining years. 
 It extended to seven volumes, four of which 
 were published in the author's lifetime, under 
 the pseudonym of Edward Search. It consists 
 of disquisitions on metaphysics, theology, and 
 morals, of remarkable originality, simplicitv of 
 humor, and ingenuity of illustration. Consult 
 his 11 orks, edited with a Life by H. Mildmay 
 (London, 1805; several times reprinted). 
 
 TUCKER, Alfred Robert (1849-1914). An 
 English bishop, born at Windermere and edu¬ 
 cated at Christ Church, Oxford. Ordained in 
 1882, he was curate at Clifton and Durham and 
 was also identified with the work of the Church 
 Missionary Society. He performed notably 
 fruitful service as Bishop of Eastern Equatorial 
 Africa, or Mombasa, from 1890 to 1899, and then, 
 the territory having been divided, as Bishop of 
 Uganda. In 1911 he visited England to raise 
 funds for new buildings for the mission, and 
 while there was offered the canonry of Durham, 
 which he accepted and held until his death! 
 He published Eighteen Years in Uganda and 
 East Africa (2 vols., 1908; new ed., 1911). 
 TUCKER, Benjamin R(icketson) (1854- 
 ). An American anarchist, born near New 
 Bedford, Mass. He studied at the Massachu¬ 
 setts Institute of Technology, worked in a print¬ 
 ing office, and in 1878 joined the editorial staff 
 of a Boston newspaper. Through the influence 
 of Josiah Warren (q.v.) and others he became 
 interested in radical thought, and made a special 
 study of Proudhon’s philosophy. In 1877 he 
 founded a quarterly, The Radical Review, which 
 failed of support, but the journal Liberty, estab¬ 
 lished in 1881, came to be known as one of 
 the leading anarchist publications. Tucker 
 adopted Proudhon’s views on economy, but in 
 other respects his philosophy closely follows 
 Herbert Spencer. Besides translations from 
 Bakunin, Proudhon, and others his writings in¬ 
 clude Instead of a Book (1893; 2d ed., 1897), 
 which, in part, gives his philosophy of anarchism, 
 and State Socialism and Anarchism (1899). 
 See Anarchism, History of the Theory. 
 
 TUCKER, George (1775—1861). An Ameri¬ 
 can author, born in Bermuda. Pie was grad¬ 
 uated at William and Mary College in 1797, 
 studied law, practiced at Lynchburg, was a mem¬ 
 ber of the Virginia Legislature, and of Con¬ 
 gress (1819-25), gained distinction as a de¬ 
 bater and constitutional lawyer, and was (1825- 
 45) professor of moral philosophy and political 
 economy in the University of Virginia. He was 
 a frequent contributor to political periodicals, 
 and published, among many other works, Letters 
 on the Conspiracy of Slaves in Virginia (1800) ; 
 The Valley of the Shenandoah (1824), a novel; 
 
 A Voyage to the Moon, a satirical romance 
 (1827) ; Principles of Rent, Wages, and Profits 
 ( 1837) ; Life of Thomas Jefferson (1837) : The 
 Theory of Money and Banks investigated (1839) ; 
 Progress of the United States in Population and 
 Wealth in Fifty Years (1843); History of the 
 L nited States (to 1841, 1856—58) ; Banks or No 
 Banks (1857) ; Essays, Moral and Philosophical 
 (1860). His History, of the United States is 
 still a work of some importance. 
 
 533 
 
 TUCKER, Henry St. George (1780-1848). 
 An American lawyer, son of St. George Tucker 
 (1752—1828) and father of John Randolph 
 lucker (1823-97) (qa.v.). Born at Williams- 
 burg, Y a., and educated at V illiam and Mary 
 College, he practiced law at Winchester, Va., 
 served as a volunteer officer in the War of 1812, 
 and was a member of Congress in 1815-19, and 
 a member of the Virginia Senate in 1819-23. 
 Tucker served also as Chancellor of the State 
 (1824-31), as president-judge of the Virginia 
 Court of Appeals (1831-41), and as professor 
 of law at the University of Virginia (1841-45). 
 He published: Commentaries on the Law of Vim 
 ginia (2 vols., 1836-37); Lectures on Constitu¬ 
 tional. Law (1843); Lectures on Natural Laic 
 and Government (1844). 
 
 TUCKER, Henry St. George (1853- ). 
 
 An American lawyer and legal scholar, born at 
 Winchester, Va. He was educated at Washing¬ 
 ton and Lee University (A.M., 1875; LL.B., 
 1876), and after admission to the bar practiced 
 at Staunton. He served as a Representative 
 in Congress from 1889 to 1897. He then suc¬ 
 ceeded his father, John Randolph Tucker (1823- 
 97) (q.v.), as professor of constitutional and in¬ 
 ternational law at Washington and Lee, being 
 also dean of the law school from 1899 to 190if, 
 and from 1903 to 1905 was a dean at Columbian 
 (now George Washington) University. In 1904- 
 OS he was president of the American Bar Asso¬ 
 ciation and in 1905-07 president of the James¬ 
 town Tercentenary Exposition. In 1914 he was 
 Commissioner General to the Panama-Pacific Ex¬ 
 position. He was editor of Tucker on the Con¬ 
 stitution (1899), and wrote Limitations on the 
 Treaty-Making Power (1915). 
 
 TUCKER, John Randolph (1812-83). An 
 American naval officer, born at Alexandria, Va. 
 He entered the United States navy as a midship¬ 
 man in 1826, and in 1855 reached the rank of 
 commodore. In 1861 Tucker resigned his com¬ 
 mission and entered the Confederate service. In 
 command of the Patrick Henry, he took part in 
 the Hampton Roads engagements, receiving com¬ 
 mand of the wooden fleet after the Monitor-Mer- 
 rimac battle, and assisted in the repulse of the 
 Union squadron at Drury’s Bluff. He was pro¬ 
 moted captain in May, 1863, commanded at 
 Charleston and at Drury’s Bluff, and after the 
 evacuation of Richmond was with Lee’s re¬ 
 treating army. In 1866 Tucker became com¬ 
 mander of the Peruvian navy, with the rank of 
 rear admiral, and he commanded the naval 
 forces of Peru and Chile in their war with 
 Spain. Subsequently lie explored parts of the 
 upper Amazon region. He died at Peters¬ 
 burg, Va. 
 
 TUCKER, John Randolph (1823-97). An 
 American congressman, son of Henry St. George 
 Tucker (1780—1848) (q.v.). He was born at 
 
 Winchester, Va., and graduated in law at the 
 University of Virginia in 1844. He was elected 
 Attorney-General of Virginia in 18'57 and was re¬ 
 elected in 1859 and 1863. At Washington and 
 Lee University he served as professor of equity 
 and public law in 1870-74, and thereafter until 
 1887 was a member of the national House of 
 Representatives, where he won distinction as an 
 orator. Subsequently he returned to occupy a 
 chair at Washington and Lee, where later he 
 also became dean of the law school. At his 
 death, Henry St. George Tucker (q.v.), his son, 
 succeeded to his professorship. In 1892-93 he 
 was president of the American Bar Association. 
 
TUCKER 
 
 TUCO-TUCO 
 
 534 
 
 TUCKER, Josiah (1712-99). An English 
 economist and divine, the son of a Welsh farmer. 
 He was educated at St. John’s College, graduat¬ 
 ing in 1736. He became rector of St. Stephen s, 
 Bristol (1749), and dean of Gloucester (1758). 
 In 1755 he received from Oxford the degree ot 
 D.D. Tucker was a careful writer on political 
 economy and religious subjects. He also pub¬ 
 lished pamphlets advocating separation in the 
 beginning of the contest between the English 
 government and its American colonies. As an 
 economist he has some claims as a forerunner of 
 Adam Smith (q.v.), but Tucker elaborated no 
 system. Consult W. E. Clark, Josiah Tucker 
 (New York, 1903). 
 
 TUCKER, Nathaniel Beverley (1784— 
 1851). An American lawyer, son of St. George 
 Tucker. He was born at Williamsburg, Va., was 
 educated at William and Mary College, studied 
 law and practiced in Virginia until 1815, when 
 he removed to Missouri. He was a judge in the 
 Circuit Court until 1830 and professor of law in 
 William and Mary College (1834-51). He pub¬ 
 lished works on Pleading and Constitutional Law 
 and several practical essays. His best literary 
 effort was his novel, The Partisan Leader, a Tale 
 of the Future (1836). He also wrote Balcombe 
 ('1836). 
 
 TUCKER, St. George (1752-1828). An 
 American lawyer, born in Bermuda. He came 
 earlv to Virginia and was educated at V illiam 
 and "Mary College, after which he was called to 
 the bar. During the Revolutionary War he com¬ 
 manded a regiment at Yorktown, where he was 
 badly wounded. • In 1778 he married the mother 
 of the afterw r ard celebrated John Randolph of 
 Roanoke. He served in the Legislature, but won 
 his chief distinction as professor of law in Wil¬ 
 liam and Mary, and as presiding judge of the 
 Virginia Court of Appeals and of the United 
 States District Court. He is still remembered 
 for a scholarly edition of Blackstone’s Com¬ 
 mentaries (1803) and for a single lyric begin¬ 
 ning “Days of my youth.” He also published a 
 Disseo'tation on Slavery (1796) and other po- 
 liticolegal works, and composed poems and 
 dramas. See also Tucker, Henry St. George 
 (1780-1848); Tucker., Nathaniel Beverley 
 (1784-1851). 
 
 TUCKER, Samuel (1747-1833). An Ameri¬ 
 can naval officer, born at Marblehead, Mass. 
 The son of a shipmaster, he ran off to sea when 
 11 years old, became commander of a merchant¬ 
 man in 1768, and in January, 1776, was com¬ 
 missioned captain in the American navy. In 
 command of the Franklin and later of the Han¬ 
 cock, he captured over 30 British vessels, and 
 in March, 1777, was transferred to the frigate 
 Boston, which (February, 1778) carried John 
 Adams as Commissioner to France. After tak¬ 
 ing many prizes, he was forced to surrender at 
 Charleston (May, 1780), but was soon ex¬ 
 changed, and as* captain of the Thorn secured 
 many prizes. In July, 1781, Tucker was again 
 captured and released on parole. In 1813 he 
 captured a British vessel which threatened the 
 coast near his home (Bremen, Me.). He served 
 in the Massachusetts Legislature (1814-18), 
 helped frame the Maine constitution (1819), 
 and sat in the Maine Legislature (1820-21). 
 Consult Sheppard, Life of Commodore Samuel 
 Tucker (Boston, 1868). 
 
 TUCKER, William Jewett (1839- ). 
 
 An American clergyman and educator. He was 
 born at Griswold, Conn., and graduated from 
 
 Dartmouth in 1861 and from Andover Theologi¬ 
 cal Seminary in 1866. He was pastor of the 
 Madison Square Presbyterian Church, New York, 
 in 1875-79; a professor at Andover in 1879-93, 
 and thenceforth president of Dartmouth College 
 until his retirement in 1909. He lectured at 
 Lowell Institute, at Union Seminary, and at 
 Yale Divinity School, was university preacher 
 at Harvard, and founded Andover (now South 
 End) House, a social settlement in Boston. His 
 writings include: From Liberty to Unity 
 (1892); The Making, and the Unmaking of the 
 Preacher (1898); Pubiic-Mindedness (1910); 
 Personal Power (1910); The Function of the 
 Church in Modern Society (1911). 
 
 TUCK'ERMAFT, Bayard (1855- ). An 
 
 American author. He was born in New York, 
 graduated from Harvard in 1878, and completed 
 his studies in Paris. From 1898 to 1907 he 
 lectured on English literature at Princeton. His 
 writings include: A History of English Prose 
 Fiction (1882) ; Life of General La Fayette 
 (1889); Diary of Philip Hone (1889); Peter 
 Stuyvesant (1893); William Jay and the Con¬ 
 stitutional Movement for the Abolition of Slav¬ 
 ery (1893); Life of Philip Schuyler, 1733- 
 1801> (1903). 
 
 TU CKERMAN, Edward (1817-86). An 
 American botanist, born in Boston. Lie studied 
 at Union College, at Harvard University, and 
 abroad. He was professor of botany at Amherst 
 from 1858 till his death. Although devoted to a 
 variety of botanical studies, he made a specialty 
 of lichenology, publishing: A Synopsis of the 
 Lichens of Neio England (1848) ; Genera Liche- 
 num: An Arrangement of the North American 
 Lichens (1872) ; A Synopsis of the North Ameri¬ 
 can Lichens (part i, 1882; part ii, edited, with 
 an appendix, by Henry Willey, 1888). His 
 Lichenes Americce Septentrionales Exsiccati 
 (1847-55) contains 150 species. Consult the 
 Memoir bv W. G. Farlow (Washington, 1887). 
 
 TU CKERMAjNT, Henry Theodore (1813- 
 71). An American critic and essayist, born in 
 Boston and prominent in the literary life of New 
 York City after 1845. The more important of 
 his numerous publications were: The Italian 
 Sketchbook (1835), Isabel, or Sicily: A Pilgrim¬ 
 age (1839), each the outcome of a residence in 
 Italy; two volumes of verse, Poems (1851) and 
 A Sheaf of Verse (1864); Artist ~ Life, or 
 Sketches of American Paintei's (1847) ; Char¬ 
 acteristics of Literature (1849; 2d series, 1851) ; 
 America and her Commentators (1864); 
 Thoughts on the Poets (1864) ; and Book of the 
 Artists (1867), a study of the progress of art- 
 in America. 
 
 TUCKERMAN, Joseph (1778-1840). An 
 American clergyman and philanthropist. He 
 was born in Boston; graduated at Harvard Col¬ 
 lege (1798) ; studied theology, and became a Uni¬ 
 tarian pastor in Chelsea in 1801. In 1826 he 
 was appointed by the American Unitarian Asso¬ 
 ciation minister at large, devoting himself to mis¬ 
 sion work in Boston. He is best known as one of 
 the founders of the first sailors’ aid societies in 
 the country (1812), and as one of the pioneers 
 in the scientific direction of philanthropy. He 
 wrote much in behalf of his projects. Consult 
 the collection of his writings under the title 
 On the Elevation of the Poor (Boston, 1874) 
 and his Life by W. E. Channing (ib., 1841), and 
 by Miss May Carpenter (London, 1849). 
 
 ' TUCO-TUCO, too'ko-too'ko. A small burrow¬ 
 ing ratlike rodent, a spiny rat of the genus 
 
TUCSON 
 
 TUDOR 
 
 535 
 
 Ctenomys, several species of which are so called 
 in imitation of their loud, treble call. 
 
 TUCSON, too-son'. The largest city of Ari¬ 
 zona, and the county seat of Pima County, 135 
 miles southeast of Phcenix, on the Santa Cruz 
 River,, and on the El Paso and Southwestern, 
 and the Southern Pacific railroads (Map: 
 Arizona, D 5). It is the seat of the Univer¬ 
 sity of Arizona, opened in 1891, and of St. Jo¬ 
 seph’s Academy, and contains a Carnegie library, 
 the Desert Botanical Laboratory of the Carnegie 
 Institution, and the United States Magnetic Ob¬ 
 servatory. Cattle raising and copper mining are 
 the leading industries of the surrounding district, 
 which also has considerable agricultural resources. 
 The industrial establishments of the city are for 
 the most part connected with the mining indus¬ 
 try, and there are some manufactories of wagons, 
 harness, saddlery, and flour. Tucson adopted 
 the city-manager form of government in 1915. 
 Pop., 1900, 7531; 1910, 13,193; 1915 (U. S. 
 est.), 16,177; 1920, 20,292. 
 
 Tucson was first permanently settled as a 
 presidio by the Spaniards about 1776, though 
 there had been previously a small Indian village, 
 or rancheria (abandoned in 1763), under the 
 control of the Spanish authorities. It lies 
 within the territory obtained for the United 
 States by the Gadsden Purchase of 1853. It 
 was the capital of Arizona Territory from 1867 
 to 1877. Consult Bancroft, History of New Mex¬ 
 ico and Arizona (San Francisco, 1880). 
 
 TUCUMAN, tbo'kbo-man'. The smallest and 
 most densely populated province of Argentina 
 (Map: Argentina, F 3). Area, 8928 square 
 miles. The eastern portion is rolling, but the 
 Avestern portion becomes quite mountainous. 
 The mountains, offshoots of the Andes, afford ex¬ 
 tensive forests in the valleys, and some mines 
 of gold, silver, and copper, but these are not 
 extensively worked. Sugar and rum are the 
 chief products, but cereals, rice, tobacco, grapes, 
 and fruits are raised. The soil generally is fer¬ 
 tile, but in some portions use must be made of 
 irrigation. The population, largely mestizo, 
 numbered in 1912 about 325,000. Capital, Tucu- 
 man (q.v.). Tucuman Avas originally a portion 
 of the dominions of the Incas. After the con¬ 
 quest the Gobernacion of Tucuman included 
 many of the surrounding provinces, and Avas 
 first subject to the Audiencia of Charcas, and 
 after 1776 to the Vicerovaltv of La Plata. 
 
 TUCUMAN, or SAN MIGUEL DE TUCU- 
 
 MAn. A city of Argentina, capital of the 
 Province of Tucuman, 690 miles nortlnvest of 
 Buenos Aires, on a plateau to the right of the 
 river Tala or Sali (Map: Argentina, F 3). It 
 is a regularly built city, but with narrow streets. 
 The cathedral is modem. It has a university, 
 opened in 1914. It is rapidly becoming a com¬ 
 mercial centre of importance. The city Avas 
 founded in 1565. Here, July 9, 1816, the" repre¬ 
 sentatives of the Plata Provinces signed the 
 declaration of independence from Spain. Pop., 
 1913 (est.), 79,000. 
 
 TUCUMA (too'koo-ma') PALM. See As- 
 
 TRO CAR YUM. 
 
 TUCUMCARI, too'kum-kar-i. A city and 
 the county seat of Quay Co., N. Mex.," about 
 350 miles soutlnvest of DenA^er, Colo., on the 
 Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific and the FI Paso 
 and Southwestern railroads (Map: NeAV Mexico, 
 F 3). It contains a United States Land Office, 
 a government experiment farm, and a city li¬ 
 
 brary. Tucumcari is a distribution point for 
 coal and coke, has cattle-raising and wheat and 
 corn growing interests, and manufactures sisal. 
 Pop., 1910, 2526. 
 
 TUCUNA, too-koo'na. A Avild tribe of the 
 upper Amazon. See Ticuna. 
 
 TUCUXI, too-koo'ne (South American name). 
 A South American dolphin (Sotalia guianensis ), 
 very abundant in the Bay of Rio Janeiro, AAdiere 
 the natives regard it as able to bring ashore 
 drowned persons, and haA^e other fanciful ideas 
 in regard to it. The genus Sotalia is represented 
 by other species in various parts of the Avorld, 
 some of which live Avholly in fresh water. Con¬ 
 sult F. E. Beddard, Book of Whales (London, 
 1900). 
 
 TUDELA, too-Da'la. A town of the Pro\ T ince 
 of Navarra, Spain, on the Ebro, here crossed by 
 a bridge of 19 arches. It is 48 miles by rail 
 from Saragossa (Map: Spain, E 1). Most of 
 its important public buildings are modern, but 
 it is especially famous for the Romanesque Cole- 
 giata (formerly the cathedral), Avhich is regarded 
 as one of the finest churches in Europe. The 
 chief industries are the sawing of lumber, the 
 manufacture of cloth, silk goods, earthenware, 
 and the production of oil and wine. The best 
 wine of Navarra, resembling Burgundy, is pro¬ 
 duced in this vicinity. Pop., 1900, 8996; 1910, 
 9072. Tudela fell into the hands of the Moors 
 in the eighth century, but it was retaken by 
 Alfonso I of Aragon in 1114. In 1808 the Span¬ 
 ish forces under Castanos Avere here defeated by 
 the French under Lannes. 
 
 TUDELA, Benjamin of. A medical trav¬ 
 eler. See Benjamin of Tudela. 
 
 TU'DOR. The family name of the dynasty 
 which occupied the throne of England from 1485 
 to 1603. Its founder Avas Owen Tudor, an ob¬ 
 scure Welsh squire, who had five children by 
 Catharine, daughter of Charles VI of France. 
 Their son Edmund was made Earl of Richmond 
 by Henry VI, kinsman of Edmund’s Avife, Mar¬ 
 garet. It is through Margaret that the family de¬ 
 rived its defective title to the crown. She Avas the 
 heiress of the Beauforts, children of John of Gaunt 
 by Catharine SAvynford, Avho had been legitimized 
 for every purpose except royal succession. Her 
 son, Henry, Earl of Richmond, became head 
 of the Lancastrian house in 1471, and in 1485, 
 at BosAvorth Field, defeated Richard III, who 
 fell in the battle. Henry was able to secure the 
 support of the Yorkist nobles upon promising 
 to marry Elizabeth, the heiress of the York 
 family.. Parliament confirmed Henry’s claim to 
 reign of his own right, though the lawful heir 
 AA 7 as either his wife, Elizabeth, or, if females 
 could not succeed her cousin EdAA^ard, the Earl 
 of Warwick. The Tudor monarchs Avere Henry 
 VII (1485-1509), Henry VIII (1509-47), Ed- 
 Avard VI (1547-53), Mary (1553-58), and Eliza¬ 
 beth (1558-1603). The Stuart dynasty, Avhich 
 came to the throne in 1603, derived "its title 
 through Margaret, daughter of Henry VII, Avho 
 married James IV of Scotland. During the 
 Tudor period the crown Avas nearly absolute. 
 The dynasty Avas strong and purposeful, and 
 Avhile the rights and functions of Parliament 
 Avere not formally denied, its deliberations Avere 
 controlled by royal influence over elections or 
 by vigorous and tactful management. The local 
 institutions kept their full vigor and the Eng¬ 
 lish people retained their training in self-gov¬ 
 ernment, When danger of feudal anarchy and 
 foreign invasion had passed, and public safety 
 
TUDOR 
 
 TTJ FU 
 
 536 
 
 no longer required a strong executive, Tudor 
 absolutism speedily disappeared under the weak 
 and tactless Stuart dynasty. For details and 
 bibliographies, see the names of the separate 
 sovereigns. See also Roses, Wars of the; 
 York, House of. Consult A. D. Innes, England 
 under the Tudors (New York, 1905) ; C. R. 
 Lumsden, The Dawn of Modern England (ib., 
 1910). 
 
 TUDOR, Mary (1496-1533). Queen of 
 France. She was the daughter of Henry \ II of 
 England. In 1514 she was married to Louis 
 XII of France and after his death, in 1515, to 
 Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. Her only 
 child, a daughter, Frances, became the wife of 
 Henry Grey, Marquis of Dorset, and was the 
 mother of Lady Jane Grey. 
 
 ' TUDOR, William (1779-1830). An Ameri¬ 
 can merchant and author, born in Boston. He 
 was founder (1815) and first editor of the North 
 American Review. He graduated at Harvard 
 (1796), engaged in business, visited Europe, and 
 on his return took part in founding the Anthology 
 Club and contributed frequently to its magazine, 
 The Monthly Anthology (1803-11). Out of this 
 club grew the Boston Athenaeum (1807), of 
 which Tudor was also a founder. He originated 
 the movement for erecting Bunker Hill Monu¬ 
 ment. In commerce he gained distinction as a 
 pioneer in the ice trade with tropical countries. 
 He was a member of the Massachusetts Legis¬ 
 lature for some years, appointed United States 
 Consul at Lima, Peru (1823), and charge d’af¬ 
 faires in Brazil (1827). He published Letters 
 on the Eastern States (1820), Miscellanies 
 (1821), Life of James Otis of Massachusetts 
 (1823), and an anonymous political allegory, 
 Gehel Teir (1829), written in Rio de Janeiro, 
 where he died. 
 
 TUDOR, STYLE. In English architecture, 
 a rather indefinite term applied to the late Per¬ 
 pendicular (q.v.) and the transition from that 
 to Elizabethan (q.v.), especially as developed 
 in nonecclesiastic buildings—schools, colleges, 
 and mansions. 
 
 TU'FA (It., calcareous rock). A name ap¬ 
 plied to any cryptocrystalline variety of calcium 
 carbonate which has a cellular structure, es¬ 
 pecially those varieties deposited from springs or 
 streams. A similar material emanating from 
 volcanoes is known as volcanic tufa. 
 
 TUFF (Fr. tuf, tuffe, from It. tufo, tufa, 
 from Lat. tophus, tofus, tufa, calcareous rock). 
 Fragmental volcanic material when compacted 
 together to form a rock. The material which 
 by cementation of some kind has formed the tuff 
 may be finely comminuted (volcanic ash or 
 sand), or of larger fragments (lapilli and 
 bombs). A large proportion of tuffs have been 
 laid down under water, or have been carried by 
 water in the form of volcanic mud. In rare 
 cases they are composed largely of crystals. Un¬ 
 consolidated volcanic fragments are called ag¬ 
 glomerate, or agglomerate tuff. If large and 
 angular fragments predominate in a tuff it is 
 often called a volcanic breccia. Such breccias 
 are produced when a stream of lava flows over 
 and picks up an agglomerate, and also when 
 certain viscous lavas flow down a slope. In the 
 latter case the lava stream consolidates in a shell 
 about a central molten mass, the shell constantly 
 fracturing and as quickly healing its fractures 
 bv outflow and consolidation of molten material. 
 
 'TUFTS, Cotton (1734-1815). An American 
 physician, born in Medford, Mass. He graduated 
 
 at Harvard in 1749, studied medicine, and settled 
 at Weymouth, Mass., and in 1765 wrote the in¬ 
 structions regarding the Stamp Act to the repre¬ 
 sentatives of Weymouth in the Provincial Legis¬ 
 lature. He was one of the founders of the 
 Massachusetts Medical Society and of the.Ameri¬ 
 can Academy of Arts and Sciences, being presi¬ 
 dent of the former in 1787-95, and was a mem¬ 
 ber of the State convention which ratified the 
 Federal Constitution. 
 
 TUFTS, James Hayden (1862- ). An 
 
 American philosophical scholar, born at Monson, 
 Mass. He graduated from Amherst College in 
 1884, and from Yale Divinity School in 1889, 
 and later studied at Berlin and Freiburg (Ph.D., 
 1892). At the University of Chicago, with 
 which he was connected after 1892, he became 
 professor of philosophy in 1900, and head of the 
 department in 1905, and he served also as dean 
 of the Senior College (1899-1904 and 1907-08). 
 In 1914 he was president of the American Phil¬ 
 osophical Association. He translated Windel- 
 band’s History of Philosophy (1893; 2d ed., 
 1910) ; contributed to Baldwin’s Dictionary of 
 Philosophy and Psychology (1901); edited the 
 School Review in 1906-09; and wrote James 
 Tufts, a Memorial (1902), and Ethics (1908), 
 with John Dewey. 
 
 TUFTS COLLEGE. An institution for higher 
 education founded at Medford, Mass., in 1852. 
 The campus embraces about 80 acres, on which 
 are 20 buildings used for education and dormi- 
 tory purposes. The associated schools which in¬ 
 clude the School of Liberal Arts, Jackson Col¬ 
 lege for Women, the Engineering School, the 
 Bromfield-Pearson School, the Crane Theological 
 School, and the Graduate School are located at 
 Medford. The Tufts College Medical and Dental 
 schools and the one-year medical course are in 
 Boston. The college also has an interest in 
 the biological laboratories at Harpswell, Me. 
 The degrees conferred are Bachelor of Arts, 
 Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Sacred Theology, 
 Master of Arts, Master of Science, Doctor of 
 Medicine, and Doctor of Dental Medicine. The 
 Bromfield-Pearson School is a preparatoiy in¬ 
 stitution for the Engineering School. Among 
 the notable buildings on the campus is the 
 Barnum Museum of Natural History, built and 
 maintained by a fund given by Phineas T. Bar- 
 num. This museum has a large zoological col¬ 
 lection, especially large in skeletons, and 
 mounted skins of mammals, including the skele¬ 
 ton of the famous elephant “Jumbo.” The 
 Eaton Library, the gift of Mr. Andrew Carnegie, 
 contains about 73,000 volumes and 64,000 
 pamphlets. The total enrollment in all depart¬ 
 ments of the college in 1915-16 was 1541 stu¬ 
 dents. Of these 509 were in the Dental School, 
 383 in the Medical School, 216 in the College 
 of Liberal Arts, 192 in the Engineering School, 
 and 96 in the Jackson College for Women. The 
 faculty numbered 249, of whom 86 were of pro¬ 
 fessorial grade. The total capital of the col¬ 
 lege in all departments including buildings at 
 the end of the collegiate year 1915 was $3,- 
 250,000. The buildings and grounds were val¬ 
 ued at about $1,500,000. The president in 1916 
 was Herman C. Bumpus, Ph.D. 
 
 TU FU, too fob (712-770). A noted poet of 
 China. He was born in 712 in Siangyangfu (q.v.) 
 in the present Province of Hupeh, according 
 to one authority, or in Ruling in Shensi, accord¬ 
 ing to another. Through failure in literary ex¬ 
 aminations he lost official chances, but became 
 
TUGENDBUND 
 
 TUKE 
 
 537 
 
 a professional poet, and produced three descrip¬ 
 tive poems (742—755) which gained him favor 
 from the reigning Emperor, and a position at 
 court, where he became popular. This Emperor 
 fled from rebels, but Tu Fu fell into their 
 hands, escaping in 757. He was recalled by 
 the new Emperor, and became a censor. Having 
 defended an official who had incurred the dis¬ 
 pleasure of the Emperor, he fell into disgrace, 
 was banished, and given the position of a sub¬ 
 prefect in a small town of Shensi. This he 
 promptly resigned and retired to Sze-chuen. In 
 761 a post was provided for him in connection 
 with the Board of Works. This he held for six 
 years, vvhen he resumed his wandering life. 
 The edition of his poems published in 1059 con¬ 
 tained 1405 compositions. He is the most quoted 
 poet in China. See specimens in H. A. Giles, 
 History of Chinese Literature (New York, 1901). 
 
 TUGENDBUND, tbd'gent-bunt'. An asso¬ 
 ciation organized at Konigsberg, Prussia, in Feb¬ 
 ruary, 1808, for the purpose of furthering the 
 physical and moral regeneration of the Prussian 
 people in the period of national degradation fol¬ 
 lowing the disasters of the years 1806-07 and 
 the dismemberment of the Prussian Kingdom by 
 Napoleon I at Tilsit. Its secret purpose was 
 the overthrow of the French domination. It was 
 dissolved in December, 1809, after it had ac¬ 
 complished much good in its self-appointed task 
 of bringing to life the spirit of Prussian 
 patriotism. 
 
 TUGUEGABAO, tob-ga'ga-raT). The capital 
 of the Province of Cagayan, Luzon, Philippines 
 (Map: Philippine Islands, C 2). Cagayan is the 
 most northern province of Luzon and is exceed¬ 
 ingly mountainous. The climate is very severe 
 in the winter, and not healthful in the summer, 
 owing to the excessive humidity. The province 
 is well watered and has a fertile soil; its area 
 is 5052 square miles. Pop., 1903, 156,239. The 
 capital is situated on the river Cagayan, in 
 the southern part of the province. It has a 
 town hall, courthouse, and a government build¬ 
 ing. Pop., 1903, 16,105. 
 
 TUI, tbo'e. See Parson Bird. 
 
 TUILEBIES, twel're' (Fr., tile works). A 
 former royal palace in Paris, situated on the 
 right bank of the Seine, on ground originally 
 occupied by tile yards. The site was acquired 
 by Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis I, in 1527, 
 and the erection of the palace was begun about 
 1565 by Catharine de’ Medici, under the direc¬ 
 tion of Philibert de POrme (q.v.). The main 
 structure of the original palace comprised a cen¬ 
 tral pavilion crowned by a cupola, flanked by 
 low wings, forming part of a plan for a gran¬ 
 diose palace of many courts. With the death of 
 De l’Orme in 1570 this vast plan was abandoned, 
 and the wings were completed by Jean Bullant. 
 Henry IV caused the erection of the Pavilion de 
 Flore on the south wing and began the construc¬ 
 tion of a long gallery connecting it with the 
 Louvre (q.v.). Under Louis XIV the central 
 pavilion was greatly enlarged, the wings in¬ 
 creased in depth and height, and the Pavilion de 
 Marsan on the north wing was erected. In spite 
 of its imposing size, the palace possessed little 
 artistic interest, owing to the inharmonious di¬ 
 versity of architectural form of its long facade. 
 Before the Revolution it was intermittently a 
 royal residence, though frequently the scene of 
 splendid f£tes: in its theatre were given plavs 
 of Corneille, Moliere, and Voltaire. On Oct. 0, 
 1789, Louis XVI and the royal family, brought 
 
 by the Parisian mob from Versailles, took up 
 their residence in the Tuileries. It was invaded 
 by a mob on June 20, 1792, without great harm. 
 On August 10, however, the organized sections 
 of Paris stormed the Tuileries and after a bloody 
 battle cut down the Swiss Guard, who, after de¬ 
 fending its great stairway with devoted courage, 
 were ordered by the King to lay down their 
 arms. The royal family were forced to take 
 refuge in the hall of the Assembly and thence 
 were removed to the Temple. In 1793 the Con¬ 
 vention began to hold sessions in the north wing, 
 the Pavilion de Marsan being given up to com¬ 
 mittee rooms, administrative offices, etc. After 
 the establishment of the Consulate the Tuileries 
 became the residence of Napoleon, and, with 
 changes in internal construction, it remained the 
 residence of the rulers of France to the fall of 
 the Second Empire (excepting 1848-52). Dur¬ 
 ing the War of the Commune in 1871 the palace 
 was set on fire (May 24) at the orders, it is 
 supposed, of the Communist leaders. In the 
 night of May 24-25 heavy explosions of gun¬ 
 powder completed the ruin of the main struc¬ 
 ture. The right wing, containing the Pavilion 
 de Flore, escaped destruction. The Pavilion de 
 Marsan was restored in 1875-78, and the Pavil¬ 
 ion de Flore, with the adjacent Grande Galerie, 
 was reconstructed about the same time on a 
 modified design. The ruins of the main build¬ 
 ings were removed in 1883. The Garden of the 
 Tuileries, covering about 75 acres, lies between 
 the Place de la Concorde, the site of the palace, 
 the Rue de Rivoli, and the Quai des Tuileries. 
 It was laid out by Le Notre in the time of Louis 
 XIV, but has undergone extensive changes, es¬ 
 pecially under the Second Empire. The garden 
 contains notable examples of sculpture; it is a 
 popular resort of Parisians, especially as a play¬ 
 ground for children. See Paris. 
 
 TUISTO. See Mannus. 
 
 TUKABAM, tu-ka'ram. See Marathi. 
 
 TUKE, Daniel Hack (1827-95). A cele¬ 
 brated English alienist, born at York. He 
 studied medicine at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital 
 College, of London, and in 1852 became a member 
 of the Royal College of Surgeons, of which 
 he became a fellow in 1857. He was afterward 
 visiting physician to the York retreat for the 
 insane, and subsequently medical practitioner at 
 Falmouth and London. He wrote many essays 
 for scientific periodicals on the treatment of in¬ 
 sanity, and was coeditor of the Journal of Mental 
 Sciences, 1878-92. He wrote a prize essay on 
 the Progressive Changes which have taken place 
 since the time of Pinel, in the Moral Management 
 of the Insane (1854); Illustrations of the In¬ 
 fluence of the Mind upon the Body, etc. (1872; 2d 
 ed., 2 vols., 1884) ; Insanity in Ancient and Mod¬ 
 ern Life (1878) ; Chapters in the History of the 
 Insane in the British Isles (1882) ; and a Dic¬ 
 tionary of Psychological Medicine (2 vols., 1892). 
 
 TUKE, Henry (1755-1814). A Quaker 
 writer born at York, England. His father was 
 William Tuke (q.v.), one of the founders of the 
 first asylum for humane treatment of the insane. 
 After his education in liberal studies he engaged 
 in business with his father at York, and at the 
 age of 25 he became a minister of the Society 
 of Friends. His books were extensively read at 
 home and some of them were translated into 
 French, German, and Danish. The chief of them 
 are: The Faith of the People Called Quakers 
 (1801) ; The Principles of Religion as Professed 
 by the Society of Christians Usually called Quak- 
 
TUNE 
 
 TULIP 
 
 538 
 
 ers (1805) ; and The Life of George Fox (1813). 
 —His son, Samuel Tuke (1784-1857), studied 
 medicine and became widely known for his 
 strenuous defense of the asylum at York, and for 
 varied philanthropic work. Among his publica¬ 
 tions are Descriptions of the Retreat (1813), 
 concerned with the establishment which his 
 father and grandfather had founded, and consti¬ 
 tuting the earliest account of the humane treat¬ 
 ment of the insane; and Practical Hints on the 
 Construction and Economy of Pauper Lunatic 
 Asylums (1815), which is also important in the 
 history of the treatment of the insane. 
 
 TUKE, William (1732-1S22). An English 
 philanthropist. He was born in \ork, was a 
 Quaker in religion, and engaged in mercantile 
 pursuits the greater part of his life, but found 
 time for many works of benevolence. His great¬ 
 est achievement was the opening of the York 
 Retreat in 1796, the first institution in England 
 where the insane were treated with kindness 
 and humanity. In this undertaking he had the 
 aid of his son Henry, Lindley Murray, and other 
 Quakers. His descendants have been prominent 
 in British philanthropy. Tuke’s biography was 
 written by his great-grandson (York, 1856). 
 
 TULA, tobfia. A government of central Rus¬ 
 sia. Area, about 11,960 square miles (Map: 
 Russia, E 4). It belongs to the central Russian 
 plateau and has an undulating surface cut by 
 deep river valleys. It is watered chiefly by the 
 Oka and its tributaries and the Don. Tula be¬ 
 longs to the black soil belt of Russia. In the 
 southwest are deposits of coal, and iron ore is 
 found in all parts. Agriculture is the main oc¬ 
 cupation, but the household industries are also 
 remarkably developed. Bee raising is another 
 important industry. The chief manufactured 
 products are small metal articles, samovars (tea¬ 
 kettles), wagons, musical instruments, arms, etc. 
 The trade in grain is extensive. Pop., 1897, 1,- 
 419,456; 1912, 1,829,200. 
 
 TULA. The capital of the Government of 
 Tula in Russia, situated on the Upa, 121 miles 
 south of Moscow (Map: Russia, E 4). It is an 
 interesting and important town, with an old 
 kremlin rising above the river, an extensive gov¬ 
 ernment arms factory and a museum. Tula 
 has also a number of private arms factories, 
 and extensive metal works, where the samovars 
 (see Samovar) for which Tula is famous are 
 manufactured. Its favorable geographical posi¬ 
 tion, together with its mines, have promoted the 
 town’s commercial development. Pop., 1911, 
 136,530. 
 
 TULA. A Mexican town of the State of 
 Hidalgo, 45 miles by rail north of the city of 
 Mexico, on the Tula (or Montezuma) River 
 (Map: Mexico, J 7). The town, the ancient 
 capital Tollan, is believed to have been founded 
 by the Toltecs, and contains the ruins known as 
 Montezuma’s Palace, and others of interest at¬ 
 tributed to those people. It is situated at an 
 elevation of 6766 feet above the sea. The for¬ 
 tress-like church and cloister of San Jose date 
 from 1553. There are some cotton manufactur¬ 
 ing establishments. Pop., about 5000. 
 
 TULA. A town an the State of Tamaulipas, 
 Mexico, 61 miles southwest of Victoria (Map: 
 Mexico, J 6). It is an important commercial 
 centre in a rich agricultural district producing 
 chiefly ixtle. Pop., 1910, 6707. 
 
 TULALIP, tob-la'lip (North American In¬ 
 dian, bay, inlet). A tribe of Salishan stock 
 (q.v.) occupying a reservation of 36 square 
 
 miles on Tulalip Bay, an eastern inlet of Puget 
 Sound, Washington. They are a division of the 
 Twana. See Salishan Stock. 
 
 TULANE, tQ -lan', Paul (1801-87). An 
 American philanthropist, born near Princeton, 
 N. J. He received a common-school education 
 and in early life removed to New Orleans, where 
 he engaged in business and acquired great wealth. 
 He retired in 1867, and returned to Princeton. 
 He was the founder of Tulane University (q.v.). 
 
 TULANE UNIVERSITY OF LOUISI¬ 
 ANA. An institution at New Orleans, La., or¬ 
 ganized on its present basis in 1884, when the 
 State placed the existing University of Louisi¬ 
 ana, chartered in 1845, under the perpetual care 
 of the Board of Administrators of the Tulane 
 Educational Fund. In 1882 Paul Tulane (q.v.) 
 gave his property in that city for the higher 
 education of the “white young persons in the 
 city of New Orleans.” His donations up to the 
 time of his death amounted to $1,050,000. The 
 university consists of the Graduate Department, 
 the College of Arts and Sciences, the College of 
 Technology, the H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial 
 College for Women, the College of Law, College 
 of Commerce and Business Administration, and 
 the College of Medicine, consisting of schools - of 
 medicine (graduate and undergraduate), phar¬ 
 macy, hygiene and tropical medicine, and den¬ 
 tistry. It confers the bachelor’s degree in arts, 
 science, education, and music, and the profes¬ 
 sional degrees in engineering, law, medicine, 
 pharmacy, and dentistry. All the departments 
 are situated in the city of New Orleans. The 
 campus contains about 100 acres, including the 
 athletic field. The total attendance in 1915 was 
 2708, the faculty numbered 301 and the library 
 contained 69,500 volumes. The value of the 
 grounds and buildings was estimated at $2,215,- 
 000, the total valuation of the university prop¬ 
 erty being $2,664,000. The endowment was $5,- 
 310,914 and the gross income $371,664. 
 
 TULARE, too-lar'a. A city in Tulare Go., 
 Cal., 45 miles southeast of Fresno, on the 
 Southern Pacific and the Atchison, Topeka, and 
 Santa Fe Coast Line railroads (Map: California, 
 F 6). It carries on an important trade in fruits 
 and cereals, dairying and fine cattle. There are 
 three large creameries. Tulare has a public 
 librarv. Pop., 1900, 2216; 1910, 2758. 
 
 TULASNE, tu'lan', Louis Rene (1815-85). 
 A French botanist, born at Azay-le-Rideau (In- 
 dre-et-Loire). After studying law, he turned 
 his attention to botany and made a specialty 
 of parasite mushrooms, becoming the founder of 
 modern mycology. From 1842 to 1872 he was 
 at first “aide naturaliste,” then professor at the 
 Museum of Natural History in Paris. His most 
 important publications include: Histoire et mo¬ 
 nographic des champignons hypog6s (1851) ; Se- 
 lecta Fungorum Carpologia (3 vols., 1861-65), 
 with his brother Charles; and many monographs. 
 Among several discoveries he made, that of 
 polymorphism among fungi marked an epoch in 
 the science. 
 
 TULCEA, or TULTCHA, tool'cha. A dis¬ 
 trict town of the Dobrudja, Rumania, situated 
 on an arm of the Danube, about 45 miles from 
 the Black Sea (Map: Balkan Peninsula, G 2). 
 It lias a good harbor, with a large trade in fish, 
 grain, and wool. Pop., 1900, 18,800. 
 
 TULIP (OF., Fr. tulipe, from tulipan, tulip, 
 tulipant, tulpant, toliban, tolopan, turban, from 
 Turk, tulband, dulband, from Pers. dulband, 
 turban), Tulipa. A genus of showy hardy 
 
TULIP TREE 
 
 
 I 
 
 TULIP TREE (LIrlodendron tullplfera) 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 r 
 
 - 
 
 I 
 
 TULIP 
 
 539 
 
 TULLA 
 
 plants of the family Liliaceae, easily recognized 
 by its fleshy brown-skinned bulbs, broad or linear 
 leaves, and generally erect and usually solitary- 
 flowered scapes. About 45 species are described, 
 mostly natives of the warmer parts of Asia and 
 southern Europe. For centuries the tulip has 
 been a popular ornamental plant for spring and 
 early summer, and has recently been used by 
 florists for winter flowering. The species from 
 which most cultivated varieties have been de¬ 
 rived, Tulipa gesneriana, is a native of Asia 
 Minor and was brought from Constantinople to 
 Germany by Conrad Gesner in 1559. Since 
 then innumerable varieties have been originated, 
 1800 varieties being offered by Dutch growers,' 
 
 who are the leading producers of these bulbs. 
 Several other species have given rise to culti¬ 
 vated varieties, but to a more limited extent. 
 Tulipa suaveolens, a native of southeastern Eu¬ 
 rope, is the wild' species from which the early 
 red and orange Due van Tliol tulips have been 
 obtained. They are inferior to the common gar¬ 
 den tulip in beauty, but are prized for their 
 fragrance and earliness. (See Colored Plate of 
 Liliace/E.) Tulipa prcecox is the generally 
 cultivated form of Tulipa oculus-solis, a beauti¬ 
 ful species from southern France, characterized 
 by a large black spot with a yellow border at 
 the base of each petal. Tulipa greigi, a native 
 of Turkestan, is a fine species from which sev¬ 
 eral cultivated forms have been developed. The 
 natural species are rarely grown. Tulips are 
 cultivated in gardens and need a rich, sandy 
 loam. The bulbs or offsets are planted in mid- 
 autumn and the flowers appear in spring. When 
 the plants have blossomed and the leaves have 
 begun to dry the bulbs are taken up, dried in 
 a cool airy place, and stored in a dry place 
 
 Vol. XXII.—35 
 
 until replanted. For pot culture tulips are 
 treated like hyacinths. Young plants are also 
 obtained by sowing the seed in light sandy soil 
 under a cold frame in late winter. Seedlings 
 seldom flower before they are five years old and 
 are rarely stable; i.e., after flowering one or 
 more times they break or develop a new form 
 of color, which remains stable not only with the 
 individual bulb, but with its offsets. 
 
 During the first half of the seventeenth cen¬ 
 tury interest in the tulip rose to a speculative 
 basis. Bulbs sold for fabulous prices, even 
 13,000 florins ($5200) being paid for a single 
 specimen of Semper Augustus. Ownership in 
 individual bulbs was divided into shares; bulbs 
 were sold before their existence and by men who 
 possessed none; and of some varieties far more 
 were sold than existed. The craze was short¬ 
 lived, but it financially ruined many. Consult 
 J. Jacob, Tulips (London, 1912). 
 
 TULIP TREE ( Liriodendron tulipifera) . A 
 beautiful North American tree of the family 
 Magnoliacese, found from Massachusetts and 
 Vermont to Wisconsin and south to Florida, 
 Mississippi, and Arkansas, having a stem some¬ 
 times 100 to 140 feet high and 5 to 9 feet thick, 
 with a grayish-brown cracked bark and many 
 gnarled and brittle branches. The solitary 
 terminal flowers resemble tulips. The bark has 
 a bitter, aromatic taste, like other members of 
 the Magnoliacese. The tulip tree is one of the 
 most beautiful ornaments of pleasure grounds. 
 In some parts of the Mississippi valley it forms 
 considerable forests, seldom or never occurring 
 alone, but in mixed woods. The heartwood is 
 yellow, the sapwood white. The timber is easily 
 wrought, takes a good polish, and is much used 
 for house carpentry and other purposes where a 
 light wood is desired. The timber is usually 
 called poplar, tulipwood, or whitewood. Fossil 
 leaves of ancestors of the tulip tree are found 
 in abundance in the North American and Arctic 
 Cretaceous rocks. These earliest representatives 
 had leaves that were not so distinctly lobed and 
 that resembled, in their entire margins, more 
 nearly those of the very young individuals than 
 those of the full-grown trees of the modern 
 plant. 
 
 TULL, Jethro (1674-1741). A British agri¬ 
 culturist. He was born at Basildon, Berkshire, 
 and entered Oxford in 1691, but two years later 
 took up the study of law at Gray’s Inn. In 
 1699, shortly after becoming a barrister, he 
 settled upon a farm at Howberrv, where, having 
 trouble in making his laborers carry out his 
 advanced ideas, he endeavored to make imple¬ 
 ments which would do the work “more faithfully 
 than such hands would do.” The results of liis 
 experiments are set forth in his Horse-Hoeing 
 Husbandry, or*an Essay on the Principles of 
 Tilling and Vegetation (1733; 2d ed., with 
 addenda, 1743; 3d ed., 1751). French transla¬ 
 tions appeared in 1753 and 1757, and a new and 
 somewhat altered edition was put forth by 
 William Cobbett in 1822. This work, which is 
 the first of its kind, exercised a profound in¬ 
 fluence on methods of soil management, and upon 
 it Tull’s fame chiefly rests. See Tillage. 
 
 TULLA, tul'la, Johann Gottfried (1770— 
 1828). A German engineer. He was educated 
 in Heidelberg and Freiburg, and after filling 
 various engineering appointments became chief 
 engineer of the construction of water and road 
 ways for the Grand Duchy of Baden in 1813. 
 He founded the Engineer School of Baden, and 
 
TULUS 
 
 TULLAHOMA 54° 
 
 subsequent to 1818 had much to do with the 
 preparation of the plans for the deepening of the 
 river Rhine. He wrote Ueber die zweckmas- 
 sigste Behandlung des Rheins (1822) and Ueber 
 die Rektifikation des Rheins (1825). 
 
 TULLAHOMA, tul'a-ho'ma. A city in Cof¬ 
 fee Co., Tenn., 69 miles southeast of Nashville, 
 on the Nashville, Chattanooga, and St. Louis 
 Railroad (Map: Tennessee, D 3). Noteworthy 
 features are the buildings of the Fitzgerald 
 and Clarke Preparatory School, city hall, Pyth¬ 
 ian Home, Chautauqua grounds, State Voca¬ 
 tional School for Girls, Cumberland Springs, 
 Pylant Springs, and Hurricane Springs. The 
 chief manufactures are buggies and parts, golf 
 sticks, tobacco products, and overalls. Pop., 
 1900, 2684; 1910, 3049. 
 
 TULLE, tul. The capital of the Department 
 of Correze, France, 106 miles by rail southwest 
 of Clermont-Ferrand (Map: France, S., F 3). 
 It is a picturesque town with quaint houses. 
 The cathedral (fifteenth century), with a fine 
 bell tower, and the abbot’s house (fifteenth cen¬ 
 tury), are noteworthy. A large government 
 firearms factory is in the suburb of Souilhac. 
 From Tulle first came the famous lace of that 
 name. Pop., 1901, 17,412; 1911, 16,942. 
 
 TUL'LIBEE (North American Indian name). 
 A well-marked and valuable whitefish ( Argyroso- 
 mus tullibee) of the Great Lakes, Lake of the 
 Woods, and northward. It i§ bluish with white 
 sides showing silvery stripes. 
 
 TUL'LIUS, Servius. The sixth legendary 
 king of Rome. He is said originally to have 
 been a slave of Tanaquil, the wife of Tarquinius 
 Priscus (see Tarquinius). The latter be¬ 
 friended him, and Tullius, after marrying the 
 daughter of Tarquinius, practically became the 
 ruling power in the state. This aroused the ire 
 of the sons of Ancus Marcius, who were in line 
 of succession, and they caused Tarquinius to be 
 assassinated. Tanaquil, however, frustrated 
 their plans by concealing the fact of her hus¬ 
 band’s death until Tullius had obtained a firm 
 hold in the government. According to tradition 
 the reign of Tullius was marked by important 
 reforms, notably the promulgation of a new 
 constitution and the formation of an alliance 
 with the Latins. The new constitution, which 
 aimed to give the plebeians political inde¬ 
 pendence and to make property rather than 
 birth the basis of political influence, was offen¬ 
 sive to the patricians, who, under the leadership 
 of Lucius, a son of Tarquinius Priscus, formed 
 a conspiracy, which resulted in the assassination 
 of Tullius. Tradition also adds that Tullia, the 
 daughter of Tullius and wife of Lucius, as she 
 was returning from the Senate, which, coun¬ 
 tenancing the atrocious murder of Tullius, had 
 recognized the claims of Lucius to the throne, 
 drove her chariot over her father’s dead body, 
 which still lay in the street, where he had been 
 struck down by the assassins. See Comitia, 2; 
 Plebeians ; Rome, Ancient Rome, in the section 
 entitled History of Rome during the Earliest 
 or Regal Period, last paragraph. 
 
 TUL'LIVER, Maggie. The heroine of George 
 Eliot’s Mill on the Floss. 
 
 TUL'LOCH, John (1823-86). A Scottish 
 scholar and educator. He was born at Dr on, 
 Perthshire, was educated at St. Andrews, and 
 ordained at Dundee, in 1845, as a minister in 
 the Church of Scotland, and became principal of 
 St. Mary’s College, in the University of St. 
 Andrews. In 1859 he was appointed one of her 
 
 Majesty’s chaplains for Scotland. He was highly 
 appreciated as a broad-minded, progressive the¬ 
 ologian, was moderator of the General Assembly 
 in 1878, was appointed dean of the chapel royal 
 and dean of the Thistle in 1882, and died at 
 Torquay. Among his works are: Leaders of the 
 Reformation (1859; 3d ed., 1883); Beginning 
 Life (1862); Rational Theology and Christian 
 Philosophy in England in the Seventeenth Cen¬ 
 tury (1872; 2d ed., 1874); The Christian Doe- 
 trine of Sin (1876); Movements of Religious 
 Thought in Britain during the Nineteenth Cen¬ 
 tury (1885). Consult Mrs. M. 0. W. Oliphant, 
 Memoir of the Life of John Tulloeli (3d ed., 
 London, 1889), and A. K. H. Boyd, Twenty-five 
 Years of St. Andrews (2 vols., ib., 1892-93). 
 
 TULLUS HOSTILIUS. See Hostilius, 
 Tullus. 
 
 TULPFNUS. See Turpin. 
 
 TULSA, tul'sa. A city and the county seat 
 of Tulsa Co., Okla., 120 miles northeast of Okla¬ 
 homa City, on the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa 
 Fe, the Midland Valley, the Missouri, Kansas, 
 and Texas, the St. Louis and San Francisco, 
 and the Tulsa and Sand Springs railroads 
 (Map: Oklahoma, E 2). It is the seat of the 
 Henry Kendall College (Presbyterian), and 
 contains a fine high school, a Carnegie library, 
 and well-kept parks and boulevards. In the 
 vicinity are found natural gas, coal, and enor¬ 
 mous quantities of crude oil, the city being the 
 centre of a vast oil-producing region. Among 
 the industries are manufactories of brick and 
 tile, sewer pipe, glass, cottonseed oil, pumps, 
 engines, tools and machinery, and sand, stone, 
 and wood products; oil refining, coal mining, 
 and wheat milling. Tulsa adopted the commis¬ 
 sion form of government in 1908. Pop., 1900, 
 1390; 1910, 18,182; 1915, 28,240; 1920, 72,075. 
 
 TULTCHA. See Tulcea. 
 
 TULTCHIN, tool'chen. A town in the Gov¬ 
 ernment of Podolia, Russia, 100 miles east of 
 Kamenets-Podolsk. Pop., 1910, 25,904. 
 
 TULU'NIDS. A Mohammedan dynasty in 
 Egypt (868-905). The founder was Ahmed ibn 
 Tulun. His father was a Turkish prisoner of 
 war sent by the Governor of Transoxania as a 
 present to al Ma’mun (813—833). Ahmed re¬ 
 ceived a careful education and when, after 
 Tulun’s death, his mother married the powerful 
 General Baik-beg, he was sent as Governor to 
 Egypt (868). He soon made himself practically 
 independent of the Bagdad caliphate. By his 
 administrative ability he developed the resources 
 of the country and the income of the government. 
 He built mosques, garrisons, and hospitals. In 
 878 he conquered Syria, with the exception of 
 Antioch, and was besieging Tarsus when he 
 died in 884. His son Khumaraweihe (884-895) 
 squandered the treasures left him by his father, 
 but was able, through his victory at Ramie in 
 885, to recover Syria, which had been taken 
 from him. He was assassinated in 895. His 
 son Jeish (895-896) was deposed; another son, 
 Harun (896-904), lost his life in a tumult 
 while Egypt was attacked by the Caliph Muk- 
 tafi’s general, Mohammed ibn Suleiman. Ah¬ 
 med’s son Sheiban (904-905) was unable to 
 resist the attack, and the Tulunid dynasty came 
 to an end in 905. Consult August Muller, 
 Der Islam in Morgen- und Abendland (Berlin, 
 1885), and Clement Huart, Histoire des Arabes 
 (Paris, 1912). 
 
 TULUS, too'looz. One of the civilized or 
 half-civilized Dravidian peoples of Hindustan. 
 
TUMACO 
 
 541 
 
 TUMOR 
 
 Tho} inhabit the coast region about Mangalore, 
 and their language is closely related to ancient 
 Kauai ese (q.v.). Consult Brigcl, Grammar of 
 the Tula Language (Mangalore, 1872). 
 
 TUMACO, too-ma/kd. A seaport of the De¬ 
 partment of Cauca, Colombia, 150 miles south¬ 
 west of PopaySn (Map: Colombia, B 3). It 
 has an extensive local steamer trade with Guaya¬ 
 quil and Panama. Pop., 1912, 11,702. 
 
 TUMBLE BUG. See Dung Beetle, 
 
 TUMBLER LOCK. See Lock. 
 
 TUMBLEWEEDS. Plants, chiefly annuals, 
 especially abundant in prairie regions. They 
 scatter their seeds as they are rolled or tumbled 
 from place to place by the wind. Among the 
 best-known plants of this sort in the United 
 States are the Russian thistle ( Halsola pesti- 
 fera) and two tumbling pigweeds (Gycloloma 
 at? iplicifolium and Amaranthus grcecizans). 
 See Seed. 
 
 TUMBLING MUSTARD. See Hedge Mus¬ 
 tard. 
 
 TUMOR (Lat., swelling, state of being swol¬ 
 len). In medicine, an abnormal increase in size 
 of an area of tissue or of an organ; a swelling, 
 excluding swellings occurring in the course of 
 simple inflammation. In pathology, a tumor is 
 an overgrowth or hypertrophy, deviating in size 
 and shape from the normal, with an inherent 
 power and method of growth, this growth being 
 independent of the rest of the body. Pathologists 
 include under the term “tumor” ulcerations and 
 their boundaries, when such boundaries are com¬ 
 posed in part, at least, of new tissue. Pathologi¬ 
 cally, then, a tumor is a growth of new tissue in 
 the body which causes local increase in the size 
 of the part or organ in which it occurs. Tumors 
 are distinctly pathological, subserving no useful 
 physiological purposes; in fact, usually growing 
 at the expense of useful tissues and organs. 
 
 The tissues of which tumors are composed 
 conform to the same general types as are nor¬ 
 mally found in the body, with the exception that 
 in the case of some tumors there is a tendency 
 towards the reversion of the tissue to embryonic 
 forms. Tumors usually originate in tissues of 
 like structure with that of the tumor itself, con¬ 
 nective-tissue tumors taking their origin in 
 connective tissue, epithelial tumors in epithelium, 
 etc. When such tumors remain confined to the 
 tissues in which they originate they are known 
 as homologous tumors. When they spread to 
 surrounding tissues of a different type, or when, 
 as in malignant tumors, new tumors are started 
 in distant tissues and organs by the dissemina¬ 
 tion of bits of tissue from the primary growth 
 through the blood and lymph, they are known 
 as heterologous tumors. 
 
 Some tumors are congenital, notably the mevi 
 or vascular tumors. In some cases there appears 
 to be a distinct hereditary tendency to tumor 
 formation; yet ideas as to" the heredity of can¬ 
 cer are grossly exaggerated in many minds, for, 
 while the occurrence of cancer in several gen¬ 
 erations has been observed, the absence of 
 cancer in the children and grandchildren of per¬ 
 sons who have been afflicted with the most 
 malignant forms has been equally noted. In¬ 
 flammation resulting from injury, especially 
 from long-continued slight irritation, seems to 
 be a frequent cause of tumor formation, injuries 
 to bone being frequently followed by develop¬ 
 ment of osteosarcoma. Also injury to an or¬ 
 gan, as from a blow or from a fall, often pre¬ 
 cedes the development of cancer. Cancer of the 
 
 tongue or lip is often apparently traceable to 
 constant irritation from a broken clay pipe or a 
 rough tooth. In general it would seem that 
 tumors of the connective-tissue type (sarcoma) 
 most frequently follow a single injury, as from 
 a blow, while tumors of the epithelial type 
 (epithelioma, carcinoma) are more apt to occur 
 as the result of repeated slight irritations. 
 Chronic inflammation seems to bear some causa¬ 
 tive relation to tumor formation. This is evi¬ 
 dent in the frequent association of carcinoma of 
 the liver with cirrhosis of that organ. Again, 
 malignant tumors or cancer not infrequently^find 
 their starting point in such local malformations 
 as skin navi or moles. Age and sex play im¬ 
 portant roles among predisposing causes of 
 tumors. Epithelial cancer or carcinoma is rare 
 in persons under 30 years of age. Cancer of 
 the breast is more common in the female, this 
 being due to the greater functional activity of 
 that organ in the female. Cancer of the tongue 
 and lip is much more common in the male, 
 probably from the fact that frequent irritation 
 from smoking is common in that sex. 
 
 Knowledge is imperfect as to the primary 
 causative factor of tumors. Of the theories 
 which have been advanced in explanation of 
 tumor growth, probably the most ingenious and 
 the one to which most credence is given is one 
 advanced by Cohnheim. According to his the¬ 
 ory, during embryonal development some cells 
 stop developing. These cells may either remain 
 in among tissues of their own kind or may be¬ 
 come displaced in the course of further develop¬ 
 ment of surrounding tissues and so come to lie 
 among other tissues. Such cells lie dormant for 
 long periods until something in their environ¬ 
 ment calls them into activity, when they de¬ 
 velop with all the potential growth of youno- 
 embryonal cells. Being unlimited by the" wear 
 and tear of physiological function, as is the 
 case with normal tissues and organs, they devote 
 their entire energies to growth. For these two 
 reasons the high potentiality for growth of 
 embryonal tissue and the lack of any control of 
 the growth by the requirements of function, 
 tumor tissue, especially of the embryonal type, 
 is apt to be characterized by irregular, wild 
 cell growth different from the orderly arrange¬ 
 ment of normal tissue cells. While Cohnheim’s 
 hypothesis offers a satisfactory explanation of 
 most of the phenomena connected with the tumor 
 growth, it must be remembered that it is as yet 
 purely a theory, without basis in known facts; 
 that no one has ever been able to demonstrate 
 any of these dormant islands of embryonal 
 tissue waiting to be excited into tumor forma¬ 
 tion. Bacteria as excitants have been exploited 
 by some investigators. While some believe that 
 the true cause of cancer will ultimately be found 
 to be bacterial in nature, the majority tend to 
 the opinion that the presence of bacteria in 
 tumors is an external accidental occurrence 
 rather than an internal causative factor. 
 
 Tumors grow (1) by direct extension from 
 the.periphery, and (2) by a growth of the tumor 
 at its centre and a consequent pushing outward 
 of its peripheral parts, or central growth; (3) 
 tumors also extend by what is known as metas¬ 
 tasis. This, with the formation of what are 
 known as metastatic tumors, occurs bv dissemi¬ 
 nation of cancer cells by means of the blood 
 and lymph. In this way bits of cancer tissue are 
 carried to remote parts of the body. This me¬ 
 tastasis from a single primary focus may occur 
 
TUMOR 
 
 TUMOR 542 
 
 in any tissue or organ, and commonly occurs in 
 many tissues and organs either in succession or 
 at approximately the same time. It is one of 
 the surest evidences of the malignancy of the 
 original tumor. These cancer cells lodging in 
 the tissues set up new centres of growth, of the 
 same nature as the parent growth. As the proc¬ 
 ess of growth goes on in tumors so does the 
 process of degeneration. Tumors may ulcerate 
 or become gangrenous, abscesses may form in 
 them, and they may undergo fatty or calcareous 
 degeneration. Degenerative changes aie moie 
 frequent in the softer, rapidly growing forms. 
 
 Various classifications have been suggested, 
 all of which are somewhat unsatisfactory. Clin¬ 
 ically, tumors are frequently simply divided into 
 two classes: (1) benign tumors, or tumors which 
 are in themselves harmless, and (2) malignant 
 tumors, as cancer and sarcoma. The most com¬ 
 mon and as yet most satisfactory classification 
 of tumors is morphological, based upon their 
 structure relative to the normal body tissues. 
 The following is the usually accepted classi¬ 
 fication : 
 
 CONNECTIVE-TISSUE TYPE 
 
 Normal tissue 
 
 Fibrillar connective tissue 
 Mucous tissue 
 
 Embryonal connective tissue 
 Endothelial cells 
 Fat tissue 
 Cartilage 
 Bone 
 Neuroglia 
 
 MUSCLE-TISSUE TYPE 
 
 Smooth-muscle tissue 
 Striated-muscle tissue 
 
 NERVE-TISSUE TYPE 
 
 Neuromata 
 
 VASCULAR-TISSUE TYPE 
 
 Blood vessels 
 Lymph vessels 
 
 EPITHELIAL-TISSUE TYPE 
 
 Glands Adenoma 
 
 Various forms of epithelial cells and asso- \ Carcinoma 
 ciated tissues J 
 
 When, as is not infrequently the case, more 
 than one kind of tissue is present in a tumor, 
 a combination of terms is used to designate its 
 nature. A combination of a tumor composed of 
 embryonal connective tissue with a bony tumor 
 is known as an osteosarcoma; a muscle-tissue 
 tumor in which much more than the usual 
 amount of connective tissue is present, as a 
 fibromyoma, etc. In addition to the new growths 
 included in the classification given there are 
 other forms of tumors or of structures some¬ 
 times called tumors which do not fall within 
 any of the subdivisions of the classification. 
 Among these may be mentioned cysts of various 
 kinds, including the so-called dermoid cyst and 
 teratoma; such congenital tumors as moles, navi, 
 and angiomata, etc. The peculiar placental-tis¬ 
 sue tumor known as deciduoma may also be 
 mentioned. 
 
 Nonmalignant Tumors. These are com¬ 
 posed of tissues of the types found in the adult 
 and are in themselves not dangerous to life, al¬ 
 though sometimes serious from pressure upon or 
 involvement of important organs. They do not 
 as a rule grow as rapidly as do malignant 
 tumors; they do not tend to recur when com¬ 
 pletely removed, do not spread by metastasis, 
 do not involve neighboring lymph glands, and 
 do not as a rule interfere with the general 
 health of the patient. 
 
 Fibroma .—This tumor is composed of fibrillar 
 
 connective tissue of the type found in the adult. 
 Fibromata vary even more greatly in consistency 
 than does ordinary fibrous tissue, those contain¬ 
 ing many fibres and few cells being hard and 
 firm, fibroma durumj those containing piopor- 
 tionately many cells being soft, fibroma molle. 
 They are commonly inclosed in a definite fibrous 
 capsule. The softer fibromata ai e frequently 
 very vascular, while the harder forms usually 
 contain few vessels. They are found in the 
 skin and subcutaneous connective tissue, in the 
 connective-tissue framework of the various or¬ 
 gans, in the mucous membranes, in the intermus¬ 
 cular septa, in nerve sheaths, etc. 
 
 Myxoma. —Myxomata are tumors composed of 
 tissue which resembles a type of tissue found 
 only in extremely small amount in the adult and 
 known as mucous tissue. Mucous tissue is there¬ 
 fore essentiallv embryonic. These growths re¬ 
 semble fibromata in structure, being made up of 
 connective-tissue cells with a fibrillar inter¬ 
 cellular substance. The softer tumors are known 
 as myxoma gelatinosum, or myxoma molle , 
 while those of greater consistency are known as 
 myxoma medullare. Myxoma is of compara¬ 
 tively rare occurrence in pure form. Usually 
 myxomata are combined with tumor tissue . of 
 other types to form complex tumors of which 
 the most common are lipomyxoma and fibro- 
 myxoma. 
 
 Lipoma. —Lipomata are fatty tumors. They 
 may be hard or soft depending on the amount of 
 connective tissue present. Lipoma is a common 
 form of tumor, being often superficial, developing 
 in the subcutaneous fat. Lipomata may de¬ 
 velop in any situation where fat is found and 
 consequently have a wide distribution. They 
 are generally inclosed in firm fibrous capsules 
 and occur usually on the shoulders, back, or 
 forearms. 
 
 Chondroma. —These are tumors, in which the 
 new-formed tissue resembles cartilage of either 
 the hyaline or fibrous variety. 
 
 Osteoma. —Osteomata or bony tumors are 
 rather rare as pure tumors. Associated with 
 other forms of tumor tissue (as osteosarcoma, 
 osteofibroma, etc.) they are more common. 
 
 Glioma. —Gliomata are connective-tissue tu¬ 
 mors which follow the structure of the nervous 
 system connective tissue, or neuroglia. Glio¬ 
 mata are soft and usually vascular, thus pre¬ 
 disposing to hemorrhage. They are also ex¬ 
 tremely liable to undergo fatty degeneration. 
 As a pure type they are rare. Associated with 
 other forms of connective-tissue new growths, 
 the gliosarcoma, gliomyxoma, etc., they are 
 more common. They occur chiefly in the brain 
 and spinal cord, the ganglia, and in the optic 
 and olfactory nerves. 
 
 Myoma. —Myomata are tumors whose tissue 
 elements are analogous to those found in muscle 
 tissue. Like normal muscle, they may be divided 
 into two forms, one in which the tissue elements 
 are smooth, or involuntary muscle,, the other in 
 which the tissue elements are striated, or vol 
 untary muscle. To the former the name “leiomy¬ 
 oma” has been given, to the latter the name of 
 “rhabdomyoma.” 
 
 Neuroma. —Neuromata are divided into true 
 neuromata and the so-called false neuromata. 
 True neuromata are extremely rare. They , con¬ 
 sist of nerve tissue and may be of the ganglionic 
 type in which new nerve cells develop, or of the 
 fibrillar type which consist of new-formed nerve 
 fibres. Neuromata may be single or multiple, 
 
 Form of tumor 
 
 Fibroma 
 
 Myxoma 
 
 Sarcoma 
 
 Endothelioma 
 
 Lipoma 
 
 Chondroma 
 
 Osteoma 
 
 Glioma 
 
 Leiomyoma 
 
 Rhabdomyoma 
 
 Angioma 
 Lymph angioma 
 
TUMOR 
 
 TUMOR 
 
 543 
 
 the latter frequently occurring along the 
 branches of distribution of a single peripheral 
 nerve. They occur in stumps after amputation 
 of a limb and are often extremely painful. The 
 false neuromata are not neuromata at all, but 
 fibromata, sarcomata, myxomata, etc., of the 
 connective tissue of the nerve trunks. 
 
 Angioma. —These tumors consist of newly 
 formed blood or lymph vessels and are of two 
 kinds, haemangioma and lymphangioma. The 
 former are subdivided into simple angioma or 
 angioma telangiectoides and angioma caverno- 
 sum. The simple angiomata are composed of 
 masses of blood vessels, mainly capillaries, held 
 together by connective tissue. The so-called 
 strawberry marks or vascular nsevi, usually 
 of the face, are congenital tumors of this 
 variety. 
 
 Tumors sometimes Benign, sometimes 
 Malignant. Endothelioma. —These tumors orig¬ 
 inate from that type of connective tissue known 
 as endothelium which forms the linings of blood 
 vessels, lymphatics, etc. On account of their 
 extremely cellular character and on account of 
 the reduction of their intercellular basement 
 substance to a minimum, these tumors bear a 
 close morphological resemblance to the carci¬ 
 nomata, among which they are often classed. 
 Endotheliomata are most common in the pleura, 
 peritoneum, dura mater, and pia mater. Less 
 frequently they occur in brain, liver, ovaries, 
 testicle, lymph nodes, salivary glands, bone, and 
 skin. They may be single or multiple, and may 
 form metastases. 
 
 Adenoma. —Adenomata are epithelial tumors 
 in which the epithelium is glandular in type and 
 is arranged in more or less distinct alveoli. 
 They thus correspond in structure to a gland. 
 The alveoli are supported as tumors in the 
 irregularity of the arrangement of their com¬ 
 ponent elements. Blocking up of the ducts of 
 the glandular tissue sometimes leads to an accu¬ 
 mulation of secretion within the alveoli and 
 the formation of cysts. When this cyst forma¬ 
 tion is a prominent feature of the growth the 
 term “cystadenoma” is used to designate the 
 tumor. Of these the most important is the 
 multilocular cystadenoma of the ovary. Most 
 adenomata are nonmalignant, rather slow-grow¬ 
 ing tumors. The most common sites are the 
 ovary, mammary gland, kidney, liver, submaxil¬ 
 lary, sublingual, parotid, thyroid, and lachry¬ 
 mal. They also occur in those mucous mem¬ 
 branes which are supplied with glands, e.g., the 
 mucous membranes of the stomach, intestines, 
 nose, pharynx, etc. 
 
 Malignant Tumors. Sarcoma. —Sarcomata 
 are tumors of the connective-tissue group. They 
 differ from connective-tissue tumors in that the 
 connective tissue of which the sarcomata are 
 composed is of the embryonal form. This 
 has, as previously stated, a very distinct bearing 
 upon their malignancy, for embryonal tissues 
 possess much greater powers of "growth than 
 adult tissues. Sarcomata are usually classified 
 according to the character and arrangement 
 of their cellular elements—as small round- 
 celled, large round-celled, small spindle-celled, 
 large spindle-celled, giant-celled or myeloid, stel- 
 late-celled sarcoma, etc. The ends of" long bones 
 like the tibia and humerus are frequently af¬ 
 fected. The mammary glands are sometimes 
 the site of sarcoma, as also the sheaths of 
 peripheral nerves. Sarcoma is as a rule an 
 affection of early life, most common from 10 to 
 
 40, and uncommon after 40. Both sexes are 
 about equally susceptible. 
 
 Carcinoma. —Carcinomata or cancers are ma¬ 
 lignant tumors of epithelial tissue. The epi¬ 
 thelial elements are supported by a more or less 
 abundant connective-tissue framework, or stroma, 
 which forms bundles of fibres irregular in ar¬ 
 rangement, in the meshes of which are cavities or 
 alveoli in which the epithelial cells lie loosely 
 without definite arrangement. Generally the 
 epithelial cells conform to the different normal 
 types; but we find, as is usual with all cancer¬ 
 ous growths, an irregularity as to shape, size, 
 and arrangement which is much more marked 
 than in normal epithelium. And even in a car¬ 
 cinoma where a particular type of cell pre¬ 
 dominates, other forms of cell are frequently 
 intermingled. 
 
 Carcinoma occurs as a primary tumor in tis¬ 
 sues of epiblastic origin. It originates in any 
 of the various forms of epithelium. It is not be¬ 
 lieved to occur as a primary tumor in such tis¬ 
 sues as bone, muscle, etc., which originate in 
 other embryonic layers. Carcinoma may, how¬ 
 ever, involve any of the body tissues. When 
 it involves tissues other than epithelial, it is 
 probable that the growth is secondary, the pri¬ 
 mary tumor in epithelium being so small as to 
 have passed unrecognized. 
 
 The hard form of carcinoma- common in the 
 female breast is known as scirrhous cancer or 
 fibro-carcinoma. Its hardness is due to the large 
 amount of dense fibrous tissue, the cellular 
 elements being comparatively few. Very soft 
 carcinomata, made up chiefly of cells with a 
 minimum amount of connective tissue, are called 
 medullary cancer or carcinoma molle. Melano- 
 carcinomata are tumors in which more or less 
 brown or black pigment is deposited in the 
 cells or in the connective-tissue stroma. Car¬ 
 cinomata whose cells have undergone mucoid 
 degeneration or whose stroma is of the type 
 found in mucous connective tissue are known as 
 carcinoma myxomatoides. Gelatinous carcinoma 
 is a form in which the cells become filled with a 
 translucent gelatinous material. 
 
 Epithelioma. —Epithelioma is a form of car¬ 
 cinoma originating in squamous epithelium. The 
 structure of the tumor tissue corresponds roughly 
 to that of squamous epithelium as seen in the 
 skin and mucous membranes. Epithelial cancer 
 is most common around the orifices of the body 
 where skin and mucous membranes unite, as 
 around the openings of the mouth, nose, eyes, 
 vagina, etc. Epitlieliomata are the most slow 
 growing and least malignant of all forms of can¬ 
 cer. They may, however, recur unless completely 
 removed and may form metastases. 
 
 Malignancy of Tumors. Many tumors which 
 are themselves benign in character may be 
 dangerous to life from their position and conse¬ 
 quent interference with the functions of impor¬ 
 tant organs. Such tumors, although sometimes 
 causing death, are not classed as malignant. 
 A tumor to be classed as malignant must pre¬ 
 sent certain well-defined characteristics. Among 
 these mav be mentioned, first, a tendencv to 
 local recurrence after removal. This has led 
 to the rule of the surgeon when operating on 
 cancer to cut wide of the growth, even though 
 the tumor may seem small and insignificant, 
 in the hope of removing all trace of cancerous 
 tissue even at the sacrifice of some healthy 
 tissue. It is customary in some cases to have 
 immediate microscopical examination made of 
 
TUNA 
 
 544 
 
 TUNGUS 
 
 the periphery of the mass removed, to determine 
 the presence or absence of cancer cells at the 
 outer limits of the operation. Secondly may be 
 mentioned the tendency of a malignant tumor 
 to extend by direct continuity of growth to 
 surrounding tissues. In discontinuous peripheral 
 growth there are at first microscopic extensions 
 outward of cancer cells from the periphery of 
 the tumor. These grow and form nodules near, 
 though at first separated from, the main tumor 
 mass, but which afterward spread and usually 
 join the original tumor. A third characteristic 
 mark of malignancy is the formation of what 
 are known as metastatic tumors. These are sec¬ 
 ondary growths of the same general nature as 
 the parent neoplasm. They may occur in any 
 tissue or organ, no matter how distant, and 
 spring from cancer cells disseminated through 
 the blood and lymph. From them still other 
 metastatic tumors may arise. A fourth evidence 
 of malignancy is the effect of the presence of 
 the cancer upon the general health of the patient. 
 General impairment of health is due to many 
 factors, such as the drain upon the whole sys¬ 
 tem of a rapid new growth, the absorption of 
 injurious matter from the tumor itself, the 
 effect of suppuration or necrosis, etc., and is 
 known as cancerous cachexia. See Photother¬ 
 apy; X Ray. 
 
 Bibliography. Rudolf Virchow, Die krank- 
 haften Geschwulste (Berlin, 1900) ; John Bland- 
 Sutton, Tumors , Innocent and Malignant (4tli 
 ed., Chicago, 1906) ; A. E. Hertzler, Treatise on 
 Tumors (Philadelphia, 1912) ; C. L. Seudder, 
 Tumors of the Jaws (ib., 1912) ; C. P. White, 
 Pathology of Growth: Tumors (New York, 
 
 1914) ; W. S. Bainbridge, The Cancer Problem 
 (ib., 1914) ; Delafield and Prudden, A Textbook 
 of Pathology (10th ed., ib., 1914) ; G. E. Brewer, 
 A Textbook of Surgery (3d ed., Philadelphia, 
 
 1915) . 
 
 TU'NA. See Prickly Pear. 
 
 TUNA. See Tunny. 
 
 TUNBRIDGE. See Tonbridge. 
 
 TUNBRIDGE WELLS. An English inland 
 watering place, on the border of Kent and Sus¬ 
 sex, 34 miles southeast of London (Map: Eng¬ 
 land, G 5). Its picturesque surroundings, 
 healthful climate, and chalybeate springs have 
 rendered it a fashionable resort since the seven¬ 
 teenth century. It has a large trade in the 
 various articles made of Tonbridge ware. The 
 wells, discovered in 1606, are situated at the 
 head of a promenade called the Pantiles. The 
 principal buildings are the corn exchange, town 
 hall, public hall, sanatorium, and mechanics’ in¬ 
 stitute. The town was incorporated in 1889. 
 Pop., 1901, 33,388; 1911, 35,703. Consult Ward, 
 Surrey and Sussex (London, 1897). 
 
 TUNDRA, tun'dr a (Russ., from Finnish tun- 
 tur, marshy plain). Regions in Arctic America, 
 Asia, and Europe, characterized as swamps of 
 bog moss with snow-white reindeer moss and 
 various kinds of lichens. A luxuriant growth 
 of flowering plants is also a characteristic of 
 some tundras. They are visited by wild birds 
 in summer, when they are inaccessible morasses, 
 but in winter they may be readily crossed. The 
 soil at a depth of a few feet remains frozen 
 throughout the year, and vegetable growth in¬ 
 creases in thickness annually, so that the tundra 
 surface slowly rises. Their rivers expose deep 
 layers of ice and frozen soil, in which bones of 
 the rhinoceros, the mammoth, and other extinct 
 animals are found. See Alaska; Siberia. 
 
 TUNG, tung. See Kukui. 
 
 TUNG'STEN (Swed. tungsten, from tung, 
 heavy -f- sten, stone), or Wolfram. A metallic 
 element isolated by the brothers d’Elhujart in 
 1783, after Scheele had, in 1771, isolated tung¬ 
 stic acid. Tungsten is not found native, but 
 occurs as the tungstate of iron and manganese 
 in the mineral wolframite, as the calcium 
 tungstate or sclieelite, as the trioxide or wolfram 
 ochre, and in small quantities in other minerals. 
 Tungsten minerals are almost invariably found 
 in tin ores. The metal itself may be prepared 
 by heating sodium or calcium tungstate with 
 carbon, and later refining in vacuo. The tung¬ 
 state of sodium is obtained from tungsten ore 
 by heating with a moderate excess of sodium 
 carbonate, at a temperature somewhat below 
 the melting point of the mass, subsequently ex¬ 
 tracting with water, and purifying the extracted 
 tungstate by crystallization. 
 
 Tungsten (symbol, W (wolfram) ; atomic 
 weight, 184.0) is a bright, steel-gray, hard, 
 ordinary brittle, crystalline substance, melting 
 at 3302° C. (5976° F.). It is used to increase 
 the hardness and tenacity of steel and thus im¬ 
 prove it as a material for hard tools. Coolidge 
 has succeeded in rendering tungsten malleable 
 and ductile, and at present drawn tungsten wire 
 is widely used for making incandescent-lamp 
 filaments. Tungsten combines with oxygen to 
 form a number of oxides, including a dioxide 
 (W0 2 ), a sesquioxide (W 2 0 3 ), and a trioxide 
 (W0 3 ), the latter of which unites with water 
 to form tungstic acid, which in turn combines 
 with bases to form a series of salts called 
 tungstates. Of these the sodium tungstate is 
 sometimes used to replace sodium stannate as 
 a mordant in dyeing and printing. 
 
 TUNGSTEN INCANDESCENT LAMPS. 
 See Electric Lighting. 
 
 TUNG'STITE. A mineral tungsten trioxide 
 crystallized in the orthorhombic system. It is 
 of a bright-yellow or green color. It is found 
 with other tungsten minerals in Cornwall and 
 Cumberland, England, and as a coating or in 
 cavities in Monroe, Conn., and Cabarrus County, 
 N. C. The preparation of artificial crystals of 
 this mineral has been reported. 
 
 TUNGUS, tun-guz'. A group of peoples of 
 the Ural-Altaic or Sibiric stock embracing the 
 tribes of the Tungus proper, whose territory ex¬ 
 tends from the Yenisei to the Pacific and from 
 the Arctic Ocean as far south as latitude 40°, 
 and the Manchus. The Tungus proper consist 
 of the northern Tungus, comprising the Olchas 
 or Mangun, at the mouth of the Amur, the 
 Oroks in the northern part of Sakhalin, the Oro- 
 chons, on both banks of the Amur, the Mane- 
 gers, on its left bank, east of the Orochons, and 
 the Olennvie or Reindeer Tungus; the southern 
 Tungus, including the Golds of the lower Amur 
 and the Ussuri, the Oroches on the coast, and 
 the Daurians, or Solon-Daurs, mixed with Mon¬ 
 gols in Kulja; and the maritime Tungus or 
 Lamuts along the Okhotsk Sea. Among some 
 of the Tungus Shamanism of a primitive sort 
 prevails. Russian influence, which began about 
 1650, is felt chiefly in the social life of the 
 people. The Golds of the Amur, long under 
 the influence of China, have developed an in¬ 
 teresting ornamental art. They show consid¬ 
 erable capacity for civilization. The Manchus 
 are being absorbed by the Chinese, whom their 
 ancestors once conquered. The Tungus gener¬ 
 ally are of medium height, but the Manchus 
 
TUNGUSKA 
 
 TUNIS 
 
 545 
 
 are often very tall. The skull form tends to 
 be mesoceplialic. Consult: Castr^n, Grund- 
 ziige einer tungusischen Sprachlehre (St. Peters¬ 
 burg, 1856) ; Hiekisch, Die Tungusen (ib., 
 1879) ; Schrenck, Reisen und Forschungen im 
 Amurlande (ib., 1881-91). 
 
 TUNGUSKA, tun-goo'ska. A name given to 
 each of the three large eastern tributaries of 
 the Yenisei River in Siberia. They are dis¬ 
 tinguished as the Upper Tunguska, or Angara 
 (q.v.), the Middle, or Stony Tunguska, and the 
 Lower Tunguska. 
 
 TUNGUSKA, Lower. The northernmost of 
 the three chief tributaries of the Yenisei River 
 in Siberia (Map: Asia, L 2). It rises on the 
 Vitim Plateau in the Government of Irkutsk, 
 about 200 miles northwest of Lake Baikal, and 
 within 14 miles of the Lena River, and flows 
 first north, then northwest, joining the Yenisei 
 above Turukhansk, not far from the Arctic 
 Circle, after a course of 1600 miles. Its upper 
 course flows between low banks covered with 
 pine forests, but lower down the banks become 
 higher and rocky, and the river penetrates a 
 range of mountains in a series of rapids. The 
 river is navigable about 450 miles, but it is 
 frozen in its lower course for seven months 
 in the year. The ice here blocks the upper 
 waters in the spring, causing extensive inun¬ 
 dations. 
 
 TUNICA too-ne'ka. A North American In¬ 
 dian linguistic stock. See TonIca. 
 
 TU'NICA'TA (Lat. nom. pi. of tunicatus, 
 p.p. of tunicare, to clothe with a tunic, from 
 tunica, tunic). The single class of the Uro- 
 chorda containing small marine animals inclosed 
 in a soft elastic tunic, which opens by two 
 apertures (oral and anal), and contains tuni- 
 cin, a substance resembling cellulose. The tunic 
 is usually thick, tough, and leathery, but 
 may be thin and delicate, especially in some of 
 the smaller forms. The mouth, supplied with 
 tactile organs, opens into a capacious pharynx, 
 which contracts abruptly into a narrow oesopha¬ 
 gus, then expands into a stomach, followed by 
 a more or less coiled intestine that terminates 
 close to the atrial pore or orifice (the other 
 opening in the tunic). The walls of the pharynx 
 are perforated by numerous slits, through which 
 the water entering at the mouth passes into 
 the cavity of the tunic and thence escapes 
 through the atrial pore, carrying waste matter, 
 reproductive products, etc. The pharynx is an 
 important respiratory organ and is correspond¬ 
 ingly richly supplied with blood vessels. The 
 heart is peculiar, in that it reverses its beating, 
 pumping the blood in one direction for a time, 
 then pausing and pumping the blood in the 
 other direction for an equal length of time. 
 The nervous system, contrary to common belief, 
 is not greatly reduced, although sense organs 
 (except touch) are wanting or but slightly 
 developed. The muscular system is well devel¬ 
 oped in some forms, especially in the tunic, 
 but in others it is reduced and serves chiefly for 
 closing the oral and atrial pores. Reproduc¬ 
 tion is not only by eggs, but takes place in 
 many forms also by budding. In size and 
 color the tunicates offer great diversity. The 
 smallest forms are, as individuals, only a few 
 millimeters long, though the colonies they form 
 are often many inches in diameter. The larg¬ 
 est individuals are six or eight inches high, 
 though some forms are on stalks of much greater 
 length. In color we find some species black 
 
 and some species white, and others red, but 
 dull shades of greenish, grayish, or brownish 
 are more common. Many free-swimming forms 
 are almost transparent and nearly colorless. 
 
 The number of species is large and the classi¬ 
 fication has varied greatly with different writ¬ 
 ers. They are a comparatively well-defined group 
 and are now considered as a considerably de¬ 
 generated offshoot of the branch from which 
 the Chordata have arisen. (See Ascidian.) The 
 tunicates may be conveniently divided into three 
 orders, Larvalia, Thaliacea, and Ascidiacea. 
 The Larvalia are a very small group, containing 
 only one family and few species, remarkable 
 for their small size and free-swimining habits, 
 and the retention throughout life of certain 
 characters which in the other orders occur only 
 temporarily during development. These larval 
 characters are especially the tadpole form with 
 a tail, the nerve cord, and the persistent noto¬ 
 chord or urochord. The Thaliacea are also 
 free-swimming, but are much larger and more 
 degenerate or specialized forms. There are 
 three families, one of which contains the beauti¬ 
 ful salpas (q.v.). The order Ascidiacea con¬ 
 tains three suborders and a dozen or more 
 families. One suborder is free-swimming like the 
 salpas, and so is called the Salpiformes; the 
 second, called Composite, contains fixed forms 
 which multiply extensively by budding and thus 
 form compound organisms, the individuals of 
 which are usually very small; the third sub¬ 
 order, the Simplices, are almost always fixed 
 individuals (see Ascidian ) ; but in many cases 
 large numbers of individuals are united by a 
 common stolon from which they have arisen by 
 budding, and these forms are sometimes known 
 as social ascidians. The simplices are better 
 known, popularly, than the other suborders, and 
 many of them have popular names, as sea pork, 
 eea peach, sea potato, and sea squirt. 
 
 Consult Herdman, “Report on the Tunicata,” 
 in Thomson and Murray, Report of the Scientific 
 Results of H. M. S. Challenger: Zoology , vol. vi 
 (London, 1888), and general works on zoology. 
 
 TU'NICLE. See Costume, Ecclesiastical. 
 
 TUNING. The process of bringing into per¬ 
 fect musical accord the strings, pipes or mem¬ 
 branes which constitute tone-producing elements 
 of the various musical instruments. As a rule 
 the wind instruments do not require special tun¬ 
 ing, for their pitch is constant. Keyed instru¬ 
 ments (the piano and organ) require only occa¬ 
 sional regulation of their strings and pipes; 
 but the stringed instruments need to be tuned 
 constantly. See Musical Instruments ; Pitch ; 
 Temperament. 
 
 TUNING FORK. A contrivance for regulat¬ 
 ing the pitch of the voice or of a musical in¬ 
 strument. It consists of two prongs of steel 
 springing from a handle, and so adjusted as to 
 produce a fixed note when struck. It is tuned 
 in a 1 , which has 435 double or 870 single vibra¬ 
 tions per second. The tuning-cone is a hollow, 
 metal cone used in tuning the metal flue pipes 
 of an organ. To lower the pitch of a pipe, the 
 inverted cone is pushed down over its top: to 
 raise the pitch, the point of the cone is inserted 
 in the pipe. 
 
 TU'NIS (Fr. Tunisie ). A French protecto¬ 
 rate in North Africa. It is the most northern 
 of African countries (Map: Africa, E 1). Its 
 boundaries are still indefinite, but the area is 
 probably less than 50,000 square miles. Tunis 
 is physically continuous with the rest of north- 
 
TUNIS 
 
 TUNIS 
 
 546 
 
 western Africa. The northern part is composed 
 of the Little Atlas Mountains which border the 
 coast, the Great Atlas to the south on an aver¬ 
 age about 1500-2000 feet, rising in the peak 
 of Sidi Ali, and in other summits to heights 
 of 5700-6500 feet and the inclosed plateau. 
 This plateau region is fairly well watered by 
 numerous small streams, many of which are 
 perennial, and the valley of the Mejerda (an¬ 
 cient Bagradas), a stream which regularly over¬ 
 flows its banks during the winter rains and irri¬ 
 gates the neighboring plains, is the chief area 
 of cultivation. The southern half of the pla¬ 
 teau, generally treeless, is covered with esparto 
 grass. On the north coast the plateau falls 
 abruptly in steep wooded cliffs towards the 
 sea; on the east coast, however, there is a low 
 region about 60 miles wide, fertile in the north, 
 but becoming arid in the south. The southern 
 half of Tunis belongs to the Sahara region, and, 
 with the exception of a group of mountains in 
 the southeast, is generally low, in some places 
 even below sea level. In its northern part is 
 the salt incrusted area of the Jerid, surrounded 
 by numerous hot springs, which are used for 
 irrigation. The date palm is here indigenous, 
 and grows in large numbers, but the rest of the 
 Sahara region is arid. The climate of Tunis 
 is healthful, with a temperature ranging from 
 50° F. to 96° F. The rainfall averages 22 inches 
 in the north, and is there fairly regular. In 
 the south years may pass without any regular 
 rains, though occasionally there are heavy show¬ 
 ers which raise the average to nearly ten inches. 
 The flora and fauna are mostly identical with 
 those of Algeria (q.v.). Geologically Tunis is 
 of comparatively recent formation, the moun¬ 
 tains being mostly Tertiary, the coast region 
 Quaternary, and parts of the plateau Creta¬ 
 ceous. 
 
 The chief mineral products are zinc, lead, iron, 
 salt, gypsum, phosphates, and marble. In re¬ 
 cent years, by far the greatest development has 
 been in phosphates. Agriculture, the main in¬ 
 dustry, shows progress. Cereals and the vine 
 are mainly cultivated in the northern part, 
 where the holdings are small. Farther south 
 the holdings are large and devoted to stock- 
 breeding and the cultivation of olives (about 
 500.000 acres) and date palms. The chief pro¬ 
 ducts are olives and olive oil, grain, fruits, and 
 cork. The leading acreages in 1913 were 1,518,- 
 000 for wheat and 1,374,000 for barley. In 1913 
 there were 29,500 horses, 84,200 asses, 23,500 
 mules, 157,100 cattle, 843,100 sheep, 561,700 
 goats, 123,900 camels, and 15,100 swine. Tunis 
 has practically no industries except the native 
 or household. Carpets, saddles, and other 
 leather articles and woolen goods are produced. 
 The fisheries are active and yield principally 
 allaches, sardines, tunny, and sponges. There 
 are sixteen ports, three of them excellent. In 
 1913 the tonnage entered was 4,666,000, about 
 three-fourths French. Imports and exports in 
 1912 were valued at 156,294,000 and 154,655,000 
 francs, respectively; in 1913, 144,254,000 and 
 178.663,000. The leading exports are phos¬ 
 phates, cereals, olive oil, live animals, and lead. 
 About one-half the total trade is with France. 
 At the beginning of 1914 there were 1428 miles 
 of railway. 
 
 The French protectorate dates from 1881. 
 The nominal head of the government is the 
 native Bey, assisted by nine ministers—seven 
 French and two native—who administer nine de¬ 
 
 partments. There is also the Minister of For¬ 
 eign Affairs, who is the French Resident-Gen¬ 
 eral. He is virtually the Viceroy. Tunis has 
 thirteen civil and two military districts and a 
 military post—all in charge of French repre¬ 
 sentatives. French tribunals of justice deal 
 with cases involving foreigners, and native 
 courts with those of the Tunisians. The army 
 of occupation in 1913 numbered 17,500. The capi¬ 
 tal is Tunis (q.v.). The estimated revenue and 
 expenditure for 1913 were each about 85,000,- 
 000 francs. The largest disbursements are for 
 the public debt and public works. The total 
 debt at the end of 1906 amounted to £9,287,- 
 000; in 1910 a loan of 10,000,000 francs was 
 authorized. 
 
 The census of Europeans, Dec. 15, 1911, and 
 the estimate of Mohammedans and native Jews, 
 Dec. 31, 1911, showed a total population of 
 1,929,003. Mohammedans numbered 1,730,144; 
 Italians, 88,082; native Jews, 50,383; French, 
 46,044; Maltese, 11,300; various, 3050. There 
 are some French and many Mohammedan 
 schools, a Mohammedan university in Tunis, 
 and a college. Tunis is rich in antiquities. 
 Punic, Roman, and Byzantine ruins abound, 
 the two former classes representing magnificent 
 epochs. The site of Carthage is still marked 
 by the remains of substructures. A fine mu¬ 
 seum of relics has been established here. The 
 Bardo collection near the capital is valuable. 
 
 The early history of Tunis is connected with 
 that of Carthage (q.v.). After the fall of 
 Carthage the region became the Roman Province 
 of Africa (Africa in the narrower sense), sub¬ 
 divided into the northern District of Zeugitana 
 and the southern district of Byzacium (Provin- 
 cia Byzacena). Carthage was rebuilt, and in 
 the second and third centuries of the Christian 
 Era was one of the most important cities of the 
 Roman Empire. The Romans were vanquished 
 by the Vandals under Genseric in 429. The 
 Vandals held the country until their King, Geli- 
 mer, was conquered and taken prisoner in 534 
 by Belisarius (q.v.), the general of the Byzan¬ 
 tine Emperor Justinian. Tunis then remained 
 under Byzantine rule until the conquest by the 
 Arabs in the seventh century. Under Moham¬ 
 medan rule the city rose to great splendor. 
 After having formed for more than a century 
 a part of the dominions of the caliphs, the coun¬ 
 try was ruled successively by the dynasties of 
 the Aglabites, Fatimites, Almohades, and Haf- 
 sites. In the middle of the twelfth century it 
 was for a short time under the rule of Roger II 
 of Sicily. In 1270 Louis IX of France, having 
 undertaken a crusade, died during his invasion 
 of Tunis, and in 1390 the French under the 
 Duke of Bourbon were again unsuccessful, be¬ 
 ing repulsed at Mahdiya. In 1535 Charles V 
 undertook an expedition against the famous 
 corsair Ivhair-ed Din (Barbarossa), who had 
 established himself at Tunis, captured the city, 
 and liberated over 20,000 Christian slaves. In 
 1575 Sinan Pasha conquered the country and in¬ 
 corporated it with the Ottoman Empire. The 
 government was placed in the hands of a Turkish 
 pasha, a divan or council, composed of the of¬ 
 ficers of the Turkish garrison, and the com¬ 
 mander of the janizaries. 
 
 After a few years, however, an insurrection of 
 the soldiery broke out, and a new government 
 was established, the head of which was a “dey” 
 possessing limited authority, the chief power 
 being at first exercised by the military divan. 
 
TUNIS 
 
 But gradually an officer, with the title of “bey,” 
 whose original functions were confined to the 
 collection of tribute and taxes, acquired a su¬ 
 premacy over the other authorities, and finally 
 obtained a kind of hereditary sovereignty. The 
 beys of Tunis made conquests on the mainland 
 and piratical enterprises against Christian pow¬ 
 ers at sea. During the eighteenth century Tunis 
 became tributary to Algeria. About the begin¬ 
 ning of the nineteenth century Hamuda Pasha 
 put an end to this dependence, subdued the 
 Turkish militia, and created a native Tunisian 
 army, in consequence of which Tunis virtually 
 attained independence. The subsequent rulers, 
 Achmet Bey (1837-55), Mohammed Bey (1855- 
 59), and Mohammed Sadyk Bey (1859-82), 
 were liberal, enlightened sovereigns. In 1871 
 the Sultan renounced the tribute formerly ex¬ 
 acted, and fixed the future relations of the' Sub¬ 
 lime Porte to Tunis. The Bey was to receive 
 his investiture from Constantinople; without 
 the Sultan's authority he could neither declare 
 war, conclude peace, nor cede territory; the 
 Sultan’s name was to appear on all the coin¬ 
 age; the army was to be at the disposal of 
 the Porte. In internal matters, however, the 
 power of the Bey was to be absolute. In 1881 
 France, with the ostensible purpose of chastising 
 the Khrumirs, who had made raids into Alge¬ 
 rian territory, sent an expedition into Tunis. 
 At the same time a French squadron appeared 
 before the capital and the Bey was forced to 
 enter into an engagement establishing a French 
 protectorate over the country. Thereupon an 
 insurrection broke out, and it was only after 
 much bloodshed that the French were able to 
 compel submission. In July, 1881, they took 
 Sfax, and in October they occupied Kairwan. 
 By the close of the year the country was sub¬ 
 dued. The French protectorate has contributed 
 to the material progress and prosperity of 
 Tunis. 
 
 Bibliography. General description: A. Ri¬ 
 viere, La Tunisie; geograpliie, evenements de 1881, 
 organisation, politique et administration (Paris, 
 1887) ; Graham and Ashbee, Travels in Tunisia 
 (London, 1887), containing a bibliography; 
 Charles Lallemand, La Tunisie, pays de pro- 
 tectorat frangais (Paris, 1891); Eugene Poire, 
 La Tunisie frangaise (ib., 1892) ; P. Leroy- 
 Beaulieu, L’Algerie et la Tunisie (2d ed., ib., 
 
 1897) ; Marcel Dubois and Others, La Tunisie (ib., 
 
 1898) ; Douglas Sladen, Carthage and Tunis 
 (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1906) ; F. E. Nesbit, 
 Algeria and Tunis (New York, 1906) ; Graham 
 Petrie, Tunis, Kairouan, and Carthage (Garden 
 City, N. Y., 1909) ; C. Monclii-Court, La region 
 du Haut Tell en Tunisie: essai de monogra- 
 
 1 phie g^ographique (Paris, 1913). Antiquities: 
 Charles Tissot, Exploration scientifique de la 
 Tunisie (2 vols., ib., 1884-88) ; Carton, Deeou- 
 vertes Spigraphiques et archeologiques, faites en 
 
 1 Tunisie (Lille, 1895) ; Gaston Boissier, Roman 
 
 1 Africa: Archceological Walks in Algeria and 
 Tunis (New York, 1899). History: T. We- 
 rnyss Reid, The Land of the Bey (2 vols., 
 London, 1883) ; Ernest Mercier, Histoire de 
 VAfrique septentrionale (3 vols., Paris, 1888- 
 90) ; N. Faucon, La Tunisie avant et depuis 
 Voceupation frangaise (2 vols., ib., 1892) ; 
 Abel Clarin de La Rive, Histoire generale 
 de la Tunisie (ib., 1893) ; Ernst von Ilesse- 
 Wartegg, Tunis: The Land and the People (Eng. 
 trans., new ed., London, 1899) ; Alexis Vitry, 
 L’CEuvre frangaise en Tunisie (Paris, 1900) ; 
 
 547 TUNKHANNOCK 
 
 Henri Saladin, Tunis et Kairouan (ib., 1908) ; 
 also H. S. Ashbee, “Bibliography of Tunis from 
 the Earliest Times,” in Bibliography of the 
 Barbary States (London, 1889). 
 
 TUNIS. The capital of the Protectorate of 
 Tunis. It is situated near the southwestern ex¬ 
 tremity of the Lake of Tunis, about three miles 
 from the ruins of ancient Carthage (Map: Af¬ 
 rica, F 1). The lagoon or Lake of Tunis is shal¬ 
 low, and communicates with the Gulf of Tunis, an 
 inlet of the Mediterranean, by a narrow strait 
 known as the channel of Goletta. The gulf itself 
 is 45 miles broad at the entrance. The town oc¬ 
 cupies rising ground, and both the city proper 
 and the suburbs are surrounded by walls. The 
 streets of the inner town are narrow, unpaved, 
 and dirty, but the bazars are well furnished, 
 and many of the mosques are splendid, par¬ 
 ticularly the Mosque of Yussuf. The palace 
 of the Bey is probably the finest building in 
 Tunis. The citadel, begun by Charles V and 
 finished by Don John of Austria, is interesting 
 from its collection of old arms. The newer 
 French or foreign quarter, established since 
 1893, has a European aspect. The city contains 
 a Mohammedan university and a national mu¬ 
 seum of arts and antiquities. Water is sup¬ 
 plied by means of a restored ancient aqueduct 
 from Jebel Zaghwan. Tunis is the commercial 
 centre of the State, and carries on an impor¬ 
 tant trade with Europe and Central Africa. 
 Ocean-going vessels reach the town directly b^ 
 means of a canal, 7 miles long and 21 y 2 fet^l 
 deep, opened in 1893. Tunis has silk aJI 
 woolen manufactures of shawls, tapestries, nj^B 
 ties, burnooses, caps, turbans, colored clof 
 also leather, soap, wax, and olive oil, A 
 which it exports, together with grain, 
 cattle, fish, ivory, gold dust, coral, etjj 
 climate is unhealthful. 
 
 Tunis (ancient Tunes) was a Cartha^B 
 city, frequently mentioned in connection iB 
 the Punic wars. It became important unoW 
 the Arabs. (See Tunis, Protectorate.) The 
 population is stated for the end of 1911 to con¬ 
 sist of about 164,600 Moslems, 43,000 Jews, and 
 about 69,500 Europeans (including 44,237 Ital¬ 
 ians, 17,875 French, and 5986 Maltese). 
 
 TUNJA, toon'll a. A city and the capital of 
 the Department of Boyaca, Colombia (Map: 
 Colombia, C 2). It is located 9161 feet above 
 the sea and has a cold healthful climate, with 
 an average temperature of 55° F. It has 
 straight paved streets and around the Plaza 
 de Bolivar are the cathedral, the government 
 house, and the college. There are also a peni¬ 
 tentiary, a normal school and a seminary. The 
 city manufactures tiles and bricks. " Stock- 
 raising, mining, and some agriculture are car¬ 
 ried on in the surrounding region. Pop., 1912, 
 8971. It was founded in 1539 by Gonzalo 
 Suarez Rendon, on the site of the Chibcha town 
 of Zaque Hunza. Near the city is the Boyaca 
 bridge where Bolivar won the decisive battle 
 of that name on Aug. 7, 1819. 
 
 TUNKERS. See Church of the Brethren. 
 TUNKHAN'NOCK. The county seat of 
 Wyoming Co., Pa., on the Susquehanna River, 
 Tunkhannock Creek, and the Lehigh Val¬ 
 ley Railroad, 31 miles by rail northwest of 
 Wilkes-Barre (Map: Pennsylvania, K 3). The 
 chief industry is tanning and there are spool and 
 tub factories, furnaces and machine shops, stave 
 and planing mills, and witch hazel distilleries. 
 Lumbering is carried on extensively. Pop., 
 
TUNNEL 
 
 TUNNEL 
 
 548 
 
 1000, 1305; 1010, 1508. For description of 
 
 Tunkhannock Viaduct, see Viaduct. 
 
 TUNNEL (OF. tonnel, tunnel, tun, pipe, ton- 
 nelle, arbor, arched vault, tunnel, diminutive of 
 tonne, pipe, tun, ML. tunna, OHG. tunna, Ger. 
 Tonne, AS. tunne , Eng. tun). An artificial gal¬ 
 lery, passage, or roadway beneath the ground, 
 under the bed of a stream, or through a hill 
 or mountain. Tunneling has been known since 
 very early times. A king of Egypt upon as¬ 
 cending the throne began at once to drive the 
 long narrow passage leading to the chamber 
 of the rock-cut tomb at Thebes which was to 
 form his final resting place. Similar rock-cut 
 work was performed by the Nubians and In¬ 
 dians in building their temples, by the Aztecs 
 in America, and by most ancient civilized peo¬ 
 ples. The first built-up tunnels known were 
 those constructed by the Assyrians. The 
 
 vaulted drain or passage under the southeast 
 palace of Nimrud, built by Shalmaneser II 
 
 (860-824 b.c. ), is in essentials a true soft- 
 ground tunnel. A much better example is the 
 
 tunnel under the Euphrates, which may be 
 
 claimed to be the first subaqueous tunnel of 
 which any record exists. It was, however, built 
 under the dry bed of the river, the waters of 
 which were temporarily diverted and then 
 turned back into their normal channel after 
 the tunnel work was completed, making it a 
 true subfluvial tunnel only when finished. The 
 |Euphrates tunnel was built through soft ground, 
 ■nd was lined with brick masonry, 12 feet wide 
 ^its interior and 15 feet high. Only hand 
 was employed in ancient tunnel construc- 
 
 ^ In soft ground pick and shovels or scoops 
 Hsed. For rock work the ancients possessed 
 «:*r range of appliances. 
 
 Irch Las shown that among the Egyptians, 
 Brin the art of quarrying was highly de- 
 Brd, use w 7 as made of tube drills and saws 
 Wm cutting edges of corundum or other hard, 
 IJyitty material. The usual tools for rock work 
 were the hammer, chisel, and wedges; and the 
 excellence and magnitude of the works accom¬ 
 plished with these limited appliances attest the 
 unlimited time and labor available for their ac¬ 
 complishment. 
 
 The Romans should doubtless rank as the 
 greatest tunnel-builders of antiquity in the 
 number, magnitude, and useful character of 
 their works and in the improved methods they 
 devised. They introduced fire as an agent for 
 breaking down the' rock, and developed the 
 familiar principle of prosecuting work at sev¬ 
 eral points at once by means of shafts. They 
 built large fires in front of the rock to be broken 
 down and when it had reached a high tempera¬ 
 ture cooled it suddenly by means of water, thus 
 producing cracks and fissures. 
 
 The Roman tunnels were designed for public 
 utility—aqueducts and roads. One of the most 
 notable of the tunnels of larger section is that 
 which gives the road between Naples and Poz- 
 zuoli passage through the Posilipo hills. It is 
 excavated through volcanic tufa, and is about 
 3000 feet long and 25 feet wide, with a section 
 in the form of a pointed arch. In order to 
 illuminate this tunnel, its floor and roof were 
 made gradually converging from the ends to¬ 
 wards the middle; at the entrances the section 
 was 75 feet high. This double funnel-like con¬ 
 struction caused the rays of light to concen¬ 
 trate as they approached the centre, improving 
 the natural illumination. This tunnel was 
 
 probably excavated during the time of Augus¬ 
 tus, although some authorities place it earlier. 
 
 During the Middle Ages tunnel-building was 
 practiced for military purposes, but seldom for 
 public need. Every great castle had its private 
 underground passage from the central tower 
 or keep to some distant concealed place to per¬ 
 mit the escape of the family and its retainers 
 in case of victory by the enemy, and during 
 the defense to allow of sorties and the en¬ 
 trance of supplies. The tunnel-builders of the 
 Middle Ages added little to the knowledge of 
 the art. Indeed, until the seventeenth century 
 and the introduction of gunpowder no particular 
 improvement was made in the tunneling methods 
 of the Romans. Although gunpowder bad been 
 previously employed in mining, the first im¬ 
 portant use of it in tunnel work was at Malpas, 
 France, in 1679-81, in the tunnel for the Lan¬ 
 guedoc Canal. This tunnel was 510 feet long, 
 22 feet wide, and 29 feet high, and was exca¬ 
 vated through tufa. 
 
 With the advent of gunpowder and canal con¬ 
 struction the first strong impetus was given to 
 tunnel-building in its modern sense as a com¬ 
 mercial and public utilitarian construction. 
 Canal tunnels of notable size were excavated in 
 France and England during the latter half 
 of the seventeenth century. These were all rock 
 or hard-ground tunnels. Indeed, previous to 
 1800 the soft-ground tunnel was beyond the 
 courage of the engineer except in sections of 
 such small size as hardly to deserve the name 
 of tunnels. In 1803, however, a tunnel of 24 
 feet wide was excavated through soft soil for 
 the Saint-Augustine Canal in France. Timber¬ 
 ing was employed to support the walls and roof 
 as fast as the earth was removed and the ma¬ 
 sonry lining was built closely following it. From 
 the experience gained in this tunnel were de¬ 
 veloped the various systems of soft-ground sub¬ 
 terranean tunneling since employed. 
 
 In 1761 coal was shipped in boats from the 
 Duke of Bridgewater’s coal mines over a canal 
 from Worsley Mill to Manchester. At Wors- 
 ley, where the basin was large enough to hold 
 a great many boats, the canal entered a hill by 
 a tunnel which at the time of its construc¬ 
 tion was about a mile in length and reached 
 the different workings of the mine. It has 
 since been enlarged and comprises about 40 
 miles of subterranean water passage. 
 
 It was through the development of the steam 
 railway, however, that the art of tunneling was 
 to be brought into its present prominence. The 
 Terre-Noir (Black Earth) was the first tunnel 
 built on a horse railroad. It was on a single- 
 track road near St. Etienne, in France, on the 
 Roanne-Andr6zieux line. It was begun in 1826 
 and was 4921.5 feet long, 9.8 feet wide at the 
 springing line, and 16.4 feet in height. In Bel¬ 
 gium, the Cumptieh Tunnel was built in 1835 on 
 the Chemin de l’Etat, and seems to have been 
 the earliest in that country. It was single track 
 and 13.7 feet wide at the springing line. The 
 Oberau Tunnel, 1680 feet long, was completed in 
 1839 on the Leipzig-Dresden line in Saxony. 
 This was the first German tunnel. In Austria, 
 the Gumpoldskirch Tunnel on the Vienna-Glogg- 
 nitz line near Wiener-Neustadt was built in 1839. 
 I 11 Italy the Naples-Castelamare line, opened in 
 1840, had several tunnels on it. In 1856 the 
 total Italian tunnels amounted to 10,181 me¬ 
 ters. In Switzerland the Hauenstein Tunnel, 
 finished in 1858, is of interest. The first tun- 
 
TUNNEL 
 
 TUNNEL 
 
 549 
 
 nel built in the United States was in the 
 Schuylkill navigation canal above Auburn, at 
 the Orwigsburg landing, commenced in 1818 and 
 opened to traffic in 1821. It was cut through 
 red shale, 20 feet wide by 18 feet high (from 
 canal bottom) and was originally 450 feet long, 
 arched for about 75 feet inward from each por¬ 
 tal. The highest point of the hill over the 
 tunnel was only some 40 feet, and had it been 
 located but a short distance down the ridge, 
 where the railway cut now is, the tunnel might 
 have been eliminated. In order to get sufficient 
 height to tunnel under, it was necessary to 
 turn the course of the canal at almost right 
 angles to itself. The novelty of this tunnel 
 was a great factor in promoting general in¬ 
 terest in the canal. In 1834—37 the tunnel was 
 shortened to about half its original length, in 
 1845-46 it was enlarged in width to 22 feet 
 and further shortened to a length of 160 feet, 
 and in 1855-56 it was wholly taken out; so 
 that the first American tunnel no longer ex¬ 
 ists. Even the names of the engineers who 
 located and built it are not known. The first 
 railway tunnel in the United States was built 
 on the Allegheny Portage Railroad in Pennsyl¬ 
 vania in 1831-33. 
 
 MODERN TUNNELING 
 
 The art of tunneling entered its last and 
 greatest phase with the construction of the 
 Mont Cenis Tunnel in Europe and the Hoosac 
 Tunnel in America. The Mont Cenis was un¬ 
 dertaken to facilitate railway communication 
 between Italy and France, or, more properly, 
 between Piedmont and Savoy, the two parts 
 of the kingdom of Victor Emmanuel II sepa¬ 
 rated by the Alps. It is 7.6 miles long and 
 passes under the Col de FrCjus near Mont 
 Cenis. Work was begun in 1857 and finished 
 in 1870. It was from the close study of some 
 of the difficulties, the great length of the tun¬ 
 nel, and the desire of the engineers to finish 
 it quickly, that all the different improvements 
 were developed which marked this work as a 
 notable step in the advance of the art of tun¬ 
 neling. Thus the first power drill ever used 
 in tunnel work was devised by Sommeiller, one 
 of the engineers. In addition compressed air 
 as a motive power for drills, aspirators to suck 
 the foul air from the excavation, air compres¬ 
 sors, turbines, etc., found here their first ap¬ 
 plication to tunnel construction. This impor¬ 
 tant role played by the Mont Cenis Tunnel in 
 Europe in introducing modern methods had its 
 counterpart in America in the Hoosac Tunnel, 
 completed in 1875. For the first time in 
 America power rock drills, air compressors, ni¬ 
 troglycerin, electricity for firing blasts, etc., 
 were used. There remains now to be noted only 
 the final development in the art of soft-ground 
 submarine tunneling—the use of shield and 
 metal lining. The shield was invented and first 
 used by Sir Marc Isambard Brunei in excavat¬ 
 ing the first tunnel under the River Thames 
 at London, begun in 1825 and opened in 1843. 
 In 1869 Peter William Barlow used an iron 
 lining in connection with a shield in driving 
 the second tunnel under the Thames at London. 
 From these inventions has grown up one of the 
 most notable systems in tunneling now prac¬ 
 ticed, known as the shield system. In addition, 
 as will be discussed below, where depth permits, 
 subaqueous tunnels are now constructed by 
 
 sinking steel tubes in a trench dredged in the 
 river bottom and surrounding and lining them * 
 with concrete. This method was first used on 
 the Detroit River tunnel, completed in 1910 with 
 10 sections having a total length of 2625 feet. 
 
 Construction. Tunnels may be classified, ac¬ 
 cording to the general nature of the materials 
 penetrated, into hard-rock tunnels and soft- 
 ground tunnels. W hatever the material pene¬ 
 trated, the general methods of construction are 
 the same, but many differences in detail exist. 
 In certain kinds of tunnels, such as those under 
 water and those under city streets, other con¬ 
 ditions than hardness of material penetrated 
 exercise a controlling influence. For descrip¬ 
 tion, therefore, it is common to classify tun¬ 
 nels into hard-rock, soft-ground, open-cut, and 
 submarine tunnels. In open-cut and submarine 
 tunnels the material penetrated may be either 
 rock or earth. When it has been ‘ decided to 
 
 Fig. 1. DIAGRAM SHOWING CROSS SECTION OF POLYCENTRIC 
 
 FIGURE. 
 
 construct a tunnel the first task is to construct 
 a geological map which will show as accurately 
 as possible the character and inclination of 
 the earth’s strata to be penetrated, the prob¬ 
 ability of water being encountered, etc., all 
 of which exercise an important influence upon 
 the difficulties and cost of the work. The next 
 step is to establish exactly the centre line of the 
 tunnel; this is done on the surface of the 
 ground, and its purpose is to find the exact 
 length of the tunnel and to furnish a reference 
 line by which excavation is directed. The de¬ 
 termination of the centre line is a simple prob¬ 
 lem in surveying, requiring only skill and ex¬ 
 actness; the longer the tunnel, and the higher 
 and more inaccessible the mountain is above 
 it, the more difficult the work. So perfect, 
 however, has the skill of the surveyor become 
 that it is a common thing to work within a 
 small fraction of a foot in alignment in driving 
 a long mountain or submarine tunnel. 
 
 The centre line being established, the next 
 step is to find the difference in elevation of the 
 two ends. The form and dimensions of the 
 cross section of the hole or passageway which 
 it is proposed to excavate are then decided upon. 
 The form and dimensions of cross section 
 adopted are determined by the purpose to which 
 the tunnel is to be put and bv the character 
 of the material penetrated. The best form for 
 the majority of conditions, and the one most com¬ 
 monly employed, is the polvcentric figure (Fig. 
 
 1), in which the number of centres and length 
 of the radii are fixed by the engineer to meet 
 
TUNNEL 
 
 TUNNEL 
 
 550 
 
 the particular conditions which exist. The di¬ 
 mensions to be given to the cross section of a 
 tunnel depend upon the purpose, for which it 
 is to be used, as will be observed in the succeed¬ 
 ing descriptions of prominent tunnels. In all 
 
 Fig. 2. diagram showing sequence of galleries in 
 
 DRIFT METHOD OF HARD-ROCK TUNNELING. 
 
 cases the form and the dimensions are those of 
 the inside of the completed tunnel, which is of 
 course the inside of the lining in all cases ex¬ 
 cept those of unlined hard-rock tunnels, where 
 it is the inside of the original excavation. 
 
 Excavation. The work so far described is of 
 the nature of engineering investigation and de¬ 
 sign. The actual construction of work consists 
 in excavating in the earth or rock a passageway 
 which follows the established centre line and 
 conforms in dimensions and shape to the estab¬ 
 lished cross section. In performing this work 
 the whole area of the cross section is seldom 
 removed at once, but it is subdivided into, two 
 or more galleries, which are excavated in a 
 measure independently of each other and which 
 together form the full cross section. The ob¬ 
 jects of thus subdividing the work are several 
 in number, the more important being as follows: 
 By driving a number of galleries each some¬ 
 what in advance of the succeeding one, several 
 
 Fig. 3. diagram showing sequence of galleries in 
 
 EUROPEAN HARD-ROCK TUNNEL. 
 
 gangs of men can be worked without interfering 
 with each other; the first gallery, being driven 
 far ahead, serves to drain the earth and to dis¬ 
 close in advance the nature of the material 
 to be encountered; in soft material several 
 small galleries can be driven and timbered with 
 much less danger of caving than one large gal¬ 
 lery. The number and arrangement of the gal¬ 
 leries vary with the materials penetrated and 
 with the system of tunneling adopted. The 
 first gallery excavated is called a heading when 
 it is situated at the top of the cross section, and 
 a drift when it is situated at the bottom of the 
 
 cross section. The excavation of the main sec¬ 
 tions is termed enlarging the profile. 
 
 Two general methods of excavating rock tun¬ 
 nels are considered practical by engineers; in 
 one the profile is enlarged from a drift and in 
 the other it is enlarged from a heading. The 
 sketch Fig. 2 shows the usual sequence of gal¬ 
 leries by which the full cross section is en¬ 
 larged from a drift. This method of exca¬ 
 vation is quite commonly practiced in Europe, 
 but seldom in America. Among the most no¬ 
 table tunnels built by enlarging a drift are the 
 Mont Cenis and the Simplon, both of which 
 are more fully described farther on. The more 
 common method of tunneling in America through 
 hard rock is the heading and bench method. In 
 the more recently driven tunnels it lias been 
 found that the best results can be obtained by 
 keeping the bench close up to the heading so that 
 
 Fig. 4. diagram showing sequence of galleries in 
 
 AMERICAN HEADING METHOD OF HARD-ROCK TUNNELING. 
 
 the broken rock from the heading will be thrown 
 back by the blasting and can be handled at the 
 same time as the bench. This heading may be 
 of small dimensions and the remainder of the 
 section may be removed in successive small 
 parts, or it may be the full width of the section 
 and the enlargement completed in one other cut. 
 When the tunnel is excavated by means of sev¬ 
 eral cuts, the method usually employed in 
 Europe, the sequence of galleries is indicated, 
 by Fig. 3. When the excavation is made by a 
 single wide heading and a single other cut for 
 removing the bench, the method preferred by 
 Americau engineers, the sequence of galleries is 
 the simple one indicated by Fig. 4. The St. 
 Gotthard Tunnel, described farther on, is one 
 of the most notable tunnels excavated by en¬ 
 larging a heading by means of several cuts; 
 the Cascade Tunnel in Washington is a notable 
 example of the wide heading and single-bench 
 method. In the Rogers Pass Tunnel in British 
 Columbia a pioneer tunnel was driven from 
 each end parallel with but quite independent of 
 the main tunnel. This was done because it was 
 impossible to use vertical shafts, and by making 
 cross cuts to the main line it was possible to 
 prosecute the work from several faces at once.. 
 
 In all rock tunnel work the various galleries 
 are excavated by drilling and blasting the rock. 
 The most difficult gallery to excavate is the first 
 heading or drift, as the case may be. Based on 
 the mode of blasting employed, there are two 
 methods of driving the advance gallery, known 
 as the circular and the centre-cut methods. In 
 the first method a set of holes is first drilled 
 
TUNNEL 
 
 TUNNEL 
 
 551 
 
 near the centre of the front in such a manner 
 that they inclose a cone of rock; the holes, 
 starting at the perimeter of the base of the cone, 
 converge towards a junction at its apex. Sel¬ 
 dom more than four to six holes are comprised 
 in the first set. Around these first holes are 
 driven a ring of holes which inclose a cylinder 
 of rock, and if necessary succeeding rings of 
 holes are driven outside the first ring. These 
 
 Fig. 5. diagram showing sequence of galleries in 
 
 BELGIAN METHOD OF SOFT-GROUND TUNNELING. 
 
 holes are blasted in the order in which they 
 are driven, the first set taking out a cone of 
 rock, the second set enlarging this cone to a cyl¬ 
 inder, and the other sets enlarging this cylinder. 
 
 The success of the work is largely due to 
 the number and length of the holes and the way 
 they are placed. The centre cut with holes from 
 6 to 12 feet deep is the method mostly used in 
 America, although the greater speed has been 
 attained by the use of shorter holes, four to 
 four and one-half feet deep and a greater num¬ 
 ber; but it has generally been conceded that 
 on account of the greater quantity of powder 
 consumed this method is more expensive. The 
 holes in the bench are generally put in by 
 power drills mounted on tripods and the holes 
 drilled vertically in a line at right angles to 
 the centre line of the tunnel; the number of 
 holes which are necessary depends wholly on 
 the hardness of the ground. In the large tun¬ 
 nels air-operated steam shovels have been used 
 to take out the muck, but in the majority of 
 tunnels the muck is shoveled into cars by hand 
 and the cars moved by animal or electric power. 
 In conclusion it may be stated that the present 
 high development of labor-saving machinery for 
 excavating rock makes this material one of the 
 safest and easiest to tunnel with which the en¬ 
 gineer ordinarily has to deal. A necessary 
 equipment for tunneling through rock requires 
 a steam, electric, or a water-power plant for 
 pumping air under pressure and supplying light 
 and power, and in large tunnels these "power 
 plants are often of considerable size. See Blast¬ 
 ing; Drill. 
 
 Soft-ground tunnels are worked in a variety 
 of ways which have been classified according to 
 the country in which they originated, as Eng¬ 
 lish, Belgian, Austrian, and American. Obvi¬ 
 ously the classification, though widely accepted, 
 is far from strict, because each method has many 
 variations, nor has any method been confined to 
 the country for which it was named. The Eng¬ 
 lish method is to remove the entire section in 
 short lengths, usually from 12 to 20 feet in 
 advance of a permanent lining. The masons 
 and miners alternate in the possession of the 
 
 face, and the work of excavation and the build¬ 
 ing of masonry is uninterrupted until each is 
 completed for the length. A small drift is 
 generally driven at the bottom of the tunnel 
 section from end to end of the tunnel, both 
 for the purpose of ventilation and drainage 
 and for the establishment of the centre line 
 underground. It also allows the tunnel to be 
 attacked at several points. The main exca¬ 
 vation always begins at the top of the tunnel; 
 two roof bars are then placed in this opening 
 with their forward ends resting on posts 
 and their rear ends resting on the com¬ 
 pleted masonry, transverse polings are then 
 driven over these bars, and the heading is 
 widened for the length of the roof bars. The 
 vertical breast boards are placed under the 
 transverse poling and new side bars placed. 
 When the ground is stiff enough the poling is 
 not driven over the side bars but placed against 
 the roof after excavation. This operation is 
 continued down the sides as far as required 
 by the nature and pressure of the ground. 
 Sometimes it is necessary to carry it to the 
 bottom and at the same time keep the face 
 boarded up and firmly braced against the com¬ 
 pleted lining. The miners now give way to the 
 masons, who construct a length of lining within 
 the timber and the operation is repeated. This 
 method is best adapted to very firm ground, but 
 has been used successfully in heavy and wet 
 ground. The advantages consist chiefly in a 
 large open space in which the masonry can be 
 built up and the facility with which the muck 
 can be handled. The disadvantages are that 
 
 Fig. 6. diagram showing sequence of galleries in 
 
 GERMAN METHOD OF SOFT-GROUND TUNNELING. 
 
 the miners are laid off half the time, the work 
 thus delayed, and part of the timbering is laid 
 on green masonry. 
 
 In the Belgian method the upper half of the 
 tunnel is excavated much in the same manner 
 as in the English, except that the excavation 
 is frequently carried considerably farther ahead 
 of the masonry. A cut is then excavated 
 through the centre half of the tunnel to the in¬ 
 vert, leaving a berm on either side to support 
 the arch of the tunnel lining. From the centre 
 trench narrow cuts are made at intervals to 
 the side and the masonry arch is underpinned, 
 the cuts are widened, and the underpinning is 
 extended until a complete side wall is built, and 
 finally the invert is placed. The greatest ad¬ 
 vantage of this method is the fact that in firm 
 material the successive steps can be carried on 
 at a number of different places, so that the 
 work is hastened. The worst feature of this 
 
TUNNEL 
 
 552 
 
 TUNNEL 
 
 method is that the arch is first carried on earth, 
 then on timber, both of which are liable to 
 settle unevenly. 
 
 The German method in its most characteris¬ 
 tic form consists in driving two separate head¬ 
 ings at the foot of each side wall. The invert 
 is put in last, but the rest of the lining is 
 built from the bottom up, the side walls being 
 built up in the two headings as high as pos- 
 
 In its final development the Austrian system 
 is characterized by very strong timber supports. 
 It commences with the centre bottom heading, 
 and immediately above this is driven another 
 heading extending to the top of the masonry 
 arch. This last heading is enlarged laterally 
 until it includes the whole arch area, and finally 
 the bottom heading is enlarged laterally until 
 it includes the side-wall area. The side walls 
 
 Fig. 7. system of strutting practiced in English method of soft-ground tunneling. 
 
 sible, then on top of these headings two others 
 are driven and the walls brought up to this 
 level; so on until the side walls are joined in 
 the centre heading at the top. In practice only 
 two headings are used, and this brings the wall 
 up to the spring line of the arch, which is placed 
 by widening out the centre top heading. The 
 advantage of the German method is that a 
 large centre core of earth is left upon which 
 
 .v 
 
 Cross Section, 
 
 are built first, the arch is then placed, and the 
 invert goes in last. 
 
 In the so-called American method the centre 
 top heading is usually driven, and this is en¬ 
 larged sideways to include the entire arch area. 
 Sills are then placed and an arch of segmental 
 timbers is made and placed which carries the 
 roof. Over these arches longitudinal lagging 
 is usually placed, and the space between the 
 
 / 
 
 Longitudinal Section. 
 
 Fig. 8. a typical form of timber lining for tunnels. 
 
 the timbering can lie braced, and also as the 
 . openings are small the danger of large cave- 
 ins is decreased. The method is not widely 
 used, however, as the disadvantages, viz., 
 cramped quarters and bad ventilation, overbal¬ 
 ance the advantages. 
 
 ground and lagging is packed with loose rock. 
 The bench is usually taken out in two layers 
 and permanent posts set under the arches; this 
 leaves the whole of the tunnel opened and 
 tracks may be laid and trains run before per¬ 
 manent lining is placed. In many tunnels this 
 
TUNNEL 
 
 TUNNEL 
 
 553 
 
 was the only lining used for several years after 
 the tunnel was completed. 
 
 Tunnels are usually lined even in hard rock 
 to avoid danger from falling rocks which may 
 be shaken loose under constant traffic. The 
 
 lining is usually brick, stone, or concrete, but 
 in some cases cast iron has been used. Cast 
 iron is usually placed in subaqueous tunnels 
 where the space is limited and a strong lining 
 is necessary. Concrete has been found to be 
 very serviceable and cheaper to place than brick 
 or stone. 
 
 Open-Cut Tunneling. When a tunnel or 
 rapid-transit subway has to be constructed at a 
 small depth below the surface, the excavation is 
 generally performed more economically by mak¬ 
 ing an open cut, building the lining inside it, 
 and filling in the space outside the lining, than 
 it is by subterranean tunneling proper. The 
 necessary condition of small depth which makes 
 open-cut tunneling desirable is generally found 
 in constructing rapid-transit tunnels under city 
 streets. This fact introduces the chief difficul¬ 
 ties encountered, since surface traffic makes it 
 necessary to obstruct the streets as little as 
 possible. The two methods of open-cut tunnel¬ 
 ing commonly practiced may be classed as the 
 longitudinal-trench method and the transverse- 
 
 in this trench and then filled around and above 
 with well-rammed earth, after which the sur¬ 
 face is restored. Generally the trench is opened 
 in short lengths and each length completed 
 ready for surface traffic before the adjacent 
 length is opened. Another form of longitudinal- 
 trench method is to open two narrow parallel 
 trenches in which are built the side walls. 
 : The soil between these walls is then removed 
 to a sufficient depth to permit the roof to be 
 built and covered over, and the final process 
 is to take out the core of earth inclosed by 
 the side walls and roof. Generally one side 
 wall and one-half of the roof arch are completed 
 and covered over before the other side wall 
 and half arch are begun. By this arrangement 
 one-half of the street is always unobstructed. 
 
 In the transverse-trench method a trench 
 about 12 feet wide is opened across the street. 
 
 Fig. 10. TYPICAL MASONRY lining for tunnels. 
 
 and in this trench a short length or slice of 
 the subway is built. Owing to the small size 
 of the opening, it is possible to cover it with 
 a timber platform which carries the street 
 traffic during construction. This method was 
 extensively used in constructing the subway at 
 Boston and at New York. In subway construc¬ 
 tion in American cities in nearly all cases the 
 contractors are required to support the street 
 
 Fig. 11. MASONRY WORK IN tunnel. 
 
 trench method. The simplest manner by which 
 to construct open-cut tunnels is to open a single 
 cut or trench the full width of the tunnel ma¬ 
 sonry. This trench is strutted by means of 
 side struttings of vertical planks held in place 
 by transverse beams extending across the trench 
 and abutting against longitudinal timbers laid 
 against the strutting planks. The lining is built 
 
 surface so as not to interfere with traffic while 
 excavating below. This involves elaborate and 
 strong timbering systems. 
 
 Submarine Tunneling. Submarine or suba¬ 
 queous tunnels are those excavated under the 
 bed of a river or other body of water, generally 
 to provide land communication between op¬ 
 posite shores. Inflowing water, always a serious 
 
TUNNEL 
 
 TUNNEL 
 
 554 
 
 difficulty in tunnel work everywhere, is here 
 the most serious problem with which the engi¬ 
 neer has to deal. Where the tunnel is deep 
 below the stream bed and penetrates a material 
 impervious to water it may be excavated by 
 any of the methods commonly employed in sub¬ 
 terranean work. When, however, the opposite 
 conditions exist, resort is had to the use of 
 compressed air or to the shield system, or to a 
 combination of the two. In the compressed-air 
 method the forward end of the tunnel where 
 excavation is progressing is filled with air under 
 sufficient pressure to counterbalance the pres¬ 
 sure of the water which seeks to enter. In the 
 shield system the work is carried on by the 
 aid of a rather elaborate mechanical device 
 commonly called a shield. The importance of 
 this invention to the tunnel builder can hardly 
 be overestimated. 
 
 The shield devised by Barlow already referred 
 to was greatly improved by J. H. Greathead, 
 and was first used in building the London Tower 
 tunnel begun in 1869. The remarkable success 
 of this work led to the rapid adoption of the 
 shield system for tunnel work in England and 
 America. Briefly described, the modern tunnel 
 shield is a steel-plate cylinder, with its forward 
 edge strengthened and sharpened to form a 
 cutting edge. The rear end extends backward 
 so as to overlap the completed lining of the cast- 
 iron rings. Around its inside hydraulic jacks 
 are attached at frequent intervals so that their 
 piston rods bear against the front edge of the 
 completed lining. By applying power to the 
 jacks their piston rods press with great force 
 against the immovable lining and thrust the 
 cylinder forward into the soft earth. Generally 
 the cylinder has a vertical partition or dia¬ 
 phragm near the front end, which prevents the 
 soft earth from rushing back into it except 
 as it is allowed by opening suitable doors. In 
 operation the cylinder is thrust forward until 
 its sharp cutting edge penetrates the earth a 
 little distance. Workmen then withdraw the 
 earth in small quantities through the openings 
 in the diaphragm. After enough material has 
 been thus withdrawn to leave the front of the 
 shield clear, the shield is again thrust ahead 
 and more earth is removed. As fast as 
 the shield moves ahead the lining is erected 
 under the shelter of its tail end. A constant 
 repetition of these processes completes the 
 tunnel. 
 
 Cast iron has been used in the majority of 
 subaqueous tunnels for a lining, on account of 
 its strength for relatively thin sections. Its 
 use saves an unnecessarily large excavation, and 
 it also gives a reaction for the shield jacks, 
 as the structure is permanent as soon as the 
 sections are bolted in place. 
 
 Generally when shields are used it is neces¬ 
 sary to pump in compressed air, although in 
 some cases compressed air has been used with¬ 
 out the shield, and vice versa. The amount of 
 air used and the pressure held varies with 
 the nature of the ground through which the 
 tunnel is driven. The average pressure used 
 is between 25 and 30 pounds per square inch. 
 This pressure is employed when there is from 
 70 to 100 feet to the top of the water. In 
 many cases it has been necessary to dump 
 clay to a depth of 20 or 30 feet on top of 
 the tunnel. 
 
 A method of tunnel construction that has 
 found considerable application in the United 
 
 States consists in constructing cylindrical steel 
 sections, closing their ends with wooden bulk¬ 
 heads, then floating them into position and sink¬ 
 ing them in a trench dredged in the river 
 bottom. The various sections are joined suc¬ 
 cessively and inclosed with concrete as well as 
 given an interior lining of the same material. 
 This system was first used in the Detroit River 
 tunnel of the Michigan Central Railroad be¬ 
 tween Detroit and Windsor, and then was found 
 available for tunnels under the Harlem River 
 for the New York Subway, and at Chicago and 
 other places. Where dredging can be done, 
 and it is not necessary to go to any considerable 
 • depth below the river bottom, this method is 
 distinctly useful. 
 
 NOTABLE EUROPEAN TUNNELS 
 
 The number of tunnels notable because of 
 their length, the difficulties encountered in 
 their construction or for other reasons, is so 
 great that mention can be made here of only 
 a few of those which are most celebrated. The 
 Mont Cenis Tunnel through the Alps was the 
 first to place France in direct communication 
 with Italy. It passes from a point near Modane, 
 in France, under the Col de Frejus, about 
 18 miles west of the actual Mont Cenis, into 
 Italian territory, at a point near Bardonecchia, 
 about 24 miles from Susa. The length of the 
 tunnel between extremities is 7.6016 miles. It 
 is formed with a rising gradient from each 
 end, at the rate of about 1 in 45 ^ from Modane 
 and 1 in 2000 from Bardonecchia, the summit or 
 meeting of the gradients being halfway through 
 the tunnel. The railway does not enter at the 
 extremities of the tunnel, but joins it by means 
 of special curved sections of tunnel at each 
 end. The total length of tunnel traversed 
 by trains is 7.9806 miles. The tunnel is 
 lined with the exception of about 300 yards 
 on the north side. The side walls are 8 
 feet, 6 inches thick throughout. The arch 
 to the south side is constructed principally of 
 brick, and to the north side of stone, a brick 
 key being applied throughout. There are side 
 paths of flagstones 20 inches wide. 
 
 Work was begun in 1857, and for three years 
 hand labor was used entirely, but it was 
 planned from the beginning by the engineers, 
 Sommeiler, Grandis, and Grattoni, to introduce 
 machinery ultimately. In 1861 power drills 
 were put at work at the south end, and in 
 1862 the north end was similarly equipped. 
 The tunnel was completed and opened for traffic 
 in 1872. 
 
 In 1872 work was begun on the St. Gotthard 
 railway tunnel through the Alps between Italy 
 and France, which far exceeded the Mont Cenis 
 in magnitude. This tunnel crosses the moun¬ 
 tains between Goeschenen and Airolo, and is 
 9.25 miles long. The excavation was lined 
 throughout with masonry, the side walls being 
 of rubble stone and the roof arch of brick. 
 Along the bottom there was a culvert of brick¬ 
 work. The Mont Cenis Tunnel had been exca¬ 
 vated by means of a drift as an advance gal¬ 
 lery, but at St. Gotthard the advance gallery 
 was a top centre heading. The tunnel was 
 opened for traffic in 1882. 
 
 The third great Alpine tunnel was the Simplon 
 Tunnel, which was opened in 1906. Many 
 schemes for the connection of Italy and Switzer¬ 
 land by a railway near the Simplon Road Pass 
 
TUNNEL 
 
 TUNNEL 
 
 555 
 
 had been devised. The scheme which was put 
 forward in 1881 by the Jura-Simplon Railway 
 consisted broadly of piercing the Alps between 
 Brigue, in the Rhone valley, and Iselle, on the 
 Italian side, from which village the railway 
 descends to the southern terminus at Domo 
 d'Ossola, a distance of about 11 miles. The 
 tunnel is a double tunnel. That is, there are 
 two parallel tunnels, having their centres 56 
 feet apart, each carrying one line of railway. 
 By means of cross headings every 220 yards 
 the problems of transport and ventilation are 
 greatly facilitated. In cross section tunnel No. 
 1 is 13 feet, 7 inches wide at the bottom, and 
 16 feet, 5 inches wide at the widest part, with 
 a total height of 18 feet above rail level. The 
 material penetrated is rock. The construction 
 was rendered more difficult by the inflows of 
 hot water from springs in the vicinity. The 
 trains are drawn through the tunnel by electric 
 locomotives. 
 
 A new or second Simplon tunnel to meet the 
 needs of increased traffic was demanded, and this 
 had progressed to a point where by 1915 the 
 length of completed tunnel at the north and 
 south ends was over half completed, but prog¬ 
 ress was seriously interfered with by the draft¬ 
 ing of workmen for the Italian army. 
 
 The third longest tunnel in Europe is the 
 Loetschberg Tunnel, under the Loetschen Pass, 
 on the line from Bern to Brig. This tunnel was 
 begun in 1906, and was opened for international 
 traffic on June 15, 1913. It is 9.04 miles from 
 portal to portal. Another important Swiss 
 tunnel is on the Tauern railway through the 
 Alps at Gastein. It is 27,965 feet in length and 
 was completed in 1909. 
 
 At the time of the outbreak of the great war 
 a number of important tunnels were under con¬ 
 struction in Europe. In Switzerland the Miin- 
 ster-Grenchenberg Tunnel through the Jura 
 Mountains, 5% miles in length, was pierced 
 through in 1914. In 1915 the Cote d’Or Tunnel, 
 3% miles in length, through the Jura Moun¬ 
 tains, on the new direct line of the Paris-Lyons- 
 Mediterranean railway to the Simplon Tunnel 
 route in Italy, was opened to traffic, having 
 been under construction from 1910. This is 
 a double-track tunnel, where it was found pos¬ 
 sible to use steam locomotives on account of 
 its good ventilation. Considerable tunneling 
 was required in connection with the construction 
 of the Jungfrau railway, where in 1912 the line 
 was completed as far as Jungfraujoch. This 
 tunnel was constructed on a grade to secure the 
 required ascent. In 1916 work was in progress 
 on a tunnel under the Furka Pass, and other 
 schemes were in course of consideration. In 
 Switzerland, on Jan. 1, 1915, there were in opera¬ 
 tion or under construction 627 tunnels with a 
 total length of 175.01 miles. 
 
 AMERICAN TUNNELS 
 
 The great European railway tunnels which 
 have been described find their nearest counter¬ 
 part in America in the Hoosac Tunnel, the Stam¬ 
 pede Tunnel, the Cascade Tunnel, the Snoqualmie, 
 and the Rogers Pass Tunnel. The Hoosac 
 Tunnel is on the line of the Fitchburg Railroad 
 in Massachusetts, and passes through a south¬ 
 ern extension of the Green Mountains known as 
 the Hoosac Mountains. It is 4% miles long, and 
 was driven from the two ends and from an 
 intermediate shaft 1028 feet deep. Work was 
 Vol. XXII—36 
 
 begun originally in 1855 and was carried on 
 intermittently, there being many long delays 
 due to lack of funds and the obstacles encoun¬ 
 tered. The tunnel proper was completed in 1873, 
 but several additional years were consumed in 
 the masonry work. Its cost was about $11,000,- 
 000. The tunnel is 24 feet wide in the widest 
 part and 22 feet, ^8 inches high, and carries 
 two lines of railway track. 
 
 The Stampede Tunnel carries the Northern 
 Pacific Railway through the Cascade Mountains, 
 and was begun in 1886. From the time it was 
 determined to make Puget Sound the western 
 terminus of the Northern Pacific Railway the 
 question of a feasible route across the Cascade 
 Range was prominently before the company. 
 Between the years 1873 and 1884 several pro¬ 
 posed routes were examined by the company’s 
 engineers, of which those via the Natchess, 
 Stampede, and Snoqualmie passes were promi¬ 
 nent. The Stampede route, lying between the 
 other two, was finally recommended, and was 
 formally adopted by the company in 1884. The 
 altitude of the mountain beneath which it was 
 necessary to tunnel was 3970 feet above sea level, 
 and the greatest thickness over the top of the 
 tunnel is 1400 feet, the average depth being 
 about 1200 feet. The elevation of the east 
 portal of the tunnel above the sea is 2827 feet, 
 and that of the west portal is 2800 feet. Work 
 was begun in February, 1886. The total length 
 of the tunnel was 9850 feet, with a rising 
 grade from each end towards the middle and the 
 total cost was $1,160,000. 
 
 The Cascade Tunnel which carries the Great 
 Northern Railroad through the summit of the 
 Cascade Range in Washington was begun in 
 1897 and finished in 1900. It is a single-track 
 tunnel, 21.5 feet high, 16 feet wide, and 2.6 
 miles long. 
 
 In 1915 the Snoqualmie Tunnel through the 
 Cascade Mountains between Rockdale and Kes- 
 chelus, some 60 miles east of Seattle, was com¬ 
 pleted. This was a single-track tunnel, 11,890 
 feet in length, the construction of which was 
 estimated at some $2,000,000, but the saving 
 in snow fighting alone was estimated at $175,- 
 000 per year, while the new line effected a sav¬ 
 ing of 443 feet of elevation and 1239° of curva¬ 
 ture. It was constructed through varying kinds 
 of rock, with about 75 per cent of the distance 
 through hard slate, and the remainder quartzite 
 and granite. 
 
 In 1916 the Rogers Pass Tunnel, the longest 
 tunnel in North America, was nearing comple¬ 
 tion on the Canadian Pacific Railway at the 
 Rogers Pass summit in the Selkirk Mountains 
 between Glacier and Field, B. C. In this tunnel 
 novel methods of construction were adopted, viz., 
 running a pioneer tunnel from each end parallel 
 with but distinct from the main tunnel, to which 
 cross cuts were run at intervals. This double¬ 
 track tunnel was able to save 540 feet in 
 elevation, and 5 miles in distance, in addition 
 to eliminating long stretches of snow sheds. 
 The total length of the tunnel was 26,400 feet, 
 and it was built without intermediate shafts. 
 The maximum depth of rock above the tunnel 
 was 5690 feet, and the tunnel was 24 feet high 
 and 29 feet wide, with a concrete lining through 
 the softer materials. 
 
 The Mount Royal Tunnel, which gives ac¬ 
 cess for the Canadian Northern Railway into 
 the business section of Montreal, was virtually 
 
TUNNEL 
 
 TUNNEL 
 
 556 
 
 completed in 1916. It is 3.1 miles long, and 
 leads to a passenger terminal to be located 
 immediately adjacent to its east portal. The 
 tracks at the station are 50 feet below the 
 level of the street, and most of the station 
 proper is underground. The tunnel is built 
 for double track, being 23.5 feet high, 31 feet 
 wide. It is located almost entirely in rock, 
 and centre bottom headings were employed, and 
 as soon as these were pushed forward cars 
 were run so as to remove the muck and broken 
 stone, the latter being crushed for rock material 
 and concrete. 
 
 Among the many important railway tunnels 
 which have been built through soft ground only 
 two will be mentioned. The Baltimore Belt 
 Tunnel, 8350 feet long, in Baltimore, Md., was 
 excavated through water-bearing sand, loam, 
 clay, and gravel by the German method of 
 soft-ground tunneling. It provides for a double¬ 
 track railway line. The St. Clair Tunnel carries 
 the double tracks of the Grand Trunk Railway 
 under the St. Clair River between Michigan 
 and Canada. The excavation consisted of an 
 open cutting on the American side 2500 feet 
 long; a tunnel 6000 feet long under the river, 
 and an open cutting on the Canadian side 3100 
 feet long. Work was begun by means of two 
 shore shafts in 1888, but these were abandoned, 
 and in 1889 work was commenced on the cut¬ 
 tings. The shields used were 21 y 2 feet outside 
 diameter, and the cylindrical shell consisted of 
 1-inch steel plates. The cylinder was stiffened 
 by five diaphragms dividing it into 12 cells. 
 As the shield was shoved forward a paste of 
 cement and water was forced out through holes 
 left in the lining to fill the space left between 
 the lining and the clay. The excavation was 
 done in front of the shields, which were then 
 forced forward by hydraulic jacks, and the erec¬ 
 tion of the permanent cast-iron lining followed 
 up, the ring being erected inside the tail of the 
 shield. The lining is 21 feet in outside diameter. 
 Each ring of lining is 18 inches long, measured 
 on the line of the tunnel, and is made up 
 of 13 segments and a key piece. Each segment 
 weighs 1050 pounds, and the total weight of cast 
 iron in the lining is 27,000 tons. 
 
 The Bergen Hill Tunnel of the Erie Railroad 
 which has been in part turned into an open 
 cut is worthy of mention on account of its 
 size rather than its length. The work consisted 
 of four tunnels varying in length from 220 feet 
 to 574 feet. The clear span of the roof was 
 56 feet and the tunnels carry four standard gauge 
 tracks. 
 
 SUBMARINE TUNNELS 
 
 Channel Tunnel. The most ambitious scheme 
 of tunneling was the project to connect England 
 and France by a tunnel under the English 
 Channel, which has been discussed periodically, 
 both as an engineering proposition and on ac¬ 
 count of the political and economic considera¬ 
 tions involved. It had been proposed by Hawk- 
 shaw and Brunlees about 1870 that such a 
 tunnel could be built, but opposition of a 
 sentimental and military nature developed 
 whenever the project was advanced, until 1913, 
 when companies were organized both in Great 
 Britain and in France, in attempts to secure 
 government sanction for the scheme. It was 
 argued that with the experience with the Lon¬ 
 don tubes and other deep tunnels, and in view 
 of the general development in engineering knowl¬ 
 
 edge and experience there would be no difficulty 
 in the way of constructing two distinct sets 
 of bores, one of which would be a drainage head¬ 
 ing which could be used also for the removal 
 of excavated materials and to supplement the 
 
 main svstem of ventilation. The main tunnels 
 «/ 
 
 were to consist of two single-track tubes, each 
 of 18 feet interior diameter, and placed 32 
 feet apart from centre to centre, being lined 
 throughout with cast-iron segments of ample 
 strength to resist any possible pressure. An 
 estimate of the total cost of the undertaking 
 was made of about $60,000,000, but before the 
 plan, which was advanced seriously, could be 
 discussed, the outbreak of the great war pre¬ 
 vented active progress. 
 
 The first notable submarine tunnel to be 
 driven through rock is the Severn Tunnel under 
 the river Severn in England. The Great West¬ 
 ern Railway system west of Bristol was formerly 
 separated south of Gloucester by the Severn and 
 its estuary, from the lines between Gloucester 
 and the South Wales ports, as well as from the 
 western lines between Hereford and North 
 Wales, Liverpool, Manchester, and the north. 
 This want of connection was only partly rem¬ 
 edied by a steam ferry across the estuary of 
 the Severn. A tunnel under the Severn was, 
 accordingly, proposed in 1871 to provide for 
 through traffic, and was authorized in 1872. 
 Work was begun in 1873. The site selected for 
 the tunnel was about 2 miles below the mouth 
 of the Wye, where the width of the estuary at 
 high tide is about 214 miles. The strata trav¬ 
 ersed by the tunnel consist of conglomerate, 
 limestone, carboniferous beds, sandstone, marl, 
 gravel, and sand; the least thickness of soil 
 between the top of the tunnel and the deepest 
 part of the channel is 44% feet. The total 
 length of the tunnel is 4 miles, 624 yards. The 
 tunnel was excavated from four shafts, work 
 being commenced in 1873 and completed in 1886. 
 Great difficulty was experienced with water, 
 which flooded the workings on several occasions. 
 
 The Mersey Tunnel, about 1 mile long, con¬ 
 nects Liverpool and Birkenhead and was built 
 in 1888. In this work a ventilating tunnel of 
 smaller size than the main tunnel was excavated 
 under the main tunnel by a rotary boring ma¬ 
 chine which cut out the passageway to full 
 size at one operation. 
 
 The Pennsylvania Railroad tunnels in and 
 entering New York City consist of a double 
 tunnel from the west side of Bergen Hill 
 in New Jersey to the New City terminal 
 at Thirtv-second Street and Ninth Avenue; the 
 station itself; tunnels under the city to the 
 East River; four single-track tubes under the 
 river to Long Island City, where connection is 
 made with the Long Island Railroad and where 
 there are yards for cleaning and making up 
 the trains. Work was begun on the Hudson 
 River tunnels early in 1904, and by October, 
 1906, accurate connections had been made under 
 the river. The railroad tracks leaving the origi¬ 
 nal line of the Pennsylvania Railroad at Harri¬ 
 son, N. J., enter the twin tunnels, which are 
 spaced 37 feet centre to centre at the west face 
 of Bergen Hill. As this is in rock (a distance 
 of nearly 6000 feet), each tunnel is simply 
 lined with concrete. Near the river, i.e., on 
 the east side of the hill, the tunnels enter the 
 Weehawken shaft, which is 70 feet deep, and 
 which was sunk for the purpose of not only 
 
TUNNEL 
 
 557 
 
 TUNNEL 
 
 driving west under the hill to meet those com¬ 
 ing east, but at the same time driving east 
 under the river to meet those coming west from 
 the opposite shore. About 400 feet east of the 
 ^ eehawken shaft the tunnels strike soft ground, 
 making tubes of cast iron necessary. These 
 are built up in sections and lined with 22 
 inches of concrete, reducing the exterior diam¬ 
 eter of 23 feet to 19 feet. Under the river where 
 the material is soft, for a distance of nearly 
 5000 feet, to prevent sinking under heavy traffic 
 it was necessary to support the tubes on iron 
 and concrete piles resting on bed rock. Ap¬ 
 proaching the terminal at Thirty-first to Thirty- 
 third streets, Seventh to Ninth avenues, the tun¬ 
 nels diverge, forming a small section of 34 
 feet span double-track tunnel, a section of 1096 
 feet of triple tunnel containing four tracks and 
 three spans, and a section of 605 feet of four 
 tracks under one span. Within the tubes a 
 ledge 3 feet 8 inches wide on the level of the 
 car windows is formed of concrete, to afford 
 the means of egress in case of accident, to pro¬ 
 vide a path for workmen, and to carry inside 
 the conduits for light, power, telephone, and 
 telegraphic purposes. 
 
 The New York City tunnels were driven from 
 several shafts. One of these located at Eleventh 
 Avenue and Thirty-second Street was for the 
 purpose of driving the tunnels westward under 
 the Hudson and at the same time eastward to 
 the terminal. Two others, one in Thirty-second 
 Street and one in Thirty-third Street, between 
 Madison and Fourth avenues, were for the pur¬ 
 pose also of driving east and west under the 
 city, and finally a shaft was located on the East 
 River front at Thirty-third Street to permit 
 of work being carried on both beneath the river 
 eastward and beneath the city westward. As 
 the two single-track tunnels from beneath the 
 Hudson approach the terminal they diverge to 
 make track space, and in a similar manner, run¬ 
 ning east from the station, they converge until 
 they finally become four single-track tubes 
 beneath the East River. At Seventh Avenue 
 they consist of two three-track tunnels, one 
 under Thirty-second and one under Thirty-third 
 Street, but at the west line of Fifth Avenue 
 the three tracks are reduced to two, and each 
 pair enters a separate excavation divided by 
 a 12-foot wall, and spaced 34 feet centre to 
 centre. At First Avenue they are still further 
 reduced to two pairs of single-track tubes. 
 
 The East River tunnels consist of four sepa¬ 
 rate tubes beneath the river identical in every 
 respect with those beneath the Hudson. They 
 were driven by the shield process, and connect 
 New York City with Long Island City. On 
 the Long Island side they were begun in the 
 foot of two shafts located just west of Front 
 Street and run beyond up to East Avenue, about 
 2000 feet, and from there to Thomson Avenue. 
 
 The Hudson tunnels between Manhattan and 
 Jersey City and Hoboken represented the suc¬ 
 cessful culmination of several attempts to con¬ 
 struct a tunnel under the Hudson River. For 
 financial and other reasons these had proved un¬ 
 successful until the project was taken up by 
 the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad Company, 
 which was able to build two sets of twin tunnels 
 under the Hudson River—one from Fifteenth 
 Street, Jersey City, to Morton Street, Manhat¬ 
 tan, and thence northerly to Sixth Avenue and 
 Thirty-third Street, and the other between the 
 Hudson Terminal Building at Cortland and 
 
 Fulton streets, Manhattan, to Jersey City, and 
 thence westerly about % mile to* Brunswick 
 Street, where the tunnel comes to the surface. 
 These tunnels were constructed through the soft 
 ground of the river bed by using shields, and 
 the upper line was opened for traffic Feb. 1, 
 1908, while the second pair of tubes were opened 
 for regular train service on July 19. The form 
 of construction is segmented cast steel bolted 
 together in the rear of the excavating shields 
 as the latter were advanced. The lower half 
 of each tube is lined with concrete, and the 
 tunnels have a clear diameter of 15 feet. 
 
 WATER TUNNELS 
 
 Next to their use for railways, tunnels are 
 more frequently built to conduct water than for 
 any other purpose, perhaps. (See Aqueduct. ) 
 A good example of rock tunneling for this pur¬ 
 pose is afforded by the Niagara Tunnel, built 
 to carry the water away from the wheel pit 
 of the Niagara Power Company at Niagara 
 Falls, N. Y. This tunnel is 7600 feet long, 
 19 feet wide, and 21 feet high, and runs through 
 solid limestone rock. In California the Mount 
 Shasta Power Corporation has a 7-mile tunnel 
 to carry water from Pitt River to its power 
 house. This tunnel at first was of 7 X 9 
 section and subsequently was to be enlarged. 
 The Chicago water-works tunnels, through 
 which the city of Chicago draws its water 
 supply from Lake Michigan, constitute the most 
 elaborate system of water-supply tunnels any¬ 
 where in the world. They extend out into 
 the lake as well as under the city, and vary in 
 diameter from 5 to 13 feet. In i915 there was 
 under construction an addition to this elaborate 
 system, which addition consisted of a 7-mile 
 tunnel extending from a pumping station 4 
 miles under the city and 3 miles under the 
 lake to an intake crib. This tunnel is of horse¬ 
 shoe section, 13 feet wide and 12 feet high, 
 and is driven through solid rock for the entire 
 distance. 
 
 At Milwaukee, Wis., there is a water-supply 
 tunnel 3200 feet long and 7% feet in diameter, 
 lined with brick masonry throughout, completed 
 in 1895. At Cleveland, Ohio, there is a water- 
 supply tunnel extending out into Lake Erie 
 that is 26,000 feet long and 9 feet in diameter, 
 and two other older tunnels, one being 5 feet 
 in diameter for 6662 feet and 5 y 2 and 6 feet 
 in diameter for 2580 feet, and the other being 
 7 feet in diameter and 9200 feet long. Recently 
 the West Side intake was extended 16,000 feet 
 beyond a crib 1% miles from shore. For many 
 years one of the most notable water-supply tun¬ 
 nels in the world was the Croton Aqueduct, 
 which brings water to New York City. This 
 tunnel is 33 miles long and about 14 feet high 
 and 14 feet wide; it was built through rock. 
 This in turn has been surpassed by the new 
 Catskill Aqueduct. The Los Angeles Aqueduct 
 includes some 43 miles of concrete lined tunnels. 
 (See Aqueduct.) With the increased demand 
 for water supplies for power and irrigation, 
 tunnels are constantly being constructed by 
 the United States Reclamation Service and simi¬ 
 lar agencies, of which the Gunnison Tunnel, 
 30,582 feet in length, is a good example. (See 
 Irrigation.) The Wyrnwy Aqueduct, 77 miles 
 long, for bringing water to the city of Liverpool, 
 England, has three tunnels, but not comparable 
 in length with those mentioned. 
 
TUNNEL 
 
 TUNNEL 
 
 55» 
 
 RAPID-TRANSIT TUBES AND SUBWAYS 
 
 Within recent years many important tunnels 
 have been constructed to carry rapid transit 
 railways under city streets. Some of these, like 
 the London tunnels, have been deep tunnels; 
 but others, like those of Boston, Paris, Phila¬ 
 delphia, and New York, have been constructed 
 for the most part by open-cut methods at a 
 small depth below the surface. The City and 
 South London Railway, in London, was begun 
 in 1886 and completed in 1890, is 3% miles 
 long from the city to the Swan at Stockwell, 
 and is entirely underground. Briefly the road 
 consists of two 10 feet, 6 inch cast-iron lined 
 tunnels substantially parallel to each other, 
 which converge into a single tunnel at the 
 termini to permit the transfer of trains from 
 one line to the other. These tunnels were con¬ 
 structed by means of the shield system. The 
 Waterloo and City Railway in London extends 
 from the Waterloo station of the Southwestern 
 Railway to the Mansion House, a distance of 
 1 mile, 5 furlongs, and 150 yards. It consists of 
 two parallel circular tunnels 12 feet, 1% inches 
 interior diameter except at the curves, where 
 the dimension is increased to 12 feet, 9 inches. 
 The tunnels were driven by the shield method, 
 work having been begun in 1894 and completed 
 in 1897. A single electric railway track in each 
 tunnel forms a double-track railway between the 
 termini named. The Central London Railway 
 runs from Shepherds Bush to the Bank, a dis¬ 
 tance of 5% miles, the whole distance being 
 in deep tunnel at depths varying from 60 to 90 
 feet. It consists, like the two roads previously 
 mentioned, of two parallel circular tunnels. 
 Each tunnel is IIV 2 feet in diameter and has 
 a cast-iron lining. The shield system of con¬ 
 struction was employed. To be added to these 
 tunnels are the Metropolitan District railways, 
 parts of which are underground, begun in 
 1853, the Waterloo and Baker Street Railway. 
 
 The Blackwall Tunnel for street traffic under 
 the river Thames at London is 6200 feet in 
 length, of which 3088 feet are tunnel proper, 
 1370 feet are open cut roofed over, and 1742 
 feet are open cut without covering. The ex¬ 
 terior diameter of the tunnel is 27 feet. It 
 was driven by means of a shield 27 feet, 9 inches 
 in diameter and 18*4 feet long, with two dia¬ 
 phragms, from horizontal partitions or stages 
 and four vertical partitions. The lining is of 
 cast-iron rings. Work was begun in 1892 and 
 completed in 1897. The tunnel provides a road¬ 
 way 16 feet wide and two sidewalks each 3 
 feet, 1 y 2 inches wide. The Rotherhithe Tunnel, 
 completed in 1908 under the Thames, connects 
 Ratcliff on the north shore with Rotherhithe on 
 the south. It has a total length of 6883 feet, 
 of which 3698 feet are in cast-iron tunnel and 
 3194 feet in cut and cover or open approach. 
 It has an internal diameter of 27 feet. In 
 Glasgow, Scotland, the Glasgow City and Dis¬ 
 trict Railway has a length of 3.123 miles. Of 
 this distance 1 mile is deep tunnel, and 3483 
 feet are tunnel built by the open-cut method. 
 Work was begun in 1883 and completed in 1886. 
 The Glasgow Central Railway has 0.84 of a mile 
 of deep tunnel and 3.13 miies of open-cut tun¬ 
 nel. The Glasgow District Subway, 6% miles 
 long, consists of two parallel circular cast-iron 
 lined tunnels 11 feet in interior diameter. The 
 tunnels were driven by the shield method. Con¬ 
 struction was begun in 1891 and completed in 
 
 1894. The subways of Paris were built and 
 are owned by the city and are leased, equipped, 
 and operated by a private company. The metro¬ 
 politan system (Paris subways) as originally 
 planned included only about 46.6 miles of double 
 track. The first line was opened in 1900. Later 
 extensions provided for 34.1 miles additional. 
 The entire system, including connections, will 
 have 82.9 miles of double track, of which 73.3 
 will be used for the transportation of passengers 
 and the remaining mileage for terminals and 
 connections. The track is standard gauge, but 
 the tunnel opening is too small to admit steam¬ 
 railway equipment. The subway equipment can 
 therefore run out on to the steam lines, but the 
 steam-line trams cannot use the subway. 
 
 The first Boston Subway, begun in 1894, is an 
 underground tunnel for the surface electric lines 
 entering the business district of the city of Bos¬ 
 ton. The portion of the line completed in 1898 
 was 10,810 feet long, divided between double-track 
 and four-track tunnel. The bulk of the tunnel 
 was built by open-cut methods, but on certain por¬ 
 tions the shield system was employed. In 1900 
 work was begun on a 114 mile extension of the 
 original line under Boston harbor to East 
 Boston. The East Boston Tunnel has a poly¬ 
 centric cross section 2314 feet wide and 2014 
 feet high, and is lined with concrete masonry. 
 The double-track subway section is approxi¬ 
 mately rectangular and 24 feet wide by 14 
 feet high, while the four-track section is. a 
 similar form, but twice as wide. The lining 
 consists of concrete side walls and brick roof 
 arches supported by columns and I-beams of 
 steel. These tunnels were followed in 1908 by 
 the Washington Street Tunnel, some 2 miles 
 in length and used by the elevated railway trains. 
 In 1912 there was completed a subway to Cam¬ 
 bridge which involved a tunnel 2500 feet in 
 length under Beacon Hill. The Boylston Street 
 Subway, 14 miles long, was begun in 1912 and 
 completed in 1914. The Dorchester Tunnel, 
 which will be about 12,000 feet long, was begun 
 in 1912, and in 1915 there were 2108 feet 
 completed. 
 
 The original New York Subway, as contracted 
 for in 1899, comprises some 20 1 / 4 miles of line, 
 three-fourths of which is in tunnel. A four- 
 track line runs from the City Hall to 96th 
 Street, above which it divides, one branch run¬ 
 ning to Bronx Park and the other to \ an 
 Cortlandt Park. The cross section of the under¬ 
 ground line is of different types. In the rec¬ 
 tangular section, used for more than half of 
 the line, the dimensions adopted for two tracks 
 are 25 X 13 feet, and for four tracks, 50 X 13 
 feet. The barrel-vault section, composed of a 
 polycentric arch, is usually 24 feet wide and 
 16 feet high. The circular sections are 15 
 feet in diameter, two tunnels being built side 
 by side for double-track line. The work was 
 done partly by open-cut methods and partly 
 underground, according to the depth of the line 
 below the surface. 
 
 The new New York Dual Subway, begun m 
 1913, will increase the single-track mileage of the 
 dual system (subways and elevated roads in 
 Manhattan and Brooklyn) to 620. The new sub¬ 
 way will contain about 3,000,000,000. cubic 
 yards of concrete and cost in the neighbor¬ 
 hood of $337,000,000. It includes many types, of 
 construction, including open cut, excavation 
 under decking, and subaqueous tunnels driven 
 with and without the use of compressed air. The 
 
TUNNEL 
 
 559 
 
 TUNSTALL 
 
 work also involves the underpinning of buildings, 
 some of them 20 stories high. See Urban 
 Transportation. 
 
 In 1916 eight tunnels, seven of them double¬ 
 tube, were in actual use or building, to connect 
 Long Island with the west bank of the East 
 River at New York City. The tunnels were 
 original subway tubes, the Whitehall-Montague 
 Street tunnels, the Old Slip-Clark Street tunnels, 
 the Fourteenth Street-Eastern tunnels, of the 
 new dual system, the Pennsylvania tunnels, the 
 Queensboro or Steinway tunnels, the Sixteenth 
 Street tunnels, and the Consolidated Gas Com¬ 
 pany's Astoria tunnel. Naturally such work 
 was well understood, and construction progressed 
 rapidly and for the most part without incident. 
 Philadelphia opened its subway system in 1908 
 with a two-track tunnel in connection with its 
 elevated railways. Mention should be made of 
 the sj^stem of narrow-gauge tunnels in Chicago 
 for handling freight, built in 1901. Other Amer¬ 
 ican and European cities were engaged in de¬ 
 veloping subway or tunnel schemes, but they 
 indicated little departure from the general sys¬ 
 tems outlined. 
 
 OTHER, NOTABLE TUNNELS 
 
 Among other notable tunnels the following 
 may be briefly mentioned: Arlberg Tunnel, in 
 Austria, begun in 1880 and completed in 1884 
 for a double-track railway, 6.38 miles long. 
 Tequixquiac Tunnel, begun in 1888 to drain the 
 valley of Mexico, 6 miles long and about 14 
 feet wide and 14 feet high, completed in 1898. 
 Trans-Andean Railway Tunnel, through the sum¬ 
 mit of the Andes on the railway line between 
 Buenos Aires and Santiago, 3 miles long, at an 
 elevation of 10,460 feet above the sea. First 
 Thames Tunnel at London, England, begun in 
 1825 and completed in 1843, 1200 feet long with 
 two parallel ways of horseshoe section, each 
 13% feet wide and 16% feet high. East River 
 Gas Tunnel, between New York and Brooklyn, 
 2516 feet long and 10 feet, 2 inches in diameter, 
 begun in 1892 and completed in 1894. East 
 River Tunnel of Consolidated Gas Company, 
 New York to Astoria, 4662 feet in length, of 
 sufficient size to accommodate four 72-inch gas 
 mains. Khojak Tunnel, on the Northwestern 
 State Railway in India, 12,870 feet long, begun 
 in 1889 and completed in 1891. Parsik Hill 
 Tunnel, the second longest in India, 3900 feet in 
 length. Graveholz Tunnel, on the Bergen Rail¬ 
 way, in Norway, single track, 17,400 feet long. 
 Arthurs Pass Tunnel, through the Southern Alps 
 range on the line of the New Zealand govern¬ 
 ment railway in South Island, 5 miles, 1660 
 feet in length, begun in 1908. The Otira Tunnel, 
 also in New Zealand, is notable for length, being 
 5% miles in length. 
 
 Bibliography. Franz Rziha, Lehrbuch der ge- 
 sammten Tunnel-Baukunst (Berlin, 1874) ; Dan- 
 ino, Gallerie della traversata dell’ AppennA.no nella 
 linea Foglio (Rome, 1875) ; H. S. Drinker, Tun¬ 
 neling, Explosive Compounds, and Rock Drills 
 . . . (New York, 1878) ; Burr, Tunneling under 
 the Hudson River (ib., 1885) ; Leo von Rosenberg, 
 The Yosburg Tunnel (ib.,” 1887) ; T. A. Walker, 
 The S.evern Tunnel: Its Cost and Difficulties (Lon¬ 
 don, 1888) ; J. Ladame, “Les grands tunnels des 
 Alpes et du Jura,” in Chemin de fer de Calais 
 a Milan (Paris, 1889) ; F. W. Simms, Practical 
 Tunneling (4th ed., New York, 1896) ; Raynald 
 Legouez, De Vemploie du bouclier dans la con¬ 
 
 struction des souterrains (Paris, 1897); W. C. 
 Copperthwaite, Tunnel Shields and the Use of 
 Compressed Air in Subaqueous Works (New 
 \ork, 1906) ; H. P. Gillette, Rock Excavations: 
 Methods and Cost (Chicago, 1907); E. M. 
 Westen, Rock Drills: Design, Construction, and 
 Use (New York, 1910) ; D. M. StaufTer, Modern 
 Tunnel Practice (rev. ed., ib., 1911); G. H. 
 Gilbert and Others, The Subways and Tunnels 
 of New York: Methods and Costs (ib., 1912); 
 Charles Prelini, Tunneling (6th ed., ib., 1912 ) ; 
 Brunton and Davis, Modern Tunneling (ib., 
 1914) ; Eugene Lauchli, Tunneling (ib., 1915) ; 
 the record of the International Engineering 
 Congress (San Francisco, 1915) contains sev¬ 
 eral very important papers on modern tunneling 
 in Europe and America; a brief summary of im¬ 
 portant tunnels and methods of construction is 
 to be found in Mansfield Merriman, American 
 Civil Engineers’ Pocket Book (2d ed., New York, 
 1913). 
 
 TUNNEL NET. See Decoy. 
 
 TUNNY (from OF. ton, thon, Fr. thon, from 
 Lat. thunnus, thynnus, from Gk. Ovwos, thyn- 
 nos, dvvos, thynos, tunny, from dvvew, thynein, 
 to dart along), or Horse Mackerel. The larg¬ 
 est species of mackerel ( Thunnus thynnus), 
 also called tuna and great albacore. It has 
 the typical form of mackerel (q.v.), except that 
 its body is thicker, and the tail is widely forked, 
 becoming crescent-shaped. It is pelagic, and 
 occurs in all the warm seas, attaining a length 
 of 10 feet and a weight of 1500 pounds. The 
 flesh, even of large specimens, is good, and in 
 southern Europe there are important fisheries. 
 Tunny fisheries were early established by the 
 Phoenicians, and salted tunny was esteemed by 
 the Romans. The fish are captured by nets, and, 
 besides the large sale of them fresh, vast 
 numbers are disposed of by canning. Every 
 part of the body is utilized, the parts being 
 packed and sold separately, especially in Italy, 
 under distinctive names. A closely related 
 species is the long-finned albacore ( Germo 
 alalunga), common in the Mediterranean and 
 widely distributed elsewhere, and abundant in 
 the spawning season on the southern coast of 
 California. It is about 3 feet long, and very 
 handsome, but its flesh is poor. See Plate of 
 Mackerels. 
 
 TUN SHELL. One of the large, thin, glo¬ 
 bose, finely ribbed shells of the gastropod mol- 
 lusks of the family Doliida?, closely related to 
 the helmet shells and cowries (qq.v.). They 
 are mainly tropical, but a well-known one 
 
 (Dolium galea) inhabits the Mediterranean, and 
 becomes 10 inches in length, making it the 
 largest mollusk of that region. The fig shells 
 (q.v.) also belong to this family. 
 
 TUN'STALL. A modern manufacturing and 
 
TUNSTALL 
 
 TUPPER 
 
 market town in Staffordshire, England (Map: 
 England, D 3). Since 1910 it has formed part 
 of Stoke-on-Trent (q.v.). 
 
 TUNSTALL or TONSTALL, Cuthbert 
 (1474-1559). An English bishop and author. 
 He was born at Hackforth, Yorkshire; was edu¬ 
 cated at Oxford and Cambridge, and studied at 
 Padua; became rector of Harrow-on-the-Hill, 
 1511; Archdeacon of Chester, 1515; and was 
 appointed Master of the Rolls in 1516, after his 
 return as Commissioner to Brussels, where he 
 made the acquaintance of Erasmus and nego¬ 
 tiated two treaties with Charles I of Spain, 
 afterward Charles V. He was appointed dean 
 of Salisbury, 1521, Bishop of London in 1522, 
 Lord Privy Seal in 1523, Ambassador to Spain 
 in 1525, and to France in 1527, and became 
 Bishop of Durham in 1530. He was deprived 
 of his bishopric in 1552, and committed to the 
 Tower on a charge of treason; was reinstated 
 by Mary, but, declining the oath of supremacy 
 to Elizabeth, was again deprived in 1559, shortly 
 before his death. He was considered one of the 
 ripest scholars and wisest diplomats of his 
 period, and was the author of various theological 
 and educational works, including In Laudem 
 Matrimonii, Oratio (1518) ; De Arte Supputandi 
 Libri Quatuor (1522), an arithmetical treatise 
 frequently republished (1522); and De Veritate 
 Corporis et Sanguinis Domini nostri Jesu 
 Christi in Eucharistia (1551), one of the best 
 contemporary statements of the doctrine of 
 the Eucharist. 
 
 TUPAC AMARU (tbo'pak a'ma-roo) II 
 (1742-1781). A Peruvian revolutionist, whose 
 real name was Jose Gabriel Condorcanqui, born 
 at Tinta (south of Cuzco). He was a direct 
 descendant of the original Incas and has been 
 called the last of the Incas, though it seems 
 he did not himself lay claim to that title. 
 Under the Spaniards he ruled several villages, 
 and in 1780, failing to get better treatment for 
 the Indians, he organized an uprising of 60,- 
 000 natives. The insurgents soon controlled all 
 the country between Lake Titicaca and Cuzco, 
 but in 1781 Tupac was defeated and captured 
 and, with some of his family, was executed with 
 frightful torture. It has been estimated that 
 80,000 Indians were killed, the Spaniards’ ob¬ 
 ject apparently being to exterminate the Inca 
 race. Fernando, Tupac’s son, was condemned 
 to life imprisonment, and sent to Spain when 
 a child 10 years old. His fate is not known, 
 although in* 1828, a man calling himself Fer¬ 
 nando Tupac Amaru was pensioned at Buenos 
 Aires, and afterward was a monk at Lima. 
 
 TUPAIA, tu-pa'ya, or BANXRING. See 
 Tree Shrew. 
 
 TUPELO, tu'pe-lo (North American Indian 
 name), Nyssa. A genus of North American 
 trees, including those commonly known as the 
 cotton gum, Ogeechee lime, black gum, etc. See 
 Black Gum. 
 
 TUPELO. A city and the county seat of 
 Lee Co., Miss., 50 * miles south by west of 
 Corinth, on the Mobile and Ohio and the St. 
 Louis and San Francisco railroads (Map: Mis¬ 
 sissippi, H 2). Noteworthy features are the 
 United States Fish Hatchery, Tupelo Military 
 Institute, courthouse, city hall, and the public 
 parks. There are cotton and cottonseed-oil 
 mills, a fertilizer factory, compress, brick and 
 tile works, etc. Pop., 1900, 2118; 1910, 3881. 
 
 TUPI, tbb-pe' (allies, or village), or Tupi- 
 NAMBA. An ancient tribe from which the wide¬ 
 
 spread Tupian stock (q.v.) takes its name, and 
 whose language is the basis of the lingoa geral 
 or Indian trade language of the Amazon region. 
 About 1550 they were populous and powerful. 
 Being broken and driven back by the whites, 
 they went into the interior, the bands taking 
 different names. In 1640 some of them were 
 still settled, under their own name, along the 
 Lower Amazon. Their religion was a simple 
 animism, with little ceremonial. Those yet re¬ 
 maining in the same vicinity are now called, 
 improperly, Tapuya (q.v.). They are civilized, 
 quiet, and intelligent. The men are strong, and 
 supply the bulk of the crews for the Amazon 
 River trade. 
 
 TUPIAN (tbb-pe'ou) STOCK, or Tupi- 
 Guarana. The most widespread and important 
 linguistic stock of South America. When the 
 Portuguese took possession of Brazil the Tupian 
 tribes held the greater portion of the territory 
 from the Rio de la Plata (Paraguay or Parana) 
 on the south to the Amazon on the north, and 
 extended far inland. The two principal tribes 
 were the Tupi (q.v.), about the mouth of the 
 Amazon, and the Guarani (q.v.), on the Lower 
 Paraguay. Of numerous other cognate tribes, 
 the most important were the Chiriguano, 
 Guarayo, Mundurucu (q.v.), Mura (q.v.), and 
 Omagua (q.v.). Many of the eastern tribes 
 were gathered into missions by the Jesuits at 
 an early period, the Guarani missions in par¬ 
 ticular "at one time containing more than 300,- 
 000 Indians; but through slave-hunting raids 
 and the subsequent expulsion of the Jesuits 
 the missions were broken up, the more civilized 
 Indians remaining to be incorporated with the 
 Spanish settlements, while others retired into 
 the unexplored western wilderness. In general 
 culture the Tupian tribes as a rule were superior 
 to other aborigines of Brazil, though much in¬ 
 ferior to the Quichua of Peru. They practiced 
 agriculture to some extent, raising corn, manioc, 
 and tobacco, and were expert stone workers, ham¬ 
 mock weavers, and makers of pottery. They 
 kept monkeys and peccaries for food, but their 
 main dependence was upon hunting and fishing. 
 Their houses were light structures, usually com¬ 
 munal, and most of them went naked. With 
 the exception of the Omagua, who had acquired 
 considerable of the Quichua culture, they had 
 no metals. The Tupian languages have been 
 extensively cultivated, the Guarani having been 
 adopted by the Jesuits for use in all the mis¬ 
 sions of the Paraguay, while the Tupi, in its 
 corrupted form, is still the trade medium 
 throughout the Amazon region. Consult: 
 Lucien Adam, Mat6riaux pour servir a Vetab- 
 lissement d’une grammaire comparee des dia¬ 
 lect es de la famille Tupi (Paris, 1896) ; D. G. 
 Brinton, Linguistic Cartography of the Chaco 
 Region (Philadelphia, 1898) ; Hermann von 
 Ihering, The Anthropology of the State of S. 
 Paulo, Brazil (2d ed., S. Paulo, 1906) ; F. Pierini 
 in Anthropos, vol. iii (Salzburg, 1908). 
 
 TUPPER, Sir Charles (1821-1915). A 
 Canadian statesman. He was born at Amherst, 
 Nova Scotia, and graduated in medicine at 
 Edinburgh University in 1843. For 12 years 
 he practiced his profession in his native county 
 of Cumberland, which in 1855 elected him as 
 a Conservative member of the Legislative As¬ 
 sembly. He was Provincial Secretary in 1856 
 and Premier in 1864-67. He strongly supported 
 the movement for Canadian Confederation, over¬ 
 came the opposition of Joseph Howe (q.v.), at- 
 
TUPPER 
 
 TURANIAN 
 
 56i 
 
 tended the conferences in 1864 at Charlottetown 
 and Quel>ec as a delegate, later joined the con¬ 
 ference of delegates with the British government 
 in London, and shared in the accomplishment of 
 Confederation in 1867. In the first Dominion 
 administration of Sir John A. Macdonald (1867- 
 73) he was successively President of the Council 
 (1870), Minister of Inland Revenue (1872), 
 and Minister of Customs (1873), but resigned 
 the last office the same year, after the defeat 
 of Macdonald on charges of political corruption 
 in connection with contracts for the proposed 
 Canadian Pacific Railway. During five years of 
 opposition he was Macdonald's chief aid and po¬ 
 litical adviser and had a prominent part in the 
 electoral campaign which resulted in the Con¬ 
 servative victory of 1878 and the establishment 
 of the national policy of a protective tariff 
 the following year. As the first Canadian 
 Minister of Railways, he aided importantly in 
 the construction of the Canadian Pacific by a 
 private company until 1884, when he was 
 appointed High Commissioner for Canada in 
 London. Returning in 1887, he was Minister 
 of Finance until May, 1888, shortly afterward 
 resuming his position as High Commissioner, 
 in which office he remained until 1806. The 
 death of Sir John A. Macdonald in 1891 having 
 been followed by five years of brief ministries 
 and Conservative ineptitude, Tupper was again 
 brought from London to Ottawa, succeeded Sir 
 Mackenzie Bowell as Premier in 1896, and made 
 strong though unsuccessful efforts to extricate 
 the Conservative government from the difficul¬ 
 ties into which it had fallen over the educa¬ 
 tional question (see Canada, History; Mani¬ 
 toba, History; Greenway, Thomas). After 
 his defeat in 1896 he was Conservative opposi¬ 
 tion leader until 1900, when he retired from 
 public life. He afterward resided in England. 
 Both in Nova Scotia before Confederation and 
 afterward in federal affairs he procured the 
 enactment of many important laws. Imperial 
 federation had his ardent support. He was 
 a man of great physical force and political 
 courage, distinguished both as debater and 
 
 orator. He was made K.C.M.G. in 1879, 
 
 G.C.M.G. in 1886, a Baronet in 1888, and a 
 
 member of the Imperial Privy Council in 1908. 
 He died in England, but was buried at Halifax. 
 His Recollections of Sixty Years has much his¬ 
 torical value (Toronto, 1914). Consult also 
 Charles Thibault, The Biography of Sir Charles 
 Tupper (Montreal, 1884), and E. M. Saunders, 
 Three Premiers of Nova Scotia (Toronto, 1909). 
 
 TUPPER, Sir Charles Hibbert (1855- 
 
 ). A Canadian statesman, son of Sir 
 Charles Tupper. He was born at Amherst, 
 Nova Scotia, studied at McGill and Harvard 
 universities, and in 1878 was admitted to the 
 bar. In 1882 he was returned as a Conservative 
 to the Dominion Parliament, and subsequently 
 also in 1887, 1888, 1891, and 1896-1900. In 
 1888-95 he was Minister of Marine and Fish¬ 
 eries, and in 1895-96 Minister of Justice and 
 Attorney-General. In 1893 he served as agent 
 for the British government in the Paris tribunal 
 of arbitration on the Bering Sea question. (See 
 Bering Sea Controversy.) After 1897 he prac¬ 
 ticed law at Vancouver, B. C. In 1904 he re¬ 
 tired from political life. He was knighted 
 (K.C.M.G.) in 1893. 
 
 TUPPER, Martin Farquhar (1810-89). 
 An English versifier, born in London. His father, 
 Martin Tupper, was a well-known London sur¬ 
 
 geon belonging to a German family which had 
 long been settled in Guernsey. Martin was 
 educated at the Charterhouse, and at Christ 
 Church, Oxford. In 1832 he entered Lincoln’s 
 Inn, where he was called to the bar three years 
 later. He never practiced law, but turned at 
 once to literature. He visited the United States 
 in 1851 and 1876. He died at Albury, near 
 Guildford, Nov. 29, 1889. Tupper published 39 
 volumes. His first work, poems called Sacra 
 Poesis (1832), attracted slight attention. Ger¬ 
 aldine was published in 1838: it was a ludicrous 
 attempt to complete Coleridge’s Christabel. In 
 1838 also appeared the first installment of Pro¬ 
 verbial Philosophy . The work was completed in 
 1876. The earlier parts were enormously popu¬ 
 lar. Large sections of the poems were trans¬ 
 lated into German, French, and Danish. It is 
 hard to account for this vogue, as the poem is 
 an endless chain of canting moral common¬ 
 places. Consult the autobiography, My Life 
 as an Author (London, 1886), and reviews in 
 contemporary periodicals, especially Fraser’s 
 Magazine (ib., October, 1852). 
 
 TUPPER LAKE. A village in Franklin Co., 
 N. Y., 108 miles northeast of Utica, on the 
 New York Central Railroad (Map: New York, 
 F 2). Lumbering is carried on and among the 
 chief industrial establishments are saw mills 
 and a cooperage. Pop., 1910, 3067. 
 
 TUR. See Goat. 
 
 TURA, Cosimo (c.1430-95). An Italian 
 painter of the early Renaissance, the founder 
 and most important master of the Ferrarese 
 School. He was born in Ferrara, studied at 
 Squarcione’s school in Padua, and was influenced 
 by Donatello and the early works of Mantegna. 
 His powerful, realistic figures are hard in color, 
 but well drawn and modeled. He delighted in 
 the symbolic and the grotesque. His most im¬ 
 portant paintings include the impressive “Pieta” 
 (Museo Civico, Venice) ; the “Annunciation” in 
 the cathedral at Ferrara; a “Dead Christ Up¬ 
 held by Angels” (Vienna) ; “Christ on the 
 Cross” (Brera, Milan) ; and the altarpiece “Ma¬ 
 donna with Saints” (Berlin Museum). Panels 
 of saints are at Dresden, London, in the Uffizi 
 (Florence), and at Modena and Paris. 
 
 TURACO, too-ra'ko (African name). A bird 
 of the African family Musophagidae or plantain- 
 eaters (q.v.). The species are numerous, of 
 large size and brilliant plumage, and have 
 strong, thick bills, more or less curved on the 
 top, the cutting edges jagged or finely serrated, 
 so as to render them very efficient instruments 
 for cutting soft vegetable substances, on which 
 they feed. The colors are chiefly bright green, 
 greenish-blue, crimson, and yellow; red and 
 green predominate. These birds have a helmet¬ 
 like crest, which they elevate when excited. One 
 of the largest species is the giant turaco ( Cory- 
 thceola cristata) of western and Central Africa, 
 which is 28 inches long. It is blue-green with¬ 
 out red, but the tail has a broad, black, sub¬ 
 terminal bar, and the bill is red and yellow. 
 
 TURA'NIAN. A term formerly applied 
 loosely to all Asiatic peoples, excepting those 
 of Indo-Germanic or Semitic stock. In the 
 early Iranian chronicles of the Persian era the 
 term Turan, in contrast with Iran (the home 
 of the Aryan Iranians), was given to the region 
 to the northeast, including modern Turkestan, 
 the home of non-Aryan, nomadic, uncivilized 
 peoples. The theory once put forth according to 
 which, in prehistoric times, western Asia and 
 
TURATI 
 
 TURBOT 
 
 5^2 
 
 Dra- 
 
 Tai, 
 
 now 
 
 ). 
 
 most of Europe were peopled by Turanians, 
 whose descendants could be seen in Pelasgians, 
 Hittites, Etruscans, Iberians, Basques, Piets, 
 Finns, and Lapps, has now no currency among 
 the best authorities. The term Turanian still 
 has, however, some scientific currency, although 
 in a much modified sense. Thus De Morgan styles 
 the peoples of the Caucasus Turanians, and Den- 
 iker uses the word as synonymous with Turko- 
 Tatars. In linguistics Turanian formerly had 
 some vogue as a term proposed by Max Muller 
 for all languages of Europe, Asia (excepting 
 China), and Oceania, which are neither Indo- 
 Germanic nor Semitic. The division of these 
 languages into Ural-Altaic or Finno-Ugric, 
 vidian, Kolarian, Tibeto-Burman, Khasi, 
 Mon-Anam, and Malayo-Polynesian is 
 adopted. 
 
 TURATI, too-ra'te, Filippo (1857- 
 An Italian Socialist leader, born at 'Canzo 
 (Como). He graduated in law at the Uni¬ 
 versity of Bologna in 1877, and was appointed 
 counselor from the Province of Milan. Later 
 he was elected from Milan as a member of 
 the Chamber of Deputies. From 1891 to 1903 
 he served as manager and editor of the Critica 
 sociale, the monthly organ of the Socialist party. 
 As the chief spokesman of the Reformists or 
 Constitutionalists, Turati became the leader of 
 the Italian Socialists, but in 1904 Enrico Ferri 
 (q.v.) succeeded in supplanting him temporarily. 
 The Milan Congress, however, in 1910 indorsed 
 Turati’s Reformist policy by a vote of two to 
 one, and he continued to lead the more numerous 
 section of the Socialists. A close personal 
 friend of King Victor Emanuel III, he was fre¬ 
 quently consulted by him before the entrance 
 of Italy into the European War in 1915. 
 
 TURBAN SHELL. An herbivorous scuti- 
 branchiate mollusk, closely allied in habits and 
 
 structure to the top 
 shell (q.v.). It takes 
 its name from a resem¬ 
 blance in the shell to 
 an Oriental turban. 
 When denuded of its 
 outer coating the shell 
 is richly pearly, and is 
 one of the shells most 
 widely sold as an orna¬ 
 ment. In the Orient, 
 where most of the spe¬ 
 cies live, the animals 
 are often eaten. The 
 aperture is large and 
 flaring, and the opercu- 
 The typical genus Turbo, the 
 (see Pheasant Shell), and 
 the spiny genus Delphinula, constitute the fam¬ 
 ily Turbinidse, which may be traced back to 
 Ordovician time, and especially flourished dur¬ 
 ing the Silurian period. 
 
 TUR'BELLA'RIA (Neo-Lat. nom. pi., from 
 Lat. turba, disturbance, crowd; referring to the 
 whirlpools caused by the movements of their 
 cilia). The first and most highly organized 
 of the three classes of fiatworms, composed of 
 free-living worms. The body epithelium is 
 densely ciliated. The turbellarian worms are 
 found in both salt and fresh water in the 
 warmer parts of the world, and in moist places 
 on land in the tropics. They are usually of 
 small size, less than 2 inches long, but some 
 species are 4 or 5 inches long. The body is 
 
 generallv verv flat and leaflike, but in some 
 
 «/ «/ * 
 
 A TYPICAL TURBAN (Turbo 
 argyrostomus ). 
 
 lum calcareous, 
 genus Phasianella 
 
 species, especially among the land forms, is 
 narrow, elongated, and slightly arched. The 
 colors are sometimes dull, but many of the 
 marine forms are brightly colored, and are very 
 beautiful objects. Most of the Turbellaria are 
 carnivorous, and are very active, especially in 
 swimming. The class is divisible into three 
 orders, based chiefly on the arrangement of the 
 intestine. 
 
 TUR'BERVILLE or TUBERVILE, George 
 (c.1540-c.1610) . An English poet of an ancient 
 Dorset family. He was born at Whitchurch, in 
 Dorsetshire, and was educated at Winchester 
 and at New College, Oxford, of which he be¬ 
 came a fellow in 1561. Leaving Oxford the 
 next year without a degree, he studied law at 
 one of the inns of court in London. In 1568 
 lie accompanied Thomas Randolph, a special 
 ambassador of the Queen, to Russia, where he 
 wrote verses describing the manners of the peo¬ 
 ple (reprinted in part in Hakluyt’s Voyages, 
 1589). Of his later life nothing is known. 
 He probably died about 1610. Turberville oc¬ 
 cupies an interesting place in English literature 
 as a translator from the Latin and the Italian 
 and as one of the first among English poets 
 to employ the ottava rima (q.v.) and blank 
 verse (q.v.). Chief among his works are Epi¬ 
 taphs, Epigrams, Songs, and Sonnets (1567, in 
 Chalmers’s British Poets, vol. ii, London, 1810) ; 
 The Booke of Fauloonrie, or Hawking, with 
 which is bound The Noble Art of Venerie, or 
 Hunting, ascribed to Turberville (1575; enlarged 
 1611); Tragical Tales from the Italian, with 
 original epitaphs and sonnets (1587; reprinted, 
 Edinburgh, 1837) ; and The Heroycall Epistles 
 of Ovidius in English (1567). To Turberville 
 have been doubtfully ascribed two versions of 
 Tasso’s Jerusalem Delivered (manuscript in 
 Bodleian Library at Oxford). Selections from 
 Turberville’s poems are in Early English Poetry, 
 edited by H. M. Fitzgibbon (London, 1887). 
 
 TUR'BINE. A term used to distinguish a 
 variety of steam engines, water wheels, and 
 centrifugal pumps. The general distinguishing 
 characteristics of turbine machinery, compared 
 with older apparatus, is the employment of uni¬ 
 form rotary motion in place of reciprocating, 
 and the use (in one form or another) of im¬ 
 peller and guide vanes instead of pistons and 
 ports. Some steam turbine engines replace the 
 initial guide vanes with nozzles in which the 
 steam is expanded before discharge upon the 
 first impeller vanes. Turbine pumps are com¬ 
 monly distinguished from ordinary centrifugals 
 by the presence of guide vanes which receive the 
 water from the impeller and change its velocity 
 head into pressure more efficiently than does 
 the simple open casing. See Pumps and Pump¬ 
 ing Machinery; Shipbuilding, Machinery ; 
 Steam Turbine; Water Wheel and Turbines. 
 
 TUR'BIT. A fancy breed of domestic pigeons, 
 varying in colors and crest, with a flattened head, 
 very small beak, ruffled breast, and other oddi¬ 
 ties. See Colored Plate of Pigeons. 
 
 TUR'BOT (OF. turbot, from Lat. turbo, top). 
 The most valuable of the flatfishes {Rhombus 
 maximus), and one of the most toothsome of all 
 fishes. It abounds off the northern coast of 
 Europe, and attains a large size, sometimes 70 
 to 90 pounds in weight. Its form is shorter, 
 broader, and deeper than that of almost any 
 other flatfish. It is brown in color on the upper 
 surface, which is studded with hard roundish 
 tubercles. Like the other flatfishes, it gener- 
 
TURCARET , 
 
 ally keeps close to the bottom of the sea; and 
 is found chiefly on banks where there is a con¬ 
 siderable depth of water. See Flatfish ; and 
 Plate of Flatfish and Flounders. 
 
 TURCARET, tiir'ka'ra'. A comedy by Lesage 
 (17(H)), satirizing financial corruption." 
 
 TURCO-ITAEIAN WAR. With the realiza¬ 
 tion of national unity in 1871, Italy entered 
 tjie field of world politics. Emulating other 
 Gieat Powers of Europe, the country strove for 
 colonial possessions. Northern Africa appeared 
 to be a possible place for Italy to satisfy ter¬ 
 ritorial ambition. The decline of Turkish con- 
 tiol there had already tempted the European 
 Powers to extend “spheres of influence” over 
 these semicivilized territories. France had a 
 foothold in Algeria and Great Britain in Egypt. 
 Italy at first hoped to bring Tunis under her 
 control, but the French had gradually pene- 
 tiated this territory and in 1881 France pro¬ 
 claimed a protectorate over Tunis. Italian re¬ 
 sentment at this action led Italy to join the 
 Triple Alliance (q.v.) with Germany and Aus¬ 
 tria. Frustrated in ambitions as" to Tunis, 
 Italy turned attention to the Turkish territory 
 further east in Tripoli and Cyrenaica. Italian 
 colonists began to settle there and Italian capi¬ 
 talists began “peaceful” penetration of the coun¬ 
 try. Friction developed between the European 
 financial interests and the weak and corrupt 
 Turkish administration. 
 
 After the Turkish revolution of 1908 (see 
 Turkey ), which was characterized by an out¬ 
 burst of Turkish nationalism, the Young Turk 
 party opposed. the pretensions of Italy in Trip¬ 
 oli. The Italians, on the other hand, declared 
 that their merchants and citizens in Tripoli 
 were being mistreated by the Turkish authori¬ 
 ties. The crisis was reached when, in Septem¬ 
 ber, 1911, Italy sent an ultimatum to Turkey 
 enumerating her. complaints against Turkish 
 misgovernment, informing the Sultan that Italy 
 had determined upon the military occupation 
 of Tripoli and demanding acquiescence within 
 a period of twenty-four hours. The Porte’s 
 reply was considered unsatisfactory by Italy, 
 and on Sept. 29, 1911, the Italian government 
 declared war on Turkey. 
 
 Italy’s action caused great apprehension in 
 the chancelleries of the Great European Powers. 
 Any disturbance in the Turkish dominions was 
 liable .to precipitate trouble in the Balkans 
 and might lead to serious and unforeseen con¬ 
 sequences. Germany and Austria-Hungary were 
 especially concerned. Turkey had come to be 
 regarded as a member of the Triple Alliance 
 group. Both the German and Austrian govern¬ 
 ments appealed to Italy, as a member of the 
 alliance, to compromise the issue. They could 
 hardly do more, for if pressure was brought to 
 bear upon Italy it might readily lead her to 
 join forces with the rival diplomatic group 
 (the Triple Entente). Under these circum¬ 
 stances Germany and Austria-Hungary were 
 forced to stand by and see their protege de¬ 
 spoiled by their ally Italy. 
 
 Naval and Military Operations. The war 
 opened with the sinking of three Turkish tor¬ 
 pedo boats off the coast of Epirus by an Italian 
 squadron. In October, 1911, the Italian fleet 
 blockaded the Tripolitan coast and, after a 
 bombardment, the port of Tripoli was occupied. 
 An expeditionary force was landed but no seri¬ 
 ous resistance was offered by the Turks, who 
 withdrew into the interior. An uprising of 
 
 on the 
 All Arabs who 
 
 v ere found with firearms were condemned to 
 death and several thousand others, accused of 
 treachery, were transported to Italian islands. 
 The Italian forces took possession of many 
 coast towns and on Nov. 5, 1911, Italy formally 
 proclaimed annexation of Iripoli and Cyrenaica. 
 Little ellort was made, however, to push into 
 the interior. 
 
 After the war had continued several months 
 the European Powers tried to bring about peace. 
 Russia, in particular, tried to obtain an agree¬ 
 ment among the Great Powers to prepare some 
 feasible means of intervention, but the mutual 
 jealousy and suspicion prevented any concerted 
 action. It appeared as though Turkey might 
 stand out indefinitely. To surrender a large 
 Mussulman population to a Christian Power 
 would have weakened the influence of the Young 
 lurk party in control at Constantinople. 
 Moreover, Italy’s hands were tied in that she 
 had bound herself, under pressure from Austria- 
 Hungary, not to carry on military operations 
 in the Balkans or the HDgean Sea. After four 
 months of indecisive warfare Italy made an 
 effort to force matters to a final issue by sending 
 a squadron into the Red Sea and bombarding 
 the port of Hodeida. This was followed by the 
 sinking of two Turkish war vessels in the 
 port of Beirut. The extension of the war to 
 the Turkish Asiatic dominions was regarded by 
 the European Powers with apprehension. It 
 was probably the intention of Italy, by this 
 move, to force the European Powers to bring 
 pressure to bear upon Turkey to yield to the 
 Italian demands. Diplomatic representations 
 were made by the Powers to Turkey, and in the 
 hope of making these effective an Italian 
 squadron appeared in the Dardanelles and bom¬ 
 barded the Turkish forts there. 
 
 The Porte replied to the communication from 
 the Powers in regard to mediation that this could 
 only be accepted on the condition that the sover¬ 
 eign rights, of Turkey should be maintained and 
 that Tripoli should be evacuated by the Italians. 
 In answer to the Italian attack on the Dar¬ 
 danelles, the Turkish government closed the 
 Straits to commerce, but upon the energetic 
 protest of the Powers, especially Russia, this 
 action was revoked. Further action by the 
 Powers against Turkey was not deemed ex¬ 
 pedient and it appeared as though the war had 
 resolved itself into a stalemate. In Italy the 
 situation was critical. The government could 
 not revoke its decree annexing Tripoli without 
 compromising Italy’s position among the Pow¬ 
 ers of Europe. The expenses of the war ag¬ 
 gravated the financial stringency in the coun¬ 
 try, and it was essential to bring the war to 
 a close as speedily as possible. As a further 
 effort to influence Turkey, and possibly also 
 the European Powers, the Italians seized twelve 
 of the Turkish islands in the HSgean. This 
 action aroused serious concern, especially in 
 Great Britain, for if Italy retained these islands 
 it would seriously modify the balance of power 
 in the Mediterranean. A second appearance of 
 the Italian fleet in the Dardanelles in Julv, 
 1912, threatened further complications. In 
 August, 1912, Turkey first indicated a desire 
 to e*nd the war. This move was due, not so 
 much to the activities of the Italians, as to 
 reports of serious unrest among the Balkan 
 states. 
 
 TURCO-ITALIAN WAR 
 
 the Arabs led to vigorous reprisals 
 part of the Italian authorities. 
 
TURENNE 
 
 TURGENEV 
 
 564 
 
 In the latter part of August, 1912, negotia¬ 
 tions were begun between representatives of 
 Italy and Turkey looking to a restoration of 
 peace. The meetings were held at Ouchy, 
 Switzerland. The chief difficulty arose from 
 Italy’s decree annexing the province of Tripoli, 
 which Turkey would not accept. The precipi¬ 
 tation of the Balkan War (q.v.), however, 
 forced Turkey to accept such terms as she could 
 obtain, and on Oct. 15, 1912, preliminaries to 
 peace were signed. The terms of the Treaty of 
 Lausanne provided that Italy should retain full 
 sovereignty in Tripoli and Cyrenaica. At the 
 same time Turkey was not required to recognize 
 expressly the annexation, and Italy agreed to 
 recognize the religious authority of the Sultan 
 over the Moslem subjects in the territory. The 
 iEgean Islands were restored to Turkey on con¬ 
 dition that a general amnesty should be granted 
 to the inhabitants and local autonomy respected. 
 
 The wider aspects of the wav, in its effects 
 upon the international situation in Europe, 
 were of far-reaching importance. As had been 
 anticipated, the disturbance of the status quo 
 in one part of the Turkish dominions precipi¬ 
 tated trouble elsewhere. The Balkan States, 
 taking advantage of Turkey’s difficulties, or¬ 
 ganized the Balkan League and began a war 
 which reached its culmination in the tremendous 
 conflict of 1914. See War in Europe, Underly¬ 
 ing Causes. 
 
 Bibliography. G. F. Abbott, The Holy War 
 in Tripoli (New York, 1912) ; Sir Thomas Bar¬ 
 clay, Turco-Italian War and its Problems (Lon¬ 
 don, 1912) ; H. C. S. Wright, Two Years under 
 the Crescent (Boston, 1913) ; Francis McCullagh, 
 Italy’s War for a Desert (Chicago, 1913) ; W. 
 IL Beehler, History of the Italian-Turkish War 
 (Annapolis, 1913) ; Jose Briva, La guerra italo- 
 turca (Barcelona, 1913) ; W. K. McClure, Italy 
 in North Africa (Philadelphia, 1914). 
 
 TURENNE, tu'ren', Henri de Latour d’Au- 
 vergne, Vicomte de (1611-75). A marshal of 
 France, born at Sedan, Sept. 11, 1611, the sec¬ 
 ond son of Henry, Duke of Bouillon, and brought 
 up in the Reformed faith. He entered the 
 French army in 1630, served with distinction 
 under Bernhard of Weimar in 1637-38, and won 
 a victory over the Spaniards before Casale in 
 1640. He conquered Roussillon from Spain in 
 1642, and was rewarded with the baton of a 
 marshal of France. In 1643 he commanded the 
 army operating in Germany, where the French 
 had "sustained defeat by the Bavarians and Im¬ 
 perialists. With the Duke of Enghien (later 
 Conde) he fought against General Mercy at 
 Freiburg in August, 1644. After suffering his 
 defeat by Mercy at Marienthal, May 5, 1645, he 
 shared in Conde’s victory near Nordlingen, Au¬ 
 gust 3. The next year Turenne united with the 
 Swedes to complete the conquest of Bavaria, and 
 by his successes hastened the close of the Thirty 
 Years’ War (1648). Under the influence of 
 his elder brother and the Duchess of Longue- 
 ville (q.v.) he joined the Fronde (q.v.), but, 
 with his Spanish allies, was defeated by Du- 
 plessis at Rethel in December, 1650. In 1651 
 he became reconciled with the court, and suc¬ 
 cessfully commanded the royal armies against 
 Conde, "who meanwhile had gone over to the 
 Fronde. In 1667, on the outbreak of the so- 
 called War of Devolution (see Louis XIV~), the 
 King gave him the supreme command of the 
 army, with which he overran Flanders and 
 Franche-Comt£. Louis XIV succeeded in in¬ 
 
 ducing him to embrace the Catholic faith (1668). 
 Turenne’s campaign in Holland (1672) was a 
 triumphant one; and the Elector oi Branden¬ 
 burg, who had ventured to side with the Dutch, 
 was forced to sue for peace. In the following 
 campaign, however, Turenne was outmanoeuvred 
 by the Imperialist general, Montecucculi. In 
 1674 he laid waste the Palatinate and defeated 
 the Duke of Lorraine at Sinzheim. Forced from 
 Alsace by superior forces, Turenne executed a 
 masterly retreat, and found safety behind the 
 Vosges "Mountains; in a midwinter campaign 
 he reconquered the country after two decisive 
 victories at Miihlhausen and Turkheim. Once 
 more he crossed the Rhine to meet his old rival, 
 Montecucculi, but was killed while reconnoitring 
 before Sasbach, near Offenburg, July 27, 1675. 
 He was buried at St. Denis, and his body was 
 placed by Napoleon in the Invalides. 
 
 Bibliography. Turenne left memoirs of his 
 campaigns from 1643 to 1658, which are of in¬ 
 terest to the student of military history (Paris, 
 1782; new ed., 1872); they are supplemented 
 by the Memoires by Deschamps (ib., 1901) ; his 
 letters were edited by Barthelemv (ib., 1874). 
 Consult also: Henri Choppin, La campagne de 
 Turenne en Alsace, 1674-1675 (Paris, 1875) ; 
 Paul Liimkemann, Turennes letzter Feldzug, 1675 
 (Halle, 1883) ; L. de Piepape, Turenne et l’inva¬ 
 sion de la Champagne, 1649-1650 (Paris, 1889) ; 
 Jules Roy, Turenne: sa vie, les institutions 
 militaires de son temps (2d ed., Paris, 1898) ; 
 F. des Robert, Les campagnes de Turenne en 
 Allemagne (Nancy, 1903) ; Hardy de Perini, 
 Turenne et Cond6, 1626-1675 (Paris, 1907); 
 C. G. Picavet, Les dernieres annees de Turenne, 
 1660-1675 (ib., 1914) ; id., Documents biogra- 
 phiques sur Turenne, 1611—1675 (Lille, 1914). 
 
 TURGAI, toor-gV. A territory of Russian 
 Central Asia, an administrative division of the 
 Governor-Generalship of the Steppes (Map: Asia, 
 H 4). Area, 176,219 square miles. The larger 
 part is flat, with sandy deserts in the south. 
 The western part is covered with the Mugajar 
 Mountains, offshoots of the Ural system. The 
 region is watered by the Ural and the Tobol, 
 which are almost waterless during the dry 
 season. The flora is poor and the forests are 
 few. The fauna, on the other hand, is very 
 rich, especially in fur-bearing animals. The 
 climate is continental, with extremely hot sum¬ 
 mers and severe winters. 
 
 Agriculture is as yet little developed. The 
 nomadic Kirghizes are engaged principally in 
 stock raising and hunting. The mineral deposits 
 of the region, which include iron, copper, silver, 
 coal, etc., are practically untouched. ' The na¬ 
 tives export small articles of metal, saddles, 
 musical instruments, carpets, etc. There are 
 also exported furs and animal products. The 
 barter system still prevails. Pop., 1913, 689,500. 
 
 TURGENEV, tur-gen'yef, Alexander Ivan- 
 ovitcii (1785-1846). A Russian historian. He 
 traveled extensively in Germany, Italy, France, 
 and Denmark, making investigations in regard 
 to the mediaeval history of Russia. He published 
 Histories Russice Monumenta (2 vols., 1841-42) 
 and a Supplementum (1848). 
 
 TURGENEV, Ivan Sergeyevitch (1818-83). 
 A Russian novelist. He was born at Orel, 
 the son of a wealthy nobleman. At home he 
 learned German and French, besides some Eng¬ 
 lish, while a self-taught serf implanted in him 
 a love for the Russian poets. At 16 he entered 
 the University of St. Petersburg. Here he 
 
TURGENEV 
 
 565 TURGOR 
 
 came to know Pushkin, Belinsky, and other 
 .literary lights. After graduating, he went to 
 Berlin to complete his studies, returning to St. 
 Petersburg in 1841. His relations with his 
 mother, formerly strained, were now openly 
 broken oiT on account of her treatment of the 
 serfs. He had to take service as a government 
 clerk, but soon gave up his position and set 
 himself to write. His poem Parasha (1845) 
 "as heartily praised by Belinsky. But it was 
 the great success of Kolosov (1846) and Khor 
 and Kalinytch (1847) that induced him to 
 write the Annals of a Sportsman (1847-51). 
 These sketches, pervaded with the spirit of hu¬ 
 manity and a sincere love for the oppressed 
 peasants, became the favorite book of Alexander 
 11, then heir to the throne. When Turgenev’s 
 mother died in 1850 he immediately liberated all 
 the serfs belonging to the estate. Meanwhile, 
 lie had incurred the suspicion of the government 
 bv his liberal utterances and in 1852 he was 
 exiled to his estate, but was pardoned two years 
 later. In 1855 Turgenev left Russia, and, ex¬ 
 cept for a few visits to the country of his birth, 
 spent most of his life abroad, mainly at Paris. 
 He died at his Bougival villa, near Paris, in 
 1883, and was buried at St. Petersburg in the 
 \ olkov Cemetery, the funeral procession ex¬ 
 ceeding anything of the kind previously wit¬ 
 nessed in Russia. 
 
 The great fame of Turgenev rests on his 
 Yakov Pasynkov (1855) ; Rudin, Faust (1856) ; 
 Asya (1858) Nobles’ Nest or Liza (1859) ; On 
 the Eve, or First Love (1860), and Fathers and 
 Sons (1862). In these he turned to the mental 
 and moral bankruptcy of the upper classes as 
 resulting from a life of idleness amid hundreds 
 of overworked serfs. Fathers and Sons marks 
 an important point in Turgenev’s career. Its 
 hero, Bazarov, a young student disdaining all 
 but utilitarian science, was called by the author 
 by the newly coined name nihilist, meaning “a 
 man who looks at everything from a critical 
 point of view.” With one or two exceptions the 
 radical critics^ savagely attacked what was con¬ 
 sidered a caricature on the young generation. 
 With the reactionaries Nihilism soon became 
 equivalent to “respect for nothing,” or “polit¬ 
 ical unreliability,” and this helped to widen still 
 further the breach with the Liberals. The ani¬ 
 mosity of Turgenev’s critics turned the melan¬ 
 choly manifest in his earlier works into pessi¬ 
 mism, and his Smoke (1867 ) depicted the whole 
 liberal movement of the sixties as a mirage. 
 Virgin Soil (1876) pictured the new generation 
 of the seventies. Here, as in his essay on 
 Hamlet and Don Quixote of 1860, Turgenev 
 fully applied his favorite division of all people 
 into two types, one representing endless self- 
 analysis and skepticism, the other enthusiastic 
 devotion to the ideal. But Turgenev, living 
 abroad, was no longer a faithful painter of the 
 new social currents in Russian life. Clara 
 Militch (1883), in spite of its mystical effect, is 
 a story of the real life of the great Russian 
 singer and actress Kadmina, who ended life by 
 suicide on the stage of Kharkov. His Senilia, or 
 Prose Poems (1883), are poetic gems in the most 
 perfect prose. 
 
 Turgenev, the lineal literary descendant of 
 Pushkin, is the greatest prose artist in the his¬ 
 tory of Russian letters. His figures do not stand 
 out boldly against the background, but form an 
 harmonious organic part of the whole scheme, 
 and as such impress one still more forcibly when 
 
 the whole scheme is comprehended. The lan¬ 
 guage of Turgenev has been at once a model 
 and source of despair for the young Russian 
 v riters. His influence on modern literature has 
 been very great. His works appeared in 10 
 vols. (3d ed., St. Petersburg, 1891). There are 
 Lnghsh translations by Constance Garnett (Lon¬ 
 don, 1894-97), and by Isabel F. Hapgood (New 
 York, 1904). Consult: George Moore, Impres¬ 
 sions and Opinions (New York, 1891) ; Borkow- 
 ski, Turgenjew (Stuttgart, 1903); Haumant, 
 lourguenief (Paris, 1906) ; J. A. T. Lloyd, Tiro 
 Russian Reformers (New York, 1911); W. L. 
 Phelps, Essays on Russian Novelists (ib.’ 1912) ; 
 P. S. Moxom, Two Masters, Browning and Tur¬ 
 genev (Boston, 1912), and in Russian the studies 
 of A. Soloviev (St. Petersburg, 1908) and I. 
 Ivanov (ib., 1914). 
 
 TURGENEV, Nikolai Ivanovitch (1790- 
 1871). A Russian historian, brother of Alex¬ 
 ander Ivanovitch. He studied at Gottingen, en¬ 
 tered the civil service, and in 1813 was associated 
 as Russian commissary with Baron Stein in 
 governing the German provinces taken from 
 France. He was afterward Deputy Secretary of 
 the Interior and Agriculture in' Russia. * He 
 advocated the emancipation of the serfs, and in 
 1825 was sentenced to death in contumaciam, for 
 his connection with the insurrection of the’De¬ 
 cembrists. He lived thenceforth in Paris, where 
 he published La Russie et les Russes (1847). 
 TURGIDITY. See Turgor. 
 
 TURGITE, tur'jit (from Turginsk, a copper 
 mine in the Ural Mountains). A hydrated ferric 
 oxide that is found massive, with a dull, earthy 
 lustre, and is reddish-black to dark-red in color. 
 It is found in the Urals, in Prussia, and in the 
 United States at Salisbury, Conn., where it oc¬ 
 curs in large botryoidal masses with limonite 
 which latter mineral it much resembles. Tur- 
 gite is regarded as an intermediate stage in 
 the alteration of limonite to hematite by the loss 
 of water, and is a valuable ore of iron. 
 
 TUR'GOR (Lat., a swelling). The condition 
 of a plant cell when it is stretched by the in¬ 
 ternal pressure of the cell sap. The word is also 
 applied to the stretching force. The mature 
 plant cell usually consists of a protoplasmic 
 body, surrounded by an elastic membrane com¬ 
 posed of cellulose and other materials, and in¬ 
 closing one or more vacuoles filled with water, 
 the cell sap. This is not pure water, but a 
 solution of various substances, whose total os¬ 
 motic pressure (see Osmosis) is usually equal to 
 4-30 atmospheres, and sometimes rises as high 
 as 150 or more atmospheres. Whenever such a 
 cell is surrounded by a solution of lower osmotic 
 pressure, water will enter the cell and find its 
 way to the vacuole. On account of the high 
 osmotic pressure, the protoplasm is driven out¬ 
 ward against the cell wall as water enters, and 
 the cell wall itself is stretched (unless this is 
 prevented by the opposing pressure of adjacent 
 cells) until its resilience balances the outward 
 pressure. This stretched state of the cell is 
 favorable for growth (q.v.), and is the opposite 
 of the condition known as plasmolvsis (q.v.). 
 Turgor may be reduced by the withdrawal of 
 water from the cell, either by evaporation or by 
 surrounding the cell with a solution of higher 
 osmotic pressure than that inside it. Turgor of 
 all the cells of a tissue renders the mass rigid. 
 By the combined turgidity of all the tissues in 
 the young parts of the plant or those whose cells 
 are thin walled (e.g., leaves), such parts main- 
 
TURGOT 
 
 TURIN 
 
 566 
 
 tain their normal form. When turgor dimin¬ 
 ishes, the parts become flaccid. 
 
 TURGOT, tur'go', Anne Robert Jacques, 
 Baron de l’Aulne (1727-81). A French econ¬ 
 omist and statesman. He was born in Paris, 
 May 10, 1727, of an old family of Normandy, 
 and was destined for an ecclesiastical career, but 
 after studying awhile at the Sorbonne, where he 
 won distinction, he turned from the Church and 
 devoted himself to jurisprudence and political 
 economy. Here he allied himself with the phil¬ 
 osophical and liberal thought of his time. He 
 was a contributor to the Encyclopedic and be¬ 
 came a member of the physiocratic school of 
 economists. He became councilor to the Parle- 
 ment in 1752, and in 1761 was made intendant 
 of Limoges, administering affairs there for 13 
 years, and carrying out within this field such 
 reforms as ancient prejudices would allow. He 
 introduced a more equitable administration of 
 imposts, and succeeded in abolishing the old 
 method of repairing roads and bridges by the 
 compulsory labor of the poor inhabitants of the 
 district, the corvee (q.v.). He also exerted him¬ 
 self for the protection of commerce. A wider 
 field opened before him when he was called into 
 the ministry after the death of Louis XV. The 
 finances were in disorder, and the social and 
 political system of France needed regeneration 
 and reform. Turgot was first made Minister of 
 Marine, and afterward Comptroller-General of 
 France, when to fill that post was to be virtu¬ 
 ally Prime Minister. His first achievement was 
 so far to reduce expenditure as to leave a sur¬ 
 plus of 20 millions of francs a year to be applied 
 to the liquidation of old debts. He augmented 
 public revenue without imposing new taxes. An 
 early measure was the carrying out of free trade 
 in corn through the interior of France. He 
 desired complete freedom of trade within the 
 country, and to make the nobility and clergy 
 contribute to the public revenue in the same 
 proportion as the third estate. He wished, by 
 means of provincial assemblies, to accustom the 
 nation to public life, and prepare it for the resto¬ 
 ration of the States-General. But the privileged 
 classes whose exemptions were threatened, nobles, 
 courtiers, farmers of the revenue, and financiers, 
 united against him. The King forsook him, and 
 Turgot retired in May, 1776, having held office 
 only 20 months, afterward devoting himself to 
 literary pursuits and scientific studies. His 
 most important work, Reflexions sur la forma¬ 
 tion et la distribution des richesses (1766), is 
 one of the chief productions of the physiocratic 
 school. See Physiocrats. 
 
 Bibliography. His complete works were pub¬ 
 lished in nine volumes (Paris, 1808-11), and 
 have since been reprinted (1844). Consult also: 
 M. J. Condorcet, Vie de M. Turgot (Paris, 
 1786) ; C. J. Tissot, Turgot: sa vie, son admin¬ 
 istration, ses ouvrages (ib., 1862) ; Alfred Ney- 
 marck, Turgot et ses doctrines (2 vols., ib., 
 1885); Leon Say, Turgot (2d ed., ib., 1891); 
 W. W. Stephens, Life and Writings of Turgot 
 (London, 1895) ; R. P. Shepherd, Turgot and 
 the Six Edicts (New York, 1903); Gustave 
 Schelle, Turgot (Paris, 1909) ; A. D. White, 
 Seven Great Statesmen in the Warfare of Hu¬ 
 manity with Unreason (New York, 1910) ; Fran¬ 
 cis de Ferry, Les id4es et Voeuvre de Turgot en 
 matiere du droit public (Paris, 1911), contain¬ 
 ing a bibliography. 
 
 TURHEIM, Ulrich von. See Ulrich von 
 Turheim. 
 
 TURIN, tu'rin or tu-rln' (It. Torino, pron. 
 to-re'no). The capital of the Province of Turin, 
 in Piedmont, Italy, situated on the Po, here 
 navigable near the junction of the Dora Ri- 
 paria, 76 miles west-southwest of Milan (Map: 
 Italy, A 2). Turin is an open unfortified 
 town. It is unique among Italian cities be¬ 
 cause of its rectangularity of construction— 
 long, straight, in part arcaded streets, rectangu¬ 
 lar blocks of houses or islands, and regular 
 squares. It is well built, and is embellished 
 with numerous squares, statues, and monuments, 
 and beautiful parks. The extensive Piazza Cas- 
 tello, in the northeastern part of Turin, is the 
 centre of the city’s life. Thence the most im¬ 
 portant thoroughfares diverge, the fine Via di 
 Po (the Corso of Turin) leading southeast to 
 one of the four bridges over the Po, and travers¬ 
 ing the large Piazza Vittorio Emanuele. In the 
 Piazza Castello rises the mediieval Palazzo Ma- 
 dama, a huge ungainly pile, now occupied by 
 various institutions. Northward looms the royal 
 palace, a plain brick edifice, dating from 1660. 
 Within it are located the valuable royal armory 
 (with many historic relics of interest), a fine 
 collection of coins, etc. Adjoining the palace is 
 the royal park. Near it stands the common¬ 
 place Gothic cathedral of St. John the Baptist 
 (1492-98), containing the fine impressive chapel 
 of the Santissimo Sudario, treasuring some of 
 the linen reported to have covered the body of 
 the Saviour. The Palazzo Carignano, in the 
 Carignano Square to the south, in which met 
 the Sardinian Chamber of Deputies (1848-59), 
 and the Italian Parliament (1860-64), holds 
 natural history collections. The fine square of 
 San Carlo is situated south of the Castello. 
 The gardens of the Citadella, southwest of the 
 royal palace, as well as the gardens of Carlo 
 Felice, to the south, are both attractive. The 
 public park is in the southeastern part of the 
 city, along the left bank of the Po, where are 
 also located the Botanical Gardens. On the 
 eastern side of the Po rises the wooded Monte 
 dei Cappuccini, 164 feet above the river. A 
 short distance east of the city, on a height 
 ascended by a cable railroad, is the royal burial 
 church of the house of Savoy—the Superga—a 
 splendid edifice affording a fine view. The most 
 important monuments are those of Duke Victor 
 Amadeus I, King Charles Albert, Duke Emman¬ 
 uel Philibert, and the imposing monument of 
 Cavour. The city has very little architecture 
 of the Renaissance. 
 
 Turin is industrially and commercially pros¬ 
 perous. It manufactures mainly steel and iron 
 products, silks, lace, velvet, ribbons, cotton and 
 woolen stuffs, jewelry, porcelain, pianos, and 
 furniture. Prominent among the exports are 
 wine and silk. 
 
 Educationally Turin is prominent. (For the 
 university, see Turin, University of.) The 
 valuable National Library has some 350,000 
 volumes and 1500 manuscripts. Turin has 
 among its numerous educational institutions a 
 royal polytechnic school, an astronomical ob¬ 
 servatory (in the Palazzo Madama), a royal 
 military school for artillery and engineer offi¬ 
 cers, a military school and hospital, a Liceo 
 Musicale, an archiepiscopal seminary, an agri¬ 
 cultural school, a philharmonic academy, four 
 gymnasia, and an industrial school. In the 
 Palace of the Academy of Sciences are the pic¬ 
 ture gallery and museums of antiquities and 
 natural history. There are an Italian Industrial 
 
TURIN 
 
 TURKESTAN 
 
 567 
 
 Museum, the civic museum, and the museum of 
 the Risorgimento Italiano, in honor of Victor 
 Emmanuel II. The last is located in the modern 
 Mole Antonelliana, a curious tower-shaped edi¬ 
 fice, having a total height of 538 feet, thus over¬ 
 topping the Cologne Cathedral and being prob¬ 
 ably the highest brick edifice in the world. The 
 Royal Albertine Library, in the royal palace, 
 contains 60,000 volumes and 3000 manuscripts. 
 The Municipal Library has about 104,000 
 volumes. 
 
 Turin is an important military station, owing 
 to its nearness to the French frontier and to the 
 passes of the western Alps. The municipal debt 
 is more than offset by the value of the municipal 
 properties. Pop., 1911 (commune), 427,106; 
 1914 (est.), 445,582. 
 
 History. Turin was the chief city of the 
 Ligurian Taurini. It was taken by Hannibal, 
 and became a Roman colony in the time of 
 Augustus, when it received the name of Augusta 
 Taurinorum. It was prominent under the Lom¬ 
 bards, became later the seat of marquises, and 
 in the eleventh century passed to the house of 
 Savoy. It has been repeatedly in the hands of 
 the French. Here Prince Eugene won a bril¬ 
 liant victory over the French on Sept. 7, 1706. 
 From 1861 to 1865 Turin was the capital of the 
 new Kingdom of Italy. Consult: Promis, Storia 
 dell’ antioa Torino (Turin, 1871); Borbonese, 
 Torino illustrata e descritta (ib., 1884) ; E. C. 
 Babut, Le concile de Turin: Essai sur Vhistoire- 
 des eglises provengales au Ve siecle (Paris, 
 1904). 
 
 TURIN, Claudius of. See Claudius of 
 Turin. 
 
 TURIN, University of. An Italian univer¬ 
 sity founded in 1405 by Louis of Savoy. It 
 became at once a refuge for the professors at 
 the universities of Pavia and Piacenza, then 
 suffering from civil wars. Towards the latter 
 part of the fifteenth century it shared the gen¬ 
 eral reputation and prosperity of the Italian 
 universities of that period. It comprised two 
 colleges, one founded in 1457 (Collegio Grassi), 
 and one in 1482. The university was reorganized 
 in 1632, and in 1713 the present building was 
 erected. The university has faculties of law, 
 medicine and surgery, philosophy and letters, 
 and physical, natural, and mathematical sciences, 
 and a school of pharmacy. In 1912-13 there 
 were about 2199 students. There are connected 
 with the university the Collegio Carlo Alberto 
 and the Instituto Dionisio. 
 
 TURIN PAPYRUS. A hieratic papyrus, 
 preserved in the Museum of Turin, containing a 
 dynastic list of the kings of Egypt. It formed 
 part of the collection offered for sale to the 
 French government in 1818 by M. Dovretti, the 
 French Consul General in Egypt, and was at 
 that time perfectly preserved. The French gov¬ 
 ernment declining to buy it, the papyrus after¬ 
 ward was acquired by the King- of Sardinia and 
 was finally sent to Turin. It was, however, care¬ 
 lessly packed, and on its arrival it was found to 
 be broken into 164 fragments. Cliampollion 
 (q.v.) was the first to recognize its nature and 
 value, and in 1824 collected from it between 160 
 and 180 royal prsenomens, but, except in a very 
 few cases, was unable to determine the order of 
 succession. In 1826 Seyffarth (q.v.) attempted 
 to piece together the broken fragments and re¬ 
 construct the papyrus, but his attempted restora¬ 
 tion is altogether unreliable, partly on account 
 of his limited knowledge of the hieratic char¬ 
 
 acter, and partly because a large proportion of 
 the fragments are so minute as to afford little 
 or no indication of their proper order. Subse¬ 
 quent attempts to restore the text have met 
 with little success. In its original condition 
 tiie Turin Papyrus contained a list of the kings 
 of Egypt, beginning with the mythical period 
 and ending with Dynasties XV and XVI, with 
 the exact duration of each monarch’s reign in 
 years, months, and days. It would supply, if 
 complete, an invaluable guide for the earlier pe¬ 
 riod of Egyptian history, but in its present 
 mutilated state it is of little use for historical 
 and chronological purposes except in the por¬ 
 tions covering the thirteenth and fourteenth 
 djmasties, where the text is somewhat better 
 preserved. Elsewhere the papyrus serves at 
 best to confirm data derived from other sources, 
 and furnishes scarcely any independent informa¬ 
 tion. The text is published in Lepsius, Auswahl 
 der wichtigsten TJrkunden des dgyptischen Al¬ 
 ter thums (Berlin, 1842), and in Wilkinson, The 
 Fragments of the Hieratic Papyrus at Turin 
 (London, 1851). Consult: Transactions of the 
 Royal Society of Literature, 2d series, vol. i 
 (London, 1843); Revue archeologique, vol. vii 
 (Paris, 1850) ; K. A. Wiedemann, Aegyptische 
 Geschichte (Gotha, 1884-88); E. A. T. Wallis 
 Budge, A History of Egypt (New York, 1902) ; 
 J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt (Chi¬ 
 cago, 1907). 
 
 TURKESTAN, tpr'ke-stan', Turk. pron. toor'- 
 ke-stan'. An extensive region in Central Asia, 
 included between the Russian territory of the 
 Steppes on the north, the Mongolian Desert on 
 the east, Tibet, India, Afghanistan, and Persia 
 on the south, and the Caspian Sea on the west. 
 A portion of Turkestan territory is comprised 
 within Afghanistan. Politically the region is 
 divided into western or Russian Turkestan and 
 eastern or Chinese Turkestan. The Russian 
 protectorates of Khiva and Bokhara and the 
 Russian Province of Transcaspia are now con¬ 
 sidered and treated as separate divisions. 
 
 Russian Turkestan. This region embraces 
 the territories of Ferghana, Samarkand, Semi- 
 ryetchensk, and Syr-Darya (Map: Asia, F 4). 
 Total area, about 420,807 square miles; total 
 population in 1912, 6,416,700; on Jan. 1, 1914 
 (estimated), 6,250,300. Together with the 
 Transcaspian province and a portion of the 
 Pamir, it constitutes the general government 
 of Russian Turkestan. It is bordered by the ter¬ 
 ritory of the Steppes on the north, Sungaria and 
 Chinese Turkestan on the east, Bokhara and 
 Khiva on the south, and Khiva and the Sea of 
 Aral on the west. The western and northern 
 parts are gently rolling surfaces sparsely clothed 
 in spots with bushes and shrubs. Here are the 
 great deserts of Kara-kum, Kizil-kum, and 
 Mujun-kum. In the northeast is the extensive 
 Lake Balkhash. In the south there are moun¬ 
 tains belonging to the three systems of the 
 Hissar, the Alai, and Tian Shan, and form a wild 
 Alpine-like district, interspersed with fertile val¬ 
 leys. The Karatau chain stretches northwest 
 across the territory of Syr-Darya and divides 
 it into two parts. There are numerous oases. 
 The Syr-Darya, rising on the central mountain 
 border, flows west through the centre of Fer¬ 
 ghana, then northwest along the southwestern 
 side of the Karatau, finally reaching the Sea of 
 Aral. The Ili, an affluent of Lake Balkhash, is 
 the chief river in the East. It flows northwest 
 through the centre of Semiryetchensk. These 
 
TURKESTAN 
 
 TURKESTAN 
 
 568 
 
 streams have numerous tributaries. The south¬ 
 ern section of Russian Turkestan is subject to 
 earthquakes. The climate is continental. The 
 summers are hot and dry and the winters com¬ 
 paratively severe and accompanied by destruc¬ 
 tive snowstorms. The flora in the west belongs 
 to the Aral Sea district, in the east to the mid- 
 Asiatic region, Tjfhe fauna, though essentially of 
 the Central Asiatic type, comprises many tropi¬ 
 cal representatives, among them the tiger. Salt, 
 coal, and asphalt are obtained, and precious 
 stones are exported. Ferghana and Samarkand 
 are connected with the Caspian Sea by a railroad. 
 
 Numerous irrigation canals tap the rivers and 
 provide agricultural conditions which would 
 otherwise be impossible. This is especially true 
 in the southern part of the country, where the 
 bulk of the population is located. The staple 
 crops are wheat, rice, millet, and oats. Cotton 
 is a promising crop in Ferghana. Rice and 
 cocoon silk are also produced in noteworthy 
 quantities. Various kinds of fruit, including 
 the grape, thrive. Stock raising, however, is the 
 leading occupation. Great numbers of sheep are 
 reared. The reported number of live stock in 
 1914 was: horses, 2,028,494; horned cattle, 2,- 
 151,465; sheep and goats, 7,236,055 (of which 
 5,223,208 in Syr-Darya) ; swine, 59,183. There 
 are said to be over 1,000,000 camels. The do¬ 
 mestic industries are widespread, and some of 
 the native products, such as carpets and rugs, 
 are highly valued in Europe. The manufacturing 
 industries properly so called are in their infancy. 
 The exports consist chiefly of raw products, 
 which go largely to Russia. The Transcaspian 
 Railway has been a great pacificator in Russian 
 Turkestan. It reached Samarkand in 1888 and 
 has been extended to Tashkent and Andijan. 
 From Tashkent a line runs northwest to Oren¬ 
 burg on the European frontier. While the gen¬ 
 eral administration is intrusted to Russian offi¬ 
 cials, the natives suffer little interference, and 
 taxation is scarcely more than nominal. Pub¬ 
 lic education is almost entirely in the hands of 
 the native religious bodies, although the Rus¬ 
 sian government has shown considerable concern 
 for the instruction of the natives. The inhab¬ 
 itants are almost wholly Mohammedans. The 
 Kirghizes form about 36 per cent, the Sarts 24 
 per cent, and the Usbegs and Kiptchaks together 
 19 per cent. The Russians, therefore, constitute 
 but a small element. The leading cities are 
 Tashkent, Khokand, Namangan, and Samarkand. 
 Andijan was ruined by an earthquake in 1902. 
 
 Chinese or Eastern Turkestan. A depend¬ 
 ency of China, bordered on the north by Sun- 
 garia, on the east by Mongolia, on the south by 
 Tibet, on the southwest by Kashmir, and on the 
 west and northwest by the Pamir and Rus¬ 
 sian Turkestan. The country is isolated and 
 forbidding in many aspects; a large and ele¬ 
 vated desert plateau, surrounded by lofty moun¬ 
 tain ranges, of which the Tian Shan lines the 
 northern frontier, and the Kuenlun, Altyn Tag, 
 and the spurs of the Karakorum the southern. 
 The southern range reaches more than 18,000 
 feet. The desert of Gobi occupies a portion of 
 the eastern section. The mean elevation of 
 Chinese Turkestan is assumed to be about 3500 
 feet, but there are a number of markedly low 
 levels, and along the southern face of the Bogdo- 
 Ola mountains, in the depression of Luktchun, 
 the surface drops 425 feet below sea level. The 
 region is watered chiefly by the Tarim River 
 (q.v.), which rises in the west, and its tribu¬ 
 
 taries. At the foot of the frontier ranges, over 
 4000 feet above sea level, there are chains of ex¬ 
 traordinarily fertile oases which mark the chief 
 caravan routes of the region. Along the foot 
 of the Tian Shan stretches a series of lakes, 
 of which the largest is the Bagrach Kul. 
 
 The climate is severe and extremely dry. Do¬ 
 mestic animals abound, and the tiger, jackal, 
 wild camel, bear, and wolf are found. The oases 
 and the strips along the base of the mountain 
 ranges alone offer conditions for permanent habi¬ 
 tation. The people are engaged principally in 
 agriculture, stock raising, commerce, and hunt¬ 
 ing. Cotton, silk, and animal products are ex¬ 
 ported, and in some of the larger cities, such as 
 Yarkand, Khotan, Aksu, and Kashgar, there are 
 manufactured copper ware, silk, carpet, felt, and 
 leather goods. There are extensive mineral re¬ 
 sources, but mining is engaged in only by the 
 natives and accordingly in a primitive way. 
 Asbestos, sulphur, and saltpetre are obtained. 
 A heavy caravan commerce traverses eastern 
 Turkestan en route to and from China, this 
 region tyeing in the direct central western route. 
 Administratively, eastern Turkestan has formed 
 since 1885 a part of the Chinese Province of Sin- 
 kiang, and is divided into the three dao-tais of 
 Kashgar, Aksu, and Urumchi (qq.v.). The seat 
 of the administration is at Urumchi (Tihwafu). 
 The population is estimated at 2,000,000 and 
 is of mixed Aryan and Turanian descent. The 
 most numerous are the Kirghizes, Sarts, Kal¬ 
 mucks, Usbegs, and Tajiks. The language is 
 eastern Turkish with an admixture of Chinese 
 words. 
 
 History. (See Bokhara, Khiva, Mongol 
 Dynasties, Samarkand, etc.) The invasion of 
 Central Asia by Russia began soon after the con¬ 
 quest of Siberia, and desultory raids on Khiva 
 by pioneers from the north were made as early 
 as the end of the sixteenth century. The expedi¬ 
 tion into Central Asia sent out by Peter the 
 Great in 1714 ended in disaster, but the submis¬ 
 sion of the Kirghizes during the eighteenth cen¬ 
 tury gave Russia the territory between the Ural 
 and the Lake of Balkhash. In 1839 a well- 
 equipped Russian army sent against Khiva un¬ 
 der the command of Perovski succumbed to cold, 
 hunger, and sickness. By the end of the first 
 half of the nineteenth century Russian forts 
 were established at the mouth of the Syr-Darya 
 and during the following decades a chain of 
 Russian forts was built along the southern fron¬ 
 tier. In 1854 a second expedition under Perovski 
 against Khiva met with success. In 1867 the 
 Governor-Generalship of Turkestan was estab¬ 
 lished with Tashkent as the capital. In the fol¬ 
 lowing year Samarkand was taken and a treaty 
 of peace was concluded with the Ameer of 
 Bokhara by which Russia acquired a considerable 
 part of the Zerafshan valley, and Bokhara be¬ 
 came practically a vassal state of Russia. In 
 1873 a Russian expedition forced the Khan of 
 Khiva to cede to Bokhara the Khivan territo¬ 
 ries on the right bank of the Amu-Darva, which 
 were soon annexed by Russia. In 1876 Russia 
 annexed the Khanate of Khokand (Ferghana). 
 The subjugation of the Tekke-Turkomans was 
 terminated with the capture of Geok-Tepe by 
 Skobeleff in 1881. The Turkomans of Merv sub¬ 
 mitted in 1884. In 1887 the Afghan boundary 
 was demarcated by an Anglo-Russian commis¬ 
 sion. 
 
 The authentic history of Chinese Turkestan 
 can be traced almost to the beginning of the 
 
TURKESTAN 
 
 TURKEY 
 
 Christian era, when the region was partly un¬ 
 der the rule of China. Buddhism was then the 
 predominating religion, but there were also 
 sects of Nestorian Christians. In the seventh 
 century the western part of the country fell 
 under the sway of Tibet, whose rule had been ex¬ 
 tended by the end of the century to the entire 
 region. Islam began to spread over eastern 
 Turkestan in the tenth century, but even with 
 the conquest of the country by Genghis Khan 
 (q.v.) at the beginning of the thirteenth cen¬ 
 tury there was perfect toleration. It was only 
 with the arrival of the mollalis from Bokhara 
 in the fourteenth century that Islam became a 
 cause of strife, and gave rise to the two factions 
 of White and Black Mountaineers, whose strug¬ 
 gles gave China an opportunity to reconquer 
 the country at the end of the eighteenth cen¬ 
 tury. The history of eastern Turkestan during 
 the nineteenth century is largely made up of re¬ 
 peated attempts on the part of the followers 
 of Islam to wrest the country from the rule of 
 China. From 1872 to 1876 eastern Turkestan 
 was practically independent under Yakub Beg, 
 but the rule of China was restored soon after 
 his death. 
 
 Bibliography. Eugene Schuyler, Turkestan: 
 .A otes of a Journey in Russian Turkestan (2 
 vols., London, 1876) ; Jaworski, Turkestan (in 
 Russian, St. Petersburg, 1889) ; Max Albrecht, 
 Russisch Centralasien (Hamburg, 1896); Franz 
 von Schwarz, Turkestan (Berlin, 1900) ; Hugues 
 Kraft, A travers le Turkestan russe (Paris, 
 1902) ; Raphael Pumpelly, Explorations in Tur¬ 
 kestan (expeditions of 1903, 1904), published by 
 the Carnegie Institution of Washington (3 vols., 
 Washington, 1905-08) ; E. G. Kemp, Face of 
 Manchuria, Korea, and Russian Turkestan (New 
 York, 1911) ; A. M. B. Alealcin, In Russian 
 Turkestan (ib., 1915). For Chinese or eastern 
 iurkestan: P. W. Church, Chinese Turkestan 
 with Caravan and Rifle (London, 1901) ; M. A. 
 Stein, “A Journey of Geographical and Archae¬ 
 ological Exploration in Chinese Turkestan,” in 
 Smithsonian Institution, Annual Report, 1903 
 (Washington, 1904) ; id., Ancient Khotan (2 
 vols., Oxford, 1907) ; W. R. Rickmers, Duab of 
 Turkestan (Chicago, 1913), containing a bibli¬ 
 ography. 
 
 TURKESTAN. A town in the Territory of 
 Svr-Darya, Russian Turkestan, situated about 
 20 miles east of the right bank of the Syr-Darya, 
 about 180 miles northwest of Tashkent (Alap: 
 Asia, H 4). The Alosque of Hazret-Yassavi, 
 erected by Timur, is a noted place of pilgrimage. 
 Pop., over 16,000. 
 
 TUR'KEY, or The Ottoman Empire (so 
 named from its founder, Othman). An Empire 
 in Europe and Asia, with its capital at Con¬ 
 stantinople. The bulk of the territories over 
 which the Turkish Sultan exercises actual sov¬ 
 ereignty is Turkey in Asia which has an area 
 of 699,342 square miles. This includes Asia 
 Minor, Armenia and Kurdistan, Alesopotamia, 
 Syria, and a broad strip of country extending 
 the whole length of Arabia along the west coast, 
 containing Alecca. The European territorv un¬ 
 der Turkish rule, which before the Balkan' War 
 (q.v.) amounted to 65,370 square miles, has been 
 lessened by division among the states of Bul¬ 
 garia, Servia, Alontenegro, Greece, and Albania, 
 so that in 1915 it comprised but 10,882 square 
 miles. Turkish territory has been further de¬ 
 pleted by the loss of Tripoli, annexed to the 
 Italian Empire in 1912; of Egypt, proclaimed a 
 
 569 
 
 British Protectorate in 1915, and of Samos held 
 by Greece. See War in Europe. 
 
 The European possession has lost since the 
 Balkan W ar one-half of her sea coast on the 
 Black Sea, all of the Adriatic coast line and 
 about four-fifths of the ^Egean Sea border. The 
 area, unlike the remaining Balkan states, pos¬ 
 sesses no great elevations. Above the low coasts 
 of the Black Sea rise hills of small relief, west 
 of which is the fertile valley of the Maritza 
 River. A shaggy range of hills skirts the Sea of 
 Alarmora and continues into the Gallipoli Penin¬ 
 sula. The rocks on both sides of the Bosporus 
 are Devonian and the coast hills, which are 
 separated from the rest of the Balkans by a 
 wide plain covered with recent formations, are 
 more connected with Asia than with Europe. 
 The Maritza valley and its main tributary in 
 Turkey, the Ergene, forming a broad lowland less 
 than 600 feet high and comprising over one-half 
 the state, are of great fertility and yield easy 
 lines of communication. 
 
 The Black and Aegean seas are poor in havens, 
 but the winding river-like strait of the Bos¬ 
 porus, which connects the Black Sea with 
 the Sea of Alarmora, and through it with the 
 Alediterranean,. has ample depth for the largest 
 vessels. Here is the magnificent harbor of Con¬ 
 stantinople, the great meeting place of eastern 
 and western trade. On the strait of the Dar¬ 
 danelles, leading from the Sea of Marmora into 
 the Alediterranean, is the harbor of Gallipoli. 
 Turkey lias a Mediterranean climate which is 
 characterized by a high percentage of sunshine 
 and limited rain, in this case about 20 inches per 
 year. At Constantinople the mean temperature in 
 January is 43° F., and in July 72.5°. For other 
 parts of the empire, see articles on Anatolia 
 (Asia Minor), Syria, Armenia, Hejaz, Yemen, 
 
 ETC. 
 
 Agriculture, etc.. Most of the people of 
 Turkey live by farming and sheep raising, but 
 as these industries are in a backward condition, 
 the rural population is very poor. This condi¬ 
 tion is due to misgovernment, ignorance, lack of 
 roads and railroads, and an unfavorable system 
 of land distribution. Little land is held in free¬ 
 hold, the greater part being either crown prop¬ 
 erty or vakuf, i.e., held in mortmain for the 
 benefit of the Aloslem church. A system of 
 agrarian reform laws was promulgated in 1913, 
 and a number of government agricultural schools 
 have been recently established. In parts of the 
 Empire the problem of insufficient rainfall is 
 being met by extensive irrigation projects, no¬ 
 tably in Mesopotamia and Palestine. The use 
 of fertilizer is practically unknown, but the 
 soil is so productive that Turkey is an exporter 
 of foodstuffs. Agricultural products include 
 cereals of all sorts, grapes, raisins, and wine, 
 olives and olive oil, coffee, opium, nuts, sesame, 
 flax, hemp, coleseed, licorice, oranges and lemons, 
 dates, figs, and attar of roses. The cotton in¬ 
 dustry, which dates only from 1905, is rapidly 
 developing, and probably reaches 200,000 bales 
 annually. Silk culture is encouraged by the 
 government, most of the raw silk being shipped 
 to France. Turkish tobacco is world-famous. 
 In Asiatic Turkey there are about 16,500,000 
 acres under cultivation. An eastern Asia Alinor, 
 sheep, goats, and small horses are raised, and 
 wool, goats’ hair, hides, and gut are exported. 
 In Palestine, recently established Zionist colo¬ 
 nies have been successful exporting cereals, cot¬ 
 ton, and fruits. In 1913, 1,608,500 boxes oi 
 
TURKEY 
 
 TURKEY 
 
 570 
 
 oranges were shipped from Jaffa. Turkey lias 
 been badly deforested, its wooded area being 
 now about 20,000,000 acres. Forestry laws 
 modeled on those of France have been passed 
 and the reforestation has begun. Sponge fishing 
 is an industry of the Mediterranean coast, and 
 the local fisheries of the Bosporus are valued 
 at about $1,000,000 a year. 
 
 Mining. Asia Minor and Kurdistan are ex¬ 
 ceedingly rich in minerals, though these are 
 little known and less worked. Silver is found 
 near Konia, and rich copper deposits near Tre- 
 bizond, Diarbekr, and in the Armenian Taurus 
 Mountains. Considerable coal fields exist in 
 several districts, that near Heraclea on the 
 Black Sea being operated by French capital. 
 Salt, a government monopoly, is exported. Gold, 
 zinc, lead, and iron have been found but are 
 little exploited. Petroleum has been discovered 
 near Rodosto, Jerusalem, and in the Tigris- 
 Euphrates valley. 
 
 Manufactures. There is little manufactur¬ 
 ing. At Constantinople, there are flour mills, 
 two glass factories, a soap factory, a dry dock 
 and arsenal. Cloth is manufactured in Constan¬ 
 tinople, Smyrna, and Ismid; and some silk in 
 Brusa and Damascus. Olive oil and soap are 
 made and exported. Artisans produce brass and 
 copper utensils of considerable beauty, and the 
 hand-woven Turkish rugs are a very valuable 
 export. The reasons for the state of manufac¬ 
 turing in Turkey are the lack of skilled .labor, 
 and the impossibility of competing in the local 
 market against Europe and America. 
 
 Commerce. The commerce of the Empire is 
 largely in the hands of Greeks, Jews, Armenians, 
 and foreigners. The imports always exceed the 
 exports in value. The leading exports are bar¬ 
 ley, and other cereals, raisins, goats’ hair, wool, 
 opium, rugs and carpets, tobacco, dried and 
 fresh fruits, nuts, licorice, coleseed, attar of 
 roses, raw silk, hides, gut, and cotton. Manu¬ 
 factured goods of all kinds are imported. Trade 
 is chiefly with the United Kingdom, Austria- 
 Hungary, France, Germany, Russia, Bulgaria, 
 and Italy. Commerce with the United States 
 is growing rapidly, Turkey exporting rugs, to¬ 
 bacco, -hides, olive oil, and wool, in return for 
 cloth, petroleum, and iron and steel goods. To¬ 
 tal exports and imports for years 
 
 
 1910-11 
 
 1911-12 
 
 Imports. 
 
 $187,238,298 
 
 97,150,710 
 
 $193,024,000 
 
 Exports. 
 
 105,009,000 
 
 In 1014, imports from the United States, $3,328,- 
 519; exports to the United States, $20,843,077. 
 
 Transportation and Communication. Lack 
 of means of transportation has always been a 
 hindrance to Turkish development, but within 
 recent years the railway system has been ex¬ 
 tended rapidly. In Europe, Constantinople lias 
 direct rail connection with Paris and Berlin 
 through the Balkans, and with Dedeaghatch and 
 Saloniki on the HCgean. In Asia, Haidar Pasha 
 (Constantinople), Smyrna, and Beirut are rail¬ 
 road centres. From Haidar Pasha the Bagdad 
 Railway has been completed as far as the Taurus 
 Mountains, which must be pierced by one of the 
 longest tunnels in the world. Beyond the Tau¬ 
 rus, the line has been run to Nisibin, and from 
 the Bagdad terminus back to Samara. Three 
 
 lines run in from Smyrna—one to the Marmora 
 Sea at Panderma, one south and east to Eyerdir, 
 one meeting the Bagdad Railway at Afium- 
 Kara-Hissar. From Beirut there is rail con¬ 
 nection with Aleppo and with Damascus, the 
 head of the Hedjaz Railway. At the outbreak 
 of the European War in 1914, there were about 
 1050 miles in European Turkey and 2836 in 
 Asiatic Turkey. 
 
 The Turkish mercantile marine in 1911 listed 
 120 steamers of 66,878 tons, and 963 sailing ves¬ 
 sels of 205,641 tons. In 1913, 18,285 vessels 
 of 17,397,888 tons entered and cleared at Con¬ 
 stantinople. English, Russian, Austrian, Ger¬ 
 man, Turkish, French, Greek, Rumanian, and 
 Italian lines call regularly at Constantinople, 
 and there are direct sailings to New York. 
 
 Up to Oct. 1, 1914, most of the Powers main¬ 
 tained extraterritorial post offices in Turkey. 
 Since that date the postal service, mail and par¬ 
 cel, has been in Turkish hands exclusively. 
 There are 28,890 miles of telegraphs in the Em¬ 
 pire. Constantinople, Smyrna, Damascus, and 
 Beirut have electric street railways. 
 
 Government. Turkey is a limited monarchy, 
 at the head of which is the Sultan or Padishah, 
 who is also Caliph (successor of the prophet 
 Mohammed, and head of the orthodox Moslem 
 world). Imperial succession vests in the oldest 
 member of the reigning house of Otliman. 
 
 The constitution, which was granted in 1876, 
 suspended in 1878, and restored by the revolu¬ 
 tion of July 23, 1908, provides for a ministerial 
 form of government, the Grand Vizier, or Prime 
 Minister, being assisted by a cabinet of 11, in¬ 
 cluding the Sheik ul Islam. The latter is ap¬ 
 pointed by the Sultan with the approval of the 
 Ulema (Moslem clergy) and has the power of 
 vetoing any imperial decree or parliamentary 
 law by declaring it contrary to the Sacred Law. 
 The Empire is divided into 23 vilayets (prov¬ 
 inces ), besides several separately organized 
 sanjaks, and the Lebanon district. The vilayets 
 are divided into sanjaks, cazas, and nahiehs. 
 Each vilayet is governed by a vali, appointed by 
 the Sultan, and assisted by a provincial council. 
 The vali appoints the subordinate officials of the 
 vilayet. 
 
 The Parliament consists of a Senate and a 
 Chamber of Deputies. The senators are ap¬ 
 pointed for life by the Sultan; the deputies are 
 chosen by indirect election, one deputy for 6000 
 qualified electors. The two-party system ob¬ 
 tains. There is no legal discrimination by rea¬ 
 son of race or creed. 
 
 Turkish law is very complicated, there being 
 two recognized systems in force. One is the 
 Sacred Law (Sheriat) which rests upon the 
 Koran, the traditions of the Prophet, and the 
 precedents of the early Caliphs. This system 
 applies in certain cases involving real property, 
 or the personal status of Mohammedans. The 
 other system, which includes the bulk of modern 
 legislation, and is applicable in most civil and 
 criminal cases, is based upon the French Code 
 Napoleon. 
 
 Foreigners in Turkey formerly enjoyed un¬ 
 usual extraterritorial privileges guaranteed by 
 a series of treaties called Capitulations. In 
 September, 1914, Turkey abrogated these trea¬ 
 ties, but none of the Powers recognized this 
 unilateral act. 
 
 Finance and Banking. Imperial revenues 
 are derived from direct taxes, from the tobacco, 
 salt, and explosives monopolies, and from the 
 
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 or the 
 
 UNtVEKSITY Uf ILLINOIS 
 
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TlX IXHARY 
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 ONIVL : \ Of ILLINOIS 
 
TURKEY 
 
 TURKEY 
 
 571 
 
 tariff. The largest expenditures are for mili¬ 
 tary purposes and for the national debts. 
 Definite figures for revenue and expenditure are 
 unobtainable, but the estimates for the fiscal 
 year 1913-14 put the revenue at about $120,- 
 000,000 and the expenditures at $185,000,000. 
 Up to 1914 the national debt amounted to $667,- 
 280,430.80, of which 62 per cent was held in 
 France and 29 per cent in Germany. There was 
 also a floating debt of $176,000,000. The Im¬ 
 perial Ottoman Bank in 1910 had a capital 
 of $44,000,000. This bank issued the paper cur¬ 
 rency of the Empire in notes of five pounds Turk¬ 
 ish and one pound Turkish, secured on a gold 
 reserve of not less than one-third of the value 
 of the issue. 
 
 Up to 1914 the Turkish tariff was fixed by the 
 Powers. In 1907 it was raised from 8 per cent 
 to 11 per cent ad valorem for seven years. In 
 October, 1914, without the consent of the Powers 
 Turkey raised the tariff to 15 per cent ad 
 valorem. 
 
 Army. The reorganization of the Turkish 
 army, since 1909, has been directed and controlled 
 in large part by German officers. Under Enver 
 Pasha, the Turkish Minister of War, in the early 
 part of the year 1914 the powers of the “Ger¬ 
 man Military Mission” were greatly amplified, 
 even to the extent of placing German officers in 
 command of Turkish troops. Soon after his as¬ 
 sumption of the duties of War Minister, Jan. 
 4, 1914, Enver Pasha introduced universal mili¬ 
 tary training, applicable not only to all Moslems 
 but to Christians previously, in great part, ex¬ 
 empted from military training and service. 
 There were no exemptions, but those, both Mos¬ 
 lem and Christians, who were able to pay a large 
 military tax, were excused from a portion of the 
 full period of military training. The new men 
 and funds secured in this manner were used 
 to fill up the regular organizations which had 
 been greatly depleted by the Balkan War of 
 1912-13. 
 
 Under the new regime service was from the 
 age of 20 to 45, as follows: In the active army, 
 or “Nizam,” two years for the infantry, three 
 for the other arms; in the first reserve, “Ihtiat,” 
 to the age of 40; in the second reserve or Terri¬ 
 torial army, “Mustahfiz,” from 40 to 45. Under 
 this scheme, in 1914, the Nizam, or active army, 
 was first filled up with trained men, those re¬ 
 maining forming the nucleus for reserve bat¬ 
 talions stationed at training depots to which 
 the untrained men were sent for instruction. 
 From these battalions men were sent to fill the 
 vacancies occurring in the fighting lines. The 
 Kurdish cavalry are tribal militia organiza¬ 
 tions, service in which exempts from compul¬ 
 sory service in the regular army. This cavalry 
 was called for service with the field army after 
 the outbreak of war. 
 
 Turkey, after the Balkan War, was divided 
 into four territorial and inspection districts in 
 which army corps and divisions were located 
 and recruited as follows: First district, Turkey 
 in Europe and western Anatolia, five army corps 
 of three divisions each; second district, Syria, 
 two army corps of three divisions each; third 
 district, Kurdistan and eastern Anatolia, three 
 army corps of three divisions each; fourth dis¬ 
 trict, Mesopotamia, two army corps of two divi¬ 
 sions each; besides these, in Yemen, one corps of 
 two divisions; Hejaz, one division; Assir, one 
 division; total, 13 corps and two independent 
 divisions, or 38 divisions in all. 
 
 Vol. XXII.—37 
 
 It should be noted that the Turkish division 
 consists of only three regiments of three bat¬ 
 talions each, or a total of nine battalions of 
 infantry and from six to nine batteries of field 
 or mountain artillery. A battery has four guns, 
 except when armed with old models, when six guns 
 are assigned. The corps, as shown above, con¬ 
 sists of either two or three divisions, to which 
 are attached either a regiment or brigade of 
 cavalry, three howitzer batteries, an engineer 
 battalion, a supply battalion, and a telegraph 
 company. There are 25 regiments of cavalry 
 of five squadrons each in addition to the Kurdish 
 cavalry already mentioned. 
 
 Under the reorganization of 1915, the peace 
 strength was estimated at 200,000; initial mo¬ 
 bilization at the outbreak of the European War, 
 at 750,000; ultimate war strength of the field 
 armies, 1,000,000. In addition to these forces 
 there are the Gendarmerie, or military police, 
 amounting in all to about 60,000 men, of 
 whom about 16,000 are mounted. During the 
 European War most of this force were called 
 into active service, their places being filled 
 by the older reservists of the Mustahfiz. The 
 Lebanon militia is a local police force consist¬ 
 ing of two battalions of infantry and one squad¬ 
 ron of cavalry. 
 
 At the head of the army is a War Min¬ 
 ister assisted by a permanent assistant secre¬ 
 tary or Musteshar, and by the Chief of the 
 General Staff, which, upon mobilization for the 
 European War, contained a number of German 
 military officers. Munition factories are under 
 the direction of an official called the Director 
 General of Military Factories, who presents an 
 independent budget for the consideration of the 
 government. 
 
 Infantry are armed with the 7.65 mm. 
 Mauser magazine rifle, of which there was a 
 great shortage after the Balkan War. Field 
 artillery have the 7.5 cm. quick-fire Krupp gun. 
 Of these, too, there was a shortage due to losses 
 in the Balkan War. As soon as practicable af¬ 
 ter Turkey entered the European War, arms and 
 equipment were supplied by the Teutonic Powers. 
 Germany, in addition to supplying the field ar¬ 
 mies of Turkey, also greatly strengthened the 
 fortifications at Adrianople, Chatalja, the Bos¬ 
 porus and Dardanelles, Smyrna, and Erzerum 
 in Armenia. 
 
 Navy. See under Navies. 
 
 Money, Weights, and Measures. The coin¬ 
 age is on the decimal system, with the gold 
 standard. The unit is the piaster, worth 4.4 
 cents American, with 100 piasters to the pound 
 Turkish. The silver currency is normally de¬ 
 preciated about 5 per cent. Nominal value of 
 the coinage since 1880 is: gold, $185,342,612.40, 
 and silver, $46,295,326, besides a copper and 
 nickel currency. 
 
 The metric system of weights and measures 
 was adopted in 1882 and is used in the larger 
 cities. 
 
 Population. As there has never been a cen¬ 
 sus, figures of the population of the Empire are 
 approximate only. In 1914, Turkey in Europe 
 and Asia had an area of 710,224 square miles 
 and a population of 21,273,900. Besides there 
 was Cyprus, administered by England, and the 
 tributary province of Egypt and the Sudan. 
 After the outbreak of the great war Cyprus was 
 declared annexed to the British Empire and 
 Egypt was declared a British protectorate. Cer¬ 
 tain JEgean islands, including the Dodecanese. 
 
TURKEY 
 
 TURKEY 
 
 572 
 
 claimed by Turkey, are now in the possession 
 of Greece" and Italy; their legal status is un¬ 
 certain. 
 
 DISTRICT 
 
 Area in 
 sq. miles 
 
 Population 
 
 Turkey in Europe. 
 
 10.SS2 
 
 1,891,000 
 
 Turkey in Asia: 
 
 Asia Minor. 
 
 199,272 
 
 10.186,900 
 
 Kurdistan ('Armpnifl.). 
 
 71,990 
 
 2,470,900 
 
 Mesopotamia. 
 
 143,250 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 Svria. 
 
 114,530 
 
 3,675,100 
 
 Arabia. 
 
 170,300 
 
 1,050,000 
 
 
 Grand total. 
 
 710,224 
 
 21,273,900 
 
 Cvprus . 
 
 3,584 
 
 286,922 
 
 Eevot. 
 
 12,226 
 
 11,189,978 
 
 Sudan. 
 
 984,520 
 
 2,600,000 
 
 
 The division of the population of Turkey, ex¬ 
 cept Egypt, by races is roughly estimated: 
 Turks, " io,000,000; Arabs, 4,000,000; Greeks, 
 2.000,000; Kurds, 1,600,000; Armenians, 1.500,- 
 000; Syrians, 1,500,000. The remainder includes 
 Jews, Druses, Lazes, Circassians, and other races. 
 Constantinople, Smyrna, Bagdad, Damascus, 
 Aleppo ? Beirut, and Brusa have populations of 
 over 100,000. The figures below refer to 1914. 
 
 VILAYET 
 
 Area in 
 sq. miles 
 
 Population 
 
 In Europe: 
 
 Constantinople. 
 
 1,505 
 
 733 
 
 8,644 
 
 1,203,000 
 
 78,000 
 
 610,000 
 
 Chatalja (sanjak). 
 
 Adrianople. 
 
 Total in Europe. 
 
 10,882 
 
 1,891,000 
 
 In Asia: 
 
 Asia Minor: 
 
 Ismid (sanjak). 
 
 3,130 
 
 25.400 
 2,550 
 
 25,801 
 
 19,570 
 
 27,370 
 
 39,410 
 
 15.400 
 23,970 
 16,671 
 
 222,700 
 
 1,626,800 
 
 129,500 
 
 2,50*0,000 
 
 961,200 
 
 932,800 
 
 1,069,000 
 
 422,400 
 
 1,057,500 
 
 1,265,000 
 
 Brusa. 
 
 Bigha (sanjak). 
 
 Smyrna . 
 
 Kastamuni. 
 
 Angora. 
 
 Konia. 
 
 Adana. 
 
 Sivas. 
 
 Trebizond. 
 
 Total. 
 
 199,272 
 
 10,186,900 
 
 Kurdistan (Armenia): 
 
 Erzerum. 
 
 19,180 
 
 12,700 
 
 14,480 
 
 10,460 
 
 15,170 
 
 645.700 
 575,200 
 471,500 
 
 398.700 
 379,800 
 
 Mamuret el Aziz. 
 
 Diarbekr. 
 
 Bitlis. 
 
 Van. 
 
 Total. 
 
 71,990 
 
 2,470,900 
 
 Mesopotamia: 
 
 Mosul. 
 
 35,130 
 
 54,540 
 
 53,580 
 
 500,000 
 
 900,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 Bagdad. 
 
 Basra. 
 
 Total. 
 
 143,250 
 
 2,000.000 
 
 Syria: 
 
 Aleppo. 
 
 33,430 
 
 30,110 
 
 37,020 
 
 6,180 
 
 6,600 
 
 1,190 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 533,500 
 
 341,600 
 
 200.000 
 
 Zor (sanjak). 
 
 Syria. 
 
 Beirut. 
 
 Jerusalem (sanjak). 
 
 Lebanon. 
 
 Total. 
 
 114,530 
 
 3,675,100 
 
 Arabia: 
 
 Hedjaz . 
 
 96,500 
 
 73,800 
 
 300.000 
 
 750,000 
 
 Yemen. 
 
 Total. 
 
 170,300 
 
 1,050,000 
 
 Grand total. 
 
 710,224 
 
 21,273,900 
 
 
 Education and Religion. Most of the in¬ 
 habitants are Moslems and Mohammedanism is 
 the state religion, with the Sultan as Caliph as 
 the head of the religion, and the Sheikh-ul- 
 Islam as the leading ecclesiastic, representing 
 the Church in the cabinet. All religions are 
 
 tolerated except idolatry, and the government 
 recognizes 13 non-Mohammedan communities or 
 Millets —Roman Catholics, Greek Orthodox, Ar¬ 
 menian Gregorians, Armenian Catholics, Prot¬ 
 estants, Chaldean Catholics, Nestorians, Syrian 
 Catholics, Syrian Jacobites, Melcliites, Jews, Bul¬ 
 garian Catholics, and Maronites. These com¬ 
 munities are ecclesiastically self-governing and 
 their spiritual heads exercise civil functions of 
 considerable importance. To a great extent they 
 control the education of their children through 
 their parochial schools. 
 
 The majority of the Mohammedans belong to 
 the Sunni sect, though other sects are repre¬ 
 sented. 
 
 Education, formerly neglected, is now legally 
 obligatory for children between 7 and 16, in 
 state, parochial, or private schools. Elemen¬ 
 tary education is free. There are about 36,000 
 schools in the Empire, with an enrollment of 
 about 1,330,000. The system is of recent de¬ 
 velopment, and probably at least 75 per cent 
 of the population is illiterate. 
 
 At Constantinople there is an Imperial Uni¬ 
 versity of five faculties—arts, theology, law, 
 medicine, and science. There are also several 
 Greek and Armenian colleges of high standing. 
 Many foreign schools, some of collegiate rank, 
 have been opened under American, English, and 
 French auspices, missionary or philanthropic. 
 The best known of these are Robert College and 
 the American College for Girls at Constanti¬ 
 nople, and the Syrian Protestant College at 
 Beirut. 
 
 Ethnology. The Turkish Empire presents an 
 extraordinary medley of nationalities. The rul¬ 
 ing race, the Osmanli Turks, whose blood is 
 greatly mixed with various foreign elements 
 (Slavic, Greek, and Albanian in European Tur¬ 
 key), constitute a minority of the population 
 even in the regions actually under the rule of the 
 Sultan. The only section of the Empire in which 
 they are numerically dominant is the interior of 
 Asia Minor. The most important peoples in 
 Asiatic Turkey after the Osmanlis are the Arabs 
 (Syria, Mesopotamia, Arabia), Armenians 
 (who are found in large numbers outside of 
 Armenia), and Kurds. The Greeks and Jews 
 (in addition to the Armenians) are important 
 elements in the urban population of a large 
 part of Asiatic Turkey. There are less than 
 1,000,000 persons of Turko-Tatar blood in Tur¬ 
 key in Europe, and these are chiefly in the por¬ 
 tions nearest to Asia. The Turks form a large 
 element in the population of Constantinople and 
 Adrianople, in the interior of Thrace, and in 
 parts of Macedonia. All the remainder of the 
 population of European Turkey, with a small ex¬ 
 ception, is divided between Slavic peoples and 
 those belonging to the Mediterranean race, chiefly 
 Greeks in the south and east, and Albanians 
 (Shkipetars) on the Adriatic. The Slavs of 
 Turkey are of Serb and Bulgarian stock. There 
 are a number of Wallachs (Rumans) in the 
 southwest, who are known as Tsintsars. The 
 Jews are numerous in Constantinople and Sa- 
 loniki, and the Armenians are also well repre¬ 
 sented in the urban population of European 
 Turkey. 
 
 History. In the first half of the thirteenth 
 century, at the time of the Mongol invasions un¬ 
 der Genghis Khan, a small body of Mohammedan 
 Turks moved westward from their home in Iran 
 and made their way to Asia Minor. Under the 
 lead of Ertogrul, they entered the service of Ala- 
 
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 the ue ;arv 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 
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 CO 
 
THE LfrrARY 
 OF THE 
 
 ‘DIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
TURKEY 
 
 575 
 
 TURKEY 
 
 tions were premature and lie aroused the anger 
 of the Janizaries by his attempts at military 
 reorganization. A revolt forced Selim to abdi¬ 
 cate in 1807, and placed his nephew, Mustapha 
 IV (1807-08), on the throne. Mustapha was 
 soon deposed and Mahmud II (1808-39) was 
 made Sultan. A war begun by Russia in 1806 
 was terminated by the Ireatv of Bucharest in 
 1812, by which the country between the Dniester 
 and the Truth was ceded to Russia. The author¬ 
 ity of the Sultan was reestablished in Servia, 
 but the people rose again under Milosh Obreno- 
 vitch and achieved a partial independence. 
 Greece threw off the Turkish yoke in 1822 and 
 after an heroic struggle secured its independence 
 through the armed intervention of the European 
 Powers in 1827-29. A revolt of the Janizaries 
 in 1825 was successfully met by Mahmud; in 
 1826 thousands of the famous corps were slain, 
 and the organization was abolished. Russia 
 waged a successful war against Turkey in 1828- 
 29. General Diebitsch advanced as far as 
 Adrianople, and Paskevitch was equally success¬ 
 ful in Armenia. In the Peace of Adrianople 
 (1829) Turkey surrendered to Russia the north¬ 
 eastern coast land of the Black Sea and trans¬ 
 ferred to her the suzerainty over the tribes of 
 the Caucasus; Russia was accorded a regular 
 protectorate over Wallachia and Moldavia, which 
 for a time were reduced to the position of Rus¬ 
 sian dependencies. Mehemet Ali, Viceroy of 
 Egypt, who had raised himself to an almost in¬ 
 dependent position, made war in 1831 on his 
 liege lord, the Sultan. The victories of Ibrahim 
 Pasha (1832) secured to the Egyptian ruler the 
 possession of Syria and Cilicia, while Russia 
 took advantage of the desperate state of Turkey 
 to force upon the Sultan the Treaty of Unkiar 
 Skelessi (1833), which closed the Black Sea 
 to the vessels of war of all nations save Russia. 
 In 1839 Mahmud II made war upon Mehemet 
 Ali. The Turkish army was utterly defeated 
 by Ibrahim Pasha at Nisib (June 24, 1839), 
 and soon after the the Turkish fleet was treach¬ 
 erously delivered up to the Egyptians. Only 
 the intervention of the Quadruple Alliance (q.v.) 
 in 1840 prevented the downfall of the Turkish 
 Power. Mehemet Ali was forced to relinquish 
 Syria and other territories; he was recognized 
 as hereditary, though tributary, ruler of Egypt. 
 Soon after the beginning of this war Mahmud 
 II died (July 1, 1839). His son, Abdul-Medjid 
 (1839-61), continued the reforms commenced in 
 the preceding reign. Russia’s truculent attitude 
 brought on a war with Turkey in 1853, in which 
 that country would have suffered severely but 
 for the effective intervention in 1854 of England 
 and France, soon joined by Sardinia, all bent 
 on humbling Russia. The allies of the Sultan 
 made the Crimea the scene of their land opera¬ 
 tions, and in 1855 Sebastopol fell. (See Crimean 
 War.) The Treaty of Paris (1856) restored to 
 Turkey the command of both sides of the lower 
 Danube, excluded the Czar from his assumed 
 protectorate over the Danubian principalities 
 (Wallachia and Moldavia), and closed the Black 
 Sea against all ships of war. Wallachia and 
 Molda via secured almost complete independ¬ 
 ence and were soon united into the Principality 
 of Rumania. The Porte, adopted into the family 
 of European nations, made a proclamation of 
 equal civil rights to all races and creeds in the 
 Turkish dominions. A massacre of Christians in 
 the Lebanon and at Damascus (see Druses) 
 provoked Western intervention in 1860. Abdul- 
 
 Medjid was succeeded by his brother Abdul- 
 Aziz (1861-76). 
 
 The treaty of Paris in 1856 was supposed to 
 have settled the Eastern question (q.v.) by guar¬ 
 anteeing turkey’s integrity, but Russia was 
 merely awaiting an opportunity to press its old 
 policy, and in 1871 the Russian government 
 seized the opportunity of war between Germany 
 and France to declare that it felt itself no longer 
 bound by that provision of the Paris treaty which 
 forbade Russia to have a fleet in the Black Sea. 
 A London conference sanctioned this stroke of 
 Russian diplomacy. An insurrection in Crete 
 in 1866-68 was suppressed with difficulty. Be¬ 
 tween 1854 and 1871 the Turkish debt had in¬ 
 creased by nearly $600,000,000; and in 1875 the 
 Porte was driven to partial repudiation of its 
 obligations. An insurrection which broke out in 
 Herzegovina in 1875 served to stir up all the 
 neighboring Slavic peoples and was skillfully 
 encouraged by Russian emissaries. In May, 
 1876, frightful massacres of Christians in Bul¬ 
 garia took place. At the close of that month 
 Abdul-Aziz was deposed and soon after was 
 found dead. His nephew, Amurath or Murad 
 V, son of Abdul-Medjid, reigned only three 
 months, when he was deposed as an imbecile, and 
 his brother, Abdul-Hamid II, succeeded to the 
 throne. In July, 1876, Servia and Montenegro 
 declared war against the Porte. Before the end 
 of the year the Servians were utterly defeated, 
 in spite of the help of many Russian volunteers. 
 The state of affairs in the Turkish provinces 
 seemed to call for a conference of the Great 
 Powers at Constantinople. The proposals then 
 made for the better government of the Chris¬ 
 tian subjects of Turkey were rejected by the 
 Grand Council of the Turkish Empire. Simul¬ 
 taneously, however, with the assembly of the 
 conference the Turkish government had taken 
 the extraordinary step of bestowing a parlia¬ 
 mentary constitution on the Ottoman Empire. 
 The Parliament assembled in March, 1877, but 
 this ostensible remodeling of the political fabric 
 of the Empire did not get beyond its incipiency. 
 Russia took it upon herself to enforce on Turkey 
 the demands made by the Powers, and on April 
 24, 1877, declared war. (See Russo-Turkish 
 War.) The Turks made a brave stand, but at 
 last succumbed, and at the close of January, 
 1878, the Russians, aided by the Rumanians, 
 were almost before the walls of Constantinople. 
 The Treaty of San Stefano was signed on March 
 3, but the European Powers intervened and re¬ 
 adjusted the whole Eastern question at the Con¬ 
 gress of Berlin, Russia being forced to content 
 herself with a much less radical disruption of 
 the Turkish Empire in Europe than she had 
 sought to bring about. See Berlin, Congress 
 of. 
 
 For a few years under the settlement effected 
 at Berlin, there was comparative quiet in the 
 Ottoman dominions, although in 1883, in con¬ 
 sequence of disturbances in Egypt, and the bad 
 condition of the finances in that province, Great 
 Britain established a control there which prac¬ 
 tically nullified what little was left of the Otto¬ 
 man sovereignty. Following on a revolutionary 
 movement at Philippopolis in September, 1885, 
 the Prince of Bulgaria proclaimed the annexa¬ 
 tion of eastern Rumelia, and after a decade the 
 Porte was compelled to recognize the change 
 which thus deprived it of its fairest province. 
 In 1895-96 there were massacres of tens of 
 thousands of Armenian Christians, which were 
 
V 
 
 TURKEY 576 TURKEY 
 
 connived at by the local officials of the Ottoman 
 government. ‘The protests of Europe were of no 
 avail, because Abdul-Hamid knew well how to 
 play off the Powers against one another so as 
 to prevent interference of an effective kind. A 
 rising of the Christians against the Mohammed¬ 
 ans in Crete (q.v.) followed in 1896, and was 
 the signal for the outbreak of long-repressed hos¬ 
 tilities in Greece, which recklessly entered upon 
 war with Turkey in April, 1897. The campaign 
 of a few weeks showed the utter futility of the 
 Greek preparations. (See Greece.) Greece was 
 forced to sue for peace, the terms of which pro¬ 
 vided for the payment to the Ottoman govern¬ 
 ment of an indemnity of $18,000,000, and the 
 rectification of the Greco-Turkish frontier in 
 favor of Turkey. Crete was taken in charge 
 by Great Britain, Russia, France, and Italy, and 
 a settlement was made in 1898 by which the 
 suzerainty of Turkey was renewed, but the island 
 was given an autonomous government for three 
 years, its executive head being Prince George of 
 Greece, as High Commissioner of the four Powers. 
 This settlement was renewed indefinitely upon 
 its expiration in December, 1901. See Crete. 
 
 The Ottoman Empire in the first decade of the 
 twentieth century seemed on the point of col¬ 
 lapse. Arabia was in constant revolt. Anarchy 
 reigned in Albania, where the Sultan’s officials 
 found it all but impossible to enforce law or to 
 collect taxes. Worst of all was the ferment in 
 Macedonia, where Greeks, Servians, and Bul¬ 
 garians were carrying on rival nationalist agita¬ 
 tions and with their filibustering exploits were 
 keeping the district in turmoil. An especially 
 vigorous Macedonian upheaval, precipitated by 
 the Bulgarians in 1903 and attended by massa¬ 
 cres on the part of the Turks, led to foreign in¬ 
 tervention; and the Sultan reluctantly consented 
 to new reform schemes, which, however, were 
 never fully executed. Meanwhile the public debt 
 was steadily increasing; railways, mines, and 
 banks were falling into the hands of foreign 
 capitalists; the Balkan nations and the Great 
 Powers of Europe were greedily regarding the 
 Ottoman provinces. 
 
 The “Sick Man of Europe,” as Turkey had so 
 often been called, was apparently tottering to 
 his end. At this point, however, appeared the 
 “Young Turks,” a group of politicians and 
 patriots, many of whom had studied in the uni¬ 
 versities of western Europe, who dared dream 
 of rejuvenating their country. The YMung 
 Turks would win parliamentary government for 
 their homeland. In education, in science, in in¬ 
 dustry, Turkey would be transformed into a 
 progressive state, vying with other European 
 nations. Above all, they would induce their com¬ 
 patriots to forget religious differences in a spirit 
 of national patriotism. The Young Turk move¬ 
 ment was a counterpart in Turkey to the na¬ 
 tionalist agitations which had already created a 
 Greece, a Servia, a Rumania, and a Bulgaria. 
 Shrewdly enough, the leaders of the movement 
 avoided all violence until they were absolutely 
 sure that the army would support them. Then, 
 on July 23, 1908, their central body, the so- 
 called Committee of Union and Progress, with 
 Enver Pasha at its head, proclaimed at Saloniki 
 the restoration of the constitution of 1876. Two 
 army corps at once threatened to march on Con¬ 
 stantinople: and the terrified Abdul-Hamid 
 hastily issued an imperial decree, officially re¬ 
 storing parliamentary government. A few op¬ 
 ponents of the coup d’etat were assassinated, 
 
 the press was emancipated, a Liberal statesman, 
 Kiamil Pasha, was appointed Grand Vizier, and 
 Turkey was a constitutional monarchy. Tak¬ 
 ing advantage of this disturbance in the Otto¬ 
 man Empire, Austria-Hungary in October, 1908, 
 formally annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, and 
 simultaneously Ferdinand of Bulgaria proclaimed 
 the complete independence of his state (includ¬ 
 ing eastern Rumelia) and assumed the title of 
 “king.” Helplessly but slowly the new Turkish 
 government acquiesced in what it could not pre¬ 
 vent and in 1909, in return for financial indem¬ 
 nities, recognized Bulgarian independence and 
 the Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia- 
 Herzegovina as accomplished facts. To make 
 matters worse for the constitutional government 
 of Kiamil Pasha, Albania became more turbulent 
 in the spring of 1909, mutiny broke out in 
 Arabia, and the quarrels of rival nationalities 
 in Macedonia became more acute. Under these 
 circumstances, a counter revolution against the 
 Young Turks was set on foot in Constantinople 
 and received the approbation of Sultan Abdul- 
 Hamid II. The Committee of Union and Prog¬ 
 ress, installed in Saloniki, responded promptly 
 by sending an army under Shevket Pasha against 
 Constantinople. After less than a day’s fighting 
 Shevket Pasha was in command of the capital 
 (April 25, 1909). At the behest of the 
 
 triumphant Young Turks, the Parliament, now 
 calling itself a national assembly, deposed Abdul- 
 Hamid, placed him under surveillance near Salo¬ 
 niki, and chose in his stead his brother, Mo¬ 
 hammed V. 
 
 The new parliamentary regime, under Young 
 Turk influence, proceeded forthwith to make the 
 Turkish language official, to standardize educa¬ 
 tion, to plant Moslem colonies in Macedonia, to 
 utilize violence and bribery in elections, to forbid 
 public meetings, to repress anti-Ottoman agita¬ 
 tion, to disarm the Macedonian Christian vil¬ 
 lagers—in a word, to attempt the “Ottomaniz- 
 ing” of the Turkish Empire. Resentfully the 
 Bulgarians, Greeks, and Servians in Macedonia 
 regarded the new tendency, and, putting aside 
 their own quarrels, they now made common 
 cause against the Turk. Greece, Bulgaria, and 
 Servia began to draw more closely together with 
 the object of protecting the Christians in 
 Macedonia. 
 
 Meanwhile the Turco-Italian War (q.v.) 
 caused discomfiture in Constantinople. On Sept. 
 28, 1911, Italy announced her intention of seiz¬ 
 ing Tripoli and Cyrenaica. The war that followed 
 was confined mostly to irregular but fierce hos¬ 
 tilities between the Italian expeditionary armies 
 on the one hand, and, on the other, the Turkish 
 garrisons and Arab tribesmen in Africa. During 
 the course of the war, Italy occupied 12 of the 
 iEgean Islands, and, when peace was finally con¬ 
 cluded (October, 1912), Italy not only gained 
 the vilayets of Tripoli and Cyrenaica, but in 
 addition^ acquired the right to hold the 12 
 iEgean Islands should Turkey fail to grant to 
 their inhabitants full amnesty, local autonomy, 
 and public liberty. During the summer of 1912, 
 while Turkey was still harassed and weakened 
 by the war with Italy, the Balkan states con¬ 
 cluded treaties of alliance and began to press 
 more vigorously for radical reforms in Mace¬ 
 donia, and at the same time mutinous outbreaks 
 occurred' in Albania. In October, 1912, Bul¬ 
 garia, Greece, Servia, and Montenegro mobilized 
 their armies and presented joint ultimatums to 
 the Porte demanding autonomy for Macedonia 
 
TURKEY 
 
 TURKEY 
 
 under European governors. Despite the efforts 
 of the Great Powers to avert hostilities, the 
 peremptory refusal of the Turkish government 
 to comply with the ultimatums precipitated the 
 war which lasted from October, 1912, to Sep¬ 
 tember, 1913. (See Balkan War.) The out¬ 
 come of the struggle was the loss of all Turkish 
 possessions in Europe except Constantinople, 
 Adrianople, and a little adjacent territory. 
 
 In the middle of the nineteenth century Great 
 Britain and France had labored to bolster up 
 the Ottoman Empire and to safeguard it against 
 possible Russian aggression. By the time of the 
 Balkan War, however, British and French in¬ 
 terests in the Levant appeared to be menaced less 
 by Russia than by Austria-Hungary and Ger¬ 
 many. The latter Powers were working hand 
 in glove: Germans were arming and drilling 
 the Turkish army and securing the major share 
 of new concessions in the Ottoman Empire, no¬ 
 tably the Bagdad Railway, while Austria-Hun¬ 
 gary was curbing the Servians and increasing 
 her political and economic influence in Mace¬ 
 donia. In the course of the Balkan War, there¬ 
 fore, France and Great Britain, in conjunction 
 with Russia, tended, on the whole, to sympathize 
 with the Balkan states against Turkey. Ac¬ 
 cordingly, to the student of international politics 
 it was not particularly surprising that soon 
 after the outbreak of the Great War of 1914 
 between Russia, France, Great Britain, and 
 Servia on one side, and Austria-Hungary and 
 Germany on the other, the Turkish government 
 should throw in its lot with the latter combi¬ 
 nation. Undoubtedly the Young Turk leaders 
 believed that if they were quite unable to recover 
 what had recently been wrested from them in 
 Europe they might at least, through Teutonic 
 support, maintain Ottoman sovereignty over 
 Egypt and extend Turkish frontiers into Persia 
 at the eventual expense of Russia and Great 
 Britain. See War in Europe. 
 
