I 9X1 H54- PRIVATE ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION IN ILLINOIS FROM 1818 TO 1860 BY GERTRUDE HOWELL HILDRETH A. B. Northwestern College, 1920 / THESIS Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS IN EDUCATION IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 1921 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2015 https://archive.org/details/privateelementarOOhild \^\ UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS THE GRADUATE SCHOOL June 1 192l_ (N a. UJ I HEREBY RECOMMEND THAT THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER MY SUPERVISION BY Sertr ude Hawell Hildr eth ENTITLED Private Elementary and Secondary Eduoa ti on in Illinois from lSltf to 1S60. BE ACCEPTED AS FULFILLING THIS PART OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR Recommendation concurred in* Committee on Final Examination* Required for doctor’s degree but not for master’s V. ■ CONTENTS Part V Part I. Early provisions for eduoation in Illinois. Chap. I. Conditions that influenced the establishment and charaoter of the eduoational institutions Charaoter of the early settlers. 2. The law of 18$5 aid its repeal. 3» Publio opinion in favor of private schools. Chap. II. Educational opinion of the period- / Aims and ideals of early educators. II. The eduoational institutions. Chap. III. Elementary c 1. The type of institution established. v 2. Method of “getting up” a school. 3» Itinerant schools. 4. A city school system. ;■ 5. Courses of study. 6. Sohool year. 7. Tuition charges. 5 . Eduoatiom of paupers. 9. Size of schools. Chap. IT. Secondary. 1. Inter-relation of elementary and secondary sohools. 2. Establishment of sohools by deoades. 4^3 • A typical academy. Subjeots of instruction. 5 . Tuition fees. 6. Length of school tern, and year. 1 / 7. Methods of instruction^- ? 7 t/ S% Equipment and apparatus. ./ 4 - 9» Discipline. s - 4 - 10. Aims of instruction. -^"11 « Requirements for admission. 12. Attempts at gradation. 13. Sectarianism and religious influence. Chap. T. Special institutions. 1. Evening sohools. 2. Business oourses. 3. Private olasses. Chap. TI. Text -boohs. / h- ^ 0 \/ -f 1. Importance of the text -book. 2. Books used. T — 3* Critioism of many books. ^ 4. Lack of uniformity. ^ 5* Attempts at uniformity. Chap. TII. Teachers. Functions of early teaohers. > 2. Method of organizing sohools. 3. Circuit teaohers. 4. qualifications. 3 . Remuneration r Part 6. Increase in number and quality due to a. Governor Slade's scheme. b. Normal courses. o. Education societies. d. Ladies' Association for Education of Females. 7. Later certification of teaohers. Chap. VIII. Examinations and inspection. Chap. IX. Female and Co-*education. III. Change in character of the educational institutions. Chap.X. Establishment of the Free School System. 1. The law of 1 #55 • 2. Transition from private to publio schools. Chap. XI. Conclusion. 1 Chapter I Conditions that Influenced the Establishment and Character of Educational Institutions. A survey of the conditions that influenced the progress of education in the early decades of the period 1616-1660 must precede a study of the educational institutions of the state so that the significant features of those institutions to be presented later may be more fully understood and more correctly interpreted. Such factors as the oharaoter and mode of life of the early settlers, their occupations, ambitions and possession or lack of educational ideals all tended to influence and determine the character of the eduoational institutions. The immigrants who settled Illinois may be classified roughly into two groups, those from the South, and those from New England or of New England ancestry. These two groups occupied positions respectively south and north in the state. The southern immigration was the earlier and until after 1630 the more numerous, and consequently southern influence had preponderance over northern until after that date. The people who settled southern Illinois brought with them little concern for education, particular- ly public, tax-supported education. In this they followed the private- support policy of the states from which they oame. The settlers from New England, however, brought with them the ideal of state responsibility for education, but because of smallness of numbers, innumerable hardships in the frontier country and the predominance of southern influence, suoh an ideal was not realized until the dose of the period. The sparsely populated and widely separated communities made the establishment of any eduoational institution or the realization of any educational ideal a difficult matter. 2 Commenting on such obstacles in the way of progress, one historian says: "In all new countries there is a difficulty in establishing schools. The first inhabitants, the backwoods hunters, whose cabins are five, ten and twenty miles apart, can have none. Their mode of life requires no education in the scholastio meaning of the term. Their habits are independent of literary acquirements and their children grow up without knowing how to oast up the most simple sums by the rules of aritlmietic or write a word or read a sentence No matter what laws may exist on the subject or what school fund may lie in the treasury of the state, if there arc not sufficient pupils within a mile of a school-house, there can be no school."^ ^ ^ But, in the face of such adverse oiroumstances, a number of states- men and citizens, realizing in the early years of the period, the urgent necessity of a system of oommon schools, and exhibiting admirable foresight ana clearness of vision, proposed plans for the establishment of such a system. All the implications involved in allowing education to shift for itself, to be left to private initiative and oontrol, and to be dependent on the whims and fanoies of a heterogeneous population were fully realized by them. Such men, also, urged the necessity and economy of public support of schools. One who calls himself "Old Statesman" in a letter "to a young Representative in. Illinois," says, "In the first place permit me to recommend to you to use your influence in bringing about the establishment of a system of oommon schools.... We have at present no other method of raising funds than taxation. It is ob- jected to this, that the people are not well enough informed on the subjeot to give their consent to this plan. But surely it requires but a small degree of information, for every oitizen to see that this method of supporting sohools would ease the burden upon the shoulders of evefy one who is now obliged to educate a family Let the funds thus raised be distributed according to a (1) Flower, G., History of the English Settlement in Edwards Co.,Ill.,pp. 337 - 340 . 3 just apportionment among the sohools whioh shall be established under the direction of the legislature. Although the amount thus distributed was small, it would aid and encourage our citizens as no doubt to increase in a very great degree the number and quality of our sohools Individuals ought not to be obliged to bear the whole expense of rearing oitizens and soldiers, for the defense and support of the public. That education whioh is necessary to constitute them good citizens or soldiers, to enable them to understand and defend the rights and liberties of their country, and to qualify them for discharging properly the duties of the offices which they may be called to fill, should in part be given at the public expense." ^ ^ Another, who signs himself "Parent", declares that "One of the measures neaessary fjo provide for schools/ is .to assess a tax on the taxable inhabitants of the district. This oan be done by a majority of the persons to be taxed. Taxes are always unpopular and yet without them we cannot live in a social and political capaoity. On the subject under consideration, we must either suffer our children to grow up in profound ignorance or pay a tax for ( 2 ) their education." In 1825 a law providing for free, tax supported sohools was enacted. Two years later, however, "the legislature seriously changed this law, so that the free-school feature of it was obliterated. The votes of a dis- trict must now dooide whether all of the sum required for a school shall be raised by taxation or only half of it; and as the new law adds that no person is to be taxed without his oonsent, the raising of school money under the law is reduced to subscription. The legislature of ltf29 repealed the part (3 ) of Duncan’s law whioh gave two per cent of the net revenue of the state to (1) Edwardsville Spectator, Oct .26,1524^ (2) Edwardsville Speot.,July 30,l£25. (3) Whether Dunoan or Cole introduced the bill is a matter of dispute. * ' ■ ■ . the sohools and otherwise tinkered the school law in a small way more complete- ly making the oreation of a school an affair of voluntary union and subset* ip- „ ( 1 ) tion." One writer states that "this law was in advance of public sentiment, as was plainly shown by its speedy repeal* In fact, no state outside of New England had at the time a school ordinance which even approximated the Illinois ( 2 ) law of 1825 in its educational bearing." That this law did refleot the influence of New England tradition is disclosed by the following: "How readily is this (Law of 1825) and every other measure calculated to dispel the olouds of ignorance prejudice and superstition denounced as a Yankee Measure!"^ ^ Another writer believed this law to be far in advance of public opinion, and concerning it he says:" It was full thirty years before the ad- vanced position occupied by this early law was reached and permanently occupied by the state, for it was not until 1 855 that our present free school law was (4.) enacted and our schools put upon a sound financial basis." The essential points of the free sohool idea as provided for by the law of 1625 have been summarized by W. L* Pillsbury in the following manner : " 1. A sohool system based upon law. 2. A sohool free of all rates or oharges for all ohildren of given ages. 3* Defraying all the expenses of such sohools except so far' as paid by the income of sohool funds, by a general tax upon all classes of property and all ( K ) persons w ' The benefits to be derived from the law were seen by one optimistic individual to be three. (1) Willard, S., Early Education in Illinois, 111. Soh. Rep. 1S&3-4, p.CX. (2) Dexter,E.O., History of Education in TJ.S. pp. ( 09-110 (3 ) Edwardsville Speot., June 23,lS'26. (4) Pillsbury, W.L., Early Education in Illinois, State Supt . Rep.lS£5-6,p.CVIi; (5) Pillsbury, W.L., Early Eduo. in 111., State Supt. Rep . ,1885-6, p.CVII. 5 1. "We could offer better inducements to competent teachers, who might there- by be induced to devote their talents and time to the arduous task. 2. Schools established under the provisions of the law would be subjeot to the inspection of a body of men seleoted by the people of each distriot whose duty it would be to watch over both pupils and teacher, and know the progress of the school in learning. 3. They would be permanent and liable to fewer and shorter vacations."’ 1 ^ Few sonools were aotually established in accordance with the law of 1 S 25 , and the law was never rigidly enforoed during the short period of its existence. Its repeal was in harmony with the general sentiment and attitude of the people toward a system of tax-supported schools. In 1S36, Mr. Ninian Edwards, as the head of a committee to investigate and report the features of the oommon school system then obtaining, and to sug- gest further legislation wherever the committee found it necessary, made the following "Report The common school systems which have teen established by law in various parts of the United States, may be divided into two classes, the com- pulsory system and the voluntary system. Under the former system the oountry is marked off into School Districts, trustees, clerks, treasurers, assessors, collectors, etc., etc., appointed and mouies raised by tax for the erection of school houses and the support of schools . Whatever may be the operation of such a system in old and densely populated states, your committee are of opinion that it is not well calculated for the present oondition of things in this state. ( 1 ) Sdwardsvil le 8peot.,Sept. 10,1823. 6 The plan of school districts is believed to be liable to the following object ions : 1. The country being but thinly settled the districts when first laid out must necessarily be large, in order to oomprise a sufficient number of families to support a sohool . Yet the persons residing at the greatest dis- tance from the sohool house are taxed as much for its erection as those who live near it. As the population increases it becomes necessary to subdivide the dis- tricts and to erect additional school houses:- when many persons who were taxed for the ereotion of the school house first built, are now again taxed for the erection of another. 2. A person may reside within a convenient distanoe of a school con- ducted by a teaoher in whom he has entire confidence, and at the same time he may live in another district, whose teaoher he considers destitute of the necessary qualifications. In such cases he is taxed to support a teacher in whom he has no confidence, and debarred the privilege of sending his children to the teacher of his ohoioe. 3» It is impossible to divide a county into districts, in such a way as to avoid oreating much dissatisfaction. If the people were authorized to lay off districts for themselves, many families would find themselves left be- tween two districts and belonging to neither. If the task were committed to the oounty commis si oners court, that body would necessarily have to aot from the representations of other persons; and whether the districts were judioiously laid off or not, the court would be continually besieged with applications to alter the boundaries. The compulsory system is also objectionable on aocount of the great number of officers required to carry it into operation, and the onerous duties required of them. If these officers officers sire all paid for their services, it will take a considerable portion of the sohool tax to p iy them. If they are ' , . « .. ' - 7 not paid but are compelled, under heavy penalties, to accept office and perform its duties, it will manifestly be a violation of their individual rights. The lav; of 1625 imposed penalties of from five to ten dollars on school district officers for refusal to accept and perform the duties of their several stations. The compulsory system is unsuited to the genius, habits and feelings of the people of Illinois. This assertion is founded not upon conjecture but upon experience. The act of the 16th of January 1625 , authorised the majority in any settlement Sr neighborhood to establish this system within their own limits. Two per cent of the State Revenue and five-sixths of the interest of the school fund were promised to be divided among suoh schools as should be kept in oonformity with the provisions of this aot . Very few sohools were established in the manner required, and they never received the promised reward. Impelled by the public voioe, the next 3uooeeding legislature virtually repealed the aot. The voluntary system is founded on the principle that the people generally understand their own interests, and are willing to pu. sue them - that they are more easily led than driven; that large sums may be obtained for pub- lic objects by an appeal to the liberality of individuals more easily than small pittances can be raised by compulsory means. This system recognises the right of people to send their children to such sohools as they prefer, untram- meled by school district boundaries. In order to obtain a share of the state and township funds nothing is required except the keeping of a schedule by a teacher which is submitted to the inspection of trustees chosen by his employ- ers, and then returned to the school commissioner. The teacher may be employed by a oommittee of the citizens at a specified compensation per month; or make his oontraot with his several parents or guardians of his pupils at a given price per quarter for the tuition of eaoh. - He may oontraot for a given sum in addition to his share of the monies derived from the sohool funds; or he may » ' * . ■ ■ . s transfer his share of said monies to his employers, and receive from them, at the close of each quarter, his stipulated wages. This system is now in operation in this state. Its excellence is founded on its simplicity. No complex machinery is created; no difficult conditions required of the people. In infringes no man’s rights; it restrains no one's liberty. It operates as an encouragement to learning, by induoing parents to send their children to school ae much as possible, in order to enjoy their proportion of the benefits of the sohool funds. It is believed that this system has received the approbation of the great body of the people, without whose support no system, however ingeniously devised, can be successful." ' Upon private initiative, then, during the major part of the period, depended the organisation of schools and in fact most of the provision for educational matters. As suggested in the report, however, private initiative in some instances gave way to cooperative community enterprises and the formation of city school corporations by which school systems were established. Private individua l and private group agencies may then be said to have been largely in- strumental throughout the period In the establ ishment and maintenance of schools. Certain evils attended the schools maintained by private initiative which were overcome or in part eradicated by private group organization. Several evils are enumerated in connection with the advooation of the Jacksonville Common School Sooiety formed by the citizens of Jacksonville, 111. A critio says: "There are two evils attending our present mode of con- ducting schools. The first is that the teaoher, having to make up his own school and colleot the tuition money, loses a great deal of time in oollecting and a great deal of money. There are many persons who are not able and some who are not willing to pay, and a school master being generally poor and dependent on the pupils for his support, will rather lose his just dues than make enemies by en- (1) 111. State Reg. , Deo .24,1836 \ V • ' . 