It,-. ■’ ( I ! I ; 5 ■i t j 3 i ! ii K Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/gaininnitrogenfr3950fred Research Bulletin 39 October, 1916 The Gain in Nitrogen from Growth of Legumes on Acid Soils E. B. FRED and E. J. GRAUL AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON, WISCONSIN CONTENTS Page Introduction 3 Acid soils of Wisconsin and their relation to the growth of leguncees 3 Purpose of this study 4 Historical 5 Previous investigations 5 Methods of study 7 Results of pot experiments of 1914 9 • The effect of treatment on the yield of alfalfa and soy beans on Colby silt loam 10 The effect of treatment on the nitrogen content of alfalfa and soy beans 14 Results of pot experiments of 1915 16 The effect of treatment on the yield of alfalfa on Colby silt loam, alfalfa on Plainfield sand, clover on Colby silt loam, and clover on sand 17 The effect of treatment on the nitrogen content of alfalfa on Colby, alfalfa on sand, clover on Colby, and clover on sand 25 Results of field experiments of 1915 31 Effect of treatment on the nitrogen balance 33 Source of nitrogen 36 Summary 37 Literature 41 l\o - ?f\-50 C-op ■ f) The Gain in Nitrogen from the Growth of There are millions of acres of land covering two-thirds of Wisconsin which are not only acid but also deficient in nitro- gen and organic matter. Frequently soil of this character will not grow profitable crops unless the deficiencies are met in some way. Soil acid- ity can easily be remedied by the use of lime. Leguminous plants such as alfalfa, clover, or soy beans are used to maintain a supply of nitrogen in the soil. In a favorable environment, legumes through the work of certain bacteria will take nitrogen from the air and “fix” or place it in the soil where it can be used as plant food. In almost any system of farming it is necessary to give a leguminous crop an important place in the crop rotation. Three conditions which affect the nitrogen-fixing power of the legumes are: the presence of the proper bacteria in the soil, the presence of large amounts of soluble nitrogen, and the acidity of the soil. The presence of the proper bacteria in the soil can be secured by inoculation with soil or by means of artificial cultures. The second factor does not play an important part under field conditions because large amounts of soluble nitrogen rarely occur. To the farmer the third factor is a most important one, much data having been collected which shows that an acid reaction of the soil is injurious to crop It is a common experience that some legumes do not thrive very well in acid soils and as a result may not be very efficient in restoring nitrogen to the soil. Fortunately, there are cer- tain cultivated legumes which do well in acid soils. Al- though these plants often develop normally, showing an abundant growth and a large root system with numerous Legumes on Acid Soils* growth. *The authors a many helpful su the manuscript. 509865 4 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 39 nodules, information regarding their nitrogen-fixing powers is somewhat meager. Since medium red clover, alfalfa, and soy beans are better forage crops than most of the legumes which will grow on FIG. L— extent of ACID SOILS IN WISCONSIN 'I'hc silt and clay loams of the North Central area are very generally acid. The sandy soils are universally acid. Aciditv has developed in patches in the soils on limestone. ' acid soils, it is desirable to correct the acidity of the soil so that they can be grown. When the cost of lime, which is used to correct the acidity of the soil, is too great, legumes which will grow on acid soils should be used. Since many of the legumes do not grow under very acid conditions, the question of partial neutralization of the soil Legumes on Acid Soils 5 acidity becomes important. Again, where a high degree of acidity exists over a large portion of the farmer’s land, the amount of land which can be used for the growing of alfalfa in rotation presents another problem. A constantly increasing demand for greater crop produc- tion makes it important to study methods of increasing the growth of legumes. The application of limestone to neutral- ize soil acidity offers a possible solution. Accordingly experiments were planned, which had as their chief purpose a study of the growth and nitrogen-fixing power of acid- tolerant and acid-sensitive legumes, grown on acid soil. The three most promising leguminous crops for Wisconsin, common red clover, alfalfa, and soy beans, were selected for this investigation. It was arranged to measure the value of these crops for two widely different types of acid soil. This study included the influence on plant growth of certain factors other than soil type, i. e., inoculation and limestone. The following points were considered: First, the gain in nitrogen and plant growth from inoculation; second, the relative benefit derived from large and small applications of lime- stone, both inoculated and uninoculated; third, the nitrogen balance in an acid soil before and after growing a leguminous crop, provided the aerial crop was removed and the roots left in the soil. Although the experiments have been made both in the glass house and in the field, the greater portion of the data reported herewith was obtained from pot experiments. Since the results of field tests for one season agree very closely with those obtained in the glass house, it was deemed best to publish the data of these experiments. This is not a completed study but a progress report of the results up to the present time. Historical Re\iew A demonstration of the ability of inoculated legumes to add nitrogen to the soil has been shown by the results of various investigators. Since the literature on this subject is extensive, it is proposed at this time to give only a brief review of certain investigations. Atwater and Woods (3) of the Connecticut Station were among the first in America to show the beneficial effect of 6 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 39 inoculation on growth and nitrogen content of alfalfa and. peas. They found, when alfalfa was grown on sand supplied with nutrient solutions, a gain in nitrogen resulted. The increase was proportional to the number of nodules on the roots. The results obtained with alfalfa were substantiated with peas grown under similar cultural conditions. Numerous experiments carried on at the Rothamsted Experiment Station (21) gave evidence that legumes had the ability, when properly inoculated, to increase the nitrogen content of the soil. A field where six crops of wheat had been grown previously was chosen and divided into two subfields. On one field barley was seeded, on the other clover. After the crops were harvested, the soil from each field was analyzed for total nitrogen. The clover field to a depth of nine inches contained 0.156 per cent of nitrogen, the soil from the barley field contained 0.142 per cent. Alany similar experiments are on record. The beneficial effect of inoculation was shown by Duggar (4) who found that Canada field peas, crimson clover, lu- pines, vetches, and other legumes were benefited by the treatment. In some cases, an increase in crop growth of more than 300 per cent was secured. This investigator (5) carried on numerous field tests and found that vetch was greatly benefited by inoculation. He found also that less than one-fifth of the total nitrogen of the plant is in the roots and short stubble. In a report of pot and field experiments, Hopkins (9) found a fixation of over 35 pounds of atmospheric nitrogen per acre due to inoculation. The effect of lime and other fertilizers was studied both under greenhouse and under field conditions. Beneficial results from the use of lime were reported in all cases. Nobbe and Richter (15) found that inoculation increased the percentage and total nitrogen in tops of Vicia Villosa, as well as the dry weight of the crop. They noted that inocu- lated plants contained 4.29 per cent of nitrogen and uninocu- lated plants only 1.85 per cent. Studies by these same investigators on the effect of nitrates on the percentage of nitrogen fixed from the atmosphere gave evidence that where soluble nitrogen is present in considerable quantity, the per- centage fixed from air may be greatly reduced. Legumes on Acid Soils 7 According to Smith and Robison (19) inoculation greatly increases the percentage of nitrogen in the parts above ground of soy beans and cowpeas. Inoculated beans, for example, not only gave more nitrogen in stems and leaves, but also a decided gain in percentage of nitrogen in the seeds. In many cases, inoculation failed to show any marked increase in yield, but the harvest was much richer in nitrogen. This work was extended by Shutt (17) who found that inoculation increased the protein content of alfalfa hay. He reports that clover grown on a sandy loam soil for six consecutive years increased the nitrogen content of that soil 375 pounds per acre. According to Alway (1) inoculation nearly doubles the percentage of nitrogen in the crop. Aside from the increase in the percentage of nitrogen, he found that the roots and stems are from three to fifty times as heavy as those from the uninoculated plants. Greenhouse experiments carried on by Hartwell and Pem- ber (8) at the Rhode Island Station resulted in a fixation of one ton of nitrogen per acre from legumes grown successively for a period of five years. Arny and Thatcher (2) of the Minnesota Station have submitted data concerning the effect of inoculation on al- falfa. They report not only an increase in yield from ino- culation, but also a decided increase in percentage of nitrogen. It appears that the benefit derived from inoculation was much greater in the tops than in the roots. According to Morse (14) of the IMassachusetts Experiment Station, liming caused an increase in the size of clover plants and also an increase in percentage of nitrogen. Analysis of plant tissue failed to show any effect of the lime on the percentage of ash, iron oxide, and calcium oxide. The value of legumes as a source of nitrogen has been reported by Lipman and Blair (13). I*n a four-year rotation on various soils they found that the growth of legumes as green manures results in an average gain per acre of more than 54 pounds of nitrogen annually. Experimental Methods This paper includes a report of results obtained from pot experiments with alfalfa, red clover, and soy beans on acid 8 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 39 soils. Similar experiments under field conditions are now in progress. Soil Two types of acid soil were used for this work — namely, Colby silt loam and Plainfield sand. The Colby silt loam was collected from the sub-station at Marshfield; the Plain- field sand from the experiment field at Sparta. These soils were shipped to the laboratory where they were passed through a four-millimeter sieve and mixed thoroughly, Samples were drawn for moisture content, active acidity, and total nitrogen. The following table gives the average chemical composition of several samples of these soils: Soil P. N. K. Organic matter Colby silt loam .072 .198 1.51 3.91 Plainfield Sparta sand .032 .09 .93 1.67 Methods In order to determine the amount of calcium carbonate necessary to neutralize the acidity of the soils, the Veitch and Truog methods were used. The total nitrogen content of the tissue was determined by the Kjeldahl method, digesting for four hours with sul- phuric acid, potassium sulphate and copper sulphate. The figures of the following tables represent the average of three analyses. After all crops were harvested and the roots of the alfalfa plants removed, the soil was mixed thoroughly. One-half kilogram samples were drawn, allowed to dry and prepared for analysis. In the presence of appreciable amounts of nitrate nitrogen, the modified method for total nitrogen to include nitrates was followed. -For each soil four parallel analyses were made. Pounds per acre. — It was assumed that one gram, of tissue or of nitrogen per jar of 10 J inches in diameter corres- ponds to one pound per square rod or to 160 pounds per acre (9). In the 1911 experiments, the lime requirement was deter- mined by the Veitch method. In all subsequent work, it was determined by the Truog method. A series of earthen- Legumes on Acid Soils 9 ware jars, each 10| inches in diameter and 12 inches deep, were filled with a definite amount of the various soils. The jars were kept in a special greenhouse in order to avoid contamination. A general plan of all of the experiments is given below. PLAN OF EXPERIMENTS Pot No. Treatment 1 None Uninoculated 2 None Uninoculated 3 None Inoculated 4 None Inoculated 5 CaCOa one-half* Uninoculated 6 CaCOs one-half Uninoculated 7 CaCOs one-half Inoculated 8 CaCOs one-half Inoculated 9 CaCOs full Uninoculated 10 CaCOs full Uninoculated 11 CaCOs full Inoculated 12 CaCOs full \ Inoculated *By “one-half” is meant the amount of lime carbonate necessary to neutralize one-half of the acidity. Before planting, all seeds were washed in mercuric chlor- ide and rinsed in sterile water. The seeds in one-half of the pots were inoculated with a pure culture of alfalfa bacteria, clover bacteria or soy bean badteria. Wherever seedlings were used instead of seed, they were first grown in sand and then transferred to proper jars. The moisture content was maintained at 60 per cent satur- ation for the Colby silt loam and at 50 per cent saturation for the Plainfield sand. Results of Pot Experiments for 1914 The first experiment was started late in ^ the spring of 1914. At that time only one soil type, Colby silt loam, was available. After determining the soil acidity, carbonate of lime was added as follows: jars 5 to 8 inclusive received .0808 gram per 100 grams of soil, jars 9 to 12 inclusive received .1617 gram per 100 grams of soil. The first amount is sufficient to neutralize one-half, and the last amount, all of the acidity indicated by the Veitch method. The lime was added in the form of pure calcium carbonate and intimately mixed with the soil. 10 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 39 The Effect of Treatmp.nt on the Yield of Alfalfa 'AND Soy Beans May 29, 1914, the jars were planted to alfalfa. The seed germinated well, giving a uniform stand. After two weeks the seedlings were thinned to 35 per jar. For several weeks after planting, the seedlings in all jars appeared much alike. After about six weeks, the uninoculated unlimed plants began to turn yellow and remained this color during the entire growing period. Table I. — The Influence of Inoculation With and Without Lime ON Growth and Nitrogen Content of Alfalfa ON Colby Silt Loam Pot No. Dry weight of different crops Nitrogen in different crops Tops 1 Tops 2 Tops 3 Roots Tops 1 Tops 2 Tops 3 Roots Tops 1 Tops 2 Tops 3 Roots Gms. Gms. Gms. Gms. Mgm. Mgm. Mgm. Mgm. P. Ct. P. Ct. P. Ct. P.Ct. 1 14.3 7.23 4.66 20.34 531.2 294.9 225.4 618.0 3.71 4.07. 4.83 3.04 2 13.23 5.29 3.94 18.20 533.1 220.6 175.5 539.3 4.02 4.17 4.45 2.96 Av. 13.76 6.26 4.30 19.27 532.1 257.7 200.4 578.6 3.86 4.12 4.64 3.00 3 15.54 5.84 . 4.94 18.36 613.6 239.3 233.7 513.2 3.94 4.09 4.73 2.80 4 15.74 6.43 4.03 15.16 680.4 268.5 195.4 496.4 4.32 4.17 4.84 3.20 Av. 15.64 6.13 4.48 16.76 647.0 253.9 214.5 504.8 4.13 4.13 4.78 3.00 5 14.42 5.62 4.86 18.85 592.6 246.2 231.5 546.3 4.11 4.38 4.76 2.90 6 15.29 5.64 4.59 20.87 648.2 260.8 197.2 609.6 4.23 4.62 4.29 2.92 Av. 14.85 5.6 4.72 19.86 620.4 253.5 214.3 577.9 4.17 4.50 4.52 2.91 7 16.74 7.34 5.15 24.88 712.2 327.7 249.1 737.8 4.25 4.46 4.83 2.97 8 16.79 6.59 4.71 24.53 712.4 285.2 222.6 694.0 4.24 4.32 4.72 2.90 Av. 16.76 6.96 4.93 24.70 712.3 306.4 235.8 715.9 4.25 4.39 4.77 2.93 9 14.08 5.86 4.62 24.00 549.2 246.5 204.3 662.3 3.90 4.20 4.42 2.76 10 15.89 7.16 5.18 22.79 622.4 306.2 228.9 686.3 3.91 4.27 4.41 3.01 Av. 14.98 6.51 . 4.90 23.39 585.8 276.3 216.6 674.3 3.90 4.23 4.41 2.88 11 18.21 8.20 5.00 19.71 768.8 357.5 235.2 587.8 4.22 4.35 4.70 2.98 12 18.48 8.97 4.52 18.24 761.7 385.0 218.7 560.3 4.12 4.29 4.83 3.07 Av. 18.34 8.58 4.76 18.97 765.2 371.2 226.9 574.0 4.17 4.32 4.76 3.02 l"ive crops in all were taken from the soil in this series, three of alfalfa and two of soy beans. After the third crop was harvested and the roots carefully removed, the jars were planted to soy beans. The lirst crop of alfalfa was harvested on October 6, 1914. The second crop was harvested on November 19, and the third on January 2, 1915. The crops were air dried and kept for analysis. Legumes on Acid Soils •11 Yield of Alfalfa Table I gives the dry weights, the total nitrogen, and percentage of nitrogen in the different crops. From the data presented in the table, it will be seen that the maximum yield was obtained with the first crop. Because of weather conditions, very little sunlight, etc., the later cuttings of alfalfa were much lighter. The data show, moreover, that the benefit derived from inoculation alone was most marked in the first crop. The dry weight* of the first cutting, un- inoculated jars 1 and 2, was 13.7 grams as compared with the inoculated jars 3 and 4, 15.6 grams, an increase of 1.9 grams or 13.8 per cent. The second and third crops failed to show any noticeable difference in weight. The uninocu- lated plus half lime,** jars 5 and 6, produced slightly more growth in the first and third crops than did the corres- ponding control jars 1 and 2, while the inoculated jars 7 and 8, plus half lime, produced larger yields in every case than the controls. The increase in this series amounted to 3 grams or 21.6 per cent. Where full lime was applied, the inoculated jars 11 and 12 gave, in the first cutting, a yield of 4.58 grams more than the control, or a gain of 33.2 per cent, and in the second cutting a gain of 37.0 per cent. The average weight of dry matter, duplicate pots, for the three crops was as follows: Controls uninoculated Controls inoculated One-half lime uninoculated One-half lime inoculated Full lime uninoculated Full lime inoculated 24.33 grams ' 26.26 grams 25.21 grams 28.61 grams 26.40 grams 31.69 grams The results as a whole show that inoculation without other treatment is beneficial to the growth of alfalfa in acid soils, especially to the first crop. Likewise, lime enhances crop production. Lime alone, when applied in small amounts, gave a slight increase, but not nearly so much as inoculation alone. One-half lime and inoculation combined gave a greater yield than either alone. Where larger amounts of lime were applied, a correspondingly larger yield was obtained. Jars 11 and 12 inoculated with full lime produced ^Whenever crop yields or percentages of nitrogen or total nitrogen arc compared, the average of duplicate jars is taken as a basis for comparison. **Whcrevcr the term “ lime” is used, pure calcium carbonate is meant. 12 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 39 the maximum gain in growth. For the maximum produc- tion of alfalfa hay on Colby silt loam soil, lime and inoculation ^ are essential. Figure 2 shows, at a glance, the differences in January 2 the alfalfa was cut for the last time, the roots carefully remov- ed, and nodule formation recorded. The root tissue including the nodules was saved for analysis. In removing roots from the soil, a considerable por- tion of the finer roots was unavoidably left in the soil. For this reason it was difficult to determine the true benefit from the use of lime and inocula- tion. In all cases, except jars 1 and 2, the roots showed a profuse development. A few nodules were pres- ent on all the uninoculated roots. All of the inoculated roots were thoroughly infected with numerous nodules. Yield of Soy Beans February 15, 1915, the jars were replanted to I to San soy beans. The bacteria-free seeds were germinated in sterilized sand. Only 10 plants were allowed to mature in each jar. The plan followed was the same as in the previous experi- ment. Because of the cold and cloudy weather, growth was very poor. As late as April 1 the plants were partially yellow and badly infected with -red spider. The crop was harvTslcd April 26, the tops removed, weighed, and kept for analysis. A record of nodule production was made. Jars 1, 5, 6, and 9 were free of all nodules; 2 and 10 contained one nodule each; 3, 7, 8, 11, and 12 contained numerous nodules and jar 4 a few nodules. The experiment was repeated, using Wisconsin Black soy beans, an early maturing variety. The first of May,*[^25 seeds free of bacteria were i)lantcd in each pot. The seeds yield of the various crops. FIG. 2.— GROWTH OF ALFALFA ON COLBY SILT LOAM. a. Control; b. half lime; c. full lime. The checked columns denote uninoculated and the dark columns inoculated. Legumes on Acid Soils 13 in inoculated jars were treated with a pure culture of soy bean organisms. It was found that Wisconsin Black soy beans grew better and produced larger yields than the Ito San soy beans. Here again, only 10 plants were allowed to mature in each jar. After the first month the uninoculated plants turned yellow and the leaves began to drop. On July 12 this crop was harvested, weighed, and kept for analysis. After noting nodule development, the roots were incorporated with the soil. Jars 1 and 10 were slightly inoculated; all other uninoculated jars were free of nodules. All inoculated jars showed numerous nodules. Table II. — The Influence of Inoculation With and Without Lime ON Growth and Nitrogen Content of Soy Beans on Colby Silt Loam Pot No. Dry weight of different crops Nitrogen in different crops Tops Tops Tops Tops Tops Tops 1 2 1 2 1 2 Gms. Gms. Mgm. Mgm. P. Ct. P.Ct. 1 16.79 14.10 572.9 427.5 3.41 3.03 2 17.96 14.50 569.7 483.5 3.17 3.32 Av. 17.37 14.30 571.3 455.5 3.29 3.17 3 16.64 17.64 648.1 612.2 3.89 3.47 4 13.62 18.43 546.7 670.3 4.01 3.65 Av. 15.13 18.03 597.4 641.2 3.95 3.56 5 17.46 14.04 523.8 376.0 3.00 2.68 6 16.86 17.54 546.4 349.6 3.24 2.00 Av. 17.16 15.79 535.1 362.8 3.12 2.34 7 16.19 19.03 602.8 634.8 3.72 3.34 8 17.06 17.21 665.3 570.2 3.90 3.31 Av. 16.62 18.12 634.0 602.5 3.81 3.32 9 17.46 14.60 543.0 330.8 3.11 2.26 10 20.86 15.03 645.6 390.0 3.09 2.60 Av. 19.16 14.81 594.3 360.4 3.10 2.43 11 20.86 19.48 812.5 683.3 3.89 3.51' 12 19.47 17.68 755.2 604.0 3.88 3.42 Av. 20.16 18.58 783.8 643.6 3.88 3.46 In Table II are recorded the complete data for this exper- iment. The first crop did not respond favorably to treatment, except in jars 9, 10, 11; and 12, where a slight increase was noted. The second crop responded favorably to inoculation, but failed to produce an appreciable increased|yield in the]|pres- ence of lime. This does not agree with results from the Ala- bama Station (6), where lime caused an increase in yield of 14 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 39 soy beans of 49 per cent. A possible explanation for this may be found in the difference in soil type. The precent- age increase due to inocula- tion was 26.0, to inoculation plus full lime, 29.9, and lime alone, 3.9. In order to bring out more clearly the effect of treatment on the growth of soy beans, the results of the preceding table have been arranged in the form of columns as shown in Fig- ure 3. The Effect of Treatment ON THE Nitrogen Con- tent OF Alfalfa and Soy Beans The influence of inocu- lation alone and with lime on the total quantity of ^T)N^AmBY s^lt^l^am^^^^ nitrogcn and percentage of a. Control; b. half lime; c. 'full lime. nitrOgCn will bc disCUSSCd The checked columns denote uninocula- ted and the dark columns inoculated. UnQer tlllS UCaQ. Nitrogen Content of Alfalfa , From the data of Table I, it will be seen that the percent- age of nitrogen varies with -the different crops. It was lowest in the first and highest in the third crop. Apparently a profuse growth resulted in a decreased percentage of nitro- gen. Jars 1 and 2,- the lirst crop, contained 3.86 per cent of nitrogen and jars 1 1 and 12, 1.17 per cent. Lime and inocu- lation ])rovcd very beneficial. The differences in precentage ot nitrogen in the other two crops were not so pronounced. Hall lime plus inoculation was equally as effective as full lime plus inoculation in increasing the percentage of nitro- gen in the crops. The roots did not show any consistent benefit from inoculation or lime. In Table III are presented summary data showing the re- sults ot the allalfa experiment. The figures of the table give Legumes on Acid Soils 15 the average weight and nitrogen content of all crops in grams and the relative weight in pounds per acre (9). The bene- ficial effect of inoculation is marked not only by a greater yield, but also by a greater gain in nitrogen. Since the same number of plants were grown in each jar, the increase must be due to a greater growth of the individual plant (2, p. 182). Table III. — Effect of Treatment on Growth and Nitrogen Fixa- tion BY Alfalfa on Colby Silt Loam Pot No. Dry weight Total nitrogen Increase in total nitrogen due to treatment Average for du- plicate jars Per acre Average for du- plicate jars Per acre Milligrams for duplicate jar Per acre Total Tops Tops and roots Tops Tops and roots Gms. Lbs. Mgm. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. ll Tops 24.33 3892.8 990.35 158.46 2 J Roots 19.27 3083.2 578.65 92.58 251.04 31 Tops 26.26 4201.6 1115.45 178.47 125.1 20.01 4 J Roots 16.76 2681.6 504.8 80.77 259.24 51.3 8.20 51 Tops 25.21 4033.6 1088.26 174.12 97.9 15.66 6 Roots 19.86 3177.6 577.95 92.47 266.59 97.2 15.55 71 Tops 28.66 4585. 6 1254.58 200.73 264.2 42.27 8 i Roots 24.71 3953.6 715.9 114.54 315.27 401.5 64.23 91 Tops 26.40 4224.0 1078.74 172.60 88.4 14.14 10 / Roots 23.40 3744.0 674.3 107.89 280.49 184.1 29.45 111 Tops 31.69 5070.4 1363.43 218.15 373.1 59.69 12 j Roots 18.98 3036.8 574.05 91.85 310.00 368.4 58.96 The increase in total nitrogen due to inoculation alone was 20.1 pounds per acre, to full lime inoculation, 59.69 pounds. Lime treatment alone failed to cause any decided gain in the yield of dry matter or the amount of nitrogen. The effect of the different treatments is shown very clearly in the columns of Figure 4. The yield of dry matter, the total nitrogen content, and the percentage of nitrogen in dry matter were increased by inoculation. Nitrogen Content of Soy Beans The results of Table II show the marked beneficial influ- ence of inoculation on the precentage of nitrogen in soy beans. This is true both in the first and second crops. Unlike the experiments with alfalfa, it was found that lime alone did not increase the percentage of nitrogen in soy beans. 16 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 39 FIG. 4.— GROWTH AND NITROGEN CONTENT OF ALFALFA ON COLBY SILT LOAM The checked columns denote uninocu- iated and the dark columns inoculated. In order to show the effect of treatment on the yield of dry matter and quanity of nitrogen in the crops of soy beans, the data of Table II are presented in summary form in Table IV. The results show a large in- crease in nitrogen in all of the inoculated jars. This amounted to 39.0 per cent in the case of jars 3 and 4. The max- imum amount of nitrogen was found in the crop taken from soil receiving the largest application of lime. This agrees with the results of Lipman and his associates (11) who noted that lime increases the nitrogen content of soy beans. Apparently in Colby silt loam soil inoculation is more important than lime for the first two Pe« crops of soy beans. A summary of the results of the preceding table is shown in Figure 5. Results of Pot Exper- iments FOR 1915 The same general plan was followed as in the previous experiments. However, the study was extended to include two soil types, acid Colby silt loam taken from the same place as the soil used in the previous tests, and acid Plainfield sand. FIG. 5.— GROWTH AND NITROGEN CONTENT OF SOY BEANS ON h COLBY SILT LOAM j 'I'hc checked columns denote uninocu- lated and the dark columns inoculated. Legumes on Acid Soils 17 Two different crops were grown on each soil type, alfalfa and red clover. The soils were collected in the fall of 1914, carefully potted and various amounts of lime added. In all of the experi- ments, carbonate of lime was applied in amounts sufficient to neutralize one-half and all of the soil acidity according to the Truog (18) method. Colby silt loam jars, 5 to 8 inclu- sive, received 0.52 gram per 100 grams of soil, jars 9 to 12 Table IV. — Effect of Treatment on Growth and Nitrogen Fixa- tion BY Soy Beans on Colby Silt Loam Group Dry weight Total nitrogen Increase in total nitrogen due to treatment No. Average for Average for Average for duplicate Per acre duplicate Per acre duplicate Per acr<> jars jars jars Gms. Lbs. Mgm. Lbs. Mgm. Lbs. 1 31.68 5.068.8 1,026.79 164.29 2 33.17 5,307.2 1,238.65 198.18 211.86 33.89 3 32.95 5,272.0 897.90 143.66 -128.90 -20.63 4 34.75 5,560.0 1,236.55 197.85 210.00 33.56 5 33.98 5,436.8 954.70 152.75 -72.00 -11.54 6 38.75 6,200.0 1,427.50 228.40 400.70 64.11 inclusive, of the same series, received 1.04 grams per 100 grams of soil. The Truog method shows much larger amounts of soil acidity than the Veitch. Plainfield sand jars, 5 to 8 inclusive, received 0.26 gram per 100 grams of soil, jars 9 to 12 inclusive, 0.52 gram. In addition to the carbonate of lime treatment, the sand series received on April 17 an application of 0.25 gram of dibasic potassium phosphate per kilogram of dry sand. The Effect of Treatment on the Yield of Alfalfa AND Red Clover February 16, 1915, two series of 12 jars each, Colby silt loam and Plainfield sand, were planted to alfalfa. The seed- lings in one-half of the jars of each series were thoroughly inoculated, the other half were kept as free from alfalfa bacteria as possible. Two weeks later, the other series of 12 jars each, Colby silt loam and Plainfield sand, were plant- ed to clover. The same plan was followed as in the alfalfa experiments. In all cases 25 plants were allowed to mature. 18 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 39 Weather conditions were unusually favorable for greenhouse work. Five crops were harvested from each of the alfalfa series on the following dates: April 28, June 9, July 12, August 21, and September 22. After the last crop was harvested, the roots were carefully removed, notes taken on nodule formation, and the tissue kept for analysis. Because of the large number of very fine rootlets, it was found very difficult to remove all of the roots from the soil. The differ- ent crops were also dried and kept for analysis. The soils were mixed thoroughly and samples were drawn for analysis. From the two clover series, three crops were harvested as follows: June 1, July 12, and September 22. After the last crop was cut, the soils were removed from the pots, the roots examined for nodules and then returned to the soil. This procedure was necessary in order to secure decomposi- tion of the root tissue before sampling the soils. No attempt was made to measure the nitrogen content of the clover roots. After decomposition had taken place, three months later, the soils were sampled in the same manner as the soils from the alfalfa series. Yield of Alfalfa on Colby Silt Loam In Table V are recorded the dry weights of the five alfalfa crops, the roots as well as the total nitrogen and the percent- age of nitrogen of each crop. The treated jars show a large and uniform increase in yield of dry matter, which is well marked in each one of the five crops. In the no-lime series, the beneficial effect of inoculation on plant growth became more noticeable wiU;i the successive crops. The greatest difference was fourxl in the fifth crop. Here the inoculated series produced more than double as much alfalfa as the uninoculated control, or an increase of 120.3 per cent. JJie average weight of dry matter for duplicate pots, includ- ing live crops, was as follows: .Control iininoriilatcd 34.36 grams Control inoculated 49.77 grams One-half lime iminoculated 59.88 grams One-half lime inoculated 65.18 grams I'ull lime uninoculated 61.38 grams h'ull lime inoculated 67.39 grams It is significant that half lime should produce almost as great a yield of dry matter as the full amount required to Table V. — The Influence of Inoculation With and Without Lime on Growth and Nitrogen Content of Alfalfa on Colby Silt Loam Legumes on Acid Soils 19 20 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 39 neutralize soil acidity. This is true of each one of the five crops. Somewhat similar results have been reported from other stations. For example, Hopkins of Illinois (10) reports that moder- ate quantities of calcium carbonate applied to acid soils greatly favor the growth of legumes. According to Frear (7) the growth of red clover on acid soil is greatly benefited when the acidity is only partially neutralized. GRAMS FIG. 6.— GROWTH OF ALFALFA ON COLBY SILT LOAM a. Control; b. half lime; c. full lime. The checked columns denote uninoculated and the dark columns inoculated. Lipman (12) found that lime increases the yield of dry matter of crimson clover and likewise the percentage of nitrogen. Small quantities of lime produced nearly as great yields as large quanties of lime. In regard to the activity of the soil bacteria, Scales (16) found that according to the Veitch method the nitrifying and ammonifying bacteria were most active in the presence of 50 to 75 per cent of the calcium carbonate- requirement, from the data of Table V, it appears that smaller quantities of lime than those indicated by the Truog method will give almost maximum results. 1 he quantity of lime required to produce a good growth of legumes is one of the important problems of scientific agriculture. If just half enough to neutralize soil acidity Legumes on Acid Soils 21 is all that is needed, as indicated by the foregoing data, then it is well to bring this point to the attention of the farmers. The effect of treatment on the differences in yield of dry matter is brought out very clearly in the columns of Figure 6. Yield of Alfalfa on Plainfield Sand With the exception of soil type and the addition of a potas- sium and phosphate fertilizer, the conditions of this experi- ment were the same as those of alfalfa in Colby silt loam GRAMS 20 18 16 14 12 10 6 4 2 FIG. 7.— GROWTH OF ALFALFA ON PLAINFIELD SAND a. Control; b. half lime; c. full lime. The checked columns denote uninoculated and the dark columns inoculated. soil. The results of all nitrogen determinations, as well as dry weights, are expressed in Table VI. The influence of inoculation was noticeable in the first two cuttings, and very marked in the third, fourth, and fifth cuttings. The differ- ences in development of inoculated alfalfa, with and without lime, are shown in Plate I. The maximum benefit from inoculation was obtained in the last crop. Plates II and III illustrate the influence of inoculation on alfalfa in Plainfield sand. The roots shown in Plate III were taken from the plants shown in Plate II. In this case, alfalfa on Plainfield sand, the effect of inoculation was particularly great. A sum- 22 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 39 n ^ O hJ < J P U o I- o (M - lO 05 CO CO CO 03 1-H T-H OO O 05 CO T^' CO 05 CO CO lO 05 00 05 CO CO CO CO CO CO kO O 00 kC OO kO *-< 05 c 1 1>- 05 05 0 0 05 00 CO 00 o ko cq 05 O 05 !>. 1-1 o 00 03 CO ^ Tt^ «C3 03 Cn . 03 05 ^ CO -H* Tti 05 kO 03 kO 05 05 o6 00 03 03 CO rJH CO CO ko 05kC 03 ^ CO OO 00 00 cooo o kO 00 lO 1-H kO 00 O 03 kO kC kO kO O 00 05 00 kO kO kO 05 00 CO 00 03* ^ CO ^ kO kO kO O CO CO kO CO kC CO CO CO 63.9 60.1 62.0 156.2 184.2 170.2 413.3 397.0 405.1 353.4 438.8 396.1 333.1 310.5 321.8 441.7 314.3 378.0 70.7 53.7 62.2 166.9 225.1 196.0 564.2 577.9 571.0 520.8 619.3 570.0 571.7 472.5 522.1 507.8 576.4 542.1 OO 1-H kO kO kO kO ^ OO 05 03 O ^ 00 O O 00 05 ^ 00 tP 05 CO ^ 03 CO CO 0 05 0 OOO 05C0^ ^ kO CO OOO 05 ^ kc O 00 05 CO 03 03 00 05 00 00 O 05 03 CO 03 CO Tt< kO 05* 1 -H o O kO OO 03 ^ ^ 00 00 00 00 ^ cO kO 1 -H 05 kO 05 kO 03 O ^ HH 1-H ^ 03 C3 03 05 kO 03 CO kO CO OO 00 00 03 03 03 o CO H H (1 h 52; CO 05 ^ 03 kC 03 00 CO CD 05 03 kC CO 03 00 kO O O kO 1-H CD 00 kO 00^^ kfi CD ^ 03 1-H 00 03 kO 03 03 03 CO o ^ 03 03 03 CO CO CO 03 03 03 r-l CO 03 03 03 CD OOO CO o ^ 00 CD kO ID kD kO !>• CD OOkC 05 00 CO OO CO CD o ^ ^ -Ht* O OO^kO 03 03 03* 00 O 05 kO* CD kO isl CD kC kD 00 O 05 — 03 1-H kO kO kO 03 03 03 -hJH 03 00 05 00 CO CD ^ CO 05 CO CD CD 03 ^ o kO kD kC kO HH IS. CD ^ 03 lO 03 03 03 Tji kO kD 03 03 03 03 CO 03 0050 03 OI- o CO 00 kO CD o OOO'*^ 00 03 kO - O 05H:t- Tji 00 CD OCDOO 00 03 05 CO CO O 03 OS H!fH CD Tt1 00 rH 03* CsJ Tt< CD »D CO CD CD kC CD CD t^kO CD kC CD CD O CD 00 CDCO-^ OOO OOO CO CO -H kC CO CD 03 HH ^ Tj< O 03 kD CD CD 03 00 kD CO CO CO CO CO CO 00 00 00 00 00 00 Is^lslls^ ^ 00 CO i>- o kC O O i CO kO 05 CO 03 00 1-H r}< CD kO kO 05 00 COO 00 CO 1-H CD 05 03 HH 00 kC CO -^coco Tj< kO kO kO CO 'itf* H^i kDkDkC i-i 03 ^ CO U5CO ^ t>-00 ^ «>o > < < < < Legumes on Acid Soils 23 mary of the effect of the various treatments on production of dry matter is shown below: Control uninoculated 14.04 grams Control inoculated 27.41 grams One-half lime uninoculated ! 57.65 grams One-half lime inoculated ; 60.85 grams Full lime uninoculated 53.76 grams Full lime inoculated 60.28 grams Here again, one-half lime gives equally as large yields as full lime. It is apparent from the data of these two experi- ments that small quantities of lime are more economical in improving crop production than quantities great enough to neutralize all soil acidity. A comparison of the total weights Table VII. — The Influence of Inoculation With and Without Lime ON Growth and Nitrogen Content of Clover ON Colby Silt Loam Pot No. Dry Weight of Different Crops Nitrogen in Different Crops Tops 1 Tops 2 Tops 3 Tops 1 Tops 2 Tops 3 Tops 1 Tohs 2 Tops 3 Gms. Gms. Gms. Mgm. Mgm., Mgm. P. Ct. P. Ct. P. Ct. 1 15.29 17.94 21.60 547.4 698.9 674.1 3.58 3.90 3.12 2 17.84 19.84 20.62 639.9 770.4 665.6 3.58 3.88 3.23 Av. 16.56 18.89 21.11 593.6 734.6 669.8 3.58 3.89 3.17 3 20.32 17.63 19.09 754.7 716.8 626.7 3.71 4.07 3.28 4 19.40 17.68 16.95 716.3 703.5 551.6 3.69 3.98 3.26 Av. 19.86 17.65 18.02 735.5 710.1 589.1 3.70 4.02 3.27 5 19.78 17.74 24.20 768.5 696.2 803.7 3.88 3.92 3.32 6 21.17 17.99 24.94 798.7 669.6 822.0 3.77 3.72 3.30 Av. 20.47 17.86 24.57 783.6 682.9 812.8 3.82 3.82 3.31 7 20.43 16.63 20.88 794.1 656.4 706.4 3.88 3.95 3.38 8 21.35 18.52 21.29 843.3 754.3 739.0 3.95 4.07 3.47 Av. 20.89 17.57 21.08 818.7 705.3 722.7 3.91 4.01 3.42 9 17.80 16.28 25.13 700.3 681.6 853.4 3.93 4.19 3.40 10 20.53 17.26 26.17 806.2 705.2 887,7 3.93 4.09 3.39 Av. 19.16 16.77 25.65 753.2 693.4 870.5 3.93 4.14 3.39 11 23.13 18.61 22.57 875.5 719.7 727.9 3.78 3.87 3.23 12 21.35 20.69 23.60 858.4 817.3 774.1 4.01 3.95 3.28 Av. 22.24 19.65 23.08 866.9 768.5 751.0 3.89 3.91 3.25 of all five crops shows that lime alone in Plainfield sand was nearly as efficient in stimulating plant growth as lime plus inoculation. In order to show more clearly the effect of the various treatments on plant growth, a summary of the data of Table VI is shown in Figure 7, 24 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 39 Yield of Clover on Colby Silt Loam In Table VII data are given which show the dry weights for all crops, and the total nitrogen analyses. Unlike the ’ preceding experiments with alfalfa or soy beans, treatment did not cause any consistent gain in yield of dry matter. With the exception of jars 7 and 8, the first crop apparently received all of the benefit from the use of lime and inocula- tion. Inoculation alone produced an increase of 3.3 grams or 19.9 per cent. Full lime with inoculation increased crop growth by 5.68 grams or 34.3 per cent. The other two crops failed to show much benefit from the treat- ment. The total yield of the three crops did not show a gain due to inoculation alone. The maximum total yield was obtained from the use of full lime and in- oculation. Here the in- crease was 8.41 grams or 14.8 per cent. Although this soil is decidedly acid, it seems well suited for the growth of red clover. The results from Colby silt loam do not agree with those obtained with Maryland soil. Veitch (20) observed that red clover does not thrive well on Mary- land soil with a lime requirement of eight to twelve hun- dred pounds of lime per acre.. The percentage gain from treatment is low when compared with yields obtained with alfalfa. In Figure 8 the yields of different crops are shown by a series of columns. Yield of Clover on Plainfield Sand The data presented in Table VIII are similar to those of clover on Colby silt loam. GRAMS 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 fig. 8.— growth of clover on COLBY SILT LOAM a. Control; b. half lime; c. full lime. The checked columns denote uninocula- ted and the dark columns inoculated. Legumes on Acid Soils 25 Inoculation alone gave an increased crop production. The increase was most noticeable in the first crop, amounting to 30.6 per cent more than was obtained in the control jars 1 and 2. Inoculated with full lime, first crop, jars 11 and 12, gave an increased growth of 11.08 grams or 106.6 per cent. In every case the first crop was most benefited by the treat- Table VIII. — The Influence of Inoculation With and Without Lime on Growth and Nitrogen Content OF Clover on Plainfield Sand Pot No. Dry Wdght of Different Crops Nitrogen in Different Crons Tops 1 Tops 2 Tops 3 Tops 1 Tops 2 Tops 3 Tops 1 Tops 2 Tops 3 Gms. Gms. Gms. Mmg. Mgm. Mgm. P. Ct. P. Ct. P. Ct. , 1 10.48 17.75 18.99 334.6 679.0 557.4 3.19 3.83 2.94 2 10.30 16.59 23.00 334.5 643.2 660.3 3.25 3.88 2.87 Av. 10.39 17.17 20.99 334.5 661.1 608.8 3.22 3.85 2.90 3 13.94 17.45 23.32 599.8 712.3 620.9 4.31 4.08 2.66 4 13.21 16.55 23.26 564.9 705.0 688.5 4.27 4.26 2.96 Av. 13.57 17.00 23.29 582.3 708.6 654.7 4.29 4.17 2.81 5 17.72 24.55 31.29 704.2 920.9 871.4 3.97 3.75 2.79 6 17.91 22.49 32.58 687.9 832.8 930.7 3.84 3.70 2.86 Av. 17.81 23.52 31.93 696.0 876.8 901.0 3.90 3.72 2.82 7 18.94 22.65 37.52 755.3 867.3 1,038.6 3.98 3.83 2.77 8 19.68 21.76 33.03 793.9 848.7 925.5 4.03 3.90 2.80 Av. 19.31 22.20 35.27 774.6 858.0 982.0 4.00 3.86 2.78 9 17.19 20.98 32.29 617.3 717.1 832.1 3.59 3.42 2.58 10 20.77 19.69 30.35 807.9 732.9 846.5 3.89 3.72 2.79 Av. 18.98 20.33 31.32 712.6 725.0 839.3 3.74 3.57 2.68 11 19.88 22.65 37.56 783.7 824.7 1,039.3 3.94 3.64 2.77 12 23.06 20.67 30.35 884.4 710.2 779.4 3.83 3.44 2.57 Av. 21.47 21.66 33.95 834.0 767.4 909.3 3.88 3.54 2.67 ment. The increased growth due to treatment is shown in Plate IV. The total yields of all crops weighed more in the treated, than in the untreated jars. The increase due to inoc- ulation alone was 5.31 grams or 10.9 per cent. The greater yield due to inoculation with full lime was 28.53 grams or 58.7 per cent. Lime and inoculation are accordingly very beneficial in producing maximum yields of clover on acid Plainfield sand. This is shown very clearly by Figure 9. The Effect of Treatment on the Nitrogen Content OF Alfalfa and Clover The data herewith presented were taken from the figures of Tables V and VI. Here only the summary tables will be shown. 26 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 39 Nitrogen Content of Alfalfa on Colby Silt Loam According to the results of Table V the percentage of nitrogen in the different cuttings varied widely. It was greatest in the first and smallest in the fifth crop. As a rule, a small yield of dry matter CDAMC ^ is accompanied by a high percentage of nitrogen. For example, inoculation alone caused a great increase in the percentage of nitrogen. The average percentage of nitrogen in five crops, jars 1 and 2 uninoculated was 3.47; in jars 3 and 4 inocu- lated was 4.25. Lime alone caused a slight gain in the percentage of nitrogen, al- though much less than in- oculation. In view of the increased yield of dry mat- ter in the limed series, it is not surprising that the per- centage of nitrogen was smaller than in the inocu- lated series. The beneficial effect of treatment on the total ni- trogen of alfalfa is shown in summary Table IX. From the results of the table it will be seen that jars 1 and 2, uninocu- laled, contained 1,LS2.8 milligrams of nitrogen, while jars 3 and 4, inoculated, contained 2,059.65 milligrams, a difference of h. » See Nohbe, Landw. Vers. Sta., 52 (1899) 473. The Utilization of Phosphates 3 sents very favorable conditions for reactions of type number (2) to take place. The availability to plants of the different phosphates formed according to the second reaction is thus of considerable interest and importance and has previously attracted the attention of a number of investigators. Historical vSummary Since the early writings of Liebig^ on the role of the plant itself, in making mineral elements available, the re- port of Sachs’^ experiment in 1860 which demonstrated that plant roots are able to corrode marble plates, and the re- port of Czapek’s® extensive investigations in 1896 which in- dicated that carbonic acid is the only acid given off in con- siderable amounts by live plant roots, many experiments have been reported on the feeding power of plants, in which the insoluble phosphates were mixed with a soil medium consisting of quartz sand. One of the earliest extensive investigations with phos- phates in which quartz sand was used is reported by the Maine Experiment Station, where at first Balentine^ and later Merrill^ investigated the subject. Merrill used acid phosphate, rock phosphate and redondite (a phosphate of aluminum and iron), in quartz sand cultures and grew eight- een species of plants. He found that acid rock gave the best returns in all cases and especially with the graminae. With graminae, redondite gave better results than rock phosphate, but in other cases the reverse was true. Plants of the cruciferae family were especially strong feeders on rock phosphate. Balentine states that the sand used con- tained 0.012 per cent of phosphoric anhydride and Merrill also states that it contained traces of phosphorus in an in- soluble form. Apparently the presence of this phosphorus, introduced by the sand itself, has been more of a disturbing factor than might at first be supposed. With many of the plants the blanks gave as large, and in several cases larger, growths than those which received rock phosphate and redondite. On the average the growths of the blanks were nearly one-half as large as the growths of those that received * Ann. Chem. U. Phar. 105 (1858) 139. 6 Bot. Zeit. 1860, 117. 6 Jahrb. Wissen. Rot. 29 (1896) 321. 7 Maine Expt. Sta., Ann. Rept. (1893) 13. 8 Maine Expt. Sta., Ann. Rept. (1898) 65. 4 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 acid phosphate, indicating that at least some of the plants made considerable use of the phosphorus originally present. Notwithstanding this disturbing influence, the Maine in- vestigations bring out conclusively the remarkable differ- ences that exist in the foraging power of different species of plants for insoluble phosphates. Some of the most extensive and important experiments reported dealing directly with the subject under discussion are those by Prianischnikov. ® After conducting elaborate, pot culture investigations on this subject with quartz and soil over a period of more than ten years he concluded that the availability of a fertilizer is influenced by the nature of the plant, the soil, the fertilizer, and by the interaction of accompanying fertilizers. ' Prianischnikov classified plants into two groups as regards their feeding power on phosphorite.* Lupines, peas, buck- wheat, and mustard were placed in the group having a strong feeding power and cereals in the group having a weak feed- ing power. He also found as follows: Phosphorite was much more effective as a source of phosphorus when used on acid soils than when used on the non-acid ones. The addition of 34 to 1 per cent of calcium carbonate to the cultures resulted in a greatly decreased availability of the phosphorite, but usu- ally did not materially effect the availability of dicalicum phosphate, mono-potassium phosphate, Thomas slag and iron and aluminum phosphates. The use of ammonium nitrate or a combination of ammonium sulphate and sodium nitrate instead of sodium nitrate as a source of nitrogen ' resulted in a greatly increased availability of the phosphorite to plants having weak feeding powers even when moderate amounts of calcium carbonate were added. The phos- phorus of precipitated iron and aluminum phosphates was found to be readily available to plants. The results showing that plants could obtain their re- quired phosphorus from precipitated iron and aluminum phosphate was at first taken by Prianischnikov^ ° as an indi- cation that either plants secrete other acids than carbonic or else carbonic acid has a more marked solvent action on these • » Landw. Vers. Sta.. 56 (1902) 107; Ibid, 65 (1907) 23; Ibid, 75 (1911) 357; Ber. j Dent. Hot. Gesel. 22 (1904) 184. tj ♦The term phosphorite is used in Europe in place of rock phosphate. ; >0 Ucr. Deut. Bot. Gesel. 22 (1904) 184. !l The Utilization of Phosphates 5 / phosphates than it is supposed to have. Later he learned that pure water has a sufficiently marked solvent action by hydrolysis on these phosphates to account for the avail- ability of their phosphorus to plants. He then pointed out the unsuitability of these phosphates for demonstrating acid root excretions. The correctness of Czapek’s conclu- sion, that plants excrete no other free acids than carbonic, is not disputed but simply the method of proof, in which aluminum phosphate was used. Prianischnikov found that when the nitrogen was sup- plied as sodium nitrate, the cultures usually became alkaline, when as ammonium nitrate, neutral, and when as ammon- ium sulphate, acid. The increased availability of phos- phorite when used in conjunction with ammonium salts over that when sodium nitrate had been used was explained by him as follows: Ammonium^ sulphate probably functions as a physiologically acid salt and sodium nitrate as a physio- logically basic salt. That is, plants by using more of the basic part of ammonium sulphate than of the acid part leave an acid residue which makes the phosphorite available; and by using more of the acid part of sodium nitrate than of the basic part, leave a basic residue which has an un-/ favorable action on the availability of phosphorite. The favorable action of ammonium nitrate is also probably due to its action on the physiological activity of the plant. It may make possible the regulation of the reaction of they nutrient medium, since the plant may take its nitrogen' either from the acid or basic part of the salt and thus pre- vent an overbalance of bases which act unfavorably on the availability of phosphorite or an overbalance of acids which act unfavorably on plant growth. In 1899, Schloesing^ reported the results of pot experi- ments with quartz sand which showed that plants can obtain their phosphorus from very dilute solutions, that is, solutions - - containing only one to two milligrams of phosphoric anhy/ dride per liter. Wheat, corn, beans, and buckwheat were grown in these experiments. The importance to the plant of the phosphates naturally dissolved in the soil solution is pointed out. P. Kossowitsch and his assistants during a period of about “Landw. Vers. Sta. 75 (1911) 372. 12 Ann. Sci. Agron. T. 1 (1899) 321. 6 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 10 years carried on very extensive and valuable experiments dealing directly with' the subject under discussion. In 1898 and 1900, Kossowitsch^^ reported the results of experiments with quartz cultures, showing that there is a great difference in the feeding power of different species of plants for phos- phorite. Evidently the quartz used contained some phos- phorus since the blanks in many cases gave a considerable growth. In 1901 he^^ reported the results of pot experi- ments with a soil that needed a phosphate fertilizer. These results show that all the plants which were grown used the phosphorus of phosphorite to a considerable extent. The mustard and buckwheat exhibited especially strong feeding powers, making nearly as large growths with phosphorite as with Thomas slag. In 1902, Kossowitsch^^ reported the results of experiments on the role of plants in dissolving insoluble plant food materials. Phosphorite in quartz cultures was used for the insoluble material. The special point in these experiments was the determination of the solvent action of the plant roots themselves, aside from the solvent action which the nutrient solution might exert. This was accomplished in the following way with two sets of cylinders: In the first set the plants were grown in a cylinder in which the phos- phorite was mixed with the sand, and five litres of nutrient solution were allowed to pass through daily. In the second set the plants were grown in a cylinder which contained no phosphorite, but received the nutrient solution after it passed through a cylinder that contained quartz and phosphorite, but on which no plants were growing. In the second set the plants made very little growth compared to the first set \ showing that the plant roots themselves and not the nutrient solution were active in making the phosphorite available. Kossowitsch also repeated, experiments similar to those of Schloesing, and obtained similar results. Peas, flax and mustard were grown. Flax which, relatively, had little power to utilize the phosphorus of phosphorite made a con- siderable growth when the nutrient solution applied con- tained only 1.3 mgm. of phosphoric anhydride per liter, in- dicating that the relative feeding power of plants for phos- ** Compte. rendu du Lab. agron. du Minist. de I’agr 1898, 226 and Russ. Jr. Expt. Landw. 1 (1900) 657. “ Russ. Jr. Expt. Landw. 2 (1901) 730. Russ. Jr. Expt. Landw. 3 (1902) 145. The Utilization of Phosphates 7 phorite is not determined solely by their ability to utilize the phosphates of dilute solutions. In this same report Kossowitsch stated that the solvent action of plants is probably mainly due to the carbonic acid which the roots excrete, and differences in feeding powers of different species of plants are probably due to differences in the amount of carbonic acid excreted by the roots. In 1904 and 1906, Kossowitsch^® reported the results of experiments on the quantitative determination of the amounts of carbonic acid excreted by the roots of mustard, barley and flax plants. The roots of all three species of plants gave off very notable amounts of carbonic acid, but the differences in amount did not allow the drawing of any definite relations between the feeding powers of plants and their capacity to excrete carbonic acid. In 1904, Kossowitsch^^ reported the results of carefully controlled experiments relative to the effect of ammonium salts on the availability of phosphorite. The possibility of nitrification being a factor was carefully controlled. The results confirmed those of Prianischnikov which have al- ready been given. In 1909, Kossowitsch^^ reported a summary of his work on the utilization of phosphorite by mustard, clover, oats and flax, involving the use of acid and non-acid soils, and also calcium carbonate. When the phosphorite was applied to decidedly acid soils, all of the plants exhibited marked powers to utilize the phosphorus therein. As regards their relative feeding powers to utlize phosphorite the four plants stood in the following order: mustard, clover, oats, and flax. Under alkaline conditions of soil this power of mustard to utilize the phosphorite was not markedly reduced but with the other plants it decreased decidedly. As regards the utilization of the phosphorus naturally present in the soil the plants showed an entirely different order of feeding powers than for phosphorite. In this case oats and flax had the strongest feeding powers and mustard the lowest. In conclusion Kossowitsch stated that the subject is very complicated and many factors need to be taken into con- sideration in order to explain the utilization of various phos- Russ. Jr. Expt. Landw. 5 (1904) 493 and 7 (1906) 251. Russ. Jr. Expt. Landw. 5 (1904) 598. 18 Russ. Jr. Expt. Landw. 10 (1909) 839. 8 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 phates by different plants. He did not offer explanations for many of the various experimental results that he had obtained. Nagaoka^® investigated the immediate and after effect of applying various phosphates to soil cultures on the growth of rice plants. The experiment was carried on for a period of four years and the soil had been previously exhausted. Different phosphates were used as follows: double super- phosphate as a standard, ferric phosphate, ferrous phosphate, aluminum phosphate, and tricalcium phosphate. The order of efficiency of the different phosphates over the four year’s period as indicated by the growths produced is given in Table I. Table I. — Order of Efficiency of Different Phosphates Over Four Years’ Period Year Super- phosphate Ferric phosphate Ferrous phosphate Aluminum phosphate Tricalcium phosphate First 3 1 5 4 2 Second 4 2 5 1 3 Third 5 2 3 1 4 Fourth 3 4 5 2 1 These results indicate that ferric and aluminum phos- phates were quite effective on this soil in supplying the rice plant with phosphorus. However, it is important to note that the ferric phosphate became less available to succeeding crops while the tricalcium phosphate in comparison to the other phosphates showed the highest availability the fourth year. Elliot and HilP® found that in many cases ferric and alum- inum phosphates were superior to calcium phosphate. The amounts of phosphates used and the growths secured were, however, too small and preclude the drawing of conclusions. Jordan^i carried on experiments much similar to those by Merrill of Maine, and confirmed Merrill’s results. After conducting extensive investigations on the phos- phate needs of Texas soils, Fraps^^ concluded that among several things the nature of the plant which is used as the Bui. Col. Agr., Tokyo, Imp. Univ., 6 (1904) 215. *oVa. Expt. Sta., Ann. Rept. (1909-10) 144. N. Y. Agr. Expt. Sta. Hul. 358 (1913). ** Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 28 (1906) 823. See also Bui. 126, Texas Agr. Expt. Sta. The Utilization of Phosphates 9 indicator in pot tests is an important factor in the inter- pretation of the results obtained, and correlation with data of chemical analyses. Wheeler^^ and his associates at Rhode Island have con- ducted extensive field investigations with different phos- phates. The results bring out marked differences in the utilization of the various phosphates by the different species of plants. Lately Burlison^^ of Illinois has reported the results of extensive quartz pot culture investigations on the utiliza- tion of rock phosphate by several crops. Since he supplied the nitrogen in the form of ammonium nitrate, the results must be carefully considered, keeping in mind the marked influence of ammoniun salts on the availability of rock phosphate. In this connection see Table XV. No pretense is made at having given a complete list of references that have a bearing on the four questions stated on pages 1-2. It is believed, however, that the references given are among the most important, and that they cover the field in such a way that further references would add little to what has already been said. References to field investigations have been largely purposely avoided, since such investigations cannot be controlled sufficiently to fur- nish data for establishing the basal and fundamental prin- ' ciples underlying this subject. This is no reflection on field experiments as it is clearly recognized that they are all important in testing out the practical application of scientific investigations along these lines. The status of knowledge at the time the present investi- gation was started regarding the four questions previously stated may be summarized as follows: (1) Investigations had shown that great differences exist in the feeding power of agricultural plants for rock phos- _ phate, but determinations of this feeding power for many of the common agricultural plants under adequately con-/ trolled conditions had not been made. (2) A satisfactory explanation why different species of plants should vary so much in their feeding power had never been given. (3) The greatly increased availability of the phosphorus « R. I. Agr. Expt. sta. Bui. 118 and 163. Jour. Agr. Res. VI (1916) 485. 10 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 in rock phosphate when used in conjunction with ammon- ium salts had not been fully explained. (4) It had been frequently stated that the phosphorus of soils in the form of iron and aluminum phosphates is of very lo / availability to plants, although the experiments of several investigators cited showed conclusively that preci- pitated iron and aluminum phosphates serve as readily available sources of phosphorus for plants, including even those that are weak feeders on rock phosphate. This had not been explained satisfactorily. It was primarily for the purpose of supplementing the knowledge regarding these four questions that the present investigation was undertaken. In a preliminary report in 1912 the writer^^ in discussing the solution of soil phosphates and the feeding of plants, pointed out that the progress of the reactions involved are best explained by means of the law of mass action and chem- ical equilibrium. In the solution of rock phosphate by the carbonic acid given off by decaying organic matter and live plant roots it was indicated that in order for the reaction to continue indefinitely both of the products of the reaction (calcium acid phosphate and calcium bicarbonate) must be removed either in the drainage water or by the roots of growing plants. This naturally led to the possibility of finding a relationship between the feeding powers of dilferent plants for the phosphorus of rock phosphate and the cal- cium oxide content of these plants. That is, plants which are strong feeders on rock phosphate should have a higher calcium oxide content than those that are weak feeders. In applying this hypothesis to the experimental results of pot cultures, it was found to agree in all but a few cases. The publication of this as a theory regarding the feeding power of plants was thus, because of these few cases, delayed until 26 Wis. Agr. Expt. Sta. Res. Bui. 20. On page 46 there is stated as follows: “It is most important to recognize that the carbon dioxide given off by the plant roots exercises its solvent action under conditions which have never been imitated in the laboratory. The reaction proceeding when carbon dioxide acts on phosphates must be considered as of the nature of a balanced action.” Also on pages 49-50 there is stated as follows: “In the composting experiments, the dissolved phosphates and carbonates are not removed from the field of action and hence the reaction bringing phosphates into solution quickly reaches a state of equilibrium, a^er which any further production of carbon dioxide is dissipated to the atmosphere and aids nothing in bringing phosphates into solution. “Under field conditions the movements of soil water and the feeding of crops are constantly removing dissolved. phosphates and carbonates from the little centers of solution existing as fragments of organic material where intensive carbon dioxide production takes place. This continued removal of the dissolved substances results in conditions under which the efficiency of carbon dioxide as a solvent is greatly increased.” The Utilization of Phosphates 11 what appeared to be exceptions could be satisfactorily ex- plained. From further pot culture experiments, very satis- factory explanations were obtained as indicated in detail on page 29, and accordingly in 1915 the writer published a report entitled, “A New Theory Regarding the Feeding Power of Plants. ”26 In this report the following statement was made: “Plants containing a relatively high calcium oxide content have a relatively high feeding power for the phos- phorus in raw rock phosphate. For plants containing a relatively low calcium oxide content the converse of the above is true. A calcium oxide content of less than 1 per cent may be considered relatively low. Corn, oats, rye, wheat and millet belong in this class. A calcium oxide content of somewhat more than 1 per cent may be con- sidered relatively high. Peas, clover, alfalfa, buckwheat and most of the species of the cruciferae belong in this class.” In 1914, Chirikov^^ published a very important report, the conclusions of which confirm the views expressed by the writer in 1912, regarding the balanced nature of the solubility re- actions in the solution surrounding the plant roots. With this principle as a basis, Chirikov states that the power of a plant to utilize the phosphorus of phosphorite depends upon the ratio of the plant’s content of calcium oxide to phos- phoric anhydride. He states that in case this ratio is greater than three, marked utilization of .the phosphorite takes place, and in case it is less the utilization is much lower. As indicated by Chirikov there are a considerable number of exceptions to this rule. These, he stated, need further investigation. As already indicated, the writer believes that the calcium oxide content of the plant and not the ratio to phosphoric anhydride is the more important thing to con- sider. A full discussion of this question is given in the latter part of the present report. Experiments on the Utilization of Different Phos- phates Subsequent to the results of experiments reported in Research Bulletin 20 of this Station on the “Factors Influenc- ing the Availability of Rock Phosphate,” extensive pot cul- ture investigations were started to test the availability to « Science 41 (1915) 616. ” Russ, Jour, Exp, Landw, 15 (1914) 54, 12 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 various agricultural crops of the different phosphates that probably exist in soils, as indicated on page 2. These in- vestigations were carried on over a period of four years and the tests were not only carried out in duplicate and triplicate but a considerable number were also repeated during a second season. A considerable number of the plants grown were later analyzed for the purpose of obtaining data which ^ might throw some light on the use of phosphorus by plants. Materials used in greenhouse pot eultures. — Glazed earthenware pots of two and four gallon capacity were used as containers of the soil medium. The soil medium consisted of a very pure natural quartz sand which , analyzed 99.13 per cent of silica, and contained only a mere trace of phosphorus in an insoluble form. The extremely ' small growths obtained on the pots to which no phosphate ’ had been added, showed that the plants were unable to ^ secure appreciable amounts of phosphorus from the quartz i sand and that the sand was admirably adapted for experi- ments of this kind. * i The phosphates used consisted of the following: acid ' phosphate, rock phosphate, ferrous phosphate, ferric phos- ' phate, tricalcium phosphate, aluminum phosphate, man- ganous phosphate and trimagnesium phosphate. The acid ^; phosphate and rock phosphate consisted of the actual materials sold on the market as commercial fertilizers. The| acid phosphate contained 6.54 per cent of phosphorus. The < rock phosphate consisted of high grade, finely ground mate-.*^i rial- and contained 15.40 per cent of phosphorus. The fer-^j rous phosphate was purchased as G.P. material. All the other phosphates were carefully prepared in the laboratory by precipitation from the respective G.P. salts. They were* thoroughly washed, air dried and powdered, and then dried]; at 107° C. for 48 hours. The material in each case was then^ ground to a fine powder and analyzed. The nutrient solution used except where otherwise statedi was made up according to the following formula: ? The above amounts of salts were dissolved in water and diluted to a volume of 25 liters. Smaller lots were made up' KNOa NaNOs CaCl2-2H20 MgS04-7H20 1000 grams 500 grams 475 grams 225 grams The Utilization of Phosphates 13 with proportionate amounts of salts and water. The iron was supplied from a separate solution of ferric chloride. Arrangement and eare of pot eultures. — Eleven and four-tenths kgm. of the quartz sand were used with the two gallon jars and 22.8 kgm. with the four gallon jars. The weight of the empty jars was also recorded in order that the moisture content later on might be checked and the watering regulated. Except in the case of acid phosphate the phos- phates were all added to the sand in such amounts as to give 0.0065 per cent of phosphorus. These applications are approximately equivalent to an application of 1000 pounds of rock phosphate per acre. The acid phosphate because of its solubility was added in an amount which gave one-half as much phosphorus as the others. This was amply sufficient to supply the needs of the plants. In order to secure thorough mixing, the samples of phos- phates were first mixed with about 1 kgm. of the quartz sand and this was then mixed with the remainder of the sand in a large mixing pan. Uniform seed of high germinating power was selected in the case of the different plants grown. More seed than the desired number of plants was sown in each case. Soon after the plants were up, the weakest ones were pulled out in order to have uniformly strong plants in each case. For each variety the same number of plants were left per jar. In the case of the two gallon jars, the corn was thinned to three plants per jar, cereals to 16 plants and alfalfa to 20 plants. The other plants were thinned out proportionately depending on the kind of plant. Twenty-five cubic centimeters of nutrient solution were applied on the two gallon pots as soon as the plants came up. Twice this amount was used with the four gallon pots. Further applications of nutrient solution were made depend- ing on the needs as indicated by the growths which had been made. In applying the nutrient solution each appli- cation per jar was always diluted with about 500 cc. of water in order to insure adequate distribution of the salts. Distilled water was used for watering. This was applied frequently, the aim being to keep the moisture content approximately at 13 per cent of the weight of the sand. The pots were supplied with a drainage outlet at the bottom 14 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 which prevented injury from any possible over supply of water. The moisture content was checked from time to time by weighing the pots. The plants were grown in a greenhouse in which a special attempt was made to regulate the temperature and ventila- tion. The period of growth from planting to harvesting usually ranged from 60 to 75 days with most of the different species of plants. No attempt was made to grow plants to complete maturity, since for some of the plants, the pots used were too small to allow this; and since with most of the plants it is believed that the feeding power is indicated quite reliably by a growing period of 60 to 75 days. A longer growing period is probably objectionable in many cases, since a confined growing space itself may .become the prime limiting factor to the further growth of an already fairly large plant. As is later pointed out, a longer growing period than 60 to 75 days is required by some of the small seeded plants that develop very slowly at the start. At the desired stages the plants were cut off and in some : cases the roots were also washed out. The plants were ' placed in paper sacks and after being thoroughly dried in the air or in an oven at a low temperature, they were weighed. ■ The weights obtained with different treatments are given in the following tables. The results of several pots were dis- ; carded due to abnormal variations from other replicates. | Table II. — Air-Dry Weights in Grams of Oats Produced with ‘j Phosphates Indicated 'j Kind of phosphate Tops Roots Average weight of total crop 1 s Per cent of standard^* A B C Av. A B C Av. Blank 1.9 2.7 1.8 2.1 1.9 3.6 2.8 2.8 4.9 6.8 ■( Acid 46.3 52.1 49.2 22.0 22.5 22.3 71.5 100.0 V Raw rock 3.0 3.8 3.8 3.5 3.4 2.6 2.9 3.0 6.5 9.1 1 X Tricalcium... 30.0 28.0 39.0 32.3 16.7 18.5 19.0 18.1 50.4 70.5 J Aluminum.... 42.0 43.9 50.0 45.3 27.5 23.1 20.2 23.6 68.9 96.4 4 Ferrous 40.9 40.1 36.7 39.2 19.2 20.9 20.2 20.1 59.3 82.9 f Ferric 40.0 31 .9 39.9 37.3 18.1 21 .8 19.4 19.8 57.1 79.9 (See Fig. I.) The Utilization of Phosphates 15 Table III. — Air-Dry Weights in Grams of Corn Produced with Phosphates Indicated Kind of phosphate Tops Roots Average weight of total crop Per cent of standard A B C Av. A B C Av. Blank 1.6 2.2 2.0 1.9 1.1 1.7 2.0 1.6 3.5 ' 3.8 Acid 64.3 79.9 72.1 14.7 20.0 17.3 89.4 100.0 Raw rock 2.7 3.2 2.8 2.9 2.2 2.2 2.0 2.1 5.0 5.6 Tricalcium... 33.7 31.8 24.9 30.1 15.2 11.7 10.3 12.4 42.5 47.5 Aluminum.... 67.8 63.2 65.5 19.1 20.2 19.6 85.1 95.2 Ferrous 15.9 15.8 18.3 16.6 6.9 7.8 8.0 7.6 24.2 27.1 Ferric 10.6 10.6 11.1 10.8 4.9 4.6 6.7 5.4 16.2 18.1 (See Fig. 2.) Table IV. — Air-Dry Weights in Grams of Rape Produced with Phosphates Indicated Kind of phosphate Tops Roots Average weight of total crop Per cent of standard A B C Av. A B C Av. Blank 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.8 Acid 18.6 19.9 23.7 20.7 5.5 4.0 4.0 4.5 25.2 100.0 Raw rock 4.6 12.6 8.2 8.5 1.2 3.6 5.2 3.3 11.8 46.8 Tricalcium... 15.2 15.0 16.4 15.5 2.3 5.8 3.1 3.7 19.2 76.2 Aluminum.... 15.8 32.3 16.9 21.7 2.7 3.9 1.2 2.6 24.3 96.4 Ferrous 11.7 12.5 13.1 12.4 4.4 2.7 2.1 3.1 15.5 61.5 Ferric 1.4 5.1 6.2 4.2 0.3 2.6 2.2 1.7 5.9 23.4 (See Fig. 3.) Table V. — Air-Dry Weights in Grams of Buckwheat Produced WITH Phosphates Indicated Kind of phosphate Tops Roots Average weight of total crops Per cent of standard A B C Av. A B C Av. Blank 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.1 0.1 o'.i 0.1 0.9 3.6 Acid 32.4 17.4 16.5 22.1 2.5 1.4 1.7 1.9 24.0 ,100.0 Raw rock 16.4 14.0 13.9 14.8 2.0 1.9 2.1 2.0 16.8 70.0 Tricalcium... 15.2 14.3 14.4 14.6 2.7 2.2 2.3 2.4 17.0 70.1 Aluminum.... 18.8 17.2 18.9 18.3 3.6 2.3 2.6 2.8 21.1 88.0 P'errous 11.6 15.2 14.5 13.8 1.2 1.8 1.3 1 .4 15.2 63.3 Ferric.... 7.8 4.5 7.2 6.5 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.3 7.8 32.5 (See Fig. 4.) Blank Acid Rock Tricalcium Aluminum Ferrous Ferric No. Phos. Phos. Phos. Phos. Phos. Phos. Phos. FIG. 1.— THE GROWTH OF OATS IN QUARTZ CULTURES WITH PHOSPHATES INDICATED In quartz cultures oats has weak feeding powers for rock phosphate, but utilizes the other forms of phosphates uniformly well. Blank Acid Rock Tricalcium Aluminum Ferrous Ferric No. Phos. Phos. Phos. Phos. Phos. Phos. Phos. FIG. 2.— THE GROWTH OF CORN IN QUARTZ CULTURES WITH PHOSPHATES INDICATED Corn like oats in quartz cultures has weak feeding powers for rock phosphate, but unlike oats it does not utilize iron phosphates as well. Blank Acid Rock Tricalcium Aluminum Ferrous Ferric No. Phos. Phos. Phos. Phos. Phos. Phos. Phos. FIG. 3.— THE GROWTH OF RAPE IN QUARTZ CULTURES WITH PHOSPHATES INDICATED In quartz cultures rape has strong feeding powers for rock phosphate, but docs not utilize ferric phosphate as well as many other plants. The Utilization of Phosphates 17 Table VI. — Air-Dry Weights in Grams of Barley Produced with Phosphates Indicated Kind of phosphate Tops Roots Average weight of total crop Per cent of standard A B C Av. A B C Av. Acid 17, .50 15, .40 15. .60 16, ,17 5, .40 4 .10 4, .10 4. 53 20, .70 100, ,0 Aluminum.... 16, ,90 17, .00 15. .70 16. ,53 5, ,40 5, .35 4, .70 5. 15 21. ,68 104, .7 Tricalcium... 10, .85 9, .45 7, .40 9. 23 4, .50 3 .45 3, o o 3. 65 12, ,88 62, .2 Ferric 22, .00 20, .10 21. .30 21 , ,13 7, .20 5, .45 6, .90 6. 52 27, ,65 133. .5 Ferrous 11, ,85 12, .65 12, ,05 12, ,18 4, .85 4, .35 3, o 00 4. 33 16. .51 79, .7 Magnesium.-. 2, .30 3, .60 2, ,90 ,20 .40 30 3, .20 15. .5 Manganous.. 20, .30 21 , .60 20, .75 20, ,88 6, ,05 4, .55 4, .60 5. 07 25. ,95 125, .3 Rock 3, .10 3, .30 3. .30 3, ,23 2, .45 1, .70 2, .20 2. 12 5, ,35 25. .8 Blank .70 1 , .85 2, .05 1. .87 1, .50 .70 1 .60 • 1. 60 3, ,47 16, .7 See Fig. 5.) Table VII. — Air-Dry Weights in Grams of Clover Produced with Phosphates Indicated Kind of phosphate A Tops B C Average Per cent of standard Acid 11.15 10.00 8.95 10.03 100.0 Aluminum., 8.50 9.05 7.80 8.45 84.2 . Tricalcium 6.60 6.80 6.00 6.47 64.5 Ferric 7.90 7.40 5.45 6.92 68.9 Ferrous 2.15 3.40 1.55 2.37 23.6 • Magnesium 1.80 3.50 2.75 2.68 26.7 ■Manganous .20 .70 .40 .43 4.2 Rock .70 .55 .60 .62 6.1 Blank .10 .10 .10 .10 1 .0 18 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 Blank Acid Rock Tricalcium Aluminum Ferrous Ferric No. Phos. Phos. Phos. . Phos. Phos. Phos. Phos. FIG. 4.— THE GROWTH OF BUCKWHEAT IN QUARTZ CULTURES WITH PHOSPHATES INDICATED In quartz cultures, buckwheat feeds strongly on rock phosphate, and also utilizes the other forms of phosphates uniformly well. Acid Alint'iinim Tricalcium Ferric Ferrous Magnesium Manganous Rock Blank r i'lu.s Phos. Phos. Phos. Phos. Phos. Phos. No Phos. lOG. .) — ITiE GBOWd'l OF BARLEY IN QUARTZ CULTURES WITH PHOSPHATES INDICATED ri (■’ lliires barley feeds a little more strongly than oats on rock phosphate. Barley grows exce[)tionally well on ferric phosphate. Rock Acid Rock Acid Rock Acid Phos. Phos. Phos. Phos. Phos. Phos. Oats Rape Buckwheat FIG. 6.— THE COMPARATIVE GROWTH OF SEVERAL PLANTS ON ROCK PHOSPHATE AND ACID PHOSPHATE IN QUARTZ CULTURES 'Phis shows the weak feeding powers of corn and oats on rock phosphate in quartz cultures compared to the strong feeding powers of rape and buckwheat. Rock Acid Phos. Phos. Corn The Utilization of Phosphates 19 Table VIII. — Air-Dry Weights in Grams of Serradella Produced WITH Phosphates Indicated Kind of ^ phosphate A Tops B C Average Per cent of standard Acid 7.35 8.45 7.50 7.77 100.0 Aluminum 7.65 4.05 6.65 6.12 86.7 Tricalcium 7.50 7.55 6.90 7.02 90.4 Ferric 9.80 6.55 9.70 8.68 111.7 Ferrous 2.50 2.35 1.70 2.18 28.2 Magnesium 3.55 3.10 5.00 3.88 49.9 Manganous 3.60 4.25 4.20 4.02 51 .7 Rock .35 .20 .20 .25 3.2 Blank .05 .05 .05 .05 .6 Table IX. — Air-Dry Weights in Grams of Millet Produced with Phosphates Indicated Kind of phosphate A Tops B C Average Per cen i of standard Acid 21.15 18.65 19.90 100.0 Aluminum 18.05 17.95 15.80 17.27 86.7 Tricalcium 7.90 7.80 5.20 6.93 34 8 Ferric 21 .20 22.10 18.70 20.67 103.3 Ferrous 6.35 6.40 5.80 6.18 31 .0 Magnesium 1.80 4.60 3.20 16.0 Manganous 15.50 14.30 14.30 14.70 73.8 Rock .90 .70 .85 .82 4.1 Blank .15 .15 0.15 0.15 0.7 f Table X. — Air-Dry Weights in Grams of Alfalfa Produced with ' Phosphates Indicated 1 Kind of 1 phosphate i A Tops B C Average Per cent of sland.ard -Acid 6.55 6.80 5.60 6.32 100.0 Aluminum 5.25 4.95 4.70 4.97 78.6 1 Tricalcium 8.50 5.80 4.50 6.27 99.2 Ferric 4.30 6.25 7.20 5.92 93.6 Ferrous 2.20 1.55 1.60 1.78 28.1 1 Magnesium .30 .60 .45 7.1 1 Manganous 1.50 1.30 1.15 1 .32 20.8 ( Rock 3.20 1.00 3.05 2.42 38.3 Blank .10 .10 .10 .10 1.5 20 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 Ferric Rock Acid Ferric Rock Acid Phos. Phos. Phos. Phos. Phos. Phos. FIG. 7.— THE UTILIZATION OF ROCK PHOSPHATE AND FERRIC PHOSPHATE BY RAPE AND OATS IN QUARTZ CULTURES Striking differences in plant characteristics of oats and rape are indicated in the utilization of ferric and rock phosphate. Table XL — Air-Dry Weights in Grams of Corn Produced with Phosphates Indicated (Second set) Kind of phosphate Tops Roots Average weight of total crop Per cent of standard A B C Av. A B C Av. Acid 43.20 40.00 41.55 41.58 15.80 11.90 15.00 14.23 55.81 100.0 Aluminum.... 22.65 21.00 24.35 22.66 9.30 7.85 9.10 8.75 31.41 56.3 Tricalcium... 9.15 12.60 10.65 10.80 4.10 4.50 4.10 4.23 15.03 26.8 Ferric 16.05 14.55 17.55 16.05 7.25 5.30 6.70 6.42 22.47 40.3 Ferrous 7.25 7.30 7.35 7.30 '3 . 55 3.45 3.45 3.48 10.78 19.3 Magnesium.. 11.10 7.10 9.70 9.30 3.15 1.70 2.85 2.57 11.87 21.3 Manganous . 31.20 30.30 33.25 31.58 12.65 10.35 10.25 11.08 42.66 76.4 Rock 3.25 3.20 4.00 3.48 2.00 2.10 2.20 2.10 5.58 10.0 Blank 3.05 3.15 2.55 2.92 1.90 2.15 1.60 1.88 4.80 8.6 The Utilization of Phosphates 21 Table XII. — Summary of Tables II to XI Inclusive. Per cent Normal Growth of Various Plants on Phosphates Indicated WHEN Growth on Acid Phosphate is taken as Normal and Repre- sented by 100 Kind of Phosphate Kind of plant Blank Acid Alum- inum Tri- cal- cium Fer- ric Fer- rous Rock Mag- nes- ium Man- gan- ous Oats 6.8 100.0 96.4 70.5 79.9 82.9 9.1 Buckwheat 3.6 100.0 88.0 70.1 32.5 63.3 70.0 Rape 0.8 . 100.0 96.4 76.2 23.4 61.5 46.8 Corn 8.6 100.0 56.3 26.8 40.3 19.3 10.0 21.3 76.4 Barley 16.7 100.0 104.7 62.2 133.5 79.7 25.8 15.5 125.3 Alfalfa 1.5 100.0 78.6 99.2 93.6 28.1 38.3 7.1 20.8 Clover 1.0 100.0 84.2 64.5 68.9 23.6 6.1 26.7 4.2 Millet..:. 0.7 100.0 86.7 34.8 103.8 31.0 4.1 16.0 73.8 Serradella 0.6 100.0 78.7 90.4 111.7 28.2 3.2 49.9 51.7 Discussion of Results in Tap>les II to XII Inclusive ON THE Utilization of Different Phosphates BY Various Plants The data in Tables II to XIII inclusive, together with figures show that the plants made very little growth on the [ blank cultures which received all nutrients except phos- phates, and also that the plants made normal or good growths on the cultures that received the nutrients with the soluble acid phosphate. This indicates that the condi- tions were properly controlled for the purposes of the in- vestigation under discussion. The summary of Tables II to XI inclusive as given in Table XII, is a fair and concise presentation of the data in those tables. In this summary the cultures which re- f ceived the soluble acid phosphate are taken as the standards or normal cultures and are represented by 100. The others are represented by a proportionate number. The use of the blank as a standard taken at 100, and representation of others by a proportionate number, as has been done by some investigators, is objectionable in work of this nature, since it may lead to numbers which are very 22 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 misleading; e.g., if the data in Tables IV and V on the growth of rape and buckwheat on rock phosphate were represented in this way, there would be obtained for rape a figure of 5900 and for buckwheat a figure of 1866 indicating that rape grew much better on rock phosphate than buck- wheat, while in fact the buckwheat made a more nearly normal growth under those conditions than did the rape. Many other cases of this kind can be found. The use of a number which represents the per cent in- crease over the blank, is also objectionable in work of this kind. Chirikov^® in representing some of Prianischnikov’s data in this manner obtains the number 2789 for rape and 1477 for buckwheat, while the actual data of weights show that the buckwheat did as well on rock phosphate as on acid phosphate, and the rape made only about one-half as much growth on the rock phosphate as on the acid phosphate. Blank cultures in which one or more of the essential ele- ments are entirely missing are not fair bases or standards on which to base comparative growths and feeding powers of plants, for reasons as follows: The amount of the missing element carried by the seeds of the different plants in ques- tion may vary greatly and hence influence the results. The requirements of the different plants for the missing element may also be very different and hence greatly influence the weight of the crop on the blank. Since the weights of the blanks are usually small, slight differences in these weights give rise to a large difference in the comparative figures obtained by using the blanks as a standard. The use of a normal culture instead of a blank, as a standard is thus much more desirable. Possibly figures representing actual or comparative amounts of phosphorus taken up by the different plants would be still more preferable as an indica- tion of the feeding powers of the plants. Reference to Table XII shows that all the plants utilized the phosphorus of aluminum phosphate to a considerable degree. With the exception of acid phosphate, the alumi- num phosphate gave the most uniformly good results. The tricalcium phosphate and ferric phosphate were also util- ized to a fair degree. In the utilization of these two phos- phates the various plants exhibited considerable differences. 28 Huss. Jour. Expt. Landw. 15 (1914) 54. The Utilization of Phosphates * 23 The barley made an exceptionally vigorous growth on the ferric phosphate, growin'g even better than on the soluble acid phosphate. This difference in vigor and growth was noticeable a week after the plants had come up. The rape made a comparatively poor growth on the ferric phosphate. The ferrous phosphate in most cases was not utilized nearly as well as the ferric phosphate, although some of the plants utilized it to a considerable degree. The various plants showed striking differences in their powers to utilize the phosphorus of rock phosphate. Some of the plants appeared to have little power of obtaining phosphorus from this source, while rape and buckwheat exhibited considerable power. None of the plants grew well on the magnesium phos- phate, although some made a considerable growth. Un- doubtedly, because of the considerable solubility of the mag- nesium phosphate due to hydrolysis,^^ the toxic effect of an unfavorable ratio of soluble magnesia inhibited the growths rather than an insufficient supply of phosphorus in a soluble form. The abnormal appearance of leaves and roots in most cases seemed to substantiate this. The manganous phosphate gave peculiar results. The barley made a very heavy growth on this phosphate, but the plants did not show the great vigor and health as in ‘ the case of the ferric phosphate. Determination made over ' a period of two weeks showed that the transpiration of water by barley growing on manganous phosphate was greater than in the case of the ferric phosphate, although the growth in the latter case was the greatest of all. The manganese undoubtedly caused physiological disturbances in the plants. In all cases and especially with alfalfa and clover, the chloro- iphyll of the leaves was affected as shown by yellow spots. This was especially noticeable during the early stages of growth. The effect of manganese compounds on the chlorophyll has been observed by a number of investigators.^ ° The roots of the corn and barley were colored brown in the manganous phosphate cultures, but otherwise appeared normal. i The great differences exhibited by the various plants in their growths on the different phosphates indicate that plant U. S. Dept. Affr., Bur. Plant Ind., Bui. 45, p. 56. I *0 Loew, Aso and Sawa, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Ind. Bui. 45, p. 23. i i 24 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 characteristics play an important role in this connection. The fact that rape made a better growth on rock phosphate than on ferric phosphate, while in the case of oats the op- posite was true, (see Fig. 7) indicates that solubility alone is not the only factor involved in the utilization of these phosphates by plants. The remarkably vigorous growth of the barley with ferric phosphate is another indication that aside from solubility or availability, some phosphates seem to serve the needs of certain plants better than others. The remarkable adaptability of certain soils to certain crops may be partly due to causes of this nature. The Availability of Ferric and Aluminum Phosphates The rather high availability of the precipitated ferric and aluminum phosphates, as indicated by the present investi- gation as well as by previous investigators, is satisfactorily explained as being due to a hydrolysis reaction which may be represented as follows: xFeP 04 + 3 H 2 O ^ZI^3P04 +Fe (OH)3. (x— 1 ) FeP 04 A similar reaction may be assumed for aluminum phos- phate. The investigations of Lachowicz, Cameron,^i Bell, and others, show that a liter of pure water acting on a pre- ^ cipitated phosphate of either iron or aluminum may bring i into solution by hydrolysis from several milligrams up to a \ tenth of a gram and even more, of phosphoric acid. The|] addition of carbonic acid to the water has little effect on^ the 'solubility of these phosphates for the reason that ferric| and aluminum carbonates are not formed under ordinary? conditions. In this reaction with water the acidic part goesj j into solution in much greater proportion than the basicj part which is practically insoluble, and hence the residue becomes basic. The concentration of phosphoric acid in solution naturally increases as the ratio of phosphate used to water increases. As already stated, Schloesing^^ ^^d Kossowitsch showed that plants could obtain their supply of phosphorus from solutions containing only one to two milligrams of phos- phoric anhydride per liter. The hydrolysis reaction is thus For detailed references see U. and Bell. 32 Loc. Cit. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Soils, Bui. 41 by Cameron « Loc. Cit. The Utilization of Phosphates 25 ample explanation of how plants are able to secure their supply of phosphorus from freshly precipitated phosphates of iron and aluminum. The hydrolysis reaction just given for ferric phosphate represents the first step in the action of the water on a mass of the phosphate. If the phosphoric acid made soluble is removed by precipitation, moving water or plant roots, then the reaction continues further resulting in the original phos- phate becoming more and more basic. As the resulting phosphate becomes more and more basic, the availability or solubility by further hydrolysis of the phosphoric acid remaining therein undoubtedly also becomes less and less, and hence its value as a source of phosphorus for plants also becomes lowered. That conditions of this kind actually arise at least in the case of ferric phosphate is supported by the results of Nagaoka, given in Table I. These results show that freshly precipitated ferric phosphate, when ap- lied to a soil, acted as an excellent source of phosphorus the first year, standing first in comparison to the others tried, but to succeeding crops it acted less favorably, standing in fourth place the fourth year. The favorable results secured in quartz cultures with freshly precipitated ferric and aluminum phosphates are thus satisfactorily explained by the hydrolysis of the phos- phate, which if comparatively fresh allows the formation of a solution sufficiently concentrated in phosphoric acid to meet the needs of growing plants. Under soil conditions, in which case the hydrolysis continues from year to year, there probably results finally, a phosphate which is so basic that the rate of solution and final concentration of phos- phoric acid are too low to meet the maximum needs of grow- ing plants. The low availability of the phosphates in some soils which presumably have their phosphorus largely in the form of iron and aluminum phosphates is thus also explained. In soils other factors which greatly lower the availability of the phosphorus in iron and aluminum phosphate may also be at work. As indicated by the work of Peterson^^ these phosphates may form comparatively insoluble com- plexes with organic matter. It seems possible that basic ** Wis. Agr. Expt. Sta., Research Bui. 19. 26 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 phosphates may combine with acidic humic compounds or possibly even acid silicates and form very resistant and insoluble compounds. The physical as well as the chemical nature of these complexes may be such as to greatly lower the solvent action of the soil solution in making the phos- phorus therein available to growing plants. The Availibility of Tricalcium and Trimagnesium Phosphates The availability of the triphosphates of calcium and mag- nesium is also brought about partly by hydrolysis. The great difference however, compared to ferric and aluminum phosphates, is that in the case of calcium and magnesium phosphates the basic part on hydrolysis forms a soluble hydroxide which may be removed by plants or the drainage water. Although the acidic part of these phosphates may go into solution a little more rapidly than the basic part, yet the rate at which these phosphates change to basic phosphates is much slower than in the case of ferric and aluminum phosphates. The solubility of the phosphates of calcium and magnesium thus does not decrease nearly as rapidly since their composition remains more uniform. The great demand in the soils of the humid region for bases of lime and magnesia undoubtedly aids greatly in preventing the formation of phosphates of these bases which are so basic as to be insufficiently available to plants. Since car- bonic acid forms soluble bicarbonates of calcium and mag- nesium, it aids greatly in the solution of these phosphates and the prevention of the formation of excessively basic phosphates. The great possible advantage of keeping the phosphates of the soil largely in the form of calcium phosphate instead of ferric and aluminum phosphate is thus perhaps partially explained in the discussions given. Soils well supplied with limestone are proverbially fertile. Hilgard^® states: “In the presence of high lime percentages, relatively low percentages of phosphoric acid and potash may nevertheless prove ade- quate; while the same, or even higher amounts in the absence of satisfactory lime percentages prove insufficient for good *» For details and references see U. S. Dept. Agr„ Bur. Soils, Bui. 41. *• “Soils,” p. 365. The Utilization of Phosphates 27 production.” On the same page, Hilgard states further in a footnote as follows: “This statement appears contradictory of the observations of Schloesing fils, upon the solubility of phosphoric acid in presence of lime carbonate (Ann. Sci. Agron., tome 1, 1899) but" the natural conditions seem to justify fully the above conclusion.” Reference to this work of Schloesing shows that even in the presence of considerable calcium carbonate, carbonated water dissolves over a milligram of phosphoric acid per liter. As already indicated this is perhaps sufficient concen- tration to meet the needs of growing plants, provided the rate of solution is rapid enough to maintain this concentra- tion in the local areas in contact with the root hairs, where the phosphates are actively taken up by the plant. In the soil the reaction is probably greatly aided due to the fact that the soluble calcium bicarbonate is removed by the feeding plants, the soil acids, and the drainage water. In pot cultures with acid soils needing phosphate fertili- zation the writer has often observed a decrease in the growth of cereals due To the addition of lime carbonate. This de- crease in availability is undoubtedly due to a condition which is temporary. In becoming acid a soil goes into a condition which takes years to develop, and the addition of lime carbonate causes many profound changes, some of which may affect the availability of the phosphorus. The very favorable results obtained by investigators in long continued field experiments involving the use of ground limestone is strong evidence that any unfavorable result at the start is due to temporary conditions. The Feeding Power of Plants As stated on page 11 it was found that plants with a high calcium oxide content are strong feeders on rock phosphate. In first applying this principle several cases were found which appeared to be exceptions: viz., alfalfa, clover, tobacco and serradella.