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Act ’ t “ie ba ren) . - a-Mat nid eee ’ t . +4 Aenuanh He sy ‘ ) ' ’ ' 4 ‘ UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN BOOKSTAGKS Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2021 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofsu01unse & ‘y \ Nah ee ra 3 j . ys : J is ¢ Hy = ¥ 4‘ meee , / ‘ Ah ; x ; 14 Al _ i . 7 : yank pr ' ; / a i . ; i i : oy # + a ; 4 ! iy ne ; anal f , t we Ve ae aces.) ih | - wh a iy me, aeko a) Tint td amt 5 A i be Ropert Raikes Monument. Victoria Embankment, London, England, The Encyclopedia of Sunday Schools and Religious Education Giving a World-Wide View of the History and Progress of the Sunday School and the Development of Religious Education Complete in Three Royal Octavo Volumes ‘ Editors-in-Chief JOHN T. McFARLAND, D.D., LL.D. Late Editor of Sunday School Publications, Methodist Episcopal Church, New York City BENJAMIN S. WINCHESTER, D.D. Department of Religious Education, Yale School of Religion, Yale University New Haven, Conn. Canadian Editor Rk. DOUGLAS FRASER, D.D. Editor Presbyterian Sunday School Publications, Toronto, Canada European Editor REV. J. WILLIAMS BUTCHER Secretary Wesleyan Methodist Sunday School Department, London, England NEW YORK THOMAS NELSON & SONS LONDON EDINBURGH TORONTO : ¥ f ats Vite es , be ha | Te ie 7% ‘ Pi 4 Hy » PN ‘ fv ‘ vee 4 : hi ws q eu \ a, of 4 F or y . uJ , ga We r - | 7 4 | 7 ‘ : y “4 , 5 : J * Copyright, | 7 te |: To j Aas : ie Be A's f , ' fey ; e 4h ty iy) r tity ‘4 7. rf th ih Ane ‘ ' > 4 a yl JA! é iM ‘ P A } / " f ‘ EY St ay i i fhe a i a a aye’ ae . Lies A Dey and seed va ‘ P Sys eae ao he | F ‘ A Bis eo St i? +) ui m1 Pah af PReMCUR LAL Eer pCi oh ve lew iret hue eee ok PULSE sit fe he -_ iM, afd ¥ ene 4 a i » Mf ee ty a A PCs ihe i ay aia * nie i : iy Ca oy ae ser Ko a4 v: 4219 HS PREFACE An EncycuLopepia oF Reticious Epucation.—The last two decades have wit- nessed a remarkable development in religious education. Up to the present time there has been no book of general reference covering this field. ‘The sources of in- formation on the subject are widely scattered and for the majority of people inacces- sible, making inquiry tedious and baffling. This work presents for the first time in compact form a survey of all phases of religious education. A CompENDIUM OF SuNDAY ScHooL Work.—The Sunday school is the only agency which attempts to provide formal instruction in religion for persons of all ages. Upon the Sunday school in the United States rests the entire responsibility for supplying, in any systematic way, the religious element in popular education. The church derives eighty-five per cent of its membership from the Sunday school and is very properly extending the functions of the Sunday school and correlating its” work with other forms of religious education. To meet the demands laid upon it the Sunday school must be not only thoroughly organized; it must be generously equipped and provided with wise and expert leadership in every department. There 4Is a growing appreciation of the significance of the Sunday school as an. educational ", agency, accompanied by a widespread desire to know the essential facts of its history —~and to become acquainted with the most approved principles and methods. 'S Scorzr.—The work thus covers the whole field of religious education. As the Sunday school is generally the oldest and most inclusive agency for religious instruc- © tion in the community, many will seek first the essential facts regarding its history, -* progress, and present status; its organization and conduct, departments, officers, | el teachers, pupils; its material and methods of instruction, courses of study, lesson | helps, library, equipment, organized classes, anniversary days; its worship and spirit- 4 ual power, Sunday-school music, Sunday-school evangelism, the Children’s Church. me However important this organization, it should be viewed, nevertheless, not only in a ——— a Pe ian Tl ee 7 @ _ - ad - >. we « ~~ se - Ls * 7 4. S 7 > - Lt " - b Z 4! © > a es - “@ ® ‘ - +. * 2 Va . » PY ss 8 - + M . f te yp Man > ; @ = . “ , . é = . ’ > , ed / : ‘ . é “ = * i > Ae , as 7 , & i * . 1, ge * i » " « TEAR ATES etn ere em amrmenneceneceree rere ecotehemnmaavoccepenamence totter petecirtmany te sy eee | ‘6 REV. J.WILLIAMS BUTCHER. BENJAMIN 5. WINCHESTER,DD. The Editors EDITORS JOHN T. McFARLAND, D.D., and BENJAMIN S. WINCHESTER, D.D. CANADIAN EDITOR R. DOUGLAS FRASER, D.D. BRITISH EDITOR REV. J. WILLIAMS BUTCHER CONSULTING EDITORS S. T. Bartuett, D.D. General Secretary of the Department of Sunday Schools and Young People’s So- cieties of the Methodist Church in Can- ada, Toronto, Canada. CHRISTOPHER R. BLacKALL, D.D. Editor, Sunday School Periodicals of the American Baptist Publication So- ciety, Philadelphia, Pa. Epwin B. CHAPPELL, D.D. Sunday School Editor of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, Nashville, Tenn. - George A. Coz, Pu.D., LL.D. Skinner and McAlpine Professor of Practical Theology, Union Theological Seminary, New York City. Henry F. Corr, Pu.D., LL.D. General Secretary, The Religious Edu- cation Association, Chicago, Ill. RaupH E. DirrenporFer, M.A., B.D. Sunday School Secretary of the Mis- sionary Education Movement of the United States and Canada, New York City. W. H. Dounsar, D.D. Chairman, Sunday School Literature Committee, General Synod of the Lutheran Church, Baltimore, Md. E. Morris Frerausson, D.D. Educational Superintendent of Sunday School Missions, Presbyterian Board of Publication and Sunday School Work, Philadelphia, Pa. | BisHor H. H. Four, D.D. Church of the United Brethren in Christ, Dayton, Ohio. Vv Witiiam E. Garpner, Rev. General Secretary, General Board of Religious Education, Protestant Epis- copal Church, New York City. Jesse L. Hurisut, D.D. Former Editor of Sunday School Lit- erature and Secretary of the Sunday School Union and Tract Society of the ae Episcopal Church, Newark, Rurus W. Miter, D.D. Secretary and Editor, Sunday School Board of the Reformed Church in the United States, Philadelphia, Pa, A. L. Putiuures, D.D. Late General Superintendent, Executive Committee of Publications, Depart- ment of Sabbath Schools and Young People’s Societies of the Presbyterian Church in the United States, Rich- mond, Va. Ira M. Pricz, Pu.D., LL.D. Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures, University of Chicago, Chi- cago, Ill. Epwarp P. St. Jonn, A.M., Pp. M. Professor of Pedagogy in the Hartford School of Religious Pedagogy, Hart- ford, Conn. Marion STEVENSON, REv. Editor, Sunday School Publications, Christian Board of Publications, St. Louis, Mo. Rospert Perry SHEPHERD, PH.D. Educational Secretary, The Cook County Sunday School Association, Chicago, Ill. , Isaac J. VAN Ngzss, D.D. Editorial Secretary, Sunday School Board of the Southern Baptist Conven- tion, Nashville, Tenn. LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS JoHN CotEMAN ApDAms, D.D., Editor of the Sunday School Helper. (Univers- alist Church) R. R. ApamMs, Rev., President, Colorado State S. S. Association, Fort Lupton, Col. (T'wo-Sessions-a-Day S. 8.) WatTer F. Apenry, M.A., D.D., Prin- cipal, Lancashire Independent College; Lecturer in History of Doctrine, Man- chester University, Manchester, Eng- land. (Hztra-Biblical Studies; The Sabbath) Freitix ADLER (Mrs.), New York City. (Society for Ethical Culture) JoHun L, ALEXANDER, Superintendent Sec- ondary Division, International 8. 8. Association, (Community Organiza- tions for Boys and Garls) W. T. AuuAN, Rev., Chairman Ex Officio, White Cross Single Standard League of America, Jacksonville, Ala. (White Cross Single Standard League of Amer- ica) Apotro AraAvgo, of the British and Foreign Bible Society, Madrid, Spain. (Religious Education in Spain) GEORGE HAMILTON ARCHIBALD, London. (The Decentralized S. S.; Easter Con- ferences and School of Method; Train- ing Institute for S. S. Workers, West- hill, Selly Oak) Water 8S. ATHEARN, A.M., Professor of Religious Education, Drake University, Des Moines, Ia. (Contribution of Psy- chology and Pedagogy to the Work of the S. 8.) S. G. Ayres, B.D., Librarian, Garrett Biblical Institute, Evanston, Ill. (Bib- lical Instruction by Correspondence; etc. ) Sir RoBpert BADEN-PowELt, K.C.B., Lon- don. (Boy Scouts of England) -Evetyn E. BaGnatt, Secretary, The Alli- ance of Honor, London. (Alliance of Honor) STEPHEN C. Battyy, London. (Interna- tional Bible Reading Association) CHARLES SEARS BALDWIN, PH.D., Pro- fessor of Rhetoric and English Compo- Vi sition, Barnard College, Columbia Uni- versity. (Moral and Religious Educa- tion Through Literature) JOSEPHINE L. BALDWIN, Writer of Junior Graded Lessons. (Junior Department; Memory Work; etc.) Wapbe C. Barciay, D.D., Associate Edi- tor of Teachers’ Publications, M. EK. Church, Cincinnati, Ohio. (Adult De- partment; Organized Adult Classes) Henry J. Barnes, M.D., Professor of Hygiene, Tufts College, Boston, Mass. (Hygiene) J. WOODBRIDGE BARNES, (Mrs.), Superin- tendent of Graded Instruction of the M. E. Church, New York City. (Graded Unwns of 8. S. Teachers) Mary Ciark Barnes, (Mrs.), Yonkers, N. Y. (Fireside League) S. T. Bartiett, D.D., General Secretary, Department of Sunday Schools and Young People’s Societies of the Meth- odist Church in Canada, Toronto, Can- ada. (Methodist Church in Canada) FREDERICA BxrArD, Boston, Mass. (Ob- servance of Christmas; Use of Pictures in the S.8., ete.) Lina Berarp, Illustrator and Author. (Girl Pioneers of America) Paut D. Bercen, D.D. (Moral and Re- ligious Education in China) Henry Berkowitz, Chancellor of the Jewish Chautauqua Society, Philadel- phia, Pa. (Jewtsh Chautauqua So- ciety ) JoHN G. Brrou, Hon. Secretary Pro tem., South African S. S. Association, Port Elizabeth, South Africa. (S. S. Work in South Africa) L. J. Brrney, D.D., Dean, Boston Uni- versity, School of Theology, Boston, Mass. (Evangelism Through Educa- tion) CuarLes W. BrisHop, B.A., National Secretary of the Y. M. C. A. in Canada. (Y. M. C. A. in Canada) ARTHUR Buack, Hon. Secretary, Liverpool Sunday School Union. (Baptist Sun- day Schools [Great Britatn] ) LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS vii CHRISTOPHER R. BLACKALL, D.D., Editor, S. S. Periodicals of the American Bap- tist Publication Society, Philadelphia, Pa. (Denominational Responsibility in S. S. Work; Edward Eggleston; etc.) E. H. Bricureipt, Chautauqua, N. Y. (Chautauqua Institution) Carry Bonner, Rev., Secretary, 8S. S. Union, London, E. C. (Sunday Schools in England before Robert Ratkes; Sun- day Schools in England from Robert Ratkes onward ; etc.) Wiuit1am H. Boocock, Rev., Director, Religious Education, First Presbyterian Church, Buffalo, N. Y. (Church School; Director of Religious Educa- tion) Cuar.eEs B. Booty, New York City. (S. S. Work in the Prisons) Joun W. Boswetu, D.D., Nashville, Tenn. (M. EF. Church, South) C. A. Bourne, Lr. Cox., Secretary, White Cross League, London. (White Cross League) Rosert G. Bovitie, Rev., National Director, Daily Vacation Bible School _ Association, New York City. (Daily Vacation Bible School Association) BreecHer S. BowpisH, Secretary, New Jersey Audubon Society. (Audubon Societies and their Work) Sypnry W. Bowser, B.A., Principal, Not- tingham Baptist College, Nottingham, England. (Relation of the Church to the Religious Life of the Child) JOHN CLEMENTS Borers, M.A. (Colum- bia), New York City. (Play as a Fac- tor in Religious Education) Wittiam = BrapFietp, B.A., Warden, Wesley Deaconess Institution. (Dea- coness Institutions Offering Training for S. S. Work) Lester BrapNER, PH.D., Director, Gen- eral Board of Religious Education, Protestant Episcopal Church, New York City. (Confirmation; Children’s Wor- ship) H. S. Bravcuer, Secretary, Playground and Recreation Association of America, New York City. (Playground and Recreation Association of America) Rosert H. BrenneckeE, Rev., Secretary, Religious Education Board, Emaus, Pa. (Moravian Church in the United States) ALEXANDER Brown, M.A., Scotland. Scotland ) | CHarLes R, Brown, D.D., Dean, Yale School of Religion, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. (Christ as a Teacher) Frank L. Brown, Field Secretary, World’s 8S. 8S. Association, Brooklyn, N.Y. (World’s S. 8. Association) Marranna C. Brown, Author “Sunday School Movements in America.” (Backward Children; Desk Talks; etc.) Dan B. Brummit, D.D., Editor, Ep- worth Herald, Chicago, Ill. (Hpworth League) Mary Foster Bryner, (Mrs.), Superin- tendent Elementary Division, Interna- tional 8. 8. Association. (Cradle Roll) A. J. Bucusr, D.D., Editor “Haus und Herd,” Cincinnati, Ohio. (Religious Education in Switzerland) A. R. Bucxianp, M.A., Secretary, Reli- gious Tract Society, London. (Reli- gious Tract Socrety) Cuartes D. Buta, D.D., Superintend- ent, Wesley Bible Class Department, M. EK. Church, South, Nashville, Tenn. (Wesley Bible Classes) ) RicHarp BureeEs, General Secretary, India Sunday School Union, Jubbul- pore, India. (India S. 8. Union) Isaac B. Burcsss, General Secretary, New Jersey 8. S. Association, Newark, N.J. (Art of Questioning; etc.) JAMES WILLIAMS ButcHeEr, REv., Secre- tary, Wesleyan Methodist 8. 8. Depart- ment, London. (Decision Day; Wes- leyan Methodist S. S. Department; etc.) Ernest 8S. Burier, Treasurer, American Baptist Foreign Mission Society, Boston, Mass. (S. S. Finances) Ernest W. ByssHe, Rev., Superintend- ent, Mission Francaise Eglise Métho- diste Episcopale, Grenoble, France. (Moral Teaching wn the Public Schools in France; Sunday School in France; etc.) DaniEL 8, CaLpERwoop, M.A., F.E.IS., Master of Method, Edinburgh Provin- cial Training College. (Religious In- struction of Youth iw the Church of Scotland) Glasgow, (Umted Free Church of Vili W. Hume CAMPBELL, M.A., Principal, St. Christopher’s College, Blackheath. (St. Christopher’s College) Henry K. Carrott, LL.D., Associate Secretary, Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America, Wash- ington, D. C. (Statistical Tables) Henry Carter, Rev., Temperance Secre- tary, Wesleyan Methodist Church, Lon- don. (Temperance Teaching tn the Sunday School [Great Britain] ) S. C. CHALLENGER, Rev., Secretary, S. 8. Department United Methodist Church England. (United Methodist Church) WiitiAmM E. CHAtmeErs, General Secre- tary, Baptist Young People’s Union of America, Philadelphia, Pa. (Baptist Young People’s Union) Grorce D. CHAMBERLAIN, Chairman, Ex- ecutive Council, Federated Boys’ Clubs, Boston, Mass. (Federated Boys’ Clubs) Groraia Lovis—E CHAMBERLIN, Chicago, Ill. (American Institute of Sacred Literature; Constructive Bible Studves) Witi14sM G. CHAMBERLIN, Superintend- ent, On Timer’s Tribe, Denver, Col. (On Timer’s Tribe) Epwin B. Cuappext, A.B., D.D., 8. S. Editor of the M. E. Church, South. (Benevolences in the S. 8S.; Child Con- version; etc.) Francis E. Cuarx, D.D., LU.D., Presi- dent, World’s Christian Endeavor Union, and Editor Christian Endeavor World, Boston, Mass. (Young People’s Society of Christian Endeavor ) JosEPH CxrARK, D.D., Superintendent, New York State S. S. Association, Albany, N. Y¥. (Samuel Wellman Clark; etc.) JosEPH W. CocHran, D.D., Secretary, Board of Education of the Presbyterian Church in the U. 8S. A., Philadelphia, Pa. (Vocation Day in the S. 8.) GrorcE A. Cor, PH.D., LL.D., Skinner and McAlpine Professor of Practical Theology, Union Theological Seminary, New York City. (Union School of Re- ligion) H. T. J. Coteman, Pu.D., Professor of Education, University of Toronto. (Plan of the Lesson) Grace W. Conant, Boston, Mass. (Hymn ead and Composers; Music in the LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS H. C. Cootzry, Pu.D., Natchitoches, La. (Psychology of Sunday) MeEtAncTHON Coover, D.D., Professor, Lutheran Theological Seminary, Gettys- burg, Pa. (Liturgics of the S. 8.) Henry F. Corr, A/M., D.D., General Secretary, Religious Education Asso- ciation, Chicago, Ill. (Middle Period of S. S. History; Organization of the es i Religious Education Association, etc. Laura Exta Cragin, Author “Kinder- garten Stories.” (Stories and Story- Telling; etc.) C. F. Hitt CratHern, Rev., Pastor, Park Congregational Church, Worcester, Mass. (Children’s Church) A. C. Crews, D.D., Editor, 8. S. Publica- tions Methodist Church, Toronto, Canada. (John Potts) OLIvE CrossBy, New York City. (Society of Sanitary and Moral Prophylazts) JOSEPH CuLSHAW, REv., Editor “Indian Witness,’ Darjeeling, India. (Moral and Religious Education of Children among the Hindus) H. H. Cummines, Pror., and Epwin G. Woottey, Jr. (Mormons) JAMES CUNNINGHAM, J.P., Glasgow, Scotland. (Thomas Chalmers; Sab- bath Schools in Scotland; etc.) JoHN K. Curtis, B.A., Field Secretary of the Methodist Church. Department of 8. 8. and Young People’s Societies, Sackville, N. B. (Sunday School Work in Newfoundland) Frances WELD DANIELSON, Associate Editor, The Congregational S. 8. and Publishing Society, Boston, Mass. (Beginners’ Department; etc.) WinirreD E. Davey, London. (Special Work Among Girls [England] ) Witu1am J. Davipson, D.D., Professor, Sacred Rhetoric, Garrett Biblical In- stitute, Evanston, Ill. (Religious Edu- cation in the Harly Church) GrorcEe T. B. Davis, Author of “Korea for Christ,” London. (Pocket Testa- ment League) Jesse B. Davis, A.M., Principal, Central High School, Grand Rapids, Mich. (Training for Leadership) Henry Dawson, M.A., Secretary, Church of England 8. 8S. Institute; London. (Church of England; etc.) LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS ix P. K. Dayroot, M.A., General Superin- tendent, S. S. Board of the Baptist Convention of Ontario and Quebec. (Baptist Convention in Canada) RatpH EH. Dirrenporrer, M.A., B.D., S. S. Secretary of the Missionary Edu- cation Movement of the United States and Canada, New York City. (Mission- ary Education in the 8. S.) Ernest DopesHun, B.A., (Adult School Movement) Davip G. Downey, D.D., Book Editor, Methodist Episcopal Church, New York City. (Rally Day; etc.) Patterson Dv Bors, Literary Adviser and Editor, Philadelphia, Pa. (Atmos- phere in Religious Education) W.H. Dunsar, D.D., Chairman, 8. S. Lit- erature Committee, General Synod of the Lutheran Church, Baltimore, Md. (Lutheran Church) Davip Dunrorp, Roman Catholic Dio- cesan Inspector of Schools, Editor “Roman Documents and _ Decrees,” Assistant Editor of the “Universe,” London, W. C. (Roman Catholic Sun- day Schools [Great Britain] ) Apert E. Dunnine, D.D., Former Editor “The Congregationalist,” Bos- ton, Mass. (Marshall Curtiss Hazard) J. S. Durum, Superintendent Home and Visitation Division, International S. S. Association, Chicago, Ill. (Home Vis- atation ) Epwin L. Earp, Pu.D., Professor of So- ciology, Drew Theological Seminary, Madison, N. J. (Sunday School and Social Conditions) FREDERICK C. EIsELEN, Pu.D., D.D., Pro- fessor, Semitic Languages, Garrett Bib- lical Institute, Evanston, Ill. (Reli- gious Education in Old Testament Times) Harrison 8. Exxiorr, Secretary, Bible Study Work, International Committee Y. M. C. A., New York City. (College Students and the 8S. 8.) T. H. Exxison, Rev., Secretary, Moravian S. 8S. Association, England. (Moravian Church in the United Kingdom) Frances V. Emerson, Chairman of Exec- utive Committee N. E. Moral Reform Society, Boston, Mass. (New England Moral Reform Society) (Cantab.) Hersert F. Evans, Pu.D., Professor, Biblical Literature and Religious Edu- cation, Grinnell College, Grinnell, Towa. (S. S. Architecture) Wituram Ewine, D.D., Secretary, Mis- slonary Extension Department. Congre- gational S. 8. and Publishing Society, Boston, Mass. (Children’s Day; De- nominational S. S. Missionary Exten- Mitton Farrcuinp, A.B., Collaborator, U. 8. Bureau of Education; Director of Instruction, National Institution for Moral Instruction, Baltimore, Md. (Visual Instruction in Morals) JoHNn T. Farts, D.D., Editor, Presbyte- rian Board of Publication and S. S. Work, Philadelphia, Pa. (James Rus- sell Miller; John Wanamaker ) Harry Farmer, President, The Florence B. Nicholson Bible Seminary, Calooran, Philippine Islands. (8. 8S. Work in the Philippine Islands) James McNari Farrar, LL.D., Pastor, First Reformed Church, Brooklyn, N. Y. (Junior Congregation; Preaching to Children) JoHN A. Fauuxner, D.D., Professor, His- torical Theology, Drew Theological Seminary, Madison, N. J. (Martin Luther) | J. Eaton Feasry, Lecturer in Education Sheffield University. (Class Manage- ment; etc.) Emity J. Fert, Graduate Drexel Insti- tute Library School. (First Sunday Schools; etc.) EK. Morris Frreusson, A.M., D.D., Edu- cational Superintendent of S. S. Mis- sions, Presbyterian Board of Publica- tion and S. 8. Work, Philadelphia, Pa. (S. S. Conventions; International S. 8S. Association, etc.) GrorcEe J. Fisuer, M.D., M.P.E., Phys- ical Department, International Com- mittee Y. M. C. A., New York City. (S. 8S. Athletic Leagues) GEORGE WALTER Fiske, Professor of Prac- tical Theology in Oberlin Theological Seminary, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio. (Adolescence) Witi1am B. FrirzGeraup, Rev., Secre- _ tary, Wesley Guild, London. (Young People’s Societies [Great Britain] ) x LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS FREDERICK C. Fousom, Past President, S. S. Superintendents’ Union of Boston and Vicinity, Boston, Mass. (8S. S. Superintendents’ Organizations) WiLL1AM Byron’ ForsusH, PuH.D., Lirt.D., President, American Institute of Child Life, Philadelphia, Pa. (Problem of Training the Boy; Sez Education in 8S. 8S.; ete.) Eucrenté C. Foster, City Secretary for Boys,.i¥.5 Mir C.. cS) Detroit, . Mich, (Amusements; Detroit Boys’ Work; etc. ) BisuHor H. H. Four, D.D., Church of the United Brethren in Christ, Dayton, Ohio. (Family Worship; Pastoral Duty and Opportumty of the S. 8. Teacher; etc.) Nannist Lee Frayser, A.B., Elementary Superintendent for Kentucky §. S. Association, Louisville, Ky. (Training the Conscience) James Fuuron, Secretary, Glasgow, Scot- land. (Bible Training Institute) THomas W. GatLtoway, PuH.D., Pro- fessor Biology, The James Millikin Uni- versity, Decatur, Ill. (Hducation of the Will; Educational Function of the Pe S55 CLC.) ALFRED HE. Garvisg, M.A., D.D., Principal, New College, Hampstead, London, N.W. (How the Teacher Should Know the Bible) Grorcre S. Gassner, A.M., Rev., Chap- lain, Seamen’s Church Institute, Phil- adelphia, Pa. (Drexel Biddle Bible Classes) Hersert Wricot Gates, M.A., D.D., Superintendent, Brick Church Insti- tute, Rochester, N. Y. (Value of Teaching to the Teacher; The Sunday School Sesston; etc.) Frances M. Giut, New York City. (So- cialist Sunday Schools) Rosert C. Giiire, M.A., London. (Chil- dren and Church Membership) GrorceE W. Gitmore, A.M., Associate Editor “Homiletic Review,’ New York City. (Non-Christian Scriptures) Davip Haster Guass, Rev., Pontiac, Mich. (Combination Service) Frep 8. GoopMAN, Secretary, Bible Study Advisory Committee, Y. M. C. A., New York City. (Y. M.C, A. and the S, 8.) J. R. Gooppasture, Rev., Editor, 8S. S. Literature, Cumberland Presbyterian Church, Nashville, Tenn. (Cumber- land Presbyterian Church) F. J. Goutp, Lecturer and Demonstrator, London. (Moral Education League) I. W. Gowen, D.D., Pastor, Grove Re- formed Church, Weehawken, N. J. (Reformed Church in America) Ernvu Grant, PH.D., Associate Professor of Biblical Literature, Smith College, Northampton, Mass. (Geography) JAMES M. Gray, D.D., Dean, Moody Bib- lical Institute, Chicago, Ill. (Synthetic Bible Study) CORNELIA GREEN, Secretary, The Big Sisters, New York City. (The Big Sisters) GERTRUDE EK. GRIFFITH, National Secre- tary, Girls’ Work of the Y. W. C. A., New York City. (The Girl) WittIAM Howse Grosser, B.Sc., Hon. Literary Secretary, 8.8. Union, London, EK. C. (British Section of the Lesson Committee; Sunday School Union) JOHN GuNN, M.A., D.Sc., London. (Henry Drummond) K. W. Harrenny, 8.T.L., B.D., General Secretary, Ontario 8S. S. Association. (History of the Associated S. 8S. Work in the Dominion of Canada) THoomas M. Hamitu, M.A., D.D., Belfast, Ireland. (History of Sunday Schools in Ireland) W. Metvitte Harris, M.A., (Brother- hoods in Great Britain; Robert Raikes; etc.) PascaL Harrower, Rev., Chairman, 8. S. Commission of the Protestant Episcopal Church. (Christian Year) WititiAmM N. HartsHorn, Ex-President, International S. 8S. Association, Boston, Mass. (S. S. Work Among the Ne- groes) HuauH HartsHorne, PuH.D., Instructor in Religious Education and Principal of the Union School of Religion. (Statts- tical Methods; S. S. Worship) SAMUEL B. Hastert, PH.D., Worcester, Mass. (Adaptation of the Bible in Re- ligious Hducation) Conrad A. Hauser, Rev., Educational Superintendent, Reformed Church in the U. S. (Reformed Church im the US .8s) | : LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xi WruiiAM I. Haven, D.D., Corresponding Secretary, American Bible Society, New York City. (American Bible Socwety) S. Q. HeirensterIn, Rev., Editor, 8. S. Literature, Christian Publishing Asso- ciation, Dayton, O. (The Christian Church) Oscar C. Hetuine, D.D., Pastor, Uni- versity Congregational Church, Chi- eago, Ill. (Pastor and the 8S. S.) W. E. Henperson, National Secretary, The Gideons, Chicago, Dl (The Gideons) ALEXANDER Henry, D.D.,Secretary, Pres- byterian Board of Publication and S. S. Work, Philadelphia, Pa. (Presbyterian Church ) Harry Wane Hicks, Pu.B., (Cornell University) General Secretary, Mis- sionary Education Movement of the United States and Canada, New York City. (Misionary Hducation Move- ment) R. A. Hitz, M. A., General Secretary, S. S. Commission of the Church of England in Canada, Toronto, Canada. (Church of England in Canada) Wituram Ernest Hocxine, PuH.D., Pro- fessor of Philosophy, Harvard Univer- sity, Cambridge, Mass. (Psychology of Religion) ; Ricuarp M. Hopes, D.D., Lecturer in English and Biblical Literature, Exten- sion Teaching, Columbia University, New York City. (Specialization in S. 8S. Teaching ) J. G. Hotcrort, General Secretary, 8. 8. Committee of Korea, Pyeng Yang, Korea. (S. S. Work in Korea) A. A. Horne, Miss, General Secretary, Y. W. C. A. Great Britain and Ireland, London W. (Y. W. C. A. of Great Britain and Ireland) Herrman H. Horne, Pu.D. (Harv.) Pro- fessor of the History of Education and the History of Philosophy, New York University, New York City. (Fried- rich Froebel; History of Ancient Reli- gious Education; J. H. Pestaloza.; Re- ligious Education and General Educa- tion; etc.) J. H. Horstmann, Rev., St. Louis, Mo. (German Evangelical Synod of North America) Haroup A. Hosxrne, F.8.1., M.Inst.M. & Co. E., F.LS.E., London. (Sunday Schools in Rural England) Puiutie KE. Howarp, President and Treas- urer, Sunday School Times Co., Phil- adelphia, Pa. (Henry Clay Trumbull) MarsHautu A. Hupson, President, World- Wide Baraca-Philathea Union, Syra- euse, N. Y. (Baraca-Philathea Bible Classes) BisHor Epwin H. Hueuss, D.D., LL.D., Methodist Episcopal Church, San Fran- cisco, Cal. (Dealing with Doubt in the S. 8.) Emity Hunttey, Author “Graded School Problems.” (Present Status and Out- look for S. S. Work in Great Britain; etc. ) JESSE LyMAN Houriput, D.D., Former Editor, 8. S. Literature and Secre- tary of the S. S. Union and Tract So- ciety, of the M. E. Church. (Bible Stories for Children; Recruiting the S. 8.3 ete.) Epwin Taytor IaLtenart, A.B., B.D., Professor in the Methodist College and Theological School, Tokyo, Japan. (Religious Education in Japan) ARCHIBALD Jackson, Australian Repre- sentative of the International S. S. Lesson Committee, Melbourne, Vic- toria, Australia. (S. S. Work in Aus- tralia) | GEORGE JACKSON, B.A., Professor of Pas- toral Theology, Didsbury College, Man- chester, England. (Paul as a Religious Teacher) K. A. Jansson, D.D., President of the Theological School of the M. E. Church in Sweden, Stockholm, Sweden. (Reli- gious Instruction of the Children in Sweden) ANNA Jarvis, Philadelphia, Pa. ers’ Day) D. H. Jemison, Grand Chaplain, Kappa Sigma Pi, Cincinnati, Ohio. (Knights of St. Paul) Frank JOHNSON, B.A., Editor “Sunday School Chronicle,’ London. (British Graded Lessons) BertHa Jounston, Editorially connected with the “Kindergarten Magazine,” Brooklyn, N. Y. (Sunday School Kindergarten) (Moth- xii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Grace Jones, Instructor in Religious Education, Drake University, Des Moines, Ia. (Sunday School Lnbrary; etc.) Marsorige Joy Jones. (Loss in Sunday School Attendance) BERNT JORGENSEN, Pastor, Bergen, Nor- way. (Religious Education in Norway) HarvutosH1 KawasuMI, Rev., General Secretary, National S. S. Association of Japan, Tokyo, Japan. (National S. 8. Association of Japan) R. W. Ketsry, Member of Faculty, Haver- ford College, Haverford, Pa. (S. 8. Work among Friends) J. J. Ketso, Hsq., Ontario Government Director of Children’s Aid Societies, Vice-President Canadian Conference of Charities and Corrections. (Child Wel- fare in Canada) T. NicHoLtas Ketynack, M.D., M.R.C.P., Editor “The Child,’ London, W. (Child Welfare Movement; Eugenics) Cuartes F. Kent, Pu.D., Woolsey Pro- fessor Biblical Literature, Yale Uni- versity, New Haven, Conn. (Bible Study in Colleges and Secondary Schools; etc.) Henry CuurcuiLtt Kine, A.M., D.D., LL.D., President of Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio. (Friendship as a Factor in Religious Education) Irvine Kine, Pu.D., Assistant Professor of Education, State University of lowa, Towa City, Ia. (Actwity ...m Reli- gious Education; Social Aspects of Religious Education) Sir JoHN Kirk, J.P., Founder of the Ragged School Union, London. (Ragged School Union) Epwarp Hooxer Knieut, D.D., Dean, Hartford School of Religious Pedagogy. (Hartford School of Religious Peda- gogy) ABerT C. Knupson, PH.D., D.D., Pro- fessor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, Boston University, School of Theology, Boston, Mass. (Modern Bib- lical Scholarship and the 8S. 8S.) Howarp A. Kramer, Rev., Editor, S. S. and Young People’s Literature, Evan- gelical Association, Cleveland, Ohio. (Evangelical Association) Kate E. Lane, B.A., National Secretary, City Department Y. W. C. A. of Can- ada. (Y. W.C. A. wn Canada) Wititram CHauncy Lanepon, A.M., Pageant Master, New York City. (Pag- eantry ) L. C. Larsen, Pastor, Copenhagen, Den- mark. (Religious Education in Den- mark) Marion Lawrance, General Secretary, International S. S. Association, Chi- cago, Ill. (Place of the S. 8. in the Church) Witiiam I. LAawrance, Rev., Secretary, American Unitarian Association, De- partment of Religious Education, Boston, Mass. (Unitarian Church ) EstHer E. LAwrENcE, Principal, Froebel Educational Institute, London. (Froe- bel Educational Institute) MartHa K. Lawson, Jamaica, Long Island, N. Y. (Mizved Classes; etc.) Hetty Ler, M.A., National Society, Lon- don. (National Soctety for the Promo- tion of the Education of the Poor) Evucene H. Leuman, M.A., Instructor of Post-Biblical Literature, Yale Univer- sity, New Haven, Conn. (Religious Education Among the Jews) W. 3B. Lerten, Stockport, (Stockport S. 8.) H. A. Lesrer, M.A., Director of the Bishop of London’s S. 8. Council, Lon- don. (Bishop of London's 8. 8. Council ) CHARLES SMITH LEwI1s, VERY ReEv., Sun- day-school Editor “Living Church,” Recording Secretary of the General Board of Education. (Protestant Hpis- copal Church) Epwarp 8S. Lewis, D.D., Assistant Editor, S. S. Publications, M. E. Church, Cin- cinnati, Ohio. (S. S. Paper; etc.) H. Ever Lewis, Rev., London. (V8. 8. ‘an Wales) | Litt1an M. Lewtis, of the U. S. Depart- ment of Labor, Children’s Bureau, Washington, D.C. (Children’s Bureau) Bren B. Linpsey, Judge of the Juvenile Court, Denver, Col. (Juventle Court) Mitton S. Lirrierierp, D.D., District Secretary, Congregational 8. S. and Publishing Society, New York City. England. LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS (Handwork in the S. S.; Intermediate Department) P. J. McCormick, Pu.D., Catholic Uni- versity of America, Washington, D. C. (Holy Name Society; Roman Catholic Church in America) ELIzABETH McCracken, Editor “Home Progress,” Cambridge, Mass. (The Child’s Religious Liberty; etc.) J. Ramsay MacDonatp, M.P., London. (The Father’s Responsibility wm the Education of his Children) BisHorp WituiAM F. McDowe tt, D.D., LL.D., Methodist Episcopal Church, Chicago, Ill. (Recruiting the Mimstry through the S. 8.) FRANKLIN McE.rresH, Pu.D., Superin- tendent, Teacher Training, Interna- tional 8. 8. Association, Chicago, IIl. (City Training School; Installation of Officers; etc.) CHARLES S. MAcFARLAND, PH.D., Secre- tary, Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America, New York City. (Federal Council of Churches) JoHN T. McFarianp, D.D., LLD., Late Editor, S. S. Publications M. E. Church, New York City. (Bible Read- ing) W. P. McGurrz, Editor “Boys’ Life,” New York City. (Boy Scouts of Amer- ica) WiutraM A. McKeever, Professor of Child Welfare in the University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. (Cigarette Evil; etc.) A. J. McKztway, D.D., Secretary for the Southern States, National Child Labor Committee, Washington, D. C. (Na- tional Child Labor Committee) W. Dovatas Macxenziz, D.D., LL.D., President, Hartford Theological Sem- inary, Hartford, Conn. (Personality and Character of the S. S. Teacher) James P. McNavueuron, Principal, Bi- thynia High School, Bithynia, Turkey. (The S. S. in Turkey) Rr. Rev. N. McNett, D.D., Archbishop of Toronto, Toronto, Canada. (Roman Catholic Church in Canada) Easert H. Magson, B.Sc., Lecturer on Principles and Practice of Teaching, Department in Pedagogy, Westminster Training College, London. (Religious Xili Teaching wm Public Schools | England | ) GrorceE P. Mains, D.D., Publishing Agent, Methodist Book Concern, New York City. (John Thomas McFar- land) THISELTON Mark, D.Lirt., B.Sc., Lec- turer on Education, University of Man- chester, Manchester, England. (Hmo- tion wn the Religious Education of the Young; Pedagogy) IsaBEL Marrs, Secretary, Duty and Dis- cipline Movement, London. (Duty and Discipline Movement) JAMES 8. Martin, D.D., General Superin- tendent, National Reform Association, Pittsburgh, Pa. (National Reform Association ) L. J. Mracuam, Superintendent, Loyal Movement Department, Standard Pub- lishing Co., Cincinnati, Ohio. (Loyal Movement) Lucia AmeEsS Mrap, Boston, Mass. (Principles and Place of Patriotism in Religious Education) GrorGeE R. Merritt, D.D., Dorchester, Mass. (William Newton Hartshorn) F. B. Meyer, B.A., Rev., London. (Spir- atual Aim of the Teacher) Henry H. Meyer, D.D., Editor, S. S. Publications M. E. Church, Cincinnati, Ohio. (Religious Hducation in Ger- many; S. S. Council of Evangelical De- nominations; etc.) Minna M. Meyer, M.A., Cincinnati, Ohio. (Child Welfare in the U. 8.) Lucy Riper Meyer, A.M., M.D., Princi- pal, Chicago Training School, Chicago, Ill. (Religious Training Schools) R. J. Muirtzier, D.D., Editor, United Presbyterian Board of Publication, Pittsburgh, Pa. (United Presbyterian Church ) THomas C. Morrertt, D.D., Superintend- ent, Department of Indian Missions, Presbyterian Church, U. 8S. A., New York City. (S. S. Among the Indians) SakgaAH LovuisE Montcomery, M.A., (Columbia), Department of Psychology and Philosophy, Woman’s College of the City of New York. (Child Psychology) SypNEY H. Morean, A.M.I.C.E., Lon- don. (Boys’ Life Brigade) [ Elementary ] XiV Wiurrip J. Mouton, M.A., (Cantab.), Leeds, England. (Crises in Spiritual Development) WitutiAM Fippran Movtton, M.A., (Cantab.), Sheffield, England. (Unt- versity Hatension Lectures for S. 8. Teachers) WiiiiamM J. Mutcu, PuH.D., Professor in Philosophy and Education, Ripon Col- lege, Ripon, Wis. (Religious Day School; Rural Sunday Schools; etc.) Mary A. L. NrEruson, President, G. F. S. in America, Philadelphia, Pa. (Girls’ Friendly Society in America) Sir Witu1AmM RoBertson Nicoiu, M.A., D.D., D.Lirr., Editor “The British Weekly,” London. (League of Worship- ping Children) A. E. Ospornz, New York City. (Stereo- scope) AvuRELIO PatmierI, D.D., Cambridge, Mass. (Greek Orthodox Church) Grace E. J. Parker, New York City. (The Camp Fire Girls) Ropert Parr, Director, National Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Children, London. (National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children) Lewis Bayes Paton, PuH.D., D.D., Pro- fessor of Old Testament Exegesis and Criticism, Hartford Theological Semi- nary, Hartford, Conn. (Significance of the Bible in Religious Education) Frep Lewis Patrer, A.M., Professor, English Literature, Pennsylvania State College. (The Child’s Imagination; The Place of Biography in Religious Education; etc.) WILLIAM B. Patterson, Executive Secre- tary, Commission of Social Service, Philadelphia, Pa. (Brotherhood Move- ment; Men and Religion Forward Move- ment ) WittramM C. Prarcr, Superintendent, Adult Department, International S. 8. Association, Chicago, Ill. (8S. SV. Parades) A. L. Putters, D.D., Late General Superintendent, Executive Committee of Publications, Department of 8.S.and Young People’s Societies of the Presby- terian Church in the U. S., Richmond, Va. (Cost of the S, S.; S, 8, Liter- ature; etc.) LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS FrepDERIC Piatt, M.A., B.D., Tutor in Systematic and Pastoral Theology, Handsworth Theological College, Bir- mingham, England. (Repetition im Teaching) Perry HE. Powerit, PH.D., Founder and Supreme Merlin, Knights of the Holy Grail, Indianapolis, Ind. (Knights a the Holy Grail) Ira M. Prict, PxH.D., LL.D., Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures, University of Chicago, Chicago, IIL.- (History of the International Graded Lessons ; etc.) Epwin Witsur Ricz, D.D., Editor, American 8. 8. Union, Philadelphia, Pa. (American S. S. Union; etc.) Norman E. RicHarpson, Pu.D., Pro- fessor, Religious Psychology and Peda- gogy, Boston University, School of Theology, Boston, Mass. (Religious Pedagogy im Colleges and Theological Seminaries; etc.) D. L. Ritcuis, Principal, Congregational College, Nottingham, England. (Schools of Religious Pedagogy) JoHN H. Ritson, M.A., British and For- eign Bible Society, London. (British and Foreign Bible Society) RicHArD Roserts, M.A., London. (Pres- byterian Church in England; Teacher Traiming in England) J. C. Ropertson, M.A., B.D., General Secretary, Sabbath Schools and Young People’s Societies, Presbyterian Church in Canada, Toronto, Canada. (Presby- terian Church in Canada) A. T. Roprnson, A.M., Author of “Why They Fail,” Ocean Park, Cal. (Indus- trial Guild of the Great Commission) Epe@ar M. Roxsinson, Secretary, Boys’ Work, International Committee of Y.M. C. A., New York City. (The Older Boy) WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, Lic. THEOL., Pu.D., Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York City. (The Ref- ormation ) A. J. Rowxianp, D.D., Secretary, Amer- ican Baptist Publication Society, Phil- adelphia, Pa. (Christopher Rubey Blackall) | LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS XV JoHN W. Russety, M.A., New York City. (Authority in the S. 8.; Big Brother Movement; etc.) JouN R. Samper, D.D., LL.D., Professor, Old Testament Interpretation, Southern ‘Baptist Theological Seminary, Louis- ville, Ky. (Lesson Commitee; Um- form Lesson System; etc.) FRANK SANDERS, PH.D., President, Wash- burn College, Topeka, Kas. (Standards of Biblical Knowledge in the S. 8.) THEODORE EK. Scumavux, D.D., Editor, Lutheran 8. 8S. Series, Lebanon, Pa. (Lutheran Graded System) FrEDERIC ScHorr, (Mrs.), President, Na- tional Congress of Mothers and Parent- Teacher Association, Philadelphia, Pa. (National Congress of Mothers) H. Epwarp Scort, London. (Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge) HERBERT Scort, General Secretary, Auck- land 8. 8. Union, Auckland, New Zea- land. (S.S. Work wn New Zealand) CuHarLEs H. Stars, M.A., B.D., A.B., Executive Secretary, New York City Baptist Mission Society, New York City. (S. 8. Work for Foreign Chil- dren) Frank SeEewatt, D.D., Pastor, Church, Washington, D. C. Jerusalem Church) FranK CHAPMAN SHARP, PH.D., Profes- sor of Philosophy, University of Wis- consin, Madison, Wis. (Moral Instruc- tion in the Public Schools) Rosert KENDALL SHAw, (Mrs.), Wor- cester, Mass. (Typical S. 8. Inbrary) Henry C. SHELDON, D.D., Professor, Sys- tematic Theology, Boston University, School of Theology, Boston, Mass. (Smritual Status of the Child; Theo- logical Teaching wn the 8. 8.) Ropert Perry SHEPHERD, PH.D., Educa- tional Secretary, Cook County 8. 8. As- sociation, Chicago, Ill. (Age of His- tory; Denominational Basis of Re- ligious Hducation ; etc.) H. A. SHerman, New York City. (Bible Study Union Lessons; Erastus Blakes- lee) _E. D. S1ucox, Graduate of Congregational College of Canada and Editor “The Canadian Congregationalist.” (Con- gregational Church in Canada) New (New MareareT SiatTtery, Specialist, Child Study and Pedagogy, Fitchburg, Mass. (City Girl) ANDREW SueEpp, PH.D., D.D., LL.D., President, Southern University, Greens- boro, Ala. (Prayer i the S. 8.) ETHEL SMITH, Secretary, Girls’ Friendly Society, London. (Girls’ Friendly So- ciety in England) Sirk WiturAM A. SmitH, Founder of the Boys’ Brigade, Glasgow, Scotland. (Boys’ Brigade) Wittiam WALTER SmitTH, M.A., M.D., General Secretary, S. S. Commission Protestant Episcopal Church, New York City. (S. 8S. Hrhibtts; Use of the Stereopticon) THEODORE G. Soares, PH.D., D.D., Head of the Department of Practical Theol- ogy, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Methods of Teaching in the Bible; Value of the Old Testament in Reli- gious Education) THomas P. Spreppine, Rev., London. (Umtarian Church ) WILLIAM SPEDDING, ReEv., Secretary, S. 8. Union Primitive Methodist Church, Leeds, England. (Primitive Methodist S. S. Union) B. S. SreapweEtz, President, World’s Purity Federation, LaCrosse, Wis. (World’s Purity Federation) Friora V. STEBBINS, (Mrs.), Fitchburg, Mass. (The Home Department) Cora F. Sropparp, Executive Secretary, Scientific Temperance Federation, Bos- ton, Mass. (Scientific Temperance Teaching in the 8. 8.) AnnaA Louise Strona, PH.D., Director of Child Welfare Exhibits in St. Louis, Montreal, etc., and Director of Exhibits for the National Child Welfare Exhibi- tion Committee. (Child Welfare Ex- hibits) JostAH StronG, D.D., LL.D., President, American Institute of Social Service, New York City. (American Institute of Social Service) CHarRLES Macautay Srvuart, D.D., Lirt.D., LL.D., President, Garrett Bib- lical Institute, Evanston, Ill. (S. 8. and the Educated Man) XV1 EpuarpDo TAGLIALATELA, PuH.D., S.T.D.,. Rome, Italy. (Religious Education in Italy) LAVINIA TALLMAN, A.B. (Vassar), A.M. (Columbia University), Instructor in Religious Education, Teachers College, New York City. (S. S. Secretary) Eva Marcu Tappan, PuH.D., Author, Worcester, Mass. (Selection of Books for the S. 8S. Inbrary) JoHN G. Tasker, D.D., Principal, Hands- worth Theological’ College, Birming- ham, England. (Thomas Arnold; Oz- ford Movement) FreDERIC TaAytor, Secretary, Friends’ First-Day School Association, London, E.C. (Friends’ First-Day School Asso- ciation) JOHN TELFORD, B.A., Editor, Wesleyan Methodist Publications, Dorking, Eng- land. (John Wesley; etc.) E. G. Tewxssury, Rev., National Secre- tary, China S. 8. Union, Shanghai, China. (S. S. Work in China) Heten L. THomas, Secretary, Educa- tional Work of the National Board of the Y. W. C. A., New York City. (Y.W.C. A. and Bible Study) Marion THomas, Writer of Primary Graded Lessons, Newark, N. J. (Pri- mary Department; etc.) I. B. Trout, Rev., Elgin, Ill. of the Brethren) H. C. Tucker. (S. S. Work in Brazil) GEORGE CRESWELL TuRNER, F.L.S., Lon- don. (Hz-Scholars Employment Com- mittee) M. R. Van Creve, Instructor in Physical Geography and Botany, Central High School, Toledo, Ohio. (National News- boys’ Association) Isaac J. VAN Nuss, D.D., Editorial Sec- retary, S. S. Board, Southern Baptist Convention, Nashville, Tenn. (Recog- nition of Sin in Religious Education; Southern Baptist Convention; etc.) JoHN JAMES Virco, Secretary, Central Y. M. C. A., London. (London Central Y. M. C. A.) Harry F. Warp, Rev., Secretary, Meth- odist Federation for Social Service, Evanston, ll. (Social Service and the 8. 8.) (Church LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Ernest ©. WaAreEING, S.T.B., Associate Editor, “Western Christian Advocate,” Cincinnati, Ohio. (Brazil Idea) GrorGE T. WEBB, D.D., Associate Editor, American Baptist Publication Society, Philadelphia, Pa. (Northern Baptist Convention ) LutHerR A. WEIGLE, PH.D., Dean, Carle- ton College, Northfield, Minn. (Hz- aminations; Place of Creeds in Reli- gious Education; etc.) Amos R. Wetts, A.M., Managing Editor, Christian Endeavor World, Boston, Mass. (Temperance Teaching in the S. 8. Stpnry A. Weston, PuH.D., Managing Editor, Congregational S. S. and Pub- lishing Society, Boston, Mass. (Debat- ing as a@ Method of Instruction; Men Teachers for Boys) GayLorD 8. Wurtz, Rev., Secretary and Headworker, Union Settlement, New York City. (Social Settlement) WiLBert W. WHITE, PH.D., D.D., Presi- dent, Bible Teachers Training School, New York City. (Place of Bible Study in the Preparation of the S. S. Teacher) W. T. Wuit.ey, M.A., LL.D., F.R., Hist. S. London. (Bible as a Source Book of Religious Hducation ) CHARLES E. WiLBur, Pu.D., D.D., Editor, S. S. Periodicals Methodist Protestant Church, Pittsburgh, Pa. Protestant Church ) H. CornELL Witson, Committee on Pub- lication New York, New York City. (Christian Science Church) BENJAMIN SS. WincHeEsterR, D.D., Pro- fessor of Religious Education, Yale School of Religion, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. (Aims of Re- ligious Education; Teacher Training ; etc.) PEARL G. WINCHESTER, A.B., New Haven, Conn. (The Home; Horace Mann; etc.) ELEANOR DEeNsMORE Woop, M.A., Lec- turer in Biblical History, Wellesley Col- lege, Wellesley, Mass. (Paul’s Method as a Religious Teacher) Irvine F. Woop, Pu.D., Professor of Bib- lical Literature and Comparative Reli- gion, Smith College, Northampton, Mass. (Bible in the 8. S8.; Inductive Bible Study) | (Methodist LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xvii Henry Coiuins Wooprvurr, Rev., Presi- PaArtry E, Zartmann, D.D., Secretary, dent, Foreign S. 8. Association, New Extension Department, Moody Bible York City. (Foreign S. 8. Association) Institute of Chicago, Chicago, III. Hersert Brook WorxMAN, M.A., (Dwight Lyman Moody; Moody Bible D.Litt., Principal, Westminster Train- Institute) ing College, London. (Religious Traine Samuret M. Zwemer, D.D., Editor “The ing in Public (Elementary) Schools Moslem World,” Cairo, Egypt. (Reli- [England] ) gious Education Among Mohammedans) CLASSIFIED LIST OF SUBJECTS 1. THE SUNDAY SCHOOL 5. ALLIED AGENCIES AND AS- 2. MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDU- SOCIATIONS CATION 6. APPENDIX: 3. PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY Statistics 4. ORGANIZATION THE SUNDAY SCHOOL: Activity and its Place in Religious Edu- cation Adult Department Adult School Movement (Great Brit- ain ) Adults, Elective Courses for Advertising the Sunday School Agoga and Amoma Bible Classes Amusements and the Sunday School Architecture, Sunday School Athletic Leagues, Sunday School Australia, Sunday School Work in Authority in the Sunday School Backward Children, Promotion of Badges and their Purpose Banners, Use of Baptist Convention, Northern Baptist Convention, Southern Baraca-Philathea Bible Classes Beginners’ Department Bell, Use of the Benevolences in the Sunday School Bible Reading Association, International Bible Stories for Children Bible Study in Colleges and Secondary Schools Bible Study Union Lessons Blackboard Boy, The City Boy, The Older Boy, The Problem of Training the Boys, Men Teachers for Boys, Country Brazil Idea Brethren, Church of the Cabinet, Sunday School Camps, Church Canada, History of the Associated Sun- day School Work in the Domin- ion of Baptist Convention in “ Church of England in “ Congregational Church in “ Methodist Church in 6 XViii Teachers’ Reference Library Typical Sunday School Libeaan ete. Canada, Presbyterian Church in “Roman Catholic Church in Catechetical Instruction Child Conversion Child, Spiritual Status of the Children and Church Membership Children’s Church, The Children’s Day Christian Church Christian Science Church Christmas, Observance of Church, Place of Sunday School in the Cigarette Evil, The Class Management Class Names Class Pins College Students School Combination Service Committee on Religious Education Confirmation Congregational Church Constitution of the Sunday School Conventions, Sunday School Cradle Roll Cumberland Presbyterian Church Curriculum for Religious Instruction Dame Schools in Scotland Decentralized Sunday School Decision Day Democracy in the Sunday School Denominational Basis of Religious Edu- cation Denominational Responsibility in Sun- day School Work Denominational Sunday School Mis- sionary Extension Departmental Graded Lessons Desk Talks Diplomas Disciples of Christ Discipline Doubt, Dealing with, in the Sunday School Drexel Biddle Bible Classes and the Sunday CLASSIFIED LIST OF SUBJECTS. xix Easter, Observance of England—See Great Britain Ethical Culture, Society for Eugenics Evangelical Association Evangelism through Education Examinations Exhibits, Sunday School Ex-Scholars Employment Committee Extra-Biblical Studies Festivals, Sunday School Finances, Sunday School First Sunday Schools Flags of the Sunday School Foreign Children, Sunday School Work for France, Sunday School in Friends, Sunday School Work among Geography German Evangelical Synod of North America Girl, The Girl, The City Girl, The Country Graded Lessons, British Graded Lessons, International, History of the Graded Unions of 8. S. Teachers Grading: Difficulties in Relation to Graduation and Graduate Courses Great Britain, Present Status and Out- look for Sunday School Work in Baptist Sunday Schools Church of England Congregational Church Friends First-Day School Association Moravian Church (Unitas Fratrum) Presbyterian Church Primitive Methodist Sunday School Union Roman Catholic Sunday Schools Unitarian Church United Methodist Church Wesleyan Methodist Sunday School Department Greek Orthodox Church Gymnasiums, Church Handwork in the Sunday School Historian of the Sunday School Home, The, as an Agency in Religious Education Home Daily Bible Readings Home Department Home Visitation Hygiene Hymn Writers and Composers of Sun- day School Music Illustration Indians, Sunday Schools among the Industrial Guild of the Great Commis- sion Intensive Sunday School Work Intermediate Department Ireland, History of Sunday Schools in Jews, Religious Education among the Junior Congregation Junior Department Kindergarten, Sunday School Leadership, Training for League of Worshipping Children Lesson Committee Lesson Committee, British Section of the Librarian, Sunday School Library, Sunday School Literature, Sunday School Liturgics of the Sunday School Loss in Sunday School Attendance, Causes of Loyal Movement, The Lutheran Church Memory Work Method, Schools of Methodist Episcopal Church Methodist Episcopal Church, South Methodist Protestant Church Ministry, Recruiting the, in the Sunday School Missionary Education in the Sunday School Missionary Education Movement ‘Mixed Classes Modernist Sunday School in Holland Moravian Church (Unitas Fratrum) in the United States Mormons, or ‘Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints’ Mother’s Day Mottoes, Sunday School Moving Pictures in the Sunday School Music Music in the Primary and Beginners’ Departments Negroes, Sunday School Work among New Jerusalem Church New Pupils, Reception and Assignment of New Year’s Day, Observance of Newfoundland, Sunday School Work in Non-Christian Scriptures Object Teaching Officers, Installation of Organization, Sunday School Organized Adult Classes CLASSIFIED LIST OF SUBJECTS Organized Class Movement Parades, Sunday School Parents’ Classes Pastor and the Sunday School Patriotism, Methods of Teaching, in the Sunday School Peace Movement Prayer in the Sunday School Preaching to Children Presbyterian Church in the U.S. A. Presbyterian Church in the U. S. (Southern ) Primary Department Prisons, Sunday School Work in the Prizes and Rewards Protestant Episcopal Church Publicity, Methods of Raikes, Robert. Ragged School Union (England) Rally Day Recognition Day Recreation and the Sunday School Recruiting the Sunday School, Methods of Reformed Church in America Reformed Church in the U. S. Registration, Systems of Reserve Teachers, Training of Reverence in the Sunday School Roman Catholic Church in America Rural England, Sunday Schools in Rural Sunday Schools Russia—See Greek Orthodox Church St. Christopher’s College, Blackheath Scotland: Religious Instruction of Youth in the Church of “ Sabbath Schools in “ United Free Church of Secretary, Sunday School Senior Department Sex Education in Sunday School Small Sunday School, The Social Aspects of Religious and Moral Education Social Service and the Sunday School Socialist Sunday Schools Specialization in Sunday School Teach- ing Standards, Sunday School Statistical Methods Stereopticons, Use of the Stereoscope Stockport Sunday School Strangers in the Sunday School, Re- ception of Sunday School and Social Conditions Sunday School and the Educated Man Sunday School as a Church Service Sunday School, Cost of the Sunday School Paper Sunday School Session Sunday Schools in England before Robert Raikes Sunday Schools in England from Rob- ert Raikes onward Superintendent Superintendent, Paid Supplemental Lessons Teacher, Spiritual Aim of the Teacher, Sunday School. Teacher, Sunday School, Pastoral Duty and Opportunity of the Teacher, Sunday School, Personality and Character of the Teacher Training in America Teacher Training in England Teachers’ Meetings Teachers, Paid Teachers, Young People as Teaching, Value of, to the Teacher Temperance Teaching in the Sunday School Thanksgiving Day, Observance of Transients in Sunday School Attend- ance Treasurer, Sunday School Uniform Lesson System Union School of Religion Union Sunday Schools Unitarian Church United Brethren Church United Presbyterian Church of North America United States, Present Status and Out- look for Sunday School Work in the Universalist Church Vocational Instruction Wales, Sunday School Work in Wesley Bible Classes World’s Purity Federation Worship in the Sunday School MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION: American Institute of Sacred Litera- ture Atmosphere in Religious Education Bible, Adaptation of the, in Religious Education Bible as a Source Book of Religious Education Bible, How the Teacher Should Know the Bible in the Sunday School CLASSIFIED LIST OF SUBJECTS XXxi Bible Study, Place of, in the Prepara- tion of the Sunday School Teacher Bible Teachers’ Training School (New York City) Bible Training Institute (Glasgow) Bible, Use of the, in the Devotional Life of the Child Biblical Instruction by Correspondence Biblical Scholarship, Modern, and the Sunday School Books for the Sunday School Library Chicago Training School Child’s Communion Child’s Religious Liberty China, Moral and Religious Education in Christian Year Church, Relation of the, to the Reli- gious Life of the Child Church School City Training School Conscience, Training the Constructive Bible Studies Creeds, Place of, in Religious Educa- tion Crises in Spiritual Development Denmark, Religious Education in Director of Religious Education oo, Conferences and School of Meth- 0 Education in Old Testament Times Educational Agencies of the Church Educational Function of the Sunday School Emotion in the Religious Education Emotions, Training the Father’s Responsibility in the Educa- tion of His Children | France, Moral Teaching in the Public Schools in Friendship as a Factor in Religious Education Germany, Religious Education in Hartford School of Religious Pedagogy ‘Hindus, Moral and Religious Education of Children among the Inductive Bible Study Italy, Religious Education in Japan, Religious Education in Literature, Moral and Religious Educa- tion through Mohammedans, amon ‘Moody Bible Institute of Chicago ‘Moral and Religious Education, Tests of Efficiency in Moral Practice Religious Education Motives, The Appeal to, in Religious Education Nature Study in the Sunday School New Haven Religious Education Feder- ation New Testament, Value of the, in Reli- gious Education Norway: Religious Education of Youth in the State and Church Old Testament, Value of the, in Reli- — gious Education Oxford Movement, The Pageantry Paul as a Religious Teacher Pictures, Use of, in Religious Education Public (Elementary) Schools (Eng- land), Religious Teaching in the Public Schools (United States), Moral Instruction in the Reformation, The, and Religious Edu- cation Religion, The Child’s Religion, Psychology of Religious Day School Religious Education, Aims of Religious Education, Ancient, History of Religious Education and General Edu- cation Religious Education in the Early Church Religious Pedagogy in Colleges and Theological Seminaries, Sabbath, The, as a Day of Rest and Worship Schools of Religious Pedagogy (Great Britain) Sin, Recognition of, in Religious Edu- cation Spain, Religious Education in Standards of Biblical Knowledge in the Sunday School Sunday, Psychology of Sweden, Religious Instruction of the Children in Switzerland, Religious Education in Synthetic Bible Study Teaching in the Bible, Methods of __ Theological Teaching in the Sunday School Thrift as a Factor in Character De- velopment Training Institute for Sunday School Workers, Westhill, Selly Oak University Extension Lectures for Sun- day School Teachers Visual Instruction in Morals Xxil Worship, Children’s Worship, Family PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY: Adolescence and its Significance Application of Religious Teaching Attention Attention, How to Secure and Hold Biography and the Age at which it Appeals to the Pupil Biography, Place of, in Religious Edu- cation Children, Falsehoods of Children, Ignorance of Children, Types of Christ as a Teacher Contact, Point of Debating as a Method of Instruction Dramatization, Use of, in Teaching History and the Age of its Strongest Appeal Imagination, The Child’s Power of Imitation, Place of, in Religious Educa- tion Instinct, Nature and Value of Interest and Education Lesson, Plan of the Lesson Preparation Lesson Previews Pedagogy Personality of the Child Play as a Factor in Religious Education Psychology and Pedagogy, Contribution of, to the Work of the Sunday School Psychology, Child Questioning, Art of Reading the Lesson Repetition in Teaching Restlessness of Pupils -Review and How to Conduct it Stories and Story-Telling Suggestion, The Function of, in Reli- gious Education Teaching, Laws of Will, Education of the Wonder, Age of, in Childhood ORGANIZATIONS: Baptist Young People’s Union of America Bible Society, American Bible Society, British and Foreign Bishop of London’s Sunday School Council Brotherhood Movement Brotherhoods in Great Britain CLASSIFIED LIST OF SUBJECTS Daily Vacation Bible School Associa- tion Directors of Religious Education, Asso- ciation of Duty and Discipline Movement Edinburgh Gratis Sabbath School Society Kditorial Association, Sunday School Epworth League Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America _ First-Day or Sunday School Society Foreign Sunday School Association Gideons, The Girls’ Friendly Society in America Girls’ Friendly Society in England Guilds for Young People, Anglican Holy Name Society International Sunday School Associa- tion Luther League of America Men and Religion Forward Movement National Society for the Promotion of the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the Established Church On Timer’s Tribe Religious Education Association Society for Promoting © Christian Knowledge Society (in Scotland) for Propagating Christian Knowledge State and Provincial Sunday School Associations Sunday and Adult School Union, Phil- adelphia . Sunday School Council of Evangelical Denominations Sunday School Union, American Sunday School Union, London Superintendents’ Organizations Tract Society, American Tract Society, Religious World’s Sunday School Association Young People’s Societies (Great Brit- ain) Young People’s Society of Christian Endeavor ALLIED AGENCIES AND ASSOCIA- TIONS: Alliance of Honor American Institute of Social Service Audubon Societies and Their Work Big Brother Movement Big Sisters Boy Scout Movement in France CLASSIFIED LIST OF SUBJECTS XXili Boy Scouts of America Boy Scouts of England Boys and Girls, Community Organiza- tions for | Boys’ Brigade Boys’ Life Brigade Camp Fire Girls Chautauqua Institution Chautauqua Society, Jewish Child Welfare Exhibits Child Welfare in Canada Child Welfare in the United States Child Welfare Movement Children’s Bureau Cruelty to Children, The National So- ciety for the Prevention of Deaconess Institutions Offering Train- ing for Sunday School Work Detroit Boys’ Work Federated Boys’ Clubs Federation for Child Study Fireside League Froebel Educational Institute Froebel Society Girl Pioneers of America Girls (England), Special Work among Juvenile Court Knights of St. Paul Knights of the Holy Grail Moral Education League Mothers and Parent-Teacher Associa- tion, National Congress of National Child Labor Committee National Reform Association New England Moral Reform Society Newsboys’ Association, National Orphanages in Great Britain Playground and Recreation Association of America Pocket Testament League Religious Training Schools Social Settlement Society of Sanitary and Moral Prophy- laxis Story Tellers’ League White Cross League White Cross Single Standard League of America Young Men’s Christian Association and the Sunday School Young Men’s Christian Association in Canada ‘Young Men’s Christian Association, London Central Young Women’s Christian Association and Bible Study Young Women’s Christian Association of Canada Young Women’s Christian Association of Great Britain and Ireland ah, ~ ap el rs, Wil ahs] iu Nath & ins RTD ad A eae Js i WAM, ty. fie aoe ow wane hye 3 ne a THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SUNDAY SCHOOLS AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION VOLUME I ACTIVITY AND ITS PLACE IN RE- LIGIOUS EDUCATION.—The learning process, according to current educational theory, is always conditioned by an active attitude in the learner. Both the psy- chologist and the educator have abandoned the old view that the physical and mental organism of the child is ever merely iwm- pressed by incoming stimuli. Impressions from the outer world are actively appro- priated rather than: just received. This view of the relation of the learner to his world has profound and far-reaching con- sequences for education. It transfers the center of interest from the thing to be taught to the individual who is to learn. He ceases to be regarded as a mere blank tablet on which the world writes its im- pressions. What that learner is doing or is trying to do, or what he may be expected to do, determines what and how much he will learn. The thing to be taught must then be recast with reference to the child regarded as an active appropriating agent. The logically rounded-out subject matter is not the beginning of the learning process but the culmination of that process in which the activity of the child has been the vital element. The organized body of geographical or historical information, for instance, exists for him only after he has made it his own by his personal reac- tion to it. The organization of the mate- rial he must work out in part for himself, if it is ever to be significant for him in real life. This conception of the learner as active rather than passive when practically ap- plied to educational procedure, emphasizes not merely the activity immediately in- volved in learning a given fact but also the larger necessity of the learner’s hav- ing abundant opportunity to use and apply the given fact if it is to become a real part of his mental equipment. The child is conceived of not merely as a bundle of impulses but of purposes. Not mere activity, or busy work, counts, but activity directed toward ends; activity guided by motwes. The problem of ef- fective teaching is thus in part a problem of finding worthy motives and affording opportunities to boys and girls to work them out for themselves. Notwithstanding this excellent theory of learning, much of the educational prac- tice, in the ordinary school subjects, as well as in moral and religious training, attempts to impress ready-made material upon children and thinks all too little of the absolute need that they should work for themselves in these directions. It is not meant, of course, that children must work out absolutely everything for themselves but rather that the emphasis shall be on this side rather than upon continual dictation and impression. If they are encouraged to act for themselves, to use their active impulses, rather than made to suppress them, they gain an atti- tude in which they may be given many things “ready made” as well as those to work out for themselves. The need of activity in the learning of religious truth is quite as obvious as in the learning of arithmetic, science, or lit- erature. The values of morals and reli- gion are essentially bound up with self- expression and with social intercourse. They are interpretations of general needs which have developed in the larger world of men and women who are ever doing things, ever striving to work out purposes of one kind or another. ‘These moral truths, these religious values can be ap- preciated by the child only as he finds that they interpret his active nature and help him in the realization of his own pur- poses. They must not only find expres- sion in his active life, they must develop for him and gain control over him through the course of his every day behavior in the world of things and of people. They must, in a measure, be discovered and or- ganized by each person for himself. In general, then, the problem of the teacher of morals and of religion is so to guide Activity in Religious Education the active child that the values he seeks to teach will have a reasonable chance of being discovered and worked out in the learner’s own daily life. There are many specific phases of the application of these general principles. In their narrowest sense, they call for action in the Sunday-school class rather than passive receptivity. This phase is now largely developed in all graded courses. Most of the lessons for little chil- dren provide certain things for them to do in connection with the lessons. In the Beginners’ classes there is a grow- ing use of kindergarten materials to illus- trate and dramatize the simple Bible stories and moral lessons. There is marching, there are games, there are mo- tion songs, all designed to give the little children not only something to do but also something which will serve to impress the lesson of the day. A little farther along there are notebooks or lesson re- minders furnished, in which texts are il- luminated with crayons, pictures are cut out, pasted, or drawn. For still older classes there are notebooks in which written answers to the questions about the lesson may be entered, or in which blank spaces in the lesson story may be “filled in,’ maps to be drawn, etc. All these and many other phases of pupil-action have been worked out in very commend- able detail. They satisfy to some extent, the pupil’s need of doing something as well as sitting and listening. Their gen- eral effectiveness in arousing interest and in fixing the things which the teacher wishes them to learn depends largely on the skill and enthusiasm of the teacher. They may easily become as dead and formal as the older methods were. These methods, in theory and often in practice, are great improvements on the procedure in elementary classes of a few years ago. It must be admitted however, that the problem of how to secure suit- able expressive activity for the Sunday school is a most difficult one, and these phases of expression are only the very be- ginning. Sunday-school pupils of all ages should be helped to participate in real religious activities outside the walls of the Sunday school. Only as the officers and teachers realize the need of making manifold connections with the life of the world, and only as they become skilled in 2 Activity in Religious Education planning feasible modes of social service for the various grades can they hope to attain much success in religious training. (See Social Aspects of Religious and Moral Education; Social Service and the Sais It is a question, whether it may not do more harm than good to arouse the child’s religious emotions and to interest him in certain ideals of conduct and service, if he is not given opportunity to express these ideals in some definite way. The tend- ency, without expression, is to produce a detached religious life of a more or less Pharisaical type. Here, as always, the parents should ap- preciate the need of the child and codper- ate with the school. For the young chil- dren, the expressional work should be fur- nished in the opportunities for helpfulness in the home. Christmas and Thanksgiv- ing should afford natural means of de- veloping a wider interest in others and a desire to share with them one’s own bless- ings, In the Primary Department, temper- ance, self-control, and general helpfulness in the home, in the school, and on the play- ground can be discussed with the children and they may often be led to apply their lessons in many real ways. The class as a whole may plan real services for the sick, the needy, and the lonely. Class parties are always useful for giving expressions to the ideals of kindly courtesy and of fair play. In the Junior and Intermediate departments the need multiplies for many forms of active expression of the moral and religious life. The pupils of these ages begin to be interested in and to par- ticipate in many phases of life outside the home. Here there should be large oppor- tunities for the development of practical religion. There is a danger in dealing with all the upper classes of the Sunday school, especially those of the Senior Department, that the idea may prevail among the young people that the religious life is confined in its expression to certain rather specific “religious acts,” such as going to church, © or to the Young People’s society, Bible reading, prayer, or contribution to mis- sionary support. They should be led to feel, rather, that all their life should be- long to the Lord and that everything they do should be done in the spirit of service © Adolescence to the Master. In accord with this point of view, they should learn that their bodies are holy, the temples of God, and that proper care of them is one form of ex- pressing the religious life. They should be led to see that the eating of proper food in the proper manner, the wearing of serv- iceable, modest, and unextravagant clothes, the taking of sufficient sleep and exercise, the avoiding of stimulants and all sorts of personal bad habits, the cultivation of a manly or womanly bearing, courtesy, kindness, and sincerity in all social rela- tions, honesty, and energy in school studies and in home duties—that all these things are vital and supplemental phases of the truly religious life and are quite as important in the sight of God as church attendance, prayer, or mission- ary work. One point of general importance needs final emphasis. It is this: of themselves children will not, to any great extent, apply what they learn in school to what they do outside of school, unless they have plenty of practice in application under the supervision of the teacher. This fact is gaining increasing recognition in sec- ular education. It is just as true of reli- gion. There is little value in “storing the child’s mind” with religious truths in the expectation that as the years go by and various opportunities arise he will apply them for himself. The point is that the connection with conduct, if it is ever to be made, must occur largely at the time the fact is taught. Irvine Kina. Sre Morat AND Retiaious EpucaTIon, Tests oF EFFICIENCY IN; Motives, Ap- PEAL TO, IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION. Reference: James, William. Talks to Teachers on Psychology. (New York, 1910- c1899-1900.) ADAPTATION OF BIBLE MATERIAL. —Sre Brsitz, ADAPTATION OF THE, IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION, ADMINISTRATION.—SEz OnRGANIZA- TION, S. S.; PEpDacoey. ADOLESCENCE AND ITS SIGNIFI- CANCE.