THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY EVA MARCH TAPPAN THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY BY EVA MARCH TAPPAN Publiched for the LdUCATION AL B UREAU National War Wokk Council of YouNc; TwLx's Christian Associations, As:.ociATioN Press, 347 Aladison Avenue, New York 1919 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY BY EVA MARCH TAPPAN Published for the Educational Bureau National War Work Council of Young Men's Christian Associations, '-7 Association Press^ 347 Madison Avenue, New York 1919 Copyright, 1919, by Eva Masch Tappam CONTENTS The Discovery of America 5 Why Colonies Were Founded in America 10 III . How England Came to Rule in L" America 14 • :IV. Why There Was Trouble Between THE Colonies and the King of England 22 V. The Story of the Revolution 28 VI. How the United States Formed Its Government 40 The Star-Spangled Banner 44 How the Questions of Boundary Were Settled 50 IX. "Our Federal Union: It Must Be ^ Preserved" 56 X. To the Far West 65 *XI. The United States Becomes a World Power 74 XII. Our Country Today 82 CHAPTER I THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA Four hundred and fifty years ago no one sus- pected that there was such a land as America. Europeans knew a Httle of Africa and of Asia, but nothing of the rest of the world. They were par- ticularly eager to know more of Asia, because from the East, that is, from Japan, China, and India, came many of their luxuries, such as silks, pearls, jewelry, perfumes, and spices. These were brought to Europe by long and wearisome overland jour- neys, and if there was only some way of reaching the East by water, this trade would be much easier to carry on. How to find such a way was a puzzle. Most people thought the earth was flat, and that if a ship went too near the edge, it would slip over into no one knew what. A few learned men believed ^.hat the earth was round and that by sailing west from Europe, one would come to the East, but no one was bold enough to push out into the waters of the unknown Atlantic. This was full of whirl- pools and all sorts of sea monsters, people thought, and was the home of evil spirits. Probably the s 6 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY water boiled as one drew near the equator. It is no wonder that they hesitated. But in Italy there was a man who did not hesitate. His name was Christopher Columbus. He had been a sailor most of his life, but besides sailing he had done a great deal of studying and thinking. He was one of the few who believed that the world was round, and what was more, he was ready to risk his life in a voyage to prove bis belief and to teach the Christian faith to the people of the East. But he could not make such a voyage without money. He asked the King of Portugal, who told him he was a dreamer. Then he asked the sover- eigns of Spain. After a long delay, Queen Isabella agreed to pay the greater part of the cost of the voyage, and Columbus set sail. He had three little vessels, the largest only sixty-five feet long, and a crew of unwilling sailors, most of whom had been forced to go. Many a time they tried to make him turn back; more than once they plotte^ to kill him; but he still sailed on. At last, October 12, 1492, ten weeks after leaving Spain, he came to some islands. He believed that they were oU the coast of India, and as he had reached them by sailing west, he named them the West Indies. THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 7 For three months he cruised about among them, then he returned to Spain. When Columbus reached Spain there was a great celebration, for the Spaniards supposed they were honoring the man who had discovered a snorter route to India. He had opened the way, they thought, to a trade with the East which would make their country rich and powerful. On his next voyage, everybody wanted to go with him to find the great cities which they were sure must be very near the West Indies. When these could not be found, the Spaniards were disappointed and angry; and Colymbus, who had been bold where others feared, who had persevered where others yielded, who had pointed out the way to the mighty western world, was allowed to die in poverty and neglect. If the Spaniards had known that the land which blocked the way of Columbus was three thousand miles wide, they would have been more discouraged than ever; but they thought it was perhaps a vast group of islands, or that, even if it was a long strip of land, there must be somewhere a passageway through it. The nations of western Europe were all interested in the search for that passageway. The Italian captains were especially daring and 8 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUK COUNTRY skillful. One of them, named John Cabot, was living in England, and the English king sent him to see if he could find it. England did not care to interfere with Spain, for at that time Spain was the most powerful country in Europe, therefore Cabot sailed directly west and came to land at Newfoundland or Cape Breton or possibly Labra- dor. Portugal sent out an Italian captain named Americus Vespucius. He went to Brazil, and when he reached home he published a map of the country and an account of his discoveries. No one supposed that there was any connection be- tween Brazil and the land seen by Columbus and by Cabot. It was thought that Americus had dis- covered a new continent, and writers on geography began to call it America. After a while the name spread to include the whole double continent. This is how it happened that the country in which we live took its name from an Italian who never saw it. France, too, sent out discoverers, Jacques Cartie5; and others. They sailed up the St. Lawrence River; some of them floated down the Mississippi almost to the Gulf of Mexico. Spain, however, wal the most eager explorer. Spaniards visited Florida and made long journeys through the Southwest. THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA " 9 One of the captains sent out by Spain, a Portuguese named Magellan, sailed down the eastern coast of South America, then up the western, then crossed the Pacific Ocean. Magellan himself was killed by the natives on the Philippine Islands, but one of his ships went on and so made the first voyage around the wxrld. This proved that the earth was round and that America was a great new continent. Many years after the voyage of John Cabot, an Englishman, Sir Francis Drake, sailed around the world, following much the same course as Magellan. On the way he landed on the shores of what is now California and named the country New Albion. Another Englishman, Henry Hudson, sailing in the service of Holland, discovered the Hudson River and Hudson Bay, which are named for him. So it was that within about one hundred years after Columbus had shown the way, England, Portugal, France, Spain, and Holland all made discoveries in the New World, and all established ''claims to some of its territory. CHAPTER II WHY COLONIES WERE FOUNDED IN AMERICA When the year 1600 had come, Europeans had a fairly good idea of the shape of South America. Their notions of North America were rather hazy, although explorers had touched here and there on the eastern coast and also on the western. America lay between the two oceans, a great mass of un- known land, waiting for some one to reveal her treasures. People still hoped to find a channel through this land that would afford a shorter way to Asia, and they never gave up their search for the "Northwest Passage," as they called it. , Spain, however, now cared little for any route to Asia, for she was getting enormous quantities of gold and silver from the New World. She had explored Florida, New Mexico, and parts of South America, conquering the natives, seizing the wealth of their mines, and sending it back to Spain .^ The Spaniards had made two permanent settle- ments in what is now the United States. These were St. Augustine in Florida and Santa Fe in* New Mexico. Spain was rich, but she was not having an easy 10 WHY COLONIES WERE FOUNDED H time. The Spanish king ruled Holland as well as Spain, but he treated the Dutch so cruelly that they rebelled. The English came to their aid, and in 1588 Spain determined to send so mighty a fleet against England that she would be com- pletely crushed. The fleet was sent, but it was overwhelmingly defeated. England was now free from all fear of Spain. She could found as many solonies in the New World as she chose, and if Spain dared to interfere with them, England was strong enough to punish her. Within one hundred and fifty years after the defeat cf Spain, that is, between 1588 and 1733, settlements had been made in what are now the thirteen states lying between Maine and Florida. These are the "Old Thirteen," and it is in honor of them that our flag contains thirteen stripes. Eleven of these states were settled by Englishmen. New York was ^tled by the Dutch and Delaware by the Swedes; but both of these states soon came finto the hands or the English. Even before America had any European in- habitants, it was looked upon as a refuge, as a iand of freedom, a country in which a man might have a chance. Thousands of men in Europe, especially in England, were in need of a chance. 12 THE lln"TLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY Landowners were giving up the cultivation of the soil for sheep-raising. One man could care for many sheep, and there was not work enough for all. America was an unknown country, and no one could say what treasures of gold and silver might be found in its soil. It was certain that there was plenty of lumber, fruit, fish, and furbearing animals, and there was sassafras, which many people of those days regarded as a cure for all diseases. Corn and tobacco could easily be raised. Wherever discoverers had come to any land, they had laid claim to it in the name of their king, and now people began to ask their rulers for grants of land in the New World. Sometimes a king was willing to please a favorite by yielding to his re- quest. Sometimes he found it convenient to pay his debts in land across the ocean which had cost him nothing. Sometimes he gave a grant to a trading company, expecting a generous return for the gift. From time to time colonists set sail for America. ^ Many of them were wise and sensible and not afraid of work. These men chose good sites for their colonies and got on well, as such men can do ^ anywhere. Some were lazy and thought it quite beneath their dignity to work with 'their hands. WHY COLONIES WERE FOUNDED 13 They were willing to search for gold, although they had no idea where to search, and even if they had found it, they did not know how gold ore looked. These men failed, as they would have failed anywhere. Many crossed the ocean to find freedom for the practice of their form of religion. Religious freedom was a new idea in those days, and for the 'subjects of a king to differ from him in their religious belief was looked upon as quite un- allowable. Severe laws were passed against all such people, and it is no wonder that some of them were ready even to leave their homes and come to a country where they could find freedom to worship God as they thought most pleasing to him and to train up their children in the ways that they believed right. The trading companies brought over some men who were too poor to pay their passage and let them pay for it in work. One colony was formed of poor debtors, their fare ''being paid by kind-hearted men in England, So it was that in one way or another America was to every one who came t© her shores a land of oppor- ^:unity. A man might make good use of the opportunity or he might not, but at least he had his chance. CHAPTER III HOW ENGLAND CAME TO RULE IN AMERICA The great double continent lying between the oceans had never been without people, for long' before any Europeans landed on its shores — no one knows how long — it was inhabited by many tribes of Indians. The "red men" of the South, that is," of Mexico and South America, were partly civil- ized. They made