S^^r , | jfe&!fe -'i^ J Colleqc y ^qriculture MM Arts ^-.'i-fcV ,-\x ^\?H^^? !e m ^ '' T l ^ > :; i' ' ' ^T^TT^'^-^I/ :> \.' ^'^< / ^" : ''>^. AJ. ^; : '^^j&i f yf\^ m '' UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, Agricultural Experiment Station, CHAMPAIGN, MAY, 1890. BULLETIN NO. 9. MILK AND BUTTER TESTS. COMPOSITION OF MILK. In this bulletin, Dr. A. G. Manns, until January i, 1890, assistant chemist of this Station, has reported the results of a large number of tests of milk made by him. The primary object of these tests was the com- parison of different methods of determining the value of milk, as indicated by the percentage of fat contained in it. The work thus done shows that the method devised by Mr. F. G. Short is reasonably accurate, provided the tubes necessary in its use have been properly prepared and correctly graduated. Presumably there is less danger of variation in the tubes as now made and sold, than when they were first placed on the market, as the manufacturers probably now use greater care in the graduation. It would be well, however, as sets are purchased, to test them with milk of the same composition before using them to determine the differences in different samples. Aside from any value this work may have in helping to show the com- parative desirability of different methods of determining the fat in milk, it well illustrates the importance of using some accurate method for such determination where milk is bought and sold. Thus, the milk furnished by one patron of the factory at Malta showed 3.07 per cent, of fat; that of another, furnished the same day, 4.75 per cent. In a still more striking manner, this work illustrates the importance of testing the milk of in- dividual cows in a herd; for the variation in the value of the milk of different cows maybe greater than in the milk from different herds. The larger the number of cows, the more nearly, probably, will the milk ap- proach the average composition. Thus, while there was at Malta, a difference of 1.68 per cent, in the fat in the milk from two herds, the next 290 BULLETIN NO. 9. greatest variation was 1.15 per cent.; and in but two other herds, out of a total of 60, was the variation as much as .8 of a per cent. At the De- Kalb and Shabbona factories, where the samples were taken from mixed milk from three to a half dozen herds, the greatest variation in fat in any two lots was .9 percent, in the one case and .57 per cent, in the other. On the other hand, the milk of one pair of the n cows tested in one herd showed a difference of 1.8 per cent.; of another pair, 1.4. The milk of two of the 16 cows tested in another herd showed a difference of 1.5 per cent. The average percentage of fat in the milk of four of these cows was 4.48; that of four others 3.53. The average per cent, of fat found June 17, 1889, by Dr. Manns, using Short's method, in the milk furnished by 63 patrons of the factory at DeKalb was 3.83; June 24th, in the milk furnished by 60 patrons of the factory at Malta, 3.70; July 3d, in the milk furnished by 61 patrons of the factory at Shabbona, 3.66; and the average of fat as shown by the 101 tests made on the three days named in the 35,017 Ib. of milk furnished by the 184 patrons of the three factories, was 3.73 per cent. A more striking illustration of the difference in milk of cows in the same herd, under like conditions, is found in the report of a test made in March, 1890, by Mr. H. B. Gurler, of DeKalb, whose herd, it may be safely assumed, has been selected and bred with more than average intel- ligence. The milk of 64 of his cows was tested by Short's method. The average per cent, of fat found was 4.21; the highest, 5.85; the lowest, 2.75 a variation of 3.10 per cent. The average of ten cows was 5.41; of ten others, 3.2. Dividing the herd into four equal lots, the average of one lot of 16 was 5.18; of another lot of same number, 3.38. The difference between the average for this herd (4.21) and that shown above for the 184 herds contributing to the three factories (3.73), is due in part to the character of the food, and to the season of the year. In the use of Short's test at his creamery at Malta, Mr. Gurler reports, March, 1890: " The last test of patrons ranged from 3.55 Ib. fat per 100 Ib. milk, to 4.90 Ib., very few being under 3.75, and few over 4.25." Differences found in the Composition of Milk from Cows of Different Breeds. There are well-known differences in the average per cent, of fat in the milk of cows of different breeds. The length of the time since calving, and the condition of the cow, affect the percentage of fat in the milk; but in this case, as in many others, it was clearly shown that there are marked differences in the milk of cows of like breeding and under like conditions. At the American Fat Stock and Dairy Show, held at Chicago in No- vember, 1889, eight cows competed for prizes to be awarded those giving the greatest quantity of butter fat in milk given in one day. Two Ayrshires, three Holsteins, and three Jerseys competed. The milk was analyzed by Dr. Manns, from whose report the following results are taken: i8 9 o] MILK AND BUTTER TESTS. 291 TABLE SHOWING RESULTS OF MILK TESTS OF Cows OF DIFFERENT BREEDS. ? 1 I 8 2 3 9 Name. Breed. Total milk, Lb. oz. Butter fat, oz. Per cent, butt'r fat Total s'l'ds,oz. Per cent, total solids. Spotty G . . Ayrshire Ayrshire Holstein Holstein Holstein Jersey . . Jersey . . Jersey . . 32 9% 29 i% 65 7 16 9 '/ 2 57 13 24 14^ 3 H 20 2% 21-54 18.39 36.12 9 59 22.66 21 .24 13 54 14-03 4-13 3-95 3 1 5 3-6i 2-45 5-33 6.10 4-35 64.77 58.42 120.02 34-33 91 .21 56.03 34-34 44-47 12.42 12-55 11.48 12.93 9.86 14.06 15-47 13.79 Young Ellen. ... May Overton Mollie Anderson Schulling Marea Helen of Oxford 3d Dot Bloomfield "Entry I. First premium awarded to May Overton; exhibited by F. C. Stevens, of Attica, N. Y. "Entry 8. Second premium awarded to Schulling; exhibited by Stevenson Bros., Bulger, Pa. " Entry 5. Third premium awarded to Spotty G 4900; exhibited by John Stewart & Son, Elburn, 111." The precentage of fat in the milk of the three Holstein cows aver- aged 3.17 with a difference of i.oo; of the Ayrshires, 4.04 with a differ- ence of only .18; of the Jerseys, 5.26 with a difference of 1.75 per cent, between highest and lowest; the extreme difference being 3.65 per cent. The milk of one of the Holstein cows was phe- nomenally low in per cent, of both fat and total solids, although the large yield of milk made the total amount of fat greater than that pro- duced by any other of the lot except one. It will be noticed that exclud- ing the milk of this cow, which was reported to have been sick for some days preceding the test, the difference of the solids other than fat in the milk of any two of the cows, did not exceed 1.41 per cent., illustrating the im- portant fact that the percentage of fat in milk is much more variable than that of any or all other solids found in it. COMPOSITION OF BUTTER. Chemical analysis cannot determine with certainty the comparative excellence of two samples