THE 
 
 NEW AMERICAN GARDENER; 
 
 CONTAIKINO 
 
 Practical Ulrcctlons 
 
 ON THE CULTURE OP 
 
 FRUITS AND VEGETABLES; 
 
 INCLUDING 
 
 r.ANDSCAPE AND ORNAMENTAL GARDENING GRAPE-VINES 
 SILK, STRAWBERRIES, &c. &c. 
 
 BY THOMAS G. FESSENDEIV, 
 
 EDI10B OF THE NEW ENGLAND FARMER. 
 
 Goo Almighty first planted a Garden i and indeed it is the purest of human 
 pleasures ; it is the greatest refreshment to the Bpirits of man ; without which 
 buildings and palaces are but gross handy-works Bacon’s Essays. 
 
 Sebentj) ISliftton. 
 
 BOSTON: 
 
 PUBLISHED BY RUSSELL, ODIORNE & CO. 
 
 AND 
 
 CARTER, HENDEE & CO. 
 
 Cincinnati: 
 
 H. L. & H. S. BARNUM. 
 
 Sold also by G. C. Barrett, 50^ North Market Street, Boston; G. 
 Thorburn & Sons, 67 Liberty Street, New York ; E. C. Meilke, 
 
 181 Market Street, Philadelphia; S. C. Parkhurst, 
 
 23 Lower Market Street, Cincinnati; 
 and the gt^nei Jly. 
 
 1833 . 
 
DISTRICT OP MASSACHUSETTS, to wilt 
 
 District Clerk*s Office. 
 
 Be IT RSMCMBEREo, That OR the eighteenth day of July, A. D. 18S8, in the fifty 
 third year of the Independence of the United States of America, J. B. Russell, of the 
 jaid district, has deposited in this office the title of a book, the right whereof he 
 claims as proprietor, in the words following, to wit : 
 
 “ 1’he New American Gardener ; containing practical Directions on the Culture of 
 ^^ritiis and Vegetables ; including Landscape and Ornamental Gardening, Grape- 
 iiies, Silk, Strawberries, &,c. &c. By Thomas G. Fessenden, Editor of the New 
 •>iglaiid Farmer. 
 
 “ God Almighty first planted a Garden ; and indeed it is the purest of human 
 pleasures : it is the greatest refreshment to the spirits of man ; without which 
 Luildings and palaces are but gross handy-works. — Bacon’s Essays.” 
 
 In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled, “ An Act 
 for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books 
 the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned 
 %nd also to an act, entitled, “ An Act supplementary to an act, entitled. An Act 
 for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, 
 te the authors and propricters of such, copies during the times therein mentioned ; 
 uid extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching 
 kiatorical and other prints.” 
 
 JNO. W. DAVIS, 
 
 Clerk of the District of MassachuaeiU 
 
o6 h C> vAJ 
 
 TO THE 
 
 tO 
 
 HON. JOHN LOWELL, LL. D. 
 
 PRKSIDENT OF THE MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THJE 
 PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE, &c. 
 
 Sir, 
 
 The compiler of the New American Garde^^er 
 is happy to inscribe it to a gentleman, whose enlight- 
 ened zeal, and disinterested efforts to promote the ait 
 to which it is devoted, have rendered such dedication 
 so very appropriate. Please to accept of it, not only 
 as a grateful acknowledgment of favours received, but 
 a slight, though sincere, indication of the writer’s high 
 opinion of the value of your indefatigable exertions to 
 encourage and enlighten the pursuits of the Husband- 
 man and the Horticulturist ; vocations, which, as they 
 are first in the order of civilization, should, in every 
 civilized country, be considered as of the first im- 
 portance to the best interests of its inhabitants. 
 
 With the highest esteem, 
 your much obliged, 
 
 and most obedient servant. 
 
 
 THOMAS G, FESSENDEN. 
 
With regard to the following pages, the Compiler oegt 
 leave to observe, that utility has been his sole object. He 
 has no pride of authorship to sustain, nor new theories to 
 establish. The work is nothing more than a humble at- 
 tempt to render some service to cultivators, by collecting 
 and condensing, from various sources, such directions, 
 notices, and observations, relating as well to field as to 
 garden culture, as seemed of most importance in prac- 
 tice. 
 
 We would here express our gratitude to gentlemen who 
 have favoured us with articles for this work, w^hich must 
 not only greatly enhance its value, but, it is hoped, \\dll 
 atone, in some measure, for the faults and imperfections of 
 those parts, for which the Compiler alone is responsible. 
 The papers to which we allude have the following heads 
 or titles, viz. “Flowers, Ornamental,” 109; “Fruits,” 
 128; “Landscapes and Picturesque Gardens,” 184 ; 
 “Silk,” 268; “Strawberry,” 285; and “Vine,” 294. 
 The two last mentioned articles were from the pen of the 
 same gentleman ; and that on the Vine, having been origin- 
 ally published in the Massachusetts Agricultural Repository y 
 has been republished and recommended in other scientific 
 journals, as forming a complete manual for the culture of 
 the grape. 
 
 
 V 
 
NEW AMERICAN GARDENER 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The importance and utility of Horticulture, or the 
 Art of cultivating those products of the soil which are used 
 in domestic economy, require no elaborate exposition. The 
 greatest blessings which a kind Providence can bestow or: 
 man, in his sublunary state of existence, are, health of body 
 and peace of mind ; and the pursuits of gardening eminent- 
 ly conduce to these. Gardening was the primitive employ- 
 ment of the first man; and the first of men^ among his 
 descendants, have ever been attached to that occupation. 
 Indeed, we can hardly form an idea of human felicity, in 
 which a garden is not one of its most prominent character- 
 istics. 
 
 Gardening is not only an innocent and healthy, but a 
 profitable occupation. It is not alone by the money which 
 is made^ but also by the money which is saved^ that the 
 profits of a pursuit should be estimated. Where a good 
 garden constitutes part of a rural establishment, and the 
 culinary uses of its productions are well understood, the 
 field or the market furnishes a proportion ably small part of 
 the provisions necessary for family consumption. I con- 
 sider,” said Dr. Deane, the kitchen garden of very con- 
 siderable importance, as pot-herbs, salads, and roots of 
 various kinds, are useful in house-keeping. Having a 
 plenty of them at hand, a family will not be so likely to 
 run into the error, which is too common in this country, 
 of eating flesh in too great a proportion for health. Farm- 
 ers. as well as others, should have kitchen gardens ; and 
 they need not grudge the labour of tending them, which 
 may be done at odd intervals of time, which would other- 
 wise chance to be consumed in needless loitering.” 
 
 Cowley says of gardening, “ It is one of the best-natured 
 delights of all others, for a man to look about him, and see 
 nothing but the effects and imnrovements of his own art 
 1 * 
 
6 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 and diligence ; to be always gathering some fruits of it, 
 and at the same time to behold others ripening, and others 
 budding ; to see his soil covered with the beauteous crea- 
 tures of his own industry ; and to see, like God, that all 
 his works are good.” 
 
 We shall here state, concisely, some of the principal pre- 
 requisites for successful horticulture, directing our observa- 
 tions, chiefly, to what relates to the kitchen garden. Gar- 
 dens are usually classed under the following heads : — the 
 kitchen garden ; the fruit garden ; and the flower garden. 
 The flower garden, being designed principally for ornament, 
 should be placed in the most conspicuous part, that is, in 
 front, or next to the back part of the house ; the kitchen 
 garden and fruit garden may follow in succession. With 
 respect to the natural situation of a garden, Nicol and For- 
 tjyth agree in preferring a gentle declivity towards the south, 
 a little inclining to the east, to receive the benefit of the 
 morning sun. ‘‘A kitchen garden,” observed Dr. Deane, 
 
 should not be situated at any great distance from the 
 house, lest, being too much out of sight, it should be out of 
 mind, and the necessary culture of it too much neglected.” 
 It should be placed adjoining to a stable, whence the dung 
 may be easily conveyed into the enclosure. It should be 
 sheltered, as much as can be, from the north and east, to 
 prevent the blighting winds from affecting the trees. The 
 best soil for a garden is a sandy loam, two or three feet 
 deep, according to Forsyth ; but if deeper, the better. The 
 earth should not be of a binding nature in summer, nor re- 
 tentive of rain in winter, but of such a texture that it can 
 be worked at any season, when not frozen, without diffi- 
 culty.” 
 
 Dr. Deane observed, that ‘‘ a garden should have a close 
 fence, that the winds may not drive seeds of weeds into it. 
 The fence should be at least seven feet high, and picketed 
 to prevent the entrance of thieves. The height and close- 
 ness of the fence will increase the vegetation by increasing 
 the warmth of the air in the garden, excepting, perhaps, the 
 parts which are shaded by the fences. The rage of high 
 winds will be so opposed as to prevent the tearing and 
 distorting of tender plants, and fowls may be more easily 
 kept out.” Loudon remarks, that the height of walls for 
 training fruit trees, generally approved, is from ten to 
 twelve feet } but it is more commonly determined by the 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 7 
 
 size and form of the garden, and the inclination of its sur- 
 face.” “ Many low walls, or stout ranges of paling,” Aber- 
 crombie observes, ‘‘ will produce a greater total effect, in 
 accelerating fruit, than the same expenditure in high walls.” 
 “ Fruit walls, five or six feet high,” Hitt remarks, will 
 do very well for peaches, cherries, vines, and figs ; but he 
 would not advise the planting of apricots, plums, or pears, 
 on such walls, they requiring more room, and to stand 
 longer before they bear. Garden walls have been coloured 
 white or black, and the latter colour is justly preferred as 
 absorbing and refracting more heat than any other, and 
 thereby accelerating the maturity, and improving the quali- 
 ty of fruits.” — H, Dawes, in Hort. Trans, vol. iii. p. 380. 
 
 To assist in determining the extent of a garden, Marshall 
 observes, that an acre^ with wall trees, hot beds, &c. will 
 furnish employment for one man, who, at some busy times, 
 will need assistance. Loudon says, “ To give some rules 
 for the quantity of ground to be laid out, a family of four 
 persons, (exclusive of servants,) should have a rood of 
 good-working, open ground, and so in proportion.” Mr. 
 Armstrong observes, that “The size and shape of the 
 kitchen garden are not indifferent, but admit of no positive 
 rules for their regulation, because depending on circum- 
 stances rarely alike in two cases — the nature of the ground, 
 and the wants and ©.bility of the occupier. On these heads, 
 therefore, we only say, that a parallelogram and a square are 
 the forms most approved, because most susceptible of a 
 cheap, easy, and regular arrangement into beds ; and that 
 two acres^ devoted to the culture of table vegetables, will 
 furnish an abundant supply, for even a large family.” 
 
 “The ground is next to be divided into quarters, the 
 size of which ought to be proportioned to the extent of the 
 garden ; because, if these divisions be too small, the soil 
 will be wasted in walks ; and as the quarters are generally 
 enclosed by espaliers of fruit-trees, the vegetables which 
 may be planted there will not thrive, for want of sufficient 
 exposure. The walks should, therefore, be proportioned 
 to the size of the ground ; and in a small garden, they ought 
 not to exceed eight feet; or, if it be a large one, from twelve 
 to fourteen feet in breadth. It will also be advisable to 
 place a border, three or four feet wide, between such wall 
 and the espalier, in which maybe sown small salads, or any 
 similar vegetables, that do not take deep root, or continue 
 
8 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 long in the ground. These quarters, however,^ ought not 
 to be planted or sown, for raising the same crops, two suc- 
 cessive years ; and the warmest soil, or that which is next 
 to the stable, where it is best sheltered from the cold winds, 
 will be the most proper for hot-beds, to promote the growth 
 of early cucumbers, melons, &c.” — Dorn, Encyc, 
 
 A copious supply of water is very essential to a good 
 kitchen garden. Loudon remarks, that “ Many kitchen 
 crops are lost, or produced of very inferior quality, for want 
 of watering. Lettuces and cabbages are often hard and 
 stringy ; turnips and radishes do not swell ; onions decay ; 
 cauliflowers die off* ; and, in general, in dry seasons, all the 
 cruciferecB bqcome stinted or covered with insects, even in 
 rich, deep soils. Copious waterings in the evenings, dur- 
 ing the dry seasons, would produce that fulness and succu- 
 lency which we find in the vegetables produced in the 
 Low Countries, and in the Marsh Gardens at Paris, and in 
 England at the beginning and latter end of the season. 
 The vegetables brought to the London market, from the 
 Neat’s Houses and other adjoining gardens, where the im- 
 portant article of watering is much more attended to than 
 in private country gardens, may be adduced as affording 
 proofs of the advantage of the practice. 
 
 “ The contrivance for watering or washing the foliage of 
 the wall trees in Dalmeny garden, laid out by that excellent 
 horticultural architect, John Hay, deserves particular notice. 
 Water is supplied to the garden from a reservoir, situated 
 on an eminence, a considerable height above the garden 
 walls. Around tlie whole garden, four inches below the 
 surface of the ground, a groove, between two and three 
 inches deep, has been formed in the walls, to receive a 
 three quarter inch pipe for conducting the water. About 
 fifty feet distant from each other, are apertures through the 
 w^all, two feet and a half high, and ten inches wide, in 
 which a cock is placed, so that, on turning the handle to 
 either side of the wall, the water issues from that side. The 
 nozles of the cocks have screws on each side, to which is 
 attached, at pleasure, a leathern pipe, with a brass cock 
 and director; roses, pierced with holes of different sizes, 
 being fitted to the latter. By this contrivance, all the trees, 
 both inside and outside the wall, can be most effectually 
 watered and washed in a very short space of time, and 
 with very little trouble. One man may go over the whole 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 9 
 
 in two hours. At the same time, the borders, and even a 
 considerable part of the compartments, can be watered with 
 the greatest ease when required. The convenience and 
 utility of this contrivance must at once be perceived by eve- 
 ry practical horticulturist. The same plan of introducing 
 water is adopted in a garden, which J. Hay planned and 
 executed for Lord V. Duncan, at Lundie House, near Dun- 
 dee ; and, after the experience of several years, it has been 
 greatly approved of. The water at Lundie is conveyed to 
 the garden from a considerable height, and is thrown from 
 the point of the director with great force, and to a good dis- 
 tance.” — Endin. Encyc, art. Horticulture. 
 
 Vegetables that are newly transplanted, as they have 
 their roots more or less diminished, or otherwise injured, 
 often need watering, until they have taken new root. But 
 this should be done with caution. If a dry season follow 
 the transplanting, let them be watered, if they appear to 
 droop, only at evenings, and in cloudy weather, and with 
 water which has been exposed, one day at least, to the 
 shining of the sun ; not with water directly from a well, or 
 a cold spring, as it will give a chill to the plants. Only a 
 small quantity should be applied at once, that it may have 
 an effect similar to that of a refreshing rain ; for water, ap 
 plied too plentifully, sometimes washes away the finest of 
 the mould from the roots, or makes little cavities about 
 them, which admit too much air. 
 
 In a dry season, whole gardens sometimes need water- 
 ing; and, in doing it, the above precautions should bs 
 regarded. They are happy, who have a piece of standing 
 water in their garden, or a rivulet near at hand, from 
 whence the garden may be watered without much la- 
 bour.” — Deane. 
 
 In laying out the compartments of a garden, Forsyth ob- 
 serves, ‘‘You must be guided, in a great measure, by the 
 form and size of the garden ; but do not lay them out too 
 small, as, in that case, a great part of the ground vdll be 
 taken up with walks and borders. The best figure is a 
 square, or oblong, when the garden is of that form ; but if 
 not, they may be laid out in any other figure that is thought 
 to be most convenient.” Some of the compartments, in 
 some of our best gardens, Neill observes, are laid out in 
 beds four feet wide, with narrow alleys. So many alleys, 
 no doubt, occupy a deal of room ; but advantages of conve- 
 
10 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 niency and neatness in enabling the workmen to clean and 
 gather the crop, without trampling the ground, seem to 
 compensate the sacrifice of space. For currant, gooseberry, 
 and raspberry bushes, the compartments are, of course, re- 
 served undivided ; and narrow beds are unnecessary in the 
 case of large perennial plants, such as artichokes or rhu- 
 barb. 
 
 Abercrombie recommends the borders next the walls to 
 be made of prepared soil, from eight to twelve feet wide, 
 and the same description of soil extended under the walks, 
 in order to allow a liberal width for the roots to spread 
 without impediment. Next to the borders, leave a space 
 for a walk entirely round the garden, from four to six feet 
 wide. Some persons, also, choose to have a border on the 
 inward side of the walk, for the cultivation of espaliers, and 
 esculents of a dwarf growth; others divide the central 
 parts at once into main compartments or divisions. The 
 walks or alleys must be regulated by convenience of access. 
 Where the ground is extensive, the centre should be trav- 
 ersed by a walk, with parallel borders, from which cross- 
 walks may branch, if necessary.” The herders under the 
 walls, Forsyth observes, “ should, in the inside, be from 
 ten to twenty feet vride, according to the size of the garden, 
 to give full liberty for the roots of the trees to spread. 
 There should be a foot-path, about two feet and a half from 
 the wall, for the greater convenience of nailing the trees, 
 gathering the fruit, &c. This walk should be from two to 
 two feet and a half wide, (to admit a barrow or barrow en- 
 gine for watering the trees,) and covered with sand, or, 
 which is better, coal-ashes, about two or three inches thick, 
 but without any gravel or rubbish below.” “ The borders 
 for wall trees,” according to Nicol, “ should not be less 
 than twelve feet in breadth ; but fifteen or eighteen feet is 
 not too much : that is to say, the soil should be prepared 
 for these breadths, if it be not naturally good, and perfectly 
 answerable for the different kinds of trees to be planted.” 
 — See further Encyc. of Gard. p. 474. 
 
 The above directions are mostly copied and abridged from 
 European writers on horticulture, of established reputation. 
 They may, perhaps, prove of use to American gardeners, 
 though they may not apply, in their full extent, to the soil, ob- 
 jects of culture, &c. of any individual cultivator. Useful hints 
 may be gathered from precepts, which, taken in the aggre- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 11 
 
 ^ate, it would be the height of absurdity to be guided by 
 It was well remarked, in a little work, lately published, 
 entitled Economy of the Kitchen Garden^ &c. by William 
 Wilson, of JSew York, that ‘‘ The word garden^ considered 
 in its most extensive point of view, embraces such a multi- 
 plicity of subjects, which properly come within its range, that 
 people are very apt to enter upon the formation and cultiva- 
 tion of one under a very disadvantageous and erroneous im- 
 pression of the impracticability of having one of any value 
 upon a small scale ; or at any thing short of a great expense 
 and labour. Whereas, the truth of the matter is, that the 
 most valuable part of all gardening, the raising of esculent 
 vegetables, is an employment the most easily accomplished 
 by those who are possessed of the hands of industry.” A 
 man may raise garden vegetables, fruits, &c. and receive 
 benefit, as regards their culture, from books on horticulture, 
 without possessing any of the requisites of what is techni- 
 cally called a garden. 
 
■ ^ ‘'T : 'i 
 
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 %■ {'-JV 
 
FRUITS AND VEGETABLES, 
 
 ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED. 
 
 APPLE . — Preservation of apples . — Apples keep best in 
 a low temperature, and may be well preserved in an ice- 
 house. An English journal recommends the use of dry 
 pit sand for preserving pears and apples. Glazed earthen 
 jars are to be provided, and the sand to be thoroughly dried. 
 A layer of sand an inch thick is then placed in the bottom 
 of the jar ; above this a layer of fruit, to be covered with 
 a layer of sand an inch thick ; then lay a second stratum of 
 fruit, covering again with an inch of sand. An inch and a 
 half of sand may be placed over the uppermost row of fruit. 
 The jar is now to be closed, and placed in a dry situation, 
 as cool as possible, but entirely free from frost. Some 
 assert that apples may be kept in casks through the winter, 
 in a chamber or garret, by being merely covered with linen 
 cloths. Apples, which are intended for winter’s use, should 
 be suffered to hang on the tree as long as they are safe from 
 frost. 
 
 Cobbett says, To preserve apples in their whole state, 
 observe this, that frost does not much injure them, provided 
 they be kept in total darkness during the frost, and until 
 they be used ; and provided they be perfectly dry when put 
 away. If put together in large parcels, and kept from the 
 frost, they heat^ and then they rot ; and those of them that 
 happen not to rot, lose their flavour, become vapid, and are, 
 indeed, good for little. This is the case with the Newtown 
 pippins that are sent to England, which are half lost by rot, 
 while the remainder are poor, tasteless stuff, very little bet- 
 ter than the English, the far greater part of which are either 
 sour or mawkish. The apples thus sent have every pos- 
 sible disadvantage. They are gathered carelessly, tossed 
 into baskets, and tumbled into barrels at once, and without 
 any packing stuff between them : the barrels are flung into 
 2 
 
14 
 
 APPLE. 
 
 and out of wagons ; they are rolled along upon the pave- 
 ments ; they are put into the hold, or between the decks ; 
 and is it any wonder, that a barrel of pomace^ instead of 
 apples^ arrives at Liverpool or London ! If, instead of this 
 careless work, the apples were gathered, (a week before ripe;) 
 not bruised at all in the gathering ; laid in the sun on 
 boards or cloths three days to let the watery particles evap- 
 orate a little ; put into barrels with fine cut straw-chaff, in 
 such a way as that no apple touched another ; carefully 
 carried to the ship, and put on board, and as carefully landed ; 
 if this were the mode, one barrel, though it would contain 
 only half the quantity, would sell for as much as, upon an 
 average, taking in loss by total destruction, twenty barrels 
 sell for now. On the deck is the best part of the ship for 
 apples ; but, if managed as I have directed, between decks 
 would do very well. In the keeping of apples for market 
 or for house use, the same precautions ought to be observed 
 as in gathering and laying out to dry ; and, perhaps, to pack 
 in the same way, also, is the best mode that can be dis- 
 covered. 
 
 “ Dried apples is an article of great and general use. 
 Every body knows that the apples are peeled, cut into 
 about eight pieces, the core taken out, and the pieces put 
 in the sun till they become dry and tough. They are then 
 put by in bags or boxes in a dry place. But the flesh of 
 the apple does not change its nathre in the drying ; and, 
 therefore, the finest, and not the coarsest apples should have 
 all this trouble bestowed upon them.” 
 
 The following valuable observations, contained in a letter 
 from Noah Webster, Esq. have been published in the Mas- 
 sachusetts Agricultural Repository : — 
 
 ‘‘ It is the practice with some persons to pick apples in 
 October, and first spread them on the floor of an upper 
 room. This practice is said to render apples more durable, 
 by drying them. But I can affirm this to be a mistake. 
 Apples, after remaining on the trees as long as safety from 
 the frost will admit, should be taken directly from the trees 
 to close casks, and kept dry and cool as possible. If suf- 
 fered to lie on a floor for weeks, they wither and lose their 
 flavour, without acquiring any additional durability. The 
 best mode of preserving apples for spring use, I have found 
 to be, the putting them in dry sand as soon as picked. For 
 
APPLE. 
 
 15 
 
 this purpose, I dry sand in the heat of summer, and late in 
 October put down the apples m layers, with a covering of 
 sand upon each layer. The singular advantages of this 
 mode of treatment are these: — 1st. The sand keeps the 
 apples froryi the air, which is essential to their preservation. 
 2d. The sand checks the evaporation or perspiration of the 
 apples, thus preserving in them their full flavour ; at the 
 same time, any moisture yielded by the apples (and some 
 there will be) is absorbed by the sand : so that the apples 
 are kept dry, and all mustiness is prevented. My pippins 
 in May and June are as fresh as when first picked ; even 
 the ends of the stems look as if just separated from the 
 twig.” 
 
 Apples, it is said, may well be preserved by packing in 
 any kind of grain ; also in paper cuttings of the book- 
 binder ; or in shallow pits, between layers of turf, the grassy 
 side inwards, with a sufficient covering of straw and earth 
 to protect them from frost ; likewise in dry flax-seed chaff, 
 or pulverized plaster of Paris. 
 
 A letter from Ebenezer Preble, Esq. published in the 
 Massachusetts Agricultural Repository^ Vol. iv. No. i. p. 24, 
 contains the following useful directions on this subject : — 
 ‘‘ The general method of gathering apples for cider, is, 
 shaking the tree, and thrashing the branches with poles. 
 The former will answer when the fruit is at maturity ; they 
 will then drop without injury to the buds. Poles should 
 never be used but with a hook at the end, covered with 
 cloth or matts to prevent wounding the bark ; they then 
 serve to shake the small limbs. Particular attention is re- 
 quired in gathering winter fruit. They should be taken in 
 the hand, the fingers placed at the foot stalk, and, by bend- 
 ing it upwards, the fruit is gathered with ease, and without 
 injury; they should be moved from the gathering baskets 
 with great care,” &c. The same writer says, “ The inju- 
 dicious method practised in gathering fruit, is more destruc- 
 tive in its consequences, than is generally understood ; the 
 blossom buds of the succeeding year are placed at the side 
 of the foot stalk of the fruit, and if the spurs are broken, no 
 fruit on that part will be produced .” — See further ^ Fruit. 
 
 Use , — For pies, tarts, sauces, and the dessert, the use of 
 the apple is too well known to require description. In 
 France, bread is made consisting of one third of boiled apple 
 
16 
 
 APPLE. 
 
 pulp, baked with two thirds flour, properly fermented w’ K 
 yeast for twelve hours. This bread is said to be very fine* 
 full of eyes, and extremely palatable and light. Apples, 
 by furnishing cider, a grateful and salubrious liquor, have a 
 tendency to diminish the consumption of ardent spirits. 
 Besides, apples are thought to alter and ameliorate the taste 
 and the tone of the human system, in such a manner as to 
 destroy that artificial appetite, which is gratified by the 
 deleterious preparations of alcohol. The palate,” says 
 Mr. Knight, a celebrated English horticulturist, “ which 
 relishes fruit, is seldom pleased with strong fermented 
 liquors ; and as feeble causes, continually acting, ultimately 
 produce extensive effects, the supplying the public with 
 fruit at a cheap rate, would have a tendency to operate fa- 
 vourably, both on the physical and moral health of the 
 people.” In medicine, verjuice, or the juice of crab-apples, 
 is used for sprains, and as an astringent and repellent. The 
 good table apple, when ripe, is laxative ; the juice is useful 
 in dysenteries; boiled or roasted apples fortify a weak 
 stomach. Scopoli,” says Loudon, ‘‘recovered from a 
 M^eakness of the stomach and indigestion from using them ; 
 and they are equally efficacious, in putrid and malignant fe- 
 vers, with the juice of lemons or currants.” “ In diseases 
 of the breast,” says Dr. Willich, (Dom, Ency.) “such as 
 catarrhs, coughs, consumptions, &c. they are of consider- 
 able service. For these beneficial purposes, however, they 
 ought not to be eaten raw, but either roasted, stewed, or 
 boiled. They may also be usefully employed in decoctions, 
 which, if drank plentifully, tend to abate febrile heat, as 
 well as to relieve painful strictures in pectoral complaints.” 
 
 Apples have also been recommended as food for horses 
 and farm stock, for which purpose sweet apples are of the 
 greatest value . — See N, E* Farmer^ vol. v. p. 82. Sweet 
 apples are said, likewise, to afford a saccharine matter, 
 which is a good substitute for molasses. For this purpose 
 the apples are ground and pressed in a cider mill, and the 
 juice boiled immediately, the scum being taken off till it is 
 reduced to a proper consistence. 
 
 The following process for making apple jelly has been 
 recommended : — Pare and quarter the apples, and remove 
 the core completely. Then put them into a pot, and place 
 it in a heated oven, or over a slow fire. When well stewed, 
 
APPLE-TREE. 
 
 17 
 
 squeeze out the juice through a cloth, to which add a little 
 of the w hite of an egg. Boil it to a proper consistence, 
 skimming just before it begins to boil. 
 
 APPLE-TREE . — Pyrus mato.~In propagating the apple- 
 tree, the common method in New England has been U sow 
 the pomace from late made cider, without regard to the 
 quality of the apples producing the pomace. But we doubt 
 very much whether this is the best mode of raising this val- 
 uable fruit-tree. The seeds for a nursery should, we think, 
 be selected from the best varieties of apples which can be 
 procured ; and this for the simple reason that “ like produces 
 its likeness.” It is as expedient to propagate from the best 
 individuals of the vegetable as of the animal creation. In 
 proof of this theory, we would cite the following from a 
 communication to Dr. Mease of Philadelphia, addressed to 
 him by Mr. Joseph Cooper, of New Jersey, an accurate 
 observer and scientific cultivator : — 
 
 “ Experience for more than fifty years has convinced me 
 that, although seedlings from apples will scarcely ever pro- 
 duce fruit, in New Jersey, exactly similar to the original, 
 yet many of them will produce excellent fruit ; some will be 
 even superior to the apples from which the seeds were taken 
 This fact has led me to plant seeds from the largest and best 
 kinds of fruit, and from trees of a strong and rapid growth, 
 and to let all young trees bear fruit before grafting, which 
 produced an uncommonly strong shoot, or large, rich looking 
 leaf. I have seldom known them fail of bearing fruit hav- 
 ing some good quality ; at all events, they make stocks to 
 put any good kind on, which may afterwards present itself.” 
 Loudon observes, that ‘‘ the apple, like most other hardy 
 trees, may be propagated by seeds, cuttings, suckers, layers, 
 or engrafting ; by seeds, for obtaining new varieties, and by 
 the other modes for continuing such as are in esteem. The 
 seeds should be taken from fruits having the properties it is 
 desired to perpetuate or improve in the greatest degree. In 
 collecting seeds to sow, it must be remembered that the 
 habits as w^ell as the diseases of plants are often hereditary, 
 and attention should be paid to the state of the tree from 
 which the seeds are taken ; it should be large, and of free 
 growth, and rather in a growing state than one of maturity 
 or decay .” — See Cuttings, Engrafting, Layers, Nurse- 
 ry, Orchard, Scions, in their alphabetical order. 
 
18 
 
 APRICOT. ARTICHOKE. 
 
 Manure for apple-trees. — Rotten leaves of trees are recom- 
 mended by Forsyth as the best manure for fruit-trees, w^hich, 
 he says, is ‘‘ much better than dung, which I by no means 
 approve of for trees, unless it be perfectly rotten, and mixed 
 up with mould. It is better, however, not to make use of 
 such leaves as manure for fruit-trees unless it be perfectly 
 rotten, and reduced to a fine vegetable mould.” — Forsythes 
 Treatise on Fruit-Trees^ pp. 62, 63, American edition. 
 
 Use. — Besides the uses to which the fruit of this valuable 
 tree is applicable, the bark will produce a yellow colour, 
 and the wood is used in turning and various purposes, where 
 hardness, compactness, and variegation of colour are objects. 
 
 APRICOT. — Prunus Armeniaca. — The apricot-tree may 
 be procured from the stone, like the peach ; and approved 
 sorts are perpetuated by budding, either on their own stocks 
 or on plum stocks. They require the same sort of treat- 
 ment as the peach and nectarine tree. The soil, which 
 suits them best, is a rich black mould, according to some 
 writers, but others recommend a light loam. “ In our cli- 
 mate,” says Dr. Thacher, this tree should be screened 
 from easterly and northerly winds ; otherwise, it is said, 
 they will not bear fruit, though they may grow very large. 
 They do not attain to a bearing state so soon as the peach 
 by one year. Some kinds ripen their fruit much earlier 
 than others. The following are those best adapted to our 
 climate : 
 
 The black apricot, 
 The Brussels apricot, 
 The Breda apricot. 
 The early apricot, 
 
 The large early apricot, 
 The peach apricot. 
 
 The Moor’s Park apricot. 
 The Turkey apricot. 
 
 ARTICHOKE.-- Cynam scolymus. — There are, according 
 to Loudon, three varieties cultivated — conical, French, or 
 oval artichoke, with green head. The head is oval, the 
 scales open, and not turned in at the top, as in the globe 
 sort. . Globe, or largest, with dusky, purplish head. The 
 scales are turned in at top, and the receptacle more succu- 
 lent than the other. The dwarfish globe, a prolific variety, 
 and valuable as occupying little room with its head. The 
 globe kind is the only one usually cultivated in this coun- 
 try. 
 
 In making new plantations, select deep, rich, light loam, 
 not liable to retain much wet in winter, nor to be very dry 
 
ARTICHOKE. 
 
 19 
 
 in summer. Let it have a gentle slope, sufficient to carry off 
 any moisture that might lodge in the trenches between the 
 rows, for that is more injurious to the roots in winter than 
 the severest frost. Lay on a good quantity of rotten dung, 
 and trench the ground eighteen inches deep, incorporating 
 the manure well therewith, and thoroughly pulverizing 
 the ground in digging ; then proceed to slip off the young 
 shoots from the mother stools, with all the roots and fibres 
 they may have thrown out, and close the earth about the 
 remaining shoots. These being provided, pull off any loose 
 hanging leaves, and trim the fibres; then plant them with a 
 dibble about four or five inches deep, in rows five feet asun- 
 der, and two feet apart in the row, leaving part of their green 
 tops above ground, and the hearts of the plants free from 
 any earth over them ; be careful also to give each plant a 
 little water to settle the earth about its roots. 
 
 Or, if you have seedling year old plants in a seed bed, 
 you may take them up, and after shortening the tap roots 
 a little, and dressing their leaves, plant them as above. 
 
 Subsequent culture , — “ All spring and summer keep them 
 clear from weeds, by occasionally hoeing between the 
 plants ; this, with regular waterings in the dry weather of 
 summer, is all the culture which they require, till the sea- 
 son of production has terminated. They will produce 
 some tolerable heads the same year in August, and thence 
 till November ; next year they will head sooner in full 
 perfection. By having fresh stools planted every year or 
 two, the old and new plantations together furnish a produc- 
 tion of heads from June or July till November. Besides 
 the main head, several smaller lateral heads generally 
 spring from the sides of the stem in succession ; but, in 
 order to encourage the principal head to attain the full size, 
 most of the side suckers should be detached in young 
 growths, when their heads are the size of a large egg, 
 which in that state are also prepared for some tables. As 
 to the continuing main heads, permit them to have full 
 growth till the scales begin to diverge considerably, but 
 gather them before the flowers appear, cutting to each head 
 a part of the stalk. When the entire crop on a stem is 
 taken, cut off the stem close to the ground, to give the 
 plant more strength for new shoots.” — Abercrombie, “ To 
 encourage the production of large main heads, some detach 
 
20 
 
 ARTICHOKE. 
 
 all the lateral heads in a young state. These are common- 
 ly in a fit state for eating raw, having attained about one 
 third of their proper size ; and they are for this purpose 
 frequently sold in Covent Garden market, chiefly to for- 
 eigners. Another thing practised, with the same view, is 
 the shortening the ends of the large leaves.” — in 
 Ed, Encyc, 
 
 Winter dressing , — Abercrombie says, “ First cut down all 
 the large leaves, but without hurting the small central ones, 
 or the new shoots. Then dig the ground between and along 
 each row ; raising it gradually from both sides, ridgeways, 
 over the roots, and close about the plants. In rigorous frosty 
 weather, cover also in the litter, and close about each plant.” 
 Armstrong remarks, that various means have been em- 
 ployed for preserving the outstanding plants during the 
 winter. That which is most commonly used is, after strip- 
 ping off* the dead or decaying leaves, and trimming down 
 the sound ones to three or four inches, to open trenches 
 around the plant, and to draw about it the earth furnished 
 by these. This is again covered with long dung or stable 
 litter, so as entirely to exclude rain, and snow, and frost. 
 But, in making those provisions against cold and wet weath- 
 er, we must not forget, that it is possible to be careful over- 
 much ; for if the mounds of earth and litter be large and 
 close, we expose our plants to suffocation from want of air ; 
 to exhaustion from a continued vegetation, and to scorch- 
 ing, from the fermentation of the covering matter, which, 
 if the weather be wet, and but occasionally warm, seldom 
 fails to occur. 
 
 To obviate these difficulties, it has been proposed, that 
 the mounds be gradually formed ; that the first covering be 
 merely a wrapping of long dung, and that the additions 
 made to it be conformed to the weather, leaving openings, 
 in all cases, on its southern side, for the purposes of venti- 
 lation, and in no case to permit the covering to exceed two 
 feet in thickness. But even this mode of treatment is not 
 free from objection ; for, first, the direct application of the 
 dung to the plant will always alter its flavour, and very 
 much degrade it; and again, the capriciousness of the 
 weather does not generally give either warning of its chan- 
 ges, or time to accommodate ourselves to them ; they often 
 take place in the night, and often (whether in the night, or in 
 
ARTICHOKE. 
 
 21 
 
 the day) under circumstances which prevent us from giving 
 the plant the additional covering it may require. Two 
 other methods, therefore, not dissimilar in themselves, have 
 been suggested — the one to employ hollow cylinders of 
 earthen ware, covered with a tile or piece of slate, and. of 
 capacity sufficient to embrace the plant ; the other to form 
 caps of straw, (such as are used for lodging bees,) and 
 having a moveable top of the same material. To the last 
 method we see no room for objectipn ; in application it is 
 easy, requiring no skill and but little labour, while the ma- 
 terial and workmanship are both cheap and durable, and 
 their property of excluding rain, snow and frost, not to be 
 doubted.” 
 
 Spring dressing , — In spring, the litter and earth being 
 removed in March or April, (April or May in this country,) 
 according to the season, the stocks are examined ; and two 
 or three of the strongest or best shoots being selected for 
 growing, the rest are removed by pressure with the thumb, 
 or by a knife, or wooden chisel. Those shoots, or suckers, 
 are used for new plantations. Dig the whole ground level, 
 loosening it to the crown of the roots of every plant.” — - 
 Loudon. 
 
 Duration of the plants , — Artichoke plants continue pro- 
 ductive for several years; but, every season, some well 
 rotted dung, or fresh sea-weed, should be delved into the 
 ground at the winter dressing. It is certain, however, that, 
 after a few years, the plants begin to degenerate, the heads 
 becoming smaller and less succulent. It is therefore a 
 general rule, not to keep an artichoke plantation beyond 
 four, or, at most, six years. Scarcely any kind of grub oi 
 wire-worm ever touches the roots of artichokes : they 
 form, therefore, an excellent preparative for a crop of on- 
 ions, shallot or garlic. In many gardens, a small new 
 plantation is formed every year ; and in this way the arti- 
 choke season, which begins in June, is prolonged till 
 November; those from the old^stock continuing till August, 
 when those from the new stocks come in. If the last 
 gathered be cut with the stems at full length, and if these 
 be stuck among moist sand, the heads may be preserved a 
 month longer. 
 
 Seed , — “ The heads, when suffered to remain ten days, 
 or a fortnight, after the season of cutting, expand the calix 
 
22 
 
 ASPARAGUS. 
 
 leaves, and display an aggregation of jagged purple florets, 
 producing a fine appearance. When ripe seed is wanted, 
 those heads in flower are to be bent down, and retained in 
 that position, so as that the calix may throw off the autum- 
 nal rains. In general, however, the seed is not perfecte*d 
 in oiir [the British] climate.” — Loudon. Armstrong says, 
 “ Every gardener, who understands his trade, will take care 
 to set apart a few of the finest heads of his own crop for 
 seed ; but, as the stock is upright, and the head so formed 
 as to receive and hold water, it often happens that the 
 seeds rot. To prevent this, the stems of the plants, so set 
 apart, should be tied to stakes driven into the ground near 
 them, and gradually bent, so as to give to the heads that 
 degree of declination, that will be sufficient to carry off the 
 water, that may fall upon them.” 
 
 Use. — In England, the full heads only are eaten, always 
 boiled. In Italy, they eat the young heads raw, with oil, 
 salt and pepper. The stalks are eaten in France and Ger- 
 many, boiled and seasoned with butter and vinegar. The 
 flowers have the property of rennet, and have sometimes 
 been used as a substitute for that article. 
 
 ASPARAGU S. — Asparagus officinalis. — Soil. — Asparagus 
 ground should be light, yet rich : a sandy loam, well mixed 
 with rotten dung, or sea-weed, is recommended. 
 
 Preparation. — A good quantity of dung trenched twelve 
 or fifteen inches below the surface. 
 
 Propagation . — It is best to raise this plant from seeds, 
 although the sprouts from seeds will not be fit to cut so 
 soon by a year as from the roots. The seeds should be 
 dead ripe, when gathered, and taken from the strongest 
 and most compact shoots. 
 
 Quantity of seeds or roots. — If sown to transplant, for a 
 bed four feet and a half wide by six feet in length, one 
 quart of seed will be requisite. If sown to remain, for a 
 bed four feet and a half wide by thirty feet in length, one 
 pint is necessary. If plants a year old are wanted for a 
 plantation, then for a bed four feet and a half wide by thirty 
 feet in length, to contain four rows of plants nine inches 
 distant in the row, one hundred and sixty plants will be 
 requisite. The seeds may be sown as early as the season 
 will permit in the spring, or (according to Cobbett) three 
 weeks, or about, before the frost sets in” in the fall — and 
 
ASPARAGUS. 23 
 
 ^ press the earth well down about the seed ; and, as soon 
 as the frost sets in, but not before, cover the ground with 
 muck or litter, a foot deep, and lay some boards or poles to 
 prevent its blowing oif. As soon as the frost breaks up in 
 the sj)ring, take off the litter, and you will have the plants 
 quickly up.” 
 
 Asparagus beds may be from four to four and a half feet 
 wide, with alleys of two feet in width between them. In 
 these beds ‘‘ the soil should not be less than two feet and a 
 half deep, and, before planting a bed, it is considered good 
 practice to trench it over to that depth, burying plenty of dung 
 in the bottom, as no more can be applied there for eight or 
 ten years. It can scarcely, therefore, be too well dunged ; be- 
 sides, though the plant naturally grows in poor, sandy soil, 
 it is found that the sweetness and tenderness of the shoots 
 depend very much on the rapidity of the growth ; and this 
 is promoted by the richness of the soil. Damp ground, or 
 a wet subsoil, is not fit for asparagus. Indeed the French 
 consider wetness as so prejudicial to this plant, that they 
 raise their asparagus beds about a foot above the alleys, in 
 order to throw off the rain.” — Hort. Trans. 
 
 Method of planting . — Stretch a line lengthwise the bed 
 nine inches from the edge, and with a spade cut out a small 
 trench about six inches deep, perpendicular next to the 
 line, turning the earth displaced along by the other side of 
 the trench ; and, having the plants ready, set a row along 
 the trench, nine inches apart, with the crown of the roots 
 two inches below the surface, drawing some earth, just to 
 fix them as placed* Having planted one row, directly 
 cover them in fully with the earth of the trench, raking 
 it back regularly an equal depth over the crown of the 
 plants. Proceed then to open another trench a foot from 
 the first : plant it as above ; and in the same manner plant 
 four rows in each bed. Then, lightly raking the beds 
 lengthwise, draw off any stones and hard clods, and dress the 
 surface neat and even. Then let the edges be lined out in 
 exact order, allowing three feet for each alley. But some- 
 times, in planting large compartments of asparagus, a first 
 trench having been made, and the roots placed as above, 
 then a second trench is opened, of which the earth is turn- 
 ed into the first over the plants. So proceed in planting 
 the whole ; making allowance between every four rows for 
 
24 
 
 ASPARAGUS. 
 
 an alley of three feet [more or less]. In a dry spring or 
 summer, water the roots from time to time, till the plants 
 are established.” — Abercrombie, It is of very great im- 
 portance to take up the roots carefully, and expose them to 
 the air as little as possible before planting. 
 
 If you would raise asparagus directly from seed, 
 without transplanting, you may sow two or three seeds in 
 the places designated above for setting the plants, and cover 
 them with an inch of good soil. When the plants are up, 
 they should be thinned to one in a place. Armstrong says, 
 the crowns of the roots must be placed upright, and the 
 pattesy [or fingers,] as they are sometimes called, spread 
 and directed downwards ; for on their taking (to the food 
 provided for them) the prosperity of the plantation will 
 principally depend.” 
 
 The following are the directions for the culture of this 
 root, given in the Catalogue of Seeds^ &c. for sale by 
 John B. Russell, Boston ; and, perhaps, are as much to 
 the purpose as those which are more prolix, minute and 
 circumstantial : 
 
 “ Sown in April and May, in the same manner as onions, 
 in rows, eighteen inches apart. Let it stand one or two 
 years — transplant into trenches four feet wide, dug, if the 
 soil will admit, fifteen inches deep — fill up six inches with 
 rotten manure — ^place tho roots fourteen inches apart.” 
 
 In a Treatise on Gardening^ by J. Armstrong, of Dutch- 
 ess, published in Memoirs of the New York Board of 
 Agriculture,^ vol. ii., it is said, “ If we can postpone the 
 use of the plant for a year or twp, sowing is to be prefer- 
 red, because the crop it gives, (other things being equal,) 
 though later in coming, is more abundant, of better quality, 
 and of longer duration ; but, if our supply must be prompt, 
 planting is best, for, by this mode, we, no doubt, soonest 
 obtain the fruit.” 
 
 The same writer directs to plant roots of three years old, 
 instead of those of one or two years old, according to 
 the usual practice ; and says, roots of three years will 
 not only give fruit sooner than those of one, or two years, 
 but, their fibres being harder, and roots more numerous, are 
 better able to sustain the violence inseparable from trans- 
 plantation, and the other accidents, (such as heating and 
 
ASPARAGUS. 
 
 25 
 
 chafing,) which often accompany it, particularly if the 
 roots be brought from a distance.’’ 
 
 Extent of the plantation. — An asparagus compartment 
 should not contain less than a pole of ground, as it often 
 needs this quantity to furnish a good dish at one time. For 
 a large family, about sixteen rods are kept in a productive 
 state, which are calculated to furnish, on an average, be- 
 tween two hundred and three hundred shoots every day in 
 the height of the season. — Neill^ in Ed. Encyc. 
 
 Progressive culture. — In the month of March or April, 
 (during the whole existence of the plant,) the beds must 
 be carefully forked and dressed, and kept clear of weeds. 
 Occasional waterings are necessary, till the third or fourth 
 year, wnen the plants will be sufficiently established to do 
 without them. Permit the entire crop the two first years, 
 and the greater part of it the third year, to run up to stalks. 
 It is a common practice to sow onions, lettuce, &c. the two 
 first years. Mr. Loudon, however, says, the advantage 
 of this practice is questionable ; and, at all events, it should 
 not be continued after the plants are in full bearing.” 
 
 Asparagus beds should be completely loosened to a mod- 
 erate depth, every spring, as soon as the frost is out of the 
 ground, with a proper fork, having three short tines, six to 
 eight or nine inches long. But care must be taken not to 
 go too deep, so as to wound the crowns of the roots. The 
 beds, being loosened in every part to a moderate depth, 
 should be raked even, before the buds begin to advance 
 In autumn, after the tops are turned white by the frost, 
 they should be cleared off, and a layer of dung, or rich 
 soil, an inch thick, laid over the bed. This should be done 
 yearly, and the bed kept clear of weeds. If the bed should 
 get too high by this management, the surface may be taken 
 off with a spade, early in th^ spring, to the depth of twc 
 inches, before the young shoots are in the way. But wher 
 this is done, a thin dressing of rotten dung or compost 
 should be laid on. This plant, according to Deane'^s N. 
 E. Farmer., grows well in ground that is shaded. The 
 sprouts will be very large and tender ; but they will not be 
 so early. It is not amiss to have one bed in a shady place, 
 to supply the table, after the season is over for cutting the 
 first. 
 
 Tbne of cutting. — “ If you plant roots, the snoots may be 
 
 3 
 
26 
 
 ASPARAGUS. 
 
 cut the second year after ; if seeds, they will not be fit to 
 cut till the third year. All the shoots, which come up be- 
 fore the middle of June, may be cut off without injuring 
 the roots ; after which time, the late shoots should be left 
 to run up, and go to seed ; otherwise the roots will be weak- 
 ened.” — Deane, 
 
 Cutting and gathering. — “In new plantations, be careful 
 not to begin cutting till the stools have become mature, or the 
 third or fourth year. Likewise observe, both in old and new 
 beds, to gather all the produce in a regular, successive order, 
 within the proper limits of the season. As the rising shoots 
 project two, three, four or five inches, at most, above the 
 ground, while the top bud remains close and plump, they are 
 in the best condition for gathering. Cut them off within the 
 ground, with a narrow, sharp-pointed knife, or small saw, 
 nine inches long; thrusting the knife or saw down straight, 
 close to each shoot separately, cut it off slantingly, about 
 three inches below the surface, with care not to wouiid the 
 young buds advancing below. Observe in a new planta- 
 tion; in the first yearns gathering, if the shoots come up of 
 irregular sizes, to cut only some of the larger for a fort- 
 night, or three or four weeks, and then permit the whole 
 to run ; but otherwise, when in strong production, gather 
 all as they come, two or three times a week, or as required 
 during the season, till the 21st of June ; then, at furthest, 
 terminate the cutting, and permit the after-shoots to run up 
 in stalk till October. If, from a particular inducement, you 
 cut later than the 21st of June, be careful to leave two or 
 more shoots to each stool, in order to draw nourishment to 
 it ; for the stools left without growing shoots will perish ; 
 and, by negligence in this respect, many vacuities or unpro- 
 ductive spots are left in beds.” 
 
 Duration of the plantation. says, “A plan- 
 tation of asparagus, under good culture, will mostly continue 
 for ten or twelve years to afford good crops ; after which 
 the stools usually decline in fertility, and the shoots in qual- 
 ity ; so that, to provide a permanent annual supply, some 
 fresh beds should be planted a sufficient time beforehand, 
 allowing four years for their advancing to a productive 
 state.” 
 
 To save asparagus seed. — “ Select some of the finest and 
 earliest heads as they make their appearance in the spring ; 
 
ASPARAGUS. 
 
 27 
 
 tie them to stakes during summer, taking care not to 
 drive the stake through the crown of tlie plant. In autumn, 
 when the berries are ripe, wash out the seeds, if for the 
 market, or to be sent to a distance ; but for home sowing, 
 keep them in the berry till the time of sowing, the pulp 
 being a great nourishment to the seed, which ought to be 
 kept in a dry place during the winter.” — Hort, Trans. 
 
 The following directions for cultivating avSparagus are 
 from the second volume of the Memoirs of the New York 
 Board of Agriculture. They were furnished by Richard 
 Treat, the oldest gardener at the Shaker village in New 
 Lebanon, Columbia county. New York : — 
 
 “ Beds should be made as soon as the ground is clear from 
 frost — the first part of April, in ordinary seasons. The 
 grounci must be well worked to the depth of a spade blade, 
 and intimately mixed with rotted horse-manure. The seeds 
 should then be sowed in rows or drills, twenty inches apart, 
 and one inch deep, the rows crosswise of the beds. They 
 should be raked in lengthwise of the rows. 
 
 Asparagus will be large enough to begin to cut the 
 third spring after it is sowed. It may be cut until the 20th 
 June every year afterwards. As soon as the cutting season 
 is over, hoe it over lightly, so as to loosen the soil, and make 
 the surface even. Every other year, spread on each bed 
 an inch layer of good yard-manure before hoeing. The 
 tops will now grow to a great size, and mostly seed well. 
 Early in the spring, cut the dry tops close to the ground, 
 lay them evenly on the beds, and burn them there. Then 
 hoe the beds over, and rake them again. They are then 
 prepared for a new growth. 
 
 ‘‘Most of the English books recommend breaking up 
 old asparagus beds once in a certain number of years. 
 Some of the Shakers’ beds have been cut twenty-five years, 
 and, under that course of treatment, are as good as they 
 ever were.” 
 
 Armstrong, in the treatise quoted above, says, “ It has been 
 lately asserted, and with sufficient confidence, that a pickle 
 of salt and water, of the ordinary strength for preserving 
 meat, may be very usefully applied to asparagus beds in the 
 spring. The effects ascribed to it are, its stimulating pow- 
 er over the crop, and its tendency to destroy the seeds of 
 weeds, and of insects lying near the surface. Experiments 
 
28 
 
 BALM. 
 
 on this subject should be multiplied, and with pickles dif- 
 fering in strength and quality.” In the last edition of 
 Deane^s New England Farmer^ it is observed, “ that to a 
 bed fifty feet by six, a bushel of salt may be applied, with 
 good effect, before the plants start in the spring.” 
 
 Use, — “ The esculent part is the early shoots or buds, when 
 three or four inches high, and partially emerged from the 
 ground in May or June. They are in great esteem in Britain, 
 and on the continent ; and this plant has, in consequence, 
 been cultivated for an unknown period. In Paris, it i§ much 
 resorted to by the sedentary operative classes, when they 
 are troubled with symptoms of gravel or stone.” — Loudon, 
 
 Forcing asparagus in hot beds, — The first step in this pro- 
 cess is to procure a supply of three year old plants, for none 
 else are fit for the purpose. Then form a hot bed, as di- 
 rected under the article Hot-bed, in the alphabetical ar- 
 rangement of this work. In this set the plants, at the dis- 
 tance of two inches. Armstrong observes, that the mode 
 of taking the plants from hot beds differs from that used 
 for plants raised in the natural way. If you employ a knife, 
 fou cannot fail to destroy many young plants, (on account 
 of the closeness with which they stand to each other,) but 
 ^he mode in which you do least mischief, is, to thrust your 
 finger down alongside of the bud, and break it off at the 
 700t.” 
 
 BALM.— AfcZma officinalis, — “ The balm is a hardy pe- 
 rennial, V ith square stems, which rise two feet high or more, 
 furnished with large ovate leaves, growing by pairs at each 
 joint. It is a native of Switzerland and the south of 
 France, produces flowers of a purplish colour from June to 
 October.” There is a variety with hairy leaves. 
 
 Propagation, — It is readily propagated by parting the 
 roots, preserving two or three buds to each piece, or by 
 slips, either in autumn or spring.” — Loudon, 
 
 Culture, — “ Plant the slips or sets in any bed of common 
 earth, by dibble or trowel, and from eight inches to a foot 
 apart, giving water, if dry weather. Those of the spring 
 planting will soon grow freely for use the same year ; and 
 afterwards will increase by the root into large bunches of 
 several years’ continuance, furnishing annual supplies from 
 March to September.” — Loudon. 
 
 Dried Balm. — Gather when coming into flower, and 
 
BARLEY. 
 
 29 
 
 when the leaves are entirely free from dew or moisture ; 
 then dry rapidly in the shade, or better in an oven ; and 
 when cool press the herbage into packages, and wrap them 
 up ill white paper till wanted for use. Keep the packages 
 dry, and in a close drawer.” — Loudon* 
 
 Use . — ‘‘Formerly the balm was held in very high esti- 
 mation : Paracelsus supposed it to possess virtues, by which 
 human life could be prolonged beyond the usual period. In 
 modern times, however, the properties of this agreeable 
 plant are better understood : it yields, by distillation, a 
 small proportion of an essential oil, ^f a yellowish colour, 
 and a very grateful smell. A few drops of this oil, diluted 
 in a glass of simple water, or strong infusions of the young 
 shoots, drank as tea, and continued for several weeks or 
 months, have proved of service to nervous and hypochondri- 
 acal patients, of a lax and debilitated habit. Either of these 
 liquid preparations, when slightly acidulated with lemon 
 juice, acquire a fine reddish colour, and may be taken with 
 advantage in dry, parching fevers, as well as in cases of dis- 
 tressing flatulency, attended with eructations, where the 
 first passages have previously been opened.” — Doin. Ency* 
 vol. i. p. 127. 
 
 BARLEY. — Hordeum . — The following remarks on the 
 cultivation of this grain are extracted from an article written 
 by Jesse Buel, Esq., published in the N. E. Farmer^ vol. v. 
 p. 290 
 
 “ The soil for barley should be such as will grow good 
 turnips, or other green crops, including clovers, and which 
 embrace the varieties of loams and sands that are not wet, 
 or very dry and poor. Indeed, I have taken my crops, and 
 they have been pretty good, from my lightest turnip soils. 
 Barley cannot be cultivated to advantage upon stiff, heavy, 
 and wet grounds, or on such as are of a cold and tenacious 
 quality. This crop occupies the ground but about three 
 months ; and it is only in a dry, light, mellow soil, that its 
 roots can extend with sufficient facility, and supply the food 
 necessary to bring the grain to rapid and perfect maturity. 
 
 “ Previous crop . — Crops that precede this grain should 
 be such as leave the ground mellow, and free from weeds; 
 and for this reason hoed crops are to be preferred, such as 
 turnips, potatoes, peas, beans, &c. Small grains should 
 not precede it : they impoverish the soil, leave it foul, and, 
 
 3# 
 
30 
 
 BARLEY. 
 
 besidas, it is contravening one of the most salutary maxims 
 of husbandry, to grow two dry crops in succession. It may 
 follow clover ; but if the soil is heavy, the ley should be 
 ploughed in autumn. Barley is successfully sown upon the 
 fallows in England, (not summer, but autumn fallows,) and 
 is sown sometimes after wheat ; but in the latter case tur- 
 nips are pulled, and previously fed upon the stubble — a prac- 
 tice which I think is not likely \o obtain here. I have 
 generally sown barley after ruta baga or potatoes, these 
 crops having received a good dressing of long, yard or stable- 
 manure. 
 
 “ Manure should not be applied to the barley, but to the 
 preceding crop. The short period that this grain occupies 
 the ground does not afford time for the manure to decom- 
 pose, and yield its food to the plants ; and, if applied in ex- 
 cess, it causes a too rank vegetation, and the straw lodges 
 before the grain is matured. Where a fallow or clover ley 
 is employed, and ploughed in autumn, dung may be pre- 
 viously applied and ploughed under. 
 
 Preparation of the ground, — Where barley follows a 
 root or hoed crop, one ploughing will generally suffice : 
 but in all cases a complete pulverization of the soil is neces- 
 sary ; and to effect this a roller is often of material benefit. 
 If sown upon grass leys, ploughed in autumn, the spring 
 ploughing should be shallow, so as to leave the sod re- 
 versed. But the preferable way may be to harrow the fal- 
 low, plough in the seed, with a light furrow, and smooth 
 off with the harrow. 
 
 The seed^ and sowing, — Loudon enumerates six species 
 and sub-species of the barley. The kinds uniformly culti- 
 vated here are the two, four, and six rowed spring, (horde-' 
 um vulgare^ and h, distichon,) Thin-skinned, pale, plump 
 seed should be selected. I sow as soon as the ground is 
 sufficiently dry in spring. The young grain is not hurt by 
 the ordinary frosts of the latter part of April and May. I 
 sow from six to eight pecks per acre, according to the rich- 
 ness of the soil and the forwardness of the season ; the 
 poorest ground and the latest sowing requiring the most 
 seed. In England the common quantity of seed is from 
 eight to sixteen pecks. Our climate being much warmer 
 than that of Great Britain, barley and other grains till better 
 with us, and consequently we require less seed. We uni- 
 
BARLEY. 
 
 31 
 
 formly sow broad-cast, generally on the fresh furrow, and 
 harrow in both ways ; and those who have a roller use it 
 in the finishing operation. It gives a smooth surface, breaks 
 down the lumps, brings the earth in contact with the seed, 
 and if grass seeds have been sown, its use is doubly benefi- 
 cial. I steep my seed twenty-four hours in a weak solution of 
 nitre, the crude kind of which costs me only eight cents per 
 pound by the quantity. From the analysis and observa- 
 tions of Grisenthwaite, there is reason to believe that this 
 salt is peculiarly beneficial to the barley crop, the grain 
 yielding it on analysis. I have made no comparative ex- 
 periments, but I think this steep serviceable. I have ap- 
 plied to this grain, as a top dressing, with singular success, 
 the powdered dung of pigeons and dunghill fowls, at the 
 rate of twenty to thirty bushels the acre. 
 
 ‘‘ The crop admits of no after-culture when sown broad- 
 cast. Yet the application of the roller, when the plants are 
 two or three inches high, is no doubt salutary, especially if 
 there has been no considerable rains. Rolling gives a salu- 
 tary compression to the soil, which in the spring is apt to 
 be loose and porous, and full of cracks, by the alternation 
 of freezing and thawing, or of wet and dry weather ; it de- 
 stroys many insects ; and, above all, it partially buries the 
 crowns of the^ plants, and induces a multiplication of seed 
 stalks. I can recommend the practice from experience. — 
 When grass seeds are sown with barley, the luxuriance of 
 che young grass sometimes chokes the grain, robs it of nu- 
 triment, and sensibly diminishes the product. To obviate 
 this evil, it has been recommended to sow the grass seeds 
 d,fter the barley has come up, and to cover them with a 
 light harrow and the roller ; and it is said, and I think with 
 truth, that this operation will not materially injure the grain. 
 In dry seasons, the crop is sometimes attacked by worms, 
 while young. In this case the roller should be applied, and 
 sufficient weight added, to require the draught of two or 
 three cattle. 
 
 Time and method of harvesting , — When the soil is rich, 
 and the season propitious, this grain is very liable to lodge. 
 If this happens after it has blossomed, no material injury is 
 sustained in the product. If before, the crop i^ greatly di- 
 minished. This shows the danger to be apprehended from 
 making the soil too rich, and of applying fresh manure. 
 
32 
 
 BARLEY. 
 
 Barley is known to be ripe by tlie disappearance of the 
 reddish cast on the ear, or what the English farmers term 
 red roan; by the ears beginning to droop, and bend them- 
 selves round against the stems ; and by the stalks becoming 
 brittle, and of a yellowish colour. This is the particular 
 period for cutting, as, if suffered to stand longer, the heads 
 break off, and the grain wastes, with the slightest touch. 
 And it may be cut with the cradle, sickle or sithe, accord- 
 ing to circumstances. If it stands straight, and is not too 
 heavy, the cradle is to be preferred ; if heavy, or lodged, 
 the sickle or sithe. But, as the grain is yet soft, and the 
 straw contains much moisture, when it ought to be cut, it 
 should be suffered to become well dried in the swath be- 
 fore it is bound in sheaves, or carried to the barn or stack. 
 If cut with the cradle or sickle, it is bound in sheaves ; but 
 the more common practice is to cut the crop with the sithe, 
 rake the ground, and load it with the barley fork. 
 
 ‘‘ Barley improves for malting by lying till October before 
 it is threshed ; though it is often threshed immediately from 
 the field. The great difficulty in preparing it for market is 
 to rid it of the awns. This may be done with flails, after 
 it has passed once through the fanning mill. And, where 
 it is in great quantities, it may be spread from four to six 
 inches upon the barn floor, and trodden with horses. 
 
 Produce and profits , — The average product in England 
 is stated by Donaldson at thirty-two bushels per acre. The 
 product in New York varies from fifteen to seventy bushels, 
 according to season and soil ; and I think the average is 
 somewhat short of that of Great Britain. Compared with 
 wheat, its product is as two or two and a half to one ; com- 
 pared with oats, about equal, provided the soil is adapted 
 to this grain. It is, however, to be remembered, that neither 
 wheat nor oats are adapted to a barley soil ; the first requir- 
 ing a more stiff and tenacious, and the latter a more cold 
 and moist location. The average price of barley is at least 
 two thirds that of wheat : supposing wheat, then, to be $ 1 12 
 the bushel, and the product 15 bushels per acre, and barley 
 to be 75 cents, and the product of an acre 30 bushels, and 
 the expense of cultivation equal, the profits of the barley 
 will be nearly as three to two compared to wheat. Barley, 
 besides, is a less precarious crop, is subject to fewer dis- 
 
BEAN. 
 
 33 
 
 eases, and has fewer insect enemies to encounter than 
 wheat.” 
 
 A correspondent of the Bath Agricultural Society writes — 
 “ The last spring being remarkably dry, I soaked my seed 
 barley in the black water, taken from a resei*voir, which 
 constantly receives the draining of my dung heap and sta- 
 bles. As the light grains floated on the top, I skimmed them 
 off, and let the rest stand 24 hours. On taking it from the 
 water, I mixed the grain with a sufficient quantity of sifted 
 wood ashes, to make it spread regularly, and sowed three 
 fields with it. The produce was sixty bushels per acre. 
 I sowed some other fields with the same seed dry ; but the 
 crop, like those of my neighbours, was very poor, not more 
 than twenty bushels per acre, and much mixed with green 
 corn and weeds when harvested. I also sowed some of 
 my seed dry on one ridge in each of my former fields, but 
 the produce was very poor in comparison of the other parts 
 of the field.” 
 
 BEAN. — Vicia faba . — There are two distinct species of 
 the bean, which are often confounded by writers on agricul- 
 tural subjects, to wity vicia fahaj garden bean,or horse bean, 
 and phaseolus vulgarisy or kidney bean. The want of distin- 
 guishing between these two different genera or sorts of 
 plants, may lead to erroneous practices, and consequent 
 detriment to the cultivator. 
 
 The vicia faha^ or garden bean, (often called English 
 beauy) is an annual plant, rising from two to four feet high, 
 with a thick, angular stem, the leaves divided, and without 
 tendrils ; the flowers white, with a black spot in the middle 
 of the wing ; seed-pods thick, long, woolly within, and en- 
 closing the large ovate flatted seeds, for the sake of which 
 the plant is cultivated in gardens. The following varieties 
 are advertised for sale in Mr. Russell’s Catalogue, viz. 
 
 English dwarfs, I Green nonpareil, 
 
 Early mazagan, j Broad Windsor. 
 
 Sword long pod, | 
 
 These varieties should be planted as early as practica- 
 ble in April.” 
 
 It is said that this kind of bean is propagated to the best 
 advantage in a stiff, moist loam, with a considerable propoi^ 
 tion of clay. The following are Mr. Loudon’s directions 
 for its culture • — 
 
34 
 
 BEAN. 
 
 Quantity of seeds, — F or early crops, one pint of seed will 
 be requisite for every eighty feet of row ; for main crops, 
 two quarts for every 240 feet of row ; and for late crops, 
 nearly the same as the early. 
 
 Method of sowing . — “ Plant all the sorts in rows, two feet 
 and a half apart, for the smaller or very early, or very late 
 kinds; and three feet for the larger; the smaller beans two 
 inches deep, and three inches distant in the row ; the larger 
 three inches deep, and four inches distant in the row.” 
 
 Transjdanting . — Speedily constantly transplants his early 
 bean crops, and considers that this plant may be as easily 
 transplanted as cabbage, or any other vegetable. It is a prac- 
 tice with him to plant beans, rdternately with potatoes, in 
 the same row ; the rows three feet apart, and the potatoes 
 eighteen inches apart in the row, so that the beans are nine 
 inches from the potatoes. The beans are transplanted, by 
 which means they have the start and advantage of the po- 
 tatoes and weeds, and, as they come in early, may be gath- 
 ered before they can possibly incommode or injure the 
 potatoes. 
 
 Manual process. — The work of sowing is most generally 
 effected by a dibble, having a thick, blunt end, to make a 
 wide aperture for each bean, to admit it clear to the bottom, 
 without any narrow, hollow parts below : strike the earth 
 fully and regularly into the holes over the inserted beans. 
 Or the planting may be performed, occasionally, in drills 
 drawn with a hoe the proper depth and distance as above ; 
 place the beans at intervals along the bottom of each drill, 
 and earth them over evenly ; which method, though suitable 
 to any kinds, may be more particularly adopted in sowing 
 the early and other small sorts. 
 
 Soaking seed in summer. — In planting late crops in June 
 or July, if the weather be dry, it is eligible to give the beanjs 
 a previous soaking for several hours in soft water; or, if 
 they are to be sown in drills, \vater the drills beforehand ; 
 then directly put in the beans, and earth them in while the 
 ground remains moist. 
 
 Subsequent culture, — “ As the plants come up, and ad- 
 vance from four to six inches high, hoe up some earth to the 
 stems on both sides of each row, cutting down all weeds. 
 Repeat the hoeing as future weeds arise, both to keep the 
 ground about the plants clean, and to loosen the earth to 
 
BKAN. 
 
 35 
 
 encourage their growth. In earthing up, great care must 
 be taken that the carlli does not fall on the centre of the 
 plant, so as to bury it; for this occasions it to rot or fail. 
 After earthing up, stir between the rows with a three- 
 pronged fork. As the different crops come into full blos- 
 som, pinch or cut off the tops, in order to promote their 
 fruiting sooner in a more plentiful production of well-filled 
 pods.’’ — Abercromhie. 
 
 Nichol says, ‘‘ Topping is unnecessary for any but the 
 early crops ; being practised to render them more ear- 
 ly.” Mr. Armstrong is of opinion, that “ of this practice, 
 and of the theory on which it is founded, we may be per- 
 mitted to doubt, because it does not appear to follow that, 
 when the gro^vth of a plant is checked or suspended in one 
 direction, it will not exert itself in another as injuriously to 
 the crop as any increased length of stem would have done. 
 Every day’s experience shows, that, if we pollard an apple- 
 tree, we indeed stop its growth upward; but that, instead ot 
 sending its surplus juices to the support and enlargement of 
 the fruit, (as this practice supposes,) it hastens to throw 
 out lateral stems or suckers, which give no fruit whatever. 
 Our creed, therefore, is, that, in the vegetable economy, 
 certain juices go to the production of the stem, and certain 
 others, more elaborated, and of a different quality, to that of 
 flowers and fruits, and that, whether desirable or not, the 
 art of giving to either a destination different from what na*' 
 ture intended, is yet to be discovered.” 
 
 Gathering , — For table use, gather only such as are ten- 
 der, the seeds decreasing in delicacy after they obtain about 
 half the size which they should possess at maturity. When 
 they become black-eyed, they are tough and strong tasted, 
 and much inferior. 
 
 To save seed . — Either plant some of the approved sorts 
 early in the spring, wholly for that purpose, or leave rows 
 of the different crops ungathered, in preference to the glean- 
 ings of gathered crops. The pods will ripen in August, 
 becoming brown and dry, and the beans dry and hard : 
 then, pulling up the stalks, place them in the sun to harden 
 the seed thoroughly, after which thresh out each sort sepa- 
 rately.” — Abercrombie. 
 
 Use. — Mr. Cobbett says, “ In England there are some 
 sorts of this bean used for horses and hogs ; but there are 
 
38 
 
 BEAN. 
 
 several sorts used as human food. It is at best a coarse and 
 not very wholesome vegetable, yet some people like it It 
 is very much eaten by the country people, in England, with 
 their bacon, along with which it is boiled.” Bean flour, as 
 Dr. Darwin observed, is probably more nutritive than that 
 of oats, which appears by its effect in fattening hogs ; and, 
 from the relative prices of these articles, he was of opinion, 
 that peas and beans, in general, supply a cheaper provender 
 for horses and other animals. But as the flour of beans 
 and peas is more oily than that of oats, it must be more 
 difficult of digestion. Hence, when a horse has been fed 
 with pulse, he will be less active for an hour or two after- 
 wards, than if he had eaten oats. It will, therefore, be 
 advisable to mix pollard or straw, finely cut, with peas and 
 beans, before they are given to cattle. 
 
 BEAN, KIDNEY. — Phaseolus vulgaris, — This plant 
 and its uses are too well known to require any description. 
 The sorts mentioned in Russell’s Catalogue, are Kidney 
 dwarfs^ or string : — early yellow cranberry ; early Mohawk, 
 (which will bear a smart frost without injury;) early yel- 
 low six weeks ; early Canadian dwarf ; early dwarf cluster; 
 early dun coloured, or Quaker ; early China dwarf; large 
 white kidney dwarf ; white cranberry dwarf; red cranberry 
 dwarf ; Warrington, or marrow ; refugee, or thousand to one ; 
 Rob Roy; white cutlass bean of Carolina. Pole or running 
 beans: — large white Lima; saba or Carolina; scarlet run- 
 ners ; white Dutch runners ; Dutch case-knife, or princess ; 
 red cranberry ; white cranberry ; ( the three last mentioned 
 string beans ;) asparagus, or yard long, dolichos sesquipedalis. 
 
 The following directions for the culture of the bean in 
 gardens are from McMahon : “ Towards the latter end of 
 April, [or the fore part of May in New England,] you may 
 plant a first crop of kidney-beans in the open ground. Select 
 a warm, dry, and favourably situated spot, and, having dug 
 and manured it properly, draw drills an inch deep, and two 
 feet or thirty inches asunder ; drop the beans therein, two 
 inches apart, and draw the earth equally over them ; do not 
 cover them more than an inch deep ; for at this early time 
 they are liable to rot, if cold or wet ensue. The kinds 
 proper to be sown now are, the early cream-coloured, 
 speckled, yellow and white dwarfs.” 
 
 Loudon gives the following directions for the culture of 
 
BEAN. 
 
 37 
 
 runnersy or pole-heanSy as they are commonly called in this 
 country : — The runner kidney beans may be sown in a 
 small portion towards the end of April, [about the middle of 
 May in New England,] if tolerably warm, dry weather ; but 
 as these beans are rather more tender than the dwarf sorts, 
 more liable to rot in the ground by wet and cold, especially 
 the scarlets, the beginning or middle of May [first of 
 June in New England] will be time enough to sow a con- 
 siderable crop; and you may sow a full crop about the 
 beginning of June. Allot principally the scarlet and large 
 white runners. Some Dutch runners are very eligible as a 
 secondary crop. The first crops should have the assistance 
 of a south w^all. Intermediate crops may be sown in any 
 open compartment, or against any fence not looking north. 
 The latest sown will continue bearing longer under a good 
 aspect and shelter. In sowing, draw drills about an inch 
 and a half, or not more than two inches deep. Let paral- 
 lel rows be at least four feet asunder, to admit in the inter- 
 vals tall sticks or poles for the plants to climb on. Place 
 the beans in the drills four inches apart, and earth them in 
 evenly the depth of the drills. A row contiguous to a fence 
 or building may ascend upon lines. Some may be sown 
 in a single row along a border, or on each side of a walk, 
 and have the support of a slight trellis of laths and lines ; or 
 they might be arched over with similar materials to form a 
 shady walk or bower. In a cold, wet season, or when requi- 
 site to have a few plants more forward than the general crop, 
 some scarlets may be sown in April, either in a slight hot- 
 bed, or in pots, under frames of hand-glasses, to raise and 
 forward the plants, till two or three inches high : then, at 
 the end of May, transplant them into the open garden. As 
 the plants come up, and advance from three to six inches 
 in growth, hoe some earth to the stems, cutting down all 
 weeds. When they begin to send forth runners, place 
 suitable supports to each row ; and conduct the tendrils to 
 the sticks or lines, turning them in a contrary direction to 
 the sun. The ascending plants will soon come into flower, 
 podding at the joints, in long succession. They are so pro- 
 lific, that the returns from three sowings, in May, June and 
 July, will last from July till October. 
 
 Talcing the crop . — Gather the pods, both from dwarfs and 
 runners, while they are young, fleshy, brittle and tender, 
 4 
 
ns 
 
 
 for then they are in the highest perfection for the tabic J 
 and the plants will bear more fiilly^ and last longer in fruit, 
 under a course of clean gathering, not leaving any super- 
 abundant pods to gjrow old. 
 
 To save seed . — Either sow a portion for that object, or 
 leave rows wholly ungatbered, of the main crop^or preserve 
 a sufficiency of good pods promiscuously^ The beans saved 
 should be the first fruits of a crop, sown at a period which 
 throws the entire course of growth into the finest part of 
 summer. Let them hang on the stalks till they ripen fully,^ 
 in August and September ; then let the haulm be pulled up 
 and placed in the sun, to dry and harden the seed, which 
 should be afterwards cleared out of the husks, bagged up, 
 and housed. 
 
 The pea, English bean, and kidney bean, are liable to 
 the attacks of various insects, especially the opAides', [plant 
 lice,] in dry seasons. When early crops are newly sown, 
 or planted, mice will burrow for and eat the seed, and whei> 
 it begins to penetrate the soil, it is attacked by snails, slugs, 
 the cut worm, &c. The usual means of guarding against 
 the ravages of in&ects must, therefore, be resorted to by 
 the gardener. 
 
 As regards the field culture of the bean, we would ob- 
 serve, that the white kind, which is most generally approved 
 of in New England, will produce pretty good crops, on 
 poor, sandy, or gravelly soils ; but, when planted on such 
 ground, it is good husbandry to wet and roll them in plas- 
 ter before planting. They may be planted in hills, or drills, 
 the rows two and a half or three feet apart, according to 
 the strength of the soil, and cultivated like other hoed 
 crops. They may be planted the latter end of May, or 
 beginning of June, or about the time of planting Indian 
 com. If planted in hills, they may be placed from fourteen 
 to twenty-four inches apart in the rows, and the rows the 
 distance before mentioned. Five beans are quite enough 
 to remain in a hill. Hogs’ dung, mixed with ashes, is said 
 to be the best manure for them ; and it is said to be very 
 injurious to beans to hoe them while the dew is on, or in 
 wet weather. 
 
 Judge Duel, of Albany, has given the following notices 
 of some experiments, in the field culture of this vegetable : 
 
 . — Beans may be cultivated in drills or in hills. They are 
 
BEAN. 
 
 39 
 
 Cl valuable crop ; and, with good care, are as profitable 
 as a wheat crop. They leave the soil in good tilth. The 
 China bean, with a red eye, is to be preferred. They ripen 
 early, and are very productive. I cultivated beans the last 
 year in three dilferent ways, viz. in hills, in drills, and 
 sowed broad-cast I need not describe the first, which is a 
 well known process. I had an acre in drills, which was 
 the best crop I ever saw. My management was this : — On 
 an acre of light ground, where the clover had been frozen 
 out the preceding winter, I spread eight loads of long ma- 
 nure, and immediately ploughed and harrowed the ground. 
 Drills or furrows v/ere then made with a light plough, at 
 the distance of two and a half feet, and the beans thrown 
 along the furrows about the 25th of May, by the hand, at 
 the rate of at least a bushel on the acre. I then gauged a 
 double mould-board plough, which was passed once be- 
 tween the rows, and was followed by a light one horse 
 roller, which flattened the ridges. The crop was twice 
 cleaned of weeds, by the hoe, but not earthed. The pro- 
 duct was more than forty-eight bushels, by actual measure- 
 ment. The beans brought me one dollar the bushel last 
 fall. The third experiment was likewise upon a piece of 
 ground where the clover had been killed. It was ploughed 
 about the first of June, the seed sown like peas, upon the 
 first furrow, and harrowed in. The drought kept them 
 back ; but about 65 rods of ground, on which the experiment 
 was made, gave a product of twelve and a half bushels. 
 The crop was too ripe when it was harvested, and as it was 
 cut with a sithe, I estimated that about two and a half 
 bushels were left upon the ground. No labour was be- 
 stowed upon them from the time they were sown till they 
 were harvested.” 
 
 Forwarding an early crop. — The kidney bean is often par- 
 tially forced, in hot-houses or frames, with a view to the 
 forwarding of its produce in the open garden. Mr. Arm- 
 strong says, In the neighbourhood of cities, the dwarf 
 varieties are often cultivated in hot-beds, but the product 
 is of a very inferior kind; for, of the whole catalogue of 
 vegetables, none is more apt to take a disagreeable flavour 
 from hot and fermenting dung (which is the basis of these 
 beds) than the bean.” It is probable, however, that beans 
 might be forced to advantage, in hot-beds, composed of oak 
 
40 
 
 BEET. 
 
 leaves, tanner’s bark, &c. without deriving therefrom the 
 disagreeable flavour complained of. 
 
 BEET. — Beta , — Among the more common varieties of 
 this valuable vegetable are, 
 
 French sugar, or amber beet, I Early blood turnip-rooted. 
 
 Mangel wurtzel, | Early dwarf blood, 
 
 Green — for stews or soups, I Early white scarcity, 
 
 Yellow turnip-rooted, | Long blood red. 
 
 Sown from April to June. The early turnip blood beet 
 is the earliest, and of excellent quality for summer use ; the 
 tops being good for boiling as greens. Mr. Loudon’s direc- 
 tions for the general culture of the beet are as follow : — 
 Seed and soil , — The beet is always raised from seed, 
 and for a bed four feet and a half by twelve feet, one ounce 
 
 requisite. The soil in which it naturally delights is a 
 deep, rich sand, dry and light, rather than moist. Sowing in 
 «eed beds, and transplanting, has been tried ; but, though it 
 may answer for the spinage or pot-herb beets, [white, and 
 its varieties,] it will not answer where the object is a large, 
 clean root. 
 
 “ Sowing , — The beet is sown annually the last week of 
 March, or beginning of April, [in the northern United States, 
 the main crop should be delayed till the middle of May.] 
 The ground on which it is sown should have been previ- 
 ously enriched by mellow compost and sea sand ; but rank 
 dung is not to be laid in, as it is apt to induce canker. For 
 the long-rooted kind, trench to the depth of eighteen inches. 
 Sow either broad-cast on the rough surface, and rake well 
 into the earth ; or, as the seed is large, sow in drills an inch 
 or two deep and a foot asunder ; or dot it in with a thick, 
 blunt-ended dibble in rows that distance, making holes ten 
 or twelve inches apart, about an inch and a half deep ; drop 
 two or three seeds in each hole, but with the intention to 
 leave only one beet plant.” 
 
 Mr. Mahon says, Make choice of a piece of rich, deep 
 ground, lay it out into four feet wide beds, push the loose 
 earth into the alleys, then sow the seed tolerably thin, and 
 cover it with the earth out of these alleys to about three 
 quarters of an inch deep. Or, let drills be drawn with a 
 hoe, near an inch deep, and a foot or a little better asunder ; 
 drop the seeds thinly therein, and cover them over the same 
 
BEET. 
 
 dl 
 
 depth as above. Or you may sow the seed on a piece of 
 ground, rough, after being dug, and rake it well in.” 
 
 Subsequent culture . — When the young plants are advanced 
 into h'aves, one, two, or three inches in growth, they must 
 be thinned and cleared from weeds, especially those sown 
 promiscuously, or broad-cast and in drills. If there be 
 chasms in the rows, till them up with the superfluous plants. 
 The oftener the ground is stirred, during the whole course 
 of the vegetation of the plant, the larger will be the product, 
 and the better its quality. 
 
 As soon as vegetation is over, which always occurs after 
 the first hard frost, take up the plants, expose them a day 
 or two to the air, to evaporate their surplus moisture, and 
 then house them carefully. This may be done by putting 
 til era in layers in a dry cellar, and interposing between these 
 a slight covering of sand. In digging the roots, great care 
 should be taken that they be not broken nor cut, as they 
 bleed much. For the same reason, the leaves should be 
 cut off at least an inch above the solid part of the root. 
 
 To save seed . — Either leave a few strong roots standing 
 in the rows, or select a few, and transplant them to a spot 
 where there will be no danger, when in flower, of being im- 
 pregnated with any other variety. They will shoot up the 
 second year, when their flower-stocks should be tied to 
 stakes, to prevent their breaking over. 
 
 Field culture of the mangel wurtzel heet^ and the sugar beet. 
 — Soil and preparation . — The soil for these roots should be 
 a loam, inclining to clay, in good tilth, well manured, and 
 made fine to a good depth. John Hare Powel, Esq., cor- 
 responding secretary to the Pennsylvania Agricultural So- 
 ciety, in giving an account of his mode of cultivating this 
 crop, says, My soil was not naturally strong : it has been 
 gradually so much deepened as to enable Wood’s plough, 
 No. 2, drawn by four oxen, to plough fourteen inches deep 
 Fresh barn-yard manure was equally spread upon the sur- 
 face, and ploughed under in the early part of April, in quan- 
 tities not larger than are generally used for potato crops in 
 this country. Early in May, the land \vas twice stirred with 
 Beatson’s scarifier, harrowed, rolled ; after stirred, harrowed 
 and rolled again in the opposite direction.” The soil on 
 which Messrs. Tristram Little and Henry Little of New- 
 bury, Mass, raised their premium crop in 1824, is a clay 
 
42 
 
 BEET. 
 
 loam. In 1823, about three fourths of the same was sowed 
 with onions, and manured with about 8 cords of compost 
 manure to the acre. The other quarter was sowed with 
 wheat without manure. In the fall of 1823, there were 
 about 10 cords of compost manure drawn on the lot, and 
 put in a heap. Most of the said compost was drawn from 
 the salt marshes, when ditching the same ; the other part 
 was from the barn-yard. In the month of April, 1824, the 
 heap was thrown over, and well mixed. 
 
 Planting, — Col. Powel says, “ The holes for the seeds 
 were made by a wheel, containing pegs in its circumference, 
 which penetrated the ground about an inch, leaving inter- 
 vals of four inches; the rows were made 2 feet asunder; 
 two capsules were dropped into each hole ; the wheel of a 
 common barrow was passed over them, thus compressing 
 the earth, and leaving a slight rut for the retention of mois- 
 ture.” 
 
 Messrs. Tristram and Henry Little observe, that, “ Be- 
 tween the 8th and 11th of May, the land was ploughed 
 and sowed in the following manner : — After one deep plough- 
 ing, the ground was furrowed two and a half feet apart, and 
 the manure put into the furrows, and covered with a double 
 mould-board plough ; a roller was then passed on the top 
 of the ridge, and the seed dibbled in with the finger over 
 the manure, about six or eight inches apart.” The quantity 
 of seed, according to English writers, is four pounds to an 
 acre. Mr. David Little, in obtaining a premium crop, sowed 
 four pounds, but observed that he thought half that quantity 
 would have been sufficient. 
 
 After-culture , — In raising Col. Powel’s crop, “ A small 
 cultivator, which I had contrived for the purpose, was 
 drawn between the rows soon after the weeds appeared ; 
 a three iiich triangular hoe removed the alternate plants, 
 leaving the others at distances varying from 8 to 12 inches 
 asunder. The cultivator was twice used before the 20th of 
 July. The heavy rains of August made another hoeing 
 necessary, and surcharged the ground so much with mois- 
 ture, that all roots increased much less in that month than 
 during the same time in the two last years.” The Messrs. 
 Little, in the course of the season, thinned their plants, 
 and left them from 6 to 12 inches apart in the rows. They 
 were once hoed, and ploughed three times between the 
 
BEET. 
 
 43 
 
 rows.” Mr. Powel, in raising a previous crop, had placed 
 the rows 30 inches apart, and left the plants 6 inches apart 
 in the rows. He says, ‘‘ I this year desired smaller roots, 
 which might grow so closely, as, by their leaves, to protect 
 the soil as much as possible from the rays of the sun. My 
 cultivator, by its peculiar form, enabled me to cut off the 
 weeds when the plants were so young, that, if I had applied 
 the plough, their crowns must have been covered in many 
 instances, by earth occasionally falling from its land side. 
 The failure which attends the cultivation of most root crops 
 in drills, proceeds from the neglect of weeds in their early 
 stages. Four or five days of delay frequently make the 
 difference of fifteen days in the labour of making clean an 
 acre of ground. The same weeds which a boy with a sharp 
 shingle could remove at the commencement of one week, 
 may, before the end of the next, require the application of 
 an implement drawn by a horse. 
 
 “ I ascribe my success, in great measure, to the use of 
 Wood^s extraordinary plough^ which enters the soil more 
 deeply, and pulverizes it more perfectly, than any other I 
 have ever seen, with equal force, in any country ; to the use 
 of cultivators, which complete the production of fine tilth ; 
 to the destruction of the weeds on their first appearance — 
 leaving the smallest space upon which a horse can walk 
 between the rows ; and, above all, to planting the seeds of a 
 proper kind upon a surface ivhich is kept perfectly flat.'*^ 
 
 General remarks, — Agriculturists have not agreed whether 
 it is most expedient to plant the seeds of this root on ridges 
 or on a level. Col. Powel condemns planting on ridges in 
 this country, as a practice not adapted to our soil and cli- 
 mate, in which vegetables are very liable to suffer by drought. 
 He says, “Among the various practices, in to .which we have 
 been seduced by the plausible theories of the advocates of 
 European husbandry, there is none which appears to me 
 more absurd than that which has led us to drill or dibble 
 our crops on ridges. The English farmer wisely contends 
 with the evils produced by too much rain ; the American 
 husbandman should as anxiously guard against his most for- 
 midable enemy, drought. I am inclined to think that there 
 is no crop cultivated in this state, (Pennsylvania,) which 
 ought not to be put on a flat surface.” The climate of 
 New England, especially its northern part, is not so warm 
 
 / 
 
44 
 
 BEET. 
 
 and dry as that of Pennsylvania, and, in that part of the 
 United States, perhaps the nature of the soil should decide 
 the question, if dry, level planting, or if moist, ridge planting 
 should be adopted.” 
 
 We have heard complaints from American farmers, that 
 the seed of this root is slow and uncertain in coming up. 
 Perhaps the seed or soil, or both, may sometimes be too 
 dry at the time of sowing. A writer in the English Far- 
 w.er'^s Journal says, I have of late years steeped my seed 
 for at least forty-eight hours. I made an experiment with 
 twenty sound seeds not steeped, twenty steeped twenty-four 
 hours, and the same number steeped forty-eight hours; 
 every seed of the latter produced plants, which came up 
 two or three days sooner than either of the others, and 
 some of those not steeped did not come up at all.” Mr. Cob- 
 bett, in treating of the culture of the common garden beets, 
 {American Gardener j par, 198,) directs to soak the seed 
 four days and nights in rain w^ater before it is sowed ; and 
 observes, that the mangel wurtzel should be cultivated in 
 the same manner as the other kinds of beets. American 
 writers, so far as we have observed, give no directions for 
 soaking the seeds of this vegetable before planting; and it 
 is possible that the omission of this part of the process may 
 cause the slowness and uncertainty of vegetation complained 
 of. The capsule, or husk, which contains the seeds, is dry, 
 and it requires a long time for the moisture, which it may 
 derive from the earth, to penetrate this integument, so as 
 to c ause the seed to sprout. But if the soil be very moist 
 at the time of sowing, soaking the seed had better be omit- 
 ted. 
 
 Much has been w^ritten and said on the subject of strip- 
 ping these plants of their leaves for feeding cows and other 
 economical purposes. An English writer observes, that 
 six or seven crops of leaves amd stocks may be taken off 
 during the growth of the root ; women and children can 
 take off the leaves, which is done as follows : — They should 
 place their hands on each side of the root, at the foot stalks 
 of the leaves, leaving about six of the smallest central leaves 
 between the fore-finger and thumb of each hand, (the small 
 leaves are to be left on the root to grow, to make a fresh 
 top;) then, spreading the hand flat with their face down- 
 wards, push them both at the same time towards the ground, 
 
BEET, 
 
 45 
 
 and thus, by one motion, will the whole of the top of each 
 root, except the small leaves to be left to form a fresh head^ 
 be removed without unsettling the root or its fibres, whicli 
 would check its growth. Some affiim, that stripping the 
 plant of its leaves is no injury to the root, and others are ol 
 opinion that the root is injured by this means. We have- 
 doubts, whether, in field cultivation, it will often be deemea 
 expedient to expend time and labour in this manner. The 
 thinnings, or superfluous plants, however, should be pre 
 served, as they make excellent food for milch cows or store 
 swine. 
 
 Some cultivators affirm, that it is never worth the trouble 
 to transplant these roots to fill vacancies. ‘‘ I have seen,” 
 says an English writer, much labour and expense em- 
 ployed in transplanting into vacant spots, when the seed 
 has been dibbled thick enough, but have never seen the 
 transplanted roots worth half the trouble; the tap root 
 being broken in the drawing, nothing but the top, and use- 
 less rough roots and fangs are produced. It has been re- 
 marked by other writers, that the most common cause of 
 failure in transplanting this root is the taking of them up 
 when too small, before the plants have obtained strength 
 and size sufficient to bear the operation of transplanting. 
 
 Use . — The following remarks are from a paper commu- 
 nicated to the trustees of the Massachusetts Agricultural 
 Society, by J. Lowell, Esq, president of said society. They 
 are derived, principally, from a French publication, by the 
 Abbe Rosier : — 
 
 This root is very little affected by changes of weather. 
 It is attacked by no insect ; drought affects but little its 
 vegetation. It prepares the land extremely well for other 
 crops. It may be sown and treated precisely like the com- 
 mon beet, except that it ought to stand eighteen inches 
 asunder. 
 
 In good land, they often weigh nine or ten pounds, and 
 are stripped eight or nine times. In a light, sandy, but well 
 manured soil, they sometimes weigh fourteen and even six- 
 teen pounds each ! 
 
 The first crop of leaves in France is taken off in the 
 latter end of June, or the beginning of July. In this coun- 
 try, probably, the latter period would be preferable. The 
 lower leaves, those which incline towards the ground, are 
 
46 
 
 BEET, 
 
 those which are taken away, and care must be taken to pre- 
 serve the top leaves, or the crown of the plants. The 
 leaves may be taken oiF every fifteen days after the first 
 gathering. Oxen, cows and sheep devour them greedily, 
 and fatten readily upon them. All domestic poultry eat 
 them readily, when chopped fine and mixed with grain. 
 Horses will feed upon them very well, mixed with chopped 
 straw. Hogs also fatten upon them. 
 
 “ Cows fed upon this root, solely, give a greater quan- 
 tity of milk and cream, and of better quality for the first 
 fifteen days, after which they grow too fat, and the milk 
 lessens. The food of cows must therefore be varied. Oxen 
 and sheep fatten very well upon them. Cows should have 
 grass in proportion of one third to the beet leaves, or every 
 third day they should be turned to grass. In this mode 
 their milk will be excellent. The trouble of gathering the 
 leaves is less than that of gathering any other green fodder. 
 It may be done by children, while men are required to cut 
 other green food for cattle. It is the surest crop, since the 
 plant will stand the largest droughts. The roots are gath- 
 ered and treated like those of the common beet. The skin 
 is very tender, and care should be taken to handle them so 
 as they may not be wounded, as they will, in that case, not 
 keep so well. In order to preserve the seed in purity, care 
 must be taken to change the ground in which the seed-beets 
 are planted. The seed can be preserved, after it is gath- 
 ered, three or four years, without injury. In giving these 
 roots to cattle for food, they are first washed, and then cut 
 up into pieces about the size of a nut. It is always best to 
 accompany thena, when given to horned cattle, with clover, 
 or other hay or straw, and if the hay or straw has been 
 previously cut fine, it will be preferable. If horses are fed 
 with this root, with a proportion of hay or cut straw, (hall 
 of each,) they will be fat, vigorous and healthy. If they 
 are worked severely, a little oats or corn maybe added. It 
 is thus they are treated in Germany, where this root stands 
 in the stead of meadows or grass lands, and whose excel- 
 lent horses are well known. 
 