—A standard eight-volume ency- clopedia published twenty years ago does not contain the word.adolescence. But in Adolescence the last two decades religious-social work with boys and girls and young people has had a very remarkable development, and this word has been popularized by the new religious pedagogy, as well as by many of the leaders in general education. In one of its two senses, adolescence is simply the technical term for youth. It refers to the period of human life between childhood and maturity. It also connotes the process of developing into manhood or womanhood which takes place during these critical years. This maturing process is primarily concerned with the development of the sex function; and the beginning of pubescence marks the beginning of youth. So radical is this change, it affects the entire organism and its relation to the world. Therefore adolescence has to do with the physical, intellectual, social and religious development of young people, all of which are very closely related. Failure to recognize the critical impor- tance of this process, and what it involves, accounts for much of the failure of churches and Sunday schools in dealing with their young people. We have dis- covered that the new birth of the soul comes most naturally in connection with this new birth of body, mind and social consciousness, which occurs during ado- lescence. Adolescence is, or should be, essentially a new birth into a larger life, out of the natural selfishness of childhood with its narrow sympathies, shallow ex- periences and limited knowledge, into the full development of the mature life. This new birth is life’s supreme crisis. All phases of it are vitally important, and all essentially religious. Religious leaders have come to recognize that the church’s responsibility for its young people must include consideration for their social hungers, their intellectual ideals and phys- ical needs as well as their spiritual visions and decisions. Thoroughly efficient work, therefore, with the young people in our churches and Sunday schools necessitates a careful study of this critical period and vital process which we call adolescence, In greater or less degree the crisis of adolescence has been discerned by all races and generations. Even savage and bar- barous peoples were deeply impressed by the mystery of life and reproduction which culminate early in this period, and signalized the entrance upon manhood Adolescence and womanhood by elaborate rituals and public initiations which, with all their crudeness and vulgarity, often were deeply significant. “You find it in the lowest savage tribe,” says Dr. S. B. Haslett, “where the individual is mutilated, beaten, sent away to the forest to live or die ac- cording as he possesses or lacks the strength or endurance to undergo the ex- periences that form part of the ritual. You find it in the most elaborate service of the mother of churches, the Roman Catholic, where the applicant is trained, instructed, robed, honored and finally con- firmed amid all the splendor of that con- firmation rite. Between these two, range Adolescence with boys particularly in mind. It should be remembered that girls in their teens are developed, on the average, two years earlier than boys. The chart of course can only suggest averages, and large allowance must be made for precocious and retarded cases; hence the overlapping ages sug- gested. The three adolescent periods are found to correspond approximately with the periods of grammar school age, high school age and college age. While this allusion is a convenient one it must not be for- gotten that only about five per cent of middle adolescent boys are in high school and hardly one per cent of late adolescents PERIOD AGE LIMITS CHARACTERISTICS WILL-ACHIEVEMENT BABYHOOD 0-2 years (Before spat baer ¢ Self-Discovery Early 2-6 The Self Period CHILDHOOD— Self-Control Later 7-11 The Clique Period BOYHOOD 10-14 The Gang Period Comradeship EARLY Corot Bok The Chivalry Period Personal Loyal ADOLESCENCE Sent cs chool e Chivalry Perio erso oyalty MIDDLE 15-18 The Self-Agsertive : ADOLESCENCE | High School Age Period Self-Reliance LATE 18-24 The Codperative : ADOLESCENCE| College Age Period Leadership the manifold forms and ceremonies that man in all stages of his long course from savagery to culture has developed and ob- served for the initiation of the young adolescent into the new life.” Brutal though much of this treatment was, and usually lacking in delicacy and true sym- pathy, sometimes, as in the case of some American Indian tribes, it rose to heights of true religious sentiment. It all sug- gests that the emphasis upon confirmation rites in many churches, and in the stress upon conversion in other churches, with an impressive service when young persons are welcomed into church membership, is quite in accord with nature. The Periods of Childhood and Adoles- cence. Before attempting to describe in detail this critical development which we call adolescence, it may be well to suggest a simple division of childhood and youth into sub-periods. The chart is planned are in college. The high school problem is immensely important, because it in- volves the development of future leader- ship; yet the bulk of boys and girls in their middle teens are wage earners, who by assuming responsibilities come to ma- turity earlier than young people in school. Child laborers tend to “short-circuit” directly from childhood to manhood, therefore losing much of the rich and beautiful character values of the adoles- cent development. Savagery has a pitiably short adolescence. By postponing mar- riage and other responsibilities to the twenties, and thus lengthening youth, civ- ilization has greatly enriched human life. Physical Development in Adolescence. As has already been suggested, the pro- found changes of the adolescent years are fundamentally physical. The higher needs of growing young people cannot be adequately met until their physical needs — a ee nee Adolescence are understood. Abuse or neglect of the body tends to dwarf mind and soul. Early adolescence is the critical period for lay- ing life’s foundations in physical health. Growth is now more rapid than at any other time except the first year of life. Acceleration in the growth in height pre- cedes weight development, and the bones are now growing fast. All parts respond to the sudden expansion, but the growth is far from even or symmetrical. Dispro- portionate growth of limbs and the heavier muscles tend to make the boys awkward and their movements uncertain, causing them much embarrassment. Because of this poor motor-control at the “awkward age” fine work requiring physical accu- racy must not be expected of the boys and girls until the accessory muscles have better developed. Enforced overstrain now may result in serious nervousness later. From twelve to fifteen years the girls usually excel the boys in physical development, especially height, because of earlier pubescence. This causes the boys much chagrin and has much to do with the mutual aversion between boys and girls, common for a few years in later childhood and early adolescence. The sex development in girls not only comes earlier, by from one to three years, but is much more rapid than in boys. It is attended by the broadening of the hips, alterations in the bones of the arches of the feet and the pelvic region, and the de- velopment of graceful curves in place of angularity and early awkwardness. In boys with the development of the sex glands, the larynx grows and the vocal cords lengthen, causing the voice to deepen, after more or less uncertainty for awhile. In middle adolescence the beard appears. Lungs and heart are greatly enlarged now in both sexes, and the senses all develop in keenness of per- ception, and even the skin becomes more sensitive. Not only does the keener sensi- tiveness to the odors of the woods, and a clearer vision and more accurate ear make the boys and girls at this period lovers of nature and the outdoor world, but a new appreciation of art is now possible. It is the time to develop the sense of the beautiful, to cultivate the ear for music, and to discover the esthetic values of life which are woefully neglected in America. Adolescence There are wonderfully few deaths in early adolescence, probably because vital- ity and energy are constantly increasing, thus offering great resistance to disease which results practically in immunity to fatal illness. This tremendous youthful energy must find outlet, and expresses itself either in games and play or in mis- chievous pranks and juvenile delin- quency. In middle adolescence the girls attain their full height, and sometimes tend to lose slightly in weight. Most boys are now nearly “man-grown,” though many cases grow an inch or more later in college (a result of gymnasium work). This “storm and stress period” of high school age is a time of physical tempta- tion and struggle. The physical impulses are strong, often ungovernable. I¢ is the time when life habits tend to become fixed. It is usually a time of splendid health and astonishing vigor, alternating with lan- guor and laziness. In late adolescence comes the perfect muscular coordination and accuracy of movement lacking in early teens, and the physical self-mastery which has been a slow conquest through the years. Growth in breadth and compactness continues, and endurance develops; but a strange sus- ceptibility to disease appears, and there are more deaths in the early twenties than in any other five-year period until sixty- five. Premature aging at this period, however, is less common than formerly; partly because girls are living more out-of- doors. Under normal conditions this period lays the foundation for permanent health for life. It is fair to the colleges to state that the small per cent of late adolescents who are college students aver- age better health and a lower death rate than young men and women of the same age who are wage earners; though for various reasons a century ago the reverse was doubtless true. The limits of this article will not per- mit adequate treatment of the topic of hygiene. The physical needs of adolescent boys and girls are of vital importance and demand most intelligent care. The danger of overstrain has been noted already. Girls susceptible to hysterical neuroses should be carefully guarded from shock. The cigarette habit is an omnipresent evil which boys even in pre-adolescent days have to face. (See Cigarette Evil.) It Adolescence should be persistently dealt with in early adolescence, but always reasonably and sympathetically. Instruction in personal hygiene should be given suitably in every grade of school and careful sex education cannot safely be neglected. (See Sex Education in §. 8S.) So vitally are all the issues of life bound up in the normal and wholesome sex development, it is tragic to think of the shipwrecked lives whose evil practices were primarily due to sheer ig- norance and neglect. The recent awak- ening on this subject insures the youth of the future a better chance than in the past to receive sensible constructive explana- tions of the deepest facts of the physical life, which will protect them from untold evils. It should, however, not be supposed that sex instruction alone will win the battle against sex temptations; it will require the constant moral support of a religious life. Mental and Social Development. The boy on the verge of adolescence is at the first great crisis of his life; and though he understands it not, he is conscious of strange movings within him. It is of course a mental and social crisis no less than physical, and should be religious also; for it involves essentially a new birth of the person into a larger life. It is the new birth of bodily functions and un- known powers, but also of new thoughts, feelings, sympathies, ambitions, emotions, passions, ideals and convictions; in short, of everything which deepens, exalts and enriches the boy’s life. It is even more intensely true in the case of the young girl in budding womanhood. (See Girl, The; Girl, The City.) Adolescence is the real birth of the indi- vidual into independence in thinking, feeling, choosing; though not fully real- ized for several years to come. It marks _the slow awakening of the God-given rea- son, born to supersede instinct and to check or direct impulse. It is especially the flowering of the social instinct, which hitherto has been less strong. With the birth of altruistic feeling, childish self- ishness is outgrown, and life interests broaden with new friendships. The youth becomes a citizen, a social unit in the state, worthy of the toga virtlis which the ‘Romans conferred at fourteen. (A) Early adolescence may be called the bridge period between childhood and Adolescence youth. It marks rather sharply the transi- tion from the childish life of instinct and impulse to reason; from the natural self- ishness of childhood to youth’s altruism ; from the dominance of gang ethics, for the boy, to individual ethics controlled by a personal conscience ; and from the imita- tive religion of the child, with its unques- tioning acceptance of tradition, to the per- sonal religion of adolescence with its deep- ening experience. Deep foundations are now being laid in personal loyalty, in genuine friendships and in religious expe- rience; also in personal ambition for voca- tional usefulness, and in social adjustment and codperation. Both boys and girls now feel a new independence, and show it in word and action. Yet there is much fickle- ness, indecision, dreaming, longing; often painful self-consciousness, shyness, loneli- ness, a great longing for sympathy and a willingness to share it, with a real hero- worship for the object of one’s admiration. It is natural for the child to trust the will of others and to accept their judg- ment and advice. But with the early teens comes a new sense of selfness and inde- pendence which brings a real will-crists in many a family. Many boys and girls now chafe bitterly at restraints and resent even well-meaning attempts to curtail their liberty. They intuitively feel that the folks at home do not perceive their de- veloping manhood or womanhood and the measure of freedom it deserves. They feel they are not appreciated or under- stood, though they are usually silent about it. In view of this will-crisis, it is clear. that the adolescent’s obedience to par- ents and teachers must be a reasoning obe- dience to reasonable requests, or trouble may be expected. It is folly to attempt to “break” the boy’s will; rather must we see the wisdom of changing gradually the authority in the boy’s life from external to internal control; of gradually withdraw- ing parental control, to develop the boy’s self-control. Only thus can his own will grow strong. In this process the church, particularly the Sunday school, may have a large and helpful share. (B) Middle adolescence intensifies the — permanent qualities and tendencies of the earlier period. It is quite generally ap- preciated that this is the most important period of a human life. It is the time © when the great issues of life begin to be — a Se Adolescence settled. Foundations, to be sure, are laid earlier, and many life-habits are already formed; but now character is determined, ideals accepted and life plans formulated. Seldom does manhood belie the prophecy of the middle teens. This is the period of self-discovery, self-revelation, as the boy’s individuality comes to a focus, and the girl comes to understand herself. Inde- pendence often grows into self-assertion and obstinacy. Mecklessness, fickleness, conceit, impulsiveness are quite character- istic now, resulting in strange extremes in ideals and in action. Self-reliance is developing rapidly, with the new sense of personal power. As impulse wanes, reason becomes increasingly domi- nant and conscientiousness is often very marked. It is a time of strong emotions. Feelings of envy and jealousy are soon followed by fine sympathy and genuine kindness; while over-sensitiveness to slights alternates with great generosity. It is the beautiful age of fine sentiment and new-born idealism, warm friend- ships, high aspirations, noble ambitions and the birth of real altruism. All things considered, it is the most interesting, fas- cinating, and dangerous—the most mo- mentous period of life. It is now or never with the boy or girl—body, mind and spirit. ‘The Christian church faces no more strategic opportunity than to help the youth in middle teens in the making of manhood or womanhood. At this period most boys are working for a living, having left school at least as soon as the law allowed. The employed boys are quite a different problem from the boys in the high schools, often losing much of the valuable development of nat- ural adolescence. Their precocity is often unfortunate, sometimes attended by arrested mental development on lines not connected with their special interests. Some working boys however are excep- tionally bright. ‘They deserve all possible help on their life problem. Continua- tion schools, night schools, correspondence schools, etc., are helping in countless ways to develop the capacity of the more ambi- tious working boys. Employed girls are very numerous also at this period, and form a very serious social problem in our cities, especially where they are working for less than a living wage. This period is often called the “storm Adolescence and stress period,” and with good reason. The battle royal of life is fought out in the moral struggles of these older boys. Sometimes they are well-anchored to a fine, strong Christian home and equipped with the panoply of a real faith, but oftener not. In any case they are in seri- ous moral danger. Bad companions are bidding for their friendship, and luring them on in half-innocent ways until insid- iously the shackles of an evil loyalty are forged. Excessive social life, particu- larly in the city high school which in most respects, good and bad, apes the colleges, is seriously complicating our problem in these years. ‘Too much doing which does not count; divided interests which pre- vent concentrated study and develop the superficial habit; unwholesome recrea- tions, crowding out real exercise and manly sports; midnight dancing and other amusements instead of healthy fun; all these tend to the forced development of a hot-house life that is very abnormal. It is nervously exciting and weakening for the girl and thoroughly bad for the boy, scat- tering energies, undermining strength and high purposes and making more difficult the struggle for character. The tension is too high for health, morals or scholarly work. Temptations to gamble, to acquire the drink habit, and to yield to sex perver- sions assault the boy on every side. Often the cigarette habit, started in childhood, has undermined the boy’s moral stamina as well as his nervous energy, and helps him to yield to these other temptations. Quickly he becomes a victim of lost ambi- tion, which perhaps is most serious of all. Somehow the disillusioned hopes and de- throned ideals must be restored and new vitality be gotten into the boy’s will. He must be given right ideals of manliness, backed by Christian men who mean busi- ness when they say they want to help him. (C) With the large majority of young people there ts really no late adolescence, for by this time they have already assumed the responsibilities of manhood or woman- hood. Mental and social development continues however for some years, not only for the host of picked youth in our colleges, but thousands of others whose minds are still plastic and eager to learn. It is in general a period of reconstruction and readjustment to a larger world; a Adolescence time of increasing seriousness and a better sense of proportion and the fitness of things; a time for determining one’s per- manent life standards and scale of life values. There is great volitional vigor now, the will to achieve, to make life count. Vocational interests are para- mount. There is a real hunger for self- expression and for responsibility. Re- sourcefulness, except among the mentally lazy, is notably strong, developing per- sonal initiative and leadership along lines of personal talent. The sub-topic, the development of social and ethical ideals, is a fascinating one; and another, the causes and treatment of juvenile delinquency (see Juvenile Court), is an exceedingly important one; but we can give but little space to either. Our reformatories and jails are still filled with mere boys, and crime seems to be growing continually more juvenile. The majority of criminals, by far, begin their careers of crime in adolescence or younger. Karly youth is still the great crime period. A leading authority, after studying thou- sands of cases of juvenile delinquency, reports that the maximal age for malicious mischief is only fourteen, for petty larceny and assaults fifteen, for crimes against property sixteen, and for fornication seventeen. (See Hall, G. S., Adolescence, y. I: p. 332.) Undoubtedly modern society has multi- plied boy offenders by its artificial life, its mechanical, unsympathetic laws and stupid police, its inflexible school systems, lack of play facilities or vocational train- ing; while poverty, child labor, demoral- izing amusements, divorce, and the con- tributory negligence of parents have been largely responsible for the sad story. In many places however public sentiment is now thoroughly awakened and there is great hope for the future. Thousands of boys and girls are being saved from delin- quency, not only by the direct spiritual agencies of churches and Sunday schools, but also by the social constructive treat- ment of the best communities, through fine systems of parks and playgrounds, wholesome amusements, schools of the modern type, vocational training, manual training, organized recreation, sym- pathetic laws, humane juvenile courts, detention homes and probation efficers, and a very widespread development of Adolescence welfare clubs for both sexes in great variety. We are coming to recognize that most boys and girls usually do what seems to them right; but that they have a crude system of ethics. Through self-centered childhood, selfishness is apt to be domi- nant, and later, with boys especially, the gang loyalty develops group selfishness and group ethics. The public opinion of the boy gang determines what is right and wrong for the boy in early adolescence— and it is not often in accord with Sunday- school principles! The gang is the power- ful censor of ethical ideals. It dictates a literal justice, the law of the strongest, in- sistence on “fair play,” prohibition of “snitching,” the free use of “mental reservations,” a slight respect for property rights, due to a peculiar sense of joint ownership which seems to hark back to the days of the primitive commune, and a double code of ethics for outsiders and in- siders, with a strict sense of honor among comrades in the gang. Through this maze of boy ethics, with all its crudeness, the boy conscience is developed by practice and exercise. He cannot be given a ready- made conscience; he has to develop his own. With the awakening and personaliz- ing which comes to the boy in early adoles- cence, he ought to escape soon from this strange ethical crudeness, this dominance by the social mandates of his fellows, and with a clean conscience, his own con- science, clarified by a personal religious ar be able to face the facts of ife. Religious Experience in Adolescence. The most wonderful chapter in this story of human adolescence is the way of God with the soul of the youth. Adolescence, with all its follies and crudities, is the most religious period of human life, espe- cially in the middle teens, when conscience is clear, ideals are high and emotions are strong and life visions of usefulness are beckoning on. (A) The Birth of Religious Feeling. Adolescence is essentially a new birth of the person into a larger life. The indi- viduality is now bursting into full flower. Friendship ripens into a real sharing of life. The very world becomes new to our boys and girls because of their changed vision of it. In the illumined face of adolescence, frankly reflecting new found Adolescence joy and the feelings of largeness and height of life, do we see the message of Revelation : “And I saw a new heaven and a new earth: for the first heaven and the first earth were passed away and all things are become new.” Now supremely is the time in a human life upon this earth when “He that sitteth on the throne” seems to say, “Behold I make all things new. The first things [childish things| are passed away.” : Clearly now is the time for the birth of the new spiritual life with all the rest. The religious instincts, emotions, motives and ideals may naturally be brought to a focus now in the life of the boys and girls, in the new birth of the soul. A decision for Jesus Christ and the new life of the spirit is projected by the whole force of a freshly awakened personality which now welcomes the new religious experience as the normal thing. If conversion comes now in early adolescence, at the flood tide of the spirit, it means the birth of a deep religious feeling. Its impulsive energy exalts the hero-worship so natural to this period, and often develops a fine loyalty to the Master, for this is the “chivalry period” in the boy’s life. It is the main business of the church with this boy in his teens, especially through the Sunday school, to anticipate this religious crisis in his life, and to watch for the sunrise in his soul. This early conversion comes even more naturally to the girl in early teens, because of her earlier development. Pastors and teachers who are skillful spir- itual gardeners will guide and encourage them both to consecrate their lives now earnestly and joyously to their Savior Jesus Christ. (B) The Culmination of Religious Pur- pose. In middle adolescence, individual uty is the key word best describing the religious development. Under natural conditions the older boy grows in self- reliance and self-respect with every battle he wins. He has normally high ideals and noble sentiments, and great susceptibility to friendship and to manly leadership; but best of all. there is something in his soul which responds to the sincere reli- gious appeal and develops into religious purpose. The life chance should come now to every youth born to the purple, the royal birth-right of sonship to God, the chance with the help of Christ to live Adolescence a kingly life, to master self, to throttle evil passions and unworthy emotions, to crown his talent with growing efficiency and usefulness; in short to grow into sym- metrical, well-rounded Christian manli- ness, the three-fold life which makes a man in body, mind and spirit. It is this devotion to a worthy life ambition to which normal conversion now leads. In boyhood imagination soars; in youth, am- bition. It is the age of faith. When con- version comes in the middle teens, as it usually does for boys (a little later than girls), the experience is deeper and fuller than in the shallower life currents of childhood. The full tides of feeling and emotion give impressiveness and power to the experience, and developing reason in- terprets more intelligently its meaning to the soul. This is not saying that children should not be given the chance for a simple sincere religious experience, suited to their development. The youngest are not too young to be true friends of Jesus. Then let the friendship grow until in the teens it becomes a sworn and steadfast loyalty. The winning appeal to the boy at this period is the broad appeal to his whole growing manhood. He needs to learn that the well-rounded manhood which he covets needs culture on the spiritual side to com- plete its symmetry. He will welcome any means which will help him in his life problem. In his struggle for character, our older boy and girl need friendship— constant, sympathetic, and discerning; but above all they must have a living friendship with Jesus Christ their Savior. Give them the great protection of the Christ love, the high incentive of the Christ ideals, the mighty impulse of the Christian purpose, born in the heart through conversion, and the Christ loyalty and brotherly comradeship of the Chris- tian Church, and you have armed them with all the panoply of God. (C) Deepening Convictions and Enlist- ment for Service. In late adolescence comes the crisis of independent thinking and the struggle with doubt, especially to young people in college. However if the religious life has been normal in the earlier periods, it will be easy and natura! now. If neglected or belated previously, the problem will be more difficult. Often the skeptical tendencies which appear at Adolescence this period are of brief duration, as the young man thinks his way through inde- pendently and finds surer ground for faith than before. At all events he must have freedom for independent thinking. He is apt to resent the tyranny of dogmatic tradition. 'The college man is the born Protestant. He worships reality, sincer- ity, and will brook no sham, pretense or cant. Empty forms or professions, how- ever pious, he will have none of. His doubts sometimes are serious—and there are doubts that are the fruit of sin; but usually they are not symptoms of decay, but the growing pains of a larger, stronger faith, in which his tested soul ultimately finds rest and satisfaction. (See Crises in Spiritual Development; Doubt, Deal- ing with, in the S. S.) This freedom of conscience, the college youth must have. It is the only atmos- phere in which a modern, intelligent faith can grow. But his religion must grow strong through exercise. The col- lege student’s growing capacity for codp- eration is a significant thing. He covets power, not merely to lead, but to serve. Service is the word oftenest heard in our Christian colleges. There is ever a rising tide of earnestness in our college youth in America, which impels them to apply their religion helpfully in social service. The best way to get rid of doubts is not merely to think them through but to work them off. Faith thus grows strong with testing. This practical emphasis in the religion of late adolescents soon leads them into the normal religion of adult | manhood to-day, the religion of the mature life, a religion which is not meta- physical nor introspective, but the prac- tical, helpful religion of applied Chris- tianity. Religiously now the boy has be- come a man. G. W. FIske. References: Coe, G. A. Hducation in Religion and Morals. (Chicago, 1904.) Fiske, G. W. Boy Life and Self- Government. (New York, 1910.) Forbush, W. B. The Boy Problem. Kd. 3. (Boston, c1902.) Hall, G.S. Adolescence. 2v. (New York, 1905.) Hall, W. S. From Youth to Man- hood. (New York, 1909.) Adult Department Haslett, S. B. Pedagogical Bible School. Ed. 4. (New York, c1912.) Slattery, Margaret. The Girl in Her Teens. (Philadelphia, 1910.) Starbuck, E. D. Psychology of Reli-. gion. (London, 1899.) Swift, E. J. Mind in the Making. (New York, 1908.) ADULT BIBLE CLASSES.—Srxz ApvuLtT DEPARTMENT; ADULT ScHOOL MOVE- MENT; AGoGaA AND AMOMA BIBLE Cuasses; Baraca-PHILATHEA BIBLE CuiassEs ; DREXEL BIDDLE BIBLE CLASSES; LoyaL MovEMENT; ORGANIZED ADULT CLASSES; ORGANIZED CLAss MOVEMENT; WESLEY ADULT BIBLE CLASSES. ADULT DEPARTMENT.—I. Growth of the Adult Department Idea. During all of its early life the Sunday school con-- tinued as an organization chiefly for chil- dren. The few adults who, in addition to the officers and teachers, attended the school formed the Bible class. So com-— pletely did the thought prevail that the Sunday school was for children only, that the Bible class was not considered an in- tegral part of the school but met by itself. Gradually, however, this separation was overcome, and with the thought that adults had a real place in the Sunday school, more attention came to be given to the formation of Bible classes. In the last third of the nineteenth century, under the impetus of the widespread movement for Bible study, Adult classes rapidly in- creased. The growth of these classes gave to many a new vision of the possibilities of the Sunday school as an organization for men and women as well as for chil- dren—a true church school, the religious educational agency of the church for people of all ages, The first Adult departments were prob- ably not in local Sunday schools, but in general organizations for the promotion and advancement of Sunday-school work. For example, in 1903 the Cook County [Illinois] Sunday School Association established an Adult Department to pro- mote the organization of Adult classes in the Sunday school. In the same year similar action was taken by the Illinois State Sunday School Association. In this action there was implicit the sugges- tion of an Adult Department in the local school, to unite all the classes for adults. Adult Department From this time on the desirability and need for such a department was frequently urged. During these years, also, depart- mental organization was gradually work- ing up through the school from the ele- mentary grades. From having a Primary Department, the most progressive schools advanced to the organization of a Be- ginners’ Department for the younger chil- dren, and a Junior Department for those above the Primary age. This led to agi- tation for Intermediate and Senior de- partments for the young people in their teens, and for Adult departments for those beyond. Among the larger schools a considerable number of the best now have well organized Adult departments, while the tendency thus to provide more ade- quately for the strengthening and ad- vancing of the work for adults is con- stantly increasing. II. Characteristics and Needs of Adults. The Adult Department should include all the adults of the school. The range of age is wide, from twenty-one to three- ‘score years and beyond. This wide range of age, for one thing, makes the psychol- ogy of the Adult Department complex. It is also true that there is a more pro- nounced individuality among adults than among children. An adult class is likely to have less solidarity than a class of any other age, and adult classes are certain to differ from one another more widely than ‘any others. With the close of the ado- lescent period, in the early twenties, the unsettled conditions so characteristic of adolescence pass away. Generally speak- ing the mind as well as the body takes on a more sober and settled caste; the emo- tions are more stable, the will is stronger and more resolute and at the same time less erratic and more sustained in its pur- poses. Imagination is tamed, enthusiasm ‘tempered, and if personal ideals are less lofty there is likewise less of bigotry and of the critical spirit. The early years of adult life are commonly a period of re- construction in religious thought. Star- buck’s statement is valid for very many ‘persons. He says: “The common trend of religious growth is from childhood faith, through doubt, reaction, and es- trangement into a positive hold on reli- gion, through an individual reconstrue- tion of belief and faith.” (Psychology of Religion, p. 283). Reconstrucztion is Adult Department sometimes effected within a brief period in the closing years of adolescence, but with a larger proportion it is a gradual process extending over five, ten, or even fifteen or more years of adult life. Dur- ing this time the person is engaged in working out his own interpretation of life and, though perhaps unconsciously, in striving to gain a positive and satisfying faith. The result may be positive or neg- ative; if positive, the person may either attain to an individual adult viewpoint or he may turn back to his old childhood beliefs, clinging to them tenaciously as his only salvation; while the negative result consists in an abandonment of any attempt to attain a satisfying faith, and a settling down into a permanent attitude of negation toward religion. (See Reli- gion, Psychology of.) In this process of reconstruction, adults need the guidance of wise Biblical teach- ers. They require aid in making the dis- crimination between essential truth and nonessential beliefs, in building their structure of faith upon the foundation of some truth which appeals to them as vital and incontrovertible, and in resolving the contradictions which their increasing ex- periences of life present to them. Help may often be afforded through the study of poetry, and by music and art, as well | as by direct Bible study. In some cases the teacher may help most by reénforc- ing the sense of moral duty and obliga- tion, trusting that the path of loyalty to the moral virtues will in time lead to a re- birth of religious sentiments and con- victions. In every case much importance should be attached to activity. Definite help may be depended upon to come through personal social and religious serv- ice for others. While adults as individuals have widely different needs, and while different classes will likewise have widely varying needs growing out of differences in education, occupation, age, and so forth, all adult classes may be assumed to have certain needs in common because these’ are re- quirements of human life under any and every condition. It is through a consid- eration of the common requirements that we shall be able to discover certain funda- mental universal principles of adult reli- gious education. Adult interests are often limited and Adult Department restricted because men and women have come to adult age with but few broaden- ing educative influences upon their lives. If life is to be rich and strong it must have a wide range of interests. A man’s life consists not in the abundance of the things which he possesseth, but in the abundance of his tnner possessions. That life is poverty stricken which does not have a store of permanent value interests. The soul has small chance if in hours of stress or temptation no opportunity of choice as to what the mind shall attend is afforded. It is not easy to build up new interests in adults, nevertheless it is a part of the teacher’s task, and one to which he should direct his efforts. “The end of moral education,” says H. C. King, is “to bring the individual, on the one hand, into the possession of great and valuable interests ; and, on the other hand, to foster habits of persistent response to those in- terests.” (Personal and Ideal Elements in Education, p. 110). Always when one seeks to trace religion to its roots he finds himself in the realm of the feelings. The cultivation of the religious emotions is a second great com- mon need of adults. If by some the emotional in religion has been overem- phasized, it is equally true that by others the relation of the feelings to right con- duct and the building of righteous char- acter has been underestimated. The truth is that the feelings are a wellspring of all that is true, and pure, and noble. Far from being an evidence of weakness, they are that within man which proves his kin- ship to divinity. In the yearnings, the inarticulate cries, the hopes and fears and affections, the hunger and thirst of the soul for the higher satisfactions is seen the evidence that the Lord God has made man for himself and that the soul of man will find no rest until it rests in him. It is particularly the responsibility of the religious teacher to fulfill the pro- phetic word of G. Stanley Hall—“In the near future education will focus upon the feelings, sentiments, emotions, and try to do something for the heart out of which are the issues of life.’ This is no task for superficial effort. It is not enough to make a shallow appeal to the feelings. If the teacher is to make men feel deeply and strongly, he must be able to make them see. When he so presents Adult Department truth that it convinces the reason as well | as grips feeling, he has indeed placed fuel | in the.-mind on which the emotions may feed. The Sunday school has a special opportunity for satisfying the social in- stinct. Adults crave fellowship, and this is a hunger which the church in the past has failed to satisfy. Witness the almost innumerable fellowship organizations, a goodly proportion of whose members are churchmen. It is only now beginning to be realized the extent to which personal association of the right sort may be a chief means to character as well as to happiness. There is no more potent, neverfailing educative influence in the world than personal association. We may be perfectly assured that if through the adult classes the irreligious can be brought | into close personal association with strong, positive Christian characters there will be fruitful results in character building. This same principle should cause the’ teacher to perceive that he cannot do his part by merely talking to his class once on Sunday. He must give himself to the class. It is by the touch of life upon life, infi- nitely more than by definitions and argu-_ ments, that his work is to be made vital. The social instinct finds its highest satis- | faction in fellowship with the Great Com-_ panion, Beyond utilizing the principle of personal association, and making him-_ self the associate and friend of every mem-_ ber of his class, the adult teacher must) bring God as a present help, as the Divine Friend and Companion, into the lives of his pupils. Psychology, with all its recent emphasis | upon the will as the primary function of mind, will not allow one to overlook the | fundamental importance of action in S| ligious education. Hoéffding’s statement is significant and striking: “As Fichte taught, the most original thing in us is) the impulse to action; it is given before the consciousness of the world and cannot) be derived from it.” Indeed, the example of the Great Teacher should be sufficient to influence the teacher of religion never, to be satisfied with the appeal to the in- tellect and the emotions alone. Christ’s most characteristic word was: “Follow me.” He did not first impart information or appeal to the emotions; his first step was to call to action. His central appeal | was to the will. “Whosoever shall do the) Adult Department will of God, the same is my brother.” He never stopped short of directing his hear- ers into definite lines of action. The fundamental need for action is evident when it is considered that neither thought nor feeling is complete without it. Without accompanying action thought is an imperfect process, and without its ap- propriate expression feeling is starved and weakened. This must make it apparent that neither intellectual nor moral growth in the members of the classes can be ex- pected unless the plans include provision for proper expressive activities. (See Activity and its Place in Religious Edu- eation; Social Aspects of Religious . . . Education. ) . It is through meeting adequately these fundamental needs which all adults have in common that one may most confidently hope to attain the great central aim of religious education. That aim, to restate in summary form what has been stated al- ready in the foregoing paragraphs, is not merely to furnish information or to stir shallow feelings, but rather to lead men and women into larger, richer, fuller life— into the more abundant life, which Jesus Christ came to reveal and supply. (John 10:10.) The end is also finely stated in these words of the apostle: “For the per- fecting of the saints, . . . unto the build- ing up of the body of Christ: till we all attain unto the unity of the faith, and of the knowledge of the Son of God, unto a full grown man, unto the measure of the ‘stature of the fullness of Christ” (Eph. 4: 12-13). _ III. Materials and Methods. The fore- going discussion suggests the necessity in the Adult Department of (1) An Adult Curriculum, (2) Provision for Adult Worship. (3) A Program of Adult Ac- tivities, 1. Adult Curriculum and Methods of Teaching. It is evident that no other de- partment of the school presents such varied requirements. The course of study for a particular class should be decided ‘upon only after consideration of the needs of the class and chiefly with reference to those needs. Courses must be provided which will meet the needs of a wide Variety of classes, and so arranged in se- iquence as to afford a program of study continuing through a number of years. As yet the very large majority of adult Adult Department classes continue to use the International Uniform Lessons but there is constantly increasing expression of desire on the part of the classes themselves for special- ized courses, and every year sees a larger number of classes turning from the Uni- form Lessons to courses which make a stronger appeal to class interests. So long as all the classes of the school continued to use a common lesson it seemed inad- visable for the Adult classes to break the bond of unity. This objection to change has now lost its force and one may expect to find a larger number of classes demand- ing courses fitted to their individual class needs, Every Adult Department should offer advanced courses in Bible study and other related subjects. These courses will pro- vide an opportunity for serious study for those so minded. There are undoubtedly many who have never been attracted by the unsystematic Bible study of the past who would welcome an opportunity to pursue consecutive courses so planned as to furnish a thorough knowledge of the Bible. From this time on there will be & greater number of young people who have come up through the grades, having completed the courses of the Intermediate and Senior departments, who are prepared for advanced studies. Opportunities should be offered for these, and for all those whose education, training, and native gifts fit them for serious study and for a measure of independent investiga- tion, to pursue their studies under the direction of the church school. Advanced Bible study should be offered in such subjects as the rise and develop- ment of prophecy, the teachings of the various prophets, the legal literature of the Old Testament, the literature of Wis- dom, the Psalter as a manual of devotion, the teaching of Jesus, the teaching of Paul, the purposes and messages of vari- ous New Testament books, as Matthew, Luke, John, Romans, Galatians, Ephe- sians, Hebrews, and others, the social teaching of the prophets and the social teaching of Jesus. In addition, there should be courses on the formation of the Canon, the history of the English Bible, the Protestant Reformation, the distinc- tive doctrines of Protestantism, Prot- estant theology during the nineteenth century, denominational history and Adult Department 14 polity, and the history and present status of Christian missions, (See Adults, Elec- tive Courses for, in Bible Study; Gradu- ation and Graduate Courses.) The Sunday school which aims to pro- vide fully for the religious education of adults cannot overlook the religious and cultural value of study courses in such subjects as the history of Christian art, and the Christian teachings of such poets as Dante, Tennyson, Browning, Lowell, Gilder, and others. One of the most acute needs of modern society is for courses of study for parents in child nature and child nurture, and in such related sub- jects as home economy and neighborhood improvement. ‘This need may be pro- vided for most effectively, and with the least expenditure of time and effort in the Adult Department. The history of religion is an absorbing study. The intelligent Christian needs to know the significance, the strength and the weakness, of modern developments of religious thought. ‘There is a wide range of social questions which furnish impor- tant subjects of study. If the vital social problems of the day are ever settled it will be through the application of Chris- tian principles. The real church school cannot ignore them. ‘The introduction and use of extra-Biblical courses should be properly guarded. For example, it would not be well for any class to engage in extra-Biblical study continuously. A class can always go back to direct study of the Bible with profit. (See Extra- Biblical Studies. ) There will always be in the Sunday school some adults who do not have even an elementary working knowledge of the Bible. Consequently, the Adult Depart- ment should provide courses which will furnish an acquaintance with the history of Israel, the life of Jesus, the hfe and growth of the early Church, and the lives and writings of the apostles. Courses are now available, and are certain to be pro- duced in increasing number, which will serve this purpose. The Adult Department should share with the Senior Department the respon- sibility for training workers for school and church. As a rule, the work of train- ing may best center in the Senior Depart- ment though it is probable that among the adults of every school some will be Ly Adult Department found who should be engaged in prepara- tion for skilled service in some line. A class of men in training for work with boys, or for service in official positions in church or school, or a class of men and women in preparation for teaching, would be found to be a possibility in most de- partments. The training function of the department should be regarded as one of the most important. In many organized classes, in which a great deal is being done by the members in ways of practical service, it has not been found possible in the past to secure much study. While this may have been due in not a few cases more to deficiency in the teacher than to any other cause, it remains true that there should be a place for adult classes in which the study re- quirements are of the minimum kind, Some adults-are so circumstanced as to have almost no time for either reading or study; others who have time, entirely lack habits of study and are not disposed to form them. In such classes the teacher must necessarily become the lecturer. Other classes, unwilling to study, may be pleased to become Bible reading classes, the reading to be done at the time of the class session. | The ideal method of teaching in the Adult Department is that of free discus- sion. ‘The outstanding weakness in most adult teaching is that the teacher does too much talking. It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the teacher of adults that mere “telling is not teaching.” Only as the teacher really succeeds in making his class a forum of discussion of the subjects of the course in use, does he vitally and strongly teach. The teacher should ear- nestly study ways and means of developing expression on the part of all the mem- bers of the class. | 2. Provision for Adult Worship, An essential part of adult religious education, as already stated, consists in the cultiva- tion of the religious feelings. For the most part this can best be accomplished through the public service of worship. On no account should the Adult Depart- ment provide a program of worship sim- ilar to that of the public service; rather, it should urge upon all its members the importance of participation in the wor- ship of the congregation. 3. A Program of Adult Activities. Ac- Pi gi Adult Department tivity is the third chief factor in adult religious education ; possibly the most im- portant of the three. “Learning by do- ing” is a popular statement of a profound principle applicable throughout _ life. Since most of the adults in the classes have passed the period in life when new knowledge is most readily acquired the principle is more applicable here than in the other departments of the school. The teacher who succeeds in leading the mem- bers of his class to act upon the truth which they already know is quite as effec- tively influencing character as when he is pouring in new truth. One of the great- est needs of the churches is provision for definite religious service for every mem- ber and the active enlistment of every member in that service. Such a program of activities may be provided more effec- tively through the organized classes of the Sunday school than in any other means and this should be considered one of the first responsibilities of the Adult Depart- ment. (See Social Service and the S. S.) IV. Department Organization. The preceding discussion has presupposed an organized Adult Department in the school. The Sunday school which aims to be a real church school and to provide effec- tively for the religious education of adults will necessarily make as thorough provi- sion in the way of department organiza- tion for adults as for little children or for young people. Up to the present time many schools with organized adult classes have been content to have these classes only loosely connected with the school and with little or no interclass bond existing between them. This separation and lack of unity has been the outstanding weak- ness of adult class work. (See Organized Adult Classes). __ The organization of a department will bind the adult classes of the school to- gether in a desirable unity, while as con- _ stituting a distinct department the adults will have a desirable separation from the lower grades and at the same time that Integral relationship with the school as a whole which is so necessary. The number and kind of classes required in order that the school may minister to the entire adult community is a subject for careful in- vestigation and study. These classes will Adult Department they are organized they will require super- vision, and their teachers and officers will need to be brought together for mutual counsel and to plan for codperation. The field of activity and the aims and purposes of each class should be considered and de- cided upon in council. All this requires a well-organized Adult Department. All classes of adults con- nected with the school should be included as a part of the Adult Department. It is advisable, because simpler and easier, to do all the work planned by the school for adults through a single department. Overorganization needs to be guarded against. The principle should be the minimum of organization required for the maximum of efficiency. The school that has a well organized Adult Department with trained leadership, can carry out a full, complete program of instruction and activities for all possible adult groups. The organization need not be complex. There should be a department superin- tendent or principal, one assistant super- intendent, and a department secretary. In most cases no other officers will be re- quired. Such committees as the work seems to require from time to time should be provided. ‘There should be a depart- ment council, composed of the officers of the department and the teachers and presi- dents of all the adult classes. If there are other organizations in the church which do any religious educational work for adults the presidents of these organiza- tions should be invited to membership in the department council. In order that there may be an organized Adult Department it is unnecessary that the adult membership of the school meet apart from the lower grades. Where an inadequate building forbids a separate adult assembly there is yet abundant need for department organization, though the school that is adequately housed will have a separate assembly room and separate classrooms for the department, making possible an adult assembly. (See Archi- tecture, S. S.) W. C. Barcuay. References : Pearce, W. C. The Adult Buble Class. (Boston, 1908.) Wells, A. R. The Ideal Adult Class an the Sunday School. (Boston, not all spring into existence spontane- | c1912.) ously. They must be planned. After Wood, I. F., and Hall, N. M. Adult Adult School Movement Bible Classes and How to Conduct them. (Boston, c1906.) Wood, I. F. Adult Class Study. (Boston, 1911.) ADULT SCHOOL MOVEMENT (GREAT BRITAIN).—The Adult School move- ment is a vigorous and progressive organ- ization, largely confined to Great Britain, which has been in existence for a century, but has, for some sixty-five years, been constantly adapting its methods and teaching to the growing requirements of our times, especially in meeting the social, educational, and spiritual needs of men and women. It was cradled by the So- ciety of Friends, but although still draw- ing many of its best workers from that body, it has outgrown denominational barriers, and numbers among its members those of all ranks, creeds, temperaments and political parties. The bulk of its adherents, however, belong to the work- ing classes. The fellowship that binds the students together provides an almost ideal opportunity for the interchange of opin- ions upon those very subjects that most concern the well-being of either the indi- vidual or the community, and the basis of this fellowship is the desire to “work out the social and educational aspirations of our corporate life, in obedience to a spir- itual ideal.” This movement has many features in common with other institutions on behalf of a working-class education, such as the Mechanics’ Institute movement, the Work- ing Men’s College, and the Workers’ Edu- cational Association. All these have been of incalculable value in the democratic education of the English people, and have contributed in no small measure to the intelligent craftsmanship, sober judgment and progress in social reform which make for the well-being of a people. These are, however, officially non-reli- gious, in the sense that religious instruc- tion is no part of their program, but the Adult School movement has clearly laid hold of the inspiring energy of the reli- gious sentiment, and its central feature is the study of the laws of life, inspired by the progressive teaching of the Bible. An Adult School is not a Bible class in the usual meaning of that term, but the Bible is its textbook for the principles of life. No part of a school routine should Adult School Movement usurp the primary place of religious inquiry. It aims to spread abroad the spirit and character of Jesus, the Christ, among the democracy of the age, and it differs from the Brotherhood movement in the method it adopts as more in harmony with its own genius rather than in the aim it pur- sues. It generally avoids the hour of Sunday afternoon as being too reposeful for vigorous thought, and prefers to meet in the morning. The hour differs with the locality, and the large majority of men’s schools close previous to the hour of public worship, so that worshipers, if they wish, may attend the church services. Frank conversation is encouraged among the students, and under the guidance of a teacher questions and helpful contribu- tions are welcomed, but the feature of a lengthy address does not find favor. Women’s schools meet on Sunday after- noons, or on week-day evenings. In the United Kingdom there are about 1900 schools, with 100,000 members. They are grouped into sub-unions, unions and federations, with a National Council at the head. Committees of the National Council help to direct the movement, and provide a lesson sheet for religious study, with handbook; guidance in social service and secular study, and also help to organ- ize week-end lecture schools and confer- ences for the greater efficiency of the work. Each school is self-governing and often self-supporting, and few restrictions are imposed by any constitution. Re- cently (1911 and 1912) visits have been exchanged between groups of English and German workmen in the belief that a closer knowledge of each other will unfold many common interests and serve the cause of international brotherhood. In collaboration with the National Council of P. S. A. Brotherhoods (see Brotherhoods in Great Britain), the National Adult School Union compiled The Fellowship Hymn Book which is widely used, already the sales having reached 190,000 through Adult School channels alone. The movement seeks to be truly edu- cative, as well as a witness of the evangel, not merely in the accumulation of knowl- edge, but in the wise guidance of life. It seeks to broaden sympathies, to teach pro- portionate views, to develop the power of the Uniform Lesson System. Adults, Elective Courses for personal service, and to enlarge the vision of the Kingdom of God. It should be more widely known among men and women who are doing their own thinking and among those who may find no home in the orthodox churches, and yet wish to serve their fellows in the fellowship of the spiritual life. ERNEST DoDGSHUN. References: Hudson, J. W. History of Adult Education. (London, 1851.) Pole, Thomas. History of the On- gin and Progress of Adult Schools. (Bristol, 1814.) Rowntree, J. W., and Binns, H. B. History of the Adult School Movement. (London, 1903.) ADULTS, ELECTIVE COURSES FOR, IN BIBLE STUDY.—The remarkable in- erease in the attendance of mature per- sons has created an entirely new set of Sunday-school problems. The educa- tional work as well as the organization and administration of the school of the church is vitally affected. Coincident with the discovery of the child’s right to religious education as a child, there has come the corresponding discovery of the right of adults to receive at the hands of the church systematic reli- gious education suited to their needs. A generation of adults has grown up within the membership of the church, many of whom have conceptions of the funda- mentals of the Christian life which are little beyond those of the children them- selves. The discovery of this fact has Taised a suspicion as to the adequacy of If forty years’ study of these lessons has produced such results, can the church look for any different results at the end of another forty years? Parents who are face to face with the privileges and responsibil- ities of parenthood may not be greatly con- cerned over LHzekiel’s Temple May not grow enthusiastic over “Sennach- erib’s Invasion of Samaria”; and young “Vision of the Restored”; burdened laborers Men in the period of mental readjustment _very likely will have no deep interest in the “Building of the Temple.” lessons have a proper place. Such But when people are struggling with immediate and 17 Adults, Elective Courses for urgent problems peculiar to a given period, or to a group, or to a particular situation, such lessons are as ill-adapted to adults as to the unfolding souls of infants and children. Official question- naires have developed only the conviction that the Uniform Lessons are not univer- sally applicable to group experiences of mature life. The emphasis of Christian thought and effort is shifting more and more strongly to the social duties and obligations of the Christian Church. The recent develop- ment of thought has been toward the recognition of a world-society, a social organism consisting of all humanity, an all-inclusive social solidarity. Develop- ments in the new science of sociology, movements for the emancipation of labor and the enfranchisement of women, new emphasis on the educational opportunities of the home, the immense tasks of mis- sions and social service, are but a few of the changes which have come upon Chris- tian thought and life since the system of Uniform Lessons was adopted in 1872. Christian people have both a right and a duty to understand something of all these changes in order to interpret them from the Christian point of view. It is becoming quite generally recognized that the main objective of Sunday-school teach- ing is not Biblical scholarship, but effi- cient Christian character. As the church rises to her duty as the public school of religion and realizes her responsibility for sending intelligent Christian leadership into all human associations and relations, there will be a widespread demand for a comprehensive program of general reli- gious education. Urgent need is already developed for elective courses of Bible study on themes such as the following: Christian Parenthood and the Christian Home; Missions and Social Service; The Growth and History of the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures; Social Messages of the Prophets and Apostles; Historical Bible Study; Biblical Theology for Popular Use; Masterpieces in the Liter- ature of the Hebrew and Christian Reli- gions; Prayers of the Bible—Growth of Religious Ideas; Teachings of Jesus— Topical Religious Studies; Introductions to the Books of the Bible. And other courses must be provided to meet positive needs of groups of Christians who face Advertising (See Adult Depart- R. P. SHEPHERD. particular problems. ment. ) Reference: Wood, I. F. Adult Class Study. (Boston, c1911.) ADVERTISING THE SUNDAY SCHOOL.—The first essential to con- tinued popular support is that a school should be worthy of support. If the Sunday school is not good it cannot. hold the pupils that it invites; it may not seem so clear to some that it is necessary for a good school to let people know of it. Many need to be educated to appreciate a good school just as prospective pur- chasers are educated by shrewd salesmen to feel their need of a new commodity. Great merchants do not think it sufficient to put good wares in their stores; with infinite skill they spend thousands of dollars in bringing people to buy. Too often those who pride themselves on having good schools have but a faint conception of the extent of the constit- uency to which they should appeal. They have not thought of the adult men in their own church, nor of any children except the sons and daughters of those already connected with the church. And this, too, while there are as many chil- dren outside the Sunday school as in it, and while denominations are reporting a decrease of Sunday-school enrollment. In the act of advertising the represen- tative of the school may be disappointed or shocked to find that his appeals are so ineffectual, but later he may come to see that indifference to his invitation is really caused by the incompleteness of his own Sunday school. Suppose, for in- stance, a man were invited to a Sunday school only to find that it had no men’s class; or a man whose supreme interest is the social movement of the day were invited to a Sunday school which never departs from the International Uniform Lesson. A men’s class, or a class in the social teaching of the Bible would be at once suggested. (See Social Service and the S. S.) The increase of membership in the Sunday school is one of the crying needs of the times. In view of these facts no school can be called good which is not trying to grow. It is certain that any school which is not making itself known Advertising to new people and, in the effort, modify- ing and enlarging its capacities, will soon cease to be effective even for its limited constituency. The missionary impulse is an essential of Christianity and of Chris- tian education. (See Missionary Edu- cation in the S. 8.) Advertising can be successful only as it conforms to the fundamental and uni- versal laws of the human mind. In other words, whether he employs its terminology or not, the advertiser must have a usable knowledge of psychology. He must un- derstand, for instance, ‘the principles of apperception and find the point of contact between the Sunday school and the boy outside of the influences of the church whose attention he wants to secure. That point of contact may be the Sunday-school baseball nine and he will wisely stress this feature of the school in some of its advertising. He knows that the concrete has im- measurable advantage over the abstract, especially in an appeal to the young or immature, and hence he should use cuts in advertising, or language that will suggest things and people, or perhaps he may distribute illustrated § Sunday-school papers in the slums of a city. | His advertisement will focus attention on one point and keep it as long as pos- sible in the center of consciousness. He should appreciate the “follow-up” prin- ciple in advertising and seek to fortify an original favorable impression by other cumulative data. He should use the laws of association and repetition by the habit- ual use in his advertising of some signifi- cant phrase, such as “The homelike school” or “The school that makes char- acter.” These general psychological principles should be applied with due regard to the nature of the Sunday school. It is pre- eminently a social institution and in ad-— vertising it, appeal should be made to social motives; it may be shown, for in- stance, that the Sunday school elevates the community and builds the nation. | Motives should be used which will help - every Sunday school, and by no means should any individualistic or competitive suggestions be allowed to weaken other schools or deplete their numbers. 2 The Sunday school is also a dignified - institution with a lofty religious pur- Hy Advertising pose and there should be such use of the laws of association in advertising as will intensify, not nullify, this view of its mission. While the ideas suggested should be agreeable, cheerful, and attrac- tive to old and young alike, there should be no triviality or descent to the cheap and common jests of the street. A campaign of advertising planned and prosecuted in accordance with the prin- ciples just outlined should result in an increase of numbers. Experience has shown that no organization is more sensi- tive to wise and vigorous promotion than the Sunday school. This doubtless is due in large measure to the fact that so many of its members are young and susceptible to new influences. But these new pupils are not so many mere units to be tabulated, and perhaps compared with those in another school, but so many more human lives to be touched and lifted by every fine and strong motive that the school can supply. This is the result which is really worth striving for. It constitutes an oppor- tunity and a challenge which will modify and enlarge the capacity of the school and make it new every year with increas- ing potency for good. This process will be hastened by the fact that many of the newcomers are forces in themselves and can make real contributions to the life of the school. This will be most happily true if the lead- ers in the school are large-minded enough to invite those different from themselves. Yet again the school will have made itself known to the community and to neighboring schools for its zeal and en- terprise ; it will give them perhaps a new idea of what may be accomplished by a wise publicity: it will win the respect and gratitude of those who grieve for the multitude of children unreached by reli- gious education. (See Publicity, Meth- ods of.) The more economic use of the school equipment, both human and material, is a lesser though equally valuable result. The Sunday-school room often will ac- commodate three hundred as well as two hundred, and the exceptionally capable teacher of the men’s class and Junior superintendent can lead twice as many as they have. The cost of maintaining the ‘Sunday-school plant for the larger num- 19 Advertising ber is less per capita while at the same time the number of contributions is greater. This should not be overlooked in considering the pecuniary cost of ad- vertising. The term advertising in the narrower sense is applied to some form of printed appeal. But it must not be forgotten that the most effective efforts to increase a Sunday school are made by personal con- tact. The printed invitation is best de- livered, therefore, by a friend of the school, child or man, and supplemented by the spoken word. The children themselves are excellent advertisers if really interested, while the printed matter they carry will supply in definite and complete form what they are perhaps too immature to tell. (See Recruiting the S. 8.) The telephone has greatly increased the number of people who can be reached in a personal way. It is possible, however, to rely upon it too much. The voice alone is frequently an inadequate substitute for the actual presence. When the personal letter is impractica- ble because of the number to whom it is desired to appeal, the form letter repro- duced by hectograph, multigraph, or other device may be used. The impersonal, in- discriminating character of such a letter may be relieved in various ways. In- stead of inviting everybody to a Rally Day by one letter, parents may be invited by one, members of the Home Depart- ment by another, and prospective mem- bers of the men’s class by a third, each letter being specially adapted to the group of people to whom it is addressed. If it is possible personally to sign each letter and to add with the pen some remark appropriate only to the person addressed very much of the value of a personal letter will be secured. Printed advertising matter should not merely contain an invitation to come, it should give definite facts showing why it is worth while to come; such resources of the school as complete organization, boys’ clubs, reading room, motion picture ma- chine, etc., should be mentioned. Furthermore, such matter should em- phasize what the Sunday school is now doing, or is planning for the immediate future. It should present the Sunday school as dynamic rather than static. Advertising The idea of action and power is always attractive, and especially to the minds of the young and the forceful. Many Sunday schools emphasize special days. The observance of Rally Day has done much to advertise the Sunday school. The idea of gathering the school together to enter upon the work of a new year is sound and attractive. The advertising may be made yet more attractive if it announces a definite program and a spe- cific goal for the year to come. Too many schools, however, cease their advertising and their efforts to get new recruits with Rally Day (q. v.). Many of the methods and ingenious devices which have been developed in connection with Rally Day may be followed up and reénforced at Christmas (q. v.), at Easter (g. v.), and on Children’s Day (q. v.). Another strong influence which has helped Sunday-school advertising has been the growth of men’s classes. The virility, enthusiasm, and skill which have marked the development of the men’s movement in the Sunday school has done much for the school as a whole. Many of the men who are leading this movement are business men, accustomed to the en- ergy and resourcefulness of business pro- motion, and their methods might well be followed in advertising the whole school. The Sunday school should share in the publicity resources and the publicity methods of the church. The church calendar, for instance, should have its Sunday-school news and announcements. The church paper should also. If the church has an outdoor bulletin board, or if it advertises in the newspapers, the Sunday school should not be forgotten. A very cursory observation, however, will convince any who are interested how very far is this ideal from being realized at present. Nothing is more common than to find church calendars most carefully prepared, and prominent church notices in the newspapers, without the slightest reference to the educational work of the church. One of the most admirable and at the same time one of the most neglected methods of advertising the Sunday school is through an annual printed report. Such a report, if it clearly sets forth the achievements of the year just closed may be used as a potent argument to ensure Advertising future attendance. If it contains plans and announcements for the coming year, together with an inyitation to special classes or departments, it may combine the qualities both of a report and a pros-. pectus. Such a form of publicity follows the lines which have been highly de- veloped in secular education. The cost of advertising will vary with circumstances. Much may be saved by eliciting the willing service of members of the school. Children can distribute cards, stenographers can give service in reproducing form letters, amateur printers can do work for nothing, thus reducing the expense of printing to the cost of the stock; older pupils, especially those in the Senior Department, may prepare advertising matter or perhaps edit a school paper. Such service apart from its money value may be a part of the edu- cation afforded by the school, developing the young people and adding to the esprit de corps of the whole organization. Some churches and Sunday schools own their own printing equipment and many have metal bulletin boards equipped with letters for a great variety of announce- ments. A small hectograph costing no more than a dollar may open a new era to the rural school that will use it. When printers are employed estimates should be secured from several before en- gaging any one. Lower figures can be secured if it is possible to get the work done during the slack season. It is poor economy, however, to lower the cost of printing by using poor paper or by per- mitting poor workmanship. This makes the presentation ineffective and defeats the whole object of advertising. Finally, in considering whether an ex- penditure is wise it is important to keep in mind the economic gain of using your equipment for a larger number and secur- ing more contributors. I. B. Buresss. References: Scott, W. D. The Psychology of Advertising. (Boston, 1908.) Hurlbut, J. L. Organizing and Building Up the Chapter XVI. (Boston, c1910.) Lawrance, Marion. How to Conduct a Sunday School. York, 1905.) Mead, G. W. Modern Methods of Sunday School, Chapter XI. (New ~ A 4 Africa ‘Sunday School Work. (New York, 1903.) Reisner, C. F. Church Publicity. Chapters XV and XVI. (New York, 1913.) Stelzle, Charles. cessful Church Advertising. York, 1908.) Faris, J.T. ed. The Sunday School at Work. Chapter IX, by Jay S. Stow- ell. (Philadelphia, 1913.) AFRICA.—SrErE SoutH AFrica. AGE OF SPIRITUAL AWAKENING. —SEE CHILD CONVERSION; CRISES IN SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT; RELIGION, THE CHILD’s AND Its CULTURE; TEACHER, SPIRITUAL AIM OF THE. AGOGA AND AMOMA BIBLE CLASSES.—The Agoga is a form of class organization in Baptist Sunday schools for young men from sixteen to twenty-one years. The name stands for “training,” the object being to promote practical Christian living among young men. The motto is “Get another man.” ‘The em- blem consists of three letters of the word, Agoga, an O inclosing an A, and in turn encloses a G. Agoga is unique in that no provision is made for committees. The work is done by officers and their assistants. There are nine officers and each of these has charge of a department of the work. Each of the officers has as many assistants as he needs or as the size and the character of the class will allow. The officer selects his own assistants, in consultation with the president, and he is held responsible for the work in his department. The plan is simple and it secures definite results. Agoga has no separate convention and no official publication. It does its work through existing denominational agencies, The author of the plan, is Rev. H. E. Tralle, M.A., Th.D. The first class was organized March 9, 1905, in the Third Baptist Church, St. Louis, Mo. There are now hundreds of classes in successful operation. In March, 1913, the direction of the movement was transferred to the American Baptist Publication Society, 1701 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, and the Educational Secretary, Rev. W. E. Chalmers, became the general secretary of the movement. Chapter XI. Principles of Suc- (New Alexander Amoma is the name of the correspond- ing movement for young women with similar organization and plan of work. Amoma means “blameless,” and the motto is “The Blameless Life.” W. E. CHALMERS. AIM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION.— SEE ORGANIZATION, S. S.; RELIGIOUS Epucation, AIMS OF; RELIGIous Epu- CATION IN THE EarLy CHURCH. AIM OF WORSHIP.—Sere Curricv- LUM FoR RELIgious INSTRUCTION; WorR- SHIP IN THE §. 8. AKRON PLAN.—Sert ArcHItTEcTURE, S. 8. ALBERTA AND SASKATCHEWAN.— SEE CanapDa, History oF THE ASssocli- ATED S. S. WorK IN THE DOMINION OF. ALBRIGHT, JACOB.—Srz EvanceEt- IcAL ASSOCIATION, ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772- 1851).—A_ distinguished Presbyterian clergyman and college president. Dr. Alexander was born near Lexington, Va. His early education was such as the local- ity afforded, but the Rev. William Graham directed “his classical and _ theological studies.” He was converted in the great revival of 1789, was licensed to preach in 1791, and was ordained in 1794. From 1797 to 1806 Dr. Alexander was president of Hampton Sydney College, when he re- signed to accept the pastorate of the Third Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia, Pa. After his removal to Philadelphia he became deeply impressed with the “reli- gious destitution” existing in the suburbs of the city. The Sunday school had not been generally introduced, but Dr. Alex- ander formed a plan to enlist laymen to instruct the children of the poor on Sun- day evenings, to talk to the parents, and to read the Bible. This association was active for several years until its work was absorbed in the larger plans of the Sunday school. He said: “My idea is, that the whole church should form one great Sab- bath school, and that all the people should be disciples or teachers.” In 1812 he organized the Theological Seminary at Princeton, N. J., and became Alleine its first professor. As pastor, college president, and professor, Dr. Alexander wielded a large influence. Emity J. FEL. Reference: Alexander, J. W. The Life of Archi- bald Alexander, D.D. (New York, 1854.) ALLEINE, JOSEPH.—Srr Sunpay ScHOOLS IN ENGLAND BEFORE ROBERT RAIKES. ALLIANCE OF HONOR.—The Alli- ance is interdenominational and the aims are: (1) To band together men and young men for the noble purpose of maintaining and extending among themselves and their fellows a high sense of the advan- tages and obligations of purity of life. (2) To hold high, in the midst of temptations to vice, the nobility and honor of a life unsullied by impurity. (3) To promote among young men a chivalrous regard for the honor of woman. (4) To seek that all who join its ranks may become of the number who count it their greatest honor to be the servants of the Lord Jesus Christ. Members. It numbers among its mem- bers men, or youths above eighteen years of age, who desire to work on behalf of purity. A minimum subscription of Is. is collected annually. Associates. Youths above fifteen, and under eighteen years of age, who desire to work on behalf of purity are received as associates. A minimum subscription of 6d. is collected annually from associ- ates. N. B.