I n fin it e riches in a little room — CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE New Americanized ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ( Twentieth Century Edition ) A DICTIONARY uF ARTS, SCIENCES, and LITERATURE with Many Articles by Special Writers FULLY ILLUSTRATED and Revised throughout to Date, with over ONE HUNDRED COLORED , MAPS IN TEN VOLUMES VOL. X — TRIBUNE — ZYMOTIC BIOGRAPHICAL SUPPLEMENT The Saalfield Publishing Company New York AKRON, OHIO Chicago Copyright, 1890, by Belford-Clarke Co. Copyright, 1896, by The Werner Company Copyright, 1904, by The Saalfield Publishing Company Copyright, 1905, by The Saalfield Publishing Company Copyright, 1906, by The Saalfield Publishing Company Copyright, 1907, by The Saalfield Publishing Company A. E. B. MADE BY THE WERNER COMPANY AKRON, OHIC. LIST OF MAPS VOLUME X. Turkey in Europe • • ♦ • 5948 Turkey in Asia • *.*•••.•«.. 5953 United States • 5987 Utah ........ . . 6115 Vermont ...... 6171 Virginia 6214 Washington 6267 West Indies 6325 West Virginia . . .6328 Wisconsin . 6375 Wyoming • * 6408 / Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates https://archive.org/details/newamericanizede10ency — BIOGRAPHIES in this volume will be found biographical sketches of the following persons, not to be found in the English edition: Towle, George M. Townsend, George A* Townsend, Luther T. Towson, Nathan, Gen. Toy, Crawford H., LL.D. Tracy, Albert H. Tracy, Benjamin F. Traill, Henry D., D.C.L. Trau twine, John C. Treat, Robert. Trelawney, Sir John. Trenchard, Stephen D. Trenholm, George A. Trevelyan, Sir George. Trevor, George, D.D. Trimble, Isaac R., Gen. Trimble, Robert. Tristram, Henry B., LL.D, Trobriand de, Philip, Baron. Trochu, Louis Jules, Gen. Trollope, Edward, Bishop. Trollope, Thomas A. Troost, Gerhard. Trowbridge, Edmund. Trowbridge, John. Trowbridge, John T. Trowbridge, William P. Trumbull, James H., LL.D. Trumbull, Lyman. Truxtun, Thomas. Truxtun, William T. Try on, William. Tschudi, Friederich von. Tschudi, Johann J. von. Tseng, Marquis. Tuck, Joseph H. Tucker, Beverly. Tucker, Henry St. George. Tucker, John Randolph, LL.D. Tucker, John Randolph. Tucker, Luther. Tucker, Samuel. Tucker, St. George. Tucker, Thomas T. Tuckerman, Henry T. Tuckerman, Joseph, D.D. Tuke, D. H., LL.D. Tulane, Paul. Tulloch, John. T upper, Sir Charles. Tupper, Martin F. Turner, Charles T. Turner, Charles Y. Turner, Godfrey W. Turner, Nathaniel. Turner, Thomas. Turr, Stephen, Gen. Tuttle, Daniel S. Tuttle, Herbert. Twiggs, David E., Gen. Twiss, Sir Travers. Tyler, Daniel, Gen. Tyler, Erastus B., Gen. Tyler, Lyon G. Tyler, Moses Coit, LL.D. Tyler, Roy all. Tylor, Edward B., F.R.b. Tyndale, Hector. Tyndall, John. LL.D. Tyner, James IN. ii BIOGRAPHIES . Tyng, Stephen H., D.D. Ullmann, Daniel. Ulrich, Charles F. Uncas, Chief. Underwood, Francis H. Underwood, John W. H. Underwood, Joseph R. Underwood, Lucius M., Ph.D. Upchurch, John J. Upfold, George, Bishop. Upham, Charles W. Upham, Samuel F., D.D. Upham, Thomas C., D.D. Upshur, Abel P. Upshur, John H. Vail, Alfred. Vail, Thomas H., Bishop. Valentine, Edward V. Vallandigham, Clement L. Vambery, Arminius. Van Arsdale, John. Van Buren, John. Vance, Zebulon B. Van Cleve, Horatio P., Gen. Van Cortland, Orloff S. Vancouver, George. Van Dam, Rip. Vanderbilt, Cornelius. Vanderbilt, William H. Vanderlyn, John. Van Dorn, Earl, Gen. Van Elten, Hendrik. Van Ness, Cornelius P., Gen. Van Rensselaer, Henry K. Van Rensselaer, Philip S. Van Rensselaer, Stephen, LL.D. Van T wilier, Wonter. Van Vleck, Henry J., Bishop. Vapereau, Louis G. Varick, Richard. Vassar, Mathew. Vandreuil, Marquis. Vaughan, Benjamin, LL.D. Vaughan, Charles J., D.D. Vaughan, Herbert, Bishop. Vaux, William S. Vaux, William S. W. Vedder, Elihu. Veitch, John, M.A. Venable, Charles S. Vennor, Henry G. Vera, Augusto. Verdi, Guiseppe. Verdon, Sir George. Vergennes, Charles G, Verne, Jules. Verney, Sir Harry. Verplanck, Gulian C. Verrazano, Giovanni. Vest, George G. Vetch, Samuel. Vezin, Hermann. Viordot-Garcia, Mdme. Vibert, J. G. Victoria-Alexandrina, Queen. Victoria, Guadalupe. Vidaurri, Santiago. Viel-Castil, Louis, Comte de. Vigfusson, Gudbrand, M.A. Vignon, Nicholas. Vilas, William F. Villard, Henry. Villen euve, Comte de. Villiers, Charles Pelham, M.P. Villiers, Frederic. Vincennes, Jean, B. B. Vincent, Charles E. H. Vinton, Alexander H. Vinton, Francis. Vinton, Francis L. Vinton, Samuel F. Viollet-Leduc, Eugene. Viomeuil, Baron de. Virchow, Rudolf. Virtue, John, Bishop. Vizcaino, Sebastian. Vogt, Karl, M.D. Volk, Leonard W. Voorhees, Daniel W. Voysey, Charles, B.A. Wace, Henry, D.D. Waddel, John N. Waddell, James J. Waddington, W. H. Wade, Benjamin F. Wade, Sir Thomas. Wadhams, Edgar P. Wadsworth, James S. Wagner, Hermann. Wagner, John. Wagner, Moritz. Wagner, Rudolf J. Wagner, Wilhelm, Waite, Morrison R., LL.D. Walden, John W. Wales, Prince of. Walker, Amasa. Walker, Francis A. Walker, Frederick A. Walker, Frederick W. Walker, James. Walker, Leroy Pope. Walker, Robert J. Walker, Sears C. Walker, William. Walker, William D. Walker, William H. T. Wallace, Alfred S., F.L.S. Wallace, Donald M. Wallace, John W. Wallace, Lewis, Gen. Wallace, Robert, M.F. Wallace, William H. L., Gen. Wallace, William R. Wallace, William V. Wallack, James W. Wallack, John L. Waller, Thomas M. Wallis, Henry, F.R.S* Wallis, S. Teackle. Wallo-n, Henri A. Walpole, Spencer. Walpole, Spencer H. Walsh, Archbishop. Walsh, John. Walsh, John Henry, F.R.S. Walsh, Robert. Walshe, Walter Hayle, M.D* Walsham, Sir John. Walter, John, M.A. Walter, Thomas M. Walton, George. Walworth, Mansfield T. Walworth, Reuben H., LL.D* Wanamaker, John. Wanklyn, James A., M.R.C.S. Ward, Adolphus W., LL.D. Ward, Artemas. Ward, Genevieve. Ward, Henry A. Ward, J. Q. A. Ward, Lester F. Ward, Richard. Ward, Thomas H., M.A. Ward, William H. Warder, John A. Waring, George E. Warner, Charles Dudley. Warner, Susan. Warre, Edmond, D.D. Warren, Gouverneur K* Warren, Henry W. Warren, Joseph. Warren, Joseph. Warren, Mercy. Warren, William. Warren, William F. Warnngton, Lewis. Washburn, C. C., Gen. Washburn, Israel. Washburne, Elihu B. Washington, Bushrod. Washington, William. Waterhouse, Alfred, R.A. Waterlow, Sir Sidney. Watkin, Sir Edward. Watson, Alfred A. Watson, Elkanah. Watson, James C. Watson, John D., R.W.C. * Watson, Lord. Watson, Thomas H. Watterson, Henry. Watts, Alaric A. Watts, George F., R.A, Waugh, Edwin. Way land, Francis, LL.D. Wayne, Anthony, Gen. Wayne, James M., Justice. Weathers, William, D.D. Weaver, James B., Gen. Webb, Alexander S. Webb, James Watson. Webber, W. T. T., Bishop. Webster, Augusta. Webster, Fletcher. Webster, Joseph D. Webster, Sir Richard. Wedmore, Frederick. Weed, Edwin G. Weed, Stephen H. Weed, Thurlow. Weeks, Robert K. Weems, Mason L. Weigel, Erhard. Weir, Harrison W* Weir, J. A. Weir, John F. Weir, Robert W. Weitzel, Godfrey. Welby, Amelia. Welch, John. Welcker, F. G. Welcker, K. T. Weldon, C. W. Weldon, Georgina. Welldon, James E., Re*», Welles, E. R., D.D. Welles, Gideon. Welling, J. C. Wells, C. W. Wells, David A. Wells, H. C. Wells, Henry T., R.A. Wells, Horace, M.D. Wells, James Madison. Wells, Sir Thomas. Wells, Walter- Welsh, Alfred Hi a W emyss, Earl of. Wentworth, John. Wentworth, Sir John* BIOGRAPHIES. rv Werder, August von. Wertmliller, Adolph M. West, Benjamin. West, Sir Lionel. West, W. E. Westcott, Brooke F., D.D. Westcott, Thompson. Westlake, John, Q.C. Westminster, Duke of. Westwood, John O. Wetherill, Charles M. Wetzel, Lewis. Wharton, Francis, LL.D. Wharton, Thomas I. Whatcoat, Richard. Wheatley, Phillis. Wheaton, Henry. Whedon, Daniel. Wheeler, George M. Wheeler, Joseph. Wheeler, William A. Wheeler, William A. Wheelock, E. Wheelock, John. Wheelwright, William. Whelan, Bishop. Whipple, Abraham. Whipple, A. W. Whipple, Edwin P. Whipple, H. B., Bishop, Whipple, William. Whistler, George W. Whistler, James A. Whitaker, O. W., Bishop. Whitcomb, John. White, Andrew D. White, Anthony W. White, Daniel A. White, Edward, Rev. White, Horace. White, Hugh L. White, Joseph B. White, Peregrine. White, Phillips. White, Richard Grant White, Thomas. White, William. White, Sir William. White, William H. Whitehead, Cordand, Bishop Whitehouse, PL }., Bishop. Whiting, Henry, Gen. Whiting, William. Whiting, William H. C. Whitman, Sarah H. E. Whitman, Walter. Whitney, Anne. Whitney, Adeline D. Whitney, Eli. Whitney, Josiah D Whitney, Myrcn D. Whitney, William C. Whitney, William D. Whittemore, Amos. Whittier, John Greenleaf. Whittle, Francis McN., Bishop. Whittlesey, Francis. Whittredge, Worthington. Whitworth, Sir Joseph. Whymper, Edward. Whyte, William Pinkney. Wickersham, James P., LL.D. Wickes, Lambert. Wickes, Stephen, M.D. Wickham, Edward C., Rev. Wickham, William C., Gen. Wigfall, Lewis T., Gen. Wiggins, Ezekiel S. Wightmann, William M., Bishop. Wilberforce, Ernest R., Bishop. Wilcox, Cadmus M., Gen. Wild, Edward A., Gen. Wilde, Oscar. Wilde, Richard D. Wilde, Sir William. Wilder, Burt G., M.D. Wilder, Marshall P. Wildey, Thomas. Wilhelm, J. August. Wilkes, Charles. Wilkinson, G. H., Bishop. Wilkinson, James, Gen. Wilkinson, J. J. G., M.D. Wilkinson, Jesse. Wilks, Samuel, LL.D. Willard, Emma H. Willard, Sylvester D., M.D. Willcox, O. B., Gen. Willey, W. T., LL.D William I., Emperor. William II., Emperor. William, King of the Netherlands. William, Duke of Bruns dck. Williams, Channing M., Bishop. Williams, Charles. Williams, E. P., Capt. Williams, George W. Williams, Henry S-, LL.L Williams, Henry W., M.D Williams, James. Williams, James W., D.D. Williams, John, LL.D. Williams, John. Williams, Jonathan. Williams, J. J., Archbishop, Williams, Otho H., Gen. BIOGRAPHIES. Williams,' Samuel W., LL.D. Williams, Thomas. Williams, Sir William. Williamson, A. W., LL.D. Williamson, Hugh. Willis, N. P. Wills, William G. Wilmarth, Lemuel E. Wilmer, Richard H., Bishop. Wilmot, David. Wilson, A. W., Bishop. Wilson, Augusta J. Evans (Sec Evans). Wilson, Daniel, LL.D. Wilson, H. B., Rev. Wilson, J. M., Rev. Wilson, James. Wilson, James. Wilson, James G. Wilson, James F. Wilson, Sir Adam. Wilson, Sir Charles R. Wilson, Sir Charles W. Wilson, Theodore D. Wiman, Erastus. Winchell, Alexander, 1,1* A Winchell, Newton H. Windom, William. Windhorst, Ludwig. Winebrenner, John. Winder, John H., Gen. Winmarleigh, Lord. Winslow, John A., Admiral Winslow, Josiah. Winslow, Miron. Winsor, Justin, LL.D. Winter, William. Winthrop, Robert C. Winthrop, Theodore. Wirt, William. Wise, George D. Wise, Henry A., Gen. Wise, Henry Augustus Wise, John. Wise, John S. Wise, O. Jennings. Wise, Richard. Wissler, Jacques. Wistar, Caspar, M.D. Withered, James. Withers, J. M. , Gen. Withers, R. E. Witherspoon, John, D.D. Wolcott, Oliver, Gov. Wolcott, Roger, Gov. Wolfe, Catharine L. Wolfe, Sir Henry. Wolfe, John D. Wolseley, Lord. Wood, Alfonso. Wood, Devolson. Wood, Fernando. Wood, George B., LL.D. Wood, James, Gov. Wood, John, F.R.S. Wood, John G., Rev. Wood, Sir Henry E. Wood, Thomas J. Wood, Thomas W. Woodall, William, M.P. Woodberry, George E. Woodbridge, William C. Woodbury, Daniel P., Gen. Woodbury, Levi. Woodhouse, James. Woods, Sir Albert. Woods, Leonard, D.D. Woods, William B., LL.D. Woodward, Aubertine. Woodward, J. J., M.D. Woodworth, Samuel. Wool, John E., Gen. Woolman, John. Woolner, Thomas, R.A. Woolsey, Theodore D., LI«.D. Wooster, David, Gen. Worcester, Bishop of. Worcester, Joseph E., LLb. Worden, John L., Admiral. Wordsworth, Charles, Bishop Wordsworth, John, Bishop. Work, H. C. Worth, Thomas. Worth, William J., Gen. Worthen, A. H. Worthington, George, Bishop Wrangel, Charles M. von. Wrangell, Baron von. Wratislow, Albert H., Rev. Wright, Arthur W., Ph.D. Wright, Elizur. Wright, Fanny. Wright, George F. Wright, Horatio G., Gen. Wright, Sir James. Wright, Joseph. Wright, Luther. Wright, William, LL.D. Wiillerstorf, Baron von. Wurtele, Jonathan S. C., D.G.Iu Wurtz, Charles A. Wurtz, Henry. Wylde, Henry. Wyllys, George. Wyman, Jeffries, M.D. Wyman, Robert H., Admiral Wyncoop, Henry. > VI BIOGRAPHIES. Wyndham, Charles. Wynn, Richard. Wynns, Thomas. Wythe, George, LL.D. Xavier, Francis Xavier, Jerome. Xeres, Francisco Ximines, Augusten L. Ximines, de Carmona. Ximines, Francis. Ximines, Francisco. Ximines, Leonardo. Ximines, Pedro. Ximines, de Quesada. Ximines, Rodrigo. Ximines, Vincente. Xuares, Gaspar. Xuares, Roderick. Xy lander, Gulielmus. Xylander, J. K. L. von. Yale, Elihu. Yale, Linus. Yancey, William L. Yates, Abraham. Yates, Edmund H. Yates, Peter. Yates, Richard, Gov. Yates, Robert. Yeames, William F., RJL Yell, Archibald, Col. Yeo, J. Burney, M.D. Ye well, George H. Yonge, Charles D., M.A, Yonge, Charlotte M. York, Archbishop of. Youmans, Edward L., M.D. Young, Sir Allen. Young, Brigham. Young, Charles A., LL.P, Young, Lord. Young, Sir John. Young, John Russell. Young, Samuel. Yule, Henry. Zalinski, E. L. G., Capt Zanardelli, Giuseppe. Zeiliu, Jacob, Gen. Zeller, Edward. Zenger, John P. Zetland, Earl of. Zimmermann, Agnes. Zimmern, Helen. Zola, Emile. Zollicoffer, F. K., Gen, Zorrilla, Jos6 Zorrilla, Manuel A. Zukertort, J. H., Dr* AMERICANIZED ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. VOLUME X. T R I T RIBUNE {tribunus) was a name assigned to officers of several different descriptions in the constitution of ancient Rome. The connection of the word with tribus , “tribe,” is obvious. The original tribunes were no doubt the commanders of the several contingents of cavalry and infantry which were supplied to the Roman army by the early gentilician tribes — the Ramnes, the Tities, and the Luceres. In the historical period the infantry in each legion were commanded by six tribunes, and the number six is probably to be traced to the doubling of the three tribes by the incorporation of the new elements which received the names of Ramnes secundi , Tities secundi , Luceres secundi. The tribuni celenmi or commanders of the cavalry no longer existed tn the later times of the republic, having died out with the decay of the genuine Roman cavalry. So long as the monarchy lasted these tribunes were doubtless nom- inated by the commander-in-chief, the king ; and the nomination passed over on the establishment of the re- public to his successors, the consuls. But, as the army increased, the popular assembly insisted on having a voice in the appointments, and from 362 B.C. six trib- unes were annually nominated by popular vote, while in 31 1 the number was raised to sixteen, and in 207 to twenty-four, at which figure it remained. The tribunes thus elected ranked as magistrates of the Roman people, and were designated tribuni militum a popttlo, while those who owed their office to the consuls bore the curious title of tribuni rufuli. The rights of the assembly passed on to the emperors, and “ the military tribunes of Augustus ” were still contrasted with those nominated in the camp by the actual commanders. The obscure designation tribunus (cranus , “tribune of the treasury,” had also, in all probability, a connection with the early organization of the army. The officer thus designated was at any rate the paymaster of the troops, and the soldier who was defrauded of his pay was allowed to exact it from this tribune by a very summary process. But by far the most important tribunes who ever characteristic outcome of the long struggle between the two orders, the patrician and the plebeian. When in 494 b.c. the plebeian legionaries met on the Sacred Mount and bound themselves to stand by each other to the end, it was determined that the plebeians should by themselves annually appoint executive officers to stand over against the patrician officers — two tribunes to con- front the two consuls, and two helpers called sediles to balance the two patrician helpers, the quaestors. The revolution must have ended in something which was deemed by both the contending bodies to be a binding compact, although the lapse of time has blotted out its terms. Yet there must have been a formal acceptance by the patricians of the plebeian conditions ; and most probably the oath which was first sworn by the insut- gents was afterward taken by the whole community, and the “ sacrosanctity ” of the plebeian officials be- came a part of the constitution. There must also have been some constitutional definition of the powers of the tribunes. These rested at first on an extension of the power of veto which the republic had introduced. Just as one consul could annul an act or order of his col- league, so a tribune could annul an act or order of a consul, or of any officer inferior to him. There was no doubt a vague understanding that only acts or orders which sinned against the just and established practice of the constitution should be annulled, and then only in cases affecting definite individuals. The tribune was to give his help against illegality in concrete instances. The cases which arose most commonly concerned the administration of justice and the levying of troops. The tribunes continued to exist till a late period, with gradually vanishing dignity and rights; but it is not necessary here to trace their decay in detail. The name “ tribune ” was once again illuminated by a passing glory when assumed by Cola di Rienzi. The movement which he headed was in many respects ex- tremely like the early movements of the plebeians against the patricians. (.See Rienzi.) TRICHINA, TRICHINOSIS. See Nematoidea existed in the Roman community were the tribunes of | and Parasitism. Trichinae are parasites inhabiting the the commons ( tribuni plebis). These were the most [ structural tissues of animals. 59*9 TRI 5920 TRICHINOPOLI, a district ot British India, in the Madras presidency, lying betweeu io° 37 ' and 1 1° 30' N. latitude and 78° 12 and 79 0 30' E. longitude. Its area is 3,561 square miles. It is bounded on the north and northwest by Salem, on the north and northeast by South Arcot; on the east and southeast by Tanjore, on the south by Pudukottai state and Madura, and on the west by Coimbatore. In 1901 the population of the district was 1,215,033 (males 586,434, females 628,599), of whom Hindus numbered 1,119,434, Mohammedans 34,104, and Christians 58,809. The only town with a population exceeding 10,000 is Trichinopoli, the capital with 104,- 690 inhabitants. This city is chiefly noticeable for its strong fort, perched on a granite peak 500 feet high, And the group of temples and temple buildings situated on and around it. The town next in importance is Srirangam, ( q.v .) The chief crops of the district are rice, cotton, tobacco, indigo, sugar-cane, cocoa-nut, plantain, areca-nnt, and chillies; and the most impor- tant local industries are weaving and the manufacture of cigars. The principal exports are grain of all kinds, especially rice; the imports, tobacco and salt. TRICOLOR, means literally a flag in three colors, but is generally applied to flags of three colors in equal masses. The French tricolor, now the accepted national flag, is blue, white, and red, divided vertically; that of the German Empire is black, white, and red, divided horizontally. Italy’s flag is green, white, and red, divided vertically; the flag of Belgium is black, yellow, and fed, divided vertically. Holland has a red, white, and blue flag, divided horizontally. The tricolor of the United States is blue, white, and red, divided horizon- tally. TRIC TRAC. See Backgammon. TRICYCLE. Though velocipedes were made and used more than 100 years ago, none were practically successful until the brothers Starley constructed in 1876 the Coventry tricycle. One of the earliest descriptions ofa cycle occurs in the Journal de Paris July 17, 1779. Somewhat later M. Richard invented a machine driven by mechanism almost identical with that of the modern omnicycle, but without the expanding segments. Early in the nineteenth century the cranked axle worked by treadles and levers came into fashion ; then the heavy four-wheelers were preferred. All these machines, how- ever, labored under three fatal defects — it was almost impossible to drive them up-hill, to check them in going down-hill, and to prevent their overturning in rounding a corner. It was the success of the early bicycle (see Bicycle) which suggested the belief that a serviceable tricycle could be made. One of these bicycles was specially constructed for ladies, the hind wheel being placed well on one side; but, though it could be ridden, it was not a commercial success. The brothers Starley, by putting a second small wheel in front of the large driving wheel and on the same side as the small hind wheel, gave sta- bility to the machine ; it was steered by turning the small wheels opposite ways, and driven by the large wheel by means of cranks and connecting rods. The same machine with chain driving — the Coventry rotary —is still very largely used. In 1877 James Starley, it is believed without any knowledge of the gear used by Fowler for traction engines, reinvented the same dif- ferential gear for tricycles. By this the same force is, under all circumstances, applied to each of two equal driving wheels, and the evil effects of driving a single wheel are done away with. This gear was used in the Original Salvo tricycle, which is the type of the surest machine at the present day. In the early days of the modern tricycle other designs were carried out, which have now become practically obsolete. In one form the hind wheel of a bicycle vras replaced by a pair of equal wheels, one on each side, but the instability of such » construction was fatal. In another, the Challenge, the two wheels were placed in front of the large driver and turned together to steer the machine ; stability was ob- tained by putting the rider in front of the large wheel and lower down, the power being communicated by cranks and connecting rods. But the weight of this machine and the small proportion of the load on the driving wheel were serious defects. Single-driving rear-steerers were at this time very common, and, though highly objectionable, are still to be seen. Rear-steerers were improved by making both front wheels drivers and allowing for the overrunning of one or the other by clutch, as in the Cheylesmore, or by ratchet driving; but steering by the hind wheel is es- sentially wrong, and these machines are avoided by ex- perienced riders. Rear-steerers have, however, lately been made with a through axle and differential gear (Rover), the rider being placed further back so as to in- crease the load on the steering wheel ; but the evil of rear-steering is only reduced, not removed. The clutch is also employed on some front -steerers ; and, though in certain respects it has an advantage over the differential gear, for general use it is not so suitable. The differen- tial gear is an essential feature of the modern tricycle. In the manufacture of improved tricycles America is far ahead of any other country, large manufactures having sprung up in late years. Machines in which the arms instead of the legs supply the power are made, and are of immense serv- ice to those who have lost the use of their legs. Owing to the inconvenience caused by doorways being often too narrow to allow a tricycle to pass through, many machines are made to fold up into a narrower space or to shut up like a telescope. It is important that the rider should be so placed that he can, without leaning forward, put most of his weigh', on the treadles, and this is more than ever needed as the steepness of an ascent increases, because the slope of the machine has a contrary effect. Sliding seats were arranged for this purpose; but Mr. Warner Jones has made use of a swinging frame which the rider can lock in any position he pleases. It is this same swing- ing frame which gives such comfort to the rider of the Otto bicycle; placing him at all times in the position most suitable T>r the occasion. Carrier tricycles, in which due provision is made for the proper distribution of the load, are largely used by the post office and by tradesmen in their business. The “ Coventry chair” is a kind of bath chair driven as a tricycle by a rider behind. When invalids have over* come a certain prejudice as to the danger of this kind of vehicle, it will no doubt be more generally used. In machines for two riders the riders sit side by side ( sociables ) or one is placed before the other [tandems). Sociable machines are both front-steering and rear- steering. Rear-steerers with each rider driving the wheel on his side only are nearly as objectionable as the single-driving rear-steerer. Front-steering sociables with differential gear are safe and comfortable; but all sociables are slow machines. For nearly every make of single tricycle there is a corresponding tandem. TRIESTE (Germ. Priest, Slav. Trst, Lat. Tergeste). The principal seaport of the Austrian-Hungarian em- pire, is picturesquely situated at the northeast angle of the Adriatic Sea, in the Gulf of Trieste, and at the foot of the barren Karst Hills. The capacious harbor, con- sisting of two parts, the old and the new, is protected by extensive moles and breakwaters, and has been greatly improved within the last ten or fifteen years. T R I From the harbor the Canal Grande extends iulo the town, allowing large vessels to unload at the ware- houses. At the end of the Mole Sta Teresa is a light- house upward of ioo feet high. The population of the town (6,424 in 1758) and district of Trieste in 1901 was 144,844, of whom 94,544 belonged to the town proper, and 134,143 to the town and suburbs. The town pop- ulation is very heterogeneous, but the Italian element far exceeds all the rest. There are about 5,000 Ger- mans, and also numerous Greeks, English, and French. TRIGGER-FISH. See File-Fish. TRIGONOMETRY is primarily the science which is concerned with the measurement of plane and spheri- cal triangles, that is, with the determination of three of the parts of such triangles when the numerical values of the other three parts are given. Since any plane tri- angle can be divided into right-angled triangles, the solution of all plana triangles can be reduced to that of right-angled triangles; moreover, according to the theory of similar triangles, the ratios between pairs of sides of a right-angled triangle depend only upon the magnitude of the acute angles of the triangle, and may, therefore, be regarded as functions of either of these angles. The primary object of trigonometry, therefore, requires a classification and numerical tabulation of these functions of an angular magnitude ; the science is, however, now understood to include the complete inves- tigation not only of such of the properties of these func- tions as are necessary for the theoretical and practical solution of triangles but also of all their analytical properties. It appears that the solution of spherical triangles is effected by means of the same functions as are required in the case of plane triangles. The trigo- nometrical functions are employed in many branches of mathematical and physical science not directly con- cerned with the measurement of angles, and hence arises the importance of analytical trigonometry. The solu- tion of triangles of which the sides are geodesic lines on a spheroidal surface requires the introduction of other functions than those required for the solution of tri- angles on a plane or spherical surface, and therefore gives rise to a new branch of science, which is from analogy frequently called spheroidal trigonometry. Every new class of surfaces which may be considered would have in this extended sense a trigonometry of its own, which would consist of an investigation of the nature and properties of the functions necessary for the measurement of the sides and angles of triangles bounded by geodesics drawn on such surfaces. The Indians, who were much more apt calculators than the Greeks, availed themselves of the Greek geom- etry which came from Alexandria, and made it the basis of trigonometrical calculations. The principal improve- ment which they introduced consists in the formation of tables of half-chords or sines instead of chords. Like the Greeks, they divided the circumference of the circle into 360 degrees or 2 1,600 minutes, and they found the length in minutes of the arc which can be straightened out into the radius to be 3,438'. The value of the ratio of the circumference of the circle to the diameter used to make this determination is 62,832 : 20, 000, or tt == 3. 1416, which value was given by the astronomer, Aryabhata (476-550), in a work called Aryabhatlva , written in verse, which was republished in Sanskrit by Doctor Kern at Leyden in 1874. The Indians did not apply their trigonometrical knowledge to the solution of tri- angles; for astronomical purposes they solved right- angled plane and spherical triangles by geometry. The Arabs were acquainted with Ptolemy’s Almagest, and they probably learned from the Indians the use of the sine. The celebrated astronomer of Batnse, Abu Abdallah Mohammed b. Jabir al-Batt&ni (Bategnius), 5921 who died in 929/930 a. d., and whose Tables were translated in the twelfth century by Plato of Tivoli into Latin, under the title De scientia stellarum , employed the sine regularly, and was fully conscious of the advan- tage of the sine over the chord; indeed, he remarks that the continual doubling is saved by the use of the former. Abu ’ 1 -Wafa of Bagdad was the first to intro- duce the tangent as an independent function ; his “umbra” is the half of the tangent ofthedouble arc, and the secant he defines as the “ diameter umbrae. ” He employed the umbra to find the angle from a table and not merely as an abbreviation for sin / cos; this improve - ment was, however, afterward forgotten, and the tangent was reinvented in the fifteenth century. Ibn Yunos of Cairo, who died in 1008, showed even more skill than Al-Battani in the solution of problems in spherical trig- onometry and gave improved approximate formulae for the calculation of sines. Among the West Arabs, Abu Mohammed Jabir b. Aflah, known as Geberb. Aflah,who lived at Seville in the eleventh century, wrote an astron- omy in nine books, which was translated into Latin in the twelfth century by Gerard of Cremona, and was pub- lished 1534. The first book contains a trigonometry which is a considerable improvement on that in the Almagest. Arrachel, a Spanish Arab, who lived in the twelfth century, wrote a work of which we have an analysis by Purbach, in which, like the Indians, he made the sine and the arc for the value 3 0 45' coincide. Purbach (1423-1461), professor of mathematics at Vienna, wrote a work entitled Tractatus super proposi- tiones Ptolemcei de sinubus et chordis (Nuremberg, 1541). This treatise consists of a development of Arrachel’s method of interpolation for the calculation of tables of sines, and was published by Regiomontanus at the end of one of his works. Johannes Muller (1436- 1476), known as Regiomontanus (q.v.), was a pupil of Purbach and taught astronomy at Padua; he wrote an exposition of the Almagest and a more important work, De triangulis planis et sphericis cum tabulis sinuum, which was published in 1533, a later edition appearingin 1561. He reinvented the tangent and cal- culated a table of tangents for each degree, but did not make any practical applications ofthis table, and did not use formulae involving the tangent. His work was the first complete European treatise on trigonometry, and contains a number of interesting problems ; but his methods were in some respects behind those of the Arabs. Copernicus (1473-1543) gave the first simple demonstration of the fundamental formula of spherical trigonometry; the Trigonometria Copernici was pub- lished by Rheticus in 1542. George Joachim (1514- 1576), known as Rheticus (q.v.), wrote Opus Palati- num de triangulis , which contains tables of sines, tangents, and secants of arcs at intervals of 10” from o° to 90 0 . A new stage in the development of the science was commenced after Napier’s invention of logarithms in 1614. Napier also simplified the solution of spherical triangles by his well-known analogies and by his rules for the solution of right-angled triangles. The first tables of logarithmic sines and tangents were con- structed by Edmund Gunter (1581-1626), professor of astronomy at Gresham College, London ; he was also the first to employ the expressions cosine, cotangent, and cosecant for the sine, tangent, and secant of the complement of an arc. A treatise by Albert Girard (1590-1634), published at The Hague in 1626, contains the theorems which give areas of spherical triangles and polygons, and applications of the properties of the supplementary triangles to the reduction of the numbev of different cases in the solution of spherical triangles. He used the notation sin, tan, sec fQT sine, tangent 5922 T R I and secant of an arc. In tkj second half of the seven- teenth century the theor^ of inhnite series was devel- oped by Wallis, Gregory, Mercator, and afterward by Newton and Leibnitz. In the Analysis per cequationes numero terminorum infinitas, which was written before 1669, Newton gave the series for the arc in powers of its sine; from this he obtained /ie series for the sine and cosine in powers of the arc; but these series were given in such a form that the law of the formation of the coefficients was hidden. James Gregory discovered in 1670 the series for the arc in pov. ers of the tan- gent and for the tangent and secant in powers of the arc. The first of these series was also discovered independently by Leibnitz in 1673, and published without proof in the Acta eruditorum for 1682. The series for the sine in powers of the arc he published in 1693; this he obtained by differentiation of a series with undetermined coefficients. In the eighteenth century the science began to take a more analytical form ; evidence of this is given in the works of Kresa in 1720 and Mayer in 1727. Oppel’s Analysis triangulorum (1746) was the first complete work on analytical trigonometry. None of these mathematicians used the notation sin, cos, tan, which is the more surprising in the case of Oppel, since Euler had in 1744 employed it in a memoir in the Act, a erudi- torum. The greatest advance was, however, made by Euler, who brought the science in all essential respects into the state in which it is at present. He introduced the present notation into general use, whereas until his time the trigonometrical functions had been, except by Girard, indicated by special letters, and had been re- garded as certain straight lines the absolute lengths of which depended on the radius of the circle in which they were drawn. Euler’s great improvement consisted in his regarding the sine, cosine, etc., as functions of the angle only, thereby giving to equations connecting these functions a purely analytical interpretation, instead of a geometrical one as heretofore. The expo- nential values of the sine and cosine, De Moivre’s the- orem, and a great number of other analytical properties of the trigonometrical functions are due to Euler, most of whose writings are to be found in the Memoirs of the St. Petersburg Academy. For the various formu- lae and operations connected with the science the reader is referred to any standard work on the subject. TRILOBITES. See Crustacea. TRILOGY, the name given by the Greeks to a group of three tragedies, either connected by a common sub- ject or each representing a distinct story. Of the classic trilogy the most perfect specimen is the Oresteia of iEschylus. The three comedies of Beaumarchais form a comic trilogy, Schiller’s Wallenstein is a tril- ogy, and of the modern the most famous is that of Swinburne, made up of Chastelard, Bothwell, and Mary Stuart. TRINCOMALEE, a town and naval station in the island of Ceylon, is situated on the northeast coast — which is bold, rocky, and picturesquely wooded — by road 1 13 miles north-northeast of Kandy, in 8° 33' 30" N. latitude and 8i° 13' 10" E. longitude. There is an admiralty dockyard, and the town is the principal naval station in the Indian seas. The breadth of the streets and esplanades somewhat atones for the mean appear- ance of the houses, but the town generally has a gloomy and impoverished aspect. Pearl oysters are found in the lagoon of Tambalagam to the west of the bay. The government buildings include the barracks, the public offices and residences of the civil and naval authorities, and the official house of the officer com- manding-in-chief in the Indian seas. There is a hos- pital and outdoor dispensary, and also a friend-in-need society. The population of Trincomalee in 1901 was 13,180. TRINIDAD, a West Indian island, lying northeast of Venezuela, between io° 3' and io° 50' N. lati- tude and 6i° 39' and 62° W. longitude, being the most southern of the chain of islands separating the At- lantic from the Caribbean Sea. Its area is 1, 754 square miles, or nearly 1,123,000 acres. In shape the island is almost rectangular, but from its northwest and south- west corners project two long horns toward Venezuela, inclosing the Gulf of Paria. The northwest horn ter- minates in several islands, in one of the channels be- tween which (the Boca Grande) lies the small British island of Patos. The general aspect of Trinidad is level. Three parallel ranges, varying from 600 to 3, 100 feet in height and clothed with forests, run from east to west. The plains are watered by numerous streams, and the mountains are deeply furrowed by innumerable ravines. The rivers fallinginto thegulf are somewhat obstructed by shallows, especially the Caroni and the Couva. The soil, which is fertile, consists of clay, loam, and alluvial deposits. The Moriche palm and mountain cabbage, as well as the cedar and the balata, are prominent objects. Poisonous and medicinal plants grow everywhere, and the woods contain an inexhaustible supply of timber. There are two mineral springs. The most curious natural feature of the island is the pitch lake in La Brea, ninety acres in extent, which furnishes an important export. The climate is healthy, the mean temperature being in January 76° Fahr. and in September 79 0 ; it occasionally reaches 90 0 . The population, which numbered 109,638 in 1871, was returned in 1 881 at 153, 128 (83, 716 males and 69,- 412 females), and in 1901 at 253,250. Of the total area about 300,000 acres are cultivated. The principal pro- ductions of the island are sugar and cocoa; coffee is also becoming important. Trinidad has suffered much from the effect of foreign state bounties, especially the export premiums of Germany and France. The prin- cipal towns are connected by railway lines. Trinidad was discovered by Columbus on July 31, 1496. It remained in Spanish possession (although its principal town, San Jose deOruna, was burned by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1595) until 1797, when a British ex- pedition from Martinique caused its capitulation, andit was finally ceded to Great Britain in 1802 by the treaty of Amiens. Its real starting-point as a productive country was in 1871, when the Madrid Government be- gan to attract foreign immigrants. Trinidad is still strictly a crown colony of Great Britain. The legislat- ive council includes the governor as president, and six official and eight unofficial members, all appointed by the crown. During the labor crisis caused by eman- cipation and the subsequent equalization of the Brit- ish duties on free and slave-grown sugar, the colony was greatly assisted by the skillful administration of Lord Harris, governor from 1846 to 1851. TRINIDAD, the capital of Las Animas county, Colo., situated on the Las Animas or Purgatory river almost at the base of the Raton Mountains, is the center of arich farming and grazing country, and in the immediate vicinity of extensive coal mines from the products of which a superior quality of coke is manu- factured. Trinidad is connected with Denver, 210 miles to the north, by the Denver and Rio Grande railroad and with Kansas City and the east by way of the southern extension of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe road. It is a growing and prosperous city, fully up to the requirements of the times, and rapidly growing in prominence and influence. The city is supplied with the latest improved electric light and street railway systems, thoroughly equipped and managed, also with TRI jne savings and two national banks, three daily and fwo weekly papers in addition to one monthly publica- tion, five churches, an academy, an institute, several graded schools, hotels, etc., also machine shops, found- ries, iron works, smelting and reduction works, lum- ber and planing mills, broom and cigar factories, brew- eries, etc. The population, which was 2,226 in 1880, was in 1900 estimated at 5,345. TRINITARIANS ( Ordo Sanctee Trinitatis et Cap- torufn), a religious order instituted about the year 1197 by Innocent III., at the instance of John de Matha (1160-1213) and Felix de Valois [off. 1212), for the ran- som of captives among the Moors and Saracens. The rule was the Augustinian, the dress white with a red and blue cross. De Matha was the first general and De Valois the first abbot of the mother house at Cerf- froid, near Meaux, where the idea of the institution had originated in a miraculous apparition. In the eighteenth century they had in all about 300 houses ; but the order is now almost extinct. TRINITY, The doctrine of the, is the highest and most mysterious doctrine of the Christian religion. It declares that there are three persons in the Godhead, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, and that these three are the same in substance, equal in power and in glory; one Eternal God. The Athanasian Creed asserts the Catholic faith to be that we worship one God as Trinity, and Trinity as in Unity, neither tonfounding the persons nor dividing the substance, for there is one person of the Father, another of the Son, and another of the Holy Ghost, but the Godhead of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost is all one, the glory equal, and the majesty co-eternal. It is admitted that the doctrine is not given in its fully developed form in the Scriptures, and no doctrine has given rise to so much discussion within the Christian Church. It was not until the third century that any attempt at formulating the doctrine was made, but in the Nicene Creed the Church defined the relation of the Son to the Father, and later in the Niceno-Constantino- politan Creed, the relation of the Spirit to the Father. A further clause, “ filidquej * was added afterward to determine the procession of the Spirit from the Son as well as the Father, but this was never accepted by the Eastern Church. The doctrine of the Trinity, in its entirety, is accepted not only by the Roman Catholic Church, but also by the great Protestant communions, the only exception being the Unitarians and some of the so-called liberal faiths. TRINITY, a river of Texas, which flows into Gal- veston bay about forty miles north of the city of Galves- ton. It is navigable for small boats for more than 300 miles. TRINITY, a river of California, which rises in the Coast range and flows into the Klamath river. TRINITY COLLEGE, Cambridge, England, was founded by King Henry VIII. in 1546 and is one of the most important colleges of the University. Among the noted men, who have been students and tutors at Trinity, must be reckoned General Whitgift, Doctor Barrows, Doctor Bentley, William Whewell, Francis, Lord Verulam, Sir Edward Coke, Cowley, the poet, and Lord Byron. TRINITY COLLEGE, Oxford, was founded by Henry VIII., and fills an important place in the list of Oxford institutions of learning. TRINITY HOUSE, Corporation of. An asso- ciation of English mariners, which originally had its headquarters at Deptford in Kent. In its first charter, received from Henry VIII. in 1514, it was described as the “guild or fraternity of the most glorious and andividaole Trinity of St. Clement,” the court being 5923 made to consist of master, wardens, and assistants, num bering thirteen in all and elected annually by the brethren. Deptford having been made a royal dock yard by Henry VIII., and being the station where out going ships were supplied with pilots, the corporation rapidly developed its influence and usefulness. B) Henry VIII. it was intrusted with the direction of the new naval dockyard. From Elizabeth, who conferred on it a grant of arms in 1573, it received authority to erect beacons and other marks for the guidance of navigators along the coasts of England. It was also recognized as the authority in the construction of vessels for the royal navy. By an Act of 1836 they received powers to pur« chase from the crown, as well as from private pra prietors, all interests in coast lights. For the mainte nance of lights, buoys, etc., they had power to raise money by tolls, the surplus being devoted to the relief of old and indigent mariners or their near relatives. In 1853 the control of the funds collected by the corporation was transferred to the Board of Trade, and the money over which the brethren were allowed independent control was ultimately reduced to the private income derived from funded and trust property. Their practical duties in the erection of lighthouses, buoys, and beacons remain as important as ever, the number of persons employed in their service being over 800. They also examine navigating lieutenants in the royal navy, and act as nautical advisers in the high Court of Admiralty TRINITY SUNDAY, which immediately follows Whitsunday, was in the older liturgies regarded, merely as the “ Octave ” of Pentecost. The habit of keeping it as a distinct festival seems to have sprung up about the eleventh century. According to Gervase oil Canterbury, it was Thomas Becket who introduced ifi into England in 1162. The universal observance of was established by Pope John XXII. in 1334. TRIO, in music, is a piece for three voices. TRIPLE ALLIANCE, a name given to two different treaties well known in history. The first was concluded in 1688 between England and Holland and Sweden, its object being the protection of the Nether- lands. The second was made between Great Britain, France and Holland against Spain, and guaranteed the Protestant succession in England, and that of the Duke of Orleans in France. TRIPLET, in music, is when a note is divided into three parts instead of two, as when a minim is divided into three crotchets, or a crotchet into three quavers^ the group is called a triplet. TRIPOD, from the Latin tripos , threefooted. Any table or article of furniture supported by three feet TRIPOLI, a North African state, bounded by the Mediterranean on the north, by the desert of Barca (or Libyan Desert), which separates it from Egypt, on the east, by the Sahara and Fezzan on the southeast, south* and southwest, and by Tunis on the northwest. The country is made up of a strip of fertile soil adjacent tc the sea, with vast sandy plains and parallel chains of rocky mountains, which finally join the Atlas range near Kairwan, in Tunis. It is naturally divided into five parts, viz. — Tripoli proper, to the northeast of which is the plateau of Barca and Jebel al-Akhdar, to the south the oasis of Fezzan, to the southeast that of Aujala, and to the southwest that of Ghadames. It is very badly watered; the rivers are small, and the desert wells and watering places are often dry. As regaids the coast, it is extremely difficult to fix the exact border between Egypt and Tripoli. The seaboard of the Libyan Desert is so little known to Europeans that the spacious harbors of Tebruk (Tabraca and Tabarka) and Bomba (Bombsea) have almost escaped notice. The land bordering the sea to the west of Cape R&s al-Tfa*. TRI 5924 does not partake of the sterile character of the wastes of Barca. The district of Jebel al-Akhdar (“ the Green Mountain ”), which intervenes between Ras al-Tin and Benghazi, abounds in wood, water and other resources; but its ports are scarcely worthy of the name, except Derna (Darnis), where vessels from Alexandria call to embark honey, wool, and wax. From Mersa Suza (Apollonia, later Sozusa), now a mere boat cove, but once a powerful city of Cyrenaica, to Benghazi, the coast abounds in extensive ruins. Benghazi itself, on the Bay of Sidra (Syrtis Major), is an insignificant fortified town trading in cattle and other produce. The princi- pal products of the country are corn, barley, olives, saf- fron, figs, and dates — these last being perhaps the finest in the whole of North Africa. Fruit also is abun- dant in certain parts, and so are many kinds of veg- etables. The horses and mules, though small, are capa- ble of much hard work. The native tissues and pottery are almost as good as those of Tunis. Great quantities of castor oil come from Tadjura. In conse- quence of recent events in Tunis, Tripoli has become the last surviving center of the caravan trade to North- ern Africa. It is at least 250 miles nearer the great marts of the interior than either Tunis or Algiers. A large proportion of the commerce of Tripoli is in the hands of British merchants or dealers in British goods, who send cloth, cutlery, and cotton fabrics southward, and receive in return esparto-grass, ivory, and ostrich feathers. The population of the country consists of Moors, Arabs, Kabyles, Kuluglis (descendants ofTurk- ish fathers and Moorish mothers), Turks, Jews, Euro- E eans, and Negroes. Nothing like a census has ever een attempted, and the number of inhabitants is pure- ly a matter of conjecture. In the interior the popula- tion is very scattered, and it is not probable that the total exceeds from 800,000 to 1,000,000. The Euro- peans (2,500 or 3,000) on the coast are nearly all Maltese. There is a Jewish colony of about 4,000 in the capital, and the trade is almost entirely in their hands and in those of the Maltese. Since 1835 Tripoli has lost the semi-independent character of a regency which it formerly enjoyed in common with Tunis, and has become a vilayet or out- lying province of the Turkish empire. For adminis- trative purposes it is divided into five districts, which are again subdivided into twenty-five cantons, the former being governed by motasarrifs and the latter by caimacams. Each village has its sheikh, who is assisted by a sort of municipal council. Since the invasion of Tunis by the French, the Turkish garrison of Tripoli has been considerably reinforced, and many new fortifi- cations are partially erected on the coast. The chief judge or cadi is nominated by the Pcrte; the muftis are subject to his authority. There are also a criminal court and a commercial tribunal. The taxes are col- lected by a receiver-general, also nominated from Con- stantinople, and they press very heavily on all classes of the inhabitants. The principal sources of revenue are the usual Mohammedan taxes. The constant suc- cession of Turkish governors, each of whom invariably follows a different policy from that of his predecessor, has been fatal to the material progress of the country. There are few elementary schools in the capital, and in- struction in the interior is entirely limited to the Koran. Tripoli, the capital of the above country, is situated in 32 0 53' 40" N. latitude and 13 0 n' 32" E. longitude, on a promontory stretching out into the Mediterranean and forming a small bay. The streets are narrow, dirty, and unpaved; there is no European quarter properly so called: Tripoli is still a typical Moorish city. Its population numbers about 20,000. TRIPOLI LTardbuius ), a town of Syria* capital of Liwa, on the river Kadisha or Abu ‘All, in 34 0 26' N latitude and 35 0 50' E. longitude, is situated in a. fertile maritime plain covered with orchards and dominated by a castle overhanging a gorge of the river, some parts of which are, perhaps, the work of the crusaders. The port (Al-Mind) is about two miles distant, on a small peninsula. The population is estimated at 17,000, with the port at 24,000 or a little more. TRIPOLITZA, officially Tripolis, a town of Greece, capital of the nomarchy of Arcadia, is situated in a plain 3,000 feet above sea- level, twenty-two miles southwest of Argos. The name has reference to the three ancient cities of Mantinea, Pallantium, and Tegea, of which Tripolitza is the modern representative. Before the war of independence it was the capital of the Morea and the seat of a pasha, with about 20,000 inhabitants; but in 1821 it was taken and sacked by the insurgents, and m 182 1 ; its