 “ Hogs, fed upon them raw, after they have been cut up 
 fine and mixed with milk or other drink, fatten as well upon 
 them as upon boiled potatoes, by which the fuel and trouble 
 of boiling is saved, 
 

 47 
 
 to the quantity given to animals, much Will depend 
 on the proportion of other fodder, vv^hich you allow them^ 
 Cows fed twice a day in wintef upon eighteen pounds of 
 these roots at each time, together with four pounds of hay 
 or chopped straw, will give as much arid as good milk as 
 in summer, and they will be kept in the^ best possible state. 
 
 Oxen fed with forty weight of these roots per day, with 
 ten pounds of hay, for one month, and after that With fifty 
 weight per day of the roots alone, ^vill be fat enough for sale 
 in two months more. 
 
 Any person disposed may, from the facts above stated, 
 calculate how many cattle will be supported by a single 
 acre of land on which this plant is cultivated. 
 
 “ Men can eat this vegetable throughout the year ; it is 
 ag**eeable and healthy. No insect attacks it, and it suffers 
 buc little from the variety of the seasons. The leaves of 
 this plant form alone an excellent food for every species of 
 domestic quadruped, during four months in the year. Tur- 
 nips and other vegetables are, besides, liable to be destroyed 
 by insects, whereas this beet is not. The roots can be pre- 
 served eight months in a sound state, while turnips are of 
 little value after March. In some soils turnips will not 
 grow, particularly in those which are very stiff or strong. 
 The root of scarcity grows every where. The milk of 
 cows fed on turnips has a bad taste. That of those fed on 
 this plant is excellent, as is also the butter made from it. 
 This forage on green fodder comes also at the hot seasons, 
 when almost all other green food is scarce, and sometimes 
 not to be procured. Cattle never get tired of it. In many 
 parts of Germany, where it is raised with success, they pre- 
 fer it to every thing else to fatten those large herds of cattle 
 which they annually export to France. In feeding cattle 
 with beets, the same dry food must be given which is usu- 
 ally given with turnips.’’ 
 
 Col. Powel observes, “ My neat cattle prefer mangel 
 wurtzel to any roots which I have offered to them. I 
 have found its effects in producing large secretions of good 
 milk very great. I selected, in November, two heifers of 
 the same breed, and very nearly of the same age, and in 
 similar condition ; they were fed in adjoining stalls, and 
 have been fed, regularly, three times a day, by the same 
 maij. One of them has had three pecks of mangel wurtzel, 
 
BEET. 
 
 iS 
 
 and four quarts of corn meal, daily ; the other, four and a 
 half pecks of mangel wurtzel. The last, which has had 
 mangel wurtzel alone, is in the condition of good beef ; the 
 other is not more than what graziers call half fat. 
 
 ‘‘ The application of mangel wurtzel as food for sheep 
 is not the least important of its uses. Ewes yean usually at 
 the season when grass cannot be supplied.* The health of 
 themselves, and the thrift of their lambs, essentially depend 
 upon succulent food being had. I am inclined to think, that 
 no small portion of the success which English breeders have 
 met, is to be ascribed to the large stores of roots, which 
 they always have at command. It cannot be denied, that 
 Indian meal will, of itself, in most cases, produce extraor- 
 dinary fatness, as well as great size ; but I have been led 
 to believe, that diseases are early engendered by this spe- 
 cies of forcing, which is always expensive, and, too often, 
 eventually destroys the animal which has been thus reared.” 
 
 A writer in the Farmer^s Journal says, This root is 
 now generally allowed to stand eminent for the excellence 
 of its fattening qualities. Among our field productions, 
 parsnips and carrots may justly be declared more nutritious ; 
 Swedish turnips, as holding divided empire with it ; while 
 white turnips and cabbages sink into insignificance before 
 it. The taste, both of the leaf and root, is most grateful 
 to every description of stock: bullocks, sheep and hogs 
 instinctively lay hold of them, and, when once accustomed 
 to their flavour, they reject every other sort of green food, 
 if they have the election. 
 
 No edible root has yet been brought into use, which 
 has an affinity to the one under consideration, with respect 
 to its imperishable properties. The white turnip is in 
 March entirely divested of its fattening power ; the Swede 
 in May becomes shrivelled, and is almost refused by cat- 
 tle ; the potato, after this time, entirely sprouts away all 
 its vigour, diminishes in bulk, and dries up ; but not so the 
 mangel wurtzel. It is not only ready for use in the au- 
 tumn, the winter, and spring, but may, if required, be 
 continued with unabated advantage, and, in the following 
 autumn, it will be found in full possession of its most 
 valuable qualities, undiminished in weight, and abounding 
 in saccharine juices.” It has, however, been thought by 
 cultivators in this country, that the rula baga is more easily 
 
BEET. 
 
 49> 
 
 preserved, and will remain useful to a later period in the 
 spring and summer after its growth, than the mangel wurt- 
 zel. 
 
 Messrs. T. and H. Little observe, as to the value of the 
 roots for feeding stock, there is a variety of opinions ; 
 but, from a number of years’ experience, we think them a 
 valuable addition, and highly worth cultivating. Compar- 
 ing them with English hay, — and we know of no better 
 standard — in our opinion, three tons of mangel wurtzel, 
 or potatoes, — of the two, we value the mangel wurtzel the 
 highest, — are equal to one ton of hay, for feeding stock gen- 
 erally ; but for milch cows, we think two tons of equal 
 value ; for feeding store swine, mangel wurtzel is the 
 only root, that we know of, which we can cultivate and 
 feed to profit. Six bushels of raw mangel wurUel we 
 think equal to one bushel of Indian corn.” 
 
 Quantity to an acre , — The premium crop of the Messis. 
 Little was 33 tons 10 cwt. and 14 lbs. on an acre. 
 Col. Powel enclosed certificates to the president of the 
 Penn. Agr. Society, showing that sixteen hundred and 
 thirty-four bushels of mangel wurtzel, weighing seventy- 
 eight thousand four hundred and forty-eight pounds, were 
 produced upon one acre and fourteen perches ; and a part 
 of the same field, containing thirteen contiguous rows, pro- 
 duced at the rate of two thousand and sixty-five bushels 
 per acre, weighing 44 tons, 5 cwt. and 27 lbs. In Great 
 Britain, it is said that upwards of sixty tons have been 
 raised on an acre. 
 
 Gathering and preserving , — In gathering the roots, care 
 should be taken to cut otF the leaves about half an inch 
 above the crown, as they will not keep so well, if cut more 
 closely. Messrs. Tristram and Henry Little say, ‘‘ As to 
 the best mode of preserving them, we have tried divers 
 ways, — by pitting them, by putting them into a barn, and 
 covering them with hay, and by putting them into the cel- 
 lar; the last mode we think the best.” Col. Powel observes, 
 that one of his crops was piled in a cellar, in rows, as 
 wood, and covered with sand.” A writer in the English 
 Farmer^s Journal observes, that he has practised, with 
 success, the following mode of preserving this root : — I 
 pack it in long heaps, about seven feet wide at the bottom. 
 I begin by forming the outsides with the roots, not stripped 
 
50 
 
 BEET. 
 
 of their tops ; tops outwards ; the internal parts to be filled 
 with roots without leaves ; continue one layer over anoth- 
 er, until the heap is about six feet high, and about two feet 
 broad at top, which may be covered with straw and earth ; 
 the ends of the hea^ should be covered in the same way ; 
 the leaves form an efficient covering against rain and frost” 
 
 Mr. McMahon’s mode of preserving beets, and other 
 roots, is as follows : — Previous to the commencement of 
 severe frost, you should take up, with as little injury as possi- 
 ble, the roots of your turnips, carrots, parsnips, beets, salsify, 
 scorzonera, Hamburg or large-rooted parsley, skirrets, Je- 
 rusalem artichokes, turnip-rooted celery, and a sufficiency 
 of horse-radish, for the winter consumption ; cut off their 
 tops, and expose the roots for a few hours, till sufficiently 
 dry. On the surface of a very dry spot of ground, in a 
 well sheltered situation, lay a stratum of sand two inches 
 thick, and on this a layer of roots of either sort, covering 
 them with another layer of sand, (the drier the better,) and 
 so continue layer about of sand and roots till all are laid 
 in, giving the whole, on every side, a roof-like slope ; then 
 cover this heap or ridge all over with about two inches of 
 sand, over which lay a good coat of drawn straw, up and 
 down, as if thatching a house, in order to carry off wet, 
 and prevent its entering the roots ; then dig a wide trench 
 round the heap, and cover the straw with the earth so dug 
 up, to a depth sufficient to preserve the roots effectually 
 from frost. An opening may be made on the south side of 
 this heap, and completely covered with bundles of straw, 
 so as to have access to the roots at all times, when wanted 
 either for sale or use. 
 
 Some people lay straw, or hay, between the layers of 
 roots, and immediately on the top of them ; this I do not 
 approve of, as the straw or hay will become damp and 
 mouldy, and very often occasion the roots to rot, while the 
 sand would preserve them sweet and sound. 
 
 All these roots may be preserved in like manner in a 
 cellar; but in such a place they are subject to vegetate and 
 become stringy earlier in spring. The only advantage of 
 this method is, that in the cellar they may be had when 
 wanted, more conveniently during winter, than out of the 
 field or garden heaps. 
 
 ^‘Note, All the above roots will preserve better in sand 
 
BENE PLANT. BORECOLE. 
 
 51 
 
 than in common earth ; but when the former cannot be 
 had, the sandiest earth you can procure must be dispensed 
 with.” 
 
 BENE PLANT. — Sesamum . — This was introduced into 
 the Southern States by the negroes from Africa. It abounds 
 in many parts of Africa. Sonnini and Brown, travellers in 
 Egypt, say it is much cultivated there for the purpose of 
 feeding horses, and for culinary purposes. The negroes in 
 Georgia boil a handful of the seeds with their allowance of 
 Indian corn. Probably no plant yields a larger proportion 
 of oil, which Dr. Cooper of Philadelphia has pronounced 
 equal to the finest oils. But it is worthy of cultivation in the 
 Northern States, principally, as a medicinal plant. A gen- 
 tleman in Virginia has given Messrs. Thorburn & Son the 
 following account of its virtues : — It requires to be sown 
 early in April, at a distance of about one foot apart. A 
 few leaves of the plant, when green, plunged a few times 
 in a tumbler of water, make it like a thin jelly, without 
 taste or colour, which children afflicted with the summer 
 complaint will drink freely, and is said to be the best rem- 
 edy ever discovered. It has been supposed, that (under 
 Providence) the lives of three hundred children were saved 
 by it last summer in Baltimore, and I know the efficacy of 
 it by experience in my own family.” This plant will throw 
 out a greater profusion of leaves by breaking off the top 
 when it is about half grown . — RusselPs Catalogue. 
 
 BORECOLE . — Brassica oleracea . — The borecole con- 
 tains several sub- varieties, the common characteristic of all 
 which is an open head, sometimes large, of curled or wrin- 
 kled leaves, and a peculiar, hardy constitution. There are 
 fourteen varieties enumerated by Loudon. Those which 
 he says are the most valuable, are the green borecole, 
 Scotch kale, or Siberian borecole, the purple or brown kale, 
 the German kaie, German greens, or curlies. 
 
 Propagation.— All the sorts are propagated by seed ; and 
 for a seed bed four feet by ten, Abercrombie says, one 
 ounce of seed is necessary. McMahon directs to sow 
 towards the end of March [about three weeks later in 
 New England] a first crop of borecole for autumn ser- 
 vice,” and observes — 
 
 There are two principal sorts, the green and the 
 brown, both very hardy plants, with tall stems, and full heads 
 
BORER. ^BROCCOLI. 
 
 of thick fimbriate, curled leaves, not cabbaging, and are 
 desirable open greens for winter, &c. Let this seed be sown 
 in an open exposure, distant from trees, and from close 
 fences, as, in such situations, they are apt to draw up too 
 fast, with long, weak stalks ; sow it broad-cast, and rake it 
 in.” Several crops may be sown in several successive 
 months, from the middle of April to the middle of Septem- 
 ber. In dry weather, water the plants occasionally, both 
 before and after they are up. ‘‘ When about three inches 
 high, it will be proper to thin the seed bed, and prick out a 
 quantity therefrom, at four inches distance, that the whole 
 may obtain proper strength for final transplanting. 
 
 “ When the plants are set in the places, where they are 
 to complete their growth, they should be planted ,out like 
 cabbages, at three feet distance every way, and afterwards 
 be kept free from weeds, and the earth drawn to their 
 stems as they advance in growth. Those intended for win- 
 ter use should not be planted in a rich, fat loam, as there 
 they would become too succulent, and consequently could 
 not bear the frost as well as if growing on a gravelly soil. 
 Such as are designed for autumn use, may be planted in 
 any convenient bed that is tolerably rich. 
 
 The green and brown curled borecole, being very hardy, 
 will require little protection [against the cold of winter]. 
 In November they may be taken up, and planted in a ridge 
 tolerably close together, and, during severe frost, be covered 
 lightly with straw ; this will preserve them sufficiently : 
 and during winter the heads may be taken off as they are 
 wanted for use ; the stems, if taken up and planted in rows, 
 as early in March as the weather will admit, will produce 
 abundance of the most delicious sprouts. 
 
 “ In the Southern States, and even in warm soils and ex- 
 posures in the Middle States, borecole will stand the winter 
 in open beds, without any covering whatever.” — M Mahon. 
 
 Us ^. — ^The crown or centre of the plant is cut off, so as 
 to include the leaves which do not exceed nine inches in 
 length. It boils well, and is most tender, sweet and deli- 
 cate, provided it has been duly exposed to frost. — Loudon. 
 
 BORER . — Saperda Uvitata . — An insect that injures ap- 
 ple-trees, &c . — See Insects. 
 
 BROCCOLI . — Brassica oleracea . — ^There are several 
 varieties of broccoli, which axe all merely late-heading va- 
 
BROCCOLI. 
 
 53 
 
 rieties of the cauliflower. Miller mentions the white and 
 purple broccoli, as imported into England from Italy ; and 
 it is thought that from these two sorts all the subsequent 
 kinds liave arisen, either by accidental or premeditated 
 impregnations. The kinds introduced into this country arc, 
 the early white, early purple, and large cape. 
 
 The seeds of broccoli should be sown in New England 
 about the latter end of May, or beginning of June ; and 
 when the young plants have germinated eight leaves, they 
 should be transplanted into beds. By this management, 
 towards the latter end of July, they v/ill be fit to be planted 
 out in some well sheltered piece of ground, at the distance 
 of a foot and a half in the rows, and two feet between 
 each row. 
 
 The soil proper for broccoli is rather light than heavy. 
 McMahon says, the early purple broccoli, if sown early in 
 April, and planted out as you do cabbage, in good rich 
 ground, will produce fine heads in October or November, 
 very little inferior to cauliflowers, and, by many, preferred 
 to them : the white will not flower so early, and, in the 
 Middle and Eastern States, must be taken up in November, 
 and managed as directed in that month, [see preserving 
 cabbagesy^^ &c. under the article Cabbage, in the following 
 pages,] by which a supply of this very delicious vegetable 
 may be had, in great perfection, during ail the winter 
 and spring. 
 
 “ In such of the Southern States, as their winters are not 
 more severe than in England, they will stand in the open 
 ground, and continue to produce their fine flowers, from 
 October to April. In the Middle, and especially the East- 
 ern States, if the seeds are sown early in March on a hot- 
 bed, and forwarded as is done with cauliflowers and early 
 cabbage plants, and planted out finally in April, it would 
 be the most certain method of obtaining large and early 
 flowers.” 
 
 Insects and diseases , — In old gardens, infested, as is of- 
 ten the case, with an insect which in summer insinuates 
 itself into the roots of all the hrassica tribe, and causes the 
 disease called the cluby trenching the ground deep enough 
 to bring up four or six inches of undisturbed loam or earth, 
 will probably bury the insects too deep for mischief, and 
 provide fresh ground for the benefit of the plants. In gar- 
 
64 
 
 BROCCOl-l. 
 
 dens much exhausted by reiterated croppings, if this mode 
 cannot be adopted, a good quantity of fresh loam from a 
 common field, dug in, would materially improve the broc- 
 coli, and be of lasting use in future crops. Broccoli, in 
 general, succeeds best in a fresh, loamy soil, where it comes, 
 I think, more true in kind, and is hardier without dung ; 
 but if this situation cannot be had, deep digging, with plen- 
 ty of manure, is the only remaining alternative to produce 
 good crops. I believe soap ashes, dug into the ground in 
 considerable quantities, to be a good preservative from the 
 club ; and if the roots of the plants, just previously to 
 planting, are dipped and stirred well about in mud of soap 
 ashes with water, its adherence will, in a great measure, pre- 
 serve them from attack; perhaps a mixture of stronger 
 ingredients, such as soot, sulphur, tobacco, &c. would be 
 still better.” — Hort Trans, vol. iii. — See Cabbage. 
 
 Wood, a writer in the Caledonian Horticultural Memoirs^ 
 says, he has paid a considerable degree of attention to the 
 culture of broccoli, and has made considerable progress 
 therein. He found that manuring with a compound of 
 sea-weed and horse-dung produced the largest and finest 
 heads he had seen for many years. 
 
 Culture without transplanting. — “ McLeod grows cape 
 broccoli, in a very superior manner, without transplanting. 
 In the end of May, after having prepared the ground, he 
 treads it firm, and, by the assistance of a line, sows his 
 seed in rows two feet apart, dropping three or four seeds 
 into holes two feet distant from each other in the row. 
 When the seeds vegetate, he destroys all except the strong- 
 est, which are protected from the fly by sprinkling a little 
 soot over the ground ; as the plants advance, they are fre- 
 quently flat hoed until they bear their flowers ; they are 
 once earthed up, during their growth. A specimen of 
 broccoli, thus grown, was exhibited to the Horticultural 
 Society ; the head was compact and handsome, measuring 
 two feet and nine inches in circumference, and weighing, 
 when divested of its leaves and stalks, three pounds ; the 
 largest of its leaves was upwards of two feet long. McLe- 
 od adopts the same mode in the cultivation of spring-sown 
 cauliflowers, lettuces, and almost all other vegetables, avoid- 
 ing transplanting as much as possible.” — Hort. Trans. voL 
 ir. p. 559. 
 
BRUSSELS SPROUTS. 
 
 55 
 
 To save seed, — ^Wood, already mentioned, selects the 
 largest, best formed, and finest heads, taking particular 
 care that no foliage appears on the surface of the heads : 
 these he marks, and, in April, lays them by the heels in a 
 compound of cleanings of old ditches, tree leaves, and 
 dung. When the head begins to open or expand, he cuts 
 oui ihe centre, leaving only four or five of the outside 
 shoots to come to seed. Lifting, [taking up,] he says, pre- 
 vents them from producing proud seed, as it is called, or 
 degenerating. — Caled, Hort, Mem. vol. ii. p. 267. Aber- 
 crombie says, broccoli seeds degenerate in this country, 
 [England,] and that the best seed is obtained from Italy. 
 — Loudon. The common directions are, in substance, as 
 follow^ : 
 
 Reserve a few of the largest heads of the first crop, 
 stripping constantly off all under shoots, leaving only the 
 main stem to flower and seed, and tie them to strong stakes, 
 to prevent their being broken by winds and heavy rain. 
 Care should be taken, that no other sort of cabbage is suf- 
 fered to go to seed near them. 
 
 Use . — The same as the Cauliflower, which see in its 
 alphabetical order. 
 
 BRUSSELS SPROUTS . — Brassica oleracea . — The 
 Brussels sprouts produce an elongated stem, often four feet 
 high, from which sprout out shoots, which form small 
 green heads, like cabbages in miniature, each being from 
 one to two inches in diameter, and the whole ranged spi- 
 rally along the stem, the main leaves of which drop off 
 early. The top of the plant resembles that of a Savoy, 
 planted late in the season ; it is small, and with a green 
 heart of little value. Van Mons says, {Hort. Trans, vol. 
 iii.) If this vegetable be compared with any other, which 
 occupies as little space, lasts as long, and grows as well in 
 situations generally considered unfavourable, such as between 
 rows of potatoes, scarlet runners, or among young trees, it 
 must be esteemed superior in utility to most others.” Ni- 
 col considered it deserving a more general culture in Scot- 
 land. 
 
 Use . — The sprouts are used as winter greens ; and at 
 Brussels they are sometimes served at table, with a sauce 
 composed of vinegar, butter and nutmeg, poured upon them 
 hot, after they have been boiled. The top. Van Mons 
 
56 
 
 BUCKTHORN. 
 
 says, is very delicate when dressed, and quite different in 
 flavour from the sprouts. 
 
 Culture, — The plants are raised from seed, of which an 
 ounce may be requisite for a seed bed, four feet by ten feet. 
 Van Mons,iu the paper already referred to, says, “ The seed 
 is sown in the spring, under a frame, so as to bring the 
 plants forward ; they are then transplanted into an open 
 border with a good aspect.” By thus beginning early and 
 sowing successively till late in the season, he says, “ we 
 contrive to supply ourselves in Belgium with this delicious 
 vegetable full ten months in the year ; that is, from the end 
 of July to the end of May.” The plants need not be placed 
 at more than eighteen inches each way, as the head does 
 not spread wide, and the side leaves drop off. In this, as 
 in every other respect, the culture is the same as that of 
 the borecole. 
 
 Gathering the crop.— Morgan says, the sprouts must have 
 some frost before gathered; but this Van Mons assures us 
 is an erroneous opinion. In Belgium, the small cabbages 
 are not esteemed if more than half an inch in diameter. It 
 is usual to cut off the top about ten or fifteen days before 
 gathering from the stem. In spring, when the sprouts are 
 disposed to run to flower, their growth is checked by taking 
 up the plants, and setting them in the ground in any shaded 
 spot. 
 
 To save seed , — Van Mons says, it is usual to save seeds 
 indiscriminately from plants which have and those which 
 have not been topped ; but that he intends to save from the 
 tops only, hoping thereby to improve the progeny. What- 
 ever mode be adopted, the grand object is to place the 
 plants where they will be in no danger of receiving the fa- 
 rina of any other of the hrassica tribes. — Loudon, 
 
 BUCKTHORN. — Rhamnus, — There are many plants of 
 this genus ; but we shall take notice of but one species, 
 principally on account of its use in forming hedges. The 
 kind used for that purpose is the rhamnus catharticus^ or 
 purging buckthorn. It is common in a wild state in Eng- 
 land and other parts of Europe, as w^ell as in the United 
 States. Gen. E. H. Derby, of Salem, Mass, has cultivated 
 this plant, and is, we believe, the first person who applied 
 it to the very important use of forming hedges ; for which 
 purpose it is said to be much preferable either to the haw- 
 
BUCKTHORN, 
 
 67 
 
 thorn or crab, principally on account of its being entirely 
 free from the horer^ (an insect which frequently destroys 
 the hawthorn,) as well as all other annoyances of a similar 
 nature. A letter from Mr. Derby to the editor of the 
 N. E. Farmer j published in that paper, vol. iii. p. 214, con- 
 tains the following notices of this shrub : — 
 
 ‘‘You will perceive that Miller represents it as a shrub 
 growing about 12 or 14 feet high. The tree from which my 
 plants were raised, formerly stood in the garden of the ven- 
 erable Dr. Holyoke of this place, who used the berries for 
 medicinal purposes, and was as large as any of our common 
 apple-trees. He assures me he was induced at last to cut 
 it down, as it shaded so much of his garden. I was so 
 pleased with the healthy and clean appearance of the tree, 
 and the next spring observing several young plants in the 
 adjoining garden belonging to my brother, raised from seed 
 dropped in the autumn, that I was induced to transplant 
 them to a nursery, where they grew with great rapidity. 
 
 “ After trying several kinds of trees, for the purpose of 
 making a hedge, without much success, I was induced to 
 try this, which has afforded a most beautiful fence, so much 
 so as to attract the attention of every person who has seen 
 it. It divides my garden, is about three hundred faet in 
 length, the plants set nearly a foot apart, is five feet high, 
 and two feet wide at top, which is cut nearly level. It 
 shoots early in the spring, makes a handsome appearance, 
 and continues its verdure till very late in the fall. It has 
 not so much spine as either the English or American haw- 
 thorn, but I think sufficient to protect it from cattle. The 
 plant bears the knife or shears remarkably, and makes as 
 close and tight a fence as either of the others, and is not 
 subject to blight, as both of them have been with me. You 
 will observe that Miller speaks of it as not so proper for 
 hedges as the hawthorn or crab, which may be the case in 
 England, but I cannot agree with him as it respects Amer- 
 ica. 
 
 “ The tree furnishes a large quantity of seed,which rapidly 
 vegetates ; and I make no doubt it can be propagated by 
 cuttings, which mode I shall adopt in the spring.” 
 
 Propagation and culture, — “ The purging buckthorn shrub 
 is so common in the hedges of many parts of England, that 
 it is seldom cultivated in gardens. It rises easily from 
 
JBUCKTHORI^ 
 
 &9 
 
 seeds, if they are sown in autumn soon after the berries are 
 ripe ; but if they be left out of the ground till spring, the 
 plants will not come up till the year after. These will re- 
 quire no particular treatment, but may be managed in the 
 same way as young crabs, or any other hardy, deciduous 
 tree or shrub. It may also be propagated by cuttings or 
 layers. If the young shoots be layed in autumn, they will 
 put out roots by the following autumn, when they may be 
 taken off, and either planted in a nursery, to get strength 
 for a year or two, or where they are desired to remain.” — 
 Miller. 
 
 Uses . — There are other uses to which this shrub may be 
 applied besides that of forming hedges. Goats, sheep, and 
 horses eat the leaves, but cows refuse them. The wood is 
 said to be valuable for the turner. ^‘From the juice of the 
 unripe berries, with alum, a yellow, and from the ripe ones 
 a fine green is obtained ; the bark also strikes a yellow and 
 brown red colour. The juice of the unripe berries is of 
 the colour of saffron, and is used in staining maps or paper ; 
 that of the ripe berries is the sap green of miniature paint- 
 ers, and is much esteemed ; but if they are gathered late in 
 autumn, the juice is purple.” — Dom. Ency. 
 
 A syrup prepared from buckthorn berries has been used 
 \n medicine, but is not often prescribed, as it occasions 
 much sickness and griping. In a Latin treatise, published 
 by Dr. J. G. Kolb, of Erlang, in Germany, the bark of the 
 buckthorn is much recommended as a mild, cheap, and effi- 
 cacious remedy, in every respect preferable to the berries. 
 
 Budding. — See Inoculation, in the alphabetical order. 
 
 CABBAGE TRIBE. The cabbage tribe is of all the 
 classes of cultivated culinary vegetables the most ancient, 
 as well as the most extensive. The hrassica oleracea^ being 
 extremely liable to sport or run into varieties and monstrosi- 
 ties, has, in the course of time, become the parent of a nume- 
 rous race of culinary productions, so very various in their hab- 
 it and appearance, that to many it may appear not a little ex- 
 travagant to refer them to the same origin. Besides the 
 different sorts of white and red cabbage and Savoys, which 
 form the leaves into a head, there are various sorts of 
 borecolesy which grow with their leaves loose in the natu- 
 ral way, and there are several kinds of cauliflower and broc- 
 coli^ which form their stalks or flower-buds into a head. 
 
CABBAGE. 
 
 S9 
 
 All of these, with the turnip-rooted cabbage and the Brus- 
 sels sprouts, claim a common origin from the single species 
 of brassica above mentioned. Cabbage of some sort, 
 White, in his History of Selborne, informs us, must have 
 been known to the Saxons ; for they named the month of 
 February Sprout kale. Being a favourite with the Ro- 
 mans, it is probable that the Italian cabbage would be in- 
 troduced at an early period into South Britain. To the 
 inhabitants of the north of Scotland, cabbages were first 
 made known by the soldiers of the enterprising Cromwell, 
 when quartered at Inverness. — Edin. Ency. art. Horticul- 
 ture. 
 
 CABBAGE. — Brassica oleracea capitata. — Among the 
 varieties of the cabbage, which have been introduced into 
 this country, the following are enumerated in Mr. Russell’s 
 Catalogue : 
 
 Early Salisbury dwarf, 
 
 Early York, 
 
 Early Dutch, 
 
 Early sugarloaf. 
 
 Early London Battersea, 
 
 Large Bergen, or great American, 
 Early emperor. 
 
 Early Wellington, 
 
 Russian, 
 
 Large late drumhead, 
 
 Late imperial. 
 
 Late sugarloaf. 
 
 Large green glazed, 
 
 Tree, or thousand-headed. 
 
 Large Scotch,/or cattlef 
 Green globe oavoy, 
 
 Red Dutch, /or pickling f 
 Large cape Savoy, 
 
 Yellow Savoy, [ground) 
 
 Turnip-rooted, or Arabian, (above 
 Turnip-rooted, (below ground) 
 
 Chou de Milan. 
 
 Soil and situation. — Every variety of cabbage grows best 
 in a strong, rich, substantial soil, inclining rather to clay 
 than sand ; but will grow in any soil, if it be well worked, 
 and abundantly manured with well rotted dung. But, ac- 
 cording to Loudon, The soil for seedlings should be light, 
 and, excepting for early sowings, not rich. Where market 
 gardeners raise great quantities of seedling cabbages to 
 stand the winter, and to be sold for transplanting in the 
 spring, they choose, in general, the poorest and stiffest land 
 they have got, more especially in Scotland, where large 
 autumnal sowings, of winter drumhead And round Scotch, 
 are annually made, and where the stiffness of the soil gives 
 a peculiar firmness of texture and hardiness of constitution 
 to the plants, and prevents their being thrown out of the 
 soil during the thaws which succeed a frosty winter. 
 Transplanted cabbages require a rich mould, rather clayey 
 than sandy ; and, as Neill and Nicol observe, it can scarcely 
 
ro 
 
 CABBAGE. 
 
 be too much manured, as they are an exhausting crop* 
 Autumnal plantations, intended to stand the winter, should 
 have a dry soil, well dug and manured, and of a favourable 
 aspect. The cabbage, whether in the seed-bed or final 
 plantation, ever requires an open situation. Under the drip 
 of trees, or in the shade, seedlings are drawn up weak, and 
 grown crops are meager, w^orm-eaten and ill-favoured. 
 
 Sowing cabbage seed , — M Mahon says, ‘‘ The proper pe- 
 riod for sowing cabbage in the Middle States, to produce 
 early summer cabbages, is between the sixth and the tenth 
 of September, if intended to be transplanted into frames in 
 October, for winter protection, which is the preferable 
 method ; but if they are designed for remaining in the seed- 
 beds till spring, the period is between the fifteenth and 
 twentieth. However, it will be very proper to make two 
 or three sowings within that time, as it is impossible to say 
 whether the fall may be favourable or otherwise, and, there- 
 fore, the better way is to be prepared in either case by suc- 
 cessive crops. 
 
 “ The consequence of having crops too^ early is, that they 
 are subject to run to seed in the spring soon after being 
 planted out ; and if the seeds are sown too late, the plants 
 do not acquire sufficient strength before winter to withstand 
 its rigour, without extraordinary care. But in either case 
 there is a remedy ; that is, if the plants are likely to become 
 too luxuriant and strong, transplant them once or twice in 
 October, and if too backward and weakly, make a slight 
 hot-bed towards the latter end of that month, and prick 
 them out of the seed-bed thereon ; this will forward them 
 considerably.’’ 
 
 Mr. McMahon thinks that, in the Eastern States, the 
 fore part of September will be a suitable time to sow cab- 
 bages intended to be grown the succeeding summer. The 
 seeds should be covered about a quarter of an inch deep, 
 and, if the weather prove dry, should be watered occasion- 
 ally in the evening till they come up. According to Aber- 
 crombie’s seed estimate, for a seed-bed to raise the early 
 York and similar varieties, four feet wide by twenty in 
 length,” two ounces will be required ; for a seed-bed to 
 raise the large sugarloaf, and other luxuriant growers, four 
 feet by thirty-six in length, two ounces. The same writer 
 directs to sow at three difierent seasons, that is, spring, 
 
CABBAGE. 
 
 61 
 
 summer and autumn, and cover from an eighth to a quarter 
 of an inch. Under a deficiency of winter standing young 
 plants for final transplanting in spring, or in order to have 
 some spring sown plants as forward as possible, a moderate 
 portion of some best early sorts may be sown between the 
 middle of February and the middle of March, in a slight 
 hot-bed or frame, to nurture the plants till the leaves are an 
 inch or two in length. Then prick them into intermediate 
 beds in the open garden, there to gain strength for final 
 transplanting.” 
 
 Planting in New England . — Some drop the seeds where 
 the cabbages are to grow. By this they escape being stint- 
 ed by transplanting ; for winter cabbages, the latter part 
 of May is early enough to put the seed into the ground, 
 whether the plants are to be removed or not. I have tried 
 both ways, and, on the whole, I prefer transplanting. They 
 are otherwise apt to be too tall, and to have crooked stems. 
 Covering plants with leaves is not a good practice. They 
 will be much heated through some sorts of leaves, the free 
 circulation of air about them will be prevented, and their 
 perspiration partly obstructed. If a hot sun cause them to 
 droop, a shingle, stuck into the ground, will be sufficient 
 shelter, if it be on the south side of the plants. I com- 
 monly allow each plant two shingles, one on the south-east 
 side, and one on the south-west, meeting at the south cor- 
 ner.” — Deane. 
 
 The act of planting should be performed carefully. 
 Holes, of sufficient depth and width, should be dibbled, foi 
 the smaller sorts of cabbages, at the distance of two feet 
 and a half, and, for the larger sort, of three feet every way. 
 In these the earth should be placed up to the lower leaves, 
 and the earth brought closely about the roots, which is 
 best done by pushing down the dibbler, at a small angle 
 with the plant, and then bringing it up to it with a jerk. 
 This leaves no chambering, (as gardeners call it,) no va- 
 cancy between the plant and the soil. 
 
 “ The state of the weather, when these operations are 
 performed, is not a matter of indifference, and has been a 
 subject of controversy ; some recommending dry weather, 
 others wet. As in many other cases of disputation, the 
 truth lies between them — that is, moist weather is neither 
 dry nor wet, and is precisely that which is best for setting 
 
62 
 
 CABBAGE. 
 
 out cabbages, or any other vegetable. We ought not, 
 however, to wait long for even this most favourable state 
 of the atmosphere, since, with a little labour, we have the 
 means of making up for its absence.” — Armstrong. 
 
 Dig the plants up, that is, loosen the ground under 
 them with a spade, to prevent their being stripped too much 
 of their roots. The setting stick should be the upper part 
 of a spade or shovel handle. The eye of the spade is the 
 handle of the stick. From the bottom of the eye, to the 
 point of the stick, should be about nine inches in length. 
 The stick should not be tapering^ but nearly of equal thick- 
 ness all the way down to within an inch and a half of the 
 point, where it must be tapered off to the point. If the 
 wood be cut away, all round, to the thickness of a dollar, 
 and iron put round in its stead, it makes a very complete 
 tool. The iron becomes bright, and the earth does not 
 adhere to it as it does to wood. Having the plant in one 
 hand, and the stick in the other, make a hole suitable to 
 the root that it is to receive. Put in the root in such a 
 way, that the earth, when pressed in, will be on a level 
 with the but-ends of the lower or outward leaves of the 
 plant. Let the plant be rather higher than lower than this ; 
 for care must be taken not to put the plant so low as for 
 the earth to fall, or be washed into the heart of the plant, 
 nor even into the inside of the bottom leaves. The stem 
 of a cabbage, and the stems of all the cabbage kind, send 
 out roots from all the parts of them that are put beneath 
 the surface of the ground. It is good, therefore, to plant 
 as deep as you can without injury to the leaves. The next 
 consideration is, the fastening of the plant in the ground. 
 The hole is made deeper than the length of the root, but 
 the root should not be bent, at the point, if it can be avoid- 
 ed. Then, while one hand holds the plant, with its root 
 in the hole, the other hand applies the setting stick to the 
 earth on one side of the hole, the stick being held in such 
 a way as to form a sharp triangle with the plant. Then, 
 pushing the stick down, so that its point go a little deeper 
 than the point of the root^ and giving it a little twisty it presses 
 the earth against the point, or bottom of the root. And 
 thus all is safe, and the plant is sure to grow.” — Cobhett. 
 
 After-culture. — Little more is necessary than to stir the 
 ground pretty frequently, and keep it clear of weeds. It 
 
cabbage:. 63 
 
 is recommended to hoe the ground while the dew is on, 
 once a week, till they begin to head. 
 
 Diseases and insects . — Cabbages are liable to a disease in 
 the roots, in which they become swelled and knobby, and 
 the plants of weak and imperfect growth. This disorder is 
 called stump foot^ fumble foot, &c. It has been supposed to 
 be caused by the attacks of grubs, below the surface of the 
 ground ; and the disorder is said to be chiefly prevalent where 
 the same sorts of cabbages have been raised on the same 
 ground several years in succession. Lovet Peters, Esq. 
 of Westborough, Mass., says, the cause of the stump foot, 
 is in the soil : — F ew pieces of land, I believe, that have 
 been, for several successive years under the plough, will 
 produce a good crop of cabbages, though there may be 
 exceptions. My method of raising them, which I have 
 practised several years with complete success, is the 
 following : — In the spring, take a piece of green sward, 
 of a good soil, and free from stones, and turn it over with 
 the plough as flat as possible ; then spread on a large quan- 
 tity of good manure : if it has been previously mixed with 
 leached ashes, the better. Then harrow greatly, and early 
 in June : if for winter cabbage, cut holes through the turf, 
 with a hoe, as near together as the cabbages ought to grow ; 
 fill the holes with fine earth and manure, and then set the 
 plants, or put in a small number of seeds : I prefer the 
 latter, however,* since it saves the labour of setting, and 
 
 * Cultivators do not agree on the subject of transplanting cabbage plants, or 
 sowing the seeds in the spots where the plants are to grow. Dr. Deane, as has 
 appeared above, after having tried both methods, gave the preference to 
 transplanting. Mr. Peters, we have seen, prefers the other mode. Mr. Bord- 
 ley relates an experiment, in which he compared cabbages transplanted with 
 others not once moved. The unmoved grew, and were better than the movedP 
 Mr. Cobbett says, to have fine cabbages of any sort, they must be trans- 
 planted. First, they should be taken from the seed-bed, (where they have been 
 sown in beds near to each other,) and put into fresh dug, well-broken ground, 
 at six inches apart, every way. This is called pricing out. By standing 
 here about fifteen or twenty aays, they get straight, and stand strong, erect, 
 and have a straight and stout stem. Out of this plantation they come all 
 of a size ; the roots of all are in the same state, and they strike quicker into 
 the ground where they stand for a cr^.'^ According to Rees^ Cyclopedia^ 
 it was the practice of the celebrated Dakewell, and other cultivators who 
 followed his example, to drill cabbage seed where the plants were to -re- 
 main. Perhaps there would be no necessity for transplanting cabbages, 
 in order to make the stems straight and stout,^^ according to Mr. Cobbeit^s 
 directions, if the plants were not originally sown too thick, or were proper- 
 \y thinned at an early period of their growth. An English writer says, 
 " Much iiyury frequently arises to ^'oung cabbage plants, from the seed being 
 
04 
 
 CABBAGE. 
 
 is mnch surer of success, if it happens to be a time of 
 drought. They will need no more hoeing than is necessa- 
 ry to keep down the weeds. In this way, I have raised 
 cabbages of the largest size, in a green sward potato field, 
 without more hoeing than was necessary for the potatoes.” 
 
 Cabbage plants are liable to be attacked, by a grub or black 
 worm, in the night, which eats off the stalks, just above 
 ground, and buries itself in the ground as soon as the sun 
 rises. Dr. Deane observed, that a little circle of lime or rock- 
 weed round the plant, will preserve it, and recommends dig- 
 ging for the worm near the place which shows the marks of 
 its ravages, and destroying it. Scalding the hills with boiling 
 water, and then enclosing them with boards, barks, or shin- 
 gles, would be an effectual, but troublesome mode, of 
 guarding against worms. The Economical Journal of France 
 gives the following method, which, it states, is infallible, to 
 guard not only against caterpillars, but all other insects 
 which infest cabbages or other vegetables : — Sow with 
 hemp all the borders of the ground where the cabbage is 
 planted ; and, although the neighbourhood be infested with 
 caterpillars, the place enclosed with hemp will be perfect- 
 ly free, and not one of the vermin will approach it. Wa- 
 tering the plants with water which had been poured boiling 
 hot on elder leaves, or walnut leaves, and suffered to stand 
 till cool, has been recommended. The following mixture 
 is also said to be a preservative against all kinds of insects : — 
 Take a pound and three quarters of soap, the same quanti- 
 ty of flowers of sulphur, two pounds of puff balls, and fif- 
 teen gallons of water. When the whole has been well 
 mixed, by the aid of a gentle heat, sprinkle the insects 
 with the liquor, and it will instantly kill them. To get rid 
 of the aphides or cabbage lice, watering the plants with 
 soap-suds, or a solution of salt in water, (not too strong, 
 lest it kill the plants,) is said to be efficient. 
 
 Use.— The culinary uses of the cabbage are too well 
 known to need description or recapitulation. If they grow 
 near a yard where cattle are kept, the under leaves, when 
 they begin to decay, may be stripped off and given them. 
 
 sown too thick ; care should^ therefore, be taken, to have them properly thinned 
 out, whenever they come up in too thick a manner. Probably, if the plants 
 were sown in the nills in which they are intended to grow for a crop, and thin- 
 ned out in due season, they would grow as straight and stout, as if they bad 
 Iteen several times transplanted.'^ 
 
CABBAGE. 
 
 05 
 
 Tlie plants will not be injured, and they are an excellent food 
 for cattle, and will much increase the milk of cows. But 
 the least decayed alone should be given to cows, lest they 
 give the milk a bad taste. Much account is made of cab- 
 bages, in England, for feeding cattle in the winter ; but 
 the dilhculty of preserving them renders them less valua- 
 ble for I hat purpose with us. Cabbages are also eaten by 
 swine and horses, and are thought to be excellent food for 
 ew^es that have newly dropped their lambs, and for calves. 
 
 Preserving cabbages. — Mr. McMahon recommends the 
 following method for preserving cabbages for winter and 
 spring use : — “ Immediately previous to the setting in of 
 hard frost, take up your cabbages and Savoys, observing to 
 do it in a dry day ; turn their tops downward, and let them 
 remain so for a few hours, to drain off any w^ater that may 
 be lodged between their leaves ; then make choice of a 
 ridge of dry earth, in a well-sheltered, warm exposure, and 
 plant them dowm to their heads therein, close to one anoth- 
 er, having previously taken off some of their loose, hanging 
 leaves. Immediately erect over them a low, temporary 
 shed, of any kind that will keep them perfectly free from 
 wet, which is to be open at both ends, to admit a current 
 of air in mild, dry weather. These ends are to be closed 
 with straw when the weather is very severe. Ii? this situa- 
 tion, your cabbages wull keep in a high state of preservation 
 till spring ; for, being kept perfectly free from wet, as well 
 as from the acti6n of the sun, the frost will have little or 
 no effect upon them. In such a place the heads may be 
 cut off as wanted, and if frozen, soak them in spring, well, 
 or pump water, for a few hours previous to their being 
 cooked, which ivill dissolve the frost, and extract any disa- 
 greeable taste occasioned thereby.” 
 
 The principal gardener in the Shaker establishment, in 
 New Lebanon, Columbia county, N. Y. directs not to pull 
 up cabbages in autumn, till there is danger of their freez- 
 ing too fast in the ground to be got up. If there happens 
 an early snow, it will not injure them. When they are 
 removed from the garden, they should be set out again in 
 a trench dug in the bottom of a cellar. If the cellar is 
 pretty cool, it will be the better.” 
 
 The London Monthly Magazine gives the following meth- 
 od, by which cabbages may be preserved on board ships, 
 6 * 
 
66 
 
 CABBAGE. 
 
 &c. — The cabbage is cut so as to leave about two. inches 
 or more of the stem attached to it ; after which the pith is 
 scooped out to about the depth' of an inch, care being taken 
 not to wound or bruise the rind by this operation. The 
 cabbages then are suspended by means of a cord, tied round 
 that portion of the stem next the cabbage, and fastened at 
 regular intervals to a rope across the deck. That portion 
 of the stem from which the pith is taken, being uppermost, 
 is regularly filled with water.” 
 
 To save cabbage seed , — The raising of the seed of the 
 different sorts of cabbage, Neill observes, affords employ- 
 ment to many persons in various parts of England. It is 
 well known that no plants are more liable to be spoiled by 
 cross breeds, than the cabbage tribe, unless the plants of 
 any particular variety, when in flower, be kept at a very 
 considerable distance from any other; also in flower, 
 bees are extremely apt to carry the pollen of the one to the 
 other, and produce confusion in the progeny. Market gar- 
 deners, and many private individuals, raise seed for their 
 own use. Some of the handsomest cabbages of the differ- 
 ent sorts are dug up in autumn, and sunk in the ground to 
 the head ; early next summer a flower-stem appears, which 
 is followed by abundance of seed. A few of the soundest 
 and healthiest cabbage-stalks, furnished with‘ sprouts, an- 
 swer the same end. When the seed has been well ripened 
 and dried, it will keep for six or eight years. It is mention- 
 ed by Bastien, that the seed-growers of Aubervilliers have 
 learned by experience, that seed gathered from the middle 
 flower-stem produces plants, which will be fit for use a 
 fortnight earlier than those from the seed of the lateral 
 flower stem ; this may deserve the attention of the watch- 
 ful gardener, and assist him in regulating his successive 
 crops of the same kind of cabbage.” — Loudon. 
 
 Field culture . — The variety cultivated in the fields for cat- 
 tle is almost exclusively the large Scotch, or field cabbage. 
 The land is prepared the same way as for other hoed crops. 
 “ The preparation given to the plants,” says Loudon, ‘‘ con- 
 sists in pinching off the extremity of their tap-root, and 
 any tubercles which appear on the root or stem, and in im- 
 mersing the root and stem in a puddle or mixture of earth 
 and w^ater, to protect the fibres and pores of the roots and 
 stem from drought. The plants may then be inserted by 
 
CANKER-WORM. CARAWAY. CARDOON. 
 
 67 
 
 the dibber, taking care not to plant too deep, and to press 
 the earth lirmly to the lower extremity of the root. If this 
 last point is not attended to, the plants will either die, or, if 
 kept alive by the moisture of the soil, or rain, their progress 
 will be very slow. When the distance between the ridg- 
 lets [or rows] is twenty-seven inches, the plants are set about 
 two feet asunder in the rows, and the quantity required for 
 an acre is about 6000 plants.” The after-culture, preser- 
 vation, uses, &c., have been sufficiently detailed in the pre- 
 ceding pages, under this head. 
 
 CANKER-WORM,— Insects. 
 
 CARAWAY. — Carum caruL — “The caraway is a bien- 
 nial plant, a native of England, being occasionally found in 
 meadows and pastures. It rises a foot and a half high, with 
 spreading branches ; the leaves are decompound ; the leaf- 
 lets in sixes ; it produces umbels of white flowers in June. 
 
 “ Use, — The plant is cultivated chiefly for the seed, which 
 is used in confectionary and in medicine. In spring, the 
 under leaves are sometimes put in soups ; and in former 
 times the fusiform roots were eaten as parsnips, to which 
 Parkinson gives them the preference. In Essex, large 
 quantities of the seed are annually raised for distillation with 
 spirituous liquors. 
 
 “ Culture, — It is raised from seed, of which a quarter of an 
 ounce is sufficient for a seed-bed four feet by five. Sow 
 annually, in autumn, soon after the seed is ripe : the seed- 
 lings will rise quickly, and should be thinned to a foot’s dis- 
 tance each way. In default of sowing in autumn, sow in 
 March or April, either in drills or broad-cast ; but the plants, 
 so raised, will not in general flower till the following year. 
 When the seed is ripe, the plant is generally pulled up in 
 gathering, especially in field culture.” — Loudon, 
 
 CARDOON. — Cynara cardunculus, — The cardoon is a 
 hardy, perennial plant, a native of Candia, introduced into 
 England in 1658. It is a species of artichoke, and grows 
 wild in the south of France. 
 
 Propagation, — “ Though a perennial, it often dies in the 
 winter, and therefore requires to be raised from seed almost 
 every year ; and, for a bed four feet wide by eight feet, two 
 ounces are sufficient. Formerly the plants were raised on hot- 
 beds, and transplanted in May and June, but now the seed is 
 generally sown where the plants are to remain.” — Loudon, 
 
68 
 
 CARROT. 
 
 Use . — The parts of the cardoon that are eaten are not 
 those belonging immediately to the tiower, as of the arti- 
 choke, but the roots, stalks, and middle ribs of the leaves* 
 and chiefly the latter, which are thick and crisp. But as 
 all these are naturally bitter, the plants are blanched by being 
 tied up like lettuces, about the month of September, and 
 having earth thrown upon their lower parts to the depth of 
 eighteen inches or two feet. Cardoons come into season 
 about the end of November ; and are either eaten alone, or 
 as a sauce to animal food, particularly roast meat ; or are 
 introduced as a dish in the second course.” — Loudon. 
 
 CARROT. — Baucus . — This plant is said to be a native 
 of Great Britain, where it is still found growing wild. There 
 are many varieties of the carrot; and the following are 
 the finest sorts enumerated in Mr. Russell’s Catalogue : 
 
 Altrlngham, (a superior sort;) 
 Early horn, 
 
 Cremer, (fine for the table,) 
 
 Lemon, 
 
 Long orange. 
 Blood red. 
 
 Soil . — The carrot requires a light, mellow soil, mixed 
 with sand, and should be dug or trenched one or two spades 
 deep, breaking well all the lumpy parts, so as to form a 
 porous bed, and an even surface. The orange and red 
 sorts, on account of their longer roots, require a soil pro- 
 portionably deeper than the horn.” 
 
 Seed estimate and sowing . — The seeds have numerous 
 forked hairs on their borders, by which they adhere together, 
 and therefore should, previously to sov/ing, be rubbed be- 
 tween the hands, and mixed with dry sand, in order to sepa- 
 rate them as much as possible. They are also very light, 
 and therefore a calm day must be chosen for sowing ; and 
 the seeds should he disseminated equally, and trodden in 
 before raking. Previously to sowing, if convenient, the 
 seed should be proven, by sowing a few in a pot, and placing 
 it in a hot-bed or hot-house, as it is more frequently bad 
 than most seeds. For a bed 4^ feet by 30, one ounce v/ill 
 be requisite, and the same for 150 feet of drill row. Dr. 
 Deane advises to sow carrots in drills from 9 to 12 inches 
 apart, across beds 4 feet wide, McMahon directs to sow 
 thin in drills, distant from each other from 8 to 10 inches, 
 and to thin them to 3 inches, plant from plant, in the rows. 
 To save seed. --Plant some largest, best roots early in the 
 spring, two feet apart ; insert them a few inches over the 
 
CARROT. 
 
 69 
 
 crowns. They will yield ripe seed in autumn, of which 
 gather only from the principal umbel, which is likely not 
 only to afford the ripest and largest seed, but the most vigo- 
 rous plants. 
 
 Field culture . — ‘‘ The only sort of carrot adapted to field 
 culture,” says Loudon, “ is the long red, or field carrot. 
 New seed is most essential, as it will not vegetate the sec- 
 ond year. The best soil for the carrot is a deep, rich, 
 sandy loam ; such a soil ought to be at least a foot deep, 
 and all equally good from top to bottom. On any other 
 the field culture of the carrot will not answer. 
 
 ‘‘ The usual preparation of the seed for sowing is the 
 mixing it with earth or sand, to cause it to separate more 
 freely ; but Burrows adds water, turns over the mixture 
 of seeds and moist earth several times, and thus brings it 
 to the point of vegetating before he sows it. Having 
 weighed the quantity of seed to be sown, and collected 
 sand or fine mould, in the proportion of about two bushels 
 to an acre, I mix the seed with the sand or mould, eight or 
 ten pounds to every two bushels, and this is done about a 
 fortnight or three weeks before the time I intend sowing ; 
 taking care to have the heaps turned over every day, sprin- 
 kling the outside of them with water each time of turning 
 over, that every part of the sand heaps may be equally moist, 
 and that vegetation may take place alike throughout. I 
 have great advantage in preparing the seed so long before 
 hand ; it is by this means in a state of forward vegetation, 
 therefore lies but a short time in the ground, and, by quickly 
 appearing above ground, is more able to contend with those 
 numerous tribes of weeds in the soil, whose seeds are of 
 quicker vegetation.” 
 
 The quantity of seed, when carrots are sown in rows, is 
 two pounds per acre; and, for broad-cast sowing, five 
 pounds. The rows for the larger or proper field carrots, 
 should be from 14 to 16 or 18 inches apart ; and the carrots 
 thinned, in hoeing, to 3 or 4 inches apart in the rows. The 
 seeds will do best when sown by hand, as their shape does 
 not well admit of their being sown by machines. Loudon 
 says, It has been advised, by an intelligent cultivator, to 
 deposit the seed to the depth of one inch in the rows, leav- 
 ing the spaces of fourteen inches between them as intervals ; 
 the seed, in these cases, being previously steeped in rain 
 
70 
 
 CARROT, 
 
 water for twenty-four hours, and left to sprout, after which 
 it is mixed with saw-dust and dry mould, in the proportion 
 of one peck and a half of each to a pound of seed. The 
 land is afterwards lightly harrowed over once in a place. 
 Two pounds of seed, in this mode, is found, as has been 
 observed, sufficient for an acre of land.” 
 
 After-culture . — The first hoeing of carrots must be by 
 hand — an operation which requires a great deal of attention, 
 as it is difficult to distinguish and separate the weeds from 
 the young carrots. Loudon says, “ From eight to fifteen 
 or eighteen inches, each way, is the common distance at 
 which they are allowed to stand ; and it has been proved, 
 from many years’ experience in districts where they are 
 most cultivated, that carrots which grow at such distances 
 always prove a more abundant crop than when the plants 
 are allowed to stand closer together.” Deane observed. 
 It is not amiss if they grow large and rank, when they 
 are chiefly designed as food for cattle, though small-sized 
 ones are preferred for the table.” 
 
 Mr. Quincy gives the following statement of the mode 
 of cultivating carrots, made use of by Samuel Wyllys Pome- 
 roy, Esq., and which he prefers to all others : — 
 
 ‘‘ Plough as deep in the fall or spring as the state of the 
 land will permit. Cross-plough in the spring, and harrow 
 level. Put on fifteen, twenty, or twenty-five buck-loads 
 of the most rotten compost to the acre, as the heart of the 
 land may be. Spread and harrow it fine. Then, with a 
 horse-plough, strike it into two-bout ridges, as near together 
 as four back furrows will make them, and if the two first 
 back furrows are narrow, the other two being deep, the 
 ridge will be nearly to a point, and should be eighteen or 
 twenty inches from the bottom of the furrow, if it be well 
 cleared out. To do which, make another bout in the fur- 
 row, if necessary. Then, with the head of a rake, strike off 
 the crown of the ridge, till it is three or four inches wide, 
 and with it, or a hoe, open a drill in the usual manner. Sow 
 the seed pretty thick, cover and press down a little with a 
 hoe or shovel. When the weeds appear, run a small 
 plough through the furrows. Hand-weed the crop, and hoe 
 the weeds from the sides of the ridge. The orange carrot 
 is best.” 
 
 In hai vesting, a plough with one yoke of oxen should 
 
CARROT. 
 
 71 
 
 be run near the side of tlie range of carrots, and as deep as 
 possible. This loosens the dirt, and clears one side of the 
 carrots almost entirely from the earth. The labourers then, 
 with great facility, take them by their tops out of the beds, 
 and throw them into carts, with only an occasional use of 
 the hoe to plants which the plough has not loosened. 
 
 I have no question that, conducted in this mode, a car- 
 rot crop may be made more productive, and much less ex- 
 pensive, than the potato crop usually is. In sowing, I use 
 a small hand-drill, which lays the seed with great regularity — 
 a circumstance very important both to facilitate weeding and 
 harvesting ; since, if the carrots stand straggling, and not in 
 a line, the plough, when harvesting, leaves the more to be 
 loosened by the hoe or the fork.” — Massachusetts Agricultural 
 Repository^ vol. iv. p. 24. 
 
 A mode of cultivating carrots, differing slightly from the 
 above, is described by Mr. Quincy, in the same work, vol. 
 iv. p. 212. 
 
 For other modes of cultivating this root, see Mass. Agr. 
 Rep. vol. V. pp. 20, 255, 347. 
 
 Use . — Horses are remarkably fond of carrots, and it is 
 even said, that, when oats and carrots are given together, 
 the horses leave the oats, and eat the carrots. The ordinary 
 allowance is about forty or fifty pounds a day to each horse. 
 Carrots, when mixed with chaff, that is, cut straw, and a 
 little hay, without corn, keep horses in excellent condition 
 for performing all kinds of ordinary labour. 
 
 “In comparing the carrot with the potato, an additional 
 circumstance greatly in favour of the former is, that it does 
 not require to be steamed or boiled, and it is not more dif- 
 ficult to wash than the potato. These and other circum- 
 stances considered, it appears to be the most valuable of all 
 roots for working horses. 
 
 “ The use of the carrot in domestic economy is well 
 known. Their produce of nutritive matter, as ascertained 
 by Sir H. Davy, is ninety-eight parts in one thousand ; of 
 which three are starch, and ninety-five sugar. They are 
 used in the dairy in winter and spring to give colour and 
 flavour to butter. In the distillery, owing to the great pro- 
 portion of sugar in their composition, they yield more spirit 
 than the potato ; the usual quantity is twelve gallons per 
 
72 
 
 CATERPILLAR. CAULIFLOWER. 
 
 ton. They are excellent in soups, stews, and haricots, and 
 boiled whole with salt beef. 
 
 The diseases of carrots are only such as are common 
 to most plants, such as mildew, insects, &c. The mildew 
 and worms at the root frequently injure crops, and are to be 
 guarded against, as far as practicable, by a proper choice, 
 soil, season of sowing, and after-culture.” — Loudon. 
 
 CATERPILLAR — an insect on fruit trees. — See In- 
 sects. 
 
 CAULIFLOWER. — Brassica oleracea. var. hotrytis . — 
 The cauliflower is one of the most delicate and curious of 
 the whole of the brassica tribe ; the flow^er buds forming a 
 close, firm cluster or head, white and delicate, for the sake 
 of which the plant is cultivated. 
 
 Varieties. — ^Early, (for the first, early crops.) — Later, or large, (for principal 
 crops.) 
 
 ^‘Propagation and soil. — The cauliflower is raised from 
 seed, of which half an ounce is sufficient for a seed-bed four 
 feet and a half wide, by ten in length. The soil for the seed- 
 bed may be light, but, for final transplanting, it can hardly 
 be too rich, the cauliflower, like the vine, being reputed a 
 ‘ rough feeder.’ Cleanings of streets, sesspools, &c., ought, 
 therefore, to be liberally supplied during the growth of the 
 plants, when very large heads are desired. 
 
 “ Times of sowing. — The early and main superior crop, 
 brought to fruit by the longest nursery attendaijce ; the late 
 summer succession crop, raised by the shortest course ; and 
 the Michaelmas (29th of Sept.) crop, obtained at the least 
 expense, are sown, respectively, at three different seasons. 
 The principal sowing is made about the end of the third 
 week in August, or a day or two before or after the 21st, to 
 raise plants to stand over winter, under frames, hand-glasses, 
 or half-sheltered warm borders, for the early and main supe- 
 rior crops next summer. A secondary sowing in F ebruary or 
 March, for succession, and late inferior crops the same year 
 in summer and autumn. A final sowing, near the close of 
 May, for ordinary crops, to yield fruit the following autumn 
 and winter. The seedlings, protected with glass frames, 
 generally grow too gross in the stems, which become partly 
 blackened, and the plants, being thus unhealthy, are not fit 
 for planting out. Late-raised seedlings, which spend the 
 winter in the open border, uniformly become the large and 
 
CAULIFLOWER. 
 
 73 
 
 finest table cauliflowers during the summer, though they 
 certainly do not come in quite so early. Cauliflower plants, 
 it is probable, are often killed with too much attention. 
 Seedlings, raised late in autumn, seem to be very tenacious 
 of life.” — Ceiled. Hort. Mem. iii. 192. A method of pro- 
 ducing cauliflowers, pretty early, and with great certainty, 
 is this : — The plants are set in small pots in the winter 
 season, and kept in any convenient part of the floor of m 
 vinery or other glazed house. In the beginning of March, 
 they are taken out of the pots with the ball of earth attach- 
 ed, and planted in the open ground. If they be here pro- 
 tected against severe frosts with bell-glass covers, they 
 come into head in the course of April, if the weather 
 prove favourable ,” — Neill j in Edin. Encyc. 
 
 Drummond, of the Cork botanic garden, protects cauli- 
 flower plants during winter by planting them in excar 
 vations made in the common soil of the garden, and covered 
 with frames thatched with long, straight wheat st^aw^ He 
 uncovers constantly, in mild weather, whether nights or 
 days. — Hort. Trans, v. 369, 
 
 For after-culture, preservation through winter, saving 
 seed, &c. proceed as with the common white cabbage. 
 
 Use . — Among the succulent plants produced in our 
 climate, this doubtless is one of the most nourishing, and 
 likewise the best adapted to tender organs of digestion, 
 especially in valetudinarians and invalids : such persons, 
 ho^vever, ought to eat it with the addition of some aromatic 
 spice, such as pounded cardamoma, or caraway, or a small 
 proportion of bread. To make the cauliflower blanch 
 handsomely, the gardeners tie over the heads of the plant 
 To prepare cauliflowers . — Let the cauliflowers first be 
 parboiled ; next they must be immersed in cold, hard water, 
 for some time, till they be nearly wanted for the table; thus, 
 on being boiled for a few minutes, they will become more 
 firm and crisp than if cooked in the usual manner.” — Dom. 
 Encyc. 
 
 Neill (in Edinburgh Encyc.) observes, These heads or 
 flowers being boiled, generally wrapped in a clean linen 
 cloth, are served up as a most delicate vegetable dish. 
 Cauliflower is a particular favourite in this country. ^ Of 
 all the flowers in the garden,’ Dr. Johnson used to say, 
 
 ^ I like the cauliflower.’ For the early supply of the 
 London market, very great quantities of cauliflower are 
 fostered under hand-glasses during winter and the first part 
 7 
 
74 
 
 CELERY. 
 
 of spring ; and to behold some acres overspread with such 
 glasses, gives the stranger a forcible idea of the riches and 
 luxury of the metropolis.” 
 
 CELERY. — Apium graveolens. — Celery is a hardy bien- 
 nial plant, a native of Great Britain, and, when in its wild 
 state, it is denominated smallage. The root, in its wild 
 state, is thick and fibrous. The stalk is bushy and furrow- 
 ed, and attains the height of two or three feet. The leaves 
 are wedge-shaped, and the flowers yellow,' which are pro- 
 duced in August. The varieties usually cultivated are, the 
 
 White solid, I Italiap, and 
 
 Rose-coloured solid, | Celeriac, or turnip-rooted. 
 
 Propagation,^ — ^All the sorts are raised from seed ; and 
 half an ounce is reckoned sufficient for a seed-bed four feet 
 and a half wide by ten feet in length, of the upright sorts ; 
 but for celeriac, a quarter of an ounce will be enough for a 
 bed four feet square. 
 
 Soil, — Celery delights in a soil rather moist, rich in ve- 
 getable mould, but not rank from new, unrotted dung. 
 
 Times of sowing, — “ The most forward crop is slightTy 
 forced ; any of the varieties may be sown in the spring, in 
 the open garden, at two of three different times, from the 
 21st of March till the first week in May ; but the principal 
 sowing should be made in the first fortnight in April. Sow 
 in beds of light mellow earth, and rake in the seed lightly 
 and regularly. In very dry weather, give moderate water- 
 ing both before and after the plants come up. When they 
 are two, three, or four inches high, thin the seed-bed, and 
 prick out a quantity, at successive times, into intermediate 
 beds, three or four inches asunder. Water those removed 
 until they have struck” [tahm root,']— Loudon, 
 
 Transplanting into trendies,— When either the plants 
 left in the seed-bed, of those removed, are from six to 
 twelve inches high, of when the latter have acquired a 
 stocky growth, by four or five weeks’ nurture in the inter- 
 mediate bed, transplant them into trenches for blanching. 
 For this purpose, allot an open compartment. Mark out 
 the trenches a foot wide, and from three to three and a 
 lialf distance ; dig out each trench lengthwise, ten or twelve 
 inches in width, and a light spit deep, that is, six or eight 
 inches. Lay the earth dug out equally on each side of the 
 trench ; put about three inches of very rotten dung into 
 the trench, then pare the sides, and dig the dung and par- 
 ings with an inch or two of the loose mould at the bottom. 
 
CELERY. 
 
 75 
 
 Trim the tops and roots of the plants, and then set them in 
 single rows along the middle of each trench, allowing four 
 or live inches distance from plant to plant. When this 
 work is linished, give the plants water in plenty, and occa- 
 sionally water them from time to time, if the weather be 
 dry, and likewise let them be shaded, till they strike root, 
 and begin to grow. When they have grown to the height 
 of eight or ten inches, draw earth to each side of them, 
 breaking it fine. This should be done in dry weather, be- 
 ing careful not to bury the hearts. Repeat the earthing 
 once in ten days, till the plants are fit for use. Be careful, 
 liowever, not to draw up too much earth to the plants at 
 first, lest they be smothered, and leave the plants in a 
 little hollow, that they may receive the fq.!! benefit of the 
 waterings, rain, &c.” 
 
 Taking the crop.—^\i is best to begin at one end of a row, 
 and dig clean down to the roots, which then loosen with a 
 spade, and they may be drawn up entire, without breaking 
 the stalks. 
 
 To preserve this plant during the winter, on the ap- 
 proach of frost, take up a part of the crop, and lay it under 
 sand for winter use. Those left in the beds may be cover- 
 ed with litter, to be removed in mild weather. Cobbett 
 directs, to preserve celery in beds, as follows : — “ Two 
 boards, a foot wide each, their edges on one side laid upon 
 the earth of the ridg^ formed into a roof aver the point of 
 the ridge, the upper edge of one board going an inch over 
 the upper edge of the other, and the boards fastened well 
 with pegs, will do the business completely ; for it is not the 
 frost, but the occasional tkaws^ that you have to fear, and 
 the wet and rot that they produce.” 
 
 To sane seed . — Either leave some established plants in 
 the spring where growing, or in March, as soon as the frost 
 will permit, set the plants in the ground, full two feet asun- 
 der. 
 
 Cvltivallon of celeriac . — The times of sowing are the 
 same as for the other sorts. In the beginning or middle of 
 June, they are transplanted into a flat bed in the open air, 
 at the distance of fifteen inches from each other, and not 
 in trenches, like other celery. They must be abundant- 
 ly watered as soon as they are set out, and the watering 
 must be repeated every other day, or, if the weather should 
 be warm, every day. As they increase in size, they will 
 require a greater quantity of water, and they must be OCCa^ 
 
76 
 
 CHAMOMILE. 
 
 sionally hoed. The roots will be fit for use in Septembet 
 or October. Sabine states, that he has been informed that 
 the plan of giving excess (k water is peculiar to this plant, 
 and that its vigorous growth is more dependent on richness 
 of soil than any other cause. Abercombie directs to earth 
 up the bulbs four or five inches, after they are full grown, 
 in order to blanch them. 
 
 ‘‘ Use. — The blanched leafed-stalks are used raw, as a sal- 
 ad, from August till March ; they are also stewed, and put 
 in soups. In Italy, the unblanched leaves are used for 
 soups, and when neither the blanched nor the green leaves 
 can be had, the seeds bruised form a good substitute. The 
 root only of the variety called the celeriac is used, and Sabine 
 informs us (Hort. Trans, vol. iii.) ‘it is excellent in soups, 
 in which, whether white or brown, slices of it are used as 
 ingredients, and readily impart their flavour. With the Ger- 
 mans, it is also a common salad, for which the roots are 
 prepared by boiling, until a fork will pass easily through 
 them : after they are boiled, and become cold, they are 
 eaten with oil and vinegar. They are also sometimes serv- 
 ed up at table, stewed with rich sauces. In all cases, before 
 they are boiled, the coat and the fibres of the roots, which 
 are very strong, are cut away ; and the root is put in cold 
 water, on the fire, not in water previously boiling.^ — 
 Loudon. 
 
 CHAMOMILE. — Anthemis nobilis. 
 
 Varieties. — These are the common single and double- 
 flowered. 
 
 Soil and culture^ — ^This herb delights in a poor, sandy 
 soil. “ Both kinds are propagated by parting the roots, or 
 by slips of the rooted offsets or of the runners. Detach 
 them with roots in little tufty sets in March, April or May, 
 and plant them from eight to twelve inches asunder, giving 
 water. The flowers should be gathered in their prime, in 
 June or July, just when full-blown. Let them be spread 
 to dry in a shady place ; then put them into paper bags, 
 and house them for use.” — Abercrombie. 
 
 “ Use. — It is cultivated on account of the flower, which-is 
 a safe bitter and stomachic, and much used under the name 
 of chamomile-tea. The double-flowering variety, though 
 more beautiful than the single-flowered, is less useful ; the 
 aromatic principle not residing in the floscules of the ray, 
 the multiplication of which constitutes the double flower. 
 The double sort, however, is most cultivated by growers 
 
CHERRY-TREE, 
 
 77 
 
 for llie market, on account of its greater bulk and weight.’’ 
 — Loudon, 
 
 CHERRY-TREE . — Prunus cerasus . — The cherry is a 
 genus of plauts, which comprises too many species to be 
 described in this place. Loudon’s catalogue contains thir- 
 ty-six kinds, but does not include all that are cultivated in 
 England; and there are several varieties in the United 
 States, which are natives of the country. See ThachePs 
 Oi'chardisty Coxe on Fruit- Trees j and Domestic Encyclopedia, 
 Gen. Dearborn’s communication for N, E, Farmer^ vol. v. 
 
 p. 210. 
 
 “ The cherry-tree is propagated by seeds and by suckers, 
 when stems are wanted ; by seeds alone, when new varie- 
 ties are required ;* by scions, when you have to work on 
 old subjects ; and by buds, when your trees are young. If 
 intended for dwarfs, bud your plants at two^ and if for 
 standards, at four years of age. The spring succeeding 
 this operation is the time for transplanting ; which should 
 be done carefully, and in the manner prescribed for setting 
 out apple-trees. The fashion or form of the trees will 
 direct the distance at which they are to stand from each 
 other ; between standards this should not be less than thirty 
 feet and between pyramids and espaliers, not less than 
 twenty. 
 
 Though in our climate all the varieties of the cherry- 
 tree do well as standards and pyramids, and are therefore 
 generally and properly cultivated in these forms, still it 
 may be useful to remark, that two of them, the May duke 
 and the Morello, when trained against walls, give fruit not 
 only of increased precocity, but of much finer flavour ; a 
 circumstance in which they differ, not only from all other 
 varieties of their own races, but from fruit-trees of all other 
 kinds. 
 
 ‘‘As the cherry grows on small spurs, pushing from the 
 sides and ends of two, three, and four years old wood, and 
 as the procession of new buds is constant, it follows as a 
 general rule, that ‘the knife must be sparingly employed;’ 
 and as a particular one in relation to wall-trees, that ‘ bear- 
 ing branches are not to be shortened, if room can be found 
 for extending them.’ These rules, however rigorously 
 
 * The seeds employed should be taken from rine fruity committed promptly 
 to a bed of sand, and kept in a dry and cool place till the spring, when ttiey 
 may be set out in rows two and a half feet apart, 
 t Miller thinks the distance should be forty feet. 
 
 7 
 
78 
 
 CHERRY-TREE. 
 
 executed, must not prevent summer pruning, (which consists 
 in rubbing off redundant or ill-placed buds,) nor that of 
 winter j if confined to the renewal of fractured and unsound 
 wood, or branches too much multiplied, or crossing each 
 other. The nature of the Morello will, however, render 
 it an exception to the general practice here recommended ; 
 for, instead of bearing like the other varieties, on two, three, 
 and even four years old wood, its fruit is generally produ- 
 ced on shoots of the last year, and rarely, if ever, on even 
 two years old wood. Whence it follows, that, with regard 
 to this variety, our aim, in both summer and winter pruning, 
 ought to be ‘ a removal of old, and a provision of new 
 bearers.’ 
 
 “ In renovating an old tree, pursue Forsyth’s method — 
 shorten it to a stump not more than eighteen inches high ; 
 remove the old soil from the roots ; replace it with that of 
 upland pasture, on a layer of stone or other impervious 
 body, two feet below the surface ; and encourage a single 
 shoot. ” — Armstrong, 
 
 Use , — “ It is a refreshing summer fruit, highly grateful 
 at the dessert, and affording pies, tarts, and other useful and 
 elegant preparations in cookery and confectionary. Steep- 
 ing cherries in brandy qualifies and improves its strength 
 and flavour ; a fine wine is made from the juice, and a 
 spirit distilled from the fermented pulp. The gum which 
 exudes from the tree is equal to gum arabic ; and Hasei- 
 quist relates, that more than two hundred men, during a 
 siege, were kept alive for nearly two months, without any 
 other sustenance than a little of the gum taken sometimes 
 into the mouth, and suffered gradually to dissolve. Cherry 
 wood is hard and tough, and is used by the turner, flute- 
 maker and cabinet-maker.” — Loudon, 
 
 “ The common wild or native cherry, {Primus cerasus 
 Virginiay) though it bears only a small, bitter cherry, which 
 serves as food for birds, is valuable on account of its medi- 
 cinal bark, and also for its timber, which is of a reddish, 
 streaked colour, resembling mahogany, and capable of 
 receiving a fine polish ; it is used by turners and cabinet- 
 makers for many purposes. The tree grows to a large size. 
 
 ‘‘ Cherry brandy is made in the following manner : — Fill 
 the cask with an equal proportion of Morello and sweet 
 black cherries ; pour over them as much brandy as the 
 cask will contain. When it has been on ten days, draw it 
 oe, and pour on hot water ; let this remain some time, sha- 
 
CHERVIL. CHIVE. COLEWORT. CORIANDER. 70 
 
 king the cask frequently, then draw it off, mixing the last 
 with the first liquor.’’ — Domestic Encyclopedia. 
 
 Dr. Cooper adds, in the last edition— “ It is best made 
 with the small wild black cherry.” Cattle, it is said, have 
 been killed by eating leaves of the wild cherry-tree. For 
 a method of making cherry wine, see N. E. Farmer^ ii. 27. 
 
 CHERVIL. — Chcerophyllum. — This is an annual plant, 
 with leaves resembling those of double parsley. It is used 
 for salads and in soups, and is sown occasionally in rows, 
 like parsley, from April to September. 
 
 CHIVE. — Allium schmnoprasum. — The chive^ or cive^ is 
 a hardy perennial plant, a native of Britain, and found in 
 meadows and pastures, though but rarely. The leaves rise 
 from many small bulbous roots connected in bunches ; are ^ 
 awd-shaped, thread-like, and produced in tufts. The flowers 
 are white, tinged with reddish-purple, and appear on round 
 stalks in June.” — Loudon. It is of common and easy cul- 
 tivation. 
 
 COLEWORT. — Brassica oleracea viridis. — ‘‘The origi- 
 nal variety of cabbage, called colewort,” says Loudon, “ is, 
 or seems to be, lost, and is now succeeded by what are 
 called cabbage-coleworts. These, Abercrombie observes, 
 are valuable family plants, useful in three stages ; as young 
 open greens, as greens with closing hearts, and as greens 
 forming a -cabbage growth.” The culture and uses of the 
 cabbage-cole wort are so similar to those of the common 
 white cabbage, that details on the subject would seem un- 
 necessary. 
 
 It is said in Gleanings on Husbandry^ &c. that cole- 
 wort is “ a name given by gardeners to a cabbage plant, to 
 be cut for use from the time the leaves are as broad as a 
 man’s hand, till it begins to form a close head. They are 
 generally raised from seeds of any of the best kinds of 
 heading white cabbage ; but those of the sugar-loaf are 
 preferable to all others for eating,” 
 
 CORIANDER. — Coriandrum sativum. — Coriander is a 
 hardy annual plant, which originated in the East. 
 
 Culture. — This plant delights in a sandy loam. It is 
 raised from seeds, which may be sown in March, or as soon 
 as the frost will permit, when the weather is mild and dry. 
 The quantity of seed requisite for a bed six feet long and 
 four feet wide, sown in rows nine inches apart, is half an 
 ounce. The seed should be buried half an inch. 
 
 Use. — The seeds have a pleasant flavour, and, when en- 
 
80 
 
 CRESS, WATER. 
 
 crusted with sugar, are sold by the confectioners under the 
 name of coriander comfits. They are also used in the bitter 
 infusions and preparations of senna, the disagreeable taste 
 of which they completely overcome, and for various other 
 purposes, both by druggists and distillers. 
 
 CRESS, WATER . — Sisymbrium nasturtium . — A genus of 
 plants, of which the principal is the common water-cress, 
 found in springs and brooks. It is perennial, and produces 
 white flowers that are in bloom in June or July. Lasteyrie 
 tells us, that, in Germany, great pains are taken to propagate 
 the water-cress, and gives the following account of their 
 mode of doing it: ‘‘The water,’’ says he, “ most favourable for 
 its production, is that in which it grows naturally, and which 
 in winter preserves heat enough to prevent it from freezing. 
 The situation on which to form a cress plantation ought to 
 have a little slope or inclination, because water in a state 
 of repose, alters the flavour of the plant. Having chosen 
 the place, it is formed into heights and hollows alternately . 
 the latter are destined for the cresses, and the former for the 
 culture of other plants. The size of the hollows is made to 
 depend on the quantity of water you can bring into them, 
 and the demand for the article to be raised. If the soil of 
 the hollows is not sufficiently rich, better earth must be 
 brought to amend it, and if the bottom be marshy, you 
 throw over it some inches of sand. Your next step is to 
 cover it with water for some hours, after which you drain 
 and sow or plant. At the end of a few days, you let in the 
 water, and drain as before, and continue these processes un- 
 til the cresses appear, if sown, or until they have taken root, 
 if planted. The quantity of water let in is always to be 
 regulated by the growth of the plant ; for, though it cannot 
 live but in water, it will not bear to be long covered with it. 
 Planting is always surer than sowing, and is therefore pre- 
 ferred. The epoch for this is either March or August. The 
 distance between the plants should not be less than ten or 
 fifteen inches. Moving the earth about their roots with the 
 hoe, from time to time, is useful ; but for the rest, (having 
 once taken root,) no further care is necessary. A cress 
 plantation is in full bearing the second year, and lasts a 
 long time. When it begins to fail, it .may be renewed by 
 taking off a foot of the surface soil of the old beds and 
 replacing it with good and fresh earth. In winter, the beds 
 are covered more deeply with water, which protects the 
 plant against the frost.” 
 
CRESS, GARDEN. 
 
 81 
 
 The same writer informs ns how they manage their cress 
 plantations near Paris. “ Having there,” he says, “ no run- 
 ning water, they cultivate it in the neighbourhood of wells, 
 and water it every day. The cress vegetates promptly, but 
 becomes acrid in its taste. They accordingly prefer sow- 
 ing to planting, because, if cut when only six inches high, 
 and treated, in all respects, as an annual, it has least of this 
 pungency. ’ ’ — Armstrong'^ s Treatise, 
 
 Loudon says, ‘‘ Some market gardeners, who can com- 
 mand a small stream of water, grow the water-cress in beds 
 sunk about a foot in a retentive soil, with a very gentle slope 
 from one end to the other. Along the bottom of this bed, 
 which may be of any convenient breadth and length, chalk 
 or gravel is deposited, and the plants are inserted about six 
 inches’ distance every way. Then, according to the slope 
 and length of the bed, dams are made six inches high across 
 it, at intervals ; so that, when these dams are full, the water 
 may rise not less than three inches on all the plants included 
 in each. The water being turned on will circulate from 
 dam to dam ; and the plants, if not allowed to run to flower, 
 will afford abundance of young tops in all but the wintei 
 months. A stream of water, no larger than what will fill 
 a pipe of one inch bore, will, if not absorbed by the soil 
 suffice to irrigate in this way an eighth of an acre. As 
 some of the plants are apt to rot off in winter, the plantation 
 should be laid dry two or three times a year, and all weeds 
 and decayed parts removed, and vacancies filled up. 
 Cress grown in this way, however, is far inferior to that 
 grown in a living stream flowing over gravel or chalk.” 
 
 Use, — ‘‘Water-cresses are universally used and eaten as 
 an early and wholesome spring salad. Being an excellent 
 antiscorbutic and stomachic, they are nearly allied to scurvy 
 grass, but do not possess so great a degree of acrimony. 
 They are also supposed to purify the blood and humours, 
 and to open visceral obstructions.” — Dorn, Encyc, 
 
 CRESS, GARDEN. — Lepidium sativum, — The garden- 
 cress is a hardy, annual plant, cultivated, says Loudon, since 
 1548; but its native country is unknown. 
 
 Varieties , — 
 
 Curled, or peppergrass, | Broad- leaved garden cress. 
 
 This plant is raised from seed, of which one ounce will 
 suffice for a bed of four feet square. 
 
 Times of sowing^ and site of the crop, — Cress should be 
 raised three or four times every month, as it may be in de- 
 
82 
 
 CUCUMBER. 
 
 mandj to have young crops constantly in succession. Allot 
 some warm situation for early spring sowing; and, if the 
 weather be cold, either put on a spare frame, or cover with 
 matting between sunset and sunrise. For autumnal sow- 
 ings, when cold weather is approaching, allot some warm 
 borders, and give occasional protection. The cress,” 
 says Loudon, is often raised on porous earthen ware ves- 
 sels, of a conical form, having small gutters on the sides for 
 retaining the seeds. These are called pyramids^ are some- 
 what ornamental in winter, and afford repeated gatherings.” 
 Process in sowing^ and subsequent culture, — “ Having 
 allotted a fine, mellow soil, to receive the seed, dig the sur- 
 face, and rake it finally, preparatory to sowing, which mostly 
 perform in small, flat, shallow drills, four, five, or six inches 
 asunder. Sow the seed very thickly, and earth over very 
 lightly, or but just thinly cover. Give occasional waterings 
 in v/arm, dry seasons.” 
 
 Taking the crop, — To gather cress in perfection, cut 
 them while moderately young, either clean to the root, or 
 only the tops of advanced plants. They will shoot again 
 for future gathering, but the leaves will be hotter, and not 
 so mild and tender as those of younger plants.” 
 
 To save seed, — Either sow a portion in the spring for 
 that purpose, or leave some rows of any overgrown old crop 
 in April or May. The plants will yield seed in autumn.” 
 CUCUMBER. — Cucumis saliva,— the varieties of 
 
 this species of plants, are, 
 
 ✓ 
 
 Early Green cluster; | Long prickly; 
 
 Early frame, | White spined. 
 
 Long green Turkey, | Short prickly. 
 
 Long white Turkey, | Small girkin, or West India. 
 
 Soil, — In our climate, cucumbers will grow in any soil, 
 though not with the same degree of vigour, provided they 
 be supplied with a sufficiency of heat, light, water, and air. 
 It is an object with many market gardeners and others, to 
 produce cucumbers at an early period, and for this purpose 
 artificial heat is necessary. F or early forcing, Abercrombie 
 recommends a mould or compost, of the following materials : 
 “ one third of rich top spit earth, from an upland pasture, 
 one half of vegetable mould, and one sixth of well decom- 
 posed horse-dung, with a small quantity of sand. 
 
 Time of beginning to force, — Abercrombie says, Mana- 
 gers, who have to provide against demands for early cucum- 
 bers, must raise seedlings from twelve to ten weeks before 
 
CUCUMBER. 
 
 83 
 
 the iVuit will be required, according to the length of the 
 days in the interval. In proportion as the entire course 
 embraces a greater part of mid-winter, the liability of failure 
 from obstacles in the weather will be greater. The last 
 fortnight in January, or first week of February, is a good 
 time for beginning to force the most early crop. In the 
 subsequent months, both main and secondary crops may be 
 started as required, and will come forward more freely. 
 To have a constant succession, seedlings should be origi- 
 nated twice a month. As the course of forcing more coin- 
 cides with the natural growing season, the length of it will 
 be reduced to eight, seven, or six weeks.” Nicol recom- 
 mends the middle of January. He says, Some begin 
 sooner, but it is striving hard against the stream to little 
 purpose. If the dung be prepared, and the bed be got 
 ready, so as to sow about the 1st of February, the success 
 will be often greater than by sowing a month earlier.” Be- 
 sides, cucumbers, produced altogether by the heat of dung, 
 without the aid of the sun, are less wholesome and palatable 
 than those which Nature affords in the due course of her 
 operations. 
 
 Sorts , — Abercrombie recommends the short prickly for 
 very early fruit, and the long prickly kinds for the chief 
 early and main summer crops.” M^Phail prefers the green 
 cucumber with black prickles, as best for forcing. When 
 fit for table, it runs from six to nine inches long, and, when 
 ripe, runs to about eighteen or twenty inches long.” 
 
 Choice of seeds , — ‘‘ It is advisable,” Abercrombie ob- 
 serves, to have seed from two, at least, to four years old, 
 in preference to newer seed, which is apt to run luxuriantly 
 in vine, and the plants from it do not show fruit so soon 
 nor so abundantly as those from seed of a greater age. But 
 when seed has been kept more than four years, it is some- 
 times found to be too much weakened.” Mr. Armstrong 
 says, A debate has long existed, on the preference to be 
 given to old or new seeds, and which, like many others, 
 appears to be interminable. The Abbe Rozier and his 
 followers think that the most vigorous plants of all species 
 and kinds are the best, and, accordingly, prefer new seeds, 
 because more likely to produce such than old ones : while, 
 on the other hand, their opponents maintain, that plants 
 may have too much vigour, as well as too little ; and that, 
 whenever an excess of vigour exists, according to all vege- 
 table analogy, it shows itself in the production of stems and 
 
84 
 
 CUCUMBER. 
 
 leaves, not in that of flowers and fruits — whence they con- 
 clude, ihat old cucumber seeds, (like those of all the rest 
 of the cucurbitacece family,) are better than new, because 
 less vigorous. The best practical use to be made of this 
 controversy, is to sow old seeds in the spring,^ when vege- 
 tation is most powerful, and new ones in July^ when it 
 begins to abate.’’ 
 
 Forcing cucumbers , — “ Towards the latter end of January, 
 a quantity of fresh horse-dung should be procured with the 
 litter among it, to which a small portion of sea-coal ashes 
 may well be added. In the course of four or five days, the 
 dung begins to heat, when a little of it may be drawn flat 
 on the outside, and covered two inches thick with good 
 earth ; over which a bell-glass ought to be placed ; and two 
 days after, when the soil is warm, the seeds should be sowm, 
 covered with fresh mould one fourth of an inch thick, and 
 the glass again set over it. This must be screened by a 
 mat during the night, and in four days the young plants 
 will germinate. As soon as they appear, the rest of the 
 dung must be beaten close together into a bed for one or 
 more lights, which bed should be three feet thick, and cov- 
 ered three inches deep with fine, fresh earth ; the frame is 
 then to be put on ; and, during the night, or in bad weather, 
 sheltered with mats. When the soil is hot enough, the 
 young plants must be removed into it, and set at two inches 
 distance, the glasses being occasionally raised to admit 
 fresh air, and also frequently turned, to prevent the wet 
 steam of the dung from dropping down on the plants. These 
 ought to be watered at stated times, with tepid or luke-w arm 
 water; and, as they increase in size, should be earthed up ; 
 an operation which will considerably augment their strength. 
 If the bed be not hot enough, fresh litter should be laid 
 round i(s sides ; but if it be too warm, it should be perfo- 
 rated with a stake to give vent to the heat; and, as soon as 
 the bed acquires a proper temperature, the holes are to be 
 closed up with fresh earth. When the plants begin to shoot 
 their third or rough leaf, another bed should be prepared 
 for them, similar to the first ; and, when the soil is thorough- 
 ly warmed, they should be transplanted into it, in holes 
 about a foot deep, and nine inches broad, filled with light, 
 fine, fresh mould, laid in a hollow, circular form. In each 
 of these holes four plants should be set, and shaded for two 
 or three days from the heat of the sun, that they may strike 
 root ; after which time it will be useful to expose them to 
 
CUCUMBER. 
 
 85 
 
 the sun and air, as often as the weather will permit. When 
 they have attained the height of four or five inches, they 
 should be gently fastened down to the soil, in different di- 
 rections ; and the branches afterw^ards produced ought to 
 be treated in a similar manner, as it will much contribute 
 to forward their maturity. In the course of a month the 
 flowers will appear, and, shortly after, the rudiments of the 
 fruit. The glasses should now be carefully covered during 
 tlie night, and the plants gently sprinkled with water in the 
 day time. These will produce fruit till midsummer, and 
 may be succeeded by a second crop, which is to be raised 
 nearly in the same manner as the earlier cucumbers, with 
 tliis only difference, that the former should be sowm toward 
 the end of March, or the beginning of April, and that it 
 iv M ires less care and attention.’’ — Dom, Encyc, 
 
 The smallest degree of heat for forcing cucumber plants^ 
 at the coldest time of night, is 58 degrees ; and the greatest 
 heat necessary in the day time is 65 degrees. 
 
 Well preparing the dung is of the greatest importance 
 in forcing the cucumber, and if not done before it is made 
 into a bed, it cannot be done after, as it requires turning and 
 watering to cause it to ferment freely and sweetly ; fresh 
 dung from the stable will require at least six weeks’ prepa- 
 ration before it will be fit to receive the plants. A month 
 before it is madt* mto a bed, it should be laid into a heap, 
 turned three times, and well shaken to pieces with a fork, 
 and the outsides of the heap turned into the middle, and 
 the middle to the outsides, that the whole may have a regu- 
 lar fermentation ; and if any appear dry, it should be made 
 wet, keeping it always between the two extremes of wet 
 and dry. A dry spot of ground should be chosen to pre- 
 pare the dung on, that the water may drain away from the 
 bottom of the heap. The dung having been a month in 
 heap, I make the bed as follows : — I form a stratum one foot 
 high, of wood of any kind, but if large the better ; (old roots 
 of trees, or any other of little value will do ;) this is to drain 
 the water from the bottom of the bed ; for, after a month’s 
 preparation, with every care, it will frequently heat itself dry, 
 and require water in large quantities, which, if not allowed 
 to pass off freely, will cause an unw'holesome steam to” rise, 
 in which the cucumber-plant will not grow freely : on this 
 bottom of wood I make the bed, four feet high, with dung, 
 gently beating it dov/n with a fork : this is done about the 1st 
 November, and by the month of February, the four feet of 
 dung will not be more than two feet thick, which, with the 
 8 
 
86 
 
 CUCUMBER. 
 
 foot of wood at the 'bottom, will make the bed three feet 
 high ; this I consider a good height, for, if lower, it cannor be 
 so well heated by linings, which is the only method of warm- 
 ing it in the months of February and March, as by that time 
 the first heat of the bed will have quite declined. Having 
 made the bed, I put on the frames and lights, which I shut 
 close till the heat rises. I then give air night and day, suffi- 
 cient to allow the steam to pass off, and once in two days I 
 fork the surface over, about nine inches deep, to sweeten it, 
 and if, in the operation, I find any part dry, I carefully wet it. 
 The bed being quite sweet, I prepare it for the mould, by 
 u'.aking the middle about eight inches lower than the sides, 
 as the sides are liable, from the weight of the frames, to 
 settle faster than the middle, which often causes the hills 
 of earth to crack, by which the roots of the plants are 
 greatly injured.” — Hort, Trans, vol. iii. p. 147. 
 
 Mr. Cobbett says, ‘‘ If you wish to have cucumbers a 
 •month earlier than the natural ground will bring them, do 
 this : — Make a hole, and put into it a little hot dung ; let 
 the hole be under a warm fence. Put six inches deep of 
 fine rich earth on the dung. Sow a parcel of seeds in this 
 earth ; and cover at night with a bit of carpet, or sail-cloth, 
 having first fixed some hoops over this little bed. Before 
 tlie plants show the rough leaf, plant two into a little flower- 
 pot, and fill as many pots in this way as you please. Have 
 a larger bed ready to put the pots into, and covered with 
 earth, so that the pots may be plunged in the earth up to their 
 tops. Cover this bed like the last. When the plants have 
 got tw^o rough leaves out, they will begin to make a shoot 
 in the midclie. Pinch that short off. Let them stand in 
 tills bed, till your cucumbers sown in the natural ground come 
 up ; tlieii make some little holes in good, rich land, and, 
 taking a pot at a time, turn out the 6a//, and fix it in the 
 hole. These plants will bear a month sooner than those sown 
 in the natural ground ; and a square yard will contain thirty- 
 six p^ts, and will, of course, furnish plants for thirty-six hills 
 of cucumbers, which, if well managed, will keep on be'aring 
 till September. Those who have hot-bed frames^ or hand- 
 lights^ will do this matter very easily. The cucumber plant 
 is very tender and juicy ; and, therefore, when the seed- 
 lings are put into the pots, they should be watered and 
 shaded for a day or two ; when the balls are turned into the 
 ground, they should be watered,^ and shaded with a bough 
 for one day. That will be enough. — I have one observa- 
 tion to make upon tlio cultivation of cucumber-, melons of 
 
CUCUMBER. 
 
 87 
 
 all sorts, and that of all the pumpkin and S([ua:>h tribe ; and 
 that is, that it is a great error to sow them too thick, Ofie 
 plant in a hill is enough ; and I would put two into a potj 
 merely as a bar against accidents. One will bring more 
 weight of fruit than two, (if standing near each other,) two 
 more than three, and so on, till you come to iifty in a square 
 foot ; and then you will have no fruit at all ! Let any one 
 make the experiment, and he will find this observation 
 mathematically true. When cucumbers are left eight or ten 
 plants in a hill, they never shoot strongly, Tlieir vines arc 
 poor and weak. The leaves become yellow ; and, if they 
 bear at all, it is poor, tasteless fruit that they produce. 
 Their bearing is over in a few weeks. Whereas, a single 
 plant, in the same space, will send its fine green vines all 
 around it to a great distance, and, if no fruit be left to ripen,^ 
 will keep bearing till the white frosts come in the fall. — 
 The roots of a cucumber will go tern feet, in fine earth, in 
 every direction. Judge then, how ten plants, standing close 
 to one another, must produce mutual starvation !” 
 
