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BULLETIN NO. 23 
 
 BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 
 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 
 
 TEACHERS' DIFFICULTIES IN READING 
 AND THEIR CORRECTIVES 
 
 By 
 
 Ruth Streitz 
 
 Formerly Associate, Bureau of Educational Research 
 
 PRICE 30 CENTS 
 
 rUBMSHHD BY THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA 
 
 1925 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Introductory Statement 5 
 
 Chapter I. Introduction 7 
 
 Teacher difficulties versus pupil difficulties 7 
 
 Purpose, plan, and limitations of present investigation 7 
 
 Plan of the report 8 
 
 Chapter II. Miscellaneous Questions Relating to the 
 
 Teaching of Reading 9 
 
 1. Use of script or print in beginning reading classes 9 
 
 2. Memorization of material 10 
 
 3. Parental aid in reading 11 
 
 4. Criteria for selection of supplementary material 11 
 
 Chapter III. General Difficulties Encountered in the 
 
 Teaching of Reading 13 
 
 1. Development of interest in reading 13 
 
 2. Enlargment of fundamental experiences 14 
 
 3. Provision for individual differences 14 
 
 4. Enabling pupils "to see" words 15 
 
 5. Acquisition of an adequate vocabulary 16 
 
 6. Pupil's understanding of assignments 17 
 
 7. Use of the dictionary 18 
 
 Chapter IV. Difficulties Encountered in Teaching Oral 
 
 Reading 19 
 
 8. Interest in phonics 19 
 
 9. Development of a reading mechanism 21 
 
 10. Skill in the use of flash cards 22 
 
 11. Carelessness in pronunciation 22 
 
12. Poor enunciation 23 
 
 13. Phrasing 24 
 
 14. Speech defects 24 
 
 15. Expression in reading 26 
 
 16. Appreciation in reading 26 
 
 17. Method of teaching poetry 27 
 
 Chapter V. Difficulties Encountered in Silent Reading. 29 
 
 18. Fluency in recognition of words and phrases 29 | 
 
 19. Increasing span of recognition 30 , 
 
 20. Supplementary material 30 
 
 21. Difficult and inappropriate selections 31 : 
 
 22. Silent reading in the primary grades 32 ■ 
 
 23. Comprehension of material 32 
 
 24. Recognition of difficult words 33 
 
 25. Elimination of lip movement 34 i 
 
 26. Rate in silent reading 34 i 
 
INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT 
 
 This bulletin reports the results of an attempt to collect diffi- 
 culties which teachers encounter in the teaching of reading and to 
 formulate correctives for these difficulties. As in the case of a similar 
 investigation in the field of arithmetic, Miss Streitz found that 
 teachers have not analyzed their experiences so that they are con- 
 scious of their difficulties. This condition constitutes the limitations 
 of an investigation of this type and affords a significant criticism of 
 the efficiency of our present teachers. It is hoped that the investiga- 
 tion, even though it has not proved highly successful with reference 
 to identifying difficulties in teaching reading and to providing cor- 
 rectives, may stimulate teachers to analyze their experiences and 
 thereby lay the foundation for improving their instructional pro- 
 cedures. 
 
 This report, as many others issued by the Bureau of Educational 
 Research, represents the cooperation of a large number of teachers 
 and superintendents in Illinois. To all who have contributed we 
 gratefully acknowledge our indebtedness. 
 
 Walter S. Monroe, Director 
 Bureau of Educational Research. 
 February 10, 1925 
 
TEACHERS' DIFFICULTIES IN READING 
 AND THEIR CORRECTIVES 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Teacher difficulties versus pupil difficulties. The teacher's 
 task is to stimulate and direct the pupil in his learning. In assisting 
 the pupil to overcome a particular difficulty which, as a learner, he 
 may have encountered, the teacher may or may not meet with diffi- 
 culties also. Her difficulty although related to the pupil's is not 
 identical with it. In addition, the teacher because of the general 
 conduct of her class may have to contend with obstacles which have 
 no counterpart in the experiences of the pupils. 
 
 Purpose of the investigation. The first purpose of the investi- 
 gation reported in this bulletin was the compilation of a list of the 
 specific difficulties that teachers are actually encountering in the 
 field of reading. The second purpose was the formulation of one or 
 more proven correctives for each difficulty. Wherever possible these 
 correctives have been restricted to those methods and devices which, 
 the writer found, were being used successfully by teachers but, as 
 the number of such correctiVes was far from adequate, books on the 
 teaching of reading and other sources were utilized. 
 
 Plan of investigation. During the school year of 1921-22, a 
 request was addressed to the superintendents of city school systems 
 in Illinois asking them to invite their teachers to report specific 
 difficulties which they were encountering in the field of reading. 
 The responses to this invitation furnished a tentative list of diffi- 
 culties. The second step in the investigation was a visit by the writer 
 to a number of school systems for the purpose of observing the teach- 
 ing of reading, of interviewing teachers in regard to their specific 
 difficulties, and of seeking correctives for the various specific diffi- 
 culties listed. In most instances the investigator asked the superin- 
 tendent to direct her to his most successful teachers of reading, some 
 of whom were willing to demonstrate their teaching of a particular 
 topic even though it was not a part of the regular work. Books and 
 articles dealing with the methods of teaching reading were consulted 
 also in order to become more familiar with the general principles 
 
 k 
 
 [7] 
 
of teaching reading and of securing additional devices for correcting 
 specific difficulties. 
 
 Limitations of the investigation. The one outstanding limitation 
 of the investigation was the inability of teachers to analyze and define 
 their difficulties. Many teachers even asserted that they experienced 
 no difficulties in teaching reading; others were able to mention only 
 difficulties in general terms, some of which applied more to classroom 
 management than to the teaching of reading. 
 
 Relatively few correctives were secured from the teachers. It 
 was necessary, therefore, for the writer to formulate most of the cor- 
 rectives given in the following chapters. No attempt was made to 
 bring together a complete list of correctives for each difficulty nor 
 have those listed been tested experimentally but they are believed 
 to be in agreement with generally accepted principles. 
 
 Plan of the report. In Chapter II of this bulletin, certain ques- 
 tions, which are connected with reading but which cannot be regarded 
 as problems requiring reflective thinking for solution, are discussed. 
 Chapter III presents general difficulties in the field of reading which 
 do not apply specifically to either oral or silent reading. Chapters 
 IV and V, respectively, deal with problems encountered in the teach- 
 ing of oral and of silent reading. In each of these three chapters, the 
 "difficulty" first is definitely stated and usually is explained briefly, 
 the "correctives," are then given, describing methods of dealing with 
 the particular difficulty. 
 
 [8] 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS RELATING TO 
 THE TEACHING OF READING 
 
 Question 1. Shall script or print^ be used in presenting words to a 
 beginning reading class? 
 
 This question is asked frequently by teachers in the first grade. 
 The symbols presented at the blackboard and on the flash cards may 
 be in the form of print or script and the question arises as to which 
 results in the most economical learning. The advocates of the use of 
 print maintain that it makes the learning of word symbols easier 
 than script and that, after children have acquired some facility in 
 recognizing words expressed by the symbols employed in printing, 
 they can form the new associations necessary for the words presented 
 in script within a period of ten days or two weeks. There are, how- 
 ever, some drawbacks to the use of print at the board and on cards 
 constructed by the teacher. In the first place the printing is not iden- 
 tical with that in books and the child therefore is required to learn 
 three sets of symbols — the printing of the teacher, the printing in 
 books, and script. On the other hand if script is used, the child is 
 required to learn only two sets of symbols. 
 
