BHIWlli '-. ~ \ i i : ', -; - ", -I' I B RAR.Y OF THL UN IVERSITY Of ILLINOIS cop. 2, 6RICULTUW NOTICE: Return or renew all Library Materials! The Minimum Fee for each Lost Book is $50.00. The person charging this material is responsible for its return to the library from which it was withdrawn on or before the Latest Date stamped below. Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books are reasons for discipli- nary action and may result in dismissal from the University. To renew call Telephone Center, 333-8400 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN APR L161 O-1096 A Survey of ILLINOIS FARM LABOR IN 1946 By A. J. Cross and P. E. Johnston Bulletin 528 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION CONTENTS PAGE PLAN OF STUDY 559 Scope and Objectives 559 Source of Data 560 Definition of Terms 560 Delineation of Farm Labor Areas 561 Farms Grouped by Size 564 LABOR PATTERN IN ILLINOIS , 564 FAMILY LABOR 568 SEASONAL LABOR 570 Amount and Cost 570 Seasonal Day Labor 572 Piecework Done by Seasonal Labor 573 YEAR-ROUND HIRED LABOR 573 Amount and Cost 574 Single Workers 575 Married Workers 576 CUSTOM LABOR AND MACHINES FOR HIRE 580 Amount of Custom Work Done 580 Cost of Custom Work 581 EXCHANGE OF LABOR AND MACHINES 585 Labor Exchanged 585 Kinds of Machines Used 587 SUMMARY.. .589 Urbana, Illinois April, 1948 Publications in the Bulletin series report the results of investigations made or sponsored by the Experiment Station A Survey of ILLINOIS FARM LABOR IN 1946 By A. J. CROSS and P. E. JOHNSTON* DURING WORLD WAR II many of the people who normally do a substantial part of the labor on American farms were called to serve in the armed forces. Others went to urban areas, where they worked in defense plants, shipyards, and other in- dustries in which there was special need for labor. Because of the resulting shortage of agricultural workers, a federal-state organization was set up to help supply the labor needed to produce and harvest the agricultural commodities essential to the prosecution of the war. The problems met in administering the emergency farm labor pro- gram and the need for more knowledge to serve as a background for research in -farm labor problems were the chief reasons for under- taking the present study. PLAN OF STUDY Scope and Objectives Studies of farm labor up to the present time have usually been limited to special crops, special areas, or a specific type of farming. No attempt has been made to study large areas, such as a state, in which heterogeneous labor 2 conditions are found. The purpose of this study was to ascertain the kind, amount, and cost of labor used on Illinois farms in 1946. Information was obtained on the following points: (1) the amount of labor contributed by all classes of farm workers and total cost of labor supplied by all classes of hired workers, (2) amount of work done by members of the farm family, (3) amount and cost of work done by seasonal laborers and by year-round hired 1 A. J. CROSS, graduate student in Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, 1946-47; and P. E. JOHNSTON, Professor of Agricultural Economics "Research. A number of people besides the authors were associated with some phase of this study. W. D. Murphy, State Supervisor, and G. B. Whitman, Assistant State Supervisor of Extension Farm Labor Program, helped to develop the forms used in the study and supervised the fieldmen who collected the data. S. T. Rice, Assistant in Agricultural Economics, helped in tabulating the data. The writing of the report was supervised jointly by P. E. Johnston and R. C. Ross, Professor of Agricultural Economics Research. L. F. Aldrich, John H. Becker, George O. Bellman, Allen L. Higgins, A. H. Hoffman, H. H. Cline, Carl M. McComb, and William E. Williams, Area Fieldmen in the Extension Farm Labor Program, collected the records in the field. J Thruout this publication the word labor refers to farm labor unless otherwise indicated. 559 560 BULLETIN No. 528 [April, workers, (4) amount of custom work done and rates paid for various custom operations, and (5) the number of man and machine hours of labor exchanged. Source of Data Because of an increasing need for information to serve as a back- ground for research into problems concerning farm labor, a state-wide survey was undertaken late in 1946 as a part of the Extension Farm Labor Program at the University of Illinois. The survey was carried out under the guidance of the Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Illinois, with funds supplied by the Federal Extension Farm Labor Program, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Farms to be surveyed were selected by the method of enumerative area sampling known as the Master Sample, which is designed so that averages obtained are representative of the state. 1 By using an ex- pansion factor 2 on the sample data, state totals were obtained that are statistically correct within limited error (see Tables 3, 5, 6, 7 and 16). While the area samples give an approximate picture of labor con- ditions within each area, the samples were not large enough to permit the use of expansion factors that would give an accurate total for any area. The smallness of the sample within an area also prevents an area average from having anything like the same degree of accuracy that the state average has. By use of the Master Sample, 896 usable surveys were obtained from farms of 30 acres and larger. Definitions of Terms as Used in This Study A farm is one or several tracts of land consisting of 30 acres or more on which some agricultural operations were performed during 1946.' 1 For a detailed explanation of the Master Sample, see KING, A. J., and JESSEN, R. J., The Master Sample of Agriculture. Jour. Amer. Statis. Assoc. 40, 38-56. March, 1945. 1 The expansion factor in this study was determined by dividing the number of the 1945 Census farms having 30 acres or more (173,640) by the number of sample farms of 30 acres or more from which usable records were obtained (896) ; the result is 193.80. The authors are indebted to the Statistical Labora- tory of Iowa State College for the plan which guided the selection of the sample farms in this survey and for the determination of the factor for expanding the statistical information obtained from the survey to totals that would represent the state as a whole. 3 Farms of less than 30 acres were not included in the survey because of the small amount they contribute to total agricultural production. Of the 204,239 farms in Illinois in 1945, 30,599 included were less than 30 acres. Of the 31,602,- 186 acres in farms in Illinois only 351,121 acres were in farms of less than 30 acres. (U. S. Census of Agriculture, 1945, Vol. 1, Illinois.) 1948} ILLINOIS FARM LABOR IN 1946 561 Agricultural operations consist of the production of crops and plants, vines and trees (excluding forestry operations), or the keeping, grazing, or feeding of livestock for animal products, animal increase, or value enhancement during 1946. Family labor is labor performed by any member of the farm family not receiving a definite wage. 1 Seasonal labor is labor hired for periods of less than five months. A year-round worker is one hired to work continuously on a farm for five months or more. Custom work is work done with machines or with horses by one operator for another and for which a cash payment or settlement is made. Exchange labor is labor that is traded and for which no cash settle- ment is made. It may be done with or without horses or machines. The operator is the person who manages and supervises the farm. If the farm is operated as a partnership, with all operating capital jointly owned, both partners are considered operators. In "father-son" arrange- ments the son is considered unpaid family labor and the father is con- sidered the operator. Youth includes boys and girls under 18 years of age who did farm work. 1 Delineation of Farm Labor Areas For the purpose of this study Illinois was divided into four areas based on differences in the amount, kind, and cost of farm labor. The average monthly cost per farm worker, average months of labor hired per farm in a year, average cost of hired labor per farm, and total average labor input per farm were the differentiating items. Area 1 is located largely in northeastern Illinois. Intensive dairy and truck farm predominate. It includes also some counties to the west where beef cattle and hog enterprises combine to create a high demand for labor, particularly for year-round and family labor. Owing to the intensive production of livestock in this area and to the general proximity of the farms to urban centers, competition for labor is keen and wages are high. The farms in this area are slightly smaller than the state average, as is indicated by the fact that the area includes a larger percentage of the farms in the state (14.5) than farmland in the state (14.0) (Table 1). . 1 Hours of labor done by women and youth 'were recorded in terms of man- labor equivalent. Each farmer was asked by the enumerator to give the number of hours it would have taken a man to perform the amount of work done by individuals in these two classes. 562 BULLETIN No. 528 [April, Table 1. Number of Farms in Four Illinois Labor Areas, Total Acres in Farms, and Percent of State Totals, 1945 (Data include only farms of 30 acres or more) Number Percent of state Number Percent of state Area 1 Farms 25 182 14.5 Acres in farms 4 360 152 14 .0 Area 2 Farms 82760 47.7 Acres in farms .. . 