 Mr. Armstrong has the following observations with regard 
 to early cucumbers : — To obtaiil these, we must have re- 
 course to artificial heat ; and with the less reluctance, as, 
 of all plants, the cucumber is that with which it best agrees. 
 To this end, therefore, scoop as many large turnips as you 
 propose to have hills ; fill these with good garden mould, 
 sow in each three or four seeds, and plunge them into a 
 hot-bed. The advantage of the scooped turnip, as a seed- 
 bed, over pots or vases, will now appear ; for, instead of the 
 ordinary difficulty of separating the mass of earth and the 
 plant from the pot which contained them, and without injury 
 to either, we re-inter both pot and plant, and even find in the 
 one an additional nutriment for the other. The subsequent 
 treatment does not difier at all from that of plants sown and 
 cultivated in the open air.” — Mem, of N, Y, Board of Agr, 
 vol. ii. p. 115, 
 
 Training. — To force the cucumbers into early fruit, Aber- 
 crombie directs to stop the runners as soon as the plants 
 have made two rough leaves : as the bud that produces the 
 runner is disclosed at the base of the second rough leaf, it 
 may be cut off or picked out ; or, if the runner has already 
 started, it may be pinched off close. This is called stop- 
 ping at the first joint, and is necessary to promote a stronger, 
 stocky growth, and an emission of fruitful laterals ; and 
 from these the prolific runners will be successively pro- 
 duced. The vines, without the process of stopping, would 
 
88 
 
 CUCUMBER. 
 
 generally be both weaker, and so deficient in fertile run- 
 ners, that they would sometimes extend two or three feet 
 without showing fruit. When plants, which have been 
 once stopped, have extended the first runners to three joints 
 without showing fruit, they are to be again stopped for the 
 r orpose of strengthening the plant, and disposing it for 
 Dearing. As fertile runners extend, train them out regular- 
 ly along the surface, fastening them down neatly with pegs.’’ 
 
 Upright training . — Cucumber plants being climbers by 
 means of their tendrils, some branchy sticks being placed 
 to any advancing runners, they will ascend, and produce 
 fruit at a distance from the ground, of a clean growth, free 
 from spots and well flavoured. Mr. J. W. of Philadel- 
 phia informed Dr. Mease, that he enriched the ground near 
 the trunk of a peach tree, and sowed some cucumber seed, 
 which came up very abundantly. He pulled up all the 
 plants but one, and permitted the vine to run up the tree. 
 It bore 150 cucumbers. The numerous creepers with which 
 the cucumber abounds, and the result of this experiment, 
 would seem to point out the climbing nature of the plant, 
 and the great advantage arising from permitting it to attach 
 itself to a frame or tree, instead of confining it to the 
 ground.” — Bom. Encyc. 
 
 Setting the fruit . — “ The cucumber,” Abercrombie ob- 
 serves, bears male and female blossoms distinctly on the 
 same plant. The latter only produce the fruit, which ap- 
 pears first in miniature, close under the base, even before 
 the flower expands. There is never any in the males ; but 
 these are placed in the vicinity of the females, and are ab- 
 solutely necessary, by the dispersion of their farina, to im- 
 pregnate the female blossom ; the fruit of which will not 
 otherwise swell to its full size, and the seeds will be abor- 
 tive. The early plants under glass, not having the full cur- 
 rent of the natural air, nor the assistance of bees and other 
 winged insects to convey the farina, the artificial aid of the 
 cultivator is necessary to effect the impregnation. At the 
 time of fructification, watch the plants daily ; and as soon 
 as a female flower and some male blossoms are fully 
 expanded, proceed to set the fruit the same day, or next 
 morning at furthest. Take off a male blossom, detaching 
 it with part of the footstalk. Hold this between the fingei 
 and thumb ; pull away the flower-leaf close to the stamens 
 and anthera or central part, which apply close to the stigma 
 or bosom of the female flower, twirling it a little about, to 
 *iischarge thereon some particles of the fertilizing powder 
 
CUCUMBER. 
 
 80 
 
 Proceed thus to set every fruit, as the flowers of both sorts 
 open, while of a lively, full expansion ; and generally per- 
 form it in the early part of the day ; using a fresh male, if 
 possible, for each impregnation, as the males are usually 
 more abundant than the female blossoms. In consequence, 
 the young fruit will soon be observed to swell freely. Cu- 
 cumbers attain the proper size forgathering in about fifteen, 
 eighteen, or twenty days from the time of setting ; and 
 often in succession, for two or three montlis or more, in the 
 same bed, by good culture. The above artificial operation 
 will be found both necessary and effectual in forcing the 
 cucumber, between the decline of autumn and May, while 
 the plants are mostly shut under glass. In plants more 
 freely exposed to the free air, in the increasing warmth of 
 spring, and in having the full open air in summer, from 
 June or July till September, the impregnation is effected 
 mostly or wholly by nature. The male flowers, being by 
 some ignorantly denominated false blossoms, are often 
 plucked wholly off as useless, under a notion of strengthen- 
 ing the plant : but this should not be generally done. 
 Where crowded too thick in clusters, some maybe thinned 
 out moderately ; but their agency being absolutely neces- 
 sary in fertilizing the females, they should only be displaced 
 as they begin to decay, except where they are superabun- 
 dant.” 
 
 Principal summer crop . — The ground being dug and 
 smoothed, line it into squares of six feet. In the centre of 
 each, dig a hole about fourteen inches deep ; fill this wdth 
 well rotted dung, and sow on it five or six cucumber seeds : 
 cover these with mould, and, when they rise and take a 
 rough leaf, select two to each hill, and draw out the 
 remainder. This sowing cannot be safely made in our cli- 
 mate till the 10th of May. For the fall and pickling 
 crops, you must sow the first or second week in July.” — 
 Armstrong. 
 
 Those cucumbers, which are sowed as late as July, will 
 not require topping or cutting off the runners as before di- 
 rected, for at this season vegetation will be less vigorous, 
 and there will be less danger of the plant running too much 
 to vine. 
 
 Raising plants from cuttings . — “Instead of raising cucumber 
 plants from seed, they may be raised from cuttings, and thus 
 kept on from year to year, in the following manner : — Take a 
 shoot that is just ready for stopping, cut it off just below the 
 joint, behind the joint before which the shoot should have 
 8 * 
 
90 
 
 CUCUMBEK. 
 
 been stopped ; then cut smooth the lower end of the shoot or 
 catting, and stick it into fine leaf or other rich mould about an 
 inch deep, and give it plenty of heat, and shade it from the 
 rays of the sun till it be fairly struck. By this method, >as 
 well as by that of laying, cucumbers may be propagated. 
 
 ‘‘ Mearns, gardener at Shobden Court, near Leominster, 
 propagates his cucumber-plants for a winter crop in this 
 way, and finds that the plants raised from cuttings are 
 less succulent, and therefore do not so readily damp off, or 
 suffer from the low temperature to which they are liaLie to 
 be exposed in severe weather ; that they come into bearing 
 immediately, as they have formed roots of sufficient strength 
 to support their fruit, and do not run so much to barren 
 vine as seedlings are apt to do,’^ He takes the cuttings 
 from the tops of the bearing shoots, and plants them in pots 
 nine inches deep, half filled v/ith mould. He then waters 
 them, covers the tops of the pots with fiat pieces of glass, 
 and plunges them into a gentle bottom heat. ‘‘ The sides 
 of the pot act as a sufficient shade for the cuttings during 
 the time they are striking, and the fiat glass, in this and 
 other operations, answers ail the purposes of bell-glasses. 
 The cuttings form roots, and are ready to put off in less than 
 a fortnight.” — HorU Trans, vol. iv. p. 411. 
 
 Cucumbers increased by layers. — “ As soon as several 
 flower-buds appear on a plant, bend the second or third 
 joint of a branch below the blossom, fasten it firmly into 
 the ground, and cut off the capillary point of the plant ; it 
 speedily takes root, and must be separated from the parent 
 stock ; as each root has only to supply a few fruits with 
 nourishment, it saves room, labour and time, and affords 
 a constant supply for eight, twelve and more months, 
 which is not so liable to degenerate as if they w^ere raised 
 from a variety of seeds.” — Gleanings in Husbandry. 
 
 Culture. — In the culture of all the crops, give proper sup- 
 plies of w^ater in dry, warm weather, two or 4hree times a 
 week, or every day when very warm and dry. If the heat 
 in the hot-beds, after three or four weeks or more, be much 
 declined, and the nights or general season remain cold, let 
 a moderate lining of hot dung be applied to both sides ; 
 which wdll not only cause a reviving heat, but wdden the 
 bed for the roots and runners of the plants to extend. 
 
 Insects. — “ The fly, which is often very destructive to 
 cucumbers, melons and pumpkins, may be killed by sprin- 
 kling a mixture of tobacco water and red pepper over the 
 vines.” — Doin. Encyc. Sprinkle the plants with a strong 
 
CUCUMBEIl. 
 
 91 
 
 infusion of elder leaves; that of hops and of walnut leaves 
 is likewise recommended ; or, suspend a diamond-formed 
 piece of white paper, shingle, or other piece of wood, by a 
 thread, tied to the end of a stick stuck in the ground at a 
 small distance from the hill, so that the paper shall hang 
 directly over the hill and near the plants. The air, by 
 constantly vibrating the paper or shingle, will have a ten- 
 dency to prevent insects from alighting on the plants. The 
 surest way, however, is to enclose the hills with frames 
 covered with gauze, or other cloth of a light texture. The 
 following method of making sieves, or boxes, to protect 
 cucumber vines, melon vines, &c. against the yellow bug, 
 &c. was communicated to the editor of the N, E, Farmer 
 by Mr. Levi Bartlett, of Warner, N. H. and published in 
 that paper, vol. ii. p. 305. 
 
 ‘^Take a strip of pine board (about three fourths of an 
 inch in thickness is most suitable) eight or ten feet in 
 length, and four or five inches in width — plough one edge 
 of it with a carpenter’s plough or match plain — then mark 
 off an equal number of side and end pieces ; before sawing 
 the side pieces, run a brad-awl through where you want to 
 drive your nails, as it is not so likely to split, as after it is 
 sawed. The side pieces eleven inches long — ends eight 
 inches long. They must be of this particular size, because 
 one yard of millinet will just cover nine boxes ; or a third 
 of a yard will make three covers. After having nailed 
 your boxes, and divided your millinet, have some thin strips 
 or tongues, as the carpenters call them. Press these wdth 
 the edges of the covers into the groove, which fastens them 
 much cheaper and more expeditiously than small nails. I 
 made about twenty last season, and they effectually 
 secured them from the yellow bug, and (by sinking the 
 edges of them in the earth a little) from worms. But if 
 they were of no use but to guard against insects, they would 
 be worth having, as they keep off the cold winds, and great- 
 ly promote the growth of the vines in the early part of the 
 season.” 
 
 To save seed . — “ Select some best summer fruit from 
 good, productive plants, which permit to continue in full 
 growth till they become yellow. Then cut them from the 
 vine, and place them upright on end, in the full sun, for 
 two or three weeks ; when they may be cut open, and the 
 seed w^ashed out from the pulp ; spread it to dry and har- 
 den ; then put it up in papers or bags for future sowing. 
 It wdll remain good for many years ; and seed of three or 
 
92 
 
 CUKCULIO. CUIIRANT. 
 
 four years’ keeping is preferable for early frame crops.” — 
 Abercrombie, 
 
 Uses , — Cucumbers are a salubrious, cooling fruit, and 
 may be safely allowed to consumptive patients, as they sweet- 
 en acrid humours, at the same time are gently laxative ; but 
 being in a considerable degree acescent, and sometimes at- 
 tended with flatulency and diarrhoea, such effects may be 
 prevented by eating them with great moderation ; or with 
 the addition of vinegar and pepper, which counteract their 
 natural coldness. If properly pickled, (without coi^uxing 
 them with that poisonous metal, copper, or rendering them 
 too acrid with stimulant spices,) they are an excellent an- 
 tiseptic ; yet we consider them highly improper either for 
 children or wet nurses.” — Dom, Encyc, 
 
 CURCULIO — an insect found in apples and other 
 fruits. — See Insects. 
 
 CURRANT. — Ribes , — There are several species of cur- 
 rants, of which the principal are the common red currant, 
 the white currant, and the black currant. 
 
 Soil and site , — All the sorts are very hardy, will gro^v 
 freely and bear plentifully, almost any where, alike in open 
 and shady situations, by which the fruit may be obtained 
 early in June and July, and prolonged for several months 
 in succession till October. As to soil, the currant generally 
 does well in any common garden ground, well tilled and 
 recruited ; it bears the greater crop in a strong loam, or 
 improved clay, somewhat moist ; the earlier in a sandy light 
 mould, which is not poor. Previous to planting, the ground 
 should be dug two feet deep. 
 
 The following directions for the cultivation of the cur- 
 rant are taken from the Amer, Phil, Trans, vol. i. 1st series. 
 
 Plant them round the quarters in the garden, that they 
 may have the benefit of the manure and culture annually 
 bestowed thereon, which will consequently make the ber- 
 ries large and the juice rich. The red currant is preferable 
 to the white, as yielding richer juice, and in much greater 
 quantity. 
 
 ‘^Take the most luxuriant slips or shoots of a year’s 
 growth, set them in the ground about eight inches deep, 
 and not less than twenty-four inches distant from each 
 other : these never fail of taking root, and generally begin 
 to bear in two years. For the rest, let them, from time to 
 time, be treated as espaliers, (but not against a wall,) ob- 
 serving to keep the roots from suckers and grass. 
 
 “ The goodness of the currant depends upon their hav- 
 
CURRANT. 
 
 93 
 
 tng the full benefit of the sun and air, to maturate and give 
 the berries a proper balsamic quality, by exhaling a due 
 proportion of their acid watery particles.” 
 
 McMahon observes, that “ The only proper method of 
 propagating gooseberries and currants is by cuttings ; suck- 
 ers should never be resorted to, except in cases of necessity, 
 for such will always produce others numerously from their 
 roots, which carry ofi* the nourishment, that ought to go 
 to the support of the fruit ; and, besides, they form such 
 thickets, as to smother, and deprive thern of the benefit of 
 a free circulating air. 
 
 “ The proper cuttings for planting are the shoots of the 
 last summer’s production, of straight, clean growth ; they 
 should be taken from healthy trees, and such as are re- 
 markable, according to their kinds, for bearing the finest 
 fruit; let each be shortened from about ten to twelve or 
 fifteen inches long, according to its strength. 
 
 Previous to planting, cut off every bud as close as pos- 
 sible to the shoot, except three, four or five, near the top ; 
 which are to be left to form the head of the plant. Some 
 people imagine, that the buds of those parts inserted in the 
 earth grow into roots, which is by no means the case, na- 
 ture never having designed them for such ; the roots, or 
 fibres, always strike out through the clean and smooth bark, 
 but generally a little below a bud, and sometimes at the 
 low^r extremity of the cutting, from between the bark and 
 the wood.” The cuttings may be first planted in rows, 
 eighteen inches or two feet asunder, and about eight or 
 nine inches apart in the rows. When they have had one 
 or two years’ growth in these rows, they may be planted 
 out either in autumn or early in spring, where they are 
 intended to produce fruit. Dr. Thacher directs to let 
 no limbs grow nearer than six inches of tlie ground. Prune 
 the shrub every year, and keep it thin of wood, leaving 
 the middle open ; the limbs extended ; and, when these get 
 about three feet in length, cut off, every spring, all the last 
 year’s shoots. To cultivate on an extensive scale for the 
 purpose of making wine, set the bushes in rows, six or 
 eight feet between each bush, with intervals of proper width, 
 and at regular distances for passing across the rows. It is 
 estimated that an acre w’ell cultivated will probably yield 
 on an average a quantity of fruit sufficient to make one 
 thousand gallons of wine annually. The expense of ma- 
 king this wine is about fifty cents a gallon. 
 
 ‘‘ The common blaxik currants are larger than the red or 
 
94 
 
 CURRANT. 
 
 white, but they have a peculiar flavour, which to some 
 persons is unpleasant ; they are, however, wholesome, 
 and aflord a juice which, when made into syrup with su- 
 gar, is much esteemed in sore throats and quinsies. The 
 officinal black currant has a small berry, but is highly valu- 
 able as a medicine when made into wine. In lung levers, 
 putrid fevers, and ulcerous sore throats, and in putrid dys- 
 entery, the medicinal properties of this wine are not to be 
 surpassed.” — Tkachev’^ s Oichardist^ p. 225. 
 
 The following receipt for the manufacture of currant 
 wine is by Dr. Grfeen, of Mansfield, Mass. 
 
 Let the currants be fully ripe, and freed from all leaves, 
 Vvebs of insects, and decayed or defective fruit ; break and 
 press out the juice, and to every gallon of juice add two 
 gallons of water, and to every g^illon of this mixture three 
 and one fourth pounds of good clean sugar, one gill of good 
 brandy, and one fourth of an ounce of alum pulverized. 
 Mix well together, and put the same into a clean cask. 
 To expedite the process, ascertain the number of gallons 
 the cask intended for the wine will contain — calculate the 
 proportions of the ingredients — ^put into the cask the juice, 
 brandy and alum — dissolve the sugar in water, and fill the 
 cask, and with a stick mix the whole together. 
 
 In the month of March following, draw off the wine, 
 adding one gill of brandy to a gallon, and the wine is 
 excellent, and improves by age. After the wine is drawn 
 olF, the residue may be worked into vinegar, or be suspend- 
 ed in a thick bag, in a cool place, that the remaining wine 
 may filter Out and be saved.” 
 
 A kind of wine has been manufactured from the black 
 currant, by Samuel Wyllys Pomeroy, of Brighton, Mass, 
 which has been much celebrated for its medicinal proper- 
 ties. Dr. John G. Coffin, editor of the Boston Medical 
 Intelligencer^ says of this wine, “ It has all the good 
 properties of the best Port, without any of its heating or 
 constipating effects. We could name several instances, 
 where, in great debility and exhaustion, after protracted 
 and severe fever, and from other causes, nothing else could 
 be thought of, or taken with pleasure or advantage, in which 
 this wine proved grateful to the palate, and most friendly to 
 the stomach ; in which, indeed, it was the principal means 
 of conducting the patient to health and strength.” 
 
 Its exhibition has been attended with remarkable Suc- 
 cess in the early stages of cholera and dysentery, — and 
 again also in the later stages of these diseases, after the 
 
CUTTINGS, OR SLIPS. 
 
 95 
 
 symptoms of inAammation or febrile excitement had ceased. 
 It has been strikingly remedial in the low states of typhoid 
 and bilious fever. The late Capt. Gilchrist, who for several 
 years followed the Batavia trade, and who had always suf- 
 fered an attack of the severe cholera, which proves so 
 destructive of human life in that climate, used to say that 
 after he liad this wine with liim, and took two glasses of it 
 every morning, he escaped the disease. On one voyage, his 
 mate, wdio had not taken the wine, was seized with this 
 complaint, when a bottle or i\wo stopped its progress. W e 
 have not room to enumerate many other morbid affections, 
 in which this wine has proved useful. In sore throat it has, 
 for many years, been considered almost .a speciAc reme- 
 dy.” 
 
 CUTTINGS, or SLIPS. — The branches, twigs or slips 
 of plants, shrubs or trees, may, sometimes successfully, be 
 cut off, and set in the ground to take root and grow. The 
 best time for this operation is from the middle of August 
 to the middle of April ; but when it is done, the sap ougsit 
 not to be too much in the top ; neither must it be very dry 
 or scanty, for the sap in the branches assists it to take root. 
 
 When you intend to propagate trees for timber, or for a 
 tall, stately growth, be very particular never to take the 
 cuttings from horizontal branches, for they will ever have 
 an inclination to grow in a spreading manner ; always make 
 choice of perpendicular shoots, and particularly those that 
 terminate the branches ; these will produce the straightest 
 trees. 
 
 The power of protruding buds or roots resides chieAy at 
 the joints, or those parts where leaves or buds already ex- 
 ist. Cuttings should, therefore, be cut smoothly across at 
 an eye or joint. This cutting ought to be made in the 
 wood of the grow^th of the preceding season, or in the 
 point between the two growths. It is a common practice 
 to cut off the whole or part of the leaves of cuttings, which 
 Loudon says is attended wdth bad effects. 
 
 “ Cuttings which are difficult to strike may be rendered 
 more tractable by previous ringing; if a ring be made on the 
 shoot w^hich is to furnish the cutting, a callus will be created, 
 which, if inserted in the ground after the cutting is taken 
 off, will freely emit roots. A ligature would, perhaps, 
 operate in a similar manner, though not so efficiently ; it 
 should lightly encircle the shoot destined for a cutting, and 
 the latter should be taken off when an accumulation of sap 
 has apparently been produced. The amputation in the case 
 
9G 
 
 CUTTINGS, OR SLIPS. 
 
 of the ligature, as well as in that of the ring, must he made be- 
 low the circles, and the cutting must be so planted as to have 
 the callus covered with earth.’’ — Hort. Trans, vol. iv. p.558. 
 
 The insertion of the cuttings may seem an easy mat- 
 ter, and none but a practical cultivator would imagine that 
 there could be any difference in the growth, between cut- 
 tings inserted in the middle of a pot, and those inserted at 
 its sides. Yet such is actually the case, and some sorts of 
 trees, as the orange, ceratonia, &c. if inserted in a mere 
 mass of earth, will hardly, if at all, throw out roots, while, 
 if they are inserted in sand, or in earth at the sides of the 
 pots, so as to touch the pot in their whole length, they 
 seldom fail of becoming rooted plants. Knight found the 
 mulberry strike very well by cuttings, when they were so 
 inserted, and when their lower ends touched a stratum of 
 gravel, or broken pots ; and Hawkins, {Hort. Trans, vol. 
 ii. p. 12,) who had often tried to strike orange trees with- 
 out success, at iast heard of a method, by which, at first 
 trial, eleven cuttings out of thirteen grew. The art is to 
 place them to touch the bottom of the pot ; they are then 
 to be plunged in a bark or hot-bed, and kept moist.” 
 
 “The management of cuttings, after they are planted, de- 
 pends on the general principle, that, where life is weak, all 
 excesses of exterior agency must have a tendency to render 
 it extinct. No cutting requires to be planted deep, though 
 such as are large ought to be inserted deeper than such as 
 are small. In the case of evergreens, the leaves should be 
 kept from touching the soil, otherwise they will damp, and 
 rot off ; and in the case of tubular-stalked plants, which 
 are in general not very easily struck, owing to the water 
 lodging in the tube, and rotting the cutting, both ends may, 
 in some cases, (as in common honey-suckle,) be advanta- 
 geously inserted in the soil, and, besides a greater certainty 
 success, two plants will be produced. Too much light, 
 gir, water, heat or cold, are alike injurious. To guard 
 against these extremes in tender sorts, the means hith- 
 eilo devised is that of enclosing an atmosphere over the 
 cuttings, by means of a hand or bell-glass, according to 
 their d dicacy. This preserves a uniform stillness and 
 moisture of atmosphere. Immersing the pot in earth, (if 
 the cuttings are in pots,) has a tendency to preserve a stea- 
 dy, uniform degree of moisture at the roots ; and shading, 
 or planting the cuttings, if in the open air, in a shady situa- 
 tion, prevents the bad effects of excess of light. Th» only 
 method of regulating the heiit is by double or single cover- 
 
DANDELION. 
 
 97 
 
 ings of glass or mats, or both. A hand-glass placed over a 
 hell-glass will preserve, in a shady situation, a very constant 
 degree of heat. Whatever degree of heat is natural to the 
 mother plant, when in a growing state, will, in general, be 
 most favourable to the growth of cuttings.” — Loudon. 
 
 The same writer says, “ Every variety of apple may be 
 grown from ‘Cuttings ; though some with much greater fa- 
 cility than others. All those of the burknot and codling 
 tribes grow as well this way as by any other, -and some al-^ 
 lege, that the trees so raised are not liable to canker, {Hort. 
 Trans, vol. i. p. 120,) which is supposed to be owing to 
 their ‘ putting out no tap-root, but spreading their nume- 
 rous fibres from the knot or bur horizontally.’ Eveu the 
 golden pippin may be continued in this way, and the trees 
 have remained seven years in perfect health, when grafts 
 taken not only from the same tree, but from the very 
 branch, part of which was divided into cuttings, cankered 
 in two or three years. ‘ All apple-trees raised in this way,* 
 Biggs observes, ‘ from healthy one-year-old branches, with 
 blossom-buds upon them, will continue to go on bearing 
 the finest fruit, in a small compass, for many years. Such 
 trees are peculiarly proper for forcing, and not liable to 
 canker.’ — Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 65. The cuttings are to 
 be chosen from the young wood of horizontal or oblique 
 branches, rather than from upright ones ; from six to eight 
 inches or more in length, with a small portion of old wood 
 at the lower end. Cut off the tip of the shoot, and all the 
 buds, excepting two or three next the tip or upper extrem- 
 ity ; then smooth the sections at the lower end, and insert 
 them three or four inches in sandy loam, pressing the earth 
 firmly to them, watering, and covering with a hand-glass. 
 The proper time for this operation is early in February, 
 and the glass should not be touched, excepting to give 
 water, till the shoots have sprung an inch or two. Shade 
 during the mid-day sun, and begin to harden by giving air 
 in July ; finally, remove the glass in August ; and in October 
 transplant to nursery rows, or in pots, according to future 
 intention. With the burknot tribe, all that is necessary is 
 to plant the cuttings in a shady border, and treat them like 
 those of the gooseberry or currant.” 
 
 DANDELION . — Leontodon taraxacum . — This is a hardy 
 perennial plant, which is found growing spontaneously in 
 Great Britain and the United States. Loudon says that this 
 vegetable, ‘‘ though regularly produced in London market, 
 is seldom or never cultivated, being generally to be found 
 9 
 
98 
 
 DIBBLE. DILL. 
 
 in suiiicicnt luxuriance by the sides of hedges and dry 
 ditches. It miglit easily be propagated either by seeds or 
 roots ; and, if introduced as a garden plant, should have a 
 rich, deep soil, and be carefully tied up and earthed round 
 to blanch it effectually. Cut off all the flowers as they 
 appear, to prevent the dispersion of the seed, and the weak- 
 ening of the plant. When salad is scarce, the dandelion 
 might be dug up from road-sides in winter, and forced in 
 pots like succory. 
 
 ‘‘ Use. — The leaves in early springy when just unfolding, 
 afford a very good ingredient in salads. The French some- 
 times eat the young roots, and the etiolated [blanched or 
 whitened] leaves with thin slices of bread and butter. 
 When blanched, the leaves considerably resemble those of 
 endive in taste. The root is considered an equally good 
 substitute for coffee as chiccory, and may, like that plant, 
 be stored in cellars and barrels, for producing winter salad.” 
 — Caled. Hort. Mem. iv. 138. In this country, the dan- 
 delion has, we believe, been used for greenSy or pot-herbs 
 only, and we have never known it subjected to cultivation. 
 
 DIBBLE — a tool used by gardeners and farmers in Eu- 
 rope, chiefly in transplanting. It consists of a stick about 
 a foot or eighteen inches long, slightly sharpened at the 
 end, with which a hole is made to receive the plant or 
 seed. It may be made of the upper part of an old spade 
 or shovel handle, sharpened a little at the lower end. The 
 common dibble is about eighteen inches long. The long 
 dibble, used for potatoes, is about three and a half feet 
 long. 
 
 The following method of making holes for beans has 
 been recommended, viz. — Take a plank of oak, of such size 
 as a man can easily manage, by a handle fixed upright in 
 the middle of it, and of such thickness as not to give way 
 k\ working ; in the under part of this plank let there be 
 fixed wooden pegs of such length, and at such distance from 
 each otiier, as may form proper holes in the ground for the 
 beans : when the land has been properly prepared, the 
 workman must thrust the pegs of this instrument into the 
 ground, and proceed sideways, managing it so that there 
 may be the same distance between the last row of holes 
 made by the first impression and the first row made by the 
 next, as there is between the rows of any one impression. 
 The youngest children may be taught to follow the instru- 
 ment. and drop a bean into every hole that it makes. 
 
 DILL. — Auethim graveolens* — Dill is a hardy biennial 
 
DRAINS. 
 
 99 
 
 plant, a native of Spain, somewhat similar to fennel, but 
 smaller. It is raised from seed sown in any of the 
 autumnal months, or very early in the spring. Half an 
 ounce of seed is sufficient for a bed three feet by four feet. 
 McMahon directs to sow dill broad-cast on four feet wide 
 beds, covering it, if sown in autumn, half an inch, and if 
 in spring, a quarter of an inch deep : when the plants come 
 up, thin them to six inches distance, and the same season 
 they will perfect their seeds; which, if any are suffered to 
 shed, will not fail to come up plentifully the next year. 
 The seeds and leaves of tliis plant are used for giving a 
 flavour to pickles, and also occasionally in soups and sauces. 
 It is also used in medical preparations. 
 
 DRAINS. — -Drains used in agriculture may be divided 
 into two kinds, open and covered. They should be of a 
 size and depth proportioned to the extent of the tract which 
 it is wished to drain, and the probable quantity of water for 
 which they are designed to be channels. They should, 
 generally, be carried through the lowest and wettest part 
 of the soil. It is a rule in making drains, to begin at the 
 lowest place, and work upwards, by which means the water 
 will pass from the workmen, and point out the level. The 
 mud and other materials, which are dug out of a ditch or 
 drain, should not be suffered to lie in heaps by the side of 
 the ditch, but should be spread as equally as possible over 
 the surface of the drained land. In some cases, it will be 
 expedient to transport the earth taken from ditches to the 
 farm-yard or the hog-pen, to form a part of that layer, which 
 good farmers generally spread over those places, to imbibe 
 liquid manure, or make into compost. In many instances, 
 it is asserted, that the earth dug out of ditches, is worth 
 enough for manure, to pay for the expense of digging the 
 ditches. 
 
 Open drains often answer the purpose not only of con- 
 veying off superfluous water, but serve for enclosing fields. 
 But they make a hazardous and inconvenient fence without 
 the addition of a bank, hedge, or railing. The Farmer^s 
 Assistant says, When a ditch is made for a fence, it ought 
 to be four feet wide at the top, one or less at the bottom, 
 and about two and a half deep ; with the earth all thrown 
 out on one side, and banked up as high as possible.” Sir 
 John Sinclair states, that it is a general rule, regarding 
 open drains, with a view of giving sufficient slope and sta- 
 bility to their sides, that the width at top should be three 
 times as much as that which is necessary at the bottom ; and. 
 
100 
 
 DRAINS. 
 
 in the case of peat mosses, or soft soils, it should be such 
 as to allow the water to run off without stagnation, hut not 
 with so rapid a motion as to injure the bottom.” 
 
 The American editor of Sir John Sinclair’s Code of Ag- 
 riculture observes, that The most expeditious, effectual, 
 and economical mode of making a drain would undoubtedly 
 be, to use oxen, and a scraper^ or ox-shovel, as it is some- 
 times called,— an instrument well known in this country in 
 the making of roads. In some cases, this mode might not 
 answer, as in very miry grounds, and lands just cleared of 
 timber. But where lands are very miry, if the process is be- 
 gun at the outlet of the water, — and there, indeed, it ought 
 always to be begun,— the next adjoining portion will, gene- 
 rally, be made so dry as to allow being trodden upon in a 
 proper season ; and in this way a drain may by degrees be 
 carried on towards the centre. In nineteen cases out of 
 twenty, drains may probably be effected in this mode. Where 
 the ground will admit of it, two men and a boy, and two 
 yoke of oxen, will accomplish more business of this sort in 
 a day, than half a dozen men in the same time, with only 
 f^pades and shovels. Wherever the labour of cattle can be 
 Mibstituled in this country for human labour, policy requires 
 it to be done. The surface of wet and miry land is usually 
 full of inequalities ; if a scraper is employed in draining 
 them, the earth taken from the drain is easily landed in any 
 hollow spot which needs to be filled ; and if there are no 
 such hollows, or they have already been filled, the earth 
 may be spread over the surface in such a manner as to do 
 the most good. If the earth is not wanted for other pur- 
 poses, it is recommended to drop and spread it, if practi- 
 cable, in such a manner as to leave the general surface of 
 the land sloping towards the drain, that the water may the 
 more readily incline towards it, and pass off. At some dis- 
 tance below the surface, in peat grounds, there is usually 
 found a hard stratum of earth, called, in the common lan- 
 guage of our farmers, hard pan. The hard pan, if ploughed 
 into, scraped out, and spread on the surface, would greatly 
 improve the texture of such soils. This furnishes another 
 argument in favour of using a scraper in draining, for in 
 no other way can the upper earth, taken out of the drains, 
 be so cheaply removed, and put on the adjoining ; nor in 
 any other way can the hard pan be so easily broken up and 
 carried off ; nor in any other way, oftentimes, can suitable 
 earth be so well obtained, for the purpose of spreading it 
 over the surface with a view to improve the texture of the 
 
DI1AIN9. 
 
 101 
 
 soil. If the object be to pile the eartli from the drains into 
 heaps, with a view to composts, this purpose is completely 
 accomplished by means of the scraper.” 
 
 To make a covered drain, dig a channel between thirty 
 and thirty-six inches wide at the top, and six inches, or the 
 breadth of a spade, at the bottom, and three feet deep, giv- 
 ing it just descent enough to make the water run briskly. 
 Fill it half full or more of small stones, thrown in at ran- 
 dom, and cover them with a layer of straw, leaves, or tlie 
 small branches of trees with the leaves on them ; then fill 
 it up to a level with the surface, with the earth that was 
 thrown out. ' 
 
 In forming small drains, chiefly for retentive soils, the 
 eommon plough may be used. A mode described in 
 Voungh Annals of Agriculture^ from very ample practice, is 
 his : he says, when he has marked the drains in a field, 
 usually a rod asunder, he draws two furrows with a com- 
 mon plough, leaving a balk betwixt them, about fifteen 
 inches wide ; then, with a strong, double-breasted plough, 
 made on purpose, he splits that balk, and leaves a clean 
 furrow fourteen or fifteen inches below the surface ; but 
 where the depth of soil requires it, by a second ploughing 
 he sinks it to eighteen or twenty inches ; it is then ready 
 for the land-ditching spade, with which he digs, fifteen 
 inches deep, a drain as narrow as possible. But the method 
 followed by some farmers, who do not possess ploughs made 
 on purpose for the work, is this : with their common 
 plough, drawn by four or five horses, and usually stirring 
 about four or five inches deep, they turn a double furrow, 
 throwing the earth on each side, and leaving a balk in the 
 middle. This balk they raise by a second bout, in the 
 same manner ; then they go in the open furrow twice, with 
 their common double-breast plough, getting what depth they 
 can. After this, they shovel out all the loose mould and 
 inequalities to the breadth of about a foot ; and thus hav ing 
 gained a clear, open furrow, the depth varying according 
 to the soil and ploughs, but usually about eight or nine 
 inches, they dig one spit with a draining spade sixteen 
 inches deep, thus gaining in the whole twenty-four or 
 twenty-six inches. But as this depth is seldom sufficient, 
 when necessary, they throw out another, or even two other 
 spits, which makes the whole depth from thirty to forty 
 inches. — Loudon. 
 
 Turf-covered drains may be made as follows : — Turn up a 
 (fcep furrow with a strong plough, clear the sod from the 
 
102 
 
 DUCK. 
 
 earth thus turned up, reduce it to about three inches in 
 thickness, and then place it in the furrow from whence it 
 was taken. The grassy side being placed uppermost, there 
 is a hollow beneath, sufficient to discharge a considerable 
 quantity of surface water, which readily sinks into it. 
 This mode of draining is used on the sheep farms of the 
 Cheviot Hills in England, and is recommended by Sir John 
 Sinclair. It would not answer, however, in lands exposed 
 to the tread of heavy cattle, as they would be apt to push 
 their feet through a covering of turf of no more than three 
 or four inches. Perhaps, in a few years, the verdure would 
 thicken, and the sward strengthen over drains of this kind, 
 so that there would be nothing to apprehend from the tread 
 of the heaviest animals. 
 
 Cultivation of drained land , — It is well known that 
 swamps, marshes, and other low lands are commonly places 
 of deposit for the lighter and more fertile parts of the soil, 
 washed from the neighbouring hills. Many marshes are 
 in fact intervale land, naturally too wet for profitable culti- 
 vation. Wet lands, which receive the wash of higher 
 grounds of a tolerable quality, may be expected to be worth 
 considerable expense in draining. A bog, however, on the 
 top of a hill, not overlooked by high ground, we should 
 suspect of barrenness, and would not be at great expense 
 in draining it, without examining and analyzing the soil in 
 various parts, and becoming satisfied of its fertility. But a 
 drained marsh, which can be flooded at the will of its 
 owner, by means of a dam at its outlet, with water which 
 has washed the neighbouring uplands, may be considered 
 as inexhaustible, and, perhaps, had better be appropriated 
 to the raising of hemp. That plant exhausts the soil very 
 much, and it would, therefore, be good economy to raise it 
 where the land can be recruited without manure from the 
 farm-yard, &c. If the land is rich, not very dry, or water 
 can be set back in the ditches, in a dry time, to within 
 three or four feet of the surface, it will be quite an object 
 to introduce fowl meadow, {Agrostis stricta,) 
 
 It is often advisable to let drained lands lie over one sum- 
 mer to ferment and rot, before any attempt to cultivate 
 them. Flooding them completely in the winter, and draw- 
 ing the water quite off rather late in the spring, will like- 
 wise assist in rotting the sod. 
 
 DUCK. — ‘‘Ducks are excellent vermin pickers,, whether 
 of caterpillars, (such as are within their reach,) slugs, 
 snails and others ; and ought to be turned into the garden 
 
EGG-PLANT. ELDER. 
 
 103 
 
 one or two days every week, throughout the season. 
 Never keep them longer in than two or three days at a 
 time, else they tire of their food, and become indolent. While 
 here, they should be offered no food, but may have a little 
 water set down to them, if there be no pond or stream in 
 the garden. 
 
 “ They are very fond of ripe strawberries or gooseber- 
 ries ; and, while they can get at these, will seek little after 
 snails, or other insects ; but they are most useful before 
 these come into season for them. There are some kinds 
 of vegetables they have a liking to, and on which they will 
 fall, if vermin be any wise scarce ; therefore, when this is 
 perceived, they should be turned out. Never turn them 
 into the garden in the time of heavy rains, or in continued 
 wet weather ; as, in that case, and particularly if the soil 
 be stiff, they patter and harden the surface, to the great in- 
 jury of small crops, and rising seeds.” — Nicol, 
 
 EGG-PLANT . — Solanum melongena , — “ There are two 
 varieties of this plant, the white-fruited and the purple, cul- 
 tivated for culinary purposes ; the latter kind is preferable, 
 and, when sliced and nicely fried, approaches, both in taste 
 and flavour, nearer to that of a very nice fried oyster, than, 
 perhaps, any other plant. 
 
 “ This delicious vegetable may be propagated by sowing 
 the seed on a slight hot-bed, the beginning of April, or in 
 March ; and towards the latter part of May, they should be 
 planted in a rich, warm piece of ground, at the distance of 
 two feet and a half asunder, every way, for the purple, or 
 two feet for the white kind ; and if kept clean, and a little 
 earth be drawn up to their stems, when about a foot high, 
 they will produce plenty of fruit. Or, the seed may be 
 sown about the end of April, on a warm border, and planted 
 out finally the beginning of June ; but these will be rather 
 late, and not produce fruit so abundantly, in the Middle or 
 Eastern States, as by the former method.” — McMahon. 
 
 ELDER . — Sambucus nigra , — This shrub grows plentifully 
 in most or all parts of the United States, and is too well 
 known to need description. Something, however, may be 
 said with regard to its uses, some of which may not be so 
 well known. 
 
 This tree, professor Martyn observes, is a whole maga- 
 zine of physic to rustic practitioners, nor is it quite neg- 
 lected by more regular ones. An excellent healing oint- 
 ment is made of the green, inner bark, which is also purga- 
 tive in moderate, and diuretic in small doses. A decoction 
 
104 
 
 ELECAMPANE. 
 
 f the flowers promotes expectoration and persprratioRj; an^ 
 they give a peculiar flavour to vinegar. The flowers are 
 reported to be fatal to turkeys, and the berries to poultry in 
 general. No quadruped will? eat the leaves of this tree ; 
 notwithstanding it has its own phaltBna and aphis. The 
 wood is used by the turner and mathematical instrument 
 maker ; and is made into skewers for butchers, tops, an- 
 gling rods, and needles for weaving nets.’^ — Loudon. 
 
 Willich says, “ The leaves are eaten by sheep, to which 
 it is of great service, when diseased with the rot j for, if 
 placed in a situation where they can easily reach the bark 
 and young shoots, they will speedily cure themselves.” 
 
 The expressed juice of elder leaves, it is said, will kill 
 skippers in cheese, bacon, &c. ; and strong decoctions of it, 
 poured or sprinkled over plants, are said to be fatal to insects. 
 
 In Europe, this shrub is sometimes propagated, but in 
 this country,, to destroy it is commonly an object of more 
 consequence to the cultivator. It was remarked by the 
 Rev. Dr. Jared Elliot, in his Essays on Field Husbandry^ that 
 
 Elder bushes are stubborn and hard to subdue, yet I know 
 by experience that mowing them five times a year will kill 
 them.” 
 
 To make elder-berry wme^ — One bushel, when picked from 
 the stalks, produces three gallons, or upwards, of berries ; 
 put these to seven gallons of soft water j after standing forty- 
 eight hours, put them into the copper, let them boil one 
 hour, then press the juice through a coarse cloth ; then put 
 the liquor into your copper again, with twenty pounds of 
 raw sugar, half a pound of Jamaica ginger, bruised, one 
 ounce of cloves, and one ounce of allspice. Boil the whole 
 together one hour, then put it into a tub, and, when cold 
 enough, add some good yest spread on a toast, and in two 
 days put it all into a cask, and lay the bung lightly on for 
 two months ; then add one quart of brandy ; this wine will 
 keep for several years. 
 
 ELECAMPANE. — Inula, — This plant is found wild in 
 moist pastures, both in Europe and America. It may be 
 propagated either by seeds, sown in October, or offsets, 
 which, if carefully taken from the old roots, with a bud or 
 eye to each, will take root freely. McMahon directs to set 
 such oflfsets in rows, about a foot asunder, and the same 
 distance plant from plant in the rows. They will be fit for 
 use after two years’ growth, but will abide many years if 
 permitted to stand. But young roots are preferable to those 
 which are old, as they become tough and stringy by age. 
 
ENDIVE. 
 
 105 
 
 Use, — This is a plant of some repute in medicine. It is 
 said to strengthen the stomach and promote perspiration. 
 An infusion of the roots, sweetened with honey, is useful in 
 hooping cough. If liberally taken, they are diuretic, 
 and said to be of great service in removing visceral obstruc- 
 tions, A decoction of this plant has been employed by 
 farmers for the cure of scab in sheep ; and externally ap- 
 plied for removing disorders of the skin. The fresh roots 
 beaten in a mortar, with new butter, and applied externally, 
 are said to cure the itch, scald head, &c. 
 
 ENDIVE. — Cichorium cndivia, — The endive is a hardy 
 annual, a native of China and Japan, and introduced into 
 Great Britain in 1548. The varieties are 
 
 Green cuHed lea^^S; j White curled leaves, | Broad-leaved Batavian, 
 
 Estimate of sorts, — ‘‘All the sorts are eligible for culture; 
 but allot, principally, the green curled for the main crops 
 of autumn and winter endive, this being of the most stocky, 
 full growth, and hardiest to stand severe weather. As to 
 the others, allot a smaller portion of the white curled for 
 early summer and autumn use : of the broad-leaved kind, 
 provide a moderate crop for autumn, till November or De- 
 cember ; being by some esteemed preferable for stews and 
 soups, though not much used in salads.” 
 
 Propagation, — All the varieties are raised from seed, of 
 which, for a seed-bed four feet by ten in length, half an 
 ounce is sufficient. 
 
 Times of sowing, — The proper seasons are, May, for a 
 smaller early crop ; and principally June and July to the 
 beginning of August; for full and successive crops, all autumn 
 and winter, till the following spring. For, if sown earlier 
 than the middle of May, or beginning of June, they will 
 mostly run to stalk the same season, before attaining mature, 
 useful gro\vth. If any are required for early young summer 
 endive, sow only a small portion of the white curled in 
 April or May, as the plants will soon run to seed. In the 
 middle, or towards the end of May, you may begin sowing 
 moderately of the different sorts ; but do not sow fully tiL 
 nearly the middle of June, that the plants may stand with • 
 out running to seed the same year. About the twelfth anu 
 twenty-fifth of that month, also at the beginning and middle 
 of July, sow the main and successive crops, for autumn and 
 winter ; and a finer, smaller solving about the beginning of 
 August, for late supplies in the end of winter and following 
 spring. 
 
 Cidtwre in the seed-bed, — “ Sow each sort separately in 
 
106 
 
 ENDIVE. 
 
 beds of rich, mellow earthy in an open situation^ scattering 
 the seeds thinly^ and rake in the seed. When the plants 
 are up an inch or two in growth, thin them moderately, 
 where in clusters, that they may have room to grow 
 stronger and stocky, for transplanting. But if a portion are 
 sown in soil of sufficient depth, and thinned to the distances 
 mentioned under transplanting ^ instead of bemg moved, 
 they may be expected to produce heads of the finest kind, 
 under the same culture as is given to the others. 
 
 Transplanting . — As the plants attain a sufficient growth, 
 being from four to six inches high, or in a month or five 
 weeks from the time of sowing, proceed to transplant the 
 successive crops. The ground should be light and rich, on 
 a dry sub-soiL Dig it a fuU spit deep set in shallow 
 trenches or drills the depth of a hoe, endive blanches with 
 less trouble than if inserted on a level surface. The lines 
 may be fifteen inches sounder i the plants ten or twelve 
 inches distant in the lipes. Drawing the strongest first, 
 plant out portions from June to October but the principal 
 removals will fall in August, in which month three different 
 plantings may be made for succession ^ also for a general 
 winter crop, at the beginning of September. While the 
 plants are in hand, trim the extremities of the leaves, and 
 shorten the tap roots a little ; water at planting,, and mode- 
 rately afterwards, once in two days, if the weather be dry, 
 till the plants take root- At the end of September, and 
 in October, likewise, plant some in a warm, dry border, top 
 stand the winter more effectually. Also, in the last fort- 
 night of October or beginning of November, it would be 
 proper to insert some stout plants, thickly, on a bank of 
 dry, light soil, raised a foot or two behind, sloping to the 
 south. Thus they will remain drier in winter, and will be 
 preserved moi;e securely from rotting in that season. The 
 bed might also be defended, in very severe weather, with 
 frames and glasses, or with an occasional awning of mats 
 or sail cloth. 
 
 Blanching . — As the transplanted crops advance to full 
 growth, stocky and full in the heart, some should have the 
 leaves tied up every week or fortni^t, to blanch or whiten, 
 and to render them tender, crisp, and mild-tasted. Perform 
 this in dry days, and in winter, when the weather is dry 
 without frost. Using strings of fresh bass, or small osier 
 twigs, tie the leaves regularly together, a little above the 
 middle, moderately close. If the soil be light and dry, 
 earth them up half way ^ but if moist, merely tie them. 
 
ESPALIERS. 
 
 107 
 
 The two curled sorts, if neatly earthed up, will blanch pret^ 
 tr well without being tied. The Batavian, from its loftier, 
 Sooser growth, in every case hearts and blanches better 
 with a bandage. The blanching will be completed some- 
 times in a week, when the weather is hot and dry ; at 
 <»thers, it may take a fortnight or three weeks ; after which 
 the endive should be taken up for use, or it will soon rot, 
 in six days or less, especially if much rain fall. To save 
 the trouble of tying, this esculent is also occasionally 
 blanched by setting up fiat tiles, or boards, on each side of 
 the plants, which, resting against each other in an angular 
 form, and confined with earthy exclude the light. Further, 
 endive may be blanched under garden-pots or blanching- 
 pots, in the manner of sea-kale. In the heat of summer 
 and autumn, tying up is best ; but in wet or cold weather, 
 to cover the plants preserves while it blanches them. 
 
 Occasional shelter , — At the approach of severe frost, 
 cover some thickly with straw litter. Also plunge a por- 
 tion into a raised bank of lightj dry earth, under a ^ass 
 case, or covered shed, open to the south. Protect with 
 litter in rigorous weather ; but uncover^ and give plenty of 
 air, on mild days. 
 
 To save seed , — “ Allot some of the strongest old plants 
 in February or March, if any remain ; otherwise, sow seed 
 in March or April, and transplant or thin the plants to twelve 
 or fifteen inches distance. They will shoot, and the seed 
 ripen in autumn. 
 
 Use , — “ It is cultivated for the stocky head of leaves, 
 which, after being blanched to take away the bitter taste, 
 are used in salads and stews.” — Loudon, 
 
 ESPALIERS. — Espaliers iii horticulture are rows of 
 trees, planted in gardens or hedges, and trained to rails, 
 lattices or treflises of wood work, &c. 
 
 • The trees chiefly planted for espaliers are, apples, pears, 
 and plums. Espalier rails are substitutes for walls, and 
 w'hich they so far resemble, that the trees are regularly 
 spread and trained along them, are fully exposed to the 
 light, and, having their branches fixed, are less liable to be 
 injured by high winds. They may be made of wood, cast 
 iron, or \idre and wood. 
 
 Ah espalier has this advantage over a wall tree, that, 
 as being wholly detached, the branches have liberty to form 
 fruit spurs on both sides, which, in the wall tree cannot be 
 effected but on one ; in fact, comnion fruit walls are un- 
 necessary in the United States, except in the Eastern 
 
108 
 
 FENNEL. 
 
 and some of the Middle States, where they are useful i- 
 forwarding, to due perfection and flavour, some late kinds 
 of superior peaches, grapes, and other late fruits ; but when 
 walls are built for other purposes, and are conveniently 
 situated, advantage ought to be taken of them for raising 
 fruit ; observing to suit the various kinds to the various 
 aspects. ” — McMahon. 
 
 FENNEL. — Anethum f(£niculum. — The fennel is a per- 
 ennial plant, naturalized in England, and found in chalky 
 soils. The plant rises with finely cut leaves, and capillary 
 leaflets, on a smooth, dark-green, branched, tubular stalk, 
 to the height of five or six feet. On the summit are pro- 
 duced umbels of gold-coloured flowers, in July and August 
 The whole plant is aromatic, and has long been an inmate 
 of the garden. 
 
 “ Use. — The tender stalks of common fennel are used in 
 salads ; the leaves, boiled, enter into many fish sauces ; 
 and, raw, are garnishes for several dishes, The blanched 
 stalks of the variety called Jinochio are eaten with oil, vine^ 
 gar, and pepper, as a cold salad, and they are likewise 
 sometimes put into soups. 
 
 “ The varieties are — 
 
 T lie common, or sweet, 
 
 'Jark-CTeeu-leaved, 
 
 Dwarf, or finochio. This variety 
 is characterized by a tendency in 
 the stalk to swell to a consider- 
 able thickness. This thickened 
 part is blanched by earthing up, 
 and is then very tender. ^ Ow- 
 
 ing to the peculiar nature of this va- 
 riety,^ Neill observes, ^ it is more 
 tender than the common fennel, and 
 often perishes in the course of the 
 winter. Misled by this circum^ 
 stance, several horticultural writers 
 describe it as an annual species, un- 
 der the appellation A, s^getumJ 
 
 ‘‘ Propagation. — They are all raised from seed, of which 
 half an ounce is sufficient for a seed-hed four feet by six 
 feet. Sometimes, also, they are raised from offsets from the 
 old plants, where only a few are wanted. ‘ Sow in thp 
 spring in light earth, either in drills from six to twelve 
 inches apart, or broad-cast and raked in. When the plants 
 are three or four inches high, thin or transplant a quantity 
 fifteen inches asunder. As the roots of old plants divide 
 into side offsets, these may be slipped off* in spring, sum- 
 mer, or autumn, and planted a foot apart. They will pro- 
 duce immediate leaves for present supply, and in continu- 
 ance ; or, for an immediate larger supply of leaves, you may 
 procure some established full roots, and plant as above : let 
 them be well watered.’ 
 
 Subsequent culture. — ^ The same plants remain several 
 years by the root ; but as fennel sends up strong stems for 
 
FLOWElta, 
 
 109 
 
 seed in summen these, or a part of them, should be cut 
 down, to encourage a production of young leaves below, in 
 succession. It is apt to spread more than is desirable, ff 
 suffered to seed. The swelling stems of the finochio varie- 
 ty, when of some tolerable substance, should be earthed up 
 on each side five or six inches, to blanch them white and 
 tender. This will be effected in ten days or a fortnight ; 
 and, by successive sowings, or cutting down plants during 
 summer, successive crops of blanched stalks may be had 
 from June to December.’ 
 
 To save seed, — ‘Permit some of the best stalks to shoot; 
 they will produce large umbels of seed in autumn.’ — Jl6er- 
 
 FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL.— Should the agricul- 
 turist have no taste for ornamental gardening, yet such is 
 the laudable taste of the fair daughters of America, at the 
 present day, that there are but comparatively few, that 
 do not take an interest in a flower garden. And this 
 alone is a sufficient reason for the publication of these 
 remarks. 
 
 Horticulture, as it respects ornamental gardening, is 
 one of the most innocent, the most Jiealthy, and, to some, the 
 most pleasing employment in life. The rural scenes which 
 it affords are instructive lessons, tending to moral and social 
 virtue ; teaching us to “ look through nature up to nature’s 
 God.” 
 
 Flower gardens were ever held in high estimation by 
 persons of taste. Emperors and kings have been delighted 
 with the expansion of flowers. “ Consider the lilies of the 
 field^^^ said an exalted personage, ‘^hoto they grow for 
 Solomon, when clothed in the purple of royalty, “ was not 
 arrayed like one of these."^^ Nature, in her gay attire, 
 unfolds to view a vast variety, which is pleasing to the hu- 
 man mind ; and consequently has a tendency to tranquillize 
 the agitated passions, and exhilarate the man, nerve the 
 imagination, and render all around him delightful. 
 
 The cultivation of flowers is an employment adapted to 
 every grade, the high and the low, the rich and the poor ; 
 but especially to those who have retired from the busy 
 scenes of active life. Man was never made to rust out in 
 idleness; A degree of exercise is as necessary for the 
 preservation of health, both of body and mind, as food. 
 And what exercise is more fit for him, who is in the decline 
 of life, than that of superintending a well ordered garden ? 
 Wha<^ more enlivens the sinking mind ? What more invigor 
 10 
 
110 
 
 FLOWERS 
 
 rates the feeble fiame ? What is more conducive to a long 
 lifel 
 
 Floriculture is peculiarly calculated for the amusement 
 of youth. It may teach them many important lessons. 
 Let a piece of ground be appropriated to their use — to im- 
 prove in such a manner as their inclinations shall dictate — 
 to cultivate such plants as are pleasing to their taste; and 
 let them receive the proceeds. Let order and neatness 
 pervade their little plantations. Let them be instructed, 
 that nothing valuable is to be obtained or preserved without 
 labour, care, and attention — that as every valuable plant must 
 be defended, and every noxious weed removed, so every 
 moral virtue must be protected, and every corrupt passion 
 and propensity subdued. 
 
 The cirltivation of flowers is an appropriate amusement 
 for young ladies. It teaches neatness, cultivates a correct 
 taste, and furnishes the mind with many pleasing ideas. 
 The delicate form and features, the mildness and sympathy 
 of disposition, render them fit subjects to raise those tran- 
 scendent beauties of nature, which declare the “per- 
 fections of the Creator’s power.” The splendid lus- 
 tre and variegated hues (which bid defiance to the 
 pencil) of the rose, the lily, the tulip, and a thousand 
 others, harmonize with the fair, fostering hand that tends 
 them — with the heart susceptible to the noblest impres- 
 sions — and with spotless innocence. 
 
 Situation , — As to the proper situation for a garden, it is 
 not always in our power to choose. A level plat, however, 
 is to be preferred ; for, if there be considerable descent, the 
 heavy rains will wash away the soil. A southern aspect, 
 sheltered from the north and north-west winds, is a proper 
 situation for most plants. An inclination towards the north, 
 or west, or any point between them, should, if possible, be 
 avoided. 
 
 Soil , — The natural soil should be a deep loam, which is 
 easily made rich by old, rotten manure. But here, again, it 
 IS not always in our power to choose such a^soil. In such 
 cases we must endeavour to imitate — we must dig and carry 
 off — and bring on loam, &c. and make a rich soil. The 
 ground ought to be well pulverized with the plough or the 
 spade. In a word, what is wanted, is a deep, rich soil, 
 natural or artificial, not too wet, nor too dry. 
 
 The ground in a garden must be kept rich, and often 
 stirred. It ought to be manured every year. A compost 
 made of decayed vegetables, yard manure, rotten leaves, 
 
M.0VVKii5. 
 
 in 
 
 ashes, aud mould iVom any place, where it can be had, is 
 proper for a garden. A garden should be well defended, 
 by a high and tight fence, especially on the north and west. 
 
 Soxing and 'planting , — In the lirst place, the ground must 
 be made fine, as well as rich. It should be moderately 
 moist, not too wet, nor too dry. The beds should be raised 
 three or four inches above the level of the walks ; and the 
 seeds ought, by all means, to be sown in rows, ten or 
 twelve inches apart ; and the earth should be moderately 
 pressed upon them. The time for sowing either annual, 
 biennial, or perennial flower-seeds, is in the months of 
 April and May, according to the state of the season. Very 
 small seeds may be covered with fine earth nearly half an 
 inch ; larger ones in proportion to their size ; and those as 
 large as a pea, to the depth of an inch, or a little more. 
 Seeds of delicate plants should be planted in flower-pots, 
 and the earth kept moderately moist, by watering with a 
 watering-pot, that is finely pierced, and does not pour 
 heavily ; or the pot may be placed in the pan, and water 
 supplied at the bottom. The pots should be exposed to the 
 sun, except from eleven, A. M., to two, P. M., when a pow- 
 erful sun might scorch the vegetating seed. The mould 
 for pots should be rich, and sifted through a coarse sieve, 
 made for that purpose. 
 
 Transplanting . — The best time, perhaps, for transplant- 
 ing annual plants is in June, and for biennial and perennial 
 plants in September or the beginning of October, remem- 
 bering, in all cases, to take a sufficient quantity of earth, 
 with the roots, where it can be done with propriety. Scoop 
 trowels will be found useful instruments in this operation, 
 which ought not to be done when the ground is very wet, 
 but when it is only moderately moist, and in a cloudy day, 
 or a little before the evening, or previous to a shower. If 
 the ground be dry, shading the plants, and a little water, 
 may be necessary, for a short time. In case the roots 
 should be small, or injured, or destitute of earth, when ta- 
 ken up, they must be shaded during the day, until they 
 have gained strength. In placing a plant where it is to 
 stand, great care is necessary to place the roots in their 
 natural position, to bring the earth in contact with them, 
 and to press the earth moderately about them. 
 
 If the plant is to be planted in a pot, place a piece of 
 earthen ware" over the aperture in the bottom, that the su- 
 perabundant water may drain off, which would otherwise 
 saturate and rot the roots. The pots should be nearly filled 
 
FLOWERS. 
 
 ii2 
 
 with rich earth, and the plant carefully placed in the centre, 
 and the mould brought into contact with iiie roots, ana 
 moderately pressed. 
 
 Cultivation , — The plants must be properly thinned 
 while they are small ; for, if left too near each other, they 
 interfere, grow slender and weakly. As the plants increase 
 in size, remove the weakest, and so continue to do, until 
 they stand at a proper distance. All plants of every de- 
 scription should stand at such distance one from the other, 
 as that the air may circulate freely about them, and that 
 the sun may have its proper influence in bringing them to 
 perfection. The air and sun are absolutely necessary in 
 perfecting the grow^th of plants, which never ought to stand 
 so near as to interfere with each other. 
 
 The earth ought to be kept loose about the plants, and 
 for this purpose a prong-hoe is a useful instrument. Mov- 
 ing the earth should be done in dry weather ; as ploughing, 
 digging, or hoeing in wet weather, leaves the ground in a 
 Dad, clammy state. In a dry season, stir the earth about 
 
 S lants, and spread old coarse hay or straw about them. Old 
 ay spread about the plants keeps the earth cool, and re- 
 tains the moisture, and is very useful to vines. 
 
 Weeds of every species must be removed, and the soon- 
 er the better after their appearance. No weed should be 
 Buffered to flower in a garden, nor in its border. The beauty 
 of a garden depends very much on order and neatness — a 
 place for every thing, and every thing in its place — keeping 
 out the weeds, and removing every thing when decayed. 
 No garden can show to advantage, where weeds are per- 
 mitted to usurp the place of useful plants. 
 
 Shrubbery in general requires some attention. Prune out 
 all inferior, dead, and decaying branches. Keep down the 
 suckers, and clean out the weeds, and stir the earth about 
 the roots occasionally. Order and neatness add a lustre to 
 every thing. 
 
 Cuttings are pieces, cut from trees, shrubs, or plants of 
 the last growth, and should generally retain a small piece 
 of the growth immediately preceding the last or riponed 
 wood. They should be taken when the sap is active, and 
 about six joints or buds are sufficient. Cut them with a 
 sharp knife, transversely and smoothly, near a joint or bud 
 of the previous growth, or between the two last growths. 
 Set them in rich, moist ground, in a shady place, leaving 
 two or three joints or buds above the surface. If the weath- 
 er be dry, water them, and place old hay about them, to 
 
FLOWERS. 
 
 iia 
 
 keep tlie cnrth moist. Such parts of herbaceous plants 
 should be taken for cuttings, as do not show a tendency to 
 flower. If the cutting be planted in a flower-pot, place the 
 pot iii the earth, in a shady place, and cover the cutting 
 with an inverted glass, for a short time, to preserve a moist 
 iitmosphci c about it. If they send out roots, they will also 
 send out branches, otherwise they die. 
 
 Layers are branches left on the parent plant or shrub, 
 and bent down, and lastened several inches (according to 
 the case) belovr the surface of the earth, leaving the ex- 
 treme part out of the ground. A tlat stone, placed on the 
 eartii immediately above the layer, is useful to keep the 
 earth cool, and to retain the moisture. When they hav« 
 taken sudicient root, sever them from the parent stock, and 
 at any proper time they may be transplanted. 
 
 As to the cultivation of herbaceous plants and shrubs in 
 pots, a few fiirections may be necessary. — The earth should 
 be kept moderately moist. The mould on the top should 
 be dry before additional water be given. The pots should 
 be frequently turned round, or the plants will grow crooked 
 by reason of their inclining towards the sun or light. If 
 the plants are to stand in pots, year after year, the balls of 
 earth should be taken out in October, and the sides and 
 bottom shaved olf with a sharp knife, to the depth of an 
 inch, more or less, according to the size, and then replaced, 
 and the pot tilled with some fresh compost or very rich earth 
 made very tine. Two thirds of good rich earth and one 
 third of old rotten yard-manure, well incorporated, make a 
 good compost for most plants, except the bulbous-rooted, 
 which require some sand. 
 
 Protection during the winter , — Herbaceous plants in gene- 
 ral require some slight covering during the severity of a 
 northern winter. Pine boughs, straw, old coarse hay, or 
 leaves, are useful for this purpose, and may be removed 
 about the tirst of April or before, if the weather will permit. 
 
 BULBOUS FLOWER ROOTS.— No class of plants is 
 more interesting, perhaps, than this ; yet merely an outline 
 of the mode of cultivation must suffice. 
 
 Situation , — A southern exposure, not too wet nor too dry, 
 sheltered from the north and north-west winds, is proper for 
 most bulbous roots. 
 
 Soil , — Bulbous flower roots do best in a soil composed 
 of one third sand, one third old rotten yard-manure, and one 
 third good rich earth, well pulverized and mixed together; 
 and il a small proportion, say about one fourth, of decomposed 
 10 * 
 
114 
 
 FLOWERS. 
 
 TCgetable mould, from a wood or swamp, be added, it will 
 have a good effect by giving additional lightness to the soil. 
 The beds should be raised four or five inches above the 
 level of the walks, that the superfluous moisture may run 
 off. Some additional sand, strewed in the trenches made for 
 the roots, before and after planting them, is recommended. 
 
 Transplanting . — The proper season for transplanting most 
 bulbous roots, is in August, September, and October. The 
 only advantage to be gained, by taking up bulbs, after 
 blooming, (tulips excepted,) is either to divide the roots, 
 when too numerous, or to renew a worn out soil, neither of 
 which can occur oftener than once in three or four years. 
 Tulips and hyacinths, when taken up after blooming, and 
 after the foliage is decayed, may be kept from the ground 
 till the middle of October. 
 
 Delicate and tender bulbs, as the Feraria tigrida, &c. 
 may be planted in pots in November, or they may be kept 
 in dry sand until April, (w hich is best,) and then planted in 
 pots or open ground. In either case they must be secured 
 from the frost. As to tulips and hyacinths, in order to 
 preserve their beauty in perfection, the nicer varieties should 
 be taken up, air-dried, and replanted annually. 
 
 Depths and distances. — Large bulbs, as the hyacinth and 
 the large lilies, should be planted to the depth of four inch- 
 es ; tulips. Narcissus, jonquils, three inches; crocus, Fe- 
 raria tigrida, gladiolus, &c. two inches, always measuring 
 from the top of the bulb. The polyanthus Narcissus may 
 be planted five or six inches deep. The rows should be 
 ten or twelve inches asunder, and the roots placed from 
 three to eight inches apart, according to the size of the 
 plants. 
 
 Protection during winter. — Bulbous roots should be cover- 
 ed in November with tanners’ bark, leaves, rubbish of the 
 garden, or some light substance, to the depth of three 
 inches, to prevent the bad effects of severe frosts. Polyan- 
 thus Narcissus is more tender than hyacinths, and ought to 
 be covered six or seven inches. The covering must be 
 removed early in the spring. 
 
 Management of bulbous roots in pots. — Hyacinths, polyan- 
 thus Narcissus, double Narcissus, and jonquils, make a 
 beautiful appearance, during winter, in the parlour. 
 
 Bulbs intended for blooming in the winter, should be 
 rotted in October or November, and left out until it begins 
 and then placed in a warm room. They will 
 want, occasionally, a little water, until they begin to grow ; 
 
FLOWERS. 
 
 then they should have both air and sun, and plenty of wa- 
 ter from the saucers or pans, underneath the pots. 
 
 Those bulbs, as hyacinths, &c. which are designed to 
 flower in glasses, should be placed in them towards the 
 end of November, the glasses being first filled with rain- 
 water, so that the bulbs may come in contact with it. 
 Then place them in a dark place for a few days, to promote 
 the shooting of the roots, after which expose them to the 
 light and sun, and change the water as often as it becomes 
 impure, not suffering it to freeze. 
 
 Bulbous-rooted plants, growing in pots, should be fre- 
 quently turned round, as they will incline to the sun or 
 light — the earth on the top should be suffered to dry, 
 before the next watering — when the plants have done 
 growing, give them little or no water. If the plant be so 
 managed the present year, as not to have a flower-bud 
 formed in miniature, there will be no flower in the next. 
 If the leaves be well grown, and the plant properly ex- 
 posed to the air and sun, then the sap will be duly prepared 
 by them, and an embryo flower will be formed in the bulb. 
 All bulbs, in a certain period of the year, are dormant ; this 
 state commences when the foliage begins to decay, after 
 blooming — then lessen the supplies of water, and in a little 
 ^ime cease to water altogether, until the season of regermi- 
 .ation returns. The bulbs, during this time, may be kept 
 ip ^he pots in a dry, shady place, and in the same tempera- 
 ture as that in which they delight to grow. 
 
 Generally, it is best to take the bulbs out of the pots, 
 after the decay of the foliage, and repot them in a fresh 
 soil or compost, (mentioned above for bulbs,) a week or 
 two before the period of regerminating ; at which time 
 water will be necessary, and may be applied at the bottom, 
 pouring into the pan, or it may be applied by a small water- 
 ing-pot, that pours lightly, on the top, so as to keep the 
 earth moderately moist. The earth should be kept loose 
 on the top, and the water used for the plants ought to be 
 rain water, or such as has been exposed to the sun. Water 
 that has been filtered through a rich compost is very useful. 
 
 The proper time to take up bulbous roots is in about a 
 month after blooming, when the foliage has a yellowish, 
 decayed appearance. Cut off the stem and foliage within 
 an inch of the bulb, leaving the fibrous roots attached to it 
 After they are air-dried, place them singly in paper or dry 
 sand, until replanted, or spread them on shelves in a dry 
 apartment. 
 
116 
 
 FLOWERS. 
 
 Flowers are divided into annuals^ which flower and die 
 the year they are sown ; biennials^ which flower the second 
 year, and then die ; and perennials^ which do not, general- 
 ly, flower the first year, but die down to the ground annu- 
 ally, and spring up again every succeeding spring for a 
 number of years. 
 
 In the following alphabetical list, flowering trees and 
 shrubs are included. We shall select such plants, shrubs, 
 and trees, as are of easy cultivation, generally hardy — such 
 as have singular foliage, fragrant odours, or beautiful flowers 
 — such as make a handsome appearance. As to placing 
 them in the garden, or elsewhere, to advantage, we leave 
 it to the convenience and taste of the proprietor. 
 
 Althea frutex — Hibiscus Syriacus — is a beautiful shrub, 
 but requires a warm, sheltered situation in the Northern 
 States. It is easily raised from the seeds, sown in the 
 spring. The young plants must be well protected during 
 the winter. 
 
 Almond, double-flowering— ptmila — is a 
 shrub, which is, generally, in the spring, loaded with beau- 
 tiful flowers^ resembling small roses. When in bloom, it is 
 not inferior to any shrub whatever, and makes a fine ap- 
 pearance in a border. It is propagated by suckers. 
 
 Amarantiius superbus — annual — superb — flowers late 
 — tender — ^plant the seed in May, or before, if the season 
 be mild. 
 
 Amarantiius tricolor. — This plant is annual, and is 
 admired for its beautiiul foliage, red, green and yellow — ten- 
 der. The seed is found in little tufts about the stalk, and 
 should be sown in May, or before, if the weather be warm. 
 
 Animated oats — Arena sensiliva — are annual, and re- 
 semble the common oats, while growing. The seeds are 
 clothed with a stiff down, and have appendages like the 
 legs of some insect, with apparent joints. They are af- 
 fected by the changes of the weather, and, of course, are 
 continually moving. If they be wet, they will turn over 
 several times, and twist about. If wet, and held to a light- 
 ed lamp, they exhibit such motions of apparent agony, as 
 an insect w^ould, placed in a like situation. 
 
 Aster, China. — It is annual, and produces many flowers, 
 beautiful to the sight. There are many species, as red, 
 white, purple, striped, quilled, &c. The seed should be 
 sown early in the spring. It flo^vers late in the season, 
 and endures some frost, but will not stand a severe one. 
 
 Auricula. — This is one of the flowers, the species of 
 
FLOWERS. 
 
 117 
 
 which are disting:uished by having awarded to them the 
 names of famous men, famous womeriy famous cities^ famous 
 battles^ &c. It may be raised from seed ; but the flowers so 
 raised do not resemble those of the parent plant, except by 
 mere accident. However, if a flower be produced different 
 from any which has appeared before, there will be a cl ance 
 to add to the list of names. Auriculas are best propagated 
 by dividing the roots, which send out several young plants 
 annually. They are tender, and, if planted in open ground, 
 they must be well covered, and be kept from severe frost 
 and rain during the winter. They are well calculated for 
 pots, to flower in the parlour. 
 
 Azalea nudiflora. — Several species — commonly called 
 American honeysuckle. This shrub blows profusely — very 
 fragrant, and makes a fine appearance in a border. 
 
 Box — Buxus sempervirens — is a small, delicate shrub, 
 which may be pruned to any shape, to please the fancy. 
 It is an evergreen, hardy, and is proper to trim beds. It 
 appears well in a border. It is propagated by cuttings, or 
 by dividing the roots. If a plant be placed deep in the 
 earth, and the soil be brought in close contact with the 
 siMall branches, (being spread as much as possible,) they 
 will send out roots, and afford a great number of small 
 plants. The small branches are used by the ladies to trim 
 cake, &c. 
 
 Brier, sweet — Rosa rubiginosa — is a well known bush 
 of the rose family — very hardy — foliage bright and fragrant 
 — will grow in poor ground. 
 
 Canterbury bell — Campanula medium — is a biennial 
 plant, and is admired for its profusion of large blue flowqrs. 
 
 Carnation. — Dianthus caryophyllns.—Here is beauty and 
 fragrance. It is a superb plant, and is biennial and peren- 
 nial. There are various kinds, distinguished by names 
 like those of the auricula, and what was said of the seed 
 of that plant applies to this. It is best propagated by layers. 
 While it is in flower, it sends out several side shoots near 
 the root. These are pinned down in August a little under 
 the earth, leaving the extreme part erect. In a little time 
 they take root, and the new plant must be severed from the 
 old and transplanted. The old plant does not always stand 
 another winter ; therefore, its branches are thus used to 
 continue the species. Carnations are rather tender as to 
 frost, and must be well covered, as far north as Massachu- 
 setts, to live through the winter. It is best to put them in 
 large pots, and to keep them in a green-house, or parlour, 
 
118 
 
 i'LOWEllS. 
 
 or in some place where they can have air and light, during 
 the winter. They merit all the care that can be bestowed 
 upon them. 
 
 Cassia Marylandica is a perennial plant, producing 
 many small yellow flowers, suitable only to stand in a bor- 
 der. It is hardy, and is propagated by seed. 
 
 Catalpa — Catalpa syringcBfolia — is a beautiful tree, much 
 admired for its foliage and showy flowers. It is propagated 
 by seed. 
 
 Cherry, double-flowering. — This is one of the most 
 beautiful trees in the flower-garden or shrubbery ; cultiva- 
 tion the same as that of the common cherry. 
 
 Chrysanthemum Indicum,— This is a superb perennial 
 flower, much esteemed; being hardy, and affording a bril- 
 liant display of beauty, late in the autumn, when the chilling 
 blasts of the north-west and frosts have only left us the 
 vestiges of departed verdure. They may stand in open 
 ground until August or September, and then be taken up 
 and placed in pots. ^Vhen the frosts appear, keep them in 
 a sitting room until aber flowering, which is a long time, 
 and then the roots may be put in the cellar, or in open 
 ground. They will flower in the garden, if properly cov- 
 ered with glass. There are many varieties, all of which 
 are propagated by dividing the roots. 
 
 Clematis, Austrian — Clematis integrifolia — is a peren- 
 nial plant, producing very neat flowers. Best propagated 
 by dividing the roots. 
 
 Clethra- alnifolia — is a very common shrub, 
 which produces fragrant flowers, in clusters, in the autumn. 
 
 Columbine. — Aqwilegia. — Perennial — very common — 
 very neat — many species. 
 
 Convolvulus. — Many species — annual. — Convolvulus 
 major is commonly called morning glory. It is a vine, and 
 a great runner — many colours. Convolvulus minor, called 
 beauty of the nighty because it blossoms at evening — many 
 colours. They are much admired. The seed must be sown 
 early in the spring. 
 
 CoRCHORus Jafonicus. — Tliis shrub, although cultivated 
 as a green-house plant, will thrive in a warm, sheltered place 
 in a garden. It produces numerous flowers of a golden 
 yellow, in wreaths, much admired. 
 
 Crocus. — A bulbous-rooted plant — hardy — very early — 
 various colours ; as blue, white, purple, yellow, &c. Ap- 
 pears to advantage in small pots. Propagated by the bulbs. 
 
 Cupid’s car, or Monk’s hood — Aconitiim napellas — is a 
 
FLOWERS»> 
 
 119 
 
 beautiful, hardy perennial. It produces many neat, blue 
 flowers, both in summer and autumn. It is propagated by 
 dividing the roots. 
 
 Dahlia. — This is a beautiful autumnal flowering plant, 
 a native of Mexico. There are many varieties, single and 
 double, and of almost every colour and shade. Dahlias 
 will grow in almost any soil, but a poor, sandy, or gravelly 
 soil is thought best, for the purpose of preventing them from 
 growing too luxuriant, which would be the case if planted 
 in a rich soil. In a poor soil they produce a greater abun- 
 dance of flowers. They are propagated by seed and by 
 div iding the roots. 
 
 The seed may be sown in March, in pots, and placed in 
 a hot-bed, or green-house. About the middle of May, or 
 when there is no danger from frost, plant them out in the 
 borders, or wherever they are to stand, and, as they advance 
 in height, let them be well supported by stakes, otherwise 
 the wind will break them down. 
 
 The roots are tuberous, resembling a sweet potato, and 
 should be taken up in October or November, and preserved 
 through the winter in a box filled with dry sand, placed 
 where the frost never penetrates. Towards the end of 
 April, or when they begin to sprout, divide the roots, and 
 plant them where they are to stand, taking care to cover 
 them in case of frost. Plant only those that have a bud, 
 and be careful that it is not hurt by dividing the roots. The 
 plants soon shoot up to considerable height, and produce 
 a great abundance of flowers. The plants must be well 
 supported by slender stakes. They are said to do well if 
 planted in large pots. 
 
 Daisy — Beilis — is a small, delicate, perennial plant, and 
 produces beautiful little flowers. It is hardy, and well 
 calculated for pots, placed in the sitting room ; in which 
 case they will flower in the winter. It is propagated by 
 offsets. 
 
 Dwarf Basil — Ocymum minimum — is a sweet, fragrant, 
 annual plant, easily raised by seed. But few plants 
 exceed this in fragrance. 
 
 Egg plant. — This is a singular, annual plant. The 
 white ( Solanum melongena ) is the most unique, producing a 
 fruit resembling a large white egg. The seed should be 
 planted early, in a hot-bed, and after the frosts have gone 
 past, transplant them where it is desired they should 
 stand. 
 
 Eupatorium, nnuE — Eupatorium coelestinum — is a peren- 
 
120 
 
 t'LOWERS. 
 
 nial plant, producing many beautiful flowers, much admired. 
 Propagated best by dividing the roots. 
 
 Euphorbia lathyris — is a biennial plant, commonly 
 called the caper-tree. It is singular in its foliage, and 
 bears a small fruit useful for pickling. It is rather tender, 
 but will stand the winter very well in a common hot-bed. 
 It is raised from seed. 
 
 Fading beauty, or morning bride — Scabiosa atropwr-- 
 purea — is an annual plant, producing beautiful flowers ; but 
 they soon fade, continuing only an hour or two. The seed 
 should be planted early in the spring. 
 
 Fir — Pinus halsamea — is not a flowering tree, but it is a 
 beautiful evergreen, and very ornamental. 
 
 Foxglove — Digitalis — is a biennial and perennial plant, 
 and produces very handsome flowers. There are several 
 species, but the purple is the most beautiful. The seed is 
 very small, and ought to be sown early in the spring, and 
 very lightly covered with earth. The plant possesses high 
 medicinal virtues. 
 
 Fringe-tree — Chionanthes — a beautiful American shrub, 
 covered with white flowers in its season. It is hardy, and 
 will grow in any soil, but flourishes best in moist ground. 
 
 Geranium. — Pelargonium, — This plant wants hardiness 
 only to make it one of the finest and most value^ble produc- 
 tions in the floral kingdom. There are many varieties. 
 Some give us flower with little or no leaf; others possess 
 beauty of leaf, as well as of flower ; some give us no fra- 
 grance ; but others give us the most delightful odours, and 
 in great profusion. The geranium is a native of the south 
 of Africa, and will not endure the frost. It is easily propa- 
 gated by cuttings from any part of the plant, old wood or 
 young, and placed in a pot. In a green-house, they will 
 bloom throughout a northern winter. They are, properly, 
 green-house plants. There is one, however, which is as 
 hardy as an oak tree, geranium maculatum^ producing a blue 
 flower. It is possessed of great medicinal powers. 
 
 Garden Angelica — Angelica archangelica — has a bold 
 appearance when in flower. It is suitable for a border, and 
 very showy. It is propagated by seed. It is a perennial 
 
 Glycine, cluster-flowering — Glycine frutescens — is a 
 perennial vine, and will extend on the side of a house or 
 wall to great length. It is much admired. The flowers 
 are variegated. Propagated by seed and from layers. 
 
 Golden coreopsis. — Coreopsis elegans,- — This is an an- 
 nual plant, and produces a profusion of splendid flowers of 
 
FLOWERS. 121 
 
 ft brilliant yellow, with rich purple centre. It is easily 
 raised from the seed. 
 
 Goldkn everlasting — Xeranthemum lucidum — is a very 
 singular plant, and produces bright yellow flowers, which, 
 if plucked before the seed ripens, will hold their brightness 
 for years. It is much admired. The seed should be 
 planted early, as the plant will flower late in the season. 
 
 Hollyhock. — Althcea. — This is a showy plant for a 
 shrubbery. It is hardy and perennial. There are various 
 kinds ; single and double, white, red, yellow, black, and 
 variegated. 
 
 Honeysuckle. — This plant i^ very beautiful in its place; 
 it climbs up houses, and over hedges : it forms arbours and 
 bowers : it blooms in clusters. Three varieties we shall 
 name. The Italian (Lonicera Italica) produces an abun- 
 dance of flowers early in the season, diffusing a rich 
 fragrance all around. The flowers are changeable. The 
 variegated {Lonicera caprifolium) blooms monthly, and has 
 a delightful fragrance. The scarlet trumpet {Caprifolimn 
 sempervirens) blooms monthly, — scarlet flowers, — and makes 
 a beautiful appearance. They may be propagated by seed 
 or cuttings, but best by layers. 
 
 Hyacinth. — Hyacinthus orientalis. — This is a bulbous- 
 rooted plant, and, like all other plants of this class, is peren- 
 nial. It is a beautiful and fragrant flower ; it blooms early. 
 It will bloom in glasses filled with water in a room, but 
 better in pots of earth. It is best propagated by offsets. 
 While the parent root is blowing, it sends out several young 
 ones. They should be planted at the depth of four inches. 
 There are many varieties of this favourite flower, both sin- 
 gle and double ; the former have the most vivid colours, 
 but the latter are generally preferred. Such was the rage 
 in Holland for this superb flower, that, in the year 1771, 
 four thousand dollars were refused for a single bulb. 
 
 Hydrangea — Hydrangea hortensis — is a small shrub, and 
 produces very large flowers, which are changeable. The 
 flowers are at first green — ^change gradually to rose-colour — 
 then to green — occupying the space of about six months. It 
 is a house-plant ; will bear some frost ; but must be kept 
 during the winter in a green-house, sitting-room, or cellar, 
 into which some light is admitted. This ornamental shrub 
 is easily propagated by cuttings. 
 
 IcE-PLANT — Mesembryantheum crystatlinum — is an annual 
 plant, and has an icy appearance. It is singular. The 
 seed should be planted in pots early in the spring. 
 
22 
 
 FLOWERS. 
 
 Impatiens balsamina. — A very fine annual plant, with 
 great abundance of showy flowers. There are several va- 
 rieties, both single and double, rose-coloured, red, purple, 
 pure white, variegated and crimson. The flowers are ele- 
 gantly formed, and the colours of many are very vivid. The 
 plant is commonly called halsamme. It wdll bloom in July, 
 and continue in flower until the frost appears. The seed 
 should be sown in May. 
 
 Iris, or fleur de luce. — This is a perennial plant, per- 
 fectly hardy. There are many varieties, both large and 
 small. From its great combination of colours, and unique 
 appearance, it has ever h^d admirers. It shows to advan- 
 tage in a border. It is propagated by dividing the roots. 
 
 Lagentrcenia Indica. — A flowering shrub, which en- 
 dures the wdnter of the Middle and Southern States. In 
 Massachusetts, it must be treated like the hydrangea, but 
 its beauty will repay this attention. 
 
 Laurel, broad-leaved — Kalmia latifoUa — is an ever- 
 green shrub, which produces flowers of great delicacy and 
 beauty, being white, tinged wdth red. This ornamental 
 shrub is occasionally found in rocky wmodlands. 
 
 Laburnum — Cytisus laburnum — is a tall and handsome 
 shrub, loaded, when in bloom, with yellow flowers. It is 
 sometimes called golden chain. It is tender, and to stand a 
 Massachusetts winter must be planted in a warm and shel- 
 tered situation. It is raised from the seed. 
 
 Delphinium — is an annual plant of ho fra- 
 grance, but of great variety of colours. It makes a good 
 appearance, and is easily propagated from the seed. 
 
 Lilac. — Syringa vulgaris, — This is a large shrub, very 
 hardy, and much admired when in bloom. It has large 
 bunches of flowers, which possess considerable fragrance. 
 The white and the purple may be easily grafted, or innocu- 
 iMed into each other, and when the shrub, with a handsome 
 head, is thus managed, some branches producing purple, 
 and others white flowers, it makes a beautiful appearance. 
 It is propagated from suckers, of which it sends out too many, 
 and from which it should be kept as clear as possible. The 
 Persian lilac {Syringa Persica) is a neat shrub, loaded, 
 when in bloom, with very delicate flowers. It is propa- 
 gated by suckers. 
 
 Lily. — Lilium. — Of this plant there is a great variety ; 
 but only a few shall be named. — The white {Lilium candi'- 
 dum) grows to the height *of three or four feet, and produces 
 very large, v/hite, fragrant flowmrs. The Tiger {Lilitm 
 
FLOWERS, 
 
 123 
 
 ti.(jrimim) grows to the height of from four to six feet, and 
 produces many spotted flowers of a bold appearance. The 
 Martagon is much like the latter, except the plant and 
 flowers are more delicate. All these are bulbous-rooted, 
 and are best propagated from offsets. The asphodel (Lili- 
 uni luteum) grows to the height of two feet, and produces 
 beautiful yellow flowers. It is propagated by seed or off- 
 sets. All the above-named lilies are well calculated to 
 beautify a border. The lily of the valley (Convallaria 
 majalis) is a small dwarf plant, that thrives best in the 
 shade, where it produces little delicate flowers of exquisite 
 fragrance. Propagated by offsets. 
 
 Lime-plant. — This plant [Podophyllum peltat am) is a sin- 
 gular production of nature. The stem, foliage, flower, and 
 fruit, are formed in the earth ; and, after the plant has come 
 up, there is nothing more than the extension of parts. The 
 stems, at the height of from eight to twelve inches, branch 
 out in two arms ; at the extremity of each is a large palmat- 
 ed leaf. In the fork proceeds the fruit stem. The first that 
 is seen in the spring is a delicate membraneous cap, which 
 is soon burst open by the flower-bud, which is large, white, 
 and round. The shoulders and arms, lying close to the 
 stem or trunk, soon appear, and, as the plant rises, the fruit 
 stem elongates, and the arms elevate themselves. The 
 fruit is about the size of a large lime, green while growing, 
 and yellow when ripe ; has the flavour of a pine-apple ; 
 and, as to eating, is but little inferioi to that fruit. The 
 plant requires a moist soil in a shady situation — may be 
 propagated by seed, but best by dividing the roots, which 
 are creeping and jointed. The root is medicinal. 
 
 Lyciinadia — Phlox — is a perennial — several varieties ; as 
 purple, white, striped, &c. The plant is hardy, and pro- 
 duces many delicate flowers, and is long in bloom. It is 
 best propagated by dividing the roots. 
 
 Mezereon — Daphne mezereum — is a small, beautiful 
 shrub, blooming in the month of March, loaded with flow- 
 ers of delightful fragrance. It is hardy as a shrub oak, and 
 is propagated from the seed. It produces a red fruit, which 
 is poisonous. 
 
 Mountain ash — Sorhus aucuparia — is a very ornamental 
 tree, admired for the beauty of its foliage, and its clusters 
 of scarlet fruit, which remain on it for months. It is prop- 
 agated from the seed. 
 
 Musk geranium — Geranium moschatum — is an annual 
 plant, and is admired only for its strong flavour of musk. 
 
m 
 
 FLOWERS. 
 
 The plant will stand the winter in a common hot-bed, and 
 in this case may be considered biennial. The seed must 
 be planted early. 
 
 Myrtle, evergreen — Vinca minor — is an evergreen 
 vine, producing blue flowers. There are several species, 
 and all neat and pretty in their place. 
 
 Narcissus— a bulbous-rooted plant, managed precisely 
 like the hyacinth. It blooms early, is very beautiful, and 
 is fragrant. This plant is hardy, and well calculated to 
 bloom in a pot, in the green-house, or in a parlour. It is 
 propagated by bulbous offsets, which increase every year. 
 Polyanthos Narcissus and jonquils, both elegant flowering 
 plants, are propagated and cultivated, in all respects, in the 
 same manner. 
 
 Nasturtium — an annual plant, with showy flowers. 
 The seeds are enveloped in fleshy pods, which, before they 
 become ripe, are excellent for pickling. The seed should 
 be sown very early in the spring. The plants should be 
 supported from the ground by bushy sticks. 
 
 Passion-flower — Passijlora — is a perennial vine, which 
 produces a very beautiful flower. The name originated 
 from the large cross in the middle of the flower, surrounded 
 by appendages resembling a glory. The plant is also beau- 
 tiful ; and, like the honeysuckle, has a succession of flowers 
 for a long time. It is tender, and suitable for the green- 
 house. It will not endure a northern winter in open 
 ground. It is best raised from cuttings. 
 
 PvEONY — Pceonia — is a perennial, that has a very grand 
 flower, but of short duration. There are several species 
 much admired. Propagated from offsets. 
 
 Pea, sweet. — Lathyrus odoratus. — There are many spe 
 cies as to colour and fragrance. These are annual. The 
 everlasting pea {Lathyrus latifolius) is perennial, and pro- 
 duces many clusters of showy flowers, and remains in 
 bloom a long time. The seed should be planted early 
 in the spring. 
 
 Peach, double-flowering. — This is a very showy tree ; 
 its flowers are as double and as large as the smaller sorts 
 of roses — hardy, and treated like other peach-trees. 
 
 Pink — Dianthus — is a perennial plant, too well known 
 to be described here. There are many kinds, as to size 
 and colour, but all are fragrant. They are desirable articles 
 for a flower-garden, and are easily propagated by seed, by 
 layers, and by dividing the roots. 
 
 Perennial sunflower, double — Helianthm rmdiijhrui 
 
FLOWERS. 125 
 
 — is a fine plant to beautify a border — propagated by seed, 
 or ])y dividing the roots. 
 
 PoLVANTHos. — This pcreniiial plant {Primula polyan* 
 iJio.i) is hardy, has many showy dowers, and is much es- 
 teemed. There are many varieties. The plant blooms 
 best in a sh.uly situation. It is best propagated by dividing 
 tiie roots. Polyantlios Narcissus is a very pretty perennial, 
 well calculated to bloom in a parlour. It is bulbous-rooted, 
 and easily propagated by olTsets. 
 
 Pyuetiirum Partuenium, commonly called double fe- 
 verfew, is a hardy perennial, and produces an abundance 
 of white dowers, and continues in bloom a long time. It 
 is easily propagated by the seed. 
 
 Poppy — Papaver — is an annual plant, admired for its 
 great variety in size and in flower. The double are very 
 showy, but, like beauty, soon fade. It is a medicinal 
 plant, and easily cultivated. 
 
 Purple hyacinth bean — Dolichos — is an annual run- 
 ner, producing large clusters of purple flowers, much ad- 
 mired. The seed should be planted early, and the plants 
 defended from the frost. 
 
 P*,osE. — Rosa. — This favourite flower is wmrthy of all 
 the care and attention that can be paid to it. There are 
 many varieties, as to size, singularity, foliage, beauty, and 
 fragrance. Some Catalogues enumerate more than five 
 hundred varieties. Messrs. G. Thorburn & Son have a 
 splendid collection in their green-house, Liberty Street, 
 New York. No class of plants yields more intrinsic de- 
 lights than this. It is unrivalled. To describe the beauties 
 and excellence of the various species would flli a volume. 
 
 They may be propagated from seed, but, as the seed sel- 
 dom comes up till the second year, the usual mode of 
 propagation Is by suckers, whicli come out near the old 
 stems, duriug the summer. The suckers, when planted 
 out, should be cut down to four or five inches of the ground. 
 The time for planting is either in the months of October 
 and November, or in April. As to the management, the 
 ground should be kept good, and dug every autumn. They 
 should, except when trained against a wall, be kept cut 
 down to a certain height, according to their natural size ; 
 for \vhen they get long stems and limbs, they produce few- 
 er flowers. All the weak, dead or dying wood should be 
 pruned out close, without leaving aTiy ugly stubs. The 
 yellow^ rose requires an airv situation and a gravelly soil, 
 11 * 
 
126 
 
 
 and that, every autumn, one half of the old wood should 
 be cut down within four inches of the ground; by this 
 means a succession of thrifty, blooming shoots will be 
 kept up. 
 
 The Chinese monthly roses are propagated by cuttings, 
 taken in the spring, and properly placed in moist earth. 
 These are generally tender, and require to be taken into a 
 green-house or parlour during the winter. There are some, 
 however, that are very hardy, and bid defiance to the frost 
 The writer of this article has a Chinese pale-red, monthly 
 rose, which has stood out for several years, being only cov- 
 ered with a box, during the severity of the winter. It is 
 now February 28 , 1828 , and the foliage is yet bright, al- 
 though it has been frozen many times, during the present 
 winter. The thermometer, however, has not been lower, 
 the present season, than one degree above zero.” 
 
 Rose acacia — Rohinia hispida — is a singular shrub, pro- 
 ducing many clusters of flowers, much admired. Propa- 
 gated by shoots from the roots. 
 
 Rose-coloured hibiscus — Hibiscus palustris — is a per- 
 ennial plant, producing very showy flowers — makes a good 
 appearance in a border. Easily propagated from the seed. 
 
 Rudbeckia — a perennial plant, producing many flowers, 
 which are very durable and much admired. Propagated 
 best by dividing the roots. 
 
 Scarlet cacalia — Cacalia coccinea — ^is a small annual 
 plant, which produces numerous scarlet flowers, very showy. 
 Easily raised from the seed. 
 
