W -''j Zft^ ^Tm wf/M LIBRARY, m MBM Case Shelf ... .Vo. ... J.- THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY From the collection of Julius Doerner, Chicago Purchased, 1918. 940.S v.l liNiVfflSIWOFILUKOlS UBRath AT UH3/^A-GH^^PA!6?J Return this book on or before the Latest Date stamped below. Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books are reasons for disciplinary action and may result in dismissal from the University. University of Illinois Library Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates https://archiye.org/details/historyofwarswhi01step Anilirii Anlieiit,,. ll'.ii/ninijfH Mrilifli Miln f hltnlnini UwHtck •TKiHi Tv UW/u/ /A/tXvy///« hhiurnlnuy r^WrtX- .Vfnnl'i ^)if lump Rfcklituiha sintr/P AhaJir. 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THE HISTORY OF THE WARS WHICH AROSE OUT OF 'THE FREJWCH REEOLUTIOJV: VO waxen 13 PREFIXED, A REVIEW OF THE CAUSES OF THAT EVENT. BY ALEXANDER STEPHENS, OF THE HONOURABLE SOCIETY OF THE MIDDLE TEMPLE, ESQ. ' ■■■' ■' ■ statui res gestas populi Romani strictim, uti quaeque memoria digna videbantur, perscribere : eo magis, quod mihi a spe, metu, partibus reipublicae animus liber erat. Sal. de conjurat. CatiL IN TWO VOLUMES. * VOL. I. LONDON: PRINTED FOR RICHARD PHILLIPS, 7h ST. PAUL’S CHURCH- YARD. 1803. BY THOMAS DAVISON, WHITE-FRIARS, v-:' 1 ■i . V': . • •.V,''' , •.., '*:■<•' •' -Vi ’>v- ■ ■ > y>',* ‘ -.t ^ r- ■ I . , S , ■« ^>v' vifen't: i - ' ' . I ■ i • »V, .U " ^ - • r . ■ *di • S^, • .(. Ju^u^'-jo© [k, i' •',: . ..•■i;f ,}iorgih‘i to c:;;OAri b 05 ‘i:j 4 l ":itt ‘-■v f, - 1 »-: sv - ' ! .'■■ ,! •• f i i i ; 5 '. ' r . . ; V ,. <. 4 > ' to' bo^ 0 -/ ii I . v! ) A n)(} ;.'^^1( ocf , , • V. i V 5 b to ■'% L^o-^r.-wu'/ -i^' ^orrjris ‘r)Vbo orll f' '-■K7 ■■■ I ,, ^•7::)^fif(tj;‘ SWiUlX' f’ : ’ ^ .V;a, . ■ o\ bofri'Jl" / ^r'o ! */ tt * ftVj/oi. -IS'— t: r.:; H'i -I j l&B. ‘jdit '-Si' ' „/(' ♦ * -l^t;.: '.7, ; -> / : t'' .7 ^tijc / ‘ii-iihi V in^f- ■ ■ ■ *>%■■' ' --• • I.. Ji ■ ^ tM '-■'•fe'7 . . V ' ■'' ■■. Si 7 7 . . :,t % ■ ix I'v •7" 3 ^ 0 .2 V. 1 PREFACE. The epoch of the French Revolution, and the wars to which that celebrated event gave rife, almoft jiiftify the affertion, that the annals of mankind contain little more than a record of their crimes and calamities. At no period either in ancient or in modern times have the revered names of religion, liberty, and focial order, been fo frequently invoked or fo audacioully profti- tuted ; and it is to be feared, that the civil rights of in- dividuals, as well as that fyftem of publick morals called the law of nations, have received a deep and incurable wound. But, on the other hand, it is a feries of lingular, mag- nificent, and difaftrous events, like that juft alluded to, which affords fuitable imagery for narrative, and con- ftitutes at once the miferies of fociety and the materials for hiftory. He who is deftined to detail recent tranf- adlions, if adluated by the fpirit of truth and inde- pendence, will have to recapitulate fuch a multitude of enormities, that the reigns of Nero and Domitian muft PREFACE. appear lefs intolerable from comparifon. The murder of prifoners in open day ; the publick detention and alTaffination of ambaffadours ; the iincontrouled reign of that panick terrour which appalled the innocent, and not unfrequently fpared the guilty ; the triumph of men of blood over the publick enemy as well as the moft virtuous of their fellow citizens ; one fadlion fwal- lowing up another, while the inftrument of deftrudlion was ftretched forth, and the tomb yawned, for the vidlors ; a frantick populace dividing the palpitating members of their vidlims, and a King coolly murdering thofe fubjedls who had yielded to the faith of a folemn treaty ; the torture, at once the mark of a barbarous age and the opprobrium of a civilifed one, publickly inflidted; while, as if to form a climax and realife the metaphor of the ancient poets, the dogs of war were literally unchained, and the canine race employed to hunt down the human fpecies ; fuch is the galaxy of crimes prefented during this night of wonders. Yet, notwithftanding thefe hideous pidlures, Europe has dlfplayed many uncommon inftances of heroifm, and fome fcenes have occurred in a neighbouring coun- try, which furpafs all that is to be found during the boafted reigns of