ruin was completed by Ibrahim Pasha. The town has since been rebuilt, and in 1900 con- tained about 12,000 inhabitants. TRISMEGISTUS. See Hermes Trismegistus. TRISTAN. A hero of Arthurian romance. TRISTAN DA CUNHA, a group of three small volcanic islands, situated in the South Atlantic nearly midway between the Cape of Good Hope and the coast of South America, the summit of the largest being in 37 ° 5 * 5 ° ,; S. latitude and 12 0 16' 40" W. longitude. They rise from the low submarine elevation which runs down the center of the Atlantic and on which are like- wise situated Ascension, St. Paul’s Rocks, and the Azores. The prevailing winds are westerly. December to March is the fine season. The climate is mild and on the whole healthy, the temperature averaging 68° Fahr. in summer, 55 0 in winter — sometimes falling to 40°. Rain is frequent ; hail and snow fall occasionally on the lower grounds. The sky is usually cloudy. The islands have a cold and barren appearance. The tide rises and falls about four feet. The islands were discovered and named by the Portu- guese in 1506. The Dutch described them in 1643. D’Etcheverri landed on them in the year 1 767, when he gave Nightingale and Inaccessible Islands their names. Their exact geographical position was determined by Captain Denham in 1852, and the Challenger com- pleted the exploration of the group in 1873. When first discovered the islands were uninhabited. Toward the end of the eighteenth and in the beginning of the nineteenth century several sealers resided on them for longer or shorter periods. In 1816 the islands were taken possession of by Great Britain. In 1817 the gar- rison was withdrawn, but Corporal William Glass, his wife and family, and two men were allowed to remain. This small colony received additions from time to time from shipwrecks, from whalers, and from the Cape of Good Hope. In 1826 there were seven men and two women besides children. In 1873 there were eighty- four inhabitants, in 1886 ninety-seven. They possess cattle, sheep, and geese. There are usually good potato crops. The settlement has always been on the flat stretch of land on the northwest of Tristan, and is called Edinburgh. Two Germans lived for several years on Inaccessible Island, but with this exception there have been no settlements either on this or on Nightingale Island. TRITON. The genus Triton was constituted by Laurenti, in his Synopsis Reptilium, and the name was adopted by nearly all writers on Amphibia. In Brit. Mus. Cat.: Batrachia Gradientia, by G. A. Boulenger, the genus is expanded and called by the name Molge . which was used by Merrem in his Tentamen Syst. Amphibia , 1820. The genus belongs to the division fecodanta of the family Saiamandrida in Strauchh TRI. classification (see Amphibia). The definition of Molge given by Boulenger, which closely agrees with that of Triton adopted by Strauch, is as follows: Tongue free along the sides, adherent or somewhat free posteriorly. Palatine teeth in two straight or slightly curved series. Fronto-squamosalarch present (except in M. cr is tat us), ligamentous or bony. Toes five. Tail compressed. In Bell’s British Reptiles , four species were described as oc- curring in Britain. According to Boulenger, there are only three British species, Molge cristata, Boul. (Lau- renti), M. vulgaris , Boul. (Linn.), and M. palmata , Boul. (Schneider). Boulenger recognizes nineteen species of Molge, of which thirteen are European. Only two species occur in America. Strauch gives twenty species. TRIUMPH, an honor awarded to generals in ancient Rome for decisive victories over foreign enemies; for victories in civil war or over rebels a triumph was not allowed. The triumph consisted of a solemn procession, which, starting, from the Campus Martius outside the city walls, passed through the city to the Capitol. Rome was en fete, the streets gay with garlands, the temples open. The procession was headed by the mag- istrates and senate, who were followed by trumpeters and then by the spoils, which included not only arms, stand- ards, statues, etc., but also representations of battles, and of the towns, rivers, and mountains of the conquered country, models of fortresses, etc. Next came the vic- tims destined for sacrifice, especially white oxen with gilded horns. They were followed by the prisoners who n ad not been sold as slaves but kept to grace the triumph; they were put to death when the procession reached the Capitol. The chariot which carried the victorious gen- eral (triumphator) was crowned with laurel and drawn by four horses. The general was attired like the Cap- itoline Jupiter in robes of purple and gold borrowed from the treasury of the god; in his right hand he held a laurel branch, in his left an ivory scepter with an eagle at the point. Above his head the golden crown of Jup- iter was held by a slave who reminded him in the midst of his glory that he was a mortal man. Last came the soldiers shouting Io triumphe and singing songs both of a laudatory and scurillous kind. On reaching the tem- ple of Jupiter on the Capitol, the general placed the laurel branch (in later times a palm branch) on the lap of the image of the god, and then offered the thank offerings. A feast of the magistrates and senate, and sometimes of the soldiers and people, concluded the ceremony. TRIUMVIRATE, in Latin, “composed of three,” the name given in Roman history to the private league entered into between Pompey, Crassus and Caesar. It is applied with greater accuracy to the division of the Roman Government between Augustus, Mark Antony, and Lepidus in the civil wars that followed the murder of Caesar. TRIVANDRUM, a town of India, capital of the native state of Travancore (q.v.), is situated in 8° if 3" N. latitude and 76° 59' 9" E. longitude, near the coast, not far from Cape Comorin. It is the residence of the maharajah, and contains an observatory and a museum, besides several other fine buildings. Com- mercially it is inferior in importance to Aleppi, the trade center of the state. In 1901 it had a population of 40,652. TKOAD and TROY. The Troad [fj TpyaS), or land of Troy, is the northwestern promontory of Asia Minor. The name “Troad” is never used by Homer —who calls the land, like the city, Tpoirj — but is known to Herodotus. The Troad is bounded on the north by the Hellespont and the westernmost part of the Propontis, on the west by the Ege an Sea, and on -TRO 5925 the south by the Gulf of Adramyttium. The eastern limit was variously defined by ancient writers. In the widest acceptation, the Troad was identified with the whole of western and southwestern Mysia, from the Esepus, which flows into the Propontis a little west of Cyzicus, to the Caicus, which flows into the E gean south of Atarneus. But the true eastern boundary is undoubtedly the range of Ida, which, starting from near the southeast angle of the Adramyttian Gulf, sends its northwestern spurs nearly to the coast of the Propontis, in the region west of the Esepus and east of the Grani- cus. Taking Ida for the eastern limit, we have the definition which, as Strabo says, best corresponds with the actual usage of the name Troad. Ida is the key tc the physical geography of the whole region; and it ii the peculiar character which this mountain-system im- parts to the land west of it that constitutes the real dis- tinctness of the Troad from the rest of Mysia. In the Homeric legend, with which the story of the Troad begins, the people called the Troes are ruled by a king Priam, whose realm includes all that is bounded by “Lesbos, Phrygia, and the Hellespont” (II., xxiv. 544), i.e.y the whole “ Troad,” with some extension of it, beyond Ida, on the northwest. According to H omer, the Achseans under Agamemnon utterly and finally de- stroyed Troy, the capital of Priam, and overthrew his dynasty. A new period in the history of the Troad begins with the foundation of the Greek settlements. The earliest and most important of these were Eolic. Lesbos and Cyme in Eolis seem to have been the chief points from which the first Eolic colonists worked then: way into the Troad. Among the Greek towns in the Troad, three stand out with especial # prominence — Ilium in the north, Assus in the south, and* Alexandria Troas in the west. The site of the Greek Ilium is marked by the low mound of Hissarlik (“ place of fortresses”) in the Trojan plain, about three miles from the Hellespont. The early Greek settlers in the Troad naturally loved to take Homeric names for their towns. The fact that Homer places the town of Dardania far inland on the slopes of Ida, did not hinder the founders of the Eolic Dardanus from giving that name to their town on the shores of the Hellespont. The site of the historical Thymbra, again, cannot be reconciled withthat^of the Homeric Thymbra. Similarly, the choice of the name Ilion in no way justi- fies the assumption that the Greek settlers found that spot identified by tradition with the site of the town which Homer calls Uios. It does not even warrant the hypothesis that they found a shrine of Athene Ilias ex* isting there. For them, it would be enough that the sounding name could be safely appropriated — the true site of Homeric Ilias being forgotten or disputed — and that their town was at least in the neighborhood of the Homeric battlefields. The Greek Ilium may have been founded about 700 B.C. At the beginning of the sec* ond century B.C. Ilium was in a state of decay. As Demetrius of Scepsis tells us, the houses “ had not even roofs of tiles,” but merely of thatch. Such a loss of prosperity is sufficiently explained by the incursions ol the Gauls and the insecure state of the Troad during the latter part of the third century. The temple of the Ilian Athene, however, retained its prestige. A disas- ter befell the place in 85 B.C., when Fimbria took it, and left it in ruins; but Sulla caused it to be rebuilt. Augustus, while confirming its ancient privileges, gave it new territory. Caracalla (211-217 A.D. ) visited Ilium, and like Alexander paid honors to the tomb of Achilles. The latest coins found on the site are those of Constan- tius II. (337-361). In the fourth century, as some rhetorical “Letters” of that age show, the Ilians still TRO 5926 did a profitable trade in attracting tourists by their pseudo-Trojan memorials. After the fourth century the place is lost to view. But we find from Constantine Porphyrogenitus (91 1-959) that in his day it was one of the places in the Troad which gave names to bishoprics. While the Greek Ilium at Hissarlik owed its im- portance to a sham pretension, which amused sight- seers and occasionally served politicians, Assus, on the south coast, has an interest of a more genuine kind, and is, indeed, a better type of ancient town life in the Troad. Assus affords the only harbor on the fifty miles of coast between Cape Lectum and the east end of the Adramyttian Gulf; hence it must always have been the chief shipping place for the exports of the southern Troad. Too much off the highways to become a center of import trade, it was thus destined to be a commercial town, content with a modest provincial pros- perity. The great natural strength of the site protected it against petty assailants; but, like other towns in that region, it has known many masters — Lydians, Persians, the kings of Pergamum, Romans, and Ottoman Turks. From the Persian wars to about 350 B.C. Assus enjoyed at least partial independence. Under its Turkish name of Beihram, Assus is still the commercial port of the southern Troad, being the place to which loads of valonia (acorn-cups for tanning) are conveyed by camels from all parts of the country. The recent excavations at Assus, conducted by explorers representing the Archaeological Institute of America, have yielded results far more valuable for the history of Greek art and archi- tecture than any excavations yet undertaken in the Troad. The sculptures form one of the most important links yet discovered between Oriental and early Greek art, especially in respect of the types of animals. Alexan- dria Troas stood on the west coast at nearly its middle point, a little south of Tenedos. It was built by Antigonus, perhaps about 310 B.c.,andwas called by him Antigonia Troas. Early in the next century the name was changed by Lysimachus to Alexandria Troas, in honor of Alexander’s memory. As the chief port of northwest Asia Minor, the place prospered greatly in Roman times, and the existing remains sufficiently attest its former importance. The site is now called Eski Stambub. The modern discussion as to the site of Homeric Troy maybe considered as dating from Lechevalier’s visits to the Troad in 1785-86. Homer describes Troy as “a great town,” “with broad streets,” and with a high acropolis, or “Pergamus,” rising above it, from which precipitous rocks descend abruptly to the plain beneath. These are the precipices over which the Trojans proposed to hurl the wooden horse, “ when they had dragged it to the summit.” Homer marks the character of the acropolis by the epithets “lofty,” “windy,” and more forcibly still by “beetling.” One site in the Trojan plain, and one only satisfies this most essential condition. It is the hill at its southern edge called the Bali Dagh, above the village of Bunarbashi. It has a height of about 400 feet, with sheer precipices descending on the south and southwest to the valley of the Scamander (Mendere). Remains found upon it — though it has never yet been thoroughly explored— show it to have been the site of an ancient city. The result of the excavations conducted by Doctor Schliemann on the mound of Hissarlik has been to lay bare the remains of the Greek Ilium, and also, below these, some prehistoric remains of a rude and poor kind. In Troy , his first book on the subject, the explorer held that the remains of the Greek Ilium ceased at a depth of six feet below the surface, and that all the other remains, down to fifty-two and one-half feet, were prehistoric. He distinguished the latter into five groups, represent- ing five prehistoric “ cities ” which had succeeded each other on the site ; and in his second work, II ios , he added to these a sixth prehistoric city, on the strength of some scanty vestiges of supposed Lydian workman- ship, found at a depth of six and one-half feet. In both books, Homeric Troy was identified with the third prehistoric city from the bottom, which was supposed to have been destroyed, though not totally, by fire. In Doctor Schliemann’s third volume, Troja , Troy was identified, no longer with the third city, but with the second, of which the supposed area was now enlarged. We can no longer either prove or disprove that these prehistoric remains are those of a town which was once taken after a siege, and which originally gave rise to the legend of Troy. But most certainly it is not the “ lofty ” Troy of which the Homeric poet was thinking when he embodied the legend in the Iliad. The conception of Troy which dominates the Iliad is based on the site at Bunarbashi, and suits no other. The Iliad makes it clear that the general description of the Trojan plain was founded on accurate knowledge. At this day all the essential Homeric features can be recognized. And it is probable that the poet who created the Troy of the Iliad knew, personally or by description, a strong town on the Bali Dagh above Bunarbashi. The legend of the siege may or may not have arisen from an older town at Hissarlik, which had then disappeared. The poet might naturally place his Troy in a position like that of the existing strong city on the Bali Dagh, giving it a “ beetling ” acropolis and handsome buildings, while he also reproduced the general course of the rivers and that striking feature — an indelible mark of the locality— the natural springs at the foot of the hill, just beyond the city gates on the northwest. But, while he thus imagined his Troy in the general likeness of the town on the Bali Dagh, he would retain the privilege of a poet who was adorning an ancient legend, and whose theme was a city that had long ago vanished. Instead of feel- ing bound to observe a rigorous accuracy of local detail, he would rather feel impelled to avoid it ; he would use his liberty to introduce some traits borrowed from other scenes known to him, or even from imagination. TROGLODYTES {rpooWodvrai) a Greek word meaning “cave-dwellers.” Caves have been widely used as human habitations both in prehistoric and in historic times (see Cave), and ancient writers speak of Troglodytes in various parts of the world, as in Moesia near the lower Danube (Strabo, vii. 5, p. 318), in the Caucasus (Id., xi. 5, p. 506), but especially in various parts of Africa from Libya (Id., xvii. 3, p. 828) to the Red Sea. Herodotus (iv. 183) tells of a race of Troglodyte Ethiopians in inner Africa, very swift of foot, living on lizards and creeping things, and with a speech like the screech of an owl. The Garamantes hunted them for slaves. It has been supposed that these Troglodytes may be Tibbus, who still in part are cave-dwellers. Aristotle also {Hist. An. , vii. 12) speaks of a dwarfish race of Troglodytes on the upper course of the Nile, who possessed horses and were in his opinion the Pygmies of fable. But the best known of these African cave-dwellers were the inhabitants of the “Troglodyte country” on the coast of the Red Sea, who reached as far north as the Greek port of Berenice. TROGON, a word apparently first used as English by Shaw {Mus. Leverianum , p. 177) in 1792, and now for many years accepted as the general name of certaiii birds forming the Family Trogonidce of modern omi thology, the species Trogon curucui of Linnaeus being its type. The Trogons are birds of moderate size* the smallest | ie hardly bigger than a Thrush and the largest less TRO bulky than a Crow, in most of them the bill is very ■wide at the gape, which is invariably beset by recurvea bristles. They seize most of their food, whether cater- pillars or fruits, on the wing, though their alar power is not exceptionally great, their flight being described as short, rapid, and spasmodic. Their feet are weak and of a unique structure, the second toe, which in most birds is the inner anterior one, being reverted, and thus the Trogons stand alone, since in all other birds that have two toes before and two behind it is the outer toe that is turned backward. The plumage is very remark- able and characteristic. There is not a species which has not beauty beyond most birds, and the glory of the group culminates in the Quezal, (q.v. ) But in others golden green and steely blue, rich crimson and tender pink, yellow varying from primrose to amber, vie with one another in vivid coloration, or contrasted, as hap- pens in many species, with a warm tawny or a somber slaty gray — to say nothing of the delicate freckling of black and white, as minute as the markings of a moth’s wing — the whole set off by bands of white, producing an effect hardly equaled in any group. It rs impossible within brief space to describe its glowing tints; but the plumage is further remarkable for the large size of its contour feathers, which are extremely soft and so loosely seated as to come off in scores at a touch, and there is no down. The tail is generally a very characteristic feature, the rectrices, though in some cases pointed, being often curiously squared at the tip, and when this is the case they are usually barred ladder-like with white and black. The Trogons form a very well-marked Family, be- longing to the multifarious group treated in the present series of articles as Picarice. While they chiefly abound, and have developed their climax of magnificence, in the tropical parts of the New World, they yet occur in the tropical parts of the Old. About sixty species of Trogons are recognized, which Gould in the second edition of his Monograph of the Family (1875) divides into seven genera ; but their characters are hardly laid down. Pharomacrus , Euptilotis , and Trogon inhabit the mainland of tropical America, no species passing to the northward of the Rio Grande nor southward of the forest district of Brazil, while none occur on the west coast of Peru or Chili. Prionotelus and Tmeto - irogon. each with one species, are peculiar respectively to Cuba and Hispaniola, The African form Hapalo - derma has two species, one found only on the west coast, the other of more general range. The Asiatic Trogons, Harpactes (with eleven species according to the same authority), occur from Nepal to Malacca, in Ceylon, and in Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, while one species is peculiar to some of the Philippine Islands. TROGUS, Cn. Pompeius, a Roman historian, nearly contemporary with Livy. Although the epitome of his historical writings by Justin, and a few fragments, are all that have come down to us, there is abundant reason to believe that he deserves a place in the history ©f Roman literature by the side of Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus. Of his life little is known. He was almost certainly of Greek descent. He wrote, after Aristotle and Theophrastus, books on the natural history of animals and plants, used by the elder Pliny, who calls Trogus “one of the most precise among authorities” ( 1 auctor ipse e sever is simis). But the principal work of Trogus consisted of forty-four Libri Historiarum Philippicamm. This was a great history of the world, or rather of those portions of it which came under the sway of Alexander and his successors. For the ancient history of the East, Trogus, even in the present muti- lated state of his historical work, often proves to be an authority of great importance. 5927 TROITSK, a dbtrict town of Russia, in the govern- ment of Orenburg, situated in a fertile steppe 392 miles to the northeast of Orenburg, on the Siberian highway, is one of those towns which have grown rapidly of late in the southeast of Russia. Cotton, silk, and especially horses and cattle, are imported, while leather, cotton, and woolen and metal wares are exported. An active trade in corn for the L ral gold mines is carried on. The population in 1898 was 15,000. TROLLOPE, Anthony, English novelist, was born in Keppel street, Russell square, London, accord- ing to most authorities, on April 24, 1815; in his own Autobiography he merely gives the year. Trollope’s mother, Frances Milton, according to her son, was nearly thirty when she married, in 1809. By her hus- band’s wish, she made a strange journey to America in 1827, for the purpose of setting up a kind of fancy shop in Cincinnati, which failed utterly. Her visit, however, furnished her with the means of writing The Domestic Planners of the Americans. For some time Mrs. Trollope wrote chiefly travels; but she soon be- came known as a novelist, and was very industrious. Her novels, the best of which are probably The Vicar of Wrexhill and The Widow Barnaby , are now rarely read. Anthony Trollope was the third son. By his own account, few Englishmen of letters have had an unhap- pier childhood and youth. In August, 1841, he ob- tained the appointment of clerk to one of the post-office surveyors in a remote part of Ireland. Trollope had always dreamt of novel-writing, and his Irish experiences seemed to supply him with promising subjects. With some assistance from his mother he got his first two books, The Macdermots of Ballycloran and The Kellys and the O' Kellys, published, the one in 1847, the other the next year. But neither was in the least a success, though the second, perhaps, deserved to be; and a third, La Vende'e , which followed in 1850, besides being a much worse book than either, was an equal failure. Trollope made various other literary attempts, but for a time ill-fortune attended all of them. Meanwhile he was set on anew kind of post-office work, which suited him even better than his former employ- ment — a sort of roving commission to inspect rural post deliveries and devise their extension, first in Ireland, then throughout the west of England and South Wales. It was during this work that he struck the vein which gave him fortune and fame — which might perhaps have given him more fame and not much less fortune if he had not worked it so hard — by conceiving The Warden. This was published in 1855. It brought him little immediate profit, nor was even Barchester Towers , which followed, very profitable, though it contains his freshest, his most original, and, with the exception of The Last Chronicle of Barset, his best work. The two made him a reputation, however, and, in 1858, he was able, for the first time, to sell a novel, The Three Clerks , for a substantial sum, £250 ($1,250). A journey on post-office business to the West Indies gave him material for a book of travel, The West Indies and the Spanish Main , which he frankly and quite truly acknowledges to be much better than some subsequent work of his in the same kind. From this time his production (mainly of novels) was incessant, and the sums which he received were very large, amounting to nearly £70,000 ($350,000) in the twenty years between 1859 ar >d I ^ 79 - All these particulars are given with great minuteness by himself, and are characteristic. The full high tide of his fortunes began when the Cornhill Magazine was established in the autumn of 1859. He was asked at short notice to write a novel, and wrote Ft;amley Parsonage, which was extremefy popular ; two hovels immediately preceding TRO 5928 it, The Bertrams and Castle Richmond , had been much less successful. A life thus spent could not be very eventful, and its events maybe summed up rapidly. In 1858 he went to Egypt also on post-office business, and, at the end of 1859, he got himself transferred from Ireland to the eastern district of England. Here he took a house at Waltham. He took an active part in the establishment of The Fortnightly Review in 1865 ; he was editor of St. Paul's for some time after 1867; and, at the end of that year, he resigned his position in the post-office. He stood for Beverley and was defeated; he received from his old department special missions to America and elsewhere (he had already gone to America in the midst of the Civil Waf). He went to Australia in 1871, and, before going, broke up his household at Waltham. When he returned he established himself in London, and lived there till 1880, when he removed to Harting on the confines of Sussex and Hampshire. He had visited South Africa in 1877, and traveled elsewhere. On November 3, 1882, he was seized with paralysis, and died on December 6th. TROLLOPE, Mrs. Frances, born in England in 1780, the daughter of a clergyman was married in 1809 to Mr. Anthony Trollope, barrister. In 1827 she came to the United States and remained here for three years, and on her return to England she published a book called Domestic Life of the Americans , charac- terized by its superficiality and ill temper. She also wrote The Widow Barnaby , and its sequel, The Widow Married, which books were somewhat popular in their day. Mrs. Trollope was the mother of Thomas Adolphus, the well known author, and Anthony Trollope ( 338 - The country in the neighborhood of Tubin- gen is very attractive ; one ot the most interesting points is the former Cistercian monastery of Bebenhausen, founded in 1185, and now a royal hunting-chateau. TUCKER, Abraham, holds a place of his own among the English moralists of the eighteenth century. He was born in London, of a Somerset family, September 2, 1705. In 1721 Tucker entered Merton College, Oxford, as a gentleman commoner. In 1736 he married Dorothy Barker, the daughter of a neighboring landed proprietor. His wife, to whom he was fondly attached, died in 1 754, leaving him with two daughters. He took an active part in the education of his daughters, and from this time onward began to oc- cupy himself with the composition of the work by which he is known — The Light of Nature Pursued. In 1765 the first four volumes of his work were pub- lished under the pseudonym of Edward Search. The re- maining three volumes did not appear till after his death. He died on November 20, 1774. TUCKER, Josiah, dean of Gloucester from 1758, a sagacious and candid writer on politics and political economy, was born in 17 11 and died in 1799. TUCSON, a city in Pima county, Arizona Ter- ritory, is situated in 32 0 13' N. latitude and no° 53' W. longitude at an elevation of 2,403 feet above the n the South-Eastern railway and at the terminus of a branch line of the London, Brighton and South Coast /ailway, forty-six miles (by rail) southeast of London and five south of Tunbridge. It owes its popularity to its chalybeate spring and its romantic situation. The veils are situated near the Parade (or Pantiles), a walk associated with fashion since the time of their discovery. The town is built in a picturesquely irregular manner, and a large part of it consists of districts called “ parks, ” occupied by villas and mansions. On Rusthall com- mon, about a mile from the town, is the curiously shaped Toad Rock, and about a mile southwest the striking group called High Rocks. The population of die urban sanitary district (area 3,351 acres) is 24,308. The town owes its rise to the discovery of the medic- inal springs by Dudley, Lord North, in 1606. Plenri- etta Maria, wife of Charles I., retired to drink the waters at Tunbridge after the birth of her eldest son Charles. Soon after the Restoration it was visited by Charles II. and Catherine of Braganza. It was a favorite residence of Anne previous to her accession, and from that time became one of the. special resorts of London fashion. -TUN It reached the height of its comparative populanty in the latter half of the eighteenth century, and is specialty associated with Colley Cibber, Samuel Johnson, Cum- berland the dramatist, Garrick, Richardson, Reynolds, Beau Nash, Miss Chudleigh, and Mrs. Thrale. The Tunbridge of that period is sketched with much graphic humor in Thackeray’s Virginians. T’UNG-CHOW, a sub-prefectural city in Chih-li, the metropolitan province of China, is situated on the banks of the Peiho, about twelve miles southeast oi Peking. Like most Chinese cities, T’ung-Chow has appeared in history under various names. By the founder of the Han dynasty (206 B.C.) it was called Lu-Hien; with.the rise of the T’ang dynasty (618 a.d.) its name was changed to Heuen-Chow; and, at the beginning of the twelfth century, with the advent of the Kin dynasty to power, Heuen-Chow became T’ung- Chow. The city marks the highest point at which the Peiho is navigable, and here merchandise for the capital is transferred to a canal, by which it reaches Peking. The city, which is faced on its eastern side by the river, and on its other three sides is surrounded by populous suburbs, is upward of three miles in circumference. The place derives its importance from the fact that it is the port of Peking. Its population was estimated at about 50,000 in 1897. TUNGSTEN (Germ, wolfram , or, antiquated, scheel), one of the metallic elements of chemistry. The mineral tungsten (meaning in Swedish “ heavy stone ”) used to be taken for a tin ore until this was disproved by Cronsted. Scheele showed, in 1 781, that it is a compound of lime with a peculiar acid, the metallic nature of which was recognized in the same year by Bergmann. It occurs only as a component of a number of relatively rare minerals, the most important of which are wolfram or wolframite, and scheelite (tungsten) (see Miner- alogy). The metal is prepared from the pure oxide WO ;i by reduction with hydrogen in a platinum tube at a high temperature. It forms resplendent tin-white or gray plates, or a dull black powder similar to hydrogen- reduced iron. It is more difficult to fuse than even Manganese, ( q.v .) It is unalterable in ordinary air; oxygen and even chlorine act upon it only at a high temperature. Hydrochloric and sulphu ric acid do not attack it. Nitric acid attacks it slowly, aqua regia readily, with formation of the trioxide W 0 3 . TUNGUSES, a wide-spyead Asiatic people, forming a main branch of the Mongol division of the Mongol- Tartar family. They are the Tung-hu of the Chinese, probably a corrupt form of tonki or donki , that is, “men” or “people.” The Russian form fungus , wrongly supposed Jo mean “ lake people, ” appears to occur first in the Dutch writer Massa (1612); but the race has been known to the Russians ever since they reached the Yenisei. The Tungus domairf, covering many hundred thousand square miles in central and east Siberia and in the Amur basin, stretches from the Yenisei eastward to the Pacific, where it occupies most of the seaboard between Corea and Kamchatka. It also reaches the Arctic Ocean at two points, in theNisovaya tundra, west of the Khatanga river, and in a compara- tively small inclosure in the Yana basin over against the Liakhoff (New Siberia) Archipelago. But the- Tun- guses proper are chiefly centered in the region watered by the three large eastern tributaries of the Yenisei, which from them take their names of the Upper, Middle or Stoney, and Lower Tunguska. The Amur is still mainly a Tungus river almost from its source to its mouth ; the Oroches (Orochus), Daurians, Birars, Golds, Manegrs, Sanagirs, Ngatkons, Nigidals, and some other aboriginal tribes scattered along the main stream and its affluents — the Shilka, Sungari, and Usuri — are all otf TUN Tungus stock and speech. On the Pacific the chief subdivisions of the race are the Lamuts, or “ sea people, ” grouped in small isolated hunting communities round the west coast of the Sea of Okhotsk, and further south the Yu-pi-ta-tze (“ fish clad ”), the Tazi of the Russians, between the Amur delta and Corea. The whole race, exclusive of Manchus, numbers probably about 80,000, of whom 15,000 are in the Amur basin, the rest in Siberia. TUNICATA. This group of animals was formerly regarded as constituting along with the Polyzoa and the Brachiopoda the invertebrate class Molluscoidea. It is now known to be a degenerate branch of the Chordata , and to be more nearly related to the Vertebrata than to any group of the Inver tebrata. More than 2,000 years ago Aristotle gave a short account of a Simple Ascidian under the name of Tethyum. He described the appear- ance and some of the more important points in the anat- omy of the animal. From that time onward to a little more than a century ago, although various forms of Ascidians had been briefly described by writers on marine zoology, comparatively little advance was made upon the knowledge of Aristotle. Schlosser and Ellis, in a paper containing a description of Botryllus , pub- lished in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society for 1756, first brought the Compound Ascidians into notice; but it was not until the commencement of the nineteenth century, as a result of the careful ana- tomical investigations of Cuvier upon the Simple Ascid- ians, and of Savigny upon the Compound, that the close relationship between these two groups of the Tunicata was conclusively demonstrated. Up to 1816, the date of publication of Savigny’s great work, the few Compound Ascidians then known had been generally regarded as Al'cyonaria , or as Sponges; and, although many new Simple Ascidians had been described by O. F. Millie^ and others, their internal structure had not been investigated. Lamarck, in 1816, chiefly as the result of the anatomical discoveries of Savigny and Cuvier., instituted the class Tunicata , which he placed between the* Radiata and the Verifies in his system of classification. The Tunicata included at that time, besides the Simple and the Compound Ascidians, the pelagic forms Pyrosoma , which had been first made known by Peron, in 1804, anc ^ Salpa 9 described by Forskal, in 1775. The most important epoch in the history of the Tuni- cata is the date of the publication of Kowalevsky’s celebrated memoir upon the development of a Simple Ascidian. The tailed larva had been previously dis- covered and investigated by several naturalists — nota- bly H. Milne- Edwards, J. P. van Beneden, and Khron; but its minute structure had not been sufficiently ex- amined, and the meaning of what was known of it had not been understood. It was reserved for Kowalevsky, in 1866, to demonstrate the striking similarity in struct- ure and in development between the larval Ascidian and the vertebrate embryo. As a type of the Tunicata , Ascidia mentula , one of the larger species of the Simple Ascidians, may be taken. This species is found in most of the European seas, generally in shallow water on a muddy bottom. It has an irregularly ovate form, and is of a dull gray color. It is attached to some foreign object by one end. The opposite end of the body is usually narrow'-, and it has a terminal opening surrounded by eight rounded lobes. This is the mouth or branchial aper- ture, and it always indicates the anterior end of the ani- mal. About half way back from the anterior end, and on a rounded projection, is the atrial or cloacal aper- ture — an opening surrounded by six lobes — which is ilways placed upon the dorsal region. When the 5939 Ascidian is living and undisturbed, water is being con- stantly drawn in through the branchial aperture and passed out through the atrial. If colored particles be laced in the water near the apertures, they are seen to e sucked into the body through the branchial aperture, and after a short time some of them are ejected with considerable force through the atrial aperture. The current of water passing in is for respiratory purposes, and it also conveys food into the animal. The atrial current is mainly the water which has been used in res- piration, but it also contains all excretions from the body, and at times the ova and spermatozoa or the em- bryos. In most Ascidians the eggs are fertilized in the peri- branchial cavity, and undergo most of their develop- ment before leaving the parent; in some cases, how- ever, the eggs are laid, and fertilization takes place in the surrounding water. The embryo is hatched about two or three days after fertilization, in the form of a tadpole-like larva, which swims actively through the sea by vibrating its long tail. The anterior end of the body is provided with three adhering papillae in the form of epiblastic thicken- ings. In the free-swimming tailed larva the nervous system, formed from the walls of the neural canal, be- comes considerably differentiated. After a short free- swimming existence the fully de- veloped tailed larva fixes itself by its anterior adhering papillae to some foreign object, and then undergoes a remarkable series of retrogressive changes, which con- vert it into the adult Ascidian. The tail atrophies, un- til nothing is left but some fatty cells in the posterior part of the trunk. The adhering papillae disappear and are replaced functionally by a growth of the test over neighboring objects. The nervous system with its sense organs atrophies until it is reduced to the single small ganglion, placed on the dorsal edge of the pharynx, and a slight nerve cord running for some distance posteriorly. Slight changes in the shape of the body and a further growth and differentiation of the branchial sac, peribran- chial cavity, and other organs now produce gradually the structure found in the adult Ascidian. TUNING FORK, a small bar of cast tool steel with tolerably defined edges, bent into a fork with two prongs. A handle of the same metal extending from the bend of the fork serves as a sound-post to transmit the vibrations of the fork to any resonance board or body convenient for reenforcing the sound. The fork is set in vibration by striking one of the prongs against any hard substance, by pressing the prongs together if the fork is a light one, or, if it is large, by drawing a double bass bow across one of the prongs. The ordi- nary use of a tuning fork is to serve as a pitch carrier or standard, for which it is particularly suited owing to the permanence with which it maintains the pitch to which it may be tuned. It is flattened by heat and sharpened by cold about 1 vibration in 20,000 for every degree Fahr., so that' the exact pitch always depends upon the temperature. A tuning fork is tuned by filing the ends of the prongs or between them near the ends to make it sharper, or by filing between them near or at the bend to make it flatter. Less filing is required to flatten than to sharpen. The tuning fork is of value in certain physical investigations, from the constancy of its rate of vibration. In England it is generally tuned to C in the treble clef, because organ-builders start their tuning from that note; in France it is tuned to A in the treble clef, which is the note of the third open string of the violin. TUNIS, Regency of, formerly one of the Earbary states of North Africa, but since 1881 a dependency of France, whose resident-general exercise all real author TUN 5940 ity in the nominal dominions of the bey. It is bounded on the west by Algeria, on the north by the western basin of the Mediterranean, on the east from Cape Bon to the Gulf of Gabes (Kabis) by the eastern basin of the same sea, and on the southeast by the province of Tripoli. On the south the boundary is the Sahara and the frontier lin^ is indefinite. The greatest breadth from east to west is about 150 miles, the length from north to south about 300 miles. The population does not exceed a million and a half. Tunis is formed by the prolongation toward the east of the two great mountain chains of Algeria (q.v.), and closely resembles that country in its physical features, products, and climate; see Africa. The northern Algerian chain (the Little Atlas) is prolonged through Tunis to Ras Sidi ‘Ah' al-Makki, the highest summits never attaining an altitude of 4,000 feet. It forms a picturesque, fertile, and well- watered region, with extensive cork woods in its western parts, and sep- arated from the southern mountains by the valley (the ancient Zeugitana) of the Mejerda (the ancient Bagradas), the most important river of north Africa, which after a tortuous course of nearly 300 miles falls into the Gulf of Tunis at Porto Farina. The basin of the Mejerda, which is now traversed by the railway from Algiers to Tunis, is very fertile, and many impor- tant ruins testify to its prosperity in Roman times. The rich lacustrine deposits in the Dakhila, or plain of Bulla Regia, show that it was only in relatively recent times that its upper waters found a passage to the sea by cut- ting a deep gorge through the cretaceous barrier that shuts in this upland plain upon the east. The upland district from Tebessa southward sinks into the desert by a step-like series of great plateaus, separated by rugged walls of variegated marls, sands, and alluvium, torn into fantastic shapes, and scored with deep ravines by streams which at some remote period of copious rainfall poured down into the Sahara, Farther east the plateaus disap- pear, and the mountains rise like a rampart from the Sibakh or Saharian marshes and salt-flats. Even the Saliar of Tunis abounds in fertile oases. The mean annual temperature at Susa IS75 0 Fahr., the mean of the winter or rainy season 6o° and of the hot season 9 7 0 . At Tunis the temperature rarely ex- ceeds 90°, except with a wind from the Sahara. The prevailing winds from May to September are east and northeast and during the rest of the year northwest and east. A rainy season of about two months usually be- gins in January; the spring season of verdure is over in May; summer ends in October with the first rains. Violent winds are common at both equinoxes. Flora and Fauna are generally the same as those of Algeria, {q.v.) The lion and panther are almost ex- tinct, but the sportsman finds in abundance the wild boar, partridge, Carthage fowl, quail, and snipe. The African moufflon still exists in the southern mountains. Herds of buffaloes are found in the district, of Mater. The stag occurs in the eastern districts. The camel, now so important, was hardly known here before the Roman sovereignty. Cork and “ zen ” trees cover about 360,000 acres to- ward the Algerian frontier, and the pine and deciduous oak almost as large an area south of the Mejerda; but the country is much less wooded than in antiquity. The richness of the grain crops is still remarkable, in spite of imperfect cultivation. Olives and many excellent fruits are largely produced, and vineyards have been much ex- tended since the French occupation. The oases of the Jerid are devoted to the date palm and produce the best dates known in the market. The mineral wealth of Tunis, like that of Algeria, is considerable, but it has been imperfectly explored. The industrious Berbers (Kabyles), the oldest stock in the country, are lees sharply marked off from the Arabs than in Algeria, but are distinguishable by their lighter complexion and often fair hair. They form a large part of the population in the northern and eastern mountains, and in the island of Jerba (Jirba). They are organized in tribes with purely democratic self- government, and laws of their own, w'hich are not those of the Koran. The pastoral Arab nomads are de- scended from the second Arab invasion, which began in the eleventh century. They have little agriculture and are still as indolent and unruly as their ancestors. The Arabs of the towns are usually known as Moors; among them the Spanish Moors, descendants of the Andalu- sian refugees, form an exclusive and aristocratic class. The pure Turks and the Kuluglis (sons of Turkish fathers by Moorish women or slave girls) are no longer numerous. Of Europeans there are some 10,000 * Italians, 8,000 Maltese, and 4,000 French (exclusive of the army). The Jews number some 50,000, of whom perhaps half are in the capital. The trade of the coun- try is largely in their hands. Pop. estimated at 1,900,000. For the capital, Tunis, see below. Of the coast towns Sfax and Susa have separate notices; Bizerta (Benzert). the ancient Hippo Zarytus, is the chief place on the north coast, with 5,000 inhabitants. On the east coast are Hammamet (Hamamat), with 3,700 in- habitants; Monastir, with 5,600 inhabitants and a trade in cereals and oils; Mahdfya (Mehedia), with 6,300 in- habitants, the fallen city of the Fatimites, which since the French occupation has begun to rise again, and has a new harbor; and Gabes (Kabis) on the Syrtis, a group of small villages, with an aggregate population of 14,000, the port of the shott country and a depot of the esparto trade. Of the inland towns thie holy city of Kairwan (q.v.) is the most remarkable. Its fine mosques are now open to visitors. The history of Tunis begins with the establishment of the Phoenician colonies; see Phoenicia and Carthage. The Punic settlers Semitized the coast, # but left the Berbers of the interior almost untouched. The Romans entered into the heritage of the Carthaginians and of the vassal kings of Numidia, and Punic speech and civilization gave way to Latin, a change which from the time of Caesar was helped on by Italian colonization. Carthage was the second city of the Latin part of the empire, “ after Rome the busiest and perhaps the most corrupt city of the West, and the chief center of Latin culture and letters.” In the early history of Latin Christianity Africa holds a more important place than Italy. Lost to Rome by the invasion of the Vandals, who took Carthage in 439, the province was recovered by Belisarius a century later (533-4), and remained Roman till the Arab invasion. The empire of the Fatimites rested on Berber support, and from that time forth till the advent of the T urks the dynasties of north Africa were really native, even when they claimed descent from some illustrious Arab stock. The Conquest of Algiers by the Turks gave a danger- ous neighbor to Tunis, and after the death of Moham- med the Hafsite in 1525 a disputed succession supplied Khair al-Dfn Barbarossa with a pretext for occupying the city in the name of the sultan of Constantinople. In 1573 the Turks retreated on the approach of Don John, who had dreams of making himself king ofTunis; but this success was not followed up, and in the nexl year Sultan Selim II. sent a strong expedition, which drove the Spaniards from Tunis and Goletta, and reduced the country to a Turkish province. The civil administration was now placed under a pasha ; but in a I few years a military revolution transferred the supreme I power to a dey elected by the janissaries, who formed TUN 594 i the army of occupation. The government of the deys lasted till 1705. From 1631 to 1702 the office of bey was hereditary in the descendants of Murad, a Corsican renegade, and their rivalry with the deys and internal dissensions kept the country in constant disorder. Frequent wars with Algiers form the chief incidents in the internal history of Tunis under the beys. Under deys and beys alike Tunis was essentially a pirate state. Occasional acts of chastisement, of which the bombard- ment of Porto Farina by Blake in 1655 was the most notable, and repeated treaties, extorted by European powers, checked from time to time, but never put an end to, the habitual piracies, on which indeed the pub- lic revenue of Tunis was mainly dependent. The powers were generally less concerned for the captives than for the acquisition of trading privileges, and the beys took advantage of the commercial rivalry of Eng- land and France to play off the one power against the other. The release of all Christian slaves was not effected till after the bombardment of Algiers ; and the definite abandonment of piracy may be dated from the presentation to the bey in 1819 of a collective note of the powers assembled at Aix-la-Chapelle. The French had long regarded the dominions of the bey as their natural inheritance, and in 1881, having got a grievance against the bey in a commercial transaction of the French African Society, a French force crossed the Algerian frontier under pretext of chastising the inde- pendent Kroumir or Khomair tribes in the northeast of the regency, and, quickly dropping the mask, advanced on the capital and compelled the bey to accept the French protectorate. The actual conquest of the coun- try was not effected without a serious struggle with Moslem fanaticism; but all Tunis was brought com- pletely under French jurisdiction and administration, supported by military posts at every important point. The power of the bey is null and his dignity merely nominal. Tunis, capital of the regency of the same name, in 36° 50' N. latitude and io° 12' E. longitude, is situated on an isthmus between two salt lakes, a marshy sebkha to the southwest and the shallow Boheira, to the northeast. The latter is twelve miles in circum- ference, and on the side opposite Tunis is connected with the Bay of Tunis at the port of Goletta (Halk al- Wad) by a short canal. The old town, of which the walls have in great part disappeared, lies between two suburbs, "the Ribat al-Soweika on the north and the Ribat Bab al-Jezira on the south. These suburbs were surrounded by a wall in the beginning of the nineteenth century. Between the old town and the Marine Gate on the Boheira a European quarter, con- taining the palace of the resident, public offices, the provisional cathedral, and huge blocks of new houses in the French style have sprung up. At the extreme west of the old town is the citadel, now used as barracks, whose lofty circuit includes the mosque built by Abu Zakariya the Hafsite in 1232. To the same century be- longs the great mosque of the Olive Tree (Jami‘al- Zeituna) in the center of the town, with its many domes and spacious cloister, which possesses a library and serves as a college for some 450 students of Moslem learning. The chief attraction of the old town lies in its bazaars, which retain their Oriental character unim- paired. Water is supplied to numerous fountains byan ancient aqueduct from Jebel Zaghwan, repaired at a cost of half a million sterling by the late Bey Moham- med al-Sadik. The population of Tunis is about 170,- 000, of whom one-fifth are Jews and one-fifth Europe- ans, chiefly Maltese and Italians. Theenvirons of Tunis are admirable from the beautiful views they present; the finest prospects are from the hill on the southeast, and from the Belveder on the north of the town. Tunis was a Carthaginian city, and is repeatedly men- tioned in the history of the Punic wars. Strabo speaks of its hot baths and quarries. Under