 It is the writer's judgment that the teacher should keep in mind 
 the principles of economical learning and should use script in pre- 
 senting all work at the board and also in making flash cards, unless 
 she is provided with a good printing set which makes the print uni- 
 form in character. 
 
 Although many teachers are willing to grant the wisdom of 
 employing script, observation of first-grade reading reveals that in 
 actual practice there is a predominance in the use of print. Differ- 
 ences of opinion and of practice no doubt will continue so long as 
 teachers' manuals, in taking up the presentation of new words to a 
 beginning class in reading, state that the words may be presented in 
 either form. 
 
 '"Print" in this discussion refers to the printing done by the teacher. 
 
 [9] 
 
Question 2. What kind of material should be memorized and how 
 much memorizing should be done? 
 
 This question refers primarily to the teaching of poetry as there 
 is little or no memorizing of prose in the elementary school. Teachers 
 differ in regard to the kind of material which should be memorized. 
 Some are of the opinion that the poems most frequently found in 
 school readers should receive most attention, and often fail to take 
 into account the fact that many such selections are there by virtue 
 of tradition and are of little interest to the average child of that grade. 
 Foi example, Whittier's "Barefoot Boy" is generally taught in the 
 fifth grade and yet is not a child's but an adult's poem. The title 
 probably is the only part of the selection which appeals to the average 
 child. 
 
 Other teachers think that certain poems should be memorized 
 and recited orally because the beauty of the rhythm will be enjoyed 
 at the time, and even though the meaning is not understood the 
 children in later life will be better able to appreciate the selection 
 because of their early school experience. Such poems as "Thanatop- 
 sis" and "The Chambered Nautilus," given in courses ot study as 
 required memory work for the eighth grade and sometimes for lower 
 grades, undoubtedly are selections taught for the rhythm and beauty 
 of the phraseology rather than for comprehension. 
 
 Still other teachers would restrict the poems lor memorization 
 to those which are within the child's interests and experiences. "My 
 Shadow," "The Swing," and "Rain" by Stevenson illustrate such 
 selections. Several satisfactory collections ot children's poems, which 
 comply with the principles underlying good literature and at the 
 same time fulfil the requirements for interesting young children, have 
 been prepared and may be secured by teachers in the primary grades. 
 There is a tendency, however, on the part of the makers of courses 
 of study to assign poems to the lowest grades for which they are 
 thought to be appropriate. Patriotic poems are often given very 
 young children to learn and other poems are likewise required in the 
 primary grades which better judgment might place in higher grades. 
 
 In addition to the differences of opinion regarding the types 
 of poems to be memorized, a lack of agreement exists among teachers 
 as to the amount of memorizing which the children are asked to do. 
 Some schools require from twelve to fifteen poems memorized during 
 the school year, others a much smaller number. In a recent investi- 
 
 [10] 
 
gation it was found that the average number of poems memorized 
 in each grade was six.- 
 
 Question 3. Should children be encouraged to seek aid from their 
 parents in learning to read?^ 
 
 The complaint frequently is made that when children in the 
 first grade take their readers home they are often retarded in their 
 progress because their parents endeavor to help them. Many parents 
 are unable to understand how a child can read without knowing the 
 letters separately and, when asked for help, proceed along the lines 
 by which they were taught. For example, the child does not know the 
 word "ground," and the parents instead of calling attention to its 
 meaning and to its similarity in sound and appearance to other words 
 with which the child is familiar, spell out each letter, g-r-o-u-n-d. 
 The child learns the word in this way, and in school the next day is 
 required to recognize "ground" instantly as a word whole. A certain 
 amount of contusion results, for habits that were formed must be 
 broken up and new ones made. The child has difficulty in adjusting 
 himself to both methods of teaching and the teacher is required to 
 spend more time and energy in reteaching than would have been 
 necessary had parental help not been given. Again, parents may not 
 take the trouble even to have the child recognize separate letters 
 but will tell the word, making no attempt to fix it clearly in his mind. 
 This procedure leaves him dependent upon others, robs him of his 
 own initiative and responsibility, retards his progress, and causes 
 him, when in school, to guess at words and wait for someone to come 
 to his assistance. 
 
 The practice of reading the story in the school reader to the child 
 is criticized also because it often leads to memorization without com- 
 prehension. When some children appear to read well, investigation 
 has shown that they did not comprehend the material at all but had 
 so perfectly memorized the passage from hearing it read that to the 
 casual observer they seemed to be reading. 
 
 Question 4. What are the criteria for selecting supplementary 
 
 reading material? 
 
 Without doubt, in selecting supplementary material, interest 
 should receive first consideration and an attempt made to determine 
 
 ^Bamesberger, Velda C. "Standard requirements for memorizing literary ma- 
 terial." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 17, No. 26, Bureau of Educational Re- 
 search Bulletin No. 3. Urbana, University of Illinois, 1920. 93 p. 
 
 'This question is especially applicable to the first grade. 
 
 [11] 
 
whether or not the material is such as to insure the proper cultivation 
 of interest. Nearly all children like to read but this desire can easily 
 be crushed it the selection is such that the reading becomes drudgery 
 rather than enjoyment. Many primary teachers favor folk tales and 
 nursery rhymes since they are immediately interesting and the 
 children do not tire of the natural repetitions in connection with 
 their lessons. 
 
 The second requirement is that of content value. Recently, 
 there has been a tendency in primers and first readers, to use accounts 
 of the activities or experiences of children. From such a simple 
 beginning an interest is developed which continues throughout a 
 series of lessons. The supplementary reading material should pro- 
 vide the pupils with usetul information as well as give them pleasure 
 and enjoyment. Instances have been reported where failure to learn 
 to read and also the formation of poor habits ot study were traced 
 directly to the meaningless types ot material found in the school 
 books. 
 
 The physical characteristics of the book also should be con- 
 sidered. Publishers now generally meet approved standards in the 
 matter of print; large-sized type being used in books tor very young 
 children and smaller type for those who are able to adjust their eyes 
 to a more limited space. No material should be selected for supple- 
 mentary reading unless the print is good. The general appearance of 
 the book also has much to do with the creation of interest. If it is 
 attractively illustrated, nicely arranged, has wide margins, large 
 letters, and paragraph divisions, the children undoubtedly will be 
 more interested because of these features. 
 
 [12] 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 GENERAL DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED IN THE 
 TEACHING OF READING ^ 
 
 Difficulty 1. How to develop an interest in reading. 
 
 Some teachers state that they have great difficulty in interesting 
 pupils in reading. This may be due to a number of causes. Perhaps 
 the pupils are already familiar with the selections to be read, the 
 reader may be too difficult or otherwise not suitable for children or 
 the method of teaching may tend to cultivate wrong habits and 
 attitudes. 
 
 Corrective. Usually children are interested in reading as soon 
 as they are provided with appropriate selections. Unfortunately 
 many reading texts include some selections too difficult for the grade 
 in which they are designed to be used. Others contain material in- 
 appropriate for children. On the other hand, some stories in primary 
 texts greatly underestimate the intelligence of six and seven-year- 
 old children. If the teacher has access to adequate supplementary 
 readers, a great deal can be accomplished by choosing appropriate 
 selections tor reading both in and out of class. 
 