Marcus Aurelius and the Antonines. Never did any nation exhibit fuch magnanimity, when threatened with fubjugation, flavery, and difmember- PREFACE. ment, on the part of the combined monarchs of the con- tinent. Never did fo many oratours, philofophers, men of letters, and ftatefmen, evince fuch a perilous and deadly enmity to anarchy, injuftice, and bioodihed ; or prefer with fo much readinefs the uplifted axe of the executioner to the fcorn of their contemporaries and the reproaches of pofterity. Even the fofter fex, alTuming a mafculine courage, maintained their prin- ciples on the fcaffbld, and perilhed without a figh be- fore the ftatue of outraged liberty. The art of war too, during this memorable period, has been carried to a greater degree of perfedlion than in any former age ; and the young tadlicians of the new fchool have overcome generals grown hoary under arms. The machinery of battles has been calculated on a more gigantick fcale ; fleets have not only fought with greater flercenefs, but exhibited evolutions hitherto unknown or unpradbfed ; a Angle army fometimes ex- tended its wings from the frontiers of France to the heart of Italy, while at other periods, one immenfe line offol- diers has occupied the intervening countries from the banks of the Rhine to the fhores of the Adriatick. The fciences alfo, have on this occafion followed in the train of Mars, and the fate of kingdoms appears to have been not unfrequently decided by their influ- ence. In confequence of the introdudlion of one inflru* PREFACE. ment, intelligence has not only been communicated with a degree of celerity nearly equal to that of found, but with all the exa61itude of literary communication ; while another, until lately conlidered as a toy, has been ren- dered fubfervient, on one occafion at lead, to the at- attainment of victory. It is evident, therefore, that the field for the annalift is fpacious: infiead of a deficiency, there is a fuper- abundance of materials : feledlion, rather than amplifi- cation, is required upon this occafion, and it becomes necefTary to vary by means of epifodes the fickening detail of unavailing crimes, and the languid paufes occafioned by interminable daughter. While recording the tranfadiions of fo long and fo variegated a war, I have endeavoured to dived my mind of national prejudices, and widied to do ample judice to the exploits of foes as well as of allies ; but I have in no cafe omitted to celebrate the naval and military achieve- ments of a people, who, after maintaining the glory of their dag on every fea, and proving vidlorious in every general engagement, completed the triumph of their arms by the conqued of Egypt. The introdudlion, which was written upwards of nine months dnce, contains a rapid fketch of an intereding PREFACE. period, as it was deemed neceffary to prefix an account of the leadings caufes of the French revolution, to the nar- rative of the wars which arofe out of that event. Upon the prefent occafion I have been furnifhed with abundance of information, and have no- where applied in vain ; even thofe with whom I had not always the hap- pinefs exactly to agree in refpedl to opinions, have fa- voured me with hints, obfervations, and remarks. From a nobleman who lately occupied a high fituation in the government of this country, I was honoured with an im- portant communication relative to a fubjedt that excited the indignation of France, and occupied the curiofity of Europe, at the beginning of the late war ; I have alfo enjoyed the fatisfadlion of acquiring information at the fountain-head, and chiefs who have fought and gained the battles of their country have not difdained to read and to corredt my account of them. As the ceffation from war precludes the neceffity of fecrecy, fome important documents have been occa- fionally introduced, and I have readily inferted an ori- ginal letter from the late grand-mafter of Malta, juft communicated to me by his nephewq a major-general in the fervice of Great Britain. In the Appendix, among other papers neceffary for the elucidation of the work, will be found a journal of the adion of the firft of June, which ufhered in fo many PREFACE. naval vi6tories ; it was drawn up by -Clairfayt, 351. Decifrve attack on thcAuftrians, ibid. — they are driven acrofs the Rhine, ibid. Coblentz taken, 3S2. Pichegru