beautiful articles of gold and silver and understood the use of bronze. They wove very fine cloth of cotton and of wool, and they built handsome- temples. Indians much like them live today in New Mexico and Arizona. They learned long ago how to build, of brick burned in the sun, strong fortresses four and five stories high. To protect themselves against the savage Indians around them, they used often to build their homes high up on cliffs. They cultivated the ground, and discovered how to bring water down from the*) mountains in sluices to keep their cornfields from being parched in time of drought. The Indians with whom the English settlers had" to do were not even half civilized. Some of them lived in long houses made by covering a frame- 14 HOW ENGLAND CAME TO RULE 15 work with elm bark, but most of the Indians of the East hved in round wigwams or huts made of the bark of trees or the skins of wild animals. They cultivated the soil somewhat and raised beans, squashes, pumpkins, and especially maize, which we still call Indian corn. Nuts and fruit and rice grew wild; there were fish in the rivers and lakes; and there was game in the wilderness. The * red men made fishhooks of bones; axes, knives, and arrowheads they made of stone, although some of them had learned how to use copper. They made pottery of clay, and light, graceful canoes of the bark of the birch and the elm. For their clothes they used the skins of wild animals, often ornamented with shell beads. They wor- shipped the sun, moon, lightning, wind, etc., and also their dead ancestors. They had no general government; each tribe was independent, and their main business was fighting. In war, they were savage, and they put their prisoners to death ''with cruel tortures. They never forgot to avenge any wrong done them; but on the other hand, they never forgot to be grateful for a kindness. Such were the neighbors of the colonists. The needs of the red men and the white men were exactly opposite. The red men wanted forest, so 16 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY that the wild animals that they -killed for food and furs would make it their home; but the white men wanted land cleared for cultivation. The dif- ferent tribes were constantly at war, and when- ever the whites gave any assistance to one tribe, some other tribe was always ready to resent it. Then, too, it was an Indian custom to avenge any wrong either upon the man who had done it, or upon any member of his tribe, or upon the whole * tribe, as opportunity might offer. The Indians looked upon all white men as belonging to one tribe, and if any white man wronged them, they were ready to take their revenge upon any other white man whom they could reach. It is small wonder that there were wars between the white men and the Indians, or that, when there was any trouble among the different colonies, the Indians were ready to take sides or to seize the opportunity to &,venge their own wrongs. The colonists were no more quarrelsome than other people, but they stood firmly by their respec- "^ tive countries; and whenever there was war between France and England, the French and English colonies promptly took it up and began to make* raids upon one another. The result was that for seventy-five years of colonial history, there was HOW ENGLAND CAME TO RULE 17 strife among the colonists more than half the time . The main events of the earlier warfare were the capture of Nova Scotia and of Louisburg, a French fortress on Cape Breton Island, so strong that it was called the Gibraltar of America. Militiamen from New England actually ventured to attack this fort, and somehow they succeeded in taking it — they themselves hardly understood how. When peace was made, Louisburg was returned to France, greatly to the wrath of the New Englanders. The last of these colonial wars concerned the ownership of the very soil upon which the colonists had settled, and it is no wonder that they were ready to fight. It arose because England, France, and Spain all laid claim to land in America, and these claims conflicted. John Cabot had landed somewhere about the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and many English colonies had been founded on the Atlantic coast; therefore England claimed whatever land there might be north of the Great Lakes and also nearly all the coast. Cartier had explored the St. Lawrence River, Quebec and Montreal had been founded, the French had built a line of forts along the Mississippi, and near its mouth they had founded New Orleans and other colonies; therefore France made a sweeping claim to all the land 18 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY drained by the two great rivers and their branches. Columbus had discovered America and visited the West Indies, and Spaniards had conquered Mexico, had built St. Augustine in Florida and Santa Fe in New Mexico, and had done much exploring in the southwestern part of what is now , the United States; therefore Spain claimed an enormous tract of land in that part of the country. Here, then, was a great continent, to vast areas of ,, which France, England, and Spain had estab- lished claims, and not even the claimants them- selves knew definitely where the claims began or ended. It is little wonder that they disagreed, and that at length the disagreements led to war, a war that settled the question which nation should rule in America. The quarrel began about the boundaries of Nova Scotia. Then came trouble about the valley of the Ohio River, for there the English and the French had clashed. The Governor of Virginia sent George Washington, a young man of twenty-one years, to warn the French that they were on the territory of the English. It was no easy journey over mountains and through forests in November ^ weather. Sometimes it rained, and sometimes it snowed. Little creeks had swollen to rivers and HOW ENGLAND CAME TO RULE 19- rivers had overflowed their banks; but the young messenger crossed them in the best way he could, dehvered his message, and set out for home — on foot, because he could go through the snow more rapidly than his horse. The weather had grown .even colder and the streams were full of floating ice. He was fired upon by Indians; but he made the journey and returned to report to the Governor ^that the French had no intention of leaving. The following spring young Washington was sent to the Ohio valley with a body of troops. Then and there began the war which the English colonists called the French and Indian War because they had to fight French and Indians. Even in war time the colonies were jealous of one another and did not always pull together. Benjamin Franklin, editor of the Pennsylvania Gazette, printed in his paper a picture of a snake cut into pieces, the pieces marked with the names of the different colonies. Many people believed that if a real snake was cut up in this way, it was possible for the pieces to unite and the snake to live. Therefore Franklin gave his picture the motto, "Unite or die," and he drew up a plan of union. The colonists thought this plan was not democratic enough, and the King thought it might 20 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY lead to independence. The plan was given up, but it made people talk about the advantages of unit- ing, and this rude picture was a long step toward the union of a few years later. For five years the war continued. When the year 1759 had come the English formed a bold . plan for the conquest of the French colony to the north, that is, of Canada. The hardest part of the undertaking and the most important was the cap- ^ ture of Quebec, which was left to the English commander. General Wolfe. Quebec stands on a lofty cliff which pushes out into the St. Lawrence River. The French General, Montcalm, had seen to it that three sides of the town were well de- fended. On the fourth side was a broad plateau called the Plains of Abraham. No trouble could come from that direction, Montcalm thought, be- cause the only way to reach the Plains was to climb up a steep cliff. But behold! One dark night General Wolfe landed at the foot of the cliff, and silently his men began to climb. Early in the ^ morning. General Montcalm was amazed to see some five thousand English troops drawn up ready for battle. The English won the day, but both the brave young commanders fell. In the follow- ing year Montreal was taken, and now the English HOW ENGLAND CAME TO RULE 21 held all Canada. Spain took up arms to help France, but was of small assistance, and lost Havana sind the Philippine Islands to the English. The treaty which was made at the close of the war is famous for two reasons: first, it settled the « question whether England or France should rule in America, and, second, it transferred from France to England the widest area of land that had ever . passed by treaty from one nation to another. France fared badly, for she had to give up every foot of her possessions on the continent of North America. The city of New Orleans and all the French claims west of the Mississippi she gave to Spain. Her claims east of that river and city she gave to England. Two little islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence were left to her as shelter for her fishermen. Spain then held Florida, which ex- tended to the Mississippi River; but she agreed to give it up if Havana and the Philippines were re- turned to her. So it was that at the end of the ^ French and Indian War, England held the con- tinent from the Atlantic to the Mississippi; and Spain held all from the Mississippi River west- , ward. There had been some exploration of the southwestern part of this territory, but the north- western part was totally unknown. CHAPTER IV Wm' THERE WAS TROUBLE BETWEEN THE COLONISTS AND THE KING OF ENGLAND Some of the American colonies were governed by officers appointed by the King, some by "pro- prietors," or persons to whom the King had given grants of land, and some, which held charters, by the freemen of those colonies. If the King was displeased with a colony founded under a charter, he would sometimes take its charter away and appoint officers to govern it. In one respect, how- ever, the government of all the colonies was alike, namely, each one had its legislative assembly, whose members were elected by the people, and only this assembly could impose taxes upon them. The English Parliament made laws for the colonies as a w^hole, and some of these, especially the ones affecting their trade and manufactures, were not at all pleasing to these Englishmen in America. For instance, all goods brought to the colonies or sold by them, or even sold by one colony to another, must be carried in either English or Colonial vessels. The principal colonial exports must be sent to England, even if other countries 22 TROUBLE WITH ENGLAND 23 would pay higher prices for them. If an American merchant wished to buy goods in any other Europ- ean country, he must have them shipped to Eng- land, reloaded on English vessels to be brought to America, and must pay duty in both England and 'America. These laws were called "Navigation Acts." The English Parliament also forbade manu- *facturing. The colonists might grow wool, for instance, but they must send it to England to be made into cloth, and must then buy the cloth of English manufacturers. They might smelt iron, but it must he sent to England to be made into ploughshares and spades and hoes and nails, and then resold to them — at a good round profit. If any country made such laws for her colonies today, we should think that her lawmakers were insane; but a century and a half ago these laws were looked upon by most people in all countries as entirely fair and proper, and they were not ♦ nearly so severe as the laws which both France and Spain made for their colonies. What are colonies for, people reasoned, if not to increase the .trade and prosperity of the mother country? As a matter of fact, however, the colonists often man- aged to evade such laws, and not only did consid- 24 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY erable