the Arabs it rose to importance, became the usual port for those going from Kairwan to Spain, and was one of the residences of the Aghlabites. In the tenth century it suffered severely, and was repeatedly pillaged in the wars of the Fatimites with Abu Yazld and the Zenata Berbers. TUNNELING. The process of making a more 01 less horizontal underground passage, or tunnel, without removing the top soil, is known as tunneling. In formet times any long tube-like passage, however constructed, was called a tunnel. At the present day the word is sometimes popularly applied to an underground passage constructed by trenching down from the surface to build the arching and then refilling with the top soil ; but a passage so constructed, although indistinguishable from a tunnel when completed, is more correctly termed a “covered way,” and the operations “cutting and covering,” instead of tunneling. Making a small tun- nel, afterward to be converted into a larger one, is called “ driving a heading, ” and in mining operations small tunnels are termed “galleries,” “driftways,” and “adits.” If the underground passage is vertical it is a shaft; if the shaft is commenced at the surface the operations are known as “ sinking,” and it is called a “rising” if worked upward from a previously con- structed heading or gallery. Tunneling has been effected by natural forces to a far greater extent than by man. In limestone districts innumerable swallow-holes, or shafts, have been sunk by the rain water following joints and dissolving the rock, and from the bottom of these shafts tunnels have been excavated to the sides of hills in a manner strictly analogous to the ordinary method of executing a tunnel by sinking shafts at intervals and driving headings there- from. Many rivers find thus a course underground. The mammoth cave of Kentucky and the Peak caves of Derbyshire are examples of natural tunneling. Tunneling is also carried on to an enormous extent by the action of the sea. Where the Atlantic rollers break on the west coast of Ireland, on the seaboard of the western Highlands of Scotland, and elsewhere, numberless caves and tunnels have been formed in the cliffs, beside which artificial tunneling operations appear insignificant. The most gigantic subaqueous demolition hitherto carried out by man was the blowing up, in 1885, °f Flood Rock, a mass about nine acres in extent, near Long Island Sound, New York. To effect this gigantic work by a single instantaneous blast a shaft was sunk sixty-four feet below sea level, from the bot- tom of which four miles of tunnels or galleries were driven so as to completely honeycomb the rock. The roof rock ranged from ten feet to twenty-four feet in thickness, and was supported by 467 pillars fifteen feet square; 13,286 holes, averaging nine feet in length and three inches in diameter, were drilled in the pil- lars and roof. About 80,000 cubic yards of rock were excavated in the galleries and 275,000 remained to be blasted away. The holes were charged with no tons of “ rackarock,” a more powerful explosive than gun- powder, which was fired by electricity, when the sea was lifted 100 feet over the whole area of the rock. With so many examples of natural caves and tunnels in existence it is not to be wondered at that tunneling was one of the earliest works undertaken by man, first for dwellings and tombs, then for quarrying and mining, and finally for water supply, drainage, and other re- quirements of civilization. Petrie has traced the method of underground quarrying followed by the Egyptians opposite the Pyramids. Parallel galleries TUN 5942 about 20 feet square were driven into the rock and cross gallerjes cut, so that a hall 300 to 400 feet wide was formed, with a roof supported by rows of pillars 20 feet square and 20 feet apart. Blocks of stone were re- moved by the workmen cutting grooves all round them, and, where the stone was not required for use, but merely had to be removed to form a gallery, the grooves were wide enough for a man to stand up in. Where granite, diorite, and other hard stone had to be cut, the work was done by tube drills and by saws supplied with corundum, or other hard gritty material, and water — the drills leaving a core of rock exactly like that of the modern diamond drill. Pliny refers to the tunnel con- structed for the drainage of Lake Fucino as the greatest public work of the time. It was by far the longest tunnel in the world, being more than three and one- half miles in length, and was driven under Monte Salviano, which necessitated shafts no less than 400 feet in depth. It is stated that 30,000 laborers were occu- pied eleven years in its construction. With modern^ appliances such a tunnel could be driven from the two ends without intermediate shafts in eleven months. No practical advance was made on the tunneling methods of the Romans until gunpowder came into use. Old engravings of mining operations early in the seven- teenth century show that excavation was still accom- plished by pickaxes or hammer and chisel, and that wood fires were lighted at the ends of the headings to split and soften the rock in advance. Crude methods of ven- tilation by shaking cloths in the headings and by plac- ing inclined boards at the top of shafts are also on rec- ord. In 1825 Brunei commenced and in 1843 com- pleted the Thames tunnel, which was driven at points through liquid mud by the aid of a “ shield ” at a cost of about $6,500 per lineal yard. It is now used by the East London railway. In 1872 Chesborough began tunneling under the Detroit river, between Canada and Michigan, but the work was abandoned owing to con- tinued irruptions of water after some 600 yards of headings had been driven. The most important sub- aqueous work yet accomplished — the Severn tunnel, four and one-third miles in length — was commenced in 1873 and finished in 1886. The bed of the Severn is formed principally of marls, sandstones, and conglom- erates in nearly horizontal strata, overlying highly in- clined coal measures, shales, and sandstones, which are also exposed in the bed of the river. The tunnel is made almost wholly in the Trias and Coal Measure forma- tions, but for a short distance at its eastern end it passes through gravel. The tunnel is for a double line of railway and is- lined throughout with vitrified bricks set in Portland cement mortar. The total amount of water raised at all the pumping stations isabout 27,000,- 000 gallons in twenty-four hours; but the total pump- ing power provided is equal to 66,000,000 gallons in twenty-four hours. Another example of subaqueous tunneling, second only in importance to the foregoing, is the Mersey tun- nel, the length of which between the pumping shafts on each side of the river is one mile. Proposals for the construction of a tunnel about thirty miles in length to connect England and France have been brought forward periodically from the commence- ment of the nineteenth century, but nothing was done until 1881, when preliminary works of some importance were commenced by Sir Edward Watkin and the South- Eastern Railway Company, At the proposed point of crossing the deepest part of the channel is 210 feet, and, as the beds on the English side and those on the French side, so far as relates to the gray chalk and chalk marl, are each 225 feet thick, it is assumed that those Strata are continuous and that the tunnel would be driven through a watertight material. Shafts ha*e been sunk near Folkestone, and experimental headings have been driven 2,000 yards under the sea, on the line of the tunnel. The heading, seven feet in diameter, was cut by a Beaumont boring machine, having two arms with steel teeth, and driven by compressed air; the usual rate of progress was fifteen lineal yards per day. A partially constructed subaqueous tunnel now lies drowned under the Hudson river at New York. An attempt was made to drive a double tunnel through the mud and silt forming the river bed. In 1880, when about a hundred yards had been completed, the water burst in, and twenty men were drowned. Small subaqueous tunnels have been driven through* clay without difficulty under Lakes Michigan and Erie, and elsewhere in America. In England a heading was driven nearly across the Thames in 1807, and eighty years later two iron-lined tunnels (each 10 ft. 6 in.) were constructed under the river close to the foundation of London Bridge, with the aid of a simple annular shield advanced by six hydraulic presses. Where open gravel or water has to be tunneled through a diaphragm must be fitted to the shield. Mallet proposed in 1858 to carry in this way a tubular tunnel across the English Channel. Where a great thickness of rock overlies a tunnel, it is necessary to do the work wholly from the two ends, without intermediate shafts. The problem resolves itself into devising the most expeditious way of excavat- ing and removing the rock, and there are none of the uncertainties and difficulties which make subaqueous tunneling of so high an interest. Experience has led to great advances in speed and economy, as will be seen from the following particulars of the three tunnels through the Alps, the longest yet constructed: Tunnel. Length. Progress per Day. Cost Miles. Lineal Yards. Per Lineal Yard. Mont Cenis. I'A 2-57 $1,130 St. Gotthard 9 l /s 6.01 715 Arlberg 6 1-5 9.07 540 In 1857 the first blast was fired in connection with the Mont Cenis works; in 1861 machine drilling was in- troduced; and in 1871 the tunnel was opened for traffic. With the exception of about 300 yards the tunnel is lined throughout with brick or stone. Little interest now attaches to the method of tunneling adopted at Mont Cenis, as it is in several respects obsolete. In 1872 the St. Gotthard tunnel was commenced and in 1881 the first locomotive ran through it. Mechanical drills were used from the commencement. Tunneling was carried on by driving in advance a top heading about eight feet square, then enlarging this sideways, and finally sinking the excavation to invert level. Air for working the rock-drills was compressed to seven atmospheres by turbines of about 2,000 horse-power. Six to eight Ferroux drills, making about 180 blows a minute, were mounted on a carriage and pushed up to the point of attack. The driving of the Arlberg tunnel was commenced in 1880 and the work was completed in little more than three years. The main heading was driven along the bottom of the tunnel and shafts were opened up twenty - hve tc seventy yards apart, from which smaller head- ings were driven right and left. The tunnel was enlarged to its full section at different points simultane- ously in lengths of eight yards, the excavation of each occupying about twenty days, and the masonry fourteen days. Ferroux percussion air drills and Brandt rotary hydraulic drills were used, and the performance of the tun— TUR 5943 latter was especially satisfactory. After each blast a fine spray of water was injected, which assisted the ven- tilation materially. In the St. Gotthard tunnel the discharge of the air drills was relied on for ventilation. In the Arlberg tunnel over 8,000 cubic feet of air per minute were thrown in by ventilators. In a long tun- nel the quick transport of materials is of equal impor- tance with rapid drilling and blasting. The new Croton aqueduct tunnel from Croton dam to the reservoir in New York is worthy of note both for its great length and the rapid progress made with it. The distance is thirty-three and one-fourth miles and practically the whole is tunneled through rock. Shafts were sunk about one and one-half miles apart and head- ings driven each way. Ingersoll drills were chiefly used, and the rate of advance with the headings was in 1886 one and one-fourth miles per month. The old Croton aqueduct was seven feet eight inches wide by eight feet five inches high; the new one is thirteen feet seven inches in width and height. Where tunnels have to be carried through soft soil and in proximity to valuable buildings special precau- tions have to be taken to avoid settlement. TUNNY ( Thynnus thynnus), one of the largest fishes of the family of Mackerels, belongs to the genus of which the Bonito ( Th. pelamys ) and the Albacores ( Th . albacora, Th. alalonga , etc.) are equally well- known members. From the latter the tunny is dis- tinguished by its much shorter pectoral fins, wlrch reach backward only to, or nearly to, the end of the first dorsal fin. It possesses nine short finlets behind ihe dorsal, and eight behind the anal fin. Its color is dark bluish above, and grayish, tinged and spotted with silver below. The tunny is a pelagic fish, but period- ically approaches the shore, wandering in large shoals, at least in the Mediterranean, within well- ascertained areas along the coast. The regularity of its appearance on certain parts of the coast of the Mediterranean has led to the establishment of a systematic fishery, which has been carried on from the time of the Phoenicians to the present day. Immense numbers of tunnies were caught on the Spanish coast and in the sea of Marmora, where, however, this industry has much declined. The Sardinian tunnies were considered to be of superior ex- cellence. The greatest number is now, caught on the north coast of Sicily, the fisheries of this island sup- plying most of the preserved tunny which is exported, to other parts of the world. The tunny occurs also in the South Pacific ; but several other species seem to take its place in the Indo-Pacific Ocean. It is one of the largest fishes, attaining to a length of ten feet and to a weight of more than a thousand pounds. TUNSTALL, a market town of Staffordshire, Eng- land. The to.vn is chiefly the growth of the nineteenth century, and in 1811 numbered only 1,677 inhabitants. The population of the urban sanitary district (area 690 acres) was 14,244 in 1881, and is now (1901) 18,500. TUPELO (Nyssa), a genus of trees of the natural order Alangiacece , natives of North America, chiefly of the .southern parts of the United States; having simple alternate leaves, mostly entire, greenish inconspicuous flowers at the extremity of long stalks, the fruit a drupe. JV. villosa attains the height of 60 to 70 feet. It is often called black gum tree. N. tomentosa, the large tupelo, is a lofty and beautiful tree, remarkable for the extraordinary enlargement of the base of the trunk, which is sometimes eight or nine feet in diameter, while at no great height the diameter diminishes to fifteen or twenty inches. The fruit resembles a small olive, and is preserved in the same way. N. candicans or capita ta, the Ogeechee lime or sour gum tree, is a small tree, of which the fruit is very acid and is used like that of the lime. The wood of all the species is soft, that of the large tupelo remarkably so. TUPPER, Martin Farquhar, D.C.L., F.R.S., a poet rather popular than great, was born July 17, 1810, and died November 29, 1889. His father, Martin Tup- per, was a well-known London surgeon, of a family originally German, which had long been settled in Guernsey, Martin Tupper was educated at the Charter- house, and afterward at Christ Church, Oxford. On leaving college he entered himself as a student at Lin- coln’s Inn, and was called to the bar in 1835; but litera- ture had more charms for him than the law, which he never seriously prosecuted. In 1832 he published anonymously a small volume of poems which attracted little attention. For this lack of success he was, how- ever, amply repaid on. the appearance, in 1839, of his Proverbial Philosophy. The popularity of this work in England, and still more in America, has ever since been immense and almost unprecedented. The critics have indeed been less kind to it than the reading public- and the fame of Mr. Tupper has long been a topic of mirth to the wits of the literary guild; but from the serene height of his fortieth edition an author can per- haps afford to smile at the attacks of the envious gen- eration below. A fair criticism would probably adjudge that while there is nothing in Proverbial Philosophy to justify its enormous success — so far as mere circulation is success — the book is yet something better than a mere con- glomeration of stupid platitudes, which its detractors so confidently proclaim it to be. Besides this work, on which his reputation, such as it may be, rests, he has published The Crock of Gold, a tale; Geraldine, a sufficiently ludicrous attempt to complete Coleridge’s inimitable fragment Christabel ; with various other works in prose and verse. TURANIAN. This word means etymologically no more than “not Iranian,” and in this sense the word Turan was used by Sasanian monarchs to cover those parts of their realm that did not belong to Iran. The application of the word to denote the Ural-Altaic family of languages is extremely unfortunate and seems to be falling out of use. See Philology. TURBINE. See Hydromechanics. TURBOT, the largest and best known ot a genus of flat fishes, Rhombus , which bears the appropriate sys- tematic name of Rh. maximus. The turbot has great width of body, and is scaleless, but it is covered with conical bony tubercles. The eyes are on the left side of the body, the lower being slightly in advance of the upper ; the mouth is large and armed with teeth of uni- formly minute size. The turbot is found all round the coasts of Europe (except in the extreme north), pre- ferring a flat sandy bottom with from ten to fifty fathoms of water. The broad banks of the Dutch coast are a favorite resort. It is a voracious fish, and feeds on other fish, crustaceans, and mollusks. It seems to con- stantly change its abode, wandering northward during the summer, and going into deeper water in the cold season. The turbot is also common, though not abun- dant, in the Mediterranean, and is replaced in the Black Sea by an allied species with much larger bony tubercles (Rh. Maoticns). Both species grow to a large size, being usually sold at from five to ten pounds ; but the common turbot is stated to attain to a weight of thirty pounds. TURENNE, Henri de la Tour d’ Auvergne, Vi comte de, a famous French general of the seven- teenth century, was the second son of Henry, Due de Bouillon, by Elizabeth, daughter of William I., prince of Orange, and was born at Sedan on September n, i6it. He was carefully educated in the strictest doctrine of TU R 5944; the reformed religion, and at the age of thirteen was sent to learn war from his uncles Maurice and Henry of Nassau in the campaigns of these princes against the Spaniards. In 1626 he received a commission as captain of infantry in the service of Holland, and by 1630 had shown such military capacity that Richelieu invited him back to France and appointed him colonel of a regiment. He was present at the relief of Casale, and on June 21, 1635, was made a marechal de camp for his services at the siege of La Motte in Lorraine under De la Force. In that year he took command of a division in the army under Cardinal La Valette in the defense of Mainz. In 1636 he was present under La Valette at the siege of Saverne, where he was wounded, and in the campaign in Franche Comte; in 1637 he served under the same commander in Flanders, took Landrecies, and drove back the cardinal infant from Maubeuge. In 1638 he served under Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar at the siege of Breisach, and in the following year was transferred to the army of D’Har- court in Italy. It was at this epoch that he established his fame as a general. In November, 1639, he covered the retreat of the army, and fought a famous engage- ment, known as the battle of the “ route de Quiers ; ” in 1640 he saved Casale, and insisted upon not abandon- ing the siege of Turin, which town surrendered on Sep- tember 24th; in 1641 he took Coni, Ceva, and Mon- dovi; and on March 11, 1642, he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general. He was appointed by Riche- lieu in 1643 to the command of the army in Italy, under Thomas of Savoy, although his brother, the Due de Bouillon, had just before been arrested as an accomplice in the conspiracy of Cinq Mars. Mazarin did not ex- hibit quite so much confidence in Turenne, and in December, 1643, removed him from Italy, but he soft- ened the transference by creating Turenne a marshal of France on May 16, 1644. Turenne’sfour campaigns in Germany, which largely contributed to the peace of Westphalia, have always been regarded as models in the art of war. In May, 1645, Turenne was surprised by Mercy at Marienthal and defeated; but he skillfully concentrated the remains of his army and retreated into Hesse, where he was soon joined by D’Enghien. The two marshals, having reorganized their army, marched against Mercy and totally defeated him at Nordlingen on August 3, 1645, when Mercy was killed. D’Enghiem again left the army to Turenne, who, in conjunction with the Swedish army under Wrangel, overran Franconia and Swabia, taking all the fortresses there in 1646. In 1647 he con- ducted a still more masterly campaign, and after beating the Bavarians and Imperialists in two engagements he and the Swedes occupied Bavaria, and drove the old duke out of his dominions. When the troubles of the Fronde (see France and Mazarin) broke out, Turenne, who was in command of the veteran troops of Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar in Alsace, hesitated which side to take, till the Duchesse de Longueville (, q.v .) with whom he fell violently in love, persuaded him to side with the parlement. But his troops refused to follow him, and he had to fly with her to Flanders. He there took a command in the Spanish army under Don Estevan Gomar, and, when trying to raise the siege of R6thel, was utterly defeated by Du Plessis-Praslin. But in 1652 he defeated Cond6 at Gien, and nearly annihilated his army in the battle of the Faubourg St. Antoine. When the troubles of the Fronde were over, Turenne marched upon the frontier, and in several 'campaign:, defeated the Span- iards. In these campaigns he had once more to fight against Cond<§, general-in-chief of the armies of Spain, and in 1654 he showed fiis superiority hy raising the siege of Arrag and driving the Spaniards from their lines. In 1656 Cond6, assisted by Don John of Austria, won an exactly similar victory and relieved Valenciennes, which Turenne was besieging. The prolonged contest between the two was decided in 1658 by Turenne’s victory of the Dunes, in which Cromwell’s contingent of 6,000 soldiers took part. Louis XIV. now began to rule in reality, and one of his first acts was to create Turenne in 1660 marshal- general of the armies of France. Seven years later Turenne occupied French Flanders and took all the fortresses in that province. It was in 1668 that Turenne made his notorious change of faith. Born of Calvinist parents and educated a Protestant, he had in compli- ance of the tenets of his religion refused to marry one of Richelieu’s nieces in 1639, and had eventually mar- ried a daughter of the Protestant Marshal de la Force. But it can hardly be believed that he was converted at the age of fifty-seven from religious convictions. In 1672 the second great European war broke out, brought about by the ambition of Louis XIV. Turenne once more took command of the army, which the king accom- panied, and speedily occupied the greater part of Hol- land, which, however, they were forced to evacuate owing to the Dutch cutting their dykes. In the follow- ing year Turenne marched into Westphalia to oppose the imperialist forces, and, though his army was small compared to that of Montecuculi, the imperialist general, he managed to make head against both him and the elector of Brandenburg. In 1673 he was compelled to act on the defensive; but in 1674, in spite of his inferi- ority of numbers, he boldly resumed the aggressive. Crossing the Rhine at Philippsburg in June, and march- ing rapidly to Sinsheim, he defeated the imperialist gen- eral Caprara and the duke of Lorraine. After the rout of Colmar and the defeat of Tiirkheim which followed it, he laid waste the greater part of Alsace, as a defen- sive measure against another advance of the imperialists. He then advanced into the heart of Germany, and again met Montecuculi, who had succeeded the elector of Brandenburg as general-in-chief. The two generals maneuvered for four months in much the same way as Wellington and Marmont marched and counter-marched before the battle of Salamanca; at last, on July 27, 1675, their field of battle was chosen, and, as Turenne was directing the position of a battery, he was struck by a cannon ball and killed on the spot. TURGAI, a Russian province in Central Asia, form- erly a part of the Kirghiz steppe, and now embodied in the governor-generalship of the Steppes, is bounded by Uralsk and Orenburg on the west and north, by Akmo - linsk on the east, and by Syr-Daria and the Sea of Aral on the south. This extensive and irregularly- shaped territory, which has an area (176,800 square miles) as large as that of Caucasia and Transcaucasia taken to- gether, belongs to the Aral-Caspian depression. The steppe land of Turgai is only some 300 feet above the sea-level, and is dotted with lakes, of which the Tchol- gardenghiz, which receives the Turgai and its tributary the Irghiz, is the largest. The Turgai was, at a recent epoch, a large river flowing into the Sea of Aral and re- ceiving an extensive system of tributaries, which are now lost in the sands before joining it. The climate of Turgai is exceedingly dry and conti- nental. Orsk, a town of Orenburg, on its northwestern border, has a January as cold as that of the west coast of Nova Zembla ( — 4 0 Fahr.), while in July it is as hot as July in Morocco (73°); the corresponding figures for Irghiz, in the center of the province, are 7 0 and 77 0 . At Irghiz and Orsk the annual rainfall is somewhat under ten and twelve inches respectively (three inches is summer). TU R The population of Turgai was, in 1898, 453,123, all nomad Kirghiz, with the exception of some £,600, who are settled in four villages officially described as towns. Agriculture is in its earliest stage of development ; but some 800,000 bushels of grain are raised in the south- west by the Kirghiz, who sell some of it in Orenburg. Cattle-breeding is the chief occupation, and within the province there are some 800,000 horses, 335,000 cattle, about 200,000 camels, and more than 2,000,000 sheep. But the want of fodder in spring occasions violent mur- rains which sometimes result in actual famine among the Kirghiz. The four settlements of the province are Turgai, chief town and seat of the. provincial adminis- tration, with less than 400 inhabitants, and the “ dis- trict towns ” of Irghiz (920), Ak-tube (400), and Kara- butak (300), the last two being more or less fortified. Several merchants in these carry on trade with the Kir- ghiz, exchanging manufactured goods for wool and skins, which are sent to the frontier settlements of Orenburg. TURGENEF (or Tourguenief), Ivan Serge- jevitsch, one of the best known of modern Russian novelists, was born at Orel November 9, 1818, educated at Moscow and Berlin, and obtained a post under the minister of the interior. He became known as a poet in 1843. He was banished in 1852 for his liberalism; and, though afterward pardoned, has lived mostly in Paris, and Baden. Turgenef was a very prolific author. Of his novels, the chief that have been translated are Russian Life , Fathers and Sons , Smoke , Liza, Spring Floods , and Virgin Soil. He died September 3, 1883. TURGOT. Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Marquis de l’Aulne, French statesman and econ- omist, was born at Paris, May 10, 1727. His family, which was ancient and noble, is said to have been orig- inally Scottish, but had long been settled in Normandy. His ancestors early abandoned the sword for the robe. Both his father and grandfather had been in the civil service of the state; nis father was “ prevot des mar- chands ” at Paris, and won a high reputation as a mag- .strate and administrator. Turgot in his childhood was timid, and showed in company an absent and embar- rassed air. He obtained his early education at the College Louis-le-Grand, and was afterward a student of the College du Plessis. He then entered the seminary of St. Sulpice, and thence passed to the Sorbonne with the view of taking his license in theology. But he de- cided finally, in 1751, not to follow the ecclesiastical profession. As prior of the Sorbonne (an honorary office con- ferred annually on some distinguished student) he wrote and delivered publicly in 1 750 two remarkable pieces — one On the Benefits which the Christian Religion has conferred on Mankind , the other On the Historical Progress of the Human Mind. Having chosen the law as his profession, he was appointed in 1752 “ con- seiller substitut du procureur general,” and afterward “conseiller au parlement.” Turgot wrote (1753) Letters to a Vicar-General on Toleration and a pam- phlet entitled Le Conciliateur'm favor of religious liberty and against the interference of the temporal power in theological disputes. In 1753 he became “ maitre des requetes.” Turgot accompanied Gournay in 1755 and 1756 in his\>fficial tours of inspection as intendant of commerce, and on Gournay’s death in 1759 he wrote his J^loge. He contributed about this period several articles to the Encyclopedic. Shortly after 'the accession of Louis XVI. Turgot was appointed by Maurepas (July 19, 1 774) minister of marine, and in that capacity began at once to initiate important reforms, and to conceive far-reaching proj- ects. But he filled the post only for five weeks, being 5945 then (August 21st) promoted to the ministry of finance. In his new office he addressed to the young king a declaration of the principles by which he intended t 35, bob;, AR-stti 20,000: Kma, 15,086; I angrd-hiisar, id, 800; Kargaijrk, io, 6685 TUKKfey. Somewhere about the sdcond decade bt the thirteenth centUt y |he little T UfkiSh tribe winch in due ppiiyse was Vo found thb&ttpman empire fled before. ife Mdhgbls t ftbm. its dfigiii4i home, ih. central AmMl plsshig through Persia, entered Armdiiia, titidfer leadership of Suleyman Shah, its hereditary chief. In 1300 (a.H. 699) the Seljuk empire (see Seljuks) fell to pieces under the onslaught of the Mongols, who were, however, powerless to replace it by any government of their own. Ten separate Turkish dynasties arose from its ruins. These principalities were all eventually merged in that of the ‘Osmdnlte, once the least among them, and the inhabitants assumed the nathe df Otto- man. HeWcb by far the greater portion of the fteObtb called Ottomans owe their name to. a series df pSliUMl events. On the collaps'd df the Seljuk power the Greeks retained hardly &ny possessions in Asia except Bithynia and Tbebizond. Armenia was abandoned for a time to Idving Tartar or Turkman tribes; till sdpVe Sikty 8? seventy years later one or t\Vo petty local dynasties sprang up and founded short-lived states. To Suleymdn the Ottomans owe their first establish- ment in Europe: one night that prince, accompanied by a few companions, crossed the Hellespont on a raft and surprised the town of Galipoli (Gallipoli). The next day he brought over a number of Turkish troops, with whose assistance he possessed himself of many of the neighboring towns and villages; but his career was cut short by a fatal fall from his horse when out hunting. Urkhan did not long survive his son, grief at whose un- timely end is said to have hastened his own death, iff J 359 ( 7 oi). This monarch is celebrated for the number of mosques, colleges, and other public institutions that he founded. During his reign the Ottoman army wai thoroughly organized, and a body of regular paid soldiers was raised, which formed the nucleus of the mil- itary power of the state, though the old irregular militia was still called out whenever a campaign was to be un- dertaken. ( The famous corps of the janissaries (Turkish yem chert, t.e., ‘‘new troop”) was instituted at this time. It consisted of the children of Christian subjects* till* Slouthl blauM'l fW® Danube \ •Xnajovt \Ka^a3^^C gJiKeutJ I th' 8ci'ft „ Li?!^ -Ofloilorrad -a; a s t e u v 1 : iilL-'A jS&Htari; *S/ rin t TQe'/'■<<■■> > Through Railways - Other «« Size of type indicates relative TUR 594? Who were erJiica^d 1 as iVT ii‘s s tlli I ria i n's andbrought iipT6 a rrtflitar^ life; Havirig ta'k&ii the city of Angora from certain terri- ufti£l lords mid, incited' by the prince of Karan^n, had attacked the Ottoiiiafi dominions, Murad I., the son and Successor of Orkhan, found him$?lf fr^e to Extend his ffe'glesMons across the Hellespont. He fe^lhwith passed over into Etbeipfi, where he and his general sAbn reduced almost all Kot^melk, capturing Adrianople, Philippopolis, and many other of importance. These successes alarmed the Christian princes, who determined to make a vigorous effort to drive thd Turks feack iritQ Asia. The kings of Bosnia, Hungary, and Serbia dce'drdiiigty rtiafehed with a large army upon Adfidntfple’j but Were surpris’d during the night and Completely defeated by Art inferior Tufkkh force. B|yezfd 1 ., stfrnarri^d Vildirirfi!,- Thunderbolt” did ffitfen to secure the position of tiid ^bomaihs in Burb’jjCV taking rrtdny 0( the 1 towns Which still retrained to the Christians ifi Rotrmelia. in Asia he annexed fh 4 ft'- ffkiMrtej Turkish principalities, aftd pushed his cotf- duestS a’s faif aS CsesarOa and Sfva:s. Bayezvd indicted ' an overwhelming defeat oh the Christians, He turned 1 ni£ attention' to Constantinople the reduction and Shtie^atibh of Which he had long meditated, When he Was summoned W rde€i TfnVur, the Tartar conquer, Who had iiivaded his Asiafk dominions and taken S*fv|s. , Th'e Ottoman and Tartar fldste encountered each other dpt side. Angora, and there the former sH&- tained their first dissktrouis' overthrow, Bayezfd being taken prisoner and his arrfry Wra'ctically annihilated. $ext year, 1403 (805), he died in captivity; th’e story of nfd having been imprisoned in an iron cage is Heft coh* firmed by the Thfkisii historians, and is most probably fictitious. After this vidtdfj Tfmfir overran the Otto- man territories in Asia, taking dftd seeking Brusa, Nieaga, and many other cities. Oil the Withdrawal of Timur from Asia Minor, the four surviving sofiS hi B^yezfdl, fought for what was left of their father’s kingdom; dtiSi fen years of civil war Success finally rested with MuhammCa^ Wfo hlofte of the four is reckoned among the Ottoman sovef^h#: . The Turks were next called upon to face the most formidable' Christian engmy they had yet encountered, namely Hunyadv, the illegitimate son of Sigismund, king of Hfifigafy; This famous general, afW having iflfikled several severe though fiof very important defeats upon his adversaries, invaded European Turkey with a large &fmy bf Hungarians, Poles, Servians, Bosnians, Wala- fcfaidns, dfid Ffdrtkisn crusaders, the last-named being tiiider the command of Cardinal Julian. The Ottoman army was utterly routed, Sophia taken, and the chain of the Balkans forced. Muhammed II. determined to accomplish the long- cherished design of his house, and make Constantinople the capital of the ‘Osmanli empire. He easily found a pretext for declaring war against Constantine Falaeologus and in the spring- of 1453 (857) led an immense army to beleaguer the city. His troops covered the ground before the landward walls between the Sea of Marmora and the Golden Horn; but he found that even his monster cannon could do but little against the massive fortifications. At length he resolved to assail the city from its weakest side, that facing the Golden Horn. But the Greeks, having foreseen the likelihood of an at- tack from this quarter, had thrown a great chain across the entrance to the harbor, thereby blocking the passage against the hostile ships. The Ottomans, however, constructed a road of planks, five miles long, across the piece of ground between the Bosphorus, where theft own fleet li ’ ' ~ ' Along this 373 iy, and the upper part of the Golden Horn, road they hauled a number of their galleys, With sails set to receive the aid of the favoring wind, smtf launched them safely in the harbor, whence they canriomvd-ed with more effect the weaker defenses of the city. This compelled the Greek emperor to with- draw a portion of his little garrison from the porefc wti&d the more seriotfe attack was being made, to re> pair the destruction wrought fn this new quarter. A& dawn on May 3 p 6 h the Ottomans advanced to store® thfc efty. The Christians offered a desperate resistance, but in Vain. The emperor died fighting in the fore- front of the ba/fctle, and at no'on Muhammed rode in triumph into his f?£# capital and went straight to the cathedral of St. Sophia j' there, before the high altar, wb^’fe the preceding night Constantine had received the Holy SaOf ament, he prostrated himself in the Moslem act of worship; The capture of Constantinople is not; the only exploit id which Muhammed owes his sur- name of Fatih, of the Conqueror: he also reduced §£*'Via and Bosnia, overthrew and annexed the Greek empire bf Trebizond and the Turkish principality of ifCa'fa’mah, acquired the suzerainty of the Crimea, and wofi many of the inlands of the Greek Archipelago from the Venetians and Genoese. Selim I. was personally the greatest of the Ottoman monafehs : his unflinching courage and tireless vigor were not more remarkable than his political’ sagacity and hfe literary and poetic talents; but so merciless was he that he has always been known in Turkish his- tory as YaWtfZ Selim or Selim the Grim. Happily ti?r En¥ope he turned Ms attention to the neighboring Mo- haiflffi^d'aii states and left the Christian powers in peace. Selim’s niO£t important campaign was against the Mem- Mks of Egypt. This body of Eastern chivalry offered a* most' gallant resistant to the ‘Osmanlis; but, possess- ing rid artillery, which they disdained as unbecoming men of va top, fhey were defeated in a series of engage- ments, c id Selim and his army entered Cairo as con- (p’^ors in 1517 (923). The results of this war were momenta and far-reaching; the Ottoman empire was greatly increased by the addition of Egypt, Syria, and the Hejaz, of all of #hich the Memfaks had been lords; the caliphate of Islam wa& won for the' Itouse of ‘Os- mam, Sdfm constraining the representative* £>f the old Abb^sid family, who resided, a purely spiritual prince, at Cairo 1 , • ?©’ make over to him and his heirs the* rights and priyheg& of successors of the Prophet. The sultan at the same time acquired from him the sacred banner and other reifies of the founder of Island whieftf had been handed down to> the Arabian prince from his- fathers, and which are now preserved in the seraglio afct Constantinople. # Suleyman I., who succeeded his father Selim as sul- tan, had not been long on the throne before he found himself involved in a war with the king of Hungary. He marched northward with a powerful army and wrested from the enemy several places of importance, including the strongly fortified city of Belgrade. Foonr years after the conquest of Rhodes the sultan again in- vaded Hungary, where in the renowned battle off Mohacz he annihilated the army of the Magyars and! slew their king. Thence he marched along the Danube; to Buda-Pesth, which opened its gates to him, and! there he rested a little while before starting on. hi& homeward way. The disturbed state of Asia Minor hastened Suleyman’s departure ; but in three years (1C29) he was back at Buda, ostensibly as the ally of Zapplva, a Hungarian who claimed the throne left vacant by Louis, who fell at Mohacz. herdmand of Austria had opposed the claim of Zapolya, who thereon had applied to the sultan for aid, which that monarch was most willing to accord. The troops of Ferdinand | beftg driven from Buda, Sqleym&q, appopipapftd by his TU R 5950 prot6g6, advanced upon Vienna, On September 27, 1529, the vast Turkish host, under the personal com- mand of one of the greatest of the family of ‘Osman, laid siege to the capital of the German empire, and on the 14th of the following month, after a most desperate assault carried on for four days, the invaders were com- pelled to retire, leaving the city in the possession of its heroic defenders. The torrent of Turkish military might had now reached its northern limit: once again it vainly swept round the walls of Vienna, but further it never went. On the death of Ahmed II. in the year 1695 (1106) Mustafa II., son of Muhammed IV., was girt with the sword of ‘Osman. The new sultan, aware of the piti- ful condition to which the empire had sunk, in part, at least, through the negligence and indifference of his pre- decessors, resolved, to restore the old Ottoman usages, and placed himself at the head of his armies. His first campaign was altogether successful ; he recaptured sev- eral important fortresses and. totally defeated a great Austrian army. During the following winter he worked hard to repair the finances and bring the forces of the empire into a higher state of efficiency; and, when he set out in the spring against the Austrians, fortune con- tinued to smile upon his banners. He defeated the duke of Saxe, raised the siege of Temesvar, and strengthened the garrisons of those fortresses which Turkey still held in Hungary. But in the next year, 1697, all was changed; Prince Eugene was at the head of the Austrians, and on the banks of the Theiss, near Zenta, the Turks sustained an overwhelming defeat, which compelled the sultan to retreat to Temesvar. Thence he returned to Constantinople, and never again led an army against the enemy. Although the peace of the empire was often broken during his reign, Ahmed III. was not of a warlike dis- position, and all the representations and entreaties of Charles XII. of Sweden, who after the disaster of Pul- towa had taken refuge in Turkey, failed to induce him to reopen hostilities with the czar. The menacing preparations of Russia in the south had more influence with the Porte than the prayers of the Swedish king, and in 1711 the new grand vizier, Baltaji Muhammed, marched into Moldavia to meet the forces of Peter the Great, who had formed an entrenched camp near the village of Hush, on the right bank of the Pruth. Here the vizier blockaded him, and after two days’ severe fighting compelled him to surrender with all his army. By the treaty which followed, the czar pledged himself, among other things, to restore the fortress of Azoff and all its dependencies to the sultan, and to grant the king of Sweden a free and safe passage to his own country through the Muscovite dominions. The lenity of Baltaji Muhammed in not destroying the czar and his army when they were within his grasp caused such dis- content at Constantinople that he was dismissed from the vizierate. After the long and resultless war with Persia, hos- tilities again broke out with Russia in 1736. Marshal Munnich stormed the lines of Perekop and devastated the Crimea; but he was unable to maintain his army there, and retreated with greatly diminished forces. Azoff was taken by General Lascy;and in the following year Otchakoff fell into the hands of Munnich, while the Crimea was again invaded and ravaged. Austria now joined Russia, and the Porte had to sustain a war in Servia and Bosnia as well as on the coast of the Black Sea. The double combat was carried on with very different results. While the Russians won victory after victory, and finally penetrated the heart of Molda- via, the Austrians were defeated and driven across the Danube. On their advancing from Belgrade in the summer of 1739, they were defeated with great loss at Krotzka, and compelled to sue for peace. The treaty of Belgrade, which was signed on September 1, 1739, restored to the Porte Belgrade and Orsova, with the portions of Servia, Bosnia, and Walachia which it had ceded to Austria at the peace of Passarowitz. Russia, unable to continue the war with a victorious Turkish army ready to fall upon its flank, had to conclude peace on very moderate terms. After this followed the wars with the empress Cather- ine, before whose genius and resources it seemed as if Turkey must inevitably sink into nothingness. The first contest was provoked by the armed intervention of the empress in Polish affairs and her well-known intrigues with rebellious subjects of the Porte. War was rashly declared by Mustafa III. in October, 1768. In 1771 the Russians invaded and conquered the Crimea. Austria now took alarm, and signed a convention with the Porte preparatory to armed intervention. But the partition of Poland reunited the three neighboring Christian powers and prevented a general war. The Russians crossed the Danube, and, though unsuccess- ful in their attempts upon Silistria and Varna, so com- pletely defeated the Turkish forces in the field that on July 21, 1774, the Porte concluded peace at Kutchuk- Kainardji under conditions more unfavorable than those which it had rejected in the previous year. The Tartar territory of the Crimea, with Kuban and the adjoining districts, was made into an independent state, Russia retaining Azoff, Kertch, and Kinburn. By other clauses in the treaty the obligations restraining Russia from making fortifications and placing ships of war on the Black Sea were annulled. It received the right of free navigation for its merchant ships on all Turkish waters, and the right of placing consuls at all Turkish ports. These last two conditions were of great histori- cal importance through their effect upon Greece. The stipulation that the Crimea and adjoining dis- tricts should be made into an independent state was of course not intended by Russia to be anything more than a veil for annexation; and in 1783 Catherine united this territory to her dominions. She had now definitely formed the plan of extinguishing Turkish sovereignty in Europe and placing her younger grand- son on the throne of a restored Greek kingdom. The boy was named Constantine ; his whole education was Greek and such as to fit him for the throne of Constan- tinople. Joseph II. of Austria threw himself eagerly into the plan for a partition of the Ottoman empire, and in 1788 followed Russia into war. Otchakoff was stormed by Suwaroff on December 16, 1788. In the following year the Turkish armies were overthrown by Suwaroff in Moldavia and by the Austrian Laudon on the south of the Danube. The fate of the Ottoman empire seemed to tremble in the balance ; it was, however, saved by the convulsions into which Joseph’s reckless autocracy had thrown his own dominions, and by the triple alliance of England, Prussia, and Holland, now formed by Pitt for the preservation of the balance of power in Europe. Joseph died in 1790; his successor Leopold II. entered into negotiations, and concluded peace at Sistova in August, 1791, relinquishing all his conquests except a small district in Croatia. Catherine continued the war alone. Ismail was captured by Suwaroff with fearful slaughter, and the Russian armies pushed on south of the Danube. Catherine’s successor Paul (1796-1801) made it his business to reverse his mother’s policy by abandoning the attack on Turkey. Bonaparte’s invasion of Egypt and the destruction of the French fleet by Nelson at the battle of the Nile led the Porte to join the second coali« tion against France. Bonapan*., invading Syria, was / X longituflt 80 Em J~ ft on 90 Greenwich. K-__J TUR checked and turned back at Acre, where Jezzar Pasha was assisted in his strenuous defense by an English squadron under Sir Sydney Smith. A Turkish army was meanwhile transported from Rhodes to the Egyp- tian coast. This army was destroyed by Bonaparte on his return to Egypt at the battle of Aboukir on July 25, 1799, after which Bonaparte set sail for France, leaving the Egyptian command to Kleber. Kleber, cut off from all communication with France and threatened by superior Turkish forces, entered into a convention at El Arish for the evacuation of Egypt. This conven- tion, however, was annulled by Lord Keith, the Eng- lish admiral, and Kleber replied by giving battle to the Turks and defeating them at Heliopolis on March 20, 1800. Egypt was finally wrested from the French by the English expedition under Abercromby, and restored to the sultan. On the restoration of peace France reassumed its an- cient position as the friend and ally of the Porte. The sultan now on the throne was Selim III. (1789-1807). Though the results of the war of the second coalition had been favorable to Turkey, the Ottoman empire was in a most perilous condition. When the third European coalition against France was in course of formation Russian and French influ- ences were in rivalry at Constantinople. The victories of Napoleon in 1805 gave him the ascendancy, and his envoy prevailed upon the sultan to dismiss, without con- sulting Russia, the hospodars of Walachia and Moldavia, who were considered to be agents of the court of St. Petersburg. This was a breach of the engagement made by the sultan in 1802, and it was followed by the entry of Russian troops into the principalities. England, as the ally of Russia, sent a fleet under Admiral Duck- worth through the Dardanelles to threaten Constanti- nople. While the admiral wasted time in negotiations, the French ambassador, General Sebastiani, taught the Turks how to fortify their capital. The English admiral found that he could do nothing, and repassed the Dar- danelles, suffering some loss on the passage. The treaty of Tilsit ended the war between France and Russia, and provided for the nominal mediation of Napoleon between Russia and the Porte. A truce followed be- tween the armies on the Danube. Mahmud II. (1808-1839) was the only sultan of modern times who possessed the qualities of a great ruler. The difficulties of his reign were enormous. He be- longed to an epoch when the Ottoman empire might fairly be considered as in actual dissolution. This he to some extent arrested, and the reforms which he effected, partial and imperfect as they were, have prolonged the existence of the Turkish state to our own day. After the convulsions of 1848 the sultan incurred the enmity of the autocratic courts by refusing to give up Kossuth and other exiles who had taken refuge within his dominions. The suppression of the National Hun- garian Government by Russia in 1849 had heightened in the emperor Nicholas the sense of his own power. He now looked forward to the speedy extinction of Turkey, and in 1853 proposed to the British ambassador, Sir H. Seymour, a plan for the division of “ the sick man’s ” inheritance as soon as he should expire. Dis- putes between France and Russia relating to the rights of the Latin and Greek Churches in certain sacred places were made the occasion for the assertion of a formal claim on the part of the czar to a protectorate over all Chris- tians in Turkey'belonging to the Greek Church, This claim not being acknowledged by the Porte, a Russian army entered the Danubian principalities. After in- effective negotiations war was declared by the sultan on October 4, 1853. Hostilities commenced in Wal- achia, and the Turkish fleet was attacked and destroyed 5951 at Sinope, England and France allied themselves with the Porte, and landed an army at V ama in the spring of the following year. Silistria was successfully defended by the Turks; and, on the occupation of the Danubian principalities by Austria, the allies took up the offensive and transferred their forces to the Crimea. The siege of Sebastopol followed, ending in its capture in Sep- tember, 1855. Meanwhile Russian and Turkish forces were opposed in Asia. Kars maintained a gallant de- fense, but succumbed to famine two months after the fall of Sebastopol. The peace of Paris followed, by ’which Russia ceded to Turkey the portion of Bessara- bia adjacent to the mouth of the Danube. The Black Sea was neutralized, Russia and the Porte alike engag- ing to keep no war-ships and to maintain no arsenals there. The exclusive protectorate of Russia over the Danubian principalities was abolished, and the auton- omy of these provinces, as well as of Servia, placed under the guarantee of all the powers. The Crimean War gave to part of the Balkan popu- lation twenty years more of national development under the slackened grasp of the Porte; and by extinguishing the friendship of Austria and Russia it