^^ It is to be noticed that these are all plants with very small seeds. It was thus thought possible that the apparently weak feeding powers exhibited by these plants in quartz cultures was due to the fact that the seeds, Prianischnikov, Land. Vers. Sta., 65 (1907) 27. For others see Table XIL 28 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 being small, did not furnish sufficient phosphorus to produce plants of adequate size in the usual time, to indicate their true feeding power. As is evident a plant must be of reason- able size and possess a fair root system before it can be ex- pected to show the true feeding power of the species in question. The four plants mentioned all grow slowly at the start, even if sufficient soluble plant food is at hand. In order to test the question regarding these plants, fur- ther experiments were carried out, the results of which are reported in Table XIII. These experiments were conducted Table XIII.— Air-Dry Weights in Grams of Crops Produced with Treatments of Phosphates and Nutrient Solution with and WITHOUT Soluble Calcium Salt as Indicated Kind plant No phos- phate but with sol- uble cal- cium salt Acid phosphate with soluble calcium salt Rock phosphate with soluble calcium salt Rock phosphate without soluble calcium salt A B Av. A B Av. A B Av. Corn 4.00 16.0 18.2 17.10 4.7 4.9 4.80 5.7 4.8 5.25 Millet .20 15.6 16.0 15.80 1.3 1.3 1.30 1.4 1.4 1.40 Turnip .05 6.3 7.0 6.65 3.6 3.60 4.4 4.6 4.5 Sunflower .35 12.5 14.5 13.50 5.3 5.5 5.40 2.0 2.6 2,30 Tobacco .10 11.4 11.5 11.45 6.9 6.90 7.6 7.2 7.40 Alfalfa 1 crop No growth 1 .3 1.4 1.35 1.2 1 .0 1.10 .5 1.1 0.80 Alfalfa 2 crop No growth 8.4 8.2 8.30 5.0 6.2 5.60 5.2 5.4 5.30 Alfalfa 3 crop No growth 3.6 4.3 3.95 4.7 5.0 4.85 5.0 5.5 5.35 Alfalfa 4 crop No growth 6.2 8.4 7.30 8.7 8.4 8.55 8.7 8.6 8.65 (See Figs. 8, 9, 10 and 11) with quartz cultures in the same general way as the previous ones. As indicated two nutrient solutions, one with, and the other without, soluble calcium salt were used with the rock phosphate treatments. The nutrient solution with soluble calcium salt was the same as that given on page 12. The other without calcium salt was made up as follows, with a minimum of magnesium salts in order to prevent as far as possible the unfavorable effects of a high magnesia ratio : KNO3— 120 Gins. NaNOs — 60 Gms. MgCl2’6H20 — 1 Gms. MgS 04 ' 7 H 20 — 5 Gms. Water 3 liters The Utilization of Phosphates 29 Blank No. Phos. Rock Phos. Rock Phos. Acid with soluble calcium salt without soluble calcium salt Phos. FIG. 8.— THE GROWTH OF TOBACCO IN QUARTZ CULTURES WITH PHOSPHATES AND OTHER TREATMENTS AS INDICATED Tobacco feeds quite strongly on rock phosphate in quartz cultures. The presence of a soluble calcium salt has little effect on this feeding power. Blank Rock Phos. Rock Phos. .Icid No Phos. with soluble calcium salt without soluble calcium salt Phos. FIG. 9.— THE GROWTH OF TURNIPS IN QUARTZ CULTURES WITH PHOSPHATES AND OTHER TREATMENTS INDICATED In quartz cultures turnips feed quite strongly on rock phosphate. The presence of a soluble calcium salt has little effect on this feeding power. 30 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 Blank Rock Phos. Rock Phos. Acid No Phos. with soluble calcium salt without soluble calcium salt Phos. FIG. 10.— THE GROWTH OF SUNFLOWERS IN QUARTZ CULTURES WITH PHSOPHATES AND OTHER TREATMENTS INDICATED In quartz cultures, the sunflower feeds considerably on rock phosphate. The presence of a soluble calcium salt is beneficial. Blank No. Phos. Rock Phos. Acid Phos. FIG. 11.— THE GROWTH OF ALFALFA IN QUARTZ CULTURES WITH PHOSPHATES INDICATED Alfalfa feeds very strongly on rock phosphate. The Utilization of Phosphates 31 The tobacco plants were grown on soil until the leaves were about an inch long and then transplanted to the quartz cultures. Several crops of alfalfa were grown. The results with tobacco and alfalfa show that these plants exhibit strong feeding powers on rock phosphate after they have once developed the necessary feeding ma- chinery. Undoubtedly if tested in this way clover and serra- della would give similar results. The experiments of Kosso- witsch^® with soil, and those of MerrilP^ with sand cultures indicate that clover has a strong feeding power for rock phosphate. Of the apparent exceptions noted there remains only serradella which has not been critically tested, and it appears reasonably safe to accept the theory. In Table XIV are given thirteen species of plants whose feeding powers on rock phosphate have been tested under adequately controlled conditions. Results of some investi- gators have been purposely omitted since the quartz sand used evidently contained appreciable amounts of phos- phorus as indicated by the growths of the blanks. The calcium oxide content of these plants is also given in the table. Table XIV. — Per cent Normal Growth on Rock Phosphate of Plants Indicated, and Their Content of Calcium Oxide * Kind of plant Per cent Normal Growth Calcium oxide in dry material indicated Source of data Data Per cent Material analyzed Millet This Pub., Table IX 4.1 0.46 Cut as hay Rye Land. Vers. Sta. 56, 122 6.0 0.60 Before bloom Wheat Land. Vers. Sta. 56, 117 8.0 0.50 Plants before heading Oats This Pub., Table II 9.1 0.52 Plants before heading Corn This Pub., Table XI 10.0 0.83 Plants in bloom Barley This Pub., Table VI 25.8 0.90 Plants before heading Rape This Pub., Table IV 46.8 1.78 Plants in bloom Peas Land. Vers. Sta. 56, 123 46.0 1.90 Plants in bloom Buckwheat.... This. Pub., Table V...! 70.0 3.30 Plants in bloom Lupines Land. Vers. Sta. 56, 119 72.5 3.20 Leaves Alfalfa This Pub., Table XIII . . . 67.4 3.00 Plants in bloom Tobacco This Pub., Table XIII 60.2 3.40 Whole plants 1 " high Turnip This Pub., Table XIII 55.8 3.83 Leaves ♦The data on calcium oxide content were taken from Wolff’s “Aschen Analysen,” with the exception of the figure for tobacco, which was obtained by the analysis of the crop given in Table XIII. The references to Land. Vers. Sta., refer to the work of Prianischnikov and his assistants. “ Russ. Jr. Expt. Landw., 10 (1909) 839. Loc. Cit. 32 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 In diagram A the relation of growth on rock phosphate to calcium oxide content is represented graphically. From this relation the writer was led to make the following state- ment “Plants containing a relatively high calcium oxide content have a relatively high feeding power for the phos- phorus in raw rock phosphate. For plants containing a relatively low calcium oxide content the converse of the Willet Rtje U/heat Oats Corn Barley Rape Peas Buchu/heot Lupines O/folfa Tobacco Turnip DIAGRAM A.— THE RELATION OF CALCIUM OXIDE CONTENT OF { PLANTS TO THE PER CENT NORMAL GROWTH OR ’ FEEDING POWER ON ROCK PHOSPHATE | The diagram shows that the feeding power of a plant for rock phosphate in quartz cultures is closely related with its calcium oxide content. Plants high in calcium oxide are strong feeders on rock phosphate. above is true. A calcium oxide content of somewhat more than one per cent may be considered relatively high, and i less than one per cent relatively low. • “The explanation of the above relation is made possible ^ by means of the laws of mass action and chemical equi- ^ librium. The reaction making the phosphorus in raw rock \ phosphate available to plants is largely one between carbonic *1 acid and the tricalcium phosphate in the rock phosphate, A which may be represented as follows: I Ca3 (P04)2+2H2 G03lzZ:^Ca2H2(P04)2 + CaH2(C03)2. I “As is well known if none of the products to the right of ■ the reaction are removed from solution, the reaction soon ■ Science 41 (1915) 616. The Utilization of Phosphates 33 reaches a state of equilibrium. If the dicalcium phosphate is continually removed but the calicum bicarbonate only in part, then the reaction will continue a little farther, but also soon comes to a state of equilibrium due to the accumu- lation of the calcium bicarbonate. When this point is reached, the further solution of the phosphate is prevented. This is the condition that obtains for such plants as are low in calcium oxide and hence do not absorb the calcium bicar- bonate in the proportion to the dicalcium phosphate as given in the reaction. In such cases, the plants soon suffer for soluble phosphates. If both of the products to the right of the reaction are simultaneously and continually removed in the proportion given, then the reaction continues from left to right and there results a continuous supply of soluble phosphates along with soluble calcium bicarbonate. This is the condition that obtains, at least in part, with plants con- taining a high calcium oxide content, and hence such plants are strong feeders on raw rock phosphate.” The lime needs of plants. — There arises in this connec- tion the question: Why do some plants take up these pro- portionately large amounts of calcium oxide? The explana- tion of this may possibly be as follows: Plants with a high calcium oxide content usually have a high protein content. In protein synthesis, calcium oxide may be required for several purposes, one of which may be the neutralization of acids which are formed. Oxalic acid, a poisonous substance, is usually found among the plant acids, and is held by some to be a by-product of protein synthesis. It may thus be argued, that in order to largely neutralize this acid and perhaps others and form insoluble or neutral harmless substances, the plant requires calcium carbonate. The insoluble calcium oxalate and other calcium salts would thus accumulate in the plant and together with the calcium that may possibly enter into I combination with proteins or other plant substances give rise to the high calcium oxide content which in turn makes possible the strong feeding power for rock phosphate. This explanation also offers an explanation why most legumes growing on acid soils are benefited by liming. Except in unusual cases the injury resulting from soil acidity Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Ind., Bui. 45 (1903) 41; Duggar, Plant Physiology, p. 17/ ; Berthelot and Andr6, Compt. rendus, 102 (1886) 995 and 1043. 34 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 is probably not due to^the direct corrosive action of the soil acids on the roots of the legumes or on the cell material of the legume bacteria, but to the conditions which accompany soil acidity. When not disturbed, the soil solution comes to a state of equilibrium with the phosphates, silicates, car- bonates, organic compounds and other solid . compounds. In case a soil is acid, then solid carbonates in appreciable amounts are usually absent. Hydrolysis and carbonatibn are the principal processes that bring dissolved substances into the soil solution. The equilibrium conditions between the carbonic acid in the soil solution and the solid insoluble soil acids and soil silicates may be taken to illustrate the point under discus- sion. The insoluble soil acids of the acid soil, may be re- presented by H2X, and CaSiOs may be taken as a represen- tative silicate. In this system of soil acids, silicate and carbonic acid, the following reactions are possible: (1) CaSi03+2H2C03 H2Si03 + GaH2(C03)2 (2) CaSi03+H2X73=lH2Si03 + CaX (3) CaH2(G03)2+H2X 2H2G03 + GaX \s is evident from these reactions, the concentration of calcium bicarbonate in solution at equilibrium will depend upon, besides the concentration of carbonic acid and tem- perature, the amount of surface exposed by the calcium silicate and especially upon the amount and strength of soil acids present causing soil acidity. If considerable amounts of relatively strong soil acids are present then the concentration and rate of formation and solution of cal- cium bicarbonate and delivery to the plant will be too low to meet the maximum need of growing alfalfa and hence the growth of the plant will be checked. Insufficient supply of calcium bicarbonte to neutralize the oxalic acid and other acids which are formed may thus check the protein synthesis and even alTect the protein content of the plant. Here, as in all cases, in order for the reactions involved in protein synthesis to continue, the products (one of which may be oxalic acid) must be removed or precipitated in an insoluble or harmless form. It is possible that in nitrogen fixation by the legume bacteria, acids, possibly oxalic, are formed which, together with those The Utilization of Phosphates 35 formed directly by the plant’s metabolism, must be neutral- ized lest they act injuriously on the legume bacteria. It is also possible that in order for the nitrogen fixation in the nodules to continue at a maximum rate, the nitrogen fixed must be largely removed by the plant and built into plant proteins, a process only possible at maximum rate when the supply of calcium bicarbonate is adequate. The compounds of nitrogen arising from the fixation of nitrogen in the nodules may possibly be looked at as by-products of bacterial activity which must be removed if the process is to continue. The stronger that the acids of acid soils are, that is, the greater the avidity, the lower will be the concentration of calcium bicarbonate and the slower will be the rate of delivery of this calcium bicarbonate to the plant. Since red clover is lower in protein and calcium oxide than alfalfa and perhaps also grows slower, the explanation given also offers a possible explanation why red clover can withstand a higher degree of acidity than alfalfa. Soils which are not acid and contain considerable solid calcium carbonate give rise to a soil solution saturated with . calcium bicarbonate. In such cases the rate of delivery of calcium bicarbonate to growing plants is sufficient for the needs of all plants. J If the function of the calcium carbonate and bicarbonate is as just indicated, then it is evident that the addition of calcium chloride or sulphate to the nutrient solution should have little effect on the feeding powers of plants for rock phosphate, since the chloride or sulphate cannot function as the carbonate in making oxalic acid or other acids innocuous. Whether or not calcium chloride or sulphate is present, the need of the carbonate remains. The data in Table XIII bear out this contention. Most of the plants gave a slightly better growth in the absence of calcium chloride but the differences are uniformly small. They ^ indicate that plants use small amounts of calcium for other I purposes than neutralization and precipitation of acids, ' in which case other salts serve as well as the carbonates. The presence of the calcium ion due to the addition of calcium chloride has a depressing effect on the solubility of tricalcium phosphate as indicated by the work of Cameron and Hurst.^2 xpis depressing effect would, however, be « U. s. Dept. Agr., Bur. Soils, Bui. 41 (1907) 33. 36 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 very small with concentrations of calcium chloride used in nutrient solutions, and hence influences from this on the feeding power for rock phosphate should be small. One of the plants, the sunflower, grew much better on rock phosphate in the presence of calcium chloride than in the absence. This may be due to a more favorable ratio of calcium to magnesium brought about by the addition of the calcium chloride. It is also possible that the sunflower plant requires considerable amounts of soluble calcium salts for other purposes than neutralization, in which case the calcium chloride serves the purpose. Chirikov^^ reports that in the absence of soluble calcium salts barley makes considerable use of the phosphorite. It is to be noted that the total growths reported by Chirikov are quite small in all cases. In a test made with barley and with most of the plants indicated in Table XIII only a slight increase in growth was observed when soluble calcium salts were omitted. Chirikov also states in his report that it is not the calcium oxide and phosphoric acid content but the ratio of calcium oxide to phosphoric anhydride, which is the important thing to consider in this connection. Since both the calcium oxide and phosphoric anhydride content of a plant may vary considerably depending upon the conditions of growth it is evident that the ratio of the two may vary more than either of the two singly. The writer thus believes that the calcium oxide content itself is the better index of the feeding power. The close relation indicated in diagram A, substantiates this contention. Chirikov in his report notes a considerable number of exceptions to the theory as presented. It is important to note that much of the data of cultural experiments which ■ he has used is probably not- adapted to this purpose, since many of the blanks show very considerable growths. The writer believes that, in the case of plants which form a heavy woody stalk like the lupine, or a fleshy root like the turnip which simply acts as a storehouse, the calcium oxide content of the leaves should be considered and not that of the whole plant. It is in the leaves that the most active life processes take place and where the calcium carbonate is largely needed and deposited. Considerable « Loc. Git. The Utilization of Phosphates 37 amoimtsmay be washed away by rain as shownby the work of Le Glerc and Breazeale.^'^ However, plants which take up large amounts undoubtedly retain relatively large amounts after the losses have taken place. It seems probable that when more plants have been critically tested, exceptions to the rule may be found in the case of plants which make peculiar growths, or perhaps use large amounts of calcium oxide for other purposes than neutralization of acids in the plant sap. It should be noted in this connection that even young plants of the graminae when grown in the greenhouse may contain slightly more than one per cent of calcium oxide, due perhaps to the fact that little is lost by washing. Under most greenhouse conditions, all plants contain relatively more salts. Feeding power of plants under soil conditions. — Under natural soil conditions different results than those obtained with quart cultures are to be expected in many cases in the utilization of rock phosphate, especially by plants which have weak feeding powers in quartz cultures. Under these conditions the calcium bicarbonate, if not taken up by the plant, may be removed in the drainage water or if the soil is acid may be taken up by the soil acids. The work of Prianischnikov and Kossowitsch with acid soils, reviewed on pages 4 and 5 shows this to be true. Even under these conditions, with the plants they tried, those having strong feeding powers in quartz cultures also exhibited the strongest feeding powers for rock phosphate in acid soil cultures. As indicated by the work of Kossowitsch (see page 7) the relative feeding powers of plants for the phosphorus naturally present in the soil may be entirely different than that for rock phosphate. In the utilization of ferric phos- phate as indicated in Table XII this is further emphasized. In the utilization of soil phosphates, especially if the phos- phates are largely in the form of ferric and aluminum phosphates, extent and character of root systems of the plants in question are probably very important factors, since these phosphates go into solution largely by hydrolysis, and the rate at which a plant may utilize the phosphorus is « U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook (1908) 389. 38 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 proportional to the absorbing surface of the roots. In the case of the utilization of rock phosphate, hydrolysis is of minor importance and the action of carbonic acid is of major importance. The effectiveness with which the carbonic acid acts on the rock phosphate is thus of much greater importance than the area of the absorbing surface. Rape and buckwheat with rather limited root systems, but with high calcium oxide contents, are thus strong feeders on rock phosphate. Oats which develops an extensive and very fibrous root system but has a low calcium oxide content thus feeds vigorously on the phosphates naturally present in the soil, but very weakly on rock phosphate in quartz cultures. Timothy with its enormous root system is an exceptionally strong feeder for the phosphorus of soils, even when the soils are quite acid. The ability of certain plants which are weak feeders on rock phosphate in quartz cultures, to feed strongly on the phosphorus naturally present in soils, especially acid soils, makes possible a rapid early growth and hence a vigorous feeding system. These plants may then feed more vigor- ously on the rock phosphate that is applied to the soil than plants which are strong feeders for rock phosphate in quartz cultures, but, like some of the cruciferae, are weak feeders for the phosphorus naturally present in acid soils. With quartz cultures, a thorough distribution of the rock phos- phate is secured, and hence even the roots of young seedlings come into contact with sufficient phosphates to largely meet their needs providing they can utilize this form of phosphate. Under field conditions as thorough a mechanical distribution is usually not secured. The results and discussion given indicate as follows: The feeding of the plant takes place largely in local soil areas, that is the portions actually in contact with the root hairs. The rate of diffusion of soluble salts which are not taken up by the plant, away from the feeding area is perhaps quite slow under most conditions.^ ° Because of this rather limited area from which the plant may at anyone time draw its supply of phosphorus and potassium, the rate at which these elements go into solution in the local areas is the more important consider- ** Because of the great solubility and considerable diffusibility of the nitrates, the conditions as regards the nitrogen supply are considerably different than with phosphorus and potassium. The Utilization of Phosphates 39 ation than the amounts of these elements which may be drawn off from the whole soil mass by one extraction. The area of surface contact between plant roots and phosphates and the continued rate of solution at these points of contact are the determining factors in the adequacy of the supply of phosphorus for the plant. This emphasizes the import- ance of maintaining a well distributed and adequate total supply of phosphorus as well as keeping this supply in a form that may be sufficiently available to the feeding roots. When soluble phosphate fertilizers are applied they may go into solution in the soil water, but are undoubtedly soon largely precipitated as tricalcium, iron and aluminum phosphates. Undoubtedly the two great advantages secured in using these soluble phosphate fertilizers are thoroughness of distribution and ease of hydrolysis of newly precipitated phosphates. This explains why the addition of calcium carbonate does not have the marked lowering effect on the availability of the more soluble phosphates, while with rock phosphate there is a decided effect. In this connection see reference to the work of Prianischnikov on page 4. The discussion just given emphasizes the following in the use of rock phosphate: 1. The mechanical distribution should be as thorough as possible when the material is applied. 2. Chemical distribution should be aided by applying the phosphate several months or better a year in advance of lime if the latter is also to be used, and by maintaining the supply of organic matter which favors further chemical and biological activities that aid greatly in chemical distribution. The Effect of Form of Nitrogen Salt on the Availa- bility OF Phosphates In Table XV are given the results with corn using different salts as the source of nitrogen. The use of calcium nitrate in place of potassium and sodium nitrate had little effect on the results. The favorable effect of ammonium nitrate on the availability of rock phosphate is, however, especially marked. Under this treatment the corn grew normally. This result is similar to that of Prianischnikov and Kosso- witsch noted on pages 5 and 7. 40 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 Table XV. — Air-Dry Weights in Grams of Corn Produced with Phosphates and Nitrates Indicated. Weights are Averages OF TWO Duplicates and Include both Tops and Roots Kind of phosphate Solution A Nitrogen as pot. and sod. nitrate Solution B Nitrogen as calcium nitrate Solution C Nitrogen as ammonium nitrate Aluminum 28.47 32.91 26.10 Tricalcium 23.33 23^65 38.38 Ferric 28.39 30.73 10.50 Acid 33.60 36.45 21.33 Raw rock 7.42 6.38 34.37 Blank 5.43 5.08 3.53 (See Fig. 12) In the light of the theory presented this result may be satisfactorily explained as follows: Calcium bicarbonate being much more soluble in a water solution of ammonium salts^® than in water alone, it follows that the addition of ammonium salts allows the preceding reaction given on KNO3 NH4N02 KNO3 NH4NO3 KNO3 NH4NO3 KNO3 NH4NO3 NaNOs NaNOa NaN 03 NaNOs Rock Phos. Acid Phos. Ferric Phos. Aluminum Phos. . FIG. 12.— THE INFLUENCE OF FORM OF NITROGEN SALT ON THE UTILIZATION OF DIFFERENT PHOSPHATES BY CORN IN QUARTZ ! CULTURES When ammonium nitrate is used in place of sodium and potassium nitrate then corn grows nearly as well on rock phosphate as on acid phosphate. page 32 to continue from left to right to a much greater ^ extent than if water alone is present. The addition of a j salt in which the products of the reaction are more soluble has the same effect to a certain extent as is obtained by removing the products of the reaction. Comey, Diet, of Chem. Solubilities, 83. j The Utilization of Phosphates 41 The writer believes it entirely possible that the use of ammonium salts may" influence the availability in other ways than the one just given. On page 42, Research Bulletin 20 of this Station, the writer reported results of pot experiments on the growth of corn with rock phosphate. It is important to state that these results were secured with the nitrogen supplied as ammonium nitrate. This accounts for the very favorable growth of the corn on the rock phosphate. Chemical Analyses of Crops Grown on Various Phosphates Some of the crops grown on the various phosphates were analyzed for certain constituents. The total phosphorus content of plants. — In Table XVI are given the percentages of phosphorus found in the four crops: viz., corn, barley, clover and serradella. In the analysis the finely ground sample was first moistened with a solution containing magnesium nitrate and oxide, and after evaporation the material was burned to an ash in an electric furnace. The phosphorus was then determined by the alkalimetric method after a second precipitation as the ammonium phospho molybdate. Table XVI. — Percentages of Phosphorus in Plants Grown on the Phosphates Indicated* Phosphate used Corn Barley Clover Serradella A B Av. A B Av. A B Av. A B Av. Blank .087 .087 .087 .069 .060 .065 .093 .103 .097 .144 .125 .135 Rock .088 .087 .088 .073 .078 .076 .146 .128 .137 .139 .142 .141 Ferrous .124 .097 .111 .129 . 129 .129 .175 .176 .176 .226 .246 .236 Tricalcium .140 .111 .126 .114 .117 .116 .187 .187 .187 .254 .259 .257 Ferric .105 .095 .100 .221 .219 .220 .188 .174 .181 .305 .301 .303 Aluminum .139 .136 .138 .262 .229 .246 .230 .200 .215 .362 .352 .357 Acid .203 .191 .197 .337 .298 .318 .365 .366 .366 .528 .553 .541 Manganous .195 .189 .192 .351 .322 .337 .468 .493 .482 .525 .533 .529 Magnesium .539 .591 .565 .836 .808 .822 .602 .609 .606 .600 .548 .574 *These analyses were made on the crops whose weights are given in Tables VI, VII, VIII, and XL In each case the crops of two closely agreeing duplicate cultures were analyzed separately and results are given separately as (A) and (B). 42 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 The data of Table XVI show wide differences in the phos- phorus content of each crop when grown on different phos- phates. None of the four plants analyzed made much growth on the rock phosphate in the time allowed, and as is to be expected the phosphorus content is low in each case. The most striking data in this table are the exceptionally high percentages of phosphorus in the plants grown on DIAGRAM B.— THE INFLUENCE OF FORM OF PHOSPHATE USED IN QUARTZ CULTURES ON THE PHOSPHORUS CONTENT OF CORN, CLOVER. BARLEY, AND SERRADELLA The form of phosphate has a marked influence on the phosphorus content of the plants. In every case plants grown on magnesium phosphate had the highest phosphorus content, indicating that magnesium may function in the plant as a carrier of phosphorus. magnesium phosphate. With all four crops the percentages of phosphorus are highest in this case. Diagram B brings this out graphically in a striking way. It may be argued that the reason for these high contents of phosphorus with magnesium phosphate is that the plants were stunted by the unfavorable effects of the excess of magnesia and at the same time were furnished with an abundance of soluble phosphate. This has probably been a factor in causing these results, but that it has not been the only factor is indicated by the following: The corn, clover and serradella made heavier growths on the magnesium phosphate than on the ferrous phosphate. The clover made a much heavier growth on the magnesium phosphate than on the manganous phosphate. The serradella made practically as good growth The Utilization of Phosphates 43 on the magnesium phosphate as on the manganous phosphate. A possible explanation of a factor which has caused these high contents of phosphorus is the following: Loew^^ holds that the chief function of magnesium is the conveyance of phosphorus in the form of magnesium phosphate to the places of assimilation. The magnesium phosphate being readily hydrolizable, gives up its phosphoric acid for assimi- lation at the seat of protein synthesis very readily and in a way largely impossible with other phosphates. If Loew’s hypothesis is correct, then it would seem reasonable to believe that when the phosphorus is supplied as magnesium phosphate, the best possible conditions for this assimilation are supplied. As a result it is possible that more proteins or organic substances of high phosphorus content are formed than would otherwise be the case. These results thus support Loew’s hypothesis as to the function of magnesium. The contents of organic and inorganic phosphorus and also of nitrogen in corn plants. — In Table XVII Table XVII. — Percentage Contents of Corn Plants in Constitu- UENTS Indicated when Grown with different Phosphate Treat- ments Kind of phosphate treatment Total phos- phorus Inorganic phosphorus Or- ganic phos- phorus Nitrogen Crude pro- tein A B AV. A B AV. Acid 0.197 0.100 0.090 0.095 0.102 1.647 1.607 1.627 10.17 Ferric 0.100 0.057 0.051 0.054 0.046 2.182 1.928 2.060 12.88 Magnesium 0.565 0.202 0.207 0.205 0.360 2.819 2.794 2.807 17.54 Tricalcium 2.182 2.175 2.179 13.62 I are given the contents of organic and inorganic phosphorus I and of nitrogen in the corn plants grown on the phosphates |! indicated. The inorganic phosphorus was determined ac- |1 cording to the method outlined by Collison,^® and the organic phosphorus calculated by difference between total and I inorganic. The nitrogen was determined by the usual 1 Kjeldahl method. As indicated by the data a larger pro- s portion of the phosphorus in the case of magnesium phos- U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Ind., Bui. 45, 55. <*Jr. Ind. Eng. Chem. 4 (1912) 606. 44 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 phate was in organic combination than with the other phosphates. The content of nitrogen and hence crude protein was also the highest in the case of magnesium phosphate. This data in Table XVII lends further support to the previously mentioned function of magnesium. The data, however, are too limited for decisive conclusions, and must be viewed as merely suggestive. The content of manganese in plants. — In Table XVIII are given the contents of manganese as Mn304 of several crops when grown on manganous phosphate. The determinations were made as follows: The powdered material was burned to an ash and then dissolved in hydro- chloric acid. After adding a little ferric chloride, the iron, aluminum, and phosphorus were removed by means of the basic acetate separation. The manganese was then precipi- ; tated with bromine in a solution which was at first alkaline ; with ammonia and then slightly acid with acetic acid. The precipitate was ignited and weighed as Mn304. J The results show that the plants took up considerable . amounts of manganese, especially the clover and serradella. ^ It is possible that in these two cases the manganese played^ partially the function of calcium in precipitating oxalic acid, ; since manganese oxalate is quite insoluble. The writer < has noticed that water extracts of acid soils often contain | considerable amounts of manganese. When these soils are ? limed, scarcely no manganese is found in the water extract. I Table XVIII. — Percentages of Manganese as MN3O4 in Crops^ Indicated when Grown with Manganous Phosphate -r .J Crops Percentage of Mn 304 5 - A B Av. Corn 0.324 0.324 0.324 jj!' i^lover 0.832 0.800 0.816 Barley 0.225 0.227 0.226 SprrnHe.lla 0.700 0.750 0.725 _ j * I Since manganese may greatly affect the chlorophyll forma- ; tion especially of clover and alfalfa, it seems possible that in some cases one of the reasons why soil acidity is injurious j to clover and alfalfa is the presence of considerable man- j The Utilization of Phosphates 45 ganese in the soil solution and hence in a condition to enter the plant in considerable amounts. The variable deport- ment of manganese in its chemistry makes it seem all the more probable that in certain cases the effects of soil acidity may be partly due to the manganese in solution. Applications to Practice and the Need of Further Investigations In the present report no attempt is made to discuss the advisability of using one form of phosphate in preference to other forms of phosphate fertilizers. Undoubtedly many factors need to be considered in selecting the form of phos- phate fertilizer that will prove the most profitable for any certain condition. Under certain soil conditions and for certain crops, where the question of immediate returns is paramount, the use of the more soluble forms of phosphate fertilizers is usually desirable. Under other soil conditions and where the farmer is in a position to build up gradually the phosphorus content and crop producing power of his soil, the use of rock phosphate in liberal amounts may be a desirable practice. The results which have been reported emphasize especially the great differences that exist among the common agri- cultural crops in their power to feed on raw rock phosphate. Reasons for these differences have been pointed out, thus furnishing a firm foundation on which to base practical applications. Since the ability of a crop to utilize the phosphorus of rock phosphate depends largely on whether or not the calcium is used or removed at the same time, several desirable practices present themselves as follows: Rock phosphate may be used to greater advantage on acid soils than on the non-acid ones, especially with crops that use small amounts of calcium. An acid soil tends to make rock phosphate available even to crops with a low calcium content, since in this case the calcium will be taken up by the soil acids. Where liming and phosphating are both practiced, it is undoubtedly better to apply the rock phosphate several months or a year in advance of the lime. This will allow a greater action of the soil acids on the rock phosphate and hence a better distribution than would otherwise be obtained. In the use of rock phosphate 46 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 provision should be made for as thorough physical and chemical distribution of the material as possible. The great feeding power of certain plants for rock phos- phate as has been pointed out, suggests the possibility of utilizing these plants for making rock phosphate more available to plants that are weak feeders on this material. Rape, white mustard, and buckwheat all have very strong feeding powers and could probably be used as cover and green manuring crops in working out rotations of this kind. The following is a suggested rotation for Wisconsin conditions: Clover, Wheat — seeded to white mustard after wheat harvest. Corn — seeded to rape in last cultivation. Oats — seeded to clover. In this system of rotation there are three crops — clover, white mustard and rape which have strong feeding powers for rock phosphate. The white mustard and rape would be plowed under as green manures and thus not only the phosphorus that they had taken up would become available for succeeding crops, but the added organic matter in decaying would form acids which would make still more phosphate available. In this rotation, lime when used would best be applied when seeding to oats and clover. J The rock phosphate could be advantageously applied to the i wheat or corn crop. Many other systems of rotation can be worked out in . i making use of plants with strong feeding powers. It might .. be of advantage, especially in short rotations, to apply the lime and rock phosphate at alternate rotations. Thus in a- Inree-year rotation, lime would be applied every six years ^ and rock phosphate also every six years. Where phosphorus is needed in the growing of alfalfa, iiy seems that the application and thorough mixing with the '^l soil of a liberal amount of rock phosphate should prove especially desirable and profitable. Before advocating systems of cropping and fertilization of the kind mentioned, further careful field investigation is necessaiy. The condition of the phosphorus in soils,f especially in regard to availability, as effected by soil acidity and liming, and the methods which may be used in H attacking these problems, are all subjects needing further; j investigation. The Utilization of Phosphates 47 Summary In this bulletin the data of many investigators are reviewed and there are reported the results of investigations extending over a period of about five years, on the, utilization of phos- phates by agricultural crops and the feeding power of plants. Quartz cultures involving twelve species of plants and eight different kinds of phosphates were used in these investigations. The different species of plants showed some marked individual preferences for the different phos- phates. Solubility of the phosphates was not the only factor that determined the growth of a plant on these phosphates. Precipitated ferric and aluminum phosphates produced with a few exceptions good growths and in a few cases even better growths than the acid phosphate. The availability of these phosphates is undoubtedly due to ease of hydrolysis of the neutral or nearly neutral material, in which case the phosphoric acid goes into solution and there is left a basic phosphate. On continued hydrolysis these phosphates, as indicated by several investigators, undoubtedly become more and more basic and the phosphoric acid therein less and less soluble or available. It seems that these basic phosphates probably form complexes with acidic organic substances, and possibly even with acid silicates. In these combinations the phosphoric acid is probably of low avail- ability. The advisability of using lime to aid in breaking up complexes of iron and aluminum phosphate with organic matter or acidic substances, and in helping to keep the phosphates largely in the form of calcium phosphate which has a more uniform continued availability is thus still substantiated. The phosphorus of precipitated tricalcium phosphate was much more available than that of rock phosphate, although the form of phosphate is perhaps nearly the same in the two. Greater ease of hydrolysis of the freshly precipitated form, due partly to the physical condition, undoubtedly accounts for this. The feeding powers of twelve common agricultural plants for raw rock phosphate has been determined under carefully controlled conditions. Great differences in the feeding powers were observed. By means of a further application 48 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 of the laws of chemical equilibrium in their relation to the solution of plant food material and feeding of plants as briefly indicated by the writer in Wisconsin Research Bulletin 20, 1912, a theory why plants vary greatly in their feeding power for rock phosphate, has been worked out as follows: Plants containing a relativelg high calcium oxide content have a relativelg high feeding power for the phosphorus in raw rock phosphate. For plants containing a relativelg low calcium oxide content the converse of the above is true. The explanation of this relation is made possible bg means of the laws of mass action and chemical equilibrium. This explanation substantiates the results of other investi- gators, which indicate that carbonic acid is the only free acid given off in appreciable amounts by plant roots. The failure of investigators to show that there is a direct relation between the relative feeding powers of plants and the amounts of carbonic acid given off by the respective plant roots is thus also explained, since it is more largely the efficiency with which the carbonic acid acts as determined by the equilibrium conditions of the soil solution iji contact with the roots, than the total amount of carbonic acid given off, that determines the feeding power. Since the roots of plants at any one time come in contact with only a small portion of the total internal surface of the soil, and the feeding of the plant roots especially for phos- phorus and potassium probably takes place largely in local soil areas, the rate at which these elements go into solution in the local areas in contact with the roots is a more important consideration than the amount of these elements that mag be drawn off from the whole soil mass in one extraction. The increased availability of rock phosphate when used in connection with ammonium salts is also explained by this theory as due at least partly to the increased solubility of the calcium carbonate and bicarbonate in solutions ofi ammonium salts. The greater availability of rock phos-j phate in acid soils than in non-acid soils especially to plants] with weak feeding powers is also explained, since acid soils] will remove the calcium carbonate and bicarbonate fromj solution and thus make it possible for the solubility reactionj to continue. » The great feeding power of some plants, which are weak feeders on rock phosphate in quartz cultures, for the phos-^ The Utilization' of Phosphates 49 ' phates naturally present in the soil is explained as due to their extensive root systems which make possible a suffi- ciently rapid absorption of the phosphates that go into solu- tion largely by hydrolysis. The greater apparent availa- bility of rock phosphate to some plants in quartz cultures than under field conditions is also explained in the discussion. In a general way the theory .advanced regarding the feeding power of plants for difficultly soluble substances may be summarized as follows: Each point of contact or near contact between absorbing surface of root hairs and difficultly soluble substances may be regarded as a chemical system which strives to attain a point of equilibrium be- tween liquid and solid phases. In this system carbonic acid and water are the main agents causing solution. In some cases the action is largely one of hydrolysis and there is formed a soluble product and an insoluble product; e. g., action of water on ferric phosphate; in other cases the action may be both by hydrolysis and carbonation and the products formed are both soluble; e. g., action of carbonated water on calcium phosphate; or only one of the products may again be soluble; e. g., action of carbonated water on feldspar. In order that the solubility reaction may continue in any of the cases, it is necessary that proportionate amounts of all the soluble products be continually removed. Thus, if a plant is to feed strongly on rock phosphate, both the calcium acid phosphate and calcium bicarbonate must be used by the plant in somewhat proportionate amounts. In this case the calcium oxide content of the plant becomes the determining factor in the feeding power. Also, if a plant is to feed strongly on ferric phosphate or orthoclase feldspar, then since in these cases only one, product is soluble, extent of root absorbing surface becomes the determining factor in the feeding power of the plant. The timothy plant is a splendid example of this type. It must not be forgotten that other subordinate factors also enter, especially under field condi- tions where the drainage water, and under acid conditions, where the soil acids, may remove one or more of the soluble products. The movements of the soil water and the action of soil bacteria and other soil life are all factors which may disturb conditions of equilibrium at the local feeding areas and hence influence the power of a plant to feed on diffi- cultly soluble substances. 50 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 41 The exceptionally high phosphorus content of the plants grown on magnesium phosphate supports Loew’s hypothesis that magnesium functions as a conveyor of the phosphorus in the plant. The high calcium oxide content found in certain plants seems to be connected with a high protein content. In protein synthesis calcium is probably used for at least two purposes: viz., In one case it enters into the protein molecule, and in the other as calcium carbonate or bicarbonate it neutralizes the poisonous oxalic acid or other acids which are probably by-products of protein synthesis. This seems to be at least a partial explanation why legumes which are high in protein grow best on a soil well supplied with cal- cium carbonate. Plants grown on manganous phosphate contain consider- able amounts of manganese. Manganese affects the chloro- phyll formation of certain plants and especially of clover and alfalfa. Since the soil solution of acid soils often contains considerable amounts of manganese, this may explain one way in which soil acidity acts injuriously on these plants. In the light of the present report, the application of rock phosphate to acid soils, especially several months or a year in advance of the application of lime, seems to be a desirable practice. It seems that rock phosphate may possibly be used very advantageously in the growipg of alfalfa. It also seems possible that some of the plants with strong feeding powers for rock phosphate may be used advantageously as cover crops and green manuring crops and thus provide for a better utilization of the rock phosphate than is otherwise possible. This as well as the availability of the soil phos- phorus as affected by different soil conditions are matters needing further investigation. > 0. 7 Research Bulletin 42 August, 1917 Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants R. D. RANDS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON CONTENTS Page Introduction 1 History and occurrence of the disease 1 Economic importance 3 Symptoms 4 Studies on teh host range of Alternaria solani 6 Greenhouse inoculations 6 Field inoculations 8 Pathological anatomy 16 The causal organism 17 Taxonomy 17 Morphology 19 Physiology 20 Temperature relations 21 Life history of Alternaria solani in relation to early blight 23 Seasonal development of the disease 23 Spore production 23 Effect of various factors; spot histories. 26 Viability and longevity of mycelium and conidia 27 Dissemination of conidia 30 Method of infection 30 Period of incubation 31 Time of natural infection 31 Source of natural Infection 31 Overwintering of the fungus 31 The relation of climate and soil to the disease 33 Control Measures 38 Resistant varieties 38 Spraying 39 On early potatoes 40 On late potatoes 41 Recommendations for spraying 42 Sanitation 44 Summary 44 Literature cited 47 Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants* R. D. Rands The potato is commonly subject to two blights, late and early. Ill Europe the former is the better known of the two; while throughout the rest of the world, the latter is more generally distributed. It was shown many years ago that early blight is caused by a fungus now known as AUeniaria soJani (E. & M.) J. & G. ; but many points in connection with the life history of this organism, its host range, climatic relations, means of over- wintering, and control measures required investigation. In this bulletin are presented the more important results of an in- tensive study of the disease as it has occurred in central Wis- consin during the past three years. History and (3ccurrence of the Disease The early blight of potato was not early recognized as a dis- tinct disease, due perhaps to the general confusion of all the leaf troubles under the term ''blight {Phytophilwra infestans). As soon as attention was concentrated upon these in America, blighting of the foliage not accompanied by tuber rot Avas noted. Subsequent study led to the differentiation of tip-burn, arsenical poisoning, and early blight. The causal organism of the latter Avas first described as a Macrosporium by Plllis and Martin (1882) from the dying leaATS of potato near NcaaMcW, Ncav Jersey. The first reference to the fungus as a parasite and its association AAuth potato leaf blight is that by GalloAvay (1891). He later (1893) states that it AA’as first collected in Missouri in 1885 and in 1890 "complaints of its ravages’’ came to the United States Department of Agri- *The writer is indebted to Prof. T^. R. .Tones for many helpful suggestions during the progi-ess of the study, and the preparation of the manuscript. 2 Research Bulletin 42 culture from widely separated regions in the United States. In this paper he gives an accurate and detailed description of the disease. The fungus was grown in culture, but from the brief description it is uncertain whether these were pure. However, inoculations produced the characteristic spots in from 8 to 10 days. Following this the trouble was reported by workers in most of the middle west and eastern states. For some time there was much disagreement concerning the true cause of the disease. Some believed the Macrosporium only a secondary invader and the disease primarily of nonparasitie origin, while others con- sidered the fungus a parasite but not the cause of all the trouble. Jones (1893) writing of the disease reports injuries quite sim- ilar produced by paris green. Here for the first time, appears a drawing of a diseased leaf, affected unquestionably with the dis- ease as we know it to-day. At this time he suggested the names early blight and late blight to separate the two diseases. It was not until some time later when Jones (1895, 1896) published the results of further studies that the relation of the Macrosporium to the various troubles entirely cleared up. His field and lab- oratory studies led him to the conclusion that the fungus was a true parasite and the primary cause of early blight. Here also he clearly differentiates the three other forms of disorder which had been confused up to that time under the name ' ‘ blight, ’ ’ namely, late blight, arsenical poisoning, and tip-burn. Even after this the troubles were not ahvays separated.^ Since the work of Jones, very little has been added to our knowledge of the early blight disease. However, during the past two de- cades much valuable data have accumulated bearing upon the control of the trouble by spraying. During these twenty years, early blight has been reported from practically every state in the union. Outside the United States it has been recorded from Canada, Mexico, South America, Europe, Africa, Australia, India, New Zealand, New South AVales, and Java. Thus it probably occurs wherever the potato is an important crop. As *As illustrating- the confusion at this time, reference may be made to the Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 113, 1896, by E G. Lode- man. Accompanying a description (p. 254-261) of what is called "earl> blight” is a colored plate of a potato leaf affected, not with early blight, but with a clear case of tip burn. In the text book, “The Spraying of Plants.” by the same author, the illustration on page 346, labeled “early blight” represents a typical form of arsenical poisoning. Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants to whether the parasite is native to the potato and has spread with it from its original home in South America to the various countries into which the potato has been introduced is largely a matter of speculation. However, Jones (1903) reports finding it on specimens of wild potato from Mexico. Economic Importance It is practically impossible to determine the actual loss caused by early blight, owing to the fact that the situation is usually complicated by the presence of tip-burn, arsenical poisoning, fiea bettle injury, or late blight. Results from spraying experi- ments furnish no accurate basis for estimating the loss since bordeaux mixture reduces at the same time the infiuence of all the other troubles on the vines, and may in itself furnish a stim- ulus to greater vigor. All’ reports show that the disease is of greater consequence in the United States than elsewhere, with the possible exceptions of Australia, Rhodesia and New Zealand. Jones (1903) states that in certain seasons Alternaria solani causes more loss in many parts of New England than does the mildew. Several cases are on record of unusual attacks, but more important, however, is the smaller but yearly toll of the disease. Coons (1914) averages the annual loss in Michigan as about 25 per cent. In Wisconsin Jones (1912) states that it may reduce the yield 10 to 25 per cent. The writer considers these figures a conservative estimate. In the southern states, early blight has been reported to at- tack seriously leaves, stems, and fruit of the tomato. Edgerton and Moreland (1913) , in Louisiania, state that it is a close second to ‘Svilt” in destructiveness and in many regions the '‘all im- portant disease.” In one tomato district they estimated a loss of 50 per cent."^ Though the disease transfers readily to the tomato and may be found almost every year in the northern states, yet it appears to do little damage. The writer has, how- ever, found it in both the Chicago and Madison local markets as the cause of a severe rotting of tomato fruits from the south. The evidence here indicated that the disease had developed dur- ing transit. In the summer of 1916 it was isolated along with Gleosponum phomoides Sacc. from decaying tomato fruits at * Isolations of the fungus from fresh material received from Dr. Edg-erton in July 1916 confirmed his diagnosis of the trouble. Research Bulletin 42 4 Waupaca, Wis., but which fungus was priinarih' responsible for the trouble was not determined. Inoculation studies reported later in this bulletin show that A. solarii is capable of producing a spotting no wise different in appearance from that on natur- ally infected fruit. The disease has been found the past two seasons on eggplants in Wisconsin ; it seems, however, to be of little consequence es- pecially as compared with the leaf spot caused by Phomopsis vexans (Sacc. & Syd.) Harter.^ In June, 1916. it was foum^ to be causing a serious blight in seed beds of this host at Eau Claire, Wisconsin. It was learned that the hot beds had re- mained for a number of years in the same place and that it was the practice to sprinkle them frequently with a hose. These fac- tors operating on the crowded, more or less etiolated seedlings may account for the rapid spread and severity of the trouble. 1 FIG. 1.— EAKl.V m.K.iri' OF POTATO It'iif is soon from tho ^m- laiK .lUMit t)f till* spots. (Pliotograpli by 1,. H. .lones.) Symptoms The appearance of the spots t on the leaves of ea^h of the three common hosts is vei'.y similar. They are dark lirowiiC or black and shoAv usnallv a ’ series of concentri-* ridges | whicli produce a '’target I board' ’ effect. (Fig. 3) There' is often a narrow marginal | faded zone which spreads out- ward as ,the spot enlarges. The spots are usually oval m shape but under unfavorable conditions, especially on a vigoi*ous leaf, may remain small and angular conforming to the spaces between several small veins. (Fig. 1.) The spots usually enlarge after the death of the leaf. On the j tomato the disease may be | * Alter)i(tvia aolani was first recorded on egg-fdant by Chester (1893) in Delaware. Later it was listed l)y Clinton tl904) in Connecticut. Early BLKmT of Potato and Rp:lated Plants easily mistaken for the leaf spot {Septoria lycojyersici) which has been much more common on Wisconsin tomatoes during the past two seasons. Without the aid of a hand lens the spots on the egg-plant are almost indistinguishable from those caused by Pltomopsis vexans. Early blight on the potato is readily dis- tinguished from arsenical poisoning by the darker color of its spots. With tip-burn the leaflet usually shows apical or mar- ginal burning and the concentric rings are absent. There is still less resemblance to the late blight because of the whitish fructi- fication of the venti*al surface of leaves affected with the latter trouble. ' Potato plants may be at- tacked by early blight at al- most any stage of their ex- istence, but. under ordinary conditions, the disease is not able to gain a foothold until the vines have passed their period of greatest vigor and are directing their energy to tuber formation. Before this time, close scru- tiny will generally reveal an occasional spot on the lower, older, and more shaded leaves of the plant. Such leaves have frequently been covered and uncovered (with soil) a time or two during the process of cultivation and are conse- (}uently yellowed and weak- ened. Under favorable con- ditions the spots increase rap- idly in number, and the leaves beginning with the lower ones gradually die until only a few green, spotted leaves remain at the top of the plant. (Fig. 2.) In severe cases spots develop on the petioles and upper stems of the plant. FIG. 2.— A SIXGLK HILL OF POTATO DYING FROM EARLY BLIGHT Early Ohio planted April 28, photo- graphed August 12, 191.5. Note the pro- gressive curling and drying of the leaves from the ground upward. 6 Research Bulletin 42 Studies on the Host Range of Alternaria Solani The primary object of these studies was to determine whether the leaf spots of potato, tomato, egg-plant, and Jimson weed (Datura stramonium), which have been ascribed to this fungus, were produced by one and the same species of Alternaria. Jones (1896) proved beyond doubt the parasitic relationship - of Alternaria solani to the early blight of potato, but its con- nection with the other plants has never been conclusively shown by inoculation tests. The failure of inoculations on Datura and the comparative studies of Alternaria solani and the Datura . fungus show that the latter is a distinct species, bearing no sim- ilarity to A. solani in its host relationship. The results are pub- lished elsewhere (Phytopathology 7: 327-337, 1917)* The sec- ondary object was to determine within what limits the parasitism . of Alterna^'ia solani is confined. During the summer of 1915, pure cultures from single spores ; were obtained for inoculation purposes from potato, tomato, and : egg-plant growing at Waupaca, Wis. They were later grown comparatively on fifteen kinds of agar media and in appearance t were practically identical. Abundant spores for inoculations ■ were obtained from each bv a method later referred to. Greenhouse Inoculations ’ * The following inoculation methods were used with more or | less success in greenhouse experiments made from February to ^ May, 1916; temperature 19 to 23° C. ^ (1) Drop of heavy spore suspension placed on flat portion of ^ leaf inclosed by round cover slip. Plant placed in glass moist chamber for 48 to 72 hours. (2) Spores or mycelium introduced into needle punctures. Plant placed under bell jar and atomized frequently with water for 48 hours. ' j (3) Leaves atomized with spore suspension and for 48 hours \ kept moist by fine spray from nozzle. [ * This Datura leaf spot which has been widely attributed to Alternaria f solani is shown to be due to the fungus named Cercospora ci-assa by I, Saccardo in 1877. Examination of type specimens collected by Saccardo and of exsiccati from various parts of the United States show' that the fungus w^as named from immature material and is really- an Alternaria. The new' combination. Alternaria crassa, with technical discription is given In the article in Pytopathology referred to above. Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants Table 1 .— G^eieej^ii^use Inooulateoxs, Madison. 1916 Da.te Source of, inoculum . ^ I Plant inoculated; condition, etc. 1 VIethod ot inocula- tion Results :b. 2.5 Potato strain. A. solani;myce] on bits of agar Potato-2 plants 8-lOin. high; vig. 10 leaflets inoc.. No. 2 March 3, 809^ infection; spots 8-20 mm. diam on both plants Tomato-1 plant vig. 10 leaflets inoc. No. 2 March 3, 75% infection; spots' 4-6 mm. diam. )r. 13 Potato strain. A. solani; spores from culture S 0 lanu m n ig rum- 1 pi ant 4in.high; vig. No. 1 ; April 20, 90% with spots 1-4 mm. diam. Fggplant-l plant 3 in. high; vig. No 1 i April 20, 100% infection; spots 1-2 cm. diam. White Burley tobacco-'iPlants 6 in. high; vig. No. 1 i April 20, few spots 1 mm. diam. no further enlargement pr. 13 Potato strain, A . solani; spores Potato-1 plant 10 in. high; vig. No. 3 April 20, minute spots on every leaf ; wet continuously from culture Tomato-1 plant 8 in. high; vig. No. 3 1 April 20, few spots; not wet con- tinuously Eggplant-1 plant 4 in. high; vig. No. 3 ! 1 April 20, many spots on every leaf; wet continuously ay 7 Potato strain, A. solani; spores from culture Potato-1 plant 14 in. high; vig. No. 3 May 14, many spots 1-3 mm. diam. Tomato-2 plants 16 in. high; vig. No. 3 May 14, few spots on lower leaves, j 2-3 mm. diam. Solanum nigrum -2 large plants; 1 fairly vig. No. 3 i May 14. few spots on lower leaves, j 1-5 mm. diam. 1 !di'. 14 Eggplant strain; spores from cul- ture Eggplant-i plant 5 in. liigh; very vig. No. 1 1 April 20, 100% with spots 3-4 mm. ' diam. ' Potato-1 plant 12 in, high; vig. No. 1 April 20, 90% with spots 1-3 mm. , diam. Tomato-1 plant 12 in, high; veri’ vig. I No. 1 April 20, 80% with .‘jpots 2-3 mm. diam; enlarge very slowly '.pr. 14 Tomato strain; spores from cul- ture Tomato-1 plant - 12 in. high; veri vig. j No. 1 r| April 20, 100% with spots 2-3 mm. diam, i Potato- 1 plant 15 in. high; vig No. 1 April 20, 100% with spots 3-4 mm. i diam. — ] Esrgplant-1 plan 8 in. high; vig. t No. 1 April 20. 100% with spots 6-8 mm. 1 diam. ' 8 Resp:arch Bulletin 42 These experiments are briefly’ summarized in Table I. In most cases reisolations from the infected plants were successful. The results siiow that in the majority of cases Alternaria solani f]-om potato crossed readily to tomato and egg-plant, to some ex- tent to nightshade (Solanum nigrum), and to cultivated to- bacco. In the latter case, penetration occurred, but the mycelium seemed to be unable to spread in the tissues of these vigorous seedlings. The strains isolated from tomato and egg-plant reciprocally crossed quite readily and both in turn produced a spotting of polato in no wise different from that of ordinary early blight on potato. Aside from a few explainable exceptions the uninocu- lated needle punctures healed, and in method 3, the plants ex- posed beside the inoculated plants never developed spots. There- fore it seems justifiable to conclude that the early blight of po- tato, tomato, and egg-plant are caused by one and the same or- ganism, viz., Alternaria solani. Owing to the difficulty of working with inature plants in the greenhouse it was decided to continue the tests under field con- ditions. Field Inoculations Field tests were carried out at Waupaca in central Wisconsin during the summer of 1916. In order to determine within what limits the parasitism of this fungus is confined, it seemed de- sirable to obtain a wide range of plants, especially as to genera, of the potato family. The effort was successful only to a limited extent because it was impossible, on a few months notice to get seed, particularly of the wild members of the family.* Fight to ten plants of each species and variety were properly s])aced in rows three feet apart, with every third row in po- tatoes to furnish a basis for comparison. The potatoes were planted iNlay 11 and the other plants were transferred from the greenliouse in early June. The severe and prolonged drought dur- ing July and August proved a serious setback, but by artificial watei'ing most of the plants made normal growth. Prior to Sep- *Tlie writer is indebted to Messrs. Peter Bisset. Plant Introducer U. S. Uept. of .Agriculture. T. Aloore, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, and W. S. Oswald. Minnesota Seed Labratory for seeds or plants furnished for this work. Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants 9 tember 4 conditions for natural infection were very unfavorable and spots which appeared earlier on the potato did not spread. On account of the extreme heat, artificial conditions for infection could not be maintained with the means at hand. After August 15, several plants of each species were atomized occasionally with spores in order to have the plants ready for rainy weather when such a favorable condition for infection should arrive. Spores from pure culture of the potato strain w^ere used. Sep- tember 8, several leaves on selected plants of each species were inoculated by the needle prick method, i. e. by placing a drop of heavy spore suspension on each puncture but always leaving an equal number uninoculated for control. The drought was broken on September 4 when a period of moist weather with heavy dews and rains set in, furnishing ideal conditions for in- fection by Alternaria solani. The main results from these field inoculations are presented in Table II which shows: (1) size and condition of the plants on September 19 and (2) the progress of the disease two weeks after and one month after the beginning of the rainy period. In most cases an attempt was made to reisolate the fungus from the smaller spots even where sporulation occurred on large spots of the same plant. In several instances, it will be seen that the fungus was not reisolated though spores are recorded for the larger spots. This was probably due to the presence in the plates of the saprophytic fungus, Alternaria fascwulata, which is the more rapid grower and is difficult to eliminate. In- oculations on Nos. 3, 4, 5, 9, 13, 14, 24, and 26 were repeated in the pathological garden at Madison, Wis., in September and Oc- tober, 1916. As the results agree in all essentials with those tabulated, for the sake of brevity they are not listed here. The table shows that the fungus was able to penetrate almost every plant inoculated. Even the leathery, succulent leaves of *8. grandiflorum and 8. guttata were infected as was the potato. Leaves of the former inoculated September 2 were found to be thickly peppered with tiny infection spots September 9. These spots, which measured less than two millimeters in diameter, had made no enlargement when the leaves were again examined a month later. Yet when cultures were made from such spots, October 14, almost every one developed the fungus. What checks the advance of the fungus in the tissues of these plants is not Table II— Results op Field Inoculations with Alternaria Solani on Various Golanaceous Plants 10 Research Bulletin 42 Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants 11 C« S > o I cn . ® fl > S bJ S III 0) T3 fl c3 be ..Sv= II ® JS u a m s ^■2 O e3 la oi3 (h'2 03 — 3S 'I m > ® eo Z a o || (S 'a "£ sg oa z 1 5 s > w cS,G .aSs ^ CC -g.l r^o ^ 5’^ ® CQ ec a . “a GiS O-CJ o g ® a ooo Irt . OD ^2 btt>» «a O gS o . 'Sa <4^ 4^ 41 g M S2 e« g M G S.5 a-G o . aa 2?a H a . cn g ® a la ® O Gbc !I . G ^ - c3 * S^O ^ i-i ^ "Si *1 te 3 ® i'G’l bn t>>T3 • ^3 ^ 0)'w ^ C C ® c« CO ^1 i2 I. il SG la .a a 4R'? a^ g.a ‘?i iS o o« Q. r ci2 e« 73 s il ^a .a a ’^G ^a a I ® — 0^ bt.Sf G > ” oJ JS ® bti—' ■p cn gSE s o CM fiS as dS §1 •^G la .a a c a ^ d 2a a^ ^e sa O'S' S-H H G ® G aa M rt &G G o c 3G cn G . IP t>. !^oo ? O I G > «S _ ® ® o'" .a 2 t>, > .1^§ GJ ^cn g2 c p — ts G 3 ® G ^ bcG a •2 ®4J G3 gS ‘ bi ”03 I PG cn CM ia •*i2 I I". I o a ! ^a Gcm ®G f a bi73 G^^® - “iG cn a . cn Q >>a G.a {S'© 2 a ^ Si O b£ - 0) G .HA C3l CL)G ,X> cn CC G b G ® E6|>3 Cb gG t- Sh fc< G g c« G . Ck bia CO a a .H-a « G .Qa C<3 2A? its O G l|.S s5g UO 02 ci3 N e *3 G e e p CO i/i i-S eS g G S.g2- .g oO a (in ao3i s 2 O -s c a ias a .. o .M a. §73 .a •2:p ® G ^G ■p « g - ^ •5.G O p— P bi a. eSs I^jS Eeo ® iGg « o S Taijle II — Results of Field Inoculations with Alteknaria Solani on Various Solanaceous Plants — C ontinued 12 Research Bulletin 42 |s| i, ^ a o Oi I ^ ! r? fl o5 3 > Q P QT3 bl G ^ G as XX 3 ® G > G s “ Isa O'*-* ^ hJ -a ® CC.2 ®5 X G O'TS a T3 ^ M. be lS| r,.“® ® "q >G ®-G Q c3 2- ]o z; c« y G £ aa •g be G .H - a^ tt-i o O a -a ® G a G a aa .a I aa I I +JIO ' a- cc 1 ^ a 3 G O i2 a o-c S a ® ® y: rQ -O ® ? G ^ ^ a5 ^ I Sli IS I gss aj I Sd I I . I asg I 2a a*? awi ® • Cb B I <«t 3 a ^ o"T ^§:-. -/) ® £3 ® <-< > C ao rt rt a a ®" Uj !«^G3 ci ^ ®a & bi G aS W-o a • a .a a ® 2 g I ee ® 2> ■r^ cfl a G . o •S p bu 1 ^ I .. I a I bi a '-n I G I dg I -2 2 2 ® y 0=1-1 'Z ! I- I I ig 5 S I G G S ® G g ® §=?ca c 1=3 § 5 BS s-gj Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants 13 0/ 1 ® o Z c 1 ci 1 'O c 1 ^ O 3 1 . - < 1 ? 1 a o c3 a: . V ! S 2 i I ^ 1- o <-li low i ® X z E 0) 1 1 i « O 1 ti = -o 1 ^ 9 2 i o X X 1 ”S 1 of i a- 1 "s 1 1 « isi c.i5 i .2 3 1 1 a se .2= 'ii o i j )% infecti 1-4 mm. 1 colored 2§ <2 E 1 .3 3C JC l-l 1 § 1 - i \ 1 1 ^ ! ; * • y: . 1 w o £ 1 > 1 5. i’ 2, 3 ! '/3.2 i ii — -3 '£ Ti -• c£ 1 umeroi specks is E H 1 12 i Z 1 z s o o }£ \ bi ~> 1 E' •'■O 1 5 S t- — ^ Oi ^ M 1 *3 j?3 CM 3 1 ® 3 a — o o ® so > X 30 CM i- ! 5^ 1 i-r 1 S-r ‘ •S-=2 1 ' § Cfl JS i i^c 1 E «* 5 It'S 1 «cc I 1=1 « 3 O 1 S=£ . 24. UO CNJ CO CM 14 Research Bulletin 42| known. It is believed that such plants, i. e., those on which the spots do not enlarge, should not be considered as hosts, since on them the fungus does not produce spores and therefore can- FIG. 3.— POTATO EARLY BLIGHT SPOTS ENLARGED X 3 Thfs? show the typical black target board appearance. (Photograph by H. H. WTietzel.) not complete its life cycle. On this basis the hosts of Alternaria i solani determined by these studies are listed below.* 1. Solanum aviculare Forst. 2. Solanum caroUnensis Linn. — Horse nettle | 3. Solanum giganteum Jacq. 4. Solanum melongena Linn. — Egg-plant | 5. Solanum nigrum Linn. — Nightshade 6. SoUnnim nigrum guinennse Linn. — Garden wonderberry ♦Though not included in these studies it is probable that the two following ^ species are also hosts of A. solani. Solanum covimersc7ii Dun. listed by Nu.sfdin (1905) and Stuart (19'' 4). i| Hyocyamns albiis T.,inn. White Henbane, according to Ferraris (1913). ji| Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants 15 7. Salonum rostratum Dim. — Buffalo burr 8. Solarium tuberosum Linn, — Potato 9. Solarium warscewiczii Hort. 10. Hyocyamus niger Linn. — Black henbane 11. Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. — Tomato 12. Nicandra physaloides Gaertn. — Apple of Peru FIG. 4.— diagrammatic REPRESENTATION OF A PORTION OF SPOT ENLARGED The invaded ti.ssue shrinks to about one half the original thickness of the leaf, and the surface is thrown into concentric ridges. The cells are darkened. Spores are pro- duced on both surfaces as shown above intermingled with the hairs. During May, 1916, inoculations were made on tomato fruits of various ages freshly picked from greenhouse plants. In two 16 Research Bulletin 42 trials spores atomized on the surface failed to give infection after 10 days even though the fruits were moistened frequently and kept in a damp chamber. Under the same conditions needle puncture inoculations invariably resulted in infection. After 15 days there was only slight invasion about the points of inocu- lation on the green fruits while with the ripe fruits almost com- plete’ rotting resulted. McCubbin (1916) in Ontario, reports similar results from inoculations of tomato fruits. Needle puncture inoculations were made on mature fruits of egg plant and green pepper during August, 1916. In each case slight inva- sion of the tissues about the punctures occurred but no en- larged spots or decay resulted. Of the nine genera of the potato family tested, four only were found able to perpetuate the fungus, viz., Solanum, Lycop- ersicon, Nicandra and Hyocyamus. Of these the Solanums though showing considerable variation appear as a group to be the most susceptible. Prom these experiments it is evident that A. solani is not restricted within very narrow limits in its host relationsliip. Pathological Anatomy . An explanation of the ‘Aarget board effect” (Figs. 3 and 4) characteristic of this disease is suggested by Jones (1896). He believes that such a condition is produced by the more complete collapse and rapid contraction of the interior cells or mesophyll as compared with the epidermal cells. A study of microtome sections of spots in various stages of development shows that greatest contraction occurs in the spongy tissue which would tend to throw the upper part of the leaf into concentric folds. In the spot the cells are collapsed, shrunken, and deeply stained (Pig. 5). No evidence has been obtained to show that the failure of small spots to enlarge on vigorous leaves was due to suberized layers or other mechanical hindrance to invasion. On the contrary, all evidence indicates the resistance to be di- rectly related to the vigor of the leaf. Though the fungus has never been actually observed inside the cells of the host, there seems no reason to suppose that it cannot enter them. Penetra- tion of the leaf usually occurs directly through the epidermis, and in pure culture the fungus can utilize cellulose when this is offered as its only source of carbon. Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants 17 The Causal Organism taxonomy In the literature on early blight the fungus is commonly re- ferred to under the following names— d/cfcro.sporuHH solani El- lis and Martin, Alternarin solani (E. & M.) Jones and Grout, and Alternaria solani Sorauer. In foreign references the latter is in more general use while the second occurs most frequently in accounts of the disease in America. Sorauer (1896) publisheri FIG. 5.— CROSS SECTION OF LEAF SHOWING INCIPIENT INFECTION OF alternaria solani Penetration usually occurs directly through the cuticle. Shrinkage follows the death of the cells. XI^O. on the fungus a few months in advance of Jones (1896), but hi^' observations and illustrations of spore chains, as he found them in crude hanging drop cultures, show plainly that his descrip- tion was based on Alternaria fasciculata. From type material received from Sorauer. Jones separated the two fungi, the one a typical Alternaria and a saprophyte which he subsequently named Alternaria fasciculata, and the other the true parasite {Macrosporium solani). Jones reports frequent cases where spores in cultures of the Macrosporium were joined in catenu- late pairs after the fashion of the Alternarias. He then writes a 18 Research Bulletin 42 technical description and gives Sorauer the credit for the new combination. Seymour (correspondence), however, later ruled that inasmuch as Sorauer had applied the binominal confusedly, authority for the new combination should rest with Jones and his assistant (Jones and Grout 1897). This is the usage of Far- low (1905) and of most recent American authors. Me Alpine (1903) and Duggar (1909) have objected to calling the fungus an Alternaria on the ground that the catenulation of spores does not occur in nature. The author has examined many spots and Spores drawn from pure culture where catenulation has been noted. X200. has never seen catenulation on the leaves. It is true, however, that on oat meal agar cultures, spore pairs frequently occur (Fig. 6). In view of the chaotic condition of the literature deal- ing with Macrosporium and Alternaria and the slight and un- certain distinctions between the genera, the author considers it inadvisable to break away from the well established usage and go back to Mascrosporium. The following is the probable synonomy of the fungus with citations to the literature: Alternaria solani CE. & M.) Jones and Grout. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 23:353. Sept. 1896. Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta. Kept. 10:45. 1896. Macrosporium solani E. & M. American Naturalist 16:1003. 1882. Macrosporium solani Cooke, (in part) Grevillia 12:32. 1883. Macrosporium cookei Sacc. (in part), (following Cooke) Sacc. Sylloge Fungorum 4:530. 1896. Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants 19 Alternaria solani Sorauer (in part). Zeitschr. fiir Pflanzenkrankheiten 6:6. 1896. Sporidesmium solani var. varians Vanha. Naturw. Ztschr. Land - u. Forstw. 2:113-127. 1904. MORPHOLOGY The mycelium at the margin of the spot can be seen, using in toto fixations, as slender, radiating, sparsely branched filaments. Later it becomes closely branched, irregular, and deeply stained. Gonidiophores have never been found arising nearer than one- 1 FIG. 7,— SPORE DEVELOPMENT OF ALTERNARIA SOLANI Progressive stages commencing in the upper left hand corner. Note that the spore i starts by budding from the tip of the apical cell of the conidophore as shown in the second and third stages. Dravm from culture X400. half a millimeter from the boundary of green tissue. Usually ' one spore is produced on a conidiophore. The conidia arise from : the conidiophore, not by the constriction and subsequent enlarge- : ment of a terminal cell, but from a bud which forms on that cell. (Pig. 7.) The first indication of the bud is a faint hyaline area I on the wall. Soon (often within a few minutes) , the wall at this 1 place pushes out and forms a minute projection which has an ex- I tremely thin wall and is less than one-fifth the diameter of the I conidiophore. This bud grows very rapidly at first and, on I this account, the early stages are not easily followed. I 20 Research Bulletin 42 A method for obtaining abundant sporulation in pure cul- tures of this fungus is described, elsewhere.* Spores thus pro- duced show greater uniformity in size than those from the spots. Measurements of 100 spores from large, typical early blight spots on potato leaves gave a range in size of 120-296 x12-20 microns, an average size of 200 x 17 microns. The same number taken from several pure cultures on potato agar gave a range of 104-184 X 14-18 microns, an average of 141 x 16 microns. Nothing to date has indicated the existence of a perfect stage of this fungus. Overwintered material has been examined and the fungus has been grown on man}- kinds of media of varying degrees of acidity and exposed to various temperatures but no indications of another stage have developed. PHYSIOLOGY Alternaria solani is easily isolated from the spots or from spores, and grows well on all the ordinary culture media. Per- haps the most striking physiological characteristic of the fungus is the intense discoloration which it produces in the medium. On potato agar, young colonies cause a clear yellow pigmenta- tion Avhich, as the colony enlarges, spreads in advance of the my- celium and is eventually succeeded beneath the older part by a deep wine color. In media made +20 Fuller’s scale, the colora- tion approaches a deep brick red in some cases. On slightly acid media the yellow pigmentation predominates and it is practi- cally absent in alkaline media, where also little growth occurs. There is likewise no discoloration when the fungus is grown on + 10 to +1T) casein agar, nutrient gelatin containing dextrose, starch-nitrate agar, and cellulose agar. After 7 to 10 generations in pure culture the pigmentation is much diminished and in some cases has been observed to almost disappear. The fungus readily liquefies the above gelatin medium and shows great proteoclastic activity in the utilization of casein as indicated by the clear zone surrounding the colony when lactic a('id is added to a casein agar plate. Nitrates are quickly re- duced to nitrites and even to ammonia when tested on starch- nitrate agar. ♦riiytopatholoyy 7: 316-317. 1917. This iriethod consists, in .severely wounding the mycelium by shreddine: a ion da>' old cultui-e of the fungus on i)otato agar, and second, fo»- 24 hours, controlling the moisture relation so that the surface dees not become dry. Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants 21 Temperature relations. — Both spore germination and colony growth of A. solani are greatly intluenced by temperature. At 20 °C., ordinarily five to ten germ-tubes arise from the different cells of a single spore, while at 1-3 °C., germination will finally occur, but with no more than 2 or 3 germ-tubes. (Fig. 8.) Spores germinated at a low temperature generally produce several FIG. 8.— GEUMINATION OF SPORES OF ALTERNARIA SOLANI Temperature is an important factor in determining the number of germ tubes and the rate of germination; the two spores to left with the greater number of germ tubes after 1 hours at 35° C. ; the spore to the right with fewer germ tubes after 46 hours at 1-2° C. more germ-tubes when removed to a higher temperature. Ex- tended studies have been made of spore germination in agar under seventeen different temperatures ranging from 2 to 45 °C., in which at intervals the approximate length and number of germ-tubes were determined. These results are plotted in Fig. 9. At all temperatures from 6 to 34° C., the spores germinated within one and one-half hours. Germination took place most rapidly at 28-30°, requiring at those temperatures but 35 to 45 22 Research Bulletin 42 minutes. The germ-tubes formed at 37° were irregular anc knotted with bladder-like swellings at the tip. Growth entirely ceased after six hours and subsequent transference to a lowei temperature showed that they were dead. At 45° the spore: were killed before any indication of germination appeared. FIG. 9.— THE EFFECT OF VARIOUS TEMP*ERATURES ON SPORE GE MINATION AND GROWTH OF ALTERNARIA SOLANI At most temperatures germination commenced optimum is 26-28° C. At 45° C the spores were killed. Measurements of colonies grown at these different tempei tures give a graph similar to that obtained for spore germii tion. However, no growth visible to the naked eye took place 3° or at 45°C., while at 37° there was a slight amount of aer mycelium. The cardinal temperatures of the fungus are the fore approximately as follows: minimum 1°— 2 C., optinii 2r)°-28°, and maximum 37°-45°. Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants 23 Life History of A. Solani in Relation to Early Blight SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE DISEASE The time at which this disease makes its appearance each year seems to depend largely upon the date at which the crop was planted and upon its subsequent development as influenced by soil and climate. It may be safely concluded that as soon as the crop has passed its stage of greatest vigor and tuber formation has begun, early blight may develop. Whether or not the at- tack becomes severe depends almost entirely on influencing fac- tors later enumerated. SPORE PRODUCTION Spore production is usually delayed until after the death of the host tissues. Very rarely are spores found on spots less than four millimeters in diameter. Both upper and lower sur- faces of a spot produce spores, the upper much more abundantly, however. They are very easily dislodged, especially by rainfall. While considerable variation has been noted in the relative abun- dance of spores on spots of different sizes, it was desired to get some idea of the actual numbers which may occur. For this purpose, spots developed under as favorable natural conditions for sporulation as possible were obtained and counts made. Each spot cut carefully from the leaf was rinsed in a given volume of water which, with a small amount of leached agar, was poured into a level petri dish. One-tenth areas were marked off with a bacteriological counting card. After germination had begun the spores in two such areas were counted by means of the low power of the microscope. The following results were ob- tained : Diameter of Distribution as noted on spot Number of spot spores 10mm. Apparently equally abund. on both surfaces 1475 7mm. Few below, abundant above 930 10mm. About one-half as many below as above 785 5mm. Few below, abundant in center above 415 8mm. Scattered on both surfaces 140 6mm. Few on both surfaces 115 These figures may give some idea of the abundance of spores which may be produced on a badly diseased plant with, for in- stance, ten to fifteen spots on every leaflet. The total number Spot HrsTORiES in Relation to Climatic Conditions July 13-28 24 Research Bulletin 42 >* « Et O Eh y. Ed 5 ? pL, o s fC 1-2 PQ •< H OIJ'BAV ‘j'Bap ‘Map 0^4 -q ^82 1 1 1 1 15 x 18 mm. sp. -t-++ ab. in belt 8 - 10 mm. from center of spot: +++ bl. upon veins oij'BM ‘j'Ba [0 ‘Avap iqSjiAjaA -mLZ 1 •ui •(! g asoq qjiM A[iABaq pa.ia -^BAV SiaBld tUI-IBAV •jBap'AvapoM ^192 14 mm. sp. H — 1 — H ab. ; - bl; If. partly dead 1 1 i 1 No change; sp. -f- f- ab. bl. esp. in later growth rings ApuiAv ‘Apnop ‘Avap AABaH *mS 2 1 1 ‘ 1 •ui B 21-01 (g0‘) uiBj ‘Apnoio ‘Map ciqSn 14 mm. sp. 0 ab: ++ bl. esp. on veins and later growth rings No change; If. dead 12 x 18 mm. sp. o; If, dead UI.IBAV ‘JBap ‘Map 'P-i ?2 1 ui.iBM ‘.iBap ‘Map ^qSii A‘jaA -pu 22 No change S SO d x; X i- Unchang- ed, sp, o; If. dropped 7 x 9 mm sp. o: If. dying 12 x 18 mm. sp. o UUBM puB JBap ‘Map AABaq AjaA *isi 2 10 x 15 mm. sp. —scattered ab. bl; Iflt. dead , 7 x 8 mm. sp. 4 '“!“ ab. bl. esp. along veins: If. vig. 12 x 19 mm. sp. -f+ in outer rings ab. -bl; If. dead 7 x 9 mm. sp. ++ ab. bl; more ab. 1 §'3 s'S ls+ i 1 ^ 3 -f- o: UIJBM MBaio ‘Map iq.Siq -qioz 1 1 (uiBj ajoj -aq apBui saio^ij) ' (SI ) ‘A'pnoio •UI cl UIJBAV ‘JBap ‘Map ^q 3 in[ -qiGI 9 x 15 mm. sp. —over cen- ter ab: scat- tered bl. (not removed) 7 mm. sp. — ab; ++ bl. 11 x 19 mm. sp. — scat- tered ab; -t—h in places bl. S SO , >*' CK 7 x 15 mm. sp, o injBM ‘JBap ‘Map AABaq mnipai^ -qqgX 8 x 14 mm. sp. +++ ab. bl; If. yellow- ing 3 0 4 8 x 13 mm. sp. both surfaces 1 7 x 12 mm. sp. ++ both surfaces UIJBM JBap *ui -d ( •lu -B sjaAvoqs) gO' uiBj ‘Apnop ‘Map AAB 8 JI 'qR! 8 x 12 mm..sp. o ab; ++ bl. bi) gd> 1 i lUJBAV ‘JB 9 p ‘Avap AABan qi9I UIJBM ‘JBap ‘ UI B 6 lUun PAv SAI ‘g?.- UIBH qigi UIJBM ‘JBap ‘A\ap AABaq ‘2 uiBji -qixi UlJBAV ‘JBap ‘Map ^xqaiq ‘qxgi 5 x 8 mm. If. vig: sp. - 1 - ab. — bl. 1 ■SON Pu^ ^ 1 X 3 ce CNJ 1 CM 1 cd CO Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants 25 d a GO i o a aj 12x13 mm. sp. -f + ab. bl . esp. on vein- lets 14 mm. sp. H — h + ab : places bl; If. dead No change; sp. H — h ab. near ctr; -bl: If. dead - ■t- H i Ol SO ' o 14 mm. sp. 4-+-f ab. places bl. If. dead 1 ' 7x9 mm. sp. “( — 1“ ab. bl in center 8x9 mm. sp. ++ ab. bl. in center 10x14 mm. sp. o 6x9 mm. sp. o but +-t- A. fascicu- lata a> bt 1 O 11x14 mm. sp. o 10x11 mm. sp. 4-+ ab. bl. esp. on veinlets 4x7 mm. sp. o 1 1 6x8 mm. sp. o 8x13 mm. sp. o 4x6 mm. sp. -|-+ in ctr. ab: - bl. d2 s 8x11 mm. sp. 0 5x8 mm, sp. H — 1 — h ab. bl; If. dead 10x12 mm. sp. o; leaf dead 11x14 mm. sp. -f- h en- tire spot ab. bl;'dead a • S ®4- >^4- oo 4x7 mm. sp. -j — h ab. bl; If. dead 1 1 3x 4 mm. I 3x5 mm. 1 Sp. o sp. — in 1 center ab; o bl. 1 1 1 ! 1 a ! S o 1 2 ^ |5” 1 1 10x12 mm. sp. — young, ab. bl. 10x12 mm. sp. o 5x7 mm. sp. — ab. 4-4- outer rings bl. 4x7 mm. sp. o 1 4x9 mm. Sp. o 4x5 mm. — sp. ah. 8x10 mm. sp. 4— H more bl. than ab. 9x10 mm. Sp. t- both surfaces a- S'l X O 1, CO 1 1 i 1 1 : 1 ! 1 ; 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 CO 3c 4a 4b 5a oS 7b Abbreviations: If., leaf; Iflt., leaflet: sp.. spore, or sporulation: ab., above: bl.. below; +++, very abundant; ++, abundant; +, many; — , few; o, none. 26 Research Bulletin 42 may be further increased during favorable weather by the ma- I turity of a second or even a third crop of spores. Effect of various factors on spore production; spot his- tories.— By following the history of a number of spots, a better idea was obtained of the effect of various environmental condi- tions on the progress of the disease. For this study, Early Ohio plants were selected showing a few scattered spots on the mature leaves. Each spot was measured with a millimeter scale and both surfaces were examined for the presence of spores with a small low power microscope. Meanwhile great care was taken not to injure the leaves in any way. If spores were present their relative abundance was noted after which they were rinsed and brushed off by use of a pipette of distilled water and a soft; camel’s hair brush. The spot tissue became somewhat wet but' the heat of the day caused it to dry out again in a few minutes. | The results of these observations are shown in Table III. The effect of light rainfalls, especially those of July 17 and 24, in removing the spores from the upper surface of the exposed spots is seen. The most important evidence obtained relates,; to the ability of the spot for continued spore production. It shows that the same area on some of the spots produced three and four abundant crops of spores. There is also some evidence on the relation of rain and dew to spore production. It seems quite certain that the unusually heavy sporulation noted on July 18 was largely the result of the moist period beginning with the heavy dew of the night of the 16th and continuing through tk, forenoon of the 17th ; then a fairly heavy dew that night wat, sufficient to stimulate the fungus to unusual spore formation, Another instance seeming to corroborate this evidence is thajj of July 21 when spores were found generally abundant. Hew: the relatively cool weather on July 20 following the rain of thi: 19th and the very heavy dew that night furnished the propel conditions for spore production. To obtain further evidence on the ef6ect of rain and dew or spore formation, another series of spots was studied. These o servations extended from August 25 to September ^ 6, Three large plants of the Green Mountain variety, bearing spots on most of the leaves, were selected. Plant A was pro tooted from dew at night, and from rains, when imminent, b} placing over it a de\v-proof cage. Plants B and Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants 27 were not protected. The spots were examined as in the pre- vious study, but instead of removing the spores with water and camel’s hair brush, the brush alone was used. This method was equally effective while being easier of manipulation. The results from this series are shown in Table IV. Fortunately a rather dry period was selected for this study which made it possible to determine the effect of the single factor, dew, on spore forma- tion. Prior to this experiment, the writer had believed that moderately heavy dews were sufficient to induce abundant spor- ulation of the fungus. The observations recorded in Table IV show that even very heavy dews each night were, with few exceptions, insufficient. The period of the experiment was marked, as a whole, by rather cool weather (see Fig. 10) and where heavy dews are recorded it is positive that the plant sur- face was wet from 8 p. m. until 7-8 ;30 a. in. Dews alone were not sufficient but they, when aided by .9 in. rainfall (Sept. 5), caused abundant sporulation on all the spots exposed. Plant A, protected, showed none or only a few spores on the spots. There- fore, concluding from both experiments, it appears that fre- quent rains aided by heavy dews furnish the essential moisture conditions for optimum spore production of A. solani in nature. VIABILITY AND LONGEVITY OF MYCELIUM AND CONIDIA Jones (1896) states that the mycelium in the spot retains its life for a year or more. The writer’s results in the main cor- roborate this. Leaves dried between layers of cotton yielded the fungus from both small and large spots when isolations were made after 12 and 18 months. Material 29 months old, appar- ently as well preserved, gave no growth of the fungus in several attempts at isolation. There is no evidence of the existence of any differentiated or resistant form of mycelium in the spots. In pure culture, mycelium in prune agar was found viable after seven months. Potato agar plates, tested for viability after 15 and 17 months gave negative results. The recent work of Bartram (1916) shows conclusively the great resistance of the mycelium of this fungus in pure culture to very low temperatures. The condia are also very resistant. Jones (1896) succeeded in germinating conidia one year old but obtained no growth from those two years old. In one instance the writer got 10 per cent germination after 17 months at room temperature. 'POT Histories on Green Mountain Variety: Aug. 25-Sept. 6, 191(3 Plant C. Expose n to Rain and Dew Leaf 3c 8mm. 2 soots, no spores a to > O J P PQ CTIN 42 1 o 2 No spores Leaf ] 2c 8x1 2mm. few spores above, none below No spores / No spores Leaf Ic 15mm. abun- dant spores above, few below No spores No spores Plant B. Exposed to Rajn and II , Dew Leaf 4b 12xl4mm. enor- mous sporula- tion both surfaces No spores 1 No spores Leaf 3b 4mm. few spores ' above, none below No spores No spores Leaf 2b Large i margi- 1 nal spot, enor- j mous 1 sporula- tion ! both surfaces No spores No spores Leaf lb 6mm. 2 spots none above, few below No spores No spores Plant A. Pkotected From Rain and Dew Leaf 7a . 