9 foroing rigid payment . Of the amount promised he seldom realises one half and even this is oolleoted in suoh small sums and with so much labor, as to be of little benefit. The second objection is that the school master being responsible to every individual who sends a child to his school, is continually subject to the caprices of those who employ him. In a new country like ours, it requires the united support of a whole neighborhood to keep up a school, and the teacher must therefore keep fair weather with all. To do this he must make many sacrifices of feeling and duty, and must grant indulgences and liberties both to parents and children which are inconsistent with a proper regard to discipline. The remedy for these evils is easy. The teacher should be rendered independent of individuals, and responsible only to the whole body of his em- ployers collectively, and they in turn should be jointly bound for his remunera- tion. This is done by appointing trustees to employ and pay a teacher. The funds may be raised either by a general subscription or by requiring from each individual who sends scholars, hi6 proportional amount of tuition money, or by uniting both these plans. It is immaterial what mode is adopted for raising the money, so that a sufficient sum be secured to the teacher, and that sum be oolleoted by trustees. The teacher has then a fixed salary, and can de- vote his whole mind to the important duties of his calling The plan can never supersede the necessity of a public system of com- mon schools unaer the direction of the state; but it is the best subst itute,and should therefore be adopted until the latter oan be brought into efficient operation. It will not only be valuable in itself, but will be found to be an able auxiliary to any system which the state may adopt." ' (1) 111. Intelligencer, Deo. 5, l£29» 10 A study of the elementary and secondary institutions established throughout the period reveals the fact that the dominant types of institution are those established either by private individual initiative, or by group co- operation in some communities or in some religious denominations . In few cases were the schools actually public, that is free of tuition charges or rate-bills to any pupils whose parents did not subscribe to or pay a tax for the support of the school, before 1855 , and until that date the private school loses few of its adherents. In conclusion, the early settlers, although contending with the dif- ficulties of settling the new state, attempted to make provision for schools and advooated a system supported by publio taxation. In 1825 the legislature enacted a law which provided such a system for this state. In 1&27 and again in ltf29 this law was so altered as to destroy the free sohool system features it contained. And since no further legislation reinstating these features was enaoced until 1855 , the typical schools of the period are private or g.oup community supported schools, the majority of which can not be oalled free or public. 11 Chapter II Educational Opinion or the Period. The benefits to he derived from education which were to accrue both to the individual and to the state have been expressed with indefatigable con- fidence by numerous writers throughout the period. Several of these, typical of kindred expressions, are given. "An education is a young man's capital; for a well informed, in- telligent mind has the best assurance of future competency and happiness. A father's best gift to his child, then, is a good education If you leave them with a cultivated heart, affections trained to objects of love and excellence, a mind vigorous and enlarged, finding happiness pure and elevated in the pursuits of knowledge, you effeot an insurance on their after happiness and usefulness. Unless you bring up the young mail's mind in this way, you cannot, with any justice, claim for its possessor inaependence 1 Your children must be virtuous, or they will not desire it. They must oe intelligent associates, as they must have habits of industry and sobriety to make the company of the industrious and sober agreeable It is in your power to bestow this virtue, this intelligence, and these golden habits....... Spare not expense on your school, and put into their hands everything that may encourage or assist them in their mental or moral improvement ^ ^ One writer asks "Who was Mr. Wirt? A poor boy of the village of Bladensbury. Who is_ Mr. Wirt? Attorney General of the United States........ Who was James Monroe? The son of a bricklayer of Cambridge in Dorset 9 Who is James Monroe? President of the United States, placed on an equality (1) Alton Tel. and Dem. Rev., Oct. 19,1^49. Ba ..... ' 12 with the emperors and kings of the whole world. Education is the solid granite pedestal of their fame supporting a shaft of the most towering altitude, whose Corinthian capital is high above the clouds. How emphatically has wisdom, founded by education, and nurtured by intense study and application, proved herself to be power with station and honors and wealth following in her train. Why then should not the sons of bur bricklayers or hatters or tailors or cabinet makers, become the future presidents, and legislators and law-givers of the United States? The same path is open to them; true, it winds up the sides of a steep and rugged mountain; and the elevated pinnacle is not to be gained without setting out aright, with the earliest and best discipline of good schools. ...... 1 ^ And another individual remairKs that “There is no injustice in requiting that those who are exempt from the obligation of supporting children, should pay something towards the education of them. Away, then, with this senseless clamor at a measure intended and calculated to exalt the character of the state, to ( o ) promote the happiness and preserve the liberties of its citizens."^ ‘ The preservation of democracy was asserted to be dependent upon educational provisions. An extract from the message of the Governor of the State in 1£44 states: “The subject of common school education must necessarily attraot your attention. It is one of the utmost importance to the well-being of the people, the due provision of which is essential to the perpetuity of en- lightened Republicanism, and absolutely necessary to a proper and just adminis- tration of our democratic institutions."^^ And one individual enthusiastically exclaims that the bill for the admission of the Illinois Territory into the Union “also secures to us that which is more precious and lasting to our rising ( 1 ) Edwardfiville Spect., Oct. 24,1&20. ( 2 ) Edwardsville Speot.,June 23,1S26. (3) Alton Telegraph, Dec. 5,1#44. » 13 generation than gold. Generations yet unborn, will have reasons to proclaim the wisdom of a magnanimous Congress, who have so amply secured to them a lasting fund for the support of seminaries of learning,- whioh at once rears up an eternal barrier between us and monarchy; thereby enabling us to form a link (1) in the grand federal ohain which binds the union together." The same theme is contained in another article whose author states, "If our union is still to continue to cheer the hopes and animate the efforts of the oppressed of every nation; if our fields are to be untrod by the hire- lings of despotism; if long days of blessedness are to attend our country in her career of glory; if you would have the sun continue to shed its unclouded rays upon the face of freemen, educate all the children in the land. This alone startles the tyrant in his dreams of power and rouses the energies of an oppressed people. It was intelligence that reared the majestic oolumns of our f o ■) national glory; and this alone can prevent them from crumbling into ashes. The preservation of the state through education is the keynote of an- other article. "Place a good education within the reach of our increasing population throughout the union, especially in the west, ana ere long, with an intelligent community, she will control the destinies of our common country, keep inviolable the bonds of our Union, stand to the helm of our noble ship of state, and guide her safely through the sand bars, snags and projecting rooks that threaten her steady course. And after she is anchored in the haven of safety, the same benign influence will foster and perpetuate forever our free institutions - our pride, boast and glory - and the surprise, envy and admiration of the civilized world. ^ A general summary of the benefits of eduoation is well presented in another article which has special significance beoause of its authorship. (1) Western Intell igenoer, May 30, ISIS* (2) Illinois Daily Journal, Feb. 9, l£49» (3) Alton Telegraph and Democratic Review, March 23,1£H9 ' 14 The Sangamo Journal of March 15,1852, has a " oozimuni c at ion" signed "A. Lincoln " , dated New Salem, March 9,lS}2 f addressed "To the People of Sangamo County". Lincoln says: "Upon the subject of education, not presuming to diotate any plan or system respecting it , I can only say that I view it as the most important subject which we as a people can be engaged in. That every man may receive at least a moderate education, and thereby b6 enabled to read the histories of his own and other countries, by which he may duly ap- preciate the value of our free institutions, appears to be an object of vital importance, even on this account alone, to say nothing of the advantages and satisfaction to be derived from all being able to read the scriptures ana other works, both of a religious ana moral nature, for themselves. For my part, I desire to see the time when education and by its means morality, sobriety, enter- prise and industry, shall become much more general than at present, and should be gratified to have it in my power to contribute something to the advancement of any measures which might have a tendency to accelerate the happy period.""'' A survey of the elementary and secondary institutions will disclose what attempts, if any, were made through oourses of study, methods of teaching and general character of the schools, to realize these values and to obtain these benefits. A detailed study of certain features of the secondary and elementary institutions will be presented in the following chapters. (1) Pillsbury,W.L. , Early Education in Illinois, State Supt .Hep . 1885-6, p.CIX ■ 15 Chapter III The Elementary Schools. In a previous chapter it was stated that schools were oommonly estab- lished either by individual initiative or group cooperation. The elementary schools in Illinois in the period 1S18-1660 are the outgrowth of both praotioes. The schools resulting from the efforts of group cooperation, however, are con- fined with few exceptions to the latter half of the period; and throughout the period the position maintained by the private elementary day school remains a prominent one . Several reasons, at least, contributing to the popularity of the private elementary schools were mentioned in l£r. Edward's eritioism of a compulsory school system. The first of these was that freedom was allowed in the choice of a teacher, and the seoond that no large corps of officials was needed to operate the schools* Freedom from general taxation for the support of schools and the relative cheapness of private school education were also factors contribut- ing largely to the popularity of the privately maintained institutions. For the establishment and conduot of many schools, the responsibility was assumed by individual teachers, and the amount and constancy of the patronage they gained were determined largely by their own efforts in making their schools popular . One teacher in "getting up" his school, states in his advertisement: "A Good Education ' Is immensely valuable in any situation of life. From real necessity and the solicitations of friends, the subscriber is induoed to take a school in this town for the ensuing winter, to ooiunence ' ; 16 next month, and would be grateful to the citizens of the town and its vicinity i Eldridge, for a share of their patronage. 1ft* Carmel, 0ct.24th> }S34 , »"^^ The temporary and intermittent character of some of the schools is suggested in the advertisement of another establishment. "School . In order to be employed for the summer, I would take charge of a school at my residence (or some other eligible situation) for four months and a half, to commence about the 15th or 20th inst. Terms, four dollars per quarter, in state paper. Parents or guardians, desirous of employing me, will please hand in their names, and the number of scholars for which they wish to subscribe, as soon as is convenient in order that I may know whether suf- ficient encouragement will be given. Tho's Lippinoott. ( 2 ) Edwardsville, 5th June, 1822. " A more permanent school, and one undoubtedly more typical of the better class of elementary schools, is indicated in the following notice: "James S. Cheek returns his sincere thanks for the liberal patronage that he has experienced in the line of his profession. He informs his friends and patrons that he will continue his school for the instruction of youth in the different departments of English literature. His prioe for tuition will be $5 per quarter. He will extend the sphere of instruction so as to include the following sciences, viz: Orthography, Reading, Writing, Aritnmetic, English Grammar, Geography, History, Rhetoric, Composition and Mathematics. He flatters himself that from his strict attention to his business, and from the moral and literary improve- ment of his pupils to receive a liberal patronage of a generous and enlightened (1) Mount Carmel Sentinel, Nov. IS, 1834. (2) Edwardsville Spect.,June 8,1822. 17 publio. Harrisonvills, September 2S."^ ^ Circuit or itinerant schools were conducted in coumunities too poor or too sparsely settled to support a permanent school. These schools have been variously described. One report, entitled "Circuit Schools", says: "The course proposed is as follows: The teacher being provided with suitable books and lessons on cards, are to take two, three or more schools in different neighborhoods, visit each once, twice, three or more times in a week, hear' the scholars recite their lessons, lecture and explain the subjects, and thus enable those of any age who are disposed to learn, to_ learn to teach them- selves by the aid given them by their teaohers. It is stated moreover, that there are already a number of settlements, where the people are desirous of ( 2 ) having the circuit system put in immediate operation." One writer gives further details of the itinerant plan, and states the benefits of such schools. He says: "The plan was for the teacher to spend from 8 o'clock A. It. to 12 in the school in one district and then go the next district, have school from 2 o'clock P.K. to 4 and the next morning from 8 to 12, returning for the afternoon to the first district, thus giving each school a four hour session each day. Another plan was for the teacher when the schools were too far apart for him to go from one to the other at noon, to stay two or three days at one school and the same time at the other. And sometimes the teacher would take charge of three schools in this way. The teaoher was expected to furnish books, etc., in part . The advantages are thus stated by one of its advocates; "First. Two neighborhoods unable to support a school separately can, by uniting with each other enjoy all the benefits of a common country school. Second. One teaoher can on this plan accommodate two settlements at (1) Illinois Intelligencer, Sept. 29*1S19» Annals of Education, 1^34, Vol .IV, p.243 . is the same time; and this is no small advantage when good teachers are so 'few and far between'. Third. 3y reduoing the cost of tuition nearly one-half, poor people who have large families can give them such an education as will fit them for occupying a respectable station in society. Fourth. Those whose ohildren are large enough to be of service to them either on the farm or in the house, can, on this plan, have them at home nearly half the time, employed in useful occupations and acquiring steady and industrious habits, without which the health of the body as well as the health of the mind is destroyed. And it is reported that both parents and teachers agreed that on this plan the ohildren made as great or even greater proficiency in the same time than on the plan of all day schools.”'' 1 4 Circuit schools were gradually dis- carded as the population increased, and teachers and pupils became more numerous. The Alton City school plan is an example of the schools established by group cooperation, in which the teacher was chosen by a body of trustees. A notioe of the Alton plan is as follows: "Notice is hereby given that an elementary school will be opened on Monday, the first day of September next at the new brick school house lately erected by the city, under the oare of Mr. L .8 .Williams . The council having permanently established the school for the benefit of the ohildren and youth of the city, and engaged a competent teacher, have put the tuition at a very low rate, with the hope that parents and guardians will facilitate the objects and wishes of the Sohool Committee. On the payment of $1.25 in advance to the city Treasurer, any child may be admitted to the privileges of the sohool for one quarter. The following persons from eaoh ward compose the sohool committee, to whom application may be made by persons wishing to avail themselves of the ( 2 ) advantages oontemplated by the establishment of this sohool.”' (1) Pillsbury, W.L., Early Eduoation in Illinois. State Supt. Rep.lS#5~&,P*CXIV. ( 2 ) Alton Telegraph, Aug. 23,lffl+5« ___ „ 19 Schools of this character were recognized to be deoidedly superior to the transient and poorly conducted schools established in haphazard fashion through the private enterprise of a teacher. Our critio denounces the moae of conducting schools in Springfield in 1549. He says: "The present inode of sustaining schools in this city is attended by many and serious inconveniences . If any one wishes to open a school, he or she engages a few soholars or advertises or both, and receives pupils of all ages and grades of scholarship, which the parent may be disposed to send, or in some cases more properly, if the children may choose to go To add to the oonfusion and irregularity of instruction, which is consequent on the frequent setting up and termination of different and independent schools, the frequent transfer of soholars from one school to another, when both are in successful operation, .makes this confusion worse confounded. It is true that many parents pursue a wiser course and zealously cooperate with the teacher in every judicious measure, and expect to see the desired results only in the continuance of uniform procedure. Yet practices similar to those above described are .known to be elements of disorganizing influence in our schools.”