rendered the liberation of Italy possible. But each dir^ .c proviso of the treaty of Paris seemed made only to be mocked by events. A new series of massacres in the Lebanon in i860 caused France to land a force in Syria. Wallachia and Moldavia formed themselves into a single state under the name of Roumania, to which the house of Hohenzollern soon afterward gave a sovereign. Bosnia and Montenegro took up arms. Servia got rid of its Turkish garrisons. Crete fought long for its independ- ence, and seemed for a moment likely to be united to Greece under the auspices of the powers; but it was ultimately abandoned to its Turkish masters. The overthrow of France in the war of 1870 and the conse- quent isolation of England led Russia to declare the provision of the treaty of Paris which excluded its ships of war and its arsenals from the Black Sea to be no longer in force. To save appearances, the British Gov- ernment demanded that the matter should be referred to a European conference, where Russia’s will was duly ratified. A few years later the horizon of eastern Europe visibly darkened with the coming storm. Russian influences were no doubt at work; but the development of national feeling which had so powerfully effected every other part of Europe during the nineteenth century could not remain without effect among the Christian races of the Balkan peninsula. In 1875 Bosnia and Herzegovina revolted. In the meantime the government of ‘Abd-uL ‘Aziz (1861-76) had become worse and worse. The state was bankrupt. Ignatieff, the Russian ambassador, gained complete ascendancy in the palace, and frustrated every attempt on the part of the better Turkish states- men to check the torrent of misrule. His creature, Mahmud Pasha, maintained his place in spite of uni versal contempt, until a conspiracy was formed at Constantinople, which cost the sultan his throne (May 30, 1876) and a few days later his life. His imbecile successor, Murad V., gave place after a reign of three months to ‘Abd-ul-Hamfd II. The Bosnian insur rection had already extended to Bulgaria, and the slaughter of the Turkish inhabitants in certain villages had been avenged by massacres of the most fearful character. Servia and Montenegro took up arms. The resources of European diplomacy were exhausted in fruitless attempts to gain from the Porte some real securities for better government, and in April, 1877, Russia declared war. The neutrality of Austria had been secured by a secret agreement permitting that country to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina, if Russia TU R 5952 should extend Sts influence beyond the Balkans. The Bulgarian massacres had excited such horror and in- dignation in England that Lord Beaconsfield was forced to remain neutral. Turkey was. thus left without an ally. The Russians entered Bulgaria in June; and, while Rustchuk was besieged, their advanced guard under Gourko hurried across the Balkans. Meanwhile Osman Pasha, coming from Widdin, occupied and fortified Plevna on the Russian line of march. Against his redoubts the Rus- sians, ill commanded, threw themselves in vain, and Gourko was compelled to fall back on the Shipka Pass* But in December the capture of Plevn'a, in which Roumanian troops cooperated, set free the invading army, and the march on Constantinople was resumed. The Balkans were passed in midwinter; Adrianople was occupied; and the Turkish armies were captured or annihilated. The Russians now pressed forward to the very suburbs of Constantinople, and on March 3, 1878, peace was concluded at San Stefano. In Asia the Russians had captured Kars and were besieging Erze- roum. The treaty of San Stefano ceded to Russia the portion of Bessarabia taken from it in 1856, together with the Dobrudja, and also Kars, Batoum, and the adjoining territory in Asia. It recognized the independ- ence of Servia, Montenegro, and Roumania, and largely extended the territory of the first two. Bulgaria was constituted an autonomous state, though tributary to the Porte, and was defined so as to extend to the /Egean Sea and to include the greater part of the country between the Balkans and the coast. Crete, Thessaly, and Epirus were to receive the necessary Teforms at the hands of a European commission. To diis treaty Great Britain refused to give its assent, and vigorous preparations were made for war. The fleet, was at the Dardanelles, and Indian troops were brought to Malta. Russia could no longer count on the neutral- ity of Austria. Under these circumstances the court of St. Petersburg consented to submit the treaty to a European congress, which, after a secret agreement had been made between Russia and England on the principal points of difference, assembled at Berlin. The ’.reaty of San Stefano received various modifications, the principal being a reduction of the territory included in Bu^aria and the division of that state into two parts. Bulgaria north of the Balkans was constituted an auton- omous principality; Bulgaria south of the Balkans was made into a province, with the title of Eastern Roumelia, subject to the authority of the sultan, but with a Christian governor and an autonomous administration. Austria received Bosnia and Her- zegovina. The territory ceded to Servia and Mon- tenegro by the treaty of San Stefano, as well as that ceded to Russia in Asia, was somewhat diminished. The Porte was advised to make some cession of terri- tory to Greece, and the line of frontier subsequently recommended gave to Greece Janina as well as Thes- saly. The usual promises of organic reform were made by Turkey. By a separate convention England under- took the defense of A siatic Turkey and received Cy- prus. The organization of Eastern Roumelia was duly taken in hand by a European commission and brought to a favorable conclusion; but it was not until a naval demonstration had been made by England that the final cession of Dulcigno to the Montenegrins was effected, and that Thessaly, without Epirus, was given up to Greece. Alexander of Battenberg became prince of Bulgaria. By a popular movement in 1885 Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia were united into a single state. This revolution occasioned the utmost dis- leasure at St. Petersburg; and under Russian in- uence Prince Alexander was kidnapped and torced to abdicate. The Porte offered no armed resistance to the union. Since the Russo-Turkish War of 1878, the extremely irregular frontiers of European Turkey are contermin- ous with Greece in the south, and in the north with Montenegro, Austria, Servia, and Roumania, being separated from the last country partly by the Danube, partly by a conventional line drawn from Silistria on that river to Mangalia on the Black Sea. By the Ber- lin congress Roumania and Servia, hitherto vassal states, were made absolutely independent kingdoms, Roumania at the same time receiving the district of Dobrudja between the lower Danube and the Black Sea, and Servia those of Nish and Leskovatz about the upper Morava river. Montenegro was also recognized as an independent principality, with an increase of ter- ritory, which gave it a sea frontier limited southward by the river Boyana, and including the Albanian port-* of Dulcigno and Antivari on the Adriatic. Th« Greco-Turkish frontier was also shifted north, Greece obtaining most of Thessaly and a strip of Epirus (South Albania), so that since 1881 the border line runs from near Mount Olympus on the Gulf of Saloniki (40° N. latitude) west to the Pindus range, then southwest to the Gulf of Arta on the Ionian Sea. A still more serious step was taken toward disintegration by the withdrawal of Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia from the immediate jurisdiction of the Sublime Porte. The former was constituted a tributary principality, with representative institutions, and Eastern Roumelia was erected into an autonomous province, both under the guarantee of the European powers. But in 1885 the latter province declared for union with Bulgaria, and since then these two territories have practically formed one state administered from Sophia, Europe assenting and Turkey consenting (imperial firman of April 6, 1886) to the retrocession to Turkey of the Moslem dis- tricts of Kirjali and the Rhodope. In the year 1878 Austria occupied and assumed the civil administration of the northwestern provinces of Bosnia and Herze- govina, besides taking military possession of the con- tiguous strategical district of Novi-Bazar. The direct possessions of the sultan have thus been reduced in Europe to a strip of territory stretching continuously across the Balkan Peninsula from the Bosphorus to the Adriatic, and lying in the east mainly between 40° and 42 0 and in the west between 39 0 and 43° N. latitude. T o these must be added the Turkish islands in the yEgean usually reckoned to Europe, that is, Thasos, Samo- thrace, Imbros, and, in the extreme south, Crete or Can- dia, with estimated (1897) areas and populations as under: — Provinces. Area in Sq. Miles. Population. Constantinople 2,702 1,136,000 Adrianople 15,015 1,006,500 Salonica 13,684 1,165,400 Monastir 10,690 847,400 Kossova 12,100 961,000 Scutari (Albania) 4,5i6 322,000 Janina 7,045 648,000 Immediate Possessions 65,752 6,086,300 Bulgaria (including Eastern Rou- 3,733,189 melia) autonomous 37,860 Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Novi- 1.591,036 bazar— under Austria-Hungary . 23 ,*570 Crete, Samos, and Egypt 403.506 10,185,132 Total European Turkey 530,688 21,595,657 For detailed accounts of the physical features, climate, fauna, and flora of these regions, the reader is referred TUR to the articles Albania, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Constan- tinople, Epirus, Herzegovina, Macedonia, and Thrace. Here it will suffice to remark in a general way that the territory still directly administrated from Stamboul comprises one of the most favored regions of the temperate zone. The whole region enjoys a some- what southerly aspect, sheltered from the north by the lofty crests of the Rilo Dagh and northern Pindus, and in every way admirably suited for the cultivation of most cereals, as well as of cotton, tobacco, madder, the * mulberry, the vine, and fruits. Here maize yields such a bountiful harvest that, although originally introduced from America, it has long been regarded as indigenous, and for the Italians is simply the Turkish corn (“ gran turco ”) in a preeminent sense. The inhabitants also, Greeks intermingled with Turks in the east, with Bul- garians in the west, are intelligent and industrious, noted for their skill in the manufacture of carpets and other woven goods, of saddlery, arms, and jewelry. Turkey, or the Ottoman empire ( Osmanli Vilaieli), embraces extensive territories in southeastern Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa, grouped mainly round the eastern waters of the Mediterranean, and along both sides of the Red Sea, the west coast of the Persian Gulf, and the southern and western shores of the Black Sea. These territories form an aggregate of provinces and states, some under the direct control of the sultan, some enjoying a large share of political au- tonomy, some practically independent, either adminis- tered by foreign powers or ruled by hereditary vassals or tributary princes. The extent of the Ottoman empire is about i, 579>982 square miles, and its population 40,440,957.. The mainstay of the Ottoman dynasty is the Asiatic portion of the empire, where the Mohammedan religion is absolutely predominant, and where the naturally vigorous and robust Turki race forms in Asia Minor a compact mass of many millions, far outnumbering any other single ethnical element and probably equaling all taken collectively. Here also, with the unimportant exception of the islands of Samos and Cyprus and the somewhat privileged district of Lebanon, all the Turk- ish possessions constitute vilayets directly controlled by the Porte. They comprise the geographically distinct regions of the Anatolian plateau (Asia Minor), the Armenian and Kurdish highlands, the Mesopotamian lowlands, the hilly and partly mountainous territory of Syria and Palestine, and the coastlands of west and northeast Arabia. The changes caused by the Russo- Turkish War of 1878 were the cession to Persia of the little district of Kotur on the eastern frontier and to Russia of the districts of Kars and Batoum on the northeast frontier, while to England were conceded the military occupation and administration of Cyprus. Asiatic Turkey is conterminous on the east with Russia and Persia; in the southwest it incloses on the west, north, and northeast the independent part of Arabia. Toward Egypt the frontier is a conventional line drawn from Akabah at the head of the Gulf of Akabah north- westward to the little port of El Arish on the Mediter- ranean. Elsewhere Asiatic Turkey enjoys the advan- tage of a sea frontage, being washed in the northwest and west by the Euxine, Egean, and Mediterranean, in the southwest by the Red Sea, and in the southeast by the Persian Gulf. The above enumerated five natural divisions of Asiatic Turkey are divided for administrative purp'oses into about twenty vilayets, which, however, have been and still are subject to considerable fluctuations. The sub- joined grouping, with areas and populations, is based mainly on data lately communicated confidentially to thtJ Government by Mr. Redhopsft. His 5953 mates of population have been strikingly confirmed by the official returns that have for the first time just been made for certain provinces in Asia Minor and the Ar- menian highlands. Thus the census of the Trebizond vilayet, completed in 1898, gave a total of 1,163,800. So also the (1897) census for the Erzeroum vilayet gives 597,000, or 998,000 including the territory ceded to Russia in 1878. Provinces. Broussa, with Biga and Ismid Aidin (Smyrna) Castamouni Angora Konia Adana Sivas Trebizond Erzeroum and Van Diarbekr with Aziz Bitlis Bagdad Mossul and Bassora Aleppo and Zor Syria and Beyrouth Jerusalem and Lebanon Hedjaz and Yemen Tripoli and Benghazi Archipelago Asiatic, African, and Arabian Turkey Area in Popula- Sq. Miles. tion. 35,434 1,979,100 20,844 1,396,500 19, 184 1,018,900 26,055 892,900 39 , 68 i 1,088,000 14,359 403,400 24,240 1,086,500 11,850 1,163,800 35,203 1,027,000 26,943 1,046,800 10,345 398,600 54,503 850,000 45,702 500,300 63,189 1,095,800 35,589 1,489,300 10,731 732,500 173,700 1,050,000 398,900 1,300,000 2,744 325,900 1,049,294 18,845,300 Detailed descriptions of Asiatic Turkey will be found under the separate articles Arabia, Armenia, Asia Minor, Kurdistan. Mesopotamia, Palestine, and Syria. Of these natural divisions Asia Minor or Ana- tolia is by far the most important for extent, population, and natural resources. It constitutes an elevated and fertile plateau inclosed by irregular mountain ranges, which in the Taurus and Antitaurus on the south and east rise to from 7,000 to 10,000 feet, culminating in the volcanic Erjish-Dagh, or Argseus, nearly 12,000 feet high. The western rivers — Granicus, Xanthus (Sea- mander),Hermus, Simois, Meander — although renowned in song and history, are comparatively insignificant coast-streams, rushing from the escarpment of the plateau down to their fjord-like estuaries in the Egean. None of the rivers are navigable to any distance from their mouths, and in the absence of good means of communication the very rich resources of the plateau in minerals and agricultural produce have hitherto been little developed. This lowland region is separated by the more elevated Syrian desert or steppe from the much smaller and less productive provinces of Syria and Palestine. Here the main physical features are at once simple and yet strik- ing. The narrow, hilly region disposed north and south between the Mediterranean and the desert, and stretch ing for over 400 miles between Anatolia and the Sinai Peninsula, culminates toward the center in the parallel Libanus and Antilibanus (10,000 to 11,000 feet), in- closing between them the fertile depression of the Beka* (Coele-Syria). The stupendous ruins of Baalbek, standing at the highest point of this depression in 30 0 N. latitude, mark the parting line between the northern and southern water-sheds of the region. Turkey’s Arabian possessions comprise, besides El Hasa on the Persian Gulf, the low-lying hot, and in- salubrious Tehama and the southwestern highland* (vilayets of Hejaz and Yemen) stretching continuously along the east side of the Red Sea, ana including the two hojv cities of Mecca *nd Medina- These are hejd TUR 5954 by military occupation, probably at a loss to the imperial exchequer, and certainly a'gainst the wishes of the in- habitants. But these drawbacks are supposed to be more than compensated by the political prestige derived from the possession of the Holy Land by Islam. Since the abandonment of Eastern or Egyptian Soudan in 1884, consequent on the revolt of the Mahdi, and the occupation of Tunis by the French in 1881, Turkey in Africa has been reduced to the two territories of Egypt and Tripolitana with Barca and Fezzan, jointly occupying the northeast corner of the continent. Of these Tripolitana alone is directly administered, con- stituting the pashalik or vilayet of Tripoli. Egypt, whose southern frontier was temporarily fixed in January, 1887, at the station of Akashe above Wady Haifa, near the second cataract in Lower Nubia (22 0 N. latitude), has formed a practically independent principality under the dynasty of Mehemet Ali since 1841, subject only to an annual tribute of $3,500,000 to the Porte. The areas and populations of Turkey in Africa were estimated as follows in 1897 : — Tripoli, with Benghazi Kgypt, tributary principality Total Turkey in Africa Area in Popula- Sq. Miles. tion. 398,900 800,000 400,000 9 . 734,405 798,900 10,534,405 Turkey is essentially a theocratic absolute monarchy, being subject in principle to the direct personal control of the sultan, who is himself at once a temporal auto- crat and the recognized caliph, that is, “ successor” of the Prophet, and consequently the spiritual head of the Moslem world (see Mohammedanism). The grand vizier ( sadr-azam ), who is nominated by the sultan, presides ex-officio over the privy council ( mejliss - i-khass ), which, besides the sheikhu ’1-Islam, comprises the ministers of home and foreign affairs, war, finance, marine, trade, public works, justice, public instruc- tion, and worship, with the president of the council of state and the grand master of artillery. For administrative purposes the immediate possessions of the sultan are divided into vilayets (provinces), which are again subdivided into sanjaks or mutessariks (arron- dissements), these into kazas (cantons), and the kazas «ito nahies (parishes or communes). A vali or governor- general, nominated by the sultan, stands at the head of the vilayet, and on him are directly dependent the pashas, effendis, beys, and other administrators of the minor divisions. All these officials unite in their own persons the judicial and executive functions, and all alike are as a rule thoroughly corrupt, venal in the dispensation of justice, oppressors of the subject, embezzlers of the pub- lic revenues, altogether absorbed in amassing wealth during their mostly brief and precarious tenure of office. Foreigners settled in the country are specially protected from exactionsby the so-called “capitulations,” m virtue of which they are exempt from the jurisdiction of the local courts and amenable for trial to tribunals presided over by tneir respective consuls. Cases be- tween foreigners of different nationalities are heard in the court of the defendant, and between foreigners and Turkish subjects in the local courts, at which a consu- lar dragoman attends to see that the trial is conducted according to law. The trade returns for the last few years show that the country is slowly recovering from the disastrous consequences of the Russo-Turkish War. Exclusive of coasting craft, the mercantile fleet of Turkey in 1885 consisted of fourteen steamers of 1 1 ,000 tons and 400 sailing vessels of 65,000 tons. All branches of the foreign trade, together with most of the local traffic and the banking business, are almost exclusively in the hands of Greeks, Armenians, Jews, and foreigners. The Turks and other Mohammedans are engaged nearly altogether in agricultural and pas- toral pursuits. But the land, especially in Anatolia, is gradually passing from its Moslem owners into the possession of Christian mortgagees. Scarcely any ac- curate agricultural returns are available, except for one or two districts. Previous to 1880 Turkey was commonly regarded as practically bankrupt. But since then a considerable improvement has been effected. Trustworthy data are still wanting; but a careful estimate gave the gross revenue and expenditure of 1884 at $60,500,000 and $60,300,000 respectively, the expenditure including over $1,600,000 available for state creditors. The public debt stood at $530,000,000 in 1S90. The sultan, is reported to draw a sum of from $5,000,000 to $10,000,000 annually from the public revenues for the support of the seraglio or imperial household of over 5.000 persons. Until 1886 the military service, compulsory on all Moslems over eighteen years of age, was kept up by 45.000 annual recruits drawn by ballot; but in Novem- ber of that year universal conscription of the whole able-bodied male population was decreed. By this measure the army, hitherto reckoned at about 160,000 men, with a. war strength of from 450,000 to 500,000, will be probably raised to a permanent footing of 1 .000,- 000 effectives under the flag and in the reserves. These will continue to be grouped in the three categories of the nizam or regulars in active service, the redif or first reserve, and the mustahfiz or second reserve. The navy at the beginning of 1890 comprised fifteen large and several smaller ironclads (monitors, gunboats, etc.), a number of mostly old-fashioned steamers, and fourteen torpedo boats, and was manned by 30,000 sailors and 10.000 marines (nominal strength), raised by conscrip- tion or voluntary enlistment and serving for twelve years in the active and reserve classes. Public instruction is much more widely diffused throughout the empire than is commonly supposed. This is due partly to the Christian communities, no ta- bly the Maronites and others- in Syria, the Anatolian and Roumelian Greeks, and the Armenians of the east- ern provinces and of Constantinople. Education is prac- tically limited among the Mohammedans to reading and writing and the study of the Koran. Besides administrative and financial reforms, one of the most pressing needs is improved means of commu- nication. In Trebizond the route from the coast at Unieh through Niksar to Sivas has recently been com- pleted to the limits of the vilayet. But the works on the more important road from Kirasun to Kara-hissar fvr the silver and lead mines at Lijessy are still sus {•ended, owing to disputes between the contiguous pro- vincial administrations. Many of the great historic highways are also much out of repair. At the end of 1899 only 2,980 miles of railway were completed in the empire, of which 1,267 were in Europe and 1,713 in Asia. The chief cities of the Ottoman Empire with their popu- lations (1897) are: Constantinople, 1,125,000; Salonica, 105,000 ; Smyrna, 201,000 ; Bagdad, 1.45,000 ; Adrian- ople, 81,000; Damascus, 140,500; Aleppo, 127,150; Beirut, 118,800; Mecca, 60,000; Jerusalem, 42,000; Er- zerum, 385900; Trebizond, 35,000; Brdssa, 76,303; Kaisarieh, 72,00; Kerbela, 65,000; Mosul, 61,000; Me- dineh, 48,000 ; Adana, 45,000 ; Koniah, 44,000 ; Sivas, 43,- 100; Bitlis, 38,800; Diarbekr, 34,000; Cairo, 570,062; Alexandria, 319,766. The telegraph system is much more developed, com- TUR prising (1897) 23,440 miles, with 38,400 miles of wire and 75 ° stations. The yearly average of letters and pack^ ages of all sorts sent through the 1,031 postoffices scarcely •exceeds 23,800,000. TURKEY’, an abbreviation for Turkey-Cock or Turkey-Hex as the case may be, a well-known large domestic gallinaceous bird. How it came by this name has long been a matter of discussion, for it is certain that this valuable animal was introduced to Europe from the New World, and in its introduction had nothing to do with Turkey or with Turks, even in the old and ex- tended sense in which that term was applied to all Mahometans. But it is almost as unquestionable that the name was originally applied to the bird which we know as the Guinea-Fowl (y.^.), and there is no doubt that some authors in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries curiously confounded these two species. As both birds became more common and better known, the distinction was gradually perceived, and the name “ Turkey” clave to that from the New World — possibly because of its repeated call-note — to be syllabled turk , turk, turk , Vhereby it may be almost said to have named itself. But even Linnaeus couW not clear himself cf the confusion, and unhappily misapplied the name Meleagris , undeniably belonging to the Guinea-Fowl, as the generic term for what we now know as the Turkey, adding thereto as its specific designation the word stallo- pavo , taken from the Gallopava of Gesner, who, though not wholly free from error, was less mistaken than some of his contemporaries and even successors. The Turkey, so far as we know, was first described by Oviedo in his Sutnario de la Natural Historia de las Indias , said to have been published in 1527. He, not unnaturally, includes both Curassows and Turkeys in one category, calling both “ Pavos” (Peafowls); but he carefully distinguishes between them, pointing out among other things that the latter make a wheel ( hacen la rueda) of their tail, though this was not so grand or so beautiful as that of the Spanish “ Pavo,” and he gives a faithful though short description of the Turkey. The chief point of interest in his account is that he speaks of the species having been already taken from New Spain (Mexico) to the islands and to Castilla del Oro (Darien), where it bred in a domestic state among the Christians. Much labor has been given by various naturalists to ascertain the date of its introduction to Europe, to which we can at present only make an ap- proximate attempt ; but after all that has been written it is plain that evidence concurs to show that the bird was established in Europe by 1530. There is no need to describe here a bird so familiar and in these days so widely distributed. As a denizen of our poultry- yards (see Poultry) there are at least two distinct breeds, though crosses between them are much commoner than purely-bred examples of either. That known as the Norfolk breed is the taller of the two, and is said to be the more hardy. Its plumage is almost entirely black, with very little luster, but the feathers of the tail and some of those of the bade have a brownish tip. The chicks also are black, with occasionally white patches on the head. The Tther breed, called the Cambridgeshire, is much more variegafed in color, and some parts of the plumage have a bright metallic gloss, while the chicks are generally mottled with brownish-gray. White, pied and buff Turkeys are also often seen, and if care be taken they are commonly found to “breed true.” The northern form of wild Turkey, whose habits have been described in. much detail by all the chief writers on North- American birds, is now extinct in the settled parts of Canada and the eastern States of the Union, wher2 it was once so numerous ; and in Mexico the southern form, which would seem to have been never 5955 abundant since the conquest, has been for many years rare. Further to the south, on the borders of Guate- mala and British Honduras, there exists a perfectly distinct species, M. ocellata y whose plumage almost vies with that of a Peacock in splendor, while the bare skin which covers the head is of a deep blue studded with orange caruncles. The genus Meleagris is considered to enter into the Family Phasianidce t in which it forms a Subfamily Meleagrincey peculiar to North and Central America. The fossil remains of three species have been described by Professor Marsh — one from the Miocene of Colorado, and two, one much taller and the other smaller than the existing species, from the Post- Pliocene of New Jersey. Both the last had proportionally long and slender legs. TURKEY-RED. This celebrated color — the most durable, and perhaps one of the most beautiful which has yet been produced in cotton, is dyed by a process supposed to have been in practice in India from im- memorial time. It passed from thence through other parts of Asia, to the countries of the Levant, and was introduced into France about the middle of the last century. The first successful attempt to introduce it into Great Britain was made in Glasgow in 1783, by a Rouen dyer named Papillon, in conjunction with Mr. Geo. Macintosh, the father of the inventor of water- proof cloth. By an agreement with the Trustees for Manufactures in Scotland, Papillon allowed them to make his process public in 1803; and since then Turkey, red dyeing has been extensively carried on in Glasgow and its neighborhood and also in Lancashire. There was a mode of dyeing cotton red with madder practiced by calico printers — the cloth being previously bleached with chloride of lime — where the whole pro- cess only occupied a day or two. But in the case of Turlcey-red, which is also a madder dye, the operations are long and tedious, and the bleaching with chloride of lime is especially objectionable. The following is an outline of the steps for the Turkey-red process as usually conducted: 1. Unbleached calico is thoroughly washed at a dash wheel or other washing machine and then boiled for some time in a solution of carbonate of soda. 2. The cloth is soaked in a bath containing a soapy emulsion of olive oil, sheep’s dung, carbonate of soda and water; and allowed to remain for a week or more impregnated with the solution, after which it is aired in the field and dried in stoves. This operation is repeated at least three times. 3. The next stage, some- times called “ liquoring,” consists in passing the cloth through an emulsion of olive oil and carbonate of soda, but without sheep’s dung; after which it is aired in the field, and dried in stoves, as in the last operation. The “liquoring” is repeated at least four times. 4. The cloth now requires to be soaked in a weak alkaline lye of pearl-ash and soda, in order to remove any excess of oil. 5. The cloth is warmed in a bath containing a mixture of powdered oak-galls and sumach, or either of these substances alone, the operation being some- times called “ galling,” and sometimes “ sumaching.” 6. The cloth is next steeped for twelve hours in a solu- tion of alum, partially neutralized by carbonate of soda, but sometimes acetate of alumina is used instead of alum. Without this treatment, the dye could not be fixed upon the cotton. 7. When thoroughly washed, the cloth is ready to receive the red dye, which is pro- duced by immersing it in a decoction of madder, to which some chalk and bullock’s blood are sometimes added. It is put into the dye-beck when cold, and kept in it for two hours after it has been raised to the boiling point. It is next boiled in a weak solution of soap and TUR 5956 soda, which removes a brown coloring matter present in the madder dye, but more fugitive than the red portion. Finally the dyed cloth is cleared or brightened by boiling it in solution of chloride of tin, and then wash- ing and drying it. A more recent plan is to employ khloride of lime for the clearing. The theory of Turkey-red dyeing is not well under- stood, which so far accounts for the fact, that it has rieen found impossible materially to shorten the proe- ms. The three most essential operations are the oiling, ©r rather the impregnation with an oleaginous soap, the mordanting with alumina, and the dyeing with madder; but it is found, that if any of the numerous dippings in trie oily emulsions are left out the color is inferior in proportion to the number of omissions. This is the least understood part of the process, and is no doubt tke cause of the rich appearance of the dye, which ap- proaches some of the fine reds produced in wool. Be- sides being largely used in the plain state, Turkey- red cloth is extensively employed for handkerchiefs with white patterns produced upon them by discharging the color. 1 'URKS. The use of the name “Turks ” has never been limited in a clear and definite way from the time of tne Byzantine authors to the present day. To the iormer, as also to the Arabs, it has a collective sense like Scythians or Huns; at the present day we are wont to restrict the name to the Osmanli Turks, though they Chemselves refuse to be called T urks, having, as they hold, ceased to be such in becoming imbued with Arabo- Persian culture. On the other hand, when we speak of Uigurs and Tartars, we mean tribes who style them- selves Turks and really are such. It is only by the aid of historical and linguistical evidence that we can determine the true limits of the Turkish name. The principal Turkish peoples are the followyig. (I.) By a popular distinction the Turks of Siberia and Russia, with some colonies in Turkey, are styled Tatars (see Tartars), though the Yakuts, of northern Siberia are not usually included in this term. The Yakuts, who are perhaps a mixture of Turkish and Tungus tribes, deviating from the ordinary course of Turkish wanderings, are settled about the lower Lena, and number probably 200,000. They are nominally Christians. (II.) On the Kirghiz (Kara-Kirghiz and Kazaks) and Kara-Kalpaks see Kirghiz. (III.) Uzbeg is a political, not an ethnological denomination, origin- ating from Uzbeg Khan of the Golden Horde (1312- 1340). The Uzbegs are a mixed race of different Turkish tribes. According to Kostenko, they num- ber 201,972 in the Russian provinces of Sir-Daria, Ferghana, Zerafshan, and Amu-Daria, and Vambery conjectures that there are 1,000,000 more in Bokhara, 700.000 in Khiva, and 200, 000 under Afghan supremacy, giving a total number of about 2,000,000. (IV.) The eastern Turks on the southern slopes of the Tian-Shan Mountains at Kashgar, Ust-turfan, Ak-su, Sairam, Kutcha, Yarkand, Khotan, etc., are the remnants of the ancient Uigurs; and of the same origin are the Taranjis (= agriculturists), settled in the Ili valley and elsewhere. The number of the latter is given as about 50.000 ; that of the former may be estimated from the statements of Forsyth and Kuropatkin at about 1,000,- 000 for the whole district, the great majority being Turks and the rest Mohammedan Chinese (Sungans). (V.) The Turcomans (properly Turkmans) inhabit the steppe east of the Caspian and south of the Oxus from Astrabad to the Paropamisus. (VI.) The Turkish nomads scattered throughout Persia are partly the de- scendants of the Ghuzz tribes that invaded the country at the Seljukian period ; others have migrated thither in the following centuries. (VII.) The Osmanlis, under which term are compre. fended all the Turkish subjects of the sultan of Turkey, consist chiefly of the following elements. (1) Turk- manian tribes and Turks of every description. The Mongolian invasion drove the obscure ancestors of this the most illustrious Turkish dynasty to Asia Minor, whence they gradually spread to the province of Khoda- wendikyar (Bithynia). (2) Tartars scattered among the rest of the population, but forming a large colony in the Dobrudja. (3) The so-called Kizil-bashis or “Red Heads,” a nickname of the Shi‘itic Turkish immigrants from Persia, who are found chiefly in the plains from Kara-hissar along Tokat and Amasia to Angora. (4) Turkmenian tribes — Yuruks and Got- chebes (words meaning “ nomads ” and characteristic of their most distinctive quality) — who occupy the mount- ains in summer and descend into the plains in winter, though some are settled in the plains of Cili^a near Tarsus and Adana, the rest being semi-nomads. Reclus estimates the total number of Turks in Europe at 1,500,000 and 35,000 Tartars. For AsiaiMinor sta- tistics are wanting; but P. de Tchihatchef, the chief authority for matters relating to this peninsula, thinks that 6,000,000 is a fair estimate for the total population, including Greeks, Armenians, Kurds, etc: , but exclud- ing the islands. It appears therefore necessary to re- duce the already moderate number of Osmanlis given by Vambe’y (10,000,000) to about 6,000,000. TURMERIC, the tuberous root of Curcuma longa y L. , an herbaceous perennial plant belonging to the na- tural order Zingiber acece. It is a native of Southern Asia, being cultivated on a large scale both on the mainland and in the islands of the Indian Ocean. Turmeric has been used from a remote period both as a condiment and as a dye stuff, and to a more limited extent as a medicine. In Europe it is employed chiefly as a dye, also as an ingredient in curry powder and as a chemical test for alkalies. The root is prepared by cleaning it and drying it in an oven. Turmeric has a characteristic odor and an aromatic taste. The aroma it owes to a complex essential oil, which consists principally of an alcohol called turmerol , which differs from carvol in being unable to combine with hydrogen sulphide; the other constituents of the oil have not been determined. The cultivation of tur- meric is carried on most successfully in light, rich soil in well-watered districts. . The plant is easily propa- gated by offsets. An acre yields about 2,000 pounds. Turmeric is said to grow in large quantities on the slopes of hills bordering the plains of the Beni in Bo livia and also in Panama. TURNAU, a walled town of Bohemia, circle of Jung. Bunzlau, on the east bank of the Iser, fifty miles north- east of Prague. It has a church built in 1825, which is reckoned one of the most beautiful in Bohemia. Tur- nau has manufactures of cotton, woolens, and more particularly of artificial gems, which are exported in great quantities to the United States. Population, 4,900. Here was fought in July, 1866, a battle between the Prussians and Austrians, in which the former were victorious. TURNER, Charles, an English engraver, was born at Woodstock in 1773. He entered the schools of the Royal Academy in 1795; and, engraving in stipple in the manner of Bartolozzi, he was employed by Aider- man Boydell. His finest plates, however, are in mez- zotint, a method in which he engraved J. M. W. Turner’s Wreck and twenty-four subjects of his Liber Studiorum, Reynolds’ Marlborough Family, and many of Raeburn’s best portraits, including those of Sir Wal- ter Scott, Lord Newton, Doctor Hamilton, Profs. Du- gald Stewart and John Robison, and Doctor Adam. In TU R 1828 he was elected an associate engraver of the Royal Academy. He died in London on August I, 1857. TURNER, Joseph Mallord William, one of the greatest painters of the English school, was born in London on April 23, 1775. The earliest known draw- ing by Turner, a view of Margate church, dates from his ninth year. It was also about this time that he was sent to his first school at New Brentford. Of educa- tion, as the term is generally understood, he received but little. He never mastered his native tongue, nor was he able in after life to learn any foreign language. Notwithstanding this lack of scholarship, one of his strongest characteristics was a taste for associating his works with personages and places of legendary and historical interest, and certain stories of antiquity seem to have taken root in his mind very strongly. By the time Turner had completed his thirteenth year his school days were over and his choice of an artist’s career settled. Part of his time was employed in mak- ing drawings at home, which he exhibited for sale in his lather’s shop window, two or three shillings being the usual price. He colored prints for engravers, washed in backgrounds for architects, went out sketch- ing with Girtin, and made drawings in the evenings for Doctor Munro “for half a crown and his supper.” In 1789 Turner became a student of the Royal Academy. He also worked for a short time in the house of Sir Joshua Reynolds, with the idea, apparently, of becom- ing a portrait painter; but, the death of Reynolds occur- ring shortly afterward, this intention was abandoned. In 1790 Turner’s name appears for the first time in the catalogue of the Royal Academy, the title of his solitary contribution being View of the Archbishop's Palace , Lambeth . About 1 792 he received a commission from Walker, the engraver, to make drawings for his Copper- Plate Magazine , and this topographical work took him co many interesting places. Until 1792 Turner’s practice had been almost exclus- ively confined to water colors, and his early works show how much he was indebted to some of his contempora- ries. There are few of any note whose style he did not copy or adopt. His first exhibited oil picture appeared in the Academy in 1793, and during the next four years he contributed no less than thirty-nine works to the Academy. It is not surprising that the exhibition of his works in 1798 was followed by his election to the associateship of the Royal Academy. That he should have attained to this position before completing his twenty-fourth year says much for the wisdom and discernment of that body, which further showed its recognition •of his talent by electing him an Academician four years later. Turner owed much to the Academy. Mr. Ruskin says, “ It taught him nothing. ” He enjoyed the dignity of Acade- mician for nearly half a century, and during nearly the whole of that period he took an active share in the direction of the Academy’s affairs. With his election to the associqteship of the Academy in 1799, Turner’s early struggles may be considered to have ended. He had emancipated himself from hack work, had given up making topographical drawings of castles and abbeys for the engravers — drawings in which mere local fidelity was the principal object — and had taken to compos- ing as he drew. His pictures of 1797-99 had shown that he was a painter of no ordinary power, one hav- ing much of the poet in him, and able to give expres- sion to the mystery, beauty, and inexhaustible fullness of nature. Turner visited Scotland in 1800, and in 1801 or 1802 he made his first tour on the continent. In the following year, of the seven pictures he exhibited six were of foreign subjects, among them Bonneville, the Festival 5957 upon the Opening of the Vintage of MAcon , and a well known Calais Pier in the National Gallery. In 1804 Turner made a second tour on the continent, and in the following year painted the Shipwreck and Fishing Boats in a Squall (in the Ellesmere collection), seemingly in direct rivalry of Vandervelde, in 1806 the Goddess of Discord in the Garden of the Hesperides (in rivalry of Poussin), and in 1807 the Sun rising through Vapor (in rivalry of Claude). The last two are notable works, especially the Sun. In after years it was one of the works he left to the nation, on the special condition of its being hung beside the Claudes in the National Gallery. In this same year (1807) Turner commenced his most serious rivalry. Possibly it arose out of a desire to break down Claude worship, the then prevailing fashion, and to show the public that there was a living artist not unworthy of taking rank beside him. That the Liber Studiorum was suggested by the Liber Veri- tatis of Claude, and was intended as a direct challenge to that master, is beyond doubt. The first of th e Liber drawings was made in the autumn of 1806, the othersat intervals till about 1815. They are of the same size as the plates and carefully finished in sepia. About fifty of them are now to be seen in the Turner rooms of the National Gallery. The issue of the Liber began in 1807 and continued at irregular intervals till 1819, when it stopped at the fourteenth number. The plates, which cost the subscribers only five shil- lings apiece, were so little esteemed that in the early quarter of the nineteenth century they were sometimes used for lighting fires. So much has fashion, or public taste, changed since then that a fine proof of a single plate has sold for $1,050. The seventy plates of the Liber contain an almost complete epitome of Turner’s art. The imaginative faculty he possessed was of the highest order, and it was further aided by a memory of the most retentive and unerring kind. In 1813 Turner commenced the series of drawings, forty in number, for Cooke’s Southern Coast. This work was not completed till 1826. Crossing the Brook appeared in the Academy of 1815. It may be regarded as a typical example of Turner’s art at this period, and marks the transition from his earlier style to that of his maturity. Dido Building Carthage also belongs to this period. It hangs beside the Claudes in the National Gallery. It pertains to the old erroneous school of historical painting. Towering masses of Claudesque architecture piled up on either side, porticoes, vestibules, and stone pines, with the sun in a yellow sky represent the Carthage of Turner’s imagination. With all its faults it is still the finest work of the class he ever painted. Carthage and its fate had a strange fascination for him. He returned again to this theme in 1817, when he exhibited his Decline of the Carthaginian Empire: Hostages Leav- ing Carthage for Rome — a picture which Mr. Ruskin describes as “ little more than an accumulation of academy student’s outlines colored brown.” Hitherto he had painted in browns, grays, and blues, using red and yellow sparingly. He had gradually been advancing from the sober gray coloring of Vandervelde and Ruysdael to the mellow and richer tones of Claude. His works now begin to show a heightened scale of color, gradually increasing in richness and splendor and reaching its culminating point in such works as the Ulysses , Childe Harold' s Pilgrimage, the Golden Bough, and the Fighting Timeraire. All these works belong to the middle period of Turner’s art (1829-39), when his powers were entirely developed and entirely un- abated. Much of his most beautiful work at this period is to be found in his water-color drawings. Perhaps one of the greatest services Turner rendered T U R 5958 to the art of England was the education cf a whole /school of engravers. No better proof can be found of the immense advance made than by comparing the work of the landscape engravers of the pre-Turnerian period with the work of Miller, Goodall, Willmore, Cooke, Wallis, Lupton, C. Turner, Brandard, Cousen, and others who worked under his guidance. The art of steel engraving reached its highest development in England at this time. Rogers’ Italy (1830) and his Poems (1834) contain perhaps the most beautiful and lelicate of the many engravings executed after Turner’s drawings. From this period onward till about 1840 Turner’s life was one of unceasing activity. Nothing is more astonishing than his prodigious fertility; he rose early, worked from morning till night, entirely absorbed in his art, and gradually became more and more solitary and isolated. Between 1829 and 1839 he sent fifty-five pictures to the Royal Academy, painted many others on private commission, made over 400 drawings for engravers, besides thousands of studies and sketches from nature. His industry accounts for the immense quantity of work he left behind him. The first of Turner’s Venetian pictures (. Bridge of Sighs , Ducal Palace and Custom House , Venice, Canaletti Painting) appeared in the Academy in 1833. Compared with the sober, prosaic work of Canaletti, Turner’s pictures of Venice appear like poetic dreams. Splendor of color and carelessness of form generally characterize them. Venice appeared to him “ a city of rose and white, rising out of an emerald sea against a sky of sapphire blue.” Many of these Venetian pict- ures belong to his later manner, and some of them, The Sun of Venice Going to Sea (1843), Approach to Venice (1844), and Venice, Evenings Going to the Ball (1845) to his latest. As Turner grew older his love of brilliant color and light became more and more a characteristic. The Fighting Temeraire Tugged to her Last Berth to be Broken Up was exhibited in the Academy of 1839. By many it is considered one of his finest works. Turner had all his life been half a sailor at heart; he loved the sea, and shipping, and sailors and their ways; many of his best pictures are sea pieces; and the old ships of Collingwood and Nelson were dear to him. Hence the pathetic feeling he throws around the Fight- ing Temeraire. The Slave Ship , another important sea picture, was exhibited in the following year; and in 1842 Peace: Burial at Sea , commemorative of Wilkie. Turner had now reached his sixty-seventh year, but no very marked traces of declining power are to be seen in his work. Many of the water-color drawings be- longing to this period are of great beauty, and, although a year or two later his other powers began to fail, his faculty for color remained unimpaired almost to the end. He paid his last visit to the Continent in 1843, wandering about from one place to another, and avoid- ing his own countrymen, an old and solitary man. At his house in Queen Anne street they were often ignorant of his whereabouts for months, as he seldom took the trouble to write to any one. Two years later (1845) his health gave way and with it both mind and sight began to fail. After 1845 all the pictures shown by Turner belong to the period of decay — mere ghosts and shadows of what once had been. In 1850 he exhibited for the last time, and on December 19, 1851, he died. He was buried in St. Paul’s cathedral, in deference to a wish he had himself expressed. He left the large fortune he had amassed (about $700,- 000) to found a charity for the “ maintenance and sup- port of male decayed artists, being born in England, and of English parents only, and of lawful issue.” His pictures he bequeathed to the nation, on condition tfcal they were to be exhibited in rooms of 'heir own, and that these rooms were to be called “ Turner’s Gallery.” TURNER, Sharon, the Anglo-Saxon historian, was born in London, September 25, 1768, articled attorney at the age of fifteen, and succeeded to the business be- fore the period of his clerkship had expired. He con- tinued, however, to gratify his literary taste and after years of hard learning, and patient collection of mate- rials, published, 1799-1805, The History of the Anglo- Saxons , in three volumes, a work, with all its imperfec- tions, that has given its author a permanent place in English literature. Other writings of Turner’s are The History of England from the Norman Conquest to 1 yog (1814); History of Henry VIII. (1826); and Reigns of Edward VI., Mary , and Elizabeth (1829); all of which were subsequently republished together under the title of History of England from the Earliest Pe. riod to the Death of Elizabeth. He died in 1847. TURNHOUT, a town of Belgium, in the province of Antwerp, stands in the middle of a wide plain. It is a prosperous manufacturing and commercial center, the chief industries being the weaving of cottons and linens (especially ticking), lace-making, paper-making, brick-making, dyeing, bleaching. The population -of the commune is 18,000. TURNING. See Lathe. TURNIP. See Agriculture and Horticulture. TURNIP-FLY, Turnip-Flea, or Earth Flea- Beetle, the name applied to several species of Haltica which infest turnip fields and do considerable damage to crops. The genus belongs to the family Chrysomel- idce , and includes about 100 species. The turnip-fly most usually met with, Haltica nemorum , is scarcely 2mm. in length and of a shining black color, with two ocherous yellow longitudinal bands running along each wing-case; the bands are slightly sinuous and bend inward at the hinder end. Of the eleven -jointed antennae the first three segments are yellow and the remainder black. The remarkable power of jumping has given rise to the name turnip-flea. Another species H» concinna , has a greenish yellow or brassy appearance, and the tibiae of the two posterior legs are armed with a thorn-like hook. A third species, H. consobrina , is of a dark blue color above, while another species, H. obscurella , often very abundant, is of a lighter blue color, and larger than those mentioned above. The beetles »egin pairing during April, and continue all through the summer. The female lays but few eggs, usually one a day. The eggs are deposited on the under surface of a leaf, close under one of the pro- jecting veins; they possess a protective coloring. The development within the egg lasts ten days, at the end of which a small larva creeps out, and at once eats its way through the lower epidermis of the leaf into the meso- phyll and there forms long winding burrows. The larva or maggot is of a yellowish color and somewhat cylindrical in form. The larval condition lasts about six days; the maggot then leaves the leaf and buries itself some one or two inches beneath the surface of the earth; here it turns into a chrysalis. From this the full-grown beetle emerges after an interval of fourteen days, and it is in this stage of its life-history that it proves most destructive to the turnip crop. Several broods may be produced each season. TURNPIKE ROADS is the name applied to the roads which ft Jin about the year 1700 were constructed in England by private enterprise, the consideration being that a charge should be made by the lessees of the roads based upon the traffic passing over them, and that they should be secured in the same for a definite T U R 5959 period. Under this system thousands «of miles of road were constructed in England and Wales, but the system itself possessed this disadvantage — that the toll-charges acted as a prohibition in the vicinity of cities. So far as the country districts were concerned the. turnpike system was a good one, but where traffic, as in the im- mediate neighborhood of cities, became very great, the toll-charge became far in excess of the cost of main- taining the roads. This was especially true in regard to London and other great English cities, and about i860 a movement for freeing all roads from tolls was in- augurated by a number of members of parliament and other well known persons. About ten years later the last of the toll-gates was removed and the turnpike sys- tem is now a thing of the past. TURNSTONE, the name given to a shore-bird, from its habit of turning over with its bill such stones as it can to seek its food in the small crustaceans or other animals lurking beneath them. It is the Tringa inter- pres of Linnaeus and Strepsilas interpres of most later writers, and is remarkable as being perhaps the most cosmopolitan of birds; for, though properly belonging to the northern hemisphere, there is scarcely a sea-coast in the world on which it may not occur: it has been ob- tained from Spitzbergen to the Strait of Magellan and from Point Barrow to the Cape of Good Hope and New Zealand. The Turnstone is about as big as an ordinary snipe; ' rat, compared with most of its allies of the group limicolce, to which it belongs, its form is somewhat teavy, and its legs are short. Still it is brisk in its movements, and its variegated plumage makes it a ^leasing bird. Seen in front, its white face, striped with black, and broad black gorget attract attention as it sits, often motionless, on the rocks; while in flight :he white of the lower part of the back and white band icross the wings are no less conspicuous even at a list an ce. TURPENTINE consists of the oleo-resins which txude from certain trees, especially from some conifers tnd from the terebinth tree, Pistacia Terebinthus , L. it was to the product of the latter, now known as Chian turpentine, that the term was first applied. The tree js a native of the islands and shores of the Mediterran- ean, passing eastward into Central Asia ; but the res- inous exudation found in commerce is collected in the island of Scio. On exposure to the air it becomes dry, ’lard, and brittle. In their general characteristics, tur- pentines are soft solids or semi-fluid bodies, consisting of 2. mixture of one or more resins with essential oils, which, although differing in physical properties, have a compo- sition corresponding to the formula C l0 H 76 . They also contain minute quantities of oxygenated oils. Formerly they had considerable reputation in medicine, and they still continue to be employed in plasters and ointments ; but their great use is in the arts, for which they are separated by distillation into rosin or coloph- ony (see Rosin) and oil or spirit of turpentine. Crude or common turpentine is the commercial name which embraces the oleo-resin yielded by several co- niferous trees, both European and American. In the United States the turpentine-yielding pines are the swamp pine, P. palustrus , and the loblolly, P. Tceda , both inhabiting North and South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. Venice turpentine is yielded by the larch tree, Larix europcea y from which it is collected principally in Tyrol. The so-called Canada balsam , from Abies balsamea (see Balsam) is also a true tur- pentine. Oil of turpentine as a commercial product is obtained front all or any of these oleo-resins, but on a large scale ontv *rom crude or common turpentine. The essential oil is rectified by redistillation with water and alkaline carbonates, and the water which the oil carries over with it is removed by a further distillation over calcium chlo- ride. Oil of turpentine is a colorless liquid of oily consist- ence, with a strong characteristic odor and a hot dis- agreeable taste. Oil of turpentine is largely used in the preparation of varnishes, and as a medium by painters in their “ flat ” colors. TURPIN, archbishop of Rheims and the Suppositi- tious author of Historia Karoli Magni et Rotholandi is probably to be identified with Tilpin, who was arch- bishop of Rheims toward the end of the eighth century. This Tilpin is alluded to by Hincmar (845-882), his third successor in the see. According to Flodoard. Charles Martel drove Ragobert, bishop of Rheims, from his office, putting in his place a warrior-clerk, Milo. Tilpin was present at the synod of Rome in 769, and Pope Ha- drian, at the request of Charlemagne, sent him a pallium and confirmed the rights of his church. According to Flodoard, he substituted monks for canons in the monastery of St. Remigius; and seventeenth century tradition ascribed to him an ancient pontificate , still extant in Marlot’s days (seventeenth century). This is all that authentic history and trustworthy tradition teach about the author to whom the common voice of the Middle Ages ascribed the Historia Caroli Magni. TURQUOISE, a blue or bluish green mineral valued, when cut and polished, as an ornamental stone. The finest variety occurs in Persia, whence it originally reached Western Europe by way of Turkey, and thus came to be called b* the Venetians, who imported it, turchesa , and by the French turquoise. It is chemically a hydrated phosphate of aluminum, associated with a variable proportion of hydrated phosphate of copper, to which it owes much of its color. The green tints of certain varieties appear to be due to admixture with salts of iron. The mineral has lever been found crystallized, but occurs as veins, nc Jules, stalactitic masses, and incrus- tations. Large pieces are exceedingly rare. The spe- cific gravity of turquoise is about 2.75, and its hardnes? below 6; it takes a fair polish and exhibits a feeble lus- ter. It is usually cut en cabochon or with a low convex surface, and in the East is frequently engraved with Persian and Arabic inscriptions, generally passages from the Koran — th~ inc characters being in many cases gilt. Such objects are worn as amulets. The turquoise has always been associated with curious super- stititLns, th most common being the notion that it changes color with variations in the state of its owner’s health, or even in sympathy with his affections. Persia is the chief center of the turquoise trade, where the same mines have been worked for at least eight cent- uries. The finest stones are found near Nishapur in Khorasan (see Persia). Turquoise is commonly imitated by enamels, but of late some ingenious counterfeits have been made with the same chemical composition as the natural stone. To increase the deception, pieces of ocherous matter are inserted at the back of the artificial turquoise, to imi- tate the natural matrix. TURRETIN, or Turretini. Three theologians of this name figure in the history of Genevan theology. 1. Benoit Turretin, the son of Francesco Turre- tini, a native of Lucca, who settled in Geneva in 1579, was born in that town on November 9, 1588. He was ordained a pastor in Geneva in 1612, and became pro- fessor of theology in 1618. In 1620 he represented the Genevan Church at the national synod of Alais, and in 1621 he was sent on a successful mission to the states general of Holland, and to the authorities of the Han- seatic towns, with reference to the defense of Geneva -TVE 5960 T U R - against the threatened attacks of the duke of Savoy. He published in 1618-20 a defense of the Genevan transla- tion of the Bible. Benoit T urretin died at Geneva on March 4, 1631. 2. Francois Turretin, son of the preceding, was born at Geneva on October 17, 1623. After studying theology in Geneva, Holland, and France, he became a pastor in Geneva in 1647; after a brief pastorate at Leyden, he again returned to Geneva as professor of theology in 1653. He was one of the most influential supporters of the Formula Consensus Helvetica , and of the particular type of Calvinistic theology which that symbol embodied. His Institutio Theologice Elendicce has passed through frequent editions. F. Turretin died at Geneva on September 28, 1687. 3. Jean Alphonse Turretin, son of the preceding, was born at Geneva on August 13, 1671. In 1697 he became professor of church history. During the next forty years of his life he enjoyed great influence in Geneva as the advocate of a more liberal theology than had prevailed under the preceding generation, and it was largely through his instrumentality that the use of the Formula Consensus Helvetica as a symbol was dis- continued in 1725. He died at Geneva on May 1, 1737 - TURTLE. See Tortoise. TUSCANY (Ital. Toscana ), one of the sixteen cont- partimenti of the kingdom of Italy, contains eight provinces — Arezzo, Florence, Grosseto, Leghorn, Luc- ca, Massa-Carrara, Pisa, and Siena — and has an area of 9,287 square miles, with a population of 2,208,869. In 1859, immediately before it united with the kingdom of Sardinia, the grand-duchy of Tuscany, exclusive of Massa-Carrara, which then belonged to Modena, but including the islands of Gorgona, Elba, Pianosa, Formica, Montecristo, Giglio, and Gianutra, as well as the duchy of Lucca (united to it in 1847), had an area 9,304 square miles, with a 1 op. (1901) of 2,548,154. I'he territory included during the later centuries within the limits of Tuscany was known in an earlier time as Etrusca, or Etruria. It was the cradle of the Etruscan race (undoubtedly of Phoenician origin), and probably the race which attained a higher civilization than any other in prehistoric times. It was the seat of a powerful and warlike nation before Rome itself was founded, and its language has been preserved almost in its native purity even to this day. Tradition tells of the deeds of the great chiefs who ruled in Etruria, who carried their conquests to the very walls of Rome, and who supported the ancient kings in their efforts to recover the supremacy which the Tarquinshad forfeited. Etruria (cj.v.) was finally annexed to Rome in 351 B.c. (see Rome), and constituted the seventh of the eleven regions into which Italy was, for administrative purposes, divided by Augustus. Under Constantine it was united into one province with U rnbria, an arrange- ment which subsisted until at least 400. After the fall of the Western empire Tuscia, with other provinces of Italy, came successively under the sway of Herulians, Ostrogoths, and Greek and Lombard dukes. The title of grand-duke of Tuscany was conferred on Cosmo de’ Medici by Pius V. in 1567, and the emperor (Maximilian II.), after withholding his consent for some years, ulti- mately confirmed it to Cosmo’s successor in 1576. In 1735, in view of the childlessness of Giovan Gastone, the last of the Medici, the succession of Francis, duke of Lorraine, afterward emperor Francis I. , was arranged for by treaty. In 1765 he was succeeded as grand-duke by his second son Leopold (see Leopold II.), who, on becoming emperor in 1790, handed Tuscany over to his second son Ferdinand, third grand-duke of the name. The ducbv was occuDied by the French in 170Q- ceded to Louis, prince of Parma, by the convention of Madrid in 1801, and annexed to the French empire in 1808. Ferdinand, however, was reinstated in 1814, and on his death in 1824 was succeeded by his son Leopold, second grand-duke of the name, who was deposed by the con- stituent assembly on August 16, i860. Tl/SCULUM, an ancient Latin city, situated in a commanding posit ion on one of the eastern ridges of the Alban Hills, near the site of the modern Frascati, ((/.v.) It has a very beautiful and extensive view of the Campagna, with Rome lying fifteen miles distant to the northwest, on the west the sea near Ostia, and the long range of the Sabine Hills on the northeast. According to tradition, the city was founded by Tele- gonus, the son of Ulysses and Circe. When Tarquinius Superbus was expelled from Rome his cause was es- poused by the chief of Tusculum, Octavius Mamilius, who took a leading part in the formation of the Latin League, composed of the thirty principal cities of Latium, banded together against Rome. Mamilius commanded the Latin army at the battle of Lake Regil- lus. At this battle (497 B.c.) Mamilius was killed, and the predominance of Rome among the Latin cities was practically established. From that time Tusculum be- came an ally of Rome, and on that account frequently incurred the hostility of the other Latin cities. During the Imperial period little is recorded about Tusculum; but soon after the transference of the seat of empire to Constantinople it became a very important stronghold, and for some centuries its counts occupied a leading position in Rome, and were specially influential in tha selections of thepopes. During the twelfth century there were constant struggles between Rome and T usculum, and toward the close of the century the Romans, sup- ported by the German emperor, gained the upper hand, and the walls of Tusculum, together with the greater part of the city, were destroyed. TUSSER, Thomas, poet, was born about 1527. In 1543 he was elected to King’s College, Cambridge, and soon afterward exchanged to Trinity Hall. On leaving the university he was for about ten years at court, probably in some musical capacity. He then settled as a farmer in Suffolk, near the river Stour, an employment which he seems to have regarded as com- bining the chief essentials of human felicity. Subse- quently he lived successively at Ipswich, West Dereham, Norwich, and London. There he died in April, 1580. TUTTLINGEN, a town of Wurtemberg, on the right bank of the Danube, twenty miles west-southwest of Sigmaringen. It has manufactures of knives, needles, cloth, cotton, hosiery, linen, and silk, and carries on besides some trade in corn. Population (1900), 13,530. It is historically notable as the scene of a battle in 1643, during the Thirty Years’ War, in which an Austro- Bavarian force, under Hatzfeld and Mercy, defeated the French. TUTUILA, an island in the Pacific, belonging to the group of the Navigator’s or Samoan Islands (3°3 acres), divided into the three wards of North Shields, Percy, and Tynemouth, was 48,118 in 1901. TYPE-FOUNDING. See Typography. TYPE-WRITING. See Writing Machines. TYPHON, or TYPHOEUS,son, according to Hesiod, of the Earth and Tartarus, is described as a grisly mon- ster with a hundred dragons’ heads who was conquered and cast into Tartarus by Zeus. TYPHOONS (Chinese Tei-fun, i.e., hot wind; the word, it may scarcely be said, has no connection with the Typhon of mythology) are violent storms which blow on the coast of Tonauin and China as far north as Ningpo, and on the southeast coasts of Japan. Varenius, in his Geographia Naturalise describes them as “ storms which rage with such intensity and fury that those who have never seen them can form no concep- - T Y P 59^3 tion of them; one would say that heaven and earth wished to return to their original chaos.’ 1 1 ney occur from May to November; but it is during the months of July, August, and September that they are most free querit. They resemble the storms of Western Europe in then- general characteristics, with this difference, that the main features are more strongly marked. There is a depression of the barometer over a space more or less circular in form, accompanying the typhoon, but it is generally more contracted in area, and deeper and more abrupt than in ordinary storms. It is not un- common for the barometer, at the center of the depres* sion, to read 28.3 inches, and on rare occasions to fall even as low as 27 inches; and the changes of pressure are very rapid, frequently two or three inches in an hour. It is this enormous difference of atmospheric pressure between neighboring places, and the consequent rapidity of the fluctuations, which give to these storms their ter* rible destructive energy, the law regulating the strength of the wind being that it is proportioned to the differ- ence of pressure between the place from which it comes and the place toward which it blows. The low pressure in this center is confined to a very limited space, and since all around this space the pressure is greater, it fol- lows that the level of the sea there will be higher. Hence, a high wave is frequently found to accompany these storms, advancing inland, carrying with it ruin and destruction, and not infrequently bearing ships far over the level fields, where they are left stranded a con- siderable distance from the sea. Typhoons have their origin in the # ocean to the east of China, especially about Formosa, Luzon, and th6 islands immediately to the south. They thence proceed, in four cases out of five, from east-northeast toward west-southwest, more rarely from east-southeast to west-northwest, and scarcely ever from north to south, or from south to north; in other words, their course is generally along the coast of China. The body of the storm advances at the rate of twelve miles an hour and upward, within which the winds blow often from 80 to 100 miles an hour, whirling around the center of atmospheric depression in a direction contrary to the motion of the hands of a watch, as all storms in the northern hemisphere do. They thus rotate in a direc- tion south, east, north, or west, and travel along the coast, so the coast feels the northern side of the storm; while at a distance from the coast the southern side is alone experienced. The southwest coast Monsoons {q.v . ) prevail in summer over Southern Asia, to the eastward of which are the northeast trade winds. (See Winds.) Here, then, are two great aerial currents flowing con- tiguously, but in opposite directions, each highly charged with moisture, especially the southwest current, which they have taken up from the oceans they have traversed. It is highly probable that the typhoons take the origin from these opposing currents, as whirlpools do at the meeting of two sea currents; and their intensity is aggravated by the large quantity of heat disengaged in the condensation of the vapor of the atmosphere into the deluges of rain which fall during the storm, ten or twelve inches of rain frequently falling in one day. Much yet remains to be done toward the examination and explanation of this remarkable class of storms, the first and essential step being the establishment of meteorological stations on the Chinese coast, in Japan, in Formosa, and in Luzon. TYPHUS, TYPHOID, and RELAPSING FE- VERS. These are conveniently considered together, as they constitute the important class of continued fevers, having certain characters in common, although each is clearly distinguishable from the others. The following is a general account of the more salient features of each- TYP 5964 Typhus is a continued fever of highly contagious na- ture, lasting for about fourteen days and characterized mainly by great prostration of strength, severe nervous symptoms, and a peculiar eruption on the skin. It has received numerous other names, such as spotted, pesti- lential, putrid, jail, hospital fever, etc. It appears to have been known for many centuries as a destructive malady, frequently appearing in epidemic form in all countries in Europe. Typhus fever would seem to have been observed in almost all parts of the world; but, al- though not unknown in warm countries, it has most frequently prevailed in temperate or cold climates. The causes concerned in its production include both the predisposing and the exciting. Of the former the most powerful of all are those influences which lower the health of a community, especially overcrowding and poverty. Hence this fever is most frequently found to affect the poor of large cities and towns, or to ap- pear where large numbers of persons are living crowded together in unfavorable hygienic conditions, as has often been seen in prisons, workhouses, etc. Armies in the field are also liable to suffer from this dis- ease; for instance, during the Crimean War it caused an enormous mortality among the French troops. This disease is now much less frequently encountered in medical practice than formerly — a fact which must mainly be ascribed to the great attention which in recent times has been directed to improvement in the sanitation of towns, especially to the opening up of crowded localities so as to allow the free circulation through them of, fresh air. All ages are liable to typhus, but the young suffer less severely than the old. The disease appears to be communicated by the exhala- tions given off from the bodies of those suffering from the fever, and those most closely in contact with the sick are most apt to suffer. This is shown by the fre- quency with which nurses and physicians take typhus from cases under their care. As in all infectious mala- dies, there is often observed in typhus a marked pro- clivity to suffer in the case of individuals, and in such instances very slight exposure to the contagion may convey the disease. Typhus is highly contagious throughout its whole course and even in the early period of convalescence. The contagion, however, is ren- dered less active by the access of fresh air; hence this fever rarely spreads in well-aired rooms or houses where cases of the disease are under treatment. As a rule one attack of typhus confers immunity from risk of others, but numerous exceptions have been recorded. Typhus fever may prove fatal during any stage of its progress and in the early convalescence, either from sudden failure of the heart’s action — a condition which, is specially apt to arise — from the supervention of some nervous symptoms, such as meningitis or of deepening coma, or from some other complication, such as bron- chitis. Further, a fatal result sometimes takes place before the crisis from sheer exhaustion, particularly in the case of those whose physical or nervous energies have been lowered by hard work, inadequate nourish- ment and sleep, or intemperance, in all which condi- tions typhus fever is apt to assume an unusually serious form. The mortality from typhus fever is estimated by Murchison and others as averaging about 18 per cent, of the cases, but it varies much according to the severity of type (particularly in epidemics), the previous health and habits of the individual, and very specially the age — the proportion of deaths being in striking relation to the advance of life. Thus, while in children under fif- teen the death-rate is only 5 per cent., in persons over fifty it is about 46 per cent. The treatment of typhus fever includes the prophy- lactic measures of attention to the sanitation of the more densely populated portions of towns. The opening up of cross streets intersecting those which are close-built and narrow, whereby fresh air is freely admitted, ha* done much to banish typhus fever from districts where previously it was endemic. Typhoid or Enteric Fever {evrepov, the in- testine) is a continued fever characterized mainly by its insidious onset, by a peculiar course of the tem- perature, by marked abdominal symptoms occurring in connection with a specific lesion of the bow;els, by an eruption upon the skin, by its uncertain duration, and by a liability to relapses. This fever has received various names, such as gastric fever, abdominal typhus, infantile remittent fever, slow fever, nervous fever, etc. Up till a comparatively recent period typhoid was not distinguished from typhus fever. The distinction between the two diseases appears to have been first accurately made in 1836 by Messrs. Gerhard and Pennock of Philadelphia, and still more fully demonstrated by Dr. A. P. Stewart of Glasgow (afterward of London). Subsequently all doubt upon the subject was- removed by the careful clinical and pathological observations made by Sir William Jenner at the London fever hospital (1849-51). A clear dis- tinction has been established between the two fevers, not only as regards their phenomena or morbid features, but equally as regards their origin. While typhus fever is a disease of overcrowding and poverty, typhoid may occur where such conditions are entirely excluded; and the connection of this malady with specific emanations given off from decomposing organic or faeculent matters, or with contamination of food or water by the products of the disease, is now almost universally admitted. Typhoid fever is much less directly communicable from the sick to the healthy than typhus. The infective agent appears to reside in the discharges from the bowels, in which, particularly when exposed and undergoing decomposition, the contagion seems to multiply and to acquire increased potency. Thus, in sewers, drains, etc., in association with putrefying matter, it may increase in- definitely, and by the emanations given off from such decomposing material accidentally escaping into houses, or by the contamination of drinking water in places where wells or cisterns are exposed to fsecal or sewage pollution, the contagion is conveyed. Of the precise nature of the contagious principle we have as yet no full information, but there appears to be strong reason for believing that a specific microbe or organism plays a part in the propagation of the disease. Typhoid fever is most common among the young, the majority of the cases occurring between the ages of fifteen and twenty-five. But children of any age may suffer, as may also, though more rarely, persons at or beyond middle life. It is of as frequent occurrence among the well-to-do as among the poor. The greater number of cases appear to occur in autumn. In all countries this fever seems liable to prevail; and, while some of its features may be modified by climate and locality, its main characteristics and its results are essen- tially the same everywhere. The symptoms characterizing the onset of typhoid fever are very much less marked than those of most other fevers, and the disease in the majority of instances sets in somewhat insidiously. Indeed, it is no uncom- mon thing for patients with this fever to go about for a considerable time after its action has begun. The most marked of the early symptoms are headache, lassitude, and discomfort, together with sleeplessness and feverish- ness, particularly at night; this last symptom is that by which the disease is most readily detected in its. early stages. The peculiar course of the temperature is also one of the most important diagnostic evidences of this TYP fever iO* pulse in an ordinary case, although more rapid than normal, is not accelerated to an extent cor- responding to the height of the temperature, and is, at ieast in the earlier stages of the fever, rarely above ioo degrees. In severe and protracted cases, where there is evidence of extensive intestinal ulceration, the pulse be- comes rapid and weak, with a dicrotic character indica- tive of cardiac feebleness. There is much thirst and in some cases vomiting. Splenic and hepatic enlargement may be made out. From an early period in the disease abdominal symptoms show themselves with greater or less distinctness and are frequently of highly diagnostic significance. The abdomen is somewhat distended or tumid, and pain accompanying some gurgling sounds may be elicited on light pressure about the lower part of the right side close to the groin — the region correspond- ing to that portion of the intestine in which the morbid changes already referred to are progressing. Diarrhea is a frequent but by no means constant symptom. About the beginning, or during the course of the second week of the fever, an eruption frequently makes its appearance on the skin. It consists of isolated spots, oval or round in shape, of a pale pink or rose color, and of about one to one and a half lines in diameter. They are seen chiefly upon the abdomen, chest, and back, and they come out in crops, which continue for four or five days and then fade away. They do not appear to have any relation to the severity of the attack, and in a very considerable proportion of cases (particularly in children) they are entirely absent. These various symptoms persist throughout the third week, usually, however, increasing in intensity. The patient becomes prostrate and emaciated; the tongue is dry and brown, the pulse quickened and feeble, and the abdominal symptoms more marked; while nervous dis- turbance is exhibited in delirium, in tremors and jerk- ings of the muscles [subsultus tendinum ), in drowsi- ness, and occasionally in “coma vigil.” In severe cases the exhaustion reaches an extreme degree, although even in such instances the condition is not to be regarded as hopeless. In favorable cases a change for the better may be anticipated between the twenty- first and twenty-eighth days, more usually the latter. It does not, however, take place as in typhus by a well- marked crisis, but rather by what is termed a “lysis” or gradual subsidence of the febrile symptoms, espe- cially noticeable in the daily decline of both morning and evening temperature, the lessening of diarrhea, and improvement in pulse, tongue, etc. Convalescence proceeds slowly and is apt to be interrupted by relapses (due not infrequently to errors in diet), which are sometimes as severe and prolonged as the original attack, and are attended with equal or even greater risks. Should such relapses repeat themselves, the case may be protracted for two or three months, but this is comparatively rare. The mortality in typhoid fever varies with the char- acter of the outbreak, the general health and surround- ings of the individuals attacked, and other conditions. At one time it was regarded as, on an average, about the same as that of typhus; but under modern methods of treatment the chances of recovery are much greater, and the death-rate may be stated as about 12 per cent., or perhaps somewhat less. The treatment embraces those prophylactic measures which aim at preventing the escape of sewer gases into dwelling houses by careful attention to the drainage and plumber work, and also secure an abundant supply of pure water for domestic use (see Hygiene, Sewer- age, and Ventilation). When an outbreak of the fever occurs in a family, all such matters should be spe- cially inquired into, and the sources of milk supply care- 374 5965 fully scrutinized. The discharges from the bowels o! the typhoid patient should be at once disinfected with carbolic acid or other similar agent, and the greatest care taken as to their disposal, with the view of obviat- ing any risk of contamination of drinking water, etc. The general management is conducted upon the same principles as are observed in the case of typhus, except that in typhoid fever very special care is necessary in re- gard to diet. Relapsing Fever is a continued fever occasionally appearing as an epidemic in communities suffering from scarcity or famine. It is characterized mainly by its sudden invasion, with violent febrile symptoms, which continue for about a week and end in a crisis, but are followed, after another week, by a return of the fever. This disease has received many other names, the best known of which are famine fever, short fever, synocha, bilious relapsing fever, recurrent typhus, and spirillum fever. As in the case of typhoid, relapsing fever was long believed to be simply a form of typhus. The dis- tinction between them appears to have been first clearly established in 1826, in connection with an epidemic in Ireland. Outbreaks of relapsing fever have occurred in all parts of the world at times and in places where famine has arisen ; but the disease has been most closely observed and studied in epidemics in Great Britain and Ireland, Germany, Poland, Russia, America, and India. It has frequently been found to prevail along with an epidemic of typhus fever. Relapsing fever is highly contagious, and appears, like typhus, to be readily communicated by the exhala- tions from the body. Relapsing fever is most commonly met with in the young. One attack does not appear to protect from others, but rather, according to some authorities, engenders liability. The extreme contagiousness of relapsing fever has occasionally been shown by its spreading widely when introduced into a district, even among those who had not become predisposed by destitution or other depress- ing conditions. The contagion, like that of typhus, ap- pears to be most active in the immediate vicinity of the patient and to be greatly lessened by the access of fresh air. It is capable of being conveyed by clothing. The incubation of the disease is about one week. The symptoms of the fever then show themselves with great abruptness and violence by a rigor, accompanied with pains in the limbs and severe headache. The febrile phenomena are very marked, and the temperature quick- ly rises to a high point (I05°-I07° Fahr.), at which it com tinues with little variation, while the pulse is rapid (100-140), full, and strong. There is intense thirst, a dry, brown tongue, bilious vomiting, tenderness ovei the liver and spleen, and occasionally jaundice. Some- times a peculiar bronzy appearance of the skin is noticed, but there is no characteristic rash as in typhus. There is much prostration of strength. After the con- tinuance of these symptoms for a period of from five to seven days, the temperature suddenly falls to the. normal point or below it, the pulse becomes corre- spondingly slow, and a profuse perspiration occurs s while the severe neadache disappears and the appetite returns. Except for a sense of weakness, the patient feels well and may even return to work, but in some cases there remains a condition of great debility, accom- panied with rheumatic pains in the limbs. This state of freedom from fever continues for about a week, when there occurs a well-marked relapse with scarcely less abruptness and severity than in the first attack, and the whole symptoms are of the same character, but they do not, as a rule, continue so long, and they terminate in a crisis in three or four days, after which convalescence proceeds satisfactorily. Second, thirds T Y P 5966 and even fourth relapses, however, may occur in excep- tional cases. The mortality in relapsing fever is com- paratively small, about 5 per cent, being the average death-rate in epidemics (Murchison). The fatal cases occur mostly from the complications common to con- tinued fevers. The treatment is essentially the same as that for typhus fever (see above). TYPOGRAPHY (writing by types) is the art of printing (cast metal) movable types on paper, vellum, etc. It is quite distinct, not only from writing, but from xylography or wood engraving, /.rd and bare, or vague and undefined, according to the sequence of the colors. Another working may give gray tones where wanted, and may increase the depth and transparency in various parts. A deep flesh working may have a marked effect on the development; and, near the close of the series, if the entire coloring is found to be too warm, it may be corrected by over-printing very nearly the whole subject. Chromo-typography has undoubtedly made great strides during the past twenty years, its best results being shown in the colored prints for illustrated journals. For the production of pictures for commer- cial and artistic purposes chromo-lithography Is gener- ally resorted to on account of its relative economy. Is lithography for typographic purposes the line has to be cut and the space on both sides removed so as to leave the line alone to be charged with the ink, or the white space has to be etched away with an acid. The printing of isolated points, too, is easily effected from a stone, whereas most minute labor is necessary to en- grave them. TYR. See ^Esir. TYRANT, a name given in modern times to an ar- bitrary and oppressive ruler, but originally applied, not necessarily to one that exercised the power badly, but merely to one that had obtained it illegally, and, there- fore, equivalent to our word “ usurper. ” The ancient Greek “republics,” it must be remembered, were gen- erally aristocratic and even oligarchic in their consti- tution. When the “governing families” among the Athenian or Syracusan nobles, for example, quarreled with each other, it was natural, if they could not other- wise agree, that the boldest and most reckless of the set should seek for success by allying himself with the masses of the people, should figure as their champion, promise to redress their wrongs, or increase their com- forts, and, when a fitting occasion presented itself, should, by clever, if somewhat violent stratagem (coup d'etat it is now called), deliver them from the domination of his order by himself grasping possession of absolute power and ruling without any other restraint than the necessity of retaining his popularity imposed; even this limitation being frequently absent when a body- guard of foreign mercenaries rendered it superfluous. If the political adventurer who thus rose on the ruins of the constitution happened to be a man of sense and wisdom, and generosity, his “ tyranny ” might prove a blessing to the state torn by the animosities of selfish oligarchs, and be the theme of praise in after ages, as was the case with the “Tyrannies” of Pisistratus (q.v.), Gelon (q.v.), HieroII. ( q.v .), and many others ; but if he was insolent, rapacious, and cruel, then he sought to reduce the citizens to a worse than Egyptian bondage, and his name became infamous to all time. Such has been the fate of most of the “ Thirty Tyrants ” of Athens (q.v.), more particularly of the blood-thirsty Critias, of Alexander of Pherse, of Dionysius the Younger, etc. It was the method of exercising author- ity pursued by these and similar usurpers that latterly, even in ancient times, gave the word tyrant that evil significance it has ever since uninterruptedly retained. TYRCONNEL, Richard Talbot, Duke and Earl of, was born early in the seventeenth century. In his youth, according to Lord Macaulay, he was “ one of the most noted sharpers and bullies of London.” Soon after the Restoration he endeavored to obtain the favor of the royal family by blackmailing the repu- tation of Anne Hyde, so as to furnish the Duke of York with a pretext for breaking his promise of marriage to her. Though unsuccessful in this he succeeded in gain ing the favor of the Duke, and contrived to make him self welcome at the palace both as a votary of its pleas- ures and as a counselor in affairs of state. Immediately on the accession of James II. he was made Earl, and put in command of the troops in Ireland; and in 1687, by fawning, bullying, and bribing, he got possession of the office which had long been the object of his ambi- tion and was appointed Lord-Deputy of Ireland. His arrival in that country spread terror and dismay through the English Protestant population, who had already suffered somewhat under his military rule. Events uickly justified their terrors. Nearly every office of ignity in the country was soon transferred to the hands o f Roman Catholics; the Protestant party, so long TYR dominant, complained bitterly that they had become a laughing-stock even to their own servants, and that to appeal the law was vain, judgment in every case being given for the native against the Englishman. But this state of matters did not last long. The revolution of 1688 had a sudden and sobering effect upon the rule of the Lord-Deputy ; and there can be little doubt that he would have submitted to William III. but the Irish people threatened that if he dared to sell them for wealth or honor they would burn the Castle and him in it, and put themselves under the protection of France. On the arrival of James in Ireland in 1689 he created the Earl, Duke of Tyrconnel. After the fatal battle of the Boyne, at which he held high command, he retired to France. In 1691 he returned to Ireland, with a view to furthering the efforts in favor of James, which were still being made by his adherents. Notwith- standing the defeat of Aughrim (July 12, 1691,) and the capitulation of Galway, he made preparations for the defense of Limerick, binding himself and his country- men by an oath not to surrender until they received permission from James, then at Saint Germain. He at the same time dispatched a letter in which he stated his conviction that all was lost. On August nth, be- fore an answer could arrive, he was struck with apoplexy. He died on the 14th of the same month. He has been characterized by Macaulay “ as the fiercest and most uncompromising of all those who hated the religion and liberties of England. ” TYRE, the ancient^*, Greek TripoS, the most famous of Phoenician cities, is now represented by the petty town of Sur, with about 5,000 inhabitants, built round the harbor at the north end of a peninsula, which, till the time of Alexander’s siege, was an island. The mole which he constructed to reach the island city has been widened by deposits of sand, so that the ancient island is now connected with the mainland by a tongue of land a quarter of a mile broad. The greatest length of the former island, from north to south, is about five- eighths of a mile and its area about 142 acres, a small surface for so important a town. The researches of Renan seem to have completely refuted the once popu- lar idea that a great part of the original island has dis- appeared by natural convulsions, though he believes that the remains of a line of submerged wall at the south end indicate that about fifteen acres more were once reclaimed from the sea and have been again lost. Con- fined to this narrow site — on which, moreover, place was found for the great temple of Melkarth with its courts and for all the necessities of a vast trade, for docks and warehouses, and for the great purple factories which in the Roman time were the chief source of wealth and made the town an unpleasant place of resi- dence — Tyre was very closely built; Strabo tells us that the many-storied houses were loftier than those of Rome. In the Roman period the population over- flowed its bounds and occupied a strip of the opposite mainland, including the ancient Palsetyrus. Pliny gives to the whole city, continental and insular, a compass of nineteen Roman miles; but this account must be re- ceived with caution. The ancient history of Tyre has been dealt with in the article Phoenicia; the topography is still obscure owing to the paucity of Phoenician remains. The present harbor is certainly the Sidonian port, though it is not so large as it once was ; the other ancient harbor (the Egyptian port) has disappeared. The most important ruins are those of the cathedral, with its magnificent monolith columns of rose-colored granite, now prostrate. The present building is assigned by De Vogu6 to the second half of the twelfth century, but the columns must be older and may have belonged to the fourth century church of Paulinus. Tyre was 5973 still an important city and almost impregnable fortress under the Arab empire. From 1124 to 1291 it was a stronghold of the crusaders, and Saladin himself be- sieged it in vain. After the fall of Acre the Christians deserted the place, which was then destroyed by the Moslems. The present town has arisen since the Met&- wila occupied the district in 1766. TYRNAU (Magyar, Nagy-Szombath ), a town in Hungary, on the river Tena, about thirty miles north- east of Presburg. It has so many churches and con- vents that it has been nicknamed “Little Rome.” It carries on manufactures of cloth, linen, wood, etc., and has a tolerably lively general trade, especially in wine. From 1635 to 1774 it possessed a university, which in the latter year was transferred to Pesth. It is likewise famous for a huge cask, which can hold twice as much as the Heidelberg one. Population (1890) 10,824. TYROL, a province of Austria, with the title of “county,” is conterminous on the northwest with the Austrian province of Vorarlberg, on the nbrth with Ba- varia, on the east with Salzburg and Carinthia, on the southeast and southwest with Italy, and on the west with Switzerland. The last-named country forms in the lower Engadine an angle penetrating deeply into Tyrol. The country is entirely mountainous, being traversed b< the main chain of the Alps. It may be roughly divide* 1 , into the valley systems of the Lech and the Inn to the north of the chain and of the Etsch or Adige (Vintscn- gau) and the upper Drave (Puster valley) to the south (see Alps). Its area is 11,324 square miles; its pop- ulation in 1901 was 981,949, inclusive of Vovarl- berg, its adjoining Austrian province. Of these 452,062 spoke German, 360,975 Italian or some Romance dialect, and the remainder some form of Slavonic. The tenure of property is for the most part of the nature of absolute ownership. In 1880, 100,393 persons of both sexes were returned as proprietors. 10,283 as tenants. The chief products are milk, butter and cheese. Of grain crops maize, which is largely grown in the Inn valley and Vintschgau, holds the first place. Wheat is grown in the lower valleys, barley and rye in the higher, the latter in favorable spots to a height of over 5,000 feet. Potatoes are found above 6,000 feet. In the Etsch valley, or district about Meran and Botzen, red and white wine of excellent quality is produced. Of late years the cultivation of fruit has much developed, especially in south Tyrol. Silk is alsc produced. Game is still plentiful in the remoter valleys. Mining occupies about one-fifth of the population. At Hall, near Innsbruck, are important salt works, and at Brixlegg, in the same valley, copper and lead are smelted. Iron is worked at Fulpmes, in the Stubai valley, and at Prad, in the Vintschgau. Zinc is found at the head of the Passeir valley. In the middle ages gold and silver were found in sufficient quantities to make it worth while to extract them. About 4,340> square miles of the country are covered with forest, chiefly pine, fir, and larch, which, however, is felled ip a recklessly wasteful way. The capital of the county is Innsbruck, {q.v.) Tyrol has more than once been the scene of sharp fighting. In 1499 the men of Graubiinden or the Ori- sons (see Switzerland) invaded the country and de- feated the Tyrolese in the neighborhood of Mals. Id 1703 Max Emmanuel, elector of Bavaria, penetrated the upper Inn valley, but was driven back. During the- wars of the French Revolution French and Austrian armies met more than once within the limits of the province. By the treaty of Pressburg, 1805, the prow mce was transferred to Bavaria. On the renewal of war between Bonaparte and Austria in 1809 th® people rose and expelled the Bavarians, and afterward, under T Y R-TYT 5974 the leadership of Andrew Hofer, an innkeeper of the Passeir valley, repeatedly defeated the French, Bava- rian, and Saxon forces. Innsbruck was more than once taken and retaken; and on August 12th Hofer, after defeating Marshal Lefebvre, was installed in the cap- ital as commandant. But the ill-success of the Aus- trian arms elsewhere prevented any support from being sent, and by the treaty of Schonbrunn in October the Tyrolese were again given up to their new rulers. Hofer, being captured through treachery, was shot at Mantua, February 20, 1810. On the fall of Bona- parte, Tyrol reverted to the house of Hapsburg. TYRONE, an inland county of Ireland, in the prov- ince of Ulster, is bounded north and west by Donegal, northeast by Londonderry, east by Lough Neagh and Armagh, and south by Monaghan and Fermanagh. Its greatest length from nprth to south is forty-six miles and from east to west sixty. The total area is 806,658 acres or about 1,260 square miles. The surface is for the most part hilly, rising into mountains toward the north and south, but eastward toward Lough Neagh it de- clines into a level plain. The Foyle forms a small portion of the western boundary of the county, and re- ceives the Mourne, which flows northward by Omagh and Newtown Stewart. The principal tributaries of the Mourne are the Derg, from Lough Derg, and the Owen- killew, flowing westward from Fir Mountain. The Blackwater, which is navigable by boats to Moy, rises near Five- Mile Town, and forms part of the southeastern boundary of the county with Monaghan and Armagh. With the exception of Lough Neagh, bounding the county on the east, the lakes are small, also few in number. The Tyrone coal-field (six miles long by one to two broad) extends between Lough Neagh and Dun- gannon, all the measures being represented. The coal- field is much broken by faults and has been worked chiefly near the surface, and generally in an unskillful manner; the principal pits are near Dungannon and at Coal Island. The coal is bituminous. There are also indications of copper, iron, and lead. The hilly portions of the county are unsuitable for tillage; but in the lower districts the soil is remarkably fertile, and agriculture is generally practiced after im- proved methods, the county in this respect being in ad- vance of most parts of Ireland. The excellent pasturage of the hilly districts affords sustenance to a large number of young cattle. The manufacture of linens and coarse woolens (includ- ing blankets) is carried on. Brown earthenware, chemicals, whisky, soap, and candles, are also made. There are a few breweries and distilleries, and several flour and meal mills. But for the lack of enterprise the coal and iron might aid in the development of a consid- erable manufacturing industry. The county comprises 8 baronies, 46 parishes, and 2,164 townlands. Formerly it returned two members to parliament, the borough of Dungannon also return- ing one; but in 1885 Dungannon was disfranchised and the county arranged in four divisions — east, mid, north, and south — each returning one member. From 312,956 in 1841 the population had decreased by 1861 10238,500, by 1871 to 215,766, and by 1901 to 150,468 (74,233 males and 76,235 females). In 1901 there were 100,793 Roman Catholics (119,937 in 1871), 44,256 Protestant Episcopalians (49,201 in 1871), 38,564 Presbyterians (42,156 in 1871), 3,597 Methodists (3,115 in 1871), and 1,509 of other denominations (1,357 in 1871). The population of the principal towns was — Strabane 4,196, ' Omagh (the county town) 4,138, Dungannon 4,084, and Cookstown, 3,870. Anciently Tyrone was included in the portion of Ulster made “ sword-land ” by the Scots. It became a principality of one of the sons of Nlall of the Nine Hostages, and from his name — Eogain — was called Tir Eogain, gradually altered to Tyrone. The earldom of Tyrone had been conferred on Con Bacagh O’Neill by Henry VIII., but he was driven into the Pale by one of his sons Shan, who, with the general consent of the people, was then proclaimed chief. From this time he maintained a contest with English authority, but his last remaining forces were completely defeated near the river Foyle in May, 1567. During the insurrection of 1641 Charlemont Fort and Dungannon were captured by Sir Phelim O’Neill, and in 1645 the Parliamentary forces under General Munro were signally defeated by Owen Roe O’Neill at Benburb. At the Revolution the county was for a long time in the possession of the forces of James II. Dungannon was the scene of the famous volunteer convention in 1782. There are still some ruins of the ancient castle of the O’Neills, near Benburb, and among other ruined old castles mention may be made of those of Newton Stewart, Dungannon, Strabane, and Ballygawley. TYRRHENIAN SEA (Anc. Tyrrhenum Mare), that part of the Mediterranean Sea {q.v.) between the islands of Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily on the west, and the Italian peninsula on the east. TYRT/EUS, Greek elegiac poet, lived at Sparta about the middle of the seventh century B.C. Accord- ing to the legend current in later times, he was a native of the Attic deme of Aphidnse, and was invited to Sparta on the suggestion of the Delphic oracle, to as- sist the Spartans in the Second Messenian War. It is difficult, if not impossible, to determine the element of truth in this story. We possess in all about twelve fragments of Tyr- taeus’ poetry, varying in length from one to forty-four lines. They are preserved by Strabo, Lycurgus, Sto- baeus, and others. We may divide them into two vari- eties, according to the meter and dialect in which they are composed. The first class consists of elegies in the Ionic dialect, written partly in praise of the Spar- tan constitution and King Theopompus (Evvojuia), partly to stimulate the Spartan soldiers to deeds of heroism in the field (VnOrjuai — the title is, how- ever, later than Tyrtaeus). The interest of the frag- ments preserved from the E vvojxia is mainly histori- cal: they form our only trustworthy authority for the events of the First Messenian War. TYTLER. The surname of three Scottish writers, principally on historical subjects. 