—It is expected that each member and associate will do his best to circulate the booklets issued by the Alli- ance, and, where possible, keep in touch with the individuals to whom they are given. Honorary Members. Annual subscrib- ers of not less than 5s, are classed as hon- orary members. Literature is supplied to members gratis (a large assortment is constantly kept in stock). T'welve eventful years have passed since, in the providence of God, this “Venture of Hope” was launched at a gathering of unpretentious dimensions. ‘To-day, the mails bring greeting from members in five continents. “Come over and help us” is Alliance of Honor the call from far and near, and it is harder to refuse than to respond. Fully two millions of men and youths have been helpfully influenced, while no fewer than 45,500 have definitely been enrolled in membership. For seven years the secretaries and helpers labored incessantly with no thought of remuneration but that of grateful hearts, until the volume of work had assumed such vast proportions as to render absolutely necessary the provision of a permanent staff. In its results the movement has already exceeded the most sanguine expectations of its pioneers. Above all record of grati- fying achievement, however, the Direct- ors would acknowledge the "guiding and controlling hand of God. And in view of this fact they look forward with com- plete confidence to far greater achieve- ments in days to come. Nothing short of the “complete corona- tion of character” is the goal of the Alli- ance. Time and again it has been the privilege of the workers to witness the gleam of hope in the soul, the birth of new desires, the mastery of evil practices hitherto dominant, the substitution of a life of Christian usefulness for one of cor- ruption and despair. In this cause there is happily no room for the intrusion of sectarianism, and the interdenominational character of the Alli- ance has been more than justified. Impurity has its organized forces which must be met by counter organization. Too serious a view can hardly be taken of the continuous stream of pernicious literature which issues from a certain sec- tion of the press, partly due to the lamentable apathy of the community. Libraries, bookstalls, exhibitions, railway platforms, mutoscopes, hoardings, post- card and print-shops are often centers of mind-contamination. Also, despite a good deal of vigilance work, official and unofficial, audacious productions by stage and cinema are constantly making their appearance, forming not only a grave moral peril to the youth of the land, but an indication of a low moral standard in our midst. : Magazine. The quarterly Record (1d.) has now entered upon its fifth volume. Not only does it. provide a record of the work accomplished, but the aim of the ‘ Amer. Church §. S. Institute editors is that each issue may constitute another weapon against the devil’s doc- trine of “necessity,” and yield inspiration for service and brotherly counsel to all its readers. In actual practice it is found that the magazine forms a very satisfac- tory introduction to the subject from one to another, and many kindly messages from readers have been received. The alliance has been warmly welcomed by fathers, mothers, brothers, sisters, clergy, and ministers of all denomina- tions, schoolmasters, Sunday-school work- ers, Y. M. C. A.’s, Brotherhoods, P. S. A.’s, Adult schools and Bible classes, students, Boys’ Brigades and Scout movements, army, navy, and police, and all who recog- nize the grim struggle between the forces of impurity and eternal righteousness. Some results of the twelve years’ work are: Branches formed............- 1,120 Members enrolled............. 45,500 Meetings attended by......... 240,000 MIOtS ISSUCH. So... ee 1,200,000 and it is estimated that considerably over one-and-a-half millions of men and youths have been helpfully influenced. President: Dr. H. Grattan Guinness, F. R. G. S. Treasurer: Capt F. L. Tottenham. Vice-Presidents: Leaders of religious activity in all denominations: medical, scholastic and other gentlemen. All inquiries for particulars and liter- ature should be addressed to The Joint Alliance of Honour, 112 City Road, Lon- don, E. C. “In Confidence: To Boys” (Bisseker) sent post free for 24d. K. E. BaGNatt. AMERICAN CHURCH SUNDAY SCHOOL INSTITUTE.—SExE Protestant Episcopat CHURCH. AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE.—The title is the name by which is designated the extension work of the University of Chicago in the depart- Mments of Biblical history and literature, church history, theology, religious edu- cation and allied subjects. History. In 1881, William Rainey Harper, at that time professor of Hebrew in the Baptist Theological Seminary at Morgan Park, Illinois, conceived the de- sire to promote the teaching of Hebrew by 23 Amer. Inst. of Sacred Literature modern methods. Having prepared text- books for this purpose, he launched a cor- respondence school of Hebrew, in which he secured the codperation of about seventy teachers of Hebrew and the Old Testa- ment in educational institutions. In its first year the student body represented forty-four states and eight foreign coun- tries, Upon the appointment of Mr. Harper to a chair at Yale University, he removed the headquarters of the school to New Haven, Connecticut. In October, 1889, in the interests of a wider study of the Bible in English, the Institute of Hebrew gave place to a new organization —The American Institute of Sacred Lit- erature. ‘The aim of the Institute was defined as follows: “To promote the philo- logical, literary, historical, and exegetical study of the Scriptures by means of such instrumentalities as may be found prac- ticable.” The following representative men were chosen as directors: President EK. Benjamin Andrews, D.D., LL.D., of Brown University; Professor Willis J. Beecher, D.D., of Auburn Theological Seminary; Professor J. Henry Thayer, D.D., of Harvard University; Bishop John H. Vincent, D.D., LL.D.; Professor Charles Rufus Brown, Ph.D., of Newton Theological Institution; Professor George S. Burroughs, Ph.D., of Amherst College; Professor Edward L. Curtis, Ph.D., of McCormick Theological Seminary; Pro- fessor Milton 8. Terry, D.D., of Garrett Biblical Institute; Professor Edward T. Bartlett, D.D., of a Protestant Episcopal Divinity School; Professor Francis Brown, Ph.D., of Union Theological Seminary; Professor Marcus D, Buell, D.D., of Boston University; Professor George B. Stevens, Ph.D., D.D., of Yale Divinity School. In 1891, on account of the election of Professor Harper to the presidency of the University of Chicago, the headquarters of the Institute were again removed and established on the University campus. At the same time the Board of Directors in- vited to participation in the work of the _ Institute as an advisory council seventy men from leading universities, the body being called “The Council of Seventy.” Twenty-three of these were teachers in the Old Testament field; twenty in the New Testament field, and eighteen in the more general work of comparative reli- Amer. Inst. of Sacred Literature gion, theology, and church history. Under the direction of the council, the Institute inaugurated a system of popular Bible study, which is continued to the present time, and offers to thousands of people in their own homes, the oppor- tunity to study under the direction of expert teachers. Shortly before the death of President Harper in 1906, the Insti- tute which had up to this time been a separate corporation, was taken over by the University of Chicago, and became a part of its extension division, Extent of the Work. When the Insti- tute began its work it was the only or- ganization through which the general public might receive constructively the results of modern scholarship as they re- lated to the Bible. In one decade of its history, seventy-five thousand students pursued its courses—the largest number in any one year being ten thousand. For the use of these students, six million pages of printed matter were sent out, in the form of directions for study and re- port. Among these students were repre- sentatives of every Protestant denomina- tion, as well as Roman Catholics and Jews. In geographical distribution they represented every state in the Union, every division of the western hemisphere, every European or Asiatic country of note, and included even some students in Africa and Australia. Financial Support. From the first the Institute has carried on an educational work far in excess of the income from stu- dents’ fees. It has received gifts from time to time, but has no adequate endow- ment. Except for the income derived from a gift of ten thousand dollars from Mrs. Caroline Haskell, its work is done as an unendowed department of the Uni- versity of Chicago in which the possi- bilities are limited by the receipts. Courses of the Institute. It is the policy of the Institute to continually create new courses which are particularly adapted to current needs. At present (1914) there are (1) Ten Outline Bible Study courses for elementary work as fol- lows: The Foreshadowings of the Christ, by W. R. Harper; The Life of Christ, by EK. D. Burton; The Founding of the Christian Church, by E. D. Burton; The Work of the Old Testament Sages, by W. R. Harper; The Work of the Old Amer. Inst. of Sacred Literature Testament Priests, by W. R. Harper; The Social and Ethical Teachings of Jesus, by Shailer Mathews; The Universal Element in the Psalter, by J. M. P. Smith; The Book of Job, or the Problem of Human Suffering, by W. R. Harper; Four Letters of Paul, by E. D. Burton; The Origin and Religious Teaching of the Old Testament Books, by G. L. Chamberlin. Each of these courses covers one school year, and provides opportunity for daily work, with report and certificate at the end of the course. (2) Nineteen professional reading courses for ministers’ as follows: The Historical and Literary Origin of the Pentateuch, Old Testament Prophecy, The Origin and Growth of the Hebrew Psalter, The Life of Jesus the Christ, The Apostolic Age, The Problems Con- nected with the Gospel of John, Chris- tianity and Social Problems, the Prep- aration of Sermons, The Teaching of Jesus, The History of Israel, The Wis- dom Literature, The Teaching of the Apostles, The Post-Apostolic Era, The Psychology of Religion and Its Bearing upon Religious Education, The Expan- sion of Christianity in the Twentieth Century, Modern Phases of Theological Thought, Constructive Theories of Modern Scholarship concerning the Bible, the Church, and Religion, Jesus in the Light of Modern Scholarship, The Effi- cient Church. These courses are directed through re- views prepared by specialists in the sub- jects under consideration. (3) Rapid survey courses for Sunda school teachers as follows: Introduction to the Bible for Teachers of Children, The Origin and Religious Teaching of the Old Testament Books, The Adapta- tion of Principles of Psychology and Peda- gogy to Sunday-school teaching. These are correspondence courses of an elementary type, but they give to the pupil personal criticism and individual work. (4) Thirty-one advanced correspond- ence courses in Hebrew, New Testament Greek, Biblical theology and literature, church history and religious education are of University grade, and give uni- versity credit under special conditions. Traveling Libraries. The Institute cir- culates traveling libraries containing books required for its professional and Amer. Inst. of Social Service other reading courses. The demand for these libraries is greater than the supply. The privilege of the use of the libraries has been extended to China, Japan, and other foreign countries. Official Organ. The Biblical World, published by the University of Chicago Press, is used as the official organ of the American Institute. In it are published new courses, and one of the privileges of the ministerial courses is the receipt of this monthly magazine. The Executive Board. Members of the faculty of the Divinity school of the Uni- versity of Chicago under the chairman- ship of Professor Ernest D. Burton, form the executive board of the Institute, the immediate details being handled by the secretary, Miss Georgia L. Chamberlin, Grorcia L. CHAMBERLIN. AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL SERVICE.—This Institute may be de- scribed as a clearing house of social in- formation, conducting university exten- sion work for social education. It was organized in 1898, by Dr. Josiah Strong and Dr. William H. Tolman, under the name of the League for Social Service, and incorporated under its present name in 1902. The functions of the Institute may be said to be three: (1) To gather from all possible sources facts of every _kind which bear on social and industrial betterment. (2) To interpret these facts by ascertaining their causes and effects, thus gaining their real significance, and (3) To disseminate the resulting knowl- edge for the education of public opinion, which is the generic social reform. The Institute has been for several years active in furnishing weekly lessons on social subjects for Sunday schools, Y. M. C. A.’s, and other organizations, and for individual students. These lessons ap- pear first in The Homiletic Review, and then are reprinted, with other articles, by specialists in the field of sociology, in The Gospel of the Kingdom, a magazine pub- lished by the Institute. Classes are now organized in many parts of the United States and Canada, and have been a very great success. They have interested many men, and especially workingmen, who _were hitherto uninterested in the church, or in Christian work. In connection with The Homiletic Review it is estimated that Amer. Inst. of Social Service these “studies in social Christianity” reach over 40,000 people. They take up the living questions of the day, give in brief space the most recent information, ‘and discuss what may be done for the solu- tion of social problems from the Christian point of view, by churches, or by individ- uals. The monthly topics for the year 1913 were: Poverty, Wealth, Socialism, Eugenics, Euthenics, The Unfit, Rural Communities, The Mormon Menace, The Coming Church and Society, Moral Train- ing in the Public Schools, The Unem- ployed, Peace. For 1914, such subjects as: Legislation, Constitutions, Exploiting the Child, Dividends versus the Home, The Great Fear, Humanitarianism, Work- ing our Ideals, etc., have been discussed in the pages of The Homiletic Review. Another activity of the Institute is the sending out of lectures and lecturers. Dr. James H. Ecob is the official lecturer for the Institute, and addresses churches, ecclesiastical bodies, and ministerial asso- ciations, making no charge except for his expenses. Dr, Strong and Mr, W. D. P. Bliss also do some lecturing. The new work of sending out reading lectures, illus- trated by stereopticon slides, was begun in 1912. The work has assumed consider- able proportions, popular interest being shown by the fact that in the first ten weeks 510 lectures were ordered. They are now being used in many parts of the United States. Copies of these lectures may be obtained in New York, Boston, Chicago, Seattle, Olympia, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and in Canada. They deal with the wage question, housing, women and children in toil, the amusement prob- lem, the battle for health, and the com- ing city. A third activity of the Institute is to answer inquiries which come from many countries. Information is sent to min- isters, editors, students, social workers and others. The Institute also makes investigations. In the course of its fifteen years of ex- istence the Institute has directly or indi- rectly inaugurated a number of important social movements and activities, includ- ing the formation of similar Institutes in various countries of Europe, in South America, and in Australia. Its agitation on the question of industrial accidents led to the establishment of a Museum of Se- American Pageant Association curity in New York, to which Dr. Tolman now gives his whole time, having left the Institute for this purpose. | The Institute has conducted a number of important campaigns which have had a, wide influence, as in arousing the public to forbid a polygamist’s taking a seat in Congress. The Hon. Theodore Roosevelt, when President, said of the Institute that its possibilities for usefulness were well nigh boundless, and that it seemed to be the beginning of a world movement to facilitate the readjustment of social rela- tions to new conditions. Dr. Josiah Strong is president of the Institute, and Mr. W. D. Bliss, editor of the Encyclopedia of Social Reform, is associate editor of the magazine, and pre- pares its illustrated lectures. ‘The Insti- tute, whose specialized library and serv- ices are free to all comers, is located in the Bible House, Astor Place, New York, Ney, JOSIAH STRONG. AMERICAN PAGEANT ASSOCIA- TION.—SrEE PAGEANTRY. AMERICAN SUNDAY SCHOOL UNION.—Srrt Stunpay ScHoot UNION, AMERICAN. AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY.—SeExE Tract Society, AMERICAN. AMERICAN UNITARIAN ASSOCIA- TION.—SerEeE UNITARIAN CHURCH. AMUSEMENTS AND THE SUNDAY SCHOOL.—It is customary to use the word “amusement” in a somewhat loose sense to signify any occupation which is pleasur- able and which affords relief from the daily routine of life. Strictly speaking, a distinction should be made between amusement and recreation (gq. v.), the former being passive and relaxing in its nature, the latter requiring activity and the putting forth of energy. The discovery which wise Sunday- school leaders have made, that it is not practicable to separate the religious from the other natural elements which make up the life of a girl or boy, has led to the realization that the Sunday school must relate itself to all phases of youthful in- terest, and not alone to the spiritual side. ail i a Amusements That Sunday school which is capable of doing the most for its young people is the one which recognizes the multiplicity of their needs and strives to meet as many of them as possible. For this reason, if for no other, the amusement question de- serves the attention of every Sunday- school teacher. The craving for amusements, as forms of occupation for leisure hours, is wholly natural. It is noteworthy that the present generation has discarded certain beliefs of former years that such desires are sin- ful in themselves; but there is danger that one may go too far, and lose sight of the fact that any normal longing may be abused by overindulgence, and thus be- come a harmful influence. To frown upon, or to ignore, the natural craving for amusement is a serious mistake; but to recognize it, to regulate it, and to supply its demands with normal gratification is truly wise because of its important ethical and social values. One large branch of the Christian church attempted to solve the amusement problem by an enactment of its official body, and specified several forms of amuse- ment as positively under the ban. The seriousness of this mistake has for years been apparent to many minds; and many of the accredited delegates at recent church meetings would have stricken these specific rules from the laws of the church, except for the fear that such action might be construed as giving unqualified in- dorsement of the amusements in question. The attitude of the Sunday-school teacher in regard to the question of his relation to the more common amusements of the day is often a perplexing one. The real issues may be influenced by prece- dent, or discarded because of personal prejudices or preferences, but it should be possible to reach certain fundamental conclusions as a basis for decision. 1. There are certain forms of amuse- ment concerning the wrongfulness of which there can be no two reasonable opin- ions. In the light of the best and clearest information on the subject, emphasized also by examples which are within the knowledge of every thinking person, the use of alcoholic drinks, even in so-called moderation, must be placed, without hesi- tation, in the list of indulgences which are impossible for the Christian teacher. No | | Amusements word need be said concerning other forms of gross pleasure-seeking which can be indulged in only at the expense of the purity of the personal life. There is no debatable ground in these matters. 2. There are, however, certain amuse- ments which are not in themselves inher- ently bad. The shuffle board, bowling alley, pool and billiards are in this list. These are games of skill which if played under right conditions, are wholesome games. ‘These have come under suspicion because they have become commercialized and surrounded by dangerous conditions. The environment of these games has oc- easioned the most serious criticism of them. Social card playing may be in- eluded in this list with the added caution that with the larger element of chance which enters into games of cards there comes an increasing risk of danger. 3. Another class of popular amuse- ments of the present day consists of pas- times which may, or may not, be sur- rounded by an immoral atmosphere, and which, within themselves may or may not be distinctly harmful. Among these are the theater and the dance. For example, it is possible for a dance to be held under entirely wholesome conditions, and for the participants to be morally unharmed; on the other hand, it is quite possible for people to be vitally injured in a moral sense by engaging in a dance which is held under surroundings which seem wholly satisfactory. That the dance may arouse passions which become very diffi- cult to control is not questioned by those who know, but it is equally true that some engage in dancing without such results. _ What is true of the dance is equally true of the theater. It is unjust to assert that it is universally either good or bad. An entirely innocent play may be followed in the same playhouse a week later by something which is unfit to be described. There are also plays which are whole- 30me in the main but which are defective in spots. _ Under this class the most serious prob- lems arise. Some earnest Christians de- side questions of this kind by ascertaining the general tendency of the amusement ander consideration. Is its moral tend- sey upward or downward? Examined from the standpoint of its tendencies, the theater requires much explaining. Not- Amusements withstanding the number of excellent people who patronize plays of the better class, no close student can deny that the sum total of influence in the case of the many of the theatrical presentations of the present day is entirely negative. Two schools of thought have held place and found adherents among equally ear- nest and religious people. One group would summarily condemn the dance and the theater, and have nothing to do with either one; the other group considers the solution of the problem to be found in consistently upholding the good and ad- mirable in both dance and theater, while denouncing in equal measure their evil features and endeavoring to eliminate them. The people of this group unhesi- tatingly attend the dance and the theater when they are given under such condi- tions as can meet their conscientious approval. There should, perhaps, be another group, consisting of those who see both the good and the evil in these uncertain pastimes, but who deprive themselves of the pleasures they might enjoy without injury to conscience, in order to let their influence rest wholly on the side of safety. These persons may permit young people under their care and guidance to indulge in these forms of recreation when pro- tected by such restraints as they deem wise. Sunday-school leaders should be guided by certain broad principles: (a) amuse- ments which are beyond criticism should be provided by the school, and by organ- ized groups within the school; (b) it is not the province of the school to go into vigorous competition with commercial amusement enterprises which involve a lowering of ideals; (c) constant effort should be made to popularize such forms of diversion as have within them construc- tive tendencies—for instance, a church or school might control a skating pond for outdoor sport in winter, because of its healthful influence; while the same church would absolutely refuse to accede to the demand for a closed roller-skating rink with its cheap music and its doubtful companionships. Condemnation of existing amusements without reasonable substitution is futile; however, substitution need not be made in kind or in extravagant degree. Anti-Saloon League The Sunday school which consists very largely of pupils from comfortable homes and whose social needs are met by partic- ipation in the social life of the commu- nity may not greatly need to have the church become an amusement center. In such cases the personal influence of the Sunday-school leaders must be used to keep the community pastimes upon a high plane. On the other hand, the school which ministers to a boarding-house neighbor- hood, or to a community in which real home life is lacking, may find its best opportunity for service in providing a place for social intercourse for the young people of the neighborhood. No other aim can be substituted for the spiritual purpose which is the aim of religious education. Under wise leader- ship, however, healthy and timely min- istrations to the social instincts of young people can be made definitely contribu- tory to the development of moral char- acter. (See Play as a Factor in Reli- gious Education.) K. C. Foster. Reference: Findlay, A. F. Amusements. In Hastings, James, ed., Hncyclopedia of Religion and LHthics, v. 1, p. 400. (New York, 1908.) ANTI-SALOON LEAGUE.—Sez TeEm- PERANCE TEACHING IN THE S. S. APPERCEPTION.—SerErE INTEREST AND EDUCATION. APPLICATION OF RELIGIOUS TEACHING.—In the educative process the principle of “application” requires that knowledge should become adjusted by means of expression; 7. e., through ac- tion and practice in order to establish habit. According to Herbart (q. v.), the teach- ing process consists of five steps: prepara- tion, or finding the point of contact with the pupil; presentation of the lesson mate- rial; association, or making the material clear by means of illustrations; general- ization, working up to the central truth or lesson to be enforced; and, finally, the application. Without this last step the lesson is a mere intellectual exercise. In Architecture, S. §, the Sunday school the application is the chief reason that the lesson needs to be taught at all, because the aim of the Sun- day school is action. The training is all for habit. E Jesus in his teaching illustrates the method more perfectly than any one else. Whenever he taught, it was with the sole object of compelling action. He would teach the lawyer, and he begins by finding the point of contact. “What is written in the law?” In answering the lawyer him- self presents the lesson. Then Jesus illus- trates by the parable of the good Samar- itan after which he makes the lawyer give the generalization: one’s neighbor is the one upon whom he has compassion, and then sharp and clear the application comes: “Go, and do thou likewise.” Every lesson should end in this way. The teacher who lets the superintendent’s bell sound before he has clearly made his application, has lost his hour’s work. Every lesson must be brought home in personal terms. “Thou art the man,” is the most effective ending that can be given to any lesson. The teacher is not there to make the lesson an interesting story, or a scholarly array of facts, or a striking display of picturesque material: he is there first to make his pupils under- stand it, and then to translate it into the terms of their actual living: “this do and thou shalt live.” (See Contact, Point of; Illustration; Moral Practice.) F. L. Parrer, References; McMurry, C. A., and McMurry, F. M. The Method of the Recitation. Chap. IX. (New York, 1911c1897.) Monroe, Paul, ed. A Cyclopedia of Education, vol. 1. Application. ARBEITER RING.—Sere Socrarist SuNDAY SCHOOLS. ARCHITECTURE, SUNDAY-SCHOOL.— Outline I. Introduction. II. History of Sunday-school Architect- ure. 1. Previous to Akron Plan. 2. The Akron Plan. 3. Weakness of the Akron Plan. 4, Inadequacy of the Akron Plan for Graded Lessons. Fee eS Architecture, S. S. Ill. An Ideal Sunday-school Building for Graded Lessons. A. Exterior Architecture. B. Interior Architecture. 1. Principles of Construction. 2. Departments. (a) Beginners’ Department. (b) Primary Department. (c) Junior Department. (d) Intermediate Department. (e) Senior Department. (f) Adult Department. 3. Provision for General Assembly. 4, Classrooms. 5. Classroom Requirements by De- partments, 6. Special Rooms. %. Social Features. 8. Sundry General Suggestions. IV. Modern Church Plans. 1. The Village or Country Church. 2. Temple Church, Minneapolis. 3. Some Kramer Plans. (a) Plan “A.” (b) Plan “B,” First Christian Church, Norfolk, Virginia. (c) Plan “C,” First Christian Church, Athens, Georgia. (d) Plan “D,” M. E. Church, South, Conway, Arkansas. 4, San Diego (Cal.) Baptist Church. 5. Winnetka (Illinois) Congregational Church. 6. St. Paul’s M. E. Church, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. V. Remodeling Old Church Buildings. VI. Interrelation of Church and Sunday- school Architectural Requirements. VII. Bibliography. I, Introduction. Sunday-school archi- tecture is treated in this article as distinct from ecclesiastical architecture. There will be no discussion of the traditional forms of either exterior or interior ar- chitecture. The guiding principle will be efficiency. The religious, educational, and social needs of the church, especially of its children and young people, will be re- _ garded as primary. The time is rapidly _ passing when this viewpoint must be justi- fied. The child indeed has been put in the midst and we are beginning to build our churches as though the child were present in life. The type of future mem- _ bers of our churches is determined in the Sunday school of to-day. The leisure hours of our young people are often a Architecture, S, S. determinative factor in character develop- ment. The Sunday school is not to be regarded as merely an addendum to the church but rather as an integral part of the church’s activity, one of most impor- tant services to the community. Later paragraphs will enlarge upon the prin- ciples laid down in this section. II. History of Sunday-school Archi- tecture. 1. Previous to the Akron Plan. In the early days of the modern Sunday- school movement, the sessions of the schools were held in private houses and outside of the church buildings. The early New England day school was essen- tially a religious school in which the Bible reading and exposition, and prayer were a considerable part of the curriculum. When the churches in America took over the Sunday-school movement and gave it a place in the regular activities of the local organizations, they reluctantly pro- vided for it a home in the large bare audience rooms with their straight-back pews. Before 1860 most of the Sunday- school work was conducted in these one- room church buildings or sometimes in the basement of large buildings, except in the mission fields of the western states. The absence of a building has never pre- vented the organization of a Sunday school. In thousands of cases, the private home, the village or country school house, or the village hall has housed the begin- nings of the local Sunday school. 2. The Akron Plan. With the growth of the Sunday-school movement and the attachment of respectability to it through its adoption by some of the church’s far- sighted leaders, there developed a demand for better housing. At first, in the more able churches, simply a large room was added, then one or two smaller additional rooms. The inception of the Akron plan was the first important attempt to make the house respond to the needs of the Sun- day school. Lewis Miller, a lay Sunday-school worker in Canton and later in Akron, Ohio, designed the type of building which is known as the Akron plan, so named be- cause it was first built in Akron, Ohio. After extensive correspondence with the Sunday-school workers of the sixties, Mr. Miller took a rough draft of his plan to Jacob Snyder, an Akron architect. Mr. Blythe, a Cleveland architect, was called Architecture, S. S. into consultation, the final result being the plan from: which the First Methodist Church of Akron, Ohio, was built in 1867. Bishop J. H. Vincent (q. v.) furnished the definition of an ideal Sunday-school room which was incarnated in the Akron structure: “Provide for togetherness and separateness; have a room in which the whole school can be brought together in a moment for simultaneous exercises, and with the minimum of movement be di- vided into' classes for uninterrupted class work,” The cut (fig. 1) will show at a glance the features of the original Akron church which was the forerunner of the type Fia. 1 alii I qass (PO Fra ii “Wi ii MAIN FLOOR ORIGINAL AKRON PLAN G. W. Kramer, Architect, New York City which more than any other during the last forty years, has been reproduced in the nonritual churches all over the world. The pupils are gathered in numerous class- rooms arranged in an approximate semi- circle about the superintendent’s desk. Another row of rooms in the balcony adds greatly to the number of classrooms. The seats in the balcony are often ar- ranged on steps, each row higher than the one in front of it. With the adoption of the Uniform Les- sons in 1872, the Akron plan rapidly at- Architecture, S. §, tained popularity. Part of the Uniform Lesson plan presupposed a review, from the superintendent’s platform, of the les. son which had been studied previously by the classes of all ages. The plan provided for “togetherness” in that all could see and hear the superintendent and be directed by him in the opening and clos- ing exercises. This plan provided for a larger degree of “separateness” than had been regarded as possible before. The side walls of the classrooms were plas- tered usually and curtains hung at the front. In later years flexible partitions were used instead of curtains, more effec- tively shutting out sound. The great majority of all Sunday-school buildings before 1910 used the Akron plan in some form. | 3. Weakness of the Akron Plan. Diffi- culties, however, arose in its use. It did not prove to be the ideal plan which en- thusiastic Sunday-school workers declared it to be. The many plastered divisions created problems of discipline that seri- ously interfered with the efficiency of wor- ship. The worship of God is a social act, and the numerous small groups shut off from each other in the classrooms could not join in as helpful worship as in the open room and all in sight of one another, To be sure modified plans sought to over- come this difficulty by providing open balcony seats in front of the small rooms, but this only partially solved the difficulty. As long as the superintendent was thought to be the most important personage in the Sunday school there was a certain advan- tage in the readiness with which the whole school could be thrown together. But ob- serving students of the Sunday school dis- covered that in all schools some portions of the organization suffered from the “to- getherness” idea. The “separateness” plan was not altogether a success either, for strange-shaped, poorly lighted and ventilated rooms often were built. Also frequently these did not afford the unin- terruptel class hour that was rightly re- garded as the ideal, because of the phys- ical conditions of the rooms, the open front, or the flimsy type of partition in use. | With the development of more peda- gogical methods in instructing the chil- dren the teachers of the pupils of the Be- ginners’ and Primary departments de- a i : ‘ ti Nt ) ) Architecture, S. S. -manded entire separation. It came only slowly and reluctantly, but it was inevi- table. From 1890 on the better buildings show separate rooms for these little ones. The Chicago World’s Fair Sunday School Building, (approximately similar to Fig- ure 7) designed by George W. Kramer, New York City, was prophetic in that provision was made for separateness for other departments of the school as well. 4. Inadequacy of the Akron Plan for the Graded Lessons. When the Interna- tional Convention in 1909 adopted the principle of graded lessons and directed the Committee to proceed to the prepara- tion of a completely graded system, the problem of Sunday-school architecture be- came acute. As the schools adopted the Graded Lessons the inadequacy of the Akron plan became’more and more mani- fest. ‘The Graded Lessons demand sep- aration of both departments and classes, and the various classes within the de- partment use different lesson material. The time-honored lesson review of the superintendent has no place, for, within the completely graded school, more than a dozen different courses are used at the same time. The weakness of the plan is just as apparent with the new graded lessons as with the uniform lessons, Gen- eral assembly becomes secondary to effi- cient departmental assembly and _ class- room work, ‘There has been great activ- ity among architects since 1909 and much progress has been made toward a build- ing type which will be efficient for the Graded Lessons. The illustrations offered in connection with this article indicate all the ideas of significance that have hitherto been incorporated in modern Sunday-school buildings. But first let us approach seriously a statement of the character of an ideal Sunday-school build- ing for a fully graded school. III. An Ideal Sunday-school Building for Graded Lessons. The attempt will be made in this section to gather together into a careful statement the fundamental features of a building which will incor- porate all that is necessary or desirable to make possible a modern Sunday school. In determining the presence or absence of a given feature the test of efficiency will be observed. Naturally every detail may not be desirable in every individual school, for the schools are widely different, vary- Architecture, S. S. ing in size, differing in location, and with varied types of pupils. Most of the sug- gestions will be available for the school above three hundred in membership, while by the principle of adaptation, schools of any size will find here ideals and practical aids to the largest achievement. The International plan for departments and grades will be used. A. Exterior Architecture. The purpose for which the Sunday school exists can be served best by a substantial, dignified, and beautiful exterior. If beautiful architec- ture can be justified at all it must be used in the buildings which house the religious educational facilities for our growing young people. The church build- ing should, in a sense, incorporate in itself some of the great thoughts for which religion stands. The church building is a reflection of the value which its builders place upon religion and worship. It there- fore should be durable in construction, with simple exterior plan and notable ab- sence of flimsy ornament. That construc- tion material which is genuine, rather than that which is veneer or showy in character, is to be preferred. The lines of the church building should suggest strength and repose, dignity and rever- ence. ‘Thus the unconscious impression of the building in which the Sunday- school interests of the church are housed will serve that for which the Sunday school exists, It will take a courageous committee to withstand the temptation to make a large, showy exterior. The min- istry of art in giving refinement and pro- portion to our church buildings is an un- doubted influence for religious education. While these considerations are usually given due attention in our larger and more pretentious buildings they are often forgotten in our humbler churches, which nevertheless perform the same function in the lives of our people. Attention should be called also to the necessity of surround- ing our church buildings with artistic and well-kept grounds. Many otherwise beau- tiful buildings give a poor impression be- cause of the wrong and improper treat- ment of the grounds, The buildings are placed too near the street, or face the street in a wrong direction. The vertical surface of the side of the building should be blended with the horizontal surface of the ground by judicious planting of shrub- Architecture, S. §. bery or vines. The landscape architect can often render great service to the com- mittee just completing a new church and Sunday-school building. Too much at- tention cannot be given to the impression made upon boys and girls by the buildings and grounds with which is associated their religious education. B. Intertor Architecture. 1. Principles of Construction. It is in the arrangement of the interior of the Sunday-school build- ing that its efficiency as an educational building is determined. Before describ- ing in detail the interior architecture it will be advisable to lay down certain prin- ciples for our guidance. (a) Although the teaching function of the church is regarded as of primary importance in this article, the building must be adaptable to other needs of the church as represented in other organizations and activities than those of the Sunday school. Any other attitude would be selfish and contrary to the spirit which should dominate the erec- tion of a church building. A later para- graph will discuss this matter in detail. (b) Those principles of dignity and beauty which have been related to the exterior will be used in the interior, The impor- tance of environment for the development of the spirit of worship is recognized. (c) The needs of each department will be determined and housing planned ac- cordingly. (d) The housing of the indi- vidual class will be regarded as of prime importance. (e) The building will be related vitally not only to the religious educational needs of the Sunday school’s members but also to their social life. (f) Facilities for worship must be planned for the whole school, divided into the units demanded by the best results of psycholog- ical study. 2. Departments, Departmental needs will be discussed under the following heads: Beginners’, Primary, Junior, In- termediate, Senior, Adult. Access to any of these departments must be direct from halls and not through other departments. The classroom facilities for each depart- ment will be discussed in detail in the fol- lowing section. At the present writing it is very clear that absolutely separate rooms must be provided for the first three de- partments. The method of combining these departments into a large assembly room by the use of temporary partitions a4 | Architecture, 8.8. | of any kind must be abandoned and per- fect freedom from disturbance by those in nearby departments must be accorded | each of these departments. Each of these three departments ministers to a distinct epoch in the life of the child or youth. If a given department does not do its full work, all later departments will suffer in their efficiency; or stated in more serious language the religious life of the boys and girls in the departments not properly pro- vided for will suffer beyond recovery. (a) Beginners’ Department. No move- ment in modern education has better vin- dicated its right to be than the kinder- garten. The religious significance of the work for the smaller children is well recog- nized by educators. The Beginners’ De- partment (q. v.), in the Sunday school then, should have every facility for its work. It would be foolish policy indeed to limit the efficiency of the educational work at its very foundation. How permanent can we expect the superstructure to be when it is placed upon an inadequate foundation? The social experience of the child of the beginners’ age is limited very largely to the home. The room used for their religious education should therefore partake as largely as possible of ‘ideal homelike conditions. The ideal Beginners’ room will be flooded with sunshine and good cheer, and amply provided with fresh air, The young child in a new en- vironment will be fearful if the place is gloomy. The department will be on the ground floor with the fewest possible steps. Even two or three steps should be eliminated, when direct outside entrance is possible, by the use of an easy rubber- covered incline. The ceiling of the ideal department for Beginners’ will be low and studded. Care will be taken that the room is not unduly large. ment needs little more room than for the circle of chairs and the kindergarten tables. The visitors should have an in- conspicuous place at the backs of the chil- dren; possibly if the school is large and visitors are present often, in an alcove The depart- built a step above the room. The pictures” used to decorate this room should be hung low, near to the line of vision of the chil- dren. A burlap dado is useful to fasten lesson pictures close to the eye of the children. The floor will be more home- like if covered with a rug. If bare floors ersten 2 ao Architecture, S. S. are used the legs of the little chairs should be covered with rubber tips. The black- board is desirable, either built into place or movable. ‘The children can do their work best, if seated on small chairs at standard kindergarten tables. Thought- fulness for the teachers dictates ample locker and cabinet space so that all lesson material may be stored in order, and may be quickly found when needed. The lack of this simple requirement often has inter- fered with efficient work. The ideal ealls for a cloak room; a closet with low toilet for children; and a screen near the entrance to the room to prevent undue disturbance from those entering during the exercises. Other suggestions for this department may be found in the examina- tion of modern kindergarten departments in our better public schools. 33 Architecture, 8. S. entering directly into other departments. Where the Primary and Beginners’ De- partments are located in close contiguity, a cloak room may, with advantage, be placed between them. The mothers’ room, to which reference is made later, may be located between them. The Primary De- partment (qg. v.) room should be large enough to permit of division into three rooms by means of accordeon doors or other device. ‘This will permit each grade to have a room by itself for the class hour. Should this not be practicable a com- promise may be made by having two smaller classrooms opening from the main primary room. All that has been said in the paragraph on the Beginners’ Department concerning sunshine, height of ceiling, placing of pictures, tables, and chairs, is applicable here. The tables Fic. 2 CLASS ] -ROCM - °° CLASS - ‘ROOM : a Hie be cat EP -—| VISITORS i ] el | i i ce PRINARY unre - CLASS - —oeOM.« - CIRCLE - RCOM > Hi lj 1UuM PRIMARY DEPARTMENT METHODIST CHURCH, LONG BEACH, CAL. 'N. F. Marsh, Architect, Los Angeles, Cal. (b) Primary Department. This de- tictment should have a room entirely its own and entirely separated from other de- partments by permanent walls, It should have access to the rest of the school by means of halls, not by means of doors should be of a height that will enable the pupils to work with comfort. The chairs should enable the children to sit with their feet easily reaching the floor. Figure 2 gives the floor plan of the Long Beach (Cal.) Methodist Primary Department Architecture, $. 8. which has many admirable features. Note the provision for children’s toilet, visit- ors, separate classrooms, and soft over- head light. The Plymouth Church, Min- neapolis, has a department for grades one to four which is thus described by the superintendent of the school in the Au- gust, 1910, Religious Education. Floor plans were not obtainable. “The Junior Department includes the Kindergarten class and the first four grades, and for this section of the school the Junior or Children’s room was designed. Accessible through a large double door, it is a room 30 x 34 feet in size. In one corner is a door which leads to a safe iron fire es- cape. The room is lighted by eight Gothic windows. The wood work is a soft brown toned oak, the walls painted in flat color to harmonize with the panelings. A good yellow-brown carpet covers the floor, simple net curtains soften the light which comes through the many diamond panes of clear glass. The room is furnished with one hundred and twenty specially designed little Gothic chairs in the same soft brown color.” A unique feature of this room is the generous use of the best art in its decoration. A beautiful fire- place is central in its design and has carved on it as a bas-relief, “Suffer the little children to come unto Me.” On the wainscoting of three sides of the room are installed brown carbon prints of the life of Jesus. Opening from this room are enough classrooms to allow each grade to withdraw to its own room, leaving the larger room for the Beginners’ circle. (c) Junior Department. Some of the most important work in the Sunday school is done during the four years of the pupil’s work in this department. More study may be expected and more information is ab- sorbed by the pupils during this period than in any other to which the Sunday school ministers. A separate departmental room is absolutely essential in which wor- ship can be conducted without disturbing other departments or being disturbed by them. The same suggestions made earlier concerning cloak rooms may be used in this case to insure sound-proof partitions. This department room should be capable of division into four separate grade rooms by removable partitions. Experts vary as to the separation of the sexes for class work in this department. The author of | Architecture, S. §. this article regards the separation of boys — ' ; | and girls as desirable for class work in. this department. In this case the pro-. vision of four additional classrooms open- | ing from this departmental room would be ideal. first suggested, screens may separate the classes in the same room. These classes will be seated at tables about three by seven feet in size, the teacher seated at the middle of one side of the table. Where a provision is made for a geography room it should be located in convenient relation to the higher grades of the Junior Department. See a later paragraph for a description of this room. Blackboards should be available for each class in this department, and maps for the upper classes according as they have geography in the public schools. The Junior De- partment is a busy work room, having no special provision for visitors. This de- partment needs every facility for worship and for grade instruction, and in the larger schools, for separation into indi- vidual classes not exceeding ten pupils each. (See Junior Department.) (d) Intermediate Department. The architectural requirements for the Inter- mediate and Senior Departments vary with the size of the school. With the average school the Intermediate and Senior Departments will probably meet together for worship, also including adult members of the school. In this case there will be required a room of: adequate size for the assembly with a sufficient number of classrooms of varying size adjacent. The assembly room may also be divided into several classrooms. Not every grade of the International system will be always represented in these departments. It will be better to group a larger number with a fine teacher than break up these depart- ments into numerous small classes which will lack the essential quality of enthusi- asm. ‘There is developing a considerable sentiment for boys’ and girls’ depart- ments from the intermediate age on. Where this is desired, adequate architec- tural provision can be made in a manner similar to that recommended for the Junior Department. An illustration of just such a division will be shown later. (See Fig. 8.) The larger school will have Where the divisions are made as the Intermediate Department .as a unit and also the Senior Department meeting Architecture, S. S. separately, though the two may worship together, the boys and girls meeting sep- arately for class work, each of these de- partments being capable of use for meet- ings together or of being broken up into classes. The assembly room of the Inter- mediate Department could be broken by noise-proof partition into two rooms, one for each sex for departmental meetings. Close to this assembly room the class- rooms should be located. The use of the church auditorium for the worship of the Intermediate, Senior, and Adult depart- ments is recommended where the school is not too large. This would give a beau- tiful churchly room for the worship of these groups and would obviate the neces- sity of building a second auditorium for this special purpose. A later section will indicate more in detail the character of the classrooms. (See Intermediate De- _ partment. ) (e) Senior Department. The needs of this department have been covered prac- tically in the foregoing paragraph. The unit is the classroom of the type sug- gested in the section on that important subject. The classes will tend to become larger in size in this department, hence larger classrooms for organized classes will be required. (See Senior Depart- ment.) (f) Adult Department. The worship provision for the members of this depart- ment will either be in the united session of the upper departments referred to in foregoing paragraphs or in the regular service of worship of the church, which is the logical time for adult members of the school. In that case adult classes may meet in their own classrooms a half-hour later than the rest of the school if the session precedes the morning worship of the church. Large cheerful rooms com- _ fortably seated, provided with blackboards _ tions for adult classes. inbuilt and a nest of maps of Biblical lands will provide adequate accommoda- These rooms may _be thrown together by means of folding _ parlor for general social occasions, doors and thus make the large church (See Adult Department.) 3. Provision for General Assembly. The question may arise, “Is no provision to be made for a large Sunday-school - auditorium ?” The answer is, that such _ provision must undoubtedly be made for Architecture, 8S. 8. occasional special days. The modern graded school will not meet in general session, all departments participating, oftener than perhaps.a half dozen times a year. It would be unwise indeed to pro- vide a special auditorium for such a few occasions. ‘The church auditorium is very evidently the place for such general ses- sions of the Sunday school, which is simply the church busy at its teaching function. Such a plan has been adopted by a number of churches, notably the St. Paul’s M. E. Church of Cedar Rapids. (See Figure 13 and paragraph descriptive of this church.) The space for a second Sunday-school auditorium is very valu- able for the increased number of class- rooms which the graded instruction re- quires. 4, Classrooms. 'The classroom is the unit of architecture for the graded school. The teacher is the important personage whose class of whatever age must be given adequate provision. In general an ideal classroom may be described as a rec- ‘tangular, plastered room, with outdoor light and good air. This room will have entrance by but one door to a hall, not connected with a neighboring classroom, except by the hall. Wall space will be sufficient for all equipment, including blackboard and maps necessary for the conduct of the class. A cabinet will be in place in which the class supplies can be kept. The floor space will be sufficient for a large table about which the class will sit, or in the case of high-school classes desk chairs may be substituted. Upon the walls will be hung beautiful art re- productions suitable to the age using the room and appropriate to the lesson material studied. Clearly this is an ideal situation which in many cases will of necessity be approximated: rather than fully realized. But it is well to know the ideal; often it will be found not more im- possible of realization than unpedagogical construction. 5. Classrooms by Departments. In the Beginners’ and Primary Departments separate rooms for a portion of the mem- bership are desirable in some degree but not so essential as in later years. Screens, curtains, and folding doors will frequently give such degree of privacy and freedom from disturbance as will give efficient serv- ice. The larger the departments the more Architecture, S. S. provision should be made for some addi- tional classrooms for these departments, but in the average school such provisions as are suggested in the previous section may be regarded as adequate. The Junior Department, however, pre- sents a different problem. Discipline must take a different form. Outside in- terruptions must be shut out in every way possible. The author regards separate classrooms as pedagogically valuable for this department or for the upper classes in it. Use screens and curtains if better means are not possible. Shut these Junior classes away from outside noises and sights, and efficiency will be greatly in- creased. A much larger number may be handled in a class when a quiet class- room is provided. The classrooms for the Junior Department, when provided, should have large tables of proper height, comfortable chairs, blackboard, suitable pictures, and, in the upper grades, maps of Palestine. It is in the Intermediate Department that the classroom is of the utmost im- portance. Answering to the general re- quirements of the ideal classroom it may also become the club room for the social life of this class during the week. Its decoration may be made a matter of class interest under the direction of the teacher. Knowing that sixty per cent of all the pupils who leave the Sunday school do so during the ages which this department includes, what should we not do to make the Sunday-school life of these unstable youth of the utmost attraction ? All that has been said concerning the classroom requirements of the Interme- diate is true also of the Senior Depart- ment. These young people will very soon be active in many of the church organiza- tions. Let them have every encourage- ment. Make the church the most attrac- tive place in the community life to them. (See section 7% on “Institutional Fea- tures.”) Churches wishing to improve present buildings by providing better class- room facilities will find several helpful suggestions on “Remodeling Old Build- ings” in section V. A word here about different methods of making classrooms, Curtains are better than nothing but should not be planned in a new building. In one of the recent notable Sunday school buildings from the Architecture, §. §. standpoint of expenditure, twelve hundred dollars was expended for curtains and brass rods to make sixteen classrooms! But a few hundred dollars more would have given a much superior form of sepa- ration of classes. Screens are good to separate classes from passing people, but are not to be regarded as efficient in shut- ting out noises. Accordeon doors when tightly fitted, or flexible doors, similar to a roller top desk, are good. Architects are using a door consisting of a frame covered with heavy canvas on either side and in- closing an air space. This door or parti- tion is said to be very effective. Consult your architect about these details. No- thing will fully take the place of the plas- tered wall and the closely fitted door. 6. Special Rooms. There are a num- ber of special rooms, several of which should have place in every progressive Sunday-school building. The director or superintendent should have an office sit- uated in a position convenient to the ac- tivities of the school and easily accessible to the public on week-days, especially when the director is a salaried official and keeps regular hours. The teachers should have a room to which they may come at any time for study. It should have facil- ities for keeping books, a comfortable table, and good light for reading. It should be large enough for the weekly or monthly meetings of the teachers. It might profitably be en suite with the mu- seum, nursery, and exhibit room, and the geography room to which reference is made below. The museum, missionary, and exhibit room serves a three-fold purpose, for within its walls should be brought to- gether every object which will help to illuminate the Bible which is essentially an oriental book, objects which will help the pupils of the school to understand the activities of missionaries, and lastly, an exhibit of the work of the pupils of the various grades, The knowledge that their work, if of sufficiently good quality, may be exhibited will be a legitimate incentive to many. The geography room is in line with the tendency in our best schools to depart- mental methods in teaching a difficult subject. This room will be equipped gen- erously with the best maps, topographical maps, globe, sand-trays, work table, etc., =~ Architecture, S. S. and will be in charge of an experu in geog- raphy teaching. Classes of various grades, especially those of the late Junior and early Intermediate ages, will get in this room the special geographical knowl- edge which will enable them to pursue their regular courses intelligently. (See Handwork in the S. 8.) Fic. 3 bet @ 37 Architecture, S. §. The mothers’ room situated close to the Beginners’ and Primary Departments has been found to serve a good purpose. This room can be made of additional value by equipment as a classroom in child-life for the mothers who wish to be near their children. 7. Special Features. This is not the BASEMENT PLAN CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, LAKEWOOD, OHIO Badgley & Nicklas, Architects, Cleveland, Ohio y-* CAD Frogs ay) i <" became Pet fh § : 4 a ty is 4 a « « s ae 4 ass] L J I ; a58 Wi: f=) GROUND FLOOR PLAN CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, LAKEWOOD, OHIO Badgley & Nicklas, Architects, Cleveland, Ohio The secretary and librarian should have good rooms with convenient facilities and ample cabinet space for supplies. In the largest schools all of the equipment may well be kept back of a counter which will enable the secretary and librarian to meet all needs in an orderly manner. place to justify the presence of social fea- tures in the modern Sunday-school build- ing. (See Educational Function of the S. S.; Organization, 8. 8.; Sunday School History, Middle Period of.) As long as there exists such a close interrelation be- tween moral life and actions and healthy Architecture, S. S. bodies there will be some place for the gymnasium and play-room. (See Play as a Factor in Religious Education.) As long as boys and girls like social life it will be found somewhere, either on the street corners, the public amusement parks, or in the wholesome environment of our church buildings under competent and sympathetic oversight. As long as selfish private interests find a profit in commercializing the amusement life of our young people there should be a place for the high grade motion picture enter- tainment in our church buildings. (See Moving Pictures in the 8. 8.) Buildings are not as “sacred” as precious souls of boys and girls. The principle involved is, Do the young people of the community need amusement, social life, club life, physical activity? Increasingly the an- swer will be “Yes,” and _ progressive churches will find a splendid service in responding to these needs. (See Amuse- ments and the 8. 8.) Close observation of the Y. M. C. A. construction will be of great value. The hall for entertain- ments, usually built on the ground floor, can also be constructed with a sufficiently high ceiling to be used as a play gym- ‘nasium., (See Gymnasiums, Church.) Do not stock this room with the full gym- nastic apparatus. Emphasize the play features. Numerous games will give recreation and good exercise. Make the floor as large as possible up to 60 x 80 and avoid posts and other obstructions. It is absolutely essential to provide shower baths and lockers where an exercise floor is made available. A fire-proof room for the motion picture apparatus can be built at one end, of the gymnasium. (See Stereopticon, Use of the.) The other end should be provided with a stage for dramas, etc. (See Dramatization, The Use of, in Teaching.) Additional tem- porary classrooms may be arranged in this room by means of curtains. The class- rooms can be readily used for club and reading room purposes. Some of the larger classrooms of the Sunday-school building should be furnished as home- like parlors where the young people can entertain and have delightful social life either under the auspices of the Sunday school or Young People’s societies where these organizations are active. There are shown in Figure 3 the base- . | | Architecture, 8. 8. } ment and ground floor plans of the Laie | wood, Ohio, Congregational Church which have much to commend them to. prospective builders of churches using the social features. Note the height of the gymnasium extending through two floors with balcony for spectators, the provision of locker rooms and showers; the bowling alley. The ground floor plan shows an excellent method of separating two depart- | ments of the Sunday school, also a club room well separated from the rest of the | building with a convenient entrance, Figure 4 illustrates the facilities of Plymouth Center, Oakland, California, for meeting the social needs of the young people of its membership. It is referred . to at this point because of its institutional | equipment. The plans largely explain | themselves. The annotated sketches which the pastor, Rev. Albert W. Palmer, has kindly sent to the author show that the Sunday-school classes occupy all of these rooms during their study period. ‘The | Junior Department (grades four to eight) - meets in the gymnasium. Large doors opening all about this room form class | alcoves. During the week the doors are closed against the wall, leaving the room | free for gymnasium and social purposes. Note the provision for the varied needs of boys and girls, young men and young women. ‘Girls and women have exclusive use of the gymnasium on stated after- noons and evenings. The building cost about $25,000 and is separate from the church structure. 8. Sundry General Suggestions. The basement is not the proper place for the Sunday school and if its use can possibly be avoided efforts should be made to do so. A ground floor with full size windows is very desirable. This will enable little children to enter their departments with few or no steps. If a basement must be utilized put the men’s classrooms there. What true father would consign his chil- dren to the basement while he and the mother chose the sunny, cheerful rooms for themselves! It seems absurd, yet one of the best plans for a new building that has come to the writer’s desk shows pre- cisely that situation ; down the dark stairs for the little children, and a very large east and south room on the ground floor for the “men’s class.” It is better to use leaded clear glass in Sunday-school class 4 4 Architecture, S. S. 39 rooms than deep colored glass. Keep the rooms bright and cheerful. The com- petent architect will provide good ven- tilation and light for every place where people are asked to remain for any length of time. There are technical standards in these respects which should be observed. Fia. Led, Lt Ave a < [First Floor] al ——— F Fleading Froorn < (SECS Ra ee Bee yea S(T | pal gv HH A) 5| _ 2) x g | % ¢ 2 Nae Pool Tahkles y To “Ci =: Ht LS |) | i Pa { Py ‘ “i inne S iy ‘ 8 ? = ‘ w y, Gymnasium &) “7 and . | x J Sunday School Room | > ie . ~ fe he | 5 / ‘ Q JS rae | | pe? 3 a he | Supply e+ meee « Courtesy of A. W. Palmer _ (See Hygiene.) Care should be taken _ that halls are ample and well-lighted, that stairs should have an easy tread ‘and should in no case be of a winding char- acter with narrower foot-boards at one _ side than the other. Hand rails are desir- _ able, in some cases, with a second rail for small children, Adequate sanitary drink- Entrarce | PLYMOUTH CENTER, OAKLAND, CAL. Architecture, S. S. ing water supply should be provided. Convenient cloak rooms adjacent to each department are desirable in which um- brella drips will be installed. All de- partments and classrooms should be reached from halls and not through other rooms. Main entrances to rooms where 4 Piedmont Ave ee [Basernont] ee eee = mit) _| | Cluk Fioorm AY z Club Roorm re >) S © | ° ‘Se Ay) Q | ie Q Furnace Fioorm | Dressing Floorrs worship is planned should be from the rear. Provisions against panic from fire should be made. At least two staircases built of fire-proof material should be avail- able from upper floors. It is not too much to require either fire-proof stairs or fire escapes on all school buildings three sto- ries or over. ‘Toilets should be conven- Architecture, S. S. iently located on main halls, not in dark basement corners. Those for the two sexes should not be located adjacent to each other or on the same hall. Ample cabinet provision should be made in every class- room. Is it too much to ask that fres- coings should be restful in character? The good colors do not cost more than those which are harmful. Red and blue will of course be avoided. Soft tones of brown and green are most desirable. Better trust the competent architect in Architecture, S. §, | this plan will show that separate assembly will be possible for Beginners’ and Pri- mary, Junior, Intermediate, Senior, and | Adult. For a school of approximately 150, separate classrooms will be provided for all of the classes of the Junior and Intermediate departments, on the basis of combining two grades in one class in each case. ‘This is more desirable than attempting a fully graded plan with only four or five pupils in a class. The Pri- mary Department would have an excellent Fia. 5 eG - AUDITORIUM - BAPTIST CHURCH, H. W. Jones, Architect, Minneapolis, Minn. this matter than to take a vote of the com- mittee ! IV. Modern Church Plans. 1. The Village or Country Church. The ideals suggested in this article are not entirely Impossible for the village or country church. Not everything is required for the smaller group of people to which the church ministers. Figure 5 gives the floor plans of the Western (Nebraska) Baptist Church altered by the courtesy of the architect to meet more fully the needs of the graded lessons. An examination of oof Il ‘VESTIBULE: |] —weweme ee ed - CHAPEL- o, JA XS q os 6 25 625 5 5 ©) C> A / 2 42) 5% 55 05 % 525 SOOO) ses 25 rete — x S <5 5 % <4 5 \/ 08 > , 2s °S QS O ?, 25 ff, ESTIBULE eansees OO 555050 mx) ‘es XS xox C) ee Ny BO505 = Ke O62 wren WESTERN, NEB. room. Senior and Adult classes would meet in the corners of the auditorium which would be used for the worship serv- ice of the school from the Junior Depart- ment up. The chapel room would be found excellent for the social life. The number of classrooms could be doubled by building a second story of them on each side with stairways from the vesti- bules. This church can be built for a modest sum varying with the material used. Inquiry from the architect will give the information desired. | Architecture, S. S. 2. Temple Church, Minneapolis. Fig- ure 6 illustrates another type of medium _eost church which provides an equipment that will relate itself very well to the de- mands of the Graded Lessons and social work. Note on the ground floor depart- mental rooms for the Primary and Junior Departments. What is denominated the “Sunday-school room” in the plan will serve for general assembly of the Inter- mediate, Senior, and Adult Departments. 41 Architecture, S. S. more churches and Sunday-school build- ings than perhaps, any other living archi- tect. His latest work is therefore worthy of careful consideration. Mr. Kramer has always been an enthusiastic supporter of the Akron plan and did much to develop it during the years of the International Uniform Lesson ascendancy. He also shows in all of his work the thought of “togetherness” referred to in the para- graph on the Akron plan. By the cour- TEMPLE BAPTIST CHURCH, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN, H. W. Jones, Architect, Minneapolis, Minn. Ten classrooms will aid in providing ‘quiet for the lesson hour. Curtains or flexible doors would divide the main room effectively at the line of posts. The gym- nasium provides excellent floor space for play and entertainment and special boys’ ‘department, if desired. The main audi- torium would provide ideal assembly for worship should the space on the ground floor be needed for additional classrooms or departmental space. 3. Some Kramer Plans. Mr. George W. Kramer of New York City has planned tesy of this busy man we are enabled to examine four of his latest plans, in all of which he had in mind the graded lesson system. (a) Plan “A,’ There are shown in Figure 7 the basement and main floor plans of one of Mr. Kramer’s recent plans. Departments only are separated, the grades in this building being handled as groups. Nor is any provision made for sex separation in any department. Excellent provision is made for Beginners’ and Pri- mary departments with a mothers’ room Fia. 7, Plan “A” Fra. 7, Plan ‘‘A”’ HEATING APPARATUS. r - Sen GYMNASIYM, DINING LECTUREOR DRILLROOM aeeeeen ~ & B= ae —— a ee | SS EE, Cc Vv Cc 2 KITCHEN HALL G. W. Kramer, Architect, New York City GAS TABLE CHECK ROOM INTER ME OVATE G. W. Kramer, Architect, New York City Architecture, §S. S. and toilet near at hand. The Junior, In- termediate, and Senior departments may be united for worship. No classroom pro- visions are indicated and in this respect the plan would not be regarded as reflect- ing the latest thought for a properly graded school, In matters like these, 43 Architecture, §. S. rooms. The basement plan shows a large room with excellent facilities for enter- tainment and gymnasium purposes. (b) Plan “B” (Figure 8) is a com- plete Sunday-school building for the First Christian Church, Norfolk, Vir- ginia, planned for 800-1000 pupils. The Fia. 8, Plan ‘‘B’’- 1 Junior Otp'T GRADE 7. Graoc & > wweence ceaaneo® = A Grade 10 i] ‘© DEPT GRAOC It ERMEDIAT Init MAIN FLOOR FIRST CHRISTIAN CHURCH, NORFOLK, VA. G. W. Kramer, Architect, New York City however, the architect is not to be blamed. Often his dealings are with church build- ing committees whose only knowledge of the needs of the Sunday school are hazy memories of their own childhood! Mr. -Kramer’s later plans will indicate his sense of the importance of individual class- clear markings will indicate the divisions. The grade markings do not follow the In- ternational plan which does not give a grade number to the Beginners. The de- partments are well segregated and pro- vision is made for general assembly in what is now the auditorium of the church. Fic. 8, Plan “B” SECOND FLOOR PLAN FIRST CHRISTIAN CHURCH, NORFOLK, VA. G. W. Kramer, Architect, New York City x 4 m N > 2 . e 9 S} ° za ré =) u | On? Cc O¢ PEAR RCN tT Ri 5 I ripe, tee os > 4 = ie > Rie . M4 Po Lut & =o rw) o ws © eeeen -o-----U---s 4 @ Svoogd SaimMddng ' ' Senior Dere'r GIRLS. t ! GRADE IA IGRADE 15 IGRADE 1s MEATING APPLIANCES ANO .Puew, Lecture @ a ae ' | DINING ROOM, | 1 GYMnNAsIUA 4 i@ ( ee wae bi ee oS PEAS PASSAGT. ° rc cee | MOTHERS Room PRIMARY DEP'T. ie no and KINDERGARTEN DEPT. LADIES RETIRING Hi LMM Hh Hh Seeeeeenaicel — Renae 5 | eae fa im os oper cma ° e BASEMENT PLAN FIRST CHRISTIAN CHURCH, ATHENS, GA G. W. Kramer, Architect, New York City Up ll CNTRANCE Mace il CfvID NoOIssin Smoweas. i meal TT Ht ee ‘asia | cto nila | eee FF DiReEc ToRs FE! Orrica cuts AS 1 : l READING ROOM Gents Towett Gaoies Tomer. Fia. 9, Plan “C’” ph & = — — poe = = TAZ Lge mec THE I) Dp / ZL) ROTUNDA UL iC Att Moatuu, |t; cee 4 ss pie ¥ = aa ‘ mission! Crass. — a perme renr MAIN FLOOR FIRST CHRISTIAN CHURCH, ATHENS, GA. 3. W. Kramer, Architect, New York City Fia. 9, Plan “‘C” SECOND FLOOR PLAN FIRST CHRISTIAN CHURCH, ATHENS, GA, t. W. Kramer, Architect, New York City Architecture, S. S. Note the sex segregation in the Senior Department classrooms which are in- stalled under a deep balcony. Additional classrooms are provided adjacent to the 46 Primary Department which is on the, second floor. The third floor plan not printed herewith shows the deep gallery and two large rooms for classes or social life. (c) Plan “C” (Figure 9) is a favorite type of plan with Mr. Kramer. The Sun- Architecture, S, £ tional classes, probably by means of cur) tains, in the gymnasium. | (d) Plan “D” (Figure 10) was built b. Mr. Kramer for the M. E. Church, Sout’ of Conway, Arkansas, and is regarded b him as “one of the best types of arrange ment for a departmental school.” Th plan combines all in two groups for wor ship, segregates the Beginners’ Depart ment, arranges for assembly of Junior an Primary if desired, provides for separa Fig. 10, Plan “D” oven YSN en Gare art 8 8A ETNA D ee es “ 3) Ri 8 / 3s “sie VESTIBULE, i ‘ = ° < ! rm VESTIBULE. , x i < Oo ¢ ~~ 7 : 2 4 ' I 1.daq SY¥3NNID3Q a “JINGUSDA PASSAGE PASSAGE en----" OA ge A ITVYO 1904 3 143d Sorte MAIN FLOOR PLAN M. E. CHURCH, SOUTH, CONWAY, ARK, G. W. Kramer & Son, Architects, New York City day-school room can be combined with the church proper to enlarge the auditorium. The plan was constructed for the First Christian Church, Athens, Georgia, which uses the merger or combination. service. ‘The Beginners’ and Primary departments have separate rooms in a light basement. Other departments use the classrooms in- dicated in the drawings. The basement shows excellent equipment for institu- tional work. Note the provision for addi- tion of both grades and sexes in the Inte! mediate and Senior departments. Th diagonal lines between departments ind cate sound-proof movable doors. Th whole school can be thrown together int two sections in a moment by raisin these doors. The Akron plan is used t provide classrooms in some of the depar' ments. In this plan entrance to all th classrooms is from an outer passag which is also an insulation against noise ~ Fia. 10, Plan “‘D” Fia. 10, Plan “D” FASSAGE , nnennie ae \ \GRADE XV GRADE XVI * INTERMEDIATE DEPT. Pere oe oo AUDITORIUM yy v) \ & crave x! ---* om” P . \\\ GRADE &- Graoe Xi GIRLS. SECOND FLOOR PLAN M, E, CHURCH, SOUTH, CONWAY, ARK. THIRD FLOOR PLAN G. W. Kramer & Son, Architects, New York Cit ; “4 M. E. CHURCH, SOUTH, CONWAY, ARK, G W Kramar & San Architanta Now Vark Cite, : As —_ ew owe CSE CO ee Architecture, S. S. 48 and heat, but at the same time provides ample light and ventilation. Note in all of Mr. Kramer’s plans the ample provision he makes for convenient exits and easy passage from department to department. 