manufacturing but carried on a thriving business in smuggling, a common practice on European coasts. Moreover, colonists shared in the monopoly of the carrying trade from which foreign vessels were excluded. At the close of the French and Indian War, the ' English King and Parliament decided to tax America, to help pay the cost of the war and also of soldiers whom they proposed to station in this - country lest France or Spain should try to recover their lost American territory. Certain articles were to be taxed, and the paper on which deeds, wills, and all legal papers were written must bear a Government stamp. These stamps were made in England, and must be bought by the colonists. This was the famous "Stamp Act." The colonists were indignant. "We are no less Englishmen because we have crossed the seas," they declared, "and no Parliament has any right to tax an Englishman unless he is represented in Parliament." "No taxation without representa- t tion" became the slogan of the day. The colonists had one sure weapon, and that was to buy no goods made in England. When the ^ English manufacturers found that their colon"al trade was falling off, they insisted that the Act be TROUBLE WITH ENGLAND 25 repealed. This was done, but the following year a new tax was laid upon tea and a few other articles. Again the colonists refused to buy, and after a while Parliament removed all taxes except one of three * pence a pound on tea. This was planned by King George III and his party, and was regarded by them as a brilliant way to "get even" with the . obstinate colonials. The Dutch had been smug- gling tea into America and selling it cheaper than the English tea company. "We will free the company from paying duties in England," said the King. "The colonists can then buy their tea and also pay the tax of three pence a pound for less than they can buy tea of the Dutch." The King supposed that the colonists would buy the tea that cost least. Thus the right to tax them would be established, and this was what he wanted. The ships of tea crossed the ocean. Some of the colonies sent it back, others stored it in damp , cellars where it soon spoiled. In Boston, a party of men disguised as Indians threw the tea into the harbor. This is known a? the ''Boston Tea Party." The King's trick had not succeeded. "Why was it that the King was so determined to tax the colonists, and why could it not all easily have been settled by allowing them to send a 26 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY representative to Parliament? It was because exactly the same question of taxation without repre- sentation had arisen in England. If Parliament yielded to the English in America, it must yield to the EngLsh in England, and that was quite against » the wishes of the King and his party. This is the way it was. More than two hundred years before this time, England had been divided - into districts, and each district was allowed to send repesentatives to the House of Commons according to the number of its inhabitants. As years passed, population changed. Great cities grew up in barren districts, and some places that had once been fully populated became thinly peopled — indeed one district had at last no in- habitants at all. The result was that some great cities which paid large taxes had not one repre- sentative in Parliament; while some of the thinly populated districts which paid very small taxes had a number of representatives. This was » grossly unjust, but it suited the politicians, because a little bribery in a thinly populated place would buy a seat in Parliament. When George III , came to the throne, he adopted the same plan of bribery, for he was determined to have his own way and the only method of getting it was to make TROUBLE WITH ENGLAND 27 sure that there was a majority in Parhament of men who would support whatever he wished. William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, was working to bring about a rearrangement of districts to corres- r pond to the changes in population. This would have spoiled the King's plans, and he opposed with all his might any such change. That is why George > III and the "King's friends," as his followers were called, were so obstinately determined to make the American colonies yield; while the greatest states- men of England and the masses of her people looked upon the colonists as fighting their battles. CHAPTER V THE STORY OF THE REVOLUTION To punish Boston for her tea party, the King contrived to get Parhament to pass a port bill for- bidding any -ships to enter or leave that city. It did not accomplish much in the way of punish- ment, for Marblehead promptly offered Boston the free use of her wharves and storehouses, and other colonies sent food and drove flocks of sheep and cattle into the town. Even far-away South Carolina sent shiploads of rice. Men from the different colonies had fought side by side in the wars. They had learned to know one another, and they had the same love of liberty. Ten years before this, Virginia had refused to pay unjust taxes, and Patrick Henry, an eloquent speaker, declared, "Caesar had his Brutus, Charles I his Cromwell, and George III" — "Treason, trea- son," cried some of his hearers, and he ended by saying, "may profit by their example. If this be treason, make the most of it." The colonists now held a congress, which resolved that they ought to stand by Massachusetts. British troops were quartered in Boston, and a 28 STORY OF THE REVOLUTION 29 British man-of-war lay in the harbor. No one knew what might happen, but Massachusetts did not mean to be caught unprepared. She formed companies of "minutemen," or men who promised to be ready at one minute's notice if they were needed. She also hid away powd6r, shot, guns, and cannon in different places of safety. The British commander heard that some of these munitions were stored in Concord, and sent troops off very quietly one evening to get possession of them. But the colonists were not caught napping. They hung two lanterns in the belfry of the North Church as a signal to Paul Revere, who was waiting some distance away, and He galloped through the villages and the country, crying out in the dark- ness, "The British regulars are out!" The regulars had planned not only to seize the stores, but also to arrest John Hancock and Samuel Adams, leaders of the patriots; but on reaching Lexington, they found that the two men had escaped. Some seventy minutemen, how- ever, stood waiting. "Throw down your arms and disperse, you rebels!" shouted the British com- 'mander. They did not disperse, and the troops fired , killing eight minutemen . They then marched to Concord and destroyed what stores they could 30 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY find there. By this time the news had spread, and angry colonists, exceedingly good marksmen, were everywhere, especially on the road to Boston, sta- tioned behind barns and stone walls. The soldiers ran £<«• their lives and with the aid of fresh troops reached Boston. This little skirmish of a few hundred men was the beginning of the American Revolution. It took place on April 19, 1775, and Boston still celebrates the anniversary of the day. Longfellow has told the whole storj^ in his ''Ride of Paul Revere." The colonists had not only spilled the King's tea, but they had fired upon his troops. People dif- fered in their ideas then just as much as they do now. Some upheld the King and thought it wrong to object to anything that he did. Others felt that they were only standing for their just rights. Another congress was held, and John Hancock was made its president. Thomas Jefferson, a young lawyer from Mrginia, was present. He was not given to making speeches, but he was a keen student of law and knew how to use his pen. War was upon the colonists, and a commander- in-chief must be appointed. George Washington' of Virginia was chosen, the young man who had carried the message to the French in the Ohio STORY OF THE REVOLUTION 31'- valley. He was now a wealthy planter of forty- three years, devoted to the service of his country. He set out for Boston, to take command of the militia and all other troops that could be raised to defend the country. Traveling was slow in those times, and a great event came to pass more than two weeks before he reached Boston. This event was the Battle of Bunker Hill. The colonists had taken a position at the top of a hill. Three times the British charged up the hill, and three times they were repulsed. But the powder of the colonists gave out, and they had no bayonets. Of course they had to retreat, but they retreated triumphantly, for they, the un- trained militiamen, had three times "repulsed the British regulars. Washington took command of the army in Cambridge, near Boston. It was an army with- out uniforms, powder, cannon, or any arrange- ments for providing food. The men knew so little 'of the duties of a soldier that when an order was given they were quite inclined to suggest some different plan of their own. The first thing for 'Washington to do was to train his army, and one winter was a short time for this. Early in the following spring, however, he suddenly pretended 82 THE LITIXE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY to be about to attack the British troops in Boston. While they were in some confusion, he sUpped around to a hill on the other side of the city. If the British stayed in Boston they would be bom- barded; therefore they went aboard their ships and sailed to Halifax, leaving a good supply of stores and ammunition behind them. Thus far few of the colonists had thought of such a thing as separating from England. They were fighting for their rights, not for separation. Wash- ington himself said that when he took command of the army, he "abhorred the idea of independence." They looked upon George III as their King, and Congress had sent him a petition in the hope that he would right their wrongs. The King, however, was bent upon having his own way, not upon righting anybody's wrongs, and he would not even look at their petition. On the contrary, he did one thing that aroused the stem anger of the colonists more than anything else. Few Englishmen would take up arms against their own countrymen, and King George now hired German soldiers to cross the ocean and subdue his subjects. Before this, the colonists had looked upon their disagreement with the King as a sort of family quarrel which would right itself in the end, STORY OF THE REVOLUTION 33 but this hiring soldiers from a foreign country to cross the ocean and fight them was a different matter. The King was treating them Kke enemies, and they could not remain his subjects. Congress appointed Thomas Jefferson and four others to prepare a Declaration of Independence. This was done and the Declaration was signed by representatives of the colonies. To put one's name to this paper took a vast amount of courage. If the King won, the signers would be looked upon as leaders of a rebellion and would be promptly hanged. "We must all hang together, or we shall hang separately," declared the witty Benjamin Franklin. As Charles Carroll took up the pen to write his name, some one said, "You are in no danger, for there are so many Carrolls that the King could never find you." "I'll show him," said Carroll, and after his name he wrote "of Carrollton." "John Bull can read my name with- out spectacles," said John Hancock, and he wrote ST his name so boldly that it can be read farther away than any other. Up^^to this time, Massachusetts had been the 'scene of the war, but the British now planned to take New York City, the Hudson River, and Lake Champlain. This would separate the Middle and 34 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY Southern States from New England, and each part of the country could then be conquered separ- ately. Also it would prevent the Americans from making any attack upon Canada by the easy way of the river and the lake. It was an excellent plan — if only it could have been carried out. The British took New York, and Washington had