15 454 386 49.5 Area3 Farms 23 855 13.7 Acres in farms 6 508 233 20.8 Area 4 Farms 41 843 24.1 Acres in farms 4 816 631 15 .4 State Farms 173 640 Acres in farms 31 251 065 Area totals added together do not quite equal state totals because of the omission in the Census of separate data for single farms when there was only one farm in a classification. This omission was necessary in order to avoid disclosure of individual operations. Source of data is U. S. Census of Agriculture, 1945, Vol. 1, Illinois, Part 5, County Table 6. Area 2 is the territory remaining after the boundaries for Areas 1, 3, and 4 were determined. It is made up of several subareas that differ rather widely in their labor problems but none of the subareas are large enough and none have enough records to be considered separately. In general, the labor situation during the war was less acute in this area than in Areas 1 and 3. In Adams, Brown, Schuyler, Pike, Calhoun, and Scott counties there was more than enough local labor for the volume of work to be done. That the farms in Area 2 are slightly larger than the state average is shown by the fact that the area includes a smaller percentage of the farms of the state (47.7) than of farmland of the state (49.5) (see Table 1). Area 3 is composed of a group of counties in central Illinois. Cash grain production is the major enterprise. The farms are the largest of any of the areas; they make up only 13.7 percent of the total farms in the state but include 20.8 percent of the farmland in the state. The total labor used per farm and the amount of year-round labor hired are nearly as high as in Area 1. Because the farms in Area 3 are larger and of different types, less labor is used per 100 acres of farmland. (These comments are based on data which will be found in Tables 1 and 2.) During the period of labor scarcity the labor problem in Area 3 was complicated by the fact that farmers here had normally relied on seasonal labor for help during the peak-load summer months, and workers of this type were not available. 1948] ILLINOIS FARM LABOR IN 1946 563 Area 4 is in southern Illinois. The farms are smaller than in the other areas and the supply of family labor is larger. During most of the war period there was a surplus of farm labor in the general- farm- ing sections of this area. Scattered thruout the area, however, are sec- tions of intensive fruit and vegetable production and in these sections Four Areas Into Which Illinois Was Divided for Purposes of the Study there is a high demand for seasonal workers during harvest periods. The wages at these times in these sections are considerably above the normal wages for other seasons and above wages in other parts of the area. The area contains 24.1 percent of the farms in the state but only 15.4 percent of the land in farms in the state (Table 1). 564 BULLETIN No. 528 \_Apr\l, Farms Grouped by Size For purpose of analysis the farms were divided into three groups made up of 30 to 99 acres, 100 to 179 acres, and 180 acres or more. The number of sample farms in each group is shown in Table 2. In all areas the total labor input per 100 acres was inversely pro- portional to the size of the farms. This does not imply, however, that size is the only factor that influences labor input; the kind of crops raised, the amount of livestock carried, and the mechanical equipment used are also important factors. Table 2. Months of Labor Used per Farm in Four Illinois Labor Areas, 1946" (By size of farm) Size of farm Size of farm Item 30- 100- 180- AH 30- 100- 180- All 99 A 179 A 742 A sizes 99 A 179 A 742 A sizes Area 1 Area 2 Number of farms ...21 56 63 140 64 161 197 422 Class of labor (months) (months) Operators ... 7 .4 11 .1 9.9 10 .0 10.9 11.2 12.6 11.8 Family ... 4 .7 4 ,4 4.5 4 .5 1.3 2.8 3.6 2.9 Year-round married men 6 .1 4.5 ? ? .1 1.1 .6 Year-round single men 1 3 2.8 1 8 .5 1.0 .6 Seasonal .4' 8 1 .6 1 .1 .4 .8 1.4 1.0 Total labor per farm . . . 13 ,1 17 ,9 23.3 19 .6 12.6 15.4 19.7 16.9 Total labor per 100 acres. . . . 23 .6 12 .8 7.7 9 .7 18.9 10.6 6.3 8.1 Area 3 Area 4 Number of farms ... 5 47 84 136 52 63 83 198 Class of labor (months) (months) Operators . . . 11 .1 11.1 11 .8 11.6 8 .8 10.1 11.4 10.4 Family . . . 1 .0 1.6 3 .8 2.9 1 .5 1.4 3.2 2.2 Yearound married men ... 2 .0 .7 3 2.2 .5 1.2 .9 .9 Year-round single men .8 1 .5 1 .2 .5 .4 .9 .6 Seasonal .9 .6 1 ,7 1.2 3 .2 3.7 1.4 2.5 Total labor per farm . 15 .0 14.8 21 8 19.1 14 .5 16.8 17.8 16.6 Total labor per 100 acres. . . . 24 .9 10.3 7 1 8.0 21 .8 12.2 6.0 8.9 All four areas: On a total of 896 farms, operators worked 11.2 months per farm; family members other than operator worked 3.0 months per farm; year-round married men worked 1.1 months per farm; year-round single men worked .9 month per farm; and seasonal workers worked 1.4 months per farm; making a total of 17.6 months of labor per farm. The monthly labor input per 100 acres was 8.5. Not all commercial custom labor is included in this table. LABOR PATTERN IN ILLINOIS The number of workers needed on a farm depends on the type of farming followed, size and organization of the farm, amount of labor-saving equipment available, opportunities to exchange labor with 1948} ILLINOIS FARM LABOR IN 1946 565 other farmers, and length of time each worker is employed. One farm may need the full time of two men, while the operator of another farm may have to find outside employment at times in order to make full use of his own labor. During the strawberry season in southern Illinois many workers are needed for picking for a period of ten days; on a small dairy farm in northern Illinois one man employed the year round may be all the hired labor required. Some workers are paid by the day, some by the month, and some by the amount of work they do. Some farmers pay their help entirely with cash, others supplement cash with goods and services useful to the worker. Five classifications of labor are used in this study: family, seasonal, year-round, custom, and exchange. Number of farms using various classes of labor. Family labor was used on 97 percent of the farms in Illinois during 1946. Seasonal labor was hired on 63 percent of the farms while 17 percent of the farms employed year-round workers. Commercial custom work was done on 56 percent of the farms (Table 3). Seasonal labor in Illinois is provided by local, migratory, and foreign workers. Farmers hire local workers from neighboring farms or nearby towns for many farm jobs, but mainly for planting and Table 3. Number of Farms in Illinois Using Each Class of Labor and Number of Workers Employed, 1946 Class of labor Percent of Number of farms farms' Number of workers" Seasonal, total 63 109 497 417 637 Day, total 105 427 350 003 Men 101 745 321 320 Women 1 357 11 240 Youth 10 465 17 442 Piece, total 16 085 67 636 Men 15 892 66 473 Women Youth 194 1 162 Year-round, total 17 29 070 37 791 Married men 16 667 20 543 Single men 15 892 17 248 Commercial custom work, total , 56 96 512 b Family labor, total 97 168 412 293 995 Operator, total 167 443 173 451 Other than operator, total 86 822 120 544 Men 26 357 31 202 Women 47 481 48 838 Youth 31 202 40 504 All classes 100 173 640 749 425 These state totals were derived by use of an expansion factor, as explained in footnote on p. 560. b Number of workers doing commercial custom work could not be ascertained. 566 BULLETIN No. 528 [April, Table 4. Major Classes of Labor, and Percent Each Contributed to Total Labor Used on Sample Farms in 1946 Class of labor Percent Family labor . Farm operator 64 .0 Other than operator 16.4 80 . 4 Hired labor Seasonal 7.7 Year-round 11 .3 Commercial custom .6 19.6 Total... 100.0 harvesting of crops. Migratory workers are used chiefly for producing fruits, vegetables, and canning crops. They travel from their home communities to other communities to harvest the crops, returning to their homes during the winter months. Foreign agricultural workers were used during the war to supplement domestic labor. 1 This shifting of workers from farm to farm accounts for the fact that there were about one and one-half times as many seasonal workers as family workers in Illinois in 1946 even tho 97 percent of the farms had family labor and only 63 percent had seasonal labor. Year-round workers are used mainly on dairy and livestock farms, where the services of one or more men are needed to supplement family labor. Hired labor. Only about 20 percent of the labor used in Illinois is hired. Year-round hired workers contribute 11.3 percent of the total labor supply, seasonal workers 7.7 percent, and commercial custom workers .6 percent (Table 4). Sixty-seven percent of the farms in Illinois used some hired labor in 1946, but few of these farms used large amounts; 39.3 percent hired less than one month of labor, 55.6 percent hired less than two months, 72.3 percent less than six months, and 84.2 percent less than twelve months (Table 5). Only 15.8 percent of the farms hiring labor hired one full-time year-round worker or his equivalent. Cost of hired labor. Approximately 95 million dollars were paid for hired labor in Illinois during 1946. Year-round workers re- ceived 58.6 percent of the total, seasonal workers 38.3 percent, and commercial custom workers 3.1 percent (Table 6). 1 During the labor shortage created by World War II agreements were made with foreign governments permitting their citizens to come to the United States (on a contract that provided for their return to their native country) to help produce and harvest seasonal crops. These agreements have been carried into the postwar period. 1948] ILLINOIS FARM LABOR IN 1946 567 Table 5. Distribution of Hired Labor Among All Illinois Farms, 1946 a Months of labor Farms using amount of labor indicated Months of labor Farms using amount of labor indicated Number b Percent Number b Percent 9 45 737 39 3 11-11 9 ... 1 744 1 .5 1 - 19 . . 18 992 16 3 12-12.9 ... 8 333 7.2 ? 2 9 9 690 8 3 13 . 13 9 1 938 1 >, 1 9 4 845 4 2 14 - 14 9 775 .7 4 49 . . . 3 682 3 2 15-15 9 775 .7 >i 5 9 1 163 1 16 - 16 9 ... 1 163 1 .0 ft 69 1 938 1 7 17 - 17 9 194 .2 7 79 . . . 2 907 2 S 18 - 18.9 388 .5 8 8 9 1 938 1 7 19 . 19 9 388 .5 Q . 9 9 3 101 27 ... 4 651 4.0 10 - 10 9 . . . 2 132 1 8 Total . . .116 474 100.0 a Sixty-seven percent of the farms in Illinois hire some farm labor. Commercial custom labor is not included in this table. b These state totals were derived by use of an expansion factor, as explained in footnote on p. 560. Payments made to seasonal workers were 94 percent cash; the rest was usually made up of meals, altho other goods and services were sometimes furnished. In addition to the 65 percent of their income that was in cash, year-round married workers were furnished housing and products for home use. Year-round single workers received board, room, and laundry. Both married and single year-round workers were given bonuses, sometimes in cash, sometimes in farm produce. The total value of bonuses is expressed in dollars in the tables. Table 6. Costs for Hired Farm Labor in Illinois, 1946 a Class of labor Cost b Percent Class of labor Cost b Percent All classes Seasonal ?36 229 941 38 .3 Year-round 55 514 205 58.6 Commercial custom. .. 2 890 527 3.1 Total 94 634 673 100 .0 Seasonal Day wages 28712633 80.6 Piecework wages 5 106 436 13.2 Value of items furnished 2410872 6.2 Total 36 229 941 100 .0 Year-round Married 33066156 59.6 Single 22 448 049 40 .4 Total 55514205 100.0 Year-round married workers Wages $21 537 382 65 . 