 Bibliography. (General description: Cyrus 
 Hamlin, Among the Turks (New York, 1878); 
 Armin Yambery, Die primitiv Cultur des turko- 
 tatarischen Volkes (Leipzig, 1879); id., Das 
 Tilrkenvolk (ib., 1885) ; Sir W. M. Ramsay, 
 Historical Geography of Asia Minor (London, 
 1890) ; L. M. J. Garnett, Women of Turkey and 
 their Folklore (2 vols., ib., 1890-91); H. O. 
 Dwight, Constantinople and its Problems (New 
 Y T ork, 1901) ; A. B. Dodd, In the Palaces of the 
 Sultan (ib., 1903) ; L. M. J. Garnett, Turkish 
 Life in Town and Country (ib., 1904) ; J. L. 
 Barton, Daybreak in Turkey (Boston, 1908) ; 
 A. F. Townshend, A Military Consul in Turkey 
 (Philadelphia, 1909) ; David Fraser, A Short Cut 
 to India (New York, 1909) ; L. M. J. Garnett, 
 Home Life in Turkey (ib., 1909) ; id., Turkey of 
 the Ottomans (ib., 1911) ; Z. D. Ferriman, Turkey 
 and the Turks (ib., 1911); George Washburn, 
 Fifty Years in Constantinople (Boston, 1911); 
 L. M. J. Garnett, Mysticism and Magic in Turkey 
 (New York, 1912) ; Sir Edwin Pears, Turkey and 
 its People (2d ed., ib., 1912) ; W. A. and E. T. A. 
 Wigram, The Cradle of Mankind (London, 1914) ; 
 Sir Edwin Pears, Forty Years in Constantinople 
 (ib., 1915); Grace Ellison, An English Woman 
 in a Turkish Harem (ib., 1915). History: 
 
 Josef von Hammer-Purgstall, Geschichte des 
 osmanischen Reichs (10 vols., Budapest, 1835; 
 rev. ed., without documents, 4 vols., ib., 1836; 
 French ed., 18 vols., Paris, 1836), the standard 
 authority; T. E. Holland, The European Con¬ 
 cert in the Easteim Question (Oxford, 1885) ; 
 
 577 
 
 Stanley Lane-Poole and Others, Story of Turkey 
 (new ed., New York, 1897); Halil Ganem, 
 Etudes d’histoire orientate: Les sultans ottomans 
 (2 vols., Paris, 1901-02); Mark Sykes, Dar-ul- 
 Islam: A Journey through Ten of the Asiatic 
 Provinces of Turkey (New York, 1904) ; E. S. 
 Creasy, History of the Ottoman Turks (rev. ed., 
 ib., 1906) ; Vahan Cardashian, The Ottoman Em¬ 
 pire of the Twentieth Century (Albany, 1908) ; 
 C. N. E. Eliot, Turkey in Europe (new ed., Lon¬ 
 don, 1908) ; Angus Hamilton, Problems of the 
 Middle East (ib., 1909) ; Victor Berard, La 
 revolution turque (Paris, 1909); C. R. Buxton, 
 Turkey in Revolution , (New York, 1909) ; G. F. 
 Abbott, Turkey in Transition (ib., 1909) ; Sir 
 W. M. Ramsay, Revolution in Constantinople 
 and Turkey in 1909 (ib., 1910) ; David Fraser, 
 Persia and Turkey in Revolt (Edinburgh, 1910) ; 
 Francis McCullagh, Fall of Abd-Ul Hamid (Lon¬ 
 don, 1910) ; H. C. Woods, Danger Zone of 
 Europe: Changes and Problems in the Near East 
 (Boston, 1911) ; B. G. Baker, The Passing of the 
 Turkish Empire in Europe (Philadelphia, 1913) ; 
 William Miller, The Ottoman Empire, 1801-1919 
 (New lY>rk, 1913) ;'Victor Berard, La mort du 
 Stamboul: considerations sur le gouvernement 
 des Jeunes-Turcs (Paris, 1913) ; J. G. Schurman, 
 The Balkan Wars, 1912-1913 (2d ed., Princeton, 
 N. J., 1914) ; A. La Jonquiere, Histoire de 
 Vempire ottoman (2 vols., Paris, 1914) ; Ahmed 
 Emin, “Development of Modern Turkey as Meas¬ 
 ured by its Press,” in Columbia University, 
 Studies in History, Economics and Public Laic 
 (New York, 1914) ; G.'W. Bury, Arabia Infelix, 
 or, The Turks in Yamen (ib., 1915) ; H. O. 
 Dwight, Constantinople (ib., 1915) ; Mark Sykes, 
 The Caliph's Lost Heritage (ib., 1915) ; H. A. 
 Gibbons, The Foundation of the Ottoman Empire 
 (ib., 1916). 
 
 TURKEY (abbrev. of Turkey cock, Turkey 
 hen, so called as being supposed to come from 
 Turkey, vaguely applied to Tartary or Asia 
 in general). The turkeys are natives of North 
 and Central America, and the only two species 
 known are the common wild turkey (Meleagris 
 gallopavo), divided into five subspecies, and the 
 beautiful Yucatan turkey ( Meleagris ocellatus ). 
 They were once regarded as a distinct family, 
 but are now considered the sole American repre¬ 
 sentatives of the Phasianidae. The wild turkey 
 is like the domesticated one, but more brightly 
 colored. The ocellated turkey of Central Amer¬ 
 ica is a smaller and more beautiful species; the 
 plumage is lustrous, and parts of it are ocel¬ 
 lated, like the peacock’s feathers; the bare head 
 is blue with orange caruncles. This fine species 
 is confined to Yucatan and Central America. 
 The common wild turkey is still found in Mexico, 
 Texas, and Arizona, and in other parts of the 
 West and South, but is scarce east of the Mis¬ 
 sissippi and north of Virginia or Kentucky, 
 though it formerly ranged well up into New 
 England and as far north as Ontario. The wild 
 turkey nests on the ground, commonly laying 
 about 12 eggs of a creamy-white color. The fe¬ 
 male rarely raises more than one brood in a sea¬ 
 son and then only if misfortune has come to 
 the first brood. The young are at the mercy 
 of many enemies and the adults that survive 
 have become nearly exterminated in America. 
 
 The domestic turkey, the largest of gallina¬ 
 ceous birds, appears to have been introduced into 
 Europe by the Spaniards early in the sixteenth 
 century and is the descendant of the Mexican 
 wild turkey. The domestic birds vary greatly 
 
TURKISH LANGUAGE 
 
 TURKEY BUZZARD 57^ 
 
 in plumage from the tints of the wild species to 
 buff, or brown, or pure white, and occasionally 
 produce a crest. On account of its size and the 
 excellence of its flesh and eggs the turkey is one 
 of the most valued kinds of poultry. The man¬ 
 agement of turkeys differs little from that of 
 the common fowl. * The young are tender for the 
 first few weeks, and require care, particularly to 
 keep them from getting wet by running among 
 the wet grass, or the like; but afterward they 
 are sufficiently hardy. Consult American School 
 of Poultry Husbandry, Turkeys, Waterfowl, and 
 Guineas (Mountain Grove, Mo., 1914), and E. 
 
 A. Mcllhenny, The Wild Turkey and its Hunting 
 (Garden City, N. Y., 1914). See Colored Plate 
 of Peacock,*Turkey, and Guinea Fowl. 
 
 TURKEY BUZZARD. See Vulture. 
 
 TURKEY GNAT. An insect ( Simulium 
 pictipes) of the dipterous family Simuliidae, iden¬ 
 tical with the Southern buffalo gnat, which 
 usually makes its appearance about the time 
 turkeys are setting, and sometimes causes great 
 mortality among those birds. See Black Fly; 
 Buffalo Gnat. 
 
 TURKEY GUM. See Gums. 
 
 TURKEY RED. A name applied to one of 
 the most durable and beautiful colors which 
 have been produced on cotton. The process of 
 dyeing cotton Turkey red is said to have been 
 practiced in India from ancient times. The 
 operations are long and tedious, and their ef¬ 
 fect could scarcely be explained theoretically. 
 Turkey red is one of the colors of alizarin which 
 can be obtained either from the madder root 
 (Rubia tinctorum) or by an artificial process 
 of manufacture as a product of coal tar. See 
 Alizarin. 
 
 TURKEY STONE. A honestone found in 
 Turkey. See Hones. 
 
 TURKISH LANGUAGE AND LITERA¬ 
 TURE. The language and literature of the 
 Turks in general, and especially of the Osmanli. 
 Within the Ural Altaic family the Turkish group 
 stands somewhat nearer to the Samoyedic and 
 Finno-Ugric than to the Tungusian and Mongo¬ 
 lian. While the pronouns, case suffixes, and 
 construction of sentences are very similar to 
 those in the latter groups, not only is there 
 a very marked difference in the vocabulary, but 
 also a more developed* system of inflection and 
 a freer use of pronominal suffixes. On the other 
 hand, the Turkish group has a simpler system 
 of cases than the Samoyedic and Finno-Ugric; 
 it does not incorporate, as they do, the pronomi¬ 
 nal object in the verb, and it inserts, as they do 
 not, the negative after the root of the verb. It 
 is, on the whole, more agglutinative and less 
 inflectional than the Finnish and the Hungarian. 
 
 Among the languages or dialects comprised 
 within the Turkish group the Osmanli has the 
 closest affinities to the Anadoli, the Krimmi, 
 the Azerbaijani, and the Turkmani, though the 
 latter two already begin to show characteristic 
 differences. The Jagatai and Taranji, and even 
 more the northern dialects, Kirghiz, Bashkir, 
 Irtysh, and Volga in the West, and Altai, Ba- 
 raba, Lebed, Tuba, Abakan, Kuarik, Soyon 
 Karagass, and Uighur in the East, have a much 
 broader and harsher vocalization, a very confus¬ 
 ing substitution of consonants, as m for b, b for 
 w, j for y, etc., and a preservation of those an¬ 
 cient tense and case words which in Osmanli 
 and some of the other southwestern dialects have 
 become mere arbitrary particles added to the 
 root to indicate tense or case. 
 
 TURKISH LANGUAGE 
 
 The chief structural characteristics of the 
 Turkish language are four: (1) the root of 
 
 every word is inviolable; (2) the root is em¬ 
 phasized by making its leading vowel dominate 
 the vowels and to some extent the consonants 
 added for purposes of inflection, subjecting them 
 to change under regular rules of euphonic har¬ 
 mony. (3) Grammatical forms, especially in 
 the conjugation of the verb, are abundant, regu¬ 
 lar, logical, and efficient. (4) Determining or 
 modifying syllables are placed at the end of the 
 root. * The Turkish verb begins in simplicity. 
 For instance, bak means look thou, and is the 
 root of the verb balcmak, to look. Upon this 
 root a series of new verbs may be built: (1) 
 
 Causative: bakdirmak, to cause or allow to 
 look; (2) reciprocal: bakishmak, to look at one 
 another; (3) reflexive: bakinmak, to look at 
 one’s self, i.e., to be perplexed. From these 
 again a further series of new verbs can be made 
 by inserting in each the causative particle; (4) 
 bakdirtmak, to make or let one cause another to 
 look; (5) bakishdirmak, to cause or allow one 
 to look at another; (6) bakindirmak, to cause 
 or allow one to look at himself, i.e., to be per¬ 
 plexed. All of these new verbs can be conjugated 
 in the positive, the negative, and the impossible 
 form (to look; not to look; and not to be able 
 to look), and, if the sense permits, in all the 
 moods and tenses of the active and passive 
 voices. The same is true of the root of every 
 verb in the language, if the sense permits. It 
 has been computed that, counting all the moods 
 and tenses and numbers and persons, the permu¬ 
 tations of which each Turkish verb is capable 
 amounts to over 25,000. Yet so simple and clear 
 are the rules that the memorizing of 44 syllables 
 or particles enables one to build and understand 
 the whole series. The efficiency of the system 
 appears on realizing that Turkish grammar has 
 but one conjugation and no irregular verbs ex¬ 
 cept the auxiliary. The scheme of the verb is 
 that of a form which will fit every root and 
 which is yet so transparent that the root is al¬ 
 ways visible. The same principle of agglutina¬ 
 tion to the root is followed in making new verbs 
 from nouns or adjectives and in declining nouns 
 and pronouns. There is no gender for noun, 
 pronoun, or adjective. Adjectives are subjected 
 to no change except for comparison. The Turk¬ 
 ish syntax is peculiar. The unit of expression 
 is the paragraph, and there is no punctuation. 
 The subject of the ruling verb is placed as near 
 as possible to the beginning of the paragraph. 
 All subordinate sentences and clauses adding 
 particulars have their verbs in participial form, 
 the sense being thus suspended during the proc¬ 
 ess of building the paragraph, until the chief 
 verb coming in at the very end illuminates the 
 whole. 
 
 The earliest form of the alphabet used in 
 writing Turkish dialects is that employed in the 
 inscriptions found on the Yenesei and on the 
 Orkhon River south of Lake Baikal. The let¬ 
 ters show a marked similarity to the Aramaic 
 alphabet appearing on the later Arsacid coins. 
 One of these inscriptions is dated in 733 a.d. ; 
 but it is not improbable that some of them are 
 still earlier. The Uighur inscriptions are some¬ 
 what later; a copy of the poem Kudatku Bilik, 
 “The Blessed Knowledge,” was made in 1085. 
 These Uighurs used an alphabet of 14 letters 
 derived from the Nestorian Syriac. The same 
 
TURKISH LANGUAGE 579 TURKISH LANGUAGE 
 
 resemblance to the Estrangelo is also character¬ 
 istic of the recently discovered Manichaean texts 
 (cf. Le Coq, in Journal of the Royal Asiatic 
 Society, London, 1911, pp. 277 ff.), and in a modi¬ 
 fied form this alphabet seems, to have passed to 
 the Tunguses and the Mongolians. As the Turk¬ 
 ish tribes became Moslems they adopted the 
 Arabic alphabet, increasing the 28 letters to 
 33 by the device invented by the Persians of 
 adding dots to five of the Arabic letters. This 
 alphabet is quite unsuited to the Turkish lan¬ 
 guage, owing to the lack of proper vowels. As 
 vowels like a, o, ii cannot be expressed, it is 
 sometimes impossible to avoid serious ambiguity 
 or uncertainty as to the meaning. Turkish is 
 occasionally written in Armenian, Greek, or 
 Russian letters. 
 
 The onrush of the Turks from the Far East 
 into all civilized lands, including China, which 
 continued from the tenth century to the end of 
 the seventeenth, enlarged the meagre Turkish 
 vocabulary. The tribes which invaded India, 
 now known under the name of Moguls, lost their 
 language; but those which conquered Persia and 
 overthrew the Byzantine Empire came under the 
 literary influence of Persian at first, then of 
 Arabic, and finally of Greek and the European 
 languages. The consequence was that the Otto¬ 
 man Turkish (Osmanli), as the Western branch 
 of the language is called, adopted into its literary 
 vocabulary Persian words of poetry and history, 
 Arabic words for religious and legal writings, 
 Greek words for the winds and currents and fishes 
 of the sea, Italian words for all that relates to 
 sailing vessels, and, later, English terms for 
 steam, the steamboat and its manoeuvres, and 
 French words for many of the terms of diplo¬ 
 macy. 
 
 TURKISH LITERATURE 
 
 Turkish literature is a term which at present 
 implies the literature of the Western or Ottoman 
 Turkish language. It may be regarded as fall¬ 
 ing into three periods: (1) The early period, 
 when writers were from the region of Central 
 Asia, and when the Persian was the model and 
 often the instrument of their highest expression. 
 (2) The middle period, beginning about the mid¬ 
 dle of the sixteenth century and extending well 
 into the nineteenth, when Arabic dominated the 
 Turkish literary world, having replaced Persian 
 as model except in poetry. (3) The modern 
 period, dating from about the time of the 
 Crimean War (1853-56). In it the tendency of 
 Turkish writers is to copy French, rather than 
 either Persian or Arabian models, and to bring 
 back into the language half-forgotten Turkish 
 expressions. 
 
 The earliest literary remains of Turkish writ¬ 
 ers are the inscriptions mentioned above, de¬ 
 ciphered and interpreted by Castren, Thomsen, 
 Radloff, Donner, and Hirth. One of the earliest 
 books of the early period, celebrated for its 
 pure Turkish, is a genealogical history of the 
 Tatars by Abul Ghazi of Khwarezm, dating from 
 the twelfth century. The judge Burhan el din of 
 Sivas, a descendant of Genghis Khan, an adven¬ 
 turer, ruling over two provinces, who lost his 
 life in trying to conquer another in 1398, has 
 left some poems written in good Turkish, al¬ 
 though after the Persian school. Another of 
 the early poets was Suleiman Effendi (died 
 1410), chaplain to Sultan Bajazet, whom Timur 
 carried off. He wrote a poem in honor of the 
 birth of the Prophet Mohammed which has been 
 
 read throughout lurkey on public occasions in 
 each year during nearly 500 years, and still re¬ 
 tains its power to move its hearers. Another 
 of the poets of the early period was Amud el din, 
 who wrote under the name Nesimi. Like the 
 others of these early poets, he was under the 
 influence of Sufiism (q.v.), and so incensed the 
 more orthodox Moslems that he was flayed alive 
 at Aleppo in 1417. Sheikhi, whose real name 
 was Sinan (died 1420), was a doctor as well as 
 a poet. His fame rests mainly upon his poem, 
 the Klmr-name, or Donkey Book, in which he 
 classifies his enemies according to the different 
 types of asses found in the East. 
 
 Nevayi, whose real name was All Shir (died 
 1500), is the great representative of Turkish 
 poetry in this period. He was Grand Vizier 
 for a time to Sultan Husain of Herat, but re¬ 
 tired early that he might write. He was a 
 master in both Turkish and Persian. The thor¬ 
 oughly human quality of his writings appeared 
 from the fact that one main source of our knowl¬ 
 edge of the old eastern Turkish language is a 
 dictionary written by a Persian in order that 
 Persians might profit by Nevayi’s writings. The 
 greatest prose writer of this period was Baber, 
 great-grandson of Timur, and “Mogul” con¬ 
 queror of India in 1525-26. Flis annals of his 
 campaigns are written in plain Turkish, Arabic 
 and Persian words being used to eke out his 
 vocabulary. 
 
 Of the middle period of Turkish literature 
 Saad el din (died 1599) offers a type. He was a 
 warrior of great renown, and afterward Chief 
 Justice of the Turkish Empire (Sheikh al Islam) 
 under Sultan Mohammed III. The work on 
 which his literary fame rests is a liistorv of the 
 Ottoman Empire, called Taj el Tevarikh, The 
 style is of the most ornate Persian order and 
 there is hardly any Turkish in the book except 
 those auxiliaries essential to the binding of the 
 sentences. Saad el din followed the principle, 
 which ruled literature throughout the middle 
 period, that Arabic words must be brought into 
 Turkish with all their grammatical rules and 
 appurtenances. The effect is to make the finest 
 Turkish literature of this period quite unintel¬ 
 ligible to those who have not enough knowledge 
 of Arabic and Persian to use dictionaries of 
 those languages. Bald (died 1599), rated by 
 Turkish critics as the “king of the poets of 
 Osmanli Turkish,” was a contemporary of Saad 
 el din. He was the son of a mosque servant who 
 became one of the Caziaskers, or judges of the 
 supreme court, under Sultan Selim II. His 
 poetry was strongly Persian in flavor, but with¬ 
 out slavish imitation. Another great poet of 
 this time was Fuzuli (died 1563), whose real 
 name was Mehemed, of Bagdad. To a foreign 
 taste he offers more of originality than Baki. 
 His poems are warm with the peculiar fire 
 of Sufiism, and in both poetry and prose he 
 loved the strong virile Turkish "words. The list 
 of Turkish poets is long, but those mentioned 
 are still the greatest names. To them we may 
 add Nedim (died 1725), whose ghazels and 
 kasidas show originality as well as eloquence of 
 diction and humor. The name of Kiani, whose 
 real name was Abu Bekr (died 1791), too, 
 should have a place in the list of notable poets 
 of this period. The simplicity and transparent 
 beauty of his lines are such that had it not been 
 for his inveterate waggishness he would hold 
 very high rank among the Turkish poets. 
 Another of the great poets of this period was 
 
TURKOMANS 
 
 TURKISH LANGUAGE 
 
 Xabi (died 1712), whose Ghazels are accounted 
 among the finest. His real name was \usuf of 
 Urfa. One of his longer poems, the Khairiye, 
 has been translated into French by Pavet de 
 Courteille. Sheikh Ghalib (died 1/98), whose 
 Huan-u-ashk (Beauty and Love) is regarded 
 as a fine allegory, should also be mentioned, as 
 well as the poetess Sherif Hanum, who died in 
 1809, leaving a Divan of some merit. 
 
 The historians of the middle period make a 
 long list. But their work is blemished, as a rule, 
 by a difficult, stilted style, and the pettiness of 
 the annalist. Among exceptions in the long se¬ 
 ries we may select Pechevi Ibrahim, who shows 
 some inkling of what a historian should be; 
 Solak Zade, who died about 1680, and wrote in 
 the graphic style of an eyewitness; and espe¬ 
 cially Katib Tehelebi, sometimes called Hajji 
 Khalfah (q.v.). His real name was Mustafa, 
 and he died in 1658, leaving an enormous mass 
 of extremely valuable writings in history, ge¬ 
 ography, and bibliography. 
 
 To the same period probably belong _ certain 
 writings of value which are passed over in scorn 
 by the Turkish literary critics because they are 
 not in the mongrel language of the pedants. 
 Hence their authors are unknown. Of this class 
 is the History of the Forty Viziers, dedicated to 
 Sultan Mustapha I (1617-23). It is a cycle of 
 some 75 stories grouped about an incident of 
 the Joseph and Potiphar order. The book is 
 directed against the idea of trusting the fair 
 sex and winds up, after all wrongs have been 
 righted, with the quaint prayer, “May the Most 
 High bring us all near to the good and to God, 
 and keep us from the tricks of deceitful woman. 
 Amen.” Another of these unconsidered classics 
 of Turkish is the Life of Nasr el din Hoja, a col¬ 
 lection of bulls acted or spoken by a Turk of 
 Asia Minor, who is delightfully humorous. To 
 the same class belongs the story of Shah Miron, 
 a collection of fairy tales, religious in purpose, 
 which is remarkable for its pure Turkish diction. 
 
 As a fruit of the Crimean War a revolution 
 took place in the educational system of Turkey. 
 The result has been the appearance of the mod¬ 
 ern school of writers who are yet to change en¬ 
 tirely the character of Turkish literature. The 
 heavy scholastic theologians are seeking to arrest 
 the movement by the censorship, and they have 
 persecuted or imprisoned some of the most pow¬ 
 erful writers, like Ebuzzia Tewfik, or sent them 
 to die in exile on a barren island like Kemal Bey. 
 The aim of the new school of writers is to free 
 the Turkish language from the incubus of Arabic 
 grammatical purism. The writers who have per¬ 
 haps done the most towards accomplishing this 
 object are Ahmed Vefik Pasha (died 1893), 
 whose dictionary of Turkish in two volumes was 
 a revelation to multitudes, and Ahmed Mithad 
 Effendi, noted for his novels, essays, and his¬ 
 torical studies. Great as is the linguistic value 
 of Ahmed Mithad’s writings, they are too close 
 imitations of French works to have permanent 
 literary value. Of far greater weight was Kemal 
 Bey, who died in 1878. Jevdet Pasha, illustrious 
 as an historian, whose works show a steady de¬ 
 velopment towards the simpler Turkish style; 
 Ziya Pasha, a brilliant essayist and poet; and 
 Jevad Pasha, who has written a fine history of 
 the origins of the Turkish military organization, 
 are other examples of this school. Other notable 
 names of this period are Muallim Naji, poet and 
 essayist: Ebuzzia Tewfik, literary critic; Sezayi 
 Bey, Husain, Rahmi, Ahmed Rasim, and Aliy6 
 
 Hanum, daughter of the historian Jevdet Pasha, 
 all of whom are novelists, dealing with current 
 life in a realistic style entirely new in Turkish 
 literature. Hamid Bey has made for himself a 
 name as a playwright. The modern period can¬ 
 not be said to liave entirely revealed its qualities 
 while strife with reactionist control continues. 
 But it has at least shown that there is a future 
 before the writers of Turkey, if they ever have 
 freedom to speak and to develop. See An¬ 
 thology. 
 
 Bibliography. For analysis of the philosophy 
 of Turkish grammar, consult: Abel R6musat, Re- 
 cherches sur les longues tatares (Paris, 1820) ; 
 Shaw, Sketch of the Turkish Language as Spoken 
 in Eastern Turkestan (Calcutta, 1878-80) ; 
 for the Eastern Turkish language: De Courteille, 
 Diotionnaire turc-oriental (Paris, 1870) ; Ar- 
 nim Vambery, Cagataische Sprachstudien (Leip¬ 
 zig, 1867) ; Wilhelm Radloff, Proben der Volks- 
 Utteratur der turkischen Stiimme Sud-Siberiens 
 (St. Petersburg, 1868); id., Die alttiirkischen 
 Inschriften der Mongolei (ib., 1897) ; Bohtlingk, 
 TJeber die Sprache der -Jakuten (ib., 1851) ; 
 Thomsen, Inscriptions de VOrkhon decliiffrees 
 (Helsingfors, 1896) ; O. Donner, Sur Vorigine de 
 Valphabet turc (ib., 1896) ; J. Marquardt, Chro- 
 nologie der alt-turkischen Inschriften (Berlin, 
 1898; 6 vols., London, 1900-09). For the 
 
 Ottoman Turkish language, consult: Charles 
 Wells, Practical Grammar of the Turkish Lan¬ 
 guage (London, 1880) ; Adolf Wahrmund, Prak- 
 tisches Handbueh der osmamsch-tiirkischen 
 Sprache (2d ed., Giessen, 1884) ; August Muller, 
 “Tiijkische Grammatik,” in the Porta Linguarum 
 Orientalium (Berlin, 1889) ; R. Youssouf, Gram- 
 maire complete de la long lie ottomane (Constan¬ 
 tinople, 1892) ; Sir J. W. Redhouse, Lexicon of 
 the Ottoman Turkish Language (ib., 1884), 
 the most complete Turkish lexicon in existence; 
 id., English-Turkislv Dictionary (ib., 1861); 
 
 E. A. Leran, Turlcish-English Conversation Il¬ 
 lustrated (Boston, 1914) ; Sami, Dictionnaire 
 ture-frangais, frangais-turc (Constantinople, 
 1883), is a small but very useful work. For 
 Turkish literature, consult: Georg Jacob, Tiirk- 
 ische Litteraturgeschichte in Einzeldarstellungen 
 (Berlin, 1900) ; id., Turkische Volkslitteratur 
 (ib., 1901) ; E. J. W. Gibb, History of Ottoman 
 Poetry (London, 1902-05) ; Georg Jacob, 
 Turkische Bibliothek (Berlin, 1905-06) ; Wil¬ 
 helm Radloff, Versuch eines Worterbuches der 
 Turk-DiaXeete (Leipzig, 1904—06). “Turkish 
 Literature,” in the World’s Great Classics (Lon¬ 
 don, 1901), is a convenient collection of transla¬ 
 tions of typical Turkish works; except in the 
 Ottoman poetry translated by Gibb, however, 
 the articles are not taken directly from the 
 Turkish; also: Paul Horn, Geschichte der turk¬ 
 ischen Moderne (Leipzig, 1902) ; Sir Edwin 
 Pears, Turkey and its People (London, 1911); 
 Tales from Turkey, collected and done into Eng¬ 
 lish bv Allan Ramsay and Francis McCullagh 
 (ib., 1914). 
 
 TURKISH MUSIC. See Janizary Music. 
 
 TURCOMANS. A people whose principal 
 home is in the great plains between the Caspian 
 Sea on the west and the Sea of Aral and the 
 Amu Darya on the east—the western part of 
 Turkestan in the broader sense. Some of them 
 are to be found in Persia, Afghanistan, and 
 other regions. They belong by language, and 
 largely by blood, to the Turkic stock. The 
 Turkomans of Turkestan are under Russian 
 rule. See Turkestan. 
 
TURKO-TATARS 
 
 TURNBULL 
 
 58i 
 
 TURKO-TATARS, tur'ko-tii'tarz. A term 
 used by certain ethnologists to designate a group 
 of Ural-Altaic peoples composed of the Turkic 
 and related so-called Tatar tribes and nations. 
 Under Turko-Tatars are included: The Siberian 
 peoples of i urkic stock, such as the Yakuts and 
 Siberian Tatars; the Kirghiz-Cossacks of the 
 Irtysh Caspian steppes; the Kara-Kirghizes of 
 the Tian-Shan; the Uigurs, Sarts, Uzbegs, and 
 Turkomans of Central Asia; the Tatars of the 
 Volga; Bashkirs, Tchuvashes, and Meshtcheriaks, 
 in European Russia; the Tatars of the Crimea 
 and the Caucasus, including the Nogai, Karat- 
 ehai, Kumyks, and Basians; the Azerbaijani; the 
 Yuruks of Anatolia; the Osmanli Turks; the his¬ 
 torical nations: the Huns, Petchenegs, Cvimans, 
 Avars, and perhaps the ancient Bulgars and Kha- 
 zars, etc. Many of these peoples, like the Osman- 
 lis, Starts, Turkomans, Uzbegs, Azerbaijani, and 
 the Turks of Turkestan, are largely Aryanized in 
 blood, with often an added Semitic strain. Ex¬ 
 cept the Yakuts, whose religion is Shamanism, 
 and those Tchuvashes who have become Christian, 
 the Turkic peoples profess Islam. The empires 
 founded by Turko-Tataric peoples have had a 
 rather ephemeral existence, and the realm of the 
 Osmanli Turks in Europe owes its perpetuation 
 not a little to the very mixed physical character 
 of that people. Consult: Armin V.imbery, Ety- 
 mologisches Worterbuch der turko-tatarischen 
 Sprachen (Leipzig, 1878); id., Die primitive 
 Kultur des turko-tatarischen Volkes (ib., 1879) ; 
 id., Das Turkenvolk (ib., 1885) ; Wilhelm Rad- 
 loff, Die Sprachen der Turkischen Stamme (St. 
 Petersburg, 1866 et seq.); id., Ethnographische 
 Ubersicht der Turkstdmme Siberians Und der 
 Mongolei (Leipzig, 1883) ; Ernest Chantre, 
 Recherches anthropotogiques dans VAsie occi- 
 dentale (Lyons, 1895) and the periodical Revue 
 Orientate (Keleti Szemle). 
 
 TURK’S CAP. See Lily. 
 
 TURK’S HEAD. A name given to a number 
 of coffee houses in London, among which that on 
 the Strand, frequented by Dr. Johnson and Bos¬ 
 well, was the most noted. Others of the name 
 were situated in Change Alley, in Soho, and in 
 Westminster. 
 
 TURKS ISLANDS. A group of small islands 
 in the Bahamas, which, together with the Caicos 
 Islands (q.v.), form a dependency of Jamaica. 
 
 TURLIN, Heinkicii von dem. See Heinkich 
 
 VON DEM TURLIN. 
 
 TURMAIR, toor'mlr, Johannes. The real 
 name of the German historian best known as 
 Johannes Aventinus (q.v.). 
 
 TUR'MERIC (Fr. terre-mdrite, Neo-Lat. terra 
 merita, turmeric, apparently deserved earth, best 
 earth, but probably a corruption of an Oriental 
 name, perhaps of Ar. kurkum, from Skt. kun- 
 kuma, saffron), Curcuma tonga. A plant of the 
 family Zingiberacea?, a native of the East Indies, 
 much cultivated both in India and in Cochin- 
 China, for its fleshy roots, more than $500,000 
 worth of which are annually exported from India 
 alone. YYrnng roots abound in a kind of arrow- 
 root, but older ones contain a large quantity of 
 a resinous yellow substance called turmeric, 
 which is used mainly for dyeing. The color is 
 not very stable. Some of its other uses are in 
 chemistry as a test for alkalies, their carbonates 
 and phosphates, some of the alkaloids, and 
 boracic acid, which change it to reddish brown, 
 and as a condiment with many kinds of food, 
 especially as a principal ingredient in curry 
 powder. The plant thrives best in a rich, friable 
 
 soil, and a situation not liable to be flooded. 
 It is propagated by cuttings of the rootstock, 
 which are planted at distances of 18 inches to 
 2 feet, in April or May. The crop is gathered in 
 December. This kind of turmeric is sometimes 
 distinguished by the name long turmeric; and 
 the name of round turmeric is given to Kcemp- 
 feria pandurata, a plant of the same family, also 
 
 turmeric (Curcuma longa ). 
 
 a native of the East Indies, the roots of which 
 are shorter and rounder, but otherwise of very 
 similar quality. They are especially valued for 
 the preparation of an artificial gold varnish, as 
 they yield a better color than the former kind. 
 The Arabic name of turmeric is kurkum, whence 
 curcuma. Turmeric is not cultivated commer¬ 
 cially in the United States. See Curcuma. 
 
 TURN, toorn. A town adjoining Teplitz in 
 Bohemia, Austria. It has a magnificent park, 
 bathing establishments, and thriving manufac¬ 
 tures of many kinds, particularly porcelain. 
 Pop., 1900, 12,408; 1910, 13,653. 
 
 TURNBULL, Robert James (1775-1833). 
 An American publicist, born in New Smyrna, 
 Fla. He was educated in England, was admitted 
 to the bar in Charleston in 1794, and practiced 
 there until 1810, when he retired to his planta¬ 
 tion. He was active in the Nullification move¬ 
 ment, and under the signature of “Brutus” 
 published 31 papers in the Charleston Mercury, 
 during 1827, which were afterward collected as 
 the Crisis. He was a delegate to the Nullifica¬ 
 tion Convention in 1832, and prepared the ad¬ 
 dress to the people. When the proclamation of 
 President Jackson was read, he was the first to 
 volunteer to resist the general government. 
 
 TURNBULL, William (1800-1857). An 
 American civil engineer. He was born in Phila¬ 
 delphia; graduated at West Point in 1819, and 
 was commissioned in the artillery. He was en¬ 
 gaged largely in topographical work, and was 
 promoted to a captaincy in the topographical 
 engineers in 1831, being brevetted colonel in 1847. 
 In the Mexican War he was with General Scott 
 as chief topographical engineer, and took part 
 at Contreras, Churubusco, and the capture of the 
 city of Mexico. He was* superintending topo¬ 
 graphical engineer on the Potomac Aqueduct for 
 the water supply of Washington, D. C., and in 
 charge of government harbor and other engineer¬ 
 ing works. The building of the New Orleans 
 
TURNBULL 
 
 582 
 
 TURNER 
 
 
 Custom House and the Cape Fear River im- 
 provements were under his supervision. 
 
 TURNBULL, William Barclay David Don¬ 
 ald (1811-63). A Scottish antiquary, born at 
 Edinburgh. Educated for the law, he was ad¬ 
 mitted as advocate at the Scottish bar (1832), 
 but devoted much time to the study of the 
 antiquities and older literature of Great Britain. 
 In 1834 he founded the Abbotsford Club, which 
 did great service by printing works preserved 
 only in manuscripts or old editions. In 1859 
 he was employed by the Record Commission, 
 and in the next two years published two valuable 
 volumes of calendars of state papers, but on ac¬ 
 count of his Catholicism he was attacked by the 
 ultra-Protestant party and compelled to resign. 
 He was an industrious and careful editor, and 
 did excellent service by his editions of Middle 
 English and early modern English poetry. His 
 work as genealogist and historical editor was 
 of value. Among his publications may be 
 named: The Romances of Sir Guy of TI arwick 
 and Rembrun his Son (1840); The Visions of 
 Tundale (1843) ; Letters of Mary Queen of Scots 
 (1845) ; The Poetical Works of William Drum¬ 
 mond of Hawthornden (1856). 
 
 TURNBULL’S BLUE. See Hyt>roferri- 
 cyanic Acid. 
 
 TURNE'BUS, Adrianus (Fr. Adrien Tur- 
 n£be) (1512-1565). An eminent French 
 scholar, born at Andelys, famous as one of the 
 leaders of the Renaissance in France. After 
 completing his studies in Paris he became pro¬ 
 fessor in the University of Toulouse. In 1547 he 
 was called to Paris, where he taught Greek and 
 Latin, and later philosophy, until his death. 
 From 1552 he had charge of all Greek books pub¬ 
 lished by the royal press. Under him appeared 
 the first editions of Philo and Synesius; he him¬ 
 self edited AEschylus, Aristotle’s Ethics, Cicero’s 
 De Legibus, Horace and Varro’s De Lingua 
 Latina, and made many translations. Turnebus’ 
 influence extended far beyond the limits of 
 France through his writings and pupils, of 
 whom the most famous was J. J. Scaliger (q.v.). 
 After his death his commentaries, translations, 
 and other writings were published in three 
 volumes (Paris, 1564-80). Consult the Life pre¬ 
 fixed to these volumes; also Mattaire, Historia 
 Typographorum Aliquot Parisiensium (London, 
 1817) ; and J. E. Sandys, A History of Classical 
 Scholarship, vol. ii (Cambridge, 1908). 
 
 TUR'NER, Charles Tennyson (1808-79). 
 An English poet, brother of Alfred Tennyson 
 (q.v.). He was born at Somersby, in Lincoln¬ 
 shire. Like his more famous brother he at¬ 
 tended the Louth Grammar School, and then 
 studied at home under the direction of his 
 lather, the vicar of Somersby. With Alfred, he 
 published Poems by Two Brothers (1827; re¬ 
 issued 1893). In 1828 he entered Trinity Col¬ 
 lege, Cambridge, graduating B.A. in 1832. In 
 1835 he was ordained and became curate of 
 Tealby, in Lincolnshire, and two years later vicar 
 of Grasby, in the same county. On inheriting 
 a small estate from a great-uncle, Samuel Tur¬ 
 ner, he added Turner to his name. His last 
 years were passed at Cheltenham. After his 
 juvenile verse he published Sonnets and Fugitive 
 Pieces (1830), which were appreciated by Cole¬ 
 ridge; and similar volumes in 1864, 1868, and 
 1873. In 1880 Hallam Tennyson brought to¬ 
 gether all of his uncle’s sonnets and lyrics under 
 the title Collected Sonnets, Old and A Jew, and in¬ 
 troduced them by a biographical sketch. 
 
 TURNER, Charles Yardley (185C-1919). 
 An American mural landscape and figure painter. 
 He was born in Baltimore, and studied at the 
 National Academy and the Art Students' League 
 in New York City, and afterward under Lau¬ 
 rens, Munkhcsy, and Bonnat in Paris. He at 
 first exhibited large canvases of historical genre, 
 such as the “Bridal Procession” (Metropolitan 
 Museum, New York), but soon turned to mural 
 painting and executed decorations in many pub¬ 
 lic and municipal buildings and hotels. Good, 
 examples of his work, which is well composed, 
 carefully drawn, and realistic in character, are: 
 “The Burning of the Peggy Stuart,” and “The 
 Barter with the Indians,” in the Baltimore 
 Court House; the two lunettes “Washington 
 Watching the Assault on Fort Lee” and “Fulton’s 
 Clermont Making its First Trip up the Hudson,” 
 in the Hudson County Court House, Jersey City; 
 the panels “Equity” and “Law” in the Appellate 
 Court, New York; “Opening of the Erie Canal' 5 
 and “Marriage of the Waters” in the DeWitt 
 Clinton High" School, New York. From 1881 to 
 1884 Turner was professor of drawing and paint¬ 
 ing at the Art Students’ League, New York, and 
 he was elected a member of the National Academy 
 of Design in 1886. From 1912 he was director 
 of the Maryland Institute of Art and Design. 
 He made Washington City his residence, but 
 maintained studios in New York and Baltimore. 
 
 TURNER, Cuthbert Hamilton (1860- 
 ). An English theologian, born in London. 
 He was educated at Winchester College and at 
 New College, Oxford, and at Oxford was an as¬ 
 sistant lecturer from 1888 to 1901, first Speaker s 
 lecturer in biblical studies in 1906—10, and 
 thenceforth lecturer in early Christian history. 
 From 1899 to 1902 he was the first editor of the 
 Journal of Theological Studies. His publica¬ 
 tions include: Ecclesice Occidentalis Monumenta 
 Iuris Antiquissima (2 vols., 1899-1913) ; The 
 History and TJse of Creeds and Anathemas in 
 the Early Centuries of the Church (1906); 
 “Organization of the Church,” in Cambridge 
 Mediceval History (1911); Studies in Early 
 Church History (1912). 
 
 TURNER, Cyril. See Tourneur, Cyril. 
 
 TURNER, Frederick Jackson (1861- ). 
 
 An American historian, born at Portage, Wis. 
 He graduated in 1884 at the University of Wis¬ 
 consin, where (after further study at Johns 
 Hopkins) he was professor of American his¬ 
 tory from 1892 to 1910. He then accepted a 
 chair of history at Harvard. He became one of 
 the editors of the American Historical Review, 
 and in 1910-11 was president of the American 
 Historical Association. He published: The 
 Character and Influence of the Indian Trade 
 in Wisconsin (1890); Policy of France to¬ 
 wards the Mississippi Valleij in the Period of 
 Washington and Adams (1906); Rise of the 
 Rew West (1906); Reuben Gold Thwaites 
 (1914). 
 
 TURNER, Herbert Hall. (1861- . ). A 
 
 British astronomer. He studied at Clifton Col¬ 
 lege, and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where 
 he was later fellow. For a time he was chief 
 assistant in the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. 
 In 1893 he was appointed fellow of New College, 
 Oxford, and Savilian professor of astronomy in 
 the university. Turner was president of the 
 Royal Astronomical Society in 1903-04. Be¬ 
 sides serving as joint editor of Bedrock (a quar¬ 
 terly scientific review), he published Modern 
 Astronomy (1901); Astronomical Discovery 
 
TURNER 
 
 TURNER 
 
 583 
 
 (1904); Halley’s Comet (1908; 2d ed., 1910); 
 The Great Star Map (1912). 
 
 TURNER, John Herbert (1834- ). A 
 
 Canadian government officer. He was born at 
 Claydon, England, was educated there, and went 
 to Canada in 1856. After a few years in busi¬ 
 ness at Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, 
 he removed to Victoria, British Columbia, and 
 founded a mercantile house of which he con¬ 
 tinued to be the head. Entering politics, he 
 was a Conservative member for Victoria in the 
 Provincial Legislature in 1887-1901. He was 
 Provincial Minister of Finance and Agriculture 
 (1887-98; 1899-1901), Premier (1895-98), and 
 in 1901-15 he was agent-general for British Co¬ 
 lumbia in London. 
 
 TURNER, Joseph Mallord William (1775—\ 
 1851). The most celebrated landscape painted 
 of the English school. He was born in Covent 
 Garden, London, April 23, 1775, the son of Wil¬ 
 liam Turner, a barber. Almost in his infanc y ^ 
 he began to paint and draw. He had little edu¬ 
 cation beyond reading, which he learned from 
 his father, and writing, which was all he ac¬ 
 quired at school. He was constantly employed) 
 in coloring prints and similar work, his father 
 oilering him every possible facility for artistic 
 education. Before 1789 he was placed with 
 Thomas Walton, an architect, to learn perspec¬ 
 tive,. but proved a sorry pupil. Afterward he 
 studied with Thomas Hardwick, on whose ad¬ 
 vice he entered the Academy Schools in 1789 to 
 study landscape. He was admitted to the studio 
 of Reynolds, under whom he copied portraits and 
 perhaps learned oil technique; but Sir Joshua 
 had little influence upon him. 
 
 Turner’s first drawing exhibited at the Acad¬ 
 emy was a view of Lambeth Palace (1790). 
 For some years he was occupied with designs 
 for prints in magazines, which necessitated long 
 sketching tours over England and Wales. He 
 continued his artistic education, however, as 
 one of the coterie of young artists who frequented 
 the hospitable abode of Dr. Thomas Munro, 
 whom Ruskin calls “Turner’s real master.” 
 Here he found patronage and encouragement; 
 here, too, he met Girtin and Cozens. He was 
 influenced by Girtin, the founder of modern 
 water-color painting, with, whom he sketched 
 much and formed a clo'se acquaintance. The 
 success of Girtin’s Yorkshire aquarelles moved 
 Turner, in 1797, to make a similar attempt, and 
 his journey in Yorkshire and the north resulted 
 in his forming. several important friendships, 
 such as that with Dr. Whitaker, whose works 
 Turner afterward illustrated with some of his 
 best designs. It also had a marked influence 
 upon his artistic career, as is shown by his ex¬ 
 hibit at the Academy in 1798, which proclaimed 
 his genius as a painter of poetic landscape, in 
 such pictures as “Morning on the Comston Fells, 
 Cumberland” (National Gallery), and aquarelles 
 like “Norham Castle” (Metropolitan Museum, 
 New York), which Turner esteemed of high im¬ 
 portance in his development. In 1799 lie ex-, 
 hibited several Welsh subjects, in rivalry with 
 Girtin, and his first picture of a naval engage¬ 
 ment, the “Battle of the Nile”—works which 
 secured his choice as associate of the Royal 
 
 Academy. *_ 
 
 With this year ceases what Ruskin calls Tur-1 
 ner’s period of development, and the period of 
 his first style (1800-20) begins. Dropping topo¬ 
 graphical subjects he introduced historical and 
 mythological motifs into hi3 pictures, striving 
 
 to equal or surpass the masters then most cele¬ 
 brated, William van de Velde, Nicolas and Gas- 
 pard Poussin, and Claude Lorraine, in their own 
 subjects. He was especially influenced by 
 Claude, the great painter of light, which Turner 
 also considered the chief problem of painting. 
 In 1802 he paid his first visit to the Continent, 
 the results of which appeared in the exhibition 
 in 1803 of pictures and drawings of the Savoy 
 Alps, most of which are now in the National 
 k V, as well as “Calais Pier,” and a “Holy 
 Family” of the same year. The same collection 
 possesses his famous “Shipwreck” (1805); his 
 “Garden of the Hesperides” (1806), painted 
 in the classical style in rivalry with Poussin; 
 and the “Sun Rising in the Mist” (1807), one 
 of his best and most individual works. From 
 1807 to 1819 he was engaged on his Liber 
 Studiorum (q.v.), in rivalry with Claude’s Liber 
 Veritatis. The etchings for these plates, all of 
 which were supervised or executed by Turner 
 himself, show the master at his very best. He 
 now made travels in Devonshire, in the north of 
 England, in Scotland, and on the Continent. 
 Among other important works of this period are: 
 “Apollo and Python” (1811) ; “Hannibal and his 
 Army Crossing the Alps” (1812) ; “Crossing the 
 Brook” (1815); and “Dido Building Carthage” 
 (1815), the best of a Carthage series—all in 
 the National Gallery. 
 
 With his visit to Italy in 1819 begins his\ 
 second style (1820-35), the time of his most 
 perfect works, distinguished by lightness and 
 brilliancy of color. Ceasing to imitate the old 
 masters, he nevertheless clung to the classical\ 
 idea of composition. This mature style is well 
 represented by the first of . the series of the won¬ 
 derful Italian pictures upon which his fame^- 
 chiefly rests—the “Bay of Baise, with Apollo 
 and the Sibyl” (1823); also by h Dido Direct¬ 
 ing the Equipment of the Fleet” (1828) ; “Ulys¬ 
 ses Deriding Polyphemus” (1829); “Caligula’s 
 Palace and Bridge” (1831); and “Childe Har- 
 old’s Pilgrimage” (1832), all in the National 
 Gallery. During 1833-46 he often visited Ven¬ 
 ice, which for some time furnished subjects for 
 his art. Of his numerous Venetian subjects the 
 National Gallery possesses a rich collection of 
 water colors, and the “Grand Canal,” in the 
 Metropolitan Museum, New York City, is a fine 
 example of the oils. He found time, however, 
 for other subjects, like “Staffa, Fingal’s Cave” 
 (1834, New York Public Library); “St. 
 Michael’s Mount, Cornwall” (1834), 'and “The 
 Fighting Te?neraire” (National Gallery), the 
 best known and most popular of his' works. 
 He was still much occupied with designs for 
 illustrations, like Rivers of England and Ports 
 of England, in 1824. The drawings for the 
 series England and Wales (1827-38), in which 
 several line engravers under Turner’s supervision 
 brought this art to a new perfection, are wonder¬ 
 ful in color and atmospheric effect. In 1830 
 appeared the lovely illustrations to Rogers’s 
 Italy; in 1833 the first of his Rivers of France, 
 the drawings for which are among the most 
 perfect of his works. He also illustrated the \ 
 works of Byron, Scott* Milton, Campbell, ' 
 Rogers’s Poems, and Moore’s Epicurean. 
 
 The third period of Turner’s art (1835-45) is^T 
 characterized by the relinquishment of classic 
 composition and a more direct communion with 
 nature, of which he endeavored to render his 
 splendid impressions, foreshadowing the modern 
 Impressionists. Though it tended to become 
 
TURNER 
 
 TURNER 
 
 534 
 
 more dreamlike and unreal, his work was more 
 wonderful in color than ever. To this period 
 belong many great works: the “Slave-Ship 
 (1840, Boston Museum); “The CastTe of Indo¬ 
 lence” (1841, Metropolitan Museum, New 
 York); “Snow Storm” (1842); “Approach to 
 Venice” (1843); “Rain, Steam, and Speed 
 (1844)—these last in the National Gallery. 
 Here belongs also a series of attempts to rep¬ 
 resent vague thoughts in color language, like 
 “War—The Exile” (ib., 1842), and many pic¬ 
 tures of Alpine scenery, the grandeur of which 
 he has rendered as no other painter, in works 
 like “The Spliigen.” After 1845 his mind and 
 sight began to fail; but though his work was in¬ 
 coherent, it was still good in color. He began' 
 a new series, “The Whalers,” which lie did not 
 live to complete, and of which there is a good 1 
 example in the Metropolitan Museum. He diecU 
 at Chelsea, Dec. 19, 1851, and was buried in St. 
 Paul’s Cathedral. His splendid collection of 
 his own works, 262 oils, 135 water colors, 1757 
 studies in color, and almost innumerable 
 sketches, was bequeathed to the nation, and 
 is for the most part in the National Gallery. 
 He intended that his fortune, £140,000, should be 
 devoted to the establishment of pensions for indi¬ 
 gent English artists, but his will was broken and 
 most of it fell into the hands of the lawyers and 
 relatives. Though very economical, even sordid in 
 his personal habits, he was generous to others. 
 Much evil has been said about his private life 
 and character; but those who knew him best 
 found him gentle and considerate, a kind and 
 dutiful son, and a faithful friend. His brusque 
 manner was but a foil of his retiring disposi¬ 
 tion, which made him inaccessible to society. It 
 is difficult to reconcile these characteristics and 
 the refinement of Turner’s art with the seem- 
 inglv coarse character of his relation to women. 
 
 Turner’s life was one continuous course of 
 prosperity, and he fully achieved the fame he 
 so ardently desired: in 1802 he was elected 
 Academician, and in 1808 became professor of 
 perspective at the Academy. He easily eclipsed 
 in the public favor all landscapists of his day. 
 In later life his works were attacked, but to 
 atone for this he found in John Ruskin the most 
 eloquent advocate ever possessed by any artist, 
 though these eulogies have created several wrong 
 ideas about Turner’s art. Its chief characteris¬ 
 tic does not consist, as Ruskin maintains, In a 
 scrupulous fidelity to Nature. He was indeed 
 one of the profoundest students of Nature; 
 but he idealized her, much as did Byron and 
 Shelley in literature. His master passions in 
 art were the rendition of light, and that subtle 
 quality which Ruskin calls the Turnerian mys¬ 
 tery, by which objects are rendered with a cer¬ 
 tain hazy indistinctness of the highest poetical 
 effect. His chief technical quality is not natu¬ 
 ralism, but a splendid and brilliant, thougli 
 sometimes unreal, color. He was as subtle and 
 refined in drawing as in composition. In range 
 of subject, imagination, and sublimity Turner 
 has never been equaled. Though unsound ill, 
 oil technique, as is evinced by the ruined state 
 of many of his best works, he was a consummate ) 
 master " of water color (q.v.). He was himself 
 an excellent etcher and engraver, trusting to 
 mezzotint to produce the light and shadows;/ 
 and his designs for illustrations produced a new 
 school of line engraving in England. His facil¬ 
 ity of execution and diligence were well-nigh in¬ 
 credible. A number of collections in the United 
 
 States, including the Metropolitan Museum with 
 the Vanderbilt and Morgan loans, and the Pub¬ 
 lic Library, New York, possess good examples of 
 his work. 
 
 Bibliography. The most brilliant and sym¬ 
 pathetic appreciation of Turner is by John 
 Ruskin in Modern Painters (London, 1843-60), 
 and many later editions. The passages relating 
 to Turner were published separately by Freder¬ 
 ick Wedmore under the title of Turner and 
 Ruskin (2 vols., London, 1900). Consult also: 
 
 G. W. Thornbury, Life of Turner Founded on 
 Letters . . . (New York, 1877) ; P. G. Hamer- 
 ton, Life of J. M. W. Turner (Boston, 1879); 
 W. C. Monkhouse, The Turner Gallery: A Scries 
 of One Hundred and Twenty Engravings with 
 Descriptive Text (2 vols., New York, 1879) ; 
 Sir Walter Armstrong, Life of Turner (ib., 
 1901); Masters in Art, vol. iii (Boston, 1902), 
 containing a full bibliography; W. L. Wyllie, 
 J. M. IF. Turner (New York, 1905) ; W. G. 
 Rawlinson, Turner’s Liber Studiorum: Descrip¬ 
 tion and Catalogue (2d ed., ib., 1907); A. J. 
 Finberg, Turner’s Sketches and Drawings (ib., 
 1910); J. E. Phythian, Turner (ib., 1911). 
 
 TURNER, Nat (c.1800-31). An American 
 negro slave and insurrectionist, who was born 
 and lived in Southampton Co., Va. From his 
 childhood he fancied himself set apart for some 
 great purpose, and claimed to hear voices and 
 see visions. In 1828 he declared he had a com¬ 
 mand to rise and slay his enemies, when a sign 
 should be given. A peculiar solar appearance 
 on Aug. 13, 1831, signaled the uprising. With 
 four or five companions, he began near Cross 
 Keys, on Sunday night, August 21, by killing 
 five members of his master’s family in their 
 beds. The conspirators were recruited till the 
 number reached 53, and killed all, even infants, 
 in every house in the neighborhood. On the 
 next morning the pupils of a school were slain. 
 Bv noon the news had spread and the band was 
 routed by a party of white men. United States 
 troops from Fortress Monroe and the militia 
 from various counties of Virginia and North 
 Carolina gathered and the conspirators were 
 hunted down. Turner kept himself concealed 
 for six weeks. On being discovered he fled, but 
 was captured near Cross Keys, October 30, tried 
 and convicted at Jerusalem, and on November 
 11 was there hanged. Seventeen negroes were 
 executed. It was proved that some in the party 
 were there under strong compulsion. Fifty-five 
 whites were slaughtered and more would have 
 been killed but for the faithfulness. of slaves, 
 who in several instances defended their masters. 
 More stringent slave codes were passed in many 
 States, free negroes lost their privileges, sus¬ 
 pected negroes were killed or mutilated, and the 
 Manumission movement, which had considerable 
 strength, was checked. Consult Weeks, “The 
 Slave Insurrection in Virginia,” in Magazine of 
 American History (New \ork, June, 1891), and 
 W. S. Drewry, The Southampton Insurrection 
 (Washington, 1900). 
 
 TURNER, Samuel Hulbeart (1790-1861). 
 An American Episcopal theologian. He was 
 born in Philadelphia, and graduated at the Uni¬ 
 versity of Pennsylvania in 1807. He was rector 
 of churches in Chestertown, Md., New York, and 
 Brooklyn, and became in 1818 professor of his¬ 
 toric theology in the General Theological Semi¬ 
 nary, New York, and in 1821 professor of bibli¬ 
 cal learning and Scripture interpretation. He 
 was also professor of Hebrew in Columbia Col- 
 
J. M. W. TURNER 
 
 'THE GRAND CANAL, VENICE," FROM THE PAINTING IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK 
 

 
 THE L!3"ARY 
 
 OF tus 
 
 UNIVERSITY Of ILLINOIS 
 
TURNER 585 TURNIP 
 
 lege after 1830. Among his works are com¬ 
 mentaries on Romans (1824 to 1853), Hebrews 
 (1852), Ephesians (185G), and Galatians 
 (1856); Bibliographical Notices to the Most 
 Distinguished Jewish Rabbis (1847); Companion 
 to the Book of Genesis (1841) ; Parallel Refer¬ 
 ences of the Neiv Testament (1848); Thoughts 
 on Scriptural Prophecy (1852). Consult his 
 autobiography (New York, 1863). 
 
 TURNER, Sharon (1768-1847). An English 
 historian. He was born at Pentonville, and at 
 the age of 15 was articled to an attorney, to 
 whose practice he succeeded six years afterward. 
 He was a successful practitioner until 1829, 
 when he retired. From an early time his en¬ 
 tire leisure had been devoted to "a study of the 
 Anglo-Saxon period of English history from the 
 hitherto almost unused Anglo-Saxon manuscripts 
 in the British Museum. These studies culmi¬ 
 nated in his famous History of the Anglo-Saxons 
 (London, 1797-18057th ed., 1852). He con¬ 
 tinued his narrative in subsequent years under 
 various titles to the end of Elizabeth's reign, but 
 with less happy results. These historical works 
 were finally published in a collective edition 
 under the title History of England from the 
 Earliest Period to the Death, of Elizabeth (Lon¬ 
 don, 1839). He also wrote Sacred History of 
 the World as Displayed in Creation and Sub¬ 
 sequent Events to the Deluge (ib., 1832; 8 th 
 ed., 1848), and other works. 
 
 TURNER, Sir William (1832-1916). A 
 British anatomist and naturalist, born in Lan¬ 
 caster and educated at St. Bartholomew’s Hospi¬ 
 tal. At Edinburgh University he became a 
 demonstrator (1854), was professor of anatomy 
 (1867-1903), and thereafter till his death was 
 principal and vice chancellor. From 1898 to 
 1904 he was president of the General Medical 
 Council, and in 1900 was president of the British 
 Association. He was knighted in 1886 and re¬ 
 ceived the K.C.B. in 1901. From 1866 to 1894 
 he was one of the editors of the Journal of 
 Anatomy and Physiology. Turner published 
 numerous memoirs on human and comparative 
 anatomy and prepared several of the reports of 
 the Challenger deep-sea scientific expedition. 
 
 TURNER, William Wadden (1810-59). An 
 American philologist, born in London. In 1818 
 he emigrated to New York, and became a print¬ 
 er’s apprentice. He was librarian of the Uni¬ 
 versity of New York, instructor in Hebrew in 
 Union Theological Seminary, and from 1852 
 librarian of the United States Patent Office. Be¬ 
 sides contributions to learned societies and 
 periodicals, he published with Isaac Nordheimer 
 A Critical Grammar of the Hebrew Language 
 (1851), and Grammar and Dictionary of the 
 Yoruba Language (1858) ; and translated, with 
 P. J. Kaufmann, Mackeldey’s Compendium of 
 Modern Civil Law, and the greater part of 
 Freund’s Latin-German Lexicon. 
 
 TURNHOUT, tur-nout'. A town in the Prov¬ 
 ince of Antwerp, Belgium, 25 miles east by north 
 of the city of Antwerp (Map: Belgium, C 3 ). 
 It has an old castle, utilized as a court of 
 justice and a prison, and the church of Ouel- 
 Turnhout with noteworthy paintings. Turnhout 
 manufactures lace, cloth, leather, and playing 
 cards. Leech breeding is also an important in¬ 
 dustry. The town was the scene of a victory of 
 the Dutch, under Maurice of Nassau, over the 
 Spaniards in 1597, and in 1789 the Austrians 
 were defeated here by the Belgians under Van 
 der Mersch. Pop., 1900, 20,945; 1910, 23,067. 
 
 TURNING. See Metal-Working Machin¬ 
 ery; Wood-Working Machinery. 
 
 TURNIP ( from turn -f- nep, from AS. nap, 
 turnip, from Lat. napus, sort of turnip), Bras- 
 sica campestris {rapa of some botanists). A 
 biennial plant of the family Cruciferuj, culti¬ 
 vated in cool climates for Its globose, oblong 
 or roundish, fleshy roots, which are used as a 
 vegetable and for stock feeding. It is a native 
 of temperate Europe and Asia, growing in fields 
 and waste places. Garden turnips are sown in 
 early spring or even as late as midsummer; 
 field turnips generally in midsummer, so as to 
 avoid the possibility of developing a flower stem 
 in the year they are planted, a development 
 which impairs the quality and impedes the de¬ 
 velopment of the edible part. The varieties both 
 of garden and field turnips are very numerous. 
 The garden turnips are generally of compara¬ 
 tively small size, rapid in growth, and of deli¬ 
 cate flavor. The field varieties are larger, single 
 roots weighing 20 to 25 pounds being" found "at 
 
 times, and the flesh is of coarser texture. The 
 name Swedish turnip or rutabaga is given to a 
 group cultivated in the same manner and used 
 for the same purpose as the common field and 
 garden variety. The cultivated turnip grows 
 best in rich soil. It is not well suited to clay, 
 though it is often grown thereon. Complete pul¬ 
 verization of the soil is requisite before seed 
 sowing. On light soils, a crop of turnips gen¬ 
 erally succeeds wheat or oats. Seed may be 
 sown either in drills 2 - 2 % feet apart or broad¬ 
 cast. The young plants are thinned out to 
 stand 8 inches or more apart, and the ground 
 is stirred and carefully kept clean by cultivation 
 and hoeing. The turnip crop is thus of great 
 use in clearing the land of weeds. In many 
 places part of the crop is eaten on the ground 
 by sheep, which are corralled upon small areas 
 in fields perhaps partly harvested. 
 
 The ordinary turnip and the rutabaga are 
 
 used for feeding stock, the former less than 
 
 the latter. Both are coarse fodder, since thev 
 
 %> 
 
TURPIN 
 
 TURNIP INSECTS 
 
 are bulky in proportion to their nutritive value. 
 Turnips "have the following average percentage 
 composition: water, 90.5; protein, 1.1; fat, 0.2, 
 nitrogen-free extract, 6.3; crude fibre, 1.1; and 
 ash, 0.8. Swedish turnip: water, 88.6; protein, 
 1 .2; fat, 0.2; nitrogen-free extract, 7.7; crude 
 fibre, 1.3; and ash, 1.1. Experiments show 
 that 90 per cent of the total dry matter, nitro¬ 
 gen-free extract, and crude fibre of turnips is 
 digested. In Great Britain, northern Europe, 
 and Canada large quantities of turnips are fed, 
 with other roots, replacing grain to a consider¬ 
 able extent. Roots are little fed in the United 
 States, probably because they are less easily 
 cultivated than" corn. Turnips are used espe¬ 
 cially for sheep. Dairy cattle should be milked 
 before being fed turnips, even in limited quan¬ 
 tities, to avoid the possibility of tainting the 
 milk. Sheep prefer the Swedish turnip to all 
 other roots. Slicing and pulping are commonly 
 practiced. Consult New York Cornell Experi¬ 
 ment Station, Bulletin 31 7. See Plate of Cab¬ 
 bage and Allies. 
 
 TURNIP INSECTS. There are practically 
 no insects specifically attached to the turnip, 
 although this crop frequently suffers from the 
 attacks of s'everal kinds of insects. The foliage 
 is eaten by very many of the insects which are 
 found upon cabbage (see Cabbage Insects), and 
 the cabbage root maggot sometimes affects the 
 turnip tuber. Several of the root-feeding beet 
 insects also attack turnips. See Sugar-Beet 
 Insects. 
 
 TURNOUR, Cyril. See Tourneur, Cyril. 
 
 TURNPIKE. See Highway; Road. 
 
 TURN-SEVERIN, or TURNU-SEVERIN, 
 turn'sa'va-ren'. A town of Rumania on the 
 Danube just below the Iron Gate, about 175 
 miles west of Bucharest (Map: Balkan Penin¬ 
 sula, D 2). Near it are the remains of Trajan's 
 Bridge, erected 103 a.d. Pop., 1900, 18,626. 
 
 TURNSPIT. A dog. See Hound. 
 
 TURNSTONE. A shore bird ( Arenaria in- 
 terpres) , related to the plovers and surf bird 
 (q.v.), and found in almost every part of the 
 globe. It breeds in the Arctic regions, but oc¬ 
 curs on the coasts of the eastern United States 
 during migrations. It frequents the seashore, 
 and its name comes from its turning over 
 small stones with its bill in search of food. The 
 eggs, four in number, are laid on lonely rocky 
 coasts where there is sparse vegetation. They 
 vary much in color and markings, and are cun¬ 
 ningly concealed. The length of the turnstone 
 is rather more than 9 inches. The plumage 
 varies with the bird’s age and the season, but 
 is always pied black and white, with rufous 
 or brownish ash. (See Colored Plate of Shore 
 Birds.) On the coasts of the north Pacific is 
 found a turnstone ( Arenaria melanocephala) 
 which lacks the rufous or brownish ash. These 
 two are the only known species. The turnstone 
 is also known as calico back, calico bird, and 
 liorsefoot snipe. 
 
 TUR'NUS. In Roman story, King of the 
 Rutuli (q.v.), with capital at Ardea (q.v.). Be¬ 
 fore the arrival of .'Eneas (q.v.), King Latinus 
 (q.v.) had promised his daughter Lavinia in 
 marriage to Turnus. Swayed by certain omens, 
 which the seers interpreted as meaning that his 
 daughter should be wedded rather to a foreigner, 
 Latinus disregarded his promise to Turnus and 
 offered Lavinia to .Eneas. Turnus organized a 
 powerful coalition of Italians and Etruscans 
 against .Eneas and the Trojans. The resultant 
 
 586 
 
 war, described by Vergil in JEneid, vii-xii, ended 
 with a single combat between .Eneas and Tur¬ 
 nus, in which Turnus was slain. In the JEneid, 
 Turnus is the foil to .Eneas; he and his allies 
 represent the semibarbarous peoples of Italy 
 which are constrained to give way before the 
 higher civilization of Rome. 
 
 TURNU-SEVERIN. See Turn-Severin. 
 TUR'PENTINE (OF. turpentine, terebentine , 
 ML. terebintina, turpentine, from Lat. terebin- 
 thinus, relating to the terebinth, from terebin- 
 thus, from Gk. repriptvOos, terebinth). The 
 resinous exudations of various species of co¬ 
 niferous trees. When the viscid exudation is 
 distilled without steam, oil or spirit of turpen¬ 
 tine passes over, leaving behind a residue of com¬ 
 mon resin or colophony. The distillation is 
 carried out in copper stills. The mass is gradu¬ 
 ally heated to 316° F. (158° C.), which is 
 approximately the boiling temperature of oil of 
 turpentine. Crude turpentine is washed with 
 caustic soda and redistilled, producing a water- 
 white product known as turps. The resin remain¬ 
 ing in the still is drawn off while hot. French 
 turpentine is distilled by means of a current of 
 steam, and abietic acid is a constituent of the 
 product. The oil or spirit of turpentine dis¬ 
 solves sulphur, phosphorus, wax, rubber, cam¬ 
 phor, resins, and other organic substances and 
 mixes freely with alcohol, ether, and glacial 
 acetic acid, but not with water. It is a thin 
 colorless liquid readily recognized by its char¬ 
 acteristic odor. Chemically it is a mixture of 
 several isomeric hydrocarbons (terpenes) repre¬ 
 sented by the formula C 10 H 1Q and converted by 
 oxidation into a camphor having the composi¬ 
 tion C 10 H 16 O. Oil of turpentine is largely used 
 in medicine as an irritant and counterirritant 
 in chronic inflammations. It is an excellent 
 remedy for ringworm, and is given internally 
 also to stop hemorrhages, and as a remedy for 
 gonorrhoea. The administration of turpentine is 
 attended with some danger, as. it is likely to 
 produce inflammation of the kidneys. In the 
 arts oil of turpentine is used for the preparation 
 of varnishes and as a thinner and flattener of 
 oil paints. American turpentine is derived from 
 the Pinus australis and the Pinus tceda; French 
 turpentine from the Pinus maritima; Russian 
 and Swedish turpentine from the Pinus syl- 
 vestris and the Pinus lederbourii. Canada tur¬ 
 pentine, or Canada balsam, is obtained from the 
 Abies balsamea, growing in Canada and the 
 northern United States. The disinfectant “sani- 
 tas” is prepared by passing air into a mixture 
 of warm water and Russian turpentine. Arti¬ 
 ficial turpentine is obtained by distilling the 
 wood of pine stumps, and other refuse forms, 
 with steam. The odor is different from that of 
 the natural turpentine and seems to have created 
 a prejudice interfering with its general use. 
 Turpentine substitute consists of various ma¬ 
 tures of benzine or similar hydrocarbons with 
 rosin spirit, and is a distinctly inferior article. 
 See Naval Stores. 
 
 TURPENTINE TREE. See Pistacia. 
 TUR'PIN, or TULPI'NUS (?-c.800). A 
 supposed mediaeval chronicler, Archbishop of 
 Rheims. He is described as a friend and. com¬ 
 panion of Charles the Great and an eyewitness 
 of the exploits he relates in a chronicle in Latin 
 prose narrating the expedition of the Frankish 
 Emperor against the Saracens of Spain, and par- 
 ticularlv the events that preceded and followed 
 the battle of Roncesvalles (q-v.). Turpin’s name 
 
TURPIN 
 
 587 TURTLE 
 
 became attached to this chronicle, but though 
 there was an Archbishop Tilpin of Rheims (c.754— 
 c.800), he has no claim to the description given 
 above, and internal evidence leads to the con¬ 
 clusion that the chronicle is mainly a work of 
 the twelfth century. It seems to have sprung 
 out of the epic ballads and traditions of the 
 Carolingian heroes, and was taken from a manu¬ 
 script composed probably at Compostella. The 
 poems were changed considerably in order to 
 further pilgrimages to Compostella. The book 
 soon acquired a great popularity, was translated 
 into French by 1206, and was made use of by 
 divers chroniclers, as the author or authors of 
 the Chroniques de Saint-Denis, Vincent of Beau¬ 
 vais, and others. There have been several edi¬ 
 tions of the chronicle in Latin; the best, by 
 Ferdinand Castets, was published at Paris and 
 Montpellier in 1880. It has been translated into 
 many languages, among others into English by 
 Rodd (London, 1812), and reprinted in Mediaeval' 
 Tales, in Morley’s Universal Library (London, 
 1890). For editions and secondary works, con¬ 
 sult August Potthast, Bibliotheca Historica 
 Medii TEvi, vol. ii (Berlin, 1896), and especially 
 Gaston Paris, Histoire poMique de Charlemagne 
 (new ed. by Paul Meyer, Paris, 1905). 
 
 TURPIN, Richard, commonly called “Dick 
 Turpin” (1706-39). An English highwayman. 
 He was born at Hempstead, Essex, where his 
 father was an innkeeper. He was apprenticed 
 to a butcher, and, detected in cattle stealing, he 
 lied and joined a gang of thieves. They com¬ 
 mitted several brutal robberies, but disbanded 
 after two of their number had been captured and 
 hanged. Turpin became associated with the high¬ 
 wayman Tom King, whom he fatally shot when 
 trying to prevent King’s arrest. Turpin escaped 
 into Yorkshire, where he passed for a gentleman, 
 but was soon suspected, captured with some 
 stolen horses, tried, and executed. Turpin’s 
 reputation as a hero, and a man of courage and 
 generosity, together with his marvelous ride 
 from London to York, are fabrications, enhanced 
 by Ainsworth’s vivid characterization in the 
 novel Rookieood (1834). 
 
 TURQUOISE, tur-kois' or tur'kois. (OF. tur¬ 
 quoise, turques, Fr. turquoise, fern, of turquois, 
 Turk., from Turc, Turk). A hydrated aluminium 
 and copper phosphate that is usually found mas¬ 
 sive. It is opaque, has a waxy lustre, and occurs 
 in various shades of blue to green. The peculiar 
 bluish-green or robin’s-egg tint is the preferred 
 color for gems. Turquoise is found in narrow 
 seams and irregular patches in igneous and vol¬ 
 canic rocks. The best specimens come from the 
 vicinity of Nishapur, Persia, but the mineral 
 is found also at various localities in Asia 
 Minor, Turkestan, and Siberia. In the United 
 States, the locality in the Los Cerillos Moun¬ 
 tains, near Santa Fe, N. Mex., was worked by 
 the ancient Mexicans, and still yields fine stones. 
 Other localities in the United States are in Col¬ 
 orado, Arizona, Nevada, and California. Among 
 the early Mexicans it was regarded as emblem¬ 
 atic of success and was worn to preserve health. 
 The peculiar property of the turquoise, of be¬ 
 coming grayish green in color as it gives up 
 its moisture, led to a belief that its dullness 
 foretold misfortune, and hence the Oriental 
 proverb that the turquoise pales when the well¬ 
 being of the giver is in danger. It was believed 
 in the Orient to be a remedy for diseases of 
 the head and heart. Bone turquoise or odon- 
 tolite is fossil bone colored blue by iron phos- 
 Vol. XXII.—38 
 
 phate. Consult Berthold Laufer, “Notes on 
 Turquoise in the East,” in Field Museum of 
 .Natural History, Publications: Anthropological 
 Series, vol. xiii (Chicago, 1913), and J. E, 
 I ogue, The Turquois (Washington, 1915). 
 
 TURRhCREMATA, toor'rA-krA-ma'ta. See 
 Torquemada. 
 
 TUR'RET (OF. tourette, touret, little tower, 
 dim. of tur, tour, Fr. tour, tower, from Lat. 
 turns, Gk. rvpais, tyrsis, rvppis, tyrris, tower). 
 A revolving tower of circular or oval section in 
 which naval guns are mounted. Fixed towers 
 are commonly called barbette towers or bar¬ 
 bettes, as all gun towers of this class on modern 
 ships are designed to have the guns fire over 
 the tops of their walls. In all recent ships these 
 towers are surmounted by revolving turrets 
 which contain the guns. 
 
 _TURRETIN, tur't&N', or TURRETINI 
 
 too'ra-te'ne, Francois (1623-87). A Swiss Cal- 
 vimstic theologian. He was born in Geneva; 
 studied theology first in his native city and 
 afterward in Holland and France; was pastor 
 at Geneva, 1647; removed to Leyden, 1650; and 
 was recalled to Geneva as professor of theology, 
 1653. His principal work, Institutio Theologies 
 Llencticce (1679—85; new ed., Leyden, 1696; re¬ 
 printed. Edinburgh, 1847—48), ranks high among 
 the strictest expositions of Calvinistic theology. 
 He was one of the authors of the Helvetic Con¬ 
 sensus (1675) directed against the milder theol¬ 
 ogy of Saumur. (See Amyraut. ) His com¬ 
 plete works were published at Geneva in 1688. 
 His son, Jean Alphonse (1671-1737), was 
 born at Geneva, and was professor there of 
 ecclesiastical history, 1697. He followed the 
 Saumur theology, and endeavored to unite the 
 Reformed and Lutheran churches. His chief 
 w 7 ork is Cogitationes et Dissertationes Theologicce 
 (1711—37). His collected works were published 
 at Leuwarden (1774-76). Consult the lives 
 of the elder and the younger Turretin, as they 
 are commonly called, by E. de Bude (Lausanne, 
 1871; 1880). 
 
 TURTCHANINOV, tur-cha/ni-nof, Piotk 
 Ivanovitch (1779-1856). A Russian composer 
 of Church music. He was born in the Govern¬ 
 ment^ of Kiev and studied under Sarti and Videl. 
 In 1798 he became chorister at Kiev, and later 
 held similar positions elsewhere. In 1827 he 
 became instructor at the Imperial chapel, and 
 in, 1831—41 was a priest of the Imperial church 
 of St. Petersburg. Turtchaninov’s special con¬ 
 tribution to Church music was his harmonization 
 of ancient melodies contained in the liturgy. 
 His masterly arrangements, published posthu¬ 
 mously in four volumes, are characterized by 
 very independent leading of the voices, the as¬ 
 signment of the cantus firmus (q.v.) generally 
 to some other voice than the soprano, and the 
 faithful preservation of the original intervals 
 through avoidance of chromatic alterations. 
 
 TURTLE (probably a corruption of tortoise, 
 or of Sp. tortuga, Portug., It. tartaruga, Fr. 
 tortue, tortoise; in either case ultimately from 
 Lat. tortus, twisted, so called on account of the 
 crooked feet; probably influenced by popular 
 etymology with Eng. turtle, sort of ’dove). A 
 shell-incased reptile of the order Chelonia. The 
 word “turtle” is used mainly to indicate the 
 large marine forms, although in the United 
 States it is applied freely to both fresh-water 
 and land forms. “Tortoise” (q.v.), strictly 
 speaking, refers to land forms. 
 
 Structure. The body of a turtle is invariably 
 
TURTLE 
 
 TURTLE 
 
 588 
 
 short and broad, and is protected above and 
 below by somewhat bony shields, with spaces 
 between them in front and behind, into which 
 the head and legs may be drawn. The conical 
 tail is usually bent around against the side of 
 the body when the turtle retracts into the shell, 
 thus covering the circular vent. The armature 
 or “shell” is composed of an upper part, the 
 “carapace,” and a lower, the “plastron. The 
 carapace is formed from the ribs, of which there 
 are eight pairs; and from the annular parts of 
 the dorsal vertebrae, expanded into plates, which 
 are joined to each other by dentilated sutures, 
 so that the whole acquires great firmness, and 
 the dorsal vertebrae are rendered immovable. 
 The plastron is formed of pieces which repre¬ 
 sent the sternum or breastbone, and which are 
 ordinarily nine in number, and have names, as 
 also have the parts of the carapace. The box 
 tortoise has certain plates movable, so as more 
 completelv to inclose its body, the tuitles 
 and other aquatic chelonians cannot thus with¬ 
 draw their head, tail, and limbs from dangei, 
 but their greater activity of movement compen¬ 
 sates for this. The above remarks apply to all 
 turtles (Thecophora) except the leatherbacks 
 (Athecse), whose body is jacketed in a contin¬ 
 uous leather-like case composed largely of a 
 mosaic of polygonal bony plates; and the verte¬ 
 brae and ribs are not fused with, but are free 
 from, the carapace. See Leatherback. 
 
 Externally the entire shell is covered with 
 horny epidermal plates or shields of various 
 forms and ornamentations, but arranged in all 
 families on a regular plan. Each shield grows 
 individually, the rings visible upon many of 
 them indicating each a year’s growth -at least 
 in countries where a winter hibernation and 
 consequent suspension of growth take place. 
 These plates may be detached by heat, and in 
 the hawksbill are of the beautiful material 
 called “tortoise shell” (q.v.). The neck, legs, 
 and tail are often provided with a horny scaled 
 armature. A cuticular layer covers the out¬ 
 side of the armature and is shed in fragments 
 from time to time. The skull agrees funda¬ 
 mentally with that of crocodiles, but has sev¬ 
 eral peculiar features, and is very solid. The 
 mouth is bounded by a more or less horny 
 beak like that of birds. The jaw is toothless, 
 and the food is swallowed whole. There is, 
 therefore, no need of a delicate sense of taste, 
 and this sense is degenerate. In the stomach 
 there are no organs of trituration, and the 
 process of digestion is necessarily very slow, 
 and is dependent on the action of the gastric 
 juice. The heart is short, thick, and has but 
 one ventricle. The lungs are large and. are 
 capable of containing much air. The air is 
 drawn into the mouth, the passages to the nares 
 are then stopped by the tongue, and the air is 
 gulped down. This" way of supplying the lungs 
 is required by the rigidity of the armature, 
 which prevents chest expansion and contraction. 
 Turtles can remain under water for an hour 
 or so without renewing the lung contents. 1 heir 
 eyesight is very keen. The eye is protected by 
 an upper and a lower lid and also by a nicti¬ 
 tating membrane, as in birds. The sense of 
 hearing is very acute. 
 
 Habits and Habitat. When startled, some 
 turtles, such as the wood turtle, give a loud 
 snakelike hiss. The males of the large Gala¬ 
 pagos tortoises, according to Darwin, bellow or 
 roar at the breeding season. The common 
 
 painted turtles utter a piping note, particu¬ 
 larly in the spring. Turtles are diurnal ex¬ 
 cept at the breeding season. With the excep¬ 
 tion of sea turtles, the habitat of any individ¬ 
 ual turtle is very local. Tortoises and terra¬ 
 pins that have been marked have been observed 
 in the same pasture year after year. Sea tur¬ 
 tles return to a locality to breed. Those in 
 the temperate region hibernate through cold 
 weather buried in earth or mud. Marine forms 
 have the legs modified into huge paddles, while 
 amphibious forms have leglike limbs only par¬ 
 tially webbed. The coloration of those that 
 spend considerable time on land simulates that 
 of the ground. One form (see Matamata ) lias 
 a fringed or foliaceous neck of much service in 
 hiding it while seeking prey or avoiding foes. 
 About 250 species of Chelonia are known, the 
 most numerous species being found in fresh 
 water, generally in warm climates. The marine 
 species are the largest. Several kinds occur in 
 the Alleghany region at considerable altitudes, 
 but none live in the Rocky Mountains. Chelo¬ 
 nia are not numerous in species on the California 
 coast, or in Europe, while on the Asiatic coast 
 they are abundant. 
 
 Some of the sea turtles, the land tortoises 
 (q.v.), and a part of the fresh-water terrapins 
 (q.v.) are herbivorous, and these are the ones 
 commonly eaten by man. Other sea and fresh¬ 
 water forms feed entirely or in part on animal 
 food, and are usually ferocious. Fresh-water 
 forms, such as the snapping turtles (q.v.), feed 
 on fish, mussels, earthworms, insect larvae, young 
 ducks, and the like. The box turtle eats mush¬ 
 rooms and berries, and not infrequently makes 
 raids on tomato gardens. Certain pond forms 
 are practically omniverous. 
 
 Aquatic turtles come on land usually on 
 moonlight nights at breeding time to deposit 
 their eggs. A sandy slope is preferred. Here 
 they dig a hole with the hind feet, let the eggs 
 fall within it, and replace the sand deftly. The 
 female then retreats quickly to the water. Al¬ 
 most any soil will suffice for the American 
 painted turtle, and the same rotten log may 
 be utilized by many musk turtles until it holds 
 hundreds of eggs. These, if not dug up by 
 some animal, are left to hatch by the aid of 
 the sun’s heat. The snapping turtle deposits 
 from 18 to 30 eggs in the early morning hours. 
 The wood, painted, and skunk turtles, which 
 lay from three to eight eggs, choose the after¬ 
 noon for egg laying. The eggs of snapping tur¬ 
 tles are usually spherical and about the size 
 of a walnut. The shell is tough and leathery. 
 Certain other turtles lay oval eggs, and a few 
 eggs having a shell of a fine porcelain textuie. 
 The eggs hatch slowly, some kinds only after 
 three or more months. As soon as the young 
 hatch thev begin to creep about and to travel 
 down inclines until they reach water. All the 
 species are extremely tenacious of life; they 
 are capable of extraordinary abstinence, and. of 
 living long after having sustained injuries which 
 would have destroyed almost any other ani¬ 
 mal. They are remarkable for their longevity, 
 examples of which are mentioned under Tor- 
 
 Economic Value. The flesh of those which 
 subsist on animal food is musky and unpleas¬ 
 ant; that of vegetable feeders is much esteemed. 
 Most of the eggs are excellent. Vast quantities 
 of eggs of the large Amazonian arrau ( Pod- 
 ocneinis eccpansa) are pressed to obtain oil of 
 
TURTLE 
 
 TURTLE 
 
 589 
 
 commercial value. The most highly esteemed 
 for food is the green turtle (q.v.), and its rela¬ 
 tive the “edible” turtle of the East Indies. 
 Many smaller kinds are eaten, including the 
 favorite American terrapin, the snapping turtle, 
 and other fresh-water forms. 
 
 Classification. The Chelonia were at first 
 divided according to modifications of the feet. 
 Cope, recognizing the separability of Trionychoi- 
 dea, also, in 1870, emphasized a division based 
 upon the mode of carrying the neck, one group 
 (Pleurodira) bending it sidewise in withdraw¬ 
 ing the head, and the other (Cryptodira) with¬ 
 drawing it in an S-shaped curve in a vertical 
 plane. A more worthy division is Athecse for 
 the shell-less Sphargidae, or leatherbacks, and 
 Thecophora for all other kinds. Boulenger’s 
 classification is as follows: 
 
 Athecse 
 
 Sphargidae. 
 
 Chelonia 
 
 Theco¬ 
 
 phora 
 
 [ Pelomedusidse. 
 Pleurodira j Chelydidse. 
 
 ( Carettochelydidse. 
 
 Cryptodira 
 
 Chelydridae. 
 
 Dermatemydidae. 
 
 Cinosternidse. 
 
 Platysternidae. 
 
 Testudinidse. 
 
 Chelonidse. 
 
 Trionychoidea. . . Trionychidse. 
 
 The Pelomedusidse are a small family of Afri¬ 
 can and South American turtles including the 
 large and valuable “arrau.” The family Che- 
 lydidje includes the curious matamata (q.v.), 
 certain long-necked Australian types (Chelo- 
 donia), and the South American Hydromedusa. 
 The Carettochelydidse are a family in which is 
 set a strange small turtle of New Guinea, whose 
 “shell” is covered with soft skin instead of 
 horny shields. Of the cryptodirous families, the 
 Chelydridse are represented by the various snap¬ 
 ping or “alligator” turtles (q.v.), and the Der- 
 matemydidse by a few species of aquatic tor¬ 
 toises of Central America. The Cinosternidse 
 are the family of the North American “skunk” 
 turtles. (See Musk Tortoise.) Platysternidae 
 includes only a single Siamese water tortoise. 
 The Testudinidse, on the other hand, are the 
 most populous of Chelonian families and nearly 
 cosmopolitan. The shell in this family is al¬ 
 ways covered with well-developed horny shields, 
 the plastron has nine bones, and the neck is 
 completely retractile. About 20 genera with 
 more than 130 species are now recognized; but 
 the generic distinctions are not easily recognized 
 by external appearances. Here are classified 
 the North American “mud turtles” of the genus 
 Chrysemys, which abound in all still waters, as 
 do the “pond tortoises” ( Emys ) of Europe, the 
 terrapins (q.v.), and the box tortoises ( Cis- 
 tudo) . The last get their name from the fact 
 that the plastron, which is united with the 
 carapace by ligaments, is divided into two mov¬ 
 able lobes, connected by a hinge permitting 
 them to be lifted up against the overhanging 
 carapace, and closing both ends of the shell 
 perfectly after the animal has drawn within 
 its defenses. The common box tortoise of the 
 United States ( Cistudo Carolina ) is entirely 
 terrestrial, numerous everywhere, and interest¬ 
 ing in its habits. In this family also fall the 
 various land tortoises of the type-genus Tes- 
 tudo. Most of the foregoing are terrestrial or 
 fresh-water forms, while the remainder are ma¬ 
 rine and have the limbs modified into swim¬ 
 
 ming paddles or “flippers.” The family Che- 
 lonidae contains many great extinct forms, from 
 the Cretaceous to recent times, and a few ex¬ 
 isting species, of which the green turtle, liawks- 
 bill, and loggerhead (qq.v.) are representatives. 
 The order Trionychoidea contains only the 
 family Trionychidae, which have no rigid plates 
 on the fiat carapace, but a soft leathery skin, 
 and the plastron imperfect. See Soft-Shelled 
 Turtle. 
 
 Fossil Turtles. The origin of the Chelonia is 
 uncertain. Otoccelus, an armored cotylosaur from 
 the Permian of Texas, has been suggested by 
 Cope as a possible progenitor, but the relation¬ 
 ship is doubtful. Certain characters of shoulder- 
 girdle and ventral abdominal ribs in the plesio¬ 
 saurs indicate that this order may have genetic 
 affinity with the turtles, and the dicynodonts 
 and placodonts of Triassic age resemble turtles 
 remarkably in many structures of the skull and 
 limb bones. (See Theromorpha. ) All these 
 groups belong to the synapsid division of Rep- 
 tilia. Little evolution is demonstrable within 
 the chelonian order from its first appearance 
 in the European Upper Trias to the present, 
 except in the degeneration of the carapace and 
 elongation of the digits in the marine forms. 
 The oldest turtle known is Proganochelys , from 
 the Keuper (Upper Trias) of Germany. A 
 probably primitive character in this genus is 
 the well-developed row of supra-marginal plates. 
 The Lower Jurassic strata have, as yet, yielded 
 no chelonian remains, but in the Upper Jurassic, 
 Cretaceous, and the Tertiary they are abundant, 
 chiefly in the Northern Hemisphere. The exist¬ 
 ing suborders Cryptodira and Pleurodira appear 
 to be fully differentiated in the Upper Jurassic, 
 the Trionychia in the Upper Cretaceous of 
 North America. As a rule the known Jurassic 
 turtles have a solidly roofed skull like that of 
 the recent green turtle, and a well-developed 
 carapace. Professor Baur’s opinion is that the 
 earliest turtles were swamp turtles, and that the 
 soft-shelled Trionychia and the marine families 
 evolved from these along one line, and the land 
 tortoises along another. 
 
 Cryptodira is the suborder most widely rep¬ 
 resented among fossils, as among recent tur¬ 
 tles. Several of the existing families, including 
 the marine Chelonidoe and the “leather turtles,” 
 are already differentiated in the Cretaceous, 
 and in the Lower Eocene the highly specialized 
 land tortoises appear. Of the Cretaceous sea 
 turtles some attained enormous size; Proto- 
 sphargis from Italy had a shell nine feet long, 
 and in the North American Archelon the skull 
 alone measures three feet. The suborder Pleu¬ 
 rodira is widely distributed as fossils in various 
 Mesozoic systems. Miolania, from the Pleis¬ 
 tocene of Queensland, was a huge creature in 
 which the head was armed with bony “horns.” 
 The third suborder, Trionychia, is known from 
 the North American Cretaceous and the Tertiary 
 of both hemispheres. 
 
 Bibliography. L. Agassiz, Contributions to 
 the Natural History of the United States (Bos¬ 
 ton, 1857-62) ; E. G. Boulenger, Catalogue of 
 Chelonians in British Museum (London, 1889) ; 
 Hans Gadow, “Amphibia and Reptiles,” in Cam¬ 
 bridge Natural History , vol. viii (ib., 1901); 
 E. G. Boulenger, Reptiles and Batrachians (New 
 York, 1914) ; S. W. Williston, Water Reptiles of 
 the Past and Present (Chicago, 1914). Most of 
 the literature on fossil Chelonia consists of spe¬ 
 cial papers in scientific periodicals, especially by 
 
TUSCANY 
 
 590 
 
 TURTLE CREEK 
 
 Baur and Fra-as in Germany, Boulenger and 
 Gadow in England, and Hay in America. A re¬ 
 cent masterly summary is O. P. Hay, Fossil 
 Turtles of North America (Washington, 1908). 
 Consult also Reptile; Tortoise. _ 
 
 TURTLE CREEK. A borough in Allegheny 
 Co., Pa., 12 miles southeast of Pittsburgh, on 
 the Pennsylvania and the Union railroads. A 
 large electrical manufacturing plant of the 
 Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Com¬ 
 pany, employing 16,000 persons, is situated here. 
 There is a" Carnegie library and a technical 
 school. Pop., 1900, 3262; 1910, 4995. 
 TURTLEDOVE. See Dove; Pigeon. 
 TUR'TON. A cotton-manufacturing town in 
 Lancashire, England, 4% miles north of Bolton. 
 Pop., 1901, 12,353; 1911, 12,648. 
 
 TURVEYDROP, Mr. A character m 
 Dickens’s Bleak House, said to have been mod¬ 
 eled on George IV. 
 
 TUS'CALOO'SA. A city and the county seat 
 of Tuscaloosa Co., Ala., 56 miles southwest 
 of Birmingham, on the Black Warrior River, and 
 on the Alabama Great Southern, the Louisville 
 and Nashville, and the Mobile and Ohio 1 ail- 
 roads (Map: Alabama, B 2).. The University 
 of Alabama, opened in 1831, is a mile east of 
 the city. Other educational institutions are 
 the Tuscaloosa Female College (Methodist Epis¬ 
 copal South), opened in 1860; the Alabama 
 Central Female College; Boy’s Training School; 
 and Stillman Institute (Presbyterian), a colored 
 theological school, opened in 1870. The State 
 Insane Hospital, the old State Capitol building, 
 the Federal building, and the bridges spanning 
 the Black Warrior also are noteworthy features. 
 The commercial importance of the city has been 
 increased by extensive improvements on the river, 
 adding considerably to the distance open to navi¬ 
 gation. Coal is mined extensively in the vicin¬ 
 ity, and at Holt, a suburb, there are a large 
 iron furnace, coke ovens, and a by-product plant. 
 The city is the centre of cotton and lumber 
 interests, and its principal industrial establish¬ 
 ments are connected with these. In 1911 the 
 commission form of government was adopted. It 
 was the capital of the State from 1826 to 1846. 
 Pop., 1900, 5094; 1910, 8407; 1915 (U. S. est.), 
 10,152; 1920, 11,996. 
 
 TUS'CANY (It. Toscana). Formerly a sov¬ 
 ereign grand duchy, now a district (comparti- 
 mento) 011 the west coast of Italy (Map: Italy, 
 C 3). It comprises the maritime provinces 
 Grosseto, Livorno (Leghorn), Lucca, and Pisa, 
 the inland provinces Arezzo, Florence, and 
 Siena, and the Province of Massa e Carrara, ex¬ 
 tending from the sea northward between Liguria 
 and the Apennines. The greater part of Tus¬ 
 cany is mountainous, the Apuan Alps reaching 
 6385 feet and Mount Amiata 5655 feet. The 
 principal rivers are the Arno, Cecina, Ombrone, 
 and Serchio, all flowing into the Mediterranean. 
 Except in the Maremma, a large marshy region 
 on the southern coast, the climate is mild and 
 healthful. The leading mineral deposits include 
 iron, mercury, borax, copper, and salt; there 
 are many mineral and thermal springs. Among 
 the important agricultural products are wheat, 
 maize, the vine, the olive, and tobacco. For pop¬ 
 ulation, see section on that topic under Italy. 
 
 Tuscany corresponds nearly to ancient Etruria 
 (q.v.). The Etrurians or Tuscans were the 
 earliest inhabitants known to history. They 
 were conquered by the Romans, by whom in 
 later times the land was called Tuscia. During 
 
 the period of barbarian migrations Tuscia was 
 possessed in turn by the Ostrogoths, the em¬ 
 perors of Constantinople, and the Lombards. 
 The last were conquered by Charles the Great 
 and a Frankish margrave or duke was estab¬ 
 lished with Lucca as his residence. Tuscia 
 formed a part of the Kingdom of Italy or of 
 the Lombards. In 1030 Boniface II of the 
 house of Canossa became Duke of Tuscany. 
 He was also Count of Modena, Reggio, Mantua, 
 and Ferrara. His granddaughter, the Countess 
 Matilda (q.v.), known as “the Great Countess,” 
 was an ardent friend of Pope Gregory VII, and 
 one of the most powerful supporters of the 
 papal party during the investiture struggle. 
 
 At her death, in 1115, she bequeathed all of her 
 wide dominions to the papacy; but the German 
 emperors claimed the duchy as an Imperial fief, 
 and for more than a century “the property of 
 Matilda” was the cause of constant strife be¬ 
 tween the popes and the emperors. During 
 this period the principal cities became inde¬ 
 pendent and prosperous. Pisa had risen to in¬ 
 dependence and power long before this, and was 
 now a great maritime Republic. At the close 
 of the thirteenth century she succumbed to the 
 power of her rival Genoa. For several centuries 
 the history of Florence is to a great extent the 
 history of Tuscany. At the close of the twelfth 
 century she was at the head of the Tuscan league 
 of cities formed to resist the Hohenstaufen. 
 This brought her into close alliance with the 
 papacy, and usually Florence remained a firm 
 adherent of the Guelph party. 
 
 In the fourteenth century Dante, Giotto, Pe¬ 
 trarch, and Boccaccio made Tuscany preeminent 
 in the revival of letters and arts. The Tuscan 
 dialect became the literary language of Italy. 
 In 1406 Pisa submitted to Florence, and soon 
 after she became mistress of Leghorn. Internal 
 dissensions in Florence led to the establishment 
 of the predominance of the Medici (q.v.), Co- 
 simo de’ Medici got control of affairs in 1434 and 
 made the supreme power in Florence the heredi¬ 
 tary possession of his house. In 1532, through 
 the instrumentality of the Emperor Charles V, 
 Alessandro de’ Medici was made Duke of Flor¬ 
 ence. He was assassinated in 1537, and Cosimo 
 the Great became Duke. The latter added to 
 the territories of the duchy, especially by re¬ 
 ceiving Siena from Charles . This gift bound 
 him more closely to Spain, and for nearly two 
 hundred years Tuscany was generally under 
 the influence of Spain. ‘ In 1569 the Florentine 
 dominions were erected into the Grand Duchy 
 of Tuscany. The house of Medici became ex¬ 
 tinct in the male line in 1737. By the terms 
 of the Treaty of Vienna, which had been con¬ 
 cluded in 1735, the grand duchy was given to 
 Francis of Lorraine, the husband of Maria 
 Theresa of Austria. Grand Duke Ferdinand 
 III was dispossessed by the French in 1799. By 
 the Treaty of Madrid between France and Spain, 
 in 1801, Tuscany was erected into the Kingdom 
 of Etruria and given to the son of the Duke 
 of Parma. In 1807 Napoleon took possession 
 of the country, which was united with France. 
 Elisa Baciocchi, the sister of Napoleon, received 
 the title of Grand Duchess of Tuscany. In 1814 
 Ferdinand III was reinstated and ruled until 
 1824. His successor, Leopold II, did much to 
 promote the prosperity of Tuscany. In 1847 
 Lucca was annexed to the grand duchy. In 
 February, 1848, Leopold granted a liberal con¬ 
 stitution to his subjects, but the tide of revo- 
 
TUSCARORA 
 
 lution carried everything before it, and early 
 in 1849 the Grand Duke fled from his country. 
 A counter-revolution was soon set on foot by 
 the Moderate Liberal party and in a few months 
 Leopold was restored to his throne. In 1850 
 he entered into a convention with Austria by 
 which Austrian troops were to occupy Tus¬ 
 cany, and, thus supported, he reinstituted a 
 regime of absolutism. In 1859, in consequence 
 of his pro-Austrian policy, he was obliged to 
 leave his state, which was occupied by the 
 forces of Victor Emmanuel. On March 15, 1860, 
 the people by a plebiscite voted the union of 
 Tuscany with Italy. 
 
 Bibliography. For the early history of Tus¬ 
 cany, consult the histories of Florence, Pisa, 
 and Arezzo, especially F. T. Perrens, Ilistoire de 
 Florence (9 vols., Paris, 1877-90) ; Robert Da- 
 vidsohn, Geschiclite von Florenz (4 vols., Berlin, 
 1896-1912). For the later history, Alfred von 
 Reumont, Geschiclite Toscanas seit dem Ende 
 des florentinischen Freistaates (3 vols., Gotha, 
 1876-77). For the nineteenth century, Charles 
 Seignobos, Political History of Europe since 
 1814 (trans. by S. M. Macvane, New York, 1900), 
 gives a convenient summary and furnishes an 
 ample bibliography. General description: Ed¬ 
 ward Hutton, Siena and Southern Tuscany (New 
 York, 1910) ; M. H. Hewlett, Earthwork out of 
 Tuscany (ib., 1911); J. W. and A. M. Cruick- 
 shank, Smaller Tuscan Towns (ib., 1912). 
 
 TUS'CARCPRA. An important Southern tribe 
 of Iroquoian stock (q.v.). When first known 
 about the year 1670 they resided along the 
 Neuse River in eastern North Carolina, where 
 in 1700 they occupied fifteen villages with an 
 estimated population of 1200 warriors or about 
 6000 souls, and held paramount influence over 
 all the smaller tribes of that section. They 
 were hostile to most of the leading Southern 
 tribes, but maintained a close friendship with 
 the Northern Iroquois (q.v.), whom they knew 
 as traditional kinsmen. In consequence of en¬ 
 croachments upon their lands, they rose against 
 the whites in September, 1711. A war of two 
 years ensued, in which both Carolina provinces 
 joined forces, together with a great body of 
 Indian allies, against them. Finally defeated, 
 the Tuscarora abandoned their country and fled 
 north to the Iroquois, who received them as the 
 sixth tribe of their confederacy, henceforth 
 known as the “Six Nations.” See Iroquois. 
 
 TUS'CULAN DISPUTATIONS (Lat. Tus- 
 culanoe Disputationes) . A philosophical work 
 in five books by Cicero (44 b.c. ), dedicated to 
 M. Brutus. 
 
 TUS'CULUM. An ancient city of Latium, 
 about 15 miles south of Rome, situated on a 
 ridge of hills known as the Colles Tusculani, and 
 forming part of the Alban Range. We catch the 
 first certain glimpse of its historical existence 
 towards the close of the regal period at Rome, 
 when it had attained a high degree of prosperity 
 and power. Octavius Mamilius, ruler of Tus- 
 culum and the foremost prince in Latium, mar¬ 
 ried a daughter of Tarquin the Proud (see 
 Tarquinius), and played a conspicuous part in 
 the last of the great struggles made by the 
 banished tyrant to regain his Kingdom. To¬ 
 wards the close of the Republic Tusculum be¬ 
 came a famous country residence of the wealthy 
 Romans. As late as the twelfth century the 
 ancient city continued entire; but in 1191 it was 
 stormed by the Romans and razed to the ground. 
 Many fine remains of ancient Tusculum have 
 
 591 TUSKEGEE NORMAL INSTITUTE 
 
 been dug up in recent times, among them being 
 the amphitheatre, theatre, and city walls. See 
 Frascati. 
 
 TUSCUMBIA, tus-kum'bl-a. A city and the 
 county seat of Colbert Co., Ala., 125 miles 
 northwest of Birmingham, on the Tennessee 
 River, on the Southern, the Northern Alabama, 
 and the Louisville and Nashville railroads, and 
 on three steamship lines (Map: Alabama, B 1). 
 There are extensive railroad shops, steel fur¬ 
 naces, stove foundries, cottonseed-oil mills, a 
 pipe plant, and a button factory. Features of 
 interest are the Helen Keller Library, court¬ 
 house, a huge spring in the heart of ‘the city, 
 and two public parks. Pop., 1900, 2348; 1910, 
 3324. 
 
 TUSKEGEE, tus-ke'gS. A city and the 
 county seat of Macon Co., Ala., 44 miles 
 by rail east of Montgomery, on the Tuskegee 
 Railroad (Map: Alabama, D 3). The leading 
 industries are cotton raising and the manufac¬ 
 ture of cottonseed oil, meal, and lumber. It 
 is the seat of the Tuskegee Normal and Indus¬ 
 trial Institute for negroes. The place was set¬ 
 tled about 1800. Pop., 1900, 2170; 1910, 2807. 
 
 TUSKEGEE NORMAL AND INDUS¬ 
 TRIAL INSTITUTE. An institution for the 
 education of negroes, founded and conducted 
 by negroes at Tuskegee, Ala., established in 
 1881 by an Act of the Legislature under the name 
 of Tuskegee State Normal School, with an ap¬ 
 propriation of $2000. It was opened July 4, 
 1881. In 1884 the appropriation was increased 
 to $3000, and in 1893 the institution was in¬ 
 corporated under its present name. In 1916 the 
 attendance had grown to 1650. The faculty 
 consists of 185, employed in the administration 
 of the various departments in teaching and in 
 the extension work of the school. The library 
 contains 19,000 volumes. The endowment fund 
 in 1916 was $1,945,326, including a gift of $600,- 
 000 from Andrew Carnegie. The total value 
 of the school plant, including 107 buildings, 
 land, and equipment, is $1,567,062. This does 
 not include 19,527 acres of public lands re¬ 
 maining unsold from 25,000 acres granted by 
 Act of Congress in 1899 and valued at $250,000. 
 
 The object of the institute is to give its stu¬ 
 dents a thorough common-school education and 
 at the same time fit them by manual and indus¬ 
 trial training to perform successfully some form 
 of skilled labor. The institute also aims, 
 through the Phelps Hall Bible Training School, 
 to fit young men and women for the ministry 
 and other forms of social and religious work. 
 The constant aim is to correlate the literary 
 training with the industrial training and prac¬ 
 tical interest^ of the pupils. By this means 
 the work of the students in the trades be¬ 
 comes invested with the character of a demon¬ 
 stration. On the other hand, the principles ac¬ 
 quired in the academic studies gain in definite¬ 
 ness, precision, and interest by application to 
 actual situations and to real objects. 
 
 Students are admitted on passing an exami¬ 
 nation in reading, writing, and the fundamental 
 operations of arithmetic. Instruction is given 
 in two sessions. The day school is intended for 
 students able to pay all or the greater part 
 of their expenses in cash. They attend school 
 in the daytime three days each week and are 
 required to work three days each week. The 
 night school is designed for students too poor 
 to pay the small charge made in the day school. 
 Tuition is free. The monthly charge for board 
 
TUSK SHELL 
 
 TUSSOCK MOTH 
 
 592 
 
 and living expenses is $10, of which day-scliool 
 students may work out from $2 to $4 a month, 
 while pupils of the night schools are given the 
 opportunity to work out all their board. 
 
 In the department of mechanical industries, 
 instruction and practice are given in architec¬ 
 tural and mechanical drawing, steam and elec¬ 
 trical engineering, blacksmitliing, brickmaking, 
 carpentry, founding, harness making, carriage 
 trimming, machining, painting, printing, saw¬ 
 milling, shoemaking, tinsmithing, tailoring, and 
 wheel wrighting. The industries for girls in¬ 
 clude sewing, dressmaking, millinery, cooking, 
 laundering, domestic service, mattress making, 
 basketry, and nursing. So far as possible the 
 product of the student work is used in the in¬ 
 stitute, and the surplus is. sold. The printing 
 office furnishes all the printed matter of the 
 school, and issues two weeklies and a monthly 
 newspaper for the institution besides three 
 others for persons outside. The school build¬ 
 ings, including the Carnegie Library, are al¬ 
 most wholly the product of student labor. The 
 aim of the* agricultural department is by theo¬ 
 retical instruction in scientific principles, and 
 their application in the field, orchard, dairy, 
 and truck garden, to make its students intelli¬ 
 gent and successful farmers. To some of the 
 agricultural courses women are admitted. Ex¬ 
 tension work is carried on through the Tuskegee 
 Negro Conference, the Short Course in Agricul¬ 
 ture, farm demonstration work, and traveling in¬ 
 stitutes for the benefit of farmers in the South. 
 The Russell Plantation settlement and the 
 mothers’ meetings are also a part of the commun¬ 
 ity work the school is seeking to do. Booker T. 
 Washington (q.v.), who had been the principal 
 of the institution since its foundation, died 
 Nov. 14, 1915. Major Robert R. Moton, com¬ 
 mandant at Hampton Institute, succeeded him. 
 Consult B. T. Washington, Up from Slavery 
 (New York, 1900); id., Working with the 
 Hands (ib., 1904) ; id., Tuskegee and its Peo¬ 
 ples (ib., 1905). 
 
 TUSK SHELL, or Tooth Shell. A scapho- 
 pod mollusk of the genus Dentalium, common in 
 the ocean on muddy bottoms at the depth of 
 from 10 to 40 fathoms, as well as in very deep 
 water. The shell is shaped like a gently curved 
 elephant’s tusk and is open at each end. The 
 animal ha^ no head, eyes, or heart, though it 
 has a small elongated digging foot. Its genus 
 first appears in the Eocene rocks. These shells 
 were formerly extensively used by the northwest 
 coast Indians as material for making necklaces 
 and adorning clothing, and were circulated as 
 a shell money (q.v.), called hi-qua. 
 
 TUSSAUD, tu'so', Marie, Madame (1760- 
 1850). Founder of the London waxworks ex¬ 
 hibit in Baker Street. She was born (Gresholtz) 
 at Bern, Switzerland, and learned at Paris 
 the art of wax modeling, in which she subse¬ 
 quently instructed Madame Elisabeth, sister of 
 King Louis XVI. After a three months’ im¬ 
 prisonment during the French Revolution, she 
 brought to London her collection, afterward in¬ 
 creased to include about 300 figures. There 
 is connected with it a Chamber of Horrors, with 
 relics of criminals and a collection of instru¬ 
 ments of torture. Consult F. Herve, Memoirs 
 of Madame Tussaud (London, 1878), which, 
 however, is not altogether reliable. 
 
 TUSSEH, tus'se, or TUS'SER. See Silk¬ 
 worm. 
 
 TUS'SER, Thomas (c.1524-80). An English 
 
 rhymer. He was born at Rivenhall, near Wit- 
 ham, in Essex, and educated at Eton and at 
 Cambridge. For 10 years he was a musician 
 in the service of Lord Paget of Beaudesert, and 
 thus lived at qourt. He then settled for a 
 time as farmer in Suffolk, and thereafter moved 
 about from place to place, eventually dying 
 in a debtor's prison at London. He is remem¬ 
 bered for Five Hundreth Poyntes of Good Hus¬ 
 bandry United to as Many of Good Huswifery, 
 a homely proverbial poem, to which is prefixed 
 an autobiography in verse (1573); based upon 
 Pointes of Husbandrie (1557) and a Hundreth 
 Poyntes of Good Husserie (licensed 1557). 
 Consult the reprints edited by W. Payne and S. J. 
 Herrtage for the English Dialect Society (Lon¬ 
 don, 1878). 
 
 TUS'SXLA'GO (Lat., coltsfoot). A genus of 
 plants of the family Composite. Tussilago 
 farfara, sometimes called coltsfoot, is the only 
 species. It has solitary flower heads on scaly 
 scapes, appearing before the leaves in early 
 spring. Both disk and ray flowers are yellow, 
 the leaves heart-shaped, angular, downy beneath, 
 somewhat glutinous and subacrid. The leaves 
 of the butter bur (Petasites vulgaris), which 
 has been naturalized from Europe, resemble 
 those of Tussilago, but are much larger; the 
 pale flesh-colored flowers also appear before 
 the leaves, but are in a dense thyrsus. The 
 flowers of both are much sought after by bees. 
 
 TUSSOCK MOTH. Any moth of the family 
 Liparidae, a name suggested by the tufts of 
 hairs, often bright-colored, upon the caterpillars. 
 The moths are dull-colored, and the females of 
 some species are wingless. Twenty species occur 
 in the United States. The group includes some 
 famous enemies of fruit, shade, and forest trees. 
 
 TUSSOCK MOTH. % 
 
 a, adult male of Hemerocampa leucostigma; b, cocoon 
 fastened to the wall and wingless female carrying egg sac; 
 c. caterpillar. 
 
 Two imported species, the gypsy moth (q.v.) 
 and the browntail moth (Euproctis chrysor- 
 rhoea), do great damage in New England. The 
 latter species flies during midsummer, when 
 the female lays from 200 to 300 eggs underneath 
 leaves near the tips of branches and covers them 
 with hair. The larvae appear in from two to 
 three weeks and skeletonize the leaves. They 
 also feed on apple and pear fruits. In late 
 September they retire into cases formed of 
 leaves, attached to the twigs by silken threads, 
 and remain there until the leaf buds open in 
 
TUTELO 
 
 593 
 
 TVASHTAR 
 
 tlie spring, feeding upon the young foliage, 
 flowers, and fruit until June, when they pupate. 
 .The caterpillars when abundant are annoying 
 to human beings from the mechanical irritation 
 to the skin caused by their barbed hairs. 
 
 The white-marked tussock moth (Hemero- 
 campa leucostigma ) is a well-known enemy of 
 shade and fruit trees in the eastern United 
 States. The female is wingless, the male small 
 and inconspicuous. Phe overwintering eggs are 
 laid in a glistening white frothy mass, attached 
 to the outside of the female's cocoon, which is 
 usually placed on a tree trunk. The young 
 caterpillars hatch in the spring and feed upon 
 the leaves, i here are two or three generations 
 each year. Winter pruning and burning of the 
 hibernacula of the former species, and summer 
 spraying the larvae of the latter with arsenites, 
 have been recommended. Consult W. J. Holland, 
 The Moth Book (new ed., New York, 1905). 
 
 TUTELO, tbo'te-lo, or TOTERO, tbt'er-b. 
 An eastern tribe of Siouan stock, calling them¬ 
 selves Yesan, formerly on the upper Roanoke 
 and Dan rivers in Virginia and North Carolina, 
 and in alliance with the cognate Saponi (q.v.). 
 They were first visited in 1670 by the German 
 tiaveler John Lederer, who calls them Nahyssan. 
 f n 1701 Lawson found them near central North 
 Carolina, preparing to move to the settlements 
 for protection against the Iroquois, who had 
 driven them from villages on the Roanoke. 
 They were much reduced in number and unable 
 any longer to stand against their enemies. 
 The refugee tribes were afterward settled by 
 Governor Spotswood of Virginia near Fort 
 Christanna, in what is now Brunswick Co., Va., 
 where they remained until about 1740, when, 
 finally at peace with the Iroquois, they removed 
 to the north, together with the Saponi, and 
 settled on the Susquehanna at Shamokin, now 
 Sunbury, Pa. Later they were adopted by the 
 Cayuga, thus becoming a component part of the 
 Iroquois League. Their village near Cayuga 
 Lake being destroyed by Sullivan in 1779, they 
 fled to Canada and found their final home with 
 the Iroquois on the Grand River Reservation, in 
 Ontario, locating on Tutelo Heights, near Brant¬ 
 ford. They are practically extinct. Consult 
 James Mooney, Siouan Tribes of the East (Wash¬ 
 ington, 1895). 
 
 TUT'ICOR/IN. A seaport in the District of 
 Tinnevelli, Madras, India, 443 miles by rail 
 south by west of the city of Madras, on the 
 Gulf of Manar (Map: India, D 8). The manu¬ 
 facturing establishments are chiefly connected 
 with the cotton industry. Pearl fishing, formerly 
 the principal industry’ has greatly declined in 
 importance. Pop., 1901, 28,048; ‘1911, 34,758. 
 TU'TONITE. See Explosives. 
 
 TUTTIETT, Mary Gleed. See Gray, Max¬ 
 well. 
 
 TUTTLE, tuU’1, Daniel Sylvester (1837- 
 
 ). An American Protestant Episcopal 
 bishop, born at Windham, N. Y. He graduated 
 at Columbia in 1857, and at the General Theo¬ 
 logical Seminary in 1862, and was ordained a 
 deacon in 1862 and a priest in 1863. He was 
 rector of a church at Morris, N. Y., until 1867, 
 and Missionary Bishop of Montana, Utah, and 
 Idaho until 1886, when he was transferred to 
 the diocese of Missouri. In 1903 he became 
 presiding Bishop of his denomination in the 
 United States. He published Reminiscences of 
 a Missionary Bishop (1906). 
 
 TUTTLE, Herbert (1846-94). An Ameri¬ 
 
 can historian, born at Bennington, Vt. He 
 graduated in 1869 at the University of Vermont. 
 I rom 18S0 to 1881 he was a lecturer on inter¬ 
 national law at the University of Michigan, and 
 in the latter year was appointed to the chair 
 of politics and international law in Cornell 
 T_ ni\ ersity. He was subsequently transferred 
 to the chair of modern European history. He 
 published: German Political Leaders (1876); 
 History of Prussia to the Accession of Frederick 
 the Great (1884); and a History of Prussia 
 under Frederick the Great (1888). 
 
 TUTTLLN'GEN, tobt'ling-en.' A town of the 
 Kingdom of Wiirttemberg, Germany, on the 
 right bank of the Danube, 64 miles southeast 
 of Strassburg (Map: Germany, C 5). It has 
 shoe factories, tanneries, and manufactures sur¬ 
 gical instruments, cutlery, leather, and woolen 
 goods. Pop., 1900, 13,465; 1910, 15,862. Tut- 
 tlingen is historically notable as the scene of 
 a battle in 1643, during the Thirty Years’ War, 
 in which an Austro-Bavarian force defeated the 
 French. 
 
 TUTUILA, tbb'tbo-effa. The principal island 
 of American Samoa, 46 miles southeast of Upolu 
 (Map: Samoan Islands, D 3, 4). Area, 40.2 
 square miles. Its surface is mountainous and 
 picturesque with luxuriant forests and there are 
 signs of volcanic activity. The climate is sub¬ 
 tropical and the rainfall averages about ISO 
 inches annually. The principal articles of im¬ 
 port are cotton goods, meats, hardware, bread- 
 stuffs, and fish. Copra is practically the only 
 export. It is a government monopoly and a 
 source of revenue which makes the island self 
 supporting. In 1913 the imports were valued 
 at $133,399 and the exports at $132,645. Tu- 
 tuila contains the best harbor of the Samoan 
 group, Pago Pago (q.v.), which is also the seat 
 of government. The island together with the 
 Manua group and a few other islands belong¬ 
 ing to the United States is administered bv a 
 naval governor. Pop., 1912, 7251. See Samoan 
 Islands. , 
 
 TUXTLA GUTIERREZ, tbos^tla gbo / te-ar / - 
 ras. The capital of the State of Chiapas, Mex¬ 
 ico, 270 miles southeast of Vera Cruz (Map- 
 Mexico, M 9). The principal building is the 
 government palace. The main industries are 
 tanning, indigo preparations, and general com¬ 
 merce. Pop., 1900, 9395; 1910, 10,239. 
 
 TUY, tob'e. A Spanish frontier town of the 
 Province of Pontevedra, in Galicia, on the Mino, 
 63 miles north of Oporto, Portugal (Map: 
 Spain, A 1). The cathedral is a fortress-like 
 structure. The international iron bridge span¬ 
 ning the Mino is worthy of note. The town 
 is in the midst of the fertile Vega del Oro, 
 celebrated for the culture of fruits, vegetables^ 
 and silks. Tanneries and soap factories, with 
 a brisk trade with Portugal, form the chief in¬ 
 dustries of the town. Pop., 1900, 11,631; 1910 
 11,986. 
 
 TUY. A town of Luzon, Philippines, in the 
 western part of the Province of Batangas. It 
 lies about 24 miles northwest of Batano-as. 
 Pop., 1903, 2430. 
 
 TVASHTAR, tvash'tar (Skt. tvastr, creator, 
 from tvaks, talcs, to fashion; connected with 
 Av. Owaxs, to create, or Tvashtri). A divinity 
 of Vedic Hindu mythology of uncertain origin, 
 possessing many of the characteristics of He- 
 phaestus or Vulcan (q.v.). As the divine arti¬ 
 ficer his chief works are the thunderbolt of 
 Indra (q.v.) and a cup for the soma (q.v.) of 
 
TWEEDDALE 
 
 TVER 
 
 594 
 
 the gods. Similarly he is the deity who fashions 
 all living forms, both of men and of animals, so 
 that in later texts he is said to have produced 
 the whole world, and to have been the ancestor 
 of all mankind. He is also a creator of gods, 
 particularly of Brihaspati (q.v.), Agni (q.v.), 
 Saranyu, wife of Vivasvant, who bore the Asvins 
 (q.v.) and Yama (q.v.) and Yami, the primeval 
 pair, and, probably, Indra, although this god 
 is sometimes said to have killed his sire in 
 order to obtain the soma. He is further con¬ 
 nected with the Ribhus (q.v.), who are also 
 skillful artificers. Consult A. A. Macdonell, 
 Vedic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897), and L. D. 
 Barnett, Antiquities of India (London, 1913). 
 
 TVER, tver. A government of central Rus¬ 
 sia. Area, 25,225 square miles (Map: Russia, 
 
 E 3). The surface is largely an elevated plain, 
 intersected by deep river valleys. The north¬ 
 western part is hilly. The government is 
 watered chiefly by the upper Volga with its 
 tributaries and the Dvina. The soil is not 
 fertile, and the supply of grain is insufficient 
 to meet the domestic demand. The household 
 industry is well developed, entire sections of 
 the government being engaged in the produc¬ 
 tion of footwear, felt goods, linen, nails, axes, 
 agricultural implements, etc. The local manu¬ 
 factures are chiefly cotton goods, flour, leather, 
 spirits, etc. Pop., 1897, 1,769,135; 1912, 2,- 
 250,200. 
 
 TVER. The capital of the government of 
 the same name, situated on the Volga, 298 
 miles southeast of St. Petersburg (Map: Russia, 
 E 3). It is the see of a Greek Catholic bishop, 
 has a thirteenth-century monastery and an 
 Imperial palace occupied by the Governor. Tver 
 is one of the chief cotton-manufacturing centres 
 of Russia. There are also flour mills, wagon 
 factories, saw mills, etc. Pop., 1910, 62,652. 
 Tver dates from 1181 and was the capital of 
 an independent principality from the thirteenth 
 century to the end of the fifteenth, when it 
 was annexed to Moscow. 
 
 TWACHTMAN, twoKt'man, John Henry 
 (1853-1902). An American landscape painter. 
 He was born in Cincinnati, and studied at the 
 Cincinnati School of Design under Frank Duve- 
 neck, in Munich under Loefftz, and with Bou¬ 
 langer and Lefebvre in Paris. He was most 
 influenced by the Impressionists, and was one 
 of the most consistent exponents of that school 
 among American painters. His landscapes, 
 somewhat unequal in execution, are character¬ 
 ized by a subtle treatment of high-keyed color 
 in delicate tonal effects and by harmony of 
 form and masses. Most of his subjects, apart 
 from the Niagara Falls and Yellowstone series, 
 were taken from the neighborhood of his home 
 in Greenwich, Conn., and among the most charm¬ 
 ing are some pastel studies. Good examples 
 of his work are to be found in nearly all public 
 collections in America, including the Worces¬ 
 ter Art Museum, Metropolitan Museum (New 
 York), Cincinnati Art Museum, Boston Art 
 Museum, Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, 
 etc. In 1913 a comprehensive exhibition of his 
 paintings was held in New York, and in 1915-16 
 a room was devoted to him at the Panama-Pacific 
 Exposition, San Francisco. 
 
 TWAIN, Mark. See Clemens, Samuel L. 
 
 TWAITE. A poor sort of European shad 
 
 (Clupea finta). See Allice. 
 
 TWANA, twa'na. See Salishan Stock. 
 
 TWEED. A river of southern Scotland. It 
 
 rises in Peebles and flows eastward, emptying 
 into the North Sea at Berwick (Map: Scotland, 
 
 F 4). It is 97 miles long, but unnavigable, 
 and along its banks much of the tweeds of com¬ 
 merce is made. For 18 miles of its lower course 
 it forms the boundary between England and 
 Scotland, and it flows through one of the most 
 historic regions of Great Britain, the celebrated 
 Borders. 
 
 TWEED. A twilled fabric (see Weaving), 
 often woven in two colors, the yarn being dyed 
 before weaving. It is a soft, flexible, durable 
 material, usually of wool, sometimes of cotton 
 and wool. Its name is derived from the locality 
 where it was first manufactured—in villages 
 along the Tweed, in Scotland. 
 
 TWEED, William Marcy (1823-78). A no¬ 
 torious American politician, leader of . the so- 
 called Tweed Ring, born in New York City. He 
 was the son of a chairmaker, received slight 
 education, and early entered politics, becoming 
 an alderman of New York City in 1850, and 
 taking a seat in Congress in 1853. Subsequently 
 he was a school commissioner, became a mem¬ 
 ber of the board of supervisors ^ of New York 
 County, and was president of the board four 
 successive terms. From 1867 to 1871 he was 
 State Senator. Tweed was grand sachem of 
 Tammany in 1869—71. He was appointed 
 deputy street commissioner in 1861, and when 
 in 1870 that department was changed to the 
 department of public works, he was the com¬ 
 missioner at its head, a position which enabled 
 him to initiate, it was believed, the formation 
 of the combination known as the Tammany 
 Ring, or Tweed Ring. The ring elected its 
 candidate for mayor in 1865, and its candidate 
 for Governor in 1868, and so. controlled the 
 Legislature as to secure a modification of the 
 city’s charter, greatly increasing the power of 
 the offices held by the ring. Legislators and 
 judges were bribed, bills were passed, and de¬ 
 cisions rendered in favor of the members of the 
 ring. Gigantic schemes of city improvement 
 were organized and carried out successfully, 
 though accompanied generally with much pecula¬ 
 tion. Probably no spoliation so great was ever 
 executed in any country. Its exposure was 
 made largely by the New York Times, with 
 the help of a disappointed enemy of the ring, 
 in July, 1871; investigation and prosecution 
 were undertaken by a committee of 70 citizens, 
 under the lead of Samuel J. Tilden (q.v*) ? 
 and Tweed was indicted in 1872 for forgery 
 and grand larceny. Two trials were held, and 
 in 1873 Tweed was convicted, and sentenced to 
 12 years’ confinement in the penitentiary and 
 to pay a fine of $12,300.18. He was confined 
 on Blackwell’s Island from November, 1873, 
 until June, 1875, when he was released by a 
 decision of the Court of Appeals on a legal 
 technicality. He was immediately rearrested on 
 a warrant issued in a civil suit for $6,198,- 
 957.85, and sent to Ludlow Street Jail. Being 
 permitted to ride out with an officer, he escaped, 
 and fled to Spain. He was returned in Novem¬ 
 ber, 1876, and placed in Ludlow Street Jail 
 until April 12, 1878, when he died. Consult: 
 G. Myers, History of Tammany Hall (New York, 
 1901); J. K. McGuire, The Democratic I'arty 
 of the State of Hew York (ib., 1905) ; Bryce, 
 The American Commonwealth (new ed., 2 vols., 
 ib., 1910). 
 
 TWEED'DALE. See Peeblesshire. 
 
 TWEEDDALE, John Hay, second Earl and 
 
TWICKENHAM 
 
 TWEEDLEDUM AND TWEEDLEDEE 595 
 
 first Marquis of (1626-97). A Scottish soldier 
 and statesman. After serving in the King’s 
 army (1642) he fought against Charles at 
 Marston Moor (1644), and, four years later, 
 commanded at Preston in the King’s army again. 
 He entered Parliament in 1654, became Privy 
 Councilor on the Restoration and President of 
 the Council in 1663, and (1664) was appointed 
 High Commissioner on Ecclesiastical Affairs. 
 Pie labored for a more lenient attitude towards 
 Covenanters and was removed from office in 
 1674 by the influence of Lauderdale. He was 
 restored to some of his posts in 1680 and 1682; 
 held office under James II, but, disliking his 
 Scottish policy, joined the Revolution; and in 
 1689, became Privy- Councilor under William 
 and Mary. He was a commissioner on the 
 Glencoe massacre and was dismissed by the King 
 in 1696 for assenting to the Colonization Act 
 and Paterson’s Darien schemes. 
 
 TWEEDLEDUM AND TWEEDLEDEE. 
 An expression denoting an inappreciable differ¬ 
 ence between unimportant points. It was used 
 by Byron, satirizing the feud between partisans 
 of Handel and Buononcini. 
 
 TWEEDMOUTH, twed'miith, Edward Mar- 
 joribanks, second Baron (1849-1909). A 
 British statesman, born in London. He was 
 educated at Oxford, became a barrister in 1874, 
 and was a Liberal member of Parliament for 
 Berwick in 1880—94. In 1886 he was made 
 Comptroller to the Household, and in 1892-94 
 he was Parliamentary Secretary to the Treas¬ 
 ury. In 1894—95 he was Lord Privy Seal and 
 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, and in 
 December, 1905, became First Lord of the 
 Admiralty. At this time public opinion in 
 Britain was becoming increasingly excited over 
 German rivalry in naval construction, and in 
 March, 1908, it was reported that Tweedmouth, 
 in a correspondence with the German Emperor, 
 had prematurely disclosed certain details of 
 naval estimates before officially communicating 
 them to the House of Commons. The report 
 was untrue, but it led to his resigning from the 
 cabinet in September, 1908. Consult the 
 Countess of Aberdeen (his sister), Edward 
 Marjoribanks, Lord Tweedmouth, Notes and Rec¬ 
 ollections (London, 1909). 
 
 TWEED RING. See Tweed, Wm. M. 
 
 TWELFTH NIGHT, or What You Will. 
 
 1. A comedy by Shakespeare, played at Middle 
 Temple Hall, Twelfth Night, 1602, according to 
 J. Manningham’s diary. The principal plot 
 was taken from Bandello’s tale, perhaps through 
 Belleforest’s Histoires tragiques, or B. Rich’s 
 Apollonius and Silla, adapted from Cinthio’s 
 Hecatommithi. A similar plot is found in 
 two Italian plays, GV Ingannati (1537) and 
 Gl’ Inganni (1592). Malvolio, Sir Toby, Sir 
 Andrew, and the clown are all Shakespeare’s. 
 
 2. A festival 12 days after Christmas. See 
 Epiphany. 
 
 TWELVE, Gospel of the. See Apocrypha. 
 
 TWELVE APOSTLES. See Apostles’ 
 Islands. 
 
 TWELVE TABLES, Law of the. The ear-' 
 lier systematic written statement, or code, of 
 Roman law. According to the Roman tradition, 
 this code was drawn up to appease the plebeians, 
 who complained that the unwritten customary 
 law, as interpreted by patrician priests and ap¬ 
 plied by patrician judges, gave no adequate 
 protection to their liberties. In 452 b.c. 10 
 magistrates were elected to write laws {decem¬ 
 
 viri legibus scribendis ), and before the end of 
 the following year 10 tables of laws were sub¬ 
 mitted to and accepted by the popular assembly. 
 In 450 b.c. two supplementary tables were 
 similarly adopted. The decemvirs claimed that 
 they had made the law equal for all, high and 
 low; and there is no doubt that the Roman 
 people regarded the XII Tables with great 
 veneration, as a bulwark of personal liberty. / 
 
 This code seems to have introduced little if 
 any new law, being substantially a restatement 
 of the older custom. Its rules were "simple and 
 were tersely and clearly expressed. It contained 
 no constitutional law, and it dealt mainly with 
 the law of family, property, crimes, torts, and 
 civil procedure. It did not state the law fully 
 even in these matters, for (as in other early 
 codes) rules that were so well settled as to be 
 indisputable were not included. 
 
 The XII Tables have come down to us in 
 fragments only. In Roman legal, historical, 
 and grammatical writings, a couple of score of 
 passages are directly cited, and it is sometimes 
 stated in which of the tables the rule stood. 
 Other rules are paraphrased or indicated by 
 allusions. Attempts to reconstruct the code 
 have been made by Gothofredus (1616), Dirk- 
 sen (1824), Sclioell (1866), and Voigt (1883). 
 The text commonly given in works on Roman 
 law is that of Sclioell, and citations of table 
 and law by number are regularly based on his 
 reconstruction. 
 
 The credibility of the Roman tradition con¬ 
 cerning the origin of the XII Tables has been 
 energetically attacked by recent writers, who 
 assert that the tradition is of late origin and 
 that the XII Tables are a private compilation 
 made, probably, in the third century b.c. 
 
 Consult: M. Voigt, GescMchte und System des 
 Rechts der XII Tafeln (Leipzig, 1883) ; Edouard 
 Lambert, Le problem de Vorigine des Douze 
 Tables (Lyons, 1902) ; Charles Appleton, Le 
 testament romain: la metliode du droit compare 
 et Vauthenticity des Douze Tables (Paris, 1903). 
 See Civil Law. 
 
 TWES'TEN, August Detlev Christian 
 (1789-1876). A German Protestant theologian. 
 He was born at Gliickstadt, studied at Kiel 
 and Berlin, and became professor of theology 
 at Kiel, 1814. In 1835 he succeeded Schleier- 
 macher, whose views he had adopted, at Berlin. 
 He was very influential in the formation of 
 the United Evangelical church of Prussia and 
 was a member of its supreme council until his 
 death. He published Vorlesungen iiber die 
 Dogmatik der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche 
 (1826-37); Grundriss der analytischen Logik 
 (1834) ; Matthias Flacius Illyricus (1844) ; and 
 edited Schleiermacher’s Ethik (1841). Consult 
 G. Heinrici, August Twesten nach Tagebiichem 
 und Briefen (Berlin, 1889). 
 
 TWICH'ELL, Joseph Hopkins (1838-1918). 
 An American Congregational clergyman, born 
 at Southington, Conn. He graduated at Yale in 
 1859, was chaplain of the 71st Regiment, New 
 York State Volunteers, during the Civil War, 
 and in 1865 became pastor of the Asylum Hill 
 Congregational Church, at Hartford, Conn. He 
 was one of Mark Twain’s most intimate friends. 
 His writings include John Winthrop (1891); 
 Some Old Puritan Love Letters (1893) ; History 
 of the Minisinlc Country (1912). Consult, pas¬ 
 sim, A. B. Paine, Mark Twain: A Biography (3 
 vols., New York, 1912). 
 
 TWICKENHAM, twik^n-am. A town in 
 
TWIG GIRDLER 
 
 TWILIGHT SLEEP 
 
 Middlesex, England, on the Thames, connected 
 with Richmond, on the opposite bank, by a sub¬ 
 stantial bridge, 10 miles southwest of St. Paul s, 
 London (Map: London, F 4). It has interesting 
 historic dwellings, and is a residential district 
 for Londoners. It contains the great church 
 of St. Stephen’s, completed in 1874; the estate 
 of Alexander Pope, where the grotto is all 
 that remains (Pope’s monument is in the 
 church) ; Walpole’s villa, called Strawberry 
 Hill; and Orleans House, temporarily occupied 
 by Louis Philippe, and still owned by his de¬ 
 scendants. Pop., 1901, 21,000; 1911, 29,367. 
 
 Consult Cobbett, Memorials of Twickenham 
 (London, 1872). 
 
 TWIG GIRDLER. See Girdler. 
 
 TWIGGS, David Emanuel (1790-1862). An 
 American soldier, born in Richmond Co.,. Ga. 
 In 1812 he was appointed captain in the Eighth 
 Infantry. He served in the War of 1812, and 
 was promoted major in 1814. He later fought 
 against the Seminoles, and then in the Black 
 Hawk War, and was commissioned colonel, of 
 the Second Dragoons in June, 1836. For services 
 at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, where 
 he commanded the right wing of General 
 Taylor’s army, he was brevetted brigadier gen¬ 
 eral. In the attack on Monterey he commanded 
 a division, was brevetted a major general, and 
 after a short term as Governor of Monterey 
 was sent to join General Scott at Vera Cruz. 
 In the advance on the City, of Mexico he com¬ 
 manded the Second Division, led the main 
 attack at Cerro Gordo, and performed impor¬ 
 tant services at Contreras and Churubusco and 
 in the attack on the gates of Mexico. After 
 the war ended he was for some years in charge 
 of the Department of the West and then of that 
 of Texas. On the outbreak of the Civil War 
 he surrendered, without resistance, the United 
 States property under his charge to the. Con¬ 
 federates. He was made a major general in the 
 Confederate service and commanded in Louisi¬ 
 ana, but age and infirmities led him to leave the 
 service late in 1861. 
 
 TWIG PRTJNER. Any of several species of 
 longicorn beetles of the genus Elaphidion, the 
 females of which lay their eggs in the twigs 
 of several kinds of trees. The eggs hatch and 
 the larva when nearly full grown severs its 
 twig, transforming to pupa within the twig 
 after it has fallen. The common oak pruner 
 (Elaphidion villosum) is a slender long-horned 
 beetle, dark brown in color, and covered with 
 grayish pubescence. It feeds in twigs of oak, 
 hickory, chestnut, maple, apple, plum, peach, 
 and other trees. The purpose of the amputation 
 of the twig by the larva seems not primarily to 
 make the twig fall, but to penetrate the wood 
 to the bark for an easy exit. Elaphidion sub- 
 pubescens works in the same way in shoots of 
 white oak, while Elaphidion mucronatum is 
 found in twigs of live oak and other trees. 
 The larva of Elaphidion unicolor amputates the 
 twigs of the redbud ( Cercis canadensis ). A few 
 other insects have similar habits. For example, 
 certain liorntails, notably the willow-shoot horn- 
 tail ( Phyllcecus integer), live, in the larval 
 stage, in twigs of willow, which they cause to 
 wilt and break. 
 
 TWILIGHT (from twi-, combining form of 
 f W0 _|_ light). The diffused illumination of 
 the sky which immediately precedes sunrise 
 and follows sunset. When *the sun sets below 
 our horizon, we are not at once plunged into 
 
 the darkness of night. There is an intermediate 
 period of partial and slowly increasing darkness 
 which we call twilight. It is caused by the. re¬ 
 flection of the sunlight by dust and particles 
 of water vapor in the upper atmosphere. The 
 same phenomenon occurs just before sunrise, 
 and, to distinguish it from the evening twilight, 
 is called dawn. Dawn begins and twilight ends 
 when the sun is about 18° below the horizon, 
 and consequently their duration varies with 
 the latitude and with the season of the year. 
 The higher the latitude the smaller the angle 
 at which the sun’s path meets the horizon, and 
 hence the longer it takes the sun to sink to 
 a distance of 18° below the horizon. In the 
 tropics twilight rarely lasts longer than 30 
 minutes, while in the latitude of the north of 
 Scotland it lasts so long that about midsummer 
 there are several nights on which it fills the 
 entire interval between sunset and sunrise. 
 
 TWILIGHT SLEEP. A method of produc¬ 
 ing amnesia and analgesia (abolition of mem¬ 
 ory and pain) during childbirth, originating at 
 Freiburg, with Kroenig and Gauss, who de¬ 
 veloped 0 an exact technique founded on the 
 experiments of Von Steinbuchel, published in 
 1902. Gauss reported the results of his 
 first 300 cases in 1906, and applied the term 
 Ddmmerschlaf to this method. The Freiburg 
 technique consists in administering at the be¬ 
 ginning of labor an injection of 14 grain mor¬ 
 phine hydrochloride, and grain of scopo¬ 
 
 lamine hydrobromide. At succeeding intervals, 
 depending on the indications, doses of grain 
 of scopolamine alone are given, the intervals 
 between doses being regulated so as to keep 
 the patient in a condition of amnesia. From 
 the first dose the mother must be watched 
 closely as to her pulse, the progress of labor, 
 and the signs of returning memory, and the 
 fetal heart frequently auscultated. When the 
 technique is closely followed by one skilled in 
 its use and in quiet surroundings, it is asserted 
 that it is successful in 75 per cent of the cases; 
 that no harm results to the mother; and that 
 the usual complications of childbirth are not 
 increased. But judging from various repoits 
 the method is often ineffective, the mother sm- 
 fers subsequently from delirium and headache, 
 and the fetus is* frequently born in an asphyxi¬ 
 ated condition, the terms indicating the various 
 degrees of asphyxia being oligopnea, apnea, and 
 asphyxia. 
 
 Several modifications of the procedure have 
 been introduced, perhaps the most notable of 
 which is that of Siegel, an assistant of Kroenig 
 in the Freiburg Frauenklinik. The modification 
 consists in the substitution of narcophine for 
 morphine, narcophine being a combination of 
 morphine with narcotine, through the agency 
 of meconic acid. The drug is supposed to be 
 less dangerous than morphine. In 220 succes¬ 
 sive cases Siegel reports 88 per cent of complete 
 amnesia, 10 per cent of partial amnesia, and 2 
 per cent unaffected; 67.6 per cent of the children 
 oligopneic; 1.7 per cent apneic; 1.7 per cent 
 breathed spontaneously; 27.7 per cent were 
 born asphyxiated, half of the latter dying; 1.3 
 per cent were stillborn. It was noted that it 
 sometimes took 30 minutes to revive some of the 
 partially asphyxiated infants. 
 
 Since the' discovery of anoesthetics, ether, 
 chloroform, cocaine, laudanum, and many other 
 drugs have been tried for the purpose of 
 ameliorating the sufferings incident to child- 
 
TWILLER 
 
 TWINING PLANTS 
 
 597 
 
 birth. Disregarding general anaesthetics, which 
 are always indicated for brief periods during the 
 most difficult stages of labor, a few other meth¬ 
 ods may be mentioned. In 1896, Savitsky, a 
 Russian physician, said that he had used, with 
 complete success and absence of harm, anti- 
 pyrine given by rectum. In 1914, Dessaignes, 
 of the French Academy of Medicine, recom¬ 
 mended a drug called antalgesine obstetrique. 
 This drug was supposedly obtained by the ac¬ 
 tion of chlorhydrate of morphine on living fer¬ 
 ments resembling yeast. The drug has been 
 since condemned, and has even been said to 
 consist of nothing more than morphine in solu¬ 
 tion. Pantopon, a morphine derivative, is ex¬ 
 tolled by other observers. 
 
 In 1914 twilight sleep was popularly ex¬ 
 ploited in several lay journals and magazines. 
 The accounts were highly colored, and exagger¬ 
 ated the benefits of twilight sleep on the one 
 hand, while magnifying the pain of ordinary 
 parturition on the other. It was even made to 
 appear that children born during twilight sleep 
 were more vigorous, mentally and physically, 
 than their brothers and sisters born under ordi¬ 
 nary conditions. The movement among certain 
 classes of women attained almost to the propor¬ 
 tions of hysteria, and the medical profession 
 w'as openly accused of being too indolent and 
 callous to apply the method. The consensus 
 of opinion at present is that twilight sleep is 
 practicable in about 80 per cent of carefully 
 selected cases, that it should be applied only 
 in hospital surroundings or in well-regulated 
 households, and that a physician skilled in 
 its use should be in constant attendance. Its 
 miscellaneous application is bound to result in a 
 large amount of complications, both to mother 
 and child. Consult A. M. Heilman, Twilight 
 Sleep (New York, 1915). 
 
 twinflower (Linncea borealis). 
 
 TWILLER, Wouter van. See Van Twilleb, 
 Wouter. 
 
 TWIL'LINGATE or TOULINGTJET, too'- 
 laN'gaC A port of entry on the Twillingate 
 Islands in Notre Dame Bay, on the northeast 
 coast of Newfoundland, 232 miles by steamer 
 from St. John’s (Map: Newfoundland, F 3). It 
 is a prosperous fishing centre. Pop., 1901, 3542; 
 1911, 3348. 
 
 TWIN FALLS. A citv and the countv seat 
 of Twin Falls Co., Ida., 35 miles south of Sho¬ 
 shone, on the Oregon Short Line Railway 
 
 (Map: Idaho, D 7). The chief industrial estab¬ 
 lishments are vulcanizing works, Hour and plan¬ 
 ing mills, creameries, sash and door works, lum¬ 
 ber yards, a sheet-metal shop, and manufactories 
 of candy, harness, and vinegar. Abundant water 
 power is provided by the Shoshone Falls, 5 
 miles distant. Pop., 1910, 5258. 
 
 TWINFLOWER. A hardy, trailing ever¬ 
 green plant of the family Caprifoliaceae. Linncea 
 borealis, the only species, is a favorite in rock¬ 
 eries. on account of its dainty, bell-shaped, 
 nodding, pink or white, fragrant flowers, which 
 appear during midsummer in pairs upon erect, 
 slender stems. It thrives best in open, peaty 
 soil and in shade. In the woods it may be 
 found as far south as Maryland and the moun¬ 
 tains of California, but is more common north¬ 
 ward, being circumpolar and alpine in its dis¬ 
 tribution. 
 
 TWINFLOWER. See Partridge Berry. 
 
 TWINING PLANTS. Plants whose axes 
 are coiled about slender supports, as common 
 morning-glory and hop. In most cases the sup¬ 
 port must be slender (less than 15 centimeters 
 in diameter), though some tropical plants coil 
 about thick tree trunks, and others climb some¬ 
 what similarly by partial twining. (See 
 Lianas.) The direction of twining varies with 
 different plants, being either clockwise or coun¬ 
 terclockwise. While the direction of twining 
 is usually constant in the same species, some 
 twiners coil in either direction. The direction 
 is not constant, however, among members of 
 the same family, nor even among different spe¬ 
 cies of the same genus. 
 
 The cause of twining has long been a difficult 
 problem. The most satisfactory explanation 
 seems to be that twining stems are endowed 
 with a sensitiveness to the action of gravity, 
 which may be distinguished as lateral geotropism 
 (q.v.). The stem at first grows erect (on ac¬ 
 count of negative geotropism), but through 
 unequal growth, causing nutation (q.v.), soon 
 inclines to one side. At this period of develop¬ 
 ment the flanks (the sides of the stem now on 
 the right and left as distinguished from the 
 upper and lower) are sensitive to their changed 
 relation to gravity (on account of the new hori¬ 
 zontal position), which thus becomes a stimulus. 
 The response cf the stem to this stimulus is 
 an accelerated growth on one flank, the right 
 or left, as the case may be. The acceleration 
 of growth there swings the horizontal tip to¬ 
 wards a new point of the compass, and at 
 the same time, from mechanical necessity, par¬ 
 tially rotates the stem on its longitudinal axis, 
 so that a new side is brought into the flank 
 position and therefore under stimulation. It 
 then responds likewise with accelerated growth; 
 this swings the tip still farther around, and again 
 brings a new region under stimulation. By 
 this continued action each side of the stem is 
 successively stimulated, and the tip is therefore 
 swung in a circle. At the same time it is 
 elongating. If, in course of twining, the nearly 
 horizontal tip strikes a support, only the part 
 beyond the support continues to swing, and 
 therefore begins to wrap around the support, 
 forming coils which are at first low and loose. 
 Later negative geotropism again asserts itself 
 in this part of the stem, which grows so that 
 it straightens, if possible, the actual effect being 
 to steepen the coils and make them clasp the 
 support more closely. The slenderer the sup¬ 
 port, as a rule, the steeper are the completed 
 
TWISS 
 
 TWO SICILIES 
 
 598 
 
 coils. This explanation receives its strongest 
 support from the fact that when the action of 
 gravity is equalized, as by rotating a seedling 
 twiner on a clinostat (q.v.), no coiling takes 
 place. There are various phenomena of twining, 
 experimentally induced, of which no full ex¬ 
 planation can yet be given. There is, however, 
 no mere mechanical stoppage of the swinging 
 tip which permits coiling, because it has no 
 momentum, and because many twiners will coil 
 about a loose cord. It is further probable that 
 twiners are susceptible to the continued contact 
 and pressure of the support, and that this plays 
 some part in the method of climbing which they 
 have adopted. 
 
 Twining plants are characterized by unusu¬ 
 ally long growing regions, and by the retarded 
 development of foliage leaves. 1 hus, while in 
 erect stems from 10 to 20 centimeters of the 
 apex are still capable of elongation, in twining 
 plants the elongating region is 30 to 50 centi¬ 
 meters long, or in some cases as much as 80 
 centimeters The slow development 01 the foliage 
 leaves seems both to be correlated with this 
 long maintenance of the power of growth, and 
 to be necessary for twining, because the presence 
 of fully developed foliage would interfere seri¬ 
 ously with the free movements of the tip. 
 
 TWISS, Sir Travers (1809-97). An Eng¬ 
 lish jurist and scholar. He was born in Mary- 
 lebone, London, graduated from University 
 College, Oxford, with distinction, and published 
 in 1836 his Epitome of Niebuhr’s History of 
 Rome. In 1840 he was called to the bar. From 
 1842 to 1847 he was professor of political econ¬ 
 omy at Oxford, from 1852 to 1855 professor of 
 international law at King’s College, London, 
 and from 1855 to 1870 held the regius profes¬ 
 sorship of civil law at Oxford. He also helci 
 several ecclesiastic legal positions, and in 1S58 
 he became chancellor of the diocese of London, 
 the same year having been created Queen’s 
 counsel. In 1867 he was appointed Queen’s 
 Advocate-General and was knighted. Owing to 
 a scandalous libel of which he and his wife 
 were the victims, in 1872 he retired to private 
 life and devoted himself to juridical science 
 and literature. In 1884 he drafted for the 
 King of Belgium a constitution for the Congo 
 Free State, "and in 1884-85 was counsel ex¬ 
 traordinary to the British Embassy during the 
 Berlin Conference. His chief works are: View 
 of the Progress of Political Economy in Eu¬ 
 rope since the Sixteenth Century (London, 
 1847); The Oregon Territory: Its History and 
 Discovery (New York, 1846) ; but his fame rests 
 principally on his treatise, The Law of Nations 
 (1861-63). 
 
 TWITTER. A peculiar deformation of car¬ 
 nation plants, produced possibly by several 
 kinds of insects: a plant louse or green fly of 
 the genus Siphonophora, a true tlirips and 
 possibly the larva of some an thorny iid fly. 
 Carnation twitter may be produced by any cause 
 which checks the growth of the plant; hence 
 any one of several insects may be involved. 
 
 TWO GENTLEMEN OF VERO'NA, The. 
 A comedy by Shakespeare, probably produced in 
 the original form in 1591, and in the present 
 form in 1595; first printed in the folio of 1623. 
 
 TWO HARBORS. A city and the county 
 seat of Lake Co., Minn., 28 miles northeast 
 of Duluth, on Lake Superior, and on the Duluth 
 and Iron Range Railroad (Map: Minnesota, 
 F 3). It is one of the largest of the iron- 
 
 ore shipping points, and also makes large ship¬ 
 ments of lumber and pulp wood. Pop., 1900, 
 3278; 1910, 4990. 
 
 TWO NOBLE KINSMEN. A play produced 
 in 1625 and published in 1634 as the work 
 of Fletcher and Shakespeare. It was probably 
 written by Massinger and Fletcher with RoAvley. 
 
 TWO RIVERS. A city in Manitowoc Co., 
 Wis., 7 miles northeast of Manitowoc, on Lake 
 Michigan, and on the Chicago and Northwestern 
 Railroad (Map: Wisconsin, F 4). The leading 
 manufactures are dentists’ and printers’ cabi¬ 
 nets, wood type cases, office furniture, alu¬ 
 minium novelties, gasoline engines, tubs, pails, 
 veneer goods, and knitted goods. Pop., 1900, 
 3784; 1910,4850. 
 
 TWO-SEED-IN-THE-SPIRIT BAPTISTS. 
 
 See Baptists. 
 
 TWO SICILIES, Kingdom of the. The 
 name commonly given to a former kingdom 
 embracing Sicily and southern Italy, and known 
 often as the Kingdom of Naples. In the Middle 
 Ages the southern part of the Italian mainland 
 came to be kno\\ T n as “Sicily on this side of the 
 Faro” (the Strait of Messina). From the earli¬ 
 est times both island and mainland were sub¬ 
 ject to settlement and conquest by peoples of 
 widely different stock, producing a complicated 
 admixture of races. At the dawn of history the 
 Phoenicians had trading settlements there. In 
 the eighth century b.c. numerous Greek colonies 
 were founded in both Sicily and southern Italy 
 and became powerful and wealthy states. A 
 new Phoenician element A\ r as introduced when 
 Carthage disputed the supremacy of Sicily with 
 the Greeks. The Roman conquest folloAved. In 
 the middle of the fifth century, at the time of 
 the fall of the Roman Empire, Sicily was rav¬ 
 aged by the Vandals. ToAvards the close of the 
 century the Ostrogoths made themselves masters 
 of Italy and Sicily. In the sixth century their 
 realm AA 7 as conquered by the Byzantines. Soon 
 after the Lombards established their SAvav OA'er 
 part of southern Italy. The Lombard Duchy 
 of Benevento was founded, out of which in 
 the ninth century arose the three principalities 
 of Benevento, Salerno, and Capua. By the side 
 of these was the Duchy of Naples, a Byzantine 
 creation. Apulia and Calabria AA 7 ere held by the 
 Byzantines until the eleventh century. In the 
 years from 827 to 878 the island of Sicily was 
 conquered by the Saracens, and they also ob¬ 
 tained a foothold on the mainland. 
 
 About 1037 the sons of a Norman knight, 
 Tancred de Hauteville, setting out Avith a feAV 
 folloAvers, entered southern Italy in the service 
 of the Byzantine Governor, but soon seized and 
 divided Apulia and Avere able to hold the 
 country against every effort of the Greeks to 
 dislodge them. Robert Guiscard, one of^ these 
 brothers, became Count of Apulia in 10;>7. and 
 in 1059 he Avas recognized by Pope Nicholas 
 II as Duke of Apulia and Calabria. In 1061 
 his younger brother, Roger, AA 7 ith a feAV hundred 
 Norman knights, began the conquest of the is¬ 
 land of Sicily, which became a county and a 
 fief of Robert’s duchy, though the total sub¬ 
 jugation of the island Avas not accomplished 
 till 1090, after Robert’s death. In 1127 Roger 
 II, son of the first Roger, united Apulia, Cala¬ 
 bria, and Sicily, and in 1130 assumed the title 
 of King of Sicily. He ruled over the Abruzzi, 
 made himself master of Capua, and received 
 the submission of Naples. The marriage of 
 Frederick Barbarossa’s son, the later Emperor 
 
TWO SICILIES 59Q TWO SICILIES 
 
 Henry VI, to Constance, heiress of the Two 
 Sicilies, in 1186, united the destinies of the 
 Norman Kingdom with those of the house of 
 Hohenstaufen, whose rule began in 1194. The 
 child of this marriage, the Emperor Frederick II 
 (<l- v -)> was the most remarkable prince in the 
 Europe of his day. He reorganized the govern¬ 
 ment of the Sicilian Kingdom on essentially 
 modern lines, founded the University of Naples, 
 and made his court a brilliant centre of high 
 culture and learning. Iiis death in 1250 was 
 followed by the downfall of the Ilohenstaufens. 
 In 1266 Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX 
 of France, at the instance of the Pope, under¬ 
 took the conquest of the Two Sicilies. He van¬ 
 quished Manfred, son of Frederick II, at Bene- 
 vento, and in 1268 captured and executed Con- 
 radin, the last of the Hohenstaufens. Charles 
 of Anjou made Naples his residence. 
 
 Ihe year 1282 witnessed the fearful popular 
 uprising against the French in Sicily known as 
 the Sicilian Vespers (q.v.). The people shook 
 off the yoke of Anjou and placed their island 
 under the rule of Pedro III of Aragon. The 
 house of Anjou continued to rule in south 
 Italy, which thus became the Kingdom of 
 Naples. In 1296 Sicily was separated from 
 Aragon, but continued under the rule of the 
 Aragonese house, and in 1412 was reunited with 
 that kingdom. Eobert I of Naples (1309-43) 
 made himself the champion of the Guelph party 
 and extended his influence throughout Italy. 
 He was succeeded by his granddaughter Joanna 
 I (q.v.), and an anarchic period began and 
 continued for many years, the heirs of the elder 
 Neapolitan line, which had also acquired the 
 throne of Hungary, contending with new as¬ 
 pirants from Anjou. In 1399 the Neapolitan 
 line triumphed in the person of the crafty and 
 unprincipled Ladislas (q.v.). He died in" 1414, 
 leaving the kingdom to his sister, Joanna II 
 (q.v.). She was given up to sensuality, and 
 disorder was renewed. After her death in 1435 
 Alfonso V, King of Aragon and Sicily, under¬ 
 took the conquest of Naples, of which he secured 
 possession in 1442, reigning until his death in 
 1458. He left Aragon and Sicily to his eldest 
 son, John, and Naples to his illegitimate son, 
 Ferdinand, under whose rapacious and cruel 
 rule new troubles arose. In 1495 Charles VIII 
 of France invaded Naples, and although he was 
 compelled to withdraw in the same year, his 
 successor, Louis XII, jointly with Ferdinand 
 of Spain, conquered the country in 1501. Two 
 years afterward the Spaniards* under Gonsalvo 
 de Cordoba (q.v.) drove out the French and 
 made Naples a Spanish province. 
 
 The country was now subjected to the oppres¬ 
 sion of Spanish viceroys. Rebellion at Naples 
 broke out in 1647 under Masaniello (q.v.). 
 In 1707 the Neapolitan dominions were wrested 
 from Spain by Austria during the War of the 
 Spanish Succession. (See Succession Wars.) 
 Naples was confirmed to Austria by the Treaty 
 of Utrecht (1713) and Sicily was given to 
 Savoy. In 1720 Sicily was transferred by Savoy 
 to Austria in exchange for Sardinia. In 1734 
 Hon Carlos, second son of Philip V of Spain, 
 of the house of Bourlxm, and Elizabeth Farnese 
 invaded the Two Sicilies, and in 1735 he was 
 crowned and was recognized by the Treaty of 
 \ienna as King Charles III. (See Charles III, 
 King of Spain.) After the Peace of Aix-la- 
 C hapelle (1748) Italy enjoyed nearly a half 
 century of peace, and these years witnessed in 
 
 the Two Sicilies progress along many lines, 
 but the upheaval of the French Revolution 
 biought new troubles. the coalition against 
 the French Republic was joined by Ferdinand, 
 the second Bourbon King of the Two Sicilies. 
 (See Ferdinand I.) In December, 1798, the 
 Neapolitans attempted to drive the French out 
 of the Papal States. They were thrown back, 
 Naples was taken (January, 1799), and the 
 Parthenopean Republic was created. In the 
 same year Ferdinand was reinstated with the 
 assistance of the English fleet. In 1896 Na¬ 
 poleon conquered the Kingdom of Naples and 
 placed his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the 
 throne, Ferdinand continuing to reign in Sicily. 
 In 1808 Joseph was succeeded bv Joachim 
 Murat (q.v.). After the fall of Murat in 1815 
 Ferdinand was restored in Naples. At the close 
 of 1816 Ferdinand united the kingdoms of 
 Naples and Sicily into the single kingdom of 
 the Two Sicilies and changed his title from 
 Ferdinand IV to Ferdinand I. 
 
 In 1820 there was a military rising in the 
 Neapolitan dominions, joined by the Carbonari 
 (q.v.), under the leadership of General Pepe, 
 to secure a constitutional government. The 
 King yielded to the demand, notwithstanding 
 his agreement with Austria to make no constitu¬ 
 tional concessions. At the same time a revolu¬ 
 tionary movement aiming at autonomy for the 
 island took place in Sicily. The congress *of 
 the Great Powers at Laibach (1821) charged 
 Austria with the restoration of Ferdinand’s 
 absolute power. The patriots made an inef¬ 
 fectual resistance arid Ferdinand resumed his 
 tyrannical sway under the protection of Aus¬ 
 trian bayonets. Ferdinand died in 1825 and 
 was succeeded by his son, Francis I (q.v.), 
 who in 1830 was succeeded by his son Ferdinand 
 II (q.v.). The change of rulers brought about 
 no change in the despotic policy of the govern¬ 
 ment. After 1843 the republican propaganda of 
 Mazzini took a strong hold in southern Italy. 
 At the beginning of 1848 Sicily rose in insur¬ 
 rection to secure an autonomous and constitu¬ 
 tional government. Ferdinand II was forced 
 to grant a representative constitution to his 
 subjects. This did not satisfy the Sicilians. 
 The deposition of Ferdinand was declared, a 
 provisional government organized, and the Duke 
 of Genoa, son of the King of Sardinia, was 
 elected King of the Sicilians (June, 1848), a 
 dignity which he declined. In his Neapolitan 
 dominions Ferdinand, with the aid of reac¬ 
 tionary elements, was enabled successfully to 
 combat the revolutionary movement now sweep¬ 
 ing through Italy. In September, 1848, his 
 forces entered upon a Sicilian campaign. In 
 May, 1849, Palermo capitulated and the revolu¬ 
 tion in the island ended. Ferdinand, once more 
 the despot, wreaked a fearful vengeance upon 
 the champions of liberty in his dominions. His 
 atrocities were finally checked by the inter¬ 
 vention of England. In 1859 Ferdinand II 
 was succeeded by his son, Francis II. The 
 emancipation of northern Italy (except Venetia) 
 from the rule of Austria and the tyrants up¬ 
 held by her (1859—60) was speedily followed 
 by the liberation of the Two Sicilies from the 
 Bourbons, accomplished through the efforts of 
 Garibaldi, and by their incorporation in the 
 new Kingdom of Italy (1860-61). See Gari¬ 
 baldi; Italy: Victor’ Emmanuel II. 
 
 Bibliography. Amari, Storia del Musulmani 
 di Sicilia (Florence, 1854-72); Pietro Colletta, 
 
TY 
 
 TYLER 
 
 600 
 
 History of the Kingdom of Naples, 113Jf-182o; 
 Enc trans. by S. Horner (2 vols., Edinburgh, 
 1858-60); Gemelli, Storia della nvoluzione 
 Sicilian a mS-J t 9 (Bologna, 1868) ; Quernet ,Die 
 piemontesische Herrschaft auf Sizihen (Bern, 
 1879) ; La Lumia, Studi di storia sicihane 
 (Palermo, 1870); id., Storie siciliane (ib., 
 ^g8l_83) ; Gotliein, Die Kulturentwichlung 
 Siiditaliens (Breslau, 1886); E. A. Freeman, 
 History of Sicily from the Earliest Times (Ox¬ 
 ford, 1.891) ; id., Story of Sicily (New York, 
 1892) ; R. De Cesare, La fine di un regno (Citta 
 di Castello, 1900); R. M. Johnston, Napoleonic 
 Empire in Southern Italy (2 vols., ib., 1304) ; 
 
 C Auriol, La France, VAngleterre et Naples 
 (2 vols., Paris, 1904-05) ; Cambridge Modern 
 History, vols. iv, vi, ix (New York, 1906-09), 
 containing full bibliography; Oscar Biovnmg, 
 History of the Modern World, vol. 1 (ib., Ur-). 
 TY. See Tyr. 
 
 TYA'NA, Apollonius of. See Apollonius 
 
 of Tyana. , , ,, 
 
 TYBEE (tFbe) ISLAND. An island at the 
 
 mouth of the Savannah River, Georgia (Map: 
 Georgia, F 4). It is historically noted as the 
 site of the batteries erected by General Gill- 
 more in 1861 for the reduction of Fort Pulaski, 
 which capitulated April 11 , 1862. At the north 
 end of the island stands a lighthouse of the first 
 order, 144 feet high, lighting the Tybee Roads, 
 from which a channel protected by jetties leads 
 up to Savannah. 
 
 TY'BURN. The chief place of execution m 
 London prior to 1783, frequently mentioned in 
 Eno-lish history and literature. It was near 
 the^ northeast corner of Hyde Park, at the 
 western extremity of Oxford Street, and about 
 where the Edgeware and Uxbridge roads unite, 
 near the present Marble Arch. It was named 
 from a small stream which ran from Hampstead 
 to the Thames through St. James’s Park. 
 Wooden galleries were erected near the gallows 
 for the accommodation of spectators. The crimi¬ 
 nal was conveyed from Newgate (q.v.) to Ty¬ 
 burn (about 2 miles) by Holborn and the 
 Tvburn Road, now Oxford Street. As Oxford 
 Street and London spread westward, the long 
 procession became inconvenient, and the place 
 of execution was, in 1783, removed to the Old 
 Bailey, or Newgate. Under parliamentary stat¬ 
 ute prosecutors who secured a capital comic¬ 
 tion against a criminal were exempted from all 
 manner of parish and ward “offices within the 
 parish in which the felony had been committed,” 
 and obtained what was called a Tyburn ticket, 
 which was enrolled with the clerk of the peace, 
 and sold like any other property. The privileges 
 the tickets conferred were greatly valued, as 
 they sold at a high price. Consult Alfred 
 Marks, Tyburn Tree: Its History and Annals 
 
 (London, 1908). 
 
 TYCHE, ti'ke. See Fortuna. 
 
 TYCHO BRAHE, te'ko bra'S or bra. See 
 Hkaiie 
 
 ’ TYCHO'NIUS, or TICHQNXUS (?-c.400). 
 A Donatist writer. He was born in Africa, 
 headed a party among the Donatists, and de¬ 
 fended their position. Of his writings those 
 of most interest are his biblical works, a com¬ 
 mentary on the Revelation and especially lus 
 Liber Reqularum. The latter has been edited 
 by F C Burkitt, The Book of Rules of Tychonius 
 (Cambridge, 1894), and has great interest as 
 the first attempt at a system of hermeneutics. 
 
 TYCHSEN, tiK'zen, Olaus Gerhard (1/o4 
 
 1815). A German Semitic scholar. He was 
 born at Tondern, Schleswig, studied at Halle, 
 and taught in the orphan asylum there. In 
 1759-60 he traveled through Germany and Den¬ 
 mark as a missionary to the Jews. In 1760 
 he went to the newly founded University of 
 Biitzow, where he was professor of Oriental 
 languages from 1763 till the university was 
 closed in 1789. He then became librarian at 
 Rostock. Tyclisen-is especially noted for his 
 knowledge of Rabbinic literature and Jewish 
 history and for his work in Arabic paleography; 
 he also attempted to decipher the cuneiform in¬ 
 scriptions. He published Biitzcivische Neben- 
 stunden (1766-69); Physiologies Syrus (1795); 
 Historia Monetce Arabics (1797) ; and Tractatus 
 de Legalibus Arabum Ponderibus ac Mensuns 
 (1800), the treatise of Makrizi. For his biog¬ 
 raphy, consult A. T. Hartmann (Bremen, 1818- 
 20 ).* 
 
 TYCOON, or TAIKUN, tl'koon' (Jap. tai- 
 kun, great prince, from Chin, ta, great + lciun, 
 prince). A title formerly applied to the Shogun 
 of Japan by foreigners. It dates from the early 
 days of Occidental intercourse with the Japanese 
 
 people. ^ _ 
 
 TYD'EUS (Lat., from Gk. TcSees). In Greek 
 mythology, son of CEneus and Peribcea. As a re¬ 
 sult of a murder he was forced to flee from 
 his father’s Kingdom of Calydon and married 
 Deipyle, daughter of Adrastus (q.v.), King of 
 Argos. He went with Adrastus against Thebes, 
 where he slew Melanippus, who had wounded 
 him. When Athena came to him with a remedy 
 which would have made him immortal, Am- 
 phiaraus (q.v.) brought him the head of Mela- 
 nippus. TydGUS devoured a part of it, and the 
 goddess, in disgust, abandoned him. 
 
 TYE, Christopher (c.1497-1572). An Eng¬ 
 lish organist and composer of considerable note 
 in the sixteenth century. He became a chorister, 
 and in 1536 a gentleman of the Chapel Royal. 
 Under Elizabeth he was organist of the Chapel 
 Royal, and produced many services and anthems, 
 some of which continue to be sung in England. 
 Some of them show a marked originality and 
 variety of treatment. He also translated the 
 first half of the Acts of the Apostles into Eng¬ 
 lish verse, and then set it to music of generally 
 excellent quality. He seems to have taken 
 orders and to have held two or three parishes 
 in the neighborhood of Cambridge. 
 
 TY'ERMAN, Luke (1820-89). An English 
 Wesleyan minister and biographer. He was born 
 at Osinotherly, Yorkshire, entered the ministry 
 in 1842, and continued to preach until 1864, 
 when he retired and devoted himself to literary 
 work. He published: The Life and Times of 
 Rev. Samuel Wesley (1866); The Life and 
 Times of Rev. John Wesley (1870-71); The 
 Oxford Methodists (1873); The Life of Rev. 
 George Whitefield (1876); Wesley’s Designated 
 Successor: The Life, Letters, and Literary 
 Labors of Rev. John William Fletcher (1883). 
 
 TYIGH, ti'ig. See Warm Springs. 
 
 TYLDESLEY (tllz'li) WITH SHAKER- 
 LEY, shak'er-1!. A town in Lancashire, Eng¬ 
 land, 10 miles northwest of Manchester. Its 
 modern growth is due to its cotton manufactures 
 and neighboring collieries. Pop., 1901, 14,843; 
 1911, 15,582. " 
 
 TY'LER. A city and the county seat ot 
 Smith Co., Tex., 105 miles by rail east by 
 south of Dallas, on the St. Louis Southwestern 
 and the International and Great Northern rail- 
 
TYLER 
 
 601 
 
 TYLER 
 
 roads (Map: Texas, E 3). It has Tyler Col¬ 
 lege, a commercial and literary institution, and 
 Texas College (Methodist) for colored youths. 
 Noteworthy also are the city hall, the Carnegie 
 library, the Federal court and post-office build- 
 ing, the Court of Criminal Appeals building, and 
 the St. Louis Southwestern Railroad Hospital. 
 There are two parks—Bellevue and Lakewood. 
 Tyler derives considerable importance from its 
 situation in a fertile region producing large 
 quantities of fruit, vegetables, and cotton. A 
 box and crate factory, an oil mill, a compress, 
 mattress and overall factories, a fruit and vege¬ 
 table cannery, a pottery, and railway shops are 
 the leading industrial establishments. In 1914 
 the city adopted the commission form of govern¬ 
 ment. Tyler was settled about 1844, and was 
 first corpora ted about 1850. Pop., 1900, 8069: 
 1910, 10,400; 1915, 11,629; 1920, 12,085. 
 
 TYLER, Bennet (1783-1858). An Ameri¬ 
 can Congregational minister and educator. He 
 was born at Middlebury, Conn., graduated at 
 Yale College (1804), and was pastor at South 
 Britain, Conn., president of Dartmouth College 
 (1822-28),. pastor at Portland, Me., and from 
 1834 till his death was first president and pro* 
 fessor of theology in a theological seminary at 
 East Y\ indsor Hill, Conn. (This was removed 
 to Hartford in 1865 and was thereafter known 
 as Hartford Theological Seminary.) He pub¬ 
 lished: History of the New Haven Theology 
 (1837); Treatise on the Sufferings of Christ 
 (1845); A Treatise on New England Revivals 
 (1S46) ; Letters to Dr. H. Bushnell on Christian 
 Nurture (2 series, 1847-48) ; Lectures on Theol- 
 ogy (posthumous, with memoirs by his son-in- 
 law, Rev. Dr. Nahum Gale, Boston, 1859). Con¬ 
 sult Williston Walker, Neio England Leaders 
 (New York, 1901). See New England Theol¬ 
 ogy. 
 
 TYLER, Daniel (1799-1882). An American 
 engineer and soldier, born at Brooklyn, Conn. 
 He graduated in 1819 at West Point, and in 
 . 1824-26 served at the Fortress Monroe School 
 of Artillery Practice. In 1828-29 he was in 
 France, studying artillery methods, in 1830-34 
 was on ordnance duty, and in the latter year 
 resigned. He was contracting engineer and 
 president of several railways until the Civil 
 War, when he became colonel of the First 
 Connecticut Volunteers, and was soon after¬ 
 ward commissioned brigadier general. Having 
 been mustered out, he was in 1862 reappointed 
 with rank of brigadier general, and participated 
 in the Mississippi campaign and also in the 
 siege of Corinth. In 1863 General Tyler com¬ 
 manded the Union forces at Harper’s Ferry and 
 Maryland Heights. 
 
 TYLER, John (1790-1862). The tenth 
 President of the United States. He was born 
 at Greenway, Charles City Co., Va., March 
 29, 1790, the son of Judge John Tvler, who 
 was Speaker of the Virginia House of Delegates, 
 Governor of Virginia, and a judge of State and 
 Federal courts. The son graduated at William 
 and Mary College in 1807; was admitted to the 
 bar in 1809; and became a member of the Leg¬ 
 islature in 1811, where he acted with the Re¬ 
 publicans and supported the war with Great 
 Britain. He was elected to the Legislature five 
 times in succession until 1816, when he went 
 to Congress. In the House of Representatives, 
 during the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Congresses, 
 he acted with the States-Rights Republicans, 
 condemned General Jackson’s course in Florida, 
 
 and opposed the United States Bank and the 
 Missouri Compromise. In 1823 he was again 
 a member of the Virginia Legislature. In 1825 
 no was elected Governor of Virginia by the 
 Legislature, and was unanimously reelected the 
 following year. At the close of his second term 
 as Governor he was elected over John Randolph 
 to the United States Senate, in which he op¬ 
 posed the tariff measures of 1828 and 1832, op¬ 
 posed nullification, but condemned Jackson’s 
 nullification proclamation, although he sup¬ 
 ported Jackson for the presidency in 1832 and 
 stood alone among the Senators in'voting against 
 the Force Bill of 1833. He was chosen for 
 a second term in the Senate, and in 1834 made 
 a report censuring President Jackson for re¬ 
 moving the deposits from the United States 
 Bank, and voted for Clay’s resolution of cen¬ 
 sure. Having subsequently been instructed bv 
 the Legislature of Virginia to vote for the ex¬ 
 punging of the resolution of censure, he refused 
 to obey, and in February, 1836, resigned his 
 seat and retired to private life. Tyler was a 
 leading member of the new Whig party, and 
 an unsuccessful candidate for the vice" presi¬ 
 dency in 1836. In 1840 he was elected Vice 
 President on the Whig ticket with General W. 
 IT. Harrison (q.v.). President Harrison died 
 April 4, 1841, one month after his inaugura¬ 
 tion, and was succeeded by Tyler, who com¬ 
 pletely broke with the party that had elected 
 him. He vetoed the bill to recharter the Bank 
 of the United States, and when it was modified 
 partly in accordance with his suggestions and 
 repassed he vetoed it again. The bill to re¬ 
 vise the tariff met a similar fate. Thereupon, 
 on Sept. 11, 1841, all the members of the cab¬ 
 inet except Webster, who was then engaged in 
 negotiations with Great Britain concerning the 
 boundary between the LTnited States and Can¬ 
 ada, resigned, and a year later Webster fol¬ 
 lowed. Shortly thereafter some of the leading 
 Whigs issued a public address declaring that 
 “all political connection with them and John 
 Tyler was at an end from that day henceforth.” 
 The chief events of Tyler’s administration were 
 the conclusion of the Webster-Asliburton Treaty 
 (q.v.) with Great Britain and the annexation 
 of Texas. In 1845 he retired to his estate in 
 Charles City Co., Va., where he remained un¬ 
 til 1861, when he was called to preside over 
 the Peace Convention at Washington. Failing 
 in his efforts at compromise, he gave his adhe¬ 
 sion to the Confederate cause, voted for seces¬ 
 sion in the Virginia convention, served in the 
 Confederate Provisional Congress, and was 
 elected to the Confederate House of Represen¬ 
 tatives, but died at Richmond, Jan. 18, 1862, be¬ 
 fore he could take his seat. Consult: L. G 
 Tyler, The Letters and Times of the Tylers (3 
 vols., Richmond, 1884-96) ; J. F. Rhodes, His¬ 
 tory of the United States (New York, 1910) ; J. 
 G. Wilson, Presidents of the United States, vol. 
 ii (ib., 1914). For a more detailed account of 
 the events of his administration, see the section 
 on History in the article United States. 
 
 TYLER, John Mason (1851- ). An 
 
 American biologist and author. He was born 
 at Amherst, Mass., graduated in 1873 from Am¬ 
 herst College, and after studying at Union Theo¬ 
 logical Seminary and at Gottingen and Leipzig, 
 returned to his Alma Mater as instructor, be¬ 
 coming Stone professor of biology in 1882. His 
 publications include: The Whence and the 
 Whither of Man (1897) ; Growth and Education 
 
tyler 
 
 602 
 
 TYLER’S REBELLION 
 
 (1907) ; Man in the Light of Evolution (1908) ; 
 The Place of the Church in Evolution (1914). 
 
 TYLER, Lyon Gardiner (1853- )• -Mi 
 
 American educator, son of President Tyler, oorn 
 at Sherwood Forest, Va. He graduated m lb 10 
 at the University of Virginia,^ studied law, ana 
 in 1877-78 was professor of belles-lettres at 
 William and Mary College. In mS-jp he was 
 principal of Memphis Institute, m 1882 88 piac- 
 ticed law at Richmond, Va., and in 1887 was a 
 member of the Virginia House of Delegates. In 
 1888 he became president of William and Mary 
 College. His publications include: The Letters 
 and Times of the Tylers (3 vols., 1885-96 ) ; 
 Parties and Patronage in the ^ rated states 
 (1891); The Cradle of the Republic (1900; M 
 ed., 1906); England in America (1904); Wil¬ 
 liamsburg, the Old Colonial Capital (1907) ; The 
 Cavalier in America ( 191 3 )- He edited the 
 Narratives of Early Virginia, 1606-1625 (1907 ) 
 and Encyclopedia of Virginia Biography (0 vols., 
 
 TYLER, Moses Coit (1835-1900). An 
 American literary historian and educator, born 
 at Griswold, Conn. His parents removed to 
 Michigan, where he began his education. Me 
 graduated at Yale in 1857 and, aftei studying 
 theology there and at Andover, had Congrega¬ 
 tional pastorates at Owego and Poughkeepsie, 
 
 N Y He resigned the latter charge m 186 l, 
 from ill health, and went to England, where he 
 spent four years of rest, studying, lecturing, and 
 writing. In 1867 he became professor of Eng¬ 
 lish a? the University of Michigan, and in 1881 
 was called to the chair of American history at 
 Cornell, holding this until his death. In 1881 lie 
 was ordained deacon in the Protestant Episcopal 
 church and was advanced to the priesthood 
 in 1883. He published his History of Ameri¬ 
 can Literature during the Colonial . Time 
 (2 vols.) in 1878, and won a wide reputation for 
 scholarship. This history, which was continued 
 in the two volumes entitled A Literary History 
 of the American Revolution (1897) and, in a 
 measure, in the essays entitled Three Men of 
 Letters (Bishop Berkeley, President Dwight, and 
 Joel Barlow, 1895), constitutes Professor Ty¬ 
 ler’s chief claim to remembrance. It hardly 
 carries the story of American literature beyond 
 the year 1783, but within its limits is character¬ 
 ized' by such accuracy and breadth of scholar¬ 
 ship that it is not likely to be.superseded, and 
 fully entitles its author to a high place among 
 literary historians.. It is somewhat diffuse and 
 fails to apply standards rigorously. Besides 
 this liistorv, Tvler’s most important work is a 
 biography "of Patrick Henry in the American 
 Statesmen Series (1888). He also published 
 The Brawnville Papers (1868), devoted to the 
 claims of physical culture; a revision of H. 
 Morley’s Manual of English Literature (1879) ; 
 Memorial of E. K. Apgar (privately printed, 
 1886) ; and Glimpses of England (1898), a col¬ 
 lection of letters from England.^ Consult W. 
 P. Trent in the Forum (New York, August, 
 1901), and G. L. Burr in Report of the Ameri¬ 
 can Historical Association, vol. i (ib., 1901), 
 and Moses Coit Tyler: Selections from his Let¬ 
 ters and Diaries, edited by J. T. Austen (Garden 
 City, N. Y., 1911). 
 
 TYLER, Ransom Hebbard (1813-81). An 
 American legal author, born in Leyden, (Mass. 
 He studied law, and was admitted to the New 
 York bar. He was elected district attorney 
 and county judge for Oswego County. An ex¬ 
 
 tensive traveler, he was also editor of the Os¬ 
 wego Gazette and contributed to periodicals. 
 He° published The Bible and Social Reform 
 (1863), and important legal works, among 
 them: American Ecclesiastical Law (1866) ; 
 Usury, Pawns or Pledges, and Maritime Loans 
 (1873); Fixtu/res (1877); Infancy and Cover¬ 
 ture ( 2 d ed., 1882). 
 
 TYLER, Royael (1757-1826). An American 
 jurist and author, born in Boston. He grad¬ 
 uated at Harvard College in 1776, studied law 
 under John Adams, and was for a time aide 
 to General Benjamin Lincoln, serving^ in the 
 Revolution and in Shays’s Rebellion in 1786. In 
 1790 he removed to Vermont, became a judge 
 of the Supreme Court in 1794, and was Chief 
 Justice from 1800 to 1806. His chief legal work 
 was Reports of Cases in the Supreme Cow t of 
 Vermont (1809-10). He wrote several Clevel¬ 
 and successful plays, of which one,. The Con¬ 
 trast, a comedy partly in Yankee dialect, pre¬ 
 sented in New York in 1 / 86 , was the hist Ameri 
 can comedy produced by a professional dramatic 
 company. * Other plays were May Day and The 
 Georgia Spec. He also contributed light, witty 
 verse to periodicals. Tyler’s Contrast was pub¬ 
 lished in 1790 and reissued in 1887 by the Dun¬ 
 lap Society, with an introduction by T. J. Mc- 
 Ivee. Some of his work may be found in The 
 Spirit of the Farmer’s Museum (1801), for he 
 helped Joseph Dennie (q.v.) to make The Farm¬ 
 er’s Museum a success, and also in Dennie s late 
 newspaper, The Portfolio, of which Tylers lit¬ 
 erary criticism was a feature. 
 
 TYLER, Wat (?-1381). The principal leader 
 of the English social revolt of 1381. Owing to 
 the fact that he was captain of the Kentish in¬ 
 surgents, he is generally supposed to have been 
 a Kentisliman; but he was from Colchester in 
 Essex. He should not be confounded with his 
 colleague, Jack Straw, captain , of Essex. The 
 usual supposition drawn from his. name, that he 
 was a tiler by trade, is not certain, since a sui- 
 name of the fourteenth century does not nec¬ 
 essarily indicate trade. Nothing is known of 
 his life previous to the revolt. Unfavorable 
 estimates of his character are based upon the 
 hostile and unreliable testimony of Walsmgham 
 and Froissart. Even hostile sources are agreed 
 as to his ability. His part in the organization 
 of the revolt was second only to that of John 
 Ball, and he was certainly the chief factor m 
 conducting it. The peasants’ levies were sum¬ 
 moned in his name, and important questions 
 were submitted to his personal decision. On 
 special occasions he acted as spokesman of the 
 insurgents, presenting their demand to the King. 
 The extent of his importance as a leader is 
 shown by the entire collapse of the revolt after 
 his murder at Smithfield. See Tyler’s Re¬ 
 bellion. „ 
 
 TYLER’S REBELLION. The name usually 
 
 applied to the English social revolt in 1381, 
 from Wat Tyler, its chief leader. It had been 
 prepared for’ years by the teaching of a priest, 
 John Ball (q.v.), in southern and eastern Eng¬ 
 land, and from his home at Colchester it was 
 silently organized throughout Essex, and thence 
 in the adjoining counties, especially Middlesex, 
 Sussex, and Kent. The determination of the 
 crovernment to punish those who by false re¬ 
 turns had attempted to avoid payment of an 
 oppressive poll tax greatly incensed the people 
 and cave occasion for the outbreak in Essex 
 in the early part of June, 1381. The country 
 
TYLER'S REBELLION 
 
 TYLOR 
 
 603 
 
 was soon aflame, and a division under Wat 
 Tyler and Jack Straw crossed the Thames at 
 Erith. After capturing the castle of Dartford, 
 where Tyler was chosen leader, and securing the 
 allegiance of the mayor and council of Canter¬ 
 bury, they marched on London. On June 12 
 they camped at Blackheath, a southeastern sub¬ 
 urb, while the Essex men, under Jack Straw, 
 gathered at Mile End. Bands of insurgents, 
 from near and distant counties, marched on 
 London, Corpus Christi (June 13) being the 
 day chosen. 
 
 Disappointed in a promised conference at 
 Blackheath with the young Richard II, whom 
 the Council would not permit to land from his 
 barge in the Thames, the insurgents on June 13 
 marched on London. The London populace and 
 the powerful Fishmongers’ Company sided with 
 them, and both the southern and northern arm¬ 
 ies were admitted into the city. The former 
 straightway invested the Tower of London, in 
 which the King, his Council, and many of the 
 nobility had taken refuge. In vain did Rich- 
 
 ! ard try to calm them from a turret; yielding to 
 their threats, the Council agreed to the King's 
 meeting them on the following morning at Mile 
 End. 
 
 The traditional account of this conference, 
 based on Froissart, represents the boy King by 
 courage calming the insurgents and inducing 
 them to disperse. In reality it was a confer¬ 
 ence between the timid lad and the leaders, with 
 Tyler as spokesman, in presence of the entire 
 rebel army. The King listened to Tyler’s har¬ 
 angues, graciously granted all their demands, 
 and then retired to the Tower Royal, another 
 London fortress. The insurgents’ demands in¬ 
 cluded the abolition of serfdom, a maximum 
 
 5 rent of fourpence the acre for lands thus freed, 
 the right to buy and sell free of toll all over 
 England, and the abolition of the Statutes of 
 Laborers, by which wages had been fixed in 
 the interests of the landlords and master crafts¬ 
 men. The King also agreed to let them execute 
 his ministers, and promised in future to choose 
 his councilors from among the insurgents. 
 
 By virtue of this grant, the commons marched 
 straightway to the Tower, seized and beheaded 
 such of the ministers as they could secure—- 
 Simon Sudbury, who was Archbishop of Canter¬ 
 bury and Chancellor, and Sir Robert Hales, the 
 Treasurer, besides a few others, among whom 
 Were four collectors of the poll tax. Meanwhile 
 a large number of the insurgents returned home, 
 satisfied with the abolition of villeinage. But 
 the most formidable division, under Tyler, 
 Straw, and Ball, remained, demanding further 
 economic concessions, and above all the refor¬ 
 mation of the Church, in accordance with Ball’s 
 ideals. The King agreed to meet them at 
 Smithfield at vespers of June 15. Here, too, 
 the traditional account has given glamour to 
 the heroism of Walworth, Mayor of London, and 
 the boy King. In reality, Tyler was lured out 
 of sight of his men, and, granting his demands, 
 a pretext was found to arrest him, in resisting 
 which he was dispatched by Walworth and other 
 royal retainers. Their demands having been 
 satisfied, the rebels were induced to go to St. 
 John’s Field, as they supposed, at Tyler’s com¬ 
 mand. When they learned the truth, and saw 
 the royal forces approaching, they were glad 
 to disperse, retaining the charters of freedom 
 granted at Mile End. 
 
 The demands of the insurgents at Smithfield 
 
 Vol. xxn.—39 
 
 include two legal requirements directed espe¬ 
 cially against the Statute of Laborers, one 
 against serfdom, and a fourth demanding free 
 use of woods, hunting and fishing to all ten¬ 
 ants of manors. Their demands for the ref¬ 
 ormation of the Church difler from others of 
 a later period in that the confiscation of Church 
 property accrues to the benefit of the common 
 people, instead of King or nobility, by enfran¬ 
 chising the tenants of clerical domains and de¬ 
 creasing clerical taxes. The reforms were the 
 most democratic ever demanded. 
 
 Though the political and economic aspira¬ 
 tions of the peasantry formed the backbone of 
 the revolt of 1381, there were other important 
 factors. The lower classes of the towns sym¬ 
 pathized with the insurgents. In some cases the 
 city governments, like Canterbury and Bridge- 
 water in the south and York, Scarborough, and 
 Beverley in the north, were implicated. A very 
 important factor was a general uprising against 
 the monasteries, both of tenants and especially 
 of mesne towns. At St. Albans, both towns¬ 
 men and peasants extorted charters of liberties. 
 There were movements at Reading, Dunstable, 
 and other smaller foundations; at Cambridge 
 there was an uprising against the university. 
 In Sussex matters centred in a fierce revolt 
 against Abbey St. Edmunds, the prior of which 
 was beheaded. John Wrawe, the captain of the 
 county, was a priest, as were others of the 
 leaders. In Norfolk the plundering was es¬ 
 pecially severe; under the leadership of Geof¬ 
 frey Lister and Sir Roger Bacon, ambassadors 
 with a large sum of money were sent to the 
 King to obtain the liberties desired. All of 
 these local outbreaks were connected with the 
 central movement. There was less plundering 
 than might have been expected, and violence was 
 usually directed against persons connected with 
 the government or local oppressions, and es¬ 
 pecially those known as adherents of John of 
 Gaunt. After the rebels had retired, the rem¬ 
 nants of the revolt were stamped out with great 
 severity; the liberties granted were everywhere 
 revoked, and the reaction was far bloodier than 
 the revolt. The effect of the movement was to 
 abolish for the time the poll taxes, to do away 
 practically with the Statute of Laborers, and 
 to hasten the general tendency towards the ab¬ 
 olition of villeinage. 
 
 Consult: George Kriehn, in American Histori¬ 
 cal Review, vol. vii (New York, 1902) ; Edgar 
 Powell, The Rising in East Anglia in 1381 
 (Cambridge, 1896) ; Andre Reville, Souleve- 
 ment des travailleurs d’Angleterre en 1381 
 (Paris, 1898) ; G. M. Trevelyan, England in 
 the Age of Wycliffe (London, 1899) ; id., The 
 Peasant Rising and the Lollards (ib., 1899) ; 
 Charles Oman, The Great Revolt of 1381 (Ox¬ 
 ford, 1906). 
 
 TYLOP'ODA (Neo-Lat. nom. pi., from Gk. 
 tv\os, tylos, knob, knot, callus -f- irovs, pons, 
 foot). A section of the Ruminantia, which em¬ 
 braces the Camelidse, distinguished by the padded 
 character of the soles of the feet. See Camel- 
 id^e. 
 
 TY'LOR, Sir Edward Burnett (1832-1917 ). 
 An English anthropologist, born in London. 
 After a year’s travel in the United States, he 
 went to Mexico in 1856 with Henry Christy and 
 in 1859 published his observations in Anahuac, 
 or Mexico and the Mexicans, notable for accur¬ 
 acy of description. In 1865 Researches into 
 the Early History of Mankind appeared; in 1871 
 
TYLOSIS 
 
 TYNDALL 
 
 he published Primitive Culture, in 1881 Anthro¬ 
 pology, and in 1900 The Natural History of 
 Religion. These works exerted a profound in¬ 
 fluence on the development of anthropological 
 science. Tylor’s most important scientific con¬ 
 tribution is his treatment and development of 
 the doctrine of animism as the fundamental and 
 universal factor in primitive religions. (See 
 Animism; Religion, Comparative. ) From 
 1896 till his retirement he was the first pro¬ 
 fessor of anthropology at Oxford. He was 
 knighted in 1912. 
 
 TYLO'SIS (from Gk. ruXos, tylos, knob, knot, 
 callus). A protusion of a living cell through 
 a pit in a large pitted vessel, due to the pres¬ 
 sure in the cell. Often the nucleus and some 
 of the protoplasm passes through the pit into 
 the tylosis, and in this case cell division may 
 take place until the cavity of the vessel is en¬ 
 tirely filled with the growing tissue. Sections 
 of the stem of the Virginia creeper ( Ampelopsis 
 quinquefolia) show tyloses in which cell division 
 has taken place until the cavities of the vessels 
 are nearly closed. 
 
 TYMMS, T. Vincent (1842- ). An Eng¬ 
 
 lish Baptist clergyman. He was born in Lon¬ 
 don, and studied at Regent’s Park College in 
 that city. From 1869 to 1891 he served as 
 minister of the Downs Chapel, Clapton, Lon¬ 
 don, and thereafter until 1904 was presi¬ 
 dent of the Baptist College, Rawdon, Leeds, 
 holding also the chair of theology. He served 
 as president of the Baptist Union of Great 
 Britain in 1896. In 1903 he was Angus lec¬ 
 turer at Regent’s Park College. His publica¬ 
 tions include: The Christian Idea of Atonement 
 (1904) ; The Private Relationships of Christ 
 (1907); The Evolution of Infant Baptism and 
 Related Ideas (1912); The Cameroons (West 
 Africa ) : A Historical Review (1915). 
 
 TYMPANITES, tlm'pan-i'tez. A disease of 
 horses and cattle. See Bloat and Horse. 
 
 TYM'PANUM (Lat., from Gk. Tvp.-Ka.vov, 
 drum). In anatomy, the middle ear. (See Ear. ) 
 In architecture, (a) the flat space inclosed 
 within the sloping and horizontal cornices of a 
 pediment; usually in classic and neoclassic ex¬ 
 amples, filled with sculpture. (&) The flat space 
 inclosed between the spring and intrados of a 
 recessed arch, or between the arch and lintel of 
 a door or window set within or under it. In 
 mediaeval architecture it was often adorned with 
 mosaic, inlay, or relief sculpture. 
 
 TY'NAN, Katharine. See Hinkson, Mrs. 
 Katharine. 
 
 TYNDALE, tin'dal, William (?-1536). An 
 English translator of the Bible. He was born 
 on the borders of Wales, between 1490 and 1495, 
 and was educated at Oxford and Cambridge. 
 After leaving Cambridge (about 1522) he be¬ 
 came tutor and chaplain in the home of Sir John 
 Walsh, a knight of Gloucestershire. He preached 
 frequently and, his opinions differing from those 
 of the clergy of the neighborhood, he became in¬ 
 volved in religious dispute, and an accusation 
 was made against him before William of Mal¬ 
 vern, chancellor of the diocese, who censured 
 him for his boldness and indiscretion. As a 
 result of his experience, Tyndale became deter¬ 
 mined to translate the New Testament into Eng¬ 
 lish. He went to London in 1523, but, failing 
 to obtain help, he retired to Germany the fol¬ 
 lowing year. The New Testament was printed 
 at Worms in 1525 and carried to England, and, 
 though denounced by the government, several 
 
 reprints were produced within the next few 
 years. Tyndale remained on the Continent 
 writing tracts in advocacy of the reformed doc¬ 
 trines. His chief original work, The Obedience 
 of a Christian Han and How Christian Rulers 
 Ought to Govern, appeared in 1528. In 1530 he 
 published a translation of the Pentateuch, and 
 in 1531 one of the Prophet Jonah. During this 
 period Tyndale associated with Luther, John 
 Frith, Patrick Hamilton, John Rogers (qq.v.), 
 and other leading reformers. He adopted the 
 Zwinglian doctrine of the Lord’s Supper, and 
 separated himself from the other English reform¬ 
 ers by opposing the divorce of Henry VIII from 
 Catharine of Aragon. He was the subject of 
 much annoyance from the authorities and 
 changed his abode from time to time. In 1535 
 he was treacherously arrested at Antwerp, and, 
 after a confinement of sixteen months in the 
 Castle of Vilvorde, near Brussels, the State 
 prison of the Low Countries, he was puulicly 
 strangled and burned as a heretic Aug. 6, 1536. 
 Tyndale was a man of both learning and talent; 
 his translations were made directly from the 
 Hebrew and Greek, and furnished the basis for 
 the authorized version. His New Testament has 
 been frequently reprinted (in facsimile by Fran¬ 
 cis Fry, London, 1862) ; his Pentateuch was 
 edited by Mombert (New York, 1884); and his 
 miscellaneous writings were published by the 
 Parker Society (London, 1848-50). Consult: 
 F. L. Clarke, Life of William Tyndale (London, 
 
 1883) ; C. E. Heisch, William Tyndale (ib., 
 
 1884) ; R. Demaus, William Tyndale (2d ed., 
 ib., 1886) ; G. B. Smith, William Tyndale and 
 his Translation of the English Bible (ib., 1896) ; 
 I. M. Price, The Ancestry of our English Bible 
 (Philadelphia, 1907). 
 
 TYNDALL, tin'dal, John (1820-93). An 
 English physicist, born at Leighlin Bridge, 
 County Carlow, Ireland. Having only a school 
 education, he found employment at first in one 
 of the subordinate grades of the Ordnance Sur¬ 
 vey, in Ireland and later in England. After 
 working a few years as a railroad engineer he 
 was appointed teacher of mathematics and sur¬ 
 veying at Queenwood College, Stockbridge, in 
 1847. He 'then went to Marburg, where he 
 studied for two years, returning to Queenwood 
 in 1851 with the degree of Ph. D. In January, 
 
 1853, Tyndall communicated his first paper to the 
 Royal Society, On Molecular Influences — Trans¬ 
 mission of Heat Through Organic Structures. 
 In the following month a lecture On the Influ¬ 
 ence of Material Aggregation upon the Manifes¬ 
 tations of Force, before the Royal Institution, 
 inaugurated his reputation as a brilliant lec¬ 
 turer. In May of the same year he was ap¬ 
 pointed professor of natural philosophy in the 
 Royal Institution, thus becoming a colleague 
 of ^Faraday, succeeding as director on the lat- 
 teUsdeath in 1867. Tyndall early undertook 
 researches on diamagnetism at Marburg in con¬ 
 junction with Knoblauch, which resulted in a 
 publication entitled On the Magneto-optic Prop¬ 
 erties of Crystals and the Relation of Magnetism 
 and Diamagnetism to Molecular Arrangement. 
 These and later researches were published under 
 the title of Researches on Diamagnetism and 
 Magno-crystallic Action, Including the Question 
 of Diamagnetic Polarity (1870). Tyndall spent 
 much time in the Alps, where he combined 
 mountain-climbing with scientific research, mak¬ 
 ing numerous careful observations on the great 
 Swiss glaciers. These were published in popu- 
 
TYNDAREUS 
 
 TYPE 
 
 
 605 
 
 lar form and in scientific contributions to the 
 Philosophical Transactions. In connection with 
 his study of the glaciers, Tyndall became inter¬ 
 ested in atmospheric phenomena, particularly 
 the study of vapors. This led to researches on 
 radiant heat and its transmission, radiation, 
 and absorption by vapors and gases. These in¬ 
 vestigations involved a controversy with Magnus, 
 but Tyndall was able to demonstrate the, cor¬ 
 rectness of his views. These researches were 
 later collected and published under the title 
 Contributions to Molecular Physics in the Do¬ 
 main of Radiant Iieat (1872). In his study 
 of radiant energy Tyndall analyzed various kinds 
 of light in order to determine the proportion of 
 luminous and nonluminous rays and their effect 
 on various substances. He also discovered that 
 in optically pure air," that is, air free from 
 dust or other particles, a luminous beam is in¬ 
 visible. These discoveries led to improved meth¬ 
 ods of sterilization, which are described in his 
 Essays on Floating Matter of the Air in Rela¬ 
 tion to Putrefaction and Infection. 
 
 The British government availed itself of Tyn¬ 
 dall’s scientific ability and in 1866 he suc¬ 
 ceeded Faraday as a scientific adviser to Trin¬ 
 ity House (in charge of the lighthouse service) 
 and the Board of Trade. Tyndall achieved a 
 universal reputation as a lecturer and did much 
 valuable work in the popularizing of science. 
 Few scientific lecturers have been^able to pre¬ 
 sent the principles and facts of physics to the 
 general public so successfully as Tyndall. He 
 visited the United States in‘1872-73, on a lec¬ 
 ture tour that was most successful, and a few 
 years afterward gave the proceeds to forward 
 the cause of original research in the United 
 States. He wrote many popular treatises on 
 scientific subjects, which have been printed in 
 repeated editions and have been translated into 
 foreign languages. Among his works are: Heat 
 Considered as a Mode of Motion (1863); On 
 Sound (1867) ; Faraday as a Discoverer (1868) ; 
 Fragments of Science for Unscientific People 
 (1871); The Forms of Water in Clouds and 
 Rivers, Ice and Glaciers (1872); Six Lec¬ 
 tures on Light Delivered in America in 
 1812—73 (1873); New Fragments (1892 and 
 
 1897); Notes on Light (1870); Notes on Elec¬ 
 trical Phenomena and Theories (1870). His 
 works on the glaciers and the Alps include The 
 Glaciers of the Alps (1860 and 1896); Moun¬ 
 taineering in 1861 (1862); and Hours of 
 
 Exercise in the Alps (1871). 
 
 TYNDAREUS, tin-da're-us (Lat., from Gk. 
 Tej/5dpees). A King of Sparta. Having been 
 driven out by his half-brother, Hippocoon, he 
 fled to .Ktolia and became an ally of Thestius, 
 whose daughter Leda he married. Hercules re¬ 
 stored him to Sparta. Leda bore him Castor 
 and Clytemnestra, and at the same time by 
 Zeus became the mother of Pollux and Helen. 
 After the death of Castor and Pollux and their 
 reception among the gods, Tyndareus sur¬ 
 rendered the kingship of Sparta to Menelaus. 
 
 TYNE, tin. A river of north England (Map: 
 England, E 2), formed by the North and the 
 South Tyne in Northumberland Hills. It flows to 
 the east partly on the boundary between Nor¬ 
 thumberland and Durham, and empties into the 
 North Sea at Tynemouth. One of the principal 
 coal-mining and manufacturing regions of Eng¬ 
 land, and the cities of Newcastle, Gateshead, 
 and South Shields lie on its banks. Length, 80 
 • miles; navigable to Blaydon, about 18 miles. 
 
 I he Tyne ports were second among English 
 ports in the exports of coal in 1912 and fourth 
 in tonnage of vessels arrived and departed. 
 Consult: Guthrie, The River Tyne (Newcastle- 
 upon-Tyne, 1880); Palmer, The Tyne and its 
 Tributaries (London, 1881). 
 
 TYNEMOUTH, tm'muth or tin'-. A market 
 town and seaport, the chief watering place of 
 Northumberland, England, at the mouth of the 
 Tyne, 8 miles east of Newcastle (Map: Eng¬ 
 land, El). It includes the townships of North 
 Shields, Chirton, Preston, and Cullercoats. Ship¬ 
 building is carried on and there are rope and 
 sail works, besides important fisheries. The 
 sands, about a mile in length, are overlooked 
 by picturesque cliffs. Noteworthy are the gate¬ 
 way of the old castle, the fine ruins of a priory 
 and lady chapel, the master mariner’s asylum, 
 the aquarium, and assembly rooms. The munic¬ 
 ipal borough buildings are in North Shields. 
 Tynemouth was a Saxon fortress. Pop., 1901, 
 51,514; 1911, 58,822. Consult Adamson, “Tyne¬ 
 mouth Priory and Castle,” in Archceologia 
 JElina, vol. xxiii (London, 1901). 
 
 TYNG, ting, Stephen IIigginson (1800-85). 
 An American Protestant Episcopal clergyman. 
 He w T as born at Newburyport, Mass., graduated 
 at Harvard in 1817, and was ordained in 1821. 
 After holding several less important charges, he 
 was rector successively of St. Paul’s Church and 
 the Church of the Epiphany, Philadelphia, and 
 •of St. George’s Church, New York (1845-78). 
 Dr. Tyng was a pronounced evangelical and low 
 churchman and a leading opponent of ritualism. 
 He was widely noted for his fervid eloquence 
 as a preacher, and he zealously advocated total 
 abstinence and other reforms. He published, 
 aside from discourses and memoirs, Recollec¬ 
 tions of England (1847) ; Forty Years’ Experi¬ 
 ence in Sunday-Schools (1860); The Prayer 
 Book Illustrated by Scriptures (8 vols., 1863- 
 67) ; and The Office and Duty of the Christian 
 Pastor (1874). He was editor of the Episcopal 
 Recorder, the Theological Repository, and the 
 Protestant Churchman. Consult his Life by his 
 son, C. R. Tyng (New York, 1890). 
 
 TYPE (Lat. typus, from Gk. tvttos, type, 
 figure, impress, blow, from rvirreiv, typtein, to 
 strike).. In zoology: ( 1 ) The name applied by 
 De Blainville to the four branches of Cuvier. 
 These “types" were founded on what were then 
 considered as four fundamental “plans” of or¬ 
 ganization. (See Classification of Animals.) 
 Cuvier and his successors, notably Von Bael and 
 L. Agassiz, taught that these types existed, as 
 it were, side by side, the Vertebrata the high¬ 
 est, but with no genetic connection, and that 
 each type was characterized by a distinct plan 
 of structure—a view now superseded by that 
 of the doctrine of descent. See Evolution ; 
 Phytogeny. 
 
 (2) The “type” or “typical species” of a genus 
 is the one first described, or regarded as the most 
 typical, and about which the other species were 
 clustered. A “type specimen” is that individual, 
 or the several individuals, which served as the 
 basis for the description of a new species. The 
 careful preservation of an author’s type speci¬ 
 men is all-important in systematic zoology and 
 botany, as it is the ultimate source of appeal 
 in unraveling complicated cases of synonymy. 
 
 TYPE. In theology, an image or representa¬ 
 tion of some object which is called the antitype 
 (q.v.). It is applied to Old Testament objects 
 and persons, taken to prefigure ideas in the 
 
TYPE FOUNDING 606 TYPE FOUNDING 
 
 Christian history or theology; and earthly 
 things supposed to represent heavenly things. 
 The idea of types appears in Paul and the 
 writer of Hebrews, and came originally from 
 the Greek allegorizing of Homeric tales. 
 
 TYPE FOUNDING. The art of founding 
 or casting printers’ types. (See Printing.) In 
 the early times printers made their own type, 
 but about the middle of the sixteenth centuiy 
 the necessity arose for a division of labor and 
 tvpe founding became a business distinct from 
 printing. The art was first developed in France 
 and from that country spread to Italy, Ger¬ 
 many, England, and the United States. I he 
 first successful type founder in America appeals 
 to have been Christopher Sauer, who established 
 a type foundry in Germantown, Pa., in 1772. 
 In ^1796 the Scotch type founders Binny and 
 Ronald son started a type foundry in Philadel¬ 
 phia, Pa., which after many struggles succeeded. 
 Between 1772 and 1796 several persons, among 
 whom was Benjamin Franklin, attempted to 
 found type, but they all failed to make a busi¬ 
 ness success of their attempts. In 1810 Eliliu 
 White established a successful type-founding 
 business in New York, and his successors are 
 still making and selling type although under 
 another firm name. These early type founders 
 all cast their type by hand, after much the 
 same methods, probably, as had been practiced 
 since metal types were first used. Indeed, it 
 was well on towards the middle of the nine-* 
 teentli century before type was successfully 
 founded by machine to "any considerable ex¬ 
 tent. 
 
 Hand Founding. The first step in the process 
 of type founding by hand is the cutting of the 
 counterpunch from the design of the. lettei, 
 this counterpunch being an engraving in steel 
 of the hollow part of the letter to be made, 
 that is, of the part of that letter which is to 
 appear white where printed. The counter- 
 punch is then impressed to the proper depth 
 in a short bar of soft steel which becomes the 
 punch, or die, with the letter reversed, from 
 which the type is to be made. The outer edges 
 are then cut away until all the lines of the letter 
 are perfect, and then this die is struck into a 
 piece of copper about an inch and a quarter 
 long, one-eighth of an inch deep, and of a width 
 proportionate to the size of the type to be cast. 
 This copper, being so impressed with the repre¬ 
 sentation of the letter, requires to be adjusted 
 to the mold, so that the “face” or impression 
 of the punch (in the copper) may be brought 
 into such relation with the metal which forms 
 the “body” or stalk of the type, that when the 
 types are “set up” they may stand at the 
 proper distance from each other, and be in 
 “line” or range, and also square to the page; 
 this work is termed “justifying,” and the cop¬ 
 per is now a “matrix.” The matrix is now 
 fixed into a small instrument or frame of pol¬ 
 ished steel, called the mold, which is composed 
 of two parts, with a space between to be filled 
 with the melted metal that forms the type. 
 The space within is of the size of the required 
 body of the letter, and is made exactly true. 
 The" melted metal, being poured into this space, 
 sinks down to the bottom in the matrix, and, 
 instantly cooling, the mold is opened,, and the 
 type is cast out bv the workman. This process 
 of casting types is executed with great celerity. 
 Of course, every separate letter in the alpha¬ 
 bet, every figure, point, or mark, must have 
 
 its own punch and matrix. After being cast 
 the types have to be dressed, and this work 
 is performed by hand. It consists first in remov¬ 
 ing the projection or jet of superfluous metal 
 that clings to the end which is towards the 
 top of the mold while the type is being cast; 
 second, in rubbing off the burrs, or sharp edges 
 of metal, and smoothing the sides of the types 
 on gritstones; and, finally in cutting a groove 
 in the foot of each type so that each piece may 
 rest securely on its feet, and examining the type 
 with a magnifying glass to discover imperfec¬ 
 tions. Considering the nature of the operation, 
 type casting by hand is performed, by an ex¬ 
 pert, with remarkable rapidity, from 3000 to 
 4000 types per day being produced ready for 
 the finishing process by the experienced work¬ 
 man. 
 
 Machine Founding. Various attempts were 
 made during the early part of the nineteenth 
 century to cast types by machinery. The first 
 successful machine for this purpose was devised 
 by David Bruce, Jr., of New York, and was pat¬ 
 ented in 1838. As subsequently improved, this 
 machine was extensively used in American t\pe 
 foundries and w T as introduced into Europe. 
 Briefly described, the Bruce type-casting ma¬ 
 chine consists, first, of a small melting pot, 
 which contains the molten metal, and is placed 
 over a small furnace. In the interior of the 
 pot is arranged a forcing pump and valve for 
 admitting the metal under the piston, and also 
 for preventing the return of the metal into the 
 mass in the pot when the piston is depressed. 
 Every revolution of a crank gives this piston a 
 sudden thrust which injects enough of the melted 
 metal to fill the mold and the matrix. After 
 receiving this metal the mold opens, as a door 
 on its hinges, and at the same instant the ma¬ 
 trix springs backward. The type, which is held 
 by a blunt pin, is then hit and released, the 
 mold closes automatically, and the piston in¬ 
 jects a new supply of molten metal. A blast 
 of cold air directed upon each mold keeps it 
 cool, so that the machine can do its work 
 rapidly, a rate of one hundred per minute not 
 being uncommon in the smaller sizes. The 
 larger types, however, are more slowly cast as 
 
 they cool less quickly. 
 
 The weakness of the Bruce machine lay in 
 the fact that types produced by it had to be 
 dressed by hand, and although Mr. Bruce in 
 1868 invented an apparatus for dressing the 
 type mechanically which could be applied to his 
 casting machine, neither it nor the inventions 
 of several men abroad were adopted by type 
 founders generally. Bruce’s improved machine 
 was followed by one designed by Henry Barth, of 
 Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1888, which casts the types 
 and finishes them. This machine, which has 
 a much larger output than the earlier ones, re¬ 
 tains the general principles of a divided mold 
 which opens to discharge the types, although its 
 construction and processes differ radically fi om 
 the Bruce machine. In the Barth type caster 
 one-lialf of the mold is upright and immovable, 
 while the other half slides back and forth at a 
 rapid rate, releasing the types as made and 
 closing again before the next spurt of hot metal 
 is forced in. It breaks off the jet, rubs down 
 the edges, forms the feet, and delivers the types 
 ready for inspection. Type is now produced at 
 the rate of from ten to two hundred per minute, 
 but mention should be made, of a rotary type¬ 
 casting machine developed in England, which 
 
TYPESETTING AND TYPE CASTING MACHINES 
 
 i. Automatic Type Casting Machine 2. Multiple Linotype Machine 
 
TYPESETTING AND TYPE CASTING MACHINES 
 
 MONOTYPE TYPESETTING AND TYPE CASTING MACHINES 
 
TYPES 
 
 produces type ready for printing without in¬ 
 spection or treatment at the rate of 1000 per 
 minute. In conclusion, mention should also be 
 made of the type punch cutting machine, in¬ 
 vented by L. B. Benton, of Milwaukee, Wis., 
 which operates on the principle of the panto¬ 
 graph and produces from one pattern letters of 
 any size desired. 
 
 Consult: Reed, History of the Old English 
 Letter Founders (London, 1887); T. L. -De 
 Vinne, Historic Printing Types (New York, 
 1880) ; id., Treatise on the Processes of Type- 
 making (ib., 1900). See Typesetting Machines. 
 
 TYPES, Theory of. See Chemistry. 
 
 TYPESETTING. See Printing. 
 TYPE'SET'TING MACHINES. Machines 
 devised to set or compose printers’ types auto¬ 
 matically and mechanically. In hand composi¬ 
 tion the types are picked one at a time from a 
 wooden case and then set one after another in 
 the proper order to form the words which it is 
 desired to print. After the set types have been 
 printed from, or molded to form plates, they are 
 distributed—returned to their proper compart¬ 
 ments in the case. (See Printing.) Composi¬ 
 tion and distribution by hand are tedious and 
 expensive, and from early times efforts have 
 been made to devise a machine which would 
 perform these tasks speedily and economically. 
 Until within recent years these attempts were 
 not commercially successful. Perhaps the first 
 serious attempt to design a machine to do away 
 with hand composition was made by Dr. William 
 Church, whose device Avas patented in England 
 in 1822. His machine was designed to cast 
 types and leave them in reservoirs, and they 
 were set from these reservoirs by pressing keys 
 arranged much like piano keys. After use the 
 types were remelted, the inventor in this way 
 avoiding distribution. Evidently Church was a 
 man ahead of his times, for it was not till 20 
 years had elapsed that the issuing of patents 
 for typesetting machines began to be frequent. 
 In 1840 James H. Young, of England, completed 
 a machine, which is said to have set types at 
 the rate of 13,000 per hour, but the types had 
 to be arranged in lines, distributed, and, pre¬ 
 sumably, placed in the magazines by hand, which 
 required three persons besides the operator. 
 The first distributing machine patented in 
 America Avas invented by Frederick Rosenberg, 
 in 1843, and the first English patent on a dis¬ 
 tributor Avas taken out by Etienne Robert 
 Gaudens, in 1840. After this among prominent 
 American inventors folloAV the names of Mitch¬ 
 ell, Alden, Felt, Brown; Westcott, Kastenbein, 
 Paige, Richards, Burr, and in more recent years 
 Thorne, MacMillan, and Mergenthaler. Among 
 the prominent foreign inventors Avho achieved 
 some success were Hattersley, Mackie, Fraser, 
 and Wicks, in England; Sorensen, of Denmark; 
 Fischer and Von Langen, of Germany; and Del- 
 cambre, of France. At present only the Thorne, 
 MacMillan, Mergenthaler, and Lanston ma¬ 
 chines are much used (the Lanston is a nondis¬ 
 tributing machine), but the commercial suc¬ 
 cess reached by some of the earlier machines 
 was remarkable. The Alden machine Avas at 
 one time used in the NeAv York Tribune office. 
 Ten of the Mitchell machines, invented in 1853, 
 are said to ha\ T e been used at one time in a 
 single office. In 1809 the London Times began 
 to use the Kastenbein machines, and set the 
 whole paper by them. In 1880 the Burr ma¬ 
 chine Avas tried by the New York Tribune , and 
 
 607 TYPESETTING MACHINES 
 
 that paper used three of these machines for 
 some years. In 1884 the Fischer and Von Lan¬ 
 gen machine Avas used by the Cologne Gazette. 
 All these successes, however, have been far out¬ 
 done b}^ the Thorne, MacMillan, Mergenthaler, 
 and Lanston machines. 
 
 The Thorne machine, a combined setting and 
 distributing machine, which was exhibited in 
 the Paris Exposition of 1878, consists of an up¬ 
 right cylinder with \ r ertical channels around a 
 periphery, each channel holding a column of 
 types—one channel a’ s, another 6’s, etc. The 
 lower half of the cylinder is stationary, and 
 its channels contain the distributed types. The 
 upper half of the cylinder turns Avith a step by 
 step motion, and its channels contain lines of 
 type to be distributed. The motion of the 
 upper cylinder brings its channels opposite those 
 of the lower, when an instant’s pause occurs, 
 permitting any type whose projections corre¬ 
 spond to the lower channel’s nicks to drop. 
 Tlie upper cylinder then revolves one step, bring¬ 
 ing the channels again in coincidence. The type 
 is set from the lower channels, the lowest type 
 being pressed out radially when the operator 
 depresses the key which governs it. A rapidly 
 revolving plate beloAV Avhirls the type around 
 into an endless belt, which carries it to a set¬ 
 ting-up mechanism. Here it is turned upright 
 and joins the continuous line of types slowly 
 pushed along towards the justifier, which di¬ 
 vides it into lines of column or page measure. 
 A later machine, called the Simplex, closely 
 resembles the Thorne machine. In the MacMil¬ 
 lan machine the setting and the distributing 
 are done by separate machines. The magazines 
 of the setting machine are removable, being ex¬ 
 changed for full ones as fast as they become 
 empty. The operator ejects the types from the 
 magazines by pressing suitable keys, and they 
 are set up in long lines to be justified by hand. 
 The distributor consists of a horizontal wheel 
 with radial channels, in which the types to be 
 distributed are placed. The frame surrounding 
 the wheel contains other radial channels having 
 projections corresponding to the nicks in the 
 types. The moA^able magazines are placed radi¬ 
 ally in connection with these outer channels. 
 When the Avheel slowly revoKes, the types pass 
 from the channels of the wheel into the outer 
 channels Avhenever a type comes opposite one 
 Avhose projections correspond to its nicks. The 
 Paige machine might be mentioned for its Avon- 
 derful mechanism, its 18,000 parts composing, 
 justifying, and distributing the types. Its cost 
 of construction and the excessive expense in¬ 
 curred in running it, however, were too great to 
 make it practicable. Both the Thorne and the 
 MacMillan machines set types AAdiich are pre¬ 
 viously made by the regular type-founding proc¬ 
 ess. (See Type Founding.) This should be 
 noted before proceeding further, since the Mer¬ 
 genthaler and Lanston machines, instead of com¬ 
 posing previously cast types, themselves cast the 
 types as they are desired by the operator. 
 
 The Mergenthaler Linotype machine Avas in¬ 
 vented by Ottmar Mergenthaler, and the first 
 machine was completed in 1884. This machine 
 takes its name from the fact that it sets up a 
 line of molds, and casts a line of type (lin’o’- 
 type), or rather a solid metal bar Avith raised 
 letters on one edge, Avliich is knoAAm as a “slug,” 
 and is the same as if a line of types Avere fused 
 solid. The molds or matrices are small pieces 
 of brass, each Avith a letter impressed on its edge, 
 
TYPESETTING MACHINES 
 
 608 
 
 TYPESETTING MACHINES 
 
 as shown in Fig. 1. They are placed in maga¬ 
 zine tubes, as shown in the illustration, Fig. 2, 
 all the a’s in one tube, all the 6 ’s in another, 
 and so on, the tubes being ar¬ 
 ranged vertically in a continuous 
 line. The machine has a key¬ 
 board like a typewriter, and the 
 depression of a key, as D, con¬ 
 nected by a rod, C, with the es¬ 
 capement, B, causes a matrix to 
 drop into an inclined channel, E, 
 down which it falls to the in¬ 
 clined traveling belt, F, by which 
 . it is carried to the assembler, or 
 ) stick, G, where it takes its place 
 l, J* in line. The spaces, I, between 
 
 words are simply ,-duplex wedges, 
 dropped into position from a 
 
 Fig. 1. matrix FOR box, H, in the same way as njeitiog 
 mergenthaler the matrices when the finger ? ot 
 machine. key, J, is pressed. When the 
 
 compositor has set all that will go into a line, 
 the duplex wedges are slid one upon another, 
 thus “spacing out” the line, and the line so 
 formed is carried over in front of a slot on the 
 wheel, K, where automatically the ^Line of type 
 is cast with metal from the< reservoir, M, shown 
 in detail in Fig. 3, and its sides and base 
 planed,, after which the mold wheel, K, makes 
 a quarter of a revolution and the slug is de¬ 
 posited on a galley. The matrices meanwhile 
 are released and passed overhead to the bar, R, 
 where thin teeth engage on its horizontal ribs. 
 This bar rises as shown by the dotted line, 
 and the matrices are carried up to the dis¬ 
 tributor, T, whence they find their way to the 
 appropriate magazine tubes, each matrix being 
 released at the proper point. A speed of 4000 
 ems an hour is the average rate of a good 
 Linotype operator, while those unusually ex¬ 
 pert attain as high a speed as 5000 to 6000 
 ems. The advantages of this machine are, 
 
 is another and a very decided advantage. The 
 Linotype machine in its latest form performs 
 successfully the most intricate kinds of compo¬ 
 sition, including tabular matter and the use of 
 
 Il]atrix 
 
 lit)® 
 
 JTJold 
 II 0 . 2 . 
 
 JSurycr 
 
 Fig. 3. melting pot mold wheel, etc., of linotype 
 
 MACHINE. 
 
 several classes of characters, and has been per¬ 
 fected to such an extent that the movement of 
 a hand can bring into use a double magazine 
 containing 360 type characters, a triple maga¬ 
 zine with 540 characters, or even a quadruple 
 magazine, thus making use of two to four sizes 
 or fonts in one piece of work. 
 
 The Lanston Monotype machine, like the 
 Mergenthaler Linotype, is primarily a type¬ 
 casting machine, but with the radical distinc¬ 
 tion that it casts separately each letter, point, 
 and sign, including the spaces. The machine is 
 constructed in two parts, a keyboard and a tvpe- 
 
 ITjolcl wheel 
 
 Am) to carry sluq$ 
 over in galley. 
 
 Ejector-pushing 
 liootype-fron) 
 njola-to-galley 
 
 Heceivigg galley 
 
 ffinotypes ready for use 
 
 Fig. 4. mold wheel of linotype machine. 
 
 casting machine. The function of the keyboard, 
 which resembles a typewriter and which carries 
 257 keys corresponding to all of the characters 
 used in a font of type and a few additions rep¬ 
 resenting movements to be performed by the 
 a mono 1 others, that it gives constantly a new casting machine, is to punch a series of holes 
 tvpe face to print from, and also that there is in a moving strip or ribbon of paper, which is 
 no distributing to be done, the slugs being unwound from one spool to another, passing 
 remelted after use. The “spacing-out” device under a series of punches in its journey, the 
 
 Fig. 2. mergenthaler linotype machine showing 
 essential parts. 
 
TYPEWRITERS 
 
 TYPEWRITERS 
 
 motive power being compressed air. These 
 punches are operated by striking the keys on 
 the keyboard. The result of the keyboard oper¬ 
 ation is, therefore, a narrow roll of perforated 
 paper. This strip, when fed to the casting 
 machine, initiates and controls the movements 
 of the matrix case over the mold. The matrices, 
 which are made of bronze, are carried in a ma¬ 
 trix case about three inches square, and any char¬ 
 acter is brought opposite the casting point by 
 the matrix carrier. After the matrix is in posi¬ 
 tion the sizing of the type is accurately de¬ 
 termined by an automatic wedge, the pump 
 mechanism operates, filling the mold and ma¬ 
 trix, and a single type is made. The matrix is 
 then lifted from the type which is delivered 
 into the channel blocks where the line is as¬ 
 sembled. While this is being done the matrix 
 for the next character is being placed in posi¬ 
 tion over the mold for the next type cast, these 
 operations following one another at the rate of 
 140 finished types per minute. Justified lines 
 are composed on this machine in sizes from 5 to 
 18 point, while type for the cases may be cast as 
 high as 36 point, or ornaments, leads, slugs, and 
 rules up to 12 point. Consult T. L. De Vinne, 
 Modern Methods of Book Composition (New 
 York, 1904), and J. S. Thompson, History of 
 Composing Machines (ib., 1904). See Printing. 
 
 TYPE'WRI'TERS. Machines for producing 
 legible characters without the aid of movable 
 type. 
 
 History. The first typewriter of which we 
 have any record was patented in England 
 in 1714. In 1829 the first American type¬ 
 writer, called a typographer, was patented by 
 W. A. Burt. About 1833 a typewriter was pro¬ 
 duced in France, having a separate key lever 
 for each letter. In 1844 and in 1846 typewrit¬ 
 ing machines were invented in England, which, 
 like many of the early machines, were designed 
 primarily for the use of the blind and so pro¬ 
 duced embossed characters. Between 1840 and 
 1860 Sir Charles Wheatstone invented several 
 typewriters which are now in the South Ken¬ 
 sington Museum. 
 
 Among early American inventors were Charles 
 Thurber and A. E. Beach. The Thurber ma¬ 
 chine (1843) is simply a set of type bars in a 
 vertical position around a horizontal brass 
 wheel, 16 inches across, which revolves about 
 a central post, the characters being brought 
 into position by hand from either direc¬ 
 tion. Common types are inserted in the lower 
 ends of the type bars. In 1856 A. E. Beach, 
 who, as early as 1847, had constructed a fairly 
 successful but never perfected typewriter, took 
 out a patent for a machine intended to print em¬ 
 bossed letters for the blind. This is worthy of 
 record, because it covered a principle afterward 
 developed into the modern typewriter—viz., 
 a basket of levers arranged in a circle, delivering 
 their impressions on a common centre. In order 
 to make raised letters there were two sets of 
 bars, one coming up and the other down, one 
 having a raised letter and the other its mate, 
 a sunken letter. The strip of paper passed be¬ 
 tween the two. 
 
 Beach was followed by S. W. Francis. To the 
 Beach principle of a circle of type bars Francis 
 added the pianoforte action. Another early in¬ 
 ventor was Thomas Hall, who was carrying on 
 independent experiments about the same time 
 as Beach and Francis. Although his machine 
 embodied the principle of a circle of type bars, 
 
 yet their movement, instead of being from be¬ 
 low upward, was from above downward, con¬ 
 verging at a common centre, an inked ribbon 
 intervening between type and paper. But Hall 
 wgs compelled to abandon his efforts without 
 realizing his expectations, and only a few of 
 his typewriters were made. In 1881 he took 
 out a patent on a typewriter made on an en¬ 
 tirely different plan. It had a perforated dial 
 plate, two inches square, containing seventy- 
 five characters. Underneath this dial plate in 
 his latest machine, called the Century, patented 
 in 1889, was a rubber-faced cvlinder with let- 
 ters on its surface corresponding to those on 
 the dial plate. When the stylus is brought to 
 any perforation in this dial plate, the cylinder 
 beneath is turned to present the corresponding 
 letter to the paper, and the stylus being pressed 
 into the hole the letter is printed. The under 
 cylinder revolves against an inked pad. 
 
 About 1867 Charles Latham Slides, Samuel 
 W. Soule, and Carlos Glidden, of Milwaukee, 
 Wis., began to experiment on the construction 
 of a typewriter, and from this tlie Remington 
 typewriter had its origin. The first crude 
 model was completed early in 1868. Soule 
 dropped out of the enterprise almost immedi¬ 
 ately and Glidden finally disposed of his inter¬ 
 est also. Sholes, encouraged by suggestions and 
 financial aid from James Densmore, of Mead- 
 ville, Pa., who early purchased an interest in the 
 machine, continued his experiments. Several 
 models were built and were tested under con¬ 
 ditions of service by practical stenographers, 
 until in 1873 the inventors considered the ma¬ 
 chine sufficiently perfected to warrant manu¬ 
 facture upon a large scale. A successful effort 
 was made to interest the gun manufacturers, 
 E. Remington & Son, of Ilion, N. Y., in the 
 manufacture of the machine. After more than 
 a year of patient work by the skilled mechanics 
 at Ilion, a complete remodeling of the crude de¬ 
 vice of the inventors resulted. The first model 
 was put upon the market in 1874. It retained 
 only the principles of the original construction. 
 As many of its elements are fundamental, it 
 may be briefly described as follows: Pivoted 
 about a horizontal ring were type bars, some 38 
 in number, with steel types inserted in their 
 lower ends, and so arranged as to rise vertically 
 to a common centre. The short arms of these 
 levers were connected by wire rods with 
 the levers proceeding from the keyboard. The 
 paper to be printed passed around a rubber cyl¬ 
 inder, and the lower side of this cylinder re¬ 
 ceived the impact of the types. An inked rib¬ 
 bon intervened between type and the paper. 
 This ribbon, in the operation of the machine, 
 was gradually unwound from a spool at one 
 side of the machine to another on the other 
 side, and when the spool was exhausted the mo¬ 
 tion was reversed. With each release of a key 
 by the finger of the operator, a ratchet move¬ 
 ment at the back of the cylinder allowed the 
 carriage to move along one space, thus making 
 room for the next letter. The tension was kept 
 on the carriage by a coiled spring and strap. 
 At the end of a line the carriage was drawn 
 back to the starting point by means of an arm 
 depending in front, and the same movement 
 turned the cylinder, and carried the paper to 
 make ready for the following line. 
 
 In 1877 an improvement was introduced, 
 whereby each type bar in the circle was made 
 to carry two characters, adjusted to separate 
 
TYPEWRITERS 
 
 TYPEWRITERS 
 
 610 
 
 common centres. By depressing a shift key the 
 carriage is thrown backward to the second 
 centre, which is adjusted to receive all the cap¬ 
 ital letters and many other characters placed 
 in relation thereto. 
 
 In 1894 an improved model, having a lighter 
 and stronger paper carriage, was placed upon 
 the market. The shifting movement was ac¬ 
 complished by a new mechanism, and improve¬ 
 ments in the spacing mechanism, greatly in¬ 
 creasing the speed of the machine, thus making 
 it more acceptable to expert operators, were 
 adopted. An automatic ribbon reverse was 
 later included, and, in addition to increasing 
 the number of characters and the width of the 
 carriage for holding wide sheets of paper, many 
 minor points of improvement have been from 
 time to time adopted by the manufacturers. 
 
 The Remington was the pioneer machine, and 
 its first competitor was the Caligraph, promoted 
 by George W. N. Yost. The Caligraph had the 
 basket of type bars, but had a polygonal im¬ 
 pression cylinder, the impressions being received 
 on the flat faces. It resembled the Remington, 
 but had a double set of keys, thus obviating 
 the use of a shift from capital to small letters, 
 and the horizontal keys were hinged at the 
 front. This machine was for a time the most 
 important of those machines where there was 
 a separate key for each type character, but its 
 manufacture was discontinued. Mr. Yost left 
 the Caligraph and brought out the Yost type¬ 
 writer, which does not use the inked ribbon, 
 but its type, when at rest, bears against a cir¬ 
 cular inking pad. 
 
 Unlike the foregoing was the Hammond ma¬ 
 chine, invented by James B. Hammond in 1880- 
 83. Its central principle was the type wheel, a 
 favorite device of John Pratt, who labored long, 
 but unsuccessfully, to make his invention a 
 success. The arrangement of the original key¬ 
 board of the Hammond differed materially from 
 that of the Remington, being almost semicircu¬ 
 lar. In 1890 a new model, the Universal Ham¬ 
 mond, was introduced, having a keyboard with 
 three banks of keys, like other standard ma¬ 
 chines.' Still later, a light rubber shell or 
 shuttle, supported by a metal backing, was sub¬ 
 stituted for the wheel. In this machine 90 
 types are cast in true alignment upon a curved 
 plate of vulcanite, called the “shuttle,” in the 
 form of an arc of a circle. The backing for the 
 shuttle is a heavy cast-iron ring called “anvil,” 
 and may be compared to a wheel having a slot 
 in the centre of its face in which the steel web 
 of the shuttle slides. This forms a guide for 
 the shuttle in its horizontal movements. The 
 anvil is stationary and firmly fixed to a ver¬ 
 tical shaft by which it may be raised to bring 
 either of three rows of type into the printing 
 position. The depression of a key controlling 
 the character to be printed brings that char¬ 
 acter on the shuttle into position by means of 
 a shuttle arm and a series of index pins, each 
 one of which corresponds to the angular dis¬ 
 tance of any character from the normal position. 
 The impression of the hammer is at that mo¬ 
 ment received by means of a lever, which re¬ 
 leases the hammer spring and the carriage and 
 forces the paper against the type on the face 
 of the shuttle. As these shuttles are inter¬ 
 changeable, it is possible for the one machine 
 to produce any number of different alphabets or 
 styles of type. 
 
 The Smith-Premier was placed on the market 
 
 in 1889. This, like the Remington, is a type- 
 bar machine, but has a large keyboard with a 
 key for each character as in the Caligraph. A 
 novel feature of this machine is a round brush 
 which can be revolved to clean the type. An¬ 
 other improvement of the Smith-Premier was 
 a three-colored ribbon so arranged that a change 
 from one color to either of the others can be 
 made by simply pushing a lever. 
 
 In 1892 the Blickensderfer machine, having 
 a type wheel which rotated so as to bring the 
 appropriate characters in position to strike the 
 paper, was introduced, and attained great popu¬ 
 larity on account of its simplicity and low 
 cost. Its makers later developed an electric type¬ 
 writer where an electric motor supplied the 
 power and rendered the manipulation much 
 easier for the operator, and eventually took 
 up also the making of type-bar machines of 
 the conventional type. 
 
 During the closing decade of the nineteenth 
 century, by which time the use of the type¬ 
 writer had become almost universal, many new 
 machines were brought upon the market, so that 
 at its close there were over 100 different ma¬ 
 chines, on which nearly 1700 patents have been 
 granted. Various new models were developed, 
 most of which were along conventional and 
 established lines. With few exceptions cheap 
 typewriters have never proved durable and suc¬ 
 cessful, though latterly several small and port¬ 
 able machines have been placed on the market. 
 The demand for such machines undoubtedly 
 exists, particularly for school and domestic 
 use in addition to traveling. 
 
 Perhaps the most noted of the successful ma¬ 
 chines brought out at the later stage was the 
 Underwood typewriter, first put on the market in 
 1896, but which soon came into widespread use. 
 This is a type-bar machine, but instead of the 
 usual upright basket, making a practically com¬ 
 plete circle of type bars, the letters are con¬ 
 tained in a segment of a circle, and this par¬ 
 tial basket is laid upon its side and moves as 
 a whole when the shift key is operated. The 
 advantage of this arrangement is that the 
 type strikes on the front of the impression 
 cvlinder, instead of on the bottom, thus keeping 
 the work entirely in sight. As early as 1891 
 visible writing had been produced on the V il- 
 liams, using an inked pad, and about the same 
 time in the Brooks, a ribbon machine. The same 
 advantage was also secured in the L. C. Smith 
 machine, where ball bearings were employed to 
 secure easy running and light touch. This 
 machine also enjoyed wide popularity, while 
 the demand for visible writing led to a re¬ 
 modeling of the Remington to secure that end, 
 and the Monarch machine carried out the idea 
 of the shifting segment. In the Oliver machine 
 there is a double instead of a single shift key 
 for which advantages are claimed. 
 
 An important development in typewriters was 
 a machine which served for writing letters, 
 writing on flat cards, on the page of a bound 
 book, writing bills, tabulating, and adding one 
 or more columns of figures as they are written 
 by the machine. The Elliott-Fisher billing and 
 adding machine, patented May 15, 1906, one 
 of the first of these machines, was a develop¬ 
 ment of the Elliott & Hatch book typewriter. 
 In this machine the slieet which was being writ¬ 
 ten was held stationary on a flat platen, while 
 the machine proper, consisting of frame, type 
 levers, etc., moved either forward and backward 
 
TYPEWRITERS 
 
 611 
 
 TYPHA 
 
 or sideways. Later came modifications of 
 ordinary typewriters whereby tabulating and 
 adding mechanism were supplied so that not 
 only billing but all commercial bookkeeping 
 could be done on the machine used for ordinary 
 correspondence. The Remington adding and 
 subtracting typewriter was brought out in 
 1907, and in 1915 a most elaborate machine 
 was perfected. The Underwood Company and 
 other makers also brought out bookkeeping and 
 adding typewriters, each of which possesses cer¬ 
 tain advantages and conveniences. In fact these 
 machines have completely revolutionized book¬ 
 keeping and accounting, for they are able to 
 list the items and to add, subtract, or cross 
 add. 
 
 Manifolding. Reprints may be secured by 
 the ordinary copy press, copying ink being used 
 on the typewriter ribbon or pad. By the use 
 of carbon paper alternately between thin sheets 
 of ordinary paper, the typewriter itself can be 
 made to produce several copies at a time. Thus 
 in modern business operation as referred to 
 above by the use of loose leaf books of account, 
 the original order, the invoice, the bill for goods, 
 and the posting in the ledger can be effected at 
 one operation, or other modifications of the 
 system made. By the use of a special kind of 
 paper on a sheet of cloth, stencils may be made 
 for the mimeograph. See Copying Machine. 
 
 The rapid growth of the use of the typewriter 
 to a point where it has become indispensable 
 in all lines of business and many other forms 
 of activity, is noteworthy. It was placed on 
 the market about 1875 and its usefulness was 
 soon appreciated by courts of law, business 
 houses, and governmental departments. In the 
 early eighties its use became general in all de¬ 
 partments of the United States government ex¬ 
 cept the Department of State. It was first em¬ 
 ployed for instructions to diplomatic and con¬ 
 sular officers in 1895 and the official communica¬ 
 tions of the department to diplomatic officers 
 of foreign countries were first executed upon the 
 typewriter in 1897. Now it is even customary 
 for armies in the field to have typewriters as 
 part of the headquarters equipment for issuing 
 orders and reports. That the typewriter is 
 found everywhere in business to the practical 
 exclusion of handwriting has long been evident, 
 for the gain in time for transcribing and for 
 reading correspondence and records was early 
 appreciated. An average operator can write 
 on the machine some 60 words a minute or at 
 a rate about three times as fast as that of the 
 average penman, while in competition experts 
 maintain a speed well in excess of 100 words 
 a minute. Furthermore, the addition of various 
 mechanical adjuncts for spacing, addressing, 
 tabulating, etc., reduces to a minimum the time 
 and facilitates the entire operation. The use 
 of ribbons of more than one color, readily 
 interchangeable, now a feature of most ma¬ 
 chines, adds to the effectiveness of the printing, 
 giving emphasis as desired. 
 
 Once the services of a stenographer were re¬ 
 quired for correspondence, but now by the use 
 of phonographs or dictating machines any quali¬ 
 fied typist with sound tubes at her ears is 
 able to transcribe letters or other spoken com¬ 
 munications when the sound is reproduced. In 
 most newspaper offices reporters and other writ¬ 
 ers are required to prepare their manuscript 
 on typewriters. Aside from its mechanical 
 considerations the typewriter must be considered 
 
 as an important element in the social revolution 
 caused by the entrance of women into com¬ 
 mercial life. It was found that the light labor 
 involved in copying and transcribing notes could 
 be performed readily by women of fair education 
 and general aptitude as well if not better than 
 by men and, once their success was established, 
 women’s position in business life was assured, 
 so that, in the census year 1910, of the 593,224 
 women engaged in clerical operations 263,315 
 were stenographers arid typewriters, as com¬ 
 pared with 53,378 males. 
 
 Typewriters are now an essential part of the 
 equipment of telegraph and cable offices, for 
 so rapidly can messages be transcribed that the 
 receiving operator can not only keep pace with 
 the sender, but can maintain speed so great 
 as to bring about the abbreviation of the tele¬ 
 graph code. In the modern use of the typewriter 
 the so-called touch system is extensively prac¬ 
 ticed. There the typist is taught to locate the 
 positions of the various keys so that she can 
 strike them at will without looking at the desig¬ 
 nation of the characters. In this way increased 
 speed and comfort to the operator are secured 
 and even a blind person may use a typewriter. 
 It may be remarked that in all makes of type¬ 
 writers the arrangement of keys is the same, 
 the so-called universal keyboard being employed 
 with but few and slight modifications. This 
 is arranged so that the letters most used come 
 in the centre and in convenient proximity. 
 
 Attention had been directed to the production 
 of power typewriters, in which the operator has 
 merely to touch a key with sufficient force to 
 release latent mechanism, whereupon power from 
 some external source completes the impression. 
 In electrical typewriters, of which several have 
 been patented, the impression mechanism is 
 operated by magnets, the operator closing the 
 circuit when he touches the key, but these never 
 have been widely used. 
 
 Statistics. According to the thirteenth 
 United States census (1910) there were in 1909 
 in the United States 89 factories devoted to the 
 manufacture of typewriters and supplies, in 
 which a combined capital of $26,308,688 was 
 invested. These factories produced in 1909 
 typewriters and supplies valued at $19,718,767. 
 Of the total product $6,899,069 worth, or over 
 one-third of the total number, were exported, 
 and this figure had grown to $11,532,364 in 
 1913, declining to $5,315,134 in 1915. The enor¬ 
 mous growth of the industry is shown by the 
 fact that in 1889 there were only 30 factories, 
 having a capital of $1,421,783, and producing 
 an output valued at $3,630,126. 
 
 TY'PHA (Neo-Lat., from Gk. rvcp-rj, typhe, 
 cat-tail). A genus of widely distributed marsh 
 plants of the family Typhaceoe. Two species 
 are American, Typha latifolia and Typha an- 
 gustifolia, and are popularly known as cat¬ 
 tail or reed mace. The former, which is the 
 commoner, is sometimes called bulrush. It 
 grows to the height of 5 or 6 feet. The astrin¬ 
 gent rootstocks are rich in starch, and the 
 young shoots of both species are much eaten 
 by the Cossacks of the Don, and are sometimes 
 used in England under the name of Cossack 
 asparagus. The pollen of Typha is inflammable, 
 like that of Lycopodium, for which it is used 
 as a substitute. Typha angustifolia and Typha 
 elephantina are employed in India and Europe 
 for making mats and baskets, chair bottoms, 
 etc. The leaves of Typha are commonly used in 
 
TYPHLOPIDiE 
 
 612 
 
 TYPHOID FEVER 
 
 the United States in cooperage to place betw 
 the staves and in the seams of barrel heads. ! 
 Plate of Aquatic Plants. . 
 
 TYPHLOP'IDJE. See Blindworm (2). 
 
 TYPHO'EUS. See G;ea. 
 
 TY'PHOID EXTRACT. See Organotherapy. 
 
 TYPHOID FEVER (from Gk. rvcpcjd-qs, ty- 
 pliodes, delirious, from tO0os, typhos, stupor, 
 mist, vapor, smoke, from rv<peiv, typhein, to 
 smoke; connected with Skt. dhupu, smoke), or 
 Enteric Fever, Typhus Abdominalis, Abdomi¬ 
 nal Typhus. A specific disease, infectious 
 chiefly or entirely through the excretions, having 
 a febrile period of about three weeks, and char¬ 
 acterized by ulceration of the intestinal lymph 
 follicles, swelling of spleen and mesenteric 
 glands, and parenchymatous changes in many 
 organs. 
 
 Typhoid fever is due to a specific microor¬ 
 ganism known as the typhoid bacillus, a small 
 bacillus with rounded ends, about two micro¬ 
 millimeters in length and about one-third as 
 broad. It is motile and grows at room tempera¬ 
 ture on the ordinary culture media, preferably 
 in the presence of air or oxygen, but capable 
 of life without. (See Plate of Disease Germs.) 
 During an attack of typhoid fever the bacillus 
 is found regularly in the intestinal and mesen¬ 
 teric lymph nodes and as a rule in the spleen. 
 In the early stage of the disease, when the 
 nodes are simply enlarged, few or no bacilli 
 are present in the bowel evacuations. Later, 
 
 when ulceration of the nodules has occurred, 
 the bacilli are usually found in the stools. In 
 urine and bile it is quite common to find the 
 typhoid bacillus, and in these secretions they 
 may persist long after recovery, thus furnishing 
 possible sources of infection long after the 
 danger is supposed to have passed. Typhoid 
 bacilli have also been reported in the blood, 
 lungs, pleura, liver, kidney, uterus, and in other 
 organs in which typhoid lesions occur; also in 
 typhoid serous exudates and in the heart in 
 typhoid endocarditis. 
 
 ' Contraction of typhoid fever is caused by tak¬ 
 ing the bacilli into the mouth and thence into 
 the intestine. Food and drink are usually the 
 vehicles which serve for the entrance of the 
 bacillus, water and milk being probably the 
 most frequent sources of infection. The latter 
 is especially dangerous from the fact that the 
 typhoid bacillus not only lives but multiplies 
 in it. Water and milk, however, are only danger¬ 
 ous when they actually contain the typhoid 
 bacilli which have entered into them from 
 the excretions of typhoid patients or carriers. 
 
 The typhoid carrier is a person who harbors 
 and excretes the bacilli in large numbers, al¬ 
 though in normal health and generally unaware 
 of his infection. Cooks and dairymen are most 
 dangerous in this respect to the community and 
 to them have been traced many scattered epi¬ 
 demics. Flies having access to the excreta of 
 typhoid patients are capable of contaminating 
 food and spreading the disease. Other minor 
 sources of infection are fresh vegetables and 
 oysters. 
 
 * The initial seat of activity of the typhoid 
 bacillus is undoubtedly in the intestines. Here 
 the bacillus first sets up a catarrhal inflamma¬ 
 tion of the mucous membrane. This is followed 
 by the characteristic lesion of typhoid, viz., 
 inflammation of the intestinal lymph nodes. 
 Both solitary nodules and Peyer’s patches are 
 affected, although it is in the latter that the 
 changes are usually most marked. These nodules 
 may undergo resolution, or may break down, 
 forming the typical typhoid ulcer, which may 
 erode blood vessels, thus setting up hemorrhage; 
 or perforate into the peritoneal cavity, giving 
 rise to peritonitis. Ulcers are formed in Peyer’s 
 patches, gradually increasing in size, and dis¬ 
 charging into the intestines. Changes in the 
 liver and spleen are of common occurrence in 
 typhoid fever. Of the two the spleen is most 
 frequently affected. The changes consist of 
 congestion with proliferation of the cellular 
 elements of the spleen and consequent increase 
 in the size of the organ. 
 
 Typhoid fever is widely distributed through¬ 
 out ‘ the world, but is especially prevalent in 
 the temperate zones. From its prevalence dur¬ 
 ing the autumn it has been called autumnal 
 fever. Young adults are usually attacked, the 
 affection being comparatively rare among chil¬ 
 dren and old persons. Hot and dry weather are 
 favorable for its development. Its distribution 
 is largely due to a contaminated water supply. 
 Cities which drain their sewage into the rivers 
 or lakes whence they derive their drinking 
 water suffer most severely. In 1914 to 1915, the 
 death rate in several large cities of the United 
 States per 100,000 population was: New York, 
 6.2; Detroit, 13; Baltimore, 22.4; Birmingham, 
 Ala., 40.2; Nashville, Tenn., 47.3. 
 
 The incubation period of enteric fever lasts 
 from 8 to 14 days, or longer. The onset is 
 
TYPHOID FEVER 
 
 613 TYPHOID FEVER 
 
 gradual and is followed by nausea, loss of 
 appetite, headache, pains in the back and ex¬ 
 tremities, nosebleed, and perhaps a distinct 
 chill. For a few days the patient may go 
 about his work, but at the end of that 'time 
 is compelled to go to bed. This may be reckoned 
 the definite onset of the disease. The fever is 
 characteristic. _ During the first week the 
 temperature rises steadily by a degree or a 
 degree and a half a day until 103° to 105° F. 
 is reached; during the second week the fever 
 remains high; during the third week, in cases 
 of moderate severity, it gradually declines, and 
 in the fourth week convalescence begins. About 
 the seventh to the tenth day the patient presents 
 the typical appearance of enteric fever. He is 
 dull, listless, and apathetic, the eyes are bright, 
 the pupils dilated, the face pale, with flushed 
 cheeks and dark lips. The tongue is dry and 
 red, with a band of white fur on each side. At 
 the end of the first week a rose-pink rash ap¬ 
 pears on the abdomen. It consists of from 10 
 to 30 raised circular spots, which fade on pres¬ 
 sure. These spots last only two or three days, 
 but successive crops appear. The abdomen is 
 distended and tender, and several offensive yel¬ 
 low stools may be passed daily. Death may 
 occur at the end of the second week, from hemor¬ 
 rhage or perforation of the bowel. The third 
 week is marked by great weakness, muscular 
 tremors, delirium, and failing heart, although 
 the fever is slowly dropping, and death may take 
 place from exhaustion. Convalescence in the 
 average case sets in during the fourth week. In 
 a certain number of cases relapses occur; these 
 are,. as a rule, shorter and milder than the 
 original attack, but are similar in character. 
 One attack of enteric fever confers immunity 
 from others. The mortality ranges from 10 to 
 30 per cent. 
 
 To prevent the spread of typhoid the follow¬ 
 ing precautions are observed. The stools and 
 urine of patients are thoroughly disinfected by 
 immersion in strong solutions of corrosive sub¬ 
 limate, carbolic acid, or chlorinated lime and 
 protected from flies. In districts having a de¬ 
 fective drainage system the dejecta may finally 
 be disposed of by mixing with sawdust and 
 burning or burying in trenches after saturation 
 with chloride of lime. Bedpans, rectal ther¬ 
 mometers, syringes, tubes, and all other utensils 
 coming in contact with the patient’s discharges 
 are disinfected by boiling and immersion in anti¬ 
 septic solutions. Bedclothes and linen are simi¬ 
 larly disinfected. During epidemics drinking 
 water and milk should be boiled and raw vege¬ 
 tables such as lettuce and celery avoided. 
 
 Careful nursing and regulated diet are of 
 first importance in the treatment. The patient 
 is strictly confined to bed from the beginning of 
 the disease until the temperature has been nor¬ 
 mal for at least a week. A liquid or semisolid 
 diet has been found best throughout the course of 
 the attack. The modern tendency is to feed the 
 patient more liberally than in the past. Broth; 
 consomme, albumin water, and beef juice a 
 given to vary the diet. Milk should be peptoniz 
 or mixed with lime water or vichv. The patie 
 is urged to take plenty of cool water, and 
 juice of an orange or lemon may be giver, 
 intervals. Food is taken about every 1 
 hours during the day, and once or twb 
 night if there is great exhaustion. 
 
 Control of the fever is the most imp 
 element in the direct treatment of typho 
 
 this is best accomplished by means of cold 
 water, by sponging, the wet pack, and bathing. 
 Sponging is sufficient in ordinary cases and for 
 children and delicate persons. The cold pack 
 consists in wrapping the patient in a sheet 
 wrung out of water at 60° or 65° F. The full 
 bath, or cold tubbing, was introduced by Brand 
 of Germany, and this treatment was formerlv 
 almost universally followed in hospitals. Of 
 late years, however, it has lost favor on account 
 of its severity. 
 
 The drug treatment of typhoid is sympto¬ 
 matic. Cold sponging renders febrifuges un¬ 
 necessary. Antipyrine and phenacetin are some¬ 
 times given, but they tend to depress the heart. 
 Intestinal antiseptics, such as turpentine, salol, 
 and carbolic acid, render the stools less offensive 
 and prevent the production of gas. Return to 
 solid food must be gradual on account of the 
 danger of perforation through intestinal ulcers. 
 
 Widal’s Test for Typhoid Fever. This is a 
 reliable method of diagnosis, and depends upon 
 the fact that the blood of typhoid-fever patients 
 acquires the property of causing a reaction when 
 brought into contact with active typhoid bacilli. 
 In the test a small amount of biood or serum 
 diluted is mixed with a fresh pure culture of 
 the typhoid bacillus. The reaction, as observed 
 under the microscope, consists in a destruction 
 of the motility of the bacilli and their agglutina¬ 
 tion, that is, their collection into larger 
 smaller clumps. The reaction may not o • 
 the first stages of the disease. A posP 
 with quite dilute serum makes t 1 y sis 
 
 of typhoid almost certain, althr reac¬ 
 
 tion does rarely occur in other d 
 
 Paratyphoid fever is an 4 
 clinically resembling typhoi 
 more irregular in its course 
 cific bacillus or bacilli wl 
 intermediate between thf 
 the Bacillus coli. It 
 
 
 j disease, 
 milder and 
 due to a spe- 
 ipy a position 
 s typhosus and 
 Ames called the 
 is based on the 
 al reaction being 
 
 yphoid fever is con- 
 of a specific vaccine. 
 
 paracolon bacillus. D 
 agglutination test, 1; 
 negative. 
 
 Immunization 
 ferred by the ini- 
 
 Protection P . cain and immunity lasts, 
 
 according 7 O test available data, for two 
 
 m more. Vaccination is prac- 
 ,rmies of the civilized world, and 
 Le has been reduced at least 75 per 
 ; measures. The value of typhoid 
 
 and a ha 7 
 ticed in 
 the tyr 
 cent 1 
 
 vacc? 
 the 
 her i 
 t-T *1 
 
 T 
 
 is illustrated by the statistics of 
 v ar of the European War. From the 
 1 of hostilities only 1365 cases of 
 jccurred among the British troops in 
 .ind Belgium, whereas in the Boer War 
 3,000 cases occurred in a very much 
 r number of troops. See Hygiene, Mili- 
 
 ygiene. 
 
 suit: William Osier, Studies in Typhoid 
 ■s (Baltimore, 1895); id., Problems of 
 i noid Fever in the United States (ib., 1899) ; 
 M. Anders, A Textbook of the Practice of 
 idicine (12th ed., Philadelphia, 1915); G. A. 
 are, A Textbook of the Practice of Medicine 
 3d ed., ib., 1915) ; Reference Handbook of the 
 Medical Sciences (3d ed., New York, 1915) ; 
 G. C. Whipple, Typhoid Fever: Its Causation, 
 Transmission, and Prevention (New York, 1908) ; 
 J. W. Schereschewsky, “Anti-typhoid Vaccina¬ 
 tion,” in United States Public Health and Marine 
 Hospital Service, Public Health Report, No. 56 
 (Washington, 1911), and numerous other pub- 
 
TYPHUS FEVER 
 
 TYPHOID FLY 
 
 lications of this bureau. See Influenza in 
 Animals. 
 
 TYPHOID FLY. See House Fly. 
 
 TY'PHON (Lat., from Gk. Tv<t>wv), or Ty- 
 phoeus. In Greek legend, the offspring of 
 Gaea, or Earth, and Tartarus. He was a fire- 
 breathing monster with 100 serpent heads, who 
 after the overthrow of the Titans (q.v.) strove 
 to wrest the power from Zeus. He was finally 
 smitten by the thunderbolt and cast into Tai 
 tarus. By Echidna he was the father of many 
 monsters who were destroyed by Hercules. Ty- 
 phon seems to be the personification of the vol¬ 
 canic elements, and the scene of the conflict 
 is at first in the volcanic regions of Lydia and 
 Phrygia, and later about Etna and Stiomboli, 
 while the description in Hesiod of the battle 
 with Zeus is a vivid picture of a violent erup¬ 
 tion. For the Egyptian Set-Typhon, who later 
 influenced the Greek story, see Set. 
 
 TYPHOON' (Portug. tufao, from Ar. Pers. 
 tufan, tempest, hurricane, from tufanidan, to 
 roar, cry out; cf. Gk. Tv(f>u>v, Typhon, Tvphon 
 (q.V.); also Chin, t’ai fung, great wind, For¬ 
 mosan Chin, tai fung, typhoon). The name ap¬ 
 plied to the hurricanes that visit the waters 
 east of Asia. From a meteorological point of 
 view the typhoon is a special case of the cyclonic 
 storm. Typhoons usually originate at about or 
 east -of the longitude of Guam and nearer the 
 equator than Manila; they move towards the 
 west or west-northwest, but gradually cuive so 
 that they often pass northward or northeast¬ 
 ward alotig the coasts of China and Japan. Ty 
 phoons appear to be quite as severe on the 
 average as the West Indian hurricanes; the 
 barometer often falls lower at the centre, and 
 the rainfall is probably heavier. Knowledge of 
 the laws of typhoons is now sufficient to justify 
 cautious predictions of their paths and the 
 issuance of storm warnings to navigatois. -All 
 the baguios and typhoons of the North Pacific 
 Ocean have been classified as follows by Dobeick, 
 Algue, and Bergholz: 
 
 Group 1 occur between December and March; 
 the storms originate between 5 N. and 12 
 N. and 145° E. and 143° E.; move at first to¬ 
 wards the north-northwest; reach the vertices of 
 their parabolic orbits in latitude 15° N.-19° N. 
 and then turn towards the north-northeast. 
 
 Group 2 occur in April and May or October 
 and November; originate between 129° E. and 
 147° E. and 5° N. and 12° N.; move towards 
 the northwest; have their vertices in latitude 
 1G° N.-21° N., and then move towards the 
 
 northeast. \ 
 
 Group 3 occur between June and September; 
 originate between 139° E. and 126° E. and 20 
 N. and 8° N.; move at first towards the north¬ 
 west by north; have their vertices at 21° N.— 
 25° N. and then turn to the northeast by east. 
 
 When typhoons reach the China Sea in the 
 months of December to March they generally con¬ 
 tinue towards the east-northeast, and are lost 
 in the interior of the country. Those that 
 occur in the summer and spring months recurve 
 much more frequently, attain higher latitudes, 
 and are frequently destructive in Japan and 
 adjacent waters; occasionally they continue 
 moving northeastward until they reach Bering 
 Sea or the Aleutian Islands. 
 
 Full details of typhoons are published regu¬ 
 larly by the meteorological offices of Hongkong, 
 Tokyo, and Manila, and their general tracks, 
 together with occasional special studies, are 
 
 published on the Pilot Charts of the Pacific 
 Ocean, published monthly by the United States 
 Hydrographic Office. Consult Jose Algue, The 
 Cyclones of the' Far East (2d ed., Manila, 1904), 
 and W. Doberck, Law of Storms in the Eastern 
 Seas (4th ed., Hongkong, 1898). 
 
 TY'PPIUS FEVER (Neo-Lat., from Gk. 
 rvcpos, stupor, mist, vapor, smoke), Jail Fever, 
 Ship Fever, or Spotted Fever, Typhus Ex¬ 
 anthematous. An acute, specific, and highly 
 contagious fever, endemic, and also prevailing in 
 epidemics, especially in times of destitution 
 and in the presence of overcrowding and bad 
 ventilation. It is due to the presence of a 
 bacillus discovered by Dr. Harry Plotz (q.v.) in 
 1915, the Bacillus typhi exanthematici, and is 
 attended with no characteristic lesions of the 
 tissues as in the case of typhoid fever, but 
 with serious blood changes. The disease is 
 carried by the body louse (Pediculus vestimenti) 
 principally, but the head louse (Pediculus 
 capitis) is also capable of transmitting it. It 
 is ushered in by an abrupt onset, with marked 
 nervous symptoms, rheumatic pains, rigors, and 
 headache/ A maculated eruption appears, most 
 commonly on the fifth day of the disease, of 
 slightly elevated spots, disappearing on pres¬ 
 sure at first, afterward persistent and darker, 
 and there is early prostration of the nervous and 
 muscular systems. Delirium usually comes on 
 during the second week. The fever terminates 
 by a crisis, which occurs on or about the four¬ 
 teenth day, after which recovery is very rapid. 
 
 In former centuries typhus fever was a com¬ 
 mon scourge, in times of war and famine, under 
 the names of jail fever, camp fever, ship fever, 
 and the like. The earliest accounts of the dis¬ 
 ease described epidemics in the sixteenth cen¬ 
 tury in France, Italy, and Hungary; and the 
 earliest description is credited to Fra Castorius 
 of Verona (1580), in his work De Contagione et 
 Contagiosis Morbis. The name typhus was spe¬ 
 cifically used by de Sauvage in 1760. Severe 
 epidemics occurred in Europe during the seven¬ 
 teenth and eighteenth centuries. Willis (1686) 
 in England gave it the name “Synochus putrida.. 
 The mortality was appalling and special hospi¬ 
 tals were built for typhus patients. It is a 
 disease of the temperate and cold zones and is 
 due directly to overcrowding of people in un¬ 
 cleanly surroundings thus favoring communica¬ 
 tion through lice. At the present time the 
 disease is limited to half-civilized countries and 
 to the slums of seaport cities. Local outbreaks 
 sometimes occur on ships, and in jails and poor- 
 houses. The mortality in different epidemics 
 varies from 12 to 20 per cent. It was for 
 a long time confounded with typhoid fever 
 (q.v.), but it differs from this in many ways. 
 
 During the epidemic of typhus which spread 
 over Serbia in 1914—15, it is stated that every 
 hospital, prison camp, barracks, and almost 
 every home was invaded; and a conservative 
 estimate puts the mortality at 135,000, includ¬ 
 ing 30,000 Austrian prisoners. The first cases 
 of the disease reached the port of New York 
 between January 7 and May 2, by means of 
 passenger steamers sailing mainly from Mediter¬ 
 ranean ports. This was the first typhus visita¬ 
 tion in 20 years and the cases in quarantine 
 furnished material for Plotz’s studies and es¬ 
 tablished the identity of true typhus with the 
 milder endemic form, which had been known 
 as Brill’s disease. Plotz made a vaccine which 
 was used in Serbia and was thought to have some 
 
TYPICAL PHRASE 
 
 TYRANT 
 
 615 
 
 value, at least in prophylaxis. In 1913 Nicolle 
 induced the disease in a chimpanzee by inject¬ 
 ing the blood of typhus patients; and succeeded 
 in transmitting the disease from monkey to 
 monkeys, by means of the body louse. The latter 
 observation has been confirmed by Anderson, 
 Goldberger, Ricketts, and others. Ricketts lost 
 his life by contracting the fever in Mexico, where 
 it is very prevalent and is known as tabardillo. 
 
 The treatment of typhus is symptomatic. As 
 the disease is exceedingly contagious, patients 
 are promptly isolated, placed in clean surround¬ 
 ings, and their clothes disinfected or sterilized 
 by heat to destroy lice and their eggs. The 
 high temperature is reduced by means of cold 
 sponging, the cold pack, or bathing, and by 
 the administration of quinine, antifebrine, or 
 phenacetin. All patients are benefited by small 
 doses of the mineral acids, and mild saline 
 laxatives. For the. headache and delirium cold 
 applications to the head are indicated. Alcohol 
 is used as a stimulant throughout the attack, 
 to combat the great prostration. During con¬ 
 valescence such tonics as strychnine and quinine 
 are most useful. The patient may be nourished 
 by liquid foods. Consult V. C. Vaughan, “His¬ 
 tory and Epidemiology of Typhus Fever,” in 
 Journal of the American Medical Association 
 (Chicago, May 29, 1915). 
 
 TYPICAL PHRASE (Lat. typicalis, from 
 typicus, from Gk. tvttlkos, typikos, relating to a 
 type). In dramatic music, the recurrence of 
 a theme or phrase to mark the similarity of 
 the dramatic situation between the part where 
 such a phrase occurs and the part where 
 it was first heard. The typical phrase is es¬ 
 sentially different from the leitmotiv. Whereas 
 the leitmotiv constitutes the basic material 
 and is employed in the same manner as a 
 theme in a symphony, the typical phrase is only 
 a quotation, and can do nothing more than re¬ 
 call a similar situation. See Leitmotiv. 
 
 TYPOGRAPHICAL UNION OE NORTH 
 AMERICA, The International. The labor 
 organization of the printers and those engaged 
 in kindred trades, the oldest national trade 
 union in the United States. It was organized 
 in 1850 as the National Convention of Journey¬ 
 men Printers, but assumed the name National 
 Typographical Union in 1852, and the present 
 name in 1869. 
 
 In organization the International Typographi¬ 
 cal Union is a typical industrial union. Pro¬ 
 vision is made for the separation of the different 
 trades into trade district unions, which retain 
 a large measure of autonomy, although they 
 combine for purposes of defense, in each juris¬ 
 diction where there are unions of more than 
 one trade, in allied printing trades councils. 
 The International itself, however, strictly regu¬ 
 lates the maximum hours of labor of all mem¬ 
 bers, the number of days’ work per week, the 
 method of securing work and the* discharge of 
 employees (through foremen, who must belong 
 to the union), the employment of substitutes, 
 type standards in the fixation of piece scales, 
 the use of sublists (lists of authorized substi¬ 
 tute workers), and the interchange between 
 newspapers, not owned by the same company, 
 of matter previously used either in the form 
 of type, matrices, or photo-engravecl plates. Of 
 the receipts from regular dues, five cents is 
 apportioned to the general fund, five cents to 
 the special defense fund, seven and one-half 
 cents to the defense fund, seven and one-half 
 
 cents to the burial fund, fifteen cents to the en¬ 
 dowment fund of the Union Printers’ Home, 
 at Colorado Springs, Colo. In addition to the 
 per capita tax, every member pays five cents 
 per month as a subscription to the official paper, 
 The Typographical Journal, published monthly 
 at Indianapolis. 
 
 TYPOG'RAPHY. See Printing. 
 
 TYR, tir (Icel. Tyr, AS. Tiw, OHG. Zio ; 
 connected with Lat. Ju-piter, Gk. Zeus, Zeus, 
 the chief god, Skt. dydus, sky). The old Norse 
 name of a Teutonic deity. It is possible that 
 in the early common Germanic system Tyr was 
 the foremost god, whose place was later taken 
 by Odin. In the Eddas he is represented as the 
 son of Odin, the god of war and fame. When 
 the zEsir (q.v.) persuaded the wolf Fenrir 
 (q.v.) to allow himself to be bound with the 
 cord Gleipnir, Tyr put his right hand in the 
 wolf’s mouth, as a pledge that he would be 
 loosened, and when the gods refused to release 
 Fenrir the wolf bit the hand off at the wrist. 
 At the twilight of the gods he will meet his 
 death at the same time with his enemy the 
 monster dog Garm. See Ragnarok; Scandi¬ 
 navian and Teutonic Mythology. 
 
 TYRANNOSAURUS. An extinct tyrant 
 lizard which, when erect, stood 18 feet high. 
 It was one of the most formidable of all the 
 huge dinosaurs whose remains are found in 
 the Cretaceous rocks of the western United 
 States. Consult F. A. Lucas, Animals of the 
 Past (New York, 1913). 
 
 TYRANT (Lat. tyrannus, from Gk. rvpawos, 
 master, sovereign). A name given in modern 
 times to an arbitrary and oppressive ruler, 
 but by the ancient Greeks applied not neces¬ 
 sarily to one that exercised power badly, but 
 merely to one that obtained it illegally, or to 
 one who held sovereignty originally established 
 by usurpation. While tyrants appear sporadi¬ 
 cally at all periods in Greek history, they were 
 especially numerous during the seventh and 
 sixth centuries b.c., when it was not difficult 
 for an ambitious and unscrupulous man, often a 
 noble, to appear as a leader of the populace 
 and by its aid secure power. Often a violent 
 seizure of the power was welcomed as affording 
 relief from present evils. In other cases the 
 tyrant of the nobles was a lawgiver to the 
 demos. These early tyrants seem usually to 
 have ruled generously towards the poorer classes, 
 but towards other' nobles they were naturally 
 suspicious and frequently stern and cruel. 
 While there are cases in which ancient testi¬ 
 mony declares the tyrant a true tyrant in 
 the modern sense, the greater number of these 
 men seem to have aimed at a just rule, and 
 the glory and prosperity of their states; they 
 were frequently the patrons of literature and 
 the fine arts. This is especially noticeable in 
 the Sicilian tyrants of the fifth century b.c. 
 After the Persian wars, the development of 
 democracy and the rise of Athens led to the 
 passing away of this form of government, to 
 revive witli the general weakening of the Greek 
 states. This later period of tyranny, which 
 begins in the fourth century b.c., is not marked 
 by so wide an extension of the evil, but, on 
 the other hand, a few of the possessors of 
 the power are men of extraordinary ability, 
 who, having proved capable of restoring or 
 rescuing an enfeebled state, have seized or 
 been given the supreme control. Such were 
 Dionysius I of Syracuse and Jason of Pherse. 
 
TYRE 
 
 TYRANT FLYCATCHER 
 
 In general this second series of tyrants 'were 
 more cruel and arbitrary than the earlier gen¬ 
 eration. The Thirty Tyrants (q.v.) of Athens 
 were only an oligarchical board established in 
 the interest of Sparta in 404 b.c., and owed the 
 name “Tyrants” to later writers, their con¬ 
 temporaries referring to them as “The Thirty.” 
 Consult: Plass, Die Tyrannis bei den Griechen 
 (Bremen, 1852); Zeller, Ueber den Begriff der 
 Tyrannis bei den Griechen (Berlin, 1887) ; Scho- 
 mann-Lipsius, Griechische Alterthiimer (4th ed., 
 ib., 1897). 
 
 TYRANT FLYCATCHER. See Fly- 
 
 Catcher 
 
 TYRANTS, The Thirty. See Thirty Ty¬ 
 rants, The. 
 
 TYRCONNEL, ter-kon'el, Richard Talbot, 
 Earl and titular Duke of (1630-91). An 
 Irish Jacobite. He was the youngest son of 
 Sir William Talbot, of County Kildare, Ireland, 
 a prominent Roman Catholic politician dui ing 
 the reign of James I. He fought against Crom¬ 
 well at Drogheda and after the death of 
 Charles I lived in Spain and Flanders. In 
 his youth he was notorious as a sharper and 
 bully and under the Protectorate he was recom¬ 
 mended as a man fit to assassinate Cromwell. 
 Soon after the Restoration he endeavored to 
 obtain the favor of the royal family by blacken¬ 
 ing the reputation of Anne Hyde, so as to fur¬ 
 nish‘the Duke of York with a pretext for break¬ 
 ing his promise of marriage to her. Though 
 unable to injure her reputation, he succeeded 
 in gaining the favor of the Duke, and conti Led 
 to make himself welcome at the palace both as 
 a votary of its pleasures and as a counselor 
 in affairs of state. Immediately on the acces¬ 
 sion of James II he was made Earl of Tyrcon- 
 nel, and put in command of the troops in 
 Ireland. He now aimed, by means of the Irish 
 army, to make the King independent of Parlia¬ 
 ment. To this end he discharged Protestant 
 soldiers, and favored Roman Catholics in e\ery 
 possible way, admitting them not only to the 
 army, but to offices and corporations. This 
 service he performed so well that in 1687 the 
 King made him Lord Deputy of Ireland. His 
 arrival in that country spread terror and dis¬ 
 may through the English Protestant population, 
 who had already suffered under his military 
 rule. Finding themselves without protection 
 and their property a prey to marauders, many 
 of them left the country, commerce declined, 
 and economic conditions became wretched. But 
 this state of affairs did not last long. On the 
 arrival of James II in Ireland in 1689, after his 
 flight from England, he created the Earl Duke 
 of Tyrconnel. After the fatal battle of the 
 Boyne (1690), in which the Duke held high 
 command, he retired to France. In 1691 he 
 returned to Ireland, to further the cause of 
 James. Notwithstanding the defeat of Aughrim 
 (July 12, 1691), and the capitulation of Gal¬ 
 way," Tyrconnel made preparations for the de¬ 
 fense of Limerick, binding himself and his 
 countrymen by oath not to surrender until 
 they received permission from James, then at 
 St. Germain. At the same time, however, he 
 dispatched a letter in which he stated his con¬ 
 viction that all was lost. On August 11, before 
 an answer could arrive, he was stricken with 
 apoplexy, and died on the 14th. 
 
 TYRE, tir (Lat. Tyrus, from Gk. Tepos, 
 Aramic Tnr, from Phoenician Sur, rock). The 
 most important city of ancient Phoenicia, on the 
 
 Mediterranean coast about 50 miles south of 
 Beirut (Map: Turkey in Asia, C 4). Its name 
 comes from the double rock just off the. coast, 
 the site of the earliest settlement. This por¬ 
 tion of the city is connected with the mainland 
 by a causeway which dates from the days, of 
 Alexander the Great; before the Greek period, 
 however, the older Tyre was an island divided 
 by a natural canal. It has now been definitely 
 ascertained that the old sanctuary to Melkart, 
 the Baal or chief deity of Tyre, stood on the 
 southwestern part of the little island, and, 
 this being determined, priority of the island 
 settlement over the adjoining coast is also de¬ 
 termined. The city grew until it included as 
 a suburb the adjoining coast land, and after 
 the union of island and coast the entire place 
 was known as the city, of Tyre. From a 
 strategic point, the situation of Tyre was favor¬ 
 able, while its admirable ports predestined 
 it for its future commercial role. Those ports 
 were chiefly two, the Sidonian port and the 
 Egyptian harbor. Whether Tyre or Sidon 
 is" "the oldest settlement of Phoenicia is not 
 easily decided. The evidence is in favor of the 
 latter, though the view formerly held, which 
 made Tyre an offshoot of Sidon, must be 
 abandoned in • the light of recent researches. 
 Herodotus records a tradition which traced the 
 settlement of Tyre back to the twenty-eighth 
 century b.c. The date may be too early, though 
 when Egypt began her campaigns for the pos¬ 
 session of western Asia under Thothmes I 
 (c.1510 b.c.) Tyre was already flourishing and 
 important. A new period of prosperity began for 
 Tyre with the decline of Egyptian control 
 (c.1400 b.c. ), and though we know little of 
 the history of the place for the next three 
 centuries, the important position it occupied 
 when Tiglath-pileser I or Assyria (c.1140-1105 
 b.c.) opened his successful series of campaigns 
 to the West justifies the conclusion that in 
 the interval Tyre more than maintained her 
 supremacy over Sidon. It was a period of com¬ 
 mercial extension, followed by a decline due 
 to internal disturbances. It was not until c.870 
 b.c. that, so far as present knowledge goes, an 
 Assyrian king, Asurnazirpal III, included Tyre 
 and" Sidon in his campaigns and obtained trib¬ 
 ute from both, as well as from Byblos and 
 Arvad Among the kings of this period known 
 to us from a list of Menander preserved by 
 Josephus is Hiram from whom Solomon ob¬ 
 tained material and workmen for his building 
 operations. (See Hiram; Solomon.) After 
 the days of Asurnazirpal III, the compact be¬ 
 tween Tyre and Assvria remained uninterrupted, 
 except for short intervals. To save her com¬ 
 merce and her position of supremacy,. Tyre 
 preferred to pay tribute rathei than l isk an 
 encounter at arms with Assyria. In the days 
 of Sennacherib (705-681 b.c.), however, Tyre 
 paid for a manifestation of independence by 
 an encounter with the Assyrian monarch, which 
 ended in a momentary defeat for the Assyrians; 
 but Tyre was cut off from communication with 
 the coast, and after enduring a siege of five 
 years, according to Menander, was obliged to 
 submit (c.700 b.c.). Tyre recovered and en¬ 
 tered in a combination with Egypt to resist 
 the advance of Esarliaddon, the successor of 
 Sennacherib, who had to content himself with 
 receiving the homage of King Baal of Tyre with¬ 
 out actuallv capturing the city; but Asurbanipal, 
 his successor, may have succeeded towards the 
 
TYRE 
 
 TYROTOXICON 
 
 617 
 
 end of his reign (668-625 b.c.) in forcing the 
 city to surrender. Tyre became an Assyrian 
 vassal, but her commercial position was unaf¬ 
 fected, and the fall of Assyria (c.606 b.c.) en¬ 
 abled her once more to assert her independence. 
 Nebuchadnezzar II besieged the city for 13 
 years; at the end of that time (572 b.c.) he 
 was forced to leave and seek compensation for 
 his vain labors in Egypt. But Tyre was no 
 doubt exhausted by the long siege, and her old 
 rival Sidon profited by the loss of trade which 
 followed, to take up the superior position in 
 the commercial world. The last native ruler of 
 Tyre was Ittobaal. Tyre fell into the hands of 
 the Persians in the reign of Cambyses (c.527 
 B.c.). It still flourished in the Achsemenian 
 period, sent large fleets as their contingents to 
 the Greek wars, and formed with Sidon and 
 Arvad a federal state having its capital at 
 Tripolis. 
 
 It was taken by Alexander in 332 b.c. after a 
 seven months’ siege, and by Antigonus 17 years 
 later, after a siege of 14 months. During the 
 Roman period it was an important city with a 
 famous university and a dominant Hellenistic 
 type of civilization. During the early centuries 
 of modern occupation it was again a centre 
 of commerce and industry. It was captured by 
 the Crusaders under Baldwin II in 1124 and 
 remained in the hands of the Christians till 
 1291, when it was taken and destroyed by Malik 
 al Ashraf, ruler of Egypt and Syria. It has 
 never recovered its old importance. The present 
 town (Ar. Sur) has about 6500 inhabitants. 
 Consult: Prutz, Aus Phonizien (Leipzig, 1876) ; 
 Krall, “Studien zur Geschichte des alten Aegyp- 
 tens, iii, Tyros und Sidon,” in Sitzungsberichte 
 der kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften 
 zu Wien, vol. cxvi (Vienna, 1888) ; Friedrich 
 Jeremias, Tyrus bis zur Zeit Nebukadnezars 
 (Leipzig, 1891); Lucas, Geschichte der Stadt 
 Tyros zur Zeit der Kreuzziige (Berlin, 1896) ; 
 Hugo YY inckler, Altorientalische Forschungen 
 (Leipzig, 1893-1906) ; Victor Berard, Les Phe- 
 nioiens et VOdyssee (Paris, 1902-03) ; Landau, 
 Die Phonizier (2d ed., Leipzig, 1903). 
 
 TYRE, Apollonius of. See Apollonius of 
 Tyre. 
 
 TYRE, William of. See William of Tyre. 
 
 TYREE. See Tiree. 
 
 TYRIAN (tlr'i-an) PURPLE. See Murex; 
 Purple Shell. 
 
 TYRNAU, or TIRNAU, tfir'nou (Hung., 
 Nagy-Szombat; Slav., Trnava). A town of 
 Hungary, on the river Trnava, 25 miles north¬ 
 east of Pressburg (Map.: Austria-Hungary, E 2). 
 It has a cathedral, dating from 1389, and a 
 large episcopal palace. Tyrnau has manufac¬ 
 tures of cloth, linen, vinegar, sugar, and malt 
 products, and has a general trade, especially in 
 wine. Pop., 1900, 13,281; 1910, 14,759, mostly 
 Slovaks and Magyars. 
 
 TYROL, te-rol'. A crownland of Austria. 
 See Tirol. 
 
 TYROLIENNE, te'rd'lyen' (Fr., Tyrolese). 
 A Tyrolese dance, or dance song. It is best 
 heard in the Zillerthal, in the Tyrolese Alps. 
 A characteristic feature is the Jodler. See 
 Jodeln. 
 
 TYRONE, ti-ron' (Ir., Tir-owen, Owen’s 
 country). An inland county of Ulster, Ireland 
 (Map: Ireland, D 2). Area. 1260 square miles. 
 The principal rivers are the Blackwater, the 
 Foyle, and the Mourne. The northwestern 
 mountains rise in Slieve Sawel to a height of 
 
 2236 feet. Between Dungannon and Stewarts- 
 town there is a small but productive coal field. 
 The soil of the plain is fertile; the hilly dis¬ 
 tricts are sandy or gravelly, and devoted to 
 pasturage. There are manufactures of linens 
 and coarse woolens and earthenware. Pop., 
 1851, 255,700; 1901, 150,567; 1911, 142,665. 
 
 The capital is Omagh. 
 
 TYRONE. A borough in Blair Co., Pa., 15 
 miles northeast of Altoona, on the Little Juniata 
 River, and on the Pennsylvania Railroad (Map: 
 Pennsylvania, E 6). It has considerable com¬ 
 mercial importance, being an outlet for the 
 Clearfield coal fields, and is noted especially 
 for the manufacture of various paper products. 
 There are also planing mills, and chemical and 
 candy factories. Tyrone is an important rail¬ 
 road junction and has large repair shops. The 
 Birmingham Female Seminary is 3 miles dis¬ 
 tant. Pop., 1900, 5847; 1910,'7176. 
 
 TYRONE, Hugh O’Neill, second Earl of 
 ( ?1540—1616). An Irish soldier and revolu¬ 
 tionist. He was the grandson of the first 
 Earl, his father, who was illegitimate, being 
 Baron of Dungannon. His elder brother was 
 murdered in 1562, and Hugh became Baron of 
 Dungannon, for precaution being sent to Eng¬ 
 land. In 1568 he returned to Ireland, and 
 for some years had difficulty in maintaining 
 his position against his kinsmen. In 1580 he 
 commanded a troop of horse in Munster against 
 the rebel Earl of Desmond, and in 1583 was 
 commander of the northern marches. In 1585 
 he was allowed to style himself Earl of Tyrone, 
 and, strengthening his power in 1587, visited 
 England to petition for a restitution of all 
 lands granted to his putative grandfather by 
 Henry VIII. He was unsuccessful, and, resent¬ 
 ing the visit of commissioners sent to arbitrate 
 his differences with his rival, Turlough Luineach, 
 he attacked the latter, but was defeated. He 
 was placed under restraint and afterwards par¬ 
 doned, but he entered on intrigues to separate 
 Ireland from England, offered the crown of 
 Ireland to Philip II of Spain, and after a com¬ 
 paratively successful campaign, in which he de¬ 
 feated Sir John Norris, he killed his brother- 
 in-law, Sir H. Bagnal, and effected a truce 
 with the Earl of Essex. In 1601 he was worsted 
 by Lord Mountjoy, surrendering to him early in 
 1603. He was soon after pardoned. In 1607, 
 again suspected, he fled to Brussels, after¬ 
 ward proceeding to Rome, where he lived on a 
 small pension allowed him by the Pope and the 
 Spanish King. Consult John Mitchel, The Life 
 and Times of Aodh O’Neill (New York, 1868). 
 
 TY'ROSINASE. See Enzyme; Oxidase. 
 
 TYROSINE, tir'6-sin or -sen. See Liver. 
 
 TYR'OTOX'ICON (Neo-Lat., from Gk. rvpos, 
 tyros, cheese + roijtKov, toxikon, poison). An 
 alkaloid isolated from poisonous cheese, by Vic¬ 
 tor C. Vaughan, of Michigan, in 1885, and 
 named by him in ignorance of the fact that 
 Kuhn, of Leipzig, had given this name in 1824 
 to “a poisonous principle formed in cheese by 
 putrefaction.” The principle has been found 
 in ice cream and cream puffs, as well as in 
 milk. 
 
 The symptoms of tyrotoxicon poisoning are 
 vomiting, diarrhoea, pain over the stomach, 
 coated tongue, feeble and irregular pulse, pale 
 and cyanosed face. In some cases the body 
 is covered with spots. In others there is marked 
 dryness and constriction of the throat. In all 
 there is marked nerve exhaustion. The treat- 
 
6i8 
 
 TYKWHITT 
 
 TYRRELL 
 
 ment of tyrotoxicon poisoning consists in empty¬ 
 ing and flushing the digestive tract and sup¬ 
 porting the heart. ... . 
 
 TYR/RELL, George (1861-1909). A British 
 Catholic theologian. lie was born in Dublin 
 and studied there at Trinity College in 1878, 
 but in the following year became a member of 
 the Roman Catholic church. Entering the 
 Jesuit order in 1880, he took the required train¬ 
 ing and was ordained priest in 1891, and after¬ 
 ward was appointed an instructor in philosophy 
 at St. Mary’s Hall, Stonyliurst, England. In 
 1899, three "years after his removal to London, 
 his sympathy with some tendencies of modern 
 religious thought became evident and prevented 
 a complete acceptance of the principles of the 
 order. Moreover, his later writings disclosed 
 divergences from conservative Catholic theol¬ 
 ogy, while his mysticism emphasized the reli¬ 
 gious life as transcending any doctrinal embodi¬ 
 ment of it. The Jesuit authorities disapproved 
 of him, and finally one of his privately printed 
 letters on religious subjects, which had been 
 translated and published in a Milan periodical, 
 occasioned his expulsion from the order in 
 February, 1906. About a year and a half 
 later, his criticism in the London Times of the 
 Pope’s encyclical against modernism was the 
 cause of his minor excommunication, with re¬ 
 served case at Rome. Nevertheless, although 
 deprived of his standing as a priest and a 
 Jesuit, Tyrrell continued to maintain his liberal 
 attitude ‘and his distinction between the ex¬ 
 periences of personal religion and their theologi¬ 
 cal interpretation. In 1908 Cardinal Mercier 
 of Belgium attacked him in his Lenten pastoral 
 as the" protagonist of modernism, and Tyrrell 
 replied the same year in a volume entitled 
 Medicemlism. Since he never retracted and his 
 reserved case was not decided, he died virtually 
 outside the pale of the Roman Catholic church. 
 His other publications include: Nova et Vetera: 
 Informal Meditations (1897; 3d ed., 1900); 
 Hard Sayings (1898); External Religion: Its 
 Use and Abuse (1899); Oil and Wine (1902; 
 new ed., 1907) ; Lex Orandi (1903) ; Lex 
 Credendi (1906) ; Through Scylla and Charyb- 
 dis (1907), being the narrative of his religious 
 development; and Christianity at the Cross- 
 Roads (1909). Consult Hakluyt Egerton, 
 Father Tyrrell’s Modernism (London, 1909), 
 and M. D. Petre, Autobiography and Life of 
 George Tyrrell (2 vols., ib., 1912). 
 
 TYRRELL, James Williams (1863- ). 
 
 A Canadian civil engineer, born at Weston, 
 Ont. He graduated in civil engineering at 
 Toronto University in 1889, but before this date 
 had had varied experience. In 1893 he went 
 with his brother, Joseph Burr Tyrrell (q.v.), 
 as topographer and interpreter on an expedition 
 from Lake Athabasca through the Barren Lands 
 to Chesterfield Inlet; and in 1900, at the re¬ 
 quest of the Department of the Interior, Ottawa, 
 he took charge of an exploratory survey of 
 the region between Great Slave Lake and Hud¬ 
 son Bay, traveling nearly 5000 miles by canoe 
 and dog sled. He was elected president of the 
 Ontario Land Surveyors’ Association in 1905. 
 He published: Across the Subarctics of Canada 
 (1897; 3d ed., 1908); Report on the Great 
 Slave Lake-Hudson Bay Expedition of 1900. 
 
 TYRRELL, Joseph Burr (1858- ). A 
 
 Canadian geologist and mining engineer. He 
 was born at Weston, Ont., and graduated at 
 Toronto University in 1880. Appointed (1881) 
 
 an explorer on the Canadian geological survey 
 staff, he took part, between 1883 and 1892, in 
 expeditions in Manitoba and the Northwest, 
 and in 1893-94 made notable journeys, largely 
 through the unexplored north and northwest 
 country, traveling over 6000 miles. (See Tyr¬ 
 rell, James Williams.) In 1898-1906 he was 
 a mining engineer in Dawson City, next remov¬ 
 ing to Toronto. In 1896 the Royal Geographical 
 Society awarded him the Back grant, and he 
 was twice elected president of the Canadian 
 Institute (1910, 1911). He wrote David 
 
 Thompson, Explorer (1910), and edited Samuel 
 Hearne’s A Journey from PHnce of Wales’s 
 Fort in Hudson Bay to the Northern Ocean, in 
 the Years 1769-72 (1911). 
 