enters Holland, ibid. Capture of Sluys, ibid. Adlion at Boxtel, ibid. Inveftment of Bois-le-duc, 353. Crevecceur taken, 354. Surrender of Bois-le-duc, ibid. Adlion at Pufflech, ibid. Capture of Venloo, 355. Surrender of Maellrlcht, ibid. Siege of Nimeguen, 356. — its furrender, 357. -The French determine to crofs the Waal, ibid. Dif- ficulties attendant on the invafion of Holland, 358. — partly removed by a froft fimilar to that of 1758, ibid. Refumption of hoftilities, 359. Surrender of the ifle of Bommel and Fort St. Andre, ibid. Capture of Grave, ibid. The French ' army crofles the Waal, ibid. Flight of the prince of Orange, 360. Surrender of Utrecht, Arnheim, and Gertruydenburgh, 361. Pichegru enters Amfterdam, 364. • C H A'P. III. Campaign ^1794 on the Rhine. p, 366 The French feize on Kaiferflautern, Spires, &c. 366. They are beaten at the ' firft of thefe places, ibid. ‘Battle of Edikhoffen, 367. The French attack' the chain I of polls occupied by the allies, 368. They feize on Treves and the Palatinate, ibid. The Germanick body wifties for peace, 369. CONTENTS. CHAP. IV. Campaign of in Spain and Italy — Progf^efi of the JVa7' in La Vendee. ' Page 371 W ar with Spain, 37 1 . Progrefs of the French armies in Piedmont, ibid. Cap- ture of Oneglla, 372. Mount Cenis in poflelTion of the French, ibid. War of La Vendee, 373. CHAP. V. Cruife of the Channel Fleet — Txvo indeclfive Combats, folloxved by an important ViStory obtained by Lord Howe on the Firji of June — Naval Hiftory. p. 3^5 Lord Howe fails from St. Helen’s, 375. Admiral Montague detached with a convoy, 376. French fleet fails, 377. Firft day’s action, 378. Second day’s action, 379. Junftion of rear-admiral Neilly, 380. Third adiion, June ift, 381. Grand fleet arrives, 388. Second cruife of the grand fleet, 390. Adtion off Guernfey, ibid. Lofs of the Alexander, of 74 guns, 392. CHAP. VI. Invafon and Conqueji of Corfica. p. 394 Advantages to be derived from the pofleflion of Corfica, 394. Views of Paoli, ibid. Expedition againft Corfica, 395. Gallant defence of the tower of Mortdla, 396. Attack on Fornelli, 398. Fiorcnzo evacuated, ibid. Surrender of Baftia, 399.— of Calvi, 401. CHAP VII. Campaign in the Wef Indies — ReduBion of Martinico, Guadaloupe, St, Lucia, Mariegalante, Defeada, and the Saints. p. 402 The fleet fails for the Weft Indies, 402. Expedition againft Martinico, 403. — proceedings of the army, 405. — capture of Pigeon Ifland, ibid.—oi St. Pierre, 406.--attack on Bellegarde’s camp, 407. — capture of Fort Louis, 409. — of Fort CONTENTS, Bout bon, 410. Conqueft of St. Lucia, 412. Capture of the Saints, 413. Ex- pedition agalnft Guadaloupe, ibid. — capture of Fleur d’Epee, of Palmifte, 414. — furrender of the ifland, ibid. Conduct of the Britifh commanders in chief, 415. CHAP. VIII. Expeditmi under ViBor Hughes — The French reconquer Guadaloupe — Campaign in St. Domingo. Page 419 Expedition under Vi£lor Hughes, 419. Its arrival at Guadaloupe, 420. Pointe- a-Petre ftormed, 421. Operations of the Britifh commander, 423 — attack on the town ofPointe-a-Petre, 424. The Englifh troops are forced to retreat, 425. Ex- traordinary talents of the French commiflioner, 426. Progrefs of the French, 428. Surrender of the camp at Berville, ibid. Fort Matilda evacuated, 429. Unfuc- cefsful attempts to corrupt Levaux, ibid. — and Santhonax, 430. Capture of Port- au-Prince, 432. Lofs of Leogane and Tiburon, ibid. CHAP. IX. Situation of France at this Period of the War. p. 433 Immenfe acqulfitlons of France, 433. EfFedls produced by the French revolu- tion, 434. Domeftick fituation of England, ibid. — charafters of the minifters, 436. APPENDIX. A. Elucidations of Introduction, page lil, - - Page 439 B. Ditto page Ivii. ; hiftory of the parliaments of France, 445 C. Note on reference in page cxxix, _ _ _ 457 D. Treaties of Pavia, and Pilnitz, referred to in page cxl, - 458, 460 E. Note on reference in page 26, - - - 461 F. Minutes of the operations of the fleet under lord Howe, between the 28th May and 2d June 1794, page 390, - - 462 G. Defigns of the French againft the Bahama iflands in 1793, page 402, 477 j’ ■ • - r ■ ‘ V ,.>r. Zi li W > r ■ ' ■' .'iO- •i .f 'y > 1 " ' • ‘> 'k'.nsrfwq ' .. ; * ‘ M J ' ! I ’■ r? '•■'’■■ ' « 1 l.. j.-;yrr a>r •■ i^ I ; i..i.i : ■■ :. v'^ .