4, San Diego Baptist Church. This church (Figure 11) providing for a mem- bership of about 1,500, and a Sunday school of half that number, has some fea- tures worthy of careful examination. The ground floor has excellent provision for Beginners’ and Primary Departments, with separation by hallway from the Junior Department. Classes in the latter ba Architecture, §, §, this article it promises to lend itself in many ways to modern Sunday-school work, 5. Winnetka (Illinots) Congregational Church. (Figure 12.) At this writing this church is doing one of the most not- able pieces of religious educational work in America. The plans show only a recent addition to the equipment of the church. The Primary and Junior departments have bright, home-like rooms in the orig- inal building, using tables and modern equipment of every kind. The high-school classes meet in their club rooms. The Fia il |. CLASS a Lara as 5 ‘ ty " th (eenntb asa} HIB iil i a Fs] o re) z H ry 22 UN I i l ——_ ences —-— _—— =~ { ~-—_--=<—9 Sh aotee BAPTIST CHURCH, SAN DIEGO, CAL. N. F. Marsh, Architect, Los Angeles, Cal. will meet about the tables which will be protected in part from neighboring classes by long screens. The social hall is pro- vided with motion picture apparatus and will seat comfortably about six hundred. A good feature is the teachers’ room, ar- ranged close to the kitchen so that a supper can be served easily. The Sun- day-school assembly room proper is merged into the main auditorium on occasion. Assembly is provided for the Intermediate and Senior Departments in this room. Additional classrooms are provided for large organized bodies. While this building had not been completed at the writing of Winnetka church is demonstrating the possibility of making the church ba a community center. Although a subur of only four thousand people about 4 hundred thousand dollars have been in- vested in the splendid equipment for social work. A large gymnasium gives ample opportunity for play and serious work. The various club rooms give a place to which the boys may come, in which their interests are centered week-days as well as on Sundays. The gymnasium 1s equipped with an excellent stage and with moving picture apparatus. A strict cen- sorship insures to the people of Winnetka ee ae = ——— ee eee a Tt <== 3 Ieee La GYAAAaDSIVOA > fee [I | SroaecEe = FIRST FLOOR PLAN CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, WINNETKA, ILL. Courtesy of J. W. F. Davies iiliiigiii UAH vwoilev Fig. 12 SECOND FLOOR PLAN CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, WINNETKA, ILL. Courtesy of J. W. F. Davies Fia. 13 ‘LocneRsasnowrd SS YMNASIUM) eer ll BLEACHERS CORRIDOR a BT ess [mn SERVICE ROOM COUNTER ‘ BASEMENT PLAN ST. PAUL’S M. E. CHURCH, CEDAR RAPIDS, IA W.C. Jones, Architect, Chicago, Ill. = a ee = eS GTO is RS OA Be ry s list | , @) a a j gf's F PE TE ae AN c be we on cor “a4 - s LR vee pag 2] BEGINNERS] OFFICE stupy” Fol: PARLOR OF Room BP ROOM A oe AUT AT: ne 4 29027 » e@rar 1@R20 3 nagar acrapy = aeeawy {3} == cs eee aces a > aceon = : | ca tiuse ; mio se enema _—- e =a [== q coeer | bt fwd] VESTIBULE ® CORRIDOR. | ae TTY ‘ nal [FOYER, * CORRIDOR a voitnate mi = pai MAIN FLOOR PLAN ST. PAUL’S M, E. CHURCH, CEDAR RAPIDS, IA. W. C. Jones, Architect, Chicago, Ill. oo Architecture, S. S. the finest films weekly. The men of Winnetka have excellent club rooms open at all hours. The basement plans (not shown here) provide luxurious facilities for baths and pressing rooms, a large _ play room for the smaller children, and bowling alleys. In many respects these plans are the most effective of any known to the writer. The story of the Winnetka church is an inspiration to any church seeking better quarters in which to do its work, Fia, : peor is t rAd ar ROOM 14@iR t2'“ao ROOM 14 (2u2o° or = oe ——i——)} —F —s fe ROOM .'6) Po, SS KAO wart peewee Oe-ee ~~-4 I gag ROOM i7 } (| , Isa N PASSAGE = - as —— ———— a ss ———— — —- Ss — ce at pate = +2 ROOM ANCTROOM PIROOM BF ROOM 7. 14420 - yatnae (aac “w2e | sau SS SSS eS CHOIR ROOM UPPER PARTY OF. AUDITORIUM Architecture, 8. §. is planned in the church auditorium. Separate plastered classrooms are pro- vided for every class in the school, except in the Junior Department where remov- able partitions are used. Unusually wide corridors provide for social life and the delay which may occur when the Sunday- school and church services approach one another, A beautiful chapel provides for devotional meetings, An assembly room with stage, in the basement, will be avail- able for entertainments. A gymnasium 13 4ROOMK 4 ~ agey be fae - ROOM J eS 20'R 1g c.ce TT sannnege dines Room 3 | rnooms > $2 wae ¥ ‘Svea Z epee ee PASSAGEWAY _ SECOND STORY PLAN 8T. PAUL’S M, E. CHURCH, CEDAR RAPIDS, IA. W. C. Jones, Architect, Chicago, Ill. 6. St. Paul’s M. EH. Church, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. (Figure 13.) This plan is presented last because it is regarded by the author and many others as probably the most significant contribution to the architecture of the modern Sunday school made to the present time. It is worthy of the most careful study of any prospect- ive church builders. It was born of a longing to make more adequate provision for the ages when youths most rapidly leave the church. With the exception of the Beginners’ and Primary, and perhaps the Junior Departments, worship for all with gallery for seventy-five spectators, will provide for the play life of the youth. While the building has not yet been tested and the experience of the church is not available as yet, it is difficult to see what serious problems will arise in the use of the building which may not be adjusted satisfactorily. This plan promises to in- fluence future Sunday-school construc- tion in a marked degree. Its enthusiastic authors call it the “Cedar Rapids plan” and predict that it will have the vogue in the next quarter century which the “Akron plan” enjoyed in the last twenty- Architecture, S. 8S. five years. An interesting variation of this plan is that of the First Christian Church, also of Cedar Rapids, Iowa, (Badgley and Nicklas, Cleveland, Ohio, Architects). The general plan is similar but all departments may also meet as units, folding doors being used between the classrooms. The luxury of a separate classroom, insuring quiet and no inter- ruption, probably will be regarded as of more value than departmental meetings which can be arranged in the “Cedar Rapids plan” in the other parts of the building. Two of the most progressive Sunday-school buildings are thus located in the same city. V. Remodeling Old Church Buildings. . It frequently occurs in the history of the growing church that the Sunday school crowds its quarters. In some cases, espe- cially in country and village churches, the building is little more than one large bare room. The building may be substan- tial in construction or the congregation unable to rebuild to satisfy the modern demands. What can be done? Obviously each problem of this type is individual, not permitting of a general answer. How- ever, certain suggestions can be made which will help in making over the old structure into something more modern. The study of the best plans, such as have appeared in this article, will indicate the type of building which is desirable. The competent church architect will be able to accomplish much more than perhaps seems possible. Does the old church have a high and dry basement? This may pro- vide a quiet room for the Beginners’ and Primary by means of plastered walls, while six to a dozen classes may have good rooms by means of the more temporary curtains on wires, or brass rods, or the more permanent rolling partition. (See Figure 14.) Where sufficient money is available for an addition it is usually ad- visable to use the funds for the Sunday- school quarters, for the modern demands are relatively so complicated that it would be better to build a new, rather than to attempt to alter an old, church building into Sunday-school quarters. There is usually a lack of light which will require new windows. In such instances more can be accomplished by building the Sun- day-school portion new. When this is the case ideas and suggestions will come from ’ “s 4 Ay u Architecture, S. §. the late plans offered herewith. For in- stance, see how effectively a modern build- ing can be realized by adopting the “Cedar Rapids plan,” using the church auditorium for worship and adding classroom facil- ities. The same principle can be adopted in the smallest church. The writer re- cently saw in California a church altera- tion costing about a thousand dollars which had transformed the Sunday school from a one-room organization to a three department school with three additional classrooms. The membership of the school was about a hundred and graded work was being used in part. In a large city school where the problem of class- rooms had become acute, a neighboring Fia. 14 G. W. Kramer, Architect flat building was rented and gave them unexpectedly efficient quarters for they added about twenty-five separate class- rooms. 201 Christian Science Church the children is provided for in Section 2 of Article XX, which reads: “The Sabbath school children shall be taught the Scriptures, and they shall be instructed according to their understand- ing or ability to grasp the simpler mean- ings of the divine Principle that they are taught.” Then follows explicit direction respect- ing the subject for lessons. The first les- sons of the children, the Manual provides, shall be the Ten Commandments, the Lord’s Prayer and its spiritual interpre- tation as found in the Christian Science textbook, Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, by Mary Baker Eddy, and the Sermon on the Mount. The next les- sons consist of such questions and an- swers as are adapted to a juvenile class, and may be found in the Christian Science Quarterly Bible Lessons read in Church Services. The children are taught the meaning of the Ten Commandments, the Lord’s Prayer and its spiritual interpretation, and the Beatitudes. With these spiritual fundamentals provided, the teaching has for its purpose so to elucidate their import . by means of practical illustrations and everyday examples of love, obedience, and good that the children will catch their spirit, understand them, and as a result be genuinely interested in them. It is appar- ent that a child may be taught the words, “Thou shalt have no other gods before me,” with comparative ease. But to teach a child the meaning of that Command- ment so thoroughly that he can and will prove in his living that he actually has no other gods before God, divine Life, Truth, Love, is the special privilege of the Sun- day-school teacher. The words of Jesus, “T am the way, the truth, and the life: no man cometh unto the Father but by me,” leave those intrusted with the responsi- bility of teaching in no doubt as to the way to teach. As stated in Science and Health, “Jesus was ‘the way’; that is, he marked the way for all men” (p. 46). Clearly, then, what Jesus taught respect- ing the truth underlying our manner of living is the “way” the children should be taught. Consideration is given to the fact that some of the older children may not re- main in the Sunday school more than a year. Effort is therefore made to see that Christian Science Church they are equipped with a knowledge of the spiritual interpretation of Scripture, and to prepare them not only to read the Bible intelligently, but, with its aid, to meet and master the problems that come up in their daily experience. “The entire pur- pose of true education,” Mrs. Eddy writes, ‘is to make one not only know the truth but live it—enjoy doing rightly—and not work in the sunshine and run away in the storm—but work midst clouds of wrong, injustice, envy, hate; and wait on God, the strong deliverer, who will reward right- eousness and punish iniquity.” (Chris- tian Science Sentinel, October 31, 1903.) Regarding teachers, the Christian Science Leader wrote, “Tt is a joy to know that they who are faithful over foundational trusts such as the Christian education of the dear chil- dren, reap the reward of rightness, rise in the scale of being, and realize at last their Master’s promise, ‘And they shall all be taught of God.’” (Ibid., November 19th, 1904). No provision is made for the “entertain- ment” of Sunday-school children. The exercises are simple and are presided over by a superintendent. ‘This officer is ap- pointed by the governing board of the in- dividual church of which he is a member. It is deemed best in the interests of the Sunday school that none except the of- ficers, teachers, and pupils attend the Sun- day-school exercises. The church polity being democratic, the general affairs of the Sunday school are administered by each church separately. The officers usu- ally include a secretary or an assistant superintendent, or both, and a treasurer to aid the presiding officer. Experience seems to point the wisdom of arranging for small classes—a teacher for six to twelve children. Exceptions to this plan are frequent, however. In June, 1913, there were approxi- mately 1450 church organizations of the Christian Science denomination. These, with few exceptions, maintain Sunday schools as an integral part of their serv- ices. The proportion of Sunday-school pupils to the attendance upon church services appears to vary in different parts of the world, as it does in sections of this country. Numbers are not used in de- termining the importance and growth of this Sunday-school work. Consequently 252 Christian Year no figures are available upon which to base an estimate of the numerical strength of the Christian Science Sunday schools. H. C. WILson. CHRISTIAN YEAR.—Three principles enter into the formation of the Church calendar; first, the calendar is designed to commemorate the chief events of the Incarnation; secondly, to commemorate those more intimately connected with our Blessed Lord in his life and in the plant- ing of the Church; thirdly, to keep a memorial of local saints, martyrs, doctors of the faith and heroes and leaders of the world. These principles were not recog- nized, of course, at the beginning. ‘The Church followed the general principle of treating the life of Christ in a series of commemorations. These, in the Epis- copal calendar, do not follow the order of their original establishment. aster was necessarily the first in observance, But out of this others grew naturally and inevitably. I. The Chief Seasons and Holy Days.— 1. Christmas and Epiphany were orig- inally one festival commemorative of the Nativity of our Lord. It was early believed that the life of Christ, from his conception to his death, lasted an exact number of years. Hippolytus (200 A. D.) fixed upon March 25th for the Annuncia- tion because he calculated that the Cruci- fixion took place on that day. He there-) fore settled upon December 25th, as the date of the Nativity. Another factor in| the choice of December 25th, is the heathen festival of the sun on the same | day. In the fourth century the Christmas festival began to be commonly observed, and owing to an uncertainty of dates, it is not impossible that the Church availed herself of this coincidence in order to Christianize the ancient pagan feast. (See Christmas, Observance of.) ; Epiphany, January 6th, was early se- lected as the date of our Lord’s Baptism; and the tradition became current that he was baptized on his thirtieth birthday, thus his physical and spiritual birth syn-| chronizing. This festival became thus, one of the two great days for the admin- istration of baptism. It was not until’ the fourth century that December 25th came into general observance as Christmas Day. The separation of the day of the | Nativity from that of Epiphany, the day of the baptism, may have been furthered by the recognition of the Incarnation as having been effected at his birth, and not by the rite of his baptism. Thus the establishment of Christmas became the substantial affirmation of the actuality of the Incarnation. He was born, he be- came flesh, “He was incarnate by the Holy Ghost of the Virgin Mary, and was ‘made man.” 2. The Presentation of Christ, and the Annunciation B. V. M. The former feast was not observed before the sixth century; and no trace of the latter is found in the first four centuries. The Collect for this latter festival is of sin- gular beauty. It does not refer to the ‘Blessed Virgin Mary save by implication ‘in the words “by the message of an Angel.” In the old Sarum use of the ‘English Church this day was known as /“Our Lord’s Annunciation.” 'The present |name was later authorized, and the title |“Lady Day,” came into popular use, )marking the increasing reverence for the | Mother of our Lord. The Collect comes from the Sacrament- ary of Gelasius (about 490) but its writer is unknown. No other Collect furnishes a finer illustration of the literary genius that produced these brief and wonderful prayers. This Collect is familiar to all because it forms part of the memorial of the Departed said at close of compline, and is used also after other services. 3. Lent preceded Easter, originally, as the fast of preparation both for Easter, -and for the Sacrament of Holy Baptism which was on that day administered. The _word itself is of Anglo-Saxon origin, meaning “the lengthening days.” The atin name was Quadragesima, 1. e., the fast of forty days. The Sundays in Lent | are not fast days. The ancient ceremo- nial for Ash Wednesday was conducted in the church. Penitents presented them- Selves inside the door of the church. The Penitential Psalms were chanted, fol- lowed by a general confession, after which the bishop sprinkled ashes upon them, saying: “Remember, man, that dust thou art, and unto dust thou shalt re- tum!?—then “Break thine heart, for a humbled heart God does not despise ! 1? They were then sent from the church, or Were directed to a secluded part reserved y } Christian Year 253 Christian Year for them, till Maundy Thursday, when they received absolution, and were re- stored to Christian privileges. 4. Palm Sunday. This was one of the ancient holy days. Its observance is for- tunately being revived. For those who de- sire to do this nothing could be more fit- ting than the Office of Blessing the Palms that come down to us from the old Sarum use. ‘This service may be held before the early celebration, or it may be made a separate and most impressive service, in place of the regular Sunday-school ses- sion. The Sarum Office will be found to appeal with peculiar power to the young, and it should be ordered with careful at- tention to every detail. 5. Good Friday. The observance of Good Friday began, we may believe, in the Apostolic Age. Wednesday and Friday came to be used as the weekly fasting days, suggested probably by the Jewish custom. of fasting twice in the week, Mon- day and Thursday. (Luke 18:12.) But attention is here called to the fact that very largely children have been left out of consideration in the modern use of Good Friday. It is a day devoted to grown people. There would seem to be ample reason for gathering the children for a service at some time during the three hours. Such a service need not last more than an hour—from two o’clock to three. Simple hymns and prayers, the telling of the story, and as they leave the church, the distribution, of a memorial card, form a fitting service. 6. Haster. The Apostles continued to observe the Passover, but this would not naturally be the case with Gentile Chris- tians. The words of St. Paul (I Cor. 5:7) seem to suggest an additional reason for his own keeping of the Jewish Pass- over, and also a very significant reason why Gentile Christians might celebrate the Lord’s Supper at that same time with more than ordinary interest and solem- nity. But there is no mention of Easter in Justin Martyr’s writings nor by other early Fathers. Yet St. Polycarp (69-155 A. D.) Bishop of Smyrna, gave St. John as his authority for keeping Easter. He was still a young man when the Great Apostle died, and this carries one back to the very Apostolic Age. (See Easter, Ob- servance of.) 7. Ascension Day. The observance of Christian Year this feast only goes back to the fourth century. St. Augustine speaks of it as of apostolic origin, and its observance was in his day universal. This is not the case at the present time. The day falls always in midweek, and receives more than the ordinary neglect of a busy age. Its name, Holy Thursday, is common in the English and American churches. 8. Pentecost. In the first four centuries Pentecost meant: (1) The name of the 50th day after Easter, and also (2) the name of the whole season. Acts 2:1; 20:16; and I Cor. 1:6-8 use the word in the first sense. Irenzeus, Bishop of Lyons, France, in the. second century observed this feast. He was born in Smyrna and remembered to have heard the preaching of Polycarp, who died in 155 A. D. and he frequently mentions having met those who had known St. John the Apostle. The Octave of Pentecost is Trinity Sunday, and is- set apart as a distinct festival in honor of the Holy Trinity. Our name for Pentecost is Whitsunday, from pfingsten, German for fifty. Others derive it from White Sunday, so called because of the white robes worn by those baptized on the Eve of the Feast. 9. Trinity Sunday. The earliest notice of this festival in England is in 1162 A. D. In the old diocese of Sarum (Salis- bury) they numbered the Sundays as “after Trinity,” while, in the Roman and Greek churches, these are numbered from Pentecost. It is one of the noblest of days, and has a singular elevation as the Festival of God. The Collect dates from the Sacramentary of Gregory the Great (540-604 A. D.), who sent St. Augustine to England (596) and who organized other missionary enterprises, and revised and improved the liturgy and music of the Church. This prayer may have been, however, the composition of Pope Gelasius (492-496) whose Sacramentary Gregory revised and enlarged. 10. Ember Days. These come at four seasons, and are called the Fasts of the Four Seasons. The word Hmber is abbre- viated from Quatember (Latin, Quatuor temporum). Some trace their use back to apostolic times. The ancient Jewish Church observed fasts on the 4th, 5th, 7th and 10th months. These Ember Days fall on the Wednesday, Friday and Satur- day after: the Ist Sunday in Lent, Whit- 254 Christian Year , sunday, September 14th, and December 13th, representing, broadly, the four sea- sons. In the early Church instead of these fixed dates, the days varied accord- ing to local circumstances in different places. The present dates appear to have been fixed about the eleventh century. 11. The Rogation Days. These are the three days fast preceding Ascension Day. The originator of this fast and of the pro- cessional ' litanies used during it, was Claudius Memertus, Bishop of Vienne, in France, in the fifth century, at a time of earthquake and other calamities. These days with their litanies became widely used, and extended into England, and finally to Milan and Rome, about the ninth century. Charlemagne the Great is said to have marched with bare feet in these solemn processions. 12. Feasts and Fasts. The table of these will be found in the Prayer Book, p. XXIV. On looking over this table it will be seen that the Church Year falls into two divisions. Barry names thus the Festal, from Advent to Trinity, and the non-Festal from Trinity to Advent. This is only partially correct. Into the first division come not only the great festivals but also the great fasts, while in the second come the Saints’ Days, the Feast of the Transfiguration and the Festival of the Holy Angels. 13. Octaves. Certain of the more im- portant festivals continue for eight days. The eighth day is called the Octave. Through the whole Octave the Collect for the feast will be said at all services. These festivals are marked by the use of — proper Prefaces—Christmas, Easter, As- cension, and Whitsunday. The Preface for Whitsunday is ordered to be used only six days after that festival, because the seventh, viz., the Octave of Whitsun- day, would be Trinity Sunday, which has a Preface of its own. The first two days of the Octave of Easter and Whitsunday are Holy Days of Obligation. | II. Saints’ Days. 1. In the Roman Bre- viary there are the names of no less than 278 saints, whose names, either in sepa- rate days, or by commemoration, have places in the calendar. In the Eastern and English churches names would find place owing to local fame and interest. This was the condition at the time of the English reformation, and led to a neces- a Christian Year sary revision. The first Prayer Book of 1549, presented a very drastic revision, retaining only one class of Saints’ Days, the present “Red Letter Days,’ 1. ¢., days which have their own Collects, Epis- tles and Gospels. The next Prayer Book (1552) introduced again “Black Letter Days,” 1. e., days for which Collects, Epistles, Gospels, were not provided. The later revision of 1661 left the present ealendar of the English Church. In- cluding Sundays, there are 149 festivals in the English calendar. Of these 54 are festivals on which commemoration is made of saints and confessors not men- tioned in the Bible. Twenty of these are martyrs in the age of persecution, and eleven are sacred to great defenders of the ‘Faith, like St. Augustine and Saints of France showing the old connection be- ‘tween France and England. 2. The American Calendar. Prayer Book p. XXIV.) This is identical with the correspond- ing one in-the English Book with the ex- ception of the addition of the Feast of the Transfiguration. But the American calendar leaves out the so-called Black- Letter Days. The Eastern Church cal- endar is remarkable as compared with those of the West, for containing, in addi- tion to saints of Christian history, the names of eighteen Old Testament saints, one day sacred to the Seven Maccabean Heroes, and one in honor of Zacharias, father of St. John the Baptist. 3. The question arises, What is the pur- pose for which the Christian Year calendar exists? Many of the saints commemo- tated in the Roman calendar are of little or no general interest. Just why they find a place it is difficult to understand. The same is also true of the English, though in far less degree. On the other hand it is to be remembered that one of the great- est values of the Christian Year is its cultivation of the historic sense by the constant commemoration of past events and characters, and its fostering of devo- tion and faith. Every church would do well to have its own sacred and memorable names which could be added to some such broad and comprehensive calendar as that contained in the American Book of Com- mon Prayer. The Christian Calendar in 400 A. D. A Recapitulation. 1. The Lord’s Day was (See 255 Christian Year observed from the earliest times and was no doubt due to the express teaching of the Apostles. 2. Wednesday and Friday as fasting days, are probably equally primitive. The Jews observed Monday and Thursday (Luke 18:12). The Christians moved their days forward, as the Lord’s Day would naturally suggest, bringing Wednes- day midweek, and Friday a fast in com- memoration of the Crucifixion. 3. Haster and Pentecost came into gen- eral observance, together with Good Fri- day, very early, though it is possible that owing to the confusion of opinion as to the dates of such days as Kaster and the Nativity, this observance was not uni- versal before the third century. 4, By the year 400 A. D., therefore, it is known that the following had become fixed in the Christian Year: Christmas, Epiphany with Octave; Presentation, Palm Sunday, Easter with Octave, Ascen- sion Day, Pentecost; also these, St. Stephen and All Martyrs Day, St. James the Brother of our Blessed Lord; St. Peter, St. Paul, St. James, and St. John. Holy Cross Day, September 14th, also be- longed to this early calendar, which was in commemoration of the dedication, in’ 335, of the churches built by Constantine on the site of the Holy Sepulcher and Cal- vary. Silvia, who recorded the incidents of her travels, about 385, describes the customs at Jerusalem as she herself saw them, in what is known as “The Pilgrim- age of Silvia.” Thus the calendar stood in the year 400. All other days and feasts to which reference has been made were added from time to time as the Church developed her life. PascaL HARROWER. References: Barry, Alfred, ed. Teacher’s Prayer Book. (New York, 1899.) Blunt, J. H., ed. Annotated Book of Common Prayer. (London, 1895.) Dearmer, Percy. Parson's Hand- book, (London, 1907.) Frere, W. H. Some Principles of Inturgical Reform. (London, 1911.) Hastings, James, ed. Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels. 2 v. (New York, 1906-09.) Lee, F. G., ed. Directorum Anglico- rum. Hd. 4. (London, 1879.) Christmas Pellicca, A. A. The Polity of the Christian Church . . . tr. by J. C. Bellett. (London, 1883.) CHRISTMAS, OBSERVANCE OF.— Jesus’ birthday was first celebrated in the second century, so ordered, it is said, by Telesphorus (138-161 A. D.), the seventh Bishop of Rome, this with other offenses, being the cause of his martyrdom. The observance lived through flame and sword. _ For several centuries it was not a season of joy, but one of heroic devotion. On one occasion hundreds of worshipers were burned alive when assembled for this cele- bration. December 25th is not the actual date of the birth of Jesus. That is unknown. The selection of this day as natalis by the Western Church was by no means arbi- trary. At this season of the year a series of pagan festivals in relation to the social life of the Romans were held, culminating in that of the winter solstice, the birthday of the new sun. This festival was spirit- ualized and made symbolic by followers of the Christian faith. The Eastern Church » chose January 6th as “Epiphania,” but in the fourth century transferred its cele- bration to the same date as that of the Western. The Christmas of the Greek Church, however, is still twelve days later than ours. (See Christian Year.) The legend of St. Boniface and the first Christmas tree tells of its use six hundred years after the first observance of Christ- mas. In brief this is the story: One wintry night, on a hillock where stood the “Thunder Oak” sacred to the god Thor, a company of people were assembled; in the midst were the high priest and a kneeling child—a victim to be sacrificed by the blow of a hammer. Boniface ap- peared, turned aside the blow of the hammer by the Cross, rescued the boy, and felled down the oak. “Here,” said he, as his eyes fell on a young fir tree, “is the living tree that shall be a sign of new wor- ship—the tree of the Christ Child, for this is the birth night of the White Christ. Go no more into the shadows of the forest to keep your feasts with secret rites of shame; keep them at home with laughter and song and rites of love.” The observance of Christmas in many lands can only be touched upon here. Constantinople, it is said, has more kinds 256 - Christmas of brilliant Christmases than any other city. the son of Mary,” and Roman Catholics, Greeks, Armenians, and Protestant Chris- tians all celebrate the festival in different ways. In Germany, on Christmas Eve, the whole household attends a simple and im- pressive church service, each person going with a lighted candle, the first comer find- ing the church in darkness. In Sweden and Norway the “Julafred,” or peace of Christmas is publicly proclaimed. In early days a festival was celebrated to their gods and the old practices still main- tain in the Christian celebration, one be- ing the feeding of birds. Cartloads of oat sheaves are brought into the towns for this purpose, and the poor save pennies to buy bunches of oats. Animals, generally, receive a double amount of food. In Roman Catholic countries the mid- night mass—most wonderfully held at the Madeleine in Paris—proclaims “Unto us a child is born, unto us a son is given.” An interesting study on this subject may be found in Holy-Days and Holidays, by Edward Deems. “Christmas in Many Lands” is set forth in song for children in a pamphlet published by Clayton Summy Company, Chicago. For America’s celebration of Christmas, Hamilton Mabie has well said: “He who does not see in the legend of Santa Claus a beautiful faith on one side and the naive embodiment of a divine fact on the other, is not fit to have a place at the Christmas board. For him there should be neither card, nor holly, nor mistletoe; they only shall keep the feast to whom all these things are but the outward and vis- ible signs of an inward and spirituay grace.” The wealth of good material to-day for a Sunday-school celebration of Christmas, both from the historic standpoint and that of the spirit of good will and love makes something fresh always possible, but the old in music, poem and story is, as a whole, better than ‘the new. At least sixty Christmas stories for chil- dren may be found. A list of many of these can be obtained at public libraries. © The Christmas religious service for the Sunday school may well be composed of that which is grand and beautiful rather than the trashy music and rhymes of some Moslems do honor to “Christ Jesus, | | Church Attendance modern programs. There is a growing ap- opreciation of that which is worthy of a sermanent place in experience and an in- easing tendency to discard what is sphemeral and trivial. The thoughtful jeacher may render a great service by 1elping a church or Sunday school to cul- jivate a discriminating taste in regard to ill that pertains to the Christmas observ- wmce. That which suggests an attitude of ‘everence and worship should have the wreference over that which is merely nirthful ; a worshipful spirit is not incon- jistent with joy but a rollicking mirth nay easily degenerate into boisterous ailarity, which may obscure the deeper neaning of Christmas. | FREDERICA BEARD. | CHURCH ATTENDANCE OF PUPILS. Sez CHILDREN’s CHURCH; CHURCH, RELATION OF THE, TO THE RELIGIOUS WIFE OF THE CHILD; JUNIOR CONGREGA- TON; WorsHIP, CHILDREN’S. CHURCH JHURCH, CAMPS.—SrExE CAMPs, CHURCH GYMNASIUMS.—Szxr Gym- tAsIUMS, CHURCH. CHURCH LADS’ BRIGADE.—Srr TUILDS FOR YOUNG PEOPLE, ANGLICAN, | _CHURCH OF ENGLAND IN CANADA, SUNDAY-SCHOOL WORK OF THE.— . History. The beginnings of Sunday- chool work in the Church of England in Janada go back to a time contemporary vith the beginnings of the modern Sun- lay-school movement. As early as 1783, mly three years after Robert Raikes ig. v.) began his work in Gloucester, and ‘everal years before the veteran Bishop White (q. v.) established Sunday schools n Philadelphia, St. Paul’s Church, Hali- ax, Nova Scotia, had a Sunday school. %. Paul’s thus ranks not only as the ‘mother school” of Canada, but also, in ill probability, as the oldest Sunday school vith a continuous history on this conti- lent, and one of the oldest in the world. This statement is made on the authority f Dr. Aikens, who was the Archivist for he Province of Nova Scotia and gathered il the Church of England documents. | | I . R57 Churcli of England (Canada) He states that Dr. Breynton established St. Paul’s Sunday school in 1783. In 1790 St. Paul’s Sunday school had thirty- five children enrolled. Bishop Charles Inglis speaks in his diary, which may be seen in Halifax, of having a Sunday school in 1788 with thirteen boys taught by a Mr. Tidmarsh, and ten girls taught by a Miss Clark. ] The growth of the organized Sunday- school work from this early beginning has been a very gradual one and follows natu- rally the development of the corporate life of the church. As the work of the church spread and the various dioceses were formed, each Diocesan Synod, in due course, through its own special Committee, provided for the furtherance of its Sun- day-school work along its own lines. The formation of ecclesiastical provinces, by the grouping together of certain dioceses under a common Synod, broadened and unified the work of the church and had its effect upon the Sunday-school work. For a number of years a splendid work was done in Eastern Canada by the Interdioc- esan Sunday School Committee repre- senting those dioceses included, until quite recently (October, 1912), in the Ecclesi- astical Province of Canada, comprising the civil provinces of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, Quebec - and most of Ontario. (See Canada, His- tory of the Associated 8. S. Work in the Dominion of.) The formation of the General Synod in 1893, however, made possible organization upon still broader lines, of which the Sun- day-school leaders in the church were not slow to take advantage. In 1902, at the third session of the General Synod, the first Committee representing the Sunday- school interests of the whole church was appointed, and it was through the splen- did efforts of this Committee that the way was opened for the establishing in 1908 of the Sunday School Commission for the purpose of unifying the various interests, parochial and diocesan, which center in and around the Sunday-school work of the church. Previous to this, however, several of the dioceses had anticipated the work of the Commission and organized their Sunday- school work very effectively on broad lines. This was notably the case in the Diocese of Rupert’s Land, comprising most of Church of England (Canada) the Province of Manitoba, which in the year 1907 had so awakened to the necessity of action in this direction as to appoint a field secretary of its own. 2. Organization. The highest legisla- tive body of the Church of England in Canada is the General Synod, which meets every three years. All the work of the church is, speaking generally, under the control of this body; but it delegates cer- tain work to other bodies constituted by it. So far as the organized Sunday-school work is concerned, it centers about the Sunday School Commission, which was called into existence by a special canon of the General Synod passed at its fifth ses- sion in September, 1908. The Commission is a very representative body, all the Bishops being members ez officio, and each diocese being privileged to elect two clerical and two lay represen- tatives. The General Synod itself, through its Prolocutor, also appoints four members at each triennial session. The Primate of the church is ex officio, Presi- dent of the Commission, but the other officers are elected by the Commission itself, which also elects its own Executive. Meetings of the Commission are held twice a year, but the Executive meets as often as necessity requires. In order that the Commission may work effectively, each of the dioceses is expected to organize a Diocesan Sunday School As- sociation and also to provide for the formation of Branch Associations for small groups of parishes or missions. Each of these Associations acts as the Commission’s Agent in the furthering of the organized Sunday-school work. In both the Diocesan and Branch Associa- tians special officers are appointed to be responsible for the promoting of the fol- ‘lowing organized departments, viz: Teacher Training, Font Roll, Home De- partment, Missionary Department, Adult Bible Class Department, Statistical De- partment, and Literature Department. By means of this scheme of organiza- tion the Commission is able to get into direct touch with the local schools, work- ing through the Diocesan Association and its branches. In December, 1909, a General Secretary to the Commission was appointed, who acts as the Commission’s Executive Agent. He began his work in April, 1910, with 208 headquarters in Toronto. The present office of the Commission is 137 Confed- eration Life Building, Toronto, where the editorial and secretarial work are carried on. As the. Sunday School Commission is a body representative of the whole church, its work is naturally a charge upon the whole church. Upon this principle a definite apportionment is laid upon each diocese. By resolution of the General Synod, the third Sunday in October is set apart as a day to be especially devoted to the interests of Sunday-school work, and is known as “Children’s Day” (gq. v.). On this day offerings are expected to be taken in every church and Sunday school throughout the Dominion for the work of the Commission. In this way funds for the support of its work are provided. 38. The Work. When the Commission was constituted, the task assigned to it was stated as follows :— “Tt shall be the duty of the Sunday School Commission to study the problems of religious instruction and church train- ing in connection with the Sunday school, as an auxiliary to the church’s ideal and ‘i Church of England (Canada) method of Christian education, and to adopt such measures as the Commission may deem advisable to promote the effi- ciency of Sunday schools and to advance the cause of religious education, all in harmony with the authority of the bishop of each diocese and of the incumbent of each parish.” To carry this out a very definite policy was outlined, which may be summarized as follows :— (1) The effective organization of the Sunday-school work of the dioceses along the lines already set forth above under | “Organization.” (2) The furthering of the various recog- nized departments of organized Sunday- school work. (3) The preparing and recommending of schemes of study for Sunday schools. (4) The securing of the publication of a Sunday-school paper to supplement the | all too short hour available for teaching in the Sunday school. | As a result of a faithful adherence to this policy, the following results are noteworthy :— (1) It has been instrumental in estab- | lishing or reorganizing fifteen Dioceatt ta i i Church of England (Canada) Sunday School Associations, with fifty- six Branch Associations. . (2) It has established a First Standar Course in Teacher Training and conducts examinations regularly each year upon this course. _ (8) It has provided a System of Ex- aminations for the pupils of the Sunday schools upon the course of lessons pre- scribed for the main school. (4) It has issued a special three-year ‘course of lessons for children under nine years of age, a six year scheme of Scrip- ture and Prayer Book Lessons for the main school, and has recommended spe- cial courses for use in Junior and Senior Bible classes. (5) Through its efforts, the bishops of the church now require all candidates for Holy Orders to pass a special examination in the Art and Science of Teaching and in Sunday-School Management and Methods, and to this end courses of lectures are given at the various theological colleges by the General Secretary of the Commis- sion and others. _ (6) It has organized and conducted, either independently or conjointly with the missionary society of the church, six summer schools in the past three years and has made provision for the regular conduct of such schools. _ (7%) It has issued and circulated lit- erature dealing with all the recognized departments of Sunday-school work as well as literature dealing with the work in its more general aspects. (8) It has brought about, through the agency of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (q. v.), the publica- tion of a twelve page weekly Sunday- school paper known as Our Empire, which in the first year of its existence has reached a circulation in Canada alone of about 23,000 copies per week. (9) The head office has become a Bureau of Information to which, more and more, the members of the Church of England in Canada go for advice and help in connection with their Sunday- school work. At this office, too, there is being gradually gathered an exhibit of the best Sunday-school literature and helps, _ The prospects for the future are very bright. The work has grown so rapidly as to render it necessary to appoint in the near future an assistant field secretary. 259 Church of England Eventually it is hoped gradually to in- crease the number of such field secre- taries, assigning to each his own district but working under the authority and di- rection of the Commission. Several of the dioceses, too, are being so aroused as to consider the advisability of appointing field secretaries of their own. The Diocese of Huron has already done this as well as the Diocese of Rupert’s Land referred to above. Other dioceses will no doubt soon follow their example. 4, Statistics: These figures are approximate only. . Number of Diocesan Sunday School ABSOCIATION SG: Cie dielasa ieee elaiase wana e's Number of Branch Associations.... 73 Number of Sunday Schools....... 2,100 Number of Sunday School Pupils. .122,000 . Number of Teachers and Officers.. 13,000 . Total Active Sunday School Mem- Dership fest. eee Ce een e tae 135,000 R. A. Hivrz. CHURCH OF ENGLAND SUNDAY- SCHOOL INSTITUTE.—Srrt CuurcH oF ENGLAND; GRADED Lessons, BRITISH; St. CHRISTOPHER’S COLLEGE. CHURCH OF ENGLAND, SUNDAY- SCHOOL WORK OF THE.—The instruc- tion of the young in the facts and doc- trines of Christianity has from the earli- est times been accepted by the Church of England as a part of its duty. Before the Reformation a school was considered a necessary part of a religious house of any size, numerous grammar schools were founded, and the Canon Law required that in every rural parish a clerk should be provided to keep school for the chil- dren. A catechism was published in the Prayer Book of 1549, and directions were given for the instruction of the children in it on Sundays by the clergy. These directions were repeated in the Canons of » 1603, which enacted that “every parson, vicar or curate, upon every Sunday and Holy-day, shall instruct the youth and ignorant persons of his parish, in the Ten Commandments, the Articles of the Belief and in the Lord’s Prayer, and shall dili- gently hear, instruct and teach them the catechism,” and that “all fathers, mothers, masters and mistresses shall cause their children, servants and apprentices which have not learned the catechism to come to the church at the time appointed.” This authorized method apparently fell OV OO RS fs Church of England greatly into disuse in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, for we find traces of other efforts to supply Sunday teach- ing. Mrs. Catherine Beovey, who died in 1726, was accustomed to have six children by turn at her house on Sundays, when after giving them dinner she heard them say the catechism. In 1763, the Rev. Theophilus Lindsey (q. v.) and his wife taught the Scriptures to the children on Sundays, letting them read in turn. Miss Hannah Ball (q. v.) of High Wycombe, in 1769, had classes in her house and in the nave of the parish church. These prob- ably represent many instances of people desirous of improving the children of their neighborhood and leading to the movement begun by Robert Raikes and the Rev. Thomas Stock in Gloucester in 1780. It is not necessary to tell here the story of Raikes and of the circumstances mov- ing him to begin the Sunday schools in Gloucester, which were rapidly copied elsewhere. (See Raikes, Robert.) An article in the Gloucester Journal of No- vember 3, 1783, shows that thus early “some of the clergy in different parts of the country” were “establishing Sunday schools for rendering the Lord’s Day sub- servient to the ends of instruction,” and describes how “persons duly qualified are employed to instruct those that cannot read, and those that may have learned to read are taught the catechism and con- ducted to church.” For the first thirty years the teachers were paid a small sum each Sunday, and the teaching of reading occupied a large place in the program, but early in the nineteenth century the prac- tice of paying the teachers ceased and with the spread of day schools the time devoted to teaching reading was reduced and gradually became unnecessary. The next thirty years saw the steady extension of Sunday schools, until they became a recognized part of parochial work, and along with this expansion ef; forts were made to improve the efficiency of the schools by the Sunday School Union (gq. v.), which under its composite committee helped the church schools. In 18438 this help became less available. The Oxford Movement (q. v.) had di- rected attention to the distinctive prin- ciples of the church and some schools wanted lessons on Prayer Book subjects, 260 Church of England which the Union did not see its way to supply. There was, therefore, founded in that year the Church of England Sunday School Institute, which began at once to help the church schools by publishing lesson notes, holding training classes on the subjects, providing lectures, meetings for discussing points of management, and normal classes for the study of method. In 1848 it began to publish a quarterly, and in 1851, a monthly magazine for teachers. These continued until 1864, when they were combined into the present monthly Church Sunday School Maga- zine. The year 1871 marked another epoch in church Sunday-school progress. The Education Act which then came into oper- ation concentrated attention upon the re- ligious value of the Sunday schools, the annual examination of teachers began and Stock’s Lessons on the Life of our Lord were published. From 500 to 1200 teach- ers have since entered annually for the examination and the new lessons set a standard which gradually rendered the earlier books obsolete. Side by side with the improvement in. manuals the instruction of the teachers in. method proceeded. Local associations of groups of parishes arrange meetings for lectures and model lessons. These meet-. ings have latterly become much more thor-. ough than they were, by the substitution of courses of lectures for isolated ad-| dresses, and these have developed further into the “training weeks” now common. (See Teacher Training in England.) A later form of organization is that of the diocesan associations, which grouped the existing associations within their area and encouraged the formation of others. Some of these diocesan associations were formed about the time of the Sunday-school cen- tenary. The plan has latterly become gen- eral, some of the dioceses employing offi-| cials, clerical or lay, to look after the work.| The increased study of the subject in| the early years of the present century led to many plans of improvement, including the grading of schools, the provision of courses of lessons for different ages, and the suggestion of appropriate methods, notably those of the kindergarten. The Sunday school Institute and the National Society (g. v.) have carried the new methods into all parts of the country and Church Help Society the former has founded St. Christopher’s College, Blackheath (q. v.), which was opened by the Archbishop of Canterbury on February 3, 1909, to train women as leaders of improvement in their own dis- tricts. The visible results of the Sunday school in the church are numerous and varied. It has provided an opportunity for lay work and has furnished a large number of confirmation candidates, and of lay work- ‘ers. Many persons have there received their first impulse towards the ministry or the mission field, and in the crowded parts of the large towns the Sunday school has often been the pioneer of church exten- sion. Henry Dawson. | _ CHURCH OF ENGLAND WOMEN’S HELP SOCIETY.—SEE GUILDS FOR Youne Propie, ANGLICAN. _ CHURCH OF SCOTLAND, RELI- GIOUS INSTRUCTION OF YOUTH IN ‘THE.—In no other respect is the Church of Scotland showing more vitality than in its care for the religious training of its young people; and, with each succeeding “year, there are abundant signs that greater ‘interest is being taken in the work of Sun- ‘day schools and Bible classes, and that ‘methods are being adopted more in har- mony with the modern system of educa- tion, to the great advantage both of teach- ers and pupils. The General Assembly of the church has placed this important de- partment of its work in the hands of a large Committee of specially gifted and Interested ministers and laymen. The General Assembly of 1911, recog- nizing that to a committee charged with so important and extensive work a regular income is indispensable, resolved “that the Committee shall receive a periodical col- lection as its circumstances may require,” and the first of these collections, taken in 1912, realized £1101-16s-8d. While this is so, it is interesting to note that, in the same year, the total amount of collections in Sunday schools and Bible classes was £11,893-9s-03d, of which £4,712-7%s-64d was contributed for the Schemes of Les- sons and other objects sanctioned by the General Assembly. In their efforts to maintain close and living relations with the schools and classes the Committee has been increas- 261 Church of Scotland ingly impressed with the importance of keeping their publications at a high level, and although it has necessarily involved increased expenditure, they have both im- proved' existing publications and added to their number. Of their Schemes of Les- sons and Lesson Booklets no fewer than 171,097 were sold in 1912, and in regard to the Schemes of Lessons in actual use it is a matter of great rejoicing that, as a result of mutual negotiations entered into between the Committee and the Wel- fare of Youth Committee of the United Free Church, there is a practical certainty that in the very near future a Joint Scheme of Instruction will be in force in the Sunday schools of the two great Pres- byterian churches in Scotland. The Teacher's Magazine, which is the official organ of the Committee, has afforded in- valuable assistance to superintendents and teachers, containing,.as it does, notes by competent writers on the Schemes of Les- sons, articles by outstanding authorities _ on methods of teaching, informative notes on general Christian activity, besides ar- ticles of special interest to parents and teachers. Its circulation for 1912 reached the highwater mark of 176,250. But even this comes only second to the popularity of Morning Rays which, with its circulation of 840,250, has attained a high position among religious papers for the young and has achieved notable work in pointing its readers to the exercise of practical Chris- tianity. In no other way, perhaps, has the Com- mittee brought itself into more living touch with the children of the schools than through its introduction, in 1911, of a system of examination on all the subjects comprised within the lessons and subjects of study. The scheme has already had phenomenal success and bids fair in due time to accomplish its aim of bringing into union all the Sunday schools of the land. While in 1911, 3,993 pupils were examined and 3,512 certificates awarded, the corresponding figures for 1913 were 8,271 pupils examined and 7,452 certifi- eates awarded, and of this last examina- tion the examiners state that the character of the work testifies highly to the careful instruction given in the schools by min- isters and teachers, as also to the intelli- gent interest displayed by the children in all the subjects of the examinations. It Church of Scotland is worthy of note that in accordance with their determination to maintain the con- tinuity of religious teaching during the period between leaving the Sunday school and entering the communicants’ class, ample provision has been made in this annual examination scheme for Bible class members and that, of the 371 such members examined in 1913, twenty came from Alexandria, Egypt, one from Am- sterdam, and four from Rotterdam. As a further means of attaining a closer living contact with the work of the schools the General Assembly has, on the suggestion of the Committee, recom- mended the formation of Presbyterial As- sociations in all districts, where it may be practical, for the mutual help of Sun- day-school teachers. The meetings and conferences of these Associations are read- ily visited by delegates from the Com- mittee who expound its aims and policy, lecture on methods of teaching, or actu- ally teach demonstration lessons on reli- gious subjects. While such means afford both help and encouragement to their workers in the schools, the Committee has felt that their large band of un- trained teachers, through whose Chris- tian conviction and earnestness so much good has been wrought for the children, require more direct means of further equipping themselves for their important duties. With this end in view they have instituted The Sunday School Teachers’ Diploma to be obtained on the candidate’s passing an examination on principles and practice of teaching, Christian evidences, and Our Lord’s teaching. Ample prep- aration for this examination is afforded through articles in The Teacher’s Mag- azine and a highly successful correspond- ence class conducted by one of the ablest ministers of the church. What is being done through this plan may be inferred from the last report of the chief-examiner: “In the correction of the work I was not conscious of a weary minute, and more than once I wished I could come face to face with and congratulate those teachers who, in the reverent and _ beautiful thoughts of their papers, were confessing themselves an honor to the Church of Scotland.” Such teachers will be glad to know of the Committee’s Travelling Li- brary Scheme by means of which the finest religious and educational literature will, 262 i ¥. Church, Place of S. S. in. for the asking, be sent free of charge. No less than 856 teachers have already been presented with The Long Service Certifi- cate, granted only to those whose service has been not less than twenty-one years. D. S. CALDERWOOD. CHURCH, PLACE OF THE SUNDAY SCHOOL IN THE.—The Sunday School is a Church Activity. The present day con- ception of the Sunday school is that it is not an institution standing alone, but is the church engaged in one of its legit- imate lines of work. In the day of its beginning this was not true, for what is known as the modern Sunday school had its birth quite outside and wholly inde- pendent of the church. It was not recog- nized by the church except in rare in- stances, and not until many years after- wards did the church begin to realize the value and importance of the Sunday school. The recognition of its true value has grown during the passing years, until now the Sunday school is almost universally regarded with favor. However, a study of the official religious statistics reveals the fact that even to-day the number of churches exceeds the number of Sunday schools. When a church really compre- hends the true Sunday-school idea, it has opened the door to its greatest opportu- nity and largest usefulness. Thousands of churches have realized by experience that the best way to reach their highest effi- ciency is by giving proper emphasis to their Bible teaching-and-studying service. The preaching service can claim no higher Biblical authority than can the teaching service, and a modern Sunday school more nearly resembles the service in the syna- gogue in the days of Christ than does the usual preaching service of the present day. | The Sunday School is a School. The Sunday school is a place of earnest study and investigation of the Word of God and the truths of the Christian religion. An efficient and well-trained corps of teachers is necessary to the best results. The teach- ing and studying are not spasmodic, but are continued from week to week and year to year. As it is impossible to calculate the educational value of the public-school systems of the present day, so it is impos- sible to estimate the moral and religious Church, Place of S. S. in influence growing out of a thoroughly good Sunday school. No small part of this influence is due to the fact that the services of the officers and teachers are rendered yoluntarily, and in many cases, at much sacrifice of convenience, time, and money. ‘This spirit of devotion on the part of the Sunday-school workers is a vital force and a real asset to the church. It is possible that all churches may be richly blessed through the faithful work ‘done in their Sunday schools. _ The Sunday School is the Church’s School. When the church fully appre- ciates its responsibility for the religious education of its members—particularly for the children and young people—the Sunday school becomes a concrete expres- sion of that responsibility. The church is in authority and should see that the ‘Sunday school is properly officered, housed, equipped, and maintained. Here is the place in which to teach the great fundamentals of the Christian religion, and also the particular beliefs of the de- nomination. As in the early days of our ‘country the public school and the church ‘stood side by side, and the pupils were ‘expected to pass from the school into the ‘church, so the Sunday school of to-day should be related to the church with which It is connected. The more seriously the church accepts her responsibility, and ‘seeks to develop her fullest teaching effi- ciency, the shorter becomes the step from the Sunday school into full membership in the church, and the more readily will it be taken by the children and young people. The Sunday School is the Training- ground of the Church. Armies cannot be maintained without the addition of new recruits trained for warfare; neither can the church continue efficient service un- less constantly taking into its ranks the boys and girls and young people trained for Christian service. Whether or not these recruits are to be helpful to the church depends upon the extent and qual- ity of their training, and the Sunday school is the place in which to train them. The study of the church and all of its activities should be made a part of the regular work of the Sunday school. (See Leadership, Training for.) The young people of the Sunday school should be- come familiar with the duties of church 263 Church, Place of §S. S. in officers—deacons, elders, stewards, trus- tees, etc. The importance of proper training in the Sunday school is apparent when one remembers that a large proportion of those who give their lives to Christian service— secretaries of religious bodies, mission- aries, and other similar callings—receive their first impulse and a part of their training, in the Sunday school. (See Evangelism through Education.) Ninety- five per cent of the ministers of the Gospel come from the Sunday school. (See Min- istry, Recruiting the, through the S. 8.) It is important that there should be sys- tematic training, not only for efficiency in the local church, but for positions of larger usefulness. Likewise, the Sunday school is the place in which to teach systematic giving and the right principles of benevolence. (See Benevolences in the 8. 8.) The young people properly trained in the Christian grace of giving will immeasurably enrich the church and enlarge her powers. The opportunity is afforded by means of pupil- training, teacher-training, practice in teaching, work through organized classes, and various other ways to create a desire in the hearts of the young people to en- gage in definite Christian work, and to prepare them for such service. (See Vo- cation Day.) The Sunday School is the Church’s Best Channel for Community Service. There is scarcely a feature of the church’s’ service for humanity along the lines of good citizenship, civic. righteousness, prison reform, better sanitation, feeding the hungry, educating the poor, providing playgrounds to the children, beautifying the city, etc., but is now being effectually carried on by numerous Sunday schools through their organized classes of young people and adults. (See Activity ... in Religious Education ; Social Aspects of Religious . . . Education; Social Serv- ice and the S. 8.) The flexibility of the Sunday school, its adaptability to the needs of all localities, its familiarity with the field through its large membership, its abounding life, and its loyalty to the directing hand of the church, tend to make it peculiarly effec- tive in fulfilling the church’s responsi- bility to make the world better. Through its proper committees, the church may Church, Place of S. S. in decide upon certain features of social service in which to engage, and then in consultation with the officers, the various activities may be as- signed to organized classes or depart- ments. By assuming such responsibilities these classes or departments have the ex- ercise that is necessary to secure and to maintain a strong spiritual life, and an opportunity for expression by putting into practice the things they have learned from studying the life of the Saviour who “went about doing good.” (See Organized Adult Classes. ) The Sunday School is the Richest Por- tion of the Church’s Great Field. In the Sunday school are found larger numbers of the unsaved than in any other organiza- tion of the church, and they are at the age when most easily influenced to accept Christ as their Saviour. The number of young people who become Christians in the middle teen years—especially from fifteen to seventeen—is larger, by far, than at any other period. Passing beyond the twenty year mark often means to pass beyond the dead line, as comparatively few are reached in middle and later life. It is estimated that approximately eighty- _ five per cent of those who join the church through conversion or confirmation come from the Sunday school. While this is true, yet not over twenty or twenty-five per cent of the members of the Sunday school become members of the church while they are in the Sunday school, and about an equal number become members of the church after leaving the Sunday school. Therefore, more than one half the members of the Sunday school never unite with the church. But the success that has been attained: should stimulate the church to more ac- tivity in cultivating this fertile field. Here is shown more plainly than any- where else how far short the church often falls of a proper appreciation of the build- ing power of the Sunday school. A large proportion of the churches put but one- fifth of their time and money and mem- bership into the active work of the Sun- day school, though they continue to draw four-fifths of their membership from it. The greatest present need of the church is that the teaching in the Sunday schools may be more efficiently done; that the at- mosphere may be more distinctively evan- 264 Sunday-school | ow | Church and the Child gelical, and that the efforts to lead the pupils to personal decision for Jesus Christ shall be-more definite and compelling, The church that addresses herself vigor- ously to building up a strong, efficient Sunday school, along right lines and with the best ideals, is strengthening herself at every point, not only for to-day but for the future. The Sunday school is the very life of the church. Marion LAWRANCE. CHURCH, RELATION OF THE, TO THE RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE CHILD, —The following propositions will be gen- erally allowed as axiomatic; namely, (1) The general duty of educating the child primarily rests with its parents, and only secondarily devolves upon the state. (2) The special duty of the moral-religious education of the child primarily rests with its parents, and only secondarily devolves upon the church (whether the church be established by law or not). This article can concern itself only with the larger implication of the second of these two propositions. The obligation of the church to care for the religious life of the young is inwoven in the whole texture of the teaching of the Bible, and it is ex- pressly enforced both in the Old Testa- ment and in the New. In the former we read, “These words, which I command thee this day, shall be in thine heart; and thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children, and shalt talk of them when thou sittest in thine house . . . when thy son asketh thee in time to come, saying, What mean the testimonies, and the statutes, and the judgments, which the Lord our God hath commanded you? Then thou shalt say unto thy son” (Deut. 6:6, 7%, 20): and in the latter we read, “ye fath- ers . . . bring them [your children] up in the nurture and admonition of the Lord” (Eph. 6:4). But far above all such utterances is the sweet and solemn word of the Risen Lord, “Feed my lambs,” —a charge which rightly will go unre- pealed to the very end of the church’s his- tory. The Jewish synagogue had its affiliated school, in which the ages of five, ten, and thirteen years marked the successive grades of religious instruction imparted: and from the second century onwards the early Christian churches had their cate- Yhurch and the Child thetical schools which also were graded uccording to the attainments of the cate- shumens. The provision of such catechet- ical schools arose out of the felt need of sareful preparation of converts for Chris- ian baptism and of their further instruc- ion in the doctrines of the Christian faith. For a thousand years, from the sixth to the sixteenth century, the impor- ance of the catechist dwindled before the srowing importance of the priest. With the Reformation there came a revived sense of responsibility to the young and the reestablishment of catechetical in- truction, Luther’s example making tself felt even in some quarters of the Roman Catholic Church. (See Luther, Martin.) Not, however, until the closing rears of the eighteenth century was there iny general movement and organized iystem of schools for religious instruction. The modern Sunday school was one of the nost splendid fruits of the Evangelical revival. The work begun by Robert Raikes (g. v.) at Gloucester in 1780 was a jurely missionary enterprise on behalf of he poor and neglected children of his ime. ‘The churches were slow to perceive he need of the universal extension of the ystem, without distinction of class, high r low, rich or poor; and they have been lower still in converting the higher and roader ideal into the actual. The modern Sunday school in the Old World is still 0o exclusively a mission school to the joor: in the New World the conception if the relation of the religious life of the hild has been more liberally interpreted nd more thoroughly applied. _ What then is that conception? What- ver be the ecclesiastical polity of its sev- al denominations the church catholic tands for a fourfold idea and praxis ; | an (a) the Worship of God; (b) the fellowship of Saints; (c) the Teaching f Truth; (d) the Redemption of the Vorld. These are “first things” that must Iways be put in the first place; and nth each one of them the child is inti- ately concerned, for the child-nature is aarvelously receptive of religious instruc- ion and experience. (See Religion, The Jhild’s.) In worship and fellowship the hild is capable of sustaining a real part; f truth and redemption the child is ca- vable of receiving all that the church will part, provided it be adapted in the 265 Church and the Child method of its presentation to his growing needs and capacities. Hence the pro- priety of the child’s presence in the sanc- tuary to enrich its worship and fellow- ship; from his earliest days he can show himself responsive to the august yet tender character of the worship. The service should be so ordered that it is adapted to his capacity and to his need. The unit of the church is not simple, it is complex; it is the family, not the indi- vidual; and, so far as the exigencies of modern life will permit, the assembly should (at least, at the morning session) be composed of families sitting together for common prayer and praise and medi- tation. The conception behind the “League of Worshipping Children” (q. v.) is far truer than that behind separate services. From this same conception of the church springs the true relation to itself of the Sunday school. The teaching office and missionary enterprise of the church should be directed first of all to the young. “Suffer the little children to come unto me . . . for of such is the Kingdom of Heaven.” “Go ye ... and make disciples baptizing teaching.” The school is not an institu- tion separate from the church; the school is the church at work among "the young. The school is the necessary and chief de- partment of the church’s work. A school may conceivably exist without a church, but a church without a school is more than an'anomaly. (See Church, Place of the S. 8S. in the.) The school is the con- cern not only of the individuals who com- pose its staff; it is the concern of the whole church, whose duty it is to make provision of adequate buildings and equipment, and of duly qualified officers and teachers. The minister’s presidency of the school should be real, not merely honorary; his part in the conduct of its business, and in the decisions of its policy should be more than official, it should be active, per- sonal, constant and ever animated by the spirit of gracious comradeship and lead- ership. (See Pastor and the 8.8.) The superintendent should be the nominee of the teachers, but his election should be by the highest authority in the church—the “church meeting” (where that institution exists)—so that the church may be con- stantly informed of its needs and its prog- Church School, The ress. In churches where a board of dea- cons or a court of elders exists the super- intendent might well be ex officio a mem- ber of the board or court in order still further to strengthen the bond between the church and the school, and to make the church’s work in the school still more effi- cient. Space does not here permit men- tion of the necessary qualifications of the officers and teachers; but one or two matters of great moment should be noted as of special import in all discussions of the relation of the church to the religious life of the child. (a) The ranks of the teachers increasingly need to be recruited from godly men and women who are at least the equals of the day school teachers in intellectual ability and educational equipment. (See Teacher, The S. 8.) (b) The studies which are (not too hap- pily) named the “psychology of the child,” and “child conversion,” need to be far more widely understood and applied. Hffi- ciency in the Sunday school is as imper- atively needed as in the day school. Other articles in this Encyclopedia will deal with some of these matters in detail; this article is only intended simply and broadly to outline the splendid ideal of the church’s work among the young, and to suggest the more important lines upon which that ideal may be reached. SIDNEY W. Bowser. CHURCH SCHOOL, THE.