12mm. few spores center both surfaces No spores ) £ :l Z m 1 Leaf 6a 1 2 spots enor- mous sporul- ation No spores No spores Leaf 5a 6mm. no spores No spores No spores Leaf 4a 'J 8mm. no spores No spores C/1 i 1 OR M' z R * 0) CO h-5 1 4mm. few spores both surfaces No spores No spores Leaf 2a [ 2 spots 5x8mm. few spores both surfaces No spores No spores Leaf la 3 spots 4x5mm. no spores i 1 No spores No spores 1 W..5'7 1 Date and Weather Conditions Aug. 25. No dew: cloudy, windy, cool ' Aug. 26. No dew; cloudy, windy, cool Aug. 27. Med. oew; partly cloudy, cool Aug. 28. Very heavy dew; partly cloudy, warm 1 Aug. 29. Heavy dew; clear, warm Aug. 30. Ver.v heavy dew; clear, windy , warm (, Ear LY Blight or p,-M. * o^tx,tz=- iUiisn POTAT( 3 AND ReLA TED Pla: i - >- i 1 = z \ 1 1'^ 1 " i " ! ^ i 1 5 1 h NTS 29 biiJ i iiiiiii 1 II 4 1 i 111 Ilf 1 lissi i X =r = 2 X re 2 C: •- ^ ll 1 2 X Z hU illil :3 X w X i II ^ 1 I i Slllll 1 II 1 d It 5=S-^J=| lilllNl i II 1 1 ibiij 1 0 X Z 7 1 1 i ^ re c- ^ ' ' 1 ■ L ' i 1 ; 1 *5 1 - 1 II : s II iHi ! £ c 2 z 7 1 J > i, - — ^ II 111 1 II 1 ! g II i i II 1 |*illl > -:3'x x:2 ss s |2 ^ X z 1 i t^ 1 ; i o 2 Z X I II C In M5 1 ' ^ >, >- H i aici ! i=- = !l .-r ?♦ >•>: : ill c -IS -^.5 S<‘pl. 4. No (low; rain (.27) G A. M. vines wet - until 10 A. M. clondy, warm . il-§" S s s; i o =--• r 30 Research Bulletin 42 DISSEMINATION OF CONIDIA The suddenness of appearance of a general and severe infec- tion of early blight following a period of favorable weather has been noted by various workers. Observational data accumulated during the summers of 1915 and 1916 seem to indicate that the wind is the chief agent of dissemination in such cases. For in- stance, a field of early potatoes at Waupaca, Wisconsin, was noted to be suffering severely from early blight and tip-burn to the extent that on September 11, 1916, the majority of the vines were dead while an adjacent field of Rurals on the south was green and showed but relatively few spots. However, on a strip of the latter about 80 feet wide, adjacent to the early field, the disease was much more prevalent, but the number of spots was noted to decrease as one proceeded from the boundary line. To determine the relative occurrence of spots, typical leaves were picked from the first two or three rows next to the early field and an equal number 75 feet back. The spots were counted, in- cluding all the leaflets on each compound leaf. 12 leaves of lot 1 each bore 45 to 356 spots, average 175 spots per leaf; 12 leaves of lot 2 each bore 20 to 141 spots average 71 spots per leaf. Since potato beetles were practically absent from this field and strong north winds with favorable conditions for spore production and infection had occurred the preceding week, all evidence pointed to the wind as responsible for the general dissemination over this adjacent area. There seems to be little doubt that the Colorado beetle is an- other agent of distribution for Alternaria spores. Twice during July, 1916, the examinations of washings from the beetles were made. Fifty adult beetles collected from diseased potato vines were dipped and shaken for a moment in ten cubic centimeters of sterile watet from which microscopic examination and poured plates showed abundant spores. Numerous contaminating sap- rophytes prevented the actual number of spores from being de- termined. METHOD OF INFECTION According to Jones (1896) penetration may occur either through the stomates or dircetly through the cuticle. With proper conditions the young leaves of a plant can be infected as Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants 31 readily as the older ones but the rate of enlargement of the spot is distinctly slower in the young leaves. Though infections in nature frequently occur about flea beetle holes, the observations of several earlier investigators as well as those of the writer indicate ^no necessary relation between the two. It is not improbable, however, that these little beetles may carry the spores, as is shown for the Colorado beetle and as a result inoculate the wounds they make. PERIOD OF INCUBATION In the greenhouse where the cover slip method was used the incubation period both for potato and tomato, varied from 28 to 50 hours. Under field conditions, relying entirely upon heavy dews for the necessary moisture, incipient spots were usually no- ticeable within 48 to 72 hours after the spores had been atomized upon the plant. Under favorable conditions, within three or four days these spots may enlarge and produce spores which can cause secondary infection on adjacent leaves or plants. TIME OF NATURAL INFECTION As observed in central Wisconsin, natural infection is gener- ally first visible from June 20 to July 10 on the crop planted April 25 to May 15. On the late crop, spots may be observed from the middle of August on, depending apparently upon three factors: age, vigor of plant, and weather conditions. SOURCE OF NATURAL INFECTION The source of inoculum for the early crop is probably from the overwintered spores and possibly from new conidia produced by overwintered mycelium which has been harbored in the soil in the debris of former crops. It is quite likely that an additional source of infection of the late potatoes is from nearby early fields in the form of spores carried by the wind or by potato beetles seeking the younger and more tender plants. i OVERWINTERING OF THE FUNGUS The problem of the overwintering of Alternaria solani is concerned with but two possibilities, i. e., conidia and mycelium. 32 Resp:arch Bulletin 42 It has already been shown that both these structures possess re- markable resistance toward unfavorable conditions. The writer has no evidence to substantiate, and sees no reason for accepting, the hypothesis offered by Massee (1906) and en- dorsed by McAlpine (1911) that the disease is transmitted from one generation to another by latent mycelium in the tubers. To determine definitely under what conditions the fungus can overwinter in Wisconsin, the following experiment was made. On July 22, 1915, some very good material showing abundant s})orulation was collected and the leaves dried quickly in the open air. In October, a 6 x 10 foot plot in the plant disease garden at Madison was marked off into four strips and used as follows : In No. 1— Diseased leaves on the surface In No. 2 — Diseased leaves buried two inches deep In No. 3 — Diseased leaves buried four inches deep In No. 4 — Diseased leaves buried eight inches deep The leaves were protected by being placed between one thick- ness of cheese cloth and this in turn was placed between two lay- ers of galvanized iron wire netting. At intervals throughout the winter material was removed from each strip and attempts were made to isolate the fungus from it. The bulbs of soil thermo- graphs were buried four and eight inches in the plot to furnish a continuous record of the soil temperatures, while an air thermo- graph nearby registered for the air. The records from Novem- ber 12 to April 20 showed a variation in temperature from +13 to -25°C., for the air, +10 to -6°C. at four inches depth, and +8 to -6°r. at eight inches depth. On 93 out of the total of 1 60 days foi* the period the ground was covered with snow. The extremely low temperatures in each case followed periods of snowfall so that it is probable that even the material on the sur- face was not exposed to as low temperatures as were recorded. Before burying the leaves in the fall, viability tests gave over 95 per cent geimiination of the spores. Several attempts failed entirely to isolate the fungus from the spot tissues where the mycelium appeared to be dead. This was an unexpected result, wliich was not fully understood until the following summer. Then it was found that the mycelium could frequently be killed ]>y drying freshly collected leaves quickly in the sun. Thus un- fortunately this test was limited to the conidia alone. Little Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants 33 difficulty was experienced in isolating the spores for germination tests during the early winter, but later, as the cheese cloth and leaf tissue disintegrated, the conidia were more difficult to find. On December 11, 1915, tests of 40 to 50 spores from each level gave 80 to 90 per cent germination. At no time was there any evi- dence of the formation of new spores and cultures from the spot tissue developed only saprophytic invaders as Mucor, Fusarium, Penicillium, and Alternaria fasciculata. On April 17, 1916, the final examinations were made with the following results: (1) Spores overwintered on the surface — 2-3 per cent germination (2) Spores overwintered at 2-inch depth — 40 per cent germination (3) Spores overwintered at 4-inch depth — 50 per cent germination (4) Spores overwintered at 8-inch depth — 65-70 per cent germi- nation The low figu'. e for the surface gerndnation would probably have been higher had not the location for the plot been selected on low ground wliere excessive water and ice made conditions unusually severe. From this experiment it seems justifiable to conclude that a relatively large proportion of the abundant spores produced during the moist weather of late autumn remain viable through- out the winter. The primary infections of the next year doubt- less come from such spores which have overwintered in the soil. It is easy for these to reach the lower leaves which are indeed often in immediate contact with the soil, and it is noteworthy that the primary infections always occur on such low lying leaves. This theory is in further accord with the observed fact that early blight starts earliest and is worst on old garden soils and suggests the conclusion that crop rotation is a factor in its control. THE RELATION OF CLIMATE AND SOIL TO THE DISEASE Climatic factors undoubtedly exert a great influence upon the dissemination and destructiveness of early blight. As to the climatic conditions best favoring an attack of this disease. Jones (1895) finds that hot, dry weather followed by a moist period is best. Rolfs (1898), in Florida, reports that the disease on to- matoes spread with ‘^alarming rapidity’’ during moist, warm seasons, while dry, cool weather retarded its progress. Lutman 34 Research Bulletin 42 Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants 35 2 5 S 5 d ^ 6 CO ddO X <1^ o 03 03 03^2 - g a |.2 3 oj 03 03 OO Cj iS !-, _ 03 43 d W - -/J •" 03 ^ ^ 03 O ^ o as ^-2 •d O 03 03 03iS 2^3 O fc- 2-§43&“'^ «« hc£ ^ 2 hr 03 c 03 ^ S >>’> S cci^ 03-2 ,d -d 'd — d a 03 cS Si ^ 03 dJ V 03 dJ 03 W C 2* 03 03 .d - 3 t-i 'd <; .d !- d 4J oj 03 d Hi da 36 Research Bulletin 42 (1911) summarizes twenty years’ observation (1891-1910) made at the Vermont station mainly on the relation of the weather to late blight but including data on early blight and tip-burn as well. A careful study of the twenty diagrams and notes pre- sented shows so much contradictory evidence on the occurrence of early blight that few conclusions are possible. His statement that it is a disease of the drier seasons is fairly well corroborated by the diagrams. Various writers have called attention to the greater destruc- tiveness of this disease on the lighter, sandy soils as compared with the damage it does on the heavy ones. On account of the very generalized nature of our knowledge of this subject, the author has attempted to get evidence which would more clearly show the influence of climatic and soil factors on the severity of tlie disease. For this purpose continuous meteorological records (air humidity and temperature) were obtained in a standard Weathei* Bureau shelter at the same height as the potato vines for the seasons of 1915 and 1916. Soil temperatures among the 1 ‘oots and soil moisture determinations were obtained only for the summer of 1916. The light, sandy soil on which the experi- mental plot was located both seasons, proved ideal for such studies on account of the more decisive response of the plants to changes in environmental conditions. Fortunately for this study the two summers represented extremes in opposite direc- tions from the normal in regard to the conditions favorable for the disease. The season of 1915 was characterized by much wet, cloudy weather during July and early August and by relatively high temperatures. The remainder of August and the first week of September were dry and clear, and normal in temperature. The disease was first noted July 3 on the early crop planted April 25 to May 10, but did little damage prior to the third week in July when the plants began to set tubers. From this time on through August it spread with' great rapidity and together with tip-burn resulted in an estimated loss of 35 to 50 per cent. A heavy frost on August 27 and a subsequent severe attack of late ])light resulted in considerable loss to the late crop, which had shown but little early blight. The season of 1916 began with a very wet. cold June with ex- cessive rainfall making conditions unfavorable for the planting and growth of the crop. The first ten days in July were marked Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants 37 by mild favorable weather after which a period of dry weather with extremely high temperature began and continued -almost un- broken throughout tlie summer until September 5. Oh twenty days of this period the temperature at the height of the plants reached or exceeded 90 °F., and on fifteen days the thermometer registered 100°F or more. On June 26, spots could be found on occasional lower leaves of most of the early fields examined but the vines were very vigorous and were just beginning to flower. By the time the hot weather began, the second week in July, the disease had made but little headway. The high temperature of air and soil and consequent reduction in the available soil mois- ture now quickly weakened the plants, thus making ideal condi- tions, so far as host susceptibility was concerned, for the rapid spread of early blight. By July 30, the vines were mostly dead from tip-burn and but very few early blight spots could be found. The late crop, planted between eTune 1-15, escaped very large- ly the severe drought. The rainy weather of September and early October, however, enabled early blight to spread so that 30 to 40 per cent of the foliage was badly diseased. Tin's injury, in connection with two light frosts, operating on the already much retarded plants, it is believed, was an important factor in reducing the tuber yield. The meteorological records for 1915, being incomplete, are not given. The data summarized in Figure 10^ cover, therefore, only the season of 1916. "When these are considered in connection with the spot history records (Tables ITT and IV), made during the same period, there is evident a very close correlation between the various environmental factors and the occurrence and de- velopment of early blight. The evidence shows, (1) that in order to have the optimum conditions for an epidemic there must be relatively high temperatures in combination with a more or less weakened condition of the plant so that the fungus can make its greatest spread; (2) that such development will not occur unless the above conditions are prefaced by relatively moist periods of high humidity and abundant dew or rainy weather when spore production and infection can readily take plac6. The season of 1915 represented just such a (‘orrelation of condi- tions for the early crop. In 1916, on the contrary, no such opti- mum climatic combination prevailed, so that, although the *The writer is indebted to Prof. H "JV. Rtpwart of the University of Wis- consin. who determined the moisture equivalents from which the hygroscopic coefficients (approximate nonavailahle moisture) were calculated. 38 Eesearch Bulletin 42 plants were in a most susceptible condition, there was no general occurrence of early blight until late autumn. These studies suggest a possible explanation of the severity of this disease in some countries and its practical absence in others. While the writer has had no opportunity personally to observe it in other countries it is noteworthy, according to reports in literature, that the organism occurs in practically all important potato growing regions of the world. The difference in destruc- tiveness, therefore, must be due, not to the lack of introduction, but to a difference in climatic conditions. As already noted it is reported more severe in the United States, Australia, New Zea- land, and South Africa than in Europe. Conclusions from stud- ies in Wisconsin seem to indicate the following interpretation: the disease is more destructive in the first countries named be- cause in general the average summer temperatures of these re- gions are not only higher but probably subject to greater fluc- tuations and extremes which, combined with variations in rain- fall, make conditions less favorable for the growth of the plant. In central Europe, on the contrary, where early blight as a serious disease is practically unknown, the moderately low summer temperatures and the uniformally distributed rainfall furnish highly favorable conditions for the host plant, while less favorable for the best development of the parasite. Control Measures RESISTANT VARIETIES Stuart (1914) summarizes the results of five years’ observa- tions of the relative resistance to early blight of 153 American and foreign varieties of potatoes. Four of the ten varieties found most resistant to early blight are also found among the ten most resistant to late blight. But on© of the ten was of American origin and it was of no commercial importance. The European varieties, though quite resistant, did so poorly under our climatic and soil conditions as to be practically worthless from a commercial standpoint. He concludes: 'Hhe value of the disease resistant varieties is problematical rather than ac- tual. The plant breeder, by mating them with the most desir- able commercial types, may develop commercial types of resis- tant varieties.” Green and Waid (1906) of the Ohio station. Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants 39 however, believe that much can be done in building up resistant varieties by selecting seed from resistant hills. The McCormick variety is said by Norton (1906) to show de- cided resistance to early blight. Prof. T. H. White of the Mary- land station furnished the writer with seed of this variety which was tried out in 1915 and 1916 in Wisconsin. The unusually large coarse vines showed by far the greatest resistance com- pared with the fifteen other varieties grown. However, in late September, 1915, when the stage of greatest vigor had passed, they also showed 20 to 30 per cent of the foliage badly diseased. The poor quality of the tuber will probably prevent it from be- coming of much commercial importance where more desirable varieties can be profitably grown. SPRAYING The early spraying trials by Jones, aimed particularly at early blight (see Jones and Morse 1905), as well as the long series of potato spraying experiments at the New York and Connecti- cut stations, have shown the practical control of this disease with bordeaux mixture. Lutman (1911), summarizing the twenty years’ spraying in Vermont, states that three to four applica- tions of the 5-5-50 bordeaux ‘‘efficiently protects the plants from the attacks of the early and of the late blight.” Milward (1909) states that increased yields result from spraying in Wis- consin when not less than four applications are given and the spraying commenced not later than August 15. Stewart (1914) states that in the ten year series at Geneva there was an average increase from spraying for both blights of 97.5 bu. per acre. The 4^—50 formula is recommended for the first two applications with an increase to 6-4—50 in the late sprayings. On the other hand Clinton (1916) obtained an aver- age increase of 38 bushels per acre in Connecticut with three applications of the 4-4-50. Additional evidence bearing di- rectly on the control of early blight is given by Jack (1913 and 1916) for Rhodesia in South Africa. There early blight appears to be by far the most important disease of the potato. Several years results showed an increase in yield, due to spraying with bordeaux mixture, ranging from 16 to 57 per cent. Wherever this disease causes practical injury on the tomato, spraying with bordeaux mixture has also been recommended. 40 Research Bulletin 42 Edgcrton and Moi'cland (1913) advise one application in the cold frame and one every ten days thereafter in the field if the disease is prevalent. The spraying experiments conducted by the writer were de- signed primarily to furnish evidence on control correlated with his life history studies of the fungus, and secondarily to test out under Wisconsin conditions the recommendations of workers in other states. SPRAYING experiments AT WAUPACA The season of 1915 was unusually favorable for the develop- ment of early blight. Spraying was done, however, only on, the late crop which, in the experimental plot, was completely killed by frost on August 26 before much differentiation between sprayed and unsprayed was noticed. In 1916 both early and late potatoes were sprayed, but unfor- tunately for the experiments on early potatoes, little disease oc- curred this season. In spite of this the results obtained seem worthy of record. On the late crop, planted between June 5 and 15, it operated in weakening the already much retarded vines and was undoubtedly responsible for a large part of the short- age in yield. On early potatoes — Experiments were undertaken in two gardens which had grown several successive crops of potatoes and in which early blight had been noted as severe in 1915. The plots were sprayed by hand with a modified Hudson and Thurber compressed air sprayer. This pump proved quite satis- factory for plots of small size and, with high pressure, gave a very fine spray. Great care was taken to cover all leaves thor- oughly with the mixture. The amount applied eacE time was de- termined by the differences in gross weight of the container be- fore and after spraying. As a rule about 150 gallons per acre were used for each of the first two applications, and 175 to 200 gallons per acre for the later sprayings. Since earlj^ blight was a negligible factor on account of the extreme drought, the bene- ficial results obtained are attributable primarily to the lessen- ing of tip-burn and flea Beetle injury. However, it is note- worthy that, whereas a dozen or more spots developed on each control plant in Plots 1 and 3 (Experiment B), only rarely Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants 41 could an infection be found on Plot 2, Avhich received weekly applications (9 in all), beginning Avhen the plants were 6 inches high. The results are combined in Table V. Table V.— Spraying Experiments on Early Potatoes Experiment A, Van Patten Garden; Six Weeks Variety Plot Treatnoeut Yield iNCBEASE i Actual number lbs. 1 Bu. per A. Large Small Total ! Bu. Per cent 1 Bordeaux 5-5-aO June 16. 24; July 1, 8. 15, and 29 42.5 i 15.0 57.5 87.0 1 ! 1 4.5 5.2 2 Control Paris green and lime I 38.0 11.0 49.0 ; 82.5 i _ 3 Bordeaux 5-5-50 J uly 1 and 15 45.5 8.5 54.0 90.8 5.3 5.8 4 Control Paris green and lime 47.5 7.5 55.0 84.4 5 Bordeaux 5-5-50 J uly 1 , 10, and 29 56.0 11.0 67.0 107.6 19.3 17.9 6 Control Paris green and lime 23.75 3.75 27.5 88.3 7 Bordeaux 5-5-50 1 July 8. 18, and 28 77.0 i 12.0 89.0 144.0 38.8 26.9 8 Control Paris green and lime 55.5 10.0 ‘ 65.5 105.2 i 9 Bordeaux 5 5-50 June 24; July 8 and 22 53.0 12.5 65.5 104.4 17.1 16.3 10 Control Paris green and lime 43.5 12.5 56.0 87.3 11 Bordeaux 2-4-50 June 24: July 8 and 22 43.5 17.0 60.5 92.3 -2.3 -2.4 12 Control Paris green and lime 48.5 15.5 62.0 94.6 Experiment B, Taylor Garden: Elarly Denver Variety 1 Control Paris green and lime 38 27.5 65.5 112.2 2 Bordeaux 5-5-50 June 16. 24; July 1, 8, 15, 22, 29: Aug. 5 and 14 1 29.5 70.5 120.7 17.5 14.5 3 Control Paris green and lime 15.5 12.0 27.5 94.2 On late potatoes — In experiments A and C (Table VI) the spraying was done on selected rows in one tenth acre plots Avhich had been cropped successively to potatoes for several years. These were sprayed in the same manner as the early potatoes. The other trials were carried out on various farms near Wau- 42 Research Bulletin 42 paca, where the fields had been subjected to a four year rota- tion. Here an upright barrel outfit on a cart was employed. Though much retarded in development the late potatoes es- caped to a large extent the severe drought during July and Au- gust. Revived by the heavy rains in September they made good growth, and, had frost held off until late October, a fair yield could have been obtained. The entire plot in Experiment A was heavily watered with a hose several times during the early part of the season, which fact accounts partly for the greater amount of disease and the consequent greater difference in yield as compared with the other experiments. This plot also received the greater number of sprayings. Prior to September 13, early blight was practically absent in any of the fields except Experi- ment A. The rains and favorable weather following this date permitted rapid spread of the disease on the already weakened plants. Thus during a month of favorable growing weather for the plants a good portion of the leaf area in most cases became badly diseased. Flea beetles and tip-burn were practically ab- sent and no late blight was found. In all these experiments those rows which received two or more applications of the 5-5-50 Bordeaux contained in every case larger and more vigorous plants even before any disease occurred. This seemed to be due entirely to the stimulative action'of the spray. The disease was not absolutely controlled in any case, not even plot 1 of Experi- ment A, which received 7 applications. Several light frosts in September complicated the situation in Experiment B where the sprayed plants on this sandy type of soil showed a striking resistance to frost injury. Aside from this, however, the uni- form and consistent increase from the spraying is attributable to but two factors, viz., (1) the practical control of early blight and (2) the stimulative action of the bordeaux mixture on the plants. The results are presented in summary form in Table VI. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SPRAYING Wliile the period during which the foregoing experiments were conducted was not typical of the average year in many re- spects, yet the intensive study made of the disease in connection with them seems to warrant the following deductions: For the early crop under Wisconsin conditions the disease can be profitably controlled by four to six applications of the Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants 43 Tablk VI. — Spraying Expeuimknts on Late Potatoes Experiment A, Tnrrell Held; Rural New Yorker No. 2 Plot Treatment Yield Increase Actual Numiier lbs, Bus. 1 per ! Large Small 1 Total Bus. i 1 Per cent ■ Bordeaux 5-5-50 June 28; .Tulv 8, 18. 28: Aug. 7, 17; Sept. 6 123.0 10.5 133.5 1 i I 331.9 1 144.2 43.4 2 Conirol Paris green and lime 60.5 15.0 75.5 187.7 3 Bordeaux 5-5-50 June 28; Julv 12, 26; Aug. 9, 24; Sept. 6 107.0 16.0 123.5 j 301.4 ! 113.7 37.7 Experiment B, Constance field; Rural New Yorker No. 2 1 1 Bordeaux 5-5-50 Aug. 12; Sept. 7 188.0 35.0 223.0 j 111.5 23.0 20.6 2 Control Paris green and lime 149.0 28.0 177.0 1 88.5 3 Bordeaux 5 5-50 Aug. 12, 22: Sept. 7 190 0 31.0 221.0 110.5 22.0 19.9 4 Control Paris green and lime 133.0 27.0 160.0 80.0 5 B >rdeau x 5-5-50 Aug 12, 22 167 0 35.0 202.0 1 101.0 21.0 20.8 6 ('o.itrol i Paris green and lime 133.0 26.0 159.0 1 79.0 7 1 Bordeaux 5-5-50 j Aug. 12, 22; Sept. 7 163.0 1 38.0 1 201.0 100.5 21.5 21 4 8 Control j Pari ^ green and lime 140.0 24.0 164.0 82.0 9 Bordeaux 5-5-50 ! Aug. 12; Sept. 7 149.0 i 34.0 183.0 91.5 9.5 10.4 10 Bordeaux 5-5-50 Aug. 12, 22; Sept. 7 152.0 31.0 183.0 91.5 9.5 10.4 Experiment C, Taylor field; Rural New Yorker No# 2 Bordeaux 5-5-50 July 8, 22: Aug. 5, 17; Sept. 13 1 83.0 18.9 104.9 190.5 i 74.7 39.2 2 Control Paris green and lime 46.9 16.9 63.8 115.8 1 3 Bordeaux 2-4-50 July 8, 22; Aug. 5, 17; Sept. 13 38.5 18.1 56.6 102.7 18.5 18.0 4 Control Paris green and lime j 28.3 18.1 46.4 84.2 Experiment D, Pinkerton field; Rural iNew Yorker No. 2 1 Bordeaux 5-5-50 Aug. 12: Sept. 7 250.5 95.0 345.5 93.9 13.9 13.7 2 C )ntrol Paris green and lime 198.5 98.0 296.5 80.0 3 Bordeaux 5-5-50 Aug. 22; Sept. 7 299.5 81.0 380.5 103.4 27.7 26.7 4 Control Paris green and lime 197.0 66.0 263.0 71.5 5 Bordeaux 5-5-50 Aug. 22; Sept. 7 229 5 80.5 310.0 84.3 8.6 10.2 44 Research Bih.letin 42 standard 5—5—5 0 bordeaux mixture. Complete control can only be attained by weekly sprayings begun when the plants are six to eight inches high and continued through the remain- ing period of growth. For the late crop, the results indicate that the three to four applications ordinarily recommended for the control of late blight will also largely control early blight. Tnoi'ouglmess of application cannot be overemphasized! in spraying for early blight. SANITATION From the evidence already presented that primary infection results from spores overwintering in the soil,* and from observa- tional data on the persistence of the fungus in dead vines, it is clear that in certain cases sanitation becomes an important factor to be considered. Crop rotation is of course the rational measure and in those cases where it is desired to crop the land continu- ously to potatoes, all dead vines should be raked together and burned immediately after harvest. Such measures will tend to reduce the number of primary infections but they should be re- garded merely as contributing to the success of the more certain method of control, viz., spraying. Summary Early blight, Alfernaria solani (E. & M.) J. & G., of potato' and related plants is a characteristic leaf spot disease distin- guished by the concentric markings or ‘Garget-board” appear- ance of the spot. This disease is practically world wide being found wherever the potato is an important crop, but it is of economic importance in but few countries, especially the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. The damage from this disease is indirect, i. e., it causes the premature death of the foliage and this results in decreased yields. During some years early blight does more damage than . late blight but it is the annual small loss which makes it a seri- ous obstacle to successful potato culture. On the tomato, where it causes spotting of both leaves and fruit, Edgerton and More- land, 1913, place it next to wilt in importance. Early blight, in Wisconsin, occurs commonly on potato, to- mato and eggplant. The identity of the fungus on these hosts has been established by morphological and cultural studies and by reciprocal cross inoculations from single spore cultures. The Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants 45 leaf spot of Jimsoii weed (Datura) which has been widely attri- buted to the same fungus, is shown to be due to a similar but dis- tinct species of Alternaria which was early described by Saccardo as Cercospora crassa. For this the author has given the new com- bination Alternaria crassa. To determine the host range of the fungus, inoculations were made under field conditions on 30 species and varieties of the family Solanaceae. On 29 of these penetration and incipient infection occurred. However, the fungus was able to complete its life cycle on but 12 of the plants, Avhich in addition to two others not included in the tests, make its known host range 14 species and varieties representing the genera Solanum, Lycoper- sicon, Nicandra, and Hyocyamus, The early blight fungus was first described in 1882 and named Macrosporium solani Ellis and Hartin. Jones and Grouty 1896, and Sorauer, 1896, changed the name (the latter on insufficient evidence) to Alternari solani. Though the writer has never observed conidia in chains in nature and they occur but rarely in culture, the present uncertain taxonomic relation- ship of the two genera. Alternaria and Macrosporium, and the established usage leads him to provisionally retain the latter bi- nominal, Alternaria solani (E. & M.) J. and G. The important diagnostic characteristic of the fungus is the long, single or forked, terminal beak of the conidium. On potato and other vegetable and fruit extract agar, the col- ony produces a brilliant yellow pigmentation of the medium, later becoming reddish. After repeated trials to obtain spores in culture, it was found that by stirring or shredding the agar and mycelium in the petri dish and carefully regulating the moisture for 24 hours abundant sporulation could be secured. This served as the source of material for spore germination and inoculation studies. The cardinal temperatures for spore germination and mycelial growth on favorable media fall within the following limits: minimum 1-3°, maximum 37-45°, optimum 26-28°G. Five to ten germ tubes emerge at the optimum while at the minimum usually not more than half this number develop. Spore production in nature may begin when the spot has reached a diameter of 3 to 4 millimeters. A given spot may pro- duce 1500 to 3000 spores in two to three successive crops during a season. 46 Research Bulletin 42 The conidia are readily dislodged from their conidiophoreSy and local dissemination appears to be chiefly effected by wind, and rain. Colorado potato beetles may also spread the disease. Infection may occur via the stomates or directly through the cuticle. The period of incubation varies from 48 to 72 hours. Primary infection may result from overwintered conidia or possibly from new conidia produced by overwintered mycelium. Though conidia were found to overwinter on leaves on the surface of the ground, the proportion surviving the winter was greater on those buried at 2, 4^ and 8 inch depths. Early blight ordinarily makes little development until the host has passed its period of greatest vigor and is being weakened by external conditions or by the drain of tuber formation. Opti- mum spore production is dependent upon frequent rains aided, by heavy dews. Climate and soil exert a controlling influence upon the development of the disease. In general it becomes most serious when the season begins with abundant moisture which is followed by high temperatures unfavorable to the host plant but with sufficient moisture to insure maximum sporula- tion. Periods of continued drought check its spread completely. The conclusion is, therefore,' reached that the optimum condi- tions for an epidemic of early blight require relatively high temperatures alternating with moist periods in combination with a more or less weakened condition of the plant. The unusual resistance of the McCormick potato to early blight, reported by Norton, 1906,- has also been observed by the writer, but unfortunately this variety is a poor commercial type. The possibility of securing resistant varieties with the best commercial qualities has been shown by Stuart, 1914, to offer little immediate encouragement, but he is continuing breeding experiments with this in mind. Sanitary measures are recommended based on the evidence as to tlic overwintering and origin of primary infections. These in- clude crop rotation and the destruction of the dead potato tops in gardens where continuous cropping is practised. Spraying ex]ieriments conducted by the writer confirm the results of others and show that timely and thorough spraying with home made bordeaux mixture profitably controls early blight. (See summarized recommendations for spraying, p. 42). Early Blight of Potato and Related Plants 47 Literature Cited Bartram, H. E. ^ , 1916 of natural Ioav temperature on certain fungi and bac- teria. U. S. Dept. Agr. Jour. Agr. Res. 5:651-655. Chester, F. D. 1893 Diseases of the round potato and their treatment. Del. Agr. Exp. Sta. Kept. 5(1892) : 67-70. Clinton, G. P. 1904 Diseases of plants cultivated in Connecticut. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Kept. 1903:320, 349, 365. 1916 Potato spraying experiments, third report. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Kept. 1915:470-480. Coons, G. H. 1914 Potato diseases of Michigan. Mich. Agr. Exp. Sta. Special Bui. 66:31. Duggar, B. M. 1909 Fungous diseases of plants, pp. 301-304. Edgerton, C. W. and Moreland, C. C. 1913 Diseases of the tomato in Louisiana. La. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 142:23. Ellis, J. B. and Martin, G. B. 1882 Macrosporium solani E. & M. Am. Nat. 16:1003. Farlow, W. G. 1905 Bibliographical index of North American fungi. 1, part 1:183-185. Ferraris, T. 1913 I Parassiti Vegetali delle Plante coltivate od utili. pp. 892-8£3 Galloway, B. T. 1891 The new potato disease. Garden and field, Adelaide, Au- stralia 16:158. 1893 The Macrosporium potato disease. Agri. Sci. 7:370-382 and Soc. for Prom. Agr. Sci. Proc. 14:46-58. Green, W. J. and Waid, C. W. 1906 The early and late blight of potatoes and how to control them. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Circ. 58:4. Jack, R. W. 1913 Potato spraying experiments for the control of early blight (Alternaria solani). Rhodesia Agr. Jour. 16:852-862. 1916 Does it pay to spray potatoes in Rhodesia? Rhodesia Agr. Jour. 13:354-360. Jones. L. R. 1893 The new potato disease or early blight. Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta.. Rept. 6(1892) : 66-70. 1895 Various forms of potato blight. Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 49:91-96. (Distributed 1896.) 1896 Various forms of potato blight and their causes; studies upon Macrosporium solani E. & M. Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept. 9(1895) : 72-88. 1897 Potato diseases and remedies. Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept. 10: (1896) : 44-53. 48 Research Bulletin 42 Jones, L. R. 1903 Diseases of the potato in relation to its development. Mass. Hort. Soc. Trans. 1903:150. 1912 Potato diseases in Wisconsin and their control. Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. Circ. 36:10. , and Grout, A. J. 1897 Notes on two species of Alternaria. Torr. Bot. Club Bui, 24:254-258. , and Morse, W. J. 1905 Potato diseases and their remedies. Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta. Kept. 18(1504-05) : 272-277. Lutman, B. F. 1911 Twenty years’ spraying for potato diseases. Potato diseases and the weather. Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 159:225-296. McAlpine, D. 1903 Early blight of the potato. Dept. Agr. Victoria Jour. 2( 1903) : 464-467. 1911 ' Handbook of fungous diseases of the potato in Australia and their treatment. Melbourne Dept. Agr. Victoria, pp. 56-59. McCubbin, W. A. 1916 Tomato black spot or black rot. Canada Exp’l. Farms. Repi. 1915 (vol. 2) : 987-988. Massee, G. 1906 Perpetuation of potato rot and leaf curl. Roy. Bot. Gard. Kew. Bui. misc. inform. 4:11-112. Milward, J. G. 1909 Directions for spraying potatoes. Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. of Information 3. Norton, J. B. S. 1906 Irish potato diseases. Md. Agr. .Exp. Sta. Bui. 108:63-72. Ntisslin, 0. 1905 Potato leaf curl {Macrosporiuin solani). Board of Agr. of Great Britain. Jour, 12:476-478. Rands, R. D. 1917 The production of spores of Alternaria solani in pure cul- tures. Phytopath. 7:316-317. 1917 Alternaria on potato and Datura. Phytopath. 7:327-337. Rolfs, P. H. 1898 Diseases of the tomato. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 47:124-127, Sorauer, P. 1896 Auftreten einer dem amerikanischen “Early blight” ent- sprechenden Krankheit an den deutschen Kaitcffeln. Ztschi. Pflanzenkrank. (>:l-9. Stewart, F. C. 1914 Potato spraying experiments at Rush in 1913. N, Y. (Gen. eva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 379:3-9. Stuart, Wm. 1914 Disease resistance of potatoes. Vt. Agr. Exp, Sta. Bui. 179:147-183. Tubeuf, K. F. von : 1904 Die Blattfleckenkrankheit der Kartoffel (Early blight Oder ^ Leaf-spot disease) in Amerika. Naturw. Ztschr. Land- u. Forstw. 2:264-269. £ Research Bulletin 43 January, 1919 The Milling and Baking Qualities of Wisconsin Grown Wheats B. D. LEITH AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON CONTENTS Page Introduction 3 Important factors which determine milling and baking qualities of wheat 4 A review of the literature on milling and baking tests of hard winter wheats 6 Method of procedure 7 Milling and baking tests to determine the desirable varieties 8 A comparison of the five best pedigree winter wheats carried through three years’ tests of 1911, 1912, 1913 9 Milling and baking tests of winter wheat grown on different types of soil in 1914. 10 Comparisons in loaf volume in cubic inches from the baking tests of 1915, 1916, 1917 11 Comparisons in fiour yield from the milling tests of 1915, 1916, 1917 12 Comparisons in the percentage of gluten from the tests of 1913, 1914, 1915, 1916, 1917 13 Yield per acre in bushels of varieties given the milling and bak- ing tests for the years 1914, 1915, 1916, 1917 13 Comparisons of the two pure lines recommended — Pedigree No. 2 and Pedigree No. 408 15 Wisconsin Pedigree No. 2 compared with Wisconsin-grown Marquis 16 Comparison of Wisconsin Pedigree No. i2 with the average Northern Spring wheats tested by the Howard Laboratories 17 Cumulative effect of climate upon quality 17 Milling and baking quality of the yellow berry in hard winter wheat 20 Review of literature 21 Study of possible causes ' 22 Percentages of yellow berry in the crops of different years 22 Inheritance of hard berry in a pure line of winter wheat 23 Protein determination of yellow berries and hard berries 24 Milling and baking tests of yellow berry and hard berries.... 25 Variation between two pure lines from the same stock in milling and baking quality 27 Summary 29 APPENDIX. Description of the wheats on which milling and baking tests were made 30 Milling and baking tests of the 1911 crop 32 Milling and baking tests of the 1912 crop 32 Milling and baking tests of the 1913 crop 33 Milling and baking tests of the 1914 crop 34 Milling and baking tests of the 1915 crop 35 Milling and baking tests of the 1916 crop 36 Milling and baking tests of the 1917 crop 38 The Milling and Baking Qualities of Wisconsin Grown Wheats In the pioneer days of Wisconsin, wheat was the most im- portant CTop grown. The climate was favorable, settlers had emigrated largely from wheat growing regions, the yields were uniformly high and the quality was considered excellent. Wis- consin’s fame as a wheat state spread and in the early Sixties she was one of the leading wheat states of the Union. The varieties were all soft, such being considered the best milling wheats in the days of stone milling. However, with the advent of the roller milling process in the Seventies, the hard spring wheats replaced the soft wheats in desirability for milling purposes. About this time the hard winter wheat was intro- duced from Russia but it was slow in gaining favor. It was not considered the equal of the hard springs in milling quality, and when taken to regions where there was considerable moisture during the growing season it seemed to soften appreciably. How- ever, winter' hardness and high yields were so outstanding in these Turkey Red wheats that they continued to be grown. In Wisconsin three climatic wheat areas overlap — the hard spring, the hard winter and the semi-hard winter. At first glance this would indicate a peculiarly favorable location where- in varieties could be chosen from all of the three groups. How- ever, the opposite is true. As wheat is very sensitive to its en- vironment, only a limited number of varieties which have the power of rather wide adaptation can be expected to produce the best results under such conditions. Semi-hard winter wheats thrive in Wisconsin but the bread- making quality of these wheats is decidedly inferior to the hard winters and the hard springs. The hard winters seem to offer the best field for practical research. While the general tend- ency is for these wheats to become starchy when grown in this state yet some strains are decidedly superior to others in their ability to remain hard. The problem, therefore, is to determine 4 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 43 the most desirable varieties from the standpoint of yield and quality and to discover as far as possible what fluctuations in (piality may be expected of varieties when grown in this state. Important Factors Which Determine Milling and Baking Qualities of Wheat Flour yield and color. From the milling standpoint the important items are flour yield and flour color. The desideratum is a high percentage of flour of white color with a faint creaminess. Yield is the quantitative factor and shows the miller the amount of the most valuable mill product he can expect from the wheat. The color is the qualitative fac- tor which largely determines the grade of the flour. Loaf volume. The volume of the loaf as determined by the baking test is the most important and most easily recognizable factor which determines flour values for bread making. It in- dicates the ability of the flour to expand, to hold up well, and to give a light, well-piled loaf. Texture of loaf. As volume of loaf is the quantitative fac- tor, so texture of loaf is the qualitative factor which is deter- mined by the baking test. It is more difficult to express readily because it entails such items as uniformity, number and evenness of distribution of cavities, and thinness and transparency of the walls between the cavities. Water absorption. The same amount of ingredients, except water, is used in each case in mixing the dough for the baking test. Enough water is added to make the proper consistency. This added water is taken as the measure of the absorption power of the flour. The weight of the loaf as it comes from the oven shows its ability to hold the absorbed water. High water ab- sorption and retention after baking makes a good bread yield to the barrel of flour. Gluten. The amount of gluten is often taken as an indica- tion of the flour strength, but only within rather wide limits can this be used. The quality of gluten, however, is a very im- portant factor, because 'without an elastic, rubbery, more or less tough gliiten, proper expansion will not result. The distinctions Qualities of Wisconsin Grown Wheats . r> between different glutens that can be noted by working them out by hand are difficult to express and written comparisons are rather indefinite. A Review of the Literature on Milling and Baking Tests OF Hard Winter Wheats Milling and baking tests of wheat have lieen made by nearly all stations in states where wheat growing is important. As cli- matic conditions seem to play such an important part in the kind and quality of wheat grown in the different wheat growing regions, each section ha sits own peculiar wheat problems. A brief review of some of the literature is given here to show the results of some tests of Turkey Red wheats when grown out- side of the regions best adapted to them. Zavitz^ mentions the Crimean Red and Kharkov, evidently two types of the Turkey wheats, as making a very favorable showing in a five-year-average yield test. In bread production, only the Crimean Red is mentioned as having superior qualities. Williams and AVelton^ in a test of 41 varieties of wheats in 1909 find the Turkey Red lowest in flour yield and very mediocre in loaf volume. Ladd and Bailey^ report tests made in 1908 of Turkey wheat grown in North Dakota, Minnesota, South Dakota, and Montana, and comparisons are made with the hard red winter wheats grown south of the forty-second parallel. The sample grown in North Dakota gave the lowest percentage of flour, water absorp- tion, loaf volume, and color. The average of the samples grown south of the forty-second meridian was higher than those grown in the above-mentioned states in total flour, volume of loaf, color of loaf and crude protein. The water absorption was about the same. A series of tests made in 1909 shows the '^hard winter wheats grown in the Northwestern states to have been inferior to the average wheat of this class in point of baking quality, although the average yield of straight flour was very good.” However, one sample groA^^l in South Dakota was appreciably higher than the others in volume of loaf, water used, and percentage of pro- 1 Ontario Bui. 228. 2 Ohio Bui. 231. 3 North Dakota Bui. 89. 6 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 43 tein, arid was far above the average of all hard winter wheats. “Environment, including soil and climatic conditions is prin- cipally responsible for the variations in quality.” Thomas,^ in comparing classes of wheats for milling and bak- ing qualities, shows that the hard red vdnter wheats compare very favorably on the whole with the hard red springs. ‘ ' Over 90 per cent of the samples of soft red winter and hard red spring wheat yielded between 65 and 75 per cent of straight flour. The hard red winter samples ranged somewhat higher, as over 90 per cent yielded between 67 and 77 per cent of straight flour. In average flour yield hard red winter wheat is about 2 per cent higher than the other classes.” In color of flour there was a little higher percentage creamy color in the hard red winter varieties than in the hard red springs. The range of color was about the same. In loaf volume the ordinary range of the hard red winter wheats was somewhat lower than that of the hard red springs. To quote : ' ' The ordinary range for hard red winter Avas from 2000 to 2500 cc. and for the hard red spring wheat 2100 to 2700 per 340 grams of flour. The extreme ranges in loaf volume as indicated by maximum and minimum are 1810 to 2755 ec. for the hard red winter and 1875 to 3260 cc. for the hard red spring wheat. The figures show great variation which is the result of growing these wheats under a Avide range of conditions of soil and climate. In a general Avay the data gathered from year to year indicate that unfavorable climatic conditions during the later part of the growing season tend to produce the strong- est wheats.” In texture the comparison betAveen the hard red Avinter and hard red spring Avas closer than in loaf volume. In Avater absorption the hard red AAunter averages slightly loAver than the hard red sj)ring Avheats. The range of Amriation in the tests reported sIioaa^s a Avide difference belAveen samples. A rather small percentage of the hard red Avinters rank very high in all tests, far above the a.A^er- age of the hard rod springs. In flour yield and color a fcAA' of the A^ery highest hard red Avinters rank Avith the foAV highest of the hard red springs. 1 V. S. T)('])t. Agr. Bill. Tm?. Qualities of Wisconsin Grown Wheats 7 A review of the results of the experiments on Turkey Red wheats indicates two things : 1. They are susceptible to climatic changes and do not give best results when grown outside of the dry, warm cli- mates. 2. The wide variation shown between samples in the milling and baking tests suggests a dilference in the inherited qualities which make good bread wheats. Method of Procedure In 1911, when the writer began the study of wheat improve- ment at the Wisconsin station at Madison, several very good yielding strains of winter wheat had been pedigreed. Several spring wheat strains were introduced about this time from Min- nesota and Dakota. To select the most desirable strains, milling and baking tests were made to determine quality iu addition to the usual study of field performance. After a two-year test several eliminations were made. New introductions of several excellent hard winter wheats were made in 1911 from Kansas and from some of the best yielders of Ontario. Later seven of the most popular wheats were introduced from the Purdue station. These were semi-hard varieties and only a limited number of such wheats were given a milling and baking test. The main line of effort in the milling and baking studies was centered on the hard winter wheats to see if some strains could be found which would overcome the objections to hard wheat grown in Wisconsin. Some spring wheats were included in these tests, but it soon became evident that the spring wheat yields were so low that they would not be able to compete equally with winter wheats. However, the Marquis, the best yielder among the springs, was continued throughout the series of tests as a basis for comparison. The semi-hard and soft varieties were also entered primarily for comparison. Owing to the cost of milling and baking many of the poor yielders were discarded without this additional test. As other varieties appear only once or twice in the reports, a considerable portion of the work is discontinuous. Another change in the original plan was made when it be- 8 Wisconsin Rkseakch L>uLiiETi*N 43 came evident that j^ood milling wheat could be raised in Wis- consin. The work was then broadened to include other related studies having a bearing on quality. Four lines of investigation are presented: ]. To determine l)v milling and baking tests the desii’able varieties. 2. To determine how well hard winter wheat will maintain its milling and baking cpialities when grown continu- ously in Wisconsin. 3. To determine if heritable variations in quality between pure lines are great enough to have pi’actical signifi- cance. 4. To detei’inine how deleterious from the milling and bak- ing standpoint, the yellow beri’y is in hard winter wheats. The Howard Wheat and Flour Testing I^aboratory of Min- neapolis made all the milling and baking tests with the exception of one year. Tn 1914, the Bay State Milling Fompany of Wi- nona, Minnesota, kindly offered the Wisconsin Experiment Sta- tion the use of its laboratory. The writer was glad to take advantage of this offer and assist in the tests. This afforded the apportunity of making a detailed comparative study of the products. The Depai’tment of IMilling and Baking of the Kansas Experiment Station made the eomparative milling and baking tests of the Kansas-gi’own and Wisconsin-gi’own wheats in 1913. Milling and Baking Tests to Determine the Desirable Varieties Forty-eight varieties and strains of wheat Avere tested for, milling and baking quality in the seven years that this experi- ment Avas carried on. Hard spring Avheat, semi-hard and soft ATirieties of Avintei- Avheats and a soft spring variety Avere in- cluded in the test. Names of the varieties can be found by referring to Table XVIII. As some pf these were carried on for a very short time before being discarded, it Avas thought in- advisable to load the tables and discussion Avith this discarded material. The complete reports on the milling and baking tests are reproduced in the appendix. The most important data in those tests are summarized in the folloAAung tables. Qualities of Wisconsin Grown Wheats 9 Some Promising Tests Carried Through 1911, 1912, 1913 Hard winter wheats, Pedigrees No. 2, 11, 21, 6 and 22 were close competitors in the initial tests. These were given a three- year test and eliininations made as inferioilty became evident in either yield or milling and baking quality. The comparative results for the three years are given in Table 1. Table I. — A Comparison of the Five Best Pediokeei) Winter Wheats Carried Through the Three-Year Test — 1911, 1912, 1913 Name 1911 1912 1913 Average Rating (Ped. No. 2= 100 per cent) Volume of lour Peii. No. 2 203 196 199.5 100 Peel. No. 11 199 175 187.0 95 Ped. No. 21 198 201 199.5 100 Ped. No. 6 196 195 195.5 98 Ped. No. 22 204 186 195.0 98 Yield ol flour Ped. No. 2 74.-5 74.8 74.65 100 Ped. No. 11 74.8 73,4 74.1 99.2 Ped. No. 21 76.8 74.7 75 . 75 101.4 Ped. No. 6 73.0 74.8 7l9 98.9 Ped. No. 22 75.3 74.9 75.1 100.6 Protein in wlieat Ped. No. 2 12.36 12.08 15.82 13.42 100 Ped. No. 11 11.68 10.45 14.47 12.20 91 Ped. No. 21 10.61 11.17 14.82 12.20 91 Ped. No. 6 11.79 11 04 14.47 12.43 92 Ped. No. 22 10.69 10.98 ; 13.88 11.85 88 Dry gluten ten^t^ Ped. No 2 10.83 12.8 11 81 100 Ped. No. 11 9.79 11.6 10 70 91 Ped. No. 21 10,00 12.0 11.00 93 Ped. No. 6 9.58 11 2 10 39 88 Ped. No. 22 10.21 11 8 11.00 93 Yield per aere Ped. No 2 21.6 38.3 45.0 35.0 Ped. No. 11 34 0 28 3 42.6 35.0 Ped. No. 21 27.3 34.3 47.3 36.3 Ped. No. 6 23.3 30.3 43.0 32 2 Ped. No 22 26.6 29.0 46.3 34!i Pedigree No. 2 and No. 21 give the largest loaf volume. In yield per acre Pedigree No. 21 is slightly highest but the dif- ference between it and Pedigree No. 2 and Pedigree No. 11 is within the limits of error. In flour yield Pedigree No. 21 is slightly ahead. In per cent gluten and protein in wheat. Pedi- gree No. 2 was appreciably higher. Pedigree No. 2 and No. 21 having the highest averages for both quality and yield are se- lected from this lot for further test, and the other varieties dis- earded. 10 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 43 Milling and Baking Tests of Wfieat Grown on Different Types of AVisconsin Soils An opportunity was afforded in 1914 to test some of the sta- tion-grown wheats on a light sandy soil in Waupaca county and upon the Kewaunee clay loam of Fond du Lac county. Pedi- gree No. 2 and No. 37 winter wheats were grown on the Miami silt loam of the station farm and also upon the Kewaunee clay loam in Fond du Lac county. Table II gives the results of the test. Table II. —Milling and Baking Tests of Wheat Grown on Differ- ent Types of Wisconsin Soils in 1914 Flour Loaf Name Soil Per cent yield Color Per cent absorption xi in < Vol. cu. in. Water used ounces Quality Gluten per cent Ped. No. 2 Miami silt loam 65.2 9 9 61.5 .50 148 6.85 Little creamy. . . Rich crust Very good qual- ity 10.57 Ped. No. 2 Kewaunee clay loam 63.6 99 62.5 .42 150 7.03 Little creamy.. Rich crust Very good qual- ity 11.51 No. 37 Miami silt loam 64.5 97 61.0 .36 139 6.85 Soft dough Very pale crust Fair quality 9,69 No. 37 Kewaunee clay loam 62.5 96 58.0 .44 137 6.49 Soft dough Pale crust Poor quality 8.55 Ped. No. 21 Sandy soil 61.1 99 62.0 .32 150 6.97 Little creamy... Rich crust Excellent qual- ity 10.57 Ped. No. 21 Kewaunee clay loam 62.7 98 62.0 .34 145 6.97 Very creamy Rich crust Good quality 9.88 In volume of loaf, quality of loaf, water absorption, and color of flour no consistent differences appear. The Pedigree No. 2 gives a slightly better test when grown on the Kewaunee clay loam while the No. 37 makes a slightl}^ better showing when gro\\m on the station farm. Pedigree No. 21 was grown on the Kewaunee clay loam and Qualities of Wisconsin Grown Wheats n upon the sandy soil of Waupaca county. The test shows no striking differences. The clay gives a slightly higher flour yield and percentage of ash. The crop grown on sand gave better color of flour, more gluten, and an appreciably larger loaf of better quality. From this test we can conclude that wide variation in 'quality need not be ex^iected in wheat, whether grown on heavy clay or light sand. This is the only indication of what quality may be expected from wlieat grown in eastern or central Wisconsin, as the other tests herein reported for the different years were made on wheats grown at the Station farm. IjOaf Volume Table HI shows a comparison in loaf volume of the wheats given a two- or a three-year test in 1915, 1916, and 1917. In 1915 Pedigree No. 2 gave the largest loaf in all the tests made. It will be noted that it leads the J\Iar(iuis (No. 50) on a three- year avei*age. No. 70, a 9hirkey wheat, exc'eeds it on a two-year average. Table III — Comparisons in Loaf Volume in Cubic Inches From THE Baking Tests op 1915, 191C, 1917. Name 1915 1916 1917 Av. No. of years Rating Ped. No. 2 = 100 per cent. 7 • ■ ■ Ped. No. 2 Turkey Ued 209 183 191 194 3 100 No. 50 Martinis 196 193 187 192 3 99 Ped. No. 408 196 181 182 186 3 96 No. 39 Turkey Red 203 154 185 181 3 93 78 No. 37 Egyptian Amber 160 138 159 152 3 No. 55 Farmer’s Friend 148 128 160 145 3 75 No. 59 Nixon 136 138 150 141 3 73 No. 70 Beloglina Selection 192 205 198 2 106 No. 71 “ “ 137 157 147 2 79 Ped. No. 39 Dawson’s Golden Chart' 113 130 121 2 65 Ped. No. 37 “ " " 110 125 117 2 63 The average of the hard winters (Pedigrees No. 2 and No. 408, No. 39, No. 70, No. 71) is 181 cu. in., of the semi-hards (No. 37, No. 55, No. 59) is 146 cu. in., of the soft winters (Pedigrees No. 37 and No. 39) is 119 cu. in. The per cent rating in these tables is determined from the same year’s tests. To illustrate: The comparison of Pedigree No. 2 and No. 37 is made from the average of the three years 12 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 43 1915-1917 which is 194 cu. in. and 152 cu. in. respectively. In comparing Pedigree No. 2 with No. 70 the averages of 1916- 1917 are taken, 187 cu. in. and 198 cu. in., respectively. Flour Yield In Table IV Pedigree No. 2 rates lower than several others in a three-year average, yet in 1917 it showed a higher per- centage than any other hard winter wheat. Pedigree No. 408 is one of the, highest in the three-year average, and is very con- sistent, varying only .2 per cent in flour yield in these years. Table IV. — Comparisons tn Flour Yield From the Miixtng Tests op 1915, 1916 1917 Name i 1915 1 1916 1917 Av. No. of years Rating Fed. No. 2= 100 per cent. Fed. No. 408 73.8 73.8 73.6 73.7 3 101 No. 37 Egyptian Amber 76.8 70.5 73.9 73.7 3 101 No. 39 Turkey Red 72.6 75.0 73.2 73.6 3 101 Fed. No. 2 Turkey Red 70.3 73.8 74.5 72.9 3 100 No. 55 Farmer’s Friend 73.9 71.5 72.0 72.5 3 99 No. 50 Marquis 72.5 72.0 72.4 72.3 3 99 No. 59 Nixon 73.2 71.2 71.8 72.1 3 99 No. 70 Beloglina Selection 76.5 74.3 74.2 75.0 75.3 74.6 2 102 Fed. No. 39 Dawson’s Golden Chaff. ..... 2 101 Fed. No. 37 Dawson’s Golden Chaff 72.8 75.2 74.0 2 100 1 No. 71 Belogllna Selection 74.3 73.1 73.7 2 99 The two soft winters average slightly higher in flour yield — | 74.2 per cent; the hard winters rank next — 73.8 per cent; and I the semi-hard winters lowest — 72.8 per cent. As variations i show between these groups in the three-year test it is not safe I to conclude that this difference will hold true between the soft, hard, and semi-hard winter groups grown in this section. Gluten Tests As has already been stated the quantity of gluten is not a safe guide in determining baking (piality in wheats. Pedigree No. 37 in a two-year average shows slightly more gluten than does Pedigree No. 2 l)ut is very much inferior in size and quality of loaf. Qualities of Wisconsin Grown Wheats 13 Table V Comparisons in the Percentage op Gluten from the Tests op 1913 , 1914 , 1915 , 1916 , 1917 Name 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 Aver- age Num- ber of years Ped. No. 2 Turkey Red 12.8 10.57 10.45 10.13 11.2 11.0 5 No .89 Turkey Red 12.4 11.20 10. 10.31 12.4 11.2 5 No. 37 Egyptian Amber 10, 9.69 10.38 8.06 11.6 9.9 5 No, 50 Marquis 13.6 12.46 13.7 12.25 12. 12.8 5 Ped. No. 408 Bacska 11.13 10.36 10.56 13.8 11.5 4 No. 55 Farmer’s Friend 9.78 8.19 11.8 9.9 3 No. 59 Nixon 10.17 8.44 11.2 9.9 3 No. 70 Beloglina Selection 10.00 13.2 11.6 2 No. 71 Beioglina Selection 9.94 11.8 10.9 2 Ped. No. 37 Dawson’s Golden Chaff 11.25 11.2 11.2 2 Ped. No. 39 Dawson’s Golden Chaff 9.06 10. 9.5 2 When quantity and quality of gluten are both determined we have a much better index of loaf volume, but even then it is not possible to predict with certainty the volume of a loaf of all samples. No. 71 in the 1917 test is an example. It has about " an average amount of gluten, and the gluten is of good elastic quality. A loaf of from at least 180 to 185 cubic inches could be expected from it instead of 157 cubic inches, which resulted in the baking tests. The hard winters give an average test of 11.2 per cent gluten of very good quality. The semi-hard winters give an average of 9.9 per cent gluten rather soft elastic in quality. The soft winters show an average test of 10.3 per cent gluten soft elas- tic to somewhat sticky in quality. Table VI — Yield Per Acre in Bushels Name 1914 1915 1916 1917 Av. No. of years Rating Ped. No. 1 = 100 per cent No. 39 Turkey Red 43.2 48.4 27.4 49.0 42.0 4 105 No. 37 Egyptian Amber 50.0 39.0 25.5 51.3 41.4 4 103 Ped. No. 408 Bacska 35.3 40.4 29.4 *35.0 35.0 4 101 Ped. No. 2 Turkey Red 40.7 37.6 30.5 51.3 40.0 4 100 No. 50 Marquis 15.2 43.0 18.4 12.9 22.4 4 56 No. 59 Nixon 54.6 30.4 51 7 45.6 ,8 115 No. 55 Farmer’s Friend 56.6 27 8 48.3 44 2 3 111 Ped. No. 37 Dawson’s Golden Chatt. 36.3 53.2 44.7 2 108 Ped. No. 39 Dawson’s Golden Chaff. 31.0 49.5 40,2 2 98 No. 71 Beloglina Selection 30.5 43 0 36.7 2 89 No. 70 Beloglina Selection 26.0 37.7 31.8 2 77 * 1917 yield of Pedigree No. 408 is taken from the records of the Ashland Branch station. _ As PWigree No. 2 yielded only 29.6 bushels per acre there, this yield instead of the yield of the Madison station is the one used to compare these two varieties in per cent rating. 14 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 43 Comparative Yields Per Acre The sample in Table VI giving the highest average for the four years is No. 39 (Kansas 570). It ranks 105 per cent of Pedigree No. 2, which is two bushels per acre more in four years. Pedigree No. 2 gave the highest yield two of the four years. Note the consistently high yields of Pedigree No. 2 and Pedi- gree No. 408. As before stated selections were made for both yield and milling and baking quality. No milling and baking tests were made on wheats that did not give fairly good yields. No. 37, which surpasses Pedigree No. 2 in average yield, is somewhat erratic. It gives a very low yield in 1916 and prac- tically doubles this yield in 1914 and 1917. The 1915 yields of No. 55 and No. 59 were obtained on smaller plots than the others and are somewhat abnormal. If these yields were omitted Pedi- gree No. 2 would equal the higher yielder of the two. Pedigree No. 2 and Pfj)igree No. 408 Pedigree No. 2, developed at the Madison station and Pedi- gree No. 408 developed at the Ashland branch station have been selected as the best wheats as far as tests have been carried on. Table VII gives the comparison of these two wheats for four consecutive years. The loaf volume in each case is high, Pedi- gree No. 2 averaging somewhat higher. The Pedigree 408 has the advantage in flour yield, water absorption, and per cent of gluten. Comparing these wlieats each year we find that one has ex- ceeded the otlier at some time in each one of the items mentioned. Hence a normal fluctuation might place one ahead of the other any season, and the milling and baking qualities can therefore be considered equal. In yields per acre they are lioth high, the average for the four years being practically the same. Qualities of Wisconsin Grown Wheats 15 Table VII. — The Pekpormance op the Two Pure Line Winter Wheats Recommended to Millers and Farmers for Their Superior Quali- ties— Pedigree No. 2 AND Pedigree No. 408 Yield of flour per cent Volume of loaf, cu. in. Absorp- tion per cent Gluten per cent Yield per acre 1914 Ped. No. 2 65.3 148 61.5 10.57 40.7 Fed. No. 408 66.4 150 62. 11.13 35.3 1915 Ped. No. 2 70.3 209 58.3 10.45 37.6 Ped. No. 408 73.8 196 56.2 10.36 40.4 1916 Ped. No. 2 73.8 183 58.8 10.13 30.5 Ped. No. 408 73.8 181 60.9 10.56 29.4 1917 Ped. No. 2 74.5 191 58.8 11.2 *29.6 *‘‘Ped. No. 408 73.6 182 58.8 13.8 35.0 Average Ped. No. 2 70.95 182.8 59.3 10.6 34.6 Ped. No. 408 71.9 177.25 59.5 11.46 35. * Yield at Ashland Branch Station. Sample from Ashland Branch Station. Pedigree No. 2 is a selection from the Turkey Red stock. It has the usual Turkey Red characters — bearded, rather short, nearly square spike, tapering somewhat at the tip. The berries are medium to large and hard, with a percentage of yellow ber- ries which varies with the season. Pedigree No. 408 is Bacska, ,0. I. 1562, obtained from Buda- pest, Hungary. In appearance it is very much like Turkey Red. The kernel in this particular pedigree averages slightly larger in size. Wisconsin Pedigree No. 2 Compared With Hard Spring Wheat It may be contended that all the merits of the best spring wheats cannot be set forth in a milling test made on a small experimental mill and by the ordinary baking test, but these tests furnish sufficient evidence to pass judgments on wheats for all practical purposes. From experiments quoted earlier in this work^ it was shown that the best spring wheats gave a test superior to the best win- 1 Thomas, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 557. k; Wisconsin Research Bulletin 43 ters, but the best winters tested higher than the average of the hard springs. In Table VIII Pedigree No. 2 gives an average for the six years superior to Marquis in every respect. Particularly in yield the Marquis is a very poor competitor, only 64 per cent of that of Pedigree No. 2. Table VT II— Comparison of Pedigree No. 2, Turkey Red Winter, Wheat, with VVTsconstn-Grown Marquis Spring Wheat Yield of Volume Absorp- Weight Yield flour of loaf tion of loaf pel acre per cent cu. in. per cent ounces bushels 1911 Reu. x\o. 2 74.5 203 52.6 17.06 21.6 Maniuis 75.3 173 50.5 16.75 20.6 ' 1912 Fed. No. 2 74.8 196 55.3 17.25 *45.0 Maniuis 73.9 201 . 52.3 17.31 *35.0 1914 Fed. No. 2 65.2 148 61 5 40.7 Marquis 61.7 142 62.5 15.2 1915 Fed. No. 2 70.3 209 58'4 17.63 37.6 Marquis 72.5 196 58.4 17.75 43.0 1916 Fed. No. 2 73.8 183 58.8 17.81 30.5 Maniuis 72.0 193 59.9 17.88 18.4 1917 Fed. No. 2 74.5 191 58.8 17.69 51.3 Maniuis 72.4 187 58.1 17.56 12.9 Average Fed. No. 2 72.2 188.3 57.6 17.49 37.7 Maniuis 71.3 182.0 .57.5 17 45 24.2 *1913 yields. However, we find that Pedigree No. 2 does not always lead the iVlariiuis. In flour yield Maninis exceeds ITnligree No. 2 two years out of six; in volume of loaf two years; in absoi'iition two years (equalling it two years) ; in weight of loaf three years. Fi’om these facts Wisconsin Pedigi'ce No. 2 and Wisconsin-grown IMarquis can lx* ])laced on a par in milling and baking quality. Table IN shows a five-year comparison between Pedigree No. 2 grown at the Madison station and the average northern spring wheats tested by the Howard laboratories. The five-year aver- age is slightly in favoi’ of the average northern springs but Pedi- gree No. 2 is a very (4ose conqictitor. Qttaijttes oi’ Wisconsin (tRown Wheats 17 Table IX.— Wisconsin Pedigree No. 2 and Average Northern Spring Wheats Tested by the Howard Laboratories Com. PARED A Yield of flour per cent Volume of loaf cu. in. Absorption per cent Weight of loaf oz. 1911 Ped No. 2 74.5 203 52.6 17.06 Av. northern sprliiK' , 70.0 205 ,57.3 ; 17.38 1912 1 Peel No. 2 74.8 196 i ,55.3 ' 17.25 Av. northern s rintr 72.0 203 55.3 17.25 1915 Ped No. 2 70.3 209 ,58.4 17.63 Av. northern soritijr ! 71.0 204 57.3 17.44 1916 Ped . No . 2 1 73.8 183 58.8 17.81 /\ V nnrtliprn sprinu" 72.8 197 56.8 17.44 1917 Ped. No. 2 Av. northern spring- ! 74.5 71.0 191 204 58.8 .56.8 1 17.69 17.44 Average Ped. No. 2 Av. northern spring 73.« 1 71.4 196.4 202.6 ,56.8 .56.7 17.49 17.19 Referring to Table IX we find that in a five-year test Pedi- gree No. 2 exceeds the average northern spring wheat four out of the five years in yield of flour, one year in volume of loaf, and three years in percentage of water absorption and weight of loaf, and e(iuals it in these last two characters one year in the five years tested. In the foregoing tables we find that Wisconsin Pedigree No. 2 compares very ^favorably with Wisconsin-grown Marquis and the average northern spring wheat in milling and baking tests, and Pedigree No. 2 and Pedigree No. 408 are much higher yielders than the best spring wheats grown at the Madison station as shown in Table IX. Therefore, at the present writing, at least, these two hard winter wheats are to be recommended above the spring wheats for southern and central Wisconsin conditions. Cumulative Effect of Climate Upon Quality Wisconsin climate has long been considered unfavorable for the growing of good hard wheat. Millers have felt obliged to introduce new stocks from the hard wheat district every two or three years to keep up the quality. 18 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 43 Wheat was believed to deteriorate; i. e. to soften and lose its baking strength due to the humid climate. From conversation with millers upon this subject the writer learned that these opin- ions were based wholly upon observation. If these observations are correct, it puts Wisconsin in the group of semi-hard winter wheat states. This matter seemed of enough import to merit special investigation. Several strains of Turkey wheats were introduced from Kan- sas in 1911. One of the best of these, Kansas No. 570 (Wis- consin No. 39), was sent to the Department of Milling Industry at the Kansas Experiment Station in 1913 and a milling and baking test was made on it and compared with the original stock grown in Kansas the same year. The results of this test are shown in Table X. Table X. — Milling Test of Turkey Red Wheat Grown in Wiscon- sin FOR Three Years Compared With the Same Strain Grown in Kansas. V ariety Kansas Turkey 570, Wisconsin No. 39 Grown at Manhattan. Kansas, 1913 Grown at Madison, ’ Wisconsin, 1913 t Test weig'nt 59 lbs. 66.88 percent. 32.99 per cent. 58.75 lbs. 63 8 per cent. , 34.4 per cent. Straiariit flour Feed Absorption Bakin 65.00 per cent. 236. min. 2150. c. c. 4.3 c. c. 5.34 gms. 1880. c. c. 91. percent. 94. per cent. flf Test 57.33 per cent. . 215. min. ! 2000. c. c i 5.2 cc. i 5.07 gms. i 1960. c. c. 1 95. percent. 96. per cent. | Tim*^ ffirMiiKM 1 1 H.I ion Maxirpom volnmftof fioiif'h Oven rise Weight of loaf Volume of loaf Color of crumb Texture of orumb I Reference to Table X sliows that the Wisconsin-grown sample yielded a little less flour and was a little lower in water absorp- tion but gave a larger loaf with a little better color and texture of CTumb. The comment on the report sheet is: ‘‘This flour gave a very satisfactory loaf and compared favorably with our Kansas Turke}" wheats. ” Qualities of Wisconsin Grown Wheats 19 Comparison Winter Wheat Grown in Kansas and Wisconsin In 1917, two samples of Kansas Turkey No. 570 from the 1916 and 1917 crop were received from the Kansas station and sent to the Howard laboratories to be tested. Comparisons are made with the same wheat introduced from Kansas in 1911 and grown continuously at Madison since. The results are given in Table XI. Table XL — Comparative Milling and Baking Tests op Turkey No 570 (Wisconsin No. 39 ), Wisconsin and Kansas Grown 1916 1917 2-year average Kansas- grown Wisconsin- grown Kansas- grown Wisconsin- grown Kansas- grown Wisconsin- grown Flour yield, prct. 76.0 75.0 71.6 73.2 73.8 74.1 Color M 1.5 M 1.5 G 2 1.5 Quality Cr. wh. Cr. wh. L. Cr. wh. Cr. wh. dull grayish dull dull Loaf volume cu.in 191 154 180 185 185.5 169.5 Wt, of loaf, ounces 17.81 17.81 17.75 17.75 Oz. water used . . . 7.19 7.06 7.13 7.13 7.16 7.1 Color of crust .... Light Light Light Pale brown brown brown Shape Normal Normal Normal Slightly cracked on top Texture Normal Normal Normal Normal Odor Normal Normal Normal Normal Per cent gluten . , 11.6 10.31 17.3 12.4 14.5 11.35 Quality of gluten. Tough Elastic Rather Elastic elastic soft elastic As the 1916 Kansas-grown sample was tested in 1917 this test is not entirely comparable with the 1916 Wisconsin-grown crop which was tested in 1916. The water absorption and volume of loaf is greater due to the year of storage. In flour yield the Wisconsin sample excels one year and the Kansas sample the other. The same thing is true of loaf volume. The gluten is considerably higher in tlie Kansas-grown samifle. The other items in the test show no difference of any consequence. In these tests (Tables X and XI) we have proof that a variety of hard wheat does not deteriorate in quality when grown in Wis- consin. This wheat has made a good record in Kansas and refer- ence to the tables in the ajipendix will show that it also has made a good record in Wisconsin. After it had been grown continu- ously for three years in Wisconsin the milling and baking tests 20 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 43 indicate a very favorable comparison with the Kansas-grown sample of the same year. The tests of 1916 and 1917, after this wheat had been grown continuously in this state for six and seven years respectively, show no appreciable differences between the Wisconsin-grown and Kansas-grown samples. It cannot be claimed that every strain of hard winter wheat will retain its character entirely when grown in Wisconsin and until more data is collected we cannot generalize too much on FIGURE 1.— LOAVES FROM KANSAS NO. .570— KANSAS AND WISCONSIN GROWN. No. 1, Kan.«as-grown 1916; No. 2, Kansas-grown 1917; No. .3, Wisconsin-grown 1917. This type of Turkey wheat gave a very favorable test when compared with same stock grown in Kansas. the foregoing tables. Different strains might inherit varying tendencies to soften in humid climates. However, from the fore- going data we can refute the statement that Wisconsin climate will cause every hard wheat to deteriorate in quality. The Milling and Baking Quality of the Yellow Berry in Hard Winter Wheat Hard winter wheats when grown in regions having a consider- able amount of moisture show, a noticeable percentage of soft kernels. These soft berries are plump and light yellow in ap- pearance, and the name yellow berry has therefore been applied to them. While they are softer than the hard berries, as a rule they are not as soft as the so-called soft Avheats. Cultural practices or handling of the crop, climatic conditions, Qualities of Wisconsin Grown Wheats 21 fertilizers and inheritance have been the main lines of investi- gation of the possible causes of the yellow berry. A brief review of these investigations is given. Lyon and Keyser^ state that “\he amount of yellow berry in- creases as the ripeness of the grain increases and also with the length of time the cut grain is ex{)osed to the weather.” And further, that the yellow beury is invei’sely ])roportional to the protein content, ‘'and that consequently the soil and climatic conditions previous to harvesting also affect the (juality of the grain in respect to the number of yellow berries.” LeClerc and Leavitt^ present evidence to show that the yellow berry is the result of climatic intluences. To quote : “Seed grown in Kansas or South Dakota shows either no starchy grains or not more than 12 per cent at most; yet when they are trans- ported to California and grown there the following year, the percentage of starchy grains increases to 50 and 88 per cent respectively.” And further: “The California Crimean wheat of 1906 with 64 per cent of starchy grain gave a crop in Kansas with absolutely no appearance of starchy grains. It was, in fact, identical with the seeds grown continuously in Kansas. These figures again show what a tremendous factor climate is. The results further show that the white spots on grains are not necessarily hereditary nor, in fact, are any of the characteritics mentioned. They appear rather to be infiuenced almost alto- gether by climatic conditions prevailing during the growing pe- riod or even previous to the planting of the crop.” LeClerc and Yoder^ state that “cropping thru a number of generations under widely different environments does not alter permanently or make a noticeable impression upon the transmissible, physical and chemical properties of wheat.” Headden'^ states that ‘ ‘ yellow berry can be very much lessened or entirely prevented by the application of a sufficient quantity of available nitrogen.” And further he states: “Yellow berry indicates that potassium is present in excess of what is necessary to form a ratio to the available nitrogen present advantageous to the formation of a hard flinty kernel.” Inheritance has also been studied as a possible cause, Rob- 1 Nebraska Bui. No. 89. 2 U. S. Dept. Agri. Bur. of Cbeni. Bui. 128. ” Jour. Agr. Res. Vol. I, No. 4. “ Oolorado Bui. 205. 22 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 43 erts and Freemaid state that they believe that the yellow berry is heritable. However, Dr. Roberts has since stated to the writer that he was unable to verify the theory upon further investiga- ' tions. The yellow berry is very prevalent in Wisconsin and millers have considered the hard wheat grown in this state to be of very inferior quality due to this. It becomes a very practical prob- lem to determine just how deleterious the yellow berry is in this state and to find, if possible, if there are any controllable fac- tors influencing yellow berry production. Study of Possible Causes The following studies were undertaken with the purpose of determining whether the ordinary fluctuations in climatic condi- ' tions or different cultural practices influence yellow berry pro- duction. They are incidental to the problem and are sugges- , tive rather than definite. ^ ^ Seasonal influence. Evidently the season is the greatest fac- ^ tor. Note the variation in percentage of yellow berry in Pedi- gree No. 2 for the different years as shown in Table Nil. In j 1914, there was 10 per emit of yellow berry in the crop. It was twice as high in 1917, three times as high in 1915, and fouiy times as high in 1916. As this is a pure line and grown under> field conditions as unvarying as possible from year to year, the variable factor evidently is the climate. { I Table XU.— Percentage of Yellow Berries in the Crop op Dip- j PERENT Years 1 Note also that the non-pedigreed strains in 1914 show a very much smaller percentage of yellow berry in the crop than ni 1 Kansas Bill. 156. Qualities of Wisconsin Grown Wheats 23 the crop of 1915. Note also the low percentage of yellow berry in the 1917 crop of No. 39. Inheritance. Yellow berries, flinty berries and non-selected kernels have been planted under as similar conditions as possible in different years. In no case did the pure yellow parent give a pure yellow progeny. No noticeable difference in percentage of yellow berry was evident in the different lots grown from the same parentage. Table XIII. — Inheritance of Hard Berry in a Pure Line op Winter Wheat Plant No. 1913 1914 1815 1916 1917 None None. None. 1 Per cent 6 8 5 3 5 Per cent 35 29 40 54 48 Per cent 31 43 Per cent 1 (No. 70) 10 (No. 71) 9 10 11 None 12 None In 1912 selections of hard berries were made from the Belo- glina stock (No. 15), to see if a superior strain of hard berries would result. Each kernel was planted separately and in 1913 only those plants were saved which had no yellow berries. The flve selections thus made were planted in separate rows in the fall of 1913. The percentages of yellow berry found in the 1914, 1915, 1916 and 1917 crops are given in Table XIII. Plants 10, 11, and 12 were discarded in 1915. The selection from this lot. No. 70 and No. 71, are pure lines from plants 1 and 9 respectively. No. 71 averages considerably higher in per- centage of yellow berr}^ but in 1915, No. 70 exceeded it some- what. The two lines are the ones referred to later in the work (Table XVII) showing a difference in milling and baking qual- ity between two pure lines of hard winter wheat. In 1912 counts were made on four pedigrees of Turkey Red winter wheats. Note the variation between the four pure lines from the same type of hard wheats, as shown in the following tabulation. Pedigree No. 2 25 per cent Pedigree No. 22 35.8 per cent Pedigree No. 25 45.8 per cent Pedigree No. 10 52.5 per cent 24 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 43 To summarize: Yellow berry will not reproduce all yellow berry. Hard beri’ies in the same pure line will reproduce as many yellow berries in the progeny as the yellow parents will. The yellow berry character, therefore, in itself is not heritable. We have evidence, however, to show that some pure lines of hard winter wheat will reproduce a higher percentage of yellow berries than others. Note the counts of the pedigrees of the Turkey type in 1912. Pedigree No. 2 gives less than half the ])ercentage of yellow ben*ies that Pedigree No. 10 gives. The conclusion reached concerning inheritance of the yellow berry is that we need not look for a difference in reproduction of yellow berries between the yellow and hard parent in the same pure line, but that there is a very considerable difference between ])ure lines in their tendencies to reproduce hard berries. Time of harvest. In 1913, 1914 and 1915 the influence of several different dates of harvest was studied on different varie- ties of wheat. In 1913 no yellow berries were found. In 1914 ‘ the earlier cutting dates gave a slightly higher percentage of ; yellow berry and in 1915 the later cutting dates gave the higher percentage of yellow lierry. From these conflicting results it must be concluded that time of harvest is not the contributing r factor. 2 Rate of seeding. In 1915 counts were made on the crops ■ from different i*ates of seeding in a winter and a spring wheat. ’ The results ai‘e conflicting and must be considered negative. | I Table XIV. — Protein Determination op Yellow Berries vs. Hard | Berries j 1911 Crop Per cent protein in wheat 1916 Crop Per cent protein in flour Durum wheat, spring- Hard 14.42 1 Belofflina, Wis. No. 70 Hard ■/ 10. Yellow 12.02 Yellow 8 7 Original 9.94 Beloglina. hard wintei- H ard \11.24 Yellow ' 7.69 Qualities of Wisconsin (irown Wheats Protein Content of Vellow P>erries It is evident from Table XI\" that the yelloAV berry is lower in protein than the hard herry and the same statement is true of the flour made from it. Table XU. — Milling and Baking Tests of Yellow and Hard Berries in the 1916 Crop Wis. No. 70 Hard Wis. No. 70 Yellow Wis. No. 70 le Original samp Flour yield 72.4 74.2 76.5 Pnlnr Good 1 o Good 1 . 5 1.5 Color duality Cr. wh. L. dull Cr. wh. L. dull Cr. wh. dull Color of crust Light brown 180 Very light brown 181 Light brown 192 Vol of loaf (cu. in.) Shape of loaf Normal Normal Normal Tpvtnrp. of loaf Normal Normal Normal Wpig^ht of loaf loz ) 18.13 17.81 18 06 7.38 Water used (oz.) 7.50 7.13 Gluten (per cent) 10. 8.7 10. Glntpn duality Elastic, smooth. Inelastic, lumpy poor Yellow, elastic, smooth, good good ^llLLING AND PaKINO TeSTS OF VeLLOW AND HaRD BeRRIES Table XV shows the results of the test made in 1916. Hand separations of yellow lierries and hard berries were made from No. 70, a pure line of hard winter wheat, and with the original .samjile the grains were sent to the Howard AVheat and Flour Testing Laboratory of Hinnea]>o]is for milling and liaking tests. In loaf volume it will lie noted that the original sample is con- siderably larger than the others. The hard and yellow berries show no difference of any practical importance. The yellow berry ranks with the hard winter wheats in this year’s test. Color of flour is rated the same for hard and yellow lierries. The hard berries gave the highest water alisorption and weight of loaf, the original sample ranked next, and the ^^ellow berries the lowest. In the gluten determination the yellow berries gave a lower percentage and poorer quality. 2G Wisconsin Research Bulletin 43 Ta.ble XV[. — Milling and Baking Tests op Yellow and Hard Berries in the 1917 Crop No. 45 Hard No. 45 Yellow No. 45 Original sample Flour yield 74.6 73.8 72.0 . Color 1.5 1.5 1.5 Color Quality Cr. wh. dull Wh. cr. dull AVh. cr. dull Color of crust Light brown Light brown Light brown. Vol. of loaf cu. in 174 160 166 Shape of loaf Normal Normal Cracked across end Texture oflloaf Normal Normal Normal AVeight of loaf, ounces 18.13 18.13 18.06 Water used, ounces 7.56 7.50 7.44 Gluten, per cent 11.3 9.2 10.1 Gluten. Quality Elastic Sticky elastic Elastic The 1917 test shown in Table XVI was carried on in the same manner. The yellow berry class in 1916 included berries with yellow cheeks, while in 1917 only berries entirely yellow were put into this class. No. 70 had such a small percentage of yel- low berries this year that it was impossible to get enough for a five-pound sample for milling test. Hence, No. 45, another pure line of hard winter wheat, was taken. This sample contained 60 per cent of yellow berry. In volume of loaf the difference between the yellow, hard, and original samples is not very great but it is very consistent. The loaf from the yellow berry is six cubic inches smaller than that of the original sample and this is eight cubic inches smaller, than the loaf from the hard lieri-y. The original sample is almost ex- actly the average between the hard and the yellow. This we can ex])ect when we note that the count of the original sample shows 60 per cent yellow berries. In com])aring the loaf volume of the yellow berries Avith that of the soft wheats. Pedigrees No. 37 and No. 39, we find the avei*age of the latter only 79 per cent of the volume of the loaf from the yellow berry. In water absorption and weight of loaf the yelloAv berry sam- ple exceeds the original quite a])])i*eciably. While it is lower in water absor])tion than the hard berry sample, yet it is a very strong floui* for it absorbed more Avater than any of the other hard Avheats exce])t Kharkov 208 in the 1917 test. In amount of gluten the hard berries give the highest test and Qualities of Wisconsin Grown "Wheats the yellow berries the lowest. The quality of the gluten is also noticeably poorer in the latter. A review of these two-year milling and baking tests of the yellow berry shows that it is not nearly so deleterious a factor as is generally supposed. While it averages slightly lower in loaf volume than a good sample of hard winter wheat, yet it is far superior to the soft winters. It seems to retain some of the inherited factors for good baking quality, despite the fact that it is lower in protein. figure 2.— loaves from yellow, hard and unsorted wheat of the SAME PEDIGREE. No. 1, Yellow berry; No. 2, Hard berry; No. 3,' Unsorted. While the yellow berries of a hard wheat variety do not give as good a milling and baking test as the hard berries from the sam? sample, yet they are much superior to the soft winter wheats. A sharp discrimination on the market is made against a sam- ple containing a high percentage of yellow berries. For milling purposes this is justifiable, owing to the variation in texture be- tween the yellow and hard berries, but from the baking stand- point a wide variation does not seem to exist. Variation Between Two Pure Lines From Beloglina Stock Shown in Milling and Baking Tests A very interesting variation in baking quality between two pure lines of the same stock came to the attention of the writer in compiling the material for this publication. In 1912, several large hard berries were selected from the 28 Wisconsin Reseakch Bulletin 43 Belogliiia stock (No. 15) to see if a strain could be developed which would continue to reproduce the hard character. Two apparently superior lines were kept, No. 70 and No. 71. There is no difference in appearance between them except that No. 71 has a tendency to have a somewhat higher percentage of yellow berry. In 1916, they were tested with the others for FIGURE 3.— LOAVES FROM TWO DIFFERENT PURE LINES OF TURKEY RED WHEAT. No. 1. Wisconsin No. 70; No. 2. Wisconsin No. 71. Tlie loaf from No. 71 is smaller and much poorer in texture. milling and baking quality. The variation between these two was very striking. No! 70 gave the largest loaf volume of all the hard winter wheats and No. 71 the lowest. The test was repeated in 1917 and the results are given in Table XVII. Table XVII Variation Between Two Pure Line Selections From Beloglina Stock Shown in Milling and Baking Tests 1916 1917 No. 70 No. 71 No. 70 No. 71 Flour yield per cent 76.5 74.3 74.2 73.1 Color 1.5 1.5 G 1.5 M 1.5 Quality Cr. wh. Cr. wh. Cr. wh. Cr. wh. Loaf volume dull L. dull -L. dull dull cu. in Wt. of loaf 192 137 205 157 ounces Water used 18.06 18.06 18.38 17.69 ounces 7.38 7 . 25 6.81 6.94 Color of crust Light Light Light Light brown brown brown brown Shape Normal Cracked on top Normal Normal Texture Normal Coarse Normal Normal Gluten, per cent,. 10. 9.94 13 2 11.8 Quality of gluten. Elastic Soft, Very good poor elastic Elastic Two year average No. 70 No. 71 75.3 73.7 198.5 18.22 7.2 147. 17.87 7.2 11.0 10.87 Qualities of Wisconsin Grown Wheats 29 In 1916 No. 71 was 55 cubic inches smaller in loaf volume than No. 70 and in 1917, 48 cubic inches smaller. In 1916 No. 71 gave only 71 per cent as large a loaf as No. 70 and in 1917, 76 per cent. In flour yield and amount of gluten No. 71 gives the lowest test. The quality of the gluten is noticeably inferior. In water absorption No. 71 exceeds No. 70 in 1917, yet the aver- age for the two years is the same. Turning to the yield per aci*e shown in Table VI we find No. 70 is consistently lower in yield for 1916 and 1917 than No. 71, averaging nine bushels an acre less these two years. Unfortu- nately, this wheat, which gives the largest loaf volume, is lowest in yields of all the winter wheats shown in Table VI. The yield is so low and the straw so weak that it cannot be recommended for practical purposes. While a two-year test is too short for measuring differences, yet the close parallel of each year’s performance cannot be attrib- uted to accident. Heredity evidently is a very material contrib- utor to differences both in (piality and in yield. This evidence bears out the assumption made earlier that variations in results of milling and baking tests found between samples might be due, in some cases at least, to lieritable qualities within the particu- lar strains. Summary of the Milling and Baking Tests The tests reported in this bulletin were carried on with the practical end in view to determine whether wheat of good qual- ity can be grown in this state, and to select the best varieties for milling and baking quality and yield to the acre. The spring wheats were so low in yield to the acre that with the exception of the Marquis, they were not continued long in the milling and baking tests. Two ])ure lines of hard winter wheat, Pedigree No. 2 and Pedigree No. 408, are recommended to millers and farmers for their excellent (juality imd high yield as shown in these tests. A test in 1914 did not reveal any striking differences in milling and baking quality between pure lines of Turkey wheat grown on sandy soil, Kewaunee clay loam, and Miami silt loam. Like- wise, a semi-hard winter wheat showed no appreciable difference in quality when grown upon the Kewaunee chiy loam and the Miami silt loam. 30 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 43 In a six-year test, Wisconsin Pedigree No. 2 was fully equal to the Marquis grown at the Madison station in milling and baking quality, and considerably superior in yield. In a five year test Wisconsin Pedigree No. 2 compares very favorably in milling and baking quality with the average of the northern spring wheats tested by the same laboratory. Wheat does not deteriorate when grown in Wisconsin. Kan- sas No. 570, Wisconsin grown, compared very favorably in mill- ing and baking (piality with the Kansas-grown crop after having been grown continuously in Wisconsin for seven years. The percentage of yellow berries in hard wheat varies with the season and with the variety. As far as tests were conducted, no evidence could be obtained showing that time of harvest or varying rates of seeding were contributory causes. Concerning the inheritance of the yellow berry, no difference has been found between the yellow and hard berry in the same pure line in the production of yellow berry in their progeny, but there may be a wide difference lietween pure lines from the same stock in their tendency to produce yellow berries. As far as baking tests show, the yellow berry cannot be con- sidered very detrimental. In one test the loaf baked from the yellow berries eijualled those from the average hard winter wheat and in the other test the loaf was comparable to the semi-hard winters. Pure lines of hard winter wheats may be almost identical in appearance but have widely different capacity for baking qual- ity. This heritable character was very marked in No. 70 and No. 71, the former giving ai baking test equal to the best hard winters while the latter ranked with the semi-hard winters in size of loaf. Qualities of Wisconsin Grown Wheats 31 Table XVIII.