- ^r,^./a^■^ r iSlM ,U ’’y I — .j »-*n — ,'-1 • i -.v. ■j-iti'/ ''>‘> 4 - -.u’i .V^-\ - -Mr> 'i : rnin: •"; ? .<' ■' t •'■ > i&v: ; ^'yiv. j i irf1;'' .‘I A' !'<■>'■'■' i/ruiyA) -J.;' ^., ^ .rxir'.- . /i - V'' -,v*v:x ^i'. . . ‘ :' .iv ^ v'. - ^*r. ^ ■ ' -i -i* ; - • ,^- - >'•■ -r. , ■; ■ 5 S ^ ,.' , ■.r..^'t . )I y y-'. ■ ■ •• I /* '■ ui) 'i f- ^ i ba}. <'i vnif;V.' ‘n f } €\ ';'•■/ r‘ '"' /t '>'.! ’IZU ■ ' ' i;;. ‘ > V. ■ ;< ^ -nVriJ r . .,* 7 , t^.-; . ^'',' va;; ' j _ _ . ^ i ^ ;, _ - ; b .'V-\ ;vr;,v/>U ro . v'/l t..C'Vr-n' Atr^^iry bv'-'-'’-'? I 7 n 1 ^ , • ^ ’ y> ■ • .- *( tf 'r- :"v»: Y^' . ’.r V' -. .. ■ \ \ ‘ ■' * . r'*^^ ~ • • r -. I-:'- r^yj T. * « .1 4 '-'. «. i k: ■. INTRODUCTION. Jr OLITICAL focieties, like the individuals who compofe them, INTROD. are fubjed; to variation, decay, and diffolution : for the principles of change lurk in, and are equally interwoven with the texture and materials of both. During the lapfe of the two laft cen- turies, no great alteration had, however, taken place in the an- nals of what fome have rather fancifully termed the European Commonwealth ; but an important epoch hath at length inter- vened, and the fate of this favoured portion of the globe ap- pears manifeftly to have experienced a violent and portentous concuffion. It mu ft be at length frankly confefled, that the revolutions which occur in the hiftory of great nations, are but feldom either fudden or unexpeded ; the germe, indeed, unfolds more or lefs gradually, according to circumftances, yet it is ftill in a ftate of progreffive vegetation, and, however difficult the tafk may ap- pear, is frequently deteded by the curious and intelligent ob- ferver. Thus, while the crowd was content to wait for, and follow the current of events, a few enlightened individuals were enabled to forefee and to predid two grand convulfions which have happened in our own time. VOL. I. B ii INTROD. V, I ii, f I I > INTRODUCTION. That which preceded the emancipation of an interefting por- tion of the new continent, has long ceafed to puzzle and perplex ; and it muft now be acknowledged, that it was not productive of the great and fatal changes which were fo fondly pro- gnofticated. The parent ftate, inftead of being involved in in- evitable ruin, feemed immediately to acquire greater energy from compreflion, and it has undoubtedly difplayed more- gigantick efforts fmee than before : while the relative fituation of other countries has been but little altered, the two kindred nations have become more powerful, if not more happy, than they were pre- vioufly to the conteft. It is to be hoped, perhaps, rather than expeCted, that refults equally favourable may arife out of the French revolution : ap-^ pearances, however, do not juftify the predidion. On the con- trary, a new deftiny feems to be preparing for Europe. Par- titions of territory ; change of dominion ; ancient opinions and eftablifhments overturned ; mighty conquefts achieved ; an old commonwealth fwallowed up in Poland ; new republicks ereCled in France, Italy, and the Archipelago ; Holland bereft of her ftadtholders j Belgium fevered from the houfe of Auflria ; Venice annihilated as an independent ftate : all thefe novel circum- ftances indicate, and perhaps demonftrate, a change in the focial and political world. A great and important one had already taken place in refpeCt to human knowledge, and become the precurfor, if not the harbinger, of many of thefe extraordinary events. We learn alike from hiftory and experience, that grand na- tional ftruggles are but feldom unaccompanied by memorable confequences. The Swifs, at once poor, refolute, and virtuous, freed themfelves from a foreign yoke wnth peculiar felicity : nei- ther fpoliation nor profeription preceded or followed the conteft ; the only blood that w’^as ftied flowed in the field of battle, and INTRODUCTION. Ill whole centuries of happinefs rewarded their courage and for- INTROD. bearance. Holland, during her long and bloody ftrife with Philip IT. difplayed all the energies of republican vigour, and while yet ftrug- gling for her own independence, acquired colonies in America, and created an immenfe empire in the Eaft, which enabled her to foar above the vengeance of the Spanhh monarchy. But that towering genius was at length fettered to the ground, by the fatal afcendency of an illuftrious family that had contributed