 Scarlet lychnis — Lychnis chalcedonica — is a perennial 
 plant. There are two varieties, the single and the double. 
 The single is pretty, but the double is splendid. The for- 
 mer is propagated from seed, and the latter by dividing the 
 roots. 
 
 Siberian crab. — This is a small tree, esteemed for its 
 large, fragrant flowers, and for its small fruit. The Pyrus 
 prunifolia produces a beautiful longish fruit. The Pyrus hac- 
 cata^ or cherry crab, bears a beautiful round fruit. The 
 Pyrus spectabilisj or Chinese double blossom, has the most 
 beautiful flowers of the family. They are all delicate in 
 form and flower. 
 
 Snow-ball tree — Virburnum opulus — is a beautiful 
 shrub, especially when in bloom. It is propagated by 
 suckers. 
 
 Snowberry — Symphoria racemosa — is a small shmb, 
 
FLOWERS. 127 
 
 which produces clusters of w^hite fruit in autumn, and is 
 oniamcutal. Propagated best by suckers. 
 
 Si»icE-wooD — Laurus benzoin — is a very fragrant shrub, 
 of medicinal virtues. It grows best in the shade, and 
 sometimes bears a long, green, spicy fruit. It is propagated 
 by suckers. 
 
 SiUDEftwoRT — Tradescantia — is a singular perennial plant, 
 wliicii is in bloom for a long time. The blue is more ad- 
 mired than the white. It requires a light covering during 
 the severity of winter ; and is propagated by dividing the 
 roots. 
 
 Spiraea. — This is a small shrub, loaded with delicate 
 flowers in the season of its blooming. Propagated by 
 suckers. 
 
 Syringa, or Mock orange. — A shrub, which has flowers 
 much like those of the orange. It makes a pretty appear- 
 ance wdth other shrubbery. Propagated by suckers. 
 
 Strawberry tree — Euonymus — is a very handsome 
 shrub, producing, in autumn, an abundance of fruit, some- 
 what resembling the strawberry. The European is pre- 
 ferred to the American. It has been called the burning 
 bush^ from its appearance when loaded with ripe fruit. It 
 is propagated by seed and by suckers. 
 
 Sweet bay — Laurus nobilis — is a very pretty evergreen 
 shrub, well calculated to stand (in a large pot) in the par- 
 lour during winter. Propagated by suckers. 
 
 Sweet William, or Poetic pink — Dianthus barbatus — is 
 an imperfect perennial, producing very handsome flowers of 
 small size. It is propagated by seed, the plants of which 
 do not produce flowers like those of the parent plant, ex- 
 cept by chance. It may be propagated by dividing the 
 roots. 
 
 Tulip. — Talipa, — In no family of plants has Nature so 
 varied her delicate tints as in this. There are more than 
 six hundred varieties of this splendid flower cultivated in 
 the Linnaean Garden on Long Island. During the tulip 
 fever, which raged in Holland, about the middle of the 
 seventeenth century, some splendid varieties were sold for 
 enormous sums of money ; one of which, called the vice- 
 roi^ brought ten thousand dollars. 
 
 The tulip may be raised from seed ; but it is, as in the 
 case of the auricula, mere chance if one be obtained, that 
 will produce flowers like those of the parent plant. They 
 are best propagated by the bulbs. 
 
 There is something respecting thi« plant astonishing. 
 
128 
 
 FRUITS. 
 
 After flowering, the foliage and roots decay, and a bulb or 
 bulbs are formed of the juices of the old plant. A bulb 
 contains all the parts of the future plant, and soon becomes 
 as much disengaged from the decayed parent plant, as the 
 ripe acorn is disengaged from its parent tree. At this time, 
 they may be carried (like many other bulbs) any length 
 of distance in dry moss or dry sand. They should he plant- 
 ed out, about three inches below the surface, in a rich soil, 
 in August or September ; after Vv^hich they throw out roots, 
 and prepare for an early appearance in the ensuing spring. 
 If the bulbs be kept through the winter, and planted in the 
 spring, they do not thrive that season. The nice varieties 
 should be taken up after the decay of the old plants, every 
 year, air-dried, and kept until September or October, and 
 then planted. 
 
 Venitian sumach, or Fringe tree — Rhus colinus — is a 
 very singular and beautiful tree, which is loaded ‘‘ during 
 summer with tufts of russet-coloured down, and forms the 
 most singular ornament of the garden.” It has been called 
 the smoke tree. Propagated by layers and by suckers. 
 
 Violet, blue, fragrant. — This little plant ( Viola odo- 
 rata) is perennial ; the flowers blue, double and fragrant. 
 It blooms early in the season, and continues in flower for 
 some time. It is of considerable use in chymical inqui- 
 ries, to detect an acid or an alkali ; the former changing 
 the blue colour to a red, and the latter to a green.” it is 
 best propagated by dividing the roots, wdiich spread very 
 much. 
 
 FRUITS. — The following was WTitten for this work, at 
 the request of the compiler, by a distinguished member of 
 the Massachusetts Agricultural Society : — 
 
 Under the titles of each species of fruits, w^e have 
 treated of their, culture, and general character : this article 
 will be devoted, exclusively, to the selection of the most 
 approved sorts of each species of fruits. Nothing can be 
 more annoying, nothing more embarrassing to those, w ho 
 are desirous of making valuable collections of fruit-trees, 
 without any previous personal experience, than the inter- 
 minable lists, and the indiscriminate praise bestov/ed by 
 nursery men. We blame them not — it is their business 
 and their profit — the greater the variety of new names, 
 the greater the sale. Yet it is true, that of the 150 varie- 
 ties of apples, and the equally great number of pears — of 
 the vast collections of peaches and cherries, there are 
 but a few wdiich are of superior quality, and these few^ 
 
FRUITS. 
 
 129 
 
 Hidiciouslv selected, will amply suffice for all the wants of 
 private families. For the market-gardener in the vicinity 
 of great cities, a more ample list may be of great use and 
 profit. So, also, the amateur of great fortune may be desi- 
 rous, as a matter of curiosity, of having in his possession 
 every known variety. Yet he will acknowledge, after all, 
 that, if he cannot sell them, seven eighths of the whole 
 number will perish, because better fruits are in eating at 
 the same time. How few apples and pears can be dispos- 
 ed of by a private family during the period when the 
 peaches are in perfection ! The famous Duhamel, the 
 greatest cultivator and writer on fruit-trees in any country 
 or age, after devoting two quarto volumes in describing all 
 the fruits of France known in his day, terminates by giving 
 a list of forty or fifty sorts which would suffice for the lux- 
 ury of any private man. It is our purpose to make a 
 selection, we will not say of the hest ^ — for as the tastes of 
 men differ, it would be arrogant to say this, — ^but of what 
 we esteem the best, and which are most generally esteem- 
 ed, adding something of the qualities of each. We shall 
 introduce them in the order of ripening. 
 
 Apples. — Juneting or Jenneting, — This is the earliest ap- 
 ple of our country, and is very pleasant and valuable for 
 its quality of early ripening. It is fit for apple-sauce on 
 the 20th of June, and for eating early in July. 
 
 Early summer pearmain. — This is said to be one of the 
 finest summer apples ; is of a reddish colour, fit for the table 
 and for cooking ; it has the desirable quality of flourishing 
 in light and sandy soils ; ripens the first of August. 
 
 The codling, — This is a favourite apple in England for 
 pies and stewing ; is fit for this use in August, and lasts till 
 October. 
 
 Siberian crab, — This apple is remarkable for its beauty. 
 It makes a beautiful preserve, to be used in winter. One 
 small tree will suffice for a family. It is ripe in August, 
 and should be preserved before it becomes mealy. 
 
 Monstrous pippin, — This is an enormous apple, of tran- 
 sient duration, but of good flavour. One tree would suffice. 
 It is a small bearer, but as a cooking apple it is valuable ; 
 ripens in October. 
 
 Pomme d^apij or lady apple, — This is a beautiful little 
 apple ; a constant bearer ; an ornament to the dessert, from 
 November to April. It is pleasant to the taste, but its 
 principal value is its ornament to the table. One tree 
 will suffice^ 
 
130 
 
 I'llUITS. 
 
 Doctor apple. — It is a large and handsome fruit, high- 
 ly esteemed ; ripens in October, and keeps for some 
 months. 
 
 Bell-flower. — This apple we can decidedly recommend, 
 from twenty years’ trial. It is a great bearer — beautiful 
 bright yellow : it is fit for cooking and for the table ; ripens 
 in November, and will keep till March. Its skin is so 
 tender, that it must be gathered with great care, and put 
 up with equal tenderness. It is the most popular apple in 
 Philadelphia, and would be so here, if its merits, and its 
 careful management in putting it up, were generally known. 
 It is a vigorous and healthy tree. 
 
 Rihstone pippin. — This is a celebrated English apple, of 
 fine flavour, and some beauty. It will keep from November 
 to February. It has the pippin texture, is rather a shy 
 bearer, and ought not to be cultivated extensively : but one 
 or two trees would reward the cultivator. 
 
 The two Spitzenbergs — the Newton and Esopus. — These 
 are American fruits, of the very finest quality, keeping 
 sound, and retaining their flavour till May, from December. 
 They bear every year^ though, like all others of this class, 
 they have their full and their scanty years of bearing. It 
 is however admitted, that they are declining, not in good- 
 ness, but in fertility. On new lands they may do well for 
 fifty years more. 
 
 The Baldwin apple^ formerly called the Pecker apple . — 
 This is probably a Massachusetts production, originating in 
 the county of Middlesex. It is now in its prime ; a 
 healthy tree; an enormous bearer; bearing every other 
 year, and in the intermediate one not producing an apple ; 
 for beauty, richness, and other fine qualities, not yielding 
 to any apple in the world, except the American apple called 
 the Newtown pippin. It is in eating from December to 
 the first of April. 
 
 The Newtown pippin. — This is a New Jersey production ; 
 the finest apple in our country. It flourishes with us, but 
 its fruit is not so fine as those grown in New Jersey. In 
 some situations it however succeeds almost as well as in 
 New Jersey, and is well worthy of a place in every garden, 
 as its fruit will keep till May. 
 
 The Roxbury russeting. — This is a standard natural fruit 
 of Massachusetts. Every other year it is a great bearer. 
 Its fruit is pleasant for the table from January to July, 
 if kept in a cold place. We add nothing further in favour 
 of the Roxbury russeting, because its great merits for our 
 
FRUITS.. 
 
 131 
 
 climate are well known. We can find no reason to be- 
 
 lieve that it was ever known in any other country. 
 
 Rhode Island greening, — This, too, seems to be a Yankee 
 production, and a most valuable tree it is. It bears in al- 
 ternate years. It is too great a bearer. The tree is 
 inclined to bend down, and bear low. This fault should 
 be corrected. It is principally valuable as a cooking apple, 
 ill which respect it is superior to any other. For the table 
 it is good only when better fruit cannot be had. 
 
 Gardner'^s sweeting, — This is the most valuable of all the 
 apples for baking. It bears in alternate years. It will 
 keep till April, but it is prone to rot. 
 
 There are a great variety of sweet apples for summer 
 and winter use, and many fine varieties of winter apples, 
 which we have omitted. Every one knows the nonesuch^ 
 and the pearmain^ superior to almost any in our list, 
 but both appear to us to be on the decline, though we rec- 
 ommend their culture, on a small scale, to all who have 
 extent of ground * our object being simply to select for 
 small cultivators the most approved varieties. Coxe, 
 of New Jersey, the earliest and most extensive cultivator 
 on a great scale, has recommended the following selection 
 of apples ; and in his judgment we place great reliance : — 
 
 Juneting’, ripens i: 
 Prince's harvest. 
 Boudi apple, 
 Early pearmain, 
 Summer rose, 
 Codling, 
 
 Maiden's blush, 
 Hagloe's crab, 
 Catline, 
 
 Rambo, 
 
 Fall pippin. 
 Doctor apple, 
 
 June and July. 
 July, 
 do. 
 
 Aupjst. 
 
 ao. 
 
 September. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 October. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Wine, ripens in November. 
 
 Late pearmain, do. 
 
 Bell-nower. 
 
 Newark pippin. 
 
 Pennock. 
 
 Michael Henry, November. 
 Spitzenberg. 
 
 Newtown pippin. 
 
 Priestley. 
 
 Pom me d’api. 
 
 Car-house. 
 
 We think our own selection preferable for these Nor- 
 thern States. 
 
 Pears. — Petit Muscat , — To those who wish to have 
 
 the earliest possible ripe pear, this insignificant but prema- 
 ture pear may be desirable. 
 
 Rouselet hatif, — This pear is beautiful, and highly fla- 
 voured, and one small tree is all that any cultivator would 
 desire. We know it by the name of Catherine, or, as it is 
 pronounced, Kattern, 
 
 Madeleine^ or green chissell , — This is a fine summer pear. 
 
 Skinless pear,, or hlmquette d longue queue ^ is a delicious, 
 but short-lived pear. 
 
 Epargne is a pleasant pear* 
 
132 
 
 FRUITS. 
 
 Red bergamot is a beautiful pear of the flavour of the 
 bergamots. 
 
 The real Jargonelle is one of the finest summer pears. 
 It is a great and constant bearer, and comes in between the 
 smaller fruits of the garden, the strawberry and raspberry, 
 and the peach. As seen in Boston market, it is a carica- 
 ture of the fruit raised by the cultivator for his own use. 
 It is gathered unripe, and artificially ripened by being put 
 up in great masses. 
 
 The summer good Christian is a luscious and juicy pear, 
 but it is scarcely possible to raise it in the country, being 
 subject to spots and cracks. 
 
 Salviati^ ripening early in August, is a delicious pear in 
 good soils : in poor land it is of no value. 
 
 Broca'^s bergamot is one of the finest pears grown in shel- 
 tered situations ; but in exposed ones, its leaves fail, and 
 its fruit is acid. 
 
 The grey beurre^ the prince of pears in Boston, and in 
 the sheltered gardens of France, is of no value in the coun- 
 try, unless on walls, or in gardens sheltered by walls or 
 hills. 
 
 Seckle pear. — This is the greatest acquisition yet made 
 to the list of pears for New England culture. It is hardy, 
 bears every year, is subject to no casualty, and its flavour^ 
 to most persons, is the finest of any pear yet known.^ It 
 lasts about six weeks, from Sept. 15th to Nov. 1st. It is 
 supposed to be a native. No man should be without three 
 or four of them. 
 
 Moor-fowl egg.- — This pear ripens in November ; is deli- 
 cious, though of a peculiar flavour. 
 
 There is a variety of this pear, which is striped, in the 
 garden of John C. Gray, Esq., at Cambridge. 
 
 The St. MichaePs pear^ by the French called Doyenne . — ■ 
 This pear was, till lately, the pride of our gardens. Beau- 
 tiful beyond any other pear, melting, and extremely sweet, 
 it bore the palm of all autumnal pears. Causes unknown 
 have, for ten successive years, blighted its fruit ; yet we 
 advise the continued culture of it, because we have seen 
 the peach, after fifteen years of failure, resume its wonted 
 fertility and vigour. 
 
 Messire Jean. — This is an admirable pear ; hardy, pro^ 
 lific, of a breaking texture, extremely sweet, and ripening 
 in November and December. It seems to us to be rather 
 on the decline, but, in new gardens, it may revive. 
 
 The Amory., or Gibson^ or Andrews pear. — These various 
 
FRUITS. 
 
 133 
 
 names are only given because we are ignorant of the real 
 name. It is a European pear, unquestionably, and the 
 new names are only given to the same tree, because the 
 same identical tree has had, in the same garden, three suc- 
 cessive owners. 
 
 It is a very fine, but transient pear, of beautiful form, and 
 excellent qualities, ripening in September, which lessens 
 its value. 
 
 The Bergamotte Cressanne, — This pear, in perfection, 
 though rather austere, has all the high flavour of the hergor 
 mot family ; but it is more apt to crack than any other 
 pear whatever. The writer of this article, after twenty 
 years’ trial, has been compelled to regraft them all. It will 
 not suit the country, unless sheltered. 
 
 The Virgalouse, — This, one of the finest pears of France, 
 is subject to the same evil as the foregoing, and we sol- 
 emnly warn the cultivators in the country not to try it 
 unless they have terraces or walls. 
 
 The Colmar, — The same remarks will apply to this pear 
 also. We speak from long experience, and from the expe- 
 rience of other eminent cultivators. We must not listen to 
 French or American writers. This pear is not suited, with 
 us, but to the city, or to the opulent cultivators, who make 
 an artificial shelter for their trees either by walls, or build- 
 ings, or terraces. 
 
 The St, Germain, — This most noble variety of the pear 
 family succeeded as well in the country as in town dur- 
 ing the first twenty years of our knowledge of it, but it hag 
 failed during nearly fifteen years. It has seemed to be 
 recovering, and we should advise the continued culture of 
 it for a few years longer, as it is superior to any pear except 
 the following. 
 
 The Ambrette, — This pear was introduced into this state 
 in 1812. Mr. Coxe, who sent it here, called it the -4m- 
 brette. It is an ordinary pear in its appearance ; a strong, 
 vigorous, great-bearing tree. Not knowing its character, it 
 was first eaten as soon as it was soft ; but accident obliging 
 us to keep it longer, it proved to be one of the best win- 
 ter pears grown in our climate. It has high praise in 
 France. Its merit with us, however, is, that it bears our 
 climate perfectly. One small tree, imported in 1812, bore 
 five barrels of fruit in 1816. 
 
 Of the baking pears there are many varieties : — 
 
 The pound pear is a great bearer, and makes a valuable 
 baking and stewing pear. 
 
134 
 
 FRUITS, 
 
 The iron pear^ so called in this vicinity, is nearly as 
 valuable, as the fruit is new sound in the month of April. 
 
 The Catillac is also valuable from the same qualities, and 
 is much more beautiful. 
 
 The Spanish good Christian is also a great bearer, and 
 fitted for the same purposes. 
 
 We may now add the valuable varieties of pears sent to 
 this country by Mr. Knight, with many more introduced 
 by that indefatigable and most successful cultivator of 
 fruits in New England, Samuel G. Perkins, Esq. of Brook- 
 line, to whom our northern horticulture is deeply indebted 
 for his liberal dissemination of his new and valuable 
 varieties. 
 
 Mr. Knight’s trees are all of them entirely new^ not, as 
 has been supposed, by him, but principally by Mr. 
 
 Van Mons, of the Netherlands. The new kinds, thus in- 
 troduced, are as follows : — 
 
 Cassiomont. — This pear has borne fruit. It ripens in 
 September — is of a fair size, beautiful to the eye, and deli- 
 cious to the taste ; well adapted to supply the place of the 
 Sl .MichaePsj should it fail us. 
 
 Napoleon^ said to ripen in October, is described as a fine 
 fruit — has not borne in this country. 
 
 Marie Louise is equally recommended — ripening in 
 October — is showing abundance of fruit the present 
 year. 
 
 Biierre Knox showed its fruit in 1826 — a beautiful and 
 large pear, of buttery texture, ripening in October — is also in 
 fruit this year. 
 
 Tillinglon — praised as a beautiful fruit — not in bearing. 
 
 Passe Colmar — a late fruit — not in bearing. 
 
 Colmar d'^hyver — n late fruit — not in bearing. 
 
 Harden pant de Printems — showing fruit this year, and 
 presumed to be the best fruit of the pear kind for our cli- 
 mate — ripening in April and May. 
 
 Poire d'^Aremberg — also represented as an excellent 
 pear. Mr. Perkins has also received many other new va- 
 rieties, among which we recollect the Charles d'^Autriche 
 2ind the Sylvan che, 
 
 I'he only object in introducing into this list these new 
 varieties, is to say, that though we have distributed several 
 thousand scions and buds, and although we have been rob- 
 bed of many more, yet we have so many flouHshing shoots, 
 that we shall be able to furnish as many buds the ensuing 
 season, and grafts the season following, as we have ever 
 
FRUITS. 
 
 13S 
 
 been able to do, having kept the trees in a bush state, to 
 encourage the growth of shoots for cultivation. 
 
 Peaches. — This class of fruits is so natural to our 
 country, that a great variety, unknown to European culti- 
 vators, are found, of very considerable merit. We shall 
 therefore take notice of the varieties only more particularly 
 distinguished. 
 
 The two varieties of nutmeg peaches have no merit what- 
 ever, except their great precocity. The earliest peach of 
 any value is the early Anne^ a white and very tolerable 
 peach. 
 
 The white Magdalen, 
 The royal Kensington, 
 The alberge. 
 
 The swalsh, 
 
 The noblesse. 
 
 The red Magdalen, 
 T'he admirable. 
 
 The old Newington, 
 The teton de Venus, 
 Jaques^ rareripe. 
 
 These we can recommend as excellent fruits. There 
 
 are many others of excellent quality, both foreign and 
 native ; but these will suffice for a moderate-sized 
 garden. ' 
 
 There are a great variety of native peaches, the value of 
 which is often as great as that of any peaches which have 
 names, particularly of those which have a yellow flesh. 
 The yellow-fleshed peaches are more apt to propagate their 
 like from the stone than any other peaches. 
 
 The nectarine , — Though this fruit is nothing but a smooth 
 peach, yet it is far more tender, and requires either a wall, 
 or a fence, or the side of some building, to protect it. The 
 varieties are not numerous. The best are. 
 
 The Elruge j ripens in August. 
 The white j a beautiful fruit 5 — 
 September. 
 
 Lewises nectarine, a Boston pro- 
 duction 5 beautiful j yellow- 
 
 fleshed ; ripens in September. 
 Late Newington j rich and melt- 
 ing j September. 
 
 Red Roman ; a beautiful and 
 highly flavoured variety. 
 
 There are seven or eight others, but these we recom- 
 mend. 
 
 The apricot , — This requires some shelter also ; should be 
 planted in a yard, or on the south side of a building ; if 
 nailed to it as an espalier, the better. The best are, 
 
 The Breda, | The Brussels, | The Moor park, | The peach apricot. 
 
 Cherry. — The varieties are innumerable. For small 
 
 gardens we recommend 
 
 The May duke, for its earliness. 
 
 The common white-heart ; 
 
 The bigarou, or late white-heart, 
 The early and the late black-heart, 
 
 Mr Knight’s new sorts 
 
 The black Tartarean, 
 
 The red mazard new variety, ceJled 
 the Downer cherry. 
 
 are not yet tested here. 
 
136 
 
 GARLICK. 
 
 For pies and puddings, as well as for lateness, every 
 garden should have a Morello, which is very juicy, 
 though very acid. 
 
 Plum. — The best plum known is the green gage, 
 which the French call Reine Claude. Others of esteemed 
 value are the 
 
 Violet, 
 Orleans, 
 Fotheringham, 
 Drop d'or. 
 
 Coe’s golden drop. 
 Red imperial. 
 White imperial. 
 
 La royale. 
 
 Berries. — The English garden mulberry is a highly 
 esteemed fruit, but it is apt to be winter-killed in our cli- 
 mate, unless in sheltered spots. 
 
 Gooseberry. — This is a fine fruit, as brought to perfection 
 in Great Britain. The varieties are almost infinite. The 
 gardeners have given names to several hundred. The only 
 direction should be to send the best Lancashire or Scotch 
 gooseberries, of various colours. They are white, green, 
 yellow, red, and dark purple. Some of the smaller sorts 
 are better flavoured th an any of the larger kinds. 
 
 Currant. — There are but three sorts worth cultivation — 
 the large Dutch white ; the large Dutch red ; and the 
 Champaigne, or pink-coloured, as a variety. 
 
 Raspberry. — There are only two sorts of any great value — 
 the white Antwerp, and the red Antwerp. The cane, or 
 smooth-stalked, is also praised by some persons, but we 
 have had no success with it; it seems to us to be our native 
 raspberry. 
 
 Strawberry. — For the chief crop, the red and white 
 Alpine are the most prolific : for show and flavour, the 
 pine-apple, the roseberry, the scarlet or Virginia, and 
 Knight’s Downton, seem to us to include all that need be 
 desired. Mr. Parmentier, of Long Island, has introduced a 
 sort without runners, which are said to bear twice. We 
 have not seen them, though they are growing here. 
 
 GARLICK. — Allium sativum. — Garlic is a hardy, peren- 
 nial plant, with a bulbous root, which grows naturally in 
 Sicily and the south of France. The leaves are linear, 
 long and narrow. The bulb is composed of a dozen or fif- 
 teen subordinate bulbs, called cloves. 
 
 Culture. — Garlic is propagated by planting the cloves, 
 or subdivisions of the bulbs, and prefers a ‘‘ light, dry soil, 
 rich, but not recently dunged. In February, March, or begin- 
 ning of April, having some large, full bulbs, divide them into 
 separate cloves, and plant them singly in beds, in rows 
 
GOOSEBERRY. 
 
 137 
 
 lengthwise. Set them from six to nine inches asunder, two 
 or three indies deep, either in drills or in holes made with a 
 blimt-ended dibble. In placing the cloves in drills, thrust 
 the bottom a little into the ground, and earth them over the 
 proper depth.” — Loudon. 
 
 M‘]\Iahou says, garlic, rocambole and shallots, may 
 be planted in October or November, and observes, that, 
 when planted at this season in dry, light, rich ground, the 
 roots will be much larger than if deferred till spring.” 
 Taking the crop . — “ The maturity of the bulbs is discov- 
 erable by the leaves changing yellowish, in a decaying 
 state ; when they may be taken wholly up. Continue the 
 stalky part of the leaves to each root ; spread them in the 
 sun to dry and harden, and then lie them in bunches by the 
 stalks, and house them, to keep for use as wanted : they 
 will remain good till the next spring and summer. If, in 
 their advancing growth, some are required for present use, 
 before attaining maturity, a few of the early planting may 
 be drawn in May or June ‘ but permitting the general sup- 
 ply to attain full growth as above.” — Ahercromhie. 
 
 Use . — It is used by many nations very extensively in 
 cookery, both for seasoning and for food ; but not so much 
 by the English or Americans for that purpose. The med- 
 ical properties of garlic are various. In dropsical com- 
 plaints, asthmas, and agues, it is said to have been success- 
 fully used. Some instances have occurred, in deafness, of 
 the beneficial effects of wrapping a clove of garlic in muslin, 
 and putting it into the ear. As a medicine internally taken, 
 it is usually administered as a bolus, or made into pills. Its 
 imell is considered as an infallible remedy against vapours, 
 and as useful in nearly all the nervous disorders to which 
 females are subject. An oil is sometimes prepared from 
 garlic, which is so heavy as to sink in water ; but the vir- 
 tues of this pungent vegetable are more perfectly and more 
 readily extracted by spirit of wine than in any other way. 
 A syrup also is made of it. 
 
 “ The juice of garlic is said to be the best and strongest 
 cemeat that can be adopted for broken glass and china, 
 leaving little or no mark if used with care. Snails, worms, 
 and the grubs or larvae of insects, as well as moles and 
 other vermin, may all be driven away by placing prepara- 
 tions of garlic in or near their haunts.” — Dom. Encyc. 
 
 GOOSEBERRY . — Ribes grossularia . — The gooseberry 
 is a native of several parts of Europe, and is cultivated to 
 great perfection in Lancashire, in England. Loudon says, 
 12 ^ 
 
J38 
 
 GOOSEBERRY 
 
 Happily, this wholesome and useful fruit is to he found m 
 almost every cottage garden in Britain, and it ought to be 
 considered a part of every gardener’s duty to encourage the 
 introduction of its most useful varieties in these humble en- 
 closures. In Lancashire and some of the adjoining coun- 
 ties, almost every cottager, who has a garden, cultivates the 
 gooseberry with a view to prizes, given at what are called 
 gooseberry prize meetings ; of these there is annually pub- 
 lished an account, with the names and weight of the suc- 
 cessful sorts, in what is called the Manchester Gooseberry^ 
 Book, The prizes vary from 10 5 . to 5 or £ 10 ; the sec- 
 ond, third, to the sixth and tenth degrees of merit, receiv- 
 ing often proportionate prizes. There are meetings held 
 in th(5 spring to ^ make up,’ as the term is, the sorts, the 
 persons, and the conditions of the exhibition ; and in Au- 
 gust, to weigh and taste the fruit, and determine the prizes.” 
 
 Varieties, — Loudon says, “ The present lists of the Lon- 
 don nursery-men contain from eighty to one hundred names ; 
 hut those of some of the Lancashire growers above three 
 hundred. Forsyth, in 1800, mentions ten sorts as com- 
 mon ; and adds a list of forty-three new sorts grown in 
 Manchester.” 
 
 Propagation, — ^The gooseberry may be propagated by all 
 the modes applicable to trees, or shrubs ; even by pieces 
 of the roots ; but the mode by cuttings is usually adopted 
 for continuing varieties, and that by seeds for procuring 
 them. 
 
 By seeds, — So far as we know, the scientific mode of im- 
 pregnating one variety with another has not been applied 
 to this fruit. In general, the seed of some choice variety, 
 thoroughly ripe, is taken, and sown in autumn, or early in 
 the spring, in beds or pots of rich, light, mellow earth : 
 when tlie plants are a year old, they are planted out in 
 nursery rows, to be cultivated and trained there a year or 
 two : in general, they will bear the third year. 
 
 By cuttings. — The best season for planting gooseberry 
 cuttings is in autumn, just before the leaves begin to fall : 
 early in the spring, as soon as the ground is sufficiently 
 thawed, however, will answer nearly as well. The cut- 
 tings should be taken from the bearing shoots. Cut them 
 to such a length as the strength and ripeness of the wood 
 will bear, and cut off all the buds except three, or at most 
 four, at top. and train the plants with a single stem of nine 
 inches or a foot high, from the top of which the branches 
 should ratliate upwards at an angle of 40®, or better if 46®. 
 
GOOSEBERRY. 
 
 139 
 
 Haynes, an English writer, advises taking off cuttings in 
 July, when the fruit is on the tree, in order to make sure 
 of the sorts ; and says, by immediate planting, watering, 
 and shading, as good plants are produced as from ripe wood 
 cuttings. 
 
 “ Soil and site , — Any good garden-soil, on a dry bottom, 
 and well manured, will suit the gooseberry. That which 
 is soft and moist produces the largest fruit. The situation 
 should not be under the drip of trees over-much shaded or 
 confined, otherwise the fruit will be small, ill-flavoured, and 
 the plants apt to mildew. Forsyth says, gooseberries should 
 be dunged every year, or at least have a good coat of dung 
 once in two years. Haynes recommends a mixture of peat 
 and loam well manured, and a shaded situation. The last 
 he proposes to effect by planting, among his compartments 
 of gooseberries, rows of Jerusalem artichokes in the direc- 
 tion of east and west.” — Loudon. 
 
 Final planting . — “ The season for planting gooseberries 
 is any time during open weather, from October till March 
 [or the 1st of April in New England]. When trees are 
 procured from the public nurseries, choose such as are of 
 some advanced size, about three years’ growth, with pretty 
 full heads, for immediate plentiful bearers. Let the gene- 
 ral supply be in standard bushes, and planted principally 
 in the Idtchen-garden, in single rows, along the boundary 
 edges of the main compartments. When the object is to 
 raise large quantities of fruit, plantations are made in con- 
 tinued parallel rows, eight or ten feet asunder, by six feet 
 in the row. It would be eligible to plant a few sorts 
 against south and other sunny walls, or paling, for earlier 
 and larger fruit ; and on north walls to ripen late in suc- 
 cession.” — Abercrombie. 
 
 Forsyth says, ‘‘The market-gardeners about London 
 plant them in rows, from eight to ten feet apart from row 
 to row, and six feet from plant to plant, in the rows. In 
 small gardens I would recommend planting them in a com- 
 partment by themselves, at the distance of six feet between 
 the rows, and four feet from plant to plant ; or you may 
 plant them round the edges of the compartments, about 
 three feet from the path ; you will then have the ground 
 clear for cropping, and a man, by setting one foot on the 
 border, can gather the gooseberries without injuring the 
 crop.” 
 
 Neill says, “ In some places, gooseberry-trees, on the 
 sides of the borders, are trained to a single tall stem, which 
 
140 
 
 GOOSEBERilY. 
 
 is tied to a stake ; this, though six or eight feet high, occa- 
 sions scarcely any shade on the border, and it does not 
 occupy much room, nor exclude air; while, at the same 
 time, the stem becomes hung close with berries, and makes 
 a pleasant appearance in that state.” — Edbu Encyc, art. 
 Horticulture. 
 
 Mode of bearing. — The gooseberry produces its fruit not 
 only on the shoots of last summer, and on shoots two or 
 three years old, but also on spurs or snags arising from the 
 elder branches along the sides ; but the former afford the 
 largest fruit. The shoots retained for bearers should, there- 
 fore, be retained at full length, or nearly so.” — Abercrombie. 
 
 Pruning. — The bushes will require a regular pruning 
 twice in the year.” 
 
 Summer pruning , — Where any bushes are crowded with 
 cross and water shoots of the same year, shading the fruit from 
 the sun, and preventing the access of air, thin the heart of 
 the plant and other tufted parts moderately, pinching off 
 or cutting out close what spray is removed ; but do not 
 touch the summer shoots in general.” Maher says, It 
 will greatly contribute tp the perfection of the fruit, if the 
 very small berries are taken away with a pair of scissors, 
 about the middle or end of May ; and these small berries 
 will be found quite as good for sauce, or gooseberry-cream, 
 as the larger.” 
 
 Winter pruning. — “You may proceed to the winter prun- 
 ing any time from November until the end of February, 
 or until the buds are so swelled that further delay 'would 
 endanger their being rubbed off in the operation. Cut out 
 the cross-shoots and water-shoots of the preceding summer, 
 and the superfluous among crowded branches. Prune long 
 ramblers and low stragglers to some well placed lateral or 
 eye ; or, if an under-straggler spring very low, cut it away. 
 Of last year’s shoots retain a suflicient quantity of laterals 
 and terminals, in vacant parts, to form successional bearers, 
 and to supply the places of unfruitful and decayed old 
 wood, which, as you proceed, should be removed. Mostly 
 retain a leading shoot at the end of a principal branch, 
 leaving it either naturally terminal, or, where the branch 
 would thus be too extended, pruning to some competent 
 lateral within bounds. The superfluous young laterals on 
 the good main branches, instead of being taken off clean, 
 may be cut into little stubs of one or tw^o eyes ; which will 
 *: ,nd out fruit-buds and spurs. Of the supply reserved for 
 new hearers, a small number will probably require shorten* 
 
GOOSEBERRY. 
 
 141 
 
 ing, '^vhere too extended, or curv^ated ’’'"‘rmmodiously; leave 
 these from eight to twelve inches in length, according to 
 strengtli and situation ; those of moderate extent and 
 regular growth will require very little shortening, and 
 many none at all. Observe, too close cutting, or general 
 shortening, occasions a great superfluity of wood in sum- 
 mer ; for the multiplied laterals, thus forced from the eyes 
 of the shortened branches, increase to a thicket, so as to re- 
 tard the growth, and prevent the full ripening of the fruit : 
 on which account it is an important part of pruning to keep 
 the middle of the head open and clear, and to let the occa- 
 sional shortening of the shoots be sparing and moderate. 
 Between the bearing branches keep a regulated distance 
 of at least six inches at the extremities, which will render 
 them fertile bearers of good fruit. Some persons, not 
 pruning the gooseberry-tree on right principles, are apt to 
 leave the shoots excessively close and tufted, while they 
 shorten the whole promiscuously ; others sometimes clip 
 them with garden shears to close, round heads : in conse- 
 quence of being pruned in these methods, the bushes shoot 
 crowdedly, full of young wood in summer, from which the 
 fruit is always very small, and does not ripen freely with 
 full flavour.’’ — Loudon, 
 
 Forsyth says, Many of the Lancashire sorts are apt to 
 grow horizontally, and the branches frequently trail on the 
 ground, which renders them liable to be broken by high 
 winds, especially w hen they are loaded with fruit. In that 
 case, I would recommend two or three hoops to be put 
 round them, to which the branches may be tied, to sup- 
 port them, and prevent their being broken by the wind.” 
 
 Prolonging the crop , — In addition to planting late sorts 
 in shady situations, the bushes, whether standards or train- 
 ed, may be matted over when the fruit is ripe, and, in this 
 way, some of the reds, as the Warrington, and the thick- 
 skinned yellow sorts^ as the Mogul, will keep on the trees 
 till Christmas.” 
 
 Insects , — The gooseberry is infested with the caterpillars 
 of several species of flies, and various methods have been 
 prescribed to destroy them, which are detailed by Loudon. 
 — Encyc, of Gard, p. 734, 735. The applications he men- 
 tions were, generally, made by means of watering-pans and 
 garden-engines, and the substances used were decoctions 
 of tobacco, elder leaves, black currant leaves, soap, quick 
 lime, &c. Mr. Loudon observes, however, that, in his 
 opinion, the only effectual plan seems to be that of hand- 
 
143 
 
 GOURD. 
 
 picking, which, however tedious it may seem, will often be 
 found a more economical mode than any of the above. 
 Hand-picking, with the spring-generated kinds, should 
 commence as soon as the eggs are observed on the under- 
 sides of the leaves, of a white colour, and not thicker than 
 hairs : the whole l^af may be picked off, or the eggs brush- 
 ed or sponged off : with the winter kinds, it ought to 
 commence as soon as they leave their nidus in the soil or 
 bark, and appear on the leaves.” 
 
 Preventive treatment. — ‘‘ Sprinkling gooseberry and cur- 
 rant buslies with tar-water prevents the fly or moth from 
 settling on the plant to lay its eggs ; this must bedone early 
 in the spring, for, if done after the fruit is set, it will taste 
 of tar.” — J. Buschj in Hort. Trans, iv. 415. 
 
 Forcing. — “ The gooseberry may be forced in pots or 
 boxes, placed in pits, or in the peach-house or vinery. Hay 
 plants in pots in November, removes to the peach-house in 
 Janua.ry, and has ripe fruit in the end of April, which he 
 sends to the table growing on the plants.” — Hort. Trans. 
 iv. 415. 
 
 Use . — The fruit was formerly in little esteem, but it 
 has received so much improvement, that it is now consid- 
 ered very valuable for tarts, pies, sauces, and creams, before 
 being ripe, and, when at maturity, it forms a rich dessert 
 fruit for three months, and is preserved in sugar for the 
 same purpose, and in water for the kitchen. Unripe goose- 
 berries can be preserved in bottles of water against winter ; 
 the bottles are filled with berries close-corked and well- 
 sealed ; they are then placed in a cool cellar till wanted. 
 By plunging the bottles, after being corked, into boiling 
 water for a few minutes, (heating them gradually to pre- 
 vent cracking,) the bottles are said to keep better.” — Neill. 
 
 Gooseberry wine is made in the same manner as currant 
 wine, except that one third less sugar is required. In 
 picking the berries, take none that have fallen upon the 
 ground, or that have been shaded and growm sour. 
 
 GOURD. — Cucurbita. — There are various kinds of 
 gourds, which are, in this country, cultivated rather for orna- 
 ment than use. They may be sowm at the same time, and 
 cultivated in the same manner, as melons and cucumbers ; 
 but should be trained to trellises, fences, walls, or to cover 
 arbours. The large bottle-gourds {cucurbita lagenaria) 
 are from ten to fifteen inches in length, and the shells will 
 hold from one to three quarts. They are light, and make 
 good dippers, and, with good usage, wdll last years. If, 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 143 
 
 after a few gourds have set, the ends of the vines are pinch- 
 ed off, the fruit will be larger and better. The bicoloured 
 gourd (ciicurbita bicolor) is a small, beautiful, round fruity 
 one part a deep green, and the other a bright yellow. On- 
 ly ornamental.”— Z)r. Grec7i, 
 
 GRAFTING is the taking a shoot from one tree, and in- 
 serting it into another, in such a manner that both may 
 unite closely, and become one tree. Its use is to propagate 
 any curious sorts of fruits, so as to be sure of the kinds, 
 which cannot be done by any other method. 
 
 The grafts or scions should be cut otF from the trees be- 
 fore their buds begin to swell, which is generally three 
 weeks or a month before the season for grafting. They 
 may be buried in ground half their length, and their tops 
 covered with dry litter. If a small joint of the former 
 year’s wood is cut off with the scion, it will preserve it the 
 better, and be more likely to take when grafted. If the 
 scions are to be carried any considerable distance, it will be 
 best to stick their lower end in a potato, or a lump of well- 
 tempered, moist clay, and then wrap them up in moss, 
 which will preserve them fresh a month, or longer. 
 
 The best grafts are from trees raised from seed ; next, 
 those raised from cuttings; but those of trees raised from 
 suckers should be rejected. They should be shoots of the 
 last year’s growth, and should be chosen from the outside 
 lateral branches of healthy trees, The middle part of each 
 shoot makes the best scions ; but long shoots, and especially 
 where the scion is of a rare variety, maybe cut into several 
 scions of four or six inches in length, reserving not fewer 
 than two, nor more than five eyes to form the future head 
 of the tree. 
 
 The best stocks are such as have been allowed much 
 room in the nursery ; those planted very close have the 
 wood soft, and the grafts on them are not fruitful. 
 
 The materials for grafting are, a strong pruning knife for 
 cutting off the heads of the stocks, previous to their prepa- 
 ration by the grafting knife, for the scion ; a small saw for 
 large stocks ; and a penknife for very small scions ; a chis- 
 el and mallet for cleft grafting; bands or strings to tie the 
 grafts with ; and grafting clay. 
 
 Grafting clay should be prepared at least ten days previ- 
 ous to its being wanted. Loudon directs to prepare it as 
 follows : Take either stiff yellow or blue clay, or clayey 
 
 loam or brick earth ; in either case adding thereto about a 
 fourth part of fresh horse-dung, free from litter, and a por- 
 
144 
 
 GRAFTING* 
 
 tion of cut hay, mixing the whole together, and adding a 
 little water ; then let the whole be well beaten with a stick [or 
 wrought with a hoe] upon a floor, or other hard substance ; 
 and, as it becomes too dry, apply more water, at every beat- 
 ing turning it over ; and continuing beating it well at top till 
 it becomes flat and soft. This process ought to be repeat- 
 ed more or less, according as the nature of the clay may 
 require to render it ductile, and yet not so tough as to be 
 apt to crack in dry weather : for instance, it should be 
 several times beaten the first day ; and the next morning 
 repeat the beating, still moistening it with water ; and by 
 thus repeating the beating several times every day, for two 
 or three days, or every other day at least, for a week, it 
 will be in proper order for use ; observing that it should be 
 prepared a week at least before it is used ; but if a month, 
 the better, keeping it moist. Some recommend salt to be 
 mixed with the clay, and others, ashes or lime, rubbish or 
 drift sand ; the object in these cases being to prevent its 
 cracking with the sun ; which, however, the horse-drop- 
 pings, if well incorporated, will, in general, prevent.” 
 
 The grafting clay of the French and Dutch is composed 
 of half cow-dung, free from litter, and half fresh loam, 
 equally incorporated. They prefer this to all others for 
 excluding the external air from wounds in trees, &c. of 
 every description, and ridicule the idea of certain complex 
 compositions. A French writer on agriculture observes of 
 a noted English composition, (Forsyth’s, we believe,) that 
 it is ‘‘ so complicated and ridiculous in the eyes of those 
 who have any knowledge of chymistry or natural philoso- 
 phy, that it is a matter of astonishment how it could be 
 proposed in our age.” 
 
 Substitutes for grafting clay, — These are numerous. Some 
 of them are specified by Loudon, (Encyc. of Card, p. 397,) 
 and in Thacher'^s Orchardist^ p. 37, second ed. But we 
 have been assured by practical orchardists that most of 
 these are injurious. The pitch, tar, rosin, or turpentine, 
 which composes part of the composition of most or all of 
 them, is injurious to vegetation, and will not withstand the 
 heat of summer. 
 
 There are various modes of grafting, of which we shall 
 describe some of the most common. 
 
 1, Whip~grafting^ or, as it is sometimes called, tongue- 
 grafting^ is most commonly practised in nurseries upon 
 small stocks. The stocks and the scions should be of the 
 same or nearly the same size. They are both tc be sloped 
 
GIIAFTINU. 
 
 J40 
 
 off a full inch or more, and then tied closely together. This 
 method may be much improved by performing what gar- 
 deners call tongueing or tipping ; that is, by making an in- 
 cision in the bare part of the stock, downwards, and a simi- 
 lar slit in the scion, upwards : after which, they are to be 
 carefully joined together, so that the rinds of both may meet 
 in every part, when a ligament or bandage of bass is to be 
 tied round the scion, to prevent it from being displaced, 
 and the whole is to be covered over, or coated over with 
 the grafting clay above described. 
 
 2. Cleft-grafting^ or slit-grafting^ is performed on stocks 
 from one to two inches diameter. The head of the stock 
 being carefully cut off, in a sloping direction, a perpendicu- 
 lar cleft, or slit, is to be made about two inches deep, with 
 a knife or chisel, towards the back of the slope, into which 
 a wedge is to be driven, in order to keep it open for the 
 admission of the scion : the latter must now be cut in a 
 perpendicular direction, and in the form of a wedge, so as 
 to fit the incision in the stock. As soon as it is prepared, 
 it should be placed in the cleft, in such a manner that the 
 inner bark of both the stock and scion may meet exactly 
 together. It is then to be tied with a ligature of bass, and 
 clayed over, as is practised in whip-grafting^ three or four 
 eyes being left in the scion uncovered. It should be 
 observed, that, in making the cleft in the stock, care should 
 be taken not to injure the pith, the scions being inserted in 
 the sap-wood of the stock or branch. 
 
 3. Crown-grafting is commonly practised upon such 
 stocks as are too large and stubborn to cleave. It is some- 
 times called grafting in the bark or rind, from the scion 
 being inserted between the bark and wood. This mode of 
 grafting is performed with best effect somewhat later than 
 the others, as the motion of the sap renders the bark and 
 wood of the stock much more easily separated for the 
 admission of the scions. First cut or saw off the head of 
 the stock or branch horizontally, or level, and pare the top 
 smooth ; then, having the scions, cut one side of each flat, 
 and samewhat sloping, an inch and a half long, forming a 
 sort of a shoulder at the top of the slope, to rest upon the 
 crown of the stock ; and then raise the rind of the stock 
 with the ivory wedge, forming the handle of the budding 
 knife, (or some other suitable implement of a wedge-like 
 shape,) so as to admit the scion between the bark and tha 
 wood two inches down. Then place the scion with the 
 cut side next to the wood, thrusting it down far enough for 
 
 13 
 
146 
 
 GRAFTING. 
 
 the shoulder to rest upon the top of the stock ; and in thiis 
 manner may be put three, four, five or more scions, in one 
 large stock or branch. It is alleged as a disadvantage 
 attending this method, in exposed situations, that the in- 
 grafted shoots, for two or three years, are liable to be blown 
 out of the stock by violent winds ; the only remedy for 
 which is, tying long rods to the body of the stock or branchy 
 and tying up each scion and its shoots to one of the rods. 
 
 4. Side-grafting resembles whip or tongue-grafting^ but 
 differs in being performed on the side of the stock, without 
 heading down. It is practised on wall-trees to fill up 
 vacancies, and, sometimes, in order to have a variety of 
 fruits upon the same tree. Having fixed upon those parts 
 of the branches where wood is wanting to furnish the head 
 or any part of the tree, there slope off the bark and a little 
 of the wood, and cut the lower end of the scions to fit the 
 part as near as possible \ then join them to the branch, tie 
 them with bass, and clay them over. 
 
 5. Saddle-grafting is performed by first cutting the top 
 of the stock into a wedge-1 ik6 form, and then splitting up 
 the end of the scion, and thinning off each half to a tongue- 
 shape ; it is then placed on the wedge, embracing it on 
 each side, and the inner barks are made to join on one 
 side of the stock, as in cleft-grafting. This is a very strong 
 and handsome mode for standard trees, when grafted at the 
 standard height. It is also desirable for orange-trees and 
 rose-standards, as it makes a handsome finish, covering a 
 part of the stock, Vv^hich, by the other methods, long 
 remains a black scar, and sometimes never becomes cov- 
 ered with bark. The stocks for this purpose should not 
 be much thicker than the scions, or two scions may be 
 inserted. 
 
 6. Root-grafting is sometimes performed, in nurseries, 
 
 on parts of the roots of removed trees, when the proper 
 stocks are scarce ; and in which case the root of the white- 
 thorn has been resorted to, as stock both for the apple and 
 pear. In general, however, a piece of the root of the tree 
 of the same genus is selected, well furnished with fibres, 
 and a scion placed on it in any of the ordinary ways for 
 grafting small stocks. Thus united, they are planted so 
 deep as to cover the ball of clay, and leave only a few eyes 
 of the scion above ground. A variety of this kind of graft- 
 
 ing, practised by Knight, is thus described : ‘ Transplanting, 
 many years ago, some pear-stocks from a seed-bed, of 
 which the soil was soft and deep, I found that the first- 
 

 147 
 
 erniited roots of many of them descended a foot or more 
 perpendicularly into the earth, before they divided into any 
 lateral ramilications ; and, as I did not like to replant the 
 young trees, with such an inconvenient length of perpen- 
 dicular root, I cut oir about six inches from each. The 
 amputated parts were then accurately fitted and bound, as 
 ill splice or lohip-grafling^ to scions of pear-trees, which 
 were selected as nearly as possible of the same size ; and 
 the roots, with their attached branches, were deposited in 
 the ground as cuttings, so deep that the whole of the root 
 and about an inch of the scion were covered. The soil 
 w'as then drawn up with the hoe on each side of the plants, 
 which were placed in rows, so that one bud only of each 
 plant was above the soil, and the other just within it. These 
 grafts succeeded perfectly well ; and I have subsequently 
 repeated the same experiment, with equal success, upon the 
 apple, the plum, and the peach. In the greater part of these 
 experiments, the roots were perfectly cleansed from mould by 
 washing, before they were fitted to the graft, and were then 
 placed in wet moss, till a sufficient number were ready to 
 be carried to the nursery; a common dibber only was em- 
 ployed in planting them ; but the mould was washed into 
 the holes with water, to close it well round the roots, and 
 to supply the place of the clay, used in other methods of 
 grafting.’ — Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 239. A variation of this 
 mode consists in leaving that part of the tap-root not wanted, 
 with the removed tree, undisturbed in the soil, and grafting 
 on it there. Such root-grafts grow with uncommon 
 vigour.” — Loudon. 
 
 The time of the year for performing the above kinds of 
 grafting should be, when the sap of the stock has begun to 
 move, in the spring, and just before the buds are unfolded. 
 
 7. Summer-grafting. A letter from Abner Landrum to 
 the editor of the American Farmer., contains the following 
 observations on this subject : “About the 1st of July, when 
 the growth of some trees had become stationary, I cut a 
 twig of the pear-tree, and inserted it on a nursery stock, 
 which readily grew off. I next tried almost every variety 
 of orchard fruits, which succeeded perfectly well. I was 
 induced to make this experiment from the rationality of the 
 theory, it having occurred, upon the slightest reflection, that 
 failures in spring-grafting might originate from the dissipa- 
 tion of moisture by the drying winds peculiar to that season, 
 before the sap of the stock acquires sufficient motion to 
 furnish the graft with due nourishment ; but from the rapid 
 
148 
 
 GRAITING. 
 
 motion of the sap in some stocks, with the general mois- 
 ture of the air during midsummer, the operation would sel- 
 dom fail ; and the result fully proved this conclusion well 
 founded. It next occurred to me, that the walnut, fig, and 
 persimon, which will not succeed in the spring, except by 
 mere chance, might now answer on the same principle of 
 reasoning : I accordingly made the experiment, and suc- 
 ceeded. 
 
 “ To make the success of suminer-grofting certain, take the 
 twigs to be inserted from a tree in which the sap is, as near 
 as possible, stationary; and select a stock in which the sap 
 has the greatest possible motion. July is the proper time 
 for summer-grafting, and indeed the most suitable month 
 of the twelve for that operation. However, the operation 
 may be performed, with tolerable success, during the remain- 
 der of the summer and fall months.’’ 
 
 8. Another mode of engrafting has been practised, and 
 we believe invented, by Col. J. F. Wingate, of Bath, in the 
 state of Maine. The process and its advantages are thus 
 described in a letter from Col. Wingate to Gen. H. A. S, 
 Dearborn : — ‘‘ The instrument best adapted to the purpose, 
 and which I have generally made use of in the operation, 
 is a common budding-knife, the handle of which, being 
 smooth and thin, is well designed for separating the bark 
 from the wood of the stock ; and this is performed and the 
 scion inserted in the following manner, namely ; in the first 
 place, make a horizontal or transverse cut upon the stock 
 or limb to be engrafted, according to its size, from one half 
 to one and a half inch in length. Then at the left end 
 (this being the most convenient) make a perpendicular cut 
 downward, (through to the wood in both cases,) about the 
 same length ; take a small chip from the bark just above 
 the horizontal line, or cut at the place where the scion is 
 to be fixed, deep enough to allow the low^er or wedge part 
 of it to meet and lay close to the inner bark or sap-wood 
 of the stock. Raise the bark as in budding, and separate 
 it sufficiently from the wood to receive the scion, which 
 should be gently pressed into the proper position, and there 
 secured by slips of bass mats, or some other soft material, 
 wound around the limb or stock so as to cover the lower 
 part of the scion, and press upon the bark of the tree the 
 whole length of the perpendicular cut ; after which I have 
 il^enerally rubbed on a thin coat of engrafting composition, 
 for the purpose of excluding the dew and rain. That which 
 I have found most durable and effectual for this purpose is 
 
GJlAKTiNG. 
 
 149 
 
 made of equal parts of rosin, lard, and beeswax. When 
 cold, it may be cut in thin slices as required for use, warmed 
 in the hand sudiciently to apply and adhere to the wood, — 
 will yield to its growth, and remain until the wound is 
 entirely healed. The scion should be of the usual length, 
 exposing from three to five buds : the part inserted is cut in 
 the wedge form, very much as in the ordinary cleft-grafting, 
 except that the inner side must be bevelled to a proud edge 
 to prevent its injuriously opening the bark of the stock 
 beyond the scion, and opposite to the perpendicular cut. 
 In some of my early experiments, I made a shoulder to the 
 scion to rest upon the outside bark of the stock ; but this 
 proved entirely useless, as the scion invariably first took on 
 the inner part, from the ascending sap, except in one 
 instance, in which I reversed the scion, and inserted the top 
 downwards, when, after some delay, it appeared, so far as I 
 could discover the adhesion, to take from the returning sap 
 in the outer bark ; but as I made only a single experiment 
 of this kind, and the scion was accidentally removed soon 
 after it had taken, I am unable to give you any additional 
 facts respecting it, which might be either useful or interest- 
 ing. 
 
 ‘‘ I will now state what I conceive to be the advantages of 
 the present over the ordinary mode of engrafting and of 
 budding. Among the most important, I may perhaps say, 
 that it can be performed with more ease and with greater 
 facility, — that the scion takes more readily and grows more 
 rapidly, — that it maybe inserted in any part of the trunk or 
 limb of the tree, without amputating or otherwise injuring 
 it, and where the other mode cannot be easily performed. 
 If it take, the necessary pruning may be made at any sub- 
 sequent period, and if it fail, the wound in the bark is soon 
 closed, the tree is not disfigured, neither is it retarded in 
 its growth, nor is the quantity of its fruit, if it be in bearing, 
 diminished. Thus it may be said to have all the advan- 
 tages of budding, with the additional one of producing the 
 new fruit certainly one, and probably two or three years 
 sooner , and further, it may be successfully performed at 
 any season of the year while the sap is in motion, and the 
 scions taken from the growth of the same or of the preced- 
 ing year. It will be found, too, that the stock is less 
 injured, heals more readily and effectually, than when split, 
 as in the ordinary mode of cleft-grafting. All the branches 
 of a tree may be removed clean to the trunk, and new ones 
 produced, and any shape or form given to the tree by the 
 13 ^ 
 
150 
 
 GRAFTING. 
 
 insertion of scions at such places as you please. And I am 
 certain that they adhere more firmly, and are less liable to 
 injury from rain or violent winds, than those inserted in a 
 different manner ; and, if properly inserted, probably not one 
 in fifty will fail. 
 
 “ On one tree, to which I gave an entire new top last year, 
 and which had never before blossomed, several fine apples 
 were produced and ripened in perfection, although the 
 scions blossomed about one month later than the parent 
 tree. I ought, perhaps, to add, that one cause of the success 
 and extraordinary growth of some of the scions I have 
 inserted in this way is doubtless the severe pruning I have 
 given the trees about the time they were engrafted ; and 
 it may be proper to state, that I have experimented only 
 upon apple-trees, although I am aware of no reason why 
 this mode should not answer equally well on most other 
 kinds of fruit-trees, where budding and grafting could be 
 successfully performed. I have sent you by the packet a 
 specimen of the new mode of engrafting, which is indeed 
 of very extraordinary growth ; the scion was inserted the 
 6th of September, 1824, being the growth of the same year : 
 the leaves of that season died and dropped off, new ones 
 were disclosed, and new buds formed the same autumn, 
 and the two branches are the entire growth of last year, 
 and of the following dimensions, namely; main branch, 
 five and a half feet in length ; secondary, four feet and a 
 half; circumference of main branch at the base, 2|^ inches; 
 the other somewhat less. I have taken off some of the 
 wood of the tree in the bark, of which the scion was in- 
 serted, in order that you may perceive how firmly and per- 
 fectly it has united with the main stock, which was a scrub 
 apple-tree, and in which two or three scions were likewise 
 inserted in the ordinary mode, whose growth, I think, is less 
 tlian one half of the one sent you, engrafted in the new 
 way.” 
 
 Future treatment , — In a month after grafting, it may be 
 ascertained whether the scion has united with the stock, by 
 observing the progress of its buds ; but, in general, it is not 
 safe to remove the clay for three months or more, till the 
 graft be completely cicatrized. The clay may generally be 
 taken off in July or August, and at the same time the liga- 
 tures loosened, where the scion seems to require more room 
 to expand; a few weeks afterwards, when the parts have 
 been thus partially inured to the air, and when there is no 
 VI br ’'vmds, the whole of 
 
GllEEN-HOUSE. 
 
 151 
 
 the ligatures may be removed. If the stock was not short- 
 ened down close to the graft, or junction of tlie scion with 
 the stock, at the time of the operation, it may be done 
 now, or as soon as the ligatures can be entirely dispensed 
 with. In particular cases, a ligature round the graft, or a 
 stake or other prop, for the shoots of the scion, may be 
 necessary for a year to come, to protect against winds ; or 
 a bandage of moss kept over the graft, to preserve moisture, 
 and encourage the expansion of the parts, and complete the 
 filling up of the wound. — Loudon, 
 
 Effects of grafting , — The nature of the fruit is, to a cer- 
 tain extent, affected by the nature of the stock. Miller 
 says decidedly, that crab-stocks cause apples to be firm- 
 er, to keep longer, and to have a sharper flavour ; and he 
 is equally confident, that, if the breaking pears be grafted 
 on quince stocks, the fruit is rendered gritty or stony, 
 while the melting pears are much improved by such stocks. 
 This, according to Neill, is scarcely to be considered as 
 inconsistent with Lord Bacon’s doctrine, ‘ that the scion 
 overruleth the graft quite, the stock being passive only 
 which, as a general proposition, remains true ; it being evi- 
 dent, that the scion, bud, or inarched shoot, is endowed 
 with the power of drawing or forming from the stock that 
 peculiar kind of nourishment which is adapted to its na- 
 ture, and that the specific characters of the engrafted plant 
 remain unchanged, although its qualities may be partially 
 affected.” — Ed, Encyc, art. Horticulture, 
 
 GREEN-HOUSE. — A green-house is a building de- 
 signed to protect, during winter, such exotic plants, shrubs, 
 and trees, as will bear being exposed to the open air 
 during summer, but are too tender for such exposure in 
 winter. 
 
 J. W. Watkins, Esq. of New York, gives the following 
 plan for the construction of a green-house, in the Trans, m 
 the Agric, Soc, of the above state : — 
 
 “ The building should be sunk in the earth from two to 
 four feet, in proportion to the size of the house, and ac- 
 cording to the nature of the soil ; as clay retains moisture, 
 and of consequence produces damps, in such ground it 
 should not be so deep. The height should not exceed 
 twelve feet from the exterior ground, by which it will 
 be less exposed to high winds. The width should not 
 exceed sixteen or eighteen feet, as the sun’s rays are, at 
 that distance from the glass, very feeble. A south front is 
 
152 
 
 GREEN-HOUSE. 
 
 taken of glazing as much of the eastern end as possible, 
 for the benefit of the morning sun. The front should de- 
 cline northward from a perpendicular with the horizon, so 
 as the angle made thereby with the horizon will, at noon- 
 day in w inter, bring the rays of the sun to strike the glass at 
 right angles, and the roof should descend the opposite side 
 without a break. By this position of the roof and glass, the 
 rays of the sun are throwm upon every part of the inside of 
 the house, and the whole becomes heated thereby ; more of 
 the rays are also introduced into the building, and when the 
 sun produces most heat during the day, there is no reflec- 
 tion of its rays, and at other parts of the day, the reflecting 
 angle, being obtuse, does not powerfully cast off the rays. 
 The inside of the rafters of the roof should be lined wuth 
 boards, and the space betw een that and the roof filled with 
 a mixture of straw, sand, and clay, made into mortar; 
 boards should be used in preference to shingles, as, making 
 fewer breaks in the roof, less opportunity is given for the 
 admission of cold air. The residue of the building may 
 be of stone or brick work, or a frame building filled in 
 with bricks, and no flooring of any kind upon the ground. 
 Shutters on the outside are sufficient ; and it is preferable to 
 have them hung on hinges, as the least troublesome, to the 
 common practice of sliding ones : they should be made to 
 fold into the spaces between the windows. 
 
 Before putting the plants into the house, the bottom 
 should be covered with bark from a tan-Vat, about a foot 
 deep, according to the depth the building is sunk in the 
 earth. 
 
 The advantages proposed by this method of constructing 
 are, the lessening the expense of building; that, the heat of 
 the sun being sufficient to warm the house, the trouble and 
 expense of warming it by a stove is avoided, which unless 
 very- carefully attended, the plants may be injured by too 
 much heat, and are always by the smoke that unavoidably 
 makes its way out of the pipes. It would be proper, nev- 
 ertheless, to make arrangements in constructing the house 
 for using a stove, in case a long succession of cold, cloudy 
 days, by obscuring the sun, should reduce the heat in the 
 house below, that degree of temperature necessary for pre- 
 serving the plants, which is a case that will seldom hap- 
 pen, as one clear day will warm the house sufficiently to 
 admit its being shut up for several days. 
 
 Plants in a house of this kind require less water, and do 
 not sutler for the want of atmospheric air. It is probable, 
 
HAWTHORN. 
 
 153 
 
 as the earth is charged with electric fluids, as vegetable 
 substances are known conductors of it, that the bark, by its 
 fermentation, not only generates heat, but serves as a mean 
 to produce out of the earth an atmosphere for the plants, 
 suflicient, with such atmospheric air as will find admission, 
 to supply the quantity exhausted by the daily rarefaction 
 occasioned by the sun’s heat. 
 
 ‘‘ A green-house has been used upon this construction in 
 this state, without having had the least occasion of being 
 heated by fire. The plants in the spring were remarkably 
 thrifty ; tropical fruit ripened in it during the winter, and 
 young fruit formed on the trees. It required no other care, 
 than now and then watering the plants, and shutting the 
 windows as soon as the sun left them.” 
 
 With respect to the management of plants in green- 
 houses, it is recommended occasionally to open the mould 
 in which they are set, to scatter a little fresh earth on the 
 pots, and over this to lay a little dung. It will also be ad- 
 visable to water them when the leaves begin to curl or 
 wither, and to pluck off such as are decayed; but these 
 operations should not be too frequently repeated. 
 
 ‘‘ Some people,” says McMahon, “ are desirous of keep- 
 ing out their plants as long as possible ; this is very right, 
 but it ought not to be extended to too hazardous aperiod ; for 
 one night’s frost would cause the leaves to lose their fine 
 green colour, which perhaps might not be restored during 
 the whole winter ; and, if any way severe, serious injury 
 might be sustained. 
 
 ‘‘ If the windows and doors are kept open day and night, 
 as long as there is safety in so doing, the plants will be 
 nearly as well off as in the open air, and no danger is en- 
 countered : the mere difference of five or six days in the 
 taking in of the plants will ensure safety ; but, on the other 
 hand, it is not right to be too precipitate in housing them, 
 before the common appearance of the weather indicates 
 the necessity.” 
 
 HAWTHORN. — Cratcegus . — There are a great many 
 species of this genus of plants, (see Hedge,) of which the 
 oxycantha^ or English hawthorn, as it is commonly named 
 in the United States, is most generally cultivated for the 
 purpose of forming hedges. The manner of raising the 
 thorn quicks is as follows : — 
 
 Collect your seeds in autumn, mix them with equal 
 quantities of light, sandy earth, and lay them in that state on 
 the surface of a dry spot of ground in your best enclosed 
 
154 
 
 HAWTHORN. 
 
 garden, where they cannot be disturbed by hogs, &c. ; form 
 this mixture into a narrow, sloping ridge, tapering to the 
 top, and cover it with light, loose earth, two inches thick 
 all over; the April following, turn this, ridge, mixing the 
 wdiole together, and form it again the same way, covering 
 in like manner as before, with tw^o inches deep of light, 
 loose earth ; repeat this again in the months of July and 
 August, by which the seeds in every part will be equally 
 prepared for vegetation. A trench must be cut round this 
 ridge, to prevent any water from lodging about the seeds ; 
 for this would rot many and injure others, especially in the 
 second winter, when the stones would be losing their ce- 
 menting quality, and begin to open ; for until this is effect- 
 ed the kernels cannot vegetate. Hence the necessity and 
 great advantage of not burying the stones in the earth, as 
 is injudiciously practised by many. 
 
 There is not the least danger to be apprehended from 
 frost injuring the seeds, whilst so much exposed to it in those 
 ridges ; however, it will not be amiss to strew^ a light cov- 
 ering of long litter over them on the approach of wdnter ; 
 which will keep them dry, and in a better state for sowing 
 when the season arrives. 
 
 “Your haws being prepared as above, make ready a 
 piece of good rich ground, neither upon an elevated situa- 
 tion, nor too low ; in the former the summer drought would 
 be unfriendly, and in the latter they would be subject to 
 mildew : this must be done as early in the spring as you 
 can get the ground to work freely, and pulverize w^h ^ for 
 the haws begin to throw out roots at a very ea»*!| period ; 
 and if not sown at this time, or before, a grea^ ,iumber of 
 these roots will be broken off in the act of sowing, and 
 thereby totally lost ; the others which escape this accident, 
 having their radicles extended on the surface, penetrate the 
 earth at the extreme points of those roots, forming right 
 angles wuth the parts already produced, by which means 
 they can never drive up the seed leaves with as much 
 vigour as if the radicles descended immediately in a per- 
 pendicular direction from the stones of the fruit ; hence 
 the necessity of early sowung. 
 
 “ The ground, how^ever, must not be wrought while wet, 
 or at least the seeds should not be covered with wet or 
 heavy earth, nor too deep, for if the surface should cake, 
 or become stiff in consequence of dry weather ensuing, 
 fev/ of these young plants, having broad seed leaves, could 
 bear up through it; therefore, you must be very cautious 
 
HAWTHORN. 
 
 155 
 
 in that point, and if the earth of your bed is not light and 
 dry enough for this purpose, you must carry as much 
 as will cover the seeds from some dry compost heap, or 
 some quarter of the garden, where it can be found in a 
 suitable condition. 
 
 ‘‘ On examining your haws, if you find the earth in 
 which they are mixed any way clogged with too much 
 moisture, so that the parts and seeds would not separate 
 freely in the act of sowing ; mix therewith a sufficient 
 quantity of slaked lime, or wood-ashes, to accomplish that 
 end. 
 
 ‘‘ Having every thing in readiness, and your ground well 
 dug, and raked effectually as you proceeded in the digging^ still 
 presuming that it is in the best possible state of prepara- 
 tion, lay it out into four feet wide beds, leaving twelve or 
 fourteen inches of an alley between each, and with the 
 back of the rake push off into these alleys about three 
 quarters of an inch of the fine raked surface of the beds, 
 one half of each bed to the one side, and the other to the 
 opposite ; this done, sow your haws thereon, earth and all, 
 as they had lain, so thick that you may expect a thousand 
 plants at least, after every reasonable allowance for faulty 
 or imperfect seeds, (there being many of these,) on every 
 three or four yards of your beds ; — I have often had that 
 number on as many feet; — then with a spade or shovel cast 
 the earth out of the alleys evenly over the beds, covering 
 the seeds not more than three quarters of an inch deep, and 
 not more than half an inch, if the earth be any w^ay stiff ; 
 after which rake the tops of the beds very lightly^ taking 
 care not to disturb the seeds, in order to take off the lumps, 
 and to give a neat appearance to the work.” — McMahon. 
 If any stiffness of the ground is perceived, the beds should 
 have frequent and gentle waterings ; and great care will be 
 necessary to keep the beds free from weeds from the mo- 
 ment the plants appear above ground till they are fit to be 
 planted in hedge-rows, and have arrived at such a size that 
 weeds cannot materially injure them. 
 
 Mr. Kirk, of Brandywine, has been successful in making 
 the seeds of the American thorn vegetate, by washing them 
 clean, putting them in hot water to swell them, and ex 
 posing the water in which they were immersed to be 
 frozen and thawed several times. Dr. Mease, of Philadel- 
 phia, saysy ‘‘ The haws of the Washington thorn, Cratcegus 
 cordata^ require to be buried one winter before they sprout, 
 and they should be put into the ground the same autumn 
 
156 HEArUNG DOWN FRUIT-TREES. HEDGES. 
 
 they are taken off the tree; the pulp which surrounds 
 them*^ having been previously rubbed off and the stone 
 washed. The usual way is to put them in a box of sand, 
 and to stand it under the eaves of a house, to receive the 
 dropping of water from it, and by the spring they wDl be 
 open and ready for planting.” — Mem, Phil, Agr, Soc. vol. 
 iff. p. 439. See further^ Hedges. 
 
 Insects. — A great enemy to the hawthorn is the horer^ 
 (saperda bivitataj) the same which infests apple-trees, &c. ; 
 and we know of no method of guarding against its ravages. 
 It is said, however, that this insect has never made its ap- 
 pearance in the interior parts of the United States, and is 
 to be found only within the distance of a few miles from 
 the sea shore. 
 
 HEADING DOWN FRUIT-TREES.— When any 
 fruit-trees have begun to decline, and are thin of young 
 wood, you may often restore them by heading down such 
 limbs as are in the worst state to those parts where young 
 shoots appear, and close to the most vigorous ; but this 
 should not be done, generally, the same season, lest it give 
 such a sudden check to the sap as totally to destroy the 
 tree. But if every other branch all over the tree were 
 headed at proper lengths, each close to some young shoot, 
 new, healthy wood would be produced, which would soon 
 come into bearing. The next spring after the first branch- 
 es were headed, the remaining old branches may be cut out, 
 as directed above ; after which the head of the tree will 
 soon be filled with bearing wood, which may afterwards be 
 pruned as directed for other trees.” — McMahon, 
 
 HEDGES. — A great variety of shrubs and trees have 
 been made use of for hedges, among which are various 
 kinds of thorns, such as the Cratcegus oxijacanthay or com- 
 mon European hawthorn, or white thorn ; the Cratagus 
 coccinea^ or great American hawthorn ; the Cratcegus crus~ 
 galli^ or cockspur hawthorn; the Cratcegus cordata^ or 
 American hedge thorn ; crab and apple-treess, horn-beam, 
 beech, honey-locust, buckthorn, holly, white mulberry, ju- 
 niper, red cedar, &c. &c. 
 
 Mr. Quincy, of Massachusetts, has given a statement of 
 his mode ol making hedges of the Crafiifgus cordata^ which 
 was published in ae third volume of the Mass. Agr. Rep. 
 p. 27. The seed:ffig thorns (ten thousand) were obtained 
 from the nursery of Thomas Main, near Georgetown, D. C., 
 and planted m a hedge-course of two hundred and fifty-five 
 rods, so far as was necessary to fill that extent in one line^ 
 
HEDGES. 
 
 157 
 
 each plant being five inches apart. The residue were 
 planted in a nursery, for the purpose of filling vacancies. 
 
 The hedge-course was made in sandy land, ploughed of 
 the width of four feet, and manured and prepared precisely as 
 for Indian corn ; except, only, that, after ploughing, the cen- 
 tre, for two feet wide, was turned over with the spade, and 
 the hedge planted without further preparation. Mr. Quin- 
 cy advises to the following course : — Plough the hedge- 
 course six feet wide. Plant the whole course one year to 
 potatoes. This pays for the labour as much as other land 
 thus planted. Set the thorns eight inches apart. This is 
 near enough in a country like this, where hogs are not per- 
 mitted to run at large, and makes a considerable saving in 
 labour as well as the cost of the plants. Keep both sides 
 of the hedge planted with potatoes, during the whole six 
 years that the hedge is coming to perfection. The potatoes 
 will nearly pay the cost of the labour. The manure for the 
 potatoes benefits the hedge; and, while hoeing the pota- 
 toes, keeping the hedge clear of weeds is easy. 
 
 “ To keep the hedge clear of weeds, and to fill up the 
 vacancies regularly in the spring of every year, with plants 
 of the same age with those of the original hedge, are the 
 two essential objects of attention after the hedge-course i? 
 prepared, and the plants are set. Younger plants ma^ 
 answer, but whoever would make a hedge, in the most 
 speedy and perfect manner, ought to procure, at the time 
 of obtaining the plants for the original hedge, a sufficient 
 extra number to supply all deficiencies likely to occur dur- 
 ing the whole time the hedge is forming ; to be kept at a 
 nursery, thriving, if possible, a little better than those in the 
 hedge-course.” 
 
 With respect to the age at which plants for hedges ought 
 to be used, Loudon says, “ Three years old are certainly 
 the youngest that should be transplanted, and if they are 
 six or seven yt^.ars old, so much the better ; the prevailing 
 idea that plants of that age will not thrive, if transplanted, 
 ]s totally unfounded.” He likewise recommends assorting 
 the plants, and setting those together which are nearly of a 
 size ; because, when no pains have been taken in assort- 
 ing the plants, and they are planted promiscuously, great 
 and small, strong and weak, the consequence is, that the 
 strongest plants very soon outgrow such as are weaker, 
 and not only overtop them, but also deprive them of that 
 nourishment which they so much require. As the hedge 
 advances in age, the evil becomes greater; small, stunted 
 
158 
 
 HOEING. 
 
 plants and innumerable gaps appearing throughout the 
 whole line of the fence, interspersed with others remarkable 
 for their strength and luxuriance. 
 
 “ This assorting of hedge-plants has another advantage, 
 namely, that of putting it in the power of the person, who 
 plants the hedge, to put down the large, strong, healthy 
 plants upon the poorest parts of the line of fence, and to set 
 such as are smaller and weaker upon the richer and more 
 fertile parts. He has it also in his power, by a more care- 
 ful preparation of the soil, and bestowing a greater propor- 
 tion of manure on the places where the plants are set, to 
 give them that nourishment and assistance which they 
 require, and which would very soon enable them to form a 
 fence equal to that part occupied by the strongest plants.” 
 
 Hedges may be of various kinds, such as the single hedge 
 and ditch ; the hedge and bank ; the level hedge, &c. ; of 
 which, descriptions may be found in Loudon’s Encyclopedia 
 of Agriculture^ and other books of husbandry. 
 
 It is often found necessary to plash or interweave the 
 branches of hedges. Some advise to cut oiT the tops, or 
 head them down to about three feet, or three feet and a 
 half from the ground, when the plants are about four years 
 old, &c. &c. See Loudoids Encyc, of Agr, ; Farmer'^s As- 
 sistant ; Willichh Dom, Encyc, ; Mem. of N. Y. Board of 
 Agr. vol. ii. p. 161. 
 
 A writer in the Mass. Agr. Rep. says, The best plant 
 for hedges, so far as the experience of one of our cultiva- 
 tors, Ezekiel H. Derby, will go, and he has tried it for 
 many years, is the buckthorn. It makes a close, beautiful 
 hedge, and is not subject to any disease, nor the depreda- 
 tions of any devourer, so far as we yet know.” See art. 
 Buckthorn, p. 56. 
 
 HOEING. — “The ends to be answered by hoeing are 
 chiedy these: — 1. To destroy weeds, which are always 
 ready to spring up in every soil, and which would rob the 
 cultivated plants of most of their food. Scraping the sur- 
 face, if it be done frequently, may answer this purpose ; but 
 to destroy the roots of weeds, deeper hoeing is necessary. — 
 2. To keep the soil from becoming too compact, which 
 prevents the roots from extending themselves freely in 
 search of their food ; at the same time keeping up a fer- 
 mentation, by which the vegetable food is concocted, and 
 brought into contact with the roots. For this purpose, the 
 deeper land is hoed, the better. But hoeing should cease, 
 or be only superficial, when the roots are so far extended 
 
HOUSE-llADiSH. 
 
 150 
 
 as to be much injured by hoeing. They will bear a little 
 cutting without injury. For where a root is cut off, several 
 new branches will come in its place. — 3. To render the 
 soil more open and porous, so that it shall greedily drink in 
 the nightly dews, and that rain may not run off, but readily 
 soak in as it falls, and be retained. Accordingly, the more 
 and oftener land is hoed, the more moisture it retains, the 
 better it bears drought, and the more its plants are nour- 
 ished. — 4. Another design of hoeing, and which has not 
 been enough attended to, is, to nourish plants by drawing 
 fresh soil near to them, the effluvium of which enters their 
 pores, and increases their growth. At the same time the 
 earthing of plants makes them stand more firmly, and in- 
 creases their pasture in the spots where the roots most 
 abound ; and prevents the drying of the earth down to the 
 roots.” — Deane. 
 
 HORSE-RADISH. — Cochlearia Armoracia . — The fol- 
 lowing instructions for cultivating horse-radish are by 
 Knight, a celebrated English horticulturist : — Horse-rad- 
 ish thrives best in deep, soft, sandy loam, that is not very 
 dry in summer, nor inundated in winter; the situation must 
 be open. During winter, [or in autumn,] trench the ground 
 three feet deep ; and in the following February [as soon as 
 frost will permit in this country] procure your sets, in the 
 choice of which take the strongest crowns, or leading buds, 
 from old plants, cutting them about two inches long. Mark 
 out the ground in four feet beds, and one foot alleys ; then 
 take from the first bed nine inches of the top soil, laying it 
 upon the adjoining bed ; after which take out an opening 
 at one end of the bed, in the common way of trenching, 
 fifteen inches deep from the present surface ; then level the 
 bottom, after which plant a row of sets across the bed at 
 nine inches apart, each way, Avith their crowns upright; 
 afterAvards dig the next trench the same width and depth, 
 turning the earth into the first trench, over the roAv of sets ; 
 thus proceeding, trench after trench, to the end. Where 
 more than the produce of one bed is required for the supply 
 of the family for tAvelve months, the third bed is next to be 
 planted, Avhich treat as directed for the first, only observing 
 to lay the earth on the fourth, and so on to any number of 
 beds. Upon every alternate bed, which is not planted, a 
 dwarf annual crop may be grown. The plants must be kept 
 clear from Aveeds during summer ; and as soon as the 
 leaves decay in autumn, let them be carefully raked off 
 with a Avooden-toothed rake ; in the folloAving February, 
 
160 
 
 HORSE-RADISH. 
 
 [or soon as frost will permit,] eighteen inches of the 
 earth of the unplanted bed must be laid, as light as possible, 
 and equally, over the beds that are planted ; then trench 
 and plant the vacant beds exactly in the same manner as 
 before directed. The following autumn, the first-planted 
 horse-radish may be taken up, by opening a trench at one 
 end of the bed, to the bottom of the roots, so that the sticks 
 or roots of horse-radish may be taken up entire and sound, 
 which, for size and quality, will be such as have not gen- 
 erally been seen. The following February, [March or 
 April,] the one year old crop will require additional earth, 
 as before directed, which must of course be taken from 
 those beds, which are now vacant, which when done, if 
 the ground appears poor, or unlikely to produce another 
 vigorous crop, they must have a coat of manure.” — Hort, 
 Trans, i. 207. 
 
 ‘‘ Judd has also written on the culture of horse-radish, 
 {Hort. Trans, v. 302,) and his practice, though very differ- 
 ent from Knight’s, is also excellent, and perhaps prefer- 
 able. Knight takes strong buds from old plants, while 
 Judd takes about three inches of the top part of each stick 
 or root, and then cuts clean off about a quarter of an inch 
 af this piece under the crown, so as to leave no appearance 
 of a green bud. Judd trenches only two feet deep, and, if 
 he applies manure, puts it in the very bottom of the trench ; 
 ‘ for, if not so done, the horse-radish, which always puts out 
 some side roots, would send out such large side roots from 
 the main root, in search of the dung lying contiguous, as 
 materially to injure the crop. In planting, holes are made 
 eighteen inches apart every way, and sixteen or eighteen 
 inches deep. The root-cuttings are let down to the bottom 
 of the holes, which are afterwards filled up with fine sifted 
 cinder-dust, and the surface of the bed is then raked over. 
 The season of planting is the latter part of March.’ The 
 essential difference between Knight’s plan and Judd’s is, 
 that the former produces his root from the root-end of the 
 cutting downwards, and the latter from the bud-end up- 
 wards : hence the one plants near the surface, and the 
 ether near the bottom of the trench. Judd’s mode seems 
 more certain of producing one entire strong root than 
 Knight’s.” — Loudon. 
 
 Use . — The root, when scraped into shreds, is much used 
 at the table as a condiment for fish, roast beef, &c. If in- 
 tended for immediate use, it should, says Willich’s Do- 
 mestic Encyclopedia, ^^be dug out of the ground /rc5^, only 
 
XIOT-BEI). 
 
 JO’l 
 
 from October to Marcli ; or be gathered in the spring ; then 
 dried, reduced to powder, and preserved in bottles closely 
 stopped for occasional use ; when it should be previously 
 moistened with spring water. When steeped and digested 
 in vinegar during a fortnight, this root is said effectually to 
 remove freckles in the face.” It is likewise recommended 
 in cases of dropsy, scurvy, rheumatism, palsy, &c. — Phillips* 
 History of Vegetables** — New England Farmer^ vol. v. pp. 
 269, 270. 
 
 HOT-BED. — A hot-bed, in gardening, is a small bed or 
 mound of earth, composed of certain substances, which, by 
 their fermentation, give warmth to vegetables or seeds, set 
 or sowed in them, and thus hasten their growth. The fer- 
 menting substances used for forming hot- beds are, stable 
 litter or dung, in a recent or fresh state, tanners’ bark, leaves 
 of trees, grass, and the herbaceous parts of plants generally. 
 
 Stable dung is in the most general use for forming hot- 
 beds, which are masses of this dung after it has undergone 
 its most violent fermentation. These masses are generally 
 in the form of solid parallelograms, of magnitude propor- 
 tioned to the frames which are to be placed on them, the 
 degree of heat required, and the season of the year in which 
 they are formed. 
 
 “ Tanners’ bark is only preferred to dung because the 
 substance, which undergoes the process of putrid fermenta- 
 tion, requires longer time to decay. Hence it is found use- 
 ful in the bark-pits of hot-houses, as requiring to be sel- 
 domer removed or renewed than dung, or any other fer- 
 mentable substance, that can be procured in equal quantity. 
 
 ‘‘ Leaves, and especially oak leaves, come the nearest to 
 bark, and have the additional advantage, that, when per- 
 fectly rotten, like dung, they form a rich mould, or excel- 
 lent manure ; whereas, rotten tanners’ bark is found rather 
 injurious than useful to vegetation, unless well mixed v/ith 
 lime and earth. 
 
 Preparation of manures , — The object of preparation in 
 these three substances being to get rid of violent heat, 
 whidi is produced when the fermentation is most powerful, 
 it is obvious, that preparation must consist in facilitating the 
 process. For this purpose, a certain degree of moisture and 
 air in the fermenting bodies is requisite; and lienee the 
 business of the gardener is, to turn them over frequently, 
 and apply water when the process appears impeded for 
 want of it, and exclude rain w^hen it seems chilled and ini- 
 14 
 
1G2 
 
 KOT-BED. 
 
 peded by too much water. Recent stable dung generally 
 requires to lie a month in ridges or beds, and be turned 
 over in that time thrice, before it is fit for cucumber beds 
 of the common construction. But for linings, or for frames 
 with moveable bottoms, three weeks, a fortnight, or less, 
 will suffice ; or no time at all need be given, but the dung 
 formed at once into linings. Tan and leaves, in general, 
 require a month ; but much depends on the state of the 
 weather, and the season of the year. Fermentation is 
 always most rapid in summer ; and if the materials are 
 spread abroad during frost, it is totally impeded. 
 
 The formation of the dung-beds is effected by first mark- 
 ing out the dimensions of the plan, which should be six 
 inches wider on all sides than that of the frame to be placed 
 over it ; and then, by successive layers of dung, laid on by 
 a fork, raising it to the desired height, pressing it gently 
 and equally throughout. In general, such beds are formed 
 on a level surface ; but Knight’s mode is, to form a surface 
 of earth as a basis, which shall incline to the horizon, to 
 the extent of fifteen degrees : on this he forms the dung-bed 
 to the same inclination ; and, finally, the frame, when 
 placed on such a bed, if, as is usual, it be deepest behind, 
 will present its glass at an angle of twenty degrees, instead 
 of six or eight ; which is, undoubtedly, of great advantage in 
 the winter season. This seems a very desirable improve- 
 ment, where light is an object, which it must be in a high 
 degree in the case of the culture of cucumbers and melons, 
 as well as in forcing flowers. 
 
 Ashes are often mixed with the dung of hot-beds, and 
 are supposed to promote the steadiness and duration of their 
 heat, and at first to revive it if somewhat decayed. Tan 
 and leaves have been used for the same purpose ; and it is 
 generally found, that about one third of tan and two thirds 
 of dung will form a more durable and less violent heat 
 than a bed wholly of dung. The heat of dung-beds is re- 
 vived by linings or collateral and surrounding walls or 
 banks of fresh dung, the old dung of the bed being previ- 
 ously cut down close to the frame. These linings, as before 
 observed, require less preparation than the dung for the 
 beds. The dung-bed, being formed, and having stood two 
 or three days, with the frame and lights placed over it to 
 protect it from rain, is next to be covered with earth of 
 quality, and in quantity, according to the purpose to which 
 it is to be applied. In severe weather, the sides of the 
 
hot-housl:. — HYSSOP. 
 
 1G3 
 
 bed arc often protected by bundles of straw or fagots, 
 which tend to prevent the escape of the heat.” — Enajc. of 
 Gardening. 
 
 HOT-HOUSE. — A hot-house is a building intended 
 to form a habitation for vegetables ; either for such exotic 
 plants as will not grow in the open air of the country 
 where the building is erected, or for such indigenous and 
 acclimated plants as it is desired to force or excite into 
 a state of vegetation, or accelerate their maturation at an 
 extraordinary season. 
 
 ‘‘ Such heat as is required, in addition to that of the sun, 
 is most generally produced by the ignition of carbonaceous 
 materials, which heat the air of the house, either directly, 
 when hot embers of wood are left in a furnace or stove, 
 placed within the house, as in Sweden or Russia ; mediate- 
 ly, as when smoke and heated air, from or passing through 
 ignited fuel, is made to circulate in flues; or indirectly, when 
 ignited fuel is applied to boil water, and the hot vapour, or 
 water itself, is impelled through tubes of metal or other 
 conductors, and either to heat the air of the house at once, 
 as in most cases, or to heat masses of brick-work, sand, 
 gravel, rubble, or earth, tan, or even water, (Hart. Trans. 
 vol. hi.,) which materials may afterwards give out the heat 
 so acquired slowly to the atmosphere of the house. But 
 heat is also occasionally supplied from fermenting vegeta- 
 ble substances, as dung, tan, leaves, weeds, &c., applied 
 either beneath or around the whole or a part of the house, 
 or placed in a body within it.” — Encyc. of Gardening. 
 
 Steam aflbrds the most simple and effectual mode of 
 heating hot-houses, and indeed large bodies of air in any 
 building, and is the most convenient carrier of heat, which 
 human ingenuity has ever discovered or employed. — See 
 Encyc. of Gardening.^ from p. 310 to pp. 333, 502, &c. 
 
 HYSSOP. — Hyssopus officinalis . — This is a hardy plant, 
 a native of the south of Europe, and grows to the height 
 of about eighteen inches. 
 
 Propagation and culture. — “ It is raised by slips and cut- 
 tings of the branches, and by slips of the root and top 
 together. It likes a dry and sandy soil. When it is propa- 
 gated by seed, sow in March or April a small portion, 
 either broad-cast and raked in, or in small drills six inches 
 apart. The plants may mostly be transplanted into final 
 beds in June or July, nine inches apart, or some may be 
 planted as an edging; or you may also sow some seed for 
 ‘’1 remain where sown: Give the edgings occa- 
 
164 
 
 INARCHING. INDIAN CORN. 
 
 sionally trimming in their established growth ; cutting away 
 also any decayed flower-spikes in autumn. You ip.?y take 
 rooted oflsets from established plants in March, April, Au- 
 gust or September, cuttings from the stalks in April and 
 May; also rootless slips of the young shoots in June or 
 July. After May, shade for a time, or plant in a shady bor- 
 der. If for culinary purposes, the distance from plant to 
 plant may be nine inches ; in the physic garden, eighteen 
 inches or two feet. Water at planting, and twice or thrice 
 a week in dry weather till rooted.” — Abercrombie. 
 
 Use . — The leaves and young shoots are occasionally used 
 as a pot-herb, and the leafy tops and flower-spikes are cut, 
 dried, and preserved for medicmal purposes. They are 
 particularly recommended in humoral asthmas, coughs, and 
 other disorders of the breast and lungs. 
 
 INARCHING.— This method of engrafting is used^ 
 when the stock intended to graft on, and the tree from 
 which the graft is taken, stand so near (or can be brought 
 so near) that they may be joined together. The method 
 of performing the operation is as follows : — 
 
 Take the branch you would inarch, and, having fitted it 
 to that part of the stock where you intend to join it, pare 
 away the rind and wood on one side about three inches in 
 length. After the same manner cut the stock or branch in 
 the place where the graft is to be united, so that the rind 
 of both may join equally together, that the sap may meet; 
 then cut a little tongue upwards in the graft, and make a 
 slit in the stock downward to admit it ; so that, when they 
 are joined, the tongue will prevent their slipping, and the 
 graft will more closely unite with the stock. Having thus 
 placed them exactly together, they must be tied with some 
 bass ; then cover the place wdth grafting-clay, to prevent 
 the air from entering to dry the wound, or the v/et from 
 getting in to rot the stock ; you should also fix a stake in 
 the ground, to which that part of the stock, and likewise the 
 graft, should be fastened, to prevent the wind from break- 
 ing them asunder. In this manner they should remain 
 a,bout four months, w^hen the graft may be cut from the 
 mother tree, sloping it off close to the stock, and at the 
 same time covering the jointed parts wdth fresh grafting clay. 
 
 INDIAN CORN.— Zea.— We shall not undertake to 
 state the various methods employed for the field-culture of 
 this valuable vegetable, with which it is presumed our 
 readers are, generally, acquainted. But as it is often 
 w^antcd as a culinary article, for early use, and cultivated in 
 
INOCULATION, OR BUDDING. 165 
 
 gardens for the supply of the table, we will give McMa- 
 hon’s mode of raising it : — 
 
 cc Procure some seed of the earliest kind, and select a 
 piece of dry, sandy, and tolerably rich ground, in a warm 
 exposure. After preparing it as for peas, &c. form shallow 
 drills, about two inches deep, at the distance of six feet 
 from each other ; [four feet and a half, or five feet, will an- 
 swer for the smallest sorts ;] drop the seeds therein two feet 
 and a half asunder, and two grains in each place ; strew 
 a little wood-ashes in the drills, and cover the seeds as you 
 would peas. As the plants advance in growth, earth them 
 up two or three times. For an early crop, you may plant 
 the seed, in the Middle States, about the first of May, 
 [about the 10th in the Eastern States,] or ten days earlier, 
 should the season prove very favourable. 
 
 c‘ This method is exclusively intended for the culture of 
 the small early kinds.” 
 
 INOCULATION, or BUDDING.— ‘c The object in 
 budding is the same as in grafting, and depends on the 
 same principle ; all the difference between a bud and a 
 scion being that a bud is a shoot or scion in embryo. 
 
 cc A new application of budding has been made by 
 Knight. It is that of transferring ^ a part of the abundant 
 blossom-buds from one tree to the barren branche-. of oth- 
 ers.’ He tried this first on roses, and afterwards on pears 
 and peaches, with much success. 
 
 Advantages of budding , — Budded trees are generally two 
 years later in producing their fruit than grafted ones ; but 
 the advantage of budding is that, where a tree is rare, a 
 new plant can be got from every eye ; whereas by grafting 
 it can only be got from every three or four eyes. There are 
 also trees, which propagate much more readily by budding 
 than grafting ; and others, as most of the stone fruits, are 
 apt to throw out gum when grafted. When grafting has 
 been omitted, or has failed, in spring, budding comes in 
 as an auxiliary in summer. 
 
 Season of budding , — The operation of common bud- 
 ding is performed any time from the beginning of July to 
 the middle of August ; the criterion being the formation 
 of buds in the axillae of the leaf of the present year. The 
 buds are known to be ready by the shield or portion of 
 bark, to which they are attached, easily parting with the 
 wood. The buds preferred are generally those on the 
 middle of a young shoot, as being neither so apt to run to 
 wood as those at the extremity, nor so apt to lie dormant as 
 
i66 INOCULATION, OR BUDDING. 
 
 those at the lower end. In some cases, however, the buds 
 from the middle and extremity of the shoots are to be re- 
 jected, and those taken which are at the base of the annual 
 shoots, AS Knight (Hort, Trans, vol. iii. p. 135) found in 
 the case of the walnut-tree. Scalope budding may be 
 performed in the spring, or at any season. 
 
 Stocks for budding may, in general, be much smaller 
 than for grafting, as the operation may be performed on 
 the same year’s shoot. But it may also be performed on 
 shoots or stems of several years’ growth, and in such, by 
 inserting a number of buds, a complete tree may be formed 
 at once. Scalope budding may be performed on trees of 
 considerable age. 
 