1. Alexander Fraser Tytler, Lord Woodhouse- lee, Scottish judge, was the eldest son of William Tytler (see below), and was born at Edinburgh Oc- tober 15, 1747. He was called to the bar in 1770. His first work, a supplement to the Dictionary of Decisions , undertaken on the suggestion of Lord Kames, was published in 1778, and a continuation appeared in 1796. In 1780 Tytler was appointed conjoint professor of universal history in the university of Edinburgh, becoming sole professor in 1786. In 1782 he published Outlines of his course of lectures, afterward extended and republished under the title of Elements of General History. In 1790 Tytler was appointed judge-advo- cate of Scotland, and while holding this office he wrote a Treatise on the Law of Courts -Martial. In 1801 he was raised to the bench, taking his seat (1802) in the court of session as Lord Woodhouselee. He died at Edinburgh on January 5, 1813. 2. Patrick Fraser Tytler, the son of Lord Woodhouselee and grandson of William Tytler, may be said to have inherited a taste for literary and histori- cal pursuits. He was born at Edinburgh on August 30. 1791, and was educated chiefly at the High School ana TYU- nniversity, being called to the bar in 1813. His earliest literary effort appears to have been a chapter or two contributed to Alison’s Travels in France (1815); and his first independent essays were papers in Blackwood's Magazine. Inheriting the family talent for music, and with a facility in throwing off humorous little poems and songs, he made several contributions to Thomson’s Select Melodies of Scotland, 1 824. The History of Scot- land was undertaken at the suggestion of Sir Walter Scott, and occupied Tytler for nearly twenty years, in the course of which he removed to London for conven- ience of research. The first volume appeared in 1828, and the ninth and last in 1843. He died at Great Mal- vern December 24, 1849. 3. William Tytler, of Woodhouselee, writer on historical and antiquarian subjects, was the son of Alex- ander Tytler, writer in Edinburgh, and was born in that city on October 12, 17 11. He was educated at the High School and the university, and, having adopted his father’s profession, was in 1744 admitted into the society of Writers to the Signet. While successfully practicing as a lawyer, he found time to devote attention to historical investigation. In 1759 he published an Inquiry, Historical and Critical , into the Evidence against Mary Queen of Scots, and an Examination of the Histories of Doctor Robertson and Mr. Hume with respect to that Evidence. This work, which warmly defended the character of the queen, met with great success. He died at Edinburgh on September 12, 1702. TYUMEN* a district town of West Siberia, in the - T Z E 5975 government of Tobolsk, is situated at a point where the chief highway from Russia across the Urals touches the first navigable river (the Tura) of Siberia. A rail- way passing through Ekaterinburg and the principal ironworks on the eastern slopes of the middle Urals con- nects Tyumen with Perm, the terminus of steamboat traffic on the Kama and Volga. The Tura being a trib- utary of the Tobol, which joins the Irtish, a tributary of the Ob, Tyumen has regular steam communication with Omsk and Semipalatinsk, and by the Tobol, the Irtish, and the Ob with the Arctic Ocean and the fish- eries of the lower Ob. Woolen cloth, linen, belts, and especially boots and gloves, are manufactured to a large amount (70,000 pairs of boots and 300,000 pairs of gloves annually). Tyumen carpets, although made in the simplest way and with the plainest tools, have a wide renown in Russia and Siberia, and recently have appeared in the markets of western Europe as of Orien- tal origin. All kinds of metal wares are made in small workshops, and the leather prepared at the tanneries (100 in number) is extensively sold all over Siberia, the Kirghiz steppe, and Bokhara. The trade of Tyumen is exceeded only by that of Irkutsk and of Tomsk. In addition to its primary schools Tyumen has a “real” school. The population, which is of a fluctuating character in summer, was estimated in 1898 at 29,- 588 TZARSKOYE SELO. See Tsarskoye Selo, TZETZES, Joannes, a voluminous Byzantine wrstts of the twelfth century. (See Greece.) t U holds the twenty-first place in our alphabet The corresponding place in the Greek alphabets was occupied by Y (with some slight variations of form). The form in the Italian alphabets was generally V- These three are only modifications of one original; but they are independent symbols with us, though Y does not represent any sound otherwise unrepresented. It will be most convenient to describe the three forms once for all. With T we reach the end of the original Phoenician alphabet. The remaining symbols — no fewer than six with us, four in the completed Latin alphabet — are accretions, either modifications of old symbols for greater exactness or old symbols themselves which had fallen out of their proper place and were added again. The first new symbol was needed to represent the important vowel sound u. We have already seen that the Greeks employed the Phoenician symbols for the breaths which they did not want as symbols for the vowels which they did want. Thus we should have expected that the Phoe- nician vau would have been used for u. But vau was already employed for w , which was a living sound in early Greek; the form used was F (the so-called digam- ma), the origin of our F. At Rome the single form V denoted both the vowel u and also the consonantal w. F retained its place as sixth in the alphabet, but with the value of /, which was unknown to the Greeks; a peculiar form, E, in which the middle stroke has gone to the bottom, seems to have been affected by its neighbor E ; this is found in Etruscan, Umbrian, and Samnite inscriptions; it has, however, the value of w; while a curious symbol 8 ap- pears at the end of the Etruscan alphabet, and is also used in the Eugubine tables with the value of f; the origin of this is uncertain. It may be a rounded form of the second symbol in the diagraph FB (*’•*•, FH) by which the sound F is indicated in a very old inscrip- tion (see Rhein. Mus., xlii. 317); if this is so, the Latin alphabet has the first member of the digraph, the Etrus- can has the second. Next, the symbol Y was added (together with Z .) i n the first century B.c. to represent more exactly, in borrowed words, the sound of Greek vpsilon. Lastly, the form (J was differentiated from \J. It is the uncial form, and so belongs to the general transition from the pointed to the rounded character which con duced to greater convenience of writing. The sound which U denotes is produced by “ round- ing ” the lips to the furthest extent consistent with a clear vowel-sound, and by raising the back of the tongue higher than for any other rounded sound. It has two varieties (like all other vowels) according as the position of the tongue is more or less tense, pr6- ducing thereby a narrower or a wider aperture for the voice to pass through; whence the sounds are techni- cally called “ narrow ” and “ wide ” respectively. The narrow sound is heard in English only when the vowel is long, as in “ book,” “ rule,” but in northern English (Scotch) “ book ” maybe heard short. The wide sound is heard in “ full,** “good.* 9 The digraph 00 is com. monly used for the u sound, and attests the fact that the original sound of 5 has frequently passed into ii, as in “ good,” “ food,” etc., written “ gode,” “ fode ” in Mid- dle English; sometimes, however, the 00 has come by analogy into words where u is the original sound, as in “ room,” M.E. “ roum,” O.E. “rum.” Original u has commonly passed into the au sound, spelled in English ou or ow, as in “ how,” “ house,” “ mouse,” “ bower,” for O.E. “ hu,” “ hus,” “ mus,” and “ bur.” UBfiDA, a town of Spain, head of an administrative subdivision in the province of Jaen, about twenty-two miles to the east of the Menjibar station on the railway from Madrid to Cordova. Under the Moorish rule it was a place of considerable consequence, its population being said to have at one time numbered 70,000. Some portions of the old walls, with towers and gates, still remain, but none of the public buildings are of great age, the oldest church, that of San Salvador, dating from 1540-56. The population within the municipal boundaries is 18,149. UCAYALI, a great river of South America, one of the chief head-waters of the Amazon. It joins the Amazon from the south, in S. latitude 4 0 40' and W. longitude 73 0 30', opposite the town of Nauta in Ecuador; but the whole course of the river is in Peru. It is the largest river that joins the Amazon above the Brazilian territory, and on account of its length has been regarded by some as the main stream of the Amazon, but at its mouth it is not above half the width of the Amazon. The Maranon and Hullaga from the south, with many smaller but still large rivers from the nprth, have united to form the Amazon. The sources of the Ucayali are in the Andes, Cusco being situated on one of its feeders, which rises considerably further south ; while another had its rise on the western side of the Andes, to the northwest of Lima, and after flowing southward for about 150 miles, makes its way through a cross valley, and takes a northward course. Attention has of late been very strongly directed to this river as affording means of communication between the western parts of Peru and the Atlantic Ocean. It was partially explored by the Count de Castelnau and others in 1846, by Lieutenant Herndon, and Mr. Gib- bon of the United States navy in 1851, and more re- cently by an expedition sent out by the Peruvian gov- ernment. It has been found to be navigable by steamers from its mouth to the towns not far distant from Lima. UDAIPUR [Oodeypore], or MewAr, a native state in Rajputana, India, with an area of I2,753 square miles. It is bounded on the north by the British ter- ritory of Ajmere; on the east by the native states of Bundi, Gwalior, Tonk, and Partabgarh; on the south by Banswdra, Dungarpur, and Mahi K&ntha ; and on the west by the Aravalli Mountains, separating it from Marwar and Sirohi. The greater part of the country is level plain. A section of the Aravalli Mountains extends over the southwestern and southern portions, and i* rich in mineral?, bat the mines have beep, low? * UD A- closed. In 1901 the population, exclusive of 51,076 Bhils, was 1,863,126 (males 998,796, females 864,330) ; Hindus numbered 1,321,521, Mohammedans 43,322, Jains 78,171, and Christians 130. The only town with over 10,000 inhabitants is Udaipur, the capital (45,214). UDAL (Danish odel) is a kind of right still existing in Orkney and Shetland, and supposed to be a relic of the old allodial mode of landholding existing antece- dently to the growth of feudalism in Scotland. The udal tenant folds without charter by uninterrupted possession on payment to the crown, the kirk, or a grantee from the crown of a tribute called scat (Danish skat), or without such payment, the latter right being more strictly the udal right. Udal lands descend to all the children equally. They are convertible into feus at the option of the udallers. UDALL, Nicholas, author of the earliest extant regular English comedy. Udall was a typical man of the Renaissance in England, a schoolmaster by profes- sion, a classical scholar, a translator of Terence and Erasmus, and a writer of pageants and interludes. He was high in favor at court, wrote verses for the city pageant exhibited at Anne Boleyn’s coronation in 1533, and was honored by Mary in 1554. The severity of nis discipline at Eton, where he was headmaster, has been immortalized by the quaint lines of one of his pupils, Thomas Tusser. The exact history of the production of his comedy, Ralph Royster Doyster , is not known. He was born about 1505, and died in 1556. UDINE, a town of Italy, in the province of Udine, in a wide plain near the foot of the Carnic Alps, on the Roja, eighty-four miles by rail northeast from Venice and forty-nine miles northwest from Trieste. It is in- closed by an imposing wall of considerable antiquity, some four or five miles in circumference, and fortified with towers. On the principal square stands the town- hall, built in 1457 in the Venetian-Gothic style, and skillfully restored since a fire in 1876; opposite is a clock tower resembling that of the Piazza di San Marco at Venice. The archiepiscopal palace and Museo Civico, as well as the municipal buildings, have some valuable paintings. The leading industry of Udine is silk-spinning, but it also possesses manufactures of linen, cotton, hats, and paper, tanneries, and sugar re- fineries, and has a considerable trade. The population in 1901 was 37,933* UEBERWEG, Friedrich, best known by his His- tory of Philosophy , was born on January 22, 1826, at Le.chlingen, in Rhenish Prussia, where his father was a Lutheran pastor. Ueberweg passed through the gym- nasium at Elberfeld, and studied at the universities of Gottingen and Berlin. In 1852 he qualified himself at Bonn as privat -docent in philosophy. His System of Logic, published in 1857 (English translation, 1871), and his essay On the Authenticity and the Order of the Pla- tonic Writings , crowned by the Imperial Academy of Vienna (published 1861), contributed to draw attention to him as at once a scholar and a thinker. In 1862 he was called to Konigsberg as extraordinary professor, and in 1867 he was advanced to the ordinary grade. He married in 1863, and on June 9, 1871, he died pre- maturely. UFA,' a government of southeastern Russia, on the western slope of the Urals, has Vyatka and Perm on the north, Orenburg on the east and south, Samara and Kazan on the west, and comprises an area of 47,112 square miles. Several craggy and densely wooded ridges, running from southwest to northeast parallel to the main chain of the southern Urals, occupy its eastern part. They are separated by broad and long longitu- dinal valleys, and rise to altitudes of from 2,500 to 3,500 feet above the sea > their highest peaks— Iremel (5,040 -UGA 5977 feet), Nurgush, Urenga, and Taganai (3,950 feet) — are above the limits of tree-vegetation, but in no case reach those of perpetual snow. The high longitudinal valleys of the Urals are the seat of an important mining indus- try. The population of Ufa in 1898 was 2,220,497. Only one-third of the whole is Russian, the remainder being chiefly Bashkirs (50 per cent. , including Mescheriaks and Tepters), Tartars (8.4 per cent.), Tcheremisses, Tchuva- shes, Mordvinians, and Votiaks. In the south the Bash- kirs, Tartars, and other Ural- Altaians constitute two- thirds of the population. Among the Russians two dis- tinct elements must be distinguished — some 100,000 peas- ants, who formerly were mining serfs, and now support themselves chiefly by work in or for the mines, and nearly 620,000 agriculturists, for the most part more recent im- migrants. Mining industry is advancing, notwithstand- ing many obstacles; the iron-works of Zlatoust espe- cially have a wide reputation. Flour-mills, distilleries, and tanneries come next in importance. The exports of corn, linseed, timber, wooden wares, metals, tallow, hides, and cattle are considerable, and trade is active, especially at the fairs of Menzelinsk, Ufa, and Zlatoust There are six administrative districts, the chief towns of which (with population in 1898) are— Ufa (49,961), Belebei (4,200), Birsk (8,000), Menzelinsk (6, 100), Ster- litamak (8,940), and Zlatoust (18,990). The loading places Tchelny and Berozovka on the Kama, and sev- eral iron and copper works (Satkinsk, Yurezan, Katav- Ivanovsk, about 6,000 inhabitants each) ought also to be mentioned. Ufa, capital of the above government, is situated at the confluence of the Ufa with the Byelaya. Owing to the fertility of the neighboring regions, and the position of the town at the junction of two im- portant rivers, the Ufa merchants carry on a brisk ex- { )ort trade. The population has rapidly increased of ate, reaching 50,000 in 1900. UGANDA, a country of eastern Central Africa, to the northwest of the Victoria Nyanza. It ha^ an area of about 140,000 square miles, extending from i° N. latitude to the Kitangule river, and from 31 0 E. longitude to the Nile. The country bordering the lake and to the northwest is mountainous, the mountains being arranged in low parallel chains. The climate is mild, and the temperature remarkably uniform through- out the year; the thermometric range is from 50° to 90 0 Fahr.; but the mean annual variation is only 20 0 . The annual rainfall is fifty inches, the greatest amount of rain occurring in March, April, May, and September, October, and November, when rain falls nearly every day, thunderstorms being frequent. The population of Uganda is about 4,000,000. The men are tall and well-built, and have good features and dark chocolate-colored skin, with woolly hair. The women in their youth are good looking. The country is divided into three provinces — Uddu in the south, Singo in the west, and Changwe in the east, to which must be added about 400 islands in the lake. The government of the country is feudal, the king being nominally supreme. Succession to the throne is hereditary, but the successor is usually a minor chosen by three hereditary chiefs, who, with the young king’s mother, carries on the govern- ment until he is of age. The reigning family in Uganda is descended from the Wahuma tribe ; the late king Mtesa professed to trace back his descent to Kintu (or Ham), the founder of the dynasty. The country is ruled by the king, three hereditary chiefs, and a council of minor chiefs — two hereditary chiefs and a certain proportion of the others being continually in residence at Rubaga, the capital of the country. Game is very plentiful; elephants, buffaloes, zebras, rhinoceroses. 5978 UGL‘ wild boars, twelve species of antelopes, lions, leopards, jackals, foxes, hyenas, hares, chimpanzees, and several species of monkeys inhabit the forest. Snakes are numerous; hippopotami, crocodiles, and otters abound in the lake and in the Nile, as also many water-rats. The principal birds are parrots, guinea-fowl, owls, vul- tures, adjutants, goatsuckers, kites, eagles, ducks, geese, storks, cranes, herons, gulls, scarlet flamingos, darters, the sacred and glossy ibis, and brilliantly colored honey- birds. The principal insects are mosquitoes, fleas, lo- custs, white and driver ants, and butterflies of many species. The domestic animals are cows, goats, and a few sheep and dogs. The language spoken in Uganda belongs to the great Bantu family, and is very rich in words. The Waganda are courteous, cleanly, given to hospitality, but drunken, and to a certain extent indo- lent. Their standard. of morality, even judged by that of the surrounding tribes, is not high. Human life is little respected; they are untruthful and indecent. Un- less moved by passion, they are not cruel; passionate, they are not revengeful. Children are well treated, as are the aged men. On account of the extensive preva- lence of polygamy, women occupy a somewhat low social grade. Uganda was first visited by Speke and Grant in i860, and the country has since been visited by numerous Europeans, chiefly missionaries. The Church Mission- ary Society and the Roman Catholics have mission sta- tions in the country. In 1886 some forty of their con- verts were burnt at the stake, and in the same year Bishop Hannington was murdered on the borders of the country by the orders of King Mwanga. U GLITCH, a district town of Russia, in the govern- ment ofYaroslavl, is situated on the upper Volga, prin- cipally on its right bank, sixty-seven miles to the west of the capital of the province. Its historical remains are mostly associated with the prince Dmitri. Uglitch has now become a commercial and industrial city with 1 1 ,930 inhabitants, and has an important trade, being one of the chief loading places on the upper Volga. UGOLINO. See Gherardesca and Pisa. UGRIANS. See Finland. UHLAND, Johann Ludwig, German poet, was bom at Tubingen, on April 26, 1787. He studied at the university of his native place, taking jurisprudence as his special subject, but also devoting much time to literature. Having graduated as a doctor of laws in 1810, he went for some months to Paris ; and from 1812 to 1814 he worked at his profession in Stuttgart, in the bureau of the minister of justice. He had begun his career as a poet in 1807 and 1808 by contributing bal- lads and lyrics to Seckendorf s Musenalmanach ; and in 1812 and 1813 he wrote poems for the Poetischer Alma- nack and for the Deutscher Dichterwald. In 1815 he collected his poems in a volume entitled Gedichte , which almost immediately secured a wide circle of readers, and gives him his place in German literature. To every new edition he added some fresh poems ; and the sixtieth edition, published in 1875, included a number of pieces found among his papers. He wrote two dramatic Works — Ernst, Herzog von Schwaben and Ludwig, der Baier — the former published in 1817, the latter in 1819. In 1829 Uhland was made a professor, at Tubingen university, of German literature and the German language, but he resigned this appointment in 1833, when it was found to be incompatible with his political duties. In 1848 he became a member of the Frankfort parliament, in which he sat as one of the most respected members of the liberal party. He died on November 13, 1862. UIST, North and South, two islands of the Outer Hebrides, are situated from fifteen to eighteen miles #est of the Isle of Skye, from which they are separated -ULE by the Little Minch. Unlike the other islands of the Hebrides, the east coast of the North and South Uist are much and deeply indented, while the west coasts are, as a rule, almost unbroken; North Uist, between which and South Uist the island of Benbecula intervenes, is eighteen miles long from west to east, and from three to ten miles in breadth. The eastern half of it is so cut up by lochs and water courses as to have the appearance of an archipelago. This region is a brown, peaty, dreary bog, partly relieved, however, by a line of low hills running along the coast, at the distance of about two and one-half miles. In the west part, which, as a rule, is hilly, there is a tract of uneven low land, exceedingly beautiful in certain seasons, rendered fertile by the drifting of shell-sand from the coast, and producing good clover and grain crops. Population (1889) 3,371. South Uist is twenty miles long, and seven miles broad. Its east coast is much indented by lochs. The eastern district is upland; the western is alluvial and productive under proper treatment: population (1889) 3,825, en- gaged in fishing and agriculture. UJIJI, a town of eastern Central Africa, of considera- ble importance, also known by the name of Kavele, is situated on the eastern shores of Lake Tanganyika. It is the chief town on that lake, and is the center of a brisk trade in ivory. Formerly it was a great slave- market. The town is of a straggling character, Arab houses of sun-dried bricks being mingled with native huts. The population, which fluctuates considera- bly, is very mixed, being composed of Arabs and the representatives of numerous Central African tribes. Ujiji has been visited by various European travelers, who have made it their headquarters, and it was here that Stanley found Livingstone, on October 28, 1871. UJJAIN, or Oojein, a town in the native state of Gwalior, central India, situated on the right bank of the Sipra. In ancient times Ujjain was the great and famous capital of Malwa, one of the seven sacred cities of the Hindus, and the spot which marked the first meridian of Hindu geographers. Though much decayed, it is still a large and populous city, with considerable commerce. In 1898 the population of the town num- bered 35,932. UKASE, or Ukas (Russian, ukasat , to speak), a term applied in Russia to all the orders or edicts, legislative or administrative, emanating from the government. Ukases either proceed directly from the emperor, and are then called imenny-ukas , or are published as decis- ions of a directing senate. Both have the force of laws till they are annulled by subsequent decisions. Many ukases are issued in the course of one reign ; and as an immense chaos of ukases had accumulated since 1649 (the date of the last codification of laws), the Czar Nich- olas ordered (1827) that a collation of them should be made. The result was a collection of laws in forty-eight: volumes, which has been supplemented year by year by volumes of new ukases, and which, after the elimination of such ukases as are unimportant or of temporary authority, constitutes the present legal code (svod) of the Russian Empire. The prikases are imperial “ orders of the day,” or military orders given during a campaign. UKRAINE (“ frontier ”), the name formerly given to a district of European Russia, now comprising the governments of Kharkoff, Kieff, Podolia, and Poltava, (q.v.) ULCER. See Surgery. ULEABORG, a seaport of Russian Finland, capital of the government of the same name, stands on the south bank of the Ulea, on the eastern shore and near the head of the Gulf of Bothnia. It was founded in 1605, and the privileges of a court were granted to it in ULF- 1715. In 1822 it suffered severely from fire. The harbor has of late years become so shallow, that vessels are obliged to unload in the roadstead, four miles from the town. Population (1898) 11,705, who are engaged in the dock yards, saw mills, and breweries of the town. In 1854 an English flotilla burnt the government prop- erty in the place. ULFILAS, the apostle of Christianity to the Gothic race, and, through his translation of the scriptures into Gothic, the father of Teutonic literature, was born among the Goths of the trans-Danubian provinces in the year 31 1. There is a tradition that his ancestors were Christian captives from Sadagolthina in Cappa- docia, who had been carried off to the lands beyond the Danube in the Gothic raid of 267; but the evidence on which this rests is inadequate. For some time before 341 he worked as a“ lector ” or reader of the Scriptures, probably among his own countrymen in Constantinople, or among those attached as foederati to the imperial armies in Asia Minor. From this work he was called to return as missionary bishop to his own country, being ordained by Eusebius of Nicomedia and“ the bish- ops who were with him ” in 341. The life of Ulfilas during the following thirty- three years is marked only by one recorded incident, his visit to Constantinople in 360, to attend the council con- vened by the Arian or Homoian party. He died in 381. ULLS WATER, after Windermere the largest of the English lakes, lies between the counties of Cumber- land and Westmoreland, ten miles east of Keswick. Its length is nine miles, and its breadth one mile. Its scenery has none of the soft beauty of that of Windermere, but is rugged and grand. One of the chief features of the landscape is the lofty mountain Helvellyn, which rises from the southwest extremity of the lake. ULM, an ancient and important commercial town in Wiirtemberg, and an imperial fortress of the first class, is situated on the left bank of the Danube, in a fertile plain at the foot of the Swabian Alps, forty-five miles to the southeast of Stuttgart and sixty-three miles to the northwest of Munich. The town, quaintly built with narrow and confined streets, still preserves the dignified and old-fashioned appearance of an ancient imperial town, and contains many mediaeval buildings, both of historic and of artistic interest. By far the most important and conspicuous building in Ulm is the mag- nificent early Gothic cathedral, next to the cathedral of Cologne the largest church in Germany, and capable of containing 30,000 people. Begun in 1377, and carried on at intervals till the sixteenth century, the building was long left unfinished; but in 1844 the work of restora- tion and completion was undertaken, and has steadily progressed ever since. It contains some fine stained glass, the largest organ in Germany (1856), and a num- ber of interesting old paintings and carvings by Syrlin, Engelberger, and other masters of the Swabian school. The cathedral belongs to the Protestant Church. Ulm is famous for its vegetables (especially asparagus), bar- ley, beer, pipe-bowls, and sweet -cakes (Ulmer Ziicker- brot). Bleaching, brewing, and brass-founding are carried on, as well as a large miscellany of manufactures, including hats, metal goods, agricultural implements, tobacco and cigars, cement, paper, and chemicals. The population in 1901 was 42,985. ULPIANUS, Domitius, a Roman jurist, was of Tyrian ancestry, but the time and place of his birth are unknown. He made his first appearance in public life as assessor in the auditorium of Papinian and mem- ber of the council of Septimius Severus; under Cara- calla he was master of the requests. Elagabalus de- prived him of his functions, and banished him from Rome, but on the accession of Alexander (222) he was • U L T 5979 at once recalled and reinstated, and finally became the emperor’s chief adviser and praefectus praetorio. His curtailment of the privileges granted to the praetorian guard by Elagabalus provoked their enmity, and several times he only narrowly escaped their vengeance; ulti- mately, in 228, he was murdered in the palace, in the. course of a riot between the soldiers and the mob. Ulpian’s period of literary activity extended from about 21 1 to 222 a.D. His works include Ad Sabinum , a commentary on the jus civile , in over fifty books; Ad Edictum , a comment»~y on the Edict, in eighty-three books. His writings .ltogether have supplied to Jus- tinian’s Digest about a third of its contents, and his commentary on the Edict alone about a fifth. As an author he is characterized by doctrinal exposition of a high order, judiciousness of criticism, and lucidity of arrangement, style and language. ULRIC, St., Bishop of Augsburg, and venerated as one of the fathers of the German Church, was born at Augsburg, about the year 890. His father, Hupald, was one of those counts of Dillingen who played so important a part in mediaeval German history. He himself owed part at least of the extraordinary influence which he exercised in his time to the distinguished rank of his family. He was educated in the celebrated Benedictine monastery of St. Gall (q.v.), in Switzer- land; but his later life, and the character of his mind, as well as the tendency of his religious views, appear to have been influenced less by his monastic instructors, than by the counsels of a remarkable female recluse named Wiborada, whose cell was in the vicinity of St. Gall, and with whom he formed a close association. It was by her couusel that, instead of adopting the Benedictine habit at St. Gall, he devoted himself to the secular ministry, and returned to his native diocese of Augsburg, where he received holy orders. In accord- ance with the usage of his time he made a pilgrimage to Rome, and soon after his return, was consecrated Bishop of Augsburg, on the death of Hiltine in the year 923. The details of his history as administrator of this church, which had suffered serious disorganization * through the Magyar invasion and other wars, would be out of place here; but they are related with much cir- cumstantiality by his contemporary biographer; and they throw so much light as well on the externals of the religious life of the time, as on the moral and spiritual character of the people, laity as well as clergy, as to merit the consideration of every student of mediaeval history. ULRICI, Hermann, one of the most active philo- sophical writers in Germany since Hegel’s death, was born at Pforten, Prussia, on March 23, 1806. Educated for the law, he gave up his profession upon the death of his father, in 1829, and after four years of further study, devoted to literature, philosophy, and science, qualified as a university lecturer. In 1834 he was called to a professorship at Halle, where he remained till his death, on January 11, 1884. His first works were in the domain of literary criticism. His treatise On Shakespeare' s Dramatic Art (1839) has been translated into English. His later works, dealing with perennial problems of philosophy, have found a more extended circle of readers. Such are Glauben und Wissen (1858), Gott und die Natur (1862), Gott und der Mensch (two vols., 1866-73). From 1847 onward Ulrici was asso- ciated with the younger Fichte in the editorship of the Zeitschrift fur Philosophie. ULSTER. See Ireland. ULTIMATUM, in diplomacy, the final conditions or terms offered by one government for the settlement of its disputes with another; the most favorable terms which a negotiator is prepared to offer, whose re- 5980 ULT- jection will generally be considered to put an end to negotiation. ULTRAMARINE, a magnificent blue pigment, which occurs in nature as a proximate component of Lapis Lazuli, (q. v.) Lapis lazuli has long been known as a precious stone, and highly valued as such, and as early at least as the eleventh century the art of extracting a blue pigment from it was practiced. From the beginning of the sixteenth century this pig- ment began to be imported into Europe as azurrum Ultramar inum . To extract it, the stone, after having been powdered coarsely, is heated to redness and thrown into cold water to facilitate its conversion into a very fine powder, which is next treated with dilute acetic acid to remove the carbonate of lime which is present in almost all specimens. The insoluble blue residue is mixed up into a “ dough ” with a composition of resin, pitch, and linseed oil, and this dough is then kneaded under water, which is renewed as long as it runs off with a blue color. The blue liquor, when allowed to stand, deposits a fine precipitate, which is collected, washed, dried, and sold as ultramarine. As the yield amounts to only 2 to 3 per cent, of the min- eral used, it is not surprising to learn that the pigment used to be weighed up with gold. It was valued chiefly on account of its brilliancy of tone and its inert- ness in opposition to sunlight, oil, and slaked lime (in fresco-painting). In 1814 Tassaer observed the spontaneous formation of a blue compound, very similar to ultramarine, if not identical with it, in a soda-furnace at St. Gobain, which caused the “ Societe pour 1’ Encouragement d’lndustrie ” to offer a prize for the artificial production of the pre- cious color. The problem was solved almost simulta- neously by Guimet and by Christian Gmelin, then pro- fessor of chemistry in Tubingen; 'but while Guimet kept his process a secret (it has indeed never become known) Gmelin published his, and thus became the originator of an industry which flourishes to this day chiefly in Germany. There are very few ultramarine works in other countries, and none, as far as we know, in Great Britain. The raw materials used in the man- ufacture are — (1) iron-free kaolin, or some other kind of pure clay; (2) anhydrous sulphate of soda; (3) anhy- drous carbonate of soda; (4) sulphur (in the state of powder); and (5) powdered charcoal or relatively ash- free coal, or colophony in lumps. The numerous modes of manufacture may be viewed as modifications or combinations of three processes. In the Nuremberg process the soda is used as sulphate, or partly as such and partly as carbonate. The follow- ing recipe gives an idea of the proportions in which the materials are used: — kaolin (calculated as anhydrous matter) 100 parts; calcined sulphate of soda 83 to 100 (or 41 of sulphate and 41 of carbonate); charcoal 17; powdered sulphur 13. These ingredients are mixed most intimately ; they are then rammed tight into fire- clay crucibles and kept at a nearly white heat for seven to ten hours, access of air being prevented as far as possible. The product obtained is a grayish or yellow- ish green mass, which is soaked in and washed with water; the porous residue is ground very fine in mills, again washed, dried, and again ground in the dry state and passed through sieves. The product at this stage has a green color, and is sometimes sold as “ green ultra- marine,” although it has not a high standing among green pigments. For its conversion into blue ultra- marine it is heated with sulphur in the presence of air to a relatively low temperature. In the carbonate of soda process the soda is used solely, or at least principally, in the carbonate form. The following is one of many recipes: —kaolin (calcu.- U M A lated as anhydrous matter) 100; carbonate of soda 100; charcoal 12; sulphur 60. The mixture is heated in a reverberatory furnace to form in the first instance a white mass, which is so porous that it readily passes, by oxidation, into green and partly even into blue ultra- marine. Silica ultramarine is soda-ash ultramarine in whose preparation a quantity of finely divided silica, equal to 5 to 10 per cent, of the weight of the kaolin, has been added. It is distinguished by a reddish tinge, which is the more fully developed the greater the proportion of added silica. It is more highly proof against the action of alum solution than non-siliceous ultramarines. ULTRAMONTANE (Latin, beyond the mountains — the Alps in relation to France), that part in the Church of Rome which assigns the greatest weight to papal prerogative. The pope, according to th is do ctr ine, is superior to general councils, and independent of their decrees; he is considered to be the source of all jurisdic- tion in the church; and it is through him, and not directly in virtue of their episcopal offices that the bishops derive their powers of “jurisdiction” as dis- tinguished from “order.” The Ultramontane school has been the opponent of those doctrines and views which favor the right of self-government by national churches. ULUGH BEG, Mirza Mohammed ben Shah Rok, astronomer, grandson of Timur {q.v.), succeeded his father as prince of Samarkand in 1447, after having foi years taken part in the government, and was murdered in 1449 by his eldest son. He occupied himself with astronomical pursuits, and erected an observatory al Samarkand, from which were issued tables of the sun, moon, and planets, with an interesting introduction, which throws much light on the trigonometry and as* tronomical methods then in use ( Prolegomenes des Ta- bles Astrono?niques d’Ouloug Beg , ed. by Sedillot, Paris, 1847, and translated by the same, 1853). The serious errors which he found in the Arabian star cata- logues (which were simply copied from Ptolemy, adding the effect of precession to the longitudes) induced him to redetermine the positions of 992 fixed’ stars, to which he added twenty-seven stars from Al Sufi’s catalogue, which were too far south to be observed at Samarkand. ULVERSTON, a market-town in the northwest of Lancashire, England, is picturesquely situated near Morecambe Bay, on the borders of the Lake district, 9 miles northeast of Barrow-in-Furness, and 256 north- west of London. The town bears small evidence of its great antiquity. The principal streets branch from the market-place, and the houses built of stone are generally rough-cast and whitened. A rivulet flows through the town. After the destruction of Furness Abbey, Ulverston succeeded Dalton as the most im- portant town in Furness, but the rapid rise of Barrow within recent years has relegated it to quite a secondary place. Formerly it had a considerable trade in linens, checks, and ginghams, but this has greatly fallen off. It possesses, however, large iron and steel works (North Lonsdale Iron and Steel Company), a large chemical works, an extensive paper manufactory, a bolt manufactory, breweries, tanyards, and wooden hoop manufactories. The population of the urban sanitary district (area 3,120 acres) in 1871 was 7,607, and in 1901 it was 12,008. ULWAR, an alternative form of Alwar, ( q . v .) ULYSSES. See Odysseus. UMAN, a district town of Russia, in the south of the government of Kieff, is now (1898) an industrial and trading town, with 28,628 inhabitants, many of whom are Jews, who Carry on an active trade in the export of corn, spirits, etc. It has a remarkable park (290 UMB acres), planted in 1 796 by the orders of Count Potocki, in connection with which a gardening school is main- lined. UMBALLA, an alternative form of AmbAlA, UMBER. See Pigments. UMBILICAL CORD, or Navel String, the bond of communication between the foetus (which it enters at the umbilicus or navel) and the placenta, which is at- tached to the inner surface of the maternal womb. It consists of the umbilical vein lying in the center, and the two umbilical arteries winding from left to right around the vein. Contrary to the usual course, the vein conveys arterial blood to the foetus, and the arte- ries return venous blood to the placenta. These vessels are imbedded in a yellow gelatinous matter, known from the first describer as Wharton’s gelatine. Nervous fila- ments have been traced into the cord; but the presence of lymphatics is doubtful. The whole is invested by a membrane (the amnion) and its ordinary length is about twenty inches. As soon as a child is born, and its res- piration fairly established, the umbilical cord is tied, and divided near the navel, which spontaneously closes, the fragment of attached cord dying away. UMBILICUS is the anatomical term for the navel. UMBRELLA now means a portable protector from rain, while the name parasol is given to the generally smaller, lighter, and more fanciful article carried by ladies as a sun-shade. But, primarily, the umbrella (om brel/a, Ital. dim. from Lat. umbra , shade,) was a sun-shade alone — its original home having been in hot, brilliant climates. In Eastern countries, from the earliest times, the umbrella was one of the insignia of royalty and power. On the sculptured remains of ancient Nineveh and Egypt there are representations of kings, and sometimes of lesser potentates, going in pro- cession with an umbrella carried over their heads ; and throughout Asia the umbrella had, and still has, some- thing of the same significance. Among the Greeks and Romans the umbrella ( 6 Hid?, 6kicc8 eiov , umbraculum umbella) was used by ladies, while the carrying of it by men was regarded as a sign of effeminacy. Probably in these southern climes it never went out of use, and we find from allusions by Montaigne that in his day its employment as a sun- shade was quite common in Italy. The umbrella was not unknown in England in the seventeenth century, and was already used as a rain protector. The umbrella as at first used, based on its Eastern prototype, was a heavy ungainly article which did not hold well together, and no little ingenuity has been ex- ercised to bring it into the elegant, compact, and strong form which is now quite common. The early umbrella had a long handle, with ribs of whalebone or cane, very rarely of metal, and stretchers of cane. The jointing of the ribs and stretchers to the stick and to each other was very rough and imperfect. The covering material consisted of oiled silk or cotton, heavy in substance, and liable to stick together in the folds. Gingham soon came to be substituted for the oiled cloth, and in 1848 William Sangster patented the use of alpaca as an um- brella covering material. One of the most notable in- ventions for combining lightness, strength, and elas- ticity in the ribs of umbrellas was the “ Paragon ” rib patented by Samuel Fox in 1852. It is formed of a thin strip of steel rolled into a U or trough section, a form which gives great strength for the weight of metal. The use of such ribs, combined with the notched rings and runners which give a separate hinge and joint to each rib and stretcher, and with the thin but tough cover- ing materials now in use, has principally contributed to the strength, lightness and elegance which ordinary um- brellas now present. Umbrella silk is principally made 375 5981 at Lyons and Crefeld; but much of it is so loaded in dyeing that it cuts readily at the folds. Textures of pure silk or of silk and alpaca mixed have better wear- resisting properties. UMBRIA (OjtfipiKrj, 'OjufifHXOl, O 5 /// 3 / 30 L, Umbri). The early Greeks applied the name Opppixrf to all central and northern Italy. Herodotus (iv. 49) speaks of it somewhat vaguely, as if it extended up to the Alps. The Umbrians probably extended across central Italy from sea to sea down as far as Latium. Pliny (iii. 13, 19) tells us that the Umbri were con- sidered the most ancient nation of Italy (antiquissima gens Italiae), by which he probably means, of the Italian stock. The Greek writers included under the name of Umbria the district known in later times as Picenum. Pseudo-Scylax makes Umbria march with Samnium, and describes Ancona as a city of Umbria. The Umbrians seem to have found the Siculi and Liburni in occupation of the land into which they ad- vanced, the former holding the parts lying toward the interior, the latter people the district along the Adri- atic. The Umbrians were one of the chief peoples of that branch of the Indo-European family which had en- tered Italy from the north and driven out and absorbed the older inhabitants. They were more closely con- nected with the Samnites and Oscans than with the Latin stock, as is shown by their language. Their pos- session of the fertile regions of upper Italy exposed them to the constant assaults of fresh bodies of inva- ders, pressing on over the Alps, and perhaps likewise from the seaboard. Their force was extended over a wide area, and thus too weak to withstand the attacks from various sides to which they were exposed. Thus their extensive territory was gradually reduced by the successive encroachments of other peoples. First came the Etruscans, who, according to Herodotus (i. 94), were Lydians, who established themselves in the land of the Umbrians. From which side of Italy they made their invasion, whether from the mouth of the Po or from the western coast of what later became Etruria, or whether from both, we have no means of determin- ing. That the Umbrians did not yield without a strug- gle we cannot doubt. It was only after 300 of their towns had been captured by the Etruscans that they succumbed. Nevertheless they still retained consider- able influence in upper Italy, which, according to Strabo, continued down to the time of the Roman con- quest. At this time Umbria as a state consisted of the region bounded on the west by the Tiber, on the south by the Sabines, on the east by Picenum and the Adriatic, while on the north it extended close up to the southern or Spinetic mouth of the Po. How much farther south the Etruscan sway had once reached we cannot deter- mine, but that they had once held this region, as far as Ravenna at least, is rendered probable by the tradition that Ravenna had been founded by a colony of Thessalians who, not brooking the insulting treatment which they received from the Etruscans, gladly admitted some Umbrians, who thus became the possessors of the city. When the great Gaulish inroad took place at the beginning of the fourth century B.C. Etruscans and Um- brians alike suffered severely. Some of the Celtic tribes crossed the Po and formed permanent settlements. The Ananes settled in the Apennines, the Boii between the former and the Adriatic; next came the Lingones; and finally the Senones occupied the seaboard of the Adriatic as far as the Rubicon. The early Greeks had included under the name of Umbria the district along the Adriatic, afterward known as Picenum. This consisted of a fertile region, extending from beyond Ancona to the river Matnno. Thus* hi the advance of the Gauls UMM— UND 5982 from the north and the Picentes from the south, the Umbrians were shut off from the seaboard, and con- fined to the district known as Umbria in historical times. When Rome began the consolidating of Italy, Umbria consisted of the region bounded by the Ager Gallicus on the north, by Etruria (the Tiber) on the west, by Picenum on the east, and by the Sabines on the south. The Umbrians kept a desperate hold of this district, which lies between the two arms of the Apennines. Thenceforward they play but an insig- nificant part in Italian history. This is explained by the physical formation of their country. It is an ex- tremely mountainous region, with a few small plains between, which were noted for their fertility. Hence arose a number of small but thriving communities, none of which had the capacity of developing into a leading state such as Rome became for the Latins. Their want of seaports likewise excluded them from trade, the mouths of all the rivers which flowed from their country being in the hands of their enemies. Of the Umbrians’ political and municipal organiza- tion little is known. In addition to the city (tota) they seem to have had a larger territorial division in the tribus (trifu, acc. ) as we gather from Livy (xxxi. 2, per Umbriamquam tribum Sapiniam vocant; f/'.xxxiii. 