 Lack ot interest in reading may be due to the use of faulty meth- 
 ods of teaching. Excessive drill which soon becomes deadening by 
 its monotony and repetition, forms the basis of many of the older 
 methods. The typical child is not interested in the mechanics of 
 reading, he is concerned rather with what he can do with reading. 
 Hence the newer methods take into account the child's experiences 
 and interests and secure drill through the reading of selections which 
 the children like. 
 
 ^The World Book Company has recently published a very unusual and Interesting 
 Series of "Picture Study Reading Lessons" by N. B. Smith and S. A. Courtis. In using 
 this material, the authors claim that the child's interest Is aroused through his study of 
 the pictures, that he is enabled from the beginning to use his reading as a tool in carry- 
 ing out his purposes, that he Is largely self-dependent, and that he progresses at his 
 own rate. In Series I, each child Is provided with a heavy envelope containing a large 
 pad of pictures, frames, cut-outs and directions, a dictionary in which the meaning of 
 the words is illustrated by pictures, and a pad of stories and covers for making his own 
 book. A Teacher's Manual accompanies the Series. 
 
 [13] 
 
Difficulty 2. How to enlarge the fundamental experiences of child-] 
 
 ren from which meaning is derived. 
 
 Many children come to school with a very meager background of 
 experience upon which they can draw in reading. Often their environ- 
 ment is more of a hindrance than a help in developing certain reading 
 habits. Such lack of opportunity for enrichment places a great 
 responsibility upon the teacher in bringing to these pupils sufficient 
 material to furnish the experiences necessary for a well-rounded 
 education. 
 
 Corrective. Second hand or vicarious experience may be secured 
 through reading. In this way the pupil observes the affairs of the 
 world, the types of people, their activities, the environment in which 
 they live and is able to see into the most remote parts of the earth 
 instead of being confined to the narrow limitations of his immediate 
 surroundings. Reading enables him to participate in the activities 
 of others, and for a time he experiences their lives even though the 
 historical period or geographical position may be remote. 
 
 In adult life, people read magazines and newspapers for the sheer 
 enjoyment of reading. They are not required to read for facts. They 
 read because they want to read. So in providing reading material for 
 children the teachers should keep in mind the enjoyment function. 
 Throughout the elementary school, books which deal with all types 
 of human experiences in all parts of the world should be selected. 
 Geography, history, biography, travel and science, simply and in- 
 terestingly written, contribute in enlarging the experiences of the 
 pupils and in developing the habit of reading for enjoyment. 
 Difficulty 3. How to provide for individual differences. 
 
 There are wide differences among children of a given age and 
 grade. These may be due to differences in native ability or to the 
 types of training which the children have secured or to their general 
 environment. It is not uncommon to find the fastest reader in the 
 class reading silently four times as fast as the slowest reader. The 
 slow pupil cannot read fast enough to keep up with the others and 
 becomes easily fatigued and easily discouraged. Yet these strong 
 and weak pupils frequently are grouped in the same class regardless 
 of ability. Especially in the lower and intermediate grades, where the 
 differences are most marked, does this problem of adapting class in- 
 struction to pupils of varying degrees of ability become serious. 
 
 Corrective. With reference to this situation, several teachers 
 expressed the opinion that if the requirement for entrance were based 
 
 [14] 
 
upon mental rather than upon chronological age, many of the reading 
 difficulties in the first grade would be eliminated. Although such 
 a requirement would enable the first-grade teacher to have a more 
 uniform group according to mental age, there would continue to be 
 individual differences in reading ability to cope with. 
 
 Many teachers have two divisions or sections in each room, 
 one being macie up of the stronger and the other of the weaker 
 pupils. In the first gracie perhaps two sections are sufficient, but 
 beginning with the second grade the pupils of a room may be divided 
 into two, three or four groups according to their capacities as de- 
 termined by standardized tests. In this way each group may be 
 given material of a difficulty suited to its ability and interest. If the 
 pupil is unusually backward in reading, his case should receive in- 
 dividual attention. 
 
 Using the results of standardized silent reading tests as the basis 
 for classification, pupils could be grouped in three sections designated 
 as A, B, and C. These groupings should be flexible so that whenever 
 the teacher thought best the pupil could be shifted easily to another 
 section. The teacher may arrange for the B and C sections to study 
 while the A section recites, or she may spend a portion of the time in 
 supervised study for all. One teacher of a second grade said that she 
 allowed a recitation period of ten minutes a day for the stronger 
 pupils and of fifteen or twenty minutes for the weaker ones. Some 
 days she even has two classes for the weaker ones and only one for the 
 stronger. In following a plan which groups pupils according to ability, 
 the stronger pupils should be given more work in connection with the 
 reading assignment than the poorer ones. 
 
 Difficulty 4. How to get pupils "to see" words. 
 
 Teachers in the primary grades report that, after they have spent 
 more than the allotted time in drilling upon certain words, some 
 children seem unable to recognize them and a few cannot even dis- 
 tinguish between the letters which make up a word. It might be 
 well to consider these questions — Do we recognize words by seeing 
 them letter by letter? What are the factors which make recognition 
 easier or more rapid? How may the child be trained in rapid recog- 
 nition? and so forth. 
 
 Corrective. A child's perception in reading depends in part upon 
 the methods by which he learns to read. If the alphabet method is 
 used, children undoubtedly notice the letters rather than the words. 
 However, experiments in reading seem to indicate that in beginning 
 
 [IS] 
 
instruction in reading, it is best to train the child to perceive in words 
 rather than in letters. 
 
 It is the business of the teacher to bring to the child's conscious- 
 ness at the appropriate time the details which make up words such 
 as, letters, syllables, prefixes and suffixes, etc., as any one of these 
 may be a unit of recognition under a particular circumstance. This 
 work should begin with the study of reading and should continue as 
 long as difficulty in the recognition of words is encountered. 
 
 The perception of a word cioes not as a rule take place through 
 a detailed seeing of the letters or of other syllables. After becoming 
 familiar with a word its recognition is obtained by means of "cues." 
 These cues are the dominant parts ot the word. For example, the 
 child may notice the consonants which extend above or below the line, 
 in such words as, /zome, plume, ^one; or he may notice the first halt 
 of the word as in Jfymg, and playing, which is more important in 
 perception than the latter halt. The smaller letters or vowels which 
 join other letters may help in bringing the word into consciousness. 
 Some readers see the word as a total word length or word form rather 
 than by noting a few particular dominant letter shapes. In presenting 
 new words the teacher should call attention to characteristic differ- 
 ences between letters and words. She should also vary the instruction 
 so that each member of the class is able to recognize the words ac- 
 cording to the system which he has developed. 
 
 Difficulty 5. How to enable the pupil to acquire an adequate vocabu- 
 lary. 
 
 Children, especially those who come from foreign homes, often 
 are deficient in a speaking as well as a reading vocabulary and it 
 becomes the teacher's task to provide them with experiences that 
 will engender new words. 
 