1 Bonus 2303119 7.1 Products furnished ... 5 733 573 17.3 Housing 3 492 082 10 .5 Total 33 066 156 100 .0 Year-round single workers Wages 13 686 350 61 .0 Bonus 924 620 4.1 Board 6509936 29.0 Room and laundry. ... 1 327 143 5.9 Total 22 448 049 100 .0 Commercial custom work was valued at 157 a month. b These state totals were derived by use of an expansion factor, as explained on page 560. 568 BULLETIN No. 528 FAMILY LABOR [April, During 1946 the operators of the sample farms furnished 64.0 per- cent of the labor; other members of the family furnished 16.4 percent. Thus 80.4 percent of the total labor was supplied by the family (Table 4). The months of labor supplied by operators and members of their families are shown on a state basis in Table 7. (Thruout this study the hours or months of labor done by women and youth are given in terms of man-labor equivalent. See footnote on page 561.) The head of the family is usually the farm operator and in this capacity is responsible for the management and supervision of the farm. 1 When there is a division of labor he does the jobs requiring the greatest skill and responsibility, leaving the less important jobs to hired workers or members of the family. For example, the operator would care for a sow at farrowing time, but might depend on some member of the family to fill the self-feeders or scrub the farrowing houses. Over half the farms in Illinois use some family labor other than that of the operator (Table 3). Table 7. Amount of Farm Labor Used in Illinois in 1946 Class of labor Months worked* Percent Class of labor Months worked* Percent All classes Hired 617 699 19 6 Seasonal 220 215 90.2 Family . 2 537 094 80.4 Piecework 24 031 9.8 Total . . . 3 154 793 100 Total 244 246 100 Hired Seasonal 244 246 38 3 Year-round hired 196 785 55.4 355 042 58 6 158 257 44 6 Commercial custom. . . . 18 411 3.1 Total 355 042 100.0 Total 617 699 100 Family Family other than operators Men 254 014 48.8 Operators . 2 016 799 79 5 Women 95 679 18.4 Other than operators. . 520 295 20 5 Youth 170 602 32.8 Total . 2 537 094 100 Total 520 295 100 > These state totals were derived by use of an expansion factor, as explained in footnote on p. 560. Brothers of the operator or brothers of his wife, mature sons who have not yet left home or who are in school and work during vaca- tion, or other male relatives supply the rest of the adult male labor. These people are usually capable of doing full-time work. On the other hand, there may be older members of the family, such as the father or an uncle of the operator or his wife, whose labor in most 1 For a definition of operator see page 561. 1948] ILLINOIS FARM LABOR IN 1946 569 cases is limited to chores, such as feeding or milking, but who may lend a hand in the field during peak-labor periods or periods of emergency. Women workers for the most part are the wives of the operators, altho occasionally there may be a grown daughter or other relative living with the family. They may help with the milking, be responsible for the poultry and other types of work connected with the farmstead, or work in the fields during periods of emergency when no other labor is available. 1 On a farm there is usually a good deal of work that youth 2 can do. A boy begins at seven or eight years to handle relatively easy jobs like feeding calves or gathering eggs; in time he takes on more respon- sibility, until at the age of seventeen he is capable of doing practically any kind of farm work. However, since most youth in Illinois go to school nine months of the year, only during the summer are they available for full-time work. While attending school they can do such chores as milking and feeding in mornings and evenings and a full day's work on Saturday. Altho members of the family are not usually paid in cash, they live on the farm and must be provided for regardless of the amount of work they do. Farm operators who make the best use of family labor plan their production programs so they can adjust their operations to the change in labor supply. Table 8. Average Input of Different Classes of Family Labor, Other Than Operators, on Sample Farms in Four Labor Areas in Illinois, 1946 Months worked per farm Men Women Youth Area 1 2 5 g 1 2 Area 2 14 6 9 Area 3 1.2 g 9 Area 4 1 2 1 Average for four areas 1 4 6 1 The amounts of labor furnished by the operator and by other members of the family vary from area to area, as shown in Tables 2 and 8. In Areas 1 and 4 the operator spends less time working on the farm than in Areas 2 and 3. In Area 1 a part of the operators work in urban areas during slack season, while others do part-time farming. 1 Especially in busy seasons during World War II many women worked by the sides of their husbands, sons, and brothers. 2 For definition of youth see page 561. 570 BULLETIN No. 528 [April, In Area 4 it is necessary for many farm operators to seek employment off the farm in order to make efficient use of their labor; they may find local employment or work in adjacent localities. Since men other than the operator spend more time on the farm in Area 1 (2.5 months) than in the other three areas, they make up for some of the time the operator spends off the farm. Men other than the operator spend an average of 1.4, 1.2, and 1.0 months on the farms in Areas 2, 3, and 4 respectively. The fact that the farms in Area 1 and parts of Areas 2 and 3 require considerable labor besides that of the operator means that in those areas adult members of the family find productive work that keeps them on the farm. Youth do less farm labor in Areas 2 and 3 than in the other areas. Since these areas have less livestock than Area 1, there is less work that youth can do during the fall, winter, and spring months. Since there is less nonagricultural work for youth in Area 4 than in other parts of the state, more young people are available for work on farms in that area. Women do less farm labor in Area 4 than in any other part of the state (Table 8). In this area so much other family help is usually avail- able, in proportion to total amount of work to be done, that women do not need to do farm work. SEASONAL LABOR Altho seasonal workers do only 7.7 percent of the farm labor in Illinois (Table 4), they are a very important part of the labor supply. A large number of operators of the more general farms depend on seasonal workers to supplement other labor during periods of heavy labor needs. On commercial fruit and vegetable farms the successful outcome of -a year's work often depends on securing seasonal workers during the harvest season. There are noticeable differences between the four farm-labor areas in amounts of seasonal labor used (Table 9). Since some seasonal workers in Illinois were paid on a time basis and some on a piecework basis, all time units were converted to days (or months) for purposes of analysis. Amount and Cost Amount. Two measures were used in determining the input of seasonal labor on farms hiring this class of workers: (1) average months of work done per farm, and (2) -average months of work done per worker per farm. The average farm using seasonal workers in 1946 1948} ILLINOIS FARM LABOR IN 1946 571 Table 9. Seasonal Labor: Input and Cost on Sample Farms Using Such Workers, in Four Labor Areas in Illinois, 1946 (By size of farm) Size of farm Size of farm Item 30- 99 A 100- 180- 179 A 742 A All sizes 30- 99 A 100- 179 A 180- 742 A All size s Area 1 Area 2 10 21 .8 .4 158 20 178 142 33 97 1 $148 27 175 222 , 45 142 .3 2.3 .4 .7 163 21 184 421 88 260 1.7 .6 $159 22 181 315 20 51 1.2 .5 2214 3 217 258 104 295 1.3 .4 55133 15 148 185 144 412 1.8 .6 Jill 15 125 227 268 758 1. 2124 14 138 213 5 5 Months worked per worker per farm Monthly cost per worker per farm Cash Total Area 3 Area 4 4 5 1 .2 .9 $ 97 2 99 117 30 82 152 14 166 153 64 294 .9 2.1 .3 .5 3184 10 194 409 98 381 1.7 .4 $175 10 185 318 16 175 9.7 .9 134 2 136 J331 31 314 7.6 .7 $146 1 147 1109 64 267 1.9 .4 $122 6 128 237 111 756 4. $137 3 140 638 6 7 Total number of workers Months worked per worker per farm Monthly cost per worker per farm Cash Total All four areas: On a total of 565 farms, 2,155 workers worked 2.2 months per farm and .6 month per worker per farm. Monthly cost per farm was $138 in cash plus $10 in items furnished. Total cost per farm was $331. For purposes of conversion it was assumed that 9 hours equal one day and 25 days equal one month. used 2.2 months of such labor, and the average seasonal worker worked .6 month per farm (Table 9). Area 4 had the second highest percentage of farms using seasonal labor, the greatest use of seasonal labor per farm, and the workers put in more time per farm than in any other area. These variations are explained by a few simple facts. In all areas some seasonal workers are used on general farms during peak labor seasons, but in Area 4 there are special crops to be harvested that require a large amount of seasonal labor. In certain parts of Area 4 are many apple and peach orchards and quite a few acres of small fruits. In all areas except Area 4 the input of seasonal labor is propor- tional to the size of the farms; in Area 4 the exact opposite is true. In this area the fruit enterprises are generally located on the smaller farms, while other types of enterprise are more prevalent on the larger farms. The hiring of a large number of seasonal workers while fruit 572 BULLETIN No. 528 [April, is being harvested accounts for the large amount of seasonal labor used on the smaller farms of southern Illinois. In Areas 1, 2, and 3 the same type of farming is common to most farms regardless of size; the average labor input for various classes of labor therefore in- creases with the size of the farm. Cost. The average monthly cost per worker, including cash pay- ments and noncash outlays, for seasonal labor in Illinois during 1946 was $148 (Table 9). Costs were relatively high in Areas 1 and 3, where they were approximately $183 per worker per month. In Areas 2 and 4 they came to about $140 a month. There are several reasons' for these differences. In Area 1 there is competition from urban industries for the labor supply at all times. In Area 3 demands arise for several kinds of sea- sonal agricultural labor, and the peak periods for several enterprises often come at the same time. Competition for labor is not strong in any part of Area 2; in fact some parts of the area have a surplus of labor. There is always a surplus