to retreat across New Jersey. But now the famous soldiers in Europe began to open their eyes, for this Virginia planter, whose military edu- cation had come from his own study and from fighting Indians, was managing his retreat in a masterly fashion that won their interest and admiration. This untaught general was always doing some 'unexpected thing. He had to retreat into Penn- sylvania, but when Christmas came and the German troops in Trenton were carousing, he suddenly pushed across the Delaware River in the midst of cakes of floating ice and captured the merrymakers together with a goodly quantity of military supplies. In ways like this, Washington and the other American generals harassed the troops of King George and managed affairs with such skill that their commander * had to admit that his plan for separating New England from STORY OF THE REVOLUTION 35 New York had failed and' to surrender his forces — about one third of all the King's troops in America — to one of Washington's generals at Saratoga. In spite of all that the Americans could do, the British took possession of Philadelphia, Wash- ington was not strong enough to drive them away, and therefore he went into winter quarters at Valley Forge, about twenty miles from Phila- delphia, where he could keep close watch upon them. It was a cold, gloomy place. His men had hardly clothes enough to cover themselves. Many went barefooted for lack of shoes. Their log huts were icy cold. Washington fed them at his own expense, and Mrs. Washington spent much time with him in the dreary valley, doing her best to cheer and encourage the men. Help was coming and signs of it had already appeared. Several officers from European armies had come to aid the Americans, not as representing 'their countries, but as individuals. They came from Poland, from Prussia, and from France. The best lOved of them all and dearest to the 'heart of Washington was the Marquis de Lafayette, a wealthy French nobleman. He was only nine- teen years old, and one of the British generals called 36 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUK COUNTRY him ''the boy," but he proved to be an excellent general. Still, no country had come out boldly on the side of the Americans. The one in which they had most hope was France, and Frankhn had been sent to France long before in order to seek for aid. But France hesitated, for why should she join a cause which was sure to lose? After the plan to cut New England from New York had failed, the case' was different, and the gloom of Valley Forge was brightened by the promise of France to lend troops and money and to recognize the United States as an independent nation. This did not suit King George, so he declared war on France and began to try to bring the colonists to peace. He yielded all questions of taxation, and he was more than willing that representatives from America should sit in Parlia- ment. But it was too late, and for three years more the war went on. Not all the fighting was done on land by any means. Privateers sailed up and down the coast to capture or tiestroy the ships of the enemy. John Paul Jones, one of these privateers, was bold ' enough to attack vessels just off the English coast and amazed the English navy by capturing them. STORY OF THE REVOLUTION 37 Meanwhile, a young surveyor from Kentucky, George Rogers Clark, collected a company of back- woodsmen and drove the British out of the country north of the Ohio River, a district which was later known as the Northwest Territory. The British now set out to conquer the South. They had tried once before and failed, but this time they took Savannah and overcame Georgia and South Carolina. It was not easy work by any means, for they were opposed not only by troops, but by Marion, "the Swamp Fox," and others who hid in forests and swamps and dashed out upon the enemy in just the places where they were not expected. Washington sent General Greene to the South with some interesting orders. In obedience to them, Greene soon began to retreat toward the North. The British General Cornwallis supposed himself to be pursuing Greene, but all the while Greene was leading him onward. Somehow Corn- 'wallis never could catch up with Greene and when he came near Yorktown in Virginia he stopped. Reinforcements would soon come, he thought, and 'then he could end this troublesome war and go home to England. Instead of that, the French fleet blockaded him by sea, and Washington and 38 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY Lafayette with American and French soldiers hemmed him in by land. Cornwallis was a brave man, but he was helpless. He was obliged to surrender, while the band played an old song called ''The World Turned Upside Down," and^ one October morning, in 1781, the watchman in Philadelphia called out, "Past three o'clock, and Cornwallis is taken!" There was no more sleep for any one that morning, for bells rang, bonfires blazed, people marched in procession singing patriotic songs, and houses were illuminated as brilliantly as candles would permit. The treaty of peace was signed in 1783, and the United States of America now held all the territory between Canada on the north, the Atlantic on the east, Florida on the south, and the Mississippi River on the west. Spain had entered the war against England, hoping to recover her former territory in America, but all that she received was Florida. George III was ruler of the little German province of Hanover as well as King of England, and when he learned of Cornwallis's surrender he at first declared that he would abdicate the English' throne and go to Hanover. Before long, however, he changed his mind. STORY OF THE REVOLUTION 39 Washington refused any payment for his services and asked only that his expenses and what he had spent to pay and feed his troops should be re- funded to him whenever convenient for the country, ^e bade farewell to his fellow soldiers and re- turned to his home at Mount Vernon, free for the rest of his days, as he supposed, from the cares and responsibilities of public life. CHAPTER VI HOW THE UNITED STATES FORMED ITS GOVERNMENT The Revolution was over, and the colonies were now called the United States of America, but, although they were states, they were anything but, united. Each one was looking out for its own interests and treated the others as if they were foreign countries. For instance, when a New Jersey man sent fruit or vegetables into New York or Philadelphia, he had to pay duty. New Jersey got her revenge by making New York pay a yearly tax of nearly $2000 on a lighthouse which New York had built on the New Jersey shore. Each state had its own paper money, but no state would accept that of the others. Congress could make war and peace, and it could talk, but it had little power to do anything else. It could ask the states to pay taxes, but if they did not choose to pay, it could do nothing further. More than once some state threatened to pay^ nothing toward Government expenses unless she could have her own way in some special matter. In regard to trade, some of the states actually set 40 HOW GOVERNMENT W AS FORMED 41 up for themselves and tried to make their own treaties with foreign countries. If a man in one state did not choose to pay a debt to a man in another state, there was no powef to compel him ^to pay it. It is small wonder that some of the wise folk of Europe laughed and said, "That Union will never last. The colonies will soon be asking to be back under English rule." No one realizes what a country without a strong central government fairly representing the people would be until he has tried it. The Americans soon found that their Government was not strong enough to protect them in their just rights and to keep order in the land. Moreover, they had fought seven years for a fair representation, and they were not getting it. Each state sent one member to Congress and had one vote. As the states were very unequal in size, one member would represent perhaps 60,000 people and an- ^ other five times as many. This was grossly unjust, and the people at length took the matter in hand. They sent delegates to a convention held in Phila- delphia, and in that city was written the Constitu- tion of the United States. The Constitution divided the Government into three parts: first/ the legislative or law-making 42 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY power, that is, Congress; second, the judicial, or law-interpreting power, that is, the Supreme Court; and third, the executive, or law-executing power, that is* the President. Only Congress, then, could make a law; if there was any doubt, about its meaning, the Supreme Court would decide; and the President, made commander-in- chief of the army and navy, must see that the law, was executed. The matter of representation was most justly settled by allowing two senators to every state, and representatives in proportion to the number of its inhabitants. Washington had hoped to spend the rest of his life in his home at Mount Vernon, but he yielded to the wishes of his country and became its first President. There was need of wisdom and a strong hand, for more than one difficulty must be met and overcome. No country can wage war without money, and the new republic had bor- rowed money both of its own citizens and of , European countries. Alexander Hamilton was then Secretary of the Treasury, and he took the stand that the Government ought to pay not only this money but also what the separate states had borrowed, since it was all for war expenses. This was done, and credit, as valuable to a countrv as HOW GOVERNMENT WAS FORMED 43 io a man of business, was firmly established. To raise this money Hamilton advised that on certain^ imported goods duty should be collected. This would not only pay our war debts and provide tfunds to carry on the Government, but it would raise the price of these goods in America, and so "protect" our manufacturers, that is, make it .possible for them to compete with the low wages paid to workmen in Europe. Another plan of Hamilton's was the establishment of a Federal Bank, whose bills would be accepted in every sta.te. Washington refused a third term. In 1797, he made his strong, wise, far-seeing "Farewell Ad- dress" and returned to his beloved Mount Vernon. Two years later he died. The words of his eulogy, "First in war, first in peace, first in the hearts of his countrymen," have been so often repeated that they have lost their force; but think of them as if heard for the first time. Remember that they , were literally true. Has there ever been another man of whom they could be said? CHAPTER VII THE STAR-SPANGLED BANNER We had had fully as much war as we wanted, but-i soon after the close of Washington's second term we had to meet our old friend France in battle. She was angrj'- because we would not join her in a* war against England, and her agents declared that if we did not pay a large bribe we should be attacked. "Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute," was our reply. Washington was again called upon to head the army, but the fight- ing was all on the sea, and soon ended with a peace. It was in this war that a new song, "Hail Colum- bia," became popular. Before the second war with England took place, our country suddenly became larger by nearly 1,000,000 square miles. The "Province of Louis- iana," which included Louisiana and a wide sweep , of land to the northwest, had passed from Spain to France. France was a strong power and might be able to shut us from the mouth of the Mississippi , River, or even to found a New France in America. But Napoleon, Emperor of France, expected war with England and he began to fear that he could not THE STAR-SPANGLED BANNER 45 hold Louisiana even if he succeeded in colonizing it. Therefore he offered it to the United States at a rate of about fifteen dollars a square mile. Thomas Jefferson, who was then President, hastened to » close the bargain; and now the United States was twice as large as before, and the people who had pushed out beyond the Mississippi River and -made their homes in the wilderness no longer feared that they might fall under the rule of any foreign power. Our second war with England came about be- cause of some of her acts that aroused our wrath. England — and France, too — ^interfered with our commerce by seizing our vessels on the open sea; but England's fashion of taking, or "impressing," any sailors whom she might claim as Englishmen and forcing them into her navy made Americans especially indignant. We were not at all ready to fight, but we declared war. We failed in our cam- . paigns in Canada, but we amazed England by winning twelve battles out of fifteen on the sea. .One of the most famous encounters was between ,the American vessel "Chesapeake" and the British "Shannon." Captain Lawrence of the "Chesa- peake" fell mortally wounded. His last words, "Don't give up the ship!" are the war-cry of the 46 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY American navy. These words were on Commo- dore Perry's flag when he sailed out on Lake Erie in his little fleet built of unseasoned timber — and won the day. He sent back his report of the battle scribbled on a bit of paper from a letter, but it» received a warm welcome, for it said, "We have met the enemy, and they are ours." It was during this war that the city of Wash-^ ington was burned and President Madison and his wife had to flee from the White House. A little later, Francis Scott Key of Baltimore was on board a British vessel as an envoy when the bombard- ment of Fort McHenry began. In the darkness he watched the bombs, waiting anxiously for "the dawn's early light" to mr.ke sure whether "the flag was still there." On the back of a letter he wrote a poem which tells the story of the night, and that poem is "The Star-Spangled Banner." In the last battle of the war, that of New Orleans, the Americans were victorious; but it was, a needless battle, for peace had been made two weeks earlier. News traveled slowly in those days. The United States was young, but growing rapidly. • Not long after the second war with England, we bought Florida of Spain. Our west- THE STAR-SPANGLED BANNER 47 ern lands were fast increasing in value because so many people were moving into Kentucky, Tennes- see, the states north of the Ohio River, and even into the country on the western side of the Miss- issippi River, which was then the "Far West." There was a constant procession of these emigrants, rumbling along in great clumsy wagons covered jvith canvas. Cattle and horses and sheep were often driven behind the wagons, frequently by bands of slaves. The matter of slavery was beginning to make trouble. At first all the colonies held slaves, but slavery did not pay on the small farms of the North, while it did pay on the Southern planta- tions, especially after the invention of the cotton- gin, in 1793, made cotton growing profitable. Moreover, there was almost from the first a feeling against it in the North, and even before the close of the Revolution several of the Northern States , passed laws forbidding slaveholding. So many people moved to the westward that soon new states were formed. Missouri asked to be ^admitted into the Union. But should she come in as a slave state or a free state? In the Senate, the members were equally divided, half for slavery and half against it. A new state would give a majority 48 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY to one side, and no laws would be permitted to pass that did not favor that side. Neither party would yield, and it looked as if the irresistible force had at last met the immovable body. It chanced, however, that Maine, too, was ready, to be admitted as a state. This gave an oppor- tunity to make a bargain. The pro-slavery senators agreed to vote for the admission of Maine as a free state provided the anti-slavery senators would agree to vote for the admission of Missouri as a slave state. This was the famous "Missouri Compromise." It did no permanent good, for the Senate was still evenly divided, but it put off the break for a number of years. The real difficulty was not only about slavery, but also about the wishes of North and South, for these wishes were in some ways exactly opposite. The North had many manufactories, and there- fore wanted a duty on imported goods; while the South, which manufactured little, wanted to buy imported articles as cheaply as possible. Again, Northern manufacturers wanted to sell their goods to the settlers in the *Tar West," and so did all they could to induce the Government to build canals and deepen waterways in order to make easy routes to the West. The South cared nothing THE STAR-SPANGLED BANNER 49 about carrying goods to the West, and objected to paying taxes for the benefit of the North. It is no wonder that North and South disagreed. CHAPTER VIII HOW THE QUESTIONS OF BOUNDARY W^RE SETTLED This matter of slavery or no slavery, or rather, of the differing wishes of North and South, came to the front whenever a new state asked for admit- tance. Sometimes it was complicated with other questions. What is now Texas had been found to be a rich and fertile country, and some 20,000 Americans had made it their home. It was under Mexican rule, but Mexico was glad to have the country developed and had willingly granted a large tract of land. After a while, however, the Americans became too independent to please the Mexican GoveruT ment, and it was made clear that they were not especially welcome. At .this the settlers took up their guns and there was warfare. The Americans won the day, drove away the Mexican forces, and established the "Republic of Texas." They asked to be admitted to the Union as a slave state. Then the North took alarm. This new repubhc' could easily be cut up into eight or ten states, each of which would have two votes in the Senate, and so HOW BOUNDARIES WERE SETTLED ol the Senate would then be in the hands of slave- holders. For this reason, several years passed before Texas became a state; she v/as finally ad- mitted in 1845. Her flag contained a single star, and that is why she was called the "Lone Star State." The trouble with Mexico set people to thinking about other territory whose ow^nership v/as un- certain, and there was a general desire to have boundary questions settled. One of these con- cerned the northern part of Maine. When that line had been drawn, the question, of the boundary of the Oregon country, which is now Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, was taken up. Should latitude 46° or 54° 40' be the northwest boundary of the United States? England said it ought to be 46° because Sir Francis Drake had discovered the land and three English explorers had visited it. The United States claimed all territory up to 54° 40' because soon after the Revo- lution an American had discovered the Columbia River and an American expedition had explored the stream, and — strongest claim of all — some six thousand Americans had made settlements in that country. Naturally, they insisted upon knowing whether they were living under English or Ameri- 52 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY can rule. The whole United States became inter- ested, and the people who were ready to seize a gun to settle every dispute filled the land with cries of "Fifty-four forty or fight!" There proved to be no need of fighting, for commissioners from England and the United States settled the matter by a compromise which drew the line at 49°. A third question of boundary was not settled so peaceably. Mexico had never admitted the inde- pendence of Texas or the right of the United States to annex the Texan country; and she declared that in any case, Texas was bounded by the Nueces River, while the Texans insisted that it extended to the Rio Grande. War with Mexico followed, but it was not a war in which the whole country was united, for the larger Texas might be, the stronger would be the slave power. "Remember the Alamo!" was the battle-cry of the war, because in the struggle between Texas and Mexico a little group of Americans long held a fort named the Alamo against ten times their number. When at ' last they had to yield only six were left alive; and these six, after being promised safety, were brutally murdered by the Mexicans. Soon, however, the * American troops made a victorious march into the City of Mexico and that really ended the war. HOW BOUNDARIES WERE SETTLED 53 Mexico still owned more than half a million square miles in what is now the United States. Part of this was the present state of California. Many thousand Indians lived in that part of the country. The Spanish priests had gathered them into settlements called missions, and had taught them the Christian faith, agriculture, and civilized ways of living. After a while, the Mexican form of government changed, and the missions decHned. American settlers had made their way to Cali- fornia, and when the Mexican War broke out, they began to fear lest the Mexicans should attack them. With the help of an American exploring expedition and a frigate off the coast, the Ameri- cans held the state. According to the treaty made at the close of the war, we kept all land north of the Rio Grande and Gila rivers, paying Mexico nearly $36,000,000, or about ten cents an acre. So it was that by the Louisiana Purchase from France, the Florida Purchase from Spain, the Texan An- 'nexation, and the Mexican Cessions, the United States, which began as a few little colonies on the Atlantic Coast, spread across the continent to the 'Pacific Ocean and far sou^ilTiiito the lands bordering the Gulf of Mexico. Only a few days before the treaty was signed, 54 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY gold was discovered in a California stream. Now began a frantic stampede from all parts of the country to California. Men on horseback, or in the great canvas-covered wagons known as prairie schooners, or on foot, made a mad rush for the land of gold. Many paid their last cent for a passage by sea, feeling sure that they could soon fill their empty pockets in the West. So many thousands went that in less than three years after this discovery, California had population enough to be admitted as a state. With every gain of territory the question "Slav- ery or no slavery?" became more and more promi- nent. Often "compromises" were made in an at- tempt to satisfy both North and South. For instance, when California was admitted as a free state — to please the North — the Fugitive Slave Law was passed — to please the South . This required even the free states to seize and return to slavery any slave who might have escaped to their territory. The North was indignant, and some states declared' it unlawful to assist in slave-catching. A system called the "Underground Railroad" was formed in parts of the North on the way to Canada, by which* an escaped slave could be passed from one house to another until he was safely over the Canadian line ; HOW BOUNDARIES WERE SETTLED 56 The South was equally aroused by the attempt of John Brown at Harper's Ferry to lead the Negroes of the South to free themselves. The wrath of both sides was fanned to a flame by the appearance of Mrs. Stowe'-s "Uncle Tom's Cabin," picturing slavery from a Northern point of view. In Washington's "Farewell Address" he had warned Americans that unity of government was the support of that liberty which Americans prized so highly. Nevertheless, there had been more than once, and from different parts of the country, threats of separation. "If remaining in the Union is an injury to a state, that state has a right to secede," declared the South. "The secession of a state would weaken and otherwise injure the whole Union; therefore no state has a right to secede," declared the North. "I believe this Government cannot permanently endure .half slave and half free — I do not expect the house to fall, but I do expect it will cease to be divided," said a tall, thoughtful man in Illinois whose name was Abraham Lincoln. Two years later, this man became President of the United States — the great, "patient, steadfast President who was to save the Union and to bring slavery to an end. CHAPTER IX ^•OUR FEDERAL UNION. IT MUST BE PRESERVED" The Republican party, which elected Lincoln, was determined that slavery should not spread, but had no idea of interfering with it where it already existed. The South, however, feared that there would be interference, and more than two months before the new President was in- augurated. South Carolina declared herself no longer a member of the Union. Six other Southern states followed her lead, and formed the "Con- federate States of America." According to this Confederation, slavery was to be recognized and the protective tariff was to be abolished. Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was elected President of the Confederacy. There was a great deal of Government property in the South. On South Carolina soil, for instance, there were post offices, lighthouses, and other buildings, and in the harbor were Fort Moultrie and Fort Sumter. ''The land on which these stand is ours," declared the Confederacy, "but we are^ ready to pay for the buildings," and agents were sent to Washington to make this arrangement. 56 OUR FEDERAL UNION 57 Major Anderson, who commanded at Fort Moultrie, was convinced that these agents would not succeed. He found that troops were being brought together and drilled; and he spiked the guns of Fort Moultrie and moved his men to Fort Sumter, which could be defended more easily in case of an attack. Here they were bombarded by the Confederate forces until much of the fort had been burned, the rest of it was ablaze, and no food except salt pork remained. Then, and not till then. Major Anderson surrendered. This was the beginning of the Civil War. Over the country flashed the word, "The flag of our country has been fired upon!" and the North rose like one man. "Why did you volun- teer?" a veteran of this war was asked. "Why? Why?" he repeated. "It was in the air. I could no more help going than I could help breathing." Before long, Virginia and all the states south of her southern boundary had joined the Confedera- 'tion. The people of the "Border States," Dela- ware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, were divided; some joined the Union ranks, others the IGonfederate. West Virginia and all other states east of the Mississippi, together with Kansas, California, and Oregon, stood by the Union. The 58 THE LITIXE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY rest of the country was then made up of terri- tories. Many people in Virginia and the Border States took the Southern side, not because they believed in slavery, but because they denied the right of the Federal Government to "coerce" the states that had first seceded into remaining in the Union against their will. The "front" in 1861 was the northern boundary of the Confederate States, and extended from Vir- ginia into Missouri. Each army aimed at captur- ing the capital of the other. Between these two capitals, Washington and Richmond, was a Con- federate force and, not far from Washington was fought the Battle of Bull Run. The Union troops were routed; but this was such a surprise to the North that it aroused a stronger determination to win than a victory would have done. The Confederates wished to push up North as far as possible. The Union forces aimed at driving the Confederates back and also at cutting through the Confederate States and separating them so that one part could not come to the help of the other. That is why an army was sent along the northern boundary of Tennessee to the Missis-* sippi River, to secure control of that river. The commander of this army was General Grant. He OUR FEDERAL UNION 59 had grown up very simply on a farm, had made his way to West Point, and had served in the Mexican War. Then he had left the army and had tried one thing after another, not succeeding remarkably well in anything. He did not like war, but of course when need came he offered his services to the Government, and it was soon seen that he had a way of carrying through whatever lie undertook. He now pushed on to the Missis- sippi River, then to the South beyond the northern boundary of Louisiana. Meanwhile, the Union troops in the East had been trying to reach Richmond, but had been driven back by General Lee, commander-in-chief of the Confederate forces. Lee was a West Point graduate and had also served in Mexico. He was recognized as a soldier of great ability, and at the breaking out of the war he had been asked to take command of the Union army. Never was a man in a more difficult position. His native state, Virginia, had seceded, and Lee decided to stand by Virginia rather than the Union, because he believed that his state had the first claim upon his loyalty. The Confederates now pushed north and the Union troops pushed south, but both were unsuc- 60 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY cessful. General Lee made a second invasion of the North, and in the three-days' Battle of Gettys- burg, in Pennsylvania, he was repulsed. On the day after this battle, General Grant took Vicks- burg in the West, and in a few months the entire Mississippi was held by the Union, and the states west of it were separated from the rest of the Confederacy. General Grant was now made Lieutenant General in command of all the United States troops. General Sherman was sent to subdue the Confed- erate forces in northern Georgia, while Grant himself should overpower Lee and take Richmond. Both succeeded. Sherman made his famous march to the sea. A swath sixty miles wide was cut through the heart of Georgia by his army, destroy- ing railroads and telegraph lines, bridges, build- ings, and supplies. He then entered Savannah. General Grant was attacking the Confederates about Richmond, General Lee was forced to sur- render, and the Confederacy had come to an end.' This is in brief the story of the Civil War on the land. The Union navy was as hard at work as the army. It was by its help that the Mississippi and* other rivers were won for the Union. It captured forts and seaports and got control of bays all along OUR FEDERAL UNION 61 the coast. One of the most famous naval battles was that between the "Merrimac" — whose name the Confederates had changed to "Virginia" when they captured it and made it into an ironclad — aad the "Monitor," a new style of boat invented by John Ericsson. "It looks like a cheesebox on a raft/' declared the sailors when it first appeared; but it was a powerful cheesebox, for the "Merri- mac," which had crushed one vessel, burned another, and was ready to destroy a third, could not make any impression upon it. Neither "Merrimac" nor "Monitor" could hurt the other, and after four hours of fighting the "Merrimac" withdrew. The daily papers did not come out in big headlines, and few people realized the importance of this engagement; but nevertheless it put an end to wooden navies and thus changed all naval warfare. Another part of the work of the Union navy was to blockade the Southern coast and keep away supplies. Many other vessels besides warships, even tugs and ferryboats, were called upon to help, for to blockade a coast as long as ours is no small matter. The South was ready to pay any price for such articles as medicine, powder, clothes,, etc., and England and France were in desperate need of cotton to keep their mills going. Anyone 62 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY who could succeed in running the blockade with a load of supplies needed by the South and could escape with a load of cotton for England was sure of making a large sum of money out of the voyage. Russia stood firmly by the Union, but there was danger that England and France would help the Confederates in order to get cotton. President Lincoln's "Emancipation Proclamation" put an end to that. The President is Commander-in- chief of the Army and Navy, and in time of war he is given far more power than would be proper at any other time. President Lincoln declared all slaves in the Confederate States to be free. This act won friends in Europe, because the masses of both the English and the French people, even those factory workers who were out of employment for lack of cotton, were strongly opposed to slaver J^ Some members of the English Government who had favored the Confederacy could now do nothing more than to shut their eyes to the fact that privateers and blockade runners were being fitted out in English ports. These vessels, especially the "Alabama," did so much harm' to Unioja shipping that after peace was declared England was required to pay a bill of $15,500,000 to the United States. This she did within a year. OUR FEDERAL UNION 63 During the Civil War both prices and taxes were high. The Government must have money, and the only way to borrow it was to pay enough interest to induce people to buy Government bonds. In 1917 our Government could borrow money at three and one-half per cent; but during the dark days of the Civil War, when it was possible t.Viat the Union would be divided and its bonds would never be redeemed, the Government had to pay on one issue of bonds seven and three-tenths per cent interest, and on another six per cent in gold, which was at one time worth $2.86 in paper. In the North, trade and manufactures were prosperous, but in the South matters were far dif- ferent. The South had been the field of battle. Towns, plantations, and railroads had been des- troyed. Horses, cattle, pigs, and chickens had disappeared. Thousands of wealthy families had lost everything. There was little manufacturing to be taxed, and the blockade prevented exporta- tion. The Confederacy had to issue an immense amount of paper money, and as hope of success ^ew less and less, the value of this paper money declined. "I had one new dress during the war," said a Southern woman. "It w^as a calico, and it cost $600 in Confederate money." 64 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY During the times of "reconstruction" many- difficult questions arose. The wise brain and kind heart that would have solved them could no longer be called upon, for, only a few days after Lee's surrender, President Lincoln was assassinated by a Southern sympathizer. He was deeply mourned by both North and South, for, although he had done everything in his power to overcome the Confederacy, the South realized that this man of tender sympathies and generous heart would have been their best friend. Out of all this loss had come some great gains. Slavery had been abolished forever. The question whether a state could leave the Union had been settled. All the rest of the world had seen for themselves that the United States had "come to stay." CHAPTER X TO THE FAR WEST There is an interesting map of the United States on which an irregular row of stars runs from east to west, each marked with a date. The first star is a little way east of Baltimore, and is marked "1790." '?he last one is nearly south of the center of In- diana, and is marked "1910." This means that in 1790, our center of population was near Balti- more, but that it has gradually moved to Indiana. To move the center of population even a few miles shows that a vast number of people have gone to the westward. This emigration began away back in colonial times. People often went for better land or to get more room. If there was any difference of opinion among the people of a colony, it was not uncommon for one party to leave the settlement and found a new one for themselves. In Cambridge, Massachusetts, for instance, the governor thought that the govern- ment should be in the hands of the wisest of the people; but the pastor thought that every man ought to have the right to vote. There seems to have been no quarrel between the two dignitaries, 65 66 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY but the colonists quietly divided, and the pastor and his followers marched off with their household goods and their cattle to the fertile lands of the Connecticut valley, and there founded Hartford, thus moving the center of population just a bit farther