^ ^ Courses of study offered in the elementary schools were two: "the common En 0 lish branches" and the "higher English branches", the subjects of study of the latter oourse being often identical with those of the former, but of a more advanoed character. The term primary was used in some schools to designate a course in which the "common English branches" were offered. Although many advert is ements of elementary schools state the oourses to be pursued, it is doubted that in actual school room procedure, any sharp differentiation between courses of study was maintained. Until methods of gradation and classification were introduced tov/ard the dose of the period, few attempts were made at classifying pupils according to courses pursued. ( 1 ) Illinois Daily Journal, April 27 , 1249 * 20 The range of subjects taught in the elementary schools was not broad* In twenty-one sohools the list of subjects taught is as follows: Orthography (spelling), reading, writing, arithmetic, mathematics, English grammar, geography, history, rhetoric, composition, flowering, painting, and embroidery, plain and ornamental needlework. Not all of the institutions offered all of the subjects here enumerated. The subjects most frequently taught were spelling, reading, writing and arithmetic, and these subjects were pursued by the greatest number of pupils. Furthermore, many teachers were unable to give instruction except in the most rudimentary subjects because of lack of knowledge of the subjects themselves. The justification of certain of these subjects in the curriculum has been expressed by one writer on education: "Arithmetic and other mathematical studies are preeminently fitted to give power and precision of thought to the mind, while to most persons they are of very little direct practical use beyond a few of the elementary rules. But the teacher w ho should advocate the neglect of all the other parts of mathematics except the first elements, because few will need to apply them in the affairs of life, would show himself a mere ig- noramus in the business of education. The truth is, this branch of study for its influence on the ability of the mind, needs to be pursued through the whole course of education. And it will be found true that a school in which this forms one prominent study of all the pupils, will learn much more in other branches at the same time, than one in which this branch is neglected. Geography, on the other hand, is studied chiefly for the facts it contains; and the mental influence of pursuing it is for the most part in strengthening the memory. The faots are not only indispensable in laying open the cdmmon sources of knowledge on all subjects, but when acquired they have great power in enlarging the conceptions of the mind and its range of thought, by unfolding what the world 21 contains . But what shall we say of that other prominent branch of comon educa- tion, English grammar? The time was, as many now in the meridian of life can recollect, when it was not considered as one of the neoessary or important branches of those in the common pursuits of life. But from cause, it has now oome to be desired by nearly all For what then is grammar studied? it will be asked. Not surely, or at least not mainly, for the immediate in- fluence that a smattering of it will have in correcting bad habits of speech.... A competent knowledge of grammar ... will enable one to know when language .is correotly used But the chief value of grammatical studies does not lie here But if so studied as to attain a real knowledge of the scienoe, if the different olasses of words and their relations to each other be well understood, and if by the aid of this knowledge the pupil comes to understand correctly the vast variety of expression, by which the innumerable shades and degrees and aspeots of human thought and feeling are made known, it is scarcely possible to over-estimate the importance of this branch of study. For the pupil oannot acquaint himself with these expressions without becoming ac- quainted with the thought which they express. And every step we take in this science and in the departments of kindred nature that are based upon it, is so much in the development of our own minds after the model of wisdom and experience of the whole Anglo-Saxon rioe."^ 1 ^ The statement was made in oonnection w r ith the discussion of courses of study, that little differentiation oould in aotual practice be effeoted be- cause of the laok of gradation and classification of pupils. Criticism of the laok of classification and gradation of pupils inthe schools in the city of (1) Illinois Daily Journal, Sept. ll,lS4tf. 22 Springfield, l£47> and suggestions as to a remedy for oonditions a re set forth by one individual. He says: "Each teacher if qualified is expected and almost compelled to give instruction in any or all the different branches which a child needs to learn. And as each of the branches are liable to be pursued by pupils of different ages, capacities, attainments, he may think himself fortunate if the number of his classes does not approach very near to the number of his schol- ars. Unless he does as many do, class them together whether fitted to be so classed or not. But suppose in a sohool of thirty pupils there are twenty-five classes under one teacher, a case not unlikely to occur in a miscellaneous school, where scholars are not unfitly classed. It is easy to see that the whole six hours divided among these classes would give a little less than fifteen minutes to each, and allow no time for recess, general exercises, general super- vision, or particular attention to individual scholars. And when the time in- dispensable for these purposes is deduoted, the teaoher who in such circumstances can secure ten minutes on an average for the actual recitation and instruction of eaoh class has done we 11. But what degree of interest can be kept up in a class, or what amount of instruction can be communicated to them, if but ten minutes a day can be appropriated for this purpose?"' 1 ‘ Concerning the remedy for such practices, the same author remarks: "Among the many improvements which have been made in the modes of con- ducting education of late years, there is perhaps none more important than the strict classification and gradation of the sohools. A rigid system of this kind has been generally introduced into the eastern oities and large towns, and has found its way into many parts of the west where the subject has reoeived suf- ficient attention from the people. In this respect dense settlements have great advantage over a sparse population. With the latter it often requires all the (1) Illinois Daily Journal, April 27,l&4-9. 23 scholars that can assemble at one point, of whatever age or attainments, to com- pose a sohool sufficient to employ one teacher. And with no chance for a di- vision of labor by allot ing to different teachers, different departments of in- struction, he is obliged to teach whatever is taught in the place. But in a town of the size of Springfield we are favored with the opportunity to do much better. There is no necessity unless the people will it, of committing more studies or olasses to one teacher than can be fully and faithfully taught, in all the minute details of instruction. There are approved and long tried methods by which there may be a complete and sufficient division of labor for this purpose. To illustrate the leading principles of a plan which has borne the test of experience in many places for more than twenty years, I will make the following suppositions: Suppose our oity to be divided as equally as may be in regard to the population in four districts, and in each of these let there be established with proper buildings and furniture, a primary and oommon school, with suitable pro- visions to accommodate all the children of the district. A primary and common school may be in the same building if thought desirable but not in the same room. In the primary school let nothing be taught beyond reading and spell- ing and writing on a slate and the most simple elements of arithmetic and geo- graphy. The teacher (whofor thi3 department should be a female) confining her time to this small variety of studies, will have an admirable opportunity to olassify with precision and to give each class all needful attention. She can also, to keep up the interest and to give aotivity to the minds of her pupils, introduce a great variety of important general exeroises and such as cannot be introduced into a miscellaneous school. The oommon school may be divided into male and female departments, both 24 conducted on the same principles of classification and pursuing the same studies. Into this school none should be admitted who have not thoroughly- mastered all that is taught in the primary school. And the whole attention of the primary school should be oonfined to the essential requisites of a good common education; for example, geography, arithmetic, English grammar, read- ing, writing, spelling and defining, composition, and United States History. And as each department would be of sufficient size for two or three teachers, there would be an ample opportunity for faithful instruction in all those branohes ." ' * ‘ Such a system of gradation and classification was not actually adopted by the city until after 1#55» The length of the school year in the elementary schools varied with - the size of the community in which the schools were located and with the type of institution. The school year was divided into quarters or terms of eleven or twelve weeks, and the school was taught for one or more quarters, or the school year consisted of two terms of four or five months eaoh, and one or two terms were taught. The praotice first mentioned was far the more common. It may be observed that few schools or school systems provided in- struction gratis. The general practice was for the teacher or school trustees to oharge tuition in accordance with the number and character of the subjeots taught. In schools organized on the quarter term basis, tuition charges were made for quarterly periods, payable in advance and in times of financial stress payable in produce as v/ell as in ourrenoy. Tuition charges in ten typical elementary schools and the dates and places at which the oharges were made, together with the list of subjects or oourses of study offered in each school w'ere as follows : (1) Illinois Daily Journal, April 2#,1#49* 25 Place Date Subjects taught Charges Kaskaskia 1519 Orthography, reading, writing, arithmetic, Eng. grammar, geography history, rhetoric, compos it ion and mathematics » 15*00 a quarter. Shawneetown 1521 Reading, writing, arithmetic, English grammar Flowering, painting and embroidery $4.00 a quarter. $7.00 a quarter; Vandal i a 152 S Spelling, reading, writ ing, plain and ornamental needlework $ 2,50 a quarter. Vandal i a 1541 Spelling, arithmetic, reading, Eng.gr ammar ,wr i t r ag , g e ogr ; iphyr $3.00 a quarter. Alton 1543 English branches Plain and ornamental needlework $ 2.50 to $3.00 a quarter . Alton 1544 Elementary branches Grammar, geography , history , arithmetic $ 2.00 a quarter. $ 3.00 a quarter. Alton 1545 $ 1.25 a quarter paid to oity. springf ield 1549 Spelling, read ing, writ ing, geography, grammar', arithmetic and history $ 2.50 for quarter term of 12 weeks Springfield 1549 Common English branches •$ 2.50 a quarter. , Naperville 15^2 Pr imary Higher English branches Common English branches Painting $ 1.50 a quarter. 3.00 " “ 2.00 " " 3.00 " ” 26 Little provision was made for the education of paupers. In the one or two city systems in which education was supported by general taxation, pau- pers were automatically provided for. Legal enactment in 1534 made each community responsible for the education of its paupers, but such enactment was repealed the following year-. Section III of the school law of Illinois enacted 1 534 provided that "said trustees shall be authorized, and it shall be their duty to visit the school from time to time, and to require the admission into the school and the gratuitous tuition of such children resiging in the vicinity of the school as shall be presented to said trustees for that purpose, if such trustees shall believe that the parents or guardians of such children are unable to pay for their tuition."" 1 2 ''' And Section IV of the law provides that the teacher shall receive his share of the school fund from the school commissioners on condition that "said teacher has, to the best of their knowledge and belief given gratuitous instruction in his said school to all such orphans and children of indigent parents residing in the vicinity as had been presented for the purpose by the (2 ) trustees of said school." The law of 1 535, relating to these sections of the same act repealed the clauses providing for gratuitous instruction of paupers One praiseworthy attempt at least was made by individual enterprise to establish a school for ohildren of parents too poor to pay the regular tui- tion fees. The -notice of this school states that "I propose to open a school for children, on Monday, March 1st, in the room east of E .G. Wright 's offioe. Those who patronize this school will do it on such pecuniary terms as their ability will permit , themselves being judges. (1) School law of Illinois, Section 111,1534. An Aot to provide for the appli- cation of the fund arising from the sale of school lands, belonging to the several townships in this state. (2) Sohool law of Illinois, 1534, Section IV. V ■ ■ 27 The reason of this perhaps novel proposal, exists in the fact, that there are, in this village, some children whose parents wish them to be at school, but in consequences of sickness or misfortune, are unable to pay the usual rates of tuition. It is desirable, however, for the encouragement of the teacher, that those who send to this school should name at the commencement of the term the amount of tuition per scholar, they would feel willing and able to pay. Should any who are blessed with a sufficiency of this world’s goods, favor my plan, their patronage is respeotfully solicited. It is earnestly de- sired that the patrons of the school will cooperate with the teacher in her endeavors to their children's punctuality, submission to wholesome school regu- (1 ) lations, a regard for truth and a desire to improve." That this school did noi; entirely solve the problem is proved by a communication, signed "Voter", which was published in the same community several months later. The author says, "There are large families here in indigent cir- cumstances that find it very hard to pay their school bills and as a consequence their ohildren are sometimes roving our streets when they ought to be in school. As it is now the poor derive no assistance from the rioh in the education of their ohildren It may be remarked, that the wealthier portion of our community are generally, it is believed, willing to be taxed for carrying out the proposed arrangement, (securing the basement of an Academy being erected for the housing of a district school ) so that there now seems to be nothing wanting to secure for our district school as good accommodat ions as are provided for any other district in the county, but for our citizens to say by their vote that they wish such accommodations." ^ (1) DuPage County Observer, Feb. 25#1&52. (2) DuPage County Observer, April 21,lS5l. - 28 The advanced thinkers in the community evidently foresaw that the only way in which the paupers of the district were to be educated was not by philanthropy or popular subscription, but by the establishment of a system of free, tax-supported schools. A separate school for colored children was one of the educational in- stitutions in Springfield, 1&4#. The advertisement of this school follows: "A Sohool for Colored Children has been established in Springfield; it is conducted by an excellent instructor and offers great advantages for colored children in obtaining the most useful branches of Education. Colored children in towns where they have not the advantage of schools can find places in this city where they can work for their board and go to school at the same time. The undersigned will pay prompt attention to such applications ~ ^ The number of pupils admitted to an elementary school was seldom limited. In fact a large proportion of the schools had difficulty in main- taining more than a handful of transient scholars. The Alton city school with an enrolment in 1549 of over a hundred pupils is a notable exception. Fifteen or twenty scholars may be considered the more frequent number of scholars instructed in one school. Furthermore, there were practically no entrance requirements tending to restrict enrolment. Pupils of all ages and of both sexes were welcomed and induced by advertisements examples of which have been presented in this discussion, to enter the sohools of the community. (1) Illinois Daily Journal, Aug. l‘f,l£Ho 29 Chapter IV The Secondary Schools. The distinction between the elementary and secondary schools is often difficult to discern. It has been stated that there was little differentiation among oourses of study within the elementary schools; there was also no very distinct line of demarcation between instruction of elementary and secondary grades. Hence, it is often difficult to separate the educational institutions of this period into two classes, elementary and secondary. Hot until 1555# do many institutions of an exclusively secondary character appear. For the purposes of this paper, the term elementary is used to characterize schools in which elementary instruction only was offered; the term secondary will include all institutions giving both elementary and secondary instruot ion, as well as those giving work of secondary grade only. Of 97 institutions offering secondary courses, only twelve offered no elementary or preparatory courses, and of this number, five institutions were organized after l5p5« Consequently, a study of the seoondary institutions in Illinois will coincide in some points with the survey of the elementary schools. To isolate the two types of instruction completely is impossible beoause of lack of differentiation between the two, in most oases. Provision for higher education was made at an early date. "The first legislature, that of 1519# passed two remarkable charters; one to incorporate Madison Academy at Edwardsville, and the other to incorporate Washington Academy at Carlyle In the olauses respecting the academies it is provided that gratuitous instruction shall be given to children ■ ■ 30 of the poor; that no disoriminat ion in the ohoioe of trustees or professors, or in the admission of pupils shall ever be made on account of religious opinion or profession; and that as soon as the funds of the institution will admit of it, the incorporation shall establish an institution for the education of females. The same legislature incorporated an academy at Bellevi lie ~ ' The increment in the number of schools providing secondary education in the period 1#1#-1#60, from decade to decade, may be judged somewhat approxi- mately from the following figures. These figures indicate the number of second- ary schools established in each decade of the period, of a total of 97 institution which were studied in detail. 1#1 #-l#l 9 2 1#20-1#29 # 1#30-1#39 13 1 #4-0-1 #49 41 1#50-1#59 31 (includes 2 public high total 97 schools ) Of these 97 institutions the nomenclature is as follows: Aoademy mentioned 27 times Seminary " 23 " High School " 10 M Select School " 3 " Institute " 3 " Public and city school " 5 11 Classical sohool " 3 " College (offering secondary preparatory courses " 4 " School (no other name designated) " 19 11 Judging by the figures given above, the term"aoadam^ was the most popular name to apply to the secondary institutions; and the term "seminary" was applied to an almost equally large number of schools. The advertisement of Belleville Academy in 1S25 is illustrative of (1) Willard, A., History of Early Education in 111., 111. School Report, 1##3- #4, p CIX. 31 that type of institution, and demonstrates the common praotice of providing both elementary and secondary instruction in the same school. "3elleville Academy. This academy will be open for the reception of scholars on the first Monday of March next, under the care of John H. Dumis, Esq., a very amiable and highly respectable gentleman, of competent acquirements and qualifications for teaching. The price of tuition will be for reading, writing and arithmetic, $2 per quarter; for English grammar, mathematics, geography and the use of globes, $3.00; for the Latin and Greek languages, logic, rhetoric, moral philosophy and history, $4 per quarter. Elegant globes, and a complete set of maps are already provided. As soon as the number of scholars will justify it, additional teachers will be em- ployed. It is expected that a teacher of the Frenoh language will be engaged before the expiration of the present year. Boarding in the best houses in town may be had at $30 per annum. In the country, very convenient to town, it is (1) presumed boarding may be had considerably lov/er. Belleville, Jan. 21st ,l£25 More than fifty different subjects of secondary grade were taught in 97 secondary institutions. The list of the subjects is as follows: I. Mathematioe. Algebra, geometry, trigonometry, superficies and solids, surveying, commission. II. Languages. Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French, Spanish, German, Italian. III. Sciences. (1) Edwardsville Spectator, Feb. 1,1&25* : 32 Universal and ancient geography. Natural philosophy, astronomy, chemistry, botany, mineralogy, agricultural chemistry, medicine arid surgery. IV. Philosophy. Logic, mental and moral philosophy, criticism. V. Theology. Bible, sacred history. VI. History. American history, sacred history, modern history, universal history, ancient and modern chronology. VII. Mythology. VIII. English. Rhetoric, elocution, poetry, composition, grammar. IX. Political economy and law. X. Vocational. Navigation, civil engineering. XI. Commercial. Single and double entry bookkeeping, ornamental penmanship, eommiss ion. XII. Education. Watts on the Mind. XIII. Art. Painting and drawing, vocal and instrumental music, perspective architecture, drafting, needlework. XIV. Physioal training. Calisthenios - . 33 The greatest number of these subjeots taught ift school was twenty-seven; the smallest, two. The fact that as many as twenty subjects were taught in any one school does not indicate that all were actually taught. Usually t ere was not sufficient demand for some of the subjects of the curriculum to justify the formation of a class, and consequently such subjects were not taught. The division of subject matter of the curriculum into distinct courses of studywlLS more obvious in the secondary than in the elementary schools. One common divisionwas that resulting in the English classical and the Scientific course. Some schools were divided into male and female departments, a division involving difference in courses of study and a dual form of administration. The college-preparatory function of the secondary school was provided for in a few schools by courses designated college-preparatory \ and several schools offer Normal oourses. This is especially true of the secondary institutions in the latter years of the period, although Hillsborough Academy in 1S37, lists a Normal course with several others. Tuition charges var^with the subjects taught, oourses of instruction, length of the school term; and also with the general status and size of the school, the number of teaohers and their qualifications. Almost without ex- ception, the secondary ooursestfere higher than the elementary. Languages and musio#are the most expensive subjects in the curriculum, and scientific subjects requiring the use of apparatus were more expensive to the pupil than other sub- jects. Tuition charges in twelve schools offering secondary instruction were as follows: ■ . . * *v, 34 Place Name Date Subjects Tuition 1 .Edwardsville Belleville Academy 1520 Latin $4.00 a quarter. 2 .Jacksonville Jacksonville Seminary 1529 Classics and higher departments of sci- ence $16.00 per annum. 3 .Vandal i a Vandalia High School 1530 Higher branches of mathematics $4.00 a quarter. Latin, Greek and French $4.00 a quarter. 4. Alton Alton Seminary 1534 High School course $5.00 to $10.00 a quarter. 5 .Kaskaskia Young Ladies 'Seminary 1537 General course $24.00 per annum. French $5.00 a quarter. Drawing $5.00 a quarter. Harp and use $16.00 a quarter. Piano " " $ 12.00 " " 6. Springfield School 1542 Higher branohes $15.00 for 5 month Spanish and drawing $10. 0C " " " 7 .Knox County Cherry drove School 1543 Higher branches $5.00 a quarter. Latin and Greek $7.00 " « 5 .Springfield Springfield City School 1544 History, chemistry philosophy Algebra, geometry. $3.00 a quarter Intellectual and moral science $4.00 a quarter. 9 .Par i6 Edgar Academy 1546 Aoademy dept . $15 to $25 a year. 10. Alton Female High School 1549 Higher branches $4.00 a quarter. Latin and French $5.00 " " Piano $10.00 " " 11. Naperville English and Classical Latin and ffreek $5.00 a quarter. School 1552 Drawing, French $2.00 " » 12. Jonesboro Jonesboro Academy 1555 Spanish and German $10.00 a quarter, In boarding schools, tuition and board were frequently included in one general oharge to be paid annually or semi-annually . The length of the school year of 97 secondary institutions varied from 22 weeks to 4# weeks; tne school year mentioned the greatest number of times , . . 35 was 44 weeks in length. Of the 97 institutions 39 were organized on a quarter term basis. For the most part, the boarding academies and seminaries adhered to a one or two term year. Methods of instruction employed in the schools were described by a number of teaohers in the advertisements of their schools. One instructor who claims the use of the "Pestalozzian method" says: " Oral Instruction .- A very large portion of the instruction given will be communicated by the living voice, the form of conversation or familiar lectures. But neither this method of instruction nor the use of apparatus will supersede the use of books, or release the pupils in any degree from exeroising their own own mental powers. The system of instruction will generally be the inductive method, on the plan of Pestalozzl. The pupils tnus learn to think and reason for themselves and exercise their own judgment, and are encouraged and stimulated to persevering industry, and the most vigorous efforts to acquire a thorough and an accurate knowledge of all the branohes of study to which their attention is directed."'^ Another teacher states that "His method of teaching is new and much approved; and his system of teaching French is such that pupils may be enabled in a very short time to speak, read arid write without difficulty. He will enable ( 2 ) his pupils in drawing to sketoh from nature in one course." One school-master "proposes to give to his pupils suoh an education as they would receive in the best institutions of the East, embracing all those studies which are generally taught there. His method differs entirely from the one usually followed; he does not approve of committing lessons to memory for reoitation, which are neither understood by the pupils nor retained by (1) Alton Spectator, Nov. 5, 1634. (2) 111. State Register, Nov. 24, 1^40. : - 36 their memory for any length of time* He aims at the uniform development of all the mental faculties, without, however, neglecting the acquisition of useful knowledge ." ' 1 ' The popular’ Lancaster ian system of instruction gained adherents in Illinois. One teacher remarks that "as soon as he can procure the necessary ( 2 .) appendages his school will be Lancasterian." Visitors to Hillsboro Academy, reporting concerning instruction in that institution, remarked that "Grammar is taught as a thing of present daily ap- plication in talking ana writing; arithmetic, algebra and the other branches of mathematics are treated as principles of science to be applied in other and different processes of calculation from those contained in a text book; philosophy is presented not as abstract theory, but as general truths illustrated by daily occurrences ana operations; and in the ancient languages is laid substantially the ground work of a superstructure, which a subsequent oollege course may rear. Penmanship has evidently been thoroughly cultivated aooording to the most ap- proved system. The compositions were strongly marked with the qualitiesof mind and heart, so successfully fostered in this seminary - purity, manliness and energy of thought, expressed in a chaste, vivid and forcible style. The com- munity owe a debt of gratitude to the talented and indefatigable teachers ^ Hot all methods of teaching, however, were entirely satisfactory. One critic of methods says: "I have witnessed efforts in education conducted on the same principle as if a builder should essay to construct a house by placing on the rafters and shingles first, and I have known teachers, too, or would-be teachers, attempt to communicate instruction to a child's mind, with a wisdom that may be well illustrated by one who in cleaving timber should strive to ( 1 ) Jonesboro Gazette, Oct. 22,l£59« (2) Illinois Intelligenoer , Dec. 9, l£l#. (3) 111. State Register, Wov.2,lS3&. -• ■ «i 37 thrust in a wedge with the large end forward* And in oases where every means to promote activity and energy of mind should be employed, I have known quack teaohers to administer opiates and somniferous doses, till the slumber of their patients was so profound that the shock of an electrio battery could not awake them." ^ ^ ' The most eerious oritioism to be made of methods of instruction in these sohools, is that the greatest stress was plaoed upon memory of text -book oontent and repetition of the verbal knowledge so gained by the pupil, in a mechanioal, rout ini zed recitation. Furthermore, apparently no relation of the subject-matter studied by the child, to his daily life and activity, was observed. Reading was an exercise in the pronunciation of words rather than a means of acquiring useful information. One early pedagogical experimenter found that his pupils thought they were reading after they had pronounced the words of the text, but had no notion of what they had read. The same teaoher gave Latin text to the same group of pupils to read, and found that the students read the foreign words rather glibly, although never having studied the language, and still believed that they were doing all that was necessary in any reading exercise. In science work, abstraot rules were learned from text books, with little chance of appli- cation, or of relating the subject to life. Laboratory work and apparatus with which to carry on experimentation were provided in a very limited number of the better schools. That the knowledge gained was often superficial is il- lustrated by the following inoident which occurred at a public examination. "The olaes in botany was called up, and the pupils, after answering some general questions, were required to prove their efficiency by selecting each of them a flower out of a vase, and analyze and classify it. Things went on very well for a while. At last a young lady seemed extremely puzzled in ( 1) The Daily Journal, Jan. 4,l£49. - < -- l 35 making ohoice of the flower to be subjected to her analysis* She turned the beautiful bouquet over and around and over again, yet none of the flowers seemed worthy for the display of her science and skill* She became embarassed, and finally gave it up with an imploring appeal: 'Mr.W., my flower is not here!' Horace Mann relates a somewhat similar incident that happened at an examination where he was present. After one of the young ladies had discoursed very learned- ly about the animal, vegetable and mineral kingdoms, Mr. Maun asked her to which of these three kingdoms she belonged. 'To the vegetable,' was her reply."' 1 ^ Faculty psychology governed both the selection of subjeot matter taught and methods of teaching; consequently it is not surprising to find that although the pupils' "faculties" of memory, observation, reasoning and the like were supposedly well developed and trained, in the school room, such incidents as those related above actually occurred. Schoolroom equipment and apparatus as Judged by modern standards were almost uniformly poor and meager. Some of the larger academies and seminaries, and the colleges offering preparatory courses of study, were more fortunate in the matter of equipment. Mention has already been made of the fact that one teacher described his equipment as Lanoasterian. Most of the schools were provided with globes, oharts and maps. Several schools boasted the possession of orreries and blackboards. Montioello Seminary was well sujjplied with equipment, according to the following description: " It may not be out of place here to remark, that through the in- cessant labors and untiring perseverance of the estimable Principal, the Rev. Mr. Theron Baldwin, large additions during the past few months have been made to the ( 1 ) Alton Daily Morning Courier, Jan. 29, 1^53 ‘ ‘ - < 39 apparatus, rendering it sufficiently extensive for all important experiments in chemistry, electricity and pneumatics. He has also succeeded in procuring a cabinet of minerals, at a cost of eight hundred dollars, comprising a collection of mineralogical specimens of eight hundred pieces; a collection of geological specimens (including numerous fossils both foreign and domestic) of eight hundred pieces; and a collection of eight hundred shells. In addition to this, the library which is made accessible to all the pupils has been extended until it now numbers nine hundred volumes and upwards ^ 1 2 ^ It is also reported that lionticello had a gymnasium and equipment for physical training. A "Ladies' School" in Winchester, Illinois, 1 £T43> possessed geographical add astronomical apparatus. Chemical and physical equipment is mentioned in the advertisement of the Vandalia Academy and Free School ( Vandal ia ),1S3 7. And /4ii [s bc?ro Hillsborough Academy at Yanna . ll a, in 1S37, possessed a variety of materials used in teaching. The advertisement of the school states, "A variety of excellent apparatus, em’oraoing pio'oes, an Orrery, Jlagic Lantern, Air Pump, a splendid electrical machine, etc,, is provided for facilitating the study of the Natural ( 2 ) Soiences ." Other schools beside Monticello possessed libraries. Rook Spring Theological and High School possessed a library of 1000 volumes aoces3ible to students of secondary subjects. School houses showed improvement in design, comfort and equipment from decade to decade throughout the period. One writer who couiments upon the school buildin & s, says: "The old. log houses and old Denches without rest for the back have been cast aside and superseded by houses well adapted and well furnished (1) Alton Telegraph, Feb. 2$, 1SH3 . (2) Illinois State Register, Vandalia, Sept .29,1^37 . ' 1 . * ' *+0 for the us e of schools. Many of these houses are commodious and elegant; all of them comfortably furnished, with good fire-plaaes or stoves, and well lighted or ventilated. In fact, our school houses,! ormerly a reproach and shame to any people, are now a credit to those who have their superintendence - a place likely to be looked to with pleasure by the scholars 1 ; That proper discipline and school government were matters requiring par- ticular 1 attention, especially in the boarding schools, was'evinced by the prominence given to the topic in connection with many reports of these sohools. Discipline maintained at Alton Seminary, 1 £33, is described as follows: 11 Government .- Good and wholesome discipline must at ail times be maintained in the seminary; but the government will be mild, paternal and kind; calculated to win the affections and through them reach the heart, and control the will; and thus secure a ready and cheerful obedience. The teachers will endeavor by moral suasion, the force of their own example, and the power of Bible truth, to induce their pupils to choose voluntarily an honorable and upright course of conduct. And in this they feel confident, that by the blessing of Heaven, they shall in general succeed; provided that parents and others unite their influence with theirs, and are ever watchful and careful that they in no way lessen|the teaoher's influence over their pupils."^ y At Montioellc, discipline and order were maintained in the following manner : "The order and discipline of the institution are especially committed to the Governess who has leisure to investigate thoroughly all oases of delin- quency, and at stated times before the whole school to develop and enforoe those great principles which lie at the foundation of correct habits and good morals, and constitute the basis of all valuable characters.'"' 5 ^ (1) Jonesboro Gazette, Feb. 12, 1^9* (2) Alton Spectator, April 9>1 £33* (3) Alton Telegraph and Democratic Review, Aug. 27, 1^42. : - - # < : m In another girls' sohool, discipline was maintained by the awarding of premiums to meritorious soholars. "To promote exaulation among the pupils, there will be silver medals distributed at the end of each week, to those who deserve them for application or good oonduct, and justifiable premiums will be awarded at the end of the six months to those who succeed best in their studies. Attention will be paid to the oonduct, deportment and morals of the children while at school, and no ohild will be kept who will not obey the rules. ^ Mr. Cross, a teaoher who maintained a school in Kaskaskia in 1S1£, states in the advertisement of the school, that he "will endeavor to instill into the minds of his scholars the vital importance of sound moral principle, and correct manners, which he will elucidate by a regular course of lectures every ( 2 ) Saturday morning." The educational ideals which were early formulated in support of educational institutions in Illinois have been stated* Several specific ideals and aims of education determined and directed courses of study and methods of in- struction. The aim of education in one school is stated in the following words: "Great Object of Education.- In all the instruction, discipline, and management of the seminary, the great object of education will be kept full in view. This should ever be to bring all the powers and faculties of our natures to the highest perfection of which they are capable - to fit the pupils to per- form justly, skilfully, and magnanimously, all the duties of every station in life, both publio and private, to seoure to them the greatest possible happiness, taking in the whole life, to elevate their minds from the degradation of ig- norance and sin, to the knowledge, love and favor of God, and to qualify them for (1) Illinois Daily Journal, August 4,l1£33« (2) Illinois State Register, Sept .5,1#45 • (3) Illinois State Register, Sept . 1S,1£40. J ; • / M-3 a well regulated, moral, social and intellectual character ^ The aims of instruction in the Edwardsville Female Academy were three: intellectual, and moral culture, and training in manners. It is stated in the advertisement of the school that “In the department of intellectual education, the acquisition of knowledge though considered highly important, is held subordinate to mental discipline, and every effort is made to train the mind to habits of thought and develope its various faculties. In regard to moral culture, the endeavor is made to lead the pupils to feel that they are not to live solely for themselves, but are unaer obliga- tions to do something to promote the happiness of all around them, and also to place before them a high standard of moral excellence, and awaken a desire to obtain it. In this tne Bible is used as a guide. In respect to manners, no definite rules are laid down, the aim being simply to form a oorrect taste, and a nice sense of propriety, which it is be- ( 2 ) lieved will effeot more than direct precepts." The aims of instruction may be summarized as follows: 1. Intellectual culture. 2. Moral training. 3. Preparation for general duties and business of life. 4. Preparation for college. 5. Preparation for the teaohing profession. Formal requirements for admission to the secondary sohools were seldom made before 1655 , when the gradation of schools and classification of scholars became obligatory, and requirements for admission from elementary to higher instruction became necessary. However, before this date, pupils in schools which maintained separate, graded departments, and distinct preparatory oourses, were required to pursue the departments in order of difficulty and to finish the elementary courses before he attempted the more advanced ones. (1) DuPage County Observer, Aug. 24,1653* (2) Illinois Advooate, Deo. 14,1633 ■ . ; 44 In Mr. Cross' advertisement of a school he states: "Soholars who shall have graduated in these ( element ary ) branches of tuition will be instructed in the rudiments of History, Geography, Natural Philosophy and mathematics."