of butter. The texture, color, and even the flavor are not mainly dependent on the percentage of fat, water, and salt. The quality of salt used and the uniformity of its distribution may have more effect on the palatability of the butter than the quantity used. Different markets have different standards, especially as to color and salt- ing. There is, however, much of interest in determining the composition of what is considered good butter in American markets. The following report of the committee of the Association of Ameri- can Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, gives the results of the analysis by chemists of recognized ability of a series of samples of butter which had taken first prizes at the only dairy show with a claim to a national character held in the United States last year. As a part of the work was done at this Station, the report may appropriately be inserted here. 292 BULLETIN NO. 9. [May, " Composition of American Prize Butter. By cooperation of the Illinois State Board of Agriculture and the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Ex- periment Stations, five samples were taken by Drs. Babcock and Manns, chemists of the Wisconsin and Illinois Experiment Stations, from each of nine lots of butter to which first prizes had been awarded in as many classes at the American Dairy Show, held in Chicago in November, 1889, under the auspices of the Illinois State Board of Agriculture. A set of these samples was analyzed by each of the following chemists: Dr. H. W. Wiley, of U. S. Dep't of Agriculture; Dr. E. H. Jenkins, of the Connecticut Experiment Station; Dr. A. G. Manns, of the Illinois Experiment Station; Professor M. A. Scovell, of the Kentucky Experiment Station; and Dr. S. M. Babcock, of the Wisconsin Experi- ment Station, except that an accident prevented the analysis by Dr. Babcock of the sample from lot No. 8. "In the table following are given the names and addresses of the exhibitors; the prize taken by each lot, and the rating of each by the awarding committee on the scale of points adopted; the average of the analyses of the five samples from each lot; and the general average of the forty-four analyses of the nine lots by the five chemists. TABLE SHOWING RATINGS FOR AWARD AND AVERAGES OF ANALYSES OF BUTTERS TAKING PREMIUMS AT CHICAGO, NOVEMBER, 1889. No. Exhibitor. Address. Description of Samples. i 2 3 4 I 7 8 9 Wm. H. Taylor. . I F Laing . ... Davis Chica Rockj Davis Linde Hamp Rock{ Mowe Belvid Junction, 111. 'O. Sw'pstakes Creamery butter,gathered cream Sweepstakes Creamery butter, whole milk. Sweepstakes Dairy butter. Sweepstakes Butter from a grade cow. First Prize Butter from a Jersey cow. First Prize Butter from a Shorthorn cow. First Prize Butter from an Ayrshire cow. First Prize Butter from a Devon cow. First Prize Butter from a Holstein cow. A. B. Spencer.. . . L. McDonough. . N. L. Smith P L. Yonker. ... >ort, Ohio . . . Junction, 111. nville, Ohio. . ton, Iowa >ort, Ohio aqua, 111 ere, 111 A. B. Spencer.. . . John Hudson .... R. Hawkey I 2 3 4 i 9 * Rating for premiums. Averages of Analyses. Flavor. Grain. Color. Salting. Total. Fat. Water . f Ash. Curd. 43 42 40 42 39-5 41-5 40.5 36.5 40 28.5 29 29 29 29 27.5 28 5 28 29 H-5 13-5 14 14-5 H 13-5 14 14 13-5 10 9-5 10 10 8-5 8-5 10 8-5 10 96 94 93 95 5 9 1 9i 93 87 92-5 85.41 82.66 86-53 85.96 88.08 84.79 86.53 86.20 85-53 9-99 12. 19 8-49 9.71 8-99 12.07 9-53 10.78 10.56 3-58 3-93 4.12 3-29 2.13 1.79 3-32 2.29 3-03 I .01 1. 21 0.86 1.03 o 79 i-34 0.81 0.72 0.88 Average, 40.55 28.6 13.96 9.44 92-5 85-74 10.23 3-05 0.96 * The standard of the scale of points in a total of 100 was Flavor, 45; grain, 30; color, 15; salting, 10. \ Chiefly salt. "The scores of the judges show that, in their judgment, the butter analyzed was good, but not exceptionally excellent, from the commercial standpoint, for the Chicago market. As these packages had stood in the exhibition room for about ten days when the samples were taken, it is possible that some of the water of the freshly packed butter had been lost through drying; and the percentage of water in these samples may be assumed to be near the minimum for standard market butter. Otherwise the analyses probably fairly indicate the average composition of such butter. Neither flavor, grain, nor color of butter is necessarily dependent on the chemical composition, and the rating as to salt may depend more on the quality of the salt and the evenness of distribution than on the percentage found. 1890.] MILK AND BUTTER TESTS. 293 " The variation in the fat in these nine lots is less than 5.5 per cent. So far as ap- pears from these analyses, the percentage of fat in butter depends on the thoroughness with which the water and buttermilk are extracted, and the quantity of salt allowed to remain, and not on the breed of cows nor the mode of manufacture. The lot with highest rating by the scale of points had a little less than the average per cent, of fat. That which stood lowest had a little more than the average per cent, of fat. The average per cent, of salt is not quite half that often put into American butter. The three lots which were rated lowest as to salting and which stood lowest in total rating, each had less than the average of salt. " G. E. MORROW, ) "W. A. HENRY, [ Committee . " "H. P. ARMSBY, ) Composition of Creamery Butter from Connecticut. The following is the average of several analyses by E. H. Farrington, assistant chemist of this Station, of a sample of creamery butter made in Connecticut, and forwarded to the Station by Dr. E. H. Jenkins, of the Connecticut Ex- periment Station: Fat, 80.75; water, 12.86; curd, 1.32; ash, 5.03 per cent. It will be noticed that this sample had less fat, slightly more water, and considerably more salt than any one of the prize butters referred to in the report above. Butter Made at this Station. In the work done by Dr. Manns and reported in this bulletin, it was not necessary to make complete analyses of butter. The water was determined in 36 lots of butter made at the Station, Excluding two lots made from spoiled cream, the highest per cent, of water in 34 lots of unsalted butter was 17.12; the lowest, 12.79; the average, 14.71. GEORGE E. MORROW, A. M., Agriculturist. MILK TESTS. The system of paying for milk received at creameries, irrespective of its quality, has given rise to numerous discussions as to the practicability of using simple methods for the estimation of fat in milk, as a means of establishing a true basis for its valuation. Such tests, in order to be practicable, must have the requisites of simplicity in manipulation and accuracy. Cream tubes would be invaluable, were the results obtained trustworthy. But the per cent, of fat in cream varies with the tempera- ture of setting and the richness of the milk; and the volume is also directly influenced by the condition of the casein in the milk at the time of setting. Carefully conducted experiments have shown that samples of milk containing like percentages of fat will show large variations in per