west. « There was not much pleasure in journeying in those days, or indeed for many years after the Revolution. What were called roads were of tea deep in dust in dry weather and were swamps in wet. Much of the journeying westward w^as done on horseback, although there were sometimes stage-coaches to be found, and occasionally a river flowed in the right direction and made it possible for the emigrant to enjoy all the luxuries of a raft or even of some queerly shaped boat. Both by land and by water, there was danger of being at- tacked by Indians. The red men understood per- fectly that the coming of the white settlers would drive them from their hunting grounds, and they did their best to protect their rights. Sometimes* a single Indian hidden in a forest shot at the passers by on a raft; sometimes whole tribes at- tacked again and again the little groups of settlers^ About the time of the second war with England, steamboats began to move up and down some of 1^0 THE FAR WEST 67 the rivers. They were clumsy, awkward craft, but people gazed at them with admiration, for they could actually sail against the current at a fair rate of speed. A few years later, a national road was built from Maryland to Wheeling, West Vir- ginia. To journey on this was quite the aristocracy of traveling, for there were stage-coaches with frequent relays of horses, and there were taverns along the way , built of logs and often badly crowded, but real taverns nevertheless. Wherever any one went, families and companies were seen on their way to make new homes in the West or South. This became a much less serious undertaking than it had been in earlier years, for the new routes, especially the Erie Canal across the State of New York, made it so much easier and cheaper for Western farmers to get their tools and Eastern conveniences. Then, too, between 1830 and 1841 the first steam railroads appeared, and the cars went plunging and jolting along at the dangerous rate of eight or ten miles an hour. But the enterprising pioneers could not wait for railroads. Thousands sought the unknown country of Oregon, some journeying by the "Oregon Trail," a rough track from Missouri to the Northwest, others sailing around Cape Horn. The discovery 68 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY of gold, as has been mentioned, sent thousands to California, some by the old routes, others by- steamer to the Isthmus of Panama, across the Isthmus on muleback, and then by steamer to San Francisco. A few years later, gold was found in Colorado. Another frantic rush began, and within tv/o years Denver had become a city. After the Civil War, thousands of the returning soldiers took up farms in the West or South; but even during tlje war, the Homestead Act passed, which permitted a settler to take up one hundred and sixty acres of land for a home. If he persevered and cultivated it for five years, he might become its owner by the payment of a small fee. These settlers soon demanded railroads, and the old Oregon Trail became useful as a roadbed. By 1869 there was a railroad and also a telegraph line across the American Continent from ocean to ocean. Then there was emigration indeed, by tens of thousands. Mines were opened, farms were cultivated, cities grew up in a night. Thg territories developed rapidly and more and more of them began to call for admission to the Union. The "Great American Desert" of the earlier atlases T proved to be ready to yield lavish crops as soon as irrigation had satisfied its thirst. Fruit and grain TO THE FAR WEST 69 and lumber were soon produced on the Pacific Slope as well as gold and silver. Commerce with South America, Asia, and Australia made a beginning. The beauties and the climate of California made it the favorite pleasure ground for Eastern people. ^Not very far north of California is Alaska, which we bought of Russia soon after the Civil War for $7,200,000. A few people grumbled about this "pxtravagance" and declared that the only in- habitants of our new territory were seals and polar bears. But surely no one need grumble about wasting the money of the United States, for in gold and furs our ''refrigerator," as some called it, has already paid for itself many times over. The last large tract of land to be opened to free settlement under the Homestead Act was Okla- homa, which the Government had bought of the Indians. In 1889, it was announced that this tract of 40,000 square miles would be open to settlers on April 22, at exactly twelve o'clock, ^ore than 100,000 people camped close to the border of the territory, and the instant that the bugle signal w^as given, they dashed across the line to be the first to claim the special places that they had selected on the map. In Guthrie, four streets were laid out before three o'clock with can- 70 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY vas shops and offices and a bank. One hour later, a newspaper was issued and a city council elected. Only eighteen years later, Oklahoma was admitted as a state. Not all the settlers of the West were native Americans by any means. There have been mai^y wars in Europe, and people who in this way had lost their homes or property or sought to better themselves came hopefully across the Atlantic to the' country that would give them land. In the South, it was cheaper for a planter to keep slaves than to pay wages to white men, and therefore most of these immigrants pushed on to the West or North. As steamboat fares grew less, the number of immigrants increased, especially if there were hard times in Europe, or if the government of any European country was oppressive. The number of these immigrants grew larger year by year until, in 1910, more than a million stepped off the gangplank into the United States. . For a long while any one was admitted who chose to come, but now we are more careful. We want our country to continue to be "the land of the free and the home of the brave," and we are glad to welcome people from other countries who wish to become loyal citizens. It is not just, however, TO THE FAR WEST 71 -0 these people to admit criminals or anarchists jr persons with contagious diseases or those who lave not money enough to support them until :hey can find work. Such persons are refused entrance to our country, and the steamship line iihgit brought them over must carry them back free jf charge. This reform was badly needed. Another of jcgial importance w^as what is known as Civil service Reform. In 1829, an honest, fearless man dy the name of Andrew Jackson became President . Unfortunately, he was as opinionated as he was "earless, and if a man did not agree with him he was ;ure that the man was stupid and willful. There s an old cartoon of Jackson dressed as a house- keeper and brooming a group of men out of the dtchen. This shows what he did to the men in jrovernment office, for he turned out more than )ne thousand of them, filling their places with nen of his own political party. Naturally, as soon as a President of the opposing party came in, le turned out Jackson's men and put in political Tiends of his own. This was the beginning of what s known as the ''spoils system." Up to Jackson's :ime, postmasters, clerks, and other holders of uinor offices under the Government had been 72 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY selected for their ability and had been kept in office even if the opposing party came into power. This was changed now, and it became the custom with each new administration to "turn the rascals out," that is, to discharge those office-holders who were of the opposing political party and put jn those who had helped to elect the new President. Such a method of managing any private business would certainly be most foolish , and it was equa^y foolish in Government matters. The result was that men were often not in office long enough to learn how to do their work in the best way. Some did not care whether it was well done or not, for they knew that they were safe as long as their party remained in power, and that when their party went out of power they would loss their positions, no matter how well they did their work. Another great objection to this system was that prominent men of the party in power were never free from the appeals of persons begging for some position under Government. There is a story that when Lincolp had the smallpox, he said, 'T have something at last that I can give to every office-seeker." In 1883, a Civil Service Reform Act was passed, re- quiring every applicant for a Government position to take an examination. From those who stand TO THE FAR WEST 73 well in this examination assistants in Government work are chosen, and if such an assistant does his work well and behaves himself no one can discharge him. Most Government employees are now under CivU Service rules. Several states and large cifies and even public libraries choose workers in a similar fashion. CHAPTER XI THE UNITED STATES BECOMES A WORLD POWER In 1607, when the first permanent Enghsh settle- ment was made in America, the voyage across ^ne Atlantic took one hundred and forty-five days, that is, thirty times as many as it does today. This was the same in effect as if Europe had been thiAy times as far away as it is. It is no wonder that the early settlers felt almost as if they were on a distant planet . As years passed , vessels and knowl- edge of navigation improved and Europe came nearer. In 1860, the "Great Eastern" sailed from England to New York in eleven days. Six years later she laid two permanent submarine cables from Ireland to Newfoundland. Whether the United States wished or not, she was being swiftly brought into closer and closer connection with the other countries of the world. European news only a few hours old was served at American breakfas^t tables in the morning paper. Business between the two continents increased with ease of com- munication. . * Lying to the south of the United States was half of our great double continent. A few far-sighted 74 A WORLD POWER 75 men realized a century ago that in the years to come our relations witli South America would naturally become much closer. The wise founder of Girard College required in his will that the Spanish lan- guage should always be taught in the College, on th*e ground that our commerce would naturally extend to the Spanish-speaking countries. About the same time a congress was held at Panama, to vvliich the United States was invited to send dele- gates; but this accomplished nothing of permanent value. Most people were satisfied with a small exchange of exports and with the requirements of the "Monroe Doctrine," a warning given by President Monroe in 1823 that any attempt on the part of European nations "to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere" would be re- garded by the United States as an unfriendly act. As time passed and the South American countries, especially Argentina, Brazil, Chile — the "ABC countries" — grew strong and firmly established, the protection of the United States was no longer needed. What was needed, however, was that the people of the Northern and Southern continents fhould learn to know one another better and understand one another's point of view. It was hoped that increased acquaintance between them 76 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY would increase business relations to the gain of both, and that in case of any possible future dis- agreement between any two of the countries, the difficulty might be settled by arbitration. With these objects, the Pan-American Congress was held in 1889, a meeting of delegates from tBte United States and twenty of the republics of South and Central America, Mexico, and the West Indies. Since that time, other congresses of the same soH have been held. For the use of the Pan-American Union one of the most beautiful public buildings in the world has been erected in Washington. Our relations with South America, especially with her western countries, have been made closer by the building of the Panama Canal, for which we bought a strip of land from the Panama