^^ Springfield Academy, in 1S40, admitted no students who were unable to read. Montioello admitted no pupils under 14 years of age to the Seminary proper and none who were not qualified to pursue the subjects taught. A pre- paratory department housed in a separate building provided instruction for those who were not qualified to take the advanced work. A select school taught in Alton, 1S44, admitted no pupils under ten years of age. Jubilee College, on the other hand, admitted no pupils over 14 years of age unless they came with excellent recommendations as to character. Springfield Central Academy admitted none but "real students." A Seminary for young ladies in Springfield, 1#45, offered no studies below high school grade and did not admit pupils not properly qualified to under- take the study of those subjects. Pupils wishing to enter the Chicago High Sohool, 1&59, were examined in reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, history, grammar and geography and the same examinat ion was required of pupils who were candiaates for admission to Springfield High School in 1#59» In l£49> one writer urged upon the city of Springfield the necessity of a system of graded sohools in which pupils were promoted according to their attainments. Concerning the secondary schools he Bays: "If we then be provided with one male and one female aoademy for the whole oity we should have a complete course of instruction fitted to the wants of this place. Into these academies no pupils should be received who are not thoroughly versed in all the branches (1) The Illinois Intelligencer, Deo. 9>1#1# ■ ■ : a *5 taught in the common schools; and not only should pupils be advanced from the primary to the common school, and fromjthe common sohool to the aoademy strictly according to their attainments, but each of these departments should be divided into a suitable number of established classes, from one to the other of which pupils should be advanced upon the same principles, as from one grade of schools to another. And in order to guard against any partiality of teachers in this matter, and against the diversity of judgment of different teachers, there should be a Board of Inspectors to attend the examination of classes at stated periods, and who, with the teaohers, should decide upon the promotion of the pupils. A system of schools thus arranged and judiciously carried out would afford stronger stimulus to the minds of the scholars by it^natural operation, than can be pro- duced by all the efforts of the teachers and parents combi. ^d in the course hith- erto pursued. And it is believed that no system oombines so great economy with so valuable results as this."^ 1 ' The question may be asi^d, to what extent did sectarianism dominate the secondary schools? Of the 97 institutions of which special study was made only 11 give any clue in their advertisements or reports to the religious sect by whion they were established, or to sectarian teaching in the institution. The reason that so many schools were not sectarian was no doubt due to the fact that in the early part of the period the legislature was opposed to the granting of charters to sectarian schools, and in several instances withheld charters from them. Three academies were chartered in 1619 with the restriction that no discriminat ion was ever to be made against pupils on account of religious opinion. Religious instruction was included in the currioula of many institutions; and the 3ible was freely used as a text -book. Religious instruction, however, was given to aid in the development of moral oharaoter, rather than to strengthen the influence of any particular sect. r-IT miflu i* Da i ly ' Jour halT 'ApTTrZS, 1649 * ■ * *• < v 46 Chapter V Special Institutions. In addition to the elementary and secondary institutions which have been described in the preceding chapters, other educational agenoies provided instruction in a number of studies. One important agency was the evening school; another the commercial or business school; and still others were the numerous private classes conducted by teachers in such subjects as writing and languages, art and muaio. One evening school in which a broad range of subject matter was taught was advertised as follows: "The subscriber will, from the first of November, be prepared to devote some hours in the evening to the instruction of young men in book-keeping. Commercial arithmetic. Mechanical arithmetic. Algebra, Geometry, Chemistry, or any other of the natural sciences; also in German, French, Spanish, Latin, etc. He v/ill also instruct in Music on the Piano and Melodeon, and provide a fur st olass Piano for practicing, if the number of scholars is sufficiently 1 arge . " ^ 1 ^ Another night school in whioh girls as well as boys were taught is described in the following manner : "Night School.- Mr. -J. H. Samson, than whom none better qualified to teaoh can be found, has opened a night school in the district school house in Jonesboro, for the instruction of our youths and maidens, in Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, etc. This affords a rare ohance for those who oaanot attend the day school to acquire a thorough and practioal knowledge of the most essential and useful branohes of education, from a thoroughly competent teaoher. His terms we ( 1 ) Jonesboro Gazette, Oct. 22 , 1 & 59 « 47 learn are moderate, and we advise all those that can to join his class, as the winter evenings are long and oannot he more profitably spent, and such an opportunity will not soon occur again. ,,vl; Writing, arithmetic and French were subjects taught in an evening school in Springfield. “The subscriber will open at his sohool room on Jefferson Street, olasses affording instruction in the above branches, on Mon- day evening the 27th of April, 1S46. The evenings of Monday, Wednesday and Friday will be devoted to the Frenoh language. Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday to writing and arithmetic. The term will last for twelve weeks, giving each pupil 36 lessons in the French language, and 36 lessons in writing and arithmetic. The time to be occupied iu study will be three hours each evening, from half-past six o'clock, until half -past nine o'clocr. The oharge for instruction will be $3, in either class; but should a pupil wish to attend every evening the oharge will be five ( 2 ) dollars for the whole. A class in book-keeping and penmanship was taught at Anna in 1&59* The class was both a day and evening school according to the advert is erne nt , which states that, "The present class in Book-Keeping, under instruction of J.M. Gunn, at Anna, having about terminated the course, a new class will be immediately or- ganized. Olasses in Penmanship will also be at onoe formed for the benefit of both sexes. The oourse in Book Keeping consists in imparting a thorough practical knowledge of the soience both of Single and Double Entry, from the opening to the closing and balancing of a complete set of Books. (1) Jonesooro Gazette, Jan.13,1^39* (2) Illinois State Register, April 24,ltf46. -< ■ HS The writing course will consist of twelve lessons, intended and ar- ranged so as to develop, in gentlemen, a rapid ousiness-like hand; and in ladies a graceful running hand. Hours for Instruction in Penmanship. Ladies and Misses, from 3 o'olock to 5 P.M. Gentlemen and boys, from 9 o'clock to 11 A.M. And in evening for both sexes, from 8 to 10. Terms, $2.00. Book-keeping will be taught during the morning and evening Lours, at option of the pupils. Terms, $5.00. ^ A writing school for young ladies was conducted at Alton, 1£H3 • The instructor, "Mr.*Dain respectfully informs the citizens of Alton and Vicinity that he will commence a course of lessons on Monday, May 1st, for the improvement of youn 6 ladies in the art of penmanship. From past experience and success he has no hesitancy in promising good satisfaction to all who may patronize him. Lessons will be given at the houses of those who wish it. Terms low to suit the times."' y Classes in French and Spanish were conducted by a teacher who claimed Paris, France, as his home. In his advertisement, the teacher, "Alfrede De Labarthe, Professor from Paris, Respectfully announces to the ladies and gentle- men of Springfield and to tiros e who would avail themselves of the opportunity of acquiring the aoove languages, that his olass will be open throughout the year. He guarantees to those who may study under his tuition, a good and sound instruction, whioh is indispensable for the knowledge of speaking fluently, oorreotly, eto* My style of teaohing has been amply tested for the last sixteen years (1) Jonesboro Gazette, July 21, 1#59» (2) Alton Telegraph, April 29»1£H3. , . . r . *9 in the cities of New York, Philadelphia, Mobile and New Orleans and practically demonstrated to be the only plan by whioh the necessary knowledge of a living (I ) language with all its requisites can be successfully aoquired.' r The evening schools whioh enabled individuals to obtain the rudiments of knowledge in which they were deficient, and the commercial schools which prepared students direotly for a vocation, had no doubt much practical value and were necessary and valuable institutions. The private classes j.n penmanship (of an ornamental nature), the languages and musio were doubtless patronised only by the well-to-do who desired to gain a certain polish, culture and social prestige from such study. Cultural rather than practical value was obtained through such agencies. (1) Illinois State he 6 ister. Sept. 6,1£H9. . 50 Chapter 71 Text -books. The text-hooks constituted the pupils’ chief source of information in the school-room throughout the period. The pupil, in his studies, had little contact with nature and seldom performed experiments of a scientific character. The text-book, rather than the teacher, Su., plied the knowledge and instruction gained in the school. Few teachers were competent to teach without the text con- stantly at hand, and this fact alone may have contributed much to the important position held by the text -book. A comprehensive exposition of early text-books and their use is given by Willard in his "History of Early Education in Illinois." The account states: "The text-books of the early times were few and costly. Webster’s Spelling book, in clue covers of paste board or wood was the first and chief Dildworth’s spelling book is occasionally mentioned; but Webster held the ground almost entirely and must rank as the greatest educator among our authors. The alpnabet was sometimes taught to the youngest pupils from letters pasted on a board. Books were so difficult to obtain that we read of a school in De Witt, in 1 835 f where there were three spelling books for 30 pupils. The ’Pleasant Companion', the ’Hew Testament' and Hurray's 'English Reader' were the principal text-books for reading. The 'Columbian Orator' shared their popularity. Hot until about 1S30 did Pierpont's 'Readers' oome in gradually. Books of history and biography were used sometimes, especially weem's 'Life of Marion' and 'Life of Washington.' Geography was rare; Horse was the author of beet reputd. Granmar was equally rare. Murray was the text-book ... 51 Arithmetic held high rank in the schools; and skill in operation was much prized. The text-book was almost always that of NioholaB Pike. About 1£40 the works of Smiley and R.C. Smith began to come into competition with Pike, „( 1 ) which was in its time an excellent book. The following is a list of books required in the Young Ladies' Academy of the Visitation, Kaskaskia, 1S37: "English, -V/ebster 's Dictionary and Murray's Grammar and exercises; Worcester's Geography and Atlas; Grimshaw's History of the United States, of England, etc., with keys and questions to the same; Pike's Arithmetic; Polite Learning; Tooke's Pantheon; Jamieson's Rhetoric; Blake's Chemistry and Philoso- phy; Irving's Astronomy, Irving's Roman, Grecian and Jewish antiquities; Tenning on the Globes, and Worcester's Historical Atlas. French - Nugent's Dictionary; Levi zac's Grammar; Perrin's Dialogues; Wanostrochl 'sRecue i 1 Choisi and Le Brun's Telemaohus ' A series of texts known as Cobb's School Books were widely advertised and quite generally adopted. One advertisement in which the books were recom- mended states that "A porti'n of the series (which had been examined ) we learn have been endorsed at Illinois College, and by teachers at Jacksonville generally. They have been introduced into the preparatory department of Hillsboro college, and its president recommends their introduction into the common schools of the state. They have also been adopted at Lebanon, and reoommended at McKeudree College. Throughout the state wherever examined, they have been adopted with scarcely an exception. Seventy-one schools in Morgan alone have formally adopted them at meetings held in almost every district. The dame as t rat ions in their favor would warrant the opinion that they are destined to be the great school (1) Willard, S. History of Early Education in Illinois, 111. School Report, 1883 - £4, p.CV. (2) Illinois State Register, Nov. 24, 1^37. . ■ - i 52 books of the west."'' 1 ' Ilany text -books enjoyed but brief periods of popularity, and it is not to be doubted that many were of inferior quality. The editor of one news paper states that "The Chicago Journal expresses our ideas exactly when it says, "We have a horror of school books - New Grammars, new Geographies and new Arithmetics. Twenty-five per cent are outright humbugs; fifty, miserable plagiarisms; ten per cent 'so so'; five, fair; five, above mediocrity, and the reminder, a ( 2 ) 'righteous few', being above five in every hundred, are excellent." The content of Woodbridge's "Geography and Atlas" and the way in which the pupil was to "learn" geography are disclosed in the following description of the book. "We have not lately seen a school book which appeared to us so well adapted to the purpose of conveying the rudiments of geographical knowledge, as "Woodbridge 's Geography and Atlas"- recently introduced into the school at this place. The Geography is a small volume, containing very brief, and were it alone, very imperfect notices of the several countries of the world; and questions which are to be answered by reference to the "Atlas." It is this which gives the work in our opinion, its great value. Verbal descriptions afford, at best, but indistinct notions of the form and relative situation of countries. But when the eye is the medium of communicat ion, the learner acquires definite ideas, which are impressed with due force on his memory. We think a class of tyros would find it a delightful exercise to trace on the maps the soaroes of rivers, the boundaries of states and empires, or the situation of cities; and that great emulation might be excited by a judicious teacher, the object of which would be to give the readiest and dearest answers to the questions proposed. There is no quaokery - no patent machinery in the work. It communicates the knowledge of historical faots in the usual mode by narrative; and it shows the forma and (1) Illinois State Register, 0ct.3,l&50. ( 2 ) Du Page County Observer, July 2S,1&52. 53 boundaries of countries at once to the eye by maps; and to these maps the pupil is referred, as the only place where he can find solutions to the queries put to him in the lessons of the day. Besides seven colored maps, executed we think better than ordinary school maps, the Atlas contains a ohart of the world, in which the moral, political and intellectual condition of its various parts is compenduously shown by means of a few simple and obvious devices. In our view this would add materially to the value of the book. The cost of the book, in- cluding the Atlas of S maps, is $1.37-if. M ' 1 ' The wide diversity and lack of uniformity in the kinds of text-books usee are well illustrated by the report of the superintendent of schools in Pike bounty to the ex-officio State Superintendent in lS^O. Concerning the variety of text- books in use in the county he states: "Spelling books, 4; readers, 13 (including history of Kentucky, Testaments and Bibles); arithmetics, 9; geographies, 4; grammars, 5; histories of United States, £; ancient histories, 3; philosophies, 4; ,(2 ) chemistryes, 3; algebras, 4 and dictionaries, 3.” Lack of uniformity in text -books was in part due to the expense involved in discarding all old text-books and replacing them with new and uniform books, anc also due to the fact that each teacher had favorite texts and declined to adopt books iu conformity with those of other teachers in the same sohool distriot or community. An attempt was made in an education convention held in Springfield, 1&45, to orin & about uniformity of text-booxs throughout the state. In this connection it was "Resolved, that a committee of five competent, practical teachers be appointed to make a selection of good and suitable school books upon the different branches of learning named in the present school law, to be submitted to the (1) Edwardsville Spectator, March 25,1£*®§ (2) PillsDury, V.'.H., Early Eruoation in Illinois, State Superintendent's Report, p . CLXIX . • • - . Secretary of State, for general use in the common schools of Illinois; and that said oommittee accompany their selections with a brief statement of the reasons for their recommendations. It is proper here to remark that the subjeot of text-books occupied a very large share of the discussions of the convention during the whole of its sittings; and that the above disposition of the matter was not finally settled till near the dose of its deliberations. It was felt that a desirable uniform- mi ty of good and suitable texts must be accompanied by slow progress and not without considerable difficulty. ' In his report for 1 856 , the State Superintendent recommended the fol- lowing texts: "Sander’s Pictorial Primer. " Speller and Definer. " New series of readers. Davies' Intellectual Arithmetic. " School Arithmetic. Clark’s New English Grammar and Chart. Cutler's Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. " First Book of " " " Mrs. Cutler's Human and Comparative Hygiene. Cutler’s Anatomical Plates. Marcius Wilson's entire series of Histories. Smith's History of Greece. Parker’s Juvenile Philosophy, 1st Part. » » " 2nd " . 11 11 11 3 rd " (1) Illinois State Register, May 30,1SH5 . 55 Parker's Compendium. Olmsted's School Astronomy. " College Philosophy. M " Astronomy . Upham's Mental Philosophy. Davies' Elementary Geometry. Loomis' Geometry for Colleges. M'Elligott 's Analytical Manual. " Young Analyzer. Davies' Primary tables. " University Arithmetic . Monteith's Geography. Mitchell's Intermediate Geography. " Higher geography and Atlas. Davies' Practical Arithmetic. " Logic of Mathematics. " Descriptive geometry for Colleges. Loomis' Trigonometry and Logarithms. " Analytical geometry and Calculus. Shurtleff's Governmental Instructor. Day's Rhetoric. Fulton and Eastman's Book-keeping. " " " Writing Books. Preston's Book-keeping for Colleges. Pelt on's Outline Maps with keys. - . 