—This article undertakes to present a tentative ideal. It is an ideal that has not yet been fully realized by any church, so far as is known, but one which with varying degrees of suc- cess many churches are striving now to attain. The term church school is used inclu- sively to comprehend all the agencies of the local church which are distinctly edu- cational in purpose and method. Under the term are included the Sunday school, the various Young People’s societies and clubs, the communicants’ class, the teach- ers’ and workers’ training classes, and all other adult classes. But the church school also contemplates the careful correlation of these various agencies into a compre- hensive and unified system of religious education. The purpose of the church school may be stated thus: To develop lives of the Christian type, which are instructed, 266 q Church School, The trained, and consecrated to the realiza- tion of God’s Kingdom on earth. There- fore, the aim is the same as that of the church itself; but, while the church seeks to gain this end by a variety of agencies and method, the church school confines itself to graded instruction and training. The influence of Christian personality is counted upon as the greatest single factor in the entire process. (See Educational Agencies of the Church, Correlation of the. ) If the church school is to attain the end in view the following factors are to be taken into consideration: The Nature of the Child, the Organization of the School, the Selection of Expressional Ac- tivities. Tue Nature OF THE CHILD. It has become a truism to say that the nature of the child should determine all that is done for him. The endeavor is not to adapt the child to some rigid system of re- ligious thought and ecclesiastical practice, but to nurture him as a free and develop- ing personality into the highest type of life, and this task demands the fullest knowledge of what he is. Popular knowl- edge of the child is being supplemented by the more exact knowledge furnished by child psychologists, and through numerous, books and articles on this subject. | ORGANIZATION OF THE ScHoont. In order that many persons may work to- gether efficiently and harmoniously in the promotion of this object careful organiza- tion is necessary. What shall be its form? We have called it the church school. In this school there should be two main divi- sions: (1) The Young People’s or Under-' graduate Division; and (II) the Adult or Graduate Division. I. The Young People’s or Undergrad- uate Division. Of this there will be two subdivisions—the Sunday school, or school of instruction; and the Young People’s) societies, or training schools for service. Or, as these two schools stand for com-| plementary phases of one educational pro- cess, they might be combined into one) school which should provide both for in- structional and expressional work. The Sunday school will have the customary departments, grades and classes. The Young People’s societies should be at least four in number, and each one should be closely correlated with the corresponding 267 department in the Sunday school. For Church School, The Church School, The scientific invention puts at our service example, the Primary Department should be regarded as also a Primary Society, meeting once a week in the Sunday school for instruction in the knowledge of God, and once a week or less frequently for training in the service of the Kingdom. ‘So with the Junior and Senior societies, But, for psychological reasons, the Inter- mediate Department of the Sunday school ‘should be formed into two societies or clubs, in which boys and girls meet sepa- ‘rately. The personnel of each department and of its corresponding society should be identically the same so far as the pupils are concerned, and when possible the same teachers should be in both schools. Where it is practicable the grade formations, ‘though not the class formations, of the Sunday school should continue in the so- Gieties each grade of which should have an adult leader in charge. The young people in each society should elect officers from their own number, and appoint their own committees, and these, aided by the ‘unobtrusive counsel of the adult leaders, should conduct their own societies. As the young people advance year by year from grade to grade in the Sunday school, they should keep pace with equal step in the societies, and graduation from one depart- ment of the Sunday school into the next higher should be accompanied by gradua- tion from the corresponding society into the one above. _ Character of the Teacher. The means or methods relied upon for securing the desired results are personal influence, in- struction, and training. The first and greatest factor in the work is Christian personality, hence the importance of care- fully selecting teachers and workers for the church school. The choicest person~ alities in the church should engage in this work. The second factor is the scope of knowledge possessed by the teacher or worker—knowledge of the pupil, knowl- dge of the truth, knowledge of the fields of service, and a knowledge of the right principles and methods of teaching and ®aining. The third factor is practical Waining, which enables the teacher to pre- sent the truth to the mind of the pupil, ind to direct his activities into channels of useful service, in order to secure the lesired reactions in his life. All of the modern devices and instruments which | | . should be utilized in the teaching work. (See Teacher, 8. S., Personality and Char- acter of the.) | Curricula and- Programs. What should be taught in the Sunday school? What programs of expressional activities should be provided as aids to training for service through the Young People’s societies? This is the crux of the problem, and these questions are still being discussed. At present the church school is in a state of transition from a traditional type to one whose activities are more definitely related to the pupil and the object to be attained. In a brief article a full discussion of so large a question cannot be attempted; but a few suggestions may serve to indicate the line of thought. (a) What should be taught in the Sun- day school? One subject only: God and His revelations. In the Beginners’ and Primary departments, God mainly as re- vealed in nature; in the Junior Depart- ment, God as revealed in typical historic events through which the Kingdom of God was advanced. . In the Intermediate De- partment, God as revealed in worthy and useful Christian lives both great and humble, but supremely in the life of Jesus Christ our Lord; in the Senior Depart- ment, God as manifested in truth, scien- tific and theological, and in the church. The revelations of God in nature, in the significant events of history, in Christ and in worthy human lives, in truths and insti- tutions which are, in part, recorded in the Bible. This should be the chief textbook. Since, however, these revelations are con- tinued in general church and missionary literature, lessons from these sources should be taught occasionally. It is desir- able that the youth having learned by the study of the Bible to find God in life, should be taught to interpret religiously the events, movements, and persons in so- called secular history and in his own time, and to recognize God in what he sees, and wherever he goes. (See Extra-Biblical Studies. ) (b) What training should be given in the Young People’s societies? What should be taught? Such training should be given:as will help the child or youth to be of the greatest use within the sphere of his developing life. In the Primary period the field is the home; in the Junior Church School, The period it is the school and play circle; in the Intermediate, the church and the com- munity life; and in the Senior it is the country and the world. How to provide expressional activities which will contri- bute to this result is the problem under consideration. What should be taught in these soci- eties? One subject: the Kingdom of God, but the Kingdom of God as it is, or may be interpreted, for each stage of develop- ing life. In the Primary society instruc- tion should be given in what children should do, and how they should live, in order to contribute their share toward making the home a section of the King- dom of God. So in the Junior, Interme- diate and Senior societies appropriate in- struction should be given with reference to the day school, the church, the com- munity, the nation and the world. But the instruction will not be given for its own sake, but for the sake of providing incen- tive to and wise direction in actual doing. Missionary instruction should not be deferred until the Senior period, but that which is suitable should be given in each period. It should be given at the point of contact; that is, in the Primary period children will listen with interest and comprehension if they are told about the home life of foreign children. In the Junior period the pupils will listen to stories of foreign children’s school and play life; in the Intermediate period the pupils are interested in what concerns the religious and community life in the mis- sion field; and in the Senior period any phase of home or foreign missionary life may be presented. (See Missionary Edu- cation in the S. 8.) At approximately twenty years of age, the young people should graduate from the Senior into the Adult Department, which comprises the adult church mem- bership organized for study; and from the Senior society they should advance into the adult society, which is the adult mem- bership organized for work. II. The Adult or Graduate Division (twenty-one years up). In the Adult division, which should include as many of the Adult members of the church as are willing to organize for study and work, the main departments would be: The Home Department; Parents’ Class; Teachers’ and Workers’ Training Classes ; ~— 268 Church School, The Bible, Mission, Social and Study Classes; Women’s Organizations; Men’s Clubs. In all Adult departments, classes, and clubs, the theoretical and the practical should be held in the closest possible rela- tion. If a group of adults is organized for some phase of social and missionary work textbooks relating to those subjects — would be the natural material for study. The Home Department (q. v.) aims to promote in the home and among those who cannot attend organized classes during the regular sessions of the Sunday school, the reading of the Bible and other books which help one to see and know God, and which inspire to service in His Kingdom. The Parents’ Class aims to gather to- gether the parents of the children and others who are in the church school, and to secure their interested and intelligent cooperation in promoting the moral and religious nurture of their children by in- struction in the use of the principles and methods which the best knowledge and ex- perience offer. (See Parents’ Classes.) The Teachers’ and Workers’ Traiwming Classes seek to instruct and train mem- bers to be teachers and workers, not only that they may serve the church, but also that they may learn how to make the church a more effective agency in the sery- ice of the community. (See Teacher Training. ) Women’s Organizations and Men's Clubs. In order that the community and world life may be transformed into the Kingdom of God, the people who are to lead in this work must be instructed and trained. Hence, classes of various kinds should be formed which will be working organizations also, such as Bible and mis- sion study classes, classes in social service, personal work, church polity, church his- tory, comparative religion, religious psy- chology. At least such classes are theoret- ically desirable. The church school will aim to become the agency through which the church ex- _ ercises its teaching function, and trains _ its members for efficient and consecrated service for the realization of God’s King- | dom on earth. W. H. Boocock. Reference: Athearn, W. S. The Church School. (Boston, 1914.) Church Scouts’ Patrols CHURCH SCOUTS’ PATROLS.—Serr GuILDS FoR YOUNG PEOPLE, ANGLICAN. CIGARETTE EVIL—There is no _ greater menace to the life of the American boy to-day than the cigarette. The author of this article has made a ten years’ study of the effects of smoking upon the char- acter of youth. This somewhat extensive survey has. shown that in practically all the large cities of America and in the majority of the small towns and villages, the juvenile smoking practice is extremely prevalent and is on the increase. Even the rural communities are becoming seri- ously infected with this insidious boy-kill- ing disease. Upon the question of the harmfulness of cigarettes when used by growing boys there is no division of opinion among the many persons who have made a fair in- quiry into the matter. During all his researches on the subject, the writer has not found one person of respectable stand- ing who was willing to defend the use of the cigarette by boys. It has been proved beyond question that cigarette smoking injures not only the present but the future well-being and usefulness of youths in respect to their health, mind, morals, and business success. 1. In the tabulated account of more than 2,000 cigarette-smoking boys, it is found that the following terms were most frequently needed to describe the physical conditions: sallow, sore eyes, sore throat, sickly, puny, short winded, extremely nervous. ‘l'wenty-five well developed cases tested as follows: sore throat, 4; weak eyes, 10; pain in chest, 8; “short wind,” 21; stomach trouble, 10; pain in heart, 9; ten of the number appeared to be very sickly. According to Dr. Sims Woodhead, of Cambridge University, cigarette smoking in the case of boys, partly paralyzes the nerve cells at the base of the brain and thus interferes with breathing and heart action. The author tested with the sphyg- mograph the heart action of 100 boys who inhaled cigarettes. In practically every case the result was as follows: the first record, taken after two hours or more abstinence, showed a slow and weak heart beat; the second record, taken about two minutes after inhaling the fumes, showed an extremely strong and nervous response, 269 Cigarette Evil the width of the stroke being about 100 per cent above normal; the third record, taken 15 to 20 minutes after the indulg- » ence, showed an extremely weak and rapid palpitation, the rate being more than 100 per minute. 2. The mental deterioration of the cigarette-smoking boy is quite as marked as the physical. An examination of the grades of 50 habitual smokers and 50 non- smokers all in the same school class showed a difference of 174 per cent in favor of the nonsmokers. Dr. George H. Meylan of Columbia University found that among the students there the smokers were eight months behind the total ab- stainers in their classwork and that they also ranked lower in scholarship. Many other educators and scientists have made careful inquiries of the same nature and have reached the same_ conclusion; namely, that the youth who habitually uses tobacco is far inferior mentally to the one who does not. An even more striking difference is revealed when one examines the upper class of schools and colleges and finds that the cigarette users, who are so numerous in the lower grades, have now practically all dropped out of the class. 3. Cigarette smoking and immoral con- duct go hand in hand. W. L. Bodine, Superintendent of Compulsory Education in Chicago, who sent more than a thou- sand boys to the parental school, an insti- tution for habitual truants under four- teen years of age, reports that 80 per cent of these were addicted to the cigarette habit. The reports that come from the juvenile court (q. v.) procedures, the re- form schools, and other institutions of the kind confirm without exception this theory of immorality. 4. The economic disadvantage of the boy who uses cigarettes is very great. Many scores of large industrial establish- ments refuse to give employment to the cigarette smokers. Not a few who do ac- cord them work find the cigarette users ranking lower in efficiency than the non- users, and in many cases slower in win- ning their promotions. A small amount of inquiry will indicate beyond question that there is a deep-seated prejudice in the business world against the youthful cigarette smoker. Some Practical Conclusions.—What can Cigarette Evil 2 the Sunday-school teacher and worker do to combat the cigarette evil? Very little can be accomplished toward breaking up the cigarette habit in the case of any boy who has fully acquired it, although a few scattered cases of success have been re- ported as follows: (1) In certain in- stances, religious conversions have been the means of overcoming the habit. After conversion the victim of the habit should be given friendly counsel and sympathet- ically guided for many weeks. He should be kept from temptation so far as prac- ticable and away from the company of youthful tobacco users. He should be given something to do and encouraged to assist in duties connected with the Sun- day school or the Young People’s society. (2) In a few other instances the cigarette poison has been worked out-of the system by means of vigorous physical exercise. Great care in selecting the companions of the victim and in introducing him to work that is interesting will help. The knowl- edge that he cannot win honors in ath- letics is often a strong incentive to the boy smoker to quit the habit. Prevention the Only Hope. The only certain method of combating the cigarette evil is to prevent the boys from taking up the practice. In this important field of endeavor the Sunday-school worker may proceed as follows: 1. Whenever occasion offers in connec- tion with the teaching of a lesson the teacher should picture attractively the clean, pure-minded boy and show every possible advantage of this good life. He may call attention to the mistakes which boys make, and which interfere so seri- ously with the attainment of the best in hfe. In this connection he may present data showing the extreme harmfulness of cigarette smoking—the health under- mined, the morals weakened, the intellect impaired, and the opportunities for busi- ness success destroyed. 2. It has been found helpful to induce the boys to sign a temperance pledge against the use of both tobacco and intox- icants. This pledge should be written or printed in language simple enough for ‘the boy to understand, and arranged in an attractive typographical form. Throughout the discussion there should be an effort to make the nonuse of tobacco appear both advantageous and attractive. 3. The greatest handicap for one who would combat the cigarette evil among boys is the example of the man smoker, This matter needs to be handled tactfully. It must be admitted that many good men smoke, but the boys should be assured that many of these men began the habit before they were old enough to know better; that the practice is expensive to them and annoying to others; and that the majority of those who smoke try to break off the habit and fail because of its deep-seated nature. \ 0 Cigarette Evil. —————————————————— It should also be pointed out to the boys that they are in duty bound to surpass their parents in many things and that abstinence from the use of tobacco will help them to reach a higher standard of excellence than their fathers reached. 4, It should be explained to the boys that smoking is merely a habit, easy to begin and difficult to break off; that nearly all of the great and brilliant leaders among modern men are total abstainers from the use of tobacco and liquor. It should be pointed out that women and girls have legitimate needs and desires whose grati- fication is reasonable but often impossible, because men waste money in a form of — self-indulgence peculiar to themselves, 5. Finally, boys should be taught how — great a menace the use of tobacco is to the practice of a clean Christian life— that it seems inconsistent to pray for pur- ity of heart and for righteousness while at the same time one is debauching his body with the cigarette. They should be warned that boys who take up this habit soon drop out of Sunday school, are apt to fall into evil company and sinful ways, and at length to sink beyond the te of parental sympathy and divine help. 6. An anti-cigarette meeting may be held among the boys, and every one of them may be called upon to speak in turn, each declaring the method whereby he is determined to keep himself free from the destructive cigarette habit; how they shun the company of the cigarette smokers and resent as an insult the proffers of smoking materials. of strengthening the moral purposes in the minds of all the boys in the class. W. A. McKErver. References: Anti-Cigarette Literature. Address \ S This occasional experience meeting may be found an excellent means Circle Talks the International Washington, D. C. McKeever, W. A. The Cigarette Smoking Boy. (Manhattan, Kansas, 1909.) National Anti-Cigarette Various Pamphlets. Chicago, Ill. Scientific Temperance Journal. Anti-Narcotic number. Boston, Mass. Towns, C. B. The Injury of To- bacco. (New York.) Reform Bureau, League, Woman’s Temple, CIRCLE TALKS.—Srx Brecinners’ De- PARTMENT; Primary DEPARTMENT. CITY BOY.—Szrz Boy, Tuer City. CITY GIRL.—Sere Girt, Tue City, AND THE 8. 8. CITY PLAN OF RELIGIOUS EDUCA- TION.—The religious nurture of the children of a city demands the correla- tion and unification of all the agencies of religious culture into a well articulated city system of religious education which will supplement and complete the system of public schools. Scientific child study must be the basis of methodology in both secular and religious education. There must soon be worked out a unified pro- gram of education in which the classifica- tion and curriculum of the two systems of schools will be in perfect agreement. What has come to be known as the “Des Moines (Iowa) Plan” has been in success- ful operation since the fall of 1911. The religious workers of that city have pro- jected a city system of religious educa- tion which includes the following distinc- tive features: 1. A City Board of Religious Educa- tion. This board represents the churches of the city. It holds the same relation to churches and the church schools of the city that a board of education holds to the people and the public schools. It elects the city superintendent, directs the model school, selects the faculty of the city In- stitute, and has general charge of all interchurch educational activities. (2. A City Superintendent of Religious Education. The city superintendent of religious education is the executive officer of the Board of Religious Education. He should be a trained educator who is in 2 Rt1 City Training School every way competent to inaugurate and administer a scientific program of reli- gious education. This officer should be granted adequate salary, and he should give his full time to the supervision of the church schools of the city and the directing of all interchurch educational enterprises. (See New Haven Religious Education Federation.) 3. A Model School. The training of a city’s religious teachers can be greatly facilitated by means of a model church school which is entirely under the control of the city superintendent and the faculty of the city Institute. The apprenticeship system needs to be supplemented by a model school where emphasis may be given to principles and processes rather than to the technique of class manage- ment. The model school should not be established until a capable teaching force is assured, 4, A City Standard. Every city should have a system of inspection of its church schools. A common standard should be adopted as a basis of grading. The stand- ard should be a statement of the ideal for which the local schools are expected to strive. (See Standards, S. S.) 5. A City Institute for Religious Teach- ers. This should be a high-class night school of religious education. It should be organized as an educational institution with its board of trustees, director, fac- ulty, curriculum, etc. The task of this school is to train the leadership for the church schools of the city. (See City Training School.) The city system of religious education will be a gradual evolution. It will usu- ally grow out of the city training school if the leaders have a clear cut conception of the entire city program and consciously direct the sentiment of the city towards the final goal. W. S. ATHEARN, Reference: Athearn, W. S. The City Institute for Religious Teachers, (Chap. II. Chicago, 1914.) CITY TRAINING SCHOOL.—The Aim. This is a night school of religion for the study of Sunday-school problems and of methods for increasing its. efficiency through teaching and better organization. Its primary object is to train leaders and City Training School to provide classes for more thorough study of the special departmental and grade work than can be followed in the classes of a single church. Organization. The school, or institute, is usually organized by calling together representatives of as many churches as are willing to codperate in the improve- ment of the Sunday school by careful edu- cation in modern methods. The Min- isters’ Union, The City or County Sunday School Association, or The Superintend- ents’ Union, The Graded Elementary Union, The Young Men’s Christian Asso- ciation, The Young Women’s Christian Association, and kindred organizations are asked to unite in promoting and sustain- ing the city school. A Council formed from representatives of each church meets once a quarter to determine the general policy, elect a prin- cipal, who shall have charge of the school, and a small Executive Committee. This Committee chooses the corps of teachers; the principal directs the working of the school week by week. The School at Work. More than a score of such training schools were work- ing successfully in 1913. In 1914 the number had risen to fifty, the smallest of them enrolling fifty students, the larg- est, reported in Topeka, Kansas, number- _ ing over four hundred. The school has passed beyond the experimental stage, and proved itself a practical force in the diff- cult undertaking of lifting and maintain- ing the standards of graded and depart- mental Sunday-school instruction. A central church, Association Building, or other suitable building, is chosen for the regular meeting place. T'wo periods of forty-five minutes each, for one eve- ning a week, during at least thirty weeks of the year, is the plan usually adopted. The teachers are found in the public schools and colleges, and among the min- isters and other studious and successful religious leaders of the city. There is seldom difficulty in securing a faculty which possesses scholarship and teaching skill. Necessarily the choice must be made with great care. Only teachers able to sustain interest and to offer a superior type of lesson can keep the attendance of their classes, as the members are present to secure some information of a special sort, or to discover better methods in 272 t City Training School teaching and receive training in them. They will not attend regularly unless the teaching is thorough, practical, and well adapted; unless they themselves are made | students and working partners in the | class. The Officers. The officers should be— a president, vice-president, principal or | dean, secretary and treasurer. They may _ be appointed by the Executive Committee _ or elected by the Council. It has been found advisable, in some cases, to entrust the educational direction to the principal | and the administrative direction to the president. In some cases the offices of principal and president are combined. In the larger schools, a superintendent of each division, who shall have the supervi- sion of its departments, may be elected. The first period of forty-five minutes should be a general assembly. It should be opened with a moment of worship, the faculty being seated in a group on the platform. The period may be devoted to a section of Bible study—historical out- lines, character study, or messages of the books—or to the problems of Sunday- school organization, gradation, manage- ment, etc., or the study of child nature and the methods of teaching. Or, there may be textbook study presented by some teacher of ability, with outline method and use of note books, During the second period. The classes should meet in separate classrooms. A carefully chosen teacher should be in charge of each class. Time—forty-five minutes. There should be a moment of worship in each class. The classes should be divided as follows whenever the enrollment is large enough: Bible Study Class Old Testament New Testament Elementary Teachers of Beginners’ Classes Teachers of Primary Classes Teachers of Junior Classes Secondary Teachers of Boys’ Classes Teachers of Girls’ Classes Teachers of Senior Classes Adult ; Teachers of Men’s Classes a Teachers of Women’s Classes 5 City Training School Special Classes Superintendents and Oficers For Teachers of Training Classes Superintendents of Missionary Instruc- tion Superintendents of Temperance In- struction Each class should use a textbook with reference reading. ‘There should be dis- cussions of reports and theme writing. The books for text and reference work should be of the more thorough and ac- curate type—the best that can be found for each department. The work may be divided into three terms—twelve weeks in the fall, ten weeks in winter and ten in spring; or it may be divided into two terms, beginning in October and completing first term in mid- winter, with a vacation time at Christmas. There may be a reorganization at the beginning of the second term, and the work may be completed with some public exercise in the late spring. This would allow change of texts and subjects, and would give time for recruiting classes and securing new students. The plans for such a city school or institute should be laid long in advance. ‘Some weeks should be devoted to the ‘selection of teachers, the enrollment of students, the awakening of interest and the completion of organization. The enrollment can be best secured by ‘Personal appeal. The few who are lead- ers can find some one in each of the dif- ferent Sunday schools who will secure names of teachers and officers in his own ‘school, A diligent preliminary survey and canvass insure a solid and reliable working organization. _ Success or failure will be determined im large measure by the choice of a prin- cipal. With a leader of commanding en- thusiasm and wide vision, a noble contri- bution may be made to the Sunday school life of any city. The Training School or Institute im Town or Village. The City Training School or Institute for Sunday-school workers is adapted to the town or village as well as the city. It is not a union training class; its true purpose is work far beyond the standards of ordinary training classes. The town or village with forty or fifty willing students and 273 City Training School a real leader can organize with every promise of success. he large cities have found it possible to draw the elect spirits of their Sunday schools together to study more efficient leadership. The Value of such a School. 1. A call for teachers of training classes. The need has never been felt so keenly as to-day. The public school, the high school, stands as a daily challenge to the Sunday school, demanding higher standards for religious work. The problem of training classes is not in finding students, but of obtaining teachers. 2. Specialization. The different de- partments of the Sunday school stand out now with a distinct call for service, very different from the easy-going massing of children all together in other days. The trained department leader who can take charge of the teachers and the whole man- agement of a Primary, a teen age or any department, is doing highly specialized work. The training school offers to these workers an opportunity for study and dis- cussion. 3. There is a particular need to-day of the study of early and later adolescence— the teen years. This has been a weak place and it is the point receiving the most attention at present. (See Adoles- cence and its Significance.) 4. Superintendents and officers. .The superintendent cannot be the true leader of the modern Sunday school simply by’ standing on the platform, announcing hymns and ringing the bell. He must have an intelligent grasp of the work of the whole school. The Training School brings together superintendents and officers, in order that they may study the organization of the school and then, in groups, study the special work of each. For instance, thousands of organized classes in individual schools are losing their opportunity because the president is doing nothing. If the presidents of the classes from a half-dozen schools could meet together under some strong leader, it would give efficiency to the movement in a whole community. (See City Plan of Religious Education; New Haven Reli- gious Education Federation.) 5. There is need of advanced Bible study. The groups of students who can follow special studies can here be called together from several churches and follow Clark a type of work which can seldom be estab- lished in any one school. 6. Such a school draws the workers to- gether to study the religious needs of their own community, and it binds them in fellowship. It offers the inspiration of comradeship in work and that spiritual uplifting which comes from the vision given to those who are drawn together in common tasks, Expenses. A fee of one or two dollars for each student is charged to meet the incidental expenses of the school. The Sunday schools in some cases pay the fees for their own students. A term fee is sometimes better than fees for a year. Extension ‘Work, Extension work may sometimes be carried on to advantage in various parts of the city under the direc- tion of the Executive Committee of the school. It should also promote plans for advancing the standards and uplifting the ideals of Sunday-school work in the whole city. It can promote training classes in the individual churches, and can offer assistance in regard to organization, grad- ation and the use of graded lessons. FRANKLIN McELFrresH. References: Athearn, W. 8S. The Church School. (Boston, 1914.) Athearn, W. 8S. The City Institute for Religious Teachers. (Chicago, 1914.) International Sunday School Asso- ciation. Organized Sunday School Work in America 1911-14, pp. 269- 273. (Chicago, 1914.) McElfresh, Franklin. The Training of Sunday School Teachers and Officers. (Boston, 1914.) CLARK, SAMUEL WELLMAN (1823- 92).—Known as the “father of the Sun- day-school blackboard.” His childhood days were spent in Fayetteville, New York, but at thirteen years of age he started to New York city with the purpose of seek- ing work and an education. Both were furnished him in the printing business, and he became a scholar and an educator. At the age of twenty-one Mr. Clark opened a private school for girls in Newark, N. J., and later became principal of one of the public schools of Newark. Mr. Clark carried the pedagogical and educational methods of the schoolroom 274 q Clark into the work of the Sunday school, and introduced the blackboard as an agency of teaching truth to the heart of the pupil through the gateway of the eye, as well as through the ear. The use of the black- board was so skillfully demonstrated that opposition was overcome, and it was re- cognized as a valuable tool. He was editor and publisher (1869-74) of the periodical The Sunday School Blackboard (first pub- lished under the title The Teacher and Child), a magazine containing blackboard lessons illustrating both the National and the Berean Series of Sunday-school les- sons, and later the International Uniform Lessons. Mr. Clark served twenty-eight years as general secretary of the New Jersey Sun- day School Association—1861-79—with- out compensation, but during the period from 1882-92 devoting his full time with salary. During the intervening years (1879-82) he was engaged on the editorial staff of The Sunday School Times. In 1889 he attended the World’s Sunday School Convention in London, and served as enrollment secretary; in 1890 he was recording secretary of the Sixth Interna- tional Sunday School Convention which met at Pittsburgh, Pa. Mr. Clark’s death occurred on February 27, 1892. JOSEPH CLARK. CLARK, SARAH MAYHEW (1832- 1906).—Wife of Samuel Wellman Clark. Her own six children proved to be the’ normal school and training class in which she was prepared for forty years’ effective work in the Sunday school. Her success in teaching the “infant class” in the Union| Street Methodist Church, Newark, N. J.,' soon became known, and other Sunday- school teachers of small children sought her assistance. In May, 1870, “The Newark Associa-| tion of Infant Class Sunday School’ Teachers” was organized and began reg-' ular weekly work, of which Mr. Clark was) the leader for ten years. Finding either the National or Berean’ Series of Sunday-school lessons difficult of adaptation to the understanding of the pupils of the infant class age, Mrs. Clark planned a special graded courses of les- sons which were based upon familiar Bible stories. She thus became a pioneer of graded instruction in the Sunday school, Class Instruction and in organized primary Sunday-school work. The value of Mrs. Clark’s methods be- came known beyond the confines of New- ark, and she was called upon to introduce _ the new method of primary work into Con- necticut, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Washington, D. C.; and for several years at the Chautauqua Institute she instructed thousands of teachers how to do effective primary work in the Sunday school. In 1880, Mrs. Clark removed from . Newark, but through her advice the train- ing work there was continued. For _ twenty-five years she was the President of the New York City Primary Union, and in its beginnings taught the lesson each week. In the history of the Sunday school _ Mrs. Clark is known as the “Mother of the Primary Union.” She died in March, 1906, in her seventy-fifth year. | JOSEPH CLARK. _ CLASS INSTRUCTION.—Srz Cuass _ManaGEMENT; Hanpwork IN THE S. S.; |Lesson, PLan OF THE; LESSON PRE- | VIEWS; ReaDING THE Lesson; REVIEWS. CLASS MANAGEMENT.—What are the marks of a well-managed class? Cer- tainly it will not attract the attention of other classes or persons in its vicinity by disorderly conduct; every movement will be performed quickly and quietly; ‘the pupils will do anything the teacher may ask, promptly, exactly, and with an evident desire to please; there will be constant and complete attention to what is being said or done in the class itself; _ the teacher will be treated with courtesy and politeness similar to that which he / himself gives to the pupils; finally, what- ever may be the outward apearance of the class, it is mismanaged if the teacher does not succeed in accomplishing the re- sults which it is the function of a good teacher to achieve in the child’s charac- ter. If a teacher can speak affirmatively on these matters about his own class, he ‘May consider it to be well-managed. ' Obviously then the teacher must, first of all, be quite clear as to his aim; he cannot manage his class well if, when he meets it, he does not know what he wants to do, and how he wants to do it. If he ‘aims at nothing, the class will arrive at nothing. He must have a deliberate | \ A ; | : t 275 ~never expect to manage a class well: Class Management aim. This, of course, means complete and careful preparation. An interested teacher makes an interested class. If the children are uninterested and inattentive let the teacher examine himself; if his preparation is complete and the class is still out-of-hand there must be something wrong in the handling of it. (See Dis- cipline. ) Years of experience in dealing with young professional teachers leave us with the impression that when they fail it is largely because they do not see the class. Some will stand before it, and talk to the wall behind the class, or to the floor, in- stead of looking straight into the eyes of the children and expecting the pupils to respond with their eyes. Others make the mistake of talking to a section of the class, ignoring the rest; then when the neglected part begins to amuse itself in its own way, the teacher turns to it, and neglects another section. The successful manager sees all the children all the time, and makes every child realize that the teacher is engaged with him, personally, from start to finish. That this is not im- possible may be seen by watching any successful teacher. Of course to see a class as a whole, the teacher must choose his position, unosten- tatiously placing himself so that he covers the whole class. And this must be done politely—the children never getting the idea that they are being watched. There are certain teachers who need (1) The teacher who thinks too little of the children, talks down to them, regards them as inferiors; (2) the teacher who has no dignity, acts foolishly before the children, and allows them to be unduly familiar with him; (3) the teacher who attempts to buy order and attention; (4) the teacher who nags, or attempts to bully, the class; (5) the teacher who eapects the class to be unruly. The fact is that each of these teachers employs his own pecul- iar manner to conceal the lack of matter and method due to his own indolence or incapacity, and an ordinary child instantly perceives this. There are many details of class man- agement that one learns only by experi- ence. The children must be comfortable ; the subjects dealt with must be such as concern them; the teacher must not be Class Names inferior to them in character even if he be so in attainment; he must let it be seen, without mentioning the fact, that nothing in the way of disorder or inattention will escape his eye, or will be tolerated, and that nothing in the way of interest will be overlooked or fail to be preaiven sympa- thetically. It should not be impossible in a Sun- day-school class to promote esprit de corps, and to create a high tone. The class should be an entity, feeling itself as a class, not merely as a number of indi- viduals. Then a class tradition can be cultivated; it may come to be “under- stood” that in this class bad manners do not appear; not that the children are superior prigs, but that any one who in- troduces an element of disorder is doing a shockingly unusual thing with which no one will sympathize. The contagion of numbers is very marked among children; they are especially open to suggestion from a common life; group-consciousness is pronounced, and individuals can be led instinctively to wish to contribute more than others to the good reputation of the class, and to be specially loyal to the rules it has been found necessary to lay down. A statement of all that one ought to be to manage a class successfully is some- what disheartening; yet one must aim at the ideal. The teacher must be never in doubt as to the right course to take— must never say “I have a mind to—,” but must firmly exercise power. He must be true to his own orders, making them quite explicit and seeing that they are obeyed. Never allow an act of disobedi- ence, even of omission, to go unseen. He must be self-reliant ; quite just; extremely kind, and sympathetic and patient. It is well to associate with the children in their happy moments. Above everything, see all; not merely what every member of the class does, but what is passing beneath the surface, what is happening in the mind, what is develop- ing in the soul. (See Pedagogy; Psy- hae J. Haton FEASEY. CLASS NAMES.—The class name is one of the popular methods promoting spirit in organized classes. In schools, athletic teams, ball clubs, regiments, and the like, a characteristic name is highly prized. The popular ball teams of the day are 276 known almost exclusively by the slang names given them by their admirers, With boys’ and girls’ classes, and with classes of young people, the name often becomes a watchword which inspires class loyalty. With boys’ classes, names with a suggestion of humor, or with a chal- lenging sound, are popular; girls’ classes are apt to choose names with a view to sentiment or beauty; classes of men will bear, probably, the names of chosen lead- ers, Bible characters, heroes of Christian history, some popular teacher, or local re- ligious leader. Mr. Marshall Hudson gave to the classes inspired by his leadership the name of Baraca—the valley of bless- ing. The women’s classes in the Baraca movement took the name of Philathea. (See Baraca-Philathea Bible Classes.) A class of Seniors which has organized many others took the name of Agoga—leader- ship, or the trained life. (See Agoga and Amona Bible Classes. ) Among the popular names for mixed classes are—Comrades of the Cross, The Friendly Class, Front Line Class, Front Rank Class, Golden Rule, Heralds of the King, Loyal Legion, Messengers of the King, Research Class, The Twentieth Century; for women’s classes—Daughters of the Covenant, Daughters of the King, Gleaners, Loyal Daughters, Priscillas, Inner Circle, Bethany; for men’s classes —The Business Men’s Bible Class, Friendly Fellows, Gideon Bible Class, Knights of the Red Circle, Loyal Brother- hood, The Busy Man’s Class. FRANKLIN McELFrEsH. CLASS PINS.—The Sunday-school class often adopts the method of all lodges and orders by the use of a class pin. Its value as an aid in promoting a fellow-feeling can never be doubted by any one who has seen the fraternity spirit in school or col- lege. The badge of the modern class organization is used to cement the mem- bers in close friendship, and to secure loyal loyalty to the class. A pin which has an emblem and displays the class name and motto or color, or has some definite significance, is one of the most successful means of binding groups together; espe- cially in pupils of Junior or Intermediate years, ‘There is a satisfaction in display- ing a class pin which should not be neglected by those who would adapt the ‘ 4 : We. | Classification of the Library organization of the Sunday school to the teal wants of young life. | The Use of Pins for the Divisions of the Sunday School. The pin worn by teachers and pupils of the Elementary Division has a white center encircled with green; the pin of the Secondary Division—the ‘teen years—a white center encircled with blue; the Adult Division a white center encircled with red; the Teacher Training ‘Division a white center encircled with gold; and the Home Division a white center encircled with purple. The pin of the Adult Department has been a jwonderful means of advancing fellowship ‘among men; it is a frequent means of recognition among strangers, and of pro- moting class loyalty. FRANKLIN McELFreEsH. _ CLASSIFICATION OF THE SUNDAY- SCHOOL LIBRARY.—Szxr Lisrary, THE | CLASSROOMS.—Srr. ARCHITECTURE, 8. S. COBB DIVINITY SCHOOL.—Sexz Brn- LicaL INSTRUCTION BY CORRESPONDENCE. COLLECTION, THE SUNDAY-SCHOOL. '—SzE Finances, S. 8.; Sunpay ScHOooL, ‘Cost OF THE. _ COLLEGE STUDENTS AND THE SUN- DAY SCHOOL.—College students are be- coming increasingly interested in the Sunday school. Of the 37,336 women students and 47,157 men students en- Tolled in voluntary Bible study groups in colleges and preparatory schools (1913- (14), 21,857 women and 24,836 men were in church classes. College students are ‘also finding in Sunday schools one very important field for voluntary community ‘Service, especially in connection with the organized classes of boys or girls, with their social, athletic, and other activities. ‘The students of one college are conduct- ‘Ing Sunday schools in seven centers, and sixty students are working as superin- tendents and teachers. Upper class stu- dents are also leading groups of under classmen. These leaders are usually under expert supervision” and are receiy- Ing training both in the principles of suc- Q°% % College Students and the §S. S. cessful leadership and the actual conduct of their groups. The larger recognition of the need of Sunday-school work especially adapted to students makes it possible to relate an increasing number of college students to the Sunday school. The very experiences of college students make their problems different and more pressing than those of young people of the same age in the ordinary community. The sudden change from the discipline of home and the influence of local community sentiment to the freedom of the college environment immediately brings out acutely various practical questions of morals and religion. Science and philosophy raise numerous problems in regard to the Bible and reli- gion. Many students thus pass through a period of religous doubt and reconstruc- tion, The university spirit of independ- ent investigation leads many of them to wish to face these problems for them- selves. Again, there is the opportunity for academic training in the Bible and other subjects in the field of religion. Increasingly it will be possible to offer such academic training to college stu- dents which is not generally available to other young persons. These considerations have led those in- terested in college voluntary study to feel that college students should have studies especially adapted and different from those of young people of the same age in the community. This means classes in the Sunday school composed exclusively of students, and where there is a suffi- cient number, a department; leaders hav- ing the student viewpoint; classes of the discussional type in order that students may be given the opportunity to form personal convictions and make decisions; special studies adapted to the psycholog- ical characteristics, interests, and prob- lems of students, and personal guidance in daily Bible readings, weekly study and group discussion. Accordingly the Sunday School Council (1913) took the following action: “A subcommittee of this Committee has been working in codperation with a Com- mission representing the Young Men’s Christian Association, the Young Women’s Christian Association, biblical instructors in colleges and universities, and headmasters in secondary schools in the consideration of the problem of working out a systematic and College Students and the §. S.. progressive course of Bible study for stu- dents, both for curriculum study and for voluntary classes, looking to a more perfect correlation of the work of Bible study and instruction as carried on in the Sunday schools, the Christian Associations, and the higher institutions of learning. We are in entire sympathy with this effort, and we are convinced that so far as the Sunday school is related to this student element, students should be provided for as a distinct group, and that in school communities student de- partments should be organized in the local Sunday schools, and special courses should be provided adapted to this class of young people whose training makes it possible for them to do more efficient work than the average young people of a corresponding age, and whose problems and whose intel- lectual and religious interests are peculiar. We recommend that the Committee on Lesson Courses of this Council be requested to codperate with the Commission above referred to and report results to the Coun- cil at its next session, or to the Executive Committee.” Following this action, a Subcommittee on College Courses of the Sunday School Council of Evangelical Denominations (g. v.), and the Committee on Voluntary Study of the Council of North American Student Movements (representing the Student Young Men’s and Young Wom- en’s Christian Associations and the Stu- dent Volunteer Movement), with the co- operation of various other leaders ac- quainted with the student field, made a fresh study of the college needs and have prepared the outline for a new graded four years’ voluntary study curriculum for the use of nonacademic classes both in and outside of the Sunday school. This curriculum is based on the psychological characteristics and dominant interests and problems of students. It combines the study of the Bible with that of foreign missions and North American problems, and is planned to supplement study in the academic curriculum in the field of religion. These Committees are preparing detailed outlines for the work of each year. In short, this means prac- tically the suggesting of graded lessons for college students. Several of the de- nominations and the North American Student Movements are codperating in the preparation of textbooks based on these outlines. Student Standards of Action and Christian Standards in Life, Part one and Part two of the first year have thus been prepared (1915). 278 of ‘ar. A “ College Students and the S. §, The local churches in college towns, and the denominations at large, are tak- ing a greater interest. Classes more adapted to college students are now being provided, and led by ministers, student pastors, professors in Bible chairs, and other professors, graduates in the com- munity, and able students, they are at- tracting an increasing number of stu- dents. The North American Student Chris- tian Associations have made the volun- tary study of the Bible, foreign missions, and North American problems one of their main lines of activity. Hach year in this work there is a larger codperation be- tween the local women’s and men’s Asso- ciations and the Sunday schools in the college town. During the first years these voluntary study groups were held ve largely outside of the church. While the local Associations have possibly been more tardy than, necessary in recognizing the possibility of a closer relation to the Sun- day school, it is doubtful if the movement would have started except from outside the Sunday school. When this wide- spread student Bible study movement commenced, the Sunday school was con- sidered largely for children, and most cole lege students felt they were beyond that age. urther, it was before the days of the graded Sunday school, and most local churches were unwilling to make special provision for students. The Stu- dent Christian Associations sought to reach these students through small dis- cussional classes, following the natural social groups of dormitories, fraternities, and college classes. Special study texts were prepared and leaders adapted to stu- dents were provided. In this way stu- dents were won for voluntary Bible and mission study, and a great service has been rendered the church. The policy of the Student Christian Associations during the last few years has been to help in allying just as many stu- dents as possible with local Sunday schools which are willing to make provision for work adapted to students. (See Young Men’s Christian Association and the S. S.) For instance, among the men students reported in Sunday-school classes (1913- 14) almost one-half were in church classes promoted directly by the Association. This does not include many more Asso- College Students and the §. S. ciations which reported they were codp- erating in Bible study within the local churches. The codperative work nation- ally on graded studies for college students is making this local codperation more easy and effective. If the voluntary study is to be the most effective it must be planned to reach the Christian Associations will join. life of the entire student body. This means united and codperative effort in which the churches and the Student The first efforts will be centered on reaching every last student possible for the church classes, but for the present, at least, the - outside-church groups must be continued. _ These usually meet a different hour from _ the church classes, and are conducted at convenient centers in rooming houses, boarding clubs, fraternity houses, ete. Through them large numbers of uninter- ested students are reached who cannot as yet be won for the church classes. They also provide for the study of foreign mis- sions and North American problems, sup- plementing that offered in the Sunday school. In this way 24,250 men and 15,479 women were enrolled (1914) in _yoluntary Bible study groups outside the } church, and 16,000 men and 18,000 women were enrolled in supplementary voluntary groups for the study of foreign missions and North American problems. With statesmanlike planning the volun- tary study may be made to play its full part in touching the life of the entire col- lege or university. The relating of the college students to the Sunday school during undergraduate days is of largest significance to the church. The thousands of students in col- _leges and preparatory schools are training for future leadership. They are needed in local communities in all parts of the nation, as members of Sunday-school _¢lasses, to help bring to backward com- munities the ideal of a modern graded _ Sunday school, and to be part of the more _ adequate and better-trained teaching force _ which the graded Sunday school demands. Adequate training in the Bible, religious pedagogy, and kindred subjects in the _ field of religion, is needed in the academic curriculum for these future Sunday- school workers, being offered. But there is also need of _ the voluntary classes and voluntary serv- Increasingly these are 279 Combination Service ice. The voluntary study classes are giv- ing the students opportunity to come to personal conviction which results in ac- tion. Membership in Sunday-school classes, and Sunday-school teaching dur- ing the undergraduate period, are bring- ing to thousands of college students such a conviction of the importance of Sunday- school work as leads them to ally them- selves with it after graduation, and are furnishing theoretical and practical train- ing in preparation for such future activ- ity. H. S. Ex.iorv. COLLEGIATE PROHIBITION ASSOCI- ATION.—Serr TEMPERANCE TEACHING IN THE SN. S. COLLIER, WILLIAM (1771-1843).— Baptist clergyman. Born in Scituate, Mass., October 11, 1771. He was grad- uated from Brown University in 1797. While a student at Brown University he opened a Sabbath school in Pawtucket, R. I., for the employees of Mr. Samuel Slater’s factory village. He studied theology with Dr. Maxcy, and was or- dained in Boston in 1799. He served brief pastorates in Newport, R. L, and New York city. He spent sixteen years as pastor of the First Baptist Church in Charlestown, Mass., when delicate health caused him to resign. He was appointed “minister at large” in Boston where he labored effectually. He was editor of the National Philanthropist, and later of the Baptist Preacher. He died in Boston, Mass., March 9, 1843. It was said of Mr. Collier: “The sphere that he filled was not large, but he filled it well.” S. G. AYRES. COLT, SARAH.—This little girl of eleven years of age is said to have been the means of starting the first Sunday school in the state of New Jersey at. Paterson, in 1794. The school was for the benefit of the woskers in a calico factory. S. G. AYREs. COMBINATION SERVICE.—This serv- ice seeks so to relate the Sunday school and public worship that the entire Sun- day school will be in the preaching service and the entire congregation will be in the Sunday school. This is accomplished by combining the two into one service which occupies about one hour and forty-five Combination Service minutes. The following order of worship will illustrate: 1. Organ Voluntary 2. Hymn 3. Prayer 4. Doxology or Gloria 5. Anthem 6. Invocation, Offertory, Choir ?. Announcements 8. Hymn 9. Sermon 10. Hymn 11. Bible Study 12. Reports 13. Hymn 14. Benediction For the sake of clearer explanation the program is divided into three sections. The essential element is that of the length of the service. The first section should occupy from thirty to thirty-five minutes. The second from twenty-five to thirty. The third from thirty-five to forty. In every other respect than that of time, the different sections may be varied to suit the congregation’s form’ of worship. ‘To be successful, the preaching service must pre- cede the Sunday school. In some sections many adults will not leave home to attend Sunday school first, but they will come to the preaching service, and when present, it is not difficult to hold them to the school. The crisis in the service is at the time the pastor announces the hymn following the sermon. He should not dismiss the congregation, but should kindly persuade all to remain to the Sunday school. At this point the superintendent assumes charge of the school. He calls the school to order at the close of the study period -and closes the session. The pastor pro- nounces the benediction. Advantages of the Plan, It trains the children in the church. The Sunday school thus holds them in the church and not apart from it, as the separate school sometimes seems to do. It tends to keep the adults in the Sun- day school. The shorter public service does not tire them, and they are willing to remain for Bible study. Tt multiplies Adult Bible classes by in- creasing the number of adults in the school. It increases their efficiency by giving them the benefit of both services. 280 Committee on Religious Education It holds young men and boys to the church and school. The parents are pres- : ent and the young people cannot outgrow 3 such a school. It promotes evangelism in the school. The pupils witness the reception of mem- bers, the administering of baptism, are present at the communion, hear the appeal of the Gospel, are sensitive to the atmos- phere of reverence and worship; all of which causes them to want to become members of the church and to lead a Christian life. It cultivates reverence in the Sunday school. They go from worship to the study of the Word and carry the spirit of reverence with them. This is a very marked effect. (See Reverence in the Say It creates and maintains enthusiasm by greatly increasing the number attending both services. It promotes family religion by permit- ting the family to attend the church sery- ice together, sit together, and return home together. It enables families to have Sunday dinner at noon. Permits hotel and board- ing house residents to attend church and return for the meal. It gives a long Sunday afternoon for family life or rest, and increases the at- tendance at the evening service on that account, D. H. Qtass COMENIUS, JOHN AMOS.—Srr Mo- RAVIAN CHURCH (UNITAS FRATRUM). COMMENCEMENT IN THE SUNDAY SCHOOL.—SrE GRADUATION AND GEaD- UATE COURSES. COMMISSION MOVEMENT.—S EE Protestant EpiscopaL CHURCH. COMMITTEE ON RELIGIOUS EDU- CATION.—Behind every efficient Sunday school there is either one person or a group of persons who are its motive power, its inspiration. center of influence the more substantial will be the character of the school. The more permanent that With the purpose of establishing and maintain- © ing such a permanent council a Com- mittee on Religious Education is sug-— gested and proposed. Committee on Religious Education I. Name. The Committee on Religious Education (inserting the specific name of the local church or Sunday school) is a name both appropriate and easily under- stood. II. Membership. The members of this Committee should consist of three, five, seven, or more persons according to the size and character of the school. They should be (a) the pastor; (b) the director of religious education (if there be one) ; (c) the general superintendent of the Sunday school; (d) the departmental principals; (e) the director of music; (f) the secretary of the school; (g) the clerk of the church; (h) the chairman of the Committee on Religious Education. / The character of the duties that fall upon this Committee as the responsible head of the Sunday school requires that jits members should be made as permanent ‘as any other regularly elected officials of the church. III. Qualifications for Membership. 1. tions give them a place on this Com- mittee were chosen for this duty because of their competence and training in that particular phase of Sunday-school activ- ity. %. They should be in full sympathy with the best ideals of Sunday-school efficiency, jand also in hearty accord with every effort to codrdinate the work of the Sun- day school with all the other activities of the church. _ 3. The method of appointment of mem- bers of the Committee should be so elastic as to allow the church to take advantage of any newcomers or professional edu- cators who might be available. Let nothing be iron-clad in methods of finding and drafting new helpers. 4, Use the very best material of the ehurch whether men or women. _ IV. Purpose. The purpose of this Com- mittee is to provide a small well-equipped body of persons upon whom shall rest the full responsibility for the policy and general conduct of the Sunday school. / V. Duties. 1. To act as a kind of an official council on all matters that pertain to the life and activities of the Sunday school in the local church. _ 2. To determine the whole range of ac- tivities of the school, the needs, the mate- vial to meet these needs, and the best | 281 It is assumed that the persons whose posi- - Committee on Religious Education method of guiding the school in the proper lines of work and service. 3. To pass upon the qualifications of teachers, to recommend for appointment on the teaching staff those who are fully qualified to render the service required, and where advisable, appoint such teach- ers. 4, To exercise some personal supervi- sion over the general and special work of the school, to ascertain whether instruc- tions are being carried out, and whether the methods adopted achieve success in the results obtained—but to do all this tactfully and with as little show of author- ity as possible, 5. To maintain close fraternal rela- tions between denominational and inter- denominational agencies in Sunday-school work, so as to take advantage of any new material or methods which may become available. 6. To report in detail to the church at each annual meeting the statistical and other tangible results of the year’s work. VI. Organization. The members of the Committee should take their positions by virtue of their respective offices. To these positions they are usually elected annually to serve one year. The Committee should have a chairman and secretary, and at least the following standing subcom- mittees: (a) Order of Service: To study and recommend to the Committee for adoption the best order of service that the size and departmental arrangement of the school permits, (b) Courses of Study: To examine and recommend to the Committee that course ‘or those courses of lessons which seem best adapted to the abilities and capacities of the teachers and pupils of the school. (c) Social Service: 'To plan and super- vise methods of expressional activity for community betterment. (d) Recreation: To devise and oversee the athletics, play, picnics, and other recreational activities of the school. There might be such other committees as one on each of the following items, viz. : —music, missions, library, decorations, follow-up schemes, honors and prizes. VII. Powers. 1. Each local church should grant to the Committee on Reli- gious Education such authority as said church may deem wise. 2. Its powers should be limited to the Communion, Child’s Sunday school, to investigating, to plan- ning, to determining and to supervising the entire activity of the school. 3. As a Standing Committee, it should have authority to present to the church at any regular meeting recommendations for any action which it considers wise for the improvement in any way of the general management of the school. 4, It should have authority to sit in council with other bodies of a similar character, and to report upon any meas- ures which seem to commend themselves. VIII. Meetings and Quorum. 1. The Committee shall meet at least once a month, and shall follow a regular order of business, which it has adopted for itself. Special meetings may be called by the chairman either on his own initiative, or at the written request of any two mem- bers. 2. A majority of the members should constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. Ira M. Price. See The Church School; Organization, hilt Reference: Folder No. 2 of Commission on Reli- gious and Moral Education of the Northern Baptist Convention (1913). COMMUNION, THE CHILD’S.—SeEsE Cuinp’s CoMMUNION. COMMUNITY SUPERINTENDENT.— Ste New Haven ReEuicious EpucatTion FEDERATION; Retigious EpucaTtion As- SOCIATION. COMPLETELY GRADED SERIES.— Srr BIBLE Stupy UNIon LEssons. CONDUCT.—SrEe AcTIVITY AND ITS PuacE IN Rexicious EpucatTion; Moran AND Reuicious Epucation, TEsTs OF EFFIcIeNcy IN; Motives, THE APPEAL TO, IN Retigious EpucaTIon ; PRIZES AND Rewarps; PsycHoLoGy AND PEDAGOGY, CoNTRIBUTIONS OF, TO THE WORK OF THE 8S. 8.3; Pusnic ScHoors (UNITED StTaTEs), Mora INSTRUCTION IN THE. CONFIRMATION.—The ceremony called confirmation is used by several branches of the Christian Church to sup- plement or complete baptism, either in- fant or adult. In some churches it is 282 Confirmation held to be a sacrament, in others a rite. The word in its technical sense is not used in the New Testament, but ap- pears about the fifth century. It is de- rived from the Latin confirmare, to estab- lish. Its primary reference is to the strengthening or confirming of character through the gift of the Holy Spirit, this being the point of emphasis wherever con- firmation is regarded as a sacrament. It is also considered to refer to the ratifying or confirming of baptismal vows. Con- firmation is practiced by both Greek and Roman Catholics, by Lutherans, by the Church of England, the Protestant Epis- copal Church in America, and a few other minor bodies. History. Both the main emphasis in confirmation, 1. e., the gift of the Spirit, and its ancient symbol, the laying on of hands (still practiced by Anglicans and Lutherans, though superseded some centuries ago in the Roman usage by a tap on the cheek) connect the ceremony with the Biblical custom of conferring a blessing through the laying on of hands, Both Catholics and Anglicans appeal to Acts 8:14-17 and Hebrews 6:2 as warrant for the usage. In earliest Christian times, the bishop being present at all baptisms and the candidates being mostly adults, it was customary immediately after baptism to anoint the candidate with oil, and for the bishop to place his hands upon him in blessing. When increase of baptisms rendered it less possible for the bishop always to be present, two different procedures arose. In the East, where greater emphasis was laid upon the anointing, the bishop re- served to himself the consecration of the oil, but allowed it to be applied to the candidate by any presbyter. Hence, to- day, in the Eastern Church, infants are baptized, confirmed, and receive com- munion, all in a single service, which is conducted by a presbyter. In the West, however, the emphasis remaining on the laying on of hands, confirmation was. separated from baptism and was reserved for the bishop’s convenience, being ulti- mately deferred until the child’s eighth year, or even longer. At the Reforma- tion many Protestants, owing to the revul- sion against sacramental ideas, abandoned confirmation entirely, and substituted an educational process based upon the cate- Pe. Confirmation chism, and culminating in a formal ad- mission of the candidate to the holy com- munion, after due examination before the congregation. Luther (q. v.) in spite of harsh criti- cism of confirmation as a sacrament, did | not oppose it so long as it was thoroughly understood to be purely a human inven- tion. It was only in Hesse, however, so _far as Germany was concerned, that a , definite rite of confirmation was adopted, | chiefly through the influence of Martin ' Bucer, about 1538-39. The influence of Spener (1635-1705) (q. v.) and the Pie- tists secured a far wider adoption, and | the rite is now universal in the Lutheran Church. Meantime, in England, the /ancient custom of confirmation, with a service in English, was continued, though | the sacramental conception of it was | abandoned. Significance. Views of confirmation have been extremely varied since the Reformation. The Roman Church re- gards it as the second of the seven sacra- ments, attributing it, by help of an argu- ment from tradition, to Christ’s com- mand. It is considered to confer a grace ad robur (for strengthening), distinct from that conferred in baptism. The use ‘of the “chrism” (anointing with oil) is held to take the place of the ancient lay- ing on of hands as a symbol, and the |bishop’s tap upon the cheek of the candi- date is to remind the latter that he must fight a good fight in Christ’s name. The ‘Latins have thus separated confirmation from baptism on the one hand (as effect- ‘ing spiritual growth where baptism gives ‘spiritual birth), and from the holy com- ‘Munion of the other (in that it is no longer considered a gateway to the latter). Children in the Roman Church to-day re- ceive their first communion several years before confirmation, and on the ground of their baptism. _ Among Lutherans confirmation is con- sidered partly as a necessary consequent to infant baptism. The Lutherans main- tain that little children are received into God’s covenant of grace in holy bap- tism., __ In accordance with Christ’s command they have been instructed in the word of God and have been taught the principles of the Christian religion. In their con- firmation they acknowledge as their own 283 Confirmation the faith which their parents and sponsors professed in their name when they were baptized, and are received into the fellow- ship of the congregation and admitted to the holy communion. The act itself con- sists of the confession, the benediction, the laying on of hands, and the prayer of the congregation. The sacramental idea is en- tirely rejected. The conception of confirmation preva- lent in the Anglican Churches is closely related to the Lutheran, but gives greater emphasis to the spiritual blessing received. There is an inclination toward the sacra- mental position though the ceremony is distinctly called a “rite.”~ The candidate also “ratifies and confirms” his baptismal vows, and is not admitted to communion until he is either confirmed, or “ready and desirous to be confirmed.” Usages and Ritual. Both Greeks and Romans employ the “chrism,” but the Greeks anoint not only the forehead, as in the Roman use,‘ but the eyes, ears, nose, and feet as well. A special service for confirmation is found in the rituals of all the churches. Among Romans and Anglicans the bishops alone confirm. The Roman Church requires a sponsor and each candidate is allowed to choose an additional Christian name which is conferred upon him in the service. The Greek Church confirms at baptism, even infants; the Roman usually at ten to twelve years of age, though there is a pres- ent tendency toward a still earlier age; the Lutheran and Anglican usually from twelve to sixteen. In each of the three latter churches considerable catechetical instruction precedes, but Romans and Lutherans are more systematic in this respect than Anglicans. Educational Value. Quite apart from any question of spiritual gifts received, confirmation is justified as a practical matter by its value for Christian nurture and education. By using it as supple- mentary to infant baptism, the church has the advantage of inspiring its children from the very first with a sense of mem- bership and yet requiring at the age of discernment a personal acceptance of Christian standards of life. The prepara- tion of candidates is a most important feature. It offers exceptional opportunity for instruction in the peculiar confessional life of a church, and in devotional and Confirmation spiritual standards. Dealing immediately with character and the inner life con- firmation instruction forms a complement to the necessarily more intellectual teach- ing of religion in the public schools of Germany, and even in the Sunday schools of America. It puts the pastor into more intimate touch with the younger members of his flock. Unless carried back by dog- matic reasons into the years of childhood proper (a most undesirable tendency), confirmation coincides with the early period of adolescence in which the natural psychological development of the individ- ual tends to produce a new and larger self, with deepened ethical and social out- look. (See Adolescence and its Signifi- cance.) ‘The instruction and spiritual im- pression of confirmation help to direct and fix this new self, and should therefore be a feature of the opening period of adolescence. In addition, one may well believe that from both the psychological and spiritual standpoints new and decisive efforts of will, called to a climax by confirmation, receive as their corresponding reward a special influx of spiritual ability. Thus the century-long appreciation of confirma- tion as a strengthening from above ap- pears as a true insight into the divine method of character-building. LeEsTER BRADNER. References: Anglican Churches: Hall, A.C. A. Confirmation. Lon- don, 1902.) Jackson. Hustory of Confirmation. Roman Catholic Church: Catholic Encyclopedia. Confirma- tion, by T. B. Scannell. (New York.) Dictionnaire de Théologie Catholique ; ed. by Vacant-Mangenot. Confirma- tion. (Paris.) Wilhelm, Joseph, and Scannell, T. B. Manual of Catholic Theology. Vol. 2, pp. 393-400. (London, 1898.) German Lutheran Church: Caspari, W. Konfirmation. (1897.) Lorenz. Der Konfirmation-Unter- recht. (1911.) (Survey of suggested instruction in German.) The nature and doctrine of confirma- tion are still under discussion both in Germany and England: Herzog. Real-Encyklopddie. ticle by Caspari. Ar- 284 Congregational Church mall Mason, A. J. Relation of Confirma- tion to Baptism. (London, 1893.) i, CONFUCIANISM.—Srx Cuina, Mora AND ReE.Liaious EpucaTion IN; Non- CHRISTIAN SCRIPTURES; RELIGIOUS Epu- CATION, ANCIENT, HISTORY OF. CONGREGATIONAL BROTHERHOOD. —SrEE BroTHERHOOD MOVEMENT. CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH (ENG. LAND), SUNDAY-SCHOOL WORK OF THE.—The Congregational churches as a whole showed early zeal in the foun- dation of Sunday schools. In the Story of English Congregationalism the Rey. T. Hooper says: “To the credit of the Independent churches they were among the first to perceive the worth of the Sun- day school and to avail themselves of it.” At the same time it must be recognized that the Sunday schools which first sprang up were the products of individual effort rather than of collective action. Their connection with the church was unregu-— lated, and the responsibility of the church — for their welfare unfelt. They were re- garded as a vital addition, or otherwise, i | the work of the church, according to the attitude taken by the authorities as to the importance of this new development of | Christian activity. As the Trust Deeds of some churches _ bear evidence, the attitude in the earlier years of the movement was in some cases _ actually hostile. In the majority of in- | stances, however, the work commenced by a few devoted men and women was warm- | ly welcomed as an enterprise that would . prove an ally of no small importance to the church. Growth. The growth of Congrega- tional Sunday schools was as a result casual and spasmodic, and many years elapsed before they found their rightful place as an integral part of the activities” of the church. In some cases, more es- pecially in the north of England, the Sunday school grew up as an agency in- dependent of the church, although mainly relying upon its adherents for its supply of teachers and for financial support. This separation of two agencies that should be complementary is still felt in some degree. In the Story of Hnglish Congregationalism already quoted, the i j Ms | i Congregational Church (England) fact is commented upon as follows: “At present between the church and the Sun- day school there is often a great gulf. Some ask, ‘How can we bridge the gulf?’ I answer, ‘Don’t build a bridge; abolish the gulf.’ ” There is, however, increasing evidence of a closer relationship between the school and the church to which it is attached. Keen interest is being evinced in its growth, and the pastor of the church is invariably president of the school and takes an active part in its development. There are, however, matters still requir- ing urgent thought, if growth is to con- tinue unchecked, such as the training and supply of teachers. A solution is being found in a general adoption of methods of grading, and an adequate supply of teachers obtained through enlisting, at the moment of opportunity, the services of the young people of the church. The erection of school buildings, too, more in accord with present-day needs can- not be neglected; and lastly, there must be a fuller recognition of the fact that the school cannot flourish if financially starved, so that the collecting of proper equipment is rendered impossible. Its Place. A recognition of the place of the school in the economy of the church and its development has been more rapid in America than in England. Karly in the present century, however, the need for reform in the Sunday school to keep pace with the growing educational consciousness, became apparent. Many Congregational churches at once realized the value of such new methods as were then being advocated by Mr. G. Hamilton Archibald; and Toxteth Congregational Church, Liverpool, instituted the first Primary Department started in England. The necessity for grading the Sunday school throughout, according to the needs of the pupils, is becoming increasingly seen, and at this time many schools are in a state of transition from old methods to new. Although the ultimate results are still to be appraised, present indications show that this development will prove one of untold blessing to the Sunday- school movement. | To the late Rev. Albert Swift, a Congre- gational minister for some time associated with the work at Westminster Chapel, London, the Institute movement owes in . 285 Congregational Church, Canada large measure its initiation and impetus. This development is proving of no small value in keeping elder pupils in touch with school and church. In 1899 the Congregational Union of England and Wales officially recognized the important place of the Sunday school by including in the Congregational Year- book statistics as to the number of pupils and teachers connected with each church and in the denomination as a whole. This practice has been continued and the figures annually obtained are eagerly scanned, and looked upon as a measure of the growth of the church. In 1906 a further step was taken in the institution of an exhaustive inquiry into the efficacy of the Sunday schools connected with the denomination; this resulted in the issue of a lengthy report entitled: Our Sunday Schools; as They Are, and as They May Become, In this report the numerical strength of the schools and their relative efficiency is es- timated. In addition, recommendations are made for drawing the church and school into closer union, and so increas- ing the permanent value of their work. As an outcome of this official inquiry, the Young People’s Department of the Congregational Union was formed early in 1908 and recognized as an integral part of the Congregational Union of Eng- land and Wales, one of its expressed aims being to make the Sunday school of more value to the pupil and the church, by the advocacy of carefully suggested reforms. To carry this aim into effect, County Committees for Work Among the Young have been formed in connection with Con- gregational associations of churches throughout England and Wales. The newly formed department by the issue of literature and by keeping in touch with individual schools, assists churches to organize and build up their work among the children so that it may become permanently effective, and thus stay the decline in church membership, which has been the mark of recent years. It is a recognition of the collective re- sponsibility of the denomination to the children of the church. W. M. Harris. CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH IN CANADA, SUNDAY-SCHOOL WORK OF Congregational Church, Canada THE.—The Congregational schools in Canada have had a most interesting his- tory, dating back to the first year of the nineteenth century. 'The denomination itself began operations in Newfoundland in 1645; Nova Scotia, 1753; New Bruns- wick, 1774; Quebec, 1801, and in Ontario, 1819. The Rev. Dr. Bentom came from Eng- land at the request of some non-conform- ist soldiers, but arrived too late to be of service to them, as they had been removed. However, he organized a church of forty members. For officiating at a marriage, and for exercising other ministerial func- tions, Dr. Bentom was fined forty pounds and imprisoned for six months. In the reign of King William IV a statute was passed which placed Congregational min- isters in this respect on an equality with other clergymen. During Dr. Bentom’s imprisonment Rey. Francis Dick arrived from England and began the pastorate. In Quebec, in the year 1801, Mr. Dick organized the first Sunday school in Canada in connec- tion with the Congregational Church. This honor, however, has been claimed by some for a Miss Hedge of Montreal. There is no distinct history of Sunday schools in Lower Canada, as it was then ealled, until 1835 when a church was built in St. Maurice street, Montreal, and a Sunday school was regarded as an essen- tial part of the church’s work. Subse- quently, “Zion Church” had one of the largest schools in that city. In the Province of Ontario the first Congregational Sunday school was organ- ized at a place called Frome in Elgin county. In 1819 a church had been or- ganized by Rev. Joseph Silcox, who re- mained its pastor for forty years. Some time elapsed before a Sunday school ap- peared, but when organized it met wher- ever public worship was held—in log houses, barns, or public school buildings. Here the children were instructed in the Bible, without lesson helps, which were then unknown. The Bible was its own interpreter. | The school began at 9 A.M., and it still continues to meet at the same hour. It is worthy of note that one, Andrew Horton, was superintendent for forty consecutive years, and was only absent three Sundays during that time. The children were ex- 286 pected to “learn by heart” and recite not : less than six verses of Scripture every Sunday, for which they were annually rewarded with some inexpensive present. These conditions were general elsewhere. As time passed new features were intro- duced to keep pace with the progress of events. The International Series of Les- sons was regarded as a decided step in advance in Sunday-school work, and this series continues in use in most of the schools to-day, though in some instances the Graded Series has been adopted. However, this series is considered as rather too expensive yet for the ordinary school. The Adult Bible class early found a place in some of the schools. It has proved most helpful and its numbers have gradually increased. It is estimated that there are about 150 Sunday schools, with a membership of 10,000 pupils supervised by a staff of about 1,000 teachers. Congregational Church (U.§.) In some schools the Boy Scout and Girl — Guide movements have been introduced, and when properly carried on they have been found to increase the interest of the young, not only in the school, but in the church as well. Canada are probably Emmanuel Church, The three most highly ~ organized schools of the denomination in Montreal, Northern Church, Toronto, and — St. James Park, Winnipeg. In the teaching of the schools great stress is laid on home and foreign mis- sions, together with the vital question of — temperance. Probably the majority of the schools have a well signed temperance wall pledge. The conviction is constantly growing that the church can do its best work by — paying greater attention to the religious education of the young, and that the growth of the denomination depends very | largely upon having a well-equipped and — thoroughly aggressive system of Sunday- — school work. E. D. Stucox. ~ CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, SUN- Ee ae Ps 1 | i 7 DAY-SCHOOL WORK OF THE—Con- — gregationalism in America dates its begin- — ning from the landing of the Pilgrim Fathers at Plymouth, Mass., in 1620. They brought with them a church organ- _ ization which was established in Scrooby, | Eng., in 1606, and transferred to Holland | = in 1608. With the spread of the colonies | 4 4 . ’ 41 ¢ Congregational Church (VU. 8.) and the growth of the Union, they became a national denomination. At the outset emphasis was laid upon the individual church, the churches uniting together simply for fellowship and codperation. The churches of the Congregational fel- lowship from the very first took a deep in- terest in religious education. It was a motto among them that the school and the church should be planted side by side. The instruction in the school as well as the church was considered religious. The close association of religion and education led to the founding by these churches of Harvard ‘College in 1636, with the motto “For Christ and the Church,” and to the found- ‘ing of Yale University in 1701. | These churches made provision for teacher as well as pastor in each church. Because of limitations, generally the office -was combined and very frequently the or- ‘dination and installation services made ‘recognition of “Pastor and Teacher,” even when both of these were held by one person. It was expected that all the children and youth should be catechized in the home as well as instructed in the church. With the growth of population and the entrance of many aliens, it was found that, even in the most favored parts of the country, large numbers were growing up without religious instruction. The early Sunday schools were not organized as the direct result of either denominational or church action, but in the places where they were established the idea was quickly adopted by the Congregational churches. In the year 1816 a Society was formed in Boston called “The Boston Society for the Moral and Religious Instruction of the Poor” (qg. v.) Many organizations with a similar purpose grew up in all parts of the country, generally by a union of indi- viduals and churches of different denom- inations. This led to the formation of the American Sunday School Union in 1824. Feeling, however, that the work should be more closely associated with the churches, in the year 1825, the Congrega- tional and Baptist churches of Massa- chusetts united in forming the Massa- chusetts Sabbath School Union. In the year 1832 this Society was dissolved, and each denomination formed its own Society. This was heartily approved by both de- nominations, and at the first Annual Meet- 287 Congregational Church (U. 8.) ing it was stated that it was not a case of division, but of multiplication, as each Society had been able to accomplish as much singly as both had previously done unitedly. The Baptist organization some years later became a part of the National So- ciety of that denomination, at Philadel- phia, and the Congregational organization by different stages became the recognized denominational agency for carrying for- ward the Sunday-school work. Different organizations for publishing were merged with the Society, and in 1868 the name became “The Congregational Sabbath School and Publishing Society.” With the change of name in 1868 it became in the fullest sense a National Society. The Massachusetts Sabbath School So- ciety had been aiding with grants of litera- ture, and to some extent with missionary service, the Sunday-school work in the newest states of the West, especially Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois and Missouri. The Congregational churches in these new Commonwealths were united in state associations, and by vote gave rec- ognition to the work of the Sabbath School Society. The larger part of the work, however, was in preparing and publishing Sunday- school material, and aiding with grants of literature through the agents of the Home Missionary Society and to individual pas- tors. : In the year 1834, Rev. Asa Bullard (qg. v.) became the secretary for the So- ciety, and continued in its service for over fifty years. He was untiring in his zeal and efforts for the extension and im- provement of Sunday-school work. Reorganization.—In response to urgent petitions from state Congregational or- ganizations and other representative bodies, Rev. A. E. Dunning, D.D., was elected Sunday-school secretary in De- cember, 1880, and entered upon his duties January 1, 1881. Plans were then made for extending the missionary and educational work of the Society, especially in the central and western states. After the special reorganization, the first superintendents and missionaries sent out in 1883 were appointed to Colorado, Nebraska, the Dakotas, and Washington, and soon older states with frontier condi- tions asked and received missionary serv- Congregational Church (UV. S.) ice, until all the interior as well as west- ern states were furnished with workers from the Sunday School Society. From. the beginning of the organization, the need for improving as well as for the extension of Sunday-school work was rec- ognized. In the first years this was largely done through the issuing of literature. With the reorganization in 1882 each field superintendent sent out by the Society was commissioned in regard to improving the condition of existing schools, as well as in relation to extending missionary work in this vicinity. In the year 1883 the name was changed to “The Congregational Sunday School and Publishing Society,” which name it has since borne. During the early periods the voting membership consisted of An- nual and Life Members, so constituted on payment of certain sums of money, and on condition that they were members of Or- thodox Congregational churches. In 1892 the Constitution was changed, giving rep- resentation to each State Association, Conference or convention of Congrega- tional churches which could elect five Annual Members, and also the right for each contributing church to elect one delegate. The organization received recognition in the action of each Triennial Council of the Congregational denomination, begin- ning with the Boston Council, 1865, Editorial Department—A Sunday- school magazine, especially useful for teachers and for stimulating the work, called the Sabbath School Treasury, was published from 1825 to 1832, by the Massachusetts Sabbath School Union. The Congregational organization, under the name of the Massachusetts Sabbath School Society, continued the magazine with the name The Sabbath School Visitor. During the first seven years there were 352 works published, of which 203 were for Sunday-school libraries, seventeen were question books, and three singing books. The first question book on Romans was issued in 1835. In 1853 a question book was published, which anticipated the name which afterwards became very pop- ular, The Inductwe Question Book. Previous to 1868 the Society had issued 750 publications, of which 700 were for Sunday-school libraries. The Wellspring, the oldest young 288 people’s paper, was issued in 1844, and has Congregational Church (U. J continued under the same name to the present time. Previous to the organization of a dis- tinct department, the editorial work was done by Rev. Asa Bullard, and by differ- ent persons outside of the office. The ne- cessity was felt of having the work co- ordinated under one direction. In 1884, M. C. Hazard, D.D., then western secre- tary at Chicago, was called to organize and take charge of the Editorial Department. The lessons were unified and graded, and instead of a teachers’ edition of the Pil- grim quarterly, at the beginning of 1885, the publication of the Pilgrim Teacher as a monthly was begun. The Mayflower was begun in 1887, and owing to the de- creasing demand for question books, they were dropped in 1888. Some lesson helps were discontinued and others put in their places, until the Society had a complete list of publications covering the Senior, Intermediate, Junior and Primary depart- ments of the Sunday school. able rapidity. In the publication of books, the Society also had a somewhat similar experience. Hitherto very few books issued were writ- ten by attractive and competent writers. The Society, through its Editorial Depart- ment, endeavored to change the idea of what was suitable for a boy or girl in The circula- tion increased from 215,200 in 1884, to 541,641 in 1889. The growth amounted in 1887, to 85,642 and in 1889, to 89,441. The circulation continued to increase thereafter, though not with such remark- Sunday school, and offered one thousand dollars in two prizes of seven hundred and three hundred dollars respectively for the | two best manuscripts, with the privilege of retaining any of the others that should be offered on terms satisfactory to the writers. Not only were the prize manuscripts ex- ceedingly good, but so many others were so nearly their equal that for two or three years, the Society did not have to depend upon unsolicited manuscripts. The recep- tion given to these books showed the pop- ular appreciation of the higher ideal, and stimulated writers who hitherto had not thought of Sunday-school literature as a field worthy of their attention. Educational Developments.—With the new awakening in religious education and in response to recommendations of ) Hh i Congress of Mothers the National Council, steps. were taken in 1910 for organizing an LEduca- tional Department, resulting in the calling of Rev. B. S. Winchester, D.D., as educa- tional secretary and editor of general publications. For four years this depart- ment maintained a small force of trained specialists who devoted themselves to in- stitute work and the promoting of teacher- training classes in addition to other duties in connection with the Editorial Depart- ment, and in codperation with the field force of the Missionary and Extension De- partment. ‘The expenses of this depart- ment were temporarily defrayed from the profits of the Business Department. Through a change of policy in 1914 this method of support was discontinued. Present Status—The work of the Sunday School Society is administered by a National Board, consisting of fifteen Directors, elected at the Annual Meeting of the Society. Nearly all the State Con- ferences have elected Committees or Boards to codperate with the National Board in carying forward the work. The Society has one Treasurer, There are ex- pended for the missionary and extension work contributions from churches amount- ing to about $100,000 per year. Through the change of policy referred to above in 1914 the work of the Educational Depart- ment is to be provided for out of the con- tributions of the churches to the Mission- ary and Extension Department. All the national benevolent societies of the Con- gregational denominations are [1915] in process of reorganization in course of which the ultimate disposition of the educational work will be more definitely determined. The Missionary and Extension Depart- ment employs twenty-five superintendents, who have charge of districts comprising one or more states. ‘They have as assist- ants about forty Sunday-school mission- aries and a number of temporary helpers. _ From the year 1884 to 1913 there were organized 12,565 Sunday schools, and for the same period there were developed from these organizations 1559 Congregational churches. WituramM Ewina, M. C. Hazarp. CONGRESS OF MOTHERS.—SeExz MoTHERS AND ParENT-T'EACHER Asso- CIATION, NATIONAL CONGRESS OF. 289 Conscience CONNEXIONAL SUNDAY SCHOOL UNION COMMITTEE.—Srrt PRIMITIVE Metuopist 8S. S. Union. CONSCIENCE, TRAINING THE.— The term consctence has been defined in so many different ways that difficulties present themselves at once upon endeavor- ing to make a formal statement as to the character and function of this essential and fundamental quality of mind and spirit. Some of the best and clearest thinkers hold that it is reserved for the period of reason for conscience to act as such, and this would altogether de- bar the little child from the realm of conscience. Noah Davis affirms that “Conscience is pure reason discerning right and wrong,” and Webster claims it to be the “faculty, power, or inward principle which decides as to the char- acter of one’s own actions, purposes, and affections.” The difference in the standards of morality in the ancient and Christian views caused a new and enlarged conception of the function of conscience, and man’s conduct instead of his knowl- edge came to be regarded as the condition of salvation. (See Religion, Psychology of.) The purpose of this article is not to dis- cuss the origin of conscience, but to sug- gest its influence at the various periods of childhood and youth. Teachers of young children are prone to believe that con- science plays a part in the moral develop- ment of the very young and that a little child learns through love for his mother to “be sorry” when he has done what is painful to her and to try to make amends by some outward display of unusual affec- tion. The Beginners’ teacher may learn much from the mother of the child, regarding the way in which the soil of the child’s mind is made fertile for the seeds of daily suggestions to conscience in thought, word, and deed. In the majority of cases a mother’s standards of right and wrong become those of her young child, just as his physical and mental nature take on the tone which she imparts and which the home atmosphere fosters. He believes what shé tells him and accepts her word without question, if he has been governed by the strength of love rather than by the weakness of tyranny. Until the child has Conscience acquired some basis of experience on which he is able to form right judgments, it is the duty of those in authority over him to help him to form ideas of what is right and what is wrong. It is difficult to lay down a rule in re- gard to the exact age at which the voice of conscience speaks, for this varies ac- cording to the environment, heredity, and training of individuals, but one may as- sume that there are certain universal tests which may be applied to that part of the psychic nature which will later develop into well-defined conscience. Obedience is one of the first laws which the child learns. Therefore, one of the earliest opportunities for conscience to express itself would come through disobe- dience. If a child is voluntarily sorry and asks to be forgiven when he has been dis- obedient, one may conclude that conscience has been at work in him. He may not, as a child, suffer any poignant grief over his misdeed, or think anything concerning the consequences of the deed itself, but he is sorry that he has pained the one to whom obedience rightfully belongs—his mother or father. Taking this as her guide the Beginners’ teacher will help to keep sensitive and active this phase of the spiritual nature in the child by adding to the influence of the home the emphasis of a similar suggestion by her personal attitude toward right and wrong, and the teaching which the child may normally receive on the subject of obedience in rela- tion to God’s word—the obedience that comes through love. The innate power which develops into the quality called conscience is a gift of God and is the reflection of his divine stamp upon humanity. However, the ex- ercise and value of conscience at various stages of development is a subject for earnest thought and conscientious study on the part of both parents and teachers. Truthfulness is another of the com- mon standards which becomes possible of more intelligent exercise as the child grows older and the opportunity to study the action and development of conscience in relation to untruthfulness affords a rich field for investigation and deduction. When a child is “caught in a story” and then is simply “sorry” because he is pun- ished, conscience has not yet done any very active work; but if, after the nature 290 Conscience of the act has been explained to him, he is sincerely sorry before the punishment is given, and if he shows no resentment after the punishment has been adminis- tered, one may consider that conscience has been nurtured and strengthened by the wise adult who has shown the child the way to appreciate the value of truth- fulness to himself first of all. At this period of the child’s develop- ment he still accepts the standards of right and wrong which are laid down by those in authority over him. The attitude toward truthfulness which the parents maintain in their daily hfe in the home will have the greatest influence upon the child, and will either aid or interfere when they are obliged to come into the relation — of adviser and sponsor in regard to the right action of conscience. The tempta- tion to untruthfulness is peculiarly insist- ent in the imaginative period and the wise Primary teacher should reénforce the teaching of the home by appropriate and well told stories designed to help the child to hold in his imagination those things which will enable him to exercise his will in the-right direction. (See Children, Falsehoods of.) One of the best indications that the conscience is a divinely implanted qual-— ity of the mind is the readiness with which this inner power acknowledges its relationship and responsibility to the Creator, after it becomes consciously active. It may be but an embryonic fac- ulty in the small child, but it is capable of constant normal development and it must be thus developed if the man is to be furnished with a sensitive moral com- pass which shall guide him aright. Early in his experience the child becomes ac-— quainted with the law of obedience. This law is imposed upon him by the forces of his environment and by those in author- ity over him. The first is a blind force that controls him in his weakness, the other is intelligent and manifests itself as restriction and guidance, but he does not always cheerfully conform to either. In order to make the law of obedience of intrinsic value to the child he should be provided with the authority for which he can have genuine respect. Out of this law of obedience should grow the better and progressive ideal “I ought,” and if he has been wisely guided in adjusting him- Conscience self to the law of compulsion, the transi- tion into this voluntary and conscience- guided obedience, will be easy and natural. It is with this stage in the development of the conscience that the Junior teacher comes in contact. If those requirements which have seemed arbitrary to the child are reasonable and within his powers of attainment, his translation of the prin- ciple “I ought” into terms of daily living will be a much simpler process. If he comes to do the things he ought from a sense of moral obligation or a conscious willingness, he will have incorporated the law into his own heart and adopted it as part of his personality. Strong moral teaching in honesty should be given at this period. This is the time when such teaching is peculiarly congenial to the pupil’s natural tendencies. He wants no confusion in statements or ideas when a subject is being presented to him. He appreciates a straightforward, simple statement of real facts. His duty must be clearly defined; his achievements justly and honorably accomplished. His admirations are all on the side of the heroic. One way in which to help him to resist the temptation to dishonesty (which makes its appearance at this stage because of the natural acquisitive tendency) is to make it possible for him to respond to the appeals to courage and loyalty until it becomes a normal thing for him to do it with his whole being. The hero story is now the teacher’s large asset in addition to a personal and active standard of abso- lute honesty toward all moral questions that involve the elements of courage and loyalty. The outward opportunity to be honest, when tempted to perform the dis- honest action, is a deliberate challenge to the law of obedience in the spirit of the boy or girl, and if fearlessness has been “nurtured the chances are that conscience will win more often than it will be si- lenced. (See Visual Instruction in Mor- als.) Another strong interest along positive lines at this period is a desire for justice and fair play, and it offers a fine oppor- tunity for the exercise of the law “I ought” in the life of the pupil when it is applied to his own attitude toward the principles which he would exact from others toward himself. His “personal ideal,” which may be described as the out- 291 Constitution growth of physical, mental, and moral ideals, will be determined in a large meas- ure by his intelligent conception and vol- untary exercise of the law of obedience, which may be termed the voice of con- science. Upon this will depend largely his future usefulness and value to society and the adjustment of his relationship toward God and his fellow men. Con- science is a progressive and constantly en- larging quality, and Sunday-school teach- ers may assist in developing the sense of right and wrong into a conscious “obliga- tion to do right.” Nanniz L. FRAYSER. References: Hocking, W. E. The Meaning of God in Human Expertence, pp. 551- 557. (New Haven, 1912.) Sisson, E. O. The Essentials of Character, Chap. VII. (New York, 1910.) CONSTITUTION OF THE SUNDAY SCHOOL.—Many Sunday schools have no formal or written constitution, many have no need of one. The two chief objects of a Sunday-school constitution are, (1) to define the work of the different officers and committees so that there shall be no misunderstanding and as little duplicat- ing of work as possible; (2) to give such power to comparatively permanent officers or committees that the work of the school may be unharmed by frequent changes in any one or more of the officers. This second object is especially important for schools which have for superintendents the assistant ministers, who may receive a call before they have been with the Sun- day school more than a year or two. The following is a type of constitution for a school with a permanent superintendent. ARTICLE I.—Organization Section 1. This organization shall be called, “The Sunday School Association of the First Presbyterian Church of ——.” Section 2. The Association shall act under the authority of the Session of the Church. Secrion 3. The members shall consist of all regularly enrolled officers, teachers, and pupils of the Sunday school; but voting power shall be vested only in such members as are over sixteen years of age. ABTICLE II.—Officers Section 1. The officers of the Association shall be, a pastor, a superintendent, a secre- tary, a treasurer, a2 librarian, and an organist. Constitution Section 2. The pastor of the church shall be ex-officio the pastor of the Sunday school. (Here follow sections stating the duties of the officers, the rules for electing those which are elective, and directions for ap- pointing assistants for several of the officers.) a prrore III.—Meetings Section 1. The stated business meetings shall be held at the close of the Sunday- school session on the last Sabbath of each month. Section 2. The superintendent may call a special meeting at any time, and must do so when it is requested in writing by three members. SECTION 3. a quorum. ARTICLE _I1V.—Amendments Section 1. The Constitution may be altered or amended at any stated meeting by a three-fourths vote, notice having been given at the previous stated meeting of the in- tention to move such amendment or altera- tion. The By-Laws of this school give the order of business at the stated meetings; the rules for the appointing of an Execu- tive Committee, a Library Committee, and a Missionary Committee; and the detailed duties of the various committees and offi- eers. The following are characteristic paragraphs: 3. The Executive Committee, in consulta- tion with the officers, shall have the care and oversight of the school property, except the library; shall provide supplies for the use of the school; and shall be authorized to expend money on behalf of the school, not exceeding ten dollars per month, sub- ject to the Association’s approval. 15. The names of all members present every Sunday in the quarter shall constitute the First Honor Roll, and those present every Sunday except when excused, the Second Honor Roll. The Honor Roll shall form part of the Secretary’s quarterly re- port, and pupils who are on the Honor Rolls for the year shall receive a certificate or other testimonial at the Anniversary. For a school where the second object of a Constitution is important the follow- ing is a type: ARTICLE I.—Name The name of this association shall be... Sunday school. ARTICLE II.—Object The object shall be the advancement of Christ’s Kingdom by sessions for study and personal influence. Seven members shall constitute ARTICLE III.—Organization The members shall be the officers, teachers, and pupils of the Sunday school, but only the officers and teachers shall have voting power at the business meetings. 292 4 f Constitution The officers of the School (or Association) shall be: The rector of the church, who shall be ex-officio officer and member of all com- mittees and departments of the Sunday school with power to make or veto any change. The superintendent appointed by the rector; an assistant or lay superintendent, if so desired; a secretary; a treasurer; one or more assistant secretaries or treasurers; a librarian if so desired. A chairman of the Primary Department. A chairman of each three years above the Primary Department; or, when so desired, a separate chairman of girls and boys of each three years. A Registrar. All officers, except the superintendent (and rector), shall be elected at the annual business meeting of teachers by a majority vote, subject to the approval of the superin- tendent. Vacancies, in any offices may be filled at any regular or special teachers’ meeting. (Here follow articles giving the detailed duties of the superintendent, secretary, and treasurer. ) ARTICLE VII.—Departmental Chairmen It shall be the duty of the departmental chairmen to see that the teachers are pro- vided with the proper teachers’ helps; they are properly transferred; to uphold and aid the teachers, in cases of discipline; to ascertain in the spring which teachers — and which | expect to return in the fall, pupils are to be promoted; to report on the subject of teachers to the superintendent, and to give the registrar a list of the old | pupils with their classes and gradings for the following fall; old pupils in the fall; to aid the superin- tendent in securing suitable teachers, and, in the absence of a superintendent, to ap- point teachers in their respective depart- ments; to preside at the departmental meet- ings; to ascertain and report to the super intendent at the officers’ meetings whether or not the teachers are calling on all their pupils. (In this school the departmental chairmen are also teachers.) ARTICLE VIII.— The Teachers (Detailed duties. ) ARTICLE I[X.—The Registrar Shall place new children in classes, and in cooperation with the chairmen replace old pupils when they rteurn after the summer, or other prolonged absence. He (or she, the registrar being preferably a woman) shall fill out such cards as the secretary needs for his catalogues, and perform the other usual duties of a registrar. p ARTICLE X.—Meetings There shall be at least three teacher meetings a year, one on some Sunday in ils to aid the placing of the Ad | t to | explain the lesson system and Sunday-school — customs to new teachers; to see that pupils — who are above or below the grade in which ‘shall be elected . . Constructive Bible Studies when a Christmas committee . each department shall hold a meeting on some Sunday in October. There shall be a meeting of the Executive Committee (consisting of the superintend- ent, officers, and chairmen) on the third Sun- day of every month, and at other times when called. November, ARTICLE XI.—Amendments The By-Laws of this school provide for -and state the duties of: A committee for | visiting pupils whose teachers cannot do $0; a committee on music; a lesson com- | : ] | mittee; a library committee; a committee on missions; a committee on recognition of work done or courses completed. The library committee provides for a teachers’ reference library (q. v.), there being a good public library near for the use of ‘the pupils. The paragraph on the Lesson committee is characteristic. It reads: This committee shall consist of the rector, / the superintendent, the chairmen, and such | other members as the rector may appoint, or -as shall be elected at a regularly called | teachers’ meeting. It shall be the duty of this Committee to see that the lesson system ' of the school be based on Bible work, modern, graded in subject matter, as seldom changed as is consistent with rational progress, churchly, and as conducive to the awakening and nourishing of spiritual life as they are able to make it. (See Organization, S. S.) Marianna C. Brown. CONSTRUCTIVE BIBLE STUDIES.— About the year 1890, William Rainey Harper, professor of Semitic languages and literature in Yale Theological Semi- nary, and of Biblical literature in Yale University, became interested in the pro- motion of a more systematic study of the English Bible. (See American Institute of Sacred Literature.) His attention was called to the effort of Rev. Erastus Blakes- lee (g. v.) to produce a series of les- sons for use in the Sunday school, which should be in some measure adjustable to the varying ages and capabilities of the pupils in a given school, Working in codperation, Mr. Blakeslee and Professor Harper produced a series of lessons in the life of Christ, which represented four grades of work, elemen- tary, intermediate, progressive and ad- vanced. (See Bible Study Union Les- sons.) A little later Professor Harper having become president of the University of Chicago, withdrew from the association 293 Constructive Bible Studies with Mr. Blakeslee, but did not lose sight of the great need of better material for the use of both pupils and teachers in the Sunday school. In 1899, in conference with members of the staff of the Divinity school of the University of Chicago, he conceived a plan for a systematic series of textbooks for the study of the Bible, which should be adapted for all ages of pupils from the kindergarten to adult years. He invited to participate with him in the editorial management of such a series, Professor Ernest D. Burton, head of the department of New Testament Lit- erature and Interpretation in the same university. In 1900 the first volume, The Constructive Studies in the Life of Christ, was published serially in the Biblical World, reprinted in monthly pamphlets, and finally in book form. Upon the death of President Harper in 1906, the editorial management passed to Professor Burton, and is at present in his hands. At the present date several impressions of the volume above referred to have been issued. This volume represented work suitable for adult use only. In 1904 two further volumes followed, one, The Gospel of Mark, by Professor Burton, a study of this Gospel adapted to about the eighth grade of the grammar school, or the first year of the high school. In the same year appeared An Introduction to the Bible for Teachers of Children, by Georgia Louise Chamberlin, a book which is designed to guide the teacher of pupils who have just attained the age of interest in reading stories, in giving them a general survey of the Bible from the point of view of stories. It was the first book to appear in any series in which the results of modern scholarship were used in the presentation of Biblical stories to children. Since 1904 new books have been published in rapid succession, the series now representing manuals for the teacher, those for the use of the pupil, and textbooks for pupil and teacher alike. Sixteen different authors have contrib- uted to the series, each representing in his contribution some practical and successful experiment in class work. The authors represent in some cases leading univer- sities, in others, important phases of reli- gious activity. In general they may be said to represent the point of view of modern scholarship, not however, in a con- Constructive Bible Studies troversial, but in a wholly constructive spirit. Each author endeavors to empha- size those principles and points of view which will be of moral and religious value to the pupil, and that will save him from the necessity of reconstructing his reli- gious life as it develops from stage to stage. Although at the time of the initiation of this series the thought of the editors embraced only a series of Biblical text- books, later developments in the field of religious education (see Religious Edu- cation Association), and a wider study of the principles of religious education led the editors to modify their idea of a cur- riculum in religious education, and ac- cordingly to introduce into the series books based on Christian principles but not strictly Biblical. Such books are So- cial Duties, by Charles R. Henderson, and Great Men of the Christian Church, by Williston Walker ; and still others not fall- ing strictly in the Biblical field. Although it is possible at this time to provide a book for each grade of the Sun- day school from the kindergarten to adult years, it is the intention and hope of the present editor to add alternative books in many grades. Believing that there will always be a necessity for textbooks based directly upon the Bible, but also, as the work of religious education advances that there will be an increasing demand for books discussing modern ethical problems, the history of the Christian Church and its work, and other like themes, the books that are necessary to round out an ideal curriculum will be prepared and added to the series as rapidly as circumstances permit. The following books constitute the series as at present published: (1) Kindergarten. The Sunday Kin- dergarten: Game, Gift, and Story, by Carrie S. Ferris. (2) Hlementary. Grades 1-3: Child Religion in Song and Story (Book I, The Child and Hts World), by Georgia L. Chamberlin and Mary R. Kern; Child Religion in Song and Story (Book II, Walks with Jesus in his Home Country), by Georgia L. Chamberlin and Mary R. Kern. Grades 4-8: An Introduction to the Bible for Teachers of Children, by Georgia L. Chamberlin, The Life of 294 Constructive Bible Studies Jesus, by H. W. Gates; Old Testament Story, by C. H. Corbett; Heroes of Israel, by T. G. Soares; Paul of Tarsus, by Louise W. Atkinson; Studies in the Gospel According to Mark, by E. D. Bur- ton; Studies in the First Book of Samuel, by H. L. Willett. (3) High School and Adult Grades: Problems of Boyhood, by F. W. Johnson; The Life of Christ, by 1. B. Burgess; The Hebrew Prophets, or Patriots and Leaders of Israel, by Georgia L. Chamber- lin; The Life of Christ, by E. D. Burton and Shailer Mathews; A Short History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age, by G. H. Gilbert; The Prophetic Element wn the Old Testament, by W. R. Harper; The Priestly Element wn the Old Testa- ment, by W. R. Harper; Christianity and tts Bible, by H. F. Waring; Social Duties from the Christian Powmt of View, by C. R. Henderson; Great Men of the Christian Church, by Williston Walker; Christian Faith for Men of To-day, by K. A. Cook; A Handbook of the Infe of the Apostle Paul, by E. D. Burton. : Relation to other series. The Construc- tive Bible Studies are at present in use in nearly 2,000 schools. This does not mean that all of these schools are using the Constructive Bible Studies alone. The character of the volumes in this series is such that a single volume may be in-. troduced into a school for the use of a single class or group of classes without disturbing the remainder of the school, In many schools, therefore, books from this series are in use in a single class or group of classes or in a department, while in other departments other helps are used. On the other hand, there are many schools whose work is entirely directed by this series. Just as the denominations provide educational secretaries to assist schools desiring to become graded, the publishers of this series employ persons experienced in religious education to assist schools im raising the educational standard of their work, Characteristics. The volumes of this series are all in bound form (except the constructive notebooks, which are im looseleaf form) and cover one school year of work. Music, handwork, illustrations and maps have all been carefully prepared, — from the point of view of artistic as well — as educational value. In the lower grades, — oe i Contact, Point of the religious value of play, of handwork, music, and other activities is recognized. In the higher stages of elementary work, the constructive and collective in- stincts are provided for. In the prehigh- school stage the discussion of common ethical problems, and in the high-school grades the study of history with recogni- tion of the social significance of reform, are the chief elements. ‘The series pro- vides between the first and the twelfth grades a threefold study of Old Testa- ment history and prophecy, the Gospels, and the Acts, and Letters which give the apostolic history and thought, each time from the point of view most appropriate at that stage of the pupil’s advancement. GrEoreIA L, CHAMBERLIN. CONTACT, POINT OF.—According to Herbart (q. v.) the first formal step in the teaching process is preparation—the pre- paration of the learner by the teacher, or in other words to establish a point of con- tact. If there is to be learning, the learner and the teacher must approach each other on the same plane; they must understand each other; and they must make use of no ideas that are not common to both. Perception comes only through ideas al- ready possessed; the teaching process moves always from the known to the un- known. The teacher, therefore, must know what is already in the learner’s mind that he may build on a real foundation. He must consider the learner’s plane of experience, use language that he can com- prehend, look at life so far as is possible through the pupil’s eye, and understand his ideals and his ways. If he is teaching children he must real- ize that he is dealing with one who speaks as a child, understands as a child, thinks as a child. He must know that the little child has little conception of chronology or of the perspective of events, that he will understand no allusions to history, or literature, or passages from the Bible, and that the Golden Text will probably Mean little to him. To deal with such things is a waste of golden opportunity, for there is a whole world of material that May be given him. _ First, it must be realized that the child’s vocabulary is limited ; that he knows noth- ing of even the most familiar theological terms. Holiness, charity, faith, meekness, 295 Contact, Point of peace—of the meaning of all such terms he knows nothing. He may look inter- ested and even animated as the lesson is being taught; but one should not be de- ceived. It might be startling if the teacher really knew why the child is inter- ested. One lady teaching a little girl about faith in God was impressed by the child’s eager interest until she learned the secret-—“Your nose moves up and down so funny when you talk,” the child ex- plained artlessly. Even so simple a text as “Forgive us our trespasses’ may be wholly lost on children. The first task of the elementary teacher is to learn the language of her pupils for it is a first law of teaching that the language of the teacher shall be perfectly understood by the taught. (See Teaching, The Laws of.) Then again, to bring a lesson home to a child one must know something concern- ing his life and his environment. Country children are not like city children. It is useless to tell of the shepherd and the lost sheep to a class that knows nothing about sheep. It is wise before one tells this story to a class of young children to prepare the class, to ask how many have seen sheep, and then have the one who seems to know the most in. regard to the matter to describe a sheep to the class. The teacher may supplement as she thinks best, using pictures to make things more clear. Then she is ready to tell the story. She has established a point of contact. The world of childhood is smaller than most teachers realize. In one city school 35 per cent had never been in the country; 47 per cent had never seen a pig; 20 per cent did not know where it came from. The teacher who has been for a long time in charge of her class realizes the condi- tion of each of her pupils, and can work to much better advantage than could a stranger. She should draw her illustra- tions constantly from the child’s little world. Jesus used no other method. He taught the profoundest truths, but he taught them in simple terms and he illus- trated them at every step with simple material taken from the lives of the hum- blest of his hearers: the sower and the seed, the birds, the soils, the tares, the signs of the skies, the foxes, the goodly pearl, the traveler who fell among thieves, the landowner who let out his vineyard 1 4 Contagious Diseases Conventions - 296 to husbandmen. He brought ever the un- known in terms of the known. (See Christ as a Teacher.) The principle applies to adults as well as to children, One must know his class. One would not teach a class of farm work- ers as he would a class of college students. If one has a gathering of miners he should choose his illustrations from the miner’s occupation in such a way as to make them very effective. From the known to the unknown is the first law in pedagogy. F, L. PAtTEE. Reference: Du Bois, Patterson. The Point of Contact in Teaching. Ed. 4, rev. and enl, (New York, 1901c1896-1900.) CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.—Srrt Hy- GIENE, CONTINUOUS SERVICE PLAN.—Serxr CoMBINATION SERVICE. CONVENTIONS, SUNDAY-SCHOOL.— The assembling together in convention of Sunday-school workers and friends of the Sunday-school cause has been a note- worthy feature of the Sunday-school movement in America; and the influence of such conventions on the development of local Sunday-school method has been profound. (See City Training School; Graded Unions of Sunday School Teach- ers; Method, Schools of.) 1. Early Local Conventions. The Sun- day school, introduced by Robert Raikes (q. v.) in England in 1780, and first ad- vocated by him three years later, was transplanted to America about the close of the century; and for the next thirty years its progress in the United States was that of a cause seeking recognition and adop- tion. Sunday schools multiplied under the. influence of societies formed to establish them, and continued in correspondence with the local or general body of which each Sunday school was counted a branch, The local unions formed by the American Sunday School Union (organized 1824), and the societies which preceded it, in many cases held annual meetings which partook of the nature of Sunday-school conventions; and occasionally these were held in and for the townships, counties and other civil divisions of the field which these unions undertook respectively to cover. For the most part, however, the Sunday schools of that period were small and scattered, representing largely the personal devotion of individual Chris- tians; so that large representative Sun-— day-school conventions were not possible. The new ideas and inspiration for service which modern delegates secure at the Sunday-school convention were ministered to these schools through correspondence with the local or parent union, and in some cases through the visits of a union representative. In Hartford, Conn., the Sunday-school union covering the county of that name held regular annual meetings for many years after 1823. Numerous other series of annual meetings, more or less of the convention type, date from that general period. On January 13, 1831, a conven- tion of Sunday-school teachers assembled at Mexico, N. Y., and organized “The Oswego County Sunday School Teachers’ Association,” holding a delegated conven- tion under the care of a committee of their number, The organization formed at this time, however, appears to have been simply another one of the then numerous local auxiliaries of the American Sunday School Union. 3 What seems to have been a genuine “first county Sunday-school convention” was that held at Winchester, Ill., April 20, 1846, for Scott county, IL, under the lead of Stephen Paxson (q. v.), who later became a missionary of the American Sunday School Union. Mr. Paxson’s plan” was original and was the outgrowth of his zeal in creating an interest in Sunday schools in the country around Winchester, his home, and of his sense of personal incapacity to teach them what they evi- dently needed to learn in order to be able to conduct Sunday schools intelli- gently. On the river bottoms the people were ignorant and poor; in other parts of the county there were educated settlers from, the Hast; and his idea in calling the convention was to enable these parties, as he phrased it, to “swap ideas.” De-. nominational prejudices at that time made the calling of an interdenominational gathering seem hazardous and unlikely of success; but with his customary persist-_ ence Mr. Paxson, after one or more pre- liminary efforts, succeeded in holding a good convention, and was invited the fol-. lowing fall to hold a like convention for ved ¥% }. Conventions Pike county, adjoining. These conven- tions constitute the historical beginnings, at least for the central states, of the sub- sequent system of county, state, national, and International conventions, with the associations which have grown out of them and by which they are now conducted. 2. Early National Conventions. Three national Sunday-school conventions were held in the United States prior to the Civil War and the opening of the present series of triennial conventions in 1869. Steps for calling the first convention were taken by the board of officers and managers of the American Sunday School ‘Union, which resolved, April 10, 1832, “that it be recommended to the superin- tendents and teachers of Sunday schools in the United States to convene at some noe time and place for the purpose of considering the principles of the insti- tution; the duties and obligations which attach to the several officers of Sunday ‘schools, the best plans of organizing, in- structing and managing a Sunday school in its various departments, and such other | oleae as may pertain to the general ob- jects of the convention.” In view of the opposition to the Union by many leading denominationalists, the managers did not themselves call the convention. Instead, they arranged for a representative meet- ing of Sunday-school leaders, which met in Philadelphia on May 23 of that year, following the Union’s annual meeting, laid well its plans, and issued a call for a national Sunday-school convention in the city of New York on the first Wednes- day of the following October. A ques- tionnaire, as it would now be called, was drawn up, embracing 78 inquiries into the existing state of Sunday-school prac- tice and opinion. A committee of five was appointed to receive and digest the replies to these questions; while another committee was to submit to the conven- tion “such simple directions for the estab- lishment and support of Sunday schools 18 may be adapted to general use.” _ This early adoption of the method of preparing for a convention by a series of tommissions using the questionnaire nethod, popularly associated in mind first with the great missionary convention at fdinburgh, in 1910, is in itself remark- ible. Not less so was the thorough and successful way in which the two commit- —— R97 Conventions tees or commissions carried out their task, and the use made of their labors by the convention in session. More remarkable still was the idea of holding such a con- vention at that time. At the time of this convention there were less than 200 miles of railroad in the twenty-four states and four territories of the United States; with population sparse, transportation slow, fatiguing and sometimes hazardous, and the Sunday-school cause still under the necessity of defending itself against con- stant attacks and imputations of un- worthy motives, the enterprise represented vision and courage of a high order. Per- haps the success of a meeting held by the Union at Washington the year before— February 16, 1831—to consider the Mis- sissippi Valley resolution, and incident- ally to defend the Union against the cur- rent charge that it was seeking a union of church and state, may have suggested the idea. At that meeting Webster, Fre- linghuysen, and a number of other distin- guished senators and representatives from various states spoke on behalf of the Sun- day school and the extension of the Union’s missionary and publication work; and their addresses furnished an illus- tration of what might be if the leading Sunday-school workers of these and other constituencies could once be brought together. The convention met in the Chatham Street Chapel, New York city, October 3, 1832, with 220 delegates from fourteen states and four territories. In addition to the difficulties already mentioned, the cholera raged that summer in New York; and the size and representative character of the attendance must be regarded as phenomenal, Nearly all the noteworthy Sunday-school men of the time were repre- sented in the discussion, Leading min- isters and laymen of the Baptist, Congre- gational, Dutch Reformed, Methodist Episcopal, Presbyterian, and Protestant Episcopal churches, and of the Society of Friends, were present from Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, North Caro- lina, South Carolina, Georgia, Ohio, Ken- tucky, Tennessee, Louisiana, and Mich- igan, The Hon. Theodore Frelinghuysen (q. v.) of New Jersey, eminent then and later as a Christian statesman and edu- cator, was made president. The com- Conventions mittee on interrogatories reported 138 responses from twenty states, and sub- mitted a careful digest of the answers thus given, with recommendations under each head. The discussions, thus guided, trav- ersed. the whole range of current Sunday- school methods and problems, raising many questions which are now obsolete, such as the use of the rod in Sunday- school discipline, and the propriety of single Sunday-school sessions exceeding two hours in length. On the other hand, as Dr. H. Clay Trumbull (q. v.) points out in his review of the convention (Re- port of the Fifth National Convention, Indianapolis, 1872, pp. 12, 13), there is hardly a topic that was prominent at Indianapolis forty years later, or even at the present day, that is not at least fore- shadowed in the able and far-reaching discussions as reported at the time in The Sunday-School Journal of the American Sunday School Union. As a whole, the effect of the convention was to gather up and systematize the previously diverse and unsettled body of Sunday-school tra- ditions and methods, and to plant them on a foundation as broad and well-con- sidered as could possibly have been laid at that stage of American educational progress, The only mistake that seems chargeable to this convention was the hasty decision to call another the following year. It must be remembered, however, that these men were pioneers, and that convention work in America for any purposes not political had little experience as a guide. ‘The Second National Convention—a body completely independent of the first, as Dr. Trumbull has convincingly shown—met in the Cherry Street Lecture Room, Phil- adelphia, May 22, 1833, and chose as president Hon. Willard Hall of Delaware, who had recently issued a notable pam- phlet in defense of the Sunday-school cause and the American Sunday School Union as its standard-bearer. Nine states were represented in this gathering; and the delegates included many of those present the year before, with other noteworthy names. Various committees, appointed at the New York convention, brought in elaborate reports on the topics assigned them., The convention appointed a com- mittee to act in conjunction with its secre- taries for the publication of its reports 298 Nw and documents, and adjourned on Thurs- day noon, May 23. a Between the conventions of 1833 and 1859, there was considerable field actiy- ity in convention lines leading to the establishment of state associations, each with its annual convention, in various” states, as related under the next head, But the men of 1832 were so far in ad- vance of their day that even the idea of another national convention seems not to have been broached, until the great re- vival of 1857 and 1858 impelled Chris- tian men to various new and broad enter-— prises, | The New York State Sunday-school convention of 1858 proposed what was to them the new idea of a national conven- tion of Sunday-school teachers in Phila- delphia. The Sunday-school leaders at that city promptly took up the suggestion; and a call was issued, inviting every evan- gelical Sunday-school in the United States to send at least one delegate. The signers” of the call included Drs. Thomas Brain- erd, Richard Newton (q. v.), W. T. Brantley, and W. J. R. Taylor with George H. Stuart (q. v.), Jay Cooke, John 8S. Hart (q. v.), Matthias W. Bald- win and Abraham Martin. The New York State leaders suggesting the call included R. G. Pardee (q. v.), Lucius Hart, Albert Woodruff (gq. v.), Ralph. Wells, and A. A. Smith. Religious inter- est ran high at the time, and the response was hearty and general. This Third National Sunday School Convention met in Jayne’s Hall, Phila-. delphia, on Tuesday, February 22, 1859. Former Governor James Pollock of Penn- sylvania was made president. H. Clay Trumbull of Connecticut was one of the secretaries. Louis Chapin of New York, | Nelson Kingsbury of Connecticut, and James W. Weir (q. v.) of Pennsylvania) were on the business committee; Mr. Weir with many other of the workers in attend-_ ance, having been active in the conven- tions of 1832 and 1833. The convention, was well attended and enthusiastic, and indicated a far higher level of general interest in Sunday-school work than had the first and second conventions. It did not, however, like those gatherings, ad: dress itself seriously to the origina study and solution of Sunday-school prob. lems. The inspiration to those attend | : Conventions : ing and to the cause in general was great, and is reflected in the records of the near- by state associations of that date. The Sunday School Times, established by the American Sunday School Union on Jan- ‘uary 1, 1859, came into being in time to aid in securing delegates for the conven- tion; and the proceedings, well reported by its editor, Rev. I. Newton Baker, were published in its columns, March 5, 1859, ‘no other report being issued. The convention of 1859 resolved to call “a similar assemblage of the representa- tives of the evangelical Sabbath schools of America” in 1861, and appointed a com- mittee, with George H. Stuart as its chairman, to arrange therefor. The out- ‘break of the Civil War made such a proj- ect impossible and turned men’s thoughts, “North and South, in other directions; the chairman finding his place as head of the United States Christian Commission, which labored for the good of the Union ‘soldiers during the war. Ten years ac- cordingly elapsed before another national Sunday-school convention was held; and the initiative for this, as before, came from ‘a source other than the convention pre- ceding. _ 8. Early State Conventions. In the ‘records of Sunday-school field activity for ‘the years from 1820 to 1859, mention is ‘more than once made of state Sunday- ‘school conventions being held; the gather- 3 ing being in fact the annual meeting and state-wide rally of one of the American ‘Sunday School Union’s auxiliaries, rather than a self-active, self-perpetuating, dele- gated and reasonably representative ter- ritorial Sunday-school convention, as the term is now understood. In Maryland the ‘State Sunday School Union, established in : 1843, developed sufficient independent life ‘to hold its own annual conventions regu- larly and conduct a vigorous field cam- ‘paign; and its organization passed into ‘the new fabric of the International work without a break. Wisconsin similarly organized in 1846, but later discontinued Its annual gatherings. | In 1856, however, was held in New York State a real convention to organize “the New York State Sabbath School Teachers’ Association,” as it was called; and from that date on the Empire State has brought together each year a delegated Conyention of its own Sunday-school 299 Conventions workers, In 1857, similar first conven- tions were held in Connecticut and Massa- chusetts; in 1858, in New Jersey; in 1859, in Illinois. The coincidence of these dates with the great religious awak- ening commonly called “the revival of 1857” is more than fortuitous. In all the evangelical denominations, the most ear- nest and practical church members were in the Sunday school, and their leaders with one accord emphasized conversion as the great objective of Sunday-school effort. The impulse among these workers to con- vene and organize for mutual encourage- ment and help, present and future, was a natural outgrowth of the deep spiritual impulses then at work in the nation. The initial Sunday-school convention in New Jersey may be taken as a type of these significant pioneer gatherings. Its call, issued by the secretaries of the Cam- den and New Brunswick city Sunday- school associations, summoned “a conven- tion of the superintendents, teachers, and friends of Sabbath schools connected with all the evangelical churches in the state of New Jersey,” to meet at New Brunswick on November 3, 1858, “to consult in re- spect to the establishment of Sabbath- school associations throughout our state; to effect a more thorough, systematic, and efficient effort in bringing every child in the state under religious influence and instruction; and for prayer and confer- ence in regard to this important aid to the church of Christ.” The Sunday- school ideals of the day are here clearly stated. From one to five delegates were sought from each school, and the recip- ients were asked to extend the call among the schools in their vicinity. The convention, on assembling in the Second Presbyterian Church of New Brunswick pursuant to this call, was or- ganized on motion of the local committee of arrangements, installed temporary officers, named committees on enrollment, organization, and business, settled its hours, and at the second session elected permanent convention officers, Governor William A, Newell being made president. The five participating denominations, Baptist, Dutch Reformed, Methodist, and Old and New School Presbyterian, were duly represented by vice-presidents. The business in hand was declared to be the establishment of a state Sunday-school Conventions 300 | Conventions association. The enrollment committee received its report with instructions to enroll the delegates as from the Sunday schools and not from the churches, and with power to include delegates later ap- pearing. Pastors and others present, friends of Sunday schools, were recog- nized as members and directed to enroll. The convention thus clearly established itself as a convention of Sunday-school representatives, and not a convention of church representatives assembling in the interest of the Sunday school. Following discussion and an evening of addresses, the convention proceeded, on the morning of Thursday, November 4, 1858, to “organize itself into a permanent association,” and adopted a constitution. The perfecting of this instrument and the election of the association’s permanent officers, with a few minor items, com- pleted the work of the convention. See State and Provincial Sunday School As- sociations. The business of creating efficient state Sunday-school associations, with a force of county secretaries and other means for extending local organization, having been completed, the subsequent conventions of these bodies rapidly assumed an inspira- tional character, and became mighty forces for the development of Sunday-school en- thusiasm and the intelligent direction of local Sunday-school effort. In Illinois, the enthusiasm showed itself in annual gatherings of from three to five thousand delegates and the enlistment of leaders like B. F. Jacobs (q. v.), William Rey- ~ nolds (qg. v.), Dwight L. Moody (gq. v.), Alexander G. Tyng (q. v.), and “Chap- lain” McCabe, under whose vigorous lead the county organization of the state was rapidly perfected, and the missionary side of the work turned into volunteer channels through the holding of township and dis- trict meetings at which the reaching of the unreached was the principal objective. Other states besides those named soon swung into line; and at the National Con- vention of 1869, annual conventions, held by their respective associations, were re- ported from eleven states—Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Massachusetts, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, ‘Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin; with Mary- land, including the District of Columbia, holding annual conventions of its State Missionary Sunday School Union as stated above. ; 4. Triennial National and Interna- tional Conventions, 1869-1914.