 Corrective. Since words should be studied in context, little 
 attention should be given to the learning of isolated new words. 
 Vocabulary develops largely through experience and not through the 
 use of the dictionary or the formal repetition of definitions. Each new 
 activity enlarges our vocabulary because it carries with it a list of 
 new words whose meanings must be understood. For example, golf 
 and tennis have vocabularies of their own, and automobiles and radios 
 have added new words with significant meanings. We learn to use 
 these words as an understanding of them is developed through con- 
 versation and reading. The understanding or meaning and the use of 
 
 [16] 
 
 I 
 
words or the language go together. They cannot be separated. 
 Through language we are able to understand the affairs of the world 
 about us, to participate in public opinion, to acquire technical vo- 
 cabularies as well as a large general vocabulary so necessary for every 
 well-rounded personality. 
 
 Language work, discussions, interpretations, conversations are 
 all excellent means of enlarging the vocabularies of children. The 
 teacher should keep in mind that in the development of a vocabulary 
 we do not mean the mere acquisition of words spelled correctly. 
 We refer to an adequate meaning vocabulary. 
 
 Difficulty 6. How to get pupils to understand assignments in reading. 
 
 The assignment in reading, particularly silent reading, should 
 involve one or more specific purposes rather than merely the general 
 purpose of reading certain pages in the text. At times the pupil may 
 be reading in order to secure information but in general he should have 
 as his objectives the acquisition of certain habits and skills essential 
 to fluent reading. 
 
 Corrective. Pupil's difficulties in understanding assignments 
 frequently are due to the methods used by the teacher. The assign- 
 ment should not be left until the last minutes of the period because 
 it is likely to be made hurriedly and the pupils fail to get a clear idea 
 of what they are to work for. The teacher should give as much at- 
 tention to assignments in reading as to those in arithmetic, geography, 
 language or history. 
 
 When new objectives are introduced, specific directions for the 
 preparation of the lesson should be given. Frequently it will be de- 
 sirable to have the pupils start the preparation of the lesson during 
 the class period. If the teacher wishes the pupils to read for the pur- 
 pose of securing information she may find it a good plan to dictate 
 a few questions based upon the selection. In this way the pupil is 
 given something definite to work for through his reading. However, 
 the teacher should take care to avoid making the pupils dependent 
 upon questions for their objectives in reading. 
 
 Having pupils understand the assignment is partly a matter of 
 training them in good methods of study. A pupil is likely to say that 
 he does not understand the assignment if he does not know how to 
 study it. Therefore the teacher, when making the assignment, should 
 give attention to the training in the methods of study which the 
 pupils will need in its preparation. 
 
 [17] 
 
Difficulty 7. How to teach children to use the dictionary. 
 
 Children find the use of the dictionary difficult because it is 
 treated as an incidental tool. Formerly, readers for the intermediate 
 grades contained lists of words with diacritical markings which were 
 given considerable emphasis. Our present readers generally do not 
 contain such word lists. Even in the teaching of spelling, authorities 
 have urged that diacritical marks be abolished. Consequently, 
 children come to the place in their school life where they must con- 
 sult the dictionary without having had any training either in its use 
 or in the interpretation of diacritical markings. Teachers should 
 recognize this fact and in teaching the use of the dictionary should 
 proceed as though their pupils had had no previous experience in 
 looking up the pronunciation and definition of unfamiliar words. 
 
 Corrective. In beginning the use of the dictionary the teacher 
 should give instruction first in finding words. Since memorization of 
 the alphabet is no longer considered as a prerequisite for learning to 
 read, pupils may not know the order of the letters. Hence they en- 
 counter difficulty in finding words in the dictionary. The teacher 
 should prepare a few lists of typical words and require her pupils to 
 practice finding them in the dictionary until they have acquired a 
 considerable degree of facility in such work. 
 
 Attention next should be directed to the diacritical markings . 
 which indicate the pronunciation of words. Training must be given 
 in the association of certain sounds with certain symbols. After the 
 pupils have been given this instruction the teacher may place on the t 
 blackboard the principal diacritical marks with a few illustrations of 
 each for use as reference throughout the year. 
 
 When several definitions are given for a word pupils often find 
 it difficult to select the correct one. One teacher stated that in such 
 a case she required her pupils to substitute the definition which they 
 think to be right in place of the unfamiliar word, and if the meaning 
 of the sentence is then clear, the correct definition evidently has been 
 selected. 
 
 [18] 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED IN TEACHING 
 ORAL READING 
 
 Difficulty 8. How to create and maintain an interest in phonics. 
 
 Although the majority of teachers favor some teaching of phon- 
 ics they are all agreed that such teaching is difficult and that children 
 must be stimulated constantly by every outside means that can be 
 devised by the resourceful teacher. Even then it may be hard to 
 maintain interest from day to day when the material itself has no 
 interesting features. 
 
 Corrective. The purpose of phonetic teaching is to enable pupils 
 to analyze unfamiliar words as a means of ascertaining their pro- 
 nunciation. This analysis should be introduced in special periods 
 after pupils have begun to note similarities and differences in the 
 words which they have learned in their reading exercises. If such 
 work is begun with the first reading lessons the pupils will probably 
 not be interested in the phonic study of words. ^ 
 
 In teaching phonics the following suggestions should be kept in 
 mind.- 
 
 1. Have the child's undivided attention. 
 
 2. Present the symbol, that is, a picture of the sound at the same 
 time the sound is given. 
 
 3. Perform actions, when symbol is shown, to fix the sound in 
 mind. 
 
 4. Play games to stimulate the interest of the children. 
 
 5. Do individual work entirely. 
 
 6. Insist upon the proper position of the organs of speech. 
 
 7. Work for speed but not at the expense of accuracy. 
 
 8. Put as much spirit into the phonetic exercises as in the read- 
 ing lesson. 
 
 'Gray, William S. "Principles of method in teaching reading, as derived from 
 scientific investigation," Eighteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study 
 of Education, Part II. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 
 1919, p. 32-34. 
 
 ^Watkins, Emma. How to Teach Silent Reading to Beginners. Philadelphia: 
 J. B. Lippincott and Company, 1922, p. 127. 
 
 I 
 
 [19] 
 
Some children are interested in rhyming words and in finding 
 words similar in beginnings. The first-grade teacher can use this 
 interest to good advantage by encouraging her pupils to look for such 
 classes of words. A list may be placed on the blackboard and added 
 to by volunteer contributions of the children. 
 
 Several teachers expressed the wish for advice in teaching the 
 sounds and combinations of letters. A difference of opinion exists 
 in regard to attaching the vowel to the consonants of short words. 
 Should you attach the vowel to the final consonant as c-at, giving 
 the ''at" family, or to the initial consonant as ca-t. This latter view 
 is held by those who object to the "family" idea. One teacher whom 
 the writer observed was taking a middle ground and not emphasizing 
 either plan. As she sketched a picture of a house on the board she 
 talked to the children. "Now we will have the consonants go out for 
 a walk and meet the 'letter sounds.' Remember the consonants are 
 'brother sounds.' Little Miss* a' lives by herself. Brother 'h' comes 
 out and meets sister 'a.' Here comes brother 't' and they all take a 
 walk together (hat)." Then other letters were used and other words 
 developed. 
 