 TYRRELL, Robert Yelverton (1844-1914). 
 An Irish classical scholar, born at Ballingarry, 
 County Tipperary, and educated at Trinity Col¬ 
 lege, Dublin. He was appointed fellow of 
 Trinity College in 1868, was made professor 
 of Latin in 1871, and served as regius professor 
 of Greek (1880-98), as professor of ancient 
 history (1900-04), and then as registrar. He 
 was a" frequent contributor to English reviews, 
 and edited and translated many classical works. 
 Tyrrell received honorary degrees from several 
 of the great universities. The most important 
 of his works are: an edition, with Purser,^ o‘f 
 the Correspondence of Cicero (7 vols., 1879— 
 1900); Bacchce of Euripides (2d ed., 1897); 
 Troades (2d ed., 1884); Miles Gloriosus of 
 Plautus (2d ed., 1886); Latin Poetry (1893); 
 Sophocles (1897); Anthology of Latin Poetry 
 (1901); Echoes of Kottabos (1906), with Sir 
 E. Sullivan; Essays on Greek Literature (1909). 
 
 TYRRHENIAN SEA (Lat. Tyrrhenum 
 mare). That part of the Mediterranean Sea 
 which is inclosed between the islands of Corsica 
 and Sardinia on the west, Sicily on the south, 
 and the Italian peninsula on the east (Map: 
 Italv, C, D 4). 
 
 TYRTAE'US (Lat., from Gk. Tvpraios, Tit¬ 
 rates, Tyrtaios) (fl. c.63() b.c.). A Greek lyric 
 poet, famous for his political elegies and march¬ 
 ing songs. According to Attic tradition, he was 
 a lame schoolmaster of Aphidnte, in Attica, 
 of low birth, whom the Athenians, ignorant of 
 his lyric power and jealous of the Lacedae¬ 
 monians, sent to Sparta when the Lacedae¬ 
 monians, at the advice of the Delphic Apollo, 
 asked them for assistance against the Messenians. 
 The tradition, however, is only the invention 
 of a late time. Tyrtaeus was no doubt a Spar¬ 
 tan, or an Ionian who had moved to Sparta. 
 By his poems he aroused the Spartans and led 
 them to victory over their foes. The fragments 
 of his work are published by Bergk, Poetce 
 Lyrici Grceci, vol. ii (5th ed., Leipzig, 1914). 
 See Embaterion. 
 
 TYRWHITT, tir'it, Richard St. John (1827- 
 95). An English writer on art. He graduated 
 at Christ Church, Oxford, in 1849, and was a 
 tutor from 1852 to 1856. Ordained in the Eng¬ 
 lish church, he was vicar of St. Mary Magdalen 
 at Oxford from 1858 to 1872. Tyrwhitt had an 
 uncommon artistic insight and exhibited several 
 water colors that showed rare promise. But 
 a lack of technical training led him to forego 
 original painting for the interpretation of the 
 work of others." Among his works are: Con¬ 
 cerning Clerical Powers and Duties (1861) ; 
 Christian Art and Symbolism, with Hints on 
 the Study of Landscape (1872) ; The Art Teach¬ 
 ing of the Primitive Church (1874); Greek 
 
TYRWHITT 
 
 TZE-HSI 
 
 and Gothic: Progress and Decay in the Three 
 Arts of Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting 
 (1881); An Amateur Art Book: Lectures 
 (1886). He also published a novel and a vol¬ 
 ume of verse called Free Field Lyrics (1888). 
 
 TYRWHITT, Thomas (1730—86). An Eng¬ 
 lish scholar, born in London. He was educated 
 at Eton and at Queen's College, Oxford, where 
 he graduated in 1750. Five years later he 
 was elected fellow of Merton, and called to the 
 bar at the Middle Temple; but he never 
 practiced law. From 1756 to 1762 he was 
 Deputy Secretary of War, and from 1762 to 
 1768 clerk of the House of Commons. Both 
 of these positions he resigned, for they inter¬ 
 fered with his studies. Tyrwhitt is now best 
 known for his edition of Chaucer’s Canterbury 
 Tales (4 vols., 1775; 5th vol., 1778). He also 
 punctured (1778 and 1782) the bubble of the 
 Rowley forgeries. His classical scholarship is 
 represented by sundry dissertations on, and edi¬ 
 tions of, ancient authors. 
 
 TYSON, George E. (1829-1906). An Ameri¬ 
 can whaler and Arctic explorer, born in New 
 Jersey. When already a whaler of extended 
 experience, Tyson sailed as ice master of the 
 Polaris American polar expedition under Hall 
 ip 1871. When the Polaris was shipwrecked in 
 Smith Sound, Tyson and 18 of the crew were 
 left adrift on the ice pack. Assuming command 
 of the party, by his resourcefulness and seaman¬ 
 ship he kept the men together and maintained 
 their morale under desperate circumstances. 
 They were rescued by the sealer Tigress, April 
 30, 1873, off the coast of Labrador after a drift 
 of about 1800 miles during 196 days. An ac¬ 
 count of the drift is found in Blake, Arctic Ex¬ 
 periences Containing Capt. George E. Tyson’s 
 Wonderful Drift on the Ice-Floe (New York, 
 1874). 
 
 TYSON, James (1841— ). An American 
 
 physician and pathologist, born in Philadelphia. 
 At the University of Pennsylvania, where he 
 graduated M.D. in 1863, he was professor of 
 pathology and morbid anatomy from 1876 to 
 1889, dean of the medical faculty from 1888 
 to 1892, and professor of the practice of medi¬ 
 cine from 1899 till his retirement in 1910, be¬ 
 coming well known especially through his earlier 
 work in the cell theory and Bright’s disease. 
 He held the presidency of the Association of 
 American Physicians (1907-08) and of the 
 College of Physicians, Philadelphia (1907-10). 
 Among his writings are: The Cell Doctrine 
 (1870; 2d ed., 1878); Introduction to Normal 
 Histology (1873); Guide to the Practical Ex¬ 
 amination of Urine (1875; 10th ed., 1902); 
 Treatise on Bright’s Disease and Diabetes 
 (1881; 2d ed., 1904) ; Manual of Physical Diag¬ 
 nosis (1891; 4th ed., 1901); The Practice of 
 Medicine, a Textbook (1896; 6th ed., rev. and 
 rewritten, 1913) ; Selected Addresses on Sub¬ 
 jects Relating to Biography, Travel, etc. (1914). 
 
 TYTLER, tif/ler, Alexander Fraser (1747— 
 1813). A Scotch historical writer, and a judge 
 of the Court of Session in Scotland under the 
 title of Lord Woodhouselee. He was born in 
 Edinburgh, where he was educated. In 1770 
 he was called to the Scottish bar. In 1780 he 
 became professor of history in the University 
 of Edinburgh; in 1790, judge advocate of Scot¬ 
 land; and in 1802 he was raised to the bench 
 of the Court of Session. His writings include 
 a biography of Henry Home, Lord Karnes 
 (1807); The Decisions of the Court of Session 
 Vol. XXII.—40 
 
 ( 1778); and the work by which he was best 
 remembered, Elements of General Historu 
 (1801). 
 
 TYTLER, Patrick Fraser (1791-1849). A 
 Scotch historical writer, born in Edinburgh, 
 the fourth son of Alexander Fraser Tytler, 
 Lord Woodhouselee. He was educated in Edin¬ 
 burgh and in England, and was called to the 
 Scottish bar in 1813. Three years later he was 
 appointed King’s counsel, but devoted himself 
 chiefly to the production of various literary and 
 historical works, the most valuable of which 
 is his History of Scotland (1828—43), beginning 
 at the accession of Alexander III and terminat¬ 
 ing at the union of the crowns—a book of more 
 original research than any preceding work on 
 the same subject. His writings also include 
 Life of James Crichton of Cluny, commonly 
 called the Admirable Crichton (1819) ; Life and 
 Writings of Sir Thomas Craig of Riccarton 
 (1823) ; Life of John Wicliff (1826) ; Lives of 
 Scottish Worthies (1831-33); Historical View 
 of the Progress of Discovery on the More North¬ 
 ern Coasts of America (1832) ; Life of Sir Wal¬ 
 ter Raleigh (1833); Life of King Henry VIII 
 ( 1837); and England under the Reigns of Ed¬ 
 ward VI and Mary (1839), with the contempo¬ 
 rary history of Europe. In consideration of 
 his merits as an historian, Sir Robert Peel’s 
 government conferred on him a pension of £200 
 a year. Consult J. W. Burgon, Life of Patrick 
 Fraser Tytler (London, 1859). 
 
 TYUMEN, tybo-man'y’. A town in Siberia. 
 See Tiumen. 
 
 TZANA, tsa'na, TANA, or DEMBEA. A 
 
 lake in Abyssinia, situated between 11° 35' 
 and 12° 16' north latitude, at a height of 5800 
 feet, and occupying an area of 1160 square 
 miles (Map: Egypt, D 5). It is surrounded by 
 volcanic mountains, receives over 30 affluents, 
 and discharges its waters southward through the 
 Blue Nile. It contains a number of inhabited 
 islets. 
 
 TZAR. See Czar. 
 
 TZE-AN (1837-81). Senior wife of Hien- 
 fung (q.v.), Emperor of China, and known as 
 the Empress of the Eastern Palace, to distin¬ 
 guish her from Tze-hsi (q.v.), the Empress of 
 the Western Palace, familiar in history as the 
 Great Empress Dowager. Although Tze-an was 
 the one legal wife of Hien-fung and in rank 
 above the Western Empress, yet she was easily 
 dominated by the more masterful Tze-hsi, to 
 whose plans and ambitions, while both were 
 Empresses Dowager, she offered no obstacles. 
 She is remembered mainly because of her asso¬ 
 ciation with Tze-hsi. 
 
 TZE-HSI, TZU-HI, or TZI-HI, tze-he (1835- 
 1908). The most famous woman in Chinese 
 history, known as the Great Empress Dowager, 
 and virtually the ruler of China for almost half 
 a century. She was born in Peking of a Manchu 
 family named Hweicheng, and belonged to the 
 historic Nara or Nala clan, hence her name 
 of Yehonala, which she bore when a child. In 
 her sixteenth year she was selected for the Im¬ 
 perial harem of the Emperor Hien-fung (q.v.). 
 She started as a kmei-jen, or concubine of the 
 fifth rank. Because of her beauty and talents 
 she was promoted to the fourth rank in 1854; 
 in 1856 she was advanced to the third rank, 
 and by 1858 she was second only to the first 
 concubine Tze-an (q.v.), who became Imperial 
 consort on the death of Hien-fung's legal wife. 
 Practically uneducated when she entered the 
 
TZE-HSI 
 
 620 TZSCHIRNER 
 
 palace, she applied herself diligently to a thor¬ 
 ough course in Chinese history, calligraphy, and 
 classics, and became known as a fine scholar 
 of the old school. On April 27, 185G, she gave 
 birth to a son, afterward the Emperor Tung- 
 chih (q.v.) ; this greatly increased her influence. 
 She was now known as the Empress of the 
 Western Palace. It was her almost unerring 
 judgment of people and events which enabled 
 her eventually to reach absolute power. On 
 the death of Hien-fung she frustrated a con¬ 
 spiracy to put her out of the way, and together 
 with Tze-an (q.v.), the Empress of the East¬ 
 ern Palace, and Prince Kung she secured the 
 overthrow of her enemies. She was then 2G 
 years of age. 
 
 From that time she was the real ruler of 
 China, remaining so during the reigns of Tung- 
 chih (1861-75) and Kwang-su (q.v.), to whom 
 she married her favorite niece, also called Ye- 
 honala. She had the political wisdom to se¬ 
 lect Li Hung Chang (q.v.) as her chief adviser, 
 and later Li’s prot6g6, Yuan Shih-kai (q.v.). 
 These two men, together with Prince Kung and 
 Prince Ching, helped her to direct her foreign 
 policies. She was able to keep her country 
 in fairly good standing among the nations of 
 the world until the Chino-Japanese War (1894- 
 95) revealed the weakness of China and the 
 inability of the Chinese government to prevent 
 territorial aggression. The result is found in 
 the* most critical period of Chinese history, 
 from 1895 to 1902. First came the seizures, 
 leases, and concessions of the Powers, which 
 Tze-lisi was powerless to withstand. Then 
 came the short-lived era of reform of the 
 
 Emperor Kwang-su in 1908, which Tze-hsi be¬ 
 lieved to be premature and therefore crushed, 
 through her agents Jung-lu and Yuan Shih- 
 kai. But she was not able to prevent the 
 
 Boxer Rebellion, and although she at first dis¬ 
 
 approved of it, she later gave the Boxers en¬ 
 couragement and Imperial support. The tragic 
 results of the Rebellion having taught Tze-hsi 
 that the old order in China must be eradicated, 
 from 1901 to 1908 she distinctly encouraged 
 
 the modernizing of China, and also was in 
 favor of constitutional government, which she 
 promised should be granted in 1916. It was 
 largely because of her determined stand that 
 China* threw off the opium curse, although Tze- 
 hsi herself indulged occasionally. In 1908, just 
 before her death, she designated Pu-yi (Hsuan- 
 tung, q.v.), son of her nephew, Prince Chun 
 (Tsai-feng, q.v.), as the next Emperor. She 
 died Nov. 15, 1908, one day after the death of 
 Kwang-su. 
 
 Tze-hsi was ambitious and arbitrary, but, like 
 Queen Elizabeth of England, was able to sur¬ 
 round herself with good advisers and the ablest 
 of her subjects. Remarkably patriotic, she 
 never spared herself the grinding toil necessary 
 to rule the Chinese world. Her character has 
 been much maligned, especially by her enemies 
 in south China, and as much overpraised by 
 her admirers. She is one of the few women 
 
 who have profoundly influenced the world’s 
 history. 
 
 Consult: K. A. Carl, With the Empress Dow¬ 
 ager (New York, 1905); Bland and Backhouse, 
 China under the Empress Dowager (Philadel¬ 
 phia, 1910) ; P. W. Sergeant, The Great Em¬ 
 press Dowager (New York, 1911) ; Paul Clem¬ 
 ents, The Boxer Rebellion (ib., 1915). See 
 
 China, Modem History. 
 
 TZENTAL, tsen'tiil. An ancient cultured 
 nation of Mayan stock, occupying a large part 
 of the states of Tabasco and northern Chiapas, 
 in Mexico. Their traditional culture hero was 
 Votan, who was said to have built the great 
 ruins at Palenque (q.v.), in Chiapas, and their 
 general civilization resembled that of the Maya 
 and other cognate tribes. They still constitute 
 an important part of the population of their 
 ancient territory. 
 
 TZETZES, tsSt'sez, Johannes (Lat., from 
 Gk. T uavvys Tfer^s) (twelfth century a.d.). 
 A Byzantine author and grammarian, who de¬ 
 voted himself to classical Greek literature. He 
 was author of many works, both prose and 
 verse, which have value as sources of classical 
 information not available elsewhere. His prin¬ 
 cipal writings are his poems Iliaca, which in¬ 
 cluded the Ante-Hom erica, Homerica, and Post- 
 Homerica, and dealt with the entire Trojan 
 tradition, and are best edited by Bekker (Ber¬ 
 lin, 1816). His Chiliades is a didactic poem 
 in 12,674 verses, divided into sixty chapters, 
 treating of mythological, literary, and histori¬ 
 cal miscellanies. This huge work was provided 
 by its author with explanatory scholia; it was 
 edited by Kiessling (Leipzig, 1826). Other 
 works are: a collection of 107 letters, his scholia 
 to Hesiod, Aristophanes, Lycophron’s Alexandra, 
 Oppian’s Halieutica, and some minor works. 
 His elder brother, Isaak Tzetzes, was probably 
 associated with him in preparing certain com¬ 
 mentaries, and devoted himself particularly 
 to the study of metric. Consult: K. Krum- 
 bracher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Littera- 
 tur (2d ed., Munich, 1897) ; H. Spelthahn, Stu- 
 dien zu den Chiliades des Johannes Tzetzes (ib., 
 1904). 
 
 TZINTZUNZAN, chi'choon-chan. A town 
 of the State of Michoac&n, Mexico, 28 miles west 
 of Morelia, on Lake Patzcuaro. It is celebrated 
 for its church containing a painting supposed 
 to be an Entombment, by Titian, which is wor¬ 
 shiped by the people. 
 
 TZQNECA, tsb-na'ka. See Tsonekan. 
 
 TZSCHIRNER, cher'ner, Heinrich Gottlieb 
 (1778-1828). A German Protestant theologian. 
 He was born at Mittweida, Saxony; studied 
 theology at Leipzig; became professor of theol¬ 
 ogy at Wittenberg in 1805; at Leipzig in 1809; 
 and prebendary of Meissen in 1818. He pub¬ 
 lished Protestantismus und Katholicismus aus 
 dem Standpunkt der Politik betraehtet (1822; 
 4th ed., 1824); Das Reaktionssystem (1824); 
 and Der Fall des Heidentums (ed. by Niedner, 
 18291. Consult his Life by J. Goldhorn (Leip¬ 
 zig, 1828) and K. H. Politz (ib., 1828). 
 
u 
 
 U The twenty-first letter of the Eng¬ 
 lish alphabet. The Phoenician al¬ 
 phabet ended with t (q.v.) and u 
 was the first of the letters developed 
 in Greek to supply the deficiency 
 of the Phoenician. (For the early 
 history of this letter, see Alphabet.) Origi¬ 
 nally U was the uncial and cursive form, and V 
 the capital form. The two were differentiated 
 about the fifteenth century a.d., when V was 
 limited to representing the consonant sound. 
 Before the fifteenth century small v and u were 
 used interchangeably. In English u represents 
 a variety of sounds besides its original value, 
 which is that of a rounded back vowel, the u in 
 rude. It stands also for the sound yoo, as ed¬ 
 ucate, mule, value. It is pronounced like 56 
 in full, pull, push; u in Turk, turnip, urge; 
 u (unrounded) in tub, up, muff. A u is al¬ 
 ways written after q (q.v.). In this case it 
 has the consonantal value of 10 , which it has also 
 often after other consonants, especially g and s, 
 as in quick, quartz, quote; language, anguish; 
 suave, dissuade. It is silent in guard, tongue, 
 build, etc. 
 
 The sources of u are as follows: AS. u, as nut, 
 from hnutu; AS. u, as us from iis, but from 
 butan, up from up; AS. 6, as must from moste. 
 
 In chemistry U stands for uranium. See 
 Phonetics. Consult: Philippe Berger, Histoire 
 de I’ecriture dans Vantiquity (2d ed., Paris, 
 1802) ; W. Rippmann, Elements of Phonetics 
 (London, 1910) ; Maurice Prou, Manuel de pdl6- 
 ographie latine et franchise (3d ed., Paris, 
 1910) ; Henry Sweet, The Sounds of English 
 (Oxford, 1908) ; Sir E. M. Thompson, Introduc¬ 
 tion to Greek and Latin Paleography (ib., 1912). 
 UAKARI, wa-ka're. See Ouakari. 
 UARAYCU, wa-rlffvoo. A peculiar tribe on 
 the lower Jurua and Jutay rivers, and the ad¬ 
 jacent portion of the Amazon, western Brazil. 
 They whip their youths, and suspend maidens 
 over a smoking fire, as tests of fortitude. Girls 
 are betrothed in childhood, and the young man 
 must hunt game for his bride long before he 
 is permitted to marry her. They burn their 
 dead and bury the ashes in their huts. 
 
 TJARDA, oo-iir'da. The second of the Egyp¬ 
 tian historical novels by Georg Ebers (1877). 
 The action takes place in Egypt during the 
 reign of Rameses II. 
 
 UAUPE, wa'oo-pa'. An extensive group of 
 tribes, probably remotely of Arawakan stock 
 (q.v.), residing on the Uaupes River, a head 
 stream of the Rio Negro, in southeastern Col¬ 
 ombia. They cultivate corn, tobacco, manioc, 
 
 cane, and bananas, are experts with the bow, 
 lance, and blowgun, and are great fishermen. 
 They live in large communal houses, sometimes 
 nearly 100 feet square, with a roof nearly 40 
 feet high supported by columns hewn from 
 tree trunks. They make pottery and baskets and 
 use canoes hollowed out from logs. The men 
 wear the G-string, feather headdresses, and 
 amulets. The women go naked. Those of the 
 same clan are not allowed to intermarry. Each 
 communal household has its hereditary chief. 
 In physique they are tall, stout, and well made. 
 They are reputed to be very industrious. 
 
 UAUPES, wa'oo-pas'. A large tributary of 
 the Rfo Negro, considered by some geographers 
 as the true head stream of that river (Map: 
 Brazil, C 3). It rises in the Eastern Cordillera 
 of the Colombian Andes, descends in falls and 
 rapids, and flows southeastward to its conflu¬ 
 ence with the main stream in northwest Brazil. 
 It is over 700 miles long, and navigable in its 
 lower course. 
 
 UBALDINI, oo'bal-de'ng, Petruccio (?1524- 
 ?1600). An Italian illuminator and scholar of 
 Tuscan birth. He went to England in 1545, and 
 in the reign of Edward VI fought in the Scot¬ 
 tish wars. At this period of his life he wrote 
 Relatione delle cose del regno d ’ Inghilterra 
 (1551), wherein he records his experiences of 
 English manners and institutions. In 1580 he 
 visited Ireland and compiled an account of the 
 unsuccessful Spanish-Italian invasion of Kerry. 
 His Vita di Karlo Magno Imperatore (1581) 
 was the first Italian book printed in England. 
 
 UBANGI, u-b an'gi. A river of Central Africa, 
 the largest northern tributary of the Congo 
 (Map: Congo, C 2). It is known also as the 
 Mobangi (near its mouth), the Dua (19° to 
 20° E.), the Koyu (21° to 22° E.), and the 
 Makua and Welle (in its upper course). The 
 river rises in the extreme northeastern corner 
 of Belgian Congo, not far from the Nile, and 
 flows westward, then southward just above the 
 Zongo rapids, and finally joins the Congo near 
 the equator after a course of about 1500 miles. 
 From its mouth to its confluence with the 
 Mbomu at Yakoma, the Ubangi forms the 
 boundary between French Equatorial Africa and 
 the Belgian Congo. That part of the river 
 known as the Welle was first discovered by 
 Schweinfurth in 1870; some 10 years later 
 Junker explored the Makua; in 1884 Hanssens 
 discovered the mouth of the Mobangi; in 1885- 
 86 Grenfell went up as far as the Zongo rapids, 
 and within half a dozen years the several parts 
 of the river already discovered were identified 
 
UBASTET 
 
 UCCELLO 
 
 as the Ubangi. In great part the river flows 
 through a populous country. Ubangi is also 
 the name of a district in the northwestern part 
 of Belgian Congo. 
 
 UBASTET, oo-bas'tet. An Egyptian goddess, 
 called also Paslit or Pakht and, from the Greek 
 form of the name of the city where she was 
 especially worshiped, Bubastis or Bast. She \\ as 
 the wife of Ptah (see Memphis), and was identi¬ 
 fied by the Greeks with Artemis (see Diana). 
 Her son was Turn, the solar deity of the west¬ 
 ern horizon. Beside her main seat of worship 
 at Bubastis (q.v.)‘ she was honored at Thebes 
 (q.v.) and together w r ith Ptah, at Memphis. 
 Ubastet is usually represented as a woman with 
 a cat’s head; in earlier monuments she has the 
 head of a lion. Her annual festival, held at 
 Bubastis, was characterized by revelry with 
 phallic accompaniments implying a fertility 
 concept in the nature of the goddess. Her cult 
 does not appear to have been ancient, but from 
 the reign of Bameses III (q.v.), in the thirteenth 
 century b.c., it became one of the most im¬ 
 portant in Egypt. See Bubastis, and illus¬ 
 tration of Pakht in Plate of Egyptian Deities 
 in the article Egypt. 
 
 tJBEDA, oo-Ba-Da. A Spanish town of the 
 Province of Jaen, in Andalusia, in the midst 
 of the fertile Loma de Ubeda. It is 74 miles 
 east of Cordova (Map: Spain, D 3). The coun¬ 
 try abounds in vineyards, olive plantations, and 
 pasturages devoted especially to the rearing of 
 horses. The town contains a castle with more 
 than 20 towers, the sixteenth-century Church 
 of San Salvador, and the Gothic San Pablo and 
 Corinthian San Nicolas of lesser note, together 
 with the Palacio de las Cadenas (in which aie 
 the municipal offices), and the edifice of the 
 Coleffio de Escolapios. The streets are broad 
 and well paved and with the plazas well kept. 
 The chief manufactures are pottery, leather, 
 soap, and woolens. An important fair is held 
 annually. Pop., 1900, 19,395; 1910, 22,341. 
 
 UBERTI, oo-ber'te, Fazio degli (born not 
 later than 1310, died not earlier than 1368). 
 An Italian poet, born in Pisa. . A Ghibellme 
 in politics, he lived most of his life as an 
 exile at the courts of the Visconti (Milan) 
 and the Scaligeri (Verona). His most am¬ 
 bitious work, the Dittamondo (i.e., oicta 
 mundi, or things worthy of note in the world), 
 a didactic poem in terza. rima (q.v.), is note¬ 
 worthy chiefly because in its methods it imitates 
 the Divina Corn-media. Like Dante, converted 
 to righteousness in the middle of the path of 
 life, Fazio feigns himself guided on a fan¬ 
 tastic journey by the ancient geographer Solmus, 
 from whose work and that of Pliny he borrows 
 largely. He traverses nearly all the known 
 world save Asia, narrating fables, traditions, 
 legends, and various curiosities of Mediaeval 
 erudition. Save for a description of Pome the 
 work is artistically barren. Some of his poli¬ 
 tical satires, however, are spirited, and his love 
 lvrics, with their reminiscences of the stil nuovo 
 and even the Sicilian school, and with their 
 Yielding to Petrarchian influence, possess be¬ 
 sides liveliness of fancy and some elegance of 
 style. Consult: Dittamondo (Milan, 1826) ; B. 
 Benier Le liriche edite e inedite di F. d. U. 
 (Florence, 1883) ; Pellizzari, T1 Dittamondo e 
 la D. Commedia (Pisa, 1905) ; Whitmoie, Fazio 
 dejrli Uberti as a Lyric Poet,” in Romanic Re¬ 
 view (New York, 1914). 
 
 U'BIQUIST (from Lat. ubique, everywhere). 
 
 A plant which grows in practically all habitats. 
 The common dandelion, which grows naturally 
 in light or shaded, moist or dry conditions, may 
 be regarded as a typical example. 1 he term 
 cosmopolite refers to existence in all climates 
 rather than all habitats. 
 
 UBIQ'UITY (from Lat. ubique , everywhere, 
 from ubi, where). A term applied in theology 
 to the doctrine that the Lord’s body, in conse¬ 
 quence of its personal union with the divine, 
 by a “communication of properties, is every¬ 
 where present. This use of the word has its 
 origin in the teachings of Luther, who, to de¬ 
 fend the real presence of the entire Christ in 
 the elements of the Lord’s Supper, taught that 
 Christ’s body could be everywhere, although 
 he called this presence “illoeal.” Consult lit¬ 
 erature under Luther. 
 
 UCAYALI, oo'ki-a'le. A large river of Peru 
 (Map: Peru, C 5), one of the main headstream s 
 of the Amazon. From length and volume it 
 should be considered as the true upper course 
 of that river. It is formed by the junction of 
 the Apurimac (q.v.), or Tambo, and the Quil- 
 1 aba mb a at the eastern base of the Andes be¬ 
 tween the departments of Junm and Cuzco, and 
 flows northward in a winding course till it 
 joins the Marahon in the northeastern part of 
 Peru to form the Amazon. The length of the 
 Ucayali proper is about 1000 miles, and with 
 the Apurimac the length is nearly 1500 miles. 
 Some of their sources are near Lake Titicaca, 
 while that of the Mantaro, a tributary of the 
 Apurimac, is in Lake Chinchaycocha or Junm 
 (q v ) within 100 miles of Lima, near the Pa¬ 
 cific coast, and over 13,000 feet above the sea. 
 So rapid is their flow that at their confluence 
 the Ucayali proper is less than 1000 feet above 
 sea level. Its later course through the densely 
 forested montano is sluggish, falling only 500 
 feet in nearly 1000 miles. Its banks are here 
 very low, and it divides repeatedly into side 
 channels, while large adjacent areas are periodi¬ 
 cally submerged. The Ucayali is navigable for 
 large vessels, maintaining a depth of 40 to i 0 
 feet for over 600 miles. Steamers can also as- 
 cend the Pachitea, the principal tributary be¬ 
 low the confluence of the headstreams, over 200 
 miles to a point about 300 miles from Lima and 
 3600 miles from the mouth of the Amazon. 
 The Ucayali thus affords an easy means of com¬ 
 munication between the Atlantic Ocean and the 
 heart of Peru. 
 
 UCCELLO, oot-cheFlo, Paolo, properly Paolo 
 di Dono (1397-1475). A Florentine painter of 
 the early Benaissance. The name Uccello was 
 derived from his fondness for birds, which 
 formed a part of his menagerie. It is not 
 known with whom he studied painting, but he 
 was perhaps influenced by Masaccio and cer¬ 
 tainly by Donatello. A pioneer of the so-called 
 Florentine Bealists, he was especially known 
 for experiments in linear perspective and fore¬ 
 shortening. Wherever possible, his paintings 
 are paradigms of perspective, and are often 
 scientific rather than artistic productions. As 
 they lack atmosphere, the figures seem immobile 
 and clumsy. He excelled especially m por¬ 
 traiture: as in the fine equestrian portrait of 
 the condottiere, Sir John Hawkwood a fresco 
 in grays in Florence Cathedral, and those ot 
 Giotto, Brunelleschi, Donatello, Manetti, and 
 himself in the Louvre. In the cloisters of Santa 
 Maria Novella he painted an interesting senes 
 of five frescoes of scenes from Genesis. His 
 
UCHARD 
 
 UDINE 
 
 623 
 
 well known ‘‘Battle of San Romano,” an early 
 production, survives in the Uffizi, with others 
 of like title in the Louvre and the National 
 Gallery, London; and a quaint “St. George and 
 the Dragon” is in private possession in Paris 
 and ^ ienna. Other interesting works are a 
 late “Hunting Scene at Night” (Oxford), the 
 “Story of the Jew and the Host” at Urbino; 
 and, according to Berenson, “A Man and Woman 
 of the Portinari Family” in the Metropolitan 
 Museum, New York. He exercised a determina¬ 
 tive influence on the entire realist group, and 
 on Piero della Francesca. Uccello’s marked 
 feeling for decorative design strongly influenced 
 the decorative arts of his day. The four win¬ 
 dows in the drum of Florence Cathedral are 
 after his designs. Consult Giorgio Vasari, Lives 
 of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and 
 Architects, vol. i, Eng. trails, by Blashfield and 
 Hopkins (New York, 1890), and Bernhard Ber¬ 
 enson, Florentine Painters of the Renaissance 
 (3d ed., ib., 1909). 
 
 UCHARD, u'shar', Mario (1824-93). A 
 French playwright and novelist, born in Paris. 
 After following for some time the business of a 
 stockbroker, he married in 1853 Madeline Brolian 
 (q.v.) of the Thehtre Fran^ais, where he pro¬ 
 duced the drama La Fiammina (1857), which 
 was very successful. His other plays attracted 
 much less attention, but his novels won much 
 favor. They include: Raymond (1861); Le 
 mariage de Gertrude (1862); La comtesse 
 Diane (1864); Une derniere passion (1866); 
 Mon oncle Barbasson (1876); Ines Parker 
 (1880); Antoinette ma oousine (1891); and 
 others. 
 
 UCHATIUS, u-Ka'tsl-us, Franz, Baron 
 (1811-81). An Austrian general and inventor, 
 born at Theresienfeld. Entering the Second 
 Regiment of artillery in 1829, he became com¬ 
 mandant of the ordnance works in the arsenal 
 at Vienna in 1871, was made a major general in 
 1874, and lieutenant field marshal in 1879. He 
 introduced an improved process of manufactur¬ 
 ing steel in 1856, constructed several ballistic 
 apparatus, especially one for measuring the 
 pressure of gas in gun barrels, invented the so- 
 called steel bronze (Uchatius metal), which was 
 used for the equipment of the Austro-Hunga¬ 
 rian field artillery, and in 1875 constructed the 
 ring grenades, adopted since then by nearly all 
 artilleries. Consult Lenz, Lebensbild des Gen¬ 
 erals Uchatius (Vienna, 1904). 
 
 U'CHEE, u'che, or YUCHI, yoo'che. An in¬ 
 teresting tribe, constituting a distinct linguistic 
 stock, formerly centring on the middle Savannah 
 River, in Georgia and South Carolina, but after¬ 
 wards incorporated with the Creek confederacy. 
 Very little is known of them, but evidence tends 
 to substantiate their own claim that they were 
 the autochthones of eastern Georgia and the 
 adjacent region, antedating the Muskhogean 
 tribes (see Muskhogean Stock ) by many years. 
 They call themselves children of the sun, which, 
 according to their myth, was their mother, and 
 was worshiped with elaborate ceremonies. In 
 1739 Governor Oglethorpe concluded a treaty 
 with the Uchee at their principal town, then on 
 the Savannah River about 30 miles above Sa¬ 
 vannah. Before the end of the century they had 
 removed to the Creek country, where in 1799 
 they had four towns with about 250 warriors, or, 
 perhaps, 800 souls. Their main town was on the 
 western (Alabama) side of the Chattahoochee, a 
 few miles below the present Columbus. They 
 
 participated in the treaties and wars of their 
 Creek allies, and removed with them in 1835 
 to the Indian Territory. They now number but 
 38. Consult F. G. Speck, in University of Penn¬ 
 sylvania, Anthropological Publications, vol. i 
 (Philadelphia, 1909). 
 
 UDAIPUR, oo'di-poor', or ODEYPORE, 
 
 called also Mewar, or Meywar. A native state 
 of India, under British protection, in Rajputana 
 (Map: India, B 4J. Area, 12,756 square miles. 
 Pop., 1901, 1,021,664; 1911, 1,293,776. The capi¬ 
 tal, Udaipur, situated 120 miles southeast of 
 Jodhpore at an altitude of 2064 feet, had 47,587 
 inhabitants in 1911. Here is an imposing royal 
 palace of marble and granite. Just south of the 
 city is the fortified hill Eklingarh. The roads 
 leading to the city are guarded by a series of 
 fortresses, but these have fallen into a state of 
 decay. 
 
 UDAL. See Odal. 
 
 UDALL, u'dal or UVEDALE, Nicholas 
 (1505-56). An English schoolmaster and play¬ 
 wright. He was born in Hampshire. In 1524 he 
 was graduated from Corpus Christi College, Ox¬ 
 ford, and elected a fellow. He took an early and 
 active part in the Reformation, but he trimmed 
 his sails in the reign of Mary. From 1534 to 
 1541 he was head master of Eton, and from 1554 
 to 1556 head master of Westminster School. The 
 fame of his various translations, pamphlets, and 
 Latin and English verse has been eclipsed by his 
 Ralph Roister Doister, an English comedy on the 
 Roman model. It seems to have been composed 
 for the boys at Eton before 1551, though, so far 
 as is known, it was not published until 1566. It 
 is the earliest English comedy now extant. Con¬ 
 sult the reprint by E. A. Arber (London, 1869), 
 and A. W. Ward, English Dramatic Literature, 
 vol. i (rev. ed., ib., 1899). See Gammer Gur- 
 ton’s Needle. 
 
 UDDER, Inflammation of the. See Mam- 
 
 MITIS. 
 
 UDDE VALLA, ud'de-vaFla. A port of 
 Sweden, situated at the head of the Byfjord, 48 
 miles north of Goteborg (Map: Sweden, E 7). 
 It has a school of navigation, and manufactures 
 cotton goods and furniture. There are also sugar 
 refineries, wood-pulp mills, and granite quarries. 
 Pop., 1901, 9442; 1910, 12,583. 
 
 UDINE, ob'dAna. The capital of the Prov¬ 
 ince of Udine, Italy, in a fertile, highly culti¬ 
 vated plain on the Roja Canal, 84 miles by rail 
 northeast of Venice (Map: Italy, D 1). It con¬ 
 sists of an inner and an outer town separated by 
 fortifications. The streets are crooked and nar¬ 
 row, but it is an agreeable city. In the centre 
 of the town rises a hill crowned by a castle, now 
 used as a barracks, dating from 1517. The chief 
 square lies at the southern base of the hill. The 
 imposing municipal palace, in the style of the 
 Doges’ Palace of Venice, contains a large marble 
 statue of Ajax, and some excellent mural paint¬ 
 ings. The Romanesque cathedral possesses a 
 finely sculptured portal. Udine has a handsome 
 theatre, a splendid archiepiscopal palace with 
 historic memories, a school of industrial arts, 
 and a technical institute. There is a small pub¬ 
 lic garden, and the artistic house of the painter 
 Giovanni da Ucline is shown. In the Palazzo 
 Bartolini there are a municipal museum of an¬ 
 tiquities, paintings by Giovanni da Ucline, and a 
 library of over 88,000 volumes and 3120 manu¬ 
 scripts. Udine is in one of the most unique and 
 beautiful districts in the world. The city manu¬ 
 factures silks, velvets, leather, metal ware, paper, 
 
UDO 
 
 UFFIZI 
 
 and sugar. The chief trade is in flax and hemp. 
 Pop. (commune), 1901, 37,942; 1911, 47,617. 
 
 Udine, the ancient Utina, was an important 
 city in the Middle Ages. In the thirteenth cen¬ 
 tury it became the capital of Friuli. In 1420 it 
 passed to Venice. Near Udine is the small but 
 interesting town of Cividale del Iriuli (q.\.), 
 the ancient Forum Julii. F dine was the base 
 of the Italian campaign against Austria in the 
 great war which broke out in 1914. See Wab 
 in Europe. 
 
 UDO, bb'do ( Aralia cordata) . A Japanese 
 vegetable suitable for wide cultivation for its 
 blanched, edible shoots. The plants are bushy 
 and yield edible shoots for about nine years. 
 They should be planted about 3 to 4 feet apart 
 and cultivated like asparagus. The shoots are 
 blanched by mounding with earth, or covering 
 with closed drain tile early in the spring. The 
 shoots-may be prepared for the table in the same 
 manner as asparagus. See Aralia. 
 
 UEBERWEG, u'ber-vaG, Friedrich (1826- 
 71). A German philosopher, born at Leiclilingen, 
 
 ' Prussia. He was educated at Gottingen and Ber¬ 
 lin, and in 1862 was made professor of philos¬ 
 ophy at Konigsberg, where he remained till his 
 death. His most important works are his Sys¬ 
 tem der Logik und Geschichte der logischen 
 Lehren (1857; 5th ed., 1882; Eng. trans. of the 
 3d ed. by Lindsay, London, 1871), and his Grund- 
 riss der Geschichte der Philosophic (1863—66.; 
 10th ed., rev. by M. Heinze, 1910 et seq.; Eng. 
 trans. of the 4th ed. by Morris, New York, 1871), 
 which is one of the most valuable histories of 
 philosophy in moderate compass ever published, 
 and is unrivaled in the fullness of its bibliog¬ 
 raphy; Schiller als Historiker und Philosoph 
 (Leipzig, 1884). Consult F. A. Lange, Friedrich 
 Ueberweg (Berlin, 1871); M. Brasch, Die Welt- 
 und Lebensanschauung Friedrich Ueberwegs 
 nebst einer biographisch-historischen Einleitung 
 (Leipzig, 1889). 
 
 UECHTRITZ, uK'trlts, Friedrich von (1800- 
 75). A German dramatic poet and novelist, born 
 at Gorlitz, Silesia. He studied jurisprudence at 
 Leipzig and held various judicial positions at 
 Treves and Diisseldorf. Of several tragedies, for 
 the most part technically weak, Alexander and 
 Darius (1827), with a preface by Tieck, was 
 produced in Dresden, Berlin, and Vienna. Das 
 Ehrenschwert also met with a favorable recep¬ 
 tion. The dramatic poem Die Babylonier in 
 Jerusalem (1836), while little adapted to the 
 stage, is distinguished by brilliant diction. His 
 best-known novels are Der Bruder der Braut 
 (1860), a religious-patriotic tale, and Eleazar 
 (1867), a romance of the great Judean war. He 
 also published Blicke in das Diisseldorfer Kunst- 
 und Kiinstlerleben (1839-42). Consult Erin- 
 nerungen an Friedrich von Uechtritz und seine 
 Zeit in Briefen von ihm und an ihn (Leipzig, 
 1884), with a preface by Svbel, and W. Steitz, 
 F. von Uechtritz, als dramatischer Dichter (Gor- 
 litz, 1909). 
 
 UECHTRITZ, Kuno von (1856-1908). A 
 German sculptor, born at Breslau. He studied 
 at the Vienna Academy under Tilgner, to whose 
 influence is to be attributed his fondness for the 
 baroque and rococo styles, manifest in his early 
 portrait busts. Subsequently he turned to poly¬ 
 chrome work, carrying it from softer tints to 
 thoroughly naturalistic treatment, of which an 
 “Italian Pifferaro with his Monkey” is an ex¬ 
 ample. After his removal to Berlin in 1886 he 
 took up decorative and monumental sculpture, 
 
 earning reputation with several fountain designs, 
 enlivened by mythological, ideal, and genre fig¬ 
 ures, and animals, and displaying a subtle sense 
 of humor. For the Siegesallee he executed the 
 group with the statue of Elector George A illiam 
 ( 1899), and for Breslau the Moltke Monument. 
 
 UFA, bb'fa, A government of east Russia. 
 Area, 47,130 square miles (Map: Russia, J 4). 
 The east portion has a mountainous surface, 
 being traversed by offshoots of the b ral Moun¬ 
 tains, running in densely wooded ridges parallel 
 to the main mass. The western part has a 
 steppelike appearance with an incline towards 
 the Kama. This river forms the west boundary 
 line of the government, and its navigable tribu¬ 
 tary, the Byelava, intersects it from southeast 
 to northwest. The climate is severe, but health¬ 
 ful. Ufa is a highly mineralized region contain¬ 
 ing deposits of iron, copper, coal, petroleum, 
 sulphur, etc. Mining industries are little devel¬ 
 oped. Agriculture employs only a part of the 
 population, as the inhabitants are stock breeders 
 and nomadic. About one-third of the area is cul¬ 
 tivated, producing rye, oats, and wheat. The 
 holdings are generally large, and the use of im¬ 
 proved machinery is increasing. An important 
 dairy product is kumiss. The manufacturing in¬ 
 dustries are connected to a large extent with 
 mining, and the chief iron and steel works are 
 situated at Zlatoust (q.v.). Other manufactures 
 are spirits, leather, soap, and candles. Pop., 
 1912, was 2,988,500, of whom the Russians con¬ 
 stituted about 45 per cent of the total, the re¬ 
 mainder consisting of Bashkirs, Tatars, and 
 Meshtcheryaks. 
 
 UFA. The capital of the Government of Ufa, 
 in east Russia, situated on the Byelaya, near its 
 junction with the Ufa, 326 miles by rail east- 
 northeast of Samara (Map: Russia, J 4). Pop., 
 1910, 103,485. 
 
 UFFIZI (oo-fet'se), Palazzo Degli. A cele¬ 
 brated Florentine palace, containing one of the 
 finest collections of sculpture and painting in the 
 world. It was erected in 1560-76, after the de¬ 
 signs of Giorgio Vasari, for the government offices 
 of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. The ground 
 story is one of the most beautiful open halls of 
 Italy; it is roofed with barrel vaulting supported 
 by heavy Doric pillars which extend the height 
 of the entire facade. The top story, now con¬ 
 taining the gallery, was originally an open 
 loggia. In the vestibule and court are many 
 statues of celebrated Tuscans. 
 
 The nucleus of the gallery was a part of the 
 celebrated collections made'by the Medici in the 
 fifteenth century. Additions were acquired or 
 inherited by many of the Medicean dukes, and 
 the collection was bequeathed to the state by the 
 last representative of the line in 1737. It is 
 especially rich in antique statuary, possessing 
 the celebrated Niobid group, the “Boy Drawing 
 Out a Thorn,” the “Apollino,” the “Medicsean 
 Venus,” “Satvr,” “Wrestlers,” “The Grinder,” and 
 “Dying Alexander.” The collection of paintings 
 is ithe most important in Italy, and for Italian 
 painting the greatest in the world. It includes 
 numerous works by artists of the early Flor- 
 entine Renaissance, such as Fra Angelico, Fi¬ 
 lippo and Filippino Lippi, Domenico Ghirland¬ 
 aio, and especially Sandro Botticelli, to whom 
 a room is dedicated. The High Renaissance is 
 well represented by Michelangelo, Fra Bartolom¬ 
 meo, Andrea del Sarto, Raphael, Giorgione, 
 Titian, and Correggio, the gallery being espe¬ 
 cially rich in masterpieces of Titian and Raph- 
 
UGANDA PROTECTORATE 625 UGANDA PROTECTORATE 
 
 ael. There is also a fine collection of Flemish 
 and Dutch masters. The celebrated “Tribuna” 
 of the Tjffizi is an octagonal room containing 
 many of the masterpieces of the collection. 
 There is also an excellent collection of drawings, 
 published in three series of 11 volumes and 
 eight series of four volumes (Florence, n. d.). 
 An interesting feature of the gallery is a unique 
 collection of portraits' of great masters by them¬ 
 selves. A passageway connects the Uffizi with 
 the Pitti collection. (See Pitti Palace.) The 
 second story of the Uffizi contains the Biblioteca 
 Nazionale, containing 300,000 volumes and 
 14,000 manuscripts. Its nucleus was the Maglia- 
 bechiana collection, to which, in 1862, was 
 added the Royal Library of the Pitti Palace. 
 The Uffizi also houses the Florentine state 
 archives, one of the richest collections of docu¬ 
 ments in the world. Consult C. C. Heyl, The 
 Art of the Uffizi Palace (Boston, 1912), and 
 P. G. Konody, The Uffizi Gallery (ib., 1912). 
 
 UGANDA (oo-gan'da) PROTECTORATE. 
 A British protectorate in British East Africa, 
 consisting of the native kingdom of Uganda and 
 several adjacent states (Map: Congo, F 2). 
 The protectorate covers 121,437 square miles, 
 of which 16,377 are water. 
 
 Uganda is a remarkably diversified country, 
 with snow peaks, elevated plains, vast forests, 
 low swamps, and arid depressions. The variety 
 of climate it offers is likewise exceptionally 
 great. The Lake Rudolf region in the northeast 
 has an average altitude of 2000 feet, is tropi¬ 
 cally hot, and is a barren and unpromising sec¬ 
 tion. The Mount Elgon region and that north 
 of the Victoria Nyanza in the southeast are 
 much more favorable to development, owing to 
 the ample rainfall and well-watered conditions. 
 But the climate here is generally damp, hot, and 
 productive of malarial fevers. .This region, west¬ 
 ward of the extinct volcano Mount Elgon—a 
 gigantic mass 14,200 feet high, with a crater 
 about 10 miles wide—has an average elevation 
 of some 4000 feet, and possesses dense forests, 
 marshes, and many good agricultural districts. 
 The course of the Nile from the Ripon Falls 
 (its exit from the Victoria Nyanza) through 
 Lake Kioga to the confluence of "the waters from 
 Lake Albert is within or contiguous to this 
 region. The western part of the protectorate, 
 separated from the Belgian Congo by the Albert 
 and Albert Edward lakes, the magnificent snowy 
 Ruwenzori (q.v.), whose highest summit, Alex¬ 
 andra, is 16,794 feet high, and the deep-forested 
 valley of the Semliki, forms a region rich in 
 possibilities. Splendid plateaus and charming 
 small lakes abound here. Cooling breezes make 
 much of this region not only habitable, but 
 inviting. In the Nile valley to" the north, below 
 Lake Albert, the heat is extreme, the rainfall 
 abundant on the windward slopes of the ranges. 
 The northern part of the protectorate is gener¬ 
 ally forbidding. The waters of the many lakes 
 which characterize the protectorate are partly 
 fresh and partly salt. 
 
 Except in the Rudolf district, the flora, which 
 is in general kindred to that of West Africa, is 
 rich and abundant, but there is no oil palm. 
 Papyrus covers the swampy Nile valley. The 
 lofty mountains explain the presence of the al¬ 
 pine vegetation in the higher parts,, and of the 
 witch-hazel and trees of kindred classes on the 
 plateaus. Uganda has a peculiar long grass, 
 from 10 to 15 feet high, which is used for build¬ 
 ing purposes by the natives. The fauna is allied 
 
 to that of equatorial Central Africa and the 
 Congo basin, in conformity with the moist and 
 forested character of the region. A list of the 
 birds and quadrupeds would include most of 
 those of Africa which are not strictly desert or 
 seacoast forms. Lions and leopards are numer¬ 
 ous, living upon antelopes and wild and tame 
 cattle; and the rivers and lakes abound in croco¬ 
 diles, feeding upon the fish, many of which are 
 wholesome for food. There are no anthropoid 
 apes, but many monkeys, of which the guerza is 
 most notable. Large collections of insects and 
 land shells have been made, but a great deal 
 remains to be learned of the smaller life of the 
 region. 
 
 In the eastern sections of the protectorate 
 granite and gneiss of Archaean age are promi¬ 
 nent; in the central regions, quartz, sandstone, 
 and basalt are added; around Lake Rudolf lava 
 and tufl are superimposed on the foregoing 
 formations. Iron ore is abundant and widely 
 distributed. Gold occurs northwest of Lake 
 Rudolf, and graphite in Buganda and Bunyoro. 
 The soil is very fertile, except in the Rudolf 
 region. Among the Baganda, a remarkably 
 efficient people, now largely Christian, not a 
 little has been done towards improving the coun¬ 
 try by building substantial houses, making good 
 roads, etc. The most important product com¬ 
 mercially is cotton, the output of which has in¬ 
 creased rapidly in recent years; the estimated 
 area under cotton in 1913-14 was upward of 
 110,000 acres, and the export was 6467 tons, 
 valued at £317,687. Other products are coffee, 
 peanuts, cacao, ivory, and hides. Trade is 
 chiefly in the hands of the natives and British 
 Indians. Imports of merchandise (including 
 goods in transit) increased from £168,911 in 
 1904-05 to £897,262 in 1913—14, and exports 
 (exclusive of goods in transit) from £60,378 to 
 £524,260. The so-called Uganda Railway is 
 wholly within the East Africa protectorate. 
 From Port Florence, the terminus of this rail¬ 
 way on Victoria Nyanza, a steamer service is 
 maintained with Entebbe, Jinja, and Port Bell 
 in Uganda. A railway extends 8 miles from 
 Port Bell to Kampala. The Busoga Railway 
 extends 54 miles from Jinja around the Nile 
 rapids to Kakindu, and thence 8 miles to Nama- 
 sagali, both these towns being on the Nile. 
 Thence steamers ply to Lake Kioga, again on 
 the Nile, and on Albert Nyanza. 
 
 The protectorate of Uganda is divided into 
 five provinces: Rudolf, Eastern, Northern, West¬ 
 ern, and Buganda. These provinces are sub¬ 
 divided into districts. Almost the entire pro¬ 
 tectorate outside of the Rudolf province is now 
 under direct British administration; but the 
 native chiefs are permitted, and in fact en¬ 
 couraged, to administer the government of their 
 own subjects. The province of Buganda is recog¬ 
 nized as a native kingdom. The King, whose 
 title, “Kakaba,” is hereditary, is assisted by 
 three native ministers and by a native assembly 
 “Lukiko.” This government is well organized 
 and efficient, and the dynasty can be traced back 
 to about the year 1400. Similar rights and 
 privileges are conceded to the chiefs of Bunyoro, 
 Toro, and Ankole. For Europeans and non- 
 natives justice is administered by British courts. 
 The British administration is in the hands of a 
 governor, whose headquarters arc at Entebbe. 
 The capital of the kingdom of Buganda is 
 Mengo, about 20 miles north by east of Entebbe. 
 The revenue and expenditure of the protectorate 
 
UGOGO 
 
 626 
 
 UHLAND 
 
 were £256,550 and £200,180 in 1013—14. Deficits 
 are covered by British grants in aid. 
 
 The population of the protectorate was esti¬ 
 mated, March 31, 1014, at 2,000,122, including 
 2,004,454 natives, 3651 Asiatics, and 1017 Euro¬ 
 peans (of whom 256 females). The Baganda, 
 numbering about 650,000, have many churches 
 and schools. 
 
 The natives of the protectorate may be classi¬ 
 fied as Negritos or Pygmies, Bantus (q.v.), Ni¬ 
 lotic negroes, Hamites, and Masai (q.v.), though 
 most of them are probably mixtures in varying 
 degree of these different types. The Pygmies 
 are not numerous, a few being found in that part 
 of the Congo forest which is included within the 
 limits of the protectorate. The Bantus, who in 
 general are an agricultural people, make up 
 nearly half the population. The Hamites are 
 represented by a few tribes in the islands and on 
 the north shore of Lake Budolf, and by the pas¬ 
 toral Waliuma or Bahima, probably of Galla 
 ancestry (see Gallas), who more than 100 years 
 ago conquered the Bantu agriculturists, and at 
 present, more or less mixed with Bantu blood, 
 form the aristocracy and ruling classes. They 
 are purest in the western part of the protecto¬ 
 rate, where there are also a few separate Bahima 
 tribes. The Masai are met with in the Rudolf 
 region, the Suk and Turkana tribes being good 
 representatives. The Nilotic negroes occupy the 
 Nile Province and a large part of the Central 
 Province, reaching the Victoria Nyanza in Ka- 
 virondo. Negro tribes also extend southward 
 along the Albert Nyanza, especially on the west 
 side, the Semliki River, and the Albert Edward 
 Nyanza to the extreme southwest corner of the 
 protectorate. 
 
 The Uganda protectorate was formed initially 
 of the once powerful native kingdom of Uganda, 
 which has been in the British sphere of influence 
 since 1890. The protectorate dates from 1894. 
 The region was first visited by a European (Cap¬ 
 tain Speke) in 1862. Stanley passed through 
 Uganda in 1875. 
 
 Bibliography. Speke, Journal of the Dis¬ 
 covery of the Source of the Nile (Edinburgh, 
 1863) ; Taylor, The Lake Regions of Central 
 Africa (New York, 1875) ; Wilson and Felkin, 
 Uganda and the Egyptian Sudan (London, 
 1882) ; Elisee Reclus, Geographic universelle, 
 vol. xiii (Paris, 1888) ; Richter, Uganda (Gii- 
 tersloh, 1893) ; Colville, Land of the Nile 
 Springs (London, 1895) ; Scott-Elliott, A Natu¬ 
 ralist in Mid Africa (ib., 1896) ; Ashe, Two 
 Kings of Uganda (2d ed., ib., 1897) ; Ansorge, 
 Under the African Sun (ib., 1899) ; Lugard, T1le 
 Story of Uganda (ib., 1900) ; Purvis, Handbook 
 of British East Africa and Uganda (ib., 1900) ; 
 Kollmann, The Victoria Nyanza (ib., 1900) ; 
 Sir H. H. Johnston, The Uganda Protectorate 
 (ib., 1902) ; Handbook for East Africa, Uganda, 
 and Zanzibar (Mombasa, 1903) ; A. B. Lloyd, 
 Uganda to Khartoum (New York, 1906) ; H. M. 
 Stanlev, In Darkest Africa (2 vols., ib., new ed., 
 1913). ' 
 
 UGOGO, u-go'gO. A district of German East 
 Africa, about 170 miles west of that part of the 
 coast opposite Zanzibar (Map: Congo, G 4). 
 It is a bare, arid plateau, about 3500 feet in 
 altitude, inhabited by the Gogo, or Wagogo, a 
 warlike Bantu tribe. 
 
 UGOLINO DA SIENA, oo'gO-le'no da sya'na. 
 A name appearing in the early annals of Sienese 
 painting and once thought from its different des¬ 
 ignations to apply to four persons. It is prob¬ 
 
 able, however, that the Ugolino da Siena who 
 was influenced by Duccio and Cimabue, and who 
 died at an advanced age in 1339, was identical 
 with Ugolino di Neri and L^golino di Pietro, 
 mentioned in Sienese records of 1317 and 1324. 
 The only work attributed to him with any degree 
 of probability is part of an altarpiece which 
 was painted for Santa Croce at Florence, two 
 panels of which are now in London. 
 
 UGKIANS, oo'gri-anz. A term often used to 
 designate a subdivision (closely related to the 
 Finns) of the Ural-Altaic stock, which included 
 the Ostiaks, Voguls, and Magyars. See Ural 
 Altaic 
 
 UHBE, oo'de, Fritz von (1848-1911). A 
 German historical and genre painter, born at 
 Wolkenburg, Saxony. He began his artistic 
 studies at the Dresden Academy in 1866, but, 
 finding himself at variance with the spirit pre¬ 
 vailing there, followed a military career until 
 1877, when again he took up painting at Mu¬ 
 nich, giving his attention especially to the old 
 Dutch masters. In 1879 he removed to Paris, 
 where he worked for a short time in Munkacsy’s 
 studio, but principally studied from nature and 
 Dutch models. A result of these combined in¬ 
 fluences was the “Family Concert” (1881, Co¬ 
 logne Museum). The new coloristic principles 
 which he in the meanwhile adopted are apparent 
 in the “Arrival of the Organ Grinder” (1883), 
 and, turning now to religious subjects, he created 
 those remarkable and pathetic masterpieces 
 “Suffer the Little Children to Come unto Me!” 
 (1884, Leipzig Museum) and “Come, Lord Jesus, 
 and Be Our Guest” (1885, National Gallery, 
 Berlin), both scenes in a workingman’s cottage. 
 He next produced “Christ with the Disciples 
 at Emmaus” (1885, Stadel Institute, Frank¬ 
 fort), “The Sermon on the Mount” (1887), 
 the triptych of the “Nativity” (1889, Dresden 
 Gallery), and “The Walk to Bethlehem” (1890, 
 New Pinakothek, Munich), a bold modern con¬ 
 ception of the subject. Uhde brought about a 
 complete change in German art, counting among 
 his followers most of the younger generation. 
 His later productions include: “Noli me tan- 
 gere” (1894, New Pinakothek, Munich), “The 
 Wise Men from the East” (1896, Madgeburg 
 Museum), “The Last Supper” (1897, Stuttgart 
 Museum), “Richard III,” “Ascension” (1898, 
 New Pinakothek, Munich), and “Woman, Why 
 Weepest Thou?” (1900, Vienna Museum), the 
 altarpiece of the Lutherkirche, Ziorchan (1905), 
 and “Going Home” (1908). Uhde is known for 
 his attempt to bring back German art to the 
 ancient religious ideals. Like the primitive 
 painters he depicts with deep religious feeling, 
 yet with powerful naturalism and highly poetic 
 treatment of light and atmosphere, the person¬ 
 ages of the New Testament in the lowly garb of 
 the German working classes. He also portrays 
 the woes of laboring people. Consult the mono¬ 
 graphs by Liicke (Leipzig, 1887), Graul (Vi¬ 
 enna, 1893), Bierbaum (Munich, 1893), Meiss¬ 
 ner (Berlin, 1900), and for reproductions of 
 all his works, Rosenhagen, in Klassiker der 
 Kunst (Stuttgart, 1908). 
 
 UHLAND, oo'lant, Ludwig (1787-1862). A 
 distinguished German poet, philologist, and lit¬ 
 erary historian. Born at Tubingen, April 26, 
 1787, he studied jurisprudence there in 1802- 
 OS, at the same time cultivating mediaeval litera¬ 
 ture, especially old German and French poetry, 
 the study of which he pursued for eight months 
 in Paris. On his return he began the practice 
 
UHLAND 
 
 <> 2 7 UINTATHERIUM 
 
 x)f law at Stuttgart, worked in the Ministry 
 <>f Justice, and when in 1815 Wurttemberg was 
 to be granted a new constitution, his lyrics in 
 praise of liberty were enthusiastically received. 
 -As a member of the Legislature from 1819 to 
 1839 he sided with the opposition. In 1848 he 
 was elected to the German National Assembly 
 but in 1850 retired from political life and 
 settled at Tubingen, devoting himself exclusively 
 to literary pursuits. From 1829 to 1833 lie 
 had held the professorship of German literature 
 t^i , 10 ^. n i yers ity of Tubingen. As a lyric poet 
 Uhland is remarkable for truth and simplicity 
 of sentiment and his picturesque view of nature. 
 His ballads and romances rank among the most 
 precious ideal treasures of the German nation. 
 
 in mg his early life he labored to revive the 
 ballad. None has caught the spirit of the old 
 folk song more fully than he. Of his songs 
 the most widely popular are “Der Wirtin Toch- 
 terlein” and “Der gute Kamerad”; of the bal- 
 
 1 “-?*! Schloss am Meer,” “Das Gluck von 
 Edenhall, “Des Goldschmieds Tochterlein,” 
 Koland Schildtrager,” “Der schwarze Ritter ” 
 and “Des Sangers Fluch” are in all anthologies. 
 He v as the first poet of the Swabian school who 
 sought to combine purity of style with brevity 
 and vigor, and to give romantic sentiment to all. 
 Although poetically effective, his glorifications 
 of Gei man faith, the dramas Ernst, Herzog von 
 Schwaben (1817) and Ludwig der Bayer (1819) 
 lack dramatic action and had only moderate 
 success. Uhland was a founder of Germanic 
 and Romance philology. Besides the treatise 
 Ueber das altfranzdsische Epos (1812), and an 
 essay Zur Geschichte der Freischiessen (1828), 
 there are to be especially mentioned Walther 
 Vogelweide, ein altdeutscher Dichter 
 (1822); Der Mythus von Tlior (1836), the re¬ 
 sult of painstaking original investigation; and 
 the masterly collection Alte hoch- und nieder- 
 deutsche Volkslieder (1844-45; 3d ed., 1892). 
 His poetical works were repeatedly published 
 as Gedichte und Dramen , while his scientific 
 work is embodied in Schriften zur Geschichte 
 der Dichtung und Sage, edited by Holland, Kel¬ 
 ler, and Pfeiffer (1865—72). Consult: Mayer, 
 Ludwig Uhland, seine Freunde und Zeitgenossen 
 (ib., 1867) ; id., Ludwig Uhlands Leben: Aus des- 
 sen Nachlass und aus eigener Erinnerung zusam- 
 mengestellt von seiner Wittwe (ib., 1874) ; H. 
 Dederich, Ludwig Uhland als Dichter und’ Pa¬ 
 triot (Gotha, 1886) ; W. L. Holland, Zw Ludioig 
 Uhlands Geddchtnis (Leipzig, 1886) ; H. Fischer, 
 Ludwig Uhland: eine Studie zu seiner Sakular 
 feier (Stuttgart, 1887); Bernhardt, Uhlands 
 pohtische Betatigung (1910); A. Hartmann, 
 Ludwig Uhland (Stuttgart, 1913). 
 
 UHLAND, Wilhelm Heinrich (1840-1907). 
 
 A German engineer and writer on technology^ 
 born in Nordheim, Wurttemberg. In 1S65 he 
 founded the Technikum Mittweida, the first pri¬ 
 vate institution for the instruction of machin¬ 
 ists, and in 1868 organized the Technikum 
 Frankenberg, near Chemnitz. He invented numer¬ 
 ous appliances for industrial use. He founded 
 and became editor of the periodical Der praktische 
 Maschinen-Konstrukteur, and wrote: Handbuch 
 fur den praktischen Maschinen-Konstrukteur 
 (1883); Skizzenbuch fur den praktischen 
 Maschinen-Konstrukteur (16 vols., 1867-95; 2d 
 ed., 1906) ; Die Corliss- und V entildampfmaschi- 
 nen (1879); Die Telephonanlagen (1881); 
 Dampfmuschinen mit Bchiebersteuerung (1881) ; 
 Die Woolfschen und CompounddampfmascJiinen 
 
 (1882) ; Die Hebeapparate (1882-83) ; Das elek- 
 5™* Li ° ht und Me elektrische Beleuchtung 
 (1884) ; Die Brotbdckerei, Biskuit- und Teia- 
 warenfabrikation (1885). 
 
 UHLICH, oo'Uk, Lebereciit (1799-1872). 
 One of the founders of the German “Free Conore- 
 gations” (q.v.). He was born at Gothen, Anhalt, 
 studied at Halle, and served as pastor in various 
 places till 1847, when he withdrew from the 
 Evangelical church, and thenceforth was preacher 
 Flee Congregation at Magdeburg. In 
 1841 he became the leader of the “Protestant 
 Friends,” or “Friends of Light.” His liberal 
 views frequently involved him in difficulties with 
 ai i th °- ties - He Published Bekenntnisse 
 n i?'’ 1846) ; Ghristentum und Kirche (2d 
 eel., 1846); Die Throne im Himmel und evuf 
 Drden (1845) ; Handbiichlein der freien Religion 
 (/th ed., 1889). His autobiography appeared at 
 Gera in 1872. 
 
 UHO, do / h6. See Mono and Oo. 
 
 UHRICHSyiLLE, u'riks-vil. A village in 
 luscarawas Co., Ohio, midway between Pitts¬ 
 burgh and Columbus, on Big Stillwater Creek 
 and on the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago, and 
 St. Louis, and the Baltimore and Ohio rail¬ 
 roads (Map: Ohio, IP 5). It derives consider¬ 
 able commercial importance from its situation 
 111 a farming and stock-raising region, and has 
 several large sewer-pipe and fire-clay plants, 
 
 loin ? 7 ^ ined extensivel y- Pop., 1900, 4582; 
 
 1 f* 1 Uj 4 /ol. 
 
 UIGUKS, we'gurz. A people of East Turk¬ 
 estan, and of Turkic stock. They founded the 
 powerful Kingdom of Hiong-Nu, which reached 
 its zenith in the first century a.d., when it was 
 divided into a northern and "a southern empire. 
 Fhe latter was destroyed by the Tunguses in 
 the third century, whereupon the southern 
 Uigurs retreated to the west and founded the 
 Empire of the Huns (q.v.). In the eighth cen¬ 
 tury the northern Uigurs founded a kingdom 
 which was destroyed by the Kirghizes. In the 
 liftlr century a.d. their culture, developed on the 
 slopes. of the Tian Shan, was in a flourishing 
 condition, and about this time they underwent 
 considerable Buddhistic and Chinese influence, 
 their religion having already been modified to 
 some extent by Nestorian Christians, from whom 
 they adopted the traces of Zoroastrianism pres¬ 
 ent among them. But they finally adopted the 
 faith of Islam, and have been modified in blood 
 and other characteristics by more recent Mon- 
 gol-Chinese, Arab, and Turkic elements. Time 
 has deprived the Uigurs of their independent 
 nationality and much of their peculiar culture. 
 Probably from Uigur influence the Mongols and 
 Manchus have adopted the Syrian system of 
 writing, and other advances in the culture of 
 the numerous tribes of Central Asia and Siberia 
 are, perhaps, from the Uigurs. Consult: Klap¬ 
 roth, Abhandlungen iiber die Sprache und Schrift 
 der Uiguren (Paris, 1820) ; Vamberv, Uigur- 
 ische Sprachmonumente und das Kudatku Bilik 
 (Leipzig, 1870) : Schott, Zur Uigurenfrage 
 (Beilin, 18/5) ; Radloff, Aus Sibirien (Leipzig, 
 1893) ; id., Ethnologische Uebersicht der Tilrken- 
 stdmme Sibiriens und der Mongolei (ib., 1883) ; 
 id., Die alt till kischen Inschriften der M onaolei 
 (St. Petersburg, 1899). 
 
 UUM'TATHE'RIUM (Neo-Lat., from En" 
 Uintah, mountain range in Utah + Gk. 6 VP lo7 r 
 therion, dim. of drip, ther, wild beast). An ex¬ 
 tinct and blunt-toed (amblypod) ungulate mam¬ 
 mal, found fossil in the Eocene fresh-water de- 
 
UIST 
 
 UKIYO-YE 
 
 628 
 
 posits of the western United States. The animal 
 was about the size of a rhinoceros, with a large 
 narrow head. The skull of the male is armed 
 with two pairs of bony hornlike protuberances, 
 the larger hinder pair being supported by crests 
 of bone°that slope up towards them from points 
 near the orbits. There are two small knobs on 
 the end of the nose.. Upper incisors are absent 
 and the upper canines of the male are enlarged 
 to form drooping recurved tusks. The eyes, were 
 small. The brain cavity is small, indicating a 
 ratio between weight of brain and that of body 
 of about 1 to .4000, which is exceptionally low 
 for a mammal. 
 
 UIST, wist, North and South. Two islands 
 of the Outer Hebrides, situated south of Lewis- 
 with-Harris and 15 to 30 miles west of Skye 
 (Map: Scotland, A 2). They are separated by 
 the smaller island of Benebecula. North Uist is 
 18 miles long and 3 to 10 miles wide; South 
 Uist is 22 miles long and 7 miles wide. The 
 western parts of both are fertile and productive 
 and the inhabitants engage in agriculture and 
 cattle raising, as well as fishing. Pop., 1911, 
 of North Uist, 3753; of South Uist, 5109. 
 
 UITOTAN, we-to'tan. An Indian linguistic 
 stock of Colombia, South America. The Uitoto 
 dwell on the upper Yapura River. Consult Koch- 
 Griinberg, in Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, vol. 
 xxxviii (Berlin, 1906), and id., Zivei Jahre unter 
 den Indianern (ib., 1909-10). 
 
 UJ-BECSE, oo'y’-be'che. See Becse. 
 UJFALVY, bb'y’-fal-ve, Karl Eugen (1842- 
 1904). An Austrian philologist, anthropologist, 
 and traveler, born in Vienna of an old Hun¬ 
 garian noble family. Educated in the military 
 academy at Wiener-Neustadt, he served as lieu¬ 
 tenant in the army until 1864, when he went 
 to study at the University of Bonn. Going to 
 France in 1867, he was appointed profebsoi in 
 the Oriental Academy in 1873, and by ordei of 
 the French government undertook three scientific 
 expeditions into Central Asia, in 1876—82, the 
 results of which were published in Expedition 
 scientifique frangaisc en Russie, en Siberie, et 
 dans le Turkestan (3 vols., 1878-80). Among 
 several ethnological and linguistic essays, there 
 are to be noted: La langue magyare, son origine, 
 etc. (1871); La migration des peuples, etc. 
 (1873) ; Melanges altaiques (1874), and others. 
 After 1884 he devoted himself to art-historical 
 researches and published in that field Les biscuits 
 de porcelaine (1893). 
 
 UJHELY, Satoralja, See Satoralja- 
 Ujhely. 
 
 UJI, oo / je. A well-known suburb of Kyoto, 
 Japan, the ancient capital of the Empire. Lji 
 lies on the Uji River where it breaks through 
 the gorge as it issues from Lake Biwa. The 
 pretty village is surrounded by ancient and 
 famous tea plantations. Pop., less than 20,000. 
 
 UJI (Jap., maggot). The Japanese name for 
 a parasite of the silkworm, a tachinid fly 
 (Leskia sericaria ). It is said by Sasaki that 
 the eggs of the parasite are laid upon the mul¬ 
 berry^ leaves and are eaten by the worms, after 
 which the larva hatches out and feeds in the 
 interior of the worms in the same way as do the 
 larvae of tachina flies. The life history is thus 
 very abnormal, since with other species the eggs 
 are'laid upon the body of the caterpillar or other 
 host insect. This parasite sometimes does con¬ 
 siderable damage in Japan, but fortunately has 
 not reached other silk-raising countries. 
 
 UJIJI, bo-je'j£. A town situated on the east 
 
 shore of Lake Tanganyika, Africa (Map: Congo,. 
 
 F 3). It is the terminus of the railroad from 
 Dar-es-Salaam at the coast, some 743 miles 
 long, and was formerly an important slave mar¬ 
 ket. Here Stanley found Livingstone in 1871. 
 Pop., about 8000. 
 
 UJI-YAMADA, oo'je-ya'ma-da. A town in 
 the Prefecture of Miye, central Hondo, Japan, 
 
 73 miles by rail south of Nagoya (Map: Japan, 
 
 E 6). It is filled with inns and hotels for the 
 accommodation of the pilgrims to the near-by 
 Ise shrines. Pop., 1898, 27,990; 1908, 37,539. 
 
 UJJAIN, bo-jin' (Skt. Ujjayini, City of Vic¬ 
 tory, Gk. ’O^vv, Ozene), or Oojein. A town of 
 Malwa, in the State of Gwalior, Central India, 
 on the right bank of the Sipra (Map: India, 
 
 C 4). It has an active trade in opium, cotton, 
 and grain. It was formerly encircled by a wall 
 six miles in circumference and was one of the 
 seven sacred cities of India; it has a spacious 
 bazar, a grand palace of the Maharaja Sindhia, 
 and other important monuments. Ujjain is said 
 to have been the viceregal seat of Asoka (q.v.) 
 during his father’s reign at Patna, but is better 
 known as the capital of the Samvat (q.v.) 
 Kingdom founded by Vikrama (q.v.). It was 
 the capital of Sindhia from 1750 until the seat 
 of government was removed to Gwalior in 1810. 
 Pop., 1901, 39,892. 
 
 tJJVIDEK, bo'y’vi-dak. A town in Hungary. 
 
 See Neusatz. 
 
 UKASE, u-kas' (Russ, ukazu, edict, from 
 ykazatl, to order, indicate, from y, in, by, near, 
 connected with Gk. kv, en, Lat. in, in + kazatl, 
 to show), or Ukas. A term applied in Russia 
 to all orders or edicts, legislative or adminis¬ 
 trative, emanating from the government. Ihe 
 ukases either proceed directly from the Em¬ 
 peror, or are published as decisions of the direct¬ 
 ing Senate. In either case they have the force of 
 laws till annulled by subsequent decisions. A 
 collection of ukases in 48 volumes was made by 
 order of Czar Nicholas in 1827, and has been 
 supplemented from time to time. These, elimi¬ 
 nating such as are unimportant or of tempoi ary 
 authority, constitute the present legal code 
 (s-uod) of the Russian Empire. 
 
 UKEREWE, bb'ki-ra'wa. See Victoria- 
 Nyanza. 
 
 UKHTOMSKY, uK-t6m'sk£, Esper Espero- 
 vitch, Prince (1861— ). A Russian author 
 
 and poet, born near Oranienbaum, of an old 
 princely family. In 1884 he was appointed to a 
 position in the Ministry of the Interior. His 
 Travels in the East of Nicholas II (London, 
 1806-1902), a splendidly illustrated work, pub¬ 
 lished in Russian, English, French, and German, 
 describes three journeys on which he accom¬ 
 panied the Czar. Besides many lyric poems, he 
 contributed book reviews and ciitical and his¬ 
 torical essavs to periodicals, and in 1896 as¬ 
 sumed the editorship of* the Sanktpeterburgskiya 
 Viedomosti, in which he advocated an energetic 
 Russian policy in eastern Asia. 
 
 UKIYO-YE, bb'kyo-ya' (Jap., pictures of the 
 passing world). The name of the modern pop¬ 
 ular school of painting in Japan, founded by 
 Hokusai (q.v.) and continued by his pupils and 
 successors. The beginning of the movement may 
 be traced as far back as the end of the sixteenth 
 centurv, when droll sketches were made by 
 Iwasa Matahei (1577-1650). Towards the close 
 of the eighteenth century Okvo painted fowls, 
 fishes, and monkeys, their naturalism giving an 
 immense impulse to the popularization of art. 
 
UKRAINE 
 
 629 
 
 ULCER 
 
 The most common form of Ukiyo-v6 is the 
 nishiki-yg, “brocade pictures,” and it "is the art 
 of the common people. Consult: Andersou, 
 Descriptive and Historical Catalogue of Chinese 
 and Japanese Art (London, 1886) ; Frank Brink- 
 ley, Japan: Its History, Arts, and Literature 
 (8 \ ols., Boston, 1010) ; E. F. Fenollosa, Epochs 
 g/ Chinese and Japanese Art (2 vols., New York, 
 
 U'KRAINE. A name formerly applied to a 
 part of the old Kingdom of Poland, comprising 
 portions of the present Russian governments of 
 Podolia, Kiev, Techernigov, Ekaterinoslav, and 
 Kherson, the whole of Poltava, and part of 
 Galicia. By the Treaty of Andrussovo in 1667 
 the portion to the left of the Dnieper and Kiev 
 passed to Russia, and later became known as 
 Little Russia. Ihe remainder was acquired by 
 Russia at the second partition of Poland in 
 1793. 
 
 UKRAINIANS, u-kran'i-anz, or Little Rus¬ 
 sians ( Malorussians ). A Slavic people num¬ 
 bering about 35,000,000 inhabiting the south¬ 
 east of Russia (especially the governments of 
 Volhynia, Kiev, Podolia, Kherson, Ekaterinoslav, 
 Kharkov, Poltava, and Chernvgov) and parts of 
 Austria-Hungary. (See Ru’thenians.) Com¬ 
 pared with the Great Russians, the Ukrainians 
 . are taller, darker, and more brachycephalic and 
 show a marked difference in temperament, man¬ 
 ners, and customs. The Ukrainians of Russia 
 belong to the Greek church, while those of Aus¬ 
 tria are mostly Uniates. 
 
 The early history of Russia in so far as it 
 centres about the State of Kiev is in fact 
 Ukiainian history. (See Russia, History .) 
 The Ukrainian principality of Galicia (Halich) 
 which was founded in the twelfth century was 
 annexed to Poland in the fourteenth. About the 
 same time Ukrainian Kiev and Volhynia were 
 wrested by Lithuania and later incorporated in 
 Poland. Polish discipline, however, availed lit¬ 
 tle against^ the turbulent Ukrainian Cossacks. 
 In 1654 Khmelnitski, or Chmielnicki (q.v.), 
 hetman of the Zaporogian Cossacks allied him¬ 
 self to Czar Alexei Mikhailovich and for 100 
 years the Zaporogian military republic (Sich) 
 enjoyed autonomy under the protectorate of 
 Russia. Catharine II, however, destroyed it in 
 1775. The partition of Poland brought under 
 the Russian crown all the Ukrainian lands ex¬ 
 cept Galicia. See War in Europe. 
 
 The dialects spoken by the Ukrainians differ 
 from Great Russian (see Russian Language) 
 by such phonetic changes as i for Russian e(ie) ; 
 h for g; another i sound for primarv o and e 
 in closed syllables; etc. The early literature of 
 Kievite Russia (see Russian Literature) was 
 largely Ukrainian literature. The modern 
 Ukrainian literature, as distinct from the Rus¬ 
 sian, was inaugurated in 1798 by Kotliarevsky 
 (q.v.) and illustrated by such writers as the 
 poet Shevchenko (q.v.) and the novelists and 
 storv-writers Storozhenko (1817-74), Levitski- 
 Nechui (1838- ), Panas Mirny, and Evdotia 
 
 Panaev-Stanitski (1820-93). With the seventies 
 the centre of Ukrainian literary activity was 
 shifted to Galicia, where the Ukrainians could 
 write without fear of government interference. 
 The most distinguished modern writers are Boris 
 Grinchenko (1863-1910), Ivan Franko (1856- 
 
 ), the novelist Kotsinbinski (died 1913), 
 the poets Konisski (1836-1900) and Lesia 
 Ukrainka (died 1903), and the dramatist Tobile- 
 vich (1845-1907). 
 
 Bibliography. In Russian: the histories of 
 Efimenko (St. Petersburg, 1906); Kovalevski 
 (ib., 1912) ; Grushevski’s Survey (3d ed., Kiev, 
 and his Illustrated History of the Ukraine 
 
 T ( T St -,^t e / sbur "’' 1913); P °g° din > The Slavic 
 World (Moscow, 1915); in Ukrainian: Grushev- 
 
 skis History of the Ukrainian People (Kiev, 
 1904- ; vol. i in Ger. trans., Leipzig, 1906). 
 
 i eiiodicals: Ruthenische Revue (Vienna, 1903- 
 OS), continued as Ukrainische Rundschau: 
 Revue Ukraimenne (Lausanne, 1915 et seq.) ; 
 Ann ales des Nationaliies (Paris, issue of March 
 1913) and Svohoda of Feb. 29, 1916 (Jersey 
 City). The propagandist literature in English 
 on the so-called Ukrainian Question is fairlv 
 large. Mention may be made of Fedorchuk. 
 Memorandum on The Ukrainian Question (Lon¬ 
 don, 1914); Bedwin Sands (A. Raffalovich), 
 The Ukraine (ib., 1914), containing a good bib¬ 
 liography; Steffen, Russia,, Poland and The 
 Ukraine {New York, 1915); and Ukraine’s Call 
 to Freedom (ib., 1915). There are literary his¬ 
 tories and monographs by Franko (Lemberg, 
 1910), Efremov (Kiev, 1911), Ogonovski (Lem¬ 
 berg, 1884-86), N. Petrov, and Zhitetski; in 
 German, Pypin and Spasovich, Geschichte der 
 slavischen Literaturen, vol. i (Leipzig, 1880). 
 Further, Pypin, History of Russian Ethnography, 
 vol. 111 (St. Petersburg, 1900); Grinchenko, 
 Literature of Ukrainian Folklore / Levitski, 
 Galician Russian Bibliography of the Nineteenth 
 Century (Lemberg, 1888-89); Literatumo- 
 Naukovy Vistnik (ib., 1898 et seq.). 
 
 ULBACH, ul'bash', Louis (1822-89). A 
 French novelist, born at Troyes. Fie began his 
 career as a journalist and took part in several 
 violent controversies, the most notable of which 
 concerned his accusation that Edmond About 
 (q.v.) in his novel Tolla had been guilty of 
 plagiarism. Ulbach was appointed librarian of 
 the Arsenal Library in 1875. He wrote many 
 popular novels, including: M. et Mme. Fernel 
 (1860) ; La ronde de nuit (1874) ; Le crime de 
 Martial (1880); Le marteau d’acier (1882); 
 Autour de Vamour (1885); La maitresse du 
 general (1887), and Le parrain de Cendrillon 
 (1888). 
 
 ULCER (from Lat. ulcus, Gk. e'X/co?, helkos, 
 sore, ulcer, wound). An open sore; a super¬ 
 ficial solution in the continuity of the soft parts. 
 The tendency of an ulcer is towards continued 
 dissolution of the tissues in which it exists, 
 rather than towards healing, as in the case of an 
 ordinary open granulating wound, the latter 
 being less frequently (though properly) called 
 an ulcer. They are usually classified according 
 to character and mode of origin into simple and 
 specific or infective ulcers. Infective ulcers may 
 result from such infective diseases as syphilis, 
 tubercle, leprosy, and glanders. Among the sim¬ 
 ple ulcers may be mentioned a number of va¬ 
 rieties, such as the traumatic or inflammatory, 
 the varicose or chronic, the erethritic or irritable, 
 the perforating or trophic, the callous or indo¬ 
 lent ulcer, the hemorrhagic, the phagedenic, and 
 the fungous ulcer. 
 
 The structures to which ulceration is usually 
 limited are the skin and mucous membranes. 
 Upon the surface of an ulcer a layer of inflam¬ 
 matory exudate is found, mingled with frag¬ 
 ments of broken-down tissue or tissue in a state 
 of coagulation necrosis. Beneath this lies a 
 layer of granulation tissue, composed of polynu¬ 
 clear leucocytes and epithelioid cells, with rela¬ 
 tively little intercellular substance, but richly 
 
ULEILAS 
 
 ULEABORG 630 
 
 supplied with a network of capillary blood ves¬ 
 sels, and forming the base of the ulcer. Below 
 this there is usually found some of the fibrous 
 tissue of the deeper layers of the skin. The 
 edo-es of the ulcer consist of the sui rounding 
 skin, more or less altered by inflammatory 
 changes. The margins of an ulcer are occasion¬ 
 ally undermined by'the ulcerative process, or they 
 may become firmly adhesive to the periosteum of 
 bone or other subjacent structures. The varicose 
 ulcer, the form most commonly seen by the sur¬ 
 geon, is situated usually on the front of the leg, 
 above its lower third. Around it are generally 
 seen the numerous dilated and congested veins 
 whose condition is responsible for the ulcerative 
 process. Passive hypersemia and its resultant 
 enfeebled nutrition are the fundamental causes 
 of ulceration in this locality. 
 
 The treatment of ulceration in general may be 
 regarded as constitutional and local. Constitu¬ 
 tional treatment consists in fresh air, nourish¬ 
 ing diet, proper hygienic surroundings, adminis¬ 
 tration of iron where anaemia exists, and ap¬ 
 propriate medication for any specific constitu¬ 
 tional disease that may be present. Tuberculous 
 ulcers are often healed rapidly by exposure to 
 the sunlight. Local treatment consists in rest 
 and elevation of the part, antiseptic measures, 
 and the application of special local forms of 
 treatment adapted to the conditions present at 
 the site of ulceration. Bandaging, strapping, 
 and the application of various stimulating sub¬ 
 stances are the* measures generally employed. 
 An ointment of “scarlet red,” an anilin dye, is 
 often applied to hasten epithelial growth. Con¬ 
 sult: E. M. Foote, A Textbook of Minor Sur¬ 
 gery (New York, 1914) ; E. Adams, Treatment 
 of Chronic Leg Ulcers (ib., 1914) ; J. C. DaCosta, 
 Modern Surgery (7th ed., Philadelphia, 1914). 
 
 ULEABORG, uTe-6-borV. The northernmost 
 government of Finland, Russia (Map: Russia, 
 C 1). Area, 63,954 square miles, or 44 per 
 cent of the area of Finland. The surface is 
 densely wooded and interspersed with lakes and 
 marshes. The climate is very severe. The chief 
 industry is lumbering. There are also some 
 metal works and tanneries. Pop., 1912, 326,900, 
 almost exclusively Finns. 
 
 ULEABORG (Finnish, Oulu). The capital of 
 the Government of Uleaborg, in Finland, Rus¬ 
 sia, on the Gulf of Bothnia, 498 miles by rail 
 north of Helsingfors (Map : Russia, C 2). Its 
 trade includes produce, coal, iron, salt, raw 
 hides, and timber. Pop., 1913, 21,000. 
 
 ULEMA, ul'a-ma (Ar. ulama , pi. of alim, 
 learned, from alima, to know). The lawyers 
 of Islam. This religion has no ecclesiastical 
 ministry, as any one of the Faithful may lead 
 a congregation in prayer as Imam. But, as 
 theoretically every detail of life is to be guided 
 by the letter of the Koran, along with all the 
 approved traditions and orthodox interpreta¬ 
 tions, there is the necessity of a class of men 
 learned in the canon law, to act as advisers of the 
 Faithful in all these emergencies. The Ulemas, 
 therefore, correspond most closely to the class 
 of the Scribes or Rabbis in Judaism. Their 
 province is now confined to a limited field in 
 the Turkish Empire. By dictating details of 
 domestic life, they wield vast authority over the 
 people, and stand independent of, and often op¬ 
 posed to, the secular government. They are re¬ 
 cruited mostly from the lower classes. The can¬ 
 didates go up to the schools or universities, 
 where the scholar remains three or four years, 
 
 passing successively through the disciplines of 
 grammar, dogma, and law. He may also pursue 
 logic, rhetoric, etc. The great Mohammedan 
 university is that of Cairo. The order is 
 hierarchically graded. Above the lowest class 
 stand the muftis and mollahs (qq.v.). 
 
 U'LEX. See Furze. 
 
 U'LEXITE (named in honor of G. L. Ulex, 
 a German chemist). A hydrated sodium and 
 calcium borate that occurs in rounded masses, 
 consisting of fine fibres. It has a silky lustre, 
 and is white. It is an important source of 
 bor£ix 
 
 ULEELDT, ool'felt, Korfiz, Count (1606- 
 64). A Danish adventurer. Through marriage 
 with Leonora Christina, the natural daughter of 
 King Christian IV, he rose to high office, being 
 made governor of Copenhagen and royal steward 
 (1643). He retained his influence after the ac¬ 
 cession of Frederick III, the enmity of whose 
 Queen, however, forced him in 1653 to flee to 
 Sweden. In 1657 he fought against his native 
 country, and by the Treaty of Roskilde (1658) 
 was restored to his estates. After many vicissi¬ 
 tudes he died a fugitive near Basel, Feb. 20, 
 1664. His wife was kept a prisoner at Copen¬ 
 hagen from 1663 to 1685, and wrote an account 
 of her captivity in Jammers Minde, a notable 
 specimen of Danish prose. She died in 1698. 
 Consult Ziegler, Denlcwurdigkeiten der Grafin 
 Leonora Christina, vermdhlten Grafin Ulfeldt 
 (Vienna, 1879). 
 
 ULEILAS, uFfi-las, Gothic WULEILA, wul'- 
 fi-la (little wolf) (c.311-c.383). Bishop of the 
 Goths, and translator of the Bible into Gothic. 
 He was born in Dacia. Tradition relates that 
 his ancestors were Cappadocian Christians who 
 had been taken captive by the Goths and lived 
 many years among them. Early in life he was a 
 lector' or reader of the Scriptures among his 
 countrymen, and in 341 he was consecrated 
 Bishop of the West Goths by Eusebius of 
 Nicomedia (q.v.) at a synod at Antioch. He 
 was then and for the remainder of his life an 
 Arian. For seven years he worked with much 
 success as a missionary north of the Danube. 
 In 348 the persecution of a heathen chief com¬ 
 pelled Ulfilas and his flock to emigrate, and, 
 with the consent of the Emperor Constantine, 
 they settled in Mcesia, in Byzantine territory 
 south of the Danube. For more than 30 years 
 Ulfilas continued his activity as the apostle to 
 the Goths; he died at Constantinople, whither 
 he had been summoned by the Emperor. L lfilas 
 had a good knowledge of Greek, Latin, and 
 Gothic, and preached and wrote in all three 
 languages. He is remembered chiefly for his 
 translation of the Bible, which marks not only 
 the beginning of Christianity among his people, 
 but of Germanic literature as well. His plan 
 is said to have included the entire Bible with the 
 exception of the Books of Kings, which he 
 thought contained too much about wars for the 
 good of his fierce countrymen. The portions of 
 his work which have been preserved are most 
 of the four Gospels, the Second Epistle to the 
 Corinthians, and other fragments, comprising 
 the greater portion of the New Testament; of the 
 Old ^Testament, portions of the Books of Ne- 
 hemiah and Genesis only. The chief manuscript 
 is the so-called Codex Argenteus, written with 
 silver letters on purple parchment and now in 
 the library of the University of Upsala. Edi¬ 
 tions of all the fragments have been published 
 bv Von der Gabelenz and Lobe (3 vols., Leipzig, 
 
 V 
 
ULLATHORNE 
 
 631 ULRICH 
 
 1843—46); Uppstrom, Codex Argenteus , in fac¬ 
 simile (Upsala, 1854-57); Fragmenta Gothica 
 hclecta (ib., 1861) ; Codices Gothici Ambrosiani 
 (Stockholm, 1868); Bernhardt (Halle, 1875); 
 Heyne (9th ed., Paderborn, 1896) ; Stamm (11th 
 ed., ib., 1908). Consult also: W. Bessell, Ueber 
 das Leben des Ulfilas und die Bekehrung der 
 Goten zum Christentum (Gottingen, 1860) ; 
 C. A. A. Scott, Ulfilas: Apostle of the Goth's 
 (London, 1885); Cambridge Mediceval History, 
 vol. i (New York, 1911). 
 
 ULLATHORNE, ul'a-thorn, William Ber¬ 
 nard (1806-89). An English Roman Catholic 
 prelate, born at Pocklington, Yorkshire. He 
 " ent to sea in 1821, entered the Benedictine 
 monastery at Downside, near Bath, in 1823, 
 and took the vaws in 1825. Ordained a priest 
 in 1831, he was vicar general at Sydney, Aus¬ 
 tralia, in 1833-36; returning to England, he 
 agitated against the transportation system in 
 1836—38; and then spent two more years in Aus¬ 
 tralia. In 1841 he was placed in charge of a 
 mission at Coventry, in 1845 became Bishop 
 of the west of England. From 1850 to 1888, 
 when he retired, he served as Bishop of Birming¬ 
 ham. His writings on religious subjects include: 
 The Endowments of Man (1882) ; The Ground¬ 
 work of the Christian Virtues (1883) ; Christian 
 Patience (1886). Consult his Autobiography 
 (London, 1891). J 
 
 ULLMARHST, ul'man, Karl (1796-1865). A 
 German Protestant theologian. He was born at 
 Epfenbach, Bavaria,. and studied theology at 
 Heidelberg and Tubingen. He was appointed 
 piofessor at Heidelberg in 1821. In connection 
 with Umbreit he established in 1828 the Theolo- 
 gische Studien und Kritiken. He was professor 
 at Halle, 1829-36, after which he returned to 
 Heidelberg. He was president of the supreme 
 ecclesiastical council of Baden, 1856-61. His 
 most important works were Gregor von ~Nazianz 
 (1825; 2d ed., 1867) ; Hie Reformatoren vor der 
 Reformation (1841; 2d ed., 1866: Eng. trans., 
 1877); Ueber die Sundlosigkeit Jesu (7th ed., 
 1863) ; Das 1 Vesen des Christenthums (5th ed., 
 1865), all of which were translated into English. 
 His chief writings were published in five volumes 
 (Gotha, 1863-67). Consult his Life bv Bey- 
 schlag (Gotha, 1867). 
 
 ULLOA, ul-yo'a, Antonio de (1716-95). A 
 Spanish statesman and scientist, born at Seville. 
 He entered the Spanish navy, and in 1735 ac¬ 
 companied to South America the French scien¬ 
 tific expedition sent out to measure a degree of 
 the meridian at the equator. He became rear 
 admiral in 1760, went to Louisiana as Governor 
 in 1764, and was made lieutenant general of the 
 naval forces in 1770. He was sent on a secret 
 expedition against Florida, but his zeal as nat¬ 
 uralist made him forget his sealed orders and 
 brought him before a court-martial (1780). 
 He was acquitted, but lived in retirement. He 
 wrote the important work Aoticias americanas, 
 entretenimientos fisico-historicos sobre la Amer¬ 
 ica Mcridonal y la Septentrional Oriental . . 
 (Madrid, 1772). 
 
 ULLOA’S RING. See Anthelia. 
 ULLSWATER, ulz'wa'ter. The largest of 
 the English lakes, after Windermere, lying be¬ 
 tween Cumberland and Westmoreland, 10 miles 
 east of Keswick (Map: England, D 2). Length, 
 Sy 2 miles; breadth, % to % m ii e . jt s scenery 
 is rugged and grand, and one of its chief features 
 is Helvellyn. 
 
 ULM, ulm. A city of the Kingdom of Wiirt- 
 
 temberg, Germany, and an important Imperial 
 fortress at the junction of the Iller and the 
 i Jau with the Danube, which here becomes navi¬ 
 gable, 43 miles west of Augsburg (Map: Ger- 
 many, D 4). Two bridges unite the city with 
 JNew Ulm, a village on the Bavarian side of 
 the Danube. The streets are narrow. The min¬ 
 ster (a Protestant church) is the most impor¬ 
 tant and beautiful example of late Gothic 
 architecture in Germany, and next to Cologne 
 Cathedral is the largest churcli in that country. 
 It is 40/ feet long, 159 feet broad, and the spire 
 (finished 1890) is 530 feet high. The building 
 was begun in 1377, and finished, except the 
 spire, in 1494. The leading industries are flax, 
 cotton, and woolen weaving; bleaching; the 
 manufacture of paper, leather, and mixed fabrics; 
 beer brewing, shipbuilding, printing, etc. Ulm 
 is famed for ornamental pipe bowls, its pastry, 
 called Ulmer bread,, and its trimmed lumber, 
 lop., 1910, 56,109. Ulm was a free Imperial 
 city as early as the twelfth century, and had 
 become very prosperous by the close of the 
 Middle Ages. In 1530 the city accepted the Ref- 
 oimation, and the majority of the people have 
 since been Lutherans. In 1802 Ulm was at¬ 
 tached to Bavaria, and became part of Wiirt- 
 temberg in 1810. Here on Oct. 17, 1805, the 
 Austrian general Mack surrendered to the 
 French with about 23,000 men. Consult: Pres- 
 sel, Ulmisches Urkundenbuch (Stuttgart, 1873) ; 
 Loeffler, Geschiclite der Festung Ulm (Ulm, 
 1883); Schultes, Chronik von Ulm (ib./ 1886). 
 
 UL'MIN. See Humus. 
 
 ULfPIAN (Domitius Ulpianus). A distin¬ 
 guished Roman jurist, a citizen of Tyre, who 
 lived in the latter part of the second and the 
 first part of the third century. Under Septimius 
 Severus (193-211 a.d. ) he became assessor in the 
 auditorium of Papinian, i.e., he was an as¬ 
 sociate justice when Papinian was praetorian 
 preiect or Chief Justice of the Empire. Under 
 Caracalla, who put Papinian to death, Ulpian 
 retained his position; but Elagabalus stripped 
 him of his dignities and exiled him from Rome. 
 On the accession (222 a.d.) of the youthful Alex¬ 
 ander Severus, to whose mother he was related, 
 Ulpian was recalled, appointed guardian of the 
 Emperor and praetorian prefect, and became the 
 virtual Regent of the Empire. He was slain in 
 228 a.d. in a rising of the Praetorian Guard. 
 Ulpian was one of the most prolific of the 
 Roman legal writers. Besides voluminous com¬ 
 mentaries on the civil law and on the praetorian 
 edict, he published collections of cases (opinions, 
 responses, etc.), books of rules and institutions, 
 treatises on the powers and duties of different 
 magistrates, and many monographs. On account 
 of the lucidity of his style, Justinian’s compilers 
 drew more largely upon his writings than upon 
 those of any other jurist. Excerpts from his 
 works constitute one-third of the Digest. Out¬ 
 side of Justinian’s Digest, only one of Ulpian’s 
 books has been even partially preserved, viz., his 
 monograph . on rules ( Liber Singula ris Regu- 
 larum) , which appears to have been a handbook 
 for practitioners. It is frequently printed with 
 the Institutes of Gaius, as in Muirhead’s edition 
 (Edinburgh, 1880), and in that of Abdy and 
 Walker (3d ed., Cambridge, Eng., 1885)'. See 
 Civil Law; Jurisconsult. 
 
 ULRICH, ool'rik (1487-1550). Duke of 
 Wiirttemberg. He was the son of Count Henry 
 IV, and at the age of 11 succeeded to the duke¬ 
 dom, assuming personal power in 1503. He 
 
ULRICH 
 
 ULTRAMONTANISTS 
 
 632 
 
 added to the territory of Wiirttemberg, but so 
 impoverished the peasantry that in 1514 they 
 rose in revolt. This he quelled only after many 
 important concessions. By the murder of Hans 
 von Hutten, brother of Ulrich von Hutten, he 
 aroused the enmity of the dukes of Bavaria and 
 the nobility. He was placed under the ban of 
 the Empire, and was driven from the country by 
 the Swabian League in 1519, and his possessions 
 were sold by the league to Charles V, who trans¬ 
 ferred them afterward to his brother Ferdinand. 
 Ulrich went over to the Protestants, and with 
 the aid of Philip of Hesse won back his dukedom, 
 at the head of an army of 20,000 men (1534), 
 but only as a fief of Austria. He then carried 
 on the work of the Reformation, joined the 
 Schmalkaldic League, and fought against Charles 
 V in 1546. He bought a precarious peace from 
 the Emperor at great cost, and died in 1550 just 
 as he was again threatened with deposition. 
 Consult Kugler, Ulrich, Herzog zu Wiirttemberg 
 (Stuttgart, 1865). 
 
 ULRICH, ul'rik, Charles Frederick (1858- 
 1908). An American painter. He was born in 
 New York City and studied there at Cooper In¬ 
 stitute and the National Academy, and after¬ 
 ward in Munich. In 1883 he was awarded the 
 Thomas B. Clarke prize for his picture “In the 
 Land of Promise,” and was elected an associate 
 of the National Academy. His pictures, which 
 are detailed in treatment and minutely finished, 
 include “The Carpenter,” “A Dutch Typesetter,” 
 “The Wood Engraver,” and “Glass Blowers of 
 Murano” (Metropolitan Museum, New York). 
 
 ULRICH, Edward Oscar (1857- ). An 
 
 American paleontologist, born at Cincinnati, 
 Ohio. He studied at German Wallace College, 
 Berea, Ohio, and at Ohio Medical College. He 
 was curator of geology for the Cincinnati So¬ 
 ciety of Natural History in 1877-81, served as 
 paleontologist to the geological surveys of Illi¬ 
 nois, Minnesota, and Ohio between 1885 and 
 1896, and after 1897 was geologist of the United 
 States Geological Survey. For ten years he was 
 an associate editor of the American Geologist. 
 His publications include: American Palceozoic 
 Bryozoa (1884); American Palceozoic Sponges 
 and Palceozoic Bryozoa (1890) ; Geology of the 
 Lead, Zinc, and Fluor Spar District of Western 
 Kentucky (1904) ; A Revision of Palceozoic Sys¬ 
 tems (1911). 
 
 ULRICH VON HUTTEN, yl'riK f6n hut'- 
 
 ten. See Hutten, Ulrich von. 
 
 ULRICH VON LICHTENSTEIN, liiUten- 
 stln (c.1200-76). A German minnesinger, born 
 in Styria, of an ancient noble race, and who was 
 Landeshauptmann of Styria in 1245, headed the 
 refractory Styrian nobility, and went through a 
 terrible imprisonment in his own castle of 
 Frauenburg. His chief work, Frauendienst 
 (1255), is valuable for the history of civilization. 
 It describes many tournaments and foolish adven¬ 
 tures, which he, a married man and an other¬ 
 wise sensible gentleman of good reputation, 
 claims to have undertaken in the service of a 
 high-born mistress. Unintentionally it reduced the 
 decadent woman cult of the day to an absurdity. 
 However, it contains some graceful lyrics. The 
 Frauendienst was published by Bechstein in two 
 volumes (Leipzig, 1888). Consult also Falke, 
 Geschichte der fiissleicJien Pauses Lichtenstein, 
 vol. i (Vienna, 1868) ; Ivnorr, Ueber Ulrich von 
 Lichtenstein (Strassburg, 1875) ; Becker, Wahr- 
 heit und Dichtung in U. von Lichtensteins 
 Frauendienst (Halle, 1888). 
 
 ULRICH VON TURHEIM, tur'hlm. A 
 
 Swabian noble and epic poet of the thirteenth 
 century. Of the details of' his life nothing is 
 known. He continued, using other sources, Gott¬ 
 fried von Strassburg’s Tristan und Isolde, and 
 Wolfram von Eschenbach’s Willehalm. The for¬ 
 mer is conjecturally dated 1240, the latter, en¬ 
 titled Der starlce Renneicart, 1250. Consult: 
 Bechstein, Tristan und Isolde (Leipzig, 1875) ; 
 Lolimeyer, Die Handschriften des Willehalm 
 Ulrich von Turheim (Halle, 1882) ; and article 
 by O. Kohl in Zeitschrift fur deutsche Philologie , 
 vol. xiii (ib., 1882). 
 
 ULRICI, ul-re'tse, Hermann (1806-84). A 
 German philosopher, born at Pforten, Branden¬ 
 burg. He studied at Halle and Berlin, and after 
 a brief career as a lawyer devoted himself ex¬ 
 clusively to literature and philosophy. In 1834 
 he was appointed professor of philosophy at 
 Halle, where he resided till his death. Among 
 his works are to be mentioned: Geschichte der 
 hellenischen Dichtkunst (1835); Ueber Shake- 
 spearcs dramatische Kunst (1839; Eng. trans., 
 1864) ; Ueber Princip und Methode der Hegels- 
 chen Philosophic (1841); Das Grundprincip der 
 Philosophic (1845-46); System der Logik 
 (1852) ; Gott und die Natur (1862) ; Gott und 
 der Mensch (1866-72). He was an opponent of 
 the Hegelian philosophy, and endeavored to es¬ 
 tablish an empirical idealism. 
 
 UL'STER. The northernmost province of 
 Ireland, comprising the nine counties of Antrim, 
 Armagh, Cavan, Donegal, Down, Fermanagh, 
 Londonderry, Monaghan, and Tyrone (qq.v.). 
 Total area, 8613 square miles. Pop., 1861, 2,- 
 389,263; 1901, 1,582,826; 1911, 1,581,696. The 
 Presbyterians and Episcopalians constitute more 
 than half of the inhabitants. 
 
 UL'STERITES. See Party Names. 
 
 UL'STER KING-AT-ARMS. The chief 
 heraldic officer of Ireland. See King-at-Arms. 
 
 ULTIMA THULE, fil'ti-ma thu'le. See 
 Thule. 
 
 UL'TRAMARINE' (from Lat. ultra, beyond 
 + marinus, marine, from mare, sea). A blue 
 pigment originally obtained from the mineral 
 lazulite, or lapis lazuli (q.v.). The finest speci¬ 
 mens of lazulite come from various localities in 
 Persia, Siberia, and Chile, and when ground form 
 the pigment; but, as only a very small proportion 
 of that mineral is available, the pigment is very 
 expensive. In 1828 Guimet, of Toulouse, was 
 successful in producing it on a commercial scale, 
 and almost simultaneously a synthetical method 
 for its preparation was announced by Gmelin, 
 of Tubingen. For the manufacture of artificial 
 ultramarine, sodium sulphate, china clay, and 
 carbon are ground together and heated in cruci¬ 
 bles, afterward being roasted with powdered sul¬ 
 phur. A so-called direct method, which is said 
 to yield better results, consists in calcining in a 
 muffle furnace a mixture of sulphur, china clay, 
 soda ash, charcoal, and some infusorial earth. 
 The pigment fords extensive use in the arts as a 
 coloring material, owing to its brilliancy as a 
 body color and high coloring power. Cobalt 
 ultramarine, or Tlffinard’s blue, is a pigment pre¬ 
 pared by mixing freshly precipitated alumina 
 with cobalt arsenate or phosphate, drying the 
 mixture, and then slowly heating it to redness. 
 Yellow ultramarine is a pigment consisting of 
 barium chromate. Laundry blueing was for¬ 
 merly made from ultramarine. 
 
 ULTRA-MICROSCOPE. See Microscope. 
 
 UL'TRAMON'TANISTS (from Lat. ultra, 
 
ULTRA VIRES 
 
 ULTRA-VIOLET RAY 633 
 
 beyond -f- montanus, mountainous, relating to a 
 mountain, from mons, mountain; from the ge- 
 ographical position of Italy relative to countries 
 north of the Alps, and hence applied to the 
 Italian party in the Roman Catholic church). 
 T he name applied to those who recognize the 
 papal claim of supremacy over all national 
 churches and sovereigns. Since 1870 it has been 
 used also as a designation of all who accept the 
 decrees of the Vatican Council, and in a broader 
 sense it has been applied to the most conserva¬ 
 tive element in the Roman Catholic church. In 
 a purely political sense it has come to be used 
 to designate the extreme Catholic party in al¬ 
 most every nation of northern Europe. The 
 Ultramontanists as a church party first ap¬ 
 peared in the papacy of Gregory VII (q.v.), 
 who maintained that the Pope had the power 
 to depose and absolve temporal rulers. The en¬ 
 forcement of this theory would have had the ef¬ 
 fect of entirely superseding the freedom of action 
 of the various churches, and its assertion aroused 
 powerful opposition in the churches of Germany 
 and France. After the Council of Constance 
 (1414-18) (q.v.) the struggle between the Ultra¬ 
 montanists and the champions of the liberties 
 of the various churches became the principal 
 point of dispute within the ecclesiastical body. 
 
 I he opposition in the Gallican church was par¬ 
 ticularly active. After the reconstruction of 
 Europe, following the Napoleonic wars, the 
 actual influence of the Ultramontanists was de¬ 
 creased, although their principles were still often 
 reasserted. In 1869-70, in connection with the 
 meeting of the Vatican Council and the discus¬ 
 sion of the doctrine of papal infallibility, the 
 political aspects of Ultramontanism assumed 
 new importance. In Germany, Austria, and 
 France the Catholic parties in Parliament are 
 designated by the name of Ultramontanes. Con¬ 
 sult Hoenbroech, Der Ultramontanismus (2d ed., 
 Berlin, 1898), and L. K. Gotz, Der Ultramon¬ 
 tanismus als Weltanschauung (Bonn, 1905). 
 
 ULTRA-VIOLET RAY (Method of Water 
 Purification ). See Water Purification. 
 
 ULTRA VIRES, ul'tra vi'rez (Lat., beyond 
 one’s powers). A legal term employed to indi¬ 
 cate the acts of, or contracts entered into by, 
 corporate bodies beyond the scope of the powers 
 given to them expressly or by implication by 
 their charters or the general law under which 
 they were created. 
 
 Ultra-Vires Contracts. Ultra-vires contracts 
 of corporations should be distinguished from 
 those which are illegal either by statute or some 
 rule of the common law. Strictly an ultra-vires 
 contract of a corporation is without legal valid¬ 
 ity to bind the corporation because the act is 
 without or beyond the legal powers of the cor¬ 
 poration, that is, the powers specified in its char¬ 
 ter or certificate of incorporation, and those 
 necessarily to be implied therefrom, and there¬ 
 fore has no legal existence. Illegal contracts, 
 on the other hand, are without such validity be¬ 
 cause of the positive prohibition of such con¬ 
 tracts by the statute or common law on grounds 
 of public policy. This distinction is important 
 because of the difference in the consequences 
 which flow respectively from ultra-vires con¬ 
 tracts and illegal contracts of corporations. 
 (For a fuller discussion of this subject, see 
 Quasi Contracts.) It is held by the English 
 courts, by the Federal courts of the United 
 States, and by the courts of some of the States 
 that neither party to an ultra-vires contract can 
 
 acquire any true contract rights under it. In 
 each of these courts, except the English courts, 
 it is also held that in case either party has 
 given his performance under such a contract, 
 he may recover the property or thing so given in 
 an appropriate action, or the value of the per¬ 
 formance. so given, on theory of quasi contract. 
 The distinction between rights on the contract 
 and in quasi contract in case of ultra-vires con¬ 
 tracts is often of the greatest importance. 
 
 The second view with reference to ultva-vires 
 contracts, and the one which is held in most of 
 the States, is that so long as such contracts re¬ 
 main executory neither party to the contract 
 acquires any rights under it, it being a complete 
 answer to an action brought by either party 
 either for damages or specific performance that 
 the contract is invalid because ultra vires. If, 
 however, either party has performed the contract 
 on his part,, the other is held to be estopped to 
 deny its validity, and the plaintiff may recover 
 as though the contract were originally valid. In 
 a few States, notably New York, even although 
 the contract is fully performed there can be no 
 recovery unless the performance has benefited the 
 corporation. The application of the doctrine of 
 estoppel to such cases is anomalous and in many 
 cases practically does away with the doctrine of 
 ultra vires. In the case of negotiable paper is¬ 
 sued ultra vires by a corporation, it is every¬ 
 where held that ultra, vires is a personal and not 
 a real defense (see Negotiable Instruments) r 
 and cannot be set up against a bona fide pur¬ 
 chaser for value, although it may be a valid 
 defense against the original taker* or holder of 
 the paper. In determining what contracts are 
 ultra vires, the courts have applied liberal rules 
 of interpretation, holding not only that con¬ 
 tracts expressly authorized were within the 
 powers of the corporation, but that it has all 
 the power to contract which can fairly be im¬ 
 plied from the language of its charter and from 
 the character of the business which it is author¬ 
 ized to conduct. 
 
 Torts and Crime. Strictly all torts com¬ 
 mitted by the agents of a corporation while act¬ 
 ing for the corporation are ultra vires, since a 
 corporation has no express or implied authority 
 to commit tortious acts. Following this course 
 of reasoning, the early tendency of the courts 
 was to hold that corporations could not be held 
 legally responsible for torts. Governed, how¬ 
 ever, by considerations of policy, courts now gen¬ 
 erally hold that corporations are. liable for all 
 torts of their agents and employees committed 
 by them within the scope of their authority. 
 When malice is an essential element in the tort, 
 the malice of the agent is imputed to the cor¬ 
 porate principal. Upon similar principles cor¬ 
 porations have generally been held responsible 
 for minor criminal offenses, and in many States 
 there are now special statutes governing the 
 criminal responsibility of corporations. It has 
 even been said that a corporation may be 
 guilty of a crime involving specific intent.* See 
 Criminal Law. 
 
 Courts of equity will take jurisdiction to re¬ 
 strain ultra-vires acts at the suit of a stock¬ 
 holder upon his showing that the directors or 
 trustees of the corporation refuse to act. There 
 is also statutory authority in some States for 
 proceedings brought in behalf of the State by 
 the Attorney-General to restrain ultra-vires acts 
 when they are working a public injury, and at 
 common law the State may proceed on the rela- 
 
ULUA 
 
 ULYSSES 
 
 tion of a private individual to compel forfeiture 
 of the charter of a corporation by quo war¬ 
 ranto (q.v.) on the ground that the corporation 
 is committing ultra-vires acts under such cir¬ 
 cumstances as to amount to a departure from 
 the business or purposes for which it was organ¬ 
 ized. Consult the authorities referred to under 
 Corporation; Criminal Law; Equity; Quasi 
 Contract. 
 
 ULUA, ool'wa, WOOLWA, wool'wa, or Sumo. 
 A group of tribes including the Sumo proper, the 
 Cookra, the Poya, and others, occupying the 
 headwaters of the streams which empty along 
 the east coast of Nicaragua. They call them¬ 
 selves Sumo, the other names having probably 
 been bestowed by their enemies, the Mosquito 
 (q.v.). They are below middle stature, of light 
 brown complexion and handsome features, with 
 chests and arms strongly developed. They live 
 in huts consisting of palm-leaf roofs raised upon 
 posts, accommodating four families. 'The wo¬ 
 men wear only a short skirt of bark fibre. 
 Painting is common, and they also flatten the 
 head. They plant corn, cacao, sugar cane, and 
 chile, and the women are potters, while the men 
 are expert boatmen and lumberers. Polygamy 
 prevails, and girls are frequently betrothed al¬ 
 most in infancy. Boys are subjected to manhood 
 ordeals. Their dead are buried under sheds, 
 and they unwind a long thread from the former 
 owner’s" house to the grave. Recent investiga¬ 
 tions by Dr. Lehmann have shown that the 
 language of the Ulua or Sumo group of tribes 
 is recently connected with that of the Mosquito 
 tribes of the coast and the Matagalpa of the 
 interior. 
 
 ULUGH-BEG, oo'luG-beg' or -ba' (1394-1449). 
 A Persian prince and astronomer, the grandson 
 of Timur (q.v.). He succeeded, in 1447, to the 
 Imperial throne of Samarkand on his father’s 
 death. He was a successful warrior, but was 
 finally defeated, captured, and put to death by 
 his eldest son, who had been driven to rebellion 
 by his father’s unjust suspicions of his loyalty. 
 
 Ulugh-Beg founded the observatory at Sa¬ 
 markand. He is noted as a patron of astrono¬ 
 mers, and was himself a diligent observer. His 
 principal contribution to astronomical science is 
 his star catalogue, the first original one since 
 that made by Ptolemy. The astronomical works 
 of Ulugh-Beg were written in Arabic, afterward 
 translated into Persian, and thence the chrono¬ 
 logical portion of them into Latin by Greaves 
 (London, 1650), and the geographical part 
 (1652). An independent version in Latin and 
 Persian was published by Hyde (Oxford, 1665). 
 The latest edition of the star catalogue was 
 edited by Baily in 1843, and published in the 
 Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, 
 vol. xiii (London, 1843). 
 
 TJL'VA. A marine genus of the green algae 
 (Chlorophyceae) (q.v.), known as sea lettuce, 
 the flat membranous body resembling a leaf in 
 appearance but not in structure. 
 
 UL'VERSTON. A seaport in Lancashire, 
 England, 22 miles northwest of Lancaster (Map: 
 England, C 2). Its parish church dates from 
 1111. It stands in an extensive agricultural and 
 mining district, and has manufactures of iron, 
 boilers, linen, paper, ropes, hardware, and chemi¬ 
 cals. Pop., 1901, 10,064; 1911, 9552. 
 
 ULYSSES, u-lis'ez (Lat. Ulysses, Ulixes,OUxes, 
 Athen., Boeot., Corinth. Gk. ’O Xvaaevs, Olysseus, 
 ’OXvrrevs, Olytteus, general Gk. ’Odvaaevs, Odys¬ 
 seus, probably of Illyrian origin, influenced by 
 
 popular connection with oSvaaeadai, odyssesthai, 
 to be hated). A legendary Greek hero. Ac¬ 
 cording to the oldest legend, the Homeric, he was 
 the son of Laertes (q.v.), Prince of Ithaca, and 
 of Anticleia, daughter of Autolycus. According 
 to a later account, his father was the crafty 
 Sisyphus (q.v.), whence he is sometimes called, 
 by way of reproach, Sisyphides. He married 
 Penelope (q.v.), by whom he became the father 
 of Telemachus (q.v.). When the expedition 
 against Troy (q.v.) was resolved on, Agamem¬ 
 non and Menelaus prevailed on Ulysses, though 
 with difficulty, to take part in it. Later tradi¬ 
 tions represent him as feigning madness—an 
 artifice which failed through the skill of Pala- 
 medes. Once enlisted, Ulysses devoted himself 
 to the success of the expedition; with Nestor's 
 aid he secured the help of Achilles, and with 
 Menelaus he undertook a fruitless embassy to 
 Troy to demand the return of Helen and her 
 treasures. When the Greek fleet assembled at 
 Aulis, Ulysses brought 12 ships. In the narra¬ 
 tive of the Iliad Ulysses plays an important part. 
 In prudence and ingenuity of resource he is the 
 foremost of the Hellenic chiefs, while in courage 
 he is inferior to none. His later trait of trick¬ 
 ery is seen in the episode of Dolon, but in the 
 Homeric poems he is generally represented as 
 a model of the older, as Achilles is of the 
 younger, hero. After the fall of Troy, the Hom¬ 
 eric narrative of his long wandering on his re¬ 
 turn to Ithaca is contained in the Odyssey. His 
 ships were driven by a storm on the coast of 
 Thrace, where he plundered the land of the Ci- 
 cones, but lost a number of his crew. When he 
 reembarked, a north wind blew his vessels to 
 the country of the Lotophagi (the Lotus-eaters), 
 on the coasts of Libya, where some of the com¬ 
 panions of Ulysses ate of the wondrous fruit, 
 and wished to rest forever. But their leader 
 compelled them to leave the land, and, sailing 
 north again, they touched at the Island of 
 Goats, where Ulysses left all his ships but one. 
 Thence he proceeded to the land of the Cyclopes, 
 where occurred the adventure in the cave of 
 Polyphemus (q.y.). With his reunited fleet he 
 now visited the island of HColus, ruler of the 
 winds, who gave him a favoring breeze, and the 
 unfavorable winds tied in a skin. This his 
 companions, in search of treasure, opened, and 
 at once they were swept back to the island, from 
 which they were now sternly excluded. They 
 then reached the land of the Laestrygonians, a 
 race of cannibals, who destroyed all the ships 
 but one. Escaping with his solitary ship, he 
 next landed on the island of .Esea, inhabited by 
 the sorceress Circe (q.v.). After a year’s so¬ 
 journ he was sent by Circe to the Kingdom of 
 Hades, to inquire about his return from the 
 seer Tiresias (q.v.). Tiresias disclosed to Ulys¬ 
 ses the fact of the implacable enmity of Poseidon, 
 whose son, Polyphemus, he had blinded, but en¬ 
 couraged him at the same time with the assur¬ 
 ance that he would yet reach Ithaca in safety, 
 if he would not meddle with the herds of Helios 
 (the sun god) in Thrinacia. 
 
 Ulysses next passed in safety the perilous 
 island of the Sirens (q.v.), but, when he sailed 
 between Scylla and Charybdis, Scylla devoured 
 six of his companions. He next came to 
 Thrinacia, where his crew insisted on landing, 
 and while storm bound killed, in spite of their 
 oath, some of the cattle of Helios while Ulysses 
 was asleep. When they had sailed away a. fierce 
 storm arose, and Zeus sent forth a flash of light- 
 
UMA 
 
 UMBELLIFEIL® 
 
 635 
 
 ning - that destroyed the ship. Every one on 
 boa id was drowned except Ulysses, who, clinging 
 to the mast, was finally washed ashore on the 
 island of Ogygia, the abode of the nymph 
 Calypso, with whom lie lived for eight years. 
 The nymph offered him immortality if he would 
 remain, but his love for Penelope and longing 
 for his home were too deep, and at the entreaty 
 of his special guardian, Athena, Zeus sent 
 Hermes to command his release. Sailing east¬ 
 ward in a skiff of his own building, he was seen 
 by the implacable Poseidon, who roused against 
 him a terrible storm, which wrecked his skiff, 
 lie barely escaped, by the aid of Leucothea, to 
 the land of the Phseacians. Naked and worn by 
 fatigue, lie fell asleep, but was awakened by the 
 sport of Nausicaa, daughter of the King, Al- 
 cinous, and her maidens. She received him 
 kindly and brought him to the city. Entering 
 the palace under Athena’s protection, he was en¬ 
 tertained by. the King, who promised him safe 
 convoy to his home. On the magic Phseacian 
 ship he fell asleep, and was landed, with the 
 rich presents of the Phaeacians, while still un¬ 
 conscious. 
 
 Disguised as a beggar, he repaired to the hut 
 of the swineherd Eumseus, where he met and re¬ 
 vealed himself to Telemachus. The next day he 
 was brought by Eumseus to the palace, where he 
 was recognized by his old dog, Argus. Here he 
 was harshly treated by the suitors of his wife, 
 who were living riotously on his estate. After 
 an interview with Penelope, to whom he foretold 
 her husband’s return, he was recognized by his 
 old nurse, Eurycleia, whom he bound to silence. 
 When the suitors all failed to string the great 
 bow, he took it, easily strung it, and shot the 
 arrow through a row of 12 axes, thus accom¬ 
 plishing the test Penelope had proposed for the 
 suitors. Then, aided by Telemachus, Eumseus, 
 and the neatherd Philoetius, he slew all the 
 insolent suitors. The last book of the Odyssey 
 records his recognition by his father, Laertes, and 
 a final reconciliation with the friends of the 
 suitors, brought about by Athena’s aid. The 
 Homeric poems have a tradition of further wan¬ 
 derings to appease Poseidon, by introducing his 
 worship among a people who knew not the sea, 
 and finally a happy old age and painless death. 
 Allusions show that to Ulysses was also given 
 a prominent place in other episodes of the Trojan 
 War, such as the battle over the body of Achilles, 
 the invention of the device of the wooden horse, 
 and the final sack of Troy. The other epics (see 
 Cyclic Poets) enlarged these episodes and added 
 others, in which Ulysses frequently played but 
 a mean-spirited part. This degradation of his 
 character continued in many of the plays of the 
 Attic tragedy, and was further developed in later 
 writers, especially the comedians, and, of course, 
 by the Romans, since to them, as the descendants 
 of the Trojans, he was the archenemy of their 
 race. His death in these narratives was usually 
 attributecl'to'his son by Qirce, Telegonus (q.v.), 
 who had been sent by his mother in search of his 
 father. Landing in Ithaca, he was met in arms 
 by L T lysses, and slew him with a spear tipped 
 with the sting of a rav, thus fulfilling the 
 prophecy that death should come to him from 
 the sea. Consult the article “Odysseus,” in 
 Friedrich Liibker, Reallexikon des klassichen 
 AXtertums (8th ed., Leipzig, 1914). 
 
 UMA, bb'ma. In Hindu mythology, one of the 
 principal names of the consort of the god Siva 
 (q.v.), also called Durga (q.v.), Devi (q.v.), 
 
 Vol. XXII.—41 
 
 Kali (q.v.), Parvati (q.v.), Bhavani, and re¬ 
 garded either as beneficent or malignant. The 
 myths relating to this goddess, who is worshiped 
 especially in Bengal, are recounted in the great 
 epic poems and Puranas (q.v.), but the text¬ 
 book of her worshipers is the Dcvimahdtniya, or 
 the majesty of Devi, and a portion of the 
 Markandeya Parana. In the Rdmdijand (q.v.) 
 she is the daughter of the nymph Mena and of 
 Mount Himalaya, whence her names Parvati, 
 Haimavati, and similar ones, meaning “the 
 mountainous” or “the mountain-born.” Accord¬ 
 ing to the Puranas, in a former life she was 
 Sati, the daughter of Daksha (q.v.), but it was 
 only as Uma that she bore to Siva Gane§a (q.v.), 
 the god of wisdom, and Kartikeya (q.v.), the 
 god of war. According to the Harivansa (q.v.) 
 in another life she was born as the daughter 
 of YaSoda, and exchanged for Vishnu (q.v.), 
 when, in his incarnation as Krishna (q.v.), he 
 was born as a son of Devaki. On that occasion 
 she was killed by Kansa, and became a divine 
 virgin, whence she was called Kanya, or Kumari, 
 the virgin. The principal myths concerning her 
 were her destruction of the demons Madliu, 
 Kaitabha, and Mahisha, her defeat of the army 
 of the demons Chanda and Munda, and her de¬ 
 struction of the demons Raktavija, Sumbha, and 
 Ni&umbha. In commemoration of her victory 
 over Mahisha, a festival called the Durgapuja, or 
 Durgotsava, is annually celebrated in Bengal, 
 followed three weeks later by another, the Kali- 
 puja, in honor of her destruction of Chanda 
 and Munda. She dwells with Siva on Mount 
 Kailasa, a peak of the Himalaya. Consult: 
 John Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts, vol. iv (2d 
 ed., London, 1873); W. J. Wilkins, Hindu 
 Mythology (2d ed., ib., 1900) ; L. D. Barnett, 
 Antiquities of India (ib., 1913). See Parvati in 
 the Plate of Hindu Deities with India. 
 
 UMAN, oo-man'. A district town in the 
 Government of Kiev, Russia, on the Umanka, 170 
 miles south of Kiev (Map: Russia, D 5). It has 
 two palaces belonging to the counts Potocki. 
 Pop., 1910, 41,678, of whom more than half, 
 were Jews. 
 
 U'MATIL'LA. A tribe of Shahaptian stock 
 (q.v.) formerly near the junction of the Umatilla 
 and the Columbia in northeastern Oregon, and 
 now with the Cayuse and Wallawalla upon a 
 reservation in the same neighborhood. Like 
 neighboring tribes, they subsisted originally on 
 fish, game, and berries, and did not practice 
 agriculture. They were visited by Lewis and 
 Clark in 1804, and about 40 years afterward by 
 Jesuit missionaries, by whom some were con¬ 
 verted and civilized. Bv a treaty of 1855 they 
 agreed to come upon their present reservation. 
 In 1910 thev numbered 272. 
 
 UMAYYADS. See Ommiads. 
 
 UMBA'GOG LAKE. One of the Rangeley 
 Lakes (q.v.). 
 
 UMBALLA, um-baFla. The capital of a dis¬ 
 trict in the Punjab, India. See Ambala. 
 
 UMBEL. A form of inflorescence (q.v.). 
 
 UM'BELLIF'EIIZG (Neo-Lat. nom. pi., from 
 Lat. umbella, umbrella, umbel, diminutive of 
 umbra, shadow, shade + ferre, to bear). The 
 Parsley Family. A large and important fam¬ 
 ily of dicotyledonous herbs and a few shrubs 
 containing about 250 genera and 2000 species 
 generally characterized by the inflorescence, an 
 umbel which is often compound. The mature 
 fruit is necessary for the determination of most 
 of the genera and many of the species. The 
 
UMBER 
 
 UMBRIA 
 
 636 
 
 species are widely distributed, but are not abun¬ 
 dant in tropical' regions. They generally have 
 divided or compound, rarely simple, leaves, and 
 usually abound in a resinous secretion, and vola¬ 
 tile oils, on account of which many are reputed 
 poisonous. Acridity is their general character¬ 
 istic. Some are pleasantly aromatic, others 
 have a powerful and disagreeable smell. In the 
 roots of some, especially when enlarged by cul¬ 
 tivation, starch and sugar are stored, so that 
 they become useful for food. Many of the genera 
 contain species of economic importance, the bet¬ 
 ter known ones being Daucus (carrot), Pastinaca 
 (parsnip), Apiurn (celery), Fceniculum (fennel), 
 Carum (caraway), and Coriandrum (corian¬ 
 der ). Among the more common genera of the 
 North American flora are Eryngium (snake- 
 root), Sanicula (black snakeroot), Eydrocotyle 
 (pennvwort), Osmorhiza (sweet cicely), Conium 
 (poison hemlock), Cicuta (water hemlock), Sium 
 (water parsnip), Thaspium (meadow parsnip), 
 Heracleum (cow parsnip), and Angelica. The 
 name Apiaceae is given by some botanists to the 
 family Umbelliferse. 
 
 UMBER (from Fr. ombre, from Lat. umbra, 
 shadow, shade). A mineral pigment resembling 
 ochre, but differing from true ochre (q.v.) in 
 containing some oxide of manganese. It is soft, 
 earthy, and of a dark-brown color. It occurs at 
 many localities in Europe, notably in the island 
 of Cyprus, and is also mined in Illinois, Penn¬ 
 sylvania, Georgia, and New York. Raw umber 
 yields a brown paint, while burnt umber has a 
 redder tinge. .Both are stable and can be mixed 
 with water or oil. See Paint, Mineral; Ociire. 
 
 UMBERTO, oom-ber'tO. See Humbert I. 
 
 UMBII/ICAL CORD (from Lat. umbilicus, 
 navel; connected with Gk. cycpaXos, omphalos, 
 OIr. imblin, OHG. nabalo, Ger. Nabel, AS. nafela, 
 Eng. navel), or Navel String. The bond of 
 communication between the foetus (which it en¬ 
 ters at the umbilicus, or navel) and the placenta, 
 which is attached to the inner surface of the 
 maternal womb. It consists of the umbilical 
 vein lying in the centre, and the two umbilical 
 arteries winding from left to right round the 
 vein. Contrary to the usual course, the vein 
 conveys arterial blood to the foetus, and the 
 arteries return venous blood to the placenta. 
 These vessels are embedded in a yellow gelatinous 
 matter, known from its first describer (in 1659) 
 as the jelly of Wharton. Nerve filaments have 
 been traced into the cord; but the presence of 
 lymphatics is doubtful. The whole is invested 
 by a membrane (the amnion), and its ordinary 
 length is about 20 inches. As soon as a child is 
 born, and its respiration fairly established, the 
 umbilical cord is tied and divided near the navel, 
 which spontaneously closes, the fragment of 
 cord dying away. See Foetus and Placenta. 
 
 UMBILICAL HERNIA. The term applied 
 to the protrusion of intestine at the navel or 
 umbilicus. It is of most frequent occurrence 
 shortly after birth; but it is not uncommon in 
 women who have been frequently pregnant. See 
 Hernia. 
 
 UMBILICUS, um-biPi-kus. The anatomical 
 term for the navel. 
 
 UMBRA (un/bra) TREE. See Ombu Tree. 
 
 UMBRELLA (from It. ombrella, umbrella, 
 parasol, Lat. umbra, shade). In its origin, and 
 still in the Far East, a sunshade or movable 
 canopy regarded as a privilege of high rank, and 
 used in ceremonial processions. In England and 
 America the term has become restricted to 
 
 round, folding shades, with high ribbed frame 
 of steel or cane covered with silk or cotton, used 
 principally for protection against rain, and 
 equivalent to the French parapluie (against the 
 rain). The small, fancy umbrellas used by 
 women in Europe and America as sunshades 
 bear the name “parasols” (against the sun). 
 Similar sunshades were used by the women of 
 ancient Greece and Rome. See Costume. 
 
 UMBRELLA BIRD. A black South Ameri¬ 
 can bird ( Cephalopterus penduliger), the size of 
 a crow, whose head is ornamented with a crest 
 forming a covering somewhat like a parasol, com¬ 
 posed of straight elevated feathers with white 
 and stiff shafts terminated by black beards which 
 project forward. The sides of the neck are 
 naked, but long, black, glossy, metallic feathers, 
 forming a loose pelerine hanging below the 
 breast, spring from the throat and sides of the 
 neck. The tail is long and slightly rounded. 
 There are two other closely allied species. They 
 live in deep woods, make rough stick nests, and 
 utter cries, especially at twilight, described as 
 “lowings.” See Cotinga and Plate of Cotingas, 
 etc. 
 
 UMBRELLA PLANT. See Cyperus. 
 
 UMBRELLA TREE. See China ThEE; 
 Magnolia. 
 
 UMBRETTE'. A peculiar lieron-like bird 
 ( Scopus umbretta) representing alone an Afri¬ 
 can family (Scopidse) closely related to the 
 shoebill (Balceniceps) . It is a native of the 
 wooded regions of Madagascar and most of 
 Africa. It has a body about the size of a 
 common fowl’s, long naked legs, with very large, 
 slightly webbed toes, and a large head with 
 a long, keeled, storklike beak, surmounted by 
 a great crest, suggesting in profile the name 
 “hammerhead” given by many English observ¬ 
 ers. The plumage is purplish brown, with 
 black tail bars; and its smoky tints make it al¬ 
 most invisible at dusk. At night, according to 
 Evans, it roosts in trees. Its food consists of 
 fish, reptiles, frogs, worms, mollusks, and in¬ 
 sects from shallow water. The note is a harsh 
 quack or weak metallic sound. The nest is an 
 enormous structure of sticks, lined with roots, 
 grass, rushes, or clay, having a hole at the 
 side; it is placed in a tree, on a ledge, or rarely 
 on the ground. Three to five white eggs form 
 the complement. 
 
 UM'BRIA. In ancient geography, a country 
 of central Italy, corresponding loosely with the 
 modern territorial division of the same name, 
 which constitutes the Province of Perugia (Map: 
 Itaty, D 3). At an early date the name Umbria 
 was applied indefinitely to a large territory in 
 central and north Italy. The Umbrians were 
 among the oldest and most powerful nations of 
 Italy, and probably once held all the land in 
 central Italy between the Adriatic and the 
 Tyrrhenian Sea. This territory was gradually 
 decreased by the encroachment of the Etruscans 
 on the west, of the various Celtic tribes on the 
 north, and of the Picentes on the south, until 
 the Umbrians were shut off from the sea in the 
 valleys east of the Apennines. 
 
 Umbria at the period of the Roman conquest 
 of Italy was bounded on the north by the A ger 
 Gallicus, on the east by Picenum, on the south by 
 the country of the Sabines, and on the west by 
 Etruria. The historical prominence of the Um¬ 
 brians ends with the beginning of the third 
 century b.c. ; they were defeated by Rome in 308 
 b.c., and, with the other confederated peoples, 
 
UMLAUT 
 
 UMBRIAN SCHOOL OF PAINTING 637 
 
 were crushed at the battle of Sentinuin, 205 b.c. 
 After 220 b.c. the Via Flaminia ran through the 
 country. Umbria, together with the Ager Galli- 
 cus, which had been restored to the territory 
 after the conquest of the Senones by the Romans, 
 constituted the sixth region of Italy in Augus¬ 
 tus’ division. Knowledge of the Umbrian civil¬ 
 ization and language has been gained chiefly 
 from inscriptions, as the accounts left by ancient 
 writers are of uncertain value. The most impor¬ 
 tant of these epigraphical remains are the seven 
 bronze tablets found at Gubbio (the ancient 
 Iguvium, the mediaeval Eugubium) in 1444. See 
 Eugubine Tables; also, for the language, Italic 
 La n guag es , Umb rian . 
 
 The district known in modern times as Um¬ 
 bria was a part of the Papal States until 1860. 
 The Province of Perugia has an area of 3748 
 square miles. Pop., 1901, 675,352; 1911, 686,- 
 596. The surface is mountainous, but the val¬ 
 leys are fertile. Capital, Perugia (q.v.). See 
 also Latin Language. 
 
 UM'BRIAN SCHOOL OF PAINTING. The 
 
 name applied to the Central Italian painters of 
 the Renaissance, living chiefly within the modern 
 Province . of Umbria. The Umbrian school is 
 characterized by its intense but dreamy religious 
 sentiment, evident in the ecstatic expression of 
 the faces. The Umbrians had admirable il¬ 
 lustrative qualities and good color, but they 
 were deficient in form and dramatic action. 
 Though usually classed as Umbrians, the prin¬ 
 cipal painters of the northern part of this ter¬ 
 ritory had strong affiliations with the Floren¬ 
 tines and differed from the others in depicting 
 form and movement. Such artists were Piero 
 della Francesca (died 1492), and his pupils, 
 Melozzo da Forli and Luca Signorelli. Gentile 
 da Fabriano (died 1427) may be considered the 
 first great Umbrian painter. Fra Angelico’s 
 pupil Benozzo Gozzoli (died 1497) exercised a 
 strong influence on the Umbrian school. Its 
 founder in the narrower sense was Niccolo da 
 Foligno, and the first important Perugian mas¬ 
 ter was Bonfigli; then In the later fifteenth 
 century came Fiorenzo di Lorenzo, Pinturicchio, 
 and Perugino, its best-known master next to 
 his pupil Raphael. All the best qualities of 
 the school culminated in Raphael, who added 
 the best that Florence and the antique could 
 give. A characteristically Umbrian contempo¬ 
 rary of Raphael was “Lo Spagna” at Spoleto. 
 Consult: Bernhard Berenson, Central Italian 
 Painters of the Renaissance (New York, 1897) ; 
 the monographs by Jules Destrec (Brussels, 
 1900); Umberto Gnoli (Bergamo, 1908); Emil 
 Jacobson (Strassburg, 1914); and the works 
 cited under Florentine School of Painting. 
 
 UMBRIEL, um'bri-el. See Uranus. 
 
 UM'BRINE. A fish. See Meagre. 
 
 UMLAUFT, um'louft, Friedrich (1844- 
 ). An Austrian geographer and author, 
 born and educated in Vienna, where he became 
 professor at the state Gymnasium of Mariahilf 
 and at the municipal Teachers’ College in 1870. 
 He wrote: Die osterreichisch-ungarische Monar¬ 
 chic (3d ed., 1897); Die Alpen, Handbuch der 
 gesammten Alpenkunde (1887; Eng. trans., 
 1889) ; Das Luftmeer, Grundziige der Meteorolo- 
 gie und Klimatologie (1891; Swed. trans., 
 1897); Namenbuch der Stadt Wien (1895, 
 1905) ; and edited Die Lander Oesterreich-Un- 
 garns in Wort und Bild (15 vols., 1880-89). 
 From 1882 to 1910 he was editor of the Deutsche 
 Rundschau fur Geographie und Statistik. 
 
 UMLAUT, oom'lout (Ger., sound-change). 
 In comparative philology, the change undergone 
 by a vowel or diphthong through the influence 
 of a following vowel. It is, therefore, essen¬ 
 tially a process of regressive vowel assimilation. 
 Another form of umlaut, or process of progres¬ 
 sive vowel assimilation, is contained in the so- 
 called law of vowel harmony of the Ural-Altaic 
 languages (q.v.). It occurs frequently through¬ 
 out the Indo-Germanic linguistic group, although 
 it is a characteristic only of the Germanic lan¬ 
 guages. As more or less sporadic examples of 
 umlaut, occasionally called mutation, or metaph¬ 
 ony, by English writers, may be cited Av. 
 vohu, good, mosu, soon, but Skt. vasu, maksu; 
 Armen, keam, I live, but Skt. jivami; Bceot. Gk. 
 Tpe-rredda, table, but Attic rpaire^a; Attic Gk. 
 riuvavs, half, beside r/fuavs; Lat. nihil, nothing, 
 from ne hilum, not a thing; Vulgar Lat. vixil- 
 lum, banner, butumen, pitch, but Lat. vexillum, 
 bitumen ; OIr. cloth, famous, but Gk. kXvtos; 
 OChurch Slav, bidrinu, watchful, beside budrlnu, 
 budru, Lith. budru. In Germanic umlaut is 
 caused either by i or u. The i umlaut changes 
 a preceding e to i, and a to e, as Goth., OHG. 
 ist, is, but Gk. earl; OHG. gesti, plural of gast, 
 host. In MHG. the i umlaut changes 0 , u, a, 6, u, 
 and uo to 6 , ii, ae, oe, iu, and ue respectively, as 
 locher, plural of loch, hole; siXne, plural of sun, 
 son; gaeben, subjunctive of gdben, gave; hoeren, 
 present of horte, heard; briute, plural of brut, 
 bride; giiete, goodness, from guot, good. The 
 chief i umlauts in Anglo-Saxon are of ce, a, o, 6, 
 u, and u to e, ce, e (or usually y), e, and y re¬ 
 spectively, as AS. weccan, to wake, Goth, voak- 
 jan; hcelan, to heal, from hdl, health; exen, 
 plural of oxa, ox, and gylden, golden, from gold, 
 gold; deman, to judge, from dom, judgment; 
 icy lien, woolen, from iculle, wool; cypan, to pro¬ 
 claim, from cup, famous. In Icelandic also the 
 i umlaut plays an important part. In the Teu¬ 
 tonic languages, umlaut is found in Anglo-Saxon 
 as early as the sixth century, and is fully de¬ 
 veloped in Low German by the eighth century. 
 From the tenth century onward it makes its 
 appearance also in the dialects of Middle and 
 Upper Germany. 
 
 The u umlaut is less far-reaching than the 
 palatalization caused by i. It does not seem 
 to have occurred in Gothic or in High German. 
 It is found, however, in Anglo-Saxon and, highly 
 developed, in Icelandic. In Anglo-Saxon a be¬ 
 fore u or o becomes ea, e becomes eo, and i be¬ 
 comes io, although these umlauts are by no 
 means regular in their action. Examples are 
 ealu, ale, but genitive alo, ealo, Northumb. ales; 
 xceorod, folk, beside icerod; mioluc, milk, but 
 Goth, milulcs. The principal Icelandic u um¬ 
 lauts are of a to o, d to* 6 , e to 6 , e to 6 , i to y, 
 i to y, cei to oy or ey, ia to io, ua to uo or o, 
 ua to 6, ui to y, ui to y, and uce to 6. There are 
 other minor umlauts. Anglo-Saxon has a pala¬ 
 tal umlaut which changes the eo and io, arising 
 from the breaking of Germanic e and i before a 
 guttural h plus a consonant, to ie and later to 
 i, y, and before palatals ea and ea later became 
 e, e. Examples are rieht, ryht, right, beside 
 reoht, OHG. relit; Wiht, Wight, beside Wioht; 
 sex, knife, beside earlier seax; cge, eye, beside 
 earlier eage. In Icelandic there are traces of an 
 r umlaut, as in ccr, they (feminine), but OSwed. 
 paR, Goth. pos. In German umlaut survives 
 as an important element in the inflection. It 
 is found especially in nouns, as Bruder, plural of 
 Bruder, brother (but OHG. bruoder for both 
 
UMMERAPOORA 
 
 UN CLEANNESS 
 
 638 
 
 numbers) ; Sohne, plural of Sohn, son (OHG. 
 suni, sun) ; Ednde, plural of Hand, band (OHG. 
 henti, hunt) ; hammer, plural of Lamm, lamb 
 (OIIG. lemhir, lamb). It also characterizes the 
 comparative and superlative degrees of adjec¬ 
 tives, as jung, young, junger, jiingst (OHG. 
 jung, jungiro, jungisto ), and is seen in the im¬ 
 perfect subjunctive of certain verbs, as hdtte 
 from haben, to have (OHG. habeti). In English 
 there are only sporadic traces, as in men, mice, 
 feet, as plurals of man, mouse, foot (AS. men, 
 mcen, mys, fet, plurals of man, mils, fot), and 
 in causative verbs, as set from sit (AS. settan 
 from sittan, Goth, sat fan from sitan, pret. sat). 
 Consult: Victor Henry, Short Comparative 
 Grammar of English and German (London, 
 1894) ; W. Wilmanns, Deutsche Grammatik (3 
 vols., Strassburg 1893-1906; vol. i, 2d ed., 
 1897) ; H. Lichtenberger, Histoire de la langue 
 allemande (Paris, 1895). See English Lan¬ 
 guage; German Language; Teutonic Lan¬ 
 guages ; and special titles devoted to the differ¬ 
 ent languages mentioned in this article. 
 
 UMMERAPOORA, See Amarapura. 
 
 UMPQUA, ump'kwa. An Athapascan tribe. 
 
 UMRIT'SAR. A city of the Punjab, India. 
 See Amritsar. 
 
 UNA, u'na. The principal female personage 
 in the first book of Spenser’s Faerie Queene. 
 She stands in the allegory for Truth. She is 
 the companion of the Red Cross Knight (q.v.) 
 on his mission from the court of Gloriana, but 
 is soon separated from him by Archimago and 
 undergoes many painful adventures until res¬ 
 cued by Prince Arthur and restored to her 
 knight. 
 
 U'NAKA MOUNTAINS (called also, in 
 whole or in part, the Smoky or Great Smoky 
 Mountains). A southwestern division of the 
 Appalachian Mountains, branching from the 
 Blue Ridge in south Virginia, and extending 
 south westward near the Tennessee and North 
 Carolina boundary, penetrating a short distance 
 into north Georgia (Map: North Carolina, A 4). 
 On the west they are separated from the Cum¬ 
 berland plateau by the great eastern valley of 
 the Tennessee, and on the east they are con¬ 
 nected with the Blue Ridge by an intricate 
 system of cross ranges forming the rugged rem¬ 
 nants of a lofty plateau culminating in the 
 Black Mountains. Nearly all the eastern head- 
 streams of the Tennessee rise on this inclosed 
 plateau and break through the Unaka Range. 
 Otherwise the latter forms a sharply defined 
 ridge between Tennessee and North Carolina. In 
 the north there are three main ridges inclosing 
 fine valleys. The average elevation of the main 
 ridge is from 3000 to 5000 feet, the middle por¬ 
 tion, generally known as the Great Smoky Moun¬ 
 tains, being the highest. Here a number of 
 peaks rise to 6000 feet, extending their rocky 
 summits above the timber line. The highest is 
 Clingman Peak (Yancey Co., N. C.) with an 
 altitude of 6611 feet. The range is composed 
 chiefly of Lower Silurian sandstones and shales, 
 with some Archean metamorphic rocks. The 
 slopes are covered with pine forests, and the 
 range abounds in grand and rugged scenery. 
 
 UNALASKA, bo'na-las'ka, or UNA- 
 LA 3 HKA. The second largest and most im¬ 
 portant of the Aleutian Islands, 135 miles 
 southwest of the extremity of the Alaska Penin¬ 
 sula (Map: Alaska, E 9). It is about 75 miles 
 long and from 10 to 25 miles wide; its coasts 
 are indented with fiords, and it consists mainly 
 
 of barren and treeless mountains, among which 
 rises the volcano of Makushin to a height of 
 5691 feet. The island is thinly populated by 
 Aleuts and a few Russians and Americans, chiefly 
 engaged in fishing and sealing. The largest 
 inhabited place is Unalaska Village or Iliuliuk, 
 with a population in 1915 of about 400. It has 
 a government school of about 80 pupils. It is 
 a port of call for vessels navigating Bering Sea. 
 
 UN ALGA (bo-naPga) ISLAND. An island 
 of the Andreanof group, Alaska, situated in 
 about 54° N., 166° W. It has a wireless station 
 of the United States navy, and was made a 
 lighthouse reservation in 1901. 
 
 UNAU, u-na' or bb-nou'. The two-toed sloth 
 (q.v.). 
 
 UN'CAS (?-c.l6S3). A famous sachem of 
 the Mohegan (q.v.) Indians in Connecticut. At 
 first a Pequot chief, he revolted about 1635 and 
 collected a number of Indians, who took the 
 name of Mohegans, which had once belonged to 
 the Pequot (q.v.), against whom he fought as 
 an ally of the English in the Pequot War of 
 1637. He was rewarded by the whites with a 
 grant of Pequot lands. In 1643 he defeated the 
 Narraganset chief Miantonomo (q.v.), and 
 later, "with the sanction of the commissioners 
 representing the United Colonies of New Eng¬ 
 land, had him put to death. In 1648 the Mo¬ 
 hawks and Pocomtocks began an unsuccessful 
 war against him. In 1657 he was besieged by 
 the Narraganset sachem Pessacus, but, accord¬ 
 ing to tradition, was relieved by Ensign Thomas 
 Leffingwell. The date of his death is unknown, 
 though he is known to have been alive in 1682. 
 Consult S. G. Drake, The Book of the Indians of 
 North America (Boston, 1834), and W. L. Stone, 
 Uncas and Miantonomoh, a Historical Discourse 
 (New York, 1842). 
 
 UNCIAL (un'shi-al) LETTERS. A term 
 applied in Greek and Latin paleography to a 
 modification of capital letters, which are made 
 rounded instead of square, as being written on 
 papyrus or vellum. See Paleography, Letters 
 and their Forms. 
 
 UN'CIN A'RX A. . See Ankylosomiasis; 
 Hookworm Disease. 
 
 UNCLEANNESS. As used in the Old Tes¬ 
 tament, a term , having several shades of mean¬ 
 ing. In its primary sense it signifies a bodily 
 condition Which during its continuance excluded 
 from the holy community. Such a condition 
 might be produced by a variety of causes, as 
 childbirth (Lev. xii), contact with a dead body 
 (Num. xix. 11-12), or leprosy (Lev. xiii-xiv). 
 Various purificatory rites are prescribed in the 
 Pentateuchal codes to free from this condition. 
 In a wider sense the term “unclean’’ is applied 
 to animals prohibited as food (Lev. xi; Deut. 
 xiv. 3-21), and the fruit of trees was unclean 
 (i.e., could not be eaten) for the first three years 
 (Lev. xix. 23). Certain bodily functions (con¬ 
 nected with reproduction) were generally re¬ 
 garded in early times as rendering a person un¬ 
 fit to perform religious rites, or, in other words, 
 to approach the deity. 
 
 The stipulations in regard to certain animals 
 regarded as unclean belong in a different cate- 
 gorv. In many regions certain animals are 
 considered sacred either because a clan regards 
 itself as descended from a particular animal 
 or because for other reasons the animal in 
 question is supposed to afford protection to 
 the clan. Thus the animal formerly regarded 
 as sacred comes to be avoided as unclean. And 
 
UNCLE SAM 
 
 UNCONSCIOUS 
 
 630 
 
 connection with the widespread symbolism of 
 giving to deities the shapes of animals leads to 
 the conception that certain animals are to be 
 avoided because of their "demoniac nature. In 
 the Pentateuchal regulations all these factors 
 may be traced—the sanctity attached to certain 
 animals, their position as totems, as well as the 
 later conception which regarded them as the 
 abode of evil spirits. 
 
 In primitive religions disease is ascribed to 
 the presence of a demon or evil spirit in the 
 body, brought there by the power of a sorcerer 
 or witch. A cure is thought to be effected by 
 certain rites in which sympathetic magic plays a 
 prominent part. In the Pentateuchal codes, 
 however, an advance in religious ideas is mani¬ 
 fested by designating a diseased person as one 
 smitten by God. The disease chiefly dealt with 
 is a form of leprosy, which is still common in 
 the East. From disease to death is but a short 
 step, and the primitive views held in regard to 
 death led to precautions to be exercised by those 
 who are obliged to touch a dead body. On the 
 one hand, death itself indicates the triumph of 
 the evil spirit, while on the other, the uncer¬ 
 tainty as to the whereabouts of the soul or spirit 
 of the dead person incites fear and leads to 
 precautions against the unexpected return of 
 the spirit perhaps only temporarily absent. By 
 a natural extension of the term the dead person 
 is regarded as unclean. 
 
 The rabbinical schools in Babylonia and Pales¬ 
 tine elaborated the subject still further, and in 
 the Talmud the laws and degrees of the various 
 kinds of uncleanness are set forth in great detail 
 accompanied with minute discussions of casuis¬ 
 tical problems in connection with the subject. 
 The extension of the term “unclean” to the 
 fruits of trees for the first three years is quite 
 secondary, and dates from the late period when 
 it had acquired the general sense of forbidden, 
 without reference to any genuine uncleanness 
 connected with the transgression involved. The 
 prohibition appears to have been an economic 
 regulation to insure productiveness. Consult 
 the commentaries on the passages, cited: B. Stade, 
 Geschichte des Volkes Israel, vol. i (Berlin, 
 1887) ; I. Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie 
 (2d ed., Tubingen, 1907). 
 
 UNCLE SAM. See National Nicknames. 
 
 UNCLE TOM’S CABIN. See Stowe, Har- 
 riet Beecher. 
 
 UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER, The. A 
 series of papers written by Charles Dickens for 
 All the Year Round, from Jan. 28 to Oct. 13, 
 1860. Eleven new sketches were added in the 
 edition of 1868 and seven in 1869. 
 
 UNCONFORMITY. A term applied in geol¬ 
 ogy to a break or interruption in the sequence 
 of rock formations. In areas of stratified rocks 
 one series may be found sometimes to rest upon 
 the upturned or eroded edges of another series, 
 thus showing that the deposition of the inferior 
 beds was followed by an upheaval, during which 
 they were disturbed from their horizontal posi¬ 
 tion or were eroded, and then by a depression 
 beneath the water, where the upper series was 
 deposited. An unconformity, therefore, marks a 
 hiatus in the geological record—a lapse of time 
 unrecorded by sedimentation—and it is only by 
 examining the sequence of deposits in other 
 regions that the missing series can be supplied. 
 See Geology. 
 
 UNCONSCIOUS, The. An hypothesis of the 
 school of psychology of Dr. S. Freud (q.v.), used 
 
 originally to explain and cure various types of 
 maladies of mental origin. (See Psychother¬ 
 apy.) This doctrine of the unconscious, which 
 is radically different from the conception of 
 the older psychology given under subconscious 
 (q.v.), was first published in 1893. It is also 
 essentially different from the unconscious will 
 of Schopenhauer (q.v.) or of Hartmann (q.v.). 
 The conscious life of man, varying in intensity 
 from the maximum clearness at the focus of 
 attention to the marginal states (sounds, sights, 
 etc., faintly heard and partially attended to, 
 including ideas and imaginations), is grounded, 
 according to the Freudian school, upon the un¬ 
 conscious, which never, as such, enters conscious¬ 
 ness, but which plays an important part in the 
 mental life by directing or conditioning the 
 choice of ideas that shall enter consciousness. 
 
 The unconscious is an instinctive or impelling 
 force or desire and does not reason or think in 
 conscious modes. Its emergences into conscious¬ 
 ness take the form of expressions of desire 
 mostly so elemental and gross as to be unac¬ 
 ceptable to modern social life. So there is 
 assumed a transforming and distorting agency 
 that stands at the threshold of consciousness 
 and rehabilitates or disguises the expressions of 
 desire so that they shall not offend the moral 
 sense of the conscious life. This agency Freud 
 calls the Censor. “The unconscious idea is one 
 which cannot penetrate consciousness no matter 
 how powerful it may become; and one which 
 we do not perceive but whose existence we con¬ 
 cede because of other signs and proofs” (Freud) 
 —somewhat analogous to the astronomers’ in¬ 
 ferring the existence of an invisible body from 
 the aberrations of the planets that are visible- 
 Beside the unconscious and standing below the 
 conscious is the state of those mental processes 
 which, like the multiplication table, may be 
 called into consciousness at will. Freud" has 
 called this state the foreconscious. Substantial 
 practical results, shown in the cure of mental 
 and other diseases, have justified the assumption 
 of the impelling force of the unconscious, which 
 force is called the libido or desire. 
 
 Concrete illustrations of the effects of the 
 unconscious in everyday normal life are every¬ 
 where observable. The forgetting of names is 
 explained by the desire to avoid letting them 
 come into consciousness, because unpleasant ex¬ 
 periences associated with them might be recalled; 
 forgetting to post a letter containing a check 
 may be caused by unconscious desire not tc let 
 go of the money. Freud relates (in his Inter¬ 
 pretation of Dreams) that although intending 
 to visit an old and uninteresting woman he 
 found himself before the door of a very much 
 more attractive person, and explains his absent- 
 minded action by the fact that his unconscious 
 desired to visit the attractive person while his 
 conscious interest would have led him to his 
 aged patient. The effect of the power of the 
 unconscious is most strikingly noticeable in its 
 work upon the dreams of all persons. The inter¬ 
 pretation of dreams according to psychanalysis, 
 as Freud has termed his method, is the most 
 important feature of the Freudian psychology. 
 
 (See Dreaming ; Freud, S.; Hysteria. ) * The un¬ 
 conscious is represented as being conditioned to 
 a large degree by heredity and as a type of blind 
 desire recapitulating the evolution of the mental 
 life of the race. (See Recapitulation Theory.) 
 The libido, or primal psychic desire, as it is 
 ontogenetically developed, strives to satisfy it- 
 
UNCONSCIOUS 
 
 UNDERHILL 
 
 640 
 
 self, first with respiratory, nutritive, and elimi¬ 
 native activities (in the new-born infant), then 
 with investigations into the various parts of 
 its body (the so-called auto-erotic stage), as a 
 concrete example of which is mentioned the 
 thumbsucking of children, in many cases car¬ 
 ried on for many years; then in a general mag¬ 
 nifying of interest in the ego as a whole (the 
 Narcissistic period), and finally at the age of 
 puberty in normal humans, in the development 
 of true sexual love which is transferred from 
 self (unless retarded or obstructed) to its object 
 in the opposite sex, the true mate. A funda¬ 
 mental type of the unconscious mental life which 
 Freud believes to exist in every human he has 
 termed the “(Edipus complex.” This implies 
 not that every man wishes to kill his father and 
 marry his mother, a misconstruction which has 
 caused much criticism of Freud’s theories, but 
 that in the usual life of the child his first- 
 object of affection is obviously his mother and 
 he instinctively regards his father as his rival. 
 The manner in which any given individual has 
 unconsciously worked out the relations of this 
 (Edipus complex is looked upon as a measure 
 of his progress towards a truly adult social 
 life. Most psychoneurotics and many appar¬ 
 ently normal persons are shown, by the latent 
 content of their dreams, to have been unsuccess¬ 
 ful in the practical working out of this (Edipus 
 complex in a way which will enable them to 
 perform to the utmost of their abilities their 
 work in human society. Of this maladaptation 
 to the requirements of life one is painfully 
 aware when he has suffered in some way by the 
 lack of harmony, the conflict in his psyche, as it 
 is called. His unconscious having been analyzed 
 by the method of psychanalysis, the realization 
 of the maladjustment to environment leads the 
 individual to a conscious endeavor towards a 
 reform which is essentially ethical; and it is be¬ 
 lieved by the Freudians that the harmony with 
 the ideals of civilization thus attained is the 
 cause of the amelioration or cure of the malady. 
 
 The effect of the unconscious is seen by the 
 Freudians not only in the individual but in the 
 race, being shown in all works of imagination, 
 all religious and social movements, such as 
 alchemy, Rosicrucianism, Freemasonry, etc., and 
 in poems and other works of art and in myths. 
 An extensive study has been made in the subject 
 of myth formation as governed by unconscious 
 psychic processes, and a similarity noted between 
 myths and dreams. One author (Abraham) calls 
 the myth the dream of the nation and the dream 
 the myth of the individual. 
 
 The details of the Freudian view of the un¬ 
 conscious are admittedly only a working hypoth¬ 
 esis, and as such, like every scientific theory, 
 are subject to constant development at the hands 
 of scientists, among whom are a large number 
 of psychiatrists in Europe and America. The 
 conflict between this theory and the regular 
 academic experimental psychology is more ap¬ 
 parent than real, as the Freudians do not wish 
 to say that there is such a thing as unconscious 
 conscious states, an implication that will natu¬ 
 rally be attributed to them. They merely posit 
 a force, imperceptible as such, but the effects 
 of which, seen in the various phenomena of 
 hypnotism, etc., are not explainable on any 
 hitherto appearing hypothesis. The effects of 
 this force have, however, quite practical results 
 in human conduct, and are quite workable for 
 the understanding of psychic manifestations 
 
 and for the conscious evolution of psychic life. 
 Consult: S. Freud, Interpretation of Dreams 
 (New York, 1913) ; O. Pfister, Die Psychanaly- 
 tische Methode (Leipzig, 1913) ; H. Silberer, 
 Probleme der Mystik und ihrer Symbolik (Vi¬ 
 enna, 1914) ; Morton Prince, The Unconscious 
 (New York, 1914) ; C. G. Jung, Psychology of 
 the Unconscious (ib., 1916). 
 
 UNCONSCIOUS CEREBRATION. See 
 Cerebration, Unconscious; Determining Tend¬ 
 ency; Subconscious. 
 
 UNCTION (Lat. unctio, an anointing, from 
 unguere, to anoint). The practice of anointing 
 the body, or certain portions of the body, with 
 oil. It was resorted to by the ancients from 
 motives of health, of athletic development, or 
 of luxury; but the practice now is chiefly a 
 religious one. It was a rite in frequent use 
 among the Egyptians, as well as the Greeks and 
 Romans. Among the Hebrews priests and kings 
 were anointed upon being set apart for their 
 several offices, as were also sacred vessels. In 
 Christian use, anointing in sickness was common 
 from a very early time. (See Extreme Unc¬ 
 tion.) Besides the anointing of the sick, how¬ 
 ever, there were many other sacred unctions in 
 ancient Christian practice; viz., in baptism, con¬ 
 firmation, ordination, consecration of churches, 
 and the coronation of kings. 
 
 UNDERGROUND RAILROAD. The name 
 popularly applied before the Civil War to the 
 system of aiding fugitive slaves to escape from 
 their masters and elude pursuit. . By furnishing 
 food and shelter as well as advice to fugitives, 
 northern abolitionists enabled thousands to es¬ 
 cape to Canada beyond the reach of the Fugitive 
 Slave Law. The most favored routes lay through 
 Ohio and Pennsylvania. Houses along them 
 came to be known as stations; those who directly 
 assisted the escaping fugitives were known as 
 conductors; and those who made contributions of 
 money, clothing, etc., were known as stock¬ 
 holders in the enterprise. Many negroes in 
 Canada made trips to the South to assist their 
 friends in escaping from slavery. Rewards were 
 offered by Southern legislatures and individuals 
 for the delivery of such persons south of Mason 
 and Dixon’s line. Among the most active white 
 persons in the underground-railway service were 
 Levi Coffin, Josiah Grinnell, Gerrit Smith, Theo¬ 
 dore Parker, Thomas Garrett, Rev. Charles Tor- 
 rey, and Samuel J. May. Coffin was commonly 
 styled the president of the concern, and he 
 claimed to have been actively engaged in the 
 business for 33 years and to have received into 
 his house an average of 100 fugitives annually. 
 The historian Rhodes observes .that the chief 
 historical importance of the Underground Rail¬ 
 road lay in its manifestation of popular senti¬ 
 ment. Many of those concerned in this service 
 were fined heavily for violating the Fugitive 
 Slave Law, Garrett alone paying a fine of $8000; 
 but occasional punishments inflicted did not 
 break up the practice, and it continued to be 
 one of the chief grievances of the South against 
 the North. Consult W. IT. Siebert, The Under¬ 
 ground Railroad from Slavery to Freedom (New 
 York, 1899). 
 
 UNDERGROUND RAILWAY. See Rail¬ 
 ways ; Tunnel ; Urban Transportation. 
 
 UN'DERHILL, John (?-1672). An Ameri¬ 
 can colonist, born in Warwickshire, England. 
 In his youth he saw military service in the Low 
 Countries and Spain, and in 1630 he accom¬ 
 panied the elder John Winthrop to Boston. Four 
 
UNDERLEASE 
 
 UNDERWRITER 
 
 641 
 
 years after his arrival he was elected to the 
 Colonial Assembly, and in 1637 he aided Capt. 
 John Mason (q.v.) to exterminate the Pequot 
 Indians. Of this expedition he wrote an account 
 entitled Newes from America, which was pub¬ 
 lished in London the following year. In spite 
 of the services thus rendered he incurred the 
 wrath of the colonists by espousing the Anti- 
 nomianism of Wheelwright and by his immo¬ 
 rality. Leaving Massachusetts, he took refuge 
 at Dover in New Hampshire, and was there 
 elected Governor. Later he removed to Con¬ 
 necticut and became a member of the Assembly. 
 In 1643 he entered the military service of the 
 New Netherlands, but 10 years later he was 
 expelled and went to Rhode Island, where he 
 obtained a commission to make war on his late 
 employers. In 1664 the New Netherlands were 
 conquered by the English, and Underhill re¬ 
 turned and settled at Oyster Bay, where in 
 1667 he obtained a grant of 150 acres of land 
 from the Mantinenoc Indians. On this property, 
 which he named Killingworth, he passed his 
 later years. 
 
 UNDERLEASE. The creation of a new 
 term by a lessee of lands, by alienation of a por¬ 
 tion of or an interest in his own term, with a 
 reversion in himself. Where a lease is silent 
 on the question a lessee may make a valid under¬ 
 lease, so long as the conditions in the original 
 lease are observed, and it is therefore customary 
 to include in the lease a covenant against sub¬ 
 letting or assignment by the lessee, without the 
 consent of the landlord. See Landlord and 
 Tenant, and consult the authorities there re¬ 
 ferred to; Lease. 
 
 UNDERSTANDING. A term which has 
 been employed in various philosophical systems, 
 from Plato to Hegel, as in some sort antithetical 
 to reason. In general, the point of distinction 
 has been that reason is the higher, understand¬ 
 ing the lower faculty of cognition; that reason 
 apprehends intuitively and in wholes, under¬ 
 standing discursively, on the ground of prem¬ 
 ises and hypotheses which it does not itself test; 
 that reason moves above the realm of sense, 
 while understanding is indebted for its material 
 to the empirical data of sensation. In the mod¬ 
 ern psychological system reason and understand¬ 
 ing have either dropped out of use or at least 
 have come to play a very subordinate part. 
 See Knowledge. Consult: j. Sully, The Human 
 Mind (2 vols., New York, 1892) ; William James, 
 Principles of Psychology (new ed., 2 vols., ib., 
 1905) ; YY. Wundt, Physiologische Psychologie 
 (6th ed., Leipzig, 1910-11). 
 
 UNDERTONES. See Harmonics. 
 
 UNDERWING MOTH. Any noctuid moth 
 of the subfamily Catocalinse, and especially one 
 of the type genus Catocala, of which more than 
 125 species inhabit the United States. Many 
 have beautifully colored hind wings, which, 
 however, are entirely concealed by the others 
 when they are at rest. They are night fliers, 
 and generally pass the day upon trunks or 
 branches of trees which they closely resemble in 
 coloring. The larvae are inconspicuous, and are 
 usually protectively colored, and curious lateral 
 structures have been developed for the purpose 
 of disguising the resting line between the larva 
 and the surface upon which it stands. Some 
 of them have developed bright warning colors 
 in spots which may be exhibited at the will of 
 the larva. 
 
 UN'DERWOOD, Lucien Marcus (1853- 
 
 1907). An American botanist, born at New 
 Woodstock, N. Y. He graduated at Syracuse 
 University in 1877. He was professor of botany 
 and geology at Illinois Wesleyan (1880-83). 
 professor of botany at Syracuse ‘ (1883-91), and 
 De Pauw (1891-95), and in 1896 became pro¬ 
 fessor of botany at Columbia. He committed 
 suicide. He published: Our Native Ferns and 
 how to Study them (1881; rev. in 1882 as Our 
 Native Ferns and their Allies, 5th ed., 1900) ; 
 Descriptive Catalogue of North American Hepat- 
 icce (1884); An Illustrative Century of Fwngi 
 (1889); Hepaticce Americans (1887-93); 
 Moulds, Mildews, and Mushrooms (1889). His 
 TJnderioood Families of America was edited bv 
 H. J. Bonker in 1913. 
 
 UNDERWOOD, Oscar Wilder (1862- ). 
 
 An American legislator, born at Louisville, Ky. 
 He was educated in law at the University of 
 Virginia, and settled at Birmingham, Ala., being 
 admitted to the bar in 1884. In 1892 he was 
 made chairman of the Democratic district exec¬ 
 utive committee, and in 1894 he was elected 
 Representative in Congress, but his seat was 
 successfully contested by Truman H. Aldrich. 
 He was reelected in 1896 and served continu¬ 
 ously until 1915. In Congress, Underwood be¬ 
 came one of the most prominent debaters and 
 parliamentary leaders of his party and its chief 
 expert in tariff legislation. Although the repre¬ 
 sentative of a manufacturing and mining dis¬ 
 trict, he stood consistently for a revenue tariff. 
 In 1910 he cooperated with Champ Clark as a 
 leader of the Democrats in reducing the powers 
 of Speaker Cannon (q.v.). In 1911 "he was made 
 chairman of the Ways and Means Committee 
 and majority leader of the Democratic party in 
 the House. He is supposed to have been the 
 author of the great reform in procedure whereby 
 committee members were to be elected by the 
 House on nomination of the Committee on Ways 
 and Means. Underwood led the fight for Cana¬ 
 dian reciprocity and was the framer of the 
 series of tariff measures revising separately 
 various schedules of the Payne-Aldrich Law, 
 such as the Farmers’ Free List Bill, the Wool 
 Bill, Cotton Bill, Steel Bill, and a bill changing 
 the chemical schedule, which were vetoed by 
 President Taft. His skill in leadership brought 
 him wide notice, so that as a candidate for the 
 presidential nomination at the Baltimore Con¬ 
 vention in 1912 he ranked third, receiving at 
 one time 130 votes. Afterward he was, in gen¬ 
 eral, a supporter of President Wilson, although 
 he opposed the repeal of the Panama Canal 
 Tolls Exemption Act. In 1913 he was largely 
 responsible for the important Underwood-Sim- 
 mons Tariff Act (see Tariff). In 1914 he was 
 elected United States Senator, having defeated 
 Richmond P. Hobson (q.v.) in the primary 
 election by more than 20,000 votes. See United 
 States, History. 
 
 UNDERWRITER. In ordinary usage, a 
 person who is authorized to negotiate insurance 
 contracts. In modern financial practice a pe¬ 
 culiar form of insurance has arisen to which the 
 term “underwriting” is applied. It has been 
 resorted to for many years in marketing new 
 securities for established corporations, but has 
 reached its highest development in the financing 
 of the large industrial corporations recently 
 formed. When a large corporation is organized 
 to absorb a number of existing companies it is 
 usually necessary to raise a large sum of money 
 to serve as a working capital or to be employed 
 
UNDERWRITING 
 
 UNEMPLOYMENT 
 
 642 
 
 in the purchase of stock in the original com¬ 
 panies which holders are unwilling to exchange 
 for new securities. To raise this cash the serv¬ 
 ices of an underwriter are usually secured. The 
 underwriting contract is one by which the com- 
 pany is assured of a definite amount of capital 
 within a stated time. The underwriter binds 
 himself to take at some stated future time a 
 stipulated part of the securities of the new 
 company at a price named in the contract, un¬ 
 less such a part is sold before that time at as 
 high a price. He usually further agrees to ad¬ 
 vance at once the capital needed to launch the 
 company. The underwriter leaves a wide margin 
 between the price at which he agrees to take the 
 stock and the price at which he hopes to sell it. 
 A part of his reward comes from this source. 
 He sometimes exacts in addition a bonus of 
 stock for himself, or a commission on all stock 
 sold, and occasionally stipulates that none of 
 the stock given to others shall be put on the 
 market until he has disposed of the entire 
 amount that he has Underwritten. 
 
 The securities of a corporation of any magni¬ 
 tude are seldom underwritten by a single person 
 or firm. The original underwriter usually al¬ 
 lows other bankers or favored customers to share 
 in the underwriting. The group is known as an 
 underwriting syndicate. The original under¬ 
 writer usually acts as syndicate manager. Each 
 member of the syndicate subscribes for a part of 
 the stock. The cash that has to be raised to 
 carry out the agreement with the company is 
 secured by the syndicate manager partly through 
 an assessment*pro rata upon the members of the 
 syndicate, partly by borrowing on the security of 
 the underwriting. At the expiration of the time 
 limit the syndicate manager distributes the profit 
 of the transaction pro rata among the members, 
 if the specified amount of stock has been sold. 
 If some of it still remains unsold, whatever profit 
 has been realized is distributed, and each mem¬ 
 ber of the syndicate is called upon to take his 
 proportionate share of the unsold stock at the 
 stipulated price. 
 
 UNDERWRITING, Marine. See Ships 
 and Shipping, Classification for Marine Insur¬ 
 ance. 
 
 UNDERWRITING OF SECURITIES. See 
 
 Railways. 
 
 UNDINES, un-denz' (ML. undina, from Lat. 
 unda, wave). The name given in the fanciful 
 system of the Paracelsists to the elementary 
 spirits of the water. Paracelsus describes the 
 Undines in his Treatise on Elemental Spirits. 
 They are of the female sex. This order of ele¬ 
 mentary spirits intermarries most readily with 
 human beings, and the Undine who bears a child 
 by such union receives with her babe a human 
 soul. But the man who marries her must be 
 careful not to go on the water with her, or at 
 least not to anger her there, for she will 
 return to her original element. Should this 
 happen, the Undine will seek to destroy her 
 husband should he venture on a second mar¬ 
 riage. Fouque has made this Paracelsist fancy 
 the basis of an exquisite tale entitled Undine, 
 published in 1811 and frequently translated 
 into English. 
 
 UNDUE INFLUENCE. In law, such an in¬ 
 fluence or control exercised over the mind of a 
 testator that his will is practically overpowered, 
 and that he is constrained by it to make some 
 disposition of his property by will contrary to 
 his own best judgment and wishes. Mere per¬ 
 
 suasion, appeals to the charity, benevolence, 
 affections, gratitude, or pride of a testator will 
 not constitute undue influence, unless carried 
 to such an extent that the mind of the testator 
 is virtually overpowered. For example, one of 
 several children may suggest to one of their 
 parents that the latter should bequeath to him 
 a larger share of his property than to the others, 
 and urge as a reason that he labors under some 
 disability rendering him less able to support 
 himself than the others, or that the others have 
 been abundantly provided for by bequests or 
 devises from other relatives, etc. Where a will 
 is contested on the ground of undue influence, 
 the courts will scrutinize very carefully the re¬ 
 lationship which existed between the testator 
 and the beneficiary, and if it was of a confiden¬ 
 tial or fiduciary character, as that of attorney 
 and client, physician and patient, religious con¬ 
 fessor and confessant, such a fact is regarded as 
 a suspicious circumstance, which, taken in con¬ 
 junction with proof of active efforts on the part 
 of the beneficiary to induce the testator to make 
 his will in favor of the former, may give rise to 
 a presumption of undue influence. Ordinarily, 
 however, where undue influence is charged, the 
 burden of proof rests upon the party making it. 
 Any person who would have been a legal heir 
 if the testator had died intestate may contest 
 his will on the ground of undue influence, and if 
 he is successful the court will refuse to probate 
 the will. See Will, and consult the authorities - 
 there referred to. 
 
 UN'DULANT FEVER. See Malta Fever. 
 
 UNUDULATORY THEORY OF LIGHT. 
 
 See Light. 
 
 UNEARNED INCREMENT. The extent to 
 which the value of real property increases inde¬ 
 pendently of any expenditure of labor or capital 
 upon it by its possessor. See the article Single 
 Tax. 
 
 UNEMPLOYMENT. A term applied to that 
 condition of industrial life in which there is a 
 considerable number of workmen out of work. 
 In its widest application it describes the con¬ 
 dition of several classes. In a report by the 
 Labor Department of the English Board of 
 Trade in 1893 the term is used of four distinct 
 classes: (1) those who, engagements being for 
 short periods, have terminated their last en¬ 
 gagement on the conclusion of a job, and have 
 not entered on another; (2) those who belong 
 to trades in which the volume of work fluctuates, 
 and who, though they may obtain a, full share 
 each year of the work afforded by their industry, 
 are not at the given time able to get employment 
 at their trade; (3) those who are economically 
 suffering because there is not enough work in 
 those trades to furnish a fair amount to all 
 who try to earn a livelihood at them; (4) those 
 who cannot get work because they are below 
 trade standards of efficiency, or because their 
 personal defects debar them. Another classifica¬ 
 tion divides the unemployed into three classes: 
 (1) members of season trades; (2) members of 
 decaying trades; (3) the “fringe” or least com¬ 
 petent members of every trade. These are broad 
 definitions, including two separate groups, those 
 who for one reason or another, as feebleness, 
 illness, old age, criminal characteristics, or men¬ 
 tal deficiency, are incapable; and, secondly, those 
 able and willing but unable to find work. 
 The first class has always existed, and its pres¬ 
 ence occasions different phases of the problems 
 of poverty and pauperism. The existence of the 
 
UNEMPLOYMENT 
 
 second class constitutes more strictly the prob¬ 
 lem of unemployment. Irregularity of employ¬ 
 ment even for competent workmen is not a mod¬ 
 ern phenomenon. It has been characteristic of 
 every stage of economic development; but, from 
 the growth of industrial democracy and the de¬ 
 velopment of humanitarian interest, the evil 
 assumes new importance. 
 
 The immediate causes of unemployment are 
 many. Chief among them are: (1) fluctuations 
 due to change of season, as in the building 
 trades, in dock labor in London, or in the tea, 
 wool, and timber industries; (2) introduction 
 of new machinery and transformation of proc¬ 
 esses; (3) migration of labor from rural dis¬ 
 tricts to the city, or from one country to an¬ 
 other; (4) displacement of adult males by 
 women or children; (5) shifting of the seat of 
 an industry from one place to another; (G) 
 change in fashion; (7) industrial depression or 
 the operation of some extraordinary occurrence, 
 as war. Some of these causes have been in 
 operation with increasing force since the revolu¬ 
 tionary inventions of the eighteenth century, and 
 the introduction of new methods of transporta¬ 
 tion in the first half of the nineteenth century. 
 The influence of the causes mentioned has been 
 accentuated during the past century by the 
 periodic appearance of crises which profoundly 
 affect the entire organization of trade and in¬ 
 dustry. Under international competition mar- 
 . kets become more sensitive to remote disturb¬ 
 ances; production may cease, and entire classes 
 of workmen for weeks together be thrown out of 
 work. In addition to these clearly recognizable 
 causes, various theories, involving a discussion 
 of the fundamental principles of political econ¬ 
 omy, have been advanced to explain the phenom¬ 
 ena of unemployment. Only a reference can be 
 made to these. First, the theory of overpro¬ 
 duction : under the present system of production, 
 with its enormous capacity for manufacture, 
 more goods are created than are required for 
 market needs; consequently there must be cessa¬ 
 tion at regular intervals until the excess supply 
 has been taken up. Second, the theory of under¬ 
 consumption : the rich hoard and invest too 
 much in fixed capital, while the poor have not 
 the power of wholesome consumption. Third, 
 the theory of inflated credit: the extensive 
 organization of business, the promotion of new 
 enterprises, the growth of banking institutions 
 for the sale of credit have all stimulated the 
 growth of the credit system; the settlement of 
 contracts is thus made contingent upon future 
 success; this development goes beyond the limits 
 of safety, and periodically necessitates contrac¬ 
 tion; this depresses industry, and men are out 
 of work. Fourth, the Socialist theory, which 
 attributes unemployment to the institution of 
 private property and the practice of individual 
 competition: these necessarily cause a never- 
 ending fluctuation of supply'and demand, and 
 prevent a harmony of industrial interests. 
 
 Statistics of unemployment are far from satis¬ 
 factory. To determine the amount of unemploy¬ 
 ment statistics should show the number and 
 proportion of those out of work on a particular 
 day and also the duration of unemployment for 
 each workman during the year. Popular esti¬ 
 mates of unemployment are greatly exaggerated, 
 owing to the inclusion of the shiftless and chronic 
 paupers. A true estimation of the significance 
 of unemployment can be secured only by a clas¬ 
 sification of statistics by cause of unemployment: 
 
 643 UNEMPLOYMENT 
 
 whether due to seasonal fluctuations peculiar 
 to a trade, to inability to find work in conse¬ 
 quence of an industrial depression, to personal 
 characteristics which place a man in the class of 
 unemployables, or to sickness or disability. The 
 principal sources of unemployment statistics are: 
 returns from trade unions, statistics of men 
 employed in manufacturing establishments at 
 different seasons; census statistics of the unoc¬ 
 cupied; special investigations or censuses of 
 particular cities, or groups of workmen; records 
 of distress committees, especially in England 
 since 1905; records of employment bureaus? and 
 statistics secured in connection with unemploy¬ 
 ment insurance benefits. 
 
 Trade-union returns were earliest developed, 
 and give fairly reliable data of the amount of 
 unemployment among their members. Returns 
 of trade unions are published, e.g., by the 
 Labor Department of Great Britain in the 'Labor 
 Gazette and in the Annual Abstract of Labor 
 Statistics, beginning with 1887; by the Labor 
 Department of France since 1894, and of Bel¬ 
 gium since 1895. German figures on unemploy¬ 
 ment are published in the Reichsarbeitsblatt and 
 in the Arbeitsmarkt. In the United States, the 
 Bureau of Labor of New York publishes in its 
 quarterly bulletin returns from trade unions 
 (since 1897), and the Massachusetts Bureau 
 since 1905; the American Federation of Labor 
 gives a monthly report of unemployment in the 
 American Federationist. These records are lim¬ 
 ited as a rule to well-organized trades. The 
 English trade-union returns published by the 
 Labor Department of the Board of trade cover 
 650,000 unionists, about one-third of the total 
 members of trade unions, and one-twelfth of 
 the total industrial manual workers. The pro¬ 
 portion of union workmen out of work to the 
 total membership (minus those who were sick, 
 on strike, etc.) varied from 1894 to 1908 be¬ 
 tween 2.4 per cent and 6.9 as an average for 
 the year. The seasonal fluctuation of some trades 
 is clearly revealed by the figures. The percen¬ 
 tage in the building trades (carpenters and 
 plumbers) varied from 3.3 in August to 5.9 
 in December; in the furnishing trades from 
 ^ uarj to 2.4 in April. No definite 
 conclusion as to unemployment among all indus¬ 
 trial workers can be drawn from these figures; 
 they include too great a proportion of skilled 
 workmen, and of the skilled workmen those in 
 the engineering and building trades are more 
 than proportionately represented. 
 
 Statistics for unemployment are not as well 
 developed in the United States as in Europe. 
 Trade-union returns for selected industries in 
 New Tork State indicate a percentage varying 
 from 10 to 37 per cent for different seasons 
 and for different years; in 1910 the lowest per¬ 
 centage was 12.5 in September and the highest 
 was 24.5 in January. In 1902 for May the figure 
 was 14 per cent; in 1903, for the same month, 
 20; 1904, 27.1; in 1905 it fell to less than 10; 
 in J910 it was 14.5 and, in 1911, 27.2. These 
 figures are reported by the secretaries of the 
 trade unions and cover a membership of ap¬ 
 proximately 100,000. No careful discrimina¬ 
 tion is made in these returns between those out 
 of work because they cannot find emplovment— 
 the real unemployed—and the sick, disabled, 
 etc.; and in this respect they are much inferior 
 to English statistics. Figures for all unions in 
 the State, including 450,000 men, giving the 
 number idle on the last day of the quarter"show 
 
UNEMPLOYMENT 
 
 UNEMPLOYMENT 
 
 644 
 
 a somewhat smaller percentage of idleness than 
 for the selected unions. Further the percentage 
 idle throughout the quarter for all unions for 
 July to September varied from 1.9 in 1908 to 
 12.8 in 1908; for the first quarter from 5.5 in 
 1903 to 26.3 in 1908. Returns for trade unions 
 in Massachusetts indicate a smaller proportion 
 of trade-union members out of work than those 
 for New York; the extremes of variation for un¬ 
 employment at the end of each quarter from 1908 
 to 1911 being from 17.9 to 4.8 per cent. Perhaps 
 the higher proportion returned in New York may 
 be due to the greater relative weight of the 
 building and clothing trades in the New York 
 data—industries in which unemployment and 
 seasonal fluctuation are very considerable. The 
 reports of the American Federationist indicate 
 a low degree of unemployment. In 1908, a year 
 of depression, the percentage varied from 4.1 
 to 9.6; the percentage for the preceding year 
 varied from 0.2 to 5.8 for the different months. 
 These figures seem more comparable to the 
 English returns. 
 
 The statistics from manufacturers as to num¬ 
 bers employed in different months afford an 
 indication of the seasonal fluctuation of un¬ 
 employment. The figures for the Federal Census 
 of 1905 showed a maximum number employed 
 of 5,678,000 in October; the minimum, 5,263,000, 
 fell in January; the difference indicates that 
 7.3 per cent fewer men were employed in Janu¬ 
 ary than in October. The figures do not indicate 
 the proportion unemployed in the latter month, 
 nor do they take into account the possibility 
 that those not employed in manufacture in Jan¬ 
 uary may be able to find work in other lines. 
 
 The statistics of the Federal Census on un¬ 
 employment are unsatisfactory and unreliable. 
 In 1900, 22.3 per cent of the occupied over 10 
 years were returned as unoccupied for some 
 part of the census year. About one-half of those 
 reported idle were unoccupied for three months 
 or less, and four-fifths of the rest were unem¬ 
 ployed for a period of four to six months. These 
 figures throw no light as to the cause of idle¬ 
 ness, whether sickness, disability, whether from 
 choice or from inability to secure work. They 
 cover all persons 10 years of age and over who 
 report a regular occupation, and probably in¬ 
 clude many children attending school who are 
 employed a part of the year. 
 
 Special investigations throw more light on 
 the subject. A special police census, e.g., was 
 taken in Rhode Island in March, 1908, to deter¬ 
 mine the number unemployed on account of the 
 industrial depression then prevailing. The five 
 principal cities with about two-thirds of the 
 wage earners of the State were canvassed: 7.8 
 per cent of the estimated number of wage earners 
 in these cities were found to be unemployed, and 
 18,292 for the entire State. These figures were 
 corroborated by returns from manufacturers in¬ 
 dicating for Feb. 28, 1908, a decrease of 19,000 
 employed from the figure for 1907. This census 
 did not take any account of men working^ on 
 short time, and it was alleged that men employed 
 for a few hours a day on charity work were 
 included among the employed. 
 
 Much information on the numbers of those 
 seeking work can be obtained from statistics of 
 labor exchanges. Nineteen states and a number 
 of municipalities have established labor ex¬ 
 changes furnishing free service in bringing em¬ 
 ployer and the seeker after work together. 
 Statistics of these offices are not statistics of 
 
 the unemployed alone; they are rather statistics 
 of the labor market—i.e., of the offer and de¬ 
 mand for labor, for a certain percentage of those 
 who register have positions and file applications 
 simply in the desire to change. Further infor¬ 
 mation of a fragmentary sort can be obtained 
 from the records of public poor departments 
 and charitable societies, especially where a record 
 is kept of the cause of destitution. Care must 
 be taken to distinguish between the new appli¬ 
 cations and the total number, in order to avoid 
 duplication. More complete data on unemploy¬ 
 ment and especially its extent will be secured 
 by the insurance funds which have been estab¬ 
 lished in England in connection with compulsory 
 unemployment insurance of workmen in certain 
 construction and engineering trades. 
 
 The remedies proposed for the relief of un¬ 
 employed are of two kinds, those applicable in 
 times of emergency and those which are perma¬ 
 nent in their operation. In the administration 
 of emergency relief difficulties are met, for it 
 is easy to transmute unemployment into vol¬ 
 untary idleness. Discrimination must be shown, 
 first, in the selection of the persons to whom re¬ 
 lief work is to be given; second, in the choice of 
 work to be undertaken; and, third, in the or¬ 
 ganization of the agencies by which relief work 
 is to be administered. It is difficult to separate 
 the worthy from the unworthy, and to prevent 
 the influx of the unemployed from outside dis¬ 
 tricts. Abuses occasioned by lax methods are 
 well illustrated by the soup kitchens and bread 
 carts in American cities in 1873, and by the 
 indiscriminate distribution of the Mansion House 
 Fund in London in 1886. Efforts were made 
 to develop a wiser policy in the relief work of 
 each country in 1894. It is now generally agreed 
 that emergency funds as far as possible should 
 be restricted to those who in ordinary times are 
 habitually at work, to those personally known, 
 and to those who are willing to accept less 
 wages than customary, or to work fewer hours 
 per "day or fewer days per week, so as to pre¬ 
 vent refusal to work elsewhere under ordinary 
 conditions. In brief, there must be investiga¬ 
 tion and some sort of test. The principles 
 adopted by the Local Government Board of Eng¬ 
 land in 1893 in the selection of work were as 
 follows: (1) work which does not involve the 
 
 stigma of pauperism; (2) work which all can 
 perform, whatever their previous vocations; (3) 
 work which does not compete with that of 
 other laborers at present in employment; and 
 (4) work which is not likely to interfere with 
 the resumption of regular employment in their 
 own trade by those who seek it. In accordance 
 with the foregoing principles, municipalities 
 were advised to undertake spade industry on 
 sewage farms, the laying out of open spaces, 
 recreation grounds, and new cemeteries, the 
 cleansing of streets not usually undertaken by 
 local authorities, the laying out and paving of 
 new streets, and the extension of sewerage work 
 and works of water supply. These forms of 
 work, however, do not meet the needs of all— 
 the experience of cities and towns in the United 
 States in 1894 showed that many mill hands 
 and artisans were physically unable to endure 
 out-of-door work in the winter or during in¬ 
 clement weather—and, of course, women are 
 not provided for. 
 
 The agencies to relieve distress among the un¬ 
 employed are of five classes: first, special citi¬ 
 zens’ relief committees, organized primarily to 
 
UNEMPLOYMENT 645 UNGAVA 
 
 aid the unemployed; second, municipal depart¬ 
 ments having charge of public works upon which 
 it is possible to give employment; third, labor 
 organizations giving aid either by the usual 
 out-of-work benefits or by extraordinary meth¬ 
 ods; fourth, private charities, including all per¬ 
 manent relief-giving organizations not connected 
 with State or municipal governments; fifth, the 
 permanently established relief agencies admin¬ 
 istered for the State and for municipalities, 
 such as poor departments. No one of these 
 agencies is complete in itself. The organization 
 of a special relief committee is too apt to be 
 delayed until suffering lias been acute, and its 
 methods are likely to be ill-considered if not 
 injurious to society. The undertaking of new 
 public works by municipalities is liable, in the 
 present stage of political development, to be un¬ 
 economical, and possibly demoralizing to the 
 civil service. Its virtue is that it may have less 
 of the demoralizing taint of charity. Trade 
 unions cannot make work, and generally oppose 
 any reduction in the standard rates of wages in 
 fear that they cannot recover the concession ex¬ 
 cept by prolonged struggle. Nor do they pos¬ 
 sess adequate funds to meet extraordinary de¬ 
 mand. Private charities are hampered by the 
 cautious, and to able-bodied workmen often 
 irritating, methods of investigation which must 
 govern the ordinary administration of charity. 
 Illustration of the work of all these agencies 
 may be found in great detail in the Report of the 
 Massachusetts Board to Investigate the Subject 
 of the Unemployed, made in 1895, and in the Re¬ 
 port on the Agencies and Methods for Dealing 
 tcith the Unemployed, made by the Labor Depart¬ 
 ment of the Board of Trade of Great Britain, in 
 1893. 
 
 The more permanent agencies which have been 
 recommended for the relief of unemployment are 
 as follows: (1) Publication at frequent in¬ 
 
 tervals by responsible authorities, either trade 
 or governmental, of the condition of the labor 
 market, for the purpose of assisting workmen 
 who seek employment, and of preventing an 
 excessive migration from the country into the 
 city. (2) The establishment of employment 
 bureaus and registry offices in order to bring 
 employers and laborers together more promptly. 
 Neither of these agencies can greatly increase the 
 amount of work to be performed; they do, how¬ 
 ever, reduce loss of time and futile effort. (3) 
 Establishment of boards of conciliation and 
 arbitration in order to prevent strikes and lock¬ 
 outs, which throw men out of work. (4) Adop¬ 
 tion of a shorter day of work, so as to give op¬ 
 portunity of employment to a greater number of 
 workmen. This recommendation, however, does 
 not take into account the results of past experi¬ 
 ence; either the productive power of those work¬ 
 ing is proportionately increased by the reduc¬ 
 tion in hours, or the cost of production is in¬ 
 creased, thus diminishing the purchasing power 
 and standard of comfort of those dependent 
 upon that particular product. (5) Restriction 
 of immigration. In some industries, as the gar¬ 
 ment-making trade in the cities of the Atlantic 
 seaboard, and the mining industry in Pennsyl¬ 
 vania and Illinois, there has undoubtedly been 
 a congestion of labor owing to an excessive in¬ 
 flux of workmen from foreign countries; the 
 restriction of immigration, however, involves so 
 many consequences entirely apart from that of 
 regularity of employment that its discussion 
 must be omitted. (6) Establishment of labor 
 
 farms or colonies for the purpose of training 
 workmen for agricultural life. The most notable 
 of these experiments are the Labor Colonies of 
 Germany; that of Hadleigh, in England, estab¬ 
 lished by the Salvation Army; the Jewish colo¬ 
 nies in Alliance and Woodbine, New Jersey; and 
 certain land settlements in New Zealand. Nearly 
 every country has experimented along this line, 
 but the results are not as a whole encouraging. 
 It is undoubtedly one of the methods to be 
 utilized, but it appears to be unfitted to serve 
 as a complete remedy. Agricultural labor is not 
 highly paid, and during the past half century 
 has been subjected to enormous strains caused 
 by the opening of new markets of supply. Nor 
 can it be expected that a miscellaneous collec¬ 
 tion of workmen taken from the city will suc¬ 
 ceed in entirely new pursuits upon the land. 
 Again, urban workmen who have been unused to 
 farm life are likely to be attracted by numerous 
 associations to the charm of city residence. 
 Success can be hoped for only when the colonists 
 are inspired by an earnest spirit, can settle upon 
 land of especially favorable quality, and are 
 supplied with a considerable amount of initial 
 capital. (7) Insurance against unemployment. 
 Many municipalities in Europe have adopted the 
 so-called Ghent system of insurance against un¬ 
 employment, which consists in subsidizing trade 
 unions giving unemployment benefits to their 
 members. All responsibility for establishing the 
 fact of unemployment and controlling the dis¬ 
 tribution of the benefits is placed in this sys¬ 
 tem upon the union. Approximately a quarter 
 of a million workers in various cities are in¬ 
 sured. Great Britain enacted in 1911 a law 
 requiring compulsory insurance in construction 
 and engineering trades, covering about 2,500,000 
 workmen. Up to the outbreak of the great 
 war, the insurance fund had been able to meet 
 all demands for unemployment benefits and had 
 a considerable surplus to its credit. Contribu¬ 
 tions are required both from workman and em¬ 
 ployer, and the state adds a subsidy equal to 
 one-third of these contributions. (See Social 
 Insurance.) (8) The extension of state in¬ 
 dustrial enterprise. This in particular is the 
 remedy offered by the Socialists. (See Social¬ 
 ism;.) (9) Industrial education. Opposed to 
 the Socialist is the individualist who lays stress 
 upon individual training by which the workman 
 will be enabled to turn quickly from one em¬ 
 ployment to another in case of displacement. 
 It is held that industrial evolution has pro¬ 
 ceeded at so marvelous a rate that it is impos¬ 
 sible to avoid disturbance. Distress can best 
 be met by a thorough preparation of the indi¬ 
 vidual and the adoption of such measures as 
 will tend to strengthen individual effort and to 
 widen individual opportunity. Consult: W. H. 
 Beveridge, Unemployment: A Problem of In¬ 
 dustry (London, 1909) ; S. and B. Webb, Minor¬ 
 ity Report of the Poor Law Commission (ib., 
 1909) ; F. B. Sargent, “Statistics of Unemploy¬ 
 ment and Work of Employment Officers,” in 
 United States Bureau of Labor, Bulletin No. 109 
 (Washington, 1913) ; “The Struggle against 
 Unemployment: Symposium,” in American La¬ 
 bor Legislation Review, vol. iv (New York, 
 1914), including bibliography. See Labor 
 Colonies. 
 
 UNGAVA, un-ga/va or un-ga'va. A territory 
 of Canada. In May, 1912, an act of the Canadian 
 Parliament authorized its annexation to the 
 Province of Quebec, and the same year it was 
 
UNGAVA 
 
 UNGER 
 
 646 
 
 erected into the Territory of New Quebec by an 
 act of the Legislature of the Province of Que¬ 
 bec (Map: Canada, Q, R 5). New Quebec has 
 an approximate area of 351,780 square miles. 
 The population, including Labrador, consists of 
 about 3500 Indians, 2000 Eskimo, and 8800 
 whites. The population is expressly excluded 
 by law for the purposes of readjustment of rep¬ 
 resentation of the provinces of Canada. It oc¬ 
 cupies, for the main part, a table-land having an 
 average elevation of 1000 to 2000 feet, and com¬ 
 posed almost wholly of Archean gneisses and 
 granites, with some ancient Paleozoic, mainly 
 Silurian, sedimentary rocks. In the northwest 
 the land sinks to an altitude of 500 feet, while 
 the shores of Ungava Bay, as well as portions 
 of the Hudson Bay coast, are lower. At Cape 
 Jones, at the entrance to James Bay, and at 
 several other places the plateau approaches the 
 coast. The surface of the plateau is an undulat¬ 
 ing plain scoured by glacial action, so that the 
 rounded granite surfaces are exposed, surrounded 
 by marshy depressions. Post-glacial river sys¬ 
 tems have not yet developed definitely, and the 
 interior is a maze of surface streams and shal¬ 
 low lakes, the latter being so numerous that 
 fully one-third of the total area is covered with 
 water. The streams finally collect in a num¬ 
 ber of main rivers, which have cut deep valleys 
 in the edge of the plateau, through which they 
 descend to the coast by falls and rapids. These 
 rivers have an enormous water power, that of 
 Hamilton River being estimated at 300,000 horse 
 power. About 90 per cent of the forests of 
 New Quebec are spruce, which is supplemented 
 by canoe birch, aspen, cedar, cypress, and poplar. 
 Large forests of spruce and birch extend 
 northward in the valleys as far as the fifty- 
 seventh parallel, north of which the country is 
 treeless, though there is an area of scrub where 
 gooseberries, currants, huckleberries, and cran¬ 
 berries are abundant. The vegetation in the 
 northern half consists of sphagnum bogs with 
 sedges and Arctic flowering plants, followed in 
 the extreme north by tundras, in which lichens, 
 especially reindeer moss, are predominant. The 
 sable is the most valuable of the fur-bearing 
 animals, though ermine, lynx, beaver, and foxes 
 are numerous. Overhunting has nearly exter¬ 
 minated the caribou—especially the woodland 
 species. The shore fisheries along the coast of 
 Hudson Bay are considered as the most pro¬ 
 ductive of the natural resources of the Terri¬ 
 tory in the immediate future. Trout, whitefish, 
 cod, and salmon are the most important fish. 
 Immense deposits of magnetite, hematite, and 
 siderite in the Cambrian formation are wide¬ 
 spread, and promise to be of future economic 
 importance. Carbonate iron ores, with large 
 percentages of manganese, are found in great 
 quantities in the Hudson Bay region, both along 
 the coast and also on all the Hopewell islands, 
 on part of the Nastapoka and adjoining groups. 
 The climate is rigorous, but varies greatly in 
 the 800 miles of latitude. In general the win¬ 
 ters are colder and the summers warmer than 
 on the Labrador coast. While minimum win¬ 
 ter temperatures varying from -—40° to —55° 
 occur, there are large interior areas where the 
 summer temperatures rise above 80° each year. 
 Snow falls to the depth of 3 to 5 feet annually. 
 Consult Reports on Ungava, recently Added to 
 the Province of Quebec, under the Name of Neio 
 Quebec (Department of Colonization, etc., Prov¬ 
 ince of Quebec, 2d ed., Quebec, 1915). 
 
 UNGER, ung'er, Carl Richard ( 1817 - 97 ). 
 A Norwegian philologist, born in Christiania. 
 He was educated at Christiania Lniversity, where 
 he was lecturer (1845-62), and professor from 
 1862 to his death. He became known through 
 liis accurate and discerning work in editing 
 numerous Old Norse and Icelandic texts, first 
 together with P. A. Munch and R. Keyser, later 
 alone. Among them are Heimskringla, by 
 Snorri Sturluson, Olafs saga, M arkinskinna, 
 Konungs skugg-sjd, mediaeval romances, legends, 
 and homilies. He also edited the monumental 
 work Diplomat arium Norvegicum (vols. i-v, 
 1847-61, with C. A. Lange, and vols. vi-xv, 
 1863-1900, with H. J. Huitfeldt-Kaas). 
 
 UNGER, ung'er, Franz (1800-70). An Aus¬ 
 trian botanist, born in Styria. In 1836 he be¬ 
 came professor of botany at Graz and in 1850 
 was called to Vienna. He was one of the pio¬ 
 neers in paleobotany, and also in ecology, a 
 paper of his on the relation of soil to vegetation 
 being one of the classics of ecology. He also 
 did pioneer work in plant physiology. 
 
 UNGER, Joseph (1828-1913). An Austrian 
 jurist and statesman. He was born in Vienna, 
 studied law in that city, and after holding a 
 chair at Prague was professor of jurisprudence 
 in the University of Vienna from 1857 till his 
 retirement many years, later. He was greatly in¬ 
 terested in the constitutional questions of Aus¬ 
 tria, and, in collaboration with Fisclihof, pub¬ 
 lished Zur Losung der ungarischen Frage 
 (1861). He became a member of the Lower 
 Austrian Diet in 1867, and later of the Reichsrat, 
 where he was active on behalf of the liberal 
 programme. In 1869 he was called to the 
 House of Peers. From 1871 to 1879 he was 
 Minister without a portfolio, and in 1881 be¬ 
 came the President of the Imperial Court. His 
 chief work, an attempt to systematize the Aus¬ 
 trian private law, was published under the title 
 System dcs osterreichischen allgemeinen Pri- 
 vatrechts (1856-59). Among his other works 
 are: Das osterreichische Erbrecht (1864); Der 
 Entiourf eines biirgerlichen Gesetzbuches fur das 
 Konigreicli Sachsen, mit besonderer Riicksicht 
 auf das osterreichische allgemeine burgerlichc 
 Gesetzbuch besprochen (1853); Die rechtliche 
 Natur der Inhaberpapiere (1857); Die Verlas- 
 senschaftsabhandlung in Oesterreich (1865). 
 With Glaser and others, he published Sammlung 
 von civilrechtlichen Entscheidungen des k. k. 
 obersten Gerichtshofes in Wien (1859-92). 
 
 UNGER, Karoline (1803-77). A Hungarian 
 dramatic soprano, born at Stuhlweissenburg, 
 near Budapest. She received her musical train¬ 
 ing from Alovsia Lange, Mozart’s sister-in-law, 
 and Johann Vogl, the great Schubert interpreter. 
 Her debut occurred at Vienna in 1821 in Mo¬ 
 zart’s Cost fan Tutte. In 1824 she met Bee¬ 
 thoven, who chose her to sing the solos in the 
 first performances of his Missa Solemnis and 
 Ninth Symphony. The scene of her greatest 
 triumphs was Italy, where Mercadante, Pacini, 
 Donizetti, and Bellini wrote many operas for 
 her. At that time she wrote her name Ungher. 
 After her marriage to a M. Sabatier in 1840, 
 she retired from the stage, devoting herself en¬ 
 tirely to the concert platform. She died in 
 Florence. Her voice was powerful, but rather 
 shrill in the highest register. 
 
 UNGER, ung'er, William (1837- ). A 
 
 German etcher. He was born in Hanover and 
 was a pupil of Josef von Keller in Diisseldorf 
 and of Thater in Munich. In 1871 he became 
 
UNGNAD 
 
 647 
 
 UNGULATA 
 
 in the development of a true herbivorous type 
 of molar teeth, and in a type of limb adapted 
 to running in the forests and on the plains, 
 borne of tiie oldest forms have the foot semi¬ 
 plantigrade, but the change through the dmiti- 
 grade to the unguligrade foot, with only the 
 terminal phalanx resting on the ground, occurs 
 during the early part of the Tertiary period. 
 Also in the earliest forms all the five digits 
 
 professor at Weimar; in 1881 at the Kunstge- 
 werbeschule, Vienna, and in 1895 at the Vienna 
 Academy. He became the foremost champion of 
 reproductive etching in Germany—indeed, in 
 Europe reproducing the great masterpieces of 
 the galleries at Brunswick, Cassel, Haarlem, Am¬ 
 sterdam, and ^ ienna, with an elegance of drafts¬ 
 manship, delicacy of execution, and richness of 
 color that have rarely been equaled. His prin¬ 
 cipal work is Oalerie des 
 Wiener Belvedere, with text 
 by Lutzow. Consult Graul, 
 
 William TJnger und sein 
 Radiemcerk (Vienna, 1891). 
 
 UNGNAD, ung'nat, Ar¬ 
 thur Franz Eduard (1879- 
 ). A German Oriental¬ 
 ist, born at Magdeburg. He 
 was educated at the Univer¬ 
 sity of Berlin (Ph.D., 1903) ; 
 served as an assistant in the 
 Royal Museum at Berlin in 
 1905-09; and thenceforth 
 was professor at Jena. Be¬ 
 sides grammars, his publica¬ 
 tions include: Analogiebild- 
 ungen im hebraischen Ver- 
 ben (1903); Syntax der 
 
 Gesetze Hammurahis ( 1903-04); Selected Baby- were about equally functional but be^an very 
 loman Bumness and Legal Documents of the early a specialization in twi directions-the 
 
 EVOLUTION OF THE FOOT IN UNGULATES. 
 
 (LLe?T^iarTv^4 n ^/i^ Wer Te J T tiary ); 2, Hyracops (Eocene); 3. Theosodon 
 tiavy) 1 ’ 4 ’ I roterothenum (Lower Tertiary); 5, Thootherium (Lower Ter- 
 
 Hammurobi Period (1907); Selected Business 
 Documents of the Neo-Baby Ionian Period (1908) ; 
 Hammurahis Gesetz (1909-11), with Kohler; 
 Aramaische Papyrus aus Elephantine (1911); 
 Praktische Einfuhrung in die hebraische Lekture 
 des Alten Testament (1912). 
 
 UFGUENT (Lat. unguentum, from unguere, 
 to anoint), or Ointment. A medicament for 
 external application, consisting of a fatty base 
 holding an active agent. The base consists of 
 prepared lard, prepared suet, or olive or almond 
 oil, mixed with white wax, or of vaseline, or of 
 lanoline. The unguents of the United States 
 Pharmacopoeia are those of boric acid, tannic 
 acid, rose water (cold cream), belladonna, clirys- 
 arobin, diachylon (lead plaster), nutgall, mer¬ 
 cury, ammoniated mercury, nitrate of mercury, 
 yellow oxide of mercury, red oxide of mercury, 
 iodine, iodoform, carbolic acid, tar, potassium 
 iodide, stramonium, sulphur, veratrine, zinc 
 oxide, and zinc stearate. See Ointment. 
 
 UN'GULA'TA (Lat. nom. pi., having claws 
 or hoofs, from ungula, claw, hoof, dim. of un¬ 
 guis, Gk. ovv£, onyx, nail, etc., OIr. inga, nail). 
 
 An order of mammals 
 including the ele¬ 
 phants, hyracoids, 
 hoofed animals, and 
 related forms of the 
 past; the ungulates. 
 The earliest-known 
 forms from the basal 
 Eocene have many re¬ 
 semblances to the ear¬ 
 liest Creodonta or 
 primitive Carnivora, 
 
 , in the small brain, 
 
 the number and kinds of teeth, the compara¬ 
 tively short legs and long heavy tail, and the 
 five-toed feet. The relatively close relationship 
 of the earliest ungulates with the Creodonts is 
 admitted by all authorities. Both groups have 
 probably been derived from insectivorous placen¬ 
 tal mammals of the Cretaceous period. 
 
 The tendency of the group is very early shown 
 
 LEFT FOREFOOT OF CORYPHO 
 DON (AMBLYPOD TYPE). 
 
 mesaxonic type with the axis of the foot in the 
 third or middle digit, as in the perissodactyl 
 or odd-toed forms, and the paraxonic type with 
 the axis between the third and fourth digits as 
 m the artiodactyl or even-toed forms. The con¬ 
 necting links between the great groups of un<m- 
 lates have not been well established. The Condy- 
 larthia, represented by the Lower Eocene 
 Phenacodus, seem to be the most primitive. 
 Ihe ungulates undoubtedly began to radiate in 
 the Cretaceous, for, though none have yet been 
 recorded for that era, there are in North Amer¬ 
 ica two well-marked groups, the Condvlarthra 
 and the Taligrade, in existence at the very base 
 of the Eocene; the Taligrade specialized into the 
 clumsy and bizarre Amblypoda (caryphodonts 
 and uintatheres) and both groups became ex¬ 
 tinct before the end of the Eocene period. The 
 radiation of ungulates continues through the 
 Eocene, and during this period all the great 
 groups became well differentiated. In North 
 America the Perissodactyla are not found in the 
 lowest Eocene formations (Paleocene) but ap¬ 
 pear in the succeeding Lower Eocene, apparentlv 
 as immigrants from a northern centre. Of the 
 Perissodactyla the Palseotheriidse, Equidte, Tapir- 
 idtP, Lophiodontidae and J itanotherida? appear 
 in the Lower Eocene, the Hvracodontidae in the 
 Middle Eocene, and the Amynodontidse and the 
 Rhmocerotidae in the Upper Eocene. It should 
 be noted, however, that the earliest members 
 of the Equida?, Tapirkhe and Lophiodontidae are 
 so much alike that some authors class them all 
 in the same family. The Amynodonts and 
 Rhinoceroses are also derivatives of this older 
 group. The great expansion of this group is in 
 the Upper Eocene and Oligocene. The Probos- 
 cidea and Hyracoidea probably arose, at the 
 latest, in the Upper Eocene of Asia or northern 
 Africa. Besides these forms, which were com¬ 
 mon to most of North America and Eurasia, there 
 arose in South America an ungulate fauna found 
 nowhere else, consisting of four groups, Litop- 
 terna, Typotheria, Toxodontia and Pyrotheria. 
 The first three of these seem to be entirely unre- 
 
UNGULED 
 
 UNIFORMS 
 
 648 
 
 lated to other ungulates except to the Condy- 
 larthra. They flourished in the Miocene and 
 Pliocene and became extinct in the Pleistocene. 
 The Pyrotheria are regarded by Loomis as 
 Proboscidea. 
 
 The ungulates are from the standpoint of hu¬ 
 man economy the most important, and have been 
 the chief support of man since he attained 
 supremacy, furnishing him with most of the 
 food, clothing, and working assistance which he 
 derives from animals. The four existing sub¬ 
 orders are the Hyracoidea, Proboscidea, Artio- 
 dactyla, and Perissodactyla. See Hyrax; Ele¬ 
 phant; Proboscidea; Ruminant; Bovid.e; 
 Horse; Rhinoceros; and the names of allied 
 groups and species. Consult: S. P. Woodward, 
 Vertebrate Palaeontology (New York, 1898) ; F. 
 E. Beddard, “Mammalia,” in Cambridge Natural 
 History, vol. x (London, 1902) ; W. K. Gregory, 
 “The Order of Mammals,” in American Museum 
 of Natural History, Bulletin No. 27 (ib., 1910) ; 
 H. F. Osborn, The Age of Mammals (ib., 1910). 
 
 UN'GULED. In heraldry (q.v.), a term ap¬ 
 plied to the tincture of the hoofs of an animal. 
 Thus a stag represented with hoofs of a certain 
 color is unguled of that color. 
 
 UNG VAR, ung'var. A town of Hungary, 
 capital of the County of Ung, 172 miles northeast 
 of Budapest, on the river Ung, and on the 
 Nyiregvhaza-Ungvar Railway (Map: Hungary, 
 H 2). The former castle is now a seminary. 
 The manufacture of pottery and vine culture en¬ 
 gage the people. Pop., 1900, 14,723; 1910, 16,- 
 840, mostly Magyars. 
 
 UNIATES, u'ni-ats (Russ, uniyatu, member 
 of the United Greek church, from Lat. unus, 
 one). A generic term used to designate Eastern 
 Christians, who, while in communion with Rome, 
 are allowed to retain a number of their tradi¬ 
 tional local peculiarities in discipline and wor¬ 
 ship. As a rule they have their own liturgies 
 in the Eastern tongues; they use leavened bread 
 in the Eucharist (with the exception of the 
 Maronites and the Armenians) ; their priests 
 are allowed to marry once; and they have a body 
 of canon law of their own, partly consisting of 
 ancient conciliar decrees and partly of papal de¬ 
 cisions made for their special case. Their gov¬ 
 ernment is cared for by a special committee 
 of the Propaganda super negotiis Orientalium 
 organized by Pius IX in 1862. The United 
 Greeks may be divided according to the lan¬ 
 guages employed in their worship. Those with a 
 Greek liturgy are found principally in Greece, 
 European Turkey, Italy, and Russia, besides 
 some 10,000 adherents in the United States. 
 The Melchites (q.v.) employ the Arabic. There 
 are also Rumanians with a vernacular liturgy; 
 the Slavic is employed by the Ruthenians and 
 Bulgarians. Under the name of Uniates are also 
 comprehended the United Copts, descendants of 
 the ancient Egyptians in Egypt and Abyssinia, 
 the old Patriarchate of Alexandria; they have 
 been united with Rome since 1732, and number 
 some 30,000. To the Syrian rite belong the 
 Maronites (q.v.), the Syrians proper in Asiatic 
 Turkey, and some Syro-Chaldeans in the same 
 region and in India. There are also Armenians 
 in Turkey, Egypt, Russia, and Galicia; these 
 returned to communion with Rome in the first 
 half of the fourteenth century, and now number 
 150,000. The total number of Uniates is up¬ 
 ward of six millions. See Nestorians. 
 
 U'NICORN (OF., Fr. unicorne, from Lat. 
 unicornus , one-liorned, from unus, one corrw, 
 
 horn). A fabulous animal mentioned by ancient 
 Greek and Latin authors, and described as resem¬ 
 bling a horse, and with one horn on the forehead. 
 The unicorn is perhaps best known as a heraldic 
 charge or supporter. Consult Robert Brown, The 
 Unicorn (London, 1881); Charles Gould, Mythi¬ 
 cal Monsters (ib., 1886). See Bestiaries. 
 
 UNICORN. See Monoceros; Oryx. 
 
 UNICORN FISH. 1. A marine fish (Lo- 
 photes cepedianus) , related to the oarfisli and 
 ribbon fishes (qq.v.). It has been taken both 
 in the eastern Atlantic and off the coast of 
 Japan, in rather deep water. It is about five 
 feet long and silvery in color, with lighter spots 
 and rosy fins. All" the fins are minute except 
 the dorsal, which extends the whole length of 
 the back, and is preceded by the elevation of the 
 
 crown of the head into a high crest, surmounted 
 by an exceedingly long and recurved spine, from 
 which the fish receives its name. Its habits are 
 unknown. (2) One of the filefishes (Alutera 
 scripta ) common in the West Indies, and known 
 there as “lija trompa.” It is two or three feet 
 long, olivaceous in color, streaked and spotted 
 with blue and black, and has the snout produced, 
 and a long and slender spine rising from the top 
 of the head. Consult Gunther, Study of Fishes 
 (Edinburgh, 1880). 
 
 UNICORN PLANT. See Martynia. 
 
 U'NIFOR'MITA'RIANISM. In geology the 
 theory which seeks to account for the past his¬ 
 tory of the earth in the light of the present. It 
 assumes that the great changes which the earth 
 has undergone are the results of slow-working 
 but persistent processes rather than of catas¬ 
 trophic agencies. The theory was first clearly 
 stated by James Hutton and found its ablest 
 advocate in Sir Charles Lyell; it has had an 
 important influence in the development of geo¬ 
 logical science. See Catastrophism. 
 
 UNIFORMITY, Act of. See Act of Uni¬ 
 formity. 
 
 UNIFORMS, Military and Naval. A uni¬ 
 form is a distinguishing dress of a certain group 
 or organization, as an army, society, etc. To 
 obtain authentic records as to the first em¬ 
 ployment of costume devices, as they were then 
 known, it is necessary to go back to the Cru¬ 
 saders. Armor (q.v.) was the badge of caste, 
 and to distinguish one armored knight from 
 another there were adopted and employed shields 
 bearing what are now known as heraldic de¬ 
 vices. (See Heraldry.) Likewise the difficulty 
 of distinguishing men at arms, and followers of 
 a king or nobleman, especially in battle, brought 
 about the introduction of a distinctive badge 
 or pattern of dress for all the retainers of a 
 
UNIFORMS 
 
 SERVICE UNIFORMS AT THE TIME OF THE EUROPEAN WAR, 1916 
 
UNIFORMS 
 
 MILITARY DRESS UNIFORMS. 1916 
 
UNIFORMS 
 
 feudal lord or monarch. Thus in the Second 
 Crusade the French wore red crosses on their 
 sleeves and the English white. Henry VIII of 
 England is said to have had the first completely 
 uniformed body of men, when at the siege of 
 Therovame his archers were dressed in white 
 gaberdines, with caps of uniform color and de¬ 
 sign. In 1526 he arrayed the yeomen of his 
 household in a uniform of red and black, and 
 this costume for the Yeomen of the Guard 
 (q.v.), or the Beefeaters, as they were for¬ 
 merly known, is still worn by the members of 
 that distinguished corps. 
 
 I ranee speedily followed England in uniform¬ 
 ing the different corps of men at arms, and by 
 the beginning of the seventeenth century all 
 the countries of Europe had distinctive dress 
 for their troops. From then until the end of 
 the nineteenth century uniforms varied with the 
 times, strongly influenced in cut and design by 
 various changes in civilian costumes, such as 
 wigs, long and short skirted coats, knee breeches, 
 boots, and similar accessories, and what were 
 the fashions of the times soon found their way 
 into the dress regulations prescribed for the 
 armies. Uniforms probably reached their height 
 of splendor in the days of the Napoleonic wars, 
 when the French Emperor made use of all pos¬ 
 sible spectacular effect to incite martial en¬ 
 thusiasm. In the days when the arms used 
 on the battlefield had but a limited range, the 
 wearing of showy uniforms made little differ¬ 
 ence, as the enemy’s troops, even when plainly 
 visible, could not be reached by fire except at 
 short distances. The improvement of firearms, 
 however, completely changed field operations, 
 and showy uniforms, except for parade and gar¬ 
 rison duty, have almost completely disappeared. 
 The service uniforms of the armies of the mili¬ 
 tary forces are now primarily designed for util¬ 
 ity and to meet the conditions under actual 
 war service. (See War in Europe. ) Such uni¬ 
 forms were first used by the English in India 
 about 1880, and the color adopted was known 
 as khaki (q.v.), a term which has become the 
 recognized name for describing the field-service 
 uniform, though technically khaki is a color and 
 not a material. It was not until the Spanish- 
 American War that the advantage of a field-serv¬ 
 ice uni form was brought to the notice of the United 
 States, while the South African War, a year 
 later, proved to the world the necessity of such 
 a uniform in days of high-powered armaments. 
 
 The main character of the uniforms of the 
 armies of the world are indicated in the following 
 summary: 
 
 Austria-Hungary. The uniforms of the Aus¬ 
 trian army were for many years modeled after 
 the French, with the exception that from as 
 early as 1650 white was universally used for 
 both coat and trousers for all branches of the 
 service. Such uniforms made little difference 
 as long as troops were manoeuvred for battle 
 at short distances, but in the war with Prussia 
 in 1866, when more effective arms began to 
 make their appearance, these conspicuous clothes 
 caused disaster to the Austrian troops. A com¬ 
 plete revision of the entire uniform regulation 
 came later, and in 1890 the present bill of 
 dress was adopted. The infantry tunic is of 
 dark blue with' collar patches of colors, or com¬ 
 binations of colors, by which the regiments are 
 distinguished. Trousers are of light blue. 
 Rifle regiments wear complete uniforms of gray. 
 Dragoons, uhlans, and hussars wear tunics of 
 
 649 UNIFORMS 
 
 dark blue with red breeches; the first two wear 
 leather helmets and the last named shakos, 
 Artillery wear brown tunics and red breeches 
 and the engineers gray throughout. The army 
 of Hungary for many years followed the pic¬ 
 turesque national costume in which elaborate 
 braiding, fur trimmings, and high boots were 
 features. In 1867, with the consolidation of 
 the two kingdoms, the Hungarian army was 
 uniformed in accordance with the dress of the 
 Austrians, though in the infantry they still 
 retain the tight braided trousers of their na¬ 
 tional dress. Field-service uniforms were first 
 tried out in 1902 and gradually the whole army 
 was equipped with a bluish-gray uniform 
 trimmed with distinctive colors. The cavalry 
 retained their regulation helmets and shakos, 
 made less conspicuous for field work by a gray 
 cover, while other branches of the service have 
 a cap conforming in color with the rest of the 
 uniform. 
 
 England. As stated previously, uniforms 
 were first introduced in the reign of Henry VIII. 
 In his special guards in 1544 every soldier was 
 required to have a coat of blue “guarded” with 
 a red cloth. In 1585 English soldiers wore scar¬ 
 let coats for the first time, but during the Civil 
 War uniforms became much more sombre, and 
 varied according to the colors of the troop lead¬ 
 ers. King Charles and Prince Rupert chose 
 scarlet for their respective guards, but this was 
 not definitely adopted as the English color until 
 Queen Anne’s reign. By the close of the seven¬ 
 teenth century nearly the whole of the land 
 forces of Great Britain were uniformed in scar¬ 
 let or blue, the former color generally for the 
 foot, and the latter for mounted troops, though 
 there were exceptions. The organization of rifle 
 regiments in 1800 caused the introduction of 
 what-is known as “rifle green” for this special 
 corps. 
 
 The cut of the military clothing, the general 
 style, the hats and equipment, all varied with 
 the times. During the period when long tail 
 coats were worn the tails were looped back for 
 convenience in action, thus showing the lining 
 of different colors. Regiments thus became 
 known by the color of their facings as these 
 turn-backs were called, and when the uniforms 
 were modernized these facings were retained 
 in the trimmings. Though English uniforms 
 have followed the changes of dress in keeping 
 with the times, they have, in many cases, re¬ 
 tained certain characteristics of trimmings, orna¬ 
 ments, etc., that have kept to certain tradi¬ 
 tions. This is particularly true of the High¬ 
 land regiments. They have always refused to 
 give up their kilts, even when it was necessary 
 to equip them in field-service jackets and caps. 
 These privileges are regarded as inalienable 
 rights in many organizations and, as they con¬ 
 duce strongly to esprit de corps, they have a 
 value which offsets the strictly military views 
 of the War Office. 
 
 The British army was first entirely equipped 
 with a field-service uniform in the South Afri¬ 
 can War of 1899-1902. The color adopted was 
 the same as the khaki-colored uniforms which. 
 had been used in India. The cut was loose and 
 comfortable; the coat supplied with patch 
 pockets: the trousers and breeches were tight 
 at the knee, and the lower legs were protected 
 by boots or leggings of brown leather or a 
 strip of woolen material, called puttees, wound 
 around the leg. Though varying in color and 
 
UNIFORMS 
 
 UNIFORMS 
 
 650 
 
 details this type of uniform has been practi¬ 
 cally copied by all nations in their present field- 
 service uniforms. 
 
 France. Uniforms were first worn in France 
 by the entire army in the reign of Louis XIII. 
 In 1670, when the wearing of the prescribed 
 uniform was made compulsory, the infantry 
 were ordered to wear white coats, faced with 
 red. The cavalry had a similar uniform with 
 leather breeches and high boots. Under Louis 
 XVT the uniforms were modified, the infantry 
 wearing white, the light cavalry blue, and the 
 heavy cavalry green. With the Revolution the 
 uniforms were simplified—consisting of dark- 
 blue coats, white breeches, and high gaiters. 
 Napoleon, on accoimt of the difficulty of ob¬ 
 taining dyestuff, returned to white, but, sub¬ 
 stitutes for the old dyes being found, the col¬ 
 ored coats were again introduced. During this 
 period the French uniforms, particularly those 
 of the officers, were probably the most elaborate 
 ever worn. In 1815, with the restoration of 
 Louis XVIII, the white uniforms were again 
 taken up, only to give way to the blue in 1820. 
 At the same time the famous red trousers were 
 universally adopted for all branches of the 
 service except riflemen, artillery, and engineers, 
 who all wore blue. During the Second Empire 
 a return was made to the extremely elaborate 
 dress of the Napoleonic days, but the Franco- 
 Prussian War of 1870 proved the uselessness 
 of many of these uniforms for modern warfare. 
 With the reconstruction of the army after the 
 war the general scheme of color (blue and red) 
 was retained and the uniforms w T ere put on a 
 more practical basis which, except for slight 
 modifications, are as worn at the present time. 
 The dragoons and cuirassiers still wear their 
 metal helmets, and the latter also the cuirass. 
 France is the only country to retain their relics 
 of former military glory for service in the field. 
 
 Until the great war the French had never 
 adopted any official field-service uniform for 
 their army as a whole. Troops on duty in 
 Africa had been supplied with khaki, while 
 several experimental uniforms had been tried 
 in sections of the home army. When the war 
 broke out in 1914 the troops went into service 
 in their historic blue and red; the heavy cav¬ 
 alry, however, concealed their helmets and cui¬ 
 rasses with grayish-brown covers. The imprac¬ 
 ticability of the uniform was soon discovered, 
 and a colored cloth of light grayish blue was 
 adopted. This was said to blend better with 
 the surroundings in the field in northern France 
 than the khaki worn by the English. Tradi¬ 
 tion is still strong in the French service, and 
 though the army has been equipped with the 
 above color for caps, coats, and overcoats, they 
 still retain the red trousers in regiments for 
 which they are prescribed. A further innova¬ 
 tion in the field-service uniform in the war 
 was the equipment of infantry with a steel 
 shrapnel-proof helmet, the use of which was 
 so beneficial to the men engaged in trench 
 work that the English experimented with a 
 similar device to be issued /to their advance 
 infantry. 
 
 Germany. Any historical sketch of the uni¬ 
 forms of the armies of Germany previous to the 
 formation of the Empire in 1870 would exceed 
 the space limits of this article. Each king 
 and ruler of petty states maintained his own 
 army, uniforming and equipping it according to 
 his own or his government’s ideas. The army 
 
 of Prussia, under Frederick the Great, was 
 brought to a splendid standard of efficiency, and 
 its styles of uniforms soon after began to show 
 themselves in the armies of the smaller Ger¬ 
 man states. With the unity of Germany in 
 1871 the army was reorganized as an Imperial 
 one and the Prussian uniform was adopted 
 throughout the Empire except in Bavaria, where 
 a lighter blue was used instead of the dark 
 blue worn by the army in general. The mod¬ 
 ern German uniforms may be described as fol¬ 
 lows : Infantry—blue tunics, black trousers; 
 facings according to regiments, scarlet, white, 
 or light blue. Black leather helmets with metal 
 spikes. Rifle regiments wear dark green in¬ 
 stead of blue, and leather shakos. Cuirassiers 
 —tunics of white. Dragoons and uhlans—blue, 
 the former wearing helmets of metal, the two 
 latter of leather. The hussars’ tunics are of 
 various colors according to regiments—their 
 headdress busbies of brown fur. Artillery and 
 engineers wear uniforms of blue throughout, 
 Avith trimmings of black and scarlet. 
 
 Experiments with a field-service uniform were 
 begun immediately after England’s war with 
 South Africa, but it was not until 1908 that a 
 definite uniform was decided upon. The army 
 has since then been gradually equipped with 
 these: field uniforms of brownish gray, the cut 
 and color of trimmings as prescribed for the 
 ordinary uniforms retained, as well as the hel¬ 
 met, busbies, and shakos. These are concealed 
 for service by a covering of the same color as 
 the uniform. Military critics of the great war 
 agreed that it was the most practical of the 
 uniforms now in the field as far as adaptability 
 for concealment is concerned, though the tight- 
 fitting tunics and heavy helmets are unsuited 
 for modern warfare. 
 
 Italy. The uniforms of the Italians have 
 been rather French in character, particularly 
 since the Napoleonic conquest of Italy, but of 
 an endless variety of colors. Previous to the 
 unity of the country in 1861 each separate 
 kingdom and state maintained and dressed its 
 army as it saw fit. Many attempts to estab¬ 
 lish uniformity were made previous to 1870, 
 but it was not until that date that the entire 
 army came under one dress regulation. These 
 regulations were changed in 1890, at which 
 time the present uniform was adopted. Infan¬ 
 try—dark-blue tunic, gray trousers, cloth shako; 
 cavalry—dark-blue tunic, gray breeches; lan¬ 
 cers—busbies; dragoons—helmets; artillery and 
 engineers—dark-blue tunic and trousers. The 
 distinctive corps of the Italian service is the 
 Bersaglieri (q.v.). The Italian field uniform 
 is extremely practical, the color being brownish 
 gray, the cut loose and comfortable. It was 
 first introduced about 1908, the entire army 
 being equipped at the time of the war with 
 Tripoli, in 1911. 
 
 Russia. The early Russian uniforms followed 
 closely the costumes of the people imtil the re¬ 
 organization of the army by Peter the Great 
 when it was modeled after that of the Germans. 
 With certain modifications this practice has 
 continued except that the ground color has been 
 green instead of blue and the helmets have been 
 superseded in recent years by hats of a more 
 distinctive Russian character. The infantry 
 uniform in 1916 was dark gTeen, with facings 
 of red, blue, or yellow according to regiments. 
 Cavalry wore green or blue coats with gray 
 breeches. Artillery and engineers wear the same 
 
UNIFORMS 
 
 UNIFORMS 
 
 as infantry except for distinctive markings. All 
 branches of the service, both foot and mounted, 
 wear knee boots in which the trousers are tucked. 
 The distinctive corps of the Russian service is 
 the Cossacks (q.v.). Nothing was done in re¬ 
 gard to a field-service uniform until the Russo- 
 Japanese War in 1905, when in this respect 
 the Japanese had a great advantage over their 
 adversary. The Russian troops in the field 
 were gradually supplied with makeshift serv¬ 
 ice uniforms, and on the reorganization of the 
 army after the conclusion of hostilities a field- 
 service outfit was adopted, the color of which 
 is olive drab, similar to that worn by the Eng¬ 
 lish, but the general cut and color markings 
 of the regular uniforms have been preserved. 
 
 The uniforms of the smaller nations of Europe 
 reflect, in a general way, those in use bv their 
 more powerful neighbors. Norway, Sweden, and 
 Denmark incline to German styles. Belgium, 
 Holland, Switzerland, Spain, and Portugal all 
 favor the French; while in the Balkan region 
 Rumania follows the French, Serbia Austrian, 
 Bulgaria Russian, and Greece French with a 
 leaning to English for field service. Turkey has 
 been so long under German domination that 
 their uniforms are distinctly on the line of the 
 army of that country, with the exception of 
 the universal wearing of the fez. 
 
 Of the two military nations of Asia the Jap¬ 
 anese on the reorganization of their army on 
 European lines largely copied the French, though 
 their field-service uniform is modeled after that 
 worn by the British army. They were thus 
 uniformed for the field in the war with Russia 
 in 1905, since which time the field uniforms 
 have become the regular uniform of the army, 
 the old colored uniforms being worn only by 
 a few regiments of the Imperial Guard for oc¬ 
 casions of ceremony. When China reorganized 
 its army on European lines in 1902 it first 
 adopted a mixed uniform, half Chinese and half 
 European, but this speedily gave way to a more 
 practical outfit of blue for dress and of khaki 
 for service, the latter being rather German in 
 cut and pattern, though many features were 
 copied from the United States. 
 
 The principal South American countries all 
 maintain armies, the organization of which was 
 generally effected under the guidance of officers 
 from European countries and the uniforms re¬ 
 flect the ideas of these organizers and early in¬ 
 structors, those of Brazil and Argentina being 
 French and that of Chile, German. The uni¬ 
 forms of the smaller countries play but a small 
 part in the armies—in many cases only the of¬ 
 ficers wear them. Mexico was distinctly French 
 until the revolution following the fall of Diaz 
 when the uniforms, such as they were, became 
 American in general appearance. 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 The dress of the United States army pre¬ 
 scribed in orders has in practice been marked 
 by irregular and unauthorized modifications. 
 This has arisen partly from the American tend¬ 
 ency to sacrifice display to utility. At the 
 beginning of the American Revolution each regi¬ 
 ment provided its own uniforms, and later it be¬ 
 came necessary at times to call upon the in¬ 
 habitants to contribute cast-off clothing to 
 clothe the patriotic soldiers. Such uniforms as 
 were worn were English in design, substituting 
 blue for scarlet coats. The close of the Revo- 
 Vol. XXII. —42 
 
 651 
 
 lution found the troops, generally, in a condi¬ 
 tion not unlike Falstaff’s recruits. Measures 
 were at once taken to uniform properly the few 
 troops retained in service and the uniforms then 
 selected closely followed the French, that of 
 the infantry being blue faced with white, and 
 the artillery, blue faced with red, these being 
 then the only two arms in the composition of 
 the army. Later cavalry was added, wearing 
 green coats with white facings, which soon af- 
 tei changed to black. Since that time the uni¬ 
 forms of the army can be divided into periods, 
 each of which dates back to the close of one 
 of the wars. 
 
 Various changes were made in the bill of 
 dress until the War of 1812, when the large 
 number of militia organizations were hastily 
 summoned into the service with their distinc¬ 
 tive uniforms and the necessity of hastilv equip¬ 
 ping a large number of volunteer recruits made 
 it impossible to adhere to the dress regulations, 
 and the close of the war again found the army 
 uniforms in a chaotic state. The reconstruction 
 again brought in the French style of the period, 
 and the dark-blue coat for all branches of the 
 service was then adopted, the trousers or breeches 
 being white or light blue. A later innovation 
 was the clothing of the rifle regiments in gray. 
 The different branches of the service, staff de¬ 
 partments, etc., were each designated by a 
 distinctive color or combination of colors in 
 their trimmings. These varied at different 
 times, as did the details until the Mexican War 
 period, when after conclusion of hostilities the 
 uniform regulations were again completely re¬ 
 vised. Color trimmings were then positively 
 adopted. Cavalry, yellow; infantry, light blue; 
 artillery, red; medical department, green. All 
 staff departments, black. As new departments 
 were organized the following colors were added: 
 engineers, red, piped with white; signal corps, 
 orange, piped with white; ordnance department, 
 black, piped with red; quartermaster corps, 
 buff.. The infantry color was changed to white, 
 but in 1902 returned to light blue. At the same 
 time maroon was substituted for green in the 
 medical department. The colors given above 
 are as used at present. 
 
 The beginning of the Civil War, on account 
 of the influx of State organizations, found the 
 army again clothed in a variety of uniforms, 
 but before the termination of the conflict the 
 undress, or service uniform, of the time (dark- 
 blue coat, light-blue trousers with prescribed 
 trimmings) was universally worn by both reg¬ 
 ulars and volunteers. Full-dress and show uni¬ 
 forms had entirely disappeared during the four 
 years of active campaigning, and it was nec¬ 
 essary to reconstruct the army bill of dress 
 at the close of the war. The French style and 
 cut were again copied, but no change was made 
 in the colors or color trimmings. At the close 
 of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870 there was 
 a strong feeling that the uniform of a nation 
 successful in war should be copied, and the 
 new bill of dress prescribed the German cut of 
 clothing with the spiked and plumed helmets. 
 
 The Spanish War of 1898 again brought into 
 service large bodies of volunteers, but the State 
 troops in recent years had been more or less 
 uniformed in accordance with the army uni¬ 
 form regulations, and consequently there was 
 less variety of dress than on former occasions 
 of the calling in of volunteers. The heavy blue 
 uniforms were found to be very unsuited for 
 
UNIFORMS 
 
 UNIFORMS 
 
 652 
 
 service in the tropics, and a service uniform 
 of khaki cotton was introduced. The necessity 
 of speed in equipping troops caused the gov¬ 
 ernment to supply clothing that varied in many 
 ways from the regulations, and it was found 
 impossible after the close of the war to readjust 
 this state of affairs by alterations or reissues. 
 The whole dress regulation, as it then was, 
 w r as therefore wiped out in 1902. The new reg¬ 
 ulations made such radical changes that it was 
 necessary to uniform anew the entire army. 
 These regulations, except for minor changes, re¬ 
 main in force. In the new dress the result 
 of the experience of all nations as to utility 
 and ornamentation was considered. Officers’ 
 uniforms are classed as full dress, dress, and 
 service. The full-dress coat for an officer is 
 a double-breasted tunic with a collar of the 
 color of his respective branch. Rank is desig¬ 
 nated on the shoulder knots and by braiding 
 on the sleeve. The dress coat, except for gen¬ 
 eral officers, is a dark-blue sack coat with con¬ 
 cealed hooks instead of buttons and trimmed 
 with broad black braid. Rank is indicated on 
 the shoulder straps. Trousers are of a lighter 
 shade of blue with the proper colored stripes. 
 Officers also have a special dress for evening- 
 wear which, in the case of the coat, is cut on 
 the lines of a civilian dress coat, trimmed as pre¬ 
 scribed for the full-dress uniform coat and worn 
 with a civilian dress shirt and white waistcoat. 
 The enlisted men have but two uniforms—dress 
 and service. The former is a single-breasted 
 sack coat with facings of the branch of the 
 service. Trousers or breeches are of a lighter 
 blue, noncommissioned officers . only having 
 stripes of the proper color. Caps for officers 
 and men are of the same design, the band being 
 decorated with the proper colors, those of the 
 officers having additional trimmings of gold lace. 
 
 In the 1902 dress regulations the olive-drab 
 service uniform w T as first officially included. 
 The color is a trifle darker and nearer a green 
 shade than that known as khaki, and the 
 uniform is prescribed in both woolen and cot¬ 
 ton material according to the climate for which 
 it is intended. The cut of these uniforms is 
 similar for both officers and men, and follows 
 closely the English model used in the South 
 African War. The coat is cut with a loose and 
 comfortable fit, supplied with four outside patch 
 pockets, and the breeches (worn by all branches) 
 confined below the knees with laces or buttons. 
 The lower legs are protected by boots, or leg¬ 
 gings of tan leather for officers, and canvas 
 leggings for men. Overcoats, campaign hats, 
 service caps, and other articles of equipment 
 conform in color to the uniform. Designations 
 of organizations, buttons, and other metal orna¬ 
 ments are made of bronze-colored metal. Of¬ 
 ficers wear their insignia of rank on the 
 shoulder straps. See Military Insignia, and 
 Plates under Infantry. 
 
 The National Guard, or, as it is officially 
 known, the “organized Militia,” of the United 
 States, is now completely organized, uniformed, 
 and equipped in accordance with the army regu¬ 
 lations. There are a few historic organizations 
 which for reasons of sentiment and tradition 
 are allowed to retain their distinctive full-dress 
 uniforms. These are provided and maintained 
 at the expense of the members, are worn for 
 parade purposes only, and never are used when 
 ordered into the State or Federal service. The 
 principal organizations which have retained 
 
 their distinctive uniforms are the First and Sec¬ 
 ond Troops, Philadelphia City Cavalry; Seventh, 
 Twenty-third, and Seventy-first Infantry and 
 Squadron A Cavalry, New York; First Corps of 
 Cadets, Massachusetts; Fifth Infantry, Mary¬ 
 land; and Richmond Light Infantry Blues, 
 Virginia. 
 
 Bibliography. Eduard D6taille, L’Armte 
 frangaise (Paris, 1889) ; Catalogue illustre de 
 V exposition retrospective militaire du minis- 
 tere de la guerre (ib., 1890) ; Richard Knotel, 
 Handbuch der Uniformkunde (Leipzig, 1896) ; 
 H. A. Ogden, Uniforms of the Army of the 
 United States, 1779-1888 (Washington, 1908); 
 and 'later publications by the same author 
 through the United States War Department 
 bringing the subject to date; Handbooks of 
 the Armies of the World (rev. ed., Leipzig, 
 1913) ; Dress Regulations of the British Army 
 (rev. ed., London, 1914) ; J. S. Farmer, Regi¬ 
 mental Records (London). 
 
 NAVAL UNIFORMS 
 
 Modern naval uniforms are marked by the 
 same general characteristics throughout the 
 navies of the world, and resemble each other 
 closely. This is due to the fact that naval offi¬ 
 cers and men are exposed to the same conditions 
 and that the ceremonies and usages at sea 
 obtain in much the same form under different 
 flags. The uniforms of the United States navy, 
 described below, may be considered fairly typical, 
 and the deviations are usually in such details 
 as epaulets, gold lace, insignia, etc., for which 
 each service has its own minute regulations. 
 
 The uniform for the British navy closely re¬ 
 sembles that of the United States navy. For 
 officers there are eight different suits to be worn 
 on specific occasions, as follows: full dress, 
 ball dress, frock coat with epaulets, frock coat, 
 undress, mess dress, mess undress, white un¬ 
 dress. The undress uniform differs from that 
 worn in the United States navy in that it has a 
 double-breasted coat with brass buttons instead 
 of the blouse trimmed with braid. On all uni¬ 
 forms the distinctive marks of rank are stripes 
 on the sleeves and appropriate devices on the 
 shoulder strap or epaulet. The significant de¬ 
 grees on the latter are as follows: admiral of 
 the fleet, crown, and crossed cannon surrounded 
 by a wreath; admiral, crown, crossed sword and 
 baton, and three stars; vice admiral, the same, 
 with two stars; rear admiral, the same, with one 
 star; a commodore or senior captain has a crown 
 and anchor and two stars, while a junior captain 
 lias the same with one star; a commander has a 
 crown and anchor, a senior lieutenant a star and 
 anchor, and a junior lieutenant an anchor. 
 
 The Russian navy in its dress resembles the 
 British, but is less elaborate and has some 
 peculiarities. Officers (in winter) wear a dark- 
 blue frock coat, a reefer jacket, or a monkey 
 jacket; in summer, white. The cap is high, 
 flat-topped, and of the color of the dress worn. 
 Cocked hats are required for full dress. In 
 winter both officers and men wear a browm woolen 
 cape, also goloshes over the boots. The Russian 
 officer out of quarters is always in uniform. 
 The enlisted man in wnnter wears a short gray 
 overcoat, belted at the waist. On shore duty 
 he wears a military tunic and leggings. 
 
 The uniform of officers of the United States 
 navy consists of three classes—dress, undress, 
 and service dress. The dress uniforms are, spe¬ 
 cial full dress, full dress, dress, evening dress 
 
UNIFORMS 
 
 ) NFANTRV 
 
 FIELQ 66HVICE 
 
 iqoz -!qi 6 
 
 J ) w c.Tauls 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF UNIFORMS IN THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IPX fr'^HY 
 
 of oU 
 
 LNIVLKSi'fV Uc ILLINOIS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
UNIFORMS 
 
 053 UNION 
 
 , evening dress B, mess dress. The undress 
 uniforms are undress A and undress B. Service 
 dress is either blue or white. The special full- 
 dress uniform consists of a double-breasted blue 
 broadcloth coat with standing collar and 18 
 gilt buttons, nine in each row; blue trousers 
 with a stripe of gold lace down the outside seam; 
 epaulets, cocked hat, sword, and full-dress belt. 
 The undress A uniform consists of a double- 
 breasted blue frock coat similar in cut to the 
 civilian’s coat, but having 10 gilt buttons, five 
 each side, and with shoulder fixtures for 
 epaulets; a blue waistcoat with seven gilt but¬ 
 tons, cap, sword, plain leather belt, and plain 
 blue trousers. The service suit consists of a 
 blue or white blouse with standing collar and 
 trimmed with braid; blue or white waistcoat 
 with seven gilt buttons; plain blue or white 
 trousers. The evening dress suit is similar in 
 cut to the civilian evening dress suit, but the 
 buttons are gilt and the coat is fitted with 
 shoulder fixtures for epaulets; the waistcoat 
 may be blue or white as ordered. The mess 
 dress consists of the white mess jacket, cut like 
 the evening dress coat without the tails, white 
 waistcoat, and blue or white trousers. 
 
 Ihe various styles of uniform are made up 
 from these. The special full dress is used on 
 occasions of special ceremony. The full dress 
 is used on less important occasions. It consists 
 of the frock coat with epaulets, cocked hat, full- 
 dress belt, and special full-dress trousers. The 
 dress uniform, used for particular official calls, 
 consists of frock coat, epaulets, cocked hat, plain 
 belt, blue trousers. Undress A is the same as 
 dress except that epaulets are not worn and the 
 blue cap is substituted for the cocked hat; it 
 is used for service on courts-martial, reporting 
 for duty, etc. . Undress B differs from undress 
 A only in omitting the sword and belt. It is 
 used for ordinary official and semiofficial calls, 
 etc. Service dress is worn at all times when 
 some other special uniform is not provided. 
 The mess dress is worn at dinner when ordered. 
 
 On all except white uniforms the rank of an 
 officer is indicated by gold lace on the sleeve and 
 devices on the collar, epaulet, or shoulder mark. 
 Ensigns and officers of that rank wear one 
 stripe of half-inch gold lace; lieutenants of the 
 junior grade, a stripe of half-inch lace and a 
 stripe of one-quarter inch lace above it; lieu¬ 
 tenants, two stripes of half-inch lace; lieuten¬ 
 ant commanders, two stripes of half-inch lace 
 and a stripe of one-quarter-inch lace between 
 them; commanders, three stripes of half-inch 
 lace; captains, four stripes of half-inch lace; 
 rear admirals, one stripe of two-inch lace and 
 one of half-inch lace above it; admiral, two 
 stripes of two-inch lace and one stripe of half¬ 
 inch lace between them. All officers of the line 
 or executive branch wear a gold star on the 
 sleeve above the lace. On the overcoat and 
 white service coat the lace is worn on the shoul¬ 
 der marks instead of on the sleeve. The orna¬ 
 ments indicating rank, which are worn on the 
 collar and epaulet, consist of the corps device 
 and rank emblem. The former consists of a sil¬ 
 ver foul anchor for line officers, sprig of silver 
 oak leaves for pay corps, gold oak leaf and sil¬ 
 ver acorn for medical corps, a silver oak leaf 
 and acorn for professors of mathematics, silver 
 cross for chaplains, two gold live-oak leaves and 
 acorn for naval constructors, and the letters 
 C. E. in silver for civil engineers. The rank 
 emblem for an admiral is four silver stars with 
 
 a gold foul anchor under the outer ones; for a 
 reai admiral, two silver stars and a silver foul 
 anchor or other corps device between them; for a 
 captain, a silver eagle; for a commander, a sil¬ 
 ver oak leaf; for a lieutenant commander, a 
 gold oak leaf; for a lieutenant, two silver bars; 
 for a lieutenant of the junior grade, one bar. 
 Ensigns and officers of that rank wear only the 
 corps device. 
 
 White uniforms are worn in hot weather. The 
 overcoat is of the ulster type with very broad 
 collar and black rubber buttons. Rank is indi¬ 
 cated by the shoulder mark and mohair stripes 
 on the sleeve. Warrant officers wear no stripes 
 on the sleeve and no shoulder ornaments. The 
 collar ornaments are a crossed anchor for boat¬ 
 swains, a bursting shell for gunners, a gold 
 chevron for carpenters, and a gold propeller^for 
 warrant machinists. When commissioned after 
 six years’ service, chief warrant officers wear a 
 half-inch gold stripe with an inset of blue 
 silk and silver collar ornaments. 
 
 The uniform of enlisted men consists of dress, 
 undress, and working dress; each of these may 
 be white or blue. Chief petty officers wear 
 double-breasted blue or white coats with gilt 
 buttons. Other enlisted men wear a blue shirt 
 or white dress jumper for dress, with blue cloth 
 trousers. Undress is merely less neat or new 
 uniform, if blue; but white undress has a 
 narrow white collar instead of a broad blue 
 one; working dress is old blue or white uniform 
 and is worn without a neckerchief. Rating 
 badges for _ petty officers are worn upon the 
 sleeve. Chief petty officers wear caps with 
 visors and an ornament consisting of a gold foul 
 anchor; other enlisted men wear round blue 
 caps with a flat top projecting beyond the band 
 all around the head when in blue uniform and 
 a white canvas hat when in white. 
 
 U'NIGEN'ITUS. A papal bull issued in 1713 
 condemning the principles of Jansenism (q.v.). 
 
 UNIMAK, od / ne-mak / . The largest and east¬ 
 ernmost of the Aleutian islands (Map: Alaska, 
 E 8). It is separated from the southwest ex¬ 
 tremity of the Alaska Peninsula by a narrow, 
 unnavigable channel. It is 70 miles long; 
 average breadth, 20 .miles. Barren and moun¬ 
 tainous, it contains two volcanoes, Pogromni, 
 0500 feet, and Shishaldin, 9387 feet, occasionally 
 showing signs of life. There is a scant and 
 shifting population of Aleuts. 
 
 U'NIO. The type genus of the family Unioni- 
 doe, which contains the greater part of the fresh¬ 
 water mussels (q.v.). 
 
 UNION. See Trade-Unions. 
 
 U'NION. A town in Hudson Co., N. J., ad¬ 
 joining Weehawken and West Hoboken, on the 
 Rahway Valley Railroad (Map: New York City, 
 Greater New York and Vicinity, B 4). It is 
 of considerable importance as an industrial 
 centre, being interested largely in the manufac¬ 
 ture of silk and embroidered goods. There are 
 also breweries and a shirt factory. Union has a 
 Carnegie library. Pop., 1900, 15,187; 1910, 21,- 
 023; 1915 (State census), 21,739; 1920, 20,651. 
 
 UNION. A city and the county seat of Union 
 Co., S. C., 65 miles northwest of Columbia, on 
 the Southern and the Union and Glenn Springs 
 railroads (Map: South Carolina, C 2). It is the 
 commercial centre of a farming and cotton-grow¬ 
 ing region, which also has truck and fruit in¬ 
 terests. There are four large cotton mills, an 
 oil mill, and two knitting mills. Noteworthy 
 features are the Carnegie Library, high school, 
 
UNION 
 
 UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA 
 
 county courthouse, and Federal building. Pop., 
 1900/5400; 1910, 5623. 
 
 UNION, Brotherhood of the. See Secret 
 Societies. 
 
 UNION, Evangelical. See Evangelical 
 Union. 
 
 UNION, oo'ng-on', La. A town of Murcia, 
 Spain, near the Mediterranean coast, 5 miles 
 east of Cartagena (Map: Spain, E 4). The 
 country is a mineral region, producing iron, 
 manganese, sulphur, and carbonate of lead. The 
 town was founded in the second half of the 
 nineteenth century. Pop., 1900, 28,479; 1910, 
 30,249. 
 
 UNION, La. A province of northern Luzon, 
 Philippine Islands (Map: Philippines, C 2). 
 Area. 634 square miles. The province is moun¬ 
 tainous and forested, but much of the land is 
 well cultivated, producing tobacco, rice, cotton, 
 corn, sugar, and cacao, while stock raising is 
 also important. A telegraph line, as well as 
 the main highroad and the unfinished railroad 
 from Manila to Laoag, runs through the prov¬ 
 ince. Pop., 1903, 137,839, chiefly Ilocanos and 
 Igorots. Capital, San Fernando (q.v.). 
 
 UNION, La. A port of the Republic of Sal¬ 
 vador and capital of the Department of La 
 Union, situated at the southeast extremity of 
 the country, on an inlet of the Gulf of Fonseca, 
 and at the foot of the volcano of Conchagua. 
 It exports minerals and carries on an active 
 trade with the interior (Map: Central America, 
 D 4). Pop. (est.), 5352. 
 
 U'NION, National. See National Union. 
 
 UNION CITY. A city in Randolph Co., Ind., 
 and adjoining Union City in Darke Co., Ohio, 
 84 miles northeast of Indianapolis, on the Cleve¬ 
 land, Cincinnati, Chicago, and St. Louis, the 
 Dayton and Union, the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, 
 Chicago, and St. Louis, and the Ohio Electric 
 railroads (Map: Indiana, IT 4). It lias a 
 Carnegie library and the Ford Hospital. The 
 leading manufactured products are automobiles, 
 carriages, wheels, butter, furniture, and hoops. 
 Pop., 1900, 2716; 1910, 3209 (Union City, Ohio, 
 1910, 1595). 
 
 UNION CITY. A borough in Erie Co., Pa., 
 26 miles southeast of Erie, on the Pennsylvania 
 and the Erie railroads (Map: Pennsylvania, 
 B 2). There are three large chair factories, 
 planing and grist mills, a powdered-milk plant, 
 and . several furniture factories. Pop., 1900, 
 3104; 1910, 3684. 
 
 UNION CITY. A city and the county seat 
 of Obion Co., Tenn., 112 miles by rail north by 
 east of Memphis, on the Nashville, Chattanooga, 
 and St. Louis, and the Mobile and Ohio rail¬ 
 roads (Map: Tennessee, B 2). It is important 
 as a shipping point for farm produce, chiefly 
 wheat, corn, and hay, and manufactures flour, 
 brooms, mattresses, decoy ducks, raincoats, and 
 foundry and lumber products. Union City 
 has a Carnegie library and the Nailling Hospi¬ 
 tal. Pop., 1900, 3407; 1910, 4389. 
 
 UNION COLLEGE. A coeducational insti¬ 
 tution of higher education at College View, 
 Neb., founded in 1890, under the auspices 
 of the Seventh Day Adventists. The campus 
 consists of 22 acres, on which are the main 
 college buildings. The college curriculum in¬ 
 cludes a department of Bible study, history, 
 English, ancient and modern languages, mathe¬ 
 matics, commerce, agriculture, education and 
 normal training, expression, art, and music. 
 
 654 
 
 , The total enrollment of students in the autumn 
 of 1915 was 420, and the faculty numbered 26. 
 The library contains about 6000 volumes. The 
 college property is valued at about $200,000. 
 
 J The president in 1916 was Harvey A. Morrison. 
 
 UNION COLLEGE. An institution of higher 
 education at Schenectady, N. Y., incorporated in 
 ’ 1795. It was the second college incorporated 
 
 ’ in the State, and received its name from the 
 cooperation of several denominations in its 
 ’ organization. In 1828 a scientific course was 
 ^ established parallel with the classical course. 
 
 The progressive policy of Union at this period 
 ’ was due chiefly to the genius of Dr. Eliphalet 
 Nott, president from 1804 to 1866. The college 
 ’ fraternity system originated at Union (1825). 
 
 * In 1873 the Law School, Medical College, and 
 ' Dudley Observatory in Albany were associated 
 3 with Union College under the title of Union 
 ’ University, and the Albany Course of Pharmacy 
 s was added in 1881. The degrees conferred in 
 3 course are B.A., Ph.B., B.S., B.E., M.A., M.S., 
 1 M.C.E., M.E.E., and Ph.D. The students in 
 
 the college in 1915-16 numbered 494, and the 
 1 faculty 41. The library contained 45,000 vol¬ 
 umes, the invested assets were $98,000, the 
 property valuation was $1,500,000, and the in- 
 3, come $145,000. The president in 1916 was 
 f Charles A. Richmond, D.D., LL.D. 
 
 ., UNION JACK. The combined crosses of 
 St. Andrew, St. George, and St. Patrick, used as 
 e the flag of Great Britain. See Colors; Flag; 
 ,, Jack; National Flags, Great Britain. 
 
 UNION LABEL. A trade-mark or adver¬ 
 tisement owned and registered by a trade- 
 , union and attached to articles of sale, signi- 
 , fying that they have been made in establish¬ 
 ments employing union labor only, and under 
 e conditions stipulated by the union. The label 
 
 , seems to have been first used by the California 
 
 c cigar makers about 1874. It appeals with par- 
 
 a, ticular force to the more conservative trade- 
 e unionists, who praise it as a peaceable and 
 >, inexpensive way of increasing the power of the 
 5 . unions; they frequently describe it as the legal 
 1 , boycott. Its use is spreading rapidly. In 
 most States statutes impose penalties for counter- 
 ., feiting the label or knowingly using a counter- 
 a feit. In several trades, e.g., cigar makers, print- 
 1 , ing, and the hatters’ trade, the label has become 
 5 , a factor of first importance. 
 
 ;, UNION LEAGUE CLUB OF THE CITY 
 ), OF NEW YORK, The. One of the leading, so¬ 
 
 cial and political organizations of the United 
 t States. It was incorporated by the New York 
 y State Legislature, Feb. 16, 1865. The quali- 
 1 , fications for membership are United States citi- 
 l- zenship and absolute and unquestioned loyalty 
 t to the government of the United States, flhe 
 y club has been a stronghold of Republicanism and 
 r, its influence has been repeatedly exerted for the 
 cl Republican party in national and local elections, 
 y The number of annual resident members is 
 i- limited to 2000, and 100 members constitute a 
 quorum at all meetings. The club has quarters 
 i- at Fifth Avenue and Thirty-ninth Street in 
 7 New York City. Similar institutions of the 
 ■s same name and purposes have sprung up in 
 is other cities, notably in Philadelphia and Chicago, 
 n UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA. A state of 
 1 - the British Empire, formed May 31, 1910, by the 
 Y, uniting of the self-governing colonies of the 
 e- Cape of Good Hope, Natal, the Transvaal, and 
 d the Orange River Colony (now Orange River 
 3 . Free State), which became provinces of the 
 
UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA 
 
 union. For a description of the physiography 
 and other natural features, see under South 
 Africa, and under the individual titles of the 
 provinces. 
 
 Geology and Mineral Resources. The dis¬ 
 covery of diamonds and gold had a profound 
 effect upon the condition and prospects of South 
 Africa, bringing the country in a few years 
 into universal notice. Many millions of dollars 
 have been disbursed in wages and local expenses 
 at the mines. (For geology, gold, and diamonds, 
 see Cape of Good Hope; Transvaal; Kim¬ 
 berley; etc.) The copper mines of Naina- 
 qualand are unsurpassed in richness of yield. 
 The principal silver mine worked is 50 "miles 
 east of Johannesburg, 6 miles from coal fields, 
 but indications of silver have been found in 
 many parts of South Africa. Enormous de¬ 
 posits of coal and iron have been discovered in 
 Cape Colony and Natal in close proximity. 
 Coal is also mined in the Transvaal and the 
 Orange River colonies, and at the Wankie 
 coal fields in Rhodesia, southeast of Victoria 
 Falls. Platinum, plumbago, manganese, and the 
 finest of marble, building stone, and lime are 
 also among the mineral resources. 
 
 Agriculture. The soil is extraordinarily pro¬ 
 ductive wherever rainfall is sufficient; but the 
 chief interest is stock raising, the country, as a 
 whole, being better suited for pastoral pursuits 
 than for agricultural operations. Wool is the 
 staple source of wealth, the grasses of the 
 veldt and the pasture plants of the karroos 
 being well suited for growing the finest wools. 
 Many millions of sheep are pastured in the 
 Cape Province, Natal, Orange Free State, the 
 Transvaal, Bechuanaland, etc. Angora goats 
 and cattle also abound. The “Cape horse” is 
 not handsome, but is hardy and keeps in good 
 condition on the veldt. Across the south end 
 of the country is a strip of fine farming land, 
 where wheat, maize, and all the crops of the 
 temperate zone are very successful. The best 
 wheat is grown along the southern border of 
 the-Orange Free State. In the Cape Province 
 fruits are largely exported, and ostrich farming 
 and cattle raising are important. It is to the 
 advantage of South Africa that its great variety 
 of climate enables it to grow nearly every culti¬ 
 vated crop. Sugar growing and tea planting in 
 Natal have passed beyond experiment : sugar is 
 now exported, and the tea is excellent. Coffee 
 and arrowroot thrive on the moist coastlands. 
 
 Manufactures. Little attention has been 
 given to manufacturing, chiefly on account of 
 the sparsity of the white population. A large 
 quantity of Cape wine and brandy is produced; 
 they are of inferior quality, though improving 
 from year to year. The chief centres of the 
 manufacturing industries are in the Cape Prov¬ 
 ince, where flour mills, tobacco factories, tan¬ 
 neries, diamond washing, and gold and copper 
 reduction works are most prominent; and in the 
 Transvaal, where there are saw mills, brick and 
 lime works, machine shops, etc. 
 
 Commerce. Prominent among the “makers” 
 of the country are still the traders, who load 
 their heavy wagons, carrying three to four tons, 
 with all kinds of goods desired by the black 
 population, and trek from tribe to tribe, return¬ 
 ing to town or port after many months to dis¬ 
 pose of the ivory, horns, skins, and feathers re¬ 
 ceived in exchange for their wares. The trek¬ 
 king trade has been the means of diverting most 
 of the commerce, even of the Zambezi region, to 
 
 655 UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA 
 
 the southern ports. The circulation of goods 
 is to and from the seacoast, there being little 
 trade between town and town, as all are sup¬ 
 plied from the seaport centres. Except during 
 the Boer War the “Cape trade” has steadily 
 grown. Imports and exports, exclusive of specie, 
 were valued in 1908 at £24,532,520 and £43,- 
 910,451; in 1913, £41,828,841 and £60,569,364. 
 Great Britain controls nearly all exports, those 
 which reacli other countries being mainly 
 tlirough British channels. Gold, diamonds, and 
 wool are the great export staples, with ostrich 
 feathers, hides and skins, coal, and mohair 
 next in importance. The exports of 1914 in¬ 
 cluded gold, £35,664,000; diamonds, £5,487,000; 
 wool, £4,238,000'; and ostrich feathers, £1,343,000. 
 Many of the imports (general manufactures, 
 machinery, etc.) come from countries other than 
 Great Britain. During 1913 the imports from 
 the United States amounted to over $18,350,000, 
 while the exports to it were $2,609,500. 
 
 Transportation and Communication. In 
 the more settled districts there are fairly good 
 roads with substantial bridges across the rivers. 
 Mail carts, coaches, or bullock wagons ply be¬ 
 tween the railroad stations and ail the larger 
 towns not on the rail lines. There is now rail 
 connection between all the important ports of the 
 south and east coasts and the larger interior 
 towns and mining districts. One may travel by 
 rail from Cape Town to Salisbury, in Mashona- 
 land, and thence to the port of Beira. It is 
 expected that before many years the railway 
 system of South Africa will be connected with 
 that of Egypt. The length of government rail- 
 way (the South African railways) in operation 
 at the end of 1914 was 8486 miles. Post and 
 telegraph offices, 2790; telegraph line, 15,021 
 miles; wire, 50,352 miles. Regular communica¬ 
 tion is maintained with Europe, America, and 
 Australia. 
 
 Population. The population in 1904 was 
 5,175,824; 1911, 5,973,394 (3,069,392 male, 2,- 
 904,002 female). In 1911 the population com¬ 
 prised 1,276,242 whites, 4,019,006 natives, and 
 567,962 other colored persons. Of the total 
 population in 1904, 21.58 per cent were white; 
 in 1911, 21.37 per cent. Of the 1911 population 
 of 5,973,394, about one-half was in Cape of Good 
 Hope Province. 
 
 Government. The central government is in 
 the hands of a Union Parliament which exer¬ 
 cises supreme control subject only to the will 
 of the British Parliament in London. In each 
 of the four provinces there is a local assembly 
 with power over purely local matters. The 
 constitution of the Union is amended in the 
 same way as an ordinary bill is passed, except 
 in special matters, such as those relating to the 
 equality of the Dutch and English languages 
 and native rights in Cape Colony; such matters 
 require a two-thirds majority of both Houses 
 sitting in joint session. 
 
 The Parliament is composed of two Houses, 
 a Senate of 40 members and a House of As¬ 
 sembly of 121 members. 
 
 In the House of Assembly the provinces are 
 not represented strictly in proportion to popu¬ 
 lation. From the Cape of Good Hope 51 mem¬ 
 bers are sent, from the Transvaal 36, from 
 Natal 17, and from Orange Free State 17. The 
 conditions for voting are determined by each 
 province; in the Transvaal and Orange Free 
 State there is virtual manhood suffrage, in the 
 Cape and in Natal there are property and edu- 
 
UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA 656 UNION THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY 
 
 rational qualifications. In the Cape natives are 
 permitted to vote, but are disfranchised in the 
 others. 
 
 The Union has two capitals; the Parliament 
 sits at Cape Town but the centre of administra¬ 
 tion is at Pretoria. The executive consists of 
 a cabinet of seven members appointed by Parlia¬ 
 ment and responsible to it. The prevailing 
 law in the Union is the Roman Dutch system, 
 although the English common law is gradually 
 superseding it. 
 
 The first Governor-General appointed was 
 Viscount Gladstone, son of the famous statesman, 
 and the first Premier was General Botha at 
 the head of a cabinet composed entirely of 
 Boers, the leading ones being Smuts, Hertzog, 
 and Fischer. 
 
 History. Almost from the very start the 
 chief question before the Union was the treat¬ 
 ment of the Dutch language. General Hertzog 
 became an uncompromising advocate of the 
 rights of Dutch to at least equal treatment with 
 English. The matter was compromised by the 
 use of both languages in all official communica¬ 
 tions. In the schools, the mother tongues of the 
 pupils were to be used in the lower grades, 
 and in the upper, English and Dutch were to 
 be used alternately. 
 
 In 1912 a ministerial crisis was brought about 
 by General Hertzog who accused Premier Botha 
 of imperialism or too much leaning to the side 
 of the British Empire as against the interests 
 of South Africa. The question whether Im¬ 
 perial or South African interests should domi¬ 
 nate came to the front as a result of the pres¬ 
 ence of many Hindoo laborers against whom 
 restrictive legislation had been passed. A strike 
 of Hindoos took place and serious rioting 
 was the result. Their cause was taken up by 
 patriots in India who prevailed on the British 
 government to protest against the discriminat¬ 
 ing legislation. The matter was serious and 
 the Botha cabinet favored a repeal or modifica¬ 
 tion of these laws. The Nationalist party broke 
 into two factions, one supporting Botha and 
 the other Hertzog. The latter, with the sup¬ 
 port of the Unionists, attempted to wreck the 
 ministry but failed, and he was obliged to 
 resign. ’ The matter was partially settled by 
 removing many of the disabilities of the Hin¬ 
 doos, such as the special poll tax; and the 
 restriction of emigration of Hindoos to South 
 Africa was promised by the Indian government. 
 
 In 1913 came the great strike of the miners 
 on the Rand. The men demanded an eight-hour 
 day, recognition of their union and a share in 
 the appointment of mine inspectors, all of which 
 were refused by the mine owners. The strike 
 was accompanied with great violence and the 
 troops were called out to suppress it. General 
 Botha intervened and brought about a rein¬ 
 statement of the miners pending an investiga¬ 
 tion by the government. During the following 
 year (1914) an attempt was made by the 
 union to bring about a great general strike 
 of all the miners. The government arbitrarily 
 arrested the leaders of the movement and as a 
 result the strike collapsed. It then forcibly 
 deported to England the leading labor agitators 
 on the Rand in order to prevent a recurrence 
 of labor troubles. 
 
 The Union Parliament then voted an act of 
 indemnity, exonerating the government for their 
 arbitrary acts. Laws were passed prohibiting 
 all forms of picketing, peaceful and otherwise; 
 
 strikes on public works were made punishable by 
 severe penalties. A resolution was also passed 
 permitting the government to deport any one 
 convicted of sedition or public violence. As a 
 result of these antilabor laws, the working 
 classes of South Africa organized a Labor party 
 to oppose both the Nationalists and the Union¬ 
 ists. In the great war which began in 1914, 
 the forces of the Union of South Africa suc¬ 
 cessfully put down a revolt under General De 
 Wet and also conquered many of the possessions 
 of Germany in Africa. See War in Europe; 
 Boer; Cape of Good Hope; Natal; Orange 
 Free State; South African War; Transvaal. 
 
 Bibliography. The South African Year 
 Book (New T York). History and government: 
 J. II. B. Browne, South Africa: Glance at 
 Current Conditions and Politics (New York, 
 1905) ; A. H. Keane, Africa, vol. ii (2d ed., 
 London, 1907) ; I. D. Colvin, South Africa (New 
 York, 1909) ; R. H. Brand, Union of South 
 Africa (Oxford, 1909) ; W. F. Butler, Sir Wil¬ 
 liam Butler: An Autobiography (New York, 
 1911); W. B. Worsfold, Reconstruction of the 
 Colonies under Lord Milner (2 vols., ib., 1914) ; 
 P. J. Sampson, Capture of De Wet and the 
 South African Rebellion of 1,911} (London, 1915). 
 See also references under South Africa. 
 
 UNION SPRINGS. A city and the county 
 seat of Bullock Co., Ala., 40 miles east-south¬ 
 east of Montgomery, on the Central of Georgia 
 and the Birmingham and Southeastern railroads 
 (Map: Alabama, D 3). Cotton, cottonseed oil, 
 spokes and handles, guano, and foundry and 
 machine-shop products are manufactured. The 
 city has a Carnegie library. It was incorporated 
 in 1844. Pop., 1900, 2634; 1910, 4055. 
 
 UNION THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY IN 
 THE CITY OF NEW YORK, The. An insti¬ 
 tution, Presbyterian in origin but independent 
 of all ecclesiastical control, founded in 1836 
 and open to students of every denomination 
 of Christians. It offers a three years’ course 
 leading to a diploma with the degree of bachelor 
 of divinity, a three years’ course leading to a 
 diploma wuthout the degree of bachelor of divin¬ 
 ity, a graduate course of not less than three 
 years leading to the degree of doctor of divinity, 
 and other special graduate courses. Candidates 
 must be graduates of colleges of recognized 
 standing, must complete satisfactorily 40 two- 
 year hours of class-room work and must satisfy 
 departmental requirements in Old Testament, 
 New Testament, Church history, systematic 
 theology, religious education, and practical 
 theology. The requirements for candidates for 
 the diploma without the degree are the same as 
 those for the diploma with degree, with the 
 exception that in the Old and New Testament 
 Departments English substitutes may be offered 
 for Greek and Hebrew exegesis. To obtain the 
 degree of doctor of divinity candidates must 
 be bachelors of divinity of five years’ standing, 
 must spend three years of graduate theological 
 study, must be able to read Latin, Greek, and 
 Hebrew, and use French and German with entire 
 facility, must devote three years of study to 
 a major subject, must choose two minors under 
 the direction of the faculty, must pass search¬ 
 ing examinations in the subjects chosen, and 
 must publish a book which shall constitute in 
 the judgment of the faculty a real contribution 
 to theological science. 
 
 The seminary offers a number of merit scholar¬ 
 ships with incomes of $100 to $175, prize scholar- 
 
UNIONTOWN 
 
 UNITARIANISM 
 
 657 
 
 ships of $250, a limited number of graduate 
 scholarships, and two fellowships of $000 ap¬ 
 propriated to the use of incumbents prosecuting 
 special studies for two years either in the 
 United States or Europe. The seminary build¬ 
 ings are on Broadway at 120th to 122d" streets. 
 The library in 1915 contained 123,000 volumes, 
 64,700 pamphlets, and 224 manuscripts. There 
 were 32 professors and instructors in the same 
 year, and 275 students. 
 
 UNIONTOWN. A city and the county seat 
 of Fayette Co., Pa., 70 miles by rail south by 
 east of Pittsburgh; on the Pennsylvania and the 
 Baltimore and Ohio railroads (Map: Penn¬ 
 sylvania, B 8). Ihe city is the commercial 
 centre of a region containing extensive deposits 
 of coal and iron. Its industrial establishments 
 include coke ovens, a foundry, brick vards, and 
 manufactories of glass, flour, etc. it was in¬ 
 corporated as a borough in 1796, and chartered 
 as a city in 1915. Pop., 1900, 7344; 1910, 13- 
 344; 1915 (U. S. est.), 19,960; 1920, 15,692. 
 
 UNION UNIVERSITY. See Union Col¬ 
 
 lege. 
 
 UNION VETERAN REGION. See Veteran 
 Legion, Union. 
 
 UNION VETERAN UNION. See Veteran 
 Union, Union. 
 
 U'NISON (from ML. unisonus, having one 
 sound, from Lat. unus, one 4- sonus, sound). 
 In music, a tone of the same pitch as another. 
 In this sense the term unison is identical with 
 the interval of the prime. The term has, how¬ 
 ever, been extended so as to include all parts 
 performing the same melody. 
 
 UNIT (formerly also unite, unitie, unity, 
 from Lat. unitas, oneness, from unus, one). A 
 certain fixed quantity employed for measuring 
 other quantities and for stating their magnitude. 
 Ordinarily a unit is the smallest complete 
 measure of value, extension, duration, mass, 
 etc. An arbitrary unit is one which may be 
 employed in the form of a concrete standard 
 and which is generally available for reproduc¬ 
 tion. An example of such a unit is the distance 
 between two marks in gold plugs on a bronze 
 bar in the possession of the British Board 
 of Trade, or the British Standard Yard. Simi¬ 
 larly the meter of the Archives at Paris (see 
 Metric System) is an arbitrary unit. Funda¬ 
 mental units are those selected arbitrarily on ac¬ 
 count of the ease with which standards can be 
 constructed or reproduced and from which other 
 units can be derived. In the C. G. S. system 
 (q.v.) the fundamental units are those of length, 
 mass, and time, from which units have been 
 derived for area, volume, velocity, force, work, 
 etc., magnetic units, electro-magnetic units, etc. 
 In certain instances the derived units in the 
 C. G. S. system may be in such shape that 
 they are not available for general use and 
 either a multiple or a fraction must be employed. 
 Such units are known as practical units. Ex¬ 
 amples of practical units in common use are 
 the ohm, the volt, and the ampere. See C. G. S. 
 System; Electrical Units; Mechanical 
 Units; Metric System; Money; Weights and 
 Measures; etc. 
 
 U NITA'RIANISM. The word is sometimes 
 used in a restricted sense as the belief that 
 God is a single undivided personality (as con¬ 
 trasted with trinitarianism, which is the belief 
 that in God there are three persons). In 
 this sense it applies not only to part of Chris¬ 
 tianity but to many non-Christian religions. 
 
 More correctly it means the system of religion 
 of certain churches and individuals whose 
 Christianity is of the liberal tj^pe. The essen¬ 
 tial characteristic of Unitarianism is its em¬ 
 phasis on spiritual religion as contrasted with 
 all material expressions of it. All minor char¬ 
 acteristics are implications of that. Its princi¬ 
 pal thesis is that at the core of all religions 
 is the communion of the human soul 'with 
 God, the life of God within the spirit of man; 
 that all religions have this religion of the spirit. 
 Religion is, then, an experience and an inner 
 life. All forms, ceremonies, creeds, organiza¬ 
 tions, etc., in which this religion of the° spirit 
 expresses itself are of only secondary impor¬ 
 tance. Hence Unitarianism insists on emphasiz¬ 
 ing the inner reality of religion above all 
 other things. It uses "forms of worship, and or¬ 
 ganizes itself in various ways, but always sub¬ 
 ordinates these things to the religion "of the 
 spirit. The attitude of Unitarianism on all 
 religious questions is to be seen from this point 
 of view. 
 
 Creeds. —Unitarians have no creed. They hold 
 that a fixed statement of belief is an obstruction 
 to faith, and that as the life of God within the 
 human spirit is a growing life, the consciousness 
 of that life, which is faith, is to be allowed 
 to grow continually. For purposes of instruc¬ 
 tion the beliefs of Unitarians are sometimes 
 stated in definite form, but always with the 
 proviso that the statement is not final. Church. 
 —The church is regarded as the voluntary 
 association of those who find fellowship in the 
 religion of the spirit. It is not the source from 
 which religion is to be drawn, rather is it a 
 product of religion; an organization for com¬ 
 radeship in the growing life of the spirit. 
 Bible. —The Bible is regarded as an endeavor 
 of the religion of the spirit to express itself 
 in literature; the record of the growing spiritual 
 consciousness of a race. Authority in Religion .— 
 The attitude of Unitarianism towards authority 
 is central. As it regards the church and the 
 Bible as outer expressions of the inner reality, 
 the religion of the spirit, it refuses to grant 
 to either an authority over the human mind, 
 though both are useful in an exalted degree in 
 the growth of spiritual consciousness. Here is 
 an essential contrast with other divisions of 
 Christianity: Catholicism which assigns to the 
 church the final authority, and the various forms 
 of Protestantism which regard the Bible as the 
 final authority. Unitarianism insists strongly 
 that the final authority in religion is in the 
 inner life, that God Himself speaks there to the 
 living spirit; that He speaks in reason, con¬ 
 science, experience, and the highest perceptions 
 of the spirit and the fullness of human thought. 
 
 It holds that the religion of the spirit has 
 not only a priority in time but a present logical 
 priority to the church and the Bible, and that 
 these, being the outcome of the inner life, can¬ 
 not have a supreme authority over it. Free¬ 
 dom. —Unitarianism asserts freedom as an 
 absolute essential of religion. No forms of 
 worship are binding, no statements of faith 
 are final, no tradition even of spiritual experi¬ 
 ence is the last word. Higher Criticism. —The 
 higher criticism of the Bible is welcome, as 
 throwing light on the progressive expression of 
 spiritual consciousness. Science .— Unitarianism 
 finds no conflict between science and religion, 
 holding that science is discovering divine truth 
 and that it cannot contradict the truths of 
 
UNITARIANISM 
 
 religion. God and Jesus .—Unitarianism re¬ 
 gards the inner experience of God as being an 
 undifferentiated experience of one God; and it 
 identifies the Divine Power of the universe with 
 the God of inner experience. God was to Jesus 
 an inner experience, and Jesus was fully obedi¬ 
 ent to the will of God. Thus Jesus was a man 
 through whom men have learned much about 
 God, and in whom they have seen an ideal 
 of human life; but Unitarians do not regard 
 Jesus as deity or one of the persons in a 
 Trinity, but hold that the God in him is the 
 one God of spiritual experience and the In¬ 
 visible Presence of the whole world. Jesus 
 is regarded as the highest expression of the 
 religion of the spirit. 
 
 These important characteristics of Unitarian- 
 ism are thus grouped around its supreme em¬ 
 phasis on God in the inner life of man. ^ It 
 is modernism in its most thorough form. The 
 history of Unitarianism is best read in the 
 light of its progress towards this end; for, 
 putting aside .outer compulsion, there is a gen¬ 
 eral agreement in this position not only among 
 individuals and churches in their voluntary as¬ 
 sociations but among the Unitarians of all 
 lands. 
 
 Unitarians trace the history of the movement 
 from the monotheism of Judaism through Jesus 
 and the whole course of Christianity. They 
 hold that when the religion of Judaism attained 
 to the faith in a universal God, God was con¬ 
 ceived as a single personality. They accept 
 the teaching of the higher criticism of the Old 
 Testament that there were two systems of reli¬ 
 gion: the “religion of the spirit” which the 
 prophets taught, each prophet carrying the 
 truth one step further as spiritual consciousness 
 cleared; and the religion of outer forms, with 
 the system of blood sacrifice, which came down 
 from primitive times. They find in Jesus the 
 greatest in the succession of the prophets of tne 
 religion of the spirit and hold that he believed 
 in one God: they hold that Unitarianism is 
 the religion of Jesus, laying great emphasis on 
 the saying “Hear, O Israel, Jehovah our God 
 is one," and thou shalt love Jehovah thy God 
 with all thy heart . . . and thy neighbor as 
 thyself.” 
 
 They interpret Jesus as being in the succes¬ 
 sion of the prophets of the religion of the 
 spirit and reject the idea that his primary 
 purpose was to fulfill the sacrifices of blood; 
 hence they reject the idea of a blood atonement, 
 as they regard the sacrificial system of the 
 Jews as an unworthy form of religion. Con¬ 
 sistently with this they reject the doctrine 
 of the virgin birth and of the resurrection of 
 the body of Jesus, holding that it was his 
 spirit which entered into immortal life. The 
 miracles are not regarded as a setting aside 
 of any law. 
 
 They hold that the faith in God’s single per¬ 
 sonality was the common faith of the early 
 church; that in the fourth century the Arians, 
 who held this view, constituted nearly one-half 
 of Christendom, and that it was only physical 
 force which gave the trinitarian formula, a 
 late invention, its hold on later centuries. It 
 traces a continuity of the Arian faith, even 
 in the face of persecution, through the whole 
 course of Christianity. . 
 
 Among the first expressions of that spirit 
 which resulted in the Protestant Reformation 
 was the Unitarian idea. It is impossible defi- 
 
 6*8 UNITARIANISM 
 
 nitely to separate the antipathy to the doctrine 
 of the Trinity from the revolt against all 
 ecclesiastical authority—authority which en¬ 
 forced that doctrine. At the same time, early 
 in the Reformation period men who held the 
 Unitarian theological position were persecuted 
 and even martyred, e.g., Michael Servetus, who 
 was burned at the stake in 1553, after more 
 than 20 years of writing, by which he had 
 stimulated thought in the direction of Unitarian 
 doctrine. The translation of the Bible into the 
 language of the European nations, the inven¬ 
 tion of the printing press, and the consequent 
 multiplication of the copies of the Bible, mak¬ 
 ing it easily accessible to the common people, 
 had an enormous influence upon the course 
 which the Reformation took. In the revolt 
 against the authority of the church many of 
 the reformers substituted the authority of the 
 book, and thus created the position which 
 several Protestant denominations of the present 
 day hold. But from the very beginnings of the 
 Reformation there were those who took dis¬ 
 tinctly the position of modern Unitarianism in 
 regard to authority in religion, declaring that 
 authority is in the inner life, conscience, reason, 
 experience, spiritual intuition, and the voice of 
 God speaking through these higher powers, of 
 the soul, and that over this life of the spirit 
 no organization and no book can have absolute 
 authority. 
 
 In the Unitarian movements of the Reforma¬ 
 tion period there are four important character¬ 
 istics: first, the spirit of toleration; second, 
 the minimizing of the importance of outer 
 religious things as being nonessential; third, 
 the repugnance to any formulated creed which 
 could restrict the growing thought of man; 
 and fourth, the historical study of Scripture 
 and the right of human reason to judge of the 
 spiritual value of the Bible or any part of it. 
 
 Martin Cellarius, 1499 to 1564, is commonly 
 regarded as the first writer of the movement. 
 He was a friend of Luther, but differed from 
 him on this fundamental position of the au¬ 
 thority of Scripture. A number. of leading 
 scholars of northern Italy met in 1546 at 
 Vicenza and made a definite affirmation of Uni¬ 
 tarian doctrines. They were persecuted vigor¬ 
 ously, and those who were not killed fled to 
 Switzerland, Transylvania, and Poland, scatter¬ 
 ing the seed of their thought far and wide. 
 Socinus settled in Poland in 1579. In 1600 
 there were more than 400 Socinian churches 
 in Poland. A printing press disseminated Uni¬ 
 tarian views; more than 1000 students were 
 gathered in a Unitarian college in Rakow. In 
 1658 persecution of these Unitarians began. 
 Thousands died, other thousands fled, and in 
 1670 the organizations had been utterly obliter¬ 
 ated in Poland, and Unitarianism ceased, ex¬ 
 cept as it continued as the theological convic¬ 
 tion and spiritual life of individuals and obscure 
 groups. 
 
 In Transylvania and Hungary, Francis David 
 was the first Unitarian Bishop. Persecutions 
 broke out and Francis David was thrown into 
 prison at Deva, and died in 1579. It was in 
 Poland and in Hungary that religious com¬ 
 munities were formed which took the definitely 
 antitrinitarian position. In this and other lands 
 the persecution which Unitarianism had to en¬ 
 counter was from two sources: Catholicism, 
 against which the whole reformation movement 
 was a revolt; and Protestantism, which still 
 
UNITARIANISM 
 
 659 UNITARIANISM 
 
 held the doctrine of the Trinity, and also was 
 gradually adopting the dogma of the authority 
 of the Bible. 1 hus the Unitarian movement 
 was caught between the upper and the nether 
 millstone. In Hungary, Unitarianism was 
 tenacious, and survived two centuries of bitter 
 persecution. Though in 1791 religious tolera¬ 
 tion was decreed by the king, as late as 1857 
 a last eflort was made to crush Unitarianism. 
 At present there are 16G congregations, with 
 80,000 members. They have still a bishop, and 
 the theological school, founded about 1556 by 
 John Sigismund, is in Kolozsvar, where Francis 
 David, the first bishop, preached so effectively. 
 Four periodicals are published. 
 