— Description of the Wheats on Which Milling and Baking Tests Were Made Hard AViiiter Bearded White Chaff Wis. Pedigree No. 2 Tuikey Red Wis. Pedigree No. 6 Turkey Red Wis, Pedigree No. 10 Turkey Red Wis. Pedigree No. II Turkey Red Wis. Pedigree No. 14 Turkey Red Wis. Pedigree No. 21 Turkey Red Wis. Pedigree No. 22 Turkey Red Wis. Pedigree No. 2.5 Turkey Red Wis. Pedigree No. 29 Turkey Red Wis, Pedigree No. 32 Turkey Red Wis. Pedigree No. 33 Turkey Red Wis. Pedigree No. 408 Ba'^ska No. 15 Beloglina No. 38 Kharkov. Kansas No. 382 No. 39 Turke.v Red. Kansas No 570 No. 40 Crimean. Kansas No. 762 No. 42 Bearded Fife, Kansas No. 366 No. 70 Selection from Beloglina 1 No. 71 Selection from B eloglina No. 45 Turkey Red No. 108 Kharkov No, 208 Kharkov Beardless White Chaff No. 41 Ghirka, Kansas No. 385 Bearded Red Chaff No. 103 Red Rock Semi-Hard Winter Bearded Red Chaff No. 36 Tasmanian Red Bearded White Chaff No. 37 Egyptian Amber Wis. Pedigree No. 40 Egyptian Amber No, 55 Farmer’s Friend -Purdue Reg. 320 No. 59 Nixon Beardless White Chaff No. 208 Padi Soft Winter Beardless Red Chaff Wi.sconsin Pedigree No. 13 Wisconsin Pedigree No. 17 Wisconsin Pedigree No. 20 Wisconsin Pedigree No. 37 Dawson’s Golden Chaff Wisconsin Pedigree No. 39 Dawson’s Golden Chaff Beardless White Chaff Wis. Pedigree No. 40 Bearded Red Chaff No. 609 Selection from Kharkov Soft Spring Beardless Bronze Chaff No. 23 .lohn Brown Hard Spring Bearded Wnite Chaff No. 7 Preston No. 33 Blue Ribbon Beardless White Chaff No. 27 Fife Wisconsin Pedigree No. 34 Fife No. 29 Marquis No, 50 Marquis No. 30 Blue Stem No, M Blue Stem Wis. Pedigree No. 35 Blue Stem The Howard System of Markings In order to make the following' tables clear, a brief statement of the Howard system of markings is necessary. Five pounds of wheat are used in the milling and baking tests; 12 ounces of flour are used in baking loaves. Color is maked numerically, 1 being the best, 1.5 next lower, and so forth. Letters used in this con- nection are M. minimum, G. good, F. fair, Cr. creamy, Wh. white. Where the abbreviation is underlined, the quality is particularly prominent. 32 Wisconsin Rkseakcii P)UU.etin 43 Table XIX. — Milling and Baking Tests, 1911 Crop Name Fer cent yield of flour Flour Vol. of ;ioaf cu. in. Wt. of loaf oz. Water used oz. Protein analysis of wheat NX 5.7 Color Quality Fed. No. 11 74.8 F 1 Wh. cr . . . 199 17.19 6.44 11.68 Fed. No. 21 76.8 F 1 Cr. wh 198 17.06 6.25 10.61 Fed. No. 22 75.3 G 1.5 White, little dull. 204 17.06 6.38 10.69 Fed. No. 14 75.5 G 1.5 Wh. cr. little dull 203 17.00 6.19 12.16 Fed. No. 17 75.8 G 1.5 Cr. wh little dull. 183 17.13 6.38 11.73 Fed. No. 82 71.0 1.5 Cr.wh.dull 207 17.06 6.31 11.97 Fed. No. 33 75.3 1.5 Cr.wh.dull 201 17.25 6.5 11.11 Fed. No. 6 73.0 1.5 Cr.wh.dull 196 17.25 6.56 11.79 Fed. No. 2 74.5 F 1.5 Cr.wh.gr’y 203 17.06 1 6.31 12.36 Fed. No. 25.' .74.8 1.5 Cr. wh. 1 little dull. 188 17.25 6.44 10.98 Fed. No. 10 76.0 F1.5 Cr.wh. gr’y 181 17.31 6.75 11.99 Fed. No. 13 73.5 1.5 Cr. wh. little dull. 183 17.19 6.38 10.98 Fed. No. 29 75.3 1.5 Cr. wh. little gray 173 16.75 6.06 10.94 Fed. No. 20’ 77.8 1.5 Cr. wh. little dull. 178 16.91 6.06 11.57 Fed. No. 15 76.5 1.5 little dull. 183 17.38 6.75 11.18 ; Fed. No. 23 75.5 1.5 Cr. wh. *■ little dull. 194 17.19 6.38 11.84 1 Table XX- — Milling and Baking Tests, 1912 Crop Flour Loaf Name Yield per- cent. Color Quality Vol. cu. in. Weight oz. Water used oz. Protein in wheat Gluten jper cent Fed. No. 2 74.8 G 1.5 Cr. wh.L. dull 196 17.25 6.63 12.08 1 10.83 Fed. No. 21 74.7 F 1. Cr. wh.L. dull 201 17.13 6.31 11.17 1 10. Fed. No. 6 74.8 F 1. Cr. wh.L. dull 195 17.31 6.63 11.04 9.58 Fed. No. 22 74.9 F 1. Cr. wh.L. dull 186 17.06 6.31 10.98 10.21 Fed. No. 11 73 4 F 1. Wh. cr 175 17,25 6.5 10.45 9.79 No. 15 76.1 F 1. Cr. wh •190 17.13 6.38 10.52 10.63 No. 33 74.6 1.5 Cr. wh. dull. . 203 17.19 6.38 13.52 12.5 No. 31 73.8 1.5 Cr. wh.L. dull 212 17.31 6.63 14.16 No. 30 73.2 P 1.5 Cr. wh. dull.. 197 17.75 7.0 16.10 No. 29 73.9 1.5 Cr. wh. dull. . 201 17.31 6.63 13.62 No. 23 74.3 G 1.5 Wh. cr. little grayish 198 17.25 6.5 15.11 (^)i:alitie8 or \Vi8Conj> Q.'3 0^ O S 1 o >..up 'C c3 1 £ I 'o O j M c« a ^ ^ ^ g; ryj (g, g} P cd j ^ c3 5f-i cd cd K p: [£ K a. 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HOAG AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON CONTENTS Page Introduction 1 Part I — Occupancy of farms ^ Farms occupied by owners and tenants--- 6 Farms occupied by related and unrelated tenants 7 Part II — Purchase of farms Status of farm purchasers 8 Present status of farm tenants - 9 Sizes of farms rented and purchased 9 Part III — Retreat of farm owners General status of retreating farmers 10 Occupancy of farms of retreating owners 12 Residence of retreating farmers 14 Employment of retreating farmers 15' Part IV — Shifting of tenants Number of tenant shifts 16 ; Number of farms on which shifts occur 17 Number of shifting tenants 18 > Index numbers of tenant shifting 18 ^ 7^ Farm Tenancy An Analysis op the Occupancy of 500 Farms Introduction The National Committee on Standardization of Research in Country Life, which was appointed at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Society in 1917, proposed that some rc- i PIG. 1.— MAP OF THE SUN PRAIRIE COMMUNITY u That portion of the map enclosed within the broad dotted line contains the 500 farms 1 visited. Each dot represents a farmstead. The whole map is made up of four town- ie ships. The Sun Prairie Community includes a part of each of these townships. High- (I ways are indicated by unbroken lines. Railways are represented by crossed lines. sponsible agency in every state make a field study of farm tenancy j in certain communities of the state. It was recommended by I the committee that the social aspects of tenancy, and especially 4 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 44 the shifting of farm tenants, form the body of the investigation. In accord with this plan of cooperative national research, the Department of Agricultural Economics of the College of Agri- culture selected a Wisconsin community and made an analysis of its farm tenancy. During the month of September, 1918, Miss Emily F. Hoag, | assistant in agricultural econonmics at the University of Wis- consin, made a farmstead to farmstead visit with a horse and buggy to 500 farm homes in Dane county, Wisconsin, obtaining | a history of the occupancy of each farm during the ten-yeai j period, 1909-18. The selection of this particular group of farms | was made with the intent of including all the farms belonging j in one business community, — and no other farms. Fortunately, : there was available a recent map of the county showing all the farm homes grouped together, which regularly trade at any one j business center. ’Sun Prairie, a vigorous village of some 1200 inhabitants, is the business and institutional center of the particular com- jj miinity chosen to be studied. All told, a population of about '! 3500 persons is involved in this community ; and village churches, library, newspaper, banks and high school serve both farmers and townsmen. From the social point of view, it will be important : to bear in mind that the land-holding relations on these 500 farms are interwoven in one community fabric. The map shows the ,| relative location of the farms studied in the trade area of Sun Prairie. ^ . j The method of field work was simple. Previous to the visit ^ to the farms, an announcement was made in the local paper ex- plaining the ])urpose of the visit to each farm. This prepared the way and made an approach to each home easy. A map showing the location of every farm home on its ovn highway was indispensable. These farm homes were numbered serially up to 500 and each farm was given its number on the field sheets. The, sample field sheet shows exactly how the information was recorded. The general question put to each family was, ‘ Mho has occupied this farm in each of the last ten years?” Then, naturally, conversation would develop as to the facts of owner- , ship, tenancy, relationship of tenants, etc. In cases where the present occupant did not know all the facts, neighbors were usually found who did know. A few odds and ends of unfin- Farm Tenancy 5 ished data were referred to bankers, merchants, retired farmers, and the encyclopedic old settler, with success. A recent rural directory of the county was of considerable assistance in hunting down the present status of persons who had moved out of the Sun Prairie community. This directory was also the source of facts on sizes of farms, and on present residence and status of retired farmers. Shifting of Farm Tenants Commuaiti/ Ta.rm\ Tlame Tie. >ef Farm 1918 1917 I9J6 i 1915 1 1 19/4 : 1913 19/2 1911 1910 1909 2Q9^a.(^a^ B ti<& A i A A 1 A A A A Pit//24ot seejlo.17 ; i A kivy' rr-f/rV^ It ft i fff' ^ Ot 'V 7 /. (Ar-] 'cv' tr^ rC 21 / A A A : A tJ 3## (P&oA/a. A i!X # Q/ott ! ; \seeLm O.N. 216 see 160 see 3/1 m'Xfi/Ai B B B : B R './a/A'- A /# /# /X # — — 1 — — o.ii. jf.t/ayk. A 3n-»^a 2H-» M Z. Tq/C& A / (F not/ A A U.tfctu^ : ^ yp' 4m neiaUn ' /fo-dUr se9 207 \ see//o. 2/4 see 366 1 O.N UbO see izn ZiA'J.lZ^2 A A A : A A ; A A A A 1 y "3 WW (f(Mu A^ = /-- 1 /= / = / = J- C-imM. (Totoioar) O.N. • " X = Shift frm same com/?7u/7ify H-- - '• another 0 = Former/y our/?er ef aao/Aer farm O.n.- Preseaf (i9ieP‘ o = Shift to aaott?er commuw/y // » same - = fte/dtect to /amity of oumer # = Plot re id ted to f amity of our/?er e ^ Te/7d/?t uras just previous/y an ouraer ® - Ouraer - .. .. a teaaat FIG. 2.— SAMPLE SHEET OP THE FIELD RECORD This record sheet gives the history of eight farms, as set down at the time of the visits to the farms. The tables relating to ' ' retired farmers ’ ’ were an after-thought growing out of the field study. A list of the retired farmers living in Sun Prairie was furnished by the local business men’s association as a possible source of information. The list, together with the constant reiteration of the fact that Mr. So-and-so is a retired farmer, suggested to the investigator that the retired farmer was closely connected with the problem of tenancy and merited consideration in the study. Thereupon, a supple- mentary study was made of the retired farmer. As soon as the problem of tenancy was actually connected with the problem of 6 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 44 the retired farmer, it became apparent that the gradual ''ad- vance” of youths into farming corresponded with the slow "re- treat ’ ’ of veterans from farming. The main statistical facts of the study are presented in table form, without, however, any attempt at this time to interpret them. That analyses similar to this in many partsmf Wisconsin and other states will enable students of agricultural tenantry to think more clearly on the subject, goes without saying. It is- hoped that rural social investigators in every state will begin a close examination of farm tenancy from the viewpoint of the human relations involved in each farmstead situation. PART I.— OCCUPANCY OF FARMS Table I. — Farms Occupied by Owners and Tenants 1918 1917 1916 1915 1914 1913 1912 1911 ISIO 1909 Total number of farms. . . Number of farms occu- 493 491 485 479 476 475 472 466 465 463 pied by owners Number of farms occu- 347 344 336 343 352 349 354 362 356 368 pied by tenants 146 147 149 136 124 126 118 104 109 95 Owner per cent 71- 71- 70- 72— 74- 74- 75— 78- 77— 80— Tenant per cent 29+ 29+ ®^30+ 28+ 26+ 26+ 25+ 22+ 23+1 20+ Farms not leased during the ten years 246 Farms leased during ten-year period 42 Farms sometimes leased, sometimes not leased 212 While the total number of different farms in the Sun Prairie community during the ten-year period is 500, it is evident that, due to the occasional division of farms and the shifting of iand from one farm to another, the number of farms Avill tend to vg.ry from year to year. A few tenants occupy more than one farm at the same time. It is a matter of some interest that 246 farms were constantly occupied by their owners ; that 42 farms were constantly leased and may be classed as "tenant farms” ; and that 212 farms were in a state of oscillation between owner occupants and tenant oc- cupants. Farm Tenancy Table II. — Farms Occupied by Tenants Related and Unrelated TO the Owners 1918 1917 1916 1915 1914 1913 1912 1911 1910 1909 Total Number of farms occupied by ten- ants related to owners 70 70 72 61 56 50 51 46 45 36 125 Number of farms occupied by ten- ants unrelated to owners 76 77 77 75 68 76 67 58 64 59 154 Per cent of related tpna.nts 47+ 47+ 48+i 44 + 45+ 39+ 43+ 44+ 40+ 37+ Per cent of unre- lated tenants 53- 53- 52- 56— 55— 61- 57- 56— 60- 63- In estimating the advantages and disadvantages of the Ameri- can system of tenancy, it has been urged of late that an analysis of all tenants in a community will show a certain rather constant proportion of the tenants to be related to the landlord. The above table, it is worth mentioning, confirms the contention that much tenancy is a modus vivendi of a near relative, and a pro- cedure quite satisfactory to both parties, if not always in reality a step toward ownership wherein inheritance plays a distinct role. The degree of relationship in this table is almost invariably that of son or son-in-law. One case each of a nephew, a brother, a father-in-law and a cousin is included. Nine farms were occupied continuously during the ten-year period by tenants related to the owners; 33 farms, by tenants unrelated to the owners. The total number of farms occupied by tenants related to the owners turns out to be 125 ; by tenants unrelated, 154 ; by tenants both related and unrelated, 25. 8 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 44 PART II. PURCHASE OF FARMS Table III. — Status of Farm Purchasers PuiiCHASERS Not Formerly Owners of Farms Form- 1 Tenants Non-tenants erly owners Un- known Total Sons buying home farm after renting it Unre- lated tenants buying farm after renting it Unre- lated tenant buying other farm than one rented Sons buying home farm Sons buying other than home farm Coming from other occupa- tions 1 • 32 4 59 16 31 7 65 4 218 The total number of transfers of title to farms in the Sun Prairie community during the ten-year period, was made up of 218 instances where the purchaser actually lived on the farm purchased, and a few cases only (less than a dozen) where the purchaser simply made an investment and did not live on the farm. It will appeal to many as a rather curious fact that so few of the class of unrelated tenants purchase, when buying farms, the same farm which they have rented. On the other hand it is quite as one would expect that sons should purchase the home farm after renting it. The practice of a son’s renting the home farm is evidently general; but it is offset by the more general practice of sons working at home for wages until able to buy a farm, whereupon, often with the father’s help, they purchase either the home farm or a neighboring farm. It is worth noticing as a piece of rural sagacity in the climb up the “agricultural ladder,” that 79 sons who purchased farms kept close to the father as adviser or landlord, and presumably received the father’s material backing when it came to purchase. Two tenant farms owned by the same person have come to be known as “owner-producing farms”: one of them, the land- lord remaining the same, produced from its tenants four owners in the ten-year periods ; the other, two oAvners. since 1913. Farm Tenancy 9 Table IV. — -Peesent Status of Farm Tenants. Tenants Owners outside community Owners inside community Retired Other oc- cupations Unknown Total 143 16 89 7 14 58 Table V. — Sizes of Farms Rented and Purchased 1918 1917 1916 1915 1914 1913 1912 1911 1910 1 1909 1 0-120 0-120 0-120 0-120 1 T-105 T-105 T-105 T-105 T-105 2 0-77 0-77 0-77 0-77 0-77 0-77 T-160 T-160 T-160 T-160 3 0-160 0-160 0-160 0-160 T-180 T-180 T-180 T-180 T-180 T-160 4 0-140 0-140 0-140 T-118 T-160 5 0-m o-m O-m O-m O-m T-118 T-118 6 0-120 0-120 0-120 0-120 0-120 T-80 T-80 T-80 T-80 T-80 7 0-93 0-93 T-80 8 0-80 0-80 0-80 0-80 0-8() 0-80 0-80 T-971 f-97i T-971 9 0-100 0-100 0-100 0-100 0-100 0-100 0-100 0-100 0-100 T-155 10 0-80 U-80 0-80 T-30 T-30 ' T-80 (Tob) (Tob) 11 0-77 T-20 T-20 T-185 T-185 (Tob) (T Ob) 12 0-8H T-80 T-80 T-80 T-80 T-80 T-80 T-18i (Tob) 13 0-85 0-85 0-85 0-85 0-130 T-80 T-80 T-80 T-80 T-80 0-100 O-lOO T-lOO T-lOO T-lOO 14 15 \ 0-381 (T-120 T-160 T-160 T-160 T-160 T-160 T-160 T-160 T-160 T-160 16 0-80 0-80 0-80 0-80 0-80 T-lOO 17 0-80 0-80 0-80 0-80 0-80 0-80 0-80 T-120 T-120 T-203 18 0-80 0-80 1 T-40 T-40 T-40 ^r-40 T-40 T-40 T-40 T-40 19 0-80 0-80 i 0-80 0-80 T-60 (No R ecord) T-60 T-60 T-60 20 0-40 0-40 0-40 0-40 0-40 0-40 0-40 0-40 T-120 T-107 21 0-96 0-96 0-96 0-96 0-96 0-96 0-96 0-96 T-200 T-200 22 0-80 0-80 0-80 0-80 0-80 0-80 0-80 0-80 0-80 T-105 23 0-20 0-20 0-20 (At holme on f ather’s T-60 T-60 T-180 farm) 24 0-120 0-120 0-120 0-120 0-120 T-80 T-80 T-80 T-80 T-80 25 0-72 0-72 0-72 T-lOO ^ 26 0-40 0-40 T-80 T-80 ! T-8() T-80 T-80 (Tob)= Tobacco farm. O-120=Owns 120 acres T-105= Leases 105 acres The total number of different tenants who leased any one of the 500 farms during the ten-year period is 327, — not counting, how- ever, the ‘‘neighbor tenants,” who, as a matter of fact, own ad- joining farms in addition to leasing. Of the 105 tenants who climbed the “agricultural ladder” during the ten-year period and became owners, 16 purchased farms outside the community of Sun Prairie (not included in Table III) and 89 purchased farms within the community. Seven persons who were tenants outside but purchased farms inside the community are not counted in the group of tenants who climbed the “agricultural ladder.” The “retired” tenants are those who have ceased farming due to advanced age. Those tenants who entered “other occupa- 10 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 44 tions” are young men who left the farm for the town. Six of these, however, enlisted as soldiers. The tenants of ‘ ' unlmown ’ ’ status include those who have moved out of the county, as well as those who have died. It has been pointed out by economists that American tenancy affords an opportunity for the farmer to discover the size of farm best adapted to his capacity before actually making an in- vestment in land. With this thought in mind it will prove of some interest to look over Table .V of 26 > young tenant- farmers, unrelated to the owners of their tenant farms, who, during the ten-year period, became owners of farms. In each case the farm purchased is a totally different farm from the one previously leased. PART III.— RETREAT OP FARM OWNERS Table VI. — General Status of Retreating Farmers Ownership Still owning some farm,.*. 78 Total Not owning any farm now 46 124 Residence Living on some farm 1 Living in town 46 Moved out of county 7 124 Employment Still actively farming 20 Overseeing or helping ; 41 Tenant or hired man 7 With other employment 23 With no employment 33 124 Status of those living’intown Managing farm 4 With other employment 14 With no employment 28 46 Men 101 Women 23 124 Table VII. — General Status of Those Still Owning Some Farm Residence Living on own farm 61 Total Living in town 16 Moved out of county 1 78 Employment Still a.etivelr fa.rming 20 Overseeing or helping 37 With other employment 7 With no employment 14 78 Status of those living on own farm Working own farm 20 Living with .son tenant 23 Living with relative-tenant 2 Living with unrelated-tenant 5 Living with neighbor-tenant 11 61 Farm Tenancy 11 Table VIII. — General Status of Those Not Now Owning a Farm. 10 30 6 4 16 7 19 3 6 1 Total 46 46 10 Living in to^vn Moved out of county Overseeing or helping Status of those living on With other employment Tenant or hired man With no employment Living with son-owner Tenants Hired man Table IX. — General Status of Retreating Women Farmers Ownership Still owning original farm 18 Total Sold original farm 5 23 Residence Living on farm 17 Living in town 6 23 St 11 owning; living on farm 16 Still owning; living in town 2 Sold farm; living on farm 1 Sold farm: living in town 4 23 Status of those living on farms Still owning; living with son-tenant. 8 Still owning; living with unrelated tenant 2 Still owning: living with neighoor- tenant 6 Sold farm; living with son-owner . . . 1 17 The number of farm-owners on the 500 farms who started their retreat (retirement) from farming during the ten-year period was 124. Old age came to some farmers unannounced and suddenly, and retirement was forced at once. In other cases the sag in strength was gradual and retreat took place inch by inch. The fighting spirit seems to cling to the land and to work as long as possible. This constant social phenomenon of retreating old age seems to have a fixed relationship to the advance of youth upon the land and to the “climbing of the agricultural ladder.” The foregoing tables are presented in the hope that analyses of other constant social phenomena, whose relation to tenancy is as yet unnoticed, may follow and may throw as much light on this important problem as the familiar instance of the retired farmer. The table of women owners shows that, when farm land comes under the control of women, instead of leaving the country they 12 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 44 tend to stick to the farm in spite of many handicaps, keeping the family together, leasing farm to neighbors, until a son is old enough to assume the responsibility of management. Table X. — Occupancy of Farms of Retreating Owners 1 1918 1917 ! 1916 I 9 I 5 I 1914 1913 1912 1911 1 1910 1909 Held by tenants; By son tnanag'ing' 38 34 31 29 27 24 18 14 12 3 By relative manag'ing’ 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 • Bv Vinr6l3.tP(l tPnf\Pt rna.na.^ing’ 10 11 13 13 12 10 9 7 5 3 By neiifhbor managringr 9 10 5 6 4 4 4 2 3 2 Held by purchasers: Py son mairij^.g’ing' 14 12 12 9 6 5 5 2 1 0 By relative managing' 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 By unrelated person managing, formerly tenant somewhere 13 15 13 10 12 12 9 4 2 1 By unrelated person managing, formerly owner somewhere 14 11 11 11 9 10 9 3 0 j 0 ' By unrelated person managing, from nt.hpr p.mnlovfnftnt • . 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O' By unrelated person managing, formerly neighbor 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 ■ By unrelated person managing, young man on first farm 9 9 4 5 5 1 0 0 0 Held by original owners: By owner returned 4 3 2 2 1 1 0 0 0 ! 0 ' By owner 0 8 24 32 41 46 58 79 87 96 < • — 1 { Evidently in any considerable community there will be found, in any one year, farmers just starting their retreat from farming, farmers well along in their retreat, and farmers whose retreat may be said to be completed. In the community of Sun Prairie ? are many farmers still living whose retreat was either complete j or in process prior to 1909. These farmers do not appear, and | are not considered, in the present study. Only those farmers j are entered in the tables who started their retreat some time j during the ten-year period. All of these are considered, whether they finish their retreat within the period or not. The foregoing table tells the story, year by year, of how many of the original farms have been let slip out of the working grasp of the farm-owners under consideration into the hands of tenants or purchasers. In 1909, only 8 farm-owners began their retreat. They started the retreat by letting their farms to tenants. In 1910, (including those farmers that began to retreat in 1909 whose farms are still held by tenants in 1910) 18 farm-owners are in full retreat by letting their farms to tenants, while 3 farm-owners Farm Tenancy 13 began their retreat by selling their original farms. In other words, each year has a record of the number of farms rented or sold, as the first step in retreat, combined with the number of farms still held by tenants and purchasers from the preceding years of the period. A particular farm may pass obviously from the “held by tenants’’ class to the “held by purchasers” class, or vice versa. Table XI. — Occupancy of Divided Farms of Retreating Owners 1918 1917 1916 1915 1914 1913 1912 1911 1910 1909 Held by 1, Son tenant, original owner 3 2 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 3 2. Three unrelated tenants 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3. Two son tenants 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4. Unrelated tenant, neighbor purchaser 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5. Unrelated tenant, son purchaser 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 6. Son purchaser, son tenant 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 7. Two son purchaser* 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8. Son purchaser, original owner 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 9. Neighbor purchaser, original owner. . 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 10. Unrelated purchaser, son purchaser. 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 11. Neighbor purchaser, son purchaser . . 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Dividing the farm, the owner retaining a part, while quite evi- dently a form of retreat, is not a method which suggests itself readily to a retreating farmer, even when a son is the part-tenant or part-owner. The difficulties of such a situation are easily seen. However, it is interesting to notice in the few instances of this manner of retreat, that a son or a neighbor now and then fulfills the happy conditions. In 1909, four sons held a part of the farms as tenants ; but in 1910 they do not appear in the table. As a matter of fact, they changed in 1910 to the class of tenants holding the whole farm, while the fathers took one more step in the retreat. It is plain that the status of any particular divided farm may change in like manner to some form of tenancy or purchase of the whole farm. Divided farms must not be confused with joint tenant farms or jointly owned farms. When a farm is divided it becomes two or more farms. 14 Wisconsin Kesearch Bulletin 44 Table XII. — Farms Other Than Original Held by Retreating Farmers 1 1918 1917 1916 1915 I 1914 1913 1912 1911 1910 1909 Held as owner: Second farm, selling original 11 12 10 10 5 5 6 3 0 0 Second farm, leasing original 4 5 6 5 4 2 2 2 1 0 Third farm, leasing other two '1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0- 0 Held as tenant; Tenant on another farm 6 7 7 7 7 5 4 2 1 0 A distinct step in the retreat of some farmers is the purchase of a second farm, either much smaller than the original farm or else lying close to town, often even within the limits of town; most frequently the second or third farm combines both factors, smallness and nearness to town. In cases where the second farm is in the open country and of good size, it is usually found that the retreating farmer has leased or sold the original farm to an older son while having in mind to provide a farm for a younger son, who later either leases or buys the second farm. A third farm for a third son is not unknown. When a retreating farmer sells out and becomes a tenant on another farm of ordinary size in the open country, we find the cause usually in some form of break-up of the family, usually death of the wife. This circumstance is the beginning of a series of steps in retreat — as tenant, boarding with the owner’s family, or as tobacco-farmer living in town, or in other employment. Table XIII. — ^^Residence of Retreating Farmers 1918 1917 1916 1915 1914 1913 1912 1911 1910 1909 Living on original farm 49 55 65 67 72 77 84 96 102 105 Living in town 46 38 32 30 30 27 18 11 8 3 Moved out of county 7 6 5 4 4 3 3 1 1 0 Living on second farm 15 17 16 15 9 7 8 5 1 0 Living on third farm 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Living on another farm 6 7 6 7 7 4 4 2 1 0 Farm Tenancy 15 That the town has truthfully been considered the goal of the retreating farmer, this study will more or less justify. The spe- cial light, however, thrown upon the ''retired farmer” shows him as moving off his farm^by degrees : giving over a part of his house to the newcomer ; moving into a smaller house on the origi- nal farm; going to live with a son on another farm; moving on to a smaller farm near town; settling in a house in town sur- rounded by a large garden. The tenant system appears to be a cog fitting into the notched edges of the veteran farmer’s retreat. Table XIV. — Employment of Retreating Farmers 1918 1 1917 1916 1915 1914 1913* 1912 1911 'l910 1909 still owniiie: orig-inal farm : Working original farm 4 12 26 34 42 44 58 79 87 96 Working part of original farm 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 3 Overseeing or helping on original farm. . . 35 34 31 29 27 27 23 17 14 8 With other employment 5 7 7 6 5 5 3 2 2 0 With no employment 13 8 7 7 8 5 3 3 3 0 Working second farm 3 4 5 4 3 1 1 0 0 1 0 Working third farm 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ! 0 Overseeing or helping on second farm . . . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 0 Having sold original farm : 1 1 Overseeing or helping on original farm.. With other employment 4 4 3 2 2 2 2 1 0 17 I 12 11 10 11 10 8 i 1 1 Tenant on another farm 6 7 7 7 7 5 4 2 1 0 Hired man on another farm 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 With no employment 20 17 14 11 9 8 6 2 2 0 Tenant on original farm 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Working second farm ■ ’ 10 11 9 8 3 4 6 3 0 0 Overseeing or helping on second fai m . . . 1 1 1 2 ,2 0 0 0 0 Totals 124 124 124 123 122 118 117 115 113 108 That the retiring farmer gives up the habit of work only upon compulsion of circumstances is evident from the foregoing table of his employment, especially from that part of the table dealing with no employment. It cannot fail to interest the person who thinks upon the tenant problem in terms of human relationships to find that the veteran farmer, though sagging in his physical strength, is able to im- part, in the opportune role of overseer or helper, a portion of the wisdom gained by his years of farm experience to young ^men in the natural role of tenants. 16 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 44 PART IV. SHIFTING OF TENANTS Table XV. — Number of Shifts 1918 1917 1916 1915 1914 1913 1912 1911 1910 1909 Of all tenants Of all tenants shifting within the com- 30 51 59 56 47 48 47 39 38 14 429 munity Of all tenants shifting to and from 20 31 32 38 29 24 29 20 24 6 253 other communities 10 20 27 18 18 24 18 19 14 8 176 Of tenants related to owner 7 y 18 6 5 6 7 7 7 3 75 Of tenants unrelated to owner 23 42 41 50 42 42 40 32 31 1 11 1 354 Every change in the occupancy of a farm home involves a shifting of each of two families, — one moving off the farm and another moving on. To estimate the degree of influence a shifting tenantry has upon the stability of a community it will be necessary to count the coming of a family to a farm as one shift and the going of a family as distinctly another shift. For it is plain that, from the social point of view, pulling up the roots of a family established in the neighborhood affects every social relationship in the neighborhood in a peculiar manner; ^ and the planting in of a new family is a new influence requiring new social adjustments at every point. A few explanations must be made as to how the foregoing table ; of shifts is made up. A farm may change occupants several ( times in ten years and yet no family will be found to have shifted j on or off the farm. This circumstance is 'illustrated best in the J case of a son, brought up on the farm, who becomes a tenant on | the home farm. It also is illustrated in the case of a neighbor ' who becomes a tenant on an adjoining or nearby farm. These cases are not counted as shifts in the table. When a family moves on to a farm as tenant and wliile occupy-- j ing this farm rents a second farm nearby, its coming is reck-;- oned as a shift only on the first farm. When, however, a son, after once leaving his father’s farm, moving on to another farm or going to reside elsewhere, returns as a tenant on the home farm, his coming back is reckoned as a shift. If a son while living on, but not renting, his father’s homestead becomes a tenant on a nearby farm, whether the second farm is Farm Tenancy 17 owned by his father or by some other person, no shift is reck- oned as taking place. However, if the son moves on to the sec- ond farm, a shift is counted. Whenever a son-in-law comes to lease his father-in-law ’s farm, a shift occurs and is counted. In the case of a joint tenancy on one farm by two families, one shift for each family is counted for each move. The comparative stability of related tenants suggests that there may be methods as yet untried which would render the unre- lated tenant a more stable part of the community. Table XVI. — Number of Farms on Which Shifts Occurred 1918 1917 1916 1915 1914 1 1913 1912 1911 1 1910 1909 To- tal Number of different farms involved in the shifts; Of all tenants 30 42 43 42 40 39 38 31 1 32 14 142 Of tenants shifting within the com- munity 20 28 24 31 27 22 27 17 20 6 120 Of tenants shifting to and fi-om other communities 10 19 23 18 17 19 15 17 14 8 89 Of related tenazits 7 9 13 6 5 6 7 6 7 3 51 Of u n rel ated te j i an ts 23 33 30 36 35 33 31 25 1 25 11 119 Neighbors generally know the farms on which shifting of tenants occurs with frequency and regularity. If a community is going to exercise social control of its tenant shifting, so as to cut down the cases of preventable shifting, it will carefully ex- amine the conditions of tenancy on the farms where shifting is chronic. It will be recalled from Table I that 254 farms of the 500 were at some time occupied by tenants. The present table discloses the significant fact that only 142 of these farms had any shifts of tenants during the ten-year period. On the other hand, it turns out that 17 farms have had one or more shifts in each of five or more years of the ten-year period, and may well be con- sidered as ‘‘chronic-shifting farms.” Table II shows that the total number of “related farms” is 125. This present table shows that only 51 of these farms have had shifts, while 119 of the 154 “unrelated farms” have had shifts. 18 Wisconsin Eesearch Bulletin 44 Table XVII. — Number of Shifting Tenants 1918 1917 1916 1915 1914 1913 j 1912 1911 1910 1909 Total' All tenants 30 41 46 42 i 40 39 38 31 32 14 231 Tenants shifting within the communi- tv 20 27 27 31 27 1 22 27 17 20 6 146 Tenants shifting to and from other communities 10 19 23 18 17 19 1-5 17 14 8 138 53 Roth within a.nd withmit Related tenants 7 9 15 6 5 6 7 : 7 "b 59 tin related tenants 23 32 31 36 35 ....1 33 31 25 1 25 11 179 Pnth T-pla,tpfl a.nfi nnrplated . ... 7 1 -••j ! ' The total number of different tenants shifting is 231 out of the 327 tenants. Against the 5 ''chronic shifters” may be set these 96 tenants who do not shift during the ten-year period. A tenant is considered a "chronic shifter” if he makes one shift or more in each of five or more years of the ten-year period. The chronic shifter may never, obviously, be a tenant on a "chronic-shifting farm.” Table XVIII. — Index Numbers of Tenant Shifting 1918 1917 1916 1915 1914 1913 1912 1911 1910 19C —3 46^ Numljer of farms 493 491 480 479 476 475 472 466 465 Number of possible shifts 493 982 970 958 952 950 944 932 930 1 Index number of shifting tenancy Index of all tenant shifts 30 493 .51, 982 59/970 56 '958 47 952 48 '950 47/944 39 '932 38/930 ' 14/4 .0588 .0519 .0608 .0584 .0493 .0505 .0519 .0418 .0408 .030 Index of intracommhn- 1 ity shifts 20 493 31 '982 32/970 38 ,''958 29/952 24 /'950 29/944 20 932 24 930 1 6'^ .0385 .0315 .0329 .0396 .0304 .0252 .0307 .0215 .0258 .01^ Index of intercommun- ity shifts 10 493 20 982 27 '970 18 /9.58 18 ^952 24/950 18/944 19 932 14 9.30 1 8,4 .0203 .0203 .0277 .0187 .0189 .0252 .0190 .0203 .0150 .017 \ The number of possible shifts is reckoned as follows : In the years 1909 and 1918 only one shift to each farm is considered ^ possible. In 1909, a family is assumed to be occupying each farm without a shift to the farm, so that only a shift off the / farm is possible. In 1918 a family is assumed to be remaining *^ on each farm without a shift off, so that onl}’ a shift on to the | farm is possible. For each of the other years two shifts to each/J farm are considered possible,' — viz., one off and one on. ^ The index number of tenant shifting for any particular yearj is obtained by dividing the number of actual shifts by the num-» her of shifts possible in that year. For the purpose of compar-' > ing tenancy in different communities situated in various parts^ of the United States, the system of index numbers will be found® useful. ® Research Bulletin 45 August, 1919 The Common Cabbage Worm in Wisconsin (Pontia rapae Linn.) H. F. WILSON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON CONTENTS Introduction . » History and distribution Food plants Nature and extent of injury Explanation of life history charts for 1916 First generation Second generation Third generation Explanation of life history charts for 1917 First generation Second generation Third generation ....... Field notes for 1917 Seasonal history Life of the individual Natural control Remedies Spraying for cabbage \rorms Materials to use When to spray Spraying experiments for cabbage worms Page 1 1 ... 3 3 . . 6 6 7 7 . . 10 . . 10 . . 10 , .. 10 . . 13 . . 14 ... 17 . . 21 . . 25 . . 27 . . 29 ,. 30 .. 31 Research Bulletin 45 August, 1919 The Common Cabbage Worm in Wisconsin (Pontia rapae Linn.) H. F. WILSON: R. C. PICKETT, and L. G. CENTNER AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON The Common Cabbage Worm in Wisconsin (Pontia rapae Linn.) The growing of cabbage is one of Wisconsin’s important ag- ricultural industries and the cabbage root maggot and im- ported cabbage worm are the most serious insect enemies of the cabbage crop. During the last three years, the imported cabbage worm has caused serious losses in Wisconsin and many questions have been received concerning the danger of spraying cabbage plants. The fact that many of the canners refuse to buy or use sprayed cabbages constitutes one of the chief difficulties of the grower. If he does not spray the worms destroy the plants, and if he does spray he runs the risk of not being able to sell his crop. The present investigation was undertaken to try to help both the grower and the canner by determining the actual facts in the case. That the cabbage worm can be easily controlled and also that cabbage can be sprayed without danger to the consumer is a fact more or less well established. The general public is not acquainted with these facts, however, and by the use of suitable illustrations it can be shown that it is profitable to spray cabbages and that they can be sprayed without danger to the consumer. Many miscellaneous observations have been recorded on this insect and the various stages have been described, but no one seems to have presented a complete study of its life cycle and general economic importance. History and Distribution The actual date and method of introduction of this insect into North America are unknown but the first definitely recog- 2 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 45 nized specimens were taken at Quebec, Canada, in 1860, by William Couper. J. G. Bolles, 1864, concludes that the insect must have been present in the vicinity of Quebec as early as 1856 or 1857. Scudder* in his discussion of its introduction draws the conclusion that it could not have been in this coun- try previous to I860 or, at the very earliest, in 1859 ; otherwise someone would have noticed it because of ‘‘the rapidity with which a single pair may propagate without hindrance from parasites.” He was no doubt justified in this conclusion be- cause published records show that it spread over large areas of territory in the short period of two or three years. Begin- ning in 1860 it had by 1863 spread for many miles in all direc- tions around the city of Quebec, and in 1864 it was found 90 miles south of Quebec at Murray Bay. In 1865 specimens were collected in Vermont and New Hampshire and in 1869 near New York. Working westward and southward it had spread by 1872 well into New York and the province of Ontario in Canada. It appeared in North Carolina as early as 1870 and in Alabama in 1873, but these later importations were probably brought about by carrying in individuals other than those of the main migration. By 1871, the different colonies started in the north- eastern United States had mingled, and in 1872 Scudder re- cords them as having extended in a continuous line as far south as Virginia and as far west as Ontario, Canada, and the Allegheny Mountains in Pennsylvania. In the spring of 1873 a few specimens were found at Cleveland, Ohio, and at Chicago in 1875. P. R. Hoy found the first Wisconsin specimens at Racine in 1879. In 1881 specimens were collected in Texas and Nebraska and records show that it was more or less continuous from Ala- bama to Wisconsin, the species having been previously recorded as well established in Iowa and Missouri in 1878. A correspon- dent wrote Scudder that it had reached North Dakota in 1883 and Montana in 1884, but he believes it is possible that in the latter case the correspondent was mistaken in the identifica- tion of the specimens at hand. It was .first recorded from Colo- * For a detailed account on the introduction and spread of Pieris rapae in North America from 1860-1886 see article by Samuel Scudder in the Mem- oirs of Boston Society of Natural History, pp. 53-69. The Common Cabbage Worm in Wisconsin 3 rado in 1886 by David Bruce, who collected a number of speci- mens near Denver between August and October. W. G. Wright, 1889, gives the following notes on Pieris rapae from California. “In May, 1883, I captured in this place one male of that species (identified by George D. Hulst), since when I have never seen another specimen, although collecting butter- flies every year and usually extensively. That sample I have yet in my cabinet.” It was next reported from southern Cali- fornia by Mr. Wright in 1896. Hillman reported seeing it in Nevada in 1897, and Fletcher reported it from Vancouver Island, British Columbia, in 1900. It is now a common insect about the cabbage fields of western Washington and Oregon. Food Plants Cabbage and cauliflower are the main food plants although a number of larvae have been found feeding on wild mustard, radish and horseradish. Other writers report their feeding on cabbage, cauliflower, radish, rutabaga, horseradish, mustard, mignonette, nasturtium, tropaeolum, sea rocket (Cakile ameri- cana?), water cress, pepper grass, shepherd’s purse, sweet alyssum, spider plant, stinkweed, and lettuce. Nature and Extent of Injury The general nature of the damage caused by the cabbage worm is not hard to determine, but few growers realize the ex- tent of the damage. In average seasons there is considerable loss, although the crop may be sufficiently large to make the actual decrease in the crop of little economic value. However, in seasons when climatic conditions are unfavorable to the growth of cabbage, the losses occasioned by insect damage are enormous. Under Wisconsin conditions early varieties of cabbage are not damaged to any great extent as the crop is harvested be- fore the worms become at all abundant. On the ^ther hand, late varieties are set out about the time when the eggs of the second generation are being deposited in greatest numbers. 4 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 45 The eggs are, for the most part, deposited on the outside or under-surface of the leaves and the young larvae which feed ' there have a chance to do considerable damage before they are ■ noticed. In many cases they destroy the leaf surface as fast as it appears and prevent the formation of the head. This often happens in the case of cauliflower plants, which seem to have a tendency to throw all the growth into the formation of leaves when under adverse conditions. Occasionally the injury is sufficient to check the growth of the plants almost completely. Tills is shown in a comparison in figure 1. One plant was not FIG. I — INJURED PLANT'S CAN BE SAVED BY SPRAYING These pictures were taken 22 days after the plant on the right was sprayed once. The j sprayed plant free of worms was able to start and develop a head. t sprayed at all ; the other plant was sprayed once 22 days be- i! fore the pictures were taken. With the mature heads the damage is caused by the larvae eating the leaves and cutting tunnels into the heads. As a result of this the heads are soft and unfilled and the i filthy green castings which the worms leave behind them make the heads unsightly and undesirable for use. A fact which seems not to have been noted before is the great damage caused by the eating away of the terminal por- tions of the leaves. Each leaf is so developed that its point overlaps and adheres to the leaf opposite forming what we The Common Cabbage Worm in Wisconsin 5 have designated as a friction cap. Referring to ngure 2, one may notice that the head is formed from the inside and that the earliest leaves form a shell into which the iater growth is forced in a hard compact mass. If for an\' reason the devel- opment of this shell or casing is prevented, then the leaves grow straight outward and up and the head is immature and soft, as shown. The cabbage worms seem to prefer the outer edges of the leaves and in eating away those parts destroy the fold or friction cap which forms the shell. FIG. 2.— DESTRUCTION OF FRICTION CAP PREVENTS FORMATION OP THE HEAD When the tips of the leaves are eaten away the friction cap is destroyed and a compact solid head cannot be formed. Frequently the mature heads are not attacked until late in August or September (figure 3) at which time the worms eat away portions of the heads and tunnel for short distances di- rectly into them. In other cases they will eat through one or more leaves and work downward to the leaf base, where they continue to feed and leave their castings. In practically every case heads thus attacked are unfit for market. In making observations during the last of August and the first of September, 1917, a large field of cabbage was counted in which there were 3,211 plants. The cabbage worm had damaged 917 heads to such an extent that they were totally unmarketable. Others were more or less damaged to an extent 6 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 45 of 35 per cent by the cabbage worm. In many home gardens in and about Madison not a single head was fit for table use. Explanation of Life History Charts for 1916 In all, 105 larvae were started but a good many of these died and their numbers are omitted. In obtaining the data, butterfiies were reared, or netted and caged, and the date of FIG. 3— ONE application OP SPRAY WOULD HAVE MADE THIS HEAD MARKETABLE Many heads not attacked early in the season are destroyed after the head is formed by worms tunnelling through the outer leaves egg deposition noted. In all cases, daily observations were made and cotton was placed about the base of the plants to catch cast skins if any dropped down. FIRST GENERATION The larvae included under numbers 1 to 13 represent the be- ginning of the first generation. The first butterfly emerged on April 16, but they did not appear in numbers until after May 1. The first eggs were secured in the field on May 6, the The Common Cabbage Worm in Wisconsin 7 date on which the rearing cages were started. A second series was started May 9 and a third series on May 31. While the eggsdn the last series were laid 25 days after those of the first series, the butterflies of the last series began to emerge only 10 days later Than those of the first. The average period of development for the first generation was 54.7 days. By June 25 all butterflies had disappeared from the field but by July 1 they were again emerging and on July 10 were quite abundant. The butterflies in the insectary began to emerge at practically the same time. July 8 the first butterfly from the May 31 series emerged, and the last one of this series emerged on July 16, from an egg deposited May 30. SECOND GENERATION The exact date of deposition is not known for eggs 46 to 54 but the dates on the remainder are definite and the incubation period may be safely applied to the others. The average num- ber of days required for the transformation of this brood was 26 days, or less than half the period required for the first gen- eration. A second series was also started for this generation on July 27, the average period required for maturity of the individuals being 29 days. Adults of this generation began to emerge in the insectary by July 31 but they did not appear abundant in the field until a few days later. At this time we had difficulty in the breeding cages and were unable to get eggs except by following butterflies in the field. THIRD GENERATION August 14 the third generation was started but only six of the eggs were carried through to the chrysalis stage. The av- erage period for development in this generation from egg to pupa was 25Y2 days. None of the adults emerged in the fall of 1916 and for some, reason the chrysalids died during the fol- lowing winter. 8 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 45 Table I. — Duration of Life Stages op the Common Cabbage Worm — First Generation : 1916 No. Larva Pupa Adult Eg'ff Hatched Moltl Molt 2 Molt 3 Molt 4 Molt 5 Molt 6 1 May 6 May 11 May 20 May 26 May 28 June 1 June 12 June 27 2 May 6 May 11 May 20 May 24 May 29 June 4 June ^5 June 30 3 6 Ma,v 11 May 23 May 26 June 1 4 May 6 May 12 May 23 May 27 June 1 June 11 June 20 July 2 5 May 6 May 13 May 23 May 26 May 30 June 4 June 14 June 30 6 May 6 May 12 May 24 May 28 June 1 June 9 June 18 June 30 7 May 6 May 12 May 24 May 26 May 31 June 8 June 18 July 1 3 May 6 May 13 May 24 May 27 June 2 June 11 June 14 July 2 9 May 6 May 12 May 24 June 1 June 4 June 10 June 17 July 1 10 May ? May 30 June 4 June 12 June 14 June 21 June 30 « 11 May 9 May 18 May 26 May 31 June 4 June 10 June 21 July 1 12 May 9 May 18 May 24 May 27 June 1 June 11 June 18 July 2 13 May 9 May 18 May 25 May 28 June 2 June 11 June 17 July 2 14 May 31 June 6 June 13 June 19 June 27 July 1 July 2 July 16 15 May 30 June 5 June 14 lune 20 June 25 June 30 July 1 July 15 16 May 31 June 6 June 14 June 17 June 22 June 27 July 2 July 10 17 May 31 June 5 June 13 June 20 June 22 J une 27 July 2 July 10 18 May 31 June 6 June 14 June 20 June 25 J une 27 July 2 July 12 19 May 31 June 6 June 14 June 20 June 25 June 27 July 2 July 10 20 May 31 June 6 June 13 June 17 June 20 June 25 June 50 .Tuly 8 21 May 31 June 6 June 14 June 20 June 25 June 27 July 2 July 10 22 May 31 June 6 June 14 June 20 June 25 June 27 July 2 July 10 23 May 31 June 6 June 14 June 20 June 25 June 27 July 6 July 15 24 May 31 June 6 June 13 June 17 June 20 June 27 June 30 July 10 25 May 31 June 6 June 12 June 16 June 20 June 25 June 30 July 8 26 May 31 June 6 June 11 June 16 June 20 June 22 June 30 July 9 27 May 31 June 6 June 11 June 15 June 20 .Tune 25 June 30 July 8 28 May 31 June 6 June 11 June 15 June 20 June 25 June 30 July 10 29 May 31 June 6 June 11 June 15 June 20 June 25 June 30 July 10 30 May 31 June 6 June 13 June 18 June 21 June 27 July 2 July 10 31 May 31 June 6 June 11 June 15 June 20 June 25 July 2 July 10 32 ■ May 31 June 6 June 11 June 17 .Tune 20 June 25 July 2 July 10 33 May 31 June 6 June 11 June 17 .Tune 20 June 25 June 30 July 10 * Parasitized by A. g-lomeratus. Parasites emergred July 6. The Common Cabbage Worm in Wisconsin 9 Table II Duration of Life Stages of the Common Cabbage Worm — Second Generation: 1916 No. Larva Pupa Adult Egg Hatched Molt 1 Molt 2 Molt 3 Molt 4 Molt 5 Molt 6 34 July 5 July 13 July 16 July 18 July 21 July 24 July 28 Aug. 3 35 July 5 July 10 July 14 July 16 July 19 July 22 July 31 Aug. 3 36 July 5 July 11 July 13 July 1.0 July 18 July 21 July 25 Aug. 3 3< July 5 July 11 July 15 July 18 July 21 July 24 July 26 Aug. 4 38 July 5 July 11 July 13 July 16 July 18 July 21 July 25 July 31 39 July 5 July 12 July 19 July 21 July 24 July 26 July 31 Aug. 7 40 I July 12 July 16 July 18 July 21 July 24 July 25 July 28 Aug. 6 41 ! July 12 July 16 July 18 July 19 July 21 July 24 July 26 Aug. 3 42 July 12 July 15 July 18 July 19 July 21 ! July 24 July 28 Aug. 4 43 July 12 July 16 July 18 July 21 July 22 : July 24 July 26 Aug. 3 44 July 12 July 15 July 18 July 19 July 21 ! July 25 July 27 Aug. 3 45 July 12 July 12 July 14 July 16 July 18 July 19 July 24 July 30 46 July 1 * July 13 July 16 July 18 July 21 ! July 22 July 26 Aug. 2 47 July 12 July 13 July 16 July 18 July 21 ; July 24 July 26 Aug. 3 48 July 12* July 15 July 17 July 18 July 19 1 July 21 July 25 July 31 49 July 12* July 15 July 18 July 19 July 21 July 24 July 26 Aug. 3 50 July i2* July 15 July 18 July 19 July 22 1 July 24 July 27 Aug. 3 51 July 12* July 15 July 17 July 18 July 19 July 21 July 24 July 31 52 July 12* July 15 July 18 July 19 July 21 July 22 July 26 Aug. 3 53 July 12* July 15 July 16 July 18 July 19 July 21 July 25 July 31 54 July 12* July 15 July 18 July 19 July 21 July 22 July 25 Aug. 1 55 July 14 July 18 . July 21 July 24 July 25 July 27 July 31 Aug. 6 56 July 14 July 18 July 21 July 22 July 24 July 27 July 31 Aug. 6 57 July 27 July 30 Aug. 3 Aug. 5 Aug. 8 Aug. 10 Aug. 18 Aug. 26 58 i July 27 July 31 Aug. 4 Aug. 6 Aug. 8 Aug. 15 Aug. 18 Aug. 26 59 j July 27 July 31 Aug. 4 Aug. 6 Aug. 8 ! ! Aug. 14 Aug. 17 Aug. 24 60 1 61 1 July 27 July 27 July 31 July 31 Aug. 4 Aug. 4 Aug. 6 Aug. 6 Aug. 8 1 Aug. 8 ( Aug. 9 Aug. 15 Aug. 18 Aug. 26 62 July 27 July 31 Aug. 4 Aug. 8 Aug. 9 Aug. 15 Aug. 18 Aug. 26 63 July 27 July 31 Aug. 4 Aug. 6 Aug. 8 Aug. 9 Aug. 14 Aug. 23 -^1 July 27 July 31 Aug. 4 Aug. 8 Aug. 14 Aug. 16 Aug. 19 Aug. 29 ♦About July 10 to July 12. Table III. — Duration of Life Stages of the Common Cabbage Worm — Third Generation: 1916 No. Larva Pupa Adult Egg Hatched Molt 1 Molt 2 Molt 3 Molt 4 j Molt 5 Molt 6 65 Aug. 14 Aug. 19 Aug. 23 Aug. 24 Aug. 28 * ! 66 Aug. 14 Aug. 17 Aug. 19 Aug. 23 Aug. 26 Aug. 29 j Sept. 8 67 Aug. 14 Aug. 17 Aug. 18 Aug. 20 Aug. 22 * 68 Aug. 14 Aug. 18 Aug. 19 Aug. 20 Aug. 21 Aug. 23 1 Died 69 Aug. 14 Aug. 19 Aug. 21 Aug. 24 Aug. 28 Aug. 31 I Sept. 9 70 Aug. 14 Aug. 17 Aug. 18 Aug. 19 Aug. 21 Aug. 23 * 71 Aug. 14 Aug. 19 Aug. 21 Aug. 23 Aug. 26 Aug. 29 1 Sept. 9 72 Aug. 14 Aug. 19 Aug. 21 Aug. 24 Aug. 27 73 Aug. 14 Aug. 18 Aug. 20 Aug. 23 Aug. 26 Aug. 30 74 Aug. 14 Aug. 19 Aug. 21 Aug. 23 Aug. 24 Aug. 28 * 75 Aug. 14 Aug. 18 Aug. 19 Aug. 21 Aug. 24 Aug. 28 * 76 Aug. 14 Aug. 18 Aug. 20 Aug. 23. Aug. 26 Aug. 29 Sept. 7 77 Aug. 14 Aug. 19 Aug. 23 Aug. 26 Aug. 28 78 Aug. 14 Aug. 19 Aug. 21 Aug. 23 Aug. 28 * 79 Aug. 14 Aug. 18 Aug. 20 Aug. 23 Aug. 26 Aug*. 29 Sept. 8 Preserved in alcohol for study immediately after casting molt. 10 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 45 Explanation of Life History Tables for 1917 FIRST GENERATION The development of the first generation was not carried on in the insectary due to the fact that we could find no eggs in the field and adults placed in breeding cages died without de- positing. Owing to unfavorable weather conditions, there were only a few days on which the adults could be seen flying. However, larvae were gathered in the field about the middle of June and placed in cages where the time of pupation and emergence could be noted. We observed the first adults flying in the fields on May 13, and the first emergence records of adults from larvae and chrysalids obtained in the field was July 2. This would indi- cate an approximate period of about 7 weeks for the develop- ment of the first generation from the time of egg laying until • the emergence of the adult. The pupal stage varied from 7 to = 11 days, with an average of 9% days. < SECOND GENERATION ' We used 30 individuals for determing the length of the sec- ond generation. Of these 13 reached maturity while the re- ' mainder died or disappeared from the plants. The average . length of the egg stage was 4 days, of the larval stage lSy 2 ; days, and the pupal stage IIV 2 days, making an average of j 34 days from time of egg deposition to the emergence of the ^ adult. i! THIRD_GENERATION Twenty-three individuals were used to determine the length of the third generation. Of these only eight pupated, the re- mainder dying from flacherie and other causes. The devel- opment of this generation was very irregular and prolonged, owing to unfavorable climatic conditions. The average length of the egg stage was 5% days, the larval stage 341/2 days, and from egg to time of pupation 40% days. None of the adults emerged from these chrysalids until the following spring. The Common Cabbage Worm in Wisconsin 11 Table IV. — Dukation op Life Stages of the Common Cabbage Worm — Second Generation: 1917 Larva No. Egg Hatched Molt 1 1 July 8 July 12 ■ 2 July 8 July 12 • July 17 3 July 8 July 12 July 17 4 July 8 July 12 July 17 5 July 8 July 12 July 18 6 July 8 July 12 July 17 7 July 8 July 12 July 17 8 July 8 July 12 July 17 9 July 8 July 12 July 17 10 July 8 July 12 July * 11 July 8 July 12 July 17 12 July 8 July 12 July 18 13 July 8 July 12 July 18 14 July 8 July 12 + 15 July 8 July 12 + 16 July 8 July 12 July 18 17 July 8 July 12 July 18 18 July 8 July 12 + 19 July 8 July 12 + 22 July 8 July 12 + 23 July 8 July 12 July 18 24 July 8 July 12 * 25 July 8 July 12 July 17 26 July 8 July 12 July 18 27 July 8 July 12 * 28 July ? July 17 + 29 July 14 July 18 30 ? July 18 July 24 31 9 July 16 July 24 32 July ? July 18 July 21 Molt 1 Molt 2 Molt 3 Molt 4 July 20 July 20 July 20 July 20 July 20 July 20 July 21 July 20 July 23 July 23 July 21 July 21 July 21 July 21 July 23 July 21 July 26 July 24 July 23 July 23 July 23 July 23 July 24 July 23 July 23 + July 24 July 25 July 23 July 23 July 24 July 24 July 25 July 24 July 27 July 24 July 24 July 24 July 27 July 26 July 25 July 27 July 27 July M 03 a o idl-a Ilc5 ^ cn.3 O c3 a; — cs sr5^ y i> ® ® o3 ^ S s|^,.sa§ ’/I ,• -Jl. . K |i|s||s|| -3 q3'^ £>32 •S’;:3‘S ® 5^ ^ ^ ®-s 2 2 c 3 rr ^ a-a^' P4 ' "m sS ® . S fl f3,rt’o3 £3 0 — 2 t3 ® be 2 ® 'S cs 'T3 C3 03"; a ^ a .a^sog |g«2=«®g§5^^ n-i 5 cS ® A 0> •^«.s >3 O M ^ r/s Cd ^S| . ® o « o >h - . _ be S3 . a > 5 CS ^■3 ll ^® §3^' ® s s 5^1 §0® _ © a 'tJ ce X c« >• ® 'S s.s fl ^ o ^ © f3 « “^1 «ss £11 OOOMO"10hJ 5 a5 si mS g s O CO s® ceW > ® CO B fl o «« a •j- bi 'S.S ©^ w ® ® ® -s'” 0-0 s CO 03 2?=i sf ® ® 5 03 h a °< c» a be be be be be J 3 |3 S rj J 3 <1 <3 <3 ’C^T3 lllllg llllii Ui i- t^o^S«co sS cS®q S3;;; s3^ •3 rf-d rt'd MTS co'-d S o36e30e3X!o3^53.K ®*®-o®— <®— >®0 hO hO ISS 03 O Table XI. — Spraying Experiments for Cabbage Worm, 1917, (Series II.) The Common Cabbage Worm in Wisconsin 33 in un- it for perfect perfect -ti « a a -a bia §1 ai a II .S 5 ■75 1 . aJ a .aS 0) .rH Op a .1 Qj cS 0- a: "SI til » 0 bx'O 3 a 2O3 °1? a 0 3 s X O 75 « 05-7 a .3 1 X 0^ c 3 X 0 ^ X W T 3 r. k! 3 ^ ^ 0/ 05 ^ Hh cO ai 05 s t> 05 V ^ s ^ aS 75 O a a S oa a c 3 O-b; 1 44 ) c 3 X r. rS :tically a plants. —■ 0/ fiO o Z o s a a ra * cs a a ri 75 — a s c2 «a conti’ol. market, e somewl control market, •e somew ijury prac treated ] market. omplete c condition. omplete c condition. oor contro! for marke P > 7 b 05 8i O o a -75 'a cS a as itisfactory unfit for leaves wei Itisfactory unfit for leaves wei O o a O O O 1-^ 4 ^ Q, a a 0^ a- bii bi bi bi - ^ 2i 2 a a a o <1 o- 0 cr Q 2nd bi a bi a bi a bi a c !( C < s >! CS , «l-r T? 4^ c 3 CJ 0 cS c 3 . na 5 1 2 1 a '75 i a cS a !i 2. 7 “ S o 3 i a a X 13 ^ 3 a be a 0^ ^ a 5 a br 3 a 0 SO SOfe >0 3 ~d 5 a a a ^3 S S T 3 75 i-( 5 « + S ' o 05 S 1^" . P a X Spray used 1 . •It is arsenate powi - 1 lb. soap. LIT) C s| ol Opj a Sh E bt 0> -a b- 2| 0 ) X X pO ceo o a . a a 3 C . a 75 ^7532 ^0 rayed— check. c 3 -1 $2 S a+j 2 a' COCM at 0 0 S si T3"r c 3 o 0i>O |S Sa aO .5 -a-" cS 0 a+^ a 75 a .K m 0 Ci'^ 0 . cj, 0 S3 01 a . cs: a P Q Si o X cs -c «o 50 CO 0 0 0 d 0/ CO CO X! 1 cc O 1—^ CVl 1 cc I*? ic 30 =- i 1 34 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 45 bi) sS J3 Is O

! Cb o cS Oj 'X oS ^ OJ OJ I ^3 0 I-J -2 Oi ES 8S o ^ o 0/ s.i a| If ci 3 c£ S 3 cS." 0 /+J K =5 ES o 'X O 'X O m o; "x c3 fl -X a- J d '^c^’o a CS o- (V > H c3 ^ Oi — • O) E^ 0 ®.2 ■a*-' 01 U'S a o o ^ u at o Q M d 8E .^8 li -g a 0) X irs I Lime dust. ‘‘ ‘' I 2 Auj?. 22 Sept. 10 Seemed to have no effect. i The Common Cabbage Worm in Wisconsin 35 THE MORE IMPORTANT AMERICAN BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, F. E. Insect Life 1; 27-28 1888 1.8.. Can. Ent. C: 184. 1874. Can. Ent. 7 : 163. 1875 Can. Ent. 8: 3. 1876. Bowles, G. J. Can. Nat. n. s. l; 258. 1864 Browning-, G. W. Ent. News. 12; 303, 32-33. 1903 Campbell, J. P. Ga. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. o s 2- 32 - 3 ^; icoq C assidy, J. Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui «• 8 18R9 Caumeld, F. B. Can. Ent. 5; 59. isk^’ Chittenden, F. H. U. S D A Rnr trnf o Claypole. Ont. Ent. Soc. Rpt.‘ ^81: 33. mi. Cook, A. J. The Country Gentleman 42:667.’ 1877 Couper, Wm. Can. Ent. 4; 203. 1872 Can. Ent. 6: 37. 1874 Dempsey, P. C. Can. Ent. 9;’l88. 1877 Dodge, G. M. Can. Ent. 14; 39. 1882. ’ Fernald, H. F. Mass St. Bd. Agr. Rpt. 1900; 332-3,3.5 — — - Pa. Dept. Agr. Bui. 48; 14. Fig. 3 1899 PletphP^^^T ^ Soc. Trans. 1869;?43-566. ^ 1870 Fletcher, Can. E^xptl. Farms Rpt. 1888:68. 1888 ^^^-.So^. Anji. Rpt. 31:69. 1900 — ; ■ U. S. D. A. Bur. Ent. Bui. 26: 95 iqnn horbes, S^ A.^ Ilh St.- Ent. Rpt. 12:92-97. 1883. — 111. St. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 2:257 321 1887 Garman, H Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta. Ann. Rpt. 2: 9.’ 1889^’ 114:15-47. 1904 Gillette, C. P la. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 5:171-174 1889 la. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 12:536-538. 1891 ' — — — Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 24: 3-7. 1893 Hamilton, John. Can. Ent. 17; 203. 1885. Hul^t^r n V® A- 36: 5. 1897. A?- Sta. Bui. 50: 4-8. 1888 Jack, J. A. Mass. Hort. Soc. Trans. 1894:133 151 tpt i\ Lmtner, J A. N Y. St. Ent. Ann. RptT 52, 59 18f2 Pi Amer. Nat. 5:724-725. 1871 — — Can. Ent. 3: 197. 1871. ! Lockhea(^ W. Ont. Ent. Soc. Ann. Rpt. 30: 82. 1899 I Exp. Sta. Ann. Rpt. 1895- 167-173 1896 Matheson, R. Can. Ent. 39:205. 1907 -loi i/i. i89b. i 2: 28-32. 1888 ! Minot, C. S. Amer. Ent. 2: 74-76. 1869 . 0??ut/'T^'TT ^^A 1890. I 8sS;;^k, >892. i if f ofpg Rpt- ^n1"'anl‘’Ben'^n®“2: Perkiiis r H V, Int- ?P.t- 1W5: 589-810 or 747-751. I ^erKins, G. H. Vt. Bd. of Agr. Ann. Rnt 4 - 159-161 ifi 77 jProvancher, A. Can. Nat. 2: 13-18. 1867 . ® j Rilej^C. V. M^ St. Ent. Ann. Rpt. 2; 104-110. 1870 !' ~ and Bot. Mag. 2:338, 341. 1870 I U. S. D. A. Bur. of Ent. Bui. 9:36. 1886 ' j— Amer. Nat. 18:80. 1884. w. ^a;£iprAtr"^„lN7.^i'^^l-9fo"''- -j Saunders, W. Can. Ent. 10:185. 1878 ^ Schwarz, E. A. Wash. Ent. Soc. Proc *1-49 1888 nN E^xf if;# 5115: isiis- f i->Tf ¥ V" ?«-‘28ir5: i C. 111. Dept. Agr. Trans, n. s. 9: 8-24. (9th Rpt 111 St Ent 1 IWrlght, w|- Sffe"s,- 46." lUI'""’ *''■ S‘' ®"‘-) I Can. Ent, 28: 102, 1896. Research Bulletin 46 October, 1919 Frost Necrosis of Potato Tubers L. R. JONES. M.jMILLER and E. BAILEY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON CONTENTS Page Introduction 1 Frost necrosis distinguished from other injuries 1 Previous publications 3 Experimental materials and methods 6 Earlier work, 1916-1916 6 Later work, 1918 9 The symptoms of frost necrosis in potato tubers . . . 11 Effect of freezing upon the potato 11 Symptoms of frost necrosis as developed experimentally. , . 11 Types of necrotic lesions 14 Symptoms of frost necrosis as found in storage 18 Rate of discoloration of frozen tubers 19 Frost necrosis symptoms contrasted with those of other tuber maladies 20 Dry rot 21 Wet rot, soft rot 21 Ring necrosis 21 Brown rot 21 Net necrosis 22 Black heart 22 Internal brown spot 22 The amount and types of frost necrosis which occur at differ- ent temperatures 23 Injury above -3.2®C 23 Injury at —3® to — 4.5®C 27 Injury at -5® to -5.6® C. and at -6® to -8®C 28 Injury at -10.5® to -11.7®C 29 Relation of tuber condition to susceptibility to freezing 30 Relative resistance of mature and immature tubers 30 Influence of relative turgidity of tubers 31 Relation of sugar content . 33 Influence of wounds and bruises upon susceptibility 34 Relative susceptibility of sprout and tuber tissues 34 Supercooling and ice crystallization associated with frost ne- crosis 36 Relation of time element to supercooling 38 The ultimate freezing point 40 Relative temperatures of air and potato 40 Summary 42 Literature cited 45 Frost Necrosis' of Potato Tubers L. R. JONES. M. MILLER and E. BAILEY The late or main crop of potatoes as grown and handled in the northern tier of states is likely to be exposed to freezing temperatures from the last month preceding digging through all the stages of harvest, transportation, storage, and delivery to the ultimate consumer. The danger of freezing injuries is one of the most serious risks of commercial potato growers and dealers and the problems of the transportation companies are also seriously complicated thereby. In 1917, when freezing temperatni'es occurred very gener- ally through the northern states before or during potato har- vest, the resultant losses probably constituted a greater toll upon the Wisconsin crop than all other disease factors com- bined, .and even in 1918, when the climatic conditions were es- pecially favorable, freezing injuries were common and serious. These consisted not only in the immediate loss of tubers frozen in the field or warehouse, but also in the later appearance in storage of potatoes exhibiting the more obscure freezing injuries. Frost necrosis distinguished from other injuries. It is im- portant at the outset to point out the general characters of frost necrosis that it may be distinguished from other types of injury. It is well knowni that when once frozen solid the po- tato tuber is killed and collapses immediately upon thawing. If, however, the exposure to freezing temperatures is moderate or of short duration, it often happens that only a portion of the tubers are thus frozen solid and collapse, the rest remaining un- affected as far as external appearances indicate. If, however, such superficially sound tubers are cut open, various evidences of internal injury will be found in at least some of them. In '"'porosis is synonymous with the term freezing necrosis used by Link and Oardner in an unpublished manuscript. (See footnote 1, page 20.) Ilie writers agiee Mith them that frost necrosis is a local or restricted freezing injury which results trom exposure to temperature sufficiently low to cause ice formation in the tissues and IS thus distinct from chilling injury which results at temperatures not low enough to induce ice formation in the plant tissues. The writers us? the term frost necrosis rather than freezing necrosis since frost necrosis has been used in a previous publication (Jones, L. R. and Bailey, E., Frost necrosis of potato tubers. Phytopath. 7. 71-72.. 9 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 46 most eases such injuries remain strictly internal and hence, if the potatoes are marketed their defects are not detected until the potatoes reach the ultimate retailer or consumer. The irregular occurence and distribution of tubers Avhich show such internal lesions of frost necrosis makes them difficult to sort out in storage lots. Naturally, potatoes frozen during harvest or transportation become mixed with the sound ones, but it is a surprising fact that when storage chambers are sub- jected to the same freezing temperatures and uniform condi- tions of ventilation, certain scattered individual tubers will be injured and others not. This individual susceptibility of po- tatoes to freezing injuries, combined with the still more con- fusing fact that frost necrosis is often mistaken for pathologi- cal conditions arising from other causes, makes it important that there be a further understanding both of the conditions and nature of freezing injury to potato tubers. This is especialN needed at this time because of two recent coordinated develop- ments involving critical consideration of potato tuber maladies. On the one hand is the movement for the state inspection and certification of potato seed stocks, on the other is the develop- ment of the national market inspection service. In both cases it is necessary to differentiate frost necrosis from other types of tuber injury or disease, especially the non-parasitic ''net- necrosis” and the Fusarium ''ring necrosis.” Indeed, it was because of the evident confusion of frost necrosis with certain of these other types of injury that the senior author’s atten- tion was first directed to this problem. Frequently within the past four years potatoes showing distinct symptoms of ring or net necrosis have lieen found in storage cellars where it was definitely known that they were generally sound when stored and had been subjected to freezing temperatures while in the cellar. One striking example of typical net necrosis occurred in a certain lot of selected exhibition potatoes shown at the meeting of the Wisconsin Potato Growers’ Association in 1914. The exhibitor was confident that the tubers were normal when he started from home but they had been subjected to freezing tenqieratures in transit. Similar conditions were found in seveiTil lots of potatoes in the exhibition of 1918. The matter })i*esented so much of practical as well as scientific interest that further observations have been supplemented by careful Fkost Nkchosis of Potato Tubfrs experiments to detennine the effects of various freezing temperatui’es upon potatoes. Previous publications. Several previous publications have embodied the results of more or less extensive investigations upon freezinjj' injury to potatoes. The most valuable of these is that of Muller-Thur^au (4, 5, who umhn-took to detennnie the temperatures at which plant tissues frcmze. llis tirst con- cern was with the phenomena of su})ercoolin»- and the determi- nation of the ultimate freezing- point, but in connection with this (5) he investigated the turning sweet of chilled potatoes. Since then, Apelt (1) in Europe, 1907, has approached these questions by somewhat different methods, while in America Appleman (2) published his observations in 1912. In general, where their conclusions have not been in agreement, our own results have confirmed those of MiilleT--Thui*gau. In none of these earlier publications, however, was critical attention fo- cused upon the internal lesions or symptoms of frost necrosis and it is chiefly here that our own eff'oi-ts have aimed to sup- plement those of previous workers. AVhile the details must be left for later consideration it will be helf)ful at the outset to summarize; the conclusioiis upon which there is general agreement. Plant tissues, in general, must be cooled to some degree be- low the freezing point of water before ice crystallization begins. With the potato it is the consensus of judgment that there is no killing of tissue or other permanent or injurious effect short of ice crystallization. Where tubers are held at temperatures near or slightly below the freezing j)oint of water, but above the freezing point of the potato tissue, they turn sweet owing to the accumulation of sugar i)roduced by the gradual starch conversion. It is commonly believed by potato handlers and has even been stated in literature by Norton (7, p. 70) that this is due to their having been slightly fr-ozen. Miiller- Thurgau (5, p. 75d), and others since, particularly Apelt (1, pp. 12-27) and Aj)pleman (2, p. 430), have disproved this. By storing potatoes for long periods as low as -1.06°C. (29°E.) Appleman (2, p. 333) determined that sugar accumulated most rapidly at 0°C. or below, and that freezing with potato tubers began between -2.2° and -3.3°C. (26° and 28°E.). Miiller- Thurgau (5, p, 753) stored j)otatoes at temperatures ranging 4 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 46 from 0° to -3°C. for two weeks and found them still unfrozen after that period. Our own results as will appear later, confirm their conclusions that there is a considerable range possible in this critically low temperature at which tubers may turn sweet before they begin to freeze. Furthermore, none of these men has ever found potatoes to become sweet as a result of freezing consequent upon rapid cooling. Instead they determined the rate of sugar accumulation to be very slow even under most favorable temperatures. Our own experience is in accord with this in that we have regularly tasted tubers frozen experi- mentally without discovering evidence of increased sugar con- tent in the potatoes which we have subjected to freezing tem- peratures enduring from 2 hours to 2 days. Hence, while sweet- ness indicates that tubers have been held for some time dan- gerously near their freezing point, it does not indicate that they have been frozen. Miiller-Thurgau (4, p. 147) showed that living plant tissues in general require supercooling to some degree below their true freezing point before ice crystallization begins. He found that the freezing point of the expressed sap of a potato tuber was -0.65°C. while the living potato tuber tissues in his ex- periments required supercooling to -3.2° to -6.5°C. before they began to freeze. Apelt’s results with the potato, using a less reliable method we believe, are not in full accord with this, but our own trials confirm Miiller-Thurgau ’s conclusions that supercooling is the normal course when potato tissues freeze. The earlier workers, were led to define rather exact temperature limits for these phenomena with potato, generalizing, perhaps, from work upon a few tubers of uniform type, although they do not agree among themselves upon these limits. On the other hand, our work shows that there is considerable range in variation between individual tubers, even in the same lot of potatoes. The most interesting point and one of considerable practical importance in relation to symptomatology, is that there may also be a considerable range in susceptibilitj" to frost necrosis between the different tissues in the same tuber. Here again IMiiller-Thurgau records the greater sensitiveness of the ‘‘cambial” as compared with parenchymatous tissues, and of the stem end as compared Avith the eye end of the tuber, but Apelt failed to confirm these differences. Our own results Frost Necrosis of Potato Tubers 5 not only show the correctness of Miiller-Thurgau ’s general ob- servations but enable us to go considerably farther than did he in de.tining such local differentiation. It is, indeed, because of these differences as to tissue susceptibility that potato tubers when subjected to the higher freezing temperatures may exhibit various types of internal symptoms. Potato tubers which showed necrotic areas internally and which were known to have been subjected to freezing tem- A and A' are longitudinal halves of a potato tuber. A was exposed to temperatures ranging from +10° to —5° O. for 24 hours and shows vascular discoloration of the net type of freezing injury. Notice more severe injury to stem-end (below). A', control lalf, was not subjected to freezing temperatures. peratures were found so frequently that, as already explained, it seemed advisable to determine experimentally the symptoms of freezing injury as compared with those of other maladies. The results of such work during the years 1915-1916 show conclu- sively that potato tubers when slightly frozen are often in- ternally discolored while externally unharmed. Later, in 1918, when a freezing machine became available from which accurate temperature data could be obtained, a more critical study was Experimental Materials and Methods FIG. 1.— FROST NECROSIS PRODUCED EXPERIMENTALLY 6 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 46 made of the temperatures at which this injury becomes ap- parent. Most of the temperature data herein tabulated were secured from these later experiments but they accord in gen- eral with those obtained in the earlier trials. Earlier work, 1915-1916. In 1915 we obtained a quantity of potato tuliers of the variety Rural New Yorker which had been grown, harvested, and stored under conditions as nearly uni- form as practicable. In addition to these, potatoes were used in 1916 which were harvested at different stages of maturity so that data were obtained on the susceptibility of potatoes of different ages. At first each tuber used was cut in half longi- tudinally, one half kept for a control and the other frozen: In no case did the necrotic symptoms (fig. 1), which appeared so frequently in the frozen halves, develop in the controls. Potatoes which showed internal spotting of any kind were re- jected for experimental work, and where potatoes were not cut in halves the stem end was cut off in advance to determine whether or not any internal spotting was present. The tuliers were either exposed out-of-doors or in a simple freezing chamber. In the out-of-door experiments great num- bers of potatoes could be kept under like conditions, from 30 to 50 tuliers often being used in a single experiment. This afforded a better opportunity for studying individual variation in susceptiliility than was possible in the freezing chamber, Avhere, at most, only 12 to 15 tubers could be tested at one time. In the out-of-door experiments a thermograph was used for recording temperatures ; in the freezing chamber thermom- eter readings were made. The apparatus used in these experi- ments was of the simple ice cream freezer type of construction, easily understood from figure 2, which shows the insulating box surrounding the three cylindrical tin cans, each fitted with a tight cover and completely enclosing the one next inside. Tlie tubers were field at the level of the mercury bulb of a long-stemmed thermometer, the scale of which was well above the cover of the freezing chamber so that it was not necessary to change its position to read the temperatures. In setting up an experiment the ice and salt were first packed about the container, the potatoes next inserted in the inner chamber and the can covers and the thermometer then put in position. Using this method a half hour or more was necessary Frost Necrosis of I^otato Tubers for the temperature of the freezing chamber to drop to the de- sired degree below 0°C. Attempts were made to reduce ma- terially this preliminary cooling period hy packing the freez- Diagram of freezing chamber in Mhich the containers are all cylindrical tin cans fitted with tight covers, except the outermost, which is of Avood. Tubers (T) are placed in inner chamber (I) supported by a AAire gauze AAhich is held at the level of the mercury bulb of the thermometer (B). This inner chamber is insulated by air space (A) and cooled by the freezing mixture of ice and salt (I and S). SaAvdust (S) is packed between the box (Bo) and freezing mixture. ing mixture about the chamber an hour before the insertion of the tubers that chamber and container air might be fully chilled in advance. It was found to make little difference, however, since the air disturbance consequent upon opening 8 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 46 the chamber and inserting the tubers was such that the pre- liminary period needed to bring the chamber to 0°C. was prac- tically as long as by the first method. Mnller-Thurgau used a freezing machine not unlike that described above and he re- The general structure of this machine is like that used in the earlier work (fig. 1). The inner ireezing chainher, however, has several new features. Heat is furnished by electric coil (K) which is regulated by electrical connections with the thermostat, the U-tube of which is represented by U. These electrical connections (not shown in dia- gram) were made through opening (O) in the heavy iron cover (Co) which also supports the frame (Fr) for the wire baskets (H). The arrows indicate the general direction of air currents which are produced by revolving fan (F). It is to be noted that the inner cylinder (C) is open at both ends, above and below, this permitting free air circulation. cords constant temperatures throughout an experiment. Ap^ parently he did not take into consideration the rate of fall nor ' f’or the use of this apparatus we are indebted to Geo. F. Potter, of he Department of Horticulture. IVlr. Potter designwl it primarily for study of the effects of freezing temperatures on the roots of nursery stock. He will publish the full details in relation to its construction and operation soon, but tve are permitted through his courtesy to indicate tlie general features and unusual advantages of this apparatus. Frost Necrosis of Potato Tubers 9 the fluctuations which must have occurred where experiments were continued for several hours, Later work, 1918. In our recent experiments (1918), we have used the Potter freezing apparatus^ which has furnished more accurate data with ability to satisfactorily control the temperatures. The general construction of the freezing cham- ber (flg. 3) is similar to that described above but special de- vices are added for accur- ately controlling the rate and degree of cooling the freez- ing chamber. This is ac- complished through the in- sertion of an electric heating coil with a regulating device such that the temperature can be made to fall at an exactly controlled rate and stopped and held constant at any de- sired point short of the ex- treme temperature procurable by the ice-salt mixture. Since this latter point is much be- low the temperatures with which we were concerned in our potato freezing trials the apparatus proved highly effi- cient and satisfactory. In most of these trials the appar- atus was so adjusted as to drop the temperature in the experimental chamber to 0°C. at the end of the first half hour and to lower it 31/2 de- grees each hour thereafter un- til the desired minimum was reached. For determining the internal temperatures of freezing potatoes. Miiller-Thurgau ’s method was employed as described by him ( 1 , p. 168). Two thermometers were used, one of which was sus- pended in the air of the freezing chamber, the other in a cavity made in the end of a tuber as shown in figure 4. FIG. 4.— LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF TUBER AS USED IN SUPERCOOL- ING EXPERIMENTS Thermometer bulb (B) is inserted in cavity (O made m stem end of tuber (T). 10 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 46 In order to preclude any undue pressure or tlie freezing of sap from the cut surface of the tuber upon the mercury bulb of the thermometer, the thermometer was so suspended that it did not press against the bottom of the pit and the cavity was made about twice as great in diameter as the thermometer and was carefully dried out with filter paper to rid it of free sur- face sap. No doubt the mercury bulb touched the walls of tills cavity but the data (Table IX) indicate that the tempera- ture readings were not influenced perceptibly by pressure or the freezing of water upon the bulb. While the temperatures obtained in this may not indicate the temperatures of the whole tuber, they do markedly differ from the air temperatures and give some indication of what may be taking place inside the tuber. In the 1918 experiments carefully selected tubers were used chiefly of the Rural New Yorker variety. These had in all cases been harvested and stored without risk of freezing and suffi- cient numbers of untreated tubers were cut open to prove them to be generally free from internal lesions. This enabled us to proceed confidently in their use without previous cutting of each experimental tuber since this exposure of freshly cut tis- sue introduces a disturbing factor. The later trials were con- ducted during the latter part of the normal storage period, February-July. In some cases the tubers were kept previous to trial in the warm, dry laboratory long enough to secure par- tial wilting in order to compare normally turgid with Avilted specimens. In the latter part of the pei'iod (March-July) Triumph potatoes Avere introduced into the trials. These had been preAuously stored at .temperatures approaching 0°C so that there had resulted a considerable sugar accumu- lation. In June and July recently dug, immature southern samples of Triumphs were available for comparison Avith this old stock. Some Early Ohios and Irish Cobblers Avere also tested at this time. In preAUOus years trials had been made in- volving different varieties, degrees of turgidity, and stages of matuiity. The details regarding these are given later in this article so that it Avill here suffice to state that in general neither variety, size, relative turgidity nor stage of deA^elopment nor maturity of the tuber influenced in sniy marked degree the li- ability to frost necrosis or the type of resultant injury. Frost Necrosis of Potato Tubers 11 The Symptoms of Frost Necrosis in Potato Tubers Effect of freezing upon the potato. A potato tuber that has been completely frozen will upon thawing be soft and watery and will quickly collapse or decay. If the tuber is cut open water drips freely from it and even before cutting the sap freed by freezing oozes through the skin so that the surface is soon wet. This soft, wet condition immediately indicates the trouble to one experienced in handling potatoes exposed to frost. Very often potatoes are thus frozen and collapse on one side only (PL, fig. C), owing to one-sided contact with a frosty cellar wall if in storage or to a cold car floor if in tran- sit, or it may occur through partial exposure at or near the surface of the ground before harvest. If such a frozen potato is cut across soon after thawing the cut surface of the interior flesh, although watery, is not at first discolored. Upon ex- posure to the air it will, however, very soon pass promptly through pink, red, and brown discolorations to a uniform inky blackness. This, according to Bartholomew (3, p. 631), is due to the oxidation of certain elements in the freed sap upon their contact with the air. Evidently the absence of discoloration before the tuber is. cut is due to the fact that in the process of freezing and thawing the sap passes from the interior of the cells to the intercellular spaces thus driving out the free air and making its reabsorption almost impossible until the tuber is cut. It is often the case in nature that the exposure to freez- ing temperature stops short of the time or degree necessary to the uniform or complete freezing of the tubers. In this case few or none of them may show the softening or the wet surface characteristic of the frozen tuber yet, when they are cut open, various types and patterns of internal discoloration may be found. Since such frost necrosis may bear close resemblance to other types, of internal discoloration of the potato tuber, and indeed necrotic lesions of different types may occur in the same lot of potatoes, we have undertaken to induce frost necrosis by experimental methods in order to determine the various forms of lesions. Symptoms of frost necrosis as developed experimentally. As a rule, potatoes from the experimental freezing chamber which do not immediately show evidences of complete freezing, i. e.. 12 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 46 become soft and watery, will thereafter develop no external evi- dences of injury even though extensive internal necrosis has resulted. In exceptional cases, however, upon tubers having a clean, smooth, white skin, locally darkened areas may gradu- ally appear where the interior discolored areas lie in the cor- tex close under the skin (fig. 7, B). This is not, however, a uniformly reliable symptom and even where detected requires confirmation through cutting of the tuber. pig. 5.— diagram op longitudixal section op a potato tuber The heavier black portions represent vascular elements, the stippling indicates trans- lucent tissue of high water content. The vascular ring (r) connects the stem end of the tuber at the right with the eyes scattered over the surface. The other gross stnietures are as follows: Corky epidermis (e), cortex (c) with scattered phloem elements (ph), outer medulla (om) with scattered phloem elements (ph), and inner medulla (im). The internal lesions of frost necrosis appear as discolored areas in the flesh. These may not show marked discoloration in tubers cut immediately after their removal from the freez- ing chamber, but, as will be discussed later, color differentia- tion is completed after five or six hours. In many cases this discoloration is quite definitely limited to the vascular ring or follows the finer network of vascular elements which branch from this through the outer cortex or interior pith regions. Fre(|uently where the injury is more severe or of longer stand- Frost Necrosis of Potato Tubers 13 ing the discolored lesions appear as blotches or diffused areas scattered less regularly through the flesh. Even iu such cases critical exaiuiuatioii shows that the discolorations are limited to well-defined areas. This can best be determined by exam- ining a thin razor section of a necrotic tuber by transmitted light. In such sections the central core of pith and the vascu- lar elements are highly transparent in contrast with the starch- filled parenchyma cells of the cortex and outer pith, and the darkened cells killed in the process of freezing are almost without exception those of the vascular elements and the cells bordering upon them. As is shown in figure 5 the arrangement of the vascular sys- tem of a potato tuber is unlike that ordinarily met with in modified stems for in addition to the vascular ring there are throughout the cortex and pith — except in the inner core men- tioned above — a network of small branching conductive ele- ments largely composed of phloem elements, and when these vascular elements are all blackened we have a typical net ne- crosis (fig. 2, A and PL, fig. D). This symptom, however, is less common in potatoes frozen in field, pits, etc., than are the blotches which appear in the cortex, vascular ring and outer pith, and which have as centers vascular elements (fig. 3). Mliller-Thurgau (6, p. 455) noted this distribution of lesions and figured it in 1886. He says in regard to the tubers in which ice crystals have been formed, These tubers showed externally in no way the appearance of frozen potatoes, but when they were cut, soft places were evident which, upon ex- posure to the air, turned red and later brown. As the obser- vations showed, these dead tissue areas were the parts where the first crystal formation had occurred. These were never uniformly distributed throughout the potato but showed alike in over 100 trials of this kind a very constant relation in that they occur in the cambium-zone and immediately adjacent parts.” He adds, “In addition to the roundish dead spots in such po- tatoes one finds early-killed cells about the irregularly-running little bundles of vessels which are the places where the ice is formed very early and it is possible that along these paths the freezing process is distributed to new centers.” Why these 14 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 46 tissues are more susceptible to low temperatures tlian others is a question for the plant physiologist to determine. Miiller- Thurgau attempted to explain it upon the basis of water or carbohydrate content, but gives no conclusive results based upon experimental evidence. Types of necrotic lesions. No two frosted potatoes show identical internal lesions but we have found it practicable and convenient to distinguish three types of necrosis which may be FIG. 6.— NET AND RING TYPES OF FROST NECROSIS EXPERIMENTALLY PRODUCED Cross section of two tubers which had been exposed before cutting to a temperature of —5.5° C. for two hours. The symptoms are much moi'e intense than those produced at higher temperatures (See fig. 1). A— Intense net discolorations. Notice blackened vascular elements in both medulla and cortex. B— Intense ring type somewhat complicated by blotch. termed net, ring, and blotch. Tt is, of course, to be under- stood that any such grouping is somewhat arbitrary, that one type often merges into another, and that of each there are variations. (1) In the net type there is more or less general blackening of the finer ramifications of the vascular elements extending as a network from the vascular ring internally toward the pith and to a less extent externally into the cortical region (fig. 6, A and PI., hg. D). (2) The ring ty})e is characterized by a more pronounced blackening of the tissues in and adjacent to the vascular ring. It may be rather wide and diffuse (fig. 9, B) or narrow and Frost Necrosis of Potato Tubers 15 intensely blackened (fig. 6, B) and is often restricted to the stem end. (3) The blotch constitutes a less well-de.tined type where the discoloration appears as small ovoidal or larger irregular patches ranging from an opaque grayish color to sooty black. These occur most commonly in the vascular ring and cortex although they may be located in the pith (fig. 7, A and B, and PI., fig. A, E). FIG. 7.— BLOTCH TYPE OF FROST NECROSIS A— Longitudinal section of a tuber exposed to temperatures ranging from 0° to — 4° C. for nine hours. Blotches more abundant in stem end. B — Cross section of the stem end of a necrotic tuber. The intense blotches in the vascular and cortical regions were evidenced by dark areas on the exterior of the tuber. When any considerable number of tubers are subjected to identical freezing conditions it will be found upon cutting them open that different types of frost necrosis may have resulted so that one cannot with exactness associate these different symp- toms with definite temperature exposures. Numerous observa- tions have, however, shown that some conditions of freezing give a preponderance of certain necrotic types. For example, with Kural New Yorker tubers held at -5°C. for two hours a high percentage of net necrosis resulted (Table 3), the symp- toms becoming more intense with prolonged exposure. This 16 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 46 FIG. 8.