—The Third National Sunday School Conven- tion, Philadelphia, 1859, left behind it a committee empowered and directed to call a like convention two or three years later. At that time, however, the country was plunged in civil war and a delegated na- tional convention was out of the question. After peace in 1865, the subject of another national convention was frequently agi- tated at state conventions and elsewhere; and in June, 1868, a conference of Sun- day-school workers met in Detroit, Mich., in connection with the International Con- vention of Young Men’s Christian Asso- ciations and appointed a committee from their number to call “an International Sunday-school Convention.” This com- mittee soon learned of the existence of the committee left by the Convention of 1859; and the two committees worked in har- mony, accepting the invitation of the New Jersey Association to meet at Newark the following year. Thus, on April 28, 1869, in the First Baptist Church of Newark, N. J., met the convention which opened the present series of conventions repre- senting the International Sunday School Association. This body, the Fourth National Conven- tion, called itself the Third National Sunday School Convention; its interna- tional character, as foreshadowed by its projectors, being limited to the platform recognition of one or two visitors from abroad. Its reckoning for itself as third in the list was due to the statement by the veteran James W. Weir, who in his account of the Convention of 1832, re- ferred to that of 1833, as an adjourned meeting of the first converition, though himself indicating later that the latter gathering was entitled to separate enu- meration, This convention was carefully planned, conducted with marked ability, and not only aroused even more enthusi- asm than that of 1859, but marked a phenomenal increase in the efficiency of Sunday-school work and the extent of voluntary field Sunday-school organiza- tion. Field reports were heard, not only | from the twelve states named above, but | from various other states represented by | delegates, from denominational Sunday- Conventions school bodies and from the American Sun- day School Union. The convention presi- dent was the venerable George H. Stuart of Philadelphia; the secretaries were H. Clay Trumbull, John H. Vincent, and B. F. Jacobs; and the chairman of the executive committee appointed by the Convention was Edward Eggleston (q. v.) of Illinois. The Fifth National Convention met in Indianapolis, April 16-19, 1872. As com- pared with that of Newark, this was a convention of business rather than for inspiration. ‘Three steps of importance were taken. One of these was the enlarge- ment of the convention’s field to include the Dominion of Canada. Another was the election of E. Payson Porter as the convention’s statistical secretary—the first step, as it proved, in the creation of a per- manent official organization. The great event, however, was the adoption, after a memorable debate, of the resolution direct- ing the appointment of a committee to choose uniform Bible lessons for all Sun- day schools and denominations willing to use them. This measure, championed by B. F. Jacobs for several years previously, and recommended in the resolutions of the conference of superintendents conducted by him in connection with the Newark Convention three years before, was passed by the Convention with only ten votes recorded in opposition ; a preliminary uni- form series, arranged by action of a con- ference of lesson publishers, having been in effect since January, 1872. (See Uni- form Lesson System.) The president of this Convention was Philip G. Gillett of Illinois; the secretary, George A. Peltz of Pennsylvania, and the chairman of the executive committee, chosen by the Con- vention, H. Clay Trumbull, of Connecti- cut. The First International Convention, Baltimore, May 11-13, 1875, strongly voiced the spirit of fellowship between the United States and Canada and between the recently severed workers North and South. Dr. Warren Randolph (gq. v.), as secretary of the New Lesson Com- mittee, gave the story of the committee’s work so far and of the phenomenally rapid acceptance of its lessons. Dr. J. H. Vincent, in an address, outlined improve- ments in Sunday-school method fore- shadowing much of what has since been 301 Conventions counted new. Great progress appeared in the work of state and local organization since 1869. The statistical secretary made a detailed report for North America, showing a Sunday-school membership of six and a half millions in the United States and three hundred thousand in Canada. President, Rev. George A. Peltz, New Jersey; chairman of the executive committee, John E. Searles, Jr., Con- necticut. The Second International Convention, Atlanta, April 17-19, 1878, still further emphasized the spirit of fellowship, dwelt on the continued success of the Uniform Lesson System, laid special stress on normal work, and aroused much enthu- siasm for united Sunday-school effort. For the Second International Lesson Com- mittee fourteen members were chosen. Dr. Vincent again sounded a note of edu- cational progress in a scheme for graded Bible study, for ten minutes each Sunday, to supplement the uniformity of the new lessons. The reports from state and pro- vincial Sunday-school organizations, while indicating steady progress, showed that the system was far from complete, many fields being unorganized and others or- ganized in name only. ‘The statistical secretary reported progress in securing exact returns ; and the Convention by reso- lution decreed that its statistics should embrace Protestant evangelical Sunday schools only. President, Gov. Alfred H. Colquitt of Georgia; chairman of the new executive committee, Franklin Allen, of New York. The Third International Convention, Toronto, June 22-24, 1881, marked the practical establishment of what has since been called the International Sunday school Association (qg. v.). The Illinois delegation, under the lead of William Rey- nolds, B. F. Jacobs, and M. C. Hazard (g. v.), and seconded by the Convention president and delegates from various states, led a movement which resulted in the employment of E. Payson Porter as statistical secretary, his previous services having been free to the Convention, and the adoption of a system of pledges, pay- able annually for three years, from the state and provincial associations; the in- come thus raised to be expended in the aforesaid secretary’s salary and further aggressive work for the promotion of field Conventions organization. The Convention ratified the new executive committee’s choice of B. F. Jacobs as its chairman on this plat- form of advance. Reports were heard from the large delegation sent the pre- vious year by the executive committee to London to attend the Raikes centenary. The London Sunday School Union was represented by F. F. Belsey, and other foreign work was reported. (See Sunday School Union, London.) Mention was made from New York state of a new plan for extending local Sunday-school influ- ence through the organizing of “home classes” in adjacent neglected neighbor- hoods. President, Hon. S. H. Blake, Ontario. The Fourth International Convention, Louisville, June 11-13, 1884, embodied, in its large and representative attendance and the high character of its addresses, an advance in convention quality over preceding gatherings. Mr. Jacobs, as chairman of the executive committee, made the first of his remarkable series of triennial reports, which showed, with that of the statistical secretary and the verbal reports from state representatives, that organization had advanced to a point where the territory in the United States and Canada yet unreached was reduced to a few weak and scattered fields; while nine states and one territory reported “banner” organizations, every county holding its county Sunday-school conven- tion. The total Sunday-school member- ship was reported as 9,146,028, of whom 8,712,551 were in the United States. A conservative movement to dispense with a paid secretary was defeated, and the sub- scriptions for the next triennium were substantially advanced. One full session, with other time, was devoted to primary Sunday-school work, and Mrs. W. F. Crafts, as president, reported the organi- zation of a national union of primary workers. ‘Temperance addresses were made by Miss Frances E. Willard and others. The appointment of a third les- son committee, to select the lessons for the years 1886-93, directed interest to that subject. The committee was care- fully reconstructed, with fourteen mem- bers as before and five corresponding members from Great Britain and France, and was recommended to provide quar- terly lessons on temperance. President, 302 cl Hon. Thomas W. Bicknell, Massachu- setts. | The Fifth International Convention, Chicago, June 1-3, 1887, continued the high standard of convention work set at Louisville, As there, a session was de- voted to primary work. The general trend of the addresses was in the direction of more efficient method in Sunday-school Conventions teaching. The statistical secretary’s re-— port showed a Sunday-school membership of over nine millions in the United States and nearly half a million in British Amer- ica, with thirty-four of the fifty-seven state, provincial, and territorial fields fur- nishing fresh reports of their own secur- ing. The report of the executive com- mittee, presented by Mr. Jacobs, described several extended tours of organization over the continent by voluntary leaders; its recommendations of general advance were heartily adopted, including a reso- lution approving of the calling of a world’s Sunday-school convention in Kurope—the initial step, as it proved, toward the organization of the World’s Sunday School Association (q. v.). An income of $10,000 a year was called for, toward which subscriptions to the amount of $4,400 per annum were secured. Con- siderable interest was manifested in for-— eign Sunday-school work, especially in connection with the reception of Mr. Edward Towers, Hon. Sec. and delegate of the London Sunday School Union. The Lesson Committee’s report, through its secretary, Dr. Warren Randolph, was received with approval. William Rey- nolds of Illinois presided. The Sixth International Convention, Pittsburgh, June 24-27, 1890, heard for the first time the report of an employed superintendent; William Reynolds of Peoria, Illinois, president of the former convention, having in October, 1887, accepted that position under the execu- tive committee. Through his extended visitation of state, territorial, and provin- cial conventions and other gatherings, supplemented by like work on the part of Mr. Jacobs and others, the cause of the field Sunday-school organization had greatly advanced; and with enthusiasm a subscription of over $6,500 a year was raised for the work. ‘Two sessions were — devoted to primary work. The World’s First Sunday-school convention, held in Conventions London in July, 1889, pursuant to the resolution passed at Chicago, was reported, and a second world’s convention provided for, to be held at St. Louis in connection with the next International convention. The chief interest at Pittsburgh cen- tered in the appointment and instruction of the Fourth Lesson Committee. On _two points debate ran high—the enlarge- ] _ment of the committee to secure represen- tation for additional denominations, and the question of whether or not four quar- terly temperance lessons, without alter- “native lessons for those Sundays, should be required of the Committee. On both points compromises were made; the com- “mittee being increased to fifteen, and a “modified temperance lesson plan, pursued by the Lesson Committee during the last year of the third cycle, being approved as the plan to be followed by the new Com- mittee. By this plan, in 1892, the Com- mittee furnished temperance lessons with- out alternatives for the first two quarters, and alternative temperance and mission- ary lessons for the last Sundays of the third and fourth quarters. When Miss Willard, the distinguished national repre- sentative of the movement for four non- alternative lessons, rose to move that the adoption of this compromise be made unanimous, the occasion became dra- matic. The convention president was Hon. John G. Harris of Alabama. The Seventh International Convention, St. Louis, August 30 to September 2, 1893, besides holding the usual primary _workers’ special session, held also a pre- liminary conference of field workers, in charge of a field workers’ association organized the year before. Reports from the state, territorial, and provincial asso- ciations occupied much of the time. Be- sides the raising of pledges for the work, a special subscription of $4,000 was raised for the World’s Sunday School Building at the Columbian Exposition then open in Chicago. The lesson question, accen- tuated by the recent issuing of Dr. Blake- slee’s lessons and other symptoms of revolt against uniformity, aroused earnest de- bate, but without action changing the Lesson Committee’s instructions. (See Bible Study Union Lessons.) The con- vention closed informally on Saturday afternoon, September 2, and was followed by the sessions of the World’s Second 303 Conventions Sunday School Convention. Hon. Lewis Miller of Ohio. The Highth International Convention, Boston, June 23-26, 1896, by relegating the state and provincial reports to a side meeting, secured the time for a series of inspiring addresses, and gave many indi- cations of the continued progress of the field in Sunday-school organization and specialization. The devotional services were led by Dwight L. Moody. At the sessions of the International Primary Union, held simultaneously for part of the time, great advances in method were indicated, and changes in the Union’s constitution were made with a view to assimilating this work to that of the Con- vention. A new Lesson Committee was elected to choose lessons for the years 1900-1905, and a movement to relieve them of definite instructions concerning the finding of temperance lessons was suc- cessfully opposed. The Executive Com- mittee, through Mr. Jacobs, reported ex- tensive field work performed by Field Superintendent Reynolds and also by Prof. H. M. Hamill of Illinois and others, and by Rev. L. B. Maxwell (colored) of Georgia, whom the Executive Committee had placed in the field pursuant to resolu- tions adopted at St. Louis. The reports of Mr. Reynolds and Mr. Maxwell as to their work aroused much enthusiasm. President, Hon. Samuel B. Capen of Massachusetts. The Ninth International Convention, Atlanta, April 26-30, 1899, marked in several: ways the beginning of the present stage of International Sunday-school or- ganization. Field Superintendent Rey- nolds, who had died in the midst of his work in 1897, was fitly commemorated. Mr. Jacobs was made honorary chairman of the Executive Committee, and Hon. John Wanamaker (q. v.) of Philadelphia was elected chairman, but subsequently declined. The International Primary Union and the Field Workers’ Association were recognized as departments of In- ternational work. Although it was re- solved not to establish an International normal or teacher-training department, the work of Prof. Hamill as field secretary had stimulated interest throughout the associations in teacher-training work; and the primary delegates at Atlanta estab- lished for their own constituency an In- President, Conventions ternational primary normal course of study, with examinations and a diploma. The Convention also resolved to employ a general secretary to take over the office direction of the work hitherto supplied by Mr. Jacobs, and the Executive Com- mittee, at the Convention, chose Mr. Marion Lawrance of Ohio for that office, subsequently defining his relation as co- ordinate with that of the field secretary. At St. Louis, a special fund had been raised among the delegates to put a field worker in Japan; and at Atlanta the worker thus secured, Mr. T. C. Ikehara, was made the Japan field worker of the International Convention. The corre- sponding members of the Lesson Com- mittee were recognized as the British Section with equal rights. The Conven- tion addresses throughout were of a high order. President, Hon. Hoke Smith of Georgia. The Tenth International Convention, Denver, June 26-30, 1902, opened under the shadow of the death of the great leader, B. F. Jacobs, three days before. William N. Hartshorn (gq. v.), of Boston, who had been Acting Chairman of the Executive Committee for most of the triennium, was elected as Chairman. The primary work was represented not only in a special convention session but in a preliminary two-day “Western School of Methods,” well attended and progres- sive in tone. The field workers also held preliminary conference sessions. General Secretary Lawrarice made his first trien- nial report, showing a total Sunday-school enrollment for North America of over fourteen millions in 153,246 Sunday schools, and extensive field work by a large force, mostly voluntary. About $14,500 a year was pledged for the work of the new triennium. The election and instruction of the Sixth Lesson Committee, combined with the demand for graded beginners’ and advanced lessons, caused renewed inter- est in the lesson question. A proposed advanced course of lessons was disap- proved; while a request from the pri- mary workers for a two-years’ beginners’ course was by the same resolution favor- ably referred to the Lesson Committee— the first break in the uniformity of the Convention’s lesson system since its adop- tion thirty years before (See Graded Les- 304 y i sons, International, History of.) The Convention addresses were inspiring and finely representative of the rapid progress in field and local method up to that time. President, Rev. Benjamin B. Tyler, D.D., of Colorado. The Eleventh International Conven- tion, Toronto, June 23-27, 1905, consid- erably exceeded the Denver Convention in the variety and freshness of the addresses and the range of topics covered. ‘This was partly due to the large number of double sessions held. The official dele- gates alone numbered nearly 2,000 with 1,000 additional visitors from outside the city—nearly twice the enrolled represen- tation at Denver. ‘The well-planned series of auxiliary conferences, notably Conventions those for the field workers and the ele- mentary workers, who now represented three departments of Sunday-school work, Beginners, Primary, and Junior, contin- ued the institute feature begun at Denver. The reports showed a rapid advance in the organization of what was now form- ally designated the International Sunday School Association, Permission to in- corporate was voted to the Executive Committee. The lesson issue came up in the form of a recommendation to au- thorize the advanced course which had been disapproved at Denver. By a close vote the Convention renewed its disap- proval, but later unanimously agreed to the proposal. It was an educational and formative convention. President, Hon. Justice J. J. Maclaren, K.C., of Ontario. The Twelfth International Convention, Louisville, June 18-23, 1908, was char-— acterized, as at Toronto, by full and en- thusiastic delegations and a purposeful series of auxiliary meetings. The ad- dresses as a whole fell short of the high standard set at Toronto. growing power of the Executive Committee, through its newly established central office at Chicago, its paid official force, its policies of manage- ment, and the increasing unwieldiness of the Convention as a deliberative body, was further accentuated by the presentation and approval of a charter granted in 1907 by the United States Congress which, as it afterwards developed, involved the future turning over of the power of the Convention to its newly incorporated The steadily International — Executive Committee, now frankly called — “the International Sunday School Asso- ciation.” Pursuant to its Lesson Committee’s recommendations, the Convention unani- mously passed two resolutions, one com- “mending and continuing the Uniform Lessons and the other directing the newly chosen Seventh Lesson Committee, Amer- ican Section, “to continue the preparation of a thoroughly graded course of lessons, -which may be used by any Sunday school which desires it, whether in whole or in part.” An unsuccessful effort was made from the floor to alter the list of names proposed for the new Lesson Committee. ~The Field Workers’ Association closed up its separate organization and left its interests in the hands of the subcommittee of the Executive Committee, somewhat as the elementary workers at Toronto had done with their originally separate organ- ization. The recently developed depart- ment of organized adult class work was represented in a street parade of over a ‘thousand men. President, Hon. John Stites of Kentucky. The Thirteenth International Conven- tion, San Francisco, June 20-27, 1911, brought together 2,342 registered dele- gates and well maintained the best Inter- national standards in the character of its addresses and work, the breadth of its dis- cussions and the completeness with which it treated the current phases of Sunday- school work. The most noteworthy public feature was the great parade of men’s classes, in which over 10,000 men, each armed with a Bible, marched through the streets to the Coliseum. In accordance with its newly chartered powers, the Ex- ecutive Committee enlarged, reorganized and instructed the American Section of the Lesson Committee, adopting a set of by-laws which for the first time gave the International Association a written con- stitution. The graded lesson outlines which had been issued by the Lesson Com- Inittee in pursuance of the Louisville ‘Tesolution formed the principal subject of Convention discussion ; the principal issue being as to the propriety of using in the lesson lists material from other than Bible sources. Both sides of this question were presented ; and the practical success of the lessons was well brought out in one of the ‘separate conferences, of which there were Many. Mr. William N, Hartshorn was Conventions 30 5 Conventions succeeded as Executive Chairman by Mr. Fred A. Wells of Illinois. Mr. Hartshorn was made President of the Convention, but through temporary illness was unable to preside; his place being taken by the vice presidents, Mr. A. B. McCrillis of Rhode Island, Rev. H. H. Bell, D.D., of California, and Mr. William Hamilton of Ontario. Chicago was selected as the place for holding the Fourteenth Inter- national Convention. The Fourteenth International Conven- tion, Chicago, June 23-30, 1914, was planned on a vast scale, with fifty-five conferences, twenty-one special meetings, and numerous other gatherings and spe- cial features, in addition to the sixteen sessions of the main convention in the Medinah Temple. In the quality and number of the addresses and the vigor and illuminative power of the special ses- sions the convention was noteworthy. The delegated attendance was about 2,060, from 67 constituencies. The evan- gelical basis of International fellowship was reaffirmed. ‘The convention period was lengthened from three to four years, subject to agreement (since obtained) with the World’s Association. The mis- understandings as to the effect of incor- poration were satisfactorily resolved, the primacy of the convention over its execu- tive committee being stated and exempli- fied in action. The by-laws were revised, further improving the plan of organiza- tion. An agreement with the Sunday School Council was ratified, creating a new joint “International Lesson Com- mittee,” consisting of eight members chosen by the Convention, eight chosen by the Council and one each by the denomina- tions which have a lesson committee of their own. To the new committee thus constituted were referred the convention’s recommendation that all lessons be chosen from or based on the Bible, and a memo- rial praying for the appointment of a “Uniform Lesson Commission.” The president was Dr, H. M. Hamill (gq. v.) of Tennessee. New York was chosen as the place for the convention of 1918. 5. State Convention Work. The annual delegated Sunday-school convention is still in many fields, as originally in all, the most important and conspicuous fea- ture of the interdenominational state or provincial Sunday-school association, Conventions The object of such conventions is to make a study of the field and the work, to trans- act the necessary business of the associa- tion, to make and present plans of work for the ensuing year, to advocate and explain ideas and methods in local Sun- day-school work, and to inspire the dele- _gates for higher service. Each state and provincial association pursues its own customary methods in the holding of its annual convention, and strives to improve on these from year to year. In some fields, notably Ohio, and earlier in Illinois, state conventions have brought together an aggregate of five thousand delegates or more, without los- ing their character as delegated bodies representative of their fields. In the more sparsely settled states and provinces, where distances and travel costs are rela- tively great, the attendance is often largely local, with a sprinkling of enthusiastic representatives from distant points within the field. The state convention usually lasts two or three days, and includes in- spirational singing, devotional meetings, addresses of welcome and response, elo- quent presentations of standard themes, practical conferences and discussions, and a business session for hearing the reports and securing or registering the subscrip- tions from county associations and indi- viduals for the ensuing year’s work. Various separate conferences, rallies, and institute sessions are usually held as part of the program; and the executive and other committees hold frequent and some- times extended meetings. A convention evangelist or director of the devotional services is often secured, to give this im- portant part of the proceedings unity and force. The advertising campaign for dele- gates is vigorously pursued, sometimes with the use of unique and eye-catching printed matter. The following are some of the more im- portant principles involved in the con- struction and management of a state con- vention program : 1. Definiteness of aim. The convention should stand for certain clearly defined ideas and aspirations in local and field method. What is said and felt at the con- vention is of trifling importance com- pared with what is done as its outcome. The present state of Sunday-school activ- ities, field and local, as gathered by the 306 Conventions field workers and exhibited in the statis- tical report, should guide the leaders in planning a line of attack upon the situa- tion; and this should be embodied in the arrangement of topics, the choice of speakers, and the provision for deliberative action, if the convention would rise to the situation and find a way to move forward. Sometimes this aim is embodied in a con- vention theme, more or less ingeniously developed into the subthemes for the sey- eral sessions. While this may help by en- listing many in the pursuit of the aim thus set forth, it may also hinder by im- posing artificial limitations on the con- vention’s scope. Church Girl Scouts. Attendance League. Intermediate... Church Knights of Attendance King Arthur. League. King’s Pacers BAIOE ies a « Confirmation Knights of Classes for King Arthur. Boys and for ‘The Girls’ Girls. Club. Pews for Boys’ Christian Classes. Endeavor. The Departmental Programs. ‘The general program of all departments of the church school (or “Sunday school”) should consist of three parts, as follows: 1. Period of real and reverent worship, suited to the age, experience, and needs of the department. 2. Period of instruction. This is the regular class period. Graded Lessons will suit the subject matter to the needs of the students. _ 38, Period of training for and in Chris- tian service. It is desirable that these three periods be united under one admin- istration. The third period of this program will 369 Educational Agencies take the place of the Junior, Intermediate, and Senior societies now meeting under separate mid-week meetings of the separate management. There may be classes for various purposes, but the de- partment as a whole will seldom need to call an extra assembly. This arrangement secures the attend- ance of all who are members of the Sun- day school upon the young people’s ex- pressional services. It secures a correla- tion of instruction and expression; and finally, it secures a unity of supervision that prevents the overlapping of agencies. The practicability and usefulness of such correlation may be more manifest by indicating upon a chart the relation- ships which are actually being followed out in one church. (Chart furnished by W. B. Forbush, Ph.D.) Gymnasium Camp Service Play-hour. Benevolent. Boys’ I. Benevolent. Girls’ I. Boys’ IT. Benevolent. Boys’ ITI. Girls’ II. Boys’ IV. Boys’ Camp I. Messenger Boys’ V. Girls’ Camp I. Service. Club Work. Junior Choir. Young Boys’ Camp II. Club Work. Men I Girls’ Camp II. Gym. Leaders. Young S. 8. Teachers. Women I. C. E. Work. Ushers. Senior Choir. The chart requires some explanation. Note that everything is done by grades. The gymnasium and the camps are graded to parallel departments and groups of classes in the Sunday school. The social clubs also follow the main lines of child development. The opportunities of serv- ice grow more varied with the increasing age, ability and freedom of the young people. In the column devoted to “Church Opportunity” the church at- tendance leagues precede the confirma- tion classes and the setting apart of spe- cial pews for special classes. There is some peril in encouraging young people to become church members before they Educational Agencies have formed the habit of church attend- ance. The junior choir and a weekly story-sermon help at this point. Later, the habit having been formed, the regular sermon and the senior choir are helpful agencies. The confirmation classes are offered only to church attendants. When a student is promoted from one department of the school to another, he passes by virtue of that promotion into all the phases of the work of the new de- partment. At the close of the Senior course the school should make it a part of its business to see that each stu- dent is actively identified with some of the adult organizations of the church, and the church receiving them should immediately set them to work and keep them at work. Horne has aptly re- marked: “The idle convert is in graver danger than the unconverted idle.” The launching of this program should be pre- ceded by an educational campaign which must include the whole church. The changes it suggests will then be indorsed by an intelligent public sentiment. The Educational Committee should go about its work tactfully, with no undue show of authority, and at all times should be tolerant when dealing with established customs. : II. Agencies for Teacher Training. The church should plan for the future of its school; it should train teachers not only for to-day but for- to-morrow. (See Teacher Training.) In the training of teachers there should be hours of general preparation followed by careful special- ization for work in the different depart- ments. Correspondence courses should be encouraged where class work is not pos- sible. (See Biblical Instruction by Cor- respondence. ) The church should train leaders as well as teachers, and for this purpose it should provide a training class or classes in which officers are given short courses of study to prepare them for their specific duties. (See Leadership, Training for.) Superintendents, assistant superintend- ents, heads of departments, secretaries, librarians, the chairmen of important committees also—such as missions, tem- perance, evangelism—should receive spe- cial training. This training should be given so far as possible in the local school. Part of the course would be common to all 370 Educational Agencies and could be studied in a large class and the specialization followed in smaller groups. Where the church has access to a City Training School (gq. v.) and Insti- tutes or institutions of learning offering special courses, it should work in co- operation with them for the advanced training of its own leaders. The Educa- tional Committee and officers should make a careful selection among its young people of the future leaders and teachers. Fre- quent opportunity should be offered for conversation regarding life problems of leadership and these should lead directly into actual service. The object of train- ing should be to fit each young person to become an intelligent and skilled worker in some activity of the Kingdom under the direction of the church. (See Voca- tion Day in the 8. S.; Vocational Instruc- tion.) III. The Local Church and the Educa- tional Institutions. The local church looks to the college man or woman for leadership. It expects those who come from its denominational institutions to be prepared as Bible teachers, leaders of boys’ and girls’ work and of athletic ac- tivities, or to assume places as superin- tendents and officers. It has a right to expect courses in religious education to be available at college and of such strong and commanding interest that students will catch a vision of the dignity of religious service and return to the home church equipped and willing to render the desired — service. . The Bible and missionary training schools are rendering a great service, but the church has a right to expect that these schools consider the problem of developing © a normal life and growth as well as the - problem of salvage and rescue for such lives as have been misspent. Such schools should enlarge their scope and train for teaching in the home churches according to approved educational principles. The call is not for a smaller number of mis- sionaries and settlement workers, but for a larger number of trained workers for the harvest fields at home. (See Reli- gious Training Schools.) The churches, also, feel themselves vitally related to the theological semi- naries, They are placing a new interpreta- tion upon the teaching function of the minister and they expect him to come Educational Function from the seminary prepared not only for the pulpit, but for the educational leader- ship of the church. (See Pastor and the S. 8.) The unity of teaching agencies in the local church reaches out in order to find support in the colleges, training schools, seminaries, and great institutions of the church. An intimate relation and clear under- standing between general organizations, the local boards of public education, and the committees on religious education in the local church is essential to the corre- lation of work in the churches. The gen- eral policies and practical workings of these various organizations will be most effective as they serve with unified pur- pose a closely articulated system of reli- gious education. W. S. AtHEarn, W. B. ForBusH, AND FRANKLIN McELrFREsH. EDUCATIONAL FUNCTION OF THE SUNDAY SCHOOL.—Several factors have combined during the last quarter century to make clear to what extent the Sunday school may and ought to be a real educa- tional institution. Among these are: the increase of confidence among educators in the value of the study of the child mind and the development of that mind, as con- ditioning every approach made to the child itself; the improvement in the meth- ods in the common schools due to this fact; the growing understanding that we cannot educate the child at any point without some influence on all his nature; the growing understanding that people may be trained in respect to morals and religion just as in any other qualities, and that the morals and religion resulting from such training are just as vital as any that can come from appeal to more primitive emotions; the knowledge that growth in religion in the child follows a certain, determinable course as does growth of body and mind; the fact that there is very much in common between the ordinary educational processes and the securing of right moral and religious natures; and, finally, that the home and common schools are not filling their func- tion of securing righteous purposes and behavior on the part of youth. (See Home, The, as an Agency in Religious Education; Psychology, Child.) This conviction that the Sunday school 371 Educational Function has a vitally educational function is merely a part of the more general one— that all] human qualities, desirable or un- desirable, are educable and that it is the duty of society to strengthen the right qualities and eradicate the undesirable ones in every possible way. The most obvious shortcoming of the general system of education at present is in respect to the moral and religious as- pects of character. This weakness is quite frankly recognized by the most alert of secular educators, and is admitted with increasing alarm. These men realize that the real purpose of all education is right character, and admit that the schools need the help of other institutions to secure it. It must be recognized at the outset that there is some correlation between knowl- edge and righteousness. This means that people who have knowledge are not so hable to wrong-doing as are those who are ignorant. The correlation is not high enough, however, to justify depending on knowledge alone, for this does not lead with sufficient certainty to righteous char- acter, to sane choices, and to wholesome conduct. Therefore the knowledge and efficiency sought by the schools are im- portant even in moral and religious educa- tion, but something else must be done which the common schools have not found a way todo. (See Organization, S. 8.) This is just the point at which the Sun- day school is in a position to render its invaluable service to humanity. Its task is to secure right motives and ideals, and fuse them with this knowledge and effi- ciency secured through general educa- tion—in a word to increase the correlation between knowledge and right choices by adding right purposes. In order to do this the Sunday school ought to fit its work just as closely as pos- sible to that of the schools. We may profit greatly by the methods which have been successfully used in general edu- cation, in so far as we carry them over naturally and appropriately into the field of character and conduct. *There should be a greatly increased community of pur- pose and exchange of experience between Sunday school and other teachers just be- cause they are doing complementary work with the same children. Ways should be found to strengthen the moral and reli- gious purposes of the general teacher and Educational Function the pedagogical appreciation of the Sun- day-school teacher. There ought to be joint meetings and discussions, leading to the harmonizing of plans of these two groups of teachers for the complete edu- cation of the children. In such a scheme of complete, all-round education the Sun- day school, if it improves its opportunity, may come to have a unique place—a more extended place than its advocates have ever imagined. It will build on what is done in the home and school, but it will consciously add to these sound culture in respect to moral responsibility, in respect to the spiritual nature and its function, in respect to conscience,'and in respect to personal and social religion and its expres- sion in practice. ~ There is no antithesis between the edu- cational function of the Sunday school and any other of its functions. There has been some disposition to put education and evangelism into opposition. As a matter of fact the evangelistic persuasion of personality is more sure and more meaningful if it has been preceded by equally evangelistic education of the emo- tions, of knowledge, of will, and of con- duct. The evangelistic appeal is futile unless it be followed up with education of the whole personality. An educated choice of Christ as Saviour is more mean- ingful than a spontaneous or haphazard one. It has been too much felt that edu- cation relates only to knowledge and rea- son. The emotions and desires are quite as subject to education and as much in need of it as is the intellect. What we really need is that all our education shall be persuasive and evangelistic; and that all our evangelism shall be based on the whole structure and nature, rather than on a mere part of personality—that is, shall be educative. Evangelism which is not educative in its effects darkens the life rather than illumines it. (See Evangelism through Education.) When we speak of education in respect to morals and religion, we imply at once that we are naturally endowed with moral and religious qualities—that these qual- ities do not come from without, but are as native to us as our body or mind. If these spiritual qualities are natural, they are subject to growth and unfolding under the proper nurture just as the body and mind are. Growth and unfolding, how- 372 Educational Function ever, imply time. It has been one of the ‘ . most persistent of the fallacies of religious thinking, that the religious and spirit- ual nature of man arises and flowers by — some artificial and lawless device which allows the neglect of the elements of growth and time. ‘This conception has wrought havoc to the spiritual life of many rightwishing people. Others, trust- ing to some striking emotional experience, — have dwarfed the life by later neglect. Many, feeling that the religious life is © impossible without such an experience, have ignored their natural spiritual quali- ties and have allowed them to be eclipsed A spiritual birth is ~ by those less lofty. not the proof and measure of spiritual life; a growing spiritual and religious nature is the evidence of the spiritual birth. If these things are true it becomes at : once necessary and possible to examine and determine what traits, or characteristics, or elements enter into the moral and reli- While we cannot gious nature of man. educate quality without influencing all, it is not safe to try to educate personality as — 4 a vague and lofty unity—trusting that all proper special qualities will be de- ¥ veloped adequately as a by-product of the It is too complex for general process. that; therefore, conscious attention must be given to many separate aspects of it 4 all the time. The following classes of qualities have a large place in the structure of human personality, including the spiritual: our desires and emotions; our experience and ~ habits; our knowledge and ideas; our standards and ideals; our choices and conduct. to education. exact; they may come to encourage right- eousness or to inhibit it. Whatever their fate they make up our natures. This is equally true of the religious nature. 2 These qualities make us what we are, and — there is no regeneration without regen- erating them. It was stated above that there is a cor- relation between information: and right- eousness. ‘This is also true of the other groups of qualities. There is still greater 4 correlation between desires and conduct}; between right habits and standards and conduct; between purpose and conduct. Because of this it at once becomes the All of these traits are subject | They may grow or dimin- — ish; they may become more gross or more ~ Educational Function duty of teachers of character to find the best ways to strengthen and develop every right desire and impulse and to weaken the wrong ones; to increase helpful knowl- edge; to form sound habits of thinking, of choosing, and of acting at the expense of low habits; to erect lofty standards and ideals of life instead of mean ones. The Sunday-school teacher may feel as- - sured when he is doing these things that he is educating the moral and religious life. It must not be forgotten that this con- scious education of character is greatly strengthened by any strong, suitable, emo- tional appeals that may secure a deep internal purpose. A wholesome general choice or purpose makes more safe every individual decision. It is the united testi- mony of many men that this transformed purpose may be had by the vision of Jesus Christ and a cordial acceptance of him as leader and Saviour; and that desires, habits, ideals, and choices may be righted and strengthened by this purpose. There is nothing in the idea of education to deny this. This resource must be used as a vital part of the process of education in character. Before it, however, should come the careful education of all the con- tributing elements; and it should be fol- lowed by that education and training which will apply this new purpose to every feature of character. In general there are just two ways in which the Sunday-school teacher can edu- cate personality in respect to any of these elements that go to make it up. In the first place, he may try to stimulate the personal qualities by direct appeals. This is the classic method of education. It means that teachers appeal in one form or another to what is within the nature in the effort to impress it. We teach, we instruct, we exhort. This is the method of the classroom and the pulpit. It is better for information than for conduct. Thus may one reach the emotions, arouse _ desires, convey information. In doing this important part of the edu- cation of personality effectively it is im- perative that the best possible selection and grading of materials of instruction be made. In making this selection of matter the first question is not whether it is in the Bible or out of it; but is rather whether it is the most suitable that can 373 Educational Function possibly be found to meet the exact spir- itual needs of the child for whom it is selected. If, for any reason, a modern instance of God’s dealing with his chil- dren or of man’s response to the Father can be made more vivid, more inspiring, more appealing to the child than Biblical instances, the modern teacher must be able to use the former, just as the Master did in his teaching. It is quite immate- rial whether we use Bible passages to illus- trate modern conditions, or use modern illustrations of Bible truth. God’s truth is equally true and equally sacred no matter when it comes to light. (See Extra-Biblical Studies. ) In the second place, character, and all the elements of character, may be edu- cated through expression. This is the reverse of the ordinary instruction. It is thoroughly accepted in general educa- tion that action is more educative of the person who is acting than stimulation or impression can be. It is for this reason that laboratories, shops, clinics, and moot courts exist. Sunday schools have not yet come to realize the tremendous educa- tional value of securing actual expression of the impulses which presumably are aroused by good teaching. As an insti- tution for the education of character and life the Sunday school must find ways to give actual practice in choosing and act- ing in accordance with the best ideals and purpose which the pupils have. This can be done only by making pupils realize that the home, the street relations, the school, the games are the clinics in which the teachings about sympathy, truthfulness, honesty, unselfishness and other features of Christlikeness must be practiced if at all. It is only through this expressive side of the personal qualities, in self-sacri- fice and social service, that we can de- velop and fortify the life with the results of experience; crystallize purposes into habits; and transform individual moral victories of the will into habits of right decision, (Sunday School and the Edu- cated Man.) The Sunday school as a school of morals and religion must use both the above methods. It must appeal in such a way as to stimulate the proper impulses, cultivate right desires, guide in right thinking; it must also find ways so to inspire and guide the actual expressions Educational Value of Play of life as to furnish fine experiences, build up right habits, and secure skill in right conduct. Certain facts concerning leader- ship may be taught; certain desires and emotions respecting it may be aroused; but actual leadership is only to be secured by practice in leading. (See Leadership, Training for.) It is much the same with all the personal qualities of the religious and spiritual life. T. W. Gattoway. EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF PLAY.— SEE Piay as A Factor IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION. EFFICIENCY IN THE SUNDAY SCHOOL.—Sre EpucationaL FuNcTION oF THE 8. 8.; Moran anp RELIGIOUS Epucation, Tests oF EFFICIENCY IN; StTanpDarps, 8. 8S.; Sunpay ScHoont Coun- CIL OF EVANGELICAL DENOMINATIONS, EGGLESTON, EDWARD (1837-1902). —Clergyman, editor, and author. Born in Indiana; ordained to the ministry in the Methodist Episcopal Church, 1857; engaged in pastorates during ten years; editor of Little Corporal, a juvenile paper, Chicago, 1866-67 ; editor National Sunday School Teacher, Chicago, 1867-70 (con- tributing editor during several years fol- lowing) ; literary editor of The Independ- ent, New York, 1870-72; editor Hearth and Home, New York, 1871-%2; pastor “Church of Christian Endeavor,” Brook- lyn, N. Y., 1874-79; author of several popular works of fiction, and participant in important United States governmental responsibilities. This biographical out- line indicates the really brief period of his activities along Sunday-school lines. Physically, Edward Eggleston was more than usually fine, with dark curling hair thickly clustering to his shoulders, eyes keen and flashing, and heavy beard. Gifted with a full, sonorous voice and fluent in speech, his personality was par- ticularly pleasing, and he was promptly acclaimed and recognized as a leader and competent teacher of teachers, his lesson expositions and practical hints in the Nattonal Sunday School Teacher win- ning great favor, and his institute and convention work being of a very high order and in great demand, with varied. and unique “Drill lessons.” His hearers were profoundly impressed, as: with black- 374 Eggleston board and repetitions by his audience he © taught them “The Art of Gaining Atten- tion,” “The Art of Questioning,” “How to Study a Lesson,” and other topics directly related to the development of teachers. This led to the publication of two small volumes in 1869, the first of which was entitled Sunday School Conventions and Institutes; with Suggestions on County and Township Organizations. Its main purpose is indicated by the title and it was _ rich in useful working outlines. It was followed by the Manual: a Practical Guide — to Sunday-School Work, which was aptly characterized as “thoroughly alive with interest and earnestness . ness, simplicity, and force.” ee . . great direct- — The third National Sunday School — Convention was held in Newark, N. J., in 1869, after an interval of ten years from — the previous convention. At that time Mr. Eggleston was chairman of the Exec- utive Committee of the Illinois State Sun- day School Convention, and also chairman ~ of the Committee that issued the call for — the Newark Convention; as such he called ~ the latter to order and was its business manager. made but one formal and thoroughly char- acteristic address, urging its hearers at its close to “go home better men, wiser men, fuller men, ‘crazier’ men in Sunday-school work.” | In his editorial articles and in public address he was impatient and outspoken with regard to Sunday-school shams; he was not favorable to grading or graded He spoke several times, yet eS Ged BEES lesson material; he declared that “all os- — tentatious machinery is a humbug and a sham, and we waste power enough in run- ~ ning the machine to double its results.” He declared that “Sunday-school work was filled with empiricism, and what may be © called the habit of shallowness has become It is time we had ~ done with hobby riding; every good thing © too: much’! fixed: Jato, is ridden to death.” In the National Sunday School Con- _ vention of 1872, he stood almost alone in opposition to one uniform lesson plan, and contested heroically the popular tide. In reply to an impassioned address by Mr. B. F. Jacobs (g. v.) in favor of universal uniform. lessons, Mr. Eggleston declared that it was “a movement backward; it would pull down good schools; produce a dead level uniformity; place a mortgage Egyptians on Sunday-school work for the succeeding ten years; but realized that he was in a helpless minority, yet must stand by his convictions.” His personal efforts in Sun- day-school work were practically com- pleted at this time, he announced, and thenceforward he would devote himself to literary pursuits. But in 1880, in an article for a Sunday-school teachers’ periodical, he referred to “the unpractical idealism prevalent,” and claimed that “the system of rigid adherence to one lesson for all the school, combined with selections now and then of subjects fit only for a theological seminary, is not in accordance with practical wisdom. . . . I am not too severe when I call this unpractical idealism, though I know, to my cost, the awful result of assailing the great god- dess of Diana whom Ephesus and all the world worshipeth.” © R Braoxatt. EGYPTIANS.—Srz Non-CuristTian ScriprurEs; RELIcIous EpvucarTion, ANCIENT, History OF. EMBER DAYS.—SzrxE CHRISTIAN YEAR. EMOTION, PLACE OF, IN THE RE- LIGIOUS EDUCATION OF THE YOUNG. —The teacher follows the psychologist in recognizing the necessity of allowing for the play of feeling in the individual hfe. Some teachers have been tempted, and perhaps a few still are, to overemphasize feeling at the expense of thoughtfulness, and the appeal to the will. (See Will, Education of the.) But the fact remains that education of whatever kind implies by its very nature the presence of impul- sive energies rooted in feeling. Emotional elements, or elements of feeling in associa- tion with an object or an idea, are the mainspring of education. ‘They give to it both energy and’ direction. Fundamentally, the life of feeling has either of two standard directions. It con- sists of the pleasurable accompaniments of experience, which give to life its positive tendency; and, on the other hand, pain- ful or unpleasant accompaniments, which give rise to aversion. Allowing for the necessity of avoiding overstimulation of feeling, and especially the dangerous tend- ency to arouse in the young precocious manifestations of emotion in forms be- longing to adult life, it is clear that reli- 375 Emotion, Place of gious education must depend very largely for its success upon the right use of emo- tional appeal. The young heart has to ledrn to “abhor” that which is evil, to “cleave to” that which is good. The fundamental emotional attitudes of at- traction and aversion. reach their highest and most developed form in the choice of good and the rejection of evil. Hence the Bible is full of the appeal to right feeling as the basis and motive of right- behavior and true worship. But the adjustment is delicate and difficult. And there is need for the help and influence of the teacher. St. Paul found the issue of the momentous conflict between the “two wills” to turn solely upon the influence in his life of the unseen Teacher. Only in this way did aversion to evil reach its summit and become the assured’ attitude of his life. It is this same divine influ- ence which in the religious education of childhood and youth we endeavor to medi- ate and interpret. We lift up the young heart towards the love of the good and the love of God. And through this higher love the higher choice is made. Influence of this kind has a twofold source ; in the teacher’s own emotional life, and in that of his pupils. , 1. The meaning and interest which the truths and ideals he is presenting have for the teacher himself will always have much to do with making religious teach- ing successful. Truth that has been warmed at the fires of the teacher’s own heart is the truth that impresses and wins. The surest sources of power in teaching are the teacher’s own love, trust, and reverence, finding play and expression. (See Friendship as a Factor in Religious Education.) The weakness of teaching which depends too exclusively upon “les- son helps” is to be traced to the absence of this clear expression of oneself. Second hand ideas are apt to lack the warm per- sonal glow which attaches to one’s own thought and experience. 2. In the next place, the emotional re- sponses of the young heart itself will have a central place in all successful religious education. At one time it may be right- eous indignation; at another time, wisely directed “fear”; more usually it will be affection, or trust, or reverence, that is aroused in answer to the teacher’s call. As these and other emotional impulses are Emotions, Training the stirred, severally and in their final unity, the pupil is on the way towards a religious decision ‘vhich has within it the elements of permanency. (See Emotions, Training the. THISELTON Mark. References: Hastings, James, etc. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. Emotion, by A. Dorner. James, William. The Principles of Psychology. Vol. 2, Chap. XXYV. (New York, c1890.) Monroe, Paul, ed. Cyclopedia of Education. Emotion, by 8. H. Judd. EMOTIONS, TRAINING THE.—Emo- tions may be considered as those forces, such as love and fear, joy and sorrow, hope and despondency, curiosity and dis- gust, confidence and alarm, reverence and contempt, trust and anxiety, that with ceaseless ebb and flow are reflected in the thoughts and deeds of man. They appear in varying degrees of intensity. Seldom does any one completely dominate the mind to the exclusion of all others. They are never found isolated from the other kinds of mental activity. They may be looked upon as forces, for they not only appear in connection with the other kinds of mental activity, but also definitely influ- ence the quality of the thoughts and actions of which they are parts. Every individual possesses natural, in- born tendencies or dispositions because of which he is affected by certain kinds of sense impressions, to which stimuli he responds in definite ways that have not been acquired through experience. In general it may be said that when these instinctive tendencies are permitted to become actions or thoughts pleasur- able emotions arise and when, in any way, they are strongly opposed or thwarted, emotions of self-depression or hostility result. Emotions are not the ultimate causes of human conduct, but are rather symptoms that indicate whether or not the kinds of thought and action for which the individual is by nature suited are present in his conduct. When the instinctive impulse becomes a part of conduct and the corresponding feeling of pleasure arises, both become stronger. It is easier for the former to appear again and the emotion that accompanies it tends 376 _-- Emotions, Training the to become ascendant over the other emo- tions. When, for any reason, the instinc- tive dispositions are not present in con- duct, unpleasant emotions permeate it, the dispositions lose strength and are less apt to reappear. These facts modify the systems of reac- tions that are acquired or built up as the child develops. The actions and emotions of an infant are more nearly instinctive than at any later period. But as habits are formed by the regular and frequent recurrence of certain acts or by the vivid- ness with which they are experienced, the emotions themselves become organized. A well developed habit becomes a pleasur- able mode of behavior, and so emotion may be looked upon as a symptom reveal- ing to what extent both instinctive and acquired tendencies are present in con-— duct. When the impulses present in con- duct are almost wholly instinctive, the ac- companying emotions are correspondingly simple and intensely pervasive. But as habits become mature, the emotions that accompany them tend to acquire the sim- plicity and intensity of those associated with instinctive behavior, Emotions support the impulses which they accompany and in connection with which they originate, giving them strength or weakness, pulses toward certain appropriate ends by accepting some thoughts and rejecting others, Fear, for instance, has a type of conduct that corresponds to it. If a par- They also direct those im-— ticular mental state is characterized by love, it is easier for thoughts of good will to find an active part in directing the impulses that are present than it would be if the mind were filled with fear. Love also rejects thoughts of ill-will. emotion tends to organize into its own system and around its own impulse what- ever other mental factors are available Every © and will aid the impulse to achieve a definite end. Unless the emotion is thus permitted to eventuate in conduct, it re- mains abortive and incomplete. The true origin and nature of emotions can never be clearly understood except as systems in which are included both volitional and in- tellectual elements. In his article on “Emotions,” in Hastings’ Hncyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, A. Dorner says: “Impulse as such, however, is not emotion ; rather it becomes emotion only when the Emotions, Training the object to which it is directed affects the feeling and prompts the will to act. The object may be so persistently present to the mind as to give a sustained tone to the feelings which, again, gives a definite bias to the will. The emotions, then, are distinguished from spontaneous impulses by the fact that they are traceable to some impression, or feeling, and emerge as a tendency to react upon this stimulus. We may say, therefore, that the emotions are combinations of feeling with movements or acts of will, and that they may have either transitory or a lasting character, according as they are immediate reactions upon a definite object, or upon habitual states of the soul which rest upon a more or less persistent combination of feeling and volition; these, in turn, depending upon the object affecting the soul.” From the standpoint of the Sunday- school teacher, it is an especially signifi- cant fact that not only does an emotion present in a child’s mind at a given time tend to organize into its system all of the serviceable ideas that are available at that time, but also that, as it becomes relatively dominant, it tends to determine the kinds of new ideas that are received. Thus the emotions that are firmly established in a child’s life tend to determine the future as well as the present types of conduct. An emotion that calls into service ideas of a certain kind thereby, indirectly, influ- ences apperception. Love, for instance, influences present conduct, refusing to make evil thoughts (see 1 Cor. 13:5) a part of its system. But when love be- comes established as a permanent mood in the life of the pupil, the continued pres- ence of its corresponding thoughts of good will become an enduring basis for the ap- perception of ideas of like moral quality. Hence it is important that at the earli- est practicable age there be established in the pupil, as dominant emotional qual- ities, those types of emotions that are truly Christian in character. There are cer- tain standard Christian emotions, such as love, joy, peace, hope, confidence, and trust, which, by the use of various peda- gogical means known to the intelligent teacher, may be awakened in the pupil’s mind during a session of the Sunday school. A service of worship that does not definitely arouse one of these standard emotions falls short of its function as a 377 Emotions, Training the service of worship. The telling of a story, the characters in which are vividly repre- sented as possessing these “symptoms,” will likewise awaken these same emotions within the pupils. One very important function of the Sunday school is to take the pupils regu- larly and frequently out of the ordinary environment or common ways of doing things, place them under the most favor- able conditions, and by suggestion cause them to experience these standard types of emotion, The purity and intensity which characterizes such emotional expe- riences will greatly influence the rapidity with which they become established per- manently in the lives of the pupils. Be- cause of the higher suggestibility of early childhood, this problem is most easily solved in the Beginners’ and Primary departments. This work of nurturing the distinctively Christian emotions should be carried on until they are so firmly estab- lished that the pupil is adequately forti- fied against even the temporary domina- tion of a non-Christian system. Music has the power directly to give an emotional quality to the mind. Better than any other form of worship, it ex- presses various moods without involving other forms of mental activity. By the use of words, it is impossible to express accurately what one feels. But music aids such expression, Children like to sing. They also enjoy instrumental music. It is especially by the use of music that they are able to give immediate expression to their emotions. In the singing of a hymn by all of the pupils in a department or a school each one, because of social sugges- tion, is helped to experience and to ex- press the emotion reflected in the hymn. By the use of properly selected hymns, it is possible to stimulate such emotions as trust, reverential awe, and joy. Thus music, in the hands of an intelligent teacher, is a powerful means of directly attacking and overcoming the non-Chris- tian types of emotion that may be present in the minds of the pupils when they enter the Sunday school. By a direct appeal to the intellect, the teacher might be unable to substitute cheerfulness and love for gloom and hatred. But music is less apt to stir up inhibitions or antago- nisms. Especially when wedded to poetry, with its rhythmical beats suggestive of Emotions, Training the lofty religious sentiments, is music able to carry to the child’s mind a healing and inspiring message. The Sunday school cannot fulfill its responsibility for the training of the emo- tions of the pupil merely by the weekly stimulation of those that are truly Chris- tian. Since the emotion that does not eventuate in conduct is abortive and in- complete, the Sunday school must consider itself responsible for the providing of suitable expressional activities for its pupils, The pupils should be given op- portunities for appropriate recreation and various forms of graded social service. Unless such opportunities are provided the most elementary mental factors will never become organized for truly Chris- tian living. The spiritual injury that would inevitably come to the child who becomes used to having one kind of emo- tion aroused on Sunday, but whose week- day conduct contains evidence of the pres- ence of opposing systems of emotions, is apparent. The only way to train the emotions is to provide for their finding frequent and regular expression in types of conduct, the moral qualities of which are like their own. The right kinds of work have spiritual value for they provide occasions for the higher development and organization of the elementary emotions. (See Activity and its Place in Religious Education. ) Instincts and instinctive impulses are not all present at birth. With the growth of the nervous system they appear, each at its own time. The natural play life of a young child, for instance, reveals the presence of different kinds of instinc- tive impulses that are different from those of adolescence. The kind of activity that occasions a pleasurable emotion in a Be- ginner would be unpleasant to an Inter- mediate pupil. Thus the training of the emotions involves a new problem with the appearance of every new instinct. Since the properly graded school pro- vides religious ideas that are closely re- lated to the new interests that are awak- ened by these newly arrived instincts, the problem of training the emotions is suggested not only by the presence of an instinct but also by the character of the religious ideas contained in a prop- erly graded system of lessons. The emo- tion, love, as it appears in the conduct of 378 Emotions, Training the a Beginner includes in its system only a relatively small portion of the ideas and instinctive impulses that would be in- cluded in the love that had become well established in the life of a member of the Senior Department. The danger of a temporary discontinuance of the training of the emotions is thus seen. If a young man, seventeen years of age, should come suddenly to consider the kinds of reli- gious ideas suited to his strongly rational interests, but with a trust that had not developed since early childhood, he would find it difficult if not, at first, impossible for his childlike trust to include in its system ideas so vastly different from those which alone it had assimilated, or with which this emotion had become associated. Unless appropriate kinds of conduct are provided during each period of the pupil’s development his character, upon arrival at maturity, will be deficient in impor- tant emotional qualities. Examples of such deficiencies in emotional training are seen in those adult Christians who are lacking in tenderness, or forcefulness, or cheerfulness. From the practical point of view, an emotion may be considered as a symptom or an index to guide the teacher in this task of providing suitable kinds of reli- gious instruction and activity. If the pupil finds pleasure in types of conduct that are genuinely Christian and at the same time are pedagogically suited to his instinctive interests, the work of the teacher at that time is successful. Such expressions as “O how love I thy law” and “T delight to do thy will, O Lord” indicate the presence of pleasurable emotions. They are just as possible and as appro- priate during immature as in mature life. But the possibility of their presence de- pends upon other things, upon the pres- entation of “the law” in such terms as can be understood by the immature in- tellect, terms that are interesting to it, and upon the provision for that conduct which is likewise suited to the degree of volitional development. In the Beginners’ and Primary depart- ments, religious education is concerned largely with the training of the emotions. At this age the pupil does not have the intellectual ability to work with facility with ideas. Such emotions as love and trust are already present in the life of Emotions, Training the the child who comes from a normal home. Curiosity characterizes his attitude toward his new and wonderful world. This child is psychologically unable to take God and nature into account in a purely intellectual way. The teacher’s problem is so to train these emotions of love, trust, and curiosity that they shall include suitably simple ideas concerning God and his world. One practical danger to be avoided at this age is that of making the fear of disobedience a dominant emo- tion. The normal child-feeling in regard to sin tends toward disgust or repulsion rather than fear in its extreme form. Fear, more than any other emotion, when once overstimulated, tends to return and to crowd out other useful emotions. The ‘result is a type of religious conduct that is hesitant and negative rather than full of assurance and confident endeavor. A comprehensive plan for the training of the emotions provides for giving to the child, thus early, an emotional ideal. This ideal is enlarged and enriched as his emotional life develops. But he is never without a standard with -reference to which he can judge of the propriety of a newly suggested emotion. In early childhood this problem is relatively simple. Love and trust are spontaneous in a little child. But during the later years of de- velopment it is important for him to be able to meet the temptation to harbor non- Christian emotions with a clear conception of a worthy ideal, and also with the de- termination to be true to it. Love that in early childhood is the result of sugges- tion may now be the result of obedience to a Divine command. Such training helps to equip the indi- vidual for the highest social usefulness. Without experiencing the truly Christian emotions it is impossible to gain the deep- est insight into the lives of others. Every individual is surrounded by both imper- sonal and personal objects. The senti- ments that should be developed toward the former and which are of use in accu- mulating wealth or in the mastery of natural forces are void of the tender emo- tions that should characterize one’s atti- tude toward persons. The proper training of the emotions according to the Chris- tian ideals equips the individual with those tender emotions that help him to live a life of highest social utility. 379 Emotions, Training the The strategic importance of placing the emphasis upon the more elementary or fundamental system of Christian emotions is seen, The chief emphasis is placed upon love. As love tends to establish itself permanently in the life or to or- ganize into its system all of the other emotions, thoughts and actions that may be made to contribute to its strength, the result is generosity, not meanness, gentle- ness, kindliness, thoughtful regard, pa- tience, humility, charity, forbearance. Love stimulates sincerity, courage, forti- tude, loyalty, fidelity. The actions that flow from the bonds of friendship which love of one’s fellowman inspires have the greatest economic and _ social values. There is a vital connection between such love and reverence, confidence, faith, hope and trust. Even though the elementary Christian emotion does not come to the place of absolute supremacy in the indi- vidual life, in so far as its organization does proceed, its beneficial results appear. The one whose emotional life has thus been trained possesses abiding inclinations to withstand the influences of a hostile environment. Under circumstances that would otherwise tend to produce emotions that would result in a decrease of intel- lectual or volitional or social efficiency, these effects do not take place. In Phil- ippi for instance, after Paul and Silas had been accused by the Jews they were thrust into the inner prison and their feet made fast in the stocks. But the narrator says, “At midnight Paul and Silas prayed and sang praises to God.” 'Thus it is that the one whose emotions have been trained according to Christian standards is able to triumph over untoward circumstances. (See Emotion, Place of, in the Religious Education of the Young; Will, Education of the.) N. EH. RicHarpson. References: Britan, H. H. The Power of Music. Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods, July 18, 1908. Galloway, George. The Principles of Religious Development. (London, 1909.) Hastings, James, ed. Hncyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. Emotion, by A. Dorner. James, William. The Principles of Psychology. Vol. 2, Chap. XXY. (New York, c1890.) England McDougall, W. Introduction to So- cial Psychology. (New York, 1909.) Monroe, Paul, ed. Cyclopedia of Education. Emotion, by C. H. Judd. Ribot, Th. The Psychology of the Emotions. Ed. 2. (London, 1911.) Shand, A. F. The Foundations of Character, (London, 1914.) Stratton, G. M. Psychology of the Religious Life. (london, 1911.) ENGLAND, SECOND SESSION OF THE SUNDAY SCHOOL IN.—In a very large number of Sunday schools in Eng- land two sessions are held. The first is before morning worship; the second dur- ing the afternoon. The Sunday School Union prepares and issues a_ course for use in the morning school which is Old Testament when the International is New, and New Testament when the Inter- national is Old. Recent years have wit- nessed a growing difficulty in the conduct of the morning school, as it has been a problem how to secure a sufficient number of teachers at that comparatively early hour; the same applies in a lesser degree to the pupils. The result is that in many instances collective instruction by the superintend- ent has taken the place of class teaching, and the theme of the instruction is more and more the catechism of the church. The influence of the Young Worshippers’ League is tending to shorten the session of the school from one hour to thirty or forty minutes at most. (See League of Worshipping Children.) The general sentiment among church workers is that while the morning school may call for modification, it would be a blunder to dis- continue it. (See Rural England, Sun- day Schools in.) _ J. W. BUTCHER. ENGLAND, SUNDAY SCHOOL IN.— SEE Rarkes, RoBERT; RuraL ENGLAND, SUNDAY SCHOOLS IN; SUNDAY SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND BEFORE ROBERT RAIKES; SuNDAY ScHOOLS IN ENGLAND FROM Ropert Raikes ONWARD. See also the Various Denominational Articles. ENROLLMENT OF THE SUNDAY SCHOOL.—Srxr Secretary, Tue S. §8.; STATISTICAL METHODS FOR THE S. 8. 380 Epworth League ENTERTAINMENTS.—Srz AmuszE- MENTS AND THE S. 8.; Festivats, S. §.; MovineG PIcTURES IN THE 8. S.; RECREA- TION AND THE S. 8S. ENVIRONMENT.—Srrt ATMOSPHERE IN RELIGIous EDUCATION ; ORGANIZATION, Ss. S EPIPHANY.—SzrE CHRISTIAN YEAR. EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. —SEE GraDED LEssoNs, BRITISH. EPWORTH LEAGUE.—The young people’s organizations of the Methodist Episcopal Church, the Methodist Epis- copal Church, South, and the Methodist Church of Canada have the common name Epworth League. The three societies are mutually independent, but unite period- ically in holding international conven- tions. They are organized for the training of the young people in religious and social activities, the culture of the personal spir- itual life, and the general work of their respective churches, The Epworth League in the Methodist Episcopal Church was organized at Cleve- land, Ohio, on May 15, 1889, at a meeting of delegates from five organizations of Methodist young people then existing in various parts of the country. Its plan of work, outlined in a constitution for local “chapters,” revised in 1903 and 1913, is fourfold, and the departments as now designated are, Spiritual Work, World Evangelism, Social Service, and Culture and Recreation. The League is found in almost every Methodist Episcopal Church, and its membership, senior, and junior, is 825,000. The Junior League includes the children between nine and sixteen years of age. There is no age limit for the Ep- worth League, though a general sentiment discourages active membership after the age of thirty. The first department maintains a weekly devotional meeting, usually on Sunday evening preceding public worship, and conducts Bible study classes and work in personal evangelism. The second de- partment provides for mission study and training in Christian stewardship, and encourages special gifts to missions, aggre- gating in recent years nearly or quite $100,000 annually. The third department Epworth League pays large attention to local relief work, _ the support of the church’s philanthropic institutions by gifts of money and sup- plies, and the general subject of Christian citizenship. The fourth department cares for recreational and intellectual activities, and provides schemes of church and com- munity recreation. The district organizations, which in- clude usually from 25 to 50 chapters, hold annual conventions. Larger groups meet in conventions occasionally. Among the most significant gatherings are the summer institutes. The work of these institutes is done in a session of seven to ten days, with the mornings given to the study of departmental work, the after- noons deyoted to recreation, and the eve- nings occupied by inspirational and pop- ular addresses. At these institutes the claims of religious vocations are carefully presented to the young people. The oversight of the Epworth League is committed to a Board of Control of eighteen members, appointed by the quad- rennial General Conference of the church. The Board holds annual meetings. The general secretary is the League’s executive officer, with headquarters at Chicago, and there are assistant secretaries for the Ger- man and the Negro sections of the church. The official organ of the League is the Epworth Herald, published weekly at Chi- cago, founded in 1890. The League motto is “Look up, lift up.” The young people’s organization in the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, was originated under General Conference sanction in 1890, and naturally adopted the name Epworth League, in harmony with the movement then well under way in the Methodist Episcopal Church, as the purpose and methods of the two or- ganizations were largely the same. For four years it was under the care of the church’s Sunday School Committee, and then became a distinct branch of church work. In 1894 the official organ, The Epworth Era, appeared, and a general secretary was elected. The League also has four departments. Its missionary work is vigorously supported, and its de- votional meeting largely takes the place of the former class meeting, now fallen into disuse. The governing body is a Board of Control of seven members. The head- quarters are at Nashville, Tenn. The 381 Eskrick general secretary is also editor of the offi- cial organ. Four assemblies of from six to ten days are held annually, and thirty conferences—gatherings of from two to four days each, where the institute plan is carried out. The present membership is more than 137,000, in about 4,000 chapters. The motto is “All for Christ.” The Epworth League in Canada dates from October, 1889, when the first society was organized. It also was a product of the general movement looking to the train- ing and utilizing of the young life of Methodism. It is under the supervision of the Department of Sunday Schools and Young People’s Societies. It has five de- partments, Christian Endeavor, Missions, Literary and Social, Citizenship, Junior. Missionary activities are especially im- portant. Many district organizations sup- port directly a missionary on the field. The general secretary also edits the League paper, the Canadian Epworth Era, and four field secretaries are associated with him. The League holds many conventions and institutes each year. The present number of chapters is a little over 4,000, with a membership of about 85,000. The League’s motto is “Look up, lift up for Christ and the church.” Many local so- cieties in Canada bear the name “Ep- worth League of Christian Endeavor,” and are affiliated organically with the Christian Endeavor movement. (See Young People’s Societies [Great Britain ] ; Young People’s Society of Christian En- deavor.) D. B. BrumMirt. EPWORTH LEAGUE (GREAT BRIT- AIN).—SrEr Youne PEOPLE’s SOCIETIES (GREAT BRITAIN). EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES.—Serxr ARCHITECTURE, 8. S.; BEGINNERS’ DE- PARTMENT; BLACKBOARD AND Its USE; CraDLE Rott; GymNasiums, CHurRCH; HANDWORK IN THE 8, S.; Hyarene; In- TERMEDIATE DEPARTMENT; JUNIOR DE- PARTMENT; LITERATURE, S. S.; PRIMARY DEPARTMENT; STEREOPTICON, USE OF THE; STEREOSCOPE; SUNDAY SCHOOL, Cost OF THE, ESKRICK, GEORGE (d. 1807).