 In England, from the period of the Reforma¬ 
 tion, Unitarian thought was at work, and the 
 teachings of Socinus and Servetus were in¬ 
 fluential. Such men as John Milton, John 
 Locke, and Sir Isaac Newton were Unitarians. 
 The open expression of opinion and organization 
 were checked by persecution. The last Christian 
 martyrs in England were Unitarians. When 
 in 1689 the Act of Toleration permitted the 
 building of even orthodox nonconformist chapels, 
 a number of English Presbyterian churches left 
 their trust deeds open and gave freedom of 
 theological opinion. This freedom was the at¬ 
 mosphere for the Unitarian emphasis on the 
 religion of the spirit, and in time many of these 
 churches became Unitarian in spirit and theol¬ 
 ogy. In 1774 Theophilus Lindsey, on the denial 
 of a petition of a group of clergy in the Church 
 of England for latitude of opinion, left the 
 church and went to London and established the 
 first avowedly Unitarian church in England. 
 Many existing churches grouped themselves 
 in a new fellowship and new Unitarian churches 
 were formed. In 1825 the British and Foreign 
 Unitarian Association was formed and now in¬ 
 cludes about 400 churches in Great Britain and 
 Ireland, with headquarters on the site of 
 Lindsey’s church in Essex Street. During the 
 nineteenth century the leader of Unitarian 
 thought in England was Dr. James Martineau, 
 of Oxford. 
 
 The first seeds of Unitarianism in America are 
 to be found in the spirit of the Pilgrims who 
 went from England to Leyden, Holland, and 
 thence to America. Their church in Plymouth 
 had a spiritual covenant instead of a creed. 
 That covenant, though brief, set forth the 
 thought that the revelation of God’s truth is 
 a growing revelation. Other early churches 
 in New England, notably the First Church in 
 Salem, were similarly organized with a cove¬ 
 nant instead of a creed. Through all the early 
 life of the American Colonies the attitude of 
 many of the churches was thus expressed. 
 There was latitude within the same church for 
 both Trinitarian and Unitarian opinion. There 
 is a curious relation between the Wesleyan 
 revival and the definite organization of Uni¬ 
 tarianism in New England. In the early years 
 of the revival George Whitefield worked with 
 the Wesleys, but when Whitefield’s thought led 
 him into what Wesley regarded as extreme 
 Calvinism, they separated. Whitefield went to 
 New England, and there as a preacher of Cal¬ 
 vinism stimulated the Trinitarian party in the 
 Congregational churches to an intenser dogmatic 
 expression. This was one of the influences to¬ 
 wards the drawing of sharp lines of distinction 
 between Trinitarian and Unitarian theology, 
 forcing ministers and churches to decide that 
 
 they must choose the fellowship of one party 
 or the other, and leading the two parties to 
 organize as separate denominations. From 1785 
 to 1800 many of the Congregational churches 
 took a distinctly Unitarian position, and these 
 years were followed by decades of bitter contro¬ 
 versy. 
 
 The first church in America to become defi¬ 
 nitely Unitarian was King’s Chapel in Boston, 
 which had been Church of England. In 1787 
 it excised the trinitarian phrases from its 
 liturgy, and ordained James Freeman, avowedly 
 & Unitarian. Joseph Priestley, the discoverer of 
 oxygen, was driven out of England in 1794 by 
 persecution for preaching Unitarianism, and 
 established Unitarian churches in Philadelphia 
 and Northumberland, Pa. In the same decades 
 several other new churches distinctly Unitarian 
 were organized. In 1805 Henry Ware, a Uni¬ 
 tarian, was made professor of theology in 
 Harvard; lines of division led to the establish¬ 
 ment of the orthodox Andover Theological 
 School (which, after just a century, moved to 
 Cambridge and affiliated itself with Harvard). 
 In 1819 Dr. W illiam Ellery Channing of Boston 
 preached the Baltimore sermon which contrasted 
 Unitarianism and Calvinism so clearly that 
 within a year nearly 150 of the New England 
 Congregational churches declared their adhesion 
 to Channing’s position. Every church in Boston 
 but one declared itself Unitarian in this period. 
 Ralph Waldo Emerson and Theodore Parker 
 were leaders of Unitarian thought. In 1825 
 the American Unitarian Association was organ¬ 
 ized, and there were in 1916 about 488 Unitarian 
 churches in the United States. To James Free¬ 
 man Clarke is attributed the authorship of the 
 “five points of Unitarian faith” as contrasted 
 with Calvinism: The Fatherhood of God, the 
 Brotherhood of Man, the Leadership of Jesus, 
 Salvation by Character, and the Progress of 
 Mankind onward and upward forever. 
 
 The essential spirit of Unitarianism is in¬ 
 compatible with any narrow sectarian zeal; 
 hence Unitarians have done more in public 
 service than in building a denomination. In 
 philanthropy, education, national life, literature, 
 and other work for humanity the members of 
 these churches have been conspicuous out of 
 all proportion to their numbers. Among the 
 poets, Bryant, Longfellow, Lowell, and Holmes; 
 among educators, Horace Mann and C. W. Eliot; 
 the Presidents, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, 
 John Quincy Adams, Fillmore, and Taft; states¬ 
 men, Sumner and Webster; in philanthropy the 
 pioneer Tuckerman—are a few names from 
 scores. 
 
 The International Council of Unitarian and 
 other liberal religious thinkers and workers was 
 organized in 1900 and has held congresses in 
 London, Amsterdam, Geneva, Boston, Berlin, 
 and Paris. Two thousand representatives of 
 30 nationalities and 60 religious communions 
 have been enrolled. 
 
 The declaration of the Unitarian General 
 Conference in America is “These churches ac¬ 
 cept the religion of Jesus, holding in accordance 
 with his teaching that practical religion is 
 summed up in love to God and love to man.” 
 The American Unitarian Association (Boston) 
 is the executive organization and promotes reli¬ 
 gious education, social service, evangelism, pub¬ 
 lishing, building, and support of churches, and 
 other enterprises. Unitarian ministers are 
 trained in America at the Harvard Divinity 
 
UNIT CHARACTERS 
 
 School (endowed by Unitarians), Meadville 
 Theological School, Pacific Unitarian School for 
 the Ministry (Berkeley) ; in England, Man¬ 
 chester College, Oxford, Unitarian Home Mis¬ 
 sionary College, Manchester; in Wales, Presby¬ 
 terian' College, Carmarthen; Hungary, Unitarian 
 College, Klausenburg. 
 
 Bibliography. History: E. H. Hall, Ortho¬ 
 doxy and Heresy (Boston, 1883) ; G. Bonet- 
 Maury, Early Sources of Unitarian Christianity 
 in England (Eng. trans., London, 1884) ; J. 
 Stoughton, Religion in England, 1800—1850 (ib., 
 1884); J. H. Allen, Historical Sketch of the 
 Unitarian Movement (New \ork, 1894) ; A. 
 Gordon, Heads of English Unitarian History 
 (London, 1895) ; W. C. Bowie, Liberal Religious 
 Thought at the Beginning of the Twentieth Cen¬ 
 tury (ib., 1901); G. W. Cooke, Unitarianism 
 in America (Boston, 1902); J. H. Allen, Our 
 Liberal Movement, and Sequel (ib., 1905) ; Ever- 
 ard Bierer, Evolution of Religions (New York, 
 1906) ; F. B. Mott, Short History of Unitarian¬ 
 ism (London, 1906); S. A. Eliot, Heralds of a 
 Liberal Faith (3 vols., Boston, 1909) ; W. G. 
 Tarrant, Story of the Significance of the Uni¬ 
 tarian Movement (London, 1910). Doctrine: 
 F. H. Hedge, Reason in Religion (Boston, 1875) ; 
 J. F. Clarke, Essentials and Nonessentials in 
 Religion (ib., 1878) ; R. B. Drummond, Free 
 Thought and Christian Faith (Edinburgh, 
 1890) ; James Martineau, The Seat of Authority 
 in Religion (London, 1890) ; W. G. Tarrant, 
 Unitarianism Restated (ib., 1904) ; Ephraim 
 Emerton, Unitarian Thought (New York, 1911) ; 
 also publications of the American Unitarian As¬ 
 sociation (Boston) ; British and Foreign Uni¬ 
 tarian Association (London) ; the works of 
 W. E. Channing, Theodore Parker, J. F. Clarke, 
 M. J. Savage, and the biographies of W. E. 
 Channing, Theodore Parker, R. W. Emerson, 
 E. S. Gannett, and Dorothea L. Dix. Periodi¬ 
 cals: Christian Life and Enquirer (London) ; 
 Christian Register (Boston) ; Beacon (ib.) ; 
 Word and Work (ib.) ; Unitarian Advance 
 (Chicago) ; Unity (ib.) ; Pacific Unitarian (San 
 Francisco) ; Unitarian Kozlony (Klausenburg, 
 Hungary) ; also Unitarian Year Book (Boston). 
 
 UNIT CHARACTERS. See Mendel’s Law. 
 
 UNITED AMERICAN MECHANICS, 
 Junior Order of. A secret, patriotic, political, 
 beneficiary society, formed in 1853 at German¬ 
 town, Pa., as a branch of the Order of United 
 American Mechanics, to prepare young Ameri¬ 
 cans for membership in the latter. It became' 
 an independent organization in 1885 without the 
 junior age limitation as to eligibility for mem¬ 
 bership. It declared for restricted immigration, 
 protection to Americans, the American flag on 
 and the reading of the Bible in the public 
 schools, and has the picture of the “little red 
 school house” among its emblems. It pays 
 sick and funeral benefits to members and their 
 beneficiaries, more than $10,000,000 having been 
 so paid out since the society was formed. It 
 has state or governing councils in 26 States, 
 2300 subordinate councils, and a total member¬ 
 ship (1915) of about 236,000. Membership is 
 most numerous in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, 
 and nearby States. See Secret Societies, Pa¬ 
 triotic-Political. 
 
 UNITED AMERICAN MECHANICS, 
 
 Order of. A patriotic, political, benevolent 
 secret society, founded at Philadelphia in 1845, 
 an outgrowth of the native American political 
 agitation and disturbances of that period. 
 
 66 o UNITED BRETHREN IN CHRIST 
 
 > “Only native Americans or men born under the 
 • American flag” were eligible as members. The 
 word Mechanics was used, apparently, symbol¬ 
 ically. The society stands for the maintenance 
 of the American flag on the public schools, 
 i opposition to union of church and state, offers 
 aid to Americans in a business way, nas a fund 
 for the relief of widows and orphans of members, 
 and opposes injurious competition from im- 
 / migration. It is the parent of the Junior Order, 
 United American Mechanics (q.v.), which has 
 , since become independent of the mother organ- 
 s ization, which it greatly exceeds in number of 
 members. It has governing or state councils in 
 j 17 States, 464 subordinate councils, and nearly 
 s 37,000 members. See Secret Societies, Patri¬ 
 otic-Political. 
 
 % UNITED BAPTISTS. See Baptists. 
 
 r UNITED BRETHREN, The. See Mora¬ 
 
 vians. 
 
 UNITED BRETHREN IN CHRIST, The. 
 A religious denomination which arose among 
 x the Germans of Pennsylvania, under the preach¬ 
 ing of Philip William Otterbein (q.v.), an or¬ 
 dained pastor of the German Reformed church, 
 
 : and Martin Boehm, a preacher among the Men- 
 
 ; nonites. As their converts increased, laymen 
 i were licensed to preach. Their first formal con- 
 e ference met in Baltimore (1789), and their first 
 , annual conference at Frederick, Md., in 1800. 
 \j Here their name was chosen, and Otterbein and 
 Boehm were elected first bishops. The first 
 a General Conference met in 1815, when a Confes- 
 ; sion of Faith and a Discipline were adopted. 
 
 - The organization of the United Brethren in 
 Christ includes quarterly and annual confer- 
 f ences, and a quadrennial general conference, 
 :, which is the only legislative body, and' since 
 I. 1901 has been composed of an equal number 
 i, of ministers and laymen. The superintendency 
 i- of the church is vested in the bishops, who, 
 
 ; with the general church officers, are elected 
 ; every four years by the general conference. 
 
 e Since 1889 women have been eligible to the 
 n ministry. All ordained preachers are elders, 
 the only order recognized. Members are for¬ 
 bidden the use of intoxicating liquors, and 
 \ must not traffic in them. Slavery was prohibited 
 !, after 1821. Their theology is Arminian. They 
 l, accept two sacraments, baptism and the Lord's 
 i- Supper. The mode of baptism is left to the 
 d choice of the candidate. Infant baptism is prac- 
 i- ticed. The spiritually dynamic presence of 
 e' Christ in the Lord’s Supper is acknowledged, 
 e The practice of foot washing is discretionary, 
 l- The government of the church is democratic, 
 l, The itinerant system is enjoined, but pastorates 
 n are not limited as to time. 
 
 c A commission appointed by the General Con- 
 d ference of 1885 prepared, without doctrinal 
 'S change, a restatement of the Confession of Faith 
 ir and a revision of the Constitution, which, having 
 n been approved by the members, was adopted and 
 it proclaimed by the General Conference of 1889. 
 s, It provided for lay delegates to the General Con- 
 r- ference and set aside a rule prohibiting mem- 
 is bership in secret societies. At this time Bishop 
 y, Milton Wright and 14 of the 125 delegates com- 
 posing the conference withdrew and formed a 
 branch of the church, which adheres to the 
 5, former unrevised Confession of Faith and 
 it Constitution. 
 
 5, The larger division of the church, which ac- 
 il cepted the new Constitution, had, in 1915, 39 an- 
 d. nual conferences and mission districts, including 
 
UNITED EVANGELICAL CHURCH 661 UNITED IRISHMEN 
 
 those in Germany, Japan, Ontario, West Africa, 
 China, Japan, Porto Rico, and the Philippines, 
 eight bishops, 2395 ministers, 341,845 members, 
 about 448,975 pupils in the Sunday schools, 3556 
 church houses, and it contributed for all pur¬ 
 poses $3,102,871. It has a theological seminary at 
 Daj'ton, Ohio, 10 colleges, and several academies. 
 It has a publishing house at Dayton, and issues 
 from its presses 26 different publications, ag¬ 
 gregating over 10,000,000 copies annually. There 
 are a Board of Education; Home, Frontier, and 
 Foreign Missionary Societies; a Woman's Mis¬ 
 sionary Association, conducting missions in 
 Africa, China, and the Philippines; a Church 
 Erection Society; a Young People’s Christian 
 Union; and a Historical Society. The combined 
 missionary contributions for 1915 amounted to 
 over $200,000. The total value of property held 
 by the denomination is over $12,000,000. 
 
 The branch which retains the old Constitution 
 had, in 1915, 32 annual conferences, 4 bishops, 
 310 preachers, 515 churches, 21,172 members, 
 about 30,000 pupils in the Sunday schools, 540 
 church houses, and aggregate contributions 
 amounting to over $150,000. There are a Home, 
 Frontier, and Foreign Missionary Society, sus¬ 
 taining missions in 16 conferences and mission 
 districts, and a Woman’s Missionary Associa¬ 
 tion, a Board of Education, and colleges at 
 Huntington, Ind., Albion, Wash., and in Oregon. 
 
 Bibliography. The Religious Telescope 
 (weekly), The Watchword (weekly), and The 
 F ear Book of the United Brethren in Christ, 
 besides missionary and Sunday-school publica¬ 
 tions, are issued by the New Constitution branch 
 at Dayton, Ohio. The Old Constitution church 
 issues The Christian Conservator (weekly), The 
 Missionary Monthly , and a Year Book at Hunt¬ 
 ington, Ind. For the history of the church, 
 consult also: L. Davis, Life of Bishop David 
 Edwards (Dayton, 1883) ; A. W. Drury, Life 
 of Rev. Philip William Otterbein (ib., 1884) ; 
 id., Life of Bishop J. J. Glossbrenner (ib., 1889) ; 
 Daniel Berger, History of the Church of the 
 United Brethren in Christ (ib., 1897); E. L. 
 Shuey, Handbook of the United Brethren in 
 Christ (ib., 1901); H. A. Thompson, Biography 
 of Jonathan Weaver (ib., 1901); M. R. Drury, 
 Life of Bishop J. W. Hott (ib., 1902). 
 
 UNITED EVANGELICAL CHURCH, The. 
 A religious organization formed in 1894 as the 
 result of a division which had occurred in the 
 Evangelical Association (q.v.). A meeting at¬ 
 tended by delegates from six annual conferences 
 was held at Naperville, Ill., in November of 
 that year, and constituted the first general 
 conference of the United Evangelical church. 
 The legislation necessary to perfect the organ¬ 
 ization of an independent church was enacted; 
 a book of discipline was adopted, based upon 
 the old discipline of the Evangelical Association, 
 with certain changes, such as the introduction 
 of lay representation into the conferences. 
 
 In 1914 the United Evangelical church had 
 10 conferences (including seven mission con¬ 
 ferences), 975 organized congregations, 2 
 bishops, 528 preachers, 86,635 church members, 
 and 85,000 pupils in Sunday schools. Besides 
 assisting the seven mission conferences, the 
 General Missionary Society has three missions 
 in Honan, China; and the Woman’s Missionary 
 Society cooperates with it. The church raises 
 about $100,000 for missions yearly. A Church 
 Extension Society was established in 1902. The 
 educational institutions are Albright Colleo-e 
 
 Meyerstown, Pa.; Dallas College and La Creole 
 Academy, Dallas, Oreg.; Western Union Col- 
 lege, Le Mars, Iowa. Besides S.unday-school 
 and similar publications the church periodicals 
 are The Evangelical (weekly), Die evangelische 
 Zj eitsehrift (weekly), and The Missionary Tid¬ 
 ings, all issued at Harrisburg. Consult Ammon 
 Stapleton, Annals of the Evangelical A ssociation 
 of North America and History of the United 
 Evangelical Church (Harrisburg, 1900). 
 
 UNITED EVANGELICAL CHURCH, The 
 ( in Germany ). A church established in Ger¬ 
 many in 1817 by the union of portions of the 
 Lutheran and Reformed churches. Such a union 
 had been attempted without success in 1529, 
 1631, 1661, and by Frederick I of Prussia (1703- 
 22). Frederick William I published several 
 decrees having the same object in view. It was 
 favored also towards the end of the eighteenth 
 century by the progress of theological thought. 
 Schleiermacher proposed to establish an out¬ 
 ward church unity, leaving disputed points in 
 scientific theology still open for discussion. At 
 the tercentenary of the Reformation in 1817 a 
 visible union was established, limited, however, 
 at first, as many of its advocates supposed, to a 
 common church government and a common 
 celebration of the Lord’s Supper. In this move¬ 
 ment the government of Prussia has always been 
 the leader, and the United Evangelical church 
 is the state church there, although dissensions 
 have arisen at various times. A similar union 
 of Lutherans with the Reformed church has 
 been accomplished in several other of the Ger¬ 
 man states; while of the rest some are too 
 exclusively Lutheran, and some too exclusively 
 Reformed to warrant the attempt. In the 
 United States a branch of the United Evangeli¬ 
 cal church was established near St. Louis in 
 1840. See German Evangelical Synod of 
 North America; also German Evangelical 
 Protestant Church. 
 
 UNITED FREE CHURCH OF SCOT¬ 
 LAND. See Presbyterianism and the Pres¬ 
 byterian Churches. 
 
 UNITED IRISH LEAGUE OF AMERICA. 
 
 An association of Irish-Americans which is prac¬ 
 tically the successor of the Parnell Land League 
 and of the Irish Federated Societies in sym¬ 
 pathy with the Land League Movement. It was 
 provisionally established in New York, Dec. 4, 
 1901, and was ratified at the first National Con¬ 
 vention of the United Irish League held at 
 Boston, Oct. 20-21, 1902. Its purpose is to 
 act as an auxiliary in America to the national 
 organization in Ireland to secure its aims. 
 These include self-government for Ireland, the 
 abolition of landlordism there, and other re¬ 
 forms of political and economic conditions. 
 Membership in the league is open to all Irish- 
 American Nationalists without distinction of 
 class or creed, and to all sympathizers with the 
 national claims of Ireland. The general man¬ 
 agement of the league when not in convention is 
 vested in a national committee, consisting of the 
 president, two vice presidents, treasurer, and sec¬ 
 retary, and 31 members at large. The national 
 convention is held biennially or oftener at the 
 discretion of the national committee. 
 
 UNITED IRISHMEN, Society of. An Irish 
 revolutionary society founded in 1791. It was 
 an outgrowth of the sentiments inspired in Ire¬ 
 land by the French Revolution, which found 
 earliest acceptance among the Presbyterians of 
 Ulster, especially Belfast. Its object was to 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 662 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 obtain complete political emancipation of both 
 Catholics and Dissenters and to reform the Irish 
 Parliament. It soon spread among the Catho¬ 
 lics of the south, and even members of the 
 Established church joined the movement. The 
 government in 1783 passed the Relief Act in 
 the Irish Parliament. This gave the suffrage 
 to Catholics, but did not qualify them for office. 
 An attempted measure of parliamentary reform 
 was, however, rejected in 1794, and the recall 
 of Lord Fitzwilliam removed hopes of reform 
 through parliamentary means. The society 
 then became more revolutionary, collected arms 
 and became to all intents and purposes a mili¬ 
 tary organization. It promised confiscation of 
 the' land of hostile landlords to the peasants 
 and sent emissaries to France for aid. Its num¬ 
 bers were greatly increased in the south by the 
 action of the Orangemen of Ulster (Peep o’ 
 Day Boys) in expelling the Catholic inhabitants, 
 who were forced to find refuge in the south. 
 In 1796 Wolfe Tone (q.v.), the chief agent in 
 the organization of the society, was sent to 
 France for military aid, and an expedition of 
 15,000 troops under the command of Hoche 
 (q.v.) was fitted out. A violent tempest pre¬ 
 vented the French from landing and the expedi¬ 
 tion accomplished nothing. The society, never¬ 
 theless, remained ready for an invasion. Two 
 directories were established, one in Belfast and 
 the other in Dublin. They were reputed to 
 have 200,000 recruits, but this was certainly 
 an exaggeration. Meanwhile the government 
 resolved to repress the movement before an in¬ 
 vasion by France, and under the pretext of 
 repressing disorder the leaders in Ulster were 
 arrested, and the Protestant militia and yeo¬ 
 manry let loose on the population of the south. 
 This irregular force committed great brutalities, 
 it being evidently the intention of the govern¬ 
 ment to incite the peasantry to open rebellion 
 before preparations for a revolution could be 
 completed. The rebellion broke out on May 
 3, 1798, and was confined to parts of Leinster. 
 As it necessarily assumed the aspect of a reli¬ 
 gious war, the Presbyterians of Ulster took no 
 part in it. The rebellion w T as suppressed before 
 the arrival of the French, and shortly after¬ 
 ward Wolfe Tone himself was captured and 
 was sentenced to be hanged but committed 
 suicide. The constitution and oath of the so¬ 
 ciety are printed in Plowden, History of Ireland, 
 vol. iii (Philadelphia, 1806). Consult also The 
 Proceedings of the Dublin Society (Philadelphia, 
 1795). The most complete work on the subject 
 is R. R. Madden, The United Irishmen (Dublin, 
 1858). For a brief account consult Hassencamp, 
 History of Ireland (London, 1888). 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM. The United Kingdom 
 of Great Britain and Ireland is a constitutional 
 monarchy, consisting of the islands of Great 
 Britain and Ireland and various smaller adja¬ 
 cent isles, as the Hebrides, the Orkneys, the 
 Shetlands, the Scilly Isles, Anglesey, and the 
 Isle of Wight. The term “Great Britain” is 
 often used to designate the United Kingdom, 
 as is also the term “England” when the govern¬ 
 ment rather than the country is in mind. The 
 island of Great Britain, the largest island of 
 Europe, with an area of 88,746 square miles, 
 is divided into England (50,874 square miles), 
 Wales (7466 square miles), and Scotland (30,- 
 406 square miles). Politically the Scilly Isles 
 and the Isle of Wight are part of England, 
 Anglesey of Wales, and the Hebrides, Orkneys, 
 
 and Shetlands of Scotland; their areas are in¬ 
 cluded in the figures just given. The area of 
 Ireland is 32,586 square miles. Thus the area 
 of the United Kingdom is 121,331 square miles. 
 The island of Great Britain lies between lat. 
 50° and 60° N. and is surrounded by the 
 Atlantic Ocean or some of its divisions—the 
 North Sea, English Channel, St. George’s Chan¬ 
 nel, and Irish Sea. 
 
 Topography. The seas surrounding Great 
 Britain are very shallow, rarely exceeding 300 
 feet in depth. The fact that the island stands 
 on the continental shelf has two great ad¬ 
 vantages: (1) it is protected from the cold 
 waters of the deep Arctic currents and thus 
 is spared the chilling influences of the northern 
 ocean; (2) the shallow surrounding waters 
 are fitted in temperature and in abundant sup¬ 
 plies of fish food to support myriads of the best 
 varieties of fish. 
 
 The coasts are extremely long in proportion 
 to the area of the land. Great Britain has 1 
 mile of coast to less than 20 miles of area. 
 England has a coast line nearly 2000 miles in 
 length, while that of Scotland is considerably 
 longer. No part of the island is more than 70 
 miles from the coast. Two causes have con¬ 
 tributed to increase the value of the numerous 
 indentations as harbors. One is the subsidence 
 or depression of the entire western side of the 
 island, causing the sea to form drowned valleys; 
 the other is the rise of the tides all around the 
 coasts, from 6 to 30 feet, which converts the 
 mouths and lower parts of many rivers into 
 deep bays or channels. The deep-sea lochs of 
 the west coast of Scotland are similar in ap¬ 
 pearance and origin to the fiords of Norway. 
 Here, as on the west coast of England, all the 
 softer rocks have been washed away; and on 
 the Scottish coast there is left an outer barrier 
 of islands and an inner wall of very hard rocks 
 penetrated by these deep fiords. The east coast 
 of Scotland, however, composed mainly of sand¬ 
 stone and clay, has been easily worn into deep 
 estuaries at the mouths of rapid rivers like 
 the Tay; and the east side of England, composed 
 of soft rocks, has been worn into a low monoto¬ 
 nous line of shore, broken only by the estuaries 
 of rivers whose current is too sluggish to wear 
 away deep channels. Most of the good harbors 
 are therefore along the west and south shores 
 of the island. The south coast is picturesque, 
 with lofty cliffs and rocky shores dotted with 
 summer resorts. 
 
 The highlands and lowlands of Great Britain 
 may roughly be divided into four well-defined 
 areas: (1) the Scottish Highlands, a mountain¬ 
 ous and comparatively barren region, lie north¬ 
 west of a line drawn from Dumbarton to Aber¬ 
 deen: (2) the Scottish Lowlands, an expanse of 
 fertile lowland, and the Southern Uplands, lie 
 southeast of this line; (3) the mountains of 
 England and Wales lie northwest of a line drawn 
 from Exeter to Berwick; (4) the lowlands of 
 England lie to the southeast of this line. 
 
 There are in the Scottish Highlands a number 
 of parallel ranges of mountains, the highest 
 mountain being Ben Nevis (4406 feet), the cul¬ 
 minating point of the island. The only pas¬ 
 sageways are at their extremities. At these 
 extremities are the two roadways through Scot¬ 
 land from south to north, the east coast form¬ 
 ing the easiest and most traveled route. 
 
 The Scottish Lowlands, which connect the 
 Highlands with the Southern Uplands, are a 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 663 UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 plain, of the rift-valley type, diversified by many 
 hills of hard igneous rocks, covered with fertile 
 soil, and abounding with natural advantages that 
 have concentrated in them most of the popula¬ 
 tion of Scotland. The Southern Uplands, among 
 which the Clyde rises, are a plateau where the 
 heights are massed into different groups by 
 the rivers that have excavated the valleys. 
 
 From the middle of England a broad peninsula 
 (Wales) pushes out towards Ireland. The whole 
 of Wales and the part of England lying to the 
 northwest of the line from Exeter to Berwick 
 are a highland. This hilly and mountainous re¬ 
 gion is composed of very old sedimentary rocks 
 with masses of crystalline rocks at various 
 centres. Thus the mountains have been partly 
 weathered from the plateau surface into their 
 present forms or were pushed up from below by 
 terrestrial convulsion. The mountains are not 
 so high as those of Scotland. It may be said 
 of the island as a whole that it becomes lower 
 and flatter as it widens out towards the south. 
 The main direction of the mountain ranges of 
 England and Wales is from north to south or 
 from northeast to southwest, and they thus 
 interpose no obstacles to communication with 
 the Scottish Lowlands except among the Cheviot 
 Hills, which, extending along the border, belong' 
 to Scotland more than to England and offer an 
 easily protected frontier by which to maintain 
 a separate political existence. 
 
 The Cheviot Hills are separated from the 
 Pennine Chain by a low strip between Carlisle 
 and Newcastle. The Pennine Chain is a suc¬ 
 cession of moors and hills of Carboniferous 
 formation, the latter from 1000 to 2900 feet 
 high, the backbone of northern England, extend¬ 
 ing south 150 miles and forming the water part¬ 
 ing between east and west flowing rivers. The 
 Cumbrian group of mountains, a region also 
 known as the English Lake District, is in the 
 northwest of England and is joined to the Pen- 
 nines by the high moorland of Shap Fell. This 
 ring of peaks, rising to over 3000 feet, is in 
 its scenic aspects the grandest and most beauti¬ 
 ful part of England. Its deep valleys have been 
 eroded from the original high plateau of igneous 
 and old sedimentary rocks, and in these valleys 
 are the long narrow lakes that have made this 
 district famous for its picturesque charm. The 
 Welsh or Cambrian mountains, in which the 
 Welsh tribes were long able to maintain an inde¬ 
 pendent and separate existence, cover Wales and 
 are mostly of very old sedimentary strata with 
 crystalline rocks at various points. Unlike the 
 Scottish Highlands, these mountains do not 
 impart great ruggedness to the coast, because 
 the rivers have brought down vast quantities 
 of sediment, spreading it out into delta plains 
 and largely filling the fiords that formerly 
 existed. The high peninsula of Devon and Corn¬ 
 wall, forming the extreme southwestern exten¬ 
 sion of England, is the fifth and last feature 
 of the highlands of South Britain. It is sepa¬ 
 rated from Wales by the Bristol Channel, while 
 another great depression on the south, the Eng¬ 
 lish Channel, severs it from Brittany, France, 
 with which it is closely related in its crystalline 
 and primary rocks, its high unfertile moorland, 
 and its climate. 
 
 To the southeast of this great highland region 
 extend the fertile lowlands of England, a coastal 
 plain, less than 500 feet above sea level as a 
 rule, comparatively flat, composed of younger 
 sedimentary (Mesozoic and Tertiary) rocks, the 
 
 harder of which stand above the general level, 
 for ! n . in 8' Sl ' vera l bands of higher ground, the 
 oolitic and chalk bands being most prominent. 
 I he oolitic belt of higher ground extends to 
 the northeast from Portland Bill in the south 
 to YY hitbv in the north, forming, among the 
 various elevations, the Cotswold Hills and the 
 North Yorkshire moors, the latter (nearly 1500 
 feet in height) being the loftiest part of the 
 plain region of England. Directly east of this 
 Jurassic formation and extending* parallel with 
 it is the chalk country, whose ridges of hills 
 form the Salisbury plateau, the Chiltern Hills, 
 and other elevations. These chalk heights also 
 extend along the south of England (the North 
 and South Downs), and are seen in the white 
 cliffs fronting the English Channel and abutting 
 on the North Sea in the North and South Fore¬ 
 lands. Between the North and South Downs the 
 weald, a dissected dome, once heavily wooded, 
 
 • wedge-shaped, penetrates westward from the 
 
 • North Sea; and between the north-extending 
 chalk- lands and the North Sea extends the Lon¬ 
 don Basin, low, remarkably fertile, whose coast 
 is broken by several estuaries, among which 
 that of the Thames is most prominent. One 
 more distinctive feature, about midway on the 
 east coast of England, is the marshy expanse 
 of the Fenland, almost at the level of the sea. 
 
 Hydrography. The water parting is situated 
 much nearer the west than the east coast, with 
 the result that the larger number of rivers 
 flow to the east; with the exception of the west¬ 
 ern Severn, the eastern rivers are the longest, 
 and their basins larger than the western basins. 
 As the eastern rivers of England flow sluggishly 
 down the gentle slope of the coastal plain and 
 drain the leeward slopes, it is natural that 
 they should be least liable to floods and most 
 important for navigation. Their value for com¬ 
 merce is somewhat impaired, however, by the 
 fact that, crossing the softer rocks of the plain, 
 they carry down a great deal of alluvium with 
 which their mouths are often seriously clogged. 
 The Tyne, Wear, and Tees of northeastern Eng¬ 
 land have a course of only 70 or 80 miles, and 
 their commercial importance depends upon the 
 great coal fields (Tyne and Wear) and the iron 
 and salt deposits (Tees) near them. The basin 
 of the Humber embraces 10,000 square miles, 
 from the mineral beds of the Pennine slopes 
 through the rich agricultural plains; the Aire, 
 Ouse, Trent, and other tributaries help to make 
 it one of the most useful river systems in Eng¬ 
 land. The Thames rises only 300 feet above 
 the sea, but it has a long course of about 200 
 miles. Its sluggish current, its well-protected 
 estuary, and the. tides which carry numerous 
 ocean vessels 50 miles up to London Bridge, 
 help to make the Thames one of the largest 
 commerce carriers among the world’s rivers. 
 The important western rivers of south Britain 
 are limited to the Severn and the Mersey. 
 The Severn is the longest British river (nearly 
 250 miles), with tides of extraordinary height, 
 and empties through one of the largest and 
 richest coal fields in Europe. It is navigable 
 for a long distance and is a great commerce car¬ 
 rier. The Mersey is a short river, rising on 
 the Pennine slopes and obstructed at its mouth 
 by a shifting bar, but its proximity to a rich 
 coal field and to the great manufacturing dis¬ 
 trict of England gives it immense importance in 
 commerce. The western rivers of Scotland, ex¬ 
 cepting the Clyde, are only short, torrential, and 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 664 
 
 commercially valueless streams; but the Clyde, 
 artificially widened and deepened in its lower 
 part at enormous expense, is the most important 
 river in Scotland, and all the industries of the 
 Lowlands and Southern Uplands—agricultural, 
 mineral, and manufacturing—are represented in 
 its trade. With this exception the longer and 
 more gently flowing eastern rivers are most use¬ 
 ful. The Tay, Spey, and Tweed are all about 
 100 miles, and the Dee and the Don about 80 
 miles long. The Tay and the Forth are great 
 water highways, commanding all the river traffic 
 passing through the eastern-central portion of 
 Scotland. The two famous lake regions of Great 
 Britain are in the Highlands of Scotland, where 
 here and there in the valleys the rivers have 
 spread out into long and narrow lakes, or lochs, 
 which follow the curves of the hillsides and 
 contribute much to the beauty and charm of 
 this picturesque region, and the Lake District of 
 the Cumbrian Mountains in northwest England, 
 already mentioned. 
 
 Climate. Warm winters, cool summers, and 
 large rainfall are the characteristics of the Brit¬ 
 ish climate. The island of Great Britain owes 
 these advantages to the surrounding seas, which 
 are unusually warm considering their latitude. 
 The westerly winds (the southwest antitrades, 
 or westerlies), blowing most of the time from 
 off the broad expanse of the Atlantic, moderate 
 the temperature of the winter months, mitigate 
 the heat of summer, and cover the skies for a 
 great part of the year with clouds which often 
 hang upon the land as fog. Icebound harbors 
 are unknown. There is no great variety of 
 climate, because the country is not of great 
 extent, and its surface, even to the mountain 
 tops, does not reach a high elevation. The dif¬ 
 ference of summer temperature between the ex¬ 
 treme north and south of the island is about 10 
 degrees. The copious rains which the westerly 
 winds bring fall largely over the highland re¬ 
 gions of the west, which makes them among the 
 richest in rainfall of all parts of Europe; while 
 the plains of the east receive a far smaller quan¬ 
 tity of rain. All parts of the country, however, 
 receive sufficient rain for agricultural needs; and 
 the numerous valleys extending southwest and 
 northeast permit the sea air to carry much 
 moisture far inland before it falls as rain. The 
 annual range of temperature is smallest in the 
 west because it is more exposed to the influ¬ 
 ence of the Atlantic. The western regions have 
 more sunshine than the plains, where cloud and 
 fog are more prevalent. The average tempera¬ 
 ture of Great Britain for the year is 48° F. with 
 extremes of 53° F. (Scilly Isles) and 45° F. 
 (Shetland). Snow falls on the higher lands and 
 sometimes covers most of the country, but no 
 mountain is so high as to be snow-capped in 
 summer. The islands are exposed to the great 
 cyclonic storms which sometimes sweep in from 
 the Atlantic. 
 
 Soils. Soils formed from the immediately un¬ 
 derlying rocks are not the most common in Great 
 Britain, and where they are so formed they are 
 usually poor. Thus the hard crystalline rocks 
 of the western mountains yield a comparatively 
 poor soil; and the soil is not very fertile south 
 of the Thames, where the local chalk and flint 
 enter so largely into its composition. The very 
 fertile soils of most of the plains, particularly 
 north of the Thames, are the mixed components 
 of many kinds of rocks ground up by glacial 
 ice, carried a considerable distance and spread 
 
 over the surface. The rivers also, passing over 
 many varieties of rocks, spread this mixed rock 
 waste along their valleys, and these alluvial 
 soils are very fertile. The soil of Scotland is 
 naturally fertile, aside from mountain districts. 
 
 Flora. The native flora of Great Britain is 
 almost identical with that of the neighboring 
 portion of continental Europe; some mainland 
 species, however, do not appear. In early times 
 the island was almost completely covered with 
 forests, but to-day little of the original wood¬ 
 lands remains, and only 3.6 per cent of the sur¬ 
 face is covered with forests. The chief native 
 trees are the oak and beech in the lower lands, 
 and the Scotch pine and birch in the high and 
 more northern districts. The great rainfall 
 on the steeper mountain slopes has generally 
 washed away the soil, showing the rock skeleton 
 unrelieved by vegetation. On the gentler slopes 
 of the Scottish and Welsh highlands, little ex¬ 
 cept moss, fern, and heather can grow in the 
 thin soil. All the cultivated plants that thrive 
 in the lower lands have been introduced from 
 the neighboring Continent and America. The 
 mild, moist climate gives a peculiarly rich and 
 fresh aspect to the vegetation. The pastures 
 and hay lands are luxuriant, and the fields look 
 like well-kept gardens. 
 
 Fauna. As the British Isles until geologically 
 recent times were an integral part of the Con¬ 
 tinent, they partake of the general fauna of 
 western Europe and present few differences ex¬ 
 cept such as are due to man. All the larger 
 animals were long ago exterminated (see Ex¬ 
 tinct Animals), or have been preserved only 
 as curiosities on private estates, with the ex¬ 
 ception of the red deer. Otters, badgers, pole¬ 
 cats, and weasels survive free persecution; foxes 
 persist under protection. The hare, squirrel, 
 hedgehog, vole, some wild mice, moles, shrews, 
 and bats nearly complete the list of remaining 
 British land mammals. Seals of two or three 
 species are found on the northern coasts, and 
 the cetaceans of the North Atlantic visit the 
 shores from time to time. Certain common ani¬ 
 mals of northern and western Europe, such as 
 the reindeer, elk, roedeer, lemming, hamster, etc., 
 have had no place in Great Britain within- his¬ 
 toric times; neither have several mammals of 
 southern France. 
 
 The birds more fully represent the European 
 air fauna, for the British Isles lie upon a path 
 of coastal migration between tropical and north¬ 
 ern latitudes. This brings regularly to Great 
 Britain most of the European birds, but some 
 species are exceedingly rare there which occur 
 commonly in the Rhone-Rhine valley. Laws have 
 long afforded protection to all birds, resident 
 or migratory, preserving many species that were 
 formerly threatened with extinction, yet some 
 have been lost. The principal British birds are 
 the raven, hooded and carrion crows, rook, jack¬ 
 daw, magpie, chough, and jay—the last two be¬ 
 coming very scarce; the starling, the chaffinch, 
 goldfinch, linnet, bullfinch, house sparrow, vari¬ 
 ous buntings, and other seed eaters; the skylark 
 and woodlark, with several related wagtails, 
 pipits, etc.; a nuthatch and several varieties 
 of titmouse, shrike, and waxwing. Thrushes are 
 represented by the nightingale, blackbird, mavis, 
 missel thrush, and redwing—famous songsters; 
 and lesser insect eaters are the two chats, the 
 wheatear, the redbreast, and several small war¬ 
 blers, accentors, wrens, flycatchers, etc. Several 
 swallows are familiar about buildings and river 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 665 UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 banks, and two or three woodpeckers. The 
 cuckoo, nightjar, swift, and kingfisher, one spe¬ 
 cies each, carry the list to the birds of prey. 
 These include the brown, barn, and several other 
 small owls, with the great snowy owl as a winter 
 visitor. The osprey is rare. Among the falcons 
 are the peregrine, kestrel, gerfalcon, merlin, and 
 pigeon and sparrow hawks. Honey buzzards, 
 kites, eagles, and vultures are seen only at long 
 intervals, when they wander over from the 
 Continent. The buzzards, goshawk, and marsh 
 harrier complete a long list. Fishing birds are 
 represented by cormorants, gannets, etc., on the 
 coast, and by the bittern inland. Waterfowl 
 include tame swans, the wild bernicle, greylag, 
 bean, and pink-footed geese, and a series of 
 ducks to a large degree identical with those of 
 Canada. Four species of typical pigeons include 
 the wild stock of domestic doves and the wide¬ 
 spread turtledove. The game birds are the 
 capercailzie, blackgame, red grouse (one of the 
 few birds peculiar to the British Islands), arid 
 the introduced pheasant; but sportsmen find a 
 long list of visiting shore birds, most of which 
 are known also in America; while the sea birds 
 are those of the North Atlantic coasts generally. 
 
 Fish abound in the four seas about Great 
 Britain, and their capture supports a large 
 maritime population (see Fisheries ); certain 
 species, as the sole, turbot, and whitebait, are 
 local and of wide repute for excellence. Salmon 
 still ascend the northerly rivers of the Kingdom 
 under legal protection, and trout, grayling, and 
 various fresh-water fishes of interest to anglers 
 are similarly preserved. Oysters and various 
 other shellfish abound and are largely fished 
 for or cultivated for food. Of x reptiles, Great 
 Britain contains but four—a small viviparous 
 lizard, a blindworm, a small colubrine snake 
 (Tropidonotus natrix ), and the adder (Pelias 
 berus ). Several frogs, two toads, and some 
 newts comprise the amphibians. The insects, 
 mollusks, and lower invertebrates are as nu¬ 
 merous and varied as is usual in a mild and 
 moist climate, and have been more thoroughly 
 studied than anywhere else on the globe. 
 
 Geology. Great Britain may be roughly 
 classified, from the standpoint of rock formation, 
 into areas older than the coal measures and 
 areas younger. The Highlands in the north and 
 west are the remnants of the very ancient 
 crystalline and sedimentary rock masses that 
 were greatly disturbed in early geological epochs 
 and have since been largely reduced in height 
 and area by erosion. These regions of ancient 
 rocks were subjected to much faulting and fold¬ 
 ing; and interspersed among them are areas 
 which volcanic outflows, occurring in various 
 ages and as late as Tertiary times, covered with 
 igneous deposits that were also greatly dis¬ 
 turbed by dynamical energy. These elevated 
 lands are not marked by sharp and jagged 
 peaks, but the mountains have been worn away 
 into rounded outlines, and among them are inter¬ 
 spersed a number of broad, plainlike moors 
 broken here and there by more elevated masses 
 of harder and particularly of eruptive rocks. 
 The Highland regions may be compared in 
 height with the Catskill Plateau and its sur¬ 
 mounting elevations. 
 
 In sharp contrast with these ancient crystal¬ 
 line, sedimentary, and eruptive masses forming 
 the Highlands are the younger rocks of the 
 Lowlands, the widely distributed Old Red Sand- ’ 
 stone of Devonian formation, the chalk and sand¬ 
 
 stones and the clays of the Carboniferous era. 
 Towards the south and east of the old elevated 
 rock masses are the Carboniferous strata con¬ 
 taining the coal deposits which have contributed 
 so much to the material greatness of Great 
 Britain. None of the younger and lower lands 
 has been much affected by faulting and folding. 
 These lower lands extend from the mouth of 
 the Tee to the south of the island, widening 
 with their south extension till they cover the 
 larger part of England, Exeter being their west¬ 
 ern limit on the south coast, Ihey are mostly 
 flat, trough-shaped, or rolling surfaces of the 
 Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary for¬ 
 mations. The greatest diversity of surface and 
 the finest scenery are thus in the north and 
 west, while the lowest and most uniform surface 
 is in the south and east. The extreme south 
 of England escaped glacial action, but elsewhere 
 many of the minor features of the land were 
 produced by the ice sheet and glaciers of the 
 Ice age. In scarcely any other part of the 
 world is there so wide a range of geological 
 strata in so limited an area as in Great Britain; 
 only the broader aspects of the subjects are here 
 indicated. 
 
 Minerals and Mining. The industrial his¬ 
 tory of the United Kingdom and its present 
 position and outlook are intimately connected 
 with the possession and exploitation of unusu¬ 
 ally abundant resources of coal and iron, par¬ 
 ticularly coal. They have largely determined the 
 distribution of population (see Population) and 
 have made possible the country’s highly de¬ 
 veloped industrial life and extraordinary wealth. 
 There was no mineral production on a large 
 scale until the industrial revolution of the 
 eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Collieries 
 were first opened at Newcastle in 1238, and the 
 coal was shipped by sea to London and other 
 towns on navigable rivers. 
 
 Early in the seventeenth century coal was 
 used in smelting iron, but primitive mining 
 methods, and particularly the lack of means for 
 pumping water out of the mines, limited its 
 use. The inventions of James Watt (c.1770) 
 eliminated this difficulty and greatly increased 
 production, thereby making practicable the 
 blast-furnace method of iron smelting, which 
 had already been introduced but was impeded 
 by insufficient supplies of wood and coal. In 
 the later years of the eighteenth century there 
 was a constant succession of improvements—to 
 wit, in mining, in the manufacture of iron, in 
 internal means of communication—all facilitat¬ 
 ing increased production of coal and iron. The 
 annual output of coal in the last years of the 
 eighteenth century is estimated to have exceeded 
 10,000,000 tons. The introduction of the steam¬ 
 boat about 1812 and of the steam railway about ' 
 1830 created a new demand for coal and iron 
 and made domestic and foreign distribution 
 more practicable, thus enormously extending 
 the market. Production increased throughout 
 the nineteenth century, the average annual abso¬ 
 lute gain continuing undiminished. The value 
 of mining products aside from coal and iron is 
 comparatively small. 
 
 The supremacy of Great Britain in total min¬ 
 eral product is the more remarkable since the 
 product includes virtually neither gold nor' silver. 
 In 1820 Great Britain’s coal production was two 
 and one-half times as much as the rest of the 
 civilized world, and as late as 1840 the iron-ore 
 production was more than all other countries 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM 666 
 
 combined. The United States first excelled Great 
 Britain in mineral production in the latter part 
 of the nineteenth century and is constantly in¬ 
 creasing its lead. Great Britain’s iron output 
 was first surpassed by the United States in 
 1890 and its coal in 1899. The output of the 
 British iron mines is insufficient for local needs, 
 and increasing quantities, equaling in value that 
 produced at home, are imported, chiefly from 
 Spain; while coal for the whole period has been 
 exported in increasing quantities. The export 
 of coal, coke, and patent fuel increased from 
 46,098,228 tons in 1900 to 67,035,848 in 1912. 
 Iron being much more easily imported than 
 coal, Great Britain fares better than it would 
 if the status of the production of the two min¬ 
 erals were reversed. 
 
 Coal and iron ore respectively have been pro¬ 
 duced in the United Kingdom as follows: in 
 1860, 81.000,000 tons and 8,155,000 tons; in 
 1870, 112,000,000 and 14,606,000; in 1890, 188,- 
 000,000 and 14,066,000; in 1900, 225,181,300 and 
 14,257,344; in 1910, 264,433,028 and 15,226,015. 
 The following table shows for recent years the 
 coal and iron produced in the United Kingdom 
 and their values (in thousands of pounds ster¬ 
 ling). 
 
 YEAR 
 
 COAL 
 
 IRON ORE 
 
 Tons 
 
 £1000 
 
 Tons 
 
 £1000 
 
 1895 
 
 189,661,362 
 
 225,181,300 
 
 236,128,936 
 
 264,433,028 
 
 287,430,473 
 
 57,231.2 
 
 121.652.6 
 82,038.6 
 
 108.377.6 
 
 145.535.7 
 
 
 
 1900 
 
 
 
 1905. 
 
 1910. 
 
 1913. 
 
 14,590,703 
 
 15,226,015 
 
 15,997,328 
 
 3,482.2 
 
 4,022.3 
 
 4,543.6 
 
 About two-thirds of the coal is mined in Eng¬ 
 land, the remainder being almost equally divided 
 between Scotland and Wales. The principal pro¬ 
 ductive districts, beginning at the north, are 
 the Scottish Lowlands, or the neighborhood of 
 Glasgow, the Newcastle district, the two fields 
 on the east and west slopes of the Pennine Range 
 in southwest Yorkshire, and to the southeast¬ 
 ward and in eastern Lancashire, the Staffordshire 
 fields farther south, and the South Wales field 
 occupying Glamorganshire and parts of the ad¬ 
 joining counties. The third of these districts 
 lias the largest output. The output by districts 
 was as follows in 1912:—in England: Durham, 
 37,890,404 tons; Yorkshire, 38,298,080; Lan¬ 
 cashire, 22,790,472; Staffordshire, 13,698,357; 
 Derbyshire, 16,573,157; Northumberland, 13,- 
 381,787; Nottinghamshire, 11,122,832; Mon¬ 
 mouthshire, 13,391,742; other districts, 13,685,- 
 300;—in Wales: Glamorganshire, 33,727,100; 
 other districts, 6,248,171;—in Scotland: Lanark¬ 
 shire. 16,624,363; other districts, 22,894,266; — 
 in Ireland, 90,307; total 260,416,338. Iron ore 
 is obtained most abundantly in connection with 
 the coal measures of Yorkshire and other re¬ 
 gions. Red hematite ores are obtained in north 
 Derbyshire and in Cumberland. 
 
 In mediaeval and ancient times in Great 
 Britain other varieties of minerals were rela¬ 
 tively of much greater importance than coal 
 and iron. According to tradition, centuries be¬ 
 fore the Christian era Phoenician merchants 
 visited England and traded in the products of 
 the tin mines of Cornwall. It is certain that 
 the Cornish mines have been worked from a very 
 early period. During the Middle Ages, down to 
 
 the time when the tin mines of Bohemia and 
 Saxony were discovered, England supplied al¬ 
 most all the tin used in Christendom. Copper 
 and silver were also mined. The revenue from 
 the Devonshire tin and lead mines paid the ex¬ 
 penses of the French wars of the fourteenth 
 century. The great modern improvements in 
 transportation have since made it more econom¬ 
 ical in many cases to import the ore. English 
 clays have always been used in making pottery, 
 especially after the introduction of improved 
 methods by Dutch and Huguenot immigrants. 
 The country’s abundant supply of useful stone 
 has always been drawn upon, increasingly so in 
 recent years. In 1912 the total spot value of the 
 metallic minerals produced in the United King¬ 
 dom was £5,211,746; of the nonmetallic min¬ 
 erals, £126,009,107; total, £131,220,853. Of the 
 mineral output in 1912, the value of £88,897,556 
 was raised in England, £23,744,169 in Yales, 
 £18,344,112 in Scotland, and £208,042 in Ire¬ 
 land; included in the total is £26,974, value of 
 minerals raised in the Isle of Man. The fol¬ 
 lowing table shows the quantity of metal pro¬ 
 duced in the United Kingdom, from British ores 
 (and, in the case of pig iron, also from foreign 
 ores), with estimated value at the place of 
 production. 
 
 ORE 
 
 1901 
 
 1906 
 
 1912 
 
 Pig iron,* tons. 
 
 4,091,908 
 
 5,040,360 
 
 4,451,636 
 
 
 £12,826,622 
 
 17,623,966 
 
 16,419,298 
 
 Pig iron,t tons. 
 
 3,836,739 
 
 5,143,500 
 
 4,299,828 
 
 
 £12,026,762 
 
 17,984,603 
 
 15,859,372 
 
 Fine copper, tons... 
 
 532 
 
 749 
 
 291 
 
 
 £37,661 
 
 69,385 
 
 22,714 
 
 Metallic lead, tons.. 
 
 20,034 
 
 22,335 
 
 19,154 
 
 
 £254,599 
 
 392,445 
 
 349,561 
 
 White tin, tons. 
 
 4,560 
 
 4,522 
 
 5,254 
 
 
 £556,571 
 
 819,377 
 
 1,116,738 
 
 Zinc, tons. 
 
 8,418 
 
 8,539 
 
 6,062 
 
 
 £149,174 
 
 235,819 
 
 158,622 
 
 Silver, ounces. 
 
 174,466 
 
 148,341 
 
 122,998 
 
 
 £19,764 
 
 19,083 
 
 14,382 
 
 Bar gold, ounces. . . 
 
 6,225 
 
 1,871 
 
 1,546 
 
 
 £22,042 
 
 6,569 
 
 5,103 
 
 Total. 
 
 £25,893,195 
 
 37,151,247 
 
 33,945,790 
 
 * From British ores. t From foreign ores. 
 
 In 1912 there were 3910 mines in operation, 
 with 1,117,148 persons employed, of whom 895,- 
 485‘were males working underground, and 215,- 
 001 males and 6662 females aboveground. In 
 quarries 79,887 persons were employed. 
 
 Fisheries. The natural resources of the 
 United Kingdom include very profitable fish¬ 
 eries. The herting fisheries off the Norfolk coast 
 have always been important and were until the 
 seventeenth century largely in the hands of 
 the Dutch. But as the government fostered the 
 fishing industry, the Dutch were supplanted, and 
 to-day the United Kingdom is equaled only by 
 the United States in the value of its annual 
 catch. The value of the fish (exclusive of 
 salmon) landed on the coasts of the United King¬ 
 dom, distinguishing the English, Welsh, Scot¬ 
 tish, and Irish coasts, is shown on page 667. 
 The herring fishery is the most important on 
 both English and Scottish coasts. Its principal 
 centre is Great Yarmouth. The North Sea fish¬ 
 eries yield shellfish, mackerel, and codfish. Sar¬ 
 dine fishing is of some importance in Cornwall 
 and Devonshire. Oyster fisheries are widely 
 distributed along the coasts. Value for the 
 United Kingdom of the principal catches in 
 1913: herring, £4,572,295; cod, £2,300,119; had- 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 667 
 
 dock, £1,891,005; hake, £678,981; soles, £474,- 
 127; whiting, £390,980; turbot, £302,411; skates 
 and rays, £292,972; mackerel, £230,161. On Eng¬ 
 
 1900 
 
 England 
 and Wales 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 United 
 
 Kingdom 
 
 Fish, wet. . 
 Shellfish... 
 
 £6,610,268 
 
 334,882 
 
 £2,325,994 
 
 75,906 
 
 £306,229 
 
 61,426 
 
 £9,242,491 
 
 472,214 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 £6,945,150 
 
 £2,401,900 
 
 £367,655 
 
 £9,714,705 
 
 1913 
 
 Fish, wet. . 
 Shellfish... 
 
 £10,009,326 
 
 327,363 
 
 £3,925,360 
 
 72,357 
 
 £294,625 
 
 63,922 
 
 £14,229,311 
 
 463,642 
 
 Total. .. 
 
 £10,336,689 
 
 £3,997,717 
 
 £358,547 
 
 £14,692,953 
 
 lish and Welsh coasts plaice were landed to 
 the value of £1,051,016. At the end of 1912 
 there were registered in the United Kingdom 
 24,012 boats as engaged in fishing, giving em¬ 
 ployment to 98,894 persons, but there was also 
 a large number of small craft not registered. 
 In recent years the general tendency towards 
 centralization in important industries has been 
 very evident in the fishing industry, and the 
 population engaged in fishing has centred to a 
 large extent at a few important points, especially 
 Great Yarmouth, Grimsby, Hull, and Peterhead. 
 
 Agriculture and Stock liaising. Compared 
 to other industries agriculture is of far less im¬ 
 portance in the United Kingdom than in any 
 of the other great nations. The fact that the 
 country is not producing sufficient food to supply 
 
 nate than its European neighbors as regards 
 natural facilities for agriculture, having a 
 smaller cultivable area and a soil of only mod¬ 
 erate fertility. At one time an exporter of food 
 products, the decline of the country’s agricul¬ 
 ture dates from the latter part of the eighteenth 
 century, and though protected for a while by high 
 import duties the repeal of the Corn Laws of 
 1846 opened the British market to foreign com 
 petition. 
 
 Foreign competition has caused a complete 
 change in agricultural methods. A decided de¬ 
 crease in the production of grains, particularly 
 of wheat, was followed by an increase in market 
 gardening and the pastoral industries. The dis¬ 
 tribution of crops varies within the different sec¬ 
 tions, being determined largely by physical con¬ 
 ditions. Mountainous districts in north and 
 south Scotland, in western England, and in a 
 large portion of Wales are unavailable for til¬ 
 lage, while there are extensive lowlands and 
 swampy regions, which even with extensive 
 drainage have not been entirely brought under 
 cultivation. The subjoined table shows, accord- 
 
 YEAR 
 
 Great 
 
 Britain 
 
 Ireland 
 
 United 
 
 Kingdom 
 
 Total acres. 
 
 Cultivated, 1900. . . . 
 
 “ 1910_ 
 
 “ 1913_ 
 
 56,804,166 
 
 32,437,386 
 
 32,145,930 
 
 31,927,301 
 
 20,734,124 
 
 15,234,693 
 
 14,661,045 
 
 14,691,147 
 
 77,724,044 
 
 47,795,120 
 
 46,931,637 
 
 46,740,904 
 
 ing to British agricultural 
 
 statistics, 
 
 the total 
 
 area in acres (including rivers and lakes, but 
 
 AREA, CROPS, ETC. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 1895 
 
 1905 
 
 1912 
 
 Cultivated area. 
 
 32,577,513 
 
 32,286,832 
 
 31,996,024 
 
 Corn crops: 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 1,417,483 
 
 1,796,995 
 
 1,925,737 
 
 Barley or bere .... 
 
 2,166,279 
 
 1,713,664 
 
 1,648,201 
 
 Oats. 
 
 3,296,063 
 
 3,051,376 
 
 3,029,054 
 
 Rye. 
 
 68,713 
 
 62,197 
 
 60,943 
 
 Beans. 
 
 242,665 
 
 254,765 
 
 285,989 
 
 Peas. 
 
 209,024 
 
 175,235 
 
 202,319 
 
 Total. 
 
 7,400,227 
 
 7,054,232 
 
 7,152,243 
 
 Green crops: 
 
 Potatoes . 
 
 541,217 
 
 608,473 
 
 612,671 
 
 Turnips and swedes 
 
 1,915,902 
 
 1,589,273 
 
 1,512,535 
 
 Mangold. 
 
 334,861 
 
 404,123 
 
 488,486 
 
 Cabbage, kohl-rabi 
 
 and rape. 
 
 153,053 
 
 179,226 
 
 173,538 
 
 Vetches or tares .. . 
 
 165,804 
 
 136,429 
 
 137,420 
 
 Other crops. 
 
 114,925 
 
 159,518 
 
 190,854 
 
 Total. 
 
 3,225,762 
 
 3,077,042 
 
 3,115,504 
 
 Flax. 
 
 2,023 
 
 441 
 
 811 
 
 Hops. 
 
 58,940 
 
 48,967 
 
 34,829 
 
 Small fruit. 
 
 74,547 
 
 78,825 
 
 85,141 
 
 Bare fallow. 
 
 475,650 
 
 349,313 
 
 280,746 
 
 Clover, sainfoin, and 
 grasses under ro¬ 
 tation : 
 
 For hay. 
 
 2,303,431 
 
 2,189,286 
 
 1,978,501 
 
 Not for hay. 
 
 2,426,370 
 
 2,228,232 
 
 2,012,528 
 
 Total. 
 
 4,729,801 
 
 4,477,518 
 
 3,991,029 
 
 Permanent pasture: * 
 
 For hay. 
 
 4,760,889 
 
 4,688,520 
 
 5,108,269 
 
 Not for hay. 
 
 11,849,674 
 
 12,511,974 
 
 12,227,452 
 
 Total. 
 
 16,610,563 
 
 17,200,494 
 
 17,335,721 
 
 Orchards f. 
 
 218,428 
 
 244,323 
 
 246,527 
 
 • 
 
 Ireland 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 1895 
 
 1905 
 
 1912 
 
 1895 
 
 1905 
 
 1912 
 
 15,179,382 
 
 15,262,949 
 
 14,673,778 
 
 47,883,797 
 
 47,673,115 
 
 46,793,747 
 
 36,532 
 
 171,789 
 
 1,216,401 
 
 11,520 
 
 2,355 
 
 497 
 
 37,860 
 
 154,645 
 
 1,066,806 
 
 10,155 
 
 1,471 
 
 253 
 
 44,855 
 
 165,367 
 
 1,046,000 
 
 7,765 
 
 1,421 
 
 279 
 
 1,456,045 
 
 2,346,371 
 
 4,527,930 
 
 80,296 
 
 245,129 
 
 209,608 
 
 1,836,598 
 
 1,872,305 
 
 4,137,406 
 
 72,480 
 
 256,383 
 
 175,624 
 
 1,971,801 
 
 1,816,426 
 
 4,096,111 
 
 68,779 
 
 287,511 
 
 202,742 
 
 1,439,094 
 
 1,271,190 
 
 1,265,687 
 
 8,865,379 
 
 8,350,796 
 
 8,443,370 
 
 710,486 
 
 313,281 
 
 53,027 
 
 616,755 
 
 282,105 
 
 72,570 
 
 595,184 
 
 271,771 
 
 t81,700 
 
 1,262,863 
 
 2,237,686 
 
 388,442 
 
 1,236,768 
 
 1,879,384 
 
 477,540 
 
 1,219,583 
 
 1,792,523 
 
 11571,451 
 
 45,286 
 
 4,250 
 
 25,424 
 
 45,695 
 
 2,566 
 
 24,682 
 
 41,060 
 
 2,008 
 
 30,366 
 
 198,488 
 
 170,371 
 
 142,271 
 
 225,315 
 
 139,285 
 
 186,082 
 
 215,346 
 
 139,748 
 
 223,474 
 
 1,151,754 
 
 95,203 
 
 1,044,373 
 
 46,158 
 
 1,022,089 
 
 54,931 
 
 4,400,121 
 
 97,226 
 
 58,940 
 
 74,920 
 
 494,430 
 
 2,952,619 
 
 3,108,541 
 
 4,144,374 
 
 46,599 
 
 48,967 
 
 83,941 
 
 353,742 
 
 2,831,305 
 
 2,948,018 
 
 4,162,125 
 55,742 
 34,829 
 ** 100,747 
 281,231 
 
 2,908,233 
 
 3,760,468 
 
 
 4,531 
 
 4,195 
 
 628,635 
 
 626,478 
 
 §15,218 
 
 18,431 
 
 635,586 
 
 649,792 
 
 II 916,976 
 11,713,519 
 
 1,285,378 
 
 1,255,113 
 
 2,630,495 
 
 6,061,160 
 
 5,779,323 
 
 6,668,701 
 
 1,558,890 
 
 9,630,632 
 
 1,665,871 
 
 9,971,518 
 
 11,570,373 
 
 18,114,985 
 
 6,328,052 
 
 21,503,569 
 
 6,361,439 
 
 22,503,934 
 
 6,684,945 
 
 20,362,067 
 
 11,189,522 
 
 11,637,389 
 
 9,685,358 
 
 27,831,621 
 
 28,865,373 
 
 27,047,002 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Exclusive of heath or mountain land. t Arable or grass land used also for fruit trees, 
 
 t Inclusive of beetroot. § Including orchards. 
 
 !l The large apparent change in area is chiefly due to greater care and to a different method in classification, 
 
 l Inclusive of Irish beetroot. ** Inclusive of Irish orchards 
 
 its own needs makes the question of food provi¬ 
 sion one of great importance. It is less fortu- 
 Vol. XXII.—43 
 
 not including foreshore and tidal waters) and 
 the total cultivated area in Great Britain, in 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 668 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 Ireland, and in the United Kingdom, including 
 the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. 
 
 The share of England, of Wales, and of Scot¬ 
 land in the total cultivated area of the island of 
 Great Britain is shown below. 
 
 LAND 
 
 England 
 
 Wales 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Total acres*. 
 
 32,559,355 
 
 24,960,192 
 
 24,611,186 
 
 4,778,182 
 
 2,842,616 
 
 2,794,661 
 
 19,459,584 
 
 4,895,715 
 
 4,880,985 
 
 Cultivated, 1886-90 . 
 “ 1905_ 
 
 * The figures here given do not exactly agree with the total 
 for Great Britain in the preceding table on account of differ¬ 
 ing official calculations. 
 
 The area in acres under the principal crops, 
 in the first week of June, is reported on page 667 
 (figures for the United Kingdom include those 
 for the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands). _ 
 The true significance of British agriculture is 
 not shown so much by the acreage as by the yield 
 per acre. Intensive cultivation, application of 
 modern scientific principles, and the liberal use 
 of natural and artificial fertilizers cause the re¬ 
 luctant soil to produce unsurpassed quantities. 
 Thus, while the area of cultivation has remained 
 practically stationary, the product has con¬ 
 stantly increased. (See England; Ireland.) 
 The production of principal crops in Imperial 
 bushels, long tons, or hundredweights, and the 
 average yield per acre in 1912, were officially 
 estimated for Great Britain and for Ireland as 
 follows. 
 
 CROPS 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 IRELAND 
 
 Production 
 
 Per 
 
 acre 
 
 Production 
 
 Per 
 
 acre 
 
 In bushels: 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 55,838,360 
 
 29.00 
 
 1,563,942 
 
 34.87 
 
 Barley and bere. 
 
 51,238,728 
 
 31.09 
 
 6,968,470 
 
 42.14 
 
 Oats. 
 
 109,935,064 
 
 36.29 
 
 54,865,569 
 
 52.45 
 
 Beans. 
 
 7,724,640 
 
 27.63 
 
 59,405 
 
 41.81 
 
 Peas. 
 
 3,916,680 
 
 22.55 
 
 7,814 
 
 28.01 
 
 In tons: 
 
 
 
 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 3,179,632 
 
 5.19 
 
 2,546,710 
 
 4.28 
 
 Turnips and 
 
 
 
 
 swedes. 
 
 20,278,639 
 
 13.41 
 
 3,783,218 
 
 13.92 
 
 Mangold. 
 
 8,836,718 
 
 18.09 
 
 tl,301,048 
 
 t 15.92 
 
 Hay*. 
 
 2,675,208 
 
 1.35 
 
 1,701,027 
 
 1.86 
 
 Hay f. 
 
 6,343,423 
 
 1.24 
 
 3,295,564 
 
 2.10 
 
 In hundredweights 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hops. . 
 
 373,438 
 
 10.72 ( 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * From clover, sainfoin, and grasses under rotation, 
 t From permanent pasture, 
 t Inclusive of beetroot. 
 
 Great Britain has originated many of the 
 finest breeds of stock (see England; Scotland), 
 the purity of which is zealously guarded. It is 
 a noteworthy fact that the United Kingdom has 
 more than half, and Great Britain almost ex¬ 
 actly half, as many sheep as are found in the 
 United States. The following table shows the 
 
 STOCK 
 
 Great 
 
 Britain 
 
 Ireland 
 
 United 
 
 Kingdom 
 
 1912* 
 
 United 
 Kingdom 
 1900 * 
 
 Horses. . 
 
 1,441,023 
 
 544,332 
 
 1,994,607 
 
 2,000,415 
 
 Cattle . . 
 
 7,026,096 
 
 4,848,498 
 
 11,914,635 
 
 11,455,009 
 
 Sheep... 
 
 25,057,732 
 
 3,828,829 
 
 28,967,495 
 
 31,054,726 
 
 Swine.. . 
 
 2,655,797 
 
 1,323,957 
 
 3,992,549 
 
 3,663,716 
 
 * Including Isle of Man and Channel Islands 
 
 number of live stock in the first week of June, 
 1912, and, for the United Kingdom, in 1900 (the 
 
 figures for horses include only horses used for 
 agriculture, unbroken horses, and brood mares). 
 
 In June, 1913, horses numbered 1,874,264; 
 cattle, 11,936,600; sheep, 27,629,206; swine, 
 3,305,771. 
 
 The following figures show the distribution 
 of live stock in the three divisions of Great 
 Britain and in Ireland in 1905. 
 
 STOCK 
 
 England 
 
 Wales 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Horses. . . . 
 
 1,204,124 
 
 161,923 
 
 206,386 
 
 534,875 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 5,020,936 
 
 738,789 
 
 1,227,295 
 
 4,645,215 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 14,698,018 
 
 3,534,967 
 
 7,024,211 
 
 3,749,352 
 
 Swine. 
 
 2,083,226 
 
 211,479 
 
 130,214 
 
 1,164,316 
 
 The characteristics of British land ownership 
 and tenure are, briefly, centralization of owner¬ 
 ship, capitalistic tenants who pay money rent 
 on long-time tenures, and a large laboring class 
 who are on a low economic and social plane. 
 Primogeniture has kept the large estates intact, 
 and in 1876 two-thirds of the entire landed prop¬ 
 erty of England and Wales was owned by about 
 10,000 individuals. In Scotland, in 1871, 42.1 
 per cent of the total area was owned by only 68 
 persons. The status with regard to ownership in 
 Great Britain has not greatly changed, although 
 some tendency in late years is to be noted among 
 the agricultural laboring class to acquire small 
 holdings as provided by recent parliamentary 
 enactments. 
 
 Cultivation is in the hands of tenants, and 
 renting therefore is well-nigh universal, as will 
 be seen from the following table, giving the num¬ 
 ber of acres under crops and grass occupied by 
 tenants and owners in 1912. 
 
 DIVISIONS 
 
 By tenants 
 
 By owners 
 
 Total 
 
 England. 
 
 21,733,533 
 
 2,486,666 
 
 4,346,209 
 
 2,680,960 
 
 273,531 
 
 475,125 
 
 24,414,493 
 
 2,760,197 
 
 4,821,334 
 
 Wales. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 28,566,408 
 
 3,429,616 
 
 31,996,024 
 
 
 Details of holdings of one acre and upward 
 for 1912 are shown below, with average size in 
 acres of holding in that year and in 1895. 
 
 DIVISIONS 
 
 No. of 
 holdings 
 
 Cultivated 
 
 acreage 
 
 Average size 
 
 1912 
 
 1895 
 
 England. 
 
 374,809 
 
 24,414,493 
 
 65.1 
 
 65.3 
 
 Wales. 
 
 61,077 
 
 2,760,197 
 
 45.1 
 
 47.1 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 77,662 
 
 4,821,334 
 
 62.0 
 
 61.5 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 513,548 
 
 31,996,024 
 
 62.3 
 
 62.6 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 521,345 
 
 14,673,778 
 
 28.1 
 
 *29.5 
 
 * 1896 figures. 
 
 The various sizes of these holdings in 1912 
 are shown in table on page 669. 
 
 While the average size of farms is compara¬ 
 tively small, the intensive cultivation makes 
 the us’e of capital, machinery, etc., an economic 
 advantage. The long-term renting system, where 
 the tenancy often descends in the same family 
 for generations, induces the farmer to improve 
 his land rather than to exhaust it. By the Agri¬ 
 cultural Holdings Acts of 1875 the tenant se- 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 660 UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 euies compensation for whatever improvements 
 lie has placed on the land at the end of his 
 tenancy. Laws passed in 1882, 1887, 1890, 1892, 
 and 1894 provided that under certain conditions 
 a demand in any locality for small holdings, 
 either for rent or ownership, might be secured 
 
 DIVISIONS 
 
 1-5 
 
 acres 
 
 5-50 
 
 acres 
 
 50-300 
 
 acres 
 
 Over 
 
 300 
 
 acres 
 
 England. 
 
 81,884 
 
 10,314 
 
 17,778 
 
 IRQ HQQ 
 
 110,657 
 
 17,937 
 
 23,151 
 
 14,230 
 
 342 
 
 2,645 
 
 Wales. 
 
 lUO,Uoo 
 Q9 iQA 
 
 Scotland.... 
 
 34,088 
 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 109,976 
 
 234,610 
 
 151,745 
 
 17,217 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 62,266 
 
 770 
 
 *81,980 
 
 19,440 
 
 
 
 * 50—200 acres. f Over 200 acres. 
 
 legally by compulsion if necessary. Under the 
 Small Holdings and Allotments Act of 1908 and 
 the Irish Land Act of 1903 the prospects of the 
 agricultural laborer have been improved, and 
 under the latter Act state advances are made to 
 the tenants to purchase their holdings. 
 
 Manufactures. Until the recent industrial 
 development in the United States no other na¬ 
 tion had for more than a century approached 
 Gieat Biitain in the amount of manufactured 
 products. But in the earlier periods of the 
 nation’s history manufacturing was of minor 
 importance and did not begin to equal that of 
 the Dutch, the Flemish, or the French. Chief 
 among the factors which have brought Great 
 Britain up from industrial insignificance to its 
 present prominence are (1) its comparative free- 
 
 a great impetus to the old industry, but intro¬ 
 duced new ones, such as silk weaving, the manu¬ 
 facture of cutlery, cloak making, and the manu¬ 
 facture of hats and pottery. A century later 
 the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) led 
 to the emigration to England of a large number 
 1 -ii r , eilch . Hu oUenots, representing the most 
 • ar ^ lsan s of France. I 11 the latter part 
 of this period manufacturing industry, which 
 had early spread well over the east and west of 
 England, developed extensively in the lomr-deso- 
 lated region of the north. 
 
 I hen came the great industrial revolution be¬ 
 ginning in the latter half of the eighteenth cen- 
 t'Uiy, due largely to the mechanical inventions 
 which affected practically every branch of the 
 manufacturing industry. (See Industrial 
 Revolution.) The use of machinery, and espe¬ 
 cially its necessary installation in a single plant 
 under the application of steam power, led to 
 the factory system and the almost complete 
 overthrow of the old domestic system. 
 
 ^ EV significant, too, were the resulting' 
 changes in the location of the weaving industry. 
 The textile machines were at first generallv pro¬ 
 pelled by water power. The north region—York¬ 
 shire and Lancashire—afforded superior facili¬ 
 ties of this, kind and consequently enjoved a 
 lemarkable increase in textile manufacturing at 
 the expense of the old centres farther south. 
 Similarly the coal resources of the same region 
 drew the iron manufacturing away from Suffolk 
 and Norfolk when coal supplanted wood as a 
 uel. Birmingham, which had formerly de- 
 pended upon the neighboring forests of Arden 
 tor the fuel used in its smelting industry, was 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ! 
 
 t 
 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 ( 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 GROUP OF TRADES 
 
 Mining and quarrying. 
 
 Iron and steel engineering, and shipbuilding 
 Metal, other than iron and steel 
 
 Textile. 
 
 Clothing.’ ’ 
 
 Food, drink, and tobacco.. 
 
 Chemical, etc. 
 
 Paper, printing, stationery, etc. 
 
 Leather, canvas, and India rubber 
 Timber. 
 
 stone, building, and contracting... . 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 Public-utility services.. 
 
 Total. 
 
 wrtiH, its eariy superiority as a 
 wool producer, (3) the favorable climate, (4) 
 great abundance of coal and iron, (5) pre- 
 eminence of shipping interests and the acquisition 
 of territorial possessions in extending markets 
 
 and (6) improved methods and labor-savin^ 
 inventions. 
 
 From a very early period Great Britain far 
 excelled other Northern European countries in 
 the production of wool. Edward III, near the 
 middle of the fourteenth century, took advan¬ 
 tage of internal troubles in Flanders and se- 
 cured the migration of a considerable number 
 of Flemish artisans to England. The woolen 
 industry grew apace, centred chiefly in the 
 towns of east England, but was not supreme 
 until the Elizabethan period. The wars and per¬ 
 secutions on the Continent and the welcome by 
 the English authorities resulted at this time in 
 a great influx of Flemings, who not only gave 
 
 Value of 
 products 
 
 Value of 
 materials 
 used 
 
 Horse 
 power of 
 machinery 
 
 £148,026,000 
 
 375,196,000 
 
 93,456,000 
 
 333,561,000 
 
 107,983,000 
 
 287,446,000 
 
 75,032,000 
 
 61.30S,000 
 34,928,000 
 46,390,000 
 116,692,000 
 8,288,000 
 77,051,000 
 
 £28,495,000 
 
 212,224,000 
 
 81,341,000 
 
 235,038,000 
 
 58,185,000 
 
 197,734,000 
 
 53,466,000 
 
 26,611,000 
 
 26,229,000 
 
 24,780,000 
 
 49,679,000 
 
 3,778,000 
 
 30,786,000 
 
 2,495,134 
 
 2,437,481 
 
 83,974 
 
 1,987,765 
 
 84,806 
 
 380,171 
 
 214,770 
 
 237,573 
 
 54,891 
 
 173,813 
 
 433,279 
 
 9,417 
 
 2,059,737 
 
 1,765,366,000 
 
 1,028,346,000 
 
 10,653,811 
 
 AVERAGE PERSONS 
 EMPLOYED 
 
 1 
 
 Wage 
 
 earners 
 
 947,178 
 
 1,432,489 
 
 101,687 
 
 1,210,777 
 
 681,305 
 
 400,617 
 
 110,107 
 
 287,222 
 
 75,666 
 
 214,764 
 
 674,579 
 
 42,132 
 
 313,800 
 
 Total 
 
 6,492,323 
 
 965,230 
 
 1,539,415 
 
 114,473: 
 
 1,253,044 
 
 756,466 
 
 463,701 
 
 127,842 
 
 325,475 
 
 84,724 
 
 239,195 
 
 725,240 
 
 46,874 
 
 342,491 
 
 6,984,170 
 
 fortunately near enough to the new coal fields 
 to place it at a great industrial advantage, and 
 it has remained the largest centre of the iron 
 industry. When steam power supplanted water 
 power in the textile industries, the factories were 
 no longer compelled to locate upon the streams 
 and along watercourses. But as the coal supplv 
 was in the same district and the industry was 
 otherwise favored there, as has been pointed out, 
 it continued to develop in the north of England' 
 Improved methods were applied first to manu- 
 factmes of cotton and subsequently to woolens 
 and linens. 
 
 The value of the annual cotton manufactured 
 product in the United Kingdom was 100 times 
 gieater at the end of the nineteenth centurv than 
 at the beginning. Before 1850 it had surpassed 
 wool. The value of the annual woolen product 
 was three, and linen five, times as great at the 
 end as at the beginning of the century. Some 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM 670 
 
 idea of the importance of these two products 
 may be gathered from the figures of the increase 
 of "their exportation. (See under Commerce.) 
 Lancashire is the largest centre of the cotton 
 industry. Glasgow is another important centie. 
 The woolen industry is largely confined to west 
 Yorkshire. Both Ireland and Scotland exceed 
 England in the production of linen. (See Eng¬ 
 land; Scotland.) The manufacture of ma¬ 
 chines and metal ware is centred principally in 
 north England, the different branches of this 
 industry being largely localized in special dis¬ 
 tricts. ' (See England.) The Clyde district of 
 Scotland leads the world in the building of ships. 
 (See Scotland.) Scotland and Ireland are 
 noted for the manufacture of whiskies, and Eng¬ 
 land has a very large brewing industry. (See 
 England; Ireland; Scotland.) The table on 
 page 669 is a summary of the census of produc¬ 
 tion of 1907. See also Friendly Society; Trade- 
 Unions. 
 
 Transportation and Communication. Prior 
 to the industrial revolution (see Manufactures) 
 inland transportation was much inferior to that 
 in other European countries. As early as 1423 
 the English government began the improvement 
 of the Thames River and other natural water¬ 
 courses for purposes of navigation. The latter 
 part of the eighteenth and the early part of the 
 nineteenth century were periods of remarkable 
 development in the construction of canals, then 
 industrially important. With the advent of 
 railroads the canals were partly superseded. 
 However, the ship canals are quite impor¬ 
 tant, as the largest and most famous of which, 
 the Manchester Ship Canal, from Manchester to 
 the Mersey port of Liverpool, was only com¬ 
 pleted in its present form in 1894. The Glou¬ 
 cester and Berkeley and the Exeter canals are 
 also ship canals of some importance, and the 
 Thames, Severn, Aire, and Weaver rivers are 
 canalized. Bearing this and the insularity of 
 Great Britain in mind, its inland shipping facili¬ 
 ties are remarkable. In 1915 there were about 
 4700 miles of canals in the United Kingdom, of 
 which 3640 were in England and Wales. The 
 tonnage carried in 1905 amounted to 43,161,927. 
 
 Another method of meeting the demands of a 
 growing industry upon transportation was the 
 turnpike. Tramways have since about 1700 been 
 used at the mines, and about 1800-05 one was 
 constructed from Wandsworth to Croydon and 
 Reigate. Shorter ones were completed in other 
 parts of the country. Finally, in 1825 a rail¬ 
 way line that was operated by steam, 14 miles in 
 length, was opened for passenger traffic from 
 Stockton to Darlington. The first important 
 railway line in the world, that from Liverpool 
 to Manchester, was opened in 1830. (See Rail¬ 
 ways.) The mileage for the United Kingdom in 
 1850 was 6620; in 1870, 15,540; in 1900, 21,855; 
 in 1912, 23,441. Of the last amount 16,223 miles 
 were in England and Wales, 3815 in Scotland, 
 and 3403 in Ireland. London is the focal point 
 for the principal lines of England. The increase 
 in the number of passengers conveyed (exclusive 
 of season-ticket holders) is indicated in the 
 table in the next column. 
 
 In 1905 the tonnage of minerals conveyed was 
 358,076,000, and of general merchandise 103,- 
 063,000; in 1912, 401,564,000 and 118,715,000. 
 The combined capital of all the railways greatly 
 exceeded the national debt in amount. In 1912 
 the total gross receipts of the railways of the 
 United Kingdom were £128,553,417; working ex¬ 
 
 penses, £81,224,343; net receipts, £47,329,074; 
 proportion of working expenditure to gross re¬ 
 ceipts, 63, as compared with 62 in 1905 and in 
 1900. There are many small lines, but these 
 are nearly all operated by one of the large com¬ 
 panies. Of these, the Great Western has the 
 
 YEAR 
 
 England and 
 Wales 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 1862 . 
 
 152,437,000 
 
 17,610,000 
 
 10,436,000 
 
 1880 . 
 
 540,669,000 
 
 45,956,000 
 
 17,259,000 
 
 1900. 
 
 992,426,000 
 
 122,201,000 
 
 27,650,000 
 
 1905. 
 
 1,054,416,000 
 
 115,580,000 
 
 29,026,000 
 
 1912. 
 
 1,161,993,000 
 
 103,182,000 
 
 29,162,000 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 greatest mileage, the largest tonnage of goods 
 is booked by the North Eastern, and the largest 
 number of passengers is carried by the Great 
 Eastern. Parliament recognizes nothing in the 
 nature of a vested interest as attaching to rail¬ 
 ways, and privileges granted may be withdrawn 
 when they cease to be consistent with the gen¬ 
 eral advantage. No official step has been taken 
 towards government ownership. A railway com¬ 
 mission of three members has final decision in 
 questions of fact that arise in the administra¬ 
 tion of the railways. Their decisions on ques¬ 
 tions of law are subject to appeal. 
 
 Curiously enough, the tramways, which, as we 
 have seen, antedate the railway, went into disuse 
 when the railways developed, and it was only 
 about 1870 that they were successfully reinstated 
 in the form of street railways, on the model of 
 the American system. They have not yet become 
 nearly so common as in the United States, car¬ 
 riage transportation still being mainly depended 
 upon in the cities. In 1905 the mileage of tram¬ 
 ways and light railways in the United Kingdom 
 was 2177, about two-thirds belonging to local 
 authorities; in 1912, 2642. The necessity for 
 some means of rapid transit to meet the needs 
 of agricultural and other interests not served by 
 the regular system of railway transportation re¬ 
 sulted in the construction of light railways dur¬ 
 ing 1885-1900. The greater part of these lines 
 are modeled after the ordinary railway, while 
 the remainder are nearer to the type of the 
 American interurban street railways. 
 
 The United Kingdom has highly efficient 
 postal and telegraph services, both of which are 
 in the hands of the government. The postal 
 system was revolutionized by laws of 1837 and 
 1839, the penny postage for letters being estab¬ 
 lished in 1839. The revenue from the postal 
 service exceeds the expenditure by nearly £5,000,- 
 000 annually. A parcel post, run in connection 
 with the post-office system, has largely sup¬ 
 planted private express companies in the carry¬ 
 ing of light packages to all parts of the King¬ 
 dom. Postal savings banks and a system of 
 life insurance are connected with the postal 
 system. (See Savings Banks.) During 1868-70 
 the government assumed the ownership and con¬ 
 trol of all telegraph lines in the United King¬ 
 dom and made them a part of the post-office sys¬ 
 tem. The charges for service were greatly re¬ 
 duced, with a consequent enormous increase in 
 the number of messages sent. Telegrams may be 
 sent to any part of the United Kingdom for 6d. 
 for the first 12 words and 1 halfpenny for each 
 additional word. The operation of the telegraph 
 service creates a large deficit each year. 
 
 The government also developed the policy of 
 purchasing and controlling the telephone lines 
 as a part of the post-office system. During 1892- 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 07 all the main lines were acquired, but a pri¬ 
 vate company still had a monopoly of the local 
 or town lines. In 1809 the government began 
 to compete with the lines inside the towns, and 
 on Jan. 1, 1912, took over these lines, which 
 had been amalgamated into the National Tele¬ 
 phone Company. Great Britain is connected 
 with Ireland by a large number of submarine 
 cables and thence with America, and there are 
 several cables connecting with the continent of 
 Europe. 
 
 Commerce. The industrial supremacy which 
 the United Kingdom has so long enjoyed has 
 probably been most manifest in its commerce. 
 The protection and expansion of trade are the 
 hopes of the British manufacturer and are the 
 secret of British colonial expansion and zeal in 
 maintaining a naval supremacy. In acquiring 
 and maintaining this position Great Britain has 
 perhaps more natural conditions in its favor 
 
 671 UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 markets. From 1782 to 1792 the trade increased 
 in value from £23,300,000 to £44,500,000, and by 
 1810 it had reached a value of £82,870,000. In 
 1780 the East Indian trade formed but one 
 thirty-second part of the total foreign trade; 
 but after the abolition of the monopoly feature 
 of the rights of the East India Company as ap¬ 
 plied to India in 1813 and later in China, this 
 commerce rapidly increased. 
 
 Commercial treaties tending towards free trade 
 were concluded witli various powers, and finally 
 (1846) an out-and-out free-trade policy was 
 adopted. The development of the commerce of 
 the United Kingdom during the last half cen¬ 
 tury is indicated in the following table, which 
 shows total imports of merchandise; net im¬ 
 ports, i.e., total imports less reexports; exports 
 of United Kingdom produce and of foreign and 
 colonial produce; and total exports of mer¬ 
 chandise. 
 
 YEAR 
 
 • 
 
 IMPORTS 
 
 EXPORTS 
 
 Total imports 
 
 Net imports 
 
 United Kingdom 
 produce 
 
 Foreign and 
 colonial produce 
 
 Total 
 
 exports 
 
 1862. 
 
 £225,716,976 
 
 411,229,565 
 
 416,689,658 
 
 523,075,163 
 
 565,019,917 
 
 678,257,024 
 
 768,734,739 
 
 696,635,113 
 
 
 £123,992,000 
 
 223,060,000 
 
 226,128,246 
 
 291,911,996 
 
 329,816,614 
 
 430,384,772 
 
 525,245,289 
 
 430,721,357 
 
 £42,175,000 
 
 63,354,000 
 
 59,704,161 
 
 63,181,758 
 
 77,779,913 
 
 103,761,045 
 
 109,575,037 
 
 £166,168,134 
 
 286,414,466 
 
 285,832,407 
 
 354,373,754 
 
 407,596,527 
 
 534,145,817 
 
 634.820,326 
 
 526,195,523 
 
 1880. 
 
 
 1895. 
 
 
 1900. 
 
 £459,893,405 
 
 487,240,004 
 
 574,495,979 
 
 659,159,702 
 
 1905. 
 
 1910. 
 
 1913. 
 
 1914. 
 
 
 * \. 
 
 than any other country. An island off the west 
 coast of Europe, it was free from the disturbing 
 international conflicts that afflicted continental 
 trade centres. The importance of its strategic 
 central position increased with the growing com¬ 
 mercial importance of the Western Hemisphere. 
 Again, Great Britain has been favored by her 
 coast line. She is favored also by her abundant 
 natural resources, the energy, ingenuity, and per¬ 
 severance of her people, her democratic institu¬ 
 tions, and the activity of the government in fos¬ 
 tering and protecting trade interests. 
 
 The supremacy of English commerce is, how¬ 
 ever, of comparatively recent times. Until the 
 reign of Queen Elizabeth the trade of England 
 had been almost wholly in the hands of for¬ 
 eigners. The fostering of English commerce and 
 shipping was one of the expedients devised to 
 help in the acquisition of precious metals; for, 
 according to the mercantilists of that era, in¬ 
 crease in trade would result in the natural in¬ 
 flow of metals. Trading companies were en¬ 
 couraged by the granting of monopolies. Though 
 at this stage competition in both East and West 
 was very great, England succeeded in extending 
 its trade, the total for imports and exports in¬ 
 creasing from £4,628,000 in 1613 to £12,428,000 
 in 1699. Out of trade rivalry grew the Naviga¬ 
 tion Laws of Cromwell and subsequent acts, 
 which tended to limit colonial trade to English 
 or colonial vessels and greatly restricted colonial 
 manufactures witli a view to fostering English 
 trade and shipping interests and extending the 
 market for English goods. The policy operated 
 with great severity against both Scottish and 
 Irish trade and industries. The union of Scot¬ 
 land with England in 1707 and the establish¬ 
 ment of free trade between the two greatly bene¬ 
 fited British commerce. Through the wars of 
 the eighteenth century Great Britain extended 
 its colonial territory and thereby broadened its 
 
 From this it will be seen that the imports were 
 increasing faster than the exports. The United 
 Kingdom had the largest imports and exports in 
 the world, Germany and the United States stand¬ 
 ing next. 
 
 Prior to the reign of Elizabeth wool consti¬ 
 tuted the bulk of English exports, while manu¬ 
 factures of wool and other products constituted 
 most of the imports. But soon England became 
 a shipper of wool manufactures, and these be¬ 
 came the leading export. Later, with the great 
 development in sheep raising in British colonies, 
 wool came to be extensively imported, and the 
 manufactures and exports thereof greatly in¬ 
 creased. The exports of woolen and worsted 
 manufactures and yarn amounted to £31,386,355 
 in 1906 and £37,773,504 in 1912. Cotton manu¬ 
 factures did not figure among exports before 
 the industrial revolution. But in 1802 they 
 exceeded the exports of woolen goods and rapidly 
 increased until they were three times the value 
 of the latter and made up the largest single item 
 of exportation; in 1906 the exports of cotton 
 yarn and manufactures amounted to £99,598,915 
 and in 1912 to £122,219,939. Raw cotton like¬ 
 wise became the greatest item of importation. 
 At first cotton was obtained from Brazil and the 
 West Indies, but during the nineteenth century 
 the bulk of it was supplied by the United States, 
 although Egypt now shares largely in the supply. 
 Cotton imports from India, which became promi¬ 
 nent during the Civil War in the United States, 
 are now of minor importance. (See India.) 
 About 1800 the exports of metal products were 
 still small, but they rapidly increased. In 1907 
 the exports of iron and steel and their manufac¬ 
 tures amounted to £46,563,386 and in 1912 to 
 £48,597,677; hardware, cutlery, etc., in 1912 
 amounted to £8,108,878; and niachinerv in 1907 
 to £31,743,253 and in 1912 to £33,158,015. As 
 British iron mines become more difficult to work, 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM 672 
 
 and superior ores are found elsewhere, imports 
 of iron ore may be expected to increase. Im¬ 
 ports of iron ore and scrap in 1912 were valued 
 at £6,219,050. The aggregate of other metals 
 exceeds iron in import value, but is much less 
 in export value. The value of coal exports 
 doubled during 1891-1900, being £36,409,614 in 
 1900 and ranking next to cotton manufactures. 
 The coal export declined in value to £24,859,129 
 in 1905 and then rose to £40,494,274 in 1912. 
 
 The preponderating increase of British im¬ 
 ports over exports is due largely to the returns 
 from the enormous foreign investments and the 
 profits accruing from the carrying trade. The 
 imports of grain and flour increased in value 
 from about £34,000,000 in 1870 to £69,200,285 
 in 1905 and £88,496,284 in 1912. Of the grain 
 articles wheat constituted over half the total 
 in 1912, about one-half of which was from the 
 United States. Corn is next in importance. 
 The imports of meats and animals for food 
 amounted to £49,431,748 in 1905 and to £49,- 
 079,559 in 1912. Sugar originally came almost 
 wholly from England’s West Indian possessions, 
 but the bounty-produced beet sugar of the Conti¬ 
 nent has taken its place. Tea, wheat, and jute 
 are the principal imports from British India, 
 and wheat and lumber from Canada. Gold is 
 the leading import from the British South Afri¬ 
 can possessions, and it is also extensively im¬ 
 ported from Australia. 
 
 The following table shows the value of mer¬ 
 chandise consigned from and to foreign coun¬ 
 tries and British possessions in 1904 and 1912, 
 in thousands of pounds sterling; imports for 
 consumption, or net imports, are discriminated 
 from total imports, and domestic exports, or 
 exports of United Kingdom produce and manu¬ 
 facture, from total exports: 
 
 CLASS 
 
 Total imports 
 
 Net imports 
 
 
 1905 
 
 1912 
 
 1905 
 
 1912 
 
 From, foreign countries 
 From British posses- 
 
 438,368 
 
 558,627 
 
 395,677 
 
 503,174 
 
 sions. 
 
 126,652 
 
 186,013 
 
 91,616 
 
 129,800 
 
 Total*. 
 
 565,020 
 
 744,641 
 
 f487,240 
 
 1632,903 
 
 
 Total exports 
 
 Domestic exports 
 
 
 1905 
 
 1912 
 
 1905 
 
 1912 
 
 To foreign countries. . 
 
 284,050 
 
 407,418 
 
 215,599 
 
 310,131 
 
 To British possessions 
 
 123,547 
 
 191,543 
 
 114,217 
 
 177,093 
 
 Total. 
 
 407,597 
 
 598,961 
 
 329,817 
 
 487,223 
 
 * Exclusive of the value of diamonds from the Union of 
 South Africa. 
 
 t Reexports in excess of imports to unknown countries were 
 about £53,000 in 1905 and £71,000 in 1912. 
 
 Trade with the principal countries in 1905 
 and in 1912 is shown in the following table, in 
 thousands of pounds sterling; the import figures 
 indicate the net value of merchandise consigned 
 to and retained in the United Kingdom; the 
 export figures indicate the value of the produce 
 and manufacture of the United Kingdom con¬ 
 signed abroad. 
 
 Shipping. British expansion is due largely 
 to British shipping. British shipping expansion 
 dates from the time of the mercantilists. (See 
 
 Commerce.) The Navigation Laws of the seven¬ 
 teenth century were intended to give English 
 vessels a maximum of the carrying trade. Fish¬ 
 ing w T as encouraged and trained men in a sea¬ 
 faring life, and great pains were taken with 
 marked success by the government to develop 
 skill in shipbuilding. Naval victories in the 
 Napoleonic wars gave British vessels almost a 
 
 COUNTBY 
 
 Imports 
 
 Exports 
 
 1905 
 
 1912 
 
 1905 
 
 1912 
 
 United States. 
 
 105,433 
 
 123,401 
 
 23,916 
 
 30,066 
 
 Germany. 
 
 50,947 
 
 65,841 
 
 29,841 
 
 40,363 
 
 British India. 
 
 25,499 
 
 40,419 
 
 42,996 
 
 57.626 
 
 France. 
 
 41,481 
 
 40,108 
 
 16,046 
 
 25,586 
 
 Argentina. 
 
 24,409 
 
 39,352 
 
 12,997 
 
 20,550 
 
 Russia. 
 
 33,086 
 
 38,091 
 
 8,169 
 
 13,738 
 
 Canada. 
 
 23,341 
 
 25,694 
 
 11,909 
 
 23,531 
 
 Australia. 
 
 17,803 
 
 23,787 
 
 16,991 
 
 34,841 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 15,904 
 
 14,988 
 
 22,772 
 
 21,938 
 
 8,595 
 
 12,193 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 4,129 
 
 5,798 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 13,308 
 
 20,846 
 
 9,671 
 
 14,282 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 12,489 
 
 19,608 
 
 7,849 
 
 9,448 
 
 New Zealand. 
 
 10,620 
 
 16,094 
 
 6,426 
 
 10,390 
 
 Spain. 
 
 13,179 
 
 13,557 
 
 4,246 
 
 6,887 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 10,056 
 
 12,740 
 
 5,195 
 
 7,137 
 
 Japan*. 
 
 1,583 
 
 3,419 
 
 9,662 
 
 12,229 
 
 Chinaf. 
 
 962 
 
 3,176 
 
 13,137 
 
 10,780 
 
 Total, including 
 
 
 
 
 487,223 
 
 others!. 
 
 487,240 
 
 632,903 
 
 329,817 
 
 * Including Formosa. 
 
 t Exclusive of Hongkong, Macao, and Weihaiwei. 
 
 complete monopoly in the world’s carrying trade. 
 About that time, however, British shipping met 
 a formidable rival in the American merchant 
 fleet. Favored by superior forest resources, the 
 American fleet developed very rapidly, until its 
 tonnage in 1860 almost equaled that of the 
 United Kingdom. The American Civil War and 
 the change from wood to iron in shipbuilding re¬ 
 sulted in greatly benefiting British shipping and 
 almost ruining that of the United States. 
 
 In 1913 American tonnage was about two- 
 thirds as large as British, but most of the Brit¬ 
 ish shipping was in foreign trade and very little 
 of the American. Over 50 per cent of Chinese 
 external trade is carried in British ships, and 
 they hold foremost rank also in Japanese over¬ 
 sea trade. Two-thirds of the tonnage passing 
 through the Suez Canal is British. Registered 
 vessels employed in the home and foreign trade 
 in 1912 (not including vessels employed on 
 rivers and in inland navigation) : 3386 sailing 
 vessels, of 569,038 tons net, and 9672 steamers, 
 of 11,145,160 tons; total, 13,058 vessels, of 11,- 
 714,198 tons. In 1900 there were 7480 sailing 
 vessels, of 1,989,731 tons, and 7455 steamers, of 
 7,405,476 tons; total, 14,935 vessels, of 9,395,207 
 tons. Persons employed in 1912, 286,806; in 
 1900, 247,448. 
 
 Shipping has been greatly facilitated by river 
 and harbor improvements, as, e.g., by the broad¬ 
 ening of the river Clyde to Glasgow and the con¬ 
 struction of the Manchester Ship Canal. Lon¬ 
 don receives and distributes the greater portion 
 of the Continental and Oriental trade. Cardiff, 
 as a result of its growing exports of coal, is now 
 next to London and Liverpool in the amount of 
 its annual shipping tonnage. Liverpool, ranking 
 next to London, is favored by its position for the 
 trade with America. Other 'important ports are 
 Newcastle (with North and South Shields), Hull, 
 Grimsby, Leith, Glasgow, Southampton, and Cork 
 (including Queenstown). 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 Banking. Banking was introduced into Great 
 Britain by the goldsmiths of London in the sev¬ 
 enteenth century. The banking systems of Eng¬ 
 land and Scotland have developed independently 
 and naturally along somewhat divergent lines. 
 In England the first connection of the govern¬ 
 ment with banking occurred in 1694, when the 
 financial exigencies of the nation made necessary 
 the advancement of a loan, and the Bank of 
 England was chartered in order that a loan 
 might be secured. This bank, through special 
 privileges granted it by the government—as, e.g., 
 the management of the national debt, the posi¬ 
 tion of being the bank of the government, and 
 until 1826 of being the only joint-stock bank 
 in England, and the power to issue notes—has 
 attained an overshadowing prominence among 
 the banks of that country and among the banks 
 of the world. The monopoly rights implied re¬ 
 strictions on other banks, so that provincial 
 banking in Great Britain is generally admitted 
 to have been inadequately provided for. The 
 Bank of Scotland was organized one year later 
 (1695) than the Bank of England, and it, too, 
 at first (for 21 years) enjoyed monopoly rights; 
 but, unlike the English bank, it did not secure a 
 renewal of its patent rights. This gave an op¬ 
 portunity for the growth of other banks, which 
 have cooperated to secure a uniform system of 
 banking throughout Scotland. The formation of 
 joint-stock companies was also permitted with 
 liberal privileges in respect of note issue. The 
 authorized note issues of Scottish banks may be 
 exceeded, providing there is a specie reserve 
 equal in amount to the excess of the issues—a 
 precaution which, of course, strengthens the cir¬ 
 culation. This reserve is considered as part of 
 the cash balance of the bank. The Scottish banks 
 do not lose their rights of issue in Scotland when 
 they open offices or branches in London or in the 
 English provincial towns. In England laws were 
 passed in 1826 which admitted the establish¬ 
 ment of joint-stock banks beyond a radius of 65 
 miles from London, the number of partners not 
 to exceed six. This number was increased in 
 1862 to 10, except for banks of issue; the latter 
 are still limited to six. 
 
 By the Bank Charter Act of 1844 the issue de¬ 
 partment was separated from the banking de¬ 
 partment of each bank, and the issue of bank 
 notes was limited to those banks already exercis¬ 
 ing that privilege. . These institutions' were re¬ 
 stricted to a fixed issue, and if they established 
 themselves within a radius of 65 miles from Lon¬ 
 don they forfeited their rights to issue notes. 
 Under these laws the number of note-issuing 
 banks is decreasing, and this function will prob¬ 
 ably become the exclusive right of the Bank of 
 England unless the laws are changed. The Bank 
 of England notes are legal tender for all sums 
 over £5 except at the bank and its branches and 
 in Scotland and Ireland. The English and Scot¬ 
 tish bankers pursue different policies in matters 
 of interest and commission, the English being in¬ 
 clined to cut rates and to underbid for business, 
 while the Scottish adhere to uniform terms in 
 accordance with an agreement between them. 
 The policies also differ in respect of the de¬ 
 pendence placed upon different sources of profit. 
 In England the directors have more to do in 
 the management than in Scotland, while in Scot¬ 
 land the agents play a more important part 
 than in England. The Scottish bankers have 
 become famous for the perfection attained in 
 bookkeeping methods. 
 
 673 UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 In 1827 there were 465 private and 6 joint- 
 stock banks in England and Wales; in 1905 the 
 private banks had decreased to 12 and the joint- 
 stock banks had increased to 62. In 1914 there 
 were 44 English joint-stock banks with 5802 
 branches. In Scotland there were in 1914 only 
 9 banks (all joint-stock), with 1240 branches. 
 In December, 1914, the Bank of England (bank¬ 
 ing department) had capital and “rest” amount¬ 
 ing to £17,830,000; deposits and post bills, 
 £155,190,000; securities, £121,050,000; notes in 
 reserve, £51,340,000. In the issue department, 
 notes issued, £87,480,000; securities, £18,450,- 
 oOO;. gold coin and bullion, £69,030,000. The 
 English joint-stock banks at the beginning of 
 1914 had paid-up capital, £63,023,000; reserve 
 funds and undivided profits, £41,618,000; notes 
 in circulation, £29,735,000; deposit and current 
 accounts, £880,694,000; cash in hand and at call, 
 £270,941,000; discounts, advances, etc., £591,937,- 
 000; total assets, £1,081,821,000; total liabili¬ 
 ties, the same. The Scottish joint-stock banks 
 had paid-up capital, £9,241,000; reserve funds 
 and undivided profits £9,243,000; notes in cir¬ 
 culation, £7,744,000; deposit and current ac¬ 
 counts, £125,887,000; cash in hand and at call, 
 £3,961,000; discounts, advances, etc., £77,764,000. 
 The Irish joint-stock banks had the correspond¬ 
 ing figures: £7,309,000; £4,283,000; £8,074,000; 
 £70,657,000; £17,189,000; £48,600,000. The 
 
 colonial and the foreign joint-stock banks with 
 London offices have added largely to the total 
 banking business of the Kingdom. 
 
 # Savings Banks .—A savings bank was estab¬ 
 lished in Scotland in 1810, and soon after such 
 institutions became established in different parts 
 of Great Britain. Under the Law of 1817 and 
 subsequent laws these banks were placed under 
 the regulation of the government, and during 
 the second quarter of the nineteenth century 
 they enjoyed a rapid growth. The deposits of 
 these banks are turned over to the Bank of Eng¬ 
 land, which allows a specified rate of interest 
 upon them. The rate of interest paid depositors 
 varies, but is in excess of that ordinarily paid 
 by banks to their depositors. The trustees are 
 prohibited from receiving any profits. The 
 growth of the old, or trustees, savings banks 
 was checked by the establishment of the postal 
 savings banks. 
 
 The scheme for the operation of postal savings 
 banks went into effect in 1861. Deposits, in¬ 
 cluding interest, have a maximum limit of £200. 
 Depositors cannot deposit more than £50 in 
 any one year. Two and one-half per cent in¬ 
 terest is allowed on deposits. The depositor 
 may withdraw his money at once through any 
 postal savings bank in the United Kingdom. 
 The number of depositors in the postal savings 
 banks increased from 2,184,972 in 1880 to 9- 
 673,717 in 1904 and 13,198,609 in 1913; and 
 the amount they invested increased from £11 - 
 079,137 in 1880 to £44,108,600 in 1904, and 
 to £55,541,010 in 1913. The number of deposi¬ 
 tors in the trustees savings banks also showed 
 an increase during the before-mentioned period, 
 being 1,519,805 in 1880, 1,704,766 in 1904, and 
 1,912,816 in 1913. The amount invested in 
 the latter banks amounted to £9,008,315 in 
 1880, £12,560,322 in 1904, and £14,284,386 
 
 in 1913. Penny savings banks and special sav¬ 
 ings banks for soldiers and seamen have been 
 established. The granting of annuities and the 
 insuring of lives are also provided for through 
 the postal service. See War in Europe. 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM 674 
 
 Finance. The ordinary expenditures incurred 
 in the maintenance of the national government 
 are increasing rapidly, necessitating a corre¬ 
 spondingly greater national income. The fol¬ 
 lowing table shows the revenue and expenditures 
 for years ending March 31. 
 
 YEAR 
 
 Revenue 
 
 Expenditures 
 
 1895 . 
 
 £101,697,304 
 
 129,804,566 
 
 153,182,782 
 
 131,696,456 
 
 188,801,999 
 
 198,242,897 
 
 £100,931,963 
 
 143,678,068 
 
 151,768,875 
 
 157,944,611 
 
 188,621,930 
 
 197,492,969 
 
 1900 . 
 
 1905 . 
 
 1910 . 
 
 1913 . 
 
 1914 . 
 
 
 Below are shown the principal heads of 
 revenue (exchequer receipts for years ending 
 March 31). 
 
 included in those for national debt services; 
 the figures for law and justice, for education, 
 and for charitable services are included in 
 those for civil services. The table discloses the 
 great burden of the national debt and the rapid 
 increases in recent years for the army, the 
 navy, education, old-age pensions, and the post- 
 office services (which include telegraphs and tele¬ 
 phones). 
 
 As a result of the changed tariff policy, cus¬ 
 toms duties are relatively less important than 
 in the middle of the nineteenth century, although 
 they have almost held their own absolutely. 
 Collections from excise duties, on the other 
 hand, have about doubled during the same 
 period. The death duties and income tax have 
 latterly become very important sources of 
 revenue. 
 
 The British budget is noted for its adjust- 
 
 ITEMS 
 
 Customs. 
 
 Excise. ; . 
 
 Estate, etc., duties. 
 
 Stamps *. 
 
 Land tax. 
 
 House duty.... 
 
 Property and income tax 
 Land-value duties. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Post office. 
 
 Telegraph service. 
 
 Crown lands f. 
 
 Suez Canal, etc. t. 
 
 Miscellaneous §. 
 
 Total revenue. 
 
 1895 
 
 1905 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 £20,310,675 
 
 30,714,088 
 
 10,872,059 
 
 5,721,000 
 
 1,015,000 
 
 1,435,000 
 
 15,600,000 
 
 £35,907,746 
 
 36,065.673 
 
 16,668,959 
 
 7,700,000 
 
 750,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 31,250,000 
 
 £33,485,000 
 
 38,000,000 
 
 25,248,000 
 
 10,059,000 
 
 700,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 44,806,000 
 
 455,000 
 
 £35,450,000 
 
 39,590,000 
 
 27,359,000 
 
 9,966,000 
 
 700,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 47,249,000 
 
 715,000 
 
 £85,668,542 
 
 10,760,000 
 
 2,580,000 
 
 410,000 
 
 412,976 
 
 1,865,786 
 
 £130,342,378 
 
 16,100,0001 
 3,830,000 j 
 470,000 
 1,014,303 
 1,426,101 
 
 £154,753,000 
 
 29,175,000 
 
 530,000 
 
 1,418,900 
 
 2,925,099 
 
 £163,029,000 
 
 30,800,000 
 
 530,000 
 
 1.579,972 
 
 2,303,925 
 
 £101,697,304 
 
 £153,182,782 
 
 £188,801,999 
 
 £198,242,897 
 
 * Exclusive of fee and patent stamps. t Net receipts. 
 
 j Receipts from Suez Canal shares and sundry loans. § Including fee and patent stamps 
 
 For the same years the expenditure (exchequer 
 issues), under the principal heads. thereof, was 
 as follows (the figures in parenthesis show items 
 in the principal head preceding). 
 
 In the following table the figures for interest 
 of funded debt and for new sinking fund are 
 
 ment of the burden of taxation in such a manner 
 as will make it least felt, i.e., in accordance with 
 the ability of people to pay. The income tax 
 was first resorted to in 1798 as a special means 
 of raising revenue for war purposes. In 1815— 
 42 it was abolished, but was revived in 1842 be- 
 
 --' 1 
 
 CLASSIFICATION 
 
 1895 
 
 1905 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 I. Consolidated fund services: 
 
 National debt services. 
 
 (Interest of funded debt). 
 
 (New sinking fund). 
 
 Local taxation accounts, etc. 
 
 Annuities and pensions. 
 
 Salaries and allowances. 
 
 Courts of justice. 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 £25,000,000 
 
 (16,220,544) 
 
 (1,718,263) 
 
 7,013,542 
 
 407,774 
 
 316,758 
 
 81,618 
 
 514,633 
 
 281,638 
 
 £27,000,000 
 
 (15,938,911) 
 
 (2,237,679) 
 
 10,969,245 
 
 470,000 
 
 248,845 
 
 79,190 
 
 514,001 
 
 296,594 
 
 £24,500,000 
 
 (15,000,752) 
 
 (4,620,303) 
 
 9,653,299 
 
 470,000 
 
 320,883 
 
 56,468 
 
 523,450 
 
 321,625 
 
 £24,500,000 
 
 (14,787,109) 
 
 (5,228,485) 
 
 9,734,128 
 
 470,000 
 
 316,576 
 
 56,547 
 
 533,042 
 
 317,725 
 
 Total. 
 
 II. Supply services: 
 
 Army (including ordnance factories). 
 
 Navy. . . .. 
 
 Civil services.. 
 
 (Law and justice). 
 
 (Education).. • • • • 
 
 (Charitable services, etc., including old-age 
 
 £33,655,963 
 
 17,900,000 
 
 17,545,000 
 
 18,915,000 
 
 £39,577,875 
 
 29,225,000 
 
 36,830,000 
 
 27,450,000 
 
 (3,760,000) 
 
 (15,575,000) 
 
 (653,000) 
 
 908,000 
 
 2,185,000 
 
 15,593,000 
 
 % £37,017,930 
 
 28,071,000 
 
 44,365,000 
 
 51,944,000 
 
 (4,470,000) 
 
 (19,531,000) 
 
 (13,006,000) 
 
 2,324,000 
 
 1,876,000 
 
 23,024,000 
 
 t £37,322,969 
 
 28,346,000 
 
 48,833,000 
 
 53,901,000 
 
 (4,491,000) 
 
 (19,450,000) 
 
 2,431,000 
 
 2,052,000 
 
 24,607,000 
 
 Customs *. 
 
 Inland revenue *. 
 
 Post-office services. 
 
 835,000 
 
 1,811,000 
 
 10,270,000 
 
 Total. 
 
 £67,276,000 
 
 £112,191,000 
 
 £151,604,000 
 
 £160,170,000 
 
 Grand total t. 
 
 £100,931,963 
 
 £151,768,875 
 
 £188,621,930 
 
 £197,492,969 
 
 t 
 
 t 
 
 Excise was transferred from inland revenue to customs in the fiscal year 1910. 
 
 rhat is, total expenditure chargeable against revenue. ...... , , . A , , 
 
 Includes for road-improvement fund £1,172,205 in 1913 and £1,394,951 in 1914, not shown m table. 
 
 / 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 cause of the reduction of the corn (grain) taxes. 
 The income tax has now become a permanent 
 feature in the national budget. Incomes not 
 exceeding flGO are exempt from the tax, and 
 the moderate incomes, or those below £700, 
 are favored by abatements. The income tax is 
 made to fluctuate more or less as the annual 
 exigencies of the budget may demand. The 
 income-tax rate has gradually increased from 2d. 
 per pound in 1874, until in 1913 it ranged 
 from 9d. to Is. 2d. in the pound. Like the 
 income tax, the death rates favor the masses. 
 The most important fiscal change made during 
 1875—1900 was the readjustment of the death 
 rates in 1894 so as to increase them and extend 
 their application to all the estates probated, 
 thus adding greatly to the returns of the tax. 
 The most important of this class of taxes are 
 the estate duties and the legacy duties. Since 
 1851 there has been an inhabited-house duty 
 (levied in Great Britain only), taking the place 
 of the old window tax assessed prior to that 
 date. This tax is not levied upon property 
 rented for less than £20 per year, thus exempting 
 the houses of the working classes. 
 
 In 1840, before the introduction of the free- 
 trade policy (the sweeping Corn Laws were 
 passed in 1846, and the policy became fully 
 operative about 1860), 1046 articles were taxed. 
 In 1913 the number had been reduced to 21 
 articles (or classes of articles; the category 
 sugar, e.g., includes many confections). The 
 articles now taxed are those not produced in the 
 United Kingdom or such as are considered lux¬ 
 uries. The latest article in the category of 
 necessary products, sugar, was placed upon the 
 free list in 1874, but the exigencies of the South 
 African War led to the reimposition of a duty 
 upon sugar, the raising of the duty upon tea, 
 tobacco, spirits, and beer, and the assessment of 
 an export duty on coal. This last was discon¬ 
 tinued in 1907. Tobacco and tea are the chief 
 customs revenue producers, yielding respectively, 
 in the fiscal year 1913, £17,254,125 and £6,151,- 
 879. Other dutiable articles are spirits, wine, 
 beer, coffee, currants, raisins, and cocoa. The 
 principle of protection is generally considered 
 to have been wholly abandoned in the British 
 revenue policy, but the tariff is still in a 
 limited way highly protective and is shaped ex¬ 
 pressly to aid British manufacturers. Thus a 
 distinction is made between raw cacao and the 
 manufactured cocoa, roasted and unroasted cof¬ 
 fee, manufactured and unmanufactured tobacco; 
 and the distinction is sufficiently large to guar¬ 
 antee the importation of the raw products and 
 render possible the prosperity of the home in¬ 
 dustries based upon them. In 1913 the import 
 duty on unmanufactured tobacco was from 3s. 
 8d. to 4s. l%d. per pound and on manufactured 
 tobacco from 4s. 8d. to 7s. per pound; the 7s. 
 duty was for cigars. Haw coffee was taxed at 
 14s. per hundredweight, while kiln-dried or 
 roasted was taxed at 2d. per pound. The tea 
 duty was 5d. per pound. The foregoing applies 
 to conditions existing before the great war which 
 began in 1914. The enormous additional revenue 
 required for the war made necessary the im¬ 
 position of import and export duties on many 
 articles. See War in Europe. 
 
 The British fiscal system applies uniformly 
 to England and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, 
 but Ireland is exempt from the land tax and 
 the inhabited-house duty. The burden of the in¬ 
 direct taxes is relatively much heavier in Scot¬ 
 
 675 
 
 land and Ireland than in England. The income 
 tax had a total net produce of £18,828,958 in 
 the fiscal year 1900, £30,966,404 in 1905, and 
 £41,574,277 in 1913. The latter amount was 
 derived from a total income of £755,577,547; the 
 total income brought under the review of the 
 inland-revenue department for the year was £1,- 
 111,456,413, of which the share of England and 
 Wales was £970,093,437, Scotland £99,884,044, 
 and Ireland £41,478,932. Of the total revenue 
 in the fiscal year 1913, about 81.8 per cent was 
 contributed by England and Wales, about 10.6 
 per cent by Scotland, and about 5.7 per cent 
 by Ireland. 
 
 The local taxes are annually supplemented by 
 appropriations from the Imperial revenues. The 
 levying and collecting of the local rates are in 
 the hands of the elected local overseers, the 
 valuation list being made to include every class 
 of property. The rates for real property are 
 based upon the annual value of the property as 
 determined by the amount it will rent for. The 
 town councils, boards of guardians, and school 
 boards are the local spending bodies. In recent 
 years local expenditure and indebtedness have in¬ 
 creased rapidly. British municipalities have be¬ 
 come noted for their activity in assuming the 
 ownership and control of productive properties, 
 ofttimes receiving the net revenue from this 
 source. 
 
 National Debt. The United Kingdom sus¬ 
 tains the burden of a heavy debt which is ex¬ 
 ceeded only by the debts of France and Russia. 
 The beginning of the debt dates from the reign 
 of Charles II and in 1688 amounted to £664,263. 
 The wars of William III raised it to £12,767,225, 
 and by the commencement of the American war 
 in 1775 it had increased to £126,842,811. The 
 war with the American Colonies almost doubled 
 this figure, leaving it in 1784 at £243,063,145. 
 This was followed by the enormously expensive 
 Napoleonic wars, which augmented the debt 
 until in 1815 it was £861,039,049. At the com¬ 
 mencement of the Crimean War in 1854 it had 
 been reduced to £804,226,354, and at the end 
 of that war it stood at £836,144,597. From 
 that time it decreased until 1899; at the end 
 of that fiscal year it stood at £628,021,572. The 
 expenditure for the Boer War raised it again 
 until it reached £770,778,762 in 1903. It de¬ 
 clined to £702,687,897 in 1909, rose to £713,245, 
 408 in 1910, and declined to £661,473,765 at 
 the end of the fiscal year 1913. The figure 
 for the debt in 1913 included: nominal amount 
 of funded debt, £593,453,857; estimated capital 
 liability in respect of terminable annuities, £31,- 
 519,908; unfunded debt, £36,500,000. In addi¬ 
 tion to this debt of £661,473,765, there were 
 capital liabilities in respect of sums borrowed 
 under various acts amounting to £54,814,656, so 
 that the aggregate gross liabilities of the state 
 were £716,288,421 (as compared with £798,349,- 
 190 in 1907 and £635,393,734 in 1899). The debt 
 services for the fiscal year 1913 aggregated 
 £24,500,000, including £15,000,752 interest of 
 funded debt, £3,540,175 terminable annuities, 
 £1,171,863 interest of unfunded debt, £166,907 
 management of the debt, and £4,620,303 new 
 sinking fund. The estimated assets at the end 
 of the year included: Suez Canal shares, esti- 
 mated at £39.015,000; other estimated assets, 
 £3,707,733; exchequer balances at the Bank of 
 England and Bank of Ireland, £6,329,160. From 
 March 31, 1913, to March 31, 1914, the public 
 debt decreased from £661,473,765 to £651,270,- 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 091; but by March 31, 1916, as a result of the 
 great war, it had increased to the enormous 
 total of £2,140,000,000. 
 
 Weights, Measures, and Coinage. Two 
 systems of weights and measures are legal not 
 only in the United Kingdom but throughout the 
 British Empire, viz., the Imperial and the 
 metric. The Imperial system is constituted from 
 a variety of ancient and of customary trade de¬ 
 nominations and was legalized in 1824. Ihe 
 metric system was permitted to be used for 
 retail trade in 1897, though it had been em¬ 
 ployed for many years prior to that by chemists, 
 physicists, and manufacturers. Standards of 
 weight and measure are kept at the standards 
 department, Old Police Yard, Westminster, 
 under the custody of the Board of Trade; with 
 these standards other standards must be com¬ 
 pared and verified. In practice the ancient 
 native weights, measures, and coinage are still 
 in common use in India. See India. 
 
 Defense. Navy .—The British navy is con¬ 
 
 trolled by a Board of Admiralty, which consists 
 of six members, viz., the first lord, the first naval 
 lord, the second naval lord, the third naval lord 
 and controller, the fourth or junior naval lord, 
 and the civil lord. Two other officers, not mem¬ 
 bers of the board, are the parliamentary and 
 financial secretary and the permanent secretary. 
 The system of defense and the military and naval 
 arrangements of the United Kingdom are pecu¬ 
 liarly distinctive of that country. The predomi¬ 
 nating factors are its insular position and the 
 vast extent of foreign domains that need protec¬ 
 tion. Both of them unite in making the country’s 
 safety dependent upon the strength of its navy, 
 and accordingly this has received chief attention 
 from the government. A rule which has been 
 adopted is to keep the fleet as strong as the 
 combined naval forces of any two other countries. 
 All the principal ports are provided with forti¬ 
 fications, but protection against attack is left 
 to the fleet, to mine fields, booms (carrying 
 wire nets), wire nets supported by buoys, and 
 the defense mobile. In time of war the latter 
 consists of torpedo boats (including submarines) 
 and the naval patrol. The character of the de¬ 
 fense in all cases depends upon the local pe¬ 
 culiarities and the general war conditions. The 
 wire nets are intended to entangle submarines 
 and are watched by the patrol. In the present 
 (1916) war they have proved very efficient as 
 a protection to the ports and to the great fleet 
 which has its headquarters at Rosyth. Since 
 the nets have been in position no German sub¬ 
 marines are known to have passed through or 
 over them and a large number have been caught 
 in their meshes and destroyed. 
 
 The personnel of the navy consists of the 
 active force and the reserve. (See Naval Re¬ 
 serve.) The education of officers is fully de¬ 
 scribed under Naval Schools of Instruction. 
 The enlisted force is recruited by voluntary en¬ 
 listment. Preparation for the service begins 
 between the ages of 15 and 16^4 years, a term 
 of two years being served in the training ships, 
 at the end of which period the recruit may be 
 drafted into the fleet to serve for a period of 12 
 years, when he may leave the service or reenlist 
 for an additional period of 10 years. 
 
 On Jan. 1, 1914, the personnel was as follows: 
 three admirals of the fleet, 12 admirals, 22 vice 
 admirals, 56 rear admirals, 683 captains and 
 commanders, 2414 other line officers, 563 mid¬ 
 shipmen at sea, 848 engineer officers, 593 medical 
 
 676 
 
 officers, 685 pay officers, 118 naval constructors, 
 151 chaplains,' 2693 warrant officers, . 115,208 
 enlisted men, 471 marine officers, 21,033 marines 
 and coast guard; total, 145,553. The naval 
 estimates for 1913—14 increased the number to 
 about 151,000. Successive additions since then 
 have brought the total to 300,000. The naval 
 budget for 1914-15 was £52,705,779. The war 
 has greatly increased the expenditure, but the 
 exact amount is of course unknown. 
 
 At the outbreak of the war the fleet was or¬ 
 ganized as follows: 
 
 Home Waters 
 
 First Fleet (except 4th Cruiser squadron) 
 
 1. 1st Battle squadron: 8 dreadnoughts 
 (1 with 10 13.5-inch guns; 7 with 10 12-inch) 
 
 2. 2d Battle squadron: 8 dreadnoughts 
 (all carried 13.5-inch guns) 
 
 3. 3d Battle squadron: 8 predreadnoughts 
 (King Edward type, 4 12-inch) 
 
 4. 4th Battle squadron: 3 dreadnoughts, 1 predreadnought 
 (all carried 12-inch guns) 
 
 5. 1st Battle Cruiser squadron: 4 battle cruisers 
 
 6. 2d Cruiser squadron: 4 armored cruisers 
 
 7. 3d Cruiser squadron: 4 armored cruisers 
 
 8. 1st Light Cruiser squadron: 4 light cruisers 
 Second Fleet 
 
 1. 5th Battle squadron: 8 predreadnoughts 
 ( Bulwark type, 4 12-inch) 
 
 2. 6th Battle squadron: 5 predreadnoughts 
 (.Duncan type, 4 12-inch) 
 
 3. 5th cruiser squadron: armored cruisers 
 (county class) 
 
 4. 6th Cruiser squadron: armored cruisers 
 {Drake class) 
 
 Third Fleet 
 
 1. 7th Battle squadron: predreadnoughts 
 ( Majestic type, 4 12-inch) 
 
 2. 8th Battle squadron; predreadnoughts 
 
 3. 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th Cruiser squadrons 
 (cruisers of all sorts) 
 
 Mediterranean Fleet 
 
 1. 2d Battle Cruiser squadron: 3 battle cruisers 
 
 2. 1st Cruiser squadron: 4 armored cruisers 
 
 3. 2d Light Cruiser squadron: 4 light cruisers 
 Far East 
 
 1 battleship 
 
 2 light cruisers 
 
 2 cruisers (armored and unarmored) 
 
 8 destroyers 
 
 3 submarines 
 Pacific 
 
 1 battleship 
 1 battle cruiser 
 
 5 light cruisers 
 
 6 cruisers (armored and unarmored) 
 
 3 destroyers 
 
 4 submarines 
 Atlantic 
 
 6 cruisers (armored and unarmored) 
 
 The principal dockyards are at Chatham, 
 Devonport, Pembroke, Portsmouth, Rosyth, and 
 Sheerness. Rosyth is the great naval base^ and 
 repair station on the east coast of Scotland. 
 Smaller dockyards are located at the Cape of 
 Good Hope, 'Esquimault (Vancouver Island), 
 Gibraltar, Halifax (Nova Scotia), Haulbowline 
 (Cove of Cork), Hongkong, Jamaica, Melbourne, 
 Malta, and Sydney. Naval stations, some with 
 shops, exist at Ascension Island, Bombay, Cal¬ 
 cutta, Colombo, Dartmouth, Delagoa Bay, Dept¬ 
 ford, Greenwich, Plymouth, Portland, Sydney, 
 Trincomali, Weihaiwei, and London (West India 
 Docks). 
 
 The naval schools are at Dartmouth, Osborne, 
 Greenwich, Keyham, etc., and are fully described 
 under Naval 'Schools of Instruction, Great 
 Britain. 
 
 The Australian navy consists of 1 battle 
 cruiser of 18,800 tons,'2 fast cruisers of 5400 
 tons, 1 cruiser of 5880 tons, 1 cruiser of 2200 
 tons, 3 destroyers of 700 tons. Two submarines 
 of 810 tons were lost during the war. One 
 fast cruiser of 5400 tons and 3 destroyers of 
 700 tons are under construction at the dockyard 
 on Cockatoo Island, Sydney Harbor. This dock- 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 677 UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 yard is the principal one in the state, hut there 
 are naval bases and repair stations in Cockburn 
 Sound and Port Western. In 1915 the personnel 
 of the Australian navy consisted of: permanent 
 force, 3700; naval reserve (marines), 493; naval 
 reserve and cadets, 5024; royal naval reserve, 
 750; total, 9967. 
 
 The Canadian navy is of considerably less 
 importance than the Australian, largely owing 
 to its being nearer England. It consists of 
 the protected cruisers Niobe, 11,000 tons (com¬ 
 pleted 1897), and Rainbow (completed 1891). 
 They are both used as training ships—the Niobe 
 on the Atlantic coast, the Rainbow on the 
 Pacific. As Great Britain maintains dockyards 
 at Halifax and Esquimault, no others are neces¬ 
 sary. The vessels of the revenue service, sur¬ 
 veying department, and fisheries protection can 
 be put in service for the defense mobile, and 
 one mine layer and one transport were in re¬ 
 serve when the war broke out. 
 
 Army. —The military forces of Great Britain 
 fall under several categories. The principal 
 divisions are the regular army and the ter¬ 
 ritorial army. The regular army in India, 
 South Africa, and the colonies is designated as 
 the British army, to distinguish, it from the 
 native Indian army in India (q.v.) and the 
 local forces in South Africa (q.v.) and in the 
 British colonies. In addition to the forces al¬ 
 ready enumerated the self-governing countries, 
 Australia, New Zealand, and Canada (qq.v.), 
 maintain considerable and efficient forces of 
 militia. Large contingents for the European 
 War were furnished by the three countries named. 
 
 The regular army in peace is divided into 
 three classes: the permanent or standing army, 
 called the regular army; the army reserve; and 
 the special reserve. Service in all categories 
 is voluntary and as follows: with the colors or 
 regular army, from 3 to 9 years; in the army 
 reserve, 9 to 3 years; total, 12 years, which may 
 be extended to 21 years. Age of enlistment is 
 between 18 and 25 years. The army reserve and 
 special reserve furnish the men to bring the 
 peace units to war strength. 
 
 The regular army prior to the great war was 
 composed of 31 cavalry regiments (19 at home), 
 25 horse artillery batteries (13 at home), 147 
 field batteries (99 at home), 9 mountain bat¬ 
 teries (all abroad), 99 companies of garrison 
 artillery (43 at home), 77 companies of engineers 
 (56 at home), 9 battalions of foot guards, 148 
 battalions of infantry (74 at home), besides 
 administrative troops. 
 
 The special reserve was created out of the 
 militia abolished in 1907; it is available for 
 service abroad in war. Of the 101 infantry bat¬ 
 talions of this reserve 74 are attached to'regu¬ 
 lar regiments as depot battalions to supply va¬ 
 cancies in the regular regiments. The remain¬ 
 ing 27 battalions are extra reserve battalions, 
 which upon mobilization are filled up as separate 
 organizations and sent into the field. In addi¬ 
 tion to the 101 battalions of infantry there 
 are 3 cavalry regiments, 2 regiments of garrison 
 artillery, and 2 battalions of engineers in the 
 special reserve. Service in this reserve is for 
 6 years. Recruits have 5 months’ preliminary 
 training, a subsequent annual training of 3 
 weeks, and 6 days additional for infantry target 
 practice. 
 
 The territorial army of Great Britain, for 
 home defense of the British Islands, corresponds 
 to the United States organized militia. Service 
 
 is voluntary, for 4 years; enlistments are be¬ 
 tween 17 and 35 years of age. Two weeks’ 
 annual camp and a certain number of drills 
 and target practice are required. The officers 
 are civilians with few exceptions. The organiza¬ 
 tion corresponds to that of the regulars. The 
 bulk of this force is organized as 14 divisions 
 and 14 mounted brigades. A large part of this 
 force volunteered for service abroad during the 
 European War. 
 
 Higher Organisation .—The regular troops 
 within the British Islands are organized for war 
 as the expeditionary force; which is composed 
 of a cavalry division, 6 infantry divisions, army 
 troops, and line of communication troops; total 
 strength, 165,000. The cavalry division consists 
 of 4 brigades of 3 regiments each, 2 horse artil¬ 
 lery brigades (battalions), 4 engineer troops, 1 
 signal squadron, and 4 signal troops, 1 aero¬ 
 plane squadron, 1 cavalry train, and 4 field 
 ambulance companies; total, 486 officers, 9410 
 men, 10,195 horses, 24 guns. 
 
 An infantry division is composed of 3 in¬ 
 fantry brigades of 4 battalions each, 4 field artil¬ 
 lery brigades (battalions, 1 of which is a how¬ 
 itzer brigade), 1 heavy field battery, 1 ammuni¬ 
 tion column, 2 companies of engineers, 1 signal 
 company, 1 squadron of cavalry, 1 aeroplane 
 squadron, 1 divisional train, 3 field ambulance 
 companies; total, 598 officers, 18,075 men, 6161 
 horses, 76 guns. British infantry regiments are 
 organized only for recruiting purposes and nor¬ 
 mally are not used as tactical units. Such a 
 regiment consists of from 2 to 4 regular bat¬ 
 talions (half at home and half abroad) and 1 
 or 2 special reserve battalions. An infantry 
 brigade commanded by a brigadier general con¬ 
 sists of 4 battalions. The battalion of 4 com¬ 
 panies is commanded by a lieutenant colonel, a 
 company by a major or captain. War strength 
 of a battalion is 29 officers and 995 enlisted men, 
 which will give about 900 rifles on the firing 
 line. 
 
 The British artillery (all branches) is known 
 as the Royal Regiment of Artillery. The regi¬ 
 ment is divided into the Royal Horse Artillery, 
 the Royal Field Artillery, and the Royal Gar¬ 
 rison Artillery. The British field artillery, as 
 is the case with their artillery in general, has 
 an unusual organization. Batteries are com¬ 
 manded by majors and contain 6 guns, except 
 the heavy field-gun batteries, which have 4 
 guns. Horse and field batteries are grouped 
 as brigades (battalions) of 2 and 3 batteries 
 respectively. Heavy gun batteries are not bri¬ 
 gaded. Brigades are grouped under a general 
 officer to form divisional artillery. There are 
 76 guns with the infantry division. Cavalry 
 divisions have 24 guns. Peace strength of bat¬ 
 teries varies from 4 officers and 87 men to 
 5 officers and 179 men; war strength, horse 
 batteries, 5 officers and 203 men; field batteries, 
 
 5 officers and 198 men; heavy field battery, 6 
 officers and 224 men; siege battery, 5 officers 
 and 124 to 181 men. A coast artillery company 
 varies from 4 to 7 officers and from 100 to 
 230 men. Total coast artillery, British Isles, 
 colonies, and India, 81 companies, 14,965 officers 
 and men. 
 
 A cavalry regiment, consisting of 3 squadrons, 
 at war strength musters 25 officers and 537 
 men and is a little less than half the strength 
 of a United States regiment. Regiments are 
 grouped in brigades of three each. The squadron 
 corresponds to the troop in the United States. 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 67* 
 
 It counts about 150 sabres in war and is com¬ 
 manded by a major. Technical duties, which m 
 the United States pertain to the engineers and 
 to the signal corps, are performed by the Royal 
 Engineers. The company is the unit of organ¬ 
 ization and varies in war, according to duties, 
 from 3 officers and 106 men to 6 officers and 
 386 men. An army service corps provides the 
 supply train troops. Sanitary troops and a 
 veterinary corps are also provided. 
 
 The total peace establishment before the Eu¬ 
 ropean War, including the regular army at home 
 and abroad, the army reserve, the special re¬ 
 serve, and the territorial force, aggregated 803,- 
 037 of all ranks. The peace budget was $144,- 
 225,000. After this original estimate for 1914- 
 15 the army was increased to war strength at 
 the end of 1915 by voluntary enlistment to 
 about 3,000,000 men, exclusive of those serving 
 in India. This figure did not include the ter¬ 
 ritorial army serving at home. 
 
 Army Administration .—For the purposes of 
 command and recruiting the United Kingdom is 
 divided into seven territorial districts. At the 
 head of each is a general officer with necessary 
 assistants. The land forces are administered by 
 an army council, composed of the Secretary of 
 State for War, the Chief of the Imperial General 
 Staff, the Adjutant General, the Quartermaster- 
 General, the Master-General of the Ordnance, the 
 Parliamentary Undersecretary of State, the 
 Finance Member. The Inspector General of the 
 Forces keeps this council informed of the condi¬ 
 tion of the army. 
 
 Infantry and cavalry have the Lee-Enfield 
 rifle, calibre 0.303 inch. Light field artillery 
 is armed with the 18-pounder, horse artillery 
 with the 13-pounder, and heavy field artillery 
 with the 40-pounder field howitzer and a 60- 
 pounder gun. Aviation, especially by aero¬ 
 planes, has been greatly developed and improved 
 by the experiences of the European War. The 
 Royal Flying Corps (military wing) was or¬ 
 ganized Jan. 16, 1915. The number of squadrons 
 and number of aeroplanes in each had not been 
 made public in 1916. Before the reorganization 
 in 1915, 8 aeroplane squadrons, each of 18 
 aeroplanes, had been organized. 
 
 Population. The first official census taken of 
 Great Britain was in 1801. According to esti¬ 
 mates made upon the basis of the Domesday 
 record the total population of England in 1050— 
 1100 was a little less than 2,000,000. Over 
 half of the population was then centred in 
 southeast England—in the counties north and 
 south of London—the Norman Conquest having 
 depopulated vast districts in north England. 
 Investigators claim that it took over five cen¬ 
 turies to double this figure. Lack of communica¬ 
 tion resulted in frequent starvation periods in 
 numerous localities. This, together with oc¬ 
 casional plagues, prevented a regular and normal 
 increase. The great modern growth in popu¬ 
 lation dates from the industrial evolution and 
 the improvement in means of communication. 
 The most remarkable feature in this develop¬ 
 ment is the drift of the population from the 
 south to the north. This was the result of im¬ 
 proved inventions and methods which secured 
 for manufacturing the aid of water power sup¬ 
 plied by the streams of Lancashire and York¬ 
 shire. Still later, when coal and iron were 
 extensively used, these minerals also were found 
 most abundant in this northern district. The 
 greater moisture of the atmosphere in this re- 
 
 } UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 gion increased its desirability as a textile manu¬ 
 facturing centre and encouraged the growth of 
 its population. The manufacturing and mining 
 district around Manchester and extending south¬ 
 ward to Birmingham is the most densely popu¬ 
 lated district of equal area in Great Britain or 
 in the world, with the possible exception of cer¬ 
 tain districts of China. The table below shows 
 by divisions the area (including inland water) 
 of the United Kingdom, and the population ac¬ 
 cording to the censuses of April 1, 1901, and 
 April °3, 1911, together with the density per 
 square mile on the latter date; figuies also 
 are shown for the Isle of Man and the Channel 
 Islands, which, though not politically a part 
 of the United Kingdom, are included in the 
 British Isles. 
 
 DIVISION 
 
 Square 
 
 Population 
 
 Population 
 
 Den- 
 
 miles 
 
 1901 
 
 1911 
 
 sity 
 
 England. 
 
 50,874 
 
 30,813,043 
 
 34,045,290 
 
 669 
 
 Wales. 
 
 7,466 
 
 1,714,800 
 
 2,025,202 
 
 271 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 30,406 
 
 4,472,103 
 
 4,760,904 
 
 156 
 
 Great Britain.. . . 
 
 88,746 
 
 36,999,946 
 
 40,831,396 
 
 460 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 32,586 
 
 4,458,775 
 
 4,390,219 
 
 135 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 121,331 
 
 41,458,721 
 
 45,221,615 
 
 373 
 
 Isle of Man. 
 
 227 
 
 54,752 
 
 52,016 
 
 229 
 
 Channel Islands... . 
 
 75 
 
 95,618 
 
 96,899 
 
 1,292 
 
 British Isles. 
 
 121,633 
 
 41,609,091 
 
 45,370,530 
 
 374 
 
 The foregoing population figures do not include 
 army, navy, and merchant seamen abroad, num¬ 
 bering, in 1901, 224,211. 
 
 The population of England at various periods, 
 as calculated from the numbers of baptisms, 
 burials, and marriages, is stated as follows: in 
 1570, 4,160,000; in 1600, 4,812,000; in 1630, 
 5,601,000; in 1670, 5,774,000; in 1700, 6,045,- 
 000; in 1750, 6,517,000. The population present 
 in the British Isles has been returned by the 
 several censuses as shown in the table below. 
 
 
 England 
 
 and 
 
 Wales 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 United 
 
 Kingdom 
 
 Man 
 
 and 
 
 Chan¬ 
 
 nel 
 
 Islands 
 
 1801 
 
 1811 
 
 1821 
 
 1831 
 
 1841 
 
 1851 
 
 1861 
 
 1871 
 
 1881- 
 
 1891 
 
 1901 
 
 1911 
 
 8,892,536 
 
 10,164,256 
 
 12,000,236 
 
 13,896,797 
 
 15,914,148 
 
 17,927,609 
 
 20,066,224 
 
 22,712,266 
 
 25,974,439 
 
 29,002,525 
 
 32,527,843 
 
 36,070,492 
 
 1,608,420 
 
 1,805,864 
 
 2,091,521 
 
 2,364,386 
 
 2,620,184 
 
 2,888,742 
 
 3,062,294 
 
 3,360,018 
 
 3,735,573 
 
 4,025,647 
 
 4,072,103 
 
 4,760,904 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,801,827 
 
 7,767,401 
 
 8,175,124 
 
 6,552,385 
 
 5,798,967 
 
 5,412,377 
 
 5,174,836 
 
 4,704,750 
 
 4,458,775 
 
 4,390,219 
 
 20,893,584 
 
 24,028,584 
 
 26,709,456 
 
 27,368,736 
 
 28,927,485 
 
 31,484,661 
 
 34,884,848 
 
 37,732,922 
 
 41,458,721 
 
 45,221,615 
 
 143,126 
 
 143,447 
 
 144,638 
 
 141,260 
 
 147,842 
 
 150,370 
 
 148,915 
 
 Of the total population of the British Isles 
 in 1911, 22,016,661 were males and 23,353,869 
 females; in England the number of males was 
 16,421,298 and of females 17,623,992; in Wales, 
 1,024,310 and 1,000,892; in Scotland, 2,308,839 
 and 2,452,065; in Ireland, 2,192,048 and 2,198,- 
 171; in the Isle of Man, 23,937 and 28,079; in 
 the Channel Islands, 46,229 and *50,670. The 
 increasing importance of manufacturing and 
 mining as against agriculture has given Eng¬ 
 land a larger percentage of urban population 
 than any other country. 
 
 In England and Wales the population of urban 
 districts in 1901 was 25,058,355 and of rural 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 679 
 
 districts 7,469,488; in 1911, 28,162,936 and 7,- 
 907,556. In Scotland the urban population 
 (which in that country includes localities with 
 over 1000 inhabitants) numbered 3,591,276. In 
 Ireland the civic population in 1911 numbered 
 1,470,595. For many years the rural increase 
 of population in Great Britain has been in¬ 
 significant as compared with the urban. 
 
 The gain in the population of the United King¬ 
 dom has been made notwithstanding the great 
 emigration to its colonial possessions or to 
 other countries. The largest was in 1880-93, 
 when the English emigration averaged over 150,- 
 000 annually. The United States received about 
 two-thirds of the whole number. The number 
 of outward-bound passengers of British nation¬ 
 ality from the United Kingdom to countries out 
 of Europe was 8,864,756 in the period 1853— 
 1900; in 1901-05, 1,170,839; in 1906-10, 1,670,- 
 625; in 1911, 454,527; in 1912, 467,666, in addi¬ 
 tion to which outward-bound alien passengers to 
 non-European countries numbered 189,169, the 
 total outward bound in 1912 being 656,835. In- 
 ward-bound passengers in 1912 from non-Euro¬ 
 pean countries numbered 340,696 (199,181 British 
 and 141,515 alien), the balance outward for the 
 year being 316,139. The Aliens Act of 1905 
 aims to keep out undesirable immigrants with¬ 
 out infringing on the traditional right of asylum 
 to religious and political refugees. The birth 
 and death rates are decreasing; the marriage 
 rate remains more nearly stationary. The fol¬ 
 lowing table shows the rate per thousand of 
 population, of births, deaths, and marriages 
 (i.e., persons married). 
 
 
 England 
 and Wales 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 United 
 
 Kingdom 
 
 Births 
 
 
 
 
 
 1900. 
 
 28.7 
 
 29.6 
 
 22.7 
 
 28.2 
 
 1910. 
 
 25.1 
 
 26.2 
 
 23.3 
 
 25.0 
 
 1913. 
 
 23.9 
 
 25.5 
 
 22.9 
 
 23.9 
 
 Deaths 
 
 
 
 
 
 1900. 
 
 18.2 
 
 18.5 
 
 19.6 
 
 18.4 
 
 1910. 
 
 13.5 
 
 15.3 
 
 17.1 
 
 14.0 
 
 1913. 
 
 13.7 
 
 15.5 
 
 17.1 
 
 14.2 
 
 Marriages 
 
 
 
 
 
 1900. 
 
 16.0 
 
 14.6 
 
 9.5 
 
 15.1 
 
 1910. 
 
 15.0 
 
 13.0 
 
 10.1 
 
 14.3 
 
 1913. 
 
 15.5 
 
 14.3 
 
 10.2 
 
 14.9 
 
 In Wales and Monmouthshire persons of three 
 years of age and upward speaking Welsh only 
 constituted in 1901 about 13.9 per cent of the 
 population and in 1911, 7.9 per cent; speaking 
 Welsh and English, 32.2 in 1901 and 32.5 in 
 1911; thus about 40.6 per cent could speak 
 Welsh in 1911, as compared with 46.1 in 1901 
 and about 70 in 1881;—in Scotland, speaking 
 Gaelic only, 0.6 per cent in 1901 and 0.4 per 
 cent in 1911; speaking Gaelic and English, 4.5 
 and 3.9;—in Ireland, speaking Irish only, 0.4 
 per cent in 1911; speaking Irish and English, 
 12.9. For further details of population, see 
 England; Scotland; Ireland. 
 
 Religion. In England and Wales, in Scot¬ 
 land, and in Ireland, different churches are 
 dominant; in the first the Protestant Episcopal, 
 in the second the Presbyterian, and in the third 
 the Roman Catholic. In the first two the re¬ 
 spective churches are the Established state 
 churches. The Protestant Episcopal church was 
 also the Established church of Ireland during 
 1801-61. The religious reformation of the six¬ 
 teenth century was received differently and fol¬ 
 lowed different courses in each of the three 
 
 political divisions. In England and Wales the 
 Church maintained its organization unbroken, 
 simply severing its connection with Rome. The 
 movement in Scotland was more radical, neces¬ 
 sitating a new organization. In Ireland the 
 native Irish element remained loyal to Rome, 
 only the limited English population revolting. 
 But while the respective churches which the 
 Reformation left in power in the three kingdoms 
 are still the predominant organizations, their 
 majorities have been reduced, and the present 
 religious status differs much from that of the 
 earlier time. 
 
 The changes have been most marked in Eng¬ 
 land and Wales. From the first there were dis¬ 
 senters (Nonconformists) from the state church; 
 and the Presbyterians, Congregationalists (or 
 Independents), and Baptists date from this early 
 period. Just prior to the rise of Cromwell the 
 Nonconformists had apparently secured consid¬ 
 erable power; but the attempt to make the 
 Presbyterian church the Established church 
 (1648) failed. The Puritan element was domi¬ 
 nant during Cromwell’s rule. In the following 
 reaction the ranks of the Nonconformists were 
 much reduced, and it was not until the Metho¬ 
 dist revival that they again became prominent. 
 In 1700 it was estimated that the Nonconform¬ 
 ists numbered less than one-twentieth of the 
 English population. In the eighteenth century 
 religious indifference settled upon the country, 
 from which it was aroused by the preaching of 
 Wesley and his Methodist following. Wesley 
 himself remained a member of the state church 
 and desired that his followers should not be 
 separated from it; but divergence from the Es¬ 
 tablished church was carried too far, and after 
 his death the Methodists became organized 
 (1795) as a separate body. The spirit of the 
 movement was taken up in a degree by other 
 bodies, and the older Nonconformist churches, 
 particularly the Congregationalists, enjoyed a 
 considerable growth in membership. Later there 
 were a number of divisions within the Methodist 
 church, but the Wesleyan Methodists, with a 
 little over half of the entire Methodist following, 
 are stronger than any other Nonconformist 
 church. In the absence of any religious census 
 the strength of the different elements is esti¬ 
 mated upon some such basis as the percentage of 
 marriages celebrated according to the rites of 
 the different bodies. 
 
 In 1911, in England and Wales, the Episcopal 
 rites were used in 61 per cent of the marriages, 
 the Roman Catholic rites in 4.4 per cent, while 
 the ceremonies in the registered places of other 
 Christian denominations numbered nearly 14 per 
 cent, and the civil marriages 20.9 per cent. It 
 is estimated that the number of people not in 
 the Established, Roman Catholic, or Jewish 
 churches, who are therefore presumably Noncon¬ 
 formists in sympathy, is considerably over one- 
 fifth of the total population. After the Metho¬ 
 dists, the Congregationalists and the Baptists 
 are strongest, the Presbyterians following with a 
 much smaller number, the members of this 
 church being most numerous in the northern 
 counties of England. The Nonconformists 
 strongly predominate in the northern counties 
 of Wales, and attempts have been made to se¬ 
 cure the disestablishment of the Episcopal church 
 in Wales. The Roman Catholic church had 
 remained small in England and Wales until the 
 influx of the Irish in the famine years from 1845 
 on. More recently the Roman Catholics have 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM 680 
 
 secured many converts from the Established 
 church. Their number is estimated at about 1,- 
 800,000. The Church of England, on account 
 of its latitudinarian policy, retains widely di¬ 
 verse factions within its organization. Since 
 about 1850 the High Church element, inclined 
 towards a greater ceremonial, has become pre¬ 
 ponderant, while the Broad Church movement, 
 which stands especially for a more liberal theol¬ 
 ogy, has also grown at the expense of the old 
 Low Church. 
 
 Presbyterianism is much stronger in Scotland 
 than Episcopacy is in England. But the Epis¬ 
 copal and the 'dissenting churches in Scotland 
 show a comparatively small increase. Latterly 
 the Roman Catholics have grown in Scotland, 
 and their number is estimated at about 550,000. 
 However, Presbyterianism itself has undergone a 
 number of schisms. The Established branch, 
 though numbering over half of Scottish Presby¬ 
 terians, contains less than half of Scottish 
 Church communicants. When, after the union 
 with England, Parliament gave lay patrons the 
 right to present clergymen to vacant benefices, 
 the ensuing dispute resulted, early in the eight¬ 
 eenth century, in two divisions, the seceding 
 bodies afterward forming the United Presbyter¬ 
 ian Church of Scotland; and finally in 1843 the 
 same question caused another division from the 
 Established church, which gave rise to the Free 
 Church of Scotland. In 1900 this body joined 
 the United Presbyterian branch under the name 
 of the United Free Church of Scotland. Of the 
 minor Presbyterian divisions the most impor¬ 
 tant is the Reformed Presbyterian. Neither the 
 Established church in England nor the Estab¬ 
 lished Presbyterian church in Scotland receives 
 any state financial aid. The support of the 
 Episcopal church is secured mainly from the 
 local endowments of the individual churches. 
 
 In Ireland the Celtic element has persistently 
 stood by the Roman Catholic faith, but the early 
 influx of Scottish Presbyterians and English 
 Episcopalians and the very heavy emigration of 
 the Roman Catholics in the nineteenth century 
 have resulted in appreciably reducing the Roman 
 Catholic percentage. The Episcopalians, who in 
 1911 numbered about 577,000, are mainly in the 
 eastern portion of the island. The Presbyte¬ 
 rians, numbering about 441,000, are confined 
 largely to the northeastern part. There are 
 about* 62,000 Methodists. 
 
 Jews are not numerous in the United King¬ 
 dom, 245,000 being given as their number in 
 1915. They are confined to London and a few 
 of the other large towns. The organization of 
 the different denominations represented in the 
 United Kingdom will be given under the respec¬ 
 tive titles of those bodies. See also Ireland. 
 
 Education. The educational systems in Eng¬ 
 land and Wales and in Scotland respectively 
 have developed along widely divergent lines. 
 The former had no public-school system until 
 late in the nineteenth century, and its develop¬ 
 ment then was hampered hy religious contro¬ 
 versy. Scotland provided for public schools be¬ 
 fore the close of the seventeenth century, and 
 the system was free from religious interference. 
 In earlier times a large number of endowments 
 had been established in England, usually by 
 some religious sect; but the instruction went 
 little beyond the dead languages and was given 
 to comparatively few. The administration of 
 endowments was defective, and many endow¬ 
 ments were lost or diverted into other channels. 
 
 Early in the nineteenth century an interest in 
 general education was aroused mainly by two 
 rival organizations: the British and Foreign 
 School Society, dating from 1808, representing 
 the dissenting religious elements; and the Na¬ 
 tional Society (1811), representing the Estab¬ 
 lished church. In 1816 and 1818, respectively, 
 elementary education and educational charities 
 were investigated by the government, but no 
 money was granted them until 1833, when $100,- 
 000 was divided between the educational societies. 
 Government inspection, subject to approval of 
 each inspector by one of the rival factions, was 
 the condition of receiving the grant. In 1856 
 an educational department was founded to ad¬ 
 minister the grant. The funds were distributed 
 according to results of the examinations held hy 
 the inspector in reading, writing, and arithmetic. 
 In 1869 the school accommodations were only 
 half those required, though they had doubled 
 during 1859-69. In 1870 the Elementary Edu¬ 
 cation Act established the basis of the general 
 educational system still in force. It applied to 
 all children between 5 and 14. Other leading 
 features were annual parliamentary grants to 
 public and private schools on the same terms; 
 a central administrative agency; wherever neces¬ 
 sary, school boards to be elected and board or 
 public schools to be established; in board schools 
 no religious catechism to be taught, though re¬ 
 ligious instruction might or might not be given; 
 in the voluntary schools religious instruction 
 not to be forced upon a child if its parents ob¬ 
 jected. In 1872 a similar system was established 
 for Scotland, but with elected school boards for 
 every parish, and these in charge of both higher 
 and elementary education. Scotland has its own 
 central administrative board. In 1900 improved 
 secondary and technical instruction in England 
 was secured by uniting under a board of educa¬ 
 tion the former separate department of educa- 
 tion £tncl. science. 
 
 The Education Act of 1902, reactionary at some 
 points, was at other points a great advance in 
 the conditions prevailing since 1870. It caused 
 acute political differences; it contributed to the 
 overthrow of the Conservatives in 1905 and led 
 to the introduction of the Birrell Education Bill 
 of 1906, which caused great popular disapproval 
 by its provision for support of the voluntary or 
 religious schools by local taxes, while leaving 
 their control with religious bodies. The Birrell 
 Bill was withdrawn because the House of Com¬ 
 mons refused to accept amendments made by the 
 House of Lords. The voluntary or Church 
 schools are mainly in rural regions or small 
 towns and are most controlled by the Estab¬ 
 lished church. In 1912 the number of voluntary 
 schools in England and Wales was 12,704, with 
 accommodations for 2,797,636 pupils, while the 
 number of council schools was 8196, with accom¬ 
 modations for 4.065,240 pupils. Of the volun¬ 
 tary schools, 10,877 schools (2,227,431 pupils) 
 were controlled by the Church of England, 1082 
 schools (377,859 *pupils) were Roman Catholic, 
 214 schools (65,749 pupils) were Wesleyan, and 
 the remainder were divided among various de¬ 
 nominations, including the Jewish, or were un¬ 
 denominational. The chief benefit of the Act of 
 1902 was the substitution of an educational unit 
 of administration (the county council) for the 
 numerous bodies that enforced the Law of 1870. 
 Thus two great features hitherto absent from the 
 English system were obtained: first, a public 
 authority * charged with educational interests; 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 681 UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 second, these councils have the power of coordi¬ 
 nating every branch of education, elementary, 
 secondary, and technical. They are empowered 
 to levy taxes, may borrow money, and can turn 
 over the control of each local school to a board 
 of six managers, one of whom is appointed by 
 the religious body furnishing the school building 
 and equipment. 
 
 Education is now compulsory in both England 
 and Scotland for the age period from 5 to 14, 
 though total or partial exemption may be se¬ 
 cured at the age of 11 in England and of 12 in 
 Scotland. Kindergarten work is given a promi¬ 
 nent place in the elementary system. Women 
 may be elected members of the school boards. In 
 England and Wales, on July 31, 1912, depart¬ 
 ments in the ordinary public elementary schools 
 numbered 32,234; accommodations, 6,862,876; 
 teachers, 41,307 men, 122,676 women; pupils en¬ 
 rolled, 3,044,384 boys, 2,992,986 girls; average 
 attendance, 88.79 per cent. There were 51 higher 
 elementary schools, with 464 teachers and 10,806 
 pupils (average during the year). In Scotland, 
 for the year ended Aug. 31, 1912, there were 3164 
 public primary schools in receipt of grants, with 
 accommodations for 1,042,703 pupils,"820,171 pu¬ 
 pils enrolled, and 733,792 in average attendance; 
 196 higher grade schools in receipt of grants, 
 with 24,544 pupils enrolled and 24,201 in average 
 attendance; 1152 continuation classes, with 144,- 
 815 pupils. Teachers, including those in the 
 liiglier-grade schools, numbered 5362 men and 
 15,096 women. In Ireland, on Dec. 31, 1912, 
 public primary schools in operation numbered 
 8255, with 13,213 teachers, accommodations for 
 769,697 pupils, an enrollment of 668,974, and an 
 average attendance of 499,038. The public 
 schools for which statistics are here given must 
 not be confounded with the many private Eng¬ 
 lish institutions known as the public schools. 
 
 Secondary' and Technical Education .—The sec¬ 
 ondary public school is not thoroughly estab¬ 
 lished. In England and Wales, on Jan. 31, 1912, 
 there were 995 secondary schools recognized for 
 grant, having full-time teachers 5106 men and 
 4974 women; part-time teachers 3326, and full¬ 
 time pupils 89,004 boys and 76,613 girls. At 
 evening and similar schools pupils enrolled in 
 1912 numbered 784,984; in day technical classes, 
 11,758; in technical institution courses, 1289; in 
 art classes, 3250; in schools of art, 41,677 (20,- 
 359 males, 21,318 females). In Scotland, for the 
 year ended Aug. 31, 1912, there were 56 second¬ 
 ary schools claiming grant, with 1175 teachers, 
 20,484 pupils enrolled (11,956 boys, 8528 girls), 
 and 19,458 in average attendance. There is a 
 large number of secondary schools maintained by 
 private enterprise, endowment, subscription, etc. 
 These schools emphasize distinctions based upon 
 social caste, and some of them are very exclu¬ 
 sive. In Wales each county has an educational 
 council, and over all is a central board with 
 powers of inspection and examination of the sec¬ 
 ondary schools. In Scotland school boards may 
 establish secondary schools. 
 
 The Scottish provision for evening continua¬ 
 tion schools is almost identical with that of 
 England. In England and Wales there is no 
 thoroughly defined system of technical instruc¬ 
 tion, although, through the assistance of special 
 grants, manual training and the industrial arts 
 and sciences are given much attention, while the 
 municipalities have been active in building 
 technical institutions. In Scotland technical 
 schools may be established by school boards. 
 
 Universities .-—Great Britain does not provide 
 so amply for university education as do some 
 other large European countries. Within the 
 last few decades, however, the number, atten¬ 
 dance, and influence of universities have in¬ 
 creased. The new colleges are free from the 
 traditional restrictions of Oxford and Cambridge, 
 and their courses have better met the demands 
 of science and local industries. London Univer¬ 
 sity, constituted an examining body in 1836, be¬ 
 came also a teaching body in 1900, comprehend¬ 
 ing in 1913-14 over 30 colleges, with an enroll¬ 
 ment of 5840. In 1878 colleges situated at Man¬ 
 chester, Leeds, and Liverpool were federated un¬ 
 der the title of Victoria University. The Dur¬ 
 ham University, established in 1832, was ex¬ 
 tended in 1871 so as to include the colleges of 
 medicine and science at Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
 Birmingham University was constituted in 1900. 
 All of these, established first by private bene¬ 
 ficence, now receive government' aid. Birming¬ 
 ham rejected the widely adopted plan of affiliated 
 collegiate institutions and was the first autono¬ 
 mous, compact, self-centred institution, similar 
 to those of the United States and continental 
 Europe. This institution was equipped for 
 teaching, research, and examination from the 
 first and was imitated in other large industrial 
 cities. In 1903 the University of Liverpool was 
 founded on the basis of the old college, which 
 had been a constituent part of Victoria Univer¬ 
 sity. In the next two years Manchester, Leeds, 
 and Sheffield followed this example and estab¬ 
 lished independent universities. See articles on 
 the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, London, 
 Wales, St. Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 Charities. Charitable functions, at first ex¬ 
 ercised by the Church as a religious duty, were 
 gradually taken oyer by the parishes, and when 
 the towns and guilds became powerful they es¬ 
 tablished charitable institutions for the benefit 
 of their members. It was not until the Refor¬ 
 mation, however, that the state began to deal 
 with the problem of pauperism. The relief sup¬ 
 plied formerly by the monasteries had to be re¬ 
 placed, so that during the reigns of Henry VIII 
 and Elizabeth a general state policy was rapidly 
 developed. By an Act of 1601 a regularly as¬ 
 sessed poor rate became compulsory, laying the 
 foundation principles of the poor-law policy. 
 Children were provided for through apprentice¬ 
 ship, and adults able to work were compelled to 
 do so, while to others relief was given. A law 
 passed in 1723 made possible the establishing 
 of workhouses and the application of the prin¬ 
 ciple that those might be used as a test of need, 
 and outside relief refused to the able-bodied. 
 Many persons failed to adapt themselves to the 
 changed conditions brought on by the industrial 
 revolution in the beginning of the eighteenth cen¬ 
 tury, and the pauper element rapidly increased. 
 
 The Gilbert Act of 1782, while creating the 
 Poor-Law Union and introducing other adminis¬ 
 trative improvements, violated the workhouse 
 test by making outdoor money aid possible. In 
 1795 this was further violated by supplementing 
 the ordinary wage of the laborer with money aid, 
 the amount of which was increased by the num¬ 
 ber of members in the family. These aids tended 
 to weaken the sense of personal responsibility, a 
 large portion of the agricultural laborers became 
 pauperized, relief was expected, and disgrace no 
 longer attached to it. In 1802-03, 28 per cent 
 of the population in England and Wales re- 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 68 
 
 ceived permanent or occasional aid. Conditions 
 became very bad, and in 1834, as the result of 
 the investigations of a parliamentary commis¬ 
 sion, measures were passed which marked a new 
 epoch in poor-law administration. 
 
 A commission was established which became a 
 permanent government department in 1867 and 
 f n 1871 was known as the Local Government 
 Board. The board consists of a president ap¬ 
 pointed by the King and a number of ex-o(licio 
 members. It not only enforces law but also is¬ 
 sues orders and regulations. It establishes 
 unions and determines district boundai ies and 
 exercises administrative and financial conti ol 
 over guardians. Assistant commissioners weie 
 appointed as agents, and later these weie suc¬ 
 ceeded by inspectors. Auditors examine accounts 
 and disallow improper expenditures, while guar¬ 
 dians have absorbed most of the former functions 
 of overseers and are the chief local officei s of 
 poor relief. 
 
 The unit of administration of the board of 
 guardians is the poor-law union, a combination 
 of parishes. Each parish selects one or more 
 guardians, and these may choose two additional 
 members. In the rural districts the poor law^ is 
 administered by the district councilors. The 
 most important of the appointed officers are the 
 relieving officer, who investigates and deals im¬ 
 mediately with the case at hand, the clerk, who 
 is the secretary of the board, and the assistant 
 overseers and collectors. W hile the poor l ate 
 is levied upon the parish, the cost of relief is de¬ 
 frayed from the common fund of the union. Pro¬ 
 vision is made for the combination of unions into 
 larger districts for special purposes, as in the 
 case of the maintenance of pauper institutions. 
 
 Since 1830 the policy pursued has been to limit 
 relief as much as practicable to indoor methods. 
 Asylums, infirmaries, ancl hospitals are provided 
 for the classes needing such treatment as these 
 institutions afford; schools and training ships 
 for children; and workhouses for the able-bodied. 
 In the care of children considerable progress has 
 been made in the operation of the placing-out 
 system. 
 
 The experience of Scotland has been much dif¬ 
 ferent from that of England, particularly in its 
 lack of continuity. The Scottish Parliament 
 passed laws for poor relief as far back as 15 to, 
 but compulsory taxes were not generally col¬ 
 lected until the nineteenth century. An Act 
 was passed in 1845 providing a system of poor 
 relief, resembling that of England and Wales, 
 which is still operative. 
 
 The mean number of paupers and the ratio per 
 thousand of estimated population relieved on Jan¬ 
 uary 1 and on July 1 preceding (exclusive of 
 casual paupers and insane) are reported as fol¬ 
 lows for England and Wales: 
 
 TEAR 
 
 INDOOR 
 
 OUTDOOR 
 
 TOTAL* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Ratio 
 
 No. 
 
 Ratio 
 
 No. 
 
 Ratio 
 
 1900... 
 
 188,423 
 
 5.9 
 
 500,214 
 
 15.8 
 
 688,505 
 
 21.7 
 
 1905... 
 
 222,217 
 
 6.6 
 
 542,891 
 
 16.1 
 
 764,589 
 
 22.7 
 
 1910... 
 
 256,523 
 
 7.2 * 
 
 534,933 
 
 15.1 
 
 790,496 
 
 22.3 
 
 1914... 
 
 234,510 
 
 6.4 
 
 382,734 
 
 10.4 
 
 617,128 
 
 16.7 
 
 * Deductions are made from total for paupers who re¬ 
 ceived both indoor and outdoor relief on the same day. 
 
 A number of paupers, especially outdoor 
 paupers, ceased to be dependent on poor relief 
 
 j UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 in 1911 in consequence of the partial removal 
 of the pauper disqualification for old-age pen- 
 sions. 
 
 In parishes in Scotland the poor of all classes 
 (including lunatic poor) in receipt of relief on 
 Jan. 15, 1914, were 66,832 paupers and 38,413 
 dependents. In unions in Ireland the number 
 of paupers in receipt of relief at the close of the 
 first week of January, 1914, was 74,841 (of whom 
 3915 were able-bodaed adults receiving indoor 
 relief). Throughout Great Britain private char¬ 
 ity is very active and is thoroughly organized. 
 There is a very clear distinction between state 
 and private charities, and the two cooperate har¬ 
 moniously. The state aims only to allet iate 
 actual distress, regardless of its cause or the 
 character of the individual, and it does not un¬ 
 dertake to prevent poverty. Private charities 
 cover a much wider scope, attending to many 
 questions of public welfare, aiming to pi event 
 and improve conditions that are not necessarily 
 due to immediate distress. 
 
 Colonies. While directly after the repeal of 
 the Corn Laws of 1846 many persons, both in 
 the mother country and in the colonies, consid¬ 
 ered a complete separation of the colonies and 
 Great Britain desirable and probable, since about 
 1870 the tendency has been towards a, closer 
 union of the various members of the British Em¬ 
 pire. The mutual interest existing between the 
 colonies rests not only upon a feeling of racial 
 and cultural kinship, but upon such practical 
 matters as trade and defense. The first impor¬ 
 tant step taken to strengthen this bond was in 
 the conference held at London in 1884 by the 
 Imperial Federation League. Numerous con¬ 
 ferences have been held since, and were given 
 mainly to the discussion of closer Imperial co¬ 
 operation and unity. For a statement of the 
 varying methods of government and the area and 
 population of the colonies, see British Empire 
 and the articles on the different colonies. 
 
 Government. The constitution of the United 
 Kingdom is the result of long historical growth. 
 It is more largely unwritten than that of any 
 other country of western Europe. What is writ¬ 
 ten is not in a single instrument, but is scat¬ 
 tered through various acts of Parliament and 
 solemn agreements from the Middle Ages to the 
 present. The unwritten part consists of customs, 
 maxims, and institutions which, in virtue of 
 long acquiescence of the nation, have acquired 
 the force of written law. The British constitu¬ 
 tion is not, therefore, the artificial creation of a 
 single constituent body organized to incorporate 
 in legal institutions the results of a violent and 
 bloody revolution. See Parliament. 
 
 The House of Commons at present (1916) con¬ 
 sists of 670 members, of whom England chooses 
 465, Wales 30, Scotland 72, and Ireland 103, and 
 they are elected by secret ballot for a term of 
 five years. The voter in an English county or 
 borough must be a male citizen 21 years of age, 
 a freeholder of the annual value of 40s., or a 
 copyholder or leaseholder of the annual value 
 of £5. But if he has no such interest in real 
 estate he must be a householder of the annual 
 value of £10 or a lodger of the same value. In 
 Scottish and Irish counties the qualifications are 
 substantially the same. The more important dis¬ 
 qualifications relate to the holding of incom¬ 
 patible offices at the same time, conviction of 
 certain crimes, and receipt of poor relief. Voters 
 with sufficient property in different districts may 
 vote in each district. Members are distributed 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 683 
 
 according 1 to population and are chosen by dis¬ 
 tricts and on single ticket. Members of the 
 House of Commons must be male citizens not 
 under 21 years of age. Disqualified are English 
 and Scottish peers, representative Irish peers, 
 Roman Catholic priests, clergymen of the Es¬ 
 tablished church, judges, sheriffs, and other re¬ 
 turning officers, government contractors, bank¬ 
 rupts, and persons convicted of certain crimes. 
 
 The House of Lords consists of (1) English 
 hereditary peers whose ancestors have received 
 a royal summons to Parliament since 1295, or 
 who have themselves received a patent of no¬ 
 bility in the United Kingdom; (2) 16 Scottish 
 representative peers chosen for the term of Par¬ 
 liament by a majority of all the Scottish peers, 
 i.e., those whose ancestors sat in the Scottish 
 House of Lords before the union; (3) 28 Irish 
 peers chosen for life by all the Irish peers; (4) 
 
 2 archbishops and 24 bishops by virtue of their 
 office; and (5) 4 judicial members, known as 
 Lords of Appeals in Ordinary, appointed by the 
 crown for life. The full House (in 1915) would 
 consist of 654 members. The crown may create 
 an unlimited number of English hereditary peers, 
 but this is not true of life peers and of Scottish 
 and Irish peers. The only qualification for mem¬ 
 bership in the House of Lords is male sex, citi¬ 
 zenship, and attainment of the age of 21 years, 
 while bankruptcy and conviction of felonious 
 crime disqualify. 
 
 The members of both Houses are privileged 
 from arrest except for indictable offenses—the 
 Commons during the session, and 40 days before 
 and after, the Lords at all times. They cannot 
 be questioned outside of Parliament for opin¬ 
 ions expressed or votes cast in that body; but 
 the courts have held (Stockdale and Hansard) 
 that if the Commons have their speeches pub¬ 
 lished and circulated they are amenable to the 
 law of libel and slander as private individuals 
 are. Up to 1911 members of neither House re¬ 
 ceived pay for their services, except that an oc¬ 
 casional constituency undertook to pay its mem¬ 
 ber a salary. In August of that year a resolu¬ 
 tion of the House of Commons provided for an 
 annual salary of £400 to members other than, 
 those already in receipt of salaries. 
 
 Parliament must assemble at least once in 
 three years. It usually meets annually, in Feb¬ 
 ruary, and remains in session until midsummer. 
 It is summoned, opened, and prorogued by the 
 crown and upon the advice of the Prime Minis¬ 
 ter. It is dissolved either by legal expiry of the 
 term of the Commons or by order of the crown, 
 with the advice of the ministry. Parliament 
 has seldom lasted through its full term, disso¬ 
 lution usually resulting from the action of the 
 crown. Dissolution ends the House of Com¬ 
 mons without affecting the Lords, except the 
 Scottish peers elected for the term of Parliament, 
 while prorogation ends the session merely. 
 Formerly the sovereign’s death dissolved Parlia¬ 
 ment, but a recent law abolished this custom. 
 Either House may adjourn for short periods of 
 time independently of the other or of the crown. 
 The internal organization of Parliament is left 
 partly to the action of each House. Thus the 
 Commons choose their own Speaker, although by 
 custom the presiding officer in the House of Lords 
 is the Lord Chancellor, a member of the ministry. 
 But as he may be a member of the House of 
 Commons, his seat is placed without the limits 
 of the chamber in which the Lords hold their 
 sessions. The other officers of Parliament are 
 
 Vol. XXII.—44 
 
 appointed by the crown. Over its discipline and 
 procedure each House has full control, and may 
 expel a member or punish an outsider for con¬ 
 tempt. A quorum necessary for doing business 
 is fixed at 40 in the British Commons and three 
 in the Lords. The constitution places no legal 
 limitations upon the power of the British Par¬ 
 liament. Its power, however, is a present one 
 and cannot bind future parliaments. See 
 Lords, House of; Parliament. 
 
 The executive power is, nominally at least, 
 in the crown, which is legally and theoretically 
 irresponsible, immaculate, and immortal. It is 
 hereditary, according to lineal primogenial de¬ 
 scent, with preference for males over females 
 among brothers and sisters. The ruler must not 
 be a Roman Catholic, must be a communicant of 
 the Established church, and apparently by cus¬ 
 tom must be 18 years old before exercising the 
 royal powers. At present the powers of the 
 crown include the declaration of war; the nego¬ 
 tiation of treaties; the appointment and recep¬ 
 tion of diplomatic officers; the issuance of pass¬ 
 ports; the command of the army and navy, with 
 a large power over the appointment, promotion, 
 and dismissal of officers, and the promulgation 
 of rules for the government and disposition of 
 the forces; the appointment of all the civil offi¬ 
 cers of the government and the removal of most 
 of them; the appointment of the high clerical 
 officers of the Established church, and full power 
 of control over the ecclesiastical parliament or 
 convocation; and the granting of pardons. The 
 power of the crown in legislation has already 
 been discussed in connection with the subject of 
 Parliament. The power of the crown to veto 
 all legislative measures passed by the Houses 
 of Parliament has not been exercised since 1707 
 and has practically fallen into disuse. 
 
 As already stated, the crown is irresponsible. 
 It therefore exercises its powers through a re¬ 
 sponsible ministry selected from the members of 
 Parliament belonging to the political party which 
 has a majority in the House of Commons. They 
 are also the heads of the executive departments 
 and members of the King’s Privy Council. The 
 King appoints the Premier, who is the leader of 
 the party in power and who selects the other 
 members of the cabinet from his own party. 
 They may be members of either House, but com¬ 
 moners must resign their seats and be reelected. 
 The cabinet is an extra-legal institution, having 
 never been recognized by act of Parliament; the 
 names of the members are never officially an¬ 
 nounced to the public, and no record is kept of 
 its meetings or acts. The size of the cabinet 
 varies according to the prominence which cer¬ 
 tain interests are likely to assume in the Par¬ 
 liament. Strictly speaking, it need not, accord¬ 
 ing to custom, include more than 11 members, 
 viz., the First Lord &f the Treasury, the Lord 
 Chancellor of England, the Lord President of the 
 Council, the Lord Privy Seal, the Chancellor of 
 the Exchequer, the Secretaries of State for Home 
 Affairs, for Foreign Affairs, for the Colonies, for 
 India, and for War, and the First Lord of the 
 Admiralty. To these may be added the Presi¬ 
 dent of the Local Government Board, the Presi¬ 
 dent of the Board of Trade, the Chief Secretary 
 to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, the Lord 
 Chancellor of Ireland, the Secretary for Scotland, 
 the First Commissioner of Works, the President 
 of the Board of Agriculture, the President of 
 the Board of Education, the Chancellor of the 
 Duchy of Lancaster, the Postmaster-General, and 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 684 
 
 the Attorney-General. A minister of munitions 
 and a minister of war trade were added to the 
 cabinet after the outbreak of the great war. The 
 legislative duties of the cabinet are to urge the 
 adoption of government measures in the House 
 of Commons and to defend the government’s 
 policy against the opposition, and for that pur¬ 
 pose the members have seats in Parliament. It 
 initiates public legislative measures and leads 
 the majority in debate. The ministers are re¬ 
 sponsible to the Commons for their policy, and 
 if defeated on any important measures, or if the 
 House votes lack of confidence in them, they re¬ 
 sign, and another ministry is formed from the 
 new majority. If, however, the defeated cabinet 
 think they still represent the popular will, they 
 can ask the King to dissolve the House of Com¬ 
 mons and order a new election. If the electorate 
 pronounces against them, they must resign. 
 Their responsibility is collective, and therefore 
 they all go out together unless the conduct of a 
 particular minister has been such that the re¬ 
 sponsibility for the objectionable policy may be 
 fixed on him, in which event he alone resigns. 
 This happened in 1851 in the case of Lord Pal¬ 
 merston, the Foreign Secretary, who was forced 
 to resign. 
 
 In addition to their legislative functions the 
 ministers act as heads of the various depart¬ 
 ments of administration. The Prime Minister 
 usually takes the portfolio of the Treasury De¬ 
 partment with the title of First Lord of the 
 Treasury. There are few duties, however, at¬ 
 tached to the First Lordship of the Treasury, 
 the actual head being the Chancellor of the Ex¬ 
 chequer, the chief financial officer of the govern¬ 
 ment. He prepares annually and submits to 
 Parliament the budget or statement of the esti¬ 
 mated receipts and expenditures of the govern¬ 
 ment for the ensuing year, together with sug¬ 
 gestions for the increase or reduction of taxation 
 in case of expected deficit or surplus. The duties 
 of the Foreign, Colonial, War, and India secre¬ 
 taries are sufficiently clear from the names. The 
 Secretary for Home Affairs supervises the police 
 and certain local administration, advises the 
 sovereign in the matter of granting pardons, 
 and in part concerning labor legislation. The 
 Admiralty administers naval affairs and is con¬ 
 trolled by six lords. The Board of Trade super¬ 
 vises commercial, railway, marine, and statistical 
 affairs, coinage, weights and measures, and the 
 post office. 
 
 The judicial system has only two tribunals 
 which are in any sense constitutional courts: the 
 House of Lords and the Judicial Committee of 
 the Privy Council. The House of Lords acts as 
 a criminal court for the trial of peers, as a gen¬ 
 eral court of impeachment, and as the highest 
 court of appeal for the United Kingdom. In the 
 last-mentioned capacity only the Lord Chancel¬ 
 lor, who presides, the Lords of Appeal in Ordi¬ 
 nary (four life lords of high judicial standing 
 provided for by statute), and such members as 
 have formerly held high judicial office, take part 
 in the hearing. The jurisdiction of this court 
 includes cases appealed from any appellate court 
 in England, or from any court in Scotland or 
 Ireland, from which appeals were allowed to the 
 House of Lords previous to 1876. The Judicial 
 Committee of the Privy Council is a court of 
 last resort for India, the colonies, the Isle of 
 Man, the Channel Islands, and the vice-admiralty 
 courts abroad. Its personnel is substantially the 
 same as that of the House of Lords when sitting 
 
 as highest court of appeal. Apart from these 
 tribunals the general courts of the Kingdom are 
 the High Court of Justice and the Court of 
 Appeal. The former consists of three sections, 
 known as the Chancery Division, of six judges, 
 the King’s Bench Division, of 15 judges, and the 
 Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty Division, of 
 two judges. Appeals lie from this court to the 
 Court of Appeal, a tribunal consisting of the 
 Master of the Rolls, five justices, and the three 
 presidents of the divisions of the High Court. 
 The principal criminal courts are the petty ses¬ 
 sions and quarter sessions, held by the justices 
 of the peace; the assize courts, held four times a 
 year in certain towns, usually by judges of the 
 King’s Bench Division; and the Central Criminal 
 Court, which is the court of oyer and terminer 
 and jail delivery for the city of London and 
 surrounding territory. 
 
 The English system of local government is 
 highly complex and difficult of explanation. The 
 parliamentary Acts of 1888 and 1894 somewhat 
 simplified the system. The more important lo¬ 
 cal units are now counties, county boroughs, 
 municipal boroughs, urban districts, rural dis¬ 
 tricts, parishes, and school districts. The chief 
 county officers are the Lord Lieutenant, the 
 sheriff, the justices of the peace, the clerk, and 
 the coroner. The Lord Lieutenant represents 
 the crown in the county and is the keeper of the 
 records. The sheriff, who formerly wielded large 
 powers, is now a ministerial officer whose chief 
 duties relate to the enforcement of the judg¬ 
 ments of the courts and the holding of parlia¬ 
 mentary elections. The justices of the peace 
 were in 1888 stripped of most of their former 
 administrative and financial powers by the Lo¬ 
 cal Government Act of that year and are now 
 chiefly judicial functionaries who attend to the 
 preliminary investigation of all crimes. The 
 Lord Chancellor appoints them upon nomination 
 by the Lord Lieutenant of the county in which 
 they reside. They try minor offenses without a 
 jury. As a criminal court of first instance they 
 all sit together in a court of quarter sessions, 
 and without a jury they are a court of appeal 
 from orders and decisions of justices acting in¬ 
 dividually or in petty or special sessions. They 
 still retain some administrative duties, such as 
 issuing liquor licenses, appointing overseers of 
 the poor, and assisting in police administration. 
 
 By the Act of 1888 there w T as created in each 
 of the 62 administrative counties (except the 
 administrative county of London) into which 
 England and Wales are divided a popularly 
 elected County Council of councilors and aider- 
 men, the latter selected by the councilors, usually 
 from their own body. Councilors sit for three 
 years, the aldermen for six, one-half their num¬ 
 ber retiring every third year. They all sit to¬ 
 gether under the presidency of a county chair¬ 
 man, chosen from the aldermen; he alone re¬ 
 ceives compensation. The powers and duties of 
 the County Council include (1) care and ad¬ 
 ministration of county property; (2) selection 
 and supervision of most of the minor county of¬ 
 ficers; (3) assessment of rates and raising of 
 loans; (4) management of highways; (5) grant¬ 
 ing of licenses to music and dancing houses; 
 (6) control of the police (except in London) 
 through a committee of the Council; and (7) 
 a variety of other local matters. Like the simi¬ 
 lar county authority in the United States, the 
 English County Council is restricted to enum¬ 
 erated powers. 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 685 
 
 Below the county is the district, either rural 
 or urban. The Act of 1894 provided that each 
 rural district should consist of a group of rural 
 parishes, and its chief organ a council elected 
 for three years by the parish assembly, and 
 vested with administration of the poor law, the 
 public health, and the highway acts. The urban 
 district consists of a group of urban parishes 
 in unincorporated boroughs, and, like the rural 
 district, has a council with the same powers, 
 except that the poor-law administration is left 
 to a board of guardians. Below the district is 
 the parish, urban or rural. In 1894 the rural 
 parishes were reorganized, but the urban were 
 only slightly changed. By that act every rural 
 parish of not more than 300 people has a parish 
 meeting, or assembly, at which every elector 
 lias the right to vote. Rural parishes of more 
 than 300 people have also a parish council of 
 from 5 to 15, elected for one year. The councils 
 have taken over the civil powers of the old 
 vestries, which after 1894 were ecclesiastical bod¬ 
 ies merely, and besides have duties relating to 
 charities, water supply, public health, highways, 
 and other matters. 
 
 Incorporated towns, including county bor¬ 
 oughs (i.e., boroughs which are treated some¬ 
 what as a county), are governed by a mayor, 
 aldermen, and councilors, which together consti¬ 
 tute a municipal corporation, known as the 
 council. The councilors are elected practically 
 by the ratepayers for three years, one-tliird re¬ 
 tiring annually; the aldermen, by the council 
 for six years, one-half retiring every third year; 
 and the mayor by the council for one year. He 
 alone is salaried, and is an ex-officio justice of 
 the peace. The municipal corporation has only 
 enumerated powers, substantially the same as 
 the urban council, but provision is made for 
 a separate quarter session and a separate police 
 force. 
 
 London, by the Local Government Act of 1888, 
 was made an administrative county with its own 
 council, sheriff, and other officers. In 1901 the 
 County of London, aside from the city, was di¬ 
 vided into 28 metropolitan boroughs, each with 
 its mayor, aldermen, and councilors, which take 
 the place of the old parish vestries, formerly the 
 chief local governing bodies of the metropolis. 
 
 The recent’ parliamentary legislation has shown 
 a marked tendency towards greater central con¬ 
 trol over the local administration. The chief 
 organ of supervision is the Local Government 
 Board, created in 1871, the president of which 
 is usually a cabinet minister. It can approve or 
 disapprove many acts of the local organs, can 
 audit the accounts of the local authorities, com¬ 
 pel them to act in certain particulars, and to a 
 certain extent can discipline local civil servants. 
 
 Scotland .—The government of Scotland, since 
 the union with England in 1707, has been part 
 of the general administration of Great Britain. 
 The connection was maintained chiefly through 
 the Home Office until 1885, when the office 
 of Chief Secretary for Scotland was created, and 
 duties previously discharged by different depart¬ 
 ments were transferred to the new office. The 
 Chief Secretary is usually a cabinet minister, and 
 the chief cabinet spokesman in the House of 
 Commons in regard to Scottish business. The 
 Lord Advocate, the chief law officer of the crown 
 for Scotland, is the legal adviser of the crown in 
 Scottish affairs. He serves as Attorney-Gen¬ 
 eral for Scotland, controls the whole criminal 
 business of that country, also the preparation 
 
 for Parliament of all Scottish bills, and is as¬ 
 sisted by a Solicitor-General for Scotland, whose 
 duties resemble those of the similar officer for 
 England. Local government in Scotland is regu¬ 
 lated chiefly by Acts passed in 1889 and 1894. 
 By the former elective county councils were 
 created similar to those provided for English 
 counties in 1888. They took over most of the 
 duties of the old county boards, the chief of 
 which was the Commission of Supply. The Act 
 of 1894, like the Act passed the same year in 
 England, provided for an elective parish council 
 in each parish to take the place of the old paro¬ 
 chial boards and to exercise substantially the 
 same powers as the English parish councils. The 
 same Act created a local government board for 
 Scotland, consisting of the Secretary for Scot¬ 
 land as President, the Solicitor-General, the Un¬ 
 dersecretary for Scotland, and three other mem¬ 
 bers appointed by the crown. Scottish muni¬ 
 cipal administration differs little from that of 
 England. Some burghs have a little more local 
 autonomy than others. The municipal officer 
 corresponding to the English alderman is known 
 in Scotland as the baillie, while the Scottish 
 provost corresponds to the English mayor. 
 
 The Scottish Court of Sessions corresponds 
 to the Supreme Court of Judicature in England. 
 It is the highest Scottish civil tribunal, consists 
 of 13 judges, and is divided into chambers and 
 subdivided into divisions for the dispatch of busi¬ 
 ness. The Supreme Criminal Court for Scot¬ 
 land is the High Court of Justiciary, consisting 
 of all the judges of the Court of Sessions. It 
 sits part of the time in Edinburgh and part of 
 the time goes on circuit. Circuits are held twice 
 a year, for which purpose Scotland is divided 
 into three districts. For the trial of criminal 
 cases, usually one judge with a jury of 15 men 
 constitutes the court. The High Court has ex¬ 
 clusive jurisdiction in cases of treason, murder, 
 robbery, rape, and the other more serious of¬ 
 fenses. The more important inferior courts of 
 Scotland are held by county sheriffs, appointees 
 of the crown, for a good behavior tenure. They 
 have civil and criminal jurisdiction somewhat 
 similar to that of the county courts and courts 
 of quarter sessions in England, and cases tried 
 by them with a jury cannot be appealed. For 
 the government of Ireland, see Ireland. 
 
 history 
 
 Development of Cabinet Government, 1688- 
 1760. The legislative union of England and 
 Scotland was formally consummated on May 1, 
 1707. There had been much opposition to the 
 union in Scotland on account of the unwilling¬ 
 ness of the English Parliament to grant a trade- 
 union with equality of commercial privileges; but 
 the threatening measures of the Scottish Parlia¬ 
 ment looking towards an absolute separation 
 overcame this unwillingness, and Scotland was 
 received as an equal in all respects, with a pro¬ 
 portional representation in both Houses of the 
 new British Parliament. Ireland was less for¬ 
 tunate. The Protestant Parliament there, in di¬ 
 rect violation of the Treaty of Limerick, made 
 the position of the Catholic population, which 
 was the great majority, almost intolerable. The 
 English Parliament, by forbidding the import of 
 Irish meat and cattle into England, and the ex- 
 port of Irish woolen goods to any country other 
 than England in 1699, effectually destroyed Irish 
 trade. During the latter part of the reign of 
 Anne the Tories, under the leadership of Harley 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM 686 
 
 (Earl of Oxford) and St. John (Earl of Boling- 
 broke) , ruled the country. The Tories did all 
 they could to preclude their opponents from the 
 possibility of future success. The Occasional 
 Conformity Act and the Schism Act further dis¬ 
 qualified Dissenters from voting or holding of¬ 
 fice. The creation of 12 new peers in 1711 gave 
 the Tories a majority in the Lords and was a 
 most important constitutional measure, since it 
 demonstrated that in case of disagreement be¬ 
 tween the two Houses the Commons could always 
 prevail by the creation of the requisite number 
 of peers to constitute a majority. Harley and 
 St. John even contemplated the restoration of 
 the house of Stuart in Order to prevent the 
 Whigs from returning to power; but their plans 
 were thwarted by the refusal of James the Pre¬ 
 tender to declare himself a Protestant and by the 
 sudden death of the Queen in 1714. The Treaty 
 of Utrecht, which terminated the War of the 
 Spanish Succession, gave Gibraltar and Acadia 
 to England, together with Minorca, which was 
 finally restored to Spain in 1783. 
 
 With the accession of the house of Hanover 
 (or of Brunswick), in the person of George I, 
 came a long supremacy of the Whig party, which 
 was a combination of the great landed aristoc¬ 
 racy with the industrial classes of the towns, 
 while the strength of the Tories consisted in the 
 support of the country gentry. The Whigs de¬ 
 rived their strength from the boroughs, the more 
 important of which numbered Dissenters among 
 their industrial population, while the pocket 
 boroughs, often inconsiderable hamlets, were 
 either directly under the control of the neigh¬ 
 boring magnates, usually Whigs, or else pur¬ 
 chasable by them. As the Tories favored the 
 house of Stuart, the first Georges were com¬ 
 pelled to choose their ministers from the Whigs. 
 They were more interested in their German than 
 in their English possessions, and as long as they 
 were supported by England in their continental 
 designs they were quite willing to allow the Eng¬ 
 lish ministry to do as it pleased in regard to 
 home affairs. The cabinet ceased to hold ses¬ 
 sions in the King’s presence, and by degrees his 
 place as head of the council came to be filled by 
 one of its members. This member was usually 
 the guiding spirit of the cabinet. He chose the 
 ministry and distributed the royal patronage. 
 He and his ministry were responsible to Parlia¬ 
 ment alone. 
 
 The first act of the Whig Parliament of 1715 
 was the impeachment of Tory leaders for treason¬ 
 able correspondence with the exiled house of 
 Stuart. Oxford was sent to prison, Bolingbroke 
 and Ormond fled to France. The rebellion of 
 1717, in favor of the son of James II, was easily 
 suppressed in Scotland and northern England. 
 In 1716 the same Parliament prolonged its power 
 by an Act providing for septennial parliaments, 
 and in 1710 it provided relief for the Dissenters 
 by the repeal of the Occasional Conformity Act 
 and the Schism Act. In 1720 a mad wave of 
 speculation in shares of the South Sea Company 
 swept over the country, based on exaggerated 
 notions of the value of the trade with the Span¬ 
 ish colonies in South America. The ministry 
 had allowed the national debt to be incorporated 
 with the stock of the company, with a promise 
 that the debt should be extinguished in 25 years, 
 and when the bubble burst it was forced to re¬ 
 sign. A partial relief for the sufferers was pro¬ 
 vided by the able administration of Sir Robert 
 Walpole (q.v.), who was the virtual head of the 
 
 new cabinet. For 21 years this astute man was 
 the guiding spirit in English politics. By his 
 ability as a financier he greatly promoted trade 
 and commerce, and incidentally he made cabinet 
 government a working system and caused the 
 House of Commons to become more important 
 than the House of Lords. He avoided exciting 
 popular feeling, even withdrawing measures of 
 undoubted excellence because of the prejudice 
 against them; as, e.g., his Excise Bill in 1733, 
 which provided for the regulation of import 
 duties in government warehouses. With great 
 reluctance he permitted the popular feeling in 
 1739 to involve the nation in the Spanish War, 
 but resigned in 1742 rather than embark in a 
 second war, that of the Austrian Succession. In 
 his previous peace policy he had had the sup¬ 
 port of the nation, although he had never hesi¬ 
 tated to maintain his majorities by making use 
 of corruption. Carteret was the actual head 
 of the next ministry, a short-lived one. His 
 participation in the War of the Austrian Succes¬ 
 sion was indeed fortunate for Hanover, but 
 brought neither glory nor profit to England. 
 During this war occurred the daring invasion 
 of the Young Pretender, Charles Edward Stuart. 
 At the head of the Highland clans he gained a 
 brilliant victory over the royal forces at Pres- 
 tonpans in 1745 and advanced into England as 
 far as Derby, but was finally forced to with¬ 
 draw to Scotland and was overthrown at Cullo- 
 den in 1746. In 1745 began the struggle between 
 England and France for dominion in India. 
 
 After Carteret had been compelled to resign, 
 and the great Whig family of Pelham had shown 
 its incapacity, and the Duke of Newcastle had 
 demonstrated his incompetence to rule by cor¬ 
 ruption, Pitt entered the cabinet in 1756. Al¬ 
 though nominally a Whig, he was in reality 
 above party ties. The middle class trusted him 
 and formed his strongest support. He was 
 hostile to France and took active part with 
 Frederick the Great in the Seven Years’ War, 
 in which the French were deprived of Canada, 
 which became English, and of Louisiana, as well 
 as of their power in India. He resigned in 1761 
 because the cabinet refused to follow him in the 
 declaration of war with Spain, which he consid¬ 
 ered inevitable. In the course of the Seven 
 Years’ War and the ensuing years Clive laid 
 the foundation of a great British empire in 
 India. 
 
 The Struggle against Democracy, 1760- 
 1820. Meanwhile in 1760 George III had as¬ 
 cended the throne, with the fixed design of re¬ 
 storing as far as practicable the royal preroga¬ 
 tives which his two predecessors had allowed to 
 slip from their grasp. He was determined to 
 break up the party system as it then existed, 
 to destroy the Whig oligarchy, and by selecting 
 his own ministers exert a determining influence 
 in English politics. Resuming the royal patron¬ 
 age, he had soon formed a party of adherents, 
 the “"King’s friends,” who looked to him for 
 political guidance. Availing himself of dissen¬ 
 sions within the Whig party, he forced Lord 
 Bute, his favorite, into the cabinet as Prime 
 Minister, but the latter showed incapacity and 
 had to resign. At last the King found in Lord 
 North a minister through whom he could carry 
 out his ideas. Under the North ministry the 
 American War of the Revolution was waged, 
 and England, through stubborn adherence to her 
 old colonial policy, lost her most valuable colo¬ 
 nies. With the greatest reluctance the King 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 687 
 
 ft 
 
 allowed the Rockingham ministry, with Fox as 
 its leading spirit, to be formed. He was op¬ 
 posed to Fox’s grant of legislative independence 
 to Ireland, and the actions of Shelburne, backed 
 by the King’s influence, caused the disruption of 
 the ministry before the completion of the nego¬ 
 tiations of the Treaty of Paris, 1783, conferring 
 independence upon America. By his personal in¬ 
 fluence again the King overthrew the coalition 
 ministry of Fox and North, and in the face of 
 a hostile majority appointed the younger Pitt 
 Prime Minister. 
 
 Although the King did not always approve 
 Pitt’s measures, they were agreed in the general 
 policy to be pursued. Pitt’s India Bill in 1784 
 reduced the power of the East India Company 
 by submitting its political measures to the con¬ 
 trol of a commission named by the King. Al¬ 
 though at first he was not in favor of the war 
 against the French Republic, he soon became its 
 principal advocate. He was joined by a major¬ 
 ity of the Whig's, the most influential of whom 
 was Burke. Fox, however, remained his oppo¬ 
 nent, arguing that the demands of the democracy 
 should be met by reforms at home. The revolt 
 in Ireland, in connection with this war, resulted 
 in the Act of Union in 1800, but Pitt was com¬ 
 pelled to resign because the King was unwilling 
 to sanction Catholic emancipation in that coun¬ 
 try, which was one of the terms upon which 
 Pitt proposed the union. He soon resumed 
 power, however, and the war against Napoleon 
 was prosecuted vigorously and with success. 
 Nelson conquered at Trafalgar, and Wellington 
 drove the French out of Spain. The Congress of 
 Vienna allowed England to retain a large part 
 of the territories (Cape Colony, Ceylon, British 
 Guiana), gave her Mauritius, Tobago, and St. 
 Lucia, and confirmed her in the possession of 
 Malta, which she had wrested from the French in 
 the course of the French wars. But while the 
 war against Napoleon, simultaneously with 
 which a less successful conflict was waged with 
 the United States (1812-15), confirmed the 
 naval supremacy of England, it entailed upon 
 the country an enormous debt, at a time when 
 the great body of common laborers were in dire 
 distress as a first result of the industrial revo¬ 
 lution that followed from the introduction of 
 the spinning machine (1764), the weaving ma¬ 
 chine (1785), and the steam engine. For five 
 years following Waterloo it was the policy of 
 the government to suppress the unrest, while 
 the masses, on the other hand, were threatening 
 political revolt. In 1815 the first Corn Law, 
 in the interest of the landowners, forbade the 
 importation of corn until the price of the domes¬ 
 tic product should rise to 10s. a bushel. In 1817 
 the Habeas Corpus Act was suspended; in 1819 
 occurred the Manchester Massacre, and the no- 
 torious Six Acts, by which meetings for the con¬ 
 sideration of grievances were suppressed, were 
 enacted. In 1820 George IV, who had been ap¬ 
 pointed Regent for his insane father in 1811, 
 ascended the throne. 
 
 Democracy and Reform, 1820 till the Pres¬ 
 ent Time. With the accession of Canning to the 
 Foreign Office in 1822, England again entered 
 upon a more liberal policy by opposing the Holy 
 Alliance between Russia, Austria, and Prussia 
 for the suppression of democracy. In 1824 she 
 acknowledged the independence of the Spanish 
 colonies. Assistance was afforded to the Greek 
 patriots in their uprising against Turkey in 1827. 
 In 1823, under Sir Robert Peel, an enlightened 
 
 Tory, the criminal law was radically reformed 
 by the abolition of the death penalty for about 
 100 crimes, most of which were trivial offenses. 
 
 The combination laws, which prohibited any 
 workingmen’s associations, were repealed in 1825, 
 and thus the way was paved for the trades-unions 
 that followed. In 1823 and again in 1825 the 
 import duties were materially reduced. Both of 
 these measures were brought about through the 
 instrumentality of John Huskisson, President of 
 the Board of Trade. 
 
 During its long exclusion from office the Whig 
 party had changed from the close oligarchy of 
 the eighteenth century and had become the advo¬ 
 cate of democratic reforms. Lord John Russell, 
 its most energetic leader, waged a long struggle 
 in Parliament for liberal measures, and it was 
 largely owing to his efforts that the Corporation 
 Act and the Test Act, under which Catholics 
 and Dissenters had been excluded from all cor¬ 
 porate offices, were repealed in 1828 by a Tory 
 ministry, headed by the Duke of Wellington. 
 In 1829, in consequence of the O’Connell agita¬ 
 tion for the separation of Ireland from Great 
 Britain, Catholic emancipation was granted. At 
 length, in 1830, a few months after the accession 
 of William IV, the Whigs, by a fusion with the 
 more advanced Conservatives (Canningites), re¬ 
 turned to power with Earl Grey as Premier. 
 His ministry was celebrated for the number of 
 reforms it introduced. In 1831 Lord John Rus¬ 
 sell introduced the first Reform Bill in the 
 House of Commons, which, after an appeal to 
 the country, was indorsed by an overwhelming 
 majority and, notwithstanding the opposition 
 of the Lords, becamq a law in 1832. In its final 
 form this law took away the franchises of 56 
 boroughs and reduced - the membership of 32 
 others, distributing this representation among 
 the larger towns and more populous counties, 
 and it increased the number of voters from 430,- 
 000 to 650,000. By these measures it transferred 
 the balance of political power to the middle 
 classes of the towns. 
 
 In the next election the Ministerialists received 
 an overwhelming majority. This majority was 
 composed of two groups, the Radicals and the 
 Whigs, who assumed the common name of Lib¬ 
 erals. A number of important reforms were in¬ 
 troduced. The number of bishops of the Estab¬ 
 lished church of Ireland was reduced from 22 
 to 12, and certain ecclesiastical taxation was 
 levied on the clergy, instead of being levied on 
 the population at large. In 1833 slavery was 
 abolished in the colonies, and a compensation 
 of £20,000,000 was given to slaveowners. In 
 the same year the first Factory Act, limiting 
 the labor of children to eight hours a day, 
 was passed through the efforts of Lord Ashley, 
 and in 1834 the new Poor Law, abolishing out¬ 
 door relief and charity to the able-bodied, was 
 enacted. The Liberal ministry of Lord Mel¬ 
 bourne, which came to power in 1835, also 
 enacted a Municipal Corporations Act providing 
 for the election of corporations by the rate¬ 
 payers, in place of the old method of self-elec¬ 
 tion. In 1837 a rebellion in Canada gave occa¬ 
 sion for uniting the provinces of Upper and 
 Lower Canada into one province, under a new 
 constitution which embodied the essentials of 
 internal self-government. In 1838 the princi¬ 
 ples of the English Poor Law were extended to 
 Ireland, and a Tithe Act was passed, levying 
 the tithes on the landlord instead of on the ten¬ 
 ants. During this reform period the foreign 
 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 688 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 policy, which was directed by the brilliant Lord 
 Palmerston, acted as a check on the absolute 
 governments of Russia, Austria, and Prussia. 
 His support of the Sultan of Turkey against 
 Egypt, howeyer, brought about an estrange¬ 
 ment with France. With the accession of Queen 
 Victoria in 1837 the Kingdom of Hanover, not 
 allowing a woman to occupy the throne, became 
 detached from England. 
 
 In 1839 the Chartists (see Chartism), a body 
 of radical reformers, presented to the House of 
 Commons their petition for manhood suffrage, 
 vote by ballot, annual parliaments, the abolition 
 of property qualification, the payment of mem¬ 
 bers, and equal electoral districts. In 1841 the 
 new Conservative party came to power under 
 Sir Robert Peel. It was composed of the Tories 
 and of the more conservative Whigs under the 
 leadership of Lord Stanley, afterward the Earl 
 of Derby, who had left the Liberal party. By 
 anticipating the plans of the Liberals the Con¬ 
 servatives sought to make reforms, but in ac¬ 
 cordance with their own principles. In 1842 
 and 1845 Peel further reduced the protective 
 tariffs, providing an income tax to meet the 
 ensuing deficiency in the revenue. The condi¬ 
 tions of women and children employed in the 
 mines were improved by the efforts of Lord Ash¬ 
 ley in Parliament. In consequence of the spir¬ 
 ited campaign against the Corn Laws by the 
 Anti-Corn-Law League, which was headed by 
 Richard Cobden and John Bright, and under 
 the stress of the Irish famine, Peel went so far 
 as entirely to repeal the import duties on corn 
 in 1846. In this measure he was supported by 
 the Liberals, but opposed by the majority of his 
 own party, which represented the land interests. 
 He was consequently overthrown; but the Lib¬ 
 eral ministry of Lord John Russell, which fol¬ 
 lowed, introduced no measures of importance, 
 either to relieve the tenant farmers in Ireland 
 or to enlarge the suffrage in accordance with 
 the demands of the Chartists in England. The 
 foreign policy of all reform ministries had been 
 one of hostility to Russia. The invasion of 
 Afghanistan in 1839, intended as a measure 
 against Russian aggression, resulted in the disas¬ 
 trous retreat from Kabul and the annihilation 
 of a British army in 1842—a humiliation in a 
 measure retrieved by the subsequent successes 
 of the British. England’s alliance with France 
 in the Crimean War (1854-56), by which Rus¬ 
 sian aggression against Turkey was checked, 
 was actuated by the same motives. The leading 
 statesman identified with this aggressive policy 
 was Lord Palmerston. In the early part of the 
 reign of Victoria the British Empire in India 
 expanded with giant strides, Sind, the Punjab, 
 and Oudh being annexed between 1843 and 1846. 
 The Opium War with China (1840-42) gave 
 Hongkong to England. In 1857 occurred the 
 terrible mutiny of the Indian Sepoys, the native 
 troops in British employ. On the suppression 
 of the mutiny Parliament put an end to the 
 authority of the East India Company by making 
 India a crown colony. Its Governor-General 
 (henceforth Viceroy) was brought directly under 
 the British monarch. 
 
 During the third Derby ministry Disraeli, its 
 real leader, carried the Second Reform Act, 
 by the aid of the Liberals, in 1867. This Act 
 established, practically, household suffrage in 
 the towns, thus giving to the workingmen a voice 
 in political affairs, and greatly enlarged the suf¬ 
 frage in the country. The first ministry of 
 
 Gladstone, which followed (1868-74), resembled 
 the ministry of Earl Grey in the number of re¬ 
 forms it inaugurated. The attempted Irish revo¬ 
 lutions of 1848 and 1867 (see Fenian Society) 
 had convinced Gladstone of the necessity of 
 the redress of Irish grievances. In 1869-71 the 
 Irish church was disestablished and disendowed. 
 A Land Act in 1870 compelled landlords to com¬ 
 pensate tenants for improvements in cases of 
 eviction and provided for government loans to 
 tenants wishing to buy their holdings. For¬ 
 ster’s Education Act provided for national pri¬ 
 mary schools and for compulsory attendance, 
 in place of the public aid which had previously 
 been given to private institutions. The purchase 
 of positions in the army was abolished in 1871, 
 and the Ballot Act of 1872 instituted secret vot¬ 
 ing at elections. Gladstone’s foreign policy was 
 weak but pacific. He allowed Russia to abro¬ 
 gate her treaty obligations guaranteeing neutral¬ 
 ity in the Black Sea, and he settled the Alabama 
 claims by the payment of $15,000,000 to the 
 United States, in accordance with the decision of 
 a court of arbitration which sat at Geneva in 
 1871. 
 
 The second ministry of Disraeli (1874-80), on 
 the other hand, was noted chiefly for its aggres¬ 
 sive foreign policy. He had Queen Victoria pro¬ 
 claimed Empress of India in 1877. His interfer¬ 
 ence robbed Russia of the fruits of her victory 
 over Turkey in 1878 and secured Cyprus for Eng¬ 
 land, and in the same year he made war upon 
 Afghanistan, whose sovereign was leaning to¬ 
 wards Russia. In Africa a controlling interest 
 in the Suez Canal was acquired, the Transvaal 
 was annexed (soon, however, to be set free), and 
 the Zulus were subdued. In his second ministry 
 (1880-85) Gladstone also was compelled to ex¬ 
 tend the Empire by suppressing the revolt of 
 the native Egyptians under Arabi Pasha against 
 the dual control of the finances of Egypt by 
 France and England. As a result of this war 
 Egypt came under British control. Forster’s 
 Land Act of 1881 provided for free sale, fair 
 rents, and fixity of tenure in Ireland, and the 
 Third Reform Act in 1884 gave to the country 
 the universal suffrage already practically estab¬ 
 lished in the towns. 
 
 Subsequent legislation has been largely demo¬ 
 cratic in character. The local government meas¬ 
 ures (1888, 1892, 1899) took the local govern¬ 
 ment out of the hands of the gentry by the 
 establishment of county councils (q.v.) elected 
 by the people. Under this act Greater London 
 at last received the self-government it had so 
 long deserved by being organized as a county. 
 The proposed Home Rule acts were a result of 
 the demands of the great majority of the Irish 
 people under the leadership of Charles Stewart 
 Parnell. Gladstone’s first act, in 1885, was re¬ 
 jected by the Commons, and caused the disrup¬ 
 tion of the Liberal party. A strong minority, 
 under the leadership of Lord Hartington and 
 Joseph Chamberlain, revolted and, assuming the 
 name of Liberal Unionists, joined the Conserva¬ 
 tives. Gladstone’s second Home Rule measure 
 (1895) was accepted by the Commons, but re¬ 
 jected by the Lords, and the next general election 
 returned the Conservatives to power with Salis¬ 
 bury as Premier. The aggressive policy of 
 Joseph Chamberlain, the Colonial Secretary, in¬ 
 volved the nation in a bloody war with the two 
 Dutch republics of South Africa in 1899. (See 
 South African War.) The struggle which 
 opened with serious British reverses nevertheless 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 689 
 
 ended in the subjugation of the Boers. In the 
 course of this struggle Queen Victoria died, Jan. 
 22, 1901, and was succeeded by her son, Ed¬ 
 ward VII. 
 
 In 1902 a new Education Bill was enacted in 
 spite of violent opposition on the part of the 
 Liberal and Nonconformist elements aroused by 
 the extensive favors the new measure conferred 
 on the Anglican denomination. In 1903 a Land 
 Act for Ireland was passed, providing the sum of 
 £100,000,000 for distribution in the form of long¬ 
 term loans to tenants for the purpose of ena¬ 
 bling them to acquire ownership of the land 
 they occupied. 
 
 In 1903 Joseph Chamberlain injected a mo¬ 
 mentous question into the sphere of party poli¬ 
 tics by bringing forward suggestions for an 
 alteration in the fiscal arrangements of the 
 country, equivalent to the abandonment of the 
 time-honored system of free trade. For the pur¬ 
 pose of bringing about closer relations between 
 the United Kingdom and its colonies so as to 
 enable British interests more effectually to com¬ 
 pete with the growing rivalry of Germany and 
 the United States in the commercial field, as 
 well as to establish an effective system of Im¬ 
 perial defense, he proposed that, in exchange for 
 preferential tariff treatment of British manu¬ 
 factures by the colonies as against foreign manu¬ 
 factures the United Kingdom should impose a 
 duty on food imports from foreign countries and 
 admit colonial produce free. The tariff question 
 was debated extensively in Parliament through¬ 
 out 1904 and 1905 with no other result than 
 that of emphasizing the unpopularity of Cham¬ 
 berlain’s views. In December, 1905, the Balfour 
 cabinet found its position untenable and re¬ 
 signed. A Liberal ministry was organized by 
 Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman (q.v.), who im¬ 
 mediately thereafter appealed to the country. 
 The general election of January, 1906, was 
 fought out on the issues of tariff reform, repeal 
 of the Education Bill of 1902, and the policy 
 of the Unionist government in the matter of 
 admitting Chinese labor into the Transvaal, and 
 resulted in an overwhelming defeat for the 
 Unionist party, the Liberals receiving a major¬ 
 ity of over 300. In April, 1906, the government 
 introduced an Education Bill which dealt radi¬ 
 cally with the question of religious instruction 
 in the schools and in a spirit acceptable to those 
 who had opposed the bill of 1902. The measure 
 was passed by a large majority in the House of 
 Commons, but in the House of Lords it was bit¬ 
 terly assailed by the Anglicans and so radically 
 amended that it was dropped, not, however, with¬ 
 out producing strained relations between the 
 Lords and the government and agitation on the 
 part of the Radicals for the abolition of the 
 Upper House. 
 
 In the sphere of foreign politics British pres¬ 
 tige, which had suffered badly in the course of 
 the South African War, reached a higher point 
 than ever in the three years following the con¬ 
 clusion of peace with the Boers. In" the East 
 Great Britain appears as the ally of triumphant 
 Japan, with which treaties were concluded in 
 1902 and 1905. (See Japan.) Its position in 
 India was strengthened by the second of these 
 two treaties, by the confirmation of treaty rela¬ 
 tions with the Ameer of Afghanistan in 1905, 
 and the establishment of trade relations with 
 Tibet (q.v.) in 1904. Its position in Egypt was 
 improved by the agreement of April 8, 1904, with 
 France, in which the latter power gave its con¬ 
 
 sent to the indefinite continuance of the status 
 quo, and by the enforcement of British claims 
 to the Sinai territory against Turkey in 1906 
 The agreement of i904 with France was of 
 primary importance for European politics also 
 as marking the establishment of peculiarly in¬ 
 timate relations between the two Powers in 
 their opposition to German policy. 
 
 The strained relation between the government 
 and the House of Lords continued unabated, and 
 in 1907 the government resolved that the powers 
 of the Lords in rejecting and delaying legislation 
 ought to be checked. The same year Herbert 
 Henry Asquith, in preparing the budget, re¬ 
 duced the tax on incomes directly earned in 
 comparison with that on incomes derived from 
 real property and from investments. When 
 Campbell-Bannerman died, in 1908, and was suc¬ 
 ceeded by Asquith, there was another failure 
 to pass an Education Bill, and although the 
 Lords agreed to an Old Age Pension Bill, 1 which 
 had been formerly promised by the Unionists, 
 they rejected a bill from the Commons for re¬ 
 ducing by one-third the number of houses li¬ 
 censed to sell intoxicating liquors. In 1909 
 David Lloyd-George, the new Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer, in preparing a budget that would 
 enable England to meet the increasing naval 
 efficiency of foreign powers, greatly increased 
 the tax on liquor licenses, increased the tax on 
 incomes exceeding £5000 a year, and laid a 
 tax on land calculated to appropriate to the use 
 of the state a portion of the unearned increment. 
 The Lords, accepting this budget as a challenge, 
 threw it out. The government went twice to 
 the country in 1910 with the issue and was 
 sustained each time. The same year Edward 
 VII, who was one of the most sagacious occupants 
 of the English throne since William III, died 
 and was succeeded by George V. In 1911 the 
 House of Commons, considering itself authorized 
 to settle its difficulty with the House of Lords, 
 passed a Parliament Bill depriving the Lords 
 of practically all power over money bills and 
 providing that any other bill which passes the 
 House of Commons unchanged in three succes¬ 
 sive sessions of the same or successive parlia¬ 
 ments does not require the assent of the Lords 
 to become a law. The Parliament Bill passed 
 the Lords under a threat to create new peers 
 if necessary, and the first important measures 
 to pass into laws under the operation of this 
 somewhat revolutionary Act were a Bill dises¬ 
 tablishing the Anglican church in Wales (1914) 
 and a Home Rule Bill for Ireland 1914). (See 
 Government.) To meet the threatening violent 
 opposition to the latter Act by the Protestants 
 of Ulster the House of Commons passed in 1914 
 an Amending Bill allowing the electors of each 
 county of Ulster to decide whether or not their 
 county shall be excluded from the operation of 
 Home Rule for a period of six years. Another 
 part of the radical programme of the Liberals 
 was the National Insurance Bill, passed in 
 1912, and providing both national health in¬ 
 surance and unemployment insurance. For sev¬ 
 eral years the militant branch of the woman's 
 suffrage movement had been a disturbing factor 
 in political and social England, but apparently 
 without enhancing the cause. 
 
 The great war which began in 1914 came at 
 a most inauspicious moment for the United 
 Kingdom. Ireland was on the verge of civil 
 war, the army was in a poor condition, and the 
 vast increase in naval appropriations, together 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM 690 
 
 with the disagreement with the colonies over the 
 naval policy, presented serious internal prob¬ 
 lems. A Suspensory Bill was passed which sus¬ 
 pended from operation the Home Rule Act and 
 the Welsh Disestablishment Act until 12 months 
 from the passage of the acts or until such 
 later date (not being later than the end of the 
 present war) as mav be fixed by His Majesty 
 by Order in Council.” In 1915 the operation of 
 the Acts was definitely suspended until the close 
 of the war. War measures were passed pro¬ 
 viding for authorization of war credits; a De¬ 
 fense 0 of the Realm Act, aimed against espio¬ 
 nage ; government control of the railroads and a 
 strict censorship of the press. 
 
 Three great problems faced the British gov¬ 
 ernment in 1915, viz., finances, supply of muni¬ 
 tions, and the recruitment of the army. (For 
 a full treatment of the first of these, see War 
 in Europe.) By April, 1915, 750,000 men of 
 “Kitchener’s Army” had been sent to the front. 
 However it was soon evident that Great Britain 
 was not supplying enough men to meet the task 
 assigned her in western Europe. Conscription, 
 as opposed to volunteer enlistment, was proposed 
 by many prominent men, although the cabinet 
 seemed loath to take it up. The last three 
 months of 1915 witnessed a great campaign for 
 recruits, known as the Derby Recruiting Cam¬ 
 paign. It was conducted by Lord Derby* and 
 was the final effort of the government to avoid 
 forcing conscription on the unwilling workmen. 
 Lord Derby estimated that his campaign yielded 
 831,062 men. In January, 1916, the Military 
 Service Bill was introduced, which provided that 
 all bachelors and widowers (having no children 
 dependent on them), between the ages of 18 and 
 41, were liable for military service. Ireland 
 was excluded. The Laborites and Miners’ Fed¬ 
 eration were bitterly opposed to the Bill. It 
 was passed by a majority of 4 to 1 on its fiist 
 reading. Premier Asquith postponed action on 
 the Conscription Bill until May, 1916, when it 
 was again introduced, and passed. 
 
 The supply of munitions was undeniably in¬ 
 adequate to meet the needs of the new army, 
 although the rate of production was rapidly 
 increased. Agreements were made with the 
 labor unions by which semiskilled and female 
 labor could be used without any discriminations 
 against the unions. The government took over 
 the control of all factories which were capable of 
 producing war munitions. Nevertheless strikes 
 and lockouts caused serious losses of time and 
 supplies. A Munitions Act was passed which 
 provided for government supervision of all 
 manufacturing and which made strikes and 
 lockouts illegal and proposed government arbi¬ 
 tration for all disputes. 
 
 In May, 1915, a cabinet crisis occurred over 
 the quarrel between Winston Churchill, First 
 Lord of the Admiralty, and Lord Fisher, First 
 Sea Lord. The result was the formation of a 
 coalition cabinet. Eight members of the cabinet 
 were asked to resign, and eight Unionists were 
 brought in. Two new positions were created. 
 (S ee" Government.) The new cabinet consisted 
 
 * Edward George Villiers Stanley, seventeenth Earl 
 Derby, born (1865) in London; educated at Wellington Col¬ 
 lege- lieutenant, Grenadier Guards (1885-95); aid to the 
 Governor General of Canada (1889—91); in South Africa as 
 chief press censor and private secretary to Lord Roberts 
 (1899-1901); a Lord of the Treasury (1895-1900); Financial 
 Secretary to the War Office (1900-03); Postmaster-general 
 (1903-05); member of Parliament (1892-1906); took seat in 
 House of Lords (1908); appointed director of recruiting 
 (1915); Undersecretary for War (1916). 
 
 of 12 Liberals, 8 Unionists, 1 Labor member, and 
 Lord Kitchener, who lost his life on June 5 
 when the Hampshire was lost off the Orkney 
 Islands. In the course of the year Winston 
 Churchill and Sir Edward Carson resigned. In 
 December, 1915, Parliament introduced a Bill 
 to prolong its life for 12 months. By a later 
 compromise this was reduced to eight months. 
 
 In April, 1916, a serious outbreak occurred 
 in Ireland. It was presumably engineered by 
 Sir Roger Casement t in Germany. He was cap¬ 
 tured as he was about to land in Ireland from 
 a German vessel, tried by court-martial, and sen¬ 
 tenced to death. The Irish organization behind 
 the revolution was the Sinn Fein (the Celtic 
 equivalent for “ourselves alone”). It is a revival 
 of the Young Irish movement of 1848 and opened 
 a branch in New York City in 1907. It is a 
 society whose purpose is purely national and is 
 opposed to Home Rule for Ireland on the grounds 
 that it is too conservative. Being nonsectarian, 
 it hoped for an Irish republic which would ap¬ 
 peal both to the Irish Catholics and the Ulster 
 Protestants. The rebels seized many buildings 
 in Dublin, and several insurrections broke out 
 in other parts of the country. Martial law 
 was declared and troops were immediately sent 
 over from England. After several days of 
 street fighting and the destruction of many 
 buildings, the government troops were in con¬ 
 trol of the situation. Some of the leaders were 
 taken to England, tried by court-martial, and 
 shot. 
 
 As a result of the activities of spies, and in 
 consequence of the violent popular excitement 
 caused by German Zeppelin raids and submarine 
 warfare, a strong tide of anti-German feeling 
 swept over the British Empire. For the diplo¬ 
 matic, military, economic, and financial aspects 
 of the war, see War in Europe. 
 
 Bibliography. Antiquities: Thomas Codring- 
 ton, Roman Roads in Britain (London, 1903) ; 
 G. B. Brown, Arts in> Early England (vols. i, ii, 
 New York, 1903; vols. iii, iv, ib., 1915) ; T. R. 
 Holmes, Ancient Britain and the Invasions of 
 Julius C cesar (Oxford, 1907); John Ward, 
 Romano-British Buildings and Earthworks (Lon¬ 
 don, 1911) ; id., The Roman Era in Britain (ib., 
 
 1911) ; Walter Johnson, Byways in British 
 Archceology (New York, 1912) ; John Aber- 
 cromby, Study of the Bronze Age Pottery of 
 Great Britain and Ireland and its Associated 
 Grave-Goods (2 vols., Oxford, 1912) ; A. H. 
 Lyell, Bibliographical List Descriptive of Ro¬ 
 mano-British Architectural Remains in Great 
 Britain (New York, 1912) ; F. J. Haverfield, 
 Romanization of Roman Britain (2d ed., Oxford, 
 
 1912) ; E. T. Leeds, Archceology of the Anglo- 
 
 Saxon Settlements (ib., 1913) ; F. J. Haverfield, 
 Roman Britain in 1913 (ib., 1914) ; Robert 
 
 Munro, Prehistoric Britain (New York, 1914) ; 
 also The Archceological Journal (London, 1845, 
 annually) ; British Archaeological Association, 
 Journal (ib., 1846, annually) ; The Archceologi¬ 
 cal Review: A Journal of Historic and Prehis¬ 
 toric Antiquities (4 vols., ib., 1888—90). 
 
 Constitutional history: E. A. Freeman, 
 Groioth of the English Constitution (3d ed., 
 
 t Sir Roger Casement, born in 1864; held consular office 
 1 various parts of the world and in 1909—13 was British 
 onsul General at Rio de Janeiro; during the early part of 
 ie European War made sensational anti-English utterances, 
 ad was suspected of plots to aid Germany and gain Ger- 
 ian help for an “emancipation” of Ireland; escaped to 
 ontinent and reward of £5000 was offered by British 
 overnment for his arrest. 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 691 
 
 London, 1876) ; Sir E. S. Creasy, Rise and 
 Progress of the English Constitution (rev. ed., 
 New York, 1895) ; Sir J. H. Ramsay, Founda¬ 
 tions of England (2 vols., ib., 1898-1902) ; 
 Sir William Stubbs, Select Charters and- Other 
 Illustrations of English Constitutional History 
 to 1307 (8th ed., Oxford, 1900) ; id., Historical 
 Introductions to the Rolls Series (New York, 
 1902) ; Hannis Taylor, Origin and Growth of 
 the British Constitution (2 vols., Boston, 1904) ; 
 Hunt and Poole, Political History of England 
 (12 vols., New York, 1905-09); S. R. Gardiner, 
 Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revo¬ 
 lution (3d ed., Oxford, 1906) ; L. O. Pike, Pub¬ 
 lic Records and the Constitution (ib., 1907) ; 
 G. B. Adams, Origin of the English Constitu¬ 
 tion (New Haven, 1912) ; T. P. Taswell-Lang- 
 mead, English Constitutional History from the 
 Teutonio Conquest to the Present Time (7th 
 ed., Boston, 1912) ; T. E. Macy, Constitutional 
 History of England (new ed., 2 vols., New York, 
 
 1912) ; J. H. B. Masterman, History of the 
 British Constitution (ib., 1912) ; D. J. Medley, 
 Student’s Manual of English Constitutional His¬ 
 tory (5th ed., ib., 1913) ; J. A. R. Marriott, 
 English Political Institutions (2d ed., Oxford, 
 
 1913) ; Henry Hallam, Constitutional History of 
 England (new ed., in Everyman’s Library, 3 
 vols., New York, 1913) ; A. V. Dicey, Introduc¬ 
 tion to the Study of the Law of the Constitution 
 (8th ed., ib., 1915). 
 
 Social life and customs: Thomas Wright, Cari¬ 
 cature History of the Georges (London, 1868) ; 
 John Ashton, Social Life in the Reign of Queen 
 Anne (ib., 1882) ; id., The Dawn of the Nine¬ 
 teenth Century in England: A Social Sketch of 
 the Times (2 vols., ib., 1886) ; id., Social Eng¬ 
 land under the Regency (2 vols., ib., 1890) ; 
 J. A. A. J. Jusserand, English Wayfaring Life 
 in the Middle Ages (Eng. trans. by L. T. Smith; 
 2d ed., ib., 1889) ; E. P. Cheyney, Social Changes 
 in England in the Sixteenth Century as Reflected 
 in Contemporary Literature (Boston, 1895) ; 
 Joseph Strutt, Sports and Pastimes of the 
 People of England (New York, 1899) ; P. H. 
 Ditchfield, Old English Customs Extant at the 
 Present Time (London, 1901); Leslie Stephen, 
 English Literature and Society in the Eighteenth 
 Century, Ford Lectures, 1903 (ib., 1904) ; W. C. 
 Hazlitt, Brand’s Popular Antiquities of Great 
 Britain: Faiths and Folklore ... (2 vols., ib., 
 1905).; F. A. Gasquet, Parish Life in Mediceval 
 England (ib., 1906) ; A. S. Green, Town Life in 
 the Fifteenth Century (new ed., New York, 
 1907) ; C. G. Harper, Half-Hours with the Higli- 
 ivaymen (2 vols., London, 1908) ; Stephen Rey¬ 
 nolds, A Poor Man’s House (2d ed., ib., 1910) ; 
 T. S. Knowlson, Origins of Popular Superstitions 
 and Customs (New York, 1910) ; Traill and 
 Mann, Social England (12 vols., London, 1910) ; 
 A. F. Dodd, Early English Social History from 
 the Chronicles (ib., 1913) ; R. H. Gretton, A 
 Modern History of the English People (2d ed., 
 2 vols., ib., 1913 et seq.) ; H. G. Wells, Social 
 Forces in England and America (New York, 
 
 1914) ; also contemporary letters and diaries. 
 
 Politics and government: William Cobbett, 
 
 Parliamentary History of England (36 vols., 
 London, 1806-20), followed by Hansard’s Parlia¬ 
 mentary Debates, published in three series end¬ 
 ing with the year 1891; Sir John Fortescue, 
 Governance of England (Oxford, 1885); W. E. 
 Hall, Treatise on the Foreign Powers and Juris¬ 
 diction of the British Crown (ib., 1894) ; 
 
 Wright and Hobhouse, Outline of Local Gov¬ 
 
 ernment and. Local Taxation in England and 
 Wales (London, 1898) ; Goldwin Smith, The 
 United Kingdom: J Political History (ib., 
 1899) ; J. A. Hobson, Imperialism (ib., 1902) ; 
 Butler-Jobnstone, Imperial Federation and 
 Polity (ib., 1902); M. R. I 1 . Dorman, History 
 of the British Empire in the Nineteenth • Century 
 (4 vols., Philadelphia, 1904); H. M. Chadwick, 
 Studies in Anglo-Saxon Institutions (New York, 
 1905) ; A. L. Lowell, Government of England 
 (2 vols., ib., 1908) ; T. F. Moran, Theory and 
 Practice of English Government (ib., 1908); 
 H. E. Maxwell, Century of Empire, ISO 1-1900 
 (3 vols., ib., 1909-11); A. I. Dasent, Speakers 
 of the House of Commons from the Earliest 
 Times to the Present Day (ib., 1911); Acland 
 and Ransome, Handbook in Outline of the Politi¬ 
 cal History of England to 1913 (9th ed., ib., 
 
 1913) ; P. H. Brown, Legislative Union of Eng¬ 
 land and Scotland (Oxford, 1914) ; Henry Higgs, 
 Financial System of the United Kingdom (New 
 York, 1914) ; Charles Seymour, Electoral Re¬ 
 form in England and Wales (New Haven, 1915). 
 
 History, Sources: G. C. Lee, Source Book of 
 English History (New York, 1900) ; Adams and 
 Stephens (eds.), Select Documents of English 
 Constitutional History (ib., 1901); H. Hall 
 (ed.), Studies in English Official Historical 
 Documents (ib., 1908) ; Leonard Rice-Oxley, 
 
 Memoirs as a Source of English History (Ox¬ 
 ford, 1914) ; N. L. Frazer, English History 
 Illustrated from Original Sources (4 vols., New 
 York, 1915) ; Charles Gross, Sources and Litera¬ 
 ture of English History from the Earliest Times 
 to about U’i85 (2d ed., ib., 1915) ; White and 
 Notestein (eds.), Source Problems in English 
 History • (ib., 1915); also Anglo-Saxon Laws, 
 edited by Thorpe (London, 1840) ; the various 
 collections in the Rolls Series, the publication of 
 which was begun at London in 1856; the Calen¬ 
 dar of State Papers, embracing all state docu¬ 
 ments, home and foreign, now extending from 
 1509 to 1701; the official Journals of the House 
 of Lords (London, 1577, to the present day) 
 and of the House of Commons (beginning 
 1547) ; Statutes of the Realm (Record Commis¬ 
 sion, 1810-22) ; the Publications of the Camden 
 Society, and of other historical and antiquarian 
 societies. 
 
 General: A. T. Story, Building of the British 
 Empire (2 vols., New York, 1898) ; Thomas 
 Hodgkin, History of England from the Earliest 
 Times (London, 1906) ; A. W. Jose, Growth 
 of the Empire (New York, 1907); C. R. L. 
 Fletcher, Introductory History of England from 
 the Earliest Times (new ed., 2 vols., ib., 1911) ; 
 R. H. Gretton, Modern History of the English 
 People (2 vols., Boston, 1913) ; H. T. Buckle, 
 History of Civilization in England (new ed., 4 
 vols., New York, 1913) ; A. D. Innes, History of 
 England and the British Empire (4 vols., ib., 
 1913-15) ; Herbertson and Howarth, Oxford Sur¬ 
 vey of the British Empire (6 vols., Oxford, 
 
 1914) ; T. B. Macaulay, History of England 
 (new ed., New York, i914—15) ; J. R. Green, 
 Short History of the English People (new ed., 
 2 vols., ib., 1915) ; L. M. Larson, Short History 
 of England and the British Empire (ib., 1915). 
 To Tudor period; J. M. Kemble, The Saxons 
 in England (new ed., 2 vols., London, 1876) ; 
 John Rhys, Celtic Britain (New York, 1882); 
 H. W. C. Davis, England under the Normans 
 and Angevins (ib., 1905) ; W. G. Collingwood, 
 Scandinavian Britain (London, 1908) ; E. A. 
 Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest (3d 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 692 
 
 ed., abridged ed., Oxford, 1008) ; K. B. ^ ickers, 
 England in the Later Middle Ages (New York, 
 1013) ; C. H. Haskins, The Normans in Euro¬ 
 pean History (Boston, 1015). Tudor and Stuart 
 periods: S. R. Gardiner, History of the Great 
 Civil War, 1642-1649 (New York, 1804) ; id., 
 History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate 
 (4 vols., ib., 1001) ; A. D. Innes, England under 
 the Tudors (ib., 1005) ; G. M. Trevelyan, England 
 under the Stuarts (ib., 1005) ; II. A. L. Fisher, 
 History of England from the Accession of Henry 
 VII to the Death of Henry VIII (ib., 1006) ; F. C. 
 Montague, History of England from the Acces¬ 
 sion of James I to the Restoration (ib., 1007) ; 
 Lecky, England in the Eighteenth Century (pop¬ 
 ular * ed., 7 vols., ib., 1013); F. W. Bewsher, 
 The Reformation and the Renaissance, 1485- 
 1547 (London, 1013). 1700 to date: W. J. Cory, 
 Guide to Modern English History (2 vols., New 
 York, 1880-82) ; Justin McCarthy, History of 
 the Four Georges (4 vols., ib., 1001) ; id., His¬ 
 tory of our own Times (new ed., ib., 1001-05) ; 
 H. W. Paul, History of Modern England, 1846- 
 1896 (5 vols., New YMrk, 1004-06) ; William 
 Hunt, History of England, from the Accession of 
 George II to . . . 1801 (ib., 1005); Low and 
 Sanders, History of England during the Reign 
 of Victoria (ib., 1007) ; I. S. Leadam, History 
 of England from the Accession of Anne to the 
 Death of George II (London, 1000) ; H. E. 
 Maxwell, A Century of Empire, 1801-1900 (3 
 vols., New York, 1000-11) ; Richard Lodge, His¬ 
 tory of England from the Restoration to the 
 Death of William 111 (ib., 1010) ; C. G. Robert¬ 
 son, England under the Hanoverians (ib., 1011) ; 
 C. W. C. Oman, England in the nineteenth 
 Century (ib., 1015). 
 
 Colonial history: R. C. Jebb, Studies in 
 Colonial nationalism (New York, 1005) ; Victor 
 Berard, British Imperialism, and Commercial 
 Supremacy (ib., 1006) ; Ellison and Walpole 
 (eds.), Church and Empire (ib., 1007); G. L. 
 Beer, British Colonial Policy, 1754—1765 (ib., 
 
 1007); id., Origins of the British Colonial 
 System, 1578-1660 (ib., 1008) ; H. C. Morris, 
 History of Colonisation (2 vols., ib., 1008) ; 
 Charles Bruce, The Broad Stone of Empire (2 
 vols., ib., 1010) ; J. E. Barker, Great and Greater 
 Britain (ib., 1010) ; W. J. Ashley, British Do¬ 
 minions: Their Present Commercial and In¬ 
 dustrial Condition (ib., 1011); A. M. Milner, 
 The nation and the Empire (Boston, 1013); 
 E. G. Wakefield, View and Art of Colonization 
 (Oxford, 1014) ; C. P. Lucas, Historical Geog¬ 
 raphy of the British Colonies (3d ed., 6 vols., 
 ib., 1014) ; Beinting and Collen, Geography of 
 the British Empire (New York, 1014) ; A. L. 
 Cross, History of England and Greater Britain 
 (ib., 1014) ; J. A. Cramb, Origins and Destiny 
 of Imperial Britain (ib., 1015). 
 
 Economic conditions: G. P. Bevan, English 
 Manufacturing Industries (13 vols., London, 
 1876) ; J. E. T. Rogers, Six Centuries of Work 
 and Wages (ib., 1800) ; Charles Gross, The 
 Gild Merchant (2 vols., Oxford, 1800) ; Henry 
 Allsopp, Introduction to English Industrial His¬ 
 tory (New York, 1802) ; Cassell’s Gazetteer (6 
 vols., London, 1803-08) ; R. C. T. Jones, British 
 Merchant Service (ib., 1808) ; G. T. Warren, 
 Landmarks in English Industrial History (4th 
 ed., New York, 1800) ; A. L. Bowley, Wages 
 in the United Kingdom in the Nineteenth Cen¬ 
 tury (London, 1000) ; E. P. Cheynev, Introduc¬ 
 tion to Industrial and Social History of England 
 (New York, 1001); Sidney and Beatrice Webb, 
 
 Industrial Democracy (new ed., ib., 1002) ; Wil¬ 
 liam Cunningham, The Groictli of English In¬ 
 dustry and Commerce in Modern Times (4th ed., 
 ib., 1004) ; H. J. Mackinder, Britain and Brit¬ 
 ish Seas (2d ed., ib., 1007); W. J. Ashley, 
 British Industries (ib., 1007) ; W. H. Macrosty, 
 The Trust Movement in British Industry (ib., 
 1007); W. C. D. and C. D. Whetham, The 
 Family and the Nation (ib., 1000) ; Cunningham 
 and M’Arthur, Outlines of English Industrial 
 History (ib., 1010) ; William Smart, Economic 
 Annals of the Nineteenth Century (ib., 1010) ; 
 William Cunningham, The Growth of English 
 Industry and Commerce during the Early and 
 Middle Ages (5th ed., ib., 1010) ; Sidney and 
 Beatrice Webb, History of Trade Unionism (new 
 ed., ib., 1011); H. de B. Gibbins, Industry in 
 England: Historical Outlines (ib., 1014) ; F. W. 
 Tickner, Social and Industrial History of Eng¬ 
 land (ib., 1015); H. L. Burrows, English In¬ 
 dustry and Trade (London, 1015) ; E. C. Stevens, 
 English Railways: Their Development and their 
 Relation to the State (ib., 1016). 
 
 Finance: Robert Giffen, Essays in Finance (2 
 series, London, 1870-80, 1886) ; S. C. Buxton, 
 Finance and Politics: A Historical Study 1783— 
 1885 (2 vols., ib., 1888) ; Walter Bagehot, Lom¬ 
 bard Street: A Description of the Money Market 
 (new ed. by E. Johnstone, ib., 1806) ; C. A. 
 Conant, History of Modern Banks of Issue (ib., 
 1806) ; B. B. Turner, Chronicles of the Bank of 
 England (ib., 1807); T. A. Stephens, Contribu¬ 
 tions to Bibliography of the Bank of England 
 (ib., 1807) ; J. W. Root, Studies in British 
 National Finance (Liverpool, 1000) ; Henry 
 Higgs, Financial System of the United Kingdom 
 (London, 1914) ; S. B. Terry, Financing of the 
 Hundred Years’ War, 1337-1360 (ib., 1914) ; 
 E. FI. Young, System of National Finance (ib., 
 1915) ; W. R. Lawson, British War Finance, 
 1914-15 (ib., 1915) ; also the Blue Books and 
 Journal of the Royal Statistical Society (Lon¬ 
 don, quarterly). 
 
 Defense, army: Wolseley, The Standing Army 
 of Great Britain (London, 1893) ; Clarke, Im¬ 
 perial Defence (ib., 1897) ; Fortescue, History 
 of the British Army (ib., 1899); David Han- 
 nay, Naval Courts Martial (New York, 1914) ; 
 and, for the Volunteers, Wilkinson, The Volun¬ 
 teers and the National Defence (London, 1806). 
 Navy: Lord Brassey, The British Navy (5 vols., 
 ib., 1882-83) ; James, The Naval History of 
 Great Britain (6 vols., ib., 1886) ; A. T. Mahan, 
 The Influence of Sea Power upon History (ib., 
 1800) ; Eardley-Wilmot, Our Fleet To-Day and 
 its Development during the Past Half Century 
 (ib., 1000) ; W. L. Clowes and Others, The 
 Royal Navy (5 vols., ib., 1807-1900) ; E. Pro- 
 thero, The British Navy: Its Making and its 
 Meaning (New York, 1015). 
 
 Education: James Lyte and Others, Great 
 Public Schools (London, 1806) ; C. Morley, 
 Studies in Board Schools (ib., 1807) ; J. E. G. de 
 Montmorency, State Intervention in English 
 Education (Cambridge, 1002) ; Graham Balfour, 
 Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ire¬ 
 land (2d ed., Oxford, 1003) ; J. C. Greenough, 
 Evolution of Elementary Schools of Great 
 Britain (New York, 1003) ; A. F. Leach, Educa¬ 
 tional Charters and Documents from 598 to 1909 
 (ib., 1011) ; Athelstan Riley and Others, The Re¬ 
 ligious Question in Public Education (ib., 1911) ; 
 Margaret McMillan, The Child and the State 
 (Manchester, 1011); Irene Parker, Dissenting 
 Academies in England: Their Rise and Progress 
 

 UNITED METHODIST CHURCHES 693 UNITED PROVINCES 
 
 and their Place among the Educational Systems 
 of the Country (Cambridge, 1914) ; J. B. Coissac, 
 Les institutions scolaires de VEcosse depuis les 
 origines jusqu’en 1560 (Paris, 1914); A. F. 
 Leach, Schools of Medieval England, in ‘‘Anti¬ 
 quary’s Books” ( London, 1915) ; also “Educa¬ 
 tion in Great Britain and Ireland,” in United 
 States Bureau of Education, Reports (Washing¬ 
 ton, 1889 et seq. )• 
 
 Religion: J. 1L Pattison, Rise and Progress of 
 Religious Life in England (London, 1864) ; 
 J. Stoughton, History of Religion in England 
 (new ed., 6 vols., ib., 1881); id., Religion in 
 England: First Half of the Present Century 
 (2 vols., ib., 1884) ; F. Makower, Constitutional 
 History of the Church of England (Eng. trans., 
 ib., 1895) ; Henry Gee, Documents Illustrative 
 of English Church History (ib., 1896) ; William 
 Hunt, The English Church in the Middle Ages 
 (ib., 1899) ; S. R. Maitland, The Reformation in 
 England (New York, 1906) ; F. A. Gasquet, 
 Henry ^ III and the English Monasteries (ib., 
 1906) ; H. N. Birt, Elizabethan Religious Senti¬ 
 ment (ib., 1907); Hugh Williams, Christianity 
 in Early Britain (Oxford, 1912) ; W. H. Flecker, 
 British Church History to A.D. 1000 (ib., 1913) ; 
 also bibliography under England, Church of. 
 
 Fauna and flora: Sir W. J. Hooker, Mus- 
 cologia Britannica (2d ed., London, 1827); id., 
 British Flora (6th ed., ib., 1850); id., British 
 Ferns (ib., 1861); W. MacGillivray, British 
 Birds (new ed., 5 vols., ib., 1852) ; W. Yarrell, 
 History of British Birds (3d ed., 3 vols., ib., 
 1856) ; E. F. Staveley, British Insects (ib., 
 1871); H. A. Nicholson, Natural History: Its 
 Rise and Progress in Britain (Edinburgh, i886) ; 
 J. Bentham, Handbook of British Flora (5th 
 ed. by J. D. Hooker, ib., 1887) ; Turnbull, Index 
 of British Plants (ib., 1890) ; Richard Lyd- 
 dekker, Handbook to the British Mammalia, in 
 Allen’s Naturalists’ Library (ib., 1895) ; Kappel 
 and Kirby, Handbook of British and European 
 Butterflies and Moths (ib., 1895) ; Index Ke- 
 wensis, compiled under the direction of Sir J. D. 
 Hooker (London, 1895 et seq., supplement 3 
 issued in 1913) ; W. J. Bean, Trees and Shrubs 
 Hardy in the British Isles (2 vols., ib., 1915) ; 
 also publications of the Zoological Society of 
 London and the Entomological Society of Lon¬ 
 don. 
 
 Natural resources: R. L. Galloway, History of 
 Coal Mining in Great Britain (London, 1882) ; 
 E. Hull, Contributions to the Physical History 
 of the British Isles (ib., 1882) ; E. W. H. Holds- 
 worth, Sea Fisheries of Great Britain and Ire¬ 
 land (ib., 1883); Jukes-Brown, Building of the 
 British Islands (ib., 1888) ; Sir A. C. Ramsay, 
 Physical Geography and Geology of Great 
 Britain and Ireland (ed. by H. B. Woodward, 
 ib., 1894) ; R. M. Boyd, Coal Pits and Pitmen: 
 Legislation (2d ed., ib., 1895); A. Johnstone, 
 Mineralogical Geology (Edinburgh, 1897) ; Sir 
 Archibald Geikie, Rivers of Greo+ Britain (Lon¬ 
 don, 1897) ; E. Hull, Our Cot serves at the 
 Close of the Nineteenth Cenx y .(ib., 1897); 
 Sir John Lubbock, Scenery of * /■ nd and the 
 
 Causes to which it is Due (i ^02) ; also 
 Geological Survey of the United ¥ -dom. Re¬ 
 ports (ib., annually) ; Journal e Royal 
 
 Geographical Society (ib., annually 
 
 UNITED METHODISE REE 
 CHURCHES. See Methodism. 
 
 UNITED MINE WORKERS 01 "ER¬ 
 ICA. See Mine Workers of Amer The 
 United. ;V 
 
 UNITED PRESBYTERIANS. See Presby¬ 
 terianism and the Presbyterian Churches. 
 
 UNITED PROVINCES. See Netherlands. 
 
 UNITED PROVINCES OF AGRA AND 
 OUDH, formerly Northwestern Provinces 
 and Oudii. A province of British India, in 
 Hie Upper Ganges valley (Map: India, D 3). 
 Total area, 107,267 square miles, of which 83,- 
 109 belong to the Territory of Agra, 24,158 
 to Oudh. They surround the native states of 
 Garhwal, 4180 square miles, and Rampur, 899 
 square miles. Except the extreme northern 
 part, which is a wild and elevated mountain re¬ 
 gion of the Himalaya, the province is a low 
 alluvial plain watered by the Ganges and its 
 numerous large parallel tributaries, chief of 
 which is the Juma. The climate is hot and 
 unhealthful, especially in the large jungle re¬ 
 gion below the mountains. The soil is fertile, 
 but the western and southern parts of the 
 province have a very uncertain rainfall, and 
 are subject to severe droughts, so that these 
 regions would be practically a desert were it 
 not for many large streams. 
 
 Extensive irrigation works have been con¬ 
 structed. The total area cropped in 1912-13 
 was reported as 44,431,737 acres, of which 
 9,646,374 acres were irrigated. The area irri¬ 
 gated by wells was 5,514,379 acres and that 
 by government canals 2,234,207 acres, the latter 
 being entirely in Agra. The principal crops 
 are of more nearly equal importance than in 
 the other provinces. The United Provinces 
 rank next to the Punjab as a wheat producer, 
 the area under wheat in 1912-13 being 7,442,486 
 acres. Rice, though of much less relative im¬ 
 portance than in Bengal and some other parts 
 of India, covered 6,812,004 acres. Other acreages 
 in 1912—13 were: barley, 4,643,334; grain, 5,- 
 507,486; spiked millet, 2,617,439; great millet, 
 2,169,370. The United Provinces have an area 
 under sugar cane nearly four times as large 
 as that of the Punjab, which stands second, the 
 area under sugar cane in the former being, in 
 1912-13, 1,424,064 acres and in the latter 367,- 
 373 acres. Other crops include maize, cotton, 
 opium, and indigo. The people eat little animal 
 food, and stock raising is of subsidiary impor¬ 
 tance. Cattle and buffaloes take the place of 
 horses. Mining is of little value. 
 
 Modern methods of manufacturing have been 
 seldom adopted. For 1912 there were reported 
 201 factories, with 54,803 employees (of whom 
 6328 were women, 1693 children). The more im¬ 
 portant factories are cotton mills, especially 
 in Cawnpore. The Ganges affords a means 
 of water transportation. The province is 
 better supplied with railroads than any other in 
 India. It exports large quantities of oil seeds, 
 wheat, raw cotton, hides, sugar, indigo, and 
 opium, and imports cotton goods, metals, rail¬ 
 road materials, coal, and salt. A frontier trade 
 is carried on with Tibet and Nepal. 
 
 The United Provinces are under the adminis¬ 
 trative control of a Lieutenant-Governor, ap¬ 
 pointed by the Governor-General, with the 
 approval of the crown. There is a legislative 
 council of 50 members (21 official, 27 unofficial, 
 2 experts). The provinces are divided into 
 municipalities and districts administered by 
 boards, a large part of whose membership is 
 elective. The police force in 1912 had a sanc¬ 
 tioned strength of 35,926 officers and men. The 
 capital of the United Provinces is Allahabad. 
 
 The population of the United Provinces was 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 694 
 
 46,905,512 in 1891, 47,692,277 in 1901 (increase 
 1.7 per cent), and 47,182,044 in 1911 (decrease 
 1.1 per cent). Agra in 1911 bad 34,624,040 in¬ 
 habitants, and Oudh 12,558,004. The population 
 of the United Provinces native states was 792,- 
 491 in 1891, 802,097 in 1901 (increase 1.2 per 
 cent), and 832,036 in 1911 (increase 3.7 per 
 cent). In the United Provinces and the native 
 states respectively, Hindus numbered, in 1911, 
 40,253,433 and 583,599; Mohammedans, 6,658,- 
 373 and 246,358; Christians, 177,949 and 1745; 
 Jains, 75,427 and 308; Sikhs, 15,160 and 26. 
 There are more large cities in the United Prov¬ 
 inces than in any other division of British India. 
 City populations, with cantonments, were as 
 follows in 1911: Lucknow, 259,798; Benares, 
 203,804; Agra, 185,449; Cawnpore, 178,557; Al¬ 
 lahabad, 171,697; Bareilly, 129,462; Meerut, 
 116,227. 
 
 UNITED STATES. The order of treatment 
 and scope of the article are indicated by the fol¬ 
 lowing main topics: Natural Features, Climate, 
 Flora, Fauna, Geology, Soils, Fisheries, Mineral 
 Resources, Agriculture, Manufactures, Transpor¬ 
 tation, Commerce (Foreign and Domestic), Ship¬ 
 ping (Foreign and Interior), Government, Fi¬ 
 nances, Army, Navy, Population (including In¬ 
 terstate Migration, Sex, Density, etc.), Religion, 
 History. Much of the material is treated to a 
 greater extent and in more minute detail in 
 other parts of the work under separate headings. 
 Adequate cross references are provided through¬ 
 out, which should be followed up should the 
 reader desire to make a more exhaustive study 
 of the whole subject or any one phase of it. 
 
 The territory of the United States of America, 
 exclusive of Alaska and colonial dependencies, 
 lies in the temperate portion of North America, 
 but reaches to within one degree of the tropical 
 zone. It extends approximately from long. 67° 
 to 125° W. from the Atlantic Ocean (whose great 
 arm, the Gulf of Mexico, forms half of the 
 southern boundary) to the Pacific. The north¬ 
 ern boundary is somewhat arbitrary in the east 
 between New England and the lower St. Law¬ 
 rence region, but from northern New York it 
 follows the St. Lawrence and the middle line of 
 the Great Lakes to northern Minnesota. Be¬ 
 yond the Lake of the Woods the boundary fol¬ 
 lows the 49th parallel to the Pacific Ocean. Key 
 West, the southern point of Florida, has a lati¬ 
 tude of 24° 33', and the southern part of Texas 
 about 26°, north latitude. The parallel 49° is 
 about that of Paris, while the latitude of Key 
 West reaches south into the Sahara. New 
 York is on the parallel of Naples and Constanti¬ 
 nople, and Memphis on that of Gibraltar. The 
 length of the boundary of the United States pro- 
 
 Sq. miles 
 
 Continental United States. 3,026,789 
 
 Alaska. 590,884 
 
 Hawaiian Territory. 6,449 
 
 Porto Rico. 3,435 
 
 Philippines (estimated). 115,026 
 
 Guam. 210 
 
 Samoa. 77 
 
 Panama Canal Zone (leased). 527 
 
 Virgin Islands. 132 
 
 Total. 3,743,529 
 
 per is given by the Coast and Geodetic Survey as 
 10,758 miles. This is divided as follows: At¬ 
 lantic Ocean, 1883; Pacific Ocean, 1316; Gulf 
 of Mexico, 1639; Canada, 3900; Mexico, 1975. 
 The country has preponderatingly a natural 
 boundary of salt and fresh waters. On the side 
 of Mexico and of British Columbia the boundary 
 
 crosses the Cordilleran ranges. The land and 
 water area of the United States proper and its 
 noncontiguous territory is shown by preceding- 
 figures. This article treats of the United States 
 proper except when otherwise stated. Alaska and 
 also the colonial dependencies are treated under 
 their respective heads. 
 
 NATURAL FEATURES 
 
 General Description. The lands of the 
 
 United States are crossed from north to south 
 by the four principal physiographic provinces of 
 the North American continent: (1) on the east, 
 bordering the Atlantic, coastal plains and pla¬ 
 teaus; (2) west of these, the Appalachian high¬ 
 lands extending from the Gulf of Mexico into 
 Labrador; (3) a great system of plains and 
 plateaus extending from the Gulf of Mexico 
 northward to the Arctic, bordered on the east by 
 the Appalachians and on the west by the Rocky 
 Mountains; (4) a group of mountain chains 
 and ranges on the west side of the country, in¬ 
 cluding the Rocky Mountains, Sierra Nevada, 
 Cascade, etc. (called the Cordilleras). These 
 western highlands are so prominent and so 
 extensive that the United States may be viewed 
 as divided into two parts by the 100th meridian 
 —the eastern part being a lowland plain with 
 slight elevations in the Appalachian system, and 
 the western standing at an elevation of 4000 
 to 6000 feet, with large areas over 10,000 feet. 
 
 Atlantic Lowland .—This region, although 
 not large, contains a vast population and is 
 historically the most important. It made the 
 interior of the continent accessible to discovery 
 from the east, offered hospitable ground to the 
 colonists, and in the north is rich in the har¬ 
 bors that have led to the building of cities and 
 the growth of commerce. The Atlantic lowland 
 includes the piedmont plain. The latter ex¬ 
 tends south from New York to Florida Strait, 
 including southern New Jersey, Delaware, and 
 a broad belt of all the South Atlantic States. 
 It is a smooth land, without projecting masses 
 of rocky hills, and slopes gently up from the tide 
 levels to the rougher lands of the Appalachian 
 belt. It is intersected by Delaware and Chesa¬ 
 peake bays and their rivers and by more south¬ 
 erly streams. It is often known as the tide¬ 
 water country because the sea enters its estua¬ 
 rine rivers for scores of miles. It is covered with 
 fields of tobacco, cotton, rice, and fruit orchards 
 or with pastures or native forest. The region is 
 in greater part a sea bottom uncovered at a 
 comparatively recent period and becomes con¬ 
 tinuous, beneath the Atlantic waters, with the 
 continental shelf which lies between the land 
 border and the deep seas. North of New York 
 in New England and west of this plain is a 
 much denuded belt of ancient Appalachian moun¬ 
 tains which is known as the piedmont plain. 
 New England, which is generally treated as a 
 distinct physiographic province, is a rough low¬ 
 land rising from sea level to the height of 400 
 or 500 feet. It is naturally dissected, upland 
 country. By the piedmont plain is usually un¬ 
 derstood the land between the coastal plain 
 and the Blpe Ridge. See Piedmont Plain. 
 
 One feature of the entire Atlantic coast is 
 that the rivers are tidal. They may occupy nar¬ 
 row channels to the sea border, like the Hudson, 
 or they may enter at the head of deep and spa¬ 
 cious bays, as do the Delaware and the Sus¬ 
 quehanna. Such a water system with the above 
 rivers, the Potomac, James, and other streams, 
 
THE LIBRARY 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
if 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 THc 1 ’~ 
 
 Of ^ 
 
 -MW 
 
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UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 695 
 
 is well called a drowned river system. By this 
 is meant that the trunk valley and its branches 
 were submerged by the sea entering their lower 
 parts because of a sinking of the edge or, of 
 larger parts of the continent. The historical 
 meaning of these conditions can hardly be 
 reckoned. It is enough here to observe that 
 nearly all the harborages and quiet salt waters 
 of the Atlantic border have this origin, and that 
 thus have grown the great seaboard cities, where 
 ships may ride safely at the mouth of tidal 
 streams whose waters offer gateways to the in¬ 
 terior of the continent. 
 
 Appalachian Mountains .—From the physical 
 point of view these may be taken as the eastern 
 part of the rocky skeleton of the country and 
 the continent. In their highest points, the White 
 Mountains in the north and the Black Moun¬ 
 tains in the middle south, they attain elevations 
 exceeding 6000 feet in the loftiest projections 
 east of the Rocky Mountains. Historically they 
 form the Appalachian barrier, with large conse¬ 
 quences in Colonial annals and in the opening 
 of the lands that lie westward. See Appa¬ 
 lachians. 
 
 Central Lotolands .—The central part of the 
 United States between the Appalachians and the 
 100th meridian is commercially a unit and a 
 great agricultural section. The plains in this 
 region pass gradually up into the plateau on the 
 east. To the north they merge with the smooth 
 lowlands about the Great Lakes, to the south 
 they are continuous with the Gulf lands, and 
 to the west they pass gradually into the high 
 plains west and south of the Missouri River. 
 The region is roughly coterminous with the 
 prairies. See Prairie. 
 
 Great Lake Region .—The lands about the 
 Great Lakes have considerable variety. During 
 the recession of the continental glacier the lakes 
 had higher water levels and often much greater 
 extent than now. During this flooded condition 
 what are now the bordering lands received a 
 cover of such fine muds as are spread upon the 
 bottom of all great bodies of water. To some 
 extent previous inequalities are masked, and the 
 resulting surface is often very smooth and almost 
 level. This is especially true of Lakes Ontario, 
 Erie, Huron, and Michigan. Some of these lands 
 were treeless and hence were properly called 
 prairies, although modern physiography prefers 
 to designate them as lake plains. Lake Superior 
 is surrounded by older rocks, which have been 
 greatly disturbed and metamorphosed, and the 
 remnants of these ancient mountains form a 
 higher and rougher land than about the lower 
 lakes. This is true of the northern peninsula 
 of Michigan, of Wisconsin, and of northeastern 
 Minnesota. Naturally, therefore, these rocks 
 hold vast stores of iron and copper, while the 
 strata of the prairies offer little in the way of 
 mineral resources except coal. See Great 
 Lakes. 
 
 Gulf Plains .—These are most simply defined 
 as a continuation of the Atlantic coastal plain, 
 or another part of the younger fringe of the 
 continent. In central Georgia and Alabama the 
 younger formations abut on the older rocks 
 of the southern Appalachians and mark approxi¬ 
 mately the encroachment of the later seas. By 
 gentle uplift the marginal sea bottoms of the 
 Gulf were laid bare and form the flat lowlands 
 of this semitropical region. Before the uplift 
 Florida existed as an extension of the subma¬ 
 rine platform which probably extended to Cuba 
 
 and beyond. Its limestone strata have resulted 
 in cavernous openings in the rocks, underground 
 streams, and springs of great volume. The sea¬ 
 ward edge of this land abounds in sand bars, 
 coral reefs, and mangrove swamps, and this sin¬ 
 gle State, counting its main shores, its bays and 
 numberless islands, has more than 4000 miles of 
 shore line. 
 
 Westward from Alabama the Mississippi River 
 (q.v.) becomes the controlling feature in the 
 topography of the Gulf region. The broad Gulf 
 plain occupies a large part of southern and east¬ 
 ern Texas. As in the region to the eastward, the 
 younger rocks have been made into land by uplift 
 and retreat of the sea. As a rule the surface 
 slopes gently towards the Gulf, but with escarp¬ 
 ments and great local variations of topography. 
 Some areas are prairie, while others are heavily 
 forested, and the rise to the northwest leads 
 first to the great plateau, or Llano Estacado, 
 and then to the mountains of the Rocky Moun¬ 
 tain Range. The shore line is a long crescent, 
 bordered by extensive barrier beaches and sand 
 bars, which inclose stretches of quiet water. 
 Galveston is on one of these beaches, and it is 
 thus exposed to the Gulf hurricanes. 
 
 Great Plains .—This is the name usually given 
 to the lands which rise gradually from the 
 prairies to the eastern base of the Rocky Moun¬ 
 tains. But the altitude of these lands is such 
 that they are often called the high plains. 
 From altitudes of about 1000 feet along the 
 Missouri River in Kansas and Nebraska, they 
 rise to heights of 5000 to 6000 feet at the foot 
 of the western mountains. In general this rise 
 is imperceptibly gradual, but its continuity is 
 sometimes interrupted by escarpments, and the 
 easterly flowing rivers have incised shallow val¬ 
 leys upon the region. The strata are little dis¬ 
 turbed, and thus the country resembles the 
 prairie region, but the underlying beds are 
 geologically younger and are overlain in many 
 areas by large bodies of waste, which in part 
 may have been deposited in lakes and in part 
 was no doubt distributed by torrents from the 
 mountains. Climatic causes have also made the 
 region different in aspect from the prairies. 
 The plains have from 10 to 20 inches of rain 
 per year; therefore forests are infrequent, the 
 vegetation consists largely of sparse grasses, and 
 agriculture is altogether dependent on irriga¬ 
 tion. Over large areas the water supply for this 
 purpose is deficient and grazing is the only re¬ 
 maining resource. This region is a vast one, 
 having the east and west limits already given 
 and reaching from central Texas to the north 
 border of the country, where it merges into the 
 great western plains of Canada. In the north 
 the most prominent break in the plains is the 
 Black Hills mountain area. Here an elevated 
 mass of ancient rocks protrudes through the 
 younger strata, giving a region of rugged relief, 
 hard rocks, mines, and forests. In the Black 
 Hills region, in much of the western Dakotas, 
 and in Montana and western Nebraska, are the 
 Bad Lands (q.v.). 
 
 Uplands of Missouri and Arkansas .—The most 
 extensive body of elevated land between the Ap¬ 
 palachians and the higher levels of the great 
 plains lies in southern Missouri and in northern 
 and central Arkansas and westward. In Mis¬ 
 souri and northern Arkansas these uplands are 
 of moderate height, dissected by the rivers, cov¬ 
 ered with forests, and known as the Ozark pla¬ 
 teau. Still better known, owing to their metallic 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 696 
 
 deposits, are some low mountains of very ancient 
 rocks, outliers of the Ozarks, familiar as Iron 
 Mountain and Pilot Knob. Running through 
 southern Arkansas are the Ouachita Mountains. 
 These rise from below the young sediments of 
 the Mississippi valley and trend westward, pass¬ 
 ing through Indian Territory and Oklahoma into 
 northern Texas. This upland region south of 
 the Missouri River, therefore, is associated on 
 various sides with the prairies, the alluvial 
 plains of the Mississippi, the Gulf plains of the 
 South, and the great plains of the West. 
 
 Rocky Mountains. —The name is properly ap¬ 
 plied only to the eastern ranges of the Cordil¬ 
 leras. The ranges with numerous peaks rising 
 above 14,000 feet extend through Idaho, Mon¬ 
 tana, Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico and 
 send some outlying ridges into Texas. See 
 Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Colorado Plateaus. —West of the Rocky Moun¬ 
 tains, in Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and Ari¬ 
 zona, are the Colorado plateaus. The promi¬ 
 nent and general characteristics of the plateaus 
 are the flat but partially dissected upper sur¬ 
 faces of the various parts, the distinct bounda¬ 
 ries of the individual plateaus as marked by 
 fault scarps, and the great canons that ramify 
 through almost every section. The most strik¬ 
 ing feature of the plateaus is the Colorado River 
 with its world-famed canon. This great stream 
 confines its drainage, save near its mouth, to 
 an upland several thousand feet above the sea. 
 Having abundant sources in the rains and snows 
 of the various parts of the Rocky Mountain 
 Range and rising at great altitudes, it has both 
 velocity and volume and hence has cut deeply 
 into the plateaus. This being an arid region, the 
 abundant waters are of remote derivation and 
 sunk in the canons, while the sparse rainfall 
 causes desert conditions to be general, with 
 much exposed rock, little vegetation, and a gen¬ 
 eral absence of conditions favorable to civilized 
 life. Closely associated with these great pla¬ 
 teaus are two short lofty ranges of mountains. 
 One of these is the Wasatch, marking the bound¬ 
 ary between the plateaus and the Great Basin 
 in central Utah. The other is the Uinta Range, 
 about 150 miles in length and extending from 
 northwestern Colorado through the borderlands 
 of Wyoming and Utah. Its chief development is 
 in the latter State, and in its east and west 
 trend it departs from the usual direction of 
 American mountain axes. 
 
 Great Basin. —This is an area of interior 
 drainage, made up of many minor basins, of 
 which the chief is that of the Great Salt Lake 
 in Utah. See Great Basin. 
 
 Columbia and Snake River Plateaus. —Large 
 areas drained by these streams in Idaho, Oregon, 
 and Washington are of volcanic origin, and 
 along the Snake River in Idaho and Oregon the 
 lavas form plateaus about 4000 feet in altitude. 
 They are a natural desert, since the region is 
 arid, but are capable of great development under 
 the process of irrigation. 
 
 Mountains and Valleys of the Pacific Coast. 
 —The features to which reference is here made 
 belong to three States, California, Oregon, and 
 Washington. They will be best understood if 
 it is observed that a single lofty range, the 
 Sierra Nevada, forms the eastern border of Cali¬ 
 fornia, and that it extends, under the name of 
 the Cascade Range, northward through central 
 Oregon and Washington. Its loftiest peak, in 
 California, is Mount Whitney (14,502 feet), 
 
 which is the highest point of the entire United 
 States south of Alaska. Bordering the sea are 
 lower mountains, in the form of a series of 
 ranges known as the Coast Ranges, parts of 
 it being known as the Klamath Mountains in 
 Oregon and the Olympic Mountains in Washing¬ 
 ton. (See Sierra Nevada; Cascade Range; 
 etc.) Between these parallel ranges are lowland 
 valleys of the utmost importance in the develop¬ 
 ment of the region. They include in California 
 the great valley drained by the Sacramento and 
 San Joaquin rivers, the centre of the fruit and 
 grain culture of the State; in Oregon the Willa¬ 
 mette valley; and still farther north the Puget 
 Sound valley in the State of Washington. In 
 these mountain ranges the extinct volcanic cones 
 of Shasta, Hood, Rainier, and Baker are promi¬ 
 nent features, and Lassen in active eruption adds 
 a new character. The coast line of the Pacific is 
 not nearly so great as that of the Atlantic 
 coast, because it is less indented. It has, how¬ 
 ever, a few of the choicest bodies of inland 
 or protected waters to be found on any shore. 
 Such are San Francisco Bay and Puget Sound, 
 while the deep, tidal Columbia and Willamette 
 rivers offer similar advantages to northern Ore¬ 
 gon. It is thus seen that the Cordilleran sys¬ 
 tem is made up of many parallel ranges of moun¬ 
 tains, separated in turn by intermontane areas 
 of lofty plateaus and valleys, or, nearer the 
 Pacific Ocean, by broad and fertile lowlands. 
 
 Hydrography. The drainage of the United 
 States may be classed as Atlantic and Pacific. 
 As with the entire continent and with South 
 America, the smaller ocean receives by far the 
 greater contribution of fresh water from the 
 lands now under review. The Atlantic streams 
 may be considered as belonging to the Hudson 
 Bay, the Gulf, or to open-sea drainage. With 
 unimportant exceptions farther west, the Red 
 River of the North carries a small contribution 
 of the United States area to Hudson Bay. The 
 open-sea streams are all of moderate length and 
 volume except the St. Lawrence, which, rising in 
 Minnesota, expands into lakes of exceptional 
 size. (For details concerning these bodies of 
 water see Great Lakes.) All the streams which 
 enter the lakes from the United States are rela¬ 
 tively small. Their courses are short, which is 
 equal to saying that the line of water partings 
 between the Laurentian and Mississippi basins 
 is close to the lakes. The divide is also nearly 
 everywhere quite inconspicuous. The streams 
 have thus small capacity for transporting land 
 waste into the lakes. Such waste as reaches the 
 lakes rests in them, a condition from which re¬ 
 sults the exceeding clearness of Niagara, or of 
 the St. Lawrence waters that pass the Thousand 
 Islands. 
 
 The open Atlantic streams, draining that part 
 of the country which is historically oldest, and 
 being often tidal, have a fame and a commercial 
 value out of all proportion to their size. To 
 begin with the rivers of New England, its con¬ 
 spicuous streams—the Penobscot, Kennebec, Mer- 
 rimac, Connecticut, and Housatonic—are most 
 of them entered by the tides for many miles. 
 The Merrimac and Connecticut, above tide water, 
 are types of many New England rivers which, 
 being interrupted by rapids resulting from the 
 glacial invasion, furnish a great store of water 
 power. 
 
 New York is • r 1 i in drainage. The 
 Hudson, with the viol ' - , drains much of its 
 central and easte n but is chiefly impor- 
 
THE LIE.-; ARY 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
115° Longitude C West 110° from D -Greenwich 105 
 

 ir:r uz?my 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY Of ILLINOIS 
 
 
UNITED STATES 697 UNITED STATES 
 
 tant for its tidal course of 150 miles, with great 
 harborage at its mouth, and an open gateway 
 to the west from the head of tide water. The 
 Genesee, Black, and other rivers carry to the 
 St. Lawrence much of the run-off of northern and 
 western New York. The Susquehanna, the Dela¬ 
 ware, and the Mississippi take nearly all the 
 remainder of New York waters. The Allegheny 
 gathers for the Gulf of Mexico waters that fail 
 within a few miles of Lake Erie. 
 
 The Delaware, Susquehanna, and Potomac are 
 all important rivers which rise in the Appalach¬ 
 ian plateau and find their way across the various 
 mountain ridges of the Appalachian system by 
 \\ ater gaps, and enter the seas through drowned 
 valleys which are characteristic of all the At¬ 
 lantic streams north of Virginia. In the pla¬ 
 teau, where the strata are nearly horizontal, the 
 streams are dendritic, or finger-like, in arrange¬ 
 ment. V ithin the mountain belt the streams 
 are in part longitudinal and in part transverse. 
 By thus running between the ridges and cutting 
 through them in water gaps a rectangular or 
 trellised drainage is formed which is widely 
 found in the Appalachian region. The northern 
 Appalachian waters thus flow mainly to the 
 open Atlantic. In the south, however, or beyond 
 the Potomac, the coastal rivers head in the east¬ 
 ern edge of the mountains, while the Kanawha 
 and the Tennessee, with their branches, head far 
 across the mountains and carry the waters to the 
 Ohio River. The great core of the southern 
 Appalachians in western North Carolina, so con¬ 
 venient it would seem to the sea, is thus drained 
 by a circuitous route into the Gulf of Mexico. 
 The entire belt of Appalachian uplands has for 
 the most part arrived at the stage of mature 
 dissection, with abundant valleys, sunk from 
 500 to 1500 feet below the prevailing level of 
 the uplands. 
 
 Many rivers of local importance rise on the 
 east slope of the Blue Ridge and cross the pied¬ 
 mont plateau and the coastal plain to the sea. 
 Such are the James and other rivers of Virginia, 
 the Roanoke, Cape Fear, Great Pedee, Savannah’ 
 and Altamaha of the Carolinas and Georgia. 
 The rivers of Florida are mainly small, but have 
 important tidal courses. The other Gulf drain¬ 
 age is overshadowed in magnitude by the Mis¬ 
 sissippi. The greater streams aside "from this 
 are the Chattahoochee, Alabama, and Tombigbee 
 on the east, and the Colorado (of Texas) and 
 Brazos on the west, and the international Rio 
 Grande, rising in Colorado. 
 
 Mississippi River. — See Mississippi River. 
 Pacific Drainage .—The Rocky Mountains, es¬ 
 pecially in Colorado and northward, are the 
 sources of many streams, part of which empty 
 into the Pacific. To the south they send forth 
 the Rio Grande. To the east flows the Arkansas, 
 while to the north and east pass important 
 branches of the Missouri. From the southwest 
 issues the San Juan, while farther north the 
 Grand, White, and Yampa rivers rise in Colo¬ 
 rado. All of these join the Colorado River 
 (q.v.) and thus introduce us to the most south¬ 
 erly of rivers in the United States that reach 
 the Pacific Ocean by way of the Gulf of Cali¬ 
 fornia. Some of the chief facts concerning this 
 river have been given in the description of the 
 topography of the region. Its ultimate sources 
 are in the Wind River Mountains of Wyoming. 
 The only remaining master stream is the’Colum¬ 
 bia, with its widespread sources in the Rocky 
 Mountains. These largely belong to its tribii- 
 
 tary, the Snake River, which after passing the 
 lava plateaus joins the trunk stream in south 
 \\ ashington. The Columbia has an important 
 tidal course before it enters the ocean, and this 
 and the St. Lawrence are the only rivers of the 
 United States which receive great accessions 
 to their waters from foreign territory. 
 
 The Hudson may be taken as the type of that 
 great number of streams, especially on the At¬ 
 lantic side, which have a tidal course. Within 
 the glaciated district most rivers show serious 
 inequalities in their beds, causing innumerable 
 rapids and waterfalls. Such concentration of 
 descent does not occur elsewhere, save in the 
 mountainous belts. The greatness and destruc¬ 
 tiveness of floods depend upon rainfall, gradient, 
 the porosity of the rocks or soil, and other fea¬ 
 tures. Thus the Ohio has steep slopes, an im¬ 
 perious bed, and a moist climate, when com¬ 
 pared with the Missouri taken as a whole. In 
 its long course across the plains the latter loses 
 j y see page, by evaporation, and by abstraction 
 of water for irrigation. 
 
 The rivers exhibit great diversity in relation 
 to human uses. The Merrimac and many other 
 sti earns within the glacial belt are mainly useful 
 for manufacturing or for water supply. The 
 Mississippi is chiefly of value theoretically, but 
 actually its importance is decreasing as a high¬ 
 way, while the Hudson combines transportation, 
 water and ice supply, and the furnishing of 
 power. . The Colorado is thus far almost purely 
 scenic in its relation to man, arousing interest 
 by the origin and magnificence of its canons. 
 The streams of the West are largely used for 
 irrigation. See Irrigation. 
 
 tt c- te ‘ The & reater P art of the area of the 
 l nited States proper has a climate pertaining to 
 
 the temperate zone. The average annual temper¬ 
 atures vary from somewhat less than 40° on 
 the northern border to 75° in the extreme south¬ 
 east. The average temperature for July is about 
 65° on the north border, and for January it is 
 about 20°. The whole country is exposed to 
 much greater annual oscillations of temperature 
 than occur in Europe. The extreme maximum 
 temperatures are as high as 115° to 120° in the 
 drier portions of Texas and Arizona, and the 
 average minimum falls as low as — G0° in north¬ 
 ern Montana. The climate of the United States 
 is controlled very largely by its characteristic 
 winds and by its topography. In general the 
 prevailing winds are from the west, coming to 
 the west coast off the Pacific Ocean. To that 
 coast they bring the moisture and uniform tem¬ 
 perature of the sea. If the land is cooler than 
 the sea, as in winter, they bring copious rains. 
 If the land is warmer, as in summer, they bring 
 little or no rain, and the moist-air currents pass 
 on eastward to water the Rocky Mountain re¬ 
 gion. Hence the winter is the rainy season on 
 the 1 acific coast and the summer is the rainy 
 season in the Rocky Mountain region. 
 
 The majority of the storms originating in the 
 northwest or over the northern Pacific Ocean, 
 travel at first southeastward to the Mississippi 
 valley and then with an east-northeastward 
 course pass over New England or down the St. 
 Lawrence valley. The winds <5f these cyclones 
 blow spirally inward towards the storm’s centre; 
 thus, over the greater part of the country, the 
 winds in advance of such storms are from the 
 east-southeast and south, and draw warm, moist 
 air from the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico. 
 After the passage of the storm centre the winds 
 
UNITED STATES 698 UNITED STATES 
 
 shift to the west and northwest and are cold, 
 coming from the north interior of the continent. 
 Occasionally more violently whirling storms 
 come up from the West Indies, the tropics, 
 and invade the east United States. These are 
 commonly more intense and severe, but affect 
 sfiialler areas than those of the westerly winds 
 and resemble closely the typhoons of the Philip¬ 
 pines. The absolute annual range of tempera¬ 
 ture is, of course, greatest in the interior of 
 the country, being about 150° in the upper por¬ 
 tion of the Missouri valley and diminishing to 
 60° in the southern part of Florida and the 
 northwestern part of Oregon. The suddenness 
 with which the air temperature falls is an^im- 
 portant consideration. Thus changes of 20° in 
 24 hours occur far more frequently in the lake 
 region than in the Ohio valley and there again 
 oftener than of the south coast. 
 
 The average date of killing frosts in the spring 
 and autumn determines the average length of 
 the growing season for most of the important 
 crops. The autumnal date is September 15 
 for the region from North Dakota to Lake Huron 
 and October 15 for the region from Colorado to 
 Pennsylvania and northeastward along the New 
 England coast. The latest spring frosts occur 
 on^May 20 from Idaho to Lake Superior and 
 February 15 along the South Atlantic and Last 
 Gulf coasts. The growing season may be con¬ 
 sidered as the interval between the last frost of 
 spring and the first of autumn, or it may also 
 be defined as the season within which the average 
 daily temperature does not fall below 40°. h rom 
 this point of view the growing season diminishes 
 as one goes northward and amounts to about 120 
 days at the north border of the United States. 
 By a natural process of selection, stimulated by 
 culture, plants that formerly required this length 
 of time for maturity are now pushing north¬ 
 ward beyond the borders into Canadian regions 
 where the growing period is as much as 20 days 
 shorter. 
 
 One of the most notable features in the climate 
 of the United States is the great contrast be¬ 
 tween the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. This is 
 due to the fact that the prevailing winds are 
 
 LATI- 
 
 January 
 
 July 
 
 TUDE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 NORTH 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 Pacific 
 
 A P 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 Pacific 
 
 A—P 
 
 
 coast 
 
 coast 
 
 
 coast 
 
 coast 
 
 
 48°. . . 
 
 14°F. 
 
 39°F. 
 
 — 25°F. 
 
 63°F. 
 
 55°F. 
 
 + 8°F. 
 
 46.... 
 
 18 
 
 39 
 
 -21 
 
 63 
 
 60 
 
 + 3 
 
 44.. . . 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 -20 
 
 65 
 
 65 
 
 + 0 
 
 42.. . . 
 
 30 
 
 44 
 
 -14 
 
 70 
 
 65 
 
 + 5 
 
 40.. . . 
 
 32 
 
 45 
 
 -13 
 
 73 
 
 60 
 
 + 13 
 
 38.. . . 
 
 40 
 
 49 
 
 - 9 
 
 75 
 
 65 
 
 + 10 
 
 36.... 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 - 5 
 
 77 
 
 65 
 
 + 12 
 
 34.... 
 
 47 
 
 50 
 
 - 3 
 
 80 
 
 65 
 
 + 15 
 
 32.... 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 - 0 
 
 82 
 
 70 
 
 + 12 
 
 from the west and northwest. The land is 
 heated quickly and as quickly cools. The sea 
 is heated slowly, and as the water has circula¬ 
 tion it tends to obtain a uniform temperature. 
 Hence the west winds blowing off the Pacific 
 give the west coast a mild and uniform climate. 
 The winds coming from the interior of the con¬ 
 tinent to the east coast give it a hot climate in 
 summer and a cold climate in winter, Jhe con¬ 
 trast between the mean temperatures on the im¬ 
 mediate coast of the United States in January 
 and July are shown in the accompanying table. 
 
 The temperatures here given are as read off on 
 charts of isotherms and refer to locations on the 
 land at sea level near the shore. These tem¬ 
 peratures are controlled largely by the prevail¬ 
 ing winds and the adjacent oceans. A similar 
 great contrast prevails between the temperatures 
 on the east side of Asia and west side of Eu¬ 
 rope, but in the Southern Hemisphere the cor¬ 
 responding contrasts are not so marked, owing 
 to the presence of the great Southern Ocean and 
 the small area and low altitude of the lands. 
 
 Another striking peculiarity in the climate of 
 the United States is the great contrasts of dry¬ 
 ness and rainfall. The heaviest precipitation 
 (100 inches and over) and humidity prevail on 
 the coast of Oregon and Washington, due, as 
 noted above, to the prevailing westerly winds 
 and, since nearly all of it comes in the winter, 
 to the fact that 'the land is then colder than the 
 sea. This winter rainfall diminishes southward, 
 and in southern California it is slight. In the 
 Great Basin and the Rocky Mountain region the 
 rainfall is slight (5 to 20 inches), and the coun¬ 
 try is in greater or less degree a desert. Yuma 
 in Arizona, Sante Fe in New Mexico, and Pueblo 
 in Colorado have mean relative humidities of 
 43, 45, and 46 per cent respectively. The amount 
 of evaporation from the soil is correspondingly 
 large in these regions, and artificial irrigation is 
 quite essential for successful agriculture. Even 
 the summits of the mountains of this portion of 
 the continent show but little permanent snow, 
 and that in sheltered spots. What would remain 
 on the ground in an ordinary moist climate is 
 rapidly evaporated in this dry air. Here the 
 scanty rainfall comes mainly in the summer, 
 being, as noted above, derived from the Pacific. 
 
 The eastern parts of the country derive their 
 rain from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic 
 Ocean, the former supplying most of the Mis¬ 
 sissippi valley and the latter the Atlantic plain. 
 The heaviest rainfall in this part of the country 
 is on the north shore of the Gulf of Mexico, 
 where the saturated warm south winds reach the 
 land. Here the annual rainfall exceeds 60 
 inches. Thence northward up the Mississippi 
 valley the amount diminishes, until about the 
 Great Lakes the precipitation does not exceed 
 30 to 35 inches. Westward also it becomes 
 lighter, until at the east base of the Rocky 
 Mountains it is in the neighborhood of 15 inches. 
 On the Atlantic coast it is abundant, being sup¬ 
 plied from the Atlantic by easterly winds. At 
 Cape Hatteras it is 60 inches, diminishing north¬ 
 ward along the coast to 45 inches and diminish¬ 
 ing also inland. 
 
 Thus the three sources of water supply to the 
 country are the Pacific, which supplies the en¬ 
 tire Cordillera region; the Gulf of Mexico, which 
 supplies the Mississippi valley and the region of 
 the Great Lakes; and the Atlantic, which sup¬ 
 plies the Atlantic plain. The areas supplied by 
 these three sources are, roughly estimated in 
 percentages of the total area: Pacific, 45 per cent; 
 Gulf of Mexico, 44 per cent; and Atlantic, 11 
 per cent. The proportions of the total rainfall 
 which are contributed by these three bodies of 
 water are quite different, being roughly as fol¬ 
 lows: Pacific, 29 per cent; Gulf, 56 per cent; 
 and Atlantic, 15 per cent. 
 
 Vegetation and Flora. The eastern and 
 western portions of the United States differ 
 greatly in their vegetation. A small area on 
 mountain summits in northern New England and 
 New York is too cold for trees and has herbs and 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 699 
 
 low shrubs of arctic aspect. A large part of 
 the eastern United States north of lat. 44°, 
 with isolated patches on the mountains farther 
 south, where the annual snowfall exceeds 50 
 inches, is characterized by dense forests of spin¬ 
 dle-shaped conifers, such as spruce, fir, tamarack, 
 arbor-vita 1 , and jack pine, very similar in aspect 
 to the forests of the colder parts of Europe and 
 Asia, interspersed with many peat bogs or mus¬ 
 kegs in depressions and hardwood forests on the 
 richer soils. In these forests there are no broad¬ 
 leaved evergreen trees, but many evergreen 
 shrubs, largely of the heath family. Berry- 
 bearing plants are abundant, and s'edges are 
 more numerous than grasses. All such conifer¬ 
 ous forests are subject to fire, once or twice in 
 a long period of years, killing the trees, which 
 are then temporarily replaced by birch, aspen, 
 and other short-lived hardwoods, together with 
 various shrubs and coarse herbs characteristic of 
 such situations, known collectively as fireweeds. 
 
 A little farther south, and at lower altitudes 
 on the mountains, usually in better soil, are for¬ 
 ests of white pine, hemlock, and numerous hard¬ 
 woods characteristic of cool-temperate regions. 
 
 Most of the country between southern New 
 England and central Mississippi, as far . inland 
 as the Alleghany plateau and coastward to the 
 edge of the coastal plain or a little way into it, 
 including the lower slopes of the Appalachian 
 Mountains, has pines and deciduous hardwoods 
 in varying proportions, with a great variety of 
 species in different parts. Something like half 
 the forest in this area is now replaced by fields 
 and pastures. The forests of the Ozark region 
 of Missouri and Arkansas are similar, but with 
 fewer species. 
 
 From western New York and central Minne¬ 
 sota to Indiana^ and Tennessee was originally 
 the great hardwood region of the continent, with 
 over 90 per cent of the trees deciduous. Hand¬ 
 some spring flowers are very noticeable in the 
 forests, which now cover only a small part of 
 the region, the rest, on account of the very fer¬ 
 tile soil, being given over to agriculture. 
 
 A belt averaging about 100 miles wide from 
 the mouth of the Ohio River to the Gulf is the 
 Mississippi embayment of the coastal plain, 
 mostly alluvial bottoms, originally densely 
 wooded (except near the coast) with cypress, 
 sweet gum, cottonwood, sycamore, elm, pecan, 
 several oaks, and other deciduous trees, with 
 comparatively few shrubs and herbs. 
 
 In the sandy coastal plain from Cape Cod to 
 southeast Louisiana, pines of several species con¬ 
 stitute the bulk of the forests. These pine bar¬ 
 rens are interspersed with numerous swamps, 
 shallow ponds, bays, pocosins, hammocks, scrubs, 
 marshes, and prairies. There are more ever¬ 
 green hardwoods or broad-leaved evergreens in 
 the coastal plain than in any region previously 
 mentioned. The pine forests have been reduced 
 about one-third by lumbering and farming. Fire 
 sweeps through the grassy undergrowth nearly 
 every winter, but cfohs little damage to the trees. 
 
 An area of a few hundred square miles near 
 the coast in extreme eastern and southern Flor¬ 
 ida, where frost is practically unknown, is 
 characterized by dense tropical jungles of broad¬ 
 leaved evergreens, of many species, mostly with 
 crooked trunks and fleshy fruits. In such for¬ 
 ests fires are rare, but very destructive. A few 
 tropical trees are found also in extreme southern 
 Texas. 
 
 A narrow strip of salt marsh and dune vege- 
 Vol. XXII.—45 
 
 tation is nearly continuous along the Atlantic 
 and Gulf coasts from Maine to Texas, except in 
 south Florida, where there are mangrove swamps 
 instead of marshes and almost no dunes. 
 