cent, of cream on standing in the cream tabes. Other methods, recommending themselves on account of the extreme simplicity of the manipulation, are those based on the optical examina- tion, as with the lactoscope or the pioscope. All optical methods are in- accurate, because the opacity of milk is partly due to the casein; and, 294 BULLETIN NO. 9. \_May, while it is true that the degree of opacity increases regularly with the quantity of fat held in suspension, still it is subject to modification by the variable size of the fat globules. Of two samples of milk containing the same percentage of fat, the one in which the fat globules are smallest will appear to be the richer when examined with the lactoscope. SHORT'S TEST. The following work, conducted at DeKalb, Malta, and Shabbona, was undertaken by the Station with the object of gathering information in regard to the application of Short's test to the daily work of the creamery. Incidentally, the lactoscope was tested in comparison with the gravimetric and the Short methods. Two sets of testing flasks, such as are used in the Short test, were ex- amined. The first set had been purchased some time previous to the present work and the flasks exhibited wide variations in the diameters of the contracted portions of the tubes. Sixteen of the flasks had necks of uni- form diameter, while in 18 others the differences were sufficient to make a difference of from i. per cent, to 1.45 per cent, in the results read from the scale. The extreme difference in cubic contents, for equal lengths of the contracted part of the tube, where the fat would be measured, amounted to 33 per cent, of the capacity of that portion of the tubes. These flasks were absolutely worthless, giving misleading, irregular results. In the second set, and it might be added in others purchased since, the extreme difference in the caliber of the necks made a difference of .3 per cent, in the analytical results obtained. No difficulty has been ex- perienced lately in purchasing well made tubes. However, one should carefully avoid buying from irresponsible parties, for it is of prime im- portance that the tubes and the scale be accurate. THE LACTOSCOPE. In order to familiarize ourselves with the instrument at our disposal, a number of tests were made and the results obtained were compared with those found in the gravimetric method. The results soon pointed out a deficiency in the method which, no doubt, everybody who has used the lactoscope will recognize. By following the printed directions for reading the per cent., the results will vary with the person making the test. It was found that the lines on the scale were distinctly visible to some, while others could not see them until a further comparatively larger quantity of water had been added. This defect could be remedied by using a second scale immersed in a milky fluid which could be used as a standard for comparison. The test scale would show the lines as they should be seen in the lactoscope when sufficient water had been added. Such a test scale would be far more serviceable than the printed directions accom- panying the instrument. The first readings taken were, on an average, .75 per cent, lower than they should have been, and it required some practice with milk samples in which the per cent, of fat was known before the eye i8 9 o.] MILK AND BUTTER TESTS. 2 95 could distinguish the proper point where the further addition of water should be discontinued. The lactoscope proved very efficient as a simple means of testing the milk of individual cows in a herd. The following results were obtained at two dairys visited: TABLE SHOWING TESTS WITH THE LACTOSCOPE. First. Second. No. Pounds of milk. Per cent, of fat. No. Pounds of milk. Per cent, of fat. i 5-25 4-55 i H 4-35 2 6.2 5 4 2 9-5 4.10 3 I 4-15 3 6 4.10 4 2 4-25 4 7-75 3-35 5 4 4.25 5 16.5 3-35 6 5 4-30 6 6.25 4-50 7 i-5 4.10 7 7 4-35 8 8-5 2.8 5 8 7-5 4.10 9 1-25 2.75 9 i' 5 4-85 10 5-25 4.10 10 8 4.10 ii 1-25 3.60 ii T"7 Q 3.60 40 Average. 3-9 & 13 o 3 35 4-25 14 5-5 4.10 15 4 4 25 16 6 3-85 Average. 4. 10 COMPARATIVE TESTS. Each sample of milk was analyzed by the gravimetric and the Short methods and was also tested with the lactoscope. The first table com- prises a few of a large series of results obtained by testing milk with the lactoscope and by the Short test. The results of the Short test are used as the basis for comparison. The gravimetric results were taken as a standard for comparison in the second table. It will be seen on examination that the results obtained with the Short test agree fairly well with those obtained by the gravimetric method; the greatest variation being .23 per cent. The results indicated by the lactoscope are variable throughout. TABLE SHOWflsro PER CENT. OF BUTTER FAT BY THE LA.CTOSCOPE AND WITH THE SHORT TEST. Lacto- scope. Short. Variation fr'm Short Lacto- scope. Short. Variation fr'mShort Lacto- scope. Short. Variation from Short. 3-50 3-70 .2 3-65 3-7 3.65 3-75 .1 - 8C 3-88 3-So + .38 3.60 3-75 -15 3-45 3.60 15 4- 3-85 + 15 3-5 3-9 4 3-50 3.80 3 3-35 3 95 .6 3-43 3-75 32 3.60 4- 4 3-5 3-72 .12 3-58 3-5 3-50 3-5 3.48 3-35 + -I3 3-75 3-35 f'i' 3-75 3-9 IS 3-75 3-70 3-95 3.68 +.27 4.20 . 3-75 + 55 3-85 3-68 +:i 7 3-8o 3-75 3-75 3-98 2 3 3-9 4-25 35 4.20 3-75 + 45 3-85 3-75 + .1 296 BULLETIN NO. 9. {.May, TABLE SHOWING RESULTS OF TESTS OF FAT BY THE LACTOSCOPE, SHORT'S METHOD, AND THE GRAVIMETRIC METHOD. Per cent, of fat, Sample No. Specific gravity. Per cent, of fat, Lactoscope. Per cent, of fat, Short's method. gravimetric method. i 1.031 3-75 3-48 3 3i 2 0315 3-25 3-95 3.78 3 .032 3 3-6o 3-37 4 .0318 3-30 3-72 3-67 5 .030 3-75 3.65 3-74 6 0315 3-65 3-84 3-72 7 .031 3-50 3-47 3-47 8 0315 3-75 4.02 3-9 1 9 0317 3-9 3.83 3-71 10 .0305 3.85 3-8o 3-68 ii .031 3-9 3-5 3-72 12 .031 3-68 4.18 4.12 13 .0308 4-iS 4 3 98 H .032 3-5 3.82 3-9 15 .031 3-88 3-75 3.65 16 .032 3.60 3.8o 3-65 Averages. 3-65 3.78 3-7i Extreme variations +44 + 23 53 .22 Neither the lactoscope nor the Short test could be used in testing skim milk and buttermilk, as the readings of the former are two high; while the Short test gives but a trace of fat in skim milk, and only a fraction of the fat present in buttermilk. ACTUAL YIELD OF THE CHURN COMPARED WITH RESULTS INDICATED BY THE SHORT TEST. Through the kindness of Messrs. Gurler Bros., of DeKalb, 111., the Station was afforded the opportunity of conducting these experiments at their creameries. The plan of work adopted was in accordance with that which would be pursued were the Short test used as a means of buying milk by its actual fat value. The tests were conducted for a period of twenty-two days; but four days' tests were not taken into consideration, because errors had crept in to destroy the results of the churn. (Portions of the cream or of the butter had been reserved and the butter weighed with the yield of the following day). At DeKalb and Shabbona the milk was poured into the receiving cans until they were about one-half to two- thirds full, when it was thoroughly mixed, sampled, and weighed. Indi- vidual samples were taken occasionally with the idea of testing the milk from each patron in this manner at least once a week. Two tests were made of each sample without using more than from thirty to forty testing flasks. At Malta, 111., each patron's milk was sampled and weighed, and but one test made of each sample. This gave a daily individual record but involved the use of from sixty to seventy flasks, while the results were not so satisfactory because the test was not made in duplicate. In order to find the amount of butter fat indicated by the test, the weight of each lot was multiplied by the per cent, of fat it contained as i8 9 o.] MILK AND BUTTER TESTS. 