of labor in Area 4; with a large labor supply available, wage rates are lower. In Area 4 cash made up a larger part of the payment to workers than in other areas. The reason for this is obvious, since most of the payment to seasonal workers other than cash was in the form of meals. In Area 4 most of the seasonal workers were fruit pickers, many of whom came from great distances. It was not practical, in most cases, for the farmers to furnish meals to such a large number. These people set up their own living quarters and prepared their own meals. Also, when the workers were local people, they usually furnished their own meals. Seasonal Day Labor More than 90 percent of the total input of seasonal farm labor in Illinois in 1946 was done by workers hired by the day (Table 7). For purposes of analysis the work done by these helpers was divided into seven classes: (1) general farm work, (2) hay and straw harvest, (3) harvest other than hay and fruit, (4) soil prepa- ration, cultivation, and planting, (5) land improvement and building repair, (6) work on fruit enterprise, and (7) miscellaneous. These jobs, together with the average wage rates paid for men, women, and youth, are shown in Table 10. Around 90 percent of the day labor in Illinois was done by men. Women and youth contributed about 5 percent each. Adaptability of women for work on fruit farms, which are numerous in Area 4, ac- counts for the high labor input (12.0 percent) by them in that area. 1948] ILLINOIS FARM LABOR IN 1946 573 Table 10. Seasonal Day Labor: Daily Wage Rate and Days Worked on Sample Farms Using Such Workers, in Four Labor Areas in Illinois, 1946 (By type of job) Item Daily wage rate Daily wage rate Daily wage rate Men Women Youth Men Women Youth Men Women Youth Area 1 Area 2 Area3 Type of job 36 29 $2 17 34 80 33 92 $5 17 $3 77 6 37 .... 4 17 557 4 38 4 82 .... Harvest other than hay 617 3 75 5 67 5 75 .... 3 00 Soil preparation, cultiva- tion and planting. . . . 6.23 6.00 5.18 2.50 4.97 4.00 Land improvement and .6.44 .... 7.80 7 Al*f .... 9 00 .... . 6 00 35 85 5 00 4 83 6 07 36.75 6 75 Labor input Days worked per farm. . . . 48 21 21 34 34 37 28 28 Days worked per worker. . 17 3 11 13 25 14 14 19 Percent of work done . 93.8 .5 5.7 93.8 6.2 91.1 .8 8.1 Area 4 State Type of job General farm work $4.16 34.60 34.94 33.91 Hay and straw harvest 5.43 3.33 5.66 4.09 Harvest other than hay and fruit 5.43 6.00 5.76 3.72 Soil preparation, cultivation and planting 5.00 2.75 5.22 3.91 5 32 6 82 Work on fruit enterprise 5.99 35.85 6.21 ?5.85 5.85 Miscellaneous 8.16 5.93 6.30 5.87 Labor input Days worked per farm 92 278 25 49 206 27 Days worked per worker 18 29 13 15 25 16 Percent of work done 84.5 12.0 3.5 89.7 5.1 5.2 Piecework Done by Seasonal Labor In the harvesting of some crops, such as fruits and tomatoes, pay- ment on a piecework basis is possible because the labor is performed in units which are easily counted or measured. Piecework rates offer an incentive to workers to work rapidly and thereby increase their earn- ings. Workers on a piecework basis contributed less than 10 percent of the seasonal labor used in Illinois during 1946 (Table 7). YEAR-ROUND HIRED LABOR Year-round workers did more of the labor on farms in Illinois in 1946 than all other classes of hired labor together, contributing 11.3 percent of the total labor and 58.6 percent of the hired labor (Tables 4 and 7). 574 BULLETIN No. 528 [April, On about 17 percent of the farms in Illinois the operations are large enough to require, in addition to family labor, the full time of one or more workers for five months or more. The farm operator hires either single or married workers, his choice depending to a large extent on the accommodations he has for workers and their families, period of service desired, and type of workers available. Amount and Cost Amount. The average input of year-round hired labor per farm is used as a measure for determining differences in year-round labor requirements among areas; this measure, however, must be qualified in reference to Area 3, as explained below. The average input of year-round hired labor is highest in Area 1 : 2.2 months for married workers and 1.8 months for single workers (Table 2). (Year-round workers were employed on 17 percent of the farms in this area.) Since dairy farms are common in this area and dairying requires a large amount of labor at all times of the year, quite a few year-round workers are needed. Cows must be milked and fed regardless of the season. Next to Area 1, Area 3 has the highest input of year-round hired labor per farm: 2.2 months for married workers and 1.2 months for single workers. Input per farm, however, is not a good basis for com- paring labor needs here with those in other areas, for Area 3 has the largest farms in the state and a larger share of the land is in tillable crops than in any other area in the state. If the average input per 100 acres, or per 100 acres of tillable land, were used as a measure, Area 3 would show a figure considerably lower than Area 1 and about equal to Area 2. It must be remembered that input per acre measures intensity of farm operations; whereas input per farm may be large because the farms are large, because of high input of labor per acre, or for both reasons. Areas 2 and 4 have about the same average input of year-round hired labor per farm: 1.2 and 1.5 months respectively. A large amount, of land in Area 2 is in pasture and nontillable. This situation accounts for the low amount of hired labor per farm, seasonal and year-round, in this area. In Area 4, where there are very few dairy and livestock farms, not much year-round labor need be hired. Cost. The average monthly payments made to single and mar- ried workers are shown in Tables 11 and 12. Table 13 gives the dis- tribution of wage rates within farm-labor areas. The average monthly payment made to married workers was $168; 1948] ILLINOIS FARM LABOR IN 1946 575 Table 11. Year-Round Single Workers: Labor Input and Cost on Sample Farms Using Such Workers, in Four Labor Areas in Illinois, 1946 (By size of farm) Item Size of farm Size of farm 30- 100- 99 A 179 A 180- 742 A All sizes 30- 100- 180- 99 A 179 A 742 A All sizes Area 1 Area 2 Total number of farms. 7 17 20 11 1 24 27 10 9 9 9 .... 7 22 23 .7 9.1 .7 8.7 389 47 136 31 32 8.8 8.5 382 48 130 7 Months worked per farm .... 10 3 Months worked per worker per farm. . Monthly cost per worker per farm Cash 10.3 . 398 9.5 71 188 9.7 3112 66 178 7 ... 363 53 116 53 Total 151 Area 3 Area 4 Total number of farms .... 3 14 14 8.9 8.9 397 47 144 17 17 9.4 9.4 393 42 135 2 3 3 3 13.8 7 9.2 7 382 339 12 49 94 88 5 7 .7 14.1 .2 10.1 382 24 106 10 13 12.1 93 374 26 100 Total number of workers .... 3 12 Months worked per worker per farm. . Monthly cost per worker per farm Cash 12.0 .... 378 Perquisites* 25 Total .... 103 All four areas: On a total of 82 farms 89 workers worked 9.9 months per farm and 9.1 months per worker per farm. Monthly cost per worker per farm was 392 cash plus 350 in items furnished, or 3142. For purposes of this study the use of a room was valued at 310 a month, board at 45 cents a meal, and laundry at 50 cents a week. that to single workers was $142. In all areas in the state married work- ers received more per month than single workers, the difference being in cash, as products .furnished each of these types of workers had about the same value. Wage rates for year-round labor followed the same pattern as those for seasonal labor. In Areas 1 and 3, where the labor supply is limited and competition for labor is keen, wages are high. In Areas 2 and 4, where for the most part there is a surplus of labor, wages are lower (Tables 11 and 12). Single Workers Single workers did approximately 45 percent of the year-round hired labor on Illinois farms in 1946; they worked an average of 10 months per farm and received an average of $142 a month for their efforts ( Tables 7 and 11). A single worker usually rooms with the family or in a bunk house. His remuneration usually consists of room, board, and laundry in ad- 576 BULLETIN No. 528 (April, dition to his cash wage. He may be assigned to work in the field and may help with the chores in the morning and evening. He stays on the farm a shorter time than the married worker, is younger or has less ex- perience, is given more free time, works under closer supervision, and is charged with less responsibility. These are the chief reasons why his wages average $26 a month lower than those of the married worker. Married Workers During 1946, 55.4 percent of the year-round hired labor in Illinois was furnished by married workers at an average cost of $168 a month (Tables 7 and 12). Table 12. Year-Round Married Workers: Labor Input and Cost on Sample Farms Using Such Workers, in Four Labor Areas in Illinois, 1946 (By size of farm) Item Size of farm Size of farm 30- 99 A 100- 180- All 30- 100- 180- All 179 A 742 A sizes 99 A 179 A 742 A sizes Area 1 Area 2 Total number of farms 1 1 2 16 20 28 14 3 22 31 14 2 2 2 10 5 24 24 8 8 $101 54 155 26 26 .9 9 9 9 $101 55 156 .0 1 . 12 Months worked per worker per farm. Monthly cost per worker per farm Cash . 12.0 .$129 8 $125 24 149 10.2 2143 58, 201 10.1 142 56 198 10.5 ... $91 52 ... 143 59 Total 188 Area 3 Area 4 Total number of farms 1 3 23 27 1 4 6 11 Total number of workers. . 1 3 27 31 2 9 7 18 Months worked per farm. . 8.0 10.9 11.1 10.9 24 .0 19.5 11 ,7 15 .7 Months worked per worker per farm.. 8.0 10.9 9.5 9.8 12 .0 8.7 10 1 9 6 Monthly cost per worker per farm Cash $80 $130 $126 $125 $132 $113 $90 $107 Perquisites i 61 47 47 12 22 19 19 Total 80 191 173 172 144 135 109 126 All four areas: On a total of 86 farms, 106 workers worked 11.8 months per farm and 9.6 months per worker per farm. Monthly cost per worker per farm was $121 in cash plus $47 in items furnished, or 168. Usually the year-round married worker is a dependable and re- sponsible man who has been on the farm a long time and who may be in charge of a specific section of the farm program. He may, for ex- ample, do or supervise all tasks pertaining to the hog project. It is not uncommon for the operator and his family to go on a vacation during 1948] ILLINOIS FARM LABOR IN 1946 577 Table 13. Wage Rates Paid Year-Round Workers on Sample Farms in Four Farm Labor Areas in Illinois, 1946 Monthly wage Area 1 Area 2 Area3 Area 4 State Number of Number of Number of Number of Number of workers workers workers workers workers Single workers S16- $25 1 26-35 1 36-45 4 46- 55 2 4 '56- 65 3 2 66- 75 2 5 76- 85 1 5 86 - 95 3 2 96- 105 6 7 106 - 115 116- 125 6 1 126- 135 136- 145 .' 