— BLOTCH TYPE OF FROST ^ECROSIS FOUND IN STORAGE A— Cross section of the stem end of a tuber frozen in storage. B — I.ongi-section of the remainder of the same tuber. The lesions in this case are confined to a relatively small portion of the stem-end. The growth cracks in the interior flesh have no relation to freezing injury. Fkost Necrosis of Potato Tubers 17 same symptom type occured in the Triumph variety as a re- sult of an exposure of -8°C. for less than two hours and prac- tically never at higher temperatures. The ring type is but slightly less common than the blotch in tubers of all varieties subjected for long periods to high freezing temperatures. Both occur commonly in potatoes which have been frozen in storage. Less definite blotch discolorations of the opacpie type predomi- nate in field frozen siiecimens (fig. 8), freiiuently being re- stricted to a sunburned side of the tidier, AVith Rural New A^orkers this blotching occurs with prolonged exposure, 12 hours or more, at -3°C. Tubers of the Early Ohio variety often in our trials showed a sooty ring, water-soaked and intensely black even when not subjected to extreme exposures. These observations, which are in the main deduced from a series of experiments with well-matured tubers, during winter storage, are not presented as final evidence that varietal differences are constant factors. On the contrary, examination of hundreds of samples of several varieties of potatoes which were accidentally frozen do not indicate any such uniformity. They do show, however, that minor varietal differences appear where freezing conditions are accurately controlled. A\^hile we have learned to expect internal darkening of the tissues as a regular symptom of severe frost necrosis, there are mild types in which this may not show much when the tubers are first cut open. In some such cases, even with tubers which had stood for a number of hours after removal from the freez- ing chamber, the only evidence of frost necrosis upon cutting them open was that the injured areas seemed drier and filled with air, and they showed a grayish-white tint when first ex- posed but within a short time turned red, then brown, mean- while shrivelling somewhat. Although kept for a week or more none of these vascular or other injured tissues turned dark except on the cut surface. AA^e have interpreted this as a mild type of local injury in which after certain cells were killed their freed sap was so absorbed by the adjacent tissues as to hasten their collapse and permit the entry of air into the intercellulars. In addition to the symptoms above described potatoes may begin to freeze on the outside before any internal injury has taken place. This occurs most commonly where potatoes are 18 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 46 touching a freezing surface (PL, fig. C) but also often happens in the Triumphs which have a very thin corky layer. Rarely it occurs in other varieties and without any apparent cause. Symptoms of frost necrosis as found in storage. The occur- rence of early autumn frosts in northern Wisconsin in both 1917 and 1918 caught potatoes so frequently that there have been numerous opportunities for observing the resultant effects upon such potatoes during winter storage. In general, these FIG. 9.— DRIED OUT NECROTIC LESIONS ITibers found in storage in March 'which appeared perfectly sound externally. A— Net type of frost necrosis in which pitting has resulted from drying out. B — Rang type, very opaque discoloration, also pitted. observations have shown that under good storage conditions and where only internal necrosis occurs the symptoms do not change much. As a result, tubers showing the milder degrees of internal frost necrosis may lie in the storage bin all winter practically indistinguishable from the normal tubers with which they are intermingled. It is true that if the internal le- sions are very extensive such tubers will tend to wilt or shrivel worse than the normal ones and show internal pitting when cut (fig. 9). Also, Pusarium dry rot attacks them rather more freipiently, ])robably following up the dead vascular areas from the stem end tissues. So far as can be judged from general Frost Necrosis of Potato Tubers 19 observations, such Fusarium invasion in its earlier stages merely intensifies the injuries, slowly increasing their area and giving the tissues a darker color, but not essentially changing their type. If this proceeds to the later stages of dry rot the distinguishing symptoms of frost necrosis are soon obliterated. Black heart symptoms may also complicate those of frost ne- crosis particularly in storage. While it is probable that in many cases these symptoms may have resulted from other fac- tors than those which condition frost necrosis there is some evidence that they may occur as a re.sult of freezing.^ In Feb- ruary, 1919, some tubers were found in Rhinelander, Wis., which showed both the net type of frost necrosis and black heart. They had been stored in a well-ventilated room held at temperatures constantly below 60°F., averaging nearer 40'^F., and had been subjected to one sudden freezing tempera- ture when a door had been left open on a very cold day. Rate of discoloration of frozen tubers. Since the lesions of frost necrosis result directly from the oxidation of cells killed during the freezing process, they are not evident in tubers when they are first removed from the freezing chamber but appear only after such tubers have been exposed to warm air for sev- eral hours. In order to determine the color changes which occur during the oxidation process and the time necessary for their com- pletion, experimentally frozen tubers were thawed at different temperatures and slices cut from them at short intervals during several days. It was determined that the color cycle, like that described and pictured by Bartholomew (3, p. 631) for black heart, ranges through pinks, browns, and grays and seems to ^ The difficulty of learning exactly the causal factors concerned with internal discolorations is well illustrated by recent observations with two lots of seed potatoes. In one case the grower stored his potatoes temporarily in pits in the autumn and found some “wet” tubers indicative of freezing upon trans- ferring later to the winter storage cellar. These were sorted out and the rest of the tubers, some of which were preserved for seed, kept well and be- gan to sprout normally the following May. When cut open during the winter storage period frequent cases of frost necrotic discoloration were detected. Preparatory to planting the tubers were disinfected in May and then left in the open for several days to dry and start new sprouts, being covered with blankets. Upon cutting this seed stock it was found to show much black heart in addition to frost necrosis. The grower suspected frost as responsible for all his injury but E. T. Bartholomew, who examined this with us, diag- nosed the black heart as resulting from heat consequent on exposure to the sun following disinfection. This was confirmed by similar exposure of an- other lot of seed tubens, known to be free of internal discolorations. Leaving these a few hours exposed to hot .June sun was enough to induce a consider- able amount of black heart. MTiile this heat injury is less likely to occur at digging time it is nevertheless possible, especially with the earlv or southern crop. 20 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 46 develop simultaneously throughout the injured tissues. The time required for the ultimate dark color to be reached de- pends in part upon the air temperature ; thus, at temperatures of 10° to 15°C. from ten to twelve hours were required, while at 25° to 30 °C. only five or six hours were necessary. There was no evidence that the rate of thawing influenced the degree of injury nor that tissues which had received severe freezing injuries blackened more rapidly than did those with lesser in- juries. Frost Necrosis Symptoms Contrasted With Those of Other Tuber Maladies^ In freshly frozen tubers frost necrosis may, in general, be easil}^ distinguished from other potato tuber diseases by the distribution and color of the lesions. Sometimes it may happen that the lesions shown by a single tuber may be so little char- acteristic as to leave one in doubt, but if several tubers are available, confident judgment is, usually possible. If, however, such tubers have lain for some time following the injury, sec- ondary storage rots may set in and complicate matters. Since the same forms of storage rot may follow secondarily after various other initial injuries the only recourse in such cases is to seek for as clear evidence as is obtainable concerning the character of the initial injuries and base final judgment upon this.” It is also helpful in diagnosis of injuries in stored pota- toes to know the region from which the tubers came since, to ^ Since detailed descriptions of the above-mentioned tuber diseases occur in current phytopathological literature no attempt is made here at their full characterization. Should this be desired in any case the following citations will furnish illustrated accounts: Late Might dry rot, Jones, L. R., Giddings, N. J., and Lutman, B. F., Investigations of the potato fungus Phytophthora infestans. U. S. D. A., Bur. PI. Ind. Bui. 245, pi. 2, 1912 ; Fusarium dry rot, Orton, C. R., Potato diseases. Penn. State Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 140, p. 26, fig. 13, 1916 : Bacterial brown rot. Smith, E. F., Bacteria in relation to plant dis- ease, V. 3, p. 174, pi. 23, 1914 ; Net necrosis, Orton, W. A., Potato wilt, leaf-roll and related diseases. U. S. D. A., Bur. PI. Ind. Bui. 64 (professional paper), p. 8-9, pi. 2, fig. 2, 1914 : Black heart, Bartholomew, E. T., Black heart of potatoes. Phytopathology, v. 3, pp. 180-182, pi. 19, 1913 ; Internal brown spot, Horne, A. S., The symptoms of intemial disease and sprain (stj'eak-disease) in potato. Jour. Agr. Sci., v. 3, pp. 322-333, pi. 19, 1910. 2 Critical attention has been given to the symptoms of frost necros's as it appears in the city markets, especially in the markets of Chicago where northern grown potatoes are handled, by Geo. K. K. Link and M. IV. Gardner. Their observations were continued over a period of sufficient duration to afford an opportunity to study both initial frost injuries and those compli- cated by storage rots at different seasons. The writers have had access to their results in an unpublished manuscript which will be issued later by the United States Department of Agriculture as a handbook of diseases of vege- tables occurring under market, storage, and transit conditions, prepared un- der the direction of W. A. Orton of the Bureau of Plant Industry and AV. M. Scott of the Bureau of Markets. Frost Necrosis of Potato Tubers 21 one acquainted with conditions, this may give important sug- gestions as to the probable initial causes. The commonest of such types of tuber injury initiated by factors other than freez- ing are as follows: 1. Dry rot. Of these, late blight rot caused by Pliijioplitlwm infestans is distinguished from frost necrosis by the fact that the initial lesions are strictly superficial, the discoloration rarely proceeding deeper than the cambial region and with no tendency to follow the vascular distribution as does frost ne- crosis. The common types of Fusarium dry rot, of which examples occur in practically every lot of storage potatoes, as a rule show conspicuous external lesions and when cut open the un- invaded flesh is uniformly bright and normal in appearance whereas freezing injuries show as persistent discolorations. 2. Wet rot, soft rot. Following severe freezing injuries to po- tatoes all fully frozen tissues collapse immediately upon thawing. Often only part of a tuber is so involved, in Avhich case the re- maining flesh if cut open may show the net or blotch lesions characteristic of frost necrosis. As a rule, however, bacterial wet rot immediately follows as a secondary trouble and pro- ceeds to the destruction of the entire tuber. In case of severe attacks by the bacterial blackleg disease the tubers may show a soft rot either while in the soil or soon after harvest. In most cases, however, such rapid wet rot is a secondary devel- opment following late blight or some other initial injury to the tuber, especially in heavy wet soils. 3. Ring necrosis. Stem-end bundle blackening occurs in some degree in many potato tubers, showing as a darkening when the stem end is cut across. This may be very shallow (perhaps one-eighth inch or less) in which case it is considered non-parasitic in origin, or it may extend well through the length of the tuber, in which case it is usually attributed to Fusarium invasion. The former type should lead to no con- fusion with frost necrosis but the latter may. In general, it may be differentiated by its being more strictly limited to the vascular elements of the cambial ring without the attendant net necrosis or blotch lesions of frost necrosis. 4. Brown rot. This name is applied to the bacterial disease, caused by Bacillus solanacearum, which may cause a wet, slimy 22 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 46 rot of the vascular rino;. It is, however, readily distinguish- able, as a rule, by the showing of a typical grayish bacterial exu- date from the vascular elements in the earlier stages, by the wetter condition of the tuber in the later stages, and by its restriction to sonthern stock, whereas frost necrosis is to be ex- pected in northern stock. 5. Net necrosis. This name has been applied to a condition where the vascular elements brown more or less throughout the flesh of the tuber even during the developmental stage, i. e., be- fore digging. This is considered non-parasitic and is inherit- able from generation to generation. It seems impossible by ap- pearance alone to distinguish confidently between this inherit- able net necrosis and the net type of frost necrosis. In prac- tice, however, where one is dealing with any considerable num- ber of examples of necrotic tubers, there will probably be little difficulty in correct diagnosis. In the case of frost necrosis only a part of such tubers should show lesions of the net ne- crosis Type, others showing ring and blotch discolorations. Probably in most eases some significant evidence may be ob- tainable also as to the history of the sample, including liability to exposure to freezing temperatures. 6. Black heart. The typical black heart lesions, resulting from high temperature storage or asphyxiation through con- finement with insufficient free oxygen, consist of clearly de- limited internal discolorations. In certain cases of frost ne- crosis as already cited (see p. 19 ) J. P. Bennett has found black heart symptoms where tlie history of the tubers seemed to preclude the above types of asphyxiation. In any case, this is not likely to be common or seriously confusing. 7. Internal brown spot. This non-parasitic and non-infec- tions malady is characterized by definite brown spotting of the interior flesh of the tuber. It is readily distinguishable by its 1)1*0 vni color from the internal grayish or purplish black frost blotch necrosis. The distinct ian is made surer by the absence in this brown spot malady of any tendency toward vascular discoloi*ation of the ring or net types so commonly associated with frost necrosis. According to Horne’s description inter- nal brown spot lesions may be delimited by cork cells in which case microscopical examination should assure their differenti- ation from fi’ost necrosis. Frost Necrosis of Potato Tubers The Amount and Types of Frost Necrosis Which Occur AT Different Temperatures Because later experiments (pp. 35-36) show that the rate of fall of temperatui’e is one of the factors M'hieh seem to influ- ence the amount of injury tubers sustain Mflien chilled, the fol- loM'ing data are compiled entirely from the 1918 experiments in which the Potter freezing machine -was used. They sIiom’ a certain uniformity in the types of injury Mdiich occur at the same temperatures, but also indicate the striking individual resistance of tubers in many cases. Unless otheinvise indicated, tubers of the variety Rural New Yorker were used in these tests, and the air temperature was dropped at the rate of 3V2°C. per hour after the zero point was reached. The per- centage of injury as shown in these tables is not very conclu- sive since only 10 or 15 tubers at most were exposed at one time. However, they correspond in general with the data obtained in the earlier experiments where larger numbers of potatoes were exposed under uniform conditions out-of-doors and where individual resistance also showed strikingly. Injury above -3.2 °C. Muller-Thurgau (4, p. 147) held that the critical temperature at Avhich potatoes regularly began to freeze was -3.2°C. and Applenian (2. p. 333) stated that this process began at temperatures ranging from -2.2° to -3.3 °C. In our experiments, therefore, the attempt was made to recon- cile their results. In numerous experiments tubers were held at -2°C. for hours (in some cases for 48 hours) and no injury ever resulted. Similarly, temperatures ranging from -2.0° to -2.5°C. were tested and found to be too high to produce injury. Bet^veen -2.5° and -3.0° C., hov'ever, although frost necrosis did not ahvays occur, it did in perhaps 50 to 75 per cent of the experiments, depending upon the length of the exposure and the individual susceptibility of the tubers under trial. The following table gives data as to amounts and predominating types of injury from several of the experiments in vdiich tem- peratures of from -2.5° to -3.2°C. were used. TYPES OP FROST NECROSIS IN MARKET POTATOES A.— STEM END INJURY Cross section of the stem end showing irregular blotches. The whitish areas together with the wilted appearance of the surface ot the tuber indicate drying out which often follows freezing injury in storage. The general distribution of lesions in such tubers is well represented in figure E, a longitudinal section of another tuber in which injury is restricted to the stem end. B.— GENERAL DISCOLORATION OF STEM END TISSUES Cross section of the stem end in which blotches are accompanied by a general dis- coloration. Whitish areas in the cortex again indicate drying out. C.— RING DISCOLORATION AND ONE-SIDED FREEZING INJURY Cross section of a tuber one side (left) of which was evidently in contact with a freezing surface. The double ring of darkened vascular elements may have resulted from the same exposure as did the one-sided injury or from another exposure to freez- ing temperatures. D.— NET TYPE OF FROST NECROSIS Section of a tuber which shows a very uniform darkening or browning of the vascular elements throughout the tuber. This symptom is very common in turgid tubers which have been exposed to temperatures approaching — 5°C. Notice how sharply the injury is limited to the vascular elements. E.— STEM END INJURY OF THE BLOTCH TYPE Longitudinal section showing discoloration and drying out of the outer tuber tissues. Note that the injury is confined to the upper portion of this tuber, which is the ?tem end. See also figures A and B. Ih’produced from hand-colored photographs made under the direction of (r. K. K. Link and M. W. Gardner of the Bureau of Plant Imlustry, U. S. Department of Agri- culture. Frost Necrosis of Potato Tubers 27 Table I — Types and Amounts of Injury at — 2.5° to — 3.2°C. '27.5° TO 26.2°P ) Exp. No. Exposure 1 Injury Temperature °C. Period Frost necrosis 1 Frozen solid 1 -2.5° 6 hrs. none none 2 -2.5° 12 hrs. blotch (faint), 20% 3 -2.8° 12 hrs. ,15% 4 -2.5° to -3.0° 18 hrs. “ (sooty), 30% “ 1 5 -2.6° to -3.2° 18 hrs. and ring-. 60% 6 -3.0° to -3.8° 18 hrs. 1 “ “ . 80% 10% 7 -2.8° to -3.2° 24 hrs. 1 , 100% 80% ’ In experiment No. 4 two tubers which had been peeled were included. These were frozen solid and the unpeeled were not. See farther data bearing- on this. Table III. Exp. 8, Table IV, Exp. 2, and later discussion of this point. From Table I it appears that long exposures to critical tem- peratures are conducive to the production of the blotch type of injury, and that they ultimately result in the tuliers freezing solid. The fact that this blotch type of discoloration is found commonly in field frozen specimens and that it occurs so regu- larly from prolonged exposure at these high temperatures is significant. Occasionally, however, the ring type is produced at these temperatures. Injury at -3° to -4.5° C. The temperatures below -3°C. were employed in further experiments to determine the time during which such temperatures must be maintained in order to pro- duce frost necrosis and also to furnish material for studying symptoms of tubers frozen at these lower temperatures. In storage and transportation tubers are often accidentally sub- jected to dangerously low temperatures for short periods. Table II gives the result of several experiments in which these temperatures were employed. 28 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 46 Table IF -Types and Amounts ob' Injury at — B.2° to — 4.4°C. (20.2° to 24°F.) Blxposure Injury Uvp. No. Temperature °C. Period Frost necrosis solid 1 —3.2 to 3.7 5 hours Blotch, 10% None 2 —3.2 to -4.0 5 hours Blotch and ringr, 20% .... None 3 —3.6 to —3.9 3 hours None None 4 —3.7 to —3.9 2 hours, 30 mhi None None 5 -3.6 to —4.2 5 hours Blotch and ring", 50% .... None () —3.5 to —4.2 12 hours None 100% 7 —4.0 to —4.3 3 hours Net and ring', 60% None 8 —4.2 to -4.4 2 hours, 30 min Net and ring-, 50% None Injury at -5° to -5.6° and at -6° to -8°C. The results of both the 1916 and 1918 experiments, show that the highest per- centage of net necrotic discoloration occurs after short ex- posures to temperatures of -5° to -5.6°C. These are not exclu- sive of other types but they predominate. Table III — Types and Amount of Injury at — 5° to — 5.0°C. (2B° TO 21.9°F.) BIxposuhe Injury h.xp. No. Temp. 1 °C. _l Period F'rost necrosis Frozen solid 1 hr.. 30 min blotch and net, 30% noiip 1 -5 ] 50 “ I'ing' arid net, 100% 3 1 -5 blotch and net, 50% 4 —5 3 blotch, 70% 30% 5 1 -5.5 1 ", 30 min ring’ and net, 20% none 1 ", 50% 6 1 —5 . 4 V ■' l>lotr*h and net, 60% 8 1 —5.6 1 1 " ring- and net, 60% 2 peeled Frost Necrosis of Potato Tubers 29 Table — Types and Amount op Injury at — 6° to — 8°C. (21.2° TO 17.0°F.) Exp. No. Exposure Injury Temp. °C. Period Frost necrosis Frozen solid 1 —6.0 1 hr net, 80% nonp 2 —6.2 30 min “ and rinK", 20% (2 iieeled) 3 — 6 . .5 45 “ “ Idotch, 60% nonp 4 —6.8 30 “ “ riiiff, 40% 5 —7.0 1 hr “ “ l)lotch, 70% 6 -7.4 45 min “ “ •• , 100%.... “ 7 —7.8 2 hrs 100% 8 -8.0 1 ‘ net and l)lotch, 100% 0 The net type seems almost as prevalent at these lower tem- peratures (-6° to -8°C.) as at the next higher (-5° to -6°C.) but in each case where it is, recorded as being present the blotch predominated. In experiment No. 8 the net type occurred in Triumph potatoes while the l)lotch refers to the condition in the Rurals. Not only do these experiments show that net necrosis de- velops very commonly as a result of short exposures at rather extreme temperatures, but it has been found as the predominat- ing type in cases of freezing injury to storage potatoes where the temperature has been known to drop suddenly. On the other hand, it has rarely been observed in cases of field injury before digging. Injury at -10.5° to -11.7°C. Potatoes freeze solid at tem- peratures below -10°C. if they are exposed for any considerable time. Internal frost necrosis develops promptly in all such tubers with the blotch type predominating over the net. It is also of interest to note that at these extreme temperatures freezing begins more often at the surface and proceeds iiiAvard. Thus, in experiments 3, 4, and 5 of Table V the tubers reported as frozen solid were not entirely frozen but had begun thus to freeze from the surface, and in some the peripheral half- inch Avas thus killed but the interior was intact. 30 Wisconsin Eesearch Bulletin 46 Table V — Types and Amount op Injury at — 10.5° to — 11.7°C. (13.1° TO 10.9°F.) Exp. No. Etposure Injury Temix j Period °C. 1 j Frost necrosis Frozen solid -10.5 45 mi7iiites liloteh a)id net, 70% none 30% 60% 60% 90 fo 2 -11.0 30 minutes. “ “ 70% 3 -11.2 1 hour blotch, 40% 4 -11,7 45 minutes ; . 40% ,5 -11.7 1 hour , 10% Relation of Tuber Condition to Susceptibility to Freezing Throughout the course of these investigations individual susceptibility of tubers to freezing injury appeared constantly in field and storage as well as in experimentally frozen specimens, and it seemed probable that it might be explained by some in- ternal condition of the tuber which could be produced experi- mentally if the external factors were controlled. Consequently, potatoes at different stages of growth which had been subjected to varying storage conditions were exposed to similar freezing temperatures and the results compared critically. Relative resistance of mature and immature tubers. During the season potatoes of different stages of maturity were tested for resistance. Three plantings of the Rural New Yorkers were made on June 1, July 13, and August 10, respectively. All were dug on October 3, at which time the tubers from the first planting were mature, those from the second about half- grown, while those from the third measured from one-half to two-thirds, of an inch in diameter. Soon after harvest, when these tubers Avere still turgid and unmodified by storage, trials were made in Avhich se\mral tubers from each of these plantings wei‘c exposed to the same freezing temperatures but no consistent difference in susceptibility appeared. To be sure, in some trials a larger number of mature than immature tubers remained normal, but in others the immature tubers seemed more resis- tant to freezing temperatures. As is common Avith turgid Rurals the net symptoms predominated in all of these tubers. Frost Necrosis of Potato Tubers 31 Figure 10 shows three of these potatoes, one from each plant- ing, which were exposed together to -6.5° C. for about two hours. Influence of relative turgidity of tubers. It is a natural supposition that the relative turgidity of the tuber tissues may influence their susceptibility to freezing injury. In some of the earlier trials partly wilted tubers were exposed along with turgid FIG. 10.— INFLUENCE OP MATURITY UPON SUSCEPTIBILITY TO FROST INJURY' Sections of three tubers of different stages of maturity which were exposed together to a temperature of —6.5° C. for two hours. All w’ere harvested on October 10: A from seed planted June 1, B from seed planted July 13, and O from seed planted August 10. ones, and no consistent differences developed. Such comparisons have been made at various times during three seasons with like results. Owing to the individual variations between tubers it is difficult to make as convincing comparisons as might be desired, and it is impracticable to use a divided tuber for such experi- mental purposes because of the possible disturbing effect of cut surfaces upon supercooling. In an effort to establish moisture conditions which were as nearly uniform as possible, in some later experiments turgid 32 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 46 Rurals were carefully paired off as to size and weight, the pairs numbered as 1 and V, 2 and 2', etc. Numbers 1, 2, 3, etc., were placed in a damp chamber and V, 2', 3', etc., in a desic- cator and both stored at a temperature of 10° C. Several pairs of tubers, e. g., 1 and V, 2 and 2', etc., were removed and ex- posed to freezing temperatures each week for a period of two months and although the tubers used may have gained slightly or lost considerably in weight during storage their suscepti- bility to freezing was not consistently altered. Tables VI and VII show the results of two experiments which give an idea of the distribution of injury in the two lots of potatoes. Table VI — Symptoms op Frost Necrosis as Shown in Pairs op Tubers Which Were Stored Under Dipperent Moisture Conditions por 6 Weeks and Then Exposed Together to — 4° to — 7° C. (24.8° to 19.4° F.) POR 2 Hours Tuber Weights In Grams Per Cent Gain ( + ) OR Loss (-) Frost Injury Oriff- nal 1 After 6 weeks Damp chamber Desic- cator Damp chamber Desiccator Damp chamber Desic- cator . 31 34 29 -i-9 -16 net (faint) blotch (sooty) 55 55 48 0 -13 normal ring- 34 34 29 0 —15 ring- “ 50 50 44 0 ! -12 normal 51 51 48 0 -6 * As indicated al)ove each one of a pair of experimental tubers had the same orig- nal weiyht. A comparison of these results shows that loss of turgidit>^ does not consistently alter susceptibility. For example, the desiccated tuber of the second pair lost 13 per cent of its or- iginal weight (55 grams) and was injured upon exposure to freezing temperatures while its turgid mate remained normal but in the fourth and fifth pairs the opposite condition ob- tains. There the desiccated tuber of the fourth pair lost 12 per cent of its original weight (50 grams), that of the fifth pair 6 jier cent of its original weight (51 grams), and yet both Frost Necrosis of Potato Tubers 33 apparently gained in resistance to freezing. Results of the same type appear in Table VII. Table VII — Symptoms of Frost Necrosis as Shown in Pairs of Tu- bers Which Were Stored Under Different AIoisture Condi- tions FOH 6 Weeks and Then Exposed to — 2.5° to — 7.0°C. (27.5° to 19.4° F.) FOR 2 Hours Tuber weig'hts. grams Per cent, gain (-1-) or loss ( — ) Frost injury Orig-inal After 6 weeks Damp chamber Desic - cator Damp chamljer , Desiccator Damp chamber 1 Desic- cator 2.3 ; 23 21 0 -9 normal 1 ring (faint) 43 4.5 41 +2 2 ring (opauue). . net 28 28 19 0 —32 black heart 40 40 38 0 — 5 ■■ (faint) net (faint) 61 61 58 0 —8 normal Here the desiccated tubers of the first and fifth pairs seem less resistant and in the other cases the symptoms differ only slightly in the corresponding pairs. However, where the tuber was very much wilted, as was the desiccated one of the third pair, which lost 32 per cent of its water content, intense symp- toms were produced which resemble black heart. This is an ex- treme form but it occurs not uncommonly, and it is indicative cf the increase of sootiness of necrotic symptoms with decrease of water. Relation of sugar content. Miiller-Thurgau (6, p. 493) has shown that the relative sugar content in the tuber may influ- ence its freezing point. For example, by preliminary storing at low temperatures he raised the sugar content from 0.53 per cent to 2.21 per cent. His trials then showed that the true freezing point with these tubers was lowered from -1.0° C. for those of the normal .sugar content, to -1.5°C. for tho.se of the excessive sugar content. It is to be noted, however, that in his trials he secured extremes of variation far beyond those which are ordinarily met with in normal potato tubers and even so the influence upon the freezing point was not proportionately great. This factor may. however, be influential in determining the relative injury to the different tissue elements in the tuber. 34 AVisconsin Research Bulletin 46 Influence of wounds and bruises upon susceptibility. The presence or absence of a film of moisture on the exposed sur- face of a wounded or bruised tuber seems to determine the in- fluence of such wounds and bruises upon susceptibility to freez- ing injury. When wounds or bruises are corked or healed over as in the case of common scab, dry rot, or mechanical injuries, they have no important influence upon the susceptibility of the tubers. Even freshly cut surfaces often seem not to cause freezing to take place at higher temperatures as Mliller-Thur- gau (4, p. 172) predicted. In his experiments with freshly peeled tubers he found that supercooling was prevented by the presence of the surface film of exuded sap on such tubers. He explained this as, being due to the fact that this free sap began to crystallize at the freezing point of sap (about -1.0° C.) and that when the sap throughout the tuber was chilled to this de- gree the presence of crystals on the outside caused the freez- ing process to extend from the outside inward, without the usual supercooling phenomenon. In our experiments tubers were freshly cut in different ways, some were peeled and some split in half longitudinally, and from others slices were cut, most often from the stem end. It was found that peeled pota- toes usually froze solid at temperatures which produced only minor injuries, if any, in sound tubers. In a few cases, how- ever, typical necrotic symptoms appeared in these peeled tu- bers just as in the case of tubers with surfaces only partially exposed. In some cases freezing started on these cut surfaces and progressed inward for two or three millimeters while the usual necrotic symptoms appeared in the deeper-lying tuber tissues. Relative susceptibility of sprout and tuber tissues. Sprouts have in our experiments always proved more resistant to freezing injury than the tissues of the tuber from which they arise. As a result, if a sprouted tuber is exposed to freezing temperatures the parent tulier may show considerable internal necrosis and have its sprouts unaffected (fig. 11). Since this has an im- portant healing upon the relation of frost necrosis to the value of potato seed stock, numerous trial plantings were made, some in sand in the greenhouse bench and some in the field soil. In certain of tliese experiments, in order to make closer com- ])arisons, the trial tubers were cut in halves, one half being Frost Necrosis of Potato Tubers 35 PIG. 11.— EFFEOT OP FROST OX VIABILITY OF TUBERS A and B (Upper) — Sections of two tubers which were stored at 25° C. for three months, chilled at —5° O. for two hours, then returned to the 25° C. temperature. O and D (Lower)— Control tubers held constantly at 25° C. Sprouts had developed on all tubers when A and B were frozen. Freezing produced necrotic symptoms in A and B without apparent injury to the sprouts which, however, continued to grow much less vigorously than did those of the control tubers, as is shown in this photograph taken three months after A and B were chilled. The photo- graph also indicates the lack of storage rots and drying out in necrotic tubers, even where stored at such a relatively high temperature. 36 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 46 held as a control, the other chilled after the surface was well dried olf. In practically all cases such exposed tubers retained viability even where there was internal necrosis but the sprouts started more slowly, and where the frost necrosis was very ex- tensive the parent tuber rotted before the sprout developed in- dependent roots. As a result, planting frost-necrotic tubers in the field yielded only about 50 per cent of a stand. Those plants which survived, although they started more slowly, made rapid gains later and were ultimately as vigorous and productive as the normal controls. The tubers thus secured from this frost-necrotic seed were in turn all examined for any traces of vascular necrosis, and found to be free. While this was to lie expected, it is worthy of note as again emphasizing the distinction between net necrosis induced by freezing injury and the hereditary net necrosis from which the symptoms may sometimes be indistinguishable. While, therefore, in general, it is inadvisable to plant tubers showing any large amount of frost necrosis, nevertheless slightly necrotic tubers may safely be used if one cuts them and rejects pieces Avhich show lesions extensive enough to predis- pose to rot.^ Supercooling and Ice Crystallization Associated with Frost Necrosis No attempt has been made in connection with these studies to follow the microscopic phenomena associated with the changes in the potato, but it has been the conclusion of pre- vious investigators that the formation of ice crystals in the sap is antecedent to the death of such plant tissues. So far as our evidence bears upon the matter, it is in accord with this idea. In most cases where frost necrosis resulted it was, indeed, pos- sible to detect ice crystals in the tissues either by tbeir macro- scopic appearance if the tubers were immediately cut open, or by bolding the suspected tuber close to one’s ear and pressing ^Supplementing- IMiiller-Thurgau’s 1882 work (5) Wollny (8) attempted to determine the influence of prolonged cold storage upon the viability of tubers. He took normal tubers, divided tiiem into longitudinal halves and stored one set of halves in a cold chamber at 0°C. and the controls at 10° C. After 35 days he planted each set separately and recorded growth throughout the sea- son. The aerial vegetative parts were quite uniform from both kinds of tubers but at harvest time the hills from seed tubers which had been stored at 10° C. contained moi-e and larger tubers than did those from the parent seed tubers which had been stored at 0° C. Frost Necrosis of Potato Tubers 37 sharply between thumb and finger, when the presence of ice crystals is revealed by a faint crunching sound. This is, how- ever, but a crude test and its unreliability was shown by the fact that frost necrosis appeared in some cases where ice crys- tals were not so detected. Still more significant is the fact that in other cases ice crystals were heard when no evident injury resulted. So far as any conclusion was justified, therefore, it is that frost necrosis does not necessarily result from a slight amount of ice crystallization but that this must proceed to a certain advanced stage to produce death of the associated tis- sues. It is a matter of common experience concerning the effect of freezing upon plant tissues that there are wide variations in susceptibility and various theories have been developed to ac- count for this. Since our experiments give no new evidence bearing on these we will simply record the facts without attempt- ing to relate them to such theories, attempting to relate them to such theories. Another interesting phenomenon having relation to ice crys- tallization is that known as supercooling. On this some evi- dence was secured. It is a familiar fact that any licpiid must be cooled to some temperature below its freezing point before crystallization begins. This range of temperature below the freezing point is supercooling. Following supercooling there is a sharp temporary rise of temperature to the higher degree, this latter constituting the true freezing point of the solution (fig. 12). Since potato sap carries considerable matter in solu- tion its freezing point is lower than that of pure water. Mliller- Thurgau determined it to be about -1.0°C. but in our experi- ments it often more nearly approximated -2.0°C. than -1.0°C. and varied Avidely Avith individual tubers (Table IX). Muller-Thurgau found further that Avhere he made compara- tive determinations of the supercooling points of living plant tissues and of the expressed sap, the living tissues had a loAver supercooling point than did the expressed sap. He also found that when the potato Avas frozen, then thaAved, and frozen again, the extreme supercooling Avas not required for the sec- ond freezing. This loAvering of the supercooling point in living tissues he attributed to the resistance of active protoplasm. 38 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 46 Relation of time element to supercooling. Miiller-Thurgau held that the supercooling point varied directly with the air temperature to which the tuber was exposed; i. e., was de- pressed with the fall of air temperature. He justifies this con- clusion by such data as are given in Table VIII. Table VIII — ^^Mullek-Thurgau’s Results Showing Relation of Supercooling Point to Air Temperatures Exp. No. Exposure Potato Temperatures Temperature °C. Time Supercooling- point "C. Freezing- point °C. - 4 5 2 hours -3.2 -0.8 -50 uot ffi veu -3.5 -1.2 - 7.2 -4.1 -1.4 4 -11.0 4 hours -1.0 - 9 to -12 5 “ -6.1 -0.98 From our experience it requires some further explanation than is afforded by Miiller-Thurgau ’s figures to understand why freezing should have occurred at the end of 2 hours at -4.5 °C. and at the end of 4 or 5 hours at the extremely low temperatures of experiments 4 and 5, Table VIII. Muller- Thurgau, in his, experiments, already explained, had no way of regulating the rate of fall of the air temperature in his freez- ing chamber. Fortunately, with the Potter freezing apparatus we were able to do this. We therefore undertook to repeat Muller-Thurgau’s experiment controlling this time factor. The results, as shown in Table IX, indicate that the rate of fall of the air temperature influences the supercooling point. Frost Necrosis of Potato Tubers 39 Table IX — Relation op Supercooling to Rate op Fall op Freezing Temperatures Exp. No. Variety Air Temperature Potato Temperature Max. temp. °C. Time to drop from o" to max. temp. Super- cooling' point °C. ^ Time to super- cool Freezing point °C. 1 Iviii'al —5.5 9.5 m i n —4.0 1 0,5 m i n —1.25 2 —5.0 90 “ —4.95 174 “ —1.3 3 —10.5 80 “ —4.2 73 “ —1.8 4 —11.0 40 “ -3.1 49 “ -1.7 5 Irish Cobbler —5.6 20 “ —3.5 100 “ —1.7 6 —6.0 60 “ — 5 • 5 125 —1.7 7 —11.0 55 “ -3.2 58 “ —2.3 8 Early Ohio. . . —4.4 120 “ —4.15 112 “ — 1.9 9 —8.0 40 “ —2.2 75 “ —1.6 10 “ “ ... -11. 0 45 “ -2.8 55 “ — 1.5 Prom these data it seems evident that the supercooling point does not vary simply with the air temperature but that it is influenced by other factors, including the rate of fall of the temperature. Comparing tubers of the same variety, experi- ments 3 and 4 show that in 3 a slow drop to -10. 5C. gave a lower supercooling point (-4.2 °C.) than did a rapid drop in 4 to practically the same point. With another variety, in experi- ment 6, a slower drop to -6°C. gave a lower supercooling point (-5.5°C.) than did the rapid drop to -11°C. in experiment 7, (supercooling point -3.2°C.). It will be noticed that in gen- eral the supercooling points recorded in our trials (Table IX) represent about the same range as Muller-Tliurgau’s (Table VIII). These are also in accord with our general experience; viz., that potatoes do not begin freezing until exposed to -3°C. or lower. It will be noted, however, that in two cases, experi- ments 9 and 10, the supercooling point was reached above -3°C. These are to be regarded as exceptional cases requiring ex- planation. In the first place, in this method (see fig. 4) muti- lated tubers are used and where freshly cut surfaces are ex- posed, even with precautions to dry them, the supercooling point may be raised. In the second place, the supercooling point may be influenced by such external factors as mechanical disturbance, as was indicated in some of our experiments. 40 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 46 The ultimate freezing point. The ultimate freezing temper- atures as shown in Table IX are in general somewhat lower than Miiller-Thurgau’s, Table VIII. In both cases it will be noted that there is a considerable variation. It will be evident that the method employed can give only approximate results at the best, and also that this varies with individual tubers. Relative temperatures of air and potato. Tables X and XI show in detail the comparative temperatures of air and the in- terior of the potato tuber and the supercooling range as fol- 7Jme /n Minutes FIG. 12.— GRAPH REPRESEN'l’ING THE RELATIVE TEMPERATURES OF AIR AND TUBER IN SUPERCOOLING EXPERIMENTS The upper curves represent the temperatures of the interior of the tubers and the lower represent corresponding: air temperatures. Tlie dotted lines indicate the tempera- tures in experiment No. 4 (Table 0) while tlie continuous lines belong to expenment 3 (Table 9). A comparison of these curves sliows that where the air temperature dropped rapidly, as in experiment 4, tlie supercooling point of the tuber occurred more quickly and at a higher temperature than where tlie air temperature was dropped slowly, ex- periment 3. See further evidence of this in Tables 10 and 11 and accompanying text. Frost Necrosis of Potato Tubers 41 loAved through two experiments, in one of which the tempera- ture fall was more gradual than the other. In both cases the internal temperatures could not be accurately recorded in the earlier stages owing to the fact that the thermometers Avere graduated only for loAver temperatures. These data are, hoAV- eA^er, unimportant. The apparent influence of the rate of fall of air temperature upon the supercooling range is shoAAui graphically in figure 12 . Due to the sudden i-ise of temperature in the interior of the potato just folloAAung the supercooling period, all curves aaFIcIi represent the internal temperature of potato tubers liaA^e a profile similar to that represented in this graph (fig. 12). Table X — The Internal Temperature Variations of a Potato When the Air Temperature Is Dropped Sloavly to — 5°C (Table IX, Exp. 2) Temperature Time Air Potato °C. °C. 0 -^-10 10 min 0 20 -1.0 40 -1.8 50 “ —2.4 PO “ -2.7 70 “ -2.7 +2.0 80 " -4.6 +0.3 80 ‘ —5.0 -0.9 100 “ -5.4 -2.0 110 “ -4.6 —2.7 115 ‘ -4.8 -3.2 120 ‘ -4.8 -3.3 125 “ -4.7 — 3.5 130 “ -4.9 —3.8 135 '■ -4.6 —3.9 140 “ -4.8 -4.1 145 -4.7 -4.2 150 “• —4.7 -4.4 155 • -5.0 -4.5 160 “ -4.7 -4.7 165 '• -5.0 —4.7 170 “ -4.85 171 “ -4.9 172 “ -4.91 173 “ -4.92 174 “ —4.95 175 “ -2.9 180 “ -1.8 185 “ ; -1.5 190 “ -1.4 195 “ -1.3 200 “ --1.3 203 “ -1.3 42 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 46 Table XL — The Internal Temperature Variations of a Potato When the Air Temperature Is Dropped Slowly to — 10.5 C. ( Fable IX, Exp. 3. The Same Data are Graphed in Fig. 12.) Time Temperature Air °C. Potato °C. 0 min -fl.O +0.0 — l.O 10 “ 15 “ —2.0 20 “ —2.8 25 ‘ —3.3 30 “ —4.0 35 ‘ —4.5 40 “ —5.2 45 ‘ — 5 . 5 +2.0 +0.2 50 “ —5.8 55 “ —6.0 1 —0.3 60 —7.8 1 —1.4 65 —8.2 —2.9 70 “ —8.7 —3.2 71 “ —8.8 —3.4 72 —9.0 —3.8 73 “ — J.l : —4.2 74 -9.2 j —4.1 75 “ —9.3 i —2.9 76 “ —9.5 —2.5 77 “ —9.7 —2.4 78 “ —10.0 —2.35 - 79 “ —10.0 —2.3 80 “ ; —10.2 —2.1 85 ‘ ! -10.5 -L8 90 “ 95 ‘ 100 Summary 1. The potato crop sutfers a considerable damage each year l)ecause of freezing injuries. 2. The most serious danger in Wisconsin and the other nor- thern states is in autumn, when the early frosts come before or during the period of digging and handling the crop. 3. Similar danger exists in all the stages of transportation and delivery of the crop during the winter. 4. Where the tubers are frozen solid they immediately col- lapse upon thawing and because of their wet appearance are easily detected and sorted out. 5. In case of mild exposure only a part of the tubers ma}^ be So frozen, the rest appearing normal externally. Such tubers Frost Necrosis of Potato Tubers 43 are commonly held as satisfactory for storage, market or seed purposes. 6. If, however, these tubers are cut open, although all are externally sound, a certain proportion of them will usually show evidences of internal frost necrosis. 7. Such internal freezing injuries are not ordinarily visible ex- ternally, even after long storage, but in white-skinned varieties they may show as darkened areas on the skin, and in pro- longed dry storage frost-necrotic tubers wilt faster than normal ones. 8. Frost necrosis is, however, at once apparent upon cutting open the tubers because of the darkening of the necrotic tis- sues. 9. The tissues of the stem end of the tuber are in general more sensitive to freezing injury than those of the eye end and the vascular tissues more sensitive than the parenchymatous. 10. As a result, tubers subjected to freezing temperatures when cut open may show internal discolorations of any of three types: (1) Ping necrosis, discoloration of the vascular ring, especially evident at the stem end when the tuber is cut cross- wise ; (2) net necrosis, in which the vascular tissue including the small thread-like phloem elements scattered through the pith and cortex are darkened; and (3) blotching, in which dis- colored tissue in patches, usually having vascular elements as centers, is distributed irregularly throughout the tuber. 11. Frost necrosis, especially of the net and ring types, is frequently confused with other potato tuber maladies, es- pecially with the inheritable (non-parasitic) net necrosis and the Fusarium bundle browning, or ‘'ring disease.” It is es- pecially important to differentiate these various types of trouble in potato seed stock. 12. Since the steam end tissues are the more sensitive, inter- nal frost necrosis is most quickly detected by cutting off a little from the stem end of samples of suspected tubers, es- pecially any such as show incipient wilting. 13. The necrotic discolorations develop promptly after the freezing (within a few hours, faster at higher temperatures), passing through pink to dark brown or black and ordinarily undergoing very little further change thereafter, even during long storage. 44 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 46 14. When drying out occurs in storage it is often evidenced internally by whitish air-filled patches or, in the more extreme cases, by small cavities within the blackened areas. 15. The turning sweet of potato tubers is often, but incor- rectly, attributed to freezing. It is due to long storage at low temperatures which are, however, above the point of frost in- jury, and it will disappear if the tubers are again held at higher temperatures. Hence, while sweetness indicates that tubers have been held for some time dangerously near their freezing point, it does not indicate that they have been frozen. 16. There is, a considerable difference between individual tu- bers in susceptibility to frost injury, even in the same lot of potatoes. 17. In general, neither variety, size, maturity, nor relative turgidity of potato tubers infiuences to any marked degree the liability to injury nor the type of resultant frost necrosis. 18. “Sweet” tubers may be more resistant to freezing than normal tubers. Mliller-Thurgau showed experimentally that tubers with excessive sugar content regularly froze at lower tem- peratures than other tubers, but that the difference between the freezing points of “sweet” and normal tubers was not sufficient to be of economic importance. Our experiments in this case are too limited to be conclusive. 19. When wounds and bruises are healed over they appar- ently do not influence susceptibility to freezing. However, in tubers with freshly cut moist surfaces, freezing may begin at relatively higher temperatures and in such cases the injuries may consist of a freezing solid of the tissues from the cut sur- face inward. 20. In general, frost necrosis will appear in at least a portion of tubers which are subjected to a temperature of -10°C. for one hour, to -5°C. for two hours, or to -3”C. or slightly lower temperatures for several hours. 21. Although the actual freezing point of potato sap is about -1°C. the living tuber will endure long exposure to temperature at or near -3°C. Avitlioiit injury. This is because of the fact that the tissue must be supercooled before incipient ice crystal- lization can occur, but once this begins there is a sharp rise of the internal tempei*ature to about -T^C., the true freezing Frost Necrosis of Potato Tubers 45 3)oint, and the freezing injury continues to develop at this higher temperature. 22. The supercooling range seems to be dependent upon the air temperature and the rate at which this temperature is dropped. Thus, at -3.5° C. the supercooling point approaches the air temperature. If the air temperature is dropped slowly to -5°C. or below, it will approach -5°C. while if dropped rapidly to the same point it will be much higher, i. e., nearer -3°C. 23. Sprouts are more resistant to freezing than the tubers from which the}^ arise, but uninjured sprouts on necrotic tu- bers often do not outlive the germination period, probably due to extensive vascular injuries of the tuber ; hence if chilled tubers are planted they often fail to produce plants. 24. Plants produced by the frost-necrotic halves of experi- mental tubers grew more slowTy than those from the control halves, but ultimately produced as large and healthy plants and as abundant a crop. 25. Necrotic symptoms never appear in the progeny of frost- necrotic seed potatoes. Literature Cited (1) Apelt, Arthur 1907 Neue Untersuchungen iiber den Kaltetod der Kartoffel. Inaugural Dissertation, Universitat Halle, Witten- berg. (2) Appleman, Chas. O. 1912 Changes in potatoes during storage. Md. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 167. (3) Bartholomew, E. T. 1915 A pathological and physiological study of the black heart of potato tubers. In Centbl. f. Bakt. Abt. 2, Bd. 43: 609-639, PI. 1-3. (4) Miiller-Thurgau, Hermann 1880 Uber das Gefrieren und Erfrieren der Pflanzen. In Landw. Jahrb., Bd. 9: 132-189, PL 1-4. (5) 1882 Uber Zuckerhaufung in Pflanzentheilen infolge niederer Temperatur. In Landw. Jahrb., Bd. 11: 7 51-8 28, PI. 26. 1886 Uber das Gefrieren und Erfrieren der Pflanzen. II Theil. In Landw. Jahrb., Bd. 15: 453 — 610, PI. 7-10. ( 6 ) 4G AYiscoxsin Kesearch Bulletin 46 ( 7 ) Norton, J. B. S. 1906 Irish potato diseases. Md. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 108. (8) Wollny, E. 188 9 Die Beeinflussung des Produktionsvermdgens der Kar toffelpflanze durch Einwirkung niederer Tempera turen auf die Saatknollen. In Forsch. Geb. Agr Phys., Bd. 12: 398-402. Research Bulletin 47 October 1920 Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin B. H. HIBBARD J. D. BLACK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON CONTENTS Page Tenancy in Wisconsin lower than in most north central states 1 Types of leases 2 The cash lease 3 The half-and-half dairy lease 5 Provisions common to both leases 9 Distribution of cash and share leases 10 Short versus long leases 11 Duties of tenant and restrictions 14 Provisions of half-and-half dairy lease 24 Land-and-stock cash lease 31 Landlord’s cattle-dairy-lease 32 The one-half-all-stock lease 35 The one-third-stock lease 35 The one-third-grain lease 36 The one-half-grain lease 36 The share-cash lease 37 The grain-and-dairy lease 37 The agreement to work land 38 Cash versus share renting 39 Division of farm income 42 Under cash rent 43 Under share rent 47 Dividing the expenses 54 Relations between landlord and tenant 56 Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin B. H. Hibbard, J. D. Black Tenancy in Wisconsin is low in percentage as compared with that of many other north central states, yet there is a large number of farms operated by tenants, and in the older settled sections even an increasing proportion. Tenancy is low in Wisconsin because land is relatively cheap in many counties, because farms are relatively small, because much of the population has sprung from European countries where ownership of a small farm is preferred to renting, because the livestock farming practiced in Wisconsin is not as well suited to renting as grain farm- ing, and because there has been less speculation in land in Wisconsin than in most other states. These same reasons explain the distribu- tion of tenancy in Fig. 1. It is highest in southern Wisconsin where land values are highest, but low in eastern Wisconsin where farms are small and the population is foreign. The high land values in the Rock River valley make tenancy fairly high as far north as Fond du Lac County. Large farms and grain farming in central and western Wis- consin produce much tenancy, even though land values are rather low. Beef-cattle farming reduces the number of tenants in Grant and Iowa Counties. Grain farming increases it in St. Croix, Pierce, Dunn, Jack- son, Green Lake and Columbia Counties. Tobacco farming increases » it in Dane County. Speculation around cities increases tenancy no- ticeably in Milwaukee, La Crosse, Winnebago and Dane Counties. Speculation in new land shows its effect in Forest, Vilas, Oneida and Washburn Counties. Juneau, Adams and Monroe have more rented land than one would expect with land values averaging in 1910 from $25 to $50 an acre, but these are the counties with large acreages of land farmed out to neighboring owners. In 1910, out of 177,127 farms in Wisconsin, 24,654, or 13.9 jier cent, were worked by tenants, as compared with 41.4 per cent in Illinois, 21.0 per cent in Minnesota and 15.8 per cent in Michigan. Besides the 13.9 per cent of farms rented, there were 681,396 acres worked under lease by neighboring owning farmers. Rented farms are larger than owned farms. Of the total land in farms in Wisconsin, 19.0 per cent was rented in 1910. Ill 1910, slightly more than half of the tenant farms of Wisconsin were rented for cash and the rest were rented on shares. At cash rent, only in a few cases is livestock let with the land. At share rent, in a 2 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 majority of cases either part or all of the livestock is rented with the land. Leases covering both land and stock are called “land-and-stock leases.” Share leases without livestock are ^^rain leases.” Leases partly share and partly cash are called ^'share-cash leases.” FIG. I. LAND IN FARMS AND LAND RENTED IN WISCONSIN. 1910 The black represents land not in farms, either because it has not been made into farms, or because it has been taken out of farms for some other purpose. Each dot represents 2,000 acres of rented land. The following four general types of land-and-stock share leases are used in Wisconsin: (1) The half-and-half dairy lease, under which the landlord furnishes one-half the productive livestock and receives one- half the proceeds and increase of livestock; (2) the landlord's cattle dairy lease, under which the landlord furnishes all the productive live- stock and receives one-half; (3) the one-half all-stock lease, under which the landlord furnishes one-half of all livestock and machinery Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 3 and receives one-half; (4) the one-third stock lease, under which the landlord furnishes all the livestock and machinery and receives two- thirds. The grain leases used are of two kinds, the one-third grain lease, under which the tenant furnishes everything but the land, and gets two- thirds of the grain at the machine, and the one-half grain lease, under which the landlord furnishes part of certain expenses such as seed, twine and threshing. In some localities mixed grain-and-dairy leases are found. By far the most important types of leases now in use are the regular cash lease and the half-and-half dairy lease. Following are sample leases of these types such as are now in force in Wisconsin. Lease I. — Cash Lease Description Term renewal Rental Payments Security Duties of tenant THIS AGREEMENT, Made this 5th day of January, 1915, by and between of , Lafayette County, Wisconsin, hereinafter called the landlord, and , of , Lafayette County, Wisconsin, here- inafter called the tenant. WITNESSETH, That said landlord, for and in consid- eration of the cash rental and agreements hereafter named, does hereby lease to said tenant his farm of one hundred and sixty (160) acres, more or less, with all buildings and improvements located thereon, situated in Lafayette County, and described as follows: The W. V 2 of the S. W. ^ of Sec. 3 and the E. 1/2 of the S. E. of Sec. 4, all in Town , Runge , East, TO HOLD, for the term of one year from March 1, 1915, and thereafter for four more years, unless either landlord or tenant shall notify the other to the contrary on or before December 1st, 1915, said tenant paying said landlord there- for an annual rental of seven hundred (700) dollars. Re- ceipt of one hundred (100) dollars of said rental for the first year said landlord hereby acknowledges. The re- mamder of the rent for the first year is to be paid in equal payments on September 1st, 1915, and February 1st, 1916, and is secured by two promissory notes for three hundred (300) dollars each, expiring on the before mentioned dates, bearing interest at six (6) per cent thereafter till paid, and signed by a third party approved by said landlord. And if this agreement is extended as before mentioned, then said tenant shall at once execute to said landlord eight promissory notes for three hundred and fifty (350) dollars each, expiring on September 1st and February 1st of the four successive years, bearing interest at six (6) per cent thereafter till paid, and signed by a third party approved by said landlord. Said tenant further agrees as follows: to farm said premises in a good and husband-like manner; to put into crops all stubble land ; to plow no land now seeded to grass. 4 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 Seeding Grass seed Selling crops Manure Orchard Gullies Weeds Fences New fences Building repairs Windmill and pump Insurance rules Duties of landlord Grass seed Repairs Improve- ments Firewood except with the consent of said landlord j to perform all tile work connected with sowing whatever clover and tim- othy seed said landlord shall furnish; to plant not more than twenty-five acres to corn each year, and to keep such corn reasonably free of weeds; to sell no hay or grain or roughage of any kind except with the consent of said landlord and to keep enough livestock to feed out all crops grown on said farm ; to haul out all manure once each year and put it on the land which is next to be plowed for corn; to plant and care for all fruit trees provided by said landlord ; to keep the land from washing by not plow- ing through seeded ravines and ditches and by keeping ail washouts filled; to cut or dig all noxious weeds in time so as to prevent tiieir going to seed; to cut the*weeds in the fence-rows and around the buildings, and to the middle of the road,; to keep all the fences on said farm in good re- pair and order, the landlord furnishing wire and staples, and lumber for gates; to cut all fence posts needed for re- pairs and for new fences, and to furnish half the labor for building all new fences; to keep the barns and other outbuildings in good repair, furnishing all ordinary labor, and to replace all doors and windows broken duo to his acts or neglect, or those of his employees; to keep the windmill well oiled and pay for all ordinary pump and windmill repairs; to haul all materials which are to be used in making repairs or improvements on said farm, including the gxavel for a 6 ft. foundation for a 16 by 40 ft. silo, and to board any workmen of said landlord engaged in making these repairs or improvements at the rate of four (4) dollars per week; and to observe all the rules of the Mutual Insurance Company with respect to tank heaters, threshing engines, etc. Said landlord further agrees as follows: to furnish clover or timothy seed enough to sow well and thickly', at least fifteen acres each year, and to replace any last year’s seed- ing that winter-kills; at the beginning of the lease to put in good repair the pump, windmill, cistern and all doors and windows, and thereafter to furnish material except posts for all repairs to buildings or fences not occasioned by misuse of tenant or his employees, and to provide one- ]mlf the labor for all new fences; to repair the roof of the dwelling house on said fairni and at the beginning of the lease to make said dwelling house habitable in all ways; to build a 16 by 40 ft. silo and have it ready for the ten- ant’s first corn crop; and to pay said tenant ten (10) dol- lars a year to cut and dig and use all possible means to eradicate the patch of Canada thistles growing on said premises. It is further agreed that said tenant shall use as firewood first the tops of trees used as fence posts and after that the down and then as much dead timber as he may need; Faem Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 5 repairs tenant shall pay for all papering and painting and other inside repairs to the dwelling house on said farm and replace all broken glass in windows and doors; that Taxes said landlord shall pay all real estate taxes except the road taxes, which said tenant shall work out or else pay as an Quittance to his rent. There will be left on said farm on require- March 1st, 1915, six (6) acres of rye, 200 raspberry bushes, nients 25 currant and gooseberry bushes, and a year-old strawberry bed started from 200 plants, and said tenant shall leave the same as to amount and quality at the end of the lease. Said tenant may remove from said farm at the end of the lease enough feed to keep the livestock which he has kept on said farm until the new crop is ready for feeding; but Sub letting- straw shall be taken from said farm. Said tenant shall ‘ ^ot assign this lease nor under-let said jd remises; and said Right of Tandlord shall have the right to enter upon and view said entrance premises at all reasonable hours and to make repairs or improvements on said premises; and if either party shall mljnent" respect fail to carry out any of the provisions of this lease, then the other party may hire the same done as herein written and the costs thereof shall be paid by the party failing to carry out said provision; and either party Termmationj^^g^y terminate this agreement on March 1st of any year, except the first or the last, by giving notice on the Decem- dSurbance^^®^’ preceding of his purpose to do so and paying or forfeiting to the other party the sum of one hundred (100) dollars, except that there shall in such case be added or subtracted from said one hundred (100) dollars all amounts due one party from the other resulting from failure to cany out any part of the lease. Quitting of at the expiration of this lease, said tenant agrees to yield possession without further demand or notice of the above described land and premises, leaving them in as good order and condition as the same were in when said tenant entered upon them, loss by fire or inevitable accident and ordinary wear excepted. And all the agreements herem contained shall bind said parties mutually, and their respective heirs, executors and assigns. Witness the hand and seal of said parties the day and year first above written. Signed, Sealed and Delivered in the Presence of (Seal) (Seal) (Seal) Lease II. Half-and-Half Dairy Lease THIS AGREEMENT, made this 1st day of December, Date 1910^ between of the city of , County of ^ State of Wisconsin, hereinafter called the landlord, 6 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 Term Renewal Buildings and repairs Fences Clearing land Improve- ments Labor Horses and machinery Hauling Manure Repairs Care of fields and of Township of the same county and state, hereinafter called the tenant, WITNESSETH, that said landlord does hereby lease to said tenant his farm of 160 acres, known as the McGowan Farm, located in Township of the County and State above named, together with all buildings and improvements upon it, TO HOLD the same for a term of one year from March 1, 1917, and thereafter for four more years unless notice is given by either party in writing to the contrary before December 1st preceding, and thereafter from year to year unless notice be given as above described, UPON the following terms and conditions: Sec. I. Said landlord agrees — 1. To furnish to said tenant the above described farm and premises, put all buildings in repair at the beginning of the lease, and thereafter keep same in repair, except as hereinafter provided. 2. To furnish all material for building and repairing fences, and pay for the labor of building all permanent line and field fences. 3. To pay for man labor expended in ditching and in clearing of brush, trees, stumps and stone, except as mentioned in Section II. 4. To build during the summer of 1917 a new hen house large enough for 100 hens. Sec. II. Said tenant agrees: 1. To farm said farm in a creditable and workmanlike manner, properly caring for all crops and all livestock kept upon it. 2. To furaish the labor for the above, the same to con- sist of not less than the continuous labor of two men from the beginning of the spring field work to the close of corn harvest, and such other labor as is needed. 3. To furnish the necessary horses, machinery and tools, except such as are mentioned in Sec. Ill, 4. 4. To haul all produce to market, including milk, except that charges made by creameries or condenseries for haul- ing shall be deducted from cream or milk checks before they are divided. 5. To haul all feed, fertilizer and fence and building material. 6. To keep the manure hauled out, cleaning up the prem- ises in spring and fall of each year. 7. To make all ordinary repairs on buildings, especially to doors and windows, said landlord supplying all mate- rials therefor except window glass. 8. To kee]) all fences in repair and build all temporary fences. 9. To remove from j^lowed land before sowing or plant- ing all stones that have been plowed to surface. Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 7 Livestock Farm expenses Seeds Extra machinery Horses Colts Additional land Taxes 10. To cut and destroy all noxious weeds in time to pre- vent their going to seed, handle quack grass in such man- ner as not to spread it, and take all reasonable care to keep the fields from gullying. Sec. III. It is further agreed that ; 1. Said landlord and said tenant shall each furnish on March 1st, 1917, an equal number of milk cows, heifers, brood sows, and chickens, and these, together with the herd bull, which shall be a registered Holstein, shall be owned in common and in equal undivided shares. It is agreed that said herd shall contain not less than 24 milk cows. 2. Each party shall pay one-half of all expenses (except labor) for threshing, silage-cutting, shredding, feed grind- ing, twine, feeds and fertilizer, and veterinary services (except for horses). All the feed (except straw) now on said farm shall be measured and the tenant shall buy one- half of it, or provide an equal amount of the same general kind and quality. 3. Each shall furnish half the seed grain and grass and clover seed, except that on the last year said tenant works said farm, said landlord shall pay for all grass and clover seed. 4. There are now on said place one manure spreader, one gasoline engine for pumping water, one milk separator and engine for driving it, one milk cooler, and a quantity of milk bottles and cans; and said landlord and tenant shall own these articles jointly and in common, said tenant paying said landlord one hundred and fifty ($150) dollars for a half interest in the same, one-half the purchase price of any of the same if replaced new, and selling his interest to said landlord at the end of the lease at such price as shall be agreed upon. 5. Said tenant shall furnish gasoline and batteries for said engines, and keep the engines, pump and windmill in repair. 6. Said tenant shall have undivided feed for his horses, but he shall keep not to exceed five horses, raise no colts without the consent of said landlord, pay all horseshoeing and horse veterinary bills, and make no charge to said land- lord for horse labor, and if it is decided to raise colts, said tenant shall furnish the mare, said landlord shall pay the stallion fee, and the colts shall be owned jointly. 5. Said tenant shall lease no additional land without con- sent of said landlord ; but if it is agreed to lease such land, said landlord shall pay all the rent for crop land and half the rent for pasture land. 6. Said landlord shall pay all taxes on property jointly owned, but said tenant shall work or pay the road taxes as- sessed to said farm. 7. Said tenant shall build fences for said landlord, ditch, clear land, and dig or otherwise destroy Canada thistles, if 8 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 he has time to spare from the regular farm work, at such times as said landlord shall request, and shall receive pay for the same at the regular prevailing daily wages. Boarding 8. Said tenant shall board all workmen hired by said workmen landlord at four (4) dollars per week. Sec. IV. It is further agreed that — Managem,ent 1. In general the fields shall be worked on a four-year of crops rotation consisting of corn, small grain, clover and timothy, and pasture, and clover and timothy shall be sown with all small grain; but this plan may be changed at any time by agreement between the two parties if possible, or if such agreement is not possible, at the direction of said landlord. Buying and 2. Said tenant shall sell or buy property owned or to be selling owned jointly only at the consent of said landlord. PivStock tenant shall breed no heifers till they are 21 months old, shall be responsible for all injury to animals due to their getting out through gates or unrepaired fences, and shall keep all cattle off the pasture and fields while the ground is soft, especially in the spring. 4. Said tenant shall weigh and record all milk from pure- bred cows. Division of proceeds Milk checks Milk Eggs Garden Potatoes Firewood Sec. V. The proceeds of said farm shall be divided as fol- lows: 1. All crops and livestock products, and the increase of all livestock, shall belong half to each party, and said tenant shall pay one-half the proceeds from the sale of same to said landlord immediately upon receipt thereof, except that — 2. After deducting a charge for hauling, if there be such a charge, the buyer of the milk or cream of said farm shall make out equal cheeks to said landlord and tenant. 3. Said tenant shall first have not to exceed 3 quarts of milk daily for family use, but no butter. 4. Said tenant shall first have eggs for family use, but not poultry. 5. Said tenant shall have all the produce of the orchard and garden on said farm. 6. Potatoes grown outside of said garden shall be divided half and half, and said tenant shall deliver the share of said landlord at his house in 7. Said tenant shall have firewood sufficient for family use from the down and dead timber, and if this is not sufficient, from live trees cut where said landlord shall direct. Sec. VI. At the end of the lease, the joint property shall be divided as follows: Sd^one^se tenant shall divide each class of livestock, as cows, yearlings, calves, hogs, chickens, etc., into two groups, and said landlord shall take his choice of the two groups Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 9 of each. In ease the two groups cannot be made nearly equal in value, as for example, where there is an odd num- ber of animals, the differences in value shall be agreed upon before the choice is made. 2. All hay, grain and fodder shall be divided by meas- urement and one-half left on the farm. Quittance 3. Said tenant shall leave all straw on the farm without menis^' compensation. 4. Said tenant shall leave 20 feet of silage in the small silo, the same as there is now at the beginning, and said landlord shall pay said tenant for half of such silage at the prevailing rate for silage of such quality. Compen- See. VII. If said lease be terminated on March 1 of any sation year by three months’ notice as hereinbefore provided, said landlord shall reimburse said tenant for all grass and clover seed sown the preceding spring, and pay said tenant for all plowing done in the preceding fall at the rate of $2.00 per acre, and also for all other labor and expense connected with sowing fall grains. Breach of Sec. VIII. If said tenant shall fail to cary out any provi- contract sion of this lease, it shall be the right of said landlord to enter upon and take possession of said premises and all the property jointly owned, and care for same till settlement can be made, which shall be done as nearly as possible according to the terms of this lease. Arbitration dispute shall arise over any of the settlements provided for in this lease, the matter shall be left to a board of three arbiters, one chosen by the landlord, another by said tenant, and the third by the two first chosen, and the decisions of this board shall be binding on both landlord and tenant. Sec. X. Said landlord hereby reserves right of entrance upon said premises at all reasonable hours in order to work and make improvements as he shall deem ex- pedient. AND said* tenant hereby agrees to quit said farm peaceably at the end of the lease. SIGNATURES OF CONTRACTING WITNESSES PARTIES Provisions Common to Both Leases In analyzing the provisions of Lease I. and Lease II. certain gen- eral differences between cash and share leases must be kept in mind. First, share leases, written in the form of Lease II, are in many re- spects partnership agreements, in which the landlord furnishes the 10 Wisconsin Keseakch Bulletin 47 farm and part of the livestock and expenses, and the tenant furnishes : the labor and the rest of the livestock and expenses. In a partnership, j the policy of the busines is determined by mutual agreement. At share ; rent, therefore, the landlord has a larger amount of control and super- vision of the farm operations than at cash rent. Cash renting predominates in eastern and northern Wisconsin, in south- : western Wisconsin, and in a small group of counties in west-central ; Wisconsin, share renting predominates in the dairy counties of the Rock ! River Valley; and in the potato andi tobacco sections of central and ; western Wisconsin. ' Second, questions as to which party shall bear certain expenses can j be settled at cash rent simply by adjusting the rent to fit. At share | rent, however, custom apportions certain expenses to the landlord, ; and certain expenses to the tenant, and if any of these are changed, : the customary shares of the two parties are changed. Landlords and ' tenants can always arrange expenses as they see fit, however, for if Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 11 the lease as made favors either party in one place, an equal offset can be provided in another, even if it requires a cash payment. In the discussion following, each of the provisions will be considered by itself as to its fitness and workability; the equality of the whole division of receipts and expenses will be considered later. Third, any given share, such as one-half, is not the same on farms of all sizes and qualities with constantly rising and falling land values and prices. The share arrangement adjusts for some of these changes and differences automatically, but not for the larger part of them. Fourth, at share rent the tenant gets only a share of the returns from any expenditure of money and labor, and he furnishes all the labor. He is therefore greatly interested in any improvements and methods of farming that will save him labor, and he is only part interested in those which increase the total farm income without reducing^ labor relative to it. Fifth, most share leases are made for shorter terms than cash leases. Term, The two leases given are drawn for five and three years, respectively, with arrangements for renewal. Over half of the leases in Wisconsin are for either three or five years. A few are drawn for two or four years. More are drawn for one year, however, than any other term. Especially is this true of share leases in the older farming districts. Long leases are used in the newer northern counties and in the eastern counties, where what little renting there is, is for cash. Renewal. Renewal provisions may have more to do with keeping tenants from moving than the term of the lease. The important con- skleration is that a date be set for notice of termination, and that this date be set far enough ahead so that both tenant and landlord can safely prepare in advance 'for the next year’s operations. Three months or six months is the usual notice. If no date is set, the tenant may leave or the landlord decide to get a new tenant, any time up to 30 days prior to the end of the term, this being the length of notice required by law. The landlords who refuse to set a date because they want to keep their tenants guessing till the last moment are preju- dicing their own interests even more than their tenant’s. Since a lease can always be renewed anyway, the common ^‘privilege of renewal” and “mutual consent” clauses have little value except as an expression of good intentions in advance. Short vs. Long Leases. The actual choice is between a short lease arranged so that it can be renewed readily, and a longer lease arranged so that it can be termi- nated easily. A landlord can get rid of an objectionable tenant under a long lease as well as under a short one, provided his lease contains a satisfactory termination clause. (See “Termination of Lease”). He will have more trouble, however, with a three or five-year termin- able lease, for he may have payments for disturbances to arrange. 12 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 and compensation for work done on next year’s crops. But. he will escape many of the usual heavy losses resulting from year-to-year tenancy. Landlords do not always realize these losses, because they come B gradually. Besides, money lost in this way is never missed as much | as money paid out of hand to get rid of an undesirable tenant. A one- h year tenant even with the privilege of renewal can never bank on making his profit next year. He cannot afford to spend any extra money in keeping up the buildings and fences, cutting weeds and brush, and stopping washouts and gullies, because he does not know whether he will be on the farm to enjoy the benefits therefrom in the year fol- lowing. He farms so that he can save the most money from the farm each year at a time. As a result, the farm gradually “runs down” and the buildings and fences go to ruin, and the rents that ordinarily would increase from year to year remain at a standstill or go backward. Or else the landlord spends large sums of money in repairing damages and losses after each tenant leaves. All the modern devices for con- trolling the crop rotation and sale of crops and regulating the amount of livestock kept do not greatly reduce these losses. Another loss comes from the fact that one-year tenants cannot pay as high rent as three- and five-year tenants. It is in the second and third years, after they know their farms better and their neighborhoods better, and can grow better crops and livestock with less labor and expense, that they make the largest incomes. The losses from short terms are even greater with share than with : cash leases. With dairy farming, the dairy herd is the all-important ' thing. Neither landlord nor tenant can build up a good producing herd and have one-half of it replaced every year or two by a fresh lot of scrubs. Besides, no better way than this was ever devised for bringing contagious abortion and tuberculosis into a herd. The year-to-year share tenant has even more reasons than the year-to-year cash tenant for farming a year at a time, as is seen very clearly wdierever such ; tenancy is not connected with daily farming. The best lease for Wisconsin farming is probably a three- or five- ; year lease with provisions for renewal, termination, compensation for disturbance and unexhausted improvements, and adequate settlement, by arbitration or otherwise, at the end of any year, or in case of breach - of contract. At the end of five to eight years a Wisconsin tenant is likely to be looking for a larger or better farm to rent, or for a farm to buy, or the farm may have to be sold to settle up the estate. In^ England and Scotland, 19 and 21 year leases were long advocated but they were abandoned after a hundred years of experience with them. Rents change greatly over a long period, and as a result much injustice was done to landlord in periods when rents were rising, and to tenants when rents were falling. Besides, the tenants, even with their long leases, took all they could from the farms during the last j^ears of the lease. Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 13 When the Term Begins. When terms begin in the fall, the tenant either has to haul his winter’s supply of feed, or else sell his feed and then buy again. Such things as corn in the shock, silage, and hay in the mow are hard to measure and value. In spite of these difficulties, most tenants move in the fall wherever much fall plowing or fall seeding needs to be done. The general opinion is that off-going tenants cannot be trusted to do this work well. The line of division between fall and spring moving passes from Waukesha County through the southern half of Dodge County and thence northward through Juneau and Adams Counties to Buffalo County. Tenants to the north of this line move more frequently in the fall, south of it in the spring. However, spring moving is common in potato sections. Some leasing arrangement is needed which will get the off-going tenants to do the fall work properly, so that more tenants can move in the spring. (See under “Quittance Requirements,” page 19.) Payments and Securities. The usual plan under cash rent calls for two or three payments a year, the last one a month before tlie end of the term, and the others at regular intervals, or at times when sales are usually made from the farm. Monthly payments are becoming very common on dairy farms. Oftentimes a small payment is required in advance or when the lease is made out. Under share leases, the milk or cream checks are divided monthly, or when received, usually by the persons buying the milk or cream. Lai’ge accounts, like receipts from livestock, are best settled immediate- ly. Once a month is often enough to settle the small accounts like feed, repairs, and poultry receipts. Most share tenants keep fairl}^ good accounts. A promissory note properly countersigned and expiring at such time as the rent comes due is the commonest form of security for cash rent in Wisconsin. Chattel mortgages are sometimes applied to the tenant’s livestock, or, under grain leases or wherever the crops are worth more than the tenant’s equipment, to the growing crops instead. Some landlords ask for guarantors. Crop liens are also occasionally used in Wisconsin, but no law has ever been enacted which gives the holder thereof a prior claim over other creditors to the tenant’s crops. The security which landlords have with share tenants is the certainty of their payments from month to month and their control over the tenant’s share in the jointly owned crops, livestock, and increase. No other security is needed. In case the landlord has “staked” the tenant, that is, has sold him a half of the herd on credit, or loaned him the money wuth which to buy a herd, then a chattel mortgage is the usual form of security. Such mortgages are frequently arranged so that a portion of the tenant’s share of each milk check is automatically applied to the mortgage. 14 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 Following are examples of clauses creating various kinds of security. “Said tenant does hereby offer, and said landlord does hereby accept, as surety for the rent one John E. R , whose guarantee of payment and hand and seal are hereby made a part of this lease.” “Said tenant hereby agrees to secure payment of the six hundred (600) dollar rental due October 1, 1912, by a good and sufficient chattel mortgage on all his livestock and machinery.” “ by a good and sufficient chattel mortgage on all crops as soon as the same shall be up and growing in the spring.” “Said landlord is hereby given a lien upon the crops sown on said farm and the same when harvested as security for the performance of all the conditions and provisions of said lease.” The promissory note given as security for rent is exactly like any other promissory note. Chattel mortgages and crop liens should be made out by competent persons. The following form may be used for a guarantee of payment: For value received, I hereby guarantee, at such time as it shall become due, the payment of each and. every rental mentioned in the within lease. (Seal) Duties op Tenant and Restrictions. Wisconsin cash leases have had comparatively few restrictions, probably fewer than they should have, especially in the eastern counties, and as a result cash-rented farms have been robbed and run down much worse than share-rented farms. A few landlords go too far, however, putting in restrictions in the matter of crop rotation and choice of crops that have kept good tenants from doing up-to-date farming. Good tenants will not farm under such a lease, and consequently such landlords get only poor tenants. Share leases really need fewer restrictions because the landlord usually takes a hand in managing the farm from month to month. Crops and seeding. Restrictions in share leases as to crops are likely in southeastern Wisconsin to take the form of prescribing definite crop rotations, as in Lease II; in southwestern Wisconsin, limiting the acreage of corn; in Dodge County and northward, of requiring at least a certain number of acres of com, or “enough to fill the silo”; in central Wisconsin, of designating the number of acres of corn, rye, oats, buckwheat and potatoes. Tobacco acreage is also limited in many leases. Cash leases seldom restrict crop acreage except in southwestern Wisconsin, where landlords limit the acreage of com so as to save their hillsides from washing. These same landlords also prohibit the plowing of the natural blue-grass pastures that mantle their lime- stone hills. Keeping meadows properly seeded is one of the hardest things to Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 15 manage on rented farms. Tenants who are given a free hand are likely to break up old pastures and meadows because of their fertile, well-rested soils. Corn is the favorite crop for such fields. Some landlords, on the other hand, either restrict too much or do not provide for enough new seeding, so that in consequence rented farms have far more than their share of poor and run-out meadows. The important thing is to arrange to have new seeding always replacing the old. This is hard to arrange because clover seed often fails to catch, or new seeding winterkills. Lease I. leaves the matter in the hands of the landlord. If the tenant is required to seed a definite number of acres each year, he will have too much when it catches and comes through the winter, and not enough in other years. Following are additional provisions found in recent leases : ‘^There shall he 40 acres kept in meadow and no old meadow shall be plowed till new meadow has been seeded to take its place.” “Said tenant shall seed down as much as he breaks uj) each year, and he shall continue to sow seed until he has such an amount successfully seeded.” “No seeding shall be plowed which is not four years old.” “Not less than 25 acres shall be kept in meadow.” “Said tenant shall leave not less than 15 acres seeded down to clover and timothy at the end of the lease.” “Said tenant shall seed all small grain to clover and timothy, and break up no old sod except as directed by said landlord.” Grass and clover seed. Under share leases, bills for grass and clover seed are usualy shared equally, even with year-to-year leases. Oc- casionally landlords pay for the seed the last year on longer leases. (See under “Compensation for Unexhausted Improvements” page 21) Under cash leases, either the landlord pays for all grass and clover seed, as in the five counties in southwestern Wisconsin and a dozen more counties in northwestern Wisconsin, or the tenant pays for all the grass and clover seed, except that the landlord may do it the last year under many three and five year leases in force in the Fox and Rock River valleys. Tenants should never be expected to buy grass and clover seed under one-year leases, either cash or share, nor under longer leases, unless they are to be reimbursed in case the lease is unexpectedly terminated. Under cash leases, it is usually best for the landlord to buy such seed, especially on light or thin soils. Some tenants prefer to do their own buying, however, because they say the landlords are “stingy with the seed.” In either case the rent can be adjusted accordingly. Under land-and-stock share leases, it is proper to divide such expenses equally, but shift them to the landlord the last year of the lease, or in case of termination of lease. More and more landlords, however, especially in sections where cash and grain renting prevails, are buying all grass and clover seed and providing an offset for this in some other part of the lease. Recently many 16 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 landlords in Green, Dane, Jefferson, Rock and Walworth Counties have begun experimenting with this plan. Something must be done to im- prove the meadows on rented farms. Following are two recent provisions as to the amount of seed fur- nished or sown per acre: “Said landlord shall furnish 100 lbs. of clover seed and 50 lbs. of timothy seed each year, and said tenant shall j)roperly sow and care for it.” “Said tenant shall furnish all grass seed, and sow it at the rate of clover seed and timothy seed per acre.” Selling crops. Land-and-stock share leases usually require mutual agreement or landlord’s permission before crops can be sold. Both cash and share leases usually require all straw to be left on the farm, and some require hay and cornstalks in addition. Many share leases either require enough livestock to be kept to consume all feed grown on the farm or else specify a minimum number of cattle. Cash leases are also beginning to adopt this plan. Such restrictions as these may easily become too rigid under an unreasonable landlord. Manure. Tenants will usually haul all manure gladly, but on strange farms they do not always know where it is needed most, and besides they are likely to slight the fields farthest from the barns, especially if working under one-year leases. Consequently the landlord is fre- . quently given the right to tell the tenant where to put the manure, or ..i some definite agreement is entered in the lease as to where the manure ^' is to be spread. ■; The time of hauling is also given in many leases. This should never p be so arranged that a departing tenant has to haul manure for his successor, unless the landlord wants to pay him for it. Following are ; provisions such as are sometimes given ; _.i “Said tenant is to haul the manure now in the yard and spread it on-^ the south field across the railroad track.” “All manure is to be thoroughly cleaned out in the fall and spring, except in the fall of the last year of the lease, said tenant shall per-$ form this work only at the hire of said landlord.” S “All manure is to be hauled out daily as long as the cows are keptS in the stable, except when the ground is too soft for hauling, and all J other manure to be cleaned out of the yards at least once a year.” T^ertilizer. Very little commercial fertilizer is used on rented farmsg in Wisconsin, but a very considerable amount of fertility is boughtg in the form of feeds and concentrates. The tenant pays for half of this® on share-rented farms, and all of it on cash-rented farms. He getsf the advantage of it in the next jmar’s crop, if he is on the farm; but^ in many cases he is somewhere else. The fertilizer values from concen-fi trates last over several years, the same as do those of many commercial^ fertilizers. In England, tenants have long been allowed compensation® for any part of this fertility which is not used up when they leave.m Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 17 Some provision must be made for this in Wisconsin if tenant farming is to prosper. Gullies and noxious iveeds. Many landlords are now paying for all extra or nnnsnal work needed in handling washouts and noxious weeds. They frequently are retii:ed farmers and actually do the work them- selves. Or they may hire the tenant or some member of the tenant’s family to work with them. Or they may hire the tenant to do it on days when the land is too wet to work at so much a day or at a flat rate by the year. A tenant can be expected not to plow through the seeding in ravines and gullies, and to plow and cultivate the land so that it will wash as little as possible; also to keep his plow out of fence-row patches of quack grass and Canada thistle so as to keep them from spreading over the fields; and to destroy such weeds as interfere with his particular crops. And, if he is a one-year tenant, this is all that can be expected of him. Something more can safelj^ be asked of tenants with longer leases, but not much more. Especially, tenants cannot be expected to clear a farm of noxious weeds left to seed and spread by a previous slipsliod tenant. Checking a washout or destrojdng a thistle patch is too long a job for even a five-year tenant to handle alone. The landlord profits from such labor, and the landlord should help with it. Keeping the farm tidy. The landlord should do his best to make his building and yard neat and tidy, and the tenant should want to do his share to keep np this appearance. This means such things as cutting the weeds in tlie yards, roads, and fence-row, and keeping tools and machinery under cover. If it does not always pay in dollars and cents, it surely does in satisfaction. Fences. The commonest arrangements concerning fencing are: When the landlord furnishes: 1. Materials. 