Re- public. This was finished in 1914, and is open to all nations on equal terms. By striking out the long voyage around South America, this canal has brought Australia four thousand miles nearer to New York City. It has even brought different parts of our own country together, and the gold- seekers who "rounded the Horn" in 1849 could have shortened their voyage by 8500 miles if thej^' had waited until 1914. One of the main objects of the South American A WORLD POWER 77 Republics in their first Congress had been to form a union against the power of Spain, and some members of the United States Congress had then objected to our sending delegates lest this should involve us in "entangling alliances!" The en- tanglements appeared, however, in 1898, even without any alliances, when we were forced to interfere in behalf of Cuba. * This island, the "Pearl of the Antilles," was governed by Spain quite in seventeenth century fashion, that is, the mother country tried to get as much out cf the co'ony as possible wthout the least regard to its welfare or happiness. -Ihe Cubans were continually rising against Spanish rule, and there was no safety for even the property of Americans at such times. Moreover, the kind of mosquito whose bite conveys the germs of j^ellow fever flourished in Cuba, and from there epidemics of this disease frequently spread to the United States. The island needed a thorough cleaning yp, physically and politically. In 1895 the Cubans rose against Spain with more determination than ever before. The Spaniards ^hut them up in camps, where thousands died of starvation. Our Government appealed to Spain ,^ but nothing was accomplished. Three years later^ 78 THE. LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY our battleship, the "Maine," lying in the harbor of Havana, was blown up. Many believed that Spaniards had committed the crime, and "Re- member the Maine!" became the headline of the American newspapers and the demand of the American people. The United States now recog-* nized the independence of the island, and declared war against Spain. This war lasted only three months. Our troops captured Santiago, and ouP^ naval forces destroyed the Spanish fleet. The Spaniards yielded and Cuba was free. Porto Rico, another Spanish colony, became a part of the United States. Before the United States delivered up Cuba to the Cubans, a general house-cleaning was held under the management cf the United States Army, and we no longer need to fear the coming of yellow fever from its shores. Whether the political cleaning would be as successful was a question, for the Cubans had had no experience in self-govern- ment. They agreed to accept the guardianship* of the United States in case trouble should arise which they could not control. This happened once, and our country went to the rescue. 4 This war with Spain had results which were unthought of when the first gun was fired. At the A WORLD POWER 79 breaking out of hostilities, the Filipinos, as well as the Cubans, were trj^ing to free themselves from Spain, and to prevent this, a Spanish fleet was at Manila. Commodore, afterwards Admiral, Dewey was on the Asiatic coast. He was at once sent to iilanila, where he destroyed this fleet. With the aid of American soldiers the town was captured, and the Philippines were then in the hands of the Ijnited States. The Filipinos wanted a republic, but they were by no means prepared for inde- pendence. Against their opposition, the United States took charge of them, opened libraries and schools, and restored order. No promises have been made, but it is expected that when they have had sufficient preparation for self-government,, the United States will withdraw and leave them independent. For the surrender of these islands we paid Spain 120,000,000. The island of Guam, one of the Ladrones, remained in our hands after its conquest. It is of value as a station for coal knd other supplies. We were suddenly becoming rich in islands, for the Hawaiian group, which had been under our |)rotection for some time, had asked to be annexed. This was done; and a little later, the Samoan Islands in the South Pacific were divided among 80 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY England, Germany, and the United States. Spain, which had been the discoverer cf the West- ern World and which had founded its first perma- nent European settlements, w^as no longer the possessor of one foot of land on this side of the ocean. Japan has been our friend ever since the visit of Commodore Perry in 1854 opened that country to commerce. A new treaty has besn made with the Japanese with a view to strengthening the old friendship. With China our connection has of late years be- come clossr and especially friendly. China is large but not strong in a military way, and a few years ago some of the European powers sought to get possession of part of her territory. Ey the efforts of the United States, they were persuaded to allow the "open door" policy to prevail and thus invite the trade of all nations. Before this w^as settled, a powerful society, the "Boxers," set out to kill all foreigners in the land. By the aid of soldiers from the United States, Japan, England, France, and Russia, the Boxers were overcome. It was plain that the Chinese Government had made n6 effort to protect foreigners, and China was forced to pay an indemnity of $33,000,000 to pay the cost A WORLD POWER 81 of the expedition to restore order. Our share of this indemnity was so much more than the expedi- tion had cost us, that our Government returned $13,000,000 of the sum. China's acknowledg- ment was most graceful, for she replied that this money would be used for the education of Chinese students in America. These students will carry home with them a knowledge of American ways and ideals, and thus their education in this country will do more than treaties to strengthen the friendship between the two countries. So it is that the United States, which, separated by two oceans from the Eastern Hemisphere, had lived in "splendid isolation" from the troubles of the rest of the world, was now brought into closer connection with the other nations and must hence- forth share their responsibilities. CHAPTER XII OUR COUNTRY TODAY In 1914, save for difficulties arising from lawless- ness in Mexico, the United States was at peace' with all the world. We were strong and busy and prosperous. Of course even the least thoughtful among us could see that more than one problem^ would have to be solved before many years had passed; but we expected to be able to solve them. Suddenly, early in August, 1914, the newspapers announced war in Europe. Austria-Hungary, supported by Germany, had attacked Serbia, and German forces, in spite of treaties and agreements, had marched into Belgium and were aiming at Paris. France, Russia, and England, unprepared for war, were hastily calling their troops together to defend France. Little by little it became clear that Germany was plotting to dominate the world, that she had for many years been preparing for a* war to bring this about. She had made no secret of her intentions, but few people had looked upon them as more than dreams. i As the "frightfulness" of the Germans in war became known and there was discovered in them 82 OUR COUNTRY TODAY 83 a foe with neither honor nor mercy, people began to reahze the awful danger of permitting one man to hold the power to bring such agony upon the countries of the world. The war was no longer a contest among a group of European countries, but * a world struggle between autocracy and democ- racy. The question whether the people of a land should rule themselves, or whether the will and * ambition of one man or a certain class of men should rule them, must be answered for all time. One country after another entered the war. A few of the smaller states of Europe, helpless in their weakness, remained neutral. For nearly three years the United States held itself neutral, with an occasional protest against the behavior of Germany. During that time, Germany sank the great passenger steamer, the "Lusitania," with American citizens on board. She sank Red Cross vessels, she fired upon helpless lifeboats, she carried on a course of rank piracy, and she broke ruth- tlessly the international laws of mercy and decency in warfare, laws which she herself had helped to make. It was discovered that the United States twas full of her spies, and of persons whom she paid to blow up our factories, to bring about ctrikes, and to endeavor by every possible means 84 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY to arouse dissension among our people. It was time for us to enter the war. Thoughtless people said, "Why should we fight unless the Germans attack us?" Those who thought said, "We ought to have been helping long before now." The United States entered the war, and entered'' to win. No money was spared. A general draft filled up the ranks of her troops, and "intensive training" at Plattsburg and elsewhere helped to'*' provide ofiicers. Many cantonments were con- structed, real cities capable of housing 40,000 men apiece. The lives of the men were insured, the best of food was provided, their health was care- fully looked after, books and amusements were furnished. Never before was an army so well cared for. Germany had not expected any armed interfer- ence of importance on the part of the United States, for she had not thought it possible for troops to be trained and carried across the ocean in time to be of service to the Allies; but while her* people were still being assured that victory was within their grasp, English and American convoys were guarding more than 2,000,000 American soldiers from German submarines on their voyage toward the front. Everybody knows what kind OUR COUNTRY TODAY 85 of soldiers we sent to France, how their fresh strength helped and encouraged the weary armies that had borne the struggle for four long years, and how at the Marne and on the Hindenburg line and in the Argonne Forest our young army played * a brilliant part in the final campaign that broke the German power. Now we are hoping that in all the days that are to be, the world will never again be -* plunged into such horrors as it has just endured. Such is the record of the United States since the days when her people were gathered into little colonies scattered along the Atlantic coast. Our numbers have grown from a few thousand to 105,000,000. Our territory has increased by pur- chase, rarely by conquest, until we now hold a broad sweep of country from ocean to ocean. We are rich in lands at the Far North. We have treaties of friendship with many nations, and we are now enemies of none. In the Great War we have stood side by side with the peoples that love -f honor and freedom, helping to save from a very great disaster the Old World from which the fathers or forefathers of all of us came. England ? and France, with whom we fought in days gone by, are our warm friends. When we entered the World War, England flung out the Stars and 86 THE LITTLE BOOK OF OUR COUNTRY Stripes from the Tower of Westminster Palace, where none but an EngUsh flag had ever floated before that day. In the Cathedral of St. Paul, four thousand people sang the "Star-Spangled Banner," without a thought that it was written to ^ celebrate our repulse of an English fleet. And ' when the time for peace rejoicings had come, then, in St. Thomas's Church in Washington, the city whence a President of the United States had ' once fled from British fire-brands, the national hymns of the Allies were sung, and the walls re-echoed with "God save our gracious King, Long live our noble King," no one remembering that for sixty years the lines were chanted in honor of our old acquaintance, George the Third. We have proved that we can fight, and fight hard, when we must; but that no motive save self-defense and the winning of free- dom and justice for ourselves or for others will lead us to take up arms. We have a right to be proud of our country and to look forward to her future with joyful expectation.