297 shown in testing the sample taken from it. The sum of the results thus obtained is the weight of the butter fat in the milk received that day. Below will be found tables, the first of which is a copy of the daily record kept at DeKalb, Malta, and Shabbona, respectively. Following this is a table showing the weight of butter fat indicated daily by the Short test, compared with the actual weight of salted butter obtained in churning the cream taken from the milk of the corresponding day. TABLE SHOWING PER CENT. OF BUTTER FAT FOUND IN 88 LOTS OF MIXED MILK. No. of Pounds of Average Lb. of but- No. of Pounds of Average Lb. of but- patr'ns milk. per cent. ter fat. patr'ns milk. per cent. ter fat. DeKalb, June if, i88g. 3 694 3-35 23.249 3 764 39 29.796 5 729 3.83 27.920 4 804 3-95 3I-758 4 762 3-72 28.346 3 777 3.80 29.526 3 8i5 3-95 32 192 6 819 3-89 3I-859 3 7 8l 30.459 5 723 3-86 27.908 4 829 3.80 3i-5 2 7 745 3-75 27-937 5 833 ttMK 39 32.487 6 *742 4.12 15.120 2 775 3-9 2 30. 498 63 11,220 3-83 430,557 Malta, June 24, 1889. > 5io 3-55 18.105 63 3-46 2.180 2 487 3-50 17.045 K 272 3-40 9.248 L 369 3-9 I4-39I L 30 3-75 1.125 p" 214 3-83 8.196 p* 302 4 12.080 I 7 6 3-07 5-403 s? Si 4.20 3.402 n 214 325 9955 n "3 3-85 4-350 B 245 3-85 9-432 62 3-75 2-325 fr 254 4 10. 1 60 F 234 3-75 8.875 3 1 332 3-25 10.790 3 1 J39 3-75 5-212 B 446 3-75 16.725 2. 203 3-85 7-8I5 GO' 422 3-55 14.981 p" 96 3-30 3.168 CT* n 54 3-52 1.900 n A 205 3-70 7-585 O. 37 3-45 10.591 cr 257 390 IO.O23 o" 34i 3-4 "594 x fb 58 3-85 2-233 n 17 3-77 0.641 P o 337 382 12.873 g 340 3-9 13.260 184 3.60 6.624 3" 20 3-76 0.752 T3 8- H7 3-75 5-5'2 m 70 4-75 3-325 252 3.60 9.072 o 210 3-50 7-35 5 3-77 o.i 88 24 3-52 0.845 V 278 3-75 10.425 393 3-75 14-737 e 205 3-75 7.687 V 'Jl 82 4.40 3,608 ST 210 3-87 8.127 ft 15 3-9 5-850 t/i ^ 195 3-35 6.532 . n 172 4.10 7.052 Pu 284 395 11.218 o. 47 3-50 1.645 en n 245 3-50 8-575 n 7i 3-45 2-449 O P 68 3-87 2.631 T3 278 3-8o 10.564 > S- 92 3-75 3-450 y 212 3-75 7-950 ff 200 2.80 5.600 5. cf 112 280 3.60 4t p 4.032 U*7n? < 180 3-85 6.930 mOm 56 5 4.08 I U 6 2.284 60 11,904 3-70 439>38o Shabbona, > 3, 1889. 6 869 3 9 2 34.064 4 1.093 3-35 36.615 6 1,072 3.76 40.305 4 1, 060 3-55 37-630 7 1,098 3-45 37-881 4 1,043 3-75 39.112 3 1,047 3-68 38.529 7 1,031 3-75 38.662 7 983 3.80 37-354 _ o p. - 7 1,566 3-6i 56.532 1,031 3.74 38-559 61 11,893 3.66 435.243 Grand totals and average per cent * :7*J J* *-"- 184 35,017 3-73 1.305.180 *375 pounds taken for cheese. 298 BULLETIN NO. 9. [May, TABLE SHOWING COMPARISON OF SHORT'S TEST WITH YIELD FROM THE CHURN. Date. Lb. of butter fat by Short's test. Lb. of salted but- ter from churn. Per ct. yield above or below the test. DeK Mai Shal lalb, Ji a, bona, < < i me 14 429.385 423.185 430.557 428.783 431-354 425-795 431.885 429.03 439-38 442.52 444-43 442.30 442.30 437.872 413.527 *4i8.o67 424.692 455 442 415 438 437 432 438 443 460.5 452 454-25 449 433 421 414 425 429 +5-96 +4-45 -3.61 +2.15 +1.31 +1.46 +1.42 +3-26 +4.81 +2.14 +2.21 + I-5I 2. 10 -3-85 +O.II +1.66 -j-I.OI IS. 17 18 iq . 2O 21 22 24. . 25. . 26 27 . 28 July I " 2 " 3 " 6 Average, +1.41 * This is less than amount for same day in foregoing table, since some milk was used for cheese. The yield in churning is influenced by many varying conditions, such as the temperature, the concentration of the cream, the degree of acidity, and the kind of fermentation which takes place in the cream. However, the Short test is trustworthy and gives results agreeing quite well with the actual churn yield. It could well be used as a standard test in paying for milk by its actual butter value, as the yield in excess of what had been indicated by the test could be distributed proportionately from time to time. Its adoption would offer an inducement for improving the quality of milk brought to the creamery, whereas at present the farmer can have no special object in trying to raise the standard, knowing that he will re- ceive no more for good milk than for that of an inferior quality. CHURNING TESTS. At the time of making the tests comparing the results of the Short test with the actual yield of butter in the churn, it seemed desirable to interfere as little as possible with the work of the butter maker, in order that the results of the churn might truly represent those of daily practice. The work of churning the cream and working the butter was conducted by experienced hands. The cream was churned at a temperature begin- ning at 58 F., with the churn making about 45 revolutions a minute. The butter received two workings, the first immediately after its removal from the churn, at which time it was salted, the second after it had stood in the refrigerator over night, when it was then reworked, packed, and weighed. For the purpose of locating the cause of the variation in the yield of the churn, the cream was examined each day during the latter part of the trial, and it was found that while the conditions of temperature and con- 1890.] MILK AND BUTTER TESTS. 2 99 centration were practically constant, the amount of acid that had devel- oped during the ripening process varied considerably. By comparing the results in the following table, it will be seen that the churnings which fell below the amount of butter fat indicated by the test, were made with cream in which the per cent, of acidity was com- paratively l,ow. TABLE SHOWING CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN ACIDITY AND YIELD OF BUTTER. Date. Per cent. acid. Butter fat indicated by test. Lb. Butter yield. Lb. Tune 27. . O.72 442. 30 AAn 28 o 36 442.30 477 July I . . 0.46 437.87 421 2 0.603 41^. ^27 414 " 3-- 0.630 418.067 42 S " 6 o.