 Another plan of teaching the vowel sounds is to cut off the con- 
 sonants from short words. ^ A word table like the following placed 
 on the board illustrates how classes may be led to discover the short 
 sounds of vowels. Erase the final 
 
 cat met bit not cut 
 
 bat get fit got but 
 
 rat let hit hot rut 
 
 letter of the first column leaves ca, ba, ra, and then erasing the initial 
 letter leaves the short sound a. The next column when subjected to 
 the same treatment again leaves a short sound. In this way the 
 children are able to discover the short sounds of the vowels and are 
 told that these vowel sounds are called "short." Later the children 
 can be taught that sometimes the vowels are called "long" and they 
 should then be given a list of familiar words illustrating the "long" 
 sound. 
 
 Sounds may be derived by analyzing familiar words selected 
 from the reading lesson. Pupils should also be given many oppor- 
 tunities to decipher new or unfamiliar words as sufficient practice 
 given to this phase of the work will do much in overcoming inaccurate 
 
 ^Parker, S. C. Types of Teaching and Learning. Boston; Ginn and Company, 
 1923, p. 116. 
 
 [20] 
 
and halting reading. However, in order to secure an effective mastery 
 of phonetic elements a well organized system should be used. 
 Difficulty 9. How to develop a good oral reading mechanism. 
 
 In the enthusiasm for silent reading the teacher must not lose 
 sight of the necessity for training in fluent oral reading. For such 
 reading a good mechanism is required. The child must be able to 
 move his eyes properly, to pronounce words accurately and to give 
 appropriate emphasis and inflection to words and phrases. 
 
 Corrective. The pronunciation of words reverts to the matter 
 of phonic training. Time should be taken to stress such portions of 
 the word as seem to be causing difficulty. The attention of the pupil 
 should be called to the similarity between an unknown word and the 
 other words of which he knows the correct pronunciation. He should 
 then be required to "sound out" the unfamiliar word not once but 
 many times; and in order to establish the correct pronunciation, he 
 should be encouraged to use the troublesome word as often as possi- 
 ble in his speech. 
 
 One teacher was observed who placed a list of difficult words on 
 the board and told the pupils to look at them carefully and to be 
 sure all could be pronounced. If a child was uncertain about any 
 word he raised his hand and help was given him. In reviewing a 
 story the teacher may proceed as in a completion test, telling the 
 story but waiting for the children to supply certain words. The pupils 
 may pronounce these words individually or in unison. 
 
 The omission of words in oral reading is due often to too much 
 haste. The pupil skips over words in his endeavor to read rapidly. 
 In such a case he should be instructed to read more slowly so that 
 the class can hear each word or he may be told that the people in the 
 story are talking and he must therefore read just as they would ac- 
 tually talk if he could meet them outsicie the book. If a word is 
 omitted because the pupil does not know its meaning, the teacher 
 may come to the rescue with some familiar synonyms and enable the 
 pupil to overcome his difficulty. 
 
 If pupils fail to give attention to commas and periods, the teacher 
 may suggest that they read the sentence without any punctuation to 
 see if the meaning is as clear as it would be if pvmctuation marks were 
 observed. This offers an opportunity for the pupils to see the real 
 value or the necessity of punctuation. One fourth-grade teacher 
 suggested that in using periods and commas the children play that 
 
 [21] 
 
the period is a station, the comma a place where the train stops for 
 water, and that no mark at the end of the line means the train goes 
 right on. 
 
 DiflBculty 10. How to develop skill in the use of flash cards. 
 
 The use of flash cards while generally confined to the primary 
 grades has proven a very effective device for improving reading in the 
 intermediate grades. The teacher's technique in handling flash 
 cards is important since satisfactory results cannot be secured from 
 such exercises unless they are well administered. 
 
 Corrective. Flash card exercises are primarily speed exercises 
 and therefore the time element is not to be forgotten. Since the pur- 
 pose is to get a rapid automatic reaction to words or groups of words 
 the cards should be exposed only for a very short length of time. 
 A general rule is to expose word or phrase for less time than is re- 
 quired to pronounce it. 
 
 Holding the cards also is important. Teachers will undoubtedly 
 have systems of their own but they should keep in mind that a method i 
 which insures better exposure or easier manipulation is the one to 
 adopt. In any case the cards should be exposed only for a brief 
 period of time and then replaced in the pack. They should not be 
 given in a regular order as some pupils will rely upon the order rather 
 than upon recognizing the phrases. In holding the flash cards before 
 the group, one teacher held the card at the bottom edge, allowing 
 her fingers to be placed under the one word on the card which was 
 the essential word. For instance, in flashing "Run to the door" 
 her hand would be placed beneath run^ etc. Because of this simple 
 device, the children notice the position of the hand, which empha- 
 sizes the word, and are helped to remember. 
 
 Difficulty 11. How to correct carelessness in pronunciation. 
 
 What constitutes carelessness? We may say that a careless 
 reader is one who omits certain words or portions of words and mis- 
 pronounces many of the words with which he is familiar. Teachers 
 report that the and a7jd are often omitted, words with similar letters 
 such as saw and was are pronounced incorrectly, and numerous sub- 
 stitutions as so for as, this for // are made. In speech, parts of the 
 words are frequently dropped as the ing in going, coming, etc.; final 
 d's are not sounded as in played, and endings of/)' are slighted. Pre- 
 fixes are slighted occasionally but not so commonly as suffixes. 
 
 [22] 
 
Corrective. An oral vocabulary test should include a list of the 
 words most frequently mispronounced. If the pupil pronounces these 
 words accurately when isolated but fails upon them in context, it is 
 evident that the mistakes are due to carelessness. Most pupils when 
 cautioned to read more carefully will try to do better. The correct 
 pronunciation of words is secured by applying the principles of habit 
 formation. The making of errors is a fault which should be prevented 
 by the teacher, or if once made should be detected and corrected by 
 proper exercises and drills. The prevention and detection of these 
 errors requires constant vigilance but nagging which so often accom- 
 panies corrections must be avoided. Positive practice should be 
 given words with endings that are frequently clipped off. No ex- 
 ceptions should be permitted in the formation of habits, and incor- 
 rect forms always should be noticed and corrected. 
 
 The omission of words or letters may be due to defective eye- 
 sight. The portion of the letter which is boldly printed is seen while 
 the finer parts of the letter may be so indistinct that the pupil fails 
 to recognize the word as a whole. In such a case, the corrective is 
 outside of the teacher's sphere and the parent of the child or the 
 school nurse should be informed of his condition. 
 
 Meanings of words should be emphasized as a pupil rarely mis- 
 pronounces a word whose meaning he understancis. 
 
 Difficulty 12. How to get children to speak distinctly. 
 
 Some children speak distinctly on the playground and in con- 
 versation but fail to do so in reading. This may be due to shyness or 
 to insufficient experience in reading aloud. Children often start out 
 with a good tone of voice but before the passage is finished, their voices 
 have dropped so low as to be scarcely audible. It may be that the 
 pupil has forgotten that he is reading aloud; or he may be absorbed 
 in his effort to keep the place, recognize the words, etc. 
 
 Corrective. A motive for speaking correctly may be secured by 
 asking the pupil to read material that his audience has not read. 
 This procedure may be employed in the first grade, as soon as the 
 child has gained some facility in reading. In this way the child who 
 reads comes to a better understanding of the function of oral read- 
 ing, namely, to read something to another person in such a way that 
 he will grasp the meaning. 
 