to her liberation; inftead, therefore, of upholding her national gloiy, fhe has been frequently reduced to defpair, and forced fometimes to court, and fometimes fubmit to, the degrading protection of the neighbouring ftates. England has proved more fortunate. By the change of her dynafty towards the end of the fcventeenth century, fhe, without doubt, involved herfelf both in foreign and in civil wars ; but fhe arofe more happy and more vigorous from the conteft,| and after vindicating her liberty and independence, covered the ocean with her fleets, and rendered the mofl; diftant nations of the earth tributary, by means of her manufactures. Not only the Ideal pofition, but the dlfpofition and purfuits of the inhabitants of the Trans-Atlantic ftates, have as yet precluded any grand or immediate effeCts from ariflng out of that revo- lution which rendered them a people. Placed at an immenfe diftance from the intrigues and the difputes of Europe, and happily deftitute of that military genius which inevitably leads to war, foreign conqueft, and domeftick fervitude, they are content with cultivating the arts of peace. The fate of France has been more Angular, and is pregnant with far greater events. Placed in the centre of the civilifed world, poflTeflTing an immenfe internal ftrength, difplaying an .aftonifbing degree of enthufiafm, her ftruggles have been thofe of a giant, and all the neighbouring nations were convulfed in S 2 IV INTRODUCTION. INTROD. confequence of her Herculean efforts. Accordingly, the events of the laft twelve years are not to be equalled in any fimilar portion of the annals of modern times. During that period we have beheld one of the moft general and bloody contefts that our portion of the globe has ever witneffed ; we have feen a for- midable combination of powerful potentates fail in the attempt to fubjugate a fmgle ftate, although vifited by famine, diftradted by contending fad.ions, and overwhelmed with all the miferies of civil war. We have at the fame time viewed a great nation trying and exhaufting every fcheme of government in fearch of political fecurity and focial repofe, and after wading through the blood of her firft magiftrate, a number of her own citizens, and a countlefs multitude of her enemies, we now behold her acquir- ing and maintaining that fuperiority under confuls, which was vainly attempted to be achieved during the reign of her kings. To inveftigate the circumftances, both immediate and remote, that gave birth to this mighty revolution, not only becomes an objedt of curiofity, but of pradtical ufe. It is therefore neceffary to recur to hiftory, for the fymptoms of its decay may always be difcerned in the civil annals and political organifation of every government ; it will be accordingly incumbent on this occafion, to trace abufes up to their fource, to compare caufe with effedl:, and form an eftimate of the confequent good or evil as connedted with the previous advantages or defedls. Philosophy, of late fo much and fo unjuftly decried, will deduce many inftrudtive leffons from the grand drama that has been recently adted on the theatre of Europe ; and the inha- bitants of free ftates, whofe happinefs and profperity were vainly and ignorantly fuppofed to be menaced and undermined by a recurrence to argument and reafon, while they learri how to prize and preferve the bleffings refulting from a well-regulated liberty, will at the fame time derive both benefit and confolation from the awful fpedtacle. INTRODUCTION. V SECTION I. A COLONY of robbers fettling on the banks of the Tiber, SECT. i. after perpetrating a publick rape on the females of a neighbouring tribe, at length found it necelfary, for their own fecurity, to efta- blilh laws, and refpedt juftice. The manners of their defcendants, of courfe, became lefs vicious ; they feared, invoked, and fa- crificed to the gods ; thus fuperftition combined with policy to inftil the firfh principles of morals into a rude nation. Frequent Conquefts contefts with other ftates, and fuccefsful ftruggles with their own dence of^the chiefs, rendered them at once warlike and free. Equally im- patient of the yoke of kings, and of the narrow boundaries of Italy, the gigantick ambition of the new commonwealth at length aimed at univerfal dominion under the confuls, and the virtues and courage