 Choice of buds. — For gathering the shoots containing 
 the buds, a cloudy day, or an early or late hour, should be 
 chosen, on this principle, that the leaves, being at these 
 periods in a less active state of perspiration, suffer least 
 from being separated from their parent plant. They are 
 preserved fresh, and may be sent a great distance by 
 inserting their ends in water or moist moss ; though in 
 general they should be used as soon after gathering as pos- 
 sible ; indeed, as in grafting and inarching, the whole ope- 
 ration ought to be performed with the greatest celerity. 
 
 “ Kinds of budding, — Professor Thouin enumerates twen- 
 ty-three species and varieties of budding; but we shall here 
 describe only four, of which but one variety is in general 
 use in Britain. 
 
 Shield-budding^ or T budding,, is thus performed : — Fix 
 on a smooth part on the side of the stock, rather from than 
 towards the sun, and of a height depending, as in grafting, 
 whether dwarf, whole or half standard-trees are desired ; 
 then, with the budding-knife, make a horizontal cut across 
 the rind, quite through to the firm wood ; from the mid- 
 dle of this transverse cut, make a slit downward, perpen- 
 dicularly, an inch or more long, going also quite through 
 to the wood. This done, proceed with all expedition to 
 take off a bud ; holding the cutting or scion in one hand, 
 with the thickest end outward, and, with the knife in the 
 other hand, enter it about half an inch or more below the 
 bud, cutting near half way into the wood of the shoot, con- 
 tinuing it with one clean slanting cut, about half an inch or 
 more above the bud, so deep as to take off part of the wood 
 along with it, the whole about an inch and a half long ; 
 then, directly, with the thumb and finger, or point of the 
 knife, slip off the woody part remaining to the bud ; which 
 
INOCULATION, OR BUDDING. 
 
 1G7 
 
 done, observe whether the eye or gem of the bud remains 
 perfect ; if not, and a little hole appears in that part, it is 
 improper, or, as gardeners express it, the hud has lost its 
 root, and another must be prepared. This done, placing 
 the back part of the bud or shield between your lips, expe- 
 ditiously, with the flat haft of the knife, separate the bark 
 of the stock on each side of the perpendicular cut, clear to 
 the wood, for the admission of the bud, which directly slip 
 down, close between the wood and bark to the bottom of 
 the slit. The next operation is to cut off the top part of 
 the shield, and protrude granulated matter between it and 
 the wood, so as to effect a living union. The parts are now 
 to be immediately bound round with a ligament of fresh 
 bass, previously soaked in water to render it pliable and 
 tough, beginning a little below the bottom of the perpen- 
 dicular slit, proceeding upward, closely round every part, 
 except just over the eye of the bud, and continue it a little 
 above the horizontal cut, not too tight, but just suflicient 
 to keep the whole tight, and exclude the air, sun, and 
 wet. 
 
 “ Shield-budding reversed^ or reversed X budding^ differs 
 from the former in having the transverse cut made at the 
 bottom of the perpendicular slit, instead of at its top, and, of 
 course, the shield is reversed in its position. This mode is 
 represented as preferable to the other, by such as contend 
 that the sap rises in the bark equally with the wood ; but 
 as this opinion is now generally considered as exploded, 
 the first, or T mode, may justly be considered as the most 
 scientific mode of budding. 
 
 Scalope-biidding consists in paring a thin, tongue-shaped 
 section of bark from the side of the stock ; and in taking a 
 similar section from the shoot of buds, in neither case 
 removing the wood. The section or shield containing the 
 bud is then laid on the corresponding scollop in the stock ; 
 its upper edge exactly fitted, ,as in shield-budding, and at 
 least one of its edges, as in whip-grafting. After this, it is 
 tied in the usual way. The advantages of this mode are, 
 that it can be performed when the wood and bark do not 
 separate freely ; on trees having very stiff, thick, suberose 
 [cork-like] barks, and at any season of the year. Its dis- 
 advantages are, that it requires longer time to perform the 
 operation, and is less certain of success. The French gar- 
 deners often bud their roses in this manner in spring ; and 
 if they fail, they have a second chance in July, by using the 
 common mode. 
 
168 
 
 INOCULATION, OR BUDDING. 
 
 “ Budding with double ligatures is a mode invented by- 
 Knight, and described by him {Hort, Tram. vol. i. p. 194) 
 as ‘a new and expeditious mode of budding.’ The opera- 
 tions are performed in the manner first above described; 
 but, instead of one ligature, tw o are applied, one above the 
 bud inserted on the transverse section through the bark ; 
 the other, which had no further office than that of securing 
 the bud, was applied below in the usual way. As soon as 
 the buds had attached themselves, the lower ligature was 
 taken off, but the others were suffered to remain. ^ The 
 passage of the sap upwards was, in consequence, much ob- 
 structed, and the inserted buds began to vegetate strongly 
 in July, (being inserted in June;) and when these had 
 afforded shoots about four inches long, the remaining liga- 
 tures were taken off to permit the excess of sap to pass on, 
 and the young shoots were nailed to the w^all. Being there 
 properly exposed to the light, their young w^ood ripened 
 well, and afforded blossoms in the succeeding spring; and 
 these would,’ he adds, ‘no doubt have afforded fruit; but 
 that, leaving my residence, I removed my trees,’ &c. 
 
 “ Future treatment. — In a fortnight, at furthest, after bud- 
 ding, such as have adhered may be known by their fresh 
 appearance at the eye ; and in three weeks, all those which 
 have succeeded will be firmly united with the stock, and, 
 the parts being somewhat swelled in most species, the 
 bandage must be loosened, and, a week or two afterwards, 
 finally removed. The shield and bud now swell in com- 
 mon with the other parts of the stock ; and nothing more 
 requires to be done till spring, wffien, just before the rising 
 of the sap, they are to be headed down close to the bud, 
 by an oblique cut, terminating about an eighth or a quarter 
 of an inch above the shield. In some cases, however, as 
 in grafting, a few inches of the stalk is left for the first sea- 
 son, and the young shoot tied to it for protection from the 
 winds.” — Encifc. of Gardening. 
 
 Mr. Abner Landrum mentions a mode of treating the 
 stock, and recently inserted bud, somewhat different from 
 that of Mr. Knight, as detailed above. Instead of Mr. 
 Knight’s method of using a strong ligature above the 
 inserted bud, he adopts the following: — As soon as it can be 
 ascertained that the bud will live, which, he says, may be 
 in about a v/eek, if the stock be small, let it be instantly 
 headed dowm, just above the bud to be nourished. If the 
 stock be large, amputate the principal branches ; and the 
 consequence wnll be, an immediate bursting of all the latent 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 1G9 
 
 buds, together with the inoculated one. As the inoculated 
 branches multiply, diminish the original one till nothing 
 remains but the new tree. — iV. E, Farmer^ vol. i. p. 146. 
 
 Mr. Buel, of Albany, in a note to A Treatise on Gar^ 
 dening, written by Mr. Armstrong, says, “The modern, 
 and, from experience, I do not hesitate to call it the best, 
 method, is, to insert the bud without separating the wood from 
 it, I have budded, the two last years, in June. If thus in- 
 serted early, and the stocks headed down when the liga- 
 tures are removed, the buds often make half a year’s growth 
 the same season, and are not so apt to suffer from the 
 severity of the winter, as those which remain dormant.” — 
 Mem, of N, Y, Board of Agriculture^ vol. iii. p. 17. 
 
 INSECTS. — It would far transcend our limits to give 
 even a brief description of the various soits of insects which 
 injure gardens, cultivated fields, &c., and destroy the best 
 productions of our soil. We shall, theiefore, confine our- 
 selves to stating, briefly, some of the most approved modes 
 of counteracting the ravages, and effecting the destruction, 
 of a few of those which are most injurious to the cultivator. 
 
 The preventive operations are those of the best culture, 
 in the most extensive sense of the term, including what re- 
 lates to choice of seed or plant, soil, situation, and climate. 
 If these are carefully attended to, it will seldom happen, 
 that any species of insect will effect serious and permanent 
 injury. Vegetables, which are vigorous and thrifty, are not 
 apt to be injured by wwms, flies, bugs, &c. Fall plough- 
 ing, by exposing worms, grubs, the larvae of bugs, beetles, 
 &c., to the intense frosts of our winters, is very beneficial. 
 Insects may be annoyed, and, oftentimes, their complete 
 destruction efi'ected, by sprinkling over them, by means of 
 a syringe, watering-pot, or garden-engine, simple water, 
 soap-suds, tobacco-water, decoctions of elder, especially of 
 the dwarf kind, of walnut leaves, bitter and acrid herbs, 
 pepper, lye of wood-ashes, or solutions of pot and pearl 
 ashes, water impregnated with salt, tar, turpentine, &c. ; or, 
 they may be dusted with sulphur, quick-lime, and other 
 acrid substances. Loudon says, “ Saline substances, mixed 
 with water, are injurious to most insects with tender .^kins, 
 as the worm and slug; and hot water, where it can be 
 applied without injuring vegetation, is equally, if not more 
 powerfully, injurious. Water heated to 120 or 130 degrees 
 will not injure plants, whose leaves are expanded, and, in 
 some degree, hardened ; and water at 200 degrees, or up- 
 wards, may be poured over leafless plants. The effects of 
 15 
 
170 
 
 INSECTS. 
 
 insects may also be palliated on one species of plant, bj 
 presenting to them another, which they prefer : thus wasps 
 are said to prefer carrots, the berries of the yew, and the 
 honey of the hoya, to grapes ; honey, or sugared water, to 
 ripe fruit, and so on. One insect or animal may also be set 
 to eat another, as ducks for slugs and worms, turkeys for 
 the same purpose, and caterpillars and ants for aphides, 
 and so on.” 
 
 The Rev. Mr. Falconer, one of the correspondents of the 
 Bath Agricultural Society, strongly recommends soap-suds, 
 both as a manure and antidote against insects. He observes, 
 that ‘‘This mixture of' an oil and an alkali has been more 
 generally known than adopted as a remedy against the in- 
 sects which infest wall fruit-trees. It will dislodge and de- 
 stroy the insects which have already formed their nests, and 
 bred among the leaves. When used in the early part of the 
 year, it seems to prevent the insects from settling upon them.” 
 He prefers soap-suds to lime-water, because lime soon 
 “ loses its causticity, and with that its efficacy, by exposure 
 to air, and must, consequently, be frequently applied ; and 
 to the dredging of the leaves with the fine dust of wood- 
 ashes and lime, because the same effect is produced by the 
 mixture, without the same labour, and is obtained without 
 any expense.” He directs to make use of a common 
 garden-pump for sprinkling trees with soap-suds, and says, 
 if the water of a washing cannot be had, a quantity of pot- 
 ash, dissolved in water, may be substituted, and that the 
 washing of the trees with soap-suds twice a week, for three 
 or four weeks, in the spring, will be sufficient to secure 
 them from aphides, &c. 
 
 Other modes of counteracting the effects of insects are 
 pointed out in treating of the plants which are most liable 
 to be injured by them. We shall, however, make some 
 remarks on a few of those which are most common and 
 injurious to the interests of the cultivator. 
 
 Canker-worm. — We shall not attempt to give either a 
 description or the natural history of the canker-worm, but 
 refer to Professor Peck’s Memoir on the subject, (which 
 was originally published in the Mass. Agricultural Repository 
 and republished in the N. E. Farmer., vol. v. p. 393,) and di- 
 rect our attention, exclusively, to the remedies, which have 
 been used or suggested to preserve fruit-trees from this for- 
 midable enemy. 
 
 The female of this insect comes out of the ground late 
 in the fall, early in the spring, or, sometimes, during a peri- 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 171 
 
 od of mild, open weather, in winter. Those which rise 
 in autumn or in winter are less numerous than those which 
 ascend in spiking; but, being very prolific, they do much 
 injury. One method of preventing the ravages of the 
 worm is to bar the ascent of the females up the stem of 
 the tree. This has generally been attempted by tarring ; 
 of which there are several modifications : — 
 
 1. A strip of linen or canvass is put round the body of 
 the tree, before the females begin their ascent, and well 
 smeared with tar. The insects, in attempting to pass this 
 barrier, stick fast, and perish. But this process, to com- 
 plete the desired effect, must be commenced about the first 
 of November, and the tarring continued, when the weather 
 is mild enough to permit the worms to emerge from the 
 ground, till the latter end of May, or till the time of their 
 ascent is past. It is necessary to fill the crevices in the 
 bark with clay mortar, before the strip of linen or canvass 
 is put on, that the insects may not pass under it. Having 
 put on the strip, which should be at least three inches wide, 
 draw it close, fasten the ends together strongly, then tie a 
 thumb-rope of tow round the tree, close to the lower edge 
 of the strip. The design of this is to prevent the tar from 
 running down the bark of the tree, which would injure it. 
 It should be renewed, in moderate weather, once a day, 
 without fail. The best time is soon after sunset, because 
 the insects are wont to pass up in the evening, and the tar 
 will not harden so much in the night as the day. 
 
 2. Another mode of tarring is to take two pretty wide 
 pieces of board ; plane them ; make semi-circular notches in 
 each, fitting them to the stem or body of the tree ; and fasten 
 them together securely at the ends, so that the most violent 
 storms may not displace them. The crevices betwixt the 
 boards and the tree may be easily stopped with rags or 
 tow ; then smear the under-sides of the boards with tar. 
 The tar, being defended from the direct rays of the sun, 
 will hold its tenacity the longer, and, therefore, need not 
 be frequently renewed. The trees, in this way, will be 
 less liable to be injured by the drippings of tar, by leaving 
 a margin of two or three inches, on those parts of the 
 boards which are next to the trees, to which no tar is ap- 
 plied. 
 
 3. Another mode of blockading the paths of the insects, 
 in their ascent up the trees, is to enclose them with collars, 
 or circular slips of tin. Of this method we have seen some 
 notices, but no description. We presume, however, that 
 
172 
 
 INSECTS. 
 
 the pieces of tin are shaped, and fitted to the trees, some- 
 what like the boards above-mentioned, and perhaps, if the 
 outer rims of the collars were curved, or bent downwards, 
 they might present obstacles, which the worms could not 
 pass, even if no tar was applied. We fear that this 
 method would prove too expensive for general adoption, 
 but would solicit further information on this subject from 
 those who have a practical knowledge of its application 
 and results. 
 
 4. Another method, proposed by Dr. Jeremiah Spof- 
 ford, of Bradford. Mass., is, to spread mercurial ointment 
 ( Unguentum hydrargyn) upon strips of woollen cloth, or 
 narrow lists, such as are cut from the edges of broadcloth, 
 and apply them closely round the trees, having first made 
 the bark smooth where it is not so, that none of the grubs, 
 or f: .nales that deposit the eggs, from which the worm? 
 are produced, may pass under the band or strip, which 
 cont Ins the ointment. Dr. Spofford observes that “ the 
 advantages of using the unguentum over any mode in 
 common use are obvious. While tar requires to be renew- 
 ed every night, that it may catch and hold the grub, merely 
 by its tenacity, this mode requires preparing but once a 
 year, and will be growing stronger for a long time, by an 
 increased oxidation of the mercury, when exposed to the 
 air.” — See iV. E. Farmer^ vol. iv. p. 377. 
 
 The Mass, Agr, Repos, vol. iii. No. 4, contains some re- 
 marks on the canker-worm, by the Hon. John I. -well, 
 president of the Mass. Agr. Soc. from which the following 
 is extracted : — 
 
 “ I had the turf dug in around sixty apple-trees, and the 
 earth laid smooth. I then took three hogsheads of effete,, 
 or air-slaked lime, and strewed it an inch thick round my 
 trees, to the extent of two or three feet from the roots, so 
 that the whole diameter of the opening was from four to 
 six feet. 
 
 ‘‘ I tarred these trees as well as the others, and, although 
 I had worms or grubs on most that were not limed, I did 
 not catch a single grub where the trees were limed. 
 
 ‘‘ I do not speak with confidence. I am, however, 
 strongly encouraged to believe the remedy perfect. It was 
 ascertained by Professor Peck, that the insect seldom de- 
 scended into the ground at a greater distance than three or 
 four feet from the trunk, and to the depth of four inches, 
 or that the greater part come within that distance. The 
 lime is known to be destructive of all animal substances. 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 173 
 
 and I have little doubt that it actually decomposes and de- 
 stroys the insect in the chrysalis state ; at least I hope that 
 this is the case. 
 
 ‘‘ There are many reasons, which should encourage a 
 repetition of this experiment. The digging round the trees 
 is highly useful to them, while tarring is very injurious. 
 The expense is not great. A man can dig round fifty trees 
 in one day. The lime is a most salutary manure to the 
 tree. After the spot has been once opened and limed, the 
 labour of keeping it open will not be great. Three hogs- 
 heads of air-slaked lime, or the sweepings of a lime-store, 
 will suffice for fifty trees, and will cost three dollars. As 
 it is done but once a year, I think it cannot be half so ex- 
 pensive as tarring. 
 
 I repeat it, that I mention my experiments with great 
 diffidence, as being the first of my own knowledge. It 
 may induce several persons to try it in different places, and 
 where trees are surrounded with others, which are treated 
 differently. All I pray is, that it may prove successful, and 
 relieve us from this dreadful scourge, which defaces our 
 country, while it impoverishes and disappoints the farmer.” 
 
 The remedies proposed by Professor Peck were, 1st, — 
 Turning up the ground carefully in October, as far as the 
 branches of a tree extend, to half a spade’s depth, or five 
 inches, so as completely to invert the surface. A great 
 number of chrysalids would thus be exposed to the air and 
 sun, and of course destroyed. 2dly, — Breaking the clods, 
 and smoothing the surface with a rake, and passing a heavy 
 roller over it, so as to make it very hard, and without cracks. 
 In grass-grounds, the sods should be turned with the grass- 
 side down, and placed side by side, so as to be rolled. 
 The winter’s frosts w^ould heave and crack a smooth sur- 
 face, but it might be smoothed and hardened by the roller, 
 or by other means, in March, with much less trouble, time, 
 and expense, than rolling requires. As lime, when sla- 
 ked, is reduced to an impalpable powder, and is thus well 
 adapted to close the openings in the surface, Mr, P. was 
 inclined to think its good effects ere produced this way as 
 well as by its caustic qualities. — Thacher'^s Orchardist^ p. 93. 
 
 John Kenrick, Esq., of Newton, Mass., proposed, be- 
 tween the time in June after the worms had disappeared 
 and the 20th of October, to take the whole of the soil sur- 
 rounding the trees, to the extent at least of four feet from 
 the trunk, and to a suitable depth, and cart it away to a 
 distance from any trees, which the canker-worms are in the 
 15 ^ 
 
174 
 
 INSECTS. 
 
 habit of feeding on ; and returning an equal quantity of 
 compost, or rich earth, intermixed with manure. 
 
 A writer for the New England Farmer^ vol. iii. p. 327, 
 states a c*ase of an orchard having been preserved from 
 canker-worms, by means of a large number of locust-trees, 
 equal to about double the number of apple-trees. 
 
 Mr. Roland Howard, of Easton, Mass., observes, {N. E. 
 Farmer^ vol. iv. p. 391,) that ‘‘A quantity of lime was col- 
 lected from the sweepings of a lime-store, and spread on 
 the ground around a certain apple-tree, some time in the 
 month of November; (the foliage of which tree had been 
 destroyed by the canker-worm the preceding summer ;) 
 the ground being in a pulverized state, the lime was spread 
 as far from the trunk of the tree as the drippings from the 
 branches extended : the effect was stated to be the entire 
 disappearance of the worm, and an increased vigour of the 
 tree.’’ The same writer observes, that ‘‘moving the earth 
 with a plough or hoe late in November, or beginning of 
 December, has been found very efficacious in destroying 
 them.” This last mentioned remedy, if it will always 
 prove efficient, will probably be the cheapest and most ex- 
 pedient. But the worm must be capable of enduring a 
 considerable degree of cold, or unerring instinct would not 
 lead it from its dormitory in November (as it frequently 
 does) to brave the rigours of winter on the stem or branch- 
 es of the tree. We are inclined to believe, as well as to 
 hope, that the application of lime, as above stated, will 
 prove effectual ; and, if so, it will probably be preferable to 
 any mode of applying tar. or attacking the enemy above 
 ground. 
 
 When the insects have ascended, their numbers may be 
 lessened by jarring or shaking the body or limbs of the 
 tree, causing them to suspend themselves by the threads, 
 which they spin from their bodies, and striking them off 
 with a stick. It is said that those which thus fall to the 
 earth do not rise again. Whether they would be able to 
 resist the effects of a sprinkling with soap-suds, saline or 
 bitter infusions, &c. is more than we can say ; but we wish 
 their powers might be tested by showering them with those 
 mixtures, which are found to be the best antidotes against 
 other insects. 
 
 Caterpillah. — “ This is one of the worst enemies to 
 an orchard, when neglected ; but easily destroyed by a 
 little attention. In the spring, when the nests are small, 
 and the insects young and tender, they never venture 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 175 
 
 abroad in the early part of the day, when the dew is on 
 the trees, or in bad weather ; they may then be effectually 
 destroyed by crushing them in the nest; this attention, con- 
 tinued a short time every spring, will destroy those in 
 existence, and Vv ill prevent their increase in future years : 
 if left till grown strong, they wander from their nests, and 
 cannot be effectually overcome without great trouble and 
 expense .” — Coxe on Fruit Trees, 
 
 The Hon. Timothy Pickering, in a letter to the corre- 
 sponding secretary of the Massachusetts Agricultural Soci- 
 ety, has recommended an implement for the destruction of 
 caterpillars. It is made by inserting some hog’s bristles 
 between twisted wires, in such manner as to form a cylin- 
 drical brush, which will present bristles on every side. 
 This is attached to a pole of such length as the trees may 
 require, and the caterpillars are brought down by it, and 
 then crushed. Other methods have been proposed, such as 
 casting over the tree a few handfuls of ashes, in the morning 
 before the dew is dissipated from the foliage, or after a show- 
 er of rain. A strong whitewash of fresh stone-lime, applied 
 by the means of a mop, or sponge fixed to the end of a 
 pole, strong soap-suds, spirits of turpentine, a little oil of any 
 Idnd, particularly blubber oil, are likewise fatal to the in- 
 sects. But, perhaps, the most effectual remedy is the Aawc?, 
 by which the insects may easily be removed at an early 
 stage ; but if this be neglected, it is thought that the next 
 best remedy is the use of Col. Pickering’s brush as above. 
 In applying either of these remedies, care must be taken 
 to choose that part of the day, when the caterpillars are in 
 their nests. They rarely quit them till nine o’clock, and 
 generally return to them again about twelve. 
 
 CuRCULio. — This is a small bug, or beetle, which perfo- 
 rates the young fruit of the pear, apple, and all stone fruits, 
 and deposits its eggs in them. The eggs soon hatch, and a 
 small maggot is produced, which feeds either on the pulp 
 of the fruit, or on the kernel of the seed ; for the tastes and 
 habits of the different species are not similar. In the stone 
 fruits, this injury destroys their growth, and they fall with 
 their little enemy within them. The insect retreats into the 
 earth, and passes the winter in the chrysalis state, and comes 
 forth just as the young fruit is forming, or the petals of the 
 flowers are falling, to renew its mischievous labours. 
 This insect continues its depredations from the first of May 
 until autumn. Dr. James Tilton, of Wilmington, Dela- 
 ware, in an article on this subject, published in the Ameri- 
 
176 
 
 INSECTS, 
 
 can editions of Willich^s Domestic Encyclopedia^ observes 
 that “ Our fruits, collectively estimated, must thereby be 
 depreciated more than half their value;” and adds, in his 
 directions for destroying the insect, All the domestic ani- 
 mals, if well directed, contribute to this purpose. Hogs, 
 in a special manner, are qualified for the work of extermi- 
 nation. In large orchards, care should be taken that the 
 stock of hogs is sufficient to eat up all the early fruit which 
 falls from May till August. This precaution will be more 
 especially necessary in large peach orchards; for, other- 
 wise, when the hogs become cloyed with the pulp of the 
 peach, they will let it fall out of their mouths, and content 
 themselves with the kernel, which they like better ; and 
 thus the curculio, escaping from their jaws, may hide 
 under ground till next spring.” 
 
 The ordinary fowls of a farm-yard are great devourers 
 of beetles. Poultry, in general, are regarded as carnivo- 
 rous in the summer, and therefore cooped some time before 
 they are eaten. Every body knows with what avidity ducks 
 seize on the tumble-bug, (Scarabceus carnifex^) and it is 
 probable the curculio is regarded, by all fowls, as an 
 equally delicious morsel. Therefore it is that the smooth 
 stone fruits, particularly, succeed much better in lanes and 
 yards, where poultry run without restraint, than in gardens 
 and other enclosures, where fowls are excluded.^’ 
 
 Instead of turning swine into orchards, to pick up the 
 fruit which falls, and thus destroy the worms which it con- 
 tains, it will often be found most expedient to gather such 
 fruit, and give it to swine in pens, &c., either raw, or, what 
 would be better, boiled. If such measures were generally 
 taken, with fruit which falls spontaneously, as to prevent 
 the insects, which generally cause it to drop prematurely, 
 from escaping into the ground, the worms, which destroy 
 one half our fruit, and very much deteriorate a considerable 
 part of the other half, would soon be extirpated from our 
 orchards and fruit-gardens. 
 
 Aphis, Plant-louse, Puceron, or Vine-fretter. — This 
 genus of insects comprises many species and varieties, 
 which are denominated from the plants they infest. The 
 males are winged, and the females without wings : they 
 are viviparous, producing their young alive, in the spring; 
 and also oviparous, laying eggs in autumn. Water, dashed 
 with force from a syringe, [or garden engine,] will prove 
 as destructive to them as any thing, when on trees ; and 
 smaller plants may be washed with lime-water, with tobac- 
 
)N SECTS. 
 
 177 
 
 co-water, s\ Uh elder leaves iiilused in water, or with com- 
 mon soap-suds, any ol’ which will destroy the insects.” — 
 Loudon. ‘^Tie up some Hour of sulphur in a piece of mus- 
 lin, or tine linen, and with this the leaves of young shoots 
 or plants should be dusted, or it may be thrown on them by 
 means of a common swan’s-down puff, or even a dredging 
 box. Sulphur has also been found to promote the health 
 of plants, on which it was sprinkled, and that peach trees, 
 in particular, were remarkably improved by it.” — Dorn. 
 Encyc. In green-houses they are readily destroyed by 
 the smoke of tobacco, or of sulphur. But in the open air, 
 fumigation, though much in vogue many years since, is of 
 no avail. The best remedy is the simplest. Soap-suds, 
 forcibly applied, will, after one or two applications, effectu- 
 ally destroy them, without apparent injury to the plant.” — 
 Deane. 
 
 A writer for the New England Farmer^ vol. iii. p. 9, after 
 stating a number of experiments with soap-suds, for destroy 
 ing aphides, which were unsuccessful, or but partially suc- 
 ceeded, says, I was led to conclude, that it is not sufficient 
 to wet the upper side of the leaves, thinking to make them 
 disagreeable or poisonous to the insect, but that they must 
 be well drenched or immersed in the suds. I therefore 
 applied again the same remedy ; but with this difference, — 
 instead of sprinkling the upper side of the branches, I car- 
 ried a pailful of suds from tree to tree, and, bending the 
 tops of small trees, and the branches of larger ones, im- 
 mersed all the parts infested with lice, holding them in the 
 liquor for a moment, that none might escape being well 
 wet. On examining the trees the next day, the greater 
 part of the lice were destroyed. It was found necessary to 
 repeat the same process once or twice, with suds not too 
 weak, say about two or three ounces of soap to a gallon of 
 water.” Another writer in the same paper, p. 10, says, 
 
 I have applied soap-suds to my apple-tr^es, in order to 
 kill the lice. It will be sufhcient for me to say, that just 
 sprinkling them with suds will not kill them ; neither will 
 dipping the branches, which are infested with them, kill 
 them. But dipping and holding them in as long as I can 
 conveniently hold my breath, will destroy every one. The 
 suds do not appear to injure the leaves. I tried suds made 
 on purpose, and suds which had been used for family wash- 
 ing. The latter answers the purpose much the best.” It 
 is possible to make soap-suds so strong as to kill the ten- 
 der branches, as well as the insects which infest them* 
 
17B 
 
 IN skcTsJ. 
 
 The proportion abov e-munuoned, ol‘ two or three ounces of 
 soap to a gallon of water, is, probably, most advisable. 
 
 Cut-worm. — This is an ash-colonred worm, with a stripe 
 almost blaek on its back. When fully grown it is about 
 the size of a goose-quill, and eibout an inch and a quarter in 
 length. They are very apt to cut olf young cabbages, cau-^ 
 lillowers, beets, &c. They never yoluntarily appear on the 
 surface of the ground in the day time, but may be found 
 about an inch below it. In the night they make their 
 excursions, cut off the stems of young plants just at the top 
 of the ground, and a 'gain bury themselves. 
 
 Dr. Deane observed, I once prevented their depreda- 
 tions in my garden, by manuring the soil with sea-mud, 
 newly taken fvom the flats. The plants generally escaped^ 
 though every one was cut off in a spot of ground that lies 
 eontiguou 6. From the success of this experiment, I con- 
 clude ^j^at salt is very offensive or pernicious to therm- 
 Lime, and ashes, in some measure, prevent their doing mis- 
 ; but sea-water, salt, or brine, would be more eflectu- 
 al antidotes. The most effectual, and not a laborious 
 remedy, even in field-culture, is to go round every niornin^^. 
 and open the earth at the foot of the plant, and you will* 
 never fail to find the v/orm at the root, within four inches.. 
 Kill him, and you will save not only the other plants of 
 your field, but, probably, many thousands in future years.”’ 
 
 There is some danger in making use of salt, brine, of 
 sea-water, of injuring the plants in attempting to destroys 
 insects ; and we should, therefore, generally prefer decoc- 
 tions of elder, walnut leaves, or tobacco. Mr. Fresto'ii*, of 
 Stockport, Penn., preserved his cabbage-plants from cut- 
 worms, by wrapping a bivckory-leaf round the stem, between 
 the roots and leaves. — W. E. Farmer^ vol. iii. p. 369. The 
 Hon. Mr. Fiske, of Worcester, Mass., in speaking of this 
 insect, says,. “ To search out the spoiler, and kill him, is the 
 very best course ; but, as his existence is not known except 
 by ifis ravages, I make a fortress, for my plants, with paper,, 
 winding it conically and firmly a.bove the root, amd securing 
 it by a low embankment of earth.” — N. E. Farmer ^ vol. 
 p. 362. 
 
 Lice on apple-trees. — There is a species of insect in- 
 festing apple-trees, which may be styled the hark-louse^ to* 
 distinguish it from the plant-louse^ or aphis. It is, in form,, 
 like half a kernel of rye, but much smaller, with the flat 
 side sticking to the bark of the tree. Jesse Buel, Esq., of 
 Albany, gives the following statement of ^is mode of 
 
INSKCTS. 
 
 179 
 
 destroying them: — ‘‘In June last) I observed directions 
 in the .New England Farmer for destroying the parasitic 
 enemy; and, that being the particular time to make the 
 ^ipplication, \ immediately set about it. For this purpose^ 
 I took eight parts of water and two of soft soap, and mixed 
 with these lime enough to make a thick whitewash. With 
 a whitewash and paint brush, I put this upon the trunks 
 and limbs of trees, as high as was practicable, filling the 
 cracks in the bark, and covering the whole surface. The 
 effect has been not only to destroy most of the lice, but to 
 give the trees an improved and vigorous appearance. The 
 cuter bark, which, from a stinted growth, had become 
 rough and hard, has, in a measure, fallen off in flakes, and 
 disclosed a soft, smooth bark, the sure indication of health.’^ 
 E. Perley, Esq. published a description of this insect i» 
 the Mass, Agr, Repos, vol. iii. p. 114, and says, “The 
 application whicli I have found most effectual is, washing 
 the trees with lie or brine.” * He observes, that “ they 
 resemble blisters, and are near the colour of the bark of 
 the tree. These blisters contain from ten to thirty nits oi 
 eggs each, in form like a snake’s egg; which, in a common 
 season, begin to hatch about the 25th of May, and finish 
 about the 10th of June. These nits produce a white animah 
 cule, resembling a louse, so small, that they are hardly per* 
 ceptible by the naked eye ; which, immediately after they 
 are hatched, open a passage at the end of the blister, an(t 
 crawl out on the bark of the tree, and there remain, with 
 little motion, about ten days, when they stick themselves 
 fast to the bark of the tree, and die. From this little car- 
 cass arises a small speck of him mould., which is most plain 
 to be seen between the 10th and 20th of June, and con- 
 tinues about fifteen days, and then gradually wears off 
 until the old carcass appears, which, by this time, is formed 
 into a new blister, and contains the spawns or nits before- 
 mentioned. These blisters prevent the circulation of the 
 sap, and prove as fatal to the tree as the canker-worm.” 
 
 “ A correspondent of the Caledonian Horticultural Society 
 recommends clay paint for the destruction of insects, and 
 the mildew on fruit-trees. The instructions are, that you 
 take a quantity of the most tenacious brown clay that can 
 be obtained ; diffuse among it as much soft water as will 
 bring it to the consistence of cream or paint ; pass it through 
 a fine sieve, so that it may be made perfectly smooth and 
 unctuous, and freed from any gritty particles. With a 
 painter’s brush, dipped in the clay paint, go carefully over 
 
180 
 
 INSECTS, 
 
 Ihe whole tree, not excepting the young shoots. This 
 layer, when it becomes dry, forms a hard crust, which, 
 enveloping the insects closely, completely destroys them, 
 without doing the smallest injury either to the bark or 
 ouds.” — Thacher^s Orchardist, Solutions of potash and 
 decoctions of tobacco are likewise recommended. 
 
 Apple-tree borer. — Saperda hivitata, — The scientific 
 description of this very pernicious insect is thus given by 
 Professor Say, of Philadelphia : — ‘‘ Hoary ; above, light- 
 brown, with two broad, white fillets. Inhabits the United 
 States. Bodj/y white ; eyes^ fuscous ; a small spot on the 
 vertex, and another behind each eye, light-brown ; antenncBy 
 moderate, slightly tinged with bluish ; thorax^ light-brown, 
 with two oroad, white lines, approaching before ; elytray 
 light brown, irregularly punctured ; a broad, white, longi- 
 tudinal line on each, nearer to the suture than to the outer 
 edge. Length, from one half to seven tenths of an inch. 
 A very pretty insect. In the larvae state, it is very injuri- 
 ous to the apple-tree, boring into the wood.” — Journal of 
 the Academy of ScienceSy Phil, vol. Hi. p. 409. 
 
 Professor Say, in a letter to Jesse Buel, Esq., says, “ You 
 state, that it leaves the pupa, and becomes perfect in the 
 latter part of April, and that the eggs are deposited beneath 
 the surface of the soil. These two circumstances ascer- 
 tained, I would recommend the application, early in May, 
 or the latter part of April, of common bricklayer’s mortar, 
 around the base of the tree, so as to cover completely the 
 part, and its immediate vicinity, where the deposit is made. 
 This preventive was successfully employed by Mr. Shot- 
 well, against the attacks of the peach-tree insect, (see 
 American Farmery vol. vi. p. 14,) and I see no reason why 
 it should not be equally efficacious in the preservation of 
 the apple-tree.” — Mem, of N, Y, Board of AgriculturOy 
 vol. Hi. p. 479. 
 
 The Mass, Agr, Repos, vol. v. p. 360, contains a paper 
 on this insect, by John Prince, Esq., by which it appears 
 tnat worms of this kind are got rid of by ‘‘digging round 
 the tree, and clearing away the earth to the roots, and then, 
 with a sharp-pointed knife, a chisel, or a gouge, (and a small 
 wire to probe, if they are deep in the tree,) they may easi- 
 ly be destroyed.” After taking out the worms, the wounds 
 snould be covered over with grafting-clay and a large pro- 
 portion of dry wood-ashes mixed, and the earth then 
 returned to the tree. The process for cleansing the trees 
 from borers should be performed in the spring, as soon as 
 
INSECTS. 181 
 
 the frost is out of the ground, or at least before the month 
 ot June, as the perfect insect escapes before that time. 
 
 Slug-worm, or naked snail. — These reptiles appear on 
 the leaves of fruit-trees in the month of July. Professor 
 Peck has ascertained that they are the progeny of a small 
 black lly, which deposits its eggs in the leaf in the months 
 of May and June. They may be destroyed by means of 
 lime, sprinkled over the leaves in the form of powder. 
 For this purpose, a wooden box, of convenient size, having 
 ii& bottom perforated with numerous small holes, is to be 
 filled with lime. This, being mounted on a pole, and sha- 
 ken over the tree, distributes the lime among the leaves, 
 and the slugs are immediately destroyed. The labour is 
 very trivial ; a man may cover a large tree in three or four 
 minutes; and the desired effect is certain. Fine earth, 
 shaken through a basket or perforated box, will answer 
 as well. 
 
 “ Another remedy, it is said, will prove equally effectual. 
 It is a strong infusion of tar, made by pouring water on tar, 
 and suffering it to stand two or three days, when it be- 
 comes strongly impregnated. This, if sprinkled over tho 
 leaves by means of an engine, will kill these vermin instan 
 taneously. A strong decoction of tobacco will probably 
 produce the desired effect, and tanners^ bark, put round the 
 tree, it is said, will have a salutary tendency as a prevent- 
 ive.” — Thacherh Orchardist. 
 
 Forsyth recommends watering the ground, where these 
 insects are, with soap-suds and urine, mixed with tobacco- 
 water. Ducks, admitted into a garden, will destroy all 
 within their reach. 
 
 Wire-worm, or Red-worm. — This insect is slender, and 
 usually about an inch long, with a hard coat, and a pointed 
 head, Mr. William Moody, of Saco, (Maine,) in a com- 
 munication to Hon. Josiah Quincy, published in Mass, 
 Agr, Repos, vol. iv. p. 353, observes, I am persuaded, 
 from experience, that sea-sand, put under corn or potatoes 
 with manure, or spread on the land, will go far, if not 
 wholly, to the total destruction of these destructive worms, 
 on which nothing else seems to have any effect. It has a 
 beneficial effect spread on land before ploughing, or even 
 after land is planted with corn or potatoes, not only to de- 
 stroy the wire-worm and other insects, but to increase the 
 crop. With my neighbours a load of sea-sand is considered 
 as preferable to a load of the best manure, to mix in wdth 
 16 
 
182 
 
 JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. 
 
 their common bam-manure, or to spread on their gardener 
 and low flat land.” 
 
 Probably sea-mud or sea-water would produce good ef- 
 fects as preservatives against this and other insects. 
 
 A correspondent of the New England Farmer^ vol. iv. p. 
 284, recommends, from actual experiment, the soaking of 
 seed-corn in a solution of copperas^ to preserve it against 
 the wire-worm, other insects, and birds. He says, “ The 
 plan which I pursued was as follows : — I used about one 
 and a half pound of copperas in three pecks of corn. 
 I made the water warm, and soaked the corn full forty-eight 
 hours before planting, putting in corn and copperas as we 
 used it out. It is not easy to use too much copperas ; I 
 believe the more the better.” This method has been fre- 
 quently and successfully put in practice. See N. E. Far- 
 mer^ vol. V. p. 310. 
 
 The Striped bug, or Yellow ply. — This is a small in- 
 sect of the coleoptera order, or such as have crustaceous 
 elytra^ or wing cases, like the beetle. The elytra of this 
 bug are striped with yellow and black. They prey on the 
 young plants of cucumbers, melons, squashes, and others 
 of the CMCurbitacecB species. “ These insects may be consid- 
 erably thinned by killing them in a dewy morning, when 
 they have not the free use of their wings, and cannot well 
 escape. But nothing that I have tried has proved so effec- 
 tual as sifting or sprinkling powdered soot upon the plants 
 when the morning dew remains on them. This forms a 
 bitter covering for the plants, which the bugs cannot en- 
 dure the taste of.” — Deane, “We would recommend 
 
 sprinkling the plants with a little sulphur or Scotch snuff.” 
 — Farmer^s Assistant, But the surest defence against these 
 insects is, enclosing the plants with a frame, and a muslin 
 or gauze covering, as recommended page 91^ 
 
 JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. — Helianthus tuherosus, 
 — The Jerusalem artichoke is a hardy perennial, a native 
 of Brazil, and is of the same genus as the sun-flower. It 
 is propagated and cultivated like the potato. We have 
 been informed that this root will grow and produce a 
 profitable crop on poor land,' and without manure ; though, 
 with deep ploughing and good manuring, its culture would 
 probably be attended with greater profit. It was much 
 esteemed before potatoes were known. The epithet 
 Jerusalem is a corruption of the Italian word Girasole 
 (from girarey to turn, and sol) or sun-flower ; the name ar/i- 
 
JEllUSALr.M ARTICHOKE. 
 
 183 
 
 choke is bestowed from the resemblance in flavour, which 
 the roots have to the bottoms of artichokes. It is superior 
 to the potato in being more hardy, and not liable to be in- 
 juied by frost; but we believe it contains somewhat less 
 nutritive matter. Its tops are large, and may make a valua- 
 ble addition to the farm-yard, of a substance which may 
 be converted into manure. From the circumstances of its 
 flourishing in a poor soil, and producing large leaves and 
 stalks, there can be no doubt that it derives much food for 
 plants from the atmosphere, which by its decay is impart- 
 ed to the soil on which it grows, or on which, after rotting, 
 it is spread as manure. There is no plant which more 
 completely shades the ground, and it must in that way en- 
 rich it. It will flourish in the shade of trees, buildings, 
 &c. where other plants will not thrive. We believe there 
 are thousands of acres of land in the more populous parts 
 of the United States, which are now considered as not 
 worth cultivation, which would produce considerable quan- 
 tities of the Jerusalem artichoke, with no other trouble 
 than once planting, and digging the roots from time to time 
 as they are wanted. 
 
 Dr. Darwin says that the Jerusalem artichoke will not 
 ripen its seeds in Great Britain, (and we do not believe it 
 will in New England,) by being suffered to grow in the 
 open air under ordinary cultivation. But by forcing the 
 plant in pots, hot-houses, &c., perhaps seeds might be 
 obtained. This would, probably, be desirable, for it is 
 supposed that all plants degenerate if propagated merely 
 by slips, roots, cuttings, &c., without having recourse to 
 seeds. Potatoes should be renewed from the seed, at least 
 once in twelve or fourteen years, or they will degenerate ; 
 and probably Jerusalem artichokes might become more 
 valuable by the same means. Planting large and fair roots, 
 with suitable soil and culture, will retard this degeneracy, 
 but, we believe, not wholly prevent it. 
 
 “ Use , — The roots are esteemed a wholesome, nutritious 
 food, and are eaten boiled, mashed with butter, or baked 
 in pies, and have an excellent flavour. Planted in rows 
 from east to west, the upright herb of the plant affords a 
 salutary shade to such culinary vegetables as require it in 
 the mid-summer months, as lettuce, turnips, strawberries, 
 &c.” — Loudon, 
 
 The second volume of Memoirs of the New York Board of 
 Agriculture contains remarks on this root by Levi McKean, 
 of Dutchess, in which he gives it as his opinion that arti- 
 
184 LANDSCAPES AND PICTURESQ,UE GARDENS, 
 
 chokes are the best suited for cultivation in this climate as a 
 crop for hogSj sheep, and dairies, of any article that we have 
 yet tried ; and, besides the use of this crop for stock, which 
 many writers consider to he equal to potatoes, they are also 
 recommended highly as an article of human diet. It is true 
 that, when boiled, they do not possess that peculiar farina- 
 ceous quality, that is so much esteemed in the best sorts 
 of potatoes ; but it is said that, when roasted, they are a 
 very delicate article for the table, their taste then resembling 
 the ground-nut of this country. 
 
 The only objection we have heard stated to this vegeta- 
 ble as an article of field-culture is, that, when once suffered 
 to enter, it will take exclusive possession of a soil ; and 
 thus, when a change of crops is desired, becomes a most 
 troublesome weed. But by turning in a sufficient number 
 of hogs, the artichokes may be entirely eradicated ; and, 
 probably, a poor soil, which would answer no other pur- 
 pose of culture, might be planted with the Jerusalem 
 artichoke, and converted into a permanent pasture for 
 swine. If not overstocked with the animals, the plants 
 would keep po«»session of the soil, which they would meli- 
 orate ; and when it should be wished to change the crop, 
 turn in hogs enough to root out the artichokes. 
 
 LANDSCAPES and PICTURESQUE GARDENS.— 
 The following article was written expressly for this work, 
 by Mr. A'. Parmentier, of New York, a French horticultur- 
 ist of much taste and science : — 
 
 It has been reserved for the good taste of our age to 
 make many advantageous changes in the embellishment 
 of gardens, and to reinstate Nature in the possession of 
 those rights from which she has too long been banished 
 by an undue regard to symmetry. 
 
 Our ancestors gave to every part of a garden all the ex- 
 actness of geometric fornfs : they seem to have known of 
 no other way to plant trees, except in straight lines ; a sys- 
 tem totally ruinous to the beauty of the prospect. We 
 now see how ridiculous it was, except in the public gar- 
 dens of the city, to apply the rules of architecture to the 
 embellishment of gardens. 
 
 The majestic trunk is now allowed the liberty of dis- 
 playing its form, or of following in its vigorous shoots the 
 plan of nature. Gardens are now^ treated like landscapes, 
 the charms of which are not to be improved by any rules 
 of art. 
 
 The advantages of these changes are so manifest, and 
 
LANDSCAl'ES AND IMCTUllESttCJE CAKDEN)i;, 185 
 
 SO well appreciated, that further proofs seem unnecessary. 
 For where can we find an individual, sensible to the beau- 
 ties and charms of nature, who would prefer a symmetric 
 garden to one in modern taste ; who would not prefer to 
 walk in a plantation irregular and picturesque, rather than 
 in those straight and monotonous alleys, bordered with 
 mournful box, the resort of noxious insects ? 
 
 Where is the person, gifted with any taste, who wmuld 
 not choose those alleys that wind without constraint, in 
 preference to those dull straight lines which can be meas- 
 ured by one glance of the eye, and the monotony of which 
 is unvaried ? Instead of this, the modern style presents to 
 you a constant change of scene, perfectly in accordance 
 with the desires of a man who loves, as he continues his 
 walk, to have new objects laid open to his view. To un- 
 derstand this style of a garden requires a quick perception 
 of the beauties of a landscape, without which the existing 
 plantation might be destroyed, instead of being used. 
 Limited prospects, and neighbouring houses and buildings 
 not worthy of notice, should be concealed, and the view 
 left open to those objects which strike the eye of the be- 
 holder agreeably. The front of the house ought always to 
 be uncovered^ the principal point of view seen, or conjec- 
 tured. A vast idea of the proprietor should be given, and 
 this can only be done by a grand plan, in which nothing 
 niggardly is to be seen. 
 
 Rows of trees should never be planted in front of the 
 house, particularly when the house has been built in good 
 taste, and at great expense. It may be objected to this, 
 that the shade is wanted, and this I Would not exclude ; 
 but, instead of one row in front, I would plant thick groups 
 of trees on the three other sides, and leave the front open 
 to public view ; otherwise the taste and expense are,, in a 
 great measure, thrown away. 
 
 When you choose the situation of a country-house, let 
 it be at some distance from the public road, so that the 
 road which leads to it may give a good idea of the extent 
 of the proprietor’s domains, and care should be taken that 
 the road is proportioned to this extent. It ought to be^ 
 from eight to ten feet wide, so that carriages may pass, and, 
 gently serpentine. This winding should have a reasoQ-rr!. 
 that is to say — some groups of trees should be so placed: as: 
 to appear to be the cause of it : for naturally the road would 
 have led directly to the house, but the person walking, when 
 he observes these groups of trees, will see at cmce why 
 16 
 
186 LANDSCAPES AND PICTURESQUE GARDENS, 
 
 does not. Besides, he will be agreeably amused by the 
 variety of views which will show to advantage the manner 
 in which the artist has executed his plan, and the choice 
 he has made of a situation. 
 
 If the house is placed on an eminence or side-hill, the 
 prospect will be much more beautiful if you can enjoy 
 the view of water : and, to add to the whole effect, and 
 facilitate the labours of the artist, it is desirable that a grass- 
 plot should naturally present itself. 
 
 The plantations and groups of trees near the house 
 should be, if possible, of a deeper green; — they would 
 extend the view and the perspective, and produce the ef- 
 fect of shades in a landscape-picture, where the groups of 
 trees in front are of a darker shade, and seem to remove 
 the perspective from the extremity of the landscape. For 
 the same reason, the trees at the farther part of a park, or 
 garden, should be those of a thin and light foliage. 
 
 Plantations should consist of, besides merely ornamental 
 trees, those fruit-trees which are high and of bright foliage. 
 Their flowers in spring, and branches loaded with fruit in 
 autumn, make them objects of great beauty and interest. 
 
 The apple-tree alone, on account of its horizontal 
 branches, should be confined to the orchard, where its 
 useful products are ornamental and valuable. The most 
 should be made of the agreeable and interesting views 
 which may be had in the neighbouring landscape. They 
 may be made useful to the general plan by being represent- 
 ed as the property of the proprietor. 
 
 For this reason, I highly approve of blind fences, and 
 live hedges. But fences, necessary as enclosures, should 
 be concealed so as not to appear as boundaries to the es- 
 tablishment, and present to the eye a disagreeable inter- 
 ruption in the prospect. The judicious use of hermitages, 
 arbours, cottages and rotundas will add to the effect, in 
 picturesque gardens and ornamented farms. If you use 
 these ornaments, place the hermitage in some retired spot : 
 a small rivulet would be an appropriate and beautiful ac- 
 companiment. The rustic arbour and cottage may occupy 
 a place less secluded. An elegant rotunda should be seen 
 from a distance, and on a hill or eminence. It should 
 make a part of the establishment of a wealthy man, as well 
 as pagoda« turrets, and Chinese towers. These ornaments 
 are so expensive, that they are beyond the means of most 
 peisons : but hermitages, arbours and cottages may generally 
 be afforded, as there is little expense in their construction. 
 
LAVENDER, 
 
 187 
 
 Rustic bridges are very pretty where there is a streum, 
 and they can be made of use ; but they have no preten- 
 sions as mere accompaniments to a plantation. Obelisks, 
 columns, &c. should be placed on elevated places. 
 
 As to tombs and cemeteries, I should wish to banish them 
 entirely from gardens. They always awaken melancholy 
 reflections in old people, for they remind them of their ap- 
 proaching end ; and a regard for their feelings should, I 
 think, exclude from their places of resort every object 
 which could have such an effect. 
 
 Whilst on this subject, I will mention an anecdote of the 
 celebrated Kent, architect of the English gardens, which 
 will show to what extent this mania may be carried. He 
 built a tomb in a park, and, to make the place still more 
 gloomy, planted around it dead and mutilated trees ; but, 
 notwithstanding the celebrity he had acquired, he was 
 loaded with ridicule, and forced to displace the trees. 
 
 LAVENDER . — Lavandula spica . — The lavender is a 
 hardy under shrub, a native of the south of Europe. The 
 plant rises two to four feet in height, with hoary, linear leaves, 
 slightly rolled back at the edges : the flowers form terminat- 
 ing spikes of a blue colour^ and appear from July to Septem- 
 ber. The leaves and flowers are powerfully aromatic. 
 
 “ Propagation and culture , — It is propagated by cuttings 
 and slips, like rosemary ; it likes a dry soil, and may be 
 planted either in distinct plants, two feet asunder, or to form 
 a sort of hedge row, in one or more lines, especially where 
 large supplies of flowers are required for distilling. The 
 plants will advance in a close, branchy growth, from a foot 
 and a half to two feet high, or more ; and, when estab- 
 lished, will produce plenty of flowers in July and August. 
 Gather them while in perfection, cutting the spikes off close 
 to the stem. Then give the plants occasional trimming, 
 cutting off the gross and rampant shoots of the year, and 
 the decayed flower-spikes.’’ Neill observes, If lavender 
 be planted in a dry, gravelly, or poor soil, its flowers have 
 a powerful odour, and the severity of our winters has little 
 effect on it ; while, in a rich garden soil, though it grows 
 strongly, it is apt to be killed, and the flowers have less 
 perfume.” 
 
 Use , — It is rather a medicinal plant than one used in 
 cookery ; though a few plants are kept in every garden. 
 Imitation scent-bottles are made, by the ladies, of its fra- 
 grant spikes. They are also put in paper bags, and placed 
 among linen to perfume it. Lavender-water, a well-known 
 
188 
 
 LAYERS. LEAVES. 
 
 perfume, is distilled from the flowers ; for which purpose the 
 plant is extensively cultivated in different places.” — Loudon. 
 
 LAYERS. — Layers, in horticulture, denote certain ten- 
 der shoots or sprigs of trees, which are buried in the ground 
 till they have taken root, when they are separated from 
 the parent stock, and become distinct plants. The opera- 
 tion of layering should be commenced before the ascent of 
 the sap, or delayed till the sap is fully up, to wit, early in 
 spring, or in mid-summer. The shoot intended to be- 
 come a new plant, is half separated from the parent plant, 
 at a few inches from its extremity. If the cut or notch 
 does not penetrate at least half way through, some sorts of 
 trees will not form a nucleus the first season ; on the other 
 hand, if the notch be cut nearly through the shoot, a sufii- 
 ciency of alburnum, or sap-wood, is not left for the ascent 
 of the sap, and the shoot dies. In delicate sorts, it is not 
 sufiicient to cut a notch merely, because, in that case, the 
 descending sap, instead of throwing out granulated matter, 
 in the upper side of the wound, would descend by the entire 
 side of the shoot ; therefore, besides a notch formed by cut- 
 ting out a portion of bark and wood, the notched side is slit 
 up at least one inch, separating it by a bit of twig, or small 
 splinter of stone or potsherd. 
 
 Mr. Armstrong says, [Mem. of N. Y. Board of Agr. vol. 
 iii. p. 15,) “ This mode was probably suggested by observ- 
 ing the habits peculiar to some trees and shrubs, (as the 
 laurel and the currant,) of pointing their branches to the 
 earth ; where, finding an habitual moisture, they strike 
 root, and become distinct plants. In imitating this natural 
 process, the artist notches the lower side of the branch, 
 buries this in the earth, three or four inches deep, and 
 keeps it down by a wooden crotchet. As this is done 
 before the descent of the sap, the notch operates like a dam 
 or obstruction to the descending juices, and forces them 
 into a bulbous form, and granular substance, whence are 
 emitted a mass of roots, necessary to the infant plant. When 
 these are sufficiently formed, that part of the branch which 
 binds them to the stem is severed, and the layer taken up 
 and transplanted.” For further particulars respecting the 
 manipulation, &c., in this mode of propagation, see Encyc. 
 of Gardening^ pp. 388, 389. 
 
 LEAVES. — The leaves of trees, particularly of oak, may 
 be employed ad" intageously to form hot-beds. Speechly, 
 an eminent English gardener, gives the following account 
 of his mode of using them : — 
 
LEAVES, 
 
 189 
 
 “ After being raked into heaps, they should immediately 
 be carried to some place near the hot-house, where they 
 must lie to couch. I generally fence them round with 
 charcoal hurdles, or any thing else, to keep them from 
 being blown about the garden in windy weather. In this 
 place we tread them well, and water them, in case they hap- 
 pen to have been brought in dry. We make the heap six or 
 seven feet in thickness, covering it over with old mats, or 
 any thing else, to prevent the upper leaves from being 
 blown away. In a few days the heap will come to a strong 
 heat. For the first year or two that I used these leaves, 1 
 did not continue them in the heap longer than ten days or 
 a fortnight ; but in this I discovered a considerable incon- 
 venience, as they settled so much, when got into the hot- 
 house, as soon to require a supply. Taught by experience, 
 I now let them remain in the heap for five or six weeks, 
 by which time they are properly prepared for the hot-house. 
 In getting them into the pine pits, if they appear dry, we 
 water them again, treading them in layers exceedingly 
 well, till the pits are quite full. We then cover the whole 
 with tan, to the thickness of two inches, and tread it well, 
 till the surface becomes smooth and even. On this we place 
 the pine pots, in the manner they are to stand, beginning 
 with the middle row first, and filling up the spaces between 
 the pots with tan. In like maimer we proceed to the next 
 row, till the whole is finished ; and this operation is per- 
 formed in the same manner as when tan only is used. 
 
 ‘‘ Thus prepared, they will continue a constant and regular 
 heat for twelve months, without either stirring or turning ; 
 and, if I may form a judgment from their appearance when 
 taken out, (being always entire and perfect,) it is probable 
 they would continue their heat through a second year.” 
 After some further details, the same writer observes, I 
 believe that oak leaves are preferable to those of any other 
 sort ; but I have found, by repeated trials, that the leaves 
 of beech, Spanish chestnut, and hornbeam, will answer the 
 purpose very well. It seems that all leaves of a hard and 
 firm texture are very proper ; but soft leaves, that soon de- 
 cay, such as lime, sycamore, ash, and those of fruit-trees in 
 general, are very unfit for this mode of practice.” 
 
 The superiority of oak leaves as a material for hot-beds, 
 according to this writer, consists in the following particu- 
 lars : — ‘‘ They always heat regularly ; for, during the whole 
 time that I have used them, which is near twenty-five 
 years, I never once knew their heating with violence.” 
 
190 
 
 LEEK. 
 
 The heat of oak leaves is constant ; whereas tanners’ bark 
 generally turns cold in a very short time, after its furious heat 
 is gone oif.” ‘‘There is a saving in point of expense; 
 and decayed leaves make good manure ; whereas, rotten 
 tan is experimentally found to be of no value.” 
 
 “ Leaves mixed with dung,” says Loudon, “ make excel- 
 lent hot-beds ; and beds compounded in this manner pre- 
 serve their heat much longer than when made entirely with 
 dung. In both cases, the application of leaves will be a 
 considerable saving of dung,” &c. 
 
 LEEK . — Allium porrum . — The leek is a hardy biennial, 
 a native of Switzerland. The stem risei^three feet, and is 
 leafy at bottom ; the leaves an inch wide. 
 
 The varieties are. 
 
 The narrow-leaved, or Flanders 
 leekj 
 
 The Scotch, or flag, or Mussel- 
 
 burgh leek ; 
 
 The broad-leaved, or tall, London 
 leek. 
 
 Propagation , — “ From seed ; and, for a bed four feet wide 
 by eight in length, one ounce is requisite.” 
 
 Soil and site , — “ The soil should be light and rich, lying 
 on a dry sub-soil. A rank soil does not suit it, so that, 
 when manure is necessary, well reduced dung, mixed with 
 road drift, is better than dung alone. The situation should 
 be open. Let the ground be dug in the previous autumn, 
 ready for sowing in the spring. For the principal crop 
 allot beds four or five feet wide, and sow in drills, about six- 
 teen inches apart. A small crop may be sown thinly with 
 a main crop of onions, and when the latter are drawn off, 
 the leeks will have room for full growth.” 
 
 Times of sowing . — “ A small first crop may be sown as 
 soon as the ground is dry enough, and the weather suffi- 
 ciently mild in the spring. The principal crop should be 
 sown the last of April or the beginning of May.” 
 
 Course of culture . — “ When the plants are three or four 
 inches high, weed them clean, and thin them where too 
 much crowded. Water well in dry, hot weather. The 
 leek is much improved in size by transplanting ; and those 
 designed for that purpose will be fit to remove when from 
 six to ten inches high. For this purpose, take out a quan- 
 tity, regularly, from the seed-bed, either in showery 
 weather, or after watering the ground. Trim the long, 
 weak tops of the leaves, and the roots and fibres, and plant 
 them by dibble, in rows, from nine to twelve inches asunder, 
 by six or eight inches in the row, inserting them nearly down 
 to the leaves, or with the neck part mostly into the ground, 
 
LETTUCE* 
 
 191 
 
 to whiten it a proportionate length. Press the earth to the 
 fibres with the dibber, but leave the stem as loose as pos- 
 sible, and, as it were, standing in the centre of a hollow 
 cylinder. Give water if the weather be dry. Those re- 
 maining in the seed-bed thin to six or eight inches distance. 
 Keep the whole clear from weeds. In hoeing, loosen the 
 ground about the plants, to promote their free, vigorous 
 growth. Some plant in hollow drills, and earth up, as in 
 celery culture, which produces very large stems.” 
 
 To save seed. — “ Transplant some best, full plants, early 
 in the spring, in a sunny situation, or in a row near a south 
 fence. They will shoot in summer, in single, tall seed- 
 stalks. Support them^ as necessary, with stakes ; and they 
 will produce ripe seed in September. Cut the ripe heads 
 with part of the stalk to each ; tie two or three together, 
 and hang up under cover, to dry and harden the seed 
 thoroughly, when it may be rubbed out, cleaned, and put 
 by for future service.” — Abercrombie, 
 
 Use, — “ The whole plant is used in soups and stews ; but 
 the blanched stem is most esteemed. Leeks formerly con^^* 
 stituted an ingredient in the dish called which some 
 
 suppose to be derived from the Latin jporrwm.” — Loudon, 
 The leaves of this plant possess a flavour similar to that 
 of onions ; affording a constant dish at the table of the 
 Egyptians, who chop them up small, and eat them with 
 their meat. They are also in great esteem among the 
 Welsh ; and their general utility, as a wholesome pot-herb^ 
 renders them a valuable culinary spice. ”-^TFi7/icA. 
 
 LETTUCE. — Lactuca saliva, — Lettuce is a hardy, an- 
 nual plant, introduced or cultivated in England in 1562^ 
 but from what quarter is not known. 
 
 Varieties, — These are very numerous ; and, from their 
 names, many of them appear to have come originally from 
 the Greek Islands, and the coast of the Levant. Those 
 mentioned in Mr. Russell’s Catalogue are. 
 
 Early curled Silesia, 
 
 Large green-head, or cabbage, 
 Royal cape, [superior qualiiy,) 
 India Lettuce, (Jine,) 
 
 Imperial cabbage. 
 
 Hardy ^een. 
 
 Brown Dutch cabbage, 
 
 Grand admiral, [large, fine cabbage,) 
 Tennis-ball, or rose. 
 
 Magnum bonum Cos, 
 
 Brighton Cos, 
 
 Ice Cos, 
 
 White Cos, or loaf, 
 
 Green Cos. 
 
 Estimate of sorts, — The cabbage lettuces are round-leaved, 
 growing in a compact, full head, of squat form, close to the 
 ground. All the Cos lettuces, in their general growth, are 
 more or less upright, of an oblong shape. Both kinds have 
 
192 
 
 LETTUCE. 
 
 white, close, firm heads, when in perfection ; the varieties 
 reach maturity from June till September. Meanwhile, they 
 are occasionally used in young, open growth. In a very 
 young state, the cabbage-lettuces have a milder, more agree- 
 able taste than the Cos ; but when both classes are full 
 grown, the flavour of the Cos is preferred for salads, while 
 the cabbage kinds are more used for soups. 
 
 Propagation. — From seed, of which, for a seed-bed four feet 
 wide by ten feet in length, a quarter of an ounce is sufficient, 
 and will produce upwards of four hundred plants. 
 
 Soil and situation. — “ All the sorts grow freely on any 
 rich, mellow soil, where the sub-soil is dry. For the most 
 part, raise this vegetable as a principal crop, on beds set 
 apart for it, 'and keep the varieties separate ; but to multi- 
 ply the supplies throughout summer, portions may be sown, 
 thinly intermixed with principal crops of leeks, onions, car- 
 rots, and spinnage, which will come off before the lettuces 
 are full grown ; also with any young perennials, which 
 stand at wide intervals.” 
 
 Times of sowing. — To obtain a constant supply of good 
 lettuce, it is serviceable to sow every month, from February 
 (or the opening of spring) to July, for the main summer 
 and autumn crops. For late autumn crops, you may sow 
 .a August, and if you have hot-beds, frames, &c. you may 
 sow in September, and so on, through the fall and winter. 
 Early spring lettuce may be sowed so late in the fall as not 
 to come up till spring. 
 
 Process of sowing. — Abercrombie says, The groundl 
 should have been broken in the previous digging. Sow 
 oroad-cast, moderately thin; rake in lightly, and very even.” 
 Others direct to sow in drills, from a foot to sixteen inches 
 apart. Armstrong observes, that the straight-leafed sort 
 is best cultivated in broad-cast, and does not require trans- 
 planting ; but that the curled and head-lettuce cannot suc- 
 ceed without it.” 
 
 Management of the summer crop. — In the successive 
 crops, raised from the opening of spring till the close of 
 summer, when the plants reach about two, three, or four 
 inches’ growth, they should be thinned ; of those removed, 
 let a requisite number be planted out, from a foot to fifteen 
 inches asunder, to remain for cabbaging. Such as continue 
 in the seed-beds may be either gathered thinningly, in pro- 
 gressive stages, till the final reserve advance in close-head- 
 ing; or, as they increase in size, be planted out at the 
 square distance mentioned above, especially those designed 
 
LOCUST-TREE, 
 
 193 
 
 to stand till of stocky growth. In dry weather, water well 
 at transplanting; also weed and hoe the beds thinned, 
 and water them, if necessary. In the first heading-crop of 
 Cos lettuces, when about three parts grown, and beginning 
 to close the inner leaves, a number may be forwarded in 
 cabbaging, by tying the leaves together, moderately close, 
 with strings of bass ; the remainder will head and whiten 
 in due time, without this assistance. 
 
 Crop raised on heat, — “ For an accelerated crop, some 
 may be sown in the beginning or middle of February, on a 
 gentle hot-bed. When the plants are one or two inches 
 high, in March or April, prick a portion either into a warm 
 border, if a mild season, and let them be shielded with 
 mats, during nights and bad weather ; or into a frame or 
 slender hot-bed, to bring them more forward. According 
 to their progress in April or May, transplant them into the 
 open garden, from six to twelve inches asunder, to remain 
 for heading.” 
 
 To save seed, — “ Leave or transplant either some of the 
 early winter-standing plants, in March or Aprily or of the 
 forwardest spring-sown crops, in May, or the beginning of 
 June, fifteen inches asunder. They will produce ripe seed 
 in August or September.” — Abercrombie^ 
 
 Use, — The use of lettuce, as a cooling and agreeable 
 salad, is well known ; it is also a useful ingredient in soups. 
 It has medical properties, similar to those of opium. The 
 refuse leaves are said to be good food for geese, ducks, and 
 swine. 
 
 LOCUST-TREE. — Robinia pseudo-acacia, — This tree 
 is a native of the United States. 
 
 Method of cultivation, — It is capable of being raised 
 from the seed, cuttings, layers and suckers ; but the seed 
 method is said to afford the best plants. The seeds should 
 be sown about the end of March, or beginning of the fol- 
 lowing month, on a bed of light mould, being covered to the 
 depth of about half an inch. The plants usually appear in 
 the course of six or eight weeks. They should be well 
 weeded and watered, and, when sufficiently strong, should 
 be set out in the spring, or autumn, in nursery rows, for 
 two or three years, in order to remain to have a proper 
 growth for final planting.” — Reesi^ Cyclopedia, 
 
 Dr. Drown, of Rhode Island, says, that The easiest 
 method of raising the locust is as follows : — Plant fifteen or 
 twenty trees on an acre, and, when fifteen or twenty feet 
 high, run straggling furrows through the ground, and, 
 17 
 
194 
 
 LOCUST-TREE. 
 
 wherever the roots are cut with the plough, new trees will 
 start up, and will soon stock the ground with a plentiful 
 growth.’’ 
 
 Use , — It is observed in the North American Sylva^ a cele- 
 brated work, by F. Andrew Michaux, that “ The greatest 
 consumption of locust wood is for posts, which are em- 
 ployed in preference for the enclosing of court-yards, gar- 
 dens and farms, in the districts where the tree abounds, and 
 the circumjacent country. They are transported for the 
 same use to Lancaster, Baltimore, Washington, Alexan- 
 dria, and the vicinity. — When the trees are felled i]i the 
 winter, while Xhe circulation of the sap is suspej;clK.u, and 
 these posts are allowed to become perfectly dry before they 
 are set, they are estimated to last forty years. Experience 
 has shown that their duration varies according to certain 
 differences in the trees from which they are formed : thus 
 about Lancaster, and at Harrisburgh, a small town on the 
 Susquehannah, where a considerable trade is carried on in 
 wood that is brought down the river, those trees are 
 reputed the best whose heart is red ; the next in esteem 
 are those with a greenish-yellow heart ; and the least valu- 
 able are those with a white heart. From this variety in 
 the colour of the wood, which, probably, arises from a dif- 
 ference of soil, are derived the names of redy greeuy and 
 white locust. In the Western States, there is a variety which 
 is sometimes called black locust’^ 
 
 it is probable, that the locust with a greenish-yellow 
 heart,” spoken of by M. Michaux is the same with that 
 which Mr. Briggs calls the yellow locust; and although 
 M. Michaux supposes “ this variety in the colour of the 
 wood probably arises from a difference of soil,” it is not im- 
 possible that there may be permanent specific differences 
 in the several varieties. If so, the discovery is of impor- 
 tance. 
 
 M. Michaux says, ‘‘In naval architecture, the ship- 
 wrights use as much locust-wood as they can procure. It 
 is as durable as the live oak and the red cedar, with the 
 advantage of beiiig stronger than the one, and lighter than 
 the other.” 
 
 With| regard to ibe insect which destroys the locust, M. 
 Michaux says, “ Within eighteen or twenty years, an obsta- 
 i‘le has unhappily appeared, which will contribute greatly 
 to prevent the multiplication of the locust in all the an- 
 ciently settled parts of the United States ; this is a winged 
 insect, which attacks the tree while standing, penetrates 
 
LOCUST-TREfi. 
 
 195 
 
 through the bark into the centre of the trunk, and, for the 
 space of a foot, mines it in every direction, so that it is 
 easily broken by the wind. This inconvenience is already 
 so serious, as to induce many people to forego all attempts 
 to form plantations of locust. In Virginia, I have not 
 learned that trees of the natural growth have been visited 
 by this destroyer, but those that have been reared about the 
 plantations have already felt its ravages. This evil, which 
 it appears difficult to remedy, will be more sensibly felt 
 when the destruction of the forests now on foot, an inevita- 
 ble consequence of the neglect of all measures of preserva- 
 tion, shall force the inhabitants to have recourse to planta- 
 tions, which they will wish to form, in a certain proportion, 
 of the locust. Hence it may result, that, disappearing suc- 
 cessively from the American forests, by constant consump- 
 tion, and not being reproduced on account of the insect, the 
 locusts will become extremely rare in their native country, 
 and abundant in Europe, where no similar catastrophe for- 
 bids their propagation.” 
 
 The Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture 
 have offered a premium of fifty dollars ‘‘ for a mode of ex- 
 tirpating the worm that attacks the locust-tree, which shall 
 appear to the satisfaction of the trustees to be effectual.” 
 
 The following, copied from a report of a committee of 
 the Essex Agricultural Society^ on farms in Essex county. 
 Mass., (published in the N. E, Farmer^ vol. iii. p. 145,) 
 places the advantages to be anticipated from the culture of 
 the locust in a fair, and, we believe, just point of view. 
 
 A practical illustration of the advantages of cultivating 
 the locust tree presented itself on the farm of Dr. Nichols. 
 Several acres, that were, a few years since, barren and 
 gravelly pastures, are now covered with a good coat of 
 grass, almost entirely by reason of planting and permitting 
 a growth of locust trees upon the land. This is easily done, 
 after a few trees have taken root, either from the seed, or 
 by being transplanted, and taking care that homed cattle 
 do not go upon the land while the trees are young. In 
 addition to the increase of feed, the trees themselves are 
 well worthy of cultivation. No growth is more rapid, and 
 none more in demand, or of greater value when arrived at 
 maturity. It may be doubted whether an acre of land can 
 be made to yield more in the course of twenty-five or thirty 
 years, without the application of any manure, than by plant- 
 ing it with locust-trees. On a fair computation, the num- 
 ber of serviceable posts that might be obtained in this time 
 
196 
 
 LOVE-APPLE. MADDER. 
 
 would be from, three to six hundred, worth from fifty cents 
 to one dollar each. The increase of feed and surplus wood 
 would fully pay the labour of cultivation ; so that the pro- 
 ceeds of the timber would be the profits of the land. 
 
 An objection to the cultivation of the locust-tree is often 
 brought from the fact that they are sometimes destroyed by 
 worms. This is true ; but the ravages of this insect are 
 found to be greatest where the trees are few and scattered. 
 In the grove on this farm, which extends over a number of 
 acres, and in the other groves in the vicinity, but very few 
 of the trees are at all injured by worms. This objection is 
 by no means sufficient to authorize the neglect of their cul- 
 tivation. It certainly is of the highest importance to the 
 farmers of Essex, to inquire how they can improve their 
 pastures ; or, rather, how they can save them from ruin ; 
 for it must be obvious to all, that, as at present managed, 
 they are constantly growing worse, and many of them 
 have already become of very little value. If, by planting 
 them with trees, by ploughing, by applying plaster, as has 
 been done, with good success, on the farm of Mr. Bartlett, 
 or in any other way, they can be reclaimed, it surely is 
 worthy of the experiment.” 
 
 LOVE-APPLE . — See Tomato. 
 
 MADDER . — Rubia tinctoria . — The following directions 
 for raising this plant are copied from The Emporium of Arts : 
 
 “ This plant may be propagated either by offsets or seeds. 
 If the latter method is preferred, the seed should be of the 
 true Turkish kind, which is called Lizariy in the Levant. 
 On a light, thin soil, the culture cannot be carried on to any 
 great profit- The soil in which the plant delights is a 
 rich, sandy loam, being three feet in depth, or more. 
 
 “ The ground, being first made smooth, is divided into 
 beds four feet wide, with alternate alleys half as wide again 
 as the beds. The reason of this extraordinary breadth of 
 the alleys will presently appear. In each alley is to be a 
 shallow channel for the convenience of irrigating the whole 
 fields, &c. That part of the alley which is not occupied 
 may be sown with legumes. 
 
 “ The madder seed is sown broad-cast, in the proportion 
 of from twenty-five to thirty pounds per acre, about the end 
 of April. In a fortnight or three weeks, the young plants 
 begin to appear ; and from this time to the month of Sep- 
 tember, care must be taken to keep the ground well wa- 
 tered, and free from weeds. 
 
 ‘ If the plants are examined in autumn, they will be 
 
MANGEL WURTZEL. MARJORAM ORIGANUM. 197 
 
 found surrounded with small yellow ofl'sets, at the depth 
 of two inches ; and early in September, the earth from the 
 alleys is to be dug- out, and laid over the plants of madder, 
 to the height of two or three inches. With this, the first 
 year’s operation ceases. 
 
 “ 'J’ne second year’s work begins in May, with giving 
 the beds a thorough w'eeding ; and care must be taken to 
 supply them with plenty of water during the summer. In 
 September, the first crop of seed will be ripe ; at which 
 time the stems of the plants may be mown down, and the 
 roots covered a few inches with earth, taken as before out 
 of the alleys. 
 
 “ The weeding should take place as early as possible in the 
 spring of the third year ; and the crop, instead of being left 
 for seed, may be cut three times, during summer, for green 
 fodder, all kinds of cattle being remarkably fond of it. 
 
 In October, the roots are taken up, the offsets carefully 
 separated, and immediately used to form a new plantation ; 
 and the roots, after being dried, are sold, either without 
 further preparation, or ground to a coarse powder, and 
 sprinkled with an alkaline lie. 
 
 “ The roots lose four fifths of their weight in drying ; 
 and the produce of an acre is about two thousand pounds 
 weight of dry, saleable madder.” 
 
 ‘‘ Madder usually sells for about thirty-two dollars per 
 hundred ; so that the produce of an acre, as above stated, 
 would amount to six hundred and forty dollars.” — Farmer^» 
 
 "^*MANGEL WURTZEL.— S'ee Beet. 
 
 MARJORAM ORIGANUM.— Of this herb there are 
 four different species cultivated ; the pot^ sweety i&inter^ and 
 common. 
 
 Pot marjoram — O. onitcs — is a hardy, perennial, under 
 shrub, a native of Italy. The stem rises more than a foot 
 high, and is covered with spreading hairs ; the leaves are 
 small and acute, almo.st sessile, and downy on both sides. 
 It is in flow’er from July to November, and is propagated 
 from seed, but chiefly from rooted slips. 
 
 Sweet marjoram — O, marjorana — is a hardy biennial, 
 a native of Portugal. It resembles the O. Onites,, but the 
 leaves have distinct petioles, aiid the flowers, which appear 
 in June and July, are collected in small, close heads ; and 
 hence it is often called knoUed marjoram. When in blos- 
 som, the herb is cut over, and dried for winter use, so that 
 a sowing requires to be made every year. 
 
 17 # 
 
198 
 
 MELON. 
 
 The WINTER SWEET MARJORAM is the O. Heracleaticum^ 
 a hardy perennial, a native of Greece. The leaves of this 
 species resemble those of O. marjorana; but the flow- 
 ers come in spikes. It flowiei^g from June to November, 
 requires a sheltered, dry soil, and, seldom ripening its seeds, 
 is propagated by slips and cuttings. 
 
 The COMMON MARJORAM is the O. vulgare^ a native of 
 Britain. It bears a considerable resemblance to the last 
 named species. The flowers arise in sub-rotund panicles, in 
 smooth, coloured spikes, of a reddish appearance, in July and 
 August. This species is only used in cookery, in default 
 of the others. 
 
 Cvltme, — The three first species prefer a light, dry soil ; 
 the other a calcareous soil and shady situation. For a seed- 
 bed, three feet by three feet, a quarter of an ounce of seed 
 is sufficient. ^Sow in April, on a compartment of light 
 earth, either in small drills, or broad-cast; or, sow a portion 
 in a hot-bed, if requisite to have a small crop forwarded. 
 When the plants are one, two, or three inches high, thin 
 the seed-beds, and plant those thinned out in a final bed, 
 six inches apart, giving water; or, where larger supplies 
 are required, some may remain thick where sown, to be 
 drawn off by the root as wanted. The pot^ winter^ and 
 common marjoram may be propagated from offsets, by part- 
 ing the roots in spring and autumn. Plant in rows in beds, 
 allowing a square foot for each plant. 
 
 Gather the tops of all the sorts as wanted for summer 
 use ; and when in full blossom, in July or August, for 
 preservation through the winter. 
 
 Use. — All the species, but especially the three first, are 
 aromatics, of sweet flavour, much used as relishing herbs in 
 soups, broths, stuffings, &c. The young, tender tops and 
 leaves together, are used in summer, in a green state ; and 
 they are dried for winter. — Abridged from Encyc. of Gard. 
 
 MELON. Cucumis melo^ and Cuciirbita citrullus . — - 
 
 There are but two species, the melon with a rough or em- 
 broidered coat, called musk-melon, {cucumis melof) and the 
 melon with a smooth skin, called water-melon, (cucurbita 
 citrullus.) Of each of the species there are many varieties. 
 Mr. Russell’s Catalogue contains the following : — 
 
 Green citron, {/west variety,) 
 Murray's j)ine apple, 
 
 Persian, 
 
 Nutmeg", 
 
 Cl/CUMIS MELO. 
 
 I.arge cantaleupe, 
 Poinegranile. 
 
 UUlJCg y 
 
 Minorca, 
 
 CUCUKPITA CITRULLUS. 
 Carolina water. 
 
 Long lslan<l do. 
 Api>le-see<led do. {early,) 
 
MELON. 
 
 199 
 
 Seed, — Those who wish to procure melons in perfec- 
 tion, must be careful, in the first place, to procure good 
 seed ; secondly, to plant them remote from an inferior sort, 
 as well as from cucumbers, squashes, gourds, and pump- 
 kins ; as xlegeneracy will infallibly be the consequence of 
 inattention to these directions. Abercrombie says, “ Seed 
 under the age of two years is apt to run too much to 
 vine, and show only male flowers ; but new seed may 
 be mellowed by being carried in the pocket a fortnight or 
 more, till the heat of the body has dried and hardened it. 
 Seed twenty years old has been known to grow, and make 
 fruitful plants ; but seed which has been kept three or four 
 years is quite old enough, and less likely to fail than 
 older.” 
 
 SoU , — Abercrombie says, The melon will succeed in 
 
 any unexhausted loam, rich in vegetable rudiments, with a 
 mixture of sand, but not too light. The following is a 
 good compost; two thirds of top-spit earth from a sheep- 
 common, adding sharp sand, if the earth contains little or 
 none, till half is sand ; one sixth of vegetable mould, and 
 one sixth of well-consumed horse-dung. Or, if the earth 
 is not obtained from a sheep-pasture, rotted sheep-dung 
 may be substituted for the last. The ingredients should 
 have been pulverized and incorporated by long previous 
 exposure and turning over.” Dr. Deane observed that ‘‘ a 
 good manure to be put under melons is an old compost of 
 good loam, with the dung of neat cattle or swine.” 
 
 Sowing melons in the open ground, — Mr. Armstrong says, 
 
 To succeed in raising them for market, the Honfleur 
 method, as described by M. Calvel, may be employed. — 
 Select a spot well defended against the north wind, and 
 open to the sun throughout the day. If such is not to be 
 found in your garden, create a temporary and artificial shel- 
 ter, producing the same effect. At the end of March, form 
 holes two feet in diameter, and distant from each other 
 s^ven feet and a half; fill these with horse-dung and litter, 
 or a mixture of mould, dung and sand. At the, end of 
 twenty days, cover the holes, which have been thus filled, 
 with hand-glasses. When the heat rises to 36 of Reau- 
 mu., [113 Fahr.,] sow' the seeds four inches apart; and 
 when the plants have acquired two or three leaves, pinch 
 off the end of the branch or runner.'*^' This will produce 
 
 * “ There is much cohiroversy g-anleners and savants on this point ; 
 
 nor are the jmi ^ ^ eiitireiy united in opinion, how far this practice should be 
 c& ried. Some content themselves witli taki’og off the cotyledons, when tha 
 
200 
 
 M£L<Lr^^« 
 
 lateral branches, which must again be pinched off, as soon as 
 they respectively attain to the length of ten inches. When 
 the plant has outgrown the glass, the latter becomes use- 
 less, and may be removed ; but, should the weather be wet 
 or chilly, substitute coverings of clean straw for that of the 
 glasses, until the young plant becomes strong enough to 
 bear the open air. Two or three melons only are left on 
 each vine, and under each of these is placed a slate, with- 
 out which the upper and under side will not ripen together. 
 Two months are required to mature them. The people of 
 Honfleur attribute their success in melon-raising to the sea- 
 vapour which surrounds them, and to the saline particles 
 contained in it, an advantage to be any where commanded, 
 by dissolving a little salt in the water employed to moisten 
 them.” Whether a bed of slate would prove too warm 
 for the melon in our climate, we cannot say. Perhaps 
 shingles or boards might be preferable, as they would not 
 be rendered so hot by the noon-day sun,* nor so cold by 
 the night air. We have never known salt, either in sub- 
 stance or solution, used as a manure for melons, but think 
 it would be well to try its effects. 
 
 The following are McMahon’s directions for raising mel- 
 ons in the open ground. Some time in May, ‘‘ prepare a 
 place of rich, sandy ground, well exposed to the sun ; ma- 
 nure it, and give it a good digging ; then mark it out 
 into squares of six feet every way ; at the angle of every 
 square dig a hole twelve inches deep, and eighteen over, 
 into which put seven or eight inches deep of old hot-bed 
 dung, or very rotten manure ; throw thereon about four 
 inches of earth, and mix the dung and earth well with the 
 spade ; after which draw the remainder of the earth over 
 the mixture, so as to form a round hill about a foot broad at 
 top. Some people use hot stable-dung under an idea that 
 its heat would promote the vegetation of the seed : this is 
 a mistaken notion, as, in a few hours, it loses all it had, for 
 want of a sufficient quantity being together to promote fer- 
 mentation, and becomes a dryish wisp, unfit, at least for 
 the present, to afford either heat or nourishment to the 
 plants. 
 
 “ When your hills are all prepared as above, plant in 
 each, towards the centre, eight or nine grains of good mel- 
 
 plant has a^'fiuircd three or four leaves j while others lake off the principal 
 branches of the first eye above the fruit, and suppress all the secondary branch- 
 es, male flowers and Tendrils. These operations, says Mr. Bose, are founded 
 in bad reasoninj^. A cutting, which suppresses two thirds of the plant at once, 
 cannot fail to disorganize what remains.'^ 
 
MELON. 201 
 
 on-seed, distant two inches from one another, and cover 
 them about half an inch deep.” 
 
 After-culture , — ‘‘ When the plants are up, and in a state 
 of forwardness, producing their rough leaves, they must be 
 thinned to two or three in each hill . the extra number in 
 some may serve to fill up deficiences in others : draw earth 
 from time to time round the hills, and as high about the 
 plants as the seed-leaves; when fit stop them. This oper- 
 ation should be performed when the plants have two rough 
 leaves, and when the second is about an inch broad, hav- 
 ing the first runner-bud rising at its base ; the sooner this 
 is detached, the sooner the plants acquire strength, and put 
 out fruitful runners. 
 
 It is to be done in the following manner : — 
 
 You will see arising in the centre of the plant, at the 
 bottom of the second rough leaf, the end of the first runner, 
 like a small bud ; which bud or runner, being the advancing 
 top of the plant, is now to be taken off close, and may be 
 done either with the point of a penknife or small scissors, 
 or pinched off carefully with the finger and thumb ; but, 
 whichever way you take it off, be careful not to go so close 
 as to wound the joint from whence it proceeds.” 
 
 Armstrong says, “ If the branches be vigorous and 
 long, stretch them carefully over a level surface, and bury 
 every fourth or fifth joint. This is best done by means of a 
 wooden crotchet. The objects of pinching, or shortening 
 the stem, are thus completely fulfilled, without aiiy of the 
 risk which attends that operation, and v/ith advantages 
 peculiar to this method ; as, wherever the plant is buried, 
 new roots are formed for the better nutrition of the stem 
 and the fruit.” 
 
 Setting , — “ As the fruit-bearers come into blossom, you 
 may assist the setting of the fruit, by impregnating some 
 of the female blossoms with the male flowers, as directed 
 for the cucumber. The melon, however, will also set nat- 
 urally, and produce fertile seeds, if the time of fructification 
 fall at a season when the glasses can be left almost 
 constantly open.” — Aber. Nicol says he has proved, 
 experimentally, that melons not impregnated will not swell 
 off so fair and handsome as inapregnated ones, and there- 
 fore considers it more necessary to attend to this operation 
 in melons than in cucumbers.” — Loudon, 
 
 Care of the fruit , — As the fruit increases to the size of a 
 walnut, place a flat tile or slate under each, to protect it 
 from the damp of the earth ; the slab, thus interposed, will 
 
202 
 
 MELON. 
 
 also assist the fruit to ripen, by reflecting the rays of the sun. 
 ^Aher. Nicol advises placing the fruit on bits of slate or 
 glass some time before it begins to ripen ; but by no means 
 slate or moss the whole surface of the bed. 
 
 Forcing melons , — The ‘‘ Honfleur method’’ of forwarding 
 the production of melons, as stated by Mr. Armstrong, has 
 been given, pp. 199, 200. The same writer continues, ‘‘If 
 we want melons at a period earlier than this method will 
 give them, we must employ a higher degree and a longer 
 continuance of artificial heat ; in a word, we must resort 
 to hot-beds^ and in these the point most important and diffi- 
 cult of attainment at the same time is, to secure a certain 
 degree of heat, and no more, throughout the whole process. 
 To lessen the difficulty in this case, gardeners, who under- 
 stand their trade, make choice of those varieties which 
 have the thinnest skins and the least bulk, as experience 
 proves that, other things being equal, they require less 
 heat than those of thicker rinds and greater size, and are 
 of course less subject to some of the accidents to which 
 this species of culture is exposed. In choosing the seeds, 
 those of the last year are only to be used, because they 
 are of quicker vegetation than old ones, and, accord- 
 ingly, best fulfil the intention of the hot-bed, which is, to 
 give early fruit. Another practice conducive to the safety 
 of the plants, is, to sow the seeds in small pots, and then 
 to plunge them into a hot-bed. If the heat be deficient, 
 they are, in this case, made no worse than they would have 
 been, if sown directly in the bed ; and if it be excessive, it 
 is only necessary to raise the pots, without in the smallest 
 degree disturbing the plant. These things being premised, 
 it but remains to show what ought to be the subsequent man- 
 agement after the seed has been sown, and the pots placed 
 under the frames. One of the most important points now 
 to be observed, is sufficiently to ventilate the bed, as well 
 before as after the plants show themselves. This should be 
 done at mid-day and in sunshine, and as often as a necessity 
 for it shall be indicated by an accumulation of steam under 
 the glasses. At night, these (the glasses) should be 
 carefully covered with matting. These two preliminaries 
 (ventilation in the day, and covering at night) being care- 
 fully observed, your plants will soon show themselves in a 
 vigorous and healthy state, and may be kept in that condi- 
 tion by a continuation of the same means, and by moderate- 
 ly moistening the earth when it shall have become too dry. 
 The water employed should be of the same temperature 
 
MELON, 
 
 203 
 
 of the air under the frames ; and, to secure this, it is wel 
 to keep a supply of it in a pot, placed in a corner of the 
 hot-bed. In about a month, the plants, thus raised, will be 
 fit for transferring to a second and larger hot-bed, construe.- 
 ed like the preceding, with the exception, that the mass of. 
 dung must now be greater, and that, after earthing, the bed 
 should not be less than three and a half or four feet in depth. 
 The plants, with the earth in which they grow, are now to 
 be taken from the pots — an operation in which practice 
 only will make us expert, and which consists in placing 
 the neck of the plant between the first and second finger 
 of the left hand, reversing the pot, and gently striking its 
 sides till the earth be disengaged. The discharged mass 
 is then placed in a hole, previously prepared in the 
 square, where it is intended the plant shall ripen and 
 produce.’^ 
 
 Catting the fruit , — Nicol observes, that “ Melons, if al- 
 lowed to remain on tha plant till they be of a deep yellow 
 colour, lose much of their flavour. They should, therefore, 
 be cut as soon as they begin to change to a greenish-yellow, 
 or, rather, as soon as they begin to smell ripe. They may 
 lie in a frame for a day or two, if not immediately wanted, 
 where they will acquire sufficient colour. But if they are 
 let remain many days in the frame, they will become as 
 insipid as if they had been left too long on the plant.” 
 
 Saving seed , — The ordinary mode is to request the 
 seeds of particularly fine fruits of approved sorts to be re- 
 turned from table. The best way, however, is to pick 
 some best ripe fniit, take out the seed, clean it from the 
 pulp, and let it be well dried and hardened ; and then put 
 it up in papers. — Abercrombie. Nicol says, wash it very 
 clean, skimming off the light seeds, as those only which 
 sink in water will grow. Great care must be taken that 
 the sorts from which seeds are saved are genuine and dis- 
 tinct. When different sorts are planted in the same bed, 
 this cannot be the case. 
 
 Second crop from the same plants , — When the fruit of 
 the first crop is off, a second crop may be obtained from 
 the same stools, which often proves more productive than 
 the first. If the first crop is taken before the middle of 
 June, the second will come at a very good time. For this 
 purpose, as soon as the fruit is cut, prune the plant. Short- 
 en the vigorous, healthy runners, at a promising joint, to 
 force out new laterals, cutting about two inches above the 
 joint. At the same time, take off all decayed or sickly vines, 
 
:204 
 
 mNT, 
 
 and all dead leaves. Stir the surface of the mould, and 
 renew it partially by three inches’ depth of fresh compost. 
 Water the plants copiously, shutting down the glasses for 
 the night. Shade in the middle of hot days ; and give but 
 little air, until the plant has made new radicles and shoots. 
 Afterwards repeat the course of culture above described, 
 from the stage when the first runners are sent out till fruit 
 is cut” — Loudon, 
 
 Insects and diseases , — To prevent melon-plants from be- 
 ing infested with insects, or injured by diseases of any 
 kind, no better method can be adopted than to keep the 
 plants constantly in a healthy, vigorous, growing state ; 
 for this purpose, M‘Phail observes, They must be con- 
 stantly attended to, giving them plenty of heat and water. 
 In warm weather, in the spring and in summer, they should 
 be watered occasionally all over their fruit and leaves, till 
 the earth in which they grow be thoroughly moistened,” 
 In this country, melons and cucumbers are much infested 
 by a small yellow bug, and perhaps the best method of 
 securing them is covering the plants with a frame, on 
 which millinet is stretched and fastened, as directed under 
 tL' article Cucumber. 
 
 Use , — The use of melons, as a palatable and 'syholesome 
 
 tide of diet, is too well known to need any remarks. Dr. 
 ^lease, of Philadelphia, observes, that The juice of the 
 oweeter kind of water-melon yields, on inspissation, a 
 bright light-coloured syrup, which would answer every 
 ^jrpose required of any syrup. Mr. Henry Drinker, of 
 Philadelphia, procured half a pound of this syrup, from 
 fourteen pounds of melon juice, a part of w'hich I tast- 
 ed, and found very pleasant.” To make the most of unripe 
 melons, Loudon’s Magazine directs to ‘‘boil them, and 
 season them with spices and salt, or bake th^^m like a 
 pumpkin-pie.” The rind of the water-melon is also used 
 for pickling, &c. 
 
 MINT. — — This is a genus of plants comprising 
 tw enty-four species. Those cultivated in gardens are pep- 
 permint, (M, piperita;) spearmint, (M, viridis;) penny- 
 royal-mint, (M. pnlegium,) 
 
 Culture , — All “ the species are raised by the same meth- 
 ods, viz. by parting the root?, by offset young plants, and 
 by cuttings of the stalks. Spearmint and peppermint like 
 a moist soil ; penny- royal, a strong loam. The plants set 
 in spring or summer will come into use the same year. 
 They may be placed about eight indies apart, on beds aba t 
 
MULBERRY. MUSHROOM. 205 
 
 four feet wide, allowing a path two feet broad. New beds 
 should be made every three years. 
 