37)and from the Eugubine Tables (trifor Tarsinates, vi. b. 54). From the fertility of their land their communi- ties were very prosperous. The olive and vine flour- ished in their valleys ; they grew spelt abundantly ; and the boars of Umbria were famous. Ancient authors describe the Umbrians as leading effeminate lives, and as closely resembling their Etruscan enemies in their habits. The alphabet consists of nineteen letters. The Umbrians counted their day from noon to noon. But whether they borrowed this likewise from the Etrus- cans we do not know (Pliny, ii. 77 )* In their measur- ing of land they employed the vorsus , a measure common to them and the Oscans (Frontinus, De Limit., p. 30), three and one-third of which went to the Roman jugerum. When the Romans undertook the con- quest of Italy, the most feeble resistance of all was offered them by the Umbrians. In the great strug- gle between the Samnite confederacy and Rome, Um- bria played an insignificant part. It is probable that all through the Second Samnite War their sympathies were altogether on the side of their Samnite kinsmen, and that some assistance was afforded by individual communities. It is not unlikely therefore that it was with a view to keep the Umbrians in check that the Romans planted a colony at Nequinum on the Nar, whose inhabitants were known as Nartes Interamnates, and who are included with the Etruscans, Iapydes, and Tadinates in the list of persons who were forbidden to be present at the sacred rites of Iguvium. At length, in 308 B.C., the Umbrians made a vigorous effort to aid the Samnites, which, had it taken place earlier in the war, might have had the most important influence on the issue of the struggle. As it was, it came too late; the Etruscans had already laid down their arms. When the battle of Sentinum (295) finally crushed the Samnites and Etruscans, Umbria remained in the hands of the Romans. Thenceforward the process of Latiniz- ing went on steadily, for by the first century B.C. we find them employing the Latin alphabet in copies of the ancient sacerdotal ritual of Iguvium (see Eugu- bine Tables). We know that the Oscan language only finally expired in the first century of our era, and there is no reason for believing that the Umbrian had disappeared much earlier. When the Romans con- quered the Senones, 280 b.c., the Ager Gallicus was restored to Umbria, and both together formed under the empire the sixth region of Italy* UMMERAPOORA, another form of Amarapura (q. v.). UMPIRE is a third arbitrator appointed by two arbitrators in the event of their differing in opinion; and when the reference or arbitration has devolved upon the umpire, his award or umpirage becomes final and binding on the parties. In certain cases the umpire is appointed by the contesting parties, with- out the intervention of arbitrators. UMROHAH, a town of British India, in the dis- trict of Moradabad, N. W. Provinces, 80 miles E.N.E. of Delhi. Population 32,314. UNALASKA, an island in the North Pacific, be- longs to the Fox group of the Aleutian Islands, in latitude 55 0 52' N.,and 166 0 32' W. It is 75 miles long, and in some parts 20 miles broad, has a rugged mountainous surface, and is thinly peopled. Ships are here supplied with all necessaries except wood. UNAO, a British district in the Lucknow division of Oudh, India, under the jurisdiction of the lieuten- ant-governor of the North-Western Provinces. The area of the district is 1,768 square miles, and it is bounded on the north by Hardoi, east by Lucknow, south by Rai Bareli, and west by the Ganges. Unao is very flat, and has no features of particular interest. Rich and fertile tracts, studded with groves, alternate with stretches of waste land and plains of barren usar, the whole being intersected with small streams, the water from which is extensively used for irrigation. The Ganges is the only navigable river in the district. The temperature varies from about 75 0 to 103 0 in the hot weather, and from 46° to 79 0 in the cold season. The average annual rainfall is about 34 inches. In 1899 the population was 899,069; of these 830,- 342 were Hindus, 68,677 Mohammedans, and 49 Christians. U nao, the capital and administrative head- quarters, nine miles northeast of Cawnpore, had 9,509 inhabitants. The cultivated area of Unao amounted in 1885-86 to 598,131 acres, and 289,356 acres were returned as cultivable. The principal crops are rice, wheat, and other food grains, cotton, sugar-cane, and indigo. The cultivation is mainly dependent on ir- rigation. The principal exports are grain of all kinds, gur, ghi, tobacco, and a little indigo and saltpeter; and the chief imports are piece goods, salt, iron, cot- ton, spices, etc. The gross revenue of the district in 1885-86 amounted to $915,415, the land yielding $724,- 570. During the mutiny of 1857-58 Unao was the scene of several severe engagements between General Havelock’s little army and the rebels. UNCIAL LETTERS — so called as being an inch (Lat. uncia) long — characters of a large and round form, used in some ancient MSS. The earliest form of an alphabet is its capitals, and the oldest Greek and Latin MSS. are written entirely in capitals. Uncial letters, which began to take the place of capitals in the middle of the fifth century, differ from them in being composed of rounded and not straight lines, and exhibiting a tendency toward greater expedition in style. Uncial writing arose as writing on papyrus or vellum became common, the necessity for more rapid execution leading to the practice of curving the lines. It being more easily learned than the cursive style, was probably the cause of its becoming the favorite mode of writing books of importance among the monkish scribes ; while legal instruments, which re- quired greater dispatch, were executed by professional scribes in a corrupted form of the Roman cursive hand. Uncial writing prevailed from the sixth to the eighth, or even to the tenth century. UNDERGRADUATE, a student of a university or college who has not yet taken his first degree. UND-UNI UNDINES (perhaps from undo , a wave), the name given in the fanciful system of the Paracelsists to the elementary spirits of the water. They are of the fe- male sex. Among all the different orders of elemen- tary spirits, they intermarry most readily with human beings, and the Undine who gives birth to a child under such a union, receives with her babe a human soul. But the man who takes an Undine to wife must be careful not to go on the water with her, or at least not to anger her while there, for in that case she will return to her original element. Should this happen, the Undine is not supposed to consider her marriage dissolved; she will rather seek to destroy her husband should he vent- ure on a second marriage. Baron dela MotteFouque has made this Paracelsist fancy the basis of an exquisite tale, entitled Undine . UNDULATORY THEORY. See Optics and Wave Theory. UNGVAR, chief town of the county Ung, in the northeast of Hungary, stands on the river Ung. It is the seat of the bishop of Munkacs, and has a fine Greek cathedral, an episcopal seminary, a lyceum, a gym- nasium, and also a teachers’ college, a county hall, and an interesting ancient castle. The town and district produce good wine in large quantity, and abound in mineral springs. There is a good trade in timber and china clay. The population in 1896 was 15,460. UNICORN, an animal with one horn. The name is applicable and has sometimes been applied to the rhi- noceros, which is, for example, the Sumatran unicorn of Marco Polo. But the figure usually associated with the name is the well-known heraldic one of an animal with the form of a horse or ass, save that a long straight horn with spiral twistings, like the tusk of the narwhal, projects from its forehead. The belief in the existence of a one-horned animal of this kind goes back to Aris- totle. Later descriptions of the Indian unicorn, e.g . , that of iElian {Nat. An., xvi. 20), are plainly influenced to some extent by accounts of the rhinoceros, but the authority of Aristotle determined the general form ascribed to the animal. The twisted horn, of which ^Elian already speaks, seems to have been got by refer- ring to Aristotle’s unicorn actual specimens taken from the narwhal; see Yule’s Marco Polo , ii. 273. The an- cient and mediaeval lore of the subject may be seen in Bochart Hierozoicon , iii. 26. The familiar legend that the unicorn could be taken only by the aid of a virgin obtained currency through the Physiologus. The Eng- lish Bible, following the Septuagint (jiovdxepoo'a), renders the Hebrew reem (DfcO) by “unicorn.” But two horns are ascribed to the reem. in Deut. xxxiii. 1 7, and the Hebrew word reappears in Arabic as the name of the larger antelopes, probably the Antilope leucoryx , while in Assyrian the rimu appears to be the wild ox. UNIGENITUS, BULL, one of the most important documents in the history of Jansenism. It was occa- sioned by the publication of the Reflexions Morales of Quesnel, in which all the essential principles of Jansenism were revived, and, although cautiously, yet systemati- cally explained, so far to form the basis of the practical, moral, and religious teaching which it is the object of the Reflexions Morales to convey. The book was at first simply prohibited by a brief of Pope Innocent XI., in the year 1 708 ; but, as it found many patrons, and especially the Archbishop of Paris, Cardinal de Noailles, it was deemed necessary to subject it to a more detailed examination, the result of which was that 101 propo- sitions were extracted from it, and formally condemned in 1713 by a bull commencing with the word “ Uni- genitus.” The mode of condemning the propositions was peculiar, being that which is technically called 5983 Dcemnatio in globo. The whole body of propositions were condemned as “ heretical,” “ false,” “ rash,” “ scan- dalous,” “ offensive to pious ears,” etc., without, at the same time, any particular propositions being pointed out as deriving any of these specific forms of censure. This circumstance, with others, gave rise to much con- troversy, and to a prolonged opposition to the bulk DeNoailles and other bishops refused to accept it unless with certain qualifications; on the contrary, Louis XIV. insisted on unconditional acceptance; but, on the death of Louis, the Regent, the Duke of Orleans, having given his countenance to the opponents of the bull, the resistance was persisted in, and eventually a declaration was put forth in 1718 by certain bishops, four in number* appealing from the Pope to a general council. This appeal was condemned by the Pope, nor was it counte- nanced even by the Regent, but a more modified appeal, “ from the pope ill-informed to the pope better informed,” was afterward published by De Noailles, which obtained many adherents, and by which the opposition was kept alive to the end of the pontificate of Clement XI., in 1721, and even under his successors, Innocent XIII. and Benedict XIII. It was not till the year 1730, that, after the formal registration on the Bull Unigenitus by the parliament of Paris, the party thus created in France, and known under the name of “ Appellants,” received its final condemnation from the civil authority, after which it gradually died out, although some relics of it are traceable, even after all the storms of ths Revolution, in the so-called “ Petite Eglise.” UNION. The crowns of England and Scotland were united under one sovereign on the accession of James VI. of Scotland to the English throne as James I. in 1603; but for above a century longer each country con- tinued to be ruled by its respective parliament, the in- terest of the one often coming into collision with that of the other. After various fruitless proposals for a closer connection of the countries, the Scotch were, in 1702, prevailed upon to send twenty commissioners to Lon- don, who, with twenty-three English commissioners, should deliberate on the terms of the union. Their proceedings, after being broken off, were resumed in 1706. The Scottish commissioners were at first dis- posed to a mere federal union, and objected to the pro- posed assimilation of customs, excise, and regulations of trade: but a majority were at last brought over to the views of the English commissioners; and the minority, with one exception, yielded. The union, though popu- lar in England, was the subject of great dissatisfaction in Scotland, being regarded by the bulk of the commun- ity as a surrender of national independence to a power- ful rival. Addresses against it were presented from all quarters, and in some places the people rose in arms, forming regiments of horse and foot to oppose it. The treaty was, however, after strenuous opposition, rati- fied by the Scottish as well as by the English parlia- ment, and ultimately completed on May 1, 1707. Its principal conditions were the incorporation of England and Scotland into the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the succession of whose monarchs was to be the same as that of England. There was to be one parliament, in which the peers of Scotland would be represented by sixteen of their number elected each parliament, and forty-five Scotch members were to sit in the House of Commons. All rights and privileges were to be com- mon between the subjects of both kingdoms, unless when otherwise agreed. The Episcopal Church was confirmed in England, and the Presbyterian in Scot- land. The laws of trade, customs, and excise of Scotland were to be assimilated to those of England, and the coinage, weights and measures of the two countries UNI 5984 were to follow a uniform standard. In other matters the laws of Scotland were to remain in force, but might be altered by the parliament of Great Britain. The separate Privy Council of Scotland, which the Act of Union left untouched, was abolished the following year. Ireland remained a distinct kingdom till the year 1801, when it was united with Great Britam, into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. By the terms of the union, the separate parliament of Ireland was done away with, and Ireland was represented in the parliament of the United Kingdom by 4 lords spirit- ual and 28 lords temporal in the House of Lords and 120 members of the House of Commons. Power was reserved to the sovereign to create one peer of Ireland for every three extinct peerages and when the peerage of Ireland became reduced to 100 to create one peerage for each one that became extinct, so as to keep the peerage of Ireland up to 100, over and above those Irish peers who are also peers of England and Great Britain. The churches of England and Ireland were united into one Protestant Episcopal Church. The subjects of Ireland were placed on the same footing as those of Great Britain in respect of trade and navigation, »nd in all treaties with foreign powers; and the law courts of Ireland were to continue, subject to the regu- lations of parliament ; writs of error and appeals being decided by the House of Lords of the United Kingdom. The Anglican church in Ireland was disestablished and disendowed in 1868. Ireland has always opposed the Union, which was obtained by bribery and fraud, and this gives point to the Home Rule agitation. UNION COLLEGE, a seat of learning at Schen- ectady, N. Y., incorporated in 1795, chiefly by the efforts of Gen. Philip Schuyler, a distinguished officer of the American Revolution. It was named Union from its being established by the cooperation of several religious denominations. Its first president was John Blair Smith of Philadelphia, who was succeeded in 1799 by Jonathan Edwards, the younger; but its great pros- perity and usefulness were secured under the presidency of Rev. Eliphalet Nott, from 1804 until his death in l86^. By his zeal and enterprise it was endowed and equipped with buildings, library, and natural history cabinets. In 1873 a school of engineering, a medical college, and a law school were associated with the Union College, now known as the Union University. UNION JACK (from the jacque, or surcoat, charged with a red cross, anciently worn by the English soldiers), the national banner of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, formed out of the combination of the crosses of St. George, of St. Andrew, and of St. Patrick, these three crosses being the national banners of England, Scotland, and Ireland, respectively. The first Union Jack, which was introduced by a royal proc- lamation in 1606, three years after the union of the Scot- jish with the English crown, combined only the crosses ?f St. George and St. Andrew. This combination was |>y royal proclamation of date July 28, 1707, constituted ihe national flag of Great Britain. On the union with Ireland, a new union ensign was devised, in which the cross of St. Patrick was introduced, with its four limbs edged with white on one side. This awkward specimen of heraldry forms the second and now existing union ensign. UNIONTOWN, the capital of Fayette county, Penn., and one of the many handsome cities met with at brief intervals throughout the interior of the State, is pleasantly situated on the Fayette county branch of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad and on the Pennsylvania Central, seventy miles southeast of Pittsburgh. It was one of the most prominent points on the National road, at a period in the early history of the nation when that , public improvement was the highway of emigration from the Alleghanies to the Missouri river, and is to- day of equal importance as a receiving and shipping point on two of the leading lines of railway in the coun- try. Besides being the depot and distributing center for an immense area of agricultural territory, Union* town also handles very large quantities of coke and non, in the production of which heavy outlays are made an- nually. The city contains one savings and two national banks, a court-house, four weekly papers, ten churches, the Madison college, a high school, soldiers’ orphans’ school, several hotels and a large number of stores. Manufactures embrace coke, glass, machinery, flour, carriages, cigars, and iron. The population has been increased from 3,265 in 1880 to 7,344 in 1900. UNITARIANISM. The term Unitarianism in its widest sense includes certain lines of the great religious and theological movement or revolution of the Refor- mation in the sixteenth century, when this is regarded as the commencement of the process of the humanization of theology and ethics on the basis of the autonomy of the human mind. In another sense the term stands for a set of theological opinions, more or less variable, and yet in their general drift connected, some of them as old as Christianity, and one section of which only is indicated by the term when used as synonymous with Antitrini- tarianism. Poland, Transylvania, England, and America are the only countries in which Unitarian congregations have existed in any numbers or for any length of time. Elsewhere, either the law of the land has rendered their existence impossible, or they have been unnecessary in consequence of the substantial adoption by the existing churches of their principles and doctrines. The former was the case in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, and Eng- land in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the latter to a certain extent in England in the eighteenth century, still more in Germany in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and in Holland in the present cen- tury, as also to a large extent in France in the Reformed Church. The Unitarians in Poland under the names of Arlans, Samosatenians, Pinczowians, were formed into a separate church in 1565 by their exclusion as Antitrmitarians from the synods of the Trinitarian Protestants. Very early in the progress of the Reformation in Poland in- dividuals had arrived at heterodox opinions on baptism and the Trinity, very much under the influence of the heterodox Italian refugees in Switzerland, some of whoiti visited Poland. Gonesius and Gregory Pauli were the first to openly preach Antitrinitarian doctrine. After their separation from the orthodox, the Polish Uni- tarians developed divergent views as to the nature of Christ, as to the lawfulness of paying divine worship to Him, as to the subjects of baptism (infants or adults), and as to the relation of Christians to the state. On the first point some were Arians and others Humanitarians, while those who claimed divine worship for Christ were called Adorantes and those of the opposite view Non- adorantes. An epoch in the history of the party was made by the arrival of Fausto Sozzini at Cracow in 1597 (see Socinus). He succeeded in converting the great majority of the churches to his views and in silenc- ing the dissentients. Henceforth the Polish Unitari* ans- adopted the Socinian practice of paying worship to Christ, the Socinian view of the necessity of baptism and of the Christain’s duty toward the state. They rapidly became a numerous and powerful body in Poland, distin- guished by the rank of their adherents, the ability and learning of their scholars, the excellence of their schools, and the superiority and wide circulation of their theologi- cal literature. Racow, the theological center of the Sociaians. with its school and printing presses, obtained UNI a world-wide fame. But before the death of Fausto Sozzini (1604) the situation of the Unitarians became more difficult, and in 1611 the Jesuits obtained their first open triumph over them. The final blow to the whole body followed in 1658, when all adherents of “ the Arian and Anabaptist sect ” were commanded to quit the kingdom within two years. A few renounced their faith, but the large majority fled into Transylvania, Prussia, Silesia, Holland, and England. Next to Poland Transylvania was the most impor- tant seat of Unitarianism. It is generally considered that the Italian refugee, Biandrata, was the founder of Translyvanian Unitarianism, but the present repre- sentatives of the body claim for it a nobler and domestic origin. Biandrata attended John Sigismund as a phy- sician in 1563, and under his influence Unitarianism made rapid progress. In 1568 its professors, favored by the king and many magnates, after separating from the orthodox church, constituted themselves a distinct body under the distinguished man, Francis David, who is now regarded as the apostle of true Transylvanian Unitarianism. Their principal center was Klausenburg (Kolozsvar), where they had a large church, a college, and a printing-press. But the same conflict between a more radical and a more conservative tendency which appeared among the Unitarians of Poland greatly dis- turbed the churches of Transylvania, particularly with regard to the worship of Christ. Gradually the Socin- ian view prevailed, though in 1618 an old order to worship Christ required reenforcement. In the latter half of the eighteenth century the more logical view of David entirely disappeared. Under the Austrian dynasty the Unitarians were often exposed to great trials, until Joseph II. secured to them their rights and privileges. But of late years the Transylvanian Unitarians have been in close relation with their co-religionists in England and America, some of the ministers having been educated at Manchester New College, and in consequence their theology is becoming essentially modern. The number of members was 32,000 in 1789, and in 1847 40,000, distributed in 104 parishes with 120 pastors. Their present number is 535 539 i n iq 6 parishes. Their chief centers are Kolozsvar, Thorda, and Keresztur, where they have excellent schools. For two and a half centuries previous to the rise of organized Unitarianism in England, opinions commonly called by this name found numerous individual advocates and some martyrs. John Bidle (1615-62) published catechisms of Unitarian doctrine, translated Socinian works, and publicly discussed and preached an English form of Socinianism. But the severity of the law against Antitrinitarians, coupled with the gradual growth of free opinion in the Established Church and among the Presbyterian congregations, made the formation of separate Unitarian churches impos- sible, and, as was felt, less necessary for another hun- dred years. In the year 1791 was formed the Uni- tarian Book Society for the distribution of literature, and several provincial associations originated about the same time. In 1806 the Unitarian Fund Society Was established, with the object of promoting Unitarian Christianity by direct mission work. In 1818 arose another society for protecting the civil rights of Unita- rians. These various societies were consolidated in 1825 under the name of the British and Foreign Unita- rian Association, which has now its headquarters in the building formerly used as Lindsey’s chapel and residence in Essex street, London. The penal laws against Anti- trinitarianism, which had long been obsolete, were re- pealed in 1813, an d in 1844 the right of Unitarians to the chapels which they held in aucceesion from their 5985 Presbyterian forefathers was legally secured to them by the Dissenters’ Chapels Act without altering their un-. dogmatic trust-deeds. With the rise of a more spiritual philosophy in Germany, which bore fruit in England and America before the close of the second decade of the century, the theology of English Unitarianism un- derwent a radical change, very much in the first instance under the influence of Doctor Channing’s writings. English Unitarian theology was thereby brought into close sympathy with modern scientific theology in Ger- many and elsewhere. This great and saving trans- formation was mainly due directly to James Martineau, J. J. Tayler, and J. H. Thom, aided by the writings of Channing and then of Theodore Parker. The number of congregations in England and Wales generally described as Unitarian is about 300, nearly half of which date from between 1662 and 1750, and nearly all of which have undogmatic trust-deeds. Their constitution is purely congregational. For the education of their ministers they have Manchester New College, London (strictly undenominational), the Unitarian Home Mis- sionary Board, Manchester, and Carmarthen College, supported and managed by the Presbyterian Board in London, but practically Independent and Unitarian. The organs of the body are The Inquirer , The Chris • tian Life, The Unitarian Herald (weeklies), and The Christian Reformer (monthly). In Scotland there are seven Unitarian congregations and two Universalist, the latter being, as in America, Unitarian in doctrine. In Ireland the number is about forty, being nearly all Presbyterian in constitution. They are much stronger in the north than in the south of Ireland. In the north Antitrinitarian views began to spread about 1750; but the first congregation at Dublin traces its Unitarianism back to Thomas Emlyn, who was imprisoned for his Arian opinions in 1702 at the instigation of orthodox Dissenters. In the United States Unitarianism had no organized existence previous to 1815, and as in England at the present time the name has always covered great differ- ences of opinion within a common outline of belief or common drift of religious thought. Historical Ameri- can Unitarianism represents “ the liberal wing of the Congregational body.” Of the existing 370 churches 120 or more were originally the parish churches founded by the Puritan Congregationalists, which, like the Pres- byterian congregations in England, passed gradually from Calvinism through Arminianism to Unitarianism, of which Harvard College became the spiritual center. In 1812 there was but one church in America professedly Unitarian (that of King’s Chapel, Boston), though the ministers of Boston generally held Unitarian views. In 1815 Belsham’s account of the “ State of the Unitarian Churches in America” (in his Life of Lindsey , London* 1812) led to a controversy, the issue of which was the distinct avowal of Unitarian principles on the part of the liberal clergy of New England. Dr. Channingcame forward as the prophet and champion of American Uni- tarianism, though the older he grew the more emphati- cally he repudiated sectarianism in every form. The Congregational body was thereby split into two sec- tions, one of which styled themselves Unitarian Con- gregation alists. In 1825 the American Unitarian Asso- ciation was formed, mainly for the diffusion of Unita- rian literature and the support of poor congregations. At that time the Unitarian churches numbered about 122. Twenty years later they were some 280, while now they are about 370. The theological colleges of the body are the Divinity School of Harvard University, which is, like Manchester New College, undenomina- tional, and the Theological School of Meadville. From 1815 to about 1836 a Biblical, semi-rationalistic, semi- U N I 5986 supernaturalistic theology prevailed, in the heart of which Channing’s elevated ethical ideas were fermenting and slowly preparing a new birth. From 1836 forces such as Biblical criticism, Carlyle and Emerson’s “ tran- scendentalism,” and Theodore Parker’s “absolute re- ligion ” opened the era of modern theology, bringing American Unitarianism into living touch with the philos- ophy and theology of Germany. An effort in 1865 to bring the right and left wings of the body into a closer confederation with a more pronounced profession of Christianity led to the formation of a Free Religious Association on the broad basis of the love of truth and goodness. In the Western States the same controversy as to the basis of religious association has been raging for more than ten years. In May, 1886, a resolution was passed by the Western Unitarian Conference by a majority of more than three-fourths adopting a purely ethical and non-theological basis. This led to a split in the body, and the formation of a new Western Associa- tion on a distinctly Christian platform. The left wing of American Unitarians show greater sympathy with recent scientific speculation and less fear of pantheistic theories than is the case with English Unitarians. The organs of the body are The Unitarian Review (Boston), The Christian Register (Boston), and The Unity (Chicago). In 1901 there were about 72,000 Unitarians in the United States and Canada, 550 ministers, and 450 houses of worship. The receipts for the year were $79,221, and the expenditures were $103,989, showing a deficiency of $24,775, which had to be withdrawn from the general fund; the latter, after accounting for the addition of $69,000, and for the amounts which had been withdrawn from it, aggregated $139,609. UNITAS FRATRUM. See Moravian Breth- ren. UNITED BRETHREN IN CHRIST, a body of Protestant Christians in the United States of America, . which, in 1901, included 4,229 organized churches (4,078 in 1877), 243,841 members (143,881 in 1877), 1,897 itinerant ministers, 890 local preachers, 3,169 Sunday schools, with 28,547 teachers and 179,729 scholars. The total value of church property held by the denomination was $3,345,064; the sum raised for salaries, church building expenses, colleges, missions, and the like made a total of $842, 700. The organiza- tion of the church is Episcopal (six bishops, two of them missionary), but its polity combines features of the Methodist, Congregational, and Presbyterian systems. The creed may be described as Arminian. The mem- bers are prohibited from joining secret societies, and from using alcohol or engaging in its manufacture or sale. In connection with the denomination are a theo- logical institution, ten colleges, and nine academies, or seminaries, of a higher grade, with sixty-two professors, sixty-four other teachers, and 2,486 students. There are forty-nine annual conferences, forty-six of them in the United States. Two missions in the Sherbro coun- try, in West Africa, have six American missionaries, nine churches, and 2,631 members; in Germany there are ten German missionaries, with twenty churches and 615 members. The denomination originated in the labors of P. W. Otterbein (1726-1813), a native of Germany, who came as a missionary to Lancaster, Pa., in 1752, and settled at Baltimore in 1774. He became associated with Martin Boehm, a Mennonite preacher, and also coop- erated with the Methodist preachers when they came to Pennsylvania. The first annual conference was held in 1800. UNITED KINGDOM, The, of Great Britain and Ireland, is the official title, adopted in 1801, now applied to England, Scotland, and Ireland (see Great Britain). The total area is returned as 77,657,065 acres, or 120,979 square miles — England and Wales embracing 37,370,041 acres (whereof Wales 4,721,633), Scotland 19,467,077, and Ireland 20,819,947. The population of the counties according to the census of 1901 was 41,605,323, and their parliamentary representa- tion as determined by the Redistribution Act of 1885 was 661. In the enumeration of the Scottish members of parliament, groups of burghs are included in the counties containing the burghs whence they are respect- ively named, while it may be said in passing that Kinross county is united with Clackmannan, Nairn with Elgin, and Selkirk with Peebles. The addition of the nine university representatives (England, 5; Scotland, 2; Ireland, 2) brings the total membership of the House of Commons to 670. For the Islands in the British Seas the figures are as follows: Isle of Man — 141,263 acres, population, 54,758; Channel Islands — 48,322 acres, population, 95,841. UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, The, ir, point of numbers the third of the Presbyterian organi- zations of Scotland, was formed 1847 bv the union oi the United Secession and Relief Churches. The doc- trinal standards are those of the other Presbyterian churches of Scotland, and the formula employed at the ordination of ministers is similar to that of the Estab, lished and Free Churches; but adherence to the doc* trinal standards is professed in view of the Declaratory Act of 1879, according to which signatories “are not required to approve of anything in the standards of the church which teaches or is supposed to teach compulsory or persecuting and intolerant principles in religion,” and are allowed freedom of opinion on all points which, in the judgment of the church, do not enter into the substance of the faith. The denomination in 1901 con- sisted of thirty-two presbyteries and 91 1 congregations (518 in 1847), with a total membership of 115,901 (175,066 in 1878; 178,195 in 1883), thus representing about fourteen per cent, of the population of Scotland. The number of baptisms in 1886 was 9,894; there were 887 Sunday schools, with 11,994 teachers and 97,535 scholars, besides 788 advanced Bible classes, with 30,535 scholars. The total income of the church in 1886 was $1,867,720 (average for ten years from 1877 to 1886, $1,878,300); of this total $1,686,500 was ordinary con- gregational income, and $681,225 missionary and benevolent income. The average stipend paid to each minister was $1,295. There is a divinity hall in Edin- burgh with four professors and (session 1887-88) 114 students. The term of study is three years. The United Presbyterian Church has missions in Jamaica (a synod with four presbyteries), Trinidad, Kaffraria, Old Calabar, India, China, Japan, and Spain. The mission staff consists of sixty ordained Europeans, twenty-two ordained natives, eight medical missionaries, three European evangelists, and nineteen female missionaries. Under these are 502 native evangelists, teachers and other helpers. In 1886 the membership of the native congregations was 13,214 (10,215 in 1881). In Jamai- ca there is a theological institution. At the end of 1875 the denomination had 620 congregations, with 190,242 members, but in June, 1876, 98 of its congregations in England, with 20,207 members, were incorporated with the English Presbyterian Church. The general causes which led to the first great seces- sion from the Church of Scotland as by law established in 1688 have already been briefly indicated under Pres- byterianism; compare also Scotland, Church of. Its immediate occasion rose out of an Act of Assembly of 1732, which abolished the last remnant of popular election by enacting that, in cases where patrons might U N I neglect or decline to exercise their right of presentation, the minister was to be chosen, not by the congregation, but only by the elders and Protestant heritors. In the following October Ebenezer Erskine ( q>v .), minister of Stirling, who happened to be moderator of the synod of Perth and Stirling, preached a synod ser- mon, in the course of which he took occasion to refer to the Act in question as in his opinion unscriptural and unconstitutional. Some of his expressions were ob- jected to by members of synod because “ tending to dis- quiet the peace of the church and impugning several Acts of Assembly and proceedings of church judicato- ries,” and after long and keen debate it was resolved that he should be censured for them. This judgment, on appeal, was affirmed by the Assembly in May, 1733, whereupon Erskine protested to the effect that he held himself still at liberty to teach the same truths and to testify against the same or similar evils on every proper occasion. This protest, in which he was joined by William Wilson, Alexander Moncrief, and James Fisher, ministers at Perth, Abernethy, and Kinclaven respect- ively, was regarded by the Assembly as contumacious, and the commission of Assembly was ordered to pro- cure its retractation or to proceed to higher censures. In November, accordingly, the protesting ministers were severed from their charges, their churches declared va- cant, and all ministers of the church prohibited from employing them in any ministerial function. They re- plied by protesting that they still adhered to the princi- ples of the church, though now obliged to “ make a se- cession from the prevailing party in ecclesiastical courts,” maintaining their continued right to discharge all the duties of the ministerial and pastoral office “ according to the word of God, the Confession of Faith, and the constitution of the church,” and appealing to the “ first free, faithful, and reforming General Assembly of the Church of Scotland.” In December, 1733, they formally constituted them- selves into a presbytery, but for some time their meet- ings were devoted almost entirely to prayer and relig- ious conference. In 1734 they published their first “testimony,” with a statement of the grounds of their secession, which made prominent reference to the doc- trinal laxity of previous General Assemblies. In 1736 they proceeded to exercise “judicial powers ” as a church court, published a “judicial testimony,” and began to organize churches in various parts of the country. Hav- ing been joined by four other ministers, including the well-known Ralph Erskine, they appointed Mr. Wilson professor of divinity. For these acts proceedings were again instituted against them in the Assembly, with the result that, having disowned the authority of that body in an “act of declinature,” they were, in 1740,, all de- posed and ordered to be ejected from their churches. A violent controversy arose in 1 745 respecting the re- ligious clause of the oath taken by burgesses in Edin- burgh, Glasgow, and Perth, and resulted, in April, 1747, in a “breach,” when two bodies were formed, each claiming to be the “ Associate Synod;” those who con- demned the swearing of the burgess oath as sinful came to be popularly known as “ Antiburghers,” while the other party, who contended that abstinence from it should not be made a term of communion, were desig- nated “ Burghers.” The Associate (Antiburgher) Synod held its first meeting in Edinburgh in the house of Adam Gib (q.v,) on April 10, 1747. It grew with considerable rapidity, and in 1788 had ninety-four settled charges in Great Britain and nineteen in Ireland, besides a presbytery in America. For purposes of organization it was formed in that year into four provincial synods, and took the name of “ The General Associate Synod. ” The “ new 5987 light ” controversies as to the province of the civil mag- istrate in matters of religion led to the publication of a revised testimony in the “ voluntary” sense in 1804, and in consequence M’Crie, the historian of Knox, with three other brethren, withdrew to form the Constitu- tional Associate presbytery. The Associate (Burgher) Synod held its first meeting at Stirling on June 16, 1 747. The number of congregations under its charge rapidly increased, and within thirty years there were presbyteries in connection with it in Ireland and North America, as well as throughout Scotland. In 1782 the American presbyteries took the designation of the Asso- ciate Reformed Church in America. About the year 1795 the “ voluntary ” controversy respecting the power of the civil magistrate in matters of religion arose within this synod also, and alarge majority was found tohave adopted “ new light ” views. This led in 1799 to the secession of the “ Associate Presbytery,” which in 1805 took the designation of the Associated Synod or Original Burgh- er Synod. In 1820 the General Associate or Anti- burgher Synod (to the number of 129 congregations) united with the 154 congregations of the Associate or Burgher synod. The body thus constituted “ The United Secession Church,” had increased by 1847 to 400 congregations, the whole of which united in that year with the Relief Synod to form the United Presby- terian Church. The Presbytery of Relief was constituted in 1761 by three ministers of the Church of Scotland, one of whom was Thomas Gillespie, (q.v.) The number of congre- gations under its charge increased with considerable rapidity, and a relief Synod was formed in 1773, which in 1847 had under its jurisdiction 136 congregations; oi these 1 18 united with the United Secession Church in that year. The Relief Church issued no distinctive “ testimonies,” and a certain breadth of view was shown in the formal declaration of their terms of communion, first made in 1773, which allowed occasional communion with those of the Episcopal and Independent persuasion who are “ visible saints. ” A relief theological hall was instituted in 1824. UNITED PROVINCES. See Holland. * UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, The, a Fed- eral Republic, occupying the southern part of the North American continent and some Pacific islands; the largest republic and largest highly civilized nation in the world ; consisting of forty-five States, one Federal District, and four organized and two partly organized Territories; with various outlying and detached territorial possessions. The geographical range of the United States proper, ex- clusive of the detached Territories and other possessions, is from 24 0 20' to 49 0 (at one point 49 0 20' for a few miles) north latitude, and from 66° 48' to 124 0 32' longi- tude west from Greenwich. Its greatest extension is thus about 3,100 miles east and west, and 1,780 miles north and south. Its area is 55,370 square miles of water and 2,970,230 square miles of land, not including Alaska and Hawaii. The population in 1900, exclusive of Alaska, Hawaii and the Indian Territory, was 75,693,734. History. Consideration of so vast and complex a subject as that of the United States naturally begins with its historical phases. The history of the United States is largely the history of North America, and indeed of the entire western world. It was upon the shores of this country that the earliest landings of Europeans in America were made. That was in the latter part of the tenth century. A Norse sea * Copyright, 1904, by The Saalfield Publishing Company. UNI 5988 rover, from Norway by way of Iceland, either in some daring wanderings or driven out of his way by storms, reached the coast of Greenland, thence crossed to Labrador, and skirted the coast as far as Long Island Sound and New York Bay. At least one colony was planted by the Norsemen, on the shores of Narragansett Bay, in the present State of Rhode Island, to which the name of Vinland was given. But it was short-lived, and by the beginning of the fifteenth century the very memory of it had perished, save in some hero-sagas of the north. When Christopher Columbus, therefore, formed his project of a western voyage of discovery, the existence of unknown lands beyond the Atlantic was unsuspected. The latter part of the fifteenth century was a period of extraordinary enterprise and restlessness among the chief nations of Europe. Men were fascinated especially by maritime adventure, learning for the first time some- thing of the true shape of the earth, dispelling the fables that had covered the distant seas with impenetrable darkness and encircled the tropics with a zone of fire ; and searching out convenient routes to the Indies, a region of romance and mystery which, in the popular imagination, offered inexhaustible wealth of gold, jewels, silks, spices, and all else that was rarest, most precious, and most beautiful. Columbus, who was a Genoese sea captain, had been a careful student of geography, cor- recting the scanty knowledge of the time by whatever he could learn from the reports of the most adventurous sailors. If any vague rumor of islands in the West reached him he seems to have put no faith in it. Satisfied that the earth was round, but greatly underestimating its size, he believed that he could reach the Indies by sailing due west from Europe, a distance of not more than 2,400 miles; and the fantastic dangers with which scholars and navigators argued that such a route into the void must be beset he knew had no existence. His theory, therefore, embraced an error of no great consequence# with a truth of the first value to civilization. The discov- ery of America was not an accident, but something reasoned out. As Humboldt says, it was “ a conquest of reflection.” Columbus spent many years vainly urging his scheme at various European courts. He was listened to at last by the Spanish sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella, the queen espousing his cause with especial generosity ; and on the 3d of August, 1492, he was enabled to set sail with three small vessels from the port of Palos, in Andalusia. The voyage was long, and the crews, some of whom had been impressed, were in almost open mutiny, when land was made out on the morning of October 12th, and the adventurers went ashore upon a small green island, of which they took possession in the name of Ferdinand and Isabella. This island, called by Columbus San Salvador, was one of the group now known as the Bahamas, perhaps either the present San Salvador, or the neighboring Watling’s Island ; but the most careful investigation has failed to identify it posi- tively. Columbus spent three months among the islands, visiting Cuba and Hayti, and returning to Palos in triumph, persuaded that he had reached the Indies and that Cuba was a part of the Asiatic continent. He made four voyages to the new world, discovering the South American continent in 1498, and exploring part of Central America in 1502, but he never became aware of his mis- take. Slandered by disappointed adventurers, and grossly ill-treated by Ferdinand, he died in poverty and disgrace. The Spaniards pushed their explorations with energy. They overran the islands and the neighboring parts of Central and South America. Balboa crossed the isth- mus of Darien and waded into the Pacific, the long- sought South Sea (1513). Cortez conquered the rich Indian empire of Mexico ( 1519— 21), and Pizarro over- threw the civilization of Peru (1531-36). Everywhere the Spaniards ravaged the land for gold. They built towns, established vice-regal governments, founded mili- tary colonies, drove the Indians to work in the mines, and in less than half a century raised upon lust, murder, av- arice, slavery, and pillage, a New Spain, which poured uncounted millions into the treasury of the King. They crossed into the countries now forming the United States, where Ponce de Leon (1512) sought the fountain of per- petual youth in Florida. Panfilo de Narvaez wandered for six years (1528-34) between Florida and Mexico. Hernando de Soto, setting out from Florida on an errand of rapine and slaughter, discovered the Mississippi (1541) and was buried in its waters. Ayllon went as far north as Maryland, and expeditions from Mexico entered New Mexico and California. The Spaniards made the first permanent settlement in the United States at St. Augus- tine (1565), and the second at Santa Fe (1582). For a cen- tury after the discovery they were by far the most redoubt- able and most enterprising of the adventurers in the New World, and if the United States had yielded the gold of which they were in search it seems likely that they would have possessed the whole country. Fortunately the wealth of California was not revealed until the Spanish power had recoiled before a higher civilization. Other nations had not been entirely indifferent to the wonderful things happening across the ocean, but it was long before they realized their opportunity. John Cabot, a Venetian in the service of Henry VII. of England, dis- covered the North American continent (1497) a year before the mainland of South America was seen by Co- lumbus. He coasted from Labrador (probably) to Vir- ginia, and his son, Sebastian, the next year cruised between Newfoundland and Hatteras. Upon these voya- ges the English subsequently founded their claims to the country, but at the time no attempt was made to occupy it. Equally barren was the expedition of the Portuguese Cortereal (1500 or 1501), who reached the mouth of the St. Lawrence. Verrazzano, an Italian in the French service, coasting from North Carolina to Maine (1523), was the first to learn that America is not a part of the Indies. The French were more alert than the English, and more moderate in their ambition than the Spaniards. They engaged in the Newfoundland fisheries in the first years of the sixteenth century, and as early as 1534 they at- tempted the colonization of Newfoundland and Canada. The three expeditions which they dispatched under Cartier between 1534 and 1541 were not successful; but in the combination of missionary and trading enterprise these ventures exhibited the plan of action which the French afterward followed with great profit. Their pol- icy was to secure the traffic in furs by establishing inti- UNI 5989 mate relations with the Indian tribes, and they secured their ascendency more by the influence of the priests than by the show of force. It was not until the begin- ning of the seventeenth century, however, when Cham- plain came out with a colony (1605), and the Jesuits established villages of Christian Indians in New England and New York, that the French settlements began to prosper. Quebec was founded in 1608. Champlain dis- covered the lake which bears his name in 1609. By this time England also had begun to compete in earnest for the great prize. Henry VIII., Edward, and Mary were too busy at home to trouble themselves with American affairs ; but in the reign of Elizabeth the whole nation stirred with a bold and adventurous life. Frob- isher and Davis, searching for a passage to India, discovered the straits now called by their names ; and Sir Francis Drake, half hero, half pirate, circumnavigated the globe (1577-80), pillaging the Spanish settlements of Chili and Peru, and taking formal possession of Cali- fornia. The first attempt by Englishmen to colonize any part of North America was made in 1583 by Sir Hum- phrey Gilbert and his half brother, the brilliant Sir Walter Raleigh. Gilbert sailed in«command of a fleet, and took nominal possession of Newfoundland where many others were before him ; but the colonists, after collecting some worthless mineral supposed to be silver, became disheartened and abandoned the enterprise. Gilbert perished at sea on the way home. Raleigh was not discouraged. Pie sent out two ships under Philip Amidas and Arthur Barlow to explore further. They brought back so fair a report of the country about Roanoke Island, N. C., that the next year (1585) Ralph Lane was dispatched with a. hundred men to plant a colony there, and Raleigh called the new land Virginia, in honor of the “ Virgin Queen.” Reduced almost to starvation by their own folly and misconduct, and in- volved in hostility with the Indians, the settlers were glad of the chance offered them the next season to go home with Sir Francis Drake. A second colony brought out to Roanoke by Sir Francis Grenville (1586) and a third led by John White (1587) totally disappeared, and no trace of their fate has ever been discovered. Raleigh could do no more. The voyage of Bartholomew Gosnold, who discovered Cape Cod in 1602, and made an unsuccessful attempt to plant a colony on Cuttyhunk Island, in Buzzard’s Bay, drew fresh attention to the New ,England coast, though Gosnold himself afterwards gave his service to Virginia. Merchants of London and the west of England embarked in American ventures as a joint-stock enterprise, and James I. granted letters patent to two companies, with privileges of trade and settlement in all the territory be- tween Cape Fear and the Bay of Fundy, or from the Spanish posts to the French. To the Plymouth Company, whose members were chiefly men of Plymouth, Bristol, and other ports of the West, was assigned all the coast north of latitude 38°. To the London Company, so named because its shareholders were mostly men of London, was allotted all the coast south of latitude 41 0 . Thus their grants overlapped, the middle portion, from Long Island to the Chesapeake, being a common ground which either might occupy. Before either could avail itself of this privilege, however, a new competitor ap- peared, dividing the domains of New England and Vir- ginia by a barrier more substantial than a royal patent. In 1609 Captain Henry Hudson, an Englishman in the service of the Dutch East India Company, searching for a passage to India, entered the Bay of New York, dis- covered the river which bears his name, and ascended beyond the present site of Albany. The Dutch based extensive