<\7 424.692 420 Further tests were therefore undertaken at the Station, the results of which will be found in an accompaning table, in order to see how the degree of acidity affected the yield of butter. The term "per cent, of acidity," is used here merely for convenience, and is not to be interpreted as the exact measure of the acid present, but rather as the lactic acid equivalent of the amount of alkali it took to bring aboiit a neutral reaction in jo c.c. of cream. In each trial the cream was thoroughly mixed, divided into two equal parts by weight, and allowed to ripen slowly under like conditions of temperature, a sample having been reserved for analysis. Tests of the acidity of the cream were made just before the churning, which was con- ducted in a small barrel churn at a temperature beginning at 58 F. The butter was worked in the churn and weighed before salting. Both butter and buttermilk were analyzed. The second half of the cream, designated in the table as b. was allowed to stand until it had become strongly acid, when it was churned under the same conditions that had been observed in churning the first portion, a. It will be seen on examination of the table that for the temperature employed in these trials, there was a large difference in butter yield in all cases where the first half of the cream had been churned before it had attained an acidity of .5 per cent. TABLE SHOWING INCREASE OF ACIDITY AND YIELD OF BUTTER. No. of trial. Per cent, of acidity in a. Per cent, of acidity in b. Increase of yield, b more than a., per ct. 6 5 20 .466 .460 45 835 .6?o 570 18.28 "39 10,53 As the per cent, of acidity increases in the first half of the cream, the difference in the butter yield of a and b gradually decreases. 300 BULLETIN NO. 9. {May, When a has attained .65 per cent, of acid, but a slight increase is ob- tained by further ripening of the cream; while at .7 per cent, the differ- ence disappears. It was found that the lactic fermentation proceeded rapidly until the cream had attained about .82 per cent, of acid, and that when this state was reached other fermentations seemed to take place so that the cream could not be kept without danger of spoiling. TABLE SHOWING YIELDS OF BUTTER FROM CREAM OF DIFFERENT DEGREES OF ACIDITY. Date. * o o i-> **. S] Ounces, cream. 8? o n 3 p o oi X Ounces, butter. Per cent, increase. Analysis. a? I r* n n 5 3 3 r*- P=P- cr e T3 ni 1-1 o n 3 k" o l-l n P Temperature begin- ning, F. Temperature end- ing, F. 1 Time of churning, 1 minutes. p n ~! *J ** n p July 17 " 18 " 19 " 20 " 23 " 25 " 24 25 " 27 " 29 " 27 " 29 ' 29 ' 3 A " 3I Aug. 2 " 3 !! 5 " 6 ' 9 ' 10 1 9 ' 10 ' 10 ' 12 ' 12 ' 13 ' 12 ' '3 ' H ' 15 ' 24 ' 27 ' I ' 3 ' 2 ' 3 ' 14 ' H ' 6 ' 6 ' 6 ' 6 I' h < h 6 7 8 h - [13 [14 15 16 17 .8 20- 26 1 IO II -19 u. 28 [J !J u I* \a //' |J I . 26 27. . 28 2q . 7O . "?! . . Total, 21 days 171.50 I99-25 184.75 152.75 154-25 190.25 189.25 161.50 Taking 32.19 as the per cent, of water in the corn-fodder given, and 51.65 as the per cent, of water in that not eaten, we have the following: Period 3, March idth to 3131, 21 days. The pounds of corn-fodder per day per animal was: Corn-fodder. Ensilage. Fresh. Water- free. Fresh. Water- free. Pounds given 12. 8.14 12. 8.14 Pounds not eaten 3.57 1.73 3.73 1. 80 Pounds eaten 8.43 6.41 8.27 6.34 Per cent, eaten of that given. 70.3 78.7 68.7 77.9 The total pounds of food eaten per day per animal during period 3, was: Heifers fed corn-fodder. Fresh. Water-free. Corn Fodder 8.3 6.41 Crushed oats 6. 5. 19 Clover hay 2. 1.64 Total per animal 16.43 I 3- 2 4 Total per 1,000 Ib. live wt 16.25 Heifers fed ensilage. Fresh. Water-free 8.27 6.34 6. 5-19 2. 1.64 16.27 I 3- I 7 15-92 Summary. The total pounds of food eaten per day per animal, dur- ing the 12 weeks, January 6th to March 313!, may now be computed from the foregoing tables, and was: Heifers fed corn-fodder. Heifers fed ensilage. (during periods I and 2). Fresh. Water-free. Fresh. Water-free. Corn-fodder or ensilage 8.3 5.92 20. 17 6.57 Crushed oats 6. 5.19 6. 5.19 Clover hay 2. 1.64 2. 1.64 Total per animal 16.3 12.75 28.17 *3 4 Total per I, ooo Ib. live wt 16.87 J 7-55 310 BULLETIN NO. 9. WATER CONSUMED. [May, During two weeks, February i7th to March 2d inclusive, the pounds of water consumed was ascertained, and is given in the following table: TABLE SHOWING POUNDS OF WATER GIVEN AT MORNING AND NIGHT FEB. MARCH 20. Date. No. i. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. .No. 5. No. 6. No. 7. No. 8. M. N. M. N. M. N. M. N. M. N. M. N. M. N. M. N. 17 26 25 21 .24 36 18 25 7 26 18 16.5 10 18 20 18 18 21 20 20 12 3 24 26 12 36 14 13 o 29 16 o 26 19 22 25 20 20 *9 25 18 22 12 14 i 17 o o 48 20 17 O '9 12 26 10 15 16 24 I 5 20 26 6 o 7 21 24 13 40 15 II 19 H 26 26 16 20 15 18 18 o 3i 22 22 6 *9 13 24 34 14 17 21 18 3 o '9 21 o 23 26 20 24 25 25 *9 26 ii 7 4 7 13 17 23 26 26 24 25 9 25 19 19 19 20 20 23 X 9 10 9 27 18 5i 25 8 17 32 9 37 22 2O 2O 20 19 1 9 o 2 3 16 o 4 26 18 2O o 22 24 16 20 13 17 13 15 13 24 12 27 o 27 9 16 21 26 18 24 7 18 16 13 H 21 17 26 28 o 26 20 22 25 18 6 15 5 7 o 17 18 18 o 21 I 19 19 21 21 19 32 24 20 25 18 7 21 26 24 26 26 2 26 25 26 26 '9 19 21 16 16 13 3 5 9 18 25 O Total. 232 251 3 08 278 34i 287 280 238 286 198 155-5 i47 302 227 130 258 All the water consumed daily per animal, during the two weeks was, in pounds: Water drunk Water in corn -fodder or ensilage. Water in oats Water in clover hay Total water consumed daily Heifers fed corn-fodder. 39-5 2.2 0.8 0.4 42.9 Heifers fed ensilage. 3-4 18.6 0.8 0.4 50.2 WEIGHT OF ANIMALS. Each animal was weighed daily between 9 and 10 a. m., throughout the entire time of the experiment. The weighing was done after the morn- ing feeding and before watering. A pair of Fairbank's bullock scales were used, which weighed accurately to a pound. The table on pp. 311 to 312 gives the daily weight of each animal for the three periods, and the diagram on the page following shows graphic- ally the average daily weight for each lot of four heifers. In this test the measure of value of the food given is taken to be the increase in weight of the animals receiving the food. This is not neces- sarily an entirely accurate measure of value, but is the only standard practicable with growing and fatting animals in a test of this nature. That important and complex element, quality, as affected by the food given, should never be overlooked; but where the quantity and composi- tion of the food given was so similar, little or no variation in quality was to be expected, and indeed none has been detected. It is not an easy matter, however, to get the true measure of increase in a given animal or lot of animals even when daily weights are taken; 1890.] COMPARATIVE VALUE OF CORN-FODDER AND ENSILAGE. 31* much less when the weights are taken at longer intervals. In this experi- ment weights were taken daily, and every precaution was taken to have the animals weighed under similar conditions each day. They ate with reasonable regularity, made good gains, and were throughout the test in the best of health. Yet a glance at the table of individual weights, or at the diagram of average weights, will show striking'daily variations. An average increase of 25 Ib. per animal in one day, and, again a de- crease of 20 Ib. may be noted. It should be mentioned that the marked variations in weight from March 6th to pth, were caused, undoubtedly, by an enforced temporary change of water and method of watering. The grade Shorthorn heifer, .No. 8, showed the most variation. The weights from March 25th to 3oth, may be given in illustration; viz., 891, 854, 868, 869, 900, and 907 Ib. See also weights from February xoth to 25th. Although, in general, the average daily variations of each test were somewhat similar, it is apparent that a comparison of particular days might be misleading. It was decided, therefore, to take the average weight of five days preceeding the beginning or ending of any period, and these are given in the following table: TABLE SHOWING DAILY WEIGHTS OF HEIFERS. Date. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Jan 2 Period 629 637 637 /. Anim 749 760 752 a Is fed 660 670 674 B.&W. 670 corn-fo 712 715 720 dder an 613 606 607 d ensila 703 700 709 ** 732 735 745 1 A, . 5 632 623 626 635 626 634 622 643 644 648 645 658 643 649 652 643 650 665 677 680 672 672 685 685 673 677 760 770 754 767 764 760 754 766 760 784 764 763 773 782 785 769 783 782 804 801 788 787 795 816 788 ro< 695 694 693 712 708 694 694 702 696 686 678 711 706 708 719 717 723 715 723 727 726 729 738 74i 719 717 666 668 684 694 678 684 690 695 685 701 691 699 697 699 715 715 720 712 709 720 721 734 712 71; 731 721 731 748 741 720 719 721 730 739 735 752 755 752 763 756 778 765 773 774 764 762 773 779 785 781 612 618 628 629 638 637 639 644 640 ?' 650 653 664 655 657 668 676 673 674 674 673 678 683 685 683 68 1 706 711 716 732 740 729 728 737 730 73i 730 746 752 755 755 746 746 761 771 778 783 779 786 780 773 768 75i 7 I 4 763 773 766 770 766 762 757 775 784 776 775 794 7M 789 796 799 796 805 805 798 819 801 701 6 7 8 Q . . IO II 12 n. . 14 1C . . 16 17. iS IQ. . 20 21 22 2T, . . 24 25 . . 26 27 . . 28 2Q. . 30. . 312 BULLETIN NO. 9. [May, TABLE SHOWING DAILY WEIGHTS OF HEIFERS Continued. Date. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 " 31 Period 672 68 1 682 686 689 697 700 698 707 718 722 722 717 728 723 725 723 740 741 738 733 748 738 746 753 736 757 756 750 75 763 760 753 769 745 767 775 773 Period 765 753 766 773 778 762 765 778 761 765 780 775 760 776 78i 780 774 761 782 782 792 2. Anini 796 813 793 821 803 809 813 826 822 848 833 836 837 827 837 834 842 831 838 821 842 843 851 854 854 848 848 857 857 863 867 875 883 853 88 1 880 885 j>. A mm 877 882 888 893 895 892 894 883 887 887 883 884 895 874 906 als fed 734 732 750 718 746 739 738 756 753 7 f 762 761 752 762 758 758 757 763 761 771 764 768 762 787 783 780 789 785 79 785 79 i 79 795 804 804 805 808 808 800 als fed 800 802 802 799 8i5 808 820 827 831 827 822 833 824 819 831 825 830 814 827 835 34 corn-f 711 732 720 733 722 702 738 744 744 753 753 742 742 745 749 743 747 761 761 760 766 765 772 769 769 769 773 773 776 765 773 777 776 792 785 752 740 774 780 corn-fo 780 784 783 79 795 786 798 802 800 805 797 790 792 796 797 795 796 790 811 814 818 odder a 786 79 787 782 788 806 791 803 793 791 778 811 819 812 820 810 822 828 831 841 838 842 837 844 840 843 830 818 840 843 845 847 841 835 854 851 848 dder fr 835 841 842 846 841 837 833 830 821 823 825 828 822 827 831 825 827 821 834 834 843 ndensil 686 692 694 692 &' 691 696 708 709 704 705 70S 75 728 724 723 723 720 730 719 716 7H 733 721 73o 733 727 735 743 75o 75o 749 752 745 745 735 725 739 756 om Bur 733 734 728 747 737 756 755 757 756 760 760 761 761 771 767 771 766 753 774 775 782 agefmB 777 79 784 786 794 787 792 801 797 795 806 797 803 814 824 807 813 828 825 828 809 822 829 837 830 839 838 830 834 835 840 835 836 850 847 838 843 851 850 r's whit 828 823 826 823 831 833 834 832 831 835 832 812 8 3 2 835 839 839 833 821 840 846 852 ,'sw.c'n 794 812 825 820 8i5 802 810 825 822 822 820 846 829 835 838 837 86 1 850 843 845 871 854 863 845 870 888 868 865 862 860 884 872 866 882 881 848 828 861 871 e corn. 88 1 866 860 870 88 1 892 893 899 897 895 899 901 882 893 891 854 868 869 900 907 901 Feb. I 2 7. . 4. . 5 6 7 8. 10 ii 12 17. . IS . 16 17. 18 IQ . 2O 21 22 27 24. . 2? 26 27. . 28 March i 2 March 3 4 5 6 7 8 Q. . IO II 12 I"?. . IS. . ii :. 17. . 18 IQ. . 2O 21 22 27 . . 24 25. . 26 27 . . 28 2Q. . TO . 71 . . 1890.] COMPARATIVE VALUE OF CORN-FODDER AND ENSILAGE. EnsilnfjO. Corn -Fodder 314 BULLETIN NO. 9. [May, TABLE SHOWING AVERAGE WEIGHTS OF HEIFERS FOR PERIODS NAMED. Date. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 January 2 to 6 611.6 758.2 674.8 677 710.8 611.2 704.1; 743.4 January o to 13 637.8 760.8 698.8 686.4 /iy. 6. IQ 3S.73 47.62 ..^y 2 26 Ensilage refused Fresh 78.32 I. OS i. 80 7.. Until Sept. 24th, at which time ear corn was substituted for shelled corn, they had gained 129.5 lb. Until Oct. 28th, at which time the growth of grass may be assumed to have mainly ceased, the gain had been 163 lb., and until Nov. 25th, when the experi- ment ceased, the total gain had been 195 lb. From Sept. 25th, to Nov. 25th, each lot was fed corn in the ear, husked as needed. A sample of each load was dried, and from the weight of the shelled corn of these sample lots the quantity of air-dry corn eaten by each lot of steers was calculated. The weights of each lot of steers at dates named, and the quantity of grain eaten are given in the accompanying table. As in the preceeding experiment, the weighings were in the morning, after feeding, but before watering. TABLE SHOWING WEIGHTS AND GAINS OF ANIMALS, AND WEIGHTS OK CORN, FOR PERIODS GIVEN. Dates. Lot i. Lot 2. 1889. Weight. Gain. Corn. Weight. Gain. Corn. May 20 May 27 2,231 2.344 Ill 2,276 2 386 no June 10 . 2 AA.O 0.6 2 A3C A.Q 22? Tune 24. . , 2, 514 74 2.4CQ 24 324 Tuly 8 . 2,6lO 06 2,46? 6 2,00 T 1 fulv 22 2,1; q.8 -12 2.C2Q 64 K6 August 5 2,642 AA 2 638 IOQ 480 August 19 2,746 IO4 2,70? luy 67 460 September 2 2,741; I 2,761 c6 -140 September 24 . 2,848 IO3 2.O2O 2CQ 660 October 14 2, 86 1 IT. *8oi 2,046 26 *8oi October 28 2.QSI GO CO7 3.167 121 6)9 November 11.. 2.OOO 48 f ' 6ot; 3.184 17 721 November 25 3.OIO II eei -1,187 2 6lQ *From this date the corn was ear corn equivalent to the number of pounds of air- dry shelled corn named. GAIN FROM PASTURE ONLY. Study of the tables shows remarkable variations in the rate of gain of the steers, especially those having no other food than grass. Thus, the four steers on three acres of pasture in 1888, from May i4th to June 25th, six weeks, gained 390 lb.; for the next eight weeks, only 71 lb.; and for the next six weeks. 269 lb.; while during the next four weeks, Oct. ist to Oct. 29th, they lost 145 lb. 1890.] COMPARATIVE VALUE OF CORN-FODDER AND ENSILAGE. 