146- 155 156 and over 4 Married workers $46- ?55... 56-65 1 66- 75 2 76-85 3 86- 95 1 7 96 - 105 4 8 106 - 115 2 2 116- 125 9 . 1 126 - 135 3 136 - 145 1 146- 155 5 1 156 and over. . 6 1 6 4 12 3 2 1 1 3 7 8 7 8 12 (> 18 4 9 1 3 h 11 [3 28 9 15 4 1 6 8 the slack season of the year and leave a year-round married worker in charge. Besides a cash payment he usually receives housing for his family, products that can be used in the household, and occasionally other goods and services. Housing facilities furnished. Of the houses provided year-round married workers in the state, 63 percent had electricity, 31.5 percent had running water, 18.5 percent had furnace heat, and 21.7 percent had a sanitary toilet and bath with running water (Table 14). The houses having the highest percentage of these facilities were in Area 1, where over half had electricity, running water, and a sanitary toilet. In Area 2 the houses had a slightly higher percentage of these facilities than in Area 3. In Area 4, of the 13 houses sampled only 3 had electricity, that being the only available facility. In areas where high wage rates are paid, the married worker is usually furnished a house well equipped with modern facilities to provide for the comfort and convenience of his family. 578 BULLETIN No. 528 [April, Table 14. Facilities for Year-Round Married Workers on Sample Farms Furnishing Housing in Four Labor Areas in Illinois, 1946 Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 State Facilities furnished and = description of housing Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- ber cent" ber cent* ber cent* ber cent* ber cent* Houses furnished 29 .... 25 .... 25 13 .... 92 .... Facilities furnished Electricity 28 96.6 17 68.0 10 40.0 3 23 58 63.0 Running water 20 70.0 4 16.0 5 20.0 00 29 31.5 Sanitary toilet 16 55.2 3 10.3 1 4.0 20 21.7 Bath with running water. . 15 51.7 3 10.3 2 8.0 20 21.7 Type of heat Stove 18 62.1 21 84.0 23 92.0 13 100 75 81.5 Furnace 11 37.9 4 16.0 2 8.0 00 17 18.5 Average number of rooms furnished . . 6 5 6 4 5 Reported condition of house Good 19 65.5 13 52.0 14 56 .0 8 61.5 54 58.9 Fair 10 34.5 12 48.0 9 36 3 23.0 34 37.0 Poor 2 8 .0 2 15.4 4 4.3 Location of house On farm 26 89.7 20 80.0 21 84 .0 13 100 80 87.0 Off farm 3 10.3 5 20.0 4 16 .0 12 13.0 Thruout this table percentages show relation of item to total houses furnished. Value of items furnished. The value of products and other items furnished year-round married workers varied considerably from area to area (Table 15). In Area 1 they averaged $334-; in Area 2, $331; in Area 3, $299; and in Area 4, only $78. Milk, pork, beef and veal, feeds, and wood and coal, were the five most important items furnished, these making up more than 75 percent of the total. Other items furnished .were poultry, eggs, garden space, vegetables, electricity, gas and oil, and miscellaneous. Milk accounted for about the same share of the total in Areas 1, 2, and 3; but in Area 4, where there are few dairy cows, very little milk was furnished. Beef and veal made up a larger part of the total in Area 1 than in other areas; which indicates that farmers in this area may use hired labor as an outlet for disposing of some of their veal calves. Workers in Areas 3 and 4 often have their own hogs, chickens, and cows; and this explains why feed made up about 28 and 18 percent respectively of the products and items furnished workers in these two areas. 1948] ILLINOIS FARM LABOR IN 1946 579 Table 15. Value of Products and Items Furnished on Sample Farms Hiring Year-Round Married Men in Four Labor Areas in Illinois, 1946 a Items furnished Average quantity per per worker worker Average value b Percent of total Average quantity per per worker worker Average value 6 Percent of total Area 1 Area 2 Pork, pounds 281 $ '48 14.3 287 $49 14.8 Beef and veal, pounds 247 42 12 .6 70 12 3.5 Poultry, pounds 41 11 3.3 30 8 2.5 Milk, gallons 338 118 35.3 320 112 33.9 Eggs, dozens 68 23 7.0 17 6 1.7 Feeds 22 6.5 .. 30 9.3 Garden space 6 1.8 . . 3 .8 Vegetables 2 .5 .. 4 1.3 Electricity 23 6.9 .. 1.6 Gas and oil 4 1.3 .. 2 .6 Wood and coal 14 4.2' . . 13 4.0 Other 21 6.3 87 26.0 Total $334 100.0 .. $331 100.0 Area 3 Area 4 Pork, pounds 337 '? 57 19.1 93 $16 20.3 Beef and veal, pounds 25 4 1 .4 9 1 .2 Poultry, pounds 28 7 2.5 Milk, gallons 355 124 41.7 21 8 9.7 Eggs, dozens 5 2 .6 Feeds 85 28.3 .. 14 18.5 Garden space 4 1 .4 . . 4 4.6 Vegetables .... . . 10 13 .6 Electricity .1 .. O Gas and oil 2 .5 .. Wood and coal 7 2.0 .. 4 5.7 Other 7 2.4 21 27.4 Total $299 100.0 .. $78 100.0 Pork, pounds 267 $ 45 16.1 Beef and veal, pounds 98 17 6.0 Poultry, pounds 27 7 2.6 Milk, gallons 284 100 35.7 Eggs, dozens . . . . ; 26 9 3.2 Feeds ^ 41 14.7 Garden space 4 1.5 Vegetables 3 1.2 Electricity 8 2.9 Gas and oil 2 .8 Wood and coal 16 5.7 Other 27 9.6 Total.. . -$279 - 100.0 State Number of farms sampled b In this study milk was val a pound, pork at 17 cents a pound, ana oeei ana veai ar products and items furnished was estimated by the farmer. 580 BULLETIN No. 528 [April, CUSTOM LABOR AND MACHINES FOR HIRE Several operations on Illinois farms, especially those concerned with the harvesting of crops, require several men and one or more rela- tively expensive farm machines, such as a tractor, combine, corn picker, or hay baler. Obviously it is not practical for the average operator to purchase machinery for all such operations. Some farmers therefore buy machines in partnership with their neighbors, but a greater part of them hire some of this work done by a commercial custom operator or by a farmer who has equipped with enough machines to do work for others in addition to his own work. When the regular farm workers ( family, year-round hired workers, or seasonal workers) on these sample farms helped with custom operations, 1 their hours of labor were still accounted for in their respec- tive classes. This was done because when one farmer performs custom work for another, the labor and costs are merely transferred from one farm to another and there is no difference in the total input on the farms as a whole. But in the present study, as would be true of almost any group of farms in Illinois, the total custom work hired was greater than the amount done for others. The difference is assumed to have been done by non farmers on a commercial basis. The amount of com- mercial custom labor shown to have been used on the farms in this study has therefore been ascertained merely by subtracting the total volume of custom work done for others from the total volume of such work hired. 2 Amount of Custom Work Done Approximately half the custom work done in 1946 was done by commercial custom labor, the other half by farmers (Tables 16 and 17) . There was considerable difference in the amount and kind of cus- tom labor used in the various labor areas. As would be expected, Area 3 used the most: 79.1 hours per farm, 44.0 hours being done by farm- ers, the rest by commercial custom workers. Area 1 used an average of 43.9 hours per farm, but only 15.6 hours of this was done by farmers. Farming operations in this area are generally not on extensive enough scale to merit the purchase of 1 It should be remembered that custom work as used here refers only to opera- tions for which a cash settlement was made. It does not include work traded and for which, therefore, no cash settlement was made. 1 Much of the commercial custom work done for the operators of the survey farms was probably done by farmers operating less than 30 acres. 1948] ILLINOIS FARM LABOR IN 1946 Table 16. Total Hours and Costs of Custom Work on Illinois Farms in 1946 581 Item Hours" Costs* Custom work hired 8 156 848 830 743 463 Custom work done for others 4 036 078 17 794 328 Commercial custom work b 4 120 770 12 944 135 These state totals were derived by the use of an expansion factor, as explained on page 560. b The difference between custom work hired and that done for others is assumed to have been commercial custom work; that is, custom work done by nonfarmers. expensive harvesting machinery; farmers must therefore depend on commercial outfits for most of their custom work. Altho, on the average, farmers and commercial workers did about equal amounts of custom work in Area 2, this was not true in all parts of the area. In some sections many of the machines used for custom work are owned by farmers, and in other sections practically none are so owned. Very few farmers do custom work in the mixed livestock sections and in the wheat, dairy, and poultry sections. In Area 4 farming, for the most part, is not extensive, and most of the work is done with rather simple machines. Custom operations are therefore few, and about two-thirds of the custom work is done by farm workers. Cost of Custom Work Farmers in Illinois paid out almost 13 million dollars for about 4 million hours of commercial custom work in 1946 (Table 16). This remuneration covered both labor and machines. Farmers who did custom work received approximately 18 million dollars for about the same amount of work. The owners of commercial machines perform the more conventional operations, and having developed special skill and Table 17. Hours and Costs of Custom Work on Sample Farms in Four Labor Areas, Illinois, 1946 Item Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 State Number of farms 140 422 136 198 896 Work per farm Hired hr. 43 9 hr. 45 3 hr. 79 1 hr. 30 6 hr. 47 Done for others 156 21 1 44 19 23 3 28 3 24 2 35 1 11 6 23 7 Cost per farm ?184 55188 {5281 }5 78 55177 Work done for others 61 105 190 65 102 Commercial work . . . 