 Gathering the crop^ and use. — “ Mint should be cut for 
 drying,” says Philips, ‘‘just when it is in flower, and on a 
 fine day ; for if cut in damp weather, the leaves will turn 
 black. It should be tied in small bunches, and dried in a 
 shady place, out of the wind ; but, to retain its natural virtues 
 more effectually, it has been found better to place the mint 
 in a screen, and to dry it quickly before a fire, so that it 
 may be powdered and immediately put into glass bottles, 
 and kept well stopped. Parsley, thyme, sage, and other 
 herbs, retain their full fragrance when thus prepared, and 
 are by this mode secured from dust, and always ready to 
 the hand of the cook. 
 
 “ A conserve made of mint is grateful, and the dis- 
 tilled waters, both simple and spirituous, are much esteem- 
 ed. The juice of spearmint, drank in vinegar, often 
 stops the hiccup. Lewis observes, what has before been 
 observed by Pliny, that mint prevents the coagulation of 
 milk, and hence it is recommended in milk diets.” 
 
 MULBERRY. — Morus. — See Silk. 
 
 MUSHROOM. — Agaricus. — This is a genus of plants 
 comprising a great many species, of which, according to 
 some authors, three hundred are natives of Great Britain. 
 The kind cultivated in gardens is the Agaricus campestrisj 
 which is thus described by M‘Mahon : — “ The gills of this 
 are loose, of a pinky red, changing to liver colour, in contact, 
 but not united with the stem ; very thick set, some forked 
 next the stem, some next the edge of the cap, some at both 
 ends, and generally, in that case, excluding the intermediate 
 smaller gills. Cop, white, changing to brown when old, 
 and becoming scurfy, fleshy, and regularly convex, but with 
 age flat, and liquefying in decay ; flesh white ; diameter 
 commonly from one inch to three, or sometimes four or 
 more. Stem solid, one to three inches high, and about 
 half an inch in diameter.” 
 
 Loudon says, “ The mushroom is a well known native 
 vegetable, springing up in open pastures in August and Sep- 
 tember. It is most readily distinguished, when of middle 
 size, by its fine pink or flesh-coloured gills, and pleasant 
 smell ; in a more advanced stage, the gills become of a 
 chocolate colour, and it is then more apt to be confounded 
 with other kinds of dubious quality ; but that species 
 which most nearly resembles it, is slimy to the touch, and 
 destitute of the fine odour, having rather a disagreeable 
 
206 
 
 kUSHROOM, 
 
 smell: further, the noxious kind grows in woods^ or on the 
 margins of woods, while the true mushroom springs up 
 chiefly in open pastures, and should be. gathered only in 
 such places.” 
 
 Mr. Armstrong gives the following directions for culti- 
 vating the garden mushroom : — Prepare a bed, early in 
 October, either in a corner of the hot-house, if you have 
 one, or a dry and warm cellar. The width of the bed at 
 bottom should not be less than four feet, and its length in 
 proportion to the spawn provided. Its sides should rise 
 perpendicularly one foot, and should afterwards decrease to 
 the centre, forming four sloping surfaces. We need hardly 
 say that the material of the bed at this stage of the busi- 
 ness must be horse-dung, well forked, and pressed together 
 to prevent its settling unequally. It should then be cover- 
 ed with long straw, as well to exclude frost as to keep in 
 the volatile parts of the mass, which would otherwise 
 escape. After ten days, the temperature of the bed will be 
 sufficiently moderated, when the straw is to be removed, 
 and a covering of good mould, to the depth of an inch, laid 
 over the dung. On this the sjeed or spawn of the mush- 
 room [which are threads or fibres of a white colour, found 
 in old pasture-grounds, in masses of rotten horse-dung, 
 sometimes under stable-floors, and frequently in the re- 
 mains of old hot-beds] is to be placed in rows, six inches 
 apart, occupying all the sloping parts of the bed, which is 
 again to be covered with a second inch of fresh mould and 
 a coat of straw. If your bed has been well constructed, 
 your mushrooms will be fit for use at the end of five or 
 six weeks, and will continue to be productive for several 
 months. Should you, however, in the course of the win- 
 ter, find its productiveness diminished, take off* nearly all 
 the original covering, and replace it with eight or ten inch- 
 es of fresh dung and a coat of clean straw. This, by 
 creating a new heat, will revive the action of the spawn, 
 and give a long succession of mushrooms.” — Mem^ of N. 
 FI Board of Agr, vol. ii. p. 125. 
 
 Use , — The garden mushroom is eaten fresh, either stew- 
 ed or boiled ; and preserved as a pickle, or in powder, or 
 dried whole. The sauce commonly called ketchup (sup- 
 posed, by Martyn, from the Japanese, kitfap) is or ought 
 ^:o be made from its juice with salt and spices. Wild 
 fiiushrooms from old pastures are generally considered as 
 more delicate in flavour, and more tender in flesh, than 
 those raised in artificial beds. But the young or butter 
 
MUSTARD* 
 
 SOT 
 
 mushrooms, of the cultivated sort, are firmer, and better for 
 pickling ; and in using cultivated mushrooms, there is evi- 
 dently much less risk of deleterious kinds being employed.^' 
 — Neill and Marfyn, 
 
 ‘‘ Antidote to poisonous sorts. — All fungi should be used 
 with great caution, for even the champignon and edible gar- 
 den-mushrooms possess deleterious qualities when grown 
 in certain places. All the edible species should be thor- 
 oughly masticated, before taken into the stomach, as this 
 greatly lessens the effect of poisons. When accidents of 
 this sort happen, vomiting should be immediately excited, 
 and then the vegetable acids should be given, either vine- 
 gar, lemon-juice, or that of apples ; after which, give ether 
 and antispasmodic remedies, to stop the excessive bilious 
 vomiting. Infusions of gall-nut, oak-bark, and Peruvian 
 bark are recommended as capable of neutralizing the pois- 
 onous principle of mushrooms. It is, however, the safest 
 way not to eat any of the good^ but less common sorts, until 
 they have been soaked in vinegar. Spirit of wine and 
 vinegar extract some part of their poison ; and tannin mat- 
 ter decomposes the greatest part of it.’’ — BotanisVs Corn-- 
 panion^ vol. ii. p. 145. 
 
 MUSTARD. — Sinapis. — Of this plant there are two 
 species in cultivation, the black and the white ; annuals, 
 and natives of Great Britain. 
 
 The following are Loudon’s directions for the culture of 
 the white mustard, S. alba. For spring and summer con^ 
 sumption, sow once a week or fortnight, in dry, warm situ- 
 ations, in February and March ; and, afterwards, in any 
 other compartment “ In summer, sow in shady borders, if 
 it be hot, sunny weather ; or, have the bed shaded. Gen- 
 erally, sow in shallow, flat drills, from three to six inches 
 apart ; scatter the seed thick and regular, and cover in thin- 
 ly with the earth, about a quarter of an inch. To furnish 
 gatherings in winter or early in spring, sow in frames or 
 under hand-glasses ; and when the weather is frosty, or 
 very cold, in hot-beds and stoves.” 
 
 tise. — This species,” according to Loudon, ^‘is cultiva- 
 ted chiefly as a small salad, and is used like cresses, while 
 in the seed : when these are newly expanded, they are mild 
 and tender; but when the plants have advanced into the 
 rough leaves, they eat rank and disagreeable.” In Spain, 
 and throughout the south of Europe, the seed of the white 
 species is preferred, for the fabrication of mustard, because 
 
203 
 
 NECTARINE. NURSERY. 
 
 giving a whiter and milder flour than the seed of the 
 black. ” — Armstrong. 
 
 The seed of this plant is also celebrated for its medical 
 virtues, being at once a tonic and an aperient ; cleansing 
 the stomach and bowels, and bracing the system at the 
 same time. — See N. E. Farmer^ vol. vi. p. 188. 
 
 Black mustard — S. nigra — is a larger plant than the 
 white, with much darker leaves, and their divisions 
 blunter. 
 
 Use, — “ Black mustard is chiefly cultivated in fields for 
 the mill, and for medicinal purposes. It is sometimes, 
 however, sown in gardens, and the tender leaves used as 
 greens, early in the spring. The seed leaves, in common 
 with those of the cress, radish, rape, &c., are sometimes 
 used as a salad ingredient ; but the grand purpose for which 
 the plant is cultivated, is for seeds, which, ground, produce 
 the well known condiment. If the seeds. Dr. Cullen ob- 
 serves, be taken fresh from the plant, and ground, the pow- 
 der has littb’ pungency, but is very bitter; by steeping in 
 vinegar, however, the esential oil is evolved, and the pow- 
 der becomes extremely pungent. In moistening mustard- 
 powder for the table, it may be remarked, that it makes the 
 best appearance when rich milk is used ; but the mixture, 
 in this case, does not keep good for more than two days. 
 The seeds of both the black and white mustard are often 
 used, in an entire state, medicinally.” 
 
 Culture for the mill, — “ To raise seed for flour of mus- 
 tard, and other officinal occasions, sow, either in March or 
 April, in any open compartment ; or make large sow'ngs in 
 fields, where designed for public supply. Sow moderately 
 thick, either in drills, from six to twelve inches asunder, or 
 broad-cast, and rake or harrow in the seed. When the 
 plants are two or three inches in the growth, hoe and 
 thin them moderately where too thick, and clear them from 
 weeds. They will soon run up in stalks, and, in July or 
 August, return a crop of seed ripe for gathering.” — Aher^ 
 crombie, 
 
 NECTARINE. — Amygdalus Persica, — This is, by some 
 writers, considered as the same fruit with the peach, and 
 its culture is the same. See art. Fruit, for its different 
 kinds, and Peach, for its culture. 
 
 NURSERY. — In establishing a nursery, two point® 
 should be contemplated — fitness as to the disposal of the 
 produce, and fitness as to shelter, aspect, and soil. Regard 
 
NURSERVi 
 
 203 
 
 must be had to the leading roads of the district, the mean!* 
 of carriage by land or water, the objects which will probably 
 be most in demand, whether seedlings, fruit-trees, vines, 
 native plants, tender exotics, or all these united. 
 
 “ In order to have a complete nursery, it should contain 
 soils of various qualities, and not less than eighteen inches 
 or two feet deep ; the generality of it should be light, friable 
 earth ; a part of it should be of a clayey nature, and 
 another part should be mossy. Each of these will be found 
 peculiarly useful in the raising of the different kinds of 
 young plants. The whole should be well drained and 
 trenched, and cropped with vegetables for one, or even two 
 years, previously to sowing tree seeds. For transplanting, 
 it may be used the first year. A nursery may certainly be 
 over-sheltered ; but this is likely to happen only in the case 
 of its being very small ; for, if it extend to several acres, 
 unless it be surrounded by very tall trees, the area will be 
 considerably exposed. No part should be either too much 
 exposed, or too much sheltered. Any aspect from east to 
 west, following the course of the sun, will answer. Ground 
 of an unequal surface is most likely to contain the variousi 
 soils al|^e -mentioned. A nursery should, therefore, in 
 
 general, rise from a level to a pretty smart acclivity, yet no 
 part of it should be too steep, because it is, in that case, 
 very troublesome to labour. The nursery ground may be 
 sufficiently fenced by a stone wall, or even a hedge, six feet 
 high ; and if it be of small size, an acre or thereabouts, it 
 will require no other shelter over all the space. The 
 fence, whether of thorns or stone, should be made proof 
 against the admission of hares or rabbits. It should be 
 subdivided into compartments and borders, of proportionate 
 size to the contents of the area, by walks. The compart- 
 ments should never be encumbered with large trees, as ap- 
 ples, pears, or the like, because, being already established 
 in the ground, they never fail to rob the young trees of 
 their food, and to cause them to be poor and stunted, un- 
 worthy of being planted. It would be very convenient to 
 have a rill of water passing through the ground, or to have 
 a small pond, fed by a spring, or a pipe, for the purpose of 
 watering. 
 
 In preparing the soil for the culture of trees, it will be 
 advisable to trench it to its full depth, and necessary to give 
 it a good dressing of lime or marl, or dung in compost 
 Rank manure, such as stable-litter, should not be applied to 
 nursery ground,^ at the time of cropping with nursery arti- 
 18 * 
 
210 
 
 NURSERY. 
 
 cles ; but if it be necessary to enrich it, this should be done 
 by a manured crop of onions, turnips, lettuces, or the like. 
 Potatoes should never go before a crop of seedlings, even 
 of the coarser sorts, as ash, oak, or chestnut ; because pota- 
 toes never can be taken clean out of the ground ; and, it 
 being indispensable to pull up those which rise among the 
 tree seedlings, many of these unavoidably come up along 
 with them .’’ — NlcoVs Planter'* s Calender. 
 
 “ A rotting ground will be required for the preparation 
 of certain seeds, by mixing them with sand, ashes, or soil, 
 and leaving them there for different periods, from six 
 months to two years, to rot off their interior coverings. On 
 a small scale, a portion of the compost ground of the kitchen- 
 garden may be used for this purpose. If the scale is large, 
 an area of a few square poles should be set apart for bed- 
 ding in plants taken up for replanting, or w^hat is called 
 laying in by the heels, or sloughing : this is generally called 
 the bedding ground^ or, in Scotland, the sloughing ground .'*'* — 
 Loudon. 
 
 ‘‘ It has been a received opinion, that the soil for a nur- 
 sery should not be made rich, as the plants, when removed 
 to a more fertile soil, will flourish more luxurianfl|| ; but 
 later observation has decided, that the reverse of this will 
 be found correct. There is a close analogy between vegeta- 
 ble and animal life ; and it is a dictate of nature, that both re- 
 quire a full supply of nutriment, from their earliest existence. 
 It would be absurd to suppose, that the tender roots of 
 young seedlings are capable of drawing sufficient nutriment 
 from a rank, barren, and uncultivated soil, and those that 
 are barely supported, or nearly starved at first, will never 
 afterwards become vigorous, stately, and handsome, though 
 surrounded by the richest mould. Repeated experiments 
 have proved that a strong and vigorous plant, that has 
 grown up quickly, and arrived at considerable magnitude 
 in a short time, never fails to grow better, after transplant- 
 ing, than another of the same size, that is older and stunted 
 in its growth. Where the soil is poor and lean, trees, in 
 every stage of their growth, are observed to be languid, 
 weak, and stunted ; while those reared in a good, mellow 
 soil, always assume a free growth, and advance with 
 strength and vigour. It is evident, therefore, that the 
 ground to be occupied for a fruit nursery, requires to bo 
 made rich and fertile. The soil should also be deep, well 
 pulverized, ‘and cleared of all roots and weeds. The seeds 
 may be sown either in autymn or April, and^ in one yeaf 
 
NURSERY. 
 
 211 
 
 after, the young plants may be taken up, and replanted in 
 the nursery. It is important that the situation be such as 
 to admit of a free circulation of air, and open to the sun, 
 that the plants may be preserved in a healthy condition. 
 Plants, reared in a confined and shaded situation, in a large 
 town, and removed to an open exposure in the country, 
 will long continue in a debilitated condition ; like a puny 
 city invalid, their growth will be greatly impeded, and 
 many years will elapse before they attain to a state of vig- 
 our, health, and hardihood. 
 
 “ In MarshalVs Rural Economy it is directed, that the 
 seedling plants, when taken from the seed-bed, be sorted 
 agreeably to the strength of their roots, that they may rise 
 evenly together. The tap, or large bottom root, should be 
 taken olf, and the longer side-root-lets should be shortened. 
 The young plants should then be set in rows, three feet 
 apart, and from fifteen to eighteen inches asunder, in the 
 rows ; care being taken not to cramp the roots, but to bed 
 them evenly and horizontally among the mould. In strict- 
 ness of management, they ought, two years previous to their 
 being transferred to the orchard, to be transplanted into 
 unmanured, double-dug ground, four feet every way apart, 
 in order that the feeding fibres may be brought so near the 
 stem, that they may be removed with it into the orchard, 
 instead of being, as they generally are, left behind in the 
 nursery. Hence, in this second transplanting, as in the 
 first, the branches of the root should not be left too long, 
 but ought to be shortened in such a manner as to induce 
 them to form a regular globular roof, sufficiently small to be 
 removed with all their plants, yet sufficiently large to give 
 it firmness and vigour in the plantation.” — Thacher'^s Or- 
 chardist. 
 
 A nursery should not be on a spot where fruit-trees have 
 lately grown, or, indeed, any other deep-rooted plants. 
 Miller advises to have a nursery of forest-trees in the place 
 where the forest is designed to be planted, so that ^ suffi- 
 cient number of the trees may be left standing, after the 
 rest have been removed. 
 
 If a nursery be in such a situation that the young trees 
 are in danger of being broken down by deep snows, either 
 the fence on the windward side should be made so open 
 that the wind may have a free passage through it, and drive 
 away the snow, or else the trees may be defended by 
 staking. A stake a little taller than the tree, made of a 
 slip of board, should be set close on the windward side, 
 
212 
 
 OAK. 
 
 and the top of the tree fastened to it v» ith a soft string ; or 
 two such stakes may be so set that the upper ends may 
 meet over the top of the tree.” — Deane. 
 
 The seeds which are sown in a nursery should be se- 
 lected from the best sorts of fruit. See p. 17 of this work. 
 
 OAK. — Quercus. — Miller’s Gardener"* s Dictionary says, 
 oaks are best produced from the acorns in the places where 
 the trees are to remain ; because those which are transplant- 
 ed will not grow to so large a size, nor remain sound so long. 
 He advises to plant the acorns as soon as they are ripe in 
 October, which will come up in the following April. But, 
 says Dr. Deane, ‘‘ Another writer directs that the acorns 
 be gathered in autumn, and keptiji a box or boxes of sand 
 till the following spring. Then open them, and carefully 
 plant those of them which are sprouted, which, he says, 
 will not fail to come up. But no time should be allowed for 
 the sprouts to dry. I incline to prefer this method, especially 
 since I have tried that which is recommended by Miller with- 
 out success. Not one in a hundred ever came up.” 
 
 The ground designed for a plantation of oaks, according 
 to Miller, should have a good and durable fence, shouM be 
 prepared by thre^ or four ploughings and harro wings — the 
 acorns should be taken from the largest and most thrifty trees 
 — ^be sowed in drills about four feet asunder, and two inches 
 deep, and two inches apart in the drills. The ground should 
 be ploughed and hoed among them, during the first eight or 
 ten years ; after two years, some of the plants should be 
 drawn out where they are too close ; and so from time to 
 time, as they grow larger, till they come to be eight feet 
 distance each way, when they will want no thinning for a 
 long time. But after the trees come to be large, he thinks 
 twenty-five or thirty feet apart will be the right distance. 
 
 The oak thrives better in hilly than in boggy ground, 
 but flourishes most luxuriantly on rich, black soils, or in 
 strong, moist loam. It will grow, however, on almost any 
 soil that is not too wet. 
 
 The Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agricul- 
 ture have offered a premium of one hundred dollars for 
 the best plantation of white oak trees, not less than one 
 acre, nor fewer than one thousand trees per acre, to be 
 raised from the acorn, and which trees shall be in the best 
 thriving state on the first of September, 1827. 
 
 It is observed, in the work called Gleanings^ &c. on 
 Husbandry and Gardening^ that oaks, “ when very young, 
 may be transplanted twice or thrice, if, each time, the prin- 
 
OKRA. ONION. 
 
 213 
 
 cipal root is cut off. Oaks raised from the acorn without 
 removing, on account of the tap-root striking down into 
 the ground, where there is less nourishment, grow slowly, 
 but are, when they arrive at timber, the best ; being gene- 
 rally fuller at heart, and more strong and lasting. Oak 
 plants of one or two year?;’ growth, after they have taken 
 root, are often cut off a little above the ground, if they are 
 stunted or crooked, and the second shoot is trusted to for 
 the tree ; as it is found to grow with greater luxuriance 
 than the first 
 
 OKRA . — Hibiscus esculentm , — A valuable garden plant, 
 easily propagated by seeds sown in May. It is said to be 
 excellent in cookery, as a sauce. Its ripe seeds, burned, 
 and used as coffee, can scarcely be distinguished there- 
 from. It should be planted about an inch deep, and hoed 
 two or three times, like peas. McMahon says, “ It may be 
 sown with certainty of success at the time that Indian corn 
 is planted. Draw drills about an inch deep, and four feet 
 asunder, into which drop the seeds at the distance of eight 
 inches from one another, or rather drop two or three in 
 each place, lest one should not grow, and cover them an 
 inch in depth. As they advance in growth, earth them up 
 two or three times as you do peas, and they will produce 
 abundantly.” 
 
 ONION . — Allium cepa , — The common bulbous onion is 
 a biennial plant, supposed to be a native of Asia. There 
 are many varieties of this plant. Those mentioned in Mr. 
 Russell’s Catalogue are the following : — 
 
 White Portugal, 
 Yellow, 
 
 Genuine Madeira, 
 
 Top or tree onionj 
 
 Silver-skinned, 
 
 Strasburgh, 
 
 Large red, 
 Potato onion. 
 
 The Strasburg is most generally adopted for principal 
 crops. The silver-skinned is reckoned among the best 
 for pickling. “ The top or tree onion has the remarkable 
 property of producing the onions at the top of the stalk, 
 and is valuable for domestic use, particularly for pickling, 
 in which they are excellent, and superior in flavour to the 
 common kinds. It is also used for any other purpose that 
 onions usually are. It is perennial, and propagated by 
 planting the bulbs in spring or autumn, eithey the roots, 
 bulbs, or those on the top of the stalks .” — RusseWs Cator 
 logue. 
 
 Soil and culture , — The onion, “to attain a good size, re- 
 quires rich, mellow ground, on a dry sub-soil. If the soil be 
 poor or exhausted, recruit it with a compost of fresh loam 
 
214 
 
 ONION, 
 
 and well-consumed dung, avoiding to use stable-dung in a 
 rank, unreduced state. Turn in the manure to a moderate 
 depth ; and, in digging the ground, let it be broken tine. 
 Grow pickles in poor, light ground, to keep them small. 
 The market-gardeners at Hexham sow their onion-seed on 
 the same ground for twenty or more years in succession, but 
 annually manure the soil. After digging and levelling the 
 ground, the manure, in a very rotten state, is spread upon it^ 
 the onion-seed sown upon the manure, and covered with 
 earth from the alleys, and the crops are abundant, and ex- 
 cellent in quality .” — HorL Trans, i. 121. 
 
 Deane’s New England Farmer says, A spot of ground 
 should be chosen for them, which is moist and sandy ; be- 
 cause they require much heat and a considerable degree of 
 moisture. A low situation, where the sand has been washed 
 down from a neighbouring hill, is very proper for them. 
 And if it be the wash of a sandy road, so much the better. 
 The most suitable manures are old, rotten cow and horse- 
 dung mixed, ashes, but especially soot. A small quantity 
 of ashes or sand, or both, should be spread over them after 
 sowing, especially if the soil be not sandy. And it is not 
 amiss to roll the ground after sowing ; or harden the sur- 
 face with the back of a shovel.” 
 
 Mr. Armstrong says, It is propagated either by the seed 
 or by the bulbs. In the first case, you sow in shallow 
 drills, twelve or fourteen inches apart ; cover with mould, 
 and, when the plants come up, thin them, so that they may 
 stand three or four inches from each other. The sooner 
 this is done in the spring, after the earth has acquired a 
 temperature favourable to vegetation, the better will be 
 your crop. It only remains to keep the earth loose and 
 clean about the roots, and, if the vegetation be too vigorous, 
 to break down the tops, so as to determine the juices to the 
 bulbs. In the other case you but employ the small and 
 half-grown onion of the preceding fall instead of seed.” 
 
 Mr. Hubbard, of Concord, Mass, in an article published 
 in the N. E. Farmer^ vol. iii. p. 89, says, ‘‘ The soil ought 
 to be a deep^ black loam^ that will crumble fine when the 
 plough passes through it ; such as is easily raked smooth 
 and pulverized. A heavy, clammy soil, that adheres to- 
 gether when both wet and dry — a dry, clayey, or a sandy 
 soil, will not answer. I know of no vegetable that is so dif- 
 ficult to please with a soil, as the onion : though they will 
 grow well, yet they will not ripen,. but hold green through- 
 out the fall, and many of them will be what are generally 
 
ONION. 
 
 215 
 
 known by the name of sculliwiSy with the neck stiff and 
 green ; whereas those on suitable ground are ripe and dry 
 by the first of September. Rotten stable-manure, made in 
 the winter preceding the spring in which it is put on the 
 laud, is generally made use of, to be spread on the ground, 
 and ploughed in. I have a piece of land four rods square, 
 on which onions have been raised, I suppose, these eighty 
 years ; and since I have improved it, I have yearly spread 
 upon it five cart-loads of manure, such as are usually 
 drawn by one pair of oxen ; and have raised from four to 
 seven hundred bunches of onions upon it, at three and a 
 half pounds to the bunch, of which about sixteen make 
 a bushel.” 
 
 Mr. Hubbard puts the seed into the ground as soon as 
 the frost is out, and it is sufficiently dry to be worked; 
 frequently the latter part of March, but more frequently 
 in the first days of April. He has always planted them in 
 hills^ which is the general practice in Concord. ‘‘ My 
 method of preparing the ground and planting the seed iS; 
 iirst^ carry on the manure, and spread it as even as possible, 
 when the ground is to be ploughed ^eep ; then let the plat 
 be divided into beds, about three feet nine inches wide ; 
 to do which the easier way is to stretch a line across, lining 
 one bed at a time ; after this, let a man, with a shovel or a 
 potato-hoe, make an alley through the whole piece, to 
 separate the beds, about four inches deep, and sufficiently 
 wide to admit a person to walk in it. Then let the lumps 
 be beat fine, levelling the ground, and shaping the beds ; 
 which, after being raked smooth, must be divided into 
 squares of eight or nine inches. This is best done by a line ; 
 or it is sufficiently exact to draw a heavy rope backwards 
 and forwards. Now let the seeds, six or seven in a hill, 
 more or less, be dropped into the corners of the squares, 
 and covered with mould, about half an inch deep, pressed 
 down with the hand.” 
 
 A writer for the N, E, Farmer^ vol. iii. p. 249, with the 
 signature J. M., recommends a moist, black soil,” as best, 
 but says “ a free, deep loam will answer very well.” “ The 
 onion is not by nature inclined to root deep. You must 
 give it a hard bottom to grow on, and keep your manure 
 on the surface within reach of the roots ; then they will 
 grow large, flat, and handsome.” — Advises to sow the same 
 piece for several successive years. “ I have always sowed 
 onions in drills^ about eighteen inches apart, to give fair 
 play to the hoe. Onions must be sowed as early j^>ossi' 
 
216 
 
 ONION, 
 
 ble after the frost is out of the ground : in this climate, if 
 the seed is not in the ground before the first of May, there 
 is but little chance for a crop. It must be covered slightly, 
 and stamped well over with the hoe to close it well, I 
 would recommend, as most essential, to sow the seed spar- 
 ingly. Even the best gardeners are apt to put in too much 
 seed. The consequence is, that the young plants come 
 up so thick that they run up spiry and weak ; and, when 
 you come to thin them, you find great difficulty to pull up 
 so many without injuring those that you leave ; and the 
 worst injury is what you do to the roots, which you tear 
 and loosen. Therefore have seed of your own raising, or 
 that you know is fresh, and sow sparingly.” 
 
 In the N. E. Farmer^ vol. hi. p. 265, are the observations 
 of I. Tucker, Esq. of Salem, Mass., who says, “ The land 
 should be ploughed about four inches in depth, and har- 
 rowed so as to make it very fine; the manure, which 
 should always be a rich compost, should be ploughed in 
 and thoroughly mixed; the land should then be rolled with 
 a heavy roller, to form a close bottom for the bulbs to form 
 upon, and at the same time not so hard as to prevent the 
 small roots of the plant from penetrating. The best onions 
 and the largest crops are produced where the bulbs grow 
 almost entirely on the top of the ground. After the ground 
 has been rolled, and before the seeds are sown, the beds 
 should be raked with a sharp iron rake, to prepare a finely 
 pulverized drill for reception of the seed ; and, after the 
 seeds are sown, the drill should be pressed with a board and 
 sufficient weight to bring the earth into close contact with 
 the seed. Care should be taken in selecting seed ; none 
 should be sown but such as will be sure to vegetate ; and 
 it would be well if no more seed were to be sown than 
 you would have plants to remain and grow in the drill. 
 It would be superfluous to add that, if you would have a 
 good crop of onions, you must not permit a crop of weeds 
 to grow in the same bed ; they will not grow well to- 
 gether.” 
 
 Mr. Adams Knight, of Newbury, Mass., received a premi- 
 um of twenty dollars for having raised, in 1822, the greatest 
 quantity of onions, being six hundred and fifty-one bushels 
 on one acre. The soil is a rich, gravelly loam, with a grav- 
 el bottom : in 1821 it was cultivated with onions and cabba- 
 ges, and was manured with about five cords of barn manure, 
 and produced a good crop : after the crop was off the ground, 
 there were five cords ot bam manure and two and a half 
 
ONION. 
 
 217 
 
 of leached ashes ploughed in : in April, 1822, it was once 
 ploughed, and sowed in rows 14 inches apart, which took 
 between three and four pounds of seed : in the course of 
 the season, it was hoed between the rows, and weeded four 
 times : in September, the onions were harvested, and there 
 were six hundred and fifty-one bushels. The entire ex- 
 pense of cultivating this acre of onions, including twenty- 
 one dollars and thirty-seven cents, the cost of the manure, 
 was fifty-seven dollars and thirty-eight cents.” 
 
 The work entitled Gleanings^ &c. in Husbandry^ directs 
 to sow onions, if possible, in a dry time, and to tread them 
 in, in light ground. 
 
 Loudon says, When onions are to be drawn young, 
 two ounces of seed will be requisite for a bed four feel by 
 twenty-four; but when to remain for bulbing, one ounce 
 will suffice for a bed five feet by twenty-four feet.” 
 
 Deane says, The ground should be dug or ploughed in 
 autumn, not very deep ; and then made very fine in the 
 spring, and all the gross roots and roots of weeds taken 
 out; then laid in beds four feet wide. Four rows of holes 
 are made in a bed, the rows ten inches apart, and the ho*es 
 in the rows ten. About half a dozen seeds are put in a 
 hole, or more, if there be any danger of their not coming 
 up well, and buried an inch under the surface. They will 
 grow very well in bunches. Though the largest onions 
 are those which grow singly some inches apart, those which 
 are more crowded produce larger crops. And the middle- 
 sized onions are better for eating than the largest.” The 
 last week in April is the proper time for sowing, according 
 to this author. 
 
 The course of culture recommended by Abercrombie for 
 the summer, and what he calls winter-1 aid-by crops, is as 
 follows : — Allot an open compartment, and lay it out in 
 beds, from three to five feet in width. Sow broad-cast, 
 equally over the rough surface, moderately thick, bed and 
 bed separately, and rake in the seed lengthwise each bed, 
 in a regular manner. When the plants are three or four 
 inches high, in May and June, let them be timely cleared 
 from weeds, and let the principal crop be thinned, either by 
 hand, or with a small, two-inch hoe ; thinning the plants to 
 intervals of from three to five inches in the main crops de- 
 signed for full bulbing ; or, some beds may remain niode- 
 rately thick for drawing young, by successive thinnings, to 
 the above distance. For the Spanish, from seed obtained 
 19 
 
218 
 
 ONION. 
 
 immediately from Spain, the final distance should be six or 
 seven inches. Keep the whole very clear from weeds, in 
 their young and advancing state. The plants will begin 
 bulbing a little in June ; more fully in July ; and be fully 
 grown in August to large bulbs. In July or August, when 
 the leaves begin to dry at the points, and turn yellow, lay 
 the stems down close to the ground, bending them about 
 two inches up the neck, which promotes the ripening of 
 the bulb, particularly in wet or backward seasons. The 
 crop of full bulbers will be ready to take up towards the 
 middle of August. When the necks shrink, and the leaves 
 decay, puU them wholly up in due time : spread them on a 
 compartment of dry ground, in the full sun, to dry and har- 
 den completely, turning them every two or three days ; and 
 in a week or fortnight they will be ready to house. Clear 
 off the grossest part of the leaves, stalks, and fibres ; then 
 deposit the bulbs in some close, dry apartment, in which 
 sometimes turn them over, and pick out any that decay ; 
 and they will thus keep sound and good, all winter and 
 spring, till May following.” 
 
 Culture of a winter-standing crop^ to be drawn for use the 
 succeeding spring. — “ Allot a soil rather more light and 
 sandy for the summer crop, on a sub-soil a1 least equally 
 dry. The compartment, especially for any of the biennial 
 kinds, should lie warm and sheltered. The beds may be 
 Jhree or four feet wide, running parallel to the best aspect. 
 The medium time for the principal sowing falls about the 
 7th of August; and, for a secondary crop, near the 25th. 
 Sew the bulbing sorts and the Welsh perennial separately; 
 distribute the seed pretty thickly. If the soil be dry and 
 light, tread down the seed evenly along the surface of each 
 bed, and then rake it in neatly. When the plants are come 
 np one, two, or three inches, carefully hand-weed in time, 
 before any rising weeds spread ; not thinning the plants, 
 because they should remain thick, for their chance in win- 
 ter, and to be, by degrees, drawn thinningly, for use in 
 salads and otherwise ; bjit reserve a principal supply to re- 
 main till spring. Observe, the Welsh onion, in particular, 
 commonly dies down to the ground about mid’-winter ; but 
 the root part, remaining wholly sound, sends up a new, 
 vigorous stem in February and March. At the opening of 
 spring, let the whole of both sorts be well cleared from 
 weeds ; they will continue fit to draw young during all the 
 /spring months, till May ; then Jet sot»e of the bulbous kinds 
 
ONION. 
 
 219 
 
 be thinned, to remain for early bulbing in June and July; 
 but, as they will soon after shoot up in stalk, they are chief- 
 ly for present use, not being eligible as keeping-onions.” 
 
 To preserve onions through the winter, they may be tied 
 together, forming what are called ropes or bunches of on- 
 ions, and kept in a dry and cool cellar. Moisture rots, and 
 warmth causes them to vegetate. A considerable degree 
 of cold will not injure them, for they resist frost in conse- 
 quence of a spirituous substance of which they are in part 
 composed. Searing their fibrous roots with a hot iron will 
 prevent them from sprouting. 
 
 To obtain seed from onions, they should be planted early 
 in beds, about nine inches apart. The largest and soundest 
 are best. They should be kept free from weeds; and, 
 when the heads of the flowers begin to appear, each plant 
 must have a stake about four feet long, and its stems be 
 loosely tied to the stake by a soft string. Or the stems 
 may be supported by stakes, six or eight feet apart, and 
 pack-thread or rope-yarn fastened from one to the other, 
 a little below the heads. When ripe, the heads are to be 
 cut (or the seed will shed) and spread in the sun, on coarse 
 cloths, to dry; being, however, taken under shelter at night, 
 and in rain. When the seed is beaten out, it is to be dried 
 one day in the sun, and then put in bags to preserve for 
 sowing. 
 
 Dr. Deane, and Mr. Nicholson, author of the Farmer^s 
 Assista/nt^ condemn the practice of beating or breaking 
 down the tops of onions in order to increase the size of the 
 root. Mr. Nicholson observed, The practice is undoubt- 
 edly injurious, as we have seen confirmed by experiment.” 
 Culture of the potato onion , — This variety, erroneously 
 supposed to have been brought from Egypt by the British 
 army about 1805, was grown in Driver’s nursery, in 1796, 
 and has been known in Devonshire for upwards of twenty 
 years. It is thus cultivated at Arundel Castle, by Maher : — 
 Having thoroughly prepared the ground, and formed it into 
 beds four feet wide, ‘ I draw lines the whole length, three 
 to each bed, and, with the end of the rake-handle, make a 
 mark (not a drill) on the surface; on this mark I place the 
 onions, ten inches apart; I then cover them with leaf- 
 mould, rotten dung, or any other light compost, just so that 
 the crowns appear exposed. Notliing more is necessary 
 to be done until they shoot up their tops ; then, on a dry 
 day, they are earthed up, like potatoes, and kept free from 
 weeds, until they are taken up. In the west of England, 
 
220 
 
 ORC HARD. 
 
 where this kind of onion is much cultivated, I understand 
 that it is the practice to plant on the shortest day, and take 
 up on the longest. The smallest onions used for planting 
 swell, and become Very fine and large, as well as yield off- 
 sets ; the middle-sized and larger bulbs produce greater 
 clusters.’ — Hort. Trans, vol. iii. p. 305. 
 
 Dymond states, {Hort, Trans, vol. iii, p. 306,) that in 
 Devonshire it is planted in rows, twelve inches apart, and 
 six inches’ distance in the row ; that the plants are earthed 
 up as they grow, and that the smaller bulbs yield a greater 
 increase than the larger. A similar practice is adopted by 
 some Scotch cultivators. — Caled, Hort, Mem, vol. i. p. 343, 
 and vol. iv. p. 216. 
 
 “ Wedgewood does not earth up, and finds his bulbs ac- 
 quire a much larger size than when that practice is adopted. 
 ~Hort, Trans, vol. iii. p. 403. The fact is, as we have 
 observed in generalizing on the subject of earthing up, sur- 
 face-bulbs, as the onion, turnip, &c., are always prevented 
 from attaining their full size by that operation, whatever 
 they may gain in other respects.” — Loudon, 
 
 Use, — The properties of onions in no respect differ from 
 those of garlic, excepting that the former are less pungent, 
 (see Garlic,) and are, therefore, more generally used for 
 culinary purposes. Many persons, however, dislike them on 
 account of the strong and disagreeable smell which they com- 
 municate to the breath. But this inconvenience is obviated 
 by eating a few raw leaves of parsley, immediately after par- 
 taking of onions, the scent of which is thus nearly removed, 
 and they are, at the same time, rendered more easy of di- 
 gestion. Vinegar also answers the same purpose.” — Dom, 
 Encyc, 
 
 ORCHARD. — Soil, — Any soil is suitable for an or- 
 chard, which produces good crops of grain, grass, or gar- 
 den vegetables ; but a good, deep, sandy loam, not too dry, 
 nor very moist, is to be preferred. In the stiffest part of the 
 ground, you may plant pear-trees ; in the lighter, apples, 
 plums, and cherries; and, in the lightest, peach, nectarine, 
 and apricots. 
 
 Aspect, — A south-eastern aspect is generally recom- 
 mended ; but, when this exposes the trees to the sea winds, 
 a south-western maybe better. Some recommend a north- 
 ern aspect, and planting trees the north side of a wall, to 
 prevent them from budding and blowing so early in the 
 spring as to expose them to frosts. 
 
 Preparation of the ground, — If the land be swarded, it 
 
ORCHARD. 221 
 
 should be broken up and tilled at least one year before the 
 trees are planted. 
 
 Manure , — Rotten leaves, or tlje mould formed by the de- 
 composition of leaves, is recommended by Forsyth. Com- 
 post, or rich earth, is said to be preferable to dung, which 
 encourages insects and blight. M‘Mahon says, “ It is well 
 known that where hogs and poultry are constantly running 
 over the ground, the trees seldom fail of a crop, which is the 
 best proof that manure is necessary. Any manure will suit 
 an orcnard ; but the sweepings of cow-houses, hog-pens, 
 slaughter-houses, poultry and pigeon-houses, emptying of 
 drains, &c. are more disposed to facilitate the growth of fruit- 
 trees than stable-manure. However, any kind of manure 
 is better than none at all.” 
 
 Hog-dung is accounted to have a peculiar virtue in in 
 vigorating weak trees. Rotted turf, or any vegetable ref- 
 use, is a general manure, excellent for all soils not already 
 too rich. For an exhausted soil, where a fruit-tree, which 
 has been an old, profitable occupant, is wished to be con- 
 tinued, a dressing of animal matter is a powerful restora- 
 tive ; such as hogs’ or bullocks’ blood, offal from the 
 slaughter-house, refuse of skins and leather, decomposed 
 carrion ; also urine diluted with water. In a soil ^Vhich 
 does not effervesce with acids, a little lime, dug in a spit 
 deep, is beneficial to fruit-trees.” — Abercrombie. 
 
 Distance of trees in an orchard . — It should be considered, 
 at the time of planting, to what size the trees are likely to 
 grow. And they should be set so far asunder, that their 
 limbs will not be likely to interfere with each other, when 
 they arrive at full growth. In a soil that suits them best 
 they will become largest. Twenty-five feet may be the 
 right distance in some soils ; but thirty-five feet will not be 
 too much in the best, or even forty.” — Deane. 
 
 Cropping . — ‘‘ It is proper to crop the ground among new- 
 planted orchard-trees, for a few years, in order to defray 
 the expense of hoeing and cultivating it ; which should be 
 done until the temporary plants are removed, and the whole 
 be sown down to grass. But it is by no means advisable 
 to carry the system of cropping with vegetables to such an 
 excess as is frequently done. If the bare expense of culti- 
 vating the ground, and the rent, be paid, by such cropping, 
 it should be considered enough. As the trees begin to pro- 
 duce fruit, begin also to relinquish cropping. When by 
 their productions they defray all expenses, crop no longer,, 
 
222 
 
 PARSLEY. 
 
 I consider these as being wholesome rules, both for the 
 trees and their owners.” — Loudon, 
 
 Orchards which are laid down to grass last longest; but 
 it is necessary to keep the ground clear of weeds and grass, 
 for some little distance from the roots. They may be pas- 
 tured with calves and swine, and by the latter with much 
 advantage, as they destroy the curculio, (see p. 175.) Sheep 
 may be admitted, provided the trees are smeared with a 
 coat of lime, or with Forsyth’s composition ; but large cat- 
 tle, which can reach up to the limbs of the trees, should 
 not be suffered to run in an orchard. In Germany, they 
 surround the roots of fruit-trees in grass-land with hemp- 
 breakings, not only near the stock, but for some distance 
 from the tree. The breakings of flax and spent tan are 
 also recommended for the same purpose. 
 
 Mr. Benjamin Wheeler, of Framingham, Mass., gives 
 the following prescription of a wash for fruit-trees, which 
 has been repeatedly tested, and found very useful : — ‘‘ Dis- 
 solve two pounds of potash, of the first quality, in seven 
 quarts of whaler, for the bodies of the trees. If the limbs 
 are covered with moss or lice, I take a painter’s brush, and 
 apply the solution to the moss, &c., w ith care not to touch 
 the leaves or buds. It may be done at any time of the 
 year, when w e are most at leisure. Once in from two to 
 four years is generally sufficient. I have no general rule, 
 how^ever, but wash them as often as they appear to need it, 
 which is always wffien the bark is not smooth.” 
 
 PARSLEY . — Apium petroselinum , — The parsley is a har- 
 dy biennial, a native of Sardinia. The varieties, according 
 to Loudon, are. 
 
 The common, plain-leaved, {sel- 
 dom cultivated ;) 
 
 The curled or thick-leaved, {most 
 ^esteemed;) 
 
 The broad-leaved, or larg-e-rooted 
 Hamburgh, {cultivated for its car- 
 rot-shaped root.) 
 
 Mr. Russell’s Catalogue mentions the following kinds : 
 
 Curled or double — Apium petrose- 
 linum crispum ; 
 
 Dwarf curled, {very much curled.) 
 do. do. 
 
 Hamburgh, or large-rooted, do. var. 
 tuberosum ; 
 
 Siberian, {very hardy, single-leafed, 
 and of fine flavour.) 
 
 and adds, “ sown from April to August. Parsley seldom 
 vegetates under five weeks after sowing. It is recom- 
 mended to soak the seed twelve hours in water mixed 
 
 with sulphur. This process, with attentive watering, will 
 cause the seed to vegetate in less than a fortnight.” ’ The 
 
PARSLEY. 223 
 
 seed should be fresh. Loudon says, two years’ old seed 
 will not grow. 
 
 Culture of the pot-herb kinds, — “ One sowing in spring 
 will mostly furnish young leaves all the year ; though, to 
 answer a constant demand, many persons make successive 
 sowings from February [in Great Britain] to May. Some 
 also sow early in. autumn for young parsley in winter and 
 spring; but such a supply is better provided by cutting 
 down established plants. Sow in a single drill along the 
 edge of any compartment, or occasionally in rows nine 
 or twelve inches asunder. Draw small drills, sometliing 
 less than an inch deep ; in which drop the seed moderate- 
 ly thick, and cover a little above half an inch. The plants 
 will come up in three or four weeks, and, when two or 
 three inches high, may be gathered as wanted, all the sum- 
 mer, winter, and following spring till May, when they will 
 go to seed. Have always a young crop sowed timely in 
 the spring to succeed the declining old plants. In gather- 
 ing pot-herb parsley, cut close and regular. In summer, 
 when the plants grow rank, yielding more leaves than can 
 be used, cut them close to the bottom, and they will shoot 
 up stocky, and in a regular, close growth. Observe also 
 to do the same in autumn, about the end of September, 
 that the plants may form heads of fresh young leaves be- 
 fore winter. On the approach of frosty weather, protect 
 them with haum,” straw, or any thing else, which will 
 serve for a defence against cold. 
 
 Culture of Hamburgh parsley, — “To obtain large roots, 
 allot a compartment where the soil is deep, and has been 
 well digged. Any common mould will suit, if dry and not 
 too rich. Sow in February, [soon as the frost is well out 
 of the ground,] March, or early in April, in one or more 
 beds, either in drills nine inches asunder, or broad-cast, 
 and rake in. The plants should be thinned to nine inches 
 distance, to give room for proper growth in the roots ; for 
 use in August, September, October, and thence till the fol- 
 lowing spring. On the approach of frost, take up some 
 roots, and preserve them in sand. A sowing may be made 
 the third week in June, where young roots are wanted in 
 winter.” 
 
 The Siberian, or single-leafed parsley, is cultivated in 
 fields. It may be sown very early with oats or other 
 spring grain, mixed with grass seed. — See Encyc, of Ayr, 
 parag. 5081. 
 
 Uses, — This herb is much used and highly valued for 
 
224 
 
 PARSNEP, 
 
 culinary purposes as a pot-herb, for garnishes, &c. The 
 Hamburgh parsley is esteemed for its large, carrot-like root, 
 drawn in autumn and winter for the table. In field culti- 
 vation it is said to be a preservative from rot in sheep, and 
 efficacious in curing greasy and surfeited horses, &c. — See 
 New England Farmer^ vol. vi. page 182. 
 
 PARSNEP. — Pastinaca saliva. — Loudon observes, that 
 There is only one variety of the parsnep in general cul- 
 tivation in Great Britain, but the French possess three — 
 the Coquaine^ the LisbonaisCj and the Siam. The Coquaincy 
 Dr. Maculloch informs us, {Caled. Hart. Mem. vol. 1, p. 
 408,) is much cultivated in Guernsey and Jersey. The 
 roots run sometimes four feet deep, and are rarely so small 
 in circumference as six inches, having been known to 
 reach sixteen. The leaves of this variety grow to a con- 
 siderable height, and proceed from the whole crown of the 
 root. The Lisbonaise does not extend to so great a depth 
 as the Coquaine ; but the root is equally good in quality, 
 and what is lost in length is gained in thickness. The 
 leaves are small and short, and only proceed from the cen- 
 tre of the crown. The Siam has a root of a yellowish col- 
 our, not very large, but tender, and more rich in taste than 
 the other varieties.’’ 
 
 Soil. — The soil should be light, deep, and free from 
 stones. It should be dug or trenched before sowing, one 
 good spade deep, at least, (some writers say two spades 
 deep,) being careful to pulverize the soil thoroughly, that 
 the roots may have no obstruction to prevent their run- 
 ning down long and straight. If the soil be proper for 
 them, it is said they will not require much manure; and 
 what is used should be perfectly decomposed, or, if recent, 
 be deposited at the bottom of the trench. They do not 
 impoverish the soil, but, like onions, may be raised many 
 years in the same spot. 
 
 Seed estimatCy and sowing. — Sow as early as the ground is 
 thawed, if not too wet. Deane observed, that “ some 
 sow them in the fall ; but that is not a good practice, be- 
 cause the ground will grow too close and stiff for want of 
 stirring in the spring ; which cannot well be performed in 
 gardens, without danger of injuring the roots. And weeds 
 will be more apt to abound among them if they be sown 
 in autumn.” Loudon says, For abed five feet by twenty, 
 the plants to remain thinned to eight inches’ distance, half an 
 ounce of seed is the usual proportion.” Deane recommends 
 sdwing them in tows arross beds, fifteen inches apart, 
 
PARSNEP. 
 
 225 
 
 and to allow six inches from plant to plant at the last thin- 
 ning, which may be early, as they are not often hurt by 
 insects. 
 
 Culture , — When the plants are about one, two or three 
 inches high, in May or June, let them be thinned and 
 cleared from weeds either by hand or small hoeing. Keep 
 them afterwards clear from weeds, till the leaves cover the 
 ground, after which no further culture will be required. 
 Parsneps will continue growing till the frosts are very 
 severe, and are not good for use till they have become ripe, 
 late in autumn. Any thing which is to be used early in 
 the season may be sown with parsneps, such as carrots to 
 draw young, radishes, lettuces, &c. 
 
 Preserving during winter , — The parsnep is not so liable 
 as the carrot to be hurt by frost if left in the ground, and 
 some let them remain where they grew through winter. 
 But the best way is to dig them some time in November. 
 They should not be wounded nor bruised in digging ; nei- 
 ther should the tops be cut off very close to the roots, nor 
 any of the lateral roots cut off. In either case the roots will 
 rot or become bitter. ‘‘Many lose their parsneps, or 
 make them sprout, by putting them in a warm cellar. It is 
 better to keep them in some out-house, or in a cellar that 
 freezes ; for no degree of frost ever hurts them. But to 
 prevent their drying too much, it is best to cover them with 
 ciry sods, or else bury them in sand that has no moisture 
 in it. Beach sand is improper, because the salt in it will 
 make them vegetate.” — Deane, 
 
 Field culture of parsneps , — In giving an account of the 
 agriculture of the island of Jersey, an English writer says, 
 “ Parsneps are grown by every farmer, and either by the 
 spade culture alone, by the plough and spade, or by the 
 small and great plough : any soil in good heart and tilth 
 suits them, but peculiarly a deep loam ; and in the same 
 spot, generally, are raised beans, peas, cabbage, and, occa- 
 sionally, potatoes. 
 
 “ When the ploughing or digging is completed, the field 
 is once harrowed ; straight lines are then drawn across, by 
 means of a gardener’s rake, usually from north to south ; 
 women then proceed with dibbles, and set the beans in 
 rows, at a distance of four inches, or five inches, from bean 
 to bean, in four, three, and sometimes two ranks of beans, 
 leaving intervals of between five and six feet between each 
 of the sown rows. In the use of the dibble, and in drop- 
 ping the beans, the w^omen have acquired considerable 
 
226 
 
 PEA. 
 
 dexterity. In many instances they are followed by chil- 
 dren, who drop into each hole made by the dibble, after 
 the bean, three or four peas ; the parsnep seed is then sown 
 at the rate of one third to one half of a bushel to the acre.” 
 — Quayle^s General View of the Norman Islands, 
 
 Use , — The writer above quoted asserts, that, in the island 
 of Jersey, parsnep “ is eaten with meat, with milk, and 
 with butter ; but not, as is the common mode of using it as 
 human food in England, with salt fish, or, as in Ireland, to- 
 gether with potatoes. 
 
 ‘‘ The next most valuable application of this root is hog- 
 feeding. At first it is given to the animal in a ravr state, 
 afterwards boiled or steamed, and finally, for a week or 
 fortnight, with bean and oat-meal. A hog treated in this 
 way is sufficiently fatted for killing in about six weeks. 
 Its flesh is held superior to that arising from any other food, 
 and does not waste in boiling. 
 
 ‘‘ Bullocks are also fatted with parsneps in about three 
 months; their f sh is here considered of superior flavour 
 to any other beeL and commands, on that account, an ad- 
 ditional half-peiuiy in the pound on the price. To milch 
 cows they are also usually given ; on this diet, the cream 
 assumes a yellow colour. By the accounts here given, it 
 appears, in proportion to the milk, to be more abundant, 
 than when the animal is kept on any other food whatever. 
 When the cow receives at the rate of thirty-five pounds 
 per day, with hay, seven quarts, ale measure, of the milk 
 
 f produce seventeen ounces of butter. It is generally al- 
 owed that the flavour of the butter is superior to any other 
 produced in winter. 
 
 “ Geese are sometimes shut up with the hogs to fatten 
 on parsneps, which they will eat raw. The root is also 
 given boiled ; and for a week before killing they are fed 
 with oats or barley only. Horses eat this root greedily ; 
 but in this island it is never given them, as it is alleged 
 that, fed on this food, their eyes are injured. About Mor- 
 lais, horses are not only ordinarily fed on parsneps, but they 
 are considered as the best of all food, superior even to 
 oats.” 
 
 To save seed , — Transplant some of the best roots as 
 early as the frost will permit in the spring, two feet asun- 
 der, inserted over the crown. They will produce seed 
 plentifully in autumn. 
 
 PEA . — Pisum sativum , — The pea is a hardy annual, a 
 native of the south of Europe, cultivated in Great Britain 
 
PEA. 
 
 227 
 
 from time immemorial, and in this country from its first 
 settlement. 
 
 Varieties . — These are numerous : those mentioned in Mr. 
 
 Russell’s Catalogue are, 
 
 Early Washington, or true May 
 Pea, {extra early and Jim — 
 grows to the height of two and a 
 half feet ;) 
 
 Early double-blossomed, fi-ame, 
 {early and fim — three feet;) 
 
 Early frame, {pwo and a half 
 feet ;) 
 
 Early golden Hotspur, {three feet,) 
 
 Early Charlton, {three feet ;) 
 
 Dwarf blue imperial, {two feet, a 
 superior variety ;) 
 
 Dwarf blue Prussian, {two and a 
 half feet;) 
 
 Dwarf Spanish, or fan, {om foot ;) 
 
 Dwarf marrowfat, {three and a half 
 feet;) 
 
 {pods eaten — three feet 
 
 Matchless, or true tall marrowfat, 
 {six. feet ;\ 
 
 Knight’s tall marrows ; 
 
 Tall, crooked podded sugar, {pods 
 eaten — six feet ;) 
 
 Ladies’ finger marrows, {a prodigi- 
 ous bearer, and delicate eating pea ;) 
 
 New nonpareil pea, (ct new ana pro- 
 ductive sort from Scotland ;) 
 
 Knight’s dwarf marrows. 
 
 The Charltons are not only very early, but great bear- 
 ers, and excellent peas for the table ; and are therefore 
 equally well fitted for the early and forward succession 
 crops, and inferior to few even for the main summer crops. 
 The frame pea may indeed be raised without the assistance 
 of heat for a forward crop, and, if a genuine sort, will fruit 
 a few days sooner than the Charlton; but it grows low, 
 and bears scantily. The Hotspur is hardy and prolific, 
 and makes returns nearly as quick as the Charlton, and about 
 a fortnight before the marrowfat. The sorts already spe- 
 cified, therefore, embrace the best for so wings made from the 
 end of October till the middle of January, and for late crops, 
 raised between the middle of June and the beginning of 
 August. The Charltons and Hotspur may be sown in 
 May for late fall crops ; in June for a smaller supply ; and in 
 July along with the frames for the last returns.” — Loudon. 
 
 Times of sowing . — “ The dwarfs are generally employed 
 in hot-bed culture, which, however, succeeds badly, and 
 is neither worth preserving nor describing, and the less so, 
 as early crops may be more certainly had by sowing in the 
 fall, in sheltered situations, and covering during the winter 
 with a layer of leaves, and another of long stable-litter 
 loosely applied to keep the leaves in their places. After 
 the earth takes a temperature favourable to vegetation, 
 your pea sowings should be made once a fortnight, to keep 
 up a regular and successive supply.” — Armstrong. 
 
 Quantity of seed . — Of the small, early kinds, one pint 
 will sow a row of twenty yards ; for the larger sorts, for 
 main crops, the same measure will sow a row of thirty- 
 three yards.” 
 
 Process in sowing . — For early sorts, make the drills 
 
228 
 
 Pt2A. 
 
 one inch and a half deep ; ai|d let parallel drills be two 
 feet and a half, three or four feet asunder. Peas that are 
 to grow without sticks require the least room. For sum- 
 mer crops and large sorts, make the drills two inches 
 deep, and four, five or six feet asunder. As to the dis- 
 tances along the drill, distribute the peas according to 
 their size, and the season : the frame, three in the space of 
 an inch ; the Charltons, Hotspur, and dwarf marrowfat, 
 two in an inch ; the Prussian blue, and middle-sized sorts, 
 three in two inches ; the large marrowfat and Knight’s a 
 full inch apart ; the moratto, rouncivals, and most larger 
 sorts, an inch and a half apart, and the Patagonian, two 
 inches.” 
 
 Soil and situation , — The soil should be moderately 
 rich, and the deeper and stronger for the lofty growers. 
 Peas are not assisted, but hurt, by unreduced dung recently 
 turned in. A fresh, sandy loam, or road-stuff, and a little 
 decomposed vegetable matter, is the best manure. The 
 soil for the early crops should be very dry, and rendered so, 
 where the ground is moist, by mixing sand with the earth 
 of the drills.” — Loudon, 
 
 Armstrong says, “ A loose and warm soil is most fa- 
 vourable to this vegetable, which, by the way, is neither 
 improved dn quality nor quantity by stable manure. The 
 soil of Clichy, and of Point de Jour des Colombo, &c. in 
 the neighbourhood of Paris, is a pure sand, principally de- 
 voted to pea crops, and yielding these most abundantly 
 without the application of dung new or old.” 
 
 Subsequent culture,^^^ As the plants rise from half an 
 inch high to two or three inches, begin to draw earth to 
 the stems, doing this when the ground is in a dry state, 
 and earthing gradually higher as the stems ascend. At the 
 s'^me time, with the hoe, loosen the ground between the 
 young plants, and cut dov/n rising weeds. Early crops 
 should be protected during hard frosts by dry straw, or 
 other light litter, laid upon sticks or brush wood ; but re- 
 move the covering as soon as the weather turns mild. If, 
 in April, May, and the course of the summer, dry weather 
 occurs, vratering will be necessary, especially to plants in 
 blossom and .swelling the fruit ; and this trouble will be 
 repaid in the produce. Row^s partly cut off may be made 
 up by transplanting. In dry weather, w^ater, and in hot 
 weather, shade, until the plants strike. All peas fruit bet-^ 
 ter for sticking, and continue longer productive, especially 
 the larger sorts. Stick the plants, when from six to twelve 
 
PEA. 
 
 229 
 
 inches liigh, as soon as they begin to vine. Provide 
 branchy sticks of such a height as the sort will require ; 
 for tlie frame and Leadman’s dwarf, three feet high ; for 
 the Charlton and middle-sized, four or five feet; for the 
 marrowfat and larger kinds, six or eight feet ; for the roun- 
 cival, and for Knight’s marrow-pea, nine or ten feet. Place 
 a row of sticks to ‘^ach line of peas, on the most sunny side^ 
 east or south, that the attraction of the sun may incline the 
 plants towards the sticks. Place about half the number on 
 the opposite side, and let both rows stand rather wider at 
 top than at the ground. Some gardeners stop the leading 
 shoot of the most early crop, when in blossom ; a device 
 which accelerates the setting and maturity of the fruit. 
 
 To forward an early crop . — “ Sow or plant in lines from 
 east to w^est, and stick a row of spruce-fir [or other ever- 
 green] branches along the north side of every row, and 
 sloping so as to bend over the plants, at one foot or eigh- 
 teen inches from the ground. As the plants advance in 
 height, vary the position of the branches, so as they may 
 always protect them from perpendicular cold or rain, and yet 
 leave them open to the full influence of the spring sun. Some 
 cover during nights, and in severe weather with two hoards, 
 nailed together lengthwise, at right angles, which forms a 
 very secure and easily-managed covering, but excludes light. 
 A better plan would be to glaze one of the sides, to be 
 kept to the south, and to manage such row-glasses, as they 
 might be called, when over peas, beans, spinage, &c., as 
 hand-glasses are managed, when over cauliflower ; that is, 
 to take them off in fine weather, or raise them constantly 
 or occasionally by brick-bats, or other props, as the weather 
 and the state of the crop might require.” — Loudon. 
 
 Management of a late crop . — The best variety for this 
 purpose is Knight’s marrow-pea, which may be sown at 
 intervals of ten days, from the beginning to the end of June. 
 ‘‘ The ground is dug over in the usual way, and the spaces 
 to be occupied by the future rows of peas are well soaked 
 with water. The mould upon each side is then collected 
 so as to form ridges seven or eight inches above the pre- 
 vious level of the ground, and these ridges are well watered. 
 The seeds are now sown in single rows, along the tops of 
 the ridges. The plants grow vigorously, owing to the 
 depth of soil and abundant moisture. If dry weather at 
 any time set in, water is applied profusely once a week. 
 In this way, the plants continue green and vigorous, resist- 
 20 
 
230 
 
 PEA. 
 
 ing mildew, and yielding fruit till subdued by frost.” — Horl 
 Trans, vol. ii. 
 
 To save seed. — Like other vegetables, the pea is sus- 
 ceptible of considerable improvement, and by the simple 
 means of marking the finest plants of each variety, and 
 keeping them for seed. Wilson’s frame, and the Knight 
 pea, have been formed in this way, a».J afibrd sufiicient 
 proof of the wonders produced by a very small degree of 
 observation and care.” — Annstrong. 
 
 Field-culture of the pea . — The most common mode of 
 sowing peas is broad-cast ; but the advantages of the row- 
 culture, in a crop so early committed to the ground, must 
 be obvious. Loudon says, In Kent, where immense 
 quantities of peas are raised, both for gathering green, and 
 for selling ripe to the seedsmen, they are generally sown in 
 rows from eighteen inches to three feet asunder, according 
 to the kind, and w^ell cultivated between. Peas, laid a foot 
 below the surface, will vegetate ; but the most approved 
 depth is six inches in light soil, and four inches in clay 
 soil, for which reason they ought to be sown under furrow, 
 when the ploughing is delayed till spring. Of all grain, 
 beans excepted, they are in the least danger of being buried 
 too deep.” — Loudon. 
 
 Deane observed, that ^‘For field-peas, land that is newly 
 ploughed out of sward is generally accounted best ; and 
 land which is high and dry, and has not been much dunged. 
 A light, loamy soil is most suitable for them ; and if it 
 abound with slaty stones, it is the better. But they will 
 do in any dry soil. The manures that suit peas best, are 
 marl and lime. Our farmers do not commonly allow a 
 sufficient quantity of seed for peas, in broad-cast sowing. 
 When peas are sowed thin, the plants will lie on the 
 ground, and perhaps rot : when they are thick, the plants 
 will hold each other up with their tendrils, forming a con- 
 tinued w’^eb, and will have more benefit of the air. 
 
 Insects and diseases. — The Mass. Agriculturcil Repository^ 
 for June, 1822 , contains some remarks of the Hon. T. Pick- 
 ering, relative to a bug or fly, (bruchus pisi^) which preys 
 on the pea, in which he observes, that an effectual remedy 
 for this evil is late sowing ; but the hot sun of June wull so 
 pinch the vines of the late sowm peas, that the crop will be 
 small, unless the land be moist as well as rich. He then 
 details some experiments, by -which he concludes that this 
 insect is limited to a certain period for depositing its eggs ; 
 
PEA. 
 
 231 
 
 and if the tender pods are not found till that period has 
 passed, the peas will be free from bugs. Col. Worthing- 
 ton, of Rcnsellaer county, N. Y., sowed his peas on the 
 10th of June, six years in succession, and a bug has never 
 been seen in his peas. Whereas his neighbours, who have 
 not adopted this practice, have scarcely a pea without a 
 bug in it. He supposes the season for depositing the egg 
 of the pea-bug is passed before the peas are in flower.” — 
 Mem* of N. V* Board of Agriculture^ vol. ii. p. 23. “ The 
 
 only insect that commonly injures our peas is a small brown 
 bug or fly, the egg [or larva] of which is deposited in them 
 when they are young, and the pods easily perforated. The 
 insect does not come out of its nest till he is furnished with 
 short wings. They diminish the peas in which they lodge 
 nearly one half, and their leavings are fit only for the food 
 of swine. The bugs, however, will be all gone out if you 
 keep them to the following autumn. But they who eat 
 buggy peas the winter after they are raised, must run the 
 venture of eating the insects.” — Deane’^s N. E, Farmer* 
 The same writer recommends, when seed-peas are known 
 or suspected to contain insects, to scald them a quarter of a 
 minute in boiling water, spread them about, and sow them 
 without delay. If any of the bugs should be in the peas, 
 this scalding will destroy them ; and the peas, instead of 
 being hurt, will come up the sooner, and grow the faster. 
 
 Mildew is another evil attending peas, especially such as 
 are sown late in the season. This disorder is supposed by 
 Knight to be caused by a want of a sufficient supply of 
 moisture from the soil, with excess of humidity in the air, 
 particularly if the plants be exposed to a temperature below 
 that to which they have been accustomed.” The remedy 
 which he recommends is, to give water rather profusely 
 once a week, or nine days, even if the weather proves 
 showery.” — See N, E, Farmer^ vol. i. p. 414. 
 
 Use* — The use of peas for soups, and other culinary pur 
 poses, is well knowm. They are likewise very serviceable 
 in fattening hogs, for which purpose they should be har- 
 vested dry, and gTound into meal. If the straw be forward 
 in autumn, and has been harvested without injury, it will 
 be little inferior to ordinary hay for feeding cattle. 
 
 In boiling split peas, some samples, without reference 
 to variety, fall or moulder down freely into pulp, while 
 others continue to maintain their form. The former are 
 called hollers* This property of boiling depends on the 
 soil : stiff land, or sandy land that has been limed or marled. 
 
232 
 
 PEACH-TREE* 
 
 uniformly produces peas that will not melt in boiling, no 
 matter what the variety may be.” — Loudon, 
 
 ‘‘ When peas are sown before winter, or early in spring, 
 they are very apt to be eaten by mice. To prevent this, 
 soak the peas, for a day or two, in train oil, before you sow 
 them, which will encourage their vegetation, and render 
 them so obnoxious to the mice that they will not eat 
 them.” — Domestic Encyclopedia, 
 
 PEACH-TREE. — Amygdalus Persica, — The peach-tree 
 is a native of Asia, and was first brought to Rome during 
 the reign of the emperor Claudius. 
 
 Varieties, — Linnseus divides the A, Persica into two 
 varieties; that with downy fruit, or the peach, and that 
 with smooth fruit, or the nectarine. There are various in- 
 stances on record, {Hort, Trans, vol. i. p. 103,) of both 
 fruits growing on the same tree, even on the same branch ; 
 and one case has occurred of a single fruit partaking of the 
 nature of both. See further^ Fruit. 
 
 All the varieties are continued by budding, and, as in all 
 other cases, new ones are obtained by sowing the stones ; 
 in doing which, we ought not to forget, that, like oil-giving 
 seeds in general, those of the peach require to be earthed 
 as soon as they are separated from the pulp. In their sec- 
 ond year, (if wall-trees are required,) such of them as are 
 destined for stems are budded close to the earth ; and if 
 riders or standards are wanted, three, four, or six feet 
 higher. In the spring following, the first shoots from 
 these buds should be headed down to four, five, or six 
 eyes, for the purpose of producing two upright and leading 
 branches, and as many laterals, with which you begin to 
 give to the head the form you intend it shall ultimately 
 take. 
 
 ‘‘ The standard is nearly the natural form of the tree ; 
 requiring no interposition of art, if we except the removal 
 of dead, or dying, or superfluous limbs, and an occasional 
 supply of wood, (if this be wanted,) to keep up a well-bal- 
 anced head. It is also that form in which the tree suc- 
 ceeds best in hot climates ; and in such it ought always to 
 be employed. But, in northern latitudes, (where the heat 
 is neither long continued nor great,) the fruit of the stand- 
 ard peach-tree is rarely seen in perfection ; it may be large, 
 and juicy, and well coloured, but it will always be deficient 
 in that peculiar flavour, that aroma, which is its true char- 
 acteristic, and without which it is but ordinary fruit. To 
 supply, therefore, as far as may be possible, without the aid 
 
P EACH-TREE. 
 
 233 
 
 of iire or glass, that high temperature in which the peach 
 delights, we must recur, first, to the use of walls, whioh, 
 besides protecting the tree from high and cold winds, con- 
 centrate the rays of the sun on its stem and branches, and 
 on the earth which surrounds and nourishes its roots ; sec- 
 ond, to the amelioration of the soil, by giving to it both 
 warmth and dryness, should it be deficient in these quali- 
 ties ; and, third, to the mode of training, which exposes to 
 the light the greatest surface of leaf in the shortest space 
 of time, and, consequently, best promotes an equal distribu- 
 tion of the sap. For accomplishing these three objects, 
 the rules are, to construct your walls of stone, or brick, or 
 wood, and of a height from twelve to fifteen feet ; to lay 
 out on the eastern and southern sides a border ten feet 
 wide, worked to the depth of three feet, and manured with a 
 mixture of ashes and peat, or bog earth ; to plant in this (two 
 and a half feet distant from the wall) your young trees, 
 furnished with two leading branches, and presenting a figure 
 not unlike the letter Y ; to bring down those branches to a 
 position nearly horizontal, and subsequently to train them 
 upwards, parallel to each other, as high as the top of the 
 wall, and directly against its side, to which, throughout 
 their whole length, they are to be fastened by woollen 
 straps ; and, lastly, to encourage side shoots from these 
 leaders, so as to fill up with bearing wood the intermediate 
 space between them, and such exterior space on the wall 
 as may be thought proper and practicable. To this form 
 is given the technical name of the wavy or curvilineal fan; 
 ^.nd it is obvious, that, in preserving, as well as producing 
 it, the use of the knife cannot be dispensed with. Be care- 
 ful, therefore, in May and June, and, occasionally, in the 
 succeeding months, to remove water-shoots, and all ill- 
 placed, redundant and diseased buds ; and, again, at the 
 fall of the leaf, to cut away, with a sharp knife, and close 
 to the branches on which they grow, such new shoots as 
 will not readily accommodate themselves to your design, or 
 as may be unnecessary to it, and also all such old wood as 
 may be useless or troublesome. 
 
 “ The general rules for thinning leaves and fruit must be 
 carefully observed in the treatment of peach-trees and nec- 
 tarines, as they are known to have an uncommon degree of 
 proneness to overbearing, and as the discipline we recom- 
 mend will, besides giving an improved fruit, tend directly 
 and greatly to fortify the trees against the attacks of their 
 20 '' 
 
234 
 
 PEACH-TREE. 
 
 numerous enemies. Of these, the acarus, chermes^ aphis 
 and thripsy (an insect hardly perceptible to the naked eye,) 
 are the most common, and are best expelled by water and 
 tobacco smoke. It is, however, the curculio, or grub, (as 
 we call it,) that may, from its pre-eminence in mischief, be 
 regarded as the destroyer of the peach. Its attacks, ordi- 
 narily, begin in the stem, near the surface of the earth ; 
 and, if not arrested, will soon terminate in the roots, where 
 it riots on the gum exuding from the wounds it inflicts. 
 The remedies resorted to in this case are, first, the appli- 
 cation of boiling water to the roots ; second, a similar ap- 
 plication of unslaked lime, in the proportion of one quart 
 to a tree ; third, removing the surface earth, and substitut- 
 ing for it tanners’ bark ; fourth, removing the earth, as in 
 the preceding case, in the month of November, and expos- 
 ing the roots to the action of frost during the winter ; and, 
 fifth, encircling the lower part of the stem with straw, and 
 thus compelling the insect to begin his attack so far from 
 the ground, that he will be unable to avail himself of its 
 shelter before the coming on of winter. 
 
 “ The diseases of the peach-tree are as numerous, and 
 often as fatal, as the depredators just mentioned ; and are 
 known to horticulturists under the names of the honey-dew, 
 mildew, canker, spots, &c. The first of these yields to the 
 flour of sulphur, sprinkled over the tree ; but the most ef- 
 ficient cure for all of them is the removal of the soil about 
 their roots.” — Armstrong's Treatise on Gardening, 
 
 The following is from the Domestic Encydopedia^ last 
 Philadelphia edition : — 
 
 Peach-trees are liable to three casualties : 
 
 1. The fly that deposits eggs near the root, and there 
 forms a worm. 
 
 2. The bursting of the bark by severe frosts in wet 
 winters. 
 
 3. The splitting of Uie limbs at the fork of the tree. 
 
 ‘‘ The fly, which is blue, (but not a wasp,) begins its at- 
 tacks about the middle of July, and continues its depreda- 
 tions until the middle of September. It wounds the tender 
 part of the bark, and generally at the surface of the ground, 
 there depositing its eggs, which hatch into worms, that 
 prey upon the mucilage and tender part of the bark, until 
 the communication between the root and the branches is 
 cut off, causing the death of the tree. To guard against 
 this, raise a little hillock in the month of June, round the 
 
PEACll-TilEE. 
 
 235 
 
 tree, about a foot high, so as completely to cover that part 
 of the bark kept moist and tender at the surface of the 
 gr )und. This hillock will not stand so long at one height, 
 as to tender the bark above, as the rain will gradually wash 
 i!^ down level with the surface; and it must be raised again 
 every summer. 
 
 To take out the worm, the roots must be uncovered, 
 and the spot looked for where the gum oozes out, following 
 the cavity round with the point of a knife, till you come to 
 the solid wood, and lay the whole open : the worm will be 
 found with a white body and black head ; which must be 
 destroyed, and the holes carefully filled up with cow ma- 
 nure, rendered adhesive by sand, or lime and ashes, as di- 
 rected by Forsyth. 
 
 “ Soap-suds, heated after a family wash, and poured on 
 the roots of trees about the middle of August, have been 
 used with success in destroying the eggs or the young 
 worm. 
 
 ‘‘ ‘ According to Mr. John Ellis, of New Jersey, the in- 
 jury arising from the worm may be prevented in the follow- 
 ing way : 
 
 In the spring, when the blossoms are out, clear away 
 the dirt, so as to expose the root of the tree, to the depth of 
 three inches ; surround the tree with straw about three feet 
 long, applied lengthwise, so that it may have a covering 
 one inch thick, which extends to the bottom of the hole, 
 the but-ends of the straw resting on the ground at the 
 bottom ; bind this straw round the tree with three bands, 
 one near the top, one at the middle, and the third at the 
 surface of the earth ; then fill up the hole at the root with 
 earth, and press it closely round the straw. When the 
 white frosts appear, the straw should be removed, and the 
 tree remain uncovered, until the blossoms put out in the 
 spring. 
 
 “ ‘ By this process, the ily is prevented from depositing its 
 egg within three feet of the root ; and, although it may place 
 the egg above that distance, the worm travels so slow that 
 it cannot reach the ground before frost, and therefore is kill- 
 ed before it is able to injure the tree. 
 
 ‘ The truth of the principle is proved by the follow- 
 ing fact. I practised this method with a large number of 
 peach-trees, and thev flourished remarkably without any 
 appearance of the worm for several years, when I was in- 
 duced to discontinue the straw with about twenty of them. 
 All those which were without the straw have declined^ while 
 
236 
 
 PEACH-TREE* 
 
 the others^ which have had the straw, continue as vigorous as 
 erer.’* 
 
 “ To guard against frost, plant the trees where the water 
 will run off, and procure the sweetest and richest fruit, as 
 the inferior qualities are more injured hy the cold. 
 
 ‘‘ The splitting of the tree at the forks is guarded against 
 by preserving as many upright branches as can be spared, 
 by breaking off, in bearing years, more than half the quan- 
 tity of fruit while small, and by pruning almost the whole 
 of every branch beyond where the fruit is set, leaving only 
 a few buds on each of the succeeding year’s fruit. The 
 size of the fruit is by these means rendered larger, more 
 beautiful, and of a higher flavour, and the growth of the 
 tree is rendered more vigorous. 
 
 “ Mr. Thomas Coulter, of Bedford county, Penn., asserts 
 that ‘ The principal causes of peach-trees dying while 
 young are the planting, transplanting and pruning the same 
 stock ; which causes the stock to be open and tender, and 
 the bark of the tree very rough : this roughness of the bark 
 gives opportunities to insects to lodge and breed in it ; and 
 birds search after these insects for their support, and with 
 their sharp bills wound the stock in many places ; from 
 which wound the sap of the tree is drawn out, which con- 
 geals, and never fails to kill, or to render the tree useless in 
 a few years. To prevent which, transplant your peach- 
 trees, as young as possible, where you mean them to stand ; 
 if in the kernel, so much the better ; because, in that case, 
 there will be no check of growth, which always injures 
 peach-trees. Plant peach-trees sixteen feet apart, both 
 ways, except you would wish to take your wagon through 
 the orchard to carry the peaches away ; in that case give 
 twenty-four feet distance to every fifth row, one way, after 
 transplanting. You may plough and harrow amongst your 
 peaches for two years, paying no regard to wounding or 
 tearing them, so that you do not take them up by the roots. 
 In the month of March or April, in the third year after 
 transplanting, cut them all off by the ground ; plough and 
 harrow amongst them as before, taking special care not to 
 wound or tear them in the smallest degree, letting all the 
 sprouts grow, that wull grow ; cut none away, supposing six 
 or more should come up from the old stump ; the young 
 scions will grow up to bearing trees on account of the 
 
 * Dr. Thacher observes, that A band of matting’, extending' about six inch- 
 es above, and the • ame beneath the surface of the earth, may be found prolora- 
 bte to straw, as it is easier applied.'^ 
 
i>EACH-TREK. 
 
 237 
 
 roots being strong. Let no kind of beasts into a peach- 
 orchard, hogs excepted^ for fear of wounding the trees ; as 
 the least wound will greatly injure the tree, by draining 
 away that substance which is the life thereof: although the 
 tree may live many years, the produce is not so great ; nei- 
 ther is the fruit so good. After the old stock is cut away, 
 the third year after transplanting, the sprouts or scions will 
 grow up all round the old stump, from four to six in num- 
 ber ; no more will come to maturity than the old stump can 
 support and nourish ; the remainder will die before ever 
 they bear fruit. These may be cut away, taking care 
 not to wound any part of any stock, or the bark. The 
 sprouts growing all round the old stump, when loaded with 
 fruit, will bend, and rest on the ground in every direction, 
 without injuring any of them, for many years, all of them 
 being rooted in the ground as though they had been planted. 
 The stocks will remain tough, and the bark smooth, for 
 twenty years and upwards. If any of the sprouts or trees 
 from the old stump should happen to split off, or die, cut them 
 away ; they will be supplied from the ground by young 
 trees, so that you will have trees from the same stump for 
 one hundred years, as I believe. I now have trees, thirty- 
 six, twenty, ten, five, and down to one year old, all from the 
 same stump. The young trees, coming up, after any of the 
 old trees split off or die, and are cut away, will bear fruit 
 the second year : but this fruit will not ripen so easily as 
 the fruit on the old trees from the same stem. Three 
 years after the trees are cut off by the ground, they will be 
 sufficiently large and bushy to shade the ground, so as to 
 prevent grass of any kind from matting or binding the sur- 
 face so as to injure the trees ; therefore ploughing is use- 
 less, as well as injurious ; useless, because nothing can be 
 raised in the orchard, by reason the trees will shade all the 
 ground, or nearly so; injurious, because either the roots, 
 stock, or branches will be wounded ; neither is it necessary 
 ever to manure peach-trees, as manured trees will always 
 produce less and worse fruit than trees that are not ma- 
 nured ; although by manuring your peach-trees they will 
 grow larger, and look greener and thicker in the boughs, 
 and cause a thicker shade, yet on them will grow very little 
 fruit, and that little will be of a very bad kind — generally 
 looking as green as the leaves, even when ripe, and later 
 than those that have never been manured.” 
 
 * This assertion is directly contrary to the experience of a gentleman in New 
 Jersey, who has remarkably fine peaches, regularly manures his trees every 
 
238 
 
 PEACXl-THEE. 
 
 Professor Say, of Philadelphia, has given the following 
 scientific description of the peach-insect : — 
 
 “ jEgcria exitiosa, — Male. — Body, steel blue : aiitennccj 
 hairy on the inner side, black, with a tinge of blue : palpi 
 beneath, and basal band of the head above and beneath, 
 pale yellow : eges^ black brown : thorax, with two pale 
 yellow longitudinal lines, and a transverse one behind, in- 
 terrupted above ; a spot of the same colour beneath the ori- 
 gin of the wings ; wingSy hyaline, nervures and margin steel 
 blue, more dilated on the costal margin and anastomosing 
 band of the superior wings : feet coxcSy t\vo bands on the 
 tibia, including the spines : incisures of the posterior tarsi, 
 and anterior tarsi behind, pale yellow : abdomeiiy with two 
 very narrow, pale yellow bands, of w^hich one is near the 
 base, and the other in the middle ; tally fringed, the fringe 
 margined with white each side. — Length, to the tip of 
 the tail, more than three fourths of an inch. — Length, to the 
 tip of the wings, one tenth of an inch shorter. 
 
 Female. — Body, very dark steel blue, with a tinge of 
 purple : palpi beneath, black : thorax, immaculate : inferior 
 wingsy hyaline, with an opaque margin, and longitudinal 
 line ; the latter, and the costal margin, are dilated : terguniy 
 with the fifth segment bright fulvous. — Length, seven 
 tenths of an inch. 
 
 “ The PUPA has two semifacise of spines upon each of the 
 segments, excepting the three terminal ones, which have a 
 single row only. 
 
 “ The FOLLICLE is brown, oblong-oval, and is composed 
 of small pieces of bark and earth, closely connected together 
 by the web of the animal. 
 
 The very great disparity of markings between the sexes 
 of this destructive species, would lead us to hesitate in ad- 
 mitting their identity, if we were not aware that, in this 
 genus, the males and females, in several instances, differ 
 exceedingly from each other. In the present instance, this 
 difference is so great as to render it difficult to construct a 
 specific character which shall distinguish them from all 
 others of the genus. After a careful examination of ento- 
 mological works, I have not been able to find any notice 
 whatever of this species. I therefore describe it as new.” 
 — Journal of the Academy of Sciences, 
 
 year, and asserts that the speedy decay of common peach-trees is owing chiefly 
 to a neglect of the practice. He even said experience convinced him it weis» 
 owing to the same circumstance that peach-stones did not, in general, produce 
 fruit like the original tree. 
 
PEACH-TREE. 
 
 239 
 
 Dr. Thaddens W. Harris has written a paper on this in- 
 sect, which was published in the N, E, Farmer^ vol. v. 
 p. 33, and observes, that One of the first writers who de- 
 scribed the peach-tree insect was the late Dr. Benjamin 
 Smith Barton, the celebrated botanist, and professor of nat- 
 ural history in the univ ersity of Pennsylvania. In his me- 
 moirs on various destructive insects, which obtained the 
 Magellanic premium, in 1806, from the Philosophical So- 
 ciety of Philadelphia, this insect is called Zxjcjama Fersica,'^'* 
 Dr. Harris also observes, ‘‘he” (Dr. Barton) “having first 
 described this insect, the name which he has imposed has 
 the priority, and must be retained.” 
 
 “ This insect,” continues Dr. Harris, “ I first obtained in 
 the perfect state in July, 1823, and sent a description of it to 
 Hon. John Lowell. It is a remarkable coincidence, that the 
 name which I then gave it is the same as that given by Dr. 
 Barton, although I was then unacquainted with his account 
 of it. I also obtained a specimen of the male from an excres- 
 cence on the trunk of a cherry-tree,, and have frequently 
 observed the larvis in those tubercles which deform the 
 limbs of that tree. 
 
 “ The females deposit their eggs, in the month of August, 
 on the trunk of the peach-tree, near the root ; the eggs are 
 soon hatched, and the larvae immediately penetrate beneath 
 the bark. Some eggs are laid as late as the last of 
 September. 
 
 “ The precautions which I would recommend are, to re- 
 move the earth around the roots, carefully to search it and 
 the trees for any cocoons of larvae which may exist there, 
 which should be crushed or bumed^ This operation should 
 be commenced early in this month [August.] Then cover the 
 trunk with the common composition, or wash and surround 
 it with coarse paper, such as is used for sheathing, and 
 which is manufactured from junk, or old cordage. This is 
 to be properly secured by strings of Canton matting, and 
 should extend two or three inches below the surface of the 
 ground, and six or seven inches above it. Mortar may 
 now be placed round the roots, so as to confine the paper, 
 and prevent access beneath it, and the remaining cavity 
 filled with fresh loam. The strings may be removed after 
 the winter commences ; in the spring the tree should again 
 be searched for any of the larvae, which may have escaped 
 ^t first, and the application of the composition and loam be 
 renewed. 
 
 “ In getting out the eaterpillar, we should be sparing in 
 
240 
 
 PEACH-TREE. 
 
 the use of the knife ; a piece of wire will often answer the 
 purpose quite as well, and does not wound the bark.” 
 
 Mr. Wilson, of New York, in his Economy of the Kitchen 
 Garden^ &c., a valuable work, lately published, says, 
 “ Grafting-clay, applied to the bark of trees, does not injure 
 the circulation, and, if the stems of peach-trees were en- 
 veloped with a thin coat of it, I am persuaded no wcim. 
 could hurt them. If properly prepared and applied, it ad- 
 heres to the stem, or any other part of a tree, with great 
 tenacity, until expanded and broken by the frosts and thaws 
 of winter. It is made in the following manner : — Take 
 three parts of any kind of clay, free from stones, the stilfer 
 the better, one part of horse-dung, free from straws, and 
 one part of fresh, but not thin, cow^-dung; mix and incor- 
 porate the whole well together, adding a sufficient quantity 
 of water to render it of a consistency of good, stiff mortar ; 
 beat and work it thoroughly with the spade, till it becomes 
 as smooth and tough as putty. It will then be fit for ap- 
 plying round the stem of your tree, and should be neatly 
 clapped on it by the hands.” 
 
 The same writer attributes the degeneracy of peach-trees, 
 so far as it is real, to the cultivation of old sorts, and ob- 
 serves, that Budding or grafting from old trees, upon new 
 stocks, raised from seed, although it is the means of afford- 
 ing a fresh supply of vigorous nourishment to the scion of 
 the old sort, which is to form a new tree, is still only a new 
 mode of the continuation, of the same individual;” and 
 advises, in substance, either to bud or graft from new sorts, 
 on seedling stocks, or to raise young trees from seedlings, 
 produced from seeds of healthy, young, or middle-aged 
 trees, which are not of a w^orn-out variety. 
 
 Mr. Wilson, moreover, observes, “ Great mischief is fre- 
 quently done by cutting off the tops of peach-trees, when 
 they are first set out. If they are furnished with good 
 heads, as they always ought to be, before they are taken 
 from the nursery, no other pruning should be given them at 
 setting out, except the moderate retrenching of any ver}’^ 
 irregular shoots, and this should be done at the time the 
 buds begin to expand ; and the chief pruning they require 
 afterwards is, to keep their heads moderately open by cut- 
 ting out such branches as crowd upon or interfere with 
 each other.” 
 
 Mode of hearing , — “ All the varieties of the peach and 
 nectarine bear the fruit upon the young ^vood of a year old ; 
 the blossom buds rising immediately from the eyes of the 
 
PEAR-TREE. 
 
 241 
 
 shoots. The same shoot seldom bears after the first yeu*, 
 except on some casual, small spurs, on the two years’ wood, 
 which is not to be counted upon. Hence the trees are to 
 be pruned, as bearing entirely on the shoots of the preced- 
 ing year ; and a full supply of every year’s shoots must be 
 trained in for successional bearers. 
 
 Thinning the fruit , — “ In favourable seasons, the blos- 
 soms often set more fruit than they can support, or than 
 have room to attain full growth ; and if all were to remain, 
 it would hurt the trees in their future bearing ; therefore 
 they should be timely thinned, when of the size of large 
 peas, or half-grown gooseberries. There should be a pre- 
 paratory thinning at the time of stoning, and a final thin- 
 ning afterwards, because most plants, especially such as 
 have overborne themselves, drop many fruit at that crisis. 
 Finish the thinning with great regularity, leaving those re- 
 tained at proper distances, three, four, or five, on strong 
 shoots, two or three on middling, and one or two on the 
 weaker shoots ; and never leaving more than one peach at 
 the same eye. The fruit on weakly trees thin more in 
 proportion.” — Abercrombie, 
 
 Use . — The use of the peach, as a dessert-fruit of the first 
 order, is too well known to require observation. In seve- 
 ral of the Southern States, a sort of brandy is made from this 
 fruit. This liquor, however, though highly flavoured, is 
 said to be unwholesome. 
 
 The following mode of drying peaches has been 
 practised by Thomas Belangee, of Egg Harbour, Hew 
 Jersey : — 
 
 He has a small house, with a stove in it, and drawers in 
 the sides of the house, lathed at their bottoms. Each 
 drawer will hold nearly half a bushel of peaches, which 
 should be ripe, and not peeled, but cut in two, and laid on 
 the laths, with their skins downwards, so as to save the 
 juice. On shoving the drawer in, they are soon dried by 
 the hot air of the stove, and laid up. Peaches, thus dried, 
 eat like raisins. With a paring-machine, which may be 
 had for a dollar or two, apples or pears may be pared, and 
 a sufficient quantity dried, to keep a family in pies, and 
 apple-bread and milk, till apples come again. With a par- 
 ing machine, one person can pare for five or six cutters. 
 
 PEAR-TREE . — Pyrus communis . — The pear-tree is 
 found in a wild state in Europe as far north as latitude 51 ®. 
 It grows in almost any soil, and seems to be quite at home 
 
 New England. In a dry soil (according to Loudon) it 
 21 
 
242 
 
 PEAR-TREE. 
 
 will exist for centuries, and still keep in health, productive- 
 ness and vigour. 
 
 Propagation, — The pear may be propagated by layers or 
 suckers, but not easily by cuttings. These modes, however, 
 are productive of very indifferent plants, and are justly reject- 
 ed in favour of raising from seed, and grafting or budding. 
 
 From seed, — This mode is adopted either for the purpose 
 of obtaining new varieties, or for producing pear-stocks. 
 The manner of procuring seedlings is the same as directed 
 for the apple-tree, page 17. Professor Van Mons, pro- 
 prietor of the Pepiniere de la Fidelite^ at Brussels, has up 
 wards of eight hundred approved sorts of new pears, raised 
 from seed by himself, and M. Duquesne, of Mons, in the 
 course of fifteen or sixteen years, and selected from prob- 
 ably eight thousand new seedling fruits. Van Mons ob- 
 served to Neill, that he seldom failed in procuring 
 valuable apples from the seed ; for those which were not 
 adapted to the garden as dessert-fruit, were probably suited 
 for the orchard, and fit for baking, or cider making. With 
 pears the case was different, many proving so bad as to be 
 unfit for any purpose. — Horticul, Jour,^ &c. 309. When- 
 ever a seedling indicates, by the blunt shape, thickness, 
 and woolliness of its leaves, or by the softness of its bark 
 and fulness of its buds, the promise of future good qual- 
 ities as a fruit-bearing tree, Van Mons takes a graft from 
 it, and places it on a well established stock : the value of 
 its fruit is thus much sooner ascertained. — Horticul, Jour,^ 
 &c. 3i0. At Brussels, seedlings yield fruit in four or five 
 years; in Britain, seldom before seven or ten years have 
 elapsed. The fruit of the first year of bearing is always 
 inferior to that of the second and third years. If a pear or 
 an apple possess a white and heavy pulp, with juice of 
 rather pungent acidity, it may be expected in the second, 
 third, and subsequent years, greatly to improve in size and 
 flavour. Nev/ varieties of pears, and indeed of all fruits, 
 are more likely to be obtained from the seeds of new than of 
 old soits. — Horticul, Jour,^ &c. 308, 309. 
 
 As the varieties of the pear do not reproduce them- 
 selves from the seed ; as the plants furnished by layers, cut- 
 tings, and suckers, are very indifferent ; and as seedlings are 
 slow in giving their fruit; it follows, that the pear is prin- 
 cipally propagated by scions and buds. These are placed 
 on pear or quince stocks, according as taste or interest may 
 invite to early and small crops of fine quality, or to later 
 and more abundant ones of inferior character. In the for- 
 
PEAU-TUEE. 
 
 243 
 
 mer case, the stem of the quince must be employed ; and 
 in the latter, that of the common pear, and without any 
 material difference in the operation, excepting that ‘ the 
 feebler the stem, the nearer to the earth should be placed 
 the scion or the bud.’ 
 
 Notwithstanding the hardiness ascribed to the pear- 
 tree, we know not any of the kernel class more readily or 
 sensibly affected than it by particular conditions of the at- 
 mosphere. A moist and cold spring, a wet summer, and 
 a rainy autumn, are alike unpropitious to it. In either of 
 these cases, the fruit which does not rot is watery and 
 tasteless ; and when all take place, the evil extends to even 
 a second year ; as, according to the observations of Cour- 
 sette, ‘ long continued moisture rarely fails to convert fruit 
 buds into wood buds.’ 
 
 ‘‘ The second year after budding or grafting, the plants 
 may be removed to the places where it is intended they 
 shall stand ; and as the manner and time of doing this do 
 not differ from those prescribed for the apple-tree, we may 
 spare ourselves and our readers the trouble of a repetition 
 of our directions on those heads. 
 
 With respect to exposition and soil, though the pear- 
 tree may be made to grow any where, still it will succeed 
 badly on the north sides of hills, or in stiff, dry soils, and still 
 worse on those which rest on a wet sub-soil. Some of its 
 later and finer varieties require and deserve a deep substan- 
 tial loam, occasionally refreshed with a dressing of well rotted 
 dung, and some of the best aspects the garden can furnish. 
 
 Cultivated as standards and pyramids, the young trees 
 should be left, in a great degree, to regulate their own 
 shape,* and if interference become proper at all, it should 
 be conducted — ‘to keep the middle of the head pretty 
 open, and the sides well balanced.’! Trees of other forms, 
 and intended for walls and espaliers, require more labour 
 and management, and a degree of both summer and winter 
 pruning : the former of which consists in rubbing off all 
 fore-right, ill placed, superfluous, or spongy shoots, before 
 they become so hard as to render the use of the knife 
 necessary ; while the latter (performed during any tem- 
 perate weather between November and April) is con- 
 
 * Knight remarks, that, in genera], very little pruning is required for pear- 
 standards or pyramids ; but that there are sorts which form heads resembling 
 those of apple-trees, and that for these pruning may be beneficial. 
 
 t To produce a well balanced tree, shorten the wood of tlie deficient side, 
 and leave the other to itself. 
 