2. Materials for repairs, and materials and labor for new fences and for replacing old fences. 3. Materials for repairs and for building all fences and la- bor for building and re- placing line fences. 4. Materials, and one-half of labor in either 2 or 3. 5. i^s in any of above, but the fence posts in the form of timber growing in the woods. 6. Materials and repairs. 7. All materials and labor. The tenant furnishes: 1. Labor. .2. Labor for repairing old fences. 3. Labor for all repairs, and foi building inside fences. 4. Labor for all repairs and one-half of other labor in 2 or 3. 5. As in any of above, with cutting of fence posts in addition. b. Definite amount of new fence. 7. Higher rent, or offset in some other part of lease. A one-year tenant is not going to build any new fences if he can help it. Neither is a long-term tenant in the last years of his lease. 18 Wisconsin Eesearch Bulletin 47 Any new fences which tenants do build if left to themselves are likely to be made about strong enough to last till their leases run out. Because tenants do not repair fences in proper time, they (juickly fall to ruin. Landlords, therefore, soon weary of fence- building, and the tenant has to patch up the old fence for another year. Hence fences on rented farms are frequently “all toggles and no fence.” The very least, therefore, that a wise landlord can do is to furnish half the labor for building all new fences. Tenants can be expected to make such repairs as are necessary to keep cattle from getting out, but this is about all. Many landlords, however, are concluding that it pays them to take care of their fences after they are built so as to make them last lo)iger. Some of them even up the costs of this by requiring the tenant each year to build a definite number of rods of new fence according to certain specifications. Where the landlord hires fence work done himself, it is usually, but not always, best for him to hire the tenant to do the work on rainy or wet days. It helps out the tenant’s income and makes him better satisfied. Upkeep op Buildings and Improvements Lease I. provides an arrangement which is becoming common in leases today. The house and premises are to be put in condition at the beginning of the lease, so that the tenant shall not suffer for the neg- lect or acts of his ijredecessor. After that, the tenant is to repair all breakages to doors, windows, etc., arising from his own acts or neglect ^ or those of his employees, do the ordinary work on other repairs, as- sume full responsibility for all ordinary pump and windmill repairs, and make such repairs to the inside of the house as he desires. So many of the breakages to doors, windows, pumps, windmills, and so forth, are due to neglect and misuse that the landlord should not stand the resulting losses. The inside repairs, such as painting and paper- ing, concern very closely the tenant’s family and should be made by the tenant. Such rejiairs as shingling and outside painting should, of course, be made by th.e owner. The cistern should be put in condition at the start by the landlord, and after that cared for by the tenant. Under such an arrangement the landlord must require the de['arting tenant to leave the ])remises in good condition, or else go to considerable expense to get things ready for the next tenant. With one-year leases, it will mean making most of the repairs himself between leases. Improvements. Whenever a landlord agrees to certain inqirovements in making a bargain with a prospective tenant, the agreement should be written into the lease. If the tenant is to assist in the work, this should be put into the lease also. With the longer leases, the tenant can he ex])ected to do the ordinary hauling and a reasonable amount of the common unskilled labor. He should not be ex])ected, however, to haul without ]>ay the gravel for a concrete silo, or dig a 10-foot l)asement for Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 19 a 10 by 100 foot barn, except that whenever the tenant has free feed for liis horses he should contribute horse labor for such work free; nor should the tenant’s wife be expected to board the landlord’s workmen for nothinii'. Usually it is no hardship for a tenant to haul ordinary fence and building- materials, inasmuch as he has trips to make to town anyway. Of course, the landlord need not always pay cash for such work; he can instead, for example, exempt the tenant from working the road-taxes, or hire some irdditional pasture or meadow land for him. AVith one -year leases, the tenant can be expected to help very little with permanent improvements, unless he is to get pay for his work in case he has to move within, say, three years. Firewood. The tenant should understand that trees are the property of the landlord and that he has no rights concerning them except as granted by the landlord. Lease I. contains the usual provisions on this subject. Sometimes it is stated in addition that the tenant must pile and burn his brush. In other leases, the tenant is allowed firewood, but he must cut no trees except where the landlord directs. Firewood is an important item in the living expenses of the tenant’s family, and many farms today have no woodlots. There is no reason why tenants should have free fuel any more than free clothing, except that custom iu the past has given it to them, and cash rents and share- leasing arrangements have been adjusted to this custom. As long as farms were well-stocked with timber it was good economy to give the tenant fuel and make the rent to fit. Therefore, wherever fuel is not furnished, the fact should be clearly recognized when the lease is made out and rents and terms of share leases properly adjusted. Who Pays the Taxes Under share rent, usually each party pays the taxes on the part of the property which he owns separately, and half of the taxes on the jointly owned property. The tenant usually works or pays the road taxes. Lease II requires the landlord to pay the taxes on the jointly owned property as an offset to certain machine bills. Lease I gives the usual practice under cash rent contracts. In northern Wisconsin, however, and a few of the counties near the Illinois line, the landlord frequently pays the road taxes along with the other taxes. The new road system is bringing this about. If the lease reads, ^The tenant shall work the road taxes” and, as frequently happens, the tenant is gneii no chance to work them by the road officials, it is doubtful if he can be made to pay them in cash. The newer leases therefore frequently read “shall work or pay the road taxes.” A few cash rent contracts require the tenant to pay the real estate taxes, but this is not good practice and should be discouraged. AVhex" the Tenant Goes Quittance Requirements. These are requirements to leave certain things on the farm at the end of the lease in the same amount and 20 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 •quality as at the beginning of the lease. This is the plan most gen- erally used in Wisconsin to bridge over the gap between the going and coming tenant and keep farming operations continuous. Under all types of leases, share or cash, tenants are commonly required to leave their strawstacks, and sometimes they must leave their cornstalks in addition. When the change is made in the spring, the only other requirements usually needed are those which specify a certain number of acres of clover or timothy seeding or rye or winter wheat. In some sections the departing tenant is required to leave feed enough to keep the new tenant’s livestock till the new crop is ready, especially feeds that are hard to move, like silage. With fair moving, however, either the tenant must haul his whole winter’s feed or a large number of quittance requirements must be provided. The second plan is usually adopted as the better of the two evils. The departing tenant harvests his crop, measures up an amount equal to what he found on the farm at the beginning of his lease, sells the surplus, and drives his cattle to his next leasehold. The change is made early enough so that the new tenant has time to do his fall plowing, but too late for sowing winter grains. The corn is either put in the silo or left in the field in the shock. The amounts to be left for the next tenant are usually stated in an inventory, which is made part of the lease. Following is a sample of such an inventory : Silage — within 8 feet of top of silo when settled. Corn in crib — 6 feet in the east crib. Corn in the field — 14 acres in shocks. Hay — east mow to top of ladder, clover; west mow, 12 feet, clover and timothy. Oats — 1200 bushels, measured in the bin. Barley — 200 bushels, measured in the bin. Quittance requirements do not work very well on the whole. No one enjoys “paying for a dead horse.” It is hard for a tenant to do work thoroughly well from which .his successor is going to benefit wholly. Grass seeding the last year may fail to catch, wheat may winterkill, or crops spoil; and the landlord finds it hard to compel the tenant to make up the deficit. Such requirements should, there- fore, be used only where they are necessary to prevent Avasteful practices. One difficulty is in the matter of the quality of the feeds left on the farm. Corn in the shock may be very poor the last year of a lease if the season is unfavorable or the crop is not properly tended. Silage may vary as much as corn in the shock. The same is true of hay in the mow. The only way to handle this is to provide in the lease for bar- gaining Avith the departing tenant as to the quality of the crop, and calling in an impartial board of appraisers in case of disagreement. Anotlier difficulty is that crops may be short the last year. Leases usually provide that the tenant must make good in cash such short- ages, paying at the market rate at the time, or at a rate agreed upon Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 21 in advance. The latter plan is the fairer, because in a year of crop failures when prices are high, it may ruin a tenant to make up his deficits. Under share leases, only the landlord’s share of the necessary feed is usually to be left. This means that each new tenant must either haul his share of feed from his last leasehold or else sell and buy again. Since silage cannot be hauled to advantage, the departing tenant leaves his share as well as the landlord’s. He is compensated for this by an equal amount left by the tenant before him. Probably this plan should be extended and made to apply to all feeds. The objection to it is that it would transfer to the landlord the carrying of the whole investment in feed on hand. The landlord would virtually provide all the feed for tlie tenant till the new crop was harvested. The tenant would not pay back this feed till the end of the lease. But this diffi- culty could be obviated by requiring each tenant to buy half of the feed on hand at the beginning of the lease, and sell half of it back to the landlord at the end of the lease. Or the transactions could be arranged directly between the in-coming and the out-going tenant as it usually is in England. (Such a plan would be closely related to ‘^com- pensation for unexhausted improvements” described below). In effect, this plan would amount to a quittance requirement in feed equal to the remainder of a normal- year’s crop at the time of moving, the in-coming tenant being obliged to buy his proper share of this upon date of securing possession. It would require, it is true, considerable bargaining at the beginning and end of the lease, but these are the very best times for landlords and tenants to bargain. At any event, it would be better than hauling a whole winter’s supply of feed, or even a spring’s supply. Quittance requirements in fall plowing, winter grains, seeding, and hauling manure should be imposed only where strictly necessary to keep up crop rotations or insure proper soil conditions for the next year’s crops. ^‘Compensation for unexhausted improvements” is the name for a plan used in England which bridges over the gap between tenants much better than quittance requirements. As this plan is used in England, a farm is rented from year to year, but with the understand- ing that in case a tenant is required to leave, he is to be paid for all work which he has done from which he has not had time to derive the full benefit. The tenants therefore go ahead just as if they owned the farms and always intended remaining upon them. They buy lime and fertilizer and put it on the land, tile-drain, ditch, clear forest, lay down pasture and meadow, make repairs and erect barns and sheds. The landlord must consent to these improvements only if they involve a large investment. What the tenant ^ receives as com- pensation when he leaves is partly a matter of lease, partly of custom, and partly of arbitration. Either the new tenant pays the departing tenant direct for these improvements, or he pays the landlord, who has settled with the departing tenant. 22 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 The l)egiiiniiig>: of such practice have already appeared in Wis- consin in such provisions as the following : “Said landlord shall pay said tenant at the rate of two (2) dollars per acre for all fall plowing he shall do in the last year of the lease.” “Said tenant shall be paid 25 cents iier load for all manure which he shall haul after hai'vest in the last year of the lease.” “Said landlord shall pay said tenant two-thirds of the original cost of the silo at the end of said lease.” (3-year lease). Such provisions as these could well be extended to cover such things as grass and clover seeding, winter grains, small fruits, house rej)airs, new fences, fence posts, seeds, feeds and concentrates, manures and fertilizers. The compensation in the case of manures and fertilizers should be in proportion to the ainoimt of the fertilizer value that is still left in the soil. Extensive experiments have been conducted at Rothamsted, England, to determine the fertilizer values remain- ing at the end of each year after application. Compensation for unexhausted improvements is needed more with one-year lease than with longer leases. At present in some sections ten- ants remain as long on each farm under one-year leases as under longer leases; but still they never know what the next year will bring and so plan each year’s profits alone. Could they be assured of compensation, they would go ahead on a long-time basis. Although the plan is used only with cash renting in England it is equally applicable to share renting. The only difference would be that the tenants own only a paid interest in many expenditures on share-rented farms. Fruits. Lease I. includes among its quittance requirements a small- fruit garden. Unfortunately many tenant farms are without small fruit. A landlord should try such a plan as given here, or some plan providing compensation for unexhausted improvements, or else provide the small fruit himself. He cannot afford to let his tenants live without these pleasiu-es of life on the farm. A contented tenant family is worth much more to him than the cost of the small-fruit garden, T ermination of lease. Leases for more than one year usually are arranged so that they can be terminated at the end of any year by the giving of notice, usually from 60 days to 6 months in advance. Even without a breach of contract, things may happen which make the land- loi'd or tenant want to end the lease, and some peaceful way of doing this should always be provided. Most termination clauses provide that the tenant is to receive full compensation for all work done for the next year’s crop. The landlord recovers this amount from the pur- chaser in case he is selling his farm, or from the new tenant. Vaiiment for disturbatice. Witli termination clauses is frequently combined some provision for “payment for disturbance,” as this ex- ])i-ession is used in England. If a tenant who lias been doing honest farming on a long-time basis is asked to move, he is entitled to some recoin jiense in addition to pay for work done on next year’s crop. Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 23 He has learned how to handle his farm; he has planned many things that have not yet borne fruit. The landlord is likewise entitled to some recompense if his plans are disturbed by the tenant. Lease I provides for 3 month’s notice and $100 for disturbance, but nothing- for compensation. Following are two other arrangements. “To hold for five years from March 1, 1912, unless terminated by either party by giving notice in December preceding and paying to the other party one hundred (100) dollars and said landlord paying to said tenant two (2) dollars an acre for all fall plowing and fall seeding done and market price less cost of hauling to market all fall grain sown. “This lease may be terminated at ninety days notice prior to any March 1st, by written notice and forfeiting from said annual rental four hundred (400) dollars at the end of the first year of said term, three hundred (300) dollars the end of the second year of said term, and one hundred (100) dollars at the end of the fourth year of said term. In case of the death of either party, this lease terminates on March 1st following.” Sale clauses. Notice of termination and payment for disturbance are also provided in most of the following sale clauses allowing the landlord to sell the farm during the term of the lease ; “Said landlord reserves the privilege of selling said farm at any time, and said tenant shall vacate the premises at thirty days notice, receiv- ing payment for all work done not yet realized upon, but if said tenant shall have his spring grain planted he shall not be required to leave said farm till November 1st.” “In case of sale of said farm, said landlord shall give said tenant thirty days’ notice of time to move from said farm, and shall pay him for work done at the rate of seventy-five (75) dollars per month, to- gether with all moneys spent by said tenant for labor, seed and feed, but there shall be subtracted from this amount all moneys received by said tenant to date from the operation of the farm.” “Said landlord may sell said farm at any time, but he hereby agrees to compensate said tenant for all work done not yet realized upon, and to pay for all damages he may cause to said tenant, the amount of all these payments to be awarded by a committee of three, one of whom shall be chosen by said landlord, another by said tenant, and the third by the two first chosen.” “Said landlord may sell said farm at any time, and said tenant shall move off on March 1st following, but said tenant shall always have sixty days notice to leave, and shall receive one hundred and fifty (150 ) dollars as damages, except on the last year of the term.” Failure to carry out lease. Lease I. has the sensible remedy for failure to carry out the lease. It enables either party to hire the work done which the other has neglected to do, and to collect the cost of the same from the other party; and if this is not satisfactory, to terminate the lease upon reasonable notice the following March. The various clauses in leases empowering the landlord to “expel the tenant forth- with,” oi- “at his option,” or to declare the lease “null and void,” are 1 24 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 mostly intended as scareheads. The wise plan is for the landlord to get along- as best he can with his tenant till the end of the year. If the tenant is clearly beyond all reason, then according to law, he can be ousted at any time on 30 days^ notice without provision in the lease. Provisions Found Only in Lease II. Man labor. Share leases encourage tenants to farm many acres with a small amount of help. Landlords tell them they are mistaken, but tenants pay the labor bills and have a different view. Lease II requires the tenant to hire a definite number of men. Another arrange- ment now working successfully wherever tried in the share-renting belt in southern Wisconsin requires the tenant to hire a minimum amount of help, as in Lease II, and then requires the landlord to pay half or some other part of the wages of an additional man. This plan frankly recognizes that the tenant will make his largest income with, say, one hired man and that any additional help, though it may swell the total farm income, and the landlord’s half of it, will cost him more than he gets back, and therefore requires the landlord to pay his half of the second hired man. More landlords follow the practice of help- •- ing the tenant themselves when work is pressing, or hiring extra day .. help for him, or adding something to the hired man’s wages so as to - get a good one. Many landlords oppose this practice, saying the bars must not be let down for the tenants at any cost. Offsets can always be provided, however, in other parts of the lease. The present plan of making the ' tenant hire all the labor is not going to bring about the kind of farm- ' ing that is needed today. If landlords will not change, as surely as farming becomes more intensive, cash rent will drive out share rent as it has in England. If they adopt the plan proposed, then as farming , becomes intensive and more labor is hired on the half-and-half basis, ; the tenant’s share in the proceeds will gradually fall. { Wherever a tenant does some special kind of farming requiring | extra labor, such as running a milk route, or raising sugar beets, then the case is very clear that the landlord should help pay for the extra , labor. \ Horse labor. In most parts of the state with land-and-stock share leases, the tenant has undivided feed for his horses, but usually the nnmber of horses to be kept is limited in some way. In a few counties wliere grain leases have only recently passed away, the tenant has un- : divided hay and straw, but must feed his own grain. The new way •: is by all means best for dairy farms. It is expecting too much of a tenant to ask him to keep accurate measure of all the hay and grain he feeds his horses. Occasionally a tenant abuses the privilege of ■ feeding undivided grain by going into the horse-trading business, bringing home worked-out horses, feeding them up, and then selling y them at a profit. A lease can be so made as to guard against this if necessary. y Colts. Some of the usual arrangements with respect to raising colts are the following: Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 25 1. Tenant furnishes the brood mares, landlord pays the stallion fee, and the colts are owned half and half. 2. Tenant is forbidden to raise colts. 3. Tenant must have the landlord’s consent to raise colts. 4. Tenant may raise one colt of his own each year and feed it un- divided feed. 5. Tenant may have undivided feed for only one colt of his own at a time. 6. Tenant may raise colts, but must feed his own hay and grain. 7. Tenant owns brood mares and colts half-and-half with the landlord, exactly as the cattle are owned in half-and-half share leases. Good farm practice usually demands that colts enough be raised to take the place of the old horses as they wear out. The tenant should be allowed to farm according to this practice. The landlord, however, is probably entitled to one-half of the increase here, if he has paid the stallion fee, and the colt is kept till it is ready for work. Nos. 4 and 5 are not in very common use. When colts are raised in considerable numbers, the No. 7 arrangement is the fairest. Tools and machinery . Until recently the tenant has provided all the tools and machinery with half-and-half share leases. Modern farming, however, is requiring a sudden very great increase in farm machinery, more than most tenants can stand, and landlords who want to keep their farms abreast of the times find it necssary either to provide such machinery themselves or else join with their tenants on halves. This is especially true with specialized types of farming, such as supplying city milk. Lease II is adapted to such farming. Gasoline engines, cream separators, milking machines, ensilage-cutters, and manure spreaders are frequently owned half-and-half, one party buying out the other at the end of the lease. Lease II requires the tenant to provide the gasoline and keep the extra machinery in repair. The landlord offsets this elsewhere in the lease by paying all the taxes on jointly owned personal property. Hiring tenant labor. The tenant is the man who can do the land- lord’s extra work cheapest and best, because he is on the job, has a team handy for hauling, knows where the materials are, and usually has time to spare for it on rainy days and when the land is wet. Be- sides, it will help out the tenant’s income and make him more contented. It is always well for the landlord to be on hand to supervise such work. Hauling. The tenant always hauls the feed and the produce on land-and-stock rented farms. Where large amounts of feed are bought, or where milk is hauled a long distance, this is something of a hard- ship upon the tenant, and probably the landlord should make some allowance for it. Nowadays, however, most milk and cream is gathered by the buying companies. In some cases the tenant is made to pay the hauling charges, but ordinarily these are deducted before the milk check is divided. On farms near cities, landlords frequently pay their share tenants for hauling manure from town, usually at the rate of 50 cents a load. 26 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 How Livestock -is Divided With land-and-stoek share leases, the productive livestock is almost always owned in common. A landlord renting for the first time who rents to a beginning tenant usually sells him one-half of the cattle, hogs, and so forth, then on the place. The price is settled upon by agreement or by an appraisal. If the on-coming tenant has a half-share of live- stock, the beginning landlord may sell off part of his livestock, at auction. Most landlords wull, of course, have only a half-share of live- stock to match the tenant’s half-share. When the two shares are brought together, each party owns a share of the whole. Exception is made to this sometimes when landlord or tenant have some purebred animals which they insist upon owning separately. (See under “Improving the herd,” page 29.) Common ownership presents the serious difficulty that the two shares of livestock may differ greatly in age and quality. The tenant should not be allowed to match heifers against milk cows, nor, as is frequently the case at j^resent, to match an unequal number of poor milkers against the landlord’s high i^roducers. High-quality dairy farming wull never develop on share-rented farms till some way of meeting this difficulty is generally adopted. At present, because difference in quality of the twm shares is frequently ignored, landlords do not think it wmrth wdiile to develop good herds. As a result, tenants’ herds are .sometimes better than landlords’ herds. The only methods now^ used of meeting this difficulty are those described in the f ollowung articles from recent leases : “A board of three apjiraisers, one chosen by the landlord, another by the tenant, and the third by the first twm chosen, shall appraise the parts of the dairy herd furnished by the landlord and tenant, and the party wdiose part of the herd is less valuable shall pay the other party one-half of the difference between the values of the tw’o parts of the herd ; and thei'eafter the herd shall be owmed jointly and in common.” Or : “Said landlord and tenant shall agree upon the value of the herd furnished by each, and wdiichever party has the less valuable herd shall pay the other party one-half of the difference or buy sufficient cattle at a ]irice agreed upon by both landlord and tenant to make the shares enual; and thereafter the herd shall be owmed jointly and in common.” The number of cows. Lease II. states that a definite number of milk cows must be ke])t. About a third of the half-and-half leases have this provision. Another common provision prohibits the selling of any cro))s from the farm, or requires that enough stock be kept to use UD all the feed grown on the farm. In many cases, nothing is said about the number of cattle and selling feed, but the landlord must consent to all sales. Leases should not be too rigid in this matter. Cro])s sometimes produce surpluses, wdiich the tenant cannot very welt feed out wnthout wmste during the last year of the lease. Either laud- loi-d or tenant may not be able to buy the extra livestock needed to use Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 27 up the feed. If the landlord does not want any feed sold from his farm in ease of a surplus crop, he must often be prei3ared either to buy this surplus or to help the tenant buy the extra livestock. Feed. The tenant must, of course, provide half of the feed for the productive livestock This means that when he comes to a farm he must either bring with him an amount equal to that now on the farm owned by the landlord, or buy from the landlord if he has enough for both, or buy out the departing tenant. (See under “Quittance Requirements,’^ page 19.) Purchased feeds are, of course, divided in the same way. The amount of feed to be purchased is decided by mutual agreement, but is sometimes provided in the lease or left to the will of the land- lord. It should be clearly recognized that buying large quantities of feed puts a share tenant at a disadvantage, for not only does he have the extra labor of hauling the feed and feeding it to the livestock and caring for the extra livestock, but he also loses his share of the benefit from the extra fertilizer value of the manures produced unless he re- mains on the farm for at least two more years, or unless some form of compensation for unexhausted fertilizer is provided in the lease. Harvesting and threshing expenses. Half-and-half with such expenses is the usual arrangements under land-and-stock share leases. Twine is sometimes paid for altogether by the tenant. The machine work of threshing, silo-filling and shredding is almost always shared equally, in spite of the fact that shredding directly reduces the tenant’s labor. Twine used for binding corn also saves tenant labor. The coal and oil for engines is also shared equally in most cases. In a few localities the landlord pays the tenant in part for feeding the threshing crew. Breeding fees. Bulls and boars are usualy owned in partnership. When not, the landlord frequently pays the fees to offset the tenant’s extra labor. Management of the farm. A few general restrictions are usually put into share leases, and the rest is left to be determined from week to week. Some landlords make themselves virtual managers in their share leases and determine the whole policy of the farm. Other land- lords leave matters to be settled by mutual agreement. In such cases, there needs to be someone to say the final word in case of difference of opinion, and this, of course, must be the landlord. Some of the de- tails left to be settled from time to time, or partly provided for in the leases, are crops and seeding, buying and selling of livestock, feeds and produce and the care of livestock. Buying and selling. Large landlords who make renting farms on shares a business usually do all the buying and selling themselves, collect the money and divide it with the tenant. More of them require the tenant to obtain their consent before buying or selling in any large amount. In actual practice the landlord interferes very little with the tenant’s plans in such matters, and many tenants do most of the selling upon their own judgment. Of course, the landlord has a clear right to be consulted in such matters, but he can delegate the matter to a tenant if he wishes. Care of livestock. Lease II. has a number of definite requirements as to care of the livestock^ breeding, etc. Some leases go farther than 28 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 this and describe the ration for the milk cows. Following are two examples of this: “Not less than 10 tons of bran or other concentrates shall be fed to the cows in milk.” “In general, one pound of ground grain or mill feed shall be fed each cow for each four pounds of milk produced.” Such provisions as the foregoing are rather uncommon, however, and still in the experimental stage. Undoubtedly some new developments along this line are in prospect. Division of proceeds. Besides his half of the crop, produce and live- stock sales, and of the increase, the tenant is allowed a large part of the living for his family, usually including rent, firewood, milk, eggs, potatoes and garden produce and sometimes butter and meat. Milk and butter. Following are the usual arrangements : “The tenant shall have 2 (or 3) quarts a day for family use.” “The tenant shall have milk for family use, but no butter.” “No butter shall be made on the place, and the proceeds from the milk shall be divided equally at the creamery.” “The tenant shall have 12 pounds of butter for family use each month before the milk check is divided.” “The tenant shall have free feed and pasture for one cow of his own.” The old arrangement was either the last one, for the tenant to have a family cow and make butter, or for the tenant to save out milk and make his own butter for family use. The practice still persists in many counties in central and western Wisconsin. In certain other counties, such as Dodge and Green Lake, the tenant has his butter out ofi the milk checks. In southern Wisconsin, however, the tenant pays for his butter. The tenant always has free milk. Garden and orchard. All leases specify that the tenant shall have a free garden plot of a quarter or half an acre, and many of these add, “in return for working the road taxes.” The exchange is no longer an even one, even allowing for the time spent in working the garden, but there is no harm in it, because other changes have favored the tenant. However, the garden ought to be larger than it usually is, and it ought to contain more fruit trees and small fruit, even if the landlord has to provide them. And no landlord can afford to ask a tenant to bother with dividing small fruit with him, unless he wants to go out and gather his own share. As for potatoes, some landlords pur- ])osely keep the garden plot small so that the tenant will have to grow his family supply of potatoes elsewhere and thus give him a half of them. Others ask only that the proceeds be divided in case potatoes are sold. roultrif and eggs. About half the time the poultry is owned half and half, and the tenant is exjiected either to count the eggs when they are gathered, and the young birds when mature, and deliver one-half to the landlord, or else the tenant is allowed eggs and poultry for Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 29 family use before the division is made. Neither plan works very well. The poultry is usually looked after by the women, and they have a feel- ing that they earn all they get from it. As a result, some landlords are now asking for only one-third of the poultry receipts. The other plan in common use is to let the tenant keep a limited number of hens, usually 50, 75 or 100, and give him all the proceeds. The only difficulty that has arisen is that the flock is sure to exceed the limit after a season’s hatch and the tenant does not always sell his surplus when he should. Accordingly, a date is sometimes set when the flock must be reduced to the set number. A few landlords are trying out a third plan, which requires the tenant to deliver to the landlord a deflnite number of eggs, say four or five dozen, for each hen kept, or to pay the landlord a definite sum, say $1, for every hen kept. Most landlords do not want their tenants to go into the poultry busi- ness wholesale; but they do want them to keep enough to clean up the usual wastage of grain and feed around a farm. This is certainly in the interests of good farming. Still, none of them can afford to quarrel with a good tenant over such a detail as poultry receipts. When the Lease Ends Division at end of lease. There are about four ways of dividing the livestock at the end of the lease. 1. The first of these is described in the first paragraph of Sec. VI. in Lease II. The others are as follows: 2. “The landlord and tenant shall draw cuts to see which shall choose first and they shall then choose alternately until all the cattle are chosen. The brood sows and pigs shall be divided in the same manner. If there is an odd number of any kind of livestock, the animal to be chosen shall be sold and the proceeds divided between the two parties.” 3. Landlord or tenant buys the other party out at a price settled by bargaining, or by appraisal in case of disagreement. 4. The livestock is sold at auction and the proceeds are divided. (This method is seldom used except as a last resort.) Landlords sometimes complain that with Nos. 1 and 2 the tenants often get the better of them because they know the cattle better. The option to buy at an appraisal price, reserved in No. 3, is not favored by many tenants, because it may give the landlord a chance to buy away from them the herd of cattle which they are trying to breed up preparatory to renting for cash or to buying a farm. Improving the herd. It will be apparent that even the plan of equalizing the value of the two herds described above (page 26) when combined with the usual plans for division at the end of the lease, does not encourage the building up of good herds on rented farms. One of the questions ambitious landlords in the dairy sections are forever asking is, “How can I build up a good herd if I have to divide it with every tenant who leaves my farm?” Each tenant who comes to a farm 30 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 ordinarily brings a fresh lot of grades and scrubs, and when he goes, according to the nsnal terms of the leases, he takes his share not only of the progeny of the landlord’s better animals, but also of the better animals themselves. Some of these landlords want to keep purebred cattle on their farms. Others are interested only in developing high- producing herds. Following are a few plans that are being tried now and then to overcome the foregoing difficulties : First plan : The herd is owned in common and divided in the usual iiranner at the end of the lease, but the landlord carefullj^ selects a tenant who has a herd which he thinks will combine with his to ad- vantage. The difficulty with this plan is of course that a landlord who has a well bred herd finds it hard to procure a tenant who can match it. Second plan : The landlord sells a half share in his herd to the tenant and thereafter the herd is owned in common. In some cases the lease allows the landlord to buy back the tenant’s share of the herd ac the end of the lease at a price determined by appraisal. However, few tenants favor such an arrangement. The chance to build up a good herd on the foundation of the landlord’s herd is one of the things that makes them acept the terms of the usual share contract; and if this chance is taken away many of them will not be share tenants. In other cases the herd is divided in the usual way at the end of the lease. This means that the tenant gets part of the landlord’s original herd as well as part of the young stock. From the standpoint of the landlord, it is equivalent to selling off half his herd, quality as well as quantity, every three oi‘ four years. It takes a long time to build up a herd at this rate. Third plan; Landlord and tenant own their herds separately, and the original stock, or so much of it as is still left, is retained by each party at the end of the lease. This makes it possible for the landlord to have purebred or high-grade cattle, although the tenant does not. In some cases the difference in the value between the two herds is ad- justed and the increase of young stock is divided half and half in the usual way. Under such an arrangement, the two parties share on even terms, and the tenant gets his pay for the extra care required by purebreds in the extra value of his half of the increase. In other cases, the difference in value is not adjusted, l)ut the landlord has first choice of his half of the increase of purebred heifers at a certain age. K’eceipts from sales of bull calves are divided equally. Under still an- other arrangement the landlord agrees to buy all the increase of young stock of the tenant at a certain age, or at time of division of the herd, at a ])ilce agi-eed upon in advance, the price being enough more than the ])rice for grades to re])ay the tenant for all extra care required. Diffeiences in tlie value of the herds may or may not be equalized at the start, the price of the young stock being adjusted to fit either ar- I’aiigement. Fourth plan : Where the landlord owns only a few purebred cattle, he retains se))arate title to these, pays for half their feed, and receives Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 31 half of the milk receipts from them and half of the heifers at a certain age. First choice may be i3rovided if desired. The rest of the herd is handled in the usual way. All plans providing’ for separate ownership of cattle are open to the objection that if accident or sickness happens to one of the landlord’s cows, suspicion is likely to arise that the tenant has not given it proper care, or has not fed it properly, and this suspicion is as bad for the landlord as it is for the tenant. For this reason, separate ownership has given place to ownership in common. Xevertheless, some of the foregoing plans may well be worth a trial. Arbitration. There ought always to be some way provided in the lease for tenant and landlord to settle their differences without going to law. Lease IT. provides for arbitration by a board of three. This plan is being used more and more and is working well. Occasionally a lease nominates a single person, or the College of Agriculture, to act as arbitrator and settle differences. Lease III. — Laxd-axd-Stock Cash Lease On an occasional farm in the central and northern part of the state, livestock, or livestock and machinery, are rented for cash with the farm. This happens when retired farmers leave their equipment on the farm for their sons, or for a former hired man, instead of selling them at auction. The best examples of leases of this kind were found in Calumet, Clark, Jackson and Buffalo counties. The personal prop- erty left on the farm is inventoried carefully at the beginnmg of the lease, and the tenant is required to return it at the end of the lease. Following are the usual provisions covering’ the points of difference with ordinary cash leases: “Said landlord hereby leases to said tenant his farm in described as follows : together with the personal property named in the accompanying inventorjq which is hereby made a part of this lease.” “Said tenant hereby agrees to feed and properly care for the eight milk cows named in said inventory, to call in a veterinarian at once in case any of them are sick, and to notify said landlord at the same time, to pay all veterinai’y and breeding fees, and to return the same cows at the end of the lease, except such as have died, or have been sold by mutual agreement, in as good condition as the same are now in. The increase and products from said cows shall belong wholly to said tenant, as also the increase and products from any other livestock said tenant shall keep on said farm.” “Said tenant shall leave on the farm at the end of the lease the same amounts of the same kinds of feed as are found on the place at the beginning, the same being described in the attached inventory. If machinery is furnished, it is provided for as follows: “Said tenant shall have the use of all the tools and machinery now on said premises, and shall house and properly care for the same, and 32 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 repair them in case of breakage, and leave them upon said farm at the end of the lease in as good condition as the same now is, reasonable wear and use thereof only excepted.” In some cases, the tenant has only one-half the increase from the cattle. This enables the landlord to maintain his herd from year to year. In a few other cases, the tenant gets none of the increase, but still is expected to take care of the calves and young stock. The rent is of course adjusted accordingly. Feed must be left so that the landlord or the new tenant will have something for the cattle at the end of the lease. The landlord seldom replaces machinery that wears out. Thus the providing of machinery is only a temporary arrangement on any farm. In the few cases where horses are furnished, the tenant pays horse- shoeing and veterinary bills. This way of renting land is not to be encouraged. It too frequently results in trouble between landlord over the care of tlie livestock or the machinery, or over settling up the inventoiy at the end of the lease. Lease IV. — Landlord’s Cattle Dairy Lease Under Lease IV. in its regular form, the landlord furnishes the cattle and usually the hogs, sheep, and chickens, and the proceeds and increase are divided as in Lease II. In some counties, however, the tenant owns all the poultry and gets all the poultry receipts, and the landlord may in addition furnish the grass and clover seed and even the seed for field crops. Figure 3 shows where this form of lease is found. It is giving ground to the half-and-half dairy lease in the south, and taking the place of grain leases in central and northern Wisconsin. It is ordi- narily used under the following three circumstances : 1. Where land is not very valuable and tenants are scarce and do not have the means to furnish half of the cattle. 2. Where landlords are renting to members of the family. 3. Where landlords want to preserve purebred or high-producing herds intact. The first circumstance accounts for its existence in northern and central Wisconsin; the other two for its existence in southern Wis- consin. This t3^pe of lease is also used in the Elgin dairy district of Illinois, partly because landlords need to maintain high-producing herds and partly because the intensive daiiying practiced requires the tenants to furnish a great deal of labor for each acre and to buy a gTeat deal of feed. In the portions of Wisconsin where this lease is made, not only is tlie land less valuable and less productive, but it is more mixed in (juality. The land which the landlord matches against the tenant’s labor is a smaller share; the extra cattle which he provides in part makes Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 33 up the difference. Moreover, tenants are scarce and without means to buy livestock, for those who have means are able to start farming for themselves on the cheaper farms that abound everywhere. The dairy- ing practiced in these sections is still new, and hence the leases are often crude and indefinite as to livestock details. And where this lease is found on family farms, the division of proceeds is not likely to be a very important matter. Provisions for Owning Livestock In all cases, the proceeds from the livestock and the increase are divided half and half, losses from accident or sickness due to the neg- lect of the tenant are replaced out of the tenant’s share of the in- crease, and other losses are replaced out of undivided increase. The exact details of landlords’ cattle leases, however, vary greatly as to what the landlord furnishes and how the increase is divided. The following are five general plans which are in use ; 1. The landlord furnishes the parent stock only, and the tenant re- turns the identical animals in the same condition or as nearly as pos- sible in the same condition as when he received them. According to this plan, the tenant gets half the appreciation and the landlord stands all the depreciation of the parent stock from age. 2. The landlord furnishes both parent stock and young stock and the tenant returns the same animals as in No. 1 (above). In this case, the tenant gets half the increase in the new-born animals, but the landlord has the appreciation on his young stock to offset the depreciation of his parent stock. 3. The landlord furnishes only parent stock and the tenant replaces out of the herd and undivided increase an e-qual number of cows of the same general age, weight and quality. Any stock sold is divided half and half. In this case the depreciation of the parent stock is borne half and half. 4. The landlord furnishes both young and old stock and the tenant replaces out of the herd and undivided increase an equal number of animals of the same general age, weight and quality. Any stock sold is divided equally. Both the appreciation of the young stock and the depreciation of the parent stock are shared in this case. 5. In a few cases, the tenant replaces any of the landlord’s stock that is sold out of his half of the increase, the sales receipts being ’ shared equally. The landlord’s herd is thus kept at a constant number. The tenant in this case stands all the depreciation on the parent stock. It will be seen that plans No. 2 and 5 are least favorable to the tenant. In many cases, a tenant would do better furnishing half the cattle than under such an arrangement. 34 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 The increase of livestock under all of the foregoing plans is never divided till the end of tlie lease. If the tenant remains on a fann sev- eral years, unless cattle are constantly sold, he soon owns a considerable part of the producing herd. When he leaves the farm, he takes his in- crease to his next farm. If he has been farming under plans No. 1 or 2, he sometimes leaves the landlord a very small herd. If his neAv farm is a rented one, then he has part of a herd to put in with his new landlord’s herd. Hence it is that leases of this kind are often ir- regular, tenant and landlord each furnishing whatever cattle they happen to own. The livestock furnished by the landlord is almost always inventoried, the cows by name, age, Aveight and description, and the young stock and sows by age and weight. Hogs. The tenant owns half of the brood sows in about half the cases under this lease. Taxes. In most cases the personal property taxes are shared equally ; otherwise each party pays acccording to his interest, or the tenant pays all. Feed. The departing tenant either leaves one-half the crop still un- fed, or a definite quantity of feed. The landlord always wants to make sure there will be enough feed left to carry his livestock through to grass. Horses and machinery. The landlord’s cattle dairy lease is more likely to be irregular in the matter of horses and machinery than in any other particular. Either one or both of these are furnished in a quarter or a third of the leases. The reason for this is that retiring farmers who are leaving their cattle on the farm do not like to have an auction just to sell their horses and machinery. As Avith land-and- stock cash leases, they seldom replace horses and machinery as they Avear out, the arrangement is only a temporary one. (See Lease III. for further details.) Purebred cattle. Purebred cattle are easier to handle Avith Lease IV. than \\dth the half-and-half dairy lease, because all that needs to be divided is the increase. The landlord is thus able to keep his original herd intact, and sloAvly build it up by adding one-half of the increase each year. Letting purebred cattle out on shares. In recent years OAvners of purebred cattle liaA’e begun to let them out on shares to farmers near by. The tenant furnishes the feed, gets the milk and half of the young- stock, the owner sometimes having first choice of the young stock. Disadvantages of Lease IV. Landlords usually do not like furnish- ing cattle for the tenants. They complain that the cattle are not Avell handled and the herd soon runs doAvn. Also, none of the arrangements for i-e])lacing the herd out of the increase Avorks very accurately and definitely. For these tAvo reasons, trouble frequently arises betAveen landlord and tenant. The half-and-half-dairy lease is a better lease, because, Avith the cattle OAvned in common, each has an equal interest in the Avelfare of the herd. Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 35 Leass V. — The One-half-all-stock Lease. Under tliis lease the landlord and tenant each furnish half of all the ])ersonal property on the farm. Leases of this kind are probably found in nearly every county of the state, but especially in sections where the half-and-half dairy lease is crowding out the landlord’s cattle lease. The arrangement usually results when a retiring farmer sells a half of his farm equipment outright to a tenant. At the end of the lease, he either sells his remaining half of the machinery and horses to the departing tenant, or he buys the tenant out. Sometimes the tenant owns all the horses. The arrangement lasts long enough in some sections, in Crawford and Vernon Counties, for example, so that it becomes one of the regular leasing systems. Lease VI. — The One-thiru Stock Lease. Under this lease, the landlord furnishes all the livestock and ma- chinery, and the tenant furnishes the labor and gets one-third of the proceeds. The expenses are usually divided in the same manner as the proceeds. Leases of this kind are found here and thei’e all over the state, but especially in the central and northern counties. This is the place where would-be landlords with farms and equipment on their hands and would-be tenants with no capital are most likely to come together. The tenant does not always make laborer’s wages. The plan would work better on a large well-stocked farm in southern Wisconsin, but here most tenants are able to furnish half of the livestock and get half the returns. Grain-renting Systems. Under a given lease, all that is divided is the crops. The small grain is divided at the threshing machine, the hay in the stack or mow, and the corn in the shock or in the crib. If any cows are kept, that is the tenant’s business. He feeds them out of his share of the grain and gets all the proceeds. Grain renting used to be the practice all over the state, and traces of it are still found in nearly every county. It began to pass away when dairying began to supplant wheat-growing. Even in a county as far south as Dodge, and on some regular stock farms, part of the grain is still sometimes divided at the machine. It is, of course, the usual method of dividing the proceeds from the small additional pieces of land that are everywhere rented on shares by neighboring fa rmers. Figni-e 3 shows where most of the grain renting is still found. Tliere are two types of grain leases in use in Wisconsin : the One- third Grain Tiease and the One-half Grain Lease. 36 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 Lease VII. — The One-third Grain Lease. This has recently become the commoner of the two grain leases. The landlord furnishes nothing but the farm, sometimes with buildings and a garden and sometimes not. The tenant furnishes horses, ma- chinery, labor, seed and twine, pays the threshing bill, and hauls the grain to market. It is used everywhere by landlords who live a long way from their land or do not want to bother with looking after it. In central and northern Wisconsin there is a good deal of land which has thus been half abandoned by its owners. The rent they get is one-third of the small grain. The hay is usually divided equally, but the landlord has to pay for half the baling. Sometimes the corn is divided by halves in the field. If any grass or clover seed is sown, the landlord has to furnish it. Potatoes. Probably over half the potatoes that are grown on shares in Wisconsin are grown according to the one-third lease. The tenant furnishes labor, tools, seed, and paris green, and puts the land- lord’s share of the potatoes in bags, boxes, or pits as the landlord directs, or he hauls them to market or to a warehouse at so much a load, say $1, or so much a bushel say from 2 to 5 cents. If hauled to a warehouse, the potatoes are divided by weight when sold. ! 3 1 I Lease VIII. — The One-half Grain Lease. This lease is like Lease VII. except that the landlord furnishes half - the seed, usually half the twine, pays for half the threshing bill, and gets one half the grain and hay. This lease is found mostly in the old grain-growing counties where grain-growing still persists, namely, Jackson, Eau Claire, Dunn, Buffalo, Pepin, Pierce and St. Croix Counties; but is also frequently found both north and south in such counties as Columbus, Sauk, Vernon, Burnett, Barron, Rusk and Marinette. Many potatoes are grown under this lease in Waupaca and Waushara Counties and farther north. Each paj^s for half the paris green. The tenant still gets his pay for hauling. Tobacco. A large amount of tobacco is grown under Lease VIII, especially in Dane, Vernon, Crawford and Rock Counties. The land- lord in this ease, however, furnishes nearly everything — land, sheds, tools and machineiy, horses, fertilizer. The tenant performs all the labor from the planting of the seed to the deliveiy of the crop to market. Each pays half of the expenses for twine, wrapping paper, seed, and so forth. The proceeds are shared equally. The tenant frequently lives with the landlord during the tobacco season, paying board at a nominal rate and working for the landlord at a nominal wage. In Vernon County, for example, tenants were paying $5 an acre, or $35 for the season, for board for themselves and all the extra help hired at harvesting, but they were working for the landlord at haying and grain harvesting at $1 a day (1916). If the tenant is married, he may have free house rent and garden for his family. Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 37 Mixed Grain-and-dairy Renting. As one would expect, where grain fanning is gradually giving place to dairy farming, grain and dairy leases shade into each other gradually. However, two general types of mixed leases can be pointed out, the “Share-cash Lease” and what is here called the “Grain- and-dairy Lease.” Lease IX. — The Share-Cash Lease. The 1910 census counted 658 share-cash leases in AYisconsin, but most of these are not the genuine sort. The time share-cash lease is found best in Pierce and St. Croix Counties. Grain is divided either one-half or one-third, usually the former, and the tenant owns all the cattle, pays cash rent for the pasture, feeds his share of the grain, and has all the proceeds. The pasture rents used to be low, but they are now $3 to $4 an acre, or $5 to $8 a head in some cases. In many cases the tenants also pay cash rent for corn land now. Some of these farms have silos. Lease X. — The Grain-and-dairy Lease. In Eau Claire County, for example, are many leases which are made out almost exactly like either half-and-half or landlord’s cattle dairy leases. The landlord furnishes either half or all of the cattle, and the milk receipts are divided half and half. Upon examining the farm receipts, however, one discovers the real nature of the ease. There may be only 6 milk cows on a 200-acre farm. The big income is from the gTain, which is still divided at the machine. This kind of tenant farming in varying degrees of grain-growing and dairying prevails all 'the way from Burnett to Crawford Counties on the west, and from Waupaca to Green Lake on the east. It is characteristic of Waupaca County, where potatoes and dairying are mixed. Much tobacco is grown in Dane and Crawford Counties on farms where dairying is merely an adjunct to it. In fact, most of the half-and-half dairy leases from Sauk County northward involve more grain than they do dairying. Additional Rented Land. The 1910 census showed 681,000 acres, or one-sixth of all the rented land in the state, being farmed by neighboring farmers as an addition to their farms. Probably over half of this land is rented for cash. Another part is hay land cut on shares. The rest is farmed on the one-half or the one-third grain renting plan. Needless to say, little manure is ever put on land rented in this way. The largest acreages of this land are found in central and northern Wisconsin. It is usually owned by absentee owners and speculators. Much of it is in tracts 38 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 too small to support a family. The least that the owners can rightly do with it is to rent it for a term of years and re-quire the tenants to haul a fair proportion of the farm manure onto the rented portions of their farms. The half-and half dairy lease is the predominating- type in the south central part of the state; the landlord’s cattle lease and grain leases are found principally in the central and -western portions. The Agreement to Work Land. All the leases discussed up to this })oiiit have been actual farm leases. As a matter of fact, the form of the share lease which most lawyers use in making’ out contracts between landlords and tenants is not a lease at all, but simply au ‘higreement to work laud.” T nder this ai’i’angemeut the landlord is tilways called “the party of the first Farm Leasing Systeais in AVisconsin 39 part” and never the “landlord” or “lessor,” and the tenant is called the “paity of the second part.” The party of the second part never owns his crops or his livestock till after they are marketed or divided. He is in etiect a hired man who, in return for faithfully carrying out the conditions of the agreement, receives from the party of tire first part a half or a third or two-thirds of the proceeds and the increase. Lawyers use this form of lease because the legal forms are printed this way, but more particularly because it is a simple way of securing to the owner his share of the proceeds. If the tenant never owns the crops until they are marketed, he cannot dispose of them without the owner’s consent, and no one else can attach them. It is a way of escaping the difficulty arising from the fact that Wisconsin has no crop-lien law. Folio u'ing is the form for an agreement to work land : THIS AGREEMENT, Made the day of 19 .... , between of , County, State of Wisconsin, party of the first part, and of the Same County and State, party of the second part, WITNESSETH, That whereas said party of the first part is the owner of the following described premises, to wit : the said party of the second part hereby agrees to work said premises for the said party of the first part for the term of year, dating from 19. . . ., ipDon the following conditions, namely, THAT said party of the first part shall furnish THAT said party of the second part shall furnish The two parties shall jointly furnish Said party of the second part further agrees In return for the full and faithful performance of this agreement by the party of the second part, said party of the first part hereby agrees to pay said party of the first part one-half the The said premises remain in the possession of tlie party of the first part, except the buildings and garden, and these are to lie sui'rendered ijeacefully and quietly at the end of the lease. WITNESS our hands the date above written, etc. These agreements to work land are made to contain all the usual provisions of the several kinds of leases for which they are substituted. They also usually contain right of entrance clauses, breach of contract clauses and all the other legal provisions of share leases. Cash vs. Share Renting The actual reasons given by landlords and tenants in different parts of the state for preferring cash or share leases are as follows : 40 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 I. Reasons eor Preferring Share Rent. A. Landlord’s reasons’. 1. Cash rents are never high enough. Share leases bring the landlord a larger profit. 2. The landlord is able under a share lease to help manage the farm and make it yield a larger income for both him and the tenant than if the tenant managed it alone. 3. The landlord who has a good herd of cattle is able to leave all or part of it on the farm, where it will yield both landlord and tenant a larger profit than the poorer herd which a tenant will bring onto the farm. 4. The landlord is able to look after his farm at share rent and keep a tenant from “skinning the land.” Cash tenants feel they have a right to do as they please so long as they pay the rent. 5. Cash tenants do not usually put as much stock on farms as share tenants, especially under half-and-half dairy leases, where the land- lord furnishes half the cattle. 6. Cash tenants will not bid as high as they should for land for fear of losing all on a poor crop. This is especially true on farms with light soils. 7. On poor years, tenants cannot make their rent and the land- lord loses part of it; but in good years the tenant always gets the full surplus of the big crop. B. Tenant’s reasons: 1. Tenants who have not enough mtmey prefer share renting because it requires less capital. In fact, many of them could not possibly rent any other way. 2. Tenants wanting to build up a herd of cattle like to rent a farm with a good herd on shares and get half the increase. 3. Landlords renting on shares are more willing to make improve- ments because they get a share in the increased product right from the start, while at cash rent they have to wait till they can raise the rent. 4. Some tenants, especially at grain farming, are glad to share the risk of loss with the landlord. II Reasons for Preferring Cash Leases. A. Landlord’s reasons : 1. Cash renting is less bother — landlords do not have to look after managing their farms and getting their share of the increase and of the products sold. 2. Much trouble and friction is saved between landlord and tenant over managing the farm work, selling the farm produce, and dividing the receipts and expenses. 3. Landlords do not have to worry over whether their tenants are stealing from them or beating them out of their share of the farm income. 4. Poor slipshod tenant farmers should stand the consequences of tlieir own farming. The best way to rent to such a farmer is for cash rent. Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 41 5. In some sections of the state, tenants lack ambition. At share rent they are sure of a living anyway, since they get a large part of it from the farm, and they do not worry much about the regular field crops. As a result the landlord . gets a poor return from his land. 6. Landlords know in advance what they are going to get. 7. Bargains can be made more easily and more accurately in cash terms than in share terms. For example, in some sections landlords cannot alford to give tenants half of all the increase and sales of produce and yet the custom of the neighborhood makes it impossible for them to rent for any other share than one-half. Accordingly they rent for cash. B. Tenant’s reasons : 1. Most tenants prefer to be their own bosses more than they can be under share leases. As a class they do not have as high an opinion of the advice and direction of their landlord as do the landlords them- selves, in many cases to their own sorrow and loss. 2. There is too much danger of friction and trouble with landlords at share rents. Many landlords are suspicious and meddlesome. Share leases offer so many chances for trouble. 3. Many tenants want to be free to engage in enterprises entirely of their own, such as buying and selling livestock, feeding sheep or cattle, growing sugar beets, threshing, silo-filling, and get all the profits themselves 4. Tenants frequently say that they are “not going to make slaves of themselves and give their landlords half.” They forget that cash rent has to come out of their labor also, and it may be a bigger share than the one-half in some cases. Their opinion has this much founda- tion, however, that after they have done a certain amount of work, any extra effort they put forth pays the landlords better than it does them. 5. Tenants generally believe that cash leases pay better than share leases at present rents and prices. 6. Most tenants want to keep their increasing capital in the fonn of livestock and equipment. When their herds get large, they want to rent a farm for cash and furnish all the livestock. 7. More accurate bargains can be made in cash terms. Ci\SH vs. Share-rent Farming. No reliable figures are available to show the actual results of cash- rent and share-rent farming. The popular impression in the share- renting sections of the Rock River Valley is that cash-rent farming is the poorer, and in the cash-renting sections of western Wisconsin, that share-rent farming is the poorer. The only census figures on this point are for the year 1900. These show that cash-rented farms average 15 acres less a farm, carry about one-fifth more buildings, livestock and hired labor an acre, and yield about one-fifth more crop products an acre. Table I. compares cash and share-renting on 193 farms in 1914, 1915 and 1916 in eight counties in Wisconsin, as follows: Walworth, Green, Dane, Winnebago, Wood, Eau Claire, 42 AVisconsin Research Bulletin 47 St. Croix and BaiTon. The share-renting on these farms was mostly under half-and-half dairy leases. This accounts for their lai'ge eciiiip- ment. Labor and current expenses are larger on the cash-rented farms, just as they were according to the 1900 census. These figures seem to indicate that share-rent farmers make their money by farming extensively, using machinery, and keeping ex- penses down. The usual explanation offered for this is that shaie tenants figure that they lose by hiring more than a certain amount of labor, because they have to pay all the bills and the landlord gets half the returns. In any one neighborhood, this dogs not seem to be strikingly true. The supervision of landlords, the restrictions of leases, and the force of custom, keep share tenants farming about like owners. The theory works itself out, however, in the choice of a lease for farms of different sizes, and as between types of farming and dif- ferent sections of the state. Table I. Cash-bent Compared With Share-r^nt Farming 193 Farms in 8 comities of Wisconsin, 1914-16. Cash Share Acres a farm 152 191 Value an acre $91 $112 Value of farm $14,800 $31,400 Value of equipment $2,790 $4,570 Value tenant’s equipment $2,790 $2, 670 Value landlord’s equipment none $1,900 Gross receipts* $1,893 $2,815 Expenses and depreciaton $935 $1,091 Net farm income $958 $1,724 Man labor^ $318 $323 Expenses per $100 farm vtilue $6.30 $5.10 Man labor per $100 farm value $2.15 $1.51 ^ Includes increase in inventory. ^ In addition to tiie farmer’s own labor. Cash renting always predominates where farms are small, or cheap; a share tenant cannot make a living from a half-share of the income from a small or a cheap farm. Cash renting also leads in the small truck farming districts near large cities, one reason for this being that income from such farming is hard to divide into shares. This accounts for the high jirevalance of cash tenancy in northern and eastern AVis- consin. (See Figure 2.) Cash renting prevails in south-western AVis- consin largely because a half-share of the income from the grazing Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 43 type of fanning practiced in these counties is too good a lay-out for the tenant. The only explanation for cash-renting in La Crosse and soutliern Trempealeau and Buffalo Counties is the existence liere of a German family system under which the parents help their sons buy dairy herds so that they can start for themselves as cash tenants. in the Rock River Valley dairy section, fewer prospective tenants have the capital or the family support needed to start as cash tenants. Share tenancy is therefore the first step up the ladder. Tlie only other sections where share-renting takes the lead are the grain-farming counties of northwestern Wisconsin, such as Pierce, St. Croix, Dunn, Ran Claire and Jackson Counties, and the potato and the tobacco counties, such as Vernon, Dane, Portage, Waushara, Waupaca and Marquette Counties. Three classes of landlords generally rent for cash or grain rent, namely, women, speculators, and absentee landlords (landlords living a long way from their farms). Such people are not able to look after their farms, or do not want to bother with them. Retired farmers, on the other hand, usually prefer to rent under land-and-stock shai’e leases, except in southwestern Wisconsin and in La Crosse County. Tenants in grain-farming regions usually object to land-and-stock daily leases because it increases the amount of labor which they have to furnish. Cndoubtedly, more trouble results between landlords and tenants under land-and-stock share leases than under cash leases. For this reason, one-half of the share leases examined in Dane, Jefferson, Rock and Walworth Counties were year-to-year leases, and only one-sixth were five-year leases, whereas only 30 per cent of the cash leases were for one year, and 31 per cent were for five years. Cash-rent farming can undoulitedly be as successful as share-rent farming, if the cash-renting landlords will put proper restrictions in their leases, choose their tenants carefully, and then give them proper supervision. In those sections of Wisconsin where cash-renting results in poor agriculture, it is largely because the landlords are poor land- lords. Where .share-i-enting is resulting in poor agriculture, very often it is because of jioor tenants — all the good farmers can easily obtain farms of their own. Division of Farm Income Undj^r Cash Rent. Talile II. shows the landlord’s returns from two groups of farms, 1185 and 45 resepctively, recently rented for cash rent in Wisconsin. Tlie data from the 1185 farms were obtained from letters written in July, 1917, to landlords and tenants in all the counties in the state. The data as to the 45 farms were obtained from surveys of these farms made in cooperation with the United States Department of Agricul- ture in 1914, 1915 and 1916 in foui* counties, namely, Dane, Walworth, Barron and St. Croix. 44 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 The results in the two columns are quite similar. Table II. Returns to Landlords from Cash Rent in Wisconsin 1914-1917 Acres a farm Value an acre Value of real estate on farm Rent per farm Rent per acre.... Total expenses of landlord Taxes and insurance Upkeep of real estate Grass and clover seed Balance in favor of landlord Depreciation on farm buildings Landlord’s net income Per cent of real estate value— rent “ —total expenses —taxes and insurance . . —upkeep of real estate . —seeds —landlord’s balance —depreciation — landloid’s net income L85 Farms 45 Farms 145 152 S99 $97 $14,375 $14,800 $565 $570 $3.89 $3.75 $142 $137 $109 $111 $26 $22 $7 $4 $423 $409 $72 $65 $351 368 3.94 3.85 .99 .93 .76 .75 .18 .15 .05 .03 2.95 2.92 .50 .44 2.45 2.48 The figures show that cash rents average slightly less than 4 per cent of the market value of the farm. The cash actually paid out by the landlord in taxes, insurance, repairs of buildings and fences, and grass seed, amounts to practically 1 per cent of the value of the farm, leaving the landlord a cash balance of about 3 per cent. Out of this 3 per cent, an additional I /2 per cent should be deducted for depreciation of farm buildings. In figuring his net income, a farmer should subtract enough from each year’s receipts so that when his buildings are finally worn out, he will have enough set aside to con- struct new buildings as good as the old ones were when new. This charge is, of course, in addition to repairs and maintenance. About 2 V 2 per cent seems to be the actual returns to cash-renting landlords in AVisconsin, if returns are figured on the basis of the market value of their real estate. However, if returns are figured on the basis of original investment, that is, the amount paid for the farm plus the - Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 45 * amounts spent upon the farm from time to time for additional im- provements, they will be much higher than 21/2 per cent, especially when land values are rising rapidly as at present. A 2Y2 per cent on the market value of an average farm in Wisconsin in 1915 is equal to a 3.8 per cent return on the amount paid for the same farm in 1905, and probably 2^/^ per cent on the 1920 valuation would equal from 4 to 5 per cent on the values of 1910. The tenant’s share at cash rent. Table III. shows how the income of 45 cash-rented farms was divided between landlord and tenant. Table III. Division of Income of 45 Cash-rented Farms in Wisconsin— 1914-16* Farm Landlord Tenant Investment $17,590 1,893 823 $14,800 570 $2,790 Gross receipts 1,323 Current expenses 137 686 Depreciation 112 65 47 Net income 958 368 590 The tenant matches his own labor and management, his $2,790 of equipment, $686 of current expenses, and $47 of depreciation on his machinery, against the landlord’s $14,800 farm, $137 of cash outlay for taxes, seeds and the like, and $65 of depreciation, and gets as a return $590, or 62 per cent of the net farm income, this income including in- crease in livestock and crops, but not in land values. To this $590 should be added the value of the house rent, fuel, meat, and so forth, which the tenant’s family receives from the farm, worth probably $400 in 1914-15. From this total of $990 should be subtracted $155 of in- terest on the tenant’s working capital (at 5.6 per cent),* ** leaving a balance of $835. This sum covers both his wages for labor and wages for management. If the tenant’s labor at hired men’s rates was worth $475, his profits or wages of management would be $360. The land- lord’s net income, according to Table II, was 2.48 per cent on the market value of this farm, or 3.8 per cent return on the original in- vestment if made 10 years previously. Why landlords’ returns are loiv. The reason that landlords’ returns are low is that enough landlords are willing to become landlords at these low returns to supply prospective tenants with all the land to rent they want at these figures. If the rents were higher, more young * This table shows division of income satisfactorily but not total in- comes. The farms are poorer than the average cash-rented farms of fVip qIpIp ** See Wis. Exp. Sta. Bui. 247. 46 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 men 'would buy instead of renting. Tenants prefer owning to renting principally for the very same reason that landlords want to own land — both are figuring on the rise in the value of land. The bidding be- tween these two parties sets the rents where they are. The ^'alue of farm lands and buildings rose over 3 per cent a year in Wisonsin between 1905 and 1915. Landlords have no reason to expect rents on farm lands to pay them the usual rates of interest on other investments. The market value of land represents two things, pi-esent earning power, and anticipated increase in earning power. Normal rates of interest can be expected only on present earning power. From one-fifth to two-fifths of the market price of all land in Wisconsin represents an- ticipated increase in earning power, expressed in higher future land values. Other reasons why landlords’ returns are low are as follows: (1) Farm land has usually been considered a safe investment in Wis- consin, especially by the landlord class, which is largely made up of retired farmers. (2) Speculation in land lowers returns by putting moi'e farms on the market for rent and also by raising the price of land by making buyers overestimate both its present and its future earning power. (3) Rents always advance somewhat more slowly than prices of farm products and in ordinary times more slowly than land values. (When prices of farm products rise sharply, as during the war period, rents vdll usualkf rise ahead of land values. In fact, rents may ilse and fall again and land values not be affected.) Theoretic- ally, land values ai’e supposed to depend upon rents, but actually, in a country where only a small part of the land is rented, rents are usually fixed at the customary rate, or at a nominal increase upon it, or with reference to the market value of the farm as determined by comparison with similar farms in the same neighborhood. (4) Taxes are recently much higher in Wisconsin than formerly. Landlords have not yet been able to raise rents enough to compensate for the higher taxes. Rents always lag behind taxes. (5) Cash tenants often have too little equipment for profitable farming. Hence they can safely offer only a low rent. Cash rents in different parts of the state. Cash rents by the acre vary only in a general way with the market prices of land. Table IV compares, for eight different sections of Wisconsin, the cash rents an acre in 1916-17 with the market value of rented land and rate of return u])on market value. Cash rents are high relative to land values wherever prevailing interest rates are relatively high, as in northern Wisconsin; where landlords furnish all grass and clover seed; and wherever shai'e renting pi'edominates, as in the Rock River Valley. Cash rents are relatively low where interest rates are low, as in eastern Wisconsin; whei'e s})eculation is unusually active; where tenants are unusually poor farmers; where frequent crop failures increase the risks of farming; and near large cities where laud is relatively over- valued with res])ect to ])roductiou. Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 47 Table IV. Comparison of Rents, Land Values and Rate op Return FOR 1155 Farms in 8 Sections of Wisconsin. Value of rented land an acre Cash rents an acre Per cent cash rent of value Eastern— Lake Shore $115.00 $4.36 3.79 Rock River Valley 115.00 4.67 4.06 Southwestern Upland 118.50 4.71 3.98 Central Western 74.60 2.74 3.66 Central Sandy Plain 60.10 2.22 3.69 Northwestern— Grain Section — 75.60 3.20 4.23 Semi-settled Section 70.30 2.94 4.18 Extreme Northern 45.70 1.92 4.22 State 99.00 3?^ 3.94 Division op Farm Income at Share Rent Following is a series of tables which analyze the farm business of a large number of farms rented under the various types of share leases used in Wisconsin. The method of analysis will appear from the tables. All the items are given for the farm enterprise as a whole, and for landlord and tenant separately. The total investment is divided into investment in real estate and in equipment. Likewise the gross receipts are divided into cash receipts and increase in inventory. From the gross receipts, the cash expenses and the depreciation charges are subtracted. The remainder, called net income, is the amount of actual increase upon the original investment. From net income is subtracted the wages of the tenant for his actual labor at the going wage for hired men, interest on the landlord's investment in real estate at the going rate for investments in land, and interest at the market rate for long-time loans for landlord’s and tenant’s investments in equipment and livestock. The remainder is profits, or wages of management. The man-labor charged as expense consists of hired labor and family labor, the hired labor at actual wages paid plus the estimated cost of the board insofar as not furnished by the farm (approximately $8 a month), and the family labor at its estimated hired labor equivalent. The farmer’s wage as his own hired man was taken from Wisconsin Bulletin 316, ^^Fann Labor in Wisconsin.”* Interest on equipment and livestock is based on Wisconsin Bulletin 247, “Farm Credit in Wiscon- sin.” Interest on investment in land was based on Tables I. and IV. * This method of computing- the wages of the farmer and his family IS not very accurate. 48 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 It is assumed tliat the net return which landlords are willing to take upon land at cash rent is a proper rate to use as the market rate for investment in land. This is a true market rate based upon the bids of a very large number of landlords and tenants, each bidding in full recognition of the possible alternative uses of their capital, management and labor. Under share rent, the landlord assumes greatly increased burdens of management and responsibility. Under cash rent, he as- sumes very light burdens of responsibility. The surplus a landlord gets at share rent over what he could get at cash rent is, therefore, properly considered profits or wages of management. Table V. Summary of the Business of 66 Farms in Green County, Wisconsin, Operated under Half-and-Half Dairy Leases, Farm Landlord Tenant Number of acres 210 j Value per acre $120 Investment $30,586 $27,439 $3,147 Real estate $25,200 $25, 200 Equipment 5,386 2,239 . $3,147 Gross receipts 3,110 1,526 1,584 Cash receipts 2,140 1.042 1,098 Increase in inventory 970 484 486 Cost charges 1,265 537 i 758 Cash expenses 1,070 405 665 Man labor* 481 5 476 Taxes and insurance 234 211 23 Upkeep 64 45 19 Other cash expenses 291 144 147 Depreciation on real estate . . . 132 132 Depreciation on equipment . . , 63' 63 Net income 1,845 989 856 Additional cost charges 1,483 788 695 Interest on real estate* 655 655 .... “ “ equipment^ 320 133 187 Farmer’s wages® • 508 508 Profits 362 201 161 ‘At 2.6 per cent, the cash-rent return, minus taxes and other expenses. See Tai)les 1. and IV. 2At5,95 per cent. See Hul. 247, Wis. A^r. Exp, Sta. || ®At $40S, plus nOO for the part of the farmer’s board which is not furnished by the farm. Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 49 Table VI g Summary of the Business op 50 Farms in Dane and Wal- worth Counties Operated under Half-and-Half Dairy Leases. Farm Landlord Tenant Number of acres 163 Value per acre $111 Investment S21, 719 $19,396 $2,323 $18,156 $18,156 Equipment 3,563 1,240 2,323 Gross receipts 2,665 1,282 1,383 Cash receipts 2,164 1,037 1,127 Increase in inventory 501 245 256 Cost charges 1,058 403 655 Cash expenses 94^ 327 618 Man labor 394 3 391 Taxes and insurance 167 145 22 Upkeep 77 53 24 Other cash expenses 307 126 181 Depreciation on real estate 76 76 Depreciation on equipment . . . 37 37 Net income 1,607 879 728 Additional cost charges 1,133 531 602 Interest on real estate * 468 468 .... on equipment* 181 63 118 Farmer’s wages* 484 484 Profits 474 348 126 (*) At 2.58 per cent. O At 5.1 per cent. (^) At$3S4 plus $100. The 66 farms reported in Table V. are large dairy farms. They average 27 milk cows a farm; 76 per cent of the gross receipts are from cattle, and 19 per cent from hogs. The farms in Table VI. are smaller and not so exclusively given to dairying. The gross receipts are smaller, but larger in proportion to the size of the farms. Table VII. combines the reports of 10 farms in central and northern Wis- consin operated under landlord's cattle dairy leases. This lease is generally used in the newer sections where tenants are scarce and land is not so valuable. The 10 farms average 120 acres in size and are worth only $82 per acre. This makes a real estate investment of $10,840 as compared with $27,439 and $19,396 in the first two tables. The landlords furnish the milk cows, brood sows, and usually half the poultry. The young stock is divided half and half. The landlord usually stands the depreciation on the parent stock. 50 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 Table VII. Summary op the Business of 10 Farms Operated under Landlord’s Cattle Dairy Leases. Farm Landlord Tenant Number of acres 120 V alue per acre $82 Investment $11,595 $10,840 $755 Real Estate J $9, 850 $9,850 Equipment 1,745 990 $75i Gross receipts 1,502 714 788 Cash receipts 1,126 $563 $56; Increase in inventory 376 151 22S Cost charges 549 224 325 Cash expenses 462 169 293 Man labor 176 — • 17( Taxes and insurance 76 71 I Upkeep 38 18 2i Other cash expenses 172 80 9! Depreciation on real estate 55 55 “ equipment.... 32 32 Net income 953 490 463 Additional cost chargres 925 431 494 Interest on real estate^ 369 369 “ equipment.’ 108 62 41 Farmer’s wagres 448 441 Profits 28 59 -31 (0 At 3.4 per cent. (®) At 6.17 per cent. Table VIII. combines the reports of several farms in the grain sec- tion in northwestern Wisconsin farmed under the one third arrange- ment. As will be seen, the tenant furnishes all the equipment, all the cash expenses except taxes, upkeep of real estate, grass seed, and part of the twine and threshing, and gets two-thirds the grain, usually half the hay, and all the livestock receipts. The tenant of course feeds his own share of hay and grain to his livestock. The tenants reported in the table paid an average of $27 cash rent in addition for pasture for their livestock. Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 51 Table VIII. Analysis of Business of Farms Operated Under One-Third Grain Leases. Farm Landlord Tenant Number of acres 193 . Value per acre $82 1 1 Investment $17,839 i $16,187 1 $1,652 $16,133 i $16, 133 Equipment 1,706 54 $1,652 Gross receipts 1,946 1 739 1,207 Cash i-eceipts 1,726 i 723 1,003 Increase in inventory 220 16 1 204 Cost charges 845 214 1 631 Cash expenses 782 183 599 Man labor 341 341 Taxes and insurance 132 113 19 Upkeep 38 22 16 Other cash expenses 271 48 223 Depreciation on real estate 31 §1 .... Depreciation on equipment . . . 32 32 Net income 1,101 525 1 576 Additional cost charg-es .■ 1,068 509 559 Interest on real estate^ 506 506 “ on equipment^ 102 3 99 Farmer’s wages 460 460 Profits 33 16 17 (0 At 3.08 per cent. (*) At 6 per cent. Table IX. analyzes mixed grain and dairy leases. These leases are used in sections of the state where grain farming is giving place to dairy farming. In its_^provisions, the lease used is much like a half- and-half dairy lease. In actual fact, it is quite different, because al- though the landlord furnishes half the milk cows and sows, only a few are kept. Most of the grain is sold. The 284-acre farms re- ported in Table IX. average only 8 cows per farm. Thus the tenants furnish the major part of the equipment. The tenants in addition must feed their work horses out of their half of the grain and pay the usual expenses under one-half grain leases. 52 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 Table IX. Analysis of the Business op Farms Operated Under Mixed Grain and Dairy Leases. Farm Landlord Tenant N umber of acres 284 Value per acre $70 Investment $23,206 $20,692 $2,514 $19,950 $19,950 Equipment 3,256 742 $2,514 Gross receipts 2,729 1,427 1,302 Cash receipts 2,278 1,209 1.069 Increase in inventory 454 221 233 Cost charg-e 1,084 395 689 Cash expenses 902 277 625 Man labor 368 .... 368 Taxes and insurance 188 160 28 Upkeep 55 24 31 Other cash expenses 291 93 198 Depreciation on real estate. .. 118 118 Depreciation on equipment . . . 64 64 Net income 1,645 1,032 613 Additional cost charges 1,232 622 610 Interest on real estate* 578 578 Interest on equipment* 194 44 150 Farmer’s wages - 460 460 Profits 416 413 3 (D At 2.9 per cent. (^) At 6 per cent. Table X. summarizes the six sets of farm records. The share of the total investment furnished by the tenant is nearly twice as much under cash leases as under the share leases. The reason that the landlord’s share is larger in Table V. than in Table VII. is that his land in the former table is relatively overvalued. The cheapness of the land explains the largeness of the tenant’s share under the mixed grain and dairy leases. Increase in inventory on horses sometimes gives half- and-half tenants slightly more than half the gross receipts. Feeding horses out of divided grain reduces the tenant’s share under grain and mixed grain and dairy leases. The labor and other expenses of the tenants usually exceed the taxes, insurance and. other expenses of the landlord sufficiently to reduce their net incomes to several per cent under half. The 45 per cent in Dane and Walworth Counties results because the tenants were paying a larger part than in Green County of the expenses for seeds, twine, threshing, fuel and oil, milk-hauling Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 53 Table X. Comparison op Tenant’s Investment, Expenditures, Income and Profits Under Various Leases. Share of Tenant— Per cent Kinds of leases Invest- ment Gross receipts Net income Costi charges TotaP profit Cash 16 70 62 70 100 Half-and-half dairy (Green County) 9 51 47 53 74 Half-and-half dairy Dane and Walworth) 11 52 45 58 60 Landlord’s cattle 6 53 49 55 86 Two-thirds grain 9 62 52 62 96 Mixed grain and dairy ! 