of her citizens enabled her to attain, and perhaps alfo to deferve it. The impulfe of republican inftitutions con- tinued to operate for a while during the defpotifm of the em- perors ; the victorious eagles, which at firft only hovered around the capitol, at length extended their flight to the remoteft regions of the habitable world : even at this day, the common law and common language of almoft every European nation atteft that the polity and manners of Rome were fuccefsfully engrafted on a barbarian flock. The fubveiTion of the Roman power forms another grand epoch in the hiflory of the moft civilifed and mofl interefting quarter of the globe. The northern nations, a high-minded race of uncultivated freemen, were now deflined in their turn to become the conquerors of a once mighty people, who had funk by degrees into inglorious flavery : with the virtue, the power and glory of the empire became diminifhed, and the hoof of VI INTRODUCTION. SECT. I. the feudal fyftem at length trod on the fplendid ruins of Roman jurifprudence. l^he^riumph After the anarchy attendant on fo great and fo general a change rians, and had abated, tribes fettled into nations, and temporary leaders ac- origin of the . , , . , , r , i feudal fyftem, quired a permanent authority, under the names or dukes, princes, and kings. Thus the chaos in which Europe had been in- volved gradually difappeared ; and towards the beginning of the feventh century, we behold embrio ftates and kingdoms, arifing out of the wreck of conqueft, and the miferies of fubjugation. Excellence, The feudal fyftem, refpedting the precife origin of which fome of the moft enlightened writers among the moderns have differed, poflefled two grand, original, and charadieriftick features ; — the trial by jury, and the reprefentation of all who were not reduced to a ftate gf bondage : thefe placed our northern anceftors in a higher fcale of exiftence than any of the oriental nations, and have contributed to render tyranny lefs difaftrous and more tranfitory in Europe than in Afia. But, on the other hand, it exhibited many glaring defeats, which were developed in the courfe of time j and whenever a remedy was not immediately prepared, became produftive of the moft difaftrous confequences. The defeas of power of the feudal fovereign was extremely limited ; while this form of , ^ , rr i r i i government, that oi the barons, or great valials oi the crown, became at once formidable and extenfive. Enabled at any time, by a combination, to war with and even impofe terms on the prince, whom they termed their liege lord^ they firft obtained grants of their fiefs for life, then rendered them hereditary, and at length inalienable. As power always tends to cumulation, they alfo began to annex dignities and titles of honour to their families : they acquired or ufurped the right of civil and criminal jurif- didbion within their own territories ; they coined money ; they led their followers to the field ; and, in fhort, enjoyed all the marks, power, and prerogatives, of petty fovereigns. introduction; Vll In the mean time this fmgular fyftem, fo favourable and even SECT. I. fo licentious when applied to the great vaflals of the crown, de- generated by degrees, and became at length harfh and terrible to the bulk of the nation, about the beginning of the tenth century. At this period, commerce, arts, and manu failures, were almoft Miferles and alike unknown in the north of Europe; nearly the whole of the people, the members of every community were therefore employed in cultivating the earth. Thefe, originally confifting of three dif- ferent clalTes, the ferfs, the villeins, and the petty freemen, ap- pear to have been reduced, at length, to the moft intolerable flavery ; indeed, in certain parts of Europe at this very day, the peafantry remain nearly in the fame degraded date, and ftilL exhibit a lively image of the bondage and the miferies of their unhappy anceftors. So late as the middle of the eleventh century, , a lord prefumed to exercife the power of putting his flaves to death. Yet in proportion as civility dawned upon Europe, punifh- ments became more mild ; but, inftead of benefiting, this appears to have contributed to their infecurity, for the murder of thefe unhappy beings was then compenfated by means of a fine. The torture alfo was infli