244 
 
 PEAK-TREE, 
 
 ducted on the general rule ‘ of sparing all such well 
 placed and thriving laterals, as may be necessary for pre- 
 serving the form given to the head of the tree, and of cut- 
 ting away all others close to the branch from which they 
 grow.’ If the older wood be diseased or redundant, cut 
 this away also, or shorten it down to some healthy and 
 promising shoots. The retained branches, if growing 
 against a wall or trellis, should, after each pruning, be laid 
 down and nailed, with as much extension as can conve- 
 niently be given to them. 
 
 “Mr. Knight’s mode of training the pear-tree is, to 
 leave on the young stock two lateral branches on each side. 
 When about six feet high, he transplants the tree early in 
 the spring, and inserts grafts on each side of the laterals, 
 so that two of them shall push from the stem about four 
 feet from the ground, and two others from the summit, the 
 ensuing year. The shoots produced by these grafts, when 
 about a foot long, are to be trained downward — the lower 
 ones almost p^q^ :ndicularly, and the upper ones just below a 
 horizontal line ; and so placed, as to distance, that the leaves 
 of the one will not at all shade the other. Continue this 
 mode of training the second year, and in the third you may 
 expect an abundant crop of fruit. 
 
 “ When an old tree becomes unproductive, one of two 
 methods should be adopted — either to cut down within 
 eighteen inches or two feet from the ground, and train up 
 anew some selected shoots which may have pushed from 
 the stump, (which is the method of Forsyth,) or, to 
 take off at its base every branch which does not want at 
 least twenty degrees of being perpendicular, and all spurs 
 from such other branches as by this rule will be left. Into 
 these, (the retained branches,) at their subdivisions, and at 
 different distances from their bases, quite to their extremi- 
 ties, grafts must be carefully inserted ; which, when they at- 
 tain sufficient length, (say twelve inches,) must be trained 
 downward between the branches, as directed in the pre- 
 ceding paragraph.” — Armstrong, 
 
 The diseases of the pear-tree, and the insects which 
 infest it, are in general the same with those to which ap- 
 ple-trees are liable. Soft soap is said to be an excellent 
 application to the stem and limbs, preventing the decline 
 of the tree, and causing the bark to become smooth and 
 glossy. A solution of potash, as recommended for the apple- 
 tree, (page 222,) would no doubt prove equally useful to this 
 tree. Pear-trees have of late years been subject to a malady, 
 
PEAR-TREE. 
 
 245 
 
 by some supposed to be fire-blight, but by others attributed 
 to an insect called Scolytus pyri. During the months of June 
 and July, the extreme branches turn black, as if scorched. 
 The disorder extends downwards to the larger limbs, and 
 continues to increase, till, in some instances, the tree is en- 
 tirely destroyed. It is sometimes so rapid in its progress, 
 that, in a few hours from its first appearance, the whole tree 
 will appear to be mortally diseased, and all its foliage withered 
 or withering. A writer in the New England Farmer^ vol. 
 ii. p. 42, says, that, on the first appearance, of this disease, 
 ‘‘ I instantly sawed off all the limbs affected, and proceeded 
 to examine them. I found at last the enemy, not at the 
 point where death ensued, but some inches below it. The 
 insect was very small, and apparently incapable of such ex- 
 tensive mischief, but the effect was certain, and the manner 
 of producing that effect was obvious. It had eaten a com- 
 plete circle of the alburnum, or sap wood, not exceeding the 
 size of a knitting needle, so as completely to intercept the 
 passage of the sap.” This insect the writer exhibited to 
 Professor Peck, whence arose his account of it, first pub- 
 lished in the Mass. Agr. Repos. and republished, together 
 with a cut of the insect, in the N. E. Fanner^ vol. v. p. 
 2. The late Professor Peck observed, that the mischievous 
 effects of this minute insect may be observed in June and 
 July, and that the dead part of the branches should be cut 
 off, and burnt without delay. The writer above referred 
 to says, that, by steadily pursuing the system of cutting off 
 the limbs many inches below the apparent injury, and burn- 
 ing them, the insects have been extirpated from his estate. 
 
 Some writers attribute the sudden decay of the pear- 
 tree to the overpowering rays of the sun. Others say that 
 a warm winter sets the sap in motion, which a cold spring 
 arrests, and causes it to stagnate and become corrupt in the 
 pores of the alburnum. Others are of opinion that manur- 
 ing too high, and pruning too much, causes the tree to die 
 of a plethora or surfeit. The remedy, however, is not a 
 subject of so much dispute. In all cases of blight, the 
 only cure or palliation of the disorder is found in sawing off 
 the affected branches, some inches below where the blight 
 appears. 
 
 Use. — “ As a dessert fruit the pear is much esteemed, 
 and generally preferred to the apple. It is also used for 
 baking, compotes., marmalade, &c. Pared and dried in the 
 oven, the fruit will keep several years, either with or with- 
 out sugar. This mode of preparing the pear is about as 
 21 • 
 
246 
 
 PEPPER, RED. PLUM-TREE. 
 
 common in France, as the making of apple-pies is in Britain, 
 and what is favourable to the practice is, that bad eating 
 sorts answer best for drying. The wood of the pear-tree is 
 light, smooth, and compact, and is used by turners, and to 
 make joiners’ tools, picture-frames to be dyed black, &c. 
 The leaves will produce a yellow dye, and may be used to 
 give a green to blue cloth.” — Loudon. 
 
 PEPPER, RED. — Capsicum . — This plant requires a 
 warm, rich soil, and a favourable exposition. The seeds 
 may be placed in rows, three feet apart, or in hills, at that 
 distance from each other. In dry weather they will need 
 watering, and should be kept clear of weeds by frequent 
 hoeing. The seeds are best preserved by running a string 
 through the pods, and hanging them in a dry place. 
 
 Use . — ‘‘ Pepper is an excellent spice, which should 
 always be coarsely ground, and eaten only with fat, smoked, 
 or tough animal food ; with cabbages, cucumbers, and other 
 flatulent and cold vegetables ; and likewise with fish, and 
 all substances that are difficult to be digested. On the 
 continent of Europe, this spice is highly esteemed for its 
 efficacy in relieving flatulency, weak, or impaired digestion, 
 and the giddiness which generally accompanies the com- 
 plaint last mentioned. For this purpose, from six to ten 
 grains are directed to be swallowed every morning, previ- 
 ously to taking food ; such practice, however, ought to be 
 adopted only in cases where the stomach is in a high de- 
 gree vitiated, or the patient has been habituated to the free 
 use of spices and spirituous liquors.” — Dom. Encyc. 
 
 PLUM-TREE . — Primus domestica . — This tree is found 
 growing wild in Great Britain arid other parts of Europe ; 
 but its native country is supposed, by European writers, to 
 be Syria, in Asia. It is also indigenous in North America, 
 and a wild kind, found in the woods of Vermont, grows 
 large and fair, but its fruit contains little saccharine matter. 
 No doubt it might be improved by culture, and may fur- 
 nish stocks for grafting. Some of the most approved varie- 
 ties are enumerated under the head Fruit, p. 136. 
 
 Soil and cidtivation. — Plums, according to Miller, should 
 have a middling soil, neither too wet and heavy, nor over 
 light and dry. Armstrong recommends argillaceous soils, 
 not very wet nor very dry. Where, from previous cul- 
 ture, or accidental causes, the earth becomes either very 
 rich or very poor, the tree does not succeed. In the one 
 case, its vigour is directed only to the production of wood 
 and foliage ; and in the other, its growth is feeble, and its 
 
PLUM-TREE. 
 
 247 
 
 life short. In favourable climates, it should alw^ays be cul- 
 tivated as a standard, and will then require only a little an- 
 nual labour about the roots, and the removal from the head 
 of dead or dying branches ; but, in northern latitudes, 
 and cold situations, the espalier form, (as practised near 
 Paris,) may be not only useful, but indispensable. This 
 differs in nothing from the ordinary mode, but in pruning 
 less severely. The cultivators at Montreuil, instead of 
 shortening the branches to three or four eyes, leave them 
 fifteen or twenty feet long, and lay them down in such a 
 way as shall soonest and most completely enable them to 
 cover the frame to which they are attached. 
 
 “ With regard to product, ‘few and^we’ is the general 
 maxim. The thinning discipline must not, therefore, be 
 omitted ; because it is that which will best fulfil both parts 
 of the rule.” 
 
 Diseases . — The gum and canker are the diseases most 
 common to plum-trees, for which, heading down is pre- 
 scribed as the best remedy. Plum-trees are also annoyed 
 by an insect, described, by Professor Peck, in the Mass. 
 Agr. Repository for 1819, and by him denominated Ryn- 
 chcenus cerasi. The insect causes tumors, or irregular, 
 black lumps, which deform the bark, and occasion the pre- 
 mature fall, not only of plums, but peaches and apricots. 
 “ The evil,” according to Professor Peck, “ produced by this 
 insect, cannot be wholly remedied ; but something may be 
 done to diminish the mischief, by cutting off the diseased 
 branches.” They should, according to his directions, be 
 cut off the last half of June, and burnt immediately. 
 
 Mr. R. Toohey, gardener, of Waltham, Mass., recom- 
 mends the following composition for destroying insects, 
 which infest plum-trees : — 
 
 “ Take of tobacco-juice one gallon ; this may be had of 
 the tobacconists, or you may make it, by putting some to- 
 bacco in warm water, (not boiling, as that will take off a 
 great part of the oil;) oil of tar, one quart; train oil, one 
 quart ; soft soap, one and a half pound ; and a quarter of a 
 pound of soot. Beat the oils together first, and then the 
 soap and soot, till well united ; then pour them all into the 
 tobacco-juice, stirring them gently together. When the 
 liquid is cold, it is fit for use. It should be applied with a 
 common paint-brush, in the latter end of March, or first ot 
 April. 
 
 “ Previous to applying the mixture, I should recommena 
 pruning, and, when the trees are very much affected with 
 
248 
 
 POTATO. 
 
 the above-mentioned disease, heading down at a, ft, c, e, 
 or /, according to the size of the trees ; if any of the ulcers 
 should remain after pruning or heading down, they must be 
 entirely removed from the tree, and then apply the compo- 
 sition.” — N. E, Farmer^ vol. vi. p. 274. 
 
 POTATO. — Sir Joseph Banks (Hart, Trans, i. 8) consid- 
 ers that the potato was first brought to Spain from the moun- 
 tainous parts of South America, in the neighbourhood of 
 Quito. To England, however, this root found its way by 
 a different route, being brought from Virginia by the colo- 
 nists sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1586. 
 
 Varieties. — These are very numerous, not only from the 
 facility of procuring new sorts by raising them from seed, 
 but because any variety cultivated for a few years, in the 
 same soil and situation, as in the same garden or farm, ac- 
 quires a peculiarity of character and habit, which distin- 
 guishes it from the same variety in a different soil and situ- 
 ation. Dr. Hunter, in his Georgical Essay Sj has supposed 
 the duration of a variety is limited to fourteen years ; and 
 Knight concurs with him in opinion. Potatoes, which are 
 excellent in Ireland, Nova Scotia, and other high northern 
 latitudes, do not answer a good purpose in New England. 
 The potato taken from the south prospers better, such as the 
 River Plate, or long red potato, which has succeeded well in 
 Massachusetts. Loudon asserts, that the best mode to or- 
 der potatoes for seed is, to give a general description of 
 the size, colour, form, and quality wanted, and whether for 
 an early or late crop, without being guided by the names 
 attached to any varieties. 
 
 Propagation. — The potato may be propagated from seed, 
 cuttings, or layers of the green shoots, sprouts from the eyes 
 of the tubers, [roots,] or portions of the tubers containing a 
 bud or eye, or by planting the tubers whole. The object 
 of the first method is to procure a new or improved varie- 
 ty ; of the second, little more than curiosity, or to multiply, 
 as quickly as possible, a rare sort ; and of the third, to save 
 the tubers for food. The methods, by portions of the 
 tubers, [the roots cut in pieces,] or whole potatoes, are the 
 best, and almost universally practised, for the general pur- 
 poses both of field and garden culture. 
 
 By seed.r^^^^ Take the apples, in the beginning of Octo- 
 ber, [or whenever they are ripe,] before the frost has hurt 
 them I hang them up by the foot stalks, in a dry closet, 
 where they will not freeze ; let them hang till March, or 
 Aprji ^ then mash the apples, wash the seeds from the pulp. 
 
POTATO. 
 
 249 
 
 and dry them in a sunny window. Sow the seeds in a 
 bed about the first of May. When the plants are four or 
 five inches high, transplant them into ground well pre- 
 pared, one or two plants in a hill.” — Deane. Seeds from 
 the same ball will produce a great variety of kinds, some 
 of which may be of little value ; and in order to make the 
 most of such experiments, it will be well to proceed accord- 
 ing to the following directions, extracted from some re- 
 marks by Col. Pickering, contained in a pamphlet published 
 by the Essex Agricultural Society, Mass. ; this society having 
 awarded premiums for the best potatoes raised from the 
 seed. 
 
 1. Seeing the seeds in the same ball will produce vari- 
 ous sorts of potatoes, it will be indispensably necessary, 
 that each young plant grows at the distance of eight or ten 
 inches apart. 
 
 2. In autumn, or as soon as the vines or stems of the 
 plants die, and the young potatoes are dug up, those of 
 each plant are to be saved by themselves, and it will be 
 easy to put each sort in a separate paper bag. Those pota- 
 toes will be very small, perhaps from the size of a pigeon’s 
 down to a sparrow’s egg. 
 
 3. ‘‘ In the ensuing spring, the potatoes of each sort, that 
 is, the potatoes of each bag, must be planted by themselves ; 
 and, if not in distinct rows, then stakes, driven into the 
 ground, should mark the divisions of the several sorts in 
 the same rows, leaving a space of about two feet between 
 one sort and another, to guard against any mixture. 
 
 4. In the time for harvesting them in the second year, 
 the potatoes [if grown in a good soil] will be large enough 
 to be boiled, to ascertain their quality. Each sort must be 
 tried by itself. Such as are watery, and ill flavoured, may 
 be at once thrown aside, for the use of live stock. Every 
 other sort, so valuable as to be thought worth cultivating, 
 must be kept unmixed, by putting each kind in a separate 
 bag or cask.” — N, E. Farmer^ vol. vi. p. 286. 
 
 The modes of propagating by layers, cuttings of the vines, 
 suckers, sprouts, &c., are rather curious than useful, and are 
 therefore here omitted, but may be seen in detail in the 
 Encyc. of Gard. p. 620. 
 
 By portions of the tubers^ [or cuttings of the roots.] — In 
 making the sets or sections, reject the extreme or watery 
 end of the tuber, as apt to run too much to haulm, [vine,] 
 and having the eyes small, and in a cluster ; reject also the 
 root, or dry end, as more likely to be tardy in growth, and 
 
250 
 
 POTATO. 
 
 produce the curl. Then divide the middle of the potato, 
 so as to have not more than one good eye in each set. 
 When the potato-scoop [an instrument for digging out the 
 eyes of potatoes] is used, take care to apply it so as the eye 
 or bud may be in the centre of each set, which this instru- 
 ment produces, of a semi-globular form. The larger the 
 portion of tuber left to each eye, so much the greater will 
 be the progress of the young plants.” — Loudon. 
 
 By some experiments which were made by J. Whitlaw, 
 Esq., and given in detail in the N. E. Farmer^ vol. i. p. 53, 
 and vol. iv. p. 314, these two important facts were made 
 apparent : 1st. Large potatoes are much better for seed than 
 small ones. 2d. It is best to cut off the but and top-ends 
 from each potato, and cut the middle pieces into quarters, 
 before planting. Knight, the famous English horticulturist, 
 has found, that, for a late crop, small sets [seed potatoes] 
 may be used ; because the plants of the late varieties al- 
 ways acquire considerable age before they begin to gene- 
 rate tubers ; but for an early crop, he recommends the 
 largest tubers ; and he has found, that these not only afford 
 very strong plants, but also such as readily recover when 
 injured by frost ; for, being fed by a copious reservoir be- 
 neath the soil, a re-production of vigorous stems and foliage 
 soon takes place, when those first produced are destroyed 
 by frost or other cause. He adds, When the planter is 
 anxious to obtain a crop within the least possible time, he 
 will find the position, in which the tubers are placed to 
 vegetate, by no means a point of indifference ; for these, 
 being shoots or branches which have grown thick instead 
 of elongating, retain the disposition of branches to propel 
 the sap to their leading buds, or points most distant from 
 the stems of the plants of which they once formed parts. 
 If the tubers be placed with their leading buds upwards, a 
 few very strong and very early shoots will spring from 
 them ; but if their position be reversed, many weaker and 
 later shoots will be produced ; and not only the earliness, 
 but the quality of the produce, in size, will be much af- 
 fected.” — Horl. Trans, iv. p. 448. 
 
 McMahon advises to cut seed potatoes “ a week before 
 planting, in order that the wounds should have time to 
 form a dry crust; for, if planted immediately after being cut, 
 they imbibe too much moisture, many of them rot, and the 
 rest are greatly weakened thereby.” Some advise to wet 
 seed potatoes, and roll them in pulverized plaster of Paris, 
 immediately before planting. 
 
POTATO. 
 
 251 
 
 From an experiment made by a person in the employ of 
 the Hon. Josiah Quincy, the particulars of which are given in 
 J/a55. Agr, Repos, vol. v. p. G4, it appears that the product 
 of certain rows, planted with whole potatoes, exceeded an 
 equal extent of adjoining rows more than one third. A 
 writer for the N. E. Farmer^ vol. i. p. 330, gives an experi- 
 ment, which tends to the conclusion that potatoes planted 
 whole produce more than those which are cut. The ex- 
 periments of most cultivators, however, are in favour of cut- 
 ting. Dr. Cooper, in the last Philadelphia edition of Wil~ 
 lich^s Domestic Encyclopedia^ says, The best mode [with 
 regard to seed potatoes] appears to be this : — choose your 
 potatoes for planting of a moderate size, rather large than 
 small, for there is no good reason to be assigned for breed- 
 ing from diminutive parents ; cut your potatoes into sets, 
 two eyes to a set ; throw away, without hesitation, into the 
 hog-trough, all the inferior and diminutive eyes, choosing 
 your sets from the middle of the potato ; do not cut the po- 
 tato down the middle.” Loudon observes, In preparing 
 the sets of potatoes, some cultivators recommend large sets, 
 others, small potatoes entire. Others, on the ground of 
 experience, are equally strenuous in support of small cut- 
 tings, sprouts, shoots, or even only the eyes or buds. With 
 all these different sorts of sets, good crops are stated to 
 have been raised, though tolerable-sized cuttings of pretty 
 large potatoes, with two or three good eyes or buds in each, 
 are probably to be preferred. A very slight exercise of 
 common sense might have saved the advocates of shoots, 
 scooped-out eyes, &c., their experiments and arguments, it 
 being evident, as Brown has observed, to ev^ery one that 
 has any practical knowledge of the nature of vegetables, 
 that the strength of the stem in the outset depends, in di- 
 rect proportion, upon the vigour and power of the set. 
 The set, therefore, ought to be large, rarely smaller than 
 the fourth part of the potato ; and, if the root is of small 
 size, one half of the potato may be profitably used. At all 
 events, rather err in giving over-large sets, than in making 
 them too small ; because, by the first error, no great loss 
 can be sustained ; whereas, by the other, a feeble and late 
 crop may be the consequence.” Deane says, The shoot- 
 ing parts exist, in a potato, in the form of a tree, of which 
 the stock is at the but or root-end. I therefore take care 
 to cut athwart those parts as little as possible : though they 
 will grow any way, the greater length of shooting stem 
 
352 
 
 POTATO. 
 
 there is in a set, the more strong and vigorous will be its 
 growth at first.” 
 
 Quantity of sets. — Abercrombie directs, for a plot of the 
 early and secondary crops^ eight feet wide by sixteen in 
 length, planted in rows, fifteen inches asunder by nine 
 inches in the row, a quarter of a peck of roots or cuttings. 
 For fulUtimed and main crops^ a compartment, twelve feet 
 wide by thirty-two in length, planted in rows, two feet dis- 
 tant, half a peck. For field cultivation^ English writers say 
 that it requires twenty bushels and a half to plant an acre 
 with cut potatoes ; and thirty-seven bushels and a quarter 
 of whole potatoes. 
 
 Soil. — “ The soil,” says Loudon, in w^hich the potato 
 thrives best, is a light loam, neither too dry nor too moist, 
 but if rich, so much the better. — They may, however, be 
 grown well on many other sorts of land, especially those of 
 the mossy, moory, and other similar kinds, where they are 
 free from stagnant moisture. The best flavoured potatoes 
 are almost always produced from a newly broken-up pas- 
 ture-ground, not manured ; or from any new soil, as the 
 site of a grubbed-up copse or hedge, or the site of old 
 buildings or roads. The best cliniate for the potato is one 
 rather moist than dry, and temperate or cool rather than 
 hot. Hence the excellence of the Irish potatoes, which 
 grow in a dry, loamy, calcareous soil, and moist and tem- 
 perate climate ; and hence, also, the inferiority of the pota- 
 toes of France, Spain, Italy, and even Germany. In short, 
 the potato is grown no where in the world to the same de- 
 gree of perfection as in Ireland and Lancashire, and not 
 even in the south of England, so well as in Scotland and 
 the north and western counties; all which is, in our opin- 
 ion, clearly attributable to the climate.” 
 
 Although a light loam is a proper soil for the potato in a 
 cool and moist climate, a strong and heavy loam is most suit- 
 able for the same root in a dry and hot climate. In a paper 
 read before the New York Horticultural Society, in 1823, by 
 Wm. Wilson, an experienced horticulturist, are the following 
 remarks on this subject : — “ Those soils which prove the very 
 bane of the potato here [in the United States] are just such 
 as prove the most congenial for them in Britain. And so, 
 on the contrary, the best soils, by far, for producing the 
 driest and best flavoured potatoes here, and altogether the 
 most abundant crops, are those of a strong, heavy loam.” 
 These assertions are corroborated by a number of experL 
 
POTATO. 
 
 253 
 
 ments, mentioned in the paper from which they are ex- 
 tracted. Mr. Buel, of Albany, likewise asserts, that the 
 best potatoes are grown upon cold, moist, but porous and 
 rich soils .” — Anu Farmer^ vol. ix. p. 409. 
 
 Methods of planting . — These are various. If the land is 
 rough, hard, or stony, the common mode of planting in 
 hills is, perhaps, the most expedient But, if it be some- 
 what mellow, drills are to be preferred. Dr. Cooper says, 
 
 If your soil is stiff and wet, plough it in ridges ; if sandy 
 and dry, plough it flat Plough it deep. Plant your sets 
 in drills marked out by the plough or the hoe. The plants 
 should be dibbled in, six inches deep, on long dung, scat- 
 tered not sparingly along the drills, then covered with 
 about four inches of mould. 
 
 The drills should be in threes one foot apart ; 
 
 the plants should be eight inches apart, with an interval, on 
 each side of each set of three drills, of two feet, which will 
 admit of horse-hoeing between the sets of drills, and of 
 hand-weeding between each drill. 
 
 
 (M 
 
 
 
 
 - ' 
 
 
 
 To have a good crop, you must not spare dung, or spare 
 labour in weeding. Some persons prefer sets of four o/ 
 five drills, instead of three ; or, where horse-hoeing is no{ 
 convenient, the intervals may be reduced to one foot be- 
 tween each set of drills, for the convenience of hand-weed- 
 ing ; but, upon the whole, the method here first proposed is 
 as good as any. Forty loads of dung per acre will pay bet- 
 ter than a less quantity. 
 
 If small potatoes are wanted for feeding, the sets maybe 
 at six inches apart, and the rows at nine inches ; but the 
 method first here proposed admits, what is essential, accu- 
 rate weeding, and sufficient air to circulate between the 
 plants.” 
 
 Deane says, the sets may be either in single rows, three 
 feet, or double, one foot apart, and from seven to nine inches 
 asunder in the rows. 
 
 An expeditious way of planting potatoes is as follows 
 After the ground is prepared, by ploughing and harrowing^ 
 cut furrows, with the horse-plough, forty inches apart; drop 
 the sets in the furrows ; then pass the plough along the 
 back of each furrow, which will throw the earth of both 
 furrows upon the sets ; and afterwards level the ground 
 22 
 
2^4' POTATO. 
 
 mthiheibftick' or with *a^ harrow that ha»* 
 shbrt tiricfs ; but it i« of nb great consequence whothet it be 
 levelled at «ill: * Another tnethod of planting is-, to plpngh- 
 the ground plain, keeping the furrows straight arid regular, » 
 arid drbp Set^ in ever)r third or fourth furrow. But, before 
 this is doiie, the^^ound should be ploughed and made level 
 anid fine S?\^ith the-harrbWi’’ » * • - j : .0^ 
 
 A wrher for the Ni E. Fctmety vol; ii. * ps 33 1 y gives the 
 foilowiiig as easy* and cheap method ‘of raismg potatoes : 
 
 On an* eyeri abd snmoth ‘piece of mowing, or pasture- laridj 
 iUakhide^p, single furrows'^- with a plough, at three- feet dis-' 
 tince. ’Fill >thcfee'furro#s wi& any other] StraWy 
 
 aild dibp* your pofritoes^-six or eight ineheS apartj oiT the 
 straw. Then, with a hoe, cover the potatoes by turning 
 ddwn'the ploughell furrows upon- them.* - ^ They will require 
 no ihore httentidri till they are grown. NO i h^ing wifi bO 
 ifeees^ty. .The sanie larid^ may be improved as a*pasture 
 ftt iheep, ^ those * animals will -not eat, nor materially -in^ 
 
 jure, the tops of the potatOesi^^' * . . 4 ..i i 
 
 The after-culture of potafoes;consists in harrowing, hoe- 
 ing, weeding, and earthing up. All potatoes require to be 
 earthed up ; that is, to have at least one inch in depth of 
 earth heaped on their roots, and extending six or eight 
 inehes* round* their stem. The reason^ is, that the tubers do 
 no ty-prbperly 'speaking^ grow under the soily but rather iow, oi 
 just partially^ bedded in its surface; Potatoes should, gena« 
 rally, be hoed three times,*' though' twice will do in ground 
 ifot infested With weeds. The last hoeing should be hn-f 
 febed- before the plants arie in- blossom ; otherwise the plants 
 will beiapt to form a second sOt Of roots, which will not 
 have time to come to maturity, but will rob those first 
 fotmed of their nourishment. If weeds are prevalent, they 
 should be cut up or pulled out, but the plants should not be 
 earthed up in that stage of their growths Plaster of Paris, 
 well pulverized, and applied to the leaves, has a beneficial 
 effect on potatoes, j. , i j 
 
 Pinching off the blossoms.— It . is now generally admitted, 
 that a* certain* advantage, in point of produce, is obtained by 
 pinching off* the blossoms as they appear on the plants. : The 
 fact has »been repeatedly proved, and satisfactorily accounted 
 fer,*by Enight, who^ imagines that jit will add an ounce iiri 
 weight to ithe tubers of e^h plant, or considerably above a 
 tcrii per acre. > 
 
 Gathermg ^It is believed that cultivators are apt 
 
 to err by gathering their potatoes too early. ^The roots 
 
potAT6. 
 
 tb'^i‘6w ferger aiid betfci^ differ lhb*‘tbp^ 
 iained their Tall Wtlj. The* Hbti: O'.’ T^iskey df W 
 ter, in an address td' 'the Wbree'ster* A^HbdltUrAl’SbMety, 
 j^ays, ‘‘ 'Niitufe ha:^ not’ its' In^tutatibh^^at*' the 
 
 period when rite’ vides ftirttief'belleve^'lt 
 
 be ripel ^ It seeniS' ptabable that the 'eai-th* by sblti^ ‘\m- 
 kiidwri process j j|)erfeets its 'qUalitiefe after^ti/a^ attained 
 grd\Vdi. 'ttl dt potateefe,' whitH have ' ifeniailled tWe Whoie 
 Iseasoli iii ' the dat’th aVe m6re ftitih aeeoaa,* ' ha!^ ’ been- ’ hfcet- 
 taiiieh. , it fhay fee* i^ated/ as a* gettferal: ’ttiie,' ’ thW potatfofes 
 ‘‘4u^e<id b’est wheh’plabte^ ektiy a^tiH dug' fatd.” JBiit 5t'1s 
 ihost advisable* to' hatve^t ^theW '"befotd • the * "<^eut^dee^ df 
 • those ’soakifeg talttg, ‘\\diich’ generally ^fdeede'lhe Vbtthtg'fli 
 b'^ wiflieri ' ^ *♦ iu\ 
 
 A mode of taking part of a crop is mentt6ti‘ed"*-i^^^flav- 
 4i'ng' dsefer^aindd‘*thal' -^bttie' 6f tbe ^ihbfets' have’ littaitf^d an 
 
 eatalile size," * ge klung^ the TOW’S j* atid ido^eti thb’ 'eaith*ubb^t 
 each’ plattt ynth ‘ a blunt '^tick, taking - tWb UP *’<hree ^df ‘the 
 Jkrgkst tubeta’ frobi ' each, ahd tetutirfug the earth^ caifeftillj^)” 
 ^ Thd hibst e!s:petittieuS Wa^ df gath^ing' pdtatb ' etfefp 'is, 
 'first f6‘VUh‘furrdWk''oti’eaCh side of the’ 'roWii arid 
 deep orie ln thb tniddle/' w turns ' up feaeyt o^ ’the* touts 
 to' the sutikce, fot’ the jHirpbse* df pld^ing' uphy 
 this wayj hdweyer, we'shohl^ some wa,yte^*^khd 
 
 should udt kdviSe i^, except Where' potaidei’at^ plenty,^ 'atid 
 labour scared. A hoe with pF6ngs;‘ such ‘is Is soM‘dt* R. 
 Newell’s Agricultural" Estabiishhient, No; 5^ NoHh Matket 
 street, Boston, ’is^ p'fobahl^, the Best iuiblement'iy? gather- 
 ing potatoes.''''' t v..li 
 
 SecurihQ^ tM drx^p,-^yLf: Buhl;*^6f Albany^ says,'^^T 
 ire manyerrondOUS ndtidns,^‘iri tdgatd td^therctytttfe ^d 
 treatnient of thfe potato, which' evety Hass* iff society* hkte 
 "an intetestiu ekploihig', ^ the root hiS beddme a rieceska- 
 ty food for ev’ery fimil}^ ’^' Tbesh 'etrors'edte id supposing 
 ist.‘ That potatoes' shouM be’ gf(^ dry,‘'warnl Sd9. 
 2d. That’thW should be ’ dried iff the'^nj ‘dr 'Hvafehd^,'^o 
 rbnder them plea the eye: i %d; T?hat'tHey should’ve 
 
 kept warm an’d dry during winter, To St tHern'Tor^eul^py 
 uses. ^ 4th! That they 'should be df lar^d ‘ske;^” "’in.*coft- 
 iradiction tbUheie pOpiilaP bpitiidns^ hd afesOrts, ^i^Wj’that 
 the best' potatoes ’ arh' groum' upbtt cold,' * ttibist,' hut* *]^ordAs 
 ihd'rich’ solM 4 it were betler the '’shn^ never 
 
 ^hpuVd shine upon them— thit ' fhey shouldibe housed 'Vrith 
 all the dirt that ddheres mHhem— thatitis' beiiefieikl‘¥d^udd 
 "’nibre di#t ih the bin or cask,To exfclud^**exlerr^i 
 
256 
 
 TOTAZX 
 
 much as possible. And, thirds that thei^ ii'jrface should be 
 kept moist, and the atmosphere, which surrounds, as little 
 above the point of freezing as possible.” 
 
 Potatoes may be kept during winter in a cellar, free from 
 frost, or in pits or caves in the field. In the latter case, they 
 must be so situated on a dry knoll, or the side of a hill, as 
 to be secured from the possibility of the pits being pervaded 
 by water j and they must be so covered, first with straw 
 and then with loam, as to prevent the intrusion of frost. 
 They may, likewise, be placed in barrels, casks, or boxes, 
 and if packed in moist sand, or the loam of the field in 
 which they grew, they will be preserved better than in al- 
 most any other situation. If they are exposed to the sun 
 and air till the upper side acquires a green colour, they be- 
 ^.ome poisonous. 
 
 Use. — The use of the potato, as an article of diet both 
 for man and beast, is, probably, more extensive, and more 
 common, than that of any other vegetable production. 
 Prom having no peculiarity of taste, and consisting chiefly 
 of starch, it approaches near to the qualities of the flour of 
 grain ; ‘‘ and for this reason,” says Loudon, ‘‘ it is the most 
 universally liked, and can be used longer in constant suc- 
 cession by the same individual without becoming unpalat- 
 able, than any other vegetable, the seeds of grasses ex- 
 cepted.” Neill observes, so generally is it relished, and 
 so nutritious is it accounted, that, on many tables, it now 
 appears almost every day in the year.” 
 
 An Essay on the Solarium Tuberosum^ by H. C. Wor- 
 snam, from the Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and 
 Physical Sciences^ gives the following summary view of the 
 excellent qualities of this superlative root : — “ Having its 
 origin in a warm climate, it was supposed to be intolerant 
 of cold, and upon that account incapable of cultivation in a 
 more northern clime. But experience has shown the con- 
 trary, and the potato is naturalized almost in every region. 
 With the lower classes of people, it is one of the greatest 
 blessings which the soil produces, forming ‘ flour without a 
 mill, and bread without an oven and, at all seasons of the 
 year, an agreeable, wholesome dish, without expensive 
 condiments. What resources does the potato present to us ? 
 Its stalk, considered as a textile plant, furnishes in Austria 
 a sort of flax — when burned, it yields much potash — its ap- 
 ples, when ripe and crushed, ferment, and give spirits by 
 distillation — its tubercles, made into a pulp, are a substitute 
 •or soap, in bleaching. Cooked by steam, the potato is a 
 
’PHU'NlNe. 
 
 ^^67 
 
 most healthy food. >By different 'manipulation.V*H*fifrhisBes 
 two kinds of dour, a gritel and a puredfchyraa, WWdf ‘m'ay 
 t-be applied to increase the bulk of brt^a'd made frOhi^rain. 
 Treated chymically, it is convened* ’into ' beer^ ’Vifaegkr, 
 spirits, &c;’? ' ‘ ' ■ *» * ‘ 
 
 PliUN IN G*— In pruning the’ apjile»tlde and all bther 
 standard trees, the points of the external brafh^hiefs should 
 be every where ’ rendered ’thin eind pervious to th^ * light ; 
 so that the iiitemal par^ .1 of ‘ the tree ? may ^nbt be^ wbo4fy 
 shaded by the external parts. The light- shbuld "tl' netmte 
 deeply • into the tree, on * every side'; . btit not whete 
 through it. When the pruner has judiciously executed hSs 
 work, every part of* the tree, internal as^ weH eiternal, 
 will be productive of fruit ; and the intenlah pdrt, -iti' •unfa- 
 vourable seasons, will rather receive protection than injriY 
 from the external. • A trOe,* thus pruhed, d^ilhnbt dnly^pr^^- 
 duce much more fruit, but will alsO be able ' to sup^H a 
 heavier load of it, without danger of being broken ; fbr^any 
 given weight will depress the branch, not simply in ptbpbt- 
 tion to dts^^quantity; and its ho rii;Oiital ' distance ftomn the 
 point of suspension, by a mode of actibn similar to that of 
 the weight of the beam of the steel^yard ; * and hen>ce a 
 hundred and fifty pounds, suspended at (me^ fobt distance 
 from the Irunk^ will distress the branch, which supports it, 
 no more -than ten pounds at fifteen feet distance ivouldtdo 
 ,Every tree will, therefore^ support a larger Iveight of* fruit, 
 without danger of being broken, iii proportion ^as lhe'^ pails 
 of such weight are made to approach nearer tb its trifle. 
 
 , ‘lEaeh variety of the apple-tree has its Own^ peelillar 
 form of growth ; and 'this it will ultimately assume^ 
 considerable degree, in defiance of the art of the prune?. 
 Something may nevertheless be done to correct whatever 
 is defective. W growth of any variety is' weak 
 
 and reclining, the principal stem should be trained to a 
 considerable height, before it be allowed to produce branch- 
 es ; and if any of these take a horizontal or pendeUt 'direO- 
 tion, they should be regularly taken off* »^ ^Onet principal 
 leading stem should be encouraged almost to the siimmitof 
 the tree, to prevent a sudden division into- two large botighs 
 of nearly, equal strength ; for the fork which 'these form % 
 apt to divide and break, when the branches are loaded wMi 
 fruit. All efforts to give young trees a round and regularly 
 spreading form, whilst in the nursery, will be foUnff injuri- 
 ous in the future stages of their- growth* Large branches 
 22 * 
 
268 
 
 PUMPKIN. 
 
 should rarely or never be amputated.” — Knighth Treatise 
 on the Culture of the Apple and Pear. 
 
 “ Hitt recommends that the shape or figure of standards 
 should be conical, like the natural growth of the fir-tree ; 
 and this form, or the pyramidal or sub-cylindrical, is deci- 
 dedly preferred by the French, and universally employed 
 by the Dutch. 
 
 The season for pruning. — For all the operations of 
 pruning, which are performed on the branches or shoots of 
 trees, it would appear the period immediately before, or 
 •ommensurate with, the rising of the sap, is the best*” — 
 Loudon. 
 
 ‘‘ My practice has been to prune in the spring, beginning 
 when the buds have scarcely begun to swell, and ending 
 before the expansion of the leaves. But I never leave 
 ‘ stumps’ of limbs. Every branch, that is taken away, is 
 cut close and even with the stem or limb where it grew ; 
 and the healing of the wound commences and proceeds 
 kindly as vegetation advances. If the branch cut off be 
 large, the wound should be covered with some kind of plas- 
 ter.”* — Col. Pickering. 
 
 If, however, pruning is commenced at a proper stage of 
 the growth of the tree, and properly and seasonably attend- 
 ed to, it w ill rarely be necessary to take off a large limb, 
 and small ones, if cut close and smooth, may be taken ofl‘ 
 any season. See remarks on pruning trees by a writer foi 
 . the N. E. Farmery vol. iii. p. 273. 
 
 PUMPKIN. — Cucurhita pepo. — The pumpkin is a native 
 of India. Loudon says there are six species in cultivation, 
 but gives no description of them. Russell’s Catalogue enu- 
 merates the following varieties : 
 
 Finest yellow family pumpkin, 
 Connecticut field, 
 
 Large cheese, 
 
 Mammoth, {which have grown 
 to 226 Ihs. weight,) 
 
 Seven years, (afne sort to keep.) 
 
 Pumpkins will grow on any kind of soil, which is proper 
 for head-crops, but the land cannot be made too rich for 
 them. The Farmers Assistant thinks they will grow better, 
 when planted by themselves, than when raised, as usual, 
 with Indian corn. “ The hills, in such case, should stand 
 about seven feet apart each way, and a number of seeds 
 should be planted in each hill, to make allowance for what 
 may be destroyed by insects. It will be well, however, to 
 protect them by frames, covered by gauze, as directed, 
 p. 91, under the article Cucumber. 
 
QUINCE. 
 
 251 ) 
 
 Preservation, — Pumpkins may be kept in a cellar, for 
 this purpose, a considerable part of the winter; but the 
 cellar must not be too warm ; and care must be taken not 
 to break off the stems, but leave these attached to them ; 
 otherwise they will soon commence rotting, at the places 
 where the stems were broken off. — Farmer^s Assistant, 
 They may likewise be preserved in mows of hay or straw, 
 or in any dry situation, in which they are secure from frost. 
 
 Use, — Loudon says of the pumpkin, “ Though common- 
 ly cultivated in gardens for curiosity, yet, in some of the 
 country villages in England, the inhabitants grow it on 
 dunghills, at the backs of their houses, and train the shoots 
 to a great length over grass. When the fruit is ripe, they 
 cut a hole in one side, and, having taken out the seeds, fill 
 the void space with sliced apples, adding a little sugar and 
 spice, and then, having baked the whole, eat it with 
 butter. — Neill, Pumpkin-pie, Abercrombie says, is very 
 common [in Great Britain, and proverbially so in New 
 England.] On the continent the fruit is a good deal used 
 in soups, and also stewed and fried in oil and butter.” Its 
 culinary uses in the United States are too well known to 
 need description ; but some may not be aware that ‘‘ Pump- 
 kins are excellent for fatting horses. They, however, do 
 not relish them at first ; and therefore must be kept from 
 feeding till they are hungry, before the pumpkins are offer- 
 ed to them, and let a little salt be first sprinkled on this 
 food ; when they will soon grow fond of it, and eat it 
 readily without salt.” 
 
 QUINCE. — Pyrus cydonia, — The quince is a native of 
 the southern and eastern parts of Europe. 
 
 Varieties, — Miller enumerates — 
 
 The oblong’; or pear-quince, with 
 oblonff ovate leaves, and an ob- 
 long ™t, lengthened at the base. 
 
 The apple-quince, with ovate leaves, 
 and a rounder fruit. 
 
 The Portugal quince, with ovate 
 leaves, and an oblong fruit, which 
 is more juicy, and less harsh than 
 
 the others, and therefore the most 
 valuable. It is rather a shy bearer, 
 but is highly esteemed for marma- 
 lade, as the pulp has the property of 
 assuming a fine purple tint in tlie 
 course of being prepared. 
 
 The mild and eatable quince, less aus- 
 tere and astringent than the others. 
 
 “ Propagation, — Generally by layers, but also by cut- 
 tings ; and approved sorts may be perpetuated by grafting. 
 In propagating for stocks, nothing more is necessary than 
 to remove the lower shoots from the larger, so as to pre- 
 serve a clean stem as high as the graft ; but for fruit-bearing 
 trees, it is necessary to train the tree to a rod, till it has 
 attained four or five feet in height, and can support itself 
 
260 
 
 RADISH. 
 
 upright It seldom planted bl^t as a Standard in th^^ or^ 
 chard, and a very few trees arfe sufficient for a family. 
 
 “ The time of planting, the mode nf bearing,' and all'^e 
 other particulars of culture, are' the same as’ for the aj)ple 
 and pear.”- — Loudon^ ^ li: ' 
 
 “ The stem of the quince is employed for the reception 
 of apple and pear grafts, and has the property of giv’iig 
 to the fruit it bears greater precocity, an increased size, and 
 improved flavour ; but with this drawback^ that i^he quan- 
 tity is small, and the product short-lived, as the age of the 
 tree seldom exceeds ten or twelve years. ^ The .quince- 
 tree is liable to be attacked by the wOrm? called the borer, 
 the same as the apple-tree and the pear-tree, and the same 
 remedies are recommended. • • ' Ji ‘ 
 
 Ikcn — “'The fruit is not eaten raw ; but, stewed, or 
 pies or ' tarts, along with apples, is much esteemedi ' In 
 confectionary it forms an excellent marmalade and syrup. 
 When apples ate flat, and have lost their flavour, Forsyth 
 observes, a quince of two, in a pie or pudding, jwill add^a 
 quickness to them. In medicine, the express^ juice, re- 
 peatedly taken in small quantities^ iS said to be cooling, 
 astringent and stomachic. A mucilage prepared from the 
 seeds was formerly much in use, but is now supplanted ‘by 
 the simple gums.” — Lovdon* “This fruit is generally boil- 
 ed and eaten with sugar, in which fofm it maybe usefully 
 employed in cases of dysentery. Five gallons of Ae juice 
 of quiuces, mixed with twenty-five pounds of sugar, ^ airf 
 fermented, affords a delicious wine. By boiling the kernels 
 of quinces in water, a mucilage is extracted, whkhils often 
 used in medicine as a- substitute for that of gum Arabic. 
 Quinces are excellent in apple-pies, in the proportfon of 
 one fourth quince to three fourths apple, with some thin 
 slices of candied lemon-peel or citron.”— 
 
 RADISH. — Raphanus sativiLs^^The garden-radish is^a 
 native of China, and introduced into England in 1584. , 
 Varieties,— Mr. Russell’s Catalogue contains the follow- 
 ing :— 
 
 Long salmon, 
 
 Early short-itop scarlet, {a superi- 
 or sortf) : , , . 
 
 Early frame. 
 
 Long white summer, or Naples, 
 Purple-short top. 
 
 Cherry, or -scarlet tuniip-rooted, . ^ 
 White turnip-rooteidj ' ' 
 
 Viojet-coloured lumip^rooled) •. ^ * I 
 
 iip^n 
 
 ' Black fall,, or Spanisfi. 
 Propagation ,— varieties are raised from jseed. 
 
 Soil cmd situation , — The soil should be light and »mellow 
 well broken by digging. A scattering of the smaller grow- 
 
RADISH. 
 
 261 
 
 mg sorts may be sown among some broad-cast crops of 
 larger growth, such as spinage, lettuce and onion ; it may 
 also be drilled between wide rows of beans, or on ground 
 intended to be sown with a late spring crop. 
 
 Times of sowing, — To have a constar»t succession of 
 radishes at table, the seeds should be sowoU once a fort- 
 night, from April [or the last of March] to August. But 
 in midsummer they sooner grow sticky and strong, than in 
 spring or fall. They must therefore be eaten while they 
 are young. I have had better success with those sown in 
 August than in any other month.’’ — Deane, 
 
 Seed, process in sowing, and common culture, — “ Sow each 
 sort separately ; and for a bed four feet six inches by twelve 
 feet, two ounces of seed will be required of the spring 
 sorts, and an ounce and a half for the autumn varieties. 
 All the kinds may be sown either broad-cast or in drills ; 
 but the latter is preferable, as allowing the roots to be drawn 
 regularly, with less waste. If you sow broad-cast, it is a 
 good method to make beds four or five feet wide, with al- 
 leys between, a foot wide, the -earth of which may be used 
 to raise the beds, or not, as the season may make it desira- 
 ble to keep the beds dry or moist. Avoid sowing exces- 
 sively thick, as it tends to make the tops run, and the roots 
 stringy. Rake in the seed well, full half an inch deep, 
 leaving none on the surface to attract birds. If you trace 
 drills, let them be, for the spindle-rooted kinds, half an inch 
 deep, and about two inches and a half asunder ; for the 
 small turnip-rooted, three quarters of an inch deep, and four 
 or five inches asunder ; and for the black turnip or Spanish, 
 six or eight inches asunder, because the root grows to the 
 size of a middle-sized turnip. As the plants advance in 
 growth, thin them so as to leave the spindle-rooted about 
 two inches square distance, and the other sorts three, four, 
 or five, leaving the most space to the respective sorts in 
 free, growing weather. In dry, warm weather, water pretty 
 frequently : this swells the roots, and makes them mild and 
 crisp. ” — Abercrombie, 
 
 ‘‘ This root being liable to be eaten by worms, the fol- 
 lowing method is recommended for raising them : — Take 
 equal quantities of buck-wheat bran, and fresh horse-dung, 
 and mix them well and plentifully in the ground by dig- 
 ging. Suddenly after this a great fermentation will be 
 produced, and numbers of toad-stools will start up in forty- 
 eight hours. Dig the ground over again, and sow the seed, 
 and the radishes will grow with great rapidity, and be free 
 
262 
 
 RHUBAEB. 
 
 from the attacks of insects. Bucl#^ wheat briaia is an* eKC§l^ 
 lent manure of itself. 
 
 ^ Formerly thie leaves vt^ere often boiled and eateuij^ 
 
 but now the roots are chiefly *einpl 6 yed- Thede are ^eatea 
 raw in spring, suiiimer, autumh, and winter; The young 
 seedling leaves are often ufeed with ^cresses' and toinsr^ 
 tafd, as* small salad and tadish^sbed pods,' ^when -of )pliimp 
 growth, but stilhyoun^ and green, are used )to increase the 
 variety of vegetable pickles, ahd' are considered a tol^rablji^ 
 substitute for Papers. f -^4 . 
 
 ‘‘Radishes are esteemed aperient, attenuating and an ti^ 
 scorbutic : when baten in mdderate quantitiesy they are in 
 a certdih ’medsure salubi’iou^ to persons of : strong Jiahtts| 
 but are, ih ^endrary apt to ^i^duc 6 a considerable degree^fi 
 flatulency in those whose ^stonofachs^ are relaxed.* r No rad? 
 ishes| howevef, ought tb he^eaten when oZd^-oi^after having 
 been ' kept Some tiihe^ as they are then utterly indigestibloj 
 and render the breath very offensive;— Dorn. 
 
 Dr. Cvjoper observes that ‘‘^Radishes oughts to^ ibe. $ow| 
 in rich ground, aid careffully tendeflj so as^to grow quickly r 
 if not, they^ ate become stringy, in which Estate-! they. -are 
 very unwholesohie and indigestible.’^ - . j . ,4 
 
 iyeed.—‘‘ Radishes that' are for seed require niueh foom^ 
 as they grow to^ k Ikrge^si^b; For tbis^putpoSe ^Som^ of the 
 most th'Tifiy ones ’ should' be left standing* ; or else-bo ti'am^ 
 planted to a {flacd Where ekeh shall have afe muCh^Tbom; as 
 nearly a yard square: ' The ripeness of the seed ds knowfn 
 by the pods turning bro wn J ^ ’For this ^purposf^ the ‘.seeds 
 ihust be sowii early ih the springs because they tipen slow- 
 ly.’’-— 2>eawe; ^ .,.4 ij;.-,:..* ,,, 
 
 Fdr forcing fadiskes'^ hot-bedsy and ■ culture^' proper for hot- 
 bed p'roductiohsj should be resorted to.- See^jEJneye. of 
 Gari p/Sm: -M r.... -J-.: ...4 
 
 RHUBARB.— jRMum.— There' are three species -ofp this 
 plant irt'etiltivation— the R. rhaphnticuMj ^ native o£i Asi^ ; 
 jR. Ay 6 Hdw> 7 i, klso’a native of Asi^^^ aUd R, pulmqium^ ^ 
 tiye of Tartary, distinguished by its elegant pahtiatc leaves, 
 and considered as the true Turkey or Russia rhubarb. ’ 
 
 ^ Propd'gddbn emd cnl^ the sUrts may be raised 
 
 either frohr ' scdd or by dividing the roOts. If frqmi sqed, 
 which il the best iU ode, ; sbw in light, deep earthy in: spring ; 
 and the plants, if kept eight or nine inches asunder, wilbh^ 
 fit for transplariting in autumn’’ and for the next spring. 
 When the roots are divided,* care must be taken to retaiu a 
 bud bn the Crown of each section ^they-may be pUft^tcd 
 
RHUBARB. 
 
 263 
 
 where they are finally to remain^. When a plantation is to 
 be madeiy the ground, which should be light ‘ and rather 
 sa,ndy, but well manured, should be trenched three spits, or 
 asi deep as the sub-«oil will admit, adding a manuring of 
 well rotted hotrbed dung. Then plant in rows, three feet 
 wide by two feet, in the rows for the R. rkaponticmn and 
 matmriy dind five feet by three feet in* the rows for the 
 A .No other culture is ‘required than keeping 
 
 the ground free of weeds, occasionally stirring it, during 
 summer, with a three^ronged fork, and adding a dressing 
 of i welLrotted manure every autumn or spring, stirring the 
 ground asrdeep as possible. Some never allow the flower- 
 stalks ito produce flowers ; vanfl others cut them over as 
 soon as they , have done » flowering, to prevent the plants 
 fyom ibejngr exhausted by . the production of seeds. The 
 former seems the preferable method, as the flower-stalks of 
 plaints cannot, j like the leav^, be considered as preparing 
 a reserve of nourishment for the roots. 
 
 . , Blanching The advantages of blanching the stalks of 
 rhubarb, for culinary purposes have been pointed out by 
 Tram vol.-iL ^ These are two-fold, 
 namely, ithe desirable qualities of improved appearance and 
 flavour, and a. saving in the quantity of sugar necessary to 
 reader it .agreeable to the palate,i since the leaf-stalks, when 
 blanchedi, are infinitely less harsh than those grown under 
 the full influence of lights in an open situation.^ It may 
 either be: blanched^ by earthing up the roots early in spring, 
 or i earthen pots may. be used, as in blanching sea^kale. 
 ^.Taking Remove a little earth, and, bending 
 
 down; the. leaf you would remove, slip it off* from the 
 crown without breaking^ or using the knife. The stalks 
 are fit to use, when the leaf is half expanded 5 but a larger 
 produce is obtained by letting them remain till in full ex- 
 pansion, . as . is practised by the market-gardeners. The 
 sta^ are. tied, in bundles of a dozen and upwards, and thus 
 ^posed for sale. 
 
 4... Zb save seedLrr—^^ Leave one or two of the strongest 
 flowerrstalks tO‘ perfect their seeds, which they will do in 
 July and August. 
 
 Use , — “ The two first species are cultivated entirely, and 
 the third, in gardens, principally, for the petioles of the root- 
 leaves, which are peeled, cut down, and formed into tarts 
 and pies in; the manner of apples and gooseberries. The 
 R,.hybridwn affords the most abundant and succulent supply 
 for this purpose. 
 
264 
 
 ROLLER. -ROSE. ROSEMARY. 
 
 ROLLER. — This is a heavy cylindrical instrument, to 
 pass over lands, render them more compact, and answ^er 
 other useful purposes in field husbandry and gardening. 
 Many of the complaints we hear, of seeds not growing, 
 arise from their not being rolled. Many seeds will not 
 vegetate at all, and many others will vegetate slowly, 
 feebly, and unequally, if the ground be not rolled soon after 
 the seed is sown. “ Those rollers which are cut out of 
 free-stone, being heavier than wooden ones, are best to 
 smooth and harden the alleys in gardens. But wooden 
 ones answer better in tillage, when they are sufficiently 
 large. A roller for field-husbandry should be five or six 
 feet long f so that it may perform much in a short time, 
 being drawn by a horse or yoke of oxen, for either of which 
 it may be easily harnessed. It should be made perfectly 
 round and smooth, that it may be drawn the more easily, 
 and press the ground more equally in all parts. And it 
 should be from eighteen to twenty-four inches diameter. 
 Being large, the pressure will be greater, and the surface 
 will be the more level.” — Deane. 
 
 Where there is no roller on the premises, the following 
 is recommended as a substitute : — After the seed is sown, 
 and the ground well raked, take a board or boards, of the 
 whole length of the bed ; lay them flat on the ground ; be- 
 ginning at one edge of the bed, walk the whole length of 
 the board ; this will press the soil on the seed ; then shift 
 the board, till you have thus gone over the whole bed ; and 
 in dry weather, cover your beds, for forty-eight hours, with 
 boards laid flat on the soil, and the seeds will come up al- 
 most immediately. If no boards are at hand, tread in the 
 seed with your feet, or strike on the bed with the blade of 
 your spade or shovel. 
 
 ROSE. — -See Flowers, p. 125. 
 
 ROwSEMARY. — Rosmarinus officinalis. — The rosemary 
 is a hardy under-shrub, a native of the south of Europe. 
 It is ci,n evergreen, rising sometimes six or eight feet high, 
 though rarely. The leaves are sessile, linear, dark-green 
 above, and grayish or whitish underneath ; the blossoms are 
 of a pale blue colour. The whole plant is highly aromatic. 
 
 Varieties. — These are. 
 
 The green, or common, | The godd-striped, | The silver-striped. 
 
 Culture. — The green is hardiest as a plant, and is the 
 rt generally used. The finest plants are raised from seed, 
 sov^m either broad-cast or in drills, six inches apart. This 
 plant is also propagated by cuttings and suckers. ‘‘ Planted 
 
RUE. SAGE. 
 
 265 
 
 in the month of March, six inches apart, and inserted two 
 thirds of their length in the ground, they will take root 
 freely, and, by the month of September, be fit for trans- 
 planting wherever destined to remain.” — McMahon. 
 
 RUE. — Ruta gravcolens, — This is an under-shrub, an 
 evergreen, which prefers a light soil, and is easily propa- 
 gated by cuttings or seeds. Mr. Armstrong says, “ its 
 beauty is much increased by lopping the branches close to 
 the earth every fourth year.” 
 
 Use, — Boerhaave recommends the leaves of rue as of 
 great service to persons of cold, phlegmatic habits ; as they 
 quicken the circulation, dissolve viscid or tenacious juices, 
 remove obstructions, and promote the fluid secretions. Mr. 
 Wilson, in his Economy of the Kitchen Garden^ says, ^‘The 
 most effectual remedy for expelling worms, that has ever 
 coiiie under my observation, was effected by an infusion of 
 the tops of rue, given in gin to the patient, in the morning, 
 fasting.” 
 
 SAGE. — Salvia officinalis, — Sage is a native of the south 
 of Europe. Its varieties are. 
 
 The red, The small-leaved green, or sage 
 
 The broad-leaved, or balsamic, of virtue. 
 
 The green. 
 
 Estimate of sorts, — The red is the principal sort in culi- 
 nary use, having the most agreeable" and the fullest flavour; 
 the green is next in estimation with the cook ; but the 
 small-leaved is generally preferred to those to eat as a raw 
 herb, and for decoctions ; while the broad-leaved, balsamic 
 species is the most efficacious in a medical way, and is also 
 a tea-herb. However, any of the sorts may be occasionally 
 used for these alternate purposes. 
 
 Culture, — They are all propagated alike, by seeds or 
 suckers, and by portions of old roots, and grow well in any 
 soil not positively wet. Till three or four years old, they 
 have a healthy and agreeable appearance, forming full and 
 regular tufts ; but, after this period, they lose the central 
 branches, and even become ragged and broken at the 
 edges. The treatment already suggested for rue might be 
 useful for sage. Under it, the roots would probably renew 
 their vigour, and throw out new and healthy shoots ; but 
 of this theory we have no experience.” — Armstrong, 
 
 Use, — “ The leaves are used in stuffings and sauces, for 
 many kinds of luscious and strong meats, as well as to im- 
 prove the flavour of various articles of cookery. The de- 
 23 
 
2G6 
 
 SALSIFY. SAVORY. 
 
 coction called sage-tea is usually made from one variety, 
 the small-leaved green, or sage of virtue ; but any of the 
 others are equally lit for this purpose.” — Loudon. 
 
 SALSIFY, or OYSTER PLANT. — Tragopogon porri- 
 folius. — The salsify is a hardy biennial, a native of Eng- 
 land. The root is long and tapering, of a fleshy white sub- 
 stance ; the herb smooth, glaucous, and rising three or four 
 feet high. The leaves resemble those of the leek; the 
 flowers are of a dull purple colour, closing soon after mid- 
 day ; the seed, as in other species of goat’s beard, is re- 
 markable for having attached to it a broad feathery crown. 
 
 Culture. — It resembles a small parsnep in its appearance. 
 It is raised annually from seeds, and as easily, requiring 
 no more care than the carrot. It bears a tolerable crop. 
 
 Use. — In this country it is parboiled, and then fried 
 either in batter or without. It forms an admirable garnish 
 for boiled fowls or tiirkies. In its taste it so strongly re- 
 sembles the oyster, that, when sliced and fried in batter, it 
 can scarcely be distinguished from it. If our gardeners 
 would introduce it into the market, and our citizens once 
 try it, there would be no danger of its ever failing hereafter 
 to be raised. It is in eating from November to May, pre- 
 cisely the period in which our vegetable market is most 
 deficient in variety.” — John Lowell^ Esq. in Mass. Agr. Repos. 
 
 The stalks of the tragopogon may be cut in the spring, 
 when they are four or five inches high, and dressed like 
 asparagus, in which they eat very tender and well.” — Rees*' 
 Cyclopedia. 
 
 SAVORY. — Satureja. — Two species of this plant are 
 cultivated — the winter and summer savory. 
 
 Winter savory is a hardy under-shrub, a native of the 
 south of France and Italy. The shoots are furnished with 
 two narrow, stiff leaves, an inch long, placed opposite at 
 each joint, and from the base of these a few small leaves 
 proceed in clusters. It produces whitish flowers in May 
 and June. 
 
 Simmer savory is a hardy annual, a native of Italy. The 
 branches are slender, erect, and about a foot high ; leaves 
 opposite, and almost an inch in length. It flowers in June 
 and July. 
 
 Culture . — Winter savory is a perennial plant, and is 
 propagated from seeds or slips ; summer savory, from seeds 
 only. Both sorts will grow on almost any soil, and it is 
 said that the wunter kind grows best on barren soils. 
 
SEA-KALK. 
 
 207 
 
 Use , — ‘‘ Both the summer and winter savory have long 
 been cultivated for culinary and medicinal purposes. Their 
 warm, aromatic, pungent leaves are much esteemed in sal- 
 ads : formerly, they were employed medicinally, with a 
 view to attenuate viscid humours, to dispel flatulency, and 
 to increase the appetite. According to Professor Bradley, 
 this herb, when dry, and put into a bed, possesses the 
 remarkable property of expelling fleas.” — I)om. Encyc. 
 
 SEA-KALE . — Cramba maritima , — The sea-kale grows 
 spontaneously on many parts of the sea-coast of Great Britain. 
 The inhabitants watch v/hen the shoots begin to push up the 
 sand and gravel, in March and April, when they cut off the 
 young shoots and leaf-stocks, then blanched and tender, 
 and boil them as greens. 
 
 Use, — ‘‘ The young spring shoots, and the stalks of the 
 unfolding leaves, blanched by rising through the natural 
 ground in a wild state, or by earthing up in gardens, are 
 the parts used ; and, when boiled, and dressed like aspara- 
 gus, are not inferior to that vegetable. They form also an 
 excellent ingredient in soups. Sometimes the ribs of the 
 large leaves me peeled and dressed as asparagus, after the 
 plant has ceased to send up young growths. By forcing, 
 sea-kale may be had in perfection from November till May, 
 a period including all the dead months of the year. It is 
 remarked by Nicol, that vegetables are seldom improved 
 by forcing, but that sea-kale forms an exception, the forced 
 shoots produced at mid-winter being more crisp apd delicate 
 in flavour than those procured in the natural way, in April or 
 May. Sir George Mackenzie {Caled, Hort, Mem, vol. i. 
 313) observes, that sea-kale cannot easily be overdone in 
 cooking, and that, after being well-boiled, it should be 
 thoroughly drained, and then suffered to remain a few 
 minutes before the fire, that a further portion of moisture 
 may be exhaled.” — Loudon, 
 
 John Lowell, Esq., in a communication, published in the 
 Mass, Agr. Journal^ says, “ It is very hardy — grows in any 
 tolerable soil — is perennial, and costs not half the labour 
 bestowed on asparagus. It may be raised from the seed 
 or from the root, and fifty plants, occupying a very small 
 space, will supply a single family. In its taste it resembles 
 the cauliflower. The only labour it requires, is, to cover it 
 with sand or earth, or with pots or boxes in March, so as 
 to exclude the light, and to blanch it, or make it white. If 
 not blanched, it is neither so beautiful to the eye, nor so ten- 
 der, nor so delicate to the taste, as if blanched. It should be 
 
268 
 
 SILK. 
 
 thoroughly boiled, and is better if boiled in milk and water. 
 It should be served up like cauliflowers, with melted butter. 
 It comes in at a season in which our vegetables in this 
 country are very deficient.” 
 
 Mr. Armstrong says, “ In November, whether your bed 
 has been filled with plants or with seedlings, be careful to 
 cover them with a thick coat of well-rotted dung, and so 
 soon in the spring or summer as you find them pushing 
 through this covering, put over each a garden-pot inverted, 
 having first stopped the bottom holes. The signal for cut- 
 ting is when the plants have arisen about three inches 
 above the surface.” 
 
 SILK. — The following article, on a subject, whose im- 
 portance is beginning to be duly appreciated in the United 
 States, was written expressly for this work, at the request 
 of the compiler, by a gentleman, who has a practical, as 
 well as scientific knowledge of the processes pursued in 
 Europe in the manufacture of silk : — 
 
 The cultivation of the soil is a duty, which was imposed 
 on man almost coeval with the creation. It bears with it 
 the sanctity of a primeval ordinance, and is irresistibly en- 
 dearing, inasmuch as it admirably suits our nature, so as 
 to promote, in a singular degree, health and comfort, vigour 
 and clearness of mind ; the blessing on a ready compliance 
 with this divine law is evident from the happiness which 
 flows therefrom, and which would make of the cultivators of 
 the land, under some better advantages of education, the 
 greatly favoured order of society. It is at the table of their 
 own providing, that the nation is entertained — it is to the 
 vigour, and to the faithfulness of their arm, that it trusts 
 for its security. 
 
 All hail. Agriculture and its noble bands ! On the fra- 
 grant earth their appointed labour is performed ; their dome 
 is the pure vault of heaven, and their employ is that by 
 Mercy assigned for the renovation of our race. There, 
 since the days of old, has been the firm foundation of na- 
 tional greatness and prosperity ; and there it must remain 
 until the end of time. It is to those purposes, that com- 
 prehensive and active minds would find delight in directing 
 their powers, because of the vastness of the field to ex- 
 plore, and of the greatness of the results to be expected. 
 
 Much has been said of the roughness of the New Eng- 
 land soil and climate, and much more than ever was true. 
 Since the time of the Pilgrims, however, what harshness 
 there was has been softened, and the climate, in our days, 
 
SILK. 
 
 269 
 
 iy hastening to take its rank among the most favoured for 
 temperature and healthfulness. When the eye roams among 
 our hills and vales, vsdiere can we meet with a more de- 
 lightful variety ? or a choice of aspects, and situations, sc 
 valuable for agricultural purposes ? Some of our land is 
 hard to work, because it wants a more thorough cultivation ; 
 and some abounds with rocks, that we may find there 
 the best materials for our dwellings. What is there want- 
 ing, then, to make of New England a vast garden ? Noth- 
 ing, but contented labour, and intelligence to direct it — 
 and that we have. Let all awake, then, and try to improve, 
 to the best advantage, the natural abilities of the country — 
 and we shall find, that, far from any cause of discourage- 
 ment, we are greatly favoured. 
 
 To the cultivation of grain and potatoes, we have discov- 
 ered (in late years) that the soil and climate are well 
 adapted to the raising of wool, even of Merino ; and in 
 a wonderfully short time, all over the land, there are great 
 sheep-folds. There are also manufactures that employ all 
 that wool, and much more, and provide us with comforta- 
 ble and handsome clothing. 
 
 There are other mines yet unexplored. To the indus- 
 trious and active, the prize must belong ; and to them, we 
 wish to point out the article of silk, as one most deserving 
 their attention. What is there, that the soil can yield, so 
 rich as silk, and that can be obtained with so easy a labour? 
 Excepting the first raising and planting of the mulberry- 
 trees, all the work can be performed by women, children, 
 and aged people. We are fully and sufficiently satisfied, 
 that this noble article may be made a staple of our coun- 
 try ; and the advantages that would result from it, in a 
 private and national point of view, are so important, that 
 we cannot deny ourselves the satisfaction of devoting a few 
 pages of this volume to that interesting subject — hoping 
 that they may prove acceptable and, eventually, useful to 
 many of our readers. 
 
 The raising of silk is not altogether novel in our land : 
 many individuals in Massachusetts and Connecticut have 
 attended to it for a number of years, with much advan- 
 tage ; and it is a fact fully established, that the soil 
 and climate are congenial to the flourishirg growth of the 
 mulberry ; and that the silk-worms will thrive in New 
 England, under proper management, as well as they do in 
 most parts of Europe, where the raising of silk is the vital 
 sinew of the community. Without any further remarks, 
 23 * 
 
270 
 
 SILK. 
 
 we shall enter, therefore, upon the subject, and set down, 
 first, such practical information as relates to the raising of 
 mulberry-trees. 
 
 The mulberry and the silk-worm are natives of Asia. 
 They were both unknown in Europe until the year 555 — • 
 when the emperor Justinian sent two monks to Serinda, 
 in India, from whence they brought to Constantinople the 
 seed of those precious insects, and the necessary informa- 
 tion for their management. Thus they laid the found ;tic n 
 of those supeib silk manufactures, which, for near seven 
 hundred years, flourished in Greece, at Athens, at Thebes, 
 and Corinth. Before that time, the great of the earth, 
 alone, could aflbrd to clothe themselves with silk ; the 
 price of which was weight for weight in gold. About six 
 hundred years after, the culture of silk was introduced from 
 Greece into Italy; and from thence into France, in the 
 year 1494. Since those days, it has spread over all the 
 southern and midland parts of Europe, and is now cultivat- 
 ed with success as far north as Prussia, where the mul- 
 berry-tree resists the most rigorous winters without injury. 
 
 There are two different species of mulberry, — the blacky 
 which is cultivated for its excellent fruit, of a dark crimson 
 colour, almost black ; and is a tree of slower growth than 
 the white ; the leaves are larger, of a darker green, thicker 
 and stronger. The silk-worms will eat them for the want 
 of better, but they do not thrive upon them, and the silk is 
 coarse and inferior. The white mulberry-tree bears a white, 
 or light pink fruit ; and its leaves are the most congenial 
 food for these precious insects ; is of a quicker growth, and 
 does not come to so large a size as the black. The white 
 mulberry is a very hardy tree, and bears our severest win- 
 ters without any apparent injury ; will last a great many 
 years, and, if cut down close to the ground, will send up 
 many suckers all around, and resist destruction for several 
 years. There are many kinds of white mulberry, the 
 leaves of which differ in point of merit as a food for the 
 silk-worm. Some are of a small size, earlier, and more 
 tender ; and, on that account, are cultivated as the most 
 proper for the worms when first born ; others are large, 
 and of a peculiar quality, which suits the taste of the 
 worms, upon which they thrive best, and make the hand- 
 somest silk. In France and Italy, they universally graft 
 the wild stocks with those sorts which experience has 
 taught them to be the most valuable. 
 
 At this early stage of the business with us, it would bo 
 
4 
 
 SILK. 271 
 
 difTicult to attain, at once, the nicety which a long practice 
 has introduced in the old countiies. Wiiat we have lo do 
 for the present, is, to sow mulberry-seed, raise the young 
 plants as in a nursery, reject those whereon thorns appear, 
 as being the wildest, and .bearing the smallest leaves ; also 
 those that have thick, coarse, hairy leaves. Save those 
 that have the largest and handsomest smooth leaves ; the 
 worms eat them more readilv, and experience has shown 
 that they thrive best upon them, make more silk, and of a 
 better quality. The best plants for earliness and superiori- 
 ty of leaves, should be set out and noted; as they may 
 hereafter furnish scions for grafting. Upon a dry soil, the 
 mulberry-trees do not grow much taller than our largest 
 peach-trees ; but they are stouter and thicker set. Their 
 >oots, which are of a remarkably bright gold colour, (that 
 of silk,) extend to a considerable distance ; and they ought 
 not to be planted, on that account, nearer than thirty feet 
 from tree to tree. 
 
 As the gathering of leaves too soon would injure the 
 growth and constitution of the trees, we would recommend 
 that no leaves should be gathered from them until after the 
 fifth year. In the mean time plantations may be made for 
 immediate use, by sowing the seed in drills, at a conveni- 
 ent distance ; planting beans or potatoes between, to keep 
 the ground clear of weeds. The second year after sow- 
 ing, these seedlings might be cut down with a sharp instru- 
 ment, three or four inches from the ground, and would give 
 a second crop the same season. In the silk countries, the}’- 
 raise seedlings in rows for the first feeding of the worms : 
 these young plants, putting out their leaves earlier than 
 the old trees, and being more tender, are better adapted for 
 the worms in the first stage of their existence. They also 
 plant the mulberry-trees, and suffer them to grow accord- 
 ing to unrestrained nature, branching out from the ground. 
 This is for the convenience of gathering the leaves more 
 easily, and making a food stronger than the seedlings. They 
 consider the leaves from trees regularly trained, with a single 
 butt, and of several years’ growth, to give the most substan- 
 tial food ; upon which the worms should be kept during the 
 last period of their life, previous to their ascending, in order 
 to obtain an abundant crop of silk of the best quality. At 
 our first entering on this new and profitable business, we 
 shall be under the necessity of trusting Vv holly to our rows 
 of seedlings, as the only food we can offer to the worms, 
 wbpn the trees planted out come to maturity, we shall 
 
272 
 
 SILK* 
 
 adopt the more systematic way of feeding, which experience 
 has pointed out as most favourable ; although, with us, the 
 despatch of cutting down the seedlings for food, instead of 
 the slow process of gathering leaves, will always remain an 
 object of serious consideration. 
 
 The white mulberry thrives in all soils and situations, 
 and will grow very rank and full of leaves upon low, moist 
 ground ; but the food it affords in such situations is very 
 inferior, and apt to disorder the worms. A warm lonrn, 
 even if gravelly, will give leaves of the best quality ; and 
 a sheltered, warm situation will produce leaves many days 
 sooner than one which is exposed to cold, and is desirable 
 on that account. 
 
 The mulberry-tree may be raised from suckers ; and some- 
 times slips, stuck in a moist soil, will take root ; if the low 
 branches of a tree can be bent so as to be fastened, and 
 covered in the ground, they will take root. The trees may 
 be planted near buildings, for shade, or in a yard; the 
 fowls are very fond of the fruit when it fails. A variety 
 of situations will increase the means of early and late feed- 
 ing, which is very desirable. 
 
 We shall conclude these remarks on the cultivation of 
 the mulberry, by observing, that the most esteemed seed 
 of that tree in Europe is that raised in Piedmont. The 
 seed from Spain is also excellent. The seed of the best 
 quality is large, bright, and heavy ; when bruised, it will 
 appear oily, and when thrown on ignited coals, it will 
 crackle. 
 
 The next object to consider is, the seed frmn which the 
 worms are to he hatched; and here it will be proper to ob- 
 serve, that one ounce of seed will produce about forty 
 thousand worms, who will consume about one thousand 
 
 E qunds’ weight of leaves, and produce from eighty to one 
 undred pounds of cocoons ; and twelve pounds of cocoons 
 will give about one pound of silk. It is of the greatest 
 importance to procure the best seed, because that which is 
 inferior will produce sickly worms, who will be much more 
 exposed to the various disorders to which these insects are 
 subject; a greater proportion will die, and those which sur- 
 vive will not make good cocoons. The best seed is of a 
 dark grey colour, almost as dark as slate, looks bright, and 
 if thrown into wine will sink. The seed which is light, 
 of a white or yellow colour, and looks dull, is barren and 
 good for nothing. The seed should be kept in a cool, 
 dry situation, until the mulberry-trees have their leaves 
 
SILK. 
 
 273 
 
 opened ; when the food is thus in readiness, then is the 
 time to get it hatched. In Italy and France, at that ap- 
 pointed time, the women put the seed in small bags of 
 worsted stuff, and place them in their bosoms, during the 
 day, and at night under their pillows, for about forty-eight 
 hours ; at the expiration of which, the seed is transferred 
 into boxes, over which a paper cover is fastened with many 
 small holes, through which the little worms will creep. 
 Some mulberry leaves should be placed on the paper, so that 
 they may feed, which they will do as soon as they come to 
 life. These boxes are placed on feather beds with pillows 
 around them, in order to keep a uniform heat whilst the 
 worms are hatching. Those which come to life in the 
 course of the same day, should be collected and kept to- 
 gether; they will shed their skins, and ascend to make 
 their cocoons, at the same period. The hatching of each 
 successive day should be kept separate ; this order will 
 render their management and care easier, and more profita- 
 ble. When the hatching has been well conducted, the 
 heat proper and regular, most of the worms will make their 
 appearance on the third or fourth day ; and such seed as 
 has not come to life on the fifth or sixth day is not worth 
 preserving ; for, if it should hatch, the worms will be weak- 
 ly, and not likely to do well. If, on the second day, the 
 seed that has been set to hatch should change colour, and 
 appear red, it proves that the heat has been too great, and 
 that the seed is spoiled. 
 
 In the middle provinces of France, where the climate is 
 variable, and subject to sudden returns of cold, the cultiva- 
 tors are very cautious occasionally to exclude the outward 
 air, by shutting the doors and windows, and always in the 
 night and early part of the morning. Sudden cold, damp- 
 ness, and especially foggy weather, are sure to injure the 
 worms by bringing disease upon them, which will often 
 prove fatal, and always reduce the quantity, and injure the 
 quality, of the silk. A uniform temperature, not too warm, 
 is considered as very desirable for the success of the silk 
 crop ; and about seventy-three degrees of the thermometer 
 of Fahrenheit is the most suitable. 
 
 The silk-worms shed their skins four times, which is for 
 them a period of sickness, during which they do not eat, 
 but appear drowsy, and are more particularly affected by 
 any sudden change of the weather to cold or damp. The 
 first shedding takes place the sixth or seventh day after 
 their birth ; the head appears to increase in size, and they 
 
274 
 
 SILK. 
 
 cast off their skins. This time of trial for them will last 
 three or four days, if the weather is warm and genial; 
 but if it is cold and damp, they are much longer to get 
 through it. As soon as the skin is cast off, they appear 
 active again, eat with a good appetite, and will continue 
 so for six or eight days, when the second shedding comes 
 on under the same circumstances, and is succeeded by a 
 third and fourth shedding. The second shedding is the 
 easiest for them, and fewer die under its operation than 
 during the first, third, and fourth. Eight days after the 
 worms have got through the fourth shedding, and at the end 
 of about six weeks from the commencement of their exist- 
 ence, they have arrived nearly to maturity, and are going 
 to make their cocoons, and reward the care that has been 
 taken of them. They want then to go up to spin their 
 cocoons, but it is necessary not to encourage this natural 
 disposition, until it is evident that they are fully ripe. If 
 they go up too so<^n, their cocoons will be light and flimsy. 
 The signs of their full maturity are, some change in their 
 colour, which until then is white ; the head appears wilt- 
 ed, the tail larger, the green circles round the body become 
 of a bright gold colour, and they keep moving about among 
 the others, but without eating, and seem as if stretching 
 their heads for the purpose of spinning. When the worms 
 exhibit these indications, they should be separated from the 
 rest, and put into a place where small, dry branches of oak, 
 hazel, white birch, or any other wood, have been prepared 
 for them to ascend and spin their cocoons. When they 
 have ascended, it will be some days before they begin to 
 spin. The first day they lay out threads for a foundation — 
 the second, they form the shape of the cocoons — the third, 
 the worm is entombed and out of sight, but continues to 
 spin (inside) until he has expended the whole of his stock 
 of liquor, which, in general, is the seventh or eighth day. 
 The thread of a good cocoon is about nine hundred and 
 fifty feet. 
 
 It is highly important to feed the worms in that particu- 
 lar way which experience has shown to be the most suit- 
 able ; the leaves, at all times, should be dry when given to 
 them ; therefore, when rain is likely to fall, it is necessary 
 to gather in a stock, before they get wet ; if the weather 
 set in to steady rain, the leaves should be spread in a sepa- 
 rate room, and dried before they are given to the worms ; 
 leaves wetted by rain, or dew, will either kill them, or bring 
 on some bad disorder ; from their birth to the second shed- 
 
SILK. 
 
 275 
 
 ding, they should be fed twice a day, mor.]iing and cv^en- 
 ing ; afterwards three times a day, to the fourth shedding ; 
 and then, until they ascend, four, live, or six times a day, as 
 they may seem to require it; from the fourth shedding until 
 they ascend, their appetite is voracious, and it should be 
 satisfied by an abundance of leaves of the best quality ; 
 those from old trees, matured by age, should be reserved for 
 this period, and given to them fresh gathered and dry. 
 
 The worms, throughout the period of their existence, 
 should be attended with great care and regularity ; they 
 should be kept perfectly clean, clearing away, often, the 
 remains of the leaves, their own ordure, &c., which other- 
 wise would create a disagreeable effluvia, and breed disor- 
 ders among them ; bad smells are very obnoxious to them, 
 and no smoking of tobacco should be allowed where they 
 arc kept ; they should be fed early in the morning, and 
 good leaves should be given them regularly at the times 
 appointed, that no waste of food may take place ; the leaves 
 should be fresh gathered, unless in rainy weather, and no 
 leaves offered to them, that have been kept in the house 
 until they have become yellow and sour, which will be the 
 case, in general, after the third day ; it is upon these atten- 
 tions, that a good crop depends; half-starved, neglected 
 worms, will give light, flimsy cocoons, whilst the diligent 
 will get them heavy and rich ; worms well attended to, and 
 generously fed, will complete the crop within forty-five or 
 fifty days ; those that are neglected will languish over two 
 months, and yield a light result. 
 
 The French and Italian establishments require large 
 premises, and a great variety of utensils, such as benches, 
 baskets, boxes of various sizes and shapes, to suit their ex- 
 tensive concerns ; in the progress of time, it will become 
 advisable for us to get acquainted with the minutiae of their 
 arrangements ; but at the present day, we shall only point out 
 such preparations as may be requisite to make a beginning, 
 and which each individual concerned may afterwards in- 
 crease and modify, according to his own views and situation. 
 
 Wherever silk- worms are to be raised in any number, it 
 is evident that a room should be appropriated solely for that 
 purpose ; any aspect will answer, except north ; the worms 
 require heat, but it must be a free heat, that is, with a suf- 
 ficient circulation of air ; a close, sultry air is very bad for 
 them, and so is a damp air ; we would much prefer, on that 
 account, a room up stairs to one on the ground floor ; an 
 unfinished room would answer very well ; the doors and 
 
276 
 
 SILK. 
 
 windows ought to oe closed whenever a sudden transition 
 to cold or damp takes place, or a thunder-storm comes on, 
 wdiich, oftenHmes, will prove an injury to these insects ; 
 shelve® or boards, put up round the room, would be very 
 convenient to keep the worms on, and, if requisite, a frame 
 in the centre of the room, with shelves one over the other, 
 sheets of large, stiff paper, or of pasteboard, with the edges 
 turned up all round, and stitched at the corners, would an- 
 swer very well to keep and feed the worms in, and when 
 they are to be cleaned, new leaves might be put in a fresh 
 paper, and laid by the side of that which wants cleaning ; 
 the worms would leave it quickly to go to the fresh leaves. 
 
 It will be necessary to appropriate a corner for the dis- 
 eased worms ; in the most favoured crop, there will be 
 many, and they ought to be taken away immediately, from 
 among the rest, and put into the hospital to recover, other- 
 wise the contagion may extend, and a great loss ensue. 
 
 After the cocoons are made, the first care is to take them 
 down from the brush, clearing away the loose silk by which 
 they are fastened, and selecting the best, those that feel 
 hard and substantial, and of the brightest colour, to keep 
 for seed ; the most desirable are the worms, which, at the 
 hatching time, came to life first ; they prove to be the most 
 hardy, and will make the best stock ; it is necessary to keep 
 an equal number of each sex ; the male cocoons are the 
 longest and thinnest, pointed at both ends ; the females are 
 larger and rounder, blunt at both ends, and resembling 
 somewhat in shape a hen’s egg ; these chosen cocoons are 
 to be threaded with a needle, in strings of fifty, more or 
 less, taking great care to run the needle slightly through 
 the silk, without hurting the chrysalis which is inside ; 
 these strings are to be hung against the wainscot of the 
 room, and, in the course of from fifteen to twenty days, the 
 millers will come out, males and females ; the males always 
 come out first ; the females are the whitest and the largest ; 
 the males appear most active, and shake their wings. It is 
 necessary to procure pieces of woollen cloth, (the Italians 
 always use scarlet,) and to place the millers on them in 
 rov/s, male and female by the side of each other ; after 
 pairing, the male dies ; the female soon lays her seed on 
 the cloth ; it appears as if glued on ; a female yields about 
 three hundred seeds ; they are first white or yellow, and 
 change to various hues, and finally, if good, become and re- 
 main of a dark grey. The Italians preserve the seed on the 
 pieces of scarlet clotli, and at the proper time their women 
 
SILK. 
 
 277 
 
 wear them in their bosoms, as observed before, to hatch it. 
 The French are in the habit of scraping the seed off from the 
 cloth, and by wetting, slightly, the back of the cloth, it 
 will come off easy, and without injury ; they put it up, then, 
 in small bags ; whether it is scraped from, or left on the 
 cloth, it should be packed carefully, and preserved over the 
 winter, in a dry place, where it does not freeze^ and where it 
 is not too hot ; if it should freeze, the principle of life would 
 be destroyed, and if it should be too warm, the seed would 
 start for hatching, and would be lost ; one hundred pair of 
 cocoons will weigh about one pound, and give about one 
 ounce of seed. 
 
 Persons who intend to make a business of raising silk 
 should raise their own seed ; it is too important a part of 
 the concern to intrust to strangers ; they should pay the 
 most particular attention to the choice of the cocoons, which 
 they select for seed, and to the preservation of that seed 
 through the winter. The French use stoves to warm occa- 
 sionally the rooms, where the worms are reared, and thus 
 secure them against any unexpected return of cold weather, 
 and perhaps it may be requisite to use that caution in such 
 parts of New England, as are much to the north or west of 
 Boston ; in its neighbourhood, and farther south, we be- 
 lieve that it would not be necessary, and that the only cau 
 tion requisite, would be the closing of doors and windows, 
 whenever a sudden change in the weather might require 
 it. We have observed before, that hot weather is favour- 
 able for the worms, and they can bear it to a high degree, 
 provided it is not sultry and close ; on that account, the 
 room where they are kept should be so situated, and the 
 windows so arranged, that there may be at any time a 
 thorough draft, when wanted, so as to prevent that dead- 
 ness of air, and unpleasant smell, which would greatly en- 
 danger the health and lives of the worms ; in extreme cases 
 of sultriness, the French are in the habit of burning a small 
 quantity of nitre, in an earthen ware dish, which greatly 
 improves the atmosphere of the premises ; it may also an- 
 swer a good purpose, in such cases, to heat a brick or a 
 stone, and throw on it some vinegar. 
 
 Respecting the hatching, from the information we have 
 obtained of individuals who have attended to that business 
 in our country, nothing is required, when the proper time 
 comes, but to place the seed in a warmer room, but not to 
 the sun, and it will hatch naturally in the course of a short 
 time ; it will take several days, and a longer time than when 
 24 
 
278 
 
 SILK. 
 
 assisted by human heat ; but which is the best, and prefer- 
 able method of the two, for our climate, time and experi- 
 ence must determine ; the French and Italians think the 
 finest crop is generally secured by hastening the worms 
 through the various stages of their existence, from the 
 hatching to the ascending, and that any check or delay is 
 to be esteemed as unfavourable to the ultimate success ; 
 hence their vigilance to secure an even temperature in the 
 apartments, an abundance of food for the worms, adapted 
 to their age, in its quality, a perfect and constant cleanliness, 
 and such an arrangement of the windows, doors, and traps 
 in the floors, as to ensure a free circulation of air, and to 
 prevent that suffocating and offensive atmosphere, which 
 would undoubtedly occasion a great mortality among them. 
 The cocoons will not be of a uniform colour, they will be of 
 various shades of yellow, and some white, yet they all are 
 of one and the same species, and may all be worked to- 
 gether ; after the cocoons are gathered, and cleared of the 
 iios silk, which fastened them to the brush, they should be 
 reeled without delay, and before the millers come out, for 
 if the silk is left on until then, the quality is thereby in- 
 jured ; they should be thrown into a kettle of hot water, a 
 small quantity at a time, and stirred with light, clean rods; 
 tills will dissolve the tenacious gum by which the threads 
 adhere together ; female industry will search out the end 
 of the thread, and wind and spin the threads from ten to 
 fourteen cocoons together into one single thread, with that 
 care and correctness which will make a silk perfectly even, 
 and perfectly clean. 
 
 Here we could enter into minute details, and furnish 
 drawings of such wdnding and reeling machines as are used 
 in the large Italian and French establishments, but we con- 
 skier that, at the present early period, it would have a ten- 
 dency to fatigue and perplex the attention of such of our 
 readers as may wish to embark in a trial ; their first attempt 
 will probably be upon a limited scale, and undoubtedly the 
 simple means used for winding and reeling in this state and 
 in Connecticut, w^hich may be more easily learnt by actual 
 view tlian by tedious descriptions, will be found amply suf- 
 ficient, and, as we progress in the business, our own intelli- 
 gence and experience, gradually assisted by further informa- 
 tion respecting the practice of Europe, will make us fully 
 acquainted with the best process. When it is not conveni- 
 ent to wind and reel all the cocoons at that time, then all 
 the millers must be destroyed before they come out, in order 
 
SILK. 
 
 279 
 
 to save the silk from injury ; this may be done in the follow- 
 ing manner ; — a kettle of hot water must be prepared, and, 
 when boiling, a sieve, filled with cocoons about three or four 
 inches thick, may be placed over the kettle, so as to receive 
 the hot steam without dipping in the water ; a wooden 
 cover may be placed over the sieve to confine the steam, 
 and, after leaving it in that situation for about ten minutes, 
 you throw the cocoons into a cloth, and wrap them up in it, 
 that the heat may be sure to penetrate into them, and de- 
 stroy the life of the chrysalis ; they must, immediately af- 
 terwards, be spread in the sun to dry thoroughly, and then 
 be put away on shelves, or on a floor, spread very thin, that 
 the dead insects within may dry up and harden, otherwise 
 they might corrupt there, and stain the silk ; when this is 
 done, the cocoons may be kept, if convenient, for three 
 years, without any ill effect to the quality of the silk, which 
 will wind easily, and be as good as if it had been wound 
 immediately, but will not appear quite so bright. 
 
 At the opening of the season, the object to attend to is, 
 as soon as convenient, to procure good seed of the white 
 mulberry, and to sow it in rows as before directed, hoeing 
 the young plants carefully and frequently, to keep them 
 free from weeds, and as thrifty as possible, that they may 
 gain strength not to suffer from the first winter: the second 
 spring after sowing, they will be in a good condition for 
 gathering, and feeding the worms; nay, any person, who 
 should feel desirous of driving the business, might begin to 
 use them the first spring after sowing, and keep one sowing 
 in reserve, not to be used until the third year, when the 
 plants, being better rooted, and stronger, could bear, without 
 any ill consequences, to be cut down near the ground, and 
 would soon be up again for a second crop ; it would be 
 desirable to transplant some of the young trees into edge 
 rows, placing them at the distance of two feet apart, and 
 suffering them to grow in the manner of bushes, which 
 would be convenient for gathering the leaves ; some also 
 should be transplanted to grow singly with a butt ; such 
 trees (as mentioned before) will give the best and most 
 substantial food ; thus the drills of seedlings would give the 
 earliest and tenderest food for the little worms at their birth, 
 the leaves of the edge-rows would afford a food next in 
 substance, suitable after the second shedding, and the 
 eaves of the mature standard trees would, after the fourth 
 shedding, offer to their voraciousness that substantial food, 
 which is very requisite, at that time, to satisfy them, and tr 
 
280 
 
 SILK. 
 
 ensure a rich and heavy crop ; choosing for the whole plan ' 
 tation a piece of sheltered, high ground, sweet and W’^ell 
 laid to the sun, and planting ridges, hedges, and trees, in 
 such a manner as will give to all the uninterrupted benefit 
 of the light and heat of the sun. 
 
 Fully aware of the importance of the object we have 
 presented to the attention of the community, we cannot 
 leave it, without making a concluding appeal to the intelli- 
 gence and energy of our countrymen, not to suffer any de- 
 lay to take place in setting their hands to a work so prom- 
 ising of results the most favourable to our comforts, and for 
 our welfare : the first step is wfitliin the farmer’s immediate 
 department, to sow the mulberry-seed, and rear the young 
 trees ; and after two years of attendance, the silk raising 
 may commence in good earnest, and will become a healthy 
 and pleasant business for children and young women. This 
 rich crop will require but two months’ care to secure it, and, 
 wfien the business shall flourish on a large scale, which we 
 anticipate as probable within a short period, the rais- 
 ing of the cocoons will become a distinct occupation for 
 farmers’ families ; the winding and reeling of them, most 
 probably, will be carried on as a distinct and separate 
 branch of industry ; this is actually the case in all the silk- 
 growing countries, where the cocoons are carried to the 
 public markets, and sold for ready cash to those who keep 
 filatures, where they wind and reel them. 
 
 Great advantages will accrue to the younger members of 
 farmers’ families, in cultivating so pleasant and profitable an 
 employment at home : it will offer to many young women 
 a choice between home and the factories, and a resource 
 in case the liberal encouragement given to manufactures 
 should eventually prove the cause of business being over- 
 done ; it will also offer valuable resources for the pauper 
 establishments, where the old and infirm, under a discreet 
 and judicious government, may be made to provide them- 
 selves a comfortable support. If we take a retrospective 
 view of the affairs of mankind, since the times of early 
 record, we find that the riches and the prosperity resulting 
 from commerce and navigation, or from a system of exten- 
 sive manufactures, however brilliant, are comparatively of 
 short and uncertain duration ; the changes of views and 
 systems of a government at home, the changes of policy 
 among foreign nations, render the whole fabric subject to 
 many sudden and unforeseen vicissitudes, and dependent 
 Upon the results of relations abroad, and of the compromise 
 
SKIllRET. 
 
 281 
 
 of jarring interests at home, setting at defiance, in the 
 course of time, the subtle calculations of the most accom- 
 plished statesman ; but the prosperity which is founded upon 
 a perfected agriculture, that combines with intelligence the 
 abilities of the soil and climate, so as to naturalize, by in- 
 dustry, rich crops of products, unknown to its original situ- 
 ation, is a prosperity not liable to changes ; it becomes in- 
 herent and lasting. Of the great results of a rich cultiva- 
 tion upon the circumstances and ability of a people, Italy 
 affords a convincing illustration : although groaning under 
 bigotry and priestcraft, without foreign commerce, and with- 
 out foreign navigation, yet, at various periods, three or four 
 years of peace, with good crops of silk and oil, (silk is the 
 richest,) have filled the country again with competence, 
 after the dreadful devastations of war. 
 
 There is a certain order in society, the members of which, 
 although not united by the bonds of corporate privileges, 
 although unknown to, and unacquainted v/ith, each other, 
 yet move on with a steady and harmonious step to one com- 
 mon end, — the prosperity of their country, the welfare of all 
 its inhabitants ; to them, the powerful Bearers of Light, re- 
 spectfully, we would recommend the consideration of the 
 object of these lines, and if their judgment joins in accord- 
 ance with our own, we invite them to endeavour to accel- 
 erate its completion, and to save it from a lingering course 
 through one or two generations. The knowledge of the 
 rearing of silk was imparted, in the course of about six 
 hundred years, by Greece to neighbouring Italy, and in about 
 three hundred and forty years more, it was communicated 
 across the line between Italy and France ; thus the progress 
 was slow indeed ; but such are the miserable results of ig- 
 norance and bad policy. 
 