323 In 1889, the three steers on the same three acres made a gain of 104 lb., in the two weeks from Aug. 5th to Aug. igth, and lost i Ib. during the next two weeks. In 1889, the eight two-year-old steers on ten acres of pasture gained 1,130 lb. in eight weeks, from April 2gth to June 24th, and only 252 lb. in the next 13 weeks. Some reasons for these variations are obvious, but it is difficult to explain all of them. Except during October, 1888, the pastures did not appear to be grazed unusually short at any time. In the earlier part of each season the supply of grass was, apparently, more than the cattle needed. It seems evident, however, they were too heavily stocked, tak- ing the seasons as a whole. In no case was there a satisfactory gain per animal for the summer's grazing. In 1888, the four steers made an aver- age gain of 185 lb. from May i4th to Oct. ist. In 1889, eight steers made an average gain of 173 lb. from April 2gth to Sept. 23d, and three year- ling steers made an average gain of 206 lb. from May 2oth to Sept. 24th. Fractions of a pound are not given above. The gain in the last case may be considered passably good, but is below what is desirable. In trials in former years on the University farms with several lots of yearling steers, the following gains were made in the six months from May ist to Nov. ist, there being in one or two cases a variation from this time of two or three days: Four steers, average gain, 332 lb.; 10 steers, aver- age gain, 285 lb.; 2 steers, average gain, 440 lb.; eight steers, 223 lb. this last from April 25th to Sept. ist. Of two-year-old steers, during six months, seven made an average gain of 466 lb.; eight, of 380 lb.; four, of 406 lb. The gains per acre of grass-land were more satisfactory than the gains per animal. The three-acre pasture, in 1888, supported four steers with an average aggregate weight of 2,904 lb. which made a gain of 739 lb., or 246 lb. per acre from May i4th to Oct. ist. The same pasture, in 1889, supported three steers, with an average aggregate weight of 2,540 lb. which made a gain of 617 lb. or 206 lb. per acre from May 2oth to Sept. 24th. The ten-acre pasture, in 1889, supported eight steers with an average ag- gregate weight of 8,233 Ib- which made a gain of 1,382 lb., 138 lb. per acre, from April 2gth to Sept. 24th. With cattle selling at any reasonable price any of these gains would give a good return for the use of the land; especially as pasturage is one of the least exhaustive uses to which we can put our lands. The results of pasturage in October, 1888, are not considered here, as it is evident there was not sufficient food for the cattle. After Sept. 24, 1889, all the cattle were fed grain. EFFECT OF GRAIN RATION WITH GRASS. It was assumed that the steers receiving a liberal grain ration might safely have the acreage of pasture reduced one-third, and the appearance of the two plats used indicated that this assumption was fairly correct. 324 BULLETIN NO. 9. [May, The steers fed grain made a more uniform gain than those on pasture alone, but the variations in equal periods were sufficiently noticeable. In 1888, the four steers on the two acres of grass, from May i4th to Oct. ist, ate 2,864 lb. of the mixture of corn, oats, and bran, an average of 716 Ib. each, and made a gain of 758 lb., or 189.5 lb. each. This was a gain only 39 lb. larger than that made by the four steers on the three acres of grass without grain. That is, there was a gain of 39 lb. in weight, a sav- ing of one acre of pasturage, and an undetermined increase in the value of the manure to offset the value of 2,864 lb. grain fed and the increase of labor made necessary by this feeding. Evidently the grain was fed at a loss in this' case. In 1889, the three steers on the same two acres of pasture, ate 3,163 lb. of corn and made a gain of 634 lb., from May 27th, to Sept. 24th, or 130 lb. more than the gain made during the same period by the three steers on three acres of pasture. The two pigs with the grain fed steers increased 129.5 lb. during the period. With beef and pork selling at average prices, this increased gain and the rental value of one acre of land would about equal value of the corn fed. No considerable difference was found in the rate of gain in the two lots of steers in the autumn months when both were fed grain. In two cases the advantage was with the lots not having had grain during the summer; in the third case the steers fed grain during the summer made slightly larger gain in autumn than those which had pasture only. It was easily noticeable in the late autumn and following spring, that the three-acre was better than the two-acre pasture One reason evi- dently was that, when grain was given both lots of steers, they would eat about equal quantites of grass, the three-acre plat thus having the ad- vantage. GAIN FROM GRAIN AND HAY From April 18 to May 14, 1888, the eight steers ate 1,800 lb. of the mixed grain ration and 1,498 lb. of hay, and gained 315 lb. From Octo- ber 29th to Jan. 2ist, they ate 6,465 lb. of grain and 6,365 lb. of hay, and gained 694 lb. From March i8th to April 2gth, they ate 4,409 lb. of grain and 2,700 lb. of hay, making a gain of 310 lb. From Jan. ist to March i8th, corn ensilage was substituted for the mixed grain ration. During this period they ate 15,218 lb. of ensilage, and 2,568 lb. of hay and made gain of 154 lb. For the first period of 26 days, the average gain per day for each steer was 1.5 lb.; the average daily ration being about nine lb. of grain and seven lb. of hay. For the second period of 84 days, the average gain was a little over one pound per day, with ration of 9.6 lb. grain, and 9.5 lb. hay. For the last period of 42 days the average gain was a little over one- tenth of a pound, with a daily ration of almost exactly 13 lb. of grain and 8 lb. of hay. During the 56 days when ensilage was substituted for the grain ration, the daily gain was a trifle over one-third of a pound per day with ration of 34 lb. of ensilage and 5.75 lb. of hay. 1890.] COMPARATIVE VALUE OF CORN-FODDER AND ENSILAGE. 325 From Sept. 24 to Nov. 29, 1889, all the steers were fed ear corn on the pastures. The results were surprising. In no case was there a large gain made, and, although the weather was not cold at any time, nor unusu- ally unpleasant, the gains during the last four weeks were especially small. From Sept. 23d to Oct. 28th, each of eight steers made an average daily gain of 2.2 lb., eating the equivalent of 12 Ib. air-dry shelled corn per day. From Oct. 28th to Nov. 25th, the average daily gain was only about six-tenths of a pound, with the equivalent of 16.7 lb. of corn eaten. The six younger steers during the first period made an average daily gain of about 1.2 lb. each, eating 13 lb. of corn. During the second period the average daily gain was not quite four-tenths of a pound, with a ration of 12 lb. of corn each per day. In feeding in a similar manner en the University farms, lots of steers have frequently made average daily gains of three pounds each during September and two and three-fourths pounds during October. As the weather grew colder the rate of gain always decreased, but rarely, if ever, to so low a point as noted above, unless in case of extreme cold or storms. SUGGESTED CONCLUSIONS. The results from two years' trials indicate that a grain ration to young steers on good pasture is not usually profitable. The value of the increase in weight by the grain-fed steers over that by those having grass only, will rarely repay the cost of food and labor. The increased value of the animals from earlier maturity and better quality may make the grain feed- ing profitable. Especially if the grain given be unground, is it essential to have pigs follow the cattle, if a profit is to be had. To secure the greatest gains per animal the pastures must not be fully stocked. To secure the largest gain per acre they should be fully stocked. An acre of good grass may be expected to support a steer weighing from 800 to 1,000 lb., and enable it to make a moderate gain during the summer. The rate of growth of cattle, either on grass alone or with an added grain ration, is very irregular, being especially checked by either drouth or excessive rains, extreme heat or cold storms. The addition of grain or other food to the pasturage before the grass fails in the autumn is clearly advisable. The acreage of pasturage may probably be safely decreased one- third, if the steers be given a full grain ration. It is doubtful if, at present, in most parts of Illinois, cattle can be maintained or an increase of weight be secured at so low a cost in any other way as by allowing them to get all their food during the best of the grazing season from good pastures, fully but not over stocked. G. E. MORROW, A. M., Agriculturist. 