56 Quackenboss First Lessons in Composition. Hitchcock's Geology. Youman's Chemistry and chart. Draper's Chemistry for Colleges. Willson's Chart of American History. Northend's Dictation Exeroises. Chambers' Introduction to the Sciences. Sanders' Elementary and Elocutionary Chart.”' J ^ This list contains few of the older and more popular text -books, and its adoption in any school meant the discarding of most of the books then in use. It had been provided by law in ltS5H that the State Superintendent of Public Instruction "shall recommend the most approved text -books, maps, charts and apparatus, and shall require uniformity in the use of the same, as well as in ( 2 ) the manner of conducting schools throughout the state " In 1&57, however , the legislature struck out this clause, and compulsory, state-wide uniformity of text-books was not obtained until after the close of the period. Local efforts in this direction, notwithstanding the laissez faire policy of the state as a whole, continued to be made. One educational leader in IS 59 presented through the press, the disadvantages of laok of uniformity in text-books, and he suggested that "some time be agreed on, the School commissioner taking the lead and giving the notice, to hold a County Convention of all the school offioers and teaohers, for the purpose of agreeing upon the kind of books to be used in all the free sohools of the county. Take the books reoornmended by the State Superin- tendent, if you please; or whatever kind is taken let them be exclusively used. (1) Report of State Supt . of Pub. Inst . , 1G&5-6, p.144. (2) State Supt. Report, IS 55 - 56 , p.23. 57 ihis w© consider 02 great importance. It relieves the teacher from the embarrass- ment oi different kinds or books , which compel him to hear a great number of scholars receit separately, causing; an unnecessary consumption of time, and pre- venting what should be found in every well organized school - a complete classi- fication or scholars, so as to instruct the largest number in the shortest practicable time. By uniformity in books, twenty-five per oent will be saved to the county in the purchase of them. Every person bringing school books for sale knows exactly what kind will sell, and does not buy at random, as at present, attempting to supply the demand, but wholly dependent upon the fancy of teachers, thereby being compelled to impose a larger percentage of books than can be affordec when the sale is certain. Then the directors, in contracting with teachers, the kind of books to be used would be a fixed fact, and parents and guardians not subjected to the expense attending every teaoher's notion as to what books are Dest to be used in schools The admonitions of the article Just quoted were heeded and a convention was neld several months after the publication of the exhortation. "The object of the meeting was to discuss the merits of the best school books now in use, ana to fix upon or adopt, for future use in the schools of Union County, a fixed and uniform list of text-books, and thereby enable teachers to classify their pupils in the various studies pursued irx our ( 2 ) publio sohools."' The text -books adopted at this meeting were: ilcGuffey's Speller (Last Edition) Webster's School Dictionary Mc&uffey's Series of Readers (Last Edition) Ray's Arithmetics, Parts second and third (1) The Jonesboro Gazette, Jan. 15,1^59* (2) The Jonesboro Gazette, April 9>1^59» - o . 5 s Mitchell's Series of Geographies Pinneo's Grammars, Primary and Analytical Willard's History of the United States. Of the books in this list Mitchell's Geographies only are among those recommended by the State Superintendent in 1856 , 59 Chapter VII Teachers . In the organization, administration and oonduot of sohools, the teacher in the early institutions, played an important part. When a teaoher organized his own sohool, as was frequently the oase, he was entirely responsible for its suooess; if he was hired by the town or community to oonduot the school, he still retained muoh authority and independence in regard to matters relating to the school. Before 1855 , the classification and promotion of scholars, de- cision as to the number and oharaoter of the studies to be taught, in many oases the fixing of the amount of tuition to be paid by each soholar, were all matters whioh were initiated by the teaoher. The earliest institutions were one-teacher sohools and were organized or "got up" by the teaoher himself. This method has been described by one writer who says: “Generally the school was got up by the teacher himself. He would go around among the people with a subscription paper, whioh was in effect a contraot between himself and his subscribers, stating length of sohool term, rate of compensation, plaoe, eto. Generally the teaoher was to "board round", „(1 ) or live with his patrons in turn." The notioe of a teaoher who desired to organize a sohool in this way, is illustrative of the method used to gain patronage. "Mr. John S. Williams is now at Liok Creek delivering a course of leotures on English grammar. We have reoeived a large number of oertif ioates, (1) Willard, S., Early Eduo. in Illinois, State Supt . Report, 1SS3-S4, p.CIV. 1 * 1 ' 60 setting forth his literary acquirements, and his peoullar qualifications as a teaoher of English grammar. We have been requested to publish these oertifioates but the number of signatures attaohed to them renders it impossible for us to oomply with the request. From our knowledge of the gentlemen that endorse the pretensions of Mr. W., we doubt not that his olaims to the publio patronage are worthy of consideration. He will in a few days, endeavor to get up a class in this oity.”^ 1 ^ In a preceding chapter a description of oirouit sohools, common in the first decades of the period, waa given. Opportunities for oirouit teachers and requisite qualifications are indicated in the following oomment. '•There is room for muoh enoouragement to the friends of oommon education in Illinois. The Illinois Patriot, the Gazette, and the Pioneer and the Western Baptist, are ably advocating the cause; and a late number of the latter paper gives notioe that a number of well qualified oirouit teaohers can find employ in that state by making application as there directed. We are glad to find that among the qualifications recommended, are aptness to teaoh, oonoiliatory manners (2 ) and good moral character." Well qualified and experienced teaohers were the exception rather than the rule for reasons which contributed generally to the slow progress of the sohools and indifferenoe toward education. The oomment was made that "There is one evil that exists that is not yet provided for and that is the lamentable want of suitable and well qualified teaohers,- an evil that is felt in every part of the oountry, and particularly in the west. It is wdll known, that in ma ny of our towns and settlements, the people are obliged to depend on the 'wandering ones' of other states, and suoh transient persons as may happen 'to oome along,' to teaoh their sohools. So long as this is the oase, it is impossible (1) 111. State Register, Oot. S,l#47. (2) Annals of Education, Vol.4,lS34, p.243. II - .. . ubmi*b Jlir ■ ■ ■ ■ i- - — - ■■ ■■ 61 that the sohools should be in a flourishing oondition. Whatever the system may be, without good teaohers there oannot be good sohools.*^ 1 * 3 4 ' Concerning the standard of qualifications of the early teaohers, Willard says : "The standard of qualification oould not be high. One county historian naively says, 'A few scholars oame into the oountry in 1S40 who understood grammar and arithmetic.* Everywhere the ability to read, to write and to ’cipher (2 ) to the single rule of three® was ample qualification." And another comment upon the same subject is to the effeot that: "Then, (20 years ago) in seouring the services of a teacher, the amount of wages demanded by the applicant, without particular reference to moral character or mental ability too often determined the ohoioe, and the spirit that reigned predominant in the school was sometimes more alooholio than soientifio; now, the necessary moral and intellectual qualifications of the teacher are prescribed by law.**^ 1 The due to the poor-qualif ioations situation is indicated by the following statement. "There are few opinions in the community so strong as the low estimation of the requisite qualifications of a sohool teaoher. It is nearly the only occupation for whioh no peouliar information or instruction is deemed necessary, and into whioh any one may enter at any time when he has nothing ( 4 ) else to do - whatever may have been his previous occupation or habits." In the detailed study made of 97 secondary Institutions the following qualifications were noted: (1) Annals of Eduo.,Vol.5,lS35» Report of a oommittee to the Illinois Legislature. ( 2 ) Willard, S • , Early Eduo. in 111., Ill.Gohool Report, 1SS3-4, p.CIII. (3) Jonesboro Gazette, April 9*1^59 (4) Illinois Daily Journal, Deo. 22, 1S4S. . . . * ; 62 Qualification No . of times mentioned * Experience 23 College graduate {with degree) 10 Good morals and high character 7 Competency and ability to teach 5 Well-qualified (without designation) 4 Previous suocess 3 Minister 3 Literary attainment 2 Devoted 2 A student 2 Skilful 2 Diligent 2 Good reputation 2 Amiable 1 Attentive 1 Energy 1 Perseveranoe 1 Patienoe 1 Gentleness 1 A gentleman 1 Efficient 1 Practical 1 Several teaohers who were strangers with no established reputation, or credentials of former sucoess, designated a willingness to take an examination from patrons, in order to prove the possession of qualifications which would enable them to teaoh. In detailed data concerning elementary sohools, teaohers' qualifications generally resolve themselves into "attention to duty", "good disciplinarian", and "good reputation". A summary of the duties whioh the sohool teaoher should perform is contained in the following extraot : "What is a oommon sohool worth that is not well attended by the soholars, and in which the teaoher has no interest exoept that of making out his number of days? It is worth nothing. We go to sohool with the expectation of learning something about the soienoes, and also, something in the way of politeness. But it is not infrequently the oase that our teaohers keep out their time and leave us, without ever saying a single word about the attitudes in whioh we should sit or stand when we are at ohuroh or in genteel company. -> .. - 63 The oommon school is the plaoe where the character of every individual must be formed who attends them. Hence, then, I conclude that it is the duty of a sohool teaoher, not only to keep good order and regular hours, but also to illustrate in the simplest manner the various branohes he is teaching, and also, to instruot his school at large in the rudiments of politeness and gentility. If this were regularly done, and strictly followed by all our sohool teachers, does it not appear reasonable and very profitable that when persons arrive at the years of maturity, and commence the business of life for themselves, that they would be better qualified than young people generally are? I think that to this question, all who are free from prejudice and sectarian bigotry, will, with one voice, answer they would. ^ Teaohers, whose remuneration consisted of tuition fees and a share of the state sohool fund, usually made only a soant livelihood. Fees were small and hard to collect, though generally "required in advanoe." And the amount of tuition fees reoeived depended upon the number of pupils the teaoher was able to attraot, and the constancy of their attendance. Teaohers who were hired by sohool trustees or by a community board reoeived a fixed salary for the term or year, and were not subjeot to the fluctuations in salary due to transient scholars and were relieved of the necessity of oolleoting their fees. Both fees and salar- ies were paid, at times, in produce. One board of trustees "Employed Barton Randle to teach a sohool at Ebenezer for the term of three months from and after the 25th of September, 1525, at the rate of $15 per month, one half of which shall be paid in oash and the other half in good merchantable produoe at eaoh price. 1 2 ^ An individual who advooated the opening of a sohool at every oourt (1) Alton Telegraph and Demooratio Review, April 6,1549* ( 2 ) Edwardsville Spectator, 8ept. 24,1525. - . < . : 6’4 house in the state in 1520, suggests oonoerning the pay of the teaoher to be hired in each instance, that "According to the prices of produoe, and soaroity of money, and the low prioes of property, it is probable that competent teaohers may be had at two hundred and fifty dollars a year, paid punctually at the end of eaoh quarter, which is worth as muoh as double the sum would have been four years ago. A prudent gentleman would prefer taring his board at a genteel farmer’s in the vicinity of the town, where he oould have it at fifty dollars a year, whioh would leave a neat compensation of two hundred dollars, whioh in my opinion is as muoh as some professional gentlemen now obtain in these 'hard times'".^ ^ In the latter part of the period, the teaching profession did not reoeive as high remuneration as other professions. In faot, it is stated by one authority that “the low standard in education attained by the present adult, and we fear by the oorning generation, is asoribable mainly to the faot that sohool keeping was, and is, the least remunerative of all professions aad pur- suits, and henoe those who followed it generally were not those who had been 8duoated in reference to it, or qualified to discharge its duty, but the last shift of those who had failed in everything else, and only taken up when worst oame to worst. Being ill-qualified mentally and physically for the duties they had to perform, they were but poorly paid So it resolves itself at last into this, that parents do not think that great natural endowments and high intellectual attainments are neoessary in the eduoators of their ohildren, or at best not worth the money they will oost. Consequently, the learned and the gifted ( 2 ) are driven to more lucrative and more respeoted professions. 1 * Teaohers not infrequently eked out a livelihood by employing themselves in other professions and oooupations. Hr. Cross, a teaoher in Kaskaskia in 1515, ( 1 ) Cdwardeville Spectator, Deo.26,1520* (2) Alton Daily Morning Courier, Jan. 25,1553. . ' SM Wt l|4 IN M I, . - 65 gave exhibitions of elooution for which he reoeived money and probably no little advertisement. A notioe of his entertainment reads: M Mr. C.(ros8) will, this evening in the Representative Chamber, give various specimens of Elocution, instructive and amusing, original and seleoted. Tiokets to be had at Burr and Christy's Hotel. .* ^ The versatility ofanother teaoher who was engaged in several occupa- tions besides teaohing is disclosed in the following advertisement: "Under the direction of Franzesoo Ciolina, Dootor of Medicine and Philosophy, and Minister of the German Christian Churches at Highland, Edwards- ville, and Alton, a sohool has been established at Alton Private instruction will be given if required in the Latin, French, Greek and Italian languages. Natural Philosophy; and also in Musio on Pianoforte and guitar, with singing, drafting and painting. Young men who intend to study Medioine or surgery, oan have the most thorough instruction. Patients, who are troubled with any difficult or ohronio oomplaints, and have tried other physioians without suooess, may be relieved by boarding with the subscriber - who will attend to all suoh oases with particular oare." v ' Teaohers' salaries increased throughout the last deoade of the period as shown by monthly salaries of teaohers, given in the State Superintendent's Annual reports for the years 1&51 * 1&54 and 1 858 , 1S51 1S54 1S5S Average Monthly Salary for men $19.10 $ 25.00 29.66 Average Monthly Salary for women 10.5S 12.00 19.4S Improvement in the quality of teaohers and increase in their number, were the result of several agencies, among them a soheme developed by Governor Slade of Vermont, to increase the number and efficiency of teaohers, the develop- ment of normal oourses in secondary schools, the efforts of the Ladies' Assooia- (1) 111. Intelligencer, Deo. 9, 1516. (2) Alton Telegraph, Sept. 9>l£43» 66 tion for the Education of Females, and the work: of education societies and teachers' institutes. The work of the Board of National Popular Education, headed by Governor Slade was sunnicurized as follows; " Through appropriate agencies it explores the west; for the raising up of schools and making arrangements for the reoeption and competent support of female teaohers; while it receives application for supplies, invites such teaohers from the east, oolleots companies of them, semi-annually at Hartford, Connecticut, where it carries them through a six weeks special training - a sort of teachers' institute - and thence under proper esoort, send them to the plaoe provided. 1 2 3 ^ Of one hundred and fifty-two teaohers sent out in three years, 42 filled positions in Illinois.' y A number of secondary schools offered Normal oourses in the latter part of the period. Notable examples are Hillsborough Seminary, 1645; Mount Palatine Aoademy, 1650 and Naperville Academy, 1652. The Ladies' Association for the Education of Females organized in 1633 had for its major purpose the supplying of teachers to the oommon schools.^' The expenses of gaining an education were paid by this sooiety to girls who wished to prepare for teaching. Large numbers of potential teaohers were aided and the influence on the sohools was benefioial. A oounty meeting of teaohers was held in Sangamon County as early as 1636, and in the same year the Illinois Teaohers' Association was organized at Jacksonville. After 1645, teachers' institut .s and educational societies be- came numerous and proved to be valuable agendas for the instruction and improve- ment of teachers. The names of several institutes and societies were: The Franklin (1) Illinois Daily Journal, Dec. 4, 1646. (2) Illinois State Register, Maroh 7,1650. (3) Pillsbury, W.L., State Supt . Report, 1665-66, p.CXII. . 4 j ,1 it': ' *: ' ■ ? * < 67 Association of Common Sohool Teachers, Jersey County Association of Teachers, Illinois State Teachers’ Association, Peoria Teachers’ Institute, Sangamon Teachers' Association, North Sangamon Teaohers ' Institute, Macoupin County Education Society, and Jonesboro Teachers’ Meeting. Teaohers and the “friends of Eduoat ion" were urged to be present at these meetings, to bring reports of their respective schools, to prepare essays on subjeots relative to the teaching profession, and to take part in the debates and disoussions of the societies. The notioe of Williamsville teaohers' meeting states that "A. Bronson will read an essay on Female Education. S.H. Wilber will exhibit his method of teaching penmanship and geography. C. Fresby will give his method of teaohing arithmetic. J. Fairohilds will give his method of teach- ing arithmetic. E.O. Malory will read an essay, or deliver an address, on the History of the United States as a subject of free school study. J. Beckwith will deliver a lecture illustrating his system of teaching English grammar. Mr. Potter will show his method of making good spellers. ^ The sohool law of 1 #55 exoluded from positions in the schools all teaohers who could not present certificates of ability to teaoh as provided for in the law. The 3 eotions of the law providing for the certification of teaohers are the following: Boards of Examiners - The examination and qualification of teaohers. Seo. 54. The school commissioner shall, by himself, or any two members of the board of examiners, shall examine all persons proposing to teaoh a common sohool in the oounty, in relation to his or her moral oharaoter, and touohing his or her qualifications to teaoh orthogrphy, reading in English, penmanship, arithmetic, English Grammar, modern geography, and the history of the United States; and if he or they shall be satisfied that such person sustains a good (1) Illinois State Journal, Deo. 1,1#5 S, . . . . • . , . 