 We would repeat, that the first step is to prepare an 
 abundance of food for the silk-worms by stocking our 
 warm, light lands with white mulberry-trees ; accordingl)q 
 wherever there are now white mulberry-trees bearing fruit, 
 the fruit should be carefully collected, when fully ripe, and 
 the seed should be washed *oiit, dried, and preserved ; it 
 will be much wanted, and it is both the duty and the inter- 
 est of the owners not to suffer even the smallest part to go 
 to waste. 
 
 SKIRRET . — Stum sisarum . — The skirret is a perennial 
 tap-rooted plant, a native of China. The lower leaves are 
 pinnated, and the stem rises about a foot higl., terminated 
 Dy an umbel of white flowers, in July and August. The 
 24 
 
582 
 
 SPINACH, OR SPINAGE 
 
 root is composed of fleshy tubers, about the size of the lit- 
 tle finger, and joined together at the crown or head : they 
 were formerly much esteemed in cookery. In the north of 
 Scotland, the plant is cultivated under the name of crurrir 
 mock, 
 
 “ Culture, — This plant grows freely in a lightish soil, 
 moderately good. It is propagated both from seed, and by 
 offsets of established roots. The better method is, to raise 
 seedlings, to have the root in perfection, young and tender. 
 
 By seed. — ‘ Sow between the 21st of March and the 
 15th of April; a fortnight later, rather than any earlier, for 
 a full crop, as plants raised forward in spring are apt to start 
 for seed in summer. Sow on an open compartment of light 
 ground, in small drills eight inches apart. When the plants 
 are one or two inches high, thin them to five or six inches 
 asunder. They will enlarge in growth till the end of au- 
 tumn ; but before the roots are full grown, in August, Sep- 
 tember, or October, some may be taken up for consumption 
 as wanted : those left to reach maturity will continue good 
 for use throughout winter, and in spring, till the stems run.’ 
 
 By slips. — ‘ Having some plants of last year’s rais- 
 ing, furnished with root-offsets, slip them off ; taking only 
 the young outward slips, and not leaving any of the larger 
 old roots adhering to the detached offsets ; which plant by 
 dibble, in rows from six to nine inches asunder. They 
 will soon strike, and enlarge, and divide into offsets ; which, 
 as well as the main roots, are eatable, and come in for use 
 in proper season.’ 
 
 “ To save seed, — Leave some old plants in the spring ; 
 they will shoot up stalks, and ripen seed in autumn.” — Lou-- 
 don. 
 
 Use, — The tubers are boiled, jserved up with butter, 
 and are declared by Worlidge, in 1682, to be ^the sweet- 
 est, whitest, and most pleasant of roots.’ ” — Loudon, The 
 common skirret has an agreeable aromatic flavour, and 
 abounds with saccharine particles : hence it has been con- 
 jectured that sugar might be advantageously extracted from 
 the root ; and M. Margraff states, that he obtained one ounce 
 and a half of pure sugar from half a pound of this vegeta- 
 ble. In a medicinal view, it possesses diuretic properties, 
 and is in a slight degree stimulant. — Dom, Encyc, 
 
 SPINACH, or SPINAGE.— oleracea.—The 
 common spinage is an annual plant, but it is not known of 
 what country it is a native. The leaves are large, the 
 stems hollow, branching, and, when allowed to produce 
 
SPINACH, OR SPINAGE. 
 
 283 
 
 flowers, rising from two to tliree feet high. The male and 
 female flowers are produced on different plants : the former 
 come in long terminal spikes ; the latter in clusters, close 
 to the stalk at every joint. 
 
 Varieties, — Russell’s Catalogue contains the follow- 
 ing 
 
 Round-leaved, or summer 5 
 Prickly, or fall 5 
 
 En^lisli palience dock, rumex patien- 
 
 tia, {for early greens ;) 
 
 Times of sowing. — “ The round is sown in April — the 
 others from August to September. The prickly is sown in 
 August and September for early spring greens.” — RusselVs 
 Catalogue. 
 
 Soil and situation. — As the excellence of spinaceous plants 
 consists in the succulency of the leaves, almost every thing 
 depends on giving them a rich soil, stirring it frequently, 
 and supplying water in dry seasons. The space they occu- 
 py in the garden is not considerable, say a thirtieth part ; 
 more especially as some of them, the common spinage for 
 example, often come in as a temporary crop between rows 
 of peas or beans, or among cauliflowers, broccoli, &c. 
 
 Seed and process in sowing. — “ When raised by itself, 
 spinage is generally sown broad-cast, and two ounces will 
 sow a bed four feet and a half by thirty feet ; but in drills, 
 one ounce will sow the same space. In drills it is easier 
 to weed and gather : let the drills be from nine to twelve 
 inches apart. Beds four feet wide, with small alleys, are 
 convenient of access. Let the ground be thoroughly dug. 
 Whether broad-cast or in drills, sow thinly, and rake or 
 earth in about an inch deep. 
 
 Subsequent culture. — When the plants are up, showing 
 leaves about an inch broad, clear them from weeds, either 
 by hand or small hoeing, and thin the plants, where crowd- 
 ed, (especially the broad-cast crops,) to three inches apart ; 
 and, when advanced in growth, every other may be cut out 
 for use, increasing the distance to about six inches, that 
 the remainder may grow stocky, with large spreading 
 leaves. The plants of the early and succession crops at- 
 tain proper growth for gathering in April, May and June. 
 When the leaves are from two to five inches in breadth, 
 cut the plants clean out to the bottom, or sometimes cut 
 only the largest leaves. But as soon as there is any ap- 
 pearance of their running to seed, they may be drawn ou^ 
 clean as wanted.” 
 
 Holland or Iambus quarter ; 
 
 New Zealand; tetr^ona eoepansis, (a 
 valuable new sort.) 
 
284 
 
 S<^UASH. 
 
 To save seed, — To obtain seed of the ronnd-Ieaved, 
 leave a sufficient quantity of established plants in April, 
 May, or June, to run up in stalks ; or transplant in autumn 
 some of the spring-sown which have not run. To save 
 seed of the triangular spinage, transplant, in March, some 
 good strong plants, of the winter crop. For large supplies, 
 a portion of each may be sown in February, or the tirst 
 fortnight of March, to stand wholly for seeding. Sow each 
 sort separate. Respecting both sides, observe that they 
 are of the class Dicecia^ the male and female flowers grow- 
 ing separately, on two distinct plants. When the plants 
 are flowering for seed, the cultivator should examine wheth- 
 er the male plants, distinguishable by the abundant farina 
 upon the blossoms, stand crowded or numerous to excess ; 
 in which case he should pull up the superfluous plants, 
 leaving a competency for fertilizing the female blossoms, 
 which else would prove abortive. And when the female 
 blossoms are set, it is best to dispose of all the male plants, 
 drawing them by hand ; which will give more room to 
 the females to grow and perfect their seed. The plants re 
 jected may be profitably given to young pigs. The seed 
 ripens in July and August.” — Abercrombie. 
 
 Use, — “ The leaves are used in soups, or boiled alone, and 
 mashed, and served up with gravies, butter, and hard-boiled 
 eggs. The leaves may be obtained from sowings in the open 
 ground at most seasons of the year, but chiefly in spring, 
 when they are largest and most succulent.” — Loudon, 
 According to the opinion of French physicians, this plant 
 is not only food, but physic, and is hence emphatically 
 called ^ Le balai de Pestomac’^ — the broom of the stomach 
 • — sweeping and deterging every hole and corner of that 
 organ, without giving pain, or in any degree interrupting 
 the ordinary avocations of the persons employing it.” — 
 Armstrong. 
 
 SQUASH. — Cucurbita melo pepo. — The squash is a 
 species of the cucurbita^ and seems to be the link which 
 connects the melon and pumpkin. 
 
 The varieties mentioned in RusselPs Catalogue are — 
 
 Early bush summer ; 
 Long* crook-neck, or bell j 
 Vegetable marrow 5 
 Acorn 5 
 
 Commodore Valparaiso, {grows large ^ 
 and is highly esteemed ;) 
 
 Canada crook-neck; [small, and of 
 superior quality,) 
 
 Squashes, of every kind, may be cultivated as directed 
 for cucumbers and melons — should be sown at the same 
 time, and at similar distances, with this difference, that two 
 
STRAWBERRY. 
 
 286 
 
 plants of these will be plenty for each hill, and that they 
 are easier j)l eased with soil and preparation than the oth- 
 ers.” — M‘‘ Mahon. 
 
 Use . — The squash is applicable to all the uses of the 
 pumpkin, and, for many purposes, is superior to that vege- 
 table. 
 
 STRAWBERRY. — Fragaria . — The substance of the 
 following article was written for this work, at the particular 
 request of its compiler, by a gentleman of Boston, whose 
 success, as a practical, is equal to his skill as a scientif- 
 ic horticulturist ; and whose liberality in imparting his 
 knowledge, as well as the results of its successful applica- 
 tion in introducing excellent varieties of fruits, merits the 
 thanks of the community. 
 
 Varieties . — Every year is producing new varieties of this 
 as well as almost all other fruits, from the care and attention 
 which are bestowed on them by the scientific cultivators 
 of Europe, among whom, at the present day, Mr. Knight, 
 the president of the London Horticultural Society, seems 
 to take the lead. 
 
 Society owes much to these gentlemen, and they are 
 constantly receiving the reward of their labours from the 
 many and continued testimonies of approbation, which their 
 success calls forth. But their chief gratification is derived 
 from the pursuit itself, which, above all others, is calculat- 
 ed to soothe and tranquillize the mind, and to lead men to 
 
 look through Nature up to Nature’s God.” 
 
 The kinds most esteemed in England are the pine, im- 
 perial, Bostock, Surinam, Bath scarlet, Downton, rose- 
 berry, Hudson Bay, large scarlet, musk hautbois, round 
 hautbois, and flat hautbois. 
 
 In France, the Bath scarlet is of long standing, and 
 much esteemed. The white, the Alpine, or monthly, and 
 the Chili, are also favourites. 
 
 The Chili is a shy bearer, but very large when it comes 
 to maturity — ^is not, I believe, known here : it stands on a 
 stiff, upright, and strong stem, in lieu of a pendulous one, 
 like the Hudson. 
 
 The Downton is, hov/ever, I believe, a larger strawberry, 
 and is uncommonly high flavoured. There are other new 
 varieties very large, of which I know nothing. The form 
 of the Downton is various ; many of them are shaped like 
 a cock’s comb, which name it has obtained in some horti- 
 cultural works. It was raised from seed by Mr. Knight, 
 
286 
 
 STRAWBERKr. 
 
 at Downton^ the name of his estate, and is a very good 
 bearer. 
 
 The roseherry is, in point of flavour, surpassed by no 
 cultivated strawberry I have seen. It resembles, in form 
 and flavour, the Alpine, but is a better bearer. This last, 
 
 The Alpine^ is a monthly strawberry ; it continues m 
 bearing from June until OcAOber in this climate — is like the 
 wood-strawberry in form and flavour, but is a shy bearer. 
 
 The scarlets are all large and fine fruit; the largest va- 
 riety are fine flavoured and very early. They are not very 
 great bearers, but should be cultivated as valuable varieties, 
 as well as for their beauty and excellent qualities. 
 
 The hautbois is the favourite English strawberry. It is 
 totally different from what is commonly called the hautbois 
 in this country. The flat hautbois grows generally on the 
 top of the vines — is brown, and greenish white when ripe 
 — fine flavoured, pretty good bearer, but difficult to detach 
 from its stalk. 
 
 The round hautbois is of a dark purple when ripe — is 
 somewhat in form like the common red strawberry, but 
 larger ; and the 
 
 Musk hautbois is like the preceding — a shy bearer, but 
 very delicious. 
 
 The mood-strawberry is far before any other in point of fla- 
 vour, and, if transplanted into gardens, may for two or three 
 years answer very well ; and if not too highly manured, 
 preserve their flavour and increase their size. But new 
 plants must be obtained, every two or three years, from the 
 woods, to make new plantations, or they will degenerate. 
 
 Soil and manure, — The soil proper for this last mentioned 
 variety, as well as all others, is light, warm, and gravelly ; 
 and the manure to be applied should be exclusively vegeta- 
 ble, and not animal manure. The usual practice is to ma- 
 nure the ground with rotten dung, with a view to increase 
 the size and quantity of fruit ; but, in doing this, the fla- 
 vour of the fruit is destroyed in proportion to the richness 
 of the soil. Besides, high manuring produces strong vines 
 and little fruit. Rotten leaves, decayed wood, ashes, in 
 small quantity, mixed with other vegetable substances in a 
 compost heap, wilt make better manure for strawberries 
 than any animal substance whatever. As the vines which 
 bear this fruit require great moisture to bring the fruit to 
 its proper size, the soil and situation in which they are 
 placed must not be too dry. 
 
STRAWBERRY. 
 
 287 
 
 } Propagation , — The usual time for transplanting straw- 
 berry -plants is August. That time is chosen because they 
 have tiien done bearing, and have made offsets, if the sea- 
 son has been favourable, of strong plants, set from their 
 runners. Plantations made at this season will bear some 
 fruit the next summer. But, if you can get good vigorous 
 plants in May of the preceding season, 1 prefer to plant 
 then, as it saves a year, nearly, the plants being ready to 
 bear abundantly the next year. 
 
 Gardeners have different habits and opinions as to trim- 
 ming the plants when they are put out. Some cut off all 
 the old leaves, and preserve only the naissant leaves in the 
 centre of the plant. Others take off the dead or decayed 
 leaves only, and plant with all the old healthy leaves on 
 the plant. This last plan is highly recommended by the 
 Abbe Rozier, but, so far as my experience goes, I have 
 found the first mentioned course the best. Many people 
 cut the roots in before they put them into the ground : all 
 dead substances should be cut off, but not the roots. When 
 the plants are put out, they should be kept free from weeds, 
 and the ground should be kept loose about them. If the 
 plants are strong, put but one to form the stools ; if weak, 
 put two. 
 
 As regards the distance at which plants should be set, 
 cultivators differ. The common red strawberry, which is 
 found in all our gardens, may be put eight inches apart in 
 rows nine inches or a foot from each other, and allowed to 
 form a matted bed of eighteen inches or two feet wide, 
 with a foot-path of a foot wide between them. But tb 
 larger and finer sorts should be planted in stools in betnr 
 four and a half feet wide, with a path of fifteen inches or 
 more between the beds. In these beds the plants should 
 be set, by a line, fifteen to eighteen inches apart, both 
 ways, taking care to set them in quincuncial order, and 
 to keep them from running together. 
 
 The objection generally made to this mode of cultivation 
 is, that the fruit is exposed to be injured by lying on the 
 ground, where it is bruised and covered with dirt every 
 time it rains. This, however, may be prevented by a little 
 care. In some parts of Europe, where moss is plenty, it 
 is collected and put round the stools, so as to prevent the 
 fruit from lying on the ground, and at the same time to 
 prevent the moisture round the plant from evaporat- 
 ing. 
 
 In some places, where moss is not to be got, straw is used 
 
288 
 
 SUNFLOWER. 
 
 for the same purpose ; hence the English name of straw- 
 berry.* But I think that leaves of trees that have been 
 collected in the spring, and kept under cover, are better 
 than either, and particularly the oak-leaf ; because, when 
 they are no longer wanted to protect the fruit, and keep 
 the moisture in the ground, they can be dug in round the 
 stpols, where they serve as most excellent manure for thivS 
 delicious fruit. 
 
 The strawberry may also be propagated by seeds. 
 Knight, in making experiments, with a view of ascer- 
 taining whether most of the sorts would not breed togeth- 
 er indiscriminately, raised above four hundred varieties, 
 some very bad, but the greater part tolerably good, and a 
 few very excellent.” The fruit of above a dozen sorts was 
 sent to the Horticultural Society [in London] in August, 
 1818 , and found of various degrees of excellence. The 
 seeds, if sown immediately after gathering, will produce 
 plants which will come into bearing the following year. — 
 Loudon- 
 
 Use . — The fruit is fragrant, (whence fragaria^) deli- 
 cious, and universally esteemed. It consists almost entirely 
 of matter soluble in the stomach, and neither there nor 
 when laid in heaps, and left to rot, does it undergo the ace- 
 tous fermentation. Hence it is very nourishing, and may 
 be safely eaten by gouty and rheumatic persons. ‘ In ad- 
 dition to its grateful flavour, the subacid juice has a cooling 
 quality, particularly acceptable in summer. Eaten either 
 alone, or with sugar and cream, there are few constitutions 
 with which strawberries, even when taken in large quanti- 
 ties, are found to disagree. Further, they have properties 
 which render them, in most conditions of the animal frame, 
 positively salutary ; and physicians concur in placing them 
 in their small catalogue of pleasant remedies. They dis- 
 solve the tartareous incrustations of the teeth. They 
 promote perspiration. Persons afflicted with the gout have 
 found relief from using them very largely ; so have patients 
 in cases of the stone ; and Hoffman states, that he has 
 known consumptive people cured by them. The bark of 
 the root is astringent.’ — Abercrombie.'^’^ — Loudon. 
 
 SUNFLOWER . — Helianthus annuus . — This plant is a 
 native of South America, but naturalized and become com- 
 
 ^ This name is common in all the northern countries, while in France, and 
 countries south, it is said they take their name from their fla» our, or the botaui 
 •al name fragaria. 
 
TANSY TARRAGON. TEASEL. 
 
 289 
 
 mon ill the United States. It is easily propagated in any 
 common soil, either by sowing the seeds, or by slips or off- 
 sets from the roots. 
 
 From a paper on the subject of sunflower-oil, in the first 
 vol. of Trans. Ainer. Phil. Society.^ it apjiears that one bush- 
 el of seed yields three quarts of oil ; and that this quantity 
 of seed is produced from one hundred plants, set about 
 three feet apart, in the same manner that Indian corn is 
 planted. The oil is thin, clear, and of an agreeable taste. 
 
 The process for expressing the oil is the same as that of 
 making linseed-oil. 
 
 TANSY. — Tanacetum vulgare. — Tansy is a perennial 
 plant, which grows without cultivation in Great Britain and 
 in some parts of the United States. 
 
 Culture. — Tansy may be propagated in spring or autumn 
 by rooted slips, or by dividing the roots into several sets : 
 plant them in any compartment of the kitchen or physic 
 garden, from twelve to eighteen inches asunder. The 
 plant continues for several years, producing abundant tufts 
 of leaves annually. As they run up in strong stalks in 
 summer, these should be cut down to encourage a pro- 
 duction of young leaves below on the stem. To have 
 young tansy in winter, plant some roots either in a hot- 
 bed, or in pots placed therein, or in a pinery, or forcing 
 house, at any time from November to March. — Abercrombie. 
 
 Use. — The young leaves are shredded down, and em- 
 ployed to give colour and flavour to puddings ; they are 
 also used in omelets and other cakes, and were formerly in 
 much repute as a vermifuge.” — Loudon. 
 
 TARRAGON. — Artemisia dracunculus . — Culture. — This 
 is a perennial plant, which may be propagated from seed, 
 or from slips or offsets, in the same manner that tansy, 
 mint, &c. are cultivated. 
 
 Use. — “ Tarragon is frequently used in salads, especially 
 by the French, to correct the coldness of other herbs. 
 The leaves make an excellent pickle : they have a fragrant 
 smell and aromatic taste. The use of them in Persia has 
 ever been general, at meals, to create an appetite. The 
 famous vinegar of Maille, in France, owes its superior fla- 
 vour to this plant, which is now common in Pennsylvania.” 
 — Dr. Mease. 
 
 TEASEL. — Dipsacus. — The teasel or jollier’s thistle is 
 an herbaceous biennial, growing from four to six feet high, 
 prickly or rough in the stem and leaves, and terminating in 
 rough, burr-like heads of flowers. 
 
 25 
 
290 
 
 THYME. 
 
 Propagation and culture, — This plant is propagated by 
 sowing the seeds either in March or April, upon a soil that 
 has been well ploughed, and it is observed that good v/heat- 
 land is well adapted for the production of teasels. The 
 ground being ploughed and made fine, from one peck to 
 two of seed is generally sown upon an acre, and harrow- 
 ed in with a light harrow. When the plants are up, hoe 
 them in the same manner as practised for turnips, thinning 
 out the plants from time to time, till eventually they are left 
 about a foot apart. They should be kept clear from weeds, 
 and the second year after sowing, the plants will shoot up 
 stalks with heads, which are collected in August, as soon as 
 they begin to turn brown. They are then expc«>ed daily to 
 the sun till they become perfectly dry, care being taken 
 to protect them from rain. They are to be collected as 
 they turn brown and ripen, and not all at once. 
 
 Use, — This plant is cultivated in great quantities, in the 
 west of England, for raising the nap on woollen cloths, by 
 means of the crooked awns or chaffs upon the heads ; which 
 in the wild sort are said to be less hooked. For this pur- 
 pose they are fixed round the circumference of a cylinder, 
 which is made to turn round, and the cloth is held against 
 them. For a more detailed account of the culture of this 
 plant, see Encyc, of Agr, p. 852, N, E. Farmer^ vol. vi. 
 pp. 307, 322. 
 
 THYME. — Thymus vulgaris, — There are, according to 
 Loudon, two species of thyme, cultivated for culinary pur- 
 poses, the common and the lemon thyme. 
 
 Common or garden thyme is a native of Spain and Italy. 
 Of this there are two varieties, the broad and the narrow- 
 leaved, besides the variegated, grown for ornament. 
 
 Lemon thyme — T, cltriodorus — is a very low evergreen 
 shrub, trailing, and seldom rising above four or six inches in 
 height. It is distinguished by its strong smell of lemons. 
 
 Cidture , — The plant is best raised from seed. Sow as 
 early in the spring as the season will permit, in a bed or 
 border of light, fine earth, either broad-cast, scattered thin, 
 and raked in lightly, or in small, shallow drills, six inches 
 asunder. Tlie after-culture is simple, and similar to that of 
 other sweet herbs, such as marjoram, sage, &c. In soils 
 which are cold, stiff, or moist, it does not thrive; its 
 branches become ragged, its leaves few, and its flowers, and 
 their peculiar aroma, feeble and faded.” — Armstrong, 
 
 Use,—^‘ The young leaves and tops are used in soups, 
 stuffings, and sauces. For these purposes, the broad-leaved 
 
TO MATO . TURN I P . 
 
 291 
 
 common is generally preferred ; but the ikvour of the yel- 
 low is much liked in peculiar dishes .” — iMudoiu “All 
 
 the parts of this plant, but particularly the calyx of its 
 flower, yields an essential oil, yellow and odorous, and 
 highly charged with camphor. In the kitchen, it is used 
 as an ingredient in sauces and stuffings, and in what are 
 technically called forced meaisd^ — Arrv^trong, 
 
 TOIMATO. — Planum hjcopersicum. — “ This plant is of 
 the same family with the potato, and, like it, is a native of 
 Southern America. It has several species, two of which 
 fall under our notice as garden vegetables, and are distin- 
 guished from each other only by a difference of size. The 
 smaller is held to be the parent plant, and has the advan- 
 tage of ripening sooner, and better resisting cold weather. 
 To have an early crop, sow the seeds in a dry and warm 
 soil, and sheltered situation, in October, and cover the bed 
 with straw, or stable-litter, during the winter. For sum- 
 mer and fall use, sow again in May, and water freely. If 
 the soil and situation be favourable, and the culture proper, 
 the product will be great The distance between the plants 
 should not be less than two feet.” — Armstrong. 
 
 Use. — “ When ripe, the fruit, which has an acid flavour, 
 is put into soups and sauces, and the juice is preserved for 
 winter use, like ketchup ; it is also used in confectionary, 
 as a presei^e, and, when green, as a pickle. Though a 
 good deal used in England, in soups, and as a principal in- 
 gredient in a well known sauce for mutton, yet our estima- 
 tion and uses of the fruit are nothing to those of the French 
 and Italians, and especially the latter. Near Rome and 
 Naples, whole fields are covered with it; and scarcely a 
 dinner is served up, in which it does not, in some way or 
 other, form a part.” — Loudoun. 
 
 TURNIP. — Brassica rapa. — Russell’s Catalogue con- 
 tains the following varieties : 
 
 Early v/hite Dutch ; 
 
 Early garden stone ; 
 
 White flat, or globe 5 
 Green rounds 
 Red round ; 
 
 Swanks egg ; 
 
 Large English Norfolk , 
 Long tankard, or Hanover j 
 
 Long yellow French 5 
 Yellow Dutch 5 
 Yellow Maltese; 
 
 Yellow Aberdeen 5 
 Yellow stone ; 
 
 Yellow Swedish, Russia, or ruta 
 baga; 
 l>edham. 
 
 The first three sorts arc fittest for early, first succession, 
 and main crops. The French turnip, according to Loudon, 
 is of excellent flavour, and is in high repute in France, Ger- 
 many, and Holland. The Swedish, for its large size and 
 
292 
 
 TURNIP. 
 
 hardy nature, is extensively cultivated in fields for cattle 
 it is also occasionally raised in gardens for the table, to use 
 in winter and spring. 
 
 Seed estimate, — For a seed-bed four feet and a half by 
 twenty-four, the plants to remain and be thinned to seven 
 inches’ distance, half an ounce. 
 
 Time of sowing, — Make first a small sowing of some of 
 the early sorts, in the last fortnight of Ma‘rch or the first days 
 of April, for turnips in May and June; but, as these will 
 run to seed the same season, make a larger sowing about 
 the middle of April. The first considerable sowing may be 
 about the middle or towards the end of May, for roots to 
 draw young about the end of June, and in full growth in 
 July and August. The principal sowing should be about 
 the middle of July. ‘‘ Doing it on a set day is ridiculous ; 
 for a time should be chosen when the ground has the right 
 degree of moisture to make the seed vegetate; and if this 
 should happen a week earlier or a fortnight later than the 
 usual time, it need not be regretted ; but the opportunity 
 ought to be embraced.” — Abercrombie, They may be sown 
 to advantage in New England as late as the first week in 
 August ; and those which are put into the ground so late 
 will be less liable to be injured by insects than when sown 
 earlier. 
 
 Soil and situation, — Sand or gravel, with a mixture of 
 loam, produce the sweetest and best flavoured roots. It 
 should be made fine, but not too rich, lest the turnips be 
 rank and ill tasted. Ground which has been newly cleared 
 from the forest yields the largest and sweetest roots ; and 
 on such spots there is least danger from insects. “ Next 
 to new land, swarded ground is to be chosen for a crop of 
 turnips ; and the way to prepare it is, to plough it pretty 
 deep in the spring, and fold it by turning in the stock for a 
 good number of nights ; for there is scarcely any of our 
 fields sufficiently rich to produce turnips without manuring; 
 and folding hitherto appears to be the best method of en- 
 riching the ground for this purpose. It should be well 
 harrowed as often as once a week, while the folding is con- 
 tinued, to mix the excrements of the cattle with the soil.” 
 — Deane. 
 
 Process in sowing^ and precautions against the fly , — “ Let 
 the ground be well broken by regular digging, and neatly 
 levelled to receive the seed. Procure bright, well dried 
 seed. At a season when the turnip-fly is not apprehended, 
 the seed may be put into the ground without any prepara- 
 
TURNIP. 
 
 293 
 
 tioTij either alone or mixed with a little sand ; but in the 
 hot weather of summer, it is advisable to use some cheap 
 and eflectiial preventive of the fly. It appears from a trial 
 of Knight, at the suggestion of Sir Humphrey Davy, that 
 lime slaked with urine, and mixed with a treble quantity 
 of soot, if sprinkled in with the seed at the time of sowing, 
 will protect the seeds and germs from the ravages of this 
 pernicious insect ; but this antidote cannot be conveniently 
 applied unless the sowing be in drills. A yet simpler 
 remedy, found by Mean to be perfectly successful, is, to 
 steep the seed in sulphur-water, putting an ounce of sul- 
 phur to a pint of water, which will be sufficient for soaking 
 about three pounds of seed.” — Abercrombie, 
 
 The method of sowing is either broad-cast or in drills. 
 In the former mode, Abercrombie directs to allow half an 
 ounce of seed for every one hundred square feet. Deane 
 says, the quantity of seed for an acre is never less than one 
 pound — more frequently a pound and a half, and sometimes 
 two. In sowing by broad-cast, the seed may be covered by 
 drawing a light harrow backward, that is, wrong end 
 foremost, to prevent the tines, which are generally set some- 
 what pointed forward, from tearing up the sods, and bury- 
 ing the seed too deep.” If sowed in rows, the drills may 
 be an inch deep, and twelve or fifteen inches asunder. 
 
 Subsequent culture. — As soon as the plants have rough 
 leaves, about an inch broad, hoe and thin them to six or 
 eight inches’ distance, cutting up all weeds. As the tur- 
 nips increase in the root, a part may be drawn young, by 
 progressive thinnings, so as to leave those designed to reach 
 a full size ultimately ten or twelve inches apart. 
 
 Taking and preserving the crop. — In England they feed 
 the turnips off the g-round with sheep, or draw them up for 
 neat cattle, through the winter, as they are wanted ; but, 
 in this country, they must be harvested in autumn, about 
 the end of October, or even earlier in some seasons and 
 places, and stored and saved, as directed for preserving 
 other roots. See page 50. 
 
 To save seed. — Some of the best roots of the middling 
 size should be planted early in the spring, in a good spot, 
 free from shade. They should be in rows, eighteen inches 
 asunder, and the ground must be kept clear of weeds till 
 the seed is ripe. Stakes and laths may be needful round 
 the outside, to keep the branches from falling to the ground 
 before the seed is fully ripe.” — Beane. “ It is preferable, 
 
 however, to procure turnip-seed, as indeed that of most 
 25 * 
 
294 
 
 VINE. 
 
 Other vegetables, from the regular seedsmen ; as the seed 
 farmers have opportunities of keeping the sorts distinct,, 
 wliich cannot be within the precincts of a walled garden.” 
 — Loudon. 
 
 Use, — The common culinary uses of the turnip, 
 boiled, mashed, &c.,. are too w’^ell known to need any notice. 
 We shall mention some uses not so common. 
 
 ‘‘For feeding horses, — These, when fed on turnips, are 
 induced to eat the barn-chaff, and other dry food, with a 
 good appetite — are kept healthy, and will work without 
 corn. 
 
 “ For feeding cows, — To make sweet and well tasted but- 
 ter from the milk of co^vs fed on turnips, let the milk ves- 
 sels be kept constantly clean and well scalded with boiling 
 water, before using. When the milk is brought into the 
 dairy, to every eight quarts mix one quart of boiling water; 
 then put up the milk into the bowl to stand for cream. 
 
 “As a substitute for bread, — When the dearness of all sorts 
 of corn occasioned many poor people in Essex [England] 
 to make bread of turnips, they took the peeled roots, and 
 boiled them in water till they were soft ; then, strongly 
 pressing out their juices, they mixed them with their w^eight 
 of wheat-meal ; and adding salt, yeast, and warm water,, 
 they kneaded k up as other paste ; which, having lain a 
 little while to ferment, they ordered and baked as common 
 bread.” — Gleanings in Husbandry, 
 
 VINE. — Vitis, — Many gentlemen in this neighbour- 
 hood have given considerable attention to the cultivation 
 of grapes in the open air upon open trellises, and some 
 have succeeded remarkably well, although they have had 
 to contend with the many difficulties whicli that delicate 
 and delicious fruit is subject to in this climate. 
 
 Having given some personal attention to this fruit for 
 several years, I am satisfied tliat it can be raised in great 
 perfection, and with little trouble to the cultivator, if he set 
 out right in the first instance, and follow up the system 
 prescribed with attention and oare. 
 
 Although most men, wffiio have any knowledge in horti- 
 culture, know more or less respecting the mode of cultivat- 
 ing this plant, yet there are many new beginners, v/ho 
 may collect some hints from these notes, which may aid 
 them in the outset ; and many gentlemen, wdio have been 
 long in the habit of raising grapes in their gardens, may ob- 
 tain some information as to the means of preserving the 
 plants from the destructive insect which has of years 
 
VINE 295 
 
 attacked the vines, and destroyed the promise of their early 
 growth and the fair appearance of their fruit. 
 
 The best treatises on the subject of raising grape-vines 
 recommend planting the cuttings in pots ; but in this country 
 it is entirely unnecessary, as the plants may be easily raised 
 in the open grounds with little trouble and no expense ; and 
 if we can add to our collection of fine fruits one, which, in 
 sickness as well as in health, is the most refreshing and 
 nutritive of any that we possess, with little expense, and 
 even with profit to the cultivator, we shall do a great good. 
 
 The best mode of raising the plants is by cuttings taken 
 from the vines at the fall pruning, and preserved in earth 
 till spring. These may be made either of one eye or bud, 
 or of four or five, attached to a small portion of the two 
 years’ old wood, forming a cutting in the shape of a small 
 mallet 
 
 The year . — They may be raised in a small nursery- 
 
 bed, prepared of a good light soil — set in the ground six 
 inches distant from each other, with the rows wide enough 
 apart to permit them to be weeded with a narrow hoe ; or, 
 they may be put, in the first instance, where they are to be 
 reared, and left to grow, at the distance of five, six, or seven 
 feet, or more, according to the wishes of the cultivator. In 
 this latter case there should be three cuttings put into each 
 spot, six inches apart, to ensure the setting of one. When 
 this is ascertained with certainty, the two weakest may be 
 fvithdrawn, leaving the best of the three to grow. If the 
 cuttings be of one eye each, they should be from the last 
 year’s growth, and a small piece of the branch, an inch longy 
 should be left attached to the bud, and extending half an 
 inch on each side of it. These should be planted two 
 inches below the surface, with the bud uppermost, and a 
 small stake placed by the side of them, that they may not 
 be disturbed. If the cuttings are of several eyes, tht^y 
 should be laid in the ground sloping, leaving one eye level 
 with, or only just above, the surface. They should be kent 
 moist, but not wet, as this will rot them. A spot which 
 receives the morning sun till eleven o’clock, and not after- 
 wards, is the best for a nursery-bed for them ; but, for per- 
 manency, they should be planted where they will receive 
 the sun longest ; and, in this case, they should be shaded at 
 noon day until they have entirely put out. One bud only 
 should be allowed to push from the cutting the first year ; 
 the plant should be kept free from weeds ; the earth kept 
 light around it, and as soon as the shoot has attained 
 
296 
 
 VINE 
 
 Strength enough to produce laterals, they should be rubbed 
 out, and the shoot tied to a small stake, by which means it 
 will gain firmness, and the admission of the sun and air to 
 the shoot will prepare it to bear the frost of the fall, and 
 prevent its imbibing the moisture which it would otU^r 
 wise be subject to, when covered with earth in the winter. 
 By the first of November the shoots may be cut down to 
 two eyes, and by the middle of the month, if it be dry 
 weather, they may be covered over with earth, forming a 
 slope to cast off the wet and prevent the rains from pene- 
 trating — -as the drier the plant is kept during the winter, in 
 the better state it will b5 in the succeeding spring. 
 
 The 2d year , — The plants should not be uncovered in 
 this climate till the middle of April. Those from the nur- 
 sery should now be transplanted to the places where they 
 are to remain ; a shoot from each eye should be permitted 
 to push, but as soon as you have ascertained which of the 
 two will be the strongest and the best situated, you will 
 preserve that, and rub out the other. The shoot preserved 
 you will be careful to tie up to a small stake, as soon as it 
 has length enough for this purpose, to prevent its being 
 broken by the wind or other casualty. During the summer, 
 the laterals from the four or five lowest buds must be rub- 
 bed out, and the shoot be carefully protected by being kept 
 tied every eight or ten inches. 
 
 The next fall you may cut this shoot down to two buds, 
 (not counting the one in the crotch of the plant between 
 the old and new wood,) and cover over as before. 
 
 The 3d year , — You will allow shoots to push from both 
 the eyes, and suffer them to grow, taking care of them as 
 recommended above ; but the bud in the crotch must be 
 rubbed out. This year you must rub out the laterals from 
 the five lowest buds, and nip in the other laterals to one 
 eye, so that, if the plant grows luxuriantly, the sap may burst 
 from the buds of the laterals, and not from those of the 
 main branch, as it would do if the vine was dressed too 
 close. Be careful to keep the branches tied up, that they 
 may not be broken. In November, cut down the two 
 branches as follows : the most feeble of the two, to two 
 buds, to produce wood branches the succeeding season ; 
 and the strongest to three buds, for fruit branches, and 
 cover them as usual. 
 
 The 4th year , — If you keep your vines properly dressed, 
 you may have your first fruits without injury to your plants, 
 After this, the system to be pursued mUvSt depend on the 
 
VINE. 
 
 297 
 
 strength of your vines, and this will depend on the goodness 
 of the soil and the care you take of your plants. But, as a 
 general rule, the following points must be attended to 
 
 1. The number and length of your fruit branches must 
 always depend on the strength of your plant ; the wood 
 branches are always to be cut down to two eyes. 
 
 2. No more branches should be left on the vine than it 
 can nourish well and abundantly; this will depend on 
 its age, and the soil in which it grows. 
 
 3. The branches should be cut in alternately for wood 
 and fruit branches, observing to cut for wood branches as 
 low down on the plant as possible, so as to renew your 
 wood near the bottom annually. No shoots should be per- 
 mitted to grow from the old wood, unless wanted for this 
 purpose. 
 
 4. No more shoots should be permitted to grow than can 
 be laid in clear, and handsome, and without confusion, on 
 the trellis, and so as to admit the sun and air freely among 
 the branches. 
 
 5. The laterals should be rubbed out of the wood 
 branches six or eight eyes high, and those that are per- 
 mitted to remain should be pinched into one bud. The 
 laterals on the fruit branches should be rubbed out from the 
 insertion of the shoot to the uppermost fruit inclusive, and 
 the others pinched in as above. If the shoots are very 
 strong, the upper laterals may be allowed to grow, to take 
 up a greater portion of the sap ; but this should not be 
 done unless there is danger of the eyes bursting in the 
 main shoots. Be careful always to keep the shoots tied up 
 near their top. 
 
 6. Never leave more than five good eyes on a fruit-bear- 
 ing branch, unless your vine is confined to a narrow space, 
 and you are obliged to preserve only two or three fruit 
 branches ; in this case the length of the branch must cor- 
 respond to the nourishment it will receive from the plant. 
 Select the roundest and fairest branches for fruit, and the 
 lowest and most feeble for wood. The closer the buds are 
 together, or the shorter the joints of the branch, the better 
 they are for fruit ; these may in general be cut to three, 
 four, or five eyes, according to their strength. But in 
 vineries covered with glass, where two fruit-bearing 
 branches only are left on strong vines, twenty, thirty, and 
 forty buds are sometimes left on fruit branches. 
 
 The foregoing rules will be sufficient for any one to 
 build up a vineyard sufficiently large to supply bimseK. his 
 
298 
 
 VINE. 
 
 friends, and the market, with grapes. But, to promote and 
 forward their maturity and size, the following course may 
 be pursued : — 
 
 The first of July you will be able to see the state of your 
 fruit, which will be just formed. At this time select the 
 highest fruit branches, and those which have the finest 
 appearance of fruit upon them, and perform the following 
 operation on the two years’ old wood, from which these 
 branches proceed, taking care not to cut below any of the 
 wood branches. 
 
 Take a pruning knife with a smooth edge and hawk’s 
 bill, and pass it round the branch where the bark is clear 
 from knots, cutting deep enough to reach the sap-wood of 
 the plant ; at a quarter or three eighths of an inch below 
 the first cut make another, running parallel with the first ; 
 then make a perpendicular cut through this section of the 
 bark the same depth, and you may take out the ring of 
 baric clear from the branch. This will not prevent the sap 
 rising into the upper part of the branch, but it will prevent 
 its descending below this cut, by which means it will be 
 retained in, and distributed throughout, the upper part of the 
 branch, in a greater portion than it could otherwise be, and 
 the branches and fruit will both increase in size much more 
 than any of those that are not thus treated, and the matu- 
 rity of the fruit will be advanced very much. 
 
 This has been denominated girdling. If the plant is 
 very vigorous and the season very favourable, the wound 
 ^fill soon be closed, so that it may be necessary to open it 
 a second time. This process does not injure the plant, as 
 you only girdle the fruit-bearing branches, which you would 
 in any case cut out at the fall pruning, to make room for 
 the branches which you have been bringing forward to give 
 you fruit the succeeding year. This may be kept up from 
 year to year, and give you a succession of ripe fruit from 
 the first of September to the close of the season. The 
 fruit on those branches which are not girdled will ripen the 
 latest, of course, but neither these, nor those which have 
 been girdled, should be shortened, as is customary on vines 
 not thus treated. 
 
 By this practice, which was first suggested in the Trans- 
 actions of the Horticultural Society of London a few years 
 since, and first brought into use in this country with success 
 by the corresponding secretary of the Mass. Agr. Soc. I have 
 raised grapes in the open air this year, the bunches of which 
 weighed from eight to twenty-eight ounces ; and the ber- 
 
VINE. 
 
 299 
 
 ties measuring from two to three inches in circumference. 
 On one vine which I planted a few years since — a cutting in 
 the spot where it now grows — I had seventy hunches of fine 
 chasselas, weighing from eight to eighteen ounces each. 
 
 But the grape-vines have of late years been attacked by 
 a small insect which makes its appearance first in June, 
 but is most abundant in August. This insect, if left to in- 
 crease, destroys the vegetating principle in the leaf, and 
 the plant languishes, the fruit mildews, and the labour and 
 care of the cultivator are lost. Some gentlemen have aban- 
 doned their vines in consequence of the depredations of 
 this insect, and others, with great labour and expense of 
 time, have attempted, but in vain, to destroy them with al- 
 kalies and tobacco-juice. This has, to be sure, operated to 
 check them partially, but not effectually. To remedy this 
 evil, you have only to make a small, light frame, twelve or 
 fourteen feet long, in the form of a soldier’s tent, but 
 with hinges of leather where the top joins, so that this tent 
 may be shut up or opened at the bottom to any width you 
 may require, according to the height of your trellis. This 
 light frame, which should be made of slats of boards from 
 one to two inches broad, may be covered with an old sail, 
 or some cheap glazed cotton cloth, which will stop the 
 smoke, leaving cloth enough loose at each end to close 
 over, and prevent the smoke from escaping when the tent 
 is spread over the trellis. 
 
 A few tobacco-stalks, moistened and put on some coals 
 in a pan, will be sufficient to smoke the vines thoroughly ; 
 and, as the tent is easily moved along the trellis on some 
 small wheels, one man may, in a few hours, extirpate this 
 enemy of the vineyard. Vines that are already attacked by 
 this insect to any great degree should be smoked in June, 
 July, and twice in August, or oftener, if you find the insect is 
 not completely destroyed. 
 
 The insects are first seen on the under part of the leaf, 
 without wings — very active, but easily destroyed if touched. 
 They afterwards assume the winged state, when it is very 
 difficult to get at them, as they fly off on the vines being 
 touched. They are yellow, striped with brown across the 
 back. The moment the smoke ascends, the winged in- 
 sects quit the leaves, and fall to the ground dead or alive ; 
 the young ones perish, but the older ones will revive if not 
 destroyed in their torpid state. To effect this, you have 
 only to cover the ground under the tent with a piece of wet 
 cloth before you begin to smoke, to which they adhere un- 
 
300 
 
 VINE. 
 
 til the tent is removed, and they are revived by the atmos- 
 pheric air ; to prevent which you will roll, or twist, the 
 Xiloth each time that you remove the smoke-house, or tent, 
 aiKl replace it again each time before you smoke, by which 
 means they will be effectually destroyed. This simple and 
 cheap operation will keep your vines clear of this trouble- 
 some and destructive insect, and you may, if the season be 
 warm, ensure a good harvest; if otherwise, you will be 
 sure, if the vines be girdled, to ripen a portion of your 
 fruit, at least. 
 
CALENDARIAL INDEX 
 
 The object of this Calendar is little more than to give brief intimations of 
 work to l e performed in a garden, together with some approximation to the 
 lime of year m which it should be accomplished. The figures refer to the pages 
 in which further directions may be found relative to the operations adverted 
 to. These directions are intended for the New England States, or about the 
 latitude N. and the vicinity, or a small elevation above the sea. 
 
 Allowance should be made for elevation of site, as well as for situation north 
 or south of that degree. But it is not possible^ perhaps, to state what that al- 
 lowance should be with any approach to precision. The nature of the soil, the 
 aspect, the exposure, the forwardness or backwardness, or what may be styled 
 the general character of the season, are all to be regarded j and require the ex- 
 ercise of a sound discretion in the cultivator, not to be restricted by general 
 rules, which are not liable to too many exceptions to be noted in this work. 
 
 JANUARY. 
 
 Throughout New England the temperature of the climate is such as to ex- 
 clude the cultivator from performing most of the operations of tillage or horti- 
 culture from about the first of December to the latter part of March, or the be- 
 ginning of April. The seeds of knowledge may, however, be sown in winter, 
 and the horticulturist may cultivate his mind when his soil is bound in frozen 
 fetters. 
 
 Provide a sufficient quantity of bean-poles, and pea-rods, which you may pre- 
 serve in a corner of your wood-house, or other place suitable for your purpose. 
 Many people, who neglect to procure these implements in season, are induced, 
 by the hurry of business, to permit their peas and beans to trail on the ground, 
 in which situation they will not produce, especially the tall growing sorts, one 
 third part so many as if they were properly supported by poles and rods. The 
 length of your pea-rods should be m proportion to the sorts of peas for which 
 you intend them, 229. The same kinds of rods, which the tail-lowing peas re- 
 quire, will answer for the generality of running kidney beans. The Lima beans 
 will need strong poles, from eight to nine feet high. You may now make prep- 
 aration for forcing cucumbers and melons, 84, 202. 
 
 FEBRUARY. 
 
 Manure may be carried into those places where it is needed, left in a heap, 
 but not spread. Wherever and whenever the snow is off the ground, rake to- 
 
 f ether and burn the haulm, or whatever may remain from the last year's crop. 
 
 'ences should be inspected and repaired, and seed rubbed out and cleaned. 
 Straw mats for the hot-beds, pales, rails, lattices, or trellises for espalier trees, should 
 be got in readiness, 107. See that your garden tools are in good repair, and 
 procure such new ones as may be necessary. It is now time to set about pro- 
 curing and preparing materials for, and forming hot-beds, 161. Clean trees 
 from moss, and protect them against mice and rabbits by whitewashing with 
 lime, or smearing with some composition which is offensive to those vermin. 
 Enter in earnest into the business of forwarding various kinds of seedling plants, 
 by artificial means, so that they may have strong roots, and arrive at some size 
 26 
 
302 
 
 CALENDARIAL INDEX. 
 
 bv the time they would naturally make their first appearance above ground. 
 This may well be done by adopting Mr. Armstrong’s method, with regard to 
 melons, 202. Attend to your fi-uit m your fruit-room or cellar, on shelves or in 
 boxes, and, if necessary, pick it over, and cull out whatever is defective j wipe 
 the remainder dry, and pack it away anew. But if it is put down in some sort 
 of grain, dry sand, flax-seed chaff, or, what is probably best of all, pulverized 
 
 E laster of Paris, you will not need to meddle with it. You may now, perhaps, 
 egin to force asparagus in hot-beds, 28. Sow' under glass cases, for transplanting 
 or otherwise, radishes, carrots, small salads, peas, beans, &c. Protect choice 
 plants, which may show a disposition to vegetate, by matting, litter, cases cf 
 wicker, old bark, and other proper means. 
 
 MARCH. 
 
 vLettuce may be sowed in the open ground as soon as frost will permit, 191. 
 It may be sowed between vacant rows, intended for other plants, and pulled out 
 for use before the other plants are large enough to be encumbered by it. Early 
 peas cannot be planted too soon after the ground is thawed, 226. Radishes 
 may be sowed as soon as the seeds can be raked in. Sow cabbages, cucum- 
 bers, melons, cauliflow'ers, squashes, &c. in hot-beds, under glasses, &c., 84, 149, 
 202. Dig up vacant ground, applying manure. Dress borders, and clip edg- 
 ings of box. Clean, relay, or make new gravel walks. Attend to, and turn 
 over compost beds. Dress asparagus beds, or make new ones the latter part 
 of this month or the beginning of April, 22. Select from your cellar the oest 
 cabbages with heads, and set them in some proper place to stand for seed. Set 
 the diftcrent kinds remote from each other, to prevent their mixing at the time 
 of blossoming. Likewise, set some of your best cabbage stumps for early salad 
 and greens. If the ground is moist, set shallow' j if dry, place them about six 
 inches deep. Small salading, such as cresses, 80, 81, mustard, 207,208, radish, 
 260, &c., when a constant supply is wanted, should be sown once a week or 
 fortnight. Celery, for an early crop, may be sown in this month, though the 
 principal sowing had better be deferred till April, 74. Artichokes should be 
 sowed as early as the season will permit, 18, and horse-radish, 159. 
 
 APRIL.. 
 
 In the Eastern States, generally, and in those parts of the Middle States where 
 ifle ground is naturally somewhat moist and heavy, this is the month for sowing 
 4ie principal garden crops. Sow the hardy kinds as soil, site and season will 
 permit, that the plants may be firmly established before they are overtaken by 
 the heat and drought of summer. But a stift’ and moist soil should never, on 
 ail}' account, be dug, ploughed or harrowed when it is so wet as to be clammy 
 and adhesive. On the other hand, a light, sandy soil will be meliorated by be- 
 ing hoed, or otherwise wrought on while moist. 
 
 Earth of a consistence that will hold water longest withotU becoming hard 
 taken dry, is that of all others the best adapted for raising the generality of 
 plants in the greatest perfection. The great art of improving sandy and clay 
 soils is to give to the former such dressings of clay, cow-dung, and other kinds 
 of manure, as will have a tendency to bind and make it more compact, and, 
 consequently, more retentive of moisture 5 and, to the latter, coats of sandy 
 earth, pond mud, horse dung,” &c. — M’ Mahon. 
 
 Sow artichokes, 18, asparagus, 22, horse, or garden beans, 33, kidney beans, 
 36, beets, 40, the last of this month, or the first of next, borecole, 51, Brussels 
 sprouts, 55} sow cabbage seed, 60, set out cabbage plants, 61, sow cardoons, 67, 
 carrots, 68, cauliflowers, 72, celery, 74, coleworts, 79, succession-crops of cresses, 
 80, 81 , cucumbers in hollowed turnips placed in a hot-bed, 87, or in pots un- 
 der hand-glasses, &c . } propagate fruit-trees by cuttings, 95. You may set out a 
 few dandelion plants in ^^our garden, 97, and let us know how you succeed in 
 attempting to domesticate them. Look out for, and destroy insect^ 169 ; sow a 
 little early summer endive, 105, fennel, 108 j propagate garlic, 136, leeks, 190, 
 
CALENDARIAL INDEX. 
 
 303 
 
 •Cttuce, 191, marjoram, 197, onions, 213, parsley, 222, parsncp 224, successive 
 Tops of diferent sorts of peas, 226, potatoes, 248, radish, 2o0, safje, 265, sal- 
 iiiy, 266, savory, 266, sea-kale, 267, skirret, 281. 
 
 MAY. 
 
 You may now sow most or all the articles mentioned in the Calendar for the 
 ast month, either as first or succession-crops. Plant your cucumbers, 82, and 
 nelons, 198, for a general crop in the open ground about the 20th 5 also, squash- 
 es, pumpkins, and gourds 5 likewise, Indian corn for an early garden crop, 
 164. Plant your bush-beans and pole-beans, for your principal crop, at any 
 ime when most convenient during the month, 36. It is recommended to set 
 he poles, and then plant the beans round the poles. Weed and thin vour nd- 
 v^ancing crops of radishes, 261. Transplant radishes for seed, 262. Sow suc- 
 cession-crops of spinach, 282. Carrots may be sown in the Eastern States in 
 ,he forepart of the month, 68 . Weed and thin beets, carrots, parsneps, onions, 
 early turnips. Sow more turnips of the early kinds for crops in succession. 
 Such sowing is best performed in the first week of the month, in order that the 
 =x)Ots may have time to grow to a good size before they are overtaken by sum- 
 ner heat and drought. Early cauliflower plants, as they advance in growth, 
 ;hould have earth drawn up about their stems, and be watered in dry weather. 
 SiTou will do well to sow peas for succession-crops, at least twice this month, 220 . 
 You may set out or transplant early lettuce. Sow eis many of the sorts of small 
 <alading as you may need for market or family consumption. Now is, per- 
 iiaps, as proper a time as any in the year for pruning fruit-trees, 257. Tiie 
 reason for pruning is immediately before, or commensurate with, the rising of 
 the sap. Let your ducks have constant employment as vermin pickers, 102. 
 Attack insects by sprinkling over them, by means of a syringe, watering-pot, 
 or gcirden engine, simple water, soap-suds, decoctions of tobacco, of elder, 
 &c. &c. 169. 
 
 JUJVE. 
 
 Melons and cucumbers, which have hitherto been protected by glasses or pa- 
 5 er frames, may now be exposed to the open air. If the season oe at all clry, 
 /our vegetables, particularly your cucumbers, will need water. [See Intro- 
 iuction.] Keep your crops clean, by hand-weeding and hoeing, as directed 
 page 158. About the last of the month, you may sow crops of melons and cu- 
 cumbers for pickling. Thin forward melon plants, leaving only two or three in 
 a hill, 201. Attend to your cabbage and cauliflower plants, as well as your 
 beans^ &c. and see that they are not destroyed by the cut worm. If you 
 perceive any plants injured, open the earth at the foot of the plant, and you 
 will never fail to find the worm at the root, within four inches. Kill him, and 
 you will save not only the other plants of your garden, but probably many thou- 
 sands in future years.’^ Hoe and bush your late peas ; plant more potatoes, 
 succession-crops of kidney beans, 36, peas, 226, small salads and lettuce every 
 week or ten days. Thin out and earth up all your plants j remember that 
 frequent hoeing is both rain and manure to your vegetables in dry weather.’^ 
 Celery plants may now be planted out in trenches, 74. When the plants have 
 grown to the height of eight or ten inches, draw earth about them, breaking it 
 fine. This should be done in dry weather, being careful not to bury the, heart. 
 Plant out cabbages, cauliflowers, broccoli, &c. in moist or cloudy weather, but 
 not when the ground is wet and heavy, 61. Cut and dry such herbs as nave 
 come to maturity, for winter use. You may as well dry and pulverize some 
 kinds, as directed p. 205. Look over your grafted trees, and you may ascer- 
 tain whether the scion has united with the stock. Take off the clay, and loosen 
 the bandages of such ^afts as have succeeded, and tie weak grafts and dan- 
 gling ifaoots from budded stocks to neat stakes. Rub off all superfluous, irregu- 
 lar, or ill placed shoots or suckers. Where your fruit-trees appear to be over- 
 loaded with fruit, pick off a part, and carefully gather all that which has fallen 
 and give to your swine, in order to destroy the curculio, 176. 
 
304 
 
 CALENDARIAL INDEX. 
 
 JUI.Y, 
 
 Clean and prepare your ground where your early crops of peas, spiirage, 
 cauliflowers, and cabbages grow, and all other vacant spots, to cultivate diere- 
 on such plants as are proper to supply your table, in autumn and winter, with 
 later-grown productions. You may continue to sow crops of small salading 
 every eight or ten days, as directed in former months 5 but they should now be 
 sown on shady borders, or else be shaded by mats, occasionally, from the mid- 
 day sun, and frequently watered, both before and after the plants appear above 
 
 f round. You may now plant out your celery plants in trenches, 74, unless you 
 ave already performed that operation, as directed last month. About the mid- 
 dle of July, and from that time to the end of the first week in August, you may 
 sow turnips, 292. Thin and transplant such lettuces as were sown last month, 
 and sow more lettuce-seed in the beginning, middle, and last week of this 
 month, in order to have a constant supply for the table, 191. Sow likewise 
 radishes, 261, and in the last week of this month a good crop of spinach may be 
 sown for autumn use j it will not then be so liable to run to seed as in the pre- 
 ceding months. It is a good practice to sow early kinds of cabbages, 60^ about 
 this time, for a supply of young greens during autumn. Collect all kinds of 
 seeds as they come to maturity, cutting off or pulling up the stems with the 
 seeds attached, as they ripen. Spread them in some airy place under cover, 
 turning them now and then, that the seeds may dry and harden gradually, and 
 be careful not to 1 ^ them so thick as to hazard their heating and fermenting. 
 When they are sufficiently dry, beat out and clean the seeds, and deposit them 
 in bags or boxes till wanted. Give water to such plants as require it, but let 
 this be always done in the evening, that it may be of use to the vegetables be- 
 fore the sun shall cause it to evaporate. 
 
 You may now inoculate or bud vour fruit-trees, 165, and, where it can be 
 done without inconvenience, it will be well to turn swine into your orchard to 
 eat the fallen and decayed fruit, and thus destroy the insects wnich it contains. 
 If, however, this cannot well be done, or you have not swine in sufficient num- 
 bers to devour all your fallen fruity it will be well to gather and carry it from the 
 ground before the insects, which inhabit it, make their way into the earth, and 
 make you destructive visitations another season. 
 
 AUGUST. 
 
 Keep all your crops clear from weeds, using the hoe where safe and conve- 
 nient 5 otherwise make claw-hoes of your hands, and weed-extracting nippers of 
 your thumb and fore-fingers. Pull up the haulm of peas, beans, &c., and re- 
 move it to your compost oed ; bury it between rows of plants, or throw it, to- 
 gether with all weeds, &c. to your swine, that your premises may have a neat 
 appearance. Cut such herbs as are now in flower, to distil, or to dry for win- 
 ter use, being careful to do it when they are dry, and spread them in a dry, 
 shady place 5 for, if they are dried in the sun, they will shrink very much, turn 
 black, and prove of little value. Your dung-hills and compost- heaps should, 
 during the summer montns, be kept free from weeds 5 for if the seeds are per- 
 mitted to ripen and fall, the dung, when carried into the garden, will dissemi- 
 nate weeds innumerable. Attend to plants set out for seed, and put stakes 
 to such as need support. This month, as well as the latter part of July, is the 
 proper season for inoculating or budding, 165. M'Mahon says, Cherries, 
 
 { )lums, or any other fruit-trees, may be budded in August, if the bark parts free- 
 y froia the stock. Pears ought to be inoculated the early part of the month, or 
 while the sap flows freely 5 but the peach, nectarine, almond, and apple, will 
 succeed any time between the first of August and twentieth of September, 
 provided tlie stocks are young and vigorous/' 
 
 Preserve peach, plum, cherry, and apricot stones, &c. to sow for raising 
 stocks to bud and graft on. These may either be sown immediately, or kept in 
 common garden earth or moist sand. But it will be necessary to sow them 
 before the stones open, and the radicles begin to shoot 5 otherwise many of them 
 will be broken or torn in the process of sowing. Every day they are kept ou 
 
CALENDARIAL INDEX. 
 
 306 
 
 of ground is an injury to them ; and if they remain in a dry slate till spring, 
 very few will vegetate till a year after, and the greater number not at all. 
 Continue to collect and preserve seeds as directed last month. Sow onions to 
 stand over winter, 218 •, likewise, cauliflowers, 72. 
 
 SEPTEMBER. 
 
 Hoe and thin your growing crops of spinach, 283. In the first week of this 
 month, sow a full crop of the prickly-seeded kind for winter and spring use, 283. 
 And, at the same time, you should sow a good supply of the early short-top, 
 white and red turnip-rooted and salmon radishes, 260. Earth up celery as it 
 a^ivnnees in growth, but be careful to avoid covering the hearts of the plants. 
 This work should be done in a dry day. See that you do not bruise or injure the 
 stalks 5 for if they are crushed or wounded, they will be subject to rot, 75. 
 Gather all kinds of seeds as they ripen, which may be necessary for the ensu- 
 ing season. Towards the latter end of the month, you may safely transplant 
 all kinds of hardy perennial, aromatic, and medicinal herbs, which will thus 
 become well rooted before winter. This work should, if possible, be done in 
 moist weather. Pull and preserve your ripe onions, 219, and sow more to 
 stand over winter, 218. Protect your grapes and other fruit against wasps. 
 This may be done by hanging up phials of honied or sugared water near the 
 fruit you wish to defend from their attacks, in which many of the tiny depre- 
 dators will be caught and destroyed. Thoroughly clean from weeds all the 
 seed-beds and young plantations of trees, shrubs, &c. Gather cucumbers and 
 mangoes for pickling before they spot. Sow cauliflowers about the 20th, 72. 
 
 • OCTOBER. 
 
 The young cabbage plants, produced from seeds sown last month, and in- 
 tended for early summer cabbages, should be transplanted into the beds in 
 W'hich they are to remain during winter, 60. 
 
 Prepare a bed for them, the width of your garden frame, in a warm, well- 
 sheltered place, where the sun has the greatest power ; yet be careful never to 
 admit the direct sunshine on the plants, when in a frozen state. When you 
 have no glasses, the plants may be protected during winter by boards or mats, 
 giving them air in mild weather. Cauliflowers sown in August or September 
 should be raised carefully, and protected, during the cold season, in garden 
 frames, with boards, mats, &c., or perhaps some may survive if set in open 
 borders, 72, or they may be set in pots, 73. Weed and thin your late crops of 
 spinach, leaving the best plants at the distance of three, four, or five inches 
 asunder, 283. Early in the month, hoe and earth up the late-planted crops of 
 cabbages, broccoli, and borecole, cauliflowers and other plants of the brassica 
 genus. Towards the end of the month, if the stalks of asparagus turn yellow, 
 cut them close to the earth 5 clear the beds and alleys from weeds, and carry 
 them with the stalks off the ground. It will then not be amiss to cover the 
 beds and alleys with old litter, well trodden dowm, to be removed in the spring 
 Or you may apply manure now, instead of in spring, as directed page 25. Cut 
 down all decayed flower stems, and shoots of the various kinds of aromatic, 
 pot and medicinal herbs, close to the plants 5 clear the beds from weeds and 
 litter, and carry the whole off the ground. Onions m.ay now be planted out 
 to raise seed, instead of setting them in the spring, as directed p. 219. The 
 seeds of dill, skirret, rhubarb, sea-kale, may now be sowmj for, if kept out of 
 ground till spring, many of them will not vegetate till a year after 5 but when 
 sown in October or November, if the seeds are fresh and perfect, they will vege- 
 tate in the April following. Begin to take up and secure potatoes, 255, beets, 
 49, carrots, parsneps, turnips, Jerusalem artichoke, &c., Give a general 
 hoeing and weeding to all your crops, and carry the weeds out of the gar- 
 den. Such spaces of ground as are now vacant should be dunged, dug, or 
 trenched, and thus have the advantage of a winter fallow, and that exposure 
 to frost, which will reduce it to fine tilth, and destroy worms, the larvce of 
 insects, &c. The old beds of strawberries should, some time in this month, be 
 26 
 
306 
 
 CALENDARIAL INDEX. 
 
 cleaned from weeds, and the vines or runners taken off close to the plants. 
 Then, if there be room, loosen the earth to a moderate depth between die 
 plants, taking care not to disturb the roots. And if the plants are in beds with 
 alleys between, line out the alleys, and let them be dug a moderate depth, 
 breaking the earth very fine, and spreading a sufficiency of it over the beds, 
 between and round the beds, taking care not to bury their tops. A slight top 
 dressing of compost, such as described p. 286, may now be applied. It may now 
 be time to gather and preserve apples and pears, 13, though it is best to let them 
 remain on the trees as long as the^^ are safe from frost, 15 . If you are no t ap- 
 prehensive of the depredations of mice, rats, squirrels, &c. you may sow mo 
 stones of plums, peacnes, nectarines, apricots, &.C.5 or you may, il } cu think it 
 more prudent, preserve them in sand till March or April. 
 
 NOVEMBER. 
 
 Gather from your garden, before the hard frosts commence, all those fruits 
 of your labours, whicli you wish to preserve through the winter, not forget- 
 ting winter squashes. Take up and preserve cabbages, as directed p. 65. r re- 
 serve your celery, 75. You may gather a part in dry weather, and pack it in 
 boxes in dry sana, and place the boxes in a warm cellar, leaving the tops and 
 leaves open to the air. Those cabbage and cauliflower plants, which you mean 
 shall stand through the winter in frames, should, during the continuance of 
 mild weather, be allowed every advantage of free air, to inure them, by de- 
 
 f rees, to bear cold. Take the glasses off entirely, in the warm part of the 
 ay, but place them on again at night, and in wet or cold weather. If your 
 beets, turnips, parsiieps, &c. are not secured, take them up, and preserve 
 them, as directed last month. You may now sow the seeds of rhubarb, sea- 
 kale, skirrets, parsneps, and many other kinds, which are somewhat slow jn 
 vegetating, and they will come forward early, and grow vigorously in the 
 spring. In the beginning of this month, you may manure and trench the ground 
 which is intended for early crops, and, if it be of a stiff, heavy nature, lay it up 
 in ridges, to receive the benefit of the winter frosts. You may now sow early 
 peas, to come up in the spring, if you can preserve them against mice, 227. 
 This is, perhaps, as eligible a period as any for the planting of apple-trees, 
 and other fruit-trees, 17, 220, or sowing seeds in a nursery, 208, 210. Lay 
 light litter of some kind a good thickness over the roots of the more tender 
 and choice kinds of trees and shrubs, to protect them from frost. 
 
 DECEMBER. 
 
 The severity of the weather in this month generally allows but little to be 
 done in the Middle and Northern States. Should the season permit, you may 
 perform any of the operations directed for last month, which remain unfinished. 
 If the weather continues open, carry out and spread manure, and trench the 
 ground, as directed for the last month. Provide from the woods, &c. pea- 
 sticks and bean-poles, of suitable lengths and sizes, as directed in January. 
 Collect all your old sticks and poles, which are still fit for use, and place them 
 tlogether with your new ones under cover, to prevent their rotting. Be careful 
 to shut the frost out of the apartments in which you have stored your fruit for 
 winter and spring use. Examine the fruit which you have on shelves in cellars, 
 once every ten days, and take away any that you find tainted. Repair all 
 decayed trellises, espaliers, &c. Procure stakes and other materials which 
 may be wanted in a more busy season. 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Apple . . . 
 
 
 13 
 
 A pple-Tree . 
 
 
 17 
 
 Apricot , , 
 
 , . 
 
 18 
 
 Artichoke . 
 
 
 18 
 
 Asparagus . 
 
 • • 
 
 22 
 
 Balm . . • 
 
 
 ^8 
 
 Barley . . 
 
 , , 
 
 29 
 
 Bean — Vida f aba . 
 
 33 
 
 Bean, Kidney, 
 
 . . 
 
 36 
 
 Beet . . . 
 
 
 40 
 
 Bene Plant . 
 
 
 51 
 
 Borecole . . 
 
 
 51 
 
 Borer . . . 
 
 
 52 
 
 Broccoli . . 
 
 
 52 
 
 Brussels Sprouts 
 
 55 
 
 Buckthorn • 
 
 • • 
 
 56 
 
 Cabbage . , 
 
 
 59 
 
 Canker-Worm 
 
 
 67 
 
 Caraway , 
 
 , , 
 
 67 
 
 Cardoon . . 
 
 
 67 
 
 Carrot . , 
 
 
 68 
 
 Caterpillar . 
 
 
 72 
 
 Cauliflower , 
 
 , , 
 
 72 
 
 Celery . . 
 
 
 74 
 
 Chamomile , 
 
 
 76 
 
 Cherry-Tree 
 
 , , 
 
 77 
 
 Chervil . . 
 
 . , 
 
 79 
 
 Chive . . . 
 
 
 79 
 
 Colewort . . 
 
 
 79 
 
 Coriander 
 
 
 79 
 
 Cress, Water, 
 
 
 80 
 
 Cress, Garden, 
 
 
 81 
 
 Cucumber 
 
 
 82 
 
 Curculio . . 
 
 
 92 
 
 Currant . , 
 
 
 92 
 
 Cuttings . , 
 
 • • 
 
 95 
 
 Dandelion 
 
 
 97 
 
 Dibble . . 
 
 
 98 
 
 Dill . . . 
 
 
 98 
 
 Drains . . 
 
 
 99 
 
 Duck . . . 
 
 - • 
 
 102 
 
 ; 
 
 
 103 
 
 103 
 
 Elecampane 
 
 
 104. 
 
 Endive . . 
 
 
 105 
 
 Espaliers . . 
 
 
 107 
 
 Fennel . . . 108 
 
 Flowers, Ornamental, 109 
 Fruits 128 
 
 Garlick .... 136 
 Gooseberry . . . 137 
 Gourd .... 142 
 Grafting .... 143 
 Green-House . . 151 
 
 Hawthorn . . . 153 
 Heading down Fruit- 
 Trees .... 156 
 Hedges .... 156 
 Hoeing .... 158 
 Horse-Radish . . 159 
 Hot-Bed .... 161 
 Hot-House . . . 163 
 Hyssop .... 163 
 
 Inarching . . , 164 
 Indian Corn . . . 164 
 Inoculation, or Bud- 
 ding .... 165 
 Insects .... 169 
 
 Jerusalem Artichoke 182 
 
 Landscapes and Pic- 
 
 turesque Gardens 
 
 184 
 
 Lavender . . . 
 
 187 
 
 Layers .... 
 
 188 
 
 Leaves .... 
 
 188 
 
 Leek 
 
 190 
 
 Lettuce .... 
 
 191 
 
 Locust-Tree . . 
 
 193 
 
 Love-Apple . . . 
 
 196 
 
 Madder .... 
 
 196 
 
 Mangel Wurtzel . 
 
 197 
 
 Marjoram . . . 
 
 197 
 
 Melon .... 
 
 198 
 
 Mint 
 
 204 
 
 Mulberry . . . 
 
 205 
 
 Mushroom . . . 
 
 205 
 
 Mustard .... 
 
 207 
 
 Nectarine 
 
 Nurseiy 
 
 Oak 
 
 Okra . . . 
 Onion . . . 
 Orchard * . 
 
 Parsley . . 
 Parsnep . . 
 Pea . . , 
 Peach-Tree . 
 Pear-Tree . 
 Pepper, Red, 
 Plum-Tree . 
 Potato . . 
 Pruning . . 
 Pumpkin . . 
 
 Quince . . 
 
 Radish 
 Rhubarb . 
 Roller 
 Rose . . 
 Rosemary 
 Rue , . 
 
 Sage . . 
 Salsify 
 Savory . 
 Sea-Kale 
 Silk . . 
 Skirret 
 Spinach . 
 Squash 
 Strawberry 
 
 Tansy • 
 
 Tarragon 
 
 Teasel 
 
 Thyme 
 
 Tomato . 
 
 Turnip 
 
 Vine 
 
 208 
 
 208 
 
 212 
 
 213 
 
 213 
 
 220 
 
 222 
 
 224 
 
 226 
 
 232 
 
 241 
 
 246 
 
 246 
 
 243 
 
 257 
 
 258 
 
 259 
 
 260 
 
 262 
 
 264 
 
 264 
 
 264 
 
 265 
 
 266 
 
 266 
 
 266 
 
 267 
 
 268 
 281 
 282 
 
 284 
 
 285 
 
 289 
 
 289 
 
 289 
 
 290 
 
 291 
 291 
 
 294 
 
SEED ESTABLISHMENT 
 
 The proprietor of this work takes the liberty to inform his friends 
 and the public, that he has established a Warehouse for every kind 
 of Seeds, suitable for cultivation in the United States, the British 
 Provinces, or the West India Islands ; comprising an extensive varie- 
 ty of grass seeds, the most common as well as the rarer soru ; seeds 
 of native American forest trees, shrubs, and flowers ; kitchen garden 
 vegetables ; medicinal, pot, and aromatic herbs ; fruits, esculent roots, 
 ornamental flowers, &c. ; all of which are disposed of at wholesale and 
 retail, at fair prices. 
 
 The greatest care has been taken at this Establishment to have such 
 seeds only as can have the utmost reliance placed on their purit} and 
 freshness. They are not collected promiscuousl}^, but arc raised ex- 
 pressly for the proprietor by gentlemen of skill and responsible char- 
 acter. Some few varieties of seed, which cannot be raised to advan- 
 tage in this country, are from the first Establishments in Europe, on 
 whose veracity and faithfulness full confidence can be placed. 
 
 Connected with the Seed Trade, we have a large assortment of the 
 most approved Books on Agriculture, Horticulture, Gardening and 
 Botany ; and can supply Agricultural Libraries and others with books, 
 not usually found elsewhere, on favourable terms. 
 
 The smallest order from the country for seed^ plants, books, &c., 
 will meet prompt attention. Orders for seeds, &c. should be address- 
 ed to ‘‘ G, C. Barrett fProjyrietor of the JS'ew England Farmer Seed 
 Store, JVo. 52, JVorth Market Street, Boston^ 
 
 The following comprises a list of the principal seeds : 
 
 KITCHEN GARDEN VEGETABLES. 
 
 ARTICHOKE. 
 Green globe 
 
 ASPARAGUS. 
 Devonshire 
 Gravesend 
 Large white Read- 
 ing 
 
 BEANS. 
 
 Early mazagan 
 Broad Windsor 
 Sword long pod 
 Green nonpareil 
 
 Dwarf Beans. 
 Early yellow cran- 
 berry* 
 
 Early 'Mohawk* 
 Early yellow 6 weeks 
 Early dun-coloured* 
 Early China* 
 
 Largo white kid- 
 ney* 
 
 Canadian 
 White cranberry* 
 Red cranberry* 
 Marrow* 
 
 Rob Roy 
 Bonavista 
 
 Pole, or running 
 Beans. 
 
 Large white Lima 
 Saba, white and 
 speckled 
 Scarlet runners 
 Dutch case-knife 
 Red cranberry* 
 While cranberry* 
 Yard long, or aspar- 
 agus* 
 
 BEET. 
 
 Early blood turnip- 
 rcoted 
 
 Early white scarcity 
 Long blood-red 
 Orange turnip-rooted 
 Mangel wurtaal 
 Sir John Sindair’s 
 Green, {for stews or 
 soups) 
 
 French sugar, or am- 
 ber beet 
 
 BORECOLE. 
 
 BRUSSELS 
 
 SPROUTS. 
 
 BROCCOLI. 
 Early white 
 Early purple 
 Large capo 
 
 CABBAGE. 
 Early Salisbury 
 dwarf 
 Early York 
 Early Dutch 
 Early sugar-loaf 
 Early London Bat- 
 tersea 
 
 Largo Bergen, or 
 great American 
 Russian 
 Early emperor 
 Early Wellington 
 Largo late drumhead 
 Late imperial 
 Late sugar-loaf 
 Large green glazed 
 Tree, or 1000 head- 
 ed 
 
 Large Scotch, (Jbr 
 cattle) 
 
 Green globe Savoy 
 Red Dutch, {for pick' 
 ling) 
 
 I^arge cape Savoy 
 
 Yellow Savoy 
 Turnip-rooted, w 
 Arabian, {above 
 ground) 
 
 Turnip-rooted, {be- 
 low grovnd) 
 
 Chou de Milan 
 
 CARDGON. 
 
 CARROTS. 
 Early horn 
 Long orange 
 Altringham, {a supe- 
 rior sort) 
 Blood-red 
 Lemon 
 
 Krcamer, {for table) 
 
 CAUI.TFLOWER. 
 
 Early 
 
 Late 
 
 CELERY. 
 White solid 
 Rose-colourod solid 
 Italian 
 
 Celeriac, or turnip 
 rooted 
 
 CHERVIL 
 
 Best string beans 
 
BarreWs Catalogue of Seeds. 
 
 CHIVES, or GIVES. 
 
 COLEAVORT, or 
 COLLARDS. 
 
 CORN SALA^ 01 
 VETTICOST. 
 
 CRESS. 
 
 Curled or popper- 
 grass 
 
 Proad-lcaved garden 
 Water 
 
 CUCUMBER. 
 Early frame 
 Green clus^r 
 Long prickly 
 Short prickly 
 Long green Turkey 
 Long white Turkey 
 Long white-spined 
 Small girkin or West 
 India, (pickling) 
 
 ENDIVE, or SUC- 
 CORY. 
 
 Green curled 
 White curled 
 Broad-leaved Bata- 
 vian, (for winter) 
 
 GARDEN BUR- 
 NET. 
 
 GARLICK SETS. 
 
 INDIAN CORN. 
 Early golden Si- 
 oux, (inpens in 10 
 
 Early Canadian 
 Early Jefferson 
 Sweet, or sugar,(&e5t 
 for boiling ears) 
 Large southern 
 horse-tooth 
 Large flour white 
 Nonpareil, or pearl, 
 (curious) 
 
 Mottled, (curious) 
 KALE. 
 
 Green curly Scotch 
 Purple curled 
 Sea 
 
 LEEK. 
 
 Large Scotch 
 London 
 
 LETTUCE. 
 Early curled Silesia 
 Large green-head, or 
 cabbage 
 
 Royal Capo, (superi- 
 or quality) 
 
 India (very fine) 
 Imperial 
 Hardy green 
 Brown Dutch 
 Grand admiral 
 Tennis-ball, or rose 
 Drumhead 
 Magnum bonum cos 
 Brighton cos, (fine) 
 Ice cos 
 
 White cos, or loaf 
 Green cos 
 
 MELON. 
 Green citron 1 
 Murray^s pine- | ^ 
 
 PeS I 
 
 Nutmeg > 
 
 Minorca J 
 
 Cassabar 
 Ijarge cantaloupe 
 Pomegranate, or 
 musk-scented 
 Carolina water 
 Long Island do. 
 Apple-seeded do. 
 (A few extra sorts 
 from Europe) 
 
 MELONGENA, c 
 EGG-PLANT. 
 Purple, (best for cu- 
 linary purposes) 
 White f (ornamental) 
 
 MUSTARD. 
 White, or English 
 Brown 
 
 NASTURTIUM. 
 
 OKRA. 
 
 ONION. 
 White Portugal 
 Yellow 
 
 Genuine Madeira 
 Strasburgh 
 Large red 
 
 PARSLEY. 
 Curled, or double 
 Dwarf curled, (very 
 much curled) 
 Hamburg, or large- 
 rooted 
 
 Siberian, (hardy) 
 
 PARSNEP. 
 Large Dutch, or 
 swelling 
 Silver-skin 
 
 PEAS. 
 
 Early Washington, 
 or true May pea, 
 (extra early and 
 Jinef grows to the 
 height of feet) 
 Early doublo-blos- 
 somed, frame, (ex- 
 tra early andfine^ 
 3feet) 
 
 Early frame, (2J 
 feet) 
 
 Early golden hot- 
 spur, (3 feet) 
 
 Early Charlton, (3 
 feet) 
 
 Dwari blue imperial, 
 (^feet, superior) 
 New nonpareil, (4 
 feet) 
 
 Dwarf blue Prussian, 
 
 Dwarf Spanish, or 
 fan, (1/oof) 
 
 Dwarf marrowfat, 
 (3^/eet) 
 
 Dwarf sugar, (eata- 
 ble pods, 3 feet) 
 Matchless, or true 
 tall marrowfat, (6 
 feet) [rows 
 
 Knight’s tall mar- 
 Tall crooked-podded 
 sugar, (eatable 
 pods) 
 
 Ladies’ finger mar- 
 rowfat, (very fine) 
 
 PEPPER. 
 Long, or Cayenne 
 Tomato-shaped, or 
 squash 
 Bell 
 Cherry 
 
 PUMPKIN. 
 Finest family 
 Connecticut field 
 Mammoth , (these 
 have grown to 
 ^6 lbs. weight) 
 Large cheese 
 
 RADISH. 
 
 Early frame 
 Early short-top scar- 
 let (superior) 
 
 Long salmon 
 Purple short-top 
 Long white summer, 
 or Naples 
 
 Cherry, or scarlet 
 turnip-rooted 
 Violet-coloured tur- 
 nip-rooted 
 
 White turnip-rooted 
 
 Black fall, or Span- 
 ish 
 
 RHUBARB. 
 
 SALSIFY, or VEG- 
 ETABLE OYS- 
 TER. 
 
 SKIRRET. 
 
 SCORZONERA. 
 
 SPINACH, or SPIN- 
 AGE. 
 
 Round-leaved, or 
 summer 
 
 Prickly, or fall 
 
 Holland, or Lamb’a 
 quarter 
 
 English patience 
 dock , (for early 
 
 NewZeaiand,(a val- 
 uable new sort) 
 
 SaUASH. 
 Early bush summer 
 Long crook-neck, or 
 bell (white and yel- 
 low) 
 
 Vegetable marrow 
 Commodore Porter’s 
 Valparaiso 
 Canada crook neck 
 Acorn 
 
 TOMATO, or 
 LOVE APPLE. 
 
 TURNIP. 
 Those marked fare 
 best for family use. 
 Early white Dutch/ 
 Early garden-stone/ 
 Yellow stone/ 
 White flat, or 
 globe / 
 
 Green round 
 Red round/ 
 
 Swan’s egg/ 
 
 Large English Nor- 
 folk 
 
 Long tankard, oi 
 Hanover/ 
 
 Long yellow 
 French/ 
 
 Yellow Dutch / 
 Yellow Maltese/ 
 Yellow Aberdeen 
 Yellow Swedish, 
 Russia, Lapland, 
 or ruta baga 
 
 ESCUL.E1VT ROOTS AND PEANTS. 
 
 Asparagus 
 Carolina sweet pota- 
 to slips 
 /hives 
 tarly potatoes, (very 
 ^ sorU'" 
 
 English white kid- 
 
 Lemon thyme 
 
 ney potatoes 
 
 Potato onion 
 
 Garlic 
 
 Red onion sets 
 
 Hop 
 
 Sea-kale 
 
 Horse-radish 
 
 Shallots 
 
 Jerusalem artichoke 1 Torra-croo, or Astra- 
 
 gon, (for infusing 
 into vinegar) 
 
 Top or tree onion 
 Undulated rhubarb 
 C/br tarts'i 
 White onioo rar' 
 
BarreWs Catalogue of Seeds, 
 
 FIE1L.D AND GRASS SEEDS. 
 
 Barley Field-peas, white Red-top White Dutch clover 
 
 Blue grass and green Red clover White American 
 
 Broom corn Havanna tobacco Ruta baga, Swedish, clover 
 
 Brown mustard Hemp or Lapland tuiuip Winter rye 
 
 Buckwheat Indian corn, (of Sweet-scented vernal Wila succory, or 
 
 Canary sorts) grass wild endive 
 
 Cotton Large Scotch cab- Spring wheat Woad 
 
 Dier’s madder bage Spring rye White field beans 
 
 English rye grass Large white Norfolk Spring vetches Weld, or Dier’s 
 
 English rape, or turnip Sweet potato slips weed 
 
 cole seed Lentiles Tall meadow oats White, or English 
 
 English kidney pota- Lucerne, or French grass mustard 
 
 toes clover Timothy or herd’s Winter vetches 
 
 Field burnet, (for Mangel wurtzel grass Yellow Aberdeen 
 
 sheep) Millet Trefoil or yellow turnip 
 
 Flax Orchard grass clover Yellow locust 
 
 Fuller’s teasel Potato oats Virginia tobacco 
 
 TREE SEEDS. 
 
 We keep a large assortment of fruit and ‘forest tree seeds — particularly those of 
 native American forest trees suitable for sending to Europe — the names of which it 
 is impracticable to insert here. 
 
 POT AND SWEET HERBS. 
 
 Anise 
 
 Caraway Garlic Red sage*" Sweet marjoram 
 
 Common sage Lavender Rosemary Thyme 
 
 Dwarf, or bush ba- Officinal borage Sweet basil Winter savory 
 
 (very fragrant) " 
 
 Fenugreek 
 
 Pot marigold 
 
 Garlic 
 
 Red sage 
 
 Lavender 
 
 Rosemary 
 
 Officinal borage 
 
 Sweet basil 
 
 Officinal bugloss 
 
 
 MEDICINAE HERBS. 
 
 Finochio 
 
 Officinal cumin 
 
 Henbane 
 
 Palma Christi, or 
 
 Horehound 
 
 castor-oil bean 
 
 Horsemint 
 
 Pennyroyal 
 
 Hyssop 
 
 Peppermint 
 
 Jerusalem oak 
 
 Purple fox-glove 
 
 Lovage, or livoce 
 
 Rue 
 
 Marsh mallows 
 
 Saffron 
 
 Meadow saffron 
 
 Scull-cap 
 
 Moldavian, or lemon 
 
 Scurvy- grass 
 
 balm 
 
 Spearmint 
 
 Motherwort 
 
 Spikenard 
 
 Sweet fennel 
 Tansy 
 
 Turkey rhubarb 
 Undulated rhubarb, 
 ( for tarts) 
 Virginian speedwell 
 Wild succory, or 
 wild endive 
 White officinal pop* 
 
 Wormwood 
 
 Balm 
 Bene 
 Boneset 
 Bugle weed 
 Burdock 
 Chamomile 
 Coriander 
 CatJiep 
 Comfrey 
 
 mi 
 
 Dier’s woad 
 Elecampane 
 
 ANNUAL^ BIENNIAIi, AND PERENNIAE FEOWER- 
 SEEDS. 
 
 • Of these we have more than three hundred varieties, the names of which it is, of 
 course, impracticable to insert here. 
 
 BUEBOUS FEOWER-ROOTS, <fec. 
 
 Constantly on hand, in the season of them, the largest variety of bulbous flower- 
 roots, imported annually from Holland, comprising the diflTerent varieties of 
 Double and single] Ranunculus, (sorts) Fritillaries, (sorts) [Cyclamens, (o/'so?*ts) 
 hyacinths, named Anemones, (ofsoi'ts) Gladiolus, (^/ sorts) Crocus, (of sorts) 
 Polyanthus Narcis- Iris, (of sorts) Lilies, (o/so?*ts) Snow-drops, (double 
 
 BUS, named Tube roses, (double Crown imperials, (of and single) 
 
 Double and single and single) sorts) Star of Bothleiicm, 
 
 jonquilles Amaryiis, (of sorts) Narcissus, (of sorts) (of sorts) 
 
 Tulips, (tn great ua- Martagons, (qf sorts) Colchicums, (soi'ts) 
 riety) 
 
 We import from Scotland, every spring, an extensive collection of Scotch gooseber- 
 ry bushes, with names ; also strawberry plants, thorn quicks, asparagus roots 5 and 
 keep on hand every variety of seed or roots, that is wanted on a farm or garden. 
 
 As the variety and quantity of seeds kept at this Establishment are by far greater 
 Ifcau at any other place in Now England, orders for the British Provinces, the West 
 India market, or the Southern States, can always be executed with promjjtness, at sat- 
 $faetory prices. Dealers in seeds, and country traders, supplied, at wholesale or 
 ©tail, on the best terms. The seeds are packed in boxes for the country trade, in 
 anall packages, neatly sealed, with the prices marked, and diroctious printed on 
 package, for their 
 
NEW ENGLAND FARMER. 
 
 Tills is a weekly paper, devoted to agriculture; gardening, and rural econo* 
 my. It is conducted by Mr. Fessenden^ the author of Uie New American 
 Gardener, who is assisted by various agricultural writers, and by the observa- 
 tions of the best practical farmers and gardeners in New England. It is printed 
 in a quarto form, paged, making a volume of 416 pages annually, to which a 
 titl. : nge and index are furnished gratis. It is recommended to all farmers, 
 who wi.^li for a weekly journal which contains a variety of articles on agricul- 
 ture, horticulture, the state of the markets, crops, &c. It is published at 
 per annum, from w'hich a discount of 60 cents is made, if paid in advance. A 
 copy will be sent gratis to any person who may wish to examine it. 
 
 ItT’This Journal has received the unsolicited recommendation of all the 
 princi} ; 1 Agricultural Societies in New England, Nova Scotia, and New 
 Brunswick : from wliich the following is selected : 
 
 At a meeting of the Worcester County Agricultural Society, held al 
 Worcester, it was voted unanimously, as the sense of the Board, that the New 
 England Farmer, an agricultural paper published in Boston, and edited by 
 Thomas G. Fessenden, Esq., has been conducted with spirit, intelligence and 
 
 f ood judgment 5 that its columns are replete with useful instruction in the 
 usiness of husbandry, and that its general circulation would tend most bene- 
 ficially to the knowle%e and practical improvement of the Agricultural inter- 
 ests of the country. It is, therefore, recommended to the notice and patronage 
 of the public, and to the particular encouragement of the members of this 
 Society, and of farmers generally, by their subscription for the paper, and by 
 communications for publication. LEVI LINCOLN, President. 
 
 Attest, Wm. D. Wheeler, Rec. Sec’ry.^^ 
 
 Similar votes have been passed by the Massachusetts Agi'icultural Society, 
 the Essex Agricultural Society, the Nova Scotia Agricultural Society, and bv 
 several others in Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and New BrunswicK. 
 
 , The following is from the North American Review. 
 
 “ The New England Farmer is a weekly paper, printed in a royai 
 quarto form, and devoted to agriculture. Nearly three volumes have been 
 published. In its purposes and general character it resembles the American 
 Farmer. The New England Farmer, of course, is chiefly confined to the ag- 
 riculture of the Eastern States 5 although it contains communications of general 
 utility sent from diflereiit parts of the Union, and such occasional selections from 
 the best agricultural works, as are important in conveying useful knowledge to 
 the farmer. Well cbnducted journals of this sort must have a most beneficial 
 effect on the community. To instruct the farmer in his art, and teach him 
 easier methods of tilling his soil, and drawing trom it a more abundant product, 
 is to diminish the expense of cultivation, and save the same proportion of labour 
 to be employed in an additional production. 
 
 “ The Editor of the New England Farmer is well knowm to the public as an 
 able writer, and, if we mistake not, this Journal will prove, that his ability has 
 been employed with judgment and success in the walks of agriculture. Among 
 his contributors are some of our most distinguished citizens and experienced 
 agriculturists 5 and his work may undoubtedly be recommended to the farmers 
 of New England in particular, as containing a mass of knowledge highly useful 
 to them, which could not be obtained from any other single source. Farmers 
 in every part of the United States will also find it valuable, as a repository of 
 facts on the principles and practices of agriculture in general. 
 
 AGENTS. 
 
 Bangor, G. W. Brown. 
 Castine, M. Chamberlain, Esq. 
 Portsmouth, J. W. Foster. 
 Salem, J. M. Ives. 
 JVeicburyport, E. Stetlnian. 
 J^eto Bedford, 11. Williams. 
 Worcester, Win. Lincoln, Esq. 
 Brattlcboro, J. Fessenden. 
 Providence, Hugh Crowm. 
 
 Hartford, Goodwin & Sons. 
 
 Albany, Buel & Wilson. 
 
 JVfew York, G. Thor burn & Son, 67 
 Liberty Street. 
 
 Philadelphia, D. & C. Landretb, 85 
 Chesnut Street, 
 
 Halifax, (JV. S.) P. J. Holland. 
 
 St. John, ('JV. B.) Wm. O. Smith, 
 Druggist. 
 
AGRICULTURAL WAREHOUSE, 
 
 No. 52 NORTH MARKET STREET, 
 
 OPPOSITE merchants’ ROW, 
 
 BOSTON. 
 
 JOSEPH R. NEWBLIi, PROPRIETOR. 
 
 The Agricultural Warehouse, which has been established in this city about eight 
 years, has become so extensive, and of so much importance to the community, as to 
 induce the proprietor to continue and extend it in all its various branches, for the ac- 
 commodation of experimental and scientific farmers, by the introduction of new and 
 useful implements of husbandry, and to furnish the practical farmer with the best 
 tools for his business. 
 
 An establishment of this kind not only serves the above purpose, but is a deposi- 
 tory where the inventive artisan may place his articles for sale. 
 
 The proprietor does not hesitate to say^ that, among the variety of articles on hand 
 at this establishment, many are far superior in their form and construction, and far 
 better adapted to the purposes for which they are intended, than anyiothers which 
 have been in use in this country. 
 
 Among the variety of PLOUGHS on hand are Tice’s, which is the most approved 
 cast iron plough in use j 
 
 Howard’s wrought and cast iron do. ; 
 
 New York Self-Sharpening do. ; 
 
 A new and much approved Side-hill plough, which is so constructed as to shift the 
 mould-board with great expedition, in such a manner as to throw the furrow down 
 hill each way, and can be used in any common land ; 
 
 Common and Expanding Double Mould-board ploughs and cultivators ; 
 
 Howard’s patent Self-governing Ploughs. This plough is so constructed as to regu- 
 late the depth and width of each furrow, and govern itself without the assistance of a 
 ploughman. 
 
 Pope’s Improved Threshing Machine, invented by the late Joseph Pope, Esq., has 
 been in successful operation in different parts of the country for several years ; and is 
 found, on trial, to be the best operating machine ; to do the work in the most perfect 
 and efectual manner ; and the least liable to get out of order of any machine that has 
 been in use It will thoroughly thresh twenty bushels of wheat, rye, or barley, in 
 one hour ; and of oats, double the quantity ; with a common horse power which is 
 attached, and operates the machine with perfect ease j — with a Fanning Machine for 
 cleaning the grain. 
 
 Also— Willis’s, Eastman’s, Salford’s, and the common Dutch Straw Cutters j prices 
 from $6 to $75. 
 
 Jones’s, Jaquith’s, and Harrison’s Corn Shellers j prices from $12 to $25. 
 
 Gault’s, Philadelphia, and common duaker Churns ; from $1,75 to $6. 
 
 Thomas’s Winnowing Machine j $16. 
 
 Flagg’s, Gerrish’s, and Bailey’s Hand Mills for grinding corn and plaster j price $6 
 to $100. 
 
 Corn and Cob Crackers j Cultivators j Vegetable Cutters j Mears’s Ox Yoke ; pat- 
 ent cast steel Hoes ; Prong Hoes ; Hay and Manure Forks ; Carrot Forks j Shovels 
 of various sorts *, Edging and Budding Knives ; Pruning Saws ; Transplanting Spades 
 and Shovels ; Pruning Shears ; Chain Halters ; Surveyors’ and Cattle Chains ; Treo 
 Scrapers ; Pruning Knives and Chisels *, Rules ; Scythes ; Iron Bars : Hay Knives , 
 Lead Water Pipes ; Copper Pumps j Stone Milk Pans j Stono Churns, rots, &c., with 
 every implement used on a farm or garden ; comprising the largest assortment to be 
 found at any warehouse in the United States. 
 
 JOSEPH K. NEWELL.