 Some children tend to speak unnaturally, some even shouting, 
 in their attempts to read aloud. One teacher said that she found if 
 
 [23] 
 
she did not hold a book before her and if she stood some distance 
 from the children who were reading, a more natural tone of voice 
 was induced. Voices can be modified, and especially is this true with 
 pupils in the lower grades. Adhering to the principles of habit forma- 
 tion and always insisting upon well modulated voices will in time pro- 
 duce the desired results. Dramatization is an excellent device to use, 
 as the children generally know the story so well that in taking the 
 parts of the different characters in the book they speak easily and 
 naturally. A few teachers observed made use of the piano as a means 
 of placing the voice. 
 
 Difficulty 13. How to get children to phrase. ■ 
 
 Grouping words into thought units is commonly known as 
 phrasing. The failure to pronounce words in groups is due to the 
 fact that the children are handicapped by recognizing only one word 
 at a time. For example, when some children are confronted with the 
 phrase" crossing the road" they may read cross -ing-the -road instead of 
 swinging it or phrasing it as, crossing the road. 
 
 Corrective. Children should be trained to recognize words 
 rapidly enough to permit phrasing. It takes less time to sweep 
 through a group of words at a glance than to name each one singly. 
 Training on certain phrases found in the lesson should be given as a 
 means of aiding pupils to think in large meaningful units and thus 
 to become more rapid readers. Perception cards of phrases may be 
 used in this training. Sometimes the phrases may be named by the 
 whole class and sometimes by individual children and all drills should 
 be brisk and should last but a few minutes. Care should be exercised 
 not to have the phrases too long at first. Although phrase flashing is 
 more frequently employed in the lower grades it may be used to good 
 advantage in the intermediate grades and in ungraded rooms in in- 
 creasing the unit of recognition. 
 
 As has been stated in the correctives for Difficulty 3 and Diffi- 
 culty 4, providing an audience situation, insisting on correct practice 
 and permitting no exceptions will do much to get children to phrase 
 which in turn enables them to read more fluently. 
 
 Difficulty 14. How to correct speech defects. 
 
 The general term "speech defects" applies to those children who 
 stutter, lisp, possess monotonous voices and who are unable to give 
 the accepted sound for certain symbols. Foreign-born children and 
 
 [24] 
 
children from homes where a foreign language is spoken frequently 
 possesses certain types of "speech defects." 
 
 Corrective. Stuttering is perhaps the worst form of speech 
 defect. It is not a habit nor a disease but a symptom which may 
 result from several conditions. The child who stutters should be 
 given the opportunity to talk freely, although this is often hard to 
 do with our present school organization. However, in small classes 
 there is more opportunity for individual work and for individual pupils 
 to express themselves. 
 
 Adults are frequently at fault in being unable to control their 
 restlessness when a stutterer begins to talk. They often take the words 
 out of his mouth, with the result that he is humiliated and his nervous- 
 ness increased. He should be guided carefully in regard to possible 
 attacks of excitement and depression and above all he should be free 
 from nagging. 
 
 Rhythm is lacking in the stutterer's speech. In attempting to 
 correct this defect, breathing exercises, swimming, dancing, etc., 
 should be given to develop rhythm. Singing rhythmical tunes is 
 also suggested. The stutterer should be treated with consideration 
 and diplomacy often requiring the utmost patience. 
 
 The monotonous voice has the same effect in speech as in song 
 and is corrected only by means of long and continued exercise and 
 drill. Children whose reading is inclined to be monotonous because of 
 failure to vary pitch, emphasis and inflection should be worked with 
 alone so that the ear may be trained to distinguish between the right 
 and the wrong way until the defect is corrected. 
 
 Another group includes those who lisp and who cannot sound 
 J, z and //?; those who sound r for /; and the foreign-born who have 
 learned to sound out letters in their own tongue and seem unable to 
 make the transition to English. This is especially true of children 
 who have learned French or German as their original language. In 
 order to correct these defects the teacher should analyze the sounds 
 of the letters which cause difficulty. She should endeavor to teach 
 the child the correct position of the lips and tongue. Drill on trouble- 
 some vowels or consonants also should be emphasized. Primary 
 teachers often have to contend with indistinct speech or baby talk. 
 This frequently is due to the misplaced affection of parents and the 
 child may never be able to pronounce certain words. In addition to 
 the suggested methods for the school treatment of speech defects, 
 attention should be directed to deformities of the mouth, throat, 
 
 [25] 
 
I 
 
 or teeth as any one or a combination of these may produce impedi- 
 ments in speech. Often a slight operation or the removal of irregular 
 teeth is sufficient to correct the defect. 
 
 Difficulty 15. How to get children to read with more expression. 
 
 In recent years we have come to attach less importance to oral 
 reading but we should require children to read with sufficient ex- 
 pression to convey the meaning of simple prose and poetry. Expres- 
 sion involves emphasis, pitch, and inflection but inflection is perhaps 
 the most important. Monotonous reading involving absolute uni- 
 form pauses is the zero of expression. 
 
 Corrective. "Word calling" or" word reading" should be avoided 
 from the first. In the lower grades the pupils should be taught to 
 look through the whole of a short sentence before attempting to read 
 it orally and then read it as a whole or by groups of words. In reading 
 with proper expression the pupil groups words naturally into thought 
 units, and "word reading" is eliminated. Reading to the class tends 
 to improve the expression. If the child can be made to feel that he 
 has vital content to tell about and that the class is dependent upon 
 his reading in order to have a clear idea or picture of what is being 
 read, the expression invariably improves. 
 
 Difficulty 16. How to secure appreciation in reading. 
 
 It has been said by some authorities that the term appreciation 
 is too vague and loosely defined to be used and that in its place we \ 
 should substitute the worci "enjoyment.""* However, many of the 
 teachers used the term appreciation in asking the above question. 
 
 Corrective.^ Enjoyment depends in part upon comprehension. 
 In general, a child cannot enjoy a story unless he is able to compre- 
 hend it. Overemphasis upon comprehension, however, is fatal to 
 enjoyment. This is particularly true if the child is asked to halt his 
 reading and give attention to word analysis, or to other transactions 
 
 ^Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. Boston: Ginn and Company, 
 1920, p. 242. 
 
 ^The following suggestions for developing appreciation are taken directly from 
 Stone's Oral and Silent Reading, page 85. 
 
 1. "While an adequate knowledge is helpful toward appreciation, over-analysis 
 is fatal to emotional enjoyment. It is not necessary to knov/ the meaning of every word 
 in order to appreciate a piece of literature. It is better to determine the essential points 
 and let the rest pass. 
 
 2. "The best preparation for the teacher who feels that her teaching is inadequate 
 in those jihases of her work wliich involve appreciation is to plan to do what she can to 
 insure her own growth in this particular. Head more poetry and especially read it 
 with those who derive great pleasure therefrom if you wish to teach poetry better. The 
 spirit of emotional attitude must be caught rather than taught." 
 
which seem to him to have no relation to the understanding of the 
 story. It is not necessary to know the meaning of every word in order 
 to enjoy or appreciate a literary selection. When appreciation is 
 being emphasized it is better to allow a child to pass over some words 
 and phrases which he does not understand rather than to place too 
 much emphasis upon comprehension. 
 
 The teacher's appreciation of literature is a potent factor in 
 determining the extent of pupil appreciation. If a teacher does not 
 enjoy a poem she is greatly handicapped in getting her pupils to do 
 so. For this reason teachers should cultivate their own appreciation 
 for poetry and prose through extensive reading. "The spirit of emo- 
 tional attitude must be caught rather than taught." 
 