5tf. - ' - • . . 72 propositions and went through the demonstrations on the blackboard, particularly in Algebra and the Conio Seotions. In these I have never known questions answered and demonstrations performed more readily by male or female pupils The performances in vooal and instrumental musio, and the written compositions, showed most commendable suooess, if not proficiency in those branohes also. Moral improvement reoeives the attention and respect which its paramount importance and inestimable value demand. The large orowd of spectators in attendance, not- withstanding the inolemency of the weather, strongly testified the deep interest of the people in the prosperity of the Institution and the estimation in which it is deservedly held."^ ^ A somewhat more detailed description of an examination and exhibition is given in the following report of the exeroises of a seminary in Jonesboro in IS 59 : "The examination oouznenoed at 10 o’clock A.M. before a small but select audienoe, composed of a few of the most prominent friends of education in this quarter; but although the audienoe was not an extensive one, the examination of the pupils comprising the olasses was ..... very thorough. I do not expeot on this 00 c .sion to be ade to give a detailed acoount of all the exeroises, nor do I expeoi to do justioe to all the participants engaged therein; but some of the classes particularly deserve the greatest commendation for the ready and prompt manner in answering all the questions put by their teaoher, and others of the audienoe so disposed, whilst aone were at all liable in any manner to oensure, for all did their duty most nobly and all manifested the most thorough training on the part of the teaoher. I was particularly delighted with the olass in Geography. They went over the whole ground of this arduous and intricate study with ease, graoe and facility, showing a thorough and praotioal knowledge of this useful branoh. ( 1 ) Alton Telegraph, March 25,1 < < . . 73 The forenoon Grammar olass, too went through all the minutiae of parsing, analyzing and transposing the most diffioult sentences to be found in the language with aoouracy and promptness. The afternoon was ocoupied by the reading of the various compositions of the pupils and the olasses in Arithmetic. The compositions were all good and some of them evinoed a maturity of judgment and profundity of thought truly surprising in suoh youthful aspirants for literary honors. The examinat ion throughout was oonduoted in an impartial and thorough manner, it being apparent to all that the chief idea with the principal was to plaoe the pupils before the audience in such a light that the exact progress and profioienoy of each pupil might be accurately brought to view, and the advancement be made known to all. The examination dosed at about five o ‘'clock, all being highly pleased at the order, discipline and improvement manifested by the pupils. At seven o'olock the Town Hall was filled to overflowing with an anxious and expectant audience of ladies and gentlemen of Jonesboro and Anna, all on the "qui vive" for pleasure and entertainment. It would seem invidious to draw comparisons, where all performed their parts so well - at least the general expression testifies that a better exhibition has never been witnessed in Jonesboro. The vast audience were now oonvulsed with laughter at some of the happy hits, and anon eleotrified at the eloquent displays made by the speak- ers. It were faint praise to say the audienoe were highly entertained; nay, they were made to feel proud of the progress of education now being made in our midst. .....The examination and exhibition alike oreditable to teaoher and pupils dear- ly demonstrates that she has nobly acquitted herself."^ ^ But "All that glisters is not gold" aooording to one oritio of methods of conducting examinations, who says, commenting upon the expedients (1) Jonesboro Gazette, Feb.5>lS59 ■ >< . 1 ’ 74 invented by teaohers to humbug parents. "The most common and most successful one is, to ooirmenoe preparing the pupils for examination day from the first day he enters sohool. On examination day, it requires not one with the aouteness of vision to see through a mill-stone, to penetrate the thin gauze that hides the shallow deception and miserable farce beyond. Everybody sees it except the deluded, doting parents; they see nothing but prodigies of learning and talent in the performances. We have, on many oooasions, seen the evidences of this arduous training, and drilling for examination. We have heard simple Miss A. say that Miss B., who was to read that verse, or answer that question, or perform that example, is ab- sent, and we have seen so much of the lesson as was assigned to the absentee passed over. We have seen and heard pupils give demonstrations of some of the most intricate problems of Euclid, who could not tell the difference between an acute and obtuse angle, or between a vertioal and horizontal line.... Now why is it that parents aremade the dupes and victims of such gross impositions..... They have offered a premium for them by demanding the perform- ance of impossibilities under the oonditions imposed. One exhibition which was given for another purpose than that of dis- playing the results of teaohing was announced in the following advertisement: '•The students at the Seminary will give another Exhibition next Friday evening, for the purpose of furnishing globes, maps, etc., for the school. They gave one last Friday evening, and every person enjoyed themselves hugely without oost, and now that they wisn to present their teaohers with a tribute of respeot, we hope the house will be none the less orowded that it is at 25 oents admittance?" Examinations assumed a different oharaoter after the transition from private to free sohools. They beoame less superficial and more tests of aotual (1) Alton Daily Morning Courier, Jan. 29, 1#53 • (2) Jonesboro Gazette, Jan. 16,1^56. . ■ . : ■ 75 ability and progress on the part of the pupils* In Springfield in 1 856 , at the olose of the first terras work in the free sohool, the board of sohool inspeotors visited the various olassrooms, and examined the work done by pupils and teaohers. After commenting in detail upon the sohool work observed in four days of inspeotio one inspector says: “We may be permitted here to remark, taking into consideration the faot that this was the close of the first term of, we may say, an experiment in the system of public sohools in this oity and the other faot, that for this examina- tion no previous notice had been given, no preparation made, nothing but the every day routine of studies and exercises gone through with, it oertainly was a most gratifying speotaole."^ 1 ^ The publio examination was a sooial as well as eduoational function and although it sometimes erred on the eduoational side, the benefits of its sooial features were evident. It served to maintain a proper relation between parent and sohool and was the connecting link between the sohool and the com- munity, and in performing such a service, it was a valuable device for seouring community cooperation in eduoational matters* No rigid and uniform inspection of sohools was maintained throughout the period in the eduoational institutions exoept in a few oommunit ies in whioh oity sohool systems were maintained and systematically inspected. Parents and trustees usually visited the schools only at examination time when conditions were to some extent abnormal, and oonditions were not typioal of the daily routine One writer attributes the poor condition of the schools to laok of inspection. He says, "There are many other reasons why oonmon sohools are no better. (1) 111. State Register, July 24,1#56. . f* < 76 One is, that the employers or school directors, seldom go to the sohool house and learn for themselves what is going on; and henoe generally all that they (1 ) know they get from their children.” Another writer urging better sohool inspection states, “In a former communication I urged parents to visit the school for the encouragement of their own ohildren; and I trust the time is nearly, even in Illinois, when parents and friends will often be found in the sohool room. I also hope the time has already arrived when those selected to superintend our schools will be found faithful Let them oall often - not as mere overseers, whose only business is to see that others do their duty; but as friends who oan sympathize with the faithful teacher in his difficulties, and rejoice in the pros- perity of the school. Let us be provided with faithful sohool directors, and the sohool system of Illinois will soon be equal to that of the most highly favored ( 2 ) state in the Union." A third writer points out four benefits to be derived from the frequent visits of parents to the schools. He says that "Parents must not only visit the schools where their ohildren are, beoause they may be blinded by their partial- ities, or imposed upon by the teaoher, anxious to retain their patronage, but visit all the sohools in the neighborhood - public and private. Then they will be able to institute a comparison between their relative merits, and seleot the best within their reaoh for their ohildren. Impositions will then beoome less frequent if not impossible, for teaohers will feel that the attention of the Argus-eyed Publio is fixed upon them. Another good will flow out of it; they will beoome acquainted with the teaohers of their ohildren, will know how to appreciate them, from kind relations with them, will learn their trials, difficulties and dis- (1) Alton Telegraph and Dem* Review, April 6,l£>49» (2) Alton Telegraph and Dem. Review, July 9>1S45» ' 77 oouragements, and thus sympathize with them, and assist and enoourage them* Moreover, they will then be able to judge the probability or otherwise of the many idle reports that get afloat in the community respeoting the government and discipline of the schools, and not be imposed upon by either their own or their neighbor's ohildren We speak by authority when we say that not one in twenty of the parent* who have ohildren attending the oity sohools have ever visited them or know from personal observation how and by what means their ohildren are receiving mental culture .*• .We wish, and we admonish parents, to think seriously upon the subjeot of visiting sohools. 1 ' 1 1 (1) Alton Daily Morning Courier, Jan. 29, 1&53 • _ri'> -‘lot' 1 $ Chapter IX Female and Co-eduoat ion. The popular oonoeption of female eduoation throughout the period was that girls were to be educated as fully as boys but not with them* Some educa- tors, it is true, did not believe that girls should have an eduoation similar to that of boys, and still others advooated oo-eduoation for every eduoational institution and for every individual. Persons who entertained such conceptions, however, were in the minority. The support of the ideal, that the eduoation of women should oonform to that of men, is presented by an eduoational writer who opens his argument with the theory that the natural oapaoity of the sexes is equals He says:.... "If the capacity of the sexes is equal should they receive a similar eduoation? So far as their employment corresponds their education should be one. Their duties to &od and to themselves are the same; likewise in a great degree to their children and to society. All knowledge whioh tends to improve the heart, refine the taste, and inform and direot the Judgment, is M (l) as neoessary to a woman as to a man.” Commenting upon the ability of girls to pursue studies whioh boys only were supposed to be oapable of mastering, another writer says, "The readiness with whioh difficult problems in arithmetic were solved by some of the young ladies surpassed anything of the kind that we reoolleot to have witnessed elsewhere The error has been too prevalent that mathematical studies were useless to young ladies; but nothing is more dear than the faot that, besides their practical utility, they give a stability (1) Edward6Ville Speotator, Hay 31,1^25* ■ : • Ui . T9 and vigor to the mind for whioh the more fashionable aooompli6hments of female education are unfavorable.' 5 ^ A ^ From the reports of many publio examinations held throughout the state it may be oonoluded that similar subjects were pursued by boys and girls. At least two individuals stated objections to the notion that girls should receive an education in the olassios and “higher branoheB." One individual states that “there may be single individuals among girls who have a great dis- position to learn languages, let them exercise their talent, but let them not be a standard for girls in general. I am sure that few of them as well as of boys, will be greatly delighted with a study of the olassios. On the other hand, I doubt that on aooount of this acquirement, girls become better wives and better mothers, and that they will, for this reason, gain the affection of their husbands."^ ^ And the other reports that "Not long ago an individual was ashed why he did not send his daughters to sohool. * It ' s of no use,' says he, 'I oan learn them to re id at home so as to read the testament and that *8 enough. It's none of their oonoern to transaot business - and of what use is geography and (3 ) grammar in making bread and frying baoon? ,w Some idea of the extent of the provisions for the education of girls may be gained from the following figures: Of the 97 secondary institutions studied: 33 were for girls only. 2 were for girls and boys under S . 37 were for both boys and girls. 6 were for boys only. 17 gave no indication as to sexes admitted. (1) Illinois State Register, Nov.2,lS3S. (2) 111. Daily Journal, Dec.7,lS33. (3) 111. Daily Journal, Oot . 3,1£H£* .. < ' i i • £ . • . . so These figures would indioate that ample provision was made for the education of girls, and since the elementary sohools commonly admitted both sexes on equal terms, it is evident that female education was well provided for. The Ladies’ Association for educating females enoouraged the cause of female education, by providing gratuitous instruction to girls who would prepare for teaohing. In an address before the members of the society the reasons for giving gratuitous instruction to women, were stated. Part of the address is as follows: "These girls oannot eduoate themselves* It is absolutely essential that they should have assistance. Young men, of industry and energy, oan eduoate themselves. But these girls oan earn but $1.50 per week, and out of that they must olothe themselves. Then, as things are, the expense attending the education of the young women is greater than that attending the education of ( 1 ) the young men. This sooiety, then, most evidently meets a great want." In the fourth annual report of the Ladies' Association for the educa- tion of females was an address delivered by Professor Post of Jacksonville, Illinois, before the annual meeting of the society. Professor Post "in sketching the outlines of what would constitute a good female education, has insisted that every female should be made acquainted with mental philosophy and hygiene; and the ( 2 ) simple principles of ohemistry and medicine." Rot all education of girls consisted of subjects as aoademio as these. Many of the schools were "finishing schools" attended by fashionable young ladies, who wished instruction in the polite aooomplishments and manners of sooiety. The question was asked at one time, "What is the life of a would-be fashionable young lady? It is to go to a model boarding school, kept by an ex- Frenoh milliner."^ ^ ( 1 )Alton Daily Morning Courier, July 15,1552* (2) Annals of Education, Vol.VIII, 1535, p.154. (3) Illinois State Register, Maroh 17,1554. . ■ - si In the beginning of the ohapter it was stated that the popular con- ception of education was that girls should be eduoated as fully as boys but not with them. Of 97 secondary institutions, it was shown that 37 provided education for both boys and girls, and would on first notice seem to indicate the girls were educated with boys, in a large number of institutions. But of the 37 institutions providing education for both boys and girls, the majority of the schools gave the instruction in entirely separate departments. In the smaller schools it was of course impractical to form distinct departments for the sexes; but in the larger sonools the unvarying oustom was to give instruction in two separate departments, with different rooms, female teaohers, and no means of communication between the sexes while at school. In the elementary schools, however, oo-eduoation was more oommon. Separate education for pupils in the higher olasses was frequently objected to. One writer says, "What i6 curious enough I find many people - fathers, mothers, teachers, who are agreed that in the sohools of the lower olasses the two sexes may be safely and advantageously associated, yet have a sort of horror of the idea of such innovation in sohools for the higher olasses. One would like to know the reason for such a distinction, instead of being encountered as is usual, by a sneer or a vile innuendo."*' 1 2 ^ And another — "Under the present system of fashionable education, the youth are separated early, and sent from home to institutions where the bar of sex is rigid- ly adhered to - and they are turned out in the world, knowing nothing of universal human nature, save what they have gathered from the pages of a sentimental tale or the rhymes of some sickly poet."^^ The common praotioe of separating the male and female departments may be observed in Vandalia High Sohool, which in 1S30 had the following provision: (1) Illinois State Register, Hov.20, 1&56. (2) Alton Daily Morning Courier, Aug. 5, 1&52. . 82 "A Female Department. Is attached to the sehool, under the care ofa young lady who teaohes girls of any age, and boys under With the establishment of free schools the custom of providing separate departments of instruction for the sexes was continued. (1) Illinois Intelligenoer , Nov. 6, 1630 Chapter X S3 The Establishment of the Free Sohool System. The appointment in 1554 of Ninian Edwards as State Superintendent of Publio Instruction, and the enaotment in 1555 of the school law providing a system of free, tax-supported schools and adequate supervision, effected many radical ohanges in the oharaoter of the educational institutions in the state. Aoademies were ohanged to publio graded sohools or high schools; and in place of private elementary schools, ungraded and inadequately supervised, and often inefficiently taught, appeared the new system of common schools. Superintendent Powell sums up the results of the oommon sohool movement during the first two years of the new regime as follows: “1. The establishment of the State Normal University. 2. The organization of the district school library in 1,000 districts. 3. The building of 3 #000 new sohool houses. 4. The support of free sohools for nearly seven months in the year In nearly all the sohool districts in the state. 5* The addition of 200 new sohool districts. 6. The organization of 50 teachers’ institutes. 7 The changing of two-thirds of the private aoademies and seminaries into publio graded sohools. 5. A great improvement in furniture and apparatus. 