 The great American prairie region extends 
 from west Indiana to North Dakota and Texas. 
 Trees (nearly all of them deciduous) are chiefly 
 confined to the immediate vicinity of streams, 
 and the predominant vegetation is grasses and 
 other coarse herbs, which make a great display 
 of flowers in late summer. Prairie fires were 
 the terror of the early settlers, but are no longer 
 dreaded, for the area is now nearly all in cul¬ 
 tivation. 
 
 The Great Plains are higher and drier, with 
 more diversified topography and soil and less 
 luxuriant vegetation. The Rocky Mountains 
 (q.v.), extending from Canada to New Mexico, 
 with a little interruption in Wyoming, have 
 considerable areas above timber line. The slopes 
 bear a rather sparse growth of spindle-shaped 
 conifers of several species, varying with altitude, 
 similar in aspect to those of the Northeastern 
 States. Deciduous trees are chiefly confined to 
 banks of streams and recently burned areas. 
 There are many natural meadows and parks, 
 with diversified herbaceous vegetation. 
 
 The Colorado plateau, southwest of the Rocky 
 Mountains, is mostly dotted with sagebrush, 
 greasewood, shad scale, and other low hoary 
 shrubs, giving the vegetation a gray tone. But 
 there are vast open forests of yellow pine (Pimis 
 pond&i'osa scopulorum), somewhat resembling 
 the southeastern pine barrens, near its southern 
 edge in Arizona, and scattered junipers and nut 
 pines or pinons (Piwus edulis) on rocky slopes. 
 
 The hot deserts from western Texas to south¬ 
 eastern California are characterized by scrubby 
 spiny plants with reduced or thickened foliage, 
 such as cacti of many species, yucca, sotol, 
 lecheguilla, ocotillo, palo verde, mesquite, acacia, 
 and creosote bush. In some places, especially 
 at higher altitudes, there is enough grass to sup¬ 
 port large herds of cattle, but elsewhere grass 
 is scarce. Willows and cottonwoods are com¬ 
 mon along some of the streams. Some of the 
 mountains in the desert region are high enough 
 to be rather cool and moist and support forests 
 much like those of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 The Great Basin, which covers nearly all of 
 Nevada and parts of the adjoining States, is 
 similar in topography to the hot deserts just 
 described, and equally arid, but cacti and other 
 spiny and fleshy plants are rare, and sagebrush 
 and other gray bushes make up the bulk of the 
 vegetation. Junipers and pinons occur on moun¬ 
 tain slopes, as in the Colorado plateau. There 
 are some vast plains of salt and alkali nearly de¬ 
 void of vegetation, such as the salt desert of 
 western Utah and Death Valley in California, 
 
 The arid Columbia plateau and Snake River 
 lava desert are mostly treeless, with sagebrush 
 and greasewood at lower altitudes (below 1500 
 feet), bunch-grass prairie higher up, a few wil¬ 
 lows and cottonwoods along streams, and yellow 
 pines on mountain slopes. 
 
 The Cascade and Sierra Nevada Range, ex¬ 
 tending from Washington to southern California, 
 with the heaviest snowfall in the United States, 
 is treeless at higher altitudes, but mostly cov¬ 
 ered with magnificent coniferous forests, inter¬ 
 spersed with meadows or natural parks, some¬ 
 what like those of the Rocky Mountains. North¬ 
 ward the forests consist mostly of Douglas 
 spruce, lodgepole pine, western hemlock, various 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES _ 700 
 
 species of fir, etc., similar in aspect to the north¬ 
 eastern conifers but larger. Southward and 
 eastward and at lower altitudes and on gra¬ 
 nitic soils the forests are more open, with yellow 
 pine, sugar pine, and incense cedar the prevail¬ 
 ing trees, and fires are more frequent and less 
 destructive, being chiefly ground fires. The 
 noted Big Tree {Sequoia gigantea) is confined 
 to a few groves on the west slope of the Sierras 
 in California. 
 
 The Coast Range, which borders the Pacific 
 coast of the United States with slight inter¬ 
 ruptions, naturally has a varied vegetation on 
 account of the great range of annual precipita¬ 
 tion, from over 100 inches in west Washington 
 to less than 10 inches in south California. 
 Northward dense coniferous forests similar to 
 those of the Cascade Range prevail. The char¬ 
 acteristic tree of this region in California, from 
 the north boundary of the State to about 100 
 miles south of the*Golden Gate, is the redwood 
 {Sequoia sempervirens) . Several other conifers 
 are endemic to the same region, some of them re¬ 
 stricted to only a few square miles. There are 
 more broad-leaved evergreens here than any¬ 
 where else in the W 7 est, characteristic species 
 being the madrona {Arbutus menziesii), Califor¬ 
 nia laurel ( Umbellularia) , tanbark oak {Pasania 
 densiflora) , and California live oak or encina 
 {Quercus agrifolia). Southward with increas¬ 
 ing aridity the forests give way to chaparral 
 (q.v.), a characteristic vegetation composed of 
 stiff evergreen shrubs, and to grass lands. 
 
 For additional details, see the articles on the 
 several States; also Adirondacks, America, 
 Black Hills, Everglades, Great American 
 Desert, Okefinokee Swamp, Rocky Moun¬ 
 tains, White Mountains, Chaparral, Desert, 
 Forest, Hammock, Pocosin, Prairie, Swamp, 
 etc. 
 
 Fauna. The fauna of the United States is an 
 integral part of that of the Nearctic Province 
 (q.v.) and is fully representative of that of 
 North America described in the paragraph 
 Fauna under America. (See also Distribution 
 of Animals; Fauna under Rocky Mountains.) 
 With the exception of a few strictly boreal 
 species, such as the muskox (q.v.), almost all 
 the genera and species of North American ani¬ 
 mals of every kind are represented within the 
 boundaries of the United States and its adja¬ 
 cent waters; and most of the Arctic absentees 
 are found in Alaska (q.v.). Reference to the 
 articles cited above and to such articles as Bear, 
 Beaver, Bison, Dinosauria, Eagle, Extinct 
 Animals, Fossil, Fur-Bearing Animals, 
 Grouse, Horse, Oyster, Pronghorn, Puma, 
 Quail, Rattlesnake, Salmon, Skunk, Turkey, 
 Whale, Whitefish, and others, will give a con¬ 
 spectus of the fauna of the country. 
 
 Geology. North America, like other conti¬ 
 nents, combines very ancient areas with those 
 that are geologically young. The primitive 
 framework of the continent was drawn some¬ 
 what upon the lines of the existing mountain 
 systems of the east and west, forecasting the 
 Appalachian and Cordilleran uplands and the 
 Mississippi lowlands of to-day. The oldest rock 
 systems belong to pre-Cambrian times and are 
 represented to the northward by an irregular 
 V-shaped area inclosing Hudson Bay between its 
 arms and resting its blunted apex upon the north 
 border of the Great Lakes. Extensions of this 
 early nucleus are found along the Appalachians 
 to Alabama, and consist of hard crystalline rocks 
 
 of igneous and metamorphic origin, granites, 
 gneisses, schists, marbles, and quartzites being 
 among the common kinds. Such areas are the 
 Adirondacks, some tracts in New England, the 
 Highlands of the lower Hudson and of New Jer¬ 
 sey, South Mountain in Pennsylvania, with the 
 Blue Ridge and Unakas of the Southern States. 
 Other primitive masses are found in Wisconsin 
 and Minnesota and form a straggling archipelago 
 in the West, as in the core of the Black Hills, 
 along the axis of the present Rocky Mountain 
 Range, and in the Wasatch and Sierran regions. 
 It must not be thought, however, that the pres¬ 
 ent boundaries of these belts of ancient rock 
 mark the shores of the ancient islands, but the 
 lands now belonging to the United States began 
 thus in narrow strips and patches, east and 
 west. 
 
 The next younger but still very old formations 
 belong to the Paleozoic era. this interval of 
 geological time was very long and includes an 
 extended succession of periods, with their sub¬ 
 divisions or epochs. The rocks of the Cambrian, 
 or earliest of these periods, are mainly sand¬ 
 stones, conglomerates, and shales, and are found 
 in limited outcrops about the borders of the 
 earlier crystalline rocks. The Ordovician, Silu¬ 
 rian, Devonian, and Carboniferous formations, 
 on the other hand, cover wide areas, especially 
 in the eastern United States. They constitute 
 the bed rocks of a region extending from the 
 Archean axis of the Appalachians, beyond the 
 Mississippi River, reaching into eastern Ne¬ 
 braska, central Kansas, and far into Texas. 
 From the Great Lake region they are found 
 southward to middle Georgia and Alabama, but 
 do not appear along the Mississippi south of the 
 Ohio River. Thus at the close of the Paleozoic 
 era the territory of the United States was a semi¬ 
 continent on the east, sending lobate areas south¬ 
 ward, with the Mississippi embayment between 
 them. There were also rock accumulation and 
 land growth in the Cordilleran region, but it 
 still held a group of islands rather than a con¬ 
 tinental area. The largest western lands of 
 Paleozoic age are in the region of the Great 
 Basin, but the regions of the Colorado plateaus 
 and of the coastal Pacific States were still sea, 
 the Rocky Mountain belt was a chain of islands, 
 and an unhindered sea swept from the tropical 
 waters to the Arctic. 
 
 The Paleozoic era closed, in North America, 
 with what is known as the Appalachian revolu¬ 
 tion, i.e., with the disturbances which created 
 the great series of folds which now extend from 
 eastern New York to central Alabama. There 
 had long been mountains in the east, as the 
 Adirondacks and Blue Ridge. What their height 
 may have been is not known. During Paleozoic 
 time also the Green and Berkshire ranges of New 
 England were formed. But there were then no 
 mountains west of the Blue Ridge. During all 
 the periods of the Paleozoic era the waste of the 
 older lands on the east and north was swept into 
 an interior sea that rangedMrom central New 
 York far to the west and southwest. Thus origi¬ 
 nated the sandstones, shales, and limestones of 
 the Cambrian and succeeding periods, to which 
 reference has been made. Along the old Appa¬ 
 lachian border these formations acquired a thick¬ 
 ness of several miles. In the mountain build¬ 
 ing which ensued, these thick beds were crumpled 
 and built into a range of high mountains. These 
 mountains, having wasted away during the long 
 periods which have since elapsed, leave to the 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 United States the low ranges found now in Penn¬ 
 sylvania, and west of the Blue Ridge in Vir¬ 
 ginia and more southern States. With the 
 building of the mountains there was a general 
 uplift in the east, which banished the sea waters 
 from the eastern and central States of the Missis¬ 
 sippi basin, except in the south. 
 
 During the Mesozoic era and the succeeding 
 Tertiary period, the additions to the land areas 
 of the east were confined to the Atlantic border 
 and the Gulf region. From the enlarged lands 
 of the east, following the Appalachian uplift, ma¬ 
 terials were available for further extensions. In 
 the west the growth was interior as well as on 
 the border, and these later times are marked by 
 the filling in of partially inclosed seas and by 
 retreat of waters, due to massive continental 
 uplift. Thus gradually the western interior sea 
 of the Great Plains region disappeared (as did 
 that of the Colorado basin), and the Pacific 
 shore line was pushed to its present position. 
 
 Some of the important episodes of Mesozoic 
 and Tertiary continental evolution may now be 
 noted. The eastern border region has a series of 
 areas of red and brown shale and sandstone, of 
 Triassic age. These formations underlie the 
 lowlands of the Connecticut valley in Massachu¬ 
 setts and Connecticut. Another belt extends 
 from the Palisades of the Hudson into Virginia, 
 and there are other and smaller areas. Asso¬ 
 ciated with these rocks are the lava sheets which 
 form the Orange Mountains of New Jersey, the 
 Palisades of the Hudson, and the Mount Holyoke 
 Range of Massachusetts. The Cretaceous and 
 Tertiary beds of the Atlantic border form south¬ 
 ern New Jersey, and the outside lowlands of all 
 the States southward to Florida, and make the 
 coastal plain of this region. They slant gently 
 down and become continuous with the beds that 
 lie below the marginal waters of the Atlantic. 
 Owing to their comparative recency, they are 
 often partially or wholly unconsolidated and oc¬ 
 cur as sands, gravels, clays, and marls. But 
 they may consist also of well-indurated sand¬ 
 stones and limestones. 
 
 Similar statements may be made concerning 
 the formations and the lands that border the 
 Gulf. Here belongs the entire State of Florida, 
 which is low not because of denudation, but be¬ 
 cause of gentle and limited uplift of the undis¬ 
 turbed and youthful strata which lie beneath its 
 surface. As has been intimated, the ancient Mis¬ 
 sissippi discharged, not far from the present 
 mouth of the Ohio, into a gulf that thus lay 
 between south-reaching lands on the east and 
 west. Its successive burdens of land waste 
 served gradually to fill the embayment, and its 
 delta reached more and more to the south, en¬ 
 croaching, as it is still, upon the Gulf. 
 
 Mesozoic deposits of Triassic, Jurassic, and 
 Cretaceous age are found along the eastern base 
 of the Rocky Mountains, where they are up¬ 
 turned at various angles, as in the vertical or 
 highly inclined strata of the Garden of the Gods. 
 Eastward, at a little remove from the mountains, 
 these beds, which have yielded perhaps the most 
 remarkable series of fossil vertebrate remains 
 that have been obtained in any country, become 
 horizontal and are often covered with still 
 younger stratified formations, which all together 
 make the underlying masses of the Great Plains. 
 The breaking and upturning of the strata seen 
 in the Rocky Mountain foothills points to the 
 main uplift of these mountains which took 
 place at the close of the Mesozoic era. 
 
 After the Rocky Mountain revolution, the 
 Great Plains area ceased to be a region of salt¬ 
 water deposition and was characterized by 
 swamps and great lakes of brackish or fresh 
 water. The Laramie formation belongs to this 
 era of low-lying lands in that region when the 
 sea was excluded, and some of the largest coal 
 deposits of the West were accumulated in the 
 marshes of the time. 
 
 Over many thousands of square miles in Colo¬ 
 rado, Kansas, Wyoming, and Nebraska are sheets 
 of incoherent or partly consolidated gravels, 
 sands, and clays, which have usually been at¬ 
 tributed to sedimentation in such lakes. It is 
 probable, however, that in part, at least, these 
 beds are due to torrents carrying down enor¬ 
 mous volumes of waste from the mountains and 
 distributing it in their wanderings over the 
 plains. Present conditions were not approached 
 in this region until the late Tertiary. By that 
 time the entire belt, including the plains and 
 Rocky Mountains, had received a massive uplift, 
 by which the lakes were drained and the plains 
 given an eastward slant, from altitudes of 5000 
 to 6000 feet at the base of the mountains, to the 
 low prairies west of the Mississippi River. 
 
 The rocks of the Colorado plateaus consist of 
 some thousands of feet of sedimentary beds of 
 Mesozoic and younger rocks, overlying a Paleo¬ 
 zoic and Pre-Cambrian foundation. The Colo¬ 
 rado River has for some distance sunk its chan¬ 
 nel through the Paleozoic strata and cut far 
 down into the basal granites. Like the Great 
 Plains, this was long a region of marine depo¬ 
 sition; here, too, great and widespread uplifts 
 took place, in which the strains were so great 
 as to produce profound fractures and disloca¬ 
 tions or faults and attended at times by large 
 outflows of lava. These upflows sometimes 
 stopped below the surface and domed up the 
 overlying strata, making a kind of mountain 
 known as laccolithic, of which the Henry Moun¬ 
 tains in Utah are the type. 
 
 The initial uplifts of the Sierran mountain 
 belt were made in Mesozoic time, and the strata 
 involved were formed from the waste of the older 
 lands in the present Great Basin region to the 
 eastward. But it was not until late Tertiary 
 time that the entire block or mass of the Sierras 
 was lifted to a great height and tilted to the 
 west. In connection with this uplift a lofty 
 fault scar.p developed, which now forms the steep 
 eastern front of the mountains. This crest, 
 therefore, is towards the east, and the principal 
 drainage is down the gentler western slope into 
 the valley of California. The Sierras continue 
 northward as the Cascade Mountains of Oregon 
 and Washington. The Willamette valley in 
 Oregon and the Puget Sound valley in Washing¬ 
 ton are the analogues of the valley of California, 
 and they are separated from the ocean by a 
 young range of mountains, known as the Coast 
 Range and in parts as the Klamath Mountains 
 and the Olympic Mountains. 
 
 Thus it appears ttiat the western United 
 States has had a composite history. It began 
 with island nuclei which grew by sedimentation 
 and uplift. The several great ranges of moun¬ 
 tains mark several periods of folding, faulting, 
 and uplift, while both mountains and plains rose 
 by massive and wide-ranging or continental move¬ 
 ments, thus adding to the height of the moun¬ 
 tains and making the plains into plateaus of 
 from 3000 to 8000 feet in altitude. With these 
 disturbances, especially in Tertiary times, were 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 702 
 
 the most extensive outflows of lava of which 
 this continent shows any record. These are 
 found either as remnant sheets and volcanic 
 necks, or as vast sheets scarcely changed since 
 their outflow. They occur in nearly every Cor- 
 dilleran State, as on both sides of the Rocky 
 Mountains in Colorado, in New Mexico, in Utah, 
 in Mount Shasta, and the great cones of the 
 Cascades, and especially in the lava plateaus of 
 the Snake and Columbia rivers in Idaho, Wash¬ 
 ington, and Oregon. As a lingering episode of 
 their interior volcanic energy we may, perhaps, 
 recognize the geyser phenomena of the Yellow¬ 
 stone Park. 
 
 Through all the periods which have been passed. 
 
 in review, the process of land sculpture was 
 
 active and all varieties of relief have been shown, 
 
 even in the same area, in successive cycles of 
 
 denudation and uplift. Thus New England is 
 
 everywhere mountainous in structure, although 
 
 much of its surface is now reduced to hills, and 
 
 to valleys whose bottoms are not far above base 
 «/ 
 
 level. 
 
 The strata of the Mississippi basin have for 
 the most part never been raised to considerable 
 heights, and the streams have not had sufficient 
 vigor to be the instruments of largest denudation. 
 But among the mountains and plateaus of the 
 Cordilleran region the land forms owe their re¬ 
 liefs to long-continued denudation, conditioned 
 by the composition and structure of the rocks. 
 
 The principal reliefs were given to the country 
 prior to the glacial invasion. But within the 
 field of glacial movement important changes 
 were effected, and in some cases the combined 
 effect of the wearing of hill and mountain tops 
 and of the filling of valleys was to diminish the 
 total relief by several hundred feet. The terri¬ 
 tory affected includes all of New England, the 
 Middle States into northern New Jersey and 
 Pennsylvania, and the Central States to lines 
 not far from the Ohio and Missouri rivers. 
 Eastern Nebraska was included, with much of 
 the Dakotas, Montana, and the more northern 
 Cordilleras. Small remnant glaciers are still 
 found in the high Sierras, on the volcanic cones 
 of the Cascades, and in Montana and Colorado. 
 The general effects of the ice sheet were the 
 grinding and transport of rocky waste, coarse 
 and fine, the commingling of this material with 
 the preexistent soils, the formation of moraines 
 and other bodies of drift during retreat, the 
 blockading of ancient valleys causing innumer¬ 
 able changes of drainage, and the formation of 
 thousands of lakes. 
 
 Since the departure of the ice, or during post¬ 
 glacial time, many of the ‘smaller or more shal¬ 
 low lakes have been filled by sediment, or by 
 deposits of vegetable origin, sometimes forming 
 beds of peat. In the larger lakes deltas and 
 marshy areas have been formed in the same man¬ 
 ner. The interrupted streams have resumed 
 their flow along the lowest line of levels that 
 they could find, and in so doing have often cut 
 through the veneer of drift and worn deeply into 
 the underlying rock. This is the origin of most 
 of the gorges of the Northern States. They are 
 young postglacial valleys, and the old, buried 
 channels are often to be found not far away. 
 These conditions have not only produced striking 
 scenic results, in the gorges and waterfalls of 
 the Northern States, but have created nearly 
 all the available water power of the same re¬ 
 gion. Before the ice invasion many streams 
 flowed at lower levels, in the deep and mature 
 
 valleys of the time. But the obstruction of these 
 valleys has compelled the streams to flow at 
 greater altitudes, and the rocky masses and 
 spurs encountered in their downcutting have 
 caused a concentration of descent in rapids or 
 falls and thus have made the streams a source 
 of power, while at the same time obstructing 
 the otherwise open ways of commerce. 
 
 Soils. Broadly considered, the soils may be 
 divided into two classes, differing from each 
 other in manner or origin. One class includes 
 the sedentary soils, formed in place, of which 
 the larger proportion have resulted from the 
 decay of the rocks underlying them; their nature 
 depends primarily upon the character of the rocks, 
 whether sandstone, limestone, granite, etc., but 
 is also influenced by the climate and the length 
 of time the soil has been exposed to the weather. 
 Compared with the rocks from which they have 
 been derived the soils of this class contain larger 
 proportions of the more insoluble minerals, like 
 quartz, and less of the soluble ingredients, like 
 calcium carbonate. The soils that have origi¬ 
 nated in this way occur over a large section 
 outside of the glaciated district. They are the 
 prevalent soils of the South. The second class 
 consists of the transported soils and includes 
 those of glacial, seolian, and alluvial derivation. 
 The glacial soils are found in the northern tier 
 of States that were covered by the Pleistocene 
 ice sheet. Where unmodified they consist largely 
 of heavy clay, but they have often been worked 
 over by water and then are likely to be sandy 
 or loamy in character. JEolian soils are re¬ 
 stricted to parts of the Middle West; they con¬ 
 sist of exceedingly fine sands with more or less 
 lime and clay as binder and are very deep and 
 fertile. Alluvial soils occur in many of the 
 stream valleys, particularly those subject to 
 periodic inundations, and are best illustrated 
 by the fine silty black soils of the Lower Mis¬ 
 sissippi basin; they are perhaps the most fer¬ 
 tile of all, but for the best results usually have 
 to be drained. See articles on the individual 
 States for. further details. 
 
 Fisheries^ Marine fisheries are practically 
 limited to the submerged coastal plain fringing 
 the continent. The principal fishing grounds 
 of the United States are the Grand Banks of 
 Newfoundland, the Georges Banks off Cape Cod, 
 the Great Bahama Bank off Florida, and the 
 Campeche Bank off Yucatan. The northern 
 waters are remarkable for the enormous quan¬ 
 tities of a few species, while the southern are 
 characterized by smaller numbers of individuals, 
 but greater variety of species. Ordinarily the 
 fishing industry concentrates at the nearest point 
 to each of these fishing banks offering a pri¬ 
 mary market. The total first value is approxi¬ 
 mately $75,000,000 annually; capital invested, 
 $90,000,000; persons employed, 200,000. Boston 
 —next to Grimsby, England, the largest fresh 
 fish market in the world—distributes chiefly 
 herring, haddock, cod, pollock, mackerel, hali¬ 
 but, swordfish, and lobsters. The fisheries were 
 the basis of the early wealth of New England. 
 Approximately 175,000,000 pounds of fish are 
 annually handled; of these 75 per cent comes 
 from the coast of Massachusetts. Savannah and 
 Pensacola are centres of distribution for the 
 southern fisheries (red snapper, bluefish, bass, 
 pompano). Of the Gulf States Florida leads 
 in variety, volume, and value. Here also sponge 
 fishery is important. On the Pacific coast Se¬ 
 attle,* San Francisco, and Portland are the great 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 703 
 
 markets for salmon (value, in 1921, $29,000,- 
 000). The fishery products taken in Puget Sound 
 and landed in Seattle in 1920 aggregated 9,813,- 
 9GG pounds, valued at $881,0GG. This quantity in¬ 
 cluded 7,911,820 pounds of salmon, valued at 
 $765,145, a considerable decrease from the pre¬ 
 vious year. 
 
 Of the anadromous fish, alewives, shad, and 
 striped bass were originally especially abundant 
 on the Atlantic coast, while the salmon and 
 sturgeon were abundant in both Atlantic and 
 Pacific rivers. Unwise methods of fishing have 
 already resulted in commercial extinction of the 
 salmon on the Atlantic coast, and sturgeon, 
 striped bass, shad, and alewife are decreasing. 
 To a large extent the original beds of oysters 
 and other edible mollusks have been extirpated 
 in the Northern sections nearest the primary 
 markets, but in the Southern waters extensive 
 natural beds still obtain. Artificial propaga¬ 
 tion produces mollusks of better quality and 
 cheaper. At present more than one-half of 
 the market supply of oysters comes from culti¬ 
 vated areas. Tire annual mollusk crop ranks 
 first in food and in market values (among the 
 
 in 1906 at $11,446,671, and in 1921 at $29,041,- 
 707. The value of exports, chiefly to Europe 
 and the West Indies, in 1906 was $6,422,748, 
 and in 1921, $15,950,501. 
 
 For details, see Fish, Fish Culture, Fish¬ 
 eries, Fishing Laws, Sealing, Whaling, etc.; 
 on the various species of fishes, Cod, Mackerel, 
 Menhaden, etc.; also the various State ar¬ 
 ticles. 
 
 Mineral Resources. Prior to the nineteenth 
 century the mining industry in the United 
 States was quite insignificant, but it was not 
 until nearly 1850 that it began to be impor¬ 
 tant. Since that period the industry has de¬ 
 veloped with a rapidity equal to that of manu¬ 
 factures and transportation. It is significant 
 that the production of the mines constitutes 
 over one-half of the total freight tonnage handled 
 by the railroads. By 1905 the United States 
 had advanced to first rank in the production of 
 most of the useful minerals, and the total value 
 of the combined mineral output was far greater 
 than that of any other country. The growth 
 of the industry since 1880 is. seen in the accom¬ 
 panying table. 
 
 PRODUCTION AND VALUE OF PRINCIPAL MINERALS FOR 1880 TO 1920 
 
 EXPRESSED IN THOUSANDS 
 
 
 1880 
 
 1890 
 
 1900 
 
 1910 
 
 1920 
 
 
 Am’t 
 
 Value 
 
 Am’t 
 
 Value 
 
 Am’t 
 
 Value 
 
 Am’t 
 
 Value 
 
 Am’t 
 
 Value 
 
 Aluminum, pounds. . 
 Copper, “.... 
 
 Gold, fine ounces.. . . 
 Iron, pig; long tons.. 
 
 Lead, short tons. 
 
 Silver, fine ounces. .. 
 
 Zinc, short tons. 
 
 Cement, barrels. 
 
 Clay products. 
 
 60,480 
 
 1,741 
 
 3,375 
 
 96 
 
 30,319 
 
 23 
 
 2,073 
 
 $11,491 
 
 36,000 
 
 89,316 
 
 9,573 
 
 34,717 
 
 2,277 
 
 1,853 
 
 61 
 
 259,763 
 
 1,589 
 
 9,203 
 
 140 
 
 54,516 
 
 64 
 
 7,777 
 
 $61 
 
 40,523 
 
 32,845 
 
 151,200 
 
 12,575 
 
 57,242 
 
 7,005 
 
 4,527* 
 
 7,150 
 
 606,117 
 
 3,830 
 
 13,789 
 
 261 
 
 57,647 
 
 124 
 
 17,231 
 
 $1,920 
 
 98,494 
 
 79,171 
 
 259,944 
 
 22,961 
 
 35,741 
 
 10,902 
 
 13,284 
 
 96,212 
 
 306,688 
 
 47,443 
 
 6,797 
 
 23,699 
 
 75,989 
 
 6,945 
 
 36,971 
 
 88 
 
 47,734 
 
 1,080,160 
 
 4,657 
 
 26,674 
 
 375 
 
 57,138 
 
 252 
 
 77,785 
 
 $8,956 
 
 137,180 
 
 92,269 
 
 412,162 
 
 41,384 
 
 30,855 
 
 27,268 
 
 68,752 
 
 70,116 
 
 629,557 
 
 99,743 
 
 14,088 
 
 70,756 
 
 129;900 
 
 7,900 
 
 76,521 
 
 4,605 
 
 1,209,061 
 
 2,395 
 
 35,683 
 
 476 
 
 56,564 
 
 450 
 
 96,944 
 
 $41,375 
 
 222,467 
 
 49,509 
 
 1,137,926 
 
 76,296 
 
 57,420 
 
 72,907 
 
 194,513 
 
 364,220 
 
 98,500 
 
 33,325 
 
 Coal, tons. 
 
 Coke, “. 
 
 Lime. 
 
 Natural Gas. 
 
 71,482 
 
 3,338 
 
 95,640 
 
 6,631 
 
 19,000 
 
 157,771 
 
 11,508 
 
 176.804 
 
 23,215 
 
 8,288 
 
 18,793 
 
 35,365 
 
 4,752 
 
 49,761 
 
 40 
 
 269,684 
 
 20,533 
 
 501,596 
 
 41,709 
 
 3,506 
 
 1,950,000 
 
 51,888 
 
 3,350 
 
 Petroleum, bbls. 
 
 Salt.“. 
 
 Stone. 
 
 26,286 
 
 5,961 
 
 24,601 
 
 4,830 
 
 20,626 
 
 21 
 
 45,824 
 
 8,877 
 
 63,621 
 
 20,869 
 
 209,557 
 
 30,306 
 
 443,402 
 
 6,965 
 
 68,500 
 
 1,517 
 
 1,360,000 
 
 30,539 
 
 120,500 
 
 30,000 
 
 Sulphur, long tons... 
 
 0.5 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 255 
 
 Total metallic. 
 
 
 185,649 
 
 173,279 
 
 
 292,650 
 
 312,827 
 
 
 511,633 
 
 594,399 
 
 
 749,876 
 
 1,241,040 
 
 
 1,724,300 
 
 4,977,500 
 
 Total nonmetallic . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total mineral prod¬ 
 ucts .. 
 
 
 364,928 
 
 
 606,476 
 
 
 1,107,031 
 
 
 1,991,216 
 
 
 6,707,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 United States fisheries) and exceeds that of all 
 other nations combined. The chief centres of 
 the oyster industry are Baltimore, Norfolk, 
 Providence, New Haven, and New Orleans. 
 
 The most important manufactured fisheries 
 products in addition to the food specialties of 
 Gloucester are oil and fish scrap from menhaden, 
 oil from the blackfish and dolphin, glue and fish 
 scrap from the wastes. 
 
 The great inland rivers are prolific producers 
 of catfish, buffalo fish, and German carp, which 
 are even shipped to New York and Boston in 
 competition with local fish. Fresh-water mus¬ 
 sels are exploited in the manufacture of pearl 
 buttons. 
 
 The import trade, largely through New York 
 and Boston, consists chiefly of pickled herring 
 and canned sardines and mackerel from Europe, 
 and fresh haddock, cod, and lobsters from Can¬ 
 ada; from Japan canned crab meat and sardines. 
 In 1892 the imports were valued at $5,457,785, 
 
 To the above should be added an unspecified 
 sum amounting in value to $6,000,000 in 1880, to 
 $1,000,000 in 1890 and 1900, to $300,000 in 1910, 
 and $5,200,000 in 1920. The United States prob¬ 
 ably has more mineral lands in proportion to 
 its total area than any other country. Nearly 
 every mineral that is used in the arts is mined. 
 These are discussed under their own heads, as 
 Coal, Iron, Gold, etc., and in the sections on 
 Mining in the articles on the various States. 
 The following paragraphs, however, summarize 
 the production of the more important minerals. 
 
 Coal .—Coal is the most widely distributed 
 mineral and is far in advance of any other 
 in the annual value of its output. It is regu¬ 
 larly mined in 30 States. The area of the 
 coal fields exceeds 300,000 square miles, of 
 which only a small portion consists of anthra¬ 
 cite (q.v.) ; this is almost wholly confined to 
 the middle-eastern portion of Pennsylvania. 
 Bituminous coal mining began regularly in 1750, 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 704 
 
 while anthracite mining did not begin until 50 
 years later. The rapid growth of the indus¬ 
 try began after the Civil War and was such 
 that the output of bituminous coal doubled 
 for each decade from 1870 to 1890 and since 
 that time has increased at a rate but little 
 smaller. The output of anthracite increased from 
 967,108 tons in 1840 to 15,664,275 tons in 1870 
 and to 89,100,000 tons in 1920. The total pro¬ 
 duction of coal in short tons in 1870 was 33,035,- 
 580; in 1880, 71,481,570; in 1890, 157,770,963; 
 in 1900, 269,684,027; in 1910, 501,596,378; in 
 1920, 556,563,000. The accompanying table shows 
 in short tons the production of coal in the lead¬ 
 ing States in the years 1870, 1880, 1890, 1900, 
 1910, and 1920. 
 
 ing range, Mesaba, the ore is sometimes found 
 so near the surface that with the removal of a 
 few feet of earth it is mined by the open-pit 
 method, the ore being scooped by huge steam 
 shovels directly from the pit to the car. Prob¬ 
 ably in no other mines in the world does mas¬ 
 sive machinery play so great a part in min¬ 
 ing operations and hand labor so little. See 
 Iron; Iron and Steel, Metallurgy of. 
 
 Gold .—The mining of gold on an extensive 
 scale did not begin until the discovery of the 
 placer gold in California in 1848. Between 
 1820 and 1830 some interest had developed in 
 the States of Virginia and North and South 
 Carolina, and for a number of years the output 
 averaged about $1,000,000. In 1850, within two 
 
 STATE 
 
 1870 
 
 1880 
 
 1890 
 
 1900 
 
 1910 
 
 1920 
 
 Pennsylvania (anthracite)... 
 Pennsylvania (bituminous).. 
 
 Illinois. 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 West Virginia. 
 
 Alabama. 
 
 Indiana. 
 
 Kentucky. 
 
 15,650,275 
 
 7,798,517 
 
 2,624,163 
 
 2,527,284 
 
 618,878 
 
 10,999 
 
 437,870 
 
 150,582 
 
 26,249,711 
 
 21,280,000 
 
 4,480,000 
 
 7,840,000 
 
 1,404,008 
 
 380,000 
 
 1,680,000 
 
 1,120,000 
 
 46,468,640 
 
 43,302,173 
 
 15,274,727 
 
 13.203,522 
 
 6,002,800 
 
 4,090,409 
 
 3,305,737 
 
 2,483,144 
 
 57,367,915 
 
 79,842,326 
 
 25,767,981 
 
 18,988,150 
 
 22,647,207 
 
 8,394,275 
 
 6,484,086 
 
 5,328,964 
 
 84,485,236 
 
 150,521,526 
 
 45,900,246 
 
 34,209,668 
 
 61,671,019 
 
 16,111,462 
 
 18,389,815 
 
 14,623,319 
 
 163,000,000 
 
 90,050,000 
 
 45,000,000 
 
 87,500,000 
 
 16,700.000 
 
 30,420,000 
 
 31,000,000 
 
 In 1918 the total coal production in the 
 United States was 678,211,904 tons, the record 
 output for one year. See Coal. 
 
 Petroleum .—The production of petroleum be¬ 
 gan in western Pennsylvania in 1859. The 
 United States soon became the chief source of 
 the world’s supply and, except for a few years 
 when Russia surpassed it, has held the primacy. 
 The principal producing States and their pro¬ 
 duction in barrels in 1920 were: California, 105.- 
 668,000; Oklahoma, 105,725,000; Illinois, 10,772,- 
 000; Texas, 96,000,000; Louisiana, 35,649,000; 
 West Virginia, 8,173,000; Pennsylvania, 7,454,- 
 400; Ohio, 7,412,000; Wyoming, 17,071,000; Kan¬ 
 sas, 38,501,000. See Petroleum. 
 
 Iron .—Iron making ranks in importance next 
 to coal, iron ore, like coal, being very widely 
 distributed in the United States, 26 States re¬ 
 porting its production in 1920. The mining of 
 iron began in early Colonial days, but it did 
 not rise into importance until near the middle 
 
 years after the California discoveries, the out¬ 
 put was $50,000,000, and it did not fall below 
 this figure until 1860. The product greatly ex¬ 
 ceeded in total value all other minerals mined 
 during that period. As ordinary placer mining 
 became unprofitable, quartz mining and hydrau¬ 
 lic mining were resorted to, and California con¬ 
 tinued to be an important gold-mining State. 
 The production of gold in 1921 was 2,375,479 
 fine ounces, valued at $49,105,500. See Gold. 
 
 Silver .—The development of silver mining in 
 the United States was almost as sudden as was 
 that of gold. The production of this metal had 
 been quite insignificant until the discovery of 
 the Comstock Lode (q.v.) in western Nevada 
 in 1859. The United States then became the 
 leading silver-mining country of the world. The 
 only other nation that now competes with it 
 in this industry is Mexico. The output of the 
 Comstock Lode declined rapidly after 1877. 
 Nevertheless other mines were developing, and 
 
 PRODUCTION OF IRON ORE IN LONG TONS 
 
 STATE 
 
 1850 
 
 1891 
 
 1901 
 
 1910 
 
 1920 
 
 Minnesota. 
 
 
 645,105 
 
 6,127,001 
 
 1,986,830 
 
 1,272,928 
 
 665,116 
 
 1,017,216 
 
 11,109,537 
 
 9,654,067 
 
 2,801,732 
 
 1,040,684 
 
 925,394 
 
 420,218 
 
 31,966,769 
 
 13,303,906 
 
 4,801,275 
 
 739,799 
 
 903.377 
 
 1,287,209 
 
 1,149,551 
 
 40,274,000 
 
 18,715,000 
 
 5,769,000 
 
 675,000 
 
 296,000 
 
 978,000 
 
 1,067,000 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 2,700 
 
 1,838 
 
 877,283 
 
 67,319 
 
 46,385 
 
 Alabama. 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 New York. 
 
 Wisconsin. 
 
 
 
 
 
 of the nineteenth century. Of the total output 
 in 1918 the hematite variety amounted to 65,- 
 894,709 long tons (maximum output, 70,743,- 
 513 long tons in 1917). The Lake Superior ore 
 is almost wholly red hematite, which represents 
 about nine-tenths of the ore mined in the United 
 States. r lhe development of the Lake Superior 
 iron region is one of the most significant of 
 recent industrial movements in the United 
 States. It has been rendered possible largely 
 through the advantage afforded by the Great 
 Lakes for transportation. In the principal min- 
 
 the silver product of the country continued to 
 increase, Montana leading in 1920 with 13,583,- 
 164 fine ounces. The two largest contributing 
 sources to this increase were the lead mines of 
 Colorado, and later the copper mines of Idaho, 
 Arizona, Utah, and Montana. The production of 
 silver in 1921 was 50,364,389 fine ounces, valued 
 at $1 per ounce. See Silver. 
 
 Copper .—Very little copper was mined prior 
 to the development of the Lake Superior copper 
 mines, which began operations in 1845. From 
 that year, when the production was 224,000 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 705 
 
 pounds, the product has continued to increase 
 steadily and rapidly. In 18G6 the famous Calu¬ 
 met and Hecla mine was opened. In 1917 the 
 smelter output had grown to 1,886,120,721 
 pounds. In 1920 it amounted to 1,209,061,040 
 pounds. The chief producing States are Arizona, 
 Montana, Michigan, Utah, Nevada, New Mexico, 
 and Tennessee. The smelter production of Alaska 
 in 1920 was 66,093,924 pounds, as compared 
 with a production of 56,534,992 pounds in 1919. 
 In 1918 Arizona produced 769,521,721 pounds. 
 See Copper. 
 
 Lead .—The United States ranks first among 
 the countries of the world in the production 
 of lead. The mining of this mineral began as 
 early as 1720 in the southwestern part of what 
 is now Missouri, but it was not until a century 
 later that operations assumed much importance. 
 For a number of years the mining of lead was, 
 after iron, the most important metal-mining in¬ 
 dustry in the United States. Lead was mined in 
 Utah in 1858. About 1877 work began on the 
 Leadville mines, Colorado. The Leadville ores 
 are argentiferous, and the silver obtained in the 
 early days of mining was of greater value than 
 the lead itself. A little later argentiferous lead 
 mines were developed in Idaho (Cceur d’Alene) 
 and other Cordilleran States. See Lead. 
 
 Stone .—Stone suitable for building and other 
 industrial purposes is abundant in almost every 
 State. Because of its bulk and the consequent 
 shipping expenses, its production is largely lim¬ 
 ited to a comparatively local market. Hence 
 in many of the States which have the most val¬ 
 uable resources of stone the quarrying indus¬ 
 try has scarcely more than begun. The utiliza¬ 
 tion of stone varies with the economic condi¬ 
 tion of the country, the total value having 
 fallen from $53,035,620 in 1889 to $31,346,171 
 in 1896, and advanced steadily to $120,500,000 
 in 1920. See Building Stone. 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 The United States produces a larger value of 
 agricultural products than any other country. 
 In 1919 the total value of crops and animal prod¬ 
 ucts was about $17,000,000,000. Until the last 
 quarter of the nineteenth century agriculture 
 strongly predominated in the industrial life of 
 the nation. It still employs a much greater 
 number of individuals than any other industry. 
 Owing to the vast area and great variety of 
 physical and climatic conditions, most of the 
 staple products known to the world can be 
 raised. To the Mississippi valley, which stands 
 preeminent for agricultural purposes, are be¬ 
 ing added vast areas of the West and Northwest 
 which are being rapidly brought under culti¬ 
 vation. If to the arable portion of the Missis¬ 
 sippi drainage basin be added the area drained 
 
 into the Gulf of Mexico by other streams, it 
 would include about one-third of the country’s 
 total area. In this division, almost unbroken by 
 mountain or swamp, the soil is generally fertile. 
 
 The Appalachian and Atlantic seaboard re¬ 
 gion contains much broken and rocky land, and 
 soil of only moderate or of inferior quality. 
 Throughout the eastern half of the United States 
 the rainfall is ordinarily sufficient for growth 
 of crops. Westward, however, in the longitude 
 of central Kansas, the rainfall is greatly di¬ 
 minished and irrigation, dry farming, and graz¬ 
 ing are followed. The Gulf of Mexico has a 
 decidedly moderating effect on the climate of 
 the Gulf States, particularly Florida. But 
 there is no protection in this region against 
 the cold winds from the north which occasion¬ 
 ally sweep southward and bring frosts even to 
 that State. Although much farther south than 
 south Europe, the Gulf region is less adapted to 
 the growing of subtropical products. The Ap¬ 
 palachian Mountains and the Atlantic Ocean to¬ 
 gether have a somewhat moderating effect upon 
 the Carolina-Virginia region and the region far¬ 
 ther north; hence this area has an advantage 
 in the raising of some products, especially fruit. 
 In the north the lakes have a moderating in¬ 
 fluence, making some sections of that territory 
 also favorable for fruit growing. On the Pa¬ 
 cific coast the ocean currents and the mountains 
 together afford the most highly protected por¬ 
 tion of the United States and make it well 
 adapted as a fruit region. 
 
 Area of Farms and Improved Land. In the 
 following table it will be seen that the total 
 farm area of the United States increased from 
 1860 to 1920 nearly 500,000,000 acres. 
 
 ACRES OF LAND IN FARMS 
 
 CENSUS TEAR 
 
 Total 
 
 Improved 
 
 I860. 
 
 407,212,538 
 
 407,735,041 
 
 536,081,835 
 
 623,218,619 
 
 841,201,546 
 
 878,798,325 
 
 955,883,715 
 
 163,110,720 
 
 188,921,099 
 
 284,771,042 
 
 357,616,755 
 
 414,793,191 
 
 478,451,750 
 
 503,073,007 
 
 1870. 
 
 1880.. 
 
 1890. 
 
 1900. 
 
 1910.,. 
 
 1920. 
 
 
 The largest absolute increase in the acreage 
 of farm land between 1910 and 1920 occurred 
 in the West North Central division, which at 
 both censuses comprised a larger area than any 
 other division. The highest rate of increase was 
 in the Mountain division, 50 per cent. More 
 than five-sixths of the improved farm land of 
 the United States in 1920 was in the two North 
 Central and the two South Central divisions. 
 The following table shows the acreage of im¬ 
 proved land and the total land area in 1920. 
 
 DIVISION 
 
 Total 
 land area 
 (acres) 
 
 Total 
 
 land in farms 
 (acres) 
 
 Improved land 
 in farms 
 (acres) 
 
 United States. 
 
 1,903,289,600 
 
 39,664,640 
 
 64,000,000 
 
 157,160,960 
 
 326,914,560 
 
 172,205,440 
 
 114,885,760 
 
 275,037,440 
 
 549,840,000 
 
 203,580,800 
 
 955,883,715 
 
 16,990,642 
 
 40,572,901 
 
 117,735,179 
 
 256,973,229 
 
 97,775,243 
 
 78,897,463 
 
 173,449,127 
 
 117,337,226 
 
 56,152,705 
 
 503,073,007 
 
 6,114,601 
 
 26,562,107 
 
 87,894,835 
 
 171,394,439 
 
 48,509,886 
 
 44,380,132 
 
 64,189,606 
 
 30,105,868 
 
 23,921,533 
 
 New England. 
 
 Middle Atlantic. 
 
 East North Central. 
 
 West North Central. 
 
 South Atlantic. 
 
 East South Central. 
 
 West South Central. 
 
 Mountain. 
 
 Pacific. 
 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 706 
 
 The most noteworthy fact shown is the great 
 importance, absolutely and proportionately, of 
 the North Central divisions. Nearly three- 
 fourths of the total farm area in this section 
 is improved. There are but few large regions 
 in the world so easily and uniformly adaptable 
 
 The percentage of rented farms and the rate 
 of increase of these are greatest in the South. 
 The greater proportionate number of rented 
 farms in that section results from the industrial 
 change incident to the overthrow of slavery, 
 many negroes becoming renters, although an 
 
 AVERAGE NUMBER OF ACRES PER FARM BY GEOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS 
 
 GEOGRAPHIC DIVISION 
 
 1920 
 
 1910 
 
 1900 
 
 1890 
 
 1880 
 
 1870 
 
 1860 
 
 The United States. 
 
 148.2 
 
 138.1 
 
 146.2 
 
 136.5 
 
 133.7 
 
 153.3 
 
 199.2 
 
 North Atlantic. 
 
 101.9 
 
 112.9 
 
 96.5 
 
 95.3 
 
 97.7 
 
 104.3 
 
 108.1 
 
 South Atlantic. 
 
 84.4 
 
 93.3 
 
 108.4 
 
 133.6 
 
 157.4 
 
 241.1 
 
 352.8 
 
 North Central. 
 
 17.1 
 
 105.1 
 
 144.5 
 
 133.4 
 
 121.9 
 
 123.7 
 
 139.7 
 
 South Central. 
 
 124.5 
 
 236.2 
 
 155.4 
 
 144.0 
 
 150.6 
 
 194.4 
 
 321.4 
 
 Western. 
 
 360.2 
 
 296.9 
 
 386.1 
 
 324.1 
 
 312.9 
 
 336.4 
 
 366.9 
 
 to cultivation. In Iowa over 95 per cent of the 
 total land area was in farms in 1920, and of 
 this over 25 per cent was improved. Illinois 
 makes almost an equally good showing, and 
 Indiana, Ohio, North Dakota, Missouri, and 
 Minnesota are other States in this group which 
 have a large percentage of improved land. 
 
 Size of Farms. From the table above it will 
 be seen that the size of farms varies greatly in 
 different parts of the country. 
 
 The most fundamental principle in determin¬ 
 ing the size of the American farm is the char¬ 
 acter of the land and the type of farming. The 
 average size of farms is smaller in the older 
 sections of the country than in the newer and 
 is smaller in the South where leased to tenants 
 than in the North. The recent settlement of 
 the West, in which the average homestead (160 
 acres) was adapted to the average family, has 
 tended to establish this unit. In the South, 
 where the plantation system formerly prevailed, 
 a rapid breaking up is taking place to suit the 
 family unit. The size of farm that a family 
 can cultivate varies with the type of farming. 
 Thus the same labor that will suffice for a grain 
 or stock farm of a given size is sufficient for 
 only one-half or less of that amount when a 
 cotton farm is in question. 
 
 Farm Tenure. As the country becomes older 
 there is a rapidly increasing and almost univer¬ 
 sal tendency towards the renting system, though 
 this is much more marked in some regions than 
 in others. In the earlier period of development 
 the man of small means took a claim, but now 
 he is forced to rent. The frontier, as it pushed 
 across the country, has been characterized by 
 the fact that most of its farms were operated 
 by owners. In the table below it will be seen 
 that the highest percentage of owned farms is 
 in the West, but the renting of farms began at 
 once and steadily increased. 
 
 TEAR 
 
 Total 
 
 farms 
 
 NUMBER OF FARMS OPERATED BY 
 
 Owners 
 
 Cash 
 
 tenants 
 
 Share 
 
 tenants 
 
 1920. 
 
 6,448,343 
 
 3,925,090 
 
 480,009 
 
 1,117,721 
 
 1910. 
 
 6,361,502 
 
 3,948,722 
 
 712,294 
 
 1,528,389 
 
 1900. 
 
 5,739,657 
 
 3,713,371 
 
 752,920 
 
 1,273,366 
 
 1890. 
 
 4,564,641 
 
 3,269,728 
 
 454,659 
 
 840,254 
 
 There is an increased tendency to delegate the 
 management of farms. In the South and North 
 Central States especially a large number of the 
 owners are absentees. The table in the next col¬ 
 umn shows the number of owned and rented 
 farms and the tenancy in each class. 
 
 increasing number are acquiring land. (See 
 Negro in America.) Rented farms average less 
 in size than the owned farms, and a larger per¬ 
 centage of the rented farms is improved. This 
 is particularly true in the South and is most 
 noticeable in share-rent farms. Farms in that 
 section are leased mainly for raising crops. 
 
 
 Total 
 
 number 
 
 NUMBER OF FARMS OPERATED BY 
 
 
 of 
 
 farms 
 
 Owners and 
 managers 
 
 Cash 
 
 tenants 
 
 Share 
 
 tenants 
 
 New 
 
 England ' 
 1920. 
 
 156,564 
 
 144,962 
 
 8,071 
 
 2,698 
 
 1910. 
 
 188,802 
 
 173,787 
 
 12,188 
 
 2,827 
 
 1900. 
 
 191,888 
 
 173,930 
 
 13,022 
 
 4,936 
 
 1890. 
 
 189,961 
 
 172,243 
 
 10,906 
 
 6,812 
 
 Middle 
 Atlantic 
 1920. 
 
 425,147 
 
 336,957 
 
 32,879 
 
 51,174 
 
 1910_ 
 
 468,379 
 
 364,108 
 
 47,081 
 
 57,190 
 
 1900. 
 
 485,618 
 
 362,794 
 
 53,339 
 
 69,485 
 
 1890. 
 
 468,608 
 
 365,133 
 
 41,214 
 
 62,261 
 
 East North 
 Central 
 1920. 
 
 1,084,744 
 
 780,337 
 
 76,945 
 
 182,283 
 
 1910. 
 
 1,123,489 
 
 819,892 
 
 99,334 
 
 204,263 
 
 1900. 
 
 1.135,823 
 
 837,537 
 
 95,165 
 
 203,121 
 
 1890. 
 
 1,009,031 
 
 778,517 
 
 74,486 
 
 156,028 
 
 West North 
 Central 
 1920. 
 
 1,096,951 
 
 721,932 
 
 107,568 
 
 186,704 
 
 1910. 
 
 1,109,948 
 
 767,330 
 
 124,539 
 
 218,079 
 
 1900. 
 
 1,060,744 
 
 746,304 
 
 112,567 
 
 201,873 
 
 1890. 
 
 914,791 
 
 695,569 
 
 72,762 
 
 146,460 
 
 South 
 Atlantic 
 1920. 
 
 1,158,976 
 
 616,888 
 
 139.907 
 
 186,986 
 
 1910. 
 
 1,111,881 
 
 601,452 
 
 200,931 
 
 309,498 
 
 1900. 
 
 962,225 
 
 536,627 
 
 172,699 
 
 252,890 
 
 1890. 
 
 749,600 
 
 461,057 
 
 96,098 
 
 192,445 
 
 East South 
 Central 
 1920. 
 
 1,051,600 
 
 529,314 
 
 124,478 
 
 175,441 
 
 1910. 
 
 1.042,480 
 
 513,742 
 
 208,260 
 
 320,478 
 
 1900. 
 
 903,313 
 
 468,382 
 
 190,153 
 
 244,778 
 
 1890. 
 
 655,766 
 
 404,350 
 
 103,583 
 
 147,833 
 
 West South 
 Central 
 1920. 
 
 996,088 
 
 469,341 
 
 59,799 
 
 288,797 
 
 1910. 
 
 943,186 
 
 445,601 
 
 106,220 
 
 391,365 
 
 1900. 
 
 754,853 
 
 384,238 
 
 95,938 
 
 274,677 
 
 1890. 
 
 431,006 
 
 264,622 
 
 48,318 
 
 118,066 
 
 Mountain 
 1920. 
 
 244,109 
 
 206,651 
 
 10,916 
 
 23,968 
 
 1910. 
 
 183,446 
 
 163,756 
 
 8,726 
 
 10,964 
 
 1900. 
 
 101,327 
 
 88,918 
 
 4,730 
 
 7,679 
 
 1890. 
 
 49,398 
 
 45,895 
 
 1,094 
 
 2,409 
 
 Pacific 
 
 1920. 
 
 187,177 
 
 234,164 
 
 24,442 
 
 19,670 
 
 1910. 
 
 189,981 
 
 157,158 
 
 19,008 
 
 13,725 
 
 1900. 
 
 141,581 
 
 113,678 
 
 14,052 
 
 13,851 
 
 1890. 
 
 96,480 
 
 82,342 
 
 6,198 
 
 7,940 
 
 Farms in the United States are usually rented 
 for short periods, one year at a time being the 
 most common. In Great Britain, by contrast, 
 the long-term system of tenure prevails. 
 
 Methods. See Agriculture. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 707 
 
 Irrigation. Within the territory now com¬ 
 prising the arid region of the United States ir¬ 
 rigation has been practiced to a limited extent 
 from prehistoric times. When the Spanish ex¬ 
 plorers entered the territory now forming the 
 States of New Mexico and Arizona, they came 
 across the remains of ancient aqueducts and 
 found the natives watering their crops. The 
 Spaniards who settled in this territory con¬ 
 tinued and extended this practice, as the coun¬ 
 try was uninhabitable without it. The area ir¬ 
 rigated was very limited, however, being con¬ 
 fined principally to the pueblos of the Indians 
 and the missions of the Roman Catholic fathers, 
 until about the middle of the nineteenth century, 
 when American settlers began to go into the 
 West from the East and North. The beginning 
 of irrigation in the United States by Americans 
 is usually attributed to Brigham Young and 
 the Mormon pioneers who settled in the Salt 
 Lake valley in 1847. The fact is that in many 
 parts of the West irrigation was necessary for 
 obtaining subsistence, and wherever permanent 
 settlements were made the settlers began apply¬ 
 ing water to the soil for the production of crops. 
 The settlement of the Mormons in Utah and the 
 discovery of gold in California occurred at about 
 the same time, and both the Mormon farmers 
 and the California miners were compelled to 
 use irrigation in order to subsist. 
 
 In 1870 the first colony of any considerable 
 size depending on irrigated agriculture, aside 
 from the Mormon colony, was founded at Greeley, 
 Colo., under the patronage of Horace Greeley. 
 The first period of active construction of ir¬ 
 rigation works on a large scale occurred in the 
 late eighties and early nineties, when many large 
 enterprises were undertaken by promoters who 
 hoped to profit by the great increase in land 
 values created by irrigation. Few of these un¬ 
 dertakings were successful financially. This 
 boom in irrigation construction was followed by 
 a long period of depression, lasting until 1902 
 or 1903, during which little construction took 
 place. In 1902 Congress enacted the Reclama¬ 
 tion Law, providing for the construction of ir¬ 
 rigation works by the Federal government with 
 the proceeds from the sale of public lands, and 
 at about the same time construction by private 
 enterprises was renewed. 
 
 The first statistics of irrigated lands in the 
 United States were collected in connection with 
 the census of 1890, and they have since been 
 compiled for each census period of ten years, in¬ 
 cluding 1920. These figures show the great 
 development of irrigated lands. 
 
 The census of irrigation, as taken both in 1920 
 and in 1910, covered the States of North Dakota, 
 South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas in the 
 West North Central division, and all of the 
 West South Central, Mountain, and Pacific divi¬ 
 sions. In that part of the United States east 
 of the territory covered, small areas of truck 
 and fruit crops are irrigated at times, but 
 they were not included in the canvass. 
 
 The total area reported as irrigated in 1919 
 was 19,191,716 acres, an increase of 4,758,431 
 acres, or 33 per cent, over the area irrigated 
 in 1909. The total area to which existing enter¬ 
 prises were capable of supplying water in 1920 
 was 26,020,477 acres, an excess of 6,828,761 
 acres over the area irrigated in 1919. These 
 figures indicate the extent to which existing 
 irrigation works were utilized in 1919, about 
 74 per cent of the effective capacity being used. 
 
 In 1910 existing irrigation works were capable 
 of irrigating 20,285,403 acres, an excess of 5,- 
 852,118 acres over the area irrigated, indicating 
 that in 1910 about 71 per cent of the effective 
 capacity was utilized. The absolute excess of 
 capacity over utilization, however, was greater 
 in 1920 than in 1910. 
 
 The area of land in irrigation enterprises re¬ 
 ported as available for settlement in 1920 was 
 2,257,981 acres. 
 
 The total capital invested in irrigation enter¬ 
 prises to January 1, 1920, was $697,657,328, an 
 average of $26.81 per acre, based on the area to 
 which the enterprises were capable of supplying 
 iwater in 1920. The capital invested to July 1, 
 1910, was $321,454,008, and the average per 
 acre was $15.85, based on the area enterprises 
 w r ere capable of irrigating in 1910. The in¬ 
 crease from 1910 to 1920 in the total capital 
 invested was 117 per cent, and in the average 
 investment per acre, 69.1 per cent. 
 
 The total value of crops reported as grown on 
 irrigated land in 1919 was $801,005,326, an 
 average of $76.41 per acre for the acreage of 
 crops reported. 
 
 The irrigated land of the United States is 
 supplied with water principally from streams, 
 94 per cent of the acreage irrigated in 1909 
 being supplied from this source, 3.3 per cent be¬ 
 ing supplied from wells, 1.4 per cent from 
 springs, and the remainder from reservoirs and 
 lakes. The normal summer flow of most of 
 the streams of the arid region is utilized. Ir¬ 
 rigation works have been constructed by indi¬ 
 viduals, cooperative companies, commercial enter¬ 
 prises, irrigation districts, and the Federal 
 government. The cooperative companies are us¬ 
 ually joint-stock companies; irrigation districts 
 are organized under State laws authorizing the 
 issuing of bonds, to obtain funds to meet the 
 cost of works and the levy and collection of 
 taxes on the lands composing the districts to 
 pay the bonds, interest, and operating expenses. 
 The Carey Act is a Federal law granting lands 
 to the States containing arid lands on con¬ 
 dition that the States provide for reclamation 
 by irrigation; and the Reclamation Law pro¬ 
 vides for the construction of irrigation works 
 by the Federal government with the proceeds 
 of the sale of public lands and for the repay¬ 
 ment of the cost of such works by the users 
 of the water supplied by the works. 
 
 Crops. The table on page 708 shows value of 
 all farm crops by divisions and States in 1909 
 and 1919, as returned by the Bureau of the 
 Census. The most important crops are corn, 
 hay, wheat, and oats. 
 
 Corn .—The largest and most valuable Ameri¬ 
 can crops are corn and hay. They are at the 
 basis of the great stock-raising interests of 
 the country. Corn stands without a rival either 
 in respect to area or value. It is indigenous 
 to America, and the United States produces 
 about four-fifths of the world’s supply. The 
 production of corn in 1921 was about 3,081,251,- 
 000 bushels, valued at $1,305,624,000. See 
 Maize. 
 
 Hay .—As compared with corn, hay is of 
 greater relative importance in regions which 
 are not well adapted for the growing of corn, 
 but where the demand for stock food is never¬ 
 theless great. Thus in the North Atlantic 
 States the acreage of hay is twice the total area 
 devoted to cereals, and in the western division 
 of States the acreage of hay is over 16 times 
 
VALUE OF ALL FARM CROPS BY DIVISIONS AND STATES —1919 AND 1909 
 
 (Not including forest products or nursery and greenhouse products.) 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 708 
 
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UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 709 
 
 that of corn and nearly 30 per cent greater 
 than that of all cereals combined. In the lat¬ 
 ter region a large part of the crop has the ad¬ 
 vantage of irrigation. In most of the North 
 Central States hay is the second crop in re¬ 
 spect to acreage and value. In the cotton States 
 less attention is given it, although there has 
 been a significant increase in this section in re¬ 
 cent years. The increase in the acreage of hay 
 has been especially rapid since 1880, the area 
 devoted to it having doubled since that time. 
 The principal variety of hay is timothy, its 
 production being confined largely to the North 
 Central and the North Atlantic States. The 
 production of hay in 1921 was about 96,802,000 
 tons valued at $1,090,776,000. Next in importance 
 are wild, salt, and prairie grasses, which are 
 produced in regions in which timothy is little 
 grown—the salt and other marshes, and the 
 more arid prairie region and westward. Al¬ 
 falfa stands closely in acreage to timothy. Its 
 production is largest in the North Central and 
 the Western States. Two or more cuttings of 
 this crop are obtained annually, and it stands 
 first in yield per acre. Clover grown alone ranks 
 next to alfalfa in acreage, but a larger area is 
 devoted to clover and timothy as a mixed hay 
 crop. In the Far West, especially California, 
 large quantities of grain are cut green for hay. 
 Millet and other hay and forage crops are 
 grown in most parts of the country. 
 
 Wheat .—The United States wheat crop varies 
 in amount from one-third to one-half that of 
 Europe. Wheat can be successfully grown in 
 every State of the Union. However, the com¬ 
 petition of certain favored regions has limited 
 its cultivation in others. A hardy crop and of 
 quick growth, it is the principal crop in the 
 North and the West. The climate and soil are 
 less favorable to its growth in the South. The 
 extensive wheat farms of former years have 
 been gradually broken up and mixed farming 
 has taken their place. During the period from 
 1870 to 1890 wheat cultivation developed in 
 Argentina, India, and other regions, and these 
 countries came into competition with the United 
 States in the European market. This fact, 
 coupled with the high production of the United 
 States, caused a decrease in the price of wheat 
 over the greater part of the country. In the 
 regions where the winters are rigorous, especially 
 where the snowfall is not heavy enough to pro¬ 
 tect vegetation or where the rainfall may be 
 inadequate in the autumn, the wheat crop is 
 sown in the Spring. In 1921 a little less than 
 one half of the total wheat acreage was winter 
 wheat. Wheat benefited even more than corn 
 from the improved machinery which came into 
 use about 1850 and subsequently. This, to¬ 
 gether with the improvement of transportation 
 and the adaptability of the prairie soils to wheat 
 culture, resulted in a rapid increase in the 
 acreage devoted to the crop. The total production 
 of wheat in 1921 was 794,893,000 bushels, valued 
 at $737,068,000. 
 
 Cotton .—Nearly 65 per cent of the world’s 
 supply of cotton is produced in the United 
 States, where it is one of the leading crops. The 
 area devoted to cotton and the production have 
 been greatly extended in the past half century. 
 According to the United States Bureau of the 
 Census the acreage of cotton harvested by re¬ 
 cent census years was: 1879, 14,480,019; 1889, 
 20,175,270; 1899, 24,275,101; 1901, 32,044,000; 
 and 1919, 33,740,106. The production of cotton 
 
 lint for the same dates, by running bales, was 5,- 
 575,359, 7,472,511, 9,393,242, 10,072,731, and 
 
 11,376,130 respectively. The production of cot¬ 
 ton in 1921 was 8,340,000 bales, and the amount 
 reported ginned on Jan. 1, 1922 was 7,884,272 
 bales. Linters to the amount of 439,637 bales 
 were produced in 1921, and the total amount of 
 the cottonseed, which was crushed for its oil, 
 hulls and cake, was $4,060,604 tons. The prin¬ 
 cipal area of cotton production is the region 
 between the Appalachian Mountains and the sea, 
 beginning with the southern tier of counties in 
 Virginia and including more than two-thirds of 
 North Carolina, practically all of South Caro¬ 
 lina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, 
 and Oklahoma, most of Texas, and all of Louisi¬ 
 ana except the sugar and rice parishes. Most 
 of the cotton area is devoted to the growing of 
 upland types of cotton (Gossypium liirsutum 
 and various hybrids), but the finest and most 
 expensive cotton is the Sea Island (Gossypium 
 barbadense ), which is grown in the coast region 
 of South Carolina, southeastern Georgia, and 
 northern Florida. Locally produced strains of 
 Egyptian cotton are grown in Arizona, and a 
 very superior upland cotton in California. 
 
 The cotton-boll weevil menace, which grew to 
 serious proportions in the last decade of the 
 nineteenth century, has been a disturbing factor 
 in cotton production. First appearing in Texas, 
 it gradually spread until it reached nearly to 
 the northern limit of cotton production in Okla¬ 
 homa and eastward until in 1922 it covered 
 nearly all the cotton area of North Carolina. 
 The presence of the boll weevil has probably 
 done more to revolutionize methods of produc¬ 
 tion and to diversify agriculture in the infested 
 regions than any other agency. . 
 
 Oats .—The only other crop which is grown 
 on a scale comparable with the foregoing crops 
 is oats. The acreage of oats is indeed greater 
 than that of cotton, but the value is much less. 
 In New York, Wisconsin, and some other Com¬ 
 monwealths oats has the largest area of all 
 cereals. In a number of other States it ranks 
 second, including the two largest oats-growing 
 States, Illinois and Iowa, in each' of which it 
 is much more extensively grown than wheat. 
 The United States produces less than one-third 
 the oats of the world. The production in 1921 
 was 1,060,739,000 bushels, valued at $321,540,- 
 000 . 
 
 Rice .—Although rice was introduced as early 
 as 1700, and has been grown ever since, it was 
 not until near the year 1900 that its cultiva¬ 
 tion began to 1 assume large proportions. South 
 Carolina ranked first in. its production until 1880. 
 A new epoch in rice cultivation began in 1897— 
 98, when it was successfully grown by the aid of 
 irrigation in the coastal prairie lands of south¬ 
 west Louisiana. The cultivation of rice in that 
 region developed with remarkable rapidity, and 
 the production of the country increased from 
 21,838,580 bushels in 1909 to 39,653,000 bushels 
 in 1921. Of this last amount, which was only a 
 little short of the consumption of the country, 
 Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and California to¬ 
 gether produced by far the largest amount. 
 
 Other Cereals .—Other varieties of cereals than 
 those mentioned flourish, but have not become 
 favorites as in some other countries. The United 
 States produces only one-tenth of the barley 
 crop of the world and prior to the World War 
 was exceeded by European Russia. It is an 
 important crop in California, where it is used as 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 710 
 
 a stock-food substitute for corn. The other 
 States in which it is most grown are Minnesota, 
 Wisconsin, lowa, and the Dakotas. The pro¬ 
 duction of rye is greatest in Wisconsin, Penn¬ 
 sylvania and other northern States. Pennsyl¬ 
 vania and New York produce over five-eighths 
 of the buckwheat of the country. Kafir corn and 
 other nonsaccharine sorghums are adapted to the 
 semiarid regions and are grown chiefly in western 
 Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. 
 
 Vegetables. —Vegetables are grown commer¬ 
 cially on three classes of farms: intensively cul¬ 
 tivated gardens adjoining the large centres of 
 population and devoted to the more perishable; 
 general farms which include the staple fall and 
 winter vegetables in their planting scheme; and 
 truck farms located in mild regions along the 
 South Atlantic and Gulf coasts as well as in 
 southern California, where large quantities of 
 perishable vegetables can be grown in green¬ 
 houses. The reported acreage of vegetables, not 
 including potatoes and sweet potatoes, increased 
 from 2,162,130 acres in the census year 1899 
 to 2,763,269 in 1909 but decreased in 1919 to 
 1,475,000. The South Atlantic States lead in 
 both acreage and value, having planted 337,379 
 acres in vegetables in 1919. Of the individual 
 States, the leading ones, judged by area of vege¬ 
 tables planted, were New York with 132,000 
 acres, Ohio with 60,860 acres; Pennsylvania with 
 54,283 acres, Illinois with 60,705 acres, Virginia 
 with 47,307 acres, Kentucky with 16,124 acres, 
 and Maryland with 119,922 acres. 
 
 Potatoes. —The most extensively grown and 
 most valuable of the vegetables are potatoes, 
 yet the production is small as compared with 
 that of Europe. About 78 per cent of both acre¬ 
 age and production was in the Northern States. 
 Among the individual States New York led in 
 production in 1919 with 32,470,847 bushels, fol¬ 
 lowed by Wisconsin with 26,376,021 bushels, 
 Maine with 25,531,470 bushels, and Michigan 
 with 23,929,560 bushels. 
 
 Sweet Potatoes. —More than nine-tenths of the 
 sweet potato crop is grown in the South. The 
 total acreage in 1919 was 803,727 as compared 
 with 641,255 in 1909. The total production was 
 78,091,913 bushels, compared with 59,232,079 in 
 1909. New Jersey, the most important sweet- 
 potato State in the North, planted 15,427 acres. 
 The Southern States grew sweet potatoes in 
 large quantities, especially Georgia, Virginia, 
 North Carolina, South Carolina and Florida. 
 California had 7632 acres, or more than nine- 
 tenths of the acreage for the entire West. 
 
 Fruits. —The most remarkable development of 
 all phases of American agriculture in the three 
 decades, 1890-1920, was made in fruit culture. 
 This industry nearly doubled in magnitude in 
 that period. The number of orchard trees, e.g., 
 increased from 193.452,588 to 226,153,971 (not 
 including subtropical varieties). Most varieties 
 of temperate-zone fruits are grown in every 
 State. The use of refrigerator cars has made 
 it possible to transport fruits long distances, 
 and thus all parts of the country have the ad¬ 
 vantage of the general market. However, cli¬ 
 matic differences tend to localize. From the 
 
 ORCHARD FRUITS, TREES OF BEARING AGE 
 
 IN 1920 
 
 Apples. 115,309,165 
 
 Peaches and nectarines. 65,646,101 
 
 Pears. 44,647,412 
 
 Plums and prunes. 20,452,293 
 
 accompanying table it will be seen that the apple 
 has a decided primacy among American fruits. 
 
 Formerly the apple received most attention in 
 the Northeastern and North Central group of 
 States, but its commercial culture has rapidly 
 extended southward to northern Georgia and 
 west to the plains region and to the north¬ 
 western States. New York, on account of its 
 old orchards, is still the largest-producing State. 
 The total production of apples in 1921 was 
 96,881,000 bushels. The peach crop amounted 
 to 32,733,000, the pear crop to 10,705,000 
 bushels and the orange crop to 30,700,000 
 bushels. Peaches are grown generally throughout 
 the country, but the greatest development has 
 been in the production of early peaches in the 
 South and in California, where the rapid de¬ 
 velopment of the dried-fruit industry has further 
 stimulated the production of all orchard fruits. 
 In fresh deciduous fruits California shipped in 
 1921 over 40,000 carloads, the largest ship¬ 
 ment being of grapes, 28,000 carloads. In dried 
 fruits California shipped 277,660 tons, a de¬ 
 crease from 330,370 tons in 1920. The Pacific 
 coast, particularly California, leads in the pro¬ 
 duction of plums, prunes, apricots, and grapes. 
 The total number of grapevines of bearing age 
 in the United States in 1920 was 225,754,285, 
 of which California had nearly two-thirds. The 
 raisin industry is confined to California. Be¬ 
 sides California, the chief region for the produc¬ 
 tion of table grapes is the Lake Erie region in 
 northern Ohio and western New York. Cherries 
 and pears are grown throughout the country. 
 
 The production of the three most important 
 varieties of small fruits—strawberries, raspber¬ 
 ries, and blackberries—is well extended over the 
 country. Cranberries require boggy lands and 
 are principally limited to the Cape Cod region, 
 southern New Jersey, and central Wisconsin. 
 Massachusetts produces over 60 per cent of the 
 pfoduct. California is unsurpassed as a region 
 for the growing of all kinds of subtropical fruits, 
 as the remarkable development of that region 
 during the period 1880-1920 fully demonstrates. 
 This region is also the chief centre of produc¬ 
 tion of almonds and English walnuts. South 
 Florida is also a large centre of orange culture 
 and is the only important centre of pineapple 
 culture of continental United States. (See Cali¬ 
 fornia; Florida.) Arizona and New Mexico 
 also give promise of becoming important centres 
 for the growth of subtropical plants. The total 
 acreage in small fruits in 1920 was 249,084, and 
 the production was 324,988,968 quarts. Straw¬ 
 berries aggregated 119,395 acres, with 176,- 
 931,550 quarts, raspberries and loganberries 
 amounted to 66,333,509 quarts, blackberries and 
 dewberries 39,945,078 quarts. 
 
 Tobacco. —Virginia maintained the primacy 
 in tobacco production until 1850, when it was 
 surpassed by Kentucky. The latter State has 
 steadily increased, until it represents over twice 
 the acreage and value represented by the former. 
 The total production in 1921 was 1,117,682,000 
 pounds, compared with 1,582,225,000 in 1920. 
 The other principal States producing tobacco 
 are Ohio, Tennessee, South Carolina, Wisconsin, 
 Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Connecticut. 
 
 Sugar and Sugar-Producing Crops. —The rais¬ 
 ing of sugar cane in the United States proper 
 is largely confined to Louisiana. The area de¬ 
 voted to sugar cane in the United States in 
 1919 aggregated 372,938 acres. The produc¬ 
 tion of cane sugar in 1921 amounted to over 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 711 
 
 1,121,000 tons. Sorghum cane is grown very 
 generally throughout the United States. The 
 total acreage in 1919 was 482,043, and the 
 sirup produced amounted to 21,523,025 gallons. 
 In the early history of the country a large 
 part of the sugar and sirup consumed was 
 manufactured from the sap of the maple 
 tree. The maple sugar made in 1919 amounted 
 to 9,691,854 pounds. About two-thirds of this 
 was made in Vermont and New York. The 
 maple-sirup product in the same year amounted 
 to 3,507,745 gallons, Ohio being the leading 
 State in sirup production. Since 1890 there 
 has been a rapid development of the beet-sugar 
 industry. The production of beet sugar in¬ 
 creased from 2203 tons in 1889-90 to 900,000 
 tons in 1921. The latter amount was produced 
 from 636,000 acres of beets. Over two-thirds 
 of this acreage was in Colorado, California, and 
 Michigan, and the remainder was distributed 
 through a number of States. Unlike sugar cane, 
 the sugar beet is usually grown as an incidental 
 to other farming operations. Owing to their 
 high value per acre, they are both, however, im¬ 
 portant to the sections in which they are grown. 
 
 Stock Raising. Compared with crop growing, 
 stock raising is of much more importance in 
 the United States than in European countries. 
 The per capita number of horses, cattle, and 
 hogs is much greater in the United States than 
 in any of the principal European countries. 
 The total value of all live stock on farms in 
 the United States in 1910 was $4,925,174,000. 
 Of the total, the value of domestic animals, $4,- 
 760,060,000, represented 96.6 per cent and the 
 value of poultry most of the remainder. The 
 accompanying table shows the number of live 
 stock on farms and ranges in 1900, 1910, and 
 1920. 
 
 world. Vermont early became well known for 
 the raising of driving horses, but the blue-grass 
 region of Kentucky contains a large number of 
 the most famous breeding farms of driving 
 horses in America. (See Horse. ) From the 
 trotting stock are bred roadsters and coach 
 horses, the European breed of coach horse not 
 being extensively bred in the country. The 
 United States has not developed any new breeds 
 of draft horses, but imports stock horses of this 
 kind from Europe. The favorite breeds are the 
 Percheron, Shire, and Clydesdale. The steady 
 growth in the demand for horses prior to about 
 1890 resulted in the breeding of the low-grade 
 as well as the better class. In recent years 
 the premium paid for high-grade horses has 
 checked the breeding of inferior animals, and 
 since 1890 the grade of horses has improved 
 much faster than before. 
 
 Cattle .—The nineteenth century was well ad¬ 
 vanced before stock cattle from Europe had been 
 imported to any considerable extent. Short¬ 
 horns were for several years imported in the 
 largest numbers, and there are more shorthorns 
 in the United States to-day than of any other 
 breed. The hustling qualities of the Herefords 
 made them favorites in the range States. The 
 Aberdeen-Angus were introduced later (1870), 
 but have become rivals of the Herefords for 
 beef purposes, especially in the North Cen¬ 
 tral States. These are the three principal 
 breeds used in the United States for breed¬ 
 ing and for grading up native cattle for beef 
 purposes. In feeding and breeding beef cattle 
 it has been the aim to reduce the time neces¬ 
 sary to prepare the animal for market and 
 the tendency has been to produce earlier ma¬ 
 turing animals. In the North Central division 
 cattle are being finished for market at from 
 
 LIVE* STOCK 
 
 United 
 
 States 
 
 North 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 division 
 
 South 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 division 
 
 North 
 
 Central 
 
 division 
 
 South 
 
 Central 
 
 division 
 
 Western 
 
 division 
 
 Neat cattle 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1920. 
 
 35,288,100 
 
 388,452 
 
 2,088,898 
 
 15,758,125 
 
 8,501,829 
 
 8,550,796 
 
 1910. 
 
 53,997,327 
 
 4,699,130 
 
 4,264,112 
 
 23,694,947 
 
 12,908,805 
 
 8,831,053 
 
 1900. 
 
 52,403,828 
 
 5,081,616 
 
 3,490,301 
 
 23,309,460 
 
 13,823,384 
 
 6,699,067 
 
 Cattle 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1920. 
 
 31,264,459 
 
 4,801,061 
 
 2,613,805 
 
 15,313,087 
 
 6,215,764 
 
 2,480,632 
 
 1910. 
 
 20,125,432 
 
 3,439,350 
 
 1,810,754 
 
 10,157,133 
 
 3,877,614 
 
 1,340,581 
 
 1900. 
 
 17,135,633 
 
 3,496,266 
 
 1,383,319 
 
 8,490,284 
 
 2.899,236 
 
 866,528 
 
 Horses 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1920. 
 
 19,767,161 
 
 1,584,441 
 
 1,111,187 
 
 11,056,149 
 
 3,206,144 
 
 3,066,002 
 
 1910. 
 
 19,220,338 
 
 1,572,229 
 
 1,082,963 
 
 10,854,451 
 
 3,388,814 
 
 2,351,881 
 
 1900. 
 
 16,952,191 
 
 1,641,395 
 
 1,014,543 
 
 9,070,366 
 
 3,175,869 
 
 2,050,018 
 
 Mules 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1920. 
 
 5,432,391 
 
 70,678 
 
 1,079,033 
 
 1,157,374 
 
 2,935,080 
 
 190,226 
 
 1910. 
 
 4,206,210 
 
 54,800 
 
 749,898 
 
 954,603 
 
 2,283,411 
 
 163,498 
 
 1900. 
 
 3,127,152 
 
 46,033 
 
 545,840 
 
 652,360 
 
 1,677,607 
 
 111,147 
 
 Swine 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1920. 
 
 59,346,409 
 
 2,314,485 
 
 6,535,700 
 
 35,589,474 
 
 11,965,247 
 
 2,633,407 
 
 1910. 
 
 58,185,676 
 
 2,187,463 
 
 5,963,920 
 
 35,442,568 
 
 12,460,551 
 
 1,831,174 
 
 1900. 
 
 62,868,041 
 
 2,322,206 
 
 5,562,762 
 
 40,474,289 
 
 13,04/,827 
 
 1,460,957 
 
 Sheep 
 
 1920. 
 
 35,033,516 
 
 1,340,614 
 
 1,209,424 
 
 10,023,008 
 
 4,227,332 
 
 18,227,291 
 
 1910. 
 
 39,144,046 
 
 1,566,898 
 
 1,552,698 
 
 10,059,603 
 
 3,176,278 
 
 23,288,569 
 
 1900. 
 
 39,144,046 
 
 2,533,579 
 
 1,706,199 
 
 10,055,721 
 
 3,328,848 
 
 22,228,620 
 
 Little was done prior to the beginning of 
 the nineteenth century to improve the breeds. 
 By the year 1900 the" rate of improvement had 
 become very rapid, and at the present has been 
 extended to all classes of live stock in prac¬ 
 tically all sections of the country. 
 
 Horses .—The most distinctive success attained 
 in American horse raising has been in the de¬ 
 velopment of a new and superior breed of race 
 horses. American racers are the best in the 
 
 12 to 18 months and known as baby beeves. 
 
 The method of cattle raising in the range 
 region has greatly changed since about 1900. 
 Formerly cattle were pastured and driven about 
 without hindrance over government lands. To¬ 
 day much of the range area is inclosed by wire 
 fences. Part of the former range area has been 
 settled by small farmers, but produces more 
 cattle than under the old system. Instead of 
 letting range cattle shift for themselves in 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 712 
 
 winter, as formerly, it is common to provide 
 food and protection for them. 
 
 The recent remarkable development in the 
 dairying industry has exercised a decided in¬ 
 fluence ever cattle raising. The number of 
 milk or dairy cows increased from 6,385,000 in 
 1850 to 31,364,459 in 1920, while the increase 
 in dairy value of these cattle was proportion¬ 
 ately much greater. See Cattle; Dairying. 
 
 Stoine .—The United States has accomplished 
 more in the development of new and superior 
 breeds of hogs than in that of any other farm 
 animal. Indeed, in both the quality of the 
 breed and in absolute number the United States 
 stands almost alone in this branch of industry. 
 
 Until towards 1850 the most common grade 
 was the half-wild, long-legged, thin animals 
 known as razor-backs. They are still common 
 in the Southern States, but before 1830 a dis¬ 
 tinct breed, the Chester White, had been devel¬ 
 oped in Chester Co., Pa., and about 1840 another 
 new breed, the Poland China, originated in south¬ 
 western Ohio. The Duroc-Jersey, another na¬ 
 tive breed, first became common in New Jersey, 
 and is now well known over the country. 
 Through these and other improved native breeds, 
 together with the imported Berkshires, the grade 
 of hogs in the North Central States has been 
 improved until it has reached a very high stand¬ 
 ard. Stockmen have aimed at securing a breed 
 that will fatten quickly and at an early age. 
 The Poland China does this, and its imprint is 
 most noticeable among American hogs. 
 
 Sheep .—Sheep hold a much lower rank in the 
 agricultural economy of the United States than 
 in that of most modern nations. The industry 
 has labored under the disadvantages of a vacil¬ 
 lating tariff policy. During the middle of the 
 nineteenth century the merino was the pre¬ 
 vailing breed, but in 1900 it was estimated that 
 30 per cent of the flocks in the range country 
 were of mutton breeds, and that from 70 to 80 
 per cent of those in the farming States had a 
 predominance of English blood. The merino 
 blood still predominates in the range States. 
 The number of sheep in the United States in 
 1910, outside of the Western division of States, 
 was not so great as in 1850. Sheep raising be¬ 
 gan to spread rapidly in the Western division 
 about 1870. Since 1890 there has been remark¬ 
 able development in that region. The foremost 
 sheep-raising States of the Western division are 
 Wyoming, Montana, New Mexico, and Idaho. 
 In New England the dairy industry has sup¬ 
 planted sheep raising, so that the number of 
 sheep in 1910 was less than one-third the num¬ 
 ber in 1850. Since 1880 there has been a de¬ 
 cline in the North Central States, particularly 
 Ohio. Texas in 1890 had attained first rank, 
 but in 1920 had less than one-third the number 
 of sheep reported for the earlier year. 
 
 Poultry .—The importance of the production 
 of eggs and poultry in the United States is 
 not generally realized. The value of the poultry 
 and the egg products in 1920 was $373,395,057 
 respectively, an increase of 115.6 per cent. The 
 different kinds of fowls in 1920 numbered as fol¬ 
 lows: chickens, 359,537,127; turkeys, 3,627,028; 
 geese, 2,939,203; ducks, 2,817,624. The total 
 value of live stock products in 1919 was $2,667,- 
 072,273, compared with $1,177,974,703 in 1909. 
 The value of dairy products was $1,481,462,097, 
 of eggs and chickens $1,047,323,170, of wool and' 
 mohair $124,006,859, and of honey and wax 
 $14,280,153. 
 
 Forests and Forest Products. See For¬ 
 estry; Lumber Industry. 
 
 MANUFACTURES 
 
 The United States is the foremost manufac¬ 
 turing country in the world. Manufacturing in 
 the -United States is of coordinate importance 
 with, if not of greater importance than, either 
 of the two other leading American industries, 
 agriculture and trade and transportation. A 
 statistical summary from the thirteenth census 
 for the more important American manufacturing 
 industries will be found under Manufactures 
 (q.v.). In the export of manufactures the 
 United States in 1919 led all countries with a 
 record of $4,063,354,637, as compared with about 
 $1,500,000,000 for Great Britain. Germany’s re¬ 
 sources have been so crippled by the war that 
 her foreign commerce has been practically de¬ 
 stroyed. Her trade with the United States is 
 therefore seriously reduced. Previous to the 
 European War Germany also exceeded the United 
 States in its export of manufactured goods, the 
 total amount averaging slightly in excess of 
 $1,500,000,000. With the revival of business it 
 is estimated that new records in exports will be 
 made. 
 
 The following are the general statistics of 
 manufactures in 1919, as obtained by the 1919 
 
 census. 
 
 Number of establishments. 290,105 
 
 Capital. $44,688,093,771 
 
 Wage earners. 9,096,372 
 
 Wages. $10,531,600,340 
 
 Value of materials. $37,376,3S0,283 
 
 Value of products. $62,418,078,773 
 
 In a preliminary analysis of the 1919 census 
 returns for manufactures an increase in prod¬ 
 ucts amounting in value to some $41,000,000,- 
 000 was indicated, as compared with $24,000,- 
 000,000 reported for 1910, and $11,500,000,000 
 in the 1899 census. These figures may be com¬ 
 pared with the total returns of the census of 
 production of Great Britain for 1907, viz., some 
 $8,000,000,000, estimates of $17,500,000 in 1922, 
 and the approximate figures of between $11,000,- 
 000,000 and $12,000,000,000 for 1913 in Germany, 
 and an estimated output from France running 
 about the same as that of Great Britain, before 
 the war. 
 
 Natural Advantages. The abundance of raw 
 material required by the manufacturing indus¬ 
 tries, the degree of availability, including trans¬ 
 portation facilities, and the capabilities of the 
 producers are unequaled. Both food supplies 
 and agricultural materials for manufacture are 
 cheaper, more abundant, and more varied in 
 the United States than in any other manufac¬ 
 turing country. The well-distributed forests 
 contain most varieties of timber needed in large 
 quantities and in amounts that admit of heavy 
 exportation. In the production of the two min¬ 
 erals which constitute the basis of modern man¬ 
 ufactures, coal and iron, the United States 
 ranks foremost and indeed produces more than a 
 third of the world’s output of each. Moreover, 
 the deposits of these minerals, together with de¬ 
 posits of limestone, which is needed in fluxing 
 the iron ore, frequently have been found in the 
 same or a neighboring locality. 
 
 The transportation facilities include 26,410 
 miles of navigable streams and a railway mile¬ 
 age (264,000 miles in 1922) that is greater than 
 that of all Europe and is 36.5 per cent of the 
 railroad mileage of the world. The competition 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 713 
 
 of the waterways with the railways has had its 
 effect in giving to the country the advantage 
 of cheap rates. Another advantage about which 
 little is said, but which nevertheless is great, 
 is the freedom of interstate commerce, with a 
 Federal Interstate Commission to prevent un¬ 
 fair discrimination and generally to regulate 
 transportation. In no other equally large area 
 in the civilized world is trade unrestricted by 
 customs, excises, or national prejudice. The 
 freedom which the United States enjoys from 
 tradition is another factor of prime importance. 
 
 At the same time the manufacturing industry 
 has profited by reason of the contribution of 
 ideas of people schooled under different indus¬ 
 trial systems. The immigrant, like the native 
 born, is animated by the prospects of large 
 possibilities, and greater energy and ingenuity 
 pervade industrial society in the United States 
 than are known in the European countries. As 
 a result the individual laborer usually accom¬ 
 plishes more in the United States than he does 
 in Europe. 
 
 Mulhall, the statistician, once said that nearly 
 all American manufactures were produced by 
 machinery, while in Europe more than one-half 
 were hand work. This statement as regards 
 Europe hardly would hold true to-day, but in 
 many industries as regard the completeness 
 of organization, the minuteness of subdivision, 
 and the rapidity with which work is expedited, 
 the United States excels. This is particularly 
 the case with the newer industries, such as 
 electrical machinery and motor vehicles. The 
 United States early developed a system of in¬ 
 terchangeable mechanism, followed later by vari¬ 
 ous schemes of industrial efficiency, which have 
 proved of inestimable value to the progress of 
 the manufacturing industry. 
 
 Localization. The manufacturing industry 
 is very unevenly distributed over the country. 
 There is a decided tendency to centralize in 
 limited localities. The greater part of the 
 manufacturing is carried on in the region north 
 of the Potomac and Ohio rivers and east of 
 the Mississippi. The centre of manufactures has 
 always been well to the north and east of the 
 centre of population, but has at every decade 
 moved westward and was nearer the centre of 
 population in 1922 than in 1850. 
 
 There has been an increasing tendency in re¬ 
 cent years toward a concentration of industries 
 in the -Eastern and East North Central States 
 which may be in part accounted for by the con¬ 
 centration of population in the larger cities; the 
 necessity for keeping transportation charges 
 low; and the better credit facilities available 
 to manufacturers. 
 
 In the localization of industries the factor of 
 transportation in its relation to the supply 
 of raw materials and the market has been one 
 of primary importance. This applies especially 
 to bulky and heavy products which are shipped 
 with difficultv. Thus Pennsvlvania, eastern 
 Ohio, and Illinois have become the iron-manufac¬ 
 turing region, since coal and iron are brought 
 together here at a minimum cost. Live animals 
 cannot be so easily shipped as packed meats, 
 and hence the slaughtering and meat-packing in¬ 
 dustry is confined mainly to the West. The 
 saving in the cost of transportation is a chief 
 reason for the development of cotton manufac¬ 
 turing in the cotton-growing region. Proximity 
 to the supply of wood and iron and convenience 
 to the market give the Lake States the ad¬ 
 
 vantage of manufacturing agricultural imple- 
 ments % at a minimum transportation cost, though 
 in 1922 New York ranked second to Illinois 
 in this field, while Ohio was third. The densely 
 populated Atlantic Coast region from Baltimore 
 to Maine enables manufactures located in that 
 section to reach a large market, including con¬ 
 venient export ports, with a minimum trans¬ 
 portation cost. 
 
 Another important natural condition affecting 
 localization of industries is water power. This 
 was formerly an important consideration and 
 was more prominent in determining the exact 
 spot than the general section. Often, however, 
 the natural advantages mentioned were of 
 secondary importance, and this consideration de¬ 
 clined in relative importance after an industry 
 was well established. 
 
 Latterly, with hydroelectric developments, 
 location adjacent to a cheap and reliable source 
 of water power again has become an important 
 consideration, though by means of long-dis¬ 
 tance transmission lines electrical energy can 
 be delivered at convenient locations within a 
 certain radius. Electrochemical industries in 
 particular have been located with this considera¬ 
 tion in view, and it has been estimated that 
 there are some 50,000,000 horse power available 
 for water power in the United States. Much 
 of this water power has been governed in its 
 use by Federal restrictions and reservations, but 
 will be developed with more liberal legislation. 
 
 In many industries technical training and 
 labor supply are of greater importance than ac¬ 
 cessibility to raw materials, and efficient organ¬ 
 ization and scientific control are being developed 
 by the more important manufacturing corpora¬ 
 tions. Abundance of capital and labor are other 
 prominent advantages that may vary with eco¬ 
 nomic conditions, but are usually available for 
 the American manufacturer. For the growth 
 and extent of manufactures, see Manufactures, 
 and the separate articles on the various manu¬ 
 facturing industries, such as Cotton ; Flour ; 
 Iron and Steel, Metallurgy of; etc. Also see 
 the paragraph on Manufactures under the vari¬ 
 ous States. 
 
 Textiles. The group of industries called tex¬ 
 tiles in 1919 ranked first in the number of 
 wage earners employed and third in the value 
 of products. The following table shows for 
 1919 the product of each of the chief elements 
 of textile manufacture. 
 
 Cotton. $2,125,272,193 
 
 Woolen Goods. 364,896,590 
 
 Silk. 688,469,523 
 
 Knit Goods. 713,139,689 
 
 Cordage and twine. 133,366,476 
 
 Shoddy. 23,254,398 
 
 Dyeing and finishing textiles. 323,967,683 
 
 The cotton-manufacturing industry has de¬ 
 veloped in recent years with great rapidity and 
 has placed the United States first with respect 
 to the number of bales of cotton consumed. 
 
 In 1921 the number of cotton spindles in the 
 United States was estimated at 36,843,000, out 
 of a total for the world of about 150,000,000. 
 The wool consumption for 1920 in the United 
 States was 724,633,201 pounds, of which 297,155- 
 GOO pounds were domestic and 427,578,038 were 
 foreign. In 1921 the amount of foreign wool 
 imported had reached nearly 320,665,751 pounds. 
 
 The value of the products of woolen and 
 worsted goods in 1919 was 1,065,434,072. In 
 that year there were 166,787 wage earners em¬ 
 ployed in 852 establishments. The manufac- 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 714 
 
 ture of worsteds dates back to 1843. The tex¬ 
 tile and woolen industries are expanding at a 
 rapid rate, owing to increased demands, to im¬ 
 proved processes of manufacturing, and to the 
 high artistic qualities of the goods made. The 
 hosiery and knit-goods industry is also of com¬ 
 paratively recent development. From a prod¬ 
 uct valued at $1,028,102 in 1850 it grew until it 
 amounted to $713,139,689 in 1919. In that year 
 the United States led in the value of silk manu¬ 
 factured, which amounted to $688,469,523. Al¬ 
 most the entire supply is imported from Japan, 
 China, and Italy. The industries of cordage, 
 twine, jute, and linen manufacture had products 
 valued at $182,025,000 in 1909. There were 28,- 
 144 wage earners employed in 188 establish¬ 
 ments. Binder twine (value, in 1921, $27,000,- 
 000) and rope (value, in 1921, $39,000,000) 
 together constitute over one-half of the total 
 product. See Flax; Jute; Knitting; Silk; 
 Textile Manufacturing; Wool and Worsted 
 Manufactures. 
 
 Clothing. The production of men’s ready¬ 
 made or factory-made clothing was already well 
 advanced by 1850, but the manufacture of wo¬ 
 men’s ready-made clothing has developed almost 
 wholly since then. The total value of men’s 
 clothing (factory product) in 1919 was $1,162,- 
 985,633, an increase of 24 per cent since 1909, 
 when it amounted to $485,677,493. In 1889 it 
 was $251,019,609; in 1879 it was $209,548,460; 
 in 1869, $61,865,547; and in 1859 $80,830,555. 
 The value of women’s factory-made clothing 
 meanwhile increased from $159,339,539, in 1899, 
 to $1,208,543,128, in 1919, or a great increase. 
 In 1889 the output of this industry was valued 
 at $68,164,019, in 1879 at $32,004,794, in 1869 
 at $12,900,583, and in 1859 at $7,181,039. There 
 are few other important branches of industry 
 that employ so many wage earners in propor¬ 
 tion to the value of the product. In 1919 there 
 
 to New York; while Illinois, Pennsylvania, and 
 Maryland follow in the order named. Other 
 important items of clothing manufacture for 
 the year 1919 were: shirts, $205,327,133; men’s 
 furnishing goods, $107,834,695; hats and caps, 
 other than straw and fur felt, $44,539,861. 
 
 Iron and Steel. The United States is abun¬ 
 dantly provided by nature with resources that 
 are necessary for the production of iron and its 
 manufacture. (See Iron.) No other industry 
 compares with it in the absolute growth made 
 since 1880. In 1890 the United States led the 
 world in the production of pig iron and steel, 
 and in 1905 its production of pig iron was 
 more than double that of Great Britain and its 
 production of steel was more than three times 
 as great as that of the rival country. In 1920 
 the United States produced 36,925,987 long tons 
 of pig iron. The production of pig iron by grades 
 in the years 1915, 1919, and 1920 is given in 
 the accompanying table. 
 
 PRODUCTION OF PIG IRON BY GRADES 
 1915-20, gross tons 
 
 GRADES 
 
 1915 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 Basic. 
 
 13,093,214 
 
 14,494,131 
 
 16,737,722 
 
 Bessemer. 
 
 10,523,306 
 
 9,975,934 
 
 12,062,084 
 
 Foundry. 
 
 4,864,348 
 
 4,916,758 
 
 5,957,782 
 
 Malleable. 
 
 829,921 
 
 1,009,049 
 
 1,310,951 
 
 F orge. 
 
 316,214 
 
 271,286 
 
 318,048 
 
 All other. 
 
 289,210 
 
 347,206 
 
 539,500 
 
 Total. 
 
 29,916,213 
 
 31,015,364 
 
 36,925,987 
 
 In 1920 the steel output of the United States 
 exceeded 50,000,000. In 1921 the United States 
 was attaining close to a production of 58,000,000 
 tons per annum. 
 
 The following are statistics for blast furnaces 
 from the time of their being reported first in 
 1849 to the fourteenth census in 1919. 
 
 YEAR 
 
 Number of 
 establish¬ 
 ments 
 
 Wage 
 
 earners 
 
 Average 
 
 number 
 
 Wages 
 
 Cost of 
 material 
 
 Value of 
 product 
 
 Value added by 
 manufacture 
 
 1919. 
 
 2,905 
 
 175,270 
 
 $197,821,990 
 
 $603,031,493 
 
 $1,162,985,633 
 
 $560,000,000 
 
 1899. 
 
 223 
 
 39,241 
 
 18,484,400 
 
 131,503,655 
 
 206,756,557 
 
 75,252,902 
 
 1889. 
 
 304 
 
 33,415 
 
 14,614,458 
 
 110,098,615 
 
 145,643,153 
 
 35,544,538 
 
 1879.. . 
 
 341 
 
 41,695 
 
 12,655,428 
 
 58,619,742 
 
 89,315,569 
 
 30,695,827 
 
 1869. 
 
 3S6 
 
 27,554 
 
 12,475,250 
 
 45,498,017 
 
 69,640,498 
 
 24,142,481 
 
 1859. 
 
 286 
 
 15,927 
 
 4,545,430 
 
 12,293,030 
 
 20,870,120 
 
 8,577,090 
 
 1849. 
 
 404 
 
 21,054 
 
 5,011,300 
 
 7,538,118 
 
 13,491,898 
 
 5,953,780 
 
 were 175,270 engaged in the manufacture of 
 men’s clothing and 165,649 in that of women’s 
 clothing. After about 1876 a revolution in the 
 system of manufacturing men’s clothing, result¬ 
 ing from the greater division of labor and the 
 use of machinery, brought about a decrease of 
 nearly one-fourth in the number of wage earners, 
 but this was made good after 1900 by the natu¬ 
 ral increase in the industry. 
 
 In 1919, out of 5,258 establishments devoted 
 to the manufacture of men’s clothing, 600, with 
 a product valued at $108,072,822, were contract 
 shops, as compared with 4,658 regular factories, 
 with a product valued at $1,162,985,633. More 
 skill is required in the manufacture of women’s 
 clothing, and the task system has not been ap¬ 
 plied much in cloak manufacture. In 1909 al¬ 
 most one-half of the total product of men’s 
 ready-made clothing and over two-thirds of 
 women’s ready-made clothing were made in 
 New York City. The business formerly done 
 in Massachusetts has been largely transferred 
 
 The production of Bessemer and low phos¬ 
 phorous pig iron reached a maximum of 13,- 
 840,518 long tons in 1906, falling to 12,062,084 
 in 1920, while that produced by the basic open- 
 hearth method amounted to 16,737,722 tons. 
 The value of steel rails manufactured increased 
 from $37,892,075 in 1880 to $60,272,575 in 1890, 
 and to $100,000,000 in 1920, the tonnage in that 
 year being 2,604,116. Immediately following the 
 war, there was a large demand for iron and 
 steel products. Early in 1921 this demand had 
 been met and there was a decline in the value 
 of the ore mined and a decrease in the products 
 of the steel manufactures. However, in anticipa¬ 
 tion of increased demands in the immediate 
 future, extensive improvements have been made 
 both at the mines and in the manufacturing 
 mills to meet calls for increased capacities. Sev¬ 
 eral important factories have been built for the 
 manufacture of tinplates, structural steel, and 
 other forms. There are a number of others 
 projected for construction in 1923. These will 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 715 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 all be well equipped, modern works, designed 
 to turn out materials of the highest quality. 
 
 The leading steel corporations have lately 
 taken steps through atiiliated companies to be¬ 
 come interested in the large industries which 
 consume a large part of the domestic production 
 of iron and steel. They have been particularly 
 attracted to the automobile and farm tractor 
 industries. See Iron and Steel. 
 
 Shipbuilding. Shipbuilding was, after agri¬ 
 culture, the first industry to develop in Colonial 
 America. The possession of an abundance of 
 timber has always given the United States a 
 great advantage in the building of wooden ves¬ 
 sels. Vessels constructed in the United States 
 carried the bulk of the American trade until 
 after 1860. After the Civil War for many years 
 American shipyards did little more than supply 
 vessels for the large domestic water-borne trade, 
 
 VESSELS OF 1000 GROSS TONS AND OVER BUILT 
 IN THE UNITED STATES, 1911-20 
 
 
 
 1911 
 
 
 1914 
 
 1920 
 
 TYPE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Gr. tons 
 
 No. 
 
 Gr. tons 
 
 No. 
 
 Gr. tons 
 
 Seaboard: 
 Ocean steel 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 steamers. 
 
 18 
 
 76,490 
 
 29 
 
 133,234 
 
 457 
 
 2,327,100 
 
 Steel ferryboats, 
 
 
 
 
 
 steam dredges, 
 river and bay 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 steamers. 
 
 8 
 
 14,463 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 11,917 
 
 Wooden steam- 
 
 
 
 ers. 
 
 3 
 
 3,320 
 
 1 
 
 1,008 
 
 92 
 
 53,100 
 
 Wooden schoon- 
 
 
 
 ers. 
 
 1 
 
 1,352 
 
 4 
 
 6,462 
 
 91 
 
 112,000 
 
 Steel schooners. 
 Steel unrigged 
 
 1 
 
 1,29C 
 
 4 
 
 6,462 
 
 1 
 
 1,189 
 
 vessels. 
 
 1 
 
 1,133 
 
 1 
 
 1,505 
 
 49 
 
 24,000 
 
 Total. 
 
 32 
 
 98,048 
 
 35 
 
 142,209 
 
 761 
 
 2,531,305 
 
 
 Great Lakes: 
 Steel steamers, 
 for Lake trade 
 Steel unrigged 
 
 14 
 
 71,276 
 
 8 
 
 37,780 
 
 1 
 
 169,811 
 
 vessels. 
 
 Steel steamers, 
 Ocean trade. . 
 Steel schooner 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 7,459 
 
 3 
 
 10,000 
 
 barges, ocean 
 trade. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 14 
 
 71,276 
 
 11 
 
 45,239 
 
 4 
 
 179,811 
 
 
 
 Grand total. . 
 
 46 
 
 , 169,324 
 
 46 
 
 187,448 
 
 765 
 
 2,711,116 
 
 which has by law been restricted to vessels 
 built in the United States, but changes in con¬ 
 ditions due to the European War led to in¬ 
 creased activity in 1915 when ship manufac¬ 
 turers were well supplied with orders and looked 
 for continued prosperity. The figures for the 
 construction of iron and steel vessels have been 
 greatly sw T ollen in recent years in meeting the 
 requirements of the Navy Department. While 
 ships for the navy have been and are built at 
 the large navy yards, the greater part of the 
 orders for warships have been placed with do¬ 
 mestic firms, in the belief that it would lead 
 to the equipment of plants in a way that would 
 enable them successfully to engage in the con¬ 
 struction of large steel merchant vessels. Much 
 of the total tonnage built in the United States 
 is constructed on the Great Lakes. Shipbuild¬ 
 ing suffered severely from the world-wide de¬ 
 pression in trade in 1921. The American 
 industries were particularly hard hit and very 
 few orders for new construction were placed with 
 them. The United States Shipping Board, which 
 
 was interested in several of the largest American 
 yards, disposed of its interests in 1921. It was, 
 in 1922, the largest owner of shipping tonnage, 
 and as that tonnage comprised some of the 
 finest vessels afloat, it was estimated that there 
 will be little activity in American shipyards 
 until existing tonnage is used up. 
 
 Automobiles. In 1900 the manufacture of 
 these vehicles was conducted in 57 establish¬ 
 ments, employing 2241 people, with a production 
 of $4,748,000. In 1919 there were 315 establish¬ 
 ments, employing over 210,000 workmen, with a 
 product valued at $2,387,903,287. In 1921 the 
 exports of automobiles manufactured in the 
 United States exceeded $81,922,357. The manu¬ 
 facture of motor vehicles has become very im¬ 
 portant, and, in addition to the normal demand 
 for home consumption with its regular increase, 
 there were manufactured for the belligerent 
 armies during the European War a vast number 
 of motor trucks and other motor vehicles. The 
 industry in 1921-22 enjoyed prosperity. (See 
 Motor Vehicle. ) Registration of cars and 
 trucks in all the States showed large increases 
 over previous years. The total registration of 
 passenger cars and trucks at the beginning of 
 1922 exceeded 10,000,000. Notwithstanding the 
 great prosperity of the industry, prices were 
 reduced so that the average wholesale price of 
 a motor car at the beginning of 1922 was $700 
 as compared with $897 at the beginning of 1920. 
 The average wholesale price of a motor truck in 
 1922 was $950 as compared with $1280 in 1921. 
 
 Alcoholic and Malt Liquors. The produc¬ 
 tion of liquors in the United States has been 
 greatly changed by the adoption of the prin¬ 
 ciple of prohibition. In 1919 the value of 
 malt liquors produced was reported at $379,- 
 905,085, distilled liquors at $31,854,085, and 
 vinous liquors at $17,454,194. The manufacture 
 of wine is relatively small and is confined to 
 the grape-growing regions. The total number 
 of establishments producing liquors of all kinds 
 in 1919 was 1105, and the total workers em¬ 
 ployed, 34,773. See Liquors. 
 
 Slaughtering and Meat Packing. In 1850 
 slaughtering and meat packing was of little 
 importance as a specialized industry, the value 
 of the product for that year being only $11,981,- 
 642. Before 1890, however, the industry had 
 become the most important of the industries 
 manufacturing food products, and in 1919 was 
 far in the lead with a total value of products 
 of $4,246,290,614. There was a proportional in¬ 
 crease of the capital invested, which amounted 
 to $1,176,483,643. 
 
 The number of wage earners employed in the 
 industry in 1919 totaled 163,600. There were 
 1004 establishments reported in 1919. About 
 40 per cent were engaged primarily in slaught¬ 
 ering and packing, and these employed 90.7 per 
 cent of the total number of wage earners, and 
 their output was valued at $3>,736,500,000, or 
 87.9 per cent of the total for the industry. See 
 Packing Industry. 
 
 In addition to the above see Carriage; Bi¬ 
 cycle; Motor Cycle; Implements, Agricul¬ 
 tural; Paper; Lumber Industry; Glass; 
 Leather; Shoes; etc. 
 
 transportation 
 
 Railways. The great industrial progress that 
 began soon after 1850 was made possible largely 
 by railways. The construction of railways in 
 the United States began towards the close of 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 716 
 
 the decade 1820-30. Their introduction had 
 been preceded by the inauguration of a vast 
 system of canals, the Erie Canal, which was to 
 remain long the principal artery of transporta¬ 
 tion between the East and West, having been 
 opened in 1825. The growth of the railway sys¬ 
 tem was extremely rapid from the beginning. 
 The mileage increased from 23 in 1830 to 2818 
 in 1840 and 9021 in 1850. Over much of the 
 country railways preceded industries, and certain 
 industrial developments, such as those of iron 
 and coal and of agriculture in the West, could 
 not have taken place on any great scale without 
 railway advantages. The growth of American 
 railways, in which it is estimated from one- 
 seventh to one-fifth of the country’s capital is 
 now invested, is shown in the following table 
 (mileage). 
 
 Among the factors that hastened railway de¬ 
 velopment were the business rivalry between 
 cities or sections, subsidies in one form or an¬ 
 other, and the small cost of right of way. State 
 grants in aid (many of them land grants) were 
 common until 1861, when the Federal govern¬ 
 ment began to make land grants directly to 
 the companies. The first line reaching the 
 Pacific received grants of 33,000,000 acres in 
 addition to a large loan based upon mileage and 
 difficulty of construction. The total congres¬ 
 sional land grants between 1850 and 1871 
 amounted to 155,000,000 acres, but of these only 
 97,976,637 acres were patented up to 190.2. 
 
 In general American railways have been con¬ 
 structed more cheaply than British or western 
 European, but improvements have been made as 
 warranted by traffic. Thus there is great in- 
 
 DISTRICT 
 
 1850 
 
 1860 
 
 1870 
 
 1880 
 
 1890 
 
 1900 
 
 1910 
 
 1919 
 
 Eastern. 
 
 Southern. 
 
 Western. 
 
 Total United States. 
 
 6,888 
 
 2,133 
 
 19,596 
 
 9,190 
 
 1,840 
 
 29,772 
 
 11,587 
 
 11,563 
 
 46,233 
 
 15,469 
 
 31,560 
 
 47,210 
 
 27,667 
 
 88,719 
 
 43,506 
 
 34,566 
 
 106,275 
 
 56,310 
 
 44,003 
 
 140,126 
 
 64,028 
 
 52,571 
 
 145,155 
 
 9,021 
 
 30,626 
 
 52,922 
 
 93,262 
 
 163,597 
 
 193,346 
 
 240,438 
 
 263,707 
 
 The figures previous to 1890 have been taken 
 from Poor’s Manual, but have been combined to 
 approximate the groupings of the Interstate 
 Commerce Commission as given in their annual 
 report of 1919. The divisions correspond to the 
 three great freight classification territories and 
 are as follows: the Eastern District, comprising 
 that portion bounded on the west by the north 
 and west shore of Lake Michigan to Chicago, 
 thence by a broken line whose corners are Peoria 
 and East St. Louis, and down the Mississippi 
 to the mouth of the Ohio River; on the south 
 by the Ohio River to Parkersburg, W. Va., 
 thence by a line to the southwest corner of Mary¬ 
 land and down the Potomac to its mouth. The 
 Southern District is bounded on the north by 
 the Eastern District and on the west by the 
 Mississippi; the remainder of the country ex¬ 
 clusive of the noncontiguous territory comprises 
 the Western District. 
 
 The rate of growth has fluctuated greatly. 
 Checked by the Civil War, the mileage nearly 
 doubled between 1865 and 1873. From the latter 
 year to 1879 construction was reduced, but it 
 then revived and, with a short interruption in 
 1884-85, advanced rapidly until 1893 and again 
 continued after 1898. The year 1887 exceeded 
 all others, with 12,876 miles. Prior to 1850 
 construction was mainly in the Atlantic Coast 
 States, but in 1850-60 noteworthy gains were 
 made in the North Central States and in the 
 South. In 1852 rail connection was established 
 between Chicago and the Atlantic coast and in 
 1869 between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. 
 In 1870-80 there were important gains in the 
 upper Mississippi valley and in eastern Texas, 
 which was the first southern State to show Ac¬ 
 tivity in railway construction after the war. 
 In 1880-90 the Southern States doubled their 
 mileage. Since 1895 (in which year there was 
 the least construction after the Civil War, 
 1650 miles) the most rapid progress has been 
 between the Gulf of Mexico and the Kansas and 
 Missouri rivers. The greatest railway density 
 is in the region north of the Ohio and Potomac 
 rivers. New Jersey leads with 30 miles of line 
 for each 100 square miles of area. 
 
 equality in the condition of American roads. 
 
 The tendency towards railway consolidation 
 appeared soon after 1850. Keen competition 
 did not come until after the Civil War, notably 
 in 1869, when the Pennsylvania Railroad and 
 the New York Central made their connections 
 with Chicago. The development of the parallel 
 lines, or two or more railways connecting the 
 same points, so intensified competition that 
 the companies were forced to seek among them¬ 
 selves some relief. Thus arose, between 1870 
 and 1880, the pools, or agreements between com¬ 
 panies in regard to the distribution of traffic or 
 the benefits of trade. The prohibition of pools 
 by the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 renewed 
 competition, to escape which the railway com¬ 
 panies came to secret understandings, and traffic 
 associations were formed to fix a fair proportion 
 of the traffic for each railroad involved. In 
 1897 this form of cooperation was declared il¬ 
 legal by the United States Supreme Court. There¬ 
 after agreements between companies as to rates 
 and the distribution of traffic benefits were more 
 informal, but, according to the Interstate Com¬ 
 merce Commission, the court decisions have had 
 “no practical effect upon the railway operations 
 of the country,” while, in respect to the organ¬ 
 ization of railways, the inconveniences in the 
 way of mutual understandings accelerated con¬ 
 solidation, notably after 1898. Thus in 1902 
 more than two-thirds of the total mileage of 
 the United States was included in eight groups 
 of railway interests. 
 
 Systems .—There were 263,301 miles of rail¬ 
 way in the United States, or an average of 25.64 
 miles of railway to each 10,000 inhabitants in 
 1919. The history of the building of these rail¬ 
 ways covers a period beginning in 1826. As 
 in other countries, the railway system of the 
 L T nited States may be compared to a net, but 
 the main routes for freight and passengers can 
 be briefly summarized as follows: (1) the lines 
 radiating from New York and connecting that 
 city with Boston and the rest of New England 
 on the north, Chicago on the west, and the 
 South Atlantic seaports on the south; (2) the 
 roads running from the various Missouri River 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 717 
 
 crossings to the Mississippi River crossings; (3) 
 the roads running north and south from Chicago, 
 serving the Mississippi valley; (4) the transcon¬ 
 tinental railroads, so called, running from the 
 Mississippi River crossings to the Pacific coast. 
 
 The main routes, connecting New York and 
 Chicago, are the New York Central Railroad, 
 which runs north from New York, following the 
 Hudson River to Albany, where it turns west, 
 following the Mohawk valley, and then the 
 shores of Lake Erie to Buffalo, and from there 
 continuing west to the south end of Lake Michi¬ 
 gan; the Pennsylvania Railroad, which runs 90 
 miles south from New York to Philadelphia, 
 there turns west crossing the Alleglianies to 
 Pittsburgh, running from there slightly north 
 of west to Chicago; and the Erie Railroad, 
 which runs about west from New York to 
 Chicago, but which is a little longer than either 
 of the other two routes because of the number 
 of curves necessitated by the mountainous char¬ 
 acter of the country traversed. 
 
 Chicago is the greatest railway centre in the 
 country. It is the western terminus of the 
 three great eastern roads which run out of 
 New York, the northern terminus of the Il¬ 
 linois Central, which runs down the Mississippi 
 valley to New Orleans, the southeastern ter¬ 
 minus of the systems reaching the great north¬ 
 western wheat and grain country. These roads 
 include the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul, 
 the Chicago and Northwestern, and the Chicago, 
 Burlington, and Quincy. It is the eastern ter¬ 
 minus of the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe, 
 the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific, and 
 through it passes the traffic which the Chicago 
 and Northwestern Railway delivers to the Union 
 Pacific at Omaha, Neb. 
 
 The twin cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul 
 are the railway centre of the northwestern roads, 
 which include, besides the Chicago, Milwaukee, 
 and St. Paul previously mentioned, the Northern 
 Pacific and the Great Northern. South of 
 Chicago the two great railway centres are St. 
 Louis, at the juncture of the Mississippi and 
 the Missouri rivers, and Kansas City, on the 
 Missouri River. Kansas City is the northern 
 gateway for the roads which spread out over 
 the States of Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas, and 
 which include the Chicago, Rock Island, and 
 Pacific, the Missouri, Kansas, and Texas, and 
 the Kansas City Southern. Still farther south 
 New Orleans is the southernmost Mississippi 
 crossing; the southern terminus of the Illinois 
 Central; the southeastern terminus of the 
 Southern Railway system, which spreads like 
 a net over the Southeastern States; and the 
 eastern terminus of the Southern Pacific, which 
 skirts along the southern boundary of the 
 United States from the Mississippi River to the 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Notwithstanding the fact that all these 
 cities except Kansas City are situated on im¬ 
 portant waterways, their railroad facilities have 
 had the greater influence in their commercial 
 development. The cities west of the Mississippi, 
 as far as California, have been entirely depend¬ 
 ent on the railroads, and the development of 
 California has been shaped to a far greater ex¬ 
 tent by north and south railway lines in that 
 State than by the coastwise steamship lines. 
 
 The following is a brief description of the 
 principal railway systems of the United States, 
 with their affiliated and subsidiary lines: 
 
 The Pennsylvania Railroad system runs from 
 
 Philadelphia via Pittsburgh to Chicago, and 
 from Pittsburgh to St. Louis, and from Phila¬ 
 delphia north to New York, and from Phila¬ 
 delphia south to Washington. Nearly half of 
 the total tonnage of freight of that part of the 
 system lying between Philadelphia and Pitts¬ 
 burgh is coal, and a considerable percentage 
 of the remainder is products of the steel mills 
 at Pittsburgh. Financing for the road has been 
 done principally by Kuhn, Loeb & Co. 
 
 The New York Central lines run from New 
 York via Albany to Buffalo and Chicago, and 
 from Cleveland to Cincinnati and St. Louis, with 
 a line from Buffalo to Pittsburgh. A consider¬ 
 ably smaller proportion of its freight tonnage 
 consists of coal, and a much larger proportion 
 of merchandise and manufactured products. 
 
 The Southern Railway runs south from Wash¬ 
 ington and spreads like a net over the South¬ 
 eastern States. 
 
 The New York, New Haven, and Hartford 
 forms a network over the New England States 
 as far north as Boston and is supplemented 
 north of Boston by the Boston and Maine, 
 which it at one time controlled. 
 
 The Great Northern runs from St. Paul along 
 the northern border of the United States to 
 Spokane, Portland, and Seattle; lumber and 
 agricultural products of California form its 
 east-bound freight traffic, moving over the entire 
 line. It also has a very large business furnished 
 by grain in the Northwestern States, and a 
 large tonnage of ore moving from the Mesabe 
 Range to Duluth, Mich. 
 
 The Northern Pacific runs from St. Paul 
 through the Dakotas and Montana to Portland 
 and to the cities of northern California. 
 
 The Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul runs 
 from Chicago via Minneapolis and St. Paul, 
 through the Dakotas and Montana to Portland 
 and Seattle; the Rockefellers have a controlling 
 interest in the company, and its financing has 
 been done by various banking houses. 
 
 The Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy runs 
 from Chicago west to Denver and northwest to 
 Billings, Mont., where it connects with the 
 Northern Pacific; it has also a line running 
 south from Denver to Houston, Tex. 
 
 The Union Pacific runs west from Omaha to 
 Salt Lake City, where it connects with the 
 Southern Pacific, which extends west to San 
 Francisco and northwest from Denver into 
 northern California, Oregon, and Washington. 
 
 The Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe runs 
 from Chicago west to Denver and southwest 
 through Arizona to California; it has lines run¬ 
 ning the length of California north and south. 
 No one interest controls the Atchison, Topeka, 
 and Santa Fe. 
 
 The Southern Pacific runs from New Orleans 
 through Texas to Los Angeles and up the Pacific 
 coast to Washington, and from Salt Lake City 
 to San Francisco; the system was built up by 
 Collis P. Huntington and was sold to the Union 
 Pacific in 1901. In 1913 the United States 
 Supreme Court ordered the sale of the control¬ 
 ling interest in the Southern Pacific stock by 
 the Llnion Pacific. 
 
 The Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific runs 
 from Chicago southwest through Kansas and 
 Oklahoma into Texas, west from Chicago to 
 Denver, and north from Chicago into Wisconsin 
 and Minnesota. 
 
 The Illinois Central runs from Chicago south 
 to New Orleans. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 718 
 
 The Wabash, the Missouri Pacific, the Denver 
 and Rio Grande, and the Western Pacific form 
 a system running from Buffalo, N. Y., to San 
 Francisco, Cal. 
 
 President Wilson took over control of the 
 United States railroads on Friday, December 
 28, 1917, by proclamation, and he appointed 
 William G. McAdoo, Director General of rail¬ 
 roads. The government was forced to take over 
 control of the United States railroad systems 
 for military purposes and because they had 
 ceased to function efficiently. Numerous reforms 
 were introduced under this unified management, 
 many of which are permanently retained. Private 
 management was restored on March 1, 1920. At 
 this time there were numerous labor troubles, the 
 roads were short of capital and their credit was 
 impaired, while there was great transportation 
 activity. Both rates and wages were advanced, 
 the government loaned money to the roads ur¬ 
 gently needing it under a new law known as 
 the Transportation Act of 1920. All records 
 were broken for volume of freight traffic moved 
 in 1920, despite shortness of equipment. 
 
 Large claims were made against the govern¬ 
 ment for final settlements of accounts arising 
 during the period of Federal control. In many 
 cases the government made counter claims for 
 improvements made. 
 
 Competitive conditions necessitated the dis¬ 
 continuance of many of the changes and innova¬ 
 tion's introduced during the unified control by 
 the Railroad Administration. There have been 
 many varied opinions expressed with regard to 
 the effects of government control. All, however, 
 are agreed that under the existing conditions it 
 was a necessity and that it proved its effective¬ 
 ness in certain directions was shown by the roads 
 continuing its new practices when they resumed 
 control of their systems. 
 
 Consolidated ticket offices and joint railroad 
 and shippers’ committees on rates have been 
 quite generally continued by the roads. The 
 pooling of cars is abandoned and also joint 
 freight and passenger stations; but the unifica¬ 
 tion of terminals has been retained in part. 
 Many of the routine improvements introduced by 
 the government experts have been found equally 
 sound under conditions of private operation, and 
 are proving very beneficial to the companies. 
 
 The railroad brotherhoods endeavored to sus¬ 
 tain the high rates of wages paid during the 
 war period after the railroads resumed control 
 of their systems. Numerous controversies arose 
 between the representatives of the various 
 unions, the railroads, and the Interstate Com¬ 
 merce Commission regarding working hours and 
 wages. There were numerous strikes during the 
 years 1919-22. See Canal; Express Company; 
 Interstate Commerce Act; Post Office; Rail¬ 
 ways ; Steam Navigation ; Street Railways ; 
 Telegraph; Telephone; Transportation. 
 
 COMMERCE 
 
 Foreign Commerce. Early Development .— 
 The foreign commerce of the United States has 
 passed through those various stages which usu¬ 
 ally accompany the transition of a country where 
 manufacturing succeeds agriculture as the pre¬ 
 dominating industry. The section of the United 
 States first developed was densely forested and 
 had also certain mineral deposits available. This 
 was the section lying east of the Alleghany and 
 Cumberland mountains. When the section west 
 
 of those mountains was developed, it was found 
 especially fitted for the production of live stock, 
 wheat, corn, and other cereals; at the south cot¬ 
 ton, and at the extreme north copper and iron. 
 With the extension of railways to the west of 
 the Mississippi the grain and live-stock area 
 gradually enlarged, the mineral products were 
 materially increased, and the population able to 
 contribute to foreign commerce rapidly devel¬ 
 oped, partly by immigration from abroad and 
 partly by movement from the Atlantic seaboard. 
 With the occupancy of the Pacific coast the 
 large production of gold increased the power to 
 purchase imports and developed industries which 
 contributed to the export trade, while the wheat 
 and fruits of that section found ready markets 
 abroad. Meantime the development of great coal 
 beds in the eastern and central sections of the 
 country had, in conjunction with the domestic 
 cotton, wool, iron, and copper, developed a great 
 manufacturing industry, which was strengthened 
 by labor supplied by the heavy immigration 
 from the European countries. These industries 
 supplying the exports in turn demanded the 
 products of other countries—some of them for 
 the consumption of the people engaged in pro¬ 
 duction, some of them for use in manufacturing. 
 
 Thus every stage of the development of the 
 country contributed to commerce, and this de¬ 
 velopment extended to every line of production, 
 forestry, agriculture, mining, and manufactures. 
 The outside world came to recognize the United 
 States as a source of supply for lumber, cotton, 
 copper, wheat, corn, meats, and finally manufac¬ 
 tures; and the United States came to recognize 
 certain sections of the outside world as the 
 source which could supply the foodstuffs and 
 manufacturing materials required by its busy 
 and prosperous population. 
 
 The growth in commerce has therefore been 
 steady and consistent with the development of 
 producing and consuming powers of a great fer¬ 
 tile country enlarged from time to time by great 
 additions of territory and an increase to its 
 population of over 30,000,000 immigrants. True 
 there have been certain occasions in which the 
 growth in exports was temporarily disturbed, 
 having been checked by the embargo which ac¬ 
 companied the war with Great Britain in 1812— 
 14 and again stimulated by a large importation 
 of merchandise for reexportation during the 
 period of the Napoleonic wars, but they were 
 but mere incidents produced by temporary causes 
 and disappeared with their termination. 
 
 The commerce of the Colonies prior to the 
 Declaration of Independence was largely with 
 Great Britain. This was quite natural, both in 
 view of the fact that the people were of British 
 birth or parentage and thus accustomed to the 
 
 COMMERCE OF THE THIRTEEN COLONIES IN 1769 
 
 
 Imports from 
 
 Exports to 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 £1,604,973 
 
 789,754 
 
 151,998 
 
 76,684 
 
 £1,531,516 
 
 747,910 
 
 20,278 
 
 552,736 
 
 West Indies. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 South of Europe. 
 
 
 £2,623,412 
 
 £2,852,441 
 
 products of that country and that England sys¬ 
 tematically encouraged, by legislation and other¬ 
 wise, a reliance upon the mother country for 
 every class of merchandise which it could supply. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 719 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 Gradually, however, there grew up the custom 
 of drawing upon other countries of Europe, es¬ 
 pecially for wines and fruits and for colfee, tea, 
 spices, and silks, which they had drawn from the 
 Orient, while sugar, molasses, and rum were 
 obtained from the West Indies. 
 
 The foreign commerce of the 13 Colonies in 
 1769 is stated by Macplierson, Annals of Com¬ 
 merce, in the table on page 718 which, not com¬ 
 plete, closely approximates the total trade in 
 that year. 
 
 It is not until 1821, however, that we get a 
 clear view of the real trade condition of the 
 United States. Prior to that time, by reason 
 of the war complications abroad, much foreign 
 merchandise from the West Indies and elsewhere 
 was sent to the United States for reexportation, 
 much of this merchandise merely passing from 
 one vessel to another. The further fact that the 
 official statement of imports and exports prior 
 to 1821 did not state the values of the various 
 articles forming the trade in sufficient detail 
 
 FOREIGN COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES AT DECENNIAL YEARS 1790-1920 
 
 FISCAL 
 
 YEARS 
 
 IMPORTS 
 
 EXPORTS 
 
 Free 
 
 Dutiable 
 
 Total 
 
 Per 
 
 capita 
 
 Domestic 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Total 
 
 Per 
 
 capita 
 
 1790 
 
 1800 
 
 1810 
 
 1S20 
 
 1830 
 
 1840 
 
 1850 
 
 1860 
 
 1870 
 
 1880 
 
 1890 
 
 1900 
 
 1910 
 
 *1915 
 
 1920 
 
 $4,590,000 
 
 48,313,000 
 
 18,082,000 
 
 73,741,000 
 
 20,141,000 
 
 208,302,000 
 
 265,669,000 
 
 367,237,000 
 
 755,311,000 
 
 1,033,526,000 
 
 3,117,010,682 
 
 $58,131,000 
 
 49,945,000 
 
 155,428,000 
 
 279,875,000 
 
 415.818,000 
 
 459,653,000 
 
 523,642,000 
 
 482,704,000 
 
 801,636,000 
 
 640,643,000 
 
 2,161,470,808 
 
 $20,000,000 
 
 91,253,000 
 
 85,400,000 
 
 74,450,000 
 
 62,721,000 
 
 98,259,000 
 
 173,510,000 
 
 353,616,000 
 
 435,958,000 
 
 667,955,000 
 
 789,310,000 
 
 849,941,000 
 
 1,556,947,000 
 
 1,674,170,000 
 
 5,278,481,490 
 
 $6.51 
 
 17.19 
 
 11.80 
 
 7.71 
 
 4.87 
 
 5.76 
 
 7.48 
 
 11.25 
 
 11.06 
 
 12.51 
 
 12.16 
 
 10.93 
 
 16.54 
 
 16.32 
 
 $31,840,000 
 
 42,367,000 
 
 51,684,000 
 
 58,524,000 
 
 111,661,000 
 
 134,900,000 
 
 316,242,000 
 
 376,616,000 
 
 823,946,000 
 
 845,294,000 
 
 1,370,764,000 
 
 1,710,084,000 
 
 2,716,178,000 
 
 8,080,480,825 
 
 $39,131,000 
 
 24,791,000 
 
 18,008,000 
 
 13,145,000 
 
 12,008,000 
 
 9,475,000 
 
 17,334,000 
 
 16,155,000 
 
 11,692,000 
 
 12,535,000 
 
 23,720,000 
 
 34,901,000 
 
 52,410,000 
 
 147,535,486 
 
 $26,481,000 
 
 70,972,000 
 
 66,758,000 
 
 69,692,000 
 
 71,070,000 
 
 123,669,000 
 
 144,376,000 
 
 333,576,000 
 
 392,772,000 
 
 835,639,000 
 
 857,829,000 
 
 1,394,483,000 
 
 1,744,985,000 
 
 2,768,589,000 
 
 8,228,016,307 
 
 $8.66 
 
 13.37 
 
 9.22 
 
 7.22 
 5.57 
 7.25 
 
 6.23 
 10.61 
 
 9.77 
 
 16.43 
 
 13.43 
 17.76 
 18.28 
 27.16 
 
 * Figures for this year are abnormal because of the European War. 
 
 Then followed the War of the Revolution, in 
 which commerce with England was practically 
 suspended and that with other countries greatly 
 interrupted. Owing to the loose commercial or¬ 
 ganization of the Colonies during this period and 
 immediately after the war no satisfactory record 
 of the commerce is available. The total value of 
 the merchandise exported from the United States 
 in the first year under the Constitution, from 
 August, 1789, to September, 1790, is $20,205,156, 
 of which about $9,000,000 was sent to Great 
 Britain, approximately $4,000,000 to the West 
 Indies, $2,000,000 to Spain and its colonies, 
 $2,000,000 to the Netherlands and its colonies, 
 and over $1,000,000 to Portugal and its colonies. 
 The imports were $25,000,000, of which about 
 one-half came from Great Britain, one-fourth 
 from Spain and her colonies, and most of the 
 remainder from other European countries and 
 their colonies. The chief exports in the begin¬ 
 ning were wheat, corn, tobacco, meats, pot and 
 pearl ash, resin, turpentines, tar, and pitch. The 
 chief imports were clothing, wines, sugar, coffee, 
 and miscellaneous merchandise. By 1800 imports 
 had grown to $91,000,000 and the exports to 
 $72,000,000, but over one-half of the exports was 
 merchandise from the West Indies and other 
 countries reexported to Europe, the domestic ex¬ 
 ports of the year 1800 amounting to only $32,- 
 000,000. This large influx of foreign goods for 
 reexportation was but temporary, and by the 
 year 1820 foreign merchandise formed but 25 per¬ 
 cent of the total exports, 10 per cent in 1840, 
 5 per cent in 1860, about 4 per cent in 1870, 
 and in more recent years less than 2 per cent 
 of the total merchandise exported. The table 
 above shows the total foreign trade of the 
 United States at 10-vear intervals from 1790 
 to the latest date available, the figures being for 
 fiscal years except for 1920, which is for the 
 calendar year. 
 
 renders impossible any close analysis of the 
 trade prior to 1821. Beginning with that date, 
 however, the imports and exports by greater 
 groups of articles are as stated in the tables 
 herewith. 
 
 Modern Conditions .—The tables give an op¬ 
 portunity to study the growth in the national 
 trade and the changes in its character. Espe¬ 
 cially suggestive in determining the changes in 
 the character of the trade are the figures which 
 show the percentage which each group of products 
 forms of the total value of the trade. The value 
 of the domestic manufactures produced has grown 
 from $1,000,000,000 in 1850, the earliest census 
 of manufactures, to over $62,500,000,000 in 1919, 
 and for these purposes much material was re¬ 
 quired from other countries. The raw material 
 imported for manufacturing includes fibres, silk, 
 Egyptian cotton, and India rubber. The partly 
 manufactured material includes such articles as 
 tin, copper, wood pulp, and timber. The crude 
 foodstuffs imported include coffee, tea, cocoa, 
 fruits, and rice, while those classed as part or 
 whole manufactures include sugar, canned and 
 dried or salted fish, dried fruits, and other arti¬ 
 cles of this character. On the export side the 
 raw materials for manufacturing are chiefly cot¬ 
 ton and lumber. Those classified as crude food¬ 
 stuffs are chiefly wheat, oats, corn, and other 
 cereals; those classified as part or whole manu¬ 
 factures are flour, meats, dried and preserved 
 fruits, canned fish, breakfast foods, dairy prod¬ 
 ucts, etc. The manufactures exported under the 
 classification of manufactures for further use in 
 manufacturing include pig copper, pig and bar 
 iron, structural materials, leather, lumber, and 
 builders’ hardware. The manufactures exported 
 in condition ready for use include agricultural 
 machinery, cars, carriages, automobiles, boots 
 and shoes, clothing, cotton and wool manufac¬ 
 tures, iron and steel manufactures, refined min- 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 720 
 
 eral oils, and many other articles of a miscellane¬ 
 ous character. The group entitled miscellaneous 
 includes animals, except those for food, seeds, 
 trees, plants, etc. The very large increase of 
 this group in 1915 is due to the exportation of 
 a large number of horses and mu.es to Europe 
 for war purposes. 
 
 United States to the southern frontage of South 
 America is about the same as from western 
 Europe to the South American frontage, while 
 prior to the opening of the Panama Canal the 
 eastern parts of the United States had no ad¬ 
 vantage over those of western Europe in the dis¬ 
 tance to the western part of South America. 
 
 IMPORTS AND DOMESTIC EXPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES IN DECENNIAL YEARS AND THE SHARE 
 
 WHICH EACH GROUP FORMED OF THE TOTAL, 1821-1920 
 
 IMPORTS 
 
 FIS¬ 
 
 CAL 
 
 TEAR 
 
 Crude 
 material 
 for manu¬ 
 facturing 
 
 Per 
 
 cent 
 
 of 
 
 total 
 
 Food¬ 
 
 stuffs 
 
 crude 
 
 Per 
 
 cent 
 
 of 
 
 total 
 
 Food¬ 
 
 stuffs 
 
 manu¬ 
 
 factured 
 
 Per 
 
 cent 
 
 of 
 
 total 
 
 Manufac¬ 
 tures for 
 manufac- 
 facturing 
 
 Per 
 
 cent 
 
 of 
 
 total 
 
 Manu¬ 
 factures 
 ready 
 for use 
 
 Per 
 
 cent 
 
 of 
 
 total 
 
 Miscel¬ 
 
 laneous 
 
 Per 
 
 cent 
 
 of 
 
 total 
 
 Total 
 
 1821 
 
 1830 
 
 1840 
 
 1850 
 
 1860 
 
 1870 
 
 1880 
 
 1890 
 
 1900 
 
 1910 
 
 *1915 
 
 1920 
 
 $1,983,706 
 
 4,214,825 
 
 11,510,245 
 
 11,711,268 
 
 39,691,797 
 
 55,615,202 
 
 131,861,617 
 
 170,637,250 
 
 276,241,152 
 
 566,270,770 
 
 575,357,144 
 
 1,528,520,348 
 
 3.64 
 
 6.72 
 
 11.71 
 
 6.75 
 
 11.22 
 
 12.76 
 
 19.74 
 
 21.62 
 
 32.50 
 
 36.37 
 
 34.38 
 48.04 
 
 $6,081,641 
 7,382,274 
 15,273,321 
 18,011,659 
 45,743,826 
 54,081,091 
 100,297,040 
 128,4S0,142 
 97,916,293 
 144,776,636 
 223,929,564 
 513,116,967 
 
 11.15 
 
 11.77 
 
 15.54 
 
 10.38 
 12.94 
 12.41 
 15.01 
 16.2S 
 11.52 
 
 9.30 
 
 13.38 
 16.46 
 
 $10,820,814 
 
 9,653,971 
 
 15,188,845 
 
 21,465,776 
 
 59,837,674 
 
 96,081,635 
 
 118,125,216 
 
 133,332,031 
 
 133,027,374 
 
 181,566,572 
 
 285,725,091 
 
 124,313,714 
 
 19.85 
 
 15.39 
 
 15.46 
 
 12.37 
 
 16.92 
 
 22.03 
 
 17.69 
 
 16.89 
 
 15.65 
 
 11.66 
 17.07 
 
 3.99 
 
 $4,079,064 
 
 5,152,486 
 
 11,359,196 
 
 26,163,152 
 
 34,899,303 
 
 55,569,071 
 
 110,779,516 
 
 116,924,080 
 
 134,222,045 
 
 285,138,373 
 
 237,176,522 
 
 380,702,032 
 
 7.48 
 
 8.22 
 
 11.56 
 
 15.08 
 
 9.87 
 
 12.75 
 
 16.59 
 
 14.81 
 
 15.79 
 
 18.31 
 
 14.17 
 
 12.21 
 
 $30,998,900 
 
 35,734,837 
 
 44,300,005 
 
 95,312,499 
 
 172,128,991 
 
 173,614,888 
 
 196,587,405 
 
 230,685,581 
 
 203,126,341 
 
 376,723,367 
 
 335,876,628 
 
 547,307,792 
 
 56.86 
 
 56.97 
 
 45.09 
 
 54.93 
 
 48.68 
 
 39.82 
 
 29.43 
 
 29.23 
 
 23.90 
 
 23.62 
 
 20.04 
 
 17.56 
 
 $556,719 
 
 582,563 
 
 630,094 
 
 845,174 
 
 1,314,528 
 
 996,512 
 
 10,303,952 
 
 9,251,325 
 
 5,407,979 
 
 11,471,712 
 
 16,104,791 
 
 23,049,829 
 
 1.02 
 
 0.93 
 
 0.64 
 
 0.49 
 
 0.37 
 
 0.23 
 
 1.54 
 
 1.17 
 
 0.64 
 
 0.74 
 
 0.96 
 
 0.74 
 
 $54,520,834 
 
 62,720,956 
 
 98,258,706 
 
 173,509,526 
 
 353,616,119 
 
 435.958.408 
 667,954,746 
 
 789.310.409 
 849,941,184 
 
 1,556,947,430 
 
 1,674,169,740 
 
 5,278,481,490 
 
 DOMESTIC EXPORTS 
 
 1821 
 
 1830 
 
 1840 
 
 1850 
 
 1860 
 
 1870 
 
 1880 
 
 1890 
 
 1900 
 
 1910 
 
 *1915 
 
 1920 
 
 31,246,382 89.46 2,474,822 
 
 36,482,266 62.34 2,724,181 
 
 75,488,521 87.61 4,564,532 
 
 83,984,707 62.26 7,535,764 
 
 216,009,64S 63.31 12,166,447 
 213,439,991 56.64 41,852,630 
 238,787,934 28.98 266,108,950 
 304,586,922 36.03 132,073,183 
 325,244,296123.73j22 5,906,246 
 565,934,957,33.10,109,828,320 
 510,455,540 1S.S0!506,993,179 
 1,870,767,004121.661917,990,828 
 
 4.79 
 
 4.65 
 
 4.09 
 
 5.59 
 
 3.85 
 
 11.12 
 
 32.30 
 
 15.62 
 
 16.48 
 
 6.42 
 
 18.66 
 
 11.36 
 
 10,085,366 
 
 9,556,992 
 
 15,936,108 
 
 20,017,162 
 
 38,624,949 
 
 50,919,666 
 
 193,352,723 
 
 224,756,588 
 
 319,696,334 
 
 259,259,654 
 
 454,575,404 
 
 1,116,605,173 
 
 19.51 
 
 4,867,379 
 
 9.42 
 
 16.32 
 
 4,117,606 
 
 7.04 
 
 14.27 
 
 4,841,101 
 
 4.34 
 
 14.84 
 
 6,060,900 
 
 4.49 
 
 12.21 
 
 12,641,625 
 
 3.99 
 
 13.53 
 
 13,711,708 
 
 3.66 
 
 23.47 
 
 29,044,159 
 
 3.52 
 
 26.59 
 
 46,454,992 
 
 5.50 
 
 23.32 
 
 153,275,660 
 
 11.18 
 
 15.16 
 
 267,765,910 
 
 15.66 
 
 16.74 
 
 355,862,329 
 
 13.10 
 
 13.82 
 
 958,496,878 
 
 11.86 
 
 3, 
 
 2,925,165 
 
 5.66 
 
 84,526 
 
 0.16 
 
 5,461,589 
 
 9.34 
 
 182,244 
 
 0.30 
 
 10,584,079 
 
 9.47 
 
 246,320 
 
 0.22 
 
 17,162,206 
 
 12.72 
 
 139,494 
 
 0.10 
 
 35,811,383 
 
 11.33 
 
 988,371 
 
 0.31 
 
 56,329,137 
 
 14.96 
 
 363,341 
 
 0.09 
 
 92,774,139 
 
 11.26 
 
 3,878,448 
 
 0.47 
 
 132,527,050 
 
 15.68 
 
 4,915,101 
 
 0.58 
 
 331,746,896 
 
 24.20 
 
 14,894,539 
 
 1.09 
 
 499,215,329 
 
 29.19 
 
 8,079,822 
 
 0.47 
 
 807,465,511 
 
 29.73 
 
 480,826,502 
 
 2.98 
 
 204,857,759 
 
 39.66 
 
 18,763,129 
 
 0.15 
 
 51,863,640 
 
 58,524,578 
 
 111,660,561 
 
 134,900,233 
 
 316,242,423 
 
 376,616,473 
 
 823,946,353 
 
 845,293,828 
 
 1,370,763,571 
 
 1,710,083,998 
 
 2,716,178,465 
 
 8,228,016,307 
 
 * See footnote on table, page 719. 
 
 From the table it will be readily seen that the 
 share which manufacturing materials form of 
 the imports is increasing, that the share which 
 finished manufactures form of the total imports 
 is declining, and that foodstuffs, while increas¬ 
 ing in the total, show no marked change in the 
 share which they form of the grand total. On 
 the export side manufacturing material, which 
 is chiefly cotton, shows a large increase in ex¬ 
 ports and a slight increase in the share of the 
 total, foodstuffs show a slight decline in value 
 of exports and a marked decline in the share 
 which thev form of the total, and manufactures 
 show a marked increase both in the total value 
 and in the share which they form of the grand 
 total of exports. It is thus apparent that the 
 hope for further growth in the exports of the 
 United States lies chiefly in manufactures. The 
 large population requires the bulk of the food¬ 
 stuffs and a growing share of the manufactur¬ 
 ing material, while manufactures are increasing 
 more rapidly than domestic requirements. 
 
 The conditions above noted, the increasing im¬ 
 port of manufacturing material and tropical food¬ 
 stuffs, and the increasing export of manufactures 
 have had before 1920 a marked effect upon trade 
 with the various sections of the world, as shown 
 in the table. 
 
 One feature of the trade of the United States 
 which has received much attention in recent 
 years is that with South America. This conti¬ 
 nent is looked upon by many as a field in which 
 the United States should rapidly increase its 
 trade by reason of what is usually considered its 
 close proximity. In fact, however, the distance 
 by steamship from the eastern parts of the 
 
 t Chiefly horses and mules to Europe. 
 
 The opening of the Panama Canal, coupled with 
 the suspension of the activities of the European 
 exporters and European shipping during the War 
 of 1914-18, resulted in a material increase in 
 the share which the United States supplied to 
 the imports of South America in the calendar 
 year 1920. Another factor in the increase of 
 commerce with South America is found in the 
 disposition of American exporters to grant longer 
 credits than they had formerly given, while the 
 establishment of branch banks in several South 
 American countries by the National City Bank 
 of New York aided in a closer trade and financial 
 relationship between the United States and 
 South America. 
 
 Another feature of the commerce of the United 
 States which has greatly developed during recent 
 years is the trade with its noncontiguous terri¬ 
 tory. The exports to Alaska in 1904 were 
 $9,510,000 and $36,870,855 in 1920; the imports 
 therefrom were $10,229,000 in 1903 and $60,939,- 
 061 in 1920. To Porto Rico the exports of 1897, 
 before the beginning of the war with Spain, were 
 $2,252,000 and $67,799,541 in 1920; the imports 
 therefrom were $1,690,000 in 1897 and $158,322,- 
 08.3 in 1920. To Hawaii the exports of 1897, the 
 year before annexation, were $6,800,000 and $74,- 
 552,453 in 1920; the imports therefrom $15,962,- 
 000 in 1897 and $192,383,185 in 1920. Thus 
 exports to the noncontiguous territories, which 
 aggregated $16,690,000 in the years above named, 
 were $232,766,913 in 1920, while the imports 
 therefrom grew in the same period from $31,711,- 
 000 to $411,644,329. 
 
 The foreign trade of the United States in the 
 period of the great European War (1914-18) 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 721 
 
 showed many striking changes. The beginning 
 of the war period was one of great confusion in 
 trade matters. Exports of cotton greatly de¬ 
 clined owing to the dangers of ocean transpor¬ 
 tation, and the manufacturers of the United 
 States, uncertain as to the future of trade, re¬ 
 duced their importation of manufacturing mate¬ 
 rials. Soon, however, heavy demands were made 
 by the warring nations for foodstuffs, horses, 
 and then for war material, while cotton exports 
 
 against $22,145,000 in 1913. To Norway, Swe¬ 
 den, and Denmark, the exports of 1920 aggre¬ 
 gated $294,626,052 against $41,460,000 in 1913. 
 
 Shipping. The American shipping industry 
 was revolutionized in 1917 when war was de¬ 
 clared against Germany, and in 1919, the year 
 following the peace. The great destruction of 
 world shipping by German submarines during 
 those years threatened not only the commerce of 
 the Allied nations but their very existence. The 
 
 IMPORTS FROM AND EXPORTS TO EACH GRAND DIVISION, AND SHARE WHICH THEY 
 RESPECTIVELY FORMED OF THE TOTAL, AT DECENNIAL YEARS 1800-1920 
 
 IMPORTS 
 
 FIS¬ 
 
 CAL 
 
 YR. 
 
 Europe 
 
 Per 
 
 cent 
 
 of 
 
 total 
 
 North 
 
 America 
 
 Per 
 
 cent 
 
 of 
 
 total 
 
 South 
 
 America 
 
 Per 
 
 cent 
 
 of 
 
 total 
 
 Asia 
 
 1 
 
 Per 
 
 cent 
 
 of 
 
 total 
 
 Oceania 
 
 Per 
 
 cent 
 
 of 
 
 total 
 
 Africa 
 
 Per 
 
 cent] 
 
 of 
 
 total 
 
 1800 
 
 $46,857,960 
 
 51.35 
 
 $32,116,092 
 
 35.19 
 
 
 
 $11,560,810 
 
 12.67 
 
 $142,969 
 
 0.16 
 
 $551,496 
 
 0.60 
 
 1830 
 
 40,S41,420 
 
 57.63 
 
 17,548,892 
 
 24.76 
 
 $6,239,176 
 
 8.80 
 
 5,531,737 
 
 7.80 
 
 384,887 
 
 0.54 
 
 308,797 
 
 0.44 
 
 1840 
 
 64,146,814 
 
 59.87 
 
 22,627,639 
 
 21.12 
 
 9,420,586 
 
 8.79 
 
 9,695,639 
 
 9.05 
 
 602,447 
 
 0.56 
 
 646,869 
 
 0.60 
 
 1850 
 
 124,954,302 
 
 70.14 
 
 24,136,879 
 
 13.55 
 
 16,647,637 
 
 9.35 
 
 10,315,486 
 
 5.79 
 
 1,401,340 
 
 0.79 
 
 682,151 
 
 0.38 
 
 1860 
 
 216,831,353 
 
 59.99 
 
 75,082,583 
 
 20.78 
 
 35,992,719 
 
 9.96 
 
 26,201,603 
 
 7.25 
 
 3,495,726 
 
 0.97 
 
 3,7ys,5i8 
 
 1.05 
 
 1870 
 
 249,540,283 
 
 53.98 
 
 126,544,611 
 
 27.42 
 
 43,596,445 
 
 9.41 
 
 31,413,378 
 
 6.78 
 
 1,423,212 
 
 0.31 
 
 9,860,058 
 
 2.10 
 
 1880 
 
 370,821,782 
 
 55.52 
 
 130,077,225 
 
 19.47 
 
 82,126,922 
 
 12.30 
 
 67,008,793 
 
 10.02 
 
 14,130,604 
 
 2.13 
 
 3,789,420 
 
 0.56 
 
 1890 
 
 449,987,266 
 
 57.14 
 
 148,368,706 
 
 18.84 
 
 90,006,144 
 
 11.43 
 
 67,506,833 
 
 8.57 
 
 28,356,568 
 
 3.60 
 
 5,084,892 
 
 0.42 
 
 1900 
 
 440,567,314 
 
 51.84 
 
 130,035,221 
 
 15.30 
 
 93,666,774 
 
 11.02 
 
 139,842,330 
 
 16.45 
 
 34,611,108 
 
 4.07 
 
 11,218,437 
 
 1.32 
 
 1910 
 
 806,270,280 
 
 51.76 
 
 306,767,486 
 
 19.69 
 
 196,164,786 
 
 12.59 
 
 193,155,344 
 
 12.45 
 
 37,099,795 
 
 2.38 
 
 17,489,739 
 
 1.13 
 
 1915 
 
 1920 
 
 614,354,645 
 
 1,227,842,745 
 
 36.70 
 
 473,079,796 
 
 1,662,663,071 
 
 28.26 
 
 261,489,563 
 
 760,999,295 
 
 15.84 
 
 247,770,103 
 
 1,283,725,317 
 
 14.80 
 
 52,522,552 
 
 192,965,868 
 
 3.14 
 
 24,953,081 
 
 150,285,194 
 
 1.49 
 
 EXPORTS 
 
 1800 
 
 41,348,088 
 
 5S.26 
 
 27,208,608 
 
 38.34 
 
 1810 
 
 46,853,851 
 
 70.09 
 
 16,066,899 
 
 24.07 
 
 1820 
 
 48,116,538 
 
 69.04 
 
 16,810,597 
 
 24.12 
 
 1830 
 
 48,175,248 
 
 65.24 
 
 18,886,434 
 
 25.57 
 
 1840 
 
 9S,930,684 
 
 74.89 
 
 23,737,078 
 
 17.97 
 
 1850 
 
 113,862,253 
 
 74.96 
 
 24,722,610 
 
 16.271 
 
 1860 
 
 310,272,818 
 
 77.54 
 
 53,325,937 
 
 13.33 
 
 1870 
 
 420,184,014 
 
 79.35 
 
 68,962,006 
 
 13.06 
 
 1880 
 
 719,433,788 
 
 86.10 
 
 69,437,738 
 
 8.31 
 
 1890 
 
 683,731,397 
 
 79.74 
 
 94,100,410 
 
 10.98 
 
 1900 
 
 1,010,167,766 
 
 74.60 
 
 187,594,625 
 
 13.45 
 
 1910 
 
 1,135,914,551 
 
 65.10 
 
 385,520,069 
 
 22.09 
 
 1915 
 
 1,971,434,187 
 
 71.21 
 
 477,075,727 
 
 17.23 
 
 1920 
 
 4,466,090,927 
 
 
 1,920,162,758 
 
 
 
 
 1,177,846 
 
 1.66 
 
 14,112 
 
 1,611,738 
 
 2.41 
 
 556,881 
 
 0.83 
 
 227,560 
 
 1,133,689 
 
 1.63 
 
 3,289,000 
 
 4.72 
 
 8,906 
 
 4,5S7,391 
 
 6.21 
 
 1,845,224 
 
 2.50 
 
 93,668 
 
 5,969,517 
 
 4.52 
 
 2,256,290 
 
 1.73 
 
 454,814 
 
 9,076,724 
 
 5.98 
 
 3,051,720 
 
 2.01 
 
 208,129 
 
 16,782,100 
 
 4.18 
 
 11,067,921 
 
 2.77 
 
 5,373,497 
 
 21,651,459 
 
 4.09 
 
 10,972,064 
 
 2.07 
 
 4,334,991 
 
 23,190,220 
 
 2.77 
 
 11,645,703 
 
 1.39 
 
 6,846,698 
 
 38,752,648 
 
 4.52 
 
 19,696,820 
 
 2.30 
 
 16,460,269 
 
 38,945,763 
 
 2.79 
 
 64,913,807 
 
 4.66 
 
 43,391,275 
 
 93,246,820 
 
 5.34 
 
 60,861,813 
 
 3.49 
 
 50,890,087 
 
 99,323,957 
 
 3.59 
 
 114,470,493 
 
 4.13 
 
 77,764,725 
 
 623,916,990 
 
 1 
 
 771,748,562 
 
 
 271,435,299 
 
 0.02 1,110,374 1.56 
 
 0.34 1,407,828 2.11 
 
 0.01 305,968 0.44 
 
 0.13 233,601 0.31 
 
 0.35 717,583 0.54 
 
 0.14 977,284 0.64 
 
 1.34 3,227,760 0.84 
 
 0.82, 3,414,768 0.64 
 
 0.82 5,084,466, 0.61 
 
 1.92 5,082,140 0.54 
 
 3.11 19,469,849 1.39 
 
 2.92 18,551,380 1.06 
 2.81 28,519,751 1.03 
 
 165,661,771 
 
 increased to nearly their normal. The exports 
 of foodstuffs and 'horses enormously increased, 
 as did also those of gunpowder and other high 
 explosives, cartridges and shells, guns, automo- 
 biles, aeroplanes, harness and leather, military 
 goods, hospital supplies, and other articles of 
 this character required for war purposes. There 
 was also an enormous increase in the exportation 
 of sugar and other foodstuffs. As a result the 
 total value of the exports to Europe rapidly 
 developed in spite of the fact that Germany and 
 Austria-Hungary, formerly large importers of 
 American goods, were unable to obtain supplies 
 from that market. The total value of merchan¬ 
 dise exported to Europe in the calendar year 
 1915, the first full year of the war, was $2,505,- 
 660,000 against $1,499,573,000 in the calendar 
 year 1913, the latest calendar year prior to the 
 war. This increase continued after the war, and 
 reached the amazing figures for 1920 given in 
 the table above. To the United Kingdom the ex¬ 
 ports of 1920 were $1,825,633,197 against $590,- 
 732.000 in 1913; to France $676,190,970 against 
 $153,023,000 in 1913; to Italy $371,762,274 
 against $78,675,000; to Russia $15,446,833 
 against $26,910,000 in 1913. To Germany the 
 exports of 1915 were $311,437,377 against $351,- 
 931,000 in 1913, and to Austria $19,237,495 
 
 necessity was, therefore, for the construction 
 of new ships, and for this purpose there was 
 created by Congress the United States Shipping 
 Board with a subsidiary board called the Emer¬ 
 gency Fleet Corporation which had special charge 
 of the construction of ships. Under the opera¬ 
 tion of this board there had been built, requisi¬ 
 tioned and purchased, on April 30, 1919, 2431 
 ships of a deadweight tonnage of 13,953,506. 
 Of these ships 626 were of wood, 18 were com¬ 
 posite, 14 were concrete, 1379 were steel (built 
 by contract), 384 steel (requisitioned), and 15 
 steel (purchased from Japan). These ships 
 were built and launched with extraordinary 
 rapidity. In the month of October, 1918, 78 
 ships were built with a total deadweight tonnage 
 of 412,308, and in May, 1919, 141 ships were 
 built, with a deadweight tonnage of 795,700. 
 The ships thus produced were put as rapidly 
 as possible into the service and were largely 
 instrumental in enabling the United States to 
 land troops and supplies in Europe within the 
 time necessary, when the Allied countries would 
 have been exhausted. 
 
 When the war ended the United States gov¬ 
 ernment was thus in possession of nearly 2500 
 ships of various kinds. Many of these were 
 unfit for commercial use but on April 15, 1919 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 722 
 
 the Shipping Board Was operating 1207 vessels 
 of 6,569,920 tons deadweight. The Shipping 
 Board then gave attention to the establishment 
 and maintenance of various commercial trades 
 for the employment of American tonnage and 
 the furnishing of these trades with suitable 
 vessels. Many of them were employed in Eu¬ 
 ropean relief, 760,348 tons were employed in 
 European trade, 307,649 in trans-Pacific trade, 
 573,567 tons in West Indian trade, 864,334 
 tons in South American trade, and the remain¬ 
 der in the coastwise American trade or in 
 African service. The Shipping Board also gave 
 its attention to the opening up of new trade 
 routes and the development of regular lines 
 to serve foreign commerce. Regular cargo liner 
 service was put in operation over all the leading 
 routes from American ports, and many ships 
 under the control of the Shipping Board were 
 allocated to steamship companies. These opera¬ 
 tions continued through the following years 
 until in 1921 the total American merchant 
 marine was 18,282,136 tons, and the tonnage 
 in foreign trade was 11,072,398. The Shipping 
 Board made the utmost effort to encourage the 
 trade of American steamship companies. In 
 this it faced serious problems, including the 
 high cost of operation, declining freight rates, 
 representation abroad, solicitation of cargo, 
 trained personnel and pier facilities. An im¬ 
 portant factor in the success of an American 
 merchant marine must be the establishment 
 in foreign countries of American concerns to 
 handle the vessels and to solicit return cargoes. 
 The general business depression during 1921 
 seriously affected the trade with Latin America. 
 However, in order to prepare for the resumption 
 of trade, consideration was given to an intensive 
 study of the ways and means of maintaining 
 services with Latin America, which will enable 
 shippers to patronize not only the vessels of 
 the board but all vessels of the American flag. 
 A coastwise service was established between 
 Paranagua, Brazil and ports of the river Plate, 
 with the object in view of giving the local 
 shippers transportation by American flag ves¬ 
 sels. The board was also alive to the necessity 
 of shipping passenger service and during the 
 year a number of fast passenger and cargo 
 services were established. A combination pas¬ 
 senger and cargo vessel was devised for this 
 service. This was of two types, one known as 
 the “502” type and the other known as the 
 “535” type, the figures referring to the respective 
 lengths of the vessels. The “502” type vessels 
 have accommodations for 84 first class passengers 
 and 465,940 cubic-foot cargo space, with a speed 
 of 14 knots. Six of these vessels were built and 
 maintained regular service during the war. The 
 “535” type have accommodations fot 260 first 
 class passengers, 300 steerage passengers, and 
 466,133 cubic-foot cargo space, with a speed of 
 17% knots. Six vessels of this type were built 
 during the year, and operating regular services. 
 Excellent service was also established in 1921- 
 22 to Europe and to the Orient. The first 
 step made by the board was the placing of 
 the vessels in the trade routes which before 
 the war had been of major importance, such as 
 the United Kingdom, continental Europe, the 
 east coast of South America, the Far East, the 
 West Indies, etc., as the congestion in such 
 trades was most severe and the opportunity 
 was at hand for establishing the American flag 
 in the principal services of the world. As vessels 
 
 became available, thev were distributed between 
 
 7 V 
 
 the trade routes of secondary importance. 
 Finally came the establishment of new routes 
 in which the American flag before that time had 
 seldom if ever been seen. On June 30, 1921 the 
 board had a total of 410 general cargo berths 
 of which 393 were between the United States 
 and foreign points and coastwise services in 
 the United States and 17 between foreign ports. 
 
 To insure proper and adequate protection of 
 American shipping interests in foreign ports, and 
 to further the policy of placing American mer¬ 
 chant marine on a permanent basis, agencies were 
 established in the principal seaports of the world. 
 
 The coastwise and intercoastal trade of the 
 United States affords transportation for com¬ 
 modities from one section of the country to 
 the other, such as manufactured products, 
 natural products indigenous of one locality 
 which are required in another; for example, 
 fruit from the Pacific coast, cotton from the 
 South and steel from the East and Middle West. 
 As the coastwise trade of the United States is 
 protected, the Shipping Board made no effort 
 to place ships in this protected trade, except 
 to sell ships to private operators. The board 
 did, however, make an active bid for the control 
 of a large part of the commerce between the 
 United States and Central and South America. 
 This trade consists of exports and manufactured 
 articles, coal, lumber and imports of raw mate¬ 
 rials and natural products of the South and 
 Central American countries. Prior to the estab¬ 
 lishment of services by the board between 
 foreign countries, the American flag vessels 
 seldom if ever before engaged in such regular 
 trades, as the trades were in almost every in¬ 
 stance controlled exclusively by vessels of for¬ 
 eign registry. The inauguration of the general 
 cargo service added much to the prestige and 
 permanence of transportation by American car¬ 
 riers, as ships had an opportunity of ascertain¬ 
 ing from practical experience what American 
 vessels were able to do in ocean transportation. 
 The cargo boats maintained by the Shipping 
 Board, or leased by it, were admirably suited 
 for the work of cargo carrying. They were, of 
 course, obliged to compete with foreign ships. 
 
 The most extensive coast trade centres in New 
 York, largely with Boston on the one side and 
 Philadelphia, Baltimore, Norfolk, Charleston, Sa¬ 
 vannah, Jacksonville, New Orleans, and Galves¬ 
 ton on the other. San Francisco is an important 
 centre of the coastwise trade on the Pacific coast, 
 while the Puget Sound ports, especially Seattle 
 and Tacoma, play an important part in the 
 coasting trade with Alaska, and ports are being 
 developed at Los Angeles and San Diego. In 
 1914 the Panama Canal (q.v.) was opened and 
 this naturally affected the amount of water¬ 
 borne freight from coast to coast, which pre¬ 
 viously had been transshipped by rail across 
 the Isthmus of Panama. The shipping facilities 
 afforded by the Great Lakes are of inestimable 
 value. See Great Lakes. 
 
 Shipping on the Mississippi System .—Prior to 
 the Civil War the Mississippi River system 
 played a much more important part in the devel¬ 
 opment of the interior of the country than did 
 the Great Lakes. The river was but little navi¬ 
 gated for purposes of commerce prior to 1778, 
 and for many years it was of importance to its 
 tributary region chiefly as a means of market¬ 
 ing the surplus products of the newly settled 
 region, since freight could not be profitably 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 723 
 
 transported upstream. The methods used to 
 transport the freight downstream were of the 
 crudest kind. The most common carrier was the 
 flatboat, rudely constructed from timber and 
 without any other propelling force than the cur¬ 
 rent of the river. After it had carried its load 
 to the New Orleans market it was broken up 
 for lumber or deserted. In 1812 the first steam¬ 
 boat was placed upon the river, and, with the 
 improvements that rapidly followed in steam 
 navigation, the upstream traffic also became 
 large. The years 1840-59 constituted the palmy 
 days of Mississippi navigation. Since then, over 
 the greater part of the Mississippi valley, the 
 railroad has obtained most of the passenger traf¬ 
 fic and most of the freight, except bulky prod¬ 
 ucts, chiefly coal and lumber. See Merchant 
 Marine of the United States for history of 
 American shipping; also Shipbuilding. 
 
 government 
 
 National Government. The outline of the 
 national government is found in the Constitu¬ 
 tion, framed in 1787 (see Constitution), and 
 various acts of Congress passed in pursuance 
 thereof. In structure and character it is a rep¬ 
 resentative, federal, coordinated, elective, con¬ 
 gressional government. Its representative char¬ 
 acter consists in the fact that the organization 
 of the State is separate and distinct from that of 
 the government. It is federal in that it is part 
 of a dual system under a common sovereignty. 
 The distribution of the legislative, executive, and 
 judicial powers of the central government, among 
 separate and distant organs, contributes the 
 feature of coordination. The popular choice of 
 the executive and law-making branches makes 
 the government substantially elective, while the 
 independence of the executive as over against 
 the legislative makes the system congressional 
 rather than ministerial in method of action. In 
 distributing the powers of government the 
 framers of the Constitution followed Colonial 
 and English precedent and confided to separate 
 and distinct organs the exercise of those func¬ 
 tions which were legislative in character, those 
 which were executive, and those which were 
 judicial. The investment of the President with 
 the power to recommend to the legislative de¬ 
 partment the enactment of laws, the right of a 
 qualified veto on its acts and resolutions, and 
 the right of the lower branch of the Legislature 
 to impeach and the right of the upper branch 
 to try all officers of the United States for cer¬ 
 tain offenses, are well-known exceptions to the 
 general principle of the separation of powers. 
 The same may be said of the power confided to 
 the upper branch of Legislature to participate 
 with the executive in the appointment of officers 
 and negotiation of treaties with foreign countries. 
 
 For the Constitution, see Constitutional 
 Law ; Constitution of the United States ; 
 Federal Government. 
 
 For the legislative branch, see Committee; 
 Congress ; Legislation ; Legislature ; Par¬ 
 liamentary Law; Quorum; Representation; 
 Senate; Speaker; etc. 
 
 For the executive branch, see Cabinet; Elec¬ 
 toral College; President; State, Department 
 of; Treasury, Department of the; etc. 
 
 For the judicial branch, see Court; Supreme 
 Court of the United States. 
 
 Congress .—The origin of the national Legisla¬ 
 ture is to be found in the so-called Second Con¬ 
 tinental Congress of 1775—a revolutionary body 
 
 which was called to deliberate upon the state of 
 public affairs growing out of the dispute with 
 Great Britain, and which, with the acquiescence 
 of the people, assumed plenary powers of gov¬ 
 ernment and the management of the war. Al¬ 
 though its powers were undefined (there being 
 no written constitution), the Congress exercised 
 many of the usual functions of sovereign gov¬ 
 ernments, among which may be mentioned the 
 organization of a diplomatic service and the con¬ 
 clusion of treaties with foreign states; the regu¬ 
 lation of commerce; the raising and equipment 
 of armies; the establishment of a post office; the 
 creation of a national currency; etc. Delegates 
 were usually appointed by popular conventions of 
 legislatures, the Congress was organized in one 
 chamber, and the States enjoyed equality of rep¬ 
 resentation. The Articles of Confederation, rati¬ 
 fied in 1781, changed the basis of the Congress 
 from a revolutionary assembly to a constitu¬ 
 tional body and undertook to define its powers 
 and regulate its constitution. The principle of 
 equality of representation and the unicameral 
 form of organization were, however, continued; 
 besides, its efficiency as a national legislature 
 was impaired by other unwise provisions. It did 
 not possess the power of taxation, nor did its 
 commands operate upon individuals, but rather 
 upon States which could not be coerced. A few 
 years’ experience showed that it was unequal to 
 the task of a national legislature, and when the 
 Constitutional Convention of 1787 came to de¬ 
 liberate upon the structure and powers of Con¬ 
 gress it was practically unanimous in favor of 
 the bicameral organization and of vesting Con¬ 
 gress with more adequate powers. The trouble¬ 
 some question of representation was settled by 
 an arrangement which protected the small States 
 by giving them equality of representation in one 
 chamber, and the large States by proportional 
 representation in the otner. 
 
 Congress was given adequate power over the 
 source of the national revenue, besides other 
 powers inherent in a national legislature. All its 
 powers were enumerated by the Constitution, 
 while a number of express prohibitions were in¬ 
 serted in behalf of individual liberty. Lest an 
 express enumeration of its powers might operate 
 to deprive it of discretion in choosing the ap¬ 
 propriate means of carrying into execution the 
 powers granted, a so-called “elastic clause” was 
 inserted empowering Congress to pass all laws 
 deemed necessary and proper to carry out the 
 powers expressed. Compared with the vast 
 range of powers left with the States, the few 
 powers conferred upon Congress seem quite in¬ 
 significant, and this disparity seems all the 
 more noticeable when compared with the omnip¬ 
 otence of the British Parliament. But the ap¬ 
 parently narrow powers vested in Congress have 
 been rather broadly construed by the Supreme 
 Court throughout the entire period of the na¬ 
 tional history. With the sanction of the court, 
 sometimes under the stress of emergency, but 
 more frequently in time of peace, Congress has 
 steadily extended its powers in every direction, 
 exercising functions which were probably never 
 intended by the framers of the Constitution to 
 be assumed by it. Thus under the simple power 
 to lay and collect taxes (doubtless for revenue 
 only), Congress has employed its power to de¬ 
 stroy State bank currency, to encourage certain 
 industries and destroy others, and to restrict 
 commercial intercourse. In pursuance of the 
 power to coin money and pay debts it has es- 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 724 
 
 tablished national banks, issued bills of credit, 
 and given the legal-tender quality to its treas¬ 
 ury notes. Under the power to establish post 
 offices and post roads it has made a government 
 monopoly of the entire postal service, established 
 a money-order and parcels post system, and pro¬ 
 vided for free delivery of mail in cities and in 
 many rural communities. Under the power to 
 regulate foreign and interstate commerce it has 
 regulated not only traffic, but telegraphic inter¬ 
 course and navigation on rivers and canals. This 
 power has been employed also for the purposes 
 of prohibition, reciprocity, retaliation, and reve¬ 
 nue. It has included the laying of embargoes, 
 the enactment of nonintercourse and nonimporta¬ 
 tion and quarantine laws, the dredging of har¬ 
 bors, the erection of lighthouses, beacons, buoys, 
 etc. Likewise Congress, without .express author¬ 
 ity, has acquired foreign territory, erected it 
 into States, and governed its inhabitants with¬ 
 out their consent. It has made large grants of 
 land to aid in the construction of railroads, 
 passed laws to regulate and control federal 
 elections, governed rebellious States through mili¬ 
 tary agency, conferred suffrage upon the negroes, 
 and undertaken to secure for them equality of 
 treatment in public places. During the con¬ 
 troversy over Reconstruction it encroached seri¬ 
 ously upon the sphere of the executive and the 
 courts declined to interfere in the latter’s behalf. 
 
 In reviewing the first century and a quarter of 
 the history of Congress and its place in the 
 scheme of government, several criticisms are 
 worthy of note. These are the practice of choos¬ 
 ing members from local districts, short tenures 
 of Representatives, the large and unwieldy size 
 of the Lower House, the long interregnum be¬ 
 tween the time of the election and the organiza¬ 
 tion of the Congress, the shortness of the second 
 session, and the exclusion of the cabinet from 
 seats in either House. 
 
 State Government. The Constitution of the 
 United States provides that all powers not dele¬ 
 gated to the United States nor prohibited by it 
 to the States are reserved to the States respec¬ 
 tively or to the people. Those powers absolutely 
 prohibited to the States are the conclusion of 
 treaties, alliances, or confederations among them¬ 
 selves; the granting of letters of marque and 
 reprisal; the coining of money; the issue of bills 
 of credit; the making of anything but gold and 
 silver a tender in payment of debts; the enact¬ 
 ment of ex post facto laws, bills of attainder, 
 or laws impairing the obligation of contracts; 
 and granting of titles of nobility. Those pro¬ 
 hibited except with the consent of Congress are 
 the levying of duties on imports or exports, ex¬ 
 cept such as may be absolutely necessary for 
 executing inspection laws; the laying of ton¬ 
 nage duties; keeping troops or ships of war in 
 time of peace; entering into agreements or com¬ 
 pacts with other States or foreign powers, or 
 engaging in war unless actually invaded or when 
 the danger is such as not to admit of delay. 
 
 Upon examination it will be seen that the re¬ 
 lation of the citizen to the State government 
 is far more close than with the national gov¬ 
 ernment. Nearly the whole domain of civil and 
 religious liberty, education, suffrage, domestic 
 relations, marriage, business transactions, prop¬ 
 erty, professions, trades, contract relations, ad¬ 
 ministration of the criminal law, and many other 
 social and business relationships come within the 
 sphere of the State government. The funda¬ 
 mental law of each State is embodied in a writ¬ 
 
 ten constitution drawn up by a constituent con¬ 
 vention and ratified in most cases by the elec¬ 
 torate at the polls. The earlier constitutions 
 were brief instruments containing little more 
 than the law for the organization of the govern¬ 
 ment and the necessary safeguards for the pro¬ 
 tection of civil liberty, but the later ones are 
 bulky documents containing a vast amount of 
 matter which should properly appear in the 
 statutes. In each of the States the legislative 
 power is vested in the Legislature, consisting of 
 a Senate and a House of Representatives, though 
 in six States the latter chamber is styled the 
 Assembly and in three the House of Delegates. 
 Both Houses are chosen by popular vote and by 
 the same electorate, although there are varia¬ 
 tions as to the mode of choice and tenure. 
 Usually the districts from which Senators are 
 chosen are larger than those from which Repre¬ 
 sentatives are elected, and as a consequence the 
 Lower House is a more numerous body. The 
 Senates range in size from 17 to 63 members, 
 while the number of Representatives ranges from 
 35 to 390. The Lower House is from two to 
 six times as large as the Senate. The tenure 
 of State Senators is usually longer than that of 
 Representatives. In a majority of the States it 
 is four years, the usual term of a Representa¬ 
 tive being two years. In many of the States 
 provision is made for partial renewal of the 
 Senate, usually by halves every second year. 
 In a few States the qualifications for eligibility 
 to the Senate are higher than those of the Lower 
 House. The franchise for the election of the 
 Legislature and of all elective State officers is 
 regulated by the State constitutions and is uni¬ 
 versal suffrage. Prior to the ratification of the 
 19th Amendment, many of the States had con¬ 
 ferred the franchise on women, except that in 
 Arizona, California, Connecticut, Delaware, 
 Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Wash¬ 
 ington, Wyoming, and some of the Southern 
 States slight educational tests are required. 
 (For further details, see Suffrage; Represen¬ 
 tation ; Women’s Suffrage. ) In all the States 
 members of the Legislature receive salaries, 
 which are the same for members of both Houses. 
 The amount ranges from $3 a day and mileage 
 in Kansas and Oregon, or $2 and mileage for 
 a regular session in New Hampshire to $1500 
 a year and mileage in New York and Pennsyl¬ 
 vania. In most of the States the constitution 
 provides for biennial sessions of the Legislature. 
 In Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, 
 New York, New Jersey, and South Carolina 
 annual sessions are required, while in Alabama 
 regular sessions occur every four years. In most 
 of the States the length of the session is left 
 to the discretion of the Legislature, in others 
 it is limited by constitutional provision. The 
 powers of the Legislature relative to organ¬ 
 ization, procedure, adjournment, privileges, etc., 
 are similar to those of Congress. The executive 
 power in each State is vested in the Governor, 
 popularly elected for a term ranging from one 
 year in Massachusetts to four years in 22 States 
 and five in New Mexico. In about three-fourths 
 of the States there is a Lieutenant Governor, 
 who succeeds to the governorship in case of a 
 vacancy. The Governor’s salary ranges from 
 $2500 in Nebraska and Vermont to $10,000 in 
 California, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New 
 York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania, and $12,000 in 
 Illinois. In a few States he is ineligible to suc¬ 
 ceed himself. His duties and powers include 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 725 UNITED STATES 
 
 the execution of the laws, the furnishing of the 
 Legislature with information at the beginning 
 of its session, the calling of it together in ex¬ 
 traordinary session, the appointment of certain 
 ollicers, usually with the consent of the Senate, 
 the granting of reprieves and pardons, the veto 
 of legislative measures except in four States 
 (see Veto ), and the command of the militia. 
 In several of the States where there has been a 
 traditional fear of the executive power, the Gov¬ 
 ernor’s prerogatives are very narrow—he has no 
 veto power and but little power of appointment. 
 To aid the Governor in the administration there 
 are in every State a number of executive depart¬ 
 ments, at the head of which are officers usually 
 chosen at the same time, in the same manner, 
 and for the same term as himself. These are the 
 Secretary of State, the Treasurer, the Attorney- 
 General, the Auditor or Comptroller, and the 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction. Besides, 
 there are frequently such officers as commis¬ 
 sioners of railroads and of canals, insurance, 
 agriculture, labor, immigration, charities, etc. 
 Formerly such officers were, as a rule, popularly 
 elected, but in recent years there has been an 
 increasing resort to commissions, especially for 
 the control of public utilities, workmen’s com¬ 
 pensation, minimum wages, etc.; these are ap¬ 
 pointed by the Governor with consent of the 
 Legislature. The position of the heads of the 
 State executive departments is in no sense simi¬ 
 lar to that of the President’s cabinet, since the 
 Governor has little or no power over them. 
 
 In each State the judicial power is vested in a 
 supreme court or court of appeal, one or more 
 superior courts known by different names, and a 
 series of local courts of various kinds. In sev¬ 
 eral States the supreme court is such only in 
 name, there being a court of last resort above it, 
 usually known as court of appeals or court 
 of errors and appeals. Texas has two supreme 
 courts, one for civil and the other for criminal 
 cases. The size of the supreme courts ranges 
 from three justices to 16, the number usually 
 being odd. The salaries of members of the State 
 supreme courts range from $2500 in Vermont to 
 $17,500 in New York. Next below the supreme 
 courts are the superior courts, sometimes called 
 circuit courts, having jurisdiction over a group 
 of counties with the power to hear appeals from 
 the lower courts. Usually there is also a county 
 court, which is known by different names and 
 which has a wide original jurisdiction in both 
 civil and criminal matters and appellate juris¬ 
 diction over the decisions of the justices of the 
 peace. These justices of the peace have original 
 jurisdiction in minor civil and criminal cases, 
 with power to impose fines, to commit to prison 
 for short periods, and to bind over accused per¬ 
 sons to await the action of the grand jury. In 
 the towns and cities there is usually a separate 
 class of municipal courts. (See Municipal 
 Government.) There are also probate and chan¬ 
 cery courts in some States. Formerly the State 
 judges were generally appointed by the Governor 
 or chosen by the Legislature, but now in a great 
 majority of the States they are popularly elected. 
 In four States the Supreme Justices are still 
 elected by the Legislature; in eight they are 
 appointed by the Governor with the consent of 
 the Council or Senate. The early rule was 
 good-behavior tenure, but now that rule prevails 
 only in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and New 
 Hampshire. Elsewhere the term varies from 
 two years in Vermont to 21 in Pennsylvania. 
 
 Local Government. Three general types of 
 local government prevail in the United States, 
 they are the town system in New England, the 
 county system in the South, and the mixed sys¬ 
 tem in New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and 
 a number of the North Central States. In the 
 town system the sovereign local authority is the 
 town meeting, or general assembly of "all the 
 qualified voters of the town. A regular annual 
 session of this assembly is held in the spring, 
 and extra sessions are held throughout the year 
 as necessity requires. At the annual meeting, 
 which is presided over by a moderator, the town 
 officers are elected, the local budget passed, and 
 other matters of local interest decided upon. The 
 principal town officers are a number of select¬ 
 men, ranging from three to nine, who are the 
 general managers of the town affairs; the town 
 clerk, who is the keeper of the records; the 
 treasurer; the tax assessors; the tax collector; 
 the school committee; and a variety of minor 
 officers such as constables, overseers of the poor, 
 surveyors, fence viewers, etc. Where the pure 
 town system prevails the county plays but little 
 part in local administration, and in some States 
 like Rhode Island there are, strictly speaking, 
 no county officers, the county being merely a 
 judicial district without corporate personality. 
 
 In the Southern States, where the county type 
 of local government prevails, conditions are "re¬ 
 versed. There the county is the political unit, 
 and the administration of all local matters, ex¬ 
 cept educational and municipal affairs, is in¬ 
 trusted to county officers. The chief county au¬ 
 thority is the board of county commissioners or 
 supervisors, each member of which represents 
 one of the magisterial districts into which the 
 county is divided. There is no authority which 
 corresponds to the New England town meeting. 
 Besides the commissioners, the chief county of¬ 
 ficers are the sheriff, the clerk, the commis¬ 
 sioner of education, the coroner, the assessor, 
 and sometimes a tax collector, although the col¬ 
 lection of the taxes is a duty generally imposed 
 upon the sheriff. The subdivisions of the county 
 in some States are known as precincts, in others 
 as townships; in Delaware as hundreds, in 
 Georgia as militia districts, in Louisiana (where 
 the counties are called parishes) as wards, in 
 Maryland as election districts, in Mississippi as 
 supervisor’s districts, etc. In the Southern 
 States they are mere judicial or election dis¬ 
 tricts. In each are usually to be found one or 
 more justices of the peace and their ministerial 
 officers or constables, but the districts are in no 
 sense political corporations. 
 
 The mixed system which originated in New 
 York and Pennsylvania is a compromise between 
 the two types described above. Here both the 
 town and county elements exist, but are com¬ 
 bined in different ratios. In New York the chief 
 local authority is the board of supervisors, con¬ 
 sisting of a representative chosen from each town 
 in the county. In Pennsylvania it is a board of 
 three commissioners elected from the county at 
 large. The New York supervisor presides over 
 the town administration, while the Pennsylvania 
 commissioner is in no sense a township officer. 
 In the mixed type the town or township is a 
 body corporate and politic. Each has its clerk, 
 assessor, collector, commissioner of highways, 
 justices of the peace, constable, etc. In New 
 York there is an annual town meeting at which 
 local officers are elected and matters of poor 
 relief, taxes, schools, etc., attended to. In the 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 726 
 
 pure Pennsylvania form the town meeting does 
 not exist, town affairs being managed by a corps 
 of officers elected by the people of the town. 
 The New York, or supervisor, type of local gov¬ 
 ernment has been adopted in Michigan, Illinois, 
 Wisconsin, Nebraska, New Jersey, and elsewhere. 
 The Pennsylvania, or commissioner, system has 
 been transplanted to Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, Kan¬ 
 sas, and Missouri, and in a modified form to 
 Minnesota and the Dakotas. For local govern¬ 
 ment in the towns and cities, see Municipal 
 Government. 
 
 finances 
 
 Statistics. The finances of the United States 
 are characterized by rapid increase in magni¬ 
 tude of fiscal operations, and by the great fa¬ 
 cility with which revenues are secured. The 
 federal government has with rare exceptions 
 derived nearly all its revenue from tariff duties 
 and internal-revenue taxes, but the need of 
 vast sums during the war made it necessary to 
 levy other taxes. The total ordinary receipts 
 for 1922 were $4,109,104,150. The principal 
 sources were: customs, $356,443,587, an increase 
 over the estimates—$235,000,000 internal-rev¬ 
 enue; $2,068,128,192 from income and profits 
 tax and $1,145,125,064 from miscellaneous 
 sources. 
 
 The grand total receipts for the fiscal year 
 1922 amounted to $10,126,261,803; the total or¬ 
 dinary expenses of the government amounted to 
 $3,372,607,899, and the grand total of expendi¬ 
 tures to $10,403,834,396. The total expenditure 
 on account of the public debt was $7,031,226,496. 
 The total gross public debt on June 30, 1922 
 was $22,963,381,708, as compared with $23,977,- 
 450,552 on June 30, 1921, a reduction during 
 the fiscal year of over one billion dollars. This 
 was brought about through refunding operations, 
 by which various loans made during the war 
 were reduced. The enormous increase in the 
 public debt as well as the increase in annual 
 expenditures of course reflects the financial cost 
 of the war, which was borne chiefly by the 
 floating of bonds sold to the people. There 
 were four issues known as Liberty Bonds and 
 an issue known as Victory Bonds issued after 
 the war. As these bonds mature, they must be 
 paid or refunded. On the first Liberty Loan 
 the amount issued was $1,989,455,550; on the 
 second Liberty Loan, $3,807,865,000; on the 
 third Liberty Loan, $4,175,650,050; on the 
 fourth Liberty Loan, $6,964,581,100; and on the 
 Victory Loan, which was in notes instead of 
 bonds, $4,495,373,000. The first Liberty Loan 
 is redeemable on or after June 15, 1932; the 
 second Liberty Loan on or after November 15, 
 1927; the third Liberty Loan, September 15, 
 1928; the fourth Liberty Loan, October 15, 
 1938; and the Victory Loan, May 20, 1923. 
 The necessity for funds for carrying on the 
 war made it necessary to levy income and 
 profit taxes which produced a considerable pro¬ 
 portion of the necessary funds. See Finance. 
 
 Financial History. Down to the adoption of 
 the Federal Constitution the finances of the cen¬ 
 tral government were in an extremely chaotic 
 condition. In 1775 the Continental Congress 
 undertook to establish a Continental army and 
 navy, but no power had been delegated to Con¬ 
 gress to raise revenue by taxation to meet the 
 attendant expenditures. Congress was therefore 
 forced to rely upon the issue of bills of credit, 
 
 the proceeds of loans, foreign and domestic, and 
 requisitions upon the various States, which the 
 latter could honor or not as they saw fit. From 
 1775 to 1783 it is estimated that the income of 
 the Continental Treasury, estimated in specie, 
 amounted to $65,863,825, of which about $37,- 
 800,000 was secured through the issue of bills of 
 credit, $19,416,000 through loans, and $5,795,000 
 through requisitions upon the States. 
 
 Under the Articles of Confederation the finan¬ 
 cial position of the central government was but 
 little stronger. It was provided that the ex¬ 
 penses of the national government should be 
 defrayed by taxes apportioned to the States in 
 proportion to the value of land and improve¬ 
 ments. Congress had power to emit bills of 
 credit and to contract loans; but since the States 
 levied the apportioned taxes according to their 
 own discretion, there was no certainty that such 
 loans could be repaid when due. By 1786 the 
 credit of the government had fallen so low that 
 it was practically impossible to secure loans,, 
 while the proceeds of the apportioned taxes did 
 not meet the running expenses of government. 
 Efforts to amend the articles so as to make 
 possible a national tax proved unavailing, owing 
 to the provision that unanimous consent of the 
 States should be necessary for amendment. 
 
 From this state of affairs the country was res¬ 
 cued by the adoption of the Federal Constitu¬ 
 tion, which gave Congress wide powers of taxa¬ 
 tion. By the Act of July 4, 1789, import duties 
 were levied; in the following year the national 
 debt was reorganized and augmented by the as¬ 
 sumption of the State debts incurred in the War 
 for Independence. In 1791 the first national 
 bank was organized to aid in placing the govern¬ 
 mental finances on a sound footing. (See Bank, 
 Banking.) As the tariff of 1789 did not furnish 
 revenue enough to meet current expenses, includ¬ 
 ing the interest on the public debt, Congress in 
 1791 laid an excise tax upon spirits, which was 
 further extended in 1794 to cover a considerable 
 number of articles. In 1798 a direct tax was 
 levied upon lands, dwelling houses, and slaves. 
 Both the excise and the direct taxes were un¬ 
 popular and unproductive, yielding in all only 
 $1,582,000 in 1801. The customs duties, on the 
 other hand, increased from $4,399,000 in 1791 
 to $10,751,000 in 1801. 
 
 From 1801 to 1811 revenue largely exceeded 
 expenditures, in spite of the repeal of the excise 
 taxes in 1802. The national debt was reduced 
 from $83,000,000 to $45,200,000. With the out¬ 
 break of the War of 1812, customs duties fell off 
 with the ruin of commerce, while military ex¬ 
 penditures made a heavy drain upon the national 
 resources. Excise duties were repugnant to the 
 principles of the Republican party, then in 
 power; accordingly it was necessary to finance 
 the war chiefly by means of loans and the issue 
 of treasury notes. Up to the end of 1814, $41,- 
 010,000 was borrowed; by February, 1815, $36,- 
 680,000 in treasury notes had been issued, of 
 which, however, part was issued to pay off ear¬ 
 lier issues, the largest amount outstanding being 
 $17,619,000 in 1816. In 1813 a direct tax of 
 $3,000,000 was levied, and in 1814 excise taxes 
 were again imposed. These taxes were repealed 
 in 1817 with the increase in customs revenue at¬ 
 tendant upon the renewal of foreign commercial 
 relations. From 1816 to 1835 revenue exceeded 
 expenditures so far as practically to extinguish 
 the national debt in the latter year. In 1836 and 
 1837 a surplus accumulated, which was distrib- 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 727 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 uted to the States in the guise of a loan in 1837, 
 about $28,000,000 being disposed of in this way. 
 An important item in the revenues of 1834-37 
 was the proceeds from the sale of public lands. 
 From 1810 to 1830 the sales of public lands had 
 yielded an annual income ranging from $1,000,- 
 *000 to $2,000,000; in 1834 the yield was about 
 $15,000,000; 1835, $14,767,0001836, $24,877,- 
 000; 1837, $6,776,000. 
 
 The table below gives receipts and expend¬ 
 itures for typical years from the adoption of 
 the Constitution down to the Civil War. 
 
 The years 1837-43 showed a series of deficits 
 owing to decline in revenue through commercial 
 depression, and increase in expenditures due 
 chiefly to greater expense in managing Indian af¬ 
 fairs and the undertaking of internal improve¬ 
 ments. It became necessary to resort again to 
 the issue of treasury notes and the sale of bonds. 
 An increase in tariff rates in 1842 restored the 
 balance and created a surplus, which was turned 
 into a deficit by the expenses of the Mexican 
 War. Between 1846 and 1851 the national debt 
 
 YEAR 
 
 Total ordi¬ 
 nary receipts 
 
 Expenditures 
 
 1792. 
 
 $3,669,000 
 
 $8,269,000 
 
 1801. 
 
 12,935,000 
 
 9,393,000 
 
 1811. 
 
 14,422,000 
 
 8,178,000 
 
 1814. 
 
 9.S00.000 
 
 34,720,000 
 
 1816. 
 
 47,677,000 
 
 31,196.000 
 
 1821. 
 
 14,573,000 
 
 15,842,000 
 
 1831. 
 
 2S,526,000 
 
 15,237,000 
 
 1841. 
 
 16,860 000 
 
 26,482,000 
 
 1850. 
 
 43,592,000 
 
 40,948,000 
 
 1860. 
 
 56,054,000 
 
 63,201,000 
 
 increased from $15,550,000 to $68,304,000. By 
 1857 the debt had been reduced to $28,700,000. 
 A new series of deficits began with 1858, which 
 increased the indebtedness about $50,000,000 by 
 1860, when the Morrill Tariff Act restoring 
 higher duties supplied revenue in excess of 
 expenditures. 
 
 For finances of the Civil War and the subse¬ 
 quent period, see Debt, Public; Finance; 
 Specie Payments, Suspension of; etc. 
 
 Money. By an Act of March 4, 1900, the gold 
 dollar weighing 25.8 grains was made the stand¬ 
 ard of value of the monetary system. The gold 
 coins in common use, however, are the 5, 10, 
 and 20 dollar pieces. Silver dollars, half dol¬ 
 lars, etc., are also coined and accepted as con¬ 
 venient mediums of exchange. Silver and gold 
 certificates are issued by the government, for the 
 repayment of which a fund of $150,000,000 in 
 gold has been established. For further particu¬ 
 lars, see Money; Coinage; etc. 
 
 Weights and Measures. The United States 
 system of weights and measures is fully discussed 
 in the general article on Weights and Meas¬ 
 ures. 
 
 army 
 
 Military History. The first step towards the 
 establishment of a military force under the con¬ 
 trol of the Continental Congress was taken June 
 15, 1775, when that body resolved that a general 
 lie appointed to command all the Continental 
 forces raised or to be raised for the defense of 
 American liberty and unanimously elected 
 George Washington. 
 
 One year later (June 13, 1776) the Con¬ 
 tinental Congress created a Board of War, the 
 
 germ of the modern War Department. The Revo¬ 
 lution was a great war school for the crude but 
 patriotic bands that rallied under Washington's 
 standard, and the regular army of to-day rests 
 upon the foundation then laid, after European 
 methods. Thus the United States articles of 
 war are copied from the British military code; 
 the principles of discipline, drill, and account¬ 
 ability for property survive as they were pre¬ 
 scribed by the aid-de-camp of Frederick the 
 Great, Baron Steuben; while the French vol¬ 
 unteer Baron du Portail became the first chief 
 of engineers. 
 
 In September, 1776, the Continental Congress 
 appointed a committee to confer with the general 
 officers of the army with the view of creating a 
 system of instruction which would furnish offi¬ 
 cers educated in the theory of military art and 
 science. This was the origin of the Military 
 Academy at West Point, which institution, how¬ 
 ever, was not formally established until 1802. 
 
 Notwithstanding Washington’s wise counsel, 
 that provision should be made for a permanent 
 and well-equipped army, the close of the Revo¬ 
 lution saw the seasoned veterans return to their 
 farms and other civil avocations. Congress, 
 swayed by the arguments that “standing armies 
 in time of peace are inconsistent with the princi¬ 
 ples of republican government and dangerous to 
 the liberties of a- free people,” and that “the 
 United States being remote from nations having 
 peace establishments and by being always in a 
 state of defense, on the plan of the confederation, 
 which provides that every State shall always keep 
 up a well-regulated and disciplined militia,” di¬ 
 rected the discharge of “the troops now (May 26, 
 1784) in the service of the United States, except 
 25 privates to guard the stores at Fort Pitt and 
 55 to guard the stores at West Point and other 
 magazines with a proportionable number of offi¬ 
 cers,” no officer to remain in service above the 
 rank of captain. 
 
 War with a civilized power was no sooner 
 ended than the need of provision against Indian 
 hostilities became apparent ; the Articles of Con¬ 
 federation framed for protection against the 
 greater danger were found ineffective in dealing 
 with the lesser evil. The recommendations of 
 Congress fell upon deaf ears; each State was 
 busy with its own immediate affairs, and the 
 Continental Legislature was compelled (June 3, 
 1784) to augment its nucleus of 80 enlisted men 
 by the enrollment and equipment of a small regi¬ 
 ment of foot soldiers; later (Oct. 20, 1786), 
 a battalion of artillery was added, and so by 
 degrees the nucleus of a national force was 
 formed which in 1788 amounted to 595 men, 
 commanded by Lieutenant Colonel and Brevet 
 Brigadier General Josiah Harmar. 
 
 The establishment of a permanent land force 
 for the national defense, otherwise known as 
 the regular army, legally dates from March, 
 1789, a few weeks before the inauguration of 
 Washington as President under the Federal Con¬ 
 stitution. The troops then in service already 
 mentioned now became the Regiment of Infan¬ 
 try and Battalion of Artillery and eventually 
 (1791) became known as the First Regiment of 
 Infantry (Lieutenant Colonel Harmar) and 
 the Battalion of Artillery (Major Doughty) 
 respectively. 
 
 For more than 100 years after that date the 
 army served as the strong right arm of the gov¬ 
 ernment, at times engaged in holding back the 
 Indians from border settlements, protecting the 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 728 
 
 western advance of the nation, and in five wars 
 forming the backbone of the great forces called 
 out to meet the emergencies. Withal the regu¬ 
 lar army performed these varied duties quietly 
 but effectually. It produced Grant, Lee, Sher¬ 
 man, Sheridan, Thomas, Jackson, and a host 
 of able commanders of less renown, but yet 
 distinguished on the roll of fame. The con¬ 
 spicuous traits of the American regular are 
 his individuality, fertility of resource, and un¬ 
 swerving loyalty to his government; the offi¬ 
 cers especially exhibiting, since the Spanish- 
 American War, an unexampled capacity for the 
 administration of civil affairs, assuming at a 
 moment’s notice duties ranging in importance 
 from those of Governor-General and Judge of 
 the Supreme Court to collector of customs and 
 chief of police, and discharging them with marked 
 ability and fidelity. 
 
 The Staff. Next to the training and equip¬ 
 ment of the line and the selection of competent 
 leaders, the question of a staff early received 
 the attention of the Board of War. The value 
 of the services of the foreign officers who as 
 volunteers organized, drilled, and inspected the 
 army and aided materially in achieving the suc¬ 
 cess of the American operations had deeply im¬ 
 pressed Washington, who upon the eve (1798) of 
 his resuming the command of the army thus 
 addressed the Secretary of War: “In forming 
 an army, if a judicious choice is not made of the 
 principal officers, and, above all, of the general 
 staff, it can never be rectified thereafter. The 
 character then of the army would be lost in 
 the superstructure. The reputation of the com¬ 
 mander in chief would sink with it and the coun¬ 
 try be involved in inextricable expense.” 
 
 GENERALS COMMANDING AND CHIEFS OJF STAFF 
 OF THE ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES FROM 
 THE FOUNDING OF THE REPUBLIC 
 
 NAME 
 
 From 
 
 To 
 
 George Washington*. 
 
 1775 
 
 1783 
 
 Henrv Knox*. 
 
 1783 
 
 1784 
 
 Josiah Harmarf. 
 
 1783 
 
 1791 
 
 Arthur St. Clair*. 
 
 1791 
 
 1796 
 
 James Wilkinson*. 
 
 1796 
 
 1798 
 
 George Washington!.. 
 
 1798 
 
 1799 
 
 James Wilkinson!. 
 
 1S00 
 
 1S12 
 
 Henrv Dearborn*. 
 
 1812 
 
 1815 
 
 Jacob Brown*. 
 
 1815 
 
 1828 
 
 Alexander Macomb*. 
 
 1828 
 
 1841 
 
 Winfield Scott*. 
 
 1841 
 
 1861 
 
 George B. McClellan*. 
 
 1861 
 
 1862 
 
 Henry W. Halleck*. 
 
 1862 
 
 1864 
 
 Ulvsses S. Grant!. 
 
 1864 
 
 1869 
 
 William T. Sherman t. 
 
 1869 
 
 1883 
 
 Philip H. Sheridan!. 
 
 1S83 
 
 1888 
 
 John M. Schofield§. 
 
 188S 
 
 1895 
 
 Nelson A. Miles §. 
 
 1895 
 
 1903 
 
 S. B. M. Young,§ chief of staff... 
 
 1903 
 
 1903 
 
 H. C. Corbin, § chief of staff. 
 
 1906 
 
 1906 
 
 J. C. Bates, § chief of staff. 
 
 1906 
 
 1906 
 
 Arthur McArthur,§ senior general. 
 
 1906 
 
 1909 
 
 J. Franklin Bell, chief of staff. 
 
 1906 
 
 1910 
 
 Leonard Wood,* chief of staff. 
 
 1910 
 
 1914 
 
 Hugh L. Scott,* chief of staff. 
 
 John J. Pershing, general and chief 
 
 1914 
 
 1917’ 
 
 of staff. 
 
 1917 
 
 • • • • 
 
 Major general, f General, f Brigadier general. Josiah 
 Harmar was a lieutenant colonel commandant and brigadier 
 general by brevet. § Lieutenant general. 
 
 The first staff officers appointed by Washing¬ 
 ton ^ upon assuming command at * Cambridge 
 (1775) were an adjutant general (Horatio 
 Gates), a quartermaster-general (Thomas Mif¬ 
 flin), and a commissary general (Joseph Trum¬ 
 
 bull). Under them from time to time dur¬ 
 ing the war were temporarily appointed officers 
 of the line as assistants. As far back as 1777 
 the Continental Congress had “Resolved, . . . 
 that it is essential to the promotion of disci¬ 
 pline in the American army and to the reforma¬ 
 tion of the various abuses which prevail in the 
 various departments that an appointment be 
 made of inspectors general, agreeable to the 
 practice of the best disciplined European ar¬ 
 mies.” The first practical result of this action 
 was shown in the selection of Baron Steuben, 
 who may justly be considered the originator of 
 much that is admirable in the staff system of the 
 United States army. Although he had held the 
 rank of lieutenant general in the Prussian army, 
 he did not hesitate to serve at first as a volun¬ 
 teer, pending his appointment as inspector gen¬ 
 eral with rank of major general (May 5, 1778). 
 
 At the close of the war Baron Steuben resigned 
 his commission, receiving the thanks of Congress, 
 “for the great zeal and abilities he has discov¬ 
 ered in the discharge of the several duties of 
 his office,” together with the gift of a “gold- 
 hilted sword.” Towards the close of his life 
 Steuben prepared a manual of “Regulations for 
 the order and discipline of the troops of the 
 United States” and for governing the militia 
 (Portsmouth, N. H., 1794), still a model of its 
 kinc[. 
 
 STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
 
 1789-1922 
 
 Strength of army 
 
 1789.. . 
 
 1792.. . 
 
 1 regiment infantry, 1 battalion artillery 
 Indian border wars. 
 
 1794... 
 
 Peace establishment. 
 
 1801... 
 
 tt 44 
 
 1807... 
 
 it tt 
 
 1810... 
 
 it (4 
 
 1812... 
 
 War with Great Britain. 
 
 1815... 
 
 it it 44 44 
 
 1817-21 
 
 Peace establishment. 
 
 1822-32 
 
 it 11 
 
 1833-37 
 
 it 44 
 
 1838-42 
 
 Florida War. 
 
 1843-46 
 
 Peace establishment. 
 
 1847... 
 
 Mexican War. 
 
 1848... 
 
 •it 4 4 
 
 1849-55 
 
 Peace establishment. 
 
 1856-61 
 
 4 4 4 4 
 
 1862... 
 
 Civil War. 
 
 1863-66 
 
 4 4 4 4 
 
 1867... 
 
 Peace establishment. 
 
 1868-69 
 
 4 4 4 4 
 
 1870... 
 
 <4 44 
 
 1871... 
 
 44 44 
 
 1872-74 
 
 4‘ 44 
 
 1875-79 
 
 <4 44 
 
 1898... 
 
 44 44 
 
 1901... 
 
 “ not to exceed. 
 
 *1918... 
 
 44 44 
 
 1922... 
 
 not to exceed. 
 
 840 
 
 5,120 
 
 3,629 
 
 5,144 
 
 3,278 
 
 7,154 
 
 11,831 
 
 9,413 
 
 9,980 
 
 6,184 
 
 7,198 
 
 12,259 
 
 8,613 
 
 17,812 
 
 30,890 
 
 10,320 
 
 12,931 
 
 39,273 
 
 43,332 
 
 54,641 
 
 52,922 
 
 37,313 
 
 35,353 
 
 32,264 
 
 27,489 
 
 63,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 4,800,000 
 
 270,000 
 
 * From 1902 to 1916 the Law of 1901, with slight modifi¬ 
 cations, remained in force. This law, approved Feb. 2, 1901, 
 authorized the President to enlist natives in colonial posses¬ 
 sions, but required that the total enlisted strength of the reg¬ 
 ular army, including natives, should not exceed at anv one 
 time 100,000. 
 
 Although, from time to time during the Ameri¬ 
 can Revolution, suitable persons were appointed 
 to perform staff duties, yet the existing staff de¬ 
 partments date their permanent establishment 
 as follows: adjutant general’s, March 3, 1813; 
 inspector general’s, March 3, 1813; judge advo¬ 
 cate-general’s (Bureau of Military Justice, 
 1864), July 5, 1884; quartermaster’s, March 28, 
 1812; subsistence, April 14, 1818; medical, April 
 14, 1818; pay, April 24, 1816; engineers, March 
 
UNITED STATES FLAGS 
 
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 UNION FLAG AND JACK 
 
 ALSO WORN IN BOWS OF BOATS 
 CARRYING DIPLOMATIC OFFICERS 
 OR NAVAL GOVERNORS OF GUAM 
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 PENNANT REVEN U E MARIN E 
 
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 SECRETARY OF THE NAVY 
 
 ASSIST. SECY. THE SAME, 
 SUBSTITUTING BLUE FOR 
 WHITE ANDWHITEFOR BLUE. 
 
 VI CE-ADMIRAL 
 SENIOR IN RANK 
 
 JUNIORS HAVE RED 
 IN PLACE OF BLUE 
 
 REAR- ADM I RAL 
 JUNIORS IN RANK 
 
 SENIOR IN 
 
 PENNANT 
 
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 COPYRIOHT, 1914 BY OOOO, MEAD It COMPANY 
 

 
 te:e L ARY 
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 UNIVERSITY Of ILLINOIS 
 
 
 
 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 729 
 
 11, 1779, (present corps of) March 3, 1803; ord¬ 
 nance, May 14, 1812; signal (corps), March 3, 
 1863. The Journal of the Continental Congress, 
 Washington’s orders, and the Revised Statutes 
 teem with interesting historical and biographical 
 data relating to these staff departments for 
 which space here is denied. Out of the crude 
 measures of a great crisis has grown a govern¬ 
 mental system which, if not perfect, has through 
 its personnel accomplished wonders. The names 
 of Steuben, Trumbull, Rush, Morgan, Bernard, 
 Townsend, Meigs, Ingalls, Myer, Fry, and Wes¬ 
 ton are those of a few of the men who, in spite 
 of imperfections of organization, of official dry 
 rot, and a false sense of security from perils that 
 at times threaten the most favored nations, were 
 
 IMPORTANT CAMPAIGNS AND EXPEDITIONS 
 
 IN WHICH THE ARMY HAS TAKEN PART 
 
 1790-95 War with Northwestern Indians. 
 
 1794 Whisky Insurrection (Pa.). 
 
 1808 Sabine expedition (La.). 
 
 1811- 13 War with Western Indians. 
 
 1S12. Seminole disturbances (Fla.). 
 
 1812- 15 War with Great Britain. 
 
 1813- 14 Creek Indian War (Ala.). 
 
 1817-18 Seminole War (Fla.). 
 
 1823 Blackfeet Indian campaign. 
 
 1827 Winnebago Indian expedition. 
 
 1832 Black Hawk War. 
 
 1835— 42 Seminole War (Fla.). 
 
 1836- 37 Creek Indian disturbances (Ala.). 
 
 1836-39 Cherokee disturbances. 
 
 1838-39 New York frontier disturbances. 
 
 1846-48 Mexican War. 
 
 1848 Cjfcyuse Indian War (Oreg.). 
 
 1849-61 Navajo Indian troubles (N. Mex.). 
 
 1849-61 Indian disturbances (Tex.). 
 
 1850 Pitt River expedition (Cal.). 
 
 1851-52 Yuma expedition (Cal.). 
 
 1851-56 Snake, Sioux, Yakima, Cheyenne, and Arapahoe 
 Indian War. 
 
 1855-57 Seminole War (Fla.). 
 
 1857 Gila expedition (N. Mex.). 
 
 1857- 58 Utah expedition. 
 
 1858 Puget Sound and other Indian troubles. 
 
 1858- 59 Wichita (Ind. Ter.), Colorado River (Cal.), Pecos 
 
 and Antelope Hills (Tex.), and Bear River 
 (Utah) expeditions. 
 
 1859- 60 Cortina troubles on Texas-Mexican border. 
 
 1860 Iviowa-Comanche (Ind. Ter.) and Carson Valley 
 (Utah) expeditions. 
 
 1860- 61 Navajo expedition (N. Mex.). 
 
 1861- 86 Apache Indian War (Ariz. and N. Mex.). 
 
 1861- 65 Civil War. 
 
 1862- 67 Sioux War (Minn, and Dak.). 
 
 1863- 69 Indian War (Kans., Neb., Colo., and Ind. Ter.). 
 .1865-68 War with Northwestern Indians. 
 
 1865-66 Fenian raid (N. Y. and Canada). 
 
 1867- 81 Campaigns against Indians and Mexican border 
 
 disturbances. 
 
 1868- 69 Canadian River expedition (N. Mex.). 
 
 1871 Yellowstone expedition. 
 
 1872-73 Modoc War. 
 
 1873 Yellowstone expedition. 
 
 1874-75 Indian campaign (Ind. Ter.), Sioux (Wyo. and 
 Neb.), Black Hills (Dak.), and Big Horn 
 (Wyo.) expeditions. 
 
 1875 Expedition against Indians (Nev.). 
 
 1876 Powder River expedition (Wyo.). 
 
 1876-77 Big Horn and Yellowstone expeditions (Wyo. and 
 
 Mont.). 
 
 1876-79 War with Northern Indians. 
 
 1877 Labor strikes (Pa. and Md.). 
 
 1877 Nez Perces campaign. 
 
 1878 Bannock and Piute campaigns (Nev. and Idaho), 
 
 and Ute Indian expedition (Colo.). 
 
 1879-84 Disturbances in Ind. and Okla. Ter., and Lte 
 Indian campaign (Colo, and Utah). 
 
 1885 Chinese mining and labor troubles (Wyo. Ter.). 
 
 1890- 91 Sioux Indian troubles (S. Dak.). 
 
 1891- 93 Garcia troubles (Texas-Mexican border). 
 
 1894 Labor disturbances (Ill.), and labor strikes (Ill. to 
 Pacific coast). 
 
 1898 War with Spain. 
 
 1899-1902 Philippine insurrection. 
 
 1900 China relief expedition. 
 
 1906-09 Cuban pacification. 
 
 1914 Occupation of Vera Cruz. 
 
 1911-16 Mexican border patrol. 
 
 1916 Pursuit of Mexican bandit Villa. 
 
 1917-19 Operations in Europe. 
 
 equal to the emergency of war and achieved great 
 distinction in their several departments. In 
 these staff departments often have been felt the 
 effects of legislation by Congress and schemes for 
 the reorganization of the army. 
 
 Modern Establishment. The war with Spain 
 (1898) called public attention to some of the 
 imperfections of the American military admin¬ 
 istration, and discussion of the shortcomings 
 brought about a plan of organization unprec¬ 
 edented in the history of the army. The Philip¬ 
 pine insurrection, requiring the occupation of 
 the archipelago at one time by a force of 65,000 
 men (regulars and volunteers), became in its 
 turn an object lesson in the formation of a per¬ 
 manent military establishment suited to the new 
 conditions. The regular force of 1897, expanded 
 by Congress the following year to 63,000, was 
 in 1899 reenforced by 35,000 volunteers, excep¬ 
 tionally efficient, as nearly all had seen service 
 in Cuba and the Philippines, and were organized 
 into regiments commanded by selected regular 
 officers. During two years following these 
 troops were incessantly engaged in fighting the 
 Filipinos under the unfavorable conditions of 
 climate, terrain, and the treacherous character 
 of the enemy. Besides the service in the Philip¬ 
 pines, the regular contingent there was drawn 
 upon for the China relief expedition to the extent 
 of 2000 men. 
 
 ENROLLMENT IN VARIOUS WARS 
 
 WAR OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 Continentals. 231,771 
 
 Militia. 164,087 
 
 Total. 395,858 
 
 WAR OF 1S12 
 
 Regulars. . 
 Militia 
 Volunteers 
 Rangers. .. 
 
 38,186 
 
 458,463 
 
 10,110 
 
 3,049 
 
 Total 
 
 509,SOS 
 
 WAR WITH MEXICO 
 
 Regulars. 
 
 Volunteers... 
 
 Total 
 
 26,922 
 
 73,532 
 
 100,454 
 
 CIVIL WAR 
 
 Regulars. . .. 46,669 
 
 Volunteers and Militia.2,637,080 
 
 Total.2,683,749 
 
 WAR WITH SPAIN 
 
 Regulars (June 30, 1898). 6,669 
 
 Volunteers. 232,235 
 
 Total. 277,904 
 
 WAR OF THE NATIONS 
 
 Regulars. 500.000 
 
 National Guard and National Army. 4,300,000 
 
 Total.4,800,000 
 
 On Feb. 2, 1901, Congress authorized a per¬ 
 manent increase of the army (discretionary 
 with the President except artillery) not to ex¬ 
 ceed 100,000 men, including 12,000 native troops 
 for service in Porto Rico and the Philippines. 
 This force consisted of 15 regiments of cavalry, 
 30 of infantry, 3 battalions of engineers, a corps 
 of artillery, and the staff departments. In June 
 of that year all volunteers were mustered out. 
 In July, 1902, the President, in the exercise of the 
 discretion vested in him by law, the United States 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 730 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 having recognized the independence of Cuba and 
 having placed the greater part of the Philippine 
 Islands under civil government, materially re¬ 
 duced the army until the aggregate strength in 
 1907 was 4016 officers and 68,301 men. 
 
 The most radical change in the organization 
 was that of the artillery. For many years nom¬ 
 inally it was regimental, but practically the unit 
 for administration and operation was the bat¬ 
 tery. The system of coast defense lacked co¬ 
 hesion, consisting simply of a number of inde¬ 
 pendent posts commanded by officers who, hav¬ 
 ing reached the rank of field officer after 30 
 or 40 years’ service as light battery commanders 
 in the Civil War or with infantry garrisons in 
 peace were content to rest on their laurels. 
 Under the influence of Secretary of War Root 
 the seven regiments of artillery were merged 
 into a corps, supervised by a chief, with his sta¬ 
 tion at the headquarters of the army, and con¬ 
 sisting of 126 companies of coast artillery and 30 
 batteries of field artillery. The companies were 
 grouped within a number of artillery districts, 
 and each district placed under command of a 
 competent field officer. In 1907 the corps was 
 reorganized into two separate branches of the 
 service, the field artillery being increased and 
 organized as six regiments of two battalions 
 each, each battalion consisting of three batteries 
 of four guns each. 
 
 Another important item in the legislation of 
 1901 was the change from a permanent to a 
 detailed staff. By the law vacancies occurring 
 in the adjutant general’s department, the inspec¬ 
 tor general’s department, the subsistence, pay, 
 and quartermaster departments (later consoli¬ 
 dated as the quartermaster corps, q.v.), the ord¬ 
 nance department, and the signal corps are filled 
 by detailing officers of the line for four years 
 only, after which they return to the line regi¬ 
 ments. The general staff corps was established 
 in 1903, the chief of which, selected by the Presi¬ 
 dent for a term of four years only, replaced the 
 commanding general of the army, who formerly 
 commanded by virtue of his seniority and re¬ 
 tained command until retired from active service. 
 Under the new svstem the President, the com¬ 
 mander in chief of the army and navy, selects 
 the general officer, irrespective of his rank, who 
 in his opinion most satisfactorily can carry out 
 the views of the administration with respect to 
 the army. 
 
 After the creation of the general staff corps in 
 1903 the War College (q.v.) was established at 
 Washington, D. C. For other schools, see Mili¬ 
 tary Education. 
 
 Organization of the Army and. Organized 
 Militia. Under the constitution the President 
 is commander*in chief of the army, the adminis¬ 
 tration of which is in the hands of a civilian 
 Secretary of War, who is a member of the cabi¬ 
 net, and an Assistant Secretary of War, also a 
 civilian. The chief of the general staff, a gen¬ 
 eral officer of the army, selected and appointed 
 by the President for a term of four years, is 
 the military adviser of the President and the 
 Secretary of War and has general supervision 
 over the staff bureaus and the line of the 
 army, exercising authority in the name of the 
 Secretary of War and not by virtue of his rank, 
 which may be inferior to that of other general 
 officers. 
 
 Higher Organization .—For the first time in 
 the history of the army in peace the President, 
 on Feb. 6, 1913, directed that an order be issued 
 
 organizing the troops of the mobile army into 
 permanent tactical divisions and brigades. Al¬ 
 though in 1916 the divisions were incomplete, 
 there were three infantry divisions within the 
 continental limits of the United States, with 
 headquarters as follows: first division, Gover¬ 
 nor's Island, N. Y.; second division, Chicago, Ill.; 
 third division, San Francisco, Cal. One cavalry 
 division was organized with headquarters at San 
 Antonio, Tex. There were also two independent 
 cavalry brigades. The coast artillery troops in 
 the United States were organized into three coast 
 artillery districts—the North Atlantic, the South 
 Atlantic, and the Pacific. The three infantry 
 regiments in Hawaii were organized as the First 
 Hawaiian Brigade. The troops in the Philip¬ 
 pines were not organized as a tactical division. 
 In the Panama Canal Zone was stationed a re¬ 
 enforced brigade. 
 
 The entrance of the United States into the 
 War of the Nations, in April, 1917, brought 
 vast changes in the military policy of the 
 country, and Congress was at once asked by 
 President Wilson to pass measures which would 
 enable the necessary increase in the military 
 forces. The National Guard was mobilized 
 in accordance with the legislation already in 
 effect, and on May 18, 1917, Congress passed 
 the Selective Draft Act which authorized the 
 President immediately to increase the regular 
 army to the full extent provided by the National 
 Defense Act of 1916, and to raise by draft a 
 force of 500,000 men, with the necessary officers 
 and another similar force of equal strength at 
 a later date at his discretion. The draft was 
 made applicable to all male citizens or persons 
 not alien enemies who had declared their in¬ 
 tention to become citizens, between the ages of 
 21 and 30 years, both inclusive. It was pro¬ 
 vided also that the Regular Army and National 
 Guard should be raised to and maintained at 
 their maximum strength by voluntary enlist¬ 
 ment, in so far as might be possible, the draft 
 to be resorted to in these cases also, and the 
 President might decide that the number of vol¬ 
 unteers was insufficient for the purpose. For 
 the details which accompanied the carrying out 
 of these and later measures see the article 
 Army Organization, and Volume XXIV. The 
 army reorganized also to accord in as many re¬ 
 spects as possible with the organization of our 
 European allies. The new organization increased 
 the ratio of artillery and machine gun strength 
 to infantry. In place of the old division of 
 three brigades with three infantry regiments in 
 each, there was a division of two brigades with 
 two infantry regiments in each. The strength 
 of the infantry regiments was increased from 
 about 1,000 men to 3,652 men, with 103 officers. 
 
 From April 6, 1917 to November 11, 1918, 
 about 4,000,000 men served in the army of the 
 United States. About half a million came in 
 through the Regular Army, and about 400,000 
 more through the National Guard. More than 
 three-fourths of all came in through the selec¬ 
 tive service or National Army enlistments. Of 
 every 100 men serving during the war, ten were 
 National Guardsmen, 13 were Regulars, and 
 77 belonged to the National Army, or would 
 have belonged if the services had not been con¬ 
 solidated and distinctions wiped out on August 
 7, 1918. About 200,000 commissioned officers 
 were required for the army. Of this number 
 less than 9000 were in the" Federal service at 
 the beginning of the war. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 731 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 The number of American soldiers who reached 
 France was 2,084,000 and of these 1,390,000 saw 
 active service in the front line. The total 
 number of divisions reaching France was 42, 
 each composed of 28,000 men. Of these 29 took 
 part in active combat service. American troops 
 saw service on practically every part of the 
 western front from British lines in Belgium to 
 inactive sectors in the Vosges. They partici¬ 
 pated in 13 major operations, one of which, the 
 Battle of St. Mihiel, was fought almost entirely 
 with the American army. In this battle 550,00*0 
 Americans were engaged and in the Meuse-Ar- 
 gonne battle, 1,200,000 American troops were 
 engaged. 
 
 The total of the casualties suffered by the 
 American troops in the War of the Nations 
 was 302,612. Of these, 34,248 were killed in 
 action and 23,480 died of wounds, a total of 
 57,688. The wounded numbered 221,050; the 
 missing in action 5 and the prisoners taken 
 by the Germans, 4432. 
 
 The total expenditures directly attributable 
 to the War of the Nations on account of the 
 army was $14,244,061,000. 
 
 The details of the transportation of these 
 armies and of their return to the United States 
 following the war will be found in the articles 
 mentioned above. 
 
 NATIONAL DEFENSE ACT 
 
 Under the Act signed June 3, 1916 a great 
 increase, accompanied by many changes, was 
 authorized. Under this Act, the army of the 
 United States “consists of the Regular Army, 
 the Volunteer Army, the Officers’ Reserve Corps, 
 the Enlisted Reserve Corps, the National Guard 
 while in the service of the United States, 
 and such other forces as are now or may 
 hereafter be authorized by law.” The Regular 
 Army, inclusive of existing organizations, thus 
 consists of 64 regiments of infantry, exclusive 
 of the Porto Rican Regiment; 25 of cavalry; 21 
 of field artillery; a coast artillery corps; of the 
 staff corps and department; of the military 
 academy; and of various other units and sub¬ 
 sidiary organizations. The increases contem¬ 
 plated were to be made in five yearly increments, 
 beginning July 1, 1916. The number of general 
 officers was increased by 4 major and 19 briga¬ 
 dier generals. The general staff, increased to 55, 
 had its functions severely limited by the law. 
 Increases were made in the other staff corps, and 
 to the engineers were given 7 regiments and 2 
 mounted battalions. The medical corps was to 
 consist of 7 officers for every 1000 of enlisted 
 strength. In the signal corps was authorized 
 an aviation section to consist of 148 officers, 114 
 being first lieutenants, selected from the army 
 at large. The coast artillery was increased to 
 about 30,000 men, and the composition of bri¬ 
 gades, divisions, and so forth, was set forth. The 
 infantry regiment was to consist of 5 field and 
 46 subaltern officers, and of one headquarters 
 company, one machine-gun company, and 12 in¬ 
 fantry companies, these to be grouped into 3 
 battalions of 4 companies each. A similar or¬ 
 ganization was provided for the cavalry regi¬ 
 ment, 14 troops, of which 12 were to form 3 
 squadrons of 4 troops each. The number of 
 batteries in a field artillery regiment was not 
 fixed, but the total number in this arm was to 
 be 126, and each regiment was to have such 
 number of gun and howitzer battalions “as the 
 President may direct.” To provide for various 
 Vol. XXII. —47 
 
 details, the line of the army was increased by 
 822 extra officers of infantry, cavalry, field and 
 coast artillery. The composition of the Regu¬ 
 lar Army Reserve was fixed, and conditions of 
 service and pay laid down; a reserve corps of 
 officers was created, not subject to call for serv¬ 
 ice in time of peace, the Medical Reserve Corps 
 abolished, and an Enlisted Reserve Corps created, 
 to furnish men to the engineer, ordnance, medi¬ 
 cal, and other departments of the army. By 
 the provisions of the law relating to the National 
 Guard, the number of enlisted men of this force 
 was ultimately to reach the ratio of not fewer 
 than 800 men for each Senator and Representa¬ 
 tive in Congress, with a period of enlistment of 
 6 years, 3 with the colors and 3 with the re¬ 
 serve. Moreover, an oath of enlistment was pro¬ 
 vided, under which each affiant bound himself to 
 obey the orders of the President and of the 
 Governor of the State, etc. A similar oath, a 
 “federal” oath, was to be required of officers. 
 These and other provisions had for their object 
 the federalization of the National Guard, so as 
 to make of it a Federal as well as a State force. 
 This feature is further emphasized by the admis¬ 
 sion of officers and men to the national payrolls. 
 
 Following the peace with the Central Powers, 
 in 1919, steps were taken as soon as possible to 
 reduce the strength of the military establish¬ 
 ment. The Army of Occupation which formed 
 a part of the Allied garrison of German ter¬ 
 ritory remained at Coblentz until 1921, when 
 the greater part was returned to the United 
 States, leaving only a small nominal garrison 
 of several thousand. 
 
 On June 4, 1920, Congress passed an act 
 amending the so-called National Defense Act of 
 June 3, 1916. This measure practically reor¬ 
 ganized the regular military establishment of 
 the National Guard. It divided the United 
 States for military purposes into corps areas 
 on the basis of military population. Each area 
 has at least one division of the National Guard 
 or organized reserves. There are nine of these 
 corps areas. The act also established an Air 
 Service, a Finance Department, and a Chemical 
 Warfare Service, and it declared that “The 
 organized peace establishment, including the 
 Regular Army, the National Guard, and the 
 organized reserves shall include all of those 
 divisions and other military organizations neces¬ 
 sary to form the basis for a complete and im¬ 
 mediate mobilization for the National defense 
 in the event of a National emergency declared 
 by Congress.” 
 
 A General Staff Corps was organized by this 
 act, which consists of the Chief of Staff, the 
 War Department General Staff, and the Gen¬ 
 eral Staff of the Troops. The office of Assist¬ 
 ant Secretary of War was created with the 
 general duty of supervising the procurement of 
 all military supplies. Provision was also made 
 for an Officers’ Reserve Corps and for training 
 camps under the direction of officers of the 
 Regular Army. The provisions of former laws 
 relating to the National Guard were somewhat 
 altered. The Militia Division of the War De¬ 
 partment became the Militia Bureau, with a 
 chief to be chosen from the National Guard 
 to hold office for four years. He is to be as¬ 
 sisted by as many regular army officers and 
 men as the President deems necessary. In ac¬ 
 cordance with this law, the army of the United 
 States is now composed of three coordinate com¬ 
 ponents; the Regular Army, the National Guard, 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 732 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 and the National Reserves. The act provided for 
 a Regular Army of approximately 280,000 men 
 and 17,700 ollicers. Congress, however, refused 
 to make provision for an army of this size, and 
 in 1922 an Army and Navy Bill carried ap¬ 
 propriations for about 150,000 men. It was 
 necessary, therefore, to reduce the army during 
 that year to this number. 
 
 The actual strength of the military forces of 
 the United States at the beginning of 1922 was 
 as follows: 
 
 
 OFFICERS 
 
 MEN 
 
 Regular Army . 
 
 15,000 
 
 138,000 
 
 National Army. 
 
 6,700 
 
 64,300 
 
 128,500 
 
 Organized Reserves. 
 
 261 
 
 
 The militia numbered about 129,000 enlisted men 
 and about 7000 officers. 
 
 NAVY 
 
 Naval History. The first definite provision 
 for a naval establishment was the Act of Con¬ 
 gress of Oct. 13, 1775, which authorized the 
 building of one vessel of 10 guns and another of 
 14 guns to be equipped as national cruisers. 
 At the same time a law was passed establish¬ 
 ing a marine committee, consisting of John 
 Adams (later replaced by Christopher Gadsden), 
 John Langdon, and Silas Deane. This congres¬ 
 sional committee was later enlarged to 13 and 
 given charge of all matters pertaining to the navy. 
 
 On October 30 two more vessels were author¬ 
 ized, one of 20 and the other of 36 guns; while 
 on December 13 the construction of 13 ships 
 was provided for. On November 10 an Act for 
 the “public defense” authorized the raising of 
 2 battalions of marines and established rules 
 for the “government of the American navy.” 
 The marines authorized were in reality sailors, 
 for the Act provided “that particular care be 
 taken that no persons be appointed to offices, 
 or enlisted into said battalions, but such as 
 are good seamen, or so acquainted with maritime 
 affairs as to be able to serve to advantage by 
 sea when required.” It is probable, therefore, 
 that Congress designed by the Act to provide 
 crews for such vessels as they were able to equip 
 and to enlist and keep the men together until 
 their services could be made available. 
 
 As the vessels authorized to be built could 
 not be completed for some time, a number of 
 merchantmen were purchased and armed. These 
 improvised men-of-war, hastily and poorly 
 equipped and armed and in many cases very 
 badly officered and manned, constituted the first 
 American naval force, of which, by Act of Con¬ 
 gress of Dec. 22, 1775, Esek Hopkins was made 
 commander in chief. 
 
 The vessels of the improvised navy were di¬ 
 rected to cruise along the coast and intercept 
 transports laden with munitions of war for the 
 British army and navy. In March, 1776, in 
 command of a small squadron which included 
 nearly all the vessels as yet in service and con¬ 
 sisted of the Alfred (24 guns), Columbus (20), 
 Cabot (14), Andrea Doria (14), Providence 
 (12), and Wasp (8), Hopkins captured the 
 British naval station at Nassau, Bahamas, ob¬ 
 taining a quantity of military and naval stores, 
 including nearly 100 cannon, which were much 
 needed for the new ships. The prisoners in¬ 
 cluded the Royal Governor of the island. 
 
 On March 23, 1776, letters of marque and 
 
 reprisal were granted against Great Britain, 
 and numerous privateers were fitted out. On 
 June 25 a marine corps (q.v.) was established, 
 consisting of 1 major, 9 captains, 10 first lieu¬ 
 tenants, and 7 second lieutenants. 
 
 After the Declaration of Independence Con¬ 
 gress began the building up of the navy with 
 increased vigor, and on October 3 it ordered 
 another frigate and two cutters, and on No¬ 
 vember 9 an Act was passed authorizing the 
 construction of three 74-gun ships, five more 
 frigates, a sloop-of-war, and a packet; and these 
 were to be supplemented by another frigate and 
 another sloop-of-war ordered in January, 1777. 
 But the plans of Congress were quite beyond 
 the capacity of the Colonies to carry out. One 
 74-gun ship was laid down at Portsmouth, N. H., 
 and completed in 1781—too late to be of serv¬ 
 ice. Her armament was reduced to 56 guns, 
 and during the next year she was presented to 
 the King of France to replace the 74-gun ship 
 Magnifigue, which was lost in Boston harbor. 
 Many of the vessels built never got to sea, and 
 the real work performed by the navy during 
 the Revolution was done by a dozen vessels, 
 most of which were small. 
 
 On Nov. 15, 1776, Congress established the 
 relative rank between officers of the army and 
 navy as follows: admirals to rank with gen¬ 
 erals, vice admirals with lieutenant generals, 
 rear admirals with major generals, commodores 
 with brigadier generals, captains of ships of 40 
 guns and upward with colonels, captains of ships 
 of 20 to 40 guns with lieutenant colonels, cap¬ 
 tains of ships of 10 to 20 guns with majors, 
 lieutenants with captains, and officers of marines 
 with officers holding similar commissions in the 
 land service. Notwithstanding this act, no rank 
 higher than that of captain was created by law 
 until 1862, though the title of admiral (q.v.) 
 was given to John Paul Jones in the official cor¬ 
 respondence of the State Department in 1792, a 
 short time previous to his death. 
 
 From the close of the Revolution until 1795 
 the country was practically without a navy, 
 largely from lack of money to support one. The 
 cause of its reestablishment was the depreda¬ 
 tions of the Barbary pirates. On March 3, 
 1794, President Washington sent a message to 
 Congress communicating the facts in regard to 
 the Algerian outrages, and Congress promptly 
 passed an Act, which was approved on March 27, 
 authorizing the purchase or construction of six 
 frigates. It was provided that no vessel should 
 mount less than 32 guns. An additional provi¬ 
 sion was that all proceedings under the Act 
 should cease in case the Algerian difficulty should 
 be settled. Measures were immediately taken 
 for the construction of the vessels, which con¬ 
 sisted of the Constitution (q.v.), President, and 
 United States of 44 guns, and the Chesapeake 
 (q.v.), Constellation, and Congress of 38. 
 
 In November, 1795, a treaty was signed with 
 the Dey of Algiers, and all work on the vessels 
 was suspended. The President immediately 
 called the attention of Congress to the subject, 
 and an Act was passed without delay ordering 
 the completion and equipment of two of the 44’s 
 and one of the 38’s. The treaty of peace with 
 the Dey of Algiers cost nearly a million dollars, 
 the price of three frigates, and the President, in 
 his annual address to Congress in December, 
 1796, strongly recommended laws for the grad¬ 
 ual increase of the navy. The outrageous pro¬ 
 ceedings of the French cruisers on the United 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 733 
 
 States coast did what no representations of the 
 government could achieve, and in April, 1798, 
 Congress grudgingly authorized the President to 
 build, purchase, or hire 12 vessels, none of which 
 was to exceed 22 guns, and see that they were 
 regularly manned and equipped. This Act was 
 passed on April 27, and on the 30th a regular 
 Navy Department was created separate from the 
 Department of War, of which it had previously 
 formed a part. Benjamin Stoddert of George¬ 
 town, D. C., was the first Secretary and he en¬ 
 tered on his duties in June. On June 11a new 
 marine corps was established, and during the 
 year a number of additional small vessels were 
 authorized. 
 
 The quasi war with France soon terminated 
 with credit to the newly born service; never¬ 
 theless Congress was so opposed to any form of 
 preparedness and so imbued with false ideas of 
 economy that the navy would have been reduced 
 to comparative uselessness had not the Barbary 
 Powers repeated their acts of aggression. The 
 Act of 1801 greatly reduced the personnel, and 
 somewhat more than half the ships were sold. 
 The operations of the Tripolitan War were highly 
 creditable to the navy and greatly raised its 
 esprit du corps and efficiency. Nevertheless it 
 underwent another reduction at the hands of 
 Congress. All but one or two of the larger ves¬ 
 sels were laid up, and the few officers and men 
 retained were mostly employed in small worth¬ 
 less gunboats. Whether President Jefferson or 
 Congress devised the gunboat policy is uncer¬ 
 tain, but both were earnest advocates of it. 
 While this system was being developed the inci¬ 
 dent of the Chesapeake and Leopard occurred 
 and saved the navy from complete demoraliza¬ 
 tion, though the incident itself was discreditable 
 both to the country and to the naval service. 
 Neither the aggressions of England and France 
 and the murder or imprisonment of thousands of 
 American citizens nor the danger of war with 
 Spain could rouse Congress to a sense of duty, 
 to prepare to resist the outrages which were 
 daily growing worse. The whole government 
 seemed to have adopted a policy of hopeful wait¬ 
 ing, the President confining his efforts of re¬ 
 sistance to feeble diplomatic protests ending in 
 the disastrous embargo which inflicted a damage 
 of one hundred millions upon the merchant 
 marine and commerce, while Congress did noth¬ 
 ing except to squander the price of several line- 
 of-battle ships in building 257. gunboats. Fi¬ 
 nally, in January, 1809, a bill* was passed by 
 which the navy was more than quadrupled in 
 personnel and four of the larger vessels put in 
 commission. But still no battleships were or¬ 
 dered until after the brilliant victories of the 
 Constitution and United States had roused popu¬ 
 lar enthusiasm. It was then too late to com¬ 
 plete them before the war closed. Opposed to 
 this pitiful showing, Great Britain had 1060 
 vessels. Notwithstanding this disparity in 
 force, the United States navy achieved world¬ 
 wide renown and won the respect of the coun¬ 
 try. In 1815, shortly after the close of the war, 
 the navy was reenforced by three ships of the 
 line of 74 guns, the Independence, Franklin, and 
 Washington; two frigates of 44 guns, the Guer- 
 riere and Java• and the steam man-of-war 
 Demologos. 
 
 Immediately after the close of the war with 
 Great Britain a squadron under the command 
 of Commodore Decatur was sent to punish the 
 Barbary powers, particularly Algiers, for wanton 
 
 aggressions upon United States commerce during 
 the war, which prevented action being taken at 
 the time. In 00 days after his arrival in the 
 Mediterranean Decatur had captured the prin¬ 
 cipal vessels of the Algerian navy and had forced 
 treaties on Algiers and Tunis which compelled 
 these faithless pirates to a recognition of mari¬ 
 time right. 
 
 In considering the operations of the War of 
 1812 it is interesting to speculate upon what 
 might have occurred had the war lasted another 
 
 year. In 1813 Robert Fulton submitted to Presi¬ 
 dent Madison plans for a sea-going steam bat¬ 
 tery. His plans were accepted, and in March, 
 1814, Congress authorized the building of one or 
 more of such batteries for the defense of the 
 coast. Fulton died in February, 1815 but the 
 Demologos (voice of the people) was completed 
 in the following spring and had successful trials 
 in June. On July 4, 1815, she made a trip to 
 sea and back, steaming 53 miles in 8 hours 
 and 20 minutes. Her length was 156 feet, beam 
 56 feet, depth 20 feet, and she measured 2475 
 tons, or more than a line-of-battle ship and 1000 
 tons more than the Constitution, although her 
 cost ($320,000) was only $17,000 more than the 
 first cost of the latter. Her sides were 5 feet 
 thick and impenetrable to any guns carried by 
 British ships, while her battery consisted of 20 
 guns, which were heavier than any then afloat. 
 A furnace was fitted for heating shot, and there 
 were pumps, for throwing cold or hot water on 
 the enemy’s deck. The propelling apparatus 
 of the Demologos consisted of a single paddle 
 wheel in the centre of the ship, operating in a 
 channel extending the length of the ship below 
 the gun deck and dividing the underwater body 
 into two parts, which were held together by the 
 upper works and transverse frames at the bot¬ 
 tom. Had this vessel got to sea before the con¬ 
 clusion of hostilities and met the warships of 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 734 
 
 the enemy, it is tolerably certain that she would 
 have destroyed the heaviest squadrons with ease 
 and caused a revolution in naval affairs. As it 
 was, however, her powers remained unproved, 
 and the natural conservatism of the naval au¬ 
 thorities, accustomed to the use of sails, caused 
 her to be looked upon as an interesting experi¬ 
 ment of no great practical value. She was there¬ 
 fore tied up alongside the wharf at the Brooklyn 
 Navy Yard and used as a receiving ship. On 
 June 4, 1829, her magazine blew up, killing 24 
 persons and injuring 19. 
 
 The successful performance of the Demologos 
 (or Fulton, as she was afterward called in honor 
 of her designer) led Congress in 1816 to au¬ 
 thorize the construction of another steam bat¬ 
 tery. But the conservative officers at the head 
 of affairs in the navy could not understand the 
 importance of steam-propelled ships, and it was 
 not until 1835 that measures were taken to carry 
 out the provisions of the law. In the meantime 
 a number of ships of the line were commenced, 
 10 in all, and some of them took part later in 
 the Mexican War. In 1835 the Secretary of the 
 Navy, acting upon better advice, directed the 
 Board of Commissioners to proceed at once to 
 the construction of a steam man-of-war. In 
 1837 it (the Fulton) was completed and tried, a 
 speed of 12 knots being realized. The propelling 
 power consisted of side paddle wheels and engines 
 on the upper deck. Several other paddle-wheel 
 vessels were built in the next few years, one of 
 which was the iron steamer Michigan, which is 
 still on the navy list—the first iron vessel in 
 the navy and also the first one afloat on the 
 Lakes. In 1842-43 the screw steamer Princeton 
 (of about 1000 tons) was built and fitted with 
 machinery designed by John Ericsson. She was 
 the first war vessel in any navy to be fitted with 
 screw propulsion, and likewise the first to have 
 all her machinery and boilers below the water 
 line and to have blowing fans for forcing the 
 draft under the boilers. A congressional com¬ 
 mittee, after considering the advantages of the 
 submerged propeller and iron hulls recommended 
 in 1846 that 13 screw steamers of iron be imme¬ 
 diately constructed. When authority for the 
 construction of four war steamers was granted 
 in the following year, a board of prominent naval 
 officers recommended that three of the four 
 should have paddle wheels. The fourth was the 
 San Jacinto, and it as well as the others was 
 built of wood. In 1854 Congress ordered the 
 building of “six first-class steam frigates to be 
 provided with screw propellers.” These vessels 
 were the celebrated ships of the Merrimac, Nia¬ 
 gara, and Wabash class. They were of fine 
 model for their day and should have had good 
 speed, but instead of having full steam and 
 auxiliary sail power they had full sail power 
 and only auxiliary engines. They were followed, 
 however, in 1857 by the steam frigates of the 
 Hartford class, in which the engine power was 
 relatively considerably increased. 
 
 The operations of the navy in the Civil War 
 soon showed the true importance of steam and 
 the uselessness, or worse than uselessness, of 
 sails. Even after the close of the war the 
 practice of giving full sail power to cruising 
 men-of-war was continued from mistaken ideas 
 of economy, though during the war the rigged 
 ships had been generally stripped of yards 
 and upper masts. The practice died hard, and 
 it was not until 1887 that a full-sail rig was 
 abandoned for cruising vessels. The ill-fated 
 
 Maine was the last ship for general service to 
 be designed to carry a heavy square rig, but this 
 was changed to military masts before her 
 completion. 
 
 The importance of possessing armored vessels 
 was realized as, soon as the Civil War com¬ 
 menced, and on both sides an investigation of 
 the subject of armored ships was begun at once. 
 The Confederates started work first, but the su¬ 
 perior resources of the North enabled the first 
 really armored ships to be completed on practi¬ 
 cally the same day. Both Monitor and Merrimac 
 (Virginia) were fatally defective in details, but 
 many of the defects were corrected in later ves¬ 
 sels of the same types. See Ship, Armored. 
 
 After the close of the Civil War the navy 
 again sank into decadence, the enormous ex¬ 
 penses entailed by the war causing Congress to 
 cut down appropriation in every direction. The 
 personnel of the regular service was increased 
 just after the end of the struggle, but it was 
 cut down later, the last cut being in 1882, just 
 as new construction was about to commence. 
 During the interval 1866-82 only a few vessels 
 were authorized—five monitors of 4000 to 6000 
 tons and about a dozen wooden cruisers, only one 
 of which (the Trenton ) was over 2000 tons. 
 Old vessels were repaired and kept going, but 
 nothing new was attempted, the wooden cruisers 
 mentioned being out of date when put in service. 
 So that, in 1880, the United States navy, with 
 its antiquated ships and no less antiquated ord¬ 
 nance, was the laughingstock of the world and 
 in power below that of several of the small re¬ 
 publics of South America. Finally, in 1881, a 
 board was appointed by the Secretary of the 
 Navy to consider the needs of the service. This 
 board recommended the building of 68 vessels of 
 various types. 
 
 Congress appropriated for two and at its next 
 session increased the number to four, but reduced 
 the size. The first of these Acts was passed 
 Aug. 5, 1882, and in addition to the provision 
 for the two ships made a sweeping cut in the 
 number of officers, which blocked promotion for 
 10 years and subsequently caused endless trouble 
 through the deficiencies in the numbers pro¬ 
 duced by it. Five monitors were started early 
 in the seventies, but work on them had long 
 since ceased when it was revived by the Act of 
 1882 which appropriated $400,000 towards their 
 completion. In the next session $1,000,000 addi¬ 
 tional was appropriated, but the succeeding Con¬ 
 gress withdrew all unexpended balances of this. 
 From this time on each Congress made some ad¬ 
 dition to the navy. In 1886 the Maine and Texas 
 were provided for and in 1890 three battle¬ 
 ships of the Oregon type. In deference to the 
 very general prejudice which existed against the 
 high-sided, broadside battleships of European 
 navies, these ships were given rather low free¬ 
 board and were called coast-line battleships. 
 But the Iowa, which was next built, was frankly 
 described as a seagoing battleship, the unreason¬ 
 ing prejudice in favor of the nearly useless low 
 freeboard monitor having been much modified. 
 
 The war with Spain caused increased attention 
 to be given to naval affairs, not only because the 
 navy had done well, but because the people were 
 beginning to appreciate the importance of a pow¬ 
 erful navy to a country which must be attacked 
 from the sea and reach its enemies through its 
 naval strength. They learned not only this, but 
 that true naval defense lies not in passive pro¬ 
 tection of harbors by forts and harbor-defense 
 
 «/ 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 735 
 
 ships, but in pursuing the enemy’s naval forces 
 at sea and destroying them. The realization of 
 these things caused the navy to be considerably 
 expanded; more heavy battleships, armored cruis¬ 
 ers, and torpedo boats were authorized; and the 
 enlisted force, which had been nearly doubled 
 since 1882, was now greatly increased. In 
 1899, for the first time in nearly 20 years, Con¬ 
 gress passed legislation of importance concern¬ 
 ing the officers. Nearly all corps were slightly 
 increased, and the line and engineer corps were 
 combined. This was practicable, as nearly all 
 officers of both corps had been educated at the 
 Naval Academy, and, while the line officers had 
 received considerable instruction in steam engi¬ 
 neering, the engineers had received some training 
 in line officers’ duties. After 17 years of expe¬ 
 rience the amalgamation of the two corps is re¬ 
 garded as highly successful and as adding greatly 
 to the efficiency of the navy. Officers electing to 
 perform special duties are selected for additional 
 courses in their work—ordnance, marine engi¬ 
 neering, electrical engineering, aviation, etc. 
 The senior officers performing duties in these 
 branches are, as far as practicable, selected from 
 those who have been specially educated for the 
 work. 
 
 WAR OF THE NATIONS AND AFTER 
 
 The work of the United States Navy in the 
 War of the Nations was more important and 
 decisive than is generally understood. Without 
 its powerful assistance the submarine could not 
 have been so effectively curbed; American troops 
 could not have been sent to France without 
 great losses, and the food supplies for the Allies 
 might have failed. The American navy fur¬ 
 nished the additional force which made the 
 British blockade and the anti-submarine war 
 a complete success. For more than a year one 
 division of the United States battleship fleet 
 formed part of the British Grand Fleet, and 
 for a shorter period two American divisions 
 were so operating. Their business made it 
 possible for British battleship units to receive 
 the necessary overhaul without reducing the 
 available forces to a point which might give the 
 German fleet opportunity to come out without 
 being destroyed. 
 
 The navy was well prepared for its entrance 
 into the war. Within a month after the dec¬ 
 laration, April 6, 1917, nearly all the larger 
 American destroyers had crossed the Atlantic 
 and were operating in European waters. Patrol 
 boats of all types, mine-layers, and mine¬ 
 sweepers were dispatched as rapidly as they 
 could be equipped and new destroyers were laid 
 down as fast as the building quays could be 
 prepared or cleared for them. More than 250 
 new destroyers were built during 1917-18. From 
 the declaration of war, April 6, 1917, to April 
 6, 1918, 1275 vessels, aggregating 1,055,116 tons 
 were added to the navy through building or pur¬ 
 chase. One of the great exploits of the war 
 was the laying of the mine barrage in the North 
 Sea by American naval vessels. Tbe details of 
 the operations of the navy during the war are 
 to be found in the article Navy and Volume 
 XXIV. 
 
 Following the conclusion of the War of the 
 Nations, there was a desire to cut down the 
 enormous expenses under which the governments 
 were laboring, and as the most direct method of 
 doing this, President Harding invited Great 
 
 Britain, France, Italy, and Japan to meet in 
 conference in Washington to consider, among 
 other questions, that of the limitation of naval 
 armaments. The deliberations and results of this 
 conference are told in Volume XXIV. As re¬ 
 gards the United States Navy, the agreement 
 was reached that it should "be equal to the 
 British navy and superior to the Japanese navy 
 in a ratio of 5-5-3. The United States engaged, 
 under the terms of the agreement, to scrap all 
 new capital ships now under construction and 
 on their way to completion. This included 6 
 battle cruisers and 7 battleships on the ways 
 and building, and two battleships launched. It 
 agreed also to scrap all battleships up to but 
 not including the Delaware and North Dakota. 
 By an amendment, the battleships Colorado and 
 Washington were allowed in place of the Dela¬ 
 ware and North Dakota, which were to be 
 scrapped. It was agreed that no other new 
 capital ships should be constructed during the 
 period of the agreement, except replacement 
 tonnage as provided elsewhere in the argreement. 
 By the terms of this agreement the capital ships 
 of the United States will include the Maryland, 
 the California, Tennessee, Idaho, Mississippi, 
 New Mexico, Arizona, Pennsylvania, Oklahoma, 
 Nevada, Texas, New York, Arkansas, Wyoming, 
 Utah, Florida, Colorado, and Washington, or a 
 total of 18 ships with a tonnage of 525,850. 
 The agreement also provided for the construction 
 of smaller craft, including airplane carriers. 
 
 The Naval Appropriation Act for 1921-22 au¬ 
 thorized a total expenditure of $413,067,039 and 
 fixed the personnel of the navy at 106,000. The 
 effective force of the navy on January 1, 1922 
 consisted of 18 dreadnought battleships of 500,- 
 650 tons; 15 pre-dreadnought battleships of 
 227,740 tons; 12 armored cruisers of 148,715 
 tons; 11 old protective cruisers of 44,087 tons; 
 3 scout cruisers of 3750 tons; 4 gunboats of 
 5170 tons; 278 destroyers of about 300,000 
 tons; a large number of submarines of about 
 80,000 tons. The following table shows the bat¬ 
 tleships and battle cruisers under construction 
 during 1922. 
 
 VESSELS UNDER CONSTRUCTION FOR 
 UNITED STATES NAVY 
 
 Per Cent Complete Nov. 1, 1921 
 
 TYPE AND NAME 
 
 Displacement 
 
 (tons) 
 
 Per cent 
 complete 
 
 Battleships: 
 
 
 
 Colorado. 
 
 32,600 
 
 83.0 
 
 Washington. 
 
 32,600 
 
 69.8 
 
 West Virginia. 
 
 32,600 
 
 64.0 
 
 South Dakota. 
 
 43,200 
 
 35.2 
 
 Indiana. 
 
 43,200 
 
 33.2 
 
 Montana. 
 
 43,200 
 
 27.6 
 
 North Carolina. 
 
 * 43,200 
 
 36.7 
 
 Iowa. 
 
 43,200 
 
 29.9 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 43,200 
 
 10.4 
 
 Battle cruisers: 
 
 
 
 Lexington. 
 
 43,500 
 
 26.7 
 
 Constellation. 
 
 43,500 
 
 15.5 
 
 Saratoga. 
 
 43,500 
 
 29.4 
 
 Ranger. 
 
 43,500 
 
 2.9 
 
 Constitution. 
 
 43,500 
 
 11.7 
 
 United States. 
 
 43,500 
 
 11.1 
 
 The number and tonnage of each class of the 
 less important vessels (built and building) will 
 be found in the table under Navies. 
 
 For additional information, see Merchant 
 Marine; Naval Academy; Naval Aeronau- 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 736 
 
 tics; Naval Reserve; Naval Schools of In¬ 
 struction; Navies; Navy, Department of 
 the; Navy Yard; Pay and Allowances; Ship 
 and Shipping; Ship, Armored. 
 
 Colonies.. The following figures for area and 
 population are based upon the census of 1920 
 and government estimates. 
 
 COLONIES 
 
 Area 
 
 Population 
 
 Hawaii. 
 
 6,449 
 
 115,026 
 
 3,435 
 
 255,912 
 
 Philippine Islands (1918). 
 
 10,314,310 
 
 Porto Rico. 
 
 1,299,809 
 
 Guam (est.). 
 
 210 
 
 13,275 
 
 American Samoa . 
 
 77 
 
 8,056 
 
 Panama Canal Zone (est.). 
 
 527 
 
 22,858 
 
 Virgin Islands (1917). 
 
 132 
 
 26,051 
 
 
 Total for the colonies. 
 
 125,856 
 
 11,805,307 
 
 
 For details on commerce, government, history, 
 etc., see Hawaii; Philippine Islands; Porto 
 Rico; etc. 
 
 population 
 
 The population of the United States has 
 grown from 3,929,214 in 1790 to over 105,000,- 
 000 in 1920. It constitutes over one-half that 
 of the Western Hemisphere and greatly exceeds 
 that of any European country except Russia. 
 The rapidity of the growth of the population is 
 without parallel among civilized nations. In 
 1920 it was over 20 times as great as in 1800. 
 During the same period the population of the 
 United Kingdom and Germany increased about 
 one and one-half times each, while that of 
 France increased by less than half. The growth 
 of the population also has been remarkably 
 steady. Except in the war decade (18G0— 
 70), the increase in each decade since 1790 has 
 been greater than in the decade preceding. 
 
 An examination of the composition and char¬ 
 acteristics of the population by divisions and 
 States in 1920 reveals some interesting figures. 
 In the New England division the total male 
 population is 3,672,591 and the female popu¬ 
 lation 3,729,318; in the Middle Atlantic division 
 the male population is 11,206,445 and the fe¬ 
 male 11,054,699; in the East North Central 
 division the male population is 11,035,041 and 
 the female 10,440,502; in the West North Cen¬ 
 tral division the male population is 6,459,067 
 and the female 6,085,482; in the South Atlantic 
 division the male population is 7,035,843 and 
 the female population 6,945,429; in the East 
 South Central division the male population is 
 4,471,690 and the female 4,421,617; in the West 
 Central division the male population is 5,625,- 
 829 and the female 4,976,395; in the mountain 
 division the male population is 1,789,299 and 
 the female 1,546,802; in the Pacific division the 
 male population is 2,964,626 and the female 
 2,206,245. 
 
 The number of dwellings in the New England 
 division was 1,255,964 with 1,703,812 families; 
 in the Middle Atlantic, 3,566,549 dwellings with 
 5,085,080 families; in the East North Central, 
 4,385,541 dwellings with 5,143,903 families; in 
 the West North Central, 2,716,968 dwellings with 
 2,957,849 families; in the South Atlantic, 2,781,- 
 684 dwellings with 2,991,628 families; in the 
 East South Central, 1,876,167 dwellings with 
 1,967,381 families; in the West South Central, 
 2,110,879 dwellings with 2,242,810 families; in 
 
 the mountain division, 743,775 dwellings with 
 803,853 families; in the Pacific division, 1,268,- 
 677 dwellings with 1,445,350 families. In the 
 entire United States there were 20,697,204 dwell¬ 
 ings with 24,351,676 families. 
 
 The North has, until recent years, grown much 
 more rapidly in population than the South. The 
 more rapid growth of the South in the last dec¬ 
 ade was largely due to the development in the 
 Southwest. The gain in the region east of the 
 Mississippi has been remarkably regular. The 
 percentage of gain west of the Mississippi was 
 formerly enormous, but is rapidly falling to 
 that of the region east of the Mississippi. 
 
 Estimates of the population prior to the first 
 regular census place the figure at 200,000 in 
 1688 and 1,850,000 in 1770. At the time of the 
 first census the population was almost wholly 
 confined to the Atlantic coast region, the five 
 most populous States being Virginia, Pennsyl¬ 
 vania, North Carolina, Massachusetts, and New 
 York, in the order named. The growth of the 
 population has been due in a considerable de¬ 
 gree to the additions by immigration. 
 
 Interstate Migration. In the early period 
 of migration the direction of the movement was 
 determined largely by the opportunities affored 
 by waterways and mountain passes and later 
 by the railroad accommodations. The waterway 
 system of the United States was admirably 
 adapted to aid in the settlement, and the part it 
 played is not easily overemphasized. Not only 
 did many of the early settlers secure transporta¬ 
 tion to their new homes by rivers, but they used 
 the rivers also as avenues of commerce, and 
 new settlements almost universally began along 
 watercourses. In the North the immigrants 
 from New England and New York passed almost 
 wholly through the Mohawk valley, and western 
 New York developed rapidly along the line of 
 the Erie Canal. By this route the Lake region 
 and the Northwest in general were peopled. 
 Farther to the south a large number of settlers 
 found passage west by way of the valley of the 
 Potomac and by the Ohio and its tributaries. 
 The settlements made in the region tributary to 
 the Ohio were first to the south and later to 
 the north of that stream. In the Southeast 
 the Savannah and other rivers in like manner 
 aided in opening up the interior region. The 
 influence of streams in the Mississippi valley 
 was very marked. Through the main stream 
 from the south, and through the Ohio from the 
 east, large numbers of immigrants passed to the 
 centre of the valley and thus were enabled to 
 reach other regions watered by the Mississippi 
 system, until settlements lined the main and 
 tributary streams. The railroads came at an 
 opportune time and made possible and profitable 
 the settlement of regions that would otherwise 
 have remained unsettled for a much longer time. 
 The gold discoveries in California drew large 
 numbers of immigrants in spite of the difficulties 
 of the route, but, generally speaking, the Pacific 
 coast and the Cordilleran region awaited the 
 construction of railroads. The movement of the 
 population in the United States has been in the 
 main westward, following the parallels of lati¬ 
 tude. Almost every newly settled region, how¬ 
 ever, received representatives from all parts of 
 the older settled regions, and there are a few 
 very marked north and south movements. Thus, 
 e. g., southern and central Indiana were filled 
 largely with immigrants from North Carolina, 
 Kentucky, and other Southern States. The early 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 737 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 lead miners and settlers in the adjacent corners 
 of Wisconsin and Illinois on the Mississippi 
 were Southerners. The recently settled Okla¬ 
 homa and Indian Territory received large num¬ 
 bers from both the North and the South. 
 
 Negro Population. See Negro in America. 
 
 Urban Population. Since 1875 there has de¬ 
 
 veloped a marked tendency for the population 
 of the United States to congregate in cities. Bet¬ 
 ter transportation and communication facilities 
 have enabled trade to concentrate in the large 
 centres, and the development of an extensive 
 factory system has also tended in the same di¬ 
 rection. 
 
 POPULATION BY DIVISIONS, STATES, 1850 TO 1920 
 
 STATES 
 
 Land area 
 sq. mi. 
 
 Population 
 
 1850 
 
 Population 
 1890 * 
 
 North Atlantic Division: 
 
 
 
 
 Maine. 
 
 29,895 
 
 583,169 
 
 661,086 
 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 9,031 
 
 317,976 
 
 376,530 
 
 Vermont. 
 
 9,124 
 
 314,120 
 
 332,422 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 8,039 
 
 994,514 
 
 2,238,943 
 
 Rhode Island. 
 
 1,067 
 
 147,545 
 
 345,506 
 
 Connecticut. 
 
 4,820 
 
 370,792 
 
 746,258 
 
 New York. 
 
 47,654 
 
 3,097,394 
 
 5,997,853 
 
 New Jersey. 
 
 7,514 
 
 489,555 
 
 1,444,933 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 44,832 
 
 2,311,786 
 
 5,258,014 
 
 Total North Atlantic Division 
 
 161,976 
 
 8,626,851 
 
 17,401,545 
 
 South Atlantic Division: 
 
 
 
 
 Delaware. 
 
 1,965 
 
 91,532 
 
 168,493 
 
 Maryland. 
 
 9,941 
 
 583,034 
 
 1,042,390 
 
 District of Columbia. 
 
 60 
 
 51,687 
 
 230,392 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 40,262 
 
 1,421,661 
 
 1,655,980 
 
 West Virginia. 
 
 24,022 
 
 . 
 
 762,794 
 
 North Carolina. 
 
 48,740 
 
 869,039 
 
 1,617,947 
 
 South Carolina. 
 
 30,495 
 
 668,507 
 
 1,151,149 
 
 Georgia. 
 
 58,725 
 
 906,185 
 
 1,837,353 
 
 Florida. 
 
 54,861 
 
 87,445 
 
 391,422 
 
 Total South Atlantic Division 
 
 269,071 
 
 4,679,090 
 
 8,857,920 
 
 North Central Division: 
 
 
 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 40,740 
 
 1,980,329 
 
 3,672,316 
 
 Indiana. 
 
 35,885 
 
 988,416 
 
 2,192,404 
 
 Illinois. 
 
 56,002 
 
 851,470 
 
 3,826,351 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 57,480 
 
 397,654 
 
 2,093,889 
 
 Wisconsin. 
 
 55,256 
 
 305,391 
 
 1,686,880 
 
 Minnesota. 
 
 80,858 
 
 6,077 
 
 1,301,826 
 
 Iowa. 
 
 55,586 
 
 192,214 
 
 1,911,896 
 
 Missouri. 
 
 68,727 
 
 682,044 
 
 2,679,184 
 
 ^nrt.h T~)fl.lcnt*R . 
 
 70,183 
 
 
 182,719 
 
 
 76,868 
 
 
 328,808 
 
 NTphrRslca. . 
 
 76,808 
 
 
 1,058,910 
 
 "KVi/nsas . 
 
 81,774 
 
 
 1,427,096 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total North Central Division 
 
 756,167 
 
 5,403,595 
 
 22,362,279 
 
 South Central Division: 
 
 
 
 
 Kentucky. 
 
 40,181 
 
 982,405 
 
 1,858,635 
 
 Tennessee. 
 
 41,687 
 
 1,002,717 
 
 1,767,518 
 
 Alabama. 
 
 51,279 
 
 771,623 
 
 1,513,017 
 
 Mississippi. 
 
 46,362 
 
 606,526 
 
 1,289,600 
 
 Louisiana. 
 
 45,409 
 
 517,762 
 
 1,118,587 
 
 Texas. 
 
 262,398 
 
 212,592 
 
 2,235,523 
 
 Oklahoma. 
 
 3,824 
 
 
 61,834 
 
 Arkansas. 
 
 52,525 
 
 209,897 
 
 1,128,179 
 
 Total South Central Division 
 
 609,255 
 
 4,303,522 
 
 11,153,075 
 
 Western Division: 
 
 
 
 
 Montana. 
 
 145,776 
 
 
 132,159 
 
 Wvomina. 
 
 97,594 
 
 
 60,705 
 
 Colorado . 
 
 103,658 
 
 
 412,198 
 
 New Mexico. 
 
 122,503 
 
 61,547 
 
 153,593 
 
 Arizona. 
 
 113,840 
 
 
 59,620 
 
 Utah. 
 
 82,184 
 
 11,380 
 
 207,905 
 
 Nevada . . 
 
 109,821 
 
 
 45,761 
 
 Idaho . 
 
 83,779 
 
 
 84,385 
 
 Washington. 
 
 66,836 
 
 
 349,390 
 
 Oregon. 
 
 95,607 
 
 13,294 
 
 313,767 
 
 California. 
 
 156,092 
 
 92,597 
 
 1,208,130 
 
 Total Western Division. 
 
 1,177,690 
 
 178,818 
 
 3,027,613 
 
 Total United States (proper). .. 
 
 2,974,159 
 
 23,191,876 
 
 62,802,432 
 
 Alaska... 
 
 586,400 
 
 
 
 Colonies. 
 
 125,671 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Grand total. 
 
 3,690,714 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Population ' 
 1900 t 
 
 694,466 
 
 411,588 
 
 343,641 
 
 2,805,346 
 
 428,556 
 
 908,420 
 
 7,268,894 
 
 1,883,669 
 
 6,302,111 
 
 21,046,695 
 
 184,735 
 
 1,188,044 
 
 278,718 
 
 1,854,184 
 
 958,800 
 
 1,893,810 
 
 1,340,316 
 
 2,216,331 
 
 528,542 
 
 10,443,480 
 
 4,157,545 
 
 2,516,462 
 
 4,821,550 
 
 2,420,982 
 
 2,069,042 
 
 1,751,394 
 
 2,231,853 
 
 3,106,665 
 
 319,146 
 
 401,570 
 
 1,066,300 
 
 1,470,495 
 
 26,333,004 
 
 2,147,174 
 
 2,020,616 
 
 1,828,697 
 
 1,551,270 
 
 1,381,625 
 
 3,048,710 
 
 398,331 
 
 1,311,564 
 
 14,080,047 
 
 243,329 
 
 92,531 
 
 539,700 
 
 195,310 
 
 122,931 
 
 276,749 
 
 42,335 
 
 161,772 
 
 518,103 
 
 413,536 
 
 1,485,053 
 
 4,091,349 
 
 75,994,575 
 
 63,592 
 
 8,757,770 
 
 84,815,937 
 
 Population 
 
 1910 
 
 742,371 
 
 430,572 
 
 355,956 
 
 3,366,416 
 
 542,610 
 
 1,114,756 
 
 9,113,614 
 
 2,537,167 
 
 7,665,111 
 
 25,868,575 
 
 202,322 
 
 1,295,346 
 
 331,069 
 
 2,061,612 
 
 1,221,119 
 
 2,206,287 
 
 1,515,400 
 
 2,609,121 
 
 752,619 
 
 12,194,965 
 
 4,767,121 
 
 2,700,826 
 
 5,638,191 
 
 2,810,173 
 
 2,333,860 
 
 2,075,708 
 
 2,224,771 
 
 3,293,335 
 
 577,056 
 
 583,888 
 
 1,192,214 
 
 1,090,949 
 
 30,288,092 
 
 2,289,905 
 
 2,184,789 
 
 2,138,023 
 
 1,797,114 
 
 1,656,388 
 
 3,896,542 
 
 1,657,155 
 
 1,574,449 
 
 17,194,365 
 
 376,053 
 
 145,965 
 
 799,024 
 
 327,301 
 
 204,354 
 
 373,351 
 
 81,875 
 
 325,594 
 
 1,141,990 
 
 672,765 
 
 2,377,549 
 
 5,983,831 
 
 91,972,266 
 
 64,366 
 
 9,010,447 
 
 101,100,000 t 
 
 Population 
 
 1920 
 
 768,014 
 
 443,083 
 
 352,428 
 
 3,852,356 
 
 604,397 
 
 1,3S0,631 
 
 10,385,227 
 
 3,155,900 
 
 8,720,017 
 
 27,662,053 
 
 223,003 
 
 1,449,631 
 
 437,571 
 
 2,309,187 
 
 1,463,701 
 
 2,559,123 
 
 1,683,724 
 
 2,895,832 
 
 968,470 
 
 13,990,242 
 
 5,759,394 
 
 2,930,390 
 
 6,435,280 
 
 3,668,412 
 
 2,632,067 
 
 2,387,125 
 
 2,404,021 
 
 3,404,055 
 
 646,872 
 
 636,547 
 
 1,296,372 
 
 1,769,257 
 
 33,929,792 
 
 2,416,630 
 
 2,337,8S5 
 
 2,348,174 
 
 1,790,618 
 
 1,798,509 
 
 4,663,228 
 
 2,028,283 
 
 1,752,204 
 
 548,889 
 
 194,402 
 
 939,629 
 
 360,350 
 
 334,162 
 
 449,396 
 
 77,407 
 
 431,866 
 
 1,356,621 
 
 783,389 
 
 3,426,861 
 
 8,902,972 
 
 105,710,620 
 
 55,036 
 
 11,805,307 
 
 117,823,165 
 
 19,135,531 
 
 * 1890 figures include Indians in the Indian Territory, but not those on other reservations, 
 t 1900 figures do not include 91,219 persons in military and naval service, 
 j Figures include about 56,000 persons in military and naval service abroad. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 738 
 
 Table A. 
 
 [The figures for 1920 and 1910 relate to the same individual places but not to the same classification of places, since certain 
 communities passed during the decade from the rural to the urban or from the urban to the rural class and others passed 
 from one urban group to another.] 
 
 CLASS OF PLACES 
 
 Number 
 of places 
 in 1920 
 
 POPULATION 
 
 INCREASE 
 
 1910-1920 
 
 1920 
 
 1910 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 
 United States. 
 
 Territory urban in 1920. 
 
 Places having in 1920 — 
 
 1,000,000 or more. 
 
 500,000 to 1,000,000. 
 
 250,000 to 500,000. 
 
 100,000 to 250,000. 
 
 50,000 to 100,000. 
 
 25,000 to 50,000. 
 
 10,000 to 25,000. 
 
 5,000 to 10,000. 
 
 2,500 to 5,000. 
 
 25,000 or more. 
 
 100,000 or more. 
 
 250,000 or more. 
 
 500,000 or more. 
 
 1,000,000 or more. 
 
 Territory rural in 1920. 
 
 .... 
 
 105,710,620 
 
 91,972,266 
 
 13,738,354 
 
 14.9 
 
 2,787 
 
 54.304,603 
 
 43,193,184 
 
 11,111,419 
 
 25.7 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 43 
 
 76 
 
 143 
 
 459 
 
 721 
 
 1,320 
 
 287 
 
 68 
 
 25 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 10,145,532 
 
 6,223,769 
 
 4,540,838 
 
 6,519,187 
 
 5,265,747 
 
 5,075,041 
 
 6,942,742 
 
 4,997,794 
 
 4,593,953 
 
 37,770,114 
 
 27,429,326 
 
 20,910,139 
 
 16,309,301 
 
 10,145,532 
 
 51,406,017 
 
 8,505,411 
 
 4,664,460 
 
 3,712,128 
 
 5,087,486 
 
 3,999,370 
 
 3,777,417 
 
 5,617,089 
 
 4,051,188 
 
 3,778,635 
 
 29,746,272 
 
 21,969,485 
 
 16,881,999 
 
 13,169,871 
 
 8,505,411 
 
 48,779,082 
 
 1,640,121 
 
 1,559,309 
 
 828,710 
 
 1,431,701 
 
 1,266,377 
 
 1,297,624 
 
 1,325,653 
 
 946,606 
 
 815,318 
 
 8,023,842 
 
 5,459,841 
 
 4,028,140 
 
 3,199,430 
 
 1,640,121 
 
 2,626,935 
 
 19.3 
 
 33.4 
 
 22.3 
 28.1 
 31.7 
 
 34.4 
 
 23.6 
 
 23.4 
 
 21.6 
 
 27.0 
 
 24.9 
 
 23.9 
 
 24.3 
 
 19.3 
 
 5.4 
 
 Table B. 
 
 CLASS OF POPULATION 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 1920 
 
 1910 
 
 1920 
 
 1910 
 
 1900 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 United States 
 
 Total Population .... 
 
 White. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 Indian. 
 
 Chinese... 
 
 Japanese. 
 
 All other. 
 
 Native white, total. 
 
 Native parentage. 
 
 Foreign parentage. 
 
 Mixed parentage. 
 
 Foreign-born white. 
 
 URBAN POPULATION 
 
 Total. 
 
 White. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 Indian, Chinese, Japanese, 
 and all other. 
 
 Native, white, total. 
 
 Native parentage. 
 
 Foreign parentage. 
 
 Mixed parentage. 
 
 Foreign-born white. 
 
 RURAL POPULATION 
 
 Total . 
 
 White. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 Indian, Chinese, Japanese, 
 and all other. 
 
 Native white, total. 
 
 Native parentage. 
 
 Foreign parentage. 
 
 Mixed parentage. 
 
 Foreign-born white. 
 
 105,710,620 
 
 94,820,915 
 
 10,463,131 
 
 244,437 
 
 61,639 
 
 111,010 
 
 9,488 
 
 91,972,266 
 
 81,731,957 
 
 9,827,763 
 
 265,683 
 
 71,531 
 
 72,157 
 
 3,175 
 
 75,994,575 
 
 66,809,196 
 
 8,833,994 
 
 237,196 
 
 89,863 
 
 24,326 
 
 53,900,431 
 
 48,430,655 
 
 5,209,436 
 
 125,068 
 
 53,891 
 
 72,707 
 
 8,674 
 
 51,810,189 
 
 46,390,260 
 
 5,253,695 
 
 119,369 
 
 7,748 
 
 38,303 
 
 814 
 
 47,332,277 
 
 42,178,245 
 
 4,885,881 
 
 135,133 
 
 66,856 
 
 63,070 
 
 3,092 
 
 44,639,989 
 
 39,553,712 
 
 4,941,882 
 
 130,550 
 
 4,675 
 
 9,087 
 
 83 
 
 81,108,161 
 
 58,421,957 
 
 15,694,539 
 
 6,991,665 
 
 13,712,754 
 
 68,386,412 
 
 49,488,575 
 
 12,916,311 
 
 5,981,526 
 
 13,345,545 
 
 56,595,379 
 
 40,949,362 
 
 10,632,280 
 
 5,013,737 
 
 10,213,817 
 
 40,902,333 
 
 29,636,781 
 
 7,810,531 
 
 3,455,021 
 
 7,528,322 
 
 40,205,828 
 
 28,785,176 
 
 7,884,008 
 
 3,536,644 
 
 6,184,432 
 
 34.654,457 
 
 25,229,218 
 
 6,456,793 
 
 2,968,446 
 
 7,523,788 
 
 33,731,955 
 
 24,259,357 
 
 6,459,518 
 
 3,013,080 
 
 5,821,757 
 
 54,304,603 
 
 50,620,084 
 
 3,559,473 
 
 125,046 
 
 40,263,101 
 
 24,556,729 
 
 11,304,886 
 
 4,401,486 
 
 10,356,983 
 
 51,406,017 
 
 44,200,831 
 
 6,903,658 
 
 301,528 
 
 40,845,060 
 
 33,865,228 
 
 4,3S9,653 
 
 2,590,179 
 
 3,355,771 
 
 42,166,120 
 
 39,379,294 
 
 2,684,797 
 
 102,029 
 
 29,846,561 
 
 17,621,230 
 
 8,710,682 
 
 3,514,649 
 
 9,532,733 
 
 49,806,146 
 
 42,352,663 
 
 7,142,966 
 
 310,517 
 
 38,539,851 
 
 31,867,345 
 
 4,205,629 
 
 2,466,877 
 
 3,812,812 
 
 30,380,433 
 
 28,305,409 
 
 2,002,008 
 
 73,016 
 
 21,568,904 
 
 12,152,924 
 
 } 9,415,980 
 
 6,736,505 
 
 45,614,142 
 
 38,503,787 
 
 6,831,986 
 
 278,369 
 
 35,026,475 
 
 28,796,438 
 
 } 6,230,037 
 
 3,477,312 
 
 27,203,312 
 
 25,373,627 
 
 1,737,820 
 
 91,865 
 
 19,813,231 
 12,190,465 
 f 5,507,707 
 (2,115,059 
 5,560,396 
 
 26,697,119 
 
 23,057,028 
 
 3,471,616 
 
 168,475 
 
 21,089,102 
 17,446,316 
 j 2,302,S24 
 ( 1,339,962 
 1,967,926 j 
 
 27,101,291 
 
 25,246,457 
 
 1,821,653 
 
 33,181 
 
 20,449,870 
 
 12,366,264 
 
 5,797,179 
 
 2,286,427 
 
 4,796,587 
 
 24,708,898 
 
 21,143,803 
 
 3,432,042 
 
 133,053 
 
 19,755,958 
 
 16,418,912 
 
 2,086,829 
 
 1,250,217 
 
 1,387,845 
 
 21,262,809 
 
 19,898,950 
 
 1,276,991 
 
 86,868 
 
 14,719,744 
 
 8,778,993 
 
 4,245,342 
 
 1,695.409 
 
 5,179,206 
 
 26,069,468 
 
 22,279,295 
 
 3,608,890 
 
 181,283 
 
 19,934,713 
 
 16,450,225 
 
 2,211,451 
 
 1,273,037 
 
 2,344,582 
 
 20,903,311 
 
 19,480,344 
 
 1,407,806 
 
 . 15,161 
 
 15,126,817 
 
 8,842,237 
 
 4,465,340 
 
 1,819,240 
 
 4,353,527 
 
 23,736,678 
 
 20,073,368 
 
 3,534,076 
 
 129,234 
 
 18,605,138 
 
 15,417,120 
 
 1,994,178 
 
 1,193,840 
 
 1,408,230 
 
 Table C. 
 
 CLASS OF POPULATION AND 
 ITIZENSHIP 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 PER CENT 
 
 DISTRIBUTION 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 1920 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 1920 
 
 1920 
 
 1910 
 
 1920 
 
 1910 
 
 Population 21 years of age and over.. . 
 
 White. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 Indian. 
 
 Chinese. 
 
 Japanese. 
 
 All other. 
 
 Native white. 
 
 Native parentage. 
 
 Foreign parentage. 
 
 Mixed parentage. 
 
 Foreign-born white. 
 
 Naturalized. 
 
 Having first papers. 
 
 Alien. 
 
 Unknown. 
 
 31,403,370 
 
 26,999,151 
 
 29,483,150 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 28,442,400 
 
 2,792,006 
 
 61,229 
 
 46,979 
 
 53,411 
 
 7,345 
 
 21,513,948 
 
 15,805,063 
 
 3,956,384 
 
 1,752,501 
 
 6,928,452 
 
 3,314,910 
 
 1,116,744 
 
 2,138,237 
 
 358,561 
 
 24,357,514 
 
 2,458,873 
 
 62,967 
 
 60,421 
 
 56,638 
 
 2,738 
 
 17,710,697 
 
 13,211,731 
 
 3,215,082 
 
 1,283,884 
 
 6,646,817 
 
 3,034,117 
 
 570,772 
 
 2,266,535 
 
 775,393 
 
 26,671,061 
 
 2,730,469 
 
 55*257 
 
 3,646 
 
 22,316 
 
 401 
 
 21,100,793 
 
 15,202,194 
 
 4,045,947 
 
 1,852,652 
 
 5,570,268 
 
 2,893,787 
 
 77,532 
 
 2,226,672 
 
 372,277 
 
 90.6 
 
 8.9 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.2 
 
 ( x ) 
 
 68.5 
 50.3 
 
 12.6 
 
 5.6 
 
 22.1 
 
 10.6 
 
 3.6 
 
 6.8 
 
 1.1 
 
 90.2 
 
 9.1 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 0) 
 
 65.6 
 
 48.9 
 
 11.9 
 
 4.8 
 
 24.6 
 
 11.2 
 
 2.1 
 
 8.4 
 
 2.9 
 
 90.5 
 
 9.3 
 0.2 
 
 0) 
 
 0.1 
 
 ( x ) 
 
 71.6 
 
 51.6 
 
 13.7 
 
 6.3 
 
 18.9 
 
 9.8 
 
 0.3 
 
 7.6 
 
 1.3 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 739 
 
 Table A on page 738 shows the population of 
 urban classes, and of rural territory, as con¬ 
 stituted in 1920, with the increase in 1920 and 
 1910. 
 
 The following table shows the population of 
 the 20 largest cities in 1920 for the census 
 years 1860, 1900, 1910, and 1920. 
 
 POPULATION 
 
 CITY 
 
 1920 
 
 1910 
 
 1900 
 
 New York. 
 
 7,638,424 
 
 6,401,234 
 
 4,603,784 
 
 Chicago. 
 
 2,701,705 
 
 2,185,283 
 
 1,698,575 
 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 1,823,779 
 
 1,549,008 
 
 1,293,697 
 
 Detroit. 
 
 993,678 
 
 465,766 
 
 285,704 
 
 Cleveland. 
 
 796,841 
 
 560,663 
 
 381,768 
 
 St. Louis. 
 
 772,897 
 
 687,029 
 
 575,238 
 
 Boston. 
 
 748,060 
 
 670,685 
 
 560,892 
 
 Baltimore. 
 
 733,826 
 
 558,485 
 
 508,597 
 
 Pittsburgh. 
 
 588,343 
 
 533,905 
 
 451,512 
 
 Los Angeles. 
 
 576,673 
 
 319,198 
 
 102,479 
 
 Buffalo. 
 
 506,776 
 
 423,715 
 
 352,387 
 
 San Francisco. 
 
 506,676 
 
 416,912 
 
 342,782 
 
 Milwaukee. 
 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
 457,417 
 
 373,857 
 
 285,315 
 
 Newark. 
 
 414,524 
 
 347,469 
 
 246,070 
 
 Cincinnati. 
 
 401,247 
 
 263,591 
 
 325,902 
 
 New Orleans. 
 
 387,219 
 
 339,075 
 
 287,104 
 
 Minneapolis. 
 
 380,582 
 
 301,408 
 
 202,718 
 
 Kansas City. 
 
 324,410 
 
 248,381 
 
 163,752 
 
 Seattle. 
 
 315,312 
 
 237,198 
 
 80,671 
 
 Density. In 1920 there were 35 persons to 
 the square mile in the United States as against 
 about 400 persons in Great Britain, 320 persons 
 in Germany, and 191 in France. The average 
 density of population in United States is low 
 because of the vast uninhabited areas in the 
 Western section. In some sections, such as 
 Massachusetts, or New Jersey, the density com¬ 
 pares favorably with that of western European 
 countries. The number per square mile in 1920 
 was in Rhode Island 566, Massachusetts 479, 
 New Jersey 420, Connecticut 286, New York 218, 
 Pennsylvania 194, Ohio 141, Illinois 116. 
 
 Sex. The population contrasts with that of 
 most European countries in that the males out¬ 
 number the females. The excess is greatly in¬ 
 creased because of the greater number of male 
 than of female immigrants. 
 
 Table B on page 738 shows the color or race, 
 nativity, parentage, and sex, for the United 
 States and urban and rural population, 1920, 
 1910, and 1900. 
 
 Table C on page 738 shows the population 
 21 years of age and over, by sex, class of popu¬ 
 lation, and citizenship for 1920 and 1910. 
 
 Immigration. For a general discussion of 
 immigration and its problems, see Immigration. 
 
 The number of immigrants in 1921 was 284,- 
 780. 
 
 The table in the next column shows the total 
 number of immigrants and emigrants, and the 
 countries from which they came during the 
 year 1921. 
 
 Religion. The Colonial Period .—The reli¬ 
 gious life of the United States has been pro¬ 
 foundly affected by the fact that the period of 
 the early settlement of the continent coincided 
 with the great religious struggles in Europe of 
 the seventeenth century. It was the reform 
 within the Roman Catholic church, following 
 the great Protestant schism, that started the 
 orders of that church on their proselyting cru¬ 
 sades, which from New Spain in the southwest 
 and New France in the north extended into 
 territory now embraced within the United 
 States. The divisions among the Protestants 
 
 themselves resulted in the planting of most of 
 the English Colonies and determined that their 
 future development should be along the line 
 
 IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION IN 1921. 
 
 Countries 
 
 Austria. 
 
 Hungary. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 Bulgaria. 
 
 Czechoslovakia. 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 Finland. 
 
 France, including Corsica. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Greece. 
 
 Italy, including Sicily and Sardinia. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Norway. 
 
 Poland.. 
 
 Portugal, including Cape Verde and 
 
 Azores Islands. 
 
 Rumania. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Turkey in Europe. 
 
 United Kingdom: 
 
 England. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Wales. 
 
 Yugoslavia. 
 
 Other Europe. 
 
 Total Europe. 
 
 China. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 India. 
 
 Turkey in Asia. 
 Other Asia. 
 
 Total Asia. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand 
 
 Pacific Islands, not specified. 
 
 British North America. 
 
 Central America. 
 
 Mexico. 
 
 South America. 
 
 West Indies. 
 
 Other Countries. 
 
 Grand total. 
 
 Immi- 
 
 Emi- 
 
 grant 
 
 grant 
 
 4,472 
 
 535 
 
 5,745 
 
 4,154 
 
 1,521 
 
 1,100 
 
 297 
 
 648 
 
 12,457 
 
 7,475 
 
 2,522 
 
 620 
 
 2,599 
 
 1,074 
 
 4,025 
 
 2,265 
 
 16,017 
 
 4,064 
 
 3,441 
 
 6,973 
 
 40,155 
 
 49,990 
 
 1,799 
 
 780 
 
 4,829 
 
 1,344 
 
 27,969 
 
 32,504 
 
 1,857 
 
 5,706 
 
 9,513 
 
 3,653 
 
 14,422 
 
 5,972 
 
 603 
 
 6,510 
 
 6,321 
 
 1,541 
 
 3,268 
 
 808 
 
 1,602 
 
 195 
 
 13,843 
 
 5,578 
 
 9,261 
 
 1,794 
 
 8,097 
 
 834 
 
 795 
 
 53 
 
 6,031 
 
 9,287 
 
 384 
 
 686 
 
 203,845 
 
 156,143 
 
 3,794 
 
 5,989 
 
 5,608 
 
 4,017 
 
 330 
 
 259 
 
 1,989 
 
 1,644 
 
 744 
 
 76 
 
 12,465 
 
 11,985 
 
 502 
 
 123 
 
 837 
 
 586 
 
 56 
 
 32 
 
 41,760 
 
 4,053 
 
 811 
 
 847 
 
 15,453 
 
 6,007 
 
 2,455 
 
 1,658 
 
 6,571 
 
 4,711 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 284,780 
 
 186,175 
 
 of multiplicity of sects with extreme local 
 independence. Puritanism, within and without 
 the Established church, was the prevailing in¬ 
 fluence among these colonists. In Virginia its in¬ 
 fluence was overthrown soon after the Cavalier 
 immigration of the Cromwellian era. Maryland, 
 settled under Roman Catholic leadership, al¬ 
 ways retained a dominant Puritan element in 
 its population. The same was true of the 
 Carolinas and later of Georgia, although, as 
 in almost all the Southern Colonies, the official 
 class belonged to the Church of England. In 
 New England for more than half a century 
 the Puritans, outside of Rhode Island, consti¬ 
 tuted a veritable theocracy. Those settlers who 
 passed from New England to the other Colonies 
 usually bore with them a modified form of 
 Puritanism, which reappeared in the early 
 Presbyterian development of the Middle Colonies 
 and in the Baptist development farther South. 
 The religious influence of the early Dutch set¬ 
 tlers of New York was never very strong, and 
 before the Colony passed into English control it 
 was known as a most mixed sectarian centre. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 740 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 In New Jersey and Pennsylvania the Quaker 
 element, although early abdicating political 
 control, continued to be the leading social 
 factor. 
 
 Throughout the Colonial period the Congrega¬ 
 tional churches exercised almost undisputed reli¬ 
 gious sway in New England, while members of 
 the Established church nominally did the same 
 for the Southern Colonies. In the Middle Col¬ 
 onies no one sect acquired a hegemony. Here 
 the diversified English sects were quickly joined 
 by Huguenots from France, Palatines, Salz¬ 
 burgers, and Moravians from Germany, Cove¬ 
 nanters from Scotland, and the Scotch-Irish 
 Presbyterians. To a much more limited extent 
 many of these immigrants settled in the Caro- 
 linas and Georgia, but their chief irruption into 
 the South was by the way of the Appalachian 
 highlands. In this early sectarian diversity the 
 Middle Colonies, more than those of any other 
 section, were most typical of the succeeding 
 development of the whole country. During the 
 first century and a quarter of settlement there 
 was naturally little of common religious ex¬ 
 periences in the Colonies. Some conscientious 
 attempts “were made to convert the Indians, of 
 which the most important was the work of the 
 President and Society for the Propagation of 
 the Gospel in New England. The Society for 
 the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 
 a Church of England organization, founded in 
 1701, did an important work in the Middle and 
 Southern Colonies. The most important reli¬ 
 gious experience of the eighteenth century was 
 the Great Awakening, centring about 1740, 
 which profoundly affected all of the Colonies, 
 led to an extension of church building, the found¬ 
 ing of Princeton College as the result of a 
 great Presbyterian development in the Middle 
 Colonies, and the firm establishment of Baptist 
 preeminence in the South. Because of some un¬ 
 wise practices not wholly avoidable, dissensions 
 were introduced among the existing sects, yet 
 the movement as a whole was most beneficial, 
 not merely because it stamped upon American 
 church life a strong evangelistic and missionary 
 character, but because it led the way to the 
 later establishment of full religious toleration. 
 The later part of the Colonial period was char¬ 
 acterized by the rapid development of Pres¬ 
 byterianism, the formal establishment of the 
 Reformed and Lutheran churches among the 
 Germans, and the beginning of Methodism—all 
 within the Middle and Southern Colonies. See 
 Congregationalism. 
 