 Difficulty 17. How to teach poetry. 
 
 Teachers generally claim that the teaching of poetry is more 
 difficult than of prose. Perhaps a change in the method of teaching 
 poetry may help to overcome this difficulty. Too often both prose and 
 poetry have been taught by identical methods. 
 
 Corrective. The pupils' first impression of a poem should be 
 from hearing the selection read by the teacher, without their texts 
 before them. Such a procedure should be followed in the first five 
 or six grades and perhaps beyond in some instances.*' The value of 
 such a method is evident when one considers that the literary value 
 of a poem is mainly auditory. By means of effective oral reading 
 some teachers are able to introduce pupils to the enjoyment of reading 
 poetry for themselves. Studying the poem in preparation for the 
 recitation although frequently done is not advised. 
 
 The teaching of poetry is mainly to provide the pupils with a 
 means of increasing their profitable enjoyment of leisure. The 
 teacher would do well to keep this point of view in mind. She shoulci 
 also take stock of her own interests in order to transmit them to 
 others. The following items are considered important factors in the 
 teacher's equipment for such training.'^ 
 
 1. "A keen enjoyment of simple well-defined rhythms similar 
 to the enjoyment of rhythmic dancing or marching. 
 
 2. "Sympathy with the common human interest in adventure, 
 romance, humor, rhyme and jingle. 
 
 ^In the upper grades the pupils may get the idea of the poem by rapid silent read- 
 ing. 
 
 ^Parker, S. C. Tvpes of Teaching and Learning. Boston: Ginn and Company, 
 1923, p. 490. 
 
 [27] 
 
3. "Skill in full-toned rhythmic phrasing and oral reading of 
 poetic lines. 
 
 4. "Intimate knowledge of the varied enjoyment values to be 
 found in a few select poems adapted to her grade, plus specific skill 
 in reading these poems so as to impel the listener to experience these 
 values." 
 
 [28] 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED IN SILENT READING 
 
 Difficulty 18. How to train pupils to be fluent in the recognition of 
 words and phrases. 
 
 Fluent recognition of words and phrases as used here includes 
 the ability to associate them with their proper meanings. In recog- 
 nizing words the eyes are fixated on only a tew letters. A child must 
 spend years in practice before he can attain general facility in word 
 and phrase recognition which characterizes a good reader but he 
 can begin in primary grades the formation of reading habits which 
 will be of use to him later on. 
 B Corrective. One prerequisite for the fluent recognition of words 
 
 is the development of proper eye movement habits. The teacher 
 should watch the eyes of the pupil as he reads simple material and 
 notice how many regressive movements have been made per line. 
 A convenient method for doing this is to place a mirror on a stand in 
 front of the child's eyes so that their movements may be observed. 
 The eyes of a good reader move across the page with four to seven 
 evenly spaced fixations and there are no regressive movements' 
 When the child has to stop and spell out words it is evident that 
 proper eye movement has not been established. 
 
 Although drill in the recognition of words is necessary it can be 
 relieved of some of its monotonous features by the introduction of 
 various games. One teacher placed a series of words on the board and 
 turning to the group said "Who can catch these words?" As the 
 children gave the correct response the teacher quickly erased the 
 word. Another teacher who played this same "game" had the words 
 printed on card boards which were shaped like fish. As a child 
 "caught the fish" it was given to him and at the end of the period 
 each child counted the number he had caught. 
 
 Insufficient experience with words has been one of the chief 
 causes for a lack of fluency in recognition. New words must be taught 
 and the meaning of the word should receive especial attention. In 
 all grades above the primary a point should be made of teaching new 
 words together with their meanings, and the children should be en- 
 couraged to make use of the dictionary. Practice is required and a 
 
 [29] 
 
 I 
 
great deal of simple reading material should be available. The 
 amount of reading furnished by the average school reader is entirely 
 inadequate and therefore the teacher must secure supplementary 
 reading material from other sources in order to provide the necessary 
 practice which children need. 
 
 Difficulty 19. How to increase the span of recognition. 
 
 This difficulty is essentially included in the preceding one and 
 refers to the section of the printed line recognized at each fixation of 
 the eyes. A very small unit is frequently the cause for the slow rate 
 of silent reading and for the monotonous and ineffective voice of oral 
 reading. 
 
 Corrective. To aid pupils in increasing their span of recognition, 
 phrases printed on cards and presented in rapid flash card drill have 
 been found effective. At first short phrases should be used and 
 should be selected from the lessons which the pupils are studying. 
 As soon as they can recognize short phrases, longer and more difficult 
 ones should be used. 
 
 Sentences which cause difficulty may be written on the board 
 and read silently by the pupils. Later they may be read orally and 
 the words grouped efFectively. Some teachers underline the words 
 of a sentence which should be grouped together, as attention by this 
 means is centered on accurate phrasing. 
 
 Difficulty 20. How to secure appropriate supplementary material 
 in usable form. 
 
 The amount of material in school readers is not sufficient and 
 sometimes not appropriate for supplementary reading. In the third 
 and fourth grades especially the vocabulary in the readers is often 
 too advanced and the content too meager. The supplementary 
 material must be appropriate, not too easy nor too difficult, must be 
 interesting and avoid duplication. 
 
 Corrective. It is the duty of the school to provide appropriate 
 supplementary material, so that this difficulty should not arise. 
 Even if the school fails to furnish material, the teacher should not be 
 held responsible for supplying books and magazines. The Board of 
 Education should have a fund available which may be used to pur- 
 chase necessary materials. If this sum is not sufficient to buy whole 
 sets of books, single copies could be purchased thus enabling each 
 child to have a diflPerent story. When such a plan is undertaken it 
 serves two purposes — the child reads for content and at the same time 
 
 [30] 
 
gains training in expression when he tells the story to other members 
 of the class. 
 
 If the teacher wishes help in selecting appropriate material she 
 might consult the city librarian who is generally informed on the 
 types of books which appeal to different ages. The pupils should be 
 encouraged to make use of the city library and to form the habit 
 of withdrawing books. They might be asked also to bring their own 
 books to school and either read or tell certain portions to the class. 
 Magazines covering a wide range ot interests also should be available 
 and opportunity given during the regular school period tor pupils 
 to make their own selections. 
 
 Difficulty 21. How to deal with selections in school readers which 
 are too difficult or otherwise inappropriate for a particular class. 
 
 Many difficulties in reading are directly traceable to the reading 
 text. It may not be adapted to the work of a particular grade al- 
 though in other respects it may be a desirable book. For example, 
 a number of first-grade teachers commented on the reader which was 
 adopted by their school system. In their opinion the book was not 
 properly graded and the words were too difficult tor children with 
 such limited school experience. Frequently a reading selection is 
 written in language which is unfamiliar to the children, and con- 
 sequently an interest in reading is hard to create. When reading in 
 the intermediate and upper grades requires minute analysis and con- 
 tinued explanation, it is evident that the selections provided are too 
 difficult and are therefore mischosen for the grade. One fitth-grade 
 teacher stated that she had no time for silent reading as the children 
 spent the entire study period looking up words for the next day's 
 lesson. 
 