9. The awakening and building up of an all-powerful and constantly growing publio opinion in all portions of the state, especially in the southern. . ■ : . ST4 in favor of publio education, whioh has had no parallel in the history of the M (1 ) oountry." Mi-. Powell, in his report for 1857 -58 makes the following statement in regard to the ohange in oharaoter of the educational institutions: "It is highly gratifying to be able to state that, while a considerable number of these institutions (academies and seminaries ) are still in operation, in various portions of the state, two-thirds of those in existence two years sinoe have given place to the Publio Sohools, or been themselves transformed into union Graded Schools, under the law. In no particular has the vitality and adoption of the principle of Free Sohools, to the wants of the people of a re- publican state like this, been more dearly manifested, than in the summary manner in whioh the Publio Sohools of this state have taken possession of the ground heretofore occupied by the Private Schools, both high and low. Soaroely two years have elapsed since the Free School system went into operation in this state and in that brief period it has nearly swept the entire field of the thousands of Private Sohools which then existed. Truly those who cling so ten- aciously to the old feudal and Anti-American system of educating the rioh alone, will soon have to abandon their ground; for that only just principle of making ’the property of the state eduoate the ohildren of the state', has nearly taken (.2 ) entire possession of the Publio mind." Ninian Edwards stated the advantages of public schools over private institutions in the following words: “ in a pecuniary point of view it (the publio school) presents advantages over the private school, which mu;t challenge the wealthy as well as the poor Upon the whole, I am fully persuaded that the free sohools, as a (1) Report of Com. of Eduo. l£9#-99> Vol. I, p.3&H* Data from 111. State Supt . Report, 1857-58 , p.69» (2) State Superintendent's Report, 1S57-5&P p»16. , ■ ' .. v. il aooB Ui ■ ■ *5 general thing, are better than even the most seleot private ones. There are more people interested in them, and there is a public spirit at work in their sup- port. m( 1} A system of free schools, completely organized and oareffully graded, did not immediately supplant the older type of schools. The transition from one to the other was a gradual prooess, extending over a period of years, and en- countering invidious opposition from time to time. That the provisions of the law of 1&55 were not aocepted without op- position is demonstrated by the following: "The subjeot of the Common Sohool Law of the state has thus far oooupied a considerable share of the attention of the Legislature, and has been the subjeot of much interesting debate. Proposed amendments, some going to the length of destroying the whole system have been proposed; but we think it is dear from the votes already taken that the Sohool Law has too many strong friends on both sides of the House to be materially ohanged. A proposition abolishing the offioe of Sohool Superintendent, was a few days ago voted down by a good majority and ,i*ay be regarded as a test vote We understand, after a full and oareful examina- tion of the present Sohool Law by the Committee on Eduoation of the two houses in the joint session, they have agreed to let the law in all its main features re- main just as it is." (?) In 1 & 56 , oitizens of Sangamon County held a meeting at whioh opposition to several features of the school lawwas expressed. The following resolutions were adopted: "Whereas the late apportionment by the auditor of the two mill tax as- sessed for sohool purposes, compared with the taxes paid in by the counties, ex- hibits a loss to Sangamon of nearly eleven thousand five hundred dollars, more (1) State Supt. Report, 1&54-, p.£>. (2) Illinois State Journal, Feb.2,l&59* - ■ 8 6 than half of what was colleoted from our people; and whereas this is but a glimpse of the unequal and unjust opperation of our revenue laws for years, bearing so oppressively upon the oitizens of Sangamon; therefore Resolved, That the two mill tax ought to be repealed, and the law otherwise amended. Resolved, That the assessment of property in the various oounties, under the present revenue laws, should be submitted to a board of state offioers for revision, whose duty it should be to equalize the assessment to suit the aotual wants for interest, and for the ordinary expenses of government. Resolved, That we will not support any oandidate for State Legislator, governor, or school superintendent, who does not make unequivooal pledges in favor of the repeal of the two mill school tax and an equalization of assessments in all parts of the state.* 1 ^^ The law was not instantly effective as was shown by the laxity in its observance exhibited in one locality. This condition was deplored by one individ- ual who reports: M We find, upon examinat ion, that in aooordance with the instructions of the State Superintendent, our present School system is being shockingly abused. For the sake of a little popularity instructions have been issued contrary to the letter and spirit of the law, allowing those to become teaohers who are void of a 8 ingle qualification whioh the law deolares they shall have. How is this? If the law is a good one, try it upon its merits, and not seek to Blarney the people and have them adopt a law whioh will not answer the purpose for whioh it was made. We believe the law is a good one, and a positively and sinoerely op- posed to allowing those who are wholly incompetent having no pretensions whatever to respectability, to come in compet ition with those who have spent half a life (1) Illinois State Register, April 24,1#56. . ' • . . . . time to qualify themselves to teaoh what the law says they shall be able to 5 ? teaoh. If the present oonstruotion of the School Law is the true one, the law itself is a bad one, and is for little use more than to burden the people with taxes. We say again to those in charge of our free sohool, to try the law upon its merits; and if it is a good one it will stand, but if it is not let it fall, for we assure you however little education the people of this county may have, they are not so blind to their own interest as to let merit go un- rewarded, nor to long suffer themselves praotioed upon after the style they are at present The law of 1555 has been oalled the cornerstone of the educational structure of the state; and one writer declares that at this time, "The ( 2 ) great revival of popular education had at length struck the new Northwest." From this time on improvement and achievement mark the progress of education in Illinois and attend the development of its institutions to a greater extent than had hitherto been possible. (1) The Jonesboro Gazette, April 16,1556. (2) Report of Com. of Eduo., 1595-99, Tol.I, p.35H « ss Chapter XI Conclusion. The people who settled in Illinois brought with them the eduoational ideals of New England and the South. The progress of education was slow in the early part of the period due to the hardships of frontier life and the sparseness of population. A free sohool law passed in 1S25 was repealed later, not to be reenaoted until 1S55« Public opinion favored the private rather than the free sohool with the result that the private sohool became the dominant type of eduoational institution throughout the period. Opinions concerning the need, value and aims of education were ex- pressed by educators and statesmen in Illinois at an early date. The belief that the aim of education was to preserve democracy and the Republic was the keynote of these expressions. An early type of elementary institution was the itinerant sohool, a school taught for only a part of a day or week at a time throughout the year. The teaoher of suoh a sohool divided his time among a nunber of suoh sohools. More permanent sohools were established as the size and wealth of the community in- creased. Sohools were frequently organized by the teaoher himself. In some communities groups of oitizens formed corporations for the purpose of organizing sohools. In some sohools the rate of tuition was fixed by the corporation or town and the teaoher was hired by trustees of the sohool. The subjeots generally taught were the "common branohes," reading, writing, arithmetic and spelling; grammar, history and geography were taught in the larger sohools. The sohool year was three or four terms or quarters inlength. Tuition oharges were made by the quarter and usually entitled pupils to instruction in all branohes of S9 study. Gratuitous instruotion was given to paupers and orphans in some schools and was required by law for a short time in all sohools receiving appropriation from the state common school fund. Few efforts at gradation were made before IS 55 . The small number of soholars made classification unnecessary and almost impossible. As the school population increased, gradation sohemes were suggested but were not generally adopted. The distinction between the elementary and secondary institutions is difficult to disoern beoause the fact that the scope and character of the two types of institutions were never sharply differentiated. However, a distinction may be made between those institutions which offered only elementary instruction and those which offered secondary courses or both elementary and secondary ourrioula. The latter may be designated as secondary sohools. The name "Academy" was the most popular term applied to private second- ary sohools. The name "Seminary" was also oommonly used; and many others in- cluding "High School", were applied to similar institutions. More than fifty were subjects of instruotion offered in 97 schools. Tuition charges were oommonly based on the number and kind of studies pursued, though in some boarding sohools a uniform oharge was made. Equipment and housing conditions improved as the wealth and popularity of the institutions increased. Several sohools had well equipped laboratories, libraries and museums at an early date. Various methods of instruction were adopted by different teachers. Hiwever, in most schools the teacher served only as a guide in the use of the text-book and was mechanical and unresourceful in his teaohing. The aims of instruotion of the secondary schools were to train teaohers, to prepare youths for life, to prepare students for oollege and to give oulture. Sectarianism did not dominate the sohool be- oause of the fact that charters were refused to sohools advocating any particular sect. Religious instruotion was a oommon course of study in many sohools but 90 was not used for furthering the cause of any denomination. The laok of uniformity in text -books whioh was not overcome before the close of the period, was due to the general laok of uniformity in schools and in oourses of study. Text-books were expensive, and uniformity would have re- quired the purohase of new books in most instances. Some texts were of poor quality; a few were good and gained deserved popularity. Several attempts were made by education societies and the State Superintendent to secure uniformity of text-books both before and after the passage of the free school law, but little was accomplished before l£6Q. A number of special educational institutions supplemented the work of the elementary and secondary schools. These were the evening schools, business schools and oourses, and language classes. These institutions supplied instruction part of whioh oould not be obtained in the regular institutions. The evening schools enabled the illiterate adult population to receive the rudiments of an educat ion. Examinations and exhibitions oonducted at the olose of the school term or year were provided for the purpose of exhibiting the results of instruction. These performances were frequently perfunctory and stereotyped and were not always truthful exhibitions of the pupils' information or scholarship. However, the public examination, attended by parents of pupils and friends of education, served to Interest the community in the school and was a unifying and socializing force. Until after the passage of the free sohool law there was little inspeotion of sohools, other than oooasional visits of parents or trustees. The general feeling throughout the period was that girls were to be eduoated as fully as boys but not with them. A large number of educational institutions for girls was established and many sohools admitted girls on equal terms with boys. However, in these institutions girls and boys were eduoated by separate departments 91 Experience, good character and ability to discipline were qualifications most desired in teaohers. In the early part of the period teachers were poorly qualified and poorly paid. The quality of teaohers was improved through several agencies, a scheme originated by Governor Slade, which prepared teaohers for work in the West* an increase in the number of teaohers' oourses in secondary schools; the work of the Ladies' Association for the Education of Females; and teachers' institutes, conventions and societies. The free sohool law was passed in l®b5 and was the result of growing agitation for a system of free schools supported by publio taxation. Some private secondary and elementary institutions were immediately converted into free schools. However, the private school was a popular and firmly established institution and for these reasons continued to be the dominant type of institution until after 1&60. In many localities the free sohool law was not observed and was frequent- ly denounced as unfair. Beoause of the slow assimilation of the free school idea, the transition from private to free sohools was very gradual. Appendix - List of 97 schools offering secondary courses, of which a special study was made. The dates given are the earliest that appeal’ in the sources at hand. Air. Cross’ School, Kaskaskia, 1 515. Academy, Kaskaskia, 1519. Belleville Academy, Edwardsville, 1520. Public School, Alton, 1521. Academy of Science, Edwardsville, 1520. Seminary of Learning, Edwardsville, 1522. E.G .Hove's School, Springfield, 1526. Fairfield Seminary, Vanaalia, 1525. Jacksonville Seminary, Jacksonville, 1529. Rock Spring Theological and High School, Rock Spring, 1527. Hillsborough Boarding School, Hillsborough, 1530. Vandal ia High School, Vandal ia, 1530. School, Lasalle Prairie, 1530. School, Alton, 1534. Edwardsville Female Academy ,Edwardsvi lie 1534. Female Seminary, Jonesboro, 1534. Alton Seminary, Alton, 1534. Academy, Chicago, 1534. Young Ladies' Aoademy, Kaskaskia, 1537. i Hillsboro Academy, Hillsboro, 1537. Vandalia Academy and Free School,Vandalia,1637 . Mount Vernon Academy, Mount Vernon, 1539. Sohool, Vandalia, 1539. Springfield H.S., Springfield, 1539. Springfield Academy, Springfield, 1639. Springfield Female School , Springfield, 1640. School, Springfield, 1642. Male and Female Academy, Mount Carmel, 1642. City School, Lower Alton, 1643 . Cherry drove Sohool, Knox County, 11643. Ladies' School, Winchester, 1643 . Monticello Seiainary, Godfrey, 1642. School, Highland, 1643 . High Sohool, Middle Alton, 1644. Galena Female Seminary, Galena, 1644. Mr. Campbell 's Academy, Galena, 1644. Select School, Upper Alton, 1644. Miss Olin's Sohool, Springfield, 1644. Springfield City School, Springfield, 1644. Jubilee College, Peoria Co., 1644. Springfield Academy, Springfield, 1645. Seminary for Young Ladies, Springfield, 1645 . I St. Mary's College, Chicago, 1645. Chioago Female Seminary, Chicago, 1645. School, Middleton, I645. Warrenville Institute, Warrenville, 1645. ; ... - - Edgar Aoademy, Paris, 1546. Feuiale Seminary, Springfield, 1547. Farmington Academy, Farmington, 1545. Springfield Female Seminary, Springfield, 1549. Springfield Academy, Springfield, 1549. Seminary, Springfield, 1545. Classical School, Springfield, 1549. Clinton High School, Petersburg, 1549. Upper Alton High Sohool, Upper Alton, 1549. Female High School, Alton, 1549. Illinois Conference Female Aoademy, Jacksonville, 1549. Sohool, Springfield, 1549. Petersburg Female Seminary, Petersburg, 1549. Miss Bahan's Scnool, Springfield, 1549. Wesleyan Female Aoademy, Springfield, 1542. Miss Bascom’s School, Springfield, 1549. McKendree College, Lebanon, 1549. City Sohool, Alton, 1549. Parochial Sohool, Springfield, 1550. Greenfield Academy, Greenfield, 1550. Mt . Palatine Academy, Mr. Palatine, 1550. Female Seminary, Alton, 1552. City Sohool (Hew), Alton, 1552. English and Classical Sohool, Naperville, 1552 . Warrenville Seminary, Warrenville, 1552. Naperville Aoademy, Naperville, 1552. . Seminary, Wheaton, 1 853. Seminary, Naperville, 1853 . Illinois Institute, Wheaton, 1853. Aurora Classical and High School, Aurora, 1853. Illinois College Preparatory Department Jacksonville, 1853 - 4 . Springfield Central Academy, Springfield, 1855 • Jonesboro Academy, Jonesboro, 1855. English and Classical School, Springf iela, 1855 . Springfield Female AO ad emy , Springfield , I 856 . Young Ladies' Select School, Alton, 1850 . Boarding and Day Sohool, Jonesboro, 1858 . Chioago High School, Chicago, 1859. New Female Seminary, Springfield, Aurora Institute and Clark Seminary, 1859. Aurora, 1859. High School, Springfield, 1859. Union Academy, Jonesboro, 1860. South West Seminary, Pittsfield, 1850. Mount Carroll Seminary, Mount Carroll, I 853 . Olney Seminary, Olney, 1855. Dearborn Seminary, Chioago, I 856 . Lewiston Aoademy, Lewiston, 1857. Belvidere Female Seminary, Belvidere, 1858 . Seleot School , Anna, 1859. * . < .. *■ Bibliography Newspapers Alton Daily Morning Courier, 1652-54, Alton. Alton Demooratio Union, 1646, Feb. 14, Alton. Alton Weekly Courier, 1654-55, Alton. Alton Telegraph and Democratic Review, 1643-52, Alton. Alton Spectator, 1633-34, Alton. Baokwoodsman, The, 1637-41, Carrolton. Battle Axe, Feb. 4, 1643, Springfield. Beardstown Chronicle, 1651-34, Beardstown. Chicago Democrat, 1636, Deo. 7, Chioago. Daily Illinois State Journal, 1649-59, Marshall. Democratic Advocate and Commercial Advertiser, Feb. 17,1644, Chioago. Du Rage County Observer, 1652-54, Naperville. Edwardsville Spectator, 1619-26, Edwardsville . Galena Sentinel, May 25,1644, Galena. Illinois Advooate, 1633, Vandalia. Illinois Champion, 1634, Nov. 15, Peoria. Illinois Daily Journal, 1646-49, Springfield. Illinois Gazette, 1620-1630, Shawnee town. Illinois Intelligencer, Vandalia, Kaskaskia, 1619-1651. Illinois Journal, 1633, Shawneetown. Illinois Republican, Deo. 23,1643, Shawneetown. Illinois State Gazette, Aug. 21,1645, June 29,1643, Shawneetown. Illinois State Register, 1636-56, Springfield. Illinois Temperance Herald, 1630, Alton. J * . ' ' • 1 ' Independent Democratic, March 30,1643, Springfield. Jonesboro Gazette, 1654-59, Jonesboro. Legislative State Register,. March 1643, Deo. 1642, Springfield. Missouri arid Illinois Temperance Herald and Washingtonian, 1636-41, Alton and St. Louis. Mount Carmel Register, April 23, 1642, Mount Carmel. Mount Carmel Sentinel, Nov. 19, 1634, Mount Carmel. Old Soldier, The, 1640, Sept. 23, Springfield. Peoples’ Advocate, Feb. 19,1644, 1643, Carrolton. Sangamo Journal, 1641-42, Springfield. Sparta Democrat, Nov 3, 1646, Sparta. Sucker, The, Feb. 23,1643, Pittsfield. Vandalia Free Press, and Illinois Whig, 1641, Vandalia. Warsaw Message, Maroh 16,1643, Warsaw. Western Citizen, June 12, 1643, Chicago. Winchester Republican, Feb. 22,1643, Winchester. Western Intelligencer, 1616-1616, Kaskaskia. Reports Annals of Education, Vols.I,IV, V, VIII. Reports of State Super intendent of Public Instruction 1634-56 1667-66 1663-64 1666-67 I696-99 School Law of Illinois, 1634-59*