123 83 91 13 75 582 BULLETIN No. 528 efficiency, they can charge lower rates, as a rule, than farmers and still make a reasonable profit. The over-all rates paid per unit for custom operations performed with selected machines are shown in Table 18, together with data on who furnished the fuel. The number of farms from which the samples were taken varied so greatly that the averages are by no means equally representative of actual conditions in the different areas. Table 19 gives a somewhat better idea of rates charged. Combines, balers, corn pickers, and threshers were used with trac- tors to do a large part of the custom work in Illinois during 1946. These machines were hired on enough sample farms to make the average rates shown for the different areas reasonably representative except the bushel rates paid for the corn picker and tractor and for the combine and tractor. These rates are not necessarily representative since out of 299 farmers hiring a combine and tractor only 14 made payment on this basis, and out of 16*1 farmers hiring a corn picker and tractor only 28 made payments on this basis (Table 18). The average rate for the state as a whole for the use of the combine and tractor was $3.69 an acre when the machine owner furnished the fuel and $3.49 when the farmer furnished the fuel (Table 18). The variations from one area to another are not particularly significant. Table 18. Average Custom Rates Paid for Operations Performed Frequently on Sample Farms in Four Labor Areas in Illinois, 1946 (By type of equipment) Fuel furnished by- Unit Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 State fara unit e unit farms Num- R . ber ^ e fa?ms unit Num- R ber K - dte fals unit N be m ~ Rate of P*. 1 . farms Combine and tractor Machine owner. . . Acre 2 33 37 3 .00 .27 112 33.70 57 3.58 5 .15 37 33.63 7 4.00 33 33.82 184 33.69 101 3.49 14 .21 Bushel 9 .23 Baler and tractor Machine owner ... Bale 24 .12 98 .14 65 .15 22 .14 209 .14 Farmer Bale 41 .12 37 .14 10 .16 88 .13 Corn picker and tractor Machine owner. . .Acre 9 3.44 52 4.02 16 4.25 3 4.66 80 4.02 Farmer Acre 22 3.51 27 3.86 4 3.12 53 3.66 Machine owner ... Bushel 9 .10 15 .10 24 .10 Farmer Bushel 4 .09 4 .09 1948] ILLINOIS FARM LABOR IN 1946 583 Table 19. Variations in Custom Rates Reported by Operators Surveyed in Four Labor Areas in Illinois, 1946 1 Area I: fuel furnished by Area 2: fuel furnished by- Area 3 : fuel furnished by- Area 4: fuel furnished by- State: fuel furnished by Fam - Combine and tractor : number of cases Acre $1.50 -?2.49. . 2 7 4 2 1 10 6 2.50 - 3 .49. .. .- 12 28 56 21 25 3 5 98 52 3.50 - 4 .49. .. 4 19 102 34 32 4 36 174 57 4.50 - 5 49 2 22 8 6 3 7 35 13 Baler and tractor : number of cases Bale 085- .104. 5 11 8 5 3 2 18 16 .105- .125- .145- .165- .185- .124. .144. .164. .184. .204. 13 8 3 12 12 6 34 25 40 3 1 17 14 7 1 6 4 17 24 18 3 1 4 3 3 2 3 5 12 2 1 54 55 79 23 5 30 30 16 4 8 Corn picker and tractor : number of cases Acre. . . . Bushel . 2 3 4 .50 - 3 50 - 4 50 - 5 O75- 49. . 49 49 .... 7 13 7 18 1 13 34 14 3 1 8 2 4 20 6 I '3 2 15 8 5 2 8 2 3 'i 1 ~2 2 'i 7 22 58 24 8 3 17 11 20 38 8 2 3 O84 .085- .094.. .095- .104 . 105 and over. . Thresher and tractor : number of cases 1 Bushel... .005- .025- .045- .065- .085- .105- .125- . 145 ai .024. .044. .064. 2 6 18 1 6 2 19 17 7 4 1 1 1 3 1 2 12 5 1 6 1 7 30 3 19 9 2 7 1 12 5 5 1 .084. .104. .124. 144 12 1 Includes custom work done by and for operators of sample farms. 'Part of the variation in thresher rates is due to differences in crops threshed (see Table 21) Those cases in Area 1 in which the machine owner furnished the fuel and those in Area 3 in which the farmer furnished the fuel are not numerous enough to give representative averages for these two areas. The rate for the use of the baler and tractor when the machine owner furnished the fuel was 14 cents a bale as an average for the state; when the farmer furnished the fuel it was 13 cents a bale. Rates in Area 1 were slightly below the state average, 12 cents being paid regardless of who furnished the fuel. In Area 3 rates were slightly above average, 15 cents being paid per bale when the machine owner 584 BULLETIN No. 528 [April, Table 20. Variations in Rates Paid for Custom Work With Combine and Tractor on Crops Reported, Illinois, 1946 Crop and unit Rate paid Number of cases when fuel was furnished by Machine owner Farmer Oats, per acre Soybeans, per acre 31 2 3 2 3 4 2 .50-32 .50- 3 .50 - 4 .50- 3 .50 - 4 .50- 5 50 - 3 .49 .49 6 44 1 6 6 7 4 2 1 ' 3 1 49 . . 29 .49 49 14 59 49 10 49 8 3 1 .50- 50 - 4 ? .49 15 49 1 2 3 4 .50 - .50- .50- 3 4 5 .49 6 49 4 49 2 furnished the fuel; there were not enough cases where the farmer furnished the fuel to give a significant average. The average state rate for the use of the corn picker and tractor was $4.02 an acre when the machine owner furnished the fuel and $3.66 an acre when the farmer furnished it. Besides the machines already discussed, there were more than twenty other machines or combinations of machines used less fre- quently for custom work during 1946. Among these machines the ones used most often were tractor and sheller, tractor and silo filler, tractor and plow, lime spreader, and trucks hauling corn. These five were the only ones used on more than fifteen farms in the sample. Table 21. Variations in Rates Paid for Custom Work With Thresher and Tractor on Crops Reported, Illinois, 1946 Crop and unit Rate paid Number of cases when fuel was furnished by M own h e r Farmer 3.015 -3.024 6 3 3 i Wheat, per bushel 025 - 034 4 035 - 044 4 .045 - .054 9 055 - 064 7 065 - 074 1 .075 and over 2 045 - 064 1 Cowpeas, per bushel 065 - 084 7 085 - 104 2 9 .30- .34... 1 35 - 39 2 .40 - .44 ! 2 .45 and over. . . 2 1948] ILLINOIS FARM LABOR IN 1946 585 Some enumerators reported rates paid for harvesting various crops even tho this information was not specifically called for on the survey forms. The rates reported for the harvesting of several crops by com- bine\and tractor are shown in Table 20 and those for thresher and tractor in Table 21. Only for the combining of soybeans and oats (Table 20) were enough sample rates obtained to give unbiased state averages. The rest of the rates are merely illustrative of the great variations that occur in the cost of the same operation. 1 A great many farm operators exchange labor and the use of ma- chines. 2 One farmer may own a combine and another a corn picker, so one harvests all the small grain on both farms and the other picks all the corn. Another rather common exchange is between a farmer with land that drains well and another with land that drains poorly. As soon as the well-drained land is ready to work, both farmers prepare it for planting; and later, when the poorly drained land is in workable condi- tion, both farmers prepare it. Some exchanges are made simply on the basis of labor: one farmer may furnish workers to help another farmer build fence and in return be furnished with labor for baling hay. Quite often labor is exchanged for the use of machines; or one kind of machine or labor is exchanged for another that is different in quality and value and therefore deserves a different number of hours. Usually there is a rough balance between the value of work done by neighbors and the value of work done for neighbors in one year; farmers seldom have the necessary information to make exact settlements. 3 Labor Exchanged Data gathered in this study indicated that Illinois farmers ex- changed the equivalent of more than 60,000 months of man labor in 1946. About 40,000 months of this labor was with machines and 20,000 without machines. The number of farms exchanging labor varied from 58.6 percent in Area 4 to 86.4 percent in Area 1 (Table 22). 1 Current custom rates for various crops are collected annually for various areas of the state by the Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, University of Illinois, and are available upon request. 1 No financial transactions are involved in exchange work, as defined in this study (see page 561). 3 An Illinois study made some years ago attempted to formulate plans for making fair settlements when labor and machines are exchanged for common operations. See RAUCHENSTEIN, E., and BONNEN, C. A., Successful threshing ring management. 111. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 267. 1925. 586 BULLETIN No. 528 [April, While farming in Area 1 is on a large enough scale to call for the use of several machines, it is not extensive enough for the farmers to own all the machines they need for their various farming operations. It is an advantage for some farmers, for example, to own silo fillers and fill their neighbors' silos in return for getting all their feed ground. The importance of the exchange of machine work in this area is indi- cated by the fact that over three-fourths of the labor exchanged was done with machines, and the average hours of work done with machines was higher per farm in this area than in any other (Table 22). Table 22. Hours of Exchange Labor Used on Sample Farms in Four Labor Areas in Illinois, 1946* Without machinery With machinery Percent of farms ex- changing labor By For neighbors neighbors By neighbors For neighbors Average per farm Area 1 hr. hr. 92 86 hr. 116 94 86 107 99 hr. 120 95 86 100 100 86.4 69.7 69.6 58.6 69.6 Area 2 67 72 Area 3 50 51 Area 4 87 104 State average 74 80 Total per area 4 713 4 398 12 920 20 854 7 295 6 501 47 570 13 341 21 226 7 339 6 092 47 998 Area 2 10 201 10 873 Area 3 1 938 2 001 Area 4 7 536 9 055 Sample totals 24 388 26 327 To convert hours to days, divide by 9. To convert days to months, divide by 25. About the same percentage of farms exchanged labor in Area 2 as in Area 3 (about 70 percent), but there was a decided difference in its nature. About two-thirds of the labor traded in Area 2 was with ma- chines, whereas about four-fifths of that in Area 3 was with machines. These differences result from differences in the types of farming in these two areas. Since most of the farms in Area 3 grow cash grain, the greater part of the exchange labor is used in connection with harvesting machines. In most parts of Area 2 there is a predominance of livestock, and a higher percentage of the exchange labor is without machines. As already pointed out, farming is not of an extensive character in most parts of Area 4, a fact that accounts for a smaller percentage of farms exchanging labor in that area than in any other and for only 43 1948] ILLINOIS FARM LABOR IN 1946 587 percent of the labor exchanged being with machines. It is noticeable, however, that the farms exchanging labor in this area traded more hours per farm than those in Area 2 and 3. Since on most farms that exchanged labor the operator had no family help, he probably depended to a large extent on exchange labor for all jobs that required two men. Kinds of Machines Used Information about seventy types of machines or combinations of machines used for exchange purposes was obtained from the farms sampled. Twenty of the seventy machines were used often enough so that valid information could be obtained concerning their importance in exchange work in the state as a whole and their relative importance in the different farm labor areas. The number of farms exchanging these machines and the average number of machine hours traded are shown on both a state and an area basis in Table 23 (page 588). The machines used most frequently and that did the most hours of exchange work per farm were tractors, wagons with tractors, wagons without tractors, teams, and corn pickers. In the state as a whole approximately 355 operators of the 896 farms covered in the survey traded tractor work, each of the operators furnishing an average of 100 tractor hours per farm. The averages were not uniform, how- ever, for the various labor areas : those for Areas 1 and 4 were slightly above the state average, that in Area 2 was about equal to the state average, and that in Area 3 was considerably below the state average. The averages in Areas 1, 2, and 3 are more likely than the Area 4 average to be unbiased, as the Area 4 average was based on only 38 farms whereas the other area averages are based on 50 or more farms each. In all areas the averages for the tractor give a much more accu- rate picture than do the averages for the machines used less frequently, such as the plow or manure spreader. 