48 87 56 51 (^) Cash expenses, depreciation, interest on investment and wages of farmer. (Cost of management is not included.) (2) Living from the farm, estimated at $400, is added to the tenants’s profits. and the like. The 37 per cent under the mixed grain and dairy leases resulted because tenant’s labor expenses were relatively high and land- lord’s taxes low. In both these cases, tenants apparently were hiring too much labor for their own best interests. When landlord’s interest and tenant’s own labor and interest are added to current expenses to give total cost charges, not including wages of management, the tenant is found to be contributing much more than half in all the different half-share leases, but less than two- thirds in the one-third leases. Tenant’s net incomes are always a much smaller proportion of the total than their cost charges. These come nearest to being in the same proportion in Green County and under the landlord’s cattle leases. Green County farming is extensive sum- mer-season pasture dairying. The disproportion is most in Dane and Walworth Counties where the farming is more intensive, and under the mixed grain and dairy leases. The tenant’s share of total profits* is most where his share of the total cost charges is low relative to propor- tion of net income. The landlord receives very little profit under the two-thirds grain lease where he contributes practically nothing but the land. It is greater where he contributes working capital and manage- ment, as under the half-and-half dairy lease. The landlord’s cattle leases bring poor returns to both landlord and tenant. If the reports from the farms worked under the different land-and- stock share leases are roughly combined, the landlords seem to be get- ting what they would from cash rent, plus interest on livestock in- vestment, plus about $250 as profits, or pay for management. The * Total profits include the value of the living- which the tenant gets from the farm, in the form of rent, fuel, potatoes, milk and the like. This has been omitted from Tables 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10. Bulletin 635 of the U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, called “What the Farm Contributes to the Parmer’s Living,” reckoned the value of this living in 1914 at $375 for Wisconsin families averaging 4.2 persons, including hired help. Prices have risen since 1914. But tenant families are often small. And tenant houses are very often worth less than average rent. In many cases fuel is not furnished as part of the living. Whatever the tenant’s living from the farm is worth, this amount should be added to his share of “Profits.” The figure $400 has been used in these tables. 54 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 tenants seem to be getting wages as hired men, amounting to $475, plus a profit consisting of a partial living from the farm for their families, estimated to be worth $400, and about $125 in addition. This is $165 more than the $360, the wages of management of the 45 cash tenants as shown in the discussion following Table III. These 45 farms, however, are far poorer than the average cash-rented farms. Of the total farm profits under share rent, the tenants are getting 68 per cent and the landlords 32 per cent. This is probably about in pro- portion to the burden of management and responsibility which each assumes. The range in profits on the share-rented farms studied was all the way from $1,100 loss to $2,500 profit. Most of the very large profits were due to the landlord’s herd of cattle and his judgment in buying and selling and planning the work. But the major part of all the usual profits were undoubtedly due to the tenant’s judgment and especially his skill in caring for the crops and livestock and managing the work from day to day. Under share leases, each gets the benefits of the other’s good management. Obviously the tenant loses by this whenever he is a better manager than his landlord, and he gains by it when he is a poorer manager. Dividing the Expenses There are two theories which farmers advance as to how the different expenses should be divided under share rent. One theory is that the only safe and proper way is to find out what is the custom in the neighborhood and follow it. The other theory is that the expenses should be arranged to suit the particular parties and the farm to be worked, the ideal being that the expenses are divided in the same pro- portion as the income. The usual justification for the first theory is that the prevailing terms of share leases represent market valuations the same as cash rentals, wages, and prices of farm products, that these terms are determined in fair competition between landlord and tenant on the basis of supply and demand and therefore represent justice between them. It is true that farms vary greatly in quality, but so do tenant farmers. If the good tenants get the good farms, as is likely to be the case, and the poor tenants the poor farms, then justice is achieved even in such cases. The landlord is making a poor land contribution, but the tenant is making a poor management contribution. Another argument ad- vanced in favor of this method is that it protects both parties, saves them from being taken advantage of by the other party when that party has the whip hand. If either party allows the other to deviate fi’om the custom, there is no telling where it will stop. Also, when there is a standard recognized way of handling farm expenses, eveiy one knows about it and there are fewer misunderstandings. The arguments against always following the custom of the neighbor- hood are as follows: (1) Competition does not in actual practice make proper adjustment for ditferences among farms, landlords and Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 55 tenants. Farms vary greatly in fertility, improvements, and location. In any one locality, on some farms the crops to be grown are largely of the labor-consuming kind, like corn; on others, they are mostly hay and small grain. The cattle furnished by landlords and tenants vary greatly in quality. Since both landlord and tenant contribute to man- agement, the relative efficiency of the two is a m_atter of great import- ance. It is highly improbable that competition can make adjustment for all these differences by getting the right tenant on the right farm. (2) Customary arrangements do not adapt themselves rapidly enough to changing conditions, such as changing land values, wages, types of farming. In times like the present, this is a matter of great concern. The difficulty with the second theoiy is that it is extremely hard to apply it even in a general way, because it is impossible accurately to calculate many of the contributions of the two parties, such as the rent of the land, the value of the farmer’s own labor, the value of the family labor used on the farm, and above all, the value of the management contributed by landlord and tenant. Also, it is hard to calculate the value of the house-rent and supplies the tenant receives from the farm. The general basis of value for all these contributions is their prevail- ing market prices. For the landlord’s land, this will be what it will rent for at cash rent. For the farmer’s own labor this will be some- thing less than what he could hire out for as a plain hired man, plus an allowance for that part of his board which is not furnished out of farm supplies. The often-suggested plan of figuring the value of the labor of other members of the family on the farm at what it could hire out for is not sound. Any amount of family labor is willing to work at all sorts of tasks on owner-operated farms at far less than it would hire out for away from home, and it is not fair to treat family labor on rented farms on any different basis. And where can one go to get the market value of the management contributed by the landlord and tenant on a share-rented farm? The method used on owner-farms is to allow for all the other expenses and call the rest wages of manage- ment. The method has not been properly used, however; some of the expenses have usually been figured so high that nothing has been left for management. The rents charged have been twice too high. Family labor has been overvalued. Besides, the value of the living obtained from the farm has not usually been added to income. If all of these were correctly calculated a result might be obtained that approximated total wages of management. But how separate the shares of landlord and tenant in this wage? In some cases, something like a market value for the tenant’s share can be obtained by combining his labor and management and finding what the two together could be hired out for; but as for the value of the landlord’s management, the case is hopeless. Therefore the plan of adjusting the shares in expenses ac- cording to particular situations is exceedingly difficult to work out accurately. The nearest approach to such a plan as the foregoing would be to 56 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 have the tenant and landlord agree in advance as to a value to be placed on each of the foregoing items — rent, wages of family labor, wages of labor and management of the tenant, wages of the landlord’s management, and value of living obtained from the farm. Interest on working capital and depreciation would also have to be agreed upon. In settling up the year’s business, the cash expenses could be added to the foregoing, and either the farm income divided according to ex- penses, or expenses divided according to an agreed division of income. Ordinarily an inventory would not need to be taken, because each would share proportionately in the increase. Such a plan as the foregoing may seem too involved for most cir- cumstances. Following are two plans which are compromises between the above: 1. Follow the custom so far as possible, and when not possible make allowances for it in some other part of the lease. For example, if free fire wood for the tenant is the custom, and the farm has no firewood, the tenant can be given all the poultry, or a larger share of the poultry i-eceipts. If a farm is too poor to rent well, the tenant can be given other advantages. Differences of this sort can if necessaiy be settled in actual cash at the end of the lease. 2. Count the tenant’s labor and management, family labor and hired labor, and interest, taxes, depreciation and upkeep on his equipment, as equal to the landlord’s mangement, interest, taxes, upkeep and de- preciation on real estate and equipment. Divide the other expenses half-and-half, by estimating their amounts in advance, or by settlement ' afterwards. The great merit of any plan which would divide income on the basis of expenses, or expenses on the basis of income, would be that it would give the tenant the full benefit of all the extra labor he hired. Relations Between Landlord and Tenant If landlords and tenants could be kept on better terms with one another, leases would be made for longer periods, herds would be broken up less often, and buildings and fences would be better main- tained. The first essential to right relations between landlord and tenant is the choice of a suitable farm, the second essential is right choice of partners, the third is a thorough understanding when the bar* gain is made, and the fourth is a proper attitude toward each other in handling the various situations constantly arising under the opera- tion of the lease. A suitable farm. The suitable farm is one which is large enough, productive enough, and well enough located so that it will yield the tenant a good living and a surplus after the landlord’s rent is paid. ITis is more important under share leases than under cash leases, be- cause a cash tenant is free to work out if his farm is not large enough to keep liim busy at home. Share tenants on daiiy farms must be es- jmcially particular about the quality of the landlord’s share of the herd. | Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 57 Choice of landlord. Most common of all is the retired farmer, a good sort on the whole, but likely to be over-cautious about new enter- prises, over careful with expense money, and slow about making im- provements. Some of them need all the rent to make both ends meet in town. Where they have the means and modern business ideas and love their farms, they make the best of landlords. Another sort of landlord is the city merchant, banker, doctor, or lawyer who is in- vesting his surplus in a farm, perhaps as something of a plaything, perhaps in order to profit on the rise in land values. Most of these men are good landlords, even if they are ignorant about farming. The real estate speculator is less desirable as a landlord — he is not enough interested in the business of the farm to want to make the needed im- provements. There are now appearing in some sections a few land- lords who are making the renting of farms on shares a profession. They obtain control of several farms in the same district, select high- class tenants, furnish them with half of a good herd of cattle, including a sire, lay out a plan of crop rotation, do the buying and selling, and give the tenant half the receipts. Most of the landlords now in this business are upright men and good managers and j^hus tenants prosper under their care. The plan, however, offers chances for abuse of the tenant. The type of landlord chosen, however, is not half so important as his personal characteristics. Is he nagging, fault-finding, over-particular about small details? Is he firmly convinced that his notions as to farming are the best in the world? Or is he a reasonable, open-minded, sort of person interested in a tenant’s welfare about as much as his own ? Choice of a tenant. Tenants in Wisconsin today are of two sorts, those who are getting ready to buy a farm as fast as they can, and those who are content not to make progress in that direction. In a few instances, the latter sort are properly ambitious, being convinced that renting pays better than owning. All the rest are thriftless hand-to- mouth fellows whom no landlord wants if he can help it. The first thing for a landlord to consider in a tenant, therefore, is his purpose in farming. It will pay him oftentimes to select a young fellow with very little means and help him to get started. Once a landlord gets a tenant of this kind, he ought, if possible, to keep him as long as he is willing to remain a tenant. Written leases best. Written leases should be drawn up, agreed to and signed by both parties before the tenant moves onto the farm. If made out carefully and by and between the two parties, or in their presence, so that each and every provision, is clearly and correctly un- derstood, the chances are that the lease will never again be referred to. The lease is not the important thing; it is the understanding. But the only way to get a complete understanding is to put all the terms of the lease down in writing. Then, too, both parties are liable to death or accident at any time and it is well to have some written record that can be used in making settlement. For this reason especially. 58 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 written leases are fully as necessary between members of the family and relatives as between strangers. Avoiding trouble: Rules for the landlord. Most of the troubles that arise between landlords and tenants under the operation of the leases center about the following things, — deciding what crops to grow ; selling livestock; sharing expenses; making repairs and improvements, damages to buildings, division of receipts, especially poultry receipts, and division at the end of the lease. Following are a number of suggestions which successful landlords make time and time again as to the handling of tenants : 1. Keep your eyes on the big things about the farm enterprise, the things that are earning most of the money. Don’t quarrel with a tenant over a basket of eggs or a broken window-light. 2. Help your tenant to make a good income. You may have to help him buy some good cows or horses or a corn binder, or hire him some extra help. But you can’t afford to have either a cash or a share tenant on your farm who doesn’t make money. The success of the tenant is what determines the rent. 3. Be not too fre^with advice, especially with a new tenant. Begin with a new tenant by doing him some real service, and soon he will be coming to you asking for advice. Indirect suggestions, when they are not insinuations, are much better received than advice. 4. Live up to the last letter of the agreement in what you are to furnish the tenant, especially in the matter of improvements.'^ Repairs to the house and the cistern are most important of all. The housewife is probably overworking herself at the best. 5. In those things which are left to mutual agreement, avoid dictating to the tenant. Let his judgment rule if you cannot convince him that he is wrong, unless the matter is of great consequence. If you are convinced the tenant usually has poor judgment, and consequences of it are serious, wait till the end of the year and get a new one. 6. It is important to keep relations cordial. If they cannot be so maintained it may be best to find a new tenant. 7. If you have trouble with a tenant, first let things cool down. Then if need be, change tenants when the year is up. 8. Be absolutely regular about business dealings, settling all accounts strictly on time and in a business-like way. Let a bank keep your accounts if possible. 9. Do not figure so closely on small items as to give the impression of being mean and small. 10. Don’t be guilty of counting the eggs in the nest-boxes, or the corn- cobs in the horses’ feed boxes. Avoidiiig trouble: Rules for the tenant — 1. Make the landlord trust you. You cannot afford to be guilty of the slightest irregularity or in taking the least advantage of the land- lord. Uneasy is the lot of a suspicious landlord, and he will make the tenant’s lot no less uncomfortable. Farm Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 59 2. Keep your landlord feeling kindly toward you as long as you stay with him. It will cost you only a Uttle forbearance and bring you many things you want. 3. Keep up the appearance of the premises. The farm is your home. It will pay in both money and satisfaction to give it a homelike aspect; 4. Take fully as good care of jointly owned property as you do of your own. Is Tenancy Desirable? It is not the purpose of this bulletin to discuss in full the advantages and disadvantages of tenancy, but merely to point out a few of the important facts bearing on the question. Whether tenancy is desir- able or not can be decided only by comparing it with its substitutes. These substitutes are as follows: (1) more farm laborers, (2) more and heavier mortgages, (3) smaller farms. The proportion of laborers Table XL Comparing the Farm Business of Owned and Rented Farms in 8 Counties in Wisconsin, 1913 - 15 . Farms Operated by 265 owners 148 share tenants 45 cash tenants 42 part owners Number of acres 140 191 152 150 V alue per acre $86 $112 $97 $94 Value real estate $12,814 $21,400 $14,800 $8,590* Value eauipment, 2,614 4,150 2,790 2,290 Gross receipts'* 2,071 2,815 1,893 1,904 Additional man labor* 339 323 318 308 Other currant expenses 526 807 505 548» Depreciation 102 161 812 98 Net income 1,104 1,724 958 950 Interest on real estate^ 314 525 363 211 Interest on equipment® 146 266 156 128 Farmer’s wages 475 475 475 475 Profits 169 458 36 136 Profits plus living from farm'* i 564 . 858 364 536 Additional labor an acre 2.42 1.69 2.08 2.05 Equipment an acre 18.70 24.90 18.40 15.30 1 Rented land (58 acres) not included. ^Includes increase in inventory. ® Includes cash rent on 27 cash rented acres. ^ Includes family labor and hired labor. ® At 2.45 per cent. See Table II. * At 5.6 per cent. See Table II. ^ Livintr from farm reckoned at $400. 60 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 47 is constantly increasing- as it is. In eveiy 1000 agricultural workers in Wisconsin, 386 were laborers in 1910 as compared with 292 in 1880. There Avere only 25 more tenants in every 1,000 in 1910 than in 1880. In every 1000 owned farms in Wisconsin, 85 more were mortgaged in 1910 than in 1890. Wisconsin was the only state west of the Alle- glianies in which the ratio of mortgage debt to value of farms in- creased between 1890 and 1910. The mortgaged fanns in Wisconsin in 1910 were A^ery much smaller and cheaper than rented farms, and noticeably smaller than the mortgage-free farms. Apparently Wis- consin fanners have freely chosen the substitutes for tenancy. Table XI. compares the records of the rented and OAvned famis studied in eight counties of Wisconsin. The tenants are on the larger and more valuable farms and are making the largest incomes. The principal reason for this is, of course, that most of the tenants are found in southern Wisconsin where land values are higher. Share tenants are making larger incomes than cash tenants largely because they are most abundant in sections where land is valuable and farms quite large. The principal reason that owners are making less profits than share tenants is that many of the owners are older men who make a fair living farm- ing in a leisurely manner with obsolete methods, Avhereas the tenants are wide-awake young men who are hustling to get a foothold on the agricultural ladder. In many neighborhoods, a larger proportion of owners than of tenants are poor, slack farmers. Mortgaged owners are no doubt as industrious as tenants, but they are handicapped because they are farming on smaller and poorer farms. The significance of these figures is that they point out veiy clearly to all concerned Avhat the usual choices are for a young man in Wis- consin with limited capital. He can migrate to a section of the state where land is cheap, or perhaps hunt out a small or a cheap f^rm in his OAvn neighborhood. If he makes this choice, his income Avill ordi- narily be small. Or he can rent a somewhat larger and better farm in some cash-renting neighborhood. His net income Avill probably be somewhat larger.* Or he can work some large and valuable farm in a sli are-renting neighborhood and make the largest income of all. This comparison does not tell quite all the story. The age and ex- perience of the jmung man needs to be considered. Tenancy, especially share tenancy, is an excellent apprenticeship in management. On the other hand, some young men Avork better and save better on their OAvn farms tlian on rented farms. FeAv thoughtful people desire a- complete tenant sj-stem of farming in this country. On the other hand, many look with approval upon a moderate amount of tenancy. The facts seem to indicate that the young man on the Wisconsin farm will ordinarly fare better in his life’s journej^, if he considers the end as well as the beginning, and includes tenancy as one of the stages in his pilgrimage. * Attention should here be called to the fact that the cash-rent data ma'sented do not include instances in southwestern AVisconsin and some otln r sections of the state where cash rent is most common. Research Bulletin 48 November^ 1920 Fusarium Resistant Cabbage L. R. JONES, J. C. WALKER and W. B. TISDALE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON CONTENTS Page Cabbage yellows in the United States 3 Cause and development 3 Distribution 4 Recent work with Wisconsin Hollander . 6 Wisconsin Hollander in commercial fields 6 Early Wisconsin Hollander, a new strain 10 Resistant selections of other varieties 12 Wisconsin Brunswick 13 Wisconsin All Seasons IS ^Selections of other varieties 22 All Head Early 23 Glory of Enkhuizen 24 Copenhagen Market 24 Present status summarized 25 Commercial production and distribution of resistant seed.... 27 Summary and conclusions 32 Fusarium Resistant Cabbage^ The disease known as cabbage yellows is making impossible the successful culture of the cabbage in large and apparently in- creasing areas in the United States. Nearly ten years ago the senior author began a study of the disease in the Racine district of southeastern Wisconsin. This soon led to the development of a disease-resistant strain of the Hollander or Ball Head vari- ety which has since been distributed and successfully grown commercially under the name Wisconsin Hollander. The gen- eral facts regarding the nature of the disease and the results with control measures, especially through disease resistance, were presented in an earlier bulletin.^ Since that date the work has been continued with some advances both in regard to the study of the disease and the control measures. Cause and development of the disease. Cabbage yellows is caused by the soil fungus Fusarium conglutinans Wollenw. This has been found by Tisdale® to penetrate the root hairs of the cabbage plants as does the similar flax wilt Fusarium, push- ing thence back through the cortical tissues until it reaches the vascular system. The invasion of the vessels proceeds rapidly from the fibrous roots through the stem into the leaves. This leads to the progressive browning and death of the vascular ele- ments followed by a slow yellowing of the aerial parts. The in- vaded plants soon begin to shed their lower leaves while making a weak effort at continued growth above. The disease may ap- pear in the seed bed but is chiefly in evidence in the field after transplanting. In the worst cases in such field attacks, death may result in a week or two after the plants are set out. The 1 This work has been much strengthened because of the hearty support of ' Dr. W. A. Orton, head of the Office of Cotton, Truck, and Forage Crop Disease Investigations, U. S. Department of Agriculture. This office has contributed most of the services of Dr. J. C. Walker and has also met other expenses. It has further cooperated through Dr. J. B. S. Norton, who has successfully grown seed from selected heads in the Washington greenhouses during two winters. Both J)r. Norton and Professor L. L. Harter, also of this office, have offered valuable suggestions, ^ Jones, L. R., and Gilman, J. C. The control of cabbage yellows through disease resistance. Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Bui. 38. 1915. ® Tisdale, W. H. Flax wilt: a study of the nature and inheritance of wilt resistance. Jour. Agr. Res. XI: 573. 1917. i Wisconsin Research Bulletin 48 majority of “yellows” diseased plants continue their sickly ex- istence for a few weeks, gradually succumbing, while some of those slightly invaded may live through the summer and even form heads. When the soil is once infested, the fungus seems capable of persisting almost indefinitely, such soils being thereby rendered “cabbage sick.” Even in the worst “cabbage sick” soils, how- ever, there is a marked variation in severity of attack from year to year. This results from the fact first demonstrated by Gil- man^ that aggressive host invasion occurs only at relatively high soil temperatures, 17°C. (62°F.) and above. This means that the most serious development of yellows is limited to those sea- sons having relatively hot weather during the early part of the growing season and especially during the first month following transplanting, which is late June and early July in Wisconsin. Distribution of the disease. In geographical distribution the disease seems to be rather widespread in its occurrence in the eastern United States® but it is not by any means universal in its ravages. It seems to be most serious commercially in the older and more intensive cabbage-growing sections from Iowa and southern Wisconsin across Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsyl- vania, Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey. Northward the disease is certainly less prevalent in central Wisconsin, even in old cabbage growing areas, than it is in the southern part. Such data as are available from Michigan, New York, and lower Can- ada indicate that in these sections also, although present in the southern areas, it lessens as one goes northward. Farther south- ward its occurrence has been reported to us, but as soon as one passes to the regions where cabbage is grown as a winter or early spring crop the seriousness of the disease wanes. This is prob- ably explained by the low soil temperature prevailing during the early growth of the crop under these conditions. The facts as to the distribution or minor occurrence of this parasite are es- peciall}^ hard to determine since the only evidence of its pres- ence is the development of the disease in cabbage, and even * Gilman, J. C. Cabbagre yellows and the relation of soil temperature to its occurrence. Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 2: 25. 1916. 'Harter, L. L., and Jones, L. R. Cabbage diseases. U. S. Dept, Agr. Farmers’ Bui. 925. 1918. Fusarium Resistant Cabbage 5 where this occurs it is often difficult for one not quite familiar with both diseases to distinguish it with certainty from the bac- terial black rot.® The reported distribution seems to accord with the conception that the cabbage Fusarium is widely dis- tributed in the United States, at least from the Mississippi Val- ley eastward, and that the serious development of the disease where intensive prolonged cabbage culture occurs is conditioned upon favorably high soil temperatures during the early stages of development of the plant. It is noteworthy in this connection that the disease has not been found^ in the cabbage fields of Hol- land and Denmark although these include the oldest and most intensive cabbage districts of the world. It has not developed in the cool soil of the Puget Sound coast. Whatever its pres- ent distributional limits, there seems to be good ground for be- lieving that in the United States it is certain to be introduced sooner or later into all parts of the country where cabbage cult- ure is long practiced and that once introduced it will persist and spread wherever soil temperature conditions permit. In the ear- lier bulletin® trials were recorded with various measures aiming at the control of the parasite after once introduced. All of these, save selection for disease resistance, gave negative results. The conclusion was reached, therefore, that it is only through securing Fusarium-resistant strains, suited to local market and climatic conditions, that the cabbage industry can be developed on a sound, permanent basis in most parts of the United States. Work to this end has, therefore, been continued with the coop- eration of the United States Department of Agriculture. This has included, (1) further work with the Wisconsin Hollander; (2) the development of resistant strains of other varieties, es- pecially of late summer types used largely for the manufacture of sauerkraut; (3) cooperation with growers and commercial * Jones and Gilman, Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Bui. 38, p. 9. T This statement is based upon the judgments of Dr. P. Kdlpin Ravn, of Denmark, Dr. Johanna Westerdijk, of Holland and Dr. Otto Appel of Ger- many, each of whom some years ago saw the disease as it occurs in Wis- consin. Further evidence of the non-occurrence of the disease in the cooler climates of Europe and Asia has been secured in 1919 during visits to our trial grounds of the following foreign pathologists, none of whom had previ- ously met with it, Messrs. G. H. Pethybridge, Ireland, A. D. Cotton, England Ivar Jorstad, Norway, and K. Nakata, Japan. ’ * Jones and Gilman, loc. cit. 5 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 48 organizations in the production and distribution of seed of the resistant strains; (4) further studies on the relation of envir- onment to the development of the disease. RECENT WORK WITH WISCONSIN HOLLANDER The name Wisconsin Hollander was given in the earlier bulle- tin to the Fusarium-resistant strain selected from the commer- cial Hollander or Danish Ball Head. For the details concern- ing this, reference may be made to the former publication.® The large commercial cabbage growers of Wisconsin are inter- ested only in one or the other of two types of cabbage: (1) the late variety, Hollander or Danish Ball Head, used for winter storage purposes, (2) the earlier varieties for immediate use chiefly in the local kraut factories. The first of these takes the lead in most parts of Wisconsin and has therefore merited such further attention as was necessary to its commercial distribution and use. This has involved during the last five years the criti- cal watching of its growth in commercial fields under different environmental conditions, attempts at possible further improve- ment, and attention to the growing and distribution of adequate supplies of seed. Wisconsin Hollander in Commercial Fields During the last five seasons, 1916-1920, the Wisconsin Hol- lander has been grown commercially on a constantly increasimg acreage in the older Racine-Kenosha cabbage soils. The seed has been grown locally either by individual farmers or under the supervision of a growers’ committee organized for this pur- pose. In 1916 there was sufficient seed distributed for wide- spread planting, though on a limited scale. Since 1917 the sup- ply has been reasonably adequate for local needs. To determine for themselves the relative merits of the yellows-resistant Wis- consin Hollander as compared with the non-resistant commer- cial strains, cabbage growers were urged during the first two seasons, 1916 and 1917, to plant at least one or more rows of some commercial type in the same field with the Wisconsin Hol- • Jones and Gilman, loc. cit. Fusarium Resistant Cabbage 7 lander and observe the results. They were very striking. In 1916 during the hot weather of July, the disease was unusually destructive. Figure 1 shows some of the evidences which convinced the cabbage growers that even under these most try- ing conditions of 1916 they could succeed with the home-grown Commercial cabbage seed — Disease- resistant seed FIG. 1.— AVISCONSIN HOLLANDER VS. COMMERCIAL HOLLANDER ON SICK SOIL A farmer’s trial of Wisconsin Hollander in 1916 (Scheckler’s third field, Table I). The Commercial Hollander cabbage which was planted on the left was practically destroyed by yellows and the ground was occupied by weeds. The Wisconsin Hollander in balance of field, at the right, gave a highly profitable crop. seed of Wisconsin Hollander when the non-resistant strains of Hollander were a commercial failure. Counts were made in late August of the percentage of plants showing signs of yellows in each of these fields where the Wisconsin Hollander was planted beside a comparable commercial variety. The results Avere as follows from the twenty fields. 8 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 48 Table I. — Results of Commercial Trials of Wisconsin Hollander Resistant Compared with a Susceptible Commercial Strain. Racine District. 1916. (See Figure 1 for Appearance of One of These Fields.) Name of Grower Percentage o In Wisconsin Hollander f yellows In commercial Hollander Bartholomew 22.5 92.0 Hansche, A. & S 14.3 91.0 Hansche, A & S. (second field) 11.0 86.0 Hansche, Fred 17.0 86.5 Hansche. L. E 12.8 50.0 Klapproth 43.7 94.7 Piper 22 7 90.3 Drummond 33.7 93.7 Horner 23.9 85.8 Braid 54.6 100.0 Kraus 25.3 73.0 Scheckler 21.7 98.0 Scheckler (second field) 30.0 98.8 Scheckler (third field) 17.8 94.5 J acobson 15.6 91.2 Broesch, M 30.2 98.3 Broesch H 27.2 93.2 Thompson Bros 33.6 85.2 Lichter 11.7 89.6 Abresch 17.5 88.4 Average of twenty fields 24.3 89.0 As shown by the foregoing averages, less than one-fourth of the Wisconsin Hollander plants showed Fusarium infection, whereas the commercial strains averaged nearly 90 per cent. These figures are not nearly so striking as was the actual appear- ance of the fields. This is due to the fact that in most cases where the disease did occur in the resistant strain it was so slight that the plants listed as having yellows usually formed good- sized heads, whereas most of those attacked in the commercial strains either died early in the season or formed no heads if they lived. Results in 1917. In 1917 several growers continued to plant one or two control rows of commercial cabbage in the field with the Wisconsin Hollander for purposes of comparison. The dis- ease was less severe than in 1916, but prevalent enough to show a large gain where the resistant strain was used. Table II gives the results from four of the “sick” fields where such cou- trol rows were included in the planting. Fusarium Resistant Cabbage 9 Table II. — A Comparison of Wisconsin Hollander and Hollander in Farmers’ Fields, 1917. Commercial Per cent of Name of grrower Strain of seed yellows Thomas Wisconsin Hollander 2 Commercial Hollander 50 Lichter Wisconsin Hollander 5 Commercial Hollander 88 Horner Wisconsin Hollander 10 Commercial Hollander (5 .Tohnaon Wisconsin Hollander 7 Commercial Hollander 97 This shows an average of only 6 per cent of yellows in the Wisconsin Hollander as compared with nearly 80 per cent in the commercial strains. Results in 1918-19. During the two seasons 1918 and 1919 the cabbage growers having ‘‘sick” soil accepted the evidence of the superiority of the Wisconsin Hollander and ceased to plant non-resistant controls in their fields. Comparisons that could be made were those in our trial grounds where, under the condi- tions of 1918, no yellows whatever was evident in the best re- sistant selections and the average of all Wisconsin Hollander se- lections under trial showed less than 1 per cent of diseased plants whereas the commercial control showed about 85 per cent. In 1919, owing to the hot dry weather in July, the disease was much worse than in 1918. The result was that a large percen- tage of the plants of even the most resistant strains of Wiscon- sin Hollander showed some indications of infection, the average of all strains being about 70 per cent. Most of these were slightly diseased, however, and 80 per cent lived through the season, whereas of the non-resistant controls every plant showed yellows and only 1 per cent lived through the season. The results under the most extreme climatic conditions and in the various types of soil have, therefore, continued fully to justify confidence in the practical merits of the Wisconsin Hol- lander as originally distributed. Efforts have been kept up, however, during this time to improve upon it in any way prac- ticable. Wisconsin Research Bulletin 4S ]U Early Wisconsin Hollander, a New Strain The Wisconsin Hollander was selected from the strain of the Hollander or Danish Ball Head. In the subsequent trials of this selection beside the original Ferry^® Hollander the former has proved to be more vigorous, to have a little longer stem, a more flattened head, and to require a longer season for matur- ing. (See Fig. 2.) 'While this makes it a somewhat heavier FIG. 2.— LATE WISCONSIN HOLLANDER Section of a typical head of Late Wisconsin Hollander cabbage. In com- parison with the Early Wisconsin Hollander, (Fig. 3), note the coarseness in texture, and tendency toward “flattening.” yielder in seasons having a favorably long autumn, under less favorable conditions, it may fail to mature as large a percentage of heads. In any case the date of liarvest and marketing is delayed somewhat. In tlie judgment of representatives of the seed company and of W. J. Hansche, secretary of the local cab- bage growers’ committee, it lias seemed commercially desirable In making our recent comparisons with the original Perry type we have v had the helpful cooperation of Mr. Coulter and IMr. MacKinnon. Fusarium Resistant Cabbage 11 to try to secure a strain through further selection from the Wis- consin Hollander which would more fully combine with disease resistance the original Hollander characters of earliness, round head, and short stem. Owing to Mr. Hansche’s skill, gained through long experience in handling and judging Hollander cab- bage, we have in recent years left with him the immediate re- sponsibility for the head selections with this in view. Each sea- son we have included in our trial grounds such head strains as FIG. 3.— EARLY V^ISCONSIN HOLLANDER Section of a typical head of Early Wisconsin Hollander cabbage. In com- parison with Late Wisconsin Hollander (Fig. 2), note the compactness, close grain and shape approaching the spherical. This is accepted by expert practical growers and representatives of commercial seed houses who have Inspected the trial fields as meeting the highest standards as a winter or storage cabbage type. The desired type is combined with a high degree of resistance to yellows. he has selected in order to determine their relative disease re- sistance. A strain has thus been secured which combines well the desired characters. This has descended from a single head which Mr. Hansche selected in a field of Wisconsin Hollander in 1916. The seed plant from this head Avas forced in the green- house during the Avinter of 1916-17 and from a feAv seeds thus secured by self pollination plants AA’ere groAAUi for trial in 1917. OAving to the late maturity of the seed these plants were forced 12 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 48 in a cold frame apart from the other strain, hence they could not be closely compared with the latter as to disease-resistant quality. They made an excellent showing in this respect, how- ever, and also maintained well the round head and short stem of the parent plant, while, considering their late start, they ma- tured somewhat earlier than the other Wisconsin Hollander strains. All of the sound heads of this strain were saved and set out for seed growing in an isolated plantation in 1918. Seed from one of the best of these plants was saved as a separate head strain for the 1919 trial grounds, the balance mixed for field use. The results in all cases were highly satisfactory in that along with a degree of disease resistance fully equal to that of the older strains of Wisconsin Hollander, these plants showed with much uniformity the desired characters for which the par- ent head was selected — shorter stem, rounder head, and earlier maturity. (See Fig. 3.) In these respects the new type is closely similar to the original Ferry Hollander. Under the conditions of 1919 the field crop of the recent selection matured nearly two weeks earlier than the older type of Wisconsin Hollander. To distinguish the two types, the new one will hereafter be desig- nated as the Early Wisconsin Hollander and the older strain, now in general use, as the Late Wisconsin Hollander. It is hoped that commercial growers and seed dealers who may use these strains will cooperate with us in maintaining them independently since they represent types worthy of such segregation. Appar- ently one or the other of these types will meet adequately the needs in the various sections where the Hollander cabbage is now grown in a large commercial way. In order to provide for this, the available seed of the Early Wisconsin Hollander has been sent to the Puget Sound region for the production of a seed crop which should be available for commercial distribution in 1921. RESISTANT SELECTIONS OF OTHER VARIETIES The Hollander, which is a winter storage or shipping cabbage, is the variety of chief commercial interest in Wisconsin. With the development of this winter cabbage industry, however, has come an increasing number of kraut factories. These use little or no Hollander cabbage as a rule, the needs of this industry be- ing best met by special types of the late summer or “domestic” cabbages of the Flat Dutch group. Of these kraut varieties the Fusarium Resistant Cabbage 13 one in most favor in the Racine district — when the present prob- lems were outlined — was the Brunswick. In other kraut-grow- ing sections the All Seasons is generally preferred. Since both of these are rather late fall varieties the All Head is generally grown in addition for early kraut use because it has a reputa- tion for sure heading, desired kraut quality, and matures a week or more in advance of either All Seasons or Brunswick. Accordingly, efforts have been made to secure resistant strains of each of these three kraut types beginning with the Bruns- wick. Wisconsin Brunswick The first selections were made in a badly diseased field in 1913. The seed from which this field was grown was supplied by Mr. F. W. Gunther, kraut manufacturer of Racine, and was imported from Germany by him. Trials of the original or commercial strain of this seed made in 1912 and 1913 as reported in our earlier publication^^ (pp. 34, 35) showed it to be about as sus- ceptible to yellows as the average commercial Hollander varie- ties and this accords with the general experience of Racine cab- bage growers. Seed was grown from two of these selected heads in 1914 and tested in our 1915 plots. The results showed these selections to be distinctly superior in Fusarium resistance to the parent commercial strains. Fortunately the progeny of one head proved distinctly better than the other and to be of good Brunswick type. Its behavior as compared with the non-resist- ant control is shown in Table III. Selections of heads for fur- ther seed growing were made from this one head strain. It should be noted that 1915 was an unusually cool summer and that consequently the yellows disease was not very bad even in the control plants. Table III. — ^Results in 1915 with the Best First Generation Selec- , TioN OF Brunswick Cabbage. Strain Yellows Living Headed Selected Brunswick (XI-4-2) Per cent 18 84 Per cent 100 85 Per cent 95.0 76.1 Control (Commercial Hollander), ” Jones and Gilman, loc. cit. 14 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 48 Purttier trial was therefore made of this head strain (XI-4-2) in 1916 on thoroughly sick soil. Owing to the warm weather favorable to the disease this season they underwent an especially severe test. Only one plant out of 45 of these Brunswick heads was seriously infected with yellows while the commercial vari- ety planted alongside was practically destroyed by the disease. The evidence from the trials of the two seasons taken in combin- ation justified the conclusion that this selection represented a sufficiently resistant type of Brunswick to warrant its perpetua- tion for distribution to the growers. Several of the most de- sirable heads were therefore selected for further seed grooving in 1917. Trials of Second Generation Brunswick Selections in 1917 In 1916 seed representing the second generation was secured from a number of the heads selected in 1915 and these were tested in 1917 under their respective serial numbers with the following results. This 1917 trial was on the same soil which had been proved so sick in 1916 and the season was sufficiently favorable again for the Pusarium to give a good trial. Table IV. — Results with Second Generations of Brunswick Selected IN 1915 AND Tested in 1917 . Head Strain [ Plants infected Plants killed by yellows No. XI-6-12 Per cent 17 Per cent 4.2 No. XI-6-15 22 2.0 No. XI-6-13 25 5.8 No. XI-6-11 25 7.7 No. XI-6-10 35 7.5 Commercial Brunswick, control 80 54.0 A small quantity of the resistant Brunswick seed was also given out for trial by growers -in 1917 and fortunately some of these plants were placed in a field at Union Grove, AVisconsin, where the soil was quite ^‘sick. ” A visit to this field in Sep- tember showed the selected strain to be standing up almost per- fectly while commercial strains alongside it were badly affected by yellows. (See Fig. 4). In 1917 a small amount of this seed was placed with other state experiment stations for trial. Sc Fusarium Resistant Cabbage 15 far as we know only one sample was planted on Fusarium sick soil. This was placed through the cooperation of Prof. H. S. Jackson of the Indiana Experiment Station with M. Humpfer at Hammond, Indiana. In October, Mr. Humpfer reported that with this he planted 10,800 square feet, or about one-quarter acre of badly diseased land. It gave him about 98 per cent stand, yielding 5 tons of cabbage. On one side of this he had commercial Copenhagen Market which gave only 25 per cent of FIG. 4.— RESISTANT WISCONSIN BRUNSWICK Cabbage trials on Fusarium sick land made by a farmer in 1917. One row jf Wisconsin Brunswick (resistant) at right of center showing complete stand ; balance of field on the right was Wisconsin Hollander, also resistant; re- mainder of field at left commercial Hollander (non-resistant) where the loss was due partly to yellows and partly to black leg. a stand and on the other, commercial Glory of Enkhuizen which gave 50 per cent of a stand. He tried Wisconsin Hollander on the same field and found that this and the Brunswick showed about equally high resistance, the Hollander giving a 95 per cent stand whereas commercial Hollander alongside gave about a 33 per cent stand. While the results to date have not in general shown the Bruns- wick strains quite equal in resistance to the best Wisconsin Hol- lander strains, the trials have justified the conclusion that the best selected strain deserves commercial distribution and the 16 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 48 seed has therefore been put out under the name Wisconsin Brunswick. Trials of Wisconsin Brunswick in 1918 and 1919 Trials of 1918. The trials of Wisconsin Brunswick were re- peated on “sick’’ soil at Racine in 1918 using four of the head strains of seed grown in 1917 with the encouraging results shown in Table V. Table V. — Results with Third Generation of Brunswick Selected in 1916 AND Tested in 1918. strain P] ants showing yellows Wi«!r*.nnsln 'Rrnnswir.lr bp.ad strain No. XT 7 — 1 Per cent 0.0 0.7 0.7 8.3 69.9 Wlsronj^in Rrnn«winVr hp.a.rl strain No. XT 7 S Wisconsin Brunswick head strain No. XI 7 4 Winnonsin Rnin.swipk head strain No. XT 7 8 Commercial Brunswick, control Trials of 1919. Owing to the severe midsummer heat the trials of 1919 were unusually severe. In 1918 seed had been secured from only one new head strain of Brunswick, XI-8-1. Therefore, two of the head strains from which seed was grown in 1917 were included, Xl-7-1, which had proved the best of those tested in 1918, and XI-7-10, a strain which had been omit- ted through lack of room from the trials of 1918. Since no com- mercial Brunswick of reliable character was available for con- trol purposes, comparison is made with the commercial Hollan- der planted in the trial grounds. Table VI. — Wisconsin Brunswick Trials, 1919. Head strain Yellows Lived Headed Wisconsin Brunswick XT 8 1 Per cent 54.8 Per cent 96.7 Percent 23.9 67.5 Wisconsin Brunswick XI 7 1 16.2 97.6 Wisconsin Brunswick XI— 7— 10 55.2 86.5 64.2 Control, commercial Hollander 98.9 9.3 1 7.6 Since the evidence is clear that the 1918 strain, XI-8-1, was inferior in disease resistance to both of the 1917 strains, XI-7-1 Fusarium Resistant Cabbage 17 and XI-7-10, heads for further seed growing were saved only from the latter. These trials have shown that the Wisconsin Brunswick which is now available in limited quantities for commercial use com- bines very well the type of the commercial Brunswick with ^ sufficiently high degree of disease resistance to meet practical needs. Conferences with various growers have shown, however, that while the Wisconsin Brunswick possesses many good quali- ties both the commercial and the selected type have certain char- FIG. 5.— TYPICAL BRUNSWICK HEAD Section of Wisconsin Brunswick cabbage. Note the relatively flat head and openness of spaces between the leaves of this and the other kraut type (See Fig. 6) as compared with the round, dense, hard heads of the Hollander or storage cabbage type (See Pigs. 2 and 3). The characteristically very short stem or “core” of the Brunsw’ick is also illustrated here. This commends it to the kraut manufacturers, but is not so satisfactory to the grower inas- much as it is associated with the tendency to form a reentrant angle at the base as explained in the text. acteristics which stand in the way of their general acceptance for commercial kraut growing. Because of the very short stem and relatively thin flat head when they grow very large, the head tends so to thicken at the sides as to form a reentrant angle with the stem. The result is that the heads cannot be cut from the stem at harvest so easily and quickly as the All Seasons and other standard kraut types. Since it was considered possible to overcome this trouble in some degree at least, a number of heads which possessed this reentrant stem in the minimum degree were selected from the resistant plants in the 1919 trial field. (See Fig. 5.) These have been stored for seed growing and further 18 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 48 trial. Since this will be a work of several years at best the re- sistant Wisconsin Brunswick corresponding to the commercial type will be placed in commercial distribution. AVisconsin All Seasons The All Seasons belongs to the same group of mid-season Flat Dutch cabbage as the Brunswick but it has a somewhat longer stem and rounder head. Because of type, quality and season it has become the standai'd kraut cabbage and is more widely used than any other single variety in the United States. (See Fig. 6.) Although the needs of the AVisconsin growers of the R-iicine district seemed fairly w^ell met by the AVisconsin Hol- lander and Wisconsin Brunswick, these two varieties did not adequately meet the national situation. This fact was brought out by a survey of the ki’aut interests of the United States gen- erally, undertaken jointly a few years ago by L. L. Harter and FIG. 6. — 'WISCONSIN ALL SEASONS Section of typical head of Wisconsin All Seasons cabbage. This selection conforms closely in type to the standard All Seasons of the American seed trade which is a favorite variety with the majority of kraut growers. A comparison with figures 2 and 3 shows the differences between the kraut and the stoiage types as explained under figure 5. As compared with the Bruns- wick (Fig. 5) the All Seasons head is deeper with longer stem or “core,” and is more rounded at the base. Fusarium Resistant Cabbage 19 the senior author on behalf of the Federal Bureau of Plant In- dustry, which showed that the second tier of states, extending from Iowa to the Atlantic seaboard, is suffering serious loss from the Fusarium disease and prefers in general the All Seasons for kraut purposes. This is preeminently the case in the Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio districts. Since our experience has led us to believe that it is possible through selection to secure a Fusarium-resistant strain from any of the standard cabbage varieties without breaking up the hor- ticultural type with which one is dealing, it was early decided that the next effort should be directed to securing a disease-re- sistant strain of All Seasons. Reference was made in our ear- lier bulletin^^ to the fact that Manns of the Ohio Experiment Station suggested the possibility of overcoming cabbage yellows through disease resistance. Through correspondence with Pro- fessor Selby of the Ohio Station we learned in 1914 that S. N. Green of the horticultural department of that station had al- ready undertaken selections for this purpose. Upon request of Professor Selby, Mr. Green kindly sent us some of the seed of the most promising strain which he had selected from heads of All Seasons variety as grown in the Clyde, Ohio, district, and we sent some Wisconsin Hollander seed in return. This was tested in our 1915 series, alongside the Wisconsin Hollander and commercial varieties, and corresponding tests were made the same year near Clyde, Ohio, by J. G. Humbert of the Ohio Ex- periment Station, department of botany. The outcome showed that this selection of All Seasons had little if any greater dis- ease resistance than the commercial varieties. Prof. W. J. Green of the Ohio Station recently advised the senior author that S. N. Green was no longer connected with their station and that the selections had not been continued. Although most of the plants in this strain of All Seasons in 1915 were diseased, a few appeared free from Fusarium and with the assistance of certain experienced kraut growers who inspected the field, sev- eral of the most promising of these heads were selected for seed growing. In order to save time some of these were sent to C. W. Edgerton of the Louisiana Experiment Station for winter seed growing. Seed from one of these (XXV-6-3) was re- turned in the spring of 19 1 G in time to be included in the trial grounds that year. “Jones and Gilman, loc. cit. 20 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 48 Trials op 1916 an^> 1917 The disease was very severe on the trial ground in 1916 so that of the 55 selected All Seasons plants set out only six escaped in- fection, whereas of the selected Brunswick alongside only one plant of 45 was infected. The six heads which escaped infection were saved for seed growing and again, in order to save time, two of the most promising of these were selected for winter- forcing. We were favored by the cooperation of Prof. J. B. Norton of the Bureau of Plant Industry and he secured seed from these in the greenhouse at Washington and returned to us in the spring of 1917 as follows: head strains XXV-7-2 and XXV-7-8, each grown from a single selfed plant, and strain XXV-7-2 X 8 which was the result of the crossing of these two. In addition, we had for inclusion in the 1917 trial grounds some M head strains of the first generation selections (XXV-6-3 — XXV-6-23) grown at Madison in 1916 from heads saved in 1915. These, therefore, represented our first general selections, comparable to those tested in 1916. Furthermore, these had been grown in mixed plantation. The comparative results as shown in the following table are unusually interesting since they illustrate clearly the advantage at this stage in the work of selfing or close pollination as compared with growing iu mixed plantation. Table VII. — Results from Trials of Selected All Seasons Head Strains in : 1917.* Strain No. Pollination Yellows Killed by yellows XXV 7-2 selfed Per cent 5 Per cent 0 XXV 7 8 4 1 0 XXV 7 2\8 crossed 2 0 XXV 6 4 mixed 28 i 8 XXV 6 5 39 i 10 XXV 6 6 37 0 XXV-6 9 35 1 4 XXV 6 10 40 ! 6.9 XXV 6-11 39 i 4 XXV 6 12 43 6.2 XXV 6 14 21 0 XXV 6 15 40 5 XXV 6 16 39 2 XXV 6 17 33 6.4 XXV 6 21 51.6 7.3 XXV 6-22 1 29 4 XXV-6 23 1 i 2.4 Commercial All Seasons Control) 1 80 1 46 Figure 7 shows the appearance of these plants in the field. FuSAKiUM liEaiSTANT CABBAGE 21 The showing made by all three strains of second generation seed which Professor Norton had secured was thus very encour- aging indeed, both by contrast with the 1916-grown first genera- tion strains and with the commercial. (See Fig. 7.) Thus where the commercial strain showed 80 per cent of Fusarium infection and one of the best first generation strains, XXV-6-23, showed 16 per cent, Norton’s hybrid XXV-7-2 x 8 showed only 2 per cent, and the selfed strains scarcely more. This was a distinctly FIG. 7.— ROW OF THE MOTHER HEADS OF WISCONSIN ALL SEASONS Trial grounds of resistant All Seasons, 1917. Soil very sick, see Table VII. Commercial All Seasons in center practically destroyed by yellows. Second generation selections, XXV-7-2 and XXV-T-^, in the next two rows at the right. Of these XXV-7-2 was the best type and from it the finest heads were selected for propagation as Wisconsin All Seasons. The ronaining rows at the right are the first generation selections of the same variety, which, proving less desirable, were discarded. better showing than was made in the same parallel trials the same season with the resistant Brunswick selections and nearly as good as the best Wisconsin Hollander. It seemed clear, therefore, that we had at least three highly resistant strains of All Seasons from which to select for further increase. All were of good appearance but upon critical comparison, in which wc had the advice of L. D. Coulter, cabbage expert of the D. M. Ferry Co., strain XXV-7-2 was considered to represent the best and most uniform type. Our own selections for further seed growing were restricted to this strain. 22 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 48 Further trials and selections have been continued with this strain of All Seasons during 1918 and 1919. The 1918 trials showed in this resistant strain (XXV-7-2) only slightly over 1 per cent of yellows and almost a full stand of heading plants (over 98 per cent) whereas the non-resistant control showed over 60 per cent of yellows and only about 15 per cent heading. In 1919, when the disease was severe owing to the high summer temperature, this strain made a very good showing, and in gen- eral proved more resistant than the best Wisconsin Hollander. Meanwhile, sufficient seed has been producd from the 1917 and 1918 selections to enable the Wisconsin cabbage growers’ commit- tee to inaugurate seed growing on a commercial scale. As will be explained later, arrangements have been made by which seed growing of the resistant All Seasons is also being carried on in a trial way under supervision in the Long Island and Puget Sound sections in addition to what is being grown in Wisconsin. The first of this seed will be ready for distribution in the autumn of 1920 under the name of Wisconsin All Seasons. Selections of Other Varieties Maryland Flat Dutch. Early in our work upon the Wiscon- sin Hollander we learned that Close and White^^ of the Mary- land Experiment Station had been noting a difference in the susceptibility of cabbage varieties to what they termed black rot ; and upon our request in 1913 Professor White sent us a sample of a strain of Late Plat Dutch which they had selected and grown for such rot resistance. Owing to its origin we have termed this the Maryland Plat Dutch. This Maryland strain proved highly resistant to yellows in our 1914 trials. (See Fig. 8.) Several heads were saved from this 1914 trial and seed was grown from some of them in 1915. Since the type did not interest the Wisconsin growers who in- spected this field we did nothing more with the Maryland strain until 1919. Learning from recent conferences with kraut pack- ers of other states that they and some other commercial cabbage interests have need for a domestic variety somwhat later in ma- turing than the All Seasons we decided to include some of these head strains (XXIV-5-1, XXIV-5-2, XXIV-5-3, XXIV-5-4) “ Close, C. P. and White, T. H. Cabbage experiments and culture. Md. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 133. 1909. Fusarium Resistant Cabbage 28 in our trial plantings in 1919. They proved to be fairly resis- tant, being in this respect about in the class with the Wisconsin Brunswick but not equal to the better strains of Wisconsin All Seasons or Wisconsin Hollander. The type did not prove alto- gether satisfactory. Probably because not well suited to Wis- consin climatic conditions, especially under the high summer temperature of 1919, it did not form as large a percentage of firm heads as the other domestic varieties under trial. Further selections of the best head types were made from the more prom- FIG. 8. — FUSARIUM-RESISTANT MARYLAND PLAT DUTCH Trial of Maryland Flat Dutch, 1914. Three rows at right showing a prac- tically full stand are of this variety ; the next three rows at the left are commercial Houser, slightly resistant ; the next three rows, with only one plant still alive, are commercial Hollander. Several of the best heads of this Flat Dutch were saved for seed growing in 1915 and gave us the head strains XXIV-5-3 and XXIV-5-4 referred to in the text. ising strains, XXIV-5-3 and XXIV-5-4, and further selection will be made from these. Professor White advises us that he has continued to propagate this strain and that it is in success- ful use in Maryland. All Head Early. The kraut packers with whom we have conferred pronounce this the favorite variety for early kraut purposes. It belongs to the early Flat Dutch group and is said to be the best cabbage of its type ever produced in Long Island where it was developed by a iMr. Strang a generation ago.^^ It Allen, C. L. Cabbage, caulirtowcr and allied vegetable.s. 1915. 24 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 48 has a reputation for uniformity, tenderness, and sureness of heading which make it the most promising variety of the early group from which to undertake selections for disease resistance. While for kraut purposes it is similar to the All Seasons, it is somewhat earlier in maturing, thus prolonging the packing sea- son. A considerable acreage of this variety was grown in 1919 under contract with the John Meeter & Sons Kraut Co. in the western part of Racine and Kenosha Counties. Through the cooperation of Martin Meeter we located a field of All Head Early where the yellows was very bad (See Fig. 9) and selected for seed growing some twenty heads of good type, apparently dis- ease-free. It is hoped that the seed secured from these may be used for further trial and selection. Glory of Enkhuizen. This is grown especially in cer- tain sections of the east as a standard mid-season kraut variety and its use is appar- ently increasing in the northern Mississippi Valley. Some of this had been planted in the same ‘"sick” field with the All Head and at least 77 per cent of the plants were killed and many of the rest showed yellows (Fig. 9). Advantage wms taken of the opportunity to select heads for seed growing in 1920. It is hoped that a disease-resistant strain of this, also, may ultimately be secured. Copenhagen Market. This is an early cabbage of excellent quality which has recently come into much favor for market garden uses and in certain localities is grown for kraut. One of the important centers of its culture is Muscatine, Iowa. MG. 9.— ORIGINAL, SELECTIONS OP ALL HEAD EARLY AND GLORY OP ENKHUIZEN Field of commercial All Head Early and Glory ^f Enkhuizen cabbage practically destroyed by yellows, at Union Grove, Wis., in 1919. Typical seed heads were selected from the few remaining resistant plants for seed production in 1920. Fusarium Resistant Cabbage 25 Since the yellows is serious there Drs. I. E. Melhus and J. C. Gilman of the Iowa Experiment Station have been working some two years to secure a resistant strain of this variety, and trials made in our fields in 1919 with some of the seed which they sent for this purpose, showed distinct progress toward this end with at least two strains. Inasmuch as neither of these Iowa strains conformed exactly to the standard commercial type \ve made additional selections from a ‘ ‘ sick ’ ^ field of Copenhagen Market near Union Grove, Wisconsin, in the autumn of 1919. It may be expected that ultimately either the Iowa or Wiscon- sin selection or both may furnish the desired type combined with disease resistance. PRESENT STATUS SUMMARIZED It is evident that individual variation in degree of suscepti- bility or resistance to Fusarium has been found to occur with every variety of cabbage tested on ‘‘yellows sick” soil. Experi- ence to date justifies our confidence that this resistance is due to heritable differences and that, therefore, through the selec- tion of such resistant heads from “sick” soil, a Fusarium-resist- ant strain may be secured of any of the standard cabbage varieties Our experience indicates moreover, that through careful and repeated selection this resistance may be combined with any of the other desired qualities of the standard commercial varieties, such as season of maturity, length of stem, tenderness of leaf, shape and compactness of head. In other words, resistance does not seem to be incompatible with any other of the commonly recognized variables of the cabbage. All our experience indi- cates that Tisdale’s conclusions relative to the flax wilU® hold true for the cabbage, that resistance is probably determined by multiple factors. The degree of resistance is, therefore, due to the combination of these and in all cases in our experience it is partial or relative, not absolute. Moreover, this explanation is consistent with our experience that after proceeding to a certain stage with our present methods of selection little or no further progress as to disease resistance is made. This is also consistent with our general experience that the best results have in each case been secured through growing a selected head in isolation Tisdale, W. H. loc. cit. 26 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 48 and thus securing seed through self-pollination, but that when the benefits were once secured in this way with our best selec- tions mass culture has been followed to advantage. Our plan of procedure, justified alike by theory and practice, is as follows. After securing a strain showing a satisfactory degree of resistance, combined with the other desired charac- teristics, we release it for commercial distribution. There- after, our interest is primarily confined to such cooperation as is required for the maintenance of these essential standards. To this end we continue to grow each year a few hundred plants of each of these types in trial rows on soil that is “sick,” i. e. thoroughly infested with the cabbage Fusarium. From these plants further selections are made with the aim of maintaining the best standards both as to type and disease resistance. Of course, there is opportunity for minor gains in this way, but our experience has not indicated that much improvement is to be expected in this direction. The surplus seed thus obtained is placed in hands of the local cabbage growers ’ committee for com- mercial increase in such manner as will best maintain general standards of excellence. All our experience has shown that in seasons when high soil temperatures — especially during July — favor the development of yellows there will be a considerable percentage of the plants even in the most resistant of these strains which shows evidence of incipient yellows. Most of these proceed with their develop- ment to full maturity and form good heads so that the commer- cial loss is rarely large even in the worst cases. While the amount of the disease varies considerably with other factors such as soil and drainage, there is no evidence that the resistant character of the selected strains breaks down under any of these conditions except in the young seedling stage. The studies of W. B. Tisdale^® have shown that seedlings of the resistant strains grown in sick soil at a temperature favorable for the develop- ment of the disease succumb almost as readily as those of sus- ceptible strains. The plants, however, acquire a high degree of resistance after a few weeks of growth. In our experimental trials we have always aimed to grow the seedlings on healthy soil, although under Wisconsin conditions the temperature is Tisdale, W. B. Influence of soil temperature and soil moisture on the occurience of yellows in cabbage seedlings. In manuscript. Fusarium Resistant Cabbage 27 usually too low for infection to occur while seedlings are in this susceptible period. In certain sections of the country, however, cabbage seed is sown at a time when the soil temperature is near the optimum for infection by Fusarium conglutinans. For best success, therefore, it is essential to make the seed bed on healthy soil. Trials have been made of one or more of these resistant strains in so many other states that we feel confident in our con- clusion that the resistant qualities will be maintained without serious impairment anywhere that the cabbage will succeed. If these conclusions are correct, it would seem, therefore, that the only serious condition yet to be met is that of the commercial production and distribution of the different varieties of resis- tant seed suited to local needs. Commercial Production and Distribution op Resistant Seed As soon as the merits of the "Wisconsin Hollander were estab- lished the question arose as to how best to insure the produc- tion and distribution of an adequate supply of reliable seed un- der commercial conditions. At the outset the aim was simply to meet the needs of the Wisconsin cabbage growers, especially in the Fusarium-infested regions of the southeastern counties. This was done by the selection, at a meeting of the leading grow- ers of this section, of a committee of five men,^^ all experienced in handling cabbage. To them was entrusted the responsibility for leadership in growing and distributing the seed. To this committee we turned over enough mother seed of the best resis- tant Wisconsin Hollander to inaugurate their undertaking, and we have since continued to cooperate with them by supplying them with any improved strains as these have been secured and through assistance in selecting mother heads for their seed grow- ing. (See Fig. 10.) Through this committee somewhat over 100 pounds of Wisconsin Hollander seed was grown and distributed in 1917 and this was increased to 800 pounds in 1918. Meanwhile local growers have been encouraged to save for home seed growing the best heads from their own fields, es- pecially where the soil is “sick” enough to insure opportunity The membership of this committee is as follows : W. J. Hansche, A. J. Piper, and S. B, Walker of Racine ; Henry Broesch and W. Thompson of Kenosha ; W. J. Miller of Somers. W. J. Hansche was chosen chairman and inquiries as to available seed should be addressed to him (W. J. Hansche, R. P. D. 4, Racine, Wisconsin). 28 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 48 for selecting especially resistant plants, ’in these ways the lo- cal needs have been fairly well met. The demand has, however, continued to increase from other parts of Wisconsin and from other states. It was foreseen that this would soon lead to the introduction by commercial firms of seed grown elsewhere under the regular contract method. The seed trade secures most of its cabbage seed in this way from either of three sources. Long Is- l^xid, the Puget Sound region in Washington, or Europe, e» PIG. 10.— ^VISCONSIN HOLLANDER SEED HEADS A farmer’s plantation of Wisconsin Hollander seed heads in early spring, 1916. These were especially selected from “sick” soil in the fall of 1915, kept in a cool storage house over winter, and reset into the field for seed produc- tion in 1916. Grown by Henry Broesch, Kenosha, Wisconsin. pecially Denmark and Holland. Since cabbage seed can be se- cured from these regions under contract more cheaply than it can be grown in Wisconsin it is evident that seed growing in Wisconsin on a permanent commercial scale can be encouraged only in case this method is essential for the maintenance of the disease-resistant quality in the seed. If it is demonstrated that Wisconsin grown seed is distinctly superior, it will com- mand a sufficiently higher price to keep it on the market, oth- erwise the cheaper contract grown seed will ultimately replace it. Experiments were, therefore, inaugurated several years ago to determine the facts as to this matter. The most reliable Fusarium Resistant Cabbage 29 method followed by commercial seedsmen is to furnish the con- tract grower with the mother seed, this mother seed being se- cured each year from reliable sources. The essential question is, therefore, as follows: If resistant Wisconsin grown mother seed is placed for one generation in another region on non-in- fested soil, and a seed crop is thus secured without further se- lection, will such seed have lost appreciably in its disease re- sistant character? The first trials for determining this were undertaken in the spring of 1915. Seed of one of the head strains of Wisconsin Hollander was sent to the Washington State Experiment Station located at Puyallup,^® a duplicate sample of the same lot of seed being retained for later comparative trial. The seed developed from this in Washington was returned to us in the autumn of 1917 and introduced into our 1918 trial field. In addition a commercial firm secured in 1915 some Wisconsin Hollander seed which was placed under contract with a Puget Sound seed grower in 1916-17. This firm supplied us with a sample of their western grown seed for the trial. These two samples were placed on ‘ ‘ sick ’ ’ soil along with the other strains under trial in 1918 with the following results. Table VIII. — Summary of 1918 Trials Comparing Western Grown Seed of Wisconsin Hollander with Home Grown. Seed strain under trial Amount yellows Best strain Wisconsin Hollander seed grown in 1913 (Villa— 25) Average 5 selections made from progeny of this in 1916 Average 17 selections made from general fields W, H. in 1916 Puyallup grown seed, Wisconsin Hollander i Villa— 15) Sample of “mother seed” strain sent to Puyallup in 1915 for seed growing (VIIIa-15) Commercial seedsman’s Puget Sound grown seed of Wisconsin Hollander.. . Control: Hollander seed commercially imported Per cent 0.9 0.0 2.0 3.1 0.0 7.0 84.6 Trials of the same lot of commercial seedsman’s grown Wis- consin Hollander were repeated in two plots at Racine in 1919. The results secured were as follows: ^•This seed was grown at Puyallup under the supervision of Director W. A. Linklater and Prof. J. L. Stahl. 30 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 48 Table IX. — Summary of 1919 Trials Comparing Western Grown Seed OF Wisconsin Hollander with Home Grown Location of plot Strain of cabbag-e Per cent .yellow Per cent killed by yellows Per cent living Per cent headed Average 4 strains of Wisconsin grown Wisconsin Hollander 40.6 3.6 94.1 70.8 Drum- mond plot Western grown Wisconsin Hol- lander 34.4 7.2 89.6 63.2 Commercial Hollander 98.9 85.9 9.3 7.6 Average 4 strains of Wisconsin grown Wisconsin Hollander 75 4 11.9 85.3 49.6 Broesch plot Western grown Wisconsin Hol- lander 61.6 16.0 80.0 51.2 Commercial Hollander 100.0 98.0 1.0 1.0 In 1919 the disease was severe and any sign of yellows on the plants was recorded. Thus a comparatively high percentage of disease is shown in column 1 even for the resistant strains. This condition usually occurs in a warm season like 1919, but, as previously noted, most of the resistant plants are scarcely checked by this slight attack while a large percentage of the commercial strain, when infected, dies before the end of the season. The percentage of plants killed by yellows and the per- centage heading are therefore the best criteria for comparing the various strains. From both the 1918 and 1919 figures it is evident that all of these strains of Wisconsin Hollander gave fairly good results as to Fusarium resistance. The 1918 results are the more sig- nificant and they show quite clearly that under the conditions of that trial the western grown seed was not quite so resistant as that grown in Wisconsin. Even in 1918, however, the west- ern grown seed made a satisfactory showing and in the 1919 trial it proved practically equal to the average run of Wiscon- sin Hollander. It is to be remembered that in both seasons the trial was made on ' ‘ sicker ’ ’ soil than will commonly be used for commercial cabbage culture and therefore that the differences are more pronounced than would be evident in general field usage. Considering, therefore, the commercial advantages of growing contract seed in the intensive seed-growing districts \vc Fusarium Resistant Cabbage 31 are approving this method with certain reservations aiming to reduce the dangers inevitably inherent in the procedure. The first of these dangers results from the fact that it seems inevitable that there is in all these resistant cabbage strains a tendency to progressive reversion with a consequent loss in dis- ease resistance which can only be met by continued selection from plants grown on ^ ‘ sick ’ ’ soil. The commercial seedsman who ignorantly or for other reasons neglects to recognize this prin- ciple may therefore fail to keep his strain up to standard. There is also always the possibility of seed admixture and of cross pollination from adjacent seed fields, both of which will require greater attention from the seedsmen and contract grow- ers with such a strain as this than with the less specialized types. To meet the situation with the Wisconsin Hollander we have continued to urge Wisconsin cabbage growers who have espe- cially ‘‘sick” soil, and who have already learned how to select heads from their own fields for seed growing, to continue this practice. This will insure them at least enough seed for their own use and in certain cases they will have a surplus to sell to their neighbors or to seedsmen. Certain commercial seedsmen are already arranging to secure their ‘ ‘ mother seed ’ ’ of resistant strains from heads carefully selected from “sick” soil with re- gard both to disease resistance and type. We shall continue to cooperate with both local growers and seedsmen in the establish- ment of these practices on a sound basis. With the kraut varieties it is more difficult for the ordinary Wisconsin grower to succeed in seed growing. One reason for this is that the earliness of maturity causes a much greater loss of heads during winter storage. The chief initial requests for this seed moreover have come not from the growers directly but from the kraut packers who, in general, purchase and distribute to the farmers the seed from which their cabbage is to be grown under contract. Most of the kraut manufacturers of the coun- try are members of the National Kraut Packers’ Association. Accordingly an arrangement has been made with this Associa- tion by v/hich this Experiment Station and the Federal Bureau of Plant Industry have cooperated for the growing of resistant kraut seed. In this way a considerable quantity of Wisconsin All Seasons and some Wisconsin Brunswick will be available for distribution in 1921. Efforts will be made so to place this as to insure the use of as much of it as possible on “cabbage sick” 32 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 48 soil and so to provide as to insure the production of an adequate crop of seed annually hereafter. It is believed that through the state and national institutions proceeding thus in cooperation with the Wisconsin cabbage growers’ committee, with the National Kraut Packers’ Associa.- tion, and with such of the seed firms as are undertaking to handle the resistant seed, it will be possible to place the produc- tion and distribution of this seed upon a permanently reliable commercial basis. Evidence has already come to hand, how- ever, that along with this legitimate trade development there will be some confusion through the offering of so-called disease- resistant seed of unknown origin by ignorant or unreliable deal- ers. Probably this is not a matter which need mislead any in- telligent cabbage seed dealer or grower. In any case, it will be greatly minimized if all reliable dealers offering these Wisconsin strains of resistant seed will use the names herein given to them and will so state the source of their seed supply as to make clear the essential facts as to its origin or history. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 1. The disease known as cabbage yellows, caused by the soil parasite Fusarium conglutinans, is widely distributed and seri- ously destructive in the United States. 2. Once introduced, it persists indefinitely in the soil and there is no known method of control except through the use of disease-resistant strains. 3. It has been found that of the commercial varieties the Volga is the most highly resistant and the Houser is somewhat resistaut, but neither of these varieties meets important com- mercial needs. ' ; 4. The chief commercial cabbage industry in the sections where the yellows disease occurs is concerned with growing either a winter storage or shipping crop or a mid-season or au- * tumn crop for kraut manufacture. To a lesser degree there is need for truck types. 5. Experience justifies the belief that these several needs can all be met by the selection of Pusarium-resistant strains from the standard commercial varieties now in use which are best adapted to these various purposes. 6. In undertaking such selection our first success was attained with the standard winter storage variety, Hollander or Danish Fusarium Resistant Cabbage 33 Ball Head. From this was developed the resistant strain known as Wisconsin Hollander. Since experience showed that an ear- lier strain of this was needed, further selection was made and a resistant strain secured which combines with earlier maturity a rounder head and shorter stem. This has been distributed un- der the name Early Wisconsin Hollander, and for purposes of distinction the original resistant strain is now being called Late Wisconsin Hollander. 7. In order to meet the needs of the kraut industry, resistant strains have been selected from two of the leading commercial kraut varieties, Brunswick and All Seasons, and these have been distributed under the names Wisconsin Brunswick and Wisconsin All Seasons. 8. Other Fusarium-resistant selections are receiving attention as follows : Professors White and Close of the Maryland Exper- iment Station have secured and distributed a resistant strain of the Late Flat Dutch; Professors Melhus and Gilman of the Iowa Experiment Station are developing a resistant Copenhagen Market. In Wisconsin the Experiment Station, in cooperation with the Bureau of Plant Industry of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, is working with resistant selections of All Head TEarly, Glory of Enkhuizen, and Copenhagen Market. 9. By following the proper methods any skillful cabbage grower who has Fusarium-sick soil may either undertake with reasonable confidence to develop a resistant strain of his own, or having secured one of these resistant strains he can maintain its resistance and produce his own seed. 10. It is, however, important to note that the Fusarium dis- ease or yellows is often confused by growers with the bacterial black rot (Bacterium campestre), and that these selected strains have not proved to be especially resistant to this nor to the other common cabbage diseases such as black leg (Phoma) and club root (Plasmodiophora). 11. In all cases the degree of resistance to Fusarium shown by these strains is relative, not absolute. The seedling -plants are less highly resistant than they are after the transplanting stage. 12. Environmental factors, especially soil temperature, influ- ence the development of the disease and also the disease resist- ance of the host. High soil temperature favors the disease and low temperature inhibits it. It does not develop even in the 34 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 48 non-resistant strains at a temperature below about 17° C. (62°F.) and at high soil temperatures even the most resistant strains show a considerable percentage of infection. 13. In accordance with the temperature relations noted above, the best results are obtained under Wisconsin climatic condi- tions by starting even the resistant Strains in a non-infested seed bed to avoid possible seedling infection. These strains are then sufficiently resistant following transplantation to mature a com- mercially successful crop even on badly diseased soil. 14. These resistant strains have proved resistant so far as tested in other states. It seems probable that the only limita- tion in this respect which might occur would be in cases where they were subjected to more trying conditions as to soil tempera- ture, especially in the seedling stage. 15. Should such conditions be met, our experience gives us confidence that through further selection resistant strains suited to any localized conditions could be secured. It is our belief, therefore, that the cabbage industry can be permanently main- tained in any section of the country, in so far as the Fusarium or yellows disease is a limiting factor, through the selection of disease-resistant strains. 16. It seems probable that in case the resistant strains are propagated through successive generations without repeated se- lection, they will tend to lose to some extent the disease-resistant character. 17^ When, therefore, it seems desirable for commercial pur- poses to grow the seed crop under contract in non-infested re- gions, it is urgently recommended that the mother seed for each such contract crop be secured from plants carefully selected for resistance and type from Fusarium infested fields. By this method it is believed that the present standards may be essen- tially maintained and seed successfully produced on any desired scale, by the commercial contract method. 18. Work on the disease-resistant cabbage strains will be con- tinued by this Experiment Station in cooperation with the Bureau of Plant Industry of the U. S. Department of Agricul- ture and with certain other state experiment stations. While it will not be practicable for these institutions to grow or dis- tribute seed other than for trial purposes, they will advise or cooperate with growers or seed firms in securing an adequate supply of resistant mother seed. Research Bulletin 49 November, 1920 Influence of Rations Restricted to the Oat Plant on Reproduction in Cattle E. B. HABT, H. STEENBOCK and G. C. HUMPHREY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON CONTENTS Page Introduction 3 Experimental conditions 5 Effect of the basal ration alone 5 Effect of fortifying, the oat plant ration with the addition of extra fat soluble vitamine 6 Effect of improving the protein of the ration by supplementing with casein 7 ■ Effect of two additions to the oat plant ration — fat soluble vitamine and casein 8 Effect of an improvement in the mineral content of the ration 8 Effect of natural plant materials as partial or complete substitutes for the oat straw 11 General discussion 14 Data on the nature and calcium content of the ration and condition of the offspring and cow 15 Effect of variable amounts of calcium in the ration of cattle on the calcium content of the blood 19 Summary 20 ■influence of Rations Restricted to the Oat Plant on Reproduction in Cattle 111 1911^ the Wisconsin Experiment Station published data comparing the effect of rations balanced from the corn, oat, and wheat plants upon growth and reproduction in cattle. Rations restricted to the corn plant were highly successful for both growth and reproduction, while rations restricted to the wheat plant were disastrous to successful growth and reproduction. The work with a ration made from the oat plant indicated at that time that it was not possible to make a highly successful ration from rolled oats and oat straw. In 1917^ further data were published bearing on the influence on growth and repro- duction of nutrients derived from the corn and wheat plants. Evidence was reported fixing the responsibility for incomplete- ness of the ration made from the wheat plant upon (1) a poor mineral content and (2) inherent toxicity in the wheat kernel. In 1913^ Power and Salway reported the isolation of choline from the wheat embryo, but whether this substance can be re- sponsible for the bad effects observed at this Station with wheat grain feeding is an open question. It is altogether possible that a third deficiency, namely, the fat soluble vitamine, is operative in a ration made ex- clusively from the wheat plant. Studies on the content of this nutritive factor in cereal straws are now under way. It will be recalled that successful reproduction with the wheat grain and wheat straw ration was secured only when part of the wheat straw was replaced by a good roughage such as al- falfa, but only for a single gestation. In the second gesta- ^Hart, E. B., McCollum, E. V., Steenbock, H. and Humphrey, G. C. Physiolog'ical effect on growth and reproduction of rations balanced from restricted sources. Res. Bui. 17 , Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. 1911. ~ Hart, E. B., McCollum, E. V., Steenbock, H. and Humphrey, G. C. Physiological effect on growth and reproduction of rations balanced from restricted sources. Jour. Agr. Res. 10 : 4, 175. 1917. ® Power, P. B. and Salway, A. H. Chemical examination of w'heat germ. Pharm. Jour. 91 : 117. 1913. 