—A native of York, but resided most of his life at Bolton and Lancashire, England. Was a friend of John Wesley, and enter- Ethical Culture tained many of the leading Methodists of his day. For some years he was the prin- cipal man in the Bolton church. He is said to have been one of the founders of the famous Sunday school of Bolton, which grew to have a membership of over 2,000, and an average attendance of 1,800. The Arminian Magazine, for 1788, gives some account of the school as follows: “Many of the poor children about Bol- ton have been greatly neglected in their education, and were almost a proverb for wickedness, especially Sabbath-break- ing: which crime is often the forerunner of the worst of evils.” “But we see at present, the prospect of a glorious reformation. Among many who attend at our place, there is already a great change in their manners, morals, and learning. They are taught to read and write by persons who are very well qualified for the work. Many of the chil- dren can read well in the Bible, and write a tolerable hand; so that they are qualified for any common business. Their natural rusticity is also greatly worn off, and their behavior is modest and decent. About one hundred are taught to sing the praises of God; in which they have made great proficiency, to the admiration of those who hear them.” “But what is better than all the rest, the principles of religion are instilled into their minds. The masters endeavor to impress them with the fear of God; and by that to make all vice and wickedness hateful to them and urge them to obe- dience by the precepts and motives of the Gospel. Each class is spoken to sepa- rately every Sunday, on the nature of reli- gion, and they are taught their duty to God, their neighbor, and themselves, when the instructions are enforced by serious counsels, and solemn prayers.” Peter Haslan, who became a prominent Sunday-school advocate, was one of its pupils, and was present at the first Sab- bath of its opening. ead Byes se ETHICAL CULTURE, SOCIETY FOR. —The question may be asked, “What are the distinctive features of a Sunday school in an Ethical Society?” The first So- ciety for Ethical Culture was founded in 1876. A few years later the children of its members were gathered together on Sunday mornings for services, then classes 382 Ethical Culture for the study of religion were added and the discussion of moral problems and teaching of ethics was systematically be- gun. Since then the Sunday school has grown both in size and scope. The so- cieties in other cities have likewise organ- ized Sunday schools. In Philadelphia, Chicago, St. Louis, and Brooklyn, the Sunday school is an integral part of the Society’s life. In place, however, the plan of the school varies somewhat according to the preferences of leaders and teachers. The need that children feel for a reli- gious explanation of things, the thirst for information, must be recognized and in order to satisfy this need the Society en- deavors to build up a Sunday school on new lines, The moral life of the modern child is seriously imperiled by its lack of spiritual education. The young people have lost those religious ideas and influences, those ceremonies that accustomed the children of past generations to a deeply reverent view of life. Even the children brought up within the church are in danger of los- ing this reverence. The materialistic tendencies of the age exert so powerful an influence that all the agencies of religious education are called upon to offset this pernicious influence. The Ethical Sunday school attempts to do these things—first, to give a spiritual interpretation, a faith in the prevailing power of Good in the world; second, to teach moral principles by example, con- crete illustrations, and discussions, peda- gogically planned according to the modern educational methods of the best type; third, to infuse enthusiasm for the moral life, and to train public opinion among the children by means of the meeting, sermons, stories, etc. The first purpose of the Sunday-school teaching, therefore, is the interpretation of the problems simple enough for the child mind. The idea of evolution, of the upward trend of humanity, the impor- tance of every human being as aiding in this development toward the perfect—this the central idea, is simply taught in the hymn of the Ethical movement, written by Felix Adler: Have you heard the Golden City Mentioned in the legends old, Everlasting light shines o’er it, Wondrous tales of it are told. Ethical Culture Only righteous men and women Dwell within its gleaming walls. Wrong is banished from its borders, Justice reigns supreme o’er all. We are builders of that city. All our joys and all our groans Help to rear its sacred ramparts. All our lives are building stones. But the work that we have builded Oft with bleeding hands and tears, And in error and in anguish Will not perish with the years. It will be at last made perfect In the universal plan. It will help to crown the labors Of the toiling hosts of man. It will last and shine transfigured In the final reign of right. It will merge into the splendors Of the City of the Light. Second, character building is the most important work of the Sunday school; this is the most pressing need of the time, and one to which the day school does not usually give sufficient prominence, but which can be best accomplished by daily, regular object teaching. The Sunday school, therefore, is called upon especially to supply this deficiency, to make a def- inite aim of the training of character. The idea that each period of child life has its own specific interests, is paralleled by the idea that each period has also its spe- cific powers and that certain duties are proper at that period. Thus in the earli- est years the paramount duty of childhood is obedience. In the years immediately succeeding it is the duty of right relations to brothers and sisters, reverence to par- ents and later still, right relations to those outside the home. These duties are taught by concrete examples, by fairy tales and fables to the young pupils. Similarly, at the time when physical activity is the keynote of the child’s life, physical cour- age is most admired, the stories of courage and fortitude are loved by children and heroes are imitated. Hence this is the time to establish these virtues. As character development is the chief purpose of the Sunday school, the Society makes use of the general assembly to influ- ence the children by means of the presen- tation and discussion of ethical questions, thus forming public opinion. Sometimes duties inside the family may be more effectively impressed by discussion outside 383 Ethical Culture the home. The gathering of children into groups and fostering of public standards is an important function of the Sunday school. There are not merely classes but groups in which each child is made to feel itself a vital factor in opposing dishon- esty, cruelty, or meanness. The leaders of the groups exert a personal influence, but allow the children self-government and initiative in planning their work, arranging festivals, etc. Hach group, moreover, is actively engaged in some spe- cial charitable work, carried out by the members themselves—some sick child or poor family in need of assistance being made the ward of the group. Third, the Sunday school is the place for ceremonies and festivals beloved by children. Readings and responses, songs and poems fill up the last hour when all the groups are gathered together, a short address or sermon ending the services. The children are encouraged to add their own contribution to the services, short accounts of their work, a résumé of the lessons, an original poem or essay, or a play written by the group members adding novelty. The actual teaching by the group leaders embraces the following subjects: I. For the youngest group seven to nine years. Fairy stories and fables, to develop the child’s imagination, give him a sense of unity with his environment, and point out the simple duties of the child. II. Earlier stories from the Bible deal- ing with the relations between parents and thildren, brothers and sisters, to teach the duties of the family, and to give a sense of the sacredness of these duties. Ilf. The heroic figures from the Bible are presented and examples are also drawn from Greek history and fable. The spe- cial lessons center around courage, loyalty, honor, and self-sacrifice. IV. The Hebrew moral code is studied because as a whole it deals with duties and virtues within the comprehension of chil- dren eleven to twelve years of age, and because it is the most concrete exposition which we have of justice, temperance, charity, honoring of parents, etc. V. ‘The lessons of freedom and self- control are presented as illustrated in Greek history. Physical freedom and prowess are shown to have been developed by the training of the Spartan children, intellectual freedom is illustrated by the Eugenics Athenians, and moral freedom by the ex- ample of Socrates. VI. As a preparation for the study of the New Testament, Hebrew history is briefly recounted. The stories of its chief heroes, martyrs, and prophets are retold. VII. The work of the oldest class deals with the New Testament. The life of Jesus is told and, the parables are dis- cussed, After leaving the Sunday school, from which they graduate with appropriate ceremonies, the young men are invited to join the Sunday-evening clubs, which con- tinue ethical discussion and study, oppor- tunities for practical work in settlement life, observation and discussion of business ethics, ethics of the law, ete. The young girls continue in afternoon classes under the leadership of social workers, with dis- cussions of and study of literature relat- ing to the subjects of philanthropy, settle- ment work, and social reform. In the Society’s day school a complete system of ethical instruction is worked out—start- ing in the youngest classes with fairy tales, etc., up to the study of religions from the oldest group, with an intermediate department devoted to the study of legis- lation and the law of the state, thus giv- ing the children an insight into the penal- ties that attend infractions of the moral law. Mrs. Fenrx ApuER. EUGENICS.—This comparatively new subject has been defined as “the study of agencies under social control that may im- prove or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally.” Eugenics is a new word, but it stands for ideas and visions which have existed for ages. The researches of modern science and the development of present-day conceptions of social con- sciousness have, however, enabled eugenic principles and practices to be enunciated in more or less scientific terms. The great hypothesis of evolution and the vast ac- cumulation of biological, sociological, and medical data have made it possible in these latter days to formulate, at least in provisional form, the ideals of eugenics and to define some of the conditions for race efficiency. | Much further investigation regarding the relative influence of heredity and en- vironment on racial welfare will be needed 384 Eugenics before we can venture to speak of an ac- tual science of racial betterment. At the present time there is danger that un- trained, unscientific, sentimental enthusi- asts by their imperfect, exaggerated, or eccentric presentation of the truths of eugenics will hinder rather than hasten the coming of a rational science of race efficiency. There is danger of so-called eugenists being satisfied with the results of laboratory experiments, and so taken up with the study of morbid individuals that they will fail to maintain a compre- hensive view of the problem as it relates to society as a whole. No limited outlook will do, if the fundamental principles — governing race improvement are to be dis- covered. The laws of eugenics will not stand revealed until we have labored stren- uously to make medico-sociological science more accurate in detail and comprehensive in its principles, and much further experi- ment in genetics and the study of family histories will be necessary before any- thing approaching a dogmatic definition of eugenics becomes possible. Let it be said, however, that eugenics is a subject which demands the fullest study by every one striving for self-better- ment with the assistance of his neighbors. It is a subject which makes a very definite appeal to Christian workers, and espe- cially to those who, in the Sunday school or elsewhere, are endeavoring to serve childhood and youth, young men and young women on life’s threshold, and to strengthen them for right thinking and pure living. The serious eugenist cannot but be impressed with the new powers and heavy responsibilities of manhood and womanhood which are revealed by the study of eugenics. The study of this new subject is indicating new ways and means whereby girls and boys may be trained for life’s noblest duties and heaviest responsi- bilities. There can be no doubt that eu- genics is strengthening the demand for instruction in sex hygiene for the coming citizens, the future mothers and fathers of the race. (See Sex Education in §S. 8.) Moreover it is assisting in the presentation of life’s problems in definite, sane, and serviceable ways, and in the securing of measures which shall go far to prevent the development of diseases and disorders, and the adoption of habits and methods of thought that hamper the fullest evolu- Evangelical Association tion of the individual and the onward march of the race. (See Alliance of Honor.) Eugenics, rightly interpreted, provides a preparation for parenthood and patriot- ism, and puts a new force into some of the noblest doctrines of the Christian reli- gion. Eugenic ideas and ideals should be studied by all teachers, and to none will they prove of greater interest and service than the teachers of the Sunday school. These workers, whose lives and influence are dedicated to the highest, will find new weapons, fresh incentives, and invaluable data in the best literature of the educa- tional and moral movement for eugenics. Space will not permit of a detailed setting forth of the principles and practices of race betterment, but those who are desir- ous of entering upon the study of eugenics will find material plentiful. Eugenic so- cieties have been established in most pro- gressive countries, journals dealing with the subject are issued periodically, and an immense literature has accumulated. The serious student will do well to pro- cure the past volumes of The Hugenics Review and other publications of the Eugenics Education Society, Kingsway House, Kingsway, London, W.C., Eng- land. Problems in Eugenics, Vols. I and IJ, contain papers communicated to, and teports of, the Proceedings of the First International Eugenics Congress held in London in the summer of 1912. Amer- ican students should study the work of Dr. C. B. Davenport and his colleagues at the Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, New York. Those desirous of following the eugenic movement in France should procure the new periodical Hugenique, the “organe de la société francaise d’eugenitque,” pub- lished by J. B. Bailliere et Fils, 19 Rue Haute Senille, Paris (price 12 francs a year). For many references likely to be helpful to practical workers see Human Derelicts: A Collection of Medico-Socio- logical Studies for Teachers of Religion and Social Workers. T. N. Ketynacxk, M.D. EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION, SUN- DAY-SCHOOL WORK OF THE.—This Association was organized by Jacob Al- bright in Hastern Pennsylvania in the year 1800. 385 Evangelical Association The denomination always had a friendly attitude toward religious education in gen- eral, and toward Sunday-school work in particular. The General Conference of 1835, which met at Orwigsburg, Pennsylvania, inaug- urated the movement to organize Sun- day schools wherever possible. The Dis- cipline contains the following provision: “In each of our societies a Sunday school shall be maintained, which shall meet, if possible, on each Sunday of the year, at an appropriate hour, for religious instruc- tion, under the supervision of the Preacher-in-charge.” | The earliest organization of Sunday- school interests within the denomination was the establishment, in 1859, of the Sun- day School and Tract Union to collect contributions for the assistance of poor Sunday schols, in order to furnish them with cheap books and literature, and also for the purpose of producing and distrib- uting cheap tracts. In 1854 Der Christliche Kinderfreund, and in 1863 The Sunday School Mes- senger were issued. These were four-page papers adapted to juvenile readers. In 1907 a General Secretary of Sunday schools was appointed to promote the in- terests of Sunday-school work throughout the denomination. In 1911 a General Sunday School Board was established. This consists of two bishops, the two editors of Sunday-school literature, the general secretary of Sun- day schools, the publisher, and five lay- men. This Board has the management of the Sunday schools of the denomination. Its purpose is to lead the Sunday schools onward to a higher degree of usefulness in their educational and evangelistic efforts by the most effective means and methods. The first Sunday-school papers have been enlarged to eight pages. In addition to these, monthly and quarterly publica- tions have been provided to meet the needs » of teachers and pupils of all grades in the study of the Sunday-school lessons. The Sunday-school work of the Evan- gelical Association is in a prosperous con- dition, under the management of the Gen- eral Board. In every Conference there is a Conference Board to promote the work in the Conference. At present the following points receive special emphasis: Cradle Roll, Home De- Evangelism partment, Class Organization, Teacher training, Graded Organization, Mission- ary and Temperance Instruction, Decision for Christ, and Church Attendance. There are two editors, one for the Eng- lish and one for the German publications, and each editor has an assistant. ‘There is one general secretary. The following are the Sunday-school publications: The Sunday-School Mes- senger, an eight-page weekly; The Hvan- gelical Sunday-School Teacher, a forty- eight-page monthly; The Adult Buble Class Quarterly, containing forty-eight pages; The Senior Quarterly, containing thirty-two pages; The Home Department Quarterly, containing forty pages; The Intermediate Quarterly, containing thirty- two pages; and My Lesson, a four-page weekly Primary paper. | The following publications are German: Das Evangelische Magazin, a sixty-four- page monthly with a Sunday-school de- partment; Der Christliche Kinderfreund, an eight-page weekly; Vuierteljahrsheft fuer Bibelklassen; Vierteljahrsheft fuer Mittelklassen; Vierteljahrsheft fuer das Heim Departement; and Laemmerweide, a four-page weekly for primary classes. The aggregate number of subscriptions is 262,500. H. A. Kramer. EVANGELISM THROUGH EDUCA- TION.—The church has always known that one of her tasks is to save the lost. - Only within recent years has she recog- nized that her supreme task is to save the loss. The latter is vastly more difficult— and important. Only thus will the King- dom ever fully come. Adult conversion can never accomplish it. The world’s birth rate is many times the conversion rate, and increases more rapidly. The kingdom of God will come only when the church learns how to conserve unspoiled the boundless potentialities suggested in Christ’s words, “Of such is the kingdom of heaven.” For this the Sunday school furnishes the superlative opportunity and Sunday-school evangelism, broadly con- ceived, the effective means. To urge that the production of Chris- tian character is the central purpose of the Sunday school is superfluous. All who are interested to read this article recog- nize that nothing less will justify, as no lower aim will continuously inspire the 386 - Master. Evangelism vast expenditure of time, talent, and toil, lavished upon this the most potent and hopeful of all modern religious organiza- tion. Y Principles. Successful evangelism in the Sunday school involves much. To master this finest.of all arts one must know the laws and methods of unfolding life— physical, mental, and spiritual. Ignorance of these, on the part of one who presumes to deal with the spiritual interests of chil- dren and youth, is unpardonable today, so accessible is the literature of the subject and so sacredly important are the issues involved. Here we can but mention cer- tain fundamental principles which should control all efforts to develop the religious . capacities of child life and bring the will to an intelligent choice of Christ: as Sunday-school evangelism, great as are its possibilities, has not been an unmixed good, because these principles have not been in all cases clearly appre- hended. An unwise, though sincere, en- thusiast may work more harm in a single so-called Decision Day than can be reme- died in a generation. A sincere enthusi- asm for the spiritual welfare of the chil- dren in those who are intrusted with their care is priceless, and no one not thus moved should be honored with so sacred a charge. But no motive, however good, in the physician of the body can be con- sidered a substitute for knowledge and skill, Much less should it be in the phy- sician of the soul. A resolute determina- tion to master the principles involved in the religion of the unfolding life should possess the soul of every worker in the Sunday school. In broadest and briefest outline these principles are: First. The inalienable right of every child to be considered a member of the Kingdom of God. The church cannot give this right. It can only do what Christ did—recognize and sanction it. Any theology which attempts to deal with the child otherwise is, to say the least, not of Christ. Therefore, in the earlier years evangelism can only take the form of as- suming that the child already belongs to Christ, and of placing the emphasis upon the privilege of actively obeying and pleasing him. The primary and guiding aim of Sunday-school evangelism should be the normal development of the child’s religious instincts, so that no break may Evangelism occur in his conscious desire and effort to serve Christ. This is imperative not only from the standpoint of the truth in the case, but also from the standpoint of the normal child mind. To suggest to the child that he is an alien to God, and that some great change must take place in his own heart before he is really God’s child, plants the first seeds of artificiality and irreligion and gives him at the very beginning of his religious development a totally false conception of Christianity. For this reason the younger children should not be present when the evangel- istic appeal is made in the Sunday school to those of riper years, where the need of conversion may be legitimately empha- sized. This suggests: Second. The Principle of adaptation, which must be observed in all safe and effective Sunday-school evangelism. What is good and necessary for one period of development may be positively harmful for another. Hach age has its own char- acteristics spiritually as well as intellec- tually. The religion of the young child is naturalistic and reflexive. Ideas of God are predominantly materialistic through- out childhood, seldom becoming spiritual- ized before eleven or twelve. ‘The sense of personal responsibility to God, the fully developed idea of right and wrong, the clear notion of spirituality, and the sense of sin, come in the first years of adoles- cence. The deepening sense of personal obligation to God, the. power to reason and the consequent tendency to question all that has thus far been learned, the rapid growth of the critical spirit, and the increasing sense of personal inde- pendence and freedom of choice, all these characterize adolescence in the middle period, the natural time for decision. These differences must be kept in mind when religious appeal is being made. At such times the departments should be separated. When this is impossible the public appeal should be in general terms . that will accord with the characteristics of all periods and the specific appeal made individually. It should be kept in mind that there are great changes even within the period of any given department, par- ticularly that of the Juniors from nine to twelve. Moreover, it should be remem- bered that each stage brings its own pre- _ cious opportunity to produce religious im- 387 Evangelism pressions and purpose, and, if neglected, is lost forever. Third. The principle of adaptation must be applied to individuals as well as groups. “Personal evangelism” is a term usually applied to individual work among adults. But, if there is any place where it is needed more than another, it is among children and in early adolescence. Varying influences of heredity, tempera- ment, environment, home atmosphere and training, natural abilities, make each child different from every other. What may be essential for one child may be exceedingly harmful for another in exactly the same period of development. Children are un- able to adapt religious truth to their own needs or spiritual conditions, as are adults, and are therefore at the mercy of their leaders and teachers. It is imperative for best results that the individual child be known to the one who tries to lead the way to religious purpose and experience. The pastor and superintendent should know the children. The teacher, who knows the pupil better than any other, should be utilized in the evangelistic work of the school as largely as possible. Fourth. That religious consciousness is a development must be kept constantly in mind. Time is as necessary as the proper soil for the perfect fruitage. “First the blade, then the ear, then the full corn in the ear.” The worker should know what to expect at any given age and what is abnormal. T'o urge religious expression which belongs to a later period or a totally different temperament is the beginning of hypocrisy and skepticism. Suddenness of religious purpose may be sought in riper years, but it has no place normally in childhood and early youth. The indolent method of depending upon a so-called Decision Day to do the whole task of pro- ducing conscious normal discipleship is both ignorant and wicked, as well as inef- fective. Long before a decision day in the accepted sense is possible it ought to have been rendered largely unnecessary. Witness day, wisely conducted, may be helpful at any period. Decision Day is not a child’s affair and should come not before early adolescence, when the storm and stress period is approaching, with its natural tendencies to break with the past. In this period Decision Day may afford the youth the opportunity he needs Evangelism to assert for himself the principles he has heretofore accepted from others — and enter a deeper and more conscious per- sonal relationship with Christ. Fifth. Religious development during the teens means far more for the perfect- ing of the life in adult years than any equal period after the teens. To leave the Sunday school without a definitely Christian life-purpose not only reduces to a minimum the pupil’s chances of find- ing Christ, but he has lost forever some- thing which no later experience can bring. For example, however great one’s musical capacities may be, to miss the period when both mind and body are most rapidly de- veloping is to render the greatest develop- ment of the capacity forever impossible. The spiritual capacities obey the same law. There is, therefore, a double responsibility upon the Sunday-school worker—to pro- duce Christian character and to produce it at the period when it means most for the life of the individual and the world. Siath. It is of greatest importance that the Christian life of the youth in the middle and later adolescent period should be of a positive character. This does not mean after any particular tem- peramental type, but that it should be a consciously controlling force. The old method of evangelism, which considered the child an alien to the Kingdom until by a definite experience of conversion he was brought from death unto life, had grave errors and is responsible for grievous losses; but it had one virtue. It had a tendency to produce an experience that was definite and unmistakable, to which witness could be borne, and which conse- quently wrought convictions that were imperishable, carrying the possessor into active service. The problem of modern evangelism, as it relates to childhood and youth, is to produce conviction as deep and individual religious consciousness as unmistakable. This is the most difficult task of the modern pastor and Sunday- school worker. But it is the most impor- tant. Upon such rock alone can he build his church. The failure to produce this virile type of religious life, which is will- ing to serve and sacrifice and suffer, is the greatest peril of Christian nurture and educational evangelism. Methods. In the strict sense, methods should be as varied as the individuals. 388 Evangelism There can be no universal method for work so vital and personal. The need of an intimate knowledge of the individuals to be won, and the great difficulty of the task as a whole may, and not infrequently does, lead to hesitancy and neglect on the part of leaders. The work is indeed delicate, and of vast importance, and errors may be fatal. Every child needs and deserves a master hand. But the work must be done, and master workmen are made by doing it. Actual practice, and ultimate sympathetic touch with young life, are as essential in learning this finest of all arts as a knowledge of the laws of the unfolding life. Appropriate and effective methods will suggest them- — selves as the pastor and teacher become more intimately acquainted with individ- uals. Certain. well-tried methods, how- ever, may be suggested here, to be modi- fied as local conditions and individual characteristics may demand. 1. Public Decision Day may be men- tioned first, not because it is first in im- portance or effectiveness, but because it is the most familiar method. Properly conducted it is, in the adolescent period, of great value, and furnishes the oppor- tunity for the normal exercise of the power of moral choice, which develops — rapidly at this period. In unwise hands it is a grave menace. The precipitation of a decision day upon an unprepared school, or upon the lower grades, inducing premature and hasty religious expression, through overwrought emotions on the part of many—to be followed by insuffi- cient attention to training—is one of the most baneful exercises of the modern church. It is certain to result in reaction, | due to a sense of unreality, from which many will never recover. It will justify a new group of parents in their solicitous but ignorant claim, that the youth of the middle teens “is not old enough to know what he is doing.” A decision day of this type should never be permitted in any school, or department. The wise pastor will never allow the professional evangelist to appeal to his Sunday school unless he knows intimately the man and his methods, and knows exactly what he proposes to do on any particular occasion. The call for public decision to follow Christ should not be permitted below the Junior Department, and even this depart- Evangelism ment needs a totally different appeal from that presented in the Intermediate and Senior. Among the Juniors there should be no segregation, and no intimation that those who do not respond to the appeal, as may be desired, are thus rejecting Christ or the Christian life. To permit this is the surest method of causing such a rejec- tion on the one hand, or of producing insincerity of action on the other. The sense of personal responsibility to God is necessary to intelligent conviction and decision, and this sense does not normally develop in strength till the end of the Junior period and the beginning of ado- lescence. Conscience and the idea of moral law are likewise rapidly developing at this period. Whatever appeal is made; there- fore, to the pre-adolescent, should be rather in the form of a preparation for a more personal and final decision at a later period. Public manifestation of decision during the Junior period, when it is required, should be conducted with great care and skill. The child tendency to do what others do is still strong. It is better to present in a correct and at- tractive way the privilege and obligation of discipleship—. e., entering Christ’s great school as learners—and then allow the expression of desire and purpose to be made privately to teacher, pastor or friend. Below the Juniors it should be assumed always that all are trying to follow the Great Teacher, and the public address should take the form of instruction and encouragement. The Intermediate Department, reaching from thirteen to sixteen or seventeen, covers the natural age of decision. Per- sonal freedom and moral choice have been attained. ‘The youth has learned how to act for himself in response to the sense of right and personal obligation to Christ. He can safely be asked to signify his decision in a public way. Usually, it is best that he should, especially in middle and later adolescence. Thorough preparation should be made for Decision Day. Pastor, superintend- ents, and teachers should have meetings for conference, instruction and prayer. The plan should be quite definite, and every teacher should clearly understand what is expected and be in sympathy with the plan. The personal work should be 389 Evangelism done before the day arrives, by personal and private conversations, or by letter where this is impossible. Personal solici- tation at the public service is apt to pro- duce harmful rather than helpful results. Contrary to the opinion of some well known Sunday-school workers, the writer strongly believes that the school should know of the approach of the day. Abso- lute frankness is the only thing that wins with the adolescent. Anything that savors of planning or of surprise puts him on his guard, and rightly. There should be frequent mention of the day as it ap- proaches; the fullest explanations of the purpose of the day; explicit and simple statement of the essence of the Christian life and of the inestimable advantages of an early beginning; prayer in the school as the day approaches for God’s special blessing; a clear understanding that no one will be embarrassed (which pledge must be scrupulously kept). By these and other means the pupil is helped to make deliberate and thoughtful deci- sion, Some special day has greater appeal, such as the last or first Sunday of the year, Palm Sunday or Easter. Ample time should be given the service. It must not appear hurried, but the address should be short, simple and straightforward. An atmosphere of reverence, but of cheerful- ness, should prevail. The songs should be carefully selected to help, and the prayers should be especially tender and full of sympathy. The ordinary business and announcements should be eliminated. It should be recognized in the appeal that some have already definitely begun their discipleship, that others have from child- hood followed Christ—which is ideal— and that for these the day means only an opportunity to witness for Christ and deepen their purpose. The most effective method for decision is perhaps by cards upon which a simple but comprehensive statement of purpose is printed, these having been distributed to all at least a week beforehand. On the day appointed these are signed by all who have at any time decided, and by all who will then decide, to follow Christ. This avoids the painful conspicuousness which boys of the adolescent age dread. The cards should be signed in duplicate; one to be kept by the pupil, and the other given to the Evangelism teacher, who should be kept prominent in all work which concerns the religious life of the pupil. Decision Day is safe and effective in any school in the measure in which the spirit of evangelism is persistent and per- vasive throughout the year. It grows less safe as this decreases and less needed as it increases. 2. The method most highly to be com- mended is that in which decisions are con- stantly sought by teacher, superintendent and pastor, and are constantly being announced. ‘This atmosphere alone can make decisions seem the normal and ex- pected thing to the adolescent mind; this alone will keep first things first; will in- duce the proper spirit of reverence and worship in the school; will meet and sat- isfy the normal craving of the heart in the adolescent period, and fulfill the obli- gations due from pastor and teacher to those intrusted to their care. This can be done. It requires a corps of officers and teachers who not only truly discern the highest purpose of Sunday- school work, but who have consecrated themselves to that work. It can only be done on a basis of personal relation- ships. At this age religious impulses and desires are clearly linked with the desire for friendship. A teacher or pastor who is a trusted confidant and friend is the need of the growing life, and such a rela- tionship can almost invariably result in Christian purpose and character if the effort is sufficiently sincere and persistent. For this reason there should be no change of teachers after the beginning of adoles- cence until well past the middle adoles- cent period, except it be to eliminate in- competence. It should be planned that each pupil not yet committed to Christ should be seen in private conference by the adult nearest to him and in whom he has greatest faith—not once but as often as seems wise, as he is developing. This should not seem planned to the pupil, but spontaneous, and it should always be in- spired by genuine sympathetic interest. Much of the resistance to the Christian appeal grows out of personal difficulties, misconception of the Christian life and false notions of what is expected. These will never be discovered except by the trusted friend in confidence. When the decision is obtained it may be noticed 390 Evangelism in the school in some manner, both for the individual’s sake and for its influence upon the school. 3. If the pastor has established close relations with the school, creating not only confidence in him, but a feeling of per- sonal friendship for him, it will be found quite effective for him to visit each class and talk familiarly for a few minutes about the Christian life, what it is, its great benefits for life, the need of an early beginning, but making no personal appli- cation to any one in the class, and not at that time stating how to begin—re- marking as he departs that if any one wishes to know more about the Christian life, and the way to begin, to come to him, or to write to him, or speak to the teacher. This makes strong appeal to the youth, bringing the pastor very close to his per- sonal need in a way that does not embar- rass. ‘This method has been used with ~ great effectiveness. 4, It is most desirable that the pastor should come into close touch with every member of the school, and especially to those passing through the teens. This cannot be done adequately in class alone, but it will prove an aid of inestimable value for the pastor to take each class graduating from the Junior and Inter- mediate departments, for a series of four to six weeks each, at the Sunday- school hour, before they are promoted to the next department, giving these periods to a study of the Christian . life. There is no more fruitful method of producing intelligent decision, if rightly conducted. The leader of this class should know as much as possible about each individual beforehand, and should strive to have a personal conversa- tion with each one not yet definitely com- mitted to Christ, especially those in the Intermediate Department. The chances for conversion grow rapidly less after the eighteenth year, therefore every wise means should be used to produce decision before the time the Senior Department is entered. Graduation may be at dif- ferent times in the departments to fur- ther this plan, unless there are competent leaders besides the pastor. ‘To the objec- tion that a number of the regular lessons will thus be missed, it may be replied that the aim of the school is not to complete a lesson system, but the production of Evangelism . Christian character, and no other use of a few sessions will effect as much. It has the virtue of dignifying it as a regular part of the Sunday-school course of study, and of insuring an attendance which can- not be procured at special meetings for this work. 5. Letters written by teachers to pupils are of great value, but the pupils should not be permitted to feel that they are substitutes for personal conversation. The reasons for, and advantages of, be- ginning the Christian life, when clearly stated in a letter, often make deeper im- pression than by any other method—the letter being usually read under circum- stances where quiet thoughtfulness is pos- sible. The writing of a letter may con- vince the pupil of the teacher’s interest more effectively than conversation. 6. It is of great importance in this work to keep in close touch with the parents. Jf they are in sympathy with it, they can render most effective aid by their attitude and codperation and should, therefore, be kept fully informed of any step that is to be or has been taken in relation to their children. If they are indifferent, it is almost certain to awaken in them a vital interest, if they are con- sulted concerning the efforts to help their boys and girls. If they are hostile, the need is the greater, for the sake of their chil- dren, to come into sympathetic relations with them, in order to disarm prejudice. Much of the opposition on the part of par- ents is due to ignorance or total misunder- standing of what is intended, or to the results of bungling work on the part of some one. Moreover, the lost sheep of the house of Israel are often won through the lambs of the flock. There is no point so tender in the heart of the worldly parent as the consciousness of responsibility for his influence upon his child. ?7. Evangelism among the adults of the Sunday school is not the specific prob- lem of this article, and ‘is treated else- where, but the suggestion is in place here that no stronger appeal can be made to adults than can be made in the Adult Department of the Sunday school, occu- pying, as it does, the place of incalculable influence over the adolescent years. A school will do almost anything its Adult Department will do. But the appeal to adults upon this basis should never be 391 Evangelism made in the presence of other depart- ments. It is, however, of great value if the actual decision of adults can be made with the adolescents present, provided it be kept clear always that they have lost something by delay that can never be regained. 8. This greatest work of the school should ‘find a place in the regular meet- ings of Sunday-school officers and teach- ers. It must be kept constantly to the front if the spirit is to be maintained in the school that will make the work either safe or effective. Special meetings should be held for the specific purpose of prop- erly planning for this work. In all regu- lar meeting where reports are given this should be one of the items never omitted. Many minor suggestions might be made without adding value to these. The ideal method is a combination of all good methods. After the most faithful use of all wise and effective means, there will still remain some who have not been won to Christ. There will always be the need for adult evangelism, but by ceaseless vigilance and tireless devotion the number who are won to Christ and Christian service at the ideal age can be vastly in- creased, and the inexpressible loss to the Kingdom, the church, and the individual, correspondingly lessened. The most important and difficult work has just begun when the decisions are obtained. Neglect thereafter is criminal. Shameful loss is not infrequently found at this point. Both teacher and pastor should for weeks give special attention to those who have newly chosen to follow Christ. They should be carefully in- structed in the fundamentals of the Chris- tian life, sympathized with and helped in their difficulties and problems, trained for church membership, and given something to do as an expression of their Christian purpose. ‘T’his work is best done individ- ually. This requires time, but there is no other investment of time that pays such dividends for the Kingdom. In any case there must be ample opportunity for the pupil to meet the pastor as well as the teacher in private, not officially, but as friends, where the unfolding life can find sympathetic help in its individual needs and difficulties. The less personal elements of training Examinations may be effected in groups of approxi- mately the same age, and as nearly as possible of the same general temperament, the sexes meeting separately in the Junior and higher grades. L. J. Birney. References: Koons, W. G. The Child’s Religious Life. (New York, 1903.) Lawrance, Marion. How to Conduct a Sunday School. Chap, XX. (New York, ¢c1905.) McKinley, C. E. Hducational Evan- gelism. (Boston, 1905.) Principles of Religious Education. Chap. VII. (New York, 1901.) Starbuck, E. D. Psychology of Re- ligion. Ed. 3. (New York, 1911.) EXAMINATIONS.—The function of the examination is threefold: (1) it con- stitutes a test of the pupil’s mastery of the subject and of his ability to go on to more advanced work; (2) it serves as a stimulus to more thorough study from week to week; (3) it supplies a motive for final review and helps the pupil to gather up the points made in a series of lessons, to place them in right relation and to organize them into a systematic and co- herent whole. 1. The first of these functions is the least important. A teacher should be able without an examination to tell what prog- ress his pupil has been making and whether or not he is prepared to advance to other tasks. It is as a stimulus to thorough work and to the final organiza- tion of ideas that the examination is of such real service that it ought seldom to be dispensed with. Bagley says, speaking of public school work: “The virtue of the examination les in its power to force strenuous mental effort to the task of organizing a large body of facts and prin- ciples into a coherent system. This is the standard by which examination questions should be set. They should be large and comprehensive, so formulated that they will bring out and exercise, not the mem- ory for details, but the capacity to grasp large masses of knowledge and weld the separate facts and principles into system- atic unities.” In this respect the final purpose of the examination is identical with that of the review (gq. v.). Examinations are of value in another 392 Examinations important respect that is often overlooked. They constitute a test of the teacher’s work. If any large proportion of a teacher’s pupils are unable creditably to pass an examination, assuming of course that the questions are fair and adequate, it is evidence that there has been some- thing wrong with the teaching. A careful study of just where his pupils failed will reveal to that teacher, not only what gaps he must fill in their knowledge of the subject, but just where in future he may better his presentation and in what re- spects improve his method. 2. Since these are the functions of the examination, it is as much needed in the Sunday school as in the public school. Indeed, it is more needed. The public school is able to secure thorough work by methods of compulsion which the Sun- day school cannot use; it has far more time at its disposal for day by day drill and review; its curriculum is better stand- ardized, its teachers better trained—for all of which reasons it might more easily than the Sunday school dispense with the examinations and yet maintain a high standard of work. Many Sunday-school superintendents and teachers fear to introduce examina- tions lest they drive pupils from the school. But this result need not follow, if the examinations are rightly conducted. They should be optional. All pupils should be encouraged to take them, but none compelled to do so. They should be as frequent as the formal review, and cover the same ground. The review will thus be more thorough, and the pupils will become accustomed to taking exam- inations, so that most of them will not fear to take a final examination covering the whole year’s work. The questions should be fair and worth while, not asking for minor or obscure details, but rather constituting points of view that help to a true perspective and to the right or- ganization of the pupil’s ideas. One excellent method of examination is to give to pupils a set of such ques- tions on one Sunday and to ask them to write out answers’at home which they will hand in on the following Sunday, the understanding being that they may go for the answers to the Bible or to any source of information other than the help of another person, provided they specify in the papers Examinations their authority for facts so gained. An- other method is to give out a large num- ber of questions—twenty-five to fifty— with the announcement that on the follow- ing Sunday an examination will be con- ducted, at which pupils will be asked to write, without assistance of any sort, an- swers to four or five questions which shall be chosen by the teacher from this num- ber. Under these conditions they will study the whole set and so be guided in a thorough review. If the pupils are mature enough and faithful enough, the burden of preparation for the examina- tion may be thrown upon them and the examination conducted without any pre- vious issuing of questions. In that case it is best to offer some option, giving a set of ten questions, for example, and requiring each pupil to answer six, choos- ing for himself which they shall be. The questions should of course be suited to the maturity of the class. Hxamina- tions may be given with success to pupils of any age above eight or nine. As soon as boys and girls are able to write easily and have become accustomed to examina- tions in public school, they are ready for examinations in Sunday school as well. 3. A great part of the virtue of an ex- amination lies in its formal character. For that reason written examinations are to be preferred to oral quizzes. If the sole function of the examination were to test the information of the pupils for the benefit of the teacher, it would be better that it should be informal and unexpected. But if the examination is to serve as a stimulus and incentive to more thorough and complete work, the pupil must feel its importance. The teacher should do all that he can in order to make the examina- tion something of an occasion. It should be announced at some time previously ; it should be carefully administered and supervised; the papers should be graded with scrupulous fairness; and recogni- tion of some sort should be given to those who pass creditably—a report sent to par- ents, a list announced or posted, promo- tion to a higher class, a certificate given for each year’s work passed, or a diploma at the completion of a course covering sev- eral years. ‘The pupil’s full grade, how- ever, should not depend on the examina- tion. It should be made up on the basis of the classroom work, the notebook or 393 Exhibits other routine written work, and the ex- amination, The teacher ought always to read and grade the papers before the next meeting of the class. Then, if the full benefit of the examination is to be realized, there should be a free discussion of the ques- tions. Such a discussion is both more economical and far more satisfactory in result than correcting and handing back the papers. It is a golden opportunity for final review. On the one hand the pupils are eager and interested to know how well they have succeeded; on the other hand their answers have revealed to the teacher what misconceptions need correcting and what gaps need filling, in order that the work of the term may be brought to its perfect conclusion. L, A. WEIGLE. EXHIBITS, CHILD WELFARE.—Srx CHILD WELFARE EXHIBITs. EXHIBITS, SUNDAY-SCHOOL.—Ex- hibits of Sunday-school material began with the work of the New York Sunday School Commission in 1900. Before that time, all Sunday-school exhibits partook of the nature of professional trade dis- plays, where space was sublet to various denominational publishers in connection with Sunday-school conventions and insti- tutes. The New York Sunday School Commission opened an exhibit in connec- tion with their Sunday School Convention of the Episcopal Church, at the Cathedral of New York city. This exhibit was ar- ranged by subjects without regard to pub- lishers. The Exhibit was mounted on regulation sized cards—each form, blank, lesson book, object, and device, etc., being tabulated according to its nature and use, so that visitors could select the articles best suited to their needs from more than 260 various publishers. This Exhibit then numbered about 3,000 pieces. It soon grew to 9,000 pieces and was exhibited, in toto, in Philadelphia, Pa., at a large Convention of the Religious Education Association (g. v.). The following year it had grown to 11,000 pieces and was exhibited at the Religious Education Association conven- tion in Boston, Mass. Subsequently, in 190%, this Exhibit of 19,000 pieces was displayed for two months in Richmond, Exhibits Va.; and, in 1910 (numbering then 26,- 000 pieces), in Cincinnati, Ohio. It was also shown for a month in Teachers Col- lege, Columbia University, New York city. This Exhibit has established a stand- ard for Sunday-school exhibits of this type. The Religious Education Associa- tion has exhibits of this kind now to which publishers send review material, realizing that it will be displayed and will stand or fall on its merits. The exhibit goes into its own place in the gen- eral tabulation of materials. The Rev. Franklin P. Elmer, of the Religious Education Association, has an extensive exhibit of several thousand pieces which is on permanent display in Poughkeepsie, N. Y., and has been shown at various centers. Many similar exhibits exist, such as exhibits in various dioceses of the Episcopal Church (notably west- ern Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Chi- cago, Ill.; Richmond, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Cal., etc.), which are displayed at local conventions, It has become quite the custom to gather small exhibits of several hun- dred or a thousand necessary articles of the best type, to be displayed at local conventions in leading centers. (See S. 8. Council of Evangelical Denomina- tions.) The New York Exhibit, which is on permanent display at the Episcopal headquarters, 73 Fifth avenue, New York city, now numbers nearly 29,000 pieces, and is visited annually by more than 30,- 000 persons. Such exhibits go a great way toward forming public opinion along the line of advanced ideals, for the best materials are now placed in conspicuous display and, if catalogued, are starred to indicate their higher quality. ‘There are nearly 350 publishing houses in the United States, Canada and England, which are drawn upon for material of religious education—all of high quality. The plan of exhibiting all articles, and yet emphasizing the best, has during the past few years resulted in the elimination of several thousand articles of the poorer sort. (See Library, The S. 8.) W. W. SMITH. “Up Through Childhood” is the title of an exhibit of religious education pre- pared by the Educational Department of the Congregational Sunday School and 394 Ex-Scholars Committee Publishing Society, Boston, Mass., for the meeting of the National Council at Kansas City, Mo., in 1913. The exhibit consists of sixty screens, each three feet by six in — size, and each relating to a distinct group of ages or a specific type of educational activity. It attempts to set forth by means of photographs: 1. Child life as tt really is, revealing spontaneous interests and activities. 2. Tendencies of develop- ment, both good and bad, suggesting the need and the method of religious educa- tion. 3. The materials and processes of education in religion, as illustrated in the home, in Sunday school, on the play- ground, in clubs and camps, in mission study classes, in the church service of worship, in the recreation center, the Y. M. C. A., the Young People’s society, etc. 4. Some results of religious educa- tion, as evident in the daily life and activ- ities, and even in the facial expression of boys and girls. 5. The urgent need of comprehensive planning by the churches for an intensive and thoroughly effective work in religious education. The exhibit is intended to be suggestive to parents and teachers, and other persons engaged in or interested in any form of religious or moral education. The mate- rials included in this exhibit are over one hundred and fifty photographs, showing children and youth of both sexes and all ages, engaged in a great variety of activ- ities and occupations, all of which have some bearing, for good or ill, upon their moral and religious life. Facts tersely expressed, interpreting the significance of the pictures. Charts, giving valuable con- clusions from extensive investigations. Summaries of available lesson courses, equipment and methods for use in reli- gious education. In addition to the screens, lesson material, leaflets, books, furniture, and equipment appropriate for use with the ages represented are also ex- hibited. EXPRESSIONAL ACTIVITIES.—Srr ACTIVITY AND ITs PLACE IN RELIGIOUS EpucaTION ; CURRICULUM FOR RELIGIOUS InstrucTION; SocraL ASPECTS OF RELI- gious AND Moran EpucaTion; SocraL SERVICE AND THE S. S. EX-SCHOLARS EMPLOYMENT COM- MITTEE (ENGLAND).—The care of the Ex-Scholars Committee child is, or should be, the nation’s chief concern. ‘The nation of to-morrow de- pends upon the child of to-day. Un- less the child is well cared for and care- fully trained, the nation’s greatness will soon be “one with Nineveh and Tyre.” As wealth accumulates there is, perhaps, a natural tendency for society to become decadent and for ease and luxury to lapse into sensuality and to take the place of that strenuous endeavor which made the nation great. The nation that cares for its future will care for its children—for their environment and their education. The critical years of life are from four- teen to seventeen with boys, and, perhaps, a year earlier with girls. It often appears, however, that care and insight are lack- ing just when most needed. (See Adoles- cence and its Significance; Boy, Problem of Training the.) Continuation schools and other voluntary agencies are provided ; but those needing them most are least likely to be attracted by them. The Brit- ish Government, through its Board of Education, has now made itself responsi- ble in a measure for the “after care” of its boys and girls; though, so far, the legislation has only been permissive, it is much that the principle has been recog- nized, and more legislation must surely follow. Local authorities are now form- ing “after care” committees in association with the Education Committee and the Board of Trade through the Labor Ex- change. These “after care’ committees select a number of ladies and gentlemen who are specially interested in the welfare of young people, who when a child leaves school undertake to see both the child and the parents with a view to make sure that the situation, if obtained, is a suitable one, and not one of the “blind-alley” class. If no place has been found for the child, advice and help are proffered, and in addition, the helper undertakes to keep in touch with the child, and to report prog- ress from time to time during the critical period of the young worker’s life. The need for sympathetic oversight is very great. It is estimated that the education which a boy receives at school costs the com- munity one hundred pounds, but the ques- tion is “What shall he do with it?” because, in far too many cases he seems anxious to be rid of the burden as soon 395 Ex-Scholars Committee as possible, and the one thought of the parents seems to be to put the child into some employment which appears to promise an immediate monetary return, without any thought as to whether the em- ployment is likely to be permanent or temporary, whether it will lead to a future of promise, or is of that type which will leave the lad of sixteen. or seventeen with- out any power to earn a living, and who be- comes a source of weakness rather than of strength to the country, and a menace rather than a safeguard to its security. The English nation has at last awakened to the situation. The scheme of work in a large Midland town will illustrate the way in which the Ex-Scholars Committee proceeds. A cen- tral Committee is formed by the union of members and officials of the Education Committee, with the officials of the Ju- venile Labor Exchange; the selection of a number of ladies and gentlemen represent- ing various organizations responsible for the care of young people, such as the Sun- day School Union, Boys’ Brigade, Boy Scouts, Girl Guides, and the like, the head- masters and mistresses of most of the elementary schools of the town, the em- ployers of labor and employees who are represented by members of various trade unions. The Committee meets quarterly and discusses various matters of general interest in connection with juvenile em- ployment. A smaller Executive Commit- tee consisting of twenty-one members meets every month, The town is mapped out into twenty- one areas. In each area the number of ele- mentary pupils in attendance at the in- cluded schools is as nearly equal as pos- sible. In connection with each district a District Committee is formed with a mem- ber of the Executive as Chairman. The headmaster of each elementary school sends to the Labor Exchange a list of the children leaving the school, supplying par- ticulars as to the child’s character, intelli- gence and home influences. The names are in three classes: “A” needs little or no oversight ; “B” needs some oversight; “C” needs much oversight. The children are seen by some members of the District Committee, and among the questions asked are: “Do you attend any Sunday school? or Boys’ Brigade?” “Are you a Boy Scout?” The answer is usually the name Extension Work of some Sunday school, whereupon the in- formation is sent through the Sunday School Union to the teacher in that school in whose class the boy happens to be, and the teacher is asked to become the boy’s “helper” and to keep in touch with him during the adolescent years, and from time to time to report the boy’s progress to the Labor Exchange. It is part of the “help- er’s” duty to encourage the boy to attend some evening school, or the Technical or Art School, as the needs of his work de- mand, and also to apply to the Labor Ex- change should a change of position be de- sirable. The bearing of this important work upon that of the Sunday school is appar- ent. It is a personal gain to the Sunday- school teacher to have a definite piece of work to do on behalf of any of his pupils in order to bring him into contact with them during the week, as they meet for so short a time on Sunday. “The waste in the teacher’s workshop is the lives of men” was written of day school teaching, but may be applied also to the teaching in the Sunday school. The enormous waste in the Sunday school is well known and deplored and any plan is welcomed that promises to reduce the loss. Let the boy feel that the teacher has a real interest in his welfare outside of the Sunday school, and much will be done to establish sympathetic and helpful rela- tions between the Sunday-school teacher and the pupil. This will tend to the solu- tion of a great national problem, and will help onward the Kingdom of God. G. C. TuRNER. EXTENSION WORK IN BIBLE STUDY.—Sre American INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE; BIBLICAL INSTRUC- TION BY CORRESPONDENCE; RELIGIOUS PEDAGOGY IN COLLEGES AND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES; UNIvErsIty EXTENSION Lectures For 8. 8. TreacHers; Y. M. GC. A. anp THE’ §.'8.: Yo Wy 0.’ AL ann BIBLE STUDY. EXTRA-BIBLICAL STUDIES.—In con- sidering a proposal for extra-Biblical studies four questions need to be dealt with—First, the question of the rightness, desirability and wisdom of introducing such studies at all into Sunday schools and Bible classes, If that question is 396 Extra-Biblical Studies answered in the negative nothing more can be said on the subject. If, however, we are justified in the attempt, we have to ask in the second place what these studies should be. Thirdly, there is the question of their distribution among the different grades of the school. Fourthly, the ques- tion of ways and means; how is the req- uisite information to be obtained and communicated ? 1. The question of rightness, desirability and wisdom. If there were a proposal to depose the Bible from its supreme place as the head and fountain of Christian teaching there could be no doubt how this -should be dealt with. It would be treason to the Gospel message which is intrusted to the churches. To say that the wealth of truth contained in the Bible is ex- hausted, that we have learned all it has to tell us, would be almost equally wrong, for its riches are unfathomable. This being taken for granted, is it right and wise to introduce occasionally any subjects drawn from some other sources? To deny that it is right would seem to de- preciate nature, history, and human life generally. It would be an approach to the ancient Manichean heresy. For it would not only mean that we can find God’s truth adequately in the Bible, it would imply that we could not find it at all anywhere else, which would suggest that we live in a God-deserted universe, or at least that God never speaks through nature or human lives, that all is dark as midnight except for that one brilliant luminary the Bible. To say this, is to ignore “the light that lighteth every man” and to dishonor the revelations of creation and history. But while it may be right to look for traces of the Creator in his works and to see his hand in human history, is it wise and desirable to turn aside occa- sionally from the Bible for such studies in class teaching? ‘To this question two an- swers may be given. First, it is done © already. Most churches and schools do have lessons on some extra-Biblical sub- jects. There are temperance lessons and missionary lessons. Most Bible class pro- grams also contain titles of biographical, historical, sociological, ethical, and theo- logical subjects taken from extra-Biblical sources. It is not the initiation of the policy therefore which is under consider- ation, but the direction and regulation of Extra-Biblical Studies it. Hitherto it has been too haphazard; adopted here, ignored there. In the second place, good reasons may be brought forward for giving this branch ' of teaching a definite, recognized place ‘in the curriculum of Sunday schools and Bible classes—(1) For the sake of variety and novelty, and the interest it awakens. The Bible itself may come to the class as a fresher book if it is not always in the teacher’s hands. (2) To give breadth and richness to the teaching. (3) To illustrate and apply the truths of religion. The danger is that the religion of the Bible should be regarded as something remote from and alien to every-day life. Illus- trations of Christian truth in the common scenes of the world help to counteract that mistake. (4) To acknowledge the pres- ence of God in the whole world and throughout all time. A purely Biblical course may leave the impression that the Christian faith is altogether Palestinian and ancient. These other lessons should show it to be of universal application and for all ages. 2. The Subjects of extra-Biblical Studies. If God is in the whole world and in all its life, inspiring all things good and true, one might assume that no sub- ject should be excluded, that every con- ceivable subject has its religious aspect or its ethical bearings on life and conduct. There are some subjects, however, that lend themselves more readily than others to Christian teaching. (1) Nature Study. Our Lord’s parables offer the finest ex- amples of this branch of study. He bade us consider the lilies, ravens, sheep, spar- rows, dogs, swine, asses, oxen, foxes, wheat, tares, mustard, leaven, vines, and fig trees—all came into His teaching. Natural theology is not the same to-day that it was before the rise of the doctrine of evolution. But in his Ascent of Man Professor Drummond showed how every doctrine might lead on to an enriched conception of God’s plans and purposes in his government of the world. (2) Hts- tory. Formerly a sharp line was drawn between sacred and profane history. The history of the Jews was sacred ; the history of the Greeks, Romans, and all other peoples was profane,, that is to say, not sacred, but purely secular. We are now coming to see that God is in all the world’s history. His hand was recognized in the 397 Extra-Biblical Studies history of Israel because that history was written by inspired prophets; it has been scarcely seen in our national story because this story has not been written by inspired prophets. If Isaiah had been the author of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, we should have had something very different from Gibbon’s brilliant but scofing work. (3) Biography. Next to the Bible perhaps there are no books more worthy of study for the spiritual profit we may derive from them than well written biographical works. (See Biog- raphy, Place of, in Religious Education.) The lives of great and good men are in- spirations for our humble lives. 'T'o take the life stories of Charles Kingsley, Lord Shaftesbury, Norman McLeod, Frederic William Robertson, Henry Drummond (qg. v.) or of one of the missionaries— David Livingstone, Mackay of Uganda, Paton—is to have the subject for a most inspiring lesson. (4) Missions. These come into the lives of the missionaries. But they can also be studied in their sev- eral fields. How thrilling is the story of the martyr church in Madagascar, or the romance of the South Seas! How sad the African tale! How inspiring the pic- ture of awakened China! (5) Social problems.. These are pressing to-day with urgent insistency. One cannot ignore them ; one should not wish to ignore them. Here may be seen applied Christianity. The subject is most difficult and it re- quires to be in the hands of a strong teacher. The leader of an adult Bible class once complained that, no matter what subject he introduced, the conversa- tion always drifted into a discussion of socialism. What he required was a suffi- cient command of his class to make the members see that fundamental religious and moral principles rather than debat- able economic plans were the right topics for the occasion. (6) Hthical questions. These are closely connected with the fore- going group. But some of them have dis- tinctive characters of their own, such as the questions of temperance, gambling, personal purity, business honesty, family duties, duties of service to one’s neighbors, the town, the state. (7) Religious prob- lems. These are generally difficult. They call for the best and most highly educated teachers. But they demand to be faced devoutly, intelligently, frankly, fearlessly. Extra-Biblical Studies There are the questions of the inspiration of the Bible, the literary history of the Bible, the divinity of Jesus Christ; what His redemption of the world really is; the Christian life; the future beyond death; and many other theological problems. These matters lead back to the Bible again, for it is the Bible that throws the clearest light on them. Still, they, need not be approached in a directly Biblical way. They may be taken up as definite, concrete problems, each of them being re- garded in all its relations, and so discussed as great religious themes, not merely as texts of Scripture. 3. The Distribution of these Subjects. The introduction of extra-Biblical sub- jects pre-supposes the grading of the schools. It is simply impossible without that arrangement. The difficulty of teach- ing a uniform series of Bible lessons throughout the whole school is serious enough; all enlightened educators are now convinced that it should be abandoned, and that separate Bible lessons severally adapted to the different mental capacities of the pupils of different ages should be substituted for the mechanical system of the old International Lessons. But when one considers such subjects as have just been enumerated the necessity of grading becomes quite obvious. Some of these subjects would be above the grasp of young children, and yet these are the very subjects that might best awaken and re- tain the interest of older students, and prove most profitable to them. The selec- tion may be carried even further. Some subjects which now come well within the grasp of a group of educated young people would be absolutely unintelligible to pu- pils of the same age in the mission school of a down-town church, or in a country village sleepily indifferent to the fierce problems that agitate life in the great centers of population. ‘Then there are questions most suitable for young men’s classes, others that would be more useful for classes of young women. Therefore, extra-Biblical subjects should be divided into different groups and assigned sever- ally to different classes of pupils. I. Primary Department. In the Pri- mary Department the nature studies are already acclimatized. There is a charm and freshness about them that wonder- fully brightens up the whole teaching, in 398 Extra-Biblical Studies striking contrast to the monotony of the old infant class method. A caution on this point, however, seems to be called for. There is some danger lest these nature studies should be pursued too much on their own account. No doubt they are good in themselves. It is a most excellent thing for a child to come to observe and love the many beautiful and wonderful objects he sees in the world around him. The study is wholesome, enlarging, and elevating. Young children instinctively love natural history when it is wisely in- troduced to them. (See Nature Study in the 8. 8.) Nevertheless, good as this is, the end and aim of the Sunday school is not merely to rear up a race of young naturalists. The teacher must be care- ful to show how all the beauty and wonder of nature lead up to God its maker, sus- tainer, very life; how, as Wordsworth found when he was but a boy, “there is a Spirit in the woods,” and that Spirit no other than God Himself, our Father. Simple stories necessarily come into the teaching of the Primary Department. The Bible stories are the best, but there is room for some stories from every-day life. It is well to have stories of what has really happened, rather than silly arti- ficial anecdotes—poor stuff not worthy of a child’s keen memory. But some fairy tales, notably the tales of Hans Ander- sen, truly religious in spirit and character, as so many of them are, may well have a place in the lessons of the Primary pupils. (See Primary Department; Stories and Story-Telling. ) II. Junior Department. Nature stud- ies and stories may still go on for the young children in this department, for they are still in the imaginative stage, loving to visualize. But now there is more opportunity for simple explanations of natural process with indications of God’s purposes in them—the uses of light and darkness, cold and heat, rain and wind, as signs of God’s goodness and also as parables of what God does in our lives and in what we call religion. But prob- ably nature studies should be used more sparingly in this department than in the Primary. Now is the time for the story. Nearly all the Bible stories can be used at this stage. (See Bible Stories for Chil- dren.) This will not leave room for much else, for they should have the first Extra-Biblical Studies place; nothing should be allowed to super- sede them, yet there may be room for some other stories. Deeds of heroism at sea, in a fire, and in other scenes of peril, culled from the newspaper, as well as striking events in history, may have a place here. Let them always be elevating and inspir- ing stories, never tales of wickedness or meanness even though these latter might be introduced for warning and as deter- rents. Very young children should be spared all sights and thoughts of evil. Let their fresh young fancy play only with things good and true and beautiful. Hang only the arras of strong chivalry in their chambers of imagery. (See Junior Department. ) ITI. Intermediate Department. Here the boys and girls are interested in con- crete facts. It is the place for lessons in history presented as biography. The con- secutive Bible history can now be learned. There is no time for adding consecutive English or other national history, nor is the Sunday school the place for that. But great historical scenes may be introduced —such as the legend of King Arthur, the work of Alfred the Great, who is worthy of a better memory than that of the spoiled cakes, the stories of Wycliffe, Luther (q. v.), the Reformation gener- ally ; the heroic fight for religious liberty ; the story of the abolition of slavery in the British possessions and in the United States, under Livingstone and in the Congo Valley. (See Intermediate De- partment. ) IV. The Senior Department. Is is here that the widest scope for extra-Biblical subjects should be found. If the teaching of the earlier years has been efficient a good general knowledge of the Bible should be assumed. (See Standards of Biblical Knowledge in the 8. 8.) Now is the time for applying that knowledge and the truths it contains. Historical, biograph- ical, and missionary subjects may well be treated; it may be possible to advance with Senior students beyond the mere concrete facts to questions of cause and principle—as for instance, the signifi- cance of the life of St. Francis and the Coming of the Friars; the influences leading to the Reformation and its effect on Europe; the origin and rise of the various Free Church denominations; the effects produced by leading lights in the 399 Extra-Biblical Studies religious world such as John Wycliffe, John Knox (g. v.), Richard Baxter, George Fox, John Wesley (gq. v.). In this department the great sociological and ethical problems may be profitably dis- cussed, if approached from a Christian standpoint. Perhaps it is among these subjects that the most vital discussions will be maintained. Lastly, questions of Biblical criticism, doubts and difficulties as to the faith, and popular objections to Christianity may be met. But here again a caution is necessary. It is easier to state difficulties than to answer them. An indiscreet teacher may even suggest un- dreamed of doubts to simple souls. The wiser course is to go on the positive line and show the sure foundations of faith. (See Senior Department.) V. The Question of Ways and Means. How is this extra-Biblical study to be con- ducted? It is by no means easy. Three requisites may be considered: (1) The Necessity of Teacher-training. Obviously most of the subjects referred to above are only available for capable teach- ers. The introduction of them contains a call for the best educated men and wo- men to take up the difficult but honor- able work of senior class teaching. For the rest the minister may superintend the preparation of the special lessons, meeting the teachers who are to take them for pri- vate preliminary study; or some member of the congregation may be found able and willing to take up this work. (2) The Method of the Study Circle. For these subjects the ordinary class method of teaching by one person and learning by all the others—never the best method—may well be superseded by the study circle method of common research. Let every member of the class do his part in collecting information or in contribut- ing ideas, preparing and reading short papers and discussing them, under the guidance of the teacher. This is espe- cially the method for seniors. But even junior pupils can do much more than is usually expected of them. (3) The Use of Inbraries. The school library should have a reference depart- ment well stocked with books containing information on the subjects indicated for class study. (See Library, 8. 8S.) In most towns there are free libraries to which both teachers and pupils can resort, It Extra-Biblical Studies 400 Extra-Biblical Studies would be well if the committees of these libraries would see that they were supplied with books likely to be needed in the newer and more extensive schemes of Sunday- school work. The local Sunday School Unions might take up the question. They should have sufficient influence in their own localities to induce the library com- mittees to obtain what is needed. W. F. 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