588 BULLETIN No. 528 [April, Table 23. Machines Used Frequently for Exchange Work on Sample Farms in Illinois, 1946 (Number of farms and machine hours exchanged per farm) By neighbors For neighbors By neighbors For neighbors Farms Hours Farms Hours Farms Hours Farms Houra Area 1 Area 2 Manure loader 1 30 1 18 1 27 2 40 Manure spreader 2 40 2 40 5 39 6 30 Team 22 78 21 84 42 65 42 61 Tractor 80. 114 88 108 176 93 170 103 Truck 13 51 9 59 5 45 10 32 Wagon with tractor 60 100 59 94 91 91 94 93 Wagon without tractor 23 77 21 82 34 69 33 68 Binder 1 70 2 15 4 14 Combine 14 67 14 67 27 33 26 37 Corn picker 10 98 8 111 41 59 33 70 Hay baler 4 102 3 120 3 22 8 41 Hay loader 6 40 3 55 1 18 2 39 Mower 2 24 3 22 3 36 5 30 Rake 4 43 8 34 1 90 3 30 Silo filler 1 27 4 23 4 64 1 108 Thresher 1 36 1 36 2 54 1 54 Corn planter 10 27 5 30 Cultivator 1 75 2 64 4 23 1 40 Disk 2 36 2 36 9 76 8 48 Plow 1 15 4 20 9 36 8 28 Area 3 Area 4 Manure loader , Manure spreader Team 7 20 4 23 30 80 34 73 Tractor 68 79 65 87 38 117 29 127 Truck 7 35 11 30 Wagon with tractor 26 40 27 51 7 110 6 108 Wagon without tractor 4 25 2 28 20 91 20 86 Binder 3 99 3 24 Combine 20 41 21 35 5 38 5 39 Corn picker 26 80 23 78 1 60 3 43 Hay baler 6 49 5 53 1 20 1 20 Hay loader 2 35 2 70 1 40 Mower 1 3 i 2 1 30 Rake 2 45 3 38 1 20 1 20 Silo filler 1 28 1 28 1 30 Thresher 1 81 1 81 2 45 2 45 Corn planter 5 41 5 42 1 75 1 50 Cultivator 2 70 1 40 4 46 1 15 Disk 2 93 2 16 5 20 3 17 Plow 1 60 1 70 11 205 8 280 State Manure loader 2 7.8 3 33 Manure spreader 7 40 8 ' 32 Team , . . 101 69 101 68 Tractor . . 362 98 352 103 Truck . . 25 45 30 39 Wagon with tractor . . 184 88 186 88 Wagon without tractor . . 81 75 76 75 Binder .. 5 66 8 25 Combine .. 66 43 66 43 Corn picker . . 78 71 67 76 Hay baler . . 14 56 17 57 Hay loader .. 11 42 6 47 Mower 6 26 10 25 Rake 8 46 15 33 Silo filler 7 48 6 38 Thresher 6 52 5 52 Corn planter .. 16 34 11 37 Cultivator .. 11 45 5 45 Disk . . 18 58 15 36 Plow . . 22 121 21 124 1948] ILLINOIS FARM LABOR IN 1946 589 SUMMARY This bulletin reports the results of a survey of the kind, amount, and cost of labor used on Illinois farms in 1946. Farms were selected by means of the Master Sample procedure. An expansion factor was used to calculate state totals from many of the averages obtained from the 896 sample farms. An expansion factor was not applied to area figures. In order to ascertain sectional variations in the use and cost of labor, the state was divided into four areas. Area 1 is located largely in northeastern Illinois. Area 2 includes what remained after the boundaries of the other areas were determined. Area 3 is in the east- central cash-grain region of the state. Area 4 is in southern Illinois. The farms were divided into three groups according to size: 30-99, 100-179, and 180-742 acres. The labor pattern. Family labor was used on 97 percent of Illi- nois farms in 1946, seasonal labor on 63 percent, and year-round workers on 17 percent. Commercial custom work was done on 56 per- cent of the farms. About one-fifth of the total labor used was hired. Year-round workers supplied 11.3 percent of the total, seasonal workers 7.7 per- cent, and commercial custom workers .6 percent. Some hired labor was used on 67 percent of the farms, but only a few farms used large amounts. Less than a month of labor was hired on 39.3 percent of the farms using hired labor. Only about one farm in six (15.8 percent) hired a full-time year-round worker or his equivalent. Approximately 95 million dollars was paid for hired labor in Illi- nois in 1946. Year-round workers received 58.6 percent of this amount, seasonal workers 38.3 percent, and commercial custom workers 3.1 percent. Family labor. Of the total labor shown to have been used on Illinois farms in 1946 (3,154,793 months), four-fifths was unpaid family labor, 64.0 percent having been contributed by the operator and 16.4 percent by other members of the family. Farm operators in Areas 1 and 4 spent less time on their farms than operators in the other two areas. Less youth labor was used in Areas 2 and 3 than in the other areas. The proportion of family labor provided by women was least in Area 4. Seasonal labor. Seasonal workers were used mainly to supple- ment family and year-round hired labor during busy seasons. The average farm hiring seasonal labor 'used 2.2 months in 1946, and the 590 BULLETIN No. 528 [April, average input of labor per worker per farm was .6 month. Area 4 used the most seasonal labor per farm and per worker per farm. The large number of fruit farms in Area 4, most of which are of small acreage, explains the large number of seasonal workers there and the large input of labor per farm. More than 90 percent of the seasonal workers were paid by the day; the rest were paid on a piecework basis. Of the total day labor used in the state, men contributed 90 percent, women 5 percent, and youth 5 percent. The lowest average day rate was paid for general farm work; the highest was paid for land improvement and building repair. Wages paid on the sample farms on a day basis were generally representative of those paid in the area as a whole and were a good index to wages over the state. Because of the limited data obtained concerning rates paid for piecework, the figures can only be said to be indicative, not conclusive. Year-round hired labor. Year-round hired workers contributed 58.6 percent of the hired labor used in Illinois in 1946. Area 1 had the highest input per farm (2.2 months for married workers and 1.8 for single workers) because of the large number of dairy farms in that area. Married men contributed 55.4 per cent of the year-round hired labor, single men 44.6 percent. The average monthly wage paid mar- ried workers was $168, single workers $142. Wages were higher in Areas 1 and 3 than in the other two areas. The extra pay to married workers was usually compensation for heavier responsibility and extra hours. Single workers were furnished room, board, and laundry as part of their wages; married workers received housing and various items for use in the household. The houses furnished married workers in Areas 1 and 2 were better equipped for modern living than those in the other areas; also the average value of the other items furnished married workers was higher. In Area 1 the average value of such items was $334; in Area 2, $331 ; in Area 3, $299; and in Area 4, $78. Custom labor and machines for hire. About an equal amount of farm work in Illinois in 1946 was done by farmers and by commercial workers. The amount of custom work done per farm was highest in Area 3, 79.1 hours; in Area. 2, 45.3 hours was used; in Area 1, 43.9 hours; and in Area 4, 30.6 hours. In commercial custom work done the positions of Areas 1 and 2 were reversed, Area 1 using slightly more custom labor than Area 2 (28.3 hours compared with 24.2 hours). Area 3 used 35.1 hours and Area 4, 11.6 hours. 1948] ILLINOIS FARM LABOR IN 1946 591 Farmers received approximately 18 million dollars for 4 million hours of custom work done in 1946. Commercial workers charged ap- proximately 13 million dollars for the same amount of custom work. The machines used most often in custom operations were combines, corn pickers, hay balers, and threshers, all of which were used with a tractor for power. Other machines such as bulldozers, trucks, feed grinders, and lime spreaders were also used. Exchange of labor and machines. Illinois farmers in 1946 ex- changed an estimated 40,000 months of labor with machines and 20,000 months without machines. In Area 1, 86.4 percent of the farm oper- ators exchanged labor; in Area 2, 69.7 percent; in Area 3, 69.6 percent; and in Area 4, 58.6 percent. In Area 1 more than three- fourths of the exchange labor was done with machines; in Area 2 about two-thirds; in Area 3 about four-fifths; and in Area 4 about two-fifths. Of the 70 machines or combinations of machines found on the sample farms, 20 were used enough to give averages that would indicate how much of such labor is exchanged in the various areas of the state and in the state as a whole. The other 50 machines were used only frequently enough to give a dim picture of the part they played in exchange labor in the state. Are data typical? Variations in labor conditions from year to year may be caused by several factors, including rate of industrial employ- ment, availability of foreign and migratory workers for farm work, prices received for farm products, various government regulations, and the seasonal effects on yields and time of harvesting. With due regard for the effect of these factors, the information gained from this study can be thought of as typical of current farm labor conditions in Illinois. 