4 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 49 tion period the cumulative effect of the toxicity in the ration manifested itself in imperfect offspring. With com stover re- placing the wheat straw only partial success in reproduction was attained. The substitution of these roughages introduced into the ration primarily a better salt mixture, and probably also a greater supply of the fat soluble vitamine. The work re-emphasized the complexity of the problem of the nutrition of herbivora and the limitations of the old views of a balanced ration. It expanded the ideas as to what must be the nutritive factors in a complete ration. It showed also that the same factors of nutrition operative in the life cycle of our most extensively investigated mammal, the rat, were also operative with this species. Studies on the causes of the de- ficiencies in the oat plant ration have been continued and the results of that work are incorporated in this publication. Earlier investigation of the oat plant as the sole source of nutrients for cattle showed that it was possible to secure good growth, fair reproduction and milk secretion, but not the pro- duction of offspring of the highest degree of vigor. The calves born were not so strong and vigorous as those pro- duced by cows fed a com plant ration, yet the reproduction re- sults secured at that time were much better than the reproduc- tion results obtained on the wheat plant. Present knowledge of the great importance of an adequate mineral supply in the ration and the deficiencies of grains and cereal straws in these respects, particularly in reference to calcium, sodium and chlorine, prompted a review of earlier work with the oat plant. The facts are that the oat straw used in those earlier experiments had been grown on an alkaline soil and contained .84 per cent of CaO. This amount of CaO compared favorably with the amount in the corn stover used at that time, which was .74 per cent. Sodium chloride need not be considered in these rations as it had always been fed generously to these ani- mals. The superior results secured with the corn ration as compared with the oat ration, although the former contained slighth" less calcium, must rest either upon the poorer avail- ability of the calcium in the oat straw, or upon other factors more generously supplied by the corn stover. The latter view is more probable because we are inclined to believe that a more liberal supply of vitamines would accompany corn stover as Influence of Oat Plant Ration on Cattle Reproduction 5 compared with well ripened oat straw. This higher content of calcium in the oat straw used in the earlier experiments is probably directly responsible for the mediocre calves produced in the earlier experiments with the oat plant. In later work the oat straw used was much lower in min- eral content than that used in the earlier experiments. It contained, in fact, but .47 per cent of CaO, or approximately one-half that of the straw used in the earlier work; and the calves were far inferior. Experimental Conditions The cattle used for these experiments were grade Holstein heifers. They were brought into the experimental herd usu- ally at the age of 16 to 20 months and ready for breeding. The herd was maintained free from tuberculosis and contagious abortion through tri-monthly inspections for tuberculosis and monthly inspections for contagious abortion by the Department of Veterinary Science of the University. These animals were kept in a well-lighted basement with access in fair weather to an outdoor paddock free from all vegetation. Earlier ex- perience had shown that growth could be secured on a ration made up of 7 parts of rolled oats and 7 parts of oat straw, such as was used. Consequently, in most cases these rations were made up on the basis of equal parts of roughage to equal parts of grain or grain substitute. Offered in these propor- tions the cows were allowed all of the ration they would con- sume. The modification of the basal ration of 7 parts of oat straw and 7 parts of either whole oats or rolled oats was toward an improvement of the probable deficiencies in the known nutritive factors. They consisted of single or multiple additions of casein for the improvement of the proteins, of but- ter fat to increase the fat soluble vitamine content of the ration, and salts — particularly calcium salts — ^to make up deficiencies in this element. Sodium chloride was fed ad libitum. The Effect, of the Basal Ration Alone The effect of feeding the oat grain as rolled oats or ground oats plus the oat straw alone was invariably to produce a premature birth. The calf was born either dead or extremely 6 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 49 weak. Parturition was premature by two to three weeks and the mothers would fail to ‘ ‘ clean naturally. Where the calves were born alive it was necessary to feed them from a bottle and even then they did not live.. Their blat was feeble and the rate of respiration abnormally high. The mothers remained in only a fair condition on such a ration, as evidenced by the condition of the hair coat, but their live weight was maintained. Cows No. 661 and No. 648 illustrate these results. The calf (male) from 648 was born 17 days ahead of normal parturition time and weighed 47 pounds. The calf (male) from 661 was born 19 days ahead of time and weighed 67 pounds. Both were born dead. See figures 1 and 2. The Effect of Fortifying the Oat Plant Ration with the Addition of Extra Pat Soluble Vitamine The oat grain itself is not abundantly supplied with the fat soluble vitamine^. The actual content of oat straw in this nutritive factor is unknown. It would probably vary with the stage of cutting. The straw used was well matured. The absence or scarcity of this vitamine in the diet usually mani- fests itself in xerophthalmia, an inflammation of the conjunc- tiva, and edema of the eye lids; at least this is true of the rat, and similar observations have been made on the human infant® and the rabbit®. No indication of such a condition was mani- fested by these cattle. Although xerophthalmia does not in- variably follow a deficiency of the fat soluble vitamine in the diet with all species, experiments were initiated where two pounds of butter fat were added to every 100 pounds of grain fed. This fat soluble vitamine addition alone did not im- prove the ration for reproduction. While it may have been one of the essential nutritive factors responsible for failure to secure optimum results, yet it - was not the principal factor operative in the production of the poor offspring. The exper- ience in these cases was not different from those with the grain and straw alone. Calves were born prematurely and were ^McCollum, E. V., Simmonds, N, and Pitz, W. The nature of the dietary- deficiencies the oat kernel. Jour. Biol. Chem. 29: 341. 1917. ® Block. C. E. Eye diseases and other disturbances in infants from de- ficiency of fat in the food. Ugeskruft. fiir Laeger. 6S: 1516. 1917. "Nelson. V. E. and Lamb, A. R. The effect of vitamine deficiency on various species of animals. Amer, Jour. Physiol. .'SliSSO. 1920. Influence of Oat Plant Eation on Cattle Reproduction 7 either dead or extremely weak. The calf of cow No. 656 was born 19 days ahead of time, alive, but extremely weak. When picked up it hung from the arm as limp as a rag and died a few days after birth. It was a male and weighed 70 pounds. The calf of cow No. 653 was bom 23 days ahead of time and alive, but lived only a few days. It threw its head backward in a way similar to that of so many wheat calves. This is illustrated in the photographs. It also was a male and weighed 69 pounds. See figures 3 and 4. The Effect of Improving the Protein of the Ration BY Supplementing ^th Casein The fact that these animals grew very well on a ration com- posed of either equal parts of whole oats or of rolled oats and oat straw shows that the protein supplied was sufficient for cat- tle of this age. Data were secured, nevertheless, on the effect of improving the ration by the use of approximately 25 per cent of the protein as casein. The ration fed consisted of 6.7 parts of whole oats, 0.3 parts of casein and 7 parts of oat straw. The animals vrere given all they would consume of this ration, but in the proportions indicated. This improvement in the quality of the proteins of the ration had no ameliorating effects whatever on the character of the offspring produced by these cows. These results are shown in figures 5 and 6. Cow No. 660 freshened 21 days ahead of time, giving birth to a 50-pound heifer calf. The calf was extremely weak, could not stand alone, was fed from a bottle and died after 24 hours. The cow was in poor condition and did not * ‘ clean naturally. A duplication of this result was made by cow No. 670 on the same ration. This cow freshened 14 days ahead of time, giving birth to a 48-pound bull calf. It was bom at 3 p. m., but could not stand at 10 a. m. the next day. It had a feeble blat, was nursed from a bottle and died at the end of 48 hours. The mother did not “clean’’ naturally, although she remained in fairly good condition during the gestation period. These re- sults and those already described show that improvement of an oat plant ration could not be made through the use of more fat soluble vitamine or a better protein mixture alone. 8 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 49 The Effect of Two Additions to the Oat Plant Ration — Fat Soluble Vitamine and Casein Since the addition of a single nutritive factor such as the fat soluble vitamine or casein did not improve the oat plant ration for calf production the simultaneous addition of the two was next tried. This ration consisted of 6.7 parts of whole oats, 0.3 parts of casein and 7 parts of oat straw. To 100 pounds of the grain mixture there were added 2 pounds of butter fat. There was no apparent improvement in this ration for repro- duction. Figures 7 and 8 illustrate this. Cow No. 671 gave birth three weeks ahead of time to a 59- pound male, weak and unable to stand. It threw its head back upon its shoulders in very much the same way described for calves produced on the wheat ration and for the offspring of No. 653, figure 3. Like them, it died after a few days. It is a curious fact that the mammary glands of the cows fed these incomplete rations developed very rapidly — four to five days — immediately previous to parturition as contrasted with normal conditions of nutrition when the process is slow and gradual. Cow No. 670 produced a 48-pound, dead male calf 26 days ahead of time. The mother did not ‘‘clean” naturally, but outwardly this cow remained in a fair state of nutrition. The Effect of an Improvement in the Mineral Content of the Ration The fact that improvement in the ration could not be made by the addition of the fat soluble vitamine alone, or by the ad- dition of a better protein, or by a combination of the two, led to making additions of calcium salts. In earlier work it had been learned that by the addition of a complex salt mixture to a ration of corn grain, gluten feed and wheat straw^, failure in reproduction could be changed into success. The materials used in that earlier work consisted of potassium, magnesium and calcium salts of organic acids, such as citric and lactic acids. From analysis of the oat plant ration and experience with labor- atory animals it did not seem necessary to use a salt mixture as complex as the one used previously, and especially one con- Influence of Oat Plant Kation on Cattle Reproduction 9 taining magnesium and potassium; consequently, calcium salts alone were used. Commercial sources were drawn upon for these materials. Calcium acetate — 89 per cent, a by-product of the acetone industry; wood ashes — a complex salt mixture, 55 per cent of which was calcium carbonate; and finely ground rock phosphate — 84 per cent calcium phosphate, tri-calcium — were used at the rate of 2 pounds to 100 pounds of grain or grain mixture. In some cases the calcium salts were used with casein or butter fat or both, but in other cases addition of calcium salts was the only supplement made to the oat plant ration, with the exception of common salt; this was given the animals twice weekly and amounted .to about one ounce each time. The results secured are exceedingly interesting and important in that they show that the chief deficiency in the oat plant ration was calcium. Since sodium chloride was always used in the ration there was no means of knowing whether or not this was present in insufficient amounts. If one can judge from mere gross examination it is doubtful if the offspring secured through either calcium additions alone or calcium additions plus casein or casein and butter fat were as vigorous as those produced where the oat , straw was partly or wholly substituted by nat- ural plant materials such as alfalfa, corn stover or clover hay; but we did secure active, healthy calves which could be suc- cessfully reared when the ration was supplemented with cal- cium salts. Figures 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13 illustrate the results obtained in this series. Cow No. 676 received a ration of 7 parts of whole oats, 7 of oat straw and 2 pounds of wood ashes to 100 pounds of grain. She produced a 75-pound heifer calf which suckled the mother soon after birth. The calf was born 16 dsijs ahead of time but appeared fairly strong. The mother remained in excellent condition but did not ‘‘clean” naturally at parturition. How- ever, the after-birth came away with little difficulty. Cow No. 668 received a ration of 7 parts of whole oats, 7 of oat straw and 2 pounds of calcium acetate to 100 pounds of grain plus common salt as in all cases. She freshened 7 days ahead of time, produced a 69-pound heifer cow which was ap- parently strong and vigorous. This cow “cleaned” naturally One of the noticeable effects of calcium additions to this ration 10 Wisconsin Eesearch Bulletin 49 was to prolong the gestation period to its normal limit. Further, in nearly all of the cases of deficient rations, premature birth and retention of the placenta were generally synonymous. Cow No. 660 received a ration of 6.7 parts of whole oats, 0.3 of casein, 7 of oat straw and 2 pounds of floats (crude calcium phosphate) to 100 pounds of grain. Notice in flgure 5 her record where no calcium salts were added in the gestation period immediately preceding this one. In this gestation period with calcium addition she produced a 65-pound heifer calf of fair strength which was born 8 days ahead of time. This cow ‘‘cleaned” naturally. From the appearance of the hair coat she was not in first class condition, but apparently this did not indicate a status of malnutrition of a degree sufficient to inter- fere with normal reproduction. Cow No. 656 received a ration of 7 parts of whole oats, 7 of oat straw, 2 pounds of butter fat and 2 pounds of calcium acetate to 100 pounds of grain. Notice her record in the pre- ceding gestation, flgure 4. She now produced a 64-pound hei- fer calf 6 days ahead of time. The calf was small but fairly strong. The cow “cleaned” naturally. The calf suckled the mother for 4 days, after which it was transferred to separator skimmilk. This milk was the product of the University herd in March, 1918. On this milk the calf grew 48 pounds in 50 days and appeared in thrifty condition. Starch, equal to the heat value of the fat removed had been added to the skimmilk. These facts are somewhat irrelevant to the matter in hand but do show two things: flrst, that this calf could be raised; and second, that separator skimmilk probably contains enough of the fat soluble vitamine for the early growth of calves. Cow No. 671 received a ration consisting of 6.7 parts of whole oats, 0.3 parts of casein, 7 parts of oat straw, 2 pounds of but- ter fat and 2 pounds of wood ashes to 100 pounds of grain mix- ture. On this ration she produced a 74-pound male of fair vigor. The calf was born 12 days ahead of time, suckled the mother without help and was reared. This cow “cleaned” naturally. Contrast this record with that of the preceding gestation period, involving the absence of calcium salts as a supplement and shown in figure 8. These five positive results on the influence of calcium addi- tions make it clear wherein rested the main deficiency in the Influence of Oat Plant Eation on Cattle Eeproduction 11 oat plant ration used in this work. Variations in the calcium content of straw will occur, depending upon the soils producing them. This statement is equally true of other plant stems and i leaves (roughages), but limited, of course, with respect to the lower and upper level of calcium content fixed by the species themselves. Legume hays as alfalfa or clover, if they can be grown at all, will probably never be so low in calcium content as r a cereal straw or some of the grasses. i- [ Effect of Natural Plant Materials as Partial or ^ Complete Substitutes for ^the Oat Straw It became imperative to obtain definite infoimiation as to what ‘ natural roughages could partly or wholly replace the straw and : be effective for reproduction. Com silage was first used al- ' lowing 12 pounds of this material to replace half of the oat straw, when expressed in terms of dry matter. The ration consisted of 7 parts of whole oats, 3.5 of oat straw and 12 of corn silage. The silage contained .25 per cent of CaO. On the basis of 7 pounds of air dried roughage the 3.5 pounds of oat ; straw and 12 pounds of silage would be equivalent to a rough- ( age containing .66 per cent of CaO. On this ration varied re- sults were obtained. It seemed to be dangerously near the ^ lowest limit of calcium allowable for successful reproduction in • this class of animals. The results are illustrated in figures 14 I and 15. I Cow No. 656 produced on this ration a 73-pound heifer calf I born 6 days ahead of normal time. This calf was strong and J vigorous. The cow remained in splendid condition and \ “cleaned’’ naturally. This reproduction was both normal and > satisfactory. Cow. No. 653, receiving the same ration, produced an ap- parently strong, active male calf of 73 pounds weight 11 days I ahead of time. The calf appeared thrifty at birth, but at the ^ end of 24 hours began to grow weak and at 48 hours was dead, if The cause of death was unknown. The cow did not “clean” f naturally, although she appeared in good condition throughout the entire gestation period. It is evident that the ration was f not in optimum balance for all individuals. $ 1 . Displacement of part of the oat straw with a calcium-rich S legume hay was next tried. The ration consisted of 7 parts of 12 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 49 whole oats, 4 of oat straw and 3 of alfalfa. The alfalfa con- tained 2.12 per cent of calcium oxide. This was equivalent to the use of 7 pounds of roughage with a calcium oxide content of 1.18 per cent, or two and a half times that of an equivalent of oat straw. The results are shown in figures 16 and 17. Cow 655 produced an 84-pound male calf 5 days ahead of time. The calf was strong and lived. The cow was in splendid condition and “cleaned” naturally. A duplicate of this performance was made by cow No. 657. She produced an 80-pound male calf born but 3 days ahead of time. This cow also “cleaned” naturally and was in a fine state of vigor throughout the entire . gestation period. Where successful nutrition was established, as in these cases, there was a gradual but progressive udder development rather than the sudden enlargement of the mamma as seen so often in cases of restricted and inefficient rations. The calves produced by these cows, as well as those to be described hereafter, were sturdy and vigorous and generally of greater weight than those produced on the oat-straw, oat grain ration with calcium salt additions. This experience would in- dicate that the natural and better roughages were making the ration a more complete one than the additions of known sub- stances had succeeded in doing. While a great deal was ac- complished by rebuilding the oat plant ration through protein, fat soluble vitamine and especially calcium additions, yet for most excellent results in reproduction it would probably be pre- ferable to substitute a part of the straw for a higher calcium containing roughage rather than to rely on the addition of cal- cium salts alone. These results also have great practical ap- plication. They show how it is possible to use a straw in a ration with greatest success. Where corn stover completely replaced the oat straw, success- ful reproduction was had. The ration consisted of 7 parts of whole oats and 7 parts of corn stover. This corn stover con- tained .75 per cent of calcium oxide. The results secured are shown in figures 18, 19 and 20. On this ration cow No. 659 freshened in August, 1917, 15 days ahead of time. The calf was a 66-pound male. It was weak at birth, but grew stronger and lived. The cow did not “clean” naturally. She was continued on the same ration for another gestation period, using the same Influence of Oat Plant Ration on Cattle Reproduction 13 roughage. In August, 1918, she produced a 65-pound heifer calf 13 days ahead of time. This calf was strong at birth, on its feet suckling half an hour after being born and was success- fully raised. The cow '‘cleaned” naturally. Cow No. 662 on the same ration freshened 10 days ahead of time, producing an active and vigorous 64-pound heifer which was raised successfully. The placenta was expelled without help. In figures 21 and 22 are shown the records of reproduction with whole oats and clover hay, or part clover hay. When all of the oat straw was replaced by medium red clover hay with a calcium oxide content of 1.48 per cent a successful life cycle was secured. Cow No. 680, purchased as a heifer of 300 pounds weight had matured on this ration and in October, 1918, gave birth to a 94-pound strong, male calf. The calf remained strong and was reared. There was no retention of the after- birth. Where clover hay replaced 2 parts of the oat straw and corn stover replaced 5 parts of the straw, successful reproduc- tion was secured. This mixture of 2 parts of clover hay and 5 parts of corn stover gave a roughage of .96 per cent of cal- cium oxide. On this ration cow No. 671 produced a 90-pound heifer calf 2 days ahead of time. The calf was strong and thrifty and in fine condition. The cow “cleaned” naturally. Contrast this record with that shown by this same cow in figures 8 and 13. On an oat ration without calcium additions she produced a weak 59- pound calf that died. On the same ration, plus calcium salts as wood ashes, she produced a fairly strong 74-pound calf that was successfully raised. On the oat grain plus clover hay and corn stover she produced a 90-pound calf which was also strong and vigorous. Much prejudice exists against wild marsh hay as a roughage. This is probably because our judgment of the value of a rough- age has been guided by its content of protein, or carbohydrate, or ether extract. While for certain purposes the protein con- tent of the roughage is of great importance, yet for reproduc- tion and normal physiological performance the special value of a roughage when fed with a grain will depend upon its vitamine and mineral content, particularly calcium. Marsh grasses, like other grasses, will vary in their mineral content, depending up- 14 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 49 on the soil on which they are grown. In the particular ex- periments reported here a marsh hay grown on the alkaline marsh soil owned by the University was used. The soil itself was rich in lime as evidenced by the shell deposits found in it. This wild marsh hay in its air dried condition contained 1.18 per cent of calcium oxide. This hay was used as a complete substitute for oat straw. Our ration consisted of 7 part^ of whole oats and 7 parts of marsh hay. This ration was fed con- tinuously and in an air dried condition during the entire gesta- tion period. Further, common salt was always allowed all of these animals. Figures 23 and 24 illustrate the results. Splendid offspring resulted showing that a marsh hay grown on an alka- line marsh may become a very useful roughage. Such results may not be secured when the hay is cut from an acid marsh. Cow No. 659 produced an 84-pound male calf freshening 14 days ahead of time. The calf was strong and active and was successfully raised. The cow remained in splendid condition. The afterbirth came away naturally. , Cow No. 662 on the same ration produced a 91-pound male calf, also strong and active. This cow continued in vigorous condition during the entire gestation period and “cleaned” naturally. A summary of the most important data relating to these ex- periments is presented in Table I. Particular attention should be given to the fairly close correlation between the calcium con- tent of these rations and successful reproduction. G-eneral Discussion The results of this inquiry into the deficiencies of the oat plant for successful reproduction in cattle, point toward the inorganic constituents as the one of first importance. The results also make calcium the principal deficiency where com- mon salt is added to the ration as is customary. Our data indicate that when other factors are adequately supplied, the ration of an herbivorous animal should contain at least .45 per rent of calcium oxide calculated on the basis of the total ration. An air dried roughage containing 0.9 per cent of calcium oxi^e, provided it were fed as half of the dry matter of the ration, would probably be adequate in calcium oxide content. Influence of Oat Plant Kation on Cattle Reproduction 15 Table 1, — Data on the Nature and Calcium: Content of the Ration AND Condition of the Offspring and Cow Cow No. Ration Lbs. Per cent CaO in ration Weight of calf Lbs. Condition of calf at birth Removal or retention of placenta 648 668 7 whole oats 7 oat straw 7 whole oats 7 oat straw .31 .31 47 67 Dead Died shortly after birth Retained Retained 656 7 whole oats 7 oat straw 2 lbs. butter fat per 100 lbs. grain .31 70 Weak, died in 48 hours Retained 653 7 whole oats ■7 oat straw 2 lbs. butter fat per 100 lbs. grain .31 69 Weak, died in 72 hours * Retained 660 6.7 whole oats .3 casein 7 oat straw ,31 50 Weak, died in 24 hours Retained 670 6.7 whole oats .3 casein 7 oat straw .31 48 Weak, died in 48 hours Retained 671 6.7 whole oats .3 casein 7 oat straw 2 lbs. butter fat per 100 lbs. grain .31 59 Weak, died Retained and “cleaned” with diflBculty 670 6.7 whole oats .3 casein 7 oat straw 2 lbs. butter fat per 100 lbs. grain .31 48 Dead Retained 676 7 whole oats 7 oat straw 2 lbs. wood ashes per 100 lbs. grain .62 75 Strong (fairly so) Retained, but “cleaned” with ease 668 7 whole oats 7 oat straw 2 lbs. calcium acetate per 100 lbs. grain .62 69 Strong “Cleaned” natur- ally 660 6.7 oats .3 casein 7.0 oat straw 2 lbs. floats per 100 lbs. grain .75 65 Strong (fairly so) “Cleaned” natur- ally 656 7 . 0 oats 7.0 oat straw 2 lbs. calcium acetate 2 lbs. butter fat per 100 lbs. grain .62 64 Strong (fairly so) “Cleaned” natur- ally 671 6.7 oats .3 casein 7.0 oat straw 2 lbs. butter fat 2 lbs. wood ashes per 100 lbs. grain .62 74 Strong (fairly so) “Cleaned” natur- ally 656 7.9 oats 3.5 oat straw 12 silage .41 73 Strong (fairly so) “Cleaned” natur- ally 16 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 49 Table 1. — Data on the Nature and Calcium Content of the Ration AND Condition op the Offspring and Cow — Continued Cow No. Ration Lbs, • Per cent CaO in ration Weight of calf Lbs. Condition of calf at birth Removal or retention of placenta 653 7.0 oats 3.5 oat straw 12 silage .41 73 Weak, dead after 48 hours Retained 655 7.0 oats 4 oat straw 3 alfalfa hay .64 84 Strong “Cleaned” 657 7 oats 4 oat straw 3 alfalfa hay .64 80 Strong “Cleaned” 659 7 oats 7 corn stover .45 66 Weak at first, grew strong Retained 659 7 oats 7 corn stover .45 65 Strong “Cleaned” 662 7 oats 7 corn stover .45 64 Strong “Cleaned” 680 7 oats 7 clover hay .80 94 Strong “Cleaned” 671 7 oats 2 clover hay 5 corn stover .50 90 Strong “Cleaned” 659 7 oats 7 marsh ha.v I .61 84 Strong “Cleaned” 662 7 oats 7 marsh hay 91 Strong “Cleaned” It should be clear, however, that an optimum performance was never reached with our ‘ ‘ synthetic ’ ’ ration where more fat soluble vitamine and better proteins and calcium salts were added to our oat plant ration. A | complete failure was transformed to a fair success, but not to a superlative one. The calves pro- duced on the synthetic ration were not so sturdy as those pro- duced from a high calcium natural roughage used as a supple- ment to the oat grain. Further, it appeared that success was as great with the oat plant ration supplemented with calcium salts and sodium chloride alone as where further additions of protein or fat soluble vitamine were made. This makes it clear that the main deficiency of the oat plant ration was a low calcium content. Further, it is altogether possible that the calcium oxide figure advised as a minimum amount allowable in the ration of re- producing cows may be modified if the material were fresh, Influence of Oat Plant Ration on Cattle Reproduction 17 green plant tissue and not dried. On this point there are no data at present. Just why a low calcium intake should be the determining factor in normal or abnormal reproduction is not clear. The hypothesis^ has already been offered “that with a generous sodium chloride intake and a low amount of calcium salts the surface protoplasmic films of the epithelial cells of the intestinal mucosa would present a structure in which water was the con- tinuous phase. This latter system would be one of greater per- meability to water and water soluble substances. This hy- pothesis of intestinal protoplasmic structure as influenced by the balance of sodium and calcium salts in the ration would pave the way for the view that on low calcium rations there can be especially favorable conditions for continual absorption of products of intestinal origin, among which may be bacterial toxins or amines.’’ The foregoing hypothesis was outlined as a suggested explana- tion of unsuccessful reproduction with swine confined to grain diets, common salt and natural water. With swine, as with cattle, complete restoration to normal reproduction was es- tablished when a calcium rich legume hay, such as dry alfalfa, was incorporated in the ration. In the case of swine the factors introduced by the use of alfalfa hay have not been dissected and it can only be suggested, from analogy with the present ex- periments on cattle, that the main factor is a calcium factor. The work on the dissection of these facts, however, is in progress. We can see no reason why the foregoing hypothesis should not s-pply with equal force to the work with cattle. But there may be additional factors operative in this problem. Is there some accessory food factor (vitamine), concerned with calcium as- similation and possibly other physiological functions, in too low a supply in such cereal straws as here used so that when the ration is fortified with an extra supply of calcium salts the mass action of the latter becomes an effective means of assisting in calcium assimilation? Forbes® and Meigs^ have observed that ’Hart, E. B. and Steenbock, H. Maintenance and reproduction with grains and grain products as the sole diet. Jour. Biol. Chem. 30; 209. 1919. ® Forbes, E. B. The mineral metabolism of the milch cow. Buis. 303, 308 .3.30. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. 1916-1918. ® Meigs, E. B., Blatherwick, N. R. and Cary, C. A. Contributions to the physiology of phosphorus and calcium metabolism as related to milk secretion. Jour. Biol. Chem. .37:45. 1919; 40: 469. 1919. 18 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 49 milking cows are in negative calcium balance even with high calcium-containing rations, such as those containing dry alfalfa hay. Earlier observation at this Station^® showed the same situation with oat straw as a roughage for both cows and goats. Would this be the case with green alfalfa hay or green oat hay? The extra drain put upon an accessory factor controlling calci- um metabolism by a milking animal would be much greater than by a dry animal, by virture of the -probable secretion of such a vitamine into the milk. We had no trouble with reproduction from dry cows where corn stover, clover hay, alfalfa hay or marsh hay was used as the roughage, although judging from the work of Forbes, Meigs and their associates these cows would very probably have been in negative calcium balance had they been milking. This may, however, depend upon the quantity of milk secreted. In the case of dry cereal straw with a low supply of calcium and presumably a comparatively low supply of an ac- cessory factor influencing calcium assimilation, negative calcium balance would probably have prevailed even when the animals were not milking. If this hypothesis is tenable, then a ration made from the green oat plant would probably be adequate for a reproducing cow judged from the standpoint of calcium as- similation. This hypothesis would involve the assumption that green plant tissue was more abundantly supplied with a vita- mine (anti-rachitic) controlling calcium assimilation than the dry material. All of these assumptions are subject to experi- mental inquiry. During the course of this experiment on cattle many calcium determinations in the plasma of the blood were made. There is a remarkable constancy in the amount of this element circulat- ing in the blood no matter whether the ration was especially low or especially rich in calcium. Variations are as great among individuals on the same rations as on rations high and low in calcium. A limited, but representative amount of data on this problem is shown in Table 2. These samples of blood were taken flve months after the animals were put on their re- spective rations. Two animals. Nos. 666 and 667, are included to show the con- 10 Hart, E. B., McCollum, E. V. and Humphrey, G. C. Role of the ash constituents of wheat bran in the metabolism of herbivora. Res. Bui. 6, Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. 1909. Steenbock, H. and Hart, E. B. Influence of function on the lime re- quirement of animals. Jour. Biol. Chem. 14 : 59. 1913. Influence of Oat Plant Ration on Cattle Reproduction 19 stancy of the calcium content of the blood as well as variations among individuals. These animals received nothing but alfalfa hay, the calcium oxide content of which was 2.12 per cent. These results on the calcium content of the blood plasma of cattle are in harmony with those reported by Meigs, Blatherwick and Cary,^^ but where a constant calcium intake was maintained. Apparently some mechanism is at work whereby during calcium scarcity in the ration or faulty calcium assimilation the skeletal tissue becomes a means for maintaining the blood composition constant. An over-abundance of calcium in the diet of this species apparently does not influence the concentration of cal- cium in the blood. Table 2. — The Effect of Variable Amounts of Calcium in the Ration of Cattle on the Calcium; Content of the Blood Cow No. Ration Lbs. Mg. Ca in 100 cc. blood plasma 668 7 whole oats 7 oat straw 9.4 660 6.7 whole oats 9.6 .3 casein 7.0 oat straw 660 Same + 2 lbs. crude rock phosphate per 100 lbs. grain 9.2 671 Same + butter fat -{■ 2 lbs. wood ashes per 100 lbs. grain 9.2 680 7 whole oats 7 oat straw 11.6 667 Alfalfa 9.2 666 Alfalfa 11.6 659 7 whole oats 9.2 7 marsh hay • 673 7 whole oats 7 oat straw -i- 2 lbs. Ca acetate per 100 lbs. grain 10.9 That raised the question whether or not the calcium content of the blood of these animals might be appreciably lower just prior to parturition — the period of most rapid foetus develop- ment. Such a condition on a low injestion of calcium might lead to serious disturbances such as have been noted in imma- Meigs, E. B., Blatherwick, N. R. and Cary, C. A. Contributions to the physiology of phosphorus and calcium metabolism of dairy cows. Jour. Biol. Chem. 40; 469. 1919. 20 Wisconsin Eesearch Bulletin 49 ture calf production. The data obtained here are very incom- plete on this point and would not support such a view. Cow No. 660 on a ration of 6.7 parts of whole oats, .3 of casein and 7 of oat straw showed 8.9 m^. of calcium to 100 cc of plasma one month before calving. At the end of five months of pregnancy the calcium content of her blood was 9.6 mg. Cow No. 680 on a ration of whole oats and oat straw showed one month before parturition 10.8 mg. of calcium to 100 cc of blood plasma while at the end of five months pregnancy her blood contained 11.6 mgs. No positive significance can be at- tached to these limited data. Certainly, further studies should be directed toward a thor- ough analysis of the blood stream of these animals at different stages of pregnancy, making organic as well as inorganic dis- sections with the hope of unraveling the causes of such marked disturbances in .reproduction as are observed. The carbon di- oxide combining power of the blood plasma of cows on oat straw and oat grain was not lower than that of cows restricted wholly to a plant material rich in bases, particularly calcium, such as alfalfa hay. In the case of cow No. 661, confined to a ration of oat grain and oat straw and giving birth to a weak calf, the alka- line reserve after five months’- confinement to the ration was 61.8 to 100 cc of blood plasma. Cow No. 666, receiving nothing but alfalfa hay during an en- tire gestation period and giving birth to a strong calf, showeld an alkaline reserve of 61.4 to 100 cc of blood plasma after five months’ restriction to the ration. The evidence probably is against the idea that those rations producing weak offspring were rations that tended toward the production of a condition of acidosis. In a practical way the results of this investigation must have great significance. They emphasize, far beyond its net energy and protein content, the dominating importance of forage for breeding animals and the necessity for emphasis upon the pro- duction and special selection of such forage. These results raise new questions in agriculture. Can safe forage of all kinds be grown on acid soils or will we find those types of plants natur- ally rich in calcium the most desirable ones to raise on such areas? Will timothy and other grasses and even corn stover be too poor in calcium content when grown on acid soils to Influence of Oat Plant Ration on Cattle Reproduction 21 make possible the greatest efficiency in animal husbandry, or must we insist that for success in animal production the plants naturally rich in calcium, as legume hays, must be grown when a system of animal husbandry prevails and soils are acid? And again, will the calcium of materials in their green state, al- though they are percentagely poor in this element, be more completely assimilated than when the plant tissues are old and dried? These are problems for the future. The results secured thus far do show very positively that a certain amount of poor roughage such as oat straw can be used with safety in the ration when the remainder of the roughage is drawn from a type rich in calcium. Summary This publication embraces further work on the influence of restricted rations on reproduction in cattle. 1. A ration made from the oat plant was inadequate for ef- ficient nutrition of breeding cows. The offspring were born prematurely and were either very weak at birth or born dead. 2. Additions of the fat soluble vitamine or of casein or of both of these nutritive factors to a whole oat, oat-straw ration did not improve it for reproduction. 3. Fortification of the oat plant with calcium salts either as a carbonate (wood ashes), as a phosphate (floats) or as calcium acetate greatly improved conditions for reproduction. Sodium chloride was always allowed. Under the influence of these additions, offspring of fair vigor were produced. This im- provement in the ration was secured even without the addition of a better protein or more fat soluble vitamine to the oat grain- oat straw ration. 4. The ‘ ' synthetic ration ’ ’ apparently did not secure as strong offspring as were produced by the use of natural roughages such as corn stover, clover, alfalfa or marsh hay. The latter was grown on an alkaline marsh and gave surprisingly good re- sults. 5. It would appear from these data that the ration of a dry breeding cow, where all other nutritive factors are satisfied, should contain at least, .45 per cent of calcium oxide. This 22 Wisconsin Kesearch Bulletin 49 figure may not apply to a ration containing some fresh, green materials. 6. Brief presentation is made of an hypothesis explaining the results secured with suggestions for future work. Further- more, attention is called to the practical significance of these studies as relating particularly to forage and acid soils. Fig-. 1. Cow No. 648 and her calf. Illustrates how disaster in reproduction will follow' the continuous use of a ration of ground oats and oat straw in the proportion of 1 :1. Too poor mineral content of the straw' w'as the primary cause of this result. Fig. 2. Cow No. 661 and her calf. Fed the same ration as 1 with a simi- lar result. Fig-. 3. Cow No. 653 and her calf. Fed a ration of ground oats and oat straw- — 2 pounds of butter fat per 100 pounds of grain. Dead or w-eak calves were produced. The addition of more fat soluble vitamine did not, as a single addition, improve this ration for reproduction. Fift-. 1. Cow No. 656 and lier calf. Fed the same ration as 1 with results of a similar character. Note deflection of the head and neck in both these cases. 1^'ig. 5. Cow No. 660 and her calf. Improving the oat plant ration with casein addition did not prevent disaster in reproduction. The ration fed consisted of 6.7 parts of ground oats. 0.3 parts of casein and 7 parts of oat straw. Fig. 6. Cow No. 670 and her calf. The ration fed was a duplicate of that used for No. 660 and the results were of the same order. Weak, premature calves wei'e born in both cases. Fig. 7. Showing the effect of the addition of both casein and butter fat to a ration made from the oat plant. The two improvements were ineffective in making the ration a suitable one for reproduction. Cow No. 670 received 6.7 parts of ground oats, 0.3 parts of casein, 7 parts of oat straw and 2 pounds of i)utter fat to 10 0 pounds of grain. Tlie calf was born dead. Fig. 8. A duplicate of proceeding both in ration and results. Cow No. 671. The calf was extremely weak. Tlie effect of calcium additions to the oat plant ration. Fig. 9. Cow No. 676 and her calf. She received a ration of 7 parts of gi'ound oats, 7 parts of oat straw and 2 pounds of wood ashes per 100 pounds of grain. A successful reproduction resulted. Fig. II). Cow No. 668 and her calf. She received a ration of 7 parts of ground oats. 7 i>ai-ts of oat straw — 2 pounds of calcium acetate to 100 pounds of grain. Another successful reproduction. Fig. 11. Cow No. 660 and her calf. This animal received a ration of 6.7 Palis of whole oats, 0.2 jiarts of casein. 7 parts of oat straw and 2 pounds of ground r’oek phosphate to 100 pounds of grain. A fairly successful repro- diuiion. Nott' the recoi'd of this same cow in 5. Fig. 12. (\)w No. O.IO and her calf. She received 7 parts of whole oats, 7 parts of oat straw. 2 pounds of butter fat and 2 ])ounds of calcium acetate to 10(1 pounds of grain. A fair success in reproduction resulted. Note the i-ecord of this cow in 4. Fig. i:l. Cow No. 671 and her calf. She received a ration of 6.7 parts whole oats. 0.2 parts of casein, 7 parts of oat stravc, 2 pounds of butter fat and 2 i)ounds of wood ashes to 100 pounds of grain. A fairly strong calf was produced. Contrast this record with the record of this cow in 8, Fig-. 14. Effect on reproduction of substituting- corn silage for part of the oat straw. Cow Xo. 656 received a ration of 7 parts of whole oats, 3.5 parts of oat straw and 12 parts of corn silage. A strong, vigorous calf resulted. Fig. 15. A duplicate of proceeding. Cow Xo. 653 on the same ration pro- duced a thrifty, strong calf, but the cow did not “clean” naturally. These rations were probably dangerously near the lowest limit of mineral intake possible for successful reproduction. Fig. 16. Effect of substituting alfalfa hay for part of oat straw. Cow Xo. 655 produced a strong 84-pound calf on a ration consisting of 7 parts of whole oats, 4 parts of oats straw and 3 parts of alfalfa. I'"iK. 17. Tlie rocord of cow No. 6o7 is a duplicate in ration and result of IG. A strong;' 80-pound calf resulted ; both cows “cleaned” naturally. Complete disi)lacement of the oat straw with corn stover results in suc- cessful reproduction. Fi.er. 18. Cow No. 659 on a ration of 7 parts of whole oats and 7 parts of coi'ii stover produced a calf of fair vigor in tlie first gestation period. Fig. 19. In the second gestation period cow No. 659 produced a very strong calf with tlie same ration. Fig-. 20. A duplication of 18 and 19. Cow No. 662 likewise produced a strong- offspring on this ration of whole oats and corn stover. Complete displacement of oat straw with clover hay was very successful. Fig-. 21. Cow No. 680 produced a 94-pound, strong-, male calf on a ration of 7 parts of ground oats and 7 parts of clover hay. Fig-. 22. Cow No. 671 and calf. On a ration of 7 parts of whole oats. 2 parts of clover hay and 5 parts of corn stover a very successful reproduc- tion followed. Marsh liay as a successful roughage and substitute for oat straw. The hay was grown on an alkaline marsh. Fig. 23. Cow No. 659 and calf. A record of reproduction on a ration of 7 parts of whole oats and 7 parts of marsh hay. Fig. 24. Duplicate of preceeding. Cow No. 662 on the same ration also produced a strong, vigorous calf. Both cows “cleaned” naturally. Research Bulletin 50 September, 1921 Pump Drainage of the University of Wisconsin Marsh G. R. B. ELLIOTT, E. R. JONES and O. R. ZEASMAN AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN CONTENTS Page Description of marsh 1 Open ditches failed 2 Wind and gasoline failed 3 Electric power and deep tile succeeded 5 Details of the drainage system 8 Surface, soil, and tile examined 12 Examination of tile 14 Settlement of tile 14 Rate of settlement on marsh surface 14 Decrease in weight with decay 15 Iron bacteria 20 Pump and power measurements .* 23 Dry weather seepage 24 Areas supplying seepage water 26 Measurements in 1914 26 Height of water table 27 Investigations with cement tile 29 Drained peat turns 30 Cost of drainage 30 Conclusions 32 Pump Drainage of the University of Wisconsin Marsh G. R. B. Elliott, E. R. Jones and O. R. Zeasman The farm of the Agricultural Experiment Station of the Uni- versity of Wisconsin contains about 130 acres of low land adjacent to Lake Mendota. The surface of nearly 80 acres of this is lower than the lake. In 1910 this surface was level with the lake, rising and falling as the lake rose and fell. It was a “floating” bog or a “lake-level” marsh. Since then, all but about 5 acres left for comparison has been tile drained. An electrically driven, automatically con- trolled pump, lifting water 7 feet out of a reservoir into the lake, furnishes the outlet. Lines of tile generally 4 rods apart, from 3 to 5 feet deep, and discharging into mains that lead to the reservoir, effect the internal drainage. A turnpike along the -lake acts as a dike to keep back the lake water. A ditch and a dike surrounding the low area act like an eave trough to catch the surface water from the surrounding hills and carry it to the lake without pumping. This diversion ditch is to protect the area so that only the seepage from the hills and the lake and the rain- fall normal to the tract has to be pumped. i. FTG. 1.— FROM CAT -TAILS TO CORN. The marsh on the right of the ditch shows its original condition. 2 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 50 The area is a true peat bog of the alkaline type. The peat is from .1 to 6 feet deep and lies on a thin bed of marl which in places blends into silt or clay, varying in thickness up to 18 inches. Beneath the silt or clay is water-bearing sand in some places interbedded or intimately mixed with shell marl. So great was the artesian pressure in this sand that water would rise in a pipe 2 feet or more above the surface of the marsh. The drainage of this marsh was started in 1910. This is a report of the experience of ten years that has resulted in the pres- ent drainage system. The drainage is now such that good crops of corn, buckwheat, timothy and alsike are harvested even in wet years. FIG. 2.— HOW THE MARSH LOOKS About 80 acres of the drained portion of the marsh is shown, crops of 1920. The lake ife immediately beyond the row of willow trees in the background. Open Ditches Failed This tract has given us a splendid opportunity to carry on ex- perimental work in drainage. A record of the mistakes as well as successes is worth reading from the experimental point of view. In 1910, open ditches were dug 16 rods apart over about 80 acres. They were 1 foot wide at the bottom, 4 feet deep, and 5 feet wide at the top, but lateral pressure in the wet soil soon narrowed the top width to about 3 feet. The soil was so peaty that the slopes have stood up well. In one ditch that has not been Pump Drainage of the University Marsh 3 filled up, the spade marks ten years old are still visible on the slopes. Nevertheless, the sides undermined and broke off in places. Particles of floating peat lodged against weeds, straws, or sticks that found their way into ditches, so that the ditches had to be cleaned out about once a month. All of these ditches, aggre- gating 880 rods, were connected with the reservoir from which the water was pumped into the lake. It was hoped that these ditches would permit the soil to settle and become firm and dry, so that the wild marsh grass could be harvested where the cat-tails and willow brush were not too thick. The wire grass, and in places the blue joint, grew luxuri- antly but the ground was too soft and wet for horses. They mired within 10 feet of the empty ditches even when wearing bog shoes. The more valuable grass was cut with a scythe and carried off on poles. The rest was not cut at all. Wind and Gasoline Failed A geared windmill was erected to run a bucket water elevator. A 16-inch reverse-turbine pump was installed to supplement the FIG. 3.— A. THE AUGER PUMP Its big- advantage is that sticks or other debris do not clog it. Its efficiency is about 40 per cent with 600 revolutions per minute lifting 2780 gallons per minute 5 feet high and requiring a 9 to 13 h. p. motor. Lower speed gives less efficiency. B. THE REVERSE TURBINE-PUMP An efficiency of 40 per cent has been recorded with 400 revolutions a minute, lifting 2780 gallons per minute 5 feet high and requiring an 8 to 10 h, p. motor. 4 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 50 elevator. This was run by a 12 h. p. gasoline engine. In 1910 the lift was about 5 feet. It was soon evident that the amount of water lifted by the windmill and elevator was small in comparison to that which had to be pumped and the wind power was aban- doned after a trial of about two months. An attendant started the gasoline engine and turbine pump and emptied the ditches regu- FIG. 4.— THE PUMP HOUSE The foundation had to be heavily reinforced because of the soft foot- ing-. The crack in the wall is due to pouring the concrete at different times. Pump Drainage of the University Marsh 5 larly three times a day, the last being at 5 o’clock. By the next morning the water in the ditches would be within a few inches of the top. The pump would empty the ditches, aggregating 880 rods in about an hour, ordinarily. During rainy weather the pump was started more frequently or was run for two hours or more at a time. It soon became evident that the soil could not be made dry enough so long as the ditches were allowed to fill up with water during the night. It was too expensive to dig a reservoir any larger than 10 feet by 50 feet and this did not have enough storage capacity to last all night. Electric Power and Deep Tile Succeeded The efficiency of frequent pumping and tiling was tested in 1914. With the aid of two students the gasoline engine and pump was started every three hours or of tener during the night ; and a farm hand did the same during the day. The experiment began April 20, 1914, and continued for twenty days. The students had previously laid two lines of 4-inch tile 300 feet long and 2 rods apart, one line being 1 rod from an open ditch. The gradient was .1 for each 100 feet. They were 3.0 feet deep at the outlet and about 2.5 at the head. The shallow- ness of the reservoir did not permit greater depth. On May 8 the tiled plot was plowed with horses. This was the first plowing that had ever been possible on the lake-level marsh. A small portion at the upper end of the lines of tile where the water table in the observation holes came within 2 feet of the surface of the ground w”as too wet even then to hold up the horses. The experiment proved that if the tile could be laid deep enough and if the pumping were done at such frequent intervals that the tile outlets did not become submerged, the lake-level marsh could be drained and plowed. The proposition seemed sufficiently feasible to warrant the installation of electric power which lends itself admirably to automatic control. A 10 h. p. electric motor was installed. A float on the water in the reservoir connected with a switch started the pump just before the tile became submerged 6 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 50 m W M u O « § H « O Q H lO 2 There are three pump chambers with pumps installed in two of them, one for steady use and the others for emergencies. The foundation is deep enough to take care of future settling of the marsh. Pump DraiNag£ of the University Marsh / and stopped it when the reservoir was empty. The reservoir was deepened a trifle and more tile were laid in 1914. From 7 to 15 acres has been tiled every year since that time. For several years plots 16 rods wide had ditches on three sides of them in which the water was kept feet below the surface by pumping day and night. Yet they never became dry enough even during a summer drouth to permit the marsh grass to be mowed with horses. It was not until lines of tile 4 rods apart and about 4 feet deep were laid that satisfactory drainage resulted. Where the depth of the reservoir and pump limited the depth of the tile to 3 feet, the lines had to be 2 rods apart to permit plowing. Furthermore, the peat above the tile has shrunk with drainage and decomposition. Tile that formerly had 4 feet of peat over them now have only about 3 feet, and those that had 3 feet now have but little more than 2 feet. In 1919 the shallower reservoir was deepened again and these shallow lines are now being dug up and relaid at a greater depth — in some places 5 feet deep. The Soils Department in 1919 and 1920 ran a series of tests on a portion of the marsh that was tiled in 1918. These tests show that the yield of corn can be raised from 34.5 to 83.5 bushels to the acre by proper fertilization. A 24-inch breaking plow drawn by a tractor was found to be the best method of breaking the marsh. Thereafter a disc plow did better work than a mold-board plow because the latter would not scour due to the looseness of the soil. Corn has proven to be the most satisfactory crop on the drained peat. Even the first year after drainage, good crops of corn result. This is fortunate because the University Farm requires a large area of corn within hauling distance to fill its silos. Timo- thy and alsike has proven to be a good crop where the tile were unable to cope completely with excessive seepage. 8 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 50 : Details of the Drainage System About 15 acres of the west end of the marsh was higher than the rest, it being from 4 to 7 feet above the normal lake level. It was a “springy” marsh kept wet by the seepage from FIG. 6. — KEI’AIRING THE SYSTEM The oi'iginal tile drainaRO system had lines 4 rods apart. In some places it was necessary to put in lines later midway between the original lines. In other places where the lines were deeper and seepage was less, satisfactory drainage has resulted with lines 8 rods apart. Pump Drainage of the University Marsh 9 the upland. The parallel laterals of Group 1 were put in 4 rods apart to discharge into Main A. (See Fig. 11.) The laterals had a gradient of .1 in 100 and the main .05 in 100. While the laterals could not be put as deep as desired, they cut off the seepage fairly welU They collected enough water to fill the main at the outlet of Line 1, but little or none of the water reached the outlet. It leaked back into the soil along the main and entered the lower marsh from which it had to be pumped, thus defeating the original purpose which was to carry this seepage to the lake without pump- ling. Main A was dug up in 1915 and relocated to carry the water •directly to the pump. FIG. 7. — CORN POOR BETWEEN LINES OF TILE Taken near the head of Lines 8 and 9 Group VIII before Line 29 was put in for relief. The history of Main A taught two lessons: (1) A line of tile to cut off seepage effectively must have a liberal fall; and (2) when water is carried in a tile through a soil that would be other- wise dry, the roots of willow trees will enter the tile. To obtain enough soil to cover the tile properly it was located on land reasonably dry and about 4 feet higher than the lake. A willow tree had sent one root through a crack between two tile. This root sent out myriads of fibrous branches which after five years completely filled the 8-inch tile for about 15 feet above the point of entrance. This was not the direct cause of the failure of this 10 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 50 main, however. The heavy leakage from this main back into the marsh was observed the first year after it was laid, or before the roots had had time to fill the tile. The land drained by Group XI was the most difficult to drain. The soil was muck one foot deep lying on about three feet of JcTi/Ai ^iLATm Bstw££N cm Am CBOUm WA7ZU IN PSAtJeil, FIG. 8. — THE CORN SHORTENS AS THE WATER TABLE RISES Taken between Line 1 Group VIII and the ditch at the side of Willow Drive. clay under which there was water-bearing sand. To dry up the springs that broke through the clay, lines had to be put as close together as 10 feet in some places. When the 8-inch main tvas laid in 1916 it was put 5 feet deep. It was difficult but very efifec- ive to get this main down into the water-bearing sand. This so relieved the pressure that springs 4 rods away w^ere dried up. Another efifectiye device was a column of the vertical tile reach- ing from the bottom of the horizontal tile through the clay into the sand. This permitted the water to rise easily into the tile and escape, thus relieving the pressure that caused the springs. It has been difficult to get protection at all times from the ditch and dike on the north and west side of the marsh. Sediment is deposited in it from the steep hillsides and it has to be cleaned with teams and scrapers once in two years. The ditch and dike are seeded to timothy, but when the grass is tall the flow during floods (it is dry the rest of the time) is retarded and some of the Pump Drainage of the University Marsh 11 water overflows the dike. This dike has been more successful, however, than Cinder Drive, on the south side of which a ditch was originally dug to carry the flood water to the lake by gravity. This ditch was so nearly level that even in a small flood more water flowed over the drive near the outlet of Line 101 than flowed east into the lake. In 1916 another drive about half way up the hill on the south side of the marsh was raised so that it catches the surface water ; and a ditch on its upper side carries FIG. 9.— HOW THE PEAT SETTLED The tile were originally between 3 and 4 feet below the surface of the peat. The shrinkage is confined almost wholly to the peat laying above the tile. 12 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 50 this water to a creek entering the lake. Line 117 has carried seepage better since it has been tapped by Line 103. A glance at the map shows that in general the laterals of 4 or 5 inch tile are 4 rods apart, except where excessive seepage or limited depth made it necessary to put the lines 2 rods apart or closer. Generally the laterals do not exceed 40 rods in length. The mains are numerous and large enough -to compensate for the limited gradient of .05 in 100, which puts them deep enough to afford the laterals a gradient of .1 or .2 in 100 and a depth of about 4 feet. Measurements in 1914 showed that the third ditch from the lake carried more water than the first one. It appeared that the third ditch was receiving seepage both from the lake and from the upland. By 1920 it was evident that the line of tile nearest the lake carried more water than any other lateral on the marsh, and that the seepage from the lake was increasing. The Willow Drive, the turnpike diking off the lake, is merely built up about 2 feet above the surface of the marsh and nothing has ever been done to strengthen its foundation so as to stop seepage. Musk- rats have burrowed beneath this drive and repeatedly these holes have had to be plugged. SURFACE, SOIL AND TILE EXAMINED In the fall of 1919 the Agricultural Engineering Department undertook an investigation of the conditions then obtaining on the marsh for the purpose, if possible, of securing reliable funda- mental information which might be of value in carrying out other reclamation work throughout the state. The investigation included a compilation into one system of all the notes and data on previous experimental work and a comparison drawn between original and recent conditions, particularly as to the shrinkage of the soil volume. The map (Figure 11) and Table 1 give the results in detail. Pump Drainage of the University Marsh 13 Table I. — Settling of Tile and Surface. Elevations in 1920 Lines Date of laying Number of stations Average surf. elev. when laid Average depth when laid Surface settle- ment Tile settle- ment I — 0 to 6- 1910 64 854.5 3;07 .406 .107 V— 6 to 9 1919 15 848.8 3.79 ' V— 10 to 12 1919 9 849.4 3.51 V— 13 to 19 1918 21 848.8 3.71 T298 Ti89 V— 20 to 23_ - 1916 25 848.7 3.76 .680 .081 V— 23 to 32 1916 33 849.8 3.83 .591 .008 VII— 1 to 7 1914 27 848.7 3.35 .760 .037 VIII— 6a .1914 1 2 849.0 3.16 .805 .215 VIII— 7 to 16. 1916 1 850.1 3.77 .660 .054 Lines Remarks I- 0 to 6 Peat or muck to 1.5; clay to 4.5; sand beneath V 6 to 9 Peat 4 to 6 feet. Settlement not measured V-10 to 12 Peat 4 to 6 feet. Settlement not measured V-13 to 19 Peat 4 to 6 feet. One Station Line 6 excluded V-20 to 23 Peat 4 to 6 feet. Seven stations of Line 23 V-23 to 32 Peat 2 to 4 feet. Five stations of Line 23 VII- 1 to 7 Peat 4 to 6 feet. Near pump house VIII-6a Peat 4 to 6 feet. Near pump house VIII- 7 to 16 Peat 4 to 6 feet. Receives upland seepage. Two stations Line 10, one station Line 11, and one station Line 15 ex- cluded. Settlement of surface levels showed that the surface of Plot S (surface drained for six years but not tiled) had settled .4 feet below the marsh on the lake side of the drive that serves as a dike. While Plot S was too wet to plow, it did get enough drain- age to change the character of its wild vegetation. The land tiled in 1914 had settled about .75 feet by 1920. Practically all of the shrinkage had taken place in the peat above the tile, and settling of the tile themselves was comparatively small. A comparison of the levels taken on the marsh surface in 1910 and 1914 when the automatically controlled pump was installed showed that there was practically no settlement during those four years of intermit- tent drainage. The settlement varied with the seepage. Group V Lines 20 to 23 laid in 1916, underlaid by marl and water-bearing sand, and receiving much seepage showed more surface settlement than Group V Lines 24 to 32 laid in 1916, where the subsoil was clay and the seepage was less. The peat lying on the water-bearing sand was buoyed up by the pressure from below and the settlement was great when that pressure was relieved by drainage. Group VIII, Lines 4, 5, 6, 19 and 20, overlying submerged tongues of sand causing great seepage both from the lake and the hills. 14 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 50 showed the remarkable surface settlement of nearly one foot in two years. Examination of Tile. — Complete levels were run through the body of the marsh both on the surface of the ground and on the tile, using the same stationing as was used in laying out the original work. For the purpose of getting the grade of the tile, a steel rod of known length was thrust down onto the tile, care being taken that the rod rested on the top of the convex surface. Lines of tile were opened for the purpose of examining their condition. This was done for the most part in groups, a group consisting of tile of the same kind and laid under similar conditions. If two or three pits in a group showed no evidence of unusual conditions, the group was assumed to be uniform, but if any unusual conditions were exposed further openings were made in sufficient number to ascertain the facts and, if possible, their cause. Settlement of Tile. — Only two groups of tile were found to be materially below grade. Group VIII Lines 4 to 20 averaged .25 feet in settlement of tile. In this group the greatest varia- tion was shown by the levels to be on the outer ends of the lines where the marsh was narrow and subject to the most seepage. The last two stations of VIII Line 6 sank an aver- age of .53 feet while the surface above sank 1.05 feet. Group VIII Line 19 sank .35 feet and the surface .95 feet. The uni- formity of settlement in the outer ends of all the lines shows that the discrepancy was not due to any error in laying the tile or in the levels, but to a general subsidence when the water was drawn off. Group V Lines 13 to 19 were laid by a careless contractor who got his ditches too deep iii places. To remedy this defect the lower grade was carried through to the outlet. This altera- tion does not appear in the notes and the tile grades were thrown out. Rate of Settlement on Marsh Surface. — The time over which the records extend is not sufficient to establish an absolute rate of settlement of the marsh surface, but there are sufficient data on which to base an estimate. This seems to be very close to .25 feet a year for the first two years. After this the Pump Drainage of the University Marsh 15 rate drops off rapidly until at five years the total settlement has reached .76 and the rate of settlement about .04 feet inch) a year but slowly decreasing. (The accompanying diagram Fig. 9 shows this more fully.) The settling for one year is the average of 21, for two years 44 , for three years 105, and for five years 27 observations, the average depth of the tile when laid being about 3.7 feet. Decrease in Weight with Decay. — In order to ascertain what became of the material which shrank away upon drainage, pits were dug — one in the cul- tivated portion (middle of Group VII), and the other in the untiled marsh (Plot S) — in order that the original conditions should be as nearly alike as possible. From these pits, samples were taken at intervals of a foot. Be- fore the samples had time to dry they were cut into 6-inch cubes and carefully weighed. They were then dried to constant weight at 110°C and again weighed. The results are shown in Table II. The difference between the weights of the bottom samples is most remark- able and probably repre- sents the mineral matter a clay tile lying’ on the surface of the brought into the peat by ground throughout the winter freezes and . thaws suddenly a great many times. This ascending Seepage waters, splits the walls and the tile are damaged rpi t r 4 . r aI,- more in a single winter than they would t ne last lOOt Ol tne be in 100 years if covered with 2 feet or .-i 1 more of earth. untiled soil was entirely FROST ACTION FIG. 10.— THIS TILE WAS ABUSED marsh help locate the principal lines of tiles. Others can be located from these. Tiled and cultivated six years Untiled 18 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 50 'O't-i rj •gxj O 9 o.9>’-5 5 Q ES W I>t^eftCftlftlftrt<'^ ooooooooo cofeoocooocooocoS ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ■ ftq Ift < c5 i ^ I oB IS 1 5:8 00 I (N I CO I CO I LO ^ I ^ CO I o CO I rH (M I eft I Ift I CO I Tf< left lift left i>^^^iftift'^Tticoco oooooooooo ( Ol T»< Ol Tfi Cl -.JI 05 j r^t^cOcoioift'#T)i'e.5 I Tj( T}1 T}( ! ! li 1 ; I I III! ! I ! I I .] i J.9.9.9.9 .9.911.9 J^J 55555555-95-S Ilia* ,2 I If i 0*3 1“ 19 Pump Drainage of the University Marsh ^ different in character from any other sample taken out It -j was extremely soft and light buff in color, darkening to almost black within five minutes after exposure to the air. The column of tiled soil one foot square and extending from eleva- tion 843.44 to the surface, seems to have retained its original weight fairly well even though it has lost in volume. The weight of each cubic foot or portion thereof was calculated from the 20 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 50 southerly end the land dropped into a hollow or swale in which the clay was covered by about one foot of black muck. In order that the tile should not be too deep for the greater part of the distance the tile were necessarily shallow in passing through the low ground. In the interval since the tile were laid the black muck had entirely rotted away and disappeared leaving the tile less than a foot deep. Here they were exposed to repeated freezing and thawing and probably had been for years. The tile were of good clay and well burned. No trace of any failure or disintegration showed. At the outlet of the easterly main, where it enters the pump house reservoir, six feet of the 12-inch clay tile exposed to direct frost action scaled off and collapsed in two winters. Even with a light covering the freezing takes place slowly; the entire wall of the tile is the same temperature and forma- tion of ice crystals goes on uniformly. Any excess moisture which may develop, due to expansion of the freezing water, is permitted to escape through the partially frozen walls and no rupture takes place. Such ruptures do occur at an exposed outlet subject to sudden freezing. This is well illustrated by Figure 10. This was a 3-inch clay tile which was for ten years in an underdrain, then taken up in perfect condition and re- placed by larger tile. It then lay on the ground for five winters with the result as shown. The upper surface is more than half scaled away while the lower side which lay on the ground and was protected from direct frost is still in nearly perfect condition. Iron Bacteria. — While the work of examination of the marsh was going on an accident caused a stoppage of the pump. As the stoppage occurred during the night it was not noticed until the water had risen to within about two feet of the surface of the land. When the pump was started again a great volume of water had to be taken care of. As there was considerable “head” above the mains, the water flowed much more rapidly than at ordinary times. The easterly main, marked VIITO on the map, brought into the reservoir small flocculent orange colored masses which floated in the water and slowly settled. These masses had evidently been torn from the walls of the Pump Drainage of the University Marsh 21 tile by the rush of water. Upon examination a similar growth was found in the ditch beside Willow Drive. A specimen was taken to Dr. E. B. Fred of the Agricultural Bacteriology De- partment who identified it as iron bacteria, chiefly Leptothrix ochracea (chlamydothrix ochracea), though several other forms were also present. FODS WATKfi TABLE APRfL v ?5 May-- . J May- - A After PAiNrALL or 1,25 mcH£^ MAY. -.7 Readings taken at )X Rods S,s.F -- rr • c..„* if A A \ 1 «« “ io 1 Wateh-,< t: i L_ i LEV£L^ i— — FIG. 13.— WATER TABLE TOO HIGH Only near the open ditches or a line of tile is the water table where it should be — three feet below the surface. As the growth of these organisms might have a very impor- tant bearing on the efficiency of the tile, the broken masses were traced to their point of growth. Two systems were found to be affected, both of them near the lake. Group VII, Lines 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 were coated on the inside below the water line with masses that would average from ^ to ^ of an inch in thickness — principally along the sides. All these lines were of clay tile. Lines 6 and 7 of the same system containing cement tile showed no bacteria. Group VIII, Lines 1 to 6 containing clay tile were heavily infected with masses up to an inch in thickness. In Line 5 one mass was noticed 8 inches long and reaching up to the surface of the water (more 22 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 50 than half the size of the tile) which was slowly moving down, pushed by the water behind it. On the other hand, no tile which came into the main from the south was infected. Neither was the main into which all tile emptied in common. The boundary between the infected area and the uninfected was clearly defined. Cement tile are inimical to these bacteria. So also is seepage from the upland. The bacteria were abun- dant where the seepage from the lake flowed through clay tile. Harder* has done exhaustive research work on deposition of iron by various forms of bacteria. Ehrenberg in 1836 first discovered that bacteria were active in the depositing of iron. Harder groups the iron bacteria into three general classes: (1) those which extract carbon dioxide from ferrous bicarbonate and precipitate iron hydroxide in their cell walls ; (2) those which do not require ferrous bicarbonate for their life process but precipitate iron hydroxide if soluble iron salts are pres- ent; (3) those which attack organic salts using the organic portion as a food and so precipitating the iron. Leptothrix belongs to the second class. Nearly all are what is known as “higher bacteria” — slender filamentous forms made of single elongated cells joined end to end. Some are flattened and double back on themselves forming a double spiral. Others are cylindrical and double back on themselves in a double spiral, but the greater number are single threads. All of them have the peculiar power of precipitating hydroxide of iron which later becomes oxidized and forms hydrated sesquioxide of iron which becomes bog iron ore. Leptothrix is primarily a soil organism and can grow without the assistance of iron com- pounds. Its habitat is, however, in bogs where iron is present in considerable quantity, some of it in the form of organic salts. During the winter (1919-1920) the masses of bacteria in the tile in the marsh became much smaller but persisted in the ditch beside Willow Drive. In fact they grew faster there, prob- ably due to a higher lake level and more abundant water. The masses in the tile grew again in the spring but in the summer of 1920 the main into which the infected tile emptied was lowered. •E. C. Harder, “Iron Depositing Bacteria and Their Geologic Relations.” Pump Drainage of the University Marsh 23 In the process the laterals were dammed and drained several times and the rush of water cleaned them out. A month after work was finished the bacterial masses had again grown to con- siderable size. There may be many places where tile are laid in a constant flow of water, that these organisms will give considerable trouble. In localities where this occurs it seems best to lay the laterals so that they may have a short sharp run to the main or to lay out the system in a way to let each lateral catch some upland water. A temporary cure for iron bacteria would be a small application of copper sulphate. Care should be taken that the amount of the chemical used is not enough to kill fish in the stream or lake into which the drains empty. Trout die if copper sulphate is used stronger than .14 parts per million while it takes .2 and .3 parts per million to kill leptothrix. Pickerel, perch and black bass, however, in the order named, can endure copper sulphate in strengths rang- ing from .4 to 2.1 parts per million. By stopping a drain tem- porarily, a concentrated solution may be kept for a time in contact with the bacteria. Upon discharging this into a creek or lake, this solution becomes so diluted that even trout are safe. PUMP AND POWER MEASUREMENTS Records of the amount of electricity consumed were made from May 9 to June 9, 1916, and again from October 24 to November 25, 1920. A tested meter was obtained from the Department of Electrical Engineering. In the 1916 test, 1760 kilowatt hours were consumed in 31 days; and in 1920, 1830 kilowatt hours were consumed in 32 days. In each case it averaged about 57 kilowatt hours a day for the whole period. The area drained is about 130 acres. At 2 cents a kilowatt hour the cost of power is approximately a cent an acre a day. During the 1920 test the rainfall amounted to 1.75 inches which fell as follows: October 26 — .06; November 1 — .68; November 6 — .57; November 8 — .15; and November 21 — .27. From November 5 to 15 the power consumed averaged 92 kilowatt hours a day, but from November 15 to 18 it averaged 24 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 50 only 23 kilowatt hours a day. In 1916 there were several 5 day periods when the power consumption was less than 40 kilowatt hours a day. Dry Weather Seepage — On October 24, 1920, a detailed study of the operation of the pump was made from 6 a. m. to 6 p. m. On that day dry weather prevailed, so that the pump- ing represented the seepage, ten days after a rain of any conse- quence. The pump is a 16-inch auger having a two-bladed impeller, each blade making 4 inches more than one-half of the circum- ference in length and having a 4^4 inch lift in one-half revolu- tion or 9 inches in a whole revolution. The drive pulley is 16 inches. The motor is a 3 phase, a. c. 10 h. p. and has an 8-inch drive pulley. The shafts are set about 12 feet apart, and there is a quarter turn in the belt from the horizontal motor to the vertical pump shaft. The motor has ample power to drive the pump and the speed remained constant at 600 r.p.m. The water was measured as it ran away from the pump over a 34-inch weir. It required 13 seconds after the starting of the pump before the water flowed over the weir, which it did with a rush. At the end of each run the pump continued to operate and the water to flow over the weir for a period of 4 seconds after the throwing out of the switch. As the water over the weir died down from full flow to nothing, it was assumed that the actual flow was equal to the average flow for half the time or 2 seconds. The effective run of the pump was therefore 11 seconds less than the actual time between the opening and the closing of the switch. The pump started and stopped 39 times in 12 hours. It ran a total of 6,252 seconds. Subtracting 11 seconds for each of the 39 runs leaves 5,823 seconds of effective pumping or about 2^2 minutes at a run. The average head over the 34-inch weir was .55 feet. For 5,823 seconds this gives a discharge of 22,457 cubic feet for the 12 hours. The current consumed was 10 kilowatt hours in the 12 hours or 20 kilowatt hours per day. Pump Drainage of the University Marsh 25 The elevations ascertained were as follows : Level of lake (feet above sea level) t 848.92 Level of weir (feet above sea level) 849.34 Top of water when pumping (feet above sea level) 849.89 Height of water at start of pump (feet above sea level) 843.43 Height of water at stop of pump (feet above sea level).... 841.93 Height of water at end of back lash (feet above sea level) 842.70 Height of water over weir (feet) 55 Head over pump at start (feet) 6.46 Head over pump at stop (feet) 7.96 Average lift for the day (feet)..'. 7.21 Every time the pump stopped, 85.8 cubic feet of water ran back through the pump into the reservoir. In 39 runs this amounted to 3,346 cubic feet which \vas wasted. It amounted to 15 per cent of the water that went over the weir. Since this water was lifted to a height averaging only one-half that of the water that went over the weir, the waste of energy is only 7j^ per cent. During periods of heavy pumping when the run of the pump is 6 or 7 minutes, the percentage of waste is less than that. The total effective inlet of the pump is its cross-sectional area of the pump minus the area of its hub or (0.67^x3.1416) — (0.162x3. 1416)=!. 33 sq. ft. The lift being 9 inches and the speed 10 revolutions per second, the volume described by each revolution of the pump is 1.33x. 75x10=9. 97 cu. ft. per second, as compared with an actual discharge of 3.85 cubic feet per second. It would seem that the speed of the pump might be considerably reduced without cutting down its efficiency. Table III. — Source of Seepage System Acres drained Cu. ft. discharge in 12 hrs. Discharge per acre per day Inches from area in 24 hrs. Reimarks 15-in. main 80 2,430 60.75 .0156 Underlaid by clay 8-in. main Balance of 13 10,627 1,634.92 .45 Main and laterals deep in sand tract 37 9,400 509.46 .14 Includes reservoir at pump house and 20 acres not ‘ tUed 26 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 50 Areas Supplying Seepage Water. — In order to ascertain where this water was coming from, a 9-inch weir was put in at the mouth of the 15-inch main and an 8-inch weir on Main VIII, 20 feet below the triple junction at Station 7+49. The measurements are shown in Table III. The average acre near the lake had about 27 times as much seepage as the average acre in the 80-acre tract drained by the 15-inch main. Near the lake the seepage amounted to .45 inches a day while farther away it was only .0156 inches. Table IV. — Daily Amount of Water Pumped in Second-Feet and Acre-Inches Period pumped in minutes Rainfall inches Average lift Water pumped Date Rate second-feet Acre-inches per day 1914 April 20 448 1.78 14.1 105.2 21 940 3.42 4.6 68.7 22 575 3.74 3.21 31.0 23 735 0’03 4.46 1 1-2 14.7 24 305 0.87 4.50 1.82 9.22 25 320 4.51 2.47 13.2 26 155 4,17 1.44 3.7 27 130 0~23 4.63 1.44 3.14 28 325 0.36 4.51 1.59 8.6 29 210 0.05 4.58 1.96 6.85 30 180 0.01 4.37 2.47 7.41 May 1 135 4.72 1.34 3.02 2 205 4.32 1.80 6.14 3 305 ! il26 4.05 2.16 10.8 4 370 1 4.18 2.47 15.2 5 360 1 " 4.54 3.36 20.16 6 510 4.61 2.47 21.0 7 225 0.05 4.59 3.36 12.6 8 350 4.71 1.82 10.62 Totals 6,783 2.86 371.5 aninutes inches acre-inches Measurements in 1914. — Table IV shows the amount of water that was lifted about 5 feet by a 16-inch reverse-turbine pump driven by a 12 h. p. gasoline engine in 1914. At that time about 20 acres of the higher marsh were tiled but only ^ acre of the lake-level marsh was tiled. The rest of it was drained by 880 rods of open ditches 4 feet deep. The pumping amounted to 20 acre inches a day or about .16 inches from the entire area. In the 19 days this amounted to 3.04 inches as compared with a rainfall for That period of 2.86 inches. Pump Drainage of the University Marsh 27 The discharge of the pump was measured by a weir 5 feet wide. The head of the weir was read at intervals during the pumping period and averaged to compute the discharge. The lift was also recorded at intervals and averaged. The dis- charge of the pump was much greater for the low lifts, but the power required was also greater. The height of the water in Lake Mendota varies as much as 3 feet. On June 1, 1919, it rose to 851.90, according to the city engineer of Madison. It has been as low as 848.5. At such low water periods the flash boards of the spillway of the pump are taken out to reduce the lift. HEIGHT OF WATER TABLE During the pumping test in 1914, observations were made upon the height of the water table at intervals of 1 rod be- tween the open ditches and the two lines of tile that were laid. The results are shown in Figure 13. The rainfall during the period is shown in Table IV. At each observation pit, four ^.s / Wateq Table Determinations Eftee FRCM Se£F>As£ — S49 — .. — Y j Peat — — }t!L£ — •Sand ■. o i r a S Kotia 4 J Uhdcr CoNom r QN^ f r 6 ■■■ // Peat -N ■ \ T h' — 7*7 - \\ ^ M -4^ . ■ 3ano 0 f £ ! 3 Soda 4. 3 s T & FIG. 14. — BETTER, BUT STILL TOO WET In Series 2, the shallow tile belong to the original system. The deeper lines were installed later. Note how the deep, rather than the shallow tile, affect the water table. 28 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 50 5-inch tile were placed in a vertical column in a hole, the top of the upper tile reaching about to the surface of the ground and being used as a reference point in reading the height of the water in the hole. Even on May 7 when the water table was 1 foot below the surface, the land was too soft to hold up the horses. FIG. 15.— POOR CEMENT TILE FAIL This tile was made' too porous. It had been laid in a high lime muck for 4 years when this picture was taken. Another set of observations began in November, 1920. In each hole five 5-inch tile were placed in a vertical column, the bottom of which reached to the sand in each case. Figure 14 shows the results to date. During this period the soil was dry and firm enough at the surface to hold up horses or tractors. A peculiar feature of the observations now in progress is that the water table directly over a line of tile is in some places from 4 to 8 inches higher than the top of the tile, yet the tile were not more than half-full of water which ran swiftly in every case. This is probably due to the pressure of water from below and the slowness with which the water moves through the peat. It appears, however, that at Hole IX Series B where the tile are only 2 feet deep, the water table is as much above the tile as at Hole IX Series A where the tile are more than 3 feet deep. Even under these conditions the deep tile are the more efficient. At A, B and C the tile had just been deepened and the looseness of the peat over the tile accounts for the low water table there. Pump Drainage of the University Marsh 29 INVESTIGATIONS WITH CEMENT TILE Several lots of cement tile were laid on the University Marsh. At the time they were purchased and laid they were thought to be the best cement tile available. Nevertheless, many of them were badly disintegrated or had totally col- lapsed at the end of six years. The action of the acids of the peat is the most probable cause of the distintegration. On the other hand, some good but not extra quality cement tile laid in the neutral peat on the University Marsh in October, 1919, had roughened but little by August, 1921, and were stronger than when laid. Some cement tile manufacturers are now making an extra quality tile with walls so dense that the absorption of water is kept below 10 per cent after 5 hours of boiling. The following are the minimum wall thicknesses : 4- inch tile 5/8" thick 8-inch tile 13/16" thick 5- inch tile 11/16" thick 10-inch tile 7/8" thick 6- inch tile 3/4" thick 12-inch tile 1" thick Decreased wall thicknesses may be compensated for by in- creasing the density, but it has not yet been proven that they will stand up in an acid peat, unless the peat is underlaid with clay in which the tile are imbedded. In such peat, and in most clays in Wisconsin, extra quality cement tile are satisfactory. For beds of acid peat underlaid by sand, or those so deep that the tile are not imbedded in the underlying clay, it is best for the present to give preference to good hard burned shale or clay tile even at the expense of high freight rates on such tile. The findings on the University Marsh substantiated by similar findings in 20 cases in 10 counties in Wisconsin should be a solemn warning to the manufacturers of poor cement tile. The poorest cement tile have been made with small machines by farm- ers themselves. But little better than these are the cement tile made by the small plants not equipped with good workmen, good materials or a steam curing device. 30 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 50 DRAINED PEAT BURNS In August 1919 during a dry period, a careless workman dropped a lighted match on the area drained by Group III. By the next morning about two acres had burned over, burning the peat to depths varying from 6 to 12 inches. The pump was stopped and the water from the lake was allowed to run back to put out the fire. Due to the buoyancy of the soil and the dense dry grass on the surface, it was difficult to immerse all parts of the burning marsh and it took two days to put out the fire. By that time about 4 acres had burned more or less. Usually the ashes from burned peat helps the next year’s crop by making the potash more available, but for reasons as yet unexplained, the crop of corn on these four acres in 1920 was poorer than in the unburned area. COST OF DRAINAGE Open Ditches — Most of the ditching crew were student laborers. The original ditches 1 foot wide at the bottom, 4 feet deep and 5 feet wide at the top were dug by hand. Men were paid $2.00 a day and the average cost of the ditches was 90 cents a rod, for the 880 rods. For about 100 rods the ditches reached through the peat and one foot into the underlying clay. This increased the cost. Where no willow roots bothered and the peat was 4 feet deep, the cost was only about 75 cents a rod. The peat was cut with hay knives or spades into blocks containing about 1 cubic foot and then heaved out with manure hooks. While these ditches did not dry the land enough to prevent horses from miring, they did make the soil firmer. It would have been difficult or impossible to lay the tile subsequently had not these ditches been put in first as fore-runners. They made the soil firm enough so that the trenches stood up well while the tile were being laid, and even permitted the use of a caterpillar tiling ma- chine, although the tile had to be carried 40 rods or more by hand, except on Plot S where a caterpillar tractor was used to draw light loads of tile on a wagon. Pump Drainage of the University Marsh 31 Protecting Ditch and Dike — Available roads were used as dikes. The ditch and dike at the north side of the marsh was made about 21/^ feet deep and 10 feet wide at the top. The earth ex- cavated was used to make a dike about 2% feet high in the lower side. The work was done with teams and scrapers during May 1910, when the ground was so wet that horses walked in the ditch with difficulty, sinking to their fetlocks in the soft clay. Here there was no peat at all on the surface and large boulders im- bedded in the clay had to be blasted before they could be handled. The cost of this ditch was 55 cents a rod, figuring a team and driver worth 40 cents an hour, and a laborer 20 cents an hour. The Pumping Plant — This includes no subsequent repairs. The cost of the pumping plant including 2000 feet of trans- mission line, two 10 h.p. motors with transformers, and auto- matic devices ; the pump house with two pumps completely in- stalled, was about $2,200. The Tile — This does not include surveying nor supervision. The mains and sub-mains into which the laterals discharge ag- gregate 90 rods of 15-inch, 110 rods of 12-inch, 42 rods of 10- inch, 320 rods of 8-inch and 345 rods of 6-inch tile. The total cost of these was $3,100. The laterals are 8 rods apart on ap- proximately 30 acres, 4 rods apart on 60 acres, and 2 rods apart on 40 acres, with about 1 acre that had to have lines 1 rod apart to dry up all of the persistent springs. These aggregate about 6,300 rods or nearly 20 miles and cost approximately $8,000. All but 5 carloads of tile were bought and laid at pre-war prices. Cost Per Acre — The total cost of the drainage system may be itemized as follows : Open ditches (later filled) $790.00 Protecting ditches and dikes 170.00 Pumping plant 2,200.00 Tile mains 3,100.00 Tile laterals 8,000.00 Total $14,260.00 32 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 50 This brings the average cost approximately $110 an acre for the 130 acres. The unusual seepage from the lake and through the underlying sand from the surrounding hills together with the pumping made the drainage of this marsh about 100 per cent more difficult than the average marsh land in Wisconsin. Never- theless, it was profitable because of high land values adjacent to the University Farm. CONCLUSIONS 1. The shrinkage of peat above the tile is such that tile may have to be relaid in from 10 to 20 years. 2. Tile 3 feet deep are too shallow. Tile 4 feet deep and 8 rods apart are more efficient than tile 3 feet deep and 4 rods apart. The most efficient tile in the deep peat or where seepage is great are those 5 feet deep acid peats. 3. Well-made cement tile are satisfactory in clay sub-soils and none but the best should be tolerated in any soil. 4. Peat disintegrates some cement tile. It has not yet been proven that even the best of cement tile will stand up in acid peats, unless imbedded in underlying clay. 5. The pump should be started before the tops of the tile out- lets are submerged. 6. Where the reservoir is small the pump must be started at frequent intervals. An automatic starter takes the place of a constant attendant. Electricity lends itself to automatic control better than gasoline, steam or wind. 7. A simple auger pump that permits sticks and debris to pass through it without clogging or binding is most satisfactory. 8. An emergency pump for use in case of accident or unusual floods should be kept ready for action. 9. About 1/2 kilowatt-hour of power is the average used per acre in 24 hours to lift the water 7 feet. The minimum was Yq kilowatt hours per acre per day. 10. The dry weather seepage amounts to about .1 inch in 24 hours. The maximum requirement has been about .8 inches in 24 hours from the entire area. EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF The President of the Univbrsitt H. L. Russell, Dean and Director P. B. Morrison, Asst Dir. Exp. Sta- tion X. A. James, Asst. Dean K. L. Hatch, Asst. Dir. Agr. Exten- sion Service W. A. Henry, Emeritus Agriculture S. M. Babcock, Emeritus Agr. Chem- istry A. S. Alexander, Veterinary Science F. A. Aust, Horticulture B. A. Beach, Veterinary Science L. J. Cole, In charge of Genetics E. J. Delwiche, Agronomy (Ashland) J. G. Dickson, Plant Pathology P. W. Duffee, Agr. Engineering E. H. Farrington, In charge of Dairy Husbandry C. L. Fluke, Economic Entomology E. B. Fred, Agr. Bacteriology W. D. Frost, Agr. Bacteriology J. G. Fuller, Animal Husbandry W. J. Geib, Soils E. M. Gilbert, Plant Pathology L. F. Graber, Agronomy E. J. Graul, Soils P. B. Hadley, In charge of Veterin- ary Science J. G. Halpin, In charge of Poultry Husbandry P. N. Harmer, Soils E. B. Hart, In charge of Agr. Chem- istry E. G. Hastings, In charge of Agr. Bacteriology C. S. Hean, Librarian B. H. Hibbard, In charge of Agr. Economics A. W. Hopkins, Editor, in charge of Agr. Journalism R. S. Hulcb, Animal Husbandry G. C. Humphrey, In charge of Ani- mal Husbandry J. A. James, In charge of Agr. Edu- cation A. G. Johnson, Plant Pathology J. Johnson, Horticulture E. R. Jones, In charge of Agr. En- gineering L. R. Jones, In charge of Plant Pa- thology G. W. Keitt, Plant Pathology F. Kleinheinz, Animal Husbandry J. H. Kolb, Agr. Economics E. J. Kraus, Plant Pathology B. D. Leith, Agronomy E. W. Lindstrom, Genetics T. Macklin, Agr. Economics Abby L. Marlatt, In charge of Home Economics J. G. Milward, Horticulture J. G. Moore, In charge of Horticul- ture R. A. Moore, In charge of Agronomy P. B. Morrison, Animal Husbandry G. B. Mortimer, Agronomy P. L. Musbach, Soils (Marshfield) W. H. Peterson, Agr. Chemistry Griffith Richards, Soils R. H. Roberts, Horticulture J. L. Sammis, Dairy Husbandry H. H. Sommer, Dairy Husbandry H. Steenbock, Agr. Chemistry H. W. Stewart, Soils A. L. Stone, Agronomy W. A. Sumner, Agr. Journalism J. SwENEHART, Agr. Engineering W. E. Tottingham, Agr. Chemistry E. Truog, Soils R. E. Vaughan. Plant Pathology H. P. Wilson, In charge of Economic Entomology A. R. Whitson, In charge of Soils A. H. Wright, Agronomy and Soils W. H. Wright, Agr. Bacteriology O. R. Zeasman, Agr. Engineering H. W. Albertz, Agronomy Freda M. Bachmann, Agr. Bacte- riology E. A. Baird, Plant Pathology Marguerite Davis, Home Economics J. M. Fargo, Animal Husbandry N. S. Fish, Agr. Engineering W. C. Frazier, Agr. Bacteriology R. T. Harris, Dairy Tests E. D. Holden, Agronomy C. A. Hoppert, Agr. Chemistry Grace Langdon, Agr. Journalism E. J. Malloy, Soils V. G. Milum, Economic Entomology E. M. Nelson, Agr. Chemistry G. T. Nightingale, Horticulture Marianna T. Sell, Agr. Chemistry W. S. Smith, Assistant to the Dean L. C. Thomsen, Dairy Husbandry W. B. Tisdale, Plant Pathology C. E. Walsh, Agr. Engineering R. M. Bethke, Agr. Chemistry Ruth Bitterman, Plant Pathology O. R. Brunkow, Agr. Chemistry W. A. Carver, Genetics A. L. DuRant, Animal Husbandry O. H. Gerhardt, Agr. Chemistry G. W. Heal, Animal Husbandry O. N. Johnson, Poultry Husbandry J. H. Jones, Agr. Chemistry Henry Keller, Agr. Economics C. D. Samuels, Soils D. G. Steele, Genetics Henry Ste-\"ens, Genetics J. W. Stevens, Agr. Bacteriology G. N. Stroman, Genetics J. J. Yoke, Genetics UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA 630.7W75RE C002 RESEARCH BULLETIN MADISON 39-50 1916-21 3 0112 019935987