326 BULLETIN NO. 9. EXPERIMENTS IN PROGRESS. In the list below are given by number and title the experiments which are now in hand. Some of them, as will be seen, are of such a nature that they will run through two, three, or even many years; and others we are repeating for the second or third time. Reports have been published upon certain of the experiments, and in the last column of the table are the numbers of the bulletins in which such reports may be found. LIST OF EXPERIMENTS IN PROGRESS. Class and title of experiment. Reported in bulletins Field Experiments. 1 Corn, testing varieties Nos. 4 and 8 2 Corn, testing varieties for ensilage No. 4 3 Corn, time of planting Nos. 4 and 8 4 Corn, depth of planting 5 Corn, thickness of planting 6 Corn, planting in hills and drills No. 4 8 Corn, frequency of cultivation Nos. 4 and 8 9 Corn, depth of cultivation 10 Corn, effect of root-pruning 1 1 Corn, effect of fertilizers large plats [In part at Flora] 12 Oats, quantity of seed per acre Nos. 3 and 7 13 Oats, compact or loose seed bed 4 Oats, time of sowing 5 Oats, depth of sowing 16 Grasses, comparison of varieties 17 Clovers, comparison of varieties 1 8 Grasses and clovers sown with or without grain 19 Grasses, field tests of varieties 20 Clovers, field tests of varieties 21 Grasses and clovers, field tests of mixtures 22 Weeds, number and kinds on given areas 23 Rotation, University experiments continued 24 Fertilizers, comparison of, on corn small plats Nos. 4 and 8 54 Corn, root-growth 62 Wheat, effect of fertilizers 63 Wheat, methods of soil preparation 65 Wheat, quantity of seed per acre 66 Wheat, time of sowing 67 Wheat, depth of sowing 68 Wheat, its relation to chess 69 Wheat, effect of fertilizers upon. [Experiments at Flora, Odin, and Farina] .... 71 Corn-fodder, effect of ripeness 84 Oats, testing varieties No. 7 85 Oats, effect of sowing spring wheat with 86 Fertilizers, effect on grass-lands 88 Beets, testing varieties 89 Corn, cross fertilization of 90 Corn, rate of growth 103 Comparative yield of corn planted with and without pumpkins, and of pumpkins planted with and without corn i8 9 o.J EXPERIMENTS IN PROGRESS. LIST Continued. 3 2 7 Class and title of experiment. Reported in bulletins Feeding Experiments. Cost of production of young cattle No. 9 Cost of production of young colts Cost of production of young calves. Cost of production of young heifers Pigs, comparison between corn, grass, and corn and grass in feeding. Pigs, comparative value of corn and beets, and corn in feeding Tree Culture. Orchard, soil cultivation and management Orchard, soil fertilization Apples, testing new varieties by planting Apples, testing new varieties by top-grafting Apples, testing hardiness of root-grafted and double-worked trees. . . Pears, testing new varieties Plums, testing new varieties Cherries, testing new varieties Forest trees, growing of Testing time and methods of transplanting trees Testing and improving native fruits Testing the effects of stock and cion upon each other Peach trees, winter protection of Trees, protection of trunks Trees, protection from mice, rabbits, and insects Vine Culture. Grapes, testing new varieties Grapes, methods of training Grapes, soil treatment Small Fruit Culture. Blackberries, testing varieties Raspberries, testing varieties Strawberries, testing varieties Strawberries, raising seedlings Raspberries, soil management Gardening. Beans, testing varieties Sweet corn, testing varieties Nos. 4 and 8 Potatoes, investigation of scab Cucurbitaceous plants, tests of, except melons Tree and Vine Culture. Fungicides, use of Insecticides, use of. Miscellaneous. Record of soil temperature Soil moisture, evaporation of water from the surface of water of un- cultivated soil, of cultivated soil, of a corn plant, and of grass. Meterological record from August 17, 1888 Biology of ensilage No. 7 Canada thistles, extermination of. [At Mattoon] Fruits, production of new varieties from seeds Vitality of timothy, blue grass, and red-top seeds tested Vitality of seeds tested Investigation of a bacterial disease of corn No. 6 Investigation of milk tests No. 9 All communications intended for the Station should be addressed, not to any person, but to the AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, CHAMPAIGN, ILLINOIS. The bulletins of the Experiment Station will be sent free of all charges to persons engaged in farming who may request that they be sent. SELIM H. PEABODY, President Board of Direction. 328 BULLETIN NO. 9. [May, 1890. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS. ALEXANDER McLEAN, Macomb, President. JOSEPH W. FIFER, Governor of Illinois. GEORGE S. HASKELL, Rockford, President State Board of Agriculture. RICHARD EDWARDS, Superintendent of Public Instruction. S. M. MILLARD, Highland Park. GEORGE R. SHAWHAN, Urbana. CHARLES BENNETT, Mattoon. W. W. CLEMENS, Marion. OLIVER A. HARKER, Carbondale. FRANCIS M. McKAY, Chicago. EMORY COBB, Kankakee. SAMUEL A. BULLARD, Springfield. BOARD OF DIRECTION OF THE EXPERIMENT STATION. SELIM H. PEABODY, LL. D., Champaign, Regent of the University, President. E. E. CHESTER, Champaign, of State Board of Agriculture. HENRY M. DUNLAP, Savoy, of State Horticultural Society. H. B. GURLER, DeKalb, of State Dairymen's Association. EMORY COBB, Kankakee, Trustee of the University. CHARLES BENNETT, Mattoon, Trustee of the University. GEORGE S. HASKELL, Rockford, Trustee of the University. GEORGE E. MORROW, A. M., Champaign, Professor of Agriculture. THOMAS J. BURRILL, Ph. D., Urbana, Professor of Botany and Horticulture. THE STATION STAFF. GEORGE E. MORROW, A. M., Agriculturist. THOMAS J. BURRILL, Ph. D., Horticulturist and Botanist. DONALD McINTOSH, V. S., Veterinarian. THOMAS F. HUNT, B. S., Assistant Agriculturist. GEORGE W. McCLUER, B. S., Assistant Horticulturist. EDWARD H. FARRINGTON, M. S., Assistant Chemist. WILLIAM L. PILLSBURY, A. M., Champaign, Secretary. vt "^ .= ***& N _|^-_ ^ U- ^W^-T^v \ k\ * V ' \ Jfr ^ ' mm&-^M^m ^<^^ =- s ^?^i:^. . > IpifflS^OSi! k>P^ .S& ^s >r:'^.: ^^\ '""'H "" y T \ /T^^n '~-^^a^x ,^st^^v-:-^? '^^ T-7d^v-'^iPI? M life i f ; r m / /. 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