 The National Period .—The Revolutionary 
 War, although it ushered in an era of complete 
 religious toleration, so far as State and nation 
 were concerned, was not on the whole favorable 
 to the development of the religious life of the 
 newly created States. At the end of the century, 
 when spiritual conditions were at their lowest 
 ebb, the country experienced a second great re¬ 
 vival, which if it lacked some of the fervid 
 manifestations of the first, was much more pro¬ 
 ductive of lasting results. As in the former 
 case there came about a secession of some of the 
 more radical elements from the existing de¬ 
 nominations in the Middle States and the South, 
 and the severance of the Unitarians and Uni- 
 versalists from the Congregational church in 
 New England. Yet in the main the first three 
 decades of the nineteenth century may be termed 
 the era of good feeling in a religious as well as 
 a political sense. It was a period of great 
 
 catholicity among the various denominations, 
 with cooperation in foreign and home missionary 
 work, in educational advancement, and in the 
 work of Bible distribution. This was the period 
 also when the Episcopal and Catholic churches 
 began to develop along American lines and to 
 assume an important position among American 
 denominations; the latter being recruited most 
 largely from foreign immigration, and the 
 former from the other denominations. The 
 great missionary movement towards foreign 
 lands, the home missionary movement along the 
 Western national border, the building of theo¬ 
 logical seminaries, the work among the negroes 
 and Indians, protests against slavery, and the 
 first movements in favor of total abstinence also 
 date from this period. Early in the nineteenth 
 century the connection between church and state 
 in New England was completely severed. 
 
 The next 30 years (1830-60) were character¬ 
 ized by a more intense denominational align¬ 
 ment, showing itself in a withdrawal of the 
 separate churches from organizations for united 
 effort and in the creation of various denomina¬ 
 tional boards to carry on this work; in a new 
 zeal for Church history along sectarian lines; in 
 a general Protestant antipathy to the Roman 
 Catholic church, which even displayed itself in 
 the political world (see Know-Nothing), and 
 in the division of some of the great denomina¬ 
 tions along sectional lines, especially over the 
 great slavery question. The religious element 
 was especially helpful on both sides during the 
 Civil War and was much in evidence in the 
 organization of associations for the care of 
 soldiers at the front and also at the North 
 for the education of the freedmen. 
 
 An important revival just preceding the Civil 
 War had stirred deeply the evangelical senti¬ 
 ment of all the churches, and this was quickened 
 by a succeeding revival between 1870 and 1880. 
 The influence of these movements has been to 
 increase a sincere and hearty cooperation of 
 
 1916 
 
 DENOMINATIONS 
 
 Members 
 
 Minis¬ 
 
 ters 
 
 Churches 
 
 Adventists. 
 
 109,952 
 
 1,463 
 
 1,717 
 
 Baptists.. 
 
 7,232,888 
 
 49,017 
 
 51,805 
 
 Brethren, Dunkers. 
 
 129,162 
 
 3,636 
 
 1,621 
 
 Brethren, Plymouth. 
 
 13,717 
 
 .... 
 
 47 
 
 Christians. 
 
 118,737 
 
 1,213 
 
 1,171 
 
 Christian Union. 
 
 13,692 
 
 211 
 
 193 
 
 Congregationalists. 
 
 791,284 
 
 6,040 
 
 5,744 
 
 Disciples of Christ. 
 
 1,226,028 
 
 5,938 
 
 6,815 
 
 Evangelical bodies. 
 
 138,718 
 
 1,551 
 
 1,752 
 
 Friends. 
 
 92,379 
 
 1,282 
 
 949 
 
 German Evangelical Synod 
 
 339,853 
 
 1,078 
 
 1,267 
 
 Independent Congregations 
 
 54,393 
 
 54 
 
 462 
 
 Jewish Congregations. 
 
 357,135 
 
 721 
 
 874 
 
 Latter-Day Saints. 
 
 462,329 
 
 5,990 
 
 1,287 
 
 Lutheran. 
 
 693,354 
 
 9,111 
 
 13,722 
 
 Mennonites. 
 
 50,372 
 
 1,398 
 
 681 
 
 Methodists. 
 
 7,139,217 
 
 45,806 
 
 61,464 
 
 Moravians. 
 
 26,373 
 
 185 
 
 133 
 
 Pentecostal bodies. 
 
 32,259 
 
 1,179 
 
 750 
 
 Presbyterians. 
 
 2,244,564 
 
 13.602 
 
 15,060 
 
 Protestant Episcopal. 
 
 1,092,821 
 
 5,544 
 
 6,726 
 
 Reformed. 
 
 527,971 
 
 2,213 
 
 2,474 
 
 Reformed Episcopal. 
 
 11,050 
 
 88 
 
 74 
 
 Roman Catholic. 
 
 15,721,815 
 
 20,287 
 
 15,120 
 
 Salvationists. 
 
 35,954 
 
 2,848 
 
 167 
 
 Scandinavian Evangelical.. 
 
 29,164 
 
 506 
 
 439 
 
 Spiritualists. 
 
 23,197 
 
 520 
 
 78 
 
 United Brethren. 
 
 367,934 
 
 2,319 
 
 3,624 
 
 Unitarians. 
 
 82,515 
 
 531 
 
 399 
 
 Universalists. 
 
 58,566 
 
 561 
 
 620 
 
 all denominations in fundamental religious work. 
 There has been a distinct advance in essential 
 Christian union expressed in the federation of a 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 741 
 
 large number of the Protestant denominations. 
 This tendency lias been much strengthened by 
 such organizations as the Evangelical Associa¬ 
 tion, the Young Men’s Christian Association, 
 and the various young people’s organizations. 
 (See Christian Endeavor; Ep.worth League; 
 Young Men’s Christian Association.) An in¬ 
 teresting feature of the religious development 
 of the last half century has been the growth of 
 certain nonorthodox sects. In addition to the 
 list of denominations foimd in the table on 
 page 740, there are many other religious bodies 
 in the United States. One of the most interest¬ 
 ing of these is the Armenian Church, which 
 was established in 1889 in Massachusetts, by an 
 Armenian priest who was sent to minister to 
 a few hundred Armenians. The rapid influx 
 of the Armenians following the atrocities in 
 Asia Minor, led to a large increase among the 
 members of this race in the United States, and 
 the denomination grew in numbers and strength. 
 In 1016 there were 27,450 communicants and 
 34 organizations. All these organizations used 
 the Armenian language only. The priests num¬ 
 bered 17. The doctrinal system of the Armenian 
 Church is founded on the Nicene creed, without 
 the addition made by the Western Church in 
 regard to the Procession of the Holy Ghost 
 from the Son as well as from the Father. Among 
 the other smaller denominations are the Bahais, 
 a Persian cult, founded in 1844 in Shiraz, by 
 Ali Mohammed, who declared himself to be the 
 bab or forerunner of the Promised Divine One. 
 There were in 1916 2,844 members of this sect, 
 with 57 organizations. Other denominations 
 are the Christadelphians, with 2,922 members 
 and 142 organizations; and the Christian and 
 Missionary Alliance, with about 10,000 members; 
 the Pillar of Fire, formerly the Pentecostal 
 Union Church with 1,129 members and 21 or¬ 
 ganizations; the Hutterian Brethren, formerly 
 Bruderhof Mennonite Church, with about 1,000 
 members and 17 organizations; the Non-Secta¬ 
 rian Churches of Bible Faith, with 2,753 mem¬ 
 bers and 58 organizations; the Pentecostal 
 Church of the Nazarene, with 32,259 members 
 and 866 organizations; and the Pentecostal 
 Holiness Church, with 5,353 members and 192 
 organizations. See Christian Science; Mor¬ 
 mons; New Thought. 
 
 Owing to the fact that church and state are 
 entirely distinct in the United States, it is 
 difficult to obtain accurate information con¬ 
 cerning religious statistics. The only figures 
 available are those derived from the annuals 
 and yearbooks published by the several de¬ 
 nominations. The table on page 740 presents 
 figures for the principal denominations from the 
 religious census taken in 1916 by the United 
 States Bureau of the Census. 
 
 Education. This subject will be found fully 
 under the following titles: Common Schools; 
 Curriculum ; Education ; Grammar Schools ; 
 Kindergarten; Manual Training; National 
 Education, Systems of; Normal Schools; 
 Parochial Schools; Pedagogy; Physical 
 Education ; Public Schools ; Schools, Med¬ 
 ical Inspection of; Teachers’ Pensions; 
 Teachers’ Salaries ; Evening Schools ; Vaca¬ 
 tion Schools ; High Schools ; Elective 
 Courses and Studies; Colleges, American; 
 University; University Extension; Voca¬ 
 tional Education; Education, Commercial; 
 Technical Education; Legal Education; 
 Medical Education ; Mental Defectives ; 
 
 Blind, Education of the; Deaf-Mute, Meth¬ 
 ods of Instruction ; Negro Education; Educa¬ 
 tion, Commissioner of; Education Associa¬ 
 tion, National; Education, Colonial. 
 
 The school census was ta'ken by the census 
 of January 1, 1920. The total population 
 
 of persons 5 to 20 years of age inclusive, 
 the school age in the United States, was 33,- 
 250,870. Of this number 21,373,976 had attended 
 school at some time between December 1, 1919 
 and January 1, 1920. This was an increase of 
 5.1 per cent since 1910. The total population 
 between 7 and 13 years of age numbered 15,- 
 306,793. Of these 90.6 per cent or 13,869,010 
 children were attending school. This was an 
 increase of 4.5 per cent over the corresponding 
 figures for 1910. Among the individual States, 
 the largest proportion attending school in the 
 5 to 20 age group is shown by Utah with 73 
 per cent and the smallest by Louisiana with 
 53 per cent. For the 7 to 13 age group the 
 largest proportion of school attendance, 96.1 
 per cent, is that for Massachusetts, and the 
 smallest, 75.9, for Louisiana. Seven States show 
 a percentage of 95 per cent or more. These 
 are Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Ohio, Iowa, 
 Delaware, Idaho and Utah. The New England 
 division with 95.3 per cent ranks first; while 
 the West South Central with 82.5 per cent 
 ranks lowest. 
 
 The total attendance of universities and col¬ 
 leges in 1918 was 290,106. Of these 178,060 
 were in private colleges and 112,046 in , public 
 or State colleges. The registration for the years 
 following the war, especially in 1921-2, greatly 
 exceeded that of any other previous year. In 
 the professional schools there were enrolled in 
 1918, 48,653 pupils and in the normal schools, 
 138,074. In business schools, both day and 
 night, were enrolled 289,579 pupils, and in the 
 Government Indian schools, 28,521. The total 
 enrollment for all schools in the United States 
 in 1918 was 24,027,199. The total number of 
 teachers employed was 769,763, including 153,- 
 641 men and 616,122 women. The estimated 
 value of all school property was $1,983,508,818. 
 Of this $1,258,933,000 were for city school 
 property and $724,575,818 for rural school prop¬ 
 erty. In all elementary and secondary schools 
 the average annual salary for teachers was 
 $635. The Federal Board of Vocational Educa¬ 
 tion cooperated with the States in the vocational 
 training of 305,224 pupils, from July 1, 1920 to 
 June 30, 1921. The pupils were divided among 
 the different occupations as follows: agriculture, 
 42,709; trade or industry, 83,532; home econom¬ 
 ics, 63,806; and part time general continuation 
 schools, 115,177. 
 
 Charities. The national government has no 
 department coneerned directly with charities, 
 their control being in the hands of the State 
 and municipal governments. Many private or¬ 
 ganizations and societies are also interested in 
 the subject. See under the several State articles; 
 also Charities; Pauperism; Charities and 
 Correction, The National Conference of; Char¬ 
 ity Organization Society; etc. 
 
 history 
 
 Colonial Period. The territory included 
 within the United States of America was origi¬ 
 nally occupied solely by numerous tribes of In¬ 
 dians. The northeast coast was probably vis- 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 742 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 ited about the year 1000 a.d. and subsequently 
 by the Northmen (see Vinland), and other 
 navigators may in the following five centuries 
 have sighted parts of the coast; but the existence 
 of the American continent was unknown to the 
 world at large until after Columbus’ discovery 
 in 1492. In 1497 John Cabot reached the coast 
 of America, probably in the neighborhood of 
 Cape Breton. The Portuguese Cortereal explored 
 the coast southward from the Gulf of St. Law¬ 
 rence in 1500-01, and probably from as early 
 a date as 1504 fishermen from Normandy and 
 Brittany frequented the shores of Newfoundland. 
 In 1513 Juan Ponce de Ledn explored a portion 
 of Florida in a romantic search for the fountain 
 of youth; and in 1520 some Spanish vessels from 
 Santo Domingo were driven upon the coast of 
 Carolina. During the following year, through 
 the conquests of Cortes (q.v.) and his followers, 
 Mexico, including the territory later known as 
 Texas, New Mexico, and California, became a 
 province of Spain. In the same decade Ver- 
 razano explored the coast between North Caro¬ 
 lina and Newfoundland and Narvaez made his 
 disastrous expedition to Florida. Ferdinand de 
 Soto in 1539-42 led a Spanish expedition from 
 the coast of Florida westward, discovering the 
 Mississippi River early in 1541. Simultaneously 
 with this expedition Coronado’s men explored a 
 great part of what is now southwest United 
 States. A Spanish settlement was made at St. 
 Augustine, Fla., in 1565, and in 1585 Sir Walter 
 Raleigh (q.v.) sent out a Colony which settled 
 on Roanoke Island. None of the settlements 
 attempted during the sixteenth century, how¬ 
 ever, except St. Augustine, had any permanence; 
 and it was not until the seventeenth century 
 that the Europeans, and especially the English, 
 devoted their enterprises to colonization rather 
 than to exploration. King James in 1606 granted 
 a charter to two joint-stock companies, the Lon¬ 
 don Company (q.v.) and the Plymouth Company 
 (q.v.). The London Company in 1607 founded 
 Jamestown, Va., the first permanent English 
 settlement within the limits of the present 
 United States. Here in 1619 a representative 
 assembly was called, the first in the New World. 
 In 1607, also, the Plymouth Company sent out 
 an expedition to the Kennebec, where the settlers 
 experienced a severe winter, and in 1608 aban¬ 
 doned the undertaking. In 1620 a body of Puri¬ 
 tan Separatists who had secured a grant from 
 the London Company landed by mistake farther 
 northward and settled Plymouth. Between these 
 two Colonies the Dutch had already established 
 themselves (1613) at New Amsterdam. Quebec 
 was settled in 1608, and a large part of the 
 country on the Great Lakes and on the Missis¬ 
 sippi was explored by Nicolet (1634), by Mar¬ 
 quette and Joliet (1673), and by La Salle 
 (1682), and settlements were early made by the 
 French at the outposts of Kaskaskia and Arkan¬ 
 sas Post and at Mobile and Vincennes. Thus 
 the beginnings were made of two distinct move¬ 
 ments of the incoming population, in the course 
 of one of which the English were to occupy 
 practically the entire Atlantic seaboard of the 
 present United States, excluding Florida, while 
 in the course of the other the French were to 
 establish themselves at strategic points on the 
 two great waterways. The colonizing work of 
 the French was such as to make conspicuous the 
 trading post, the military element, and the 
 bureaucratic class, and to minimize the features 
 of public development, of local political life, and 
 
 of permanence in method and purpose. The 
 English, on the other hand, brought with them 
 their school, their church, and their political 
 forms, and founded Colonies on lines which were 
 adhered to throughout their later development. 
 (The early history of the various Colonies, the 
 union of which formed the United States, will 
 be found under the heads of the different States.) 
 In some of the Colonies representative govern¬ 
 ments were maintained, in which all officers, 
 both executive and judicial, as well as the entire 
 Legislature, were chosen by the people. On the 
 other hand, in the royal provinces, such as Vir¬ 
 ginia and New York, the chief judicial and ex¬ 
 ecutive officers, as well as members of the upper 
 branch of the Legislature, were appointees of 
 the crown, the general population sharing in the 
 provincial government only through the choice 
 of the members of the Legislature. This dis¬ 
 tribution of privilege characterized also the pro¬ 
 prietary provinces, such as Maryland, in which, 
 however, appointments were made by the pro¬ 
 prietors instead of by the crown. Thus in the 
 royal and proprietary provinces the ultimate 
 authority was outside of the province, while in 
 corporate Colonies all authority apparently was 
 within each province, and there was in the 
 scheme by which these provinces were organized 
 no effective means of subordinating their polit¬ 
 ical actions to the power of the central adminis¬ 
 tration except through the alteration or aboli¬ 
 tion of their charters. 
 
 Originally nearly all the Colonies were pro¬ 
 prietary, and while the crown subsequently 
 sought pretexts for making them all royal prov¬ 
 inces the people in both the proprietary and royal 
 provinces sought to increase their power by 
 gaining control of the public purse through an¬ 
 nual and specific appropriations. 
 
 During the Colonial period there were several 
 instances of the tendency of the Colonies, hav¬ 
 ing very similar institutions and ideals, to act 
 jointly as a confederate body. The first instance 
 of a limited union of Colonies was in 1643, when 
 Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and 
 New Haven formed, under the title of the 
 United Colonies of New England, a confederacy, 
 which existed for nearly 40 years, for mutual 
 defense against the French, Dutch, and Indians. 
 There was also some united action during the 
 early Indian wars, and at the beginning of the 
 French and Indian War (q.v.), in 1754, the 
 Colonies being strongly advised by the Lords of 
 Trade to unite for general defense, a formal 
 plan for a permanent general government of all 
 the English Colonies was drawn up by Benja¬ 
 min Franklin (q.v.) and presented at the Al¬ 
 bany Convention (q.v.) ; but it was rejected by 
 both the Colonies and the crown. 
 
 Although the several Colonies were at no time 
 organically connected, except through the King, 
 the basis for union was early laid in the estab¬ 
 lishment of local governments in which the con¬ 
 trolling principles were similar. There appeared 
 also a substantial identity in forms and in 
 practices of local government. This made it 
 natural that occasionally during the Colonial 
 period there should appear marked tendencies 
 towards union. In some respects, however, dif¬ 
 ferent types of population distinguished the sev¬ 
 eral portions of settled territory, a fact due in 
 some measure to the various classes of people in 
 England from which the immigrants came. Thus 
 during the period between 1620 and 1640 large 
 numbers of dissenters withdrew from England, 
 
The Grant of 1G22 to Gorges & Mason extended inland GO miles, 
 land was called the Province of Maine. 
 
 The .Massachusetts and Connecticut Charters extended from 
 =“ sea to sea.” 
 
 (The Grant to Sir W, Alexander In 1G35 included Pemaquid 
 and Marthas ‘Vineyard, Nantucket and Long Islands; these with 
 New Netherlands constituted the grant to the Duke of York, 1GG4. 
 
 Delaware was embraced in the Maryland grant to Lord 
 "Baltimore, 1632 J annexed to New York, 1GG4, and granted to 
 Penn. 1G82, and known as the Lower Counties. In 1703 it 
 .received, .a .separate.legislature. 
 
 Longitude West front Greenwich 
 
 C. Cod 
 
 tSrdtln -1 
 
 tro&sp IN 
 
 / ( j vJyfniington (Swedes, 1038) 
 JfB<)TH CHARTERS . | 
 
 Swaanendael 
 
 LONDON COMPANY*^ 
 
 (Dutch, 1631) 
 
 The Grant* of 1606 extended loO 
 inland, »i i( J the territory between the 
 38th and 41st parallels was includod in 
 both. 
 
 In 1G09 and 1620 the.40th parallel waa 
 established as the dividing line, the 
 Grants to extend from * * sea to sea” . 
 
 Roanoke I. 
 
 C.Ylutteras 
 
 GRANTS TO THE 
 PLYMOUTH AND 
 XONPON COMPANIES. 
 1G06 and ll>09. 
 
 p 4 90 _ 800 3P0 40 0 
 
 SCALE OF ENGLISH M.ILES. 
 
 7,6’ _ Yo° 
 
 70’ 
 
wz r-'-Affl 
 
 of the 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 743 
 
 and the settlements in the North increased in 
 number and population, the main Colony of 
 Massachusetts Bay being established in 1628- 
 30, and numerous towns in the neighboring dis¬ 
 trict being soon founded, while settlements were 
 made (1635-3G) at Hartford, Wethersfield, and 
 Windsor, the three towns which originally con¬ 
 stituted the Colony of Connecticut, and for the 
 administration of which was adopted in 1639 
 the first written constitution of representative 
 government. In 1G38 the Colony of New Haven 
 was established. In this period also the same 
 body of population extended northward into 
 what became New Hampshire, as well as into 
 the northeastern portion of Massachusetts. On 
 the other hand, a representative of the aristo¬ 
 cratic class founded the Colony of Maryland in 
 1634. During the period of the Commonwealth 
 in England most of the immigrants were drawn 
 from the Cavalier and Royalist classes, which 
 were then out of power, and by this phase of 
 migration Virginia and Maryland especially prof¬ 
 ited. Following the Restoration the increased 
 power of the King in Colonial politics was il¬ 
 lustrated in the grant of the Carolinas to a body 
 of proprietors, and of Pennsylvania to a single 
 proprietor, while in the same period New York, 
 acquired in 1664 by conquest from the Dutch, 
 was organized as a royal province. The admin¬ 
 istration of New Jersey was given over to a 
 body of proprietors, and the various settlements 
 in Rhode Island were organized by charter into 
 a Colony. Throughout this period there was a 
 steady development of uniformity in the pro¬ 
 vincial governments. At the basis of it all lay 
 the principles of a democratic or representative 
 government, which were brought to America by 
 the earliest colonists. A representative and pop¬ 
 ular government was established in Virginia as 
 early as 1619, before the founding of the New 
 England Colonies, in which democratic insti¬ 
 tutions existed in form almost from the outset. 
 Coincident with this growth of uniformity ap¬ 
 peared indications of divergence in theory as to 
 the proper position of the provinces within the 
 province and where no provision was made for 
 English state. On the one hand, in the instances 
 where even the executive was chosen within the 
 the approval of provincial laws by the King, 
 there appeared substantially independent local 
 autonomy, the prevalence of which type would 
 create a thoroughly decentralized system of gov¬ 
 ernment. On the other hand, in the instances 
 where the Governor and all important executive 
 and judicial officers were appointees of the crown, 
 where the Governor’s Council was chosen by the 
 crown, and where all provincial laws were sub¬ 
 ject to the approval of the crown, there was 
 created a strongly centralized form of Imperial 
 government. Both of these types of provincial 
 administration appeared in the Colonial period, 
 although they were irreconcilable, and as one 
 form of government recognized privileges which 
 the colonists would not relinquish and which the 
 home Government would not recognize as rights, 
 and as the other form included powers which 
 the colonists claimed were improperly exercised 
 by the King, it was inevitable that the attempt 
 forcibly to harmonize the two systems should cre¬ 
 ate such friction as to foreshadow revolution. 
 Originally, the Colonies were regarded as within 
 the King’s exclusive jurisdiction, and it was not 
 until the Protectorate and the reign of Charles 
 II that they were considered as organic portions 
 of the Empire, so as to be governed by Parlia¬ 
 
 ment. (See Navigation Laws.) Protests were 
 made against this assumption; Massachusetts 
 and other provinces asserted their rights of 
 self-government and of exemption from parlia¬ 
 mentary control; and it was not until the Eng¬ 
 lish revolution of 1688 that settled and uniform 
 relations with the several Colonies were estab¬ 
 lished, and the increased authority of Parlia¬ 
 ment, both within the realm and in the Colonies, 
 was fully recognized. 
 
 The effect of that revolution made more criti¬ 
 cal the underlying problem of the Colonial situ¬ 
 ation, and gradually made conspicuous the issue 
 whether in the Colonies the legislative authority 
 of Parliament was paramount. On the other 
 hand, the revolution had a beneficent effect upon 
 the Colonies in terminating unrest and friction, 
 which had characterized the administration of 
 the later Stuarts. Even in Virginia the preva¬ 
 lent discontent had been given violent expression 
 in Bacon’s Rebellion (q.v.) in 1676, while in 
 the Northern Colonies the many contests over 
 jurisdiction and rights and the rule established 
 by Andros (q.v.), who had been appointed Gov¬ 
 ernor of the Dominion of New England—com¬ 
 prising all the Colonies between the St. Croix 
 and the Delaware—developed a general disaf¬ 
 fection among the people to the home government 
 and culminated in the seizure of Andros, the 
 overthrow of his administration (1689), and the 
 uprising under Leisler in New York. 
 
 In 1713, by the Treaty of Utrecht, England, 
 which had been importing slaves from Africa 
 into its American and West Indian Colonies, 
 obtained a monopoly of the slave trade to Span¬ 
 ish America for 33 years, and as a result of this 
 arrangement slavery was extended in, and to 
 some extent forced upon, all the American Colo¬ 
 nies. See Slavery. 
 
 During much of the seventeenth and eighteenth 
 centuries there was a general feeling of loyalty 
 towards the mother country. The sons of the 
 more wealthy colonists, especially in the South, 
 were educated in England. English literature 
 was widely read in the Colonies; the Colonies, 
 though distinct and differing in origin and char¬ 
 acter—Puritan in the East, largely Dutch Re¬ 
 formed in New York, Quaker in Pennsylvania, 
 to a considerable extent Roman Catholic in Mary¬ 
 land, Anglican in Virginia, and German and 
 Irish in many of the back settlements—were yet 
 for the most part united by language, blood, and 
 institutions. 
 
 These influences towards harmony with the 
 mother country served to obscure to a consid¬ 
 erable degree the recurrent disputes over char¬ 
 ter rights and trade privileges which continued 
 to prevail in the eighteenth century; and the 
 tendency to union among the several Colonies 
 was strengthened by the outbreak of the French 
 and Indian War (q.v.). This was the last in 
 the series of conflicts (see King William’s War; 
 Queen Anne’s War; King George’s War; also 
 see Canada) which resulted from the respective 
 territorial ambitions in North America of France 
 and Great Britain, and left the latter in undis¬ 
 puted possession of Canada as well as of the 
 territory lying between the Alleghanies and the 
 Mississippi. As a result of the termination of 
 this long-continued struggle with the French, 
 which was followed by the Pontiac conspiracy of 
 1763 (see Pontiac), the Colonies, which 'had 
 naturally borne the brunt of the various con¬ 
 flicts in America, were relieved of much of their 
 dependence upon the home government and were 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 744 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 left freer than they had earlier been .to look 
 after what they conceived to be their rights and 
 interests. On the other hand, the financial ne¬ 
 cessities resulting from that war led to measures 
 by the home government which aroused the 
 colonists, strengthened their feelings of unity 
 among themselves, and lessened their attachment 
 to the English administration. Under such cir¬ 
 cumstances the basis of intercolonial unity gave 
 force to the expressions and acts of the home 
 government, as when in 1761 the enforcement of 
 the Navigation Acts by general search warrants 
 (see Assistance, Writs of) caused strong re¬ 
 sentment against the home government, espe¬ 
 cially in New England, where the Admiralty 
 attempted to enforce the law, many vessels being 
 seized and the Colonial trade with the West 
 Indies being seriously affected. In 1765 the 
 passing of an Act of Parliament (see Stamp 
 Act) for collecting a Colonial revenue by re¬ 
 quiring the use of stamps not only upon many 
 business papers and legal documents, but also 
 upon certain articles of ordinary use, caused 
 general indignation, and led even to riots. Steps 
 were promptly taken to unite against the com¬ 
 mon danger of an extension of the authority of 
 Parliament; the famous Stamp Act Congress, in 
 which nine Colonies were represented, met at 
 New York in September, 1765, and issued a 
 statement of grievances and a declaration of 
 rights. The stamps were destroyed or reshipped 
 to England, and popular societies, called Sons 
 of Liberty (q.v.), were formed in the chief towns. 
 In 1766 the Stamp Act was repealed, to the gen¬ 
 eral relief of the colonists; but the principle 
 of Colonial taxation by Parliament was reaf¬ 
 firmed, and in 1767 duties were levied on glass, 
 paper, printers’ colors, and tea. Merchants in 
 the Colonies attempted retaliation with non¬ 
 importation agreements, and in Boston the dis¬ 
 turbances were such that Governor Gage was 
 furnished with a military force to preserve 
 order and enforce the laws. Thenceforth the 
 relations between the provincial Legislature and 
 the royal Governor were especially strained, and 
 much bitter feeling among the people was caused 
 by the so-called Boston Massacre (q.v.) of 
 March 5, 1770. In 1773 the duties were re¬ 
 pealed, excepting 3d. a pound on tea, when the 
 matter resolved itself into a question of prin¬ 
 ciple, and from North to South the people be¬ 
 came determined that this tax should not be 
 paid. In Boston a crowd, disguised as Indians, 
 threw three cargoes of tea into the harbor 
 (Dec. 16, 1773). As a penalty for such acts, 
 Parliament passed in 1774 a series of punitive 
 statutes, including the so-called Charter Act, by 
 which the popular element in the provincial 
 government of Massachusetts was greatly re¬ 
 duced and by which the former independence and 
 authority of town meetings was strictly limited, 
 and including also the Boston Port Bill (q.v.), 
 by which the city was to be. no longer a port of 
 entry, and the Quebec Act (q.v.). 
 
 The people of Massachusetts, relying upon the 
 theory that their charter partook of the nature 
 of a compact which could be altered or abrogated 
 only by the consent of themselves and of the 
 King, denied the right of Parliament to pass 
 statutes in any way modifying their charter 
 rights, and insisted that the course of the King 
 and Parliament released the colonists from all 
 obligations and reduced them so far as govern¬ 
 ment was concerned, to a “state of nature.” As 
 early as the fall of 1774 the colonists began to 
 
 organize local government on the assumption 
 that administrative relations with England had 
 been terminated and that the authority of the 
 home government had ceased. Under such cir¬ 
 cumstances it was inevitable that the adminis¬ 
 tration should undertake to apply a policy of 
 repression. For further details of Colonial his¬ 
 tory, see, besides the articles already referred 
 to, the articles on the various States. 
 
 War of Independence. It was now deter¬ 
 mined to enforce the authority of Parliament 
 over the Colonies, and a fleet, containing several 
 ships of the line and 10,000 troops, was sent to 
 America. The Colonies, still asserting their loy¬ 
 alty, prepared to resist what they considered the 
 unconstitutional assumptions of the home gov¬ 
 ernment and the unwarranted violations of their 
 rights as English citizens. Volunteers were 
 drilling and depots of provisions and military 
 stores were being formed. The sending of a 
 small force from Boston to seize one of these 
 depots at Concord, Mass., and to capture two 
 of the most prominent provincial leaders, Samuel 
 Adams and John Hancock, who were staying 
 temporarily at Lexington, led to engagements at 
 Lexington and at Concord (see Lexington) and 
 the real beginning of the Revolutionary War, 
 on April 19, 1775. The news of this event 
 promptly brought from 15,000 to 20,000 armed 
 provincials to the vicinity of Boston, to which 
 place the British, then numbering less than 
 4000, were effectually confined. On May 25, 
 1775, reenforcements under Howe, Clinton, and 
 Burgoyne increased the strength of the British 
 army to 10,000 men. Outlying royal forts and 
 arsenals, with their arms and munitions, were 
 taken possession of by the colonists, and on 
 May 10 and May 11 respectively Ticonderoga 
 and Crown Point, the principal Northern forti¬ 
 fications, were surprised by organized forces and 
 their artillery and stores appropriated. A con¬ 
 gress of the Colonies, known as the Continental 
 Congress, had assembled at Philadelphia in Sep¬ 
 tember, 1774, and after appeals to the home 
 government, which proved unavailing, this body 
 resolved to raise and equip an army of 20,000 
 men, and on June 15, 1775, appointed George 
 Washington commander in chief. On June 17 
 Breed’s Hill in Charlestown, near Boston, where 
 a considerable force of Americans had hastilv 
 
 V 
 
 intrenched themselves, was taken by assault by 
 the British troops, but with so heavy a loss that 
 the defeat had for the provincials the moral 
 effect of a victory. (See Bunker Hill, Battle 
 of.) After a winter of great privation, during 
 which they were closely besieged within the 
 only city in their control, the British evacuated 
 Boston March 17, 1776, carrying away in their 
 fleet to Halifax a large number of Loyalists. 
 To forestall an expected attack by Sir Guy 
 Carleton, Governor of Canada, upon Ticonderoga, 
 an American force under Montgomery was sent 
 in August, 1775, to invade Canada by way of 
 Lake Champlain, while in September another 
 American force under Benedict Arnold was sent 
 from Cambridge through the forests of Maine 
 against Quebec. Montgomery captured Chambly, 
 St. Johns, and Montreal, but on Dec. 31, 1775, 
 the Americans were defeated before Quebec, Mont¬ 
 gomery being killed and Arnold wounded. In 
 the summer of 1776 Arnold, being forced to re¬ 
 treat, did so by way of Lake Champlain with 
 masterly skill. 
 
 After the evacuation of Boston the British 
 government put forth a stronger effort to reduce 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 745 
 
 the Colonies to submission. An army consist¬ 
 ing of 55,000 men, of whom 17,000 were Hessian 
 mercenaries, was sent, under the command of 
 Sir William Howe. The Congress, declaring on 
 May 15, 1776, that the royal authority had 
 ceased, recommended to the several Colonies to 
 adopt “such governments as might best conduce 
 to the safety and happiness of the people”; and 
 most of the 13 Colonies soon adopted constitu¬ 
 tions as independent and sovereign States. On 
 June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee (q.v.), of Vir¬ 
 ginia, offered a resolution in Congress, declar¬ 
 ing that “these L T nited Colonies are, and of right 
 ought to be, free and independent States; that 
 they are absolved from all allegiance to the 
 British crown; and that all political connection 
 between them and the state of Great Britain is, 
 and ought to be, totally dissolved.” This reso¬ 
 lution was adopted on July 2 by the votes of 
 12 out of 13 Colonies, the New York delegates, 
 who had not as yet received instructions, being 
 excused from voting. A committee, consisting of 
 Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Frank¬ 
 lin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston, 
 had been appointed, on June 10, to prepare a 
 declaration in accordance with the above reso¬ 
 lution; and the Declaration of Independence 
 (q.v.), written by Jefferson, based upon the 
 equality of men, and asserting that “all govern¬ 
 ment derives its just powers from the consent 
 of the governed,” on July 4, 1776, received the 
 final assent of the delegates of 12 Colonies (the 
 New York delegates still not voting), who thus 
 undertook to dissolve the allegiance of the Colo¬ 
 nies to the British crown and to declare them 
 free and independent States. 
 
 After the evacuation of Boston General Wash¬ 
 ington, with the greater portion of his army, 
 had hastened to New York, which was the centre 
 of hostilities during the following summer. Gen¬ 
 eral Howe, having been joined by his brother, 
 Admiral Lord Howe, and Sir Henry Clinton, 
 defeated the Americans in the battle of Long 
 Island, Aug. 27, 1776 (see Long Island, Battle 
 of), and thus was enabled to compel the evacu¬ 
 ation of New York and secure the possession 
 of its harbor and of the lower Hudson River. 
 In spite of the gallantry of the Americans at 
 the battle of Harlem Heights, the British re¬ 
 tained secure control of the city and then sent 
 a force from Long Island Sound into Westches¬ 
 ter County, where was fought the battle of 
 White Plains (Oct. 28, 1776), after which Wash¬ 
 ington, with the larger part of his army crossed 
 over into New Jersey, leaving, however, a con¬ 
 siderable force in the upper portion of Manhat¬ 
 tan Island. There, on November 16, Fort Wash¬ 
 ington (q.v.) was captured, along with its en¬ 
 tire garrison of about 2600 men. Washington 
 then retreated across New Jersey towards Phila¬ 
 delphia, closely followed by the British, under 
 Cornwallis, into whose hands Newark, New 
 Brunswick, and Princeton successively fell. The 
 British then awaited the freezing of the Dela¬ 
 ware in order to be able to occupy Philadelphia. 
 On Christmas night General Washington crossed 
 in boats amid floating ice, and early on the 
 following morning surprised and captured a Hes¬ 
 sian force at Trenton (q.v.). On Jan. 3, 1777, 
 he won the battle of Princeton (q.v.), and by 
 this victory the waning confidence of the colo¬ 
 nists was to a large extent restored, and the 
 prospects of the American arms materially im¬ 
 proved. The British thereupon retired to New 
 York, where they spent the rest of the winter. 
 
 Li the meantime Silas Deane and Benjamin 
 Franklin had been sent to France to solicit rec¬ 
 ognition and aid, and, although formal recogni¬ 
 tion was delayed, important assistance was pri¬ 
 vately given in money and supplies, and Euro¬ 
 pean volunteers—the Marquis de Lafayette, 
 Baron Steuben, Baron de Kalb, Kosciuszko, and 
 Pulaski—rendered most important services. Ef¬ 
 forts were also made, but without success, to 
 induce the British colonies of Canada and Nova 
 Scotia to unite in the struggle for independence, 
 and diplomatic agents in Europe attempted to 
 secure recognition and material assistance from 
 various Powers. Late in September, 1777, after 
 defeat of the Americans on the lltli at Chadd’s 
 Ford on the Brandywine (see Brandywine, 
 Battle of), the British, who under Howe had 
 come by water from New York to the head of 
 Chesapeake Bay, took possession of Philadelphia; 
 and Washington, after attacking the British 
 unsuccessfully on October 4 at Germantown 
 (q.v.), went into winter quarters early in De¬ 
 cember at Valley Forge (q.v.), where his troops 
 suffered greatly from want of food and clothing. 
 
 In the meanwhile General Burgoyne was lead¬ 
 ing an army of 7000 British and Hessian troops 
 with probably a larger force of Canadians and 
 Indians, from Canada into northern New York, 
 in order to form a junction with the British 
 on the lower Fludson, and thus, by gaining vir¬ 
 tual control of New York, separate New Eng¬ 
 land from the rest of the Confederacy. But 
 there was fatal delay in transmitting instruc¬ 
 tions to Howe to proceed up the Hudson, and 
 St. Leger, who was to proceed from Canada to 
 the Hudson by way of Oswego and the Mohawk 
 valley, being unable to capture Fort Stanwix, 
 withdrew after the battle of Oriskany. (See 
 vSaint Leger ; Fort Stanwix ; Oriskany, Battle 
 of.) Burgoyne’s march was delayed by felled 
 trees and destroyed roads; the defeat of a large 
 force of foragers at Bennington (Aug. 16, 1777) 
 was a severe reverse (see Bennington, Battle 
 of) ; and after the two sharp battles of Saratoga 
 (q.v.)—on September 19 and October 7—he was 
 compelled to capitulate to General Gates, Oct. 
 17, 1777, and England heard with dismay of the 
 loss of an entire army. The Americans took be¬ 
 tween 5000 and 6000 prisoners and much ar¬ 
 tillery. 
 
 This victory was the turning point of the war. 
 Almost equally important with its military re¬ 
 sults was its effect upon international relations, 
 in that it gave to the European Powers the first 
 definite proof of the possibility and even the 
 probability of Colonial success and made it fea¬ 
 sible for France, with a greater degree of pro¬ 
 priety, to recognize formally the new nation, and 
 to enter into a treaty of alliance with the United 
 States on Feb. 6, 1778, a step which largely al¬ 
 tered both the military and political situation 
 and hastened the final success of the Americans. 
 The recognition of the new nation by France 
 prompted Lord North to a policy of reconcilia¬ 
 tion, but his commissioners, though empowered 
 to grant virtually everything for which the colo¬ 
 nists had originally taken up arms, were unable 
 to secure a favorable reception without a prior 
 recognition of the independence of the United 
 States. 
 
 In the summer of 1778 the Americans were 
 strengthened by the presence of a French fleet 
 and of a considerable land force, and after the 
 abandonment of Philadelphia by Sir Henry Clin¬ 
 ton, who had replaced Howe in May, 1778, their 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 746 
 
 opponents in the North were confined to New¬ 
 port and to the region around the city of New 
 York. As Clinton withdrew from Philadelphia 
 and marched across New Jersey towards New 
 York, he was followed by Washington, who 
 gained a qualified success at Monmouth on June 
 28, 1778. (See Monmouth, Battle of.) There¬ 
 after the greater energy on both sides was de¬ 
 voted to the campaign in the South, though it 
 was in 1778-79 that George Rogers Clark (q.v.) 
 achieved the virtual conquest of the Northwest. 
 Savannah was taken (Dec. 29, 1778)' by the 
 British, who in the following two years, under 
 Clinton and Cornwallis, secured control of Geor¬ 
 gia and South Carolina, taking Charleston May 
 12, 1780. In June, 1780, General Gates was 
 placed in command of the Southern Departriient 
 and on August 16 was badly defeated by Corn¬ 
 wallis at Camden (q.v.). Soon afterward, on 
 Sept. 23, 1780, General Benedict Arnold’s trea¬ 
 sonable plot to surrender West Point was frus¬ 
 trated through the capture of Major Andre. 
 The first real reverse of the British forces in the 
 South was that experienced at the hands of the 
 hurriedly gathered backwoodsmen at King’s 
 Mountain (q.v.), Oct. 7, 1780. In the following 
 December General Gates was superseded by Gen¬ 
 eral Greene as commander of the American 
 army in the South, and a more active campaign 
 was thereafter undertaken. At the Cowpens, 
 Jan. 17, 1781, the force of Tarleton, the British 
 cavalry leader, was overwhelmed by the Amer¬ 
 icans under Morgan, while Cornwallis, after a 
 dearly bought victory over Greene at Guilford 
 Court House, March 15, 1781, Avas compelled to 
 retire to Wilmington. Two more important 
 battles, at Hobkirk’s Hill (April 25, 1781) and 
 Eutaw Springs (Sept. 8, 1781), marked the con¬ 
 test for the control of the Southern territory. 
 Finally the army of Cornwallis was confined be¬ 
 tween the York and James rivers, where, with 
 the French controlling the sea, the British com¬ 
 mander was unable to hold out long against 
 the Americans and French under Washington 
 and Rochambeau. His surrender at Yorktown 
 (q.v.) on Oct. 19, 1781, assured the triumph of 
 the American cause. The provisional treaty of 
 peace was signed at Paris in November, 1782, a 
 cessation of hostilities was declared by Wash¬ 
 ington in January, 1783, and on Sept. 3, 1783, 
 the definitive Treaty of Paris was signed. (See 
 Paris, Treaties of. ) This treaty, besides recog¬ 
 nizing the independence of the United States, 
 at that time consisting of the 13 original Colo¬ 
 nies—New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Is¬ 
 land, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Penn¬ 
 sylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North 
 Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia—secured 
 to the country the unorganized territory from the 
 Alleghanies to the Mississippi. On Nov. 25, 
 1783, New York was evacuated by the British. 
 
 The Confederation. The need" of more unity 
 of action having been felt, Articles of Confeder¬ 
 ation, first reported to Congress in July, 1776, 
 had been adopted by that body in November, 
 1777, and by May, 1779, all the States had 
 formally ratified them except Maryland, which 
 refused its assent so long as the various States 
 continued to hold the lands they claimed between 
 the Alleghanies and the Mississippi. Finally 
 New York offered to cede to the general govern¬ 
 ment her claims to such lands, and, it being evi¬ 
 dent that other States would follow her exam¬ 
 ple, Maryland gave her assent to the Articles in 
 1781, and, the necessary unanimous adoption 
 
 having thus been secured, the Articles of Con¬ 
 federation went into effect. The result was the 
 formation of a “league of friendship” only, the 
 general government having no power of coercion 
 and the various States being virtually independ¬ 
 ent. The Articles provided, among other 
 things, that each State was to have only one 
 vote in Congress, that Congress was to be vested 
 with the power of declaring war and peace and 
 of negotiating treaties, that both the general 
 government and the States were to have the 
 power of coining and issuing money, that the 
 various States were to be intrusted with the 
 regulation of commerce and the raising of reve¬ 
 nue, that Congress on appeal was to decide all 
 controversies between States, and that when Con¬ 
 gress was not jn session a “Committee of the 
 States,” appointed by that body, was to manage 
 the general affairs of the Confederation. 
 
 When the war had ended, the States had be¬ 
 come free, but the inefficacy of their form of Fed¬ 
 eral government became more and more appar¬ 
 ent, and the condition of the young Confederacy 
 seemed most discouraging. Its . treasury was 
 empty; it was burdened with a foreign debt of 
 $8,000,000, domestic obligations of $30,000,000, 
 and a paper currency of nearly $90,000,000 which 
 no one would receive. Moreover, the Congress 
 whose predecessor had incurred these various 
 obligations had now no power to provide for 
 discharging them. It could only make recom¬ 
 mendations to the States and urge them to pro¬ 
 vide their share towards the expenses of the gov¬ 
 ernment, and was wholly without power to en¬ 
 force either upon individuals or upon the States 
 a compliance with its requirements, while fur¬ 
 thermore the States were themselves in debt and 
 unwilling to respond to the demands of the Con¬ 
 gress. An amendment to the Articles of Con¬ 
 federation empowering Congress to levy a 5 per 
 cent duty on imported goods was proposed in 
 1782, but was defeated by Rhode Island, which 
 alone of the States withheld its assent. When 
 peace had been restored and the army disbanded, 
 the government of the Confederation was, in the 
 words of Washington, “little more than the 
 shadow without the substance.” Moreover, 
 from its want of power, it soon became despised 
 and neglected by those who should have been its 
 chief supporters, and the ablest men preferred 
 to devote themselves to the politics of their own 
 States. Congress consisted of scarcely more 
 than 20 members, few of whom in its closing 
 years were men of any great influence. The 
 evils of this lack of system were soon made evi¬ 
 dent, when after some difficulty 12 States had 
 assented to a general system of import duties, 
 and the thirteenth, New York, resisted and thus 
 alone was able to defeat a measure which was 
 essential to the credit and security of the whole 
 nation. So, too, articles in the treaty with Eng¬ 
 land were set at naught by the different State 
 governments, laws being passed by the various 
 Legislatures in direct defiance of these articles, 
 while Congress was unable to do more than 
 merely to exhort them to annul these laws and 
 to comply with the treaty. In this state of af¬ 
 fairs thoughtful men began to see that, if the 
 United States were to exist as a nation, there 
 must be a central government with direct power 
 both in internal and external affairs, able to 
 carry on foreign negotiations in the name of the 
 nation, to create statutes operative upon all the 
 citizens of the States, to enforce these statutes, 
 and, if necessary, tc punish those who violated 
 

 
 
 I. 
 
 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 0? ILLINOIS 
 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 them. The first men clearly to perceive and 
 boldly declare this were Alexander Hamilton 
 and James Bowdoin. 
 
 The Constitution. Though Hamilton had 
 been among the most ardent supporters of Amer¬ 
 ican independence, he was not an advocate of 
 the system of government that had been the im¬ 
 mediate result of the war. He wished his coun¬ 
 trymen to secure the advantages of a strong cen¬ 
 tral government, and the model that he had in 
 mind was the English system without the mon¬ 
 archical principle. In 1785 an opportunity oc¬ 
 curred of effecting, or at least of suggesting, a 
 radical change. In that year commissioners 
 were appointed by Virginia and Maryland to 
 settle certain difficulties about the navigation of 
 the Potomac River and Chesapeake Bay. They 
 met at Alexandria and at Mount Vernon, Wash¬ 
 ington’s home, where a plan was proposed for 
 settling commercial duties, and this led to the 
 proposal, made by the Assembly of Virginia, for 
 a general conference of commissioners from all 
 the States to consider the matter of regulating 
 trade. Hamilton, seeing that this conference 
 might be made the instrument of more fundamen¬ 
 tal changes, persuaded New York to send com¬ 
 missioners, himself among them; and in 1786 
 commissioners from five States met at Annapolis, 
 Md. (See Annapolis Convention.) Hamilton 
 laid before them a report, giving reasons for 
 calling a convention of delegates from all the 
 States to consider the reorganization of the na¬ 
 tional government. Such a proposal was adopted 
 by the conference and submitted to Congress, by 
 which it was indorsed, with the recommendation 
 that each State should send delegates to a Na¬ 
 tional Constitutional Convention. The sugges¬ 
 tion was generally adopted, and the convention 
 met at Philadelphia May 25, 1787. Washington 
 was chosen President of the body, which proceeded 
 to create an entirely new scheme of government 
 rather than to revise the existing plan as had 
 been originally intended. 
 
 The two paramount questions at issue were 
 the powers of the Federal government and of the 
 individual States and the system by which the 
 States were to be represented in the Federal Leg¬ 
 islature. Two tentative plans were laid before 
 the convention—one by Edmund Randolph, of 
 Virginia, the other by William Paterson, of New 
 Jersey. The Virginia Plan, as the former was 
 commonly called, provided that in each branch of 
 the national Legislature representation should be 
 according to population, while the New Jersey 
 Plan provided for equal representation of the 
 States in each branch. The practical question at 
 issue was settled by the so-called Connecticut 
 Compromise, according to which in one branch 
 of the national Legislature representation of the 
 States should be according to population, while 
 in the other branch it should be equal. Other 
 compromises were .also necessary in the conven¬ 
 tion, as a result of which Congress was to be 
 given control over commerce, three-fifths of the 
 slaves were to be counted in estimating the popu¬ 
 lation of a State with reference to its represen¬ 
 tation in the House of Representatives, and the 
 various States were given power to admit im¬ 
 ported slaves for 20 years. The frame of govern¬ 
 ment drawn up, with later amendments, has con¬ 
 tinued as the Constitution of the United States 
 to the present day. See Constitution. 
 
 The difficulties incident to the ratification of 
 the proposed Constitution were enormous. The 
 old Congress was still in existence as the na- 
 
 Vol. XXII.—48 
 
 747 
 
 tional government, but it was in even lower 
 repute and of less influence than it had been 
 earlier in the decade, and it confessedly had 
 neither the authority nor the power to take 
 effective steps for the establishment of the new 
 form of government. The convention accordingly 
 determined to report its proceedings to the old 
 Congress, which body was to submit the Consti¬ 
 tution to each State for acceptance or rejection, 
 the people of each State expressing themselves 
 through a convention called for the purpose. All 
 questions at issue were now revived in the vigor¬ 
 ous and protracted discussions and contests which 
 took place in several of these conventions. Two 
 bitterly opposing parties arose, the Federalists 
 (q.v.) and the Anti-Federalists, the former fav¬ 
 oring the Constitution and the latter rejecting 
 it. Some of the States ratified the Constitution 
 promptly; but in others, especially Massachu¬ 
 setts, Virginia, and New York, the opposition was 
 strongly developed and it was only after a pro¬ 
 tracted struggle that the opposition of such men 
 as Patrick Henry in Virginia, and of Melancthon 
 Smith and Yates in New York, was overcome. 
 To this end the chief single contribution was 
 made by the influence of the Federalist (q.v.), 
 the series of essays produced by Hamilton, Mad¬ 
 ison, and Jay, in explanation and justification 
 of the convention’s work. Finally, on June 21, 
 1788, the ninth State, New Hampshire, ratified 
 the Constitution, and, according to the terms 
 of the instrument itself, by that event it went 
 into force. The two important States of Vir¬ 
 ginia and New York followed with their approval 
 on June 25 and July 26 respectively, leaving 
 only North Carolina 'and Rhode Island in the 
 anomalous position of not being members of the 
 new nation which claimed jurisdiction over their 
 territory. 
 
 During the whole period of the Confederation 
 Congress had enacted only one piece of legislation 
 of extraordinary and enduring importance—the 
 Ordinance of 1787 for the government of the 
 Northwest Territory. (See Northwest Terri¬ 
 tory.) After the ratification of the Constitu¬ 
 tion by the requisite number of States, the old 
 Congress arranged a plan for carrying the new 
 government into operation. The first Wednesday 
 of January, 1789, was selected for the choice of 
 electors for President and Vice President, the 
 first Wednesday in February for the voting of 
 the electors, and the first Wednesday in March 
 as the date of the inauguration. The 69 electors 
 who met in February all voted for George Wash¬ 
 ington, who was accordingly chosen President. 
 The next highest number of electoral votes cast 
 was 34, which were given to John Adams, who 
 was thus elected Vice President in accordance 
 with the method then prescribed by the Constitu¬ 
 tion. Owing to delays, however, the actual in¬ 
 auguration of the new government did not take 
 place until April 30, 1789. 
 
 I and II. Washington’s Administration.* 
 
 * Cabinets. — Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson, Vir¬ 
 ginia, Sept. 26, 1789; Edmund Randolph, Virginia, Jan. 2, 
 1794; Timothy Pickering, Pennsylvania, Dec. 10, 1795. Sec¬ 
 retary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton, New York, Sept. 
 11, 1789; Oliver Wolcott, Connecticut, Feb. 2, 1795. Secre¬ 
 tary of War, Henry Knox, Massachusetts, Sept. 12, 1789; 
 Timothy Pickering, Pennsylvania, Jan. 2, 1795; James Mo- 
 Henrv, Maryland, Jan. 27. 1796. Attorney-General, Edmund 
 Randolph, Virginia, Sept. 26, 1789; William Bradford, Penn¬ 
 sylvania, Jan. 27, 1794; Charles Lee, Virginia, Dec. 10, 1795. 
 Postmaster-General (the Postmaster-General was not regu¬ 
 larly a member of the cabinet until 1829), Samuel Osgood 
 Massachusetts, Sept. 26, 1789; Timothy Pickering, Pennsyl¬ 
 vania, Ai^. 12, 1791; Joseph Habersham, Georgia, Feb. 25, 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 748 
 
 (1789-97.) George Washington was sworn into 
 office on April 30, 1789, at New York, where the 
 newly elected Congress, the first under the Con¬ 
 stitution, had assembled earlier in the month. 
 The House of Representatives elected Frederick 
 A. Muhlenberg, of Pennsylvania, as the first 
 Speaker. The First Congress witnessed a grad¬ 
 ual formation of two political groups, opposing 
 each other on questions of centralization and 
 decentralization, those favoring a liberal inter¬ 
 pretation of the powers of the Federal govern¬ 
 ment being known as Federalists, and those 
 favoring a very strict interpretation and limita¬ 
 tion of these powers soon styling themselves 
 Democratic-Republicans or simply Republicans. 
 The latter was made up in great part of the 
 Anti-Federalists of 1787-88, but also came to 
 include some of the advocates of the Constitu¬ 
 tion, Madison among them. Both factions were 
 represented in Washington’s first cabinet, Hamil¬ 
 ton coming to be the recognized leader of the 
 Federalists, and Jefferson coming to be regarded 
 as the ablest advocate of the strict-construc- 
 tionist doctrine. 
 
 Three important events of Washington’s first 
 administration, all closely connected with the 
 work of Hamilton, were the inauguration of a 
 scheme of tariff (see Tariff ), directed primarily 
 towards the raising of revenue, but also based 
 upon the expediency of encouraging domestic in¬ 
 dustries, the establishment in 1791 of a national 
 bank (see Bank, Banking), planned to serve 
 partly as a fiscal agency of the new government, 
 and the systematizing and funding of the na¬ 
 tional debt, in which were now included not only 
 the strictly national debts, but also those ob¬ 
 ligations of the several States which had been 
 incurred for national purposes during the Revo¬ 
 lution. The political controversy over this as¬ 
 sumption of State debts by the national govern¬ 
 ment was, for purposes of convenient adjust¬ 
 ment, combined with the pending controversy as 
 to the location of the national capital, the op¬ 
 ponents of assumption yielding upon that prop¬ 
 osition in sufficient number to secure in return 
 the choice of the banks of the Potomac as the 
 seat of government. The Constitution had been 
 put into operation without any settlement of 
 the delicate and vital question of the authority 
 of the new government over the territory of 
 the States which at that time had not ratified 
 that instrument^ and the possibility of a crisis 
 was early removed by the successive ratifications 
 by North Carolina (November, 1789) and by 
 Rhode Island (May, 1790). Membership in the 
 Union was further increased by the admission 
 of Vermont (March, 1791) and of Kentucky 
 (June, 1792). In Washington’s first term execu¬ 
 tive departments were organized by acts of 
 Congress, the Federal judicial system was organ¬ 
 ized, in September, 1789, a national mint was 
 established in Philadelphia, and a system of 
 coinage devised, and in 1791 the first 10 amend¬ 
 ments to the Federal Constitution were formally 
 adopted. 
 
 At the request of both Federalists and Re¬ 
 publicans Washington consented to serve a 
 second term as President and was unanimously 
 reelected. John Adams was also reelected to the 
 office of Vice President, being opposed by George 
 Clinton (q.v.), of New York, the Republican 
 candidate. Washington’s second term was one 
 of much public turmoil and uneasiness, owing 
 to the attitude of the two parties towards 
 France and England, then at war. The Fed¬ 
 
 eralists expressed an open sympathy with Eng¬ 
 land; the Republicans with France. The con¬ 
 duct of the French Minister to the United States, 
 known as “Citizen” Genet (q.v.), did much to 
 increase the popular excitement. The turbulence 
 resulting from his injudicious course had in¬ 
 flamed party passions to such an extent that 
 even Washington’s calm and dignified policy did 
 not escape the bitterest partisan denunciation. 
 This increased in volume and intensity when 
 the so-called Jay Treaty (q.v.) with England 
 was laid before the Senate by the President. 
 The Jay Treaty failed to secure the assurances 
 from England that many believed to be justly 
 due; but it embodied the best that could then 
 be obtained, and the President approved it. The 
 aspersions now recklessly heaped upon Wash¬ 
 ington became virulent; he was threatened with 
 impeachment and even was accused of treason 
 and of usurpation. Yet his action was justified 
 by the revival of commerce that followed the 
 ratification of the Jay Treaty. 
 
 The other noteworthy events of Washington’s 
 second administration were the fortunate and 
 effective assertion of the authority of the Fed¬ 
 eral government in the suppression of the so- 
 called Whisky Insurrection (q.v.) in Pennsyl¬ 
 vania (1794), the adoption of a plan for in¬ 
 ternal taxation (1795), the unsuccessful expedi¬ 
 tions under Harmar and St. Clair against the 
 Western Indians in 1790 and 1791, the defeat 
 of the Indians by Wayne at Fallen Timbers in 
 1794, the cession to the United States in the 
 following year of 25,000 square miles of Indian 
 lands, and the negotiation of a treaty with 
 Spain in 1795, whereby the United States se¬ 
 cured the free navigation of the Lower Missis¬ 
 sippi, the right of deposit, for a limited period, 
 at New Orleans, and a partially satisfactory 
 settlement of the Florida boundary. The year 
 1793 was marked by the invention, by Eli 
 Whitney, of the cotton gin, which was destined 
 to bring about an industrial revolution in the- 
 South and profoundly to affect the question of 
 slavery. In June, 1796, Tennessee, hitherto a 
 part of North Carolina, was admitted to the 
 Union as a new Commonwealth. On September 
 17 of the same year Washington delivered his his¬ 
 toric “Farewell Address.” As he declined again 
 to be a candidate, the two great parties waged 
 an open warfare for the election of his suc¬ 
 cessor. The Federalist candidate, John Adams, 
 received 71 votes, and the Republican, Thomas 
 Jefferson, 68 votes, and in accordance with the 
 constitutional provisions then operative John 
 Adams became President and Thomas Jefferson 
 Vice President. 
 
 III. John Adams’s Administration.* ( 1797— 
 
 1801.) At first the prospects of the new admin¬ 
 istration and of the Federalist party seemed ex¬ 
 tremely bright. The insolent action of the 
 French Directory, then at the* head of affairs in 
 France, in demanding of the American Commis¬ 
 sioners a bribe in return for a favorable hear¬ 
 ing, inspired everywhere in the United States 
 
 * Cabinet. — Secretary of State, Timothy Pickering, con¬ 
 tinued; John Marshall, Virginia, May 13, 1800. Secretary of 
 the Treasury, Oliver Wolcott, continued; Samuel Dexter, 
 Massachusetts, Jan. 1, 1801. Secretary of War, James Mc¬ 
 Henry, continued; Samuel Dexter, May 13, 1800; Roger 
 Griswold, Connecticut, Feb. 3, 1801. Secretary of the Navy, 
 George Cabot, Massachusetts, May 3, 1798 (until this time 
 the navy had been under the general direction of the War De¬ 
 partment); Benjamin Stoddert, Maryland, May 21, 1798. 
 Attorney-General, Charles Lee, continued; Theophilus Par¬ 
 sons, Massachusetts, Feb. 20, 1801. Postmaster-General, 
 Joseph Habersham, continued. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 749 
 
 the most intense indignation. (See X Y Z Cor¬ 
 respondence.) War seemed imminent; in¬ 
 deed, hostilities actually began on sea, and Gen¬ 
 eral W ashington was again summoned to com¬ 
 mand the army, with Hamilton as the actual 
 head until the outbreak of hostilities. But a 
 change in the French government made possible 
 a reconciliation, and in 1800 a treaty removed 
 the immediate cause of complaint. 
 
 Such popularity as the government had se¬ 
 cured by its firm attitude towards France was 
 soon lost by the passage, in 1798, of the Alien 
 and Sedition Acts (q.v.). Resolutions of pro¬ 
 test drawn by Jefferson and Madison were passed 
 by the Legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky 
 and became known as the Virginia and Kentucky 
 Resolutions (q.v.). These resolutions expressed 
 the extreme Anti-Federalist doctrine and pre¬ 
 cipitated an immediate agitation against the 
 obnoxious laws, which helped to cause the de¬ 
 feat of the Federalist party in the presidential 
 election of 1800. During Adams’s administra¬ 
 tion the seat of the government was changed, 
 in 1800, from Philadelphia, which had been the 
 temporary capital for 10 years, to Washington, 
 in the newly constituted District of Columbia, 
 and John Marshall, who was destined to in¬ 
 fluence profoundly the constitutional law of 
 the nation, became Chief Justice of the Supreme 
 Court. In the election of 1800, 73 electoral 
 votes were cast for Thomas Jefferson and the 
 same number for Aaron Burr, also a Republican, 
 while Adams had 65. There being 1 thus no 
 choice, the election was thrown, in accordance 
 with Article II of the Constitution, into the 
 House of Representatives, each State having 
 only a single vote. After balloting for six days 
 the House of Representatives elected Jefferson, 
 who received the votes of 10 States, while four 
 States voted for Burr and two voted in blank. 
 Thomas Jefferson was thus chosen President and 
 Aaron Burr Vice President. 
 
 IV and V. Thomas Jefferson’s Administra¬ 
 tion.* (1801-09.) The election of Jefferson 
 marked the complete triumph of the Republicans. 
 He made a number of removals from office with¬ 
 out cause, although chiefly of those whom Adams 
 had appointed in the last hours of his admin¬ 
 istration and hence known as “midnight appoint¬ 
 ments.” (See Marbury v. Madison.) Jefferson 
 professed only to desire to maintain an equal 
 distribution of offices between the parties and to 
 consider only an applicant’s capability and hon¬ 
 esty. He felt free, however, to join in undoing 
 the w r ork of Adams by aiding in the repeal of 
 the law creating new judicial offices to wdiich 
 Federalists had been appointed, and also by 
 countenancing an attack which was made on 
 the Federalist judges through impeachment. 
 (See Chase, Samuel.) He began his term 
 of office with the extreme theories of the 
 strict constructionists as his guide, as was 
 showm by the steps wdiich w r ere promptly taken 
 to bring about the abrogation of the system of 
 
 ♦Cabinet. — Secretary of State, James Madison, Virginia, 
 March 5, 1801. Secretary of the Treasury, Samuel Dexter, 
 continued; Albert Gallatin, Pennsylvania, May 14, 1801. 
 Secretary of War, Henry Dearborn, Massachusetts, March 5, 
 1801. Secretary of Navy, Benjamin Stoddert, continued; Rob¬ 
 ert Smith, Maryland, July 15. 1801. (Jacob Crowninshield 
 of Massachusetts was nominal Secretary of the Navy from 
 Mar<di 3, 1805, till his death, April 15, 1808, Robert Smith 
 continuing to discharge the duties of the office.) Attorney- 
 General, Levi Lincoln, Massachusetts, March 5, 1801; Robert 
 Smith, Maryland, March 3, 1805; John Breckinridge, Ken¬ 
 tucky, Aug. 7, 1805; Caesar A. Rodney, Pennsylvania, Jan. 
 20, 1807. Postmaster-General, Joseph Habersham, continued; 
 Gideon Granger, Connecticut, Nov. 28, 1801. 
 
 internal revenue (April, 1802), and to reduce to 
 five years the terra of residence requisite for 
 naturalization (April, 1802), as also by the 
 repeal, in December, 1803, of the National Bank¬ 
 ruptcy Law of 1800. Nevertheless, the force 
 of circumstances finally led Jefferson to adopt 
 and carry through measures that involved as 
 liberal an interpretation of the Constitution 
 as any that the Federalists had ever advanced. 
 The first of these measures was the purchase 
 from France in 1803 of Louisiana, which had 
 recently been acquired by France from Spain. 
 (See San Ildefonso, Treaty of; Louisiana 
 Purchase.) The annexation of this territory 
 determined permanently the control of the Mis¬ 
 sissippi and accordingly was thoroughly ap¬ 
 proved in the trans-Alleghany regions; but there 
 was immediately raised not only the question 
 of the government’s power so to acquire ter¬ 
 ritory, but also the question whether the gov¬ 
 ernment had acted within its constitutional 
 powders in concluding a treaty which guaranteed 
 citizenship to former subjects of France, and 
 there developed a vigorous though unavailing 
 opposition to the purchase among the members 
 of Congress from New England. The vast en¬ 
 largement of the South helps to explain the op¬ 
 position of the New England States. The appli¬ 
 cation of a characteristic Republican policy w r as, 
 however, illustrated in the marked tendency to 
 minimize the importance of the functions of the 
 national government and to render unimportant 
 such departments as those of War and the Navy. 
 The very material reduction of the national 
 forces was accomplished wdthout effective op¬ 
 position in view of the improved financial condi¬ 
 tion wdiich was supposed to be secured by such 
 a course. Any such justification was soon over¬ 
 balanced by the pressing need of an efficient 
 navy occasioned by the war with Tripoli (1801- 
 OS), in which Preble and Decatur won laurels 
 for the American flag. (See Barbary Powers, 
 Wars with the.) In 1803 Ohio was admitted 
 into the Union, and in December, 1803, Congress 
 passed the Twelfth Amendment to the Consti¬ 
 tution, which was ratified in 1804, providing 
 that the electoral college should vote for presi¬ 
 dential and vice presidential candidates sepa¬ 
 rately. (See Constitution.) In 1804 Jefferson 
 was reelected President, receiving all the elec¬ 
 toral votes except those of Connecticut and Dela¬ 
 ware and tw 7 o of Maryland, which w 7 ere cast for 
 the Federalist, Charles C. Pinckney, of South 
 Carolina. George Clinton (q.v.), of New York, 
 was elected Vice President. 
 
 Jefferson’s second administration began with 
 overwhelming Republican majorities in both 
 Houses of Congress. The Napoleonic wars had 
 begun anew in 1803, and it w 7 as impossible for 
 such a struggle not to affect materially the in¬ 
 terests of the United States. The commerce of 
 America w r as highly prosperous, her ships en¬ 
 joying much of the carrying trade of Europe; 
 but in May, 1806, England declared a blockade 
 from Brest to the Elbe, and Bonaparte, in 
 November, decreed the blockade of the coasts of 
 the United Kingdom. (See Continental Sys¬ 
 tem; Orders in Council.) The maritime rights 
 of neutrals were not at that time clearly defined, 
 and the Americans suffered at the hands of both 
 belligerents, American vessels being seized and 
 searched w 7 ith great insolence and discourtesy 
 for contraband of war and being searched also 
 by the British for British subjects. The right 
 of expatriation w 7 as not then recognized by Eng- 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 750 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 land, and those suspected of having been born 
 on British soil were, in accordance with the doc¬ 
 trine, “once a subject always a subject,” im¬ 
 pressed into the British naval service. The 
 British frigate Leopard, meeting the American 
 frigate Chesapeake, June 22, 1807, demanded 
 four of her men, and on refusal fired into her, 
 and the Chesapeake was forced to strike her Hag. 
 The incident created intense excitement and 
 resentment, and British ships were thenceforth 
 forbidden to enter American harbors. See 
 Chesapeake, the. 
 
 In December, 1807, a further step was taken 
 in the famous Embargo Act (see Embabgo), 
 which forbade American vessels to leave for for¬ 
 eign ports, and foreign vessels to take cargoes 
 into American ports. This measure, which was 
 intended to punish England and France for their 
 contempt of American rights upon the seas, al¬ 
 most destroyed the commerce of the United 
 States, and was violently opposed by the Federal¬ 
 ists, especially in New England and New York, 
 where the shipping interest was strongest. Dur¬ 
 ing Jefferson’s administration Aaron Burr at¬ 
 tempted to carry out a filibustering scheme 
 against Louisiana or Mexico, and in addition he 
 was charged with an attempt at the dismember¬ 
 ment of the Union, and in 1807 was tried for 
 treason at Richmond, Va., but was acquitted. 
 
 (See Burr, Aaron. ) Jefferson’s administration 
 was also marked by the Lewis and Clark expedi¬ 
 tion (q.v.) across the continent to the Pacific 
 (1804-06) ; by the passage of a bill in 1806 for 
 the construction of a national road from Cumber¬ 
 land, Md., to Ohio, the first important internal 
 improvement measure (see Cumberland Road) ; 
 the establishment of the United States Military 
 Academy at West Point, and the successful in¬ 
 troduction of steam navigation by Fulton. (See 
 Steam Navigation.) Another important event 
 of Jefferson’s administration was the passage of 
 an Act of Congress in 1807 abolishing the slave 
 trade from Jan. 1, 1808. 
 
 Following the example of Washington, Jef¬ 
 ferson declined to be a candidate for a third 
 term, and in the election of 1808 James Madi¬ 
 son, of Virginia, was elected President, and 
 George Clinton, of New York, Vice President. 
 Charles C. Pinckney was again the Federalist 
 candidate for President. In February, 1809, 
 owing to the threatening attitude of the New 
 England States, which seemed to menace the 
 government with secession, the Embargo was re¬ 
 laxed and the Non-Intercourse Act was substi¬ 
 tuted for it, repealing the provisions of the Em¬ 
 bargo, except as against England and France. 
 
 VI and VII. James Madison’s Administra¬ 
 tion.* (1809-17.) The beginning of Madison’s 
 administration witnessed a further straining of 
 relations between the LTiited States and England. 
 Though the acts of France had been, in the'main, 
 no less unjust and arrogant than those of Eng¬ 
 land, she had never attempted the impressment of 
 
 * Cabinet. — Secretary of State, Robert Smith, Maryland, 
 March 6, 1809; James Monroe, Virginia, April 2, 1811. Sec¬ 
 retary of the Treasury, Albert Gallatin, continued; George W. 
 Campbell, Tennessee, Feb. 9, 1814; A. J. Dallas, Pennsyl¬ 
 vania, Oct. 6, 1814; William H. Crawford, Georgia, Oct. 22, 
 1816. Secretary of War, William Eustis, Massachusetts, 
 March 7, 1809; John Armstrong, New York, Jan. 13, 1813; 
 James Monroe (acting), Sept. 27, 1814; William H. Crawford, 
 Georgia, Aug. 1, 1815. Secretary of the Navy, Paul Hamilton, 
 South Carolina, March /, 1809; William Jones, Pennsylvania, 
 Jan. 12, 1813; B. W. Crowninshield, Massachusetts, Dec. 19, 
 1814. Attorney-General, C. A. Rodney, continued; William 
 Pinkney, Maryland, Dec. 11, 1811; Richard Rush, Pennsyl¬ 
 vania, Feb. 10, 1814. Postmaster-General, Gideon Granger, 
 continued; Return J. Meigs, Ohio, March 17, 1814. 
 
 American seamen. Moreover, the Republican 
 party, now in power, had been traditionally the 
 friend of France. Hence, as time went on, Eng¬ 
 land was especially singled out for American dis¬ 
 like, and this feeling increased when the West 
 complained that British agents were exciting dis¬ 
 affection on the frontiers and intriguing with the 
 Indians, color being given to this latter charge 
 by the hostility of some of the Indians and Te- 
 cumseh’s attempt to form an Indian confeder¬ 
 ation. See Tecumseii; Tippecanoe, Battle of. 
 
 War of 1812 .—In 1S10 England and France 
 each professed a readiness to repeal the decrees 
 that had so hampered American commerce, if 
 the other would do so first. France then re¬ 
 voked conditionally the Berlin and Milan de¬ 
 crees, and in 1812 revoked them unconditionally, 
 dating the revocation back one year. Mean¬ 
 while an aggressive element had risen to promi¬ 
 nence in the councils of the Republican party. 
 Henry Clay, of Kentucky, was Speaker of the 
 House, and John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, 
 on the floor of the House was the leader of the 
 majority. Under the impulse of these two bril¬ 
 liant and impetuous spirits, the party in power 
 became transformed into a war party. Acts were 
 passed to enlist soldiers, to organize the militia, 
 to enlarge the navy, and to prepare in every 
 way for war. The adoption of a war policy was 
 urged upon the President, who was himself re¬ 
 luctant to adopt it. England having refused to 
 modify her policy towards neutrals, an embargo 
 upon all American shipping was proclaimed for 
 60 days as a preliminary to the opening of hos¬ 
 tilities; and on June 1 Madison sent a message 
 to Congress in which, after reviewing the Amer¬ 
 ican grievances against England, he recommended 
 a formal declaration of war. The chief grounds 
 for this action, as given by Madison, were the 
 impressment of American seamen, the extension 
 of the right of search to United States war ves¬ 
 sels, the “paper blockades” established by the 
 British Orders in Council, and the alleged ef¬ 
 forts of Great Britain to persuade the North¬ 
 western Indians to attack the Americans. On 
 the 18th Congress formally declared war. Five 
 days later, and before the declaration reached 
 England, the British government withdrew its 
 objectionable Orders in Council, but although 
 attempts were then made to restore peace, recon¬ 
 ciliation at that time was impossible. The dis¬ 
 parity in power between the United States and 
 Great Britain at this time was enormous, and 
 except that the latter was still engaged in her 
 conflict with Napoleon, a declaration of war 
 would have seemed little less than foolhardy. 
 In 1810 the population of the United States was 
 only abbut 7,250,000, while that of Great Britain 
 was fully 18,500,000. Great Britain, moreover, 
 had vastly superior resources at her disposal, 
 was organized for war, while the United States 
 was not, and, besides having a large and highly 
 disciplined army, was the acknowledged mistress 
 of the seas. In general, the war went against the 
 Americans on land, though the British were de¬ 
 cisively repulsed at New Orleans; and the war¬ 
 fare on sea demonstrated the superiority, vessel 
 for vessel, of the American to the British navy. 
 Gradually, however, by reason of her vastly 
 larger fleet, Great Britain defeated the American 
 vessels in detail or drove them under the shelter 
 of forts. The American naval successes were, 
 nevertheless, of such number and of such tactical 
 importance as to add greatly to the standing 
 of the United States as a naval power. Congress 
 

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 fWtVtftvjjy uf !ttYNOIS 
 
 
 
 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 751 
 
 had voted to raise 25,000 enlisted soldiers, 50,000 
 volunteers, and 100,000 militia. Gen. William 
 Hull with over 2000 men at Detroit invaded 
 Canada, but, on being met by a small force of 
 British and Indians under General Brock, re¬ 
 crossed the river, and on August 16 surrendered 
 at Detroit without resistance. A second invasion 
 of Canada was made in October, 1812, near 
 Niagara Falls, by General Van Rensselaer. One 
 thousand American militia stormed the heights 
 of Queenston, and the British general, Brock, 
 was killed, but, reenforcements arriving, the 
 heights were retaken, and the Americans were de¬ 
 feated with great loss, some of them surrender¬ 
 ing. Some of the militia refused to cross into 
 Canada, upon the ground that the government 
 had no right to send the militia across the 
 frontier. 
 
 American disasters on the land were, how¬ 
 ever, compensated for by victories at sea. On 
 August 19 the United States frigate Constitution 
 (q.v.) captured the British frigate Guerriere; on 
 October 18 the TFasp (American) took the Frolic 
 (British) ; on October 25 the United States ' cap¬ 
 tured the Macedonian; on December 29 the Con¬ 
 stitution took the Java; and on February 24 the 
 Hornet sank the Peacock. The Americans in 
 most cases had the larger ships and heavier ord¬ 
 nance, but the immense disparity in the losses 
 showed also superior seamanship and gunnery. 
 American privateers, furthermore, took during 
 the war, it is estimated, 300 British vessels and 
 3000 prisoners. 
 
 In May, 1812, Madison had been renominated 
 for the presidency, with Elbridge Gerry, of 
 Massachusetts, as the Republican candidate for 
 Vice President. In the ensuing election Madison 
 defeated De Witt Clinton by an electoral vote 
 of 128 to 89, while Gerry defeated Jared Ingersoll 
 by an electoral vote of 131 to 86. 
 
 In April, 1813, an American army of 1700 
 men under Gen. Henry Dearborn captured 
 York, now Toronto, and, Dearborn having 
 been relieved, Generals Wilkinson and Hampton 
 undertook to capture Montreal, but met with no 
 success. An attempt of the British general, 
 Prevost, on Sackett’s Harbor in May was re¬ 
 pulsed; the British squadron on Lake Erie, con¬ 
 sisting of 6 vessels carrying 63 guns, was cap¬ 
 tured on Sept. 10, 1813, by Commodore Perry at 
 the head of an American flotilla of 9 vessels 
 with 54 guns (see Erie, Battle of Lake) ; and 
 this latter success enabled General Harrison to 
 invade Canada, where he defeated General Proc¬ 
 tor in the battle of the Thames (October 5), in 
 which the great Indian warrior chief Tecumseh 
 was killed. During the same period Gen. An¬ 
 drew Jackson in Alabama and Georgia defeated 
 the Creek Indians, who had been incited to make 
 war upon the frontier settlements. In the sum¬ 
 mer of 1814 Gen. Jacob Brown, with Col. Win¬ 
 field Scott as his second in command, crossed 
 to the Canadian side, captured Fort Erie (q.v.) 
 on July 2, and defeated General Riall at Chip¬ 
 pewa on July 5. On July 25 the indecisive bat¬ 
 tle of Lundy’s Lane was fought, the Americans 
 being under the immediate command of Scott; 
 and the American forces then withdrew to Fort 
 Erie, where they were besieged. (See Fort 
 Erie.) General Wilkinson also invaded Canada 
 along the Sorel River, but was easily repulsed. 
 A British invasion, by Lake Champlain, under 
 Prevost, with 11.000 men and a flotilla on the 
 lake, ended disastrously. On September 11 the 
 flotilla was signally defeated in the harbor of 
 
 Plattsburg by an American squadron under Com¬ 
 modore McDonough, while the army was re¬ 
 pulsed on shore and retreated with heavy loss. 
 In August a British fleet ascended Chesa¬ 
 peake Bay and landed troops which, after dis¬ 
 persing with little difficulty a force of American 
 militia at Bladensburg (q.v.), entered Washing¬ 
 ton and burned the government buildings. A 
 subsequent attack on Baltimore was unsuccess¬ 
 ful. New \ork, New London, and Boston were 
 blockaded, and a large expedition was sent 
 against Mobile and New Orleans. 
 
 On Jan. 8, 1815, General Pakenham attacked 
 New Orleans, but his army was repulsed with 
 great loss by General Jackson at the head of an 
 inferior militia force. (See New Orleans, Bat¬ 
 tle of.) This action was fought two weeks af¬ 
 ter peace had been concluded by the Commis¬ 
 sioners of England and the United States. 
 
 From the middle of 1813 the fortunes of war 
 alternated on the sea. On June 1, 1813, the 
 American frigate Chesapeake was taken by the 
 Shannon and the xlmerican sloop Argus by the 
 Pelican on August 14; the British brig Boxer 
 was captured by the Enterprise on Sept. 5, 181.3; 
 the American frigate Essex, after a memorable 
 career under Porter, surrendered to the Phoebe 
 and Cherub on March 28, 1814; the British brig 
 Epervier was captured by the Peacock on April 
 29, 1814; the British sloop Avon was sunk by 
 the Wasp on Sept. 8, 1814; on Jan. 15, 1815, af¬ 
 ter the conclusion of peace, the American frigate 
 President was taken by the British; and on 
 February 20 the American frigate Constitution 
 captured the Cyane and the Levant. 
 
 In December, 1814, the Federalists of New Eng¬ 
 land held a convention at Hartford in opposition 
 to the war and the administration. (See Hart¬ 
 ford Convention.) The treaty of peace con¬ 
 cluded with England at Ghent on Dec. 24, 1814 
 (see Ghent, Treaty of), was announced in 
 February, 1815. The terms did not include any 
 affirmative withdrawal of England's claim to 
 search American ships, but nevertheless all 
 parties in the country approved it. 
 
 In 1815 Commodore Decatur commanded an 
 expedition against the Algerians, whose corsairs 
 had preyed on American commerce in the Medi¬ 
 terranean, and dictated terms to Algiers, Tunis, 
 and Tripoli. See Barbary Powers, Wars 
 with THE. 
 
 With the end of the War of 1812 came the 
 virtual extinction of the Federalist party, whose 
 unpatriotic course during the struggle had made 
 its name odious to the nation as a whole. It 
 ceased thereafter to make itself felt in national 
 affairs (see Federalists), and for a time the 
 country had the singular fortune to find all its 
 citizens seemingly of one party, with principles 
 derived from both the old party creeds. Per¬ 
 haps the most marked influence ieft by the Fed¬ 
 eralists upon the political tenets of their oppo¬ 
 nents and upon the popular mind was to be 
 found in the now very general recognition of the 
 broad powers of the central government. This 
 national idea had sustained the Republicans in 
 the more liberal view which the war had com¬ 
 pelled them to take of the inherent powers of the 
 Federal government. The noticeable effect of the 
 war period in strengthening the Nationalist tend¬ 
 ency was immediately illustrated by adequate 
 plans for national defense; by the granting of 
 the charter of the second United States Bank 
 (see Bank, Banking) in 1816; by the passage 
 of the first really protective tariff, under the 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 752 
 
 guidance of Dallas, in the same year (see Tar¬ 
 iff) ; and by the activity of Congress in at¬ 
 tempting to appropriate large amounts of the 
 national funds for public roads and similar im¬ 
 provements of a local character, an important 
 bill for this purpose, passed by Congress in 1816, 
 being, however, vetoed by Madison on the ground 
 of its unconstitutionalitv. The tendency was 
 also emphasized by judicial decisions (as in Mar¬ 
 tin v. Hunter’s Lessee, 1816, and Cohens v. Vir¬ 
 ginia, 1821), establishing the supremacy of the 
 Federal judicial power over that of the States, 
 while in McCulloch v. Maryland, in 1819, Chief 
 Justice Marshall introduced into the law of the 
 land his advanced views as to the relation of 
 the States to the Union and elaborated his 
 theory of the supreme and exclusive authority 
 of the latter. For the moment the close of Madi¬ 
 son’s administration found the country, as a 
 whole, scarcely divided by party differences, so 
 that the presidential election of November, 1816, 
 resulted in the choice of James Monroe, of Vir¬ 
 ginia, as President, and Daniel D. Tompkins, of 
 New York, as Vice President, these candidates 
 receiving 183 electoral votes, while the votes of 
 only three States—Massachusetts, Connecticut, 
 and Delaware—were cast for the Federalist can¬ 
 didate, Rufus King, of New York. The Federal¬ 
 ists made no formal nomination for the office of 
 Vice President. In Madison’s first administra¬ 
 tion Louisiana was admitted into the Union 
 (1812), and in the second Indiana (1816). 
 
 VIII and IX. James Monroe’s Administra¬ 
 tion.* (1817-25.) The period of Monroe’s term 
 of office has been commonly known in American 
 political history as the Era of Good Feeling. 
 Party questions were in abeyance, and when, in 
 May, 1817, the President began an extended tour 
 in the Northern and Western States, the warmth 
 of the welcome given him by all classes of the 
 people showed that the nation was contented, 
 prosperous, and loyal. In accordance with the 
 recommendations of the President’s first mes¬ 
 sage, the slightly protective tariff of 1816 was 
 continued for seven years. (See Tariff. ) On 
 Dec. 10, 1817, Mississippi was admitted to the 
 Union. In 1818 (December 3) Illinois became a 
 State, and on Feb. 22, 1819, the United States 
 purchased from Spain for $5,000,000 the terri¬ 
 tory of east and west Florida (in which region 
 hostilities had recently been carried on against 
 the Seminole Indians), together with all the 
 claims which Spain might have to territory as 
 far west as the Pacific, north of the forty-second 
 parallel, including, of course, the Oregon coun¬ 
 try; while the United States relinquished all 
 claim to the province west of the Sabine River 
 (Texas). This treaty, however, was not for¬ 
 mally ratified until 1821. Early in 1818 the peo¬ 
 ple of the Territory of Missouri (q.v.), which 
 had been included in the Louisiana Purchase, 
 applied for admission to the Union. A bill pro¬ 
 viding for such admission was framed, but 
 amended in the House in such a way as to forbid 
 slavery in the new State. As so amended, the 
 bill passed the House by the votes of the mem- 
 
 * Cabinet. — Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams, 
 Massachusetts, March 5, 1817. Secretary of the Treasury, 
 William H. Crawford, continued. Secretary of War, George 
 Graham, Virginia. April 7, 1817; John C. Calhoun, South 
 Carolina, Oct. 8, 1817. Secretary of the Navy, B. W. Crownin- 
 shield, continued; Smith Thompson, New York, Nov. 9, 
 1818; John Rogers, Massachusetts, Sept. 1, 1823; Samuel L. 
 Southard, New Jersey, Sept. 16, 1823. Attorney-General , 
 Richard Rush, continued; William Wirt, Virginia, Nov. 13, 
 1817. Postmaster-General, R. J. Meigs, continued; John 
 McLean, Ohio, June 26, 1823. 
 
 hers from the free States, but was defeated in 
 the Senate. This action brought the question 
 of slavery prominently into the sphere of na¬ 
 tional politics, never again to disappear until 
 the extinction of that institution as the result 
 of the war between the States in 1861-65. In 
 the Congress which met in December, 1819, the 
 question of the admission of Missouri was again 
 brought forward, coupled with a proposition for 
 the admission of Maine, which had hitherto 
 been a part of Massachusetts. An arrange¬ 
 ment known as the Missouri Compromise (q.v.) 
 was effected (1820) by the action of Clay and 
 the conservative members of both sections. 
 Maine was admitted in 1820 and Missouri in 
 1821, the latter step having been delayed by a 
 vigorous debate in Congress occasioned by a 
 clause in the proposed State constitution which 
 prohibited the settling of free negroes in the 
 State (see Missouri Compromise), the Missouri 
 Legislature finally pledging the State not to 
 shut out any negro citizen of another State. At 
 the same session of Congress, Alabama was ad¬ 
 mitted to the Union (Dec. 14, 1819). In 1820 
 the presidential campaign resulted in the re- 
 election of Monroe and Tompkins, Monroe re¬ 
 ceiving all the electoral votes but one, which was 
 cast for John Quincy Adams. 
 
 In 1821 the strict constructionists among the 
 Republicans defeated bills looking to a national 
 canal system and a higher tariff, and the next 
 year the President vetoed a bill for the outlay 
 of national funds upon the Cumberland Road 
 (q.v.). In December, 1823, in his annual mes¬ 
 sage to Congress, Monroe promulgated the fa¬ 
 mous declaration that has since been known as 
 the Monroe Doctrine (q.v.). In 1824, the Na¬ 
 tionalist policy being then followed by a ma¬ 
 jority in both Houses, there was adopted a more 
 strictly protective tariff, framed with the de¬ 
 sign of excluding foreign competitors from Amer¬ 
 ican markets (see Tariff), while a bill for mak¬ 
 ing surveys for a national canal system also be¬ 
 came law. The political issues arising out of 
 the founding of a new government as well as out 
 of international complications had now lost their 
 importance, and attention was becoming centred 
 on internal matters, as to none of which were 
 sectional or fractional issues as yet clearly 
 drawn, although the sudden introduction of the 
 slavery question into congressional politics was 
 to acquire more significance than any other cir¬ 
 cumstance of the administration. However, as 
 there was now only one political party, the Re¬ 
 publican, the presidential election of 1824 was 
 largely a personal and factional contest. When 
 the electoral votes were counted, 99 were for 
 Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee, 84 for John 
 Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts, 41 for William 
 H. Crawford, of Georgia, and 37 for Henry Clay, 
 of Kentucky; there being thus no choice for 
 President, and the decision being thrown into 
 the House of Representatives, where, by a coali¬ 
 tion of the supporters of Clay and Adams, the 
 latter was finally chosen, Adams receiving the 
 votes of 13 States, while Jackson had those of 
 seven, and Crawford those of four. The electors 
 had chosen John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, 
 to be Vice President by a vote of 182 to 78 for 
 various other candidates. 
 
 X. John Quincy Adams’s Administration.* 
 
 ♦Cabinet. — Secretary of State, Henry Clay, Kentucky, 
 March 7, 1825. Secretary of the Treasury, Richard Rush, 
 Pennsylvania, March 7, 1825. Secretary of War, Janies Bar¬ 
 bour, Virginia, March 7, 1825; Peter B. Porter, New York, 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 753 
 
 (1825-29.) A new division of the American 
 people into parties dates from the beginning of 
 this administration. The party previously known 
 as Republican or Democratic-Republican soon 
 took the name of Democratic (see Democratic 
 Party), while the Clay and Adams factions, 
 which had been identified with the doctrine of 
 loose construction, after taking the name of Na¬ 
 tional Republican, changed it eventually to that 
 of Whig (see Whig Party), by which the party 
 continued to be known for some 25 years. The 
 basis for the new party division lay largely 
 in the factional differences between the followers 
 of Adams and those of Jackson, and one result 
 of this was the prolonged controversy throughout 
 the administration of Adams and the develop¬ 
 ment of especially bitter relations between the 
 factions of the leaders, which continued through¬ 
 out the two terms of Jackson. Owing to the 
 determined obstruction which was made by the 
 opponents of the administration, few of its meas¬ 
 ures were carried, so that the net results of the 
 four years’ work were comparatively slight, and 
 the period became distinguished chiefly by the 
 partisan conflicts preliminary to the overthrow 
 of the Adams faction in 1828. 
 
 During the suspension of commerce by the 
 War of 1812 large amounts of capital were 
 withdrawn from trading ventures and diverted 
 to manufacturing establishments, with the result 
 that gradually New England and the northern 
 coast States ceased to be free-trade regions and 
 became desirous of a protective tariff policy, 
 while the South arrayed itself on the side of free 
 trade. Upon the return of peace the new manu¬ 
 facturing establishments were not firmly enough 
 established to compete successfully with the for¬ 
 eign manufacturers, and accordingly in 1824 an 
 Act was passed for the purpose of giving the 
 control of the home market to the wool manu¬ 
 facturers. This failing of its purpose, a na¬ 
 tional convention of Protectionists at Harris¬ 
 burg, Pa., in July, 1827, advocated a strongly 
 protective policy, and in 1828 a tariff framed in 
 accordance with these views became law. The 
 South denounced this measure as being sectional 
 legislation, intended to benefit New England and 
 the Middle States at the expense of the South, 
 and the doctrine of nullification (q.v.), which 
 had been promulgated in the Kentucky Resolu¬ 
 tions of 1798 (see Virginia and Kentucky 
 Resolutions), and had been revived in South 
 Carolina in 1827, began to be widely accepted in 
 the Southern States. Adams’s administration 
 was further marked by the expenditure by the 
 national government of some $14,000,000 for in¬ 
 ternal improvements; by the rapid immigration 
 to the West, greatly promoted by the opening of 
 the Erie Canal; and by the debates in Congress 
 over the advisability of sending delegates to the 
 Panama Congress (q.v.). In 1828 the Demo¬ 
 cratic candidate for President, Andrew Jackson, 
 of Tennessee, received 178 electoral votes to 83 
 cast for John Quincy Adams; and John C. Cal¬ 
 houn was reelected Vice President, having 171 
 electoral votes. The accession of President Jack- 
 son was the beginning of a new era in political 
 practice. A radical change was typified by the 
 discontent with the existing methods, which led 
 to the more direct participation of the public at 
 large in political affairs through the rise of the 
 nominating convention and through the practice 
 
 May 26, 1828. Secretary of the Navy, S. L. Southard, con¬ 
 tinued. Attorney-General, William Wirt, continued. Post¬ 
 master-General, John McLean, continued. 
 
 of choosing presidential electors by popular 
 vote. Nomination by State Legislatures had 
 supplanted the former method of nominating by 
 congressional caucus. This marked departure 
 towards practical democracy was emphasized by 
 the striking influence which the new Western 
 States and their ideals and standards of life 
 now secured over national politics. 
 
 XI and XII. Andrew Jackson’s Admini¬ 
 stration." (1829-37.) The bold, decisive, and 
 impetuous character of President Jackson 
 was shown in a general removal of those, 
 down to small postmasters and tidewaiters, 
 who had held office under the late adminis¬ 
 tration and in the appointment of his own 
 partisans. The administration was distinc¬ 
 tively one of conflict, the chief issues being the 
 United States Bank and the tariff: and Jackson 
 was swayed throughout, to a considerable extent, 
 by the influence of a group of friends who be¬ 
 came known collectively as the kitchen cabinet 
 (q.v.). South Carolina declared the high pro¬ 
 tective tariff acts of 1828 and 1832 to be un¬ 
 constitutional and therefore null and void, and 
 threatened to withdraw from the Union if an 
 attempt were made to collect the duties on for¬ 
 eign importations. The President prepared to 
 execute the laws by force; Calhoun resigned his 
 office of Vice President, and in the Senate, to 
 which he was promptly sent, asserted the doc¬ 
 trine of State rights, including the right of 
 secession. (See Nullification.) A collision 
 seemed imminent, but the affair was settled by a 
 compromise bill, introduced by Henry Clay, pro¬ 
 viding for a gradual reduction of duties until 
 1842, when they were not to exceed 20 per cent 
 ad valorem. As an incident of this controversy, 
 though nominally occasioned by a resolution call¬ 
 ing for an inquiry into the sale of government 
 lands, occurred the famous debate (January, 
 1830) in the Senate between Daniel Web¬ 
 ster (q.v.), of Massachusetts, and Robert Y. 
 Hayne (q.v.), of South Carolina, in which the 
 two opposing views regarding State rights, nulli¬ 
 fication, and the true interpretation of the Con¬ 
 stitution were advocated and discussed with such 
 eloquence, learning, and enthusiasm as to make 
 the debate a landmark in the constitutional de¬ 
 velopment of the United States. The same pe¬ 
 riod witnessed the rise of the Antimasonic party, 
 based on opposition to Freemasonry and to secret 
 societies generally. See Morgan, William; 
 Antimasons. 
 
 The President was a pronounced opponent of 
 the national bank, the existence of which under 
 its second charter was to continue to 1836. 
 Jackson early raised the issue of its constitu¬ 
 tionality, whereupon the friends of the bank in¬ 
 troduced and carried through both Houses a bill 
 
 * Cabinet. — Secretary of State, Martin Van Buren, New 
 York, March 6, 1829; Edward Livingston, Louisiana, May 
 24, 1831; Louis McLane, Delaware, May 29, 1833; John For¬ 
 syth, Georgia, June 27, 1834. Secretary of the Treasury, Sam¬ 
 uel D. Ingham, Pennsylvania, March 6, 1829; Louis McLane, 
 Delaware, Aug. 8, 1831; William J. Duane, Pennsylvania, 
 May 29, 1833; Roger B. Taney, Maryland, Sept. 23, 1833; 
 Levi Woodbury, New Hampshire, June 27, 1834. Secretary 
 of War, John H. Eaton, Tennessee, March 9, 1829; Lewis 
 Cass, Michigan, Aug. 1, 1831; Benjamin F. Butler, New 
 York, March 3, 1837. Secretary of the Navy, John Branch, 
 North Carolina, March 9, 1829; Levi Woodbury, New Hamp¬ 
 shire, May 23, 1831; Mahlon Dickerson, New Jersey, June 
 30, 1834. Attorney-General, John M. Berrien, Georgia, March 
 9, 1829; Roger B. Taney, Maryland, July 20, 1831; Ben¬ 
 jamin F. Butler, New York, Nov. 15, 1833. Postmaster-Gen¬ 
 eral (the Postmaster-General first came to be a regular mem¬ 
 ber of the cabinet in Jackson’s administration), William T. 
 Barry, Kentucky, March 9, 1829; Amos Kendall, Kentucky, 
 May 1, 1835. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 754 
 
 for its continuation. This was vetoed, and its 
 supporters were unable to carry the bill over the 
 veto. The question, however, was made the chief 
 issue in the campaign of 1832, in which the de¬ 
 cisive triumph of Jackson was taken by him to 
 be a vindication of his policy and an assurance 
 that he represented the popular will more ac¬ 
 curately even than did Congress. The result was 
 still further to strengthen his position and to in¬ 
 crease his influence over congressional action. 
 In the election of 1832 he received 219 electoral 
 votes, as against only 49 for Henry Clay, 11 for 
 John Floyd, of Virginia, and 7 for William Wirt, 
 of Virginia. Martin Van Buren was elected Vice 
 President, receiving 189 votes. 
 
 The Cherokee Indians in Georgia, who had 
 attained to a certain degree of civilization, ap¬ 
 pealed to the President for protection against 
 the seizure of their lands by the State; but they 
 were told that he “had no power to oppose the 
 exercise of the sovereignty of any State over all 
 who may be within its limits”; and the Indians 
 were obliged to remove to the territory set apart 
 for them west of the Mississippi. In 1832, in 
 the West, trouble with Indians had culminated 
 in the Black Hawk War (see Black Hawk), 
 and now in 1835 the Seminole War broke out in 
 Florida, and a tribe of Indians, insignificant in 
 numbers, under the crafty leadership of Osceola 
 (q.v.), kept up hostilities for years, at a cost 
 to the United States of several thousands of men 
 and some $50,000,000. The removal in 1835 
 by order of the President of the government de¬ 
 posits from the United States Bank to certain 
 State banks led to the weakening of the bank 
 and, after some years, to the adoption of Van 
 Buren’s plan of an independent treasury. Later 
 the Senate, which was controlled by the Whigs, 
 as Jackson’s opponents now styled themselves, 
 led by Henry Clay, took the extraordinary step 
 of passing formal resolutions of censure of the 
 President for his order removing the government 
 deposits from the bank. The President pro¬ 
 tested against the resolution, but the protest 
 was not allowed by the Senate to appear upon 
 the record. The warfare between the President 
 and Senate continued through the next two years, 
 the latter frequently rejecting the nominations 
 made by the executive. In 1837, however, largely 
 under the influence of Benton, the Senate, which 
 had at last become Democratic, voted to expunge 
 from its records the resolutions of censure al¬ 
 ready mentioned. In 1835 (December 7) the 
 President announced to Congress that the na¬ 
 tional debt would soon be paid and that provi¬ 
 sion should be made for the surplus revenue 
 which was anticipated. In June, 183G, a bill was 
 passed providing that after Jan. 1, 1837, any 
 surplus exceeding the sum of $5,000,000 should 
 be divided among the States as a loan, subject 
 to a recall by Congress; and in accordance with 
 this Act some $28,000,000 was divided in 1837, 
 which has never been recalled. In July, 1836, 
 the President caused the famous Specie Circu¬ 
 lar to be issued, which ordered the agents of the 
 government to receive only gold or silver in pay¬ 
 ment for public lands. 
 
 At this time Texas, which had been colonized 
 by Americans, was endeavoring to free itself 
 from Mexican control and to establish its inde¬ 
 pendence. In February, 1837, the independence 
 of Texas was recognized; its subsequent annexa¬ 
 tion was but an incident of westward expansion. 
 Many manifestations of sympathy with the 
 Texans were therefore made, and assistance was 
 
 freelv given them bv individuals from every 
 part of the Union, and a resolution recognizing 
 the independence of Texas passed the Senate, but 
 not the House. A new era in the slavery contro¬ 
 versy had been inaugurated with the establish¬ 
 ment of the Liberator by Garrison in 1831. The 
 New England Antislavery Society was organized 
 in 1832, and the American Antislavery Society 
 at Philadelphia in 1833. (See Slavery; Gar¬ 
 rison, W. L.; Phillips, Wendell; Abolition¬ 
 ists; Gag Rules.) Arkansas (June 15, 1836) 
 and Michigan (Jan. 26, 1837) were admitted to 
 the Union. The administration of Jackson was 
 further marked by the political acerbities grow¬ 
 ing partly out of the Peggy O’Neill affair (see 
 Eaton, Margaret ), and leading to the reorgan¬ 
 ization of the cabinet, by the treaty with France 
 settling the spoliation claims and the treaty 
 with England securing unrestricted direct trade 
 with the British West Indies, by the adoption 
 on a large scale by Jackson of the “spoils sys¬ 
 tem,” and by the introduction of railroads. The 
 election of 1836 resulted in the success again 
 of the Democratic party, whose candidate for 
 President, Martin Van Buren, of New York, re¬ 
 ceived 170 electoral votes, against 73 for Wil¬ 
 liam Harrison, of Ohio, and 51 scattering. No 
 candidate for Vice President received a clear ma¬ 
 jority, and so the Senate elected Richard M. 
 Johnson (q.v.), of Kentucky. 
 
 XIII. Martin Van Buren’s Administra¬ 
 tion.* (1837-41.) Van Buren, in accordance 
 with his pledges, carried out and perpetuated the 
 policy of his predecessor. The new administration 
 was unfortunate in its beginnings. A financial 
 disaster, such as had not until then been known 
 in the United States, swept over the country in 
 1837. A general suspension of specie payments 
 occurred; many banks suspended altogether, and 
 innumerable corporations and individuals were 
 ruined. Congress authorized the issue of $10,- 
 000,000 in treasury notes, and Jackson’s Specie 
 Circular was revoked. Van Buren’s administra¬ 
 tion was marked by the establishment of the in¬ 
 dependent treasury system (reestablished in 
 1846), by a renewal of hostilities against the 
 Seminole Indians, and by the establishment of 
 regular steamship communication with Europe. 
 The Democrats with difficulty retained control of 
 the House of Representatives, and through such 
 methods as to decrease public confidence in the 
 party leaders. This, together with the prevalent 
 depression in business, weakened the dominant 
 party in the country at large, so that in the cam¬ 
 paign of 1840 the candidacy of the Whig nominee, 
 Gen. William Henry Harrison (q.v.), of Ohio, 
 was supported with an enthusiasm such as no 
 subsequent political campaign has ever witnessed. 
 It has become known as the Log Cabin Cam¬ 
 paign and the Hard Cider Campaign, from the 
 prevalent symbols of the homely and simple fron¬ 
 tier life of General Harrison. The Liberty 
 party (q.v.) also made nominations, their cam 
 didates being James G. Birney (q.V;), of New 
 York, for President, and Francis Lemoyne, of 
 Pennsylvania, for Vice President. The Demo' 
 crats renominated Van Buren, but the conven¬ 
 tion did not agree upon the choice of a candidate 
 
 * Cabinet. — Secretary of State, John Forsyth, continued. 
 Secretary of the Treasury, Levi Woodbury, continued. Secre¬ 
 tary of War, Joel R. Poinsett. South Carolina, March 7, 1837. 
 Secretary of the Navy, Mahlon Dickerson, continued; James 
 K. Paulding, New York, June 25, 1838. Attorney-General, 
 Benjamin F. Butler, continued; Felix Grundy, Tennessee, 
 July 5, 1838; Henry D. Gilpin, Pennsylvania, Jan. 11, 1840. 
 Postmaster-General, Amos Kendall, continued; John M. Niles. 
 Connecticut, May 19, 1840. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 755 
 
 for the vice presidency. General Harrison re¬ 
 ceived 234 electoral votes to 60 for Van Buren; 
 and for Vice President the Whig, John Tyler, 
 of Virginia, received 234, against 48 for R. M. 
 Johnson and 12 scattering. 
 
 XIV. William Henry Harrison’s (1841) 
 and John Tyler’s Administration.* (1841- 
 45.) Two weeks after his inauguration, President 
 Harrison issued a proclamation calling an extra 
 session of Congress to consider the financial dis¬ 
 tress prevailing throughout the country and 
 other questions that beset the government. The 
 extra session was called for May 31, but on 
 April 4 the President died after a short illness. 
 The new President, John Tyler, retained for a 
 few months his predecessor’s cabinet. When 
 Congress met in accordance with General Harri¬ 
 son’ call of March 17, the Whigs, who had a 
 majority in both Houses, began to carry out the 
 changes to which their party had pledged itself 
 in the campaign of the preceding year. A bill 
 was passed for the incorporation of a. new United 
 States Bank, to be called the Fiscal Bank of the 
 United States, planned somewhat after the model 
 of that which had been so vigorously attacked 
 by President Jackson. To the consternation of 
 the Whigs, the new President on August 16 ve¬ 
 toed it as being unconstitutional, since it pro¬ 
 vided for the establishment of branches of the 
 bank in the various States without securing the 
 prior consent of these States. The leading mem¬ 
 bers of the party then conferred with President 
 Tyler and asked him to suggest the provisions 
 of a bill that he would be willing to accept. He 
 is said to have agreed to do so, yet after the bill 
 had passed the two Houses (September 3) it 
 promptly met the fate of the former Act. It now 
 became evident that the President was at heart 
 a Democrat, and that his political principles 
 would prevent him from acting cordially with 
 the party that had elected him to office. The in¬ 
 dignation and chagrin of the Whigs were un¬ 
 bounded. The entire cabinet with one exception 
 immediately resigned, Webster remaining in the 
 State Department until pending negotiations 
 with England had been completed. On September 
 11 the leaders of the Whig party issued a mani¬ 
 festo reading the President out of the party and 
 holding him responsible for the failure to effect 
 the reforms that had been promised. President 
 Tyler immediately filled the places in his cabinet 
 with conservative politicians and, having been 
 cut off from political affiliation with his own 
 party, turned to the Democrats for support. 
 
 During Tyler’s administration the relations 
 between the United States and Great Britain 
 became very strained. In the course of an 
 insurrection in Canada in 1837 a party of 
 supporters of the Canadian government had 
 
 * Cabinet. —Secretary of State, Daniel Webster, Massa¬ 
 chusetts, March 5, 1841; Hugh S. Legarg, South Carolina, 
 May 9, 1843; A. P. Upshur, Virginia, July 24, 1843; John C. 
 Calhoun, South Carolina, March 6, 1844. Secretary of the 
 Treasury, Thomas Ewing, Ohio, March 5, 1841; Walter For¬ 
 ward, Pennsylvania, Sept. 13, 1841; John C. Spencer, New 
 York, March 3, 1843; George M. Bibb, Kentucky, June 15, 
 1844. Secretary of War, John Bell, Tennessee, March 5, 1841; 
 John McLean, Ohio, Sept. 13, 1841; John C. Spencer, New 
 York, Oct. 12, 1841; James M. Porter, Pennsylvania, March 
 8, 1843; William Wilkins, Pennsylvania, Feb. 15, 1844. Sec¬ 
 retary of the Navy, G. E. Badger, North Carolina,-March 5, 
 1841; A. P. Upshur, Virginia, Sept. 13, 1841; David Hen- 
 shaw, Massachusetts, July 24, 1843; T. W. Gilmer, Virginia, 
 Feb. 15, 1844; John Y. Mason, Virginia, March 14, 1844. At¬ 
 torney-General, John J. Crittenden, Kentucky, March 5, 1841; 
 Hugh S. Legar6, South Carolina, Sept. 13, 1841; John Nelson, 
 Maryland, July 1, 1843. Postmaster-General, Francis Granger, 
 New'York, March 6, 1841; Charles A. Wickliffe, Kentucky, 
 Sept. 13, 1841. 
 
 crossed over to the American territory and de¬ 
 stroyed a vessel, the Caroline, owned by the 
 friends of the insurgents. In the affair one 
 American had been killed. In 1840 one Alexan¬ 
 der McLeod, who had come to New York State 
 and boasted of having taken part in the destruc¬ 
 tion of the Caroline, was arrested and indicted 
 for murder. England protested vigorously, and 
 serious international complications for a time 
 seemed imminent. (See Caroline.) Again, in 
 October, 1841, the British freed most of the slaves 
 aboard an American vessel, the Creole, which had 
 been seized by them and carried into a port in 
 the Bahamas. (See Creole Case.) Thus each 
 nation had a grievance against the other, and 
 such ill feeling resulted that war was feared. 
 
 Fortunately Webster, Tyler’s Secretary of 
 State, was liked and respected by English states¬ 
 men, and upon the reorganization of the cabinet 
 he retained his office until the pending negotia¬ 
 tions were concluded. In 1842 Lord Ashburton 
 was sent out from England to negotiate a treaty, 
 with particular reference to adjusting the bound¬ 
 ary between Canada and the Northeastern 
 States. The boundary question was settled by 
 a compromise, England gaining by the treaty 
 5000 more square miles than the Treaty of 1788 
 allowed her. Two other points of importance 
 were settled by this treaty. One was the agree¬ 
 ment of the two governments looking to the sup¬ 
 pression of the slave trade. The other was the 
 provision for mutual surrender of criminals. 
 The treaty was concluded on Aug. 9, 1842, and 
 was proclaimed on November 10. See North¬ 
 east Boundary Dispute; Webster-Asiiburton 
 Treaty. 
 
 In 1844 the government arranged a treaty with 
 the new Republic of Texas (q.v.), providing for 
 the future annexation of that country to the 
 United States. The Senate rejected this treaty 
 by a vote of 35 to 16, seven Democrats voting 
 with the Whigs for rejection. The problem of 
 the future relations with Texas became still more 
 critical in national politics, and its immediate 
 importance was increased by the strong desire for 
 annexation among the Southern leaders. To 
 maintain the status quo the annexation of Texas 
 became an actual necessity to the interests of the 
 South; for should the free States ultimately ac¬ 
 quire a dominant power in the Senate, as they 
 had already done in the House, the time might 
 come when the existence of slavery would be im¬ 
 periled. The possibility of this was kept con¬ 
 tinually before the Southern mind by the in¬ 
 creasing activity in the North of the Liberty 
 party (q.v.), which in 1843 held a national con¬ 
 vention at Buffalo and there put forth a series 
 of resolutions denouncing slavery, and calling 
 on the free States to pass penal laws to prevent 
 the return of fugitive slaves, and which again 
 nominated James G. Birney for the presidency. 
 England was taking an active interest in Texas 
 affairs, which alarmed many people, North and 
 South, lest this splendid region should be lost. 
 The Whigs at their convention held at Balti¬ 
 more in May, 1844, nominated Henry Clay, of 
 Kentucky, with Theodore Frelinghuysen, of New 
 York, as the candidate for Vice President. The 
 Democratic convention, in the same month, nomi¬ 
 nated James K. Polk, of Tennessee, and George 
 M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania, and adopted a plat¬ 
 form calling for the reannexation of Texas and 
 the reoccupation of Oregon. The position of 
 Clay as to the annexation of Texas was so 
 equivocal as to arouse the suspicion of many 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 756 
 
 Northerners, while the position of the Demo¬ 
 crats on the Oregon question helped them in the 
 Northwestern States. The election resulted in 
 the choice of Polk and Dallas after a very close 
 contest in which the Democrats succeeded only 
 by the fact that several thousand votes in New 
 York were cast for the antislavery ticket. 
 
 At the next session of Congress a joint resolu¬ 
 tion for the annexation of Texas was passed early 
 in 1845 by both Houses and approved on March 
 1 by the President. It renewed the features of 
 the Missouri Compromise as regards the Texan 
 territory north of the compromise line, and as to 
 the territory south of that line the question of 
 slavery was left to the decision of the inhabit¬ 
 ants of the States to be formed out of Texas. 
 
 Tyler’s administration was marked by the 
 Dorr Rebellion in Rhode Island (see Dorr, 
 Thomas W.; Rhode Island), by antirent dis¬ 
 turbances in New York (see Antirentism) , and 
 by the construction under the direction of S. F. 
 B. Morse (q.v.) of the first successful long¬ 
 distance telegraph line (1844). 
 
 XV. James K. Polk’s Administration.* 
 (1845—49.) War with Mearico .—Soon after the 
 beginning of Polk’s administration United States 
 troops under General Taylor were sent across the 
 Nueces River to Corpus Christi, in territory then 
 in dispute between the United States and Mexico, 
 the United States claiming the Rio Grande as 
 the boundary of Texas, and Mexico claiming the 
 Nueces. In the meantime both the Texan Con¬ 
 gress (on June 18, 1845) and a convention of the 
 people (on July 4) had ratified the act of an¬ 
 nexation, and on December 29 Texas formally en¬ 
 tered the Union. Up to this date Mexico, being 
 distracted by revolutions, bad simply protested 
 against the action of the United States and had 
 recalled her Minister from Washington; but in 
 the spring of 1846 the further advance of 
 General Taylor towards the Rio Grande brought 
 United States troops into conflict with the Mexi¬ 
 cans, a small engagement taking place on April 
 24. The Mexicans were then defeated at Palo 
 Alto on May 8 and on the following day at Resaca 
 de la Palma. On May 11, 1846, news of the hos¬ 
 tilities on April 24 having reached Washington, 
 the President officially informed Congress of the 
 occurrence and asked that war be declared. 
 Both Houses responded to the message and to 
 the awakened war spirit of the country by pass¬ 
 ing a bill (on May 13) whose preamble began 
 as follows: “Whereas, by the act of Mexico, a 
 state of war exists between that government and 
 the United States”—a statement that provoked 
 much criticism from the opponents of the admin¬ 
 istration, as false, in view of the fact that hos¬ 
 tilities had been precipitated by the military oc¬ 
 cupation of territory claimed by Mexico. The 
 bill appropriated $10,000,000 for the prosecution 
 of the war, and under it enlistment was actively 
 begun. Volunteers to the number of 50,000 men 
 were authorized. On May 23 Mexico formally 
 declared war upon the United States. Whatever 
 view one might.take of the political aspect of the 
 war, the brilliant series of victories aroused 
 widespread enthusiasm and pride; as against 
 
 * Cabinet. — Secretary of State, James Buchanan, Penn¬ 
 sylvania, March 6, 1S45. Secretary of the Treasury, Robert J. 
 Walker, Mississippi, March 6, 1845. Secretary of War, Wil¬ 
 liam L. Marcy, New York, March 6, 1845. Secretary of the 
 Navy, George Bancroft. Massachusetts, March 10, 1845; 
 John Y. Mason, Virginia, Sept. 9, 1846. Attorney-General, 
 John Y. Mason, Virginia, March 5, 1845; Nathan Clifford, 
 Maine, Oct. 17, 1846. Postmaster-General, Cave Johnson, 
 Tennessee, March 6, 1845. 
 
 forces that outnumbered them, sometimes four 
 to one and not inferior in training, in a hostile 
 country and against formidable obstacles, botli 
 natural and artificial, the troops of Taylor and 
 Scott won successive triumphs by the most splen¬ 
 did courage and the most stubborn fighting. 
 For a detailed account, see Mexican War. 
 
 On Feb. 2, 1848, peace was signed at Guada¬ 
 lupe Hidalgo (q.v.). Mexico resigned her claim 
 to Texas, agreeing to the Rio Grande as the 
 boundary, and also ceded New Mexico and Upper 
 California to the United States for a payment 
 of $15,000,000, the completion being thus at¬ 
 tained of that great westward movement which 
 had been going on since the Revolution. 
 
 Other important events of Polk’s administra¬ 
 tion were the treaty with England (June 15, 
 1846) by which the long-disputed question of the 
 northwest boundary was settled (see Northwest 
 Boundary Dispute; Oregon) ; the so-called 
 tariff of 1846 (see Tariff), which limited its 
 purpose to the collection of revenues alone with¬ 
 out protection to native industries; the reenact¬ 
 ment (1846) of the Independent Treasury Act; 
 the introduction of the Wilmot Proviso (q.v.) ; 
 the formation of the Free-Soil party; the admis¬ 
 sion of Iowa (Dec. 28, 1846) ; the establishment 
 of the new Territory of Oregon without slavery, 
 and the admission of Wisconsin (May 29, 1848). 
 It was during Polk’s term also that in 1848 gold 
 was discovered in California, that the sewing 
 machine was patented (1846) by Elias Howe, 
 and that the use of anaesthetics was introduced 
 in surgery. It was at this time that the great 
 flood of Irish immigration consequent upon the 
 potato famine of 1846 began. 
 
 The opposing candidates at the presidential 
 election of 1848 were Lewis Cass (q.v.), of 
 Michigan, and William O. Butler, of Kentucky, 
 Democrats, against Gen. Zachary Taylor, of 
 Louisiana, and Millard Fillmore, of New York, 
 Whigs, the newly organized Free-Soil party 
 (q.v.) nominating Martin Van Buren, of New 
 York, and Charles Francis Adams, of Massa¬ 
 chusetts. Taylor and Fillmore received 163 elec¬ 
 toral votes as against 127 cast for Cass and But¬ 
 ler, the Democratic vote being reduced by the 
 support given by the Barnburners (q.v.) in New 
 YTirk to Van Buren. 
 
 XVI. Zachary Taylor’s (1849-50) and Mil¬ 
 lard Fillmore’s Administration.* (1850-53.) 
 The course of American political history from 
 the beginning of this administration down to the 
 Civil War is marked by a gradual disintegra¬ 
 tion of the old Whig party (q.v.), the increase 
 in importance of the free-soil movement, cul¬ 
 minating in the formation of the Republican 
 party, and the development of the Democratic 
 party into an organization whose foremost ob¬ 
 ject, in so far as it was under the control of the 
 Southern wing, was the maintenance of slavery 
 and the perpetuation of the political power in 
 
 ♦Cabinet. — Secretary of State, John M. Clayton, Dela¬ 
 ware, March 7, 1849; Daniel Webster, Massachusetts, Dec. 
 6, 1850. Secretary of the Treasury, W. M. Meredith, Pennsyl¬ 
 vania, March 8, 1849; Thomas Corwin, Ohio, July 23, 1850. 
 Secretary of War, George W. Crawford, Georgia, March 8, 
 1849; Winfield Scott (ad interim), July 23, 1850; Charles M. 
 Conrad, Louisiana, Aug. 15, 1850. Secretary of the Navy, 
 William B. Preston, Virginia, March 8, 1849; William A. 
 Graham, North Carolina, July 22, 1850; J. P. Kennedy, 
 Maryland, July 22, 1852. Secretary of the Interior, Thomas 
 II. Ewing, Ohio, March 8, 1849; A. H. H. Stuart, Virginia, 
 Sept. 12, 1850. Attorney-General, Reverdy Johnson, Mary¬ 
 land, March 8. 1849; John J. Crittenden, Kentucky, July 22, 
 1850. Postmaster-General, Jacob Collamer, Vermont, March 
 8, 1849; Nathan K. Hall, New York, July 23, 1850; S. D. 
 Hubbard, Connecticut, Aug. 31, 1852. 
 
12f> _ 120° _ 115° _ 110° _105° longitude 100° West from g &° Greenwich 
 

 
 
 
 T'"” t..SY 
 
 I fc I '■# 
 
 OF 
 
 ... , r- 
 
 > ~ 
 
 NIVEHStlV OF itLIMOIS 
 
 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 757 
 
 the slave States. The increase of territory out 
 of which new States might be created made the 
 South anxious to prevent these new States from 
 inhibiting slavery, as would probably be done 
 in some of them, especially in California, if the 
 question were left to the inhabitants. The con¬ 
 test began actively in 1840, while the acquisition 
 of the land in question was still doubtful. In 
 that year David Wilmot, a Representative from 
 Pennsylvania, brought forward a resolution pro¬ 
 viding that slavery should be excluded from all 
 territories that might be acquired from Mexico. 
 This, commonly called the Wilmot Proviso, was 
 carried in the House of Representatives, but 
 was defeated in the Senate. (See Wilmot 
 Proviso. ) So fierce did the strife become that 
 many of the most thoughtful statesmen began 
 to fear secession or civil war. In this crisis 
 Clay, now a man of 72 and in broken health, 
 came forward in 1850 as a peacemaker. Like 
 Webster, who now vigorously supported him. 
 Clay had always held a moderate position be¬ 
 tween the two extreme parties in the slavery 
 controversy. His proposal was that no legis¬ 
 lation concerning slavery in California, about to 
 be admitted as a State, and in the new Terri¬ 
 tories should be enacted by Congress. He also 
 proposed that the slave trade should be abolished 
 in the District of Columbia, but that a stricter 
 law for the rendition of fugitive slaves should be 
 enacted. In September, 1850, Clay’s scheme, 
 with important changes, was put into effect by 
 Congress by the enactment of the so-called Com¬ 
 promise Measures of 1850. The passage, how¬ 
 ever, of the new Fugitive Slave Law excited at 
 the North feelings of repugnance and disgust; 
 and several of the State Legislatures even passed 
 laws, commonly known as Personal Liberty Laws, 
 intended especially for the protection of negroes. 
 See Compromise Measures of 1850; Fugitive 
 Slave Law; Underground Railroad. 
 
 President Taylor died on July 9, 1850. His 
 successor, Millard Fillmore, strictly carried out 
 the policy of his party. The Compromise Meas¬ 
 ures were approved by the new President, and 
 their final adoption caused a temporary lull in 
 the contest over the question of slavery. 
 
 During the administration of President Taylor 
 was concluded (April 19, 1850) the Clayton-Bul- 
 wer Treaty (q.v.), respecting an interoceanic 
 canal. The secession sentiment in the South 
 found expression in the Nashville Convention of 
 June 9. 
 
 In June, 1852, the two great parties made their 
 presidential nominations. The candidates of the 
 Democracy were Franklin Pierce, of New Hamp¬ 
 shire, and William R. King, of Alabama; the 
 Whigs nominated Gen. Winfield Scott, of Vir¬ 
 ginia, and William A. Graham, of North Caro¬ 
 lina. Each of the leading parties adopted a plat¬ 
 form which recognized the “finality” of the Com¬ 
 promise of 1850. In August the Free-Soil party 
 nominated John P. Hale, of New Hampshire, and 
 George W. Julian, of Indiana. The election 
 resulted in the success of the Democratic ticket, 
 which received 254 electoral votes against 42 
 cast for the Whig nominees. The years of this 
 administration were marked by tiie deaths of 
 three of the iuost influential political leaders, 
 Calhoun (March 31, 1850), Clay (June 29, 
 1850), and Webster (Oct. 23, 1852). 
 
 XVII. Franklin Pierce’s Administration.* 
 
 ♦Cabinet. —Secretary of State, William L. Marcy, New 
 York, March 7, 1853. Secretary of the Treasury, James 
 Guthrie, Kentucky, March 7, 1853. Secretary of War, Jef- 
 
 (1853-57.) In spite of the finality planks in the 
 presidential campaign, the question of slavery 
 soon came once more to the front. The leader in 
 reviving the struggle was Stephen A. Douglas 
 (q.v.), by whom, in January, 1854, the Kansas- 
 Nebraska Bill (q.v.) was introduced into Con¬ 
 gress. The Senate promptly passed this bill, and 
 two months later it was passed by the House. 
 (See Popular Sovereignty.) This led to the 
 final disruption of the old Whig party. A new 
 party, based on opposition to slavery, now arose 
 in the North, whose members at first generally 
 styled themselves Anti-Nebraska Men and which 
 soon developed into the Republican party (q.v.). 
 It was composed of men opposed to the extension 
 of slavery without regard to former party affilia¬ 
 tions—Whigs, Democrats, Know-Nothings, and 
 Free-Soilers. The bulk of the Southern Whigs 
 for the time being became Know-Nothings. The 
 so-called American party, or Know-Nothings, who 
 about this time began to exercise great influence, 
 demanded especially more stringent naturaliza¬ 
 tion laws and the election to high office of none 
 but native-born citizens. 
 
 This virtual repeal of the Missouri Compro¬ 
 mise, which left the new Territories to decide 
 for themselves whether they would admit slavery 
 or not, turned Kansas, as the Territory nearest 
 the settled States, into a battleground for the 
 two parties. The partisans of the North and 
 those of the South kept pouring in fresh immi¬ 
 grants to outnumber the other side. At first 
 the South was successful, and a code of laws 
 was established with many and stringent provi¬ 
 sions in behalf of slavery, although this was 
 brought about, not by legitimate immigrants, 
 but chiefly by a mob of Missourians, who passed 
 across the border, took possession of the polling 
 places, and carried the elections. A succession 
 of outrages, amounting to civil war, followed, 
 each faction establishing its own government and 
 electing its delegate to Congress. President 
 Pierce issued a proclamation (Feb. 11, 1856) 
 calling for obedience to the laws and a cessation 
 of violence and interference. Civil war, how¬ 
 ever, actually existed in Kansas. The two anti¬ 
 slavery towns, Lawrence and Ossawatomie, were 
 sacked, and the Free-Soil Legislature was twice 
 dispersed. The outrages continued and no solu¬ 
 tion of the problem was reached during this ad¬ 
 ministration. (See Kansas.) In the mean¬ 
 time public sentiment was excited to a still 
 greater intensity by the assault upon Senator 
 Charles Sumner (q.v.), of Massachusetts, by 
 Preston S. Brooks (q.v.), of South Carolina 
 (May 22, 1856). 
 
 In diplomacy during this administration fric¬ 
 tion arose between the United States and Austria 
 over the Koszta affair (q.v.), and an important 
 treaty was negotiated by Commodore Perry with 
 Japan, by which intercourse was first opened 
 between that country and the Western world. 
 
 In the presidential election of 1856 the fol¬ 
 lowing tickets were in the field: Democratic, 
 James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, and John C. 
 Breckinridge, of Kentucky; Republican, John C. 
 Fremont, of California, and William A. Dayton, 
 of New Jersey; Know-Nothing, Millard Fill¬ 
 more, of New York, and A. J. Donelson, of 
 Tennessee. The Democratic ticket received 174 
 
 ferson Davis, Mississippi, March 7, 1853. Secretary of the 
 Navy, James C. Dobbin, North Carolina, March 7, 1853. 
 Secretary of the Interior, Robert McClelland, Michigan, March 
 7, 1853. Attorney-General, Caleb Cushing, Massachusetts, 
 March 7, 1853. Postmaster-General, James Campbell, Penn¬ 
 sylvania, March 7, 1853. 
 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 758 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 electoral votes, the Republican 114, the Know- 
 Nothing 8. 
 
 XVIII. James Buchanan’s Administration.* 
 
 (1857-61.) Two days after Buchanan’s inaugu¬ 
 ration the Supreme Court rendered its decision in 
 the famous Dred Scott Case (q.v.), in which the 
 majority of the justices held that Congress had 
 no right to prohibit slavery in any Territory and 
 that slaves themselves were mere property whose 
 secure possession in any Territory of the Union 
 was guaranteed by the Constitution. 
 
 Events now succeeded one another with ex¬ 
 citing rapidity. The sympathizers with the 
 South had made various attempts to extend the 
 area of slavery by the acquisition of Cuba. In 
 1854 the American ministers to England, France, 
 and Spain met at the Belgian town of Ostend 
 and there issued the so-called Ostend Manifesto 
 (q.v.) to the effect that under certain contingen¬ 
 cies the safety of the United States would de¬ 
 mand the annexation of Cuba. Another attempt 
 to acquire slave territory was through filibuster¬ 
 ing expeditions, the most famous of which were 
 that of L6pez to Cuba in 1851 and that of Wil¬ 
 liam Walker (q.v.) from 1855 to 1858 to Cen¬ 
 tral America. Even the reopening of the Afri¬ 
 can slave trade began to be discussed. 
 
 In September, 1857, the proslavery party in 
 Kansas held a convention at Lecompton and pro¬ 
 ceeded to impose slavery upon the future State 
 by submitting to the voters the alternative of 
 voting for a clause in the Constitution with, 
 slavery or the Constitution without slavery, the 
 instrument itself, however, affirming the right 
 to the ownership of slaves at the time within the 
 Territory. The antislavery party, whose Topeka 
 Constitution had previously been disallowed by 
 the Federal government, generally abstained from 
 voting, with the result that the Constitution 
 with slavery was adopted. (See Lecompton 
 Constitution.) A new Territorial Legislature 
 with an antislavery majority ordered a new elec¬ 
 tion, at which the Constitution was to be ac¬ 
 cepted or rejected. It was rejected (January, 
 1858). The National Congress passed a bill re¬ 
 submitting the Lecompton Constitution to the 
 vote of the people, its adoption to be followed 
 by the immediate admission of Kansas as a 
 State. They rejected it, and thus Kansas re¬ 
 mained a Territory. In 1859 a new convention 
 adopted another Constitution, known as the 
 Wyandotte Constitution, prohibiting slavery, and 
 this, being submitted to the people, was adopted 
 by them. Kansas, however, was not admitted 
 as a State until 1861. The controversy in Con¬ 
 gress over the admission of Kansas under the Le¬ 
 compton Constitution proved an event of mo¬ 
 mentous importance as leading up to the division 
 of the Democratic party in the presidential cam¬ 
 paign of 1860. Minnesota was admitted in 
 May, 1858, and Oregon in February, 1859. In 
 1858 occurred the famous Lincoln-Douglas de¬ 
 bates (see Lincoln, Abraham), and a "marked 
 impression was caused by the publication of 
 Helper’s Impending Crisis. (See Helper, Hin- 
 
 * Cabinet. — Secretary of State, Lewis Cass, Michigan, 
 March 6, 1857; J. S. Black, Pennsylvania, Dec. 17, 1860. 
 Secretary of the Treasury , Howell Cobb, Georgia, March 6, 
 1857; Philip F. Thomas, Maryland, Dec. 12, 1860; John A. 
 Dix, New York, Jan. 11, 1861. Secretary of War , John B. 
 Floyd, Virginia, March 6, 1857; Joseph Holt, Kentucky, Jan. 
 18, 1861. Secretary of the Navy, Isaac Toucey, Connecticut, 
 March 6, 1857. Secretary of the Interior, Jacob Thompson, 
 Mississippi, March 6, 1857. Attorney-General, J. S. Black, 
 Pennsylvania, March 6, 1857; E. M. Stanton, Pennsylvania, 
 Dec. 20. 1860. Postmaster-General, Aaron V. Brown, Ten¬ 
 nessee, March 6. 1857; Joseph Holt, Kentucky, March 14, 
 1859; Horatio King, Maine, Feb. 12, 1861. 
 
 ton Rowan.) In the following year occurred 
 John Brown’s raid on Harper’s Ferry (q.v.). 
 (See Brown, John.) The South approached the 
 campaign of 1860 with the conviction that there 
 was no place for the South in an antislavery 
 Union, and that the success of the Republicans, 
 even though the Republican party did not mean 
 to interfere with slavery in the States, would 
 mean an antislavery Union. 
 
 In the presidential election of 1860 the situa¬ 
 tion was more complicated than ever before, and 
 finally there appeared four tickets in the field. 
 The Northern Democrats (see Democratic 
 Party) nominated Stephen A. Douglas, of Illi¬ 
 nois, and Herschel V. Johnson, of Georgia; the 
 Southern Democrats, who had seceded from the 
 Democratic convention, nominated John C. 
 Breckinridge, of Kentucky, and Joseph Lane, of 
 Oregon; a third party, the so-called Constitu¬ 
 tional Union party (q.v.), composed of conserva¬ 
 tive members of the old Whig and Know-Nothing 
 parties, especially powerful in the South, nomi¬ 
 nated John Bell, of Tennessee, and Edward 
 Everett, of Massachusetts; while the Republicans 
 (see Republican Party) nominated Abraham 
 Lincoln, of Illinois, and Hannibal Hamlin, of 
 Maine. The Republican platform declared in 
 favor of freedom in the Territories, a protective 
 tariff, internal improvements, and a Pacific rail¬ 
 way. In the ensuing election Lincoln received 
 180 electoral votes and was elected. He re¬ 
 ceived every Northern vote in the electoral col¬ 
 lege, excepting three out of the seven cast by 
 New Jersey. Breckinridge received 72 elec¬ 
 toral votes of the South. Bell received the votes 
 of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia, 39 alto¬ 
 gether. Douglas received only the nine votes of 
 Missouri and three of the votes of New Jersey. 
 The North and South were arrayed against each 
 other, and the South was beaten. Of the popu¬ 
 lar vote, Lincoln received 1,866,452; Douglas, 
 1,375,157; Breckinridge, 847,953; Bell, 590,631. 
 Thus, while Lincoln gained an overwhelming ma¬ 
 jority of the electoral votes, the combined Demo¬ 
 cratic votes exceeded his by 356,658, and the 
 popular votes against him all together exceeded 
 his own by 947,289. In the Southern States 
 alone the combined vote of two of the Union 
 candidates, Douglas and Bell, exceeded the vote 
 of the disunion candidate, Breckinridge. 
 
 There was some ground for the claim that 
 Lincoln was a “minority President,” but the true 
 significance of the election was the fact that po¬ 
 litical power had finally departed from the 
 South. The slave States were at last confronted 
 by an overwhelming opposition. The following 
 figures from the census of each decade up to 
 1860 show the gradual growth of the power of 
 the free States, the figures given for the slave 
 States including the slaves: 
 
 TEAR 
 
 Free States 
 
 Slave States 
 
 1790. 
 
 1,968,453 
 
 2,684,616 
 
 3,758,910 
 
 5,152,372 
 
 7,006,399 
 
 9,7.33,922 
 
 13,599,488 
 
 19,128,418 
 
 1,961,374 
 
 2,621,316 
 
 3,480,902 
 
 4,485,819 
 
 5,848,312 
 
 7,334,433 
 
 9,663,997 
 
 *12,315,372 
 
 1800 . 
 
 1810 . 
 
 1820 . 
 
 1830. 
 
 1840 . 
 
 1850 . 
 
 I860 . 
 
 
 * Of these, about 3,500,000 were blacks. 
 
 The South lost no time in acting upon what 
 many of her leaders had declared would be the 
 
 I 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 759 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 signal of her withdrawal from the Union. Presi¬ 
 dent Buchanan’s administration witnessed the 
 culmination of the conflict that had for years 
 been waged between the free States and the 
 slave States. It was during this administration 
 that the leaders of the South appear to have defi¬ 
 nitely decided that the welfare of their section 
 could not be satisfactorily conserved while the 
 Southern States remained a part of the Federal 
 Union. Ever since the foundation of the gov¬ 
 ernment the statesmen of the South had for the 
 most part maintained that theory of the Federal 
 Constitution which regarded the ultimate sov¬ 
 ereignty as residing not in the nation as a whole, 
 but rather in the individual States themselves, 
 which this theory—the theory of Calhoun and 
 Hayne—held to be supreme and independent 
 commonwealths. According to the view preva¬ 
 lent at the South these sovereign States had en¬ 
 tered into a league of union with the other 
 States for purposes of mutual advantage; and 
 this partnership, like others, was to endure only 
 as long as its original purpose was maintained 
 with regard to all the members. Events seemed 
 now to indicate that the time for the dissolu¬ 
 tion of the compact had arrived. In the first 
 place the balance of political power was passing 
 rapidly into the hands of a party inimical to 
 the interests of the South, a party pledged to the 
 ultimate abolition of slavery and to a commer¬ 
 cial system of protection which was peculiarly 
 unfavorable to an agricultural community such 
 as the South then was. The greatest statesmen 
 of the South had often deplored the presence of 
 the slaves as an economic and social evil; yet, 
 inasmuch as slavery actually existed, the ques¬ 
 tion appeared to them a practical one rather 
 than a matter of speculative interest. The abo¬ 
 litionists of the North had begun a crusade 
 which, conducted with extreme bitterness and vio¬ 
 lence of denunciation, exasperated the South be¬ 
 yond measure. Men who believed thoroughly in 
 the abstract wrongfulness of slavery indignantly 
 took up its defense. The continual threats of the 
 Southerners to destroy the Union, the attempts 
 to carry out the Fugitive Slave Law, the vio¬ 
 lence to which so many of them were so ready 
 to resort, as in the case of the assault upon Sena¬ 
 tor Sumner, and the high-handed proceedings 
 that had marked the civil war in Kansas, all 
 served to embitter and intensify the opposition 
 at the North. 
 
 As soon as the result of the presidential elec¬ 
 tion was known, the Legislature of South Caro¬ 
 lina ordered a State convention, which on De¬ 
 cember 20 unanimously declared that “the Union 
 now subsisting between South Carolina and 
 other States, under the name of the United 
 States, is hereby dissolved.” The example of 
 South Carolina was followed by Mississippi, 
 Jan. 9, 1861; Florida, Jan. 10; Alabama, Jan. 
 11; Georgia, Jan. 19; and later by Louisiana, 
 Tejas, Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, and 
 Tennessee. Kentucky and Missouri were di¬ 
 vided. 
 
 On Feb. 4, 1861, delegates from seven seceding 
 States met at Montgomery, Ala., and formed a 
 provisional government, under the title of the 
 Confederate States of America (q.v.). A pro¬ 
 visional constitution was adopted similar in most 
 respects to that of the United States, and the 
 government formally inaugurated, Feb. 18, 1861, 
 with Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, as Presi¬ 
 dent, and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, as 
 Vice President, and on May 24, the seat of gov¬ 
 
 ernment was established at Richmond, Va. On 
 the same day on which the Confederate delegates 
 met at Montgomery a Peace Congress, in which 
 21 States were represented, assembled at Wash¬ 
 ing-ton, but accomplished nothing. (See Peace 
 Congress.) As State after State withdrew 
 from the Union, its Senators and Representatives 
 in Congress resigned their seats; and a large 
 proportion of the officers of the army and navy 
 of Southern birth, believing that their first and 
 final allegiance was due to their State and that 
 the action of each State carried with it all its 
 citizens, also resigned their commissions. 
 
 President Buchanan, denying his constitutional 
 power to compel the seceding States to return to 
 the Union, though he believed that secession was 
 unconstitutional, made a feeble and ineffectual 
 attempt to relieve the garrison at Fort Sumter 
 in Charleston harbor, closely besieged by the 
 forces of South Carolina. Commissioners were 
 sent by South Carolina to Washington to ar¬ 
 range for a transfer to the State of United 
 States property lying therein and for a division 
 of the national debt, but were not officially re¬ 
 ceived. During all this time great efforts were 
 made, but without result, to effect compromises 
 of the difficulties. See Crittenden Compro¬ 
 mise; Peace Congress. 
 
 Meanwhile, to the vacillation and incompetence 
 of the President the prompt and vigorous action 
 of the Southern leaders formed a striking con¬ 
 trast. By their direction armed forces were 
 rapidly organized, United States arsenals and 
 arms were seized, and batteries were planted for 
 the reduction of such forts as threatened a firm 
 resistance. In the last months, however, Bu¬ 
 chanan’s reorganized cabinet showed a much 
 more determined front. 
 
 Among the events of Buchanan’s administra¬ 
 tion were the Mormon Rebellibn of 1857-58 (see 
 Mormons; Mountain Meadows Massacre), the 
 disastrous financial panic of 1857, the discov¬ 
 ery of silver and petroleum in the United States, 
 and the congressional investigation of President 
 Buchanan’s connection with the Lecompton Bill 
 (see Covode Investigation). 
 
 XIX and XX. Abraham Lincoln’s (1861- 
 65) and Andrew Johnson’s (1865-69) Ad¬ 
 ministration.* On March 4, 1861, President 
 Lincoln was inaugurated at Washington. In his 
 inaugural address, he said: “I have no purpose, 
 directly or indirectly, to interfere with the insti¬ 
 tution of slavery in the States where it exists. I 
 believe that I have no lawful right to do so, and 
 I have no inclination to do so.” He also said, 
 however: “The Union of these States is perpet¬ 
 ual,” and “No State upon its own mere motion can 
 lawfully get out of the Union.” The tension at 
 the time was extreme and was not lessened by the 
 vigorous efforts at conciliation which marked the 
 
 * Cabinet. — Secretary of State, William H. Seward, New 
 York, March 5, 1861. Secretary of the Treasury, S. P. Chase, 
 Ohio, March 5, 1861; W. P. Fessenden, Maine, July 1, 1864; 
 Hugh McCulloch, Indiana, March 7, 1865. Secretary of War, 
 Simon Cameron, Pennsylvania, March 5, 1861; Edwin M. 
 Stanton, Pennsylvania, Jan. 15, 1862; U. S. Grant (ad in¬ 
 terim), Aug. 12, 1867; Edwin M. Stanton (reinstated), Jan. 
 
 14, 1868; J. M. Schofield, New York, May 28, 1868. Secre¬ 
 tary of the N avy, Gideon Welles,'Connecticut, March 5, 1861. 
 Secretary of the Interior, Caleb P. Smith, March 5, 1861; John 
 P. Usher, Indiana, Jan. 8, 1863; James Harlan, Iowa, May 
 
 15, 1865; O. H. Browning, Illinois, July 27, 1866. Attorney- 
 General, Edward Bates, Missouri, March 5, 1861; Titian J. 
 Coffee, June 22, 1863; James Speed, Kentucky, Dec. 2, 1864; 
 Henry Stanbery, Ohio, July 23, 1866; William M. Evarts, 
 New York, July 15, 1868. Postmaster-General, Montgomery 
 Blair, Maryland, March 5, 1861; William Dennison, Ohio, 
 Sept. 24, 1864; Alexander W. Randall, Wisconsin, July 25, 
 1866. 
 
 / 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 760 
 
 first month of his administration; and the feel¬ 
 ings of the whole Northern people were inflamed 
 by the bombardment on April 12-13 and the en¬ 
 forced surrender on April 14 of Fort Sumter 
 in Charleston harbor. (See Fort Sumter.) On 
 April 15 President Lincoln called for 75,000 
 three months’ volunteers, large numbers of whom 
 were in a few days marching to the defense of 
 Washington. After the battle of Bull Run 
 on July 21 (see Bull Run, First Battle of) 
 Congress voted to call out 500,000 men. 
 
 On Jan. 1, 1862, the United States had about 
 576,000 men in the field, and the Confederates 
 had about 350,000. For numbers engaged and 
 an account of the military operations, see Civil 
 War and separate articles on the various bat¬ 
 tles; and for an account of the Confederacy, see 
 Confederate States of America. 
 
 On July 1, 1862, the President called for 
 300,000 three years’ men, and on August 4 for 
 300,000 nine months’ militia for the Federal 
 army. The United States Congress passed an 
 Act on Aug. 6, 1861, freeing all slaves used 
 by Confederates in military operations in the 
 Confederacy; in April, 1862, purchased and 
 emancipated all slaves in the District of Co¬ 
 lumbia; and on June 9, 1862, abolished slavery 
 throughout the public domain. July 17, 1862, 
 a second Confiscation Act followed, which 
 it was thought might free fugitives who reached 
 the Union lines. On Jan. 1, 1863, President 
 Lincoln issued a proclamation in pursuance of a 
 prior proclamation issued on Sept. 22, 1862, af¬ 
 ter the battle of Antietam (q.v.), declaring the 
 freedom of all the slaves in the rebellious States. 
 (See Emancipation, Proclamation of.) The 
 suspension of the writ of habeas corpus (q.v.), 
 the frequent seizure of newspapers, the dispersion 
 of public meetings, and the imprisonment with¬ 
 out trial of opponents of the government of the 
 North, were generally recognized as essential to 
 the security of the nation, although the intro¬ 
 duction of such practices gave rise to sharp 
 criticism of the administration and furnished the 
 opponents of its policy with ample opportunity 
 for partisan attacks. (See Vallandigiiam, C. L.; 
 Milligan, Ex Parte.) The unanimity of the 
 North was also somewhat affected by great peace 
 meetings, while the disturbed state of the pub¬ 
 lic feeling was increased by the terrible draft 
 riots in New York in July, 1863. (See Draft 
 Riots in New York.) Business conditions be¬ 
 came unstable, as many banks had been forced 
 to suspend specie payments, the paper money 
 of the United States having largely depreciated. 
 Nevertheless, the strength of the government was 
 not seriously impaired, the appropriations of 
 Congress in 1863 amounting to $972,000,000. In 
 February of this year was passed the National 
 Banking Act. The Confederates were cut off 
 from all foreign aid, except such as could come 
 to them through the blockade, and their own re¬ 
 sources, both of men and material, in both of 
 which respects the North was vastly superior, 
 gradually became exhausted. The Southern rail¬ 
 ways had been in large measure destroyed or 
 seized by the Federal troops, and it became diffi¬ 
 cult to transport supplies and to feed armies, 
 while the North had the additional advantage of 
 command of the sea and access to foreign 
 markets. 
 
 In January, 1864, the United States had 
 nearly 975,000 men raised and provided for; the 
 entire Confederate forces probably numbered 
 about 470,000. On April 9, 1865, the main Con¬ 
 
 federate army, under General Lee, surrendered 
 to General Grant at Appomattox Court House. 
 On April 26 General Johnston surrendered to 
 General Sherman in North Carolina; and with 
 the surrender of Kirby Smith in Texas, on May 
 26, the war was over. 
 
 In 1864 Lincoln had been reelected President 
 and Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, elected Vice 
 President. The Democratic party had nominated 
 Gen. George B. McClellan, of New Jersey, and 
 George H. Pendleton, of Ohio, on a platform 
 which declared the conduct of the war a failure. 
 Lincoln received 212 electoral votes, and Mc¬ 
 Clellan 21, though the disparity between the 
 popular votes was relatively much less, Lincoln 
 receiving (counting the votes cast by soldiers in 
 the field) 2,330,552 and McClellan 1,835,985. 
 Only New Jersey, Delaware, and Kentucky were 
 carried by the Democrats. West Virginia had 
 been admitted to the Union, June 19, 1863. See 
 West Virginia. 
 
 On April 14, 1865, while the North was re¬ 
 joicing over the capture of Richmond and the 
 surrender of General Lee, President Lincoln was 
 assassinated at Ford’s Theatre in Washington, 
 by John Wilkes Booth (q.v.), while an accom¬ 
 plice attacked and severely injured Seward, the 
 Secretary of State. Andrew Johnson thus be¬ 
 came President. 
 
 The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitu¬ 
 tion, forever abolishing slavery in the States and 
 Territories of the Union, was declared ratified by 
 two-thirds of the States, Dec. 18, 1865. 
 
 The termination of the war imposed upon 
 Congress and the executive the duty of re¬ 
 constructing the governments of the States that 
 had seceded. This now became the most im¬ 
 portant question before the national government 
 and for a decade dominated national politics. 
 During Johnson’s administration it involved a 
 bitter struggle between the President and Con¬ 
 gress, which culminated in the resolution of the 
 House of Representatives, Feb. 24, 1868, to im¬ 
 peach him “of high crimes and misdemeanors.” 
 (See Johnson, Andrew; Reconstruction.) 
 The immediate occasion of the passage of this 
 resolution was the course of President Johnson 
 in violating the Tenure of Office Act (q.v.), which 
 made requisite the consent of the Senate to re¬ 
 movals from office by the President, and of 
 which Congress availed itself to prevent the re¬ 
 moval of Stanton from the position of Secretary 
 of War. The Senate acted as the court of im¬ 
 peachment, and on March 23, 1868, the Chief 
 Justice presiding, proceeded to try Andrew John¬ 
 son on 11 articles of impeachment. The result 
 was his acquittal, the prosecution lacking the 
 necessary two-thirds majority. It was not until 
 1868 that the States of Arkansas, Alabama, Flor¬ 
 ida, North and South Carolina, Georgia, and 
 Louisiana, were readmitted into the Union. On 
 March 1, 1867, Nebraska had been admitted as 
 a new State. About the same time Alaska jvas 
 sold to the United States by Russia. 
 
 At the election of 1868 the Republican can¬ 
 didates were Ulysses S. Grant, of Illinois, and 
 Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana. The Democrats 
 nominated Horatio Seymour, of New York, and 
 Francis P. Blair, Jr., of Missouri. Grant and 
 Colfax received 214 electoral votes, and Seymour 
 and Blair 80, the Democrats having carried 
 eight States. In this year the Fourteenth 
 Amendment was proclaimed a part of the fun¬ 
 damental law. On Feb. 27, 1869, the Fifteenth 
 Amendment to the Constitution, guaranteeing 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 761 
 
 the right of suffrage without regard to race, 
 color, or previous condition of servitude, passed 
 Congress and was ratified March 30, 1870. 
 
 XXI and XXII. Ulysses S. Grant’s Admini¬ 
 stration.* (1809-77.) One of the most impor¬ 
 tant events of President Grant’s administration 
 was the meeting of the Joint High Commission, 
 appointed to consider the Alabama case (see 
 Alabama Claims), and which concluded the 
 Treaty of Washington (q.v.), ratified by the 
 Senate May 24, 1871. 
 
 Among other notable occurrences during this 
 administration was the completion in May, 1869, 
 of the Union and Central Pacific railroads, be¬ 
 gun in 1865, providing a continuous line of rail¬ 
 way from the Missouri to the Pacific and com¬ 
 pleting the transcontinental system. Out of 
 the connection of the government with the con¬ 
 struction of these roads—the government having 
 given valuable subsidies in land and money to 
 the constructing companies—arose the Credit 
 Mobilier scandal, which involved the reputation 
 of many prominent officials and members of 
 Congress. (See Credit Mobilier of America.) 
 Tales of Southern outrages inflicted upon the 
 freedmen, particularly in regard to the exer¬ 
 cise by the latter of their newly acquired right 
 of suffrage, attracted public attention (1868- 
 72) until Congress intervened by legislation 
 and passed several coercive acts, among which 
 were the Enforcement Act of 1870 and the Ku- 
 Klux Klan Act of 1871. (See Ku-Klux Klan; 
 Reconstruction. ) Disputes arose in several of 
 the States over contested elections, and the Presi¬ 
 dent intervened in Louisiana, in 1872-73, by 
 sending Federal troops to that State, to bring 
 about an adjustment of the difficulty, the troops 
 supporting the Republican candidate for Gov¬ 
 ernor and installing him in office. (See Louisi¬ 
 ana.) In this and other instances, as well as 
 in the suppression of the Ku-Klux Klan, the 
 President was considered by many to have acted 
 with undue severity towards the South. A 
 movement was made by the government at the 
 desire of President Grant in the direction of the 
 acquisition of Santo Domingo, the people of that 
 country desiring annexation to the United 
 States, but the project was defeated in the 
 Senate. In March, 1871, the first steps were 
 taken towards the reform of the civil service 
 by a bill authorizing the President to appoint 
 a board of Civil Service Commissioners to pro¬ 
 vide for the appointment of applicants for minor 
 offices on the basis of an examination. 
 
 During General Grant’s first administration a 
 new party arose as the result of a reaction 
 against the extreme centralization of power in 
 the Federal government due to the exigencies 
 of war. This party was known as the Liberal 
 
 * Cabinet. — Secretary of State, E. B. Washburne, Illinois, 
 March 5, 1869; Hamilton Fish, New York, March 11, 1869. 
 Secretary of the Treasury, George S. Boutwell, Massachusetts, 
 March 11, 1869; William A. Richardson, Massachusetts, 
 March 17, 1873; Benjamin H. Bristow, Kentucky, June 2, 
 1874; Lot M. Morrill, Maine, June 21, 1876. Secretary of 
 War, John A. Rawlins, Illinois, March 11, 1869; William T. 
 Sherman, Ohio, Sept. 9, 1869; William W. Belknap, Iowa, 
 Oct. 25, 1869; Alphonso Taft, Ohio, March 8, 1876; J. D. 
 Cameron, Pennsylvania, May 22, 1876. Secretary of the Navy, 
 Adolph E. Borie, Pennsylvania, March 5, 1869; George M. 
 Robeson, New Jersey, June 25, 1869. Secretary of the Interior, 
 Jacob D. Cox, Ohio, March 5, 1869; Columbus Delano, Ohio, 
 Nov. 1, 1870; Zachariah Chandler, Michigan, Oct. 19, 1875. 
 Attorney-General, E. R. Hoar, Massachusetts, March 5, 1869; 
 Amos T. Akerman, Georgia, June 23, 1870; George H. Wil¬ 
 liams, Oregon, Dec. 14,1871; Edwards Pierrepont, New York, 
 April 26, 1875; Alphonso Taft, Ohio, May 22, 1876. Post¬ 
 master-General, J. A. J. Creswell, Maryland. March 5, 1869; 
 Marshall Jewell, Connecticut, Aug. 24, 1874; James M. 
 Tyner, Indiana, July 12, 1876. 
 
 Republican party and numbered among its adher¬ 
 ents some of the most prominent names in the old 
 Republican party, such as Horace Greeley 
 (q.v.), Charles Francis Adams, Charles Sumner, 
 and Carl Schurz. This party nominated, in 
 1872, Horace Greeley, of New York, for Presi¬ 
 dent, and B. Gratz Brown, of Missouri, for Vice 
 President, on a platform deprecating any fur¬ 
 ther interference by the government in the local 
 affairs of the South. (See Liberal Republi¬ 
 can Party; Republican Party.) This ticket 
 was ratified by the convention of the Democratic 
 party held in the same year. The Republicans 
 renominated General Grant, with Henry Wilson 
 (q.v.), of Massachusetts, for Vice President. 
 The Republican ticket received 286 electoral 
 votes, against 66 scattering, Greeley having died 
 before the Electoral College met. Of the popu¬ 
 lar votes Grant received 3,597,132, Greeley 2,- 
 834,125. In this election appeared for the first 
 time the Prohibition party and a Labor Reform 
 party, the latter being an expression of a signifi¬ 
 cant movement among workingmen which began 
 during this administration and led in 1869 to 
 the first attempt in the United States to organize 
 on a permanent basis all kinds of manual labor. 
 The votes of Louisiana and Arkansas and three 
 votes from Georgia were not counted. 
 
 A serious difficulty with Spain arose because 
 of the seizure on Oct. 31, 1872, by the Span¬ 
 ish steamer Tornado of the Virginivs, a filibus¬ 
 tering vessel flying the American flag, and the 
 execution of part of her crew. See Virginius 
 Massacre. 
 
 In 1873-74 the party known as Grangers or 
 Patrons of Husbandry (see Grange) rose into 
 some prominence; an Act for the resumption in 
 1897 of specie payments was passed in January, 
 1875; and an extensive Whisky Ring involving 
 a corrupt association among distillers and Fed¬ 
 eral officers to defraud the government of the 
 tax on liquors was exposed in the same year. 
 (See Whisky Ring.) A new coinage Act, since 
 denounced by advocates of free silver as the 
 “crime of 1873,” was passed providing for the 
 coinage of gold and of fractional silver currency; 
 an Act known as the “salary grab” was passed in 
 1873; and much local disorder occurred in the 
 Southern States between the so-called “carpet¬ 
 bag” governments and the white citizens, Grant 
 interfering in what many considered a harsh and 
 arbitrary manner. During Grant’s second ad¬ 
 ministration occurred the disastrous financial 
 panic of 1873. A movement for the inflation of 
 the paper currency was set on foot, and was 
 checked by President Grant through his veto of 
 the so-called Inflation Bill, which had been 
 passed by Congress. This administration was 
 disturbed by wars with the Modocs and Sioux, 
 the latter of whom overwhelmed General Custer’s 
 command in 1876. (See Custer, George A.) 
 In Philadelphia, between May and November, 
 1876, was held a mammoth exposition to com¬ 
 memorate the centennial of American independ¬ 
 ence. See Centennial Exhibition. 
 
 With Grant’s administration of affairs much 
 dissatisfaction was felt throughout the country, 
 owing to corruption on the part of high govern¬ 
 ment officials. Before the close of his first term 
 there were many signs of reaction against Re¬ 
 publican rule, and the organization of the Liberal 
 Republican party showed the disaffection of a 
 considerable element in the Republican party 
 itself. By the close of his second term a well- 
 defined and powerful opposition had arisen, based 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 762 
 
 primarily on the President’s apparent severity 
 towards the South; on legislative scandals, such 
 as the Credit Mobilier affair and the “salary 
 grab” scandal in Congress; the Whisky Ring 
 scandal and the impeachment for corruption 
 in distributing patronage of Belknap, Secretary 
 of War, who resigned rather than submit to a 
 trial; and on alleged general administrative 
 demoralization, caused in part at least by the 
 President’s appointment, upon the advice of po¬ 
 litical leaders, of a number of unfit officials. 
 Further discontent was caused by the conse¬ 
 quences of the disastrous panic of 1873, for 
 which, as was inevitable, the administration was 
 held by many in a measure accountable. Many 
 War Democrats, moreover, who had lent their 
 support to the Republican party when the prose¬ 
 cution of the war was the all-absorbing issue, 
 now began to return to their old party affilia¬ 
 tions and to emphasize issues different from 
 those immediately involved in the Republican 
 war policy. 
 
 Colorado was admitted as a State, Aug. 1, 
 1876. In 1876 the Republican candidates were 
 Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, and William A. 
 Wheeler, of New York; the Democratic can¬ 
 didates were Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, and 
 Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana. On the face 
 of the* returns, Tilden and Hendricks seemed to 
 have 184 electoral votes to 172 for Haves and 
 Wheeler, with the votes of Florida, South Caro¬ 
 lina, and Louisiana, and one vote of Oregon in 
 doubt. Charges were made of fraudulent voting 
 in several States; party feeling ran so high as to 
 suggest the possibility of acts of violence to se¬ 
 cure control of the government; and all the at¬ 
 tendant circumstances made the struggle one of 
 the most momentous since the foundation of the 
 government. Hayes and Wheeler were finally de¬ 
 clared elected by an Electoral Commission chosen 
 from both Houses of Congress and from the Su¬ 
 preme Court of the United States, whose decision 
 was accepted by all concerned as final and ir¬ 
 revocable. (See Electoral Commission.) As 
 thus finally decided, 185 electoral votes were 
 given to Hayes and Wheeler and 184 votes to 
 Tilden and Hendricks. 
 
 XXIII. Rutherford B. Hayes’s Adminis¬ 
 tration. (1877—81.) The early portion of 
 this administration was made memorable by 
 the troubles in South Carolina and Louisiana, 
 where rival State governments, each claiming 
 to be legally elected, contended for supremacy. 
 In the former State the difficulty was settled 
 by President Hayes, who ordered the withdrawal 
 of the United States troops which had been 
 stationed at Columbia and had been an ob¬ 
 jectionable feature of the contest; whereupon 
 the Republican Governor, Chamberlain, retired, 
 and Gen. Wade Hampton took peaceful pos¬ 
 session of the office. A settlement was also 
 effected in Louisiana, a commission being sent 
 thither by the President, when the Democratic 
 Governor, Nicholls, was enabled to gain pos¬ 
 session of his seat, the Federal troops being 
 in this instance also withdrawn from New Or- 
 
 * Cabinet. — Secretary of State, William M. Evarts, New 
 York, March 12, 1877. Secretary of the Treasury, John Sher¬ 
 man, Ohio, March 8, 1877. Secretary of War, George W. 
 McCrary, Iowa, March 12, 1877; Alexander Ramsey, Min¬ 
 nesota, Dec. 12, 1879. Secretary of the Navy, Richard W. 
 Thompson, Indiana, March 12, 1877; Nathan Goff, Jr., West 
 "Virginia, Jan. 6, 1881. Secretary of the Interior, Carl Schurz, 
 Missouri, March 12, 1877. Attorney-General, Charles Devens, 
 Massachusetts, March 12, 1877. Postmaster-General, David 
 M. Key, Tennessee, March 12, 1877; Horace Maynard, Ten¬ 
 nessee, Aug. 25, 1880. 
 
 leans. This marked the end of Federal inter¬ 
 ference in the local concerns of the Southern 
 States, an interference that had become yearly 
 more objectionable to moderate men at the 
 North, who no longer cherished the animosities 
 resulting from the Civil War. 
 
 This year was further noteworthy by the oc¬ 
 currence, in July, of railroad strikes and riots 
 throughout the country, to the injury of business 
 and with serious loss of property. (See Strikes 
 and Lockouts.) The excitement occasioned by 
 the near approach of the period fixed by Con¬ 
 gress for the resumption of specie payments led 
 to the formation of a party opposed to the pre¬ 
 vailing sentiment with regard to financial ques¬ 
 tions. Such a party was organized in Toledo, 
 Ohio, Feb. 22, 1878, under the name of the Na¬ 
 tional party, delegates being present from 28 
 States; its principles included bimetallism, the 
 suppression of national-bank issues, a graduated 
 income tax, and opposition to Chinese labor. In 
 the State elections of the same year this party, 
 which became popularly known as the Greenback 
 party (q.v.), polled upward of a million votes. 
 
 In February, 1878, the dissatisfaction which 
 had been felt by the advocates of silver coinage 
 with the Act of 1873 suspending the coinage 
 of silver except for subsidiary coins, found 
 expression in the passage by Congress, over the 
 President’s veto, of the so-called Bland-Allison 
 Bill, which provided for the annual purchase 
 by the Secretary of the Treasury of at least 
 $2,000,000 worth* of silver bullion to be coined 
 into legal-tender dollars, each containing 412% 
 grains of standard silver. On Jan. 1, 1879, specie 
 payments were resumed throughout the United 
 States, after a suspension of 17 years, and in 
 accordance with the Act of Congress approved 
 Jan. 14, 1875, the process of resumption being 
 effected without excitement. 
 
 An extraordinary movement northward of the 
 colored population from certain of the South¬ 
 ern States took place in 1879 and was the source 
 of much uneasiness among the planters. (See 
 Negro Exodus.) This year also saw the decline 
 and fall of the labor agitation in San Francisco, 
 which under the leadership of Denis Kearney 
 (q.v.) had been continued with great virulence 
 since 1877. 
 
 On June 2, 1880, the Republican National 
 Convention met in Chicago to nominate candi¬ 
 dates for President and Vice President. The 
 names most prominent before this convention 
 were those of Ulysses S. Grant, James G. Blaine, 
 and John Sherman. The final choice, however, 
 was James A. Garfield, of Ohio, with Chester 
 
 A. Arthur, of New York, for Vice President. On 
 June 11 the Greenback National Convention met 
 in Chicago and nominated for President James 
 
 B. Weaver, who was afterward accepted as the 
 candidate of the Socialist party. On June 22 
 the Democratic National Convention assembled 
 at Cincinnati, Ohio, and nominated Winfield S. 
 Hancock, of Pennsylvania, and William H. Eng¬ 
 lish, of Indiana. The result of the election was 
 the choice of Garfield and Arthur, who received 
 214 electoral votes, against 155 votes cast for 
 Hancock and English. 
 
 XXIV. James A. Garfield’s (1881) and 
 Chester A. Arthur’s Administration.! (1881— 
 
 *He could buy as much as four million dollars’ worth if 
 
 he so desired. 
 
 t Cabinet. —Secretary of State, James G. Blaine, Maine, 
 March 5. 1881; Frederick T. Frelinghuvsen, New Jersey., 
 Dec. 12, 1881. Secretary of the Treasury, William H. Windom, 
 Minnesota, March 5, 1881; Charles J. Foiger, New York, 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 763 
 
 85.) The politicians in the Republican party who 
 had favored the election of General Grant for a 
 third term of the presidency, popularly known, 
 particularly in New York, as Stalwarts, had not 
 been pleased with the nomination of Garfield, 
 and in the presidential campaign they had been 
 induced to give his candidacy their support only 
 on a general understanding that the candidate 
 if successful would give them a liberal share 
 of patronage. The new President had in va¬ 
 rious ways shown his desire to conciliate both 
 wings of the 'party; he had held many confer¬ 
 ences with the leaders of each, and his first nomi¬ 
 nations were apparently dictated by a desire to 
 conciliate the Stalwarts. But his appointment 
 of William H. Robertson, who had been instru¬ 
 mental in securing the President’s nomination at 
 Chicago, to the post of Collector of the Port of 
 New York aroused the opposition of the Senator 
 from that State, Roscoe Conkling (q.v.), a lead¬ 
 ing Stalwart. Finding that his opposition was 
 ineffectual, Conkling and his colleague, Thomas 
 C. Platt (q.v.), resigned their seats in the Sen¬ 
 ate, May 16, 1881, and appealed to the New 
 York Legislature for reelection as a justification 
 of their course. The appeal was unsuccessful, 
 and a bitter contest, lasting until the latter part 
 of July, ended with the election of Miller and 
 Lapham to the Senate. Meanwhile the Presi¬ 
 dent’s appointments had been confirmed. The 
 new Postmaster-General had discovered colossal 
 frauds in the Star Route Service of the Postal 
 Department, and an effort was made to bring 
 the criminals to justice. (See Star Route 
 Frauds.) The diplomacy of Secretary Blaine 
 in regard to the war between Chile and Peru 
 and the Panama Canal (q.v.) excited consider¬ 
 able newspaper criticism. 
 
 On July 2 President Garfield was shot by 
 an assassin, a disappointed office seeker, Charles 
 J. Guiteau, and after lingering for 79 days be¬ 
 tween life and death died, on September 19, at 
 Elberon, N. J. (See Garfield, James A.) On 
 the same day in New York Vice President Arthur 
 took the oath of office as President. 
 
 Among the national events of 1882 were the 
 passage by Congress of the Anti-Polygamy Bill, 
 March 22; the Apportionment Bill, increasing 
 the number of congressional Representatives to 
 325; and the Anti-Chinese Bill, suspending Chi¬ 
 nese immigration for 20 years. The last was 
 vetoed by the President, who, however, signed 
 a subsequent bill limiting the term of suspen¬ 
 sion to 10 years. Among the several State elec¬ 
 tions of this year, one at least had a national 
 significance. In New York the lukewarmness 
 of that wing of the Republican party which had 
 sympathized with General Garfield in his con¬ 
 test with the leaders of the faction to which 
 Arthur was allied, and the indignation of the 
 Independents at the political methods pursued 
 by President Arthur to secure the nomination 
 and election of his friend, Charles J. Folger, as 
 Governor of the State, resulted in the election 
 of the Democratic candidate, Grover Cleveland 
 (q.v.), by the immense majority of 192,000 votes. 
 
 Oct. 27, 1881. Secretary of War , Robert T. Lincoln, Illinois, 
 March 5, 1881. Secretary of the Navy, W. H. Hunt, Louisiana, 
 March 5, 1881; William E. Chandler, New Hampshire, April 
 12, 1882. Secretary of the Interior , S. J. Kirkwood, Iowa, 
 March 5, 1881; Henry M. Teller, Colorado, April 6, 1882. 
 Attorney-General, Wayne MacVeagh, Pennsylvania, March 5, 
 1881; Benjamin H. Brewster, Pennsylvania, Dec. 16, 1881. 
 Postmaster-General, Thomas L. James, New York, March 5, 
 1881; Timothy O. Howe, Wisconsin, Dec. 20, 1881; W. Q. 
 Gresham, Indiana, April 3, 1883; Frank Hatton, Iowa, Oct. 
 14, 1884. 
 
 Vol. XXII.—49 
 
 The victory of the Democrats in Pennsylvania 
 was also looked upon as to some extent a rebuke 
 of the administration and especially of machine 
 methods in politics. The question of civil serv¬ 
 ice reform was now pressed witli renewed eager¬ 
 ness by its advocates; and the so-called Pendle¬ 
 ton Bill, which had already passed the Senate, 
 passed the House in January, 1883, and was 
 signed by the President. See Civil-Service 
 Reform. 
 
 The Republican National Convention of 1884 
 met in Chicago during the first week of June, 
 and the fourth ballot resulted in the nomination 
 of James G. Blaine (q.v.) for the presidency, 
 and of John A. Logan, of Illinois, for the vice 
 presidency. The nomination of Blaine was se¬ 
 cured in spite of bitter organized opposition of 
 the Independent faction in the Republican party, 
 popularly known as Mugwumps (q.v.). The 
 papers which represented the views of the In¬ 
 dependents withheld their support from Blaine 
 and indicated that they would cast their in¬ 
 fluence on the side of the Democratic candidate 
 in case some statesman of tried incorruptibility 
 were chosen by the Democratic convention. It 
 was generally understood that either Grover 
 Cleveland or Thomas F. Bayard would be ac¬ 
 ceptable to them. When the convention met in 
 July these two were the leading candidates on 
 the first ballot. On the second ballot Cleveland 
 secured the necessary two-thirds majority and 
 was declared the nominee. Thomas A. Hen¬ 
 dricks, of Indiana, was nominated for Vice Presi¬ 
 dent. Tickets were put in the field by the Pro¬ 
 hibitionists (see Prohibition), who nominated 
 John P. St. John, of Kansas, for President, and 
 William Daniel, of Maryland, for Vice Presi¬ 
 dent; and by the Anti-Monopoly and Greenback 
 Labor parties, both of which nominated Gen. 
 Benjamin F. Butler (q.v.), of Massachusetts, 
 for President. The campaign which followed de¬ 
 veloped unusual excitement, party rancor, and 
 personal recrimination. The election was un¬ 
 expectedly close, and the result for a few days 
 hung in doubt over conflicting returns in the 
 pivotal State of New York; but the official count 
 gave a plurality of 1047 to Cleveland, who re¬ 
 ceived 219 electoral votes, while Blaine received 
 182, and a popular vote of 4,874,986, while 
 Blaine received 4,851,981. St. John had a popu¬ 
 lar vote of 150,369, and Butler a popular vote 
 of 175,370. 
 
 XXV. Grover Cleveland’s Administration.* 
 
 (1885-89.) Cleveland was the first Democratic 
 President to be chosen after the election of 1856. 
 He was pledged to support civil-service reform. 
 For the most part the recently established classi¬ 
 fied service was not interfered with, but partisan 
 removals were pretty freely made in the unclassi¬ 
 fied service. 
 
 In 1886 a bill passed Congress to regulate the 
 succession to the presidential office—a question 
 that assumed some special importance on the 
 death of Vice President Hendricks. Among the 
 important congressional acts of this administra¬ 
 tion were the new Anti-Polygamy or the Ed- 
 
 * Cabinet. — Secretary of State, Thomas F. Bayard, Dela¬ 
 ware, March 6, 1885. Secretary of the Treasury, Daniel Man¬ 
 ning, New York, March 6, 1885; Charles S. Fairchild, New 
 York, April 1, 1887. Secretary of War, William C. Endicott, 
 Massachusetts, March 6, 1885. Secretary of the Navy, William 
 C. Whitney, New York, March 6, 1885. Secretary of the In¬ 
 terior, Lucius Q. C. Lamar, Mississippi, March 6, 1885; Wil¬ 
 liam F. Vilas, Wisconsin, Jan. 16, 1888. Attorney-General, 
 Augustus H. Garland, Arkansas, March 6, 1885. Postmaster- 
 General, William F. Vilas, Wisconsin, March 6, 1885; Don M, 
 Dickinson, Michigan, Jan. 16, 1888. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 764 
 
 munds-Tucker Act (1887) dissolving the Mormon 
 church as a corporate body and confiscating all 
 the property of that church in excess of $50,000; 
 the Interstate Commerce Act (q.v.) of 1887; and 
 an Act in 1885 barring laborers brought into the 
 United States under contract. With respect to 
 legislation President Cleveland’s administration 
 was characterized by an unprecedented number 
 of presidential vetoes, the number aggregating 
 more than 300, mostly of pension bills. 
 
 In December, 1887, President Cleveland sent to 
 Congress a message devoted to the single ques¬ 
 tion of the tariff. After stating that the esti¬ 
 mated surplus in the Treasury in June, 1888, 
 would be fully $140,000,000, he declared the ex¬ 
 isting tariff laws to be the source of unnecessary 
 taxation and asked for a reduction of the duties 
 on raw materials, especially on wool. In ac¬ 
 cordance with this recommendation the so-called 
 Mills Bill was introduced and passed the House. 
 It removed duties aggregating $50,000,000 per 
 annum, but failed to pass the Senate, which was 
 Republican. At this session of Congress the 
 largest appropriation for rivers and harbors ever 
 known was made ($22,227,000). It became law 
 without the President’s signature. 
 
 At the Democratic Convention of 1888 Cleve¬ 
 land was nominated for President, with Allen 
 
 G. Thurman, of Ohio, as the candidate for Vice 
 President. The Republicans nominated Benja¬ 
 min Harrison, of Indiana, and Levi P. Morton, 
 of New York. The Prohibition party candidates 
 were Clinton B. Fisk, of New Jersey, and John A. 
 Brooks, of Missouri. The campaign was fought 
 out largely on the tariff questions raised by 
 Cleveland’s message of 1887. The election re¬ 
 sulted in the choice of the Republican candidates, 
 who received 233 electoral votes, as against 168 
 cast for the Democratic nominees, the popular 
 vote for Cleveland, however (5,540,329), exceed¬ 
 ing that of Harrison (5,439,853). The Prohibi¬ 
 tion ticket received 249,406 votes, and the Union 
 Labor candidate, Alson J. Streeter, 146,935 votes. 
 
 XXVI. Benjamin Harrison’s Administra¬ 
 tion.* (1889-93.) The administration of Harri¬ 
 son witnessed a remarkable growth of public in¬ 
 terest in the foreign relations of the United 
 States, both commercially and otherwise. One 
 cause of this is to be found in the meeting of the 
 so-called Pan-American Congress at Washington, 
 Oct. 21, 1889, under the presidency of Secretary 
 Blaine, which did much to foster a popular senti¬ 
 ment in favor of commercial reciprocity between 
 the United States and the other American repub¬ 
 lics. This policy, warmly advocated by Blaine, 
 found expression in the so-called “reciprocity sec¬ 
 tion” of the important bill for the revision of the 
 tariff prepared by William McKinley (q.v.), of 
 Ohio, which passed both Houses of Congress and 
 became a law Oct. 1, 1890. For other provisions 
 of the bill, see Tariff. 
 
 Several diplomatic difficulties of more or less 
 seriousness had arisen between the United States 
 and foreign Powers within a few years. Among 
 these had been complications growing out of a 
 state of anarchy on the Isthmus of Panama, the 
 
 ♦Cabinet. — Secretary of State, James G. Blaine, Maine, 
 March 7, 1889; John W. Foster, Indiana, June 29, 1892; W. 
 F. Wharton, Massachusetts, Feb. 23, 1893. Secretary of the 
 Treasury, William Windom, Minnesota, March 7, 1889; 
 Charles Foster, Ohio, Feb. 21, 1891. Secretary of War, Red- 
 field Proctor, Vermont, March 7, 1889. Attorney-General, W. 
 
 H. H. Miller, Indiana, March 7, 1889. Postmaster-General, 
 John Wanamaker, Pennsylvania, March 7, 1889. Secretary 
 of the Navy, Benjamin F. Tracy, New York. March 7, 1889. 
 Secretary of the Interior, John W. Noble, Missouri, March 7, 
 1889. Secretary of Agriculture, Jeremiah M. Rusk, Wisconsin, 
 March 7, 1889. 
 
 United States government, in accordance with its 
 treaty obligations, being required to send an 
 armed force to protect the isthmus. A dispute 
 with Germany over the Samoan Islands (q.v.) 
 in 1889 had also taken a serious aspect, though 
 finally arranged in an amicable manner by a 
 treaty signed at Berlin (Feb. 4, 1890). A se¬ 
 rious disagreement with England also arose in 
 1890-91 regarding the rights of the United States 
 acquired in Bering Sea by treaty with Russia, 
 and was referred to arbitration in 1891. The 
 question was finally settled in 1893. (See Be¬ 
 ring Sea Controversy. ) The lynching of several 
 Italians by a mob in New Orleans in 1891 led to 
 something like a diplomatic rupture with Italy, 
 which recalled its Minister from Washington. 
 In October, 1891, difficulties arose with Chile in 
 consequence of a murderous assault upon Ameri¬ 
 can seamen in Valparaiso. 
 
 In November, 1889, four States (North Dakota, 
 South Dakota, Montana, and Washington) were 
 admitted into the Union. On May 2, 1890, the 
 new Territory of Oklahoma (q.v.) was organized, 
 and Idaho (July 3) and Wyoming (July 11) 
 were admitted as States. Other events of im¬ 
 portance during Harrison’s administration were 
 the passage in 1890 of the Dependent Pension 
 Bill, which nearly doubled the number of pen¬ 
 sioners; the repeal of the Bland-Allison Silver 
 Coinage Act; the passage of the Sherman Silver 
 Purchase and Coinage Act, requiring the Secre¬ 
 tary of the Treasury to purchase 4,500,000 
 ounces of silver each month and to coin 2,000,000 
 ounces into silver dollars each month until July 
 1, 1891; and the labor disturbances at Home¬ 
 stead, Pa. 
 
 The close of Harrison’s administration wit¬ 
 nessed a serious financial panic. An event of in¬ 
 ternational importance was the overthrow of the 
 monarchy in Hawaii by the foreign residents, 
 and the application made by the new government 
 for annexation of the islands to the United 
 States. The President sent a treaty of annexa¬ 
 tion to the Senate (February, 1893), but it was 
 not acted upon. 'See Hawaiian Islands. 
 
 The conventions of the two great political 
 parties had been held in June, 1892. The Demo¬ 
 crats nominated Grover Cleveland, of New York, 
 for the presidency, and Adlai E. Stevenson, of 
 Illinois, for the vice presidency. The Republi¬ 
 can Convention renominated President Harrison 
 for the presidency and selected Whitelaw Reid, of 
 New York, for the vice presidency. The People’s 
 party, or Populists, nominated Generals J. B. 
 Weaver, of Iowa, and James G. Field, of Vir¬ 
 ginia. The ensuing campaign was largely con¬ 
 ducted on the question of the tariff and resulted 
 in the election of Cleveland and Stevenson, who 
 received 277 electoral votes as against 145 for 
 Harrison and Reid and 22 for Weaver and Field. 
 
 XXVII. Grover Cleveland’s Second Ad¬ 
 ministration.* (1893-97.) In his second ad¬ 
 ministration the President applied himself par¬ 
 ticularly to the promotion of tariff and financial 
 reforms, and this period was marked by the in¬ 
 tense and persistent opposition of his own party 
 
 ♦Cabinet. — Secretaiy of State, Walter Q. Gresham, Indi¬ 
 ana, March 6, 1893; Richard Olney, Massachusetts, June 10, 
 1895. Secretary of the Treasury, John G. Carlisle, Kentucky, 
 March 6, 1893. Secretary of War, Daniel S. Lamont, New 
 York, March 6, 1893. Secretary of the Navy, Hilary A. Her¬ 
 bert, Alabama, March 6, 1893. Secretary of the Interior, Hoke 
 Smith, Georgia, March 6, 1893. Attorney-General, Richard 
 Olney, Massachusetts, March 6, 1893; Judson Harmon, Ohio, 
 June 8, 1895. Postmaster-General, Wilson S. Bissell, New 
 York, March 6, 1893; W'illiam L. Wilson, West Virginia, 
 March, 1895. Secretary of Agriculture, J. Sterling Morton, 
 Nebraska, March 6, 1893. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 76s 
 
 in both Houses of Congress. His earliest act of 
 importance was the withdrawal from the Senate 
 of the treaty for the annexation of Hawaii to the 
 United States, which had been negotiated in the 
 closing days of the previous administration. He 
 also sent James H. Blount, ex-Congressman from 
 Georgia, to Hawaii as a special commissioner to 
 investigate the circumstances of the overthrow 
 of the royal government, and on his report took 
 the ground that the United States government 
 had through its representatives committed a 
 grievous wrong against the Kingdom. See Ha¬ 
 waiian Islands. 
 
 The legislation on the tariff was the most im¬ 
 portant domestic incident of this term. A new 
 bill, bearing the name of Chairman Wilson, of 
 the House Committee on Ways and Means, and 
 providing for free raw sugar, free wool, free coal, 
 free lumber, and free iron ore, and reducing the 
 duties on many articles in the existing schedules, 
 was introduced Dec. 19, 1893. In the following 
 month a measure providing for an income tax 
 ■was presented in the House, and that and others 
 concerning the internal revenue were incorpor¬ 
 ated in the bill during the subsequent debate. 
 When the bill reached the Senate it underwent 
 radical alterations, many amendments being 
 made, notably those imposing a duty on sugar, 
 coal, and iron ore, and the House at first re¬ 
 fused to concur in the Senate amendments. Fi¬ 
 nally, however, it withdrew from its position 
 of nonconcurrence, and the bill was passed. (See 
 Tariff.) The President allowed the bill to be¬ 
 come a law without his signature. On an ap¬ 
 peal to the United States Supreme Court, that 
 body, April 2, 1893, declared two provisions of 
 the income-tax law unconstitutional and upheld 
 the remainder by a tie vote, and on May 20, on 
 a rehearing, declared the whole measure uncon¬ 
 stitutional. 
 
 Early in the term occurred the great com¬ 
 mercial panic of 1893, which was followed by a 
 long period of depression. President Cleveland 
 was determined to maintain the gold stand¬ 
 ard and in the summer of that year called an 
 extra session of Congress in order to secure the 
 repeal of the Sherman Act of 1890. This he ac¬ 
 complished in the face of great opposition. In 
 January, 1894, because of the heavy withdrawal 
 of gold coin from the Treasury and the large re¬ 
 duction in the gold reserve of $100,000,000, Sec¬ 
 retary Carlisle, of the Treasury Department, in¬ 
 vited proposals for the purchase of $50,000,000 
 of 5 per cent bonds, and this sale resulted in 
 the acquisition of $58,660,917 in gold, which 
 was added to the reserve. The drain on the 
 reserve, however, continued, and in November 
 following the Secretary issued a second call for 
 the purchase of $50,000,000 bonds, when the 
 subscriptions aggregated $178,341,150 and the 
 sale yielded $58,538,500 in gold, which brought 
 the reserve to $111,142,021. In about two 
 months after this sale the reserve declined to 
 $41,340,181. The President, in a special mes¬ 
 sage to Congress, Jan. 28, 1895, recommended 
 that authority be given the Secretary of the 
 Treasury to issue bonds bearing a low rate of in¬ 
 terest, to maintain the reserve and redeem out¬ 
 standing notes issued for the purchase of silver; 
 but Congress did not approve the recommenda¬ 
 tion. Secretary Carlisle then signed a contract 
 with New York bankers to supply the govern¬ 
 ment with 3,500,000 ounces of standard gold 
 coin, at the rate of $17.80441 per ounce, for 30- 
 year 4 per cent bonds, on condition that one- 
 half of the coin should be obtained in Europe, 
 Vol. XXII. 
 
 and that if Congress should authorize their is¬ 
 sue, bonds payable in gold and bearing 3 per 
 cent interest might within ten days be substi¬ 
 tuted at par for the 4 per cent bonds. The 
 President again urged Congress to authorize 
 the issue of low-rate bonds, declaring in his 
 message that more than $16,000,000 in interest 
 would be saved thereby, and Congress again 
 withheld its sanction. Under the contract the 
 Secretary sold $62,315,000 in bonds for a little 
 over $65,000,000 in gold. The subscriptions to 
 this loan aggregated $590,000,000 in London and 
 $200,000,000 in New York. Under the continu¬ 
 ance of the business depression Secretary Car¬ 
 lisle was forced early in 1896 to sell $100,000,000 
 of 30-year 4 per cent bonds. 
 
 The silver question came up again in Congress, 
 Feb. 7, 1894, when the House Committee on 
 Coinage, Weights, and Measures reported a bill 
 directing the coinage of the silver held in the 
 Treasury. A substitute by Congressman Bland 
 providing for the coinage of the seigniorage was 
 adopted and passed in the House and the Senate. 
 This bill was vetoed by the President, and it 
 failed of passage over the veto. In December, 
 
 1895, the House passed a bond bill prepared by 
 the Republican members of its Committee on 
 Ways and Means, and when it reached the Sen¬ 
 ate the Finance Committee reported a free- 
 silver-coinage substitute, which the Senate 
 passed, Feb. 1, 1896, by a vote of 42 yeas to 
 35 nays. The House refused to concur in the 
 substitute and rejected it by a vote of 215 yeas 
 to 90 nays. A few days afterward the Senate 
 defeated the Emergency Revenue Bill, prepared 
 by Republican members of the House Committee 
 on Ways and Means. 
 
 A long-standing dispute between Venezuela 
 and Great Britain, over the boundary line be¬ 
 tween Venezuela and British Guiana, was the 
 cause of a presidential message to Congress in 
 December, 1895, recommending the appointment 
 of a commission to determine this boundary line. 
 This message, on account of its sharp and de¬ 
 termined tone towards Great Britain, created 
 a great sensation. Both Houses unanimously 
 concurred in the recommendation, and a com¬ 
 mission was appointed Jan. 1, 1896. (See 
 
 Venezuela.) Among other events of President 
 Cleveland’s second administration were the 
 World’s Columbian Exposition at Chicago, the 
 settlement of the Bering Sea controversy (q.v.) 
 in 1893, the signing of treaties with China and 
 Japan in 1894, the extension by the President of 
 civil-service reform (q.v.), the calling out of 
 Federal troops to protect government property 
 and the mails against strikers at Chicago in 
 1894, the admission of Utah into the Union in 
 
 1896, and the arbitration by the President of 
 disputes between Brazil and the Argentine Re¬ 
 public, Colombia and Italy, and Brazil and Italy. 
 
 The presidential campaign of 1896 turned prin¬ 
 cipally on the Democratic demand for the free 
 coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to 1. There 
 were seven tickets in the field, viz., the Republi¬ 
 can (sound money), William McKinley, of Ohio, 
 and Garret A. Hobart, of New Jersey; the Demo¬ 
 cratic (free silver), William J. Bryan, of Ne¬ 
 braska, and Arthur Sewall, of Maine; the Na¬ 
 tional Democratic (sound money), John M. 
 Palmer, of Illinois, and Simon B. Buckner, of 
 Kentucky; the Prohibition, Joshua Levering and 
 Hale Johnson; the Socialist Labor, Charles H. 
 Matchett and Matthew Maguire; the Populist, 
 William J. Bryan and Thomas E. Watson; and 
 the Free Silver Prohibition, Charles E. Bentley 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 766 
 
 and James H. Southgate. The total popular vote 
 was 13,930,942, and the electoral, 447, of which 
 the Republican candidates received 7,104,779 and 
 271 respectively, and the Democratic, 6,502,925 
 and 176. The Populist ticket received 144,928 
 votes; National Democratic, 134,731; Prohibi¬ 
 tion, 123,428; Socialist Labor, 35,306; and Free 
 Silver Prohibition, 13,535. 
 
 XXVIII and XXIX. William McKinley’s 
 (1897-1901) and Theodore Roosevelt’s Ad¬ 
 ministration.* (1901-09.) President McKin¬ 
 ley’s administration was concerned chiefly with 
 the war against Spain and with problems grow¬ 
 ing out of the war and the acquisition of the 
 Philippines and Porto Rico. These subjects are 
 treated under Spanish-American War; Cuba; 
 Philippine Islands; Porto Rico. The Spanish- 
 American War, with its consequent acquisition 
 of colonies and dependencies, marks a momen¬ 
 tous epoch in the history of the United States. 
 It brought the country into a more active con¬ 
 tact with world politics; it caused a far greater 
 activity in military preparation and national 
 defense; it directed attention to the interests of 
 colonizing nations and to international trade, 
 opening up new commercial possibilities; it made 
 the political and economic conditions of the 
 Orient the concern of the United States; and 
 it made imperative the construction of the 
 Panama Canal. In the war there was a mani¬ 
 festation of the national unity which had already 
 been achieved. 
 
 Congress and the Supreme Court successively 
 held that constitutional did not necessarily fol¬ 
 low colonial sovereignty, that acquired nationals 
 did not become citizens of the United States 
 with attendant rights. In the Insular cases 
 (De Lima v. Bidwell, Downes v. Bidwell) the 
 Supreme Court in 1900 decided that Porto Rico 
 was not a “foreign country,” but left the infer¬ 
 ence that Congress could regulate the tariff re¬ 
 lations of dependencies, which the Foraker Act 
 (April, 1900) forthwith regulated. 
 
 Under joint resolution of Congress Hawaii 
 was annexed to the United States in 1898, and 
 on June 14, 1900, the islands were organized into 
 a Territory of the United States. See Hawaiian 
 Islands. 
 
 Owing to disturbances in Samoa in 1899, the 
 existing joint protectorate was abandoned, and 
 Tutuila (q.v.) and other minor islands passed 
 (1900) under the sovereignty of the United 
 States, Germany assuming like rights over Saraii 
 and Upolu. 
 
 The organization of trusts continued with in¬ 
 creasing rapidity. During the first four months 
 of 1899 the capitalization of these trusts was 
 
 *• Cabinet. — Secretary of State, John Sherman, Ohio, 
 1897; W. R. Day, Ohio, 1898; John Hay, Ohio, 1898; Elihu 
 Root, New York, 1905; Robert Bacon, New York, 1909. 
 Secretary of the Treasury, Lyman J. Gage, Illinois, 1897; Les¬ 
 lie M. Shaw, Iowa, 1901; George B. Cortelyou, New York, 
 1907. Secretary of the Navy, John D. Long, Massachusetts, 
 1897; William H. Moody, Massachusetts, 1902; Paul Mor¬ 
 ton, Illinois, 1904; C. J. Bonaparte, Maryland, 190&; V. H. 
 Metcalf, California, 1907; T. H. Newberry, Michigan, 1908; 
 Secretary of War, Russell A. Alger, Michigan, 1897; Elihu 
 Root, New York, 1899; W. H. Taft, Ohio, 1904; Luke E. 
 Wright, Tennessee, 1908. Secretary of the Interior, Cornelius 
 N. Bliss, New York, 1897; E. A. Hitchcock, Missouri, 1899; 
 James R. Garfield, Ohio, 1907. Postmaster-General, James A. 
 Gary, Maryland, 1897; Charles Emory Smith, Pennsylvania, 
 1898; Henry C. Payne, Wisconsin, 1901; Robert J. Wynne, 
 Pennsylvania, 1904; George B. Cortelyou, New York, 1905; 
 George von L. Meyer, Massachusetts, 1907. Attorney-Gen¬ 
 eral, Joseph McKenna, California, 1897; J. W. Griggs, New 
 Jersey, 1897; Philander C. Knox, Pennsylvania, 1901; Wil¬ 
 liam H. Moody, Massachusetts, 1904; Charles J. Bonaparte, 
 Maryland, 1907. Secretary of Agriculture, James Wilson, 
 Iowa, 1897. Secretary of Commerce and Labor, George B. 
 Cortelyou, New York, 1903; Victor H. Metcalf, California, 
 1904; Oscar S. Straus, New York, 1907. 
 
 $2,000,000,000 as against $1,000,000,000 in the 
 preceding 12 months, and, in the years 1899- 
 1901, 183 new trusts were organized with a 
 total capitalization of $4,000,000,000. There de¬ 
 veloped a strong antitrust movement, which re¬ 
 sulted in a large number of State laws regulat¬ 
 ing the formation and operation of large in¬ 
 dustrial combinations. In the case of United 
 States v. Trans-Missouri Freight Association 
 (1897) the Supreme Court forced the dissolu¬ 
 tion of a railroad association and gave an impe¬ 
 tus to the antitrust movement. (See Trusts.) 
 For the Boxer disturbances, see China. 
 
 In 1900 occurred the Galveston flood, which 
 resulted in great loss of life and in the new 
 idea of municipal government—the commission 
 form. At the Republican National Convention 
 held on June 19 at Philadelphia President 
 McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt were nomi¬ 
 nated by acclamation and the principles of 1896 
 reaffirmed. The nominee stood for prosperity, 
 and the party for an alliance between business 
 and politics. On July 4 the Democratic Conven¬ 
 tion at Kansas City nominated William J. Bryan 
 and Adlai E. Stevenson and declared again for 
 free silver and against imperialism and mili¬ 
 tarism. (See Democratic Party.) The Demo¬ 
 cratic nominees received the indorsement of the 
 Anti-Imperialist League, the Populist Fusion- 
 ists, and the Silver Republicans. The election 
 resulted in a complete victory for the Republicans, 
 McKinley receiving 292 electoral votes and Bryan 
 155. The popular vote of the Republicans was 
 7,219,530 and that of the Democrats 6,358,071. 
 
 While receiving the people in the Temple of 
 Music at the Pan-American Exposition at Buf¬ 
 falo, President McKinley was shot down by an 
 anarchist, named Czolgosz (q.v.), on Sept. 6, 
 1901. After eight days of suffering the Presi¬ 
 dent died at Buffalo. Vice President Roosevelt 
 took the oath of office. He retained the cabinet 
 and announced his intention to continue the 
 policy of the previous administration. 
 
 In 1900 a currency law was adopted, estab¬ 
 lishing the gold dollar as the standard of value 
 in the United States. In 1901 the army (see 
 Army) was reorganized and the canteen (q.v.) 
 abolished. The Fifty-seventh Congress passed a 
 new Chinese Exclusion Bill, and an Act for 
 reclaiming and irrigating arid lands of the West. 
 In 1902 the Census Office was made a permanent 
 bureau. In 1903 a reciprocity treaty was con¬ 
 cluded with Cuba. (See Cuba; Platt, O. H.) 
 In 1903 a new Department of Commerce and 
 Labor was created, the Secretary being made a 
 member of the cabinet. A Bureau of Manufac¬ 
 tures and Corporations was established, with 
 functions of investigation. Laws for the reor¬ 
 ganization of the militia and increase of the 
 navy were passed. A general staff for the army 
 was created. In 1903 Wisconsin adopted the first 
 State-wide primary-election law for the nomi¬ 
 nation of elective officials. By 1913 two-thirds 
 of the States had adopted the principle in some 
 form. In 1902 Oregon adopted the initiative 
 and referendum, Montana in 1906, and Oklahoma 
 in 1907. 
 
 A convention on the Isthmian question was 
 ratified by Great Britain and the United States 
 on Dec. 16, 1901. (See Hay-Pauncefote 
 
 Treaty.) For an account of the relations be¬ 
 tween the United States and Colombia and the 
 Republic of Panama, see Panama Canal. 
 
 There occurred a number of strikes, a most 
 noteworthy development of one being the ap¬ 
 pointment by the President in October, 1902, of 
 
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 a commission to arbitrate the differences be¬ 
 tween the striking anthracite miners of Penn 
 sylvania and their employers which effected a 
 settlement and averted a coal famine. 
 
 After tedious negotiations, in January, 1903, 
 Secretary Hay and the British Ambassador 
 signed a convention for the settlement of the 
 Alaskan boundary dispute providing for its ref¬ 
 erence to a tribunal of six jurists. On Oct. 17, 
 1903, the tribunal decided the main points of 
 the controversy in favor of the United States, 
 the decision being signed by the three American 
 arbitrators, Lodge, Root, and Turner, and by 
 the English arbitrator, Lord Alverstone. The 
 refusal of the two Canadian members to agree 
 with the majority was strongly approved in 
 Canada, where the decision was received with 
 marked evidences of dissatisfaction. 
 
 In the presidential election of 1904 the Re¬ 
 publicans were again successful, and President 
 Roosevelt was elected by an enormous major¬ 
 ity of electoral votes (330 to 140). The Republi¬ 
 can National Convention met at Chicago, nomi¬ 
 nated Theodore Roosevelt for the presidency and 
 Charles W. Fairbanks for the vice presidency, 
 and adopted a platform eulogizing the admin¬ 
 istration and reaffirming the principles of the 
 previous platforms of 1896 and 1900. The Demo¬ 
 cratic National Convention met at St. Louis, 
 and its sessions were marked by a bitter contest 
 between the conservative wing and the radical 
 wing, which latter had been dominant in 1896 
 and 1900. The former triumphed, and a plat¬ 
 form w r as adopted which (as a concession to 
 the radicals) was silent on the “gold standard,” 
 arraigned the Republican administration as 
 being “spasmodic, erratic, sensational, spectacu¬ 
 lar, and arbitrary,” declared against imperial¬ 
 ism, protection, and “executive usurpation,” and 
 advocated reciprocity and “the election of United 
 States Senators by direct vote of the people.” 
 Alton B. Parker, of New York, was nominated 
 for the presidency, and Henry G. Davis, of West 
 Virginia, for the vice presidency. Other par¬ 
 ties nominated candidates for President and 
 Vice President as follows: Socialist, Eugene V. 
 Debs, of Indiana, and Benjamin Hanford, of New 
 York; Prohibitionist, Silas C. Swallow, of Penn¬ 
 sylvania, and George W. Carroll, of Texas; 
 People’s, Thomas E. Watson, of Georgia, and 
 Thomas H. Tibbies, of Nebraska; Socialist La¬ 
 bor, Charles H. Corrigan, of New York, and 
 William W. Cox, of Illinois. The record of 
 President Roosevelt since his accession to the 
 presidency was the principal issue. The popu¬ 
 lar vote was as follows: Republican, 7,628,834; 
 Democratic, 5,084,491; Socialist, 402,460; Pro¬ 
 hibitionist, 259,257; People’s, 114,753; Social¬ 
 ist Labor, 33,724. Parker carried only the 
 Solid South, Missouri excepted. 
 
 President Roosevelt’s administration was 
 marked by the especial activity of the Federal 
 government against combinations in restraint of 
 trade, discriminations by interstate carriers, and 
 the payment by railroads of rebates to favored 
 shippers. The Bureau of Corporations and Man¬ 
 ufactures and the Interstate Commerce Commis¬ 
 sion conducted investigations into the manage¬ 
 ment of various corporations. As a result suits 
 were brought by the government, and the North¬ 
 ern Securities Company, a holding company for 
 the Great Northern and Northern Pacific rail¬ 
 roads, was declared illegal and dissolved by the 
 Supreme Court in 1904, and the Beef Trust was 
 declared illegal in 1905. On March 12, 1906, 
 the Supreme Court decided that in antitrust pro¬ 
 
 ceedings witnesses might be compelled to testify 
 against their own corporations; in August the 
 Standard Oil Company was indicted in Chicago 
 and m New York for receiving rebates and for 
 accepting illegal concessions in railroad rates; 
 and in October the New York Central and Hud¬ 
 son River Railroad was convicted in New York 
 of granting illegal rebates. Other similar con¬ 
 victions were secured. 
 
 The sessions of the Fifty-ninth Congress were 
 marked by important legislation. The Hepburn 
 Rate Bill for the regulation of railroads and 
 conferring power of rate making (subject to re¬ 
 view of the courts) upon the Interstate Com¬ 
 merce Commission became a law on June 29, 
 1906; and on June 30 a rigid meat-inspection 
 bill, passed to make a continuation of the revolt¬ 
 ing conditions in the Chicago packing houses im¬ 
 possible, and a pure-food bill were signed, the 
 last going into effect on Jan. 1, 1907. 
 
 Other legislation of importance for 1906-07 
 may be briefly summarized: Alaska was allowed 
 a delegate in Congress; a Bureau of Immigration 
 was established; naturalization was made uni¬ 
 form; Japanese immigration was restricted; na¬ 
 tional-bank liabilities were limited to 30 per cent 
 of capital; salaries of Vice President, cabinet 
 members, and Speaker were increased to $12,000 
 and those of Congressmen to $7500; corporations 
 and national banks were forbidden to contribute 
 to campaign funds, the Aldrich-Vreeland Act 
 (1908) provided for a monetary commission and 
 allowed banks to issue notes on State, county, 
 or municipal bonds and to form associations for 
 issuance of notes on commercial paper; the con¬ 
 sular service was reorganized. 
 
 In April, 1906, occurred the San Francisco 
 earthquake and in August the Brownsville Af¬ 
 fair, in which negro soldiers were involved and 
 a racial question presented in politics by their 
 dismissal by President Roosevelt. 
 
 Through the President’s good offices a meeting 
 of Russian and Japanese peace commissioners at 
 Portsmouth, N. H., was brought about, and a 
 treaty of peace was concluded on Sept. 5, 1905; 
 a Pan-American Conference in which the United 
 States participated was held at Rio de Janeiro, 
 Brazil. (See Root, Elihu. ) Owing to an in¬ 
 surrection in Cuba, the United States intervened, 
 restored order, and on Sept. 29, 1906, estab¬ 
 lished a provisional government, Secretary of 
 War Taft acting as provisional Governor until 
 succeeded on October 13 by Charles F. Magoon. 
 In February, 1907, the treaty with Santo Do¬ 
 mingo was ratified whereby United States offi¬ 
 cers were to collect customs revenues and pay 
 Dominican foreign debts. 
 
 On Nov. 30, 1908, the Root-Takahira note set 
 at rest some of the fears that relations with 
 Japan might become hostile. It stated, follow¬ 
 ing treaties between Japan and England, France 
 and Russia, that the policy of both governments 
 looked towards peace, the maintenance of the 
 status quo in the Pacific Ocean and the Orient 
 and of the “open door” in China, and pledged 
 both governments to mutual consultation before 
 these policies should be changed. 
 
 Roosevelt’s administration was also a period 
 of constant agitation of reform questions in 
 which he and Republican conservatives became 
 alienated. The President’s attitude became sharp 
 and bitter, and opposition to him became more 
 virulent. The House generally followed him, but 
 the Senate sought to check what many thought 
 his overreaching ambition. Certain develop¬ 
 ments in the struggle seemed to prove that many 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
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 768 
 
 conservative Senators were identified with the 
 moneyed interests, that the powerful party or¬ 
 ganization in the Senate was formed in the in¬ 
 terests of the trusts. The results were that many 
 of the Roosevelt policies were ignored by Con¬ 
 gress and that there arose a demand for the 
 popular election of Senators. 
 
 It was generally known that President Roose¬ 
 velt favored Secretary of War Taft as his suc¬ 
 cessor. His indorsement and assistance greatly 
 aided Taft’s candidacy, which was opposed only 
 by “favorite sons” in New York, Pennsylvania, 
 Indiana, and Illinois. The Republican National 
 Convention met at Chicago, where Taft was 
 nominated for the presidency and James S. Sher¬ 
 man, of New York, for the vice presidency on 
 first ballots. The platform emphatically in¬ 
 dorsed the administrations of Roosevelt and de¬ 
 clared for postal-savings-bank system, for con¬ 
 servation, and for a downward revision of the 
 tariff with the imposition of such “duties as 
 will equal the differences between the cost of 
 production at home and abroad, together with a 
 reasonable profit to American industries.” Pub¬ 
 lic opinion was equally certain as to the out¬ 
 come of the Democratic Convention, which met 
 at Denver. The overwhelming defeat of the con¬ 
 servatives in 1904 and the reawakened conscious¬ 
 ness of the necessity for internal reform caused 
 the party to turn to its old radical leader, Wil¬ 
 liam J. Bryan. He was nominated on the first 
 ballot, and J. W. Kern, of Indiana, was selected 
 for the vice presidency. The platform was a 
 reassertion of Bryan principles, a denunciation 
 of Republican abuses, and a demand for divorce 
 of business and politics, for a diminution of the 
 powers of the Speaker of the House of Represent¬ 
 atives, for a revision of the tariff, and for a 
 Federal license for corporations which prohibited 
 duplication of directors. The Socialists nomi¬ 
 nated Eugene V. Debs, of Indiana, and Benja¬ 
 min Hanford, of New York; the Socialist Labor, 
 A. Gilhaus, of New York, and D. L. Munro, of 
 Virginia; the Prohibitionists, E. W. Chafin, of 
 Illinois, and A. S. Watkins, of Ohio; the Popu¬ 
 lists, Thomas E. Watson, of Georgia, and S. W. 
 Williams, of Indiana; the Independence League, 
 T. L. Hisgen, of Massachusetts, and J. T. Graves, 
 of Georgia. The campaign was unexciting, and, 
 although the reception of Bryan was enthusiastic, 
 it was generally thought that Taft would be elected. 
 The vote in the Electoral College for Taft was 
 321 to 162 for Bryan, and the popular vote was 
 7,679,006 for Taft to 6,409,106 for Bryan. 
 
 XXX. William Howard Taft’s Administra¬ 
 tion.* (1909-13.) In accordance with the 
 promise of the platform President Taft after his 
 inauguration summoned the Congress into ex¬ 
 traordinary session to revise the tariff. The 
 framers, Payne and Aldrich, were leaders of the 
 conservative, “stand-pat” element of the party 
 in the House and Senate respectively, and the 
 bill showed their opposition to any violent 
 change in the policy of protection. As finally 
 adopted (August 5), the Payne-Aldrich Law 
 reduced 654 rates, increased 220, and left 1150 
 unchanged. The Law provided for the estab¬ 
 lishment of a tariff board to investigate the 
 
 * Cabinet. — Secretary of State, P. C. Knox, Pennsylvania, 
 1909. Secretary of the Treasurer, Franklin MacVeagh, Illinois, 
 1909. Secretary of War, J. M. Dickinson, Tennessee, 1909; 
 H. L. Stimson, New York, 1911. Secretary of the Navy, George 
 von L. Meyer, Massachusetts, 1909. Secretary of the Interior, 
 R. A. Ballinger, Washington, 1909; W. L. Fisher, Illinois, 
 1911. Postmaster-General, F. H. Hitchcock, Massachusetts, 
 1909. Attorney-General, G. W. Wickersham, New York, 1909. 
 Secretary of Agriculture, James Wilson, Iowa, 1909. Secretary 
 of Commerce and Labor, Charles Nagel, Missouri, 1909. 
 
 operation of the measure and to recommend 
 changes, for a tax of 1 per cent upon incomes 
 of corporations earning above $5000 net, and 
 for free trade with the Philippines. Much 
 against the wishes of the insurgent Western 
 leaders and admitting that the Act did not 
 strictly comply with the pledges, Taft approved 
 it. Although the President in a speech at Win¬ 
 ona, Minn., stated that the Act was the best 
 tariff law his party had ever adopted, the gen¬ 
 eral opinion was that the conservatives had 
 triumphed and that the wishes of the people 
 had not been regarded. Whether he desired or 
 not, the President became identified with the 
 conservatives, and the Ballinger-Pinchot (qq.v.) 
 controversy (August, 1909) seemed to confirm 
 this association. See Conservation. 
 
 In 1910, through a coalition of Democrats and 
 insurgents, the power of Speaker Cannon to con¬ 
 trol the Rules Committee and debate in general 
 was broken in a dramatic parliamentary struggle. 
 A resolution, introduced March 10, provided 
 for the elimination of the Speaker from the 
 committee and the appointment of it by the 
 House. 
 
 The important measures of the regular session, 
 passed in 1910, may be summarized as follows: 
 a Commerce Court was established to pass upon 
 cases investigated by the Interstate Commerce 
 Commission; a postal-savings-bank system was 
 created; the publication of campaign expenses 
 in Federal elections was required; the powers of 
 the Interstate Commerce Commission were en¬ 
 larged in a new railroad bill; the Mann “White 
 Slave” Act was adopted; and in 1911 a limit 
 was placed on contributions to campaign funds 
 for Congressmen. 
 
 The division in the Republican party was 
 further intensified by the ill-concealed sympathy 
 of Roosevelt, who had returned from Africa on 
 March 21, 1910, for the radical insurgents. (See 
 Roosevelt.) Owing to this widening breach, to 
 the development of new leaders, and the wide¬ 
 spread discontent with the tariff law, the Demo¬ 
 crats, in the election of 1910, won a notable 
 victory, carrying the House by a majority of 
 66 and increasing their membership in the Sen¬ 
 ate from 32 to 41. The Democrats in the House 
 of Representatives made a fundamental change 
 in procedure by having committee members 
 elected by the House on nomination of the Com¬ 
 mittee on Ways and Means. 
 
 On Jan. 26, 1911, the President submitted the 
 outline of the Canadian Reciprocity Treaty 
 which he had negotiated in an attempt to con¬ 
 form to his tariff pledges. It provided for lower 
 duties on many food products and some manu¬ 
 factured articles, and it became a popular meas¬ 
 ure. For success, however, it soon developed 
 that it depended upon Democratic votes in both 
 Chambers. Congress, in extra session, passed 
 the Reciprocity Bill on July 22. At the same 
 time the Democratic party, led with skill by 
 Oscar W. Underwood and aided by the insur¬ 
 gents, adopted tariff bills revising several sched¬ 
 ules, viz., the Farmer’s Free List, the Wool Bill, 
 and the Cotton Bill, all of which w r ere vetoed by 
 the President on the ground that they were not 
 scientifically drafted on the recommendation of 
 the tariff board. Taft’s hopes for Canadian re¬ 
 ciprocity were blasted when, on September 21, 
 Canada defeated ratification. The conservatives 
 were further weakened before the public by the 
 Lorimer scandal. (See Lorimer.) Charged 
 with use of bribery in securing his election, he 
 was exonerated in 1911, but in 1912 his seat 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 769 
 
 was declared vacant. This scandal, the popular 
 disapproval of the obstructive methods of the 
 conservative Senate, and the prolonged dead¬ 
 locks in several State Legislatures where Sena¬ 
 tors were to be elected, gave such an impetus to 
 the demand for the popular election of Senators 
 that a constitutional amendment (the Seven¬ 
 teenth) to that effect was submitted (1912) to 
 the States and ratified (1913). In 1913, also, 
 the States ratified the Sixteenth Amendment 
 (submitted 1911), granting authority to Con¬ 
 gress to enact income-tax laws, which had been 
 recommended by Taft in 1909. 
 
 In 1911 the Supreme Court gave important 
 decisions holding that the Standard Oil and 
 American Tobacco companies had conducted their 
 business in unreasonable and undue restraint of 
 trade and that they should be dissolved into 
 their original, constituent elements. In 1911, 
 also, Senator Aldrich submitted the plan of the 
 monetary commission for currency reform, pro¬ 
 viding for the Federal incorporation of a Re¬ 
 serve Association with $300,000,000 capitaliza¬ 
 tion. Favored by most bankers, it was suspi¬ 
 ciously opposed by the public because of the 
 dominance of private control provided in the 
 scheme. 
 
 Important legislation of the Sixty-first Con¬ 
 gress may be mentioned as follows: an Act for 
 the government of the Panama Canal zone pro¬ 
 vided for the exemption from tolls of American 
 ships engaged in coastwise trade; an Act pro¬ 
 viding civil government for Alaska; New Mexico 
 and Arizona were admitted as separate States 
 (1912) ; an Immigration Law having a literacy 
 test was vetoed by the President; a Law creating 
 the Department of Labor with a secretary of 
 cabinet rank was adopted (1913) ; and the Com¬ 
 merce Court was destroyed by withholding main¬ 
 tenance funds (1913). During this Congress 
 there were numerous investigations, such as 
 that of the Money Trust, the Shipping Trust, and 
 the Steel Trust. See Pujo; Trusts. 
 
 In 1909 the United States forces of occupation 
 were withdrawn from Cuba, and the civil govern¬ 
 ment surrendered in accordance with promises. 
 In that year, also, the long-standing differences 
 with Venezuela were peacefully settled in that 
 the Gomez government, more amenable than that 
 of the deposed Castro, agreed to a reference to 
 The Hague for arbitration. Diplomatic inter¬ 
 course between the two countries was resumed. 
 The United States was greatly aroused, in De¬ 
 cember, 1909, over the execution of two Ameri¬ 
 cans by the Zelaya government of Nicaragua, 
 against which a successful revolution was being 
 waged. 
 
 In 1910 Secretary Knox proposed to the vari¬ 
 ous nations the establishment of a permanent 
 court of arbitral justice at The Hague. At the 
 same time he and the President were negotiating 
 arbitration treaties with the principal European 
 nations. Those with Great Britain and France 
 attracted wide attention, for they provided for 
 peace and arbitration of any questions “justici¬ 
 able in their nature” that might arise. These 
 treaties, signed Aug. 3, 1911, enlisted the en¬ 
 thusiastic support of the President, who spoke 
 for them while on tour, but they were not satis¬ 
 factory to the Senate, where they were thought 
 to deprive it of its constitutional right in rati¬ 
 fying treaties. The treaty had provided that 
 in case of disagreement as to whether or not a 
 matter was subject to arbitration the question 
 should be placed before a joint commission and 
 the matter submitted to arbitration or not, ac¬ 
 
 cording to its decision. Striking out this article, 
 the treaties were ratified March 7, 1912. 
 
 In September, 1912, the Alsop claims between 
 United States and Chile were decided. In De¬ 
 cember, 1911, the subsisting treaty of 1832 with 
 Russia was abrogated, because of the disregard 
 by Russia of American passports issued to natu¬ 
 ralized Jews. From 1910 to 1913 President Taft 
 was greatly concerned witli the complications 
 arising from the revolutions in Mexico against 
 Diaz and later Madero. Large forces of Ameri¬ 
 can soldiers were detailed to patrol the border 
 and maintain neutrality, and warships were sent 
 to many of the Mexican harbors. The adminis¬ 
 tration was opposed to intervention, but still 
 sought to protect American interests and lives. 
 Finally, in March, 1912, Congress authorized the 
 President to place an embargo on the shipment 
 of arms across the border into Mexico. Taft de¬ 
 clined to recognize the Huerta government, which 
 succeeded that of Madero in February, 1913. 
 
 In 1912 there was a rumor that Mexico was 
 about to sell a portion of Magdalena Bay terri¬ 
 tory to Japanese interests. This led to the adop¬ 
 tion of the Lodge Resolution in July, which 
 effected an extension of the Monroe Doctrine to 
 the effect that the United States would oppose 
 the selling by American nations of lands to 
 foreign corporations which might be used as 
 naval bases to threaten the communications and 
 safety of the United States. 
 
 Secretary Knox, with respect to the Orient, 
 insisted on the maintenance of the “open door” 
 policy and secured in 1912 the right of the 
 United States financiers to participate in a pro¬ 
 posed loan to China and in the financing of pro¬ 
 jected railways. 
 
 In the presidential campaign of 1912 three 
 Republicans were prominent in seeking the nomi¬ 
 nation, Taft, Roosevelt, and La Follette (qq.v.). 
 The last, though at first supported by Roosevelt, 
 was eliminated by illness, unpopularity in the 
 East, and by Roosevelt’s candidacy. In the pre¬ 
 convention contest for delegates preferential 
 primaries were used in many States for the first 
 time for the selection of delegates, and in all 
 but three of such States Roosevelt was success¬ 
 ful. The convention met at Chicago, where the 
 contested seats were largely decided in favor 
 of Taft delegates. (See Root; Rosewater.) 
 Roosevelt declared the decisions were a “clear 
 steal,” and most of his followers declined to take 
 part in the balloting. Taft was nominated on 
 the first ballot, and James S. Sherman was re¬ 
 nominated for Vice President. The situation in 
 the Democratic party was even more confused. 
 Speaker Champ Clark, of Missouri, Gov. Judson 
 Harmon, of Ohio, Gov. Woodrow Wilson, of New 
 Jersey, and Representative Oscar W. Underwood, 
 of Alabama, among others were the most promi¬ 
 nent candidates. The convention met at Balti¬ 
 more, where a dramatic contest took place be¬ 
 tween the conservatives, led by A. B. Parker, 
 and the progressives, led by Bryan. The con¬ 
 servatives elected Parker temporary chairman, 
 but the radicals elected the permanent chairman, 
 Ollie James. At first no one had a majority, 
 and a two-thirds majority was required. On the 
 forty-sixth ballot Woodrow Wilson, who after 
 New York began to vote for Clark had the strong 
 personal support of Bryan, was nominated. His 
 immediate nomination was probably caused by 
 the threat of Bryan to force a referendum to the 
 people. Thomas R. Marshall, of Indiana, was 
 named for Vice President. Roosevelt left the 
 Republican party and rapidly organized a new 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 770 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 one, the Progressive, and at Chicago in August 
 received the nomination for the presidency. 
 Hiram W. Johnson, of California, was nomi¬ 
 nated for Vice President. The Socialist party 
 at Indianapolis named Eugene V. Debs, of Illi¬ 
 nois, and Emil Seidel, of Wisconsin; the Social¬ 
 ist Labor, A. E. Reimer, of Massachusetts, and 
 August Gilhous, of New York; the Prohibition¬ 
 ists, E. W. Chafin, of Illinois, and A. S. Watkins, 
 of Ohio. The platforms did not differ radically 
 as to specific recommendations, and on prin¬ 
 ciples the Republicans and Progressives did not 
 widely differ as to public economics, nor the 
 Democrats and Progressives as to social reform. 
 The campaign abounded in bitter attacks on 
 Roosevelt and emphatic replies from him. The 
 election occurred November 5 and resulted in 
 the choice of Wilson. The popular vote was 
 0,286,214 for ’Wilson, 4,120,020 for Roosevelt, 
 3,483,022 for Taft, 897,011 for Debs, and 208,923 
 for Chafin. A remarkable development of the 
 voting was the increase of Socialist strength. 
 It more than doubled its 1908 record, rising from 
 402,400 to 897,011. The electoral vote was 435 
 for Wilson, 88 for Roosevelt, and 8 for Taft. 
 The Democrats also secured the House by a 
 majority of 120 over all parties and the Senate 
 by 7. See Democratic, Republican, and Pro¬ 
 gressive parties. 
 
 XXXI. Woodrow Wilson’s Administra¬ 
 tion.* (1913-21). Shortly after his induction 
 into office President Wilson called the Congress 
 into extraordinary session to revise the tariff. 
 The event of its meeting was signalized by a 
 return to the custom of Washington and Adams 
 of addressing the Houses in person. The Demo¬ 
 crats promptly organized themselves into an 
 efficient machine, headed by Speaker Clark and 
 Leader Underwood in the House and Simmons 
 and Kern in the Senate. The new Tariff Act was 
 drafted bv Underwood and Simmons and was 
 passed October 3. The bill was an effort to re¬ 
 turn to a revenue tariff on the one hand and 
 an effort to prevent business disturbance on the 
 other. On a rough average duties were reduced 
 to a 20 per cent basis, and a provision was made 
 for free sugar within three years. The duty 
 was continued in 1916, the revenue being needed. 
 To take the place of the revenue lost because 
 of the new sugar schedule, an income tax was 
 made a part of the tariff law. The progressive 
 principle was employed in that incomes above 
 $4000 ($3000 for unmarried persons) were taxed 
 1 per cent, $30,000 to $50,000 2 per cent, above 
 $75,000 3 per cent, above $100,000 4 per cent, 
 and so on until those above $500,000 were taxed 
 7 per cent. Despite the purpose mentioned there 
 occurred in 1913-14 a serious business depres¬ 
 sion, and the protectionists promptly asserted 
 that the measure was a failure. Congress was 
 at the same time considering the problem of 
 currency reform, and the Glass-Owen Bill was 
 framed, which, with an important amendment 
 suggested by Root requiring a gold reserve, ef¬ 
 fected changes of far-reaching consequence. See 
 Reserve Bank, Federal. 
 
 * Cabinet. —Secretary of State, William J. Bryan, Ne¬ 
 braska, 1913; Robert Lansing, New York, 1915. Secretary 
 of the Treasury, W. G. McAdoo, New York, 1913. Secretary 
 of War, L. M. Garrison, New Jersey, 1913; Newton D. 
 Baker, Ohio, 1916. Secretary of the Navy, Josephus Daniels, 
 North Carolina, 1913. Secretary of the Interior, Franklin K. 
 Lane, California, 1913. Postmaster-General, A. S. Burleson, 
 Texas, 1913. Attorney-General, J. C. McReynolds, Ten¬ 
 nessee, 1913; Thos. W. Gregory, Texas, 1914. Secretary of 
 Agriculture, D. F. Houston, Missouri, 1913. Secretary 
 of Commerce, W. C. Redfield, New York, 1913. Secretary of 
 Labor, W. B. Wilson, Pennsylvania, 1913. 
 
 During 1913 foreign relations occupied a large 
 share of the President’s attention—as they did 
 throughout the administration—and many prob¬ 
 lems of delicate nature were confronted. The 
 Mexican problem early became embarrassing. 
 Wilson refused to recognize Huerta as the head 
 of a de facto government, largely on account of 
 the moral principle that the latter was a usurper 
 who had connived at the murder of Madero. Al¬ 
 though the embargo on arms was continued, 
 Huerta was unable to secure loans; and the 
 revolution of the Constitutionalists, led by Car¬ 
 ranza and Villa, gathered force. (See Mexico; 
 Huerta; Villa.) Relations with Japan were 
 also strained by the passage of laws by the State 
 of California prohibiting the ownership of lands 
 by aliens who could not be naturalized. Japan 
 protested against the discrimination and the vio¬ 
 lation of treaty rights, and the President sent 
 Secretary of State Bryan to California in an 
 effort to secure a change in the State legislation 
 without success. The countries exchanged notes, 
 and a modus vivendi was finally arranged 
 whereby the United States agreed to test the 
 laws in the courts, and Japan made promises as 
 to future immigration. On May 2 Wilson recog¬ 
 nized the Republic of China, having previously 
 advised American bankers not to participate in 
 the international railway loans. In March he 
 announced to Latin American countries which 
 had been suffering from revolutions that the 
 United States would support only “the orderly 
 processes of just government, based upon law, 
 not upon arbitrary or irregular force.” Condi¬ 
 tions in Nicaragua (q.v.) finally resulted in the 
 conclusion of a treaty which virtually established 
 an American protectorate on the principle of the 
 Platt Amendment. In December, 1913, Wilson 
 delivered a special message on the Mexican situ¬ 
 ation in which he stated that there could be no 
 peace until Huerta was eliminated. Observing 
 that the revolution was succeeding, he thought 
 that Huerta would soon be crushed and saw no 
 reason why we should be obliged “to alter our 
 policy of watchful waiting.” At the same time 
 the Hay Volunteer Bill was enacted providing 
 for an emergency volunteer army of 242,000 
 men. 
 
 Meanwhile Congress was considering the rec¬ 
 ommendations of the President relative to trust 
 legislation and rural credits. Of five proposed 
 bills two became law, the Interstate Trade Com¬ 
 mission Bill, Sept. 8, and the Clayton Anti- 
 Trust Act, Oct. 8, 1914. The first provided for 
 a commission of five members with powers of 
 investigation, supervision, and prevention of un¬ 
 fair competition; the latter embodied the ideas 
 of the Democrats on the trust problem. (See 
 Trusts.) It prohibited interlocking directorates 
 and forbade the use of injunctions in labor dis¬ 
 putes. Prior to the adoption of these acts the 
 President had secured another victory in the 
 repeal of the Panama Canal Tolls legislation. 
 The issue had arisen because of the protest of 
 Great Britain that the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty 
 had been violated. The President in a special 
 message asked for the repeal on the grounds that 
 the law was a mistaken economic policy, a con¬ 
 travention of treaty obligations, and that the 
 repeal would aid him in the conduct of foreign 
 affairs. With these acts adopted a remarkable 
 legislative record was completed, and Congress 
 adjourned after the longest continuous session 
 within the history of the country. 
 
 The situation as to foreign affairs in 1914 had 
 become increasingly acute. On February 3 the 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 771 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 President had lifted the embargo on the ship¬ 
 ment of arms into Mexico, and the revolutionists 
 had purchased large amounts of munitions, ena¬ 
 bling them to make substantial progress against 
 Huerta. On April 9 occurred the Tampico in¬ 
 cident, which involved the arrest by a Huertista 
 officer of some United States marines while on a 
 peaceful errand to buy gasoline and supplies. 
 Rear Admiral Mayo demanded their surrender, 
 an apology, and a salute to the United States 
 flag. Strained negotiations followed in which 
 Huerta refused to comply with the demand for 
 the salute, in which Wilson had supported Mayo. 
 On April 20 the President asked authority from 
 Congress to employ the military and naval forces 
 to exact reparation. It was granted, and in 
 pursuance of it Vera Cruz was occupied after 18 
 men were killed. Although the cause seemed 
 trivial and the method to involve complications, 
 intervention found ready support, though many 
 urged that it should have been on the grounds 
 of protection to American lives and property. 
 The administration, on the contrary, had warned 
 Americans to leave Mexico, and funds had been 
 appropriated for the purpose of aiding them. 
 While plans were being made for the invasion 
 of Mexico, Wilson accepted the good offices of 
 Argentina, Brazil, and Chile, and agreed to ap¬ 
 point commissioners to meet at Niagara Falls 
 to discuss ways of effecting peace and the settle¬ 
 ment of the Mexican problem. While the com¬ 
 missioners were meeting, Huerta, having suffered 
 defeat, resigned and left the government to Car¬ 
 bajal, who in turn relinquished it to Carranza. 
 The forces of the United States were withdrawn 
 from Vera Cruz (November, 1914). A treaty 
 was negotiated with Colombia in an attempt to 
 settle her grievances, in which it was stipulated 
 that the United States pay $25,000,000 and give 
 certain concessions. The Senate postponed con¬ 
 sideration of it. During the year 20 peace and 
 arbitration treaties were negotiated, of which 18 
 were ratified. 
 
 The European War, in which the United States 
 promptly declared its neutrality, had immediate 
 important economic and legislative effects in the 
 United States. (See War in Europe.) In 
 August a bill was passed admitting foreign-built 
 ships to the American registry with certain re¬ 
 strictions as to coastwise trade. A War Risk 
 Insurance Act was adopted providing for emer¬ 
 gency insurance for ships. It was promptly 
 seen that the stopping of a large part of the 
 imports would curtail the revenues and produce 
 a deficit. To prevent this development an emer¬ 
 gency revenue bill was passed providing for an 
 increased internal-revenue taxation system. 
 
 The election of 1914 had for its issues the 
 new tariff law and the record of the President. 
 The Democrats were successful in retaining their 
 majorities in Congress, but they were reduced 
 in the House, the vote being Democrats 232, Re¬ 
 publicans 194, and Progressives 7. In the Senate 
 the Democrats were increased to 53 and the op¬ 
 position reduced to 43. 
 
 The war brought great increase in the export 
 trade, especially in foodstuffs and munitions, 
 most of the former and practically all of the 
 latter going to the Allies, since German shipping 
 had been largely withdrawn from the seas. The 
 great demand caused the available shipping to 
 be overtaxed, and the President introduced in 
 December, 1914, a request for a Ship Purchase 
 Bill. The proposition evoked such opposition 
 that the Republicans, in February, 1915, in a 
 prolonged filibuster aided by seven Democrats, 
 
 defeated the measure. In this the President 
 experienced his first serious defeat in Congress. 
 
 In the European War there had developed 
 something of a deadlock, and both sides resorted 
 to indirect methods of inflicting injury. The 
 United States was almost in the situation which 
 existed prior to the War of 1812, and intricate 
 complications developed with both Germany and 
 Great Britain. To the one Secretary Brvan sent 
 
 V 1 
 
 a note declaring that the United States would 
 hold Germany to a “strict accountability,” and 
 to the other a firm protest against the prevention 
 of legitimate American trade by means of illegal 
 blockade and vexatious delays in prize proced¬ 
 ures. Deep irritation had been caused by the 
 destruction of the steamer Gulfiight by a Ger¬ 
 man submarine and by the seizure of the Wil- 
 helmina and Dacia by Great Britain and France. 
 The United States, however, was horrified when 
 the Lusitania, on May 7, without warning was 
 torpedoed by a submarine, when more than 1000 
 persons, including 114 Americans, lost their 
 lives. On May 13 Wilson sent a strong note to 
 Germany demanding a disavowal of the act, in¬ 
 demnity for the violation of American rights, 
 and stating that the United States stood firmly 
 on the ground that Americans had the right to 
 travel on merchant ships of belligerent national¬ 
 ity. Relations between the two countries reached 
 the breaking point, and many expected and de¬ 
 sired war. A large party developed in the coun¬ 
 try urging military preparation to meet compli¬ 
 cations which might involve it in war. Atten¬ 
 tion was directed towards the large number of 
 Americans of German birth and descent who 
 thought that the United States should preserve 
 true neutrality by prohibiting the export of mu¬ 
 nitions to the Allies exclusively. They empha¬ 
 sized the trade restrictions of Great Britain and 
 alleged that Germany was being deprived of food 
 for its civil population. Notes were inter¬ 
 changed, the tone of the American communica¬ 
 tions becoming more insistent, until on Septem¬ 
 ber 1 Germany declared that liners were not to 
 be sunk without warning. Despite the fact that 
 the cases of the N ebraskan and the Arabic (dis¬ 
 avowed October 5) had arisen and depended on 
 separate negotiations, this announcement was 
 regarded as a Wilson victory. There remained 
 the necessity for Germany to disavow the de¬ 
 struction of the Lusitania and indemnify Amer¬ 
 ican citizens. Wilson’s position in the corre¬ 
 spondence with Germany had caused the resigna¬ 
 tion of Secretary Bryan (June), who thought 
 that his ideas might lead to war and who urged 
 that Americans should be warned to remain off 
 passenger ships of the warring nations. In the 
 meanwhile the indignation among German sym¬ 
 pathizers respecting the supply of munitions to 
 the Allies caused many to plan the disturbance 
 of labor by bringing about strikes. Plots were 
 formed, it was alleged, and executed involving 
 the explosion of bombs in factories and the de¬ 
 struction of many munition plants. It was 
 established that * the Austrian Ambassador, 
 Dumba, was implicated, and his recall was de¬ 
 manded (September 9). Attaches, Boy-Ed and 
 Von Papen, of the German Embassy, had a simi¬ 
 lar fate on December 3. 
 
 During the short session of Congress an immi¬ 
 gration bill was adopted (1915), with a literacy 
 test included, which the President vetoed. In 
 June, 1915, the Supreme Court rendered two im¬ 
 portant decisions, deciding against the govern¬ 
 ment in the dissolution suit against the Steel 
 Trust and, secondly, that the grandfather clauses 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 772 
 
 of the Oklahoma and Maryland constitutions 
 were void. 
 
 On October 19, President Wilson recognized 
 Carranza as heading the de facto government of 
 Mexico and began to assist him in eliminating 
 Villa. 
 
 In December, 1915 the President’s message 
 was almost wholly devoted to the championship 
 of military preparedness, although the year be¬ 
 fore he had opposed those who would turn Amer¬ 
 ica into an armed camp, and at the opening of 
 1916 that appeared as the supreme issue in 
 American politics. 
 
 In December, 1915, the sinking of the Persia 
 in the Mediterranean Sea again brought the con¬ 
 troversy over submarine warfare to the fore. 
 While negotiations were still pending over this 
 incident the channel boat Sussex was torpedoed 
 with a loss of over 100 lives. This aroused con¬ 
 siderable comment inasmuch as the Sussex was 
 strictly a passenger vessel and unarmed. The 
 question of arming merchantmen for defense pre¬ 
 sented a serious problem. A resolution warning 
 Americans not to sail on armed merchantmen 
 failed to pass both Houses of Congress, indi¬ 
 cating that the President was to carry on for¬ 
 eign relations without interference from Con¬ 
 gress. On April 14 the United States govern¬ 
 ment demanded that submarine warfare, as it 
 affected neutrals, be abandoned under a penalty 
 of a break in diplomatic relations. See Volume 
 XXIV for the German reply. 
 
 In February, 1916 Secretary of War Garrison 
 resigned because he could not agree with Presi¬ 
 dent V ilson on the question of national defense. 
 NeAvton D. Baker, of Cleveland, succeeded. 
 
 In the early part of 1916 the Mexican situa¬ 
 tion was considerably altered. In January Vil- 
 Iista forces killed several American miners and 
 the United States government demanded that the 
 de facto government punish the guilty parties. 
 On March 9 Villa with about 500 followers in¬ 
 vaded the town of Columbus, N. Mex., killed 7 
 troopers and several civilians, and set fire to 
 many buildings. When he fled he Avas pursued 
 across the border by United States soldiers. The 
 next day President Wilson ordered a punitive 
 expedition to cross the border, with scrupulous 
 respect for the sovereignty of the Mexican Re¬ 
 public. An agreement was made with General 
 Carranza which permitted him to cross the 
 United States border in pursuit of escaping ban¬ 
 dits. A force under General Pershing Avith the 
 cooperation of Carranza troops pushed Villa into 
 the mountain regions of Chihuahua. Several 
 desultory engagements Avere fought. At Parral 
 l nited States soldiers Avere fired on bv natives, 
 and General Carranza demanded the " recall of 
 the punitive expedition. This Avas refused by the 
 United States on the ground that the de facto 
 government Avas not able to keep the peace 
 along the border. A conference Avas held be- 
 t aa een representatives of the tAA 7 o governments 
 to attempt to settle the question of border 
 control, but as no definite agreement could be 
 reached, the expeditionary force remained in 
 Mexico to prevent further violations of the 
 sovereignty of the United States. The State 
 militia aa as called out to protect the border. In 
 1916 Charles E. Hughes and Woodrow Wilson 
 AA 7 ere the candidates nominated for the Presi¬ 
 dency by the Republican and Democratic Con¬ 
 ventions respectively. Charles W. Fairbanks 
 and Thomas R. Marshall were the vice-presi¬ 
 dential nominees. 
 
 An element of the Progressive Party nom¬ 
 inated Theodore Roosevelt for President but he 
 declined the nomination and heartily supported 
 Mr. Hughes during the campaign. Mr. Wilson 
 was re-elected by an extremely small margin, 
 the issue being in doubt for several days. It 
 was decided only by his success in winning the 
 electoral vote in California. The electoral \ r ote 
 stood 277 for Wilson and 254 for Hughes. The 
 President’s popular vote showed a gain of tAvo 
 million over that of 1912, in spite of the fact 
 that the Republicans gained in the House of 
 Representatives and elected many of their State 
 candidates. 
 
 throughout 1916 the United States was 
 brought nearer to Avar with Germany. The 
 German war submarine U-53 entered Newport 
 harbor on October 7, 1917, and after delivering 
 mail for the German Embassy, departed. With¬ 
 in the next tAvo days it had sunk, in SAvift 
 succession, one Dutch, one NorAvegian and three 
 British ships within sight of the American coast. 
 The submarine escaped unharmed. 
 
 The President made efforts during December, 
 1916 and January, 1917 to bring about a condi¬ 
 tion among the combatant nations which would 
 lead to peace, endeavoring among other things 
 to secure a statement of terms from both sides 
 upon which the war could be honorably con¬ 
 cluded. These attempts are described in the 
 article Volume XXIV. 
 
 Following closely on these efforts, Ger¬ 
 many embarked on a ruthless submarine war¬ 
 fare, declaring that all merchant ships found 
 in a prohibited zone would be sunk after 
 February 1, 1917, without warning. Presi¬ 
 
 dent Wilson, on February 3, addressed both. 
 Houses of Congress and declared that he had 
 directed the Secretary of State to announce to 
 the German Ambassador that all diplomatic 
 relations between the tvro goA’ernments were 
 severed, and that the American Ambassador had 
 been recalled from Berlin. The President de¬ 
 clared further that he hoped that Germany would 
 not actually embark upon the ruthless sub¬ 
 marine warfare and that only overt acts on her 
 part would convince him that she would do 
 so. There followed a period during which the 
 President waited for such overt acts. In the 
 meantime the government undertook whatever 
 measures were possible looking toAA r ard war. 
 Congress, on February 26, gave President Wilson 
 authority to supply guns and ammunition to 
 American merchant ships. German submarine 
 Avarfare Avas carried on with great ferocity and 
 Allied and American vessels Avere sunk. Congress 
 Avas called in special session on April 2 and 
 the President made an address in which he sum¬ 
 marized the offenses of Germany against the 
 United States goA 7 ernment and recommended that 
 Congress declare that the course of the German 
 government Avas nothing less than war against 
 the government and people of the United 
 States. A resolution declaring Avar was passed 
 by both Houses and Avas signed by the Presi¬ 
 dent on April 6. 
 
 The details of preparation for and the carry¬ 
 ing on of Avar upon Avhich the United States 
 noAV embarked are told in the account of the 
 war in Volume XXIV. See also section on 
 Army above. The successful outcome of the 
 struggle was made possible by the unAvavering 
 loyalty and devotion of the "American people 
 in military and civil capacities to the one object 
 of bringing about a victorious issue. The polit. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 773 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 ical happenings of 1917—18 had to do almost 
 entirely with the war, which obscured all other 
 issues and united all political parties to a 
 common end. 
 
 When the war was concluded the nation 
 quickly returned to a peace basis and prepara¬ 
 tions were at once begun for the return of 
 American soldiers from Europe. The first of 
 these arrived on December 2, 1918 and they 
 were followed by thousands of others in quick 
 succession until all had been returned except 
 the forces left in Germany to represent the 
 United States. The President, on November 
 18, 1918, announced that he would attend the 
 Peace Conference in Paris in person. He named 
 as peace delegates, Robert Lansing, Secretary of 
 State; Henry White, formerly Ambassador to 
 France; Edward M. House, and General Tasker 
 H. Bliss. Mr. White was the Republican rep¬ 
 resentative. The President was received in 
 Paris with great enthusiasm and, prior to the 
 meeting of the peace conference, lie made visits 
 to Great Britain and Italy, where he was hailed 
 as the savior of the world. 
 
 The President’s chief concern at the peace 
 conference was the preparation of the covenant 
 of the League of Nations and he gave his utmost 
 efforts to this object. After the first draft of 
 the covenant had been prepared, he returned to 
 the United States for a brief visit, on February 
 24, 1919. There had already developed in Con¬ 
 gress, especially in the Senate, a pronounced 
 opposition to the terms of the covenant. This 
 opposition was centered chiefly upon Article 10, 
 which pledged the United States “to preserve as 
 against external aggression, the territory of all 
 the states in the League.” President Wilson, 
 during his stay in the United States, made 
 several addresses in which he defended the 
 covenant. He* then returned to Paris. When 
 the Treaty of Versailles was signed, on June 28, 
 1919, the President at once returned to the 
 United States, arriving on July 9. 
 
 The Eighteenth Amendment prohibiting the 
 sale or manufacture of intoxicating liquors be¬ 
 came effective on July 1, 1919, three-fourths of 
 the States having ratified the amendment. The 
 amendment, however, was not put into opera¬ 
 tion until Januarv, 1920. 
 
 Political interest now centered in the de¬ 
 liberations on the peace treaty in the Senate. 
 The Committee on Foreign Relations having 
 considered the treaty, it was introduced in the 
 Senate on September 28. There had been added 
 38 amendments and four reservations. The 
 amendments were rejected and the interest was 
 centered upon the reservations. The first of 
 these gave to the Lhiited States the right to 
 withdraw from the League of Nations after due 
 notice had been given. The second freed the 
 United States from any obligation toward carry¬ 
 ing out Article 10, noted above. The third res¬ 
 ervation provided that the United States should 
 have the power to decide what questions came 
 within domestic jurisdiction. Tn the fourth 
 reservation the United States declined to submit 
 for arbitration and inquiry any questions de¬ 
 pendent on^or relating to the Monroe Doctrine. 
 The President had previously, on the advice of 
 President Taft and others, inserted in the treaty 
 a declaration that the Monroe Doctrine continued 
 to be in force. After a long debate in the 
 Senate in which much bitterness developed, the 
 treaty was defeated, with the reservations by 
 a vote of 55 to 39; and without the reservations, 
 
 by a vote of 55 to 38. On April 30, 1920, Sena¬ 
 tor Knox introduced a resolution in the Senate 
 providing for a declaration of peace with Ger¬ 
 many. This resolution was adopted by both 
 Houses but was vetoed by the President. A 
 bill for the conduct and regulation of railways 
 was passed by Congress during this session. 
 
 Robert Lansing, Secretary of State, resigned 
 on February 13 as a result of severe criticism 
 of his action in summoning the Cabinet in 
 session during the illness of the President. He 
 was succeeded by Bainbridge Colby of New 
 Jersey. 
 
 The chief issue of the presidential campaign 
 of 1920 was the League of Nations. While the 
 treaty was being considered in the Senate, Presi¬ 
 dent Wilson made an extended tour of the 
 country, making addresses on its behalf. This 
 was brought to an end by a physical break¬ 
 down in the nature of a shock, which prevented 
 his active participation in the affairs of the 
 government practically until the end of his term. 
 
 The Republican candidates for the nomination 
 prior to the convention were General Leonard 
 Wood, Governor Lowden of Illinois, Senator 
 Hiram Johnson of California, and Herbert Hoo¬ 
 ver. The leading Democratic candidates were 
 William G. McAdoo and Governor James M. 
 Cox of Ohio. The Republican National Conven¬ 
 tion met in Chicago on June 8. The forces of 
 General Wood and Governor Lowden were so 
 evenly matched that the contest ended on June 
 12 by the nomination of Senator Warren G. 
 Harding for President and Governor Calvin 
 Coolidge of Massachusetts for Vice-President. 
 At the Democratic convention, which met at 
 San Francisco on June 28, Governor Cox was 
 nominated for President and Franklin D. Roose¬ 
 velt of New York, Assistant Secretary of the 
 Treasury, for Vice-President. The campaign 
 which followed was an exceedingly aggressive 
 one, especially on the part of Mr. Cox, who 
 toured the country making speeches in defense 
 of the League of Nations in practically every 
 State. Senator Harding remained at home, 
 where from day to day he addressed delegations. 
 The Republicans, for the most part, ignored 
 the League of Nations but directed their attacks 
 to the administration of the President. In the 
 election in November, Harding received 16,091,- 
 804 popular votes and Cox, 9,014,667. Harding 
 and Coolidge received 404 electoral votes and 
 Cox and Roosevelt, 127. These were the largest 
 popular and electoral majorities ever cast. 
 
 The Congressional elections gave the Repub¬ 
 licans 307 members in the House and the Dem¬ 
 ocrats 127. The Republicans gained a majority 
 of 22 in the Senate. 
 
 The Nineteenth Amendment providing for 
 women suffrage had been adopted prior to the 
 election, and the women, for the first time, par¬ 
 ticipated in the election of a president. 
 
 Warren G. Harding’s Administration 
 (1921- ). President Harding was inaugu¬ 
 
 rated on March 4, 1921. He at once announced 
 the members of his Cabinet, as follows: Secre¬ 
 tary of State, Charles E. Hughes of New York; 
 Seeretarv of the Treasurv, Andrew W. Mellon 
 of Pennsylvania; Secretary of War, John W. 
 Weeks of Massachusetts; Secretary' of the 
 Navy, Edwin C. Denby of Michigan; Secretary 
 of the Interior, Albert B. Fall of New Mexico; 
 Postmaster-General, Will H. Hays of Ohio; 
 Attorney-General, Harry M. Daugherty of Ohio; 
 Secretary of Agriculture, Henry C. Wallace of 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 774 
 
 Iowa; Secretary of Commerce, Herbert Hoover 
 of California; and Secretary of Labor, James 
 J. Davis of Pennsylvania. On March 23 the 
 President issued a call for a special session of 
 Congress to be held on April 11, 1921. Congress 
 at once took up the consideration of measures 
 looking toward economic and financial recon¬ 
 struction. An Immigration Bill, which limited 
 the immigrants of any nationality, during the 
 fiscal year, to three per cent of the number 
 of that nationality in the United States at the 
 census of 1910, was passed. This measure had 
 previously been vetoed by President Wilson. 
 An Emergency Tariff Bill was passed and was 
 approved by the President on May 27. A budget 
 law was enacted and was signed by the Presi¬ 
 dent. This also had been previously vetoed by 
 President Wilson. The appropriations for the 
 army and navy were radically cut down and 
 by the terms of the Army Bill, the army was 
 limited to 150,000 men. The Senate passed, on 
 April 30, a resolution previously offered by 
 Senator Knox, declaring the war between the 
 United States and the Central Powers at an 
 end and repealing the declaration of war. This 
 was followed by the preparation and ratification 
 of a treaty with Germany. By the terms of 
 this treaty the United States is not bound by 
 any of the provisions of the Versailles Treaty 
 which relate to the League of Nations. It re¬ 
 serves to the United States, however, whatever 
 favorable concessions are made by Germany to 
 the Allied powers. The treaty was signed by 
 the President on September 1, 1921. 
 
 A measure was passed by Congress giving 
 American coastwise shipping the right of free 
 passage through the Panama Canal. This re¬ 
 pealed the former measure by which tolls were 
 charged for American as well as other vessels. 
 The laws relating to taxation were amended 
 by Congress and the income tax was reduced in 
 some particulars. The elections held in Novem¬ 
 ber indicated support of the actions of the 
 government. Negotiations were carried on dur¬ 
 ing the year with Mexico with the object of 
 bringing about a better understanding with that 
 country and the recognition by the American 
 government. 
 
 The overwhelming sentiment against war and 
 for the decrease of expenditures for armaments 
 on the part of the American people were shared 
 by both the President and Congress. President 
 Harding, in November, 1921, issued invitations 
 for a Conference on the Limitation of Armaments 
 to include representatives of Great Britain, 
 France, Japan, Italy and Belgium. China was 
 also represented, as the conference was widened 
 to include questions relating to the Far East. 
 The conference was in session until February, 
 1922, and as a result of its deliberations, nine 
 treaties or other agreements were formulated. 
 
 1 he most important of these was the agreement 
 of the great powers to limit naval armaments 
 to a specialized number of tons and to maintain 
 the navies of Great Britain, the United States 
 and Japan on a ratio of 5—5—3. See above 
 section .A avy. In another agreement the great 
 powers agreed to respect the rights of one 
 another in the Far East and to confer if 
 trouble arose. Still another declared the inten¬ 
 tion of the great powers to respect the rights 
 of China. Japan engaged to return the province 
 of Shantung. The other treaties and agreements 
 related to various phases of naval warfare, in¬ 
 cluding the use of gas, limitation of the number 
 
 of submarines and their use in warfare, and 
 similar subjects. The United States and Japan 
 also agreed as to their mutual rights in the 
 island of Yap. 
 
 The United States declined to be represented 
 at the conference at Geneva on the ground that 
 it was a political as well as an economic con¬ 
 ference. It also declined to participate in the 
 conference at The Hague which had to do 
 with the political and economic conditions of 
 Russia. 
 
 Congress ratified all the treaties passed by 
 the Washington Conference, and a great part 
 of the deliberations during the summer of 1922 
 related to a new tariff measure. The latter half 
 of 1922 was a period of industrial turmoil and 
 dissatisfaction. A general strike of the coal 
 miners in both the anthracite and bituminous 
 fields, which for months had threatened to occur, 
 was declared in bituminous fields on April 1, 
 at the expiration of the two year contracts 
 between the operators and the employees. In 
 all the fields where union labor was employed, 
 operations in the mines ceased. Efforts were 
 at once undertaken by the President and other 
 government agencies to reconcile the differences 
 between the miners and their employers. Public 
 opinion was greatly stirred in May by an 
 assault upon non-union miners in Herrin, Ill., 
 in which nineteen non-union miners, after hav¬ 
 ing been taken prisoner by the members of 
 the striking organizations, were shot down in 
 cold blood. It was charged that the local and 
 State authorities had been dilatory in protect¬ 
 ing the non-union miners and for several months 
 little action was taken. In September, however, 
 over 50 indictments had been found against 
 union miners accused of participating in this 
 affair and there were indications that justice 
 would be rendered. 
 
 Work in the anthracite mines continued for 
 several months after the strike had begun in 
 the bituminous mines, and negotiations were 
 carried on between the employers and employees 
 which it was hoped would prevent a strike. 
 These negotiations, however, failed and the an¬ 
 thracite miners, who were almost entirely 
 unionized, abandoned their work. This resulted 
 in a non-production of coal in any except a 
 few fields, especially in West Virginia, which 
 were operated by non-union labor. Every resort 
 in the hands of the President and of the mem¬ 
 bers of his Cabinet was exercised to settle the 
 differences, so that coal could be produced in 
 time for use before the cold weather approached, 
 as the reserves of coal were speedily used up. 
 These efforts were not successful until about the 
 middle of September, when a compromise was 
 finally arrived at between the anthracite and 
 bituminous miners and their employers by which 
 they were to return to work and their difficulties 
 would be examined by a commission appointed 
 by the President. 
 
 Congress passed several measures aimed at 
 a permanent settlement of the difficulties in the 
 coal mining fields. The most important of 
 these provided for a Fact Finding Commission, 
 which should examine the coal question in all 
 its aspects and report on possible remedies for 
 the recurring disputes between employers and 
 employed. Another bill prohibiting profiteering 
 in the sale of coal used in interstate commerce 
 was passed. 
 
 No less serious than the coal strike was a 
 general strike of the shopmen on all the rail- 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 775 
 
 roads of the country, which was declared on 
 July 1, 1922. The Railroad Act of 1920 had 
 created a Railroad Labor Board which had 
 authority to arbitrate the question of wages 
 and other questions arising between the owners 
 and employees of the railroads and also the 
 authority to increase or decrease the wages 
 of employees. This board decreased the wages 
 of those employed in the repair shops and the 
 railroads, and officers of the organizations at 
 once prepared for a general strike. The men 
 voted by a large majority for such a strike and 
 the men on all the roads in the country left their 
 work on July 1. Railway officials at once began 
 to recruit men to take the place of those who 
 had left. The President, as in the case of the 
 coal strike, held many conferences with the 
 opposing elements in the effort to establish 
 an agreement by which the men could return 
 to their work. These failed, chiefly on the 
 question of seniority. All railroad employees 
 have certain rights which come from their 
 length of service, and the striking employees 
 insisted that these rights should remain with 
 them if they should return to work. The em¬ 
 ployers refused to grant this, declaring that 
 those who had left had forfeited these rights 
 and that it would be unfair to the men who 
 had taken their places if they should be de¬ 
 prived of them and the striking employees 
 restored. 
 
 This condition continued throughout the sum¬ 
 mer of 1922. 
 
 All attempts to arrive at a settlement having 
 failed, the Attorney General, in September, se¬ 
 cured an injunction against the officers of the 
 striking organizations preventing them from con¬ 
 tinuing to obstruct interstate commerce. This 
 injunction declared that a conspiracy existed 
 among these organizations to so obstruct com¬ 
 merce and that the obligation to abide by the 
 decisions of the Railroad Labor Board had not 
 been carried out. 
 
 This injunction was bitterly fought by the 
 officials of the striking organizations, who de¬ 
 clared that the Attorney General had greatly 
 exceeded his authority in obtaining such an in¬ 
 junction, and threatened his impeachment. In 
 spite of this, the injunction continued in effect 
 and writs were served upon the officers of the 
 striking organizations. 
 
 Bibliography. Physical features: J. F. 
 Kemp, Ore Deposits of the United, States (3d en¬ 
 larged ed., New York, 1900) ; I. C. Russell, 
 Lakes of North America (ib., 1905); Isaiah 
 Bowman, Forest Physiography (New York, 
 1911); and publications of the United States 
 Geological Survey (Washington), American Geo¬ 
 graphical Society (New York), Geological So¬ 
 ciety of America (ib.), etc. 
 
 Climate: The Monthly Weather Review (Wash¬ 
 ington, 1872 et seq.), and the bulletins and 
 circulars of the United States Weather Bureau 
 (ib., 1892 et seq.). 
 
 Vegetation and flora: F. M. Chapman, Flora 
 of the Southern United States (rev. ed., New 
 York, 1897); North American Flora , published 
 by the New York Botanic Garden (30 vols., 
 New York, 1905-10) ; R. B. Hough, Handbook 
 of the Trees of the Northern United States and 
 Canada (Lowville, N. Y., 1907); Britton and 
 Shafer, North American Trees (ib., 1908) ; Rob¬ 
 inson and Fernald, editors, Gray’s New Manual 
 of Botany (7th ed., ib., 1908) ; Britton and 
 Brown, Illustrated Flora of the Northern United 
 
 States (rev. ed., 3 vols., ib., 1913) ; Torrey 
 Botanical Club, Bulletin (Cambridge, Mass., an¬ 
 nually) ; publications of the United States 
 Forest Service (Washington), the Bureau of 
 Plant Industry (ib.), the Division of Botany 
 (ib.), etc. 
 
 Fauna: Louis Agassiz, Contributions to the 
 Natural History of the United States (4 vols., 
 Boston, 1857-62) ; North American Fauna, pub¬ 
 lished by the United States Bureau of Biological 
 Survey (Washington, 1889 et seq.) ; F. A. Lucas, 
 Animals before Man in North America (New 
 York, 1902) ; Jordan and Evermann, American 
 Food and Game Fishes (Garden City, N. Y., 
 1914) ; Stone and Cram, American Animals 
 (new ed., New York, 1914). 
 
 Natural resources: N. S. Shaler, Nature and 
 Man in America (New York, 1897); id., Man 
 and the Earth (ib., 1905) ; L. H. Bailey, Country 
 Life Movement in the United States (New York, 
 1911) ; C. R. Van Hise, Conservation of Natural 
 Resources in the United States (ib., 1915) ; also 
 publications of the National Conservation Con¬ 
 gress (Washington, 1910 et seq.). 
 
 Economic conditions: J. L. Laughlin, Indus¬ 
 trial America (New York, 1906) ; A. R. Hasse, 
 Index of Economic Material in Documents of 
 the States of the United States, Prepared for the 
 Carnegie Institution of Washington (Washing¬ 
 ton, 1907 et seq.); C. D. Wright, Industrial 
 Evolution of the United States (new ed., ib., 
 1910) ; A. B. Hart, Social and Economic Forces 
 in American History (ib., 1913); C. A. Beard, 
 Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of 
 the United States (ib., 1913); E. L. Bogart, 
 Economic History of the United States (2d ed., 
 ib., 1914) ; United States Census, Wealth, Debt, 
 and Taxation, 1913 (2 vols., Washington, 1913) ; 
 United States Geological Survey, Mineral Re¬ 
 sources of the United States (Washington, an¬ 
 nually) ; Mineral Industry: Its Statistics, Tech¬ 
 nology, and Trade (New York, annually). 
 
 Finance: A. S. Bolles, Financial History of 
 the United States from 177If to 18S5 (4th ed., 
 New York, 1894-96) ; J. J. Knox, United States 
 Notes: A History of the Various Issues of Paper 
 Money (3d ed., New York, 1899) ; A. S. Bolles, 
 American Finance (ib., 1904); C. C. Conant, 
 Wall Street and the Country (ib., 1904) ; M. S. 
 Wildman, Money Inflation in the United States 
 (ib., 1905) ; E. E. Agger, The Budget in the 
 American Commonwealths (ib., 1907); Gustav 
 Nord (ed.), American Financial Methods (Bos¬ 
 ton, 1912); D. R. Dewey, Financial History of 
 the United States (5th ed., New York, 1915) ; 
 W. W. Bradbeer, Confederate and Southern State 
 Currency (Mount Vernon, N. Y., 1916). 
 
 Commerce: D. W. Brown, The Commercial 
 Power of Congress Considered in the Light of 
 its Origin (New York, 1910) ; T. W. Van Metre, 
 Outline of the Development of the Internal 
 Commerce of the United States, 1789—1900 (Bal¬ 
 timore, 1913) ; E. R. Johnson and Others, His¬ 
 tory of Domestic and Foreign Commerce of the 
 United States, published by the Carnegie In¬ 
 stitution of Washington (2 vols., ib., 1915) ; 
 E. J. Clapp, Economic Aspects of the War (New 
 Haven, 1915) ; American Academy of Political 
 and Social Science, American Industrial Oppor¬ 
 tunity (Philadelphia, 1915). 
 
 Politics and government: C. H. Butler, Treaty 
 Making Power of the United States (2 vols., 
 ib., 1902) ; C. E. Merriam, History of American 
 Political Theories (ib., 1903) ; Alexis de Tocque- 
 ville, On Democracy in America (Eng. trans. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 776 
 
 by Henry Reeve, 2 vols. ib., 1894) ; F. J. Good- 
 now, Principles of the Administrative Law of 
 the United States (ib., 1905) ; Finley and Sand¬ 
 erson, The American Executive and Executive 
 Methods (New York, 1908); F. J. Stinson 
 (J. S. of Dale, pseud.), The Law of the Federal 
 and State Constitutions of the United States 
 (Boston, 1908) ; J. W. Jenks, Principles of Poli¬ 
 tics (ib., 1909); Bryce, The American Common¬ 
 wealth (new ed., New York, 1910) ; R. L. Asliley, 
 American Federal State (new ed., ib., 1911); 
 John Fiske, American Political Ideas (Boston, 
 1911); E. P. Oberholtzer, The Referendum in 
 America (New York, 1911); Woodrow Wilson, 
 The State: Elements of Historical and Practi¬ 
 cal Politics (new ed., Boston, 1911); C. A. 
 Beard, Readings in American Government and 
 Politics (ib., 1914) ; A. B. Claflin, Political Par¬ 
 ties in the United States, 1800-1914 (ib., 1914) ; 
 McLaughlin and Hart, Cyclopedia of American 
 Government (3 vols., ib., 1914) ; Charles Zueblin, 
 American Municipal Progress (new ed., ib., 
 1916) ; Lippincott, Economic Development of the 
 United States (1921) ; Seymour, Woodrow Wil¬ 
 son and the World War (1921) ; also references 
 under Political Parties. 
 
 Army: F. V. A. de Chanal, The American 
 Army in the War of Secession (Eng. trans. by 
 M. J. O'Brien, Leavenworth, Ivans., 1894) ; F. B. 
 Heitman, Historical Register and Dictionary of 
 the United States Army from its Organization 
 ... to .. . 1903 (2 vols., Washington, 1903) ; 
 F. V. Greene, The Revolutionary War and the 
 Military Policy of the United States (New York, 
 1911) ; L. C. Andrews, Fundamentals of Military 
 Service (Philadelphia, 1916) ; also United States 
 War Department, Annual Reports (Washing¬ 
 ton, 1845 et seq.) ; United States Army Register 
 (ib., annually) ; United States Army List and 
 Directory (ib., annually). 
 
 Navy: F. M. Bennett, The Steam Navy of the 
 United States: A History of the Growth of the 
 Steam Vessel of War in the United States Navy 
 (Pittsburgh. 1896); A T. Mahan, Interest of 
 America in Sea Power, Present and Future (Bos¬ 
 ton, 1897) ; F. S. Hill, Twenty-Six Historic Ships 
 (ib., 1903) ; A. T. Mahan, Sea Poiver in its Rela¬ 
 tion to the War of 1812 (2 vols., Boston, 1905) ; 
 id., From Sail to Steam (ib., 1907) ; id., Naval 
 Administration and Warfare (ib., 1908) ; G. W. 
 Allen, Our Naval War with France (ib., 1909) ; 
 R. W. Neeser, Statistical and Chronological His¬ 
 tory of the United States Navy, 1715-1907 (2 
 vols., New York, 1909); G. W. Allen, Naval 
 History of the American Revolution (2 vols., 
 Boston, 1913); Benham and Hall, Ships of the 
 United States Navy and their Sponsors, 1797- 
 1913 (Norwood, Mass., 1913); R. W. Neeser, 
 Our Many-Sided Navy (New Haven, 1914) ; 
 F. E. Chadwick, The American Navy (Garden 
 City, N. Y., 1915), containing a bibliography; 
 R. W. Neeser, Our Navy and the Next War 
 (New York, 1915) ; also United States Navy, 
 Annual Reports (Washington, 1822 et seq.) ; id.. 
 Naval Records of the Civil War (ib., 1894 et 
 seq.). 
 
 Foreign relations: J. W. Foster, Century of 
 American Diplomacy (new ed., Boston, 1901); 
 id., American Diplomacy in the Orient (ib., 
 1903) ; Edward Bicknell, Territorial Acquisitions 
 of the United States (3d ed., ib., 1904) ; A. R. 
 Colquhoun, Greater America (NeAv York, 1904) ; 
 J. W. Foster, Practice of Diplomacy as Illus¬ 
 trated in the Foreign Relations of the United 
 States (Boston, 1906) ; W. H. Taft, Present Day 
 
 Problems (New York, 1908) ; J. W. Foster, Dip¬ 
 lomatic Memoirs (2 vols., Boston, 1909); A. B. 
 Hart, Foundations of American Foreign Policy 
 (New York, 1910) ; A. T. Mahan, Interest of 
 America in International Conditions (Boston, 
 1910) ; A. R. Llasse, Index to United States 
 Documents Relating to Foreign Affairs, 1828- 
 1861, published by the Carnegie Institution, to 
 be complete in 3 parts (part i, Washington, 
 1914) ; John Bigelow, American Policy: The 
 Western Hemisphere in its Relation to the East¬ 
 ern (New York, 1914) ; C. R. Fish, American 
 Diplomacy (ib., 1915) ; H. S. Tucker, Limitations 
 on the Treaty-Making Power under the Consti¬ 
 tution of the United States (Boston, 1915) ; R. 
 G. Usher, Pan-Americanism (New York, 1915) ; 
 J. F. Abbott, Japanese Expansion and American 
 Policies (ib., 1916) ; Arthur/Bullard, Diplomacy 
 of the Great War (ib., 1916); J. C. Freehoff, 
 America and the Canal Title (ib., 1916) ; W. F. 
 Johnson, America’s Foreign" Relations (2 vols., 
 ib., 1916); R. G. Usher, The Challenge of the 
 Future (Boston, 1916). 
 
 Education: National Education Association, 
 Proceedings (Winona, Minn., 1873 et seq.) ; F. 
 W. Blackmar, History of Federal and State Aid 
 to Higher Education in the United States 
 (Washington 1890) ; A. B. Hart, Studies in 
 American Education (New York, 1898) ; Horace 
 Mann, “Ground of the Free School System,” 
 in Old South Leaflet, General Series, No. 109 
 (Boston, 1900) ; A. E. Winship, Great American 
 Educators (New York, 1900) ; W. H. Page, Re¬ 
 building of Old Commonwealths in the South (ib., 
 1902) ; E. G. Dexter, History of Education in 
 the United States (ib., 1904) ; Moseley Educa¬ 
 tion Commission to the United States of Amer¬ 
 ica, Reports (London, 1904) ; F. H. Swift, His¬ 
 tory of Public Permanent Common School Funds 
 in the United States, 1795-1905 (New York, 
 1905) ; C. F. Thwing, History of Higher Edu¬ 
 cation in America (ib., 1906) ; F. T. Carlton, 
 Economic Influences upon Educational Progress 
 in the United States, 1820-1850 (Madison, Wis., 
 1908) ; C. F. Thwing, History of Education in 
 the United States since the Civil War (Boston, 
 1910) ; Charles de Garmo, Principles of Second¬ 
 ary Education (3 vols., New York, 1907-10); 
 F. T. Carlton, Education and Industrial Evolu¬ 
 tion (ib., 1908) ; A. S. Draper, American Educa¬ 
 tion (Boston, 1909); N. M. Butler, Meaning of 
 Education (ib., 1909) ; id., Monographs on Edu¬ 
 cation in the United States (2 vols., ib., 1910) ; 
 F. W. Kelsey, Latin and Greek in American Edu¬ 
 cation (ib., 1911) ; Dutton and Snedden, Adminis¬ 
 tration of Public Education in the United States 
 (ib., 1912) ; G. M. Kerschensteiner, “Comparison 
 of Public Education in Germany and in the 
 United States” (Eng. trans. by W. C. Ryan in 
 United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 
 24 (Washington, 1913); “Education of the Im¬ 
 migrant,” id., Bulletin No. 51 (ib., 1913) ; H. A. 
 Hollister, Administration of Education in a 
 Democracy (New York, 1914) ; Cubberley and 
 Elliott, State and County School Administration 
 (ib., 1915) ; John and Evelyn Dewey, Schools of 
 Tomorrow (ib., 1915) ; E. P. Cubberley, Public 
 School Administration (Boston, 1915) ; also pub¬ 
 lications of the United States Bureau of Educa¬ 
 tion (Washington). 
 
 Exploring expeditions: Wilkes Exploring Ex¬ 
 pedition , by various authors (20 vols., Washing¬ 
 ton, 1845-74) ; International Polar Expedition, 
 Report of the .. . Expedition to Point Barrow , 
 Alaska (ib., 1885); id., Report on the Proceed- 
 
130° _ 120° _ 110°Longitude West 100°from_ Greenwich 9C‘ 
 
 
 >ssi sszj ir 
 
university of 
 
 “V 
 
 ILLINOIS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 776a 
 
 ings of the United States Expedition to Lady 
 Franklin Bay (2 vols., ib., 1886) ; W. E. Griffis, 
 Romance of Discovery (Boston, 1897) ; J. D. G. 
 Shea, Early Voyages up and down the Missis¬ 
 sippi (Albany, 1902) ; Lewis and Clark, History 
 of the Expedition (3 vols., New York, 1904); 
 R. G. Thwaites, Early Western Travels, 1784- 
 1846 (32 vols., Cleveland, 1904-07); Edwin 
 
 James (comp.), Account of S. H. Long’s Expe¬ 
 dition, 1819-1820 (4 vols., ib., 1905) ; I. P. Ber- 
 throng, The United States, showing Routes of 
 Principal Explorers and Early Roads and High¬ 
 ways (Washington, 1908); also United States 
 Engineer Department, Reports (ib., 1848-76); 
 United States Geological Exploration of the 
 Fortieth Parallel, Reports (7 vols., ib., 1870- 
 80) ; United States Geological Survey of the 
 Territories, Reports (ib., 1873 et seq.) ; 
 
 United States Geological Surveys West of the 
 One Hundredth Meridian, Reports (8 vols., ib., 
 1875-89). 
 
 History, sources: A. B. Hart, American His¬ 
 tory Told by Contemporaries (4 vols., New York, 
 1897-1901) ; id., Source Book of American His¬ 
 tory (ib., 1899); Original Narratives of Early 
 American History (ed. by J. F. Jameson, ib., 
 1906 et seq.) ; Van Tyne and Leland, “Guide to 
 Archives of the Government of the United States 
 in Washington,” in Carnegie Institution, Publi¬ 
 cation No. 92 (2d ed., Washington, 1907) ; Wil¬ 
 liam Bradford, History of Plymouth Settlement, 
 1608-1650 (ib., 1909); H. W. Caldwell, Source 
 History of the United States from Discovery, 
 1492, to the End of Reconstruction, 1877 (Chi¬ 
 cago, 1909) ; J. A. Robertson, “List of Docu¬ 
 ments in Spanish Archives Relating to the His¬ 
 tory of the United States,” in Carnegie Institu¬ 
 tion, Publication No. 124 (Washington, 1910); 
 C. R. Fish, “Guide to the Materials for American 
 History in Roman and other Italian Archives,” 
 in Carnegie Institution, Publication No. 128 (ib., 
 1911); D. W. Parker, “Calendar of Papers in 
 Washington Archives Relating to the Territories 
 of the United States to 1873,” in Carnegie Insti¬ 
 tution, Publication No. 148 (ib., 1911) ; Edward 
 Channing, Guide to the Study and Reading of 
 American History (rev. ed., Boston, 1912) ; C. 
 M. Andrews, “Guide to Manuscript Materials for 
 the History of the United States to 1783 in the 
 Public Record Office of Great Britain,” in Carne¬ 
 gie Institution, Publication No. 90A (2 vols., 
 Washington, 1912-14) ; William Macdonald, 
 Documentary Source Book of American History, 
 1606-1898 (New York, 1913) ; D. W. Parker, 
 “Guide to the Materials for United States His¬ 
 tory in Canadian Archives,” in Carnegie Insti¬ 
 tution, Publication No. 172 (Washington, 1913) ; 
 Paullin and Paxson, “Guide to the Materials in 
 London Archives of the History of the United 
 States since 1783,” in Carnegie Institution, Pub¬ 
 lication No. 90S (ib., 1914) ; A. C. McLaughlin, 
 Readings in the History of the American Nation 
 (New York, 1914) ; H. E. Bolton (ed.), Spanish 
 Exploration in the Southwest, 1524-1706 (ib., 
 1915). 
 
 Bibliography: Literature of American His¬ 
 tory: A Bibliographical Guide (ed. by J. N. 
 Earned for the American Library Association, 
 Boston, 1902) ; Cambridge Modern History, vol. 
 vii (New York, 1903) ; A. R. Hasse, “Materials 
 for a Bibliography of the Public Archives of the 
 Thirteen Original States,” in American His¬ 
 torical Association, Annual Report, 1906, vol. 
 ii (Washington, 1906) ; A. P. C. Griffin, Bibli¬ 
 ography of American Historical Societies (2d 
 
 ed., rev., ib., 1907) ; T. L. Bradford, Bibliog¬ 
 rapher’s Manual of American History (5 vols., 
 Philadelphia, 1907-10) ; G. G. Griffin, Writings 
 on American History, 1906—12, vols. i-vii (New 
 York f 1908-14) ; Channing, Hart, and Turner, 
 Guide to the Study of American History (new 
 ed., Boston, 1912) ; Johnson, The Chronicles of 
 America (1921). 
 
 General: Richard Hildreth, History of the 
 
 United States of America (rev. ed., 6 vols., New 
 York, 1877-80) ; Justin Winsor, Narrative and 
 Critical History of America (8 vols., Boston, 
 1884-89) ; James Sehouler, History of the United 
 States under the Constitution (rev. ed., 7 vols., 
 New York, 1894-1913) ; Woodrow Wilson, His¬ 
 tory of the American People (5 vols., ib., 1902) ; 
 E. M. Avery, History of the United States and 
 its People (7 vols., Cleveland, 1904-10) ; Edward 
 Channing, History of the United States (3 vols., 
 New York, 1905-12) ; Garner and Lodge, His¬ 
 tory of the United States (4 vols., Philadelphia, 
 1906) ; Richard Frothingham, Rise of the Re¬ 
 public of the United States (10th ed., Boston, 
 
 1910) ; J. C. Ridpath, History of the United 
 States, from Original Times . . . (rev. ed., 4 
 vols., ib., 1911) brought down to the adminis¬ 
 tration of President Taft; J. S. Bassett, 
 Short History of the United States (ib., 1914) ; 
 R. M. McElroy, Winning of the Far West (ib., 
 1914). 
 
 Colonial: Edward Arber (ed.), Story of the 
 Pilgrim Fathers, 1606-1623, as Told by Them¬ 
 selves from Original Texts (London, 1897) ; G. 
 P. Fisher, The Colonial Era (New York, 1898) ; 
 E. B. Greene, The Provincial Governor in the 
 Colonies of North America (ib., 1898) ; John 
 Fiske, Beginnings of New England (new ed., Bos¬ 
 ton, 1900) ; id., Dutch and Quaker Colonies in 
 America (new ed., 2 vols., ib., 1900) ; id., New 
 France and New England (new ed., ib., 1902) ; 
 Francis Parkman, “Half Century of Conflict,” 
 in France and England in North America, part 
 vi (2 vols., ib., 1903) ; C. M. Andrews, Colonial 
 Self-Government, 1652-1689 (New York, 1904) ; 
 H. L. Osgood, The American Colonies in the 
 Seventeenth Century (3 vols., ib., 1904-07); L. 
 R. Schuyler, Liberty of the Press in the Ameri¬ 
 can Colonies before the Revolutionary War (ib., 
 1905) ; G. L. Beer, British Colonial Policy, 1754- 
 1765 (ib., 1907) ; id., Origins of the British Co¬ 
 lonial System (ib., 1908) ; H. C. Lodge, Short 
 History of the English Colonies in America (rev. 
 ed., ib., 1909) ; R. G. Thwaites, The Colonies. 
 1492-1750 (22d ed., ib., 1910) ; R. M. Jones and 
 Others, Quakers in the American Colonies (ib., 
 
 1911) ; C. M. Andrews, The Colonial Period, in 
 Home University Library (ib., 1912) ; G. L. Beer, 
 Old Colonial System, 1660—1754 (2 vols., ib., 
 1913) ; C. L. Becker, Beginnings of the American 
 People, 1492-1783 (Boston, 1915). Adams, The 
 Founding of New England (1921). 
 
 French and Indian Wars: W. M. Sloane. The 
 French War and the Revolution (New York, 
 1901) ; D. E. Smith, The Viceroy of New Spain 
 (Berkeley, Cal., 1913) ; John Knox, An Historical 
 Journal of the Campaigns in North America, 
 from the Years 1757. 1758, 1759, 1760 (ed., by 
 A. G. Doughty for the Champlain Society, To¬ 
 ronto, 1914) ; also references under French and 
 Indian War. 
 
 Revolution: Francis Wharton (ed.), Revolu¬ 
 tionary Diplomatic Correspondence of the United 
 States (6 vols., Washington, 1889) ; John Fiske, 
 American Revolution (2 vols., Cambridge, 1896— 
 97) ; Sir G. 0. Trevelyan, American Revolution 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 776 b 
 
 (6 vols., New York, 1899-1914) ; S. G. Fisher, 
 True History of the American Revolution (Phil¬ 
 adelphia, 1902) ; G. E. Howard, Preliminaries 
 of the Revolution, 1763-1775 (New York, 1905) ; 
 S. G. Fisher, Struggle for American Independ¬ 
 ence (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1908) ; J. B. Per¬ 
 kins, France in the American Revolution (Bos¬ 
 ton, 1911) ; S. E. Winbolt, “American Independ¬ 
 ence and the French Revolution, 1760-1801,” in 
 Bell’s -English History Source Books, vol. xii (2d 
 ed., London, 1915) ; M. A. M. Marks, England 
 and America, 1763-1783 (2 vols., Cleveland, 
 
 1916). 
 
 1783-1865: J. B. McMaster, History of the 
 People of the United States from the Revolu¬ 
 tion to the Civil War (8 vols., New York, 1883- 
 1913) ; Henry Adams, History of the United 
 States of America (9 vols., ib., 1889-91) ; John 
 Fiske, Critical Period of American History, 1783- 
 1789 (Boston, 1899) ; Theodore Roosevelt, Naval 
 War of 1812 (new ed., New York, 1903) ; James 
 Schouler, Eighty Years of Union (ib.,'1903); 
 J. S. Bassett, Federalist System, 1789-1801 (ib., 
 
 1906) ; C. R. Fish, Development of American Na¬ 
 tionality (rev. ed., ib., 1914) ; Allen Johnson, 
 “Union and Democracy,” W. E. Dodd, “Expan¬ 
 sion and Conflict,” in Riverside History of the 
 United States, vols. ii-iii (Boston, 1915) ; and 
 also references under Mexican War; Secession. 
 
 Civil War: Diary of Gideon Welles (3 vols., 
 Boston, 1911); Gamaliel Bradford, Confederate 
 Portraits (Boston, 1914) ; id., Union Portraits 
 (ib., 1916) ; and references under Civil War in 
 America. 
 
 Reconstruction and after: J. H. Latang, Amer¬ 
 ica as a World Power, 1897-1907 (New York, 
 
 1907) ; E. E. Sparks, National Development, 
 1877-1885 (ib., 1907); C. A. Beard, Contempo¬ 
 rary American History, 1877-1913 (ib., 1914) ; 
 also references under Reconstruction; Spanish 
 American War. 
 
 UNITED STATES, Extension of the Ter¬ 
 ritory of the. Prior to 1781 only six of the 13 
 original States, viz., New Hampshire, Rhode 
 Island, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, 
 and Delaware, had exactly defined boundaries. 
 Of the remaining seven States, some claimed to 
 extend to the Pacific Ocean, others to the Mis¬ 
 sissippi River. The States with inexact bound¬ 
 aries ceded to the general government their 
 claims to lands west of their present limits in 
 succession, as follows: March 1, 1781, New York; 
 March 1 , 1784, Virginia, the cession including 
 the territory which now forms the State of Ken¬ 
 tucky and the parts of the States of Ohio, In¬ 
 diana, and Illinois which lie south of the forty- 
 first parallel, Virginia, however, reserving from 
 this cession for military-bounty lands the entire 
 territory, 6570 square miles, between the Scioto 
 and Little Miami rivers, from their sources to 
 the Ohio River; April 19, 1785, Massachusetts, 
 including her claims to territory west of the 
 present boundary of New York; "May 28, 1786, 
 Connecticut, the cession being the territory west 
 of the Alleghanies between the parallels "of 41° 
 and 42°, except a strip 120 miles in length lying 
 directly west of Pennsylvania, retained for" the 
 benefit of her public schools, and later known as 
 the Western Reserve (q.v.), which she ceded to 
 the United States in 1800: Aug. 9, 1787, South 
 Carolina, the territory ceded being a strip of 
 land about 12 miles wide, south of the thirty- 
 fifth parallel and extending along the southern 
 boundaries of North Carolina and Tennessee to 
 the Mississippi; Feb. 25, 1790, North Carolina, 
 the territory ceded constituting what is now 
 
 Tennessee; June 16, 1802, Georgia, after re¬ 
 ceiving that part of the cession of South Carolina 
 lying within her present limits, ceding all be¬ 
 tween her present western boundary and the 
 Mississippi, and between the South Carolina ces¬ 
 sion and the thirty-first parallel, embracing a 
 large part of what is now Mississippi and Ala¬ 
 bama. The foregoing cessions secured to the 
 general government nearly all territory ceded 
 by Great Britain, not included in the original 
 13 States, as in the main now bounded. On Nov. 
 25, 1850, the State of Texas ceded all her claims 
 to lands west of the twenty-sixth meridian west 
 of Washington (103d Greenwich) and between 
 lat. 32° and 36° 30'. 
 
 Cessions by Foreign Powers. In the treaty 
 of Sept. 3, 1783, with Great Britain the west¬ 
 ern limits of the United States were declared to 
 be the Mississippi River to the thirty-first paral¬ 
 lel. On April 30, 1803, by treaty with France, 
 the Province of Louisiana was acquired. (See 
 Louisiana Purchase.) Its western boundary 
 as finally adjusted, Feb. 22, 1819, by treaty with 
 Spain, ran up the Sabine River, to and along the 
 seventeenth meridian (94th Greenwich), to and 
 along the Red River, to and along the twenty- 
 third meridian (100th Greenwich), to and along 
 the Arkansas River, to and along the Rocky 
 Mountains, to and along the twenty-ninth merid¬ 
 ian (106th Greenwich), to and along the forty- 
 second parallel, to the Pacific Ocean. Its north¬ 
 ern boundary conformed to the boundary estab¬ 
 lished between the British possessions and the 
 United States. On the east it was bounded by 
 the Mississippi as far south as the thirty-first 
 parallel, where different boundaries were claimed. 
 The United States construed the cession of 
 France to include all the territory between the 
 thirty-first parallel and the Gulf of Mexico, and 
 between the Mississippi and Perdido, the latter 
 of which is now the western boundary of Florida. 
 Under this construction of the cession, the “Prov¬ 
 ince of Louisiana” is now covered by those por¬ 
 tions of the States of Alabama and Mississippi 
 which lie south of the thirty-first parallel; by 
 Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota 
 west of the Mississippi, Kansas, Nebraska, North 
 and South Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Oregon, 
 Washington, and Oklahoma; and by the portion 
 of Colorado lying east of the Rocky Mountains 
 and north of the Arkansas River, and that por¬ 
 tion of Wyoming lying east of the Rockies and 
 south of the forty-second parallel. Spain, from 
 which power France had acquired Louisiana by 
 treaty in 1800 (see San Ildefonso, Treaty of), 
 claimed that she had ceded to France no territory 
 east of the Mississippi except the “Island of 
 New Orleans,” and also contended that her 
 Province of West Florida included all of the ter¬ 
 ritory south of the thirty-first parallel and be¬ 
 tween the Perdido and Mississippi, except the 
 “Island of New Orleans.” Under this construc¬ 
 tion, the “Province of Louisiana” included on the 
 east of the Mississippi only the territory bounded 
 on the north and east by the “rivers Iberville 
 and Amite and by the lakes Maurepas anu Pont- 
 chartrain.” By the treaty of 1803 the national 
 territory was increased by 1,171,931 square 
 miles. The extreme northwestern portion of this 
 territory was claimed by Great Britain, with 
 which power the United States concluded the 
 Northwest Boundary Treaty in 1846. By the 
 treaty of Feb. 22, 1819, Spain formally ceded the 
 territory now covered by Florida, by those por¬ 
 tions of Alabama and Mississippi which lie south 
 of the thirty-first parallel, and by that portion 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 of Louisiana which lies east of the Mississippi 
 and is not included in the “Island of New Or¬ 
 leans.” This territory was styled by Spain the 
 “provinces of East and West Florida.” Previous 
 to this cession, by the authority of the joint 
 resolution of Jan. 15, 1811, and the Acts of Jan. 
 15, 1811, and March 3, 1811, passed in secret 
 session and first published in 1818, the United 
 States had taken possession of the East and West 
 Floridas. In fact, as early as 1810 the Amer¬ 
 icans controlled all of West Florida except 
 Mobile, which was annexed in 1813, while 
 in 1814 Jackson temporarily seized Pensa¬ 
 cola, and again in 1818 occupied both Pen¬ 
 sacola and St. Marks. The United States, 
 however, did not take formal possession until 
 1821. After prolonged negotiations and a vigor¬ 
 ous political contest Texas, formerly a portion 
 of Mexico, and later an independent republic, 
 was admitted to the Union by a joint resolu¬ 
 tion of Congress, approved by President Tyler on 
 March 1, 1845. As a result of the Mexican War 
 (q.v.), by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 
 (q.v.), on Feb. 2, 1848, Mexico ceded the terri¬ 
 tory now covered by California and Nevada, also 
 her claims to the territory covered by the present 
 Texas, by Utah, by the bulk of Arizona and of 
 New Mexico, and by portions of Wyoming and 
 Colorado. That part of Arizona and that part 
 of New Mexico lying south of the Gila and known 
 as the Gadsden Purchase were ceded by Mexico 
 on Dec. 30, 1853. By treaty of March 30, 1867, 
 Russia ceded Alaska. At the close of the Revo¬ 
 lutionary War the territory really occupied by 
 the old 13 States covered scarcely a quarter of 
 a million square miles, and after the treaty of 
 1783 the nation occupied only 825,000 square 
 miles, but in 1867 the territory belonging to the 
 United States had an area in round numbers 
 of 3,561,000 square miles. A further accession 
 was effected in 1898, when, on July 6, Con¬ 
 gress passed a joint resolution annexing Hawaii 
 (q.v.) to the United States. In the following 
 year negotiations were concluded by which the 
 island of Tutuila, Samoa, on which is located 
 the excellent harbor of Pagopago, was ceded 
 absolutely to the United States. An important 
 accession of territory was that incident to the 
 Spanish-American War (q.v.), and formally ef¬ 
 fected in the treaty of Dec. 10, 1898, in accord¬ 
 ance with which Spain ceded Porto Rico (q.v.) 
 and the Philippine Islands (q.v.), together with 
 the island of Guam (q.v.), to the United States. 
 
 Bibliography. The most important volume 
 in this connection, with all the texts, is the 
 Treatises and Conventions Concluded, by the 
 United States and other Powers since July If, 
 1776, published by the Government (Washing¬ 
 ton, 1889 et seq.). Some useful maps illustrat¬ 
 ing these treaties are to be found in Edward 
 Channing, The United States of America, 1765- 
 1865 (New York, 1896) ; id., History of the 
 United States, vols. i, ii (ib., 1905-08). Con¬ 
 sult also Theodore Roosevelt, Winning of the 
 West, vol. iv (New York, 1904) ; C. K. Adams, 
 History of the United States (rev. ed., Chicago, 
 1909). Of special works, Donaldson, Public Do¬ 
 main (Washington, 1884) ; H. B. Adams, Mary¬ 
 land’s Influence on the Land Cessions (Balti¬ 
 more, 1885) ; O. P. Austin, Steps in the Expan¬ 
 sion of our Territory (New York, 1903) ; Henry 
 Gannett, Boundaries of the United States (3d ed., 
 Washington, 1904) ; Justin Winsor, Narrative 
 and Critical History of America, vol. vii, Ap¬ 
 pendix (Boston, 1886-89). 
 
 777 UNITED STATES DAUGHTERS OF 1812 
 
 i UNITED STATES, Literature of tiie. See 
 American Literature. 
 
 e UNITED STATES CHRISTIAN COM- 
 s MISSION. An organization kindred to the 
 t United States Sanitary Commission (see Sani¬ 
 tary Commission, United States), formed 
 t during the Civil War in the United States to 
 l promote the spiritual and physical welfare 
 t of Federal soldiers and sailors. A conven¬ 
 tion of Young Men’s Christian Association 
 t delegates met in New York City in November, 
 3 1861, and formally organized the United States 
 
 Christian Commission of 12 members with 
 George H. Stuart, a Philadelphia philanthropist, 
 , as president, and B. F. Manierre, of New York, 
 1 as secretary. Contributions of money, litera¬ 
 ture, and supplies were asked for and a gen- 
 l erous response was made. The central office 
 , of the commission was in Philadelphia, but it 
 had branches in all of the large towns and 
 l cities, and its agents followed the armies. Tem- 
 r porary libraries were established; chapels for re- 
 d ligious worship were erected at permanent 
 camps; Christian burial was accorded to the 
 3 dead; graves were suitably marked. The Amer- 
 t ican Bible and Tract societies gave enormous 
 f quantities of their publications for distribution; 
 l the government furnished free transportation to 
 t the commission’s agents and for its supplies, 
 i while the telegraph and transportation com- 
 d panies furthered its efforts in various ways. 
 , Consult Moss, Annals of the United States Chris¬ 
 tian Commission (Philadelphia, 1868). 
 v UNITED STATES COPYRIGHT ACT. By 
 f the Act of March 4, 1909, the law with reference 
 f to copyright was redrafted and rearranged. The 
 a second or renewed period of copyright was ex- 
 a tended to 28 years, thus increasing the life of 
 3 the copyright by an additional 14 years. The 
 l duties which had been assigned to the librarian 
 of Congress were delegated to a newly created 
 i officer called the register of copyrights. 
 y In pursuance of authority contained in the 
 a statute itself the United States Supreme Court 
 1 formulated a set of rules which simplified the 
 1 procedure and practice with reference to copy- 
 t right actions and proceedings. The prohibition 
 e against the importation of works which are 
 copyrighted in the United States was modified 
 by the Act so as to permit the importation of 
 > works in raised characters for the use of the 
 l blind, and authorized editions in the original 
 i. foreign language of works whose translations 
 3 only have been protected by United States copy- 
 e right. Exception was also made of libraries or 
 e collections purchased abroad en bloc for socie- 
 , ties, institutions, or libraries of learning and 
 fine arts. The provisions dealing with infringe¬ 
 ments were considerably amplified and set forth 
 :1 at some length in the statute. 
 