claims to the coast upon his voyage. A very small part of their pretensions was ever recognized, but they promptly settled down to their fur trade on the Hudson, and built a temporary fort on the site of the present city of New York in 1613, and a permanent one near Albany in 1614. With their coming the occupation of the coast may be said to have become complete, and the eastern part of America was divided into five regions, known then or soon afterwards as New France, New England, New Netherland, Virginia, and Florida. They were separated from one another by undefined and dis- puted limits, and on the west they had no boundaries at all. Settlement of Virginia. It was the London Company which made the first permanent English settlement in America. The part- ners sent out three small vessels commanded by Captain Christopher Newport, and carrying 105 emigrants. They arrived in Chesapeake Bay in April, 1607, and the build- ing of Jamestown, on James River, was begun the next month. The government of the colony was lodged in a council named by the King, and the councilors elected a president. The choice of officers was not fortunate, and the settlers, though there were some good men among them, were mostly of the refuse material always abundant in such new ventures. There were only twenty mechan- ics, with a mob of vagabond gentlemen, servants, soldiers, and idlers. Quarrelsome, mutinous, and improvident, they were kept in something like order solely by the per- sonal influence of Captain John Smith, an adventurer of the best type, who had passed through some strange experiences in the wars against the Turks, and who brought to this Virginia undertaking a knowledge of men, a capacity to command, the daring of an explorer, and the plain sense of a practical colonist. From the first he was the real leader of the community, so far as they consented to have any. He saved them from starva- tion by getting corn from the savages ; he staved off hostilities with the natives ; and on several occasions, when he fell into the hands of hostile Indians, he escaped death by his tact and ingenuity. The legend of his rescue by Pocahontas, the daughter of the powerful chief Powhatan, and of the romantic at- tachment which the young girl afterwards showed for him, was long a favorite chapter of American history. Late research has thrown much doubt upon the dramatic incidents of this story ; but it is certain that Pocahontas showed great friendship for the whites, serving them bravely in their greatest need, bringing them food, and once averting a general massacre by hurrying to the settlement at night and giving warning of the intended attack. After Smith had left the country, the ungrateful UNI 5990 colonists took her prisoner by treachery, and held her for ransom. In her captivity she embraced Christianity, was baptized by the name of Rebecca, and, marrying one of the emigrants named John Rolfe, went with him to England, where she was presented at court and gravely recognized as a princess. She died in England, as she was on the point of returning to America. Even Smith’s energy and ingenuity could not save the colonists from themselves. More than half of them per- ished the first year ; and although three parties of re- cruits were sent out in 1608-9, they were of the same wretched quality as the original shipment. Instead of tilling the ground, they searched for channels to the un- known South Sea, and loaded their ships with useless dirt which they supposed to contain gold. Smith had been elected president in 1608, but the next year he was injured by an accidental explosion of gunpowder, and went to England for surgical aid. His departure, des- tined to be final, nearly proved the ruin of the colony. He left 490 persons in the settlement, and in six months they were all dead but sixty, most of them by famine. The survivors built small vessels in which they hoped to reach the English fishermen off Newfoundland, and abandoning Jamestown in June, 1610, they set out upon their melancholy voyage. But in the James River they met an English fleet coming to their aid. It brought a large party, of settlers and abundant supplies, and at the head of the expedition was Lord De la Warr, with a commission as governor for life. The deserted houses of Jamestown were now reoccupied ; hope was restored ; more profitable industries than gold-hunting were en- couraged ; food was easily raised on the fertile Virginia lands ; valuable crops of tobacco were shipped to Eng- land ; and before long, respectable young women began to emigrate to a country where the planters wanted noth- ing, perhaps, so much as wives. The improved state of things was owing in no small measure to the wiser pol- icy of the London Company, which had been reorgan- ized, and had received a new patent. The proprietors now began to put away the delusion that Virginia was the gateway of the gorgeous East, and to learn that it offered wealth only as the reward of industry and prudent enterprise. Lord De la Warr did not remain long in America, and his wise and firm administration was riot always imitated by his successors. The Company, moreover, was slow to understand that thrifty and well-ordered communities were not likely to be created in Virginia by men who were too shiftless or vicious to live in England. Yet, by degrees, the better class of emigrants took control ; many of the lazy gentlemen learned to work ; and new settle- ments were established on the James River. The terms upon which the Company granted lands favored the for- mation of large plantations, and the English practice of selling convicts into servitude in Virginia for a period of years gave the rich proprietors a supply of labor. Prisoners of this class were not always felons, many being transported for political offences during the Scottish and civil wars, and on the expiration of their service they en- joyed the same rights as other colonists. African slaves were first brought in by a Dutch vessel in 1619, and this was the beginning of negro slavery in the United States, though the number of slaves for many years was very small. The growth of a Virginian aristocracy, under all the conditions of the colony, was almost inevitable, and from an early date the division of classes was well marked, and the landed gentry followed as far as they could the social customs of the Old Country. In 1619 the Company made an important innovation by instructing Governor Yeardley to summon a represent- ative assembly, the first legislature ever chosen in America ; and two years later they granted to the Vir- ginia colony a written constitution, by which authority was confided to a governor and council appointed by the Company, and an Assembly, consisting of the council and a house of burgesses, elected by the people. Bills passed by the Assembly, however, required the assent of the governor and the Company. This fell far short of popular self-government, but it was an advance upon the ideas of colonial management current at that time, and a good beginning for the development of political liberties. It is to the credit of the London Company that they so soon perceived the truth which the whole later history of North American colonization has demonstrated — that there is no stability or principle of growth in communities which are not taught to depend upon themselves. The policy of the Company, nevertheless, was little to the taste of King James I., and after futile efforts to obtain from the colonists a surrender of their privileges, he canceled the charter in 1624. But beyond the substitution of a royal governor for one appointed by the Company, there was no immediate change in the administration of the province. The dissolution of the trading corporation which had thus far maintained a more or less restrictive proprietorship over Virginia, rather helped the colonists in taking their interests into their own hands. Under Charles I. they practically ruled themselves, and were allowed to levy their own taxes. Under the Common- wealth they secured the right of electing their governor, although they were conspicuous for their fidelity to the House of Stuart. An aristocratic party obtained the upper hand after the Restoration, kept the Assembly in power beyond the term for which it had been elected, im- posed severe taxes, and restricted the suffrage to land- owners ; but this was a reactionary movement within the colony itself, and not the only instance in our history in which popular government has taken the freak o. abridging popular liberties. Three times in the first half century after the establish- ment of the Virginia Legislature, the prosperity of the thriving colony received a severe check. Powhatan was always a friend to the whites from the time of the mar- riage of Pocahontas. After his death, his brother anu successor, Opecancanough, comprehending better what the steady encroachments of the settlers foreboded, planned a general massacre, and on the 22d of March, 1622, the savages suddenly attacked the plantations and killed 350 persons. The colonists gathered in fortified towns, and a bloody war followed. In a few days the number of settlements in Virginia was reduced from eighty to eight. The savages suffered severely, as well as the English ; yet in 1644 they rose again, killing several hundred of the colonists, and establishing a condition of more or less active hostility, which did not cease until UNI they had been gradually expelled from the fertile coast region. An Indian war on the border of Maryland (1675) brought on the third crisis in the history of the young col- ony. Intense dissatisfaction had been excited among the population by the exactions and usurpations of the aristocratic party in the local government and the op- pressive policy of the Parliament at home. The plan of compelling the colonies to pay tribute to British trades- men, which was destined a century later to cost the crown so dear, had already been established, and the navigation laws of 1660 and 1663 forbade the Ameri- cans to buy or sell in any country except England, or to ship their produce in any except English vessels. The laws bore severely upon a planting colony like Virginia, and were harshly enforced. So serious was the disaffec- tion that when a popular young planter named Bacon raised an armed force to repel the Indian forays, the gov- ernor, Sir William Berkeley, distrusting his ultimate in- tentions, declared him a rebel and attempted to disperse his followers. Whatever may have been Bacon’s de- signs, this was enough to insure an insurrection. The volunteers first attacked and beat the Indians and then marched against Jamestown, which they burned to the ground (Sept., 1676); but Bacon died of fever in the midst of his triumphs, and the rebellion was thereafter easily suppressed, without having clearly shown its char- acter. After hanging twenty-two of the insurgents Berke- ley returned to England, where his conduct was severely condemned. “ The old fool,” said Charles II., “ has taken away more lives in that naked country than I did here for the murder of my father.” The colony, often hampered but rarely controlled by the home government, grew steadily, and developed from its internal forces a type of civilization to which other southern colonies afterwards conformed. iThe heads of society and leaders in politics were the great landown- ers, whose estates sometimes reached the dimensions of a principality ; and the centres of life were the country mansions, where the planters maintained a lordly and somewhat barbarous state, surrounded by hundreds of slaves. They shipped their tobacco and other crops di- rectly from their wharves on the river to England ; they received in the same way their fine clothing, their wines, their furniture, their carriages, and whatever manufac- tured articles could not be produced by the negro me- chanics on the plantation. The class next below them in rank consisted largely of white bondsmen who had served their time, or descendants of the original adventurers cursed with hereditary unsuccessfulness. Although emancipated servants were denied no civil rights, the up- per walks of life were closed to them, and many of them became the progenitors of those “poor whites” upon whom the South learned to look with especial contempt. The towns of Virginia were few and poor ; the shops and workshops were inconsiderable ; there was little trade ; none of the conditions favored a prosperous middle class ; African slavery, putting a stigma upon manual labor, fostered idleness, poverty, and ignorance in the very rank which ought to constitute the chief strength of the state. There were hardly any schools ; planters’ sons went to England for an education, or studied at home with pri- 5991 vate tutors. The Church of England was established by law* and sustained from the taxes, and all other denom- inations were prohibited. The clergy were largely drawn from the failures of the profession — jovial, fox-hunting parsons who sat long over the bottle and kept religion as a gentlemanly exercise, for Sunday exclusively. Yet, in spite of all drawbacks, the Virginia colonists became distinguished for noble characteristics. They were hospitable, generous, chivalrous, and brave. They were ardent lovers of personal freedom. They were full of a manly independence, which gave them a foremost place among the patriots of the revolutionary period, and they had a military aptitude of which Great Britain was to witness impressive proofs. Settlement of Massachusetts. The settlement of New England under the auspices of the Plymouth Company, although it was attempted even earlier than the foundation of Virginia, was not accom- plished until some years after Jamestown had passed through its worst trials. Captain John Smith made a suc- cessful trading and fishing voyage to the territory of the Plymouth Company in 1614, drew a map of the coast, and gave the country the name of New England ; and his published reports did something towards stimulating adventure ; but the first permanent English colony within the limits of the Plymouth grant was made by accident, and without the Company’s knowledge. The Puritans, separatists from the English church, who fled to Holland rather than submit to what they believed to be popish forms of worship, dissatisfied with their hard life in a foreign country and among people who spoke another tongue, turned their attention toward America, as a land where they could worship in their own way, and listen to the preaching of their own doc- trines with neighbors of their own race. After sundry negotiations with the Dutch and other proprietors, they obtained a patent from the London Company for a set- tlement in Virginia, and then formed a joint-stock partnership with certain London merchants for trading, fishing, and planting, the merchants to furnish money for the outfit, the labor of every adult emigrant to be reck- oned equivalent to one share of £ 10 , and the whole prop- erty to be divided at the end of seven years. Crossing from Delft Haven to England, the Pilgrims, as they were afterwards called, sailed from Plymouth, September 6, 1620, in the ship Mayflower, one hundred and two men, women, and children, under the leadership of Elder William Brewster. On the nth of November they cast anchor in what is now the harbor of Provincetown, on Cape Cod. This was outside the limits of the Virginia Company, and their patent was consequently of no use to them ; but on ship-board, in order to provide for the emergency, they drew up a schedule of government, “covenanting and combining themselves together into a civil body politic,” and chose John Carver as governor. This has been regarded as an important precedent in popular government, but to the Pilgrims it was only a temporary device, and the next ship from England brought them a patent from the Council of New England ( 1621 ). After exploring the sandy peninsula and the op- UNI 599 2 posite shore of the mainland, they chose a site for their settlement and called it New Plymouth. The 22d of December is observed as the anniversary of their land- ing, on a rock still shown as one of the most precious of American relics. In fact, however, it was on the 2ist of December (new style, or nth, old style) that they se- lected Plymouth for their new home, and it was not until the 25th (old style) that they actually debarked. They were wretchedly provided for a winter in the wilderness. Scanty and irregular supplies of fish consti- tuted almost their only food ; water was their only drink ; at one time the stock of corn being divided gave five kernels to each person. About half the company perished during the winter, and Governor Carver died in the spring. The little band, however, was stout-hearted. William Bradford was elected governor in the place of Carver, and to Miles Standish, who had been a soldier in the Low Countries, was committed the military defence. By tact and boldness all serious trouble with the Indians was averted. A treaty of friendship was made with the powerful Massasoit, chief of the Wampanoags; and Canonicus, chief of the Narragansetts, was driven to ask for peace by Bradford’s defiant reply to a hostile message. Food became abundant in the summer ; rein- forcements arrived in the autumn; and a year later (1622) a day of public prayer and praise was appointed in gratitude for a good harvest — the first celebration of the New England festival of Thanksgiving. Having left England to get rid of the established church, the Pilgrims had no idea of tolerating the intro- duction of that hated institution into their new home. They banished a preacher named Lyford for holding worship according to the forms of the Church of England ; and with Oldham, an exile in the same cause, he settled at Nantasket, now Hull. Thomas Morton, a rollicking free-liver at Mount Wollaston (Quincy), surrounded him- self with noisy adventurers, who carried their disorder so far as to set up a May-pole ; whereupon the new Ply- mouth people sent out an expedition, dispersed the settle- ment, cut down the pole, and shipped Morton to England. So much religious zeal was little to the taste of the Lon- don partners, who had gone into the enterprise as a matter of business. A quarrel followed, and as a result the colonists bought out the other shareholders, and divided the property. They were now no longer a trading company, even in name, but a self-governing “ body politic,” which, though it never became numerous, maintained a virtual independence until it was absorbed into the greater colony of Massachusetts Bay. Two months after the Pilgrims left England, the Plymouth Company obtained from King James I. a new concession, afterwards known as “The Great Patent,” under which forty persons were incorporated as the Council for New England, with large powers of govern- ment, and privileges of trade between lat. 40° and lat. 48° (1620). This is the body from which the Pilgrims obtained their patent in 1621. It was eight years, how- ever, before the Council accomplished any important new enterprise. Then (1628) they allotted to John Endi- cott and five associates the territory from three miles south of the Charles to three miles north of the Merrimac (that is, from Boston to New Hampshire), and the next year a charter was obtained for the colony in the name of the Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay, in New England. Endicott went out at once as governor, and settled at Salem. Chartered only as a trading cor- poration, the chief purpose of the associates was never- theless the same as that of the Plymouth Pilgrims — to establish Puritan communities secure from interference by the established church or the crown. With this end in view they made haste to remove the governing power under the charter from England to America, by choosing officers from those stockholders who proposed to emigrate, a device which soon made a clear separation of the interests of the colonists from those of the parent organi- zation. Settlers now came out in great numbers, drawn almost entirely from the Puritan party. Whole congre- gations sometimes removed, with the minister at their head. As a rule they still professed fidelity to the Church of England, whose abuses of ritual and government they deplored ; but by degrees the divergence became as marked in doctrines as in forms, and the Puritans adopted a severe Calvinism. Most of the emigrants be- long to the substantial middle class ; many were gentle- men of education, means, and social position. Never, perhaps, has the settlement of a new country been under- taken by such wholesale transfer of a thrifty, energetic, intelligent, and well-ordered population. In 1630 a party of about 1,000 came out, with John Winthrop as governor, and founded Boston, naming it after the town of Boston in Lincolnshire, to which many of them belonged. In this party there were four ministers. Toleration was not one of the virtues of that age, and the Puritans of Massachusetts Bay were even more ex- clusive than the Pilgrims of New Plymouth. They pro- ceeded at once to build their civil government upon the church. Congregations were organized in every settle- ment, and only those who had been admitted to church membership were allowed the privileges of citizenship. Membership was not easily granted. It required a public avowal of religious experience to which not everybody would submit, and the ministers rejected candidates whose conduct they disapproved or whose opinions they distrusted. Not more than a fourth part of the adult population ever was admitted to church membership un- der Puritan rule, and the proportion of qualified voters to the adult males was usually much less than a fourth. Besides practically determining who should vote, the clergy had an extensive authority in all secular affairs ; while the civic magistrates, on the other hand, were re- quired to enforce religious observances and punish dissent. This stern theocracy, armed with the scourge, the branding iron, and the halter, and exerting the gloomiest, though not the severest, despotism to which an English community ever submitted, has been much denounced as a usurpation. Technically it was such ; but it seems to have been maintained with the cordial assent of the great majority of the population, who, in- deed, might have put an end to it at any time had they so pleased. When it v T as finally overthrown, it was not by the people, but by the crown. In all the Puritan communities the introduction of the Church of England was an object of especial dread, and “prelatists” were punished, or expelled as unfit to inhabit the colony. The UNI 5993 ferocity of the persecution of the Quakers is not readily understood, even if we remember that leaders of that de- nomination, in the Massachusetts of the seventeenth century, were sometimes exasperating disturbers. They were imprisoned in chains, seared with hot irons, whipped at the cart’s tail — both men and women — 'from town to town, ruined by fires, shipped to England or Barbadoes. Four were hanged, including a woman, Mary Dyer. The maltreatment of the Quakers was at last made one of the reasons for annulling the charter. Roger Williams was banished for denying the authority of civil magistrates in matters of religion. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, who instituted meetings of women to discuss theology, and taught that all believers were inspired by the Holy Ghost, was ban- ished (1637), and her adherents were disarmed, lest some direct revelation should instruct them to rise in rebellion. A belief in witchcraft was almost a natural consequence of the Puritan conception of the spiritual life. Execu- tions for witchcraft took place as early as 1648. In 1688 the fear of witches became a terrible popular delusion, breaking out first in Boston, where an old Irish woman was hanged, mainly on testimony that she spoke her own language, and could not say the Lord’s Prayer in English. The panic owed its intensity and duration largely to the sermons and writings of the Rev. Cotton Mather, a mighty divine whose credulity was on a par with his violence. The disorder reached its height in Salem (1692), where a special court was ordered for the trial of witches, and scores of persons were thrown into prison on the word of frightened children or the tattle of ill-natured gossips. In one year twenty persons were put to death ; and when the inevitable reaction set in, eight were under capital sentence, one hundred and fifty were in jail, and many of the suspected had fled the country. Morose, superstitious, bigoted, severe, the Puritans nevertheless exhibited from the first some of the highest qualities of the founders of a free state. They represent, with the Virginians, the chief sources of the national life. Nothing could be more striking or more picturesque than the contrast between the two classes of pioneers. But they had many things in common, especially a brave and self-reliant spirit. The Puritans had less sense of per- sonal freedom than their Southern brethren, but a keener desire for political independence. Their civil govern- ment being founded on the churches, and the churches having adopted the Congregational practice, every settle- ment enjoyed a large measure of home rule, and the de- velopment of the autonomy of the towns, so characteristic of the New England system, was easy and rapid. The jealousy of English interference, which sprang from spe- cial circumstances, ripened into an ardent attachment to the principles of political liberty. The Puritans, more- over, were industrious, enterprising, and full of resources. In spite of the navigation laws, which they evaded when they could, they practiced trades and built ships. They opened schools. They founded Harvard College as early as 1638, and the next year they set up the first printing press in the English-American colonies. Other New England Colonies. Maine and New Hampshire were settled under a grant from the Council for New England (1622) to John Mason and Sir Ferdinand© Gorges, the latter of whom especially was long active in American adventures. The patentees named their territory Laconia. It lay between the Mer- rimac and Kennebec rivers. Settlements were attempted at once, Little Harbor (Portsmouth) and Dover being occupied as early as 1623, but for several years only a few weak fishing stations represented English enterprise on this part of the coast. Gorges and Mason afterwards divided their grant, Gorges taking the eastern part and giving it the name of New Somerset, changed to Maine in 1635, and Mason the western, which became New Hampshire. Both were claimed by Massachusetts as lying within her jurisdiction, and after complicated dis- putes, her authority was acknowledged by the New Hampshire towns, while she secured Maine by buying out the Gorges heirs. In 1680 New Hampshire was made a separate royal province ; Maine was not detached from Massachusetts until 1820. Rhode Island was the consequence of the persecution of Roger Williams. Driven from Boston and from Sa- lem, and threatened with transportation to England, the young preacher fled to the wilderness in the depth of winter, and found hospitality with Massasoit. He founded the town of Providence in 1636, collecting there the first congregation of Baptists in America. At the beginning his colony was a simple democracy in which everything was decided by vote of the whole people ; but a royal charter was obtained in 1643. The rule of toler- ation in religion, adopted by Roger Williams as the foundation of his community, is justly regarded as a chief glory of Rhode Island. But while the magistrates were forbidden to molest any one on account of religion, toler- ation did not necessarily imply equality of political privi- leges. A law of Rhode Island, purporting to have been passed in 1683, provided that only Protestant Christians should be admitted freemen and have liberty to vote and hold office. There is dispute as to the source and date of this restriction ; but whatever its origin, it was several times re-enacted and was long in force. Jews were re- fused naturalization under it so late as 1762, and the ex- clusion of Roman Catholics, common to nearly all the colonies, was not repealed until 1783. Nevertheless, in recognizing the right of dissent, Roger Williams was far in advance of his generation, and after the principle had been admitted the full logical consequences could not be long delayed. The first settlement in Connecticut was made by the Dutch. One of their captains, Adrian Block, discovered the Connecticut and Housatonic rivers in 1614, and their traders soon established a commerce with the Indians along the shore of Long Island Sound. In 1633 the Dutch Fort Good Hope was built on the Connecticut river, near the present site of Hartford. The English, claiming all this region, and never acquiescing in the Dutch occupation, tried to crowd out their thrifty neigh- bors. They settled just above Fort Good Hope, and commanded the river by building Fort Saybrook at its mouth. This latter enterprise was the result of a grant to Lord Say and Sele, Lord Brooke, John Hampden, John Pym, and others in England, of the whole coast of Con- necticut and half that of Rhode Island. The settle- ment, named from the two principal proprietors, was UNI 5994 afterwards incorporated with the colony of Connecticut. It was a Plymouth party which had established itself near the Dutch fort, but it was not until emigrants from Massachusetts Bay poured in that “the river towns,” as they are called, were firmly planted. The movement was a systematic transfer of the churches of Dorchester, Watertown, and Newtown (Cambridge), with their min- isters at their head, the largest party coming from New- town, under Hooker and Stone (1636), and founding Hartford, while the Dorchester and Plymouth people founded Windsor, and those of Watertown settled at Wethersfield. Bringing with them an organization of government both ecclesiastical and civil, the towns be- gan as independent political communities, the authority of a commission from Massachusetts, under which they acted for a year, being little more than nominal. In 1639 they met in mass convention at Hartford and adopted a constitution, the first example in history of a written in- strument creating a government and limiting its powers by authority of the people themselves. The towns were recognized as existing political units, with self-derived powers, and the colony of Connecticut, as it was now called, was formed by a union in which the towns re- served certain important rights, such as the regulation of the franchise. The Hartford constitution was a remark- able foreshadowing of the American democratic and federative principles ; but like the Mayflower compact, it was, perhaps, an arrangement of immediate conven- ience rather than the deliberate adoption of a political theory, for the colonists afterwards begged the royal sanction for their government, with apologies for not asking it sooner, and thankfully accepted a charter from Charles II. (1662). Their system of rule, preserved un- der the charter, was modeled upon that of Massachusetts, except that they did not require freemen to be church members. Theocracy was rigidly maintained, however, in the colony of New Haven, founded in 1638, by the Rev. John Davenport and a party of English Puritans. They had no patent or other external authorization, and their only title to the land was derived from the Indians. The government which they set up, therefore, in 1639, a few months after the Hartford confederation, was purely democratic in its source ; but by their own votes the settlers decreed almost unanimously that the franchise should be limited to members of the church. They even surpassed the people of Massachusetts in the severity of their Puritanism, adopting the Scriptures as the law of the land, applicable to all cases, and carrying magisterial meddling with private conduct to a length never before imagined. They were united with Connecticut by the charter of 1662, much against their will. Other Colonies. The Dutch trading posts on the Hudson river grew slowly, the proprietors in Holland caring much more for tiie immediate traffic in beaver skins than for the possible advantages of colonization. After the incorporation of the Dutch West India Company (1621), however, more attention Was paid to emigration. Thirty families of Walloons (Belgian and Flemish Protestants) were sent out in 1623, and a relic of their settlement is found in the name of Wallabout Bay on Long Island; Albany was begun ; Manhattan Island was bought of the Indians for a sum equivalent to $24 ; Fort Amsterdam was built (1626), on the present site of the Battery ; and under its protection grew up the town of New Amsterdam, which was made the capital of the colony. The colony itself was given the name of New Netherland. Extraordinary privileges were granted by the Company to those of its members who were willing to plant settlements at their own expense ; and under this system vast estates were allotted on the Hudson to semi-feudal proprietors, known as “ patroons.” A colony of Swedes established themselves on the Delaware at the present site of Wil- mington, but they were compelled a few years later to submit to the Dutch. In spite of a severe Indian war, precipitated by the violence of the colonists under the governorship of William Kieft (1643) New Netherland prospered, and fifty years after its foundation the colony had 10,000 inhabitants, while New Amsterdam counted about 1,500. Both in the capital town and in the outlying settlements there were many English, including sectaries of various sorts who had fled from the intolerance of the English colonies. England had never ceased to assert her claim to the territory occupied by Dutch enterprise ; but there had been no threat of a resort to force, when, in 1664, an Eng- lish fleet entered the Bay of New York and demanded the surrender of the colony. Gov. Peter Stuyvesant had no means of resistance, and New Netherland passed peaceably to the possession of the Duke of York (after- wards James II.), to whom it had already been granted by his brother, Charles II. The name was now changed, and the administration was assumed by the Duke’s ap- pointee, Colonel Nicholls. In the course of the wars which followed between England and Holland, the Dutch recovered the colony as easily as they had lost it (1673), but it was finally restored to the English by treaty the next year. All these changes were accomplished without violence or popular disturbance. The inhabitants, drawn from many nationalities and religions, and occupied with a thriving trade, were ready to acquiesce in almost any tolerable government. The grant to the Duke of York included what is now New Jersey. This territory the duke conveyed to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret (1664), and it was named from the island of Jersey, in the English Channel, of which Carteret had been governor. There were al- ready some small Dutch settlements in the territory, and under the new rule a number of Quakers soon came out, the rights of Lord Berkeley havijig been purchased by members of that persecuted sect. When the Jerseys were divided, in 1676, the Quakers were mostly settled in West Jersey ; and although the share of Carteret was after- wards purchased by a partnership, in which William Penn, Robert Barclay, and other distinguished Friends were interested, and the prosperity of both colonies was largely owing to Quaker thrift and order, the prevailing influences in East Jersey continued to be Puritan. George Calvert, first Lord Baltimore, a Roman Catho- lic, obtained from Charles I. a grant of territory north of the Potomac, which he named Maryland, in honor of UNI Queen Henrietta Maria. It was the first proprietary province in America, and the lord proprietor possessed large powers ; but in the charter, drawn up by Lord Bal- timore, it was stipulated that no laws should be valid without the consent of the freemen of the colony, or their representatives in Assembly — an admission of the right of the people to a share in legislation not found in any previous instrument. The settlers were also exempt from taxation by the crown, and the right of originating laws was soon conceded to them. Lord Baltimore’s prin- cipal object was to establish an asylum for Roman Cath- olics. He died before the charter passed the great seal, and it was issued to his son Caecilius, second Lord Baltimore (1632), under whose direction the first party of colonists sailed the next year, with Leonard Calvert, brother of the proprietor, as governor. They comprised about twenty “gentlemen adventurers,” and over two hundred laborers and servants, most of the latter class being Protestants. Two English Jesuit priests and two lay brothers accompanied them. Landing on an island in Chesapeake Bay, March 25, 1634, they chose a place for their settlement on a small tributary of the Potomac, and called it St. Mary’s. There was an Indian village on the spot, and the settlers established the most cordial re- lations with the red men, buying not only their land but their wigwams, in which they sheltered themselves until they could build houses. They prospered from the first. Open protection for Catholicism would have been im- possible at that day. Lord Baltimore’s plan for securing the free exercise of his own religion was to grant com- plete toleration and equality to all denominations of Christians, and from this policy, in which he anticipated Roger Williams by four years, neither he nor his succes- sors ever departed. The act of toleration passed at his instance in 1649 was the legal ratification of a rule which had been very strictly enforced in the colony from the outset. Lord Baltimore’s motives in taking this wise and liberal course have been attacked ; but whatever alloy of selfishness may have been mixed with them, the fact re- mains that Maryland became a refuge for oppressed churchmen from New England and Puritans from Virginia, as well as for Catholics from home. Naturally, in such a gathering of exiles, there were many turbulent spirits who could not be at rest even in a sanctuary. When Clayborne, a Virginia trader on Kent Island in Chesapeake Bay, refused to recognize Calvert’s authority and raised an insurrection, a number of Puritan refugees joined him, and Calvert was driven for a time from the province (1644). After the execution of Charles I., Clay- borne was one of the Parliament commissioners ap- pointed to look after the plantations within Chesapeake Bay. With the aid of the Puritan settlers, the proprie- tary authority was overthrown (1655), and a new govern- ment excluded “papists and prelatists” from the benefits of the act of toleration. On the Restoration, the lord pro- prietor was reinstated and the act of toleration was re- vived ; but when Maryland was made a royal province under William and Mary (1691) the Catholics were again disfranchised, and they remained for three-quarters of a century under heavier exactions and more offensive disabilities in their own colony than anywhere else in America, 5995 Quieter fortunes befell another colony, founded like Maryland and Rhode Island upon the principle of re- ligious freedom. William Penn obtained from Charles II., in 1681, in satisfaction of a debt, a grant of territory west of the Delaware, to which was given the name of Pennsylvania ; the present state of Delaware was added to it the next year. The domain was constituted a pro- prietary province, Penn being the absolute owner and lord of the soil, and the charter was copied in part from that of Maryland. The chief object of the founder was to provide an asylum for Quakers, and most of the early emigrants were of that denomination, including some from Germany and Holland. The first party sailed in 1681 ; Penn followed in 1682; and in two years the popu- lation was about 7,000. It is an impressive commentary upon the Puritan hatred of Quakers that the so-called pernicious sect established the most orderly and peaceful of all the colonies. Soon after his landing Penn con- cluded a treaty of friendship -with a large gathering of Indians, and near the site of the conference he founded the same year the city of Philadelphia. Before his return to England (1684) he established a form of government, with a representative assembly. Freedom of conscience and worship was strictly observed, and no religious test was required for the franchise except a belief in Chris- tianity. For two years (1692-94) Pennsylvania was at- tached to the royal province of New York ; but at the end of that time the rights of the proprietor were restored, and they subsisted in the family until the State of Penn- sylvania extinguished them by purchase in 1779. Penn made a second visit to America, and granted his colonists a new charter, enlarging their political privileges. Between Virginia and the Spanish settlements in Florida still remained a large territory which both England and Spain claimed, but neither had seriously attempted to occupy. A few English Quakers and other adventurous pioneers had straggled into the northern parts of this tract, and Spanish missionaries had been busy among the Indians ; but colonization practically began under a grant made by Charles II. in 1663 to Lord Clarendon, General Monk, Lord Ashley Cooper (after- wards Earl of Shaftesbury), Berkeley and Carteret (pro- prietors of New Jersey), Sir William Berkeley (governor of Virginia), Lord Craven, and Sir John Colleton. The province was called Carolina, and embraced the present States of North and South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and part of Florida. At the request of Shaftesbury, John Locke, the famous English philosopher, drew up for the proprietors a complicated scheme of government, provid- ing for a feudal nobility, an established church, and various Utopian institutions grotesquely unsuited to settlers in a distant wilderness ; and the attempt to force the vagaries of a theorist upon a somewhat indocile people kept the province in a turmoil for many years. The first settle- ments were made on the Chowan and Cape Fear rivers, and were known as the Albemarle and Clarendon colonies ; the latter (1664) was the beginning of the town of Wilmington. Six years later the Carteret colony was established on the Ashley river, whence it was soon re- moved to a better situation at the junction of the Ashley and the Cooper ; and this became the city of Charleston. Negroes were introduced from the West Indies in 1671, UNI 5996 and South Carolina became almost at the outset a com- munity of planters depending upon slave labor. Both the Carolinas were in frequent revolt against the pro- prietors ; at last, in 1729, Parliament purchased the rights of those personages, and the province became the two crown colonies of North and South Carolina. Shortly after this change, settlements began in what is now the State of Georgia. General Oglethorpe, an English member of Parliament, formed the design of establishing a colony in America, where persons who had been imprisoned for debt, and others of broken fortunes, might begin a new life. At the same time he hoped to interpose a barrier between the weak Carolina colonies and the Spanish power in Florida. Receiving a patent (1732) for all that neglected region south of the Savannah river (Georgia and Alabama), he sailed the same year with 135 persons, and founded Savannah in 1733. The first settlers did not all belong to the unfortunate classes for whom he was especially concerned. They included parties of Jews, Moravians, Scotch Highlanders, and Ger- man Protestants, with a great many random adventurers, ill suited to a pioneer enterprise. The colony suffered much both from internal troubles and from Spanish hostilities before it was firmly established. It became a royal province in 1752. Alabama was not detached until after the Revolution. The settlers of New England were never tender in their dealings with the red men, and their first Indian war was the result of a series of raids and murders in which the savagery was not all on one side. The Pe- quots, a warlike confederacy whose principal seat was on the river now known as the Thames, in Connecticut, planned a general massacre of the whites, in which they desired the Narragansetts to join them. But this tribe was induced by the persuasion of Roger Williams to side with the colonists, and to furnish more than half the force which, in the spring of 1637, marched against the Pequot strongholds. The Narragansetts were led by their chief, Miantonomoh ; there were some Mohegans under Uncas ; and Connecticut and Massachusetts sent about 100 soldiers under Captains Mason and Underhill. A fortified Pequot village was surprised at early dawn and set on fire ; no quarter was given even to women or children ; but the Indians who did not perish in the flames were killed as they tried to break out. Two weeks later a second crushing defeat was inflicted upon the Pequots ; some hundreds were made prisoners and sold into slavery, and the confederacy was permanently broken up. It was principally for the sake of better protection against the Indians that a confederation of “ The United Colonies of New England ” was formed in 1643. Dele- gates from Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven met in each colony by turns, to consult for their common interests. Maine and Rhode Island were excluded on account of heterodox opinions. The con- federation was important as a first step towards union, but its immediate results were slight, and before the next general outbreak of the savages it had fallen to pieces. The war with King Philip, chief of the Wampanoags or Pokanokets, on the east side of Narragansett Bay, and son of the early friend of the settlers, Massasoit, began from trivial causes. Driven from his villages and fol- lowed into the swamps in the summer of 1675, Philip broke through the lines of his assailants, joined the Nip- mucks in the interior of Massachusetts, and roused the whole country. Everywhere the smaller tribes took up arms, and they were far more dangerous than in former years, because now they were supplied with muskets. Towns were attacked and burned. Remote settlers were massacred. Military detachments were decoyed into ambush and destroyed. The Narragansetts had taken no part in the rising, but the colonists distrusted them, and dispatched an expedition under Josiah Winslow, gov- ernor of Plymouth, to crush them, as a measure of pre- caution. “ The Swamp Fight,” in what is now the town of South Kingston, Rhode Island, repeated the horrors of the Pequot affair, many of the Indians perishing in their burning wigwams ; but on this occasion the whites also suffered severely, their losses amounting to about 240 men — a quarter of their whole number. The war was now waged with increased barbarity. Warwick was burned. Providence was partly ruined. The whole of the Plymouth colony was overrun. Towns were deserted. Settlers were murdered. Hostilities lasted until Philip was killed by a deserter from his tribe (1676), and Witamo, the female sachem of Pocasset, who had lately been his chief supporter, was drowned in trying to escape from an attack by Major Church. The "heads of Witamo and Philip were set up on poles to celebrate the triumph of the settlers. Prisoners were hanged, or sold into the West Indies, or retained as slaves in New England. The tribes were crushed forever, and from this time fast dwindled away. The colonists, on the other hand, lost six hundred men in battle besides the victims of massacre in the settlements, and twelve or thirteen of their towns were entirely destroyed. The Colonies and the Crown. The independent spirit of Massachusetts showed itself at a very early day; for when, in answer to repeated complaints of the rigorous proceedings of the colonial magistrates, a royal commission was appointed by Charles I. to revise the laws of the American plantations (1634), and even the Council for New England appealed to the crown against settlers who sought “to make themselves absolute masters of the country,” the General Court hastened to fortify the port of Boston and take other measures for military defence. A demand for the delivery of the charter was refused. Charles I. was soon too busy with other affairs to pay much attention to New England, and the matter was allowed to drop, until the restoration of Charles II. brought it again into prominence. But in the intervening quarter of a century all the colonies had gained the habit of self-reliance, grown accustomed to democratic principles and learned to make sharp dis- tinctions between their own interests and those of the mother country. In New England — in Massachusetts especially — the jealousy of English interference some- times amounted to positive enmity. At the Restoration the Massachusetts General Court ordered a public thanksgiving ; but it also took that occasion to make a declaration of rights, which left hardly any perceptible UNI power either to Parliament or the King, and yet probably did not go much beyond the uniform practice of the colony since its foundation. Charles II. did not propose at first to revoke the charter, but he required the colony to administer justice in his name, to tolerate the Church of England, and to admit others than church members to the franchise. To these demands the General Court returned evasive answers. When royal commissioners were sent out to investigate complaints and settle boundary disputes, the General Court denied their authority (1664). When a royal commissioner of customs appeared at Boston, empowered to enforce the oppressive laws of trade, of whose violation the English merchants were complaining, the magistrates tore down the notice of his appointment posted on the exchange and the Court created a naval office of its own to supersede him (1680). But Charles, committed now to the high prerogative policy, was no longer in the mood to trifle with the pretensions of the colonists. Under a writ of quo'warranto the charter of Massachusetts was declared forfeited, and the settlements became a royal province (1684). This was virtually the end of the Puritan theocracy. Before any important change could be made in the administration of the government the King died. It fell to James II. to carry out the purpose of his brother of consolidating the colonies under royal authority, and checking the rapid development of popular liberties. James was already in possession of the province of New York, where the rule of his deputies, although arbitrary, was not usually harsh. Under Gov. Thomas Dongan (1683), an Assembly was summoned, which framed a declaration of rights and settled the important point of the illegality of taxes imposed without the consent of the representatives of the people. When James became King, however, his policy changed. Sir Edmund Andros was sent to America with a commission as captain-gen- eral and governor of all New England (1686), and in- structions to set aside the existing charters. New York and New Jersey were presently added to his jurisdiction and included under the name of New England. His appointment was resented, but resistance seemed to be futile. Plymouth had no charter and was easily subdued. Rhode Island yielded after a brief opposition. New Hampshire was already a crown province. Maine was a part of Massachusetts. In Connecticut the popular spirit was so menacing that Andros marched to Hartford with troops to compel obedience. He appeared at an even- ing session of the Assembly and demanded the produc- tion of the charter. It was laid upon thp table ; but suddenly the lights were extinguished and the precious instrument, spirited away by some patriotic hand, was hidden in a hollow oak (1687). Its disappearance did not prevent Andros, however, from declaring the charter government at an end. In Massachusetts, where affairs had been administered under temporary devices since the forfeiting of the charter in 1684, the hostility to Andros and the royal chief justice, Dudley, was especially reso- lute. No measure of the new rule, perhaps, was more angrily resented than the declaration of indulgence, which gave complete toleration to Episcopalians, Quakers, and all other denominations ; but the colonists