80504-4837365 AUTHOR INDEX AUTHOR INDEX 593 1. BADGER, C. J. See BAUER 3 2. BANE, L. See PERKINS 25 3. BAUER, F. C., LANG, A. L., BADGER, C. J., MILLER, L. B., FARNHAM, C. H., JOHN- SON, P. E., MARRIOTT, L. F., and NELSON, M. H. Effects of Soil Treatment on Soil Pro- ductivity 105-224 4. BEYER, W. See PERKINS 25 5. BIGGER, J. H. See DUNCAN 8, 9, and RUNDQUIST 27 6. CHANDLER, S. C. Codling Moth Control: A Study of Growers' Practices 293-332 7. CROSS, A. J., and JOHNSTON, P. E. A Survey of Illinois Farm Labor in 1946 557-592 8. DUNCAN, G. H., BIGGER, J. H., LANG, A. L., KOEHLER, B., and JUGENHEIMER, R. W. Illinois Hybrid Corn Tests, 1945 225-256 9. DUNCAN, G. H., BIGGER, J. H., LANG, A. L., KOEHLER, B., and JUGENHEIMER, R. W. Illinois Hybrid Corn Tests, 1946 339-370* 10. DUNGAN, G. H. See RUNDQUIST 27 11. FARNHAM, C. H. See BAUER 3 12. FREEMAN, R. C. What Farm Families Spend for Housing 507-522 13. FUELLEMAN, R. F. See SHER- WOOD 29 14. JOHNSON, P. E. See BAUER 3 15. JOHNSTON, P. E. See CROSS 7 16. JUGENHEIMER, R. W., LENG, E. R., and WOODWORTH, C. M. Two New Illinois Inbred Lines of Corn 391^02 17. JUGENHEIMER, R. W. See DUN- CAN 8, 9, and RUNDQUIST 27 18. KOEHLER, B. See DUNGAN 8, 9, and RUNDQUIST 27 19. LANG, A. L. See BAUER 3, DUN- CAN 8, 9, and RUNDQUIST 27 20. LENG, E. R. See JUGKNHEIMKR 16 21. MARRIOTT, L. F. See BAUER 3 22. MILLER, L. B. See BAUER 3 23. NELSON, M. H. See BAUER 3 24. ODELL, R. T. How Productive Are the Soils of Central Illi- nois? ................... 371-390 25. PERKINS, N. L., BEYER, W., and BANE, L. A Survey of Some Fatigue Problems of Rural Homemakers ............... 1-80 26. RHODE, C. S. See WILCOX 31 27. RUNDQUIST, J. F., DUNCAN, G. H., BIGGER, J. H., LANG, A. L., KOEHLER, B., and JUGEN- HEIMER, R. W. Illinois Hy- brid Corn Tests, 1947 ____ 523-558 28. SAMPSON, J. Ketosis in Domes- tic Animals ............. 403-470 29. SHERWOOD, L. V., and FUELLE- MAN, R. F. Experiments in Eradicating Field Bindweed ....................... 471-506 30. SNIDER, H. J. Chemical Com- position of Hay and Forage Crops as Affected by Various Soil Treatments ......... 257-292 31. WILCOX, R. H., and RHODE, C. S. Cost of Producing Milk in the Illinois Portion of the St. Louis Milkshed .. ..81-104 32. 33. 34. WILLIAMS, L. F. WORTH 33 See WOOD- WOODWORTH, C. M., and WIL- LIAMS, L. F. Lincoln: A Mid- season Soybean for the North- Central States .......... 333-348* WOODWORTH, C. M. See JUGEN- HEIMER 16 Page numbers 339 to 348 were inadvertently duplicated in this volume. 594 SUBJECT INDEX SUBJECT INDEX PAGE Acetonemia. See Ketosis. Apple orchards codling moth control methods 296-330 pruning in codling moth control 322-324 sanitation in codling moth control 304-305 spray schedules, 1944 329-330 summer oils and stickers in codling moth control 325 Apples poison deposit in codling moth control 319-326 spray schedules and spacing for codling moth control 316-319 varietal susceptibility to codling moth infestation 300 BINDWEED, FIELD, ERADICATION EXPERIMENTS 471-506 check-up after eradication 504-505 chemical treatments 497, 501-502 cultural methods for eradication 487-495, 505-506 destruction with chemicals 496-504, 506 growth habits 477^187 history and spread 474 identification and description 474-477 smothering and burning 495 Cats, ketosis, susceptibility 461-462 Cattle, ketosis, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention 411-438 Chickens, ketosis, susceptibility 461 CODLING MOTH, CONTROL, GROWERS' PRACTICES 293-330 carryover, effect of weather, spraying, and sanitation 302-305 control as affected by labor shortage and personal factors 306-308 plan of investigation 295-296 preharvest infestation 296-301 spraying methods and machines 308-316 Corn responses to soil treatment contrasted with wheat 221-222 yields after soil treatments 206-209 Corn borer, damage 241-242, 352-353, 355, 536, 543 Corn rootworm, southern damage, 1945 243 infestation at Galesburg, 1947 529 resistance of hybrid corn 539-540 Corn rot, damage 347,* 531 CORN, HYBRID, 1945 TESTS 225-256 disease damage 23 1-233 insect pests 230-231 kernel rot 233 pedigrees 254 performance measurement 233-235 plan of tests 227-228 response to seed treatment 232 results of performance tests 236-250 soil adaptation test 250-252 sources of seed 254-255 summary of tests 252-253 testing fields, soil characteristics 229 weather conditions 228-229 CORN, HYBRID, 1946 TESTS 339-370* disease damage 345-347* insect pests 344-345* pedigrees 368 performance measurement 347-349 * Page numbers 339 to 348 were inadvertently duplicated in this volume. SUBJECT INDEX 595 PAGE CORN, HYBRID, 1946 TESTS (continued) plan of tests 341-342 results of tests 349-363 soil adaptation test 363-365 sources of seed 368-369 summary of tests 366-367 testing fields 343* weather conditions 343-344* CORN.HYBRID, 1947 TESTS 523-557 disease damage 530-53 1 insect pests 528-529 pedigrees 554 performance measurement 531-533 plan of tests 525-527 resistance to corn rootworm 539-540 results of tests 533-549 soil adaptation test 550-551 sources of seed 554-555 summary of tests 551-553 testing fields 527 weather conditions 528 CORN, Two NEW ILLINOIS INBRED LINES 391-400 hybrid, performance of double crosses 398-400 inbred lines, performance in single crosses 396-397 inbred R59, description 393 inbred R61, description 393 inbreds R59, L317, and R61, plant and ear characteristics 394 inbreds R59, R61, and L317, performance in single crosses 395 Cornstalks, chemical composition 287-290 Cows, milk, cost of maintenance per head per year 89 Dogs, ketosis, susceptibility 461-462 Ducks, ketosis, susceptibility 461 FAMILIES, FARM, HOUSING EXPENDITURES 507-522 expenditures related to housing 514-515 housing costs and other uses of income 515-518 housing improvements 512-513 income and cost of housing 518 spendable income 510-511, 518,519 Farming grain, income from soil treatments 138-139 livestock, income from soil treatments 137-138 Farms, productivity improvement, recommendations 387-389 Fatigue problems of rural homemakers. See Homemakers; Laundering. Forage crops. See Hay and Forage Crops. Goats, ketosis, symptoms 455 Hay, yields after soil treatments 217-219 HAY AND FORAGE CROPS, CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, EFFECT OF SOIL TREATMENTS 257-292 alfalfa, chemical composition 260, 263-268, 278 bluegrass, Kentucky, chemical composition 260, 279-283, 286 bluestem, chemical composition 260, 287, 288 bromegrass, chemical composition 260, 287, 288 lespedeza, Korean, chemical composition 260, 271-273, 278 literature cited 292 methods of sampling 262 orchard grass, chemical composition 260, 285-287 phosphorus deficiency in feed 261 red clover, chemical composition 260, 269-271 * Page numbers 339 to 348 were inadvertently duplicated in this volume. 596 SUBJECT INDEX PAGE HAY AND FORAGE CROPS (continued) recltop, chemical composition 260, 284-285, 286 rotation and soil treatment 262-263 soybeans 260, 277, 278 sweet clover, chemical composition 260, 273-277, 278 timothy, chemical composition 260, 283-284, 286 HOMKMAKERS, RURAL, SURVEY OF HOME LAUNDERING FATIGUE PROBLEMS .... 1-79 devices for lessening laundry fatigue 57-64 general problems and fatigue 12-15 laundry fatigue causes 16-17 laundry practices 51-57 laundry problem survey 17-51 literature cited 71 participants' background 10-12 questionnaire for farm-home survey 76-79 questionnaire on home laundry conditions 74-76 review of laundering studies 6-7 scope of Illinois laundering survey 710 summary of findings and recommended programs for helping 65-70 Horses, ketosis, susceptibility 462 Housing, farm, for year-round married workers 578 Housing, farm families, characteristics 511 expenditures 512-513 improvements 512-513 See also Families, farm. Illinois, central, soil productiveness 371-389 Kernel rot, damage to corn, 1944 and 1945 233 Ketogenesis, theory, chemistry, and physiology 407-410 KETOSIS, DOMESTIC ANIMALS, CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS 403-470 domestic animals, susceptibility 456-462 literature cited 464-470 ruminants, susceptibility 410-455 LABOR, FARM, SURVEY IN ILLINOIS, 1946 557-591 costs 567 custom, amount and cost 580-585 distribution 567 exchange work 585-588 family, amount 568-570 housing facilities 578 major classes 566 pattern 564-567 plan of study 559-564 seasonal, amount and cost 570573 value of products furnished 579 wage rates, 1947 577 year-round hired, amount and cost 574-578 Laundering, home, fatigue problems 1-79 Laundry, home, devices for lessening fatigue 57-64 fatigue causes to homemakers 16-17 outline for notes on observed washings 79 practices 51-57 problem survey 1 7-5 1 questionnaire for survey 74-76 Legumes chemical composition 263-278 plowed under, green manure value 277-278 Limestone influence on phosphate utilization 128-130 soil and crop responses 121-123, 135-136 Livestock and phosphorus deficiency 261 SUBJECT INDEX 597 PAGE Machinery, farm custom rates 582-584 exchange work 587-588 Manure, soil and crop responses 118-120 Maps, soil productivity, explanation 106-107 MILK, PRODUCTION COST, ST. Louis MILKSHED 81-104 determination 84-98 expenses per 100 pounds 90 formulas for cost computation 93-98 production factors affecting 98-103 scope of study 83-84 Oats, yields after soil treatments 210-212 Phosphate, rock, soil and crop responses 124-131, 135-136 Phosphorus deficiency, in soils and crops 261 Potash influence on phosphate utilization 128, 131 soil and crop responses 132-136 Pregnancy disease. See Ketosis. Rabbit, ketosis, susceptibility 461 Residues, crop, effect on soils 120-121 St. Louis, milkshed, milk production costs 81-104 Sheep, ketosis, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention 438^455 Soil, components, availability to hay crops 266 low phosphorus content, injurious to livestock 261 SOIL, PRODUCTIVITY, EFFECTS OF SOIL TREATMENTS, SUMMARY OF LONG-TIME FIELD EXPERIMENTS 105-224 fertilizer effects 136-204 fertilizer treatments 117-136 levels after soil treatments 141-144 maps, explanation 106-107 test field conditions 114-116 treated, effect of materials 117-136 treatment systems 112-113 treatment systems, effects 136-204 SOILS, CENTRAL ILLINOIS, PRODUCTIVENESS 371-389 characteristics and location 379, 380-381 crop yields, records from 1925-44 ' 374-377 management, alteration of crop yields 379-384, 385 regions 378 treatment and calculation of yields 383-384 types, crop yields for 1925-44 385 Sow, ketosis, treatment and prevention 456-460 SOYBEAN, LINCOLN, MIDSEASON VARIETY FOR NORTH-CENTRAL STATES. . .333-348* black seeds 344-345* origin and history 337-338* plant and seed characteristics 335-336* planting area 343-344* yields compared with other varieties 338-340, 341, 342* Soybeans agronomic and chemical data 340, 342* as plow-under crop 277-278 pod content, comparison of varieties 343* yields after soil treatments 220 Superphosphate, soil responses 125-128 Wheat responses to soil treatment contrasted with corn 221-222 yields after soil treatments 213-216 * Page numbers 339 to 348 were inadvertently duplicated in this volume. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA Q.630.7IL6B BULLETIN. URBANA 514-5281945-48 C002