 Corrective. If a selection is so difficult as greatly to retard 
 progress it should be omitted and taught when the pupils have ad- 
 vanced sufficiently to comprehend the material with a reasonable 
 degree of success. However, such a procedure should be used with 
 caution because if large portions are omitted an unfavorable attitude 
 toward reading material as a whole will be created. At times, the 
 less capable members of the class may be excused from the regular 
 assignment and be given easier selections. 
 
 The teacher should make adequate preparation for the teaching 
 of each day's work. Too often teachers take up a reading lesson when 
 they have only read the story through hastily and are in no way pre- 
 
 [31] 
 
pared to guide the pupils in dealing with the difficulties which they 
 encounter. 
 
 Difficulty 22. How to teach silent reading in the primary grades. 
 
 Although silent reading in the primary grades is generally re- 
 garded as a minor activity, some authorities believe that the place 
 for beginning definite systematic work in silent reading is in the first 
 grade. This does not mean that silent reading should occupy a 
 prominent place in the daily program during the first year, but it 
 does mean that some provision tor this particular form of instruction 
 should be made regardless of the method which is employed by the 
 teacher. Others believe that silent reading can be taught only after 
 a certain degree of skill has been attained in oral reading. 
 
 Corrective. Since the main purpose in silent reading is to get 
 the thought, the material must lend itself to this end and contain a 
 thought that is worth while. This is even more important in the 
 primary than in the advanced grades. The easiest way to begin silent- 
 reading work is through the use of action sentences such as "Roll the 
 ball," "Run to me," etc. In this type of work the child does not read 
 the sentence orally, but silently and then does what he thinks it 
 says. A number of primers have lessons of this type but unfortunately 
 some teachers have not been able to differentiate between the 
 handling of this material and that for oral reading. 
 
 As the child masters the mechanics of reading and progresses 
 with his work, the teacher should be able to measure his rate of read- 
 ing and his ability to comprehend what is read. There should be 
 frequent exercises in silent reading but, instead of following these 
 with an oral reading, questioning should take place. The teacher 
 should be careful not to go too much into detail but should aim to 
 bring out the main points and to be sure that the child has grasped 
 the selection as a whole. 
 
 Difficulty 23. How to get children to comprehend the material 
 which they read. 
 
 All teachers are familiar with the experience ot having pupils' 
 rate of reading far in advance of their comprehension. Failure to 
 comprehend may be due to several causes such as a lack of a good 
 method of silent reading, lack of practice in reading silently due 
 either to insufficient opportunity or to the absence of a strong motive, 
 and lack of sufficient acquaintance with the necessary vocabulary. 
 
 [32] 
 
Corrective. When pupils fail to comprehend material the teacher 
 must determine whether the difficulty is due to an inadequate vo- 
 cabulary or to one of the other causes. As a vocabulary test, words 
 may be selected from the reading lesson and the pupils asked to 
 define them and use them in sentences either written or oral. Other 
 types of exercises can be devised to determine whether failure to 
 comprehend is due to other causes. Some of the standardized tests 
 have been used successfully for diagnosing pupils with reference to 
 their ability to read silently. 
 
 In order to get children to comprehend the material read, the 
 teacher must make use of and create situations in which the emphasis 
 is upon thought-getting and not upon oral reading or rate of reading. 
 A series of carefully worded questions placed before the children on 
 the board should help them to grasp the real significance of the pass- 
 age. Thought-getting cannot be overemphasized. Beginning in the 
 primary grades exercises should be started in which meaning is the 
 only significant element and the responses given should be in terms 
 of things done or interpretations made. This may be accomplished 
 by having cards with sentences or paragraphs written upon them 
 which give very definite directions to be followed. One teacher com- 
 bined her reading and art period by writing such directions on the 
 board as, "Color the first row of circles blue; color the second row 
 yellow," anci so forth. 
 
 It has been found helpful to administer a standardized test and 
 to compare the scores of the class with the standards for that grade. 
 It is also desirable to have each pupil compare his own score with the 
 standards. 
 
 Difficulty 24. How to train pupils to recognize certain difficult words 
 or letters. 
 
 Some children with normal vision seem to have difficulty with 
 certain words or letters such as distinguishing between such words 
 as was and saw, lert and lelt, and wmd and with, and 
 such letters as"b" and"d" in print. 
 
 Corrective. In writing the letters one teacher suggested that 
 when we have"b" the children should think of a stick with a ball or 
 a balloon at the lower right side, while "d" is a stick with a ball or 
 balloon at the lower /e/i side; p and q were treated in a similar way. 
 When words are discovered which repeatedly cause difficulty quick 
 perception drills should become a part of the routine until the words 
 
 [33] 
 
are mastered. New words may be added to the list as difficulties are 
 encountered and the attention ot the group called to the dominant 
 letter in the word. 
 
 Pupils often become confused because of similarity in form. 
 Though, thought, and through; there and where; then anti when were 
 mentioned. These words should be placed in sentences and pre- 
 sented in quick perception drills until the child has become familiar 
 with the correct form. Difficulty was evidenced in a first grade when 
 a child apparently could not distinguish between dog and doll. The 
 child noticed the first two letters but was troubled with the endings. 
 Special drill on words with similar endings will soon overcome this 
 difficulty. 
 
 Difficulty 25. How to eliminate lip movement in silent reading. 
 
 Lip movement and vocalization while a natural tendency for 
 beginners greatly retards the development of an efficient rate of read- 
 ing. Young children nearly always move their lips and whisper to 
 themselves in a suppressed tone. It this habit is allowed to go un- 
 checked, the pupil is greatly handicapped in trying to read silently 
 with a standard rate of speed and comprehension. 
 
 Corrective. As has been pointed out, flash card drill greatly 
 decreases lip movement. The cards are exposed for such a short 
 period of time that it is impossible for the pupil to sound out the 
 syllables or to pronounce the words. In addition to the flash card 
 drill constant reminding is necessary to get children in the first grade 
 to read with their eyes and not with their lips. While the type of 
 material determines whether oral or silent reading will be indulged 
 in, reading tor information or to get specific facts tends to induce 
 freedom from articulation. This also provides an increase in speed 
 which is generally accompanied with greater comprehension. 
 
 Difficulty 26. How to develop speed in silent reading. 
 
 There are several causes for a slow rate of reading. One may be 
 due to the belief that some teachers have thought that in order to 
 read well a child must read slowly. Or there may be too much em- 
 phasis upon oral reading which results in the pupil saying the words 
 over to himself when reading silently. 
 
 Corrective. Motivation undoubtedly has much to do with the 
 rate of silent reading. Interesting stories often serve as a stimulus 
 because the pupil becomes interested in the selection and wants to 
 know the outcome. Quality of reading shoulci not be sacrificed to 
 
 [34] 
 
rate but the rate certainly should receive attention. Easy material 
 should be given and short periods of concentrated reading have been 
 found effective. 
 
 A careful record ot each pupil's work should be kept so that he 
 knows where he stands. Some of the standards for rate as well as for 
 comprehension should be posted on the bulletin board so that the 
 pupil can compare his record with the norm. In addition to using 
 some of the standard reading tests, the teacher may devise tests of 
 her own, such as asking the pupils at a given signal to start reading 
 a certain page or paragraph in the reader. At the end of a short 
 period of two or three minutes, the reading should be stopped and 
 the pupils told to count the number of words read. Although not an 
 exact measurement, this is a rough index of the rate of reading. 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 [35] 
 
^