 Later amendments to the Act include motion- 
 e picture photo plays and motion pictures other 
 than photo plays as works on which copyright 
 e may be claimed. Provision was also made for 
 !, phonograph records and royalties to owners or 
 ►, manufacturers of this class of articles. 
 
 The additions to the United States Copyright 
 Act with reference to photo plays and phono¬ 
 graph records were incorporated into the British 
 Act by the Act of 1911, which amended and 
 y consolidated the English copyright law along 
 lines similar to the American. 
 e UNITED STATES DAUGHTERS OF 1812. 
 i- A patriotic society founded in Cleveland, Ohio, 
 in 1892, and incorporated as a national organiza- 
 
UNITED STATES FLAG 778 
 
 tion Feb. 25, 1901. It has for its object the 
 perpetuation of the memory of the founders 
 of America, with their records of service in the 
 French War, the Revolution, and the War of 
 1812. It admits to membership women who are 
 lineal descendants from an ancestor who as¬ 
 sisted in the War of 1812, either as a military 
 or naval officer, a soldier, or a sailor, or in any 
 way gave aid to the cause. The membership is 
 about 1000. 
 
 UNITED STATES FLAG. See Flag. 
 
 UNITED STATES MILITARY ACAD¬ 
 EMY. See Military Academy, United States. 
 
 UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. 
 
 Established as a branch of the Smithsonian In¬ 
 stitution, by the congressional Act of Aug. 10, 
 1846, founding the latter. It is the designated 
 depository for all collections in zoology, botany, 
 geology, ethnology, archaeology, and the arts be¬ 
 longing to the government. Its collections are 
 superior in all that relates to the natural his¬ 
 tory and aborigines of North America. Its col¬ 
 lections have been derived largely from naval 
 expeditions, government surveys, Bureau of 
 Fisheries, Department of Agriculture, Bureau 
 of American Ethnology, private donations, and 
 exchanges. The Museum also gathered interest¬ 
 ing collections in American history. The funda¬ 
 mental act contemplated the formation of a 
 National Gallery of the Fine Arts under the 
 Smithsonian Institution. The first decisive 
 movement towards the realization of this project 
 took place in 1906, through the gift by Charles 
 L. Freer of paintings by Whistler, Tryon, 
 Thayer, and Dewey, and of Oriental art, and* the 
 bequest of the Harriet Lane Johnston collection. 
 
 In March, 1907, 50 paintings by American ar¬ 
 tists were added by William T. Evans. A sup¬ 
 plemental transfer of 110 articles increased the 
 Freer collection to 4811 items of American and 
 Oriental art in 1915. From time to time other 
 accessions have been made through purchase or 
 gift. The collections occupy the greater part of 
 the Smithsonian building, an adjacent building, 
 covering 2% acres, completed in 1881, and a new 
 building completed in 1910 at a cost of $3,- 
 500,000. In 1914-15 nearly 6000 specimens of 
 American industrial arts were added. The Secre¬ 
 tary of the Smithsonian Institution is ex officio 
 the keeper of the Museum, which is under the 
 charge of an assistant secretary, and has a staff 
 of curators and assistants, numbering about 75. 
 
 The publications comprise an annual report, a 
 series of Bulletins begun in 1875, a series of Pro¬ 
 ceedings dating from 1878, and the Contributions 
 from the National Herbarium. The library con¬ 
 tained (1915) 45,818 volumes and 76 295 
 
 pamphlets. 
 
 UNITED STATES NAVAL ACADEMY. 
 
 See Naval Academy, United States. 
 
 UNITED STATES VETERAN NAVY. 
 
 A patriotic society organized Sept. 21, 1899*. 
 Eligible for membership are all persons who as 
 commissioned officers or enlisted men were con¬ 
 nected with any branch of the naval service of 
 the United States during the Civil War or the 
 Spanish-American War, or who in the future 
 shall be engaged, as members of the navy, in war 
 against an enemy of the United States. The 
 society has a total membership of about 3500. 
 
 UNITED ZION’S CHILDREN. See River 
 Brethren. 
 
 U'NITIES, Dramatic. Three classical quali¬ 
 ties of a drama, the unities of time, place, and 
 action. See Drama. 
 
 UNIT SYSTEM 
 
 UNIT ORCHESTRA. See Unit Organ. 
 UNIT ORGAN. A wind instrument, the 
 most recent development of the regular church 
 organ (q.v.). In 1853 William Hill and Sons 
 introduced a new stop, the voix celeste, the 
 pipes of which were tuned slightly flat so as to 
 produce, in combination with other stops, an 
 undulating tone resembling that of the strings 
 of an orchestra. By experiment it was found 
 that by tuning the pipes a trifle sharp a warmer 
 tone was produced. By the end of the century 
 the celeste was built with three ranks of pipes, 
 one in correct pitch, the other two slightly 
 sharp and flat, respectively. Thus a tone was 
 produced that very nearly approached the 
 strings. The next step was the addition of the 
 new percussion stops, which operate real chimes, 
 cymbals, and all kinds of drums. Organs thus 
 equipped became known as unit organs, and 
 about 1908 began to be installed in some thea¬ 
 tres, replacing the orchestra. Two or three years 
 later appeared the unit orchestra. Several 
 builders, almost simultaneously, conceived the 
 idea of replacing in these instruments the diapa¬ 
 son (see Organ), which always has been, and 
 still is, the foundation of the real organ tone by 
 the celeste or string tone. Thus it can readily 
 be seen that a unit organ is essentially an organ 
 with a moderate admixture of celeste and per¬ 
 cussion stops, whereas the unit orchestra has a 
 full complement of celestes and percussion stops, 
 to which the diapason is very much subordinated. 
 
 UNIT SYSTEM. The unit system of organ¬ 
 ization, sometimes called the Hine system from 
 its originator, Maj. Charles DeLano Hine, is 
 based upon the concept that organization is a 
 branch of sociological science. The system seeks, 
 primarily by scientific organization and second¬ 
 arily by simple, direct methods, to solve the ad¬ 
 ministrative problems imposed by complex mod¬ 
 ern conditions in the conduct of government, of 
 education, of industry, of transportation, and of 
 commerce. As yet its application has been con¬ 
 fined to a few railways. The system insists that 
 organization is a series of units, beginning with 
 the individual as the indivisible unit of society. 
 A group of individuals forms a unit of organiza¬ 
 tion. A group of such units constitutes a higher 
 unit, which in turn may become a component 
 of a still higher unit, and so on to whatever 
 extent may be found desirable and practicable in 
 the particular activity. The crux of a given 
 problem of organization is then to determine 
 what grouping produces the most logical and 
 efficient units. The system demands unvarying 
 recognition of the axiom that the whole is 
 greater than any of its parts, that the entire 
 undertaking is greater than any of its 
 constituent administrative departments. The 
 avowed effort in practical application is to em¬ 
 phasize and encourage such an old fashioned 
 sense, of individual and personal responsibility 
 as will produce maximum composite efficiency 
 through balanced team work of the component 
 units. A general notion of the system is best 
 conveyed by an outline of the official instructions 
 through which it is inaugurated. 
 
 In the general operating organization of a 
 railway, the commonly used titles general super¬ 
 intendent, superintendent of motive power, chief 
 engineer, superintendent of transportation, gen¬ 
 eral storekeeper, superintendent of telegraph, 
 and perhaps superintendent of dining cars, are 
 abolished. The officials previously thus desig¬ 
 nated, while they continue charged with the re- 
 
UNITY OF CONSCIOUSNESS 
 
 UNIVERSALISM 
 
 779 
 
 sponsibilities formerly devolving upon them, are 
 reappointed assistant general managers of the 
 road. Similarly the divisional officers, known 
 under the older systems as master mechanic, 
 division engineer, train master, traveling en¬ 
 gineer, and chief dispatcher, and possibly divi¬ 
 sion storekeeper, and station inspector, exchange 
 these titles for the general title of assistant 
 superintendent. The number of assistant gen¬ 
 eral managers may vary with the size of juris¬ 
 diction, but is normally eight, including the man 
 previously the assistant general manager, who, 
 to avoid misunderstanding, is reappointed as 
 senior or number one, on the new official list. 
 The number of assistant superintendents on an 
 operating division naturally varies with its size, 
 but is normally six (perhaps eight, if store¬ 
 keeper and station inspector be included), the 
 man previously known as the assistant superin¬ 
 tendent standing number one on the new list. 
 In either general or divisional offices this senior 
 assistant is normally at headquarters, and is in 
 effect, though not in name, the chief of staff, 
 though no distinct grade of senior or chief 
 assistant is actually created. In case of the 
 prolonged absence of this number one (or actual, 
 although not nominal, senior) the head of the 
 unit (general manager or superintendent, as the 
 case may be) designates the most available 
 of the other assistants to remain at headquarters. 
 An unwritten law operates to make such desig¬ 
 nated assistant the chief, or senior, of all others 
 for the time being. Advantage is sometimes 
 taken of this elastic feature of assignment to ro¬ 
 tate various assistants through the senior chair 
 in order to gain comprehensive training for 
 higher positions. 
 
 While each man remains specially charged 
 with his former duties, he gains through his 
 broader title a new vision of responsibility for 
 efficiency of the road as a whole. The hurdles 
 of departmental prejudice are removed, the limi¬ 
 tations of descriptive title are abolished, and 
 broader lines of activity and of interest in the 
 conduct of the property as a whole are de¬ 
 veloped. It is to be noted further, that the unit 
 system of organization eliminates government 
 by chief clerks. If the manager or superinten¬ 
 dent is absent from headquarters there is always 
 an assistant manager or an assistant superinten¬ 
 dent in charge. The system insists further that 
 no person shall sign the name or initials of 
 another. All officers, agents, and employees are 
 instructed to transact business within their re¬ 
 spective spheres of responsibility or authority, 
 over their own initials. Operators, stenog¬ 
 raphers, clerks, and others are instructed to 
 avoid autographic imitation, a man’s name be¬ 
 ing considered his birthright. When an indi¬ 
 vidual’s own title is normally insufficient for the 
 necessary signature, or when the prefix acting or 
 assistant is inappropriate, he must sign for him¬ 
 self, adding such explanatory phrase as for the 
 agent, etc. The unit system thus aims, while 
 retaining each official for the work for which he 
 is specially qualified, to make every one avail¬ 
 able for prompt, comprehensive action when oc¬ 
 casion requires, and to minimize the undesirable 
 features of necessarily distant control by insist¬ 
 ing that such inside direction shall be exercised 
 only by officials duly qualified by outside ex¬ 
 perience. 
 
 UNITY OF CONSCIOUSNESS. In epis¬ 
 temology, the formal a priori of all cognition; 
 the subjective source of categories, forms of in- 
 Vol. XXII.—50 
 
 tuition, and the assumption (Setzung) of ob¬ 
 jects. It is, therefore, practically the equiva¬ 
 lent of Kant’s transcendental apperception. The 
 unity of consciousness derives from the broader 
 unity of the self, i.e., the identity, permanency, 
 and unity of a conscious living being. We may, 
 then, think of the unity of consciousness as the 
 equivalent of the self as conscious; and in various 
 epistemological systems the terms self, unity, 
 and unity of consciousness are employed inter¬ 
 changeably. The phrase is also used in func¬ 
 tional psychology to denote the coherence of 
 mind; the functions of thinking, feeling, willing, 
 are conceived as part-functions belonging to an 
 underlying unity, which is again frequently 
 identified with the self (q.v.). Consult: J. M. 
 Baldwin, Senses and Intellect (New York, 1890) ; 
 Harald Hoffding, Outlines of Psychology (ib., 
 1891); M. Eisler, Worterhuch der philosophi- 
 schen Begriffe (Berlin, 1910). 
 
 U'NIVER/SALISM (from universal, from 
 Lat. universalis, relating to all or the whole, 
 from universus, all, whole, entire, turned into 
 one, from unus, one -f- vertere, to turn). The 
 name given to the religious faith of those who 
 believe in universal salvation, or as it is now 
 generally stated, in the eternal progress of all 
 souls. Modern Universalists claim that this 
 doctrine is contained in the New Testament, in 
 the teachings of Jesus, and is in harmony with 
 the laws of nature as taught by science and 
 sanctioned by reason and philosophy. Univer¬ 
 salists claim this interpretation of the Bible 
 dates from the early centuries of Christianity, 
 citing in proof thereof the Sibylline Oracles 
 (c.150), and the teaching of Clement of Alex¬ 
 andria (c.195), that man was created to be 
 educated and not for a limited trial, that his 
 opportunity for education is as lasting as his 
 being, and that punishment is remedial. They 
 find it in the teachings of Origen (c.185-c.254) , 
 and in the common belief among Christians of all 
 sects in the second and third centuries that be¬ 
 tween the death and the resurrection of Jesus 
 he went to the underworld and there taught the 
 souls that had sinned in the days of Noah; these, 
 argued Clement, included all who there or else¬ 
 where need salvation. Universalists also believe 
 that their faith was extensively held in the fourth 
 century and that of the six theological schools 
 then established in the Christian world, four 
 (the schools of Alexandria, Caesarea, Antioch, 
 and eastern Syria) taught it; that it was also 
 fundamental in the fifth century in the teach¬ 
 ings of Theodore of Mopsuestia, the founder of 
 the Nestorian Church, in whose Confession of 
 Faith and Sacramental Liturgy it is plainly de¬ 
 clared; that Maximus the Confessor (580-G63) 
 also taught and defended it in the sixth and 
 seventh centuries; that Pope Gregory’s instruc¬ 
 tions to his missionaries show its existence in the 
 eighth century, and that in the ninth it was 
 ably advocated by John Scotus Erigena. The 
 subsequent period until the Lutheran Reforma¬ 
 tion was not favorable to any expression of 
 thought that antagonized the Latin theology. 
 The Church silenced by force all voices that 
 repudiated its teachings and burned all books 
 contaminated by so-called heresies. But, in 
 spite of all this, Universalism was manifest in 
 the teachings of such thinkers as Raynold, Al- 
 maric, Albertus Magnus, Solomon, Bishop of 
 Bosra, Ruysbroek, Tauler, and John of Goch, 
 and in the societies of the Lollards, Brethren of 
 the Common Life, Brethren and Sisters of the 
 
UNIVERSALISM 
 
 UNIVERSALISM 
 
 780 
 
 Free Spirit, and the Men of Understanding. 
 With the Reformation Universalism revived. 
 The original 42 articles of religion, drawn up 
 by the Reformers in England in 1552, declare: 
 “They also deserve to be condemned who en¬ 
 deavor to restore that pernicious opinion that 
 all men (though never so ungodly) shall at last 
 be saved; when for a certain time, appointed by 
 the Divine Justice, they have endured punish¬ 
 ment for their sins committed.” When the ar¬ 
 ticles were reduced to 39 in 1571 this condemna¬ 
 tory article was omitted. Many of the Mystics, 
 the German Baptists, the Mennonites in Holland, 
 the French Protestants, the Moravians, and va¬ 
 rious smaller sects in the Old World, advocated 
 Universalism. 
 
 It was not, however, until about 1750 that an 
 organization called Universalist was created. 
 Before that time the believers in universal sal¬ 
 vation were affiliated with sects bearing various 
 names and were spoken of as Origenists, Merci¬ 
 ful Doctors, and by other names indicating their 
 dissent from the dogma of the never-ending 
 misery of the wicked; but at the date first 
 given Rev. James Relly became a Universalist 
 and organized a Universalist church in London, 
 to which he ministered until his death, about 
 30 years later. At the present time very few 
 churches in Europe bear the Universalist name, 
 but the doctrine of Universalism finds favor, and 
 in some instances open advocacy, in churches of 
 various names. Many Unitarians in Europe are 
 avowed Universalists^ just as the Universalists 
 of America are generally Unitarians. 
 
 The doctrine of Universalism was preached in 
 America as early as 1636 by Samuel Gorton, the 
 New England mystic, and put forth in the 
 speeches and writings of Sir Henry ,Vane, the 
 younger, Governor of Massachusetts; by Dr. 
 George de Benneville about a century later; by 
 eminent Episcopalians; by prominent Congrega- 
 tionalists, such as Chauncey and Mayhew of 
 Boston, and Huntington of Connecticut; and by 
 many German Baptists. John Murray (q.v.), 
 the father of Universalism in America, came to 
 New Jersey in September, 1770. On Jan. 1, 
 1779, 15 persons who had been suspended from 
 the First Parish Church in Gloucester, Mass., for 
 becoming regular attendants on the preaching of 
 Murray, united under “Articles of Association 
 as the Independent Christian Church in Glouces¬ 
 ter” for the defense and promulgation of their 
 Universalist faith. Murray was not long with¬ 
 out ministerial helpers. Elhanan Winchester, 
 who had been an eminent Baptist preacher in 
 Philadelphia, with more than 100 of his church 
 in that city, was excommunicated for having be¬ 
 come believers in Universalism; Adams Streeter 
 and Caleb Rich, in New England, became preach¬ 
 ers of the common salvation before they saw or 
 knew Murray. Later, Hosea Ballou, repudiating 
 all the old notions connected with trinitarian 
 dogmas, became the first openly avowed Ameri¬ 
 can advocate of Unitarian views of Christ; put 
 the emphasis of Christian theology on God’s 
 I atherhood of the human race; and interpreted 
 the teachings, sufferings, death, and resurrection 
 of Jesus as designed, not to effect any change 
 whatever in God, but to change man and bring 
 him into harmony with his Heavenly Father. 
 The modern church has a free platform and a 
 broadly educated ministry. It recognizes a har¬ 
 mony and not a conflict between religion and 
 science; advocates the principles of evolution; 
 interprets the Bible rationally and spiritually 
 
 and not literally; teaches that all men are divine 
 by nature, are capable of development after the 
 Christ type, and man’s destiny is the full de¬ 
 velopment of his soul and a harmonious co¬ 
 operation with God’s laws. 
 
 In 1803, at the annual session of the New 
 England Convention, in view of diversity of 
 opinion as to how universal salvation was to be 
 the result of God’s government, three Articles 
 of Belief were agreed upon as stating the general 
 belief of those present and serving as a working 
 basis of fellowship. The articles of fellowship, 
 known as the Winchester (N. H.) Profession of 
 Faith, are as follows: 
 
 Article 1. We believe that the Holy Scriptures 
 of the Old and New Testaments contain a reve¬ 
 lation of the character of God and of the duty, 
 interest, and final destination of mankind. Arti¬ 
 cle 2. We believe that there is one God, whose 
 nature is Love, revealed in one Lord Jesus 
 Christ, by one Holy Spirit of Grace, who will 
 finally restore the whole family of mankind to 
 holiness and happiness. Article 3. We believe 
 that holiness and true happiness are inseparably 
 connected, and that believers ought to be careful 
 to maintain order and practice good works; 
 for these things are good and profitable unto 
 men. 
 
 In 1870, when the Universalists of the United 
 States formed their General Convention, the 
 above three articles were made a basis of their 
 clerical fellowship, but as there soon arose dif¬ 
 ferent opinions as to the exact meaning of par¬ 
 ticular phrases in the three articles, several 
 changes were advocated from year to year, until 
 1898, when, at a convention in Chicago, it was 
 voted to allow the three articles to stand as the 
 historical basis, but to add the following as ex¬ 
 planatory of the conditions of fellowship in the 
 future: 
 
 The conditions of fellowship shall be as fol¬ 
 lows : (1) The acceptance of the essential prin¬ 
 ciples of the Universalist faith, to wit: (a) the 
 universal fatherhood of God; (&) the Spiritual 
 authority and leadership of His Son, Jesus 
 Christ; ( c) the trustworthiness of the Bible as 
 containing a revelation from God; ( d ) the cer¬ 
 tainty of just retribution for sin; ( e ) the final 
 harmony of all souls with God. The Winches¬ 
 ter Profession is commended as containing these 
 principles, but neither this nor any other precise 
 form of words is required as a condition of fel¬ 
 lowship, provided always that the principles 
 above stated be professed. (2) The acknowl¬ 
 edgment of the authority of the General Con¬ 
 vention and assent to its laws. 
 
 In 1870, in the organizing of the Universalist 
 churches of America, the church adopted the plan 
 under which the United States have organized. 
 This General Convention has supervision over 
 the work of the denomination, meets once in two 
 years, has a board of 11 trustees to carry on 
 the work between convention sessions. The wo¬ 
 men of the church also have a national organiza¬ 
 tion known as the Woman’s National Missionary 
 Association, which holds funds and carries on 
 missionary work, chiefly in the South and West, 
 and supports the Blackmer Home for Girls in 
 Japan. In 1889 the young people of the church 
 formed a national organization, the Young Peo¬ 
 ple’s Christian Union. Funds raised bv this 
 support churches in the West and South. It 
 publishes a weekly paper at Boston, the Omvard. 
 Under the administration of the General Con¬ 
 vention are several commissions, such as the 
 
UNIVERSALISM 
 
 UNIVERSALS 
 
 781 
 
 Goodness of God (Boston, 1904). There are also 
 
 Sunday School Commission, the Social Service 
 Commission, the Commission on the Ministry, 
 and the Educational Commission. All have their 
 own officers and initiate work in their several 
 lines. In Boston is the Universalist Publishing 
 House, which publishes weekly the Universalist 
 Leader, the Sunday School Helper, and the gen¬ 
 eral literature of the denomination. Local Uni¬ 
 versalist papers are published in several States 
 and by individual churches. The missionary 
 work of the church is supported by the income 
 of funds and quotas assessed on parishes. The 
 most important foreign mission is in Japan. It 
 was started in 1890 and now lias schools and 
 churches and many American and native preach¬ 
 ers and teachers. There are now three colleges 
 and four academies under the auspices of the 
 denomination, having funds (1915) $5,860,000, 
 professors 383, students 3100. The theological 
 schools maintained are (1) the Canton Theologi¬ 
 cal School, opened at Canton, St. Lawrence Co., 
 N. Y., in 1858. Although affiliated with St. 
 Lawrence University, the theological school is a 
 separate institution in its management and 
 property, (2) Crane Theological School, affili¬ 
 ated with Tufts College, Medford, Mass. This 
 was established in 1868 as Tufts Theological 
 School, but was changed to the name of Crane 
 Theological School in 1898, in honor of an en¬ 
 dowment from Albert Crane of Stamford, Conn. 
 (3) In 1881 a theological department was opened 
 in Lombard College, Galesburg, Ill., and in 1890 
 its name was changed to the Ryder Divinity 
 School, in honor of the late Rev. William Henry 
 Ryder, D.D. In 1908 the school was removed to 
 Chicago, where it became a part of the Univer¬ 
 sity of Chicago, though still retaining its name. 
 
 The church statistics for 1916 show 763 church 
 organizations, 628 ministers, 55,000 church mem¬ 
 bers, 250,000 parish members, 43,211 Sunday- 
 school members, 11,306 members of the Young 
 People’s Christian Union, and $19,377,640 church 
 property. 
 
 Bibliography. History: Hosea Ballou, 2d, 
 The Ancient History of Universalism (Boston, 
 1829; annotated ed., ib., 1872) ; T. Whitte- 
 more, Modem History of Universalism (ib., 
 I860), incomplete; Richard Eddy, History of 
 Universalism in America (2 vols., ib., 1884-86) ; 
 id., Universalism from Apostolical Times to 1893, 
 in “American Church History Series,” vol. x 
 (New York, 1894) ; L. B. Fisher, Brief History 
 of the Universalist Church (Boston, 1912). 
 Doctrine: T. T. Munger, Freedom of Faith (ib., 
 1883); id., Appeal to Life (ib., 1887); J. S. 
 Dodge, The Purpose of God (ib., 1894) ; J. C. 
 Adams, Hosea Ballou and the Gospel Renais¬ 
 sance (ib., 1901); M. D. Shutter, Justice and 
 Mercy (ib., 1906) ; H. N. Dodge, Christus Victor 
 (6th ed., ib., 1906) ; R. J. Campbell, The Neio 
 Theology (New York, 1907) ; W. C. Selleck, New 
 Appreciation of the Bible (Chicago, 1907) ; F. O. 
 Hall, Soul and Body (Boston, 1908) ; C. R. Skin¬ 
 ner, Social Implications (ib., 1915). Controver¬ 
 sial: Edward Beecher, Doctrine of Scriptural 
 Retribution (New York, 1878) ; F. W. Farrar, 
 Eternal Hope (ib., 1878) ; T. J. Sawyer, Endless 
 Punishment in the Very Words of its Advocates 
 (Boston, 1880) ; E. B. Pusey, What is of Faith 
 as to Everlasting Punishment (2d ed., Oxford, 
 1880) ; W. G. T. Shedd, Doctrine of Endless 
 Punishment (New York, 1886) ; S. D. F. Sal- 
 mond, Christian Doctrine of Immortality (4th 
 ed., Edinburgh, 1901); H. Johnston, Beyond 
 Death (New York, 1903); G. T. Knight/ The 
 
 a number of published discussions and debates 
 between advocates and opponents of Universal¬ 
 ism, as those by Ely and Thomas (New York, 
 1835) ; by Campbell and Skinner (Utica, N. Y., 
 1840) ; by Holmes and Austin (Auburn, N. Y., 
 1848) ; by Sawyer and Westcott (New York, 
 1854). The chief periodical of the church is 
 the Universalist Leader (Boston, weekly). 
 
 UNIVERSAL JOINT, in Motor Vehicle. 
 See Motor Vehicle. 
 
 UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE. Need for a 
 means of international communication has been 
 felt from the earliest times. It is obviously 
 impossible for one to acquire more than a few 
 languages at most, and they are used correctly 
 only by those gifted with exceptional linguistic 
 ability. As a response to a desire of this na¬ 
 ture it is quite possible that the so-called Lingua 
 fdanca (q.v.) arose. In early times Phoenician 
 (see Phoenician Language) served as a means 
 of intercommunication among the traders of the 
 Mediterranean, while in the Middle Ages Latin 
 was the common learned language of Europe. 
 But with the growth of the spirit of nationality 
 in the period of the Renaissance, as well as 
 because of the realization of its unsuitableness 
 for the expression of modern thought, Latin 
 was gradually discarded in favor of the vulgar 
 tongue. It was soon found that extensive in¬ 
 crease of commerce and the development of 
 scholarship rendered the need of an interna¬ 
 tional language more imperative, and in the 
 seventeenth and eighteenth centuries various 
 language systems were proposed, while in the 
 nineteenth century their number is so great 
 that it is not possible to enumerate them here. 
 (See International Language.) Though 
 French as the language of diplomats has been 
 offered by some as a substitute for a universal 
 language, scholars were quick to realize that 
 the selection of a living tongue would arouse 
 unnecessary international jealousy. Likewise it 
 is a truism that all languages present difficulties 
 of a more or less serious nature to the learner. 
 The Chinese language (q.v.), e.g., though ap¬ 
 parently simple in structure, would require years 
 of study for the average European, while Eng¬ 
 lish and French can be seriously objected to 
 because of their unphonetic spelling. On the 
 other hand the most successful language systems 
 proposed, such as Volapiik, Esperanto (qq.v.), 
 Bolak, and Idiom Neutral, are met with the 
 fundamental objection that they are based on 
 modern European tongues and are unfit as uni¬ 
 versal languages because they do not contain 
 the characteristic elements of any of the im¬ 
 portant groups of languages spoken on other 
 continents. Yet it may be advanced in their 
 favor that it is absolutely impossible to create 
 a language that would be equally easy to be 
 acquired by speakers of all known dialects, and 
 that they certainly demand less effort on the 
 part of the learner than any modern spoken 
 language. 
 
 UNIVERSALS. Characteristics or attri¬ 
 butes of objects when regarded as common to an 
 indefinite number of individuals. There have 
 been philosophers who denied the real existence 
 of universals (see Nominalism), and others 
 who asserted that universals exist apart from 
 and prior to the objects they qualify. The 
 problem of the nature of the universal is one of 
 the most difficult and most mooted questions of 
 philosophy. See Logic; Realism. 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 782 
 
 UNIVERSITY (Lat. universitas). A terra 
 which, as originally used, denoted any corporate 
 body, community, or association regarded as a 
 whole. In its modern sense, that of a corporate 
 body devoted to study, teaching, and investiga¬ 
 tion, the term came into use in the fourteenth 
 and fifteenth centuries. The institutions first so 
 designated in this modern sense of the term came 
 into existence some two centuries before the com¬ 
 mon use of the term, and others somewhat simi¬ 
 lar had existed in ancient times under Greco- 
 Roman influence. There was at Athens, at the 
 time of the Roman Empire, a university not only 
 in all the essentials of a great centre of learning, 
 but one that closely corresponded even to what 
 we now mean by that word. Schools of philos¬ 
 ophy and letters similar to those at Athens 
 sprang up at other great cities of the Roman 
 Empire—at Constantinople, at Alexandria, at 
 Rhodes, at Marseilles, at Apollonia (Illyria), 
 and at Rome itself. These, however, had little 
 or no influence on mediaeval institutions. 
 
 Mediaeval Universities. The university, in 
 a modern sense, originated during the twelfth 
 and thirteenth centuries, as an outgrowth of 
 schools existing prior to that time in connection 
 with cathedrals and monasteries. Throughout 
 the eleventh and twelfth centuries there had 
 grown up a new interest in dialectic, logic, and 
 philosophy through the many theological con¬ 
 troversies aroused by the earlier schoolmen and 
 the heresies of the times; in Roman law through 
 the controversies between the Holy Roman Em¬ 
 pire and the Italian municipalities and the 
 growing importance of canon law in Church ad¬ 
 ministration; and in medicine on account of the 
 Crusades and the contact with the East and with 
 Saracen learning. When a teacher of eminence 
 appeared, such as Abelard or Peter Lombard at 
 Paris, or Irnerius at Bologna, a large number 
 of students were attracted. This student body 
 is said to have numbered 30,000 at Paris at the 
 time of Abelard. Such a place of learning and 
 concourse of students was called a studium, or 
 later a studium generate to distinguish it from 
 the more selected clientele and function of the 
 monastic or cathedral school. The addition of 
 the subject matter of philosophy to the previous 
 religious discussions, the new methods of treat¬ 
 ment, and the greater freedom of thought were 
 responsible for the building up of the first uni¬ 
 versities of northern Europe, and the most influ¬ 
 ential of all mediaeval universities, that of Paris. 
 The students were no longer necessarily des¬ 
 tined for monastic or clerical life, though many 
 were. At least the discipline was much less 
 strict, and the students would not adapt them¬ 
 selves to the rigid rules of monastery or cathe¬ 
 dral. They were no longer drawn from a re¬ 
 stricted area, but were admitted from any re¬ 
 gion, and numbers flocked to schools in foreign 
 lands. Civil and canon law, medicine, and the¬ 
 ology were now added to the seven liberal arts. 
 
 The determining characteristic of the universi¬ 
 ties, however, was their specialization; each of 
 the earlier universities was especially strong in 
 some one line. At Salerno, in southern Italy, 
 early in the eleventh century, the monks had 
 given special instruction in medicine, and the 
 fame of this new seat of learning spread with 
 the First Crusade. During the twelfth century 
 great attention was paid to the study of Roman 
 law, especially in northern Italy, where the in¬ 
 struction centred in Bologna—notably so during 
 the life of the great teacher Irnerius. In Paris 
 
 theology was the subject of interest, though the 
 majority of pupils there were students of the 
 liberal arts, not yet qualified for the study of 
 theology. These groups of students and teachers, 
 drawn together from distant regions, were con¬ 
 trolled by no monastic rules, amenable to no 
 political authorities, and practically without pro¬ 
 tection in their rights and privileges if any 
 then existed. Organization was necessary, and 
 the natural tendency was to organize on the 
 basis of nationality. The nations were the first 
 organizations, and they, through their delegated 
 officers, made the central organization of the 
 body as a whole. Even before organization, as 
 well as afterward, such a body of students was 
 termed a studium generate. To the organiza¬ 
 tion the term universitas (corporation) was 
 given, but never by itself alone. The terms most 
 frequently used were universitas magistrorum , 
 or universitas magistrorum et scholarium, or 
 universitatis collegium. In the course of time 
 the various nations and faculties, each at first 
 a universitas, were united into one, the dis¬ 
 tinctions between the terms studium generate 
 and universitas were lost sight of, and the latter 
 term was used alone to indicate the general body 
 instead of the constituent parts. 
 
 One great difference existed between the uni¬ 
 versities of southern and those of northern Eu¬ 
 rope. In the former, modeled after Bologna, the 
 students constituted the corporation; in the lat¬ 
 ter, modeled after Paris, the teachers controlled, 
 if they did not always completely constitute, 
 the corporation. The reason for this distinction 
 was that the students of the southern univer¬ 
 sities, especially of Bologna, were mature stu¬ 
 dents of law, capable of self-government, both on 
 account of their age and the subject of study; 
 while in the North they were the more youthful 
 students of arts, many entering Paris at the age 
 of 12 or 13. 
 
 The privileges which built up the universities 
 were either local, bestowed to prevent removal 
 elsewhere, or general, constituting them integral 
 parts of church and state. The state exempted 
 members of universities from financial and mili¬ 
 tary services, save under exceptional circum¬ 
 stances; the church bestowed the privilege of 
 clergy and the right to teach. When the student 
 had demonstrated his ability to determine and 
 to define the terms in the prescribed trivial 
 (see Trivium) texts, he received the bachelor’s 
 degree. When he had demonstrated his ability 
 to conduct a disputation, i.e., an exposition of 
 the more advanced texts, through a public de¬ 
 fense of a thesis, the master’s or doctor’s degree 
 was conferred. This entitled the recipient to 
 teach within the limits of the university. 
 Towards the end of the thirteenth century Pope 
 Nicholas III granted to the University of Paris 
 the right of endowing its graduates with per¬ 
 mission to teach everywhere, a privilege later 
 conferred upon most universities. The degrees 
 themselves were similar to and probably bor¬ 
 rowed from the corresponding stages in the 
 learning of a craft or in the organization of chiv¬ 
 alry. The earlier stage was an apprenticeship, 
 the close of which was marked by the conferring 
 of the bachelor’s degree; the following was a 
 journeyman’s period, during which the candidate 
 pursued his studies, and at the same time prac¬ 
 ticed his art by teaching the younger students 
 the trivial studies. The master or doctor had 
 the right to teach at least in his own and usually 
 in any university; during the earlier period he 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 7«3 
 
 was under obligations to teach in his own. In 
 time it became customary to endow a select 
 number of the graduates as permanent public 
 teachers; these privileged and salaried graduates 
 were designated professors, and instruction by 
 professors more or less supplanted the original 
 plan of teaching by graduates. The privatdocent 
 of the German universities now represents the 
 modification of the old regent graduates. 
 
 The term “faculty” was originally used in the 
 most general sense of science or knowledge; later 
 to indicate a department of study, as the faculty 
 of arts. Then a more special connotation became 
 not unusual, as synonymous with the consor¬ 
 tium magistrorum, or council of masters. By 
 ordinary usage, however, the term was applied 
 to the subordinate corporation of masters, or of 
 masters and students in particular departments 
 of learning. The University of Paris had at first 
 only a faculty of arts, which existed in an or¬ 
 ganized form as early as 1169. In the thirteenth 
 century faculties of theology, medicine, and 
 canon law were added. These, with the faculty 
 of civil law, constituted the organization of the 
 typical mediaeval university, though not all uni¬ 
 versities had all faculties represented even at 
 the Renaissance period. The primary units of 
 organization of the universities were the nations, 
 though by the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries 
 these were succeeded in importance by the fac¬ 
 ulties. In Paris the Faculty of Arts was divided 
 into four nations, known as French, Picard, Nor¬ 
 man, and German or English. After the thir¬ 
 teenth century these four nations, under their 
 respective procurators, and the three faculties 
 subsequently added, under their deans, consti¬ 
 tuted the seven component parts of the univer¬ 
 sity. The procurators and deans elected the 
 rector of the university, its highest officer, who 
 possessed executive authority of a delegated na¬ 
 ture. The rector with the procurators and the 
 deans formed a court having cognizance of all 
 matters relating to discipline, from which there 
 was an appeal to the university and thence to 
 the Parlement of Paris. The chancellor, after 
 the rector, was the highest in authority, though 
 that authority was confined to the conferring of 
 degrees. Originally the chancellor was the im¬ 
 mediate representative of the archbishop, to 
 whom had previously belonged the right of con¬ 
 ferring the privilege of teaching. Details of or¬ 
 ganization, as well as designations of the offi¬ 
 cers, varied considerably in the early universi¬ 
 ties, though in general they were all modeled on 
 Paris or Bologna. In the latter city the univer- 
 sitates were to be distinguished from the col¬ 
 legia. The former were two in number, the 
 'ultramontani and the citramontani , which were 
 composed exclusively of the students of law or¬ 
 ganized into constituent nations, thirteen in one 
 case and fourteen in the other, each presided 
 over by its procurator and counselors. The col¬ 
 legia were organizations of professors and doc¬ 
 tors that had control of the conferring of de¬ 
 grees. These colleges were of the doctors of civil 
 Taw, doctors of canon law, doctors of medicine, 
 and, from the middle of the fourteenth century, 
 doctors of theology. The general control of the 
 studium generale, however, was in the hands of 
 the universities later combined into one. 
 
 The colleges, as they developed in other coun¬ 
 tries, were quite different institutions from those 
 of Bologna. They arose through provisions that 
 were made for poor students in connection with 
 hospitals or monastic foundations. The neces¬ 
 
 sity for some more domestic supervision of 
 young students, combined with the other ten¬ 
 dency, led to the foundation of Halls. These in 
 turn were endowed with corporate privileges as 
 well as property, and the term “college,” previ¬ 
 ously a general term as universitas itself had 
 been, was appropriated by these institutions. 
 They soon assumed the character of boarding 
 houses for all classes of students, where they 
 were privately trained and prepared for public 
 lectures. In some universities the lectures came 
 to be given in the college, first the extraordi¬ 
 nary, then the ordinary, until the general uni¬ 
 versity lectures almost disappeared, and no stu¬ 
 dent was admitted except as a member of a 
 college. Many of these colleges were identified 
 with particular faculties, or even departments 
 of faculties. Probably the earliest college of all, 
 which served as a type for the others, was the 
 college of the Sorbonne (q.v.), founded about 
 1250 in the University of Paris, which came to 
 be identified with the theological faculty. 
 
 Details concerning the early history of the 
 universities, their development, and their pres¬ 
 ent organization will be found in the articles on 
 the individual universities. The early organi¬ 
 zation of universities has been best adapted to 
 the needs of the present by the German univer¬ 
 sities, and is more specifically treated in that 
 section. 
 
 England. These universities are of two dis¬ 
 tinct types: those that date from the Middle 
 Ages, Oxford and Cambridge, and those founded 
 during the nineteenth century. The two for¬ 
 mer have had a profound influence upon national 
 development and national life, for in no other 
 country have universities been more intimately 
 connected with the religious, political, and liter¬ 
 ary development. The details of the history 
 and present organization of these two univer¬ 
 sities, with the literature of the subject, will 
 be found under the titles Oxford^ University 
 and Cambridge, University of. During the 
 nineteenth century four universities of the mod¬ 
 ern type were founded, all laying stress on the 
 study of the sciences and the technical branches. 
 These are Durham University (1832), Univer¬ 
 sity of London (1836), Victoria University 
 (1880), and Birmingham University (1900). 
 Birmingham University was organized on plans 
 similar to those of London and Victoria univer¬ 
 sities, with Mason College as a nucleus. The 
 university is governed by a chancellor, princi¬ 
 pal, and a court of governors consisting of the 
 faculties or certain members thereof. Four fac¬ 
 ulties have been established, arts, science, medi¬ 
 cine, and commerce, but degrees are also to be 
 given in science and engineering. The aim in 
 its establishment is to bring university work 
 into more direct relations with industry and 
 commerce. The university began work in 1902 
 with the Rt. Hon. Joseph Chamberlain as chan¬ 
 cellor. The example set by Birmingham was 
 soon followed by other large commercial centres, 
 though there is' a little variation in the organi¬ 
 zation of faculties, schools, or departments. In 
 1903 Liverpool University was developed from 
 Liverpool University College, of Victoria Uni¬ 
 versity. Victoria University now limited its 
 authority and activities to Manchester. ^ The 
 University of Leeds followed, and in 1905 the 
 University of Sheffield was arlded as the sixth 
 of the modern universities of England. To this 
 number must be added the University of Bristol, 
 the University of Wales, with its constituent col- 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 784 
 
 leges, and a number of university colleges affili¬ 
 ated with the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, 
 or London, e.g., Exeter, Reading, Southampton, 
 and Nottingham. 
 
 Scotland. Scottish universities were mostly 
 founded during the fifteenth century. The medi¬ 
 aeval character clung to them until 1858, when 
 by statute the universities were reorganized. 
 See Saint Andrews ; Aberdeen ; Glasgow ; 
 Edinburgh, University of. 
 
 Ireland. Irish universities are those of Dub¬ 
 lin, the National University of Ireland with its 
 constituent colleges in Dublin, Cork, and Gal¬ 
 way, and the University of Belfast. See Dub¬ 
 lin, University of, and National University 
 of Ireland. 
 
 Canada. Canadian universities have increased 
 rapidly in numbers with the development of the 
 western provinces. There were, in 1916, 19 de¬ 
 gree-granting institutions, and some 12 other 
 colleges, usually denominational in character, 
 which are affiliated to those granting degrees. 
 The leading universities are Toronto, McGill, 
 Queen’s at Kingston, Laval in Quebec, Acadia 
 and Dalhousie in Nova Scotia, and the provin¬ 
 cial universities of Alberta, British Columbia, 
 Manitoba, and Saskatchewan. See under 
 Canada. 
 
 Australia. Universities exist at Sydney, Mel¬ 
 bourne, Adelaide, Brisbane, Perth, and at Hobart 
 in Tasmania. The first was founded in 1852 and 
 is affiliated with the University of London and 
 with a women’s college (1894). There are four 
 faculties—arts, law, medicine, and science, and 
 chairs of military science, dentistry, agri¬ 
 culture, and engineering. In 1914 the student 
 body numbered 1227. The University of Mel¬ 
 bourne was established and endowed by an act 
 of the Victorian Parliament in 1855. There 
 are three affiliated colleges in connection with 
 the Church of England, the Presbyterian and the 
 Wesleyan churches. The student attendance in 
 1913 was 1244. The University of Adelaide was 
 incorporated in 1874 and was the first in Aus¬ 
 tralia to grant degrees to women (1880). Fac¬ 
 ulties are organized in arts, sciences, medicine, 
 law, and music. The number of matriculated 
 students in 1913 was 459. The University of 
 Queensland, which was established in Brisbane 
 in 1910, has faculties of arts, science, law, medi¬ 
 cine, and engineering. The number of students 
 in 1914 was 151. The University of Western 
 Australia at Perth was opened in 1913 and has 
 faculties of arts, science, and engineering, at¬ 
 tended in 1913-14 by 186 students. The Uni¬ 
 versity of Tasmania was founded at Hobart in 
 1890. It consists of three faculties—letters, sci¬ 
 ence, and law—and in 1913-14 had 107 students. 
 
 The University of New Zealand was founded 
 in 1871 and later empowered to confer degrees 
 in the arts, science, law, medicine, dentistry, 
 architecture, engineering, commerce, agriculture, 
 veterinary science, and music. In 1874, by union 
 with the University of Otago (founded in 1869), 
 the functions of the former institution are re¬ 
 stricted to its giving examination and conferring 
 degrees, while the latter became an affiliated 
 college. A college of mines was later established. 
 The attendance in the constituent colleges at 
 Dunedin, Christchurch, Auckland, and Welling¬ 
 ton was more than 1500 in 1914. 
 
 India. The universities of India, with the 
 dates of their establishment, are as follows: Cal¬ 
 cutta, 1857; Bombay, 1857; Madras, 1857; Pun¬ 
 jab, 1882; and Allahabad, for the Northwest Prov¬ 
 
 inces (United Provinces of Agra and Oudh), in 
 1887. By the Indian Universities Act of 1904 all 
 the universities were given the same form of or¬ 
 ganization. For the most part the instruction is 
 given in affiliated colleges. Faculties in arts and 
 philosophy, medicine, law, science, commerce, Ori¬ 
 ental studies, teaching, and engineering exist. 
 Efforts are being made also to promote technical 
 and agricultural education, the supporters of 
 this plan hoping to establish strong provincial 
 institutions for these purposes. Instruction is 
 usually given in English, though in the Oriental 
 College of the Punjab University instruction is 
 in the vernacular. All the universities enjoy 
 the privilege of affiliation with the University 
 of Cambridge. 
 
 France. French universities take their origin 
 from the University of Paris, the first great 
 university of northern Europe. (See Paris, 
 University of.) In the greater part of the 
 nineteenth century the word “university’’ had 
 a widely different meaning in France from that 
 which it conveyed in other countries, the term 
 Universite de France being nearly equivalent to 
 national system of education of France. (With 
 this may be compared the University of the 
 State of New York.) The French Revolution 
 put an end to the universities of the ancien 
 regime, and the attempts of the Convention to 
 establish similar institutions were short-lived. 
 Napoleon organized a comprehensive system of 
 higher education in one unified whole—the Uni¬ 
 versity of France. This was placed directly 
 under the control of the government, adminis¬ 
 tered from Paris, and made an instrument of 
 government in the hands of the central power. 
 Higher education was given under 15 faculties 
 in each of the educational districts. These 
 faculties were preeminently examining and de¬ 
 gree-conferring bodies. The courses of study 
 were strictly controlled from Paris, and the 
 work was almost wholly of a professional and 
 practical character. This organization, with 
 various alterations, continued until 1896. While 
 the various faculties of law, theology, medicine, 
 science, and literature existed in most of the 
 different educational districts, the so-called acad¬ 
 emies, in no case save at Paris were they or¬ 
 ganized into a university. The Law of 1896, 
 which went into effect Jan. 1, 1898, created 15 
 autonomous universities in place of the previous 
 unified university with scattered faculties, to 
 which a sixteenth was later added in Algiers 
 (1909). While much of the control of the in¬ 
 stitution is still exercised by the Minister of 
 Education and the authorities at Paris, yet much 
 local autonomy is exercised in respect to exam¬ 
 inations, degrees, and supplementary courses of 
 instruction. The support of these institutions 
 is now left largely to the localities, with large 
 subsidies from the state. This stimulates local 
 pride and activity, and many of the localities 
 have made great additions to the material equip¬ 
 ment and plant of the institution. Private mu¬ 
 nificence can now also be accepted, and it has 
 been given in some instances. The universities 
 in the smaller towns, however, have suffered 
 considerably from the change, for while the 
 change has largely increased the student attend¬ 
 ance, yet this has been for the most part to the 
 advantage of the universities in large cities, 
 such as Paris, Bordeaux, and Lyons. The local 
 universities are also under the necessity of sup¬ 
 porting the course of study given outside of the 
 state programme. 
 
ACADEMIC GOWNS - BRITISH USAGE. 
 
 DOCTOR OF CIVIL LAW 
 
 OR MEDICINE OFOXFORD. 
 ( FU LL DRESS ) • 
 
 DOCTOR OF DIVI N ITY.OXFORD 
 (CONVOCATION ROBE). 
 
 DOCTOR OF LAWS OR DIVINITY 
 CAMBRIDGE. 
 
 VICE- CHANCELLOR 
 CAM BRIDGE. 
 
 BACHELOR OF ARTS 
 OXFOR.D. 
 
 MASTER OF ARTS 
 CAMBRIDGE. 
 
 DOCTOR OF D I VI N I TY, EDI N B U RGH 
 ( FU LL DRESS ) 
 
 PENSIONER TRINITY COLLEGE 
 CA M B RIDG E . 
 
 MASTER OF ARTS 
 EDINBURGH. 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1903, BY DODO ME AO & COMPANY 
 
 JUUUS Bl EN & CO LITH. N Y 
 
 ARRANGED BY GARDNER COTRELL LEONARD. B A., I NTF-RCOLLEG I ATE BUREAU, ALBANY NY 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 785 
 
 The reform of 1890 was quite as important in 
 regard to methods of study as in regard to ad¬ 
 ministration. New emphasis is laid upon the 
 work of investigation. The professional student 
 is now given an opportunity for doing this, and 
 in some faculties is expected to do it previous 
 to receiving a degree. The change has especially 
 benefited the faculty of science and arts, which 
 previously had had no regular students, since 
 all courses were public and free and were con¬ 
 sequently attended chiefly by chance comers. 
 The same reform provided for "the opening of the 
 universities to foreigners and the reestablish¬ 
 ment of the doctorate. The attendance of for¬ 
 eigners, especially Americans, has increased con¬ 
 stantly since the reforms were instituted, there 
 being, in 1912, 55G9 of these. The number of 
 professorships has also been largely increased. 
 Not all the universities are equipped with all 
 the faculties. There are only eight complete 
 faculties: Paris, Bordeaux, Lille, Lyons, Mont¬ 
 pellier, Nancy, Toulouse, and Algiers. A few 
 have no complete medical faculties and only 
 preparatory medical schools. In addition to the 
 faculties a number of universities have also 
 schools of pharmacy. 
 
 Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. The 
 early German universities were modeled after the 
 University of Paris, though the University of 
 Bologna had considerable influence on the uni¬ 
 versities of the South German States; and it is 
 in the German universities that the general or¬ 
 ganization or structure of the mediaeval univer¬ 
 sities is best preserved. Unlike the early uni¬ 
 versities of France and Italy, those of Germany 
 were not of gradual growth, but were all cre¬ 
 ated and chartered by both King and Pope and 
 often by the Emperor as well. There were seven 
 of these founded in the period to which all the 
 early universities belong, that is, to the period 
 previous to the Renaissance movement. The 
 earliest of all was that of Prague, authorized by 
 Pope Clement VI in 1347, and by the Emperor 
 Charles IV in the. following year. Then fol¬ 
 lowed Vienna, in 1365; Heidelberg, in 1386; 
 Cologne, in 1388; Erfurt, in 1393; Leipzig, in 
 1409; and Rostock, in 1419. It is only this 
 group of German universities that incorporated 
 the original organization into nations, and even 
 in these the nations ceased to have any essential 
 importance in the sixteenth century. Leipzig 
 grew out of a secession of 5000 students and 
 teachers from Prague, owing to hostility between 
 the German and Bohemian students, and conse¬ 
 quently the organization into nations was im¬ 
 portant, and continued to exist as a form until 
 the nineteenth century. All these universities 
 yet exist, save Cologne and Erfurt, which dis¬ 
 appeared during the period of the French Revo¬ 
 lution. The humanistic movement of the fif¬ 
 teenth and early sixteenth century produced nine 
 new universities, four of which, Greifswald, Frei¬ 
 burg, Basel, and Tubingen, still exist. One of 
 the others, Wittenberg (founded 1502), was the 
 most influential of all during the latter part of 
 the sixteenth century. 
 
 The third period in the history of German 
 universities is that of the Reformation and 
 Counter-Reformation, to the close of .the seven¬ 
 teenth century. Twenty new foundations date 
 from these two centuries, 10 of them Protestant 
 and 10 Roman Catholic. Half of each group 
 have ceased to exist or continue merely as theo¬ 
 logical faculties under the control of the 
 Church. These foundations were due for the 
 
 most part to the territorial divisions caused 
 by the religious dissensions, and throughout the 
 period religious interest dominated all the uni¬ 
 versities, old and new. Consequently the in¬ 
 fluence, the spirit of the teaching, the manner 
 of life was much more restricted during this 
 period than in any other. The theological 
 studies dominated. Towards the close of this 
 period the universities of Germany sank to the 
 lowest level of influence and importance, nor 
 was the character of the work much higher. The 
 court schools and circles of learning outshone 
 the universities themselves. 
 
 The new era of the eighteenth century was 
 ushered in by the foundation of Halle (1693) 
 and Gottingen (1737). These two institutions 
 marked the recovery from the stagnation of the 
 seventeenth century. Halle was established in 
 the interest of Lutheranism to combat some of 
 the religious tendencies of the time, but soon 
 outgrew the bounds originally set for it, espe¬ 
 cially under the influence of the famous Thoma- 
 sius and Francke. Thomasius was the first to 
 abandon the use of Latin for German in the 
 lecture room, and his example was soon followed 
 to a greater or lesser extent throughout Ger¬ 
 many. A further characteristic of this period 
 was the dominance of the new rationalistic phi¬ 
 losophy over the old scholasticism. The new 
 philosophy recognized no bounds of authority, 
 and the spirit of inquiry now came to be the 
 dominant spirit of the universities. Instead of 
 theunerely formal study of the ancient classics, 
 the various branches of philology were now rec¬ 
 ognized and pursued. The critical study of his¬ 
 tory also began. Halle and Gottingen dominate 
 the eighteenth century and are recognized as the 
 first universities of the modern type. 
 
 The present period, in which the scientific 
 spirit of the nineteenth century is preeminent, 
 opened after a period of upheaval consequent 
 upon the Napoleonic wars. Nine of the. old 
 universities were suppressed and four combined 
 with others. One of the measures adopted by 
 the Prussian government was the reformation 
 of existing universities an the direction of 
 greater freedom of thought, and the founding 
 of the new University of Berlin in 1809. The 
 influence of Berlin on' other German universities 
 has been paramount. Many antiquated and 
 useless features have been abandoned and dur¬ 
 ing the past century professorships in every 
 branch of learning were established. The Uni¬ 
 versity of Bonn was founded in 1818 and has 
 rapidly gained preeminence, especially in phi¬ 
 losophy and philology. A late venture in the 
 progress of higher education in Germany was 
 the establishment of the University of Frank¬ 
 fort, the first institution of its kind maintained 
 by private and municipal funds. The univer¬ 
 sity was opened for instruction in 1914. 
 
 The German universities are strictly state 
 institutions and are subject to the ministry 
 charged with the educational supervision of the 
 respective states in which each is situated. 
 Each, however, enjoys a high degree of auton¬ 
 omy and their constitutions are essentially re¬ 
 publican. The internal administration of the 
 university is in the hands of a rector, or, in 
 case this title is borne by the sovereign, a pro¬ 
 rector, a dean of each faculty, the senatus 
 academicus, and the quaestor or treasurer. The 
 discipline of the university over its students is 
 maintained by means of a Universitv Court, 
 composed of certain members of the faculty 01 
 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 786 
 
 law. The penalties inflicted are reprimands, 
 fines, imprisonment in the University Career, 
 deprivation of credit, suspension, and expulsion, 
 the two latter holding good not only for the one 
 but for all German universities. Aside from 
 this the university exercises no control over its 
 students, and there are, save in a few exceptional 
 instances, no such institutions as colleges, halls, 
 or dormitories. The term faculty signifies either 
 (1) the teaching body, especially the full pro¬ 
 fessors, or (2) the teachers and students in one 
 of the great divisions of the university. At 
 every German university there are faculties of 
 law, medicine, philosophy, and either Protestant 
 or Roman Catholic theology. In a few, such as 
 Munich and Strassburg, an additional faculty 
 in political science or in natural science has 
 been organized. The teaching body of a Ger¬ 
 man university consists of (1) full professors 
 ( ordinarii , ordentliche Professoren), (2) ex¬ 
 traordinary professors {ausserordentliche) , and 
 
 (3) Privatdocenten. To these are to be added 
 
 (4) readers {lectoren) , appointed to give prac¬ 
 tical instruction in modern languages; there are 
 also (5) masters of dancing, fencing, riding, 
 etc., whose connection with the university is 
 often merely nominal. The full professors are 
 the occupants of chairs intended to be perma¬ 
 nent foundations; they alone sit in the senatus 
 aeademicus, and are alone eligible to the rector¬ 
 ship and deanships. The extraordinary pro¬ 
 fessors are either younger men, to whom the 
 professorial title has been granted by the govern¬ 
 ment for distinguished work, or they represent 
 subjects in which no permanent chairs have been 
 established; sometimes both conditions are ex¬ 
 emplified in the same individual. The Privat¬ 
 docenten are graduates who receive permission 
 to lecture, but receive no official appointment 
 and depend for their remuneration for the most 
 part upon fees received from students. They 
 are not subject to the authority of the pro¬ 
 fessors, but from them are selected the ausser¬ 
 ordentliche Professoren. 
 
 The only degrees given by the German univer¬ 
 sities at the present day are those of doctor 
 and licentiate; the latter is given only in theol¬ 
 ogy. The university degrees do not, as such, 
 admit the recipient to the exercise of his pro¬ 
 fession in the Church, law, medicine, or the 
 higher teaching service; for this, the passing 
 of the state examination is necessary. 
 
 For a list of German, Austrian, and Swiss 
 universities, see articles on the respective coun¬ 
 tries. The principal universities are described 
 in separate articles. 
 
 Italy. During the Middle Ages the university 
 movement had its origin and received its great¬ 
 est impulse from Italy. The importance of 
 Bologna in this respect has been discussed un¬ 
 der the section on Mediceval Universities. 
 Again, during the fifteenth and sixteenth cen¬ 
 turies the Italian universities were the most 
 important centres in all Europe of the new 
 humanistic studies. While the new methods and 
 subjects of study introduced by these Italian 
 universities produced a complete academic revo¬ 
 lution and paved the way for the Reformation, 
 they possessed a fortunate immunity from dis¬ 
 sensions like those which distracted the centres 
 of learning in northern Europe, especially Ger¬ 
 many. The status of the professors in Italy 
 was higher than in any other country. Never¬ 
 theless the universities suffered greatly from the 
 general decline of the seventeenth and eighteenth 
 
 centuries and did not recover with the early nine¬ 
 teenth, as did those of the Northern European 
 countries. While they preserved their ancient 
 organization and local independence, they suf¬ 
 fered both from a great decrease of revenue 
 and from the political disturbances of the Italian 
 States. After the political unification of Italy 
 in 1870 the government nationalized the univer¬ 
 sities, by assuming their support and manage¬ 
 ment and confiscating their property. Since 
 that time the universities are included as a com¬ 
 ponent part of the public system of education. 
 There are seventeen of these state universi¬ 
 ties and four free universities—that is, sup¬ 
 ported by the local districts and municipalities. 
 Consequently the opportunities for higher edu¬ 
 cation are very much in excess of the needs of 
 the population. Very few of these universities 
 possess theological faculties, and the theologi¬ 
 cal studies are little valued. Education for 
 the Church is given in seminaries controlled 
 by the Church and in its ecclesiastical character 
 is most complete. The theological schools of 
 Rome draw students from all quarters of the 
 world, and in conjunction with them there is a 
 system of national colleges for the students of 
 the several countries. Faculties of philosophy 
 do not exist in the free universities and are 
 poorly attended in the state institutions. The 
 faculties of medicine and of law possess an 
 overwhelming preponderance of all students. 
 The state universities are those of Bologna, Ca¬ 
 gliari, Catania, Genoa, Macerata, Messina, Mo¬ 
 dena, Naples, Padua, Palermo, Parma, Pavia, 
 Pisa, Rome, Sassari, Siena, and Turin. The 
 free universities are those of Camerino, Ferrara, 
 Perugia, and Urbino. 
 
 Holland and Belgium. The universities of 
 the Netherlands, which, like the later founda¬ 
 tions of Germany, grew out of the Reformation 
 struggles, were founded by the state for the 
 especial purpose of training the clergy. 
 
 The Dutch universities are Leyden, Gronin¬ 
 gen, Utrecht, and Amsterdam, the last founded 
 in 1877. These universities possess a uniform 
 organization and with the exception of Amster¬ 
 dam, which is not state maintained, are com¬ 
 pletely controlled by the state. The subjects 
 of study and the examinations are determined 
 by statute. Consequently there is little individ¬ 
 uality among the universities and little to lead 
 a student to prefer one institution to another. 
 There are no colleges or halls, and no oversight 
 of the students by the faculty. The Dutch uni¬ 
 versities are closely modeled after the German, 
 but do not possess their flexibility. The char¬ 
 acter of student life, of methods of instruction, 
 of conditions of examinations, of degrees con¬ 
 ferred, closely approximate that of the Ger¬ 
 man universities. There is in addition to these 
 a free university at Amsterdam founded in 
 1880 and now having about 150 students in 
 faculties of theology, letters, law, and medicine. 
 It is supported by private benefactions. 
 
 Belgium had four universities, two of which, 
 Li6ge and Ghent, were state universities similar 
 to those of the Netherlands, while Louvain was 
 controlled by the Roman Catholic church, and 
 Brussels was a free establishment. 
 
 Spain and Portugal. There were in 191G 
 nine universities in Spain, an additional lav/ 
 faculty at Oviedo, and a medical faculty at 
 Cadiz. The universities are located at Bar¬ 
 celona, Granada, Madrid, Salamanca, Santiago, 
 Seville, Valencia, Valladolid, and Saragossa. 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 787 
 
 Each possesses two or more of the faculties of 
 law, medicine, pharmacy, and science. Tuition 
 charges are high and the universities depend al¬ 
 most wholly upon this source of revenue. For 
 the most part the Spanish universities re¬ 
 semble in organization the French faculties pre¬ 
 vious to the reforms of 1890 and are not in a 
 flourishing state. The largest is that of Madrid, 
 with 125 professors and nearly 6000 students in 
 1914. Portugal has two universities. There 
 are faculties of law, medicine, mathematics, 
 philosophy, and a school of design at Coimbra. 
 Lisbon, which was reestablished in 1910, has 
 faculties of arts, sciences, and medicine, and 
 a school of pharmacy. See Coimbra, Univer¬ 
 sity of; Alcala de Henares; Madrid, Uni¬ 
 versity of; Salamanca, University of; Va¬ 
 lencia, University of; Valladolid, Univer¬ 
 sity of. 
 
 Russia. Russian universities are of two 
 classes: those that are practically universities 
 of the German type and date from the Reforma¬ 
 tion period, and those typically Russian. There 
 are two of the former: Dorpat, founded in 1632 
 (see Yuriev, University of), and Helsingfors, 
 in Finland, founded in 1640 by Queen Christina. 
 The latter is a flourishing institution in the 
 midst of a cultured people possessing a system 
 of universal and compulsory education. Both 
 the population which supports it and the in¬ 
 stitution itself are more closely allied to the 
 Scandinavian countries than to Russia. The 
 nine Russian universities are as follows: Mos¬ 
 cow, founded in 1755; St. Vladimir at Kiev, 
 founded in 1833; Kazan, founded in 1804; Khar¬ 
 kov, founded in 1804; Warsaw, founded in 1816; 
 St. Petersburg, founded in 1819; Odessa, founded 
 in 1865; Tomsk, founded in 1888; and Saratov, 
 founded in 1909. In most of them the faculties 
 are of history, science, jurisprudence, medicine, 
 and languages. The attendance, excluding Sar¬ 
 atov with about 400 students, varies from about 
 10,000 at Moscow to about 1000 at Tomsk. In 
 addition to the universities there are six theo¬ 
 logical schools and various medical and tech¬ 
 nical schools not represented in the university 
 faculties. 
 
 Greece. No institutions of higher learning ex¬ 
 isted in Athens during modern times until after 
 the liberation of the Greeks in the early part of 
 the nineteenth century. In 1837 King Otho es¬ 
 tablished the University of Athens, closely mod¬ 
 eled after the universities of Germany. The four 
 faculties of law, medicine, theology, and philos¬ 
 ophy were created, with the power of appoint¬ 
 ment lodged with the King, who appointed 
 mainly Germans. Since 1882 the right of nom¬ 
 ination has been exercised by the faculties. 
 
 Scandinavia. All state institutions since 
 the Reformation have been strongly Lutheran 
 in their character and are closely associated 
 with the national church. They were founded 
 on the model of German universities and for 
 the most part reproduce the present features 
 of these. They are as follows: Upsala, in 
 Sweden, founded in 1477; Copenhagen, in Den¬ 
 mark, founded in 1479; Lund, in Sweden, 
 founded in 1666; and Christiania, in Norway, 
 founded in 1811. The attendance varies from 
 4000 at Copenhagen to nearly! 1400 at Lund. In 
 addition to these universities there are in 
 Sweden a state medical faculty at Stockholm, 
 and private philosophical faculties at Stockholm 
 and Goteborg. 
 
 United States. In the United States popular 
 
 usage employs the terms “university” and “col¬ 
 lege” indiscriminately for any higher institu¬ 
 tion of learning which possesses the power of 
 conferring the usual academic degrees. This 
 confusion prevails also in official nomenclature, 
 for some of the oldest, richest, and most com¬ 
 pletely equipped American universities still bear 
 the name of “college,” while in certain parts of 
 the country institutions inferior in endowment 
 and in scholarly distinction to some of the sec¬ 
 ondary schools are officially designated as “uni¬ 
 versities.” Harvard and Yale, though long 
 since equipped with the amplest facilities for 
 university work, have only very recently put 
 aside the name of “college,” and the same is 
 true also of Columbia and Princeton. 
 
 Classified with reference to their pedagogic 
 character, American universities may be roughly 
 grouped under two general heads: (1) univer¬ 
 sities that are equipped for the prosecution of 
 original investigation and research in the vari¬ 
 ous departments of study, besides usually hav¬ 
 ing connected with them the various professional 
 schools, representing the faculties of law, medi¬ 
 cine, theology, and natural science; and (2) 
 universities, so called, that perform chiefly the 
 disciplinary and preparatory work similar to 
 but somewhat more advanced than that of the 
 German Gymnasium (q.v.). Institutions of the 
 second class have a course more or less pre¬ 
 scribed (see Elective Courses and Studies ), 
 leading to the degree of bachelor of arts, and 
 in some cases to the alternative degrees of 
 bachelor of science, bachelor of letters, or 
 bachelor of philosophy. With the granting of 
 such degrees the responsibility of the institu¬ 
 tion usually ends, though some of the univer¬ 
 sities offer facilities for advanced lines of study. 
 But in all, the “undergraduate courses” leading 
 to the baccalaureate degree form the most im¬ 
 portant portion of the curriculum. 
 
 Of the former class, to which in the best us¬ 
 age the term university is now restricted, are 
 Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Princeton, Johns Hop¬ 
 kins, Clark, Pennsylvania, Leland Stanford, Chi¬ 
 cago, Cornell, New York, the Catholic Univer¬ 
 sity of America at Washington, and a large num¬ 
 ber of State universities such as Michigan, Cali¬ 
 fornia, Wisconsin, and Illinois. However, in 
 most of these less stress is laid upon the col¬ 
 legiate work than upon the more original work 
 performed by those who have already received 
 the first degree in arts and science, and who 
 are consequently engaged in the special or pro¬ 
 fessional investigations that are to fit them for 
 their life’s work. In the remainder of these, 
 and in many similar institutions bearing the 
 name university, the chief emphasis is upon the 
 undergraduate work, though the advanced and 
 progressive work is also represented and the 
 title of university is appropriate. Such are 
 the State universities of Virginia, California, 
 Michigan, Indiana, Minnesota, and several other 
 States, Boston University, and Princeton Uni¬ 
 versity. So far as the advanced work is carried 
 in these institutions, it is in no wise inferior to 
 that of institutions laying the chief stress on 
 graduate investigation and instruction. In no 
 case is there an institution comparable to the 
 universities of Oxford and Cambridge, made up 
 of constituent colleges doing undergraduate 
 work; nor, on the other hand, universities in 
 the German sense of the term. 
 
 The influence of the German universities, how¬ 
 ever, was most instrumental during the devel- 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 788 
 
 opment of advanced instruction in American 
 institutions. The first American to graduate 
 at a German university was Edward Everett, 
 who received his doctor’s degree at Gottingen in 
 1817. During the next few years this example 
 was imitated by four or five others, among them 
 George Bancroft, who received his degree in 
 1820. Not until after 1840, however, were any 
 great number of American students attracted 
 to the German universities. From that time 
 a constantly increasing number pursued such a 
 course and returned to affect immediately the 
 work of American institutions. As early as 
 1800 Harvard College had accepted resident 
 graduates, and announced their names as stu¬ 
 dents. A varying number, never over 12, con¬ 
 tinued each year until 1860, when Harvard 
 first definitely announced in its catalogue that 
 such students would be accepted and provided 
 for, and three years later announced a series 
 of graduate courses. 
 
 Meanwhile Yale College had preceded Harvard 
 in the development of graduate work. In 1847 
 a “department of philosophy and arts” was or¬ 
 ganized for “scientific and graduate study.” 
 This department was expanded until in 18G0- 
 61 it was divided into (1) the Sheffield Scien¬ 
 tific School and (2) the special courses in philol¬ 
 ogy, history, philosophy, etc., and the announce¬ 
 ment was made that the degree of doctor of 
 philosophy would be conferred, as was done 
 for the first time at the close of that year. I 11 
 1872 the graduate work was organized into a 
 separate department, as the first distinct grad¬ 
 uate school. In the same year Harvard an¬ 
 nounced that it would confer the advanced de¬ 
 gree, but it was not until 1890 that a separate 
 graduate school was organized. Other institu¬ 
 tions, such as Columbia, Michigan, Cornell, and 
 Princeton, soon followed the example of the 
 older institutions in providing for advanced de¬ 
 grees and in the case of the master’s degree 
 some even preceded the older institutions. In 
 the case of Cornell University, opened in 1868, 
 the graduate work and graduate degrees were 
 planned from the beginning. Johns Hopkins 
 University, founded in 1876, was the most in¬ 
 fluential of all factors in developing univer¬ 
 sity work similar to that of the German uni¬ 
 versities. Here first was found an institution 
 devoted chiefly to the training of advanced stu¬ 
 dents; here first were found the opportunities 
 for research along the line of all the social and 
 natural sciences, literature, and philosophy; 
 here first was the organization of work similar 
 to that of German institutions and the same 
 freedom and opportunity of wide choice given 
 to the student. For many years the men trained 
 at this university exerted the greatest influence 
 towards the introduction of similar work in 
 other institutions where the university work 
 was developing out of the old collegiate work. 
 A second great influence Avas that exerted by 
 Har\~ard UnUersitA 7 during the incumbencv of 
 President Eliot. NoAA 7 here else Avas the close 
 and beneficial relationship that may exist be- 
 tAveen the graduate and undergraduate work so 
 demonstrated. A similar influence Avas exerted 
 upon State universities by the graduate in¬ 
 struction both in natural and in the social 
 sciences by Cornell University, ample provi¬ 
 sions for A\ r hicli Avere made at its foundation in 
 1868. More recently seA 7 eral other institutions 
 ha\ T e vied with these in the importance of their 
 university Avork, notably two, Avhich noAV lead all 
 
 the others in graduate attendance, namely, 
 Columbia University and the University of 
 Chicago. Columbia as reorganized in 1890 pro¬ 
 vided for graduate Avork, in a graduate faculty 
 of philosophy, of political science, and (in 
 1893) of pure science. Since then the faculty 
 of medicine and the faculty of laAV and the 
 faculty of education (see Teachers College) 
 have become graduate faculties. In numbers 
 pursuing graduate studies this university now 
 leads. The University of Chicago, founded in 
 1891, has laid the greater emphasis upon grad¬ 
 uate work from the beginning, and has intro¬ 
 duced a number of noA r el features, some imi¬ 
 tations of features of English universities, some 
 of German, and some original. Several of 
 these, such as the continuous session, and the 
 publication department, as an important phase 
 of the university work, seem destined to come 
 into general acceptance. 
 
 The degrees conferred by universities for ad¬ 
 vanced work are usually those of master of arts 
 (A.M.) and doctor of philosophy (Ph.D.), though 
 sometimes the master of science (M.S.) and 
 the doctor of science (D.S.) are also given. 
 The tendency iioav in both the graduate and un¬ 
 dergraduate work of universities is toAvards giv¬ 
 ing a single degree (A.B., A.M., and Ph.D.) 
 upon the completion of any one of a number of 
 allied courses. The requirements for the mas¬ 
 ter’s degree sIioav considerable variation among 
 the different institutions. The degree usually 
 indicates one year of resident graduate Avork 
 beyond the bachelor’s degree, though it is still 
 frequently given honoris causa. The minimum 
 for the doctor’s degree is tAvo years’ work be¬ 
 yond the baccalaureate, including the prepara¬ 
 tion and usually the publication of a thesis. 
 In most cases the doctorate requires three years 
 of graduate work. In 1873 there were 43 doc¬ 
 torate degrees conferred, 25 of AA T hich were upon 
 examination. By the close of the century this 
 number had increased to from 300 to 350 each 
 year, AAflth less than five per cent gh 7 en honoris 
 causa. In 1914 in 567 institutions 5248 grad¬ 
 uate degrees Avere conferred, while in 46 of the 
 leading institutions 519 degrees of doctor of 
 philosophy Avere gained. The graduate students 
 in the same year numbered 13,094. See Degree. 
 
 Complete freedom of choice is naturally given 
 to the student in the selection of his studies, 
 as is noAV the usual or at least the frequent cus¬ 
 tom in undergraduate studies. (See Elective 
 Courses and Studies.) Consequently the A.B. 
 degree as Avell as the Ph.D. does not indicate 
 the mastery of any particular subject or sub¬ 
 jects. The German custom of requiring the 
 student to select a major and one or two minor 
 subjects preA 7 ails in most universities, though 
 Hanard and Yale simply require that the kind 
 and amount of the work be satisfactory to the 
 appropriate committee. The present tendency 
 in other institutions is aAvay from this division 
 into majors and minors. The amount of time 
 or number of courses included in a major or 
 minor varies Avith the university. A major for 
 a doctor’s degree ordinarily represents two 
 courses of two or three or four hours Aveekly 
 for tAvo or three years, as the case may be. It 
 is often more in amount. The minor is ordi¬ 
 narily one-half of the above requirement. The 
 greatest A 7 arietv of choice is offered the student 
 for his selection of majors and minors. 
 
 The teaching staff is composed of professors, 
 adjunct or associate professors, assistant pro- 
 
ACADEMIC G O W N S - A M E R I CA N USAGE. 
 
 DOCTOR OF MEDICINE 
 
 JOHNS HOPKINS. 
 
 DOCTOR OF MUSIC 
 CO LU M B I A. 
 
 DOCTOR OF DIVINITV 
 
 VALE. 
 
 BACHELOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 WESTERN RESERVE UNIV. 
 
 
 DOCTOR OF SCIENCE 
 PR I N CETON. 
 
 BACHELOR OF DIVINITY 
 UNIV OF CHICAGO. 
 
 MASTER OF ARTS 
 UN IV. OF MINNESOTA. 
 
 DOCTO R OF LETTERS 
 UNIV. OF CALI FORNI A. 
 
 COPVP .GMT, 1903, BY DODO, MEAD 1 COMPANY 
 
 ARRANGEO BY GARDNER COTRELL LEONARD, B. A., I NTERCOLLEGI ATE BUREAU, ALBANY, N Y. 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 7»9 UNIVERSITY 
 
 fessors, instructors, tutors, and assistants. The 
 American professor is always a teacher, and the 
 amount of his time that must be devoted to 
 actual lecturing and teaching is usually pre¬ 
 scribed for him by the college regulations; it is 
 ordinarily from eight to twelve hours per week. 
 He has not the privilege accorded to the Ger¬ 
 man professor, of “reading” or not, but must 
 every year go through a certain number of 
 courses of instruction, besides being expected, 
 in many of the colleges, to assume a certain 
 amount of responsibility for administration, and 
 the morals and discipline of the undergraduates. 
 This is a very serious obstacle in the way of 
 his ability to carry on independent investiga¬ 
 tion and research, and makes the American pro¬ 
 fessoriate a comparatively sterile body, though 
 an improvement in this respect has been very 
 noticeable in the past few years. The univer¬ 
 sity instructor is now expected to be not only 
 a director of investigation and an investigator 
 himself, but he is also expected to publish the 
 results of his investigations. The same kind 
 of work is also coming in increased amount 
 from the colleges, though there the instructor 
 must spend the greater part of his time (from 
 15 to 20 hours per week) in class instruction. 
 Harvard, Yale, Chicago, Cornell, Columbia, 
 Johns Hopkins, Clark, and other universities 
 have now largely adopted the German concep¬ 
 tion of the professorial function, and allow the 
 individual professor much greater liberty in 
 the discharge of his duties than was formerly 
 the case. Most of the leading universities have 
 likewise adopted the laudable plan of allowing 
 each professor leave of absence once in seven 
 years, either a full year on half pay, or a half 
 year on full pay, with many variations on this 
 plan. 
 
 In organization the universities differ con¬ 
 siderably, especially as to detail and local ar¬ 
 rangements. In general the organization is into 
 faculties of philosophy, pure science, applied 
 science, medicine, law, etc., presided over by 
 deans, who are administrative rather than edu¬ 
 cational heads; the faculties are divided into 
 departments, of Greek, mathematics, etc., pre¬ 
 sided over by a head professor, who usually ex¬ 
 ercises a general control over the work of the 
 department. To him the associate professors, 
 tutors, etc., in the department are responsible. 
 He arranges the subjects of study, assigns the 
 work of the subordinate instructors, and reports 
 to the president or chancellor from time to time 
 upon the work accomplished. In other universi¬ 
 ties the departmental organization is wholly 
 democratic, in which the only headship is the 
 formal one of seniority. The president (or 
 chancellor) exercises a general supervision over 
 the entire institution, and is the medium of 
 communication between the faculty or faculties 
 and the trustees, overseers, regents, or governors 
 of the university—a body with whom usually 
 rests the ultimate sovereignty of the institution, 
 and who have exclusive control of the finances. 
 
 The organization of the professors and in¬ 
 structors in American universities differs widely. 
 In the institutions where most of the work is in 
 arts and science there is generally a single 
 faculty. In the larger universities the faculties 
 are often wholly distinct, the president acting as 
 the only bond between them. Each faculty, 
 then, legislates independently of the others on 
 matters affecting its own local interests, while 
 questions affecting the university as a whole 
 
 are left largely to the board of trustees, advised 
 by the president and sometimes by the faculties. 
 
 The Lnited States Commissioner of Educa¬ 
 tion in his report for 1913-14 gives statistics 
 for 567 universities, colleges, and schools of 
 technology of degree-giving rank. Of these 474 
 are controlled by private corporations and 93 
 by State or municipal authorities. Four hun¬ 
 dred and seventy-five of these are colleges and 
 universities for men or for both sexes; of these 
 330 are open to both men and women, and 145 
 admit men only to the undergraduate depart¬ 
 ment. the total attendance in these institu¬ 
 tions for the year 1913-14 w'as 216,493; of these 
 139,373 w r ere men and 77,120 were women. 
 These institutions conferred degrees upon 31,- 
 781 men and women completing the course 
 of study during that year. The number of 
 professors and instructors in these institutions 
 was 31,312. The total value of the property 
 possessed by the 567 institutions of higher edu¬ 
 cation v’as $849,396,071; of this sum $362,742,- 
 823 consisted of productive funds. The total 
 income of the institutions for the year was 
 $102,156,401, and the additions through pri¬ 
 vate benefactions, $26,670,017. 
 
 Since the close of the last and the beginning 
 of the present century a number of organiza¬ 
 tions have been established to promote and dis¬ 
 cuss the various interests of American univer¬ 
 sities. Among these should be mentioned the 
 Association of American Universities, established 
 in 1900 to consider questions bearing on grad¬ 
 uate studies; the National Association of State 
 Universities,, organized in 1895, to make the 
 represented institutions more efficient; and in 
 1914 there w^as founded the Association of Ur¬ 
 ban Universities to promote the interests of 
 municipal universities and universities existing 
 in large towns. The United States Bureau of 
 Education has in recent years devoted attention 
 through a specialist to higher education. Of 
 privately endowed bodies that have contributed 
 materially to the welfare of American univer¬ 
 sities the more important are the Carnegie 
 Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 
 and the General Education Board (qq.v.). In¬ 
 directly contributory to the progress of higher 
 education is the American Association of Uni¬ 
 versity Professors, organized in 1915 to safe¬ 
 guard and promote the interests of the teaching 
 profession engaged in universities and colleges. 
 
 Denominational Connections of Universi¬ 
 ties and Colleges. The earliest institutions for 
 higher education in the United States w^ere es¬ 
 tablished to promote the interests of certain de¬ 
 nominations and more especially for the training 
 of ministers. Thus Harvard and Yale were 
 closely connected with the Congregational 
 churches, King’s College (nov r Columbia Uni¬ 
 versity) with the Episcopal church, Princeton 
 with the Presbyterian, Brown with the Baptist, 
 Wesleyan with the Methodist, and Rutgers with 
 the Dutch Reformed. The expansion of the 
 purposes and functions of the colleges and uni¬ 
 versities, the development of State universities, 
 the requirements of the Carnegie Foundation 
 for the Advancement of Teaching, were several 
 among many reasons for the abandonment of 
 close administrative relations between these in¬ 
 stitutions and the denominations. While nearly 
 every denomination in the country has its repre¬ 
 sentative institutions for higher education, a 
 few' have established central authorities to aid 
 in the maintenance, promote the standards, and 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 UNIVERSITY CLUB 
 
 790 
 
 supervise the instruction and religious life of 
 their institutions. The chief of these boards are 
 the Presbyterian Board of Aid for Colleges and 
 Academies or the Presbyterian College Board, 
 established in 1883; the Board of Education of 
 the Methodist Episcopal church, organized in 
 1864; the Board of Education of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church South, founded in 1894; the 
 Congregational Education Society, organized in 
 its present form in 1896 and amalgamating a 
 number of boards throughout the country, one at 
 least dating from 1816; and the Board of Edu¬ 
 cation of the Reformed Church of America, which 
 began its activities in 1828, was reconstituted in 
 1832, and incorporated in 1869. All the boards 
 mentioned are now devoting themselves to the 
 task of consolidating and coordinating the efforts 
 of their respective denominations, eliminating 
 competition among small, struggling institutions, 
 and raising the standards. 
 
 The ecclesiastical control over institutions of 
 higher learning in the Roman Catholic church 
 is of a different character. Here there is no 
 central board or society that exercises powers of 
 supervision over all the colleges of the church. 
 The connection is maintained through a large 
 number of religious orders that not only support 
 but own the institutions under their care. Each 
 order is, of course, under the supervision of its 
 superior or council. In 1899 there was founded 
 an Association of Catholic Colleges of the United 
 States with a membership of 53 colleges, a num¬ 
 ber nearly doubled since that date. The associa¬ 
 tion in 1904 became the college section of the 
 Catholic Education Association. The leading in¬ 
 stitution in the section is the Catholic Univer¬ 
 sity of America (q.v.). With few exceptions 
 the other institutions are under the control of 
 one of the religious orders of the church devoted 
 to teaching. The leading orders of men are the 
 Society of Jesus, the Brothers of the Christian 
 Schools, the Benedictines, the Vincentians, the 
 Oblates of Mary Immaculate, the Marist Fathers, 
 the Congregation of the Holy Cross, the Brothers 
 of the Sacred Heart, and the Xaverian Brothers. 
 The chief communities of women conducting col¬ 
 leges include the Sisters of Notre Dame, the 
 Sisters of Notre Dame of Namur, Sisters of the 
 Holy Cross, Sisters of the Holy Names, Ursu- 
 lines, Sisters of Charity, and Sisters of Provi¬ 
 dence. The institutions maintained by these 
 orders are chiefly of college rank and confine 
 themselves in the main to imparting a liberal 
 rather than a professional education. The lead¬ 
 ing universities are, besides the Catholic Uni¬ 
 versity of America, Georgetown (Washington, 
 D. C.), Notre Dame (Notre Dame, Ind.), Loyola 
 and DePaul (Chicago), St. Louis (St. Louis), 
 Fordham (New York City), Creighton (Omaha), 
 Marquette (Milwaukee), Detroit (Detroit). 
 Catholic colleges having a registration in 1915 
 of 300 or more include: St. John’s (Brooklyn), 
 Holy Cross (Worcester, Mass.), St. Mary’s 
 (Oakland, Cal.), St. Ignatius’s (Cleveland, Ohio), 
 St. Mary’s (Dayton, Ohio), Dubuque (Dubuque, 
 Iowa), Cathedral College (New York City), 
 St. Mary’s (St. Mary’s, Kans.), St. John’s (a 
 university; Collegeville, Minn.), Mt. St. Mary’s 
 (Emmitsburg, Md.), St. Viator (Kankakee, 
 Ill.), Santa Clara (a university; Santa Clara, 
 Cal.), Villanova (Villanova, Pa.), Campion 
 (Prairie du Chien, Wis.), Christian Brothers 
 (St. Louis), Loyola (Baltimore), St. Joseph’s 
 (Collegeville, Ind.). There are other well-known 
 Catholic colleges in the United States, as well 
 
 as in the Philippines and Honolulu. For com¬ 
 plete list, consult the Official Catholic Directory 
 (New York, 1916). 
 
 Bibliography. Ancient universities: Capes, 
 University Life at Ancient Athens (London, 
 1877); J. P. Mahaffy, Old Greek Education 
 (New York, 1882) ; id., The Greek World Under 
 Homan Sway (ib., 1890) ; Paul Monroe, Source- 
 Book on the History of Education for the Greek 
 and Roman Period (ib., 1901); J. W. H. W. 
 Walden, The Universities of Ancient Greece 
 (ib., 1909). Mediaeval universities: H. Denifle, 
 Die Universitaten des Mittelalters (Berlin, 
 1885) ; Hastings Rashdall, The Universities of 
 Europe during the Middle Ages (2 vols., Oxford, 
 1895) ; Gabriel Compayr6, Abelard and the Ori¬ 
 gin and Early History of Universities (New 
 York, 1895) ; S. S. Laurie, Rise and Early Con¬ 
 stitution of Universities (ib., 1895) ; J. M. Stone, 
 The Reformation and Renaissance (London, 
 1904) ; A. Norton, Medieval Universities (Cam¬ 
 bridge, Mass., 1905) ; E. V. Vaughan, Origin 
 and Early Development of the English Univer<- 
 sities (Columbia, Mo., 1908) ; F. P. Graves, His¬ 
 tory of Education before the Middle Ages (New 
 York, 1909) ; C. F. Thwing, The Universities of 
 the World (ib., 1911). For the German uni¬ 
 versities: Dollinger, Die Universitaten sonst und 
 jetzt (Munich, 1871) ; Sybel, Die deutschen Uni- 
 versitdten (Bonn, 1874) ; Conrad, The German 
 Universities for the Last Fifty Years (Eng. 
 trans., with introduction by James Bryce, Glas¬ 
 gow, 1885") ; Erman and Horn, Bibliographie der 
 deutschen Universitaten (Leipzig, 1904) ; W. 
 Lexis, Das Unterrichtswesen im deutschen Reich 
 (Berlin, 1904) ; Friedrich Paulsen, German Uni¬ 
 versities and University Study (Eng. trans., 
 New York, 1906). For American universities: 
 C. F. Thwing, The American Colleges and Amer¬ 
 ican Life (New York, 1897) ; Burgess, The 
 American University (Boston, 1894) ; N. M. 
 Butler, The Meaning of Education (ib., 1898) ; 
 
 C. W. Eliot, Educational Reform (ib., 1898) ; 
 
 D. C. Gilman, University Problems (ib., 1898) ; 
 G. T. Ladd, Essays on Higher Education (ib., 
 1899) ; E. E. Brown, Origin of American State 
 Universities (Berkeley, Cal., 1903) ; C. F. 
 Thwing, History of Higher Education in the 
 United States (ib., 1906); N. M. Butler, Edu¬ 
 cation in the United States (Albany, 1907) ; 
 C. W. Eliot, University Administration (Bos¬ 
 ton, 1908) ; E. E. Slosson, Great American Uni¬ 
 versities (New York, 1910) ; United States Bu¬ 
 reau of Education, Contributions to American 
 Educational History (36 vols.) ; Reports of the 
 United States Commissioner of Education (an¬ 
 nual) ; annual statistics are given in Triibner, 
 Minerva Jahrbuch der gelehrten Welt (Strass- 
 burg). Consult also the reports of the associa¬ 
 tions and private bodies referred to in the text. 
 
 UNIVERSITY CLUB. A social organiza¬ 
 tion, whose members must hold a university or 
 college degree, or one representing advanced edu¬ 
 cation, and who need not all come from one 
 institution. Clubs representing one institution 
 alone are commonly called Alumni Clubs. The 
 earliest University Club in the United States 
 was the University Club of New York City, 
 founded in 1865 and reorganized in 1879; the 
 next the University Club of St. Louis, 1872. 
 By 1915 the number in the United States had 
 increased to over 60. The University Club of 
 New York City is limited to 2000 resident mem¬ 
 bers, 1500 nonresident and army and navy 
 members, and a considerable number of life 
 
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE 
 
 791 
 
 UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 
 
 members. The total in 1015 was 3531. The 
 library contains over 32,000 volumes. Consult 
 J. W. Alexander, History of the University Club 
 of New York City (New York, 1914). 
 
 UNIVERSITY COLLEGE. A college of Ox¬ 
 ford, England, reputed to have been founded by 
 King Alfred. This tradition is repeated on 
 three different occasions: once in a petition 
 to King Richard II; again in 1727, when this 
 tradition was made the ground for vesting the 
 right of visitation in the crown; and as re¬ 
 cently as 1872, when the college celebrated the 
 millenary anniversary of the legendary foun¬ 
 dation. The historical founder, however, is Wil¬ 
 liam of Durham, who died in 1249, leaving 300 
 marks for the purchase of annual rents for the 
 use of some twelve masters. The actual foun¬ 
 dation does not seem to have taken place until 
 1280, when the first statutes were drawn up. 
 The present buildings of the college, which is 
 situated in High Street, date from 1634; a 
 number of changes and additions were made, 
 however, about 1860. The hall was extended 
 at that date and contains in the centre of its 
 large fireplace a medallion bust of King Alfred. 
 The library, built in 1860, contains large stat¬ 
 ues of Lord Eldon and Lord Stowell. The 
 chapel was remodeled two years later. A cham¬ 
 ber has been specially built to contain Ford’s 
 statue of Shelley, who entered the college in 
 1810. In 1913-14 the college had a master, 13 
 fellows, 33 scholars and exhibitioners, and 195 
 undergraduates. Consult W. Carr, University 
 College (London, 1902). 
 
 UNIVERSITY COLLEGE. The title of a 
 large number of institutions of college grade 
 throughout the British Empire. These insti¬ 
 tutions do not possess the privilege of granting 
 degrees, but are in most cases affiliated with 
 degree-granting universities. A number of uni¬ 
 versity colleges have themselves been nuclei of 
 universities, e.g., Lffiiversitv College of Liver¬ 
 pool. The title is borne, e.g., by the University 
 College, London (see London University) ; 
 University College, Reading; University College, 
 Exeter; University College, Southampton; Uni¬ 
 versity College, Nottingham. The University of 
 Wales (see Wales, University of) consists of 
 three university colleges, as does the National 
 University of Ireland (q.v.). Consult Yearbook 
 of the Universities of the Empire (London). 
 
 UNIVERSITY EXTENSION. A system of 
 higher education for men and women who are 
 unable to attend higher institutions of learning. 
 University extension work was begun by the Uni¬ 
 versity of Cambridge, England, in 1872-73, 
 when, largely owing to the zeal of Professor 
 James Stuart, it offered to supply English towns 
 with capable instructors in various departments 
 of knowledge, under university supervision. 
 The administration of this work was vested in 
 a syndicate instituted in 1873. In 1876 uni¬ 
 versity men in London founded the London So¬ 
 ciety for the Extension of University Teaching, 
 which was, in 1902, made a department of the 
 University of London. In 1885 the Lffiiversity 
 of Oxford instituted its “Delegacy for the Ex¬ 
 tension of Teaching Beyond the Limits of the 
 University.” This action was the result of the 
 success attained by several of the Oxford col¬ 
 leges in the establishment of “Extension Col¬ 
 leges” at Reading and other English towns. At 
 the present time every university in England is 
 engaged in extension work. Coordinate with the 
 university extension movement is the work done 
 by the Workers’ Educational Association, formed 
 
 in England in 1903, to provide educational op¬ 
 portunities for working men “until they are 
 able to take advantage of the facilities which 
 are and which may be provided by the univer¬ 
 sities.” The association arranges courses and 
 secures leaders from the universities to meet lo¬ 
 cal groups organized throughout the country. 
 
 University extension teaching has been in¬ 
 troduced, sometimes modified, and carried on in 
 the United States, Germany, France, Belgium, 
 Austria, Denmark, Scandinavia, Russia, Aus¬ 
 tralia, and Canada. In a few instances, no¬ 
 tably in the State of New York and in Vienna, 
 the enterprise has received government aid. But 
 in general it has been supported by students’ 
 fees, assisted by college grants or private sub¬ 
 scriptions. 
 
 United States. The subject of university ex¬ 
 tension was first publicly presented at a meet¬ 
 ing of the American Library Association dur¬ 
 ing their session in the Thousand Islands in 
 September, 1887. The English system, as 
 adapted to American local needs, was promptly 
 taken up by librarians in Buffalo, Chicago, and 
 St. Louis. In these and other cities the idea 
 was gradually developed and extended by the co¬ 
 operation of university graduates with libraries, 
 churches, and other local institutions. In Jan¬ 
 uary, 1888, Melvil Dewey, then chief librarian 
 of Columbia University, laid the plan before 
 the regents of the University of the State of New 
 York, and at the University convocation in Al¬ 
 bany, July, 1888, advocated university exten¬ 
 sion in connection with public libraries. In 
 February, 1890, a committee of New York col¬ 
 leges and universities urged the regents to es¬ 
 tablish, under State supervision, a system of ex¬ 
 tension teaching. On May 1, 1891, a bill was 
 signed by the Governor of New York appropri¬ 
 ating $10,000 for the State organization of uni¬ 
 versity extension. No part of the grant could 
 be used for the payment of lecturers, but only 
 for purposes of organization, supervision, and 
 printing. This grant of $10,000 is the first 
 case on record of a State appropriation for uni¬ 
 versity extension. 
 
 In 1890 a few public-spirited citizens of Phila¬ 
 delphia founded the American Society for the 
 Extension of University Teaching. In 1891 fol¬ 
 lowed the Albany movement mentioned above; 
 and upon its opening in 1892, the University of 
 Chicago established an extension division as one 
 of the main departments of its work. Mainly 
 from these three centres university extension in 
 the United States has been carried on, though 
 educational institutions elsewhere in the coun¬ 
 try have done similar work. Some of the more 
 notable of these are: Johns Hopkins, Brown, 
 Stetson (Fla.), and Northwestern Universities; 
 the State universities of Wisconsin, Indiana, 
 Iowa, Wyoming, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, 
 Colorado, and California, etc.; Colby College 
 (Me.) ; Rutgers College (N. J.) ; Lowell In¬ 
 stitute, Boston: Brooklyn Institute: People’s 
 Institute (N. Y.), etc. Teachers College, Co¬ 
 lumbia University, lias also conducted extension 
 classes, and in 1903 Columbia University in¬ 
 stituted an extension department, and later took 
 over the administration of all extension courses 
 of the university. In 1913 extension depart¬ 
 ments had been organized in connection with 43 
 colleges and universities throughout the coun¬ 
 try, giving work other than agricultural. Men¬ 
 tion should be made of the system of “free lec¬ 
 tures to the people” of the New York Board of 
 Education, embodying most of the features of 
 
UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 
 
 792 
 
 UNNA 
 
 university extension work. The most ambitious 
 plan of university extension is that of the Uni¬ 
 versity of Wisconsin, which aims in time to 
 establish local headquarters throughout the 
 State, since it is a State maintained institution, 
 and to provide work which “includes not only 
 such courses as entitle the student to credit at 
 the university, . . . but also short courses 
 
 and conferences not leading to a degree, and 
 the promotion of a great variety of interests 
 that merge the people, both young and old, in 
 the intimate relations of their daily life.” This 
 with the dissemination of literature bearing on 
 local everyday conditions, lectures, and corre¬ 
 spondence courses will be the natural extension 
 of the movement. The whole conception of uni¬ 
 versity extension is being broadened so as to 
 place the universities of the country at the dis¬ 
 posal, not of those alone who are able to attend 
 as regular students, but of the public at large. 
 
 As a system of instruction, university ex¬ 
 tension involves the following elements: 
 
 Features. The course of lectures must be 
 given by one instructor, usually at weekly or 
 fortnightly intervals. The lectures must be 
 correlated, dealing with a particular epoch of 
 history, or author, or school of literature, or 
 section of a department of science, etc. They 
 must be scholarly, as representing the thought 
 of the universities; they must be popular to 
 attract and hold the auditors. The number of 
 lectures in a course varies with different or¬ 
 ganizations. The unit adopted by Oxford, by 
 the American Society, and by Chicago is the six- 
 lecture course. Cambridge has a twelve-lecture 
 unit, and Columbia a six-lecture unit for its 
 more popular courses, and a thirty-lecture 
 unit for its academic and professional courses. 
 The lectures are frequently illustrated by stere- 
 opticon, or by demonstrations. A recent devel¬ 
 opment of the lecture system has been its ap¬ 
 plication for purposes of entertainment or the 
 provision of desirable recreation for popular 
 audiences. This system, adopting the “lyceum” 
 method, provides lectures, musical recitals and 
 readings, singly or in courses. By class is 
 meant the group of people of the audience who 
 remain after the lecture for questions, discus¬ 
 sion, and suggestions on the subject of the 
 lecture. Individuals, also, may here get per¬ 
 sonal advice on their work and reading, and 
 criticism of their essays. In England this type 
 of work has been organized under the term 
 “tutorial” classes as distinguished from the 
 lecture courses. The students’ association is a 
 club of students and readers desirous of getting 
 the stimulus that working in common affords. 
 The students’ association has its own organiza¬ 
 tion, and its regular programme of work, both 
 before and after, as well as during the lecture 
 course. Systematic guidance in every lecture 
 course is provided in a special syllabus, out¬ 
 lining each lecture, selecting the best books on 
 the subject, offering topics for thought, read¬ 
 ing and papers, and illustrative notes, and pre¬ 
 scribing the work required for certificates. 
 Traveling libraries facilitate student work in 
 places not provided with adequate library fa¬ 
 cilities. The central organization usually pro¬ 
 vides a select library of perhaps fifty volumes 
 of books recommended by the lecturer. 
 
 Examinations, Centres, etc. At the close of 
 each course of lectures a written examination 
 is given by the lecturer to auditors qualified 
 and willing to take it. The qualification may 
 
 be the reading of certain books, the presentation 
 of certain essays during the course, regular 
 attendance, etc. The certificates obtained by 
 successful candidates in these examinations are 
 sometimes valuable in special ways. In Eng¬ 
 land they are credited towards the government 
 requirements for pupil-teachers’ standing. In 
 Chicago they count towards the baccalaureate 
 degree of the university. In Columbia the thirty- 
 lecture courses receive the same credit as the 
 corresponding courses within the university. 
 University extension is based on the principle 
 of local initiative. It requires that those who 
 desire to avail themselves of its assistance shall 
 be organized as a centre. By “local centre” 
 is meant a group of people who are willing to 
 adopt extension aims and methods, arranging 
 through a local committee on the one hand and 
 the central organization on the other for sys¬ 
 tematic courses of extension lectures. 
 
 In addition to the above must be mentioned 
 as part of the whole movement of university 
 extension the development of courses by cor¬ 
 respondence, many of which count for univer¬ 
 sity credit. The most popular extension courses 
 are those organized in connection with most 
 university extension departments as agencies 
 in the further training of teachers in service. 
 These are arranged at times convenient to the 
 clientele and receive university credit. Hardly 
 less popular are courses and conferences con¬ 
 ducted by agricultural departments of colleges 
 and universities for the benefit of farmers. 
 
 Consult: Adams, in United States Commis¬ 
 sioner of Education, Reports (Washington, 
 1898-1900) ; A. Mausbridge, University Tutorial 
 Classes (London, 1913); L. E. Reber, “Univer¬ 
 sity Extension in the United States,” in United 
 States Bureau of Education, Bulletin A T o. 9 
 (Washington, 1914). 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO. See Chi¬ 
 cago, University of. 
 
 UNIVERSITY PLACE. A city in Lancas¬ 
 ter Co., Neb., four miles northeast of Lincoln, 
 of which it is a residential suburb, on the Chi¬ 
 cago, Rock Island, and Pacific Railroad (Map: 
 Nebraska, H 4). It is the seat of Nebraska 
 Wesleyan University, and of the State Agri¬ 
 cultural College, and contains a Carnegie li¬ 
 brary. Pop., 1900, 1130; 1910, 3200. 
 
 UNIVERSITY SETTLEMENTS. See So¬ 
 cial Settlements. 
 
 UNNA, un'na. A town in the district of 
 Arnsberg, Prussia, 30 miles south of Munster 
 (Map: Germany, B 3). The town has impor¬ 
 tant iron industries. In the vicinity is the great 
 salt mine of Konigsborn. Pop., 1900, 14,918; 
 1910, 17,355. 
 
 UNNA, Paul Gerson (1850- ). A Ger¬ 
 
 man dermatologist, born in Hamburg. He was 
 severely wounded in the Franco-Prussian War 
 of 1870-71. After studying medicine in Heidel¬ 
 berg, Leipzig, and Strassburg, he settled at 
 Hamburg in 1881 and three years later opened 
 a hospital for skin diseases. Unna’s investi¬ 
 gations in dermatology were many and impor¬ 
 tant. He introduced into medicine the use of 
 ichthyol and resorcin. Successful also as a 
 teacher and writer, he founded the Monatshefte 
 fur praktische Dermatologie (1882) and Derma- 
 tologische Studien (1886), of which journals he 
 became editor. In 1889 appeared the Interna- 
 tionaler Atlas seltener Hautkrankheiten (with 
 others) and in 1894 Histologischer Atlas zur 
 Pathologie der Eaut. 
 
UNNATURAL COMBAT 
 
 793 
 
 UPANISHAD 
 
 UNNATURAL COMBAT, The. A tragedy 
 by Philip Massinger, produced at the Globe in 
 1619 and printed in 1039. 
 
 UNST, unst. The northernmost of the Shet¬ 
 land Islands (q.v.). 
 
 UNTER DEN LINDEN, un'ter den lln'den. 
 A famous avenue of Berlin, named from the 
 rows of linden trees with which it is planted. 
 It extends from the Brandenburg gate to the 
 palace of Emperor William I, and is extended 
 thence to the Royal Palace by the Platz am 
 Opernhaus, Platz am Zeughaus, and the Lust- 
 garten, a total length of about a mile. The 
 street is 196 feet broad and is flanked by fine 
 shops, the university, arsenal, and several pal¬ 
 aces. 
 
 UNTERMEYER, un'ter-mi'er, Louis (1885- 
 ). An American poet and journalist. He 
 was born in New York City, where, after leaving 
 high school, he became identified with his 
 father’s jewelry manufacturing business. He 
 joined the editorial staff of The Masses, and in 
 the Chicago Evening Post conducted a column 
 (half critique, half causerie) under the head 
 “and Other Poems.” An ardent propagandist 
 of the new spirit in American poetry, he lec¬ 
 tured on this subject at various colleges. Un- 
 termeyer is particularly happy in his parodies 
 of the manner of the vers librists and certain 
 other poets. Aside from work of this kind, his 
 verse is known for lyric quality of a high 
 order; in content, much of it is concerned with 
 social and industrial wrongs. His writings in¬ 
 clude: The Younger Quire (1911), a volume of 
 burlesques; First Love (1911); Challenge 
 (1914) ; - and Other Poets (1916), parodies. 
 
 UNTERMYER, Samuel (1858- ). An 
 
 American lawyer, born at Lynchburg, Va. His 
 family moving to New York City shortly after 
 the Civil War, he was educated at the College of 
 the City of New York and at the law school of 
 Columbia University, from which he graduated in 
 1878. Admitted to the bar in 1879, he soon dis¬ 
 played unusual ability and eventually rose to a 
 commanding position at the NeAV Y 7 ork bar. As a 
 member of the firm of Guggenheimer, Untermyer, 
 and Marshall, he attained large success as a cor¬ 
 poration attorney. His talents were well dem¬ 
 onstrated in the Asa. Bird Gardiner removal 
 case, the Count de Castellane creditor’s suit, 
 and the Dodge-Morse controversy. As a Dem¬ 
 ocrat in politics, he supported the antitrust 
 views of the party, seeking to enforce competi¬ 
 tion and destroy monopolies. He was promi¬ 
 nent in 1912 as the attorney of the Pujo Com¬ 
 mittee (see Pujo, Arsene), investigating the 
 so-called money trust, and in 1913-14 he aided 
 the Democratic Congress in framing the Clay¬ 
 ton Anti-Trust Act (see Trusts ). Untermyer 
 became known as a leader of the Jewish race. 
 
 UNTERWALDEN, un'ter-val'den. A canton 
 of Switzerland (Map: Switzerland, C 2). It 
 is divided into the two half cantons of Nid- 
 walden (112 square miles) and Obwalden (183 
 square miles), of which the former forms a 
 part of the Engelberg Valley and slopes towards 
 Lake Lucerne; the latter is more elevated, be¬ 
 longing to the region of the Bernese and the 
 Lucerne Alps. The principal river is the Aa. 
 Stock raising and gardening are the leading 
 industries, and dairy products and fruit are the 
 main exports. The two half cantons have sepa¬ 
 rate governments, and are among the most demo¬ 
 cratic cantons in Switzerland, the legislative 
 power being exercised directly by the people as¬ 
 
 sembled in the Landsgemeinde. The initiative 
 is in force. The canton sends two members to 
 the National Council. The capital of Obwalden 
 is Sarnen, and of Nidwalden, Stanz. Pop., 1910, 
 Obwalden, 17,118; Nidwalden, 13,796. The in¬ 
 habitants are mostly German-speaking Catholics. 
 
 Unterwalden originally belonged to Aargau 
 and Ztirichgau. It came under the rule of the 
 Hapsburgs, took part in the uprising against 
 them, and in 1291 concluded an alliance with 
 Uri and Schwyz, which formed the nucleus of the 
 Swiss Confederation. It took part in the forma¬ 
 tion of the Leagne of Sarnen (1832) and the 
 Sonderbund (1843). 
 
 UN'WXN, William Cawthorne (1838- ). 
 
 An English engineer, born at Coggeshell, Es¬ 
 sex. He was a student under Sir William 
 Fairbairn, and from 1868 to 1872 was instruc¬ 
 tor at the Royal School of Naval Architecture. 
 In 1872 he was made professor of mechanical 
 and hydraulic engineering at the Royal Indian 
 Engineering College, and in 1884 professor of 
 engineering at the Central Technical College of 
 the. Guilds of London. In 1911 he served as 
 president of the Institute of Civil Engineers. 
 His publications include: Wrought Iron Bridges 
 and Roofs (1869); The Elements of Machine 
 Design (1882; new ed., 2 vols., 1907-08); The 
 Testing of Materials of Construction (1888; 3d 
 ed., 1910) ; Development of the Experimental 
 Study of Steam Engines (1895); The Life of 
 Him, Watt Lecture (1896); Treatise on Hy¬ 
 draulics (1907; 2d ed., 1912). 
 
 UNYORO, un-yo'ro, or Bunyoro. A district 
 in British Africa, in the Protectorate of Uganda, 
 of which it forms part of the northern province 
 (Map: Congo, F 2). Estimated area, 32,000 
 square miles; population unknown. In the 
 south the country is hilly and in the north 
 level and heavily wooded. The inhabitants are 
 the Wanvoro, an agricultural Bantu tribe, whose 
 language has extended to other territories. See 
 Uganda Protectorate. 
 
 UPANISHAD, u-panT-shad (Skt. upanisad, 
 a sitting down beside, session, esoteric doctrine). 
 The name of a class of Vedic works devoted to 
 theological and philosophical speculations on the 
 nature of the world and man. (For the relation 
 of the Upanishads to the Aranyakas as well as 
 to the Veda, see Brahmanism; Veda; Vedanta.) 
 All Hindu speculation presupposes the theory of 
 transmigration of souls. (See Metempsycho¬ 
 sis.) In the oldest Vedic period the Hindu 
 people took a joyous view of future life. Later, 
 however, they acquired the firm belief in karma 
 (q.v.), which appears first in the Satapatlia 
 Brahmana, and has since remained an axiom 
 of Hindu thought. The theory of transmigra¬ 
 tion is coupled in the Upanishads with the 
 equally important theory of the world soul and 
 its presence in all living*or organic beings. (See 
 Pantheism.) The human body is supposed to be 
 pervaded by breaths, or atman, which are the in¬ 
 dividual existence, or ego, and are in turn con¬ 
 ceived as flowing from a single atman, the uni¬ 
 versal ego. All the worlds are merely an em¬ 
 anation of this universal ego. The notion of 
 the atman is further coupled with that of the 
 brahma, “the sacred word, or universal holi¬ 
 ness.” (See Brahma.) These two ideas, in time, 
 are fused so that in the composite atman-brahma 
 we have two manifestations of the final all¬ 
 power. Here the atman represents, as it were, 
 the physical aspect, while the brahma stands 
 for the spiritual side of universal life and the 
 
UPANISHAD 
 
 794 
 
 UPCOTT 
 
 ultimate essence. The fundamental doctrine of 
 the Upanishads is the identity of the individ¬ 
 ual soul (atman) with the world soul (atman- 
 brahma). The formula “that art thou” (ta 
 tvantnasi) is the keynote of all Upanishad teach¬ 
 ing. It is curious liow this doctrine is coupled 
 with metempsychosis. Instead of rejoicing in 
 the knowledge of their own divine essence, the 
 Hindus look upon their individual existence 
 as a condition of separation from the divine 
 essence. The wandering of the soul through 
 the realms of death is the consequence of its 
 separation from the brahma, and salvation, the 
 escape from the chain of successive deaths, can 
 be attained only by reunion with the brahma. 
 The Hindus never sought to explain how the 
 individual souls were separated from the all- 
 soul; they took this for granted. Desire, or 
 clinging to life, is the reason why this separa¬ 
 tion continues. The only cure for desire is 
 knowledge, or, perhaps better, recognition of the 
 unity of the ego with Brahma and the ever¬ 
 present recognition of the divided condition of 
 everything finite. Thus the ultimate attain¬ 
 ment for man is this recognition, which is sal¬ 
 vation through the penetrating knowledge of 
 one’s own divine nature, which effaces the en¬ 
 tire delusion of individual existence. 
 
 The date of the Upanishads is quite uncer¬ 
 tain, but the earliest of them are hardly later 
 than 600 b.c., since their most important ideas 
 appear in an advanced and somewhat decayed 
 state in the Buddhist writings. The older 
 Upanishads are the products of Vedic schools. 
 The two most important, the Brhadaranyaka 
 and the Chandogya, belong respectively to the 
 White Yajur Veda and the Sama Veda; the 
 Aitareya, Kaisitaki, Tdittiriya, Kathaka, and 
 Maitrayaniya or Manava belong to schools of 
 the same names. The Kena and Talavakdra 
 Upanishads also belong to the Sama Veda, the 
 Isa to the White Yajur Veda, the SvZtasvatara 
 and the Mahanarayana to the Black Yajur Veda. 
 A large and indefinite number of Upanishads, 
 of which the Mundaka, Prasna, and Mandukya 
 are the most important, are counted as belong¬ 
 ing to the Atharva Veda. The most authorita¬ 
 tive list counts 27, but later Upanishads are 
 generally counted as belonging to the Athar- 
 van. A complete list of Upanishads is impos¬ 
 sible, because the term does not mean a closed 
 canon, but rather an indefinitely extensible type 
 of literature which may he continued in the 
 present or future. In 1876, 235 Upanishads 
 were enumerated, including apocrypha, one of 
 those actually a Mohammedan treatise called 
 Alla Upanisad. The later Upanishads may be 
 divided into five classes: (1) Pure Vedanta 
 
 Upanishads, which combine the Vedanta doc¬ 
 trines of the older texts without undue develop¬ 
 ment of the notions of Yoga (concentration and 
 abstraction from all mundane matters) or Sam- 
 nydsa (asceticism); (2) Yoga Upanishads, 
 which presuppose the Vedanta ideas, and in 
 addition advise mental concentration upon the 
 sacred syllable om (q.v.) ; (3) Samnvasa Upan¬ 
 ishads, which recommend and describe a life 
 of asceticism as the practical way of attaining 
 the purpose of the Upanishads; (*4) Siva Upan¬ 
 ishads, which interpret the popular god Siva 
 (q.v.) as a personification of the atman; (5) 
 Vishnu Upanishads, which interpret Vishnu 
 (q.v.), or one of his avatars (see Avatar ), as 
 divine or human manifestations of the atman. 
 See Hinduism; India, Religion; etc. 
 
 Bibliography. Editions of individual Upani¬ 
 shads are extremely numerous in India. A 
 select list is given by A. A. Macdonell, History 
 of Sanskrit Literature (London, 1913). A con¬ 
 venient edition of 108 Upanishads was edited 
 by Tukaram Tatya (Bombay, 1895). Among 
 translations the following may be cited: Max 
 Muller, Sacred Books of the East, vols. i, xv 
 (2d ed., Oxford, 1900) ; Deussen, Sechzig Upani¬ 
 shads des Veda (Leipzig, 1897); and those of 
 Mead and Chattopadhyaya (2 vols., London, 
 1896), and of Sastri, Jha, and Seshacharri (5 
 vols., Madras, 1898-1901). Consult: Deussen, 
 Die Philosophic der Upanishads (ib., 1899; Eng. 
 trans. by Geden, Edinburgh, 1906) ; Gough, The 
 Philosophy of the Upanishads (London, 1882; 
 3d ed., 1903) ; Jacob, Concordance to the Prin¬ 
 cipal Upanishads and Bhagavadgitd (Bombay, 
 1891); H. Oldenberg, Die Lehre der Upani- 
 shaden und die Anfdnge des Buddhismus (Got¬ 
 tingen, 1915). 
 
 UPAS, u'pos (Malay upas, poison), Antiaris 
 toxicaria. A tree of Java, the Philippine Is¬ 
 lands, and adjacent regions, of the family 
 Moracese, to which also belong the breadfruit, 
 mulberry, etc. The fruit is a kind of drupe, 
 covered with fleshy scales. The Malays mix 
 the milky juice of this tree with black pepper 
 and the root juices of galenga and ginger for 
 tipping arrows. The fibre of the bark is some¬ 
 
 times made into cloth, but unless it is thor¬ 
 oughly cleaned garments made of it are said to 
 produce itching. Some botanists believe that 
 the tree whose bark is used for fibre is a dis¬ 
 tinct species, as other species of this genus 
 are innocuous. The story was once common 
 of a poison vale in Java, in which the exhala¬ 
 tions of numerous poison trees destroy all 
 animal life, and even all other vegetable life. 
 The presence of noxious gases in these volcanic 
 valleys is believed to have been responsible for 
 the origin of this legend. 
 
 UP'COTT, William (1779-1845). A famous 
 English collector of autographs, a natural son 
 of Ozias Humphry, one of the greatest English 
 miniaturists. He was brought up to the book 
 trade; and when Richard Porson (q.v.), the 
 Greek scholar, was appointed librarian in the 
 London Institution Upcott became his assistant 
 (1806). He resigned in 1834, and lived at 
 Islington. At his home, known as Autograph 
 Cottage, he collected over 32,000 letters illus¬ 
 trated by 3000 portraits. After his death these 
 and other valuable manuscripts were sold, and 
 many of them have found their way into the 
 British Museum. Upcott published a Biblio- 
 
UPERNIVIK 
 
 795 
 
 UPJOHN 
 
 graphical Account of the Principal Works Re¬ 
 lating to English Topography (3 vols., 1818) ; 
 revised for the press Evelyn’s Diary (1818); 
 edited Evelyn’s Miscellaneous Writings (1825); 
 and engaged in much other literary and anti- 
 quarian work. 
 
 UPERNIVIK, oo-pgr'ni-vik, or UPERNA- 
 VIK. The most northern Danish district in 
 Greenland, on Baffin Bay, in which is situated 
 Tasiusak, 73° 22' N., the most northerly civil¬ 
 ized settlement of the Western Hemisphere. The 
 town Upernivik, with a mission station, is 
 on a small island just off the coast in latitude 
 72° 48' N., and longitude 55° 54' W. (Map: 
 Arctic Regions, G 6). The mean temperature 
 here is 5.8° F. in January and 40.5° F. in July. 
 
 UPHAM, up'am, Charles Wentworth 
 (1802-75). An American Unitarian clergyman. 
 He was born at St. John, N. B.; graduated at 
 Harvard (1821) and at Harvard Divinity School 
 (1824); and became colleague pastor, with the 
 Rev. John Prince, of the First Unitarian Church, 
 Salem, Mass. There he remained until 1844, 
 when he was compelled by loss of voice to leave 
 the ministry. Subsequently he was mayor of 
 Salem (1852); was several times a member of 
 the State Legislature, being president of the 
 Senate in 1857-58; and in 1853-55 was a mem¬ 
 ber of Congress. He published: Letters on the 
 Logos (1828); Lectures on Witchcraft, Com¬ 
 prising a History of the Salem Delusion, 1692 
 (1831; enlarged ed., 1867); Salem Witchcraft 
 and Cotton Mather, a Reply (1870) ; and Lives 
 of Sir Henry Vane (1835), J. C. Fremont (1856), 
 Francis Peabody (1869), and Timothy Picker¬ 
 ing (1867-72). He also edited the Christian 
 Review and Christian Register. 
 
 UPHAM, Samuel Foster (1834-1904). An 
 American Methodist Episcopal clergyman and 
 theologian, born at Duxbury, Mass. He gradu¬ 
 ated from Wesleyan University in 1856 and 
 then entered the ministry. In 1865 he was chap¬ 
 lain of the Massachusetts House of Representa¬ 
 tives, and from 1881 till his death he was pro¬ 
 fessor of practical theology in Drew Theological 
 Seminary. A speech made by him was largely 
 responsible for the abolition of the time limit in 
 the Methodist ministry. He was secretary of the 
 Commission on the Constitutional Law of the 
 Church from 1896 to 1900. In 1900-04 he was 
 chairman of the committee on the revision of 
 the Methodist Hymnal. He served also as presi¬ 
 dent of the Martha’s Vineyard Campmeeting 
 Association. He was noted for his wit as well 
 as for his ability as a preacher and leader. 
 
 UPHAM, Thomas Cogswell (1799-1872). 
 An American Congregational theologian. He 
 was born at Deerfield, N. H., and graduated 
 at Dartmouth College (1818) and at Andover 
 Theological Seminary (1821). He taught He¬ 
 brew at Andover (1821-22); was a pastor in 
 Rochester, N. H. (1823-24); and served as 
 professor of philosophy and instructor in He¬ 
 brew at Bowdoin College (1825-67). His Man¬ 
 ual of Peace was one of the first suggestions of 
 international tribunals. He published : Elements 
 of Intellectual Philosophy (1827); Elements of 
 Mental Philosophy (1831) ; Treatise on the Will 
 (1834); Outlines of Disordered and Imperfect 
 Mental Action (1840) ; Lives of the French Mys¬ 
 tics, Madame Guyon and F6nelon (1847), and 
 Madame Catharine Adorna (1856) ; The Life of 
 Faith (1848) ; A Treatise on the Divine Union 
 (1851) ; Christ in the Soul (1872). 
 
 UPHAM, Warren (1850- ). An Ameri- 
 
 Vol. XXII.—51 
 
 can geologist and librarian, born in Amherst, 
 N. H. He graduated at Dartmouth in 1871, was 
 employed on the Geological Survey of New 
 Hampshire in 1875-78, on the Minnesota Geo¬ 
 logical Survey in 1879-85, and on the United 
 States Geological Survey in 1885-95. In 1895 
 he became librarian of the Minnesota Historical 
 Society, St. Paul. He wrote: The Upper Beaches 
 and Deltas of the Glacial Lake Agassiz (1887) ; 
 The Glacial Lake Agassiz (1895); Greenland 
 Icefields and Life in the North Atlantic, with a 
 New Discussion of the Causes of the Ice Age 
 (1896), with G. F. Wright; Minnesota in Three 
 Centuries (1908 et seq.). He compiled Minne¬ 
 sota Biographies, 1655-1912 (1912), with Mrs. 
 R. B. Dunlap. 
 
 UPHUES, oop'hoos, Goswin (1841- ). A 
 
 German philosophical scholar, born at Brochter- 
 beck. Originally a Catholic theologian, he was 
 suspended by the Church in 1876 for his attitude 
 on the school question, and in the following year 
 became gymnasium professor at Aarau. In 1890 
 he was appointed professor of philosophy at 
 Halle. The psychology of perception was his 
 special field of investigation. His writings in¬ 
 clude : Reform des menschlichen Erkennens 
 (1874); Kritilc des Erkennens (1876); Psycho- 
 logie des Erkennens (1893) ; Sokrates und Pesta- 
 lozzi (1896); Schule und Lehen (1897); Reli¬ 
 giose Vortrdge (1903); Kant und seine Vor- 
 gdnger (1906) ; Der gesehichtliche Sokrates kein 
 Sophist und kein Atheist (1907); Geschichte 
 der Philosophic als Erkenntniskritik (1909). 
 
 UPHUES, Joseph (1850-1911). A German 
 sculptor, born at Sassenberg, Westphalia. He 
 studied for three years at the Berlin Academy, 
 and became a follower of Begas, whom he after¬ 
 ward assisted in his workshop. Much severer 
 treatment of form, however, than is characteris¬ 
 tic of Begas distinguishes his work, as may be 
 seen in his “Sabine Defending his Sister,” and 
 the “Bowman” (great gold medal, Melbourne, 
 1888; Chicago, 1893), in the National Gallery at 
 Sydney. For Diiren in Rhenish Prussia he 
 executed a monument to Emperor William I 
 and the Bismarck Monument (1892) ; for Hom- 
 burg and Wiesbaden (1896), monuments to 
 Emperor Frederick; and in Berlin he created 
 an entirely novel type of a youthful “Frederick 
 the Great”; and contributed to the monuments 
 in the Siegesallee the statue of Margrave Otto 
 II. Three large sepulchral monuments of his 
 design at Diiren exhibit deep religious feeling 
 and noble conception. 
 
 UP'JOHN, Richard (1802-78). An Ameri¬ 
 can architect, bom in Shaftesbury, England. He 
 emigrated to the United States in 1829, and in 
 1839 he settled in New York, where his best 
 work was done. His principal works include: 
 St. John’s Church, Bangor, Me. (burned 1911) ; 
 the Chapel of Bowdoin College; Christ Church 
 and the Church of the Pilgrims, Brooklyn; 
 Trinity Church and St. Thomas’s (burned 1905) 
 in New York; the Corn Exchange Bank, New 
 York; and numerous private residences. From 
 1857 to 1876 he was president of the American 
 Institute of Architects. 
 
 UPJOHN, Richard Michell (1828-1903). 
 * An American architect, son of Richard Upjohn. 
 He designed the Central Church in Boston, with 
 an exceptionally fine tower; the Park Congre¬ 
 gational Church and the State Capitol at Hart¬ 
 ford, Conn.; St. Paul’s in Brooklyn; St. John’s 
 (American) Church at Dresden, Germany; and 
 other churches in various cities. 
 
UPLAND PLOVER 
 
 796 UPPER SENEGAL AND NIGER 
 
 UPLAND PLOVER. A sportsman’s name 
 for the large sandpiper ( Bart rami a longicauda) 
 common throughout the United States, and fre¬ 
 quenting uplands and plains more than is cus¬ 
 tomary with other species of its kind. See 
 Sandpiper. 
 
 UPMARK, up'mark, Gustaf Henrik Vil¬ 
 helm (1844-1900). A Swedish art historian, 
 bom in Stockholm. After studying at Upsala 
 (1861-69), he secured a position in the National 
 Museum in Stockholm and was its director from 
 1880 to his death. He was the founder and 
 chairman of the Gripsholms Society which, in 
 1889-95, restored the long-neglected ancient 
 castle of the Vasa dynasty. Upmark’s more im¬ 
 portant publications include: De grafiska kon- 
 sterna (1889); SvensJca Riddarhuset, byggnads- 
 historia (1890) ; Architektur der Renaissance in 
 Schiceden 1530-1,760 (Berlin, 1897-99); besides 
 many essays concerning art in Sweden under the 
 Vasa dynasty, such as Tapetviifveriet i Sverige 
 under de forsta Vasakonungarna (1886), Grips¬ 
 holms slott (1887), Vadstena slott (1891), 
 Sk&nska herrgdrdar under reniissanstiden (1894), 
 Stockholms slott under Vasatiden (1896). 
 
 UPOLU, oo-po'loo. The second largest and 
 politically the most important island of Samoa 
 (Map: Samoan Islands, C 5). Length, 39% 
 miles, average breadth from north to south, 8 
 miles; area with outlying islands, about 345 
 square miles. On the north shore there are 
 harbors at Apia, Saluafata, and Fagaloa (of 
 which Apia alone is a port of entry), all well 
 protected against the southeast tradewind, but 
 exposed to the frequent and heavy northerly 
 gales in the rainy season. The backbone of the 
 island is a fairly single mountain chain about 
 2500 feet in height. Plantations lie on the nar¬ 
 row coastal plain and gentle slopes of the cen¬ 
 tral and western regions of the north shore. 
 Apia, the seat of administration, is a small 
 town lying along the beach but singularly 
 healthful; the residence of the governor lies 
 several miles inland at Vailima in the hills. 
 Pop., 1910, 20,662, including with Upolu the 
 islands of Manono and Apolima. See Samoan 
 Islands. 
 
 UPPER AMMONOOSUC. See Ammon oosuc. 
 
 UPPER AUSTRIA, or Austria Above the 
 Enns. An archduchy and crownland, occupying 
 the western part of the original Archduchy of 
 Austria—the nucleus of the Austrian Empire 
 (Map: Austria, D 2). Area, 4628 square miles. 
 
 Almost all the archduchy is either mountain¬ 
 ous or rolling. The Danube divides the land into 
 two very unequal parts. The northern and 
 smaller is a prolongation of the Bohemian for¬ 
 ests (the Bolimer Wald), while the southern 
 belongs to the Alps (Kalkalpen) system, where 
 high peaks, with glaciers on their slopes, lift 
 their heads. The highest point in the archduchy 
 is approximately 10,000 feet—the Dachstein, on 
 the extreme southern border. In the mountain¬ 
 ous southwestern portion is the famous Salz- 
 kammergut (q.v.), from which the Traun valley 
 descends southeasterly to below Linz, through 
 the heart of the archduchy. In the western por¬ 
 tion is the Hausruck region, which produces 
 lignite in abundance. The Enns, an affluent of 
 the Danube, entering near the southeast corner 
 of the archduchy, marks the eastern boundary. 
 The Kammersee and Traunsee are the largest 
 of its lakes. There are about 30 mineral springs, 
 the best known being the saline waters at Ischl 
 and the iodine waters at Hall. The climate 
 
 yields an ample rainfall while the temperature 
 depends on the altitude. 
 
 The crowmland is highly productive. Con¬ 
 siderably over one-third of the total area is 
 tilled, over one-third is in forests, and nearly 
 one-fifth meadows and pasture. Rye, barley, 
 oats, wheat, vegetables, and fruit are the most 
 prominent products. Cattle raising and horse 
 raising are very important industries. Brown 
 coal and salt are extensively mined, and there 
 are valuable quarries of gypsum and stone. The 
 salt industry is a government monopoly and 
 about 30 per cent of the product of the Empire 
 is supplied by Upper Austria. The crownland 
 manufactures metal wares—weapons, knives, 
 etc.—machinery, linens, cottons, paper, and 
 cellulose. 
 
 The Landtag has 69 members, including the 
 Bishop of Linz and representatives of large 
 landed estates, cities, rural districts, and the 
 chambers of industry and commerce in the capi¬ 
 tal, Linz, the leading town. To the Lower House 
 of Austria the crownland sends 22 delegates, all 
 German. Pop., 1900, 810,246; 1910, 853,006. 
 Of the total in 1910, 97.31 per cent were Roman 
 Catholic, 2.4S per cent Evangelical, and 0.14 
 per cent Jewish. German was the vernacular of 
 99.7 per cent. 
 
 UPPER COQUILLE, kd-kel'. An Athapas¬ 
 can Tribe. 
 
 UPPER SANDUS'KY. A village and the 
 county seat of Wyandot Co., Ohio, 64 miles north 
 by west of Columbus; on the Sandusky River, 
 and on the Pennsylvania and Hocking Valley 
 railroads (Map: Ohio, D 4). It has an old 
 mission church, a handsome court house, a Car¬ 
 negie library, and a park. Upper Sandusky is 
 engaged chiefly in manufacturing, the most im¬ 
 portant products being agricultural implements, 
 hay presses, buggies, and other vehicles, caskets 
 and burial cases, steam pumps, tools, cereal food, 
 flour, brick and tile, and gasoline tractors. Pop., 
 1900, 3355; 1910, 3779. 
 
 UPPER SENEGAL AND NIGER. One of 
 the colonies which constitute the Government- 
 General of French West Africa. It extends ap¬ 
 proximately between 10° and 20° N. lat., bounded 
 by Mauritania and Senegal on the west and the 
 Military Territory of the Niger on the east. Its 
 northern limits extend to the Algerian Sahara, 
 and on the south it touches French Guinea, the 
 Ivory Coast, the Gold Coast, Togo, and Dahomey 
 (Map: Africa, D, E 3). The Annuaire du gou- 
 vernement general de I’Afrique occidentale fran- 
 caise published in 1914 states that the area is 
 about 2,500,000 square kilometers (sq. km. =r 
 0.3861 sq. m.). This includes the Saharan 
 regions occupied by nomads. The area having a 
 sedentary population, which extends northward 
 to about the seventeenth parallel, does not exceed 
 1,000,000 square kilometers. The country em¬ 
 braces the basins of the upper Senegal, the 
 middle Niger, and the upper Volta. In general 
 the surface is flat or rolling; the highest moun¬ 
 tains, in the southwest, reach an altitude of 
 600 to 700 meters. A vast plateau of ferrugi¬ 
 nous laterite extends to about the fourteenth 
 parallel, where it gives way to sandy plains 
 which finally merge into true desert. The na¬ 
 tives practice both agriculture and grazing. The 
 principal crops include rice, corn, peanuts, millet, 
 manioc, and tobacco. Some cotton is produced, 
 and the natives manufacture cotton cloth. Large 
 numbers of cattle, camels, horses, donkeys, and 
 ostriches are raised. The forests yield rubber, 
 
UPPER TUNGUSKA 797 UPTON 
 
 gums, and valuable timber. Imports and ex¬ 
 ports by way of Senegal were valued at 0,803,790 
 and 3,422,410 francs in 1012. The principal 
 exports in 1912 were peanuts, rubber, hard 
 gums, and corozo nuts. In addition, there is a 
 considerable trade by way of French Guinea, the 
 Ivory Coast, the Sahara, etc. From the middle 
 of June to the middle of November there is 
 steamer communication on the Senegal River 
 between Kaves and St. Louis on the coast. A 
 railway extends from Kayes to Konlikoro, 553 
 kilometers; it reaches the Niger at Bamako, 
 kilometer 490. The line lias been in operation 
 since 1004. At kilometer 10 there is a branch 
 of 2 kilometers to Medine. Westerly from Kayes 
 a railway extends to Ambidedi, 44 kilometers. 
 
 The native population is estimated at some¬ 
 what over 5,600,000, of whom about 5,598,000 
 are French subjects. The white inhabitants 
 number about il00, almost entirely French. 
 Of the natives who are French subjects, the 
 number of Mohammedans is stated at about 
 1,405,000, and of fetishists at about 4,191,000; 
 there are a few Roman Catholic natives, prob¬ 
 ably less than 2000. The capital is Bamako, 
 the population of which is about 7050; other 
 important towns are Ouagadougou, 19,332; 
 Kayes, 8952; S6gou, 8405; Sikasso, 7408; Tim- 
 buctoo, 6699. The colony is administered by a 
 Lieutenant-Governor, under the Governor-Gen¬ 
 eral of French West Africa. 
 
 UPPER TUNGUSKA, tun-goo'ska. See An¬ 
 gara. 
 
 UPSALA, up-sa/la. The capital of the Lan 
 of Upsala, Sweden, on both banks of the navi¬ 
 gable Fyrisa, in a fertile and historic plain, 41 
 miles by rail north-northwest of Stockholm 
 (Map : Sweden, F 7). The ancient city is best 
 known now for its university. (See Upsala, 
 University of.) The new town lies on a level 
 on the left bank of the river; the old portion 
 ascends the hills on the west shore. The fine 
 French-Gothic cathedral dates from 1258 and 
 was completely restored between 1870 and 1893. 
 The interior contains the splendid burial chapel 
 of Gustavus Vasa. The cathedral also contains a 
 monument to the botanist Linnaeus, who lived in 
 Upsala. 
 
 Among the university buildings in the vicinity 
 of the cathedral are the ancient Gustavianum, 
 the Carolina Rediviva (1841), and the handsome 
 new Renaissance structure completed in 1886. 
 The valuable university library is celebrated for 
 the Codex Argenteus of Ulfilas (q.v.). The bo¬ 
 tanic garden is very fine. The half-finished 
 historic castle—the Slott—on the hill to the 
 south of the town was built by Gustavus “Vasa 
 in 1548 and is now used for the provincial ar¬ 
 chives. Southeast and stretching along the 
 Fyrisa is the Stromparterre—a pleasure park 
 called by the students the “hole of a beehive.” 
 South of the citv is the noteworthy Ultuna 
 Agricultural Institute. Several miles farther 
 south is the splendid chateau of Skokloster. Its 
 origin is due to Marshal Wrangel, who housed 
 here his rich collections accumulated in Germany 
 in the Thirty Years’ War. Northeast of Upsala 
 lies the notable village of Gamla Upsala, the 
 capital of the ancient pagan kings, who wor¬ 
 shiped here in a celebrated temple. Adjacent 
 are tumuli (about 60 feet high) which were 
 connected with the pagan rites. In the vicinity 
 is the Tingshcg —a hill (32 feet high) from 
 which the ancient rulers spoke to the people. 
 The name Upsala (OSwed. Uppsalir, the high 
 
 halls) dates from 1273, when the Archbishop 
 took residence there. 
 
 Upsala has an excellent school system, com¬ 
 prising both normal and high schools, a fine hos¬ 
 pital, an insane asylum, a royal society of sci¬ 
 ence, a medical association, and an organization 
 for the study of the humanities. The Museum 
 of Northern Antiquities is in the garden of 
 Linnaeus. Upsala was formerly an important 
 commercial centre, but now the town owes its 
 prosperity mainly to the university. Pop., 1900, 
 22,855; 1910, 25,960. 
 
 UPSALA, University of. An institution of 
 learning situated at Upsala, Sweden. In 1477 
 Pope Sixtus IV gave permission to establish 
 a Studium Generale at Upsala after the model 
 of Bologna and lectures were begun the same 
 year. In 1566 Eric XIV established a chair of 
 Greek. King John III established four new pro¬ 
 fessorships, but as the professors refused to 
 assent to the King’s Catholicizing acts, the uni¬ 
 versity was closed. It was not until 1593, when 
 the Reformation again gained a strong foothold 
 in Sweden, that the university was reestablished, 
 with two faculties, theological and philosophical. 
 Gustavus Adolphus endowed the university mu¬ 
 nificently, thus assuring its material independ¬ 
 ence. The Gustavianum, one of the oldest build¬ 
 ings, dating from the reign of this monarch, 
 is still extant. The university consisted of the 
 faculties of theology, law, medicine, and philos¬ 
 ophy. The attendance in 1913 was 2419. The 
 library, which was enriched considerably by the 
 collections of Gustavus Adolphus, contains over 
 400,000 volumes and 22,000 pamphlets. Consult 
 C. Annerstedt, Upsala Universitets Historia 
 (Upsala, 1877-1914), and C. F. Thwing, Univer¬ 
 sities of the World (New York, 1911). 
 
 UPSHUR, up'sher, Abeu Parker (1790- 
 1844). An American statesman, born in North¬ 
 ampton Co., Va. He studied law under Wil¬ 
 liam Wirt (q.v.), and was in 1810 admitted to 
 the bar. In 1824 he was elected to the State 
 Legislature, in 1826 was appointed a judge of 
 the Virginia General Court, and in 1829 was 
 made a member of the convention for the revi¬ 
 sion of the State constitution. President Tyler ap¬ 
 pointed him Secretary of the Navy in 1841, and 
 in 1843 he was transferred to the post of Secre¬ 
 tary of State, left vacant by the resignation of 
 Daniel Webster. He was an extreme supporter 
 of States’ rights and slavery. His death was 
 caused by the bursting of a gun on board U.S.S. 
 Princeton. He published an Inquiry into the 
 Nature and Character of our Federal Govern¬ 
 ment (1840). 
 
 UP'SGN, Anson Judd (1823-1902). An 
 American clergyman and educator, born in Phil¬ 
 adelphia. He graduated at Hamilton College in 
 1843. In 1849 he was appointed professor of 
 rhetoric and moral philosophy at Hamilton, and 
 from 1853 to 1870 was professor of logic and 
 rhetoric there. He then became pastor of the 
 Second Presbyterian Church in Albany. He was 
 appointed professor of sacred rhetoric and pas¬ 
 toral theology at Auburn Seminary in 1880, and 
 in 1887 became professor emeritus. In 1890 he 
 was made chancellor of the University of the 
 State of New York. 
 
 UP'TQN, Emory (1839-81). An American 
 soldier, born at Batavia, N. Y. He graduated at 
 West Point in 1861; served as aid-de-camp on 
 the staff of General Tyler, and while so doing 
 was wounded in the battle of Bull Run; fought 
 in the Peninsular campaign and in the Maryland 
 
UPTOltf 
 
 URAL-ALTAIC 
 
 798 
 
 campaign; and was commissioned colonel of the 
 One Hundred Twenty-first Xew York Volunteers 
 on Oct. 23, 1862. He was engaged in the battle 
 of Fredericksburg; commanded a brigade of the 
 Sixth Corps at Gettysburg, Rappahannock Sta¬ 
 tion, and Mine Run, and in the Wilderness cam¬ 
 paign and part of the Richmond campaign. At 
 Spottsylvania in May, 1864, he was wounded 
 while leading the assaulting column of 12 regi¬ 
 ments of the Sixth Corps, and as a reward for 
 his gallantry was brevetted lieutenant colonel of 
 the Twenty-fifth Infantry from 1866. He was 
 wounded at Opequan in the Shenandoah cam¬ 
 paign, and for gallant conduct at Winchester 
 was brevetted major general of volunteers. He 
 later commanded the Fourth Cavalry Division in 
 Gen. J. H. Wilson’s operations in Georgia, and 
 for his services in the assault on Selma was 
 brevetted brigadier general in the regular army. 
 After the war he served as lieutenant colonel 
 of the Twenty-fifth Infantry from 1868 until 
 1880, when he became colonel of the Fourth 
 Artillery. He was also engaged in preparing 
 a system of tactics for the service, and from 
 1870 until 1875 was commandant of cadets at 
 the Military Academy at West Point. Hot long- 
 after his promotion to the rank of colonel his 
 mind became affected and he committed suicide. 
 His published works include: A New System of 
 Infantry Tactics (1867; 2d ed., 1874); Tactics 
 for Non-Military Bodies (1870); and The Ar¬ 
 mies of Asia and Europe (1878). Consult 
 Michie, Life and Letters of Major-General Emory 
 Upton (New York, 1885). 
 
 UPTON, George Putnam (1835-1919). An 
 American musical critic, born in Boston, and 
 educated at Brown University. From 1863 to 
 1881 he was on the editorial staff of the Chicago 
 Tribune. In 1872 he founded and became first 
 jiresident of the Apollo Club. His works include: 
 Woman in Music (1885); Standard Operas 
 (1886; 15th ed., 1912); Standard Oratorios 
 (1887); Standard Symphonies (1892); Johann 
 Sebastian Bach (2 vols. in 1, Chicago, 1905) ; 
 Standard Concert Repertory (1909). He also 
 translated Nohl’s biographies of Haydn, Bee¬ 
 thoven, Wagner, and Liszt. 
 
 UR, er (Heb. ’Ur, Bab. Uru) . An ancient city 
 in southern Babylonia, which has been identified 
 with the modern Mukayyar. The site lies close 
 to the Euphrates, at the point where the canal 
 Shatt el Hai connects this river with the Tigris, 
 while the Wadi Rummein gives it access to 
 Arabia. Hence, it was in a favorable position 
 for the development of commerce and political 
 greatness. It was the chief seat in Babylonia 
 of the worship of the moon god Nannar or Sin, 
 whose massive temple still stands 70 feet above 
 the plain. The city was held by Eannatum of 
 Lagash, Lugalkigubnidudu and Lugalzaggisi of 
 Erech, and it became the capital of the Kingdom 
 of Sumer and Akkad, founded by Ur Eugur 
 c.2574 b.c. Dungi, Bursin, Gimilsin, and Ibesin 
 reigned there. From this period we have a 
 number of important inscriptions. In the reign 
 of Hammurapi (2124-2081 b.c.) of Babylon, Ur 
 was conquered by the Amoritish dynasty. It 
 remained important as a sacred place. In the 
 Assyrian period it was ruled by a governor. 
 Bilsharusur, the son of Nabunaid, was Governor 
 of Ur. The population of the city was originally 
 Sumerian. An admixture of Akkadians must 
 be assumed for the period of Ur Eugur and his 
 successors. Later it is probable that Chaldseans 
 (q.v.i settled in Ur. The biblical passages call 
 
 it Ur of the Chaldees, and make it the starting 
 point of the migration of Abraham’s family 
 westward (Gen. xi. 27-32). The first examina¬ 
 tion of the ruins in modern times was by Pietro 
 della Valle in 1625, who brought home a number 
 of cuneiform inscriptions from Mukayyar. In 
 1854 and 1855 J. E. Taylor examined the ruins, 
 described the remains, identified the temple of 
 the moon god, and sent to London a number of 
 important inscriptions. Consult: J. E. Taylor, 
 in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. xv 
 (London, 1855) ; Loftus, Travels and Researches 
 in Chaldea (ib., 1857) ; H. V. Hilprecht, Explo¬ 
 rations in Bible Lands (Philadelphia, 1903) ; 
 R. Zehnpfund, Babylonien in seinen ivichtigsten 
 Ruinen-statten (Leipzig, 1910) ; L. W. King, A 
 History of Sumer and Akkad (New York, 1910). 
 See Babylonia, History. 
 
 URABA, oo'ra-Ba', Gulf of. The former 
 name for the Gulf of Darien and now applied 
 to the southern portion. See Darien. 
 
 URiEMIA, u-re'mi-a (Neo-Lat., from Gk. 
 ovpov, ouron, urine + alya, haima, blood). The 
 term applied to a characteristic group of symp¬ 
 toms arising from the retention in the circula¬ 
 tion of systemic poisons which normally are ex¬ 
 creted by the kidneys. (See Bright’s Disease.) 
 The symptoms of ursemia are manifested princi¬ 
 pally in the cerebrospinal nervous system and 
 consist of headache, nausea, vertigo, diminished 
 vision and drowsiness, followed, in severe cases, 
 by convulsions and coma. The urine is scanty, 
 contains casts, and is deficient in urea. Uraemia 
 is a very fatal complication of nephritis. Treat¬ 
 ment is addressed to relieving the kidnevs of 
 their burden by stimulating the eliminative ac¬ 
 tion of the bowels and skin. Elaterium and the 
 saline purges, hot baths and packs are useful. 
 The kidneys may be stimulated to greater ac¬ 
 tivity by cupping over the loins, and the admin¬ 
 istration of hot enemas and diuretic drugs. A 
 milk diet is indicated. 
 
 USAGA, oo'ra'ga. A village in the Province 
 of Sagami, Japan, 15 miles south-southeast of 
 Yokohama. It lies in two divisions on both 
 sides of a narrow harbor. There are two large 
 dry docks. The views in the vicinity are beauti¬ 
 ful. Commodore Perry’s fleet dropped anchor 
 here on July 8, 1853, and at Kurihama, near by, 
 on July 14, he met the representatives of the 
 Shogun and delivered President Fillmore’s let¬ 
 ter. This was the first of the series of events 
 which resulted in the opening again of Japan to 
 foreign intercourse. In 1900 a plot of land was 
 purchased at Kurihama and named Perry’s Park, 
 and a monument in his honor was unveiled July 
 14, 1901. Pop., about 1600. 
 
 URAL, u'ral, Russ. pron. u-ral'y’. A river 
 of east Russia, partly on the boundary between 
 Europe and Asia (Map: Russia, J 4). It rises 
 in the southern Ural Mountains in the Govern¬ 
 ment of Orenburg, and flours first south through 
 one of the eastern longitudinal valleys, then 
 westward around the southern spurs of the 
 mountain system, and finally southward, empty¬ 
 ing into the northern extremity of the Caspian 
 Sea after a course of about 1400 miles. The 
 rainfall over its widely extended basin is but 
 slight, so that the river receives no important 
 tributaries and is unnavigable. The chief tovms 
 on its banks are Orsk, Orenburg, Uralsk, and 
 Guriev, the last named at its mouth. 
 
 U'RAL-ALTA'IC. The term commonly em¬ 
 ployed by anthropologists to designate a branch 
 of the vellow or Asian race, which includes the 
 
URAL-ALTAIC LANGUAGES 
 
 799 
 
 URAL MOUNTAINS 
 
 following groups: Tungusic (Tunguses, Manchus, 
 etc.), Mongolic (Mongols, Kalmucks, etc.), Ta- 
 taric (Turks, Tatars, part of the Cossacks, 
 Kirghizes, etc.), Finnic (Samoyeds, Finns, 
 Lapps, Magyars, etc.), Arctic (Tchuktchis, Ko- 
 riaks, Kamchatkans, Giliaks, Ainus), and Japa- 
 nese-Korean. The civilized and more or less 
 Aryanized Finns and Magyars of Europe, the 
 latter intruding Osmanli Turks of Asia Minor, 
 southwestern Europe, and northern Africa, the 
 civilized Turko-Tatar states, ancient and mod¬ 
 ern, of Turkestan and adjacent parts of central 
 Asia, the Mongol conquerors of China and India, 
 the Asiatic elements of Korean-Japanese culture, 
 etc., represent the capacities, independent and 
 stimulated by contact with other races and 
 peoples, of the Ural-Altaic tribes. While the 
 location of the earliest home of the Ural-Altaic 
 peoples is still indeterminable with exactness— 
 it was somewhere between the Ural and the 
 Altai—certain centres of dispersion of its sub¬ 
 divisions can be noted: Mongolia south of the 
 Altai, Turkestan north of the Pamir, the Ural- 
 ian country, the Baikal region) the Amur valley, 
 etc. The variety of the response of the Ural- 
 Altaic peoples to foreign culture is seen in their 
 religions. The uncivilized tribes are mostly 
 devotees of Shamanism, as of old, but the Mon¬ 
 gols, Manchus, Buriats, Kirgliiz-Kalmuck Tatars, 
 and to some extent Koreans and Japanese are 
 Buddhist, the Bashkirs, Turks, etc., are Moham¬ 
 medans, the greater part of the Kamchatkans, 
 Tchuvashes, part of the Yakuts and of some 
 other Siberian tribes, are Christians of the Rus¬ 
 sian (Greek) church, the Magyars are about 
 three-fifths Catholic and two-fifths Protestant, 
 and the Finns for the most part Lutheran. Con¬ 
 sult: Castren, Ethnologische Vorlesungen iiber 
 die altaischen Y olker (St. Petersburg, 1857) ; 
 Schott, Altaische Studien (Berlin, 1860-72) ; 
 Mistelli, Der altaische Sprachtypus (Basel, 
 1883) ; A. H. Keane, Man, Past and Present 
 (London, 1900). See Ural-Altaic Languages. 
 
 URAL-ALTAIC LANGUAGES (Ural and 
 Altai mountains) ; also called Finno-Tataric, 
 Scythian, or Turanian. A vast group of lan¬ 
 guages spoken over a territory extending from 
 Okhotsk in the east to Finland, Hungary, and 
 Turkey in the west, and from the Mediterranean 
 to the Arctic Ocean. This group is subdivided 
 into a number of branches, all more or less dis¬ 
 tantly related, of which the main characteristics 
 are agglutinative terminations that may be ap¬ 
 pended to an unchangeable root, and possessive 
 pronouns that may be affixed to the noun. A 
 law peculiar to this group of languages is that 
 known as vowel harmony, a species of umlaut 
 (q.v.), or progressive vowel assimilation, by 
 which the vowel of the changeable suffix is 
 adapted more or less accurately to the vowel of 
 the stem, or root. Thus, in Turkish, yaz, write, 
 is in the infinitive yazmak, to write; while sev, 
 love, is sevmek, to love. The main branches of 
 the Ural-Altaic group of languages are the fol¬ 
 lowing: (a) The Finno-Ugric, also known as the 
 Finnic or Ugrian, comprising (1) the Finnic, 
 whose main subdivisions are the Finnish (q.v.), 
 the Tchudic about Lake Onega, the Karelian 
 (see Karelians) from the White Sea to Lake 
 Ladoga, the Livonian (now almost extinct; 
 see Livonia) and the Crevinian in Courland 
 (q.v.), the Esthonian (see Esthonia) to the 
 south of the Gulf of Finland, and the Lapponic 
 of Lapland (q.v.) ; (2) the Permian spoken 
 
 about the Ural Mountains in the northeastern 
 
 part of European Russia; (3) the Volga-Finnic 
 or Bulgaric, comprising the Tcheremissian spoken 
 between Nizhni Novgorod (q.v.) and Kazan 
 (q.v.), and Mordvinian on the Middle Volga; 
 (4) the Ugric comprising the Vogul about the 
 Obi River, and the Magyar or Hungarian (q.v.) 
 spoken in central and western Hungary and in 
 Transylvania. ( b ) The Samoyedic (see Samo¬ 
 yeds) branch consisting of a number of dialects 
 along the White Sea and the Arctic shore of 
 Siberia. ( c ) The Tunguse including the dia¬ 
 lects spoken by the Tunguses between the Yeni¬ 
 sei River and the Sea of Okhotsk in Siberia and 
 by the Manchus (q.v.) of Manchuria, (d) The 
 Mongolian branch consisting of Mongolian proper 
 in the north of China (see Mongolia, Lan¬ 
 guage), the Buriat dialects (see Buriats) on 
 the shore of Lake Baikal, and the Kalmuck (see 
 Kalmucks) or western Mongolia extending as 
 far west as the Caspian Sea. (e) The Turko- 
 Tataric branch comprising the Yakut spoken on 
 the banks of the Lena River in Siberia, the 
 Kirghiz (q.v.) from Turkestan to the north of 
 the Caspian, and Lake Balkash, the Nogair of 
 the Russian Cossacks in Crimea, the Uiguric 
 and Turkoman (q.v.) in Turkestan, and Turk¬ 
 ish (q.v.). 
 
 Bibliography. Henry Sweet, History of Lan¬ 
 guage (London, 1900) ; W. D. Whitney, Lan¬ 
 guages and the Study of Language (6th ed., New 
 York, 1901) ; id., Life and Growth of Language 
 (new ed., ib., 1902) ; T. G. Tucker, Introduction 
 to the Natural History of Language (London, 
 1908) ; Leonard Bloomfield, Introduction to the 
 Study of Language (New York, 1914) ; also: 
 Vambery, JJ'igurische Sprach-Monumente und das 
 Kudatlcii Bilik (Innsbruck, 1870) ; W. Thomsen, 
 Ueber den Einfluss der germanischen Sprachen 
 auf die Finnisch-Lappischen (Ger. trans. by 
 Sievers, Halle, 1870) ; L. Adam, Grammaire de 
 la langue mandehoue (Paris, 1872) ; id., Gram¬ 
 maire de la langue tongouse (ib., 1874) ; Don- 
 ner, Vergleichendes Worterbuch der finnisch-ugri- 
 sclien Sprachen (3 vols., Helsingfors, 1874-88) ; 
 N. Anderson, Studien zur Vergleichung der indo- 
 germanischen und finno-ugrischen Sprachen 
 (Dorpat, 1879) ; H. Winkler, Uralaltaische 
 Volkei i und Sprachen (Berlin, 1884) ; id., Das 
 uralaltaische und seine Gruppen (ib., 1885) ; 
 Radloff, Versuch eines Worterbuchs der Tiirk- 
 Dialekte (St. Petersburg, 1888) ; id., Die alt- 
 turkischen Inschriften der Mongolei (ib., 1894) ; 
 Grunzel, Entwurf einer vetgleichenden Grarn- 
 matik der altaischen Sprachen (Leipzig, 1895) ; 
 and the Memoires de la society finno-ugrienne 
 (Helsingfors), which have been published annu¬ 
 ally since 1883. 
 
 U'RALITE. A variety of amphibole derived 
 from pyroxene. Its crystals, when distinct, 
 show the form of the original mineral, but have 
 the cleavage of amphibole. The crystals vary in 
 color from pale to deep green, and are found at 
 various localities, as in the Ural Mountains and 
 at Canaan, Conn. 
 
 URAL (u'ral, Russ. pron. u-ral'y’) MOUN¬ 
 TAINS. A mountain range in Russia, forming 
 part of the conventional boundary between Eu¬ 
 rope and Asia. It extends in a general north 
 and south direction approximately along the 
 sixtieth meridian of east longitude from the 
 Kara Sea to the north bank of the Ural River 
 (Map: Russia, K 1). A northwestern extension 
 reappears in the Arctic seas to form the main 
 range of the islands of Waigatz and Nova 
 Zembla, while a southern extension, known as 
 
URALSK 
 
 800 
 
 URANIUM 
 
 the Mugodzhar Mountains, runs south of the 
 Ural River nearly to the shores of the Sea of 
 Aral. The Ural Mountains do not form a single 
 range, but constitute rather a broad plateau 45 
 miles wide in the north and nearly 200 miles 
 wide in the south. This plateau is broken up 
 partly into a number of separate ridges or 
 chains running in various directions, partly into 
 broad dome-shaped masses, though the southern 
 portion divides itself into several parallel north 
 and south branches. The slope is gradual and 
 on the road from Perm to the east it is scarcely 
 perceptible, the steepest gradient on the Trans- 
 Siberian being only 1 in 100. The average 
 elevation of the main crests is not great, scarcely 
 more than 1500 feet. Mount Tel-pos is 5433 
 feet above the sea and many peaks rise above 
 5000 feet. The climate is rather severe, with 
 very cold winters and hot summers. The rainfall 
 is greater on the western slope and in the central 
 and northern portion than in the east and south. 
 In spite of the northern location the Urals have 
 no glaciers as the snowfall is slight. The range 
 is a watershed of the Obi in the east, the Ural 
 in the south, and the Volga and Petchora on 
 the west. The vegetation in the southern por¬ 
 tion consists mainly of steppes with isolated 
 oases of trees. The central portion is covered 
 with immense forests of spruce, larch, and firs, 
 which in the north give place to dwarf birch and 
 mossy tundras. Geologically, the range consists 
 of a central longitudinal zone of metamorphic 
 slates, granites, gneisses, and syenites, flanked 
 on either side by sedimentary strata, which are 
 chiefly Carboniferous and Permian in the west¬ 
 ern, and Cretaceous and Jurassic in the eastern 
 zone. In the southeast there are large Devonian 
 outcrops and intrusions of quartz and porphyry. 
 The Ural Mountains are extremely rich in min¬ 
 erals, which are chiefly confined to the central 
 division, between the 55th and 60tli parallels, 
 the northern parts being barren. There are rich 
 deposits of iron ore—magnetite, limonite, and 
 red hematite. Over 800,000 tons of pig iron 
 were produced in 1912, the vast forests yield¬ 
 ing an inexhaustible supply of fuel. Gold is 
 mined both from veins and placers, and other 
 rare metals, platinum, iridium, and osmium, are 
 comparatively abundant. The Urals yield 90 
 per cent (5774 kilograms in 1911) of all the 
 platinum produced in the world. Precious stones 
 are also mined, as well as copper, silver, mer¬ 
 cury, cobalt, nickel, and zinc. Coal beds exist on 
 the west slope, and yielded in 1912 850,000 tons. 
 Asbestos is one of the distinctive mineral prod¬ 
 ucts of the mountains. This mineral wealth has 
 given rise to important industries, and a large 
 number of populous towns have sprung up among 
 the mountains, while a considerable agricultural 
 population has also been attracted. 
 
 Consult: Ludwig, Ueberblick der geologischen 
 Beobachtungen (Leipzig, 1862) ; Hochstetter, 
 TJeber den TJral im Ural (Berlin, 1873); Hie- 
 kiseh, Das System des Urals (Dorpat, 1882). 
 
 URALSK, oo-ral'y’sk. A province of Russia, 
 lying mostly east of the Ural River, the bound¬ 
 ary line between Europe and Asia (Map: 
 Asia, G 4). Area, over 139,168 square miles. 
 The surface generally presents a series of dry 
 steppes and deserts sloping gradually to the 
 Caspian. Part of the interior lies below the 
 level of the Caspian. There are many salt lakes, 
 and only the Ural (q.v.) and the Emba (during 
 a part of the year) reach the Caspian, the other 
 streams being lost in the lakes or in the sand. 
 
 Uralsk is scantily watered. The climate is 
 continental, the influence of the Caspian Sea 
 being confined to the coast region. The tem¬ 
 perature is subject to wide fluctuations, and 
 the precipitation is slight. In the winter the 
 snowstorms are very destructive. Uralsk con¬ 
 tains little cultivable land, and agriculture is of 
 secondary importance, the chief occupations 
 being stock raising and fishing. The fisheries 
 along the Ural and the coast of the Caspian Sea 
 are among the most extensive and the best regu¬ 
 lated in Russia. The value of the fish, caviar, 
 fish oil, and other fish products exported exceeds 
 $1,500,000. Pop., 1913, 849,800, two-thirds being 
 Kirghizes. Capital, Uralsk. 
 
 URALSK. The capital of the Province of 
 Uralsk, in southeast Russia, at the confluence of 
 the Ural with the Tchagan, 980 miles southeast 
 of Moscow (Map: Russia, H 4). It is a well 
 laid out town with an industrial school for 
 Kirghizes and a natural history museum. It is 
 the commercial centre of the province. Pop., 
 1911, 45,605. 
 
 URAN, oo'ran. Indian linguistic stock of 
 Bolivia and Peru once disseminated over the 
 region from the shores of Lake Titicaca to Lake 
 Poopo (or Aullagas) and the island of Panza, 
 along the whole course of the Ri'o Desaguadero. 
 Consult J. T. Polo, in Boletin de la Sociedad 
 Geogrdfica de Lima, vol. x (Lima, 1901), and 
 A. F. Chamberlain, in American Anthropologist, 
 new series, vol. xii (Lancaster, Pa., 1910). 
 
 URA'NIA (Lat., from Gk. Ovpavla, Ourania, 
 the Heavenly One, from ovpavos, ouranos, heaven, 
 sky). One of the Muses (q.v.). In the later 
 division of functions among the Muses she be¬ 
 came the guardian of Astronomy, or rather of 
 the astronomical epic, such as was written by 
 Aratus. She seems to be indicated in the groups 
 of Muses by the globe. 
 
 U'RANIN. See Coal-Tar Colors. 
 
 URANTNITE. A mineral uranium oxide 
 usually found in the form of botryoidal or com¬ 
 pact masses and often containing such impurities 
 as silica and the oxides of iron, lead, calcium, 
 and magnesium. It is opaque, grayish, greenish, 
 or brownish-black -in color, its resemblance to 
 pitch giving rise to the common term pitch¬ 
 blende, which is frequently applied to it. 
 Uraninite has a submetallic lustre, and a con- 
 choidal fracture. It occurs often with ores of 
 silver and lead, in Bohemia, Saxony, Hungary, 
 Turkey, etc. Uraninite, together with its de¬ 
 composition products gummite and uranophane 
 are important sources of the radium salts. See 
 also Radium; Polonium; Radioactivity. 
 
 URA'NIUM (Neo-Lat., named after the 
 planet Uranus). A metallic element discovered 
 by Klaproth in 1789 and first isolated in the 
 metallic state by Peligot in 1840. It is found 
 chiefly as an oxide in the mineral uraninite or 
 pitchblende, which occurs at various localities 
 in Norway, Saxony, Cornwall, and the United 
 States, and also in various other minerals, but 
 in smaller quantities. An important source of 
 uranium compounds in recent years is the uran- 
 ochre from Cornwall, England. The metal itself 
 may be obtained by reducing uranoso-uranic 
 oxide (see below) with pure carbon or with 
 powdered metallic aluminium, or by electrolyz¬ 
 ing the fused double chloride of uranium and 
 sodium. 
 
 Uranium (symbol, L T ; atomic weight, 238.5) 
 is a hard, silvery-white metal with a specific 
 gravity of 18.68. It melts at a bright-red heat. 
 
URANIUM RAYS 
 
 801 
 
 URBAN 
 
 It combines with oxygen to form a dioxide and 
 a trioxide, which unite with bases to form 
 uranous and uranic salts. Besides the dioxide 
 (U0 2 ) and the trioxide (U0 3 ), it forms three 
 other well-defined oxides: viz., the uranoso- 
 uranic oxide (U 3 0 8 ) already mentioned, a 
 pentoxide (U 2 0 5 ), and a peroxide (U0 4 ). Per¬ 
 haps the most important -of the uranium salts 
 is sodium uranate, known as uranium yellow, 
 used for painting on glass and porcelain, as well 
 as in making the fluorescent yellow uranium 
 glass. The uranoso-uranic oxide is used some¬ 
 times to produce a black glaze on porcelain. 
 
 Uranium and its compounds are radioactive, 
 the element undergoing slow disintegration with 
 formation of a new and distinct element (like¬ 
 wise radioactive) known as uranium X, having 
 an atomic weight probably of 230.5, and behav¬ 
 ing chemically like the element thorium. See 
 Radioactivity. 
 
 URANIUM RAYS. See Radioactivity. 
 
 URAN'OLITE. See Meteorite. 
 
 U'RANOPLAS'TY. See Palate. 
 
 U'RANUS (Lat., from Gk. 0 vpo.vos, Ouranos, 
 heavens, sky). In Greek theogony, the husband 
 of Gaea, the Earth, and, according to Hesiod, 
 father of the Titans, Cyclopes, and Hecatoncliei- 
 res. Legend represented him as dethroned and 
 mutilated by his son Cronos. (See Saturn.) 
 From his blood, which fell upon the earth, sprang 
 the Gigantes (see Giants), while the part which 
 fell into the sea was washed about until from 
 the foam which gathered rose Aphrodite. Uranus 
 was never an object of worship, but rather, like 
 Cronos, a conception formed from the cult of 
 Zeus for the purpose of a constructive theogony. 
 Among the Romans Cselus appears in myth as a 
 translation of the Greek name, but not as a 
 deity of the Roman religion. 
 
 URANUS. The next to the outermost mem¬ 
 ber of the solar system. Its mean distance from 
 the sun is 1,782,000,000 miles; sidereal period, 
 84 years; eccentricity not quite or about the 
 same as that of Jupiter; inclination to the 
 ecliptic, 46'. It is about 66 times greater than 
 the earth in volume and 15 times in mass, and 
 its density and surface gravity respectively are 
 0.22 and 6.9. In the telescope the planet appears 
 as a greenish disk of about 4" diameter. The 
 greenish tinge is explained as due to some un¬ 
 identified substance in the planet’s atmosphere. 
 Because of its immense distance, astronomers 
 have been unable to gain much information con¬ 
 cerning it. Spots and belts have been seen, but 
 they are too faint to warrant any positive asser¬ 
 tion, and the time of rotation of the planet is 
 not known with certainty, though it is probably 
 about 10 hours. Uranus was accidentally dis¬ 
 covered by Sir William Herschel on March 13, 
 1781, and was named the Georgium Sidus and 
 Herschel, but these names soon fell into dis¬ 
 use and the name of Uranus, suggested by Bode, 
 finally prevailed. Herschel announced the dis¬ 
 covery as that of a comet, and its planetary 
 nature was not demonstrated until three or four 
 months later by Lexell, of St. Petersburg. Be¬ 
 fore its detection by Herschel, Uranus had been 
 recorded no less than 20 times as a fixed star, 
 12 times by Lemonnier alone. These observa¬ 
 tions when compared with more recent ones 
 showed that the planet was wandering from 
 its track. The attempts made to account for 
 these irregularities led to the discovery of Nep¬ 
 tune (q.v.). 
 
 Uranus has four satellites: 
 
 NAME 
 
 Distance from 
 planet in miles 
 
 Sidereal 
 
 period 
 
 Ariel. 
 
 120,000 
 
 2d 12h 29m 
 
 Umbriel. 
 
 170,000 
 
 4d 3h 27m 
 
 Titania. 
 
 280,000 
 
 8d 16h 57m 
 
 Oberon. 
 
 375,000 
 
 13d llh 7m 
 
 Oberon and Titania were discovered by the 
 elder Herschel, Jan. 11, 1787; the other two were 
 discovered by Lassell, Oct. 24, 1851. They are 
 estimated to vary in size from 200 to 500 miles 
 in diameter. The plane of their orbits is inclined 
 at 98° to the plane of the ecliptic, and the 
 direction of their motion, like that of Phoebe, 
 the ninth satellite of Saturn, the eighth and 
 ninth satellites of Jupiter, and the satellite of 
 Neptune, is from east to west. See Astronomy ; 
 Planets ; Solar System. 
 
 URA.RI. See Curari. 
 
 URASHIMA. TARO, oo'ra-she'ma ta/ro. In 
 Japanese legend, the story of a fisher bov who 
 was taken down on the back of a tortoise into 
 the palace of Ryu-gu, or the realm of the dragon 
 king of the world under the sea, and there in 
 blissful dalliance knew nothing of the flight of 
 time. Returning to the earth for a brief visit 
 to his parents, he finds all strange in his native 
 village, enters the old cemetery, and, against the 
 express orders of the sea king’s daughter, opens 
 the casket she has given him, only to find him¬ 
 self an old man soon to die. This is a favorite 
 theme with native artists. The legend is one of 
 the oldest in the language, and is first found in 
 writing in the Marmyoshu (Collection of a Myr¬ 
 iad Leaves of Poetry) of the seventh and eighth 
 centuries. The official annals give 477 and 825 
 a.d. as the dates of his disappearance and return. 
 The myth of Urasliima is the Japanese version 
 of the’ Oriental legend of the Seven Sleepers, 
 represented in America by the story of Rip Van 
 Winkle, and also found in Celtic mythology. 
 
 URATYUBE, oo'ra-tyoo'be. A town in the 
 Territory of Samarkand, Russian Turkestan, 55 
 miles southwest of Kliodjend (Map: Asia, Cen¬ 
 tral, N 3). It is surrounded by a wall and has a 
 Russian quarter. The chief articles of trade are 
 horses and camel-wool cloth. Pop., about 22,000, 
 chiefly Uzbegs. Uratyube was founded, accord¬ 
 ing to local tradition, by Cyrus. It was taken 
 by the Russians in 1866. 
 
 URBAIN, ur'baN', Georges (1872- ). A 
 
 French chemist, born in Paris. He obtained the 
 degree of D.Sc. from the Faculty of Sciences, 
 Paris, in 1899, and later became professor of 
 chemistry at the Sorbonne. His writings in¬ 
 clude: Recherches sur la separation des terres 
 rares (1899), and Introduction d I’etude de la 
 spectrochimie (1911). 
 
 UR'BAN. The name of eight popes.— Urban 
 I, Saint, Pope 222-230. His pontificate, coming 
 under the reign of the Emperor Alexander Sev- 
 erus, was little disturbed by external persecu¬ 
 tion. The schismatic movement fostered by the 
 self-willed rigorist Hippolytus still continued: 
 but Urban, like his predecessor Calixtus (or 
 Callistus) I, set himself firmly against it.— 
 Urban II, Pope 1088-99, originally Otho by 
 name. He was Archdeacon of Auxerre, and 
 then entered the monastery of Cluny, where he 
 became prior. In 1078 Gregory VII called him 
 to Rome and made him Bishop of Ostia. During 
 almost his entire pontificate, his position was 
 endangered by the presence in Rome of the 
 
URBAN 
 
 802 
 
 URBANA 
 
 powerful antipope, Guibert of Ravenna, called 
 Clement III. Urban carried on the policies of 
 his predecessor, Gregory VII, vigorously prose¬ 
 cuting the struggle with Henry IV, and attack¬ 
 ing such evils as simony, lay investiture, and 
 clerical marriage. In 1094 he excommunicated 
 Philip I of France for his matrimonial infidelity. 
 He presided at the famous Council of Clermont 
 in 1095, which gave the impulse to the Crusades. 
 On this occasion he himself preached a famous 
 sermon in favor of the Crusade. In 1098 a 
 council was held at Bari, at which many Greek 
 bishops were present, and in which the addition 
 of the word filioque to the creed was discussed. 
 He died at the close of 1099, just at the time 
 when the First Crusade, which he had organized, 
 terminated in the successful occupation of Jeru¬ 
 salem.— Urban III, Pope 1185-87, Uberto Cri- 
 velli. Before his elevation to the papacy he 
 was Archbishop of Milan. His quarrels with the 
 Roman Senate compelled him to spend his ponti¬ 
 ficate in exile. He was an opponent of Frederick 
 Barbarossa. The Emperor besieged the Pope in 
 Verona, but was recalled to Germany by tidings 
 of revolt there,’ and Urban was on the point of 
 excommunicating him when he died near Ferrara. 
 Consult J. Langen, Geschichte der romischen 
 Kirche von Greqor 1 7 II. bis Innocenz III. (Bonn, 
 1893). 
 
 Urban IV, Pope 1261-64, Jacques Pantaleon. 
 He was the son of a shoemaker of Troyes, and 
 rose by his talents and virtues to high positions 
 in the Church, becoming titular Patriarch of 
 Jerusalem in 1255. He was elected Pope at 
 Viterbo, and spent the whole of his pontificate 
 there and at Orvieto, being excluded from Rome 
 by the power of Manfred, natural son of the Em¬ 
 peror Frederick II, against whom he incited 
 Charles of Anjou to take up arms. He preserved 
 a strict neutrality between the rival candidates 
 for the Empire, and in the difficulties between 
 Henry III of England and his barons took the 
 side of the King. The nomination of numerous 
 French cardinals led to the preponderance of 
 that party, and so ultimately to the great 
 schism. Consult Dorez and Guiraud, Les regis- 
 tres d’Urbain IV (Paris, 1892), and a biography 
 by Georges (ib., 1865). 
 
 Urban V, Pope 1362-70, Guillaume de Gri- 
 moard. The cardinals could not agree upon one 
 of their own number, and therefore elected him, 
 then abbot of Saint-Victor at Marseilles. This 
 was at the time of the papal residence at Avi¬ 
 gnon. In 1367 he resolved to return to Rome, but 
 finding the papal city in a condition all but ruin¬ 
 ous, and having endeavored with little success to 
 repress the disorder of the times, he returned to 
 Avignon in 1370. Here he died less than a month 
 after his return, leaving the reputation of great 
 personal piety and zeal for the interests of re¬ 
 ligion. Consult: Magnan, Histoire d’Urbain T 7 
 (2d ed., Paris, 1863) ; Kirsch, Die Ruckkehr der 
 Pdpste Urban V and Gregor XI von Avignon 
 nach Rom (Paderborn, 1898) ; Ludwig Pastor, 
 History of the Popes, vol. i (3d ed., London, 
 1906). 
 
 Urban VI, Pope 1378-89, Bartolommeo Pri- 
 gnano. At the time of his election he was Arch¬ 
 bishop of Bari. On the death of Gregory XI, 
 who had brought back the seat of the papacy 
 from Avignon to Rome, Prignano was elected 
 in a conclave held under circumstances of great 
 excitement, owing to the apprehension on the 
 part of the populace of an intention to elect 
 a French pope and again abandon Rome. The 
 
 most important aspect of his pontificate is that 
 relating to the Great Schism (see Schism, 
 Western), which arose out of the conflicting 
 claims to the election. While the candidate of 
 the French cardinals took up his residence at 
 Avignon, under the name of Clement VII, Urban 
 occupied the papal seat in Rome. After a dis¬ 
 pute with Charles, King of Naples, whom he had 
 himself crowned, he died of a fall from his mule, 
 though there were the usual suspicions of poison. 
 Consult Ludwig Pastor, Histoi'y of the Popes, 
 vol. i (3d ed., London, 1906). 
 
 Urban VII, Pope 1590, Giovanni Castagna. 
 He had been a member of the Council of Trent in 
 its last period, and then for several years Nuncio 
 in Spain. Elected to succeed Sixtus V, he died 
 12 days later, before he could be consecrated. 
 
 Urban VIII, Pope 1623-44, Maffeo Barberini. 
 He was born in Florence, 1568, educated at Rome 
 and Pisa, and destined for an ecclesiastical ca¬ 
 reer. After serving twice as Nuncio to France, 
 he was made Cardinal in 1606. Urban VIII was 
 guilty of nepotism; but his administration was, 
 on the whole, vigorous and enlightened. He was 
 the founder of the celebrated College of the 
 Propaganda, and to him Rome is indebted for 
 many public works. Some of the early stages 
 of the Jansenist controversy (see Jansenism) 
 fall within his pontificate. In the Thirty Years 7 
 War he sided with France against the Emperor 
 and Spain. In his pontificate the Duchy of 
 Urbino was annexed to the papal dominions. 
 
 URBAN, ur'ban, Josef ( ?- ). An Aus¬ 
 
 trian designer of stage settings. He was born in 
 Vienna, where he was architect of many dwell¬ 
 ings. In 1904 he was sent by Austria to arrange 
 the exhibit of that country in the Fine Arts 
 Building at the St. Louis Exposition, and he 
 had similar commissions in the large cities of 
 Europe. For several years he was chief artistic 
 adviser of the Imperial Opera House in Vienna, 
 and later was secured by Henry Russell to 
 paint scenery for the Boston Opera Company. 
 Subsequently he did much work in New York. 
 His settings, characterized by originality, beauty, 
 and imaginative power, include those made for 
 The Jewels of the Madonna, The Love of Three- 
 Kings, The Garden of Paradise, James K. 
 Hackett’s productions of Macbeth and The 
 Merry Wives of Windsor, and Percy MacKaye’s 
 Shakespeare Masque (1916). 
 
 URBAN'A. A city and the county seat of 
 Champaign Co., Ill., 128 miles south by west 
 of Chicago, on the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago, 
 and St. Louis, the Wabash, and the Illinois Trac¬ 
 tion railroads (Map: Illinois, H 5). It is the 
 seat of the University of Illinois (q.v.), opened 
 in 1868. There are the public library, the Cham¬ 
 paign County Teachers’ and Pupils’ Library, and 
 the Illinois State Laboratory and Natural His¬ 
 tory Library. The most prominent buildings are 
 the Cunningham Deaconess Home, County Court 
 House, high school, post office, jail, Municipal 
 Building, and the Masonic Temple. Besides 
 Crystal Lake Park there are two others aggre¬ 
 gating 40 acres. Urbana is the centre of a rich 
 farming district, and manufactures brick and tile, 
 lawn mowers, and iron novelties. The Cleveland, 
 Cincinnati, Chicago, and St. Louis Railroad 
 maintains extensive shops here. Pop., 1900, 5728; 
 1910, 8245; 1915 (U. S. est.), 9632; 1920,10,244. 
 
 URBANA. A city and the county seat of 
 Champaign Co., Ohio, 47 miles west of Colum¬ 
 bus, on the Erie, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chi¬ 
 cago, and St. Louis, the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, 
 
URBAN SERVITUDES 
 
 URBAN TRANSPORTATION 
 
 Chicago, and St. Louis, and the Ohio Electric 
 railroads (Map: Ohio, C 5). It is the seat of 
 Urbana University (Swedenborgian) and of 
 the Curry School (for negroes) and lias a pub¬ 
 lic library. Urbana is surrounded by a produc¬ 
 tive farming region and is of considerable in¬ 
 dustrial importance. Furniture, brooms, paper, 
 oil cans, egg cases, tools, woolens, and straw- 
 board are the leading manufactures. Urbana 
 was laid out in 1805, and for a time in 1812 
 was the headquarters of the Northwestern army. 
 It is the burial-place of the Indian fighter Simon 
 Kenton. Pop., 1900, 6808; 1910, 7739. 
 
 UR'BAN SERVITUDES (from Lat. urbanns, 
 relating to a city, from urbs, city). Easements 
 or rights existing for the convenience or benefit of 
 houses or other buildings, over lands or build¬ 
 ings belonging to a different owner. The term 
 is employed to distinguish such servitudes from 
 those established for the benefit of land only, 
 which are known as rural servitudes. The most 
 important urban servitudes are: The right to 
 support, e.g., of resting joists and other tim¬ 
 bers on an adjoining building; the right to have 
 rain drip from the eaves of a building on an¬ 
 other’s land or building; the right to establish 
 and maintain windows overlooking another’s 
 land; the rights of air and access. In New 
 York the right to light and air is restricted to 
 property abutting upon a highway, as the right 
 is considered as a part of the privilege of ac¬ 
 cess to and from the highway. Consult Wash¬ 
 burn on Easements. See Easements. 
 
 URBAN TRANSPORTATION. Transpor¬ 
 tation from one point to another within a city 
 at first was provided by coaches and other horse- 
 drawn vehicles. Even in very early times the 
 city required a license, or some form of regis¬ 
 tration for vehicles engaged in carrying passen¬ 
 gers for hire. Soon after cars and rails were 
 used for freight their availability for passengers 
 was appreciated. The first railway was a coach, 
 drawn by horses, running on iron rails, and as 
 the city streets supplied a convenient and de¬ 
 sirable route street railways developed. The 
 right to lay tracks and operate cars for the 
 transportation of passengers through city streets 
 was, of course, necessarily under the direct 
 supervision of the city. Later this was extended 
 to lines either above or below the street surface, 
 and the principal forms of urban transportation 
 now are by electrically operated surface roads, 
 cable-operated surface roads, electrically oper¬ 
 ated elevated roads, and electrically operated sub¬ 
 ways, and horse-drawn cabs, coaches, or omni¬ 
 buses and motor vehicles. Almost without ex¬ 
 ception American cities require licenses for cabs 
 and automobiles, and the various forms of rail¬ 
 ways operate under franchises granted by the 
 city. The tariffs which cabs and automobiles 
 may charge for given distances are specified in 
 their licenses, and the franchises under which 
 surface, elevated, or subway railways or omnibus 
 lines operate almost invariably specify the 
 charges which the company may make. 
 
 Many of the early franchises for street rail¬ 
 ways gave the railway company the right to 
 operate over certain routes in perpetuity. A 
 five-cent fare was prescribed for any point within 
 the city limits, in this respect differing from 
 European practice where fares by zones often 
 prevail. This five-cent fare, while not universal, 
 is the fare which by far the greatest proportion 
 of the American street railways charge. In some 
 cities tickets are sold six for 25 cents, and in 
 
 803 
 
 3 some cities three-cent fares, or even less, have 
 f been provided for in the franchises. The ac- 
 f tual amount received per passenger per contin¬ 
 uous trip on one car is generally considerably 
 less than five cents, even where the street-railway 
 companies’ franchise provides for a five-cent fare. 
 ', This is because a system of issuing transfers 
 from one line to another is made obligatory un- 
 1 der most street-railway franchises or by special 
 l statutes. 
 
 . The progress of the mechanical means of ur- 
 1 ban transportation has been (1) horse car, (2) 
 a car dragged along by a cable running under- 
 , ground, (3) a car propelled by electricity de- 
 s riving its current from an overhead trolley, 
 f and (4) a car propelled by electricity deriving 
 its current from an underground contact. Street- 
 1 railway systems in American towns and cities 
 1 were begun in most cases by local capitalists, 
 , and in the larger cities three or four different 
 t companies were given franchises over different 
 3 streets or in different parts of the city. The 
 later tendency has been, however, to combine 
 e the various companies operated in one city under 
 one management, and to combine the lighting, 
 1 electric-railway, and often the gas facilities of 
 s towns under one financial organization, and 
 7 holding companies have been formed to control 
 3 these public-utility corporations, as they are 
 b called, in a number of towns. Some of these 
 holding companies control the street-railway 
 and lighting facilities in a hundred or more 
 towns and cities. Under this form of control 
 it has been possible to raise large quantities of 
 7 capital from investors who would hesitate to 
 put their money into a single property in some 
 3 town about which they knew nothing, and which 
 was possibly two or three thousand miles from 
 their place of residence. On the other hand, 
 3 this form of financial organization makes it 
 3 peculiarly difficult to form any adequate judg- 
 , ment as to the profitableness of urban transpor- 
 3 tation as distinguished from the other activities, 
 lighting, manufactured gas, etc., of the public- 
 3 service corporations. 
 
 3 A fairly typical example of a street railway in 
 3 a small city is that of Portsmouth, Ohio. This 
 t city has about 27,500 inhabitants. Its street 
 1 railway is electrically operated with standard 
 , 4' 8%" gauge; the total mileage is 12; the 
 
 1 weight of rail varies from 48 pounds to 70 pounds 
 , to the yard; the street-railway companies’ fran¬ 
 chise runs for 25 years, and the franchise pro¬ 
 vides for one per cent of the gross earnings to 
 be paid to the city in lieu of paving and other 
 improvements to the streets. This 12-mile 
 3 street railway carried 4,206,000 passengers in 
 1914. In the largest cities, such as New York, 
 3 Chicago, Boston, and Philadelphia, the surface 
 3 railway lines are supplemented by elevated lines 
 1 and by subways. 
 
 1 The* elevated lines of New York are the oldest 
 3 in the United States and were originally oper- 
 3 ated with small steam locomotives. The elevated 
 lines of Philadelphia, Chicago, and Boston were 
 built after electric-railway operation had been 
 3 tried out, and were built for operation by elec- 
 L trie current supplied to trains from a third 
 1 rail. A short description of the urban trans- 
 1 portation systems of some of these cities will 
 1 make clear how complicated this problem of 
 , urban transportation is. The total length of 
 1 main lines of surface street railway in Boston 
 3 in 1915 was 231 miles, of which mileage 197 
 1 miles had a second track. There were approxi- 
 
URBAN TRANSPORTATION 
 
 URBAN TRANSPORTATION 
 
 804 
 
 mately 14 miles of rapid-transit track, all of 
 which had second track. The gross earnings of 
 this system in the fiscal year ending June 30, 
 1915, was $17,269,000, and total operating ex¬ 
 penses amounted to $11,288,000. The total num¬ 
 ber of passengers carried was 346,317,000. The 
 total number of car miles run was 57,806,000. 
 The rapid-transit facilities include both elevated 
 lines and subways. 
 
 The Chicago Railways Company, which does 
 not operate all of the railways in and about 
 Chicago, but which operates the principal sur¬ 
 face lines and the elevated lines (Chicago up 
 to 1916 had no passenger subway lines), operates 
 500 miles of track. The company has two power- 
 generating stations. It operates under a 20-year 
 franchise, which provides, however, that the 
 city may buy the property at an agreed valua¬ 
 tion plus capital expenditures, which are made 
 on the property subsequent to the date of valu¬ 
 ation. In 1913 the agreed valuation of this 
 property was $83,757,957. The company is per¬ 
 mitted to charge a straight five-cent fare, but 
 must give universal transfers. There is an 
 agreement between the city and the company, 
 by which the company is to pay to the city 55 
 per cent of surplus earnings over and above 
 operating expenses and five per cent on the 
 agreed valuation. The agreed valuation is raised 
 year by year by the amount which the company 
 "spends for additions and betterments. In 1915 
 the total operating revenues of this system were 
 in round numbers $31,966,000; operating ex¬ 
 penses, $19,889,000; 5 per cent on the agreed 
 valuation as of that year called for $4,117,000, 
 and after the payment of rentals and the share 
 belonging to another railway company there was 
 $3,064,000 left to be divided between the city 
 and the Chicago Railways Company. Of this 
 the city got $1,685,000. While this partnership 
 agreement has not been in effect long enough to 
 permit of any final conclusions being drawn in 
 regard to its operation, up to 1915 it has proven 
 quite satisfactory to both the city and to secur¬ 
 ity holders of the railway company. 
 
 It has been peculiarly easy for politicians to 
 arouse antagonism against public-utility cor¬ 
 porations, and especially a.gainst the street 
 railways. The unavoidable annoyance which 
 every one experiences on crowded cars, and the 
 fact that citizens feel as helpless against a 
 street-railway corporation as they do against 
 any other form of monopoly, makes it a tempta¬ 
 tion on the part of candidates for city offices to 
 conduct a campaign based on a promise to get 
 something out of the street-railway company. 
 Furthermore profits have often appeared very 
 large, and then it has been discovered that the 
 assets of the company have been consumed in 
 the process of earning what appeared to be 
 profits, and the security holders are left with 
 comparatively little to show for their invest¬ 
 ments. The scheme of having the city a part¬ 
 ner to share these profits has taken away some¬ 
 thing of the incentive to show abnormal profits 
 at the expense of the deterioration of assets, 
 and has also lessened the jealousy with which a 
 peculiarly profitable year of street-railway opera¬ 
 tion is viewed by the average citizen. 
 
 The urban transportation system of Greater 
 New York presents the most complicated aggre¬ 
 gate of street-railway lines, elevated lines, and 
 subways of all cities in the world. At Grand 
 Central Terminal, 42d Street and Fourth Ave¬ 
 nue, provision has been made for five levels of 
 
 urban transportation facilities. The uppermost 
 of them is the elevated road, operated by elec¬ 
 tricity from a third rail; below this is the elec¬ 
 tric surface line, operated bj" electricity from 
 an underground contact; below this is the four- 
 track subway which has been in operation since 
 1904; below this again is the subway built to 
 supplement the old system of subways and ele¬ 
 vated lines; and still lower is the Belmont Tube, 
 as it is called, which is a tunnel built from 
 Fourth Avenue and 42d Street east under the 
 eastern half of Manhattan Island and under the 
 East River to Queensboro, Long Island. 
 
 Tbe history of New York street railways il¬ 
 lustrates in a striking manner some of the phases 
 of the development of urban transportation in 
 the larger cities of the United States. The first 
 
 street railwavs were horse-drawn cars, and there 
 */ # 
 were still horse-drawn cars in Manhattan m 
 
 1916. The shape of Manhattan and the fact that 
 it is an island which, on the west, south, and 
 east, is separated from the mainland or other 
 islands by a broad body of water, while on the 
 north it is separated from the mainland only by 
 a narrow stream, make it necessary to provide 
 for a very heavy traffic north and south bound, 
 with a comparatively light traffic east and west 
 bound. As fast as transportation could be 
 provided, the city spread northward, and land 
 values rose with great rapidity. The north and 
 south elevated lines, which were at first oper¬ 
 ated by steam locomotives trailing five or six 
 cars, have already been mentioned. The horse- 
 car line, which ran north and south on Broad¬ 
 way, was replaced by a cable road, and appar¬ 
 ently the profits, from this and from the elevated 
 roads and horse-car lines, were out of all pro¬ 
 portion to the amount invested. When, however, 
 it was found that electrically operated surface 
 cars were more desirable from every point of 
 view, an additional huge investment had to be 
 made in the substitution of electric cars, with 
 underground conduits, for the old cable cars. 
 During' the time of operation by cable and horse 
 cars nothing had been accumulated as a reserve 
 against depreciation or obsolescence of that form 
 of locomotion. The entire cost, therefore, of 
 the electric railways was superimposed on the 
 original cost of cable railways and of horse-car 
 lines, and the various companies operating these 
 lines were merged through the creation of hold¬ 
 ing companies which not only had to raise great 
 sums of money for additional investment, but 
 also took in tbe old lines at a very extravagant 
 capitalization. The law required street railways 
 operated by the same company to give free trans¬ 
 fers. No time limit was punched on a transfer 
 except the date, and it was possible for a person 
 to ride almost all day on one five-cent fare. The 
 result of operating conditions such as this and 
 of excessive capitalization was bankruptcy for 
 all of the important street-railway companies, 
 exclusive of the elevated roads in Manhattan. 
 
 In the meantime an extensive system of urban 
 transportation had been developed in Brooklyn 
 which connected with lower Manhattan by oper¬ 
 ating cars across the Brooklyn Bridge. There 
 were four sets of tracks on Brooklyn Bridge, 
 two used by surface cars and two by the elevated 
 railways of Brooklyn. The Brooklyn elevated 
 roads, like Manhattan, were at first operated by 
 small steam locomotives and were later con¬ 
 verted into electric roads operated from a third 
 rail. One holding and operating company got 
 control of the greater part of the transportation 
 
URBAN TRANSPORTATION 
 
 URBAN TRANSPORTATION 
 
 805 
 
 facilities of Brooklyn, and there were years in 
 which one set of politicians would use persecu¬ 
 tion of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company as 
 a campaign issue to get into office, alternating 
 with years in which the Brooklyn Rapid Transit 
 Company, with connivance of local politicians, 
 gave the city a very indifferent service. Within 
 recent years conditions have very greatly im¬ 
 proved. The financial structure of the Brooklyn 
 Rapid Transit was strengthened until its credit 
 ranked with that of steam railways and the 
 service brought up to the standard which a city 
 of that size might reasonably expect. 
 
 In 1902 New York City entered into an agree¬ 
 ment with the Interborough Rapid Transit Com¬ 
 pany, by which that company was to build a 
 subway running from the Battery to 96th Street, 
 and there branching with one line to 250th 
 Street and Broadway, and the other to 180th 
 Street and Bronx Park. This company also 
 undertook to build a double-track tunnel under 
 the East River, from a point south of Bowling 
 Green to a point in Brooklyn. The Interborough 
 Rapid Transit in 1913 also leased the elevated 
 railways in Manhattan. The mileage of the sub¬ 
 way described above had a total length of 25.72 
 miles, and the elevated lines taken over had a 
 total length of 37.67. Of the subway mileage 
 7.50 miles were four-track road, 7.18 miles three- 
 track road, and 10.41 miles two-track road, leav¬ 
 ing less than a mile of single track. The exten¬ 
 sion into Brooklyn permitted the Interborough 
 Rapid Transit to compete with the Brooklyn 
 Rapid Transit for business between the two 
 boroughs. This temporarily relieved the conges¬ 
 tion of traffic at the rush hours, morning and 
 evening, on Brooklyn Bridge, but so quickly 
 does population follow rapid-transit facilities in 
 New York that within four years after the open¬ 
 ing of the subway connecting the two boroughs, 
 the pressure of traffic over Brooklyn Bridge was 
 as great as ever, and additional facilities were 
 urgently demanded. 
 
 Negotiations which had been going on for 
 some years between the New York Public Serv¬ 
 ice Commission, the duty of which Avas to regu¬ 
 late New York City urban transportation facili¬ 
 ties, the Brooklyn Rapid Transit, and the Inter¬ 
 borough Rapid Transit, for the construction of 
 additional facilities, took definite shape in 1911 
 and were finally consummated in the contracts 
 which Avere signed March 19, 1913, between the 
 city of NeAV York and the Municipal Railway 
 Corporation, and contracts which were signed 
 at about the same time between the Interborough 
 Rapid Transit Company and New York City. 
 This agreement provided for the construction of 
 what is known as the dual subway system. The 
 New York Municipal Railway Corporation was 
 the subsidiary of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit, 
 and the new subway system Avas to be built in 
 part by money furnished by the city of New 
 York and in part by money furnished by the 
 Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company and the In¬ 
 terborough Rapid Transit Company. In addi¬ 
 tion to a system of subAvays the Brooklyn Rapid 
 Transit and the Interborough Rapid Transit 
 agreed to extend their elevated lines and to add 
 to the capacity of these lines by, in some in¬ 
 stances, third tracking them, and in other in¬ 
 stances adding a second story to the elevated 
 structure to carry tAvo additional tracks. 
 
 The problem of adequate transportation facil¬ 
 ities at Chicago is not as complicated as that at 
 NeAV York, and the general scheme adopted is 
 
 that of having a circular elevated line making 
 a loop about the business section of the city. 
 From this loop ele\ T ated lines radiate out into 
 the residential districts. Elevated trains can 
 therefore come in in the morning from the resi¬ 
 dential districts, discharge their passengers on 
 the various stations on the loop, and go back out. 
 This makes a very heavy traffic during rush 
 hours on the loop, but since the lines radiate 
 in three directions the traffic as soon as it 
 lea\ r es the loop has comparatively little conges¬ 
 tion. 
 
 New York Subways. As previously stated, 
 the city of New York has the most extensive 
 system of subways in the United States. The 
 first subAvay system consisted of over 20 miles 
 of road, much of which is four track. This is 
 being supplemented by the above-mentioned dual 
 subway system. The construction of both the 
 first subAvay system and the dual system was 
 carried on by private contractors, who submitted 
 bids to the New York Public Service Commis¬ 
 sion, and AAdiose bids and Avork Avere subject to the 
 approval of the commission. The character of 
 the work north of 53d Street Avas largely through 
 solid rock. South of Houston Street it Avas 
 almost entirely sand, no blasting Avas necessary, 
 and the excavated material could be dislodged 
 with pick and shovel. Here it was necessary to 
 underpin buildings along the route and to use 
 an elaborate system of timbering to hold up the 
 sides of the cut and sustain the temporary 
 pavement in the street. In the construction of 
 the neAV dual subway it was necessary to go 
 under a part of the old Astor House, the oldest 
 of New York’s first-class hotels standing in 1910, 
 and cross a corner of St. Paul’s Churchyard, and 
 all of this Avork necessitated elaborate precau¬ 
 tion for the prevention of cave-ins. 
 
 The first subway Avas necessarily experimental 
 in some particulars. In general its design has 
 been found to be particularly satisfactory. Its 
 operation, hoAvever, has brought out certain de¬ 
 fects Avhich are avoided in the dual subway. 
 Some of the stations of the first subway Avere 
 built on curves. Operation of the subway 
 during morning and evening traffic is carried on 
 at the greatest possible physical capacity, and 
 the fact that trains haAm to sIoav doAvn when 
 they approach stations situated on curves sooner 
 than they Avould Avere the stations on tangent 
 tends to produce congestion at these points. The 
 curved platform also leaves a considerable space 
 betAveen the car platform and the station plat¬ 
 form, AA r hich, in rush hours, is a source of 
 danger. 
 
 The first subway, throughout the greater part 
 of its four-track sections, had all four tracks 
 placed in one tunnel. This arrangement inter¬ 
 feres with the full effect of train movement on 
 Amntilation. Frequent passage of trains stirred 
 up the air, but did not reneAV it, and various 
 A r entilating devices have had to be installed. The 
 dual subway has a partition betAveen each pair of 
 tracks, so that there will be a tunnel for trains 
 going one Avav and another tunnel for those 
 going in the opposite direction. In this opera¬ 
 tion wall archways have been provided at fre¬ 
 quent interA r als as places of safety for track 
 laborers. Where there are only tAvo tracks, these 
 are separated by a partition. The accompany¬ 
 ing draAving sIioavs a cross section of the four- 
 track subAAmv under the Harlem River, AA T here 
 each one of the four tracks is to be placed in a 
 separate tunnel. In summer the heat in the 
 
URBAN TRANSPORTATION 
 
 806 
 
 URBAN TRANSPORTATION 
 
 first subway has been excessive. Much of this 
 heat is believed to be due to friction of brake 
 shoes on wheels and wheels on tracks, and also 
 of course to the operation of the electric motors 
 underneath the cars. In the first subway water¬ 
 proofing was used under the floor, up the sides 
 of the tunnel, and over the roof, and, while this 
 waterproofing keeps the water out, it keeps the 
 heat in. In the dual subway less waterproofing 
 is being used and is placed only along the sides 
 where the tunnel runs below the water level, as 
 is the case in the accompanying cross sectioning. 
 The waterproofing used in the dual system con¬ 
 sists of layers of woven fabric and asphalt and 
 brick laid" in asphalt. The first subway has a 
 height of 12 feet, 10 inches above the base of 
 the rail and has a width of 12 feet, 6 inches for 
 each track. The new Fourth Avenue and Centre 
 Street subways have a maximum height of 15 
 feet above the base of the rail and a width of 
 
 motor traffic shows that the number of passen¬ 
 gers by tramway in 1011 was 821,819,741; by 
 omnibuses, 400,628,487; by local railways, 436,- 
 398,745; and by trunk-line railway from a 30- 
 mile limit, approximately 250,000,000. 
 
 Omnibus service in London plays a very im¬ 
 portant part in the urban transportation, as 
 will be seen from the above figures. The short¬ 
 est omnibus route, according to the report of 
 the Select Committee, made in 1912, was 2.2 
 miles and the longest was 18.9 miles, and the 
 total number of omnibuses required for service 
 on week days in 1911 was 2279 and on Sundays 
 3390. An investigation made by the London po¬ 
 lice shows that on Oct. 13, 1913, there were 2700 
 busses in daily operation and an average of 
 about 300 in the shops. The average fare per 
 passenger on omnibuses in 1913 was 1.12 pence 
 (2.24 cents). There is no transferring between 
 the various bus lines. A report made by George 
 
 14 feet for each track. The Broadway subways 
 have a height above the base of the rail of 13 
 feet, 2 inches and a width of 13 feet, 6 inches 
 for each track. Express stations in both the 
 first subway and the dual subway are built to 
 accommodate ten-car trains and local stations 
 to accommodate six-car trains. Originally the 
 first subway was built with express stations to 
 accommodate but eight cars and local stations 
 to accommodate but five cars. These, however, 
 were later lengthened. 
 
 The first subway was built in good part as an 
 open cut, which was later roofed over. The 
 dual subway has been built almost entirely as a 
 tunnel, the street surface being maintained as a 
 roof, thus minimizing the interference of street 
 traffic. 
 
 London. The transportation facilities of the 
 city of London may be classified under the head 
 of cabs, omnibuses, tramcars, local railways, and 
 trunk-line railways carrying the passengers 
 from a 30-mile limit. 
 
 The report of the London Traffic Branch of 
 the Board of Trade shows that the population 
 of the County of London, which is the Metropoli¬ 
 tan District, decreased from 4,536,269 in 1901 
 to 4,521,685 in 1911, and it is estimated that 
 the migration into the outskirts from the Metro¬ 
 politan District has been more rapid since 1910 
 than in the years preceding. The population of 
 the whole area of Greater London increased from 
 6,581,402 in 1901 to 7,251,358 in 1911 and is 
 given by the Registrar General at 7,340,079 for 
 1912. The report of the Select Committee on 
 
 Keegan and E. T. Wood, assistant to the vice 
 president and general manager of the Inter¬ 
 borough Rapid Transit Company and assistant 
 to the vice president and general manager of the 
 New York Railways Company, respectively, es¬ 
 timated that, considering the difference in the 
 purchasing power of money in London and New 
 York, the average of 2.24 cents for London is 
 somewhat higher than the average 3% cents 
 paid by passengers on the New York surface 
 car lines. The average length of ride of passen¬ 
 gers on the busses is about 1.6 miles, according 
 to the report of the Select Committee, and the 
 average ride per tramway passenger is 1.93 miles. 
 Employees and policemen in uniform are carried 
 free. 
 
 The frequency of bus service in London varies 
 from 1 minute headway to 15 minutes. The 
 busses make from 110 to 120 miles a day, carry¬ 
 ing 34 seated passengers, of which 18 are on top 
 and 16 inside. Busses stop almost anywhere to 
 take up passengers. 
 
 Underground Lines .—The report of the Lon¬ 
 don Traffic Board of Trade for 1913 shows the 
 mileage of electric so-called underground rail¬ 
 ways in the metropolitan area to be 132 miles; 
 of this, 60 route miles are underground and the 
 remainder on the surface. All of the under¬ 
 ground electric railways are controlled by one 
 of three companies: the Underground Electric 
 Railways Company of London; the Metropoli¬ 
 tan Railway Company; the Great Northern and 
 City Railway Company. In 1912 the Under¬ 
 ground Electric Railways Company carried 226,- 
 
URBAN TRANSPORTATION 
 
 URBAN TRANSPORTATION 
 
 807 
 
 894,711 passengers, outside of season-ticket pas¬ 
 sengers, and 20,450,828 season-ticket passengers. 
 In 1913 this system carried 225,990,674 passen¬ 
 gers, outside of season-ticket passengers. The 
 passenger receipts in 1912 were £1,772,791 
 ($8,863,955) and, in 1913, £1,791,957 ($8,959,- 
 785). Various reports which were made in 1912 
 and 1913 by the Underground Electric Railways 
 Company’s management and by boards of trades 
 comment on the success with which motor busses 
 have been competing for not only the normal in¬ 
 crease in traffic, but for the passenger traffic 
 which had previously belonged to the under¬ 
 ground railways. 
 
 The Metropolitan Railways Company, which 
 was the old underground before the Underground 
 Electric Railways of London entered the field, 
 and which was originally operated with steam 
 locomotives, carried, in 1912, 100,146,324 passen¬ 
 gers. The average receipts per passenger were 
 1.486 pence (2.972 cents). Workingmen are 
 carried at a reduced rate and in some instances 
 may travel 16 miles for 2 pence (4 cents). 
 Round-trip tickets are sold, which are roughly 
 one and a half times one-way tickets. 
 
 The total number of passengers carried on all 
 of the electric railways, including the Under¬ 
 ground Electric of London and the Metropolitan 
 Railway, mentioned above, was 360,325,001 in 
 1912. The equipment of the underground rail¬ 
 ways consists of cars of many different types. 
 The average number of seats is 48. 
 
 Tramicays .—With a few exceptions, all of 
 the tramway lines in the County of London are 
 operated by the London County Council. The 
 report of the London County Council shows that, 
 for the year ending March 31, 1913, there were 
 512,652,653 passengers carried on the tram¬ 
 ways; the passenger revenue was £2,181,103 
 ($10,905,515) ; the average receipts per passen¬ 
 ger carried was 1.02 pence (2.04 cents) ; and 
 the car miles operated was 53,943,104. The 
 average number of cars in use on electric lines 
 was 1.237 in 1913, and a large number of trailer 
 cars are in use, many of which have double decks. 
 The ordinary car seats 36 persons downstairs 
 and 42 persons upstairs. The trailer cars seat 
 48 persons. The cars are operated within the 
 more congested city limits from underground 
 trolleys, but many of them are equipped to oper¬ 
 ate also by overhead trolleys, and change at 
 points on their way to or from the city from one 
 system to the other. 
 
 Paris. The principal means of urban trans¬ 
 portation in Paris, France, are subway lines, 
 omnibuses, tramway lines, taxicabs, steam-car 
 lines entering Paris, and the small steamers run¬ 
 ning on the Seine. According to the 1911 cen¬ 
 sus, the population of the city of Paris within 
 the fortifications was 2,888,110. The population 
 of the environs was about 460,000. The sub¬ 
 ways of Paris are all under the control of the 
 Chemin de Fer Metropolitan!, with the exception 
 of one line operated by a steam-railroad com¬ 
 pany. All of the lines lie entirely within the 
 fortifications of Paris; some of them are ele¬ 
 vated instead of being in subways. In the fiscal 
 year ending June 30, 1912, the total number of 
 passengers carried on this Metropolitan system, 
 not counting transfer passengers, was 383,190,- 
 000. This compares with 302,973,856 passengers 
 carried in the same year in the New York City 
 subway. First-class tickets on the Paris sub¬ 
 ways are 25 centimes (about 5 cents) and sec¬ 
 ond-class tickets 15 centimes (3 cents). Sec¬ 
 
 ond-class tickets to go before nine a.m. and 
 return any time during the day, are sold for 
 4 cents. There are no reduced-rate return tick¬ 
 ets for first-class passengers. Approximately the 
 total passenger traffic is divided into 15 per cent 
 first-class passengers, 55 per cent second-class 
 passengers, and 30 per cent second-class passen¬ 
 gers go and return. As a rule there is no limita¬ 
 tion on transfer privilege in the subway, except 
 an attempt to prevent a system of transfers 
 which would permit a passenger to return to his 
 starting point. 
 
 Equipment .—Subway trains are usually made 
 up of five cars, the centre car being a first class 
 and the other four cars second class. The capac¬ 
 ity varies from 50 to 90, the rated capacity 
 being for about an equal number of standing 
 and sitting passengers. There is a congestion 
 at morning and evening hours, and sometimes 
 as many as 75 standing passengers per car, but 
 even a report made by representatives of the 
 Interborough Rapid Transit Company and the 
 New York City Railways, mentioned previously, 
 says that the rush-hour congestion in Paris is 
 not nearly so great as that in New York. The 
 headway between trains during rush hours is 
 2 minutes, 11 seconds, and the distance between 
 stations is about 1600 feet. There is no express 
 service. 
 
 Omnibuses .—The General Omnibus Company 
 of Paris controls all of the busses, and in 1913 
 owned about 1032 busses, of which 850 were in 
 daily service. The bus lines do not extend be¬ 
 yond the fortifications, and there is usually not 
 more than one bus line on a street. These lines 
 usually run from the outgoing points to the 
 centre of the city, and none of them run all the 
 way across the city. There is usually from 
 two to three sections on each bus line, and the 
 fare for one section first class is 15 centimes 
 (3 cents) and second class 10 centimes (2 
 cents). A person riding over more than one 
 section, or beyond the limits of one section, pays 
 25 centimes (5 cents) first class and 15 centimes 
 (3 cents) second class. The length of a section 
 is about 1% miles. Standing passengers are 
 permitted on the rear platform only, and the 
 distance between stopping points is about 1300 
 feet. The most frequent headway is 1 minute, 
 10 seconds, and the headway varies from this 
 to about 7 to 8 minutes. The average speed of 
 the busses is about 8% miles an hour, and the 
 maximum is 14 miles an hour. The busses ac¬ 
 commodate 30 to 35 passengers. Single-deck 
 omnibuses are used, the double-deck busses hav¬ 
 ing been abandoned on account of expense and 
 the greater time required to load and unload. 
 
 Tramways .—The two largest tramway com¬ 
 panies are the General Omnibus Company and 
 the Tramways de Paris et du Departement de la 
 Seine. The arrangement of the lines is on the 
 zone principle, and passengers pay fares for each 
 zone. The fare is usually 15 centimes (3 cents) 
 for each zone first class and 10 centimes (2 
 cents) for each zone second class. First-class 
 passengers pay about 2.4 cents for each mile 
 outside of the fortifications and a little less 
 than 1 cent for each mile within the fortifi¬ 
 cations. Cars operating single or in trains of 
 two cars, and in the suburbs of three cars, 
 are run by compressed air, steam, storage bat¬ 
 tery and overhead trolley, or underground elec¬ 
 tric trolley. There are both single and double 
 deck cars in use. Various types and sizes of 
 cars are in use, many having a seating capacity 
 
URBINO 
 
 808 
 
 UREA 
 
 for 30 passengers and a standing capacity for 
 1!) passengers. The trailers have, in many cases, 
 seating capacity for 38 passengers and will 
 carry 19 standing passengers. 
 
 The report of the Inspector General of Police, 
 in charge of tramways and local railways, for 
 the year ending Dec. 31, 1911, shows a total 
 number of passengers carried by tramway lines 
 as 438,634,210; omnibus lines, 135,722,473; sub¬ 
 ways, 419,894,539; a total of 994,262,222. 
 
 Municipal Ownership. As an example of 
 municipal ownership and operation of street 
 railways, Leith, Scotland, may be taken as an 
 instance where this form of management is in 
 successful operation. The tramways department 
 of the Burgh of Leith operates a little over 9 
 miles of tramway, nearly all of which is double 
 track. This serves a population of 80,400. The 
 total revenue in 1913 was £35,693 ($178,465). 
 The total number of passengers carried was 
 9,706,611 and of car miles run was 944,329. 
 The average car miles per car per day was 125. 
 The average total revenue per ccA’ miles was 
 9.07d. (18.14 cents) and the average expenses, 
 including power cost, was 4.08d. (*8.16 cents). 
 The average fare paid by each passenger was 
 0.87d. (1.74 cents). 
 
 Since 1894 the corporation of the city of Glas¬ 
 gow, Scotland, has operated the tramways of 
 that city. The city between 1894 and 1903 had 
 changed the system from horse cars to overhead 
 trolley and extended it from 60 miles to 132. In 
 1903 the car mileage was 14,008,750, the num¬ 
 ber of passengers carried 177,179,549, and total 
 receipts amounted to £653,200 ($3,266,000). 
 
 Fares are on a mileage basis, the half mile being 
 taken as the unit. The fare for the first 0.58 
 mile is ^d. (1 cent) and is graded from that 
 figure up to 4d. (8 cents) for 9.09 miles. 
 
 Consult: A. H. Beavan, Tube, Train, Tram, 
 and Car (New York, 1903) ; E. R. Johnson, Ele¬ 
 ments of Transportation (ib., 1909) ; W. F. 
 Gephart, Transportation and Industrial Develop¬ 
 ment in th-e Middle West (ib., 1909) ; L. G. 
 McPherson, Transportation in Europe (ib., 
 1910). See Street Railway; Tunnel. 
 
 URBINO, oor-be'no. A city in the Province 
 of Pesaro e Urbino, Italy, situated on a hill 
 amid the eastern outliers of the Apennines, be¬ 
 tween the Metauro and the Foglia, 25 miles 
 southwest of Pesaro (Map: Italy, D 3). The 
 streets are narrow and tortuous, but gorgeous 
 views are obtained of the mountains and the 
 Adriatic. The house in which Raphael was born 
 is now fitted up as a museum, and belongs to the 
 Reale Accademia Raffaello. The new cathedral 
 is interesting for its paintings. In the church 
 of Santo Spirito are noteworthy pictures by Luca 
 Signorelli, and in the San Domenico are good 
 reliefs by Luca della Robbia. The Oratorio 
 della Confraternity di San Giovanni Battista is 
 a splendid structure. The famous ducal palace 
 was erected in the fifteenth century. It is rich 
 in interesting sculptures and decorations, and 
 has a collection of Roman inscriptions and a 
 biblical picture gallery. The city has a free 
 university, founded in 1671, and an academy of 
 fine arts. The celebrated library has been re¬ 
 moved to Rome. Urbino manufactures silks, 
 majolica, bricks, lime, oil, and cheese. There 
 are in the vicinity sulphur and travertine quar¬ 
 ries. Pop. (commune), 1901, 18,307; 1911, 
 
 18,117. 
 
 Urbino, the ancient Urbinum, was an impor¬ 
 tant city under the Romans. It became very 
 
 prosperous in the fourteenth century. Federigo 
 da Montefeltre, who ruled from 1444 to 1482 and 
 who was elevated by the Pope to the dignity of 
 Duke of Urbino in 1474, maintained a magnifi¬ 
 cent court, built the palace, and made the city 
 a centre of science and art. During the six¬ 
 teenth century, under the Della Rovere family, 
 Urbino was important in the manufacture of 
 majolica. It was a papal possession from 1626 
 to 1860. 
 
 URBS VETUS. See Orvieto. 
 
 URCHARD, Sir Thomas. See Urquiiart. 
 
 URCHIN, Keyhole. See Sand Dollar. 
 
 URDANETA, oor'da-na'ta. A town of Lu¬ 
 zon, Philippines, in the Province of Pangasinan, 
 situated 27 miles southeast of Lingayen (Map: 
 Philippine Islands, C 2). Pop., 1903, 20,544. 
 
 URDU, oor'doo. The speech of the Moham¬ 
 medan population of central Hindustan, and a 
 sort of lingua franca for almost all the penin¬ 
 sula. See Hindustani Language and Litera¬ 
 ture. 
 
 URE, Alexander. See Strathclyde, Alex¬ 
 ander Ure, Baron. 
 
 URE, Andrew (1778-1857). A Scottish 
 chemist, born at Glasgow. He studied at Glas¬ 
 gow and Edinburgh. In 1802 he became pro¬ 
 fessor of chemistry and natural philosophy in 
 the Andersonian Institution at Glasgow; took 
 an active part in the establishment (1809) of the 
 Glasgow Observatory, and was appointed its 
 first director. He published a number of val¬ 
 uable works, his two dictionaries remaining for 
 many years the standard books of reference: 
 viz., his Dictionary of Chemistry (2 vols., 1821), 
 and A Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and 
 Mines (1837 and several later editions). 
 
 U'REA (Neo-Lat., from Gk. ovpov, ouron, 
 urine), or Carbamide, CO(NH 2 ) 2 . An organic 
 substance which derives its name from its hav¬ 
 ing been originally discovered in urine, of which 
 it forms the most important and characteristic 
 ingredient. Pure urea is devoid of smell, has a 
 coolish, bitter taste, like that of saltpetre (which 
 it closely resembles in its external form), and 
 is very slightly deliquescent. It is readily solu¬ 
 ble in water and alcohol, but only slightly in 
 ether. It melts at 132° C. (270° F.) ; dry urea 
 may be sublimed without decomposition by heat¬ 
 ing in vacuo between 120° and 130° C. (248°- 
 266° F.). If sublimed in vacuo at temperatures 
 between 160° and 190° C. (320°-374° F.), it 
 changes into ammonium cyanate. If heated, un¬ 
 der ordinary pressure, to 150°-160° C. (302°- 
 320° F.), it is decomposed with formation of am¬ 
 monia, cyanuric acid, biuret, and carbonic acid; 
 the formation of biuret is represented by the 
 following chemical equation: 
 
 2CO (NH 2 ) 2 = nh 2 conhconh 2 +nh 3 
 
 Urea Biuret Ammonia 
 
 The formation of cyanuric acid (C 3 H 3 N 3 0 3 ) takes 
 place indirectly, probably through the combina¬ 
 tion of biuret with cyanic acid. 
 
 One of the most important methods for the 
 quantitative determination of urea in urine was 
 proposed by Folin in 1901 and improved by 
 Benedict in 1910. The method consists in add¬ 
 ing to a small measured specimen of urine a 
 certain quantity of hydrated magnesium chlor¬ 
 ide, some acid potassium sulphate, some zinc sul¬ 
 phate and a little powdered pumice and paraffin 
 wax, boiling to dryness, beating for an hour at 
 165° C. (329° F.), adding sodium hydroxide, 
 and distilling the freed ammonia into a measured 
 
UREA 
 
 UREAS 
 
 809 
 
 quantity of tenth-normal acid. From the amount 
 of ammonia thus obtained, the amount of urea 
 in the urine specimen is readily calculated. 
 
 The presence of urea may be detected qualita¬ 
 tively by means of the biuret reaction. It has 
 been mentioned above that when urea is decom¬ 
 posed by heating, biuret is produced along with 
 several other substances. Now, when biuret is 
 dissolved in water, then some caustic soda and 
 a little dilute copper sulphate solution added, 
 a characteristic pink coloration is produced. To 
 detect urea, therefore, the drv substance sub- 
 mitted for examination, or the residue left on 
 evaporating a solution, is heated for some time 
 at 155° C. (311° F.), then dissolved, and 
 treated with caustic soda and copper sulphate, a 
 pink coloration produced proving the presence 
 of urea. 
 
 Urea was the first organic compound produced 
 artificially in the chemical laboratory—a synthe¬ 
 sis of vast importance in the history of chem¬ 
 istry. (See Chemistry.) It was then (1828) 
 obtained by Wohler (q.v.) by heating a solution 
 of ammonium cyanate, the transformation tak¬ 
 ing place according to the following chemical 
 equation: 
 
 NH 4 OCN = CO (NIL) 2 
 
 Ammonium Urea 
 
 cyanate 
 
 Urea has since been made artificially in a 
 variety of ways; e.g., by treating ammonia 
 with phosgene gas (carbonyl chloride). This 
 synthesis is important inasmuch as it explains 
 the structure of urea. 
 
 Urea is best prepared in the laboratory by 
 heating phenyl carbonate with ammonia: 
 
 ( C c H 5 ) 2 C0 3 + 2NH 3 = CO (NIL) 2 + 2C 6 H 5 OH. 
 
 It may be obtained from urine by evaporating to 
 a small volume and adding nitric acid; the ni¬ 
 trate of urea thus obtained is purified by crystal¬ 
 lization from nitric acid, decomposed with ba¬ 
 rium carbonate, and the urea set free is dis¬ 
 solved out of the mixture with alcohol. 
 
 Urea occurs more abundantly in the urine of 
 carnivorous than in that of herbivorous animals. 
 Small quantities of urea are present also in the 
 urine of birds. The average amount of urea 
 normally excreted by the human adult in a day 
 is 33 grams, the quantity varying between 22 
 and 35 grams. Urea is also a constituent of the 
 fluids of the eye, of sweat, and, in minute quan¬ 
 tity, of the blood and of the liquor amnii (of 
 the foetus). There can be no doubt that it is a 
 final product of the regressive metamorphosis 
 of the living tissues, or of their disintegration 
 into simpler compounds, by means of which the 
 final elimination of the worn-out structures is 
 effected. In what way this process of disinte¬ 
 gration takes place in the animal body is not 
 known, though various hypotheses have been ad¬ 
 vanced in explanation of this important phenom¬ 
 enon. Since urea is readily produced from am¬ 
 monium cyanate and is with equal readiness 
 transformed into ammonium carbonate (see 
 above), it may be that the decomposition of 
 proteids in the body gives rise first to the forma¬ 
 tion of one or both of these substances, which 
 are subsequently changed into urea. Such ex¬ 
 planations, however, are rather vague; for, al¬ 
 though cyanogen compounds are manufactured 
 for practical purposes chiefly from nitrogenous 
 animal refuse, the nature of the chemical trans¬ 
 formations taking place during the process is not 
 understood. The cyanate hypothesis is attractive 
 
 inasmuch as the transformation of cyanogen 
 compounds into urea might serve as a source of 
 much energy, cyanogen compounds possessing 
 great molecular energy, while urea possesses 
 much less energy and is much more stable. See 
 Plate of Microscopy, Clinical. 
 
 U'REAS, The Compound. A class of organic 
 substances, for the knowledge of which chemis¬ 
 try is mainly indebted to A. W. Hofmann. It 
 is stated in the article on Urea (q.v.) that that 
 important substance can be obtained by the 
 action of ammonia either on cyanic acid (syn¬ 
 thesis of urea by heating an ammonium cyanate 
 solution) or on phosgene gas (carbonyl chlor¬ 
 ide). Similar transformations take place if, in 
 place of ammonia, compounds are employed 
 which are derived from ammonia by replacing 
 hydrogen in the latter by alcohol radicles, such as 
 methyl (CH e ) or ethyl (C 2 H 5 ). In these cases, 
 however, not urea itself, but a series of com¬ 
 pound ureas are obtained, which are said to be 
 derived from urea by substituting an alcohol 
 radicle for * hydrogen. These compound ureas 
 are very similar in their chemical behavior to 
 urea itself, and, like urea, form salts with acids. 
 Most of the ureas are crystalline solid sub¬ 
 stances. Those, however, which are derived by 
 replacing all the hydrogen of urea are liquids 
 that boil at high temperatures and distill with¬ 
 out decomposition. Ethyl urea and tetramethyl 
 urea are formed by the above methods, accord¬ 
 ing to the following chemical equations: 
 
 NHC 2 H 5 
 
 HNCO + NH 2 C 2 H 5 = CO 7 " 
 
 \ 
 
 nh 2 
 
 Cyanic acid Ethylamine Ethyl urea 
 
 N(CH 3 ) 2 
 
 COCI 2 + 2NH(CH 3 ) 2 = CC) + 2HC1 
 
 \ 
 
 N(CH 3 ) 2 
 
 Carbonyl Dimethyl- Tetramethyl 
 
 chloride amine urea 
 
 Certain compound ureas may be obtained by 
 using ethereal salts of cyanic acid; thus sym¬ 
 metrical methylethyl urea is obtained by the 
 action of methylamine on ethyl cyanate, the re¬ 
 action taking place according to the following 
 chemical equation: 
 
 NHC 2 H 5 
 
 / 
 
 C 2 H 5 NCO + NH 2 CH 3 = CO 
 
 \ 
 
 nhch 3 
 
 Ethyl Methyl- Methylethyl 
 
 cyanate amine urea 
 
 Another important series of compound ureas 
 is obtained by substituting for hydrogen in urea 
 the radicles of organic acids. These ureas are 
 called ureides. One of the hydrogen atoms of 
 urea can be replaced by an acid radicle by the 
 direct action of the chloride of the acid radicle 
 on urea; thus inonoacetvl urea is formed accord¬ 
 ing to the following equation: 
 
 NH 2 
 
 CO^ + CH 3 COCl = CO 
 
 \ 
 
 nh 2 
 
 Urea Acetyl chloride 
 
 nhcoch 3 
 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 nh 2 
 
 Acetyl urea 
 
 + HC1 
 
 Other methods, however, must be employed 
 for the purpose of introducing more than one 
 
UREDINALES 
 
 810 
 
 UREDINALES 
 
 acid radicle; thus symmetrical diacetyl urea is 
 obtained by the action of acetamide upon car¬ 
 bonyl chloride, the reaction taking place accord¬ 
 ing to the following chemical equation: 
 
 NHCOCH3 
 
 / 
 
 COCI2 + 2CH3CONH2 = CO + 2HC1 
 
 \ 
 
 NHCOCH3 
 
 Chloride* Acetamide Diacetyl urea 
 
 Among the important ureides is that of car¬ 
 bonic acid, called allophanic acid. Its form¬ 
 
 ula is CO 
 
 / 
 
 NH 2 
 
 \ 
 
 NHCOOH 
 
 It is an exceedingly 
 
 weak acid, its alkaline salts being decomposed 
 even by carbonic acid. The substance biuret, 
 formed by heating urea somewhat above 150° C. 
 (302° F.) (see Urea), is the amide of allophanic 
 
 acid, its formula being CO 
 
 Uric Acid. 
 
 / 
 
 I 
 
 \ 
 
 NH 
 
 . See also 
 
 NHCONH2 
 
 When the alkyl ureas (i.e., the compound 
 ureas formed by replacing hydrogen in urea by 
 alcohol radicles) are boiled with alkalies, de¬ 
 composition ensues resulting in the formation 
 of amines, ammonia, and carbonic acid. Methyl 
 urea, e.g., is thus hydrolyzed according to the 
 following chemical equation: 
 
 NHCH3 
 
 CO 
 
 \ 
 
 nh 2 
 
 Methyl urea 
 
 + H 2 0 = CH3NH2 + nh 3 + co 2 
 
 Methylamine 
 
 The ureides are more or less readily saponified 
 by the action of alkalies; acetyl urea, e.g., being 
 decomposed according to the following equation: 
 
 NTICOCH3 
 
 / 
 
 CO + NaOH 
 
 NH 2 
 
 Acetyl urea 
 
 nh 2 
 
 CO + CHsCOONa 
 
 \ 
 
 nh 2 
 
 Urea 
 
 Sodium 
 
 acetate 
 
 UREDINALES, u-red'i-na'lez (Neo-Lat . nom. 
 pi., from Lat. uredo, blight, blast, from urere, 
 Skt. us, to burn). A group of fungi familiarly 
 called rusts which live as parasites chiefly on 
 flowering plants. One of the striking features of 
 the group is the extreme form of polymorphism 
 exhibited, i.e., the production of more than one 
 spore-bearing form in the life cycle. The rusts 
 are known to develop five kinds of spores: 
 pycnospores (spermatia), aecidiospores, uredo¬ 
 spores, teleutospores, and basidiospores (spor- 
 idia). these do not all occur in every case, 
 the teleutospores and the basidiospores being 
 the only forms always present. The various 
 spore forms may all develop on one host, in 
 which case the rust is said to be autoecious or 
 autoieous; or they may be developed on dif¬ 
 ferent hosts, in which case the rust is heterce- 
 cious or heteroicous. The teleutospores are the 
 most variable spores, and therefore their char¬ 
 acters are of the greatest service in classifica¬ 
 tion. 
 
 In such a hetercecious form as Puccinia 
 graminis, one of the common wheat rusts, the 
 life cycle is as follows. The mycelium (the 
 filamentous body of the fungus) traverses the 
 tissues of the young wheat plant, and sends to 
 the surface the uredospores, which form the 
 reddish spots or lines that suggested the name 
 rust. By means of scattered uredospores the 
 disease spreads rapidly through growing wheat. 
 
 RUST. 
 
 1, section of leaf of barberry with cluster cups (secidia 
 below and spermogonia above; 2, uredospores and one 
 teleutospore; 3, germinating teleutospore with four-celled 
 promycelium. 
 
 As the wheat plant matures, the mycelium sends 
 to the surface the teleutospores, dark and thick 
 walled spores that last through the winter. The 
 teleutospore germinates in the spring, and gives 
 rise to the basidiuin (promycelium), a filament 
 of four cells, each of which produces a slender 
 branch bearing a basidiospore (sporidium). 
 The basidiospores that fall on young barberry 
 leaves germinate and form an extensive mycelium 
 in the leaf. This mycelium gives rise to pycno¬ 
 spores and aecidiospores. The latter occur in 
 clusters called cluster cups, and these spores, 
 falling upon young wheat plants, germinate and 
 produce the mycelium that later bears uredo¬ 
 spores and then teleutospores. In this life his¬ 
 tory the fungus passes through three distinct 
 phases, viz., the parasitic mycelium bearing 
 uredospores and teleutospores,* the saprophytic 
 basidium bearing basidiospores, and the parasitic 
 mycelium bearing pycnospores and aecidiospores. 
 
 As might be expected, the complete life his¬ 
 tories of comparatively few hetercecious rusts 
 are known, but the completion of the life histories 
 is progressing very rapidly at the present time. 
 The two hosts do not suggest one another, e.g., 
 wheat and barberry, and therefore numerous 
 
URENA 
 
 811 
 
 URFE 
 
 rusts are known only in various stages, and bear 
 the names of form genera; e.g., Uredo (uredo- 
 spore forms), Puccinia (teleutospore forms), and 
 AEcidium (lecidiospore forms). When these 
 forms are connected in a life history the name 
 of the fungus becomes Puccinia. 
 
 One of the important problems connected with 
 the cereal rusts is the winter condition, and 
 this chiefly relates to the question whether any 
 short cuts in the life history are possible; e.g., 
 whether uredospores can survive the winter and 
 infect the crop of the next season. 
 
 For a general account of the Uredinales con¬ 
 sult Engler and Prantl, Die naturlichen Pflanzen- 
 familien (Leipzig, 1887), and Plowright, Brit¬ 
 ish Uredinece and Ustilaginece (London, 1889). 
 See Basidiomycetes ; Rust. 
 
 URE'NA (Neo-Lat., from uren, the native 
 Malabar name). A genus of herbs of the family 
 Malvaceae. The bark is very fibrous; and the 
 fibre of Urena lobata and XJrena sinuata, weeds 
 common in most parts of India, is used as a sub¬ 
 stitute for flax in making cordage and paper 
 stock. It is strong and fine and in many ways 
 resembles jute, for which it is a good substitute. 
 TJrena lobata grows in various parts of the 
 United States, particularly in the State of 
 Florida, where the plant has often been mis¬ 
 taken for ramie. 
 
 IJEENA, Count of. See Osuna, Duke of. 
 
 UREN'TES A'QTUE. See Orense. 
 
 U'RETER (Gk. ovp-rjTgp, oureter, ureter, ure¬ 
 thra, from ovpov, ouron, urine). One of two 
 canals by which the urine is conveyed from the 
 pelvis of the kidney (q.v.) on either side to the 
 base of the bladder. Each ureter is about 18 
 inches in length, and enters the bladder in so 
 slanting a direction as to prevent regurgitation. 
 When a concretion is formed in the kidney, the 
 ordinary and most favorable event is that it 
 should descend through the ureter to the blad¬ 
 der. The passage of a stone through this tube 
 gives rise to renal colic, a series of violent symp¬ 
 toms, consisting of sudden and most severe pain, 
 first in the loins and groin, subsequently in the 
 testes (in the male) under the thigh; the testes 
 may be retracted spasmodically. Coincident 
 with the pain there are violent sickness, faint¬ 
 ness, and collapse, which may last two or three 
 days, and are only relieved when the stone 
 reaches the bladder. The treatment consists in 
 the Warm bath, and the inhalation of chloroform 
 or opium in large do^£& (both of which serve to 
 allay spasm and deaden pain), and the free use 
 of diluents to wash down the concretion. 
 
 URETHRA (Lat., from Gk. ovprjOpa, oure- 
 thra, passage for urine, from otfpo v, ouron, urine). 
 The canal by which the urine is discharged from 
 the bladder. The male urethra is about 9 inches 
 long, and its office is to conduct the seminal 
 fluid, secondarily to discharge the urine. It is 
 divided into three parts: (1) the deep or 
 prostatic urethra, which extends from the outlet 
 of the bladder (with which it is continuous) 
 through the prostate gland, being the part into 
 which the seminal ducts open; (2) the membra¬ 
 nous urethra, less than an inch long, extending 
 from the prostate forward; and (3) the cavern¬ 
 ous, or spongy, or penile urethra, extending 
 through the erectile tissue to the end of the 
 penis. The female urethra is less than 2 inches 
 in length and opens externally between the up¬ 
 per margin of the vaginal entrance and the 
 clitoris. The urethra is lined by a continuation 
 of the mucous membrane of the bladder, and in 
 Vol. XXII.—52 
 
 the male is extremely sensitive. See Gon¬ 
 orrhoea; Stricture. 
 
 URETHRITIS, u're-thri'tis. See Gonor¬ 
 
 rhoea. 
 
 URFAH, ur-fii', or ORFA. The modern 
 
 name for Edessa (q.v.). 
 
 URFAHR, oor'far. A town in the Crown- 
 land of Upper Austria, on the left bank of the 
 Danube, opposite Linz (q.v.), with which it is 
 connected by an iron bridge (Map: Austria- 
 Hungary, D 2). It manufactures spirits and 
 machinery. Pop., 1900, 12,827; 1910, 15,441. 
 
 URFE, ur'fa', Honore d’ (1568-1025). A 
 French pastoral romancer, born in Marseilles of 
 noble family. D’Urfe was educated for the Church, 
 but married his sister-in-law, Diane de Chateau- 
 morand (1600). On the fall of the League he 
 withdrew to Savoy and began to write in the 
 pastoral style suggested by the Spanish Amadis 
 de Gaul, which had been translated into French 
 at the instigation of Francis I (1540-48), and 
 by the Greek pastoral romances which were ren¬ 
 dered into French early in the sixteenth century. 
 Fiction of this character had made a timid ap¬ 
 pearance in France before D’Urfe, e.g., in Fumee’s 
 Du vray et parfait amour (1599). It had al¬ 
 ready acquired its great masterpieces in Italy 
 (Poliziano’s Orfea, 1471 or 1472; Sannazaro’s 
 Arcadia; Tasso’s Aminta, 1573; Guarini’s Pas¬ 
 tor Fido, 1590), in England (Spenser’s Shep¬ 
 herd’s Calendar, 1570), and in Spain (Monte- 
 mayor’s fliawa, 1542; Gil Polo’s Diana En- 
 amorada, 1564, and Cervantes’ Galatea, 1851). 
 All these romances were popular in France, but 
 I)'Urf6’s Astree was the first that became a sort 
 of social breviary for a generation. It is a novel 
 of 5155 pages. Its first two volumes appeared 
 in 1610, the third in 1619, the posthumous fourth 
 and fifth in 1627, with other unofficial continua¬ 
 tions. Of this interminable treatise on the verb 
 aimer, D’Urfe borrows his pastoral scenes from 
 the Diana, his warlike episodes from Amadis, and 
 from the Greeks and Latins some episodes and 
 much of his story-telling art; but he is superior 
 to them all in character drawing, in good humor, 
 and in the higher social aim of his work. In the 
 subtle differentiation of his lovers, D’Urfe is a 
 not unworthy forerunner of Racine and Mari¬ 
 vaux, unapproached by any novelist of his cen¬ 
 tury but Madame de Lafayette. D’Urfe was a 
 sort of realistic idealist; he chose the scene of 
 his own birth, the banks of the Lignon, for the 
 scene of his novel, and his conversations are 
 lively, far beyond the wont of his time. His aim 
 throughout is the refinement of society, and here 
 its influence is hard to overestimate. The Hotel 
 de Rambouillet seems to have been organized in 
 its imitation. Astree’s popularity was astound¬ 
 ing. Bishops like Camus, saints like Francis de 
 Sales, joined with realistic novelists like Sorel 
 to sound the praise of this “exquisite work.” La 
 Fontaine, the scholarly Huet, the sprightly Fon- 
 tenelle, the cynic La Rochefoucauld, all rejoiced 
 in it. For two generations it was an accepted 
 book of reference on deportment and breeding. 
 In Germany, in 1624, a princely and aristocratic 
 coterie, on organizing an Academic des vrais 
 amants, assumed the names of the characters 
 of the Astree. 
 
 Consult: Bonafous, Etude sur I’AstrSe et sur 
 H. d’Urfe (Paris, 1846) ; Korting, Geschichte des 
 franzosischen Romans im 17ten Jahrhundert, 
 vol. i (Oppeln, 1885) ; W. Fischer, Lafontaine 
 and the Astree of TJonore d’UrfS (Philadelphia, 
 1913). 
 
URGA 
 
 812 
 
 URIC ACID 
 
 URGA, oor'ga (Chin. K’ulun ). The capital 
 of northern Mongolia, situated on the Tola River 
 and the highway leading from Kiakhta (q.v.) to 
 Peking, 175 miles south of Kiakhta (Map: 
 China, J 2). It consists of the Mongolian town, 
 inhabited mostly by lamas, and of the Chinese 
 town, a few miles distant, where the Chinese 
 and Russian merchants live. In the Mongolian 
 town is situated the residence of the head of 
 the Lamaist church in Mongolia. There are 
 also numerous temples surrounded by the houses 
 of the lamas. In the temple of Maidarv is a 
 colossal gilt statue of that divinity, over 33 feet 
 high. During the religious festivals the town 
 is visited by great numbers of pilgrims. Pop., 
 about 25,000 Chinese and 13,000 Lamaist monks. 
 
 URGED, oor-Hel'. An ancient episcopal see 
 in northern Spain, with an interesting history 
 closely related to that of the Republic of An¬ 
 dorra (q.v.). It was also a county, the lord- 
 ship of which was acquired by marriage early in 
 the thirteenth century by the comtes de Foix. 
 
 URI, oo're. A canton of Switzerland (Map: 
 Switzerland, C 2). Area, 415 square miles. The 
 region consists of the narrow valley o^f the Reuss, 
 surrounded by offshoots of the Bernese Alps on 
 the west, the Glarus Alps on the east, and the 
 St. Gotthard group on the south. Many of the 
 peaks exceed 10,000 feet, the Dammastoek rising 
 to 11,920 feet. The climate is raw. Uri is 
 primarily a pastoral canton, and exports chiefly 
 dairy products. The principal manufactures are 
 dynamite and parquet floors. The legislative 
 authority is exercised directly by the people as¬ 
 sembled in the Landsgemeinde. The canton is 
 represented by one member in the Federal Coun¬ 
 cil. Pop., 1910, 22,055, nearly all German-speak¬ 
 ing Roman Catholics. Capital, Altdorf (q.v.). 
 
 Uri, first mentioned in 732, passed in the thir¬ 
 teenth century to the Hapsburgs. It gradually 
 obtained its independence and in 1291 formed the 
 perpetual league with Schwyz and Unterwal- 
 den. In the fifteenth century the Val Leventina 
 (now a part of Ticino) was acquired by Uri. 
 The canton took part in the Sonderbund (q.v.). 
 
 URI. Another name for the Limpopo (q.v.), 
 a river of South Africa. 
 
 URIAL. See Oorial. 
 
 U'RIAFT, Ger. pron. ob're-an, Sir. A name, 
 like the modern Mr. Blank, once used to desig¬ 
 nate one whose real name was either unknown 
 or unmentionable. It occasionally occurs in Ger¬ 
 man and English literature before the nineteenth 
 century, and is sometimes used of Satan. In 
 Wolfram von Eschenbach’s Parzwal it is applied 
 to the evil-minded Prince of Punturtois. 
 
 URIBURU, oo-'re-boo / roo, Jos6 (1835—1914). 
 An Argentine diplomat and president. He was 
 educated at the University of Buenos Aires and 
 entered the diplomatic service, in which he spent 
 20 years. While Minister to Chile he gave 
 refuge to President Balmaceda (q.v.) during the 
 Chilean revolution of 1891. He was elected Vice 
 President of Argentina in 1892, chiefly because 
 he had no political affiliations. Upon the resig¬ 
 nation of President Luis Saenz Peha in 1895, 
 Uriburu assumed the office to fill out the un¬ 
 expired term. During his administration de¬ 
 fense measures were undertaken, bonds were is¬ 
 sued to pay off the claims of the foreign-owned 
 railway companies, steps were taken to rehabili¬ 
 tate the credit of the country, and delicate 
 boundary questions with Chile, Bolivia, and Bra¬ 
 zil were dealt with. Uriburu was an unsuccess¬ 
 ful candidate for the presidency in 1904. 
 
 URIC ACID (from Gk. ovpov, ouron, urine), 
 C 3 H 4 N 4 0 3 . A compound of carbon, hydrogen, 
 nitrogen, and oxygen, which forms a loose 
 white oowder or scales consisting of minute 
 crystals devoid of smell or taste, only very 
 slightly soluble in water (1 part requiring about 
 15,000 parts of cold and 1600 of boiling water), 
 and quite insoluble in alcohol and ether. It 
 is soluble without decomposition in strong sul¬ 
 phuric acid, and it may be thrown down from 
 this solution by the addition of water. It is 
 also soluble in the carbonates, borates, phos¬ 
 phates, lactates, and acetates of the alkalies, 
 extracting from these salts a part of their 
 base, with which it forms acid urates. Litmus 
 paper is reddened by its moist crystals, or by 
 a hot aqueous solution. The acid is not volatile, 
 and by dry distillation is decomposed into car¬ 
 bonate of ammonia, urea, cyanuric acid, hydro¬ 
 cyanic acid, etc. Uric acid acts as a very weak 
 dibasic acid, forming with bases two series of 
 salts, the neutral and the acid, of which the 
 former are the more soluble. Among the most 
 important are the acid urates of sodium, potas¬ 
 sium, lithium, and ammonium. The urate of 
 lithium is more soluble than any other urate, 
 and hence lithia water is used as a therapeutic 
 agent in converting uric acid and the more in¬ 
 soluble urates into a soluble salt in the living 
 body. The urates are sometimes called lithates, 
 and the acid itself lithic acid. 
 
 Uric acid is widely distributed throughout 
 the animal organism. It occurs not only in the 
 urine of man (in which it was discovered bv 
 Scheele in 1776) and carnivorous animals, but 
 is the chief constituent (either free or in com¬ 
 bination) of many calculi occurring in the 
 kidneys or bladder, and of numerous urinary 
 sediments. The urinary secretion of birds and 
 reptiles consists almost entirely of urates, which 
 are also found in the excrements of caterpillars, 
 butterflies, beetles, etc., and of many mollusks. 
 Moreover, in very minute quantities, it occurs 
 as a urate in healthy blood, in which fluid it 
 has been found in excess in gout and in Bright’s 
 disease, and is a constituent of the aqueous ex¬ 
 tract of the spleen, liver, lungs, pancreas, and 
 brain. The chalk stones which occur about the 
 smaller joints and in the lobes of the ear of many 
 gouty patients consist mainly of sodium urate. 
 
 The best mode of obtaining uric acid is from 
 guano, or from the excrements of snakes or 
 fowls, which consist largely of urates. For 
 this purpose the mass is boiled with potash, 
 which expels any ammonia that is present, and 
 a stream of carbonic acid is then passed through 
 the strained potash solution, which throws down 
 acid urate of potash. This precipitate is dis¬ 
 solved in water, and decomposed by hydrochloric 
 acid, which throws down the uric acid in minute 
 crystals. 
 
 To prove the presence of uric acid, tests 
 of a chemical nature must be applied. The 
 so-called murexid reaction constitutes an ex¬ 
 cellent test: the substance submitted for ex¬ 
 amination is treated with a little strong nitric 
 acid, and the mixture is evaporated to dryness 
 at a gentle heat; the residue is moistened with 
 a trace of ammonia, which, if uric acid was 
 present in the original substance, produces a 
 brilliant purple coloration; a drop of caustic 
 soda changes the color to a reddish blue that 
 disappears on warming the solution. The test 
 is based on the fact that warming with nitric 
 acid converts urea into purpuric acid, the acid 
 
UHIC-ACID DIATHESIS 813 URINE 
 
 ammonium salt of which—called murexid—has 
 a brilliant reddish-purple color. 
 
 Uric acid and urea (q.v.) are chemically 
 closely related to each other. In mammals 
 nitrogenous substances are disintegrated mainly 
 into urea; in birds the main product of disin¬ 
 tegration is uric acid. The formation of both 
 urea and uric acid takes place most probably 
 in the liver. 
 
 The products of decomposition of uric acid 
 were first thoroughly investigated, in a series 
 of celebrated researches, by Liebig and Wohler. 
 Then the chemical relationship of urea and uric 
 acid was clearly established. It has since been 
 shown that uric acid is a diureide, i.e., a sub¬ 
 stitution product containing two molecules of 
 urea. After much painstaking research, it was 
 possible to demonstrate the true chemical con¬ 
 stitution of uric acid, and finally Horbaczewsky 
 succeeded in preparing this important organic 
 substance by a synthetic method; Behrend and 
 Roosen subsequently discovered another synthesis 
 of uric acid, which is relatively simple and 
 perfectly well understood in the light of our 
 knowledge of the constitution of the acid, which 
 is represented by the following structural for¬ 
 mula, first proposed by Medicus: 
 
 NH—C—NH 
 
 \ 
 
 NH—CO 
 
 Uric acid. 
 
 Consult Alexander Haig, Causation of Disease 
 by Uric Acid (7th ed., Philadelphia, 1908), and 
 G. A. Gilbert, Textbook on TJric Acid and its 
 Congeners (Danbury, Conn., 1907). See Plate 
 of Microscopy, Clinical. 
 
 URIC-ACID DIATHESIS. See Litiiic-Acid 
 Diathesis. 
 
 URICQ'NIUM, or VIR'ICCKNIUM. An an¬ 
 cient Roman citv of Britain, the site of which 
 is about 4 miles to the east of Shrewsbury, 
 and partly occupied by the village of Wroxeter. 
 It is mentioned by Ptolemy as existing in the 
 beginning of the second century of our era, and 
 it is probable that there was a Roman station 
 here before 70 a.d. The traces of the ancient 
 wall show that it had a circumference of about 
 3 miles, and through it ran the great Roman 
 road now known as Watling Street (q.v.). Ex¬ 
 ploration of the remains began in 1859. On the 
 north side of the old wall was probably the Basil¬ 
 ica, and on the south the public baths. A few 
 inscriptions and numerous small objects, such 
 as coins, brooches, hairpins, pottery, sculptures, 
 etc., found in the ruins are in the museum at 
 Shrewsbury, and some of the buildings excavated 
 have since been covered. The human remains 
 found in the excavations show that the city 
 was sacked and burned by enemies, probably 
 the West Saxons, in the sixth century. Of this, 
 however, there is no historic record. The ruins 
 seem to have remained with little change, except 
 . the gradual process of decay, till about the 
 twelfth century, when they were used as ma¬ 
 terial for other buildings. Consult J. C. Ander¬ 
 son, The Roman City of TJriconium at Wroxeter 
 (London, 18C7), and the Classical Weekly, vol. 
 vii (New York, 1913). 
 
 U'RIEL (Heb. Uriel, light of God). One of 
 the seven archangels, who personified light and 
 had his dwelling in the sun. He appears in 
 
 Milton’s Paradise Lost and Longfellow’s Golden 
 Legend. 
 
 U'RIM AND THUM'MIM (Heb. urim 
 toetumrmm ). The name given to two objects, 
 perhaps pebbles or stones in the shape of dice, 
 kept in the oracle pouch that hung upon the 
 breast of the Jewish high priest (Ex. xxviii. 30; 
 see Epiiod). They were used to obtain an oracu¬ 
 lar decision revealing the divine will. While 
 we do not know the precise manner in which 
 this decision was obtained, analogy from similar 
 customs among ancient nations makes it prob¬ 
 able that the stones were drawn by lot out of 
 the pouch, and, according to the one drawn, an 
 affirmative or negative answer to a question was 
 given. An entirely satisfactory explanation of 
 the two mysterious names has not yet been fur¬ 
 nished, but all the evidence points in favor of 
 a connection with two Babylonian words urtu, 
 decision (used chiefly of oracular decisions), 
 and tamitu, oracle, which occur in the religious 
 literature of Babylonia. The two words would 
 thus be almost synonymous, and this view is 
 supported by the consideration that they are so 
 used in the Old Testament (e.g., Deut. xxxiii. 
 8 , according to the Greek text), and that Urim 
 at times is used without Thummim (e.g., Num. 
 xxvii. 21 and 1 Sam. xxviii. 6), which shows 
 that the one word conveyed the idea without the 
 help of the other. It is noticeable that Urim 
 begins with the first, Thummim with the last 
 letter of the alphabet. The early explanations, 
 such as “light and perfection” or “light and 
 truth” (Luther’s view), are generally rejected as 
 purely fanciful by critical scholars, who hold 
 that the use of the Urim and Thummim belongs 
 to the realm of primitive religious rites, and that 
 its persistence to a late period is due to the 
 strong hold that it had taken upon the Hebrews. 
 In Deut. xxxiii. 8 there seems to be a suggestion 
 that Urim and Thummim originally were in 
 Yahwe’s possession but w’ere wrested from him 
 by Moses. It should be added, however, that 
 the notice in Ex. xxviii. 30, where the Urim 
 and Thummim are described as a part of the 
 high priest’s costume, without reference to 
 their practical use, marks the transition to the 
 symbolical view, taken in the later Jewish theol¬ 
 ogy, of their significance as tokens of the revela¬ 
 tion and guidance granted to Israel through its 
 representative, Aaron. Consult; articles in the 
 Enoyclopccdia Biblica (4 vols., New York, 1899- 
 1903), and Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible 
 (1 vol., ib., 1909); also Muss-Arnolt, “The 
 Urim and Thummim,” in the American Journal 
 of Semitic Languages, vol. xvi (Chicago, 1900) : 
 Eduard Meyer, Die Israeliten und Hire Nachbar- 
 stdmme (Halle, 1906) ; Hugo Gressmann, in Die 
 Religion in Geschiclite und Gegenwart (Tu¬ 
 bingen, 1913). 
 
 URINE (Lat. urina, urine; connected with 
 Gk. ovpov, ouron, urine, Skt. vdri, vdr, water, 
 Av. vara, rain, Icel. iir, drizzling rain, AS. wer, 
 sea). The fluid which is secreted by the kidneys, 
 stored in the bladder, and evacuated through 
 the urethra in the act of urination. The 
 epithelium lining the tubules of the kidneys 
 elaborates from the blood urea and other prod¬ 
 ucts of retrograde metamorphosis, and a transu¬ 
 dation or osmosis of water occurs from the 
 interior of the convoluted blood vessels into 
 the cavity of the tubules. 
 
 In a healthy human being urine is a clear 
 yellowish or amber fluid of a salty taste and a 
 peculiar aromatic odor, normally acid, and with 
 
URINE 
 
 URIU 
 
 814 
 
 a specific gravity of about 1.020, and generally 
 containing some mucus. In 24 hours such a 
 person discharges about 50 fluid ounces, or 1500 
 cubic centimeters, of urine. The amounts of 
 the several urinary constituents passed in 24 
 hours are approximately as follows: 
 
 Grams 
 
 Water. 1500.000 
 
 Total solids. 72.000 
 
 Urea. 33.180 
 
 Uric acid. 0.555 
 
 Hippuric acid. 0.400 
 
 Kreatinin. 0.910 
 
 Pigment and other substances. 10.000 
 
 Sulphuric acid. 2.012 
 
 Phosphoric acid. 3.164 
 
 Chlorine. 7.000 
 
 Ammonia. 0.770 
 
 Potassium. 2.500 
 
 Sodium. 11.090 
 
 Calcium. 0.260 
 
 Magnesium. 0.207 
 
 These constituents, other than water, appear in 
 the urine as: (1) inorganic salts, including 
 sodium chloride; calcium chloride; potassium 
 and sodium sulphates; sodium, calcium, and 
 magnesium phosphates; traces of silicates; alka¬ 
 line carbonates; nitrates in small quantity; 
 traces of iron. (2) Nitrogenous crystalline 
 bodies, including urea, uric acid, kreatinin, xan- 
 tliin, hypoxanthin, and occasionally allantoin; 
 hippuric acid, ammonium oxalate; and rarely 
 taurin, cystin, leucin, and tyrosin. (3) Nonnitro- 
 genous bodies, including lactic, succinic, formic, 
 oxalic, and phenylic acids; and rarely sugar in 
 minute amount. (4) Pigments, including urobi¬ 
 lin, purpurin, and indican. (5) Other bodies, 
 including ferments from the various digestive 
 fluids of the body. (6) Gases, rarely, in very 
 small quantities, chiefly nitrogen and carbonic 
 acid. 
 
 The acidity of normal urine is due to the 
 presence of the acid sodium biphosphate. At 
 times the urine of digestion is alkaline, and 
 frequently urine decomposes rapidly and be¬ 
 comes alkaline. Upon standing and cooling, it 
 frequently becomes cloudy from the urates, and 
 a sediment of pink urates occurs; or in other 
 cases an increase of oxalate of ammonium, to¬ 
 gether with mucus, forms a thick precipitate or 
 deposit. This occurrence by no means indicates 
 disease of the kidneys, as the laity are apt to 
 imagine. Among the abnormal constituents of 
 urine are blood, pus, epithelium from bladder, 
 kidney, ureter, or vagina, spermatozoa, albumin, 
 fibrin in the form of casts, fats, sugar, etc., dur¬ 
 ing various conditions or diseases. In Bright’s 
 disease (q.v.) albumin and casts are generally 
 found. 
 
 Urea is determined most easily by a test with 
 hvpobromate of potassium. The total excretion 
 each day should be between 300 and 600 grains. 
 Uric acid generally precipitates in a few days 
 if the urine be allowed to stand. Sugar is 
 generallv detected bv using a solution of sul- 
 phate of copper, which is reduced and precipi¬ 
 tated in the form of the orange-colored oxide in 
 the presence of glucose. Albumin responds to 
 boiling or the nitric-acid test, either of which 
 causes a permanent cloud in the urine if albu¬ 
 min be present. Phosphates cause a white cloud 
 on boiling the urine, which is dissolved and 
 cleared away by adding a drop of acetic acid. 
 Chlorides, ammonia, and urates have their spe¬ 
 cial chemical tests. 
 
 Urinary Deposits are of rare beauty and in¬ 
 terest under the microscope. Besides blood, 
 pus, and epithelial cells occurring during grave 
 
 illness, several crystals are found in ordinary 
 urine with slight variations in health. After 
 standing for a time at a moderate temperature, 
 amorphous granular matter precipitates in most 
 specimens of urine, soluble by heat, and com¬ 
 posed of the urates of calcium and magnesium 
 with the acid urates of potassium, sodium, and 
 ammonium. These deposits are probably caused 
 by the excess of phosphoric acid furnished by 
 the acid sodium biphospbate, which decomposes 
 the alkaline urates. After a longer period, 
 from a few days to two weeks, alkaline fermenta¬ 
 tion supervenes, due to the presence of yeast 
 fungus and mucus. During this process urea is 
 converted into carbonate of ammonium. As this 
 fermentation begins, the uric-acid crystals, oc¬ 
 curring as red pepper dust in the receptacle, 
 begin to dissolve, while adhering to their frag¬ 
 ments we find prismatic crystals of urate of 
 sodium and spheroids of urate of ammonium. 
 When the alkalinity of the urine is established 
 amorphous granules of phosphate of lime appear, 
 together with triangular prisms of triple phos¬ 
 phates of ammonium and magnesium, and octa¬ 
 hedral crystals of oxalate of calcium. 
 
 These changes may progress in the pelvis 
 of the kidney or in the bladder. Uric-acid 
 gravel or calculus is found in either situation, 
 causing much pain and a grave pathological con¬ 
 dition, as the changes in the mucous membrane 
 lining either cavity are important. (See Cal¬ 
 culus.) Uric acid or urate calculi are gen¬ 
 erally red and quite hard. Oxalate calculi 
 are usually found, when present, in the pelvis of 
 the kidney, and are of such shape and color 
 as to be called mulberry calculi. Phosphatic 
 calculi are white and soft, and often appear as 
 dust. Calcium carbonate, cystin, and xanthin 
 calculi are rare. Calculi may be prevented, and 
 probably phosphatic calculi may be dissolved 
 in the bladder by the use of alkaline waters, 
 lithia waters, or salicylates. They cause severe 
 inflammatory conditions in most cases. See 
 Indican; Lithic-Acid Diathesis; Microscopy, 
 Clinical; Phosphatic Diathesis. Consult 
 E. C. Simon, A Manual of Clinical Diagnosis 
 (8th ed., Philadelphia, 1914). 
 
 URINE, Incontinence of, or Enuresis. A 
 common affection in childhood but sometimes 
 occurring in advanced life. The child discharges 
 its urine in bed during sleep. The habit 
 may often be broken by proper domestic man¬ 
 agement, as withholding any excess of fluids 
 before going to bed, by waking it and making it 
 empty the bladder late at night. The most cer¬ 
 tain medicinal remedy is belladonna. But many 
 different sources of irritation may be operative, 
 and these must be sought for and eliminated. 
 Among the more common are worms, enlarged 
 tonsils, and adenoid growths (which produce a 
 semiasphyxiated condition during sleep), and 
 phimosis. Enuresis is seen in some cases of 
 cerebral or spinal disease, when it is of a differ¬ 
 ent nature. In these patients the bladder be¬ 
 comes filled, and subsequently formed urine 
 dribbles away, owing to a failure in the nerve 
 mechanism to cause contraction of the muscle ' 
 fibres in the wall of the viscus. 
 
 URINE, RETENTION OF. See Retention 
 of Urine; Strangury. 
 
 URIU, oo'ri-oo, Sotokichi, Baron (1857- 
 ). A Japanese admiral, born in Ishika- 
 waken. He graduated from a Japanese naval 
 academy, and in 1881 from the United States 
 Naval Academy at Annapolis. Afterward he 
 
URIYA LANGUAGE 
 
 UROTROPIN 
 
 815 
 
 was promoted through the various grades to 
 captain (1892), rear admiral (1900) t , and vice 
 admiral (1904) in the Japanese navy. During 
 the China-Japan War he was naval attache 
 at Paris. Later he served as captain of the 
 Matsushima, and then of the Yashima. Dur¬ 
 ing the Russo-Japanese War he commanded the 
 Second squadron, blockaded the port of Che¬ 
 mulpo, and there sank the Russian cruisers Va- 
 riag and Kortiez. For his war services he was 
 decorated with the first class of the Rising Sun 
 and the second class of the Golden Kite in 1906, 
 and created Baron in 1907. 
 
 UR'IYA (or Oriya) LANGUAGE AND 
 LITERATURE (Skt. Odra, Utkali). The lan¬ 
 guage and literature of Orissa (q.v.), in Bengal, 
 spoken by about 9,000,000 persons. Together 
 with Bengali (q.v.), Bihari (q.v.), and Assamese 
 (see Assam), it forms the eastern group of the 
 Indo-Aryan family of languages. Like the other 
 modern Aryan languages of India, it is analytic 
 in structure. In grammatical construction 
 Uriya is related to Bengali, although it resembles 
 Hindi. (See Hindustani Language and Lit¬ 
 erature. ) Its resemblance to Bengali consists in 
 the fact that the plural is signified by a noun 
 meaning multitude, and that the first and second 
 persons singular of the verb are used only by 
 the uneducated. But it differs from Bengali 
 in that its spelling is much more phonetic, and 
 that it possesses a very complete set of verbal 
 nouns, present, past, and future. In grammati¬ 
 cal development as well as vocabulary Uriya is 
 very archaic and can only be compared to Vedic. 
 The vocabulary, however, is largely composed of 
 Sanskrit loan words, of which Uriya possesses 
 more than any other of its kindred languages. 
 The standard dialect is that of Cuttack. The 
 script, which is derived from the Devanagari 
 (q.v.), is noteworthy among the North Indian 
 alphabets in that it is characterized by curves 
 instead of angles. Uriya literature, which is 
 rather scanty, cannot be traced beyond the six¬ 
 teenth century. It begins with Upendra-Bhanja, 
 the author of more than 30 poems, most of 
 them religious or erotic, although he also wrote 
 two dictionaries. Contemporary with him was 
 Dina-Krushna Dasa, who composed the most 
 famous Uriya poem, the obscene Rasakallola 
 (edited at Cuttack, 1897). Most of the litera¬ 
 ture, however, consists of translations or para¬ 
 phrases of Sanskrit works, such as the Ramd- 
 ya.na (q.v.), the Bhagavadgltd (q.v.), and some 
 of the Purdnas (q.v.), while in later times the 
 tendency has been to translate or adapt Bengali 
 and English books. Its modern prose works are, 
 therefore, of rather doubtful value. 
 
 Bibliography. Beames, Comparative Gram¬ 
 mar of the Modern Aryan Languages of India 
 (3 vols., London, 1872-79) ; Cust, Modern Lan¬ 
 guages of the East Indies (ib., 1878) ; Hallam, 
 Oriya Grammar for English Students (Calcutta, 
 1874) ; Maltby, Practical Handbook of the TJriya 
 Language (ib., 1874) ; Jagannath Rao, Utkal 
 Abhidhdn: A Dictionary of the Uriya Language 
 (Cuttack, 1891); Chakravarti, “Notes on the 
 Language and Literature of Orissa,” in the Jour¬ 
 nal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Bengal Branch, 
 vols. lxvi-lxvii (Calcutta, 1900) ; Grierson, 
 “Indo-Aryan Family: Eastern Group,” in the 
 Linguistic Survey of India-, vol. v, part ii (ib., 
 1903). 
 
 URLICHS, oor'liKs, Ludwig von (1813-89). 
 A German classical scholar, born in Osnabriick 
 and educated at Bonn. He taught at Bonn from 
 
 1844 to 1847, was then called to Greifswald and 
 in 1855 to Wurzburg. He wrote on the history 
 of art, Skopas ’ Leben und Werke (1863), Die 
 Anfange der griechischen Kunstlergeschichte 
 (1871-72), and Beitrdge zur Kunstgeschichte 
 (1885) ; and on Tacitus and Pliny. His “Grund- 
 legung und Geschichte der klassischen Altertums- 
 wissenschaft” (1886; 2d ed., 1892), in Iwan 
 Muller’s Handbuch der klassischen Altertums- 
 wissenschaft, is his most important work in 
 classical philology. 
 
 URLUS, ur'lus, Jacques (1873- ). A 
 
 German dramatic tenor, born at Hergenrath, 
 near Aix-la-Chapelle. He began his musical 
 studies at Utrecht, and continued them at 
 Amsterdam under Averkamp and Nolthenius and 
 at the conservatory. His d6but took place in 
 1894 at the Opera in Amsterdam, where he 
 remained for six years. Engaged for the Leip¬ 
 zig Opera, in 1900, he created so deep an im¬ 
 pression there that he was asked to participate 
 in the Wagner * festivals at Bayreuth and 
 Munich. His superb interpretation of the great 
 Wagner roles secured him many guest appear¬ 
 ances at Berlin, Vienna, Paris, Amsterdam, and 
 Brussels. In 1912, when he made his American 
 debut at Boston as Tristan, he won instant suc¬ 
 cess, and from 1913 he w r as a regular member 
 of the Metropolitan Opera House. His beauti¬ 
 ful singing and noble acting established him as 
 an operatic favorite. 
 
 URMIA, oor-me'a. A lake and city of Persia. 
 See Urumiah. 
 
 UROCHORDA, u'rO-kor'da (Neo-Lat. nom. 
 pi., from Gk. ovpa, oura, tail 4- x°P^V, chorde, 
 chord). A class of chordate animals, the ascid- 
 ians (q.v.). 
 
 U'RODEGjA (Neo-Lat. nom. pi., from Gk. 
 ovpa, oura, tail -f- drjXos, delos, manifest). An 
 order of the Amphibia which comprises the 
 tailed amphibians, or amphiumes, salamanders, 
 and mud puppies (qq.v.), in which both fore and 
 hind limbs are always present, and which have 
 teeth in both jaws; and the sirens, in which 
 the hind limbs, maxillary bones, teeth, and eye¬ 
 lids are absent. This order is confined to the 
 north temperate zone, except a few forms that 
 extend along the highlands into Venezuela. 
 About 100 species in four families constitute 
 the entire list. These families are the Salaman- 
 dridse, Amphiermidse, Proteidse, and Sirenidce. 
 The geological origin of the group is uncertain; 
 representatives are numerous in the Lower Ter¬ 
 tiary strata ; and a single Mesozoic specimen is 
 known. Consult Hans Gadow, “Amphibia and 
 Reptiles,” in Cambridge Natural History, vol. 
 viii (London, 1901), and E. G. Boulanger, Rep¬ 
 tiles and Batrachians (New York, 1914). 
 
 UROT'ROPIN. One of several trade names 
 of a formaldehyde derivative called hexamethyl- 
 enamin, having the formula C 6 H 12 N 4 . It is pro¬ 
 duced by the action of formaldehyde on ammonia 
 and is a valuable internal antiseptic, particu¬ 
 larly on the urinary organs, being decomposed 
 in the tissues, the formaldehyde being set free 
 and excreted by the kidneys. If urotropin is 
 given in sufficiently large doses formaldehyde can 
 be detected in the cerebrospinal fluid and other 
 secretions of the body. The indications for its 
 use are, therefore, infections of the kidneys, 
 bladder, and urethra, such as pyelitis, cystitis, 
 and urethritis. It is also advocated as a pro¬ 
 phylactic against meningitis and scarlatinal 
 nephritis, and is of value in diarrhoea and as 
 a solvent of uric acid. In cases of early cerebro- 
 
URQUHART 
 
 816 
 
 URSO 
 
 spinal meningitis it may be injected directly 
 into the spinal canal. Certain individuals have 
 an idiosyncrasy against the drug, and in them 
 symptoms of severe renal irritation may arise. 
 Other trade names of hexamethylenamin are 
 cystogen, formin, aminoform, and uritone. 
 
 ' URQTJHART, er'kert, David (1805-77). A 
 British diplomat and political writer. He was 
 born in Scotland, and was educated at St. John’s 
 College, Oxford. He took part in the Creek war 
 of independence. In 1835-36 he was Secretary of 
 the British Embassy at Constantinople. Because 
 of opposition to the Eastern policy of Lord 
 Palmerston, whom he suspected of collusion 
 with the Czar, he resigned his position. After 
 traveling in all parts of the East to obtain 
 further information respecting the commercial 
 and political influence of Russia, he returned 
 to England, and both in his writings and in 
 Parliament (1847-52) openly charged the Pal¬ 
 merston ministry with betrayal of British in¬ 
 terests. His publications include: Turkey and 
 Its Resources (1833); The Spirit of the East 
 (1838); The Mystery of the Danube (1844); 
 Letters and Essays on Russian Aggressions 
 (1853) ; and other books bearing on the Eastern 
 Question. 
 
 URQUHART, or URCHARD, Sir Thomas 
 (1611-60). An English author. He belonged to 
 an ancient family of Cromarty in Scotland. 
 He was educated at King’s College, Aberdeen, 
 and traveled in France, Spain, and Italy. He 
 was on the Royalist side in the Revolution; 
 was knighted by Charles I in 1641; and fought 
 at the battle of Worcester. He was taken pris¬ 
 oner and was imprisoned in the Tower and then 
 in Windsor Castle, but was soon released on 
 parole. Of his last years little is known. He 
 is said to have died abroad in an uncontrollable 
 fit of laughter on the restoration of Charles II. 
 He is still known for his excellent translation 
 of Rabelais (two books of Gargantua in two 
 vols., 1653; reissued, with a third translated 
 book by Urquhart and with the rest rendered 
 by P. A. Motteux in Bohn’s Library, London, 
 1897, and in Tudor Translations Series, London, 
 1899). Of great interest is his poem The 
 Jewel, in which is described a universal lan¬ 
 guage (1652), a kind of forbear of Volapiik, 
 which he himself had concocted. In his Promp- 
 tuary of Time (1652) he traced his family 
 back to the red earth from which God created 
 Adam. He also published Epigrams, Divine 
 and Moral (1641) ; The Trissotetras; or a most 
 Exquisite Table for Resolving all Manner of Tri¬ 
 angles (1645) ; and other curious books. 
 
 URQUIZA, oor-ke'tha, Justo Jose (1800- 
 70). An Argentine soldier and politician, born 
 at Arroyo de la China, Entre Rfos. He was 
 educated bv the Jesuits and attained sfreat 
 prominence in his native province as an adherent 
 of the Federal party. In 1844-45 he fought 
 with sanguinary distinction in Uruguay. He 
 was early a supporter of J. M. Rosas * (q.v.), 
 and in 1846 was elected Governor of Entre Rios. 
 When Rosas tried to destroy the autonomy of 
 the Argentine states Urquiza revolted, formed 
 an alliance with Brazil and Uruguay, and, enter¬ 
 ing the latter country in June, forced Oribe, the 
 general of Rosas, to capitulate. Urquiza then 
 crossed into Buenos Aires, and at Monte 
 Caseros, Feb. 3, 1852, defeated Rosas, who was 
 compelled to flee. After the formation of the 
 new constitution in 1853 he was elected Presi¬ 
 dent of the Argentine Confederation, which in¬ 
 
 cluded all the states excepting Buenos Aires, 
 and by his victory at Cepeda, Oct. 23, 1859, 
 forced that state, too, to lend its adhesion. His 
 term of office ended in the same year. Soon 
 afterward Buenos Aires revolted, and Urquiza, 
 at the head of the forces of the confederation, 
 was defeated by Gen. Bartolome Mitre (q.v.) 
 at Pav6n, Sept. 17, 1861. Urquiza was later 
 again Governor of Entre Rios and served as 
 general in the early part of the Paraguayan 
 War. He was assassinated by political enemies 
 on his estate at San Jos6, near Concepcion. 
 
 UR/SA MA'JOR (Lat., greater bear) and 
 UR'SA MUNOR (Lat., lesser bear). Two cele¬ 
 brated constellations in the Northern Hemisphere 
 of the heavens. Ursa Major was distinguished 
 as early as the time of Homer by the names 
 Arktos, the Bear, and Hamaxa, the Wagon. The 
 Roman name Ursa was a translation of the 
 Greek Arktos; the Romans also called the seven 
 bright stars the Septentriones, the seven plowing 
 oxen. The common names throughout Europe 
 for these seven stars are the Plow, Charles’s 
 Wain, the Wagon, evidently derived from the 
 classical epithets above mentioned; in America 
 they are called the Dipper, from the resemblance 
 to that utensil. This remarkable group of stars, 
 being within 40° of the North Pole, never sinks 
 below the horizon in northern latitudes higher 
 than 40°. The constellation contains a consider¬ 
 able number of stars visible to the naked eye; 
 there is, however, none of the first magnitude, 
 but at least 16 are of the third magnitude or 
 brighter. Of the seven stars constituting the 
 Dipper, six, viz., a, (3, y, e, f, and y, are of 
 second magnitude, while the seventh, 5, is of the 
 third magnitude; a and /3 are known as the 
 Pointers, because a line drawn through them 
 points directly at the polestar (q.v.). f Ursie 
 Majoris, or Mizar, was the first star to be recog¬ 
 nized as double, its two components, of magni¬ 
 tudes 2.4 and 4 respectively, being separated by 
 about 14.6"; in 1889 Pickering found that the 
 brighter component was itself a spectroscopic 
 binary. 
 
 Ursa Minor is less prominent in the heavens. 
 The star a in the extremity of the tail of the 
 Little Bear, at present the polestar (q.v.), is 
 the brightest in the constellation, though only 
 of the second magnitude. 
 
 URSEREN, ur'ze-ren. See Andermatt. 
 
 UR'SIDAi!. The family of the bears (q.v.). 
 
 URSUNUS, Ger. pron. oor-se'nus (Latinized 
 form of his German name Bar), Zacharias 
 (1534-83). A Reformed church theologian. He 
 was born at Breslau, and studied at Wittenberg 
 under Melanchthon, at Geneva under Calvin, 
 and at Paris. He became professor at Heidel¬ 
 berg (1561) and teacher at Neustadt-on-the- 
 Hardt in 1578. With Olevianus he drew up the 
 Heidelberg Catechism, and wrote in its defense. 
 His collected works appeared at Heidelberg in 
 3 vols. (1612 et seq.). Consult Sudhoff, Olevi¬ 
 anus und Ursinus (Elberfeld, 1857). 
 
 URSO, ur'sd', Camilla (1842-1902). A 
 French violinist, born at Nantes, France. She 
 studied with Massart in Paris, and, about 1852, 
 played in New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and 
 other American cities. She was exceedingly 
 successful, especially in concerts with Alboni 
 and Sontag. She returned to France after hav¬ 
 ing toured Canada, and in 1866 again visited 
 New York. Subsequently she made tours of 
 Australia and South Africa. After 1895 she 
 lived in New York. 
 
URSUA 
 
 URTICARIA 
 
 817 
 
 URSUA, oor-soo'a, or ORSUA, Pedro 
 (c.1510-61). A Spanish soldier and explorer, 
 born in Ursua, near Pamplona, Navarre. About 
 1544 he went to New Granada, where he became 
 Governor in 1545, and in 1547 and again in 
 1549 marched to the northeast in search of 
 Eldorado, making several settlements, among 
 them Pamplona. In 1559 he was sent by the 
 Viceroy of Peru to search again for Eldorado or 
 the Kingdom of the Omaguas, on the Peruvian 
 tributaries of the Amazon. This expedition 
 seems to have been sent in order to rid Peru 
 of the many soldiers of fortune, who were 
 eager to enlist. One of them, Lope de Aguirre 
 (q.v.), after the expedition had sailed down 
 the Huallaga, formed a conspiracy, the out¬ 
 come of which was the assassination of Ursua. 
 
 UR'SULA, Saint. A saint and martyr of 
 the Roman Catholic church. She is held in 
 especial reverence at Cologne, the reputed place 
 of her martyrdom. October 21 is her day in 
 the church’s calendar, and the date of her mar¬ 
 tyrdom is variously given as 237, 283, and 451. 
 The official date, however, is 237. 
 
 The legend appears in various forms, but 
 the common element seems to be that Ursula 
 was the daughter of a British King, and that 
 her hand was asked by another King for his son, 
 who threatened to lay waste the land if he 
 were refused. But Ursula had been vowed to 
 virginity. At last she succeeded in gaining 
 three years’ delay, during which time she was 
 to visit various holy places in company with 
 11,000 virgins. They took ship and sailed up 
 the Rhine to Basel, and thence went to Rome on 
 foot. They returned and sailed down the Rhine 
 again as far as Cologne, where they were mas¬ 
 sacred one and all by the Huns. They were 
 buried by the inhabitants of Cologne with great 
 honors, and a church was built over their 
 remains. 
 
 The legend is entirely unknown to Jerome, 
 Bede, Rabanus Maurus, and Gregory of Tours, 
 though the latter gives a detailed description 
 of the church. The earliest traces of the 
 legend appear in the ninth century, and in the 
 succeeding centuries, references to it become 
 common. Great interest was excited in the 
 twelfth century by the discovery of an old 
 Roman cemetery in Cologne, whose bones were 
 thought to be those of the slaughtered virgins. 
 The vision of an ecstatic nun, St. Elizabeth of 
 Schonau, and of a monk, Hermann Joseph, 
 purported to reconstruct forgotten details of 
 the voyage and death of the martyrs and thus 
 added considerably to the legend. 
 
 The controversy over this legend has con¬ 
 tinued for many hundred years. The conserva¬ 
 tive element in the Roman Catholic church 
 considers it probable that there was at one 
 time a massacre of virgins at Cologne by the 
 Huns, but that the details of the story as 
 given at the present time are mediaeval fabrica¬ 
 tions. The rationalists outside of the church 
 follow Schade’s theory that the story of Ursula 
 is only a Christianizing of an old German myth, 
 and that Ursula is really Freya, called in 
 Swabia Hbrsel, or Ursul, with the same at¬ 
 tributes as the moon divinities in other lands. 
 
 Consult: Crombach, Vita et Martyrium Sanctce 
 Ursula? et Sociarum (Cologne, 1547) ; Schade, 
 Die Sage von der heiligen Ursule und den elf- 
 tausend Jungfrauen (Hanover, 1854) ; G. F. 
 Tout, “Legend of St. Ursula,” in Historical Es¬ 
 says, by various authors (London, 1902). For 
 
 controversial replies to Schade: De Buck, Acta 
 Sanctorum (Brussels, 1858) ; Kessel, Ursula 
 und Hire Gesellschaft (Cologne, 1863). 
 
 UR'SULINES. A religious order for women 
 in the Roman Catholic church, founded for the 
 education of girls. It takes its origin from 
 St. Angela Merici (q.v.). A rule in 25 chapters 
 was projected by Angela, and finally approved 
 (1536) by the Bishop of Brescia, Cardinal 
 Francis Cornaro. Angela was herself chosen 
 as the first superior, in the year 1537, the com¬ 
 munity even at that time numbering as many 
 as 76 sisters. In the year 1565 a house was 
 opened at Cremona; and with the approval of 
 Popes Gregory XIII and Clement VIII, it spread 
 over many dioceses of Italy. It was warmly 
 encouraged by St. Charles Borromeo, and at his 
 death there were no fewer than 18 convents of 
 the order in his diocese, comprising above 600 
 nuns. Soon afterward it was established in 
 France (1584). They were introduced into 
 Savoy by St. Francis de Sales in 1635; and in 
 ‘1639 a convent was opened in Quebec. They 
 were introduced into Vienna, in 1660, and into 
 Freiburg, Kitzingen, and Prague soon afterward, 
 where they have continued to teach with great 
 success. They now number 300 convents and 
 7000 nuns and are found in all parts of the 
 world. The Ursuline Sisters have several edu¬ 
 cational establishments in Ireland, in England, 
 Scotland, Canada, and in 1916 had 24 in the 
 United States, with 1665 sisters and more than 
 15,000 pupils. Consult: Sainte-Foi, Annales 
 de Vordre de Sainte Ursule (Clermont-Ferrand, 
 1858) ; Les Ursulines de Quebec (Quebec, 1868) ; 
 Glimpses of the Monastery (ib., 1897); Pohtel, 
 Histoire de Sainte Angele Merici et de tout 
 Vordre des Ursulines (Paris, 1878). 
 
 UR’TICA'CEjE (Neo-Lat. nom. pi., from 
 Lat. urtica, nettle, from urere, Skt. us, to burn). 
 A dicotyledonous family known as the nettle 
 family, comprising about 40 genera and 550 
 species of wide geographic distribution, and 
 chiefly herbs. The representative genera in 
 the North American flora are Urtica (nettle), 
 Pilea (richweed), Boehmeria (false nettle), and 
 Parietaria (pellitory). 
 
 UR'TICA'RIA (Neo-Lat., from Lat. urtica, 
 nettle), Hives, or Nettle Rash. An eruption 
 of the skin, coming out suddenly, and consisting 
 of firm, round, convex, or lenticular elevations 
 of the skin, from % inch to an inch in diameter, 
 at first pink, and soon becoming white in the 
 centre. These are called pomphi or wheals. 
 They are scattered or closely crowded over the 
 part affected, and are not symmetrical. In 
 some cases the wheals are as large as an egg, 
 this condition being termed giant urticaria. 
 In the acute form of the disorder the wheals 
 arise rapidly and subside in a few hours or a 
 day at longest. In the rarer, chronic form they 
 last longer and recur frequently. Urticaria is 
 accompanied by intense itching. 
 
 The causes may be both local and general. 
 Among the local causes are direct irritants such 
 as the poison of the stinging nettle (whence 
 the name), the stings of bees and wasps, contact 
 with jellyfish and certain caterpillars. General 
 or svstemic causes mav be the eating of shell- 
 fish, pork, sausages, mushrooms, and some fruits, 
 such as strawberries; certain drugs, as copaiba, 
 cubebs, quinine; the injection of antitoxin or 
 other serums; general disorders, such as gout, 
 indigestion, asthma, and in women pregnancy, 
 menstruation, and lactation. Sometimes no 
 
URUBITINGA 
 
 818 
 
 URUGUAY 
 
 cause can be found except general nervous ir¬ 
 ritability. Treatment must depend on the cause, 
 which should be sought for and removed. Acute 
 cases, of dietetic origin, may be relieved by an 
 emetic, if vomiting and diarrhoea do not occur 
 spontaneously. In the chronic form, which is 
 often very stubborn, if the urticaria can be 
 traced to any article of food, this should be 
 eliminated. The digestion must be regulated, 
 and general disorders, such as gout, treated with 
 appropriate remedies. For the severe itching 
 and burning, alkaline baths or lotions, or mild 
 solutions of carbolic acid or other antiseptics, 
 may be used locally. Scratching must be 
 avoided, since it only aggravates the affection. 
 The pharynx or larynx may be the seat of 
 urticaria and produce alarming attacks of suffo¬ 
 cation. 
 
 U'RUBITIN'GA (from Braz. urubu, vulture 
 + Tupi tinga, white, beautiful). A large hawk 
 of the genus Urubitinga, several species of which 
 exist in tropical America. All have bluish 
 black plumage, marked with white on the rump • 
 and tail. One species, the Mexican black hawk 
 (Urubitinga anthracina), may be found in Ari¬ 
 zona. These hawks nest in large trees, and lay 
 white eggs. 
 
 URUGUAY, u'ru-gwa or oo'roo-gwi'. A river 
 of South America, rising on the west slope 
 of the Brazilian coast range, and emptying into 
 the Plata estuary (Map: America, South, D 5). 
 Its total length is about 1000 miles. The greater 
 part of its course lies on the plateau, and the 
 upper portion, known as the Pelotas, passes 
 through a densely forested wilderness. The 
 banks are generally high as far as Salto, 200 
 miles from the mouth of the river, and at that 
 point navigation is obstructed by a series of 
 rocky reefs and rapids, which become falls at 
 low water. Below Salto the land on the west 
 bank is low and level, and periodically inun¬ 
 dated. The Uruguay here connects by lateral 
 branches with the Parana. For the last 100 
 miles the river is very broad, and really forms 
 the head of the Plata estuary, though the name 
 Uruguay is continued to the Parana confluence. 
 The river is navigable for large sea-going vessels 
 to Paysandfi, about 150 miles, and for smaller 
 vessels to Salto, while barges navigate the 
 stream 300 miles above the rapids. 
 
 URUGUAY, officially Republica Oriental 
 del Uruguay. The smallest of the South Ameri¬ 
 can republics, bounded on the north and east 
 by Brazil, on the east and south by the Atlantic 
 Ocean, on the south and west by Argentina, 
 from which it is separated by the Uruguay and 
 La Plata rivers. Its area is calculated at 
 72,168 square miles. 
 
 Topography and Minerals. The most ele¬ 
 vated portions of Uruguay lie in the north and 
 northwest, where a few sharp ridges attain a 
 height of nearly 2000 feet. Along the Uruguay 
 River are found table-lands of moderate eleva¬ 
 tion, resembling the neighboring pampas of Ar¬ 
 gentina, though higher. The southeastern coast 
 portion is low and marshy, with sandy stretches 
 bordering the ocean, while the interior is com¬ 
 posed of rolling plains diversified in the north 
 and northwest by low ridges of hills. Here ex¬ 
 tensive forest regions also occur, especially near 
 the rivers, while the southeastern portion is 
 largely covered with grass. The hills rest upon 
 an old crystalline foundation of gneiss and 
 granite, with some sandstone, Tertiary and an¬ 
 cient eruptive rocks, and possibly Paleozoic strata. 
 
 The maritime and river coast of Uruguay from 
 Chuy to Santa Rosa is 685 miles long. After 
 the Rio de la Plata and the Uruguay the Rio 
 Negro, wholly within the Republic, is the most 
 important river and for a portion of its course 
 is navigable for small craft. But little advan¬ 
 tage has been taken of the mineral wealth, though 
 it is certain that silver, copper, magnesium, iron, 
 zinc, lead, gypsum, sulphur, asbestos, antimony, 
 and coal exist. Gold mines are worked in the 
 northern departments. Precious stones, includ¬ 
 ing diamonds, rubies, jasper, agate, amethyst, 
 and topaz, are found. Marble and other building- 
 stone quarries are in operation. 
 
 Climate, Flora, and Fauna. The almost pen¬ 
 insular position of Uruguay gives it a delightful 
 climate, with temperature ranging from 32° to 
 88° F. Occasionally in the lowlands the tem¬ 
 perature rises to 100° F. in February, while 
 frosts are common in the upland regions, where 
 occasional snows also occur at long intervals. 
 Rains are plentiful throughout the year, but the 
 greatest precipitation occurs in May and in Oc¬ 
 tober. During the winter months cold storms, 
 known as pamperos, blow from the southwest. 
 In its flora and fauna Uruguay in the northern 
 part resembles southern Brazil and in the south¬ 
 ern part its neighbor Argentina. See Argen¬ 
 tina; Brazil. 
 
 Industries. During recent years there has 
 been a steady advance in agricultural produc¬ 
 tion. Public companies facilitate the purchase 
 of land by settlers. Up to 1880 most of the 
 breadstuff’s were imported, but since 1885 corn 
 and wheat have become important articles of ex¬ 
 port. The grazing industries of Uruguay are, 
 however, the chief reliance of the inhabitants. 
 The results of the live-stock census of 1908 were 
 as follows: cattle, 8,192,602; milch cows, 565,- 
 854; horses, 566,307; mules, 17,671; asses, 4428; 
 sheep, 26,286,296; goats, 19,951; swine, 180,099; 
 ostriches, 242,872. The increase in the number 
 of cattle between 1900 and 1908 was 20 per cent 
 and of sheep 41.3 per cent. In 1908 the culti¬ 
 vated area was 794,136 hectares; since that date 
 it has probably increased considerably, 1,000,000 
 hectares being stated unofficially in 1915. Nat¬ 
 ural meadows and pastures amounted to 15,- 
 278,374 hectares in 1908, and woodlands to 433,- 
 673 hectares. The following table shows the 
 area in hectares under leading crops in the year 
 1914-15, with the average area in the period 
 1910-11 to 1914-15, and the production in 
 metric quintals in 1914-15, with the average 
 production in 1910—11 to 1914—15; the last col¬ 
 umn shows the average yield per hectare in the 
 period 1910-11 to 1914-15. 
 
 CROP 
 
 HECTARES 
 
 QUINTALS 
 
 Qs. 
 
 ha. 
 
 1914-15 
 
 Average 
 
 1914-15 
 
 Average 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 315,000 
 
 309,990 
 
 930,000 
 
 1,605,452 
 
 5.1 
 
 Oats. 
 
 33,531 
 
 27,951 
 
 150,890 
 
 179,318 
 
 6.5 
 
 Corn. 
 
 345,000 
 
 264,145 
 
 2,920,000 
 
 1,807,741 
 
 6.1 
 
 Barley. 
 
 1,782 
 
 2,465 
 
 8,019 
 
 15,352 
 
 5.9 
 
 Linseed. 
 
 40,000 
 
 48,964 
 
 140,000 
 
 221,234 
 
 5.8 
 
 'Tnhneeo. . 
 
 
 1,224 
 
 
 10,037 
 
 8.2 
 
 Vines 
 
 18,500 
 
 16,589 
 
 
 *152,934 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Hectoliters of wine. 
 
 Other crops of importance are potatoes, sweet 
 potatoes, beans, fruits, and olives. The chief 
 manufacture is flour. There are saladeros for 
 
40-t 
 
 4E 
 
 8 
 
 \ 
 
 T 
 
 
 TROPIC OF CAPRICORN^ 
 
 Q 
 
 '"S 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 
 » JUAN FERNANDEZ IS. 
 ( To Chili) 
 
 ARCHIPEL 
 
 R 
 
 C. Tayta 
 TAYTAO 
 Ml.End 
 
 TRES MONTES PE 
 
 Gulf of Pent 
 
 Tarn 
 
 6UAIANEC0 IS.c 
 
 Pallas Ch „ 
 C.Dycrr* 
 CAM^ANA i.Jt 
 Dyneley B A 
 
 WELLING 
 NORTHS arch 
 
 MORMNGTON 
 
 Trim,lari 
 
 
 MADRE DE DIOS? 
 ARCHIPELA 
 
 , Si 
 
 
 -P 
 
 Concepcion ^ r" 
 
 HANOVE 
 CAMBRiOGE 1.^5 
 kelson $t r 
 
 VIDAL 1^11 >5 
 QUEEN ADELAIDE A| ' 
 
 \Strait of Magellai 
 desolation 
 
 vtlfe *%VMa ! 5 antikl 
 
 V C Q 
 
 * Nf E R 4\ T 0 
 
 Hartin Ly. i_Sife'rvJi n 
 
 . cFtJ , 1 ra</o/C- Danoso 
 
 Z Descnganc 
 
 )C.S.Francisco < 
 ^ .Cruz _ 
 
 ‘Pc»rf £ta. Cruz 
 Grand Bay 
 Coy Znlet ’ 
 
 de Paula. 
 
 Galley os B. 
 
 Pt-Gallegos 
 
 Virgin 
 
 Strait of Magellan 
 
 Cl 
 
 
 FALKLAND ISl 
 
 (Br.) 
 
 SWAN°&„ 
 
 C, Or/or tl, 
 
 > 
 
 vv ^ 
 
 iia^In 
 
 
 * 3 sS> - 
 
 San Sebastian 
 Inutil 
 
 ^ I S*1\! 
 J-UEGO L? 0 O 
 
 ___ aj? 
 
 u “ i rtte 1 ? ~ y l | STATEN 
 
 ^ V 
 
 c«J° ^ 
 
 ri&Zyp ’ 
 
 TES^NGR'C CO. 
 
 95° 
 
 
 tOLUSTON |$. 
 
 S Horn 
 
 B 
 
 85' 
 
 80° 
 
 D 
 
 75' 
 
 &■ fCape\h 
 
 Lons 
 
 65' 
 
 60 3 
 

 Iraiio o >^56 
 [ vlPassos tc= \ 
 V « ViiAjirtil 
 
 TV'ealdaT^;-! 
 
 ifltafipra 
 
 Avanbandiva' 
 /*»»■»*'' t 
 
 -S ,A O 
 
 Mantes A 
 
 nfl lemlia 
 
 Qua re] 
 
 fi\ Farturtf 
 
 J j 
 
 ■nguati 
 
 CurrtlJJi^Jy'Cauui.ia 
 
 <? Paranagua II. 
 
 S. Je ra 1 ■ :1 - r ' e* 
 
 ffp ao Francisco 
 n&ptil/ y's.FRANCISCO I. 
 ‘‘TSadenfurt 
 j'Sl—dllajaliy 
 IfittlCllutt 
 J fe 1ft STa CATMARINA 
 
 / H«*storro 
 
 qV ilia .Nora 
 
 F ,ra P !t -Uoa VistaJ 
 TERR / > o cPSumas 
 
 f^/saKua-v cathar 
 
 OF i yfS. NicolatO''- 
 
 .Nicola a 
 
 Bom K, 
 
 t V^Tubanui 
 fCuiu jiinas 
 TJomingodas Torres 
 
 z^ycy y "t 
 
 ^!dos/o JXostardas 
 VaUiyy' j 
 
 ~£ 7 I 9 \r-ooEstre!to f 
 
 ^eO'nio Cli;umic ( 
 rtSarafo 
 
 'L.M i rim 
 
 ^/l. de la I 
 
 /Mantfueira / 
 
 ita. Victoria do Palmar 
 
 St a.-Ifa-n.it 
 
 I atS 1 *-* 
 
 1enadajj 
 I Ataiaya 
 
 .Carlos 
 
 ifamborornboitl 
 
 1 * I 
 
 y?. 6 an Antoni 
 1 ! Spt.Aur j 
 
 rte'de UninAn-a 
 
 ^-A= 
 
 ih rto \ a 
 
 «cbeco j- 
 /VL 
 
 idea 0 - ta l 
 
 TV V-'- 4 
 
 Sour.li 
 
 i<F 
 
 Pofta \° Be I Wnsta ,C’.i m^*>a 
 •ilia de sVvadokSaa 
 
 Vc T 
 
 ./vuaraparim 
 itapeuiiriiu 
 
 . , /S-SebastUTb 
 SjFidclis 
 lOamiios / 
 
 ^ui^aman 
 ^Iacaho 
 
 _ ’C.Frio , 
 
 C» vjT /i.'ew Aldoa do Si.Pedro 
 
 . ^ S;VVft\* / TROPIC OF CAPRICORN 
 
 TDtMuba Sit? -1- 
 
 _ „ . ^I.SAO.SEBASTtAO "■» . / 
 
 f^ywiito-s ' ,/ii / 
 
 Al' >Villa 1/iiape 
 
 ftsaf 
 
 del Plata 
 fei dforo 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 SOUTHERN PART 
 
 SCALE OF STATUTE MILES 
 
 50 100 200 300 400 
 
 SCALE OF KILOMETERS 
 
 500 
 
 0 100 200 300 400 500 000 7t0 800 
 
 Important towns are shown In heavy face type 
 Railways shown thus 
 
 West 
 
 from 
 
 Greenwich 
 
URUGUAY 
 
 819 
 
 URUGUAY 
 
 the production of jerked and salted meats for 
 foreign shipment. 
 
 Transportation and Commerce. There were 
 reported, for 1914, 1601 miles of railway in op¬ 
 eration and 165 miles under construction. The 
 rivers are largely utilized for inland communica¬ 
 tion, and in addition there are some 2250 miles 
 of national highways and 3100 miles of depart¬ 
 mental roads and paths for local traffic. In 1912 
 the merchant marine included 46 steamers, of 
 29,962 tons net, and 165 sail, of 27,798 tons 
 net. Montevideo is the chief port and one of 
 the best on the coast. The value of the special 
 foreign trade in merchandise has been as fol¬ 
 lows, in thousands of pesos gold: 
 
 
 1907 
 
 1909 
 
 1910 
 
 1911 
 
 1912 
 
 1913 
 
 Imports... 
 
 37,471 
 
 37,157 
 
 40^814 
 
 44,798 
 
 49.380 
 
 52,600 
 
 Exports... 
 
 34,912 
 
 45,109 
 
 41,023 
 
 44,537 
 
 53,042 
 
 67,600 
 
 The leading imports include foodstuffs, tex¬ 
 tiles,. machinery, ironware, and jute; the ex¬ 
 ports, preserved meats, hides and horns, tallow, 
 cattle, beef extracts, and agricultural products. 
 
 Government. The constitution of Sept. 10, 
 1829, was published July 18, 1830. The legis¬ 
 lative power is vested in the General Assembly, 
 or Congress, consisting of the Senate and the 
 House of Representatives. Senators, 19 in num¬ 
 ber (one for each department), are elected for 
 six years by indirect vote. Representatives, 90 
 in number, are elected for three years by direct 
 vote. The executive power is vested in the Pres¬ 
 ident, elected for four years by a majority vote 
 of the Senate and House of Representatives 
 in joint session. The President is not eli¬ 
 gible for the next succeeding term. He is 
 assisted by a responsible minority of seven 
 members. Each territorial department is ad¬ 
 ministered by an executive, appointed by the 
 President, and a council elected by direct vote. 
 The judiciary is composed of a supreme court, 
 two courts of appeal, and a number of lower 
 courts. Justices of the supreme court are elected 
 by the General Assembly; judges of other courts 
 are appointed by the supreme court. The capi¬ 
 tal of the Republic is Montevideo (q.v.). 
 
 Finance. The standard of value is gold, and 
 the monetary unit is the peso, whose par value is 
 $1.03424. For the fiscal year 1914 the. esti¬ 
 mated revenue and expenditure were 36,597,360 
 and 36,516,877 pesos respectively. For the same 
 year customs revenue was estimated at 17,600,- 
 000 pesos. Public debt, Dec. 31, 1913: foreign 
 consolidated, 118,487,935 pesos; international, 
 2,190,500; internal, 15,620,423; total, 136,298,- 
 858. Service of the debt in 1913 was 5,366,733 
 pesos; in addition redemptions amounted to 
 2,514,013 pesos. The Bank of the Republic, es¬ 
 tablished in 1896, had a nominal capital in 1911 
 of 20,000,000 pesos; the paid-up capital at the 
 end of 1913 was 13,027,778 pesos. This bank 
 has an exclusive right of issue. Its note circu¬ 
 lation in January, 1915, was 23,295,886 pesos, 
 and its stock of gold 11,647,109 pesos. 
 
 Army. The regular army is recruited by vol¬ 
 untary enlistment and consisted, in 1915, of 17 
 battalions and 4 rifle companies of infantry, 16 
 regiments of cavalry, 3 field artillery regiments 
 of only 3 batteries each, 1 company of fortress 
 artillery, 1 machine gun company, 1 sanitary 
 company. Total peace strength about 10,500; 
 
 initial mobilization for war estimated at 50,000. 
 Enlistment period from two to five years, with 
 the privilege of reenlistment until the age of 
 
 44. In the militia service is compulsory between 
 the ages of 17 and 45, as follows: first class, 
 physically fit, between 17 and 30, numbers about 
 20,000, takes the field with the regular army in 
 war ; second class, physically fit, between 30 and 
 
 45, recruited and serving in territorial depart¬ 
 ments, but available to supply vacancies created 
 in field forces in war; third class, all other men 
 between 19 and 45, not included in first two 
 classes, liable for local home defense only. Total 
 strength of three classes estimated at 170,000 
 men. For navy, see Navies. 
 
 Population. By departments the area and 
 the population, according to the census of Oct. 
 12, 1908, and an estimate of Dec. 31, 1913, are 
 shown in the following table: 
 
 DEPARTMENT 
 
 Sq. m. 
 
 Pop., 1908 
 
 Pop., 1913 
 
 Artigas. 
 
 4,393 
 
 26,321 
 
 36,340 
 
 Canelones. 
 
 1,835 
 
 87,874 
 
 107,068 
 
 Carro Largo. 
 
 . 5,764 
 
 44,742 
 
 54,005 
 
 Colonia. 
 
 2,194 
 
 54,644 
 
 74,458 
 
 Durazno. 
 
 5,527 
 
 42,325 
 
 51,787 
 
 Flores. 
 
 1,745 
 
 16,082 
 
 21,562 
 
 Florida. 
 
 4,675 
 
 45,406 
 
 56,917 
 
 Maldonado. 
 
 1,587 
 
 28,820 
 
 37,125 
 
 Minas. 
 
 4,820 
 
 51,222 
 
 62,920 
 
 Montevideo. 
 
 256 
 
 309,231 
 
 364,343 
 
 Paysandu. 
 
 5,115 
 
 38,421 
 
 60,512 
 
 Rio Negro. 
 
 3,270 
 
 19,932 
 
 33,529 
 
 Rivera. 
 
 3,795 
 
 35,683 
 
 43,342 
 
 Rocha. 
 
 4,281 
 
 34,119 
 
 43,309 
 
 Salto. 
 
 4,865 
 
 46,259 
 
 66,493 
 
 San Jos6. 
 
 2,688 
 
 46,325 
 
 57,011 
 
 Soriano. 
 
 3,561 
 
 39,565 
 
 51,413 
 
 Tacuarembo. 
 
 8,114 
 
 46,939 
 
 56,438 
 
 Treinta y Tres. 
 
 3,683 
 
 28,777 
 
 37,192 
 
 Total. 
 
 72,168 
 
 1,042,686 
 
 1,315,714 
 
 Of the total at the 1908 census, 861,464 (82.62 
 per cent) were natives, and 180,722 (17.38 per 
 cent) foreigners. The foreigners included 62,357 
 Italians, 54,885 Brazilians, 18,600 Argentines, 
 8341 French, 1444 Turks and Syrians, 1406 
 Swiss, 1324 British, and 1112 Germans. Of the 
 natives, 48.82 per cent were males; of the for¬ 
 eigners, 60.68 per cent. The only large city is 
 Montevideo, which in 1908 had 291,465 inhab¬ 
 itants. The town of Paysandu had 20,953; Salto, 
 19,788; Mercedes, 15,667; Minas, 13,345; Melo, 
 12,355; San Jose, 12,297; Rocha, 12,200. 
 
 Education and Religion. In 1908 the popu¬ 
 lation five years of age and over numbered 873,- 
 231; of these, illiterates numbered 347,491. Pri¬ 
 mary instruction is nominally compulsory. In 
 1913 there were 986 public schools, with an en¬ 
 rollment of 91,746; private schools numbered 
 238, with an enrollment of 21,874. There are 
 several secondary schools and normal schools, a 
 school of arts and trades, and a military college. 
 At Montevideo is the University of Uruguay, 
 which in 1910 had 112 teachers, 530 regular stu¬ 
 dents, and 661 students receiving secondary in¬ 
 struction. Roman Catholicism is the state re¬ 
 ligion, but religious toleration prevails. In 1908, 
 of the population 15 years of age and over, 430,- 
 095 were Roman Catholic, 12,232 Protestant, 
 126,425 liberal, and 45,470 other and unspecified. 
 
 History. The natives of the Banda Oriental, 
 the region to the northeast of the Plata River, 
 for many years prevented any exploration of the 
 interior and in 1580 forced the garrison to aban¬ 
 don the only fort established in their territory, 
 
URUGUAY 
 
 820 
 
 URUGUAY 
 
 on the San Salvador River. In 1003 a powerful 
 Spanish force, intended to protect a colony, was 
 defeated, and it was not until the year 1024 that 
 the first settlement which became permanent was 
 founded, at Santo Domingo de Soriano on the 
 Rio Negro. The Portuguese of Brazil claimed this 
 region as a part of their territory, and their out¬ 
 posts crept down the coast from Rio de Janeiro, 
 until in 1080 they established themselves at 
 Sacramento, not far distant across the river from 
 Buenos Aires. The local Spanish officials profited 
 by the commerce between this city and the Por¬ 
 tuguese, and for 50 years no very serious efforts 
 were made to drive them away. In 1723 the 
 Portuguese fortified the heights surrounding the 
 Bay of Montevideo and apparently planned to 
 enter into more active competition with Buenos 
 Aires. This aroused the Spaniards, who promptly 
 organized an expedition which forced the sur¬ 
 render of the Portuguese works at Montevideo, 
 where a colony of families from Buenos Aires 
 was established. Intermittent conflicts between 
 the two claimants fill the annals of the remain¬ 
 der of the eighteenth century, resulting in the 
 ultimate establishment of the Spanish rule. In 
 1807 the English fleet under Popham captured 
 Montevideo, but their occupation ended with the 
 failure of the attack on Buenos Aires. The in¬ 
 habitants of Uruguay promptly joined those of 
 Argentina in the revolt against Spain in 1810 
 and established an independent confederation 
 under the Protector Artigas (q.v.) ; the Span¬ 
 iards were driven from Montevideo in 1814. The 
 country was weakened and demoralized by the 
 efforts to drive out the Spaniards, and the Por¬ 
 tuguese in Brazil, perceiving their opportunity, 
 revived their claim to the territory. They cap¬ 
 tured Montevideo (1817) and drove Artigas into 
 the interior, until lie was forced to take refuge 
 in Paraguay. Uruguay was annexed to Brazil 
 as the Cisplatine State. The Uruguayan patriots 
 established headquarters across the Rio de la 
 Plata in Buenos Aires, watching for an oppor¬ 
 tunity to revive the struggle. This came in 
 1825, when “Thirty-three” patriots under the 
 leadership of Juan Antonio Lavalleja crossed 
 La Plata from Buenos Aires to free Uruguay. 
 The insurgents won several engagements and 
 shut the Portuguese up in their coast strong¬ 
 holds. In February, 1828, the Brazilians were 
 decisively defeated, and in August peace was 
 concluded and the independence of Uruguay was 
 recognized. In 1830 the Repfiblica Oriental del 
 Uruguay was organized, and for five years the 
 country enjoyed comparative quiet under the 
 presidency of Fructuoso Rivera. In 1835 he Avas 
 succeeded by Manuel Oribe, and soon a political 
 conflict broke out between the tivo, terminating 
 in civil Avar. Rivera made himself the leader of 
 the Gauchos (q.v.) constituting the great mass 
 of the non-Indian population, Avhile Oribe repre¬ 
 sented the interests of the great landowners. In 
 1838 RUera succeeded in overthroAving Oribe, 
 aa’Iio thereupon turned for aid to Rosas (q.v.), 
 the Dictator of Buenos Aires. With the aid of 
 Argentina’s troops Oribe repeatedly defeated his 
 rival, but could not make himself master of 
 Montevideo, AA r hich Avas besieged from 1842 to 
 1851. In the latter year the party of Rivera con¬ 
 cluded an alliance with Brazil, and the State 
 of Entre Rfos, AAdiich under Urquiza had broken 
 aAvay from the Argentine Confederation. Oribe 
 was o\ T erthroAvn, and the party of Rivera after 
 a short interA r al Avas restored to poAA r er. In 1854 
 Venancio Flores Avas elected President, but Avas 
 
 forced to resign in the folloAving vear. There 
 ensued a period of utter disorder marked bv 
 conflicts of the Colorado and Blanco parties and 
 close successions of elections and insurrections 
 until in 18G4 Brazil intervened to restore order 
 and in the following year brought Flores back to 
 poAver. An alliance with Brazil and Argentina 
 Avas concluded in the same year, directed against 
 the Dictator Lopez (q.v.) of Paraguay. This 
 Avar, Avhich brought ruin upon Paraguay, ter¬ 
 minated in 1S70. Flores A\ms assassinated early 
 in 1868, and five years later Jose Ellauri Avas 
 legally elected President. During his adminis¬ 
 tration many public works Avere undertaken, and 
 the transatlantic cable laid, with the result that 
 the national finances became complicated. 
 
 In May, 1875, Pedro Varela became President, 
 to be succeeded a year later by Colonel Latorre. 
 Numerous changes, at irregular intervals, fol¬ 
 lowed. President Juan Idiarte Borda, a Colorado, 
 Avho Avas elected in 1894, Avas assassinated dur¬ 
 ing a Blanco uprising in 1897 and Avas succeeded 
 by Juan Lindolfo Cuestas, Avho in spite of some 
 attempts at revolution retained poAver till 1903. 
 
 Jos6 Batlle y Ordonez, Avho became President in 
 1903, had to contend Avitli the opposition of the 
 Blancos, but he succeeded in restoring tranquil¬ 
 lity to the Republic before the end of his term. 
 He actively encouraged public Avorks, higher 
 education, and agriculture. In 1907 Claudio 
 Williman entered the jjresidency. During his 
 administration a boundary treaty A\ r as negotiated 
 with Brazil (1907), the supreme court Avas or¬ 
 ganized, and a divorce law was passed (190S). 
 A slight revolutionary disturbance occurred in 
 1910, OAving to the candidacy of Batlle; never¬ 
 theless he Avas reelected and entered his second 
 term on March 1, 1911. During this adminis¬ 
 tration an eight-hour-day bill was passed, child 
 labor was prohibited, the statistical Avork of the 
 government Avas organized, economic and social 
 betterment Avas undertaken, and afforestation 
 and colonization were fostered. During 1914-15 
 the country passed through a seA r ere financial 
 crisis, AA'hich Avas partially relieved by foreign 
 loans. President Feliciano Viera AA T as inaugu¬ 
 rated on March 1, 1915, and announced that he 
 would endeavor to secure constitutional reform, 
 practice economy in the government, create new 
 sources of revenue, foster education, stock rais¬ 
 ing, and agriculture, and proAdde for labor leg¬ 
 islation. During his first year he secured 
 laws favoring agriculture and colonization and 
 providing rules for prevention of accidents to 
 workingmen. 
 
 Bibliography. J. H. Murray, Travels in 
 Uruguay, South America (London, 1871); Ra¬ 
 mon Lopez Lomha, La republica oriental del Uru¬ 
 guay (Montevideo, 1884) ; E. Van Bruyssel, La 
 republique orientale de VUruguay (Brussels, 
 1889) ; F. Vincent, Ttound and about South 
 America (NeAV York, 1890) ; Arreguine, Historia 
 del Uruguay (Montevideo, 1892) ; Saint-Foix, 
 La republique orientale de VUruguay (Paris, 
 1894) ; Julio Silva v Autuna, Comercio exterior 
 de la republica oriental del Uruguay , ahos 1,887— 
 94 (Montevideo, 1895) ; Francisco Bauz&, His¬ 
 toria de la domination espanola en el Uruguay 
 (2d ed., 3 vols., ib., 1895-97) ; A. H. Keane, Cen¬ 
 tral and South America, Ami. i (London, 1901) ; 
 Orestes Arafijo, Gobernantes del Uruguay (2 
 \ r ols., MonteAddeo, 1903—04) ; C. M. Maeso, El 
 Uruguay a, travSs de un siglo (ib., 1910); V. 
 Sampognaro, L’Uruguay au commencement du 
 XXe siecle (Brussels, 1910) ; W. IJ. Koebel, 
 
URUK 
 
 821 
 
 USE INHERITANCE 
 
 Uruguay, in “South American Series” (London, 
 1911) ; Orestes Aralijo, Diccionario geogrdfico del 
 Uruguay (2d ed., Montevideo, 1912) ; Pan Amer¬ 
 ican Union, Commerce of Uruguay for 1911 
 (Washington, 1912) ; J. A. Hammerton, The 
 Real Argentine (New York, 1915). 
 
 URUK (Babylonian; Heb. Erech) . A city 
 in ancient Babylonia on the site of modern 
 Warka, where there are large mounds and 
 numerous ruins. It is mentioned even in the 
 time of Gudea of Lagash. (See Babylonia; 
 Erech.) The German excavations in 1913 re¬ 
 vealed that the city was still flourishing in the 
 Seleucid and Arsacid periods. It may have 
 been involved in the revolt of Shamashsliumukin 
 (648 b.c.), since, according to Ezra iv. 9, Arche- 
 vites were carried to Samaria by Asurbanipal. 
 Consult: Loftus, Travels and Researches in Chal¬ 
 dea and Susiana, with an Account of Excava¬ 
 tions at Warka (London, 1857) ; R. Zehnpfund, 
 Babylonien in ihren wichtigsten Ruinenstdtten 
 (Leipzig, 1910) ; Eduard Meyer, Geschichte des 
 Altertums (3d ed., Stuttgart, 1913). 
 
 URUMCHI, or URUMTCHI, u-room'chs. 
 The capital of the Province of Sinkiang, in 
 Sungaria, China, and the seat of the Chinese 
 administration of eastern Turkestan, 320 miles 
 east of Kulja (Map: China, E 3). It derives 
 its strategic importance from its position on 
 the only road leading from Sungaria to eastern 
 Turkestan which is available for heavy artillery. 
 The population, which is supposed to have been 
 200,000 at the beginning of the nineteenth cen¬ 
 tury, is estimated at 30,000. 
 
 URUMIAH, oo'roo-me'ya, OROOMIAH, or 
 URMIA. A city of Persian Armenia (included 
 in the Province of Azerbaijan), 70 miles south¬ 
 west of Tabriz and 10 miles west of Lake Uru- 
 miah (Map: Persia, A 4). It lies amid attrac¬ 
 tive mountain scenery. The American, French, 
 and Russian missions have headquarters here, 
 and have founded several institutions, including 
 Urmia College, a college for Nestorian priests 
 and deacons, and Fiske Seminary. The district 
 produces fruit, cotton, and tobacco, and there 
 are important dyeing and weaving interests. 
 Pop., estimated at from 30,000 to 35,000. In 
 1915 the majority of the Armenian inhabitants 
 were massacred by invading Turkish troops. 
 Urumiah is reputed to be the birthplace of 
 Zoroaster. It was for a long time the pilgrim¬ 
 age city of his followers. 
 
 URUMIAH, Lake. The largest lake in 
 Persia, situated in the northwest corner of the 
 country, 170 miles west of the Caspian Sea 
 (Map: Persia, A 4). It is about 80 miles long, 
 with an average breadth of 20 miles, and oc¬ 
 cupies part of a level basin inclosed by moun¬ 
 tains and lying at an altitude of over 4000 
 feet. The lake is fed by radial streams of 
 considerable size, but it has no outlet. It is 
 consequently very saline, too salt to nourish 
 any life but certain crustaceans; the lake has 
 been shrinking for years, exposing wide tracts 
 of sour slime. It is very shallow, the mean 
 depth being 6 feet, and the maximum about 
 40 feet. The surrounding region is very fertile, 
 and is covered with vineyards, orchards, and 
 gardens. 
 
 URUNGU. A river in Siberia. See Irtysii. 
 
 U'RUS (Lat. urus, Gk. ovpos, ouros, wild ox, 
 from OHG., AS. ur, Ger. Auer-ochs, whence the 
 English aurochs, designating a different animal, 
 the European bison; connected with Skt. usra, 
 steer, reddish). A wild ox (Bos primigenius) 
 
 which ancientlv inhabited the forests of central 
 Europe, and is described by Caesar as common in 
 the Hercynian Forest, and of great size, swift¬ 
 ness, and fierceness. The probability is that the 
 urus was the wild original of the domestic ox, 
 by way of the small or long-fronted ox (Bos 
 longifrons) , which was the earliest known do¬ 
 mesticated ox in Europe. The urus survived in 
 Germany until the twelfth century, and is some¬ 
 times wrongly identified with the aurochs 
 (q.v., under Bison). 
 
 URVILLE, Jules Sebastien Cesar Du¬ 
 mont d’. See Dumont d’Urville, J. S. C. 
 
 URY, Adolfo Muller-. See Muller-Ury, 
 Adolfo. 
 
 US'BEGS. A people of Russian Turkestan. 
 See Uzbeks. 
 
 USE. This expression was used to describe a 
 trust created Under the early English practice. 
 
 (See Uses ; Trust. ) One of the methods of 
 avoiding the effect of the Statute of Uses (27 
 Hen. VIII, c. 10) was by making a conveyance 
 to A to the use of B to the use of C. The stat¬ 
 ute executed the first use, and the property was 
 accordingly held in trust for C. 
 
 USE, Shifting. See Shifting Use. 
 
 USE, Springing. See Springing Use. 
 
 USE AND OCCUPATION. In law, a phrase 
 employed to denote the beneficial enjoyment of 
 real estate by a person with the owner’s con¬ 
 sent, but without any definite or enforceable 
 agreement as to the amount of rent to be paid. 
 The landlord is entitled to recover a reasonable 
 sum as compensation for the use and occupation 
 of the premises. See Landlord and Tenant; 
 and consult the authorities there referred to. 
 
 USEDOM, bo / ze-dom. An island belonging to 
 the Province of Pomerania, Prussia, situated at 
 the mouth of the Oder River (Map: Germany, 
 F 1). Together with the island of Wollin, it 
 separates the Stettiner Haff from the Baltic 
 Sea. It is divided from the mainland on the 
 west by the outlet of the Peene River. Length, 
 33 miles; area, 158 square miles. It is ex¬ 
 tremely irregular in shape. It is level and 
 generally fertile save for some sand dunes. 
 Its farm lands and forests are productive. 
 Fishing and commerce also engage the attention 
 of its inhabitants, who number about 35,000. In 
 summer the sea baths attract a large number 
 of visitors. Swinemiinde is the principal town. 
 
 USE INHERITANCE. The Lamarckian 
 principle of the transmission by heredity of 
 
 characters acquired during the lifetime of the 
 individual; they are contrasted with congenital 
 characters. That slight lesions are not trans¬ 
 mitted was apparently proved by the experi¬ 
 ments of Weismann in docking the tails of 
 white mice for 19 generations, and his finding 
 that such a mutilation was not transmitted. At 
 the present time the alleged transmission of 
 
 mutilations or various lesions, as tattooing or 
 flattening of the head, is not proved. On the 
 other hand, the Lamarckian principle of the in¬ 
 heritance of characters formed by adaptation to 
 changes in the physical environment, changes of 
 climate, as well as those resulting from use 
 or disuse, or any kind of external stimulus, 
 although denied by Weismann and his followers, 
 have not been disproved. Adaptation to a differ¬ 
 ent medium from that of their ancestors, as in 
 
 the case of birds and insects, is the result of 
 
 use inheritance. Very obvious examples are the 
 cetaceans where, by change from terrestrial to 
 aquatic habits, the legs have been converted into 
 
USENER 
 
 822 
 
 USES 
 
 finlike members. Another instance is the ac¬ 
 quired habit of pointing in the pointer breed, 
 cases being known of young dogs pointing with¬ 
 out having been trained. The habit of holding 
 the tail erect is an acquired one in dogs, as 
 the wolf and fox never elevate the tail. The 
 senile expression of the face in children of old 
 parents is claimed to be an example of such 
 inheritance. Such examples as these prove that, 
 as Eimer states, every character formed by the 
 functional activity of the animal is an acquired 
 character. The changes begin during the life¬ 
 time of the individual, become transmitted (or 
 at least the tendency), until after a number of 
 generations, the new conditions becoming perma¬ 
 nent, the new characters are formed, and these 
 are preserved by use inheritance. 
 
 The experimental proofs of use inheritance 
 have accumulated sufficiently to prove that, 
 where the changed climate, or temperature and 
 moisture or dryness of the air, remain the same, 
 the new characters are transmitted. In plants, 
 where use and disuse do not come into play, 
 the changes of station, of climate, temperature, 
 soil, and nutrition, when permanent, result in 
 the formation of new varieties and species, ac¬ 
 cording to the Lamarckian principle. It is 
 maintained that the transmission of acquired 
 characters, structural, physiological, and mental, 
 is demanded by the theory of evolution. Weis- 
 mann’s objection to use inheritance is that 
 modifications of the animal are acquired anew 
 in every individual life and cannot be trans¬ 
 mitted. It remains to be seen whether this 
 criticism will withstand the mass of data now 
 being accumulated. Consult: Lamarck, Zoologi¬ 
 cal Philosophy, English translation by Hugh 
 Elliot (London, 1914) ; also the writings of 
 Darwin, Koelliker, Eimer, Cope, Herbert Spen¬ 
 cer, Galton, Hyatt, Weismann, Standfuss, Fischer, 
 Packard, Piepers, Kidd, and others. See Evolu¬ 
 tion; Heredity. 
 
 USENER, oo'ze-ner, Hermann (1834-1905). 
 A German classical scholar, born at Weilburg- 
 on-the-Lahn. He became professor at the Uni¬ 
 versity of Bonn in 1866. His work covered 
 many fields, both literary and philosophical. 
 Especially important are his studies in the 
 history of religion. His published works in¬ 
 clude Anecdoten Holderi (1877), Altgriechiselver 
 Yersbau (1887), Epicurea (1887), Dionysius 
 Halicarnensis de Imitatione , etc. (1899), Dionysii 
 Ars Rhetorica (1895), Dionysii Opuscula (ed. 
 with Radermacher, vol. 1, 1899), Religionsge- 
 schichtliche TJntersuchungen (1888), Gotterna- 
 men (1896), Sintflutsagen (1899); Vortrdge 
 und Aufsdtze (1907). Since his death two vol¬ 
 umes of his Kleine Schriften have appeared 
 (Leipzig, 1913). Consult J. E. Sandys, A His¬ 
 tory of Classical Scholarship, vol. iii (Cam¬ 
 bridge, 1908). 
 
 U'SERTE'SEN. The name of three kings of 
 Egypt of the twelfth dynasty.— Usertesen I, 
 the 2 e<ro 7 x;w<m of Manetho, was the son and 
 successor of Amenemhat I (q.v.), the founder 
 of the dynasty. His reign of 44 years began 
 about 1976 b.c., but for the first 10 years he 
 ruled as Coregent with his father, and for the 
 last two years of his life his son, Amenemhat II, 
 was associated with him on the throne. Accord¬ 
 ing to a leather roll, written in the time of 
 Amenophis IV, the temple of the sun at Heliopo¬ 
 lis was rebuilt in the early part of Usertesen’s 
 rei<m. One of the two granite obelisks erected 
 by Usertesen before this temple is still stand¬ 
 
 ing; it is 66 feet in height and is the oldest 
 obelisk in Egypt. (See Obelisk.) At Tanis 
 three finely executed granite statues of the King 
 have been found. A stele was discovered by 
 Champollion at Wadi Haifa, near the second 
 cataract of the Nile, containing a list of 11 
 Nubian tribes conquered by Usertesen, and an 
 inscription at Beni Hassan records an expedition 
 to Nubia in the King’s forty-third year. The 
 remains of Usertesen’s pyramid tomb are still 
 to be seen at Lisht, about 30 miles south of 
 Cairo.— Usertesen II, the fourth King of the 
 dynasty, was the son of Amenemhat II, and 
 the grandson of Usertesen I. He reigned from 
 about 1896 b.c., being for a short time Coregent 
 with his father. A painting in a tomb at Beni 
 Hassan, which depicts a number of Asiatics 
 visiting the Nomarch Chnumhotep in the sixth 
 year of Usertesen II, has been supposed to repre¬ 
 sent the arrival in Egypt of Abraham or of the 
 sons of Jacob, but there is no evidence in sup¬ 
 port of either theory, and both are equally 
 improbable. Statues of Usertesen II and of his 
 Queen Nofret were found at Hieraconpolis and 
 at Tanis respectively. The pyramid tomb of the 
 King is at Illahun. Manetho calls this King 
 Sesostris and ascribes to him the conquest of 
 the world, but there is no evidence that User¬ 
 tesen II ever conducted any foreign wars. (See 
 Sesostris.)—Usertesen ill, the son and suc¬ 
 cessor of Usertesen II, reigned for at least 26 
 years from about 1883 b.c. His chief energies 
 were directed to the subjugation of Nubia; and 
 to protect the southern frontier of his King¬ 
 dom, he built two strong forts at Semneh and 
 Kummeh, about 40 miles south of the second 
 cataract of the Nile. Near Semneh the King 
 set up, in the eighth year of his reign, a bound¬ 
 ary stone with the injunction that no negro 
 should pass it except such as came into Egypt 
 for the purpose of peaceful traffic. He was, 
 however, compelled to undertake two subse¬ 
 quent expeditions against the Nubians in the 
 sixteenth and nineteenth years of his reign, be¬ 
 fore the country was finally subdued. Userte¬ 
 sen III built a temple at Heracleopolis (q.v.) 
 in his fourteenth regnal year. His tomb is 
 probably the more northerly of the two brick 
 pyramids at Dahshur known as the Black 
 Pyramids. Consult: K. A. Wiedemann, Aegyp- 
 tische Geschichte (Gotha, 1884—88) ; W. M. 
 Flinders Petrie, A History of Egypt (New \ork, 
 1899) ; E. A. T. Wallis Budge, A History of 
 Egypt (ib., 1902) ; J. H. Breasted, A History of 
 the Ancient Egyptians (ib., 1908). Consult 
 Sesostris, Ancient Records of Egypt (Chicago, 
 1907). 
 
 USES. A technical term employed to denote 
 equitable rights to the benefits and profits of 
 real estate, the legal title to which is in a per¬ 
 son other than the beneficiary of the “use.” The 
 introduction of the doctrine of uses was the re¬ 
 sult of the attempts of the English clergy to 
 evade the effects of the Statutes of Mortmain, 
 and to enjoy the gifts of the pious. To do 
 this, land was conveyed to a third person, with 
 the understanding or an express declaration 
 that it was to be held to the use of the religious 
 person or corporation intended to be the real 
 donee. When this practice was first introduced, 
 this obligation could only be enforced by threats 
 of excommunication from the Church. After¬ 
 ward the Chancellor, who was usually appointed 
 from the clergy, assumed jurisdiction over such 
 conveyances, and employed the power of the 
 
USHAK 
 
 USPENSKY 
 
 823 
 
 courts of equity to enforce the use. This effect 
 of such conveyances aroused the hostility of 
 the King and great lords of the realm, which 
 culminated in the enactment of the famous Stat¬ 
 ute of 27 Hen. VIII, c. 10, commonly known 
 as the Statute of Uses. This act provided, in 
 effect, that where a conveyance was made under 
 the circumstances above described, the benefi¬ 
 ciary should receive the legal estate as well as 
 the right to the profits, etc., and also be liable 
 to the lord for the feudal duties. The statute 
 only temporarily accomplished its purpose, as 
 the courts of equity speedily evolved the law 
 of “trusts,” which were practically the same 
 as “uses,” but under a different name. How¬ 
 ever, the statute had the important effect of 
 making possible the creation of legal estates 
 to begin in the future without making them 
 legal remainders. The system of conveyancing 
 made possible by the Statute of Uses was finally 
 superseded by the practice of transferring prop¬ 
 erty by deeds of “bargain and sale.” The law 
 of uses, as modified by the Statute of Uses, be¬ 
 came a part of the common law of the United 
 States, and still obtains in many States, but 
 has been expressly abolished in a few juris¬ 
 dictions, including New York. See Trust, and 
 the authorities there referred to; see also Real 
 jPropfrty 
 
 USHAK, oo-shak'. A town of the Vilayet of 
 Brusa, Asia Minor, Turkey, 125 miles east-north¬ 
 east of Smyrna. It is noted for its carpet 
 manufactures, and it is the centre of a rich 
 agricultural district. Pop., about 14,000. 
 
 USHANT, ush'ant. An island in the Atlantic 
 Ocean, belonging to the Department of Finis- 
 tere, France, 13 miles west of the northwest 
 end of Brittany (Map: France, N., A 4). To 
 the French it is known as the Isle d’Ouessant. 
 Area, 6 square miles. The shores are rocky. 
 Ushant has modern fortifications, and is used 
 for military purposes. Naval battles between 
 ships of the French and English occurred off the 
 island in 1779 and 1794. Pop., 1901, 2717; 1911, 
 2568. 
 
 USHAS, ush'as (from Skt. vas, us, to burn; 
 connected with Gk. ’Hws, Eos, Lat. Aurora, Lith. 
 auszrd , dawn, and ultimately with Eng. east ). 
 In Vedic India, the goddess of dawn. The Rig- 
 Veda devotes 20 hymns to her as the divine 
 personification of the morning light. The fiery 
 steeds or ruddy cows that draw her shining car 
 represent clouds and beams of light that issue 
 from the stall of darkness as she throws open 
 the portals of day. Born each day, and there¬ 
 fore ever young, she reminds mankind of the 
 transitoriness of human life, and by her return 
 day after day she stands as a symbol of the 
 divine order in heaven. The sky is her father; 
 night is her sister; the sun, Surya (q.v.), her 
 lover and spouse; and the twin Asvins (q.v.) 
 are her kin. The sacrificial fire kindled at day¬ 
 break is a signal of her approach (see Agni), 
 and she then arouses the worshiper to prayer. 
 She answers his petitions by bestowing all the 
 blessings of daily life. In the post-Vedic period 
 the importance of Ushas is lost, and now she is 
 a mere name in the Hindu mythology. Con¬ 
 sult: A. A. Macdonell, Vedic Mythology (Strass- 
 burg, 1897) ; Hillebrandt, V edische Mythologie, 
 ii (Breslau, 1899) ; W. J. Wilkins, Hindu, Myth¬ 
 ology (2d ed., London, 1900) ; L. D. Barnett, 
 Antiquities of India (London, 1913). 
 
 USH'ER, James. A British archbishop. See 
 Ussher. 
 
 USH'ER, Roland Greene (1880- ). An 
 
 American historian, born at Lynn, Mass. He 
 was educated at Harvard (A.li., 1901; Pli.D., 
 1905), and abroad at Oxford, Paris, and Cam¬ 
 bridge. Connected with Washington University, 
 St. Louis, from 1907, by 1912 he had become 
 associate professor in charge of the history de¬ 
 partment. His writings include: The Presby¬ 
 terian Movement in the Reign of Queen Eliza¬ 
 beth (1905) ; The Reconstruction of the English 
 Church (2 vols., 1910) ; The Rise and Fall of 
 the High Commission (1913); The Rise of the 
 American People (1914); Pan-Oermanism, from 
 its Inception to the Outbreak of the War: a 
 Critical Study (1914); Pan-Americanism, a 
 Forecast of the Inevitable Clash betiveen the 
 United States and Europe’s Victor (1915) ; The 
 Challenge of the Future (1916). 
 
 USHER OF THE BLACK ROD. See Black 
 Rod. 
 
 USHTJAIA, ob'shoo-a'ya. The capital of the 
 Territory of Tierra del Fuego, Argentina, on the 
 south coast of the island of Tierra del Fuego, 
 on the Beagle Channel (Map: Argentina, F 8). 
 It is a miserable native village, whose inhabit¬ 
 ants, through the efforts of English missionaries, 
 speak English better than Spanish. Pop. (est.), 
 500. 
 
 USKUP, us-kup', USKUB, or SKOPLIE. 
 
 A city of Servia and capital of the department 
 of the same name, 160 miles northwest of Sa- 
 loniki, on the Vardar River (Map: Balkan Pen¬ 
 insula, C 4). The chief articles of commerce 
 are opium, grain, live stock, fruit, and tobacco. 
 Leather and dyestuffs are the principal manu¬ 
 factured products. Long the capital of the 
 Vilayet of Kossovo in the Ottoman Empire, it 
 was captured by the Servians in October, 1912, 
 in the course of the Balkan War (q.v.), and 
 was confirmed to them by the Treaty of Bucha¬ 
 rest (August, 1913). It was captured by the 
 Bulgarians in 1915. (See War in Europe.) 
 Pop", 1911, 47,384. 
 
 USNEA, us'ne-a (Neo-Lat., from Ar. usnah, 
 moss). A small genus of lichens. The species 
 are generally grayish or straw-colored and 
 pendulous, and from their resemblance to south¬ 
 ern or Spanish moss ( Tillandsia ) are often 
 called tree mosses. They are most common upon 
 trees in cool regions, but also grow upon 
 rocks. They are called beard moss, hanging 
 moss, and necklace moss. See Colored Plate of 
 Mosses and Lichens under Musci. 
 
 USPENSKOYE, us'pen-sko'ye. See Bolgary. 
 
 USPENSKY, us-pen'sk£, Gleb Ivanovitcii 
 (1840-1902). A Russian writer of folk tales, 
 born at Tula and educated at the universities 
 of St. Petersburg and Moscow. His first stories 
 appeared in the Observer in 1862, while he was 
 still a student, but not before his series of 
 sketches entitled Stray-Street Life began to ap¬ 
 pear in the famous Sow'emennik (1866) did 
 he attract general attention. Uspensky also 
 contributed to Notes of the Fatherland and other 
 periodicals. His fame was at its height when 
 lie was attacked by a disease of the brain which 
 ended his literary career nine years before his 
 death. Uspensky’s special interest was in the 
 sufferings of the lowly provincial folk, whose 
 life he depicted with unusual fidelity and sym¬ 
 pathy. His Drudgery, which touches upon 
 peasant morality, practically revealed the real 
 peasant to Russian readers, while The Power 
 of the Land was a sincere plea against the 
 urbanization of the peasantry. His collected 
 
USSHER 
 
 USTILAGIHALES 
 
 824 
 
 works have been published repeatedly—one edi¬ 
 tion in six volumes (St. Petersburg, 1908). 
 
 US'SHER, James (1581-1656). Archbishop 
 of Armagh, commonly considered the most 
 learned prelate of the Irish Protestant church. 
 He was born in Dublin, Jan. 4, 1581. In 1594 
 he entered Trinity College, Dublin, where his 
 predilection for history soon revealed itself. In 
 1601 he was ordained deacon and priest, and 
 was appointed preacher of Christ Church, Dub¬ 
 lin. In 1607 he was chosen to the chair of 
 divinity, a post which he held for 13 years. lie 
 made numerous visits to England and became 
 acquainted with the most distinguished scholars 
 of the age. In 1613 his first publication ap¬ 
 peared, entitled De Ecclesiarum Christianarum 
 Successione et, Statu, which was designed as a 
 continuation of Bishop Jewell’s Apology. In 
 1615 he was appointed by a convocation of tlie 
 clergy held at Dublin to draw up a series of 
 articles relating to the doctrine and discipline 
 of the Irish Protestant church, in which the 
 doctrines of predestination and reprobation (of 
 which Ussher was an unflinching apologist) 
 found prominence. These and other views, such 
 as that bishops were not a different order from 
 presbyters, implied in the studied omission of 
 all reference to such distinction, that the Sab¬ 
 bath should be strictly enforced, and that no 
 toleration should be granted to Catholics, laid 
 him open to the charge of Puritanism. Never¬ 
 theless, King James promoted him to the bish¬ 
 opric of Meath and Clonmacnoise in 1621 and 
 in 1623 constituted him a Privy Councilor of 
 Ireland. In 1624-25 he was raised to the high- 
 est ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, the arch¬ 
 bishopric of Armagh. In 1632 Ussher published 
 Veterum Epistolarum Hibernicarum Sylloge, a 
 collection of letters out of several ancient MSS., 
 concerning the state of the Irish church from 
 592 to 1180; in 1638, Immanuel, or the Mystery 
 of the Incarnation; in 1639, Britannicarum Ec¬ 
 clesiarum Antiquitates, an account of the British 
 church to the end of the seventh century; in 
 1641, The Judgment of Doctor Rainololdes 
 touching the Originall of Episcopacy Confirmed; 
 and The Originall of Bishops. When the Civil 
 War broke out, Ussher, who was in England 
 at the time, espoused the side of the King, re¬ 
 fused an appointment to Westminster Assembly, 
 and made himself obnoxious to the Parliament 
 by the sermons which he preached at Oxford. 
 Upon the triumph of the parliamentary party 
 his property and revenues in Ireland were seized, 
 and after a residence in Wales and elsewhere, 
 he came to London, where in 1647, in spite of 
 his Royalist sympathies, he was chosen preacher 
 of Lincoln’s Inn, a post which he retained till 
 his death at Reigate, March 21, 1656. Crom¬ 
 well ordered his remains to be interred with 
 great magnificence in Erasmus’ Chapel in West¬ 
 minster Abbey. 
 
 Ussher s chief works, besides those already 
 mentioned, are his edition (1644) of the Epis- 
 tolce of Polycarp and Ignatius; his treatise De 
 Romance Ecclesice Symbolo Apostolico Diatribe 
 (1647); Dissertatio de Macedonum et Asia- 
 norum Anno Solari (1648); and Annals of the 
 Old Testament (1650-54), a chronological tvork. 
 After his death there were published (from his 
 numerous MSS.) Chronologia Sacra, etc. (Ox¬ 
 ford. 1660), by which and his Annals he is most 
 widely known. These chronological calculations 
 long appeared in the inner margin of the Bible 
 in the Authorized Version. The most frequently 
 
 reprinted work attributed to him is the post¬ 
 humous Strange and Remarkable Prophecies and 
 Predictions of James Ussher (London, 1678; 
 new ed., 1S25). A collected edition of Ussher’s 
 works, in 71 vols., with a new biography, was 
 published at Dublin in 1841-64 by C. R. Erling- 
 ton and J. II. Todd. Consult also the Life by 
 Carr (London, 1895), and W. B. Wright, The 
 Ussher Memoirs (Dublin, 1889). 
 
 USSURI, oo-soo're. A right-bank tributary 
 of the lower Amur. Its head streams rise to 
 the northeast of Vladivostok. After a course 
 of 90 miles it receives the Sungachi, which 
 drains Lake Khangka. The Ussuri forms the 
 boundary in part between Manchuria and the 
 Russian Maritime Province. The general course 
 of the Ussuri is northeasterly, and it joins the 
 Amur a little west of Khabarovsk, from which 
 point the Amur valley is connected with Vladi¬ 
 vostok by a railroad along the Ussuri vallev. 
 
 UST-BYELQKALITVENSKAYA, oost bye'- 
 16-ka'let-ven'ska-ya. A Cossack settlement in 
 the Province of the Don Cossacks, southeastern 
 Russia, on the Donetz, about 70 miles northeast 
 of Tcherkask. Pop., 1897, 18,039. 
 
 USTILAGINALES, us'ti-laj'i-na'lez (Neo- 
 Lat. nom. pi., from Lat. ustilago, plant of the 
 thistle kind). A group of parasitic fungi com¬ 
 monly called smuts or brand fungi, and 
 found on flowering plants, whose floral parts 
 and ovaries especially are subject to the attack. 
 Some smuts are very destructive, as corn smut 
 (Ustilago maydis) and the stinking smut of 
 wheat {Tilletia tritica) . The vegetative my¬ 
 celium of the smut is inconspicuous until the sea¬ 
 son is well advanced and the ovary should begin 
 to ripen. Then the ovary and the adjoining 
 floral parts become filled with the fungal fila¬ 
 ments. At the end of the season this mycelium 
 produces immense numbers of resting spores 
 (chlamvdospores) known as brand spores. 
 These escape as a black powder, and survive 
 the winter, germinating with the return of 
 
 USTILAGINALES. 
 
 1, development of spores; 2 and 3, germination of spores 
 promycelia and fusing sporidia; 2, Ustilago; 3, Tilletia. 
 
 spring. The spore develops a short filament 
 (promycelium), which exhibits far greater vari¬ 
 ation of structure than in the rusts. Numbers 
 of minute spores (sporidia) are developed by 
 the promycelium, and, falling upon the seedlings 
 
UST-MEDVEDITSA 
 
 USURY 
 
 825 
 
 and young plants of the proper host, or in the 
 opening flowers in some genera, germinate, send¬ 
 ing the germ tubes through the stomata into 
 the tissues. 
 
 For a general account of the Ustilaginales 
 consult Engler and Prantl, Die natiirlichen 
 Pjlanzenfamilien (Leipzig, 1887), and Plowright, 
 British Uredinece and Ustilaginece (London, 
 1889). See B as idiom ycetes ; Smut. 
 
 UST-MEDVEDITSA, oost-med-vyed'it-sa. A 
 Cossack settlement in the Province of the Don 
 Cossacks, southeast Russia, on the right bank 
 of the Don, near its confluence with the Med- 
 veditsa (Map: Russia, F 5). Pop., 1910, 10,- 
 400. 
 
 USTYUG VELIKY, us-tyuk' vye-lye'ke. A 
 town in the Government of Vologda, Russia, sit¬ 
 uated at the junction of the Sukhona with the 
 Yug, 303 miies northeast of Vologda (Map: 
 Russia, G 2). It has linen factories of con¬ 
 siderable importance. Pop., 1911, 18,707. 
 
 USUFRUCT, u'zu-frukt (Lat. ususfructus, 
 from usus, use, from uti, OLat. olti, to use, con¬ 
 nected with avere, to crave, Skt. av, to promote, 
 protect, like, Gk. oiros, oitos, fate, portion -f- 
 fructus, fruit, from frui, to enjoy). At civil 
 law, a life interest in property, usually estab¬ 
 lished by legacy, but capable of being estab¬ 
 lished by contract. It is also created by law, 
 especially in modern civil legislations, many of 
 which give usufruct to parents in the property 
 of minor children and to the surviving spouse 
 in the estate of the deceased husband or wife. 
 (See Parent and Child; Succession; Testa¬ 
 ment.) Usufruct is regarded as a servitude 
 (q.v.), the general right of ownership ( pro - 
 prietas) being attributed to the reversioner, 
 i.e., the person who is to take the property 
 on the termination of the usufruct. The usu¬ 
 fructuary has the exclusive right to possess, 
 use, and enjoy the property, either in per¬ 
 son or through a vendee or lessee. He must, 
 however, use it salvd substantia, i.e., the prop¬ 
 erty must not be injured; nor may he change 
 the character or mode of use. For the restora¬ 
 tion of the property in unimpaired condition 
 the usufructuary must ordinarily give security 
 to the owner. Usufruct may be established not 
 only in land and buildings, but also in non- 
 consumptible movables, i.e., in such movables as 
 can be used without impairment of substance. 
 In consumptibles, true usufruct is impossible; 
 but for the purpose of carrying out the inten¬ 
 tions of testators the Roman jurists developed 
 the so-called quasi-usufruct, in which the 
 property is appraised and the usufructuary 
 gives security that the sum at which it is 
 valued shall be paid, after his death, to the 
 holder of the reversionary interest. In modern 
 law a usufruct or life interest may generally 
 be freely created both as to real and personal 
 property. 
 
 USUMACINTA, oo'su-ma-sen'ta. A river of 
 Central America. It rises in the mountains of 
 southern Guatemala and flows in a winding 
 northwest course through that country and Mex¬ 
 ico, emptying into the Gulf of Campeche on the 
 boundary between the Mexican states of Cam¬ 
 peche and Tabasco (Map: Central America, B 2). 
 Its length is about 400 miles, and it is navigable 
 a short distance from the sea. In its middle 
 course it forms the boundary between Mexico 
 and Guatemala. Its upper course, which is 
 through a little-known forest region, was made 
 by treaty the boundary between the two re¬ 
 
 publics, and a dispute as to which was the main 
 head stream nearly led to a war in 1895. 
 
 USURY (OF., Fr. usure, from Lat. usura, 
 use, employment, interest, from uti, to use). 
 Literally, money paid for the use of money, i.e., 
 interest; but in the Middle Ages, when such pay¬ 
 ments were prohibited, the word obtained an evil 
 sense, and when in modern times the taking of 
 interest again became permissible, usury ac¬ 
 quired its modern meaning, i.e., interest in ex¬ 
 cess of a fair return, and, particularly, in ex¬ 
 cess of a legally determined maximum. The 
 establishment of such a maximum was general 
 in the ancient world; at Roman law it varied, 
 at different periods, from 12 per cent to G per 
 cent; and when the taking of interest was le¬ 
 galized in the modern world, similar limitations 
 were introduced. In England the Act of 37 
 Henry VIII, c. 9, fixed the limit at 10 per cent. 
 This was repeatedly lowered until, by the Act 
 of 12 Anne, c. 16, it was fixed at 5 per cent. By 
 these laws usurious contracts were made wholly 
 invalid and usury was an indictable offense. In 
 most European countries (as in the Roman law) 
 usurious contracts were invalid only as regarded 
 the excess of interest, and contracts in which 
 the lender assumed special risks (e.g., bottomry 
 bonds) were not subjected to limitation of rate. 
 
 In the eighteenth century the usury laws were 
 attacked by economic writers as arbitrary and 
 unwise. It was pointed out that in all credit 
 transactions there was an element of risk; that 
 the risk varied greatly and might, in many cases, 
 justify the taking of interest beyond the legal 
 maximum; and that the effect of usury laws 
 was to impose upon borrowers a higher rate of 
 interest than they would otherwise be required 
 to pay, in order that the lender might insure 
 himself against the additional risk to which he 
 was subjected by the illegality of the contract. 
 In consequence of these arguments limitations 
 upon the rate of interest were generally repealed 
 in the nineteenth century. In England this was 
 done by the Act of 17 and 18 Viet., c. 90. In 
 France, however, the usury laws were repealed 
 only as regarded commercial contracts. 
 
 Adam Smith defended usury laws because 
 they made it more difficult for spendthrifts to 
 borrow money; and in the latter half of the nine¬ 
 teenth century, in connection with the general 
 reaction against laissez-faire doctrines, the com¬ 
 plete freedom of contract established by the 
 repeal of the usury laws was in its turn con¬ 
 demned by many economists. It was urged that 
 in many cases borrowers were at the mercy of 
 lenders and that they should be protected against 
 extortion of unreasonable interest. This theo¬ 
 retical reaction has affected modern European 
 legislation. In Germany, by a law of 1880, ‘"'any 
 person who, by exploiting the necessity, the 
 frivolity, or the inexperience of another, causes 
 to be promised to himself or to a third person, 
 for a loan or for deferred payment of a debt, 
 pecuniary advantages which so exceed the ordi¬ 
 nary rate of interest that under the circum¬ 
 stances they are in striking disproportion to the 
 debt,” is punished with imprisonment up to 
 six months and fine up to 3000 marks. By law 
 the legal commercial rate is limited to 5 per 
 cent in Germany and G per cent in France. In 
 England, by an act of Parliament passed in 1900, 
 it is provided that professional money lenders 
 shall be registered, and that their contracts shall 
 be subject to judicial revision when the rate of 
 interest appears under the circumstances to be 
 
USURY 
 
 826 
 
 UTAH 
 
 unreasonable. This leaves it to the courts to 
 determine what is, in each case, a reasonable 
 rate. In the United States laws are enacted 
 fixing the legal rate and the contract rate of 
 interest. AH States fix legal rates, or maxi¬ 
 mum rates collectable in the absence of definite 
 agreement, at from 5 to 8 per cent. All but 
 Vermont have fixed maximum contract rates, 
 usually at 10 or 12 per cent, but at any rate 
 whatever in California, Colorado, Maine, Massa¬ 
 chusetts, and Rhode Island. In recent years 
 various States have enacted special laws regu¬ 
 lating pawnbrokers and the business of lending 
 money on salaries (“loan sharks”). The penal¬ 
 ties for violations of usury laws are varied. In 
 Connecticut, Georgia, Indiana, Kansas, Ken¬ 
 tucky, Maryland, Missouri, New Mexico, Ohio, 
 Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Vermont, and West 
 Virginia the creditor can recover principal and 
 lawful interest, losing only the excess interest. 
 The penalty is loss of interest in Alabama, 
 Alaska, Arizona, District of Columbia, Florida, 
 Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Louisiana, Michigan, Min¬ 
 nesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, New Jersey, Okla¬ 
 homa, Porto Rico, South Carolina, South Dakota, 
 Texas, Virginia, Wisconsin, Hawaii, and Wyo¬ 
 ming. In some States a usurious contract is 
 wholly void; thus in Arkansas, New York, and 
 Rhode Island both principal and interest are 
 lost, and in Delaware and Oregon the principal; 
 moreover Rhode Island adds fine or imprison¬ 
 ment. In Idaho the lost interest and in Oregon 
 the lost principal are paid by the borrower to 
 the school fund. In some of these States money 
 actually paid on a usurious contract cannot be 
 recovered by the lender; but the general rule is 
 to the contrary, and in some States the actual 
 receipt of usurious interest exposes the lender 
 to further penalties, e.g., double the amount paid 
 in North Carolina, North Dakota, and Washing¬ 
 ton, and three times the excess in New Hamp¬ 
 shire. California, Colorado, Maine, Montana, 
 and Nevada have enacted no specific penalties 
 for usury. In some other States the lender is 
 liable to prosecution and fine or imprisonment, 
 but such prosecutions are rare. In Delaware 
 any person may bring action against a lender 
 who has received usurious interest, and, if suc¬ 
 cessful, will receive one-half of the principal of 
 the debt, the other half going to the State. 
 
 Not infrequently special contracts are ex¬ 
 empted from the operation of the usury laws, 
 either because special risks are assumed by the 
 lender, or on grounds of commercial interest. In 
 several States corporations are not permitted to 
 plead usury. 
 
 Usury laws are, in general, strictly construed. 
 Whenever the law declares a usurious contract 
 invalid, mortgages, trust deeds, and all forms of 
 surety are also invalidated; but the courts do 
 not assume that a Legislature has intended to 
 avoid the contract as regards the principal of 
 the debt, or as regards the legal interest, unless 
 such penalty is expressly imposed; nor is pen¬ 
 alty, as distinguished from the protection of the 
 borrower, incurred by merely stipulating for 
 usurious interest, but only by receiving it. 
 
 In interstate cases (conflicts of law, q.v.) the 
 question whether a contract is or is not usurious 
 is governed by the law of the place where the 
 contract was concluded, unless a different place 
 was expressly or impliedly indicated as the place 
 of performance. When a debt has been con¬ 
 tracted in one State to be paid in another, and 
 the rate of interest stipulated is usurious in one 
 
 of the States but not in the other, some of the 
 courts apply the local law which will uphold the 
 contract. Penalties in the strict sense (as dis¬ 
 tinguished from the legal protection given to 
 the borrower) are not enforced outside of the 
 jurisdiction in which they are imposed. See 
 Interest. 
 
 Consult: Turgot, M6moire sur les prets 
 d’argent (1741); Bentham, Defense of Usury 
 (London, 1787); Murray, History of Usury 
 (Philadelphia, 1866) ; Von Stein, Der Wucher 
 und sein Recht (1880); Caro, Der Wucher: 
 eine socialpolitische Studie (1893) ; J. A. Webb, 
 A Treatise on the Laiv of Usury (St. Louis, 
 1899) ; Wm. Cunningham, Christian Opinion 
 on Usury (London, 1884) ; F. J. Stimson, Amer¬ 
 ican Statute Law (Boston, 1902). 
 
 UTA, u r ta (Neo-Lat., from the State of 
 Utah). A genus of iguanid lizards, several 
 species of which are numerous on the south¬ 
 western plains of the United States, one of 
 which ( Uta stansburiana) is one of the most 
 beautiful and graceful of American lizards. It 
 is blackish brown above, marbled with lighter 
 dots, and banded with yellow below. Its long, 
 slender tail has a crest of large vertically set 
 scales. This genus combines structural charac¬ 
 teristics of Sceloporus and Holbrookia. 
 
 UTAH, u'ta (named from the Ute or Utah 
 tribe of Indians). A State in the western part 
 of the United States called by the Mormon 
 pioneer settlers Deseret, a term taken from the 
 Book of Mormon and signifying industry. Its 
 boundaries are limited by lat. 37° and 42° 
 north, and long. 109° 4' and 114° 4' west. Its 
 shape is practically that of a rectangle 345 miles 
 long north-south by 270 miles wide east-west, 
 indented at the northeast corner by Wyoming. 
 The State has an area of about 85,000 square 
 miles, including a probable average of 3000 
 square miles of lake water. The latter area, 
 on account of the shallowness of the water and 
 the variation of annual rainfall, changes con¬ 
 siderably from year to year. Utah ranks eighth 
 in size among the States of the Union. 
 
 Topography. Utah is divided into two great 
 provinces, an eastern and a western, by the 
 Wasatch Mountains, which enter the State from 
 Idaho and extend in a southerly direction for 
 about 150 miles, terminating at Mount Nebo, 
 which is situated almost precisely at the centre 
 of the State. This central highland continues 
 southward as the High Plateau to central Ari¬ 
 zona. The eastern half contains all of the high 
 and more serrate mountains, while the western 
 forms a part of the Great Basin, much of which 
 is relatively flat, with small ranges here and 
 there half buried in the sediments of the Pleisto¬ 
 cene Lake Bonneville. The Wasatch Mountains 
 constitute a lofty and picturesque range, espe¬ 
 cially when viewed from the west. A noteworthy 
 feature is that while most of the water of this 
 range drains westward into the Great Basin, 
 it has to cut through the principal mountain 
 axis to do so. Evidences of recent glacial ac¬ 
 tion, such as lakes, cirques, moraines, etc., are 
 abundant in many of the canons. At several 
 points these mountains reach an elevation of 
 practically 12,000 feet. 
 
 The Uinta Mountains trend east-west within 
 the extreme northeastern part, and in the mat¬ 
 ter of direction of axis, form perhaps the most 
 notable exception of all the ranges comprising 
 the Rocky Mountain system. They are the lofti¬ 
 est in the State, having four peaks over 13,000 
 

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UTAH 
 
 UTAH 
 
 827 
 
 feet, the highest of whieh is Gilbert Peak, with 
 an elevation of 13,087. These mountains are 
 unusually steep and serrate, and in the highest 
 parts are thickly set with numerous glacial 
 lakes. Away to the south and southeast are 
 the Henry, Abajo, and La Sal mountains. The 
 world’s largest and most famous natural bridges 
 are situated in the Bad Lands country across 
 the Colorado River from the Henry Mountains. 
 See Natural Bridge. 
 
 The mountains of west Utah are much lower 
 than those in the east. The relationship of 
 these mountains to the recent alkaline sediments 
 surrounding them in many places gives them 
 the appearance of islands protruding from water. 
 
 Hydrography. Eastern Utah is drained by 
 a large number of streams, all of which finally 
 unite to form the great Colorado. Except in 
 their upper courses most of the streams flow 
 through deep, steep-sided canons, eroded far 
 below the plateau floor. A very small area 
 in the extreme northwestern part of the State 
 sends its waters through the Snake River drain¬ 
 age to the Pacific Ocean. The remaining part 
 of western Utah lies within the Great Basin, 
 and contributes its waters chiefly to two closed 
 drainage systems, the Sevier and Great Salt 
 Lake. All of the streams of this section have 
 their origin in the central highland and flow 
 generally westward into the depressions just 
 mentioned. Sevier Lake, which, during dry sea¬ 
 sons, is scarcely more than a salt playa, derives 
 its waters chiefly through Sevier River, which 
 bas its head far up in the High Plateau region. 
 Great Salt Lake is supplied principally by 
 Weber River, Bear River, Malad River, and 
 Jordan River, the latter being overflow from 
 Utah Lake to the southward, which in turn is 
 supplied by a number of canon streams. In the 
 southern part of the Great Basin numerous 
 streams flow from the mountains only to be lost 
 in the sands of near-by desert sections. Great 
 Salt Lake (q.v.) is the most conspicuous natu¬ 
 ral feature of the State. 
 
 Soil. The soil in many local sections is un¬ 
 usually fertile, especially in the upland valleys 
 and other areas adjacent to the mountains, but 
 over a large part of the Great Basin floor it is 
 highly alkaline and incapable in its present con¬ 
 dition of supporting vegetation. The better 
 grades of soil are deep sandy loams derived from 
 the silt of canon streams. Until within recent 
 years practically all of the crops were produced 
 by artificial watering, but of late rapid improve¬ 
 ment in dry-farming methods has brought about 
 the utilization of considerable acreage where irri¬ 
 gation is impossible. 
 
 Climate. The climate in the main is of the 
 plateau type, characterized by rather wide ex¬ 
 tremes in summer and winter. The populated 
 areas, however, are generally mild and equable, 
 largely because of the protection which comes 
 from the near-by mountains. The precipitation 
 varies from 6 to 25 inches between points rang¬ 
 ing from 2800 to 7000 feet elevation, a varia¬ 
 tion which is largely due to topographic con¬ 
 ditions. The average precipitation is 12.5 
 inches. The average temperatures are 71° in 
 July and 26° in January, or an annual average 
 of 48°. 
 
 Geology. The surface geology of Utah is ex¬ 
 tremely complicated, especially in the moun¬ 
 tainous districts. Every formation from an¬ 
 cient to recent is represented, as are also a 
 wide variety of structural forms. The Wasatch 
 Vol.' XXII.—53 
 
 Mountains may be regarded as a great fold 
 broken down on the west side by an enormous 
 fault extending almost the entire length of the 
 range. The axis of this half fold is also Hexed 
 at right angles to its elongation, thus giving 
 rise to considerable complexity. Formations 
 from Pre-Cambrian to Cretaceous are involved 
 in the mountains proper, with Tertiary sedi¬ 
 ments and more recent igneous extrusions flank¬ 
 ing them on the east and Pleistocene lake de¬ 
 posits on the west. The High Plateau is com¬ 
 posed of Mesozoic to Genozoic sediments capped 
 in a large number of places by recent surface 
 flows. The Uinta Mountains consist of a great 
 anticlinal fold with marked displacement on the 
 north flank. Along the axis vast erosion has 
 carried away all of the formation from Cre¬ 
 taceous down to Pre-Cambrian. The Tertiary 
 sediments here also overlap the eroded and up¬ 
 turned edges of the older members. The Henry 
 Mountains, situated far down in the plateau 
 province, furnish several examples of the world’s 
 best type of laccolith, and consist of intrusive 
 cores flanked by upturned sediments. The block 
 type of mountain is well represented by the 
 ranges of western Utah, where the formations 
 are practically all of Paleozoic and Pre-Cam¬ 
 brian age. 
 
 Mineral Resources. Utah possesses vast 
 quantities of high grade bituminous coal, also 
 large deposits of lignite, both of Cretaceous age. 
 The State is famous for its production of elater- 
 ite, ozokerite, and other natural hydrocarbons. 
 Radium-bearing ores have recently been added 
 to its production. Enormous iron deposits in the 
 southwestern part of the State are awaiting de¬ 
 velopment. Utah, ranking thirteenth in 1914 
 in the total value of mineral production, is 
 unique in that, while it does not lead in the 
 value of any one product, it is among the fore¬ 
 most States in the production of the various 
 precious and semiprecious metals. Copper is 
 the most important product of its mines, about 
 four-fifths of it coming from Salt Lake County; 
 the production in 1914 amounted to 152,034,002 
 pounds, valued at $20,220,522. Lead ranks sec¬ 
 ond, and of this metal 86,602 tons valued at 
 $6,681,602 were produced in 1914. Utah ranked 
 third in the value of lead production, about 
 90 per cent of which is from silver-lead ores, 
 which also supply about half of the silver 
 product. The value of the silver produced in 
 1914 was $6,168,660 for 11,154,916 fine ounces. 
 Coal is the most important of the non-metal- 
 liferous minerals. The production, almost en¬ 
 tirely from Carbon County, amounted to 3,103,- 
 036 tons valued at $4,935,454. Most of the 
 gold produced is obtained from the refining of 
 copper, though about 35 per cent of it is ob¬ 
 tained from dry or siliceous ores. The pro¬ 
 duction in 1914 amounted to 157,961 fine ounces 
 valued at $3,265,347. Of zinc there were pro¬ 
 duced in that year, 7995 tons valued at $815,453. 
 Other minerals produced are asphalt, cement, 
 clay products, gems, gypsum, lime, salt, sand 
 and gravels, stone. The total value of the min¬ 
 eral production in 1914 was $45,624,698. 
 
 Agriculture. With a rainfall ranging from 5 
 to 10 inches over the greater part of L T tah, 
 reaching 15 inches only in the north central 
 section, farming can only be carried on suc¬ 
 cessfully by the aid of irrigation. Of the total 
 land area of 52,597,760 acres, in 1910, 3,397,699 
 acres were in farms which numbered 21,676. 
 The improved land in farms measured 1,368,211 
 
UTAH 
 
 828 
 
 UTAH 
 
 acres, and the average size per farm was 156.7 
 acres. The total value of all farm property 
 including land, buildings, implements, and ma¬ 
 chinery, domestic animals, poultry, and bees was 
 $150,795,201. Of the total number of farms 
 in 1910, 19,956 were operated by owners and 
 managers. The foreign-born white farmers num¬ 
 bered 5452, of whom 1922 were English and 1420 
 Danish. There were but 276 non white farmers. 
 
 The following table shows the acreage, pro¬ 
 duction, and value of some of the principal crops 
 as estimated by the Department of Agriculture 
 for 1915. 
 
 CROPS 
 
 Acreage 
 
 Prod, in bu. 
 
 Value 
 
 Corn. 
 
 13,000 
 
 442,000 
 
 $354,000 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 320,000 
 
 8,225,000 
 
 7,074,000 
 
 Oats. 
 
 100,000 
 
 4,700,000 
 
 2,115,000 
 
 Rye. 
 
 13,000 
 
 202,000 
 
 131,000 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 20,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 1,575,000 
 
 Hay. 
 
 394,000 
 
 985,000 
 
 7,880,000 
 
 Barley. 
 
 34,000 
 
 1,445,000 
 
 751,000 
 
 
 
 In 1909 the total value of all crops was $18,- 
 484,615. The leading crops in order of im¬ 
 portance in that year are, hay and forage, wheat, 
 sugar beets, oats, potatoes, and barley. The 
 acreage, production,, and value of these products 
 in 1909 were as follows: Hay and forage, 405,- 
 394 acres produced 1,015,913 tons valued at 
 $7,429,901; wheat, 178,423 acres produced 3,- 
 943,910 bushels valued at $3,765,017; sugar 
 beets, 27,472 acres produced 413,946 tons valued 
 at $1,858,600; oats, 80,816 acres produced 3,- 
 221,289 bushels valued at $1,671,065; potatoes, 
 14,210 acres produced 2,409,093 bushels valued 
 at $873,961; barley, 26,752 acres produced 891,- 
 471 bushels valued at $472,816. Vegetables, 
 
 States Department of Agriculture estimated that 
 horses numbered 146,000 valued at $12,556,000; 
 mules numbered 2000 valued at $156,000; milch 
 cows numbered 96,000 valued at $5,952,000, 
 other cattle numbered 408,000 valued at $14,- 
 606,000; sheep numbered 2,089,000 valued at 
 $11,281,000; swine numbered 112,000 valued at 
 $874,000. The number of fowls reported on 
 farms in 1910 was 691,941 valued at $327,908. 
 The amount of milk produced in 1909 was 20,- 
 486,317 gallons, and the total value of milk, 
 cream, and butter fat sold and butter and cheese 
 made was $2,067,534. The eggs produced 
 amounted to 4,240,007 dozens valued at $907,330. 
 The wool sheared in 1915 was estimated to 
 amount to 13,320,000 pounds. 
 
 Irrigation. Irrigation is practiced through¬ 
 out the State, 19,709 farms being so treated in 
 1909. The acreage irrigated was 999,410, of 
 which 22,448 acres were irrigated by individual 
 and partnership enterprises and 687,260 acres 
 by cooperative enterprises. In all there were 
 in 1910, 2472 enterprises operating 7709 miles 
 of ditches of which 5887 w T ere main ditch hav¬ 
 ing a total capacity of 25,081 cubic feet per 
 second. The Strawberry valley project v 7 as the 
 only one being built by the United States Recla¬ 
 mation Service in 1915. This, when completed, 
 will irrigate about 60,000 acres. The reservoir 
 is designed to contain some 280,000 acre-feet of 
 water and to cover an area of 8200 acres wben 
 full. 
 
 Manufactures. Utah ranked fortieth among 
 the States in value of manufactured products 
 in 1909. The value of products per capita in 
 that year was $166. The following table gives 
 the more important details regarding the five 
 leading industries, as judged by value of prod¬ 
 ucts, for 1904, 1909, and 1914. 
 
 SUMMARY OF MANUFACTURES FOR 1914, 1909, AND 1904 
 
 THE STATE -FIVE LEADING INDUSTRIES 
 
 INDUSTRY 
 
 All industries. 
 
 Butter, cheese, and condensed milk. . . 
 
 Cars and general shop construction and 
 repairs by steam-railroad companies. 
 
 Confectionery. 
 
 Flour-mill and gristmill products. 
 
 Printing and publishing. 
 
 Census 
 
 Num¬ 
 ber of 
 estab¬ 
 lish¬ 
 ments 
 
 PERSONS ENGAGED 
 IN INDUSTRY 
 
 Total 
 
 Wage 
 
 earn¬ 
 
 ers 
 
 (aver¬ 
 
 age 
 
 num¬ 
 
 ber) 
 
 1914 
 
 1110 
 
 17,129 
 
 13,894 
 
 1909 
 
 749 
 
 14,133 
 
 11,785 
 
 1904 
 
 606 
 
 9,650 
 
 8,052 
 
 1909 
 
 37 
 
 285 
 
 214 
 
 1904 
 
 49 
 
 159 
 
 98 
 
 1909 
 
 8 
 
 1,790 
 
 1,731 
 
 1904 
 
 7 
 
 1,337 
 
 1,248 
 
 1909 
 
 17 
 
 745 
 
 586 
 
 1904 
 
 12 
 
 405 
 
 335 
 
 1909 
 
 60 
 
 282 
 
 184 
 
 1904 
 
 63 
 
 278 
 
 150 
 
 1909 
 
 122 
 
 1,475 
 
 967 
 
 1904 
 
 104 
 
 873 
 
 545 
 
 Capital 
 
 Wages 
 
 Value 
 
 of 
 
 prod- 
 
 Value 
 
 added 
 
 by 
 
 manu- 
 
 
 
 ucts 
 
 fac- 
 
 ture 
 
 Expressed in thousands 
 
 $71,653 
 
 $10,852 
 
 $87,114 
 
 $24,880 
 
 52,627 
 
 8,400 
 
 61,989 
 
 20,723' 
 
 26,004 
 
 5,157 
 
 38,926 
 
 13,986 
 
 1,134 
 
 116 
 
 1,971 
 
 358 
 
 406 
 
 55 
 
 964 
 
 175 
 
 959 
 
 1,402 
 
 2,740 
 
 1,515 
 
 522 
 
 964 
 
 1,887 
 
 1,060 
 
 1,009 
 
 204 
 
 1,952 
 
 661 
 
 401 
 
 103 
 
 1,005 
 
 317 
 
 2,042 
 
 131 
 
 3,131 
 
 620 
 
 1,212 
 
 91 
 
 2,426 
 
 383 
 
 2,022 
 
 685 
 
 2,405 
 
 1,682 
 
 1,081 
 
 369 
 
 1,523 
 
 1,198 
 
 other than potatoes, had a combined acreage 
 of 7006, and a production valued at $717,776. 
 Orchard fruits, of which the most important 
 are apples, peaches, and cherries, had products 
 valued at $640,904. Strawberries are the most 
 important of the small fruits, of v r hich there 
 were produced 3,118,395 quarts valued at $217,- 
 327 in 1909. 
 
 Live Stock and Dairy Products. In 1909 
 the total value of domestic animals on farms 
 was $28,330,215. On Jan. 1, 1916, the United 
 
 Of the total number of w^age earners in 1909, 
 10,562 were male and only 110 under 16 years 
 of age. The prevailing hours of labor for more 
 than half the w^age earners were from 54 to 60 
 per week. The extent to which the manufac¬ 
 tures of Utah are centred about the two cities, 
 Salt Lake and Ogden, is shown by the fact 
 that 41.8 per cent of the total number of estab¬ 
 lishments, 47.6 per cent of the wage earners, and 
 27.5 per cent of the value of products were at¬ 
 tributed to them. For further details regarding 
 
UTAH 
 
 829 
 
 UTAH 
 
 the manufacturing of these cities see under the 
 individual titles. 
 
 Transportation. There are no navigable 
 rivers. Railways centre mostly about Salt Lake 
 City. The total mileage of main track in 1915 
 was 2354. The most important lines and their 
 mileage in that year are the Denver and Rio 
 Grande, 762; the San Pedro, Los Angeles, and 
 Salt Lake, 498; the Central Pacific, 273; the 
 Oregon Short Line, 242; the Western Pacific, 
 121, and the Union Pacific, 75. 
 
 Banks. The history of banking in Utah is 
 very uneventful. Private bankers became active 
 towards 1860, and from 1860 to 1870 some banks 
 were organized under the Territorial law. The 
 first national bank was established in 1872 with 
 Brigham Young as its president. Like all the 
 economic activities of the Mormons, the banks 
 were controlled by the church authorities, and 
 the high development of mutual confidence which 
 characterizes the members of this faith has 
 saved the banks from crises. Even during the 
 hard times of 1893 the banks of Utah all re¬ 
 mained solvent. State banks are more numer¬ 
 ous and do a much larger business than the 
 national banks. Savings banks have existed 
 since 1873. 
 
 The condition of the banks in 1915 is shown 
 in the following table: 
 
 ITEMS 
 
 National 
 
 banks 
 
 State banks 
 
 Number 
 
 23 
 
 75 
 
 Capital. 
 
 $3,355,000 
 
 4,265,880 
 
 Surplus. 
 
 1,593,000 
 
 1,083,101 
 
 Cash, etc. 
 
 1,651,000 
 
 1,661,447 , 
 
 Deposits. 
 
 21,072,000 
 
 22,715,760 
 
 Loans. 
 
 18,466,000 
 
 20,973,696 
 
 Government. The constitution adopted on 
 Nov. 5, 1895, has been amended in important es¬ 
 sentials. Amendments which may be proposed 
 by either House become part of the constitution 
 when approved by a two-thirds vote of the Legis¬ 
 lature and accepted by the electors. Two-thirds 
 of the members of each branch of the Legisla¬ 
 ture may recommend the calling of conventions 
 to revise the constitution. 
 
 Legislative .—The legislative power is vested 
 in the Senate and the House of Representatives. 
 The initiative and referendum are provided for 
 in the Constitution, though until 1916 they had 
 never been in force. Senators are chosen for a 
 term of four years, and members of the House 
 of Representatives for two years, and both must 
 be at least 25 years of age. Regular sessions of 
 the Legislature are held biennially in odd years. 
 
 Executive .—The executive department con¬ 
 sists of the Governor, Secretary of State, State 
 Auditor, State Treasurer, Attorney-General, and 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction. All hold 
 office for four years. The Governor and Secre¬ 
 tary of State must be at least 30 years of age, 
 and the Attorney-General 25 years. All must 
 have been residents of the State for five years 
 next preceding their election. The State Audi¬ 
 tor and State Treasurer are ineligible for elec¬ 
 tion as their own successors. 
 
 Judicial .—The judicial power is vested in a 
 supreme court, district courts, justices of the 
 peace, and such other inferior courts as are 
 established by law. The supreme court con¬ 
 sists of three judges, who are elected for six 
 years, and must be at least 30 years of age. 
 
 The State is divided into seven judicial districts, 
 for which one or more judges are chosen by the 
 electors for a term of four years. The Legis¬ 
 lature may change the limits of any judicial 
 district, or increase the number of districts or 
 the judges thereof. The district court has ap¬ 
 pellate jurisdiction also from all inferior courts. 
 
 Suffrage and Elections. —Every citizen of the 
 United States of the age of 21 years and up¬ 
 ward, who has been a citizen for ninety days, 
 and has resided in the State for one year and 
 in the county for four months is entitled to vote. 
 Both male and female citizens enjoy equally all 
 civil, political, and religious rights and privi¬ 
 leges. All general elections, except for munici¬ 
 pal and school officers, are held on the first 
 Tuesday following the first Monday in Novem¬ 
 ber of the year in which the election is held. 
 The use of voting machines is permitted. The 
 United States Senators are elected at the gen¬ 
 eral election held in November, beginning 1914. 
 
 Local and Municipal Government. —The unit 
 of local government is the county. Elections 
 are held biennially in each incorporated city 
 and town on the first Monday in November, 
 dating from 1911. In cities of first class there 
 are elected a mayor, four commissioners, and 
 an auditor. The mayor and commissioners are 
 elected for a term of four years, and the audi¬ 
 tor for two years. 
 
 Miscellaneous Constitutional and Statutory 
 Provisions. —There is a board of labor concilia¬ 
 tion and arbitration to safeguard the rights 
 of the labor. There is a law making unlawful 
 certain medicines containing opium, chloral, or 
 alcohol. Employment of any children under the 
 age of 14 in certain designated employments 
 is forbidden. Restrictions are also placed 
 on the employment of females under the age 
 of 21. Indeterminate sentences are provided for 
 persons convicted of crime. The Legislature of 
 1913 passed a measure providing for mothers’ 
 pensions. The State is divided into local op¬ 
 tion units. Each incorporated city and town 
 is a separate voting unit. Each county out¬ 
 side of such cities and towns is a separate vot¬ 
 ing unit to determine whether liquor may be 
 sold. There are heavy penalties provided for 
 the shipment of liquor from “wet” to “dry” 
 territories of the State. 
 
 Finances. The finances are in a satisfactory 
 condition. At the time of admission into the 
 Union the State assumed the small debt of the 
 Territory, amounting to $700,000, and additional 
 bonds to the amount of $200,000 were issued. 
 For the year ending Nov. 30, 1915, the total 
 receipts were $4,358,004 and the expenditures 
 $4,889,893. The balance on hand on Nov. 30, 
 1914, was $1,366,482, leaving a balance of $834,- 
 953 on Nov. 30, 1915. The bonded debt at the 
 close of the year amounted to $3,060,000. 
 
 Militia. The militia consisted, in 1915, of 
 one battalion of infantry, one battery of artil¬ 
 lery, and one troop of cavalry. The strength 
 was represented by 546 enlisted men and 30 
 officers. In 1910 the number of men of militia 
 age (18 to 44 years) was 84,449. 
 
 Population. The population of Utah by 
 periods is as follows: 1850, 11,380; 1860, 40,- 
 273; 1870, 86,786; 1880, 143,963; 1890, 210,779; 
 1900, 276,749; 1910, 373,351; 1915 (estimated) 
 424,300; 1920, 449,396. In 1910 it ranked forty- 
 first among the States in population. The density 
 per square mile in that year was 4.5. The ur¬ 
 ban population in 1910 was 172,934 and the 
 
UTAH 
 
 UTAH 
 
 830 
 
 rural 200,417. The number of males in that 
 year was 192,118. The negro population num¬ 
 bered 1444, the Indian 3123, and the Japanese 
 2110. The native whites numbered 303,190 and 
 the foreign-born whites 63,393. Of the natives, 
 64,475 were born outside the State, those com¬ 
 ing from Illinois, Colorado, Iowa, and Idaho 
 leading in order mentioned. Among the foreign 
 born, the English with 18,082 were by far the 
 most numerous; the Danes numbered 8300, the 
 Swedes 7227, and the Greeks 4039. The males 
 of voting age numbered 104,115 in 1910. The 
 leading cities with their populations in 1910 
 and as estimated for 1915 were Salt Lake City 
 92,777 and 113,567, Ogden 25,580 and 30,466, 
 and Provo 8925 and 10,368. 
 
 Education. The excellent educational condi¬ 
 tion of Utah is witnessed by the low percent¬ 
 age of illiteracy, which amounted to 2.5 in 1910; 
 among whites of native parentage it was 0.4, 
 and among foreign-born whites 5.9. According 
 to the thirteenth census the school population 
 was 104,876, ages 6 to 18 years. Of this 87,- 
 000 attended school. This is a higher rate than 
 was found in any other State except Kansas. 
 According to the report of the State Superin¬ 
 tendent of Education the total school population 
 in 1915 was 121,411. The total enrollment in 
 the public schools was 97,000, and the average 
 attendance was 82,804. There were 2111 fe¬ 
 male and 740 male teachers. Total school ex¬ 
 penditures for the year were $5,206,746. The 
 average salary paid female teachers in elemen¬ 
 tary schools was $71.75 per month, and male 
 teachers $104.22. There were, in 1915, 44 high 
 schools in which were enrolled about 8500 stu¬ 
 dents. All schools outside the cities of the first 
 and the second class are now organized into 
 consolidated county districts. The Mormon 
 church maintains an efficient educational sys¬ 
 tem. In addition to the elementary schools the 
 church sustains two colleges and eight acade¬ 
 mies. All these schools offer liigh-school courses. 
 Three of the institutions, the Snow Academy, 
 Brigham Young College, and the Brigham Young 
 University offer work of college grade. 
 
 There are several excellent Roman Catholic 
 academies and schools. These include All Hal¬ 
 lows College in Salt Lake City and the Sacred 
 Heart Academy at Ogden. Institutions of col¬ 
 legiate rank are the University of Utah (see 
 Utah, University of) and the Utah Agricul¬ 
 tural College at Logan, both State institutions 
 and both coeducational. 
 
 Charities and Corrections. The Mormon 
 church has women’s relief societies organized as 
 the National Women’s Relief Societies. Salt 
 Lake City and Ogden have local charitable asso¬ 
 ciations. The State maintains the State Mental 
 Hospital at Provo, the State Industrial School 
 at Ogden, the School for the Deaf and Blind at 
 Ogden, and the State Penitentiary at Salt Lake 
 City. 
 
 Religion. LTtah is the centre of Mormonism. 
 About three-fourths of its population is allied 
 with the Mormon church. (See Mormons.) 
 In recent years many other denominations have 
 entered the State, of which the Roman Catholics 
 and Methodists are numerically the strongest. 
 
 History. The first white explorers of Utah 
 were Spaniards, sent by Coronado (q.v.), who 
 reached the Colorado River in 1540. Two Fran¬ 
 ciscan friars seeking a direct route to the Pacific 
 went from Santa Fe to Utah Lake in 1776. In 
 the winter of 1824-25, James Bridger, a trapper, 
 
 seeking to determine the course of the Bear River, 
 discovered the Great Salt Lake. Other trappers 
 followed in 1825-26, and established posts in 
 the region. Later immigrants to Oregon and 
 California passed through without halting. The 
 real history begins when the Mormons (q.v.), 
 despairing of peace in Missouri or Illinois, de¬ 
 termined in 1846 to move west. The Mexican 
 War was then in progress, and in June, 1846, 
 while the emigrants were encamped at the site 
 of Council Bluffs, Iowa, a Mormon battalion was 
 raised for the conquest of California, which then 
 included the whole southwestern part of the 
 United States. The march of the Mormon peo¬ 
 ple was slow and painful. On July 21, 1847, 
 the advance guard reached the present site of 
 Salt Lake City. Other bands rapidly followed, 
 and by 1852 they numbered 15,000. The United 
 States did not obtain possession of the territory 
 until the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, 
 and did not immediately provide for its govern¬ 
 ment. At first the church officers were the rul¬ 
 ers, but with the coming of non-Mormons in 
 1849 the State of Deseret was organized, a con¬ 
 stitution adopted, and a delegate sent to the 
 United States Congress asking admission. Con¬ 
 gress refused to admit the State, but organized 
 the Territory of Utah (Sept. 9, 1850) with 
 boundaries much more extended than at present, 
 and Brigham YAung (q.v.) was appointed Gov¬ 
 ernor. He soon quarreled with the other Ter¬ 
 ritorial officers sent out, and the General As¬ 
 sembly adopted the laws of the State of Deseret. 
 In 1854 and again in 1856 admission to the 
 Union was sought. There was constant wrang¬ 
 ling, owing partly to the fact that many of¬ 
 ficers sent out were incompetent and partly be¬ 
 cause the authorities of the church were de¬ 
 termined to rule at any cost. In 1857 it was 
 determined that Young should be superseded as 
 Governor, and for this purpose it was consid¬ 
 ered necessary to make a display of military 
 strength, as Young had defied the authority of 
 the United States. (See Young, Brigham.) For 
 some years troops were kept in garrison at 
 Salt Lake City. An act designed to break up 
 polygamy was passed in 1862. Meanwhile the 
 Perpetual Emigration Fund had been organized 
 in 1849 and thousands of proselytes were brought 
 from Europe. The incoming of non-Mormons 
 was viewed with disfavor. See Mountain 
 Meadows Massacre. 
 
 After the Civil War, the opening of the trans¬ 
 continental railroad in 1869 brought more “gen¬ 
 tiles,” and further efforts to enforce the laws 
 were made by some officers, but with little suc¬ 
 cess. The Mormon grand juries refused to in¬ 
 dict and the other juries to convict. The death 
 of Young in 1877 apparently made no difference 
 in the condition of affairs. It was finally de¬ 
 cided that the only way to break the power of 
 the church was to deprive its members of po¬ 
 litical power. The Edmunds Bill in 1882 dis¬ 
 franchised all polygamists, and abolished most 
 of the offices in*the Territory. Control was 
 given to a commission of five men. Within two 
 years 12,000 were disfranchised and the indig¬ 
 nation was so great that troops were sent in 
 1885 in fear of an uprising. Continued agi¬ 
 tation for statehood brought no result, and 
 meanwhile, after it had been held constitutional 
 that juries might consist entirely of non-Mor¬ 
 mons, prominent officials were convicted and 
 sent to the penitentiary. A more stringent act 
 was passed in 1887, the corporation of the Mor- 
 
UTAH 
 
 UTE 
 
 831 
 
 mon church and the Perpetual Emigration 
 Fund were abolished and their property es¬ 
 cheated. By 1890, 468 men had been convicted 
 of polygamy, and President Woodruff of the 
 Mormon church issued a manifesto declaring 
 that the church no longer countenanced polyg¬ 
 amy, and his action was approved by a general 
 conference of the church. This was followed 
 in 1891 by the formation of political parties on 
 national lines, and in 1893 amnesty was de¬ 
 clared to all offenders who could show that they 
 had not broken the law since 1890. Congress 
 passed an enabling act for statehood in 1894, a 
 constitution was formed on March 6, 1895, was 
 adopted in November, and the State was ad¬ 
 mitted Jan. 4, 1896. The constitution forbids 
 polygamy and allows woman suffrage. Since 
 admission it has been claimed that the people 
 are going back to their old practices, and in 
 1900 Brigham H. Roberts was not allowed to 
 take his seat in the United States House of 
 Representatives because of a charge of polyg¬ 
 amy. Similar opposition was manifested against 
 Senator Reed Smoot, but in February, 1907, the 
 Senate sustained his election. 
 
 In the election of 1908 the vote for President 
 was: Taft, 61,015; Bryan, 52,601; Debs, 4895. 
 William Spry was elected Governor by a major¬ 
 ity of 9538 over his Democratic opponent. The 
 Legislature reelected Senator Smoot in 1909 and 
 Senator Sutherland in 1911. Utah was one of 
 the two States carried by Taft in the election of 
 1912. The vote was: Taft, 42,013; Wilson, 
 36,579; Roosevelt, 24,174. In that year Gover¬ 
 nor Spry was reelected by a vote of 42,552 
 against 36,076 for Tolton, Democrat, and 23,591 
 for Morris, Progressive. In the election of 1914 
 Senator Smoot was again reelected. The Legis¬ 
 lature of 1915 passed a bill providing for State¬ 
 wide prohibition, which was vetoed by Governor 
 Spry after its adjournment. 
 
 In national politics the State voted for the 
 Democratic silver candidate in 1896 but has 
 been strongly Republican since 1900. See also 
 Mormons. 
 
 GOVERNORS OF UTAH 
 
 STATE OF DESERET 
 
 Brigham Young.1849-51 
 
 TERRITORY OF UTAH 
 
 Brigham Young.1851-57 
 
 Alfred Cumming.1857-61 
 
 John W. Dawson. 1861 
 
 Frank Fuller (acting).1861-62 
 
 Stephen S. Harding.1862-63 
 
 James Duane Doty.1863-65 
 
 Charles Durkee.1865-69 
 
 Edwin Higgins (acting). 1869-70 
 
 S. A. Mann (acting). 1870 
 
 J. Wilson Shaffer. 1870 
 
 Vernon H. Vaughan (acting).1870-71 
 
 George L. Woods.1870-74 
 
 S. B. Axtell.1874-75 
 
 George B. Emery.1875-80 
 
 Eli H. Murray.1880-86 
 
 Caleb W. West.1886-89 
 
 Arthur L. Thomas.1889-93 
 
 Caleb W. West.1893-96 
 
 OF THE STATE 
 
 Heber M. Wells.Republican.1896-1905 
 
 John C. Cutler. “ 1905-1909 
 
 William Spry. “ 1909-1917 
 
 S. Bamberger.Democrat 1917-1921 
 
 Charles R. Mabey.Republican.1921- 
 
 Bibliography. Nichols, Mineral Resources of 
 Utah (Pittsburgh, 1873) ; H. H. Bancroft, His¬ 
 tory of the Pacific States (San Francisco, 1889) ; 
 Henry Gannett, Gazetteer of Utah (Washington, 
 1900); M. E. Jones, Utah (New York, 1902); 
 O. F. Whitney, Making of a State: School His¬ 
 
 tory of Utah (Salt Lake City, 1908) ; R. L. 
 Polk, Utah Gazetteer (Chicago, 1909) ; F. J. 
 Cannon, Under the Prophet in Utah (Boston, 
 1911). 
 
 UTAH, University of. A coeducational 
 State institution for higher education founded 
 in Salt Lake City in 1850. It was originally 
 called the LTniversity of the State of Deseret. 
 After one session it was discontinued until 1867, 
 owing to a lack of funds and patronage. In 1891 
 a new charter was secured and the present cor¬ 
 porate title was assumed. The university in 
 the same year received a grant of 60 acres on 
 the Fort Douglas Reservation, and the State 
 Legislature in 1899 appropriated $200,000 for 
 buildings on the new site. Congress in 1906 
 granted the university 32 additional acres on 
 the Fort Douglas Reservation. The university 
 comprises the School of Arts and Sciences, the 
 State Normal School and School of Education, 
 the State School of Mines, established by the 
 State Legislature in 1901, a school of medicine, 
 and a school of law. The attendance in all de¬ 
 partments in the autumn of 1915 was 2191. The 
 teaching force numbered 98, and the library con¬ 
 tains 45,485 volumes and 19,075 pamphlets. 
 The property of the university was valued in 
 1915 at $1,255,000, and the gross annual in¬ 
 come at $245,000. The president in 1916 was 
 J. F. Kingsbury, D.S. 
 
 UTAH LAKE. The largest fresh-water lake 
 in Utah, situated 30 miles southeast of the 
 Great Salt Lake, into which it discharges through 
 the river Jordan (Map: Utah, C 2). It is about 
 21 miles long, and its maximum width is about 
 11 miles, made by an extension to the east. 
 Elsewhere its average width is about 5 miles. It 
 lies on the extreme eastern border of the Great 
 American Basin, at the western base of the 
 Wasatch Range, and at an altitude of 4489 feet. 
 It receives its principal drainage from the east. 
 
 UTAKAMAND. See Ootacamand. 
 
 UTAMARO, oo'ta-ma'ro, Kitagawa (1753- 
 54-1806). A Japanese engraver and designer of 
 color prints. He was born at Kawagoye (Prov¬ 
 ince of Musachi), and studied at Yedo (now 
 Tokio) under the painter Toriyama Sekiven and 
 at the school of Kano. In 1776 he published his 
 first book of woodcuts and about 1780 his first 
 colored album. His fame spread rapidly, reach¬ 
 ing as far as Holland, and he employed many 
 assistants. Utamaro’s work includes illustra¬ 
 tions for poems and romances, landscapes, shells, 
 insects, animals, and scenes from popular life, 
 but his favorite subjects were women. He cre¬ 
 ated a new fascinating type, but in his por¬ 
 trayal of courtesans and professional beauties 
 followed the erotic tendency of his Japanese 
 contemporaries. Among his most famous series 
 are “The Twelve Hours of the Green Houses” 
 (1804) and “Yamauba and Kintoki.” His 
 prints, which show an astonishing variety of 
 technique, are characterized by subtlety of line, 
 animated composition, and delicate transparent 
 color. They are well represented in the Metro- 
 olitan Museum, New York. An excellent ex- 
 ibition of his work was held at the Musee des 
 Arts Decoratifs, Paris, in 1912. Consult the 
 catalogue of this exhibition, compiled by Vignier 
 and Tnada (Paris, 1912), also the monographs 
 by Kurt (Leipzig, 1907) and Goncourt (Paris, 
 1911). 
 
 UTE, fit, or U'TAH. An important tribe of 
 Shoshonean stock (q.v.), who formerly occupied 
 the mountain region of western Colorado and 
 
UTERUS 
 
 UTERUS 
 
 832 
 
 eastern Utah, with portions of the adjacent ter¬ 
 ritory on the north and south, and extended 
 their hunting and raiding expeditions far down 
 into the plains. They were subdivided into 
 bands, of which the principal were the Tabe- 
 quache, Muach'e, Capote, Wiminuche, Yampa, and 
 Uinta. They seem to have been 'the original 
 nucleus of the Shoshonean stock, as commonly 
 recognized, occupying a central position and 
 having no tradition of any earlier home. They 
 were usually at peace with their neighbors and 
 kindred on the north and west, the Shoshoni, 
 Banak, and Piute, and also assumed a protector¬ 
 ship over the Jicarilla, but carried on constant 
 and relentless warfare with the Navajo and with 
 all the tribes of the plains. They were a rest¬ 
 less, warlike, and aggressive people, living en¬ 
 tirely by hunting and on wild fruits and roots, 
 and, like other tribes of the same stock, were 
 democratic in their tribal life, with centralized 
 or hereditary chiefship and careless of cere¬ 
 monial. Their native arts were simple, but by 
 trade with the Navajo and Piute they obtained 
 blankets and baskets, while from the Mexicans 
 and by raids on other tribes they procured herds 
 of horses, sheep, and cattle. Their ordinary 
 dwelling was a brush shelter or small tepee. The 
 Ute made their first treaty with the government 
 in 1850, and by various subsequent treaties were 
 limited in range until the entire body, with the 
 exception of the southern Ute, were removed to 
 the present reservation in Utah. In the fall of 
 1906 the latter left their reserve and moved up 
 to the headwaters of the South Fork of the 
 Platte, refusing to return. As they were armed, 
 a force of cavalry was sent out to force them 
 back. When surrounded the Utes agreed to go 
 to Fort Mead, S. Dak., to await orders from 
 the Indian Department. They claimed that 
 they could not live upon their reserve under the 
 conditions imposed by the officials, and proposed 
 to emigrate to the Big Horn valley. Later they 
 returned to their reservation. In 1910 the total 
 number of Utes was 12,244. See Plate of Amer¬ 
 ican Indians, under Indians. 
 
 U'TERUS (Lat., womb), or Womb. A flat¬ 
 tened, pear-shaped organ, lying behind the sym¬ 
 physis of the pubes in the human female, and 
 constituting her principal generative organ. It 
 consists of a body, a base or fundus, a neck or 
 cervix, and a mouth. It lies in the line of the 
 axis of the outlet of the pelvis (q.v.), with base 
 directed upward and forward, and the neck di¬ 
 rected slightly backward. In the unimpregnated 
 condition it is about three inches in length, two 
 in breadth, and one in thickness. Its walls are 
 nearly half an inch thick, and are mainly com¬ 
 posed of muscle fibres running irregularly in all 
 directions except round the os, where they make 
 a partial sphincter. This muscular coat, which 
 constitutes the bulk of the organ, is covered ex¬ 
 ternally with a serous coat, derived from the 
 peritoneum, and is lined internally by a mucous 
 coat continuous with that of the canal called 
 the vagina, by which the interior of the womb 
 communicates with the outer surface of the 
 body. The neck or cervix is distinguished from 
 the body by a well-marked constriction. The 
 mouth or os projects into the vagina. This 
 opening is nearly round in the virgin and 
 transverse after parturition. It is of consider¬ 
 able size, and is named the os uteri externum; 
 it leads into a narrow canal which terminates at 
 the upper end of the cervix in a smaller opening, 
 the os internum , beyond which is the shallow 
 
 triangular cavity of the womb, of which it forms 
 the lower angle, while the two upper angles, 
 which are funnel-shaped, constitute the begin¬ 
 ning of the Fallopian tubes or oviducts, whose 
 apertures are so small as only to admit the pas¬ 
 sage of a fine bristle. The blood vessels and 
 nerves enlarge in a very remarkable way during 
 pregnancy, so as to adapt themselves to the in¬ 
 creased wants of the organ, which at the ninth 
 
 Uterine Walt 
 Os internum 
 
 2 
 
 Vaginal Wall 
 Os externum 
 
 lateral angle of Uterus 
 
 Cavity of Body 
 ArborVitce 
 Cavity of Cervix 
 Vaginal County 
 
 1, uterus and broad ligament as seen from behind, the 
 latter being spread out. The isthmus tubse, the utero-ovarian 
 ligament, and the round ligament of the left side have been 
 cut short. 2, sectional diagram of the uterine cavity as 
 seen from the front. 
 
 month of uterogestation weighs from 2 to 4 
 pounds. The name “uterine appendages” or 
 “adnexa” is given to the Fallopian tubes and 
 ovaries, which are inclosed by the lateral folds 
 of the peritoneum called the broad ligaments. 
 The uterus is suspended in the pelvic cavity in 
 such a way as, by its mobility, to escape con¬ 
 cussion from without or disturbance from the 
 varying conditions of the surrounding viscera, 
 while at the same time to allow of its vastly in¬ 
 creasing in bulk with comparatively little dis¬ 
 comfort when pregnancy occurs. This is effected 
 by several reduplications of peritoneum, known 
 as the broad, the round, the uterosacral, and 
 the uterovesical ligaments. 
 
 The chief functions of the uterus relate to 
 menstruation (q.v.), insemination, gestation, 
 and parturition. See Embryology; Fcetus; Ob¬ 
 stetrics; Ovary; Sterility; Uterus, Diseases 
 of the. 
 
 UTERUS, Diseases of the. The causes of 
 uterine disease may be divided into those which 
 are operative before marriage, those which arise 
 during married life, and those which depend 
 upon childbearing or its sequels. These causes 
 thus embrace neglect of out-of-door life and 
 physical development; improper dress; impru¬ 
 dence during menstruation; excessive mental 
 strain; the prevention of conception and the 
 production of abortion; the neglect of precau¬ 
 tions after childbirth or the failure to repair 
 lacerations occurring during delivery; disease 
 communicated during sexual intercourse; and 
 habitual constipation. Utter disregard of 
 weather or temperature during menstruation 
 and a continuance of the nervous tension of 
 study during this period are grave and under¬ 
 mining agencies. Too great activity after par¬ 
 turition in women heretofore unaccustomed to 
 
UTHER 
 
 UTICA 
 
 833 
 
 physical labor interferes with the normal con¬ 
 traction of the enlarged uterus, a process re¬ 
 quiring six weeks for its accomplishment. The 
 modern obstetrician is prepared to close lacera¬ 
 tions immediately after delivery, to complete the 
 surgical repairs necessary, and to prevent in¬ 
 fection through bleeding surfaces. A very fruit¬ 
 ful source of uterine disease lies in the preven¬ 
 tion of conception and the procurement of abor¬ 
 tion. Retention of foetal membranes, hemor¬ 
 rhage, septicaemia, peritonitis, are common and 
 often fatal consequences. Gonorrhoea (q.v.) is a 
 frequent and dangerous cause of uterine disease. 
 
 Endometritis is an inflammation of the mu¬ 
 cous lining of the uterus, and may be confined 
 either to the neck or the body of the organ or 
 may affect both. It may be set up by exposure, 
 injury, infection from the vagina (notably gon¬ 
 orrhoeal ), retained foetal membranes, and many 
 other causes. Its symptoms are pain, weight, 
 and oppression in the pelvic cavity and in the 
 back, and an irritating leucorrhoeal discharge. 
 
 Chronic metritis or hyperplasia is often co¬ 
 incident with endometritis and gives rise to simi¬ 
 lar symptoms. The pathological condition pres¬ 
 ent is an enlargement of the uterine walls 
 through increase of connective tissue. 
 
 Laceration of the cervix of the uterus consists 
 of a tearing in the wall of the neck of the organ 
 during labor. It gives rise to all the symptoms 
 noted under endometritis, and sometimes to neu¬ 
 ralgic pains in the uterine region and discom¬ 
 fort in walking. It may be unavoidable during 
 delivery, and most frequently occurs as a result 
 of precipitate labor, or manual or instrumental 
 delivery. It is a frequent cause of lifelong suf¬ 
 fering and distress, which operative interference, 
 in the vast majority of cases, relieves at once. 
 
 Displacement of the uterus, while not a dis¬ 
 ease, gives rise to diseased conditions of much 
 moment, by preventing the escape of menstrual 
 blood, by interfering with the uterine circulation, 
 by causing pressure and friction, and by produc¬ 
 ing sterility. The varieties of displacements 
 are anteflexion, in which the uterus is bent for¬ 
 ward upon itself; anteversion, in which the whole 
 uterus is tilted forward; retroversion, in which 
 the uterus is tilted backward; retroflexion, in 
 which the uterus is bent backward upon itself; 
 lateroversion and lateroflexion, in which the 
 uterus is tilted or bent upon itself sideways; 
 inversion, in which the fundus of the uterus is 
 turned partly or entirely inside out; and pro¬ 
 lapsus, or descent, in which the uterine body 
 slips downward, and even, in the worst degree, 
 causes a protrusion of the cervix at the vulvar 
 orifice. 
 
 Menorrhagia is a condition in which menstru¬ 
 ation is profuse, and an actual hemorrhage oc¬ 
 curs at the menstrual period. Metrorrhagia is 
 the occurrence of profuse menstruation or of a 
 hemorrhage from the uterus in the interval be¬ 
 tween menstrual periods. 
 
 Cancer of the uterus is fairly frequent. The 
 symptoms are pain through the pelvis; tender¬ 
 ness upon walking or moving, or during coition; 
 hemorrhage; discharge of a very offensive fluid 
 from the uterus; pallor and loss of strength and 
 flesh. The treatment is complete removal of 
 the organ and its adnexa. Consult Kelly and 
 Noble, Gynecology and Abdominal Surgery (Phil¬ 
 adelphia, 191G). 
 
 U'THEE. King of Britain and father, by 
 Igerna, of Arthur (q.v.). 
 
 U'TICA (Lat., from Gk. Ovtikt], Outike, ’Itvkti, 
 
 Ityke). An ancient city of Africa, at the north¬ 
 west extremity of the Gulf of Tunis, and about 
 20 miles from the city of Tunis. It was one of 
 the oldest Phoenician settlements on the African 
 coast, though the traditional date of its founda¬ 
 tion (about 1100 b.c. ) seems to rest on no good 
 evidence. Like the other Phoenician cities, it 
 acknowledged the supremacy of the Carthagin¬ 
 ians, though its position was rather that of 
 ally than subject. It was captured by Agathocles 
 (q.v.) in his invasion of Africa at the beginning 
 of the third century b.c., and played an .impor¬ 
 tant part in the Punic Wars. Early submission 
 to Rome in the Third Punic War was rewarded 
 with a large share of Carthaginian territory. In 
 the war between Caesar and Pompeius it became 
 famous as a rallying point of the Pompeians 
 after the battle of Pharsalus, being occupied by 
 Cato. At Utica Cato committed suicide after 
 Caesar’s victory at Thapsus. Utica became a free 
 city under Caesar and it received further privi¬ 
 leges from Augustus. It was destroyed by the 
 Arabs towards the end of the seventh century. 
 The few ruins visible above ground lie west of 
 the river known to the ancients as Bagradas. In 
 1869 A. Daux, a French engineer, made impor¬ 
 tant excavations, by which he located the am¬ 
 phitheatre, capable of holding 20,000 spectators, 
 the theatre, baths, reservoirs, the aqueduct, the 
 fortifications, acropolis, quays, etc. (Consult A. 
 Daux, Le tour du monde, 1872.) The site 
 of the city was anciently on the shore about 27 
 Roman miles northwest of Carthage, but on 
 account of changes in the coast line, caused by 
 the river Bagradas, the spot is at present 
 inland. 
 
 UTICA. A city and the county seat of Oneida 
 Co., N. Y., 95 miles west by north of Albany, 
 on the south bank of the Mohawk River, on the 
 State Barge Canal, and on the New York Cen¬ 
 tral, the New York, Ontario, and Western, the 
 Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western, the Adiron¬ 
 dack and St. Lawrence, and the West Shore rail¬ 
 roads. It is also on the Utica and Mohawk 
 Valley Electric Railroad (Map: New York, E 
 4). It is finely situated at an elevation of about 
 430 feet, and is regularly laid out. Noteworthy 
 are the city hall, the courthouse, the United 
 States Government building, the State Armory, 
 the Munson-Williams Memorial, home of the 
 Oneida Historical Society, the Young Men’s 
 Christian Association building, the Young 
 Women’s Christian Association building, the high 
 school, the Savings Bank of Utica, the Utica 
 Free Academy, and the State Masonic Home. 
 The public library has 84,000 volumes. Other 
 collections include the Oneida Historical Society 
 Library, with more than 7200 volumes, the Utica 
 Law Library, the Utica State Hospital Medical 
 Library, the Young Men’s Christian Association 
 Library, the East Utica Library, the Deutscher 
 Leserverein, and the Faxton Hall Library. 
 Utica has been termed “the city of charities” 
 because of the number of its charitable institu¬ 
 tions, the value of their property, and the large 
 amount annually expended for their mainte¬ 
 nance. The more important of these institutions 
 include the Home for the Homeless, Home for 
 Aged Men and Couples, Utica Orphan Asylum, 
 St. Vincent’s Industrial School, St. John’s Or 
 phan Asylum, House of the Good Shepherd, and 
 the City, Homoeopathic, Faxton’s, St. Luke’s, 
 and St. Elizabeth’s hospitals. A State lunatic 
 asylum also is here. 
 
 Utica is of considerable prominence as a com- 
 
UTIEL 
 
 UTILITARIANISM 
 
 834 
 
 mercial and industrial centre. It is in a rich 
 dairy-farming country and is widely known for 
 its large output of cheese. Hop growing and the 
 cultivation of roses are other important indus¬ 
 tries of the surrounding district. In manufac¬ 
 turing Utica ranks eighth among the cities of the 
 State, its various industrial establishments ac¬ 
 cording to the 1914 census having $30,702,000 
 invested capital and a production valued at 
 $30,490,000. There were 300 establishments, em¬ 
 ploying 14,308 persons. The leading manufac¬ 
 tures are men’s clothing, hosiery and knit goods, 
 cotton and woolen goods, steam fittings and 
 heating apparatus, foundry and machine-shop 
 products, malt liquors, lumber products, firearms, 
 metal beds, cutlery, farm implements, paints, 
 fire extinguishers, automobile parts, office fur¬ 
 niture, and saddlery and harness. For mainte¬ 
 nance and operation the city spends annually 
 about $1,510,000. The chief items are: schools, 
 $422,000; fire department, $178,000; police de¬ 
 partment, $87,000; interest on debt, $90,000; 
 street lighting, $81,000; street cleaning, $63,000. 
 The net debt in 1915 was $2,400,000; and the as¬ 
 sessed valuation of property (real and personal) 
 was $51,000,000. Pop., 1820, 2972; 1880, 33,914; 
 1900, 56,383; 1910, 74,419; 1915 (State census), 
 80,589; 1920, 94,156. 
 
 Utica was settled about 1786 on the site of 
 Fort Schuyler. Until 1798, when it was incor¬ 
 porated as a tovrn under its present name, Utica 
 w T as known as “Old Fort Schuyler.” It received 
 a city charter in 1832. Its growth was slow until 
 after the completion of the Erie Canal in 1825. 
 Consult: Bagg (editor), Memorial History of 
 Utica (Syracuse, 1892) ; and Brown, Butcher, 
 and Goodale, Outline History of Utica and Vicin¬ 
 ity (Utica, 1900). 
 
 UTIEL, 00 -te-aF. A town of Valencia, Spain, 
 45 miles west of the city of Valencia. The 
 principal manufactures are wine, brandy, silk 
 and linen fabrics, and pottery. Municipal pop., 
 1900, 11,560; 1910, 11,777. 
 
 UTIL'ITA'RIANISM (from utilitarian, 
 from utility, from Lat. utilitas, usefulness, profit, 
 from utilis, useful, from uti, to use). The name 
 of the theory of ethics (q.v.) that adopts, as the 
 criterion of right and wrong, of good and bad, 
 the tendency of an action to produce the greatest 
 happiness of the greatest number. John Stuart 
 Mill claims to have coined the word, which w T as 
 suggested to him by the use of the term “utili¬ 
 tarian” in Galt’s Annals of the Parish. 
 
 The doctrine of utility is generally opposed to 
 all those theories that refer us to some internal 
 sense, feeling, or sentiment, for the test of right 
 and wrong; a test usually described by such 
 phrases as a moral sense, conscience, innate 
 moral distinctions, whence utility is sometimes 
 termed the external or objective standard of 
 morality. It is also opposed to the view that 
 founds moral distinctions on the mere arbitrary 
 will of God. Again, it is opposed to the view 
 that the pleasure-giving value of an act to the 
 agent is the test of its goodness or badness (in¬ 
 dividualistic hedonism). 
 
 The utilitarian theory is distinctively a mod¬ 
 ern theory. All ancient hedonisms were more or 
 less individualistic; i.e., the happiness of the 
 agent and not that of his fellow beings was re¬ 
 garded as the ultimate end of all rational action. 
 This is true even of Christianity in so far as 
 it is hedonistic, for the ultimate appeal in Chris¬ 
 tianity is to the individual’s desire for ever¬ 
 lasting happiness, although along with this ap¬ 
 
 peal is another to a benevolent desire for the 
 happiness of one’s neighbors. In the Greek 
 hedonistic systems whatever regard is paid to 
 the well being of others is in the last analysis 
 based on the fact that such consideration for 
 others brings pleasure to one’s self. In modern 
 times Hobbes is the foremost representative of 
 this ancient or individualistic hedonism. Hutche¬ 
 son (q.v.) is perhaps the first writer on ethics 
 v'ho advocated the principle of the greatest hap¬ 
 piness of the greatest number, in this way tran¬ 
 scending the limitations of egoism (q.v.). There 
 are utilitarian tendencies in Hume (q.v.) and 
 even in Locke. Abraham Tucker (q.v.) i3 also 
 to be mentioned as one of the early Utilitarians 
 (1705-74). But Paley (q.v.) and Bentham 
 (q.v.), especially the latter, are to be credited 
 with giving such popular expression to this view 
 that it became current in all centres of English 
 thought. In Paley, however, utilitarianism was 
 combined with theological authoritarianism and 
 with individualistic hedonism, as is shown in his 
 notorious definition of virtue as “the doing 
 good to mankind, in obedience to the will of 
 God, and for the sake of everlasting happiness.” 
 With Bentham the theory was used as a founda¬ 
 tion, not merely of ethics, but also of political 
 and legal reforms. Having in view the neces¬ 
 sity of sacrificing smaller interests to greater, 
 or, at all events, of not sacrificing greater in¬ 
 terests to smaller, he described the ethical end 
 as “the greatest happiness of the greatest num¬ 
 ber.” He illustrated the doctrine by setting 
 it in opposition to asceticism, and to sympathy 
 and antipathy. Asceticism he interpreted to 
 mean the principle that pleasure should be 
 forfeited, and pain incurred, without expecta¬ 
 tion of any compensation. By the principle of 
 sympathy and antipathy he means “the prin¬ 
 ciple which approves or disapproves of certain 
 actions, not on account of their tending to 
 augment the happiness, nor yet on account of 
 their tending to diminish the happiness of the 
 party whose interest is in question, but merely 
 because a man finds himself disposed to ap¬ 
 prove or disapprove of them: holding up that 
 approbation or disapprobation as a sufficient 
 reason for itself, and disclaiming the necessity 
 of looking out for any extrinsic ground.” Ac¬ 
 cording to the utility principle of Bentham, 
 there are “four sanctions or sources of pain and 
 pleasure,” the physical, the political, the moral, 
 and the religious. The physical sanction is the 
 groundwork of all the others. “In a word, the 
 powers of nature may operate of themselves; 
 but neither the magistrate, nor men at large, 
 can operate, nor is God in the case in question 
 supposed to operate, but through the powers of 
 nature.” Bentham attempted to work out a 
 calculus of pleasures, in which he took account 
 of the intensity, the duration, the certainty, 
 the propinquity or remoteness, the fecundity 
 ( = “chance of being followed bv sensations of 
 the same kind”), the purity, and the extent of 
 pleasures and pain. 
 
 John Austin, in his Province of Jurisprudence 
 Determined, has contributed a lucid exposition 
 and a strong defense of the principle of utility. 
 John Stuart Mill has devoted a separate work 
 to the subject, and may be considered as the 
 ablest champion of the doctrine since Bentham’s 
 time. His addition to the theory consists in rec¬ 
 ognizing a distinction of quality as well as of 
 intensity between pleasures. While Bentham 
 had maintained that, “the quality of pleasure be- 
 
UTILITARIANISM 
 
 UTILITARIANISM 
 
 835 
 
 ing equal, push-pin is as good as poetry,” Mill 
 contended that “it is better to be a human be¬ 
 ing dissatisfied than a pig satisfied,” i.e., human 
 discontent is better than swinish pleasures. 
 Since Mill’s day utilitarianism has been com¬ 
 bined with the theory of evolution to form a 
 basis for morality. Among the English advo¬ 
 cates of the combination the best known are 
 Herbert Spencer (q.v.) and Sir Leslie Stephen 
 (q.v.). 
 
 The objections urged against hedonism (q.v.) 
 in general bear against utilitarianism. In addi¬ 
 tion there are arguments which tell against 
 utilitarianism exclusively. Utilitarianism is 
 not practicable for the reason that it is impos¬ 
 sible to estimate the pleasures which in the long 
 run will flow from any course of action. Hu¬ 
 man nature changes very radically in its ca¬ 
 pacity to get pleasures from certain objects. 
 Time was when the cruel torturing of a cap¬ 
 tured enemy brought intense delight to a whole 
 tribe, and was regarded with complete indiffer¬ 
 ence by the rest of mankind, with the excep¬ 
 tion of the victim’s fellow-tribesmen. Now such 
 treatment of captives would shock all Christen¬ 
 dom. Many jokes and jests that centuries ago 
 were appreciated with great relish would fall 
 flat now in good society, and some of them would 
 inflict considerable discomfort upon the hearers. 
 Gladiatorial combats and bull fights are differ¬ 
 ently regarded at different times and places. 
 These are only a few of the large number of 
 instances which might be adduced to show 
 how impossible it is to foresee the hedonic ef¬ 
 fect of actions when a distant future is taken 
 into account. The uncertainties of calculation 
 are great enough when only the pleasure of 
 the agent is concerned (see Hedonism ), but if 
 the pleasures of all mankind, present and future, 
 so far as they are in any way affected by our 
 actions, must be estimated before we can prop¬ 
 erly pronounce upon the morality of any act, 
 then moral judgment becomes impracticable. 
 The reply to tins objection is that while there is 
 no accurate forecasting of pleasures we must 
 make the best estimates possible, or, to use the 
 words of Bishop Butler, “probability is the guide 
 of life.” 
 
 Perhaps, however, the limitations of utilitari¬ 
 anism can be made most patent by asking the 
 question, Why should I seek the greatest pleas¬ 
 ure of the greatest number? Unless I desire 
 that end for itself or desire it because the at¬ 
 tainment of it conduces to some other desired 
 end, it would be impossible to make me regard 
 that end as good or the pursuit of it as right. 
 The savage is not cosmopolitan in his ethics 
 (hence he is not utilitarian), because he is 
 not cosmopolitan in his sympathies. The normal 
 civilized man is not uniformly cosmopolitan in 
 his ethics (hence he is not a utilitarian), be-, 
 cause he is not uniformly cosmopolitan in his 
 sympathies. The average good man cares more 
 for his father and mother, for his wife and 
 children, than he does for strangers. For this 
 reason he does not regard the happiness of a 
 stranger as equally obligatory upon him to 
 pursue as the happiness of some member of 
 his immediate family. But when this ordinary 
 man undergoes an unusual change of heart and 
 comes to care more, say, for the opinion some 
 supernatural being is supposed to have of him 
 than for his own kith and kin, then in order to 
 win that good opinion he may sacrifice the hap¬ 
 piness of his family to that of strangers. It is 
 
 not true, therefore, that we should be benevolent 
 because only thus can we secure the greatest 
 happiness of the greatest number; but, on the 
 contrary, we try to make “the greatest happiness 
 of the greatest number” an end because we are 
 benevolent. But our benevolence is only a part 
 of our endowment, varying in relative intensity 
 in different persons, and in the same person at 
 different times. In addition to our desire for 
 the well-being of others we have an almost count¬ 
 less number of desires for other objects. The 
 realization of these desires enters into the ques¬ 
 tion of the chief end of man. There is no rea¬ 
 son why one desire should be singled out from 
 the complex of desires in order that its realiza¬ 
 tion may be considered the highest good of 
 man—unless this desire is the most imperious 
 of them all and its nonsatisfaction conduces 
 more to the agent’s discontent with life than 
 any other cause. Now there is no question that 
 without some social features the life of most 
 human beings would be robbed of much of its 
 attractiveness, but there is very little evidence 
 to show that the ordinary man would be greatly 
 disturbed for a long time by any failure on 
 the part of humanity at large to get the great¬ 
 est amount of happiness possible. And yet, 
 though universal benevolence is not thus a very 
 strong characteristic of our kind at large, still 
 history seems to show that the reach of the 
 average man’s sympathetic interests is larger 
 now than in tribal times. But, however much 
 greater it may be now than formerly, free play 
 given to one’s impartially benevolent impulses 
 can hardly be regarded as the highest good of 
 all men. 
 
 Bibliography. Hutcheson, Inquiry Concern¬ 
 ing the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and 
 Virtue, etc. (London, 1725) ; Tucker, Light of Na¬ 
 ture Pursued (ib., 1768-74); Jeremy Bentham, 
 Introduction to the Principles of Morals and 
 Legislation (ib., 1789) ; F. E. Beneke, Grund- 
 linien des natiirlichen Systems der praktischen 
 Philosophie (3 vols., Berlin, 1837-40) ; Alexan¬ 
 der Bain, The Emotions and the Will (London, 
 1859) ; George Grote, Examination of Utilita¬ 
 rian Philosophy (Cambridge, 1870) ; Auguste 
 Comte, Positive Philosophy (2d ed., 2 vols., Ed¬ 
 inburgh, 1875) ; T. H. Green, Prolegomena to 
 Ethics (Oxford, 1883) ; Henry Sidgwick, Methods 
 of Ethics (4th ed., London, 1890) ; Friedrich 
 Paulsen, A System of Ethics (New York, 1899) ; 
 Halevv, L’Evolution le la doctrine utilitaire de 
 1789 a 1815 (Paris, 1901); Ernest Albee, His¬ 
 tory of English Utilitarianism (New York, 
 1902) ; J. S. Mill, Utilitarianism, Lxbei'ty, and 
 Representative Government (new ed., London, 
 1910) ; W. E. H. Lecky, History of European 
 Morals (new ed., 2 vols., ib., 1910) ; Leslie 
 Stephen, The English Utilitarians (new ed., 3 
 vols., London, 1912). See also Ethics. 
 
 UTILITY. A term used by economists to 
 signify the capacity of a good, whether article 
 or service, to satisfy a want. The utility oi a 
 good under given circumstances is subjectively 
 measured by its desirability under those circum¬ 
 stances or bv the strength of the desire for it. 
 The term is sometimes used as synonymous with 
 good, as anything which satisfies a want is a 
 good or a utility. In such a statement no ques¬ 
 tion of moral values is raised; regardless of 
 whether a desire is morally good or bad, that 
 which satisfies it has utility. The fact that the 
 intensity of desire for a good decreases as the 
 number of units of the good increases is known 
 
UTMA 
 
 UTRECHT 
 
 836 
 
 as the law or principle of diminishing utility. 
 Thus a second unit has less utility than the 
 first, the third less than the second, and so on. 
 The total utility then is the sum of the utilities 
 of the successive units of the supply. But para¬ 
 doxical as it may appear, this does not prevent 
 the units of supply under specific and unchang¬ 
 ing circumstances from being interchangeable 
 and therefore equal to each other in utility, for 
 though thus interchangeable the law of dimin¬ 
 ishing utility still applies to their consumption. 
 The utility attaching to the last unit purchased 
 under given circumstances is known as the mar¬ 
 ginal utility. See Value. 
 
 UT'MA. The ancient name of the Italian 
 city Udine (q.v.). 
 
 TJTO'PIA (Neo-Lat., from Gk. ov, ou, not + 
 TOTros, topos, place). An impracticable scheme 
 of social regeneration, an imaginary state of so¬ 
 ciety, an ideal country where all things are 
 perfect. The term as thus used goes back to 
 the Utopia of Sir Thomas More (q.v.), a politi¬ 
 cal romance descriptive of a happy society on 
 an imaginary island. This work originally ap¬ 
 peared in Latin at Louvain in 1516 under the 
 title De Optimo Reipublicce Statu deque Nova 
 Insula Utopia and was translated into English 
 by Bishop Burnet. The romance was a disguised 
 exposition of a liberal and rationalistic theory 
 of society, including certain principles that 
 would now be called socialistic. Far from being 
 so unique that it might have been expected to 
 give a generic name to ideal commonwealths, 
 the Utopia is only one of a long series of similar 
 dreams. First in order of both time and im¬ 
 portance is Plato’s Republic, the chief thought 
 of which is that ideal justice can be established 
 only in a commonwealth where every individual 
 has that place in the division of labor for which 
 he is fitted by nature, and where all affairs are 
 directed by the men of superior wisdom, whose 
 government should extend even to provision for 
 the nurture and education of children brought 
 into the world under a system of stirpiculture. 
 Plutarch’s Life of Lycurgus idealizes the social¬ 
 istic state of the Spartans. Bacon’s New Atlan¬ 
 tis (1624-29) pictures a commonwealth in which 
 all men attain happiness through a regulation 
 of life by science. Campanella’s City of the Sun 
 (1637) portrays a community where all live to¬ 
 gether in public buildings, working only four 
 hours a day, and despising idleness. Very dif¬ 
 ferent in its ideal of society is James Harring¬ 
 ton's Oceana (1656), a book which emphasizes 
 the Aristotelian idea of a natural aristocracy 
 among men, and develops fully the thought of 
 personal liberty established under parliamentary 
 government. It exercised a great influence upon 
 the minds of American political thinkers during 
 and after the Revolution. Other Utopias more 
 or less influential have been the Voyage en Sa- 
 lente in F^nelon’s T6l6maque ; Cabet’s Voyage en 
 Icarie (1840), a L T topia of the modern prole¬ 
 tariat; Bulwer Lytton’s The Coming Race 
 (1871); Bellamy’s Looking Backward (1889); 
 William Morris’s News from Noiohere (1890), 
 in which joy in beautiful work is to be the true 
 social bond; and Hertzka’s Freiland (1891). 
 Some of the more important works mentioned, 
 excepting Plato’s Republic, and the nineteenth- 
 century romances, are reprinted in Morley’s 
 Ideal Commonwealths (1886). 
 
 U'TRAQUISTS (from Lat. utraque, nom. pi. 
 neut. of uterque, both, either). The name given 
 to certain reformers of the early fifteenth cen¬ 
 
 tury, who maintained that the Eucharist should 
 be administered “under both forms,” i.e., that 
 the cup, as well as the wafers, should be given 
 to the laity. The movement was a part of the 
 general reform preached by John Huss (q.v.; see 
 Hussites) in Bohemia; it also had political 
 features. The Utraquists represented the mod¬ 
 erates, against the radical Taborites, and were 
 identical with the Calixtines (q.v.). 
 
 UTRECHT, u'trekt, Dutch pron. u'treKt. A 
 province of the Netherlands, bounded by the 
 Zuider Zee and the provinces of North Holland, 
 Gelderland, and South Holland (Map: Nether¬ 
 lands, D 2 ). Area, 534 square miles. It lies 
 mainly in the Rhine basin and has a low, level 
 surface. Agriculture, dairying, and cattle breed¬ 
 ing are the principal industries. Pop., 1909, 
 289,918; 1912, 298,367. Capital, Utrecht (q.v.). 
 
 UTRECHT. A city of the Netherlands, capi¬ 
 tal of the province of the same name. It is 
 situated 22 miles by rail southeast of Amster¬ 
 dam (Map: Netherlands, D 2 ). The Rhine sep¬ 
 arates here into the Old Rhine and the canalized 
 Vecht, and there are also canals traversing the 
 city. Utrecht is a strong outpost of defense 
 for Amsterdam. Besides an inner line of de¬ 
 fensive works there is an outlying chain of forts. 
 The site of the former fortifications surrounding 
 the city are (since 1830) lined by water courses 
 and agreeable promenades. Quaint houses and 
 artistic street scenes are to be seen at every 
 hand, the Gothic being freely in evidence. The 
 famous Gothic cathedral of St. Martin (1254- 
 67), rising in the centre of the town, is the 
 most prominent edifice, and marks the spot 
 where the church of Dagobert and of St. Wille- 
 brord stood. It ranked high for architectural 
 beauty until the nave, which has never been re¬ 
 stored, fell in in 1674 as the result of a storm, 
 thus separating the tower from the rest of 
 the church. The tower, 338 feet high, was be¬ 
 gun in 1321. It has a chime of 42 bells. The 
 graceful Gothic cloisters which merit notice con¬ 
 nect the cathedral with the famous university. 
 (See Utrecht, University of.) The Roman 
 Catholic cathedral of St. Catharine, which has 
 been restored, dates from 1524. The Pope’s 
 house, built in 1517 by Adrian Boeyens, after¬ 
 ward Adrian VI, a native of Utrecht, now con¬ 
 tains municipal offices. The splendid archie- 
 piscopal museum is noteworthy for its rare vest¬ 
 ments, embroideries, carvings, etc., all repre¬ 
 sentative of Christian art. The Museum Kunst- 
 liefde is in the building of the Society of Arts 
 and Sciences, and contains a few notable pic¬ 
 tures by Scorel. The art industrial Museum 
 van Kunstnyverheid, the Fleshers’ Hall (1637), 
 and the mint possess some interest. On the 
 east extends the Malieban—a triple boulevard 
 shaded by six rows of large old lime trees. It 
 leads to Hoogeland Park, and to the Antiqua¬ 
 rian Museum, which is housed in an edifice of 
 Greek pattern. The museum contains many 
 varieties of antiquities belonging to Roman, 
 Germanic, and mediaeval times. The interesting 
 royal Chateau of Soestdyk, where the reigning 
 family often sojourns, is a few miles to the 
 north. 
 
 Besides the university with its numerous col¬ 
 lateral institutions, including laboratories and 
 a museum, Utrecht has the only veterinary 
 school in the Netherlands, and an important 
 meteorological observatory. The Historical So¬ 
 ciety and the Society of Arts and Sciences hold 
 a leading rank. The large university library 
 
UTRECHT 
 
 UVAROVITE 
 
 837 
 
 is in the palace erected for King Louis Napo¬ 
 leon. The military hospital was founded by 
 Napoleon I. Utrecht has manufactures of cloth, 
 woolens, silk, velvet, carpets, carriages, organs, 
 cigars, chemicals, etc. The communal popula¬ 
 tion at the end of 1912 was 122,853. About one- 
 third of the inhabitants are Catholics. In ad¬ 
 dition to the Roman Catholic archbishop, 
 Utrecht is the seat of an old Catholic (Jansen - 
 ist) archbishop. 
 
 History. Utrecht was the Roman Trajectum 
 ad Rhenum. The bishopric of Utrecht, founded 
 at the close of the seventh century by St. Wil- 
 librord, rose to importance under the patronage 
 of the German emperors, and the bishops be¬ 
 came prominent in their capacity as temporal 
 princes among the feudal lords of the Holy Ro¬ 
 man Empire. The city of Utrecht, having be¬ 
 come very flourishing, succeeded in emancipating 
 itself from the rule of the bishops. In 1528 the 
 bishopric and city passed into the possession of 
 the Emperor Charles V. In 1559 the see was 
 elevated to the rank of an archbishopric. The 
 Union of Utrecht, a compact joining together 
 the seven provinces which were to form the 
 Dutch Republic, was concluded in 1579. The 
 famous Treaty of Utrecht, terminating the War 
 of the Spanish Succession, was signed here in 
 
 1713. Consult Karl Hegel, Stadte und Gilden 
 der Germanischen Vbiker, vol. ii (Leipzig, 1891). 
 
 UTRECHT, Peace of. The general designa¬ 
 tion for a number of treaties which were con¬ 
 cluded between the years 1713 and 1715 and 
 brought to an end the War of the Spanish Suc¬ 
 cession. (See Succession Wars.) On April 
 13, 1713, peace was signed at Utrecht between 
 France on the one hand and England, Holland, 
 Prussia, Savoy, and Portugal on the other. 
 Spain concluded treaties with England July 13, 
 with Savoy August 13, with Holland June 26, 
 
 1714, and with Portugal Feb. 6, 1715. The 
 treaty between France and Austria was signed 
 at Rastadt March 7, 1714, and this was ad¬ 
 hered to by the Empire at Baden in September. 
 The most important provisions of the various 
 treaties were as follows: Philip V, of the house 
 of Bourbon, was recognized as King of Spain 
 and the Indies, but it was stipulated that the 
 crowns of Spain and France should never be 
 united in the same person. Spain ceded to 
 the Emperor, Naples, Milan, Sardinia, and 
 the Netherlands; to England, Gibraltar and 
 Minorca: to Savoy, the island of Sicily; to Prus¬ 
 sia, Upper Gelderland. France surrendered its 
 hold on Lorraine and gave up Kehl, Breisach, 
 and Freiburg on the right bank of the Rhine, 
 but retained Alsace with Strassburg. To Eng¬ 
 land it ceded Acadia, Hudson’s Bay, and New¬ 
 foundland, with the reservation of certain rights 
 of fishery on the Banks. Louis XIV recognized 
 the title of the house of Hanover to the English 
 throne, and agreed to expel the Pretender from 
 France. The Electors of Cologne and Bavaria, 
 allies of France, were restored to their pos¬ 
 sessions. The Dutch were given the right of 
 garrisoning eight frontier towns in the Aus¬ 
 trian Netherlands as a barrier against any fu¬ 
 ture aggressions on the part of France. Their 
 commercial interests were favored by the pro¬ 
 vision which kept the Scheldt closed to trade. 
 The Prussian King received confirmation of his 
 royal title and the Duke of Savoy was raised 
 to the kingly dignity. (See Sardinia, King¬ 
 dom of.) England, in addition to its conquests 
 from France and Spain, received from both 
 
 valuable trading privileges, and in the so-called 
 Assiento (q.v.) with the latter laid the basis 
 of an extremely lucrative slave trade with Span¬ 
 ish America. The Peace of Utrecht effected the 
 most important political rearrangement in Eu¬ 
 rope between the Peace of Westphalia and the 
 Congress of Vienna. Though France received 
 far more favorable terms than it might have 
 been forced to accept, Europe was secured from 
 its ambitions by the aggrandizement of its neigh¬ 
 bors, Austria and Holland on the north, Prus¬ 
 sia on the east, and Savoy on the southeast. 
 With Utrecht the last two Powers definitely 
 entered upon the line of development which was 
 to result in a united Germany and a united Italy 
 in the nineteenth century. From Utrecht dates 
 England’s marvelous commercial and colonial 
 growth. Consult Ilistoire du oongrbs et de la 
 paix d’Utrecht comme aussi de celle de Rastatt 
 et de Bade (Utrecht, 1716). 
 
 UTRECHT, University of. A national uni¬ 
 versity of the Netherlands, founded in 1636 upon 
 the basis of a “schola illustfis,” established two 
 years earlier by the city and province of Utrecht. 
 During the French occupation in 1672 the uni¬ 
 versity was closed. It was reopened in 1674 
 with only 22 students, which number, however, 
 increased to about 230 by the early part of the 
 eighteenth century. Nearly one-third of the 
 students came from Great Britain. The uni¬ 
 versity experienced another decline of fortune 
 in 1811-13, as a result of the Napoleonic con¬ 
 quest, but has flourished since its reopening as 
 a royal university in 1815. (For its place in 
 the national system of education, see the section 
 on the Netherlands under University.) It is 
 divided into five faculties—theology, law, medi¬ 
 cine, mathematics and science, and letters—and 
 had, in 1912-13, 1096 students. There are 21 
 laboratories and clinics, and an observatory, in 
 connection with the university. The library con¬ 
 tains about 250,000 volumes, exclusive of pam¬ 
 phlets and dissertations. 
 
 UTRERA, oo-tra'ra. A town of the Province 
 of Seville, Spain, 17 miles southeast of the city 
 of that name, with which it has railway con¬ 
 nection (Map: Spain, C 4). The town is situ¬ 
 ated in a fertile plain sloping to the Guadaira 
 River. It has manufactures of spirits, flour, 
 and soap. Parts of its mediaeval walls are still 
 standing. Pop., 1900, 14,318; 1910, 15,460. 
 
 UTSUNOMIYA, oot'su-no-me'ya. The capi¬ 
 tal of the Prefecture of Tochigi, Japan, 66 miles 
 north of Tokio (Map: Japan, F 5). Pop., 1908, 
 47,114. 
 
 UTUADO, oo-twa'oo. A municipality of 
 Porto Rico in the Province of Arecibo, 18 miles 
 north-northwest of Ponce on the highway from 
 Arecibo to Ponce (Map: Porto Rico, C 2). The 
 city is situated in a district abounding with 
 caves in which have been found relics of the 
 early Indians. The cultivation of coffee and 
 sugar cane is the chief industrv. There is a 
 municipal hospital and a public library. The 
 municipalitv was founded in 1739. Pop., 1910, 
 41,054. 
 
 UVALDE, vi-val'de. A town and the county 
 seat of Uvalde Co., Texas, 91 miles by rail 
 southwest of San Antonio, on the Leona River, 
 and on the Galveston, Harrisburg, and San An¬ 
 tonio and the San Antonio, LTvalde, and Gulf 
 railroads (Map: Texas, C 5). Fort Inge, an 
 armv post of Indian days, is 2 miles distant. 
 Pop.', 1900, 1889; 1910, 3998. 
 
 UVAROVITE, oo-va'rof-Tt. See Garnet. 
 
UVA URSI 
 
 UZ 
 
 838 
 
 U'VA UE/SI. Bearberry. A plant indige¬ 
 nous to the Northern Hemisphere, growing in dry 
 rocky places and found in the eastern United 
 States as far south as Pennsylvania, and in New 
 Mexico and California. Its botanical name is 
 Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, of the natural order 
 Ericaceae. The leaves are used in medicine in 
 the form of an extract and fluidextract, as a 
 diuretic, astringent, and disinfectant to the uri¬ 
 nary mucous membranes. It is given in pyeli¬ 
 tis, cystitis, and gonorrhoea, and also in dropsical 
 conditions. The chief constituents of uva ursi 
 are arbutin and ericolin, bitter glucosides, and 
 ursone, tannic acid, and gallic acid. 
 
 UVEDALE. See Udall. 
 
 U'VULA. See Palate. 
 
 UX'BRIDGE. A town in Worcester Co., 
 Mass., 19 miles south-southeast of Worcester, 
 on the Blackstone River, and on the New York, 
 New Haven, and Hartford Railroad (Map: Mas¬ 
 sachusetts, D 4). It has granite quarries, and 
 cotton, yarn, and woolen mills. Pop., 1900, 
 .3599; 1910, 4671. 
 
 UYEDA, ob'ya-da. A town in the Prefecture 
 of Nagano, Japan, situated in the central part 
 of Hondo, 21 miles southeast of Nagano (Map: 
 Japan, F 5). It manufactures chiefly silks. 
 Pop., 1908, 23,838. 
 
 UYUK, oo-yook'. A noted archaeological 
 site in Asia Minor. See Eyuk. 
 
 UZ (Heb. ‘us). The land of the patriarch 
 Job, and probably also the name of his people. 
 In Job i. 3 he is said to be one of the Bene 
 Kedem, an Aramaic people living east of the 
 Dead Sea and the Arabah (see Kadmonites ). 
 In Lam. iv. 21 the “land of Uz” appears as a 
 synonym of Bath Edom, “the daughter of 
 Edom.” According to the colophon in the Greek 
 version Job “lived in Ausitis in the borders of 
 Idumaea and Arabia,” and the same statement 
 is found in the Peregrinatio Sylvice and in a pas¬ 
 sage from Aristeas quoted by Eusebius ( Prcep. 
 Ev., ix, 25). Uz appears as the eponymous an¬ 
 cestor of an Aramaic tribe in Gen. x. 23 (oldest 
 son of Aram), and in Gen. xxii. 21 (oldest son 
 of Nahor, brother of Buz). The representation 
 of Uz as a descendant of Seir (Gen. xxxvi. 28) 
 probably indicates only that this Aramaic tribe 
 lived in the territory of Mount Seir. The names 
 and homes of the friends of Job point in the 
 same direction. Eliphaz of Teman, a district in 
 Edom, appears in Gen. xxxvi. 4 as a son of 
 Esau. Bildad, the Shuhite, may be identical 
 with Bedad, the father of Hadad, the third King 
 of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 35), and Shuah was re¬ 
 garded as an uncle of Sheba and Dedan (mod¬ 
 ern el Ula). Zophar, as the Greek text shows, 
 was a son of Eliphaz (Gen. xxvi. 11, 15), and 
 Na‘amah is likely to be a transposition of Ma'an, 
 rendered Minaean by the Greek. Eliliu came 
 from Buz, which is associated with Dedan and 
 Teima in .Jer. xxv. 23. If, as the Greek trans¬ 
 lator thinks, Job is identical with Jobab, the 
 second King of Edom, Gen. xxxvi is clearly the 
 quarry drawn upon in the Book of Job, and the 
 land of Uz is a part of the ancient Edomitish 
 territory, easily exposed to raids from the city 
 of Sheba and by the Aramaic tribe Kesed. 
 Josephus speaks of Ouses as the founder of 
 Trachonitis and Damascus (Ant., i, 6, 4) ; Ara¬ 
 bic geographers localized the city of Job at 
 Nawa, and his house, Der Ayyub, not far from 
 Nawa; and this region has also been assumed 
 to be the home of Job by Wetzstein and Barton. 
 But Dhorme has convincingly shown that this 
 
 implies a transfer of the story from the Edomit¬ 
 ish Dinhaba, the city of Jobab, to the Dinhaba 
 of the Hauran. The mistaken notion that there 
 could be no Aramaean tribes as far south as 
 in the region occupied by the Aramaic-speaking 
 Nabataeans probably also had something to do 
 with this change. Consult: P. J. G. Wetzstein, in 
 Franz Delitzsch, Eiob (2d ed., Leipzig, 1876) ; 
 also references under Uz (article following). 
 
 UZ (Heb. ‘us). 1. The eponymous ancestor 
 
 of an Aramaic tribe, represented as the oldest 
 son of Aram in Gen. x. 23, as the oldest son of 
 Nahor and brother of Buz in Gen. xxii. 21. In 
 Gen. xxxvi. 28 Uz is a descendant of Seir; this 
 statement possibly affirms that the Aramaean 
 tribe occupied a part of the territory of the 
 Horites, or cave dwellers, in Mount Seir. Buz 
 is mentioned with Dedan and Teima in Jer. xxv. 
 23; Dedan is apparently the modern el Ula; 
 Teima still exists in the same neighborhood; 
 Buz, therefore, is likely to have been in northern 
 Hejaz; and Uz seems to have been an Aramaean 
 tribe in the border of Edom and Hejaz. 2. The 
 home of Job (i. 1). He is said to be one of 
 the Bene Kedem. The Kedem tribe, or Kad¬ 
 monites (q.v.), lived east of the Dead Sea and 
 the Arabah, and were Aramaeans. Eliphaz, the 
 friend of Job, came from Teman in S. Edom; 
 Bildad, another friend, from Suah, who ap¬ 
 pears as an uncle of Sheba and Dedan; Zophar, 
 the third friend, from Na‘amah, or Ma‘an (in 
 Greek Minaean) ; and Elihu from Buz. It 
 is also to be noted that Eliphaz appears in 
 Gen. xxxvi. 4, as a son of Esau; Zophar in Gen. 
 xxxvi. 11, 15, according to the Greek version, as 
 a son of Eliphaz; and Bildad apparently, in 
 the abbreviated form Bedad, as the father of 
 Adad, King of Edom, in Gen. xxxv. 35. In the 
 Greek version Job is said to have lived in Ausi¬ 
 tis in the border of Idumaea and Arabia; the 
 same statement is found in the Peregrinatio Syl¬ 
 via ?, and in a passage from Aristeas quoted by 
 Eusebius. The idea that the Aramaeans lived 
 farther north probably led Josephus to speak 
 of Ouses as the founder of Damascus and Tra¬ 
 chonitis, and Arabic geographers to localize the 
 city of Job at Nawa, and the house of Job not 
 far from there. Barton assumes that neither 
 Sabaeans nor the Chaldaeans originally occurred 
 in the text, but only “captors” and “horsemen,” 
 and that Uz was in the Hauran; Dhorme more 
 plausibly thinks of the city of Sheba and the 
 tribe of Kesed as the enemies falling upon Job’s 
 property and locates Job on the borders of 
 Edom and Arabia. It is not improbable that the 
 land of Uz was the territory in this region oc¬ 
 cupied by the Aramaic tribe of Uz. Consult: 
 P. Dhorme, “Le pays de Job” in Revue Bib- 
 lique Internationale (Paris, 1911); Nathaniel 
 Schmidt, in Messages of the Poets (New York, 
 1911) ; G. A. Barton, “The Original Home of the 
 Storv of Job,” in Journal of Biblical Literature 
 (Boston, 1912). 
 
 UZ, dots, Johann Peter (1720-96). A Ger¬ 
 man poet, born at Ansbach and educated at 
 Halle, where he became the friend of Gleim 
 and Gotz. He was in his day prominent in 
 the group of German anacreontic poets. His 
 works include Si eg des Liebesgottes (1753), 
 Versuch iiber die Kunst stets frohlich zu sein 
 (1760), and Poetische Schriften (1804). Con¬ 
 sult: Feuerbach, Uz, ein biographischer Versuch 
 (Leipzig, 1866) ; Henneberger, Briefe von Uz 
 an einen Freund aus 1753-1782 (Leipzig, 1866) ; 
 Petzet, Joliann Peter Uz (Ansbach, 1896). 
 
UZANNE 
 
 UZZIEL 
 
 839 
 
 UZANNE, u'zan' (Louis) Octave (1852- 
 ). A French bibliophile and litterateur, 
 born at Auxerre. He founded the monthly re¬ 
 view Le Livre, which he edited (1880-89), and 
 then L’Art et les Idees (1892). He was one of 
 the original members of the Society of Contem¬ 
 porary Bibliographers established in 1889. His 
 best work includes: Caprices d’un bibliophile 
 ( 1877) ; La chronique libertine du XVIlIe siecle 
 (1879-83); Les zigzags d’un curieux (1889); 
 Notes pour la bibliographie du XIXe siecle 
 (1894); Contes pour les bibliophiles (1895); 
 Dictionnaire bibliophilosojiliique (1890); L’Art 
 dans la decoration exterieure dcs livres en 
 France et d Vstranger (1898); L’Art et les 
 artifices de la beaute (1902); Les deux Cana¬ 
 letto, biographie critique (1907) ; L’Egypte con- 
 temporaine (1909); Parisiennes de ce temps 
 (1910); Le c6libat de Vamour (1912). 
 
 UZ'BEKS, or US'BEGS. A people of the 
 Oxus basin in Russian Turkestan, scattered 
 from the frontiers of the Chinese Empire to 
 the Caspian. They are in part nomadic, but 
 have settled in great numbers in the towns and 
 villages. By language they belong to the Turkic 
 stock, but they have a considerable strain of 
 Iranian blood and possess many elements of 
 Asiatic Aryan culture. The early home of the 
 Uzbeks is generally considered to have been about 
 the northern end of the Caspian Sea, whence 
 they spread as conquerors in the sixteenth cen¬ 
 tury over Balkh, Khiva, Bokhara, Ferghana, and 
 Khokand. 
 
 UZENSK, Novo. See Novo-Uzensk. 
 
 UZZIAH, uz-zl'a (Heb. ‘Uzziyydh or ‘TJzziy- 
 ydihu, Yahwe is my strength), or Azariah (Heb. 
 ‘Azarydih or ‘Azarydhu, Yahwe helps). A king 
 of Judah, son of Amaziah (2 Kings xv. 1-7; 2 
 Chron. xxvi). The relation of the two names 
 is uncertain. They may be practically syno¬ 
 nyms, double names occurring in the Davidic 
 line, or possibly one is a textual corruption of 
 the other. Uzziah is assigned a reign of 52 
 years, but seems to have reigned himself only 
 40 (c.777-737 b.c.). The Book of Kings simply 
 recounts his piety, and that he was smitten with 
 leprosy in the latter part of his reign, his son 
 Jotham becoming Regent. The Chronicler repre¬ 
 sents Uzziah as a successful warrior, subduing 
 the Philistines, and driving back the Arabians 
 and Ammonites, and so extending his boundaries 
 southward. He added to the fortifications of 
 Jerusalem, fortified the Negeb (q.v.), and zeal¬ 
 ously developed the royal domains. The stroke 
 of leprosy is represented as due to the pride 
 created by his success; he is said to have ar¬ 
 rogated to himself the right to offer incense 
 in the temple, and, when he persisted against 
 the high priest, to have been stricken with the 
 plague. Uzziah was the contemporary of Jero¬ 
 boam II (q.v.) of Israel. Isaiah records that 
 his prophetic vision came in the year Uzziah 
 died. Consult the histories of Israel quoted in 
 the article on Jews. 
 
 UZZIEL, Jonathan ben. See Jonathan ben 
 UZZIEL. 
 
y 
 
 V The twenty-second letter and seven¬ 
 teenth consonant of the English 
 alphabet. Its form corresponds to 
 the Roman V, which answers to the 
 Greek upsilon (T, v), and that in 
 turn was a variation of the Phoe¬ 
 nician v (vau). (See Alphabet.) In Latin v 
 and u were used indifferently to represent either 
 the consonantal or the vocalic sound. See U. 
 
 Sound and Philological Value. As a pho¬ 
 netic character v in modern English is a voiced 
 labiodental spirant. Its corresponding voiceless 
 character is /. The sound is produced by the 
 breath passing between the lower lip pressed 
 against the upper teeth. The philological sources 
 of the letters are various. When not initial, 
 Eng. v may represent (1) Indo-Ger. bh, as in 
 Eng. love, Ger. liebe, Skt. lubh, to desire; (2) 
 Indo-Ger. p, as in Eng. over, Ger. iiber, Skt. 
 upari. In a few words initial v in English rep¬ 
 resents Indo-Ger. p — AS. /, as in vat, AS. 
 feet; vane, AS. fana; vixen, AS. fixen. In these 
 cases v is due to the influence of the Southern 
 English dialect which gave a voiced sound regu¬ 
 larly to the older English /. Often initial v 
 in English is a sign of a loan word from Latin 
 or French, as in villa, voice, vacation. 
 
 As a Symbol and Abbreviation. V in chem¬ 
 istry = vanadium. In Roman numerals V = 5; 
 
 V = 5000. v = Lat. vide, see. See Phonetics. 
 
 Bibliography. Philippe Berger, Histoire de 
 Vdcriture dans Vantiquity (2d ed., Paris, 1892) ; 
 Henry Sweet, The Sounds of English (Oxford, 
 1908) ; Maurice Prou, Manuel de paleographie 
 latine et franqaise (3d ed., Paris, 1910); Sir 
 E. M. Thompson, Introduction to Greek and Latin 
 Palaeography (London, 1912) ; W. M. Flinders 
 Petrie, The Formation of the Alphabet (ib., 
 1912) ; Eduard Stucken, Der Ursprung des Al¬ 
 phabets (Leipzig, 1913). 
 
 VAAL, val (Dutch, yellow, a partial trans¬ 
 lation of the native name Kai Gariep, yellow 
 river). The chief tributary of the Orange 
 River in South Africa, regarded by some as the 
 true upper course of the main stream. It rises 
 on the west slope of the Drakensberg, flows west 
 and soutliwestward on the boundary between the 
 provinces of Transvaal and Orange Free State, 
 and joins the Orange in the Province of the Cape 
 of Good Hope after a course of between 500 and 
 600 miles (Map: Cape of Good Hope, J 6). 
 
 VAC, or VACH, vach (Skt., word, voice). In 
 Hindu mythology, the personification of speech, 
 later identified with Sarasvati, the divine em¬ 
 bodiment of eloquence and learning and wife of 
 Brahma (q.v.). She is celebrated in one late 
 
 hymn of the Rig-Veda as the conferrer of life, 
 wealth, and power on mortals. A later mete¬ 
 orological interpretation regards her as “the 
 voice of the midair” or the thunder. Certain 
 attempts have been made to compare Vac as 
 “the divine word” with the Logos (q.v.), or 
 Word of the Fourth Gospel, but any parallelism 
 between them is due merely to accidental coinci¬ 
 dence. Consult: Hopkins, Religions of India 
 (Boston, 1895) ; id., India Old and New (New 
 York, 1901) ; Macdonell, Vedic Mythology 
 (Strassburg, 1897) ; Muller, Six Systems of In¬ 
 dian Philosophy (New York, 1899). 
 
 VACA, va'ka, Alvar Nunez Cabeza de. See 
 Nunez Cabeza de Vaca. 
 
 VACANDARD, va'kaN'dar', ElphLge (1849- 
 ). A French Qhurch historian. He was 
 born at Melleville and became a priest and doctor 
 of theology. He wrote: Saint Bernard (1877) ; 
 Abelard, sa lutte avec Saint Bernard (1881) ; Vie 
 de Saint Bernard (1895; new ed., 1910), crowned 
 by the French Academy; La confession sacramen- 
 telle dans Veglise primitive (1903) ; L’Inquisition 
 (1907; Eng. trans., new ed., 1915); Etudes de 
 critique et d'histoire religieuse (3 series, 1905- 
 12 ). 
 
 VACARESCO, va'ka-res'ko, Helene (Elena 
 Vacarescu ) (1866— ). A Rumanian poet 
 
 and novelist. Born at Bucharest, she came of 
 a family notable in letters since the middle of the 
 eighteenth century. She received part of her edu¬ 
 cation in Paris, and for a time, as maid of honor 
 to Queen Elizabeth (Carmen Sylva), resided at 
 the Rumanian court. After 1892 she lived mostly 
 in Paris. Her Chants d’aurore (1886) was 
 crowned by the French Academy, as was also 
 Le rhapsode de la Ddmbovita (1900), a collec¬ 
 tion of Rumanian folk songs translated into 
 French. This appeared in an English transla¬ 
 tion by Carmen Sylva and A. Shettell as The 
 Bard of the Dimbovitza (new ed., 1902). For 
 L’Ame sereine (1896) she was awarded the Jules 
 Favre prize by the French Academy. Her writ¬ 
 ings also include: Lueurs et flammes (1903); 
 Kings and Queens I Have Known (1904) ; Songs 
 of the Valiant Voivode and Other Strange Folk¬ 
 lore (1905) ; Le jardin passionne (1908) ; Amor 
 vincit (1909); Royal Lovers: The Adventures 
 of Two Empresses (1909). 
 
 VACATION SCHOOL. A term used, quite 
 arbitrarily, to indicate a school kept in many 
 American cities during' the customary summer 
 vacation for the children of the public schools. 
 The term has no reference to the more advanced 
 schools connected with universities and colleges 
 or with popular educational institutions such as 
 
VACCINATION 
 
 VACCINATION 
 
 841 
 
 the Chautauqua (q.v.), though the motive for 
 the establishment of these more advanced schools 
 may be much the same. The vacation school is 
 of very recent establishment, save in a few iso¬ 
 lated instances, and owes its origin to the work 
 of philanthropic societies in caring for the chil¬ 
 dren of the poor of the larger cities during 
 the extreme heat of the summer. While there 
 are sporadic instances of such schools kept by 
 these societies as early as 1866, when the old 
 First Church in Boston conducted one, and there 
 are even some instances of school boards provid¬ 
 ing for such work, as in Newark, N. J., in the 
 same year, the movement has become of impor¬ 
 tance only since 1898, when the Board of Educa¬ 
 tion of the city of New York took over the 
 schools primarily founded by the Society for the 
 Improvement of the Condition of the Poor. Dur¬ 
 ing 1913-14 that city provided 213 play centres 
 of different kinds and 36 vacation schools, the 
 former with an average daily attendance of 140,- 
 168 and 27,107 at the latter. At the present 
 time all the large cities of the country and many 
 of the small ones, to the extent of some 200 in 
 all, support such schools. The work of the va¬ 
 cation school is of a much more practical nature 
 than that of the ordinary session and is de¬ 
 voted more to constructive work and organized 
 play by the child. Consequently manual train¬ 
 ing, housekeeping, sewing, together with nature 
 work, local history, and geography, combined 
 with excursions, form a prominent part of the 
 curriculum. During the last few years, however, 
 work of more serious character has been intro¬ 
 duced in the upper grades and in the high schools 
 to enable backward pupils to catch up with their 
 work, or more ambitious pupils to make more 
 rapid progress. The idea of vacation schools is 
 being fostered and has met with success in Lon¬ 
 don through the efforts of Mrs. Humphry Ward. 
 Consult C. A. Perry, Wider Use of the School 
 ■ Plant (New York, 1910). 
 
 VAC'CINA'TION (from vaccine, from Lat. 
 vaccinus, relating to a cow, from vacca, cow; 
 connected with Skt. vasd, cow, from vds, to bel¬ 
 low, or perhaps with uksan, bull). Inoculation 
 with vaccinia or cowpox, to protect the indi¬ 
 vidual against smallpox. 
 
 History. Many years before the time of 
 Jenner it was observed in widely separated lo¬ 
 calities that accidental infection with cowpox 
 conferred immunity against smallpox. Immer- 
 mann quotes Von Humboldt as referring in his 
 travels in the tropics (1803) to the fact that 
 native shepherds in the Mexican Cordilleras be¬ 
 lieved in the protection afforded by vaccinia 
 against smallpox, and quotes Brun as making 
 a similar statement in reference to the clan 
 of Elihots in Baluchistan. Peasants in different 
 parts of Europe, especially in the southern part 
 of England, in Holstein, Mecklenburg, Hanover, 
 and Saxony were firmly convinced of the fact. 
 It was known to most Oriental peoples, from 
 whom the idea was introduced into England by 
 the communications of Tinsoni and Pilarini to 
 the Royal Society in 1713, and was taken up by 
 Sir Hans Sloane four years later. In 1721 Lady 
 Mary Montague had her five-year-old daughter 
 inoculated in England, probably the first Euro¬ 
 pean to receive preventive vaccination, while Dr. 
 Zabdiel Boylston inoculated his son and two 
 negro slaves in Boston in the same year. In 
 the smallpox epidemic in Boston in 1752, 2000 
 people were inoculated. In 1763 Dr. Heim, of 
 Saxe-Meiningen, learned through his father, a 
 
 clergyman, that milkmaids of that country 
 neighborhood asserted their belief in the pro¬ 
 tective influence of accidental vaccinia against 
 variola. The English physicians Sutton and 
 Fewster inoculated with human smallpox in 
 1764 nearly 20,000 people during an epidemic 
 in England. Medical men paid but little heed 
 to their reports, and apparently further ex¬ 
 periments were not made by them. A Glouces¬ 
 tershire farmer, Benjamin Jesty, inoculated suc¬ 
 cessfully his wife and two sons with bovine virus 
 in 1774. It is further reported that Platt, a 
 school teacher near Kiel, vaccinated two children 
 with bovine virus to protect them from an epi¬ 
 demic of smallpox in 1791. But great and last¬ 
 ing credit is no less due to Edward Jenner 
 (q.v.), who in 1778 began a thorough scientific 
 investigation of the matter, and placed the per¬ 
 formance of vaccination in its proper place 
 among prophylactic procedures. His experiments 
 were very numerous and accurate. The first 
 mention of individuals occurs in the history of 
 the inoculation on May 14, 1796, of the eight- 
 year-old James Phipps with vaccine virus from a 
 vesicle on the person of a milkmaid, Sarah 
 Nelwes, who had accidentally acquired cowpox. 
 This was probably the first vaccination of a 
 patient with humanized virus of the first genera¬ 
 tion. A typical case of cowpox developed in 
 Phipps, and subsequent attempted inoculation 
 with smallpox virus proved negative. Jenner 
 followed this experiment with an inoculation 
 with bovine virus, and then inoculated from indi¬ 
 vidual to individual for five generations, securing 
 perfect immunity from smallpox in all patients 
 and collecting data of 23 cases. When both 
 facts were established he put forth his remark¬ 
 able publication, An Inquiry into the Causes and 
 Effects of the Variolce Vaocinice, Knoion by the 
 Name of the Cowpox (1798). This work was 
 translated into Latin and all the European lan¬ 
 guages, and excited much attention, as well as 
 opposition. Vaccinations were frequent and nu¬ 
 merous, and many representative and noted phy¬ 
 sicians declared themselves as advocates of the 
 theory and practice, in England, France, Austria, 
 Italy, Germany, Switzerland, Holland, Norway, 
 Sweden, Russia, Spain, and Portugal, while 
 others, especially in England, opposed him. Jen¬ 
 ner founded, in 1803, the Royal Institute for the 
 Extermination of Smallpox, which he directed 
 for many years. Both institutions vaccinated 
 people free of charge and supplied virus for 
 other countries. To Luigi Sacco, a physician of 
 Milan, is due credit, second only to Jenner’s, for 
 a life-long service in behalf of preventive vaccina¬ 
 tion, equine and ovine inoculation, and retro- 
 inoculation. To Sacco the world owes the final 
 adoption of animal (bovine) virus in place of 
 humanized virus. 
 
 Statistics of the Utility of Vaccination. 
 Statistics prove indubitably that a population 
 vaccinated and revaccinated thoroughly can re¬ 
 main practically immune from smallpox. One 
 of the earliest opportunities for proving, on a 
 large scale, the value of vaccination, occurred 
 during the pandemic of smallpox which raged 
 in Europe from 1870 to 1873. The greater part 
 of the German army had been vaccinated in 
 childhood, and all of it again vaccinated upon 
 entering service in the Franco-Prussian War. 
 In the French army, regular vaccination had not 
 been practiced, and revaccination had been ne¬ 
 glected. The mortality in the German army 
 was 450, or 58 men to every 100,000; in the 
 
VACCINATION 
 
 842 
 
 VACCINATION 
 
 French army the mortality was 23,400. Statis¬ 
 tics might be multiplied indefinitely, but they 
 all show the same result. The experience of 
 the United States health authorities in the 
 Philippine Islands is another case in point. 
 With the exception of an occasional sporadic 
 outbreak, the islands have been free from small¬ 
 pox since vaccination was enforced. In the 
 United States and England epidemics have oc¬ 
 curred from time to time, but in every instance 
 they have been shown to be due to laxity in 
 the enforcement of the law, or to opposition 
 on the part of certain sections of the community. 
 
 Technique of Vaccination and Course of 
 Vaccinia. Virus for vaccination should be pro¬ 
 cured from well-developed typical vaccine pocks 
 on the abdomen of a healthy young heifer, while 
 they are still in the vesicular stage. The virus 
 may be received upon ivory points or removed 
 entirely by scraping it from the underlying co- 
 rium with a spoon, and rubbing this mass with 
 glycerin. The resulting emulsion of pulp is much 
 more active than the dried lymph. It is con¬ 
 veniently kept in sealed capillary tubes. Both the 
 collection of virus and its application to the pa¬ 
 tient should be done under strict aseptic con¬ 
 ditions. Usually the arm or leg is chosen for 
 the place of vaccination, and should be thoroughly 
 cleaned and disinfected. Two or three shallow 
 scarifications are made with as many crossing 
 them, the surgeon cutting as deeply as the derma 
 without necessarily drawing blood. After the 
 lymphatic fluid begins to flow from these in¬ 
 cisions the vaccine virus is rubbed into the in¬ 
 cisions. A sterilized toothpick flattened at one 
 end is a convenient implement for this purpose. 
 After drying thoroughly, the surface is covered 
 with a layer of sterile gauze, which is to re¬ 
 main on for three days. In the course of three 
 to seven days elevated papules appear, oval or 
 oblong, over the scarifications. These papules 
 are firm, hot, and tender. They are surrounded 
 by a red halo or areola. About the fifth day af¬ 
 ter their appearance they become vesicles, con¬ 
 taining clear fluid, which is vaccine lymph. 
 When humanized virus was used, this was taken 
 from the patient to be used in inoculating 
 another case. These vesicles are called Jenner’s 
 vesicles, and somewhat resemble the vesicles of 
 smallpox. Like them, also, they shrink and 
 become umbilicated after the seventh or ninth 
 day; the halo grows darker; pus takes the place 
 of the lymph; pain, itching, swelling, and heat 
 are troublesome. A slight reaction consisting 
 of fever and malaise may take place on the fifth 
 day. About the ninth or tenth day the pustule 
 dries, and a crust forms. The areola fades. 
 The axillary glands may enlarge at this time 
 and are tender and painful on pressure. Chil¬ 
 dren’s symptoms are more pronounced than those 
 of adults. The temperature during vaccinia 
 reaches 102.5° F., and rarely runs higher. The 
 crust separates from the arm in 14 days. If the 
 crust be detached by scratching or the chafing 
 of the clothing a second one forms. In all 
 cases scrupulous care must be exercised lest the 
 wound become infected with germs in dust or 
 clothing, or under finger nails. Serious conse¬ 
 quences follow such infection. The wound may 
 be infected with erysipelas, or gangrenous in¬ 
 flammation may set in, causing a very large 
 ulcer. These are not the results of the vaccina¬ 
 tion, but of subsequent infection; and the same 
 results are often seen following any scratch 
 with a needle or an abrasion upon the hand. 
 
 Danger of Vaccination. There is no danger 
 in proper vaccination, if infection is avoided 
 thereafter. All inflammatory reaction .beyond 
 that described as occurring in the course of regu¬ 
 lar vaccinia is due to the introduction of micro¬ 
 organisms by means of dirty instruments or 
 through the admission of dust. There is abso¬ 
 lutely no danger of transmitting disease by 
 means of bovine virus. When humanized virus 
 was used there was some danger of transinoculat- 
 ing with syphilis or tuberculosis. Yet even this 
 danger was remote. Tetanus has followed vac¬ 
 cination, not from the operation itself but from 
 subsequent infection. 
 
 Compulsory Laws. Naturally, vaccination, 
 in order to protect, must be universal. All foci 
 from which the disease might spread must be 
 destroyed, and immunity must be secured round 
 about each focus. Every child should be vac¬ 
 cinated during its first year, and all adults 
 from foreign countries should be vaccinated, un¬ 
 less they present sufficient evidence of success¬ 
 ful protection previously. Several years after 
 Jenner’s discovery, public interest was aroused 
 to a complete understanding of the necessity of 
 compulsory vaccination. Bavaria established a 
 law making vaccination compulsory in 1807. 
 Other states of the North German Confedera¬ 
 tion followed, and between 1815 and 1832 simi¬ 
 lar statutes were enacted in Oldenburg, Baden, 
 Wiirttemberg, Saxe-Gotha, Saxe-Meiningen, and 
 Brunswick. Austria in 1801 made vaccination 
 compulsory for school children, but not generally 
 so till 1886. In 1816 Prussia also enacted an 
 indirectly compulsory law. Sweden’s compul¬ 
 sory law was put upon the statute books about 
 1803. Norway and Denmark followed in 1810. 
 After many vicissitudes and changes, Great 
 Britain’s law was enacted in 1867. Scotland 
 put herself on record in 1864. Italy, Holland, 
 and Belgium popularized vaccination very early 
 and needed no law. France’s decree of 1809 was 
 inoperative and the country has suffered heavily 
 from the want of a compulsory law. The German 
 Empire framed the Imperial Vaccination Law in 
 1874, and its provisions deserve study and imi¬ 
 tation. It provides: (1) Every child Shall be 
 vaccinated within the calendar year of its birth, 
 unless it has passed through an attack of variola. 
 (2) Every pupil shall be revaccinated when 12 
 years of age, if he has not had variola within 
 the past five years. (3) Every vaccinated person 
 must present himself to the "physician who vac¬ 
 cinated him between the sixth and eighth day 
 after vaccination. (4) Medical certificates prov¬ 
 ing successful vaccination at the legal ages 
 shall be preserved by parents and guardians. 
 
 In the United States the laws regarding com¬ 
 pulsory vaccination vary greatly in the dif¬ 
 ferent States. Vaccination is made compulsory 
 by law only in Kentucky, the Philippine Islands, 
 and Porto Rico. In Kentucky the law requires 
 the vaccination of all children within 12 months 
 after birth and all minors and adults are to be 
 vaccinated. In the Philippine Islands every 
 child, three months of age, must undergo vac¬ 
 cination and all inhabitants must be vaccinated 
 as often as required by the health authorities. 
 In Porto Rico the board of health requires that 
 every person shall possess a certificate of vac¬ 
 cination. Massachusetts enacted laws to regu¬ 
 late vaccination in 1809. Several States followed 
 the example early, notably Rhode Island. In 
 most of the States local or State boards of health 
 formulate regulations under which vaccination 
 
VACCINATION 
 
 VACCINE THERAPY 
 
 843 
 
 is practically compulsory, acting in unison with 
 school boards in excluding all unvaccinated chil¬ 
 dren from the schools. In several of the United 
 States the constitutionality of statutes making 
 vaccination compulsory has been judicially 
 settled. They are held to be a legitimate ex¬ 
 ercise of the police power for the protection of 
 the public health. A physician who vaccinates 
 a person without the latter’s consent, but who is 
 acting under the authority of such a statute or 
 ordinance, is not liable for assault. For a fuller 
 account of vaccination requirements in the 
 United States, consult The International Year 
 Book, 1912. 
 
 In spite of the testimony received from all 
 over the civilized world, antivaccinationists 
 flourish in small bodies here and there. The 
 antivaccination sentiment had become so strong 
 in England, although confined to a small class, 
 that a measure was adopted in 1898 practically 
 annulling the compulsory vaccination bill of 
 that country. The newer measure provides that 
 any parent may refuse to have his child vac¬ 
 cinated and avoid legal penalty if he satisfies 
 the court that he has conscientious scruples as to 
 the benefits of vaccination. The agitation 
 against vaccination has been constant since the 
 days of Jenner. In his time it was claimed that 
 the tendency of the inoculation of vaccinia was 
 to cause bovine characteristics to appear in chil¬ 
 dren ; that they developed horns, hoofs, and tails, 
 and bellowed like cattle. Less absurd but, in the 
 opinion of leading medical authorities, equally 
 untenable arguments are presented against vac¬ 
 cination to-day. 
 
 Revaccination. Jenner believed that the 
 effect of vaccination was perennial; and this be¬ 
 lief imperiled the progress of vaccination at one 
 epoch in its history, for vaccinated persons, 
 after several years of immunity, fell victims to 
 smallpox. At one time the mystical number 
 seven seemed to rule tbe mind, and vaccinia was 
 said to last seven years. In fact, the duration 
 of immunity conferred by vaccination is variable 
 in different people. In a few cases, one vaccina¬ 
 tion protects for life, and cannot be successfully 
 repeated. In others, a vaccination will take 
 every time it is tried. A number of investi¬ 
 gations as to the duration of immunity have 
 thrown some light on the matter. These were 
 based on the percentage of successful revaccina¬ 
 tions. Kitasato of Tokyo found that revaccina¬ 
 tion was successful in 14 per cent after one year; 
 
 33 per cent after two years; 47 per cent "after 
 three years; 57 per cent after four years, and so 
 on until 10 years was reached, when 89 per cent 
 of the persons were successfully revaccinated 
 and therefore had probably lost their immunity. 
 Somewhat similar results were obtained by Les- 
 cohier of Detroit, in 500 cases. He found that 
 
 34 years after primary inoculation revaccination 
 was practically always successful. King, in 
 1913, in observations made on Asiatics, found 
 that in a series of 312 patients who had been 
 vaccinated before 15 years of age, revaccination 
 was successful in 80.3 per cent. It may be 
 taken as a safe rule that immunity in a large 
 percentage of persons is practically lost 10 
 years after primary vaccination and that it be¬ 
 gins to diminish from the second year. See 
 Cowpox. 
 
 Substitutes for Vaccination. It has been 
 asserted from time to time by enthusiasts in 
 sanitation that cleanliness and disinfection will 
 control and prevent smallpox. This is an error. 
 Vol. XXII.—54 
 
 Until the microorganism causing smallpox is dis¬ 
 covered and its nature is known, no adequate 
 prophylactic or disinfectant measures will super¬ 
 sede vaccination. Were primary vaccination and 
 revaccination carefully practiced, smallpox would 
 be entirely eradicated. See Smallpox. 
 
 Bibliography. Willan, Vaccine-Inoculation 
 (London, 1807) ; Sacco, Trattato di vaccinazione 
 (Milan, 1809) ; Baron, The Life of Jenner (Lon¬ 
 don, 1827) ; Borne, T accxnation et revaccinations 
 obligatoires en application de la loi sur la pro¬ 
 tection dc la sanU publique (Paris, 1902) ; C. K. 
 Millard, The Vaccination Question (London, 
 1914) ; A. C. Klebs, “Historic Evolution of Va¬ 
 riolation, ’ in Bulletin of Johns Hopkins Hos¬ 
 pital, vol. xxiv (Baltimore, 1915). 
 
 VACCINATION EOR TYPHOID. See 
 Hygiene, Military Hygiene. 
 
 VAC'CINE THERAPY, Bacterin Therapy. 
 Bacterial vaccines, as defined by Sir Almroth 
 Wright (q.v.), are “sterilized and enumerated 
 suspensions of bacteria which furnish, when they 
 dissolve in the body, substances which stimulate 
 the healthy tissues to a production of specific 
 bacteriotropic substances which fasten upon and 
 directly or indirectly contribute to the destruc¬ 
 tion of the corresponding bacteria.” 
 
 The use of bacterial vaccines in combating dis¬ 
 eases of bacterial origin is based on the princi¬ 
 ple that the injection of killed bacteria increases 
 the bactericidal power of the blood by stimulat¬ 
 ing the production of antibodies, these in the 
 main constituting the defensive mechanism of 
 the body against zymotic diseases. The im¬ 
 munity which a vaccine confers differs from that 
 given by a serum in being active instead of pas¬ 
 sive. The materials from which vaccines are 
 prepared may be derived from various pathologi¬ 
 cal fluids of the body which contain the offending 
 organisms. Cultures may be made from the 
 nasal secretion, from pus cavities, discharging 
 ears, from sputum, from the urine, and from the 
 blood. These specimens must be as nearly as 
 possible uncontaminated by extraneous organ¬ 
 isms. Cultures are made by spreading the ma¬ 
 terial upon suitable media, preferably those con¬ 
 taining blood or serum and having a solid con¬ 
 sistency. The further process of preparing the 
 vaccine consists in mixing the resultant culture 
 (generally a 24-hour growth) with normal salt 
 solution, to which is added a preservative, such 
 as phenol, and agitating the emulsion to secure 
 uniform mixture. A mechanical shaker is used 
 for this purpose and from a half to one hour 
 is necessary to complete emulsification. The 
 mixture is standardized by means of an ordinary 
 blood counter, so that a given number of bacteria, 
 
 . usually from 100,000,000 to 1,000,000,000, are 
 contained in each cubic centimeter. Finally, the 
 bacteria are killed by exposure to a temperature 
 of 140° to 150° F. for about an hour. The vac¬ 
 cine is now drawn off into sterile glass con¬ 
 tainers and is then ready for use. Vaccines 
 made directly from the secretions of a given pa¬ 
 tient are termed autogenous and are as a rule 
 more efficacious than stock vaccines, these being 
 cultures made from extraneous sources. Stock 
 vaccines, however, particularly when polyvalent, 
 i.e., containing several strains of the bacterium, 
 are more generally used and give good results. 
 Vaccines are administered by hypodermic injec¬ 
 tion, the skin being previously sterilized with 
 alcohol or iodine. They are most effective in 
 localized suppurating lesions of the skin, such 
 as abscess, acne, furunculosis and carbuncle, ps- 
 
VACCINOTHERAPY 
 
 VADIMONIAN LAKE 
 
 844 
 
 pecially when these are in a subacute or chronic 
 state. They are also of value in deep-seated pus 
 affections, such as pyelonephritis, cystitis, osteo¬ 
 myelitis, etc.; in specific affections of the joints, 
 such as gonorrheal arthritis and in many af¬ 
 fections of the eyes, ears, and nose. Tuberculin 
 (q.v.) is discussed under its own title. Bacterin 
 therapy is contraindicated in all diffuse infec¬ 
 tions characterized by septiciemia or pyaemia, 
 and in severe acute diseases, such as pneumonia 
 and typhoid fever, when the body is already over¬ 
 whelmed by the bacterial invasion. In general 
 the presence of fever is a contraindication. The 
 prophylactic value of certain vaccines is well ex¬ 
 emplified in typhoid fever (q.v.), where a very 
 efficient degree of immunity is conferred by 
 protective doses of antityphoid vaccine. See 
 Serum Therapy; Tuberculin. Consult Gould 
 and Pvle, Cyclopedia of Medicine and Surgery 
 (Philadelphia, 1912), and J. A. Kolmer, A Prac¬ 
 tical Text-Book of Infection, Immunity, and 
 Specific Therapy (ib., 1915). 
 
 VACCINOTHERAPY. SeeVACCiNETHERAPY. 
 
 VACH, vach. See Vac. 
 
 VACHELL, vach'el, Horace Annesley (1861- 
 ). An English novelist, educated at Har¬ 
 row and at the Royal Military College, Sand¬ 
 hurst. His fiction includes, notably: The Ro¬ 
 mance of Judge Ketchum (1894); Quicksands 
 of Pactolus (1896); The Procession of Life 
 (1899); John Charity (1900); The Pinch of 
 Prosperity (1903); Brothers (1904); The Hill 
 (1905); The Face of Clay (1906); Her Son 
 (1907); The Other Side (1910); John Verney 
 (1911) ; Bunch Grass (1912) ; Quinneys’ (1914) ; 
 Spragge’s Canyon (1914). Her Son and Quin¬ 
 neys' were dramatized, the latter being produced 
 in New York in 1915. Other plays by Vachell 
 were Searchlights and Lady Camber (both 1915). 
 
 VACHEROT, vash'ro', Etienne (1809-97). 
 A French philosopher, born at Langres and edu¬ 
 cated in Paris. In 1837 he was appointed su¬ 
 perintendent of the Ecole Normale by Victor 
 Cousin, his former teacher, whom he succeeded 
 as professor of philosophy at the Sorbonne in 
 1839. His liberal views and especially the ex¬ 
 position of his philosophical doctrines in the 
 Histoire critique de Vecole d'Alexandrie (1846- 
 51) aroused the violent opposition of the clergy. 
 He was suspended from his position of super¬ 
 intendent and, after denying allegiance to the 
 Empire in 1852, was deprived of his professorate. 
 Judiciary proceedings and imprisonment resulted 
 from the publication of La democratie (1859). 
 As mayor of the fifth arrondissement of Paris he 
 rendered important services during the siege and 
 the Commune and in 1871 was elected to the 
 National Assembly, where he at first sided with 
 the Liberals, but afterward joined the Centre 
 and even lent his support to the Broglie ministry 
 in its ultramontane aspirations. Although he 
 withdrew from political life after the dissolution 
 of the National Assembly, he continued to voice 
 sensationally anti-Republican opinions in the 
 Revue des Deux Mondes, the Figaro, and the 
 Soldi. Besides his principal work, La meta- 
 physique et la science (2d ed., 1863), containing 
 the development of his philosophical system, he 
 wrote Essais de philosophie critique (1864), La 
 religion (1868), La science et la conscience 
 (1870), La politique exttrieure de la republique 
 (1881), Le nouveau spiritualisme (1884), La 
 democratie liberate (1892). For his biography, 
 consult Olle-Laprune (Paris, 1898). 
 
 VACO A. See Screw Pine. 
 
 VACQTJERIE, vak're', Auguste (1819-95). 
 A French author and journalist, born at Ville- 
 quier. He showed himself an ardent admirer of 
 Hugo, and endeavored to practice the tenets of 
 romanticism as expressed by the great writer in 
 his Preface to Cromwell. His utterances as 
 editor of Rappel, an anti-imperial journal, were 
 several times made the subject of court proceed¬ 
 ings. Beginning with poetry, L’Enfer de Vesprit 
 and Les demi-teintes (1845), Vacquerie later 
 wrote the following plays: Tragaldabas (1848), 
 a failure; Drames de la greve (1855); Les 
 funerailles de Vhonneur (1861), a seven-act Ro¬ 
 mantic drama; Jean Baudry (1863); Les fils 
 (1866). His Theatre complet appeared in 1879. 
 Vacquerie’s work is vividly imaginative. 
 
 VACUUM, vak'u-um. See Air Pump. 
 
 VACUUM CLEANER. A mechanical de¬ 
 vice for removing, by means of air suction, dirt, 
 dust, and other fine matter from carpets, up¬ 
 holstery, walls, and other surfaces. The device 
 consists essentially of a nozzle to be passed over 
 the material to be cleaned, a pipe connecting the 
 nozzle with a separator where the dust and dirt 
 are removed from the air, and an apparatus for 
 producing a vacuum. The nozzles are of various 
 sizes and forms, according to the use for which 
 they are intended, such as cleaning carpets on 
 the floor, or removing the dust from books on a 
 shelf. The exhausters that produce the vacuum 
 are of various types. There are three kinds of 
 plants in general use: One small, portable, and 
 compact, electrically driven by being connected 
 to a lamp socket. Another, permanently mounted 
 on a vehicle and driven by an internal-combus¬ 
 tion engine, is drawn up at the curb and a hose 
 led into the building to be cleaned. The third 
 is a permanent installation, usually located in 
 the basement of a building and connected by 
 built-in pipes with outlets where a hose and 
 nozzle may be attached in the various rooms 
 and halls. 
 
 David T. Kenney of New York is credited with 
 installing the first pure vacuum system in 1902, 
 and about 1905 Dr. William Noe of San Fran¬ 
 cisco constructed the first portable vacuum 
 cleaner. Consult M. S. Cooley, Vacuum Clean¬ 
 ing Systems (New York, 1913) ; N. S. Thomp¬ 
 son, Mechanical Equipment of Federal Buildings 
 (New York, 1915). 
 
 VACUUM PROCESS. See Refrigeration. 
 
 VA'DIA'NUS, Joachim (1484-1551). A 
 Swiss reformer and humanist, whose real name 
 was Von Watt. He was born in Saint-Gall, 
 was educated there and in Vienna, and became 
 instructor in classics at the University of Vienna 
 in 1514. He returned to Saint-Gall in 1518 to 
 practice medicine. But his great work there was 
 as a reformer and a friend of Zwingli, and it was 
 largely due to his influence that Saint-Gall in 
 1525-27 went over entirely to the Protestant 
 church. He took a prominent part in the re¬ 
 ligious colloquies of Zurich (1523), and of Bern 
 (1528), and corresponded with Luther and Eras¬ 
 mus. He wrote a Chronicle of the abbey of 
 Saint-Gall, edited by Gotzinger with Vadianus’ 
 other German works (1875-77), and a Commen- 
 tarius in Pomponium Melan (1518). Consult: 
 Geilsius, J. v. Watt als geographischer Schrift- 
 steller (Winterthur, 1865) ; Preffel, J. Vadian 
 (Elberfeld, 1861); and Gotzinger, J. v. Watt 
 (Halle, 1895). 
 
 VADIMO'NIAN LAKE (Lat. Vadimonius 
 Lacus). A small circular lake in Etruria, now 
 Lago di Bassano. It is famed as the scene of 
 
VADSO 
 
 VAIL 
 
 845 
 
 two Roman victories over the Etruscans: the 
 first in 309 b.c. under the dictator Papirius 
 Cursor, the second in 283 b.c. under the consul 
 Dolabella. 
 
 VADSO, v&ds'e. A town on the northeast 
 coast of Norway (lat. 70° 4' N., long. 19° E.). 
 Located on the shores of Varanger Fiord and 
 on \ ando Island, it is attractive considering its 
 high ^latitude, with a mean yearly temperature 
 of 33° F. It has a town hall, schools, residences 
 for civil and military officials, and five fish-oil 
 refineries. It engages in extensive fisheries in 
 the Atlantic and in the Arctic, in coastwise 
 shipping, and in summer in shipping to Russia. 
 It exports fish and fish products, guano, skins, 
 game, and reindeer meat. Vadso dates from 
 1567. Pop., 1910, 3322. 
 
 VADUZ, va'duts. The capital of the Princi¬ 
 pality of Liechtenstein. It is charmingly situ¬ 
 ated near the right bank of the Rhine, at an ele¬ 
 vation of 1525 feet, and is on the Feldkirch- 
 Buchs branch of the Austrian State Railway. 
 It is near the Three Sisters (6880 feet). The 
 town has a Gothic parish church and a castle, 
 which, destroyed by the Swiss in 1499, was re¬ 
 built in 1523-26. The tower of the castle dates 
 from the ninth century. Pop., 1912, 1376. 
 
 VAGA, va'ga, Perino del (1500-47). An 
 Italian decorative painter. He was born in 
 Florence, was perhaps a pupil of Ghirlandaio 
 or Fra Bartolommeo, and certainly of Raphael, 
 whom he assisted in Rome in the stucco and 
 arabesque decorations of the Loggia of the Vati¬ 
 can. He also executed some of the scriptural 
 subjects there, and the figures of the planets 
 in the great hall of the Appartamento Borgia. 
 After the sack of Rome in 1527 he went to 
 Genoa, where he decorated the Doria Palace with 
 stuccoes and frescoes in a style similar to that 
 adopted by Giulio Romano at Mantua, with sub¬ 
 jects from classical fables. Later he returned 
 to Rome, where he designed a number of fagades, 
 hall and church frescoes, and with Daniele da 
 Volterra decorated the Sala Reggia in the 
 Vatican. 
 
 VAGANTES, va-gan'tez (Lat., wanderers). 
 The name given to the itinerant students and 
 clerics of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, 
 indistinguishable often from the wandering min¬ 
 strels and clowns who form so picturesque a 
 feature of mediaeval life. They are known for 
 the body of satirical literature in Latin which 
 they created, commonly designated as Goliardic 
 literature (q.v.). 
 
 VAGARSHAPAT, va-gar'sha-pat. A village 
 of Russia. See under Etchmiadzin. 
 
 VAGI'NA (Lat., sheath). One of the sexual 
 organs in the female. It is a sheath from 4 to 
 7 inches long, into which open the uterus and 
 the urethra. It lies behind the bladder and in 
 front of the rectum, and it is lined with mu¬ 
 cous membrane. Its external opening is called 
 the vulva, which is formed by the apposition of 
 the two labia majora. 
 
 VAGLIERI, val-ya're, Dante (1865-1914). 
 An Italian classical scholar, born at Triest. He 
 studied at driest and at the University of Vi¬ 
 enna. From 1893 to his death he was con¬ 
 nected, in various capacities, with the Univer¬ 
 sity of Rome. He had charge also for some years 
 of the important excavations at Ostia (q.v.), 
 which he prosecuted with such energy and skill 
 that Ostia now rivals Pompeii as a source of 
 information concerning ancient Roman life. 
 
 VAGRANT. In law, a term of broad appli¬ 
 
 cation including, in general, all idle and dis¬ 
 orderly persons who may become a menace to the 
 public peace or a public burden. The statutes 
 in Great Britain and the United States differ in 
 details, but are elastic enough to cover such di¬ 
 verse classes as unlicensed peddlers, beggars, 
 drunkards, fortune tellers, prostitutes, notorious 
 criminals, etc., as well as the specific tramp 
 (q.v.). ^ * 
 
 VA'GUS NERVE. See Pneumogastric 
 Nerve. 
 
 VAHLEN, va'len, Johannes (1830-1911). 
 A German philologist, born in Bonn, where he 
 studied at the university, and became privat- 
 docent in 1854. In 1856 he was made professor 
 in Breslau, in 1858 at Vienna, and in 1874 in 
 Berlin. Among his writings are to be noted 
 especially: Enniance Poesis Reliquice (1854; 2d 
 ed., 1903) ; Ncevii de Bello Punico Reliquice 
 (1854) ; Ueber die Annalen des Ennius (1886) ; 
 Ulpiani Liber Regularum (1856); Cicero de 
 Legibus (2d ed., 1883); a critical edition of 
 Aristotle’s Poetics (3d ed., 1885) ; Lorenzo Valla 
 (2d ed., 1870) ; Laurentii Vallce Opuscula 
 (1869); and many articles in periodicals. For 
 several years he was coeditor of the periodical 
 Hermes, and also of the Zeitschrift fiir oster- 
 reichische Gymnasien. Since his death his mis¬ 
 cellaneous papers have been published in Opus- 
 cula Academica (2 vols., Leipzig, 1907). Con¬ 
 sult J. E. Sandys, A History of Classical Scholar¬ 
 ship, vol. iii (Cambridge, 1908). 
 
 VAI. See Vei. 
 
 VAIGATCH, vi-gach' ( Waigatz) . An island 
 in the Arctic Ocean belonging to the Russian 
 Government of Archangel, between the mainland 
 and Nova Zembla (Map: Russia, J 1). It is 
 separated from the latter by the Kara Strait, 
 and from the mainland by the Yugor (Waigatz) 
 Strait, while its east coast is washed by the 
 Kara Sea. It is about 70 miles long and 25 
 miles wide, with an area of 1400 square miles, 
 and is traversed lengthwise by a range of moun¬ 
 tains, an extension of the Ural system. The 
 climate is cold and the vegetation Very scanty. 
 The island is permanently inhabited by a few 
 Samoyeds, but in summer it is visited by a num¬ 
 ber of Russians for its fisheries and the fur-bear¬ 
 ing animals. 
 
 VAIHINGER, vlffiing-er, Hans (1852- ). 
 
 A German philosophical critic, born at Nehren, 
 and educated at Tubingen, Leipzig, and Berlin. 
 He became docent at Strassburg in 1877, and 
 professor in 1883, and in 1884 went to Halle as 
 professor of philosophy and pedagogy. He is 
 known chiefly as a critic of Kant. He edited 
 Kantstudien after 1896, and wrote a Kommentar 
 zu Kants KritiJc der reinen Vernunft (2 vols., 
 1881-92); Kant—ein Metaphysikerf (1889); 
 Die transcendent ale Deduction dei' Kategorien 
 (1902). His other works include: Goethe als 
 Ideal universeller Bildung (1875); Hartmann . 
 Diihring und Lange (1876) ; Nietzsche als Phi- 
 losoph (2d ed., 1902) ; Die Philosophie in der 
 Staatspriifung (1906); Die Philosophie des Als 
 Ob—System der theoretischen, praktischen, und 
 religiosen Fiktionen der Menschheit (1911; 2d 
 ed., 1913). 
 
 VAIL. See Drinking Usages. 
 
 VAIL, val, Alfred (1807-59). An American 
 inventor, born at Morristown, N. J. He gradu¬ 
 ated at the University of the City of New York 
 in 1836. In September, 1837, he entered into 
 partnership with Prof. S. F. B. Morse (q.v.), 
 agreeing to supply the funds necessary to bring 
 
VAIL 
 
 846 VAISESHIKA 
 
 Morse's newly invented telegraph before the 
 public, and to construct a practicable model at 
 his father’s ironworks at Speedwell, near Mor¬ 
 ristown, N. J. In January, 1838, the model was 
 completed, and on the twenty-third was first pub¬ 
 licly exhibited at the University of New York. 
 When in 1843 work was begun on an experimen¬ 
 tal line between Washington and Baltimore, 
 Vail became assistant superintendent. He sug¬ 
 gested so many improvements to Morse’s original 
 apparatus, as did also Joseph Henry (q.v.), that 
 the modern telegraph is considered by some to 
 be the product of Vail and Henry rather than 
 of its original inventor. Vail published The 
 American Electro-Magnetic Telegraph (1845). 
 Consult Pope, “The American Inventors of the 
 Telegraph,” in the Century Magazine, vol. xxxv 
 (New York, 1888). 
 
 VAIL, Charles Henry (1866- ). An 
 
 American Universalist clergyman and writer on 
 Socialism, born at Tully, N. Y. He graduated 
 from the theological school of St. Lawrence 
 University in 1893 and was pastor at Jersey 
 City, and in New York State at Albany, Richfield 
 Springs, and Albion (from 1906). Becoming 
 deeply interested in the study of Socialism, he 
 indorsed its principles and wrote: Modern So¬ 
 cialism (1897), National Ownership of Rail¬ 
 ways (1897), Scientific Socialism (1899), The 
 Industrial Evolution (1899), Mission of the 
 Working Class (1900), The Socialist Movement 
 (1901), The Trust Question (1901), Socialism 
 and the Negro Problem (1903), Ancient Myster¬ 
 ies and Modern Masonry (1909), The World’s 
 Saviors (1913), Militant and Triumphant So¬ 
 cialism (1913). 
 
 VAIL, Stephen Montfort (1818-80). An 
 American Methodist Episcopal clergyman, born 
 at Union Vale, Dutchess Co., N. Y. He gradu¬ 
 ated from Bowdoin College in 1838 and Union 
 Theological Seminary in 1842, and was then a 
 pastor in New York. For two years he served 
 as president of Pennington Seminary (N. J.), 
 and from 1849 to 1868 as professor of Hebrew 
 in the General Biblical Institute at Concord, 
 N. H. From 1869 to 1874 he was United States 
 Consul to Bavaria. He strongly advocated the 
 abolition of slavery and was an early champion 
 of training for the ministry, writing effectively 
 on both these subjects; also Outline Lessons in 
 77 
 
 VAIL, Theodore Newton (1845 —1920). An 
 American capitalist, born in Carroll Co., Ohio. 
 He was educated at Morristown (N. J.) Acad¬ 
 emy, and then studied medicine for two years. 
 He was early connected with the United States 
 railway mail service, of which he was general 
 superintendent in 1875-78. In 1878 he became 
 interested in the telephone business, and after 
 1896 was identified with electric enterprises in 
 the Argentine, introducing the American electric 
 system of street railways in Buenos Aires, and 
 installing telephone systems in the principal 
 Argentine cities. Vail became president of the 
 American Telephone and Telegraph Company 
 and of the Western Union Telegraph Company. 
 In 1913 the former corporation, which, because 
 of its close relations with the Western Union 
 and subsidiary companies, had become known as 
 the “telephone trust,” complied with the gov¬ 
 ernment’s request for reorganization. Vail then 
 resigned from his office in the Western Union. 
 With other New Haven directors in 1916 he was 
 acquitted of a charge of conspiracy to monopolize 
 interstate commerce. In 1915 he received the 
 
 honorary degree of LL.D. from both Princeton 
 and Harvard. 
 
 VAILIMA (vi-le'ma) LETTERS. A series 
 of letters written from Samoa by Robert Louis 
 Stevenson between November, 1890, and October, 
 1894. They are addressed to Sidney Colvin and 
 contain a varied record of his Samoan exile. 
 The title is derived from the name given by 
 Stevenson to his island home. 
 
 VAILLANT, va'yaN' (Marie) Edouard 
 (1840-1915). A French socialist, born at Vier- 
 zon (Cher), and educated in Paris, where he 
 studied engineering and then medicine, and in 
 Heidelberg, Tubingen, and Vienna. After his re¬ 
 turn to Paris in 1870 he took a prominent part 
 in the government of the Commune and served 
 for a time as Minister of Education. He escaped 
 to London on the downfall of the Commune, 
 became a member of the general committee of 
 the Internationale, took part in The Hague 
 conference in 1872, and in the same year was 
 sentenced to death in contumaciam by the Con- 
 seil de Guerre. After the amnesty of 1880 he 
 returned to Paris, and in 1884 was elected to 
 the municipal council, where he advocated the 
 suppression of standing armies, national con¬ 
 trol of public services, and various socialistic 
 measures. He opposed Boulangism very strongly, 
 at the same time attacking the opportunism of 
 the radical Republicans. He was elected several 
 times to the Chamber of Deputies, where he sat 
 as a Socialist. 
 
 VAIR. One of the tinctures in heraldry 
 (q.v.). 
 
 VAISESHIKA, vi-sa'she-ka. The name of 
 one of the two great divisions of the Nydya 
 (q.v.) school of Hindu philosophy, and probably 
 a later development of the Nyaya, properly so 
 called. It agrees with the latter in its analyti¬ 
 cal method of treating the subjects of human 
 research, but differs from it in the arrangement 
 of topics and especially in its doctrine of atomic 
 individualities or viscsas —whence its name. 
 
 The topics or categories ( paddrthas) under 
 which Kanada (q.v.), the founder of this sys¬ 
 tem, arranges his subject matter, are the follow¬ 
 ing six: (1) substance, (2) quality, (3) action, 
 (4) generality, (5) atomic individuality, and 
 (6) coinherence; and later writers of his school 
 add to these a seventh category, nonexistence. 
 These may be explained more precisely. 1. Sub¬ 
 stance is the intimate cause of an aggregate 
 effect; it is that in which qualities abide, and in 
 which action takes place. It is ninefold—earth, 
 water, light, air, ether, time, space, soul, and 
 manas, or the organ of affection. 2. Quality is 
 united with substance; it comprises, according 
 to the commentator, the following 24 elements: 
 color, savor, odor, feeling, number, dimension, 
 individuality, conjunction, discon junction, prior¬ 
 ity, posteriority, gravity, fluidity, viscidity, 
 sound, understanding, pleasure, pain, desire, 
 aversion, volition or effort, merit, demerit, and 
 self-restitution. Seven of these are later addi¬ 
 tions to Kanada’s list. That qualities belong to 
 the soul is maintained by the Vaiseshikas in op¬ 
 position to the Vedantists and Sankliyas. 3. 
 Action consists in motion, and abides in sub¬ 
 stance alone. 4. Generality abides in substance, 
 quality, and action. It is of two kinds, higher 
 and lower, or genus and species. 5. Atomic in¬ 
 dividuality resides in eternal substances, by 
 which are meant manas, soul, time, space, ether, 
 earth, water, light, and air; it is the visesa or 
 ultimate difference; such differences are end- 
 
VAISHNAVA 
 
 VAISHNAVA 
 
 847 
 
 less; and two atoms of the same substance, 
 though homogeneous with each other, differ 
 merely in so far as they exclude each other. 
 6. Coinherence, or perpetual intimate connec¬ 
 tion, resides in things which cannot exist in¬ 
 dependently from one another, such as the parts 
 and the whole, action and agent, species and 
 individual, atomic individuality and eternal sub¬ 
 stance. 7. Nonexistence, the last category, is 
 defined by the modern Vaiseshikas as being 
 either nonexistence without beginning, but with 
 an end; or nonexistence, with a beginning, but 
 no end; or absolute nonexistence, which has 
 neither beginning nor end; or mutual nonexis¬ 
 tence, which is the reciprocal negation of iden¬ 
 tity. The nature of each of these substances, 
 qualities, and actions, is then the subject of 
 special investigation. It is worthy of note that, 
 according to the Vaiseshika system, understand¬ 
 ing ( buddhi ) is the quality of soul, and the in¬ 
 struments of right notion are treated under this 
 head. Kanada admits of only two such instru¬ 
 ments, or pramanas, perception and inference. 
 Comparison, revelation, and the other instru¬ 
 ments of right notion, mentioned in other sys¬ 
 tems, according to the commentators are in¬ 
 cluded in these two. Fallacies and other modes 
 of inconclusive reasoning are further dealt with 
 in connection with inference, though with less 
 detail than in the Nyaya, where these are favor¬ 
 ite topics for discussion. 
 
 In point of time the Vaiseshika system ante¬ 
 dates that of the Vedanta (q.v.) and possibly 
 originated not long before the Christian era. 
 The work of its reputed founder, Kanada, has 
 been commented upon by a triple set of com¬ 
 mentaries, and popularized in several elemen¬ 
 tary treatises. J. T. Panchanana edited the 
 text with the commentary of Sankara Misra 
 (Calcutta, 1861), while Ballantyne translated 
 some of the sutras (Mirzapore, 1851). 
 
 VAISHNAVA, vish'na-va (Skt. vaisnava, 
 adherent of Vishnu). The general name of a 
 worshiper of Vishnu (q.v.), but applied par¬ 
 ticularly to one who worships him in his in¬ 
 carnate form, either as Krishna or as*Rama. 
 Even those who worship Vishnu under other 
 forms, or avatars (see Avatar), are adher¬ 
 ents at the same time of one of these two sects. 
 Of the two, the older division comprises the Krish- 
 naites who were known in the earliest sectarian 
 period (c.200 B.c.) as Pdncaratras and Bhdgava- 
 tas. Whether these names were at first applied 
 to the same sectaries or to two divisions of 
 Krishnaites is not known; but in the seventh 
 century a.d. they appear to be two distinct bod¬ 
 ies. The essential tenet of these sects is that 
 which is maintained by all Vaishnavas, viz., 
 that, besides the identity of Krishna with 
 Vishnu, the human soul is a distinct entity, 
 while incorporate in an earthly body, and after 
 the death of the body it becomes one with Vishnu. 
 This qualified idealism distinguished the Vaish¬ 
 navas philosophically from the Saivas (q.v.) on 
 the one hand, and from the Vedantists (see 
 Vedanta) on the other. Another tenet held by 
 all Vaishnavas, though not exclusively by them, 
 is the doctrine of bhakti or saving faith, and 
 this may be said to be the great popular sup¬ 
 port of these sects. It appears first in the 
 Bliagavadgita (q.v.), the oldest scripture of the 
 Vaishnavas. According to this doctrine, all 
 works and other beliefs are without essential 
 value, though good works and right knowledge 
 are useful. The one essential, however, is faith 
 
 in Krishna (or Rama) as Vishnu, i.e., as su¬ 
 preme deity. Salvation, further, consists in 
 being received back into God’s essence. The 
 corresponding activity on the part of the divinity 
 is grace or favor extended to such as have faith. 
 In the grosser conception of Vishnu as a god 
 occupying a heaven of his own, the soul, instead 
 of being reabsorbed, simply shares the joy of 
 this heaven. 
 
 At the present time the Krishnaites are largely 
 in the majority in northern India, while the 
 Ramaites are strongest in the southeast, the 
 southwest being the home of one of the strong 
 Krishnaite sects, which arose in the twelfth cen¬ 
 tury. At this period, in fact, sprang up the chief 
 sects of both parties, and from this time onward 
 the antagonism between the sects and subseets 
 of each separate division became powerful. 
 
 Before these popular schools or sects arose, a 
 special division of Krishnaite Vaishnavas was 
 formed (c.1200 a.d.) on the Malabar coast under 
 the influence of Anandatirtha, the founder of a 
 school known as Madhvas. He taught not only 
 the separate existence of human souls, but the 
 separate existence of matter as an eternal es¬ 
 sence. This school remains a restricted southern 
 growth, but the duality doctrine, as it is called, 
 has been accepted by the masses over a wide 
 area. Both the next great Krishnaite sects 
 emphasize an entirely new practice, on which 
 they lay more weight than they do on theology 
 or metaphysics. This is the practice of revering 
 the Child Krishna. No trace of this cult, with 
 its accompaniment of madonna worship, is to 
 be found in the records of the older sects, and 
 it is possible that the practice was an imitation 
 of Christian usage. Unfortunately, with the in¬ 
 troduction of this child worship was still re¬ 
 tained the antique conception of Krishna as an 
 amorous shepherd, and under the influence of 
 these two images, together with the continual 
 emphasis upon bhakti, the worship of Krishna- 
 Vishnu rapidly deteriorated. This element be¬ 
 came supreme in the later development of the 
 Krishnaite sects of the north, where among the 
 lower classes it has superseded all other reli¬ 
 gious notions and has deeply affected even the 
 cultivated classes. 
 
 The first of these sects is that of Caitanya. 
 who was born in Bengal in 1485. His special 
 religious tenet was love for Krishna. This was 
 expressed by songs and dances of a licentious 
 character. Caitanya himself, like most of the 
 late Vaishnava teachers, was regarded as also 
 divine and as a reincarnation of Krishna himself. 
 The second great sect of Krishnaites arose in the 
 northwest and was founded by Vallabha, called 
 also Vallabhacarya. His sect was no less self- 
 indulgent. The worship of the Child Krishna 
 was particularly affected by the Vallabhas with 
 all its excesses. But the sect is saved from the 
 uniform low level of the Caitanyas through the 
 fact that it is not without sectarian literature. 
 The founder reverted to the nondualistic doctrine 
 of the Vedanta, and the philosophy of his school 
 is thus distinguished from that of Caitanya, 
 who taught that each believer was to exist as a 
 separate spirit in a heaven filled with sensual 
 pleasures. Both these sects elevate Radha, the 
 mistress of Krishna, to a divine position. A 
 reform of both these religious bodies took place 
 in the eighteenth century. The Caran Dasis 
 were protestants against the excesses of the 
 Vallabha sect and they instituted a moral reform 
 based on the purer belief and practice of the 
 
VAISHNAVA 
 
 VALAIS 
 
 848 
 
 southern Madhva Krishnaites. A similar pro¬ 
 test against the Vallabha sect resulted in the 
 formation of a new division under the leader¬ 
 ship of Narayana, who was worshiped as a god 
 by his adherents. Other reforming sects of this 
 sort scarcely deserve to be called Vaishnavas, as 
 they are eclectic deists. 
 
 At the same time that Madhva was founding 
 hi3 Krishnaite sect in southwestern India, Rama¬ 
 nuja in the southeast (about Madras) was 
 founding the first distinctively Ramaite Vaish- 
 nava sect. The Ramanuja sect remained in the 
 south, but the sect founded by Ramanuja’s fol¬ 
 lower, Ramanand, was operative in the north 
 in the fourteenth century, and to this sect are 
 due in succession some of the reform movements 
 of more recent times. The Northern School 
 (Vadagalis) hold to the monkey doctrine, while 
 the Southern School (Tengalais) affect the 
 cat doctrine. The former doctrine holds that 
 God saves the sinner as a monkey does its 
 young, by allowing the young to embrace it 
 and be carried to safety. The cat doctrine is 
 Calvinistic, affirming that God saves as does a 
 cat, by picking up the kitten without concur¬ 
 rence or effort on the kitten’s part. The Ten¬ 
 galais are the more numerous and have a theo¬ 
 logical literature written in Tamil (see Tamils) . 
 
 But the great difference between Krishnaites 
 and Ramaites is moral and intellectual. The 
 Krishnaite Vaishnavas, with few exceptions, 
 such as that of the high-caste Madhva sect, are 
 as epicurean and licentious in practice as they 
 are unphilosophical in intellect. What litera¬ 
 ture they possess is small, apart from erotic 
 poetry. On the other hand, the Rama schools 
 have elaborated complete theological systems, 
 and, generally speaking, they are morally above 
 reproach. Most Ramaites hold that the deity is 
 not without qualities, and in logical conclusion 
 they maintain that Rama as Vishnu has a heaven 
 of pure delight in which the believer will lead 
 a pure but joyful existence, not being absorbed 
 into the divine essence. In consequence or the 
 moral tone of the Rama Vaishnavas, it is from 
 them rather than from the Krishnaites that the 
 later reformers draw their inspiration. Kabir, 
 one of the disciples of Ramanand, founded the 
 sect of the Kabir Panthis, which still has a 
 large following in northern India, but unites 
 Rama and the divine monkey, Hanuman (q.v.), 
 in one common worship. A purely deistic sect 
 also claiming Ramanand as the teacher of their 
 founder is that of the Dadu Panthis. The litera¬ 
 ture of the modern Vaishnava sects is best rep¬ 
 resented by the Ramcaritmanas of Tulasidasa, 
 the greatest of modern Hindu poets, and by the 
 Premsdgar or ocean of love, an erotic-religious 
 poem of the Vallabha sect. For the older litera¬ 
 ture, see the article Vishnu. 
 
 It remains only to be said of the Vaishnavas 
 that some of the subsects worship almost ex¬ 
 clusively the female side of Vishnu, in the form 
 of his wife, Lakshmi (q.v.), or in that of Sita, 
 the wife of Rama. The Vaishnavas have several 
 famous festivals, the chief being that of the 
 Rath Ydha in Bengal, in which an image of the 
 god is carried in a procession, the Janmastami 
 or birthday festival of the Child Krishna at 
 Benares, and the Rds Ydha or dance festival, 
 commemorating the dancing of Krishna with 
 the Gopis, his mistresses. The general sign of 
 all Vaishnavas consists of two perpendicular 
 marks on the forehead. They revere as symbols 
 the Tulasi plant and the salagrama stone, a 
 
 white pebble; the veneration for this latter as a 
 symbol, however, is of recent origin. See 
 Hinduism. 
 
 Bibliography. Wilson, Sketch of the Reli¬ 
 gious Sects of Hindus (ed. by Rost, London, 
 1862) ; Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism 
 (3d ed., ib., 1887); Barth, Religions of India 
 (ib., 1881) ; E. W. Hopkins,, Religions of India 
 (Boston, 1895); Winternitz, Geschichte der in- 
 dischen Litteratur (Leipzig, 1908 et seq.) ; 
 Bhandarkar, Yaisnavism, Saivism, and Minor 
 Religious Systems (Strassburg, 1913) ; L. D. 
 Barnett, Antiquities of India (London, 1913) ; 
 Moore, History of Religions (New York, 1913) ; 
 Noble and Coomaraswamy, Myths of the Hindus 
 and Buddhists (ib., 1914). Of later works may 
 be mentioned the Bhdshdpariccheda, edited and 
 translated by Roer (Calcutta, 1850), and the 
 Tarkasahgraha, edited and translated by Bal- 
 lantyne (2d ed., Calcutta, 1848) ; edited by 
 Vidyasagara (ib., 1897), and by Athalya (Bom¬ 
 bay, 1897). Consult: Gough, The Vaiseshika 
 Aphorisms of Kdndda, translated (Benares, 
 1873); Windisch, JJeber das Nydya-hhdshya 
 (Leipzig, 1886) ; R. Garbe, The Philosophy of 
 Ancient India (2d ed., Chicago, 1899) ; Muller, 
 Six Systems of Indian Philosophy (New York, 
 1899) ; Macdonell, History of Sanskrit Litera¬ 
 ture (London, 1913). 
 
 VAL, Francois du. See Fontenay-Mareuil. 
 
 VALAAM, va-liim' (Finnish V alamo). A 
 small, wooded island (12 square miles in area) 
 in the northern part of Lake Ladoga (q.v.) in 
 Finland, Russia (Map: Russia, D 2). It is very 
 picturesque and surrounded by 40 smaller is¬ 
 lands. On its south end is the famous Valaam 
 Monastery of the Transfiguration which attracts 
 numerous pilgrims. 
 
 VALAIS, va'la' (Ger. Wallis). A canton of 
 south Switzerland (Map: Switzerland, B 2). 
 Area, 2027 square miles. It consists of the val¬ 
 ley of the Rhone and a number of lateral valleys 
 along its tributaries, inclosed by the Bernese 
 Alps on the north and the Valais Alps on the 
 south. Valais abounds in glaciers which occupy 
 about one-fifth of its area. The highest point 
 is the Dufour Peak on Monte Rosa, 15,217 feet. 
 Valais contains many kinds of minerals, prin¬ 
 cipally lead, gold, iron, anthracite, marble, and 
 limestone. Most of these minerals are worked. 
 The canton is chiefly pastoral, vineyards and 
 orchards being found only in the deep valleys. 
 The wines of Valais are well known. The chief 
 manufactures of the canton are soap, glass, 
 sugar, and dynamite. The constitution of 
 Valais provides for a legislative assembly ( Grand 
 Conseil) elected directly at the rate of one mem¬ 
 ber for every 1000 inhabitants. The capital is 
 Sion (q.v.). Pop., 1910, 129,579; almost entirely 
 Roman Catholic. The French-speaking inhab¬ 
 itants, who form about two-thirds of the popu¬ 
 lation, inhabit the western part of the canton 
 and the German-speaking the eastern. 
 
 The valley of the upper Rhone, the Vallis 
 Pocnina of the Romans, was conquered by the 
 Romans in 57 b.c., and later incorporated with 
 Rhaetia. On the dissolution of the Roman Em¬ 
 pire the region was occupied by the Burgun¬ 
 dians, whose rule was supplanted by that of the 
 Franks. After the disruption of the Frankish 
 realm, at the close of the ninth century, it formed 
 part of the Kingdom of Transjurane Burgundy 
 and then of the Kingdom of Arles. Later the 
 bishops of Sion and the counts of Savoy held 
 sway in western or Lower Valais, contending 
 
VALCKENAER 
 
 VALDIVIA 
 
 849 
 
 with each other for dominion, while Upper 
 Valais was colonized by Germans, who founded 
 a number of independent communities or tith- 
 ings. Finally, in the fifteenth century, Upper 
 Valais, after joining the Swiss Confederation, 
 secured control of Lower Valais, which was ruled 
 as a subject territory. In 1798 the whole region 
 became part of the Helvetic Republic. In 1802 
 Valais was made an independent republic by 
 Napoleon, who annexed it in 1810 to France as 
 the Department of Simplon. It was freed in 
 1814, and in 1815 was constituted a canton of 
 the Swiss Confederation. It took part in the 
 League of Sarnen as well as in the Sonderbund. 
 
 VALCKENAER, val'ke-nar, Lodewijk Kas- 
 par (1715-85). An eminent Dutch classical 
 scholar, born at Leeuwarden, and educated at 
 Franeker and Lejalen. In 1741 he became pro¬ 
 fessor of Greek at Franeker, and 25 years later 
 was called to Leyden. He is known for his edi¬ 
 tions of Euripides’ Plioenissce (4th ed., 2 vols., 
 1824) and the llippolytus of Euripides, which 
 contained the famous Diatribe in Euripidis Per- 
 ditarum Fabularum Fragmenta (1768). He 
 also edited Homer’s Iliad with Scholia (1747), 
 Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus (1781). His 
 greatest work, however, was his Diatribe de 
 Aristobulo, first published posthumously by Lu- 
 zac (1806), in which he exposed the literary 
 forgeries of the Alexandrians. His Opuscula 
 Critica, etc., were published in 2 vols. (1801). 
 Consult: L. Muller, Geschichte der Jclassischen 
 Philologie in den Niederlanden (Leipzig, 1869) ; 
 Bergmann, Memoria Valclcenarii (Utrecht, 
 1874) ; J. E. Sandys, A History of Classical 
 Scholarship, vol. ii (Cambridge, 1908). 
 
 VALDAI (val-di') HILLS. A ’.ow plateau 
 or group of hills in west central Russ.a, occupy¬ 
 ing the southwestern parts of the governments 
 of Novgorod, and Tver, midway between St. 
 Petersburg and Moscow (Map: Russia, D 3). 
 They form the culminating portion of the broad 
 elevation running through central Russia, and 
 rise very gradually from the surrounding plain. 
 They are dissected by numerous narrow valleys 
 containing a number of lakes. The hills rise 
 to the maximum height of 1150 feet above the 
 sea. They were formerly forested, but are now 
 mostly cleared and cultivated. In the plateau 
 rise the Volga and its branches which flow east 
 and south to the Caspian, the Dnieper and the 
 Don to the Black Sea, and others northwest 
 to the Baltic. 
 
 VALDEGAMAS, val'da-ga'mas, Marques de. 
 See Donoso-Cortes. 
 
 VAL-DE-GRACE, val'-de-gras'. A former 
 Benedictine nunnery in Paris, founded by Anne 
 of Austria, and changed into a military prison 
 in 1790. The dome of the church, dating from 
 1645, is modeled on that of St. Peter’s at Rome. 
 The church was the place of burial of the French 
 royal family and the Orleans princes, and con¬ 
 tains the tomb of Henrietta, wife of Charles I 
 of England. 
 
 VAL-DE-GRACE, Jean Baptiste du. See 
 Cloots, Baron. 
 
 VAL DEL BQVE, val del bo r va. A crater 
 of the volcano of Etna (q.v.). 
 
 VALDEPENAS, viil'da-pan'yas. A town of 
 the Province of Ciudad Real, Spain, 115 miles 
 south of Madrid, on the right bank of the 
 Jabalon River (Map: Spain, D 3). It is on 
 the highway to Andalucla. It has manufactures 
 of spirits, flour, and cooperage ware; but its 
 reputation rest.?: mainly upon its celebrated red 
 
 wine. There are chalybeate springs in the vicin¬ 
 ity. Municipal pop., 1900, 20,688; 1910, 23,580. 
 The town made an heroic defense against the 
 French in 1808. 
 
 VALDER, Josis Lucio. See Bomfim, Count. 
 
 VALDES, val-das', Armando Palacio. See 
 Palacio Valdes. 
 
 VALDES, Juan de (c.1500—41). A Spanish- 
 Italian theologian and reformer. He was born at 
 Cuenca, in Castile, imbibed some of the ideas of 
 the Reformation in Germany, and in 1528 wrote 
 a treatise, Didlogo de Mercurio y Caron, criti¬ 
 cizing the Church in such manner that the In¬ 
 quisition made Spain uncomfortable for him. 
 He went to Naples in 1530, spent some time in 
 Rome and Bologna, and in 1533 returned to 
 Kaples, where he resided until his death. He 
 devoted himself to study and literature and 
 gathered round him a choice circle, including 
 Peter Martyr and Vittoria Colonna. He was an 
 advocate of the Lutheran doctrine of justifica¬ 
 tion by faith, but remained a Catholic. His 
 Didlogo de la lengua (Naples, 1533) is the 
 earliest philological treatise we have in Spain. 
 His works earn him high rank among Spanish 
 writers. 
 
 Consult: B. B. Wiffen, Life and Writings of 
 Juan de Valdes, loith a translation from the 
 Italian of his Hundred and Ten Considerations, 
 by John T. Betts (London, 1865); Edward 
 Boehmer, Spanish Reformers of Two Centuries 
 (1874) ; id., Lives of Juan and Alphonso de 
 Valdes (1882); Marcelino Menendez y Pelayo, 
 Los Heterodoxos Espaholes (Madrid, 1880) and 
 in his Obras completas, vol. i ss. (Madrid, 1911, 
 etc.). 
 
 VALDES, Juan Melendez. See Melendez 
 Valdes, Juan. 
 
 VAL'DEZ. An incorporated city on a north¬ 
 ern arm of Prince William Sound, Alaska, the 
 most northerly port that is open throughout the 
 winter (Map: Alaska, K 5). The great interior 
 Alaskan mail route lies over the wagon road 
 from Valdez to Fairbanks, where passengers 
 and mail are carried by stage in summer and 
 on sleds in winter. The junction of the cables 
 and land lines is made at Valdez, of the United 
 States Signal Corps telegraph system of over 
 4000 miles. The city has churches, schools, and 
 a telephone system. Pop. (1915), about 1200. 
 
 VALDEZ, Pierre. See Waldenses. 
 
 VAL D’ ISPICA. See Ispica, Val d’. 
 
 VALDIVIA, val-de've-a. A province of South 
 Chile, bounded by Llanquihue on the south, 
 Cautin on the north, Argentina on the east, 
 and the Pacific on the west (Map: Chile, E 5). 
 Area, 8352 square miles. The larger part of the 
 surface is level and only the portion adjoining 
 the Andes and the coast land are mountainous. 
 The climate is moist and healthful and the soil 
 is fertile. Forests are abundant in the moun¬ 
 tainous regions, and timber is one of the most 
 important products of the province. The chief 
 occupations are lumbering, agriculture, and 
 grazing. Pop., 1903, 78,073; 1912, 141,298, in¬ 
 cluding a large German element. Capital, 
 Valdivia. 
 
 VALDIVIA, Pedro de (c. 1497-1554). The 
 Spanish conqueror of Chile. He was born at 
 Serena, in Estremadura, and served in the Span¬ 
 ish armies in the Italian wars, being present at 
 the capture of Milan and the battle of Pavia 
 (1525). He went to the New World and in 
 Mexico joined Cortes, by whom he was sent to 
 
VALDOSTA 
 
 VALENCIA 
 
 850 
 
 Peru when Pizarro asked for help against the 
 Inca insurrection in 1535. His brilliant conduct 
 in the battle of Salinas led to his selection to 
 prosecute the conquest of Chile. In March, 1540, 
 he started south with 150 men. Early in 1541 
 he laid the foundations of the city of Santiago, 
 and for six years he successfully combined the 
 establishment of settlements in the country with 
 the operations against the Indian armies. In 
 December, 1547, he returned to Peru, where lie 
 rendered important service on the royal side 
 in the contest with Gonzalo Pizarro. As soon 
 as this rebellion was ended on the plain of 
 Sacsahuana, Valdivia hastened back to Chile, 
 in January, 1549, to renew the war against 
 the Araucanian Indians. He met with repeated 
 successes, but was unable to stamp out the guer¬ 
 rilla bands, which united in a fierce attack on 
 the Spanish fort at Tucapel in December, 1553. 
 Valdivia hastened to its relief, and had all but 
 dispersed the Araucanians, when the latter were 
 suddenly rallied by a young native page of 
 Valdivia, named La u taro, who deserted his mas¬ 
 ter at the critical moment, called upon his coun¬ 
 trymen to renew their attack, and annihilated 
 the Spaniards (Jan. 1, 1554). Valdivia was 
 captured and killed, despite the efforts of Lau¬ 
 taro to save his life. Consult Coleccion de docu¬ 
 ment os inedit os para In historia de Chile . . . 
 publicados por J. T. Medina: Valdivia y sus 
 compaheros (6 vols., Santiago de Chile, 1896— 
 97). 
 
 VALDOS'TA. A city and the county seat of 
 Lowndes Co., Ga., 156 miles southwest of Savan¬ 
 nah, on the Atlantic Coast Line, the Georgia 
 and Florida, the Valdosta, Moultrie, and West¬ 
 ern, and the Georgia Southern and Florida rail¬ 
 roads (Map: Georgia, C 5). It is the shipping 
 centre of a region engaged in cotton and fruit 
 growing and farming, and manufactures cloth, 
 lumber products, fertilizers, buggies, cottonseed 
 oil, foundry and machine-shop products, and 
 naval stores. Noteworthy features are the South 
 Georgia Normal College, the high schools, the 
 Federal building, and the Carnegie library. Val¬ 
 dosta was settled in 1859, and was incorporated in 
 1860. Pop., 1900, 5613; 1910, 7656; 1920, 10,783. 
 
 VA'LENCE. See Valency. 
 
 VALENCE, va'laNs'. The capital of the 
 Department of Drome, France, 66 miles by rail 
 south of Lyons, crowning a hill on the left bank 
 of the Rhone, below' the confluence of the Isere 
 (Map: France, S., K 4). The cathedral of St. 
 Appolinaire, in the odd Auvergnat-Romanesque 
 style, consecrated in 1095, contains an apse with 
 colonnade. The Maison des Tgtes (sixteenth 
 century), with its beautifully decorated window's 
 and its front sculptured with heads of Homer, 
 Aristotle, Pythagoras, and Hippocrates, and the 
 fine paintings of the church of St. Jean Bap¬ 
 tiste are worthy of mention. There is a fine 
 suspension bridge over the Rhone. Across the 
 river lie the interesting ruins of the Crussol, 
 a twelfth-century castle. The printing of linen 
 and cotton fabrics, the manufacture of flour and 
 tinned foods, and agriculture are important in¬ 
 dustries. The vineyards are of great extent. 
 Pop., 1901, 26,946; 1911, 28,706. Valence is 
 the Valencia of the Romans. 
 
 VALEN'CIA, Span. pron. va-lan'the-a. The 
 name of a former kingdom of Spain, comprising 
 the present provinces of Valencia, Alicante, and 
 Castellon de la Plana. The region is bounded on 
 the north by Aragon and Cataluna, on the east 
 by the Mediterranean, on the south by Murcia, 
 
 and on the west by Murcia, New' Castile, and 
 Aragon. Area, 8830 square miles. The surface 
 is of a broken mountainous character, with some 
 small plains scattered along the coast and in 
 the uplands of the southw'est. The plains bor¬ 
 dering the Mediterranean abound in lagoons, 
 from many of which salt is derived in large 
 quantities. There are few good harbors. The 
 most important rivers are the Segura, Guada- 
 laviar (or Turia), Jucar, and Mijares. The 
 rainfall varies greatly, and the cold north winds 
 and the hot southw'est w'inds are very dry. The 
 temperature varies from the extreme summer 
 heat of the lower coast plains and valleys to the 
 extreme w'inter cold of the inland mountain 
 regions. With this variation in temperature and 
 rainfall there is a wide variety of agricultural 
 products. Wheat and other cereals are grown in 
 fairly large quantities, but their yield is sur¬ 
 passed by that of the vine, rice, sugar, and 
 fruits, among which the exports of oranges and 
 figs have the lead. The stock-raising interests 
 of the section, chiefly sheep and goats, are im¬ 
 portant. The mining industry is not very large, 
 lignite, iron, lead, and zinc being produced in 
 small quantities. In manufactures Valencia 
 ranks next to Cataluna and has extensive tex¬ 
 tile establishments, iron and copper foundries, 
 distilleries, sugar mills, and potteries. The 
 fisheries and the curing of salt fish also employ 
 a considerable portion of the population. The 
 inhabitants, who preserve many traits of the 
 Moorish admixture, in 1900 numbered 1,587,533, 
 and in 1913, 1,727,759. Upon the dissolution 
 of the Caliphate of Cordoba in the early part 
 of the eleventh century, Valencia became an 
 independent kingdom. Towards the close of the 
 century it passed under the rule of the Almo- 
 ravides, who were supplanted three years later 
 (1095) by the Cid, whose death (1099) soon 
 forced hisVidow again to give way to the Moors. 
 In 1238 the city of Valencia was taken by 
 James I of Aragon, who soon became master 
 of the region. 
 
 VALENCIA. A Mediterranean seaport of 
 Spain, capital of the Province of Valencia, 185 
 miles east-southeast of Madrid, on the right bank 
 of the Guadalaviar, 2 y 2 miles from its mouth 
 (Map: Spain, E 3). As the capital of the 
 former Kingdom of Valencia it retains many 
 traces of Moorish occupancy. The surrounding 
 huerta. resembles a vast shady orchard and bears 
 magnificent groves of citron, orange, and mul¬ 
 berry. The city itself is picturesque in the 
 crow'ded, narrow, and winding streets of the 
 older portion and charming in the broader 
 streets and luxuriant plazas and paseos of the 
 newer part. Its climate is mild and very dry. 
 The public buildings are numerous and interest¬ 
 ing architecturally and because of their histori¬ 
 cal significance. Among the important churches 
 the Cathedral La Seo, with its splendid octag¬ 
 onal tow'er El Miguelete, occupies first place. 
 This structure w'as begun in 1262 and completed 
 in 1482. Before the Puerta de los Apostoles of 
 the cathedral there meets every Thursday the 
 Tribunal de las Aguas, which is the oldest tri¬ 
 bunal in Spain and controls the distribution of 
 the irrigation w'ater. The church of San Andres 
 contains some beautiful frescoes and paintings 
 of Juanes, Ribalta, and Vergara. The former 
 Convento del Chrmen is now utilized for the 
 Provincial Museum of Paintings, with a very 
 complete collection representing the Valencian 
 school and some notable foreign w'orks. La 
 
VALENCIA 
 
 VALENCY 
 
 Lonja (the silk exchange), the centre of the 
 commercial life of the city, is a beautiful Gothic 
 structure, built on the site of the Moorish 
 Alcfizar. The Aduana, a superb structure 
 erected for a customhouse by Charles IV, is 
 now occupied as a tobacco factory, employing 
 4000 operatives. The provincial hospital, housed 
 in a fifteenth-century structure, accommodates 
 G000 patients annually. The ornamental Plaza 
 de Toros, or bull ring, reputed the best in Spain, 
 seats 17,000 spectators. The Plaza del Mercado 
 is the largest of the public squares of the city; 
 others of note are the Plaza del Principe Al¬ 
 fonso,. the Plaza de Tetuan, the site of the old 
 citadel, and the Plaza de la Reina, a busy shop¬ 
 ping and cafe centre. The harbor of Valencia 
 (El Grao) is one of the most secure on the Medi¬ 
 terranean coast. The chief exports are rice, 
 melons, oranges, and other fruits, green and 
 dried, wines, silks, raw and spun, and an excel¬ 
 lent quality of olive oil. The industries of the 
 city include tobacco manufacturing, silk spin¬ 
 ning, and hemp and linen weaving. There are 
 also manufactures of velvet, hat plush, felt, 
 gloves, fans (a special product), iron and bronze 
 ware, leather goods, and especially the glazed 
 pottery ware and the glazed bricks known as 
 azulejos, for which there are more than 20 
 establishments in the environs of the city. The 
 agricultural industries of the vicinity are also 
 important. Valencia is the seat of one of the 
 foremost universities of Spain. (See Valencia, 
 University of.) The population, illustrating 
 in character and physical traits the early Moor¬ 
 ish admixture, numbered, in 1900, 213,550; in 
 1910, 233,348: Valencia first appears in history 
 in 138 b.c., when it was given the Jus Latinum. 
 It was destroyed by Pompey, captured by the 
 Visigoths in 413, and by the Moors in 714. In 
 1021 it became the capital of an independent 
 Moorish kingdom. In 1095 it was captured by 
 the Cid, but the Moors subsequently assumed 
 control, until its final capture by James I of 
 Aragon in 1238. The expulsion of'the Moriscoes 
 at the beginning of the seventeenth century 
 greatly crippled its prosperity, and by espous¬ 
 ing the Austrian side during the War of Spanish 
 Succession it lost many of its ancient privileges. 
 In 1812 it was captured by Suchet and remained 
 in the possession of the French until the follow¬ 
 ing year. 
 
 VALENCIA. See Valenti a. 
 
 VALENCIA. The capital of the State of 
 Carabobo, Venezuela, situated 24 miles south of 
 Puerto Cabello, with which it has railway con¬ 
 nection, near the western end of Lake Valencia 
 or Tacarigua (Map: Venezuela, D 1). Valencia 
 is well constructed with broad streets, well-kept 
 plazas, a beautiful market and alameda. It con¬ 
 tains a notable cathedral erected during the 
 first half of the nineteenth century. The city is 
 on the banks of the Aragua River. The chief 
 exports are coffee, sugar, cacao, and hides. Pop. 
 (est.), 27,538. Valencia was founded in 1555. 
 During the struggle for independence it was the 
 scene of battles fought by Bolivar in 1814 and 
 1821, the latter of which gained the freedom 
 of Venezuela from Spain. On account of the 
 various sieges from 1810 to 1821 and the great 
 earthquake of 1812, there are many ruins in 
 the vicinity. 
 
 VALENCIA, Duke of. See Narvaez, R. M. 
 VALENCIA, University of. A Spanish 
 university, founded by the union (1411) of an 
 episcopal foundation for theology (1345) and a 
 
 municipal school of arts, medicine, and civil and 
 canon law (established shortly after). A papal 
 bull confirmed the union about 1500. Several 
 colleges were founded in the sixteenth century, 
 the period of the greatest prosperity of the in¬ 
 stitution. From that century it sank in num¬ 
 bers and reputation. It was reorganized in the 
 decade 1848-58, and has since grown to be one 
 of the leading universities in the Kingdom, with 
 faculties of philosophy, law, natural science, 
 and medicine, and in 1913 some 1700 students. 
 
 VALENCIENNES, va/laN'syen'. The capital 
 of an arrondissement in the Department of 
 Xord, France, and a fortress of the second class, 
 at the junction of the Rhondelle and the Scheldt, 
 30 miles by rail southeast of Lille (Map: 
 France, N., J 2). Broad boulevards are laid 
 out on the site of the old fortifications, which 
 were demolished in 1892. There are many houses 
 of the seventeenth century, which give the streets 
 a mediaeval appearance. The handsome Hotel 
 de Ville, pure seventeenth century except the 
 facade, contains a large collection of paintings, 
 especially of the Flemish school (including 
 splendid specimens of Rubens), and a collection 
 of sculptures. The Gothic church of Saint-Gery, 
 dating from the thirteenth century, with a mod¬ 
 ern tower, and the church of Notre Dame du 
 Saint-Cordon, a modern structure in thirteenth- 
 century style, with beautiful stained-glass win¬ 
 dows by Leveque, are worthy of notice. In the 
 old Jesuit College is the municipal library of 
 more than 25,000 volumes, containing much val¬ 
 uable Romance literature. There are an academy 
 for sculpture and painting, a museum of natural 
 history, an immense hospital, a lyc§e, and an 
 arsenal. The famous Valenciennes lace is no 
 longer manufactured. The extensive coal fields 
 amid which Valenciennes lies have made it a 
 metallurgical centre. Glass, sugar (from beets), 
 chemicals, cambrics, and lawns are also manu¬ 
 factured. Chicory coffee is shipped in large 
 quantities. Pop., 1911, 34,766. Valenciennes is 
 the Roman Valentiana. It came to France by 
 the Treaty of Nimeguen in 1678. It was taken 
 by the Germans in August, 1914. See War in 
 Europe. 
 
 VALENCIENNES. See Lace. 
 VALENCIENNES, Aciiille (1794-1865). 
 
 A French zoologist, born in Paris and educated 
 there. In 1836 he became professor of ichthy¬ 
 ology at the Museum of Natural History. He 
 collaborated with Cuvier in preparing Histoire 
 naturelle des poissons (11 vols., 1829-49), the 
 last five volumes being written solely by Valen¬ 
 ciennes. Valenciennes wrote Histoire naturelle 
 des mollusques, des ann4lides et des zoophytes 
 (1833). 
 
 VA'LENCY (Lat. valentia, strength, from 
 valere, to be strong, able; connected with OIr. 
 flaith, power, Lith. galeti, to be able, Goth. 
 waldan, OHG. waltan, Ger. walten, AS. icealdan, 
 Eng. wield), Valence, or Atomicity. In chem¬ 
 istry, the combining capacity of an atom, with 
 reference to the number of other atoms with 
 which it can be directly combined. The con¬ 
 ception of valency is an offspring of the atomic 
 and molecular theories. These theories led to a , 
 knowledge of the numbers of different atoms 
 making up the molecules of compounds; but as in 
 many cases very different compounds were found 
 to have the same composition and the same 
 molecular weight, it became clear that differ¬ 
 ences in the chemical and physical properties 
 of compounds must often be caused by differ- 
 
VALENCY 
 
 VALENCY 
 
 852 
 
 ences in the manner of combination of their 
 atoms. Those differences of combination had to 
 be investigated, and thus arose the question, In 
 what manner does affinity act in holding together 
 the atoms of compounds? In considering various 
 compounds with a view to obtaining some light 
 on this question, chemists were gradually led 
 to a series of assumptions, the incorporation 
 of which in atomic chemistry has proved ex¬ 
 ceedingly fruitful. 
 
 First* of all it was observed that, in com¬ 
 pounds of hydrogen with some one other element, 
 one atom of hydrogen can hold in combination 
 only one atom" of the other element; this was 
 shown by such compounds as hydrochloric acid 
 (HC1), hydrobromic acid (HBr), hydriodic acid 
 (HI), etc., and the fact was expressed by say¬ 
 ing that hydrogen is univalent or monad. The 
 valencies of certain other elements were then 
 found by considering their compounds with 
 hydrogen, on the principle that by every unit 
 of their combining capacities the atoms of those 
 elements can hold one atom of hydrogen; for 
 hydrogen itself is univalent, i.e., has unit-com¬ 
 bining capacity. From the compounds already 
 mentioned it may be seen that the atoms of 
 chlorine, bromine, and iodine are, like hydrogen, 
 univalent; for each atom of these elements can 
 be combined with only one atom of hydrogen. 
 Similarly, compounds like water (OH 2 ), sul- 
 phureted hydrogen (SH 2 ), ammonia (NH 3 ), and 
 marsh gas (CH 4 ) show that oxygen and sulphur 
 are divalent, that nitrogen is trivalent, and 
 that carbon is quadrivalent. The valencies 
 peculiar to some of the elements being thus 
 established by an inspection of their compounds 
 with hydrogen, the valencies of the other ele¬ 
 ments can be found by studying their com¬ 
 pounds not necessarily with hydrogen, but with 
 any element of known valency. Thus compounds 
 like sodium chloride (NaCI), potassium chloride 
 (KC1), etc., show that the atoms of sodium and 
 potassium are univalent; for they can hold in 
 combination only one atom of another univalent 
 element. The same thing is shown by the fact 
 that sodium or potassium takes the place of one 
 atom of hydrogen in acids, e.g., in hydrochloric 
 acid: 
 
 Na + HC1 = NaCl + H 
 K + HC1 = KC1 + H 
 
 Evidently, an atom of sodium or potassium is 
 equivalent to an atom of hydrogen, and as the 
 latter is univalent, the former, too, must be uni¬ 
 valent. Similarly, an atom of calcium takes the 
 place of two atoms of hydrogen: 
 
 Ga + = CaCl 2 + 2H 
 
 and therefore the element calcium, or rather an 
 atom of this element, is considered divalent. 
 
 Thus a few simple compounds and a few simple 
 reactions led to a knowledge of the valencies 
 peculiar to all of the elements. The conception 
 of valency has proved especially useful in the 
 domain of organic chemistry, i.e., the chemistry 
 of the compounds of carbon. Our modern struc¬ 
 tural theory is based entirely on the assumption 
 that an atom of carbon is invariably quadriva¬ 
 lent; and the usefulness of the structural theory 
 can hardly be overestimated. For it exhibits in 
 a clear and simple manner the relations between 
 similar as well as different compounds, and, 
 above all, it permits of determining the exact 
 number of different compounds that may have 
 
 the same composition and the same molecular 
 weight, and thus permits of foretelling the exis¬ 
 tence of compounds before they have been act¬ 
 ually obtained. 
 
 Graphically each unit of combining capacity 
 of an atom is represented by a dash added to its 
 symbol. The valencies of different elements are 
 thus denoted as follows: 
 
 H— Cl— —O— —N— 
 
 etc. 
 
 When two atoms combine, at least one valency 
 of each is employed, and in compounds like the 
 following, the atoms are said to be linked to¬ 
 gether by single bonds, each bond evidently rep¬ 
 resenting two valencies or affinities (i.e., one 
 unit-combining capacity of each of the combin¬ 
 ing atoms) : 
 
 H—Cl H—O—H H—N—H 
 
 I 
 
 H 
 
 Hydrochloric Water Ammonia 
 
 I 
 
 H—C—H 
 
 I 
 
 H 
 
 Marsh gas 
 
 The graphic representation of valency suggests 
 an important question, viz.: Are the valencies 
 of an atom forces acting only in certain direc¬ 
 tions, or do they act, like gravity, in all direc¬ 
 tions? A further question naturally suggests 
 itself in the case of atoms having more than unit 
 valency, viz.: Are the several affinities equal 
 to one another in power? To answer these ques¬ 
 tions is a matter not of idle speculation, but of 
 necessity in the case—again—of the compounds 
 of carbon. The study of these compounds has 
 led chemists to make the following assumptions: 
 
 (1) the four valencies of carbon are in all re¬ 
 spects equal; (2) they act in four different di¬ 
 rections, which are perfectly symmetrical with 
 respect to the carbon atom. The carbon atom is, 
 viz., imagined to be placed at the centre of a 
 regular tetrahedron, and four equal forces are 
 assumed to act in the directions of the four 
 vertices of the tetrahedron. A further assump¬ 
 tion that thrusts itself upon the organic chemist 
 is that in every compound capable of independ¬ 
 ent existence all the valencies of the constituent 
 atoms are satisfied by combination, and that no 
 valency is free. Without these working assump¬ 
 tions organic chemistry can make no progress. 
 These assumptions made, there is hardly a gen¬ 
 eral fact that remains unaccounted for. The 
 assumptions, though hypothetical in character, 
 are therefore incorporated as principles of 
 science, and thus in connection with the com¬ 
 pounds of carbon chemistry answers in a sense 
 the question stated at the beginning of this ar¬ 
 ticle, viz.: In what manner does affinity act in 
 holding together the atoms of compounds? 
 
 In the case of other elements than carbon, the 
 application of the idea of valency has been much 
 less useful and much less successful. In fact, 
 the obstacles in the way of consistently applying 
 the idea to the several elements are so great that 
 the idea would probably have been abandoned 
 long ago, were it not for its great usefulness in 
 the case of carbon. The chief obstacles are as 
 follows: First, the valencies of most elements 
 are found to* be variable and hence unreliable 
 as a basis for predicting the constitution of un¬ 
 known substances. Thus, while in ammonia 
 (NH 3 ) the atom of nitrogen is trivalent (be¬ 
 cause combined with three univalent atoms ot 
 hydrogen), in nitric oxide (NO) it is divalent 
 
VALENCY 
 
 VALENS 
 
 853 
 
 (because combined with one divalent atom of 
 oxygen), and in ammonium chloride (NH 4 C1) it 
 is pentavalent (because combined with five uni¬ 
 valent atoms, viz., four hydrogens and one 
 chlorine). In other compounds nitrogen seems 
 to have still other valencies. Turning to iron, 
 we find it divalent in ferrous chloride (FeCL) 
 and trivalent in ferric chloride (FeCl 3 ). 
 Chlorine is univalent when combined with hydro¬ 
 gen, and quinquivalent when combined "with 
 oxygen. Sulphur is divalent when combined 
 with hydrogen, and hexavalent when combined 
 with oxygen. Phosphorus is trivalent when 
 combined with hydrogen, and quinquivalent when 
 combined with oxygen. Oxygen is divalent in 
 nearly all of its compounds; yet in dimethyl 
 ether hydrochloride oxygen must be assumed to 
 be quadrivalent. Further, it has been stated 
 above that the atoms of hydrogen, chlorine, 
 iodine, and sodium were primarily assumed to 
 be univalent. One might therefore expect that 
 in all combinations of any two or three elements 
 one atom of one would combine with one, and 
 only one atom of the other. Yet the compound 
 called trichloride of iodine has the formula IC1 3 . 
 Is iodine trivalent in this compound? Another 
 compound, a hydride of sodium, appears to have 
 the formula HNa^. Is hydrogen in this compound 
 divalent? And is, therefore, the valency even 
 of hydrogen variable? Again, when we find the 
 molecule of hydrogen gas to be made up of two 
 hydrogen atoms, w T e conclude that the affinity of 
 each of these atoms is satisfied by that of the 
 other atom. But the molecules of certain uni¬ 
 valent elements (the vapors of sodium, potas¬ 
 sium, iodine, at high temperatures, etc.) are 
 known to be made up each of a single atom. Are 
 the affinities of these single atoms free? Or 
 shall we accept the verdict of organic chemistry, 
 according to which the molecule of a substance 
 capable of independent existence can contain no 
 free affinities? But then how can a single atom 
 form a molecule? 
 
 While we thus search in vain for an explana¬ 
 tion as to what becomes of affinities in certain 
 compounds, we find that other compounds seem 
 to involve the use of more valencies than those 
 possessed by the constituent atoms. Examples 
 of such compounds are presented by the innum¬ 
 erable known crystallohydrates, like NaCl. 
 2FLO, made up of several molecules within each 
 of which all the available valencies should be 
 expected to be satisfied. Other examples of this 
 kind are presented by many of the minerals 
 found in nature. Do atoms, then, possess addi¬ 
 tional valencies which sometimes do and some¬ 
 times do not come into play? 
 
 If, with all these unanswered questions in 
 mind, we return to a consideration of the com¬ 
 pounds of carbon—compounds for which the 
 valency doctrine has rendered its best services— 
 we find that really here also the assumption of 
 the constancy of valence, viz., of the constant 
 quadrivalence of the carbon atom, is by no means 
 generally correct. In the first place we have 
 the classic case of carbon monoxide: in this com¬ 
 pound (CO) the carbon atom appears to be 
 divalent; the only escape from this conclusion 
 is by way of assuming that the oxygen atom 
 is quadrivalent, which is but little more satis¬ 
 factory than ascribing an exceptional valency 
 to the carbon. In another compound, fulminic 
 acid (HCNO), the carbon atom is quite cer¬ 
 tainly divalent. But the most striking examples 
 of carbon acting with a valency other than four 
 
 are presented by triphenyl-methyl (first pre¬ 
 pared by Gomberg) and a series of analogous 
 substances discovered in recent years. Tri¬ 
 phenyl-methyl is methyl, CH 3 , in which the thtee 
 hydrogen atoms have been replaced by phenyl 
 (C„H 5 ) groups. But triphenyl-methyl is not a 
 radicle; it is a compound leading an independ¬ 
 ent existence; therefore, the carbon atom to 
 whicli its three phenyl groups are linked is in¬ 
 dubitably trivalent—as much so as it would be 
 in methyl itself, if methyl could be isolated as an 
 independent compound. 
 
 In view of such facts, and notwithstanding 
 the great services rendered by the old working 
 assumption of the constant quadrivalence of 
 carbon, there remains to-day no justification for 
 thinking of valency as an immutable property of 
 the atom; the combining capacity of an atom, of 
 which its valency is a measure, must be recog¬ 
 nized as capable of being diminished or increased 
 under the influence of the other atoms, or groups 
 of atoms, with which the given atom is linked. 
 And recognizing this, we may well expect the 
 birth of new classes of compounds, unknown to 
 the older organic chemistry, and so the creation 
 of a theory of such compounds becomes a mat¬ 
 ter of possibly the greatest practical importance. 
 
 This explains why in recent years so much 
 speculation is being published concerning the 
 ultimate nature of valency. A sound theory of 
 valency, which such speculation may sooner or 
 later introduce, will not only, as our purely 
 formal valency doctrine has done, guide the 
 chemist to the preparation of new compounds; 
 it will answer the many questions which chem¬ 
 istry is now compelled to ignore, and it will 
 give us the much-needed and long-sought insight 
 into the constitutional peculiarities of benzol 
 and its innumerable, and in many cases, im¬ 
 mensely valuable derivatives. Consult J. A. N. 
 Friend, The Theory of Valency (New York, 
 1909). See Cakbon Compounds; Chemistry; 
 Stereochemistry. 
 
 VA'LENS (c.328—378 a.d.). Roman Emperor 
 of the East (364—378 a.d.). He was the brother 
 of Valentinian I (q.v.), and was born near 
 Cibalis, in Pannonia. He was associated with 
 his brother in the Imperial authority, receiving 
 as his share of the Roman world Asia, Egypt, 
 and Thrace, in 364. His sovereignty was, how¬ 
 ever, disputed by Procopius, a supposed scion 
 of the race of Constantine, who raised his stand¬ 
 ard in Thrace, was crowned at Constantinople, 
 and for two years maintained his ground with 
 skill and courage, till the defeat of his troops at 
 Thyatira and Nacolea, followed by his capture 
 and death in 366. The first prominent act of 
 Valens’s reign was a reduction of 25 per cent 
 in the taxes. The prolonged imprisonment of 
 3000 Ostrogoths, who had been sent to aid Proco¬ 
 pius, led to a war which lasted from 367 to 369. 
 The contest was carried on in the country of the 
 Goths and was throughout in favor of the Ro¬ 
 mans. Difficulties arose immediately afterward 
 (370) with the Persians, who sought to occupy 
 Armenia, although war was not declared till the 
 end of 372, when the Romans were victorious. 
 Valens, who had removed to Antioch at the be¬ 
 ginning of the war, now occupied himself with 
 the religious quarrels between the Arians and 
 the orthodox party, which at that time raged 
 with much violence over the whole Eastern Em¬ 
 pire. Affairs on the eastern frontier again as¬ 
 sumed a threatening aspect; but the Romans 
 were disinclined any longer to interfere with the 
 
VALENTA 
 
 VALENTINIAN 
 
 854 
 
 designs of the Persians on Armenia, and con¬ 
 cluded a somewhat discreditable treaty in 376. 
 Meanwhile the Goths, who had for some time 
 been peacefully settled in Dacia, were assailed 
 by the advancing hordes of the Huns. The 
 Ostrogoths, who first felt the shock, were partly 
 incorporated, and the remainder forced to re¬ 
 treat; the Visigoths next attempted to stem the 
 torrent, but without success, and crowds of fugi¬ 
 tives gathered at the north bank of the Danube. 
 Valens accorded permission to a large body of 
 Goths under Fritigern to cross into Moesia and 
 Thrace, and take possession of the waste lands 
 in these provinces; the fugitive Ostrogoths soon 
 afterward crossed the river without permission; 
 and the alarm which the numbers and turbulence 
 of his new subjects speedily aroused led Valens 
 to the adoption of such impolitic measures that 
 the gratitude of the Goths for shelter afforded 
 was turned to bitter resentment. Valens at last 
 resolved on war, and engaged the Goths near 
 Adrian'ople, Aug. 9, 378. His army was totally 
 routed, and two-thirds of it, including Valens 
 himself and most of his chief officers, were left 
 dead on the field. Consult The Cambridge 
 Mediceval History, vol. i (New York, 1911), 
 and Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the 
 Roman Empire, chaps, xxv—xxvi (ed. of J. B. 
 Bury, London, 1912). 
 
 VALENTA, Eduard (1857- ). An Aus¬ 
 
 trian chemist, born in Vienna, where he was 
 educated at the Polytechnic School and later 
 became professor of photochemistry in the 
 Graphic Educational and Experimental Institu¬ 
 tion. He received many honors. His numerous 
 and important publications include: Klebe- und 
 Verdickungs-Mittel (1884) ; Die Photographie in 
 naturlichen Farben (1894); Photo graphische 
 Chenvie und Chemdkalienkunde (2 vols., 1898— 
 99) ; Die Rohstoffe der graphische Druckgeioerbe 
 (3 vols., 1904-14) ; and many contributions with 
 Eder. 
 
 VALENTIA, va-len'shi-a, or VALENCIA. 
 
 A small island off the southwest coast of Ire¬ 
 land noted as the eastern terminus of the sub¬ 
 marine cables between Great Britain and America 
 (Map: Ireland, A 8). 
 
 VALENTIA. One of the five provinces into 
 which Britain was divided under Diocletian, 
 covering the portion of Scotland south of the 
 wall of Antoninus. 
 
 VALENTIN, va'len-ten, Gabriel Gustav 
 (1820-83). A German physiologist. He was 
 born and educated at Breslau (M.D., 1832), 
 where, with his teacher J. E. Purkinje (q.v.), 
 he discovered ciliary epithelial motion. While 
 professor of physiology at Bern (1836-81), he 
 discovered the nuclei of cells (1836), and the 
 diastatic role of the pancreatic fluid (1844), and 
 he gave to medical science observations on 
 many other important physiological phenomena. 
 He wrote on the effect of poisons on animal 
 organism, also Lehrbuch der Physiologie des 
 Menschen (1844; 2d ed., 1847-50), and Grundriss 
 der Physiologie des Menschen (1846; 4th ed., 
 1854). ‘ 
 
 VAL'ENTINE. The name of several saints 
 and martyrs of the Christian Church. Accord¬ 
 ing to the Acta Sanctorum, on February 14 is 
 observed the day of seven of them, and the 
 veneration of the head of an eighth. These 
 martyrs had lived in various parts of the 
 world—France, Belgium, Spain, Africa—but the 
 two greatest were a priest at Pome and a bishop 
 in Umbria, both of whom lived in the third cen¬ 
 
 tury. The legends which have been preserved 
 in regard to them have little historical value. 
 St. Valentine’s Day is more famous, however, 
 as a lovers’ festival; this has no connection with 
 the saints, but is perhaps the survival of an old 
 festival, of a similar nature, in the Roman 
 Lupercalia. It was observed particularly in 
 England, but to a certain extent upon the Con¬ 
 tinent, too; mention of it is found as early as 
 Chaucer. The custom was to place the names 
 .of young men and women in a box, and draw 
 them out in pairs on St. Valentine’s eve. Those 
 whose names were drawn together had to ex¬ 
 change presents and be each other’s valentines 
 throughout the ensuing year. Later only the 
 men made presents. 
 
 VALENTINE. 1. A character in Shake¬ 
 speare’s Two Gentlemen, of Yetona, one of the 
 two whose humorous adventures give the play 
 its title, 2. The brother of Gretchen in Goethe’s 
 Faust, by whom he is killed while trying to 
 avenge the family honor. 
 
 VALENTINE. A sentimental romance by 
 George Sand (1832). 
 
 VALENTINE, Basil. The pseudonym under 
 which Johann Tholde published in 1644 a work 
 entitled Halographia. For the origin of the 
 name see Valentinus, Basilius. 
 
 VALENTINE AND OK/SON. A Carolingian 
 romance, written in the second half of the fif¬ 
 teenth century and printed at Lyons in 1495. 
 It narrates the history of twin brothers, sons 
 of the Emperor of Constantinople. Orson grows 
 up as a savage denizen of the forest, but 
 Valentine is found by his uncle, King Pepin, 
 and is trained at the palace to be a finished 
 courtier. In 1589 Hathaway and Munday wrote 
 a play founded upon the story, and six years 
 later an interlude bearing the same title was 
 produced. 
 
 VALENTINER, va'lcn-te'ner, Wilhelm 
 (1880- ). A German art historian and 
 
 critic and museum official. He was born at 
 Karlsruhe (Baden), and studied at Heidelberg 
 under Thode, and in Holland with De Groot and 
 with Bredius, whose assistant he was at the Gal¬ 
 lery of The Hague. In 1905 he was called to Berlin 
 by Wilhelm Bode (q.v.), under whom he worked 
 at the Kaiser Friedrich Museum and Kunstge- 
 werke Museum. In 1907 he was appointed 
 curator of the department of decorative arts 
 in the Metropolitan Museum (New York), 
 which under his supervision became one of 
 the foremost in the world. After service at 
 the front in the European War he was, in 1916, 
 attached to the general staff at Berlin. Espe¬ 
 cially known through his writings on Flemish 
 and*Dutch painting, he published: Rembrandt 
 (1907), and Althollandische Genre Zeichungen 
 (1908), both with Bode; The Art of the Low 
 Countries (1914); The Last Years of Michel¬ 
 angelo (1914). He also wrote important cata¬ 
 logues, including that of the Hudson-Fulton 
 Loan Exhibition, Dutch Masters of the Seven¬ 
 teenth Century (1909). 
 
 VAL'ENTINE VOX, THE VENTRILO¬ 
 QUIST. A lengthy and once popular novel by 
 Henry Cockton (1840), abounding in farcical 
 situations produced by the hero’s use of his 
 gift. 
 
 VAL'ENTIN'IAN. A romantic drama by 
 Fletcher produced before 1618—19, but not 
 printed until 1647. It contains some very 
 beautiful songs. 
 
 VALENTINIAN ( Valentinianus) . The 
 
VALENTINIAN 
 
 VALENTINIANS 
 
 855 
 
 name of three Roman emperors of the same 
 family. The most famous, Valentinian I 
 (364-375 a.d. ) was the son of humble parents, 
 and was born at Cilmlis, in Pannonia, in 321. 
 Valentinian entered the army at an early age, 
 and rose rapidly in rank under the emperors 
 Constantius and Julian, only, however, to fall 
 more rapidly; for he was degraded by Con¬ 
 stantins in 357, and banished by Julian in 362. 
 Restored to favor in 363 he distinguished him¬ 
 self in the East, and on the death of Jovian 
 was unanimously chosen as his successor (Feb. 
 25, 364). A month after his accession he 
 chose as his colleague his brother, Valens (q.v.), 
 to whom he resigned the government of the 
 East, reserving for himself Illyricum, Italy, the 
 .Gauls, Britain, Spain, and Africa. During 
 Valentinian’s reign the Alemanni repeatedly 
 (366-368) ravaged the east and the Saxons 
 (370) the northeast of Gaul; Illyricum was 
 wasted (370) by the Quadi and Africa by the 
 southern desert tribes, though these invasions 
 were mostly repelled and avenged. The internal 
 administration, on the other hand, was excellent, 
 for the Emperor added to his ability prudence 
 and firmness, vigilance and impartiality. Though 
 himself a zealous Catholic he permitted his sub¬ 
 jects to adopt whatever religion they chose, and 
 strictly forbade all persecution or annoyance on 
 account of religious belief. On account of the 
 abuse of ecclesiastical influence he excluded 
 priests and monks from the right of succession 
 to property; it was forbidden to hold judicial 
 proceedings in private; the extreme license of 
 speech hitherto allowed to advocates was re¬ 
 strained; gratuitous medical attendance was 
 provided for the poor of Rome; and schools 
 were established throughout the Empire. The 
 success of his administration was doubtless 
 much owing to his fortunate choice of officers: 
 Theodosius the Elder in Africa and Britain, 
 Jovinus in Gaul, and Theodosius the Younger 
 (afterward Emperor) in Illyricum. In private 
 life Valentinian was above reproach, except for 
 his violent temper. By his first wife he had 
 one son, Gratianus (q.v.) ; and by the second, 
 Justina, a son, Valentinian, and three daughters, 
 one of whom, Galla, became the wife of the 
 Emperor Theodosius I. 
 
 Valentinian II (375-392 a.d.), the younger 
 son of the preceding, was born 372 a.d., and re¬ 
 ceived from his elder brother, Gratianus (q.v.), 
 the provinces of Italy, Illyricum, and Africa as 
 his share of the Western Empire. During his 
 long minority the Empress Justina administered 
 the government; and about three years after her 
 death Valentinian, who had given promise of 
 good administrative qualities, was murdered at 
 the instigation of the Frank, Arbogastes, the 
 commander in chief of his army. 
 
 Valentinian III (425-455 a.d.), the grand¬ 
 nephew of the preceding, was born about 419 
 a.d. and was seated on the throne of the West 
 by Theodosius II, Emperor of the East, in 425. 
 Valentinian was a weak and contemptible prince 
 and may be said never to have ruled during 
 the 30 years that he sat on the Imperial throne; 
 his mother, Placidia, governed till her death 
 in 450, and she was succeeded bv the eunuch 
 Heraclius. The regulations enacted for the 
 internal administration were creditable, and 
 especially so when ecclesiastical interests were 
 involved, but the utter corruption of manners, 
 the complete extinction of public spirit, the 
 oxactions of the tax collectors and commis¬ 
 
 sioners, the employment of the powers of the 
 executive in the avenging of private quarrels, 
 and the impossibility of obtaining redress for 
 injuries showed that the Empire had fallen far 
 beyond remedy. The early part of Valentinian’s 
 reign was disturbed by" the contests between 
 the comites Bonifacius and Aetius (qq.v.), the 
 former of whom had supported and the latter 
 resisted Valentinian’s claims to the throne; but 
 notwithstanding this, Aetius prevailed upon 
 the Empress to declare his rival, the Governor 
 of Africa, a public enemy; and the latter called 
 to his aid the Vandals under Genseric (q.v.). 
 Thus Africa was lost to the Empire. But 
 Aetius, notwithstanding, proved himself the bul¬ 
 wark of the Roman power in Europe; the 
 Franks, Goths, Burgundians, and other German 
 nations who had encroached on the Empire were 
 successively defeated and repelled, and the 
 advance of the Huns was stayed on the field 
 of Chalons. Yet the labor of defending an exten¬ 
 sive empire from attack on all sides was too 
 much for one man; and much of Spain and 
 Gaul was seized by the Suevi and the Visigoths, 
 the north of Italy was ravaged by the Huns, 
 Sicily and Sardinia by the Vandals, and even 
 Rome was repeatedly* besieged, while Britain 
 was abandoned to the Piets and the Scots. 
 Aetius seems to have committed the same error 
 as his predecessor Stilicho (q.v.) in attempting, 
 by the marriage of his son to Valentinian’s 
 daughter, to transfer the Imperial dignity to his 
 own family, and, like him also, he was assas¬ 
 sinated, though by the sword of liis master 
 (454). In 455 Valentinian was murdered by 
 adherents of Petronius Maximus and of Aetius. 
 Consult: H. Richter, Das Westromische Reich 
 unter den Kaisem Gratran, Valentinianus II, 
 und Maximus (Berlin, 1865); H. Schiller, Ge- 
 schichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, vol. iii 
 (Gotha, 1883—87); Thomas Hodgkin, Italy and 
 her Invaders (Oxford, 1892) ; The Cambridge 
 Medieval History, vol. i (New York, 1911); 
 Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Ro¬ 
 man Empire, chapters xxv, xxvii, xxxiii-xxxv 
 (ed. of J. B. Bury, vol. i, London, 1912) ; the 
 article “Valentinianus,” in Friedrich Liibke, 
 Reallexikon des Klassischen Altertums, vol. ii 
 (8th ed., Leipzig, 1914). 
 
 VALENTINIANS. The most important 
 Gnostic sect or school, founded by Valentinus, 
 who went from Alexandria to Rome about 140 
 a.d. and died there, or in Cyprus, about 160. 
 They recognized heathenism as a preparatory 
 stage of Christianity, and divided the higher 
 spiritual world into 15 pairs of aeons, each 
 consisting of a male and a female. The first 
 pair, or syzygy, is made up of Bythos, or God 
 in himself, and Ennoia, or God as existing 
 in his own thoughts; from these emanated next 
 Nous (Intelligence) and Aletheia (Truth), and 
 so on. As the last aeon, Sophia (Wisdom), 
 transgressed the bounds that had been laid 
 down by the aeon Horos, and a part of her 
 being became lost in Chaos, there was formed 
 a crude being, called Achamotli, which, through 
 the Demiurgos that emanated from it, created 
 the corporeal world. Horos now imparted to 
 the souls of men (for all the bodies composing 
 the corporeal world are possessed of souls) a 
 pneumatic or spiritual element, but this only at¬ 
 tained to full activity when Christ, a collective 
 emanation from all the aeons, appeared as Sav¬ 
 iour, and united himself with the man Jesus. 
 In the end, all that is spiritual, and even the 
 
VALENTINUS 
 
 VALERIAN 
 
 856 
 
 originally psychic or soul element in so far as 
 it has assimilated itself to the spiritual, will 
 return into the Pleroma. The Valentinians 
 existed as late as the second half of the fourth 
 century. See Gnosticism. 
 
 VAL'ENTI'NUS (?-c.l60). The founder of 
 one of the Gnostic sects which came into exist¬ 
 ence in the first half of the second century. 
 According to Epiphanius ( Hcer. xxxxi, 2) he 
 was horn in Egypt, as some assert, of Jewish 
 parents, and was educated in the Hellenic 
 schools of Alexandria. During the reign of 
 Antoninus Pius (about 140) he came to Rome, 
 where he first appeared as an orthodox religious 
 teacher. On his settling in Cyprus he became 
 an open enemy to the Church and began to 
 propagate his peculiar doctrines, for which see 
 Gnosticism; Valentinians. 
 
 VALENTINUS, Basilius. A German chem¬ 
 ist and physician who lived in the latter part 
 of the fifteenth century. Numerous writings, 
 purporting to come from him, have been pre¬ 
 served, but in regard to his life the obscurity 
 is so great that some extremists have even 
 denied his existence, saying that the name is 
 a pseudonym of Paracelsus (q.v.), with whom 
 his works show great resemblance. Sounder 
 scholars, however, maintain that he did live, 
 having been born in Alsace, and being a Bene¬ 
 dictine monk. His writings show a position 
 midway between alchemy and modern science. 
 The most complete edition of them is that 
 published by Petraus (Hamburg, 1740). 
 
 VALERA Y ALCALA GALIANO, va-la'ra 
 e al'ka-lii' gil'le-a'nO, Juan (1824-1905). A 
 Spanish statesman, diplomat, novelist, poet, and 
 scholar, born at Cabra, in the Province of 
 Cbrdoba. He was educated at Malaga and at 
 the University of Granada, where he took his 
 degree in law, and then entered upon a diplo¬ 
 matic career (1847). When the Duke de Rivas 
 was sent as Spanish Ambassador to Naples 
 Valera accompanied him. He was then a mem¬ 
 ber of the Spanish legations at Lisbon (1850), 
 Rio de Janeiro (1851-53), Dresden and St. Peters¬ 
 burg (1854-57). After his return to Madrid 
 (1858) he became one of the editors of the 
 liberal journal El Contempordneo (1859). He 
 was a leading member of the Unibn Liberal, 
 and was made Minister to Frankfort (1865) by 
 General O’Donnell. After the revolution of 
 1868 he was appointed Assistant Secretary of 
 State and (1871) Director of Public Instruc¬ 
 tion. During the reign of Alfonso XII he was 
 Minister to Lisbon (1881-83), Washington 
 (1883-86), and Brussels (1886-88), and in 
 (1893-95) Ambassador to Vienna. Throughout 
 all his diplomatic and political activity he pro¬ 
 duced works which rank among the highest that 
 his country’s literature contains. He was 
 elected to the Spanish Royal Academy of the 
 Language (1861) and to the Academy of Moral 
 and Political Sciences (1900). He became life 
 Senator (1881) and Knight Grand Cross of the 
 Order of Carlos III (1882). 
 
 Valera really began the movement in fiction 
 that was the glory of the last three decades 
 of the nineteenth century in Spain with his Pe- 
 pita Jimdnez, first published as a serial in 
 1374 and since translated into many modern 
 languages. Pepita was written after Valera had 
 steeped his mind in the Spanish mysticism of 
 the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. His 
 next novel, Las ilusiones del doctor Faustino 
 (1875), the story of a modern Faust, did not 
 
 catch the popular favor so quickly as Pepita. 
 His third novel, El comendador Mendoza ( 1877), 
 is free from philosophizing. After a shorter 
 story, Pasarse de listro, appeared the Dona Luz 
 (1879). Having abandoned politics, Valera 
 wrote El hechicero, Juanita la larga, La buena 
 fama, Genio y figura, De varios colores, and 
 Morsamor, all attractive novels. The short tales 
 of Valera are hardly less known and appreciated 
 than his more extended works. Among them 
 are the Cuentos, dialogos y fantasias, the de¬ 
 lightful little El pdjaro verde, the Parsondes, 
 the Asclepigenia, the Gopa, and the Bermejino 
 prehistorico. In the poetry of Valera his erudi¬ 
 tion is more visible than any other trait. By 
 translating or paraphrasing in verse the poems 
 of foreign authors, Valera acquainted his coun¬ 
 trymen with portions of the poetic literature 
 of Germany and the English-speaking regions; 
 thus he rendered into Spanish verse parts of 
 Goethe’s Faust, of Uhland’s ballads, and of 
 Moore’s Paradise and the Peri; poems of James 
 Russell Lowell, Whittier, and W. W. Story. 
 His translation of that gem of antiquity 
 Daphnis and Chloe has itself become a classic. 
 He also translated Schack’s Poesie und Kunst 
 der Araber (1881). His critical work displays 
 great powers of observation, and gives evidence 
 of wide reading. For purity of diction and 
 beauty of style Valera has never been sur¬ 
 passed in Spain. 
 
 Consult: Juan Valera, Obras Completas (Ma¬ 
 drid, 1905 et seq., 43 vols. to 1916) ; Ferdinand 
 Brunetiere, La casuistique dans le roman de 
 Juan Valera, in his series Histoire et litterature, 
 vol. i (Paris, 1884) ; Emilia Pardo Bazan, “Re- 
 tratos y apuntes literarios,” in Obras completas, 
 vol. xxxii (Madrid, 1891 et seq.) ; Conde de 
 Casa Valencia, Necrologia de ... D. J. V. (ib., 
 1905) ; Conde de las Navas, Don Juan Valera 
 (ib., 1905) ; J. D. Fitz-Gerald, “Juan Valera,” 
 in The Bookman, vol. xxi (New York, 1905) ; 
 F. Vbzinet, Les maitres du roman espagnol con- 
 temporain (Paris, 1907). 
 
 VALERA Y DELAVAT, va-la'ra 6 dA'la-vat', 
 Luis, Marquis de Villasinda (?- ) . A 
 
 Spanish diplomat and novelist, son of Juan 
 Valera y Alcalb Galiano (q.v.). He served as 
 Secretary of Legation at Peking, as Minister 
 to Morocco, and as Minister to Portugal. Among 
 his works are: Sombras chinescas (1902); 
 Visto y sohado (1903); Del Antaiio Quimerico 
 (1905); El filosofo y la tiple (1908); De la 
 muerte al amor (1910). 
 
 VALERE, va'lar'. A stock name for a lover 
 in French classical comedy. In Moliere’s L’avare 
 he is the son of Anseline and lover of Elise, 
 Harpagon’s daughter. The character occurs also 
 in Le depit amoureux, L’dcole des maris, and 
 Le mddecin volant, and in Mrs. Centlivre’s 
 Gamester. 
 
 VALERIAN, va-le'ri-an (OF. valeriane, Fr. 
 valeriane, from ML. valeriana, valerian; prob¬ 
 ably from Lat. Valerian/us, prop, name, from 
 valere, to be strong, able), Valeriana. A genus 
 consisting of about 180 species of annual and 
 perennial herbs of the natural order Vale- 
 rianacese. The common valerian ( Valeriana 
 officinalis) is abundant in ditches, moist woods, 
 etc., throughout Europe and northern Asia. Its 
 fleshy root (valeriance rhizoma) has been used 
 in medicine as an antispasmodic and a stimu¬ 
 lant to the nervous system and circulation—ac¬ 
 tions attributed to valerianic acid. 
 
 The active ingredient is a crystallizable vola- 
 
VALERIAN 
 
 tile oil, from which is obtained by oxidation 
 valerene (C 10 H lfl ), valerol (C, 2 H 20 O), also known 
 as Baldrian camphor; and valerianic acid 
 (C 5 H 10 O 2 ). The latter as a pharmaceutical 
 product is derived from amylic alcohol by 
 oxidation and is not identical with the natural 
 acid. There are three official preparations, viz., 
 the fluid extract, the tincture, and the ammo- 
 niated tincture. The volatile oil is not official, 
 but is preferable to the tinctures which are 
 extremely nauseating to many patients. In 
 toxic doses valerian produces # diarrhoea, vomit¬ 
 ing, and mental disturbances. 
 
 The greater valerian ( Valeriana phu) , which 
 grows in alpine districts of Europe, is now al¬ 
 most entirely disused, although, like Valeriana 
 dioscoridis, it is very active. Valeriana celtica 
 and Valeriana saliunca, are alpine species, found 
 in Styria and Carinthia. Valeriana sitchensis, 
 a native of the United States, is said to possess 
 medicinal properties. The root of Valeriana 
 edulis , a species found in northwestern America, 
 is used as food by the Indians. 
 
 VALERIAN (Publius Lictnius V at v - 
 rianus ). Roman Emperor 253-260 a.d. He 
 was descended from an ancient and noble family, 
 and was chosen for his integrity and accomplish¬ 
 ments to the office of censor/ Faithful in his 
 allegiance to Gallus, he went to summon the 
 legions of Gaul and Germany to aid the feeble 
 Emperor against the usurper yEmilianus, but 
 arrived too late to save his master. The 
 usurper’s troops murdered their own chief, and 
 united with their late antagonists in proclaim¬ 
 ing Valerian Emperor, August, 253. He was 
 then about 60 years old, and took as colleague 
 his eldest son, Gallienus (q.v.). Valerian 
 showed abundant proof during his short reign 
 of most ardent zeal for the prosperity of the 
 Empire, but the times required a ruler of more 
 energy and ability, as the irruption of the 
 Franks into Gaul, despite the efforts of Au- 
 relian, the devastation of Thrace, Macedonia, 
 Greece, and the archipelago by the Goths, the 
 advance of the Alemanni to Milan, and the 
 conquest of Syria and Armenia by the Persian 
 King Sapor (Shapur), testified. Since the 
 troubles in the East appeared most threatening, 
 Valerian went thither in person, and w r as for 
 a time successful, but was surprised by superior 
 numbers at Edessa, was defeated, and with 
 the remnant of his army forced to surrender 
 (260 a.d. ). Valerian remained in captivity till 
 his death. The statements regarding the in¬ 
 dignities heaped upon the unfortunate captive 
 by his haughty conqueror are probably false, 
 or at least much exaggerated. After his death 
 his skin w^as flayed off, stuffed, and preserved 
 as a proud trophy of victory, which was in¬ 
 variably exhibited to the ambassadors from 
 Rome to the Sassanid court. 
 
 VALERI ANOS, va'la-re-a'nas, Apostolos. 
 See Fuca, Juan de. 
 
 VALERIC (va-ler'Ik or -le'rik) or VALE'- 
 RIAN'IC ACID. A name applied to four dis¬ 
 tinct volatile fatty acids, all represented by the 
 same formula, CJUCOdT. The valerianic acid 
 ordinarily met with, and used pharmaceutically, 
 is often referred to as iso-valerianic acid. It 
 is a limpid, colorless, oily fluid of a penetrating 
 odor, similar to that of valerian root, and of 
 an acrid taste. It boils at 174° C. (345° F.). 
 It makes a transparent spot on paper, but the 
 spot disappears on exposure to the air. It is 
 only slightly soluble in water, but dissolves in 
 
 857 VALERIUS MAXIMUS 
 
 alcohol and ether in all proportions. It exists 
 in and is obtained by distilling valerian root 
 with water acidulated with sulphuric, acid. It 
 may be similarly obtained from angelica root. 
 It is also formed during the oxidation of fats 
 and fatty acids (especially oleic acid), either 
 by nitric acid or mere exposure to the air, by 
 the oxidation and putrefaction of albuminoids, 
 etc.; but the best method of preparing it is b} r 
 distilling a mixture of amyl alcohol (or fusel 
 oil) with bichromate of potash and sulphuric 
 acid. An amino derivative of this acid, having 
 the formula C 4 H 8 (NH 2 ) C0 2 H and named va¬ 
 line, is of considerable importance in biological 
 chemistry. 
 
 ^ The following salts are used in medicine: (1) 
 Valerianate of ammonia, which forms colorless, 
 or white, flat quadrangular crystals that are 
 deliquescent in the air. (2) ' Valerianate of 
 iron,, a dark-red amorphous powder which is 
 readily soluble in alcohol, but is insoluble in 
 cold water. (3) Valerianate of zinc, which 
 forms brilliant white pearly tabular crystals, 
 with a feeble odor of valerianic acid and a 
 metallic taste, is scarcely soluble in water, in 
 alcohol, or in ether. Valerianic acid and its 
 salts are supposed to be useful remedies for 
 reflex neuralgia and for various neurotic 
 troubles; but what their action consists in 
 is entirely unknown. Amyl valerianate, C 5 H n . 
 C 5 H 9 0 2 , is a volatile fluid with a penetrating 
 odor of apples, slightly soluble in water, but 
 dissolving freely in spirit and in ether. In the 
 form of a dilute spirituous solution, it so 
 strongly resembles apples in its smell that it 
 is used in perfumery under the name of oil 
 of apples, or essence of apples. 
 
 The three other known valerianic acids are 
 of much less importance than the one described 
 above. 
 
 VALE'RIUS ANTIAS. A Roman historian 
 of the first century b.c., who wrote the history 
 of Rome from the earliest times down to those 
 of Sulla. This work, which consists of at least 
 75 books, was full of exaggerations, but was 
 mentioned among the well-known annals, and 
 was one of the chief sources of Livy, who men¬ 
 tions Valerius by name repeatedly, and followed 
 him unhesitatingly in the first decades of his 
 work. Consult: H. Peter, Historicorum Ro- 
 manorum Fragmenta (Leipzig, 1883), for the 
 fragments of the Annales; W. S. Teuffel, History 
 of Roman Literature (Eng. trans. by G. C, W. 
 Warr, London, 1891) ; Martin Schanz, Geschichte 
 der romisehen Litteratur, vol. i, part ii (3d ed., 
 Munich, 1909). 
 
 VALERIUS CORVUS, Marcus. See Cor- 
 vus M. V. 
 
 VALERIUS ELAC'CUS. A Roman scholar 
 and teacher. See Flaccus, Gaius Valerius. 
 
 VALERIUS MAX'IMUS. A Roman his¬ 
 torical compiler of the reign of Tiberius, to 
 whom he dedicated a work bearing the title 
 of Factorum et Dictorum Memorabilium Libri 
 IX, and consisting of short stories and anec¬ 
 dotes from various authors. His style is ornate 
 and often obscure, and his want of acquaintance 
 with the history and constitution of his country 
 renders him an unsafe guide: yet he was a 
 favorite author of his own time, and much 
 studied in the Middle Ages. The best edition, 
 including the two epitomes by Julius Paris and 
 Januarius Nepotianus, is that of Kempf (Leip¬ 
 zig, 1888). There is an old English translation 
 by Speed (London, 1678). Consult W. S. Teuf- 
 
VALIANT-FOR-TRUTH 
 
 VALERIUS PROBUS 
 
 fel, Geschiohte der romischen Ltteratur, vol. ii 
 (Oth ed., Leipzig, 1909); Martin Schanz, Ge- 
 schicht.e der romischen Litteratur, vol. ii, part ii 
 (3d ed., Munich, 1913). 
 
 VALERIUS PROBUS, Marcus. See Pro¬ 
 bus, M. V. 
 
 VALERIUS, Henricus (Henri de Valois) 
 (1603-76). A classical scholar, horn in Paris. 
 He was chosen by the clergy of Prance to pub¬ 
 lish an edition of all the Greek authors whose 
 writings deal with the early history of the 
 church, and, in 1654, he was given a pension 
 and the title of Royal Historiographer. His 
 publications include "the ecclesiastical histories 
 of Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, and 
 Evagoras, all of which were accompanied by 
 Latin translations and scholarly introductions 
 and notes (1659-73); a collection of excerpts 
 from the Greek historians, especially Constan¬ 
 tine Porphyrogenitus, known as the Excerpta 
 Peiresciana (1634), and an edition of Ammianus 
 Marcellinus (1636). His minor works were 
 published under the titles H. Valesii Emenda- 
 tionum Libri V and De Critica Libri II (1740). 
 
 VALETTA, va-let'ta. The fortified capital 
 of Malta, located on the east side of the island 
 (Map: Italy, E 7). The city is on a tongue 
 of land, which forms two harbors and terminates 
 in a narrow promontory bearing the lighthouse 
 and fort of St. Elmo. In addition to St. Elmo 
 there are three other important fortifications, 
 government and private dry docks, a coaling 
 station, a marine hospital, and quarters for 
 troops. The principal architectural features 
 are the governor’s residence, formerly the pal¬ 
 ace of the grand masters of the Knights of 
 Malta or St. John, and the cathedral, contain¬ 
 ing tombs of the Knights. The town has a 
 university, library, botanical garden, and mu¬ 
 seum. In parts" of the city the streets are 
 broad and run at right angles to each other; 
 in others the land is so steep that the streets 
 are practically stairways. Valetta has a large 
 transit trade, and is an important British naval 
 station. Pop., 1901, 22,680; 1911, 22,882. In 
 1565 Valetta withstood a memorable siege by 
 the Turks, against whom it was successfully 
 defended by Jean Parisot de la Valette (q.v.). 
 See Malta. 
 
 VALETTE, va'let', Jean Parisot de la 
 (1494-1568). Grand Master of the Knights of 
 St. John of Jerusalem (q.v.). He was born 
 in Toulouse, and at an early age entered the 
 Order of St. John. His chief distinctions were 
 won in naval service in the Mediterranean. In 
 1557 he was elected Grand Master, the forty- 
 eighth to hold that office. During the first 
 five years of his grandmastership he captured 
 50 great galleys from the Turks, and a large 
 number of smaller vessels of war. In May, 
 1565, a Turkish fleet said to have been composed 
 of 150 ships, conveying 30,000 troops, appeared 
 oil the harbor of Malta, and after failing in 
 several assaults, formally invested the island. 
 Alone and unsupported by any of the Christian 
 Powers, La Valette, with about 700 knights and 
 8000 men at arms and islanders, defended the 
 fortress under circumstances of extreme diffi¬ 
 culty and distress. At the end of four months, 
 and" after a loss, it is said, of _ 20,000 men, 
 the Turkish fleet was forced to raise the block¬ 
 
 858 
 
 ade and withdraw from the island. La Valette 
 died three years later, Aug. 15, 1568. Consult 
 Jurien de la Graviere, Les chevaliers de Malte 
 et la Marine de Philippe II, vols. i-ii (Paris, 
 1887). 
 
 VAL'GIUS RU'FUS. A Roman poet of the 
 Augustan age. Horace (Sat. i, 10, 82) mentions 
 him among those friends whose commendation 
 outweighs the criticisms of detractors. He is 
 said to have written elegies, epigrams, and 
 works on botany and grammar. Consult Peter, 
 Historicorum Roytanorum Fragmenta (Leipzig, 
 1883) 
 
 VALHALLA, val-hal'la (Old Norse valholl, 
 gen, valhallar, hall of the slain). In Old Norse 
 mythology, the abode of Odin in Asgard, the 
 hall of the fallen in battle. It stood in Glads- 
 heim (Old Norse Gladhsheimr), the home of joy. 
 The roof of it was of gold, and in front of it 
 was the grove Glasir, the trees of which bore 
 golden leaves. Before the house, which was 
 so high that its summit could scarcely be seen, 
 a wolf was hung, as a symbol of war, over 
 which sat an eagle. The hall itself, ornamented 
 with shields, wainscoted with spears, and lighted 
 with shining swords, had 540 doors, through 
 each" of which 800 heroes could walk abreast. 
 Every morning they marched out at the crow¬ 
 ing of the cock, and fought furiously with one 
 another; but at midday all wounds healed, and 
 the heroes assembled to the feast under Odin’s 
 presidency. The guests ate of the bacon of the 
 boar Saehrimnir, and refreshed themselves with 
 beer and mead, which flowed in abundance from 
 the udder of the goat Heidrun (Old Norse 
 Heidhrunr), fed by the tree Lserad (Old Norse 
 Lceradhr) which rose above the hall, while the 
 attendant Valkyries handed them the drinking 
 horns, under Freyja’s direction. See Odin ; 
 Valkyries. Consult R. B. Anderson, Norse 
 Mythology (Chicago, 1875; 7th ed., ib., 1901). 
 
 The name Valhalla is also given to a German 
 temple of fame, situated about 7 miles east 
 of Regensburg, Bavaria, on the heights above 
 the Danube valley. This singularly beautiful 
 and imposing structure was erected under Louis 
 I. It was designed by Klenze, and completed in 
 1842. It is built of gray marble, in close imita¬ 
 tion of the Parthenon, and is 246 feet long and 
 115 feet wide. Fifty-two Doric columns sur¬ 
 round it. The interior is Ionic, forming a hall 
 50 by 180 feet and 56 high. Schwanthaler, 
 Wagner, and Rauch had charge of the decorative 
 features. The number of busts of eminent Ger¬ 
 mans in 1911 was 165, and there are six Vic¬ 
 tories (goddesses) by Rauch. 
 
 Consult: King Ludvig I, Walhallas Genossen 
 (Munich, 1842; 2d ed., ib., 1847); Adalbert 
 Muller, Donaustauf und Walhalla (33d ed., 
 Regensburg, 1898) ; Schratz, Kurze Geschichte 
 und Beschreibung der Walhalla und des Markts 
 Donaustauf (8th ed., ib., 1904). 
 
 VALHORN, Joseph Gasser von. See Gas¬ 
 ser von Valhorn, Joseph. 
 
 VALIANT-FOR-TRUTH. A character in 
 the second part of Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, 
 who joins the company of Christiana on her 
 journey to the Celestial City. He combines the 
